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THE 

COLUMBIAN 
CYCLOPEDIA 


THIRTY-TWO  VOLUMES 

VOL.  2 

ANOINT— AUSONIA 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 
GARRETSON,  COX  &  COMPANY 

1897 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


/^ip^'f'J'l-f'p 


Copyright,  1890,  1803.  1897. 

BY 

GAKUETSOX.  COX  ^  COiMPANY. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


SCHEME  OP  SOUND  SYMBOLS 

FOR  THB  PBOKimCIATION  OF  WOBDS. 


Jfhte.^-)  i»  the  mark  dividing  words  respelt  phonetloftlly  into  S7l- 
iAbles;  (').  the  accent  indicating  on  which  syllable  or  Byllables  the 
accent  or  stress  of  the  voice  is  to  be  placed. 


**^  enT'Repreaentine  the  Sounds  as  a^..]S?I^vSK!irfMirW- 
£^X-    -«-P«««^^^*»*^^^"^»-    *^""for^o^Jn%'£So^*''" 

d. .  .mate,  fale,  faU,  aye mdt,fdt,fdl,  d. 

d, .  .mat,  fat mat,  fat, 

d, .  .far,  calm,  father .fdr,  Mm,fd'ther, 

d, .  .care,  fair cdr,fdr, 

aw. .  fall,  laud,  law   .fawl,  latod,  law, 

e. ,  .mete,  meat,  feet,  free met,  met,fet,fri, 

i. ,  .met,  bed mit,  b^d, 

4, .  .her,  stir,  heard,  cur .her,  ster,  herd,  her, 

i  . .  .pine,  ply,  height j^n,  pll,  hU. 

i, .  .pin,  nymph,  ability pin,  nXmf,  d-lnXV^ 

'     d. ,  .note,  toll,  soul ndt,  tol,  dSl, 

6,  ,  .not,  plot not,  pldt. 

6. .  .move,  smooth m&f),  sm6th. 

d.  .  .Qoethe  (similar  to  « in  her). .  .go'teh. 

ow,  .noun,  bough,  cow nown,  bow,  kouK 

ay .  .boy,  boil boy,  boyl. 

u, ,  .pure,  dew,  few pur,  du,fA, 

v.. ,  .bud,  come,  toufl^ Md,  kum,  tiif, 

u. .  .full,  push,  gooa .f&l,  push,  gucL 

u. .  .French  plume,  Scotch  guid.  .plum,  gud, 

eh.,  .chair,  match cMr,  mdeh, 

r A... German    buch,    Heidelberg, 

Scotch  loch  (guttural) bdch,  hl'dilMr6h,  Mi. 

Q.  ...game,  go,  gun gdm,  gb,  gun. 

J. . .  .Judge,  gem,  gin -Ho Jem,  fin. 

k.  . .  king,  cat,  cot,  cut Idng,  kdt,  kOt.  kut 

a  . .  .sit,  scene,  cell,  city,  c}'prcs8.  .ait,  '..en, sfl, slt'i, H'pria, 

fih,. .shun,  ambition shiin, dmbUh'un, 

th..  .thing,  breath     thing,  brHh, 

f^.. .though,  breathe tho,  brHh, 

«.... zeal, maze,  musov eel,mdz,  mile. 

c^.  .azure,  vision deh'^,  vkh'iin. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN  THIS  WORK. 


a.,  or  adj.... ad  joctiTO 

A.D  Bachelor  of  Arts 

abUr .  .abbreviation,  abbre- 
viated 

abl.  or  ablajkblative 

Abp ..Archbishop 

abt  4ibout 

Acad Academy 

aoc.  cr  aa  .accusative 

accom accommodated,     ac- 
commodation 

act active 

AD..  in  the   Tear  of  our 

Lord  \Anno  Dom- 
ini] 

Adjc Adjutant 

Adm  Admiral 

adv.  or  ad. .adverb 

A .  F Angflo-French 

A*f Silver  [Argentum] 

aKci agriculture 

A.  L. An^lo-Latin 

A I Aluminium 

Ala Alabama 

Alb Albanian 

a!R: algebra 

A.M before    noon    [ante 

meridieni] 

A.M Master  of  Arts 

Am Amos 

Amer America, -n 

aiiat anatomy,  anatomical 

anc ancient,  anciently 

AK.  M in    the  year  of  the 

world  \Anno  Mundi 

anon anonymous- 

antiq antiquity,      antiqui- 
ties 

aor aorist,  -ic 

app appendix 

appar apparently 

Apr April 

Ar ...Arabic 

arch jurcbitecture 

archseol . . .  .arr^i.^TOlp^ 

arith .arithmetio 

Aii2 Arizona 

Ark Arkansas 

art article 

artil artUlery 

AS Anglo-Saxon 

As.... Arsenic 

Assoc Association 

asst assistant 

astrol astrology 

astron astronomy 

attrib attributive 

atty attorney 

at.  wt atomic  weight 

Au Qold  lAurum] 


A.U.0 in  the  yea»*  of  the 

building  of  the  mty 
iHoiaeilA  nno  urbts 
conditct\ 

Aug August 

aug augmentati\'e 

Aust Austiian 

A.  V authorized     version 

[of  Bible,  1611] 

avoir avoirdupois 

B ...Boron 

B Britannic 

b  bom 

Ba    Barium 

Bart  Baronet 

Bav Bavarian 

bl.;  bbl  —  barrel;  barrels 

B.c  before  Christ 

B.C.L Bachelor     of     Civil 

Law 

B.D Bachelor  of  Divinity 

bef before 

Beig Belgic 

Beug Bengali 

Bi Bismuth 

biog biography.blograph- 

ical 

biol biology 

B.L Bachelor  of  Laws 

Bohem Bohemian 

bot botany,  botanical 

Bp Bishop 

Br Bromine 

Bras  Brazilian 

Bret ..Breum 

Brig Brigadier 

Brit British.  Britannica 

bro  brotlier 

Bulg Bulgarian 

bush bushel,  bm  hels 

0 Carbon 

c century 

Ca  Calcium 

Cal CaUfomla 

Camb Cambridge 

Can Canada 

Cant Canterbury 

cap capital 

Capt Captain 

Card Cardinal 

carp carpentry 

Cath Catholic 

caus causative 

cav cavalry 

Cd Cadmium 

Ce  Cerium 

Celt Celtic 

cent central 

cf compare  [confer] 

ch  or  chh... church 


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ABBREVIATIONS. 


..coflmate[with] 
.  .Colone' 


Ohal Cbaldee 

chap chapter 

chem chemistry,  chemical 

Chiu Chinese 

Chroo Chronicles 

chron chronology 

C* Chlorine 

Class Classical     [=  Greek 

and  LaUn] 

Cto Cobalt 

Oo Company 

oo county 

oog cognate' 

Ool Colonel 

Col ColoBsians 

Coll College 

colloq colloquial 

Colo Colorado 

Com Commodore 

dom commerce,  commer- 
cial 

com common 

comp compare 

oomp  composition,  com- 
pound 

compar comparative 

conck conchology 

cong congress 

CongI Congregational 

conj  conjunction 

Conn  or  Ci.Connecticut 

contr contraction,  con- 
tracted 

Cop Coptic 

Cor Corinthians 

Com Cornish 

corr correKj  onding 

Cr Clironiium 

crystal crysuillograpby 

Cs  CsBsium 

ct ..cent 

Ct  or  Conn.Connecticut 

Cu Copper  \Cuprum\ 

cwt  a  hundred  weight 

Cyc Cyclopedia 

D DIdymium 

D.  or  Dut.. Dutch 

d died 

d.  [L  s.  d.].. penny,  pence 

Dan Daniel 

Dan Danish 

dat dative 

dau daughter 

D.  C District  of  Columbia 

D.O.L Doctor  of  Civil    Lor 

Common]  Law 

D.D Doctor  of  Divinity 

Dec December 

dec declension 

def definite,  definition 

deg degree,  degrees 

Del Delaware 

del delegate,  delegates 

dem  democratic 

dep deputy 

dep deponent 

dept department 

deriv derivation,  deriva- 
tive 

Deut Deuteronomy 

dial dialect,  dialectal 

diam diameter 

Dio Dictionary 


diflf diflfereiit,  dlflference 

dim diminutive 

dist district 

distrib. .  .  .distributive 

div division 

dos dozen 

Dr Doctor 

dr dram,  drams 

dram dramatic 

Dm.  or  D... Dutch 

dwt  pennyweight 

dynam    or 

dyn dynamics 

E Erbium 

E.  or  e East,  -em,  -ward 

£.  or  Eng. .  English 

Eccl Ecclesiastes 

eccl.  or       J  ecclesiastical    [af- 

eccles 1     fairs] 

ed edited,  edition,    edi- 
tor 

e.g for     example     [ex 

gratia] 

E.  Ind.  or  (East   Indies,   East 
E.  1 1     Indian 

elect electricity 

Emp Emperor 

Encyc Encyclopedia 

Eng.  or E.. English 

eugin engineering 

entom  ..  ..entomology 

env.  ext. . .  .envov  extraordinary 

ep epistle 

Eph Ephesians 

Episc  Episcopal 

eq.  09  =s . .  .equal,  equals 

equiv equivalent 

esp especially 

Est  Esther 

estab established 

Esthon Eathonian 

etc and  others  like   [et 

cetera] 

Eth Ethiopic 

ethnog ethnography 

ethnol ethnology 

etseq and    the     following 

[et  sequentia] 

etym etymology 

Eur European 

Ex Exodus 

exclam exclamation 

Ezek Ezekie* 

Ear Ezra 

F Fluorine 

F.  or  Fahr. Fahrenheit 
f .  or  fern . . .  feminine 
F.  or Fr.... French 

fa ..father 

Fahr.  or  F.Fahrenheit 

far farriery 

Fe Iron  [Ferrum\ 

Feb February 

fem  or  f.  ..feminine 

fig figure,  figuratively 

Fin Finnish 

F.— L. French  from  LaUh 

Pla Florida 

Flem Flemish 

for foreign 

fort fortiflcatioff 

Fr.  or  F. .  .French 
fr from 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


fk«q frequentative 

Fiis  Frisian 

ft foot,  feet 

fut future 

G.  or  Qer... German 

G Glucinium 

Ga QaUium 

Ga Geor&ia 

Gael Gaelic 

Gal Galatians 

gal gallon 

galT .galvanism*  galvanic 

gard gardening 

gen .gender 

Gen General 

Gen Genesis 

gen 0Bnitive 

Geno .Genoea3 

g«of: geography 

geol. geology 

0eom geometry 

uer .Gem  lan,  Germany 

Goth Gothic 

Gov Governor 

govt government 
r Grand,  Qreat 

Gr Greek 

gr grain,  grains 

gram  grammar 

Or.  Brit. .  ..Great  Britain 
Gris. Orisons 


gun 


.gunnery 
..Hegira 


H Hydrogen 

h hour,  hours 

Hab Habakkuk 

Hag Haggai 

h7b.M His  [or  Her]  Britan- 
nic Majestv 

Heb Hebrew,  Hebrews 

her heraldry 

herpet herpetology 

Hg Mercury      [Hydrar- 
gyrum] 

hhd hogshead,  hogsheads 

Hind Hindustani,     Hindu, 

or  Hindi 

hist history,  historical 

Hon  Honorable 

bort horticulture 

Hos Hosea 

Hong Hungarian 

Hydros Hydrostatics 

I Iodine 

L;  Is Island:  Islands 

Icel Icelandic 

Ichth ichthyology 

Ida. Idaho 

i.e. that  is  [id  esfl 

111 JUinois 

iltus illustration 

Impera    or 
impr Imperative 

impers impersonal 

impf  or  Imp.  imperfect 

impf .  p.  or 
imp imperfect  participle 

iraprop improperly 

In Jndium 

in inch,  inches 

Incept inceptive 

Ind India,  Indian 

im •   • 


ind indicative 

Indef    indefinite 

Indo-ISur . .  .ludo-Eui  opean 

hit infantry 

inf  or  infln.  infinitive 

instr instrument,  -al 

int interest 

intens intensive 

interj.      or 

int interjection 

interrog ....  interrogative      pro- 
noun 
Intr.  or 

intrans. .  .intransitive 

lo Iowa 

It Iridium 

It Irish 

Iran Iranian 

Irr irregular,  -ly 

Is Isaiah 

It Italian 

Jan January 

Jap Japanese 

Jas James 

Jer Jeremiah 

Jn John 

Josh Joshua 

Jr Junior 

Judg Judges 

•  K Potassium  \Kalium\ 

K Kings  [in  Bible] 

K king 

Kan Kansas 

Kt Knight 

Ky JCentucky 

L Latin 

L Lithium 

1.  [1.  s.  d.],  j  pound,        pounds 

or  iB J     [sterling] 

La Lanthanium 

La Louisiana 

Lam Lamentations 

Lang Languedoc 

lang language 

Lap Lapland 

lat latitude 

lb.;  lib.  orj  pound  ;  pounds 

lbs 1     [weight] 

Let Lettish 

Lev Leviticus 

LG Low  German 

L.H.D Doctor  of  Polite  Lit- 
erature 

Lieut Lieutenant 

Lim Limousin 

Lin Linnaeus,  Linneean 

lit literal,-ly 

lit literature 

Lith Lithuanian 

lithog lithograph,  -y 

LL Late     Latixi,    Low 

Latin 

LL.D Doctor  of  Laws 

long longitude 

Lum Lutheran 

M Middle 

M Monsieur 

m mile,  miles 

m.  i/r  masa. masculine 

M.A Master  of  Arts 

Mace Maccabees 

mach machinery 

Mag 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


Hal Major 

Mai Malachi 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Mai Malay.  Malayan 

niaouf manufacturing, 

manufacturers 

Mar March 

masc  or  m.  mascoline 

Mass Massachusetts 

math mathematics,  math- 

ematical 

Matt Matthew 

M.D Doctor  of  Medicine 

MD Middle  Dutch 

Md Maryland 

MB. Middle    English,   or 

Old  Englidi 

Me Maine 

meoh jnechanics,  mechani- 
cal 

med medicine,  medical 

mem member 

mensor mensuration 

Messrs.   or 
MM Gentlemen,  Sirs 

metal metallurgy 

metaph ....  metaphysics,    meta- 
physical 

meteor meteorology 

Meth Methodist 

Mez Mexican 

Mg Magnesium' 

M.Gr Middle  Greek 

MHO Middle    High     Ger- 
man 

MIc Micah 

Mich Michigan 

mid middle  [voice] 

Milan Milanese 

mid.   L.  or  (Middle  Latin.  Me- 
ML. 1    disBTal  Latin 

mllit.  or 
mil military  [affairs] 

min minute,  minutes 

mineral ....  mineralogy 

Minn Minnesota 

Min.  Plen..  Minister  Plenipoten- 
tiary 

Misa Mississippi 

ML.  or        j  Middle  Latin,   Me- 
mid.  L...1     disBval  Latin 

MLG Middle  Low  German. 

Mile Mademoiselle 

Mme Madam 

Mn Btanganeee 

Mo Missouri 

Mo Molybdenum 

mod modem 

Mont Montana 

Mr Master  [Mister] 

Mrs .Mistress  [Missis] 

MS.;  MSS.. manuscript;   manu- 
scripts 

Mt Mount,  mountain 

mas music 

Mus.  Doa . . .  Doctor  of  Music 

myth mythology,    mytho- 

N Nitrogen 

N.orn North, -em, -ward 

n  noun 

D  or  neot... neuter 

Na Sodiom  [Natrium] 

Xfob Mahum 


N.  A.,  or 

N.  Amer.North  AmtiHna^  .n 

nat natural 

naut nautical 

nav navigation,  naval  al> 

^^  fairs 

Nb Niobium 

N.C.  or 

N.  Car. .  .North  Carolina 

N.  D North  Dakota 

Neb Nebraska 

n« negative 

Neh Nehemiah 

N.  Eng New  England 

neut  or  n... neuter 

Nev Nevada 

N.Gr. New  Greek,  Modern 

Greek 

N.  H New  Hampshire 

NHG New    High  German 


[German! 
.Nfcl    ■ 


NI Nickel 

N.  J New  Jersey 

NL  New  Latin,  Modem 

Latin 
N.  Mez. ....  New  Mexico 
N.  T..  or 

N.  Test.  ..New  Testament 

N.  Y New  York  [State] 

nom nominative 

Norm.  F. . .Norman  French 
North.  B  ..Northern  English 

Norw Norwegian,  Nona 

Nov November 

Num Numbers 

numis numismatics 

O Ohio 

O Old 

O Ox3rgea 

Obad Obadiah 

obj objectiye 

obs.  or  t... obsolete 
obsoles  — obsolescent 

CBulg Old  Bulgarian  or  Old 

Slavic 

Oct October 

Odontog. .  .odontography 

OE Old  English 

OF  or 

O.  Fr....01d  French 

OHG Old  High  Germao 

Ont Ontario 

opt optics,  optksai 

Or ....Oregon 

ord order 

ord .ordnance 

org organic 

ong original,  -ly 

ormth omithology 

Os Osmium 

OS. OldSaxon 

O.  T.,  or 

O.  Test.. .Old  Testament 

Oxf Oxford 

oz ounce,  ounces 

P Phosphorus 

p.;  PP Pa«e;  i»ges 

P.,  or  part..participle 
a.  orPennJPenn^ylvania 

paint painting 

palsBon palsBontology 

pari pariiament 

pafli pMSlTO 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


patbol  or 

path pathology 

Pb Lead  IPtumbum] 

Pd Palladium 

fton  or  Pa.Peiin«ylvaDia 

peif perfect 

perh    perhaps 

PenB Persian,  Persic 

pers person 

persp. ..... .perspectiye 

pert pertaining  [to] 

Pet Peter 

Pfir.  or  Port .  Portuguese 

pbar pharmacy 

PBJ> Doctor  of    Philoso- 

PhAU Pnenidan 

Phil Phllippians 

Phllem Philemon 

philol philology,  philologi- 
cal 

philos.  (phOoeophy,  philo- 
or  phil ...)    sophical 

phonog. — phonography 

photog pliotoirraphy 

phreu plireiioiogy 

phys physicM.  phjrsical 

physiol...  .physiology,  pliysi- 
ological 

Pled PitHimontese 

PI Plate 


il; 


or  plu...piural 
*"  Plf '"  '^ 


D Piatt  Dentsch 

plupf pluperfect 

pji aftemoooLpoft  meri- 
diem] 

im pneumatics 

.Post-office 


..poetical 
..Polish 


pol  eoon ..  .political  economy 

polit politics,  political 

pop population 

Port,  or  Pg.Fortugueee 

poas possessiTe 

pp pages 

pp past  participle,  per- 
fect participle 

p.  pr present  participle 

Pr.  or  ProT.Provenpai 

pref prefix 

prep preposition 

Pres President 

pres ..present 

Presb Presbyterian 

pret preterit 

prim primitiTe 

priv privative 

prob probably,  probable 

Prof Professor 

pron. pronoun 

pnm pronunciation,  pro- 
nounced 

prop properly 

pros proaody 

Prot Protestant 

Prov.or  Pr.ProTenoal 

Prov Proverbs 

prov province,  provincial 

Prov.  &ig..Provincial  English 

Pros Prussia, -n 

Fli Psalm,  Psalms 

pi^diol.... psychology 

8-8 


pt past  tense 

pt pint 

Ft Platinum 

pub published,  pubU8hi»« 

publication 

pwt pennyweight 

Q Quebec 

qt quart 

qtr quarter  [weight] 

qu query 

q.v. which     see      [quoA 

Vidr] 

R Rhotlium 

R River 

Rb Rubidium 

R.  Cath. . .  .Roman  Catholic 
r«!0.  sec  ...  .recording  secretaiy 

Ref Ref oimed 

refl reflex 

reg regular,  -ly 

regt regiment 

rel.  pro.  or 

rel relative  pronoun 

repr representing 

repub republican 

Rev Revelation 

Rev The  Reverend 

Rev.  V Revised  Version 

rhet rhetoric,  -al 

R.I Rhode  Island 

R,N Royal  Navy 

Rom Roman.  Romans 

Rom Romanic      or     Rc^ 

manoe 

^?  ^-  i  Roman  Catholic 

C  Ch!.^!    Church 

r.r. railroad 

Rt.  Rev  .  .Right  Reverend 

Ru  Ruthenium 

Russ Russian 

r.w. railway 

8 Saxon 

8 Sulphur 

8 second,  seconds 

s.  [1.  s.  d.].. shilling.  shiUings 

8.  or  s South,  -ero,  -ward 

8.  A.  or 

8.  Amer..8onth  America,  -n 

Sam  Samaritan 

Sam Samuel 

Sans,  or 

Skr Sanskrit 

Sb Antimony  [Stibium] 

S.0 understand,    supply. 

namely  [9cUicet\ 
8.  Cor 

8.  Car.. .  .South  Carolina 

Scand Scandinavian 

Scot Scotland,  Scotch 

scr scruple,  scruples 

Scrip Scripture  [sj.  Scrip* 

tural 

sculp sculpture 

8.  D South  Dakota 

Se Selenium 

sec secretary 

sec section 

Sem Semitic 

Sep September 

Serv Servian 

Shaks Shakespeare 

SI Silicon 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ABBIIEVIATIONS. 


Sic Sicilian 

sing BiDgular 

si8 .sister 

Skr.  or 
Sans Sansklrt 

Slav Slavonic,  Slavic 

Sn Tin  \Stanuum\ 

Soc Society 

Song  Sol. .  .Song  of  Solomon 

8p Spanish 

sp.  gr specific  gravity 

sq square 

Sr Senior 

Sr  Strontium 

St.r  Ste Saint 

St street 

Stat statute 

8.T.D Doctor    of     Sacred 

Theology 

BubJ subjunctive 

suf suffix 

Su.  Ooth...Suo-Gothlc 

ftiiperl superlative 

Supp Supplement 

Supt Superintendent 

Furg surgery,  surgical 

Surv surve^mg 

Sw Swedish 

Swab Swabian 

sym symbol 

syn synonym,  -y 

Syr Sy  I  iac,  Syrian 

t town 

Ta Tantalum 

Tart Tartar 

Te Tellurium 

technol . . .  technology 

teleg telegraphy 

Tenn Tennessee 

term termination 

t«rr territory 

Teut Teutonic 

Tex Texas 

Th Thorium 

theat theatrical 

theol Uieology,  theological 

therap therapeutics 

Thess TheKsalonians 

Ti Titanium 

Tim Timothy 

Tit Titus 

Tl Thallium 

toxicol toxicology 

tp township 

tr.  or  trans-transitive 

tmnsl translation,     trans- 
lated 


trigon ..trigonometry 

Turk Turkish 

typog typot^raphy,      typo. 

graphical 

U Uranium 

ult ultimate, -ly 

Unit Unitarian 

Unlv Unlversalist 

Unlv University 

U.  Presb... United  Presbyterian 

U.  S United  States 

U.  S.  A United  States  Army 

U.  S.  N United  States  Navy 

Ut Utah 

V Vanadium 

V verb 

Va Virginia 

var variant  [word] 

var variety  of  [speotos] 

Ven Venerable 

Venet Venetian 

vet veterinary 

V.  i.  or 

V.  intr.  ...verb  Intransitive 

vll village 

viz namely,  to-wit  Ividt^ 

licet] 

V.  n verb  neuter 

voc vocative 

vol volume 

vols volunteers 

Vt Vermont 

V.  tr verb  transitive 

W Tungsten  [Wolfram] 

W Welsh 

W.  or  w. ...West,  -cm,  -ward 

Wal  Walachian 

Wall WaUoon 

Wash  Washington 

Westph ....  Westphalia,  n 

W.  Ind.      j  West  Indies,  Watt 

or  W.1...1     Indian 

Wis Wisconsin 

wt weight 

W.  Va West  Virginia 

Wyo Wyoming 

Y Yttrium 

yd yard 

yr year 

zech zechariah 

Zeph Zephaniab 

Zn  ...Zinc 

zool soologv,  soolQgical 

Zr Zirconium 


aee  aiso  Al»fiii£VlAT10M&'  In  VoL  L 


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THE 

Columbian  Cyclopeiha. 


•ANOINT,  V.  tt-noyni  [Nonn.  F.  enoindre,  to  anoiut; 
enoint,  anointing— from  L.  in,  in;  ungo,  1  uDoint]:  to  rub 
or  smear  with  oil;  to  consecrate.  Anoint  ek,  o?ie  wbo. 
ANoiirr'ED,  pp.:  N.  the  Messiah:  Adj.  consecrated. 
Anoint  iNG,  imp.:  N.  the  act  of  smearing  with  oil:  Adj. 
rubbing  with  oil.    Anoint'ment,  n.  the  act  of  anointing. 

ANOINTING:  ceremony  of  pouring  an  aromatic  oil  on 
the  head  or  over  the  whole  body,  practiced  from  the  earliest 
times  among  orieptal  nations,  and  probably  first  used  as  a 
sanative  agent  in  conjunction  with  the  bath.  From  its 
observance  for  the  promotion  of  health  and  comfort,  it 
gradually  came  to  be  esteemed  as  a  token  of  honor  to 
guests  and  strangers,  and  subsequently  was  adopted  as  a 
symbol  of  consecration.  See  Chrism:  Cokonation:  Ex- 
TEEiiK  Unction. 

ANOMALA.  n.  plu.  d-ndmd-ld  [see  Anomaly]:  irregu- 
lar words,  etc. 

ANOMALISTIC  YEAR.  d-nom'alU'tlk:  interval  that 
elapses  between  two  successive  passages  of  the  earth  through 
its  perihelion,  or  point  of  nearest  approach  to  the  sun.  If 
the  earth's  orbit  had  a  fixed  position  in  space,  this  period 
would  correspond  with  that  of  a  sidereal  revolution,  or  the 
time  the  earth  takes  after  leaving  any  point  of  the  heavens 
to  return  to  it  again;  but  the  disturbing  influence  of  the 
other  planets  causes  the  perihelion  to  advance  slowly  (US' 
annually)  in  the  direction  of  the  earth's  motion;  so  that  the 
A.  Y.  is  longer  (4  minutes  39  seconds)  than  the  sidereal. 
The  length  of  the  A.  Y.  is  365  days,  6  hours,  13  minutes, 
49  seconds.    It  receives  its  name  from  the  anomaly  (q.v.). 

ANOMALY,  n.  d-ndm'd4i,  Anom'alies,  n.  plu.  -d-lU, 
FGr.  anom'dlos,  rough,  uneven— from  an,  not;-  {h)omdU>9, 
like  to,  or  similar]:  a  departure  from  the  common  rule; 
irregularity.  Anomalous,  a.  -lus,  out  of  rule;  irregular. 
Anomaloi^sly,  ad.  -It.  Anomalistic,  a.  d-n/nn'd-mtik, 
irregular;  departing  from  common  or  established  rules; 
also  Anom'alis'tical.  a.  -tl-kdl.  Anom'alist,  n.  one  who. 

ANOMALY,  in  Astronomy:  the  angle  measured  at 
the  sun  between  a  planet  in  any  point  of  its  orbit  and 
the  last  perihelion.  It  is  so  called  because  it  was  in  it 
that  the  first  irregularities  of  planetary  motion  were  di»- 


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ANOMODONTIA— ANONYMOUS. 

covered.  The  anomaly  was  fonnerljr  measured  from  the 
aphelion,  the  opposite  point  of  the  ellipse;  but  from  the  fac^ 
that  the  aphelia  of  most  of  the  comets  lie  beyond  the  range 
of  observation,  the  perihelion  is  now  taken  as  the  point  of 
departure  for  all  planetary  bodies. 

ANOMODONTIA,  n.  plu.  dn'd-mv-ddn'shi-d  [Qr.  an'dnws, 
irregular;  odonta,  a  tooth]:  in  geoL,  an  order  of  reptiles, 
also  called  Dicynodontla.. 

ANOMOPTERIS,  n.  dno-rndp'ter-U  [Gr.  an'6mos,  with- 
out rule;  pterUy  fern]:  fossil  ferns,  differing  from  all  recent 
ones,  having  the  leaves  very  large  and  deeply  pinnate. 

ANOMOURA  or  Anomura.  n.  an'dmo'ra  [Qr.  an'omos. 
Irregular,  without  rule;  oura,  a  tail]:  a  family  of  crus- 
taceans characterized  by  the  irre^lar  development  of  their 
abdominal  segments,  as  the  hermit-crab.  An'omou'ral,  a. 
pertaining  to. 

ANON,  ad.  d-ndn'  [AS.  <m  an,  in  one]:  in  OE.,  soon; 
quickly. 

ANON  A:  sec  Custard- apple. 

ANONACEiE,  dn-o-nd'se-e:  natural  order  of  Dicotyle- 
donous or  Exogenous  plants,  of  which  the  tvpe  is  the  genus 
Anona.  They  are  trees  or  shrubs,  with  alternate,  simple, 
generally  entire  leaves,  destitute  of  stipules;  flowers  usually 
green  or  brown,  axillary,  solitary,  or  two  or  three  together; 
Uie  calyx  of  8-4  persistent  sepals;  the  corolla  of  6  hypogy- 
nous  leathery  petals,  in  two  rows.  The  stamens  are  usually 
numerous;  the  filaments  short;  the  anthers  adherent,  turned 
outwards,  and  with  a  large  4-comered  connective.  See 
Stamen.  The  carpels  are  usually  numerous,  separate,  or 
cohering;  the  stvles  short;  the  stigmas  simple;  the  ovules 
inverted.  The  fruit  consists  of  distinct  or  united  carpels, 
sometimes  succulent;  the  seeds  attached  to  the  suture;  their 
external  covering  brittle;  the  embryo  minute,  in  the  base  of 
the  hard  albumen.— There  are  about  800  known  species, 
mostly  natives  of  tropical  countries.  They  are  generally 
aromatic  and  fragrant  in  all  their  parts,  and  some  species 
are  employed  medicinally;  the  dry  fruit  of  Xplopia  aromatica 
is  commonly  used  as  pepper  by  the  African  negroes,  and 
was  formerly  imported  into  Europe  as  Ethiopian  Pepper 
or  Guinea  Pepper.  The  flowers  of  some  species  are  of 
exquisite  fragrance;  others  yield  delicious  fruits.  See  Cus- 
tard-apple: Chehimoter. 

ANONYMOUS,  a.  d-iii^'i^mm  [L.  anon'ymus,  without 
a  name— from  Gr.  a,  without;  oTuma,  a  name:  F.  anonyme\: 
having  no  name;  without  the  name  of  the  author  or  writer. 
Anon  YMOUSLY,  ad.  II.  Anon'ymousness,  n.  the  state  or 
quality  of  being  anonymous.  Anonymity,  n.  dnon-iml-ti, 
the  state  of  being  without  the  name  of  the  author  or  writer; 
the  quality  or  state  of  being  anonymous. 

ANONYMOUS:  without  the  name  of  the  author— applied 
to  a  book  or  writing:  when  an  assumed  name  is  given,  the 
term  Pseudonymous  is  used.  Works  of  this  class  consti- 
tute one  of  the  great  difficulties  of  bibliography.  French 
literature  possesses  an  excellent  IHctiannaire  dee  Ouvrage$ 


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PLATE    1. 


Anona 
Ant 


CharactersCof  AnseridaB  :  a,  White- 
fronted  Goose  CAnser  erythropus) ;  6, 
The  Tame  GK>08e  iAneer  aomesticxia). 


Anona  or  Sour -eop  (Aruma  muricata). 


1 


I 


Fig.  1.— A  Common  Ant  CLasiusflavLti):  a.  Queen;  6,  Worker;  c,  Male; 
d,  Larva;  e,  Pupa.    (After  Lubbock.) 


Pig.  2.— Part  of  a  Gallery,  with  Ant  working  on  Up  toe:  Pogonomvrmex 
mdifaciens,  the  Agricultural  Ant  of  Texas.    CFrom  M'Ck>ok.> 


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ANOPLOTHERIUM. 

Anonymes  et  Pseudonymes  (8d  e<l.,  4  vols.,  Par.  1872-79)  by 
Barbier,  embraciDg  the  titles  of  about  24,000  works,  with 
the  names  of  those  who  are  known  or  assumed  to  be  the 
authors.  Other  lists  of  A.  and  pseudonymous  literature 
are  found  in  the  indexes  to  Notes  and  Queries;  in  *  Olphar 
HsLmsi's'  Handbook  of  Fictitious  JVizwe^  (1868);  Cushing's 
Jnitudsand  Pseudonyms  (N.  Y..  1885),  with  its  companion 
vol..  Anonyms f  comprising  the  titles  of  20,000  books 
and  pamphlets  and  authors'  names;  and  Halkett  and 
Lain^'s  Dictionary  of  A,  and  Pseudonymous  Litei-ature 
(4  vols.,  Edinburgh  1881-87).  It  is  generally  admitted 
that  anonymity  secures  the  independence  of  the  critic;  but 
also  it  is  often  a  shield  to  a  coward.  An  instance  of  the 
benefit  of  anonymity  (or  pseudonymity)  was  seen  in  the 
results  of  an  article  in  the  Forum  (New  York  1887),  by 
'  J.  Clay  Adams.'    An  intolerable  abuse  is  the  A.  letter. 

ANOPLOTHERIUM,  n.  dn'O-pld-the'ri-iim  [Gr.  a,  with- 
out; (h)opUm,  a  weapon;  thirUm,  a  Wild  beast] :  genus  of  ex- 
tinot  ungnlateB,  between  Bwlne  and  ruminants, 
destitate  of  organs  of  defense,  as  tusks,  claws,  or  horns; 
establiabed  by  Cnvicr  from  bones  occurring  in  great  abim- 
dance  in  the  ^vpsum  strata  of  the  Upper  Eocene  (q.v.)  for- 
mation, near  P^is.  They  are  found  also  in  the  same  for- 
mation in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  elsewhere.  The  teeth  difter 
from  those  of  all  other  Pachvdermata,  extinct  or  recent 
There  arc  six  incisors,  two  canines,  eight  premolars,  and  six 
molars  in  each  law— the  dental  formtila  thus  agreeing  with 
that  of  the  fossfl  genus  PalcBotherium  (q.v.);  but  the  teeth 
are  arranged  in  a  continuous  series  without  intervening 
Tacanciea— a  circmnstance  very  remarkable,  as  it  does  not 
occur  in  any  existing  quadrup^,  but  now  appears  in  man 
alone.  The  molars  of  the  upper  jaw  are  quadrangular, 
those  of  the  lower  marked  with  a  double  or  triple  crescent 
of  enamel,  which  forms  prominent  ridges.  In  some  respects, 
the  teeth  resemble  those  of  the  RuminarUia  (q.T.)>  or  rumi- 
nating quadrupeds,  between  which  and  the  Suida  group 
theA.ba8hee&tIiOQ^tto  torn  a  oonnect&ig  link;  XxoXin 


Anoplotherium. 

sone  of  the  species  originally  included  in  this  gemu,  and 
whidi  are  now  sometimes  ranked  along  with  it  under  the 
name  Anoplotk&roids,  the  teeth  exhibit  peculiarities  which 
have  led  to  the  supposition  that  their  food  may  not  have 
been  exchiaiyely  v^etable.    The  snout  is  not  much  ekm- 


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ANOPLURA—ANQUETIL  DUPERRON. 

eated,  and  it  is  cvideut  that  there  was  no  proboscis.  The 
feet  are  terminated  by  two  toes,  as  in  the  Rumioantia;  but 
they  have  always  separate  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones, 
not  a  sincle  caiwn  bone.  A  considerable  number  of  species 
of  A.  and  of  Anoplotheroids  have  been  determined,  differ- 
ing in  size  from  that  of  a  small  ass  to  that  of  a  hare,  or  even 
of  a  euinea-pig;  so  that  the  smallest  species  must  have  been 
smaller  than  any  hoofed  quadruped  now  existing,  or  any 
known  to  have  ever  existed.  They  differ  dXm  considerably 
in  general  appearance,  some  having  had  comparatively  long 
limbs  and  a  light  and  graceful  form,  while  some  were  firmly 
built  and  heavy.  Their  habits  may  l>e  supposed  to  have 
differed  accordingly.  The  true  Anoplotheria  were  probably 
very  similar  in  habits  to  tapirs.  The  powerful  tiattenea 
tails  of  some  are  supposed  to  indicate  an  adaptation  for 
aquatic  life;  others  have  smaller  supplemental  toes,  besides 
the  two  hoofs.  They  form  the  g<QueT2iIHehodon,  Dichcdune, 
Xipfwdon,  and  Microtherium. 

ANOPLURA,  n.  plu.  an'd-plord  [Qr.  anophs,  unarmeil; 
oura,  a  tail]:  name  given  by  Leach  to  an  order  of  insects 
called  Parasita  (q.v.)  by  Latreille,  Cuvier,  etc. — part  of  the 
Aptera  of  L^nmeus— of  which  the  type  is  the  genus  Pedicu- 
lus  or  Louse  (q.v.).;  now  ranked  under  Hemiptera. 

ANOreiA,  u.  aii-op'sha,  or  Anopsy  [Gr.  a?/,  priv. ;  opif<, 
svght]:  deprivation  of  sight;  sightlessness.  In  pathoL, 
[Gr.  ana,  upward],  upward  strabismus;  upward   squint 

ANOREXIA,  n.  dn'o  reksld  [Qr.  an,  without;  orex'is, 
a  longing  for,  eager  desire]:  want  of  appetite;  also 
Anorext,  ti.  dn'o  rekaA, 

ANOSMIA,  n.  an-dftml  a  [Gr.  an,  priv.;  OHmCy  smell]:  in 
pnthoL,  st>ile  of  being  deprived  of  the  sense  of  smell. 
The  synonyms  of  A.  used  by  medical  writers  are  numerous; 
e.g.,  anosniosia.  auosphiiisia,  anosphresia,  parosmia, 
anaesthesia  olfactoria,  auodmia,  etc. 

ANORTHITE,  n.  d-northU  [Gr.  a.  without;  orthos,  up- 
right]: one  of  the  felspar  family  whose  cleavages  are  with- 
out right  angles.    Anor'thic,  a.  -tlnk,  pertaining  to. 

ANOTHER,  a.  dnuih'er  [one  and  other];  one;  not  the 
same;  any  one  else. 

ANOURA,  n.  a-no'rd  [Gr.  a,  without;  oura,  a  tail]:  a 
class  of  amphibians  without  tails,  as  the  frog,  toad,  etc. 
Anou'rou'^,  a.  -ras,  destitute' of  a  tail. 

ANQUETIL-DUPERRON,  dhk-tPl' -du-per-ium',  Abra- 
ham Hyacinthk:  1731,  Dec.  1—1805,  Jan.  17;  b.  Paris: 
orientid  scholar.  He  studied  theology,  but  was  attracted 
to  oriental  studies,  and  to  gratify  his  passion  for  learning, 
he  enlisted  as  a  private  soldier  for  India  1754;  but  was  res- 
cued by  friends  and  enabled,  through  the  royal  munificence, 
to  proceed  indei>endently.  He  fixed  his  residence  at  Surat, 
where  there  was  a  colony  of  Parsees,  or  fire- worshippers, 
with  whose  priests  he  became  intimate;  and  1762  he  re- 
turned to  Europe,  having  collected  100  valuable  MSS.,  with 
other  curiosities.  The  Abbe  Barthelemy  obtained  for  him 
a  situation  in  the  Bibliotheque  Royale.    In  1771  he  pub- 


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ANSARIANS-ANSELM 
fished  his  Zendavesta,  3  vols.,  a  literal  translation  of  tho 
Vendidad,  and  other  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees.  This 
work  made  an  epoch  in  Eui-opean  knowledge  of  the  doc- 
trines of  the  ancient  Persians,  previously  drawn  from 
Greek  and  Roman  sources,  hostile  Mohammedans,  and 
later  eastern  nations.  Unfortunately,  A/s  seal  sur- 
passed his  patience,  sagacity,  and  mastery  of  the  languages 
which  he  translated;  and  his  labors  are  now  largely  super- 
seded. Among  his  works  are  Lfgislation  Oti^ntalr,  1778; 
Reeftercfies  Uusloiiques  et  Qiographwucs  snr  Vlndc,  1786; 
OvpnekluU  (Latin  translation  of  a  Persian  verslOD  of  the 
chief  Indian  Upanisliadit)  1804. 
ANSARIANS,  or  Ansaries,  or  ANfiARs.  see  licssAiRi- 

AN8. 

ANSBACH:  see  Anspach. 

ANSCHUTZ,  4n»Iints,  Karl:  musician  1818,  Feb.— 
1870,  Dec.  30.  He  conducted  orchest  raa  in  many  European 
cities;  and  settled  in  New  York  1867,  where  be  success- 
fully organized  German  opera.     He  died  in  New  York. 

ANSE,  (ins:  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  handles  of  a 
cannon.  These  handles,  especially  in  some  foreign  cannon, 
are  cast  in  the  forms  of  dolphins  or  serpents. 

ANSE  DE  PANIER,  dugs  dih  pa  ut/fi':  term  used  in 
French  architecture,  designating  a  particular  form  of 
bridge  arches;  basket-handle  shaped. 

ANSELM,  dn'silm,  of  Canterbury:  1033-1100,  Apr.  21; 
b.  AoBta,  Piedmont:  scholastic  philosopher.  He  led  at  first 
a  diasipated  life;  and,  like  Abelard,  wandered  through 
France,  after  the  fashion  of  the  scholars  of  those  days, 
disputing  wherever  he  could  find  an  adversaij.  Attracted 
by  the  reputation  of  Lanfranc,  he  went,  1060,  to.  study  at 
the  monastery  of  Bee,  in  Normandy.  Three  years  after^ 
wards,  he  became  prior,  and  in  1078,  abbot  of  this  monasteir, 
the  most  famous  school  of  the  11th  c.  Lanfranc,  who  in 
the  mean  time  had  gone  to  England,  and  become  Abp.  of 
Canterbary,  died  1089;  and  the  diocese  remained  four  years 
without  a  successor,  till,  1093,  A.  was  appointed.  He  was 
distinguished  both  as  a  churchman  and  a  philosopher.  His 
numerous  embroilments  with  William  Rufus  and  Henry  I., 
and  the  unbending  spirit  which  he  displayed  in  these,  even 
when  subjected  to  banishment,  indicate  the  vigor  and 
resoluteness  of  his  character,  as  much  as  his  writings 
exhibit  the  depth  and  acuteness  of  his  intellect.  In  1720, 
Clement  XI.  expressly  placed  him  in  the  list  of  church 
authorities.  A.  was  a  second  Aumistine,  superior  to  all  his 
contemporaries  in  sagacity  and  dialectical  skill,  and  e€|ual 
to  the  most  eminent  in  virtue  and  piety.  Embracmg, 
withoat  question,  the  doctrines  of  the  church,  mostly  as 
stated  b^  Augustine,  and  holding  that  belief  must  precede 
knowleclge,  and  must  be  implicit  and  undoubting;  he  yet 
felt  the  necessity  of  a  religious  philosophy,  urged  the  dutv  of 
proceeding  from  belief  to  knowledge,  and  sought  to  reauce 
the  truths  of  religion  into  the  form  of  a  connected  series  of 
reasonings.    It  was  for  this  purpose  he  wrote  his  Monologivm 


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AN8ER— ANSON. 

fiM  Exempium  Meditandi  de  RaUone  Fldei,  In  his  ProdoQ' 
turn,  otherwise  entiUed  Fides  qtuBrem  InteUectum  (Faiui 
Seeking  Intellect),  he  strove  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of 
God  from  the  conception  of  a  perfect  being.  This  ontolog- 
ical  proof,  however,  has  never  been  held  satisfactory,  thou^ 
of  late  there  is  some  indication  of  a  tendency  to  return  to  its 
general  line.  It  is  usually  considered  as  assuming  at  the 
start  the  Divine  existence  which  it  seeks  to  prove,  or  as 
arguing  that  because  the  mind  has  certain  conceptions  there 
exist  the  realities  corresponding.  His  writings.  Cur  Deu$ 
Homo  and  De  Concordia  PrcescientuB  et  PrSdestinatianu, 
made  an  epoch  in  Christian  philosophy.  A.  may  justly  be 
reckoned  the  earliest  of  the  schoolmen,  although  Alemndei 
of  Hales  (q  v.)  was  the  first  who  completely  systematized  in 
the  scholastic  manner  the  dootrines  of  Uie  Catholic  Church. 
A.  was  buried  at  Canterbury.  The  day  of  his  death  is 
observed  in  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church.  Sec  Remusat*s  ArneltM 
(1858)  and  Church's  A.  (1870). 

AN8ER:  see  Anab:  GkK>BB. 

ANSERINE,  a.  dn'ser-ln  [L.  anser,  a  goose]:  of  the 
goose  tribe;  uneven. 

ANS'QAR.  or  Ai^scHAKms,  an-ska'ri^as:  abt  801-864, 
Feb.  8;  b.  Picardy:  styled  the  Apostle  of  the  North,  on 
account  of  his  labors  to  introduce  Christianity  into  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Northern  Germany.  Under  the  patronage  of 
Louis  le  Debonnaire.  he  went,  with  his  collea^e  Audibert, 
to  preach  Christianity  among  the  heathen  Northmen  of 
Schleswig,  where  he  suffered  many  persecutions;  but  had 
nevertheless  such  success  that,  in  882,  the  pope  established 
an  archbishopric  in  Hamburg,  and  A.  was  appointed  the  first 
abp.  Here  he  passed  through  many  difficulties,  having  to 
save  his  Ufe  by  flight  in  845,  when  the  Northmen  and  Danes 
under  Eric  I.  plundered  Hamburg.  He  afterwards  made 
several  missionary  tours  in  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and  d.  at 
Bremen,  where  a  church  was  named  after  him.  The  Rom. 
Cath.  Church  has  canonized  him. 

ANSON,  an' son,  George,  Lord,  Admiral:  1697,  Apr. 
28—1762,  June  6;  b.  Shugborough,  Staffordshire.  He  early 
showed  predilection  for  a  sea-life.  In  1716,  he  served  as 
second  lieut.  under  Norris;  next  imder  Byng  in  1718,  against 
the  Spaniards;  and  was  made  capt.  1723.  In  1789,  when 
war  with  Spain  broke  out,  he  was  recalled  from  the  Carolina 
station,  on  which  he  had  been  since  1724,  and  received  the 
command  of  the  fleet  in  the  South  Sea,  with  instructions  to 
inflict  whatever  injury  he  could  on  the  Spanish  commerce 
and  colonies,  and  staled  from  England  in  Sept..  1740. 
After  many  misfortunes,  he  captured  several  prizes,  in- 
cluding a  Spanish  galleon  with  a  $2,000,000  cargo.  He 
returned  to  England  1744,  June  15,  having  circumnavi- 
gated the  globe  in  3  years,  9  months,  and  greatly  ex- 
tended the  knowledge  of  navigation  and  geography. 
He  was  promoted  rear-admiral  of  the  blue  1744,  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty  1751,  and  admiral  of  the  fleet  1761,  and 
for  his  victory-  over  the  French  at  Cape  Flnlsterre  was 
created  Baron  of  Soberton. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


PLATE    2. 


Ant's 
Antenna 


Ant*8  Nest  (a  mound  disk)  with  roads :    Pogonomyrmex  molifaciens, 
the  Aj^cuitural  Ant  of  Texas.    (From  M'CookO 


Honey  Ant  (Myrmecocvstus  Mexicantu):  a,  natural  size.    (From  Rev. 
W.Farren  White.) 


JC^ 


Various  forms  of  A u teniinp*.    (From  Rogct . ) 


VotZ 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ANSONIA— ANT. 

ANSO'NIA:  town  in  New  Haven  co..  Conn.;  on  the 
Naugatuck  river,  the  Naugatuck  division  of  the  New 
York  New  Haven  and  Hartford  railroad,  aod  the  New 
Haven  and  Derby  branch  of  the  Housatonic  railroad ;  9  m. 
w.  of  New  Haven,  14  m.  n.e.  of  Bridgeport.  There  are  5 
churches;  a  high  school;  a  free  public  library,  opened 
June  1892;  one  daily  and  one  weekly  newspaper;  a 
national  bank  (cap.  $200,000)  and  a  savings  bank;  and  3 
hotels.  There  are  abundant  water  supply  from  the 
adjacent  hills;  2  organized  fire-companies,  called  by 
electric  alarms;  an  electric  street  railroad  to  Derby 
and  Birmingham  (the  first  successful  one  in  New  Eng- 
land) ;  and  a  widely  extended  system  of  electric  clocks. 
The  fine  water-power  of  the  Naugatuck  river  has  been 
extensively  utilized,  and  beside  some  of  the  largest  brass 
and  clock  works  in  the  couutry,  there  are  manufactures  of 
machinery,  iron,  copper,  woolen,  and  electrical  goods,  and 
the  works  of  the  Postal  Telegraph  Compcmy.  The 
electric  light  was  introduced  at  an  early  period,  and 
experiments  conducted  here  have  been  very  useful  in 
promoting  its  development.  A.  was  settled  about  1845 ; 
separated  from  Derby,  and  incorporated  1889;  and  had  val- 
uation (1890)  11,914,099;  and  debt  (1892)  $175,000.  Pop. 
(1880)  3.855;  (1894)  14.258. 

ANSPAGH,  dnt^pdk,  or,  more  properly,  Ansbach:  town 
of  Bavaria,  cap.  of  the  circle  of  Middle  Franconia  {Mittd- 
Firanken);  on  the  Rezat,  25  m.  s.w.  from  Nilmberg.  It 
has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  half -silken  fabrics,  tobacco, 
earthenware,  playing-cards,  cutlery,  and  white  lead;  also  a 
considerable  trade  in  wool,  flax,  and  com.  The  situation  is 
pleasant,  but  there  are  no  remarkable  buildings,  except  the 
deserted  palace  of  the  former  margraves  of  A.,  surrounded 
l^  gardens,  and  the  church  of  St  Gunibert,  said  to  occiipy 
the  site  of  a  drarch  erected  in  the  8th  c,  around  which  the 
town  grew.    Pop.  (1880)  14,195. 

ANSTRUTHEB,  an'8Mi4fi^r  or  dn'at^r  (Eastku  and 
Wester)  :  royal  burghs  of  Fifeshlre,  Scotland,  9  m.  s.  of 
8t.  Andrews.    Pop.  of  both  (1881)  1,842. 

ANSWER,  T.  dn'$&r  [AS.  andaearianr^fTom  and, 
against,  and  noerian;  €k»th.  avaran,  to  swear:  Icel.  svara, 
to  answer]:  to  speak  in  return;  to  reply;  to  be  accountable 
for;  to  suit;  to  satisfy,  as  a  claim  or  a  right;  to  correspond 
with;  to  meet  or  confront:  N.  something  said  in  reply  to  a 
question;  correspondence  with;  retaliation.  An'bwbrino, 
imp.  AiTSWERED,  pp.  dn'sdrd.  Answerer,  n.  one  who. 
Answerable,  a.  dn'sir-d^,  what  may  be  replied  to; 
accountable;  responsible;  suitable.  An'bwerablt,  ad. 
-an.  An'swbrableness,  n.  -U-nis,  the  quality  of  being 
answerable.  An  bwerless,  a.  without  an  answer;  that  can- 
not be  answered. — Stn.  of  'answer,  n.':  reply;  response;  n- 
Joinder; — of  '  answerable ':  responsible;  accountable;  amen- 
able. 

ANT,  dni,  or  Anti«  dn'H  [Gr.] :  a  prefix  meaning,  against; 
opposite. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ANT. 

ANT,  n.  (i?it  [AS.  wme/] ;  a  small  insect;  an  emmet— of 
which  it  is  a  contracted  form.  Ant-hill,  a  nest  of  ants. 
Ant-eater,  a  quadruped,  having  a  long  snout  or  muzzle 
and  long  tongue,  which  feeds  upon  ants.  Ant-lion,  a 
small  neuroptcrous  insect  which  preys  upon  ants. 

ANT  (Fhrmica):  Linnaean  genus  of  Hymenoptcrous  in- 
sects, now  divided  into  several  genera,  which  form  a  family 
called  Formicida.  The  English  name  is  contracted  from 
Emmet,  still  also  occasionally  used.  Another  old  English 
name,  not  now  in  frequent  use.  is  Pismire.  The  species  are 
numerous,  and  are  generally  distributed  over  temperate  and 
tropical  regions.  Their  habits  and  instincts  are  extremely 
interesting,  and  have  attracted  attention  from  remote  ages. 
Anis  are  small  insects,  but  of  extraordinary  muscular 
strength.  They  carry  loads  of  ten  or  twelve  times  their 
own  weight,  and  have  great  activity.  They  have  a  trian- 
gular head;  the  antenncB  are  geniculate;  the  iaws  strong;  the 
ligula  or  lower  lip  small,  rounded,  vaulted  or  spoon-like; 
the  thorax  compressed  at  the  sides;  the  abdomen  nearly 
oval,  the  pedicle  which  joins  it  to  the  thorax  forming  in 
some  kinds  a  single,  and  in  some,  a  double  scale  or  knot. 
They  live  in  societies,  often  very  large,  which  consist,  as  in 
bees,  of  males,  females,  and  neuters.  The  neuters  are 
females  with  imperfect  ovaries,  transformed  at  an  early 
stage  of  their  existence,  and  are  distinguished  into  two 
classes,  workers  and  soldiers,  the  former  constituting  the 

greater  portion  of 
each  society,  the 
latter  somewhat 
differing  from  them 
in  larger  size,  and 
lartjer  and  more 
powerful  head.  The 
Atua  barbara :  ordinary  work  of  the 

A,  one  of  the  lar*fer  workers;  B,  one  of  the  society  IS  performed 
Binaller  workers;   C,  a  male;    D,  a         by  the  workers:  the 
female-all    natural    size.  principal     part     in 

warfare,  defensive  or  oflfensive,  is  taken  by  the  soldiers. 
The  males  and  females  constitute  but  a  small  portion  of 
each  community.  They  have  delicate  glistening  wings; 
but  the  neuters  have  no  wings,  and  the  thorax  is  smaller 
and  more  compressed.  The  males  are  smaller  than  the 
females,  and  the  workers  are  rather  smaller  than  the  males. 
The  females  and  neuters  of  some  kinds  (genera  P&nera, 
Myrmica,  Atta,  and  Cryptocerus)  are  armed  with  stings; 
other  kinds  {Formica  and  Polyergus)  have  no  sting,  but 
have  the  power  of  ejecting  a  peculiar  volatile  acid.  Formic 
Acid  (q.v.),  from  a  small  sac  in  the  abdomen;  by  this 
means  effectually  repelling  many  adversaries,  to  which 
the  pungent  fumes  are  intolerable.  Small  animals  are  soon 
killed  by  the  vapor  of  an  anthill;  and  a  dog  has  been 
known  to  retire  yelling  from  the  effect  upon  his  eyes,  either 
of  the  vapor,  or  a  discharge  of  the  fluiti  itself.  It  is  said, 
that  when  those  ants  that  are  unprovided  with  a  sting 
make  use  of  their  mandibles  to  inflict  a  bite,  they  curve 


Digitized  by  VjOQQIC 


ANT. 

round  their  abdomen,  so  as  to  be  ready  immediately  to 
squirt  this  acid  into  the  wound. 

The  winged  ants  appear  mostly  in  autumn,  and  perish 
before  the  commencement  of  the  cold  weather;  a  few  sur- 
viving to  found  new  colonies  and  perpetuate  the  race.  The 
neuters  pass  the  winter  in  large  numbers  in  a  torpid  stale, 
and  resume  activity  on  the  return  of  spring.  The  nests  of 
ants,  after 'midsummer,  are  usually  found  to  contain  win^ 
males  and  females  mixed  with  the  windless  neuters,  which, 
however,  restrain  them,  and  particularly  the  females,  from 
making  their  escape  into  the  air,  until  the  pairing  season, 
when  they  ascend  into  it  in  immense  swarms,  those  from 
many  ant-hills  sometimes  imiting  their  myriads,  rising  with 
incredible  velocity  in  distant  columns,  and  soaring  to  a 
great  height.  '  £!ach  column  looks  like  a  kind  of  slender 
net-work,  and  has  a  tremulous  undulating  motion.  The 
noise  emitted  by  myriads  and  myriads  of  these  creatures 
does  not  exceed  the  hum  of  a  single  wasp.  The  slightest 
zephyr  disperses  them.'  They  occasionally,  however,  make 
their  appearance  in  such  proaigious  numbers,  that  the  air 
is  obscured  by  them.  The  pairing  of  ants  is  supposed  to 
take  place  in  the  air.  Some  of  the  females  which  escape 
destruction  by  their  enemies,  or  by  the  elements,  found  new 
colonies,  in  which  at  first  they  perform  the  work  usually 
assigned  to  neuters.  Some,  however,  are  seized  by  the 
neuters  of  ant-hills  near  which  they  fall,  and  there  is  even 
reason  to  think  that  these  go  out  to  search  for  them;  they 
are  stripped  of  their  wings,  and  forcibly  conducted  to  the 
habitation,  the  number  of  whose  inhabitants  is  to  be  in- 
creased by  their  multitudinous  progeny.  They  are  fed  and 
treats  with  apparent  respect,  like  the  queen- bee  among 
bees;  but  a  society  of  ants,  imlike  one  of  bees,  often  con- 
tains numerous  females,  each  thus  treated  and  equally  em- 
ployed in  the  important  work  of  laying  eggs.  Unlike  the 
queen-bees,  also,  they  are  invariably  denud^  of  their  wings; 
nor  is  this  always  done  by  the  neuters,  to  prevent  their 
escape,  but  the  female  ant,  after  fecundation,  has  been  seen 
to  denude  herself  of  her  own  wings,  as  now  superfluous  ap- 
pendages. 

The  egffs  of  ants  are  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  visible  to 
the  nak^  eye.  The  mother  drops  them  at  random  in  her 
progress  through  the  nest;  but  the  workers,  of  whom  some 
are  always  in  attendance  on  her,  immediately  seize  them, 
moisten  Uiem  with  their  tongues,  and  lay  them  in  heaps  in 
particular  apartments  of  the  nest.  They  continue  to  watch 
them,  and  to  remove  them  from  one  quarter  of  the  nest  to 
another,  apparently  in  order  that  they  may  always  enjoy  a 
suitable  temperature,  and  perhaps  in  order  to  avoid  any  ex- 
cess of  moisture.  In  a  few  days,  the  yoimg  larvae  are  pro- 
duced; and  these  require  the  unremitting  care  of  the 
workers,  which  feed  them,  disgorging  into  their  mouths, 
for  this  purpose,  a  viscid  substance,  supposetl  to  be  the 
ordinary  food  of  the  species,  prepared  for  their  use  by  a 
sort  of  half  digestion.  They  are  also  extremely  careful  to 
keep  the  young  brood  clean,  by  constant  application  of  their 
tongue  and  mandibles;  and  a  great  amount  of  labor  is  daily 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ANT. 

expended  upon  them,  in  conveying  them  from  tlie  inner 
apai'tments  of  the  nest  towards  the  surface  after  sunrise, 
when  the  weather  is  fine,  and  back  again  before  sunset,  or 
when  the  weather  becomes  cold,  or  there  is  a  prospect  of 
rain.  The  same  care  is  extended  to  the  pupae.  The  larvn 
and  pupse  are  the  white  objects  which  the  workers  are  seen 
hastily  seizing  and  can-yiug  off  to  places  of  safety,  when  an 
ant's  nest  is  broken  open;  and  the  resemblance  of  which, 
particularly  of  the  pupae,  to  grains  of  barley,  is  supposed  to 
have  contnbuted  to  the  general  belief  that  ants  amass  stores 
of  corn  for  winter  food.  The  larvae  have  no  organs  of  loco- 
motion. The  pupae  are  enveloped  in  delicate  silken 
cocoons,  and  unlike  those  of  other  insects,  require  assist- 
ance to  extricate  themselves  from  them  when  they  have  at- 
tained their  perfect  state.  This  assistance  also  is  afforded 
by  the  workers. 

The  whole  supplies  of  food  for  the  inmates  of  the  nest  are 
brought  to  it  by  the  workers.  The  food  of  some  kinds  is 
exclusively  or  chiefly  animal,  that  of  otliers,  vegetable. 
The  provisions  carried  to  their  nests  by  the  ants  of  Britain 
and  other  countries  in  which  the  winter  is  cold  are  appar- 
ently not  intended  for  winter,  when  the  creatures  are  en- 
tirely torpid,  but  only  for  present  use;  and  few,  if  any,  of 
the  species  feed  on  grain  or  seeds.  But  Col.  Sykes  dis- 
covered at  Poonah  a  species  of  ants  {Atta  providens),  which 
not  only  store  up  provisions,  but  of  which  the  stores  consist 
of  the  seeds  of  a  species  of  millet;  and  Mr.  Moggridge  has 
recently  determined  by  careful  observation  that  large  stores 
of  grain  and  seeds  are  laid  up  by  some  of  the  ants  of  the 
s.  of  Europe,  especially  Atta  barbara  and  Atta  structor. 
The  grain  and  other  seeds  stored  up  by  ants  seem,  in  some 
way  not  yet  known,  to  be  deprived  of  the  power  of  germi- 
nation. .The  ant  has  long  been  a  sort  of  proverbial  type, 
not  only  of  industry,  but  of  provident  care  for  the  future. 
Some  ants,  however,  collect  and  carry  to  their  nests  sub- 
stances which  are  not  intended  for  food,  but  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  nest,  and  particularly  for  closing  its  aper- 
tures in  cold  or  wet  weather.  In  this  way  they  gather  to- 
gether small  heaps  of  chips  of  wood,  bits  of  straw,  small 
pebbles,  etc. 

The  vegetable  substance  which  ants  seem  chiefly  to  use  as 
food  is  sugar;  and  to  this,  wherever  it  is  to  be  found,  they 
seem  to  be  guided  by  a  very  acute  sense  of  smell.  Honey- 
deto^  the  saccharine  excretion  of  the  Aphides  (see  Aphis),  is 
a  favorite  food  of  many  species;  and  with  this  are  con- 
nected some  of  their  most  extraordinary  instincts;  for  not 
only  do  they  climb  the  plants  on  which  the  aphides  abound, 
that  the^  mav  obtain  this  food,  but  they  have  been  seen  to 
wait  beside  them  for  new  drops,  and  even  to  touch  them 
with  their  antennae,  in  order  to  cause  the  drops  to  flow, 
patting  the  abdomen  of  the  aphis  on  each  side  alternately 
and  rapidly;  the  ant,  after  the  drop  has  been  obtained,  pass- 
ing on  to  another  aphis.  The  whole  process  has  been  likened 
to  the  milkinff  of  cattle.  Even  more  wonderful  things  are 
asserted  on  Uiis  subject,  as  that  particular  ants  seem  to 
regard  particular  aphides  as  their  own  property,  and  are 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ANT. 

ready  to  fight  in  defense  of  their  right  to  them-  that,  to 
secure  thera  for  themselves,  they  convey  them  from  one 
place  to  another— and  that  the  Aphia  radieum^  ^hich  derives 
Its  nutriment  from  the  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants,  is 
actually  kept  in  larc^e  numbers  in  the  nest  of  the  Yellow 
Ant  {FoTmieaflava),  In  order  that  there  may  be  always  at  hand 
a  copious  supply  of  food,  these  aphides  ana  their  eggs  sharing 
the  solicituae  of  the  ant^  equally  with  their  own  eggs  and 
youn^.  Things  so  wonderful  are  ascertained  beyond  dis- 
pute in  regard  to  the  instincts  of  ants,  that  even  such  state- 
ments as  these  must  not  be  hastily  rejected  as  incredible,  and 
certainly  they  express  the  beliefs  of  careful  and  scientific 
observers. 

Ante  which  feed  upon  animal  food  render  important 
service  in  clearing  away  every  vestige  of  the  flesh  of  dead 
animals,  and  so  preventing  corruption;  and  veir  beautiful 
skeletons  of  small  animals  have  been  obtained  by  burying 
the  animal  for  a  short  time  in  an  ant  hill.  But  ants  also 
attack  living  animals:  insects  of  comparatively  large  size 
fall  a  prev  to  them,  and  in  tropical  countries,  birds,  reptiles, 
and  small  quadrupeds  are  sometimes  devoured  bv  their  vast 
swarms,  which  strip  the  bones  of  the  animal  perfectly  clean 
with  wonderful  rapidity.  Domestic  animals,  at  least  when 
sick,  arc  not  safe  from  them,  and  man  himself  regards  them 
with  dread.  About  a  hundred  years  ago,  vast  numbers  of  a 
particular  kind  of  ant  (F.  Mceharivora)  appeared  in  the 
island  of  Grenada.  This  species  makes  its  nest  under  the 
roots  of  plRnt.4,  and  the  sugar-canes  were  so  weakened  and 


Yellow  Ants  {F.  Flava)  and  Nest 

injured  in  consequence,  that  the  plantations  became  nearly 
unproductive.  *  They  descended  from  the  hills  like  tor- 
rents, and  the  plantations,  as  well  as  every  path  and  road 
for  miles,  were  filled  with  them.  Rats,  mice,  and  reptiles 
of  every  kind  became  an  easy  prey  to  them;  and  even  the 
birds,  which  they  attacked  whenever  they  lighted  on  the 
ground  in  search  of  food,  were  so  harassed,  as  to  be  at 
length  unable  to  resist  them.  Streams  of  water  opposed 
only  a  temporary  obstacle  to  their  progress;  the  foremost 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ANT. 

ruvshing  blindly  on  certain  death,  and  fresh  armies  instantly 
following,  till  a  bank  was  formed  of  the  carcasses  of  those 
which  were  drowned,  sufticient  to  dam  up  the  waters,  and 
allow  the  main  l)ody  to  pass  over  in  safety  below.  Even 
Are  was  tried  without  effect.  When  it  was  lighted  to  arrest 
their  route,  they  rushed  into  the  blaze  in  such  myriads  as  to 
extinguish  it.'  A  reward  of  $100,000  was  offered  in  vain  for 
an  effectual  means  of  destroying  them;  but  in  1780,  a  hurri- 
cane which  tore  up  the  canes,  and  exposed  their  habitations 
to  a  deluge  of  rain,  freed  the  island  from  this  plague. 

The  habitations  of  ants  are  very  curiously  constructed, 
displaying  great  ingenuity,  although  with  great  diversity  in 
the  different  species.  The  greater  number  of  S|)ecie8  form 
their  habitations  in  the  ground.  These  rise  above  the  sur- 
face in  the  form  of  a  dome;  hence  the  name  ant-hills  com- 
monly given  them.  The  largest  ant-hills  formed  by  any 
British  si^cies  are  these  of  the  large  red  or  horse  ants 
(Formica  rvfa),  which  arc  sometimes  as  big  as  a  small  hay- 
cock; but  travellers  in  S.  Amer.  describe  ant-hills  of  15 
or  20  ft.  in  height.  The  nest  of  F.  rufa  is  outwardly  of 
rude  appearance— a  confused  heap  of  such  portable  mate- 
rials as  were  within  reach;  but  within,  it  contains  numerous 
small  apartments,  of  different  sizes,  arranged  in  separate 
stories,  some  deep  in  the  eaith,  some  above  its  surface,  and 
communicating  with  each  other  by  means  of  galleries.  Use 
is  made  of  the  earth  excavated  from  below  to  mix  with  other 
materials  in  the  construction  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  fabric. 
Many  species  of  ants,  sometimes  called  Mason  Ants,  con- 
struct habitations  by  a  still  more  elal)orate  masonry,  making 


Section  of  Bank,  showing  Nests  of  the  Mason  Ant. 

tise,  for  this  purpose,  of  soft  clay,  which  they  spread  and 
mold  by  means  of  their  mandibles  and  feet,  appearing 
all  the  while  to  examine  their  work  by  their  antennae.  The 
partition-walls  of  the  gjiUeries  and  apartments  of  the  Formica 
brunnea  are  about  half  a  line  thick,  and  about  half  an  inch 
high;  the  roofs  are  somewhat  arched,  and  pillars  are  fre- 
quent in  this  manellous  architecture.     M.  Huber  saw  a 


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ANT. 

working-ant  of  another  species  (F,  fu^ca),  without  nssist 
ance,  nmke  and  cover  in  a  gallery  which  was  two  or  three 
inches  long,  and  of  which  the  interior  was  rendered  per- 
fectly concavd.  There  are  other  species,  sometimes  called 
Carpenter  Ants,  which  make  their  habitations  in  the  trunks 

of   old  trees,  gnawing    the 
wood  into   apartments  and 
galleries,  with  floors  and  par- 
titions as  thin  as  card.     For- 
mica, flava  forms  its  partition- 
walls   of  a  sort  of  papiet' 
i  mdclie  of  sawdust,  earth,  and 
[  spider's   web.     F.  sinarag' 
d'Tuif  an  East  Indian  species, 
forms  its  nest  of  a  thm  silk- 
like  tissue.     F,  bisptnosa,  in 
Cayenne,  makes  a  felt  of  the 
down  which    envelops    the 
seeds  of  the  Bomhax  Criha, 
An     East    Indian    species, 
Myrmica   Kirbii,    forms    a 
globular  nest  of  a  congeries 
of  tile-like  lamina  of  cow- 
Nest  of  Carpenter  Ant.  dung,  the  interior  exhibitmg 
an  assemblage  of  apartments  and  galleries.     Some  AiLstra- 
lian  ants  form  their  nests  of  the  leaves  of  trees   glued 
together,  after  being  first  brought  into  the  proper  position 
by  the  united  strength  of  multitudes. 

Of  the  ants  which  form  their  nests  in  the  ground,  some, 
instead  of  constructing  ant-hills,  seek  the  protection  of 
stones,  roots  of  trees,  etc.  This  is  the  case  with  some  of  the 
British  species,  and  also  with  the  sugar  ant  of  the  West 
Indies,  already  mentioned. 

Many  interesting  anecdotes  are  on  record  illustrative  of 
the  instincts  of  ants,  and  of  the  sagacity  which  they  seem 
to  possess.  They  appear  also  to  have  some  power  of  com- 
municating with  each  other,  in  which  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  antenme  are  chiefly  employed.  Some  such  power 
might  be  supposed  to  be  necessary,  if  we  could  venture  to 
reason  from  analogy  upon  such  a  subject,  not  only  to  their 
architectural  and  other  ordinary  operations,  in  which  many 
must  take  part,  systematically  and  conjointly,  but  also  in 
their  predatory  and  warlike  excursions;  for  these  also  some 
of  the  species  have.  If,  during  the  predatory  excursions  of 
the  Atta  eephalotes  (S.  Amer.  species),  an  intervening  space 
occurs  which  they  cannot  cross,  some  of  the  creatures  link 
themselves  together— as  monkeys,  in  like  circumstances, 
have  been  known  to  do — forming  a  bridge  over  which  the 
main  body  passes.  Ants  are,  in  general,  both  courageous 
and  pugnacious.  Many  battles  take  place  among  them,  both 
between  individuals  and  large  parties;  and  after  a  battle, 
combatants  may  be  found  locked  in  each  other's  arms,  as 
having  died  together  in  the  struggle.  More  extraordinary 
than  anything  of  this  kind,  however,  is  the  fact,  sufficiently 
ascertained,  that  some  species  of  ants  go  on  regular  forays 
to  carry  off  the  larvse  and  pupse  of  certain  other  species, 


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ANTACID. 

'Which  they  carry  to  their  own  habitations  to  rear  and  em 
ploy  them  as  slaves  in  the  work  which  might  be  regarded  as 
properly  belonging  to  workers  of  tlieir  own  r»ce— a  fact  to 
which  no  other  at  all  analogous  has  yet  presented  itself  in 
natural  history.  The  species  known  thus  to  make  and  keep 
slaves  are  PolyerguB  rufesceru  and  Farmica  mnguinca,  both 
sometimes  called  Amazon  Ants.  It  has  been  noted  as  a 
curious  circumstioce  that  the  kidnappers  are  red  or  pale- 
colored  ants,  and  the  slaves  jet  black.  The  kidnapping  ex- 
cursions take  place  only  at  a  particular  period  of  the  year, 
when  the  nests  of  the  black  ants  contain  the  neuter  brood. 
The  army  of  red  ants  (P.  rufescem)  marches  forth,  the  vaU' 
guard,  which  consists  of  ei^ht  or  ten  only,  continually 
changing;  and  on  their  arrivmg  at  the  nest  of  the  negro 
ants,  a  desperate  conflict  ensues,  which  ends  in  the  de&t 
of  the  negroes;  and  thereupon  the  red  ants,  with  their  power- 
ful mandibles,  tear  open  the  now  undefended  ant-hill,  enter 
it,  and  emerge,  carrying  the  pups  in  their  mouths,  with 
which  thev  return  in  perfect  order  to  their  own  nest  The 
pupffi  are  tnere  treated  with  great  care,  and  spend  their  lives 
among  the  red  anta,  excavating  passages,  collecting  food, 
carr3ring  larva;,  etc.,  as  if  this  had  been  tbcir  original  des- 
tination. The  amazon  ants  are  not  natives  oi  Britain, 
although  plentiful  In  some  parts  of  Europe. — The  Agri- 
cultural Ants  of  Texas  are  a  recent  discovery— said  to 
l)lant,  as  well  as  harvest,  a  species  of  gni.«s  {ArxHtiday.  and 
the  Honey  Ant  of  Texas  sets  apiirt  some  individuals  as 
living  bottles  of  honey,  vastly  distended,  from  which  the 
rest  di*aw  supply:  see  Plate  II. 

Termites  (q.v.).  or  White  Ants,  are  very  different  from 
the  true  ants,  and  belong  to  the  order  Neiiroptera,  See 
Lubbock's  Ant8,  Bees,  and  Wasps  {1SS2).     8<je  FoiiMiC. 

ANTACID,  dnt-as'id  [Gr.  anti,  agahist;  L.  oMus,  acidj; 
any  substance,  as  potash,  soda,  magnesia.  Urns,  etc.,  whidi 
coimteracts  acidity  or  neutralizes  it,  especially  in  the  stom* 
ach  and  intestinal  canal,  by  directly  combining  with  the  froo 
acid  that  may  be  present.  The  action  of  antacids  is  obvi« 
otisly  merely  temporary,  as,  unless  combined  with  other 
medicines,  they  do  not  correct  the  morbid  condition  which 
causes  the  undue  acidity;  and  their  too  prolonged  use  muBt 
be  carefully  avoided,  since,  at  all  events,  some  of  these 
medicines,  as  the  alkalies  and  their  carbonates,  are  liable  to 
induce  a  state  of  general  amemia,  morbid  deposits  in  the 
urine,  and  a  series  of  symptoms  not  unlike  those  of  scurvy. 
Antacids  are  best  given  in  association  with  vegetable  tonics; 
and  for  the  reasons  already  stated,  their  administration 
must  be  carefully  watched,  and  should  be  occasionally 
omitted.  Dr.  Neligan  makes  the  following  excellent  re- 
marks on  the  particular  remedy  to  be  employed  for  special 
forms  of  acidity:  '  When  the  acid  exists  in  the  stomach  in 
the  gaseous  state,  ammonia  or  its  carbonates  should  be  pre- 
ferred, as,  in  consequence  of  their  volatilitv,  a  gaseous  acid 
which  would  elude  the  action  of  the  fixed,  alkalies  may  be 
neutralized  by  them.  If  the  acidity  be  present  in  the  lower 
bowel,  as  in  the  ceecum  or  colon,  magnesia  or  lime  ought  to 
be  administered,  as  being  less  likely  than  the  other  antacids 


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ANT^-ANTALCIDAS. 

to  be  neutralized  or  absorbed  before  it  reaches  that  portion 
of  the  intestinal  canal.  When  the  acid  exists  in  the  urinary 
organs,  the  alkalies  will  be  found  best  adapted,  as  they  have 
a  tendency  to  act  more  directly  on  the  kidneys;  and  when  it 
Ib  lithie  (or  urie)  add  which  preponderates  in  the  urine,  the 
preparations  of  lithia  or  potash  should  be  preferred  to  those 
of  soda,  aA  the  salts  formed  by  the  two  former  with  the  acid 
in  question  are  much  more  soluble  than  those  formed  with 
the  latter.  In  persons  of  a  corpulent  habit  of  body,  potash 
is  to  be  preferred  to  ammonia  or  soda  when  the  use  of  an 
tlkali  is  Indicated.  And  finally,  ammonia  and  its  prepara- 
tions are  best  adapted  for  the  old  and  debilitated,  as  also  for 
those  of  enfeebled  constitution.'  The  antacids  include  solu- 
tions of  ammonia,  lime  (commonly  known  as  lime-water), 
potash,  and  soda,  yarious  carbonates  of  these  substances, 
ma^liesia  and  its  carbonates,  and  the  carbonate  and  citrate 
of  hthia. 

Man^r  of  the  medicines  of  this  class  possess  other  proper- 
ties besides  that  of  neutralizmg  free  acids. 

ANTiE:  see  Pilasteb. 

ANTAGONIST,  n.  antA^o-nUi  [F.  antaganiate,  an  an- 
tagonist—from Qr.  antagdnWtes,  a  combatant— from  Qr. 
a"ti,  against;  ogdnWteB,  a  comlmtant]:  one  who  contends 
with  another;  an  opponent;  an  enemy.  Antagonism,  n. 
-nUm,  actiye  opposition.  Antagonize,  v.  an-idgd  nlz,  to 
act  in  opposition;  to  strive  against.  Antag'oniz'ing,  imp. 
AiYTAG'oNiZED,  pp.  -Hizd.  ANTAGONISTIC,  a.  dii-tagd-nU- 
tlk,  striving  against.  Antag'onis'ticallt,  ad.  -nWil-kal-h 
Antao'onib'tic  FOBCB8,  two  powers  in  nature,  the  one 
counteracting  the  other,  as  fire  and  water. — Stn.  of  'an- 
tagonist': an  adversary;  enemy;  opponent;  foe. 

ANTALCIDAS,  dn-tdl'sUdds:  a  Spartan  statesman,  who 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  4th  c.  B.C.  was  conspicuous  in  a 
very  perilous  crisis  of  the  history  of  his  nation  by  his  skil- 
ful policy.  Some  time  after  the  Peloponnesian  War,  it 
seemed  as  if  Athens  were  destined  to  regain  the  supremacy 
she  had  lost.  The  Greek  states  rallied  round  her;  while 
Conon,  an  able  and  vigilant  Athenian  admiral,  and  his  ally, 
Phamabazus,  the  Pereian,  were  everywhere  victorious  m 
their  naval  encounters  with  the  Spartan  fleet.  It  became 
necessary,  therefore,  that  communications  should  be  en- 
tered into  with  the  Persian  king,  from  whom  the  confed- 
erate Greeks  drew  their  chief  resources.  A.  was  chosen 
ambassador  to  Tiribazus,  satrap  of  w.  Asia.  On  hearing 
this,  the  Athenians  srew  alarmed,  and  sent  Conon  to  frus- 
trate the  schemes  of  the  former;  but  Tiribazus  took  A.'s 
part,  and  the  result  was  that  Conon  was  thrown  into  prison, 
and  A.  secretly  received  money  to  enable  Sparta  to  con- 
tinue the  war.  At  first,  Artaxerxes,  the  Persian  monarch, 
was  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  his  satrap,  recalled 
him,  and  put  Struthas,  a  friend  of  Athens,  in  his  place; 
"but  through  a  complication  of  circumstances,  A.  was  subse- 
Guently  completely*  successful  in  securing  the  good-will  of 
Artaxerxes.  He  was  then  appointed  admiral  of  the  Spartan 
fleet,  and  assisted  by  Tiribazus.  Ariobarzanes,  etc.,  swept 


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ANTALGIC— ANTAR. 

the  seas  until  Athens  became  desirous  of  peace.  For  vari- 
ous reasons,  bo  was  Argos,  also  Sparta.  Tiribazus  therefore 
assembled  deputies  from  the  Greek  states,  and,  in  the  name 
of  his  master,  Artiixerxcs,  read  the  famous  declaration  or 
treaty  of  peace,  to  which  all  the  members  present  agreed, 
and  which  is  known  in  history  under  the  name  of  *  the 
Peace  of  Antalcidas,'  as  being  the  result  of  the  latter's  able 
diplomacy.  Its  three  great  points  were  as  follows:  1.  That 
all  the  Greek  towjis  on  the  mainland  of  Asia  Minor,  together 
with  the  islands  Clazomene  and  Cyprus,  should  remain 
under  the  protection  of  the  Persian  king.  2.  That  all  other 
Greek  towns,  large  and  small,  should  be  indepentlent;  but 
that  the  islands  of  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros  should  be- 
long to  Athens.  3.  That  war  should  be  declared  against 
whatever  state  refused  to  accept  these  points.  After  this 
peace,  the  history  of  A.  becomes  doubtful  and  obscure.  He 
seems  to  have  lost  favor  with  the  Persians,  and  Plutarch 
even  leads  us  to  suppose  that,  sickened  by  misfortune  and 
the  loss  of  reputation,  he  starved  himself  to  death;  but  tJais 
story  is  not  credited  by  scholars,  both  on  account  of  its  in- 
trinsic improbability  and  its  apparent  disagreement  with  the 
statements  of  other  writers. 

ANTALGIC,  a.  antdljlk  [Gr.  anti,  against;  algoa,  pain]: 
applied  to  that  which  can  assuage  pain. 

ANTANACLA8I8,  n.  dnUnia-kld'sU  [Gr.anfe*,  annklasis, 
a  bending  back  and  breaking]:  in  rhet.,  a  figure  which  con- 
sists in  repeating  the  same  word  in  a  different  sense;  as, 
whilst  we  Imy  let  us  Iwe,  In  gram.,  a  repetition  of  words, 
beginning  a  sentence,  after  a  parenthesis;  as,  *  shall  that  heart 
(which  not  only  feels  them,  but  which  has  all  motions  of 
life  placed  in  them)  nhall  that  heart/  etc. 

ANTANANARIVO,  an-ta-nd  narew\  orTANANARivo: 
cap.  city  of  Madagascar;  on  a  hill,  in  an  undulating  district, 
5,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  exposed  to  fearful 
thunder-storms.  The  approach  to  it  from  Tamatave,  the 
chief  seaport,  is  extremely  tedious  and  difficult,  owing  to 
the  want  of  roads.  It  is  nevertheless  the  seat  of  consider- 
able trade  and  industrv.  The  royal  palace  occupies  the 
summit  of  the  hill;  aa joining  are  the  dwellings  of  the 
chief  officei-s  of  government;  and  below  these,  covering  the 
slope  of  the  hill,  and  built  on  terraces,  are  the  houses  of 
the  other  inhabitants,  constructed  of  mud  and  sun-dried 
bricks.  The  people  have  considerable  aptitude  for  civil- 
ized usages;  and,  thanks  to  missionary  enterprise,  consid- 
erable progress  has  been  made  towards  the  adoption  of 
European  habits. — See  the  works  on  Madagascar  by  Mul- 
lens (1875)  and  Grandidier  (1876);  also  Three  Vmta  to  Mada- 
gascar (1858)  and  Madagascar  Revisited  (1867)  by  Ellis.  In 
the  latter  work  will  be  found  a  plan  of  the  city,  showing 
the  missionary  churches,  chapels,  dispensary,  hospital,  etc., 
and  views  of  the  principal  houses.     Pop.  estimated  80,000. 

ANTAR,  dn'tar,  or  Antara,  dn'td-rd:  celebrated  Arab' 
chief  of  the  6th  c,  one  of  the  seven  poets  of  Arabia,  whose 
prize-poems,  embroidered  in  golden  characters  on  a  silken 
ground,  were  hung  up  on  the  gate  of  the  Caaba,  and  thence 


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ANTARCTIC— ANTARCTIC  OCEAN. 

called  Moallakat—i.e.,  the  Susixmdcd.  In  his  poem  that 
has  descended  to  our  day,  he  paints  his  warlike  deeds,  and 
his  love  for  Abla.  His  courage  and  heroism  during  a  forty 
years*  warfare  between  two  Arab  tribes,  and  his  constancy 
m  love,  were* long  dear  to  the  memory  of  his  countrymen, 
and  appear  U?  have  formed  the  groundwork  of  the  volumi- 
nous romance  called  Antar,  commonly  ascribed  to  Asmai, 
and  reduced  to  writing.afl  early  as  the  days  of  the  Caliph  Ha- 
roun-al  Raschid,  in  the  8th  c.  This  work,  which  has  come 
down  to  us  in  a  later  and  much  corrupted  form,  gives  an 
attractive  and  faithful  picture  of  Bedouin  life,  and  is  rich  in 
epic  interest,  although  too  monotonous  to  satisfy  the  taste  of 
the  European  reader.  In  the  East,  however,  it  still  supplies 
the  favorite  themes  of  the  professional  story-tellers  who 
haunt  the  coffee-houses.  A  poetical  translation  of  it  into 
English  was  made  by  Terric  Hamilton,  1820. 

ANTARCTIC,  a.  dntdrk-tlk  [Gr.  atUi,  opposite;  arktos, 
the  constellation  of  the  Bear]:  opposite  to  the  northern  or 
Arctic  pole;  a  circle  about  23^  deg.  from  the  s.  pole. 

ANTARCTIC  OCEAN,  or  Southern  Ocean:  the  sea 
round  the  south  pole,  as  the  Arctic  Ocean  round  the  north. 
It  comprises  all  the  sea  to  the  s.  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
Indian,  and  the  Pacific  oceans.  In  this  view,  the  A.  O.'s 
"northern  limit  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three 
straight  lines — the  Jirsi  between  Cape  Horn  in  S.  Amer. 
and  Cape  Agulbas  in  Africa;  the  second,  between  Cape 
Agulhas  and  the  s.  extremity  of  the  Auckland  Islands  as  an 
appendage  of  New  Zealand;  and  the  third,  between  the  s. 
extremity  of  the  Auckland  Islands  and  Cape  Horn.  This 
appears  to  form  the  true  boundary  of  the  polar  regions  of 
the  8.  hemisphere.  The  most  northerly  isles  which  it  in- 
closes are  New  Georgia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
Kerguelcn's  Land,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
latter  tells  its  own  story  in  its  other  title  of  '  The  Island  of 
Desolation;*  and  the  former  presented  to  Cook,  even  in  the 
middle  of  summer,  perpendicular  cliffs  of  ice,  and  valleys 
covered  with  everlasting  snow. 

It  is  usual,  indeed,  to  define  the  Antarctic  Ocean  and  the 
corresponding  ocean  to  the  n.,  as  being  contained  each 
within  its  own  polar  circle.  But,  with  regard  to  both 
oceans  alike,  this  definition  appears  to  be  inadmissible.  It 
is  only  at  two  points— the  head  of  the  Pacific  and  the  head 
of  the  Atlantic— that  the  Arctic  Sea  can  possibly  reach  the 
Arctic  Circle  at  all;  while,  in  jwint  of  fact,  it  overlaps  it  at 
Behring's  Strait  by  nearly  a  degree,  and  falls  ^veral  de- 
grees short  of  it  between  the  n.  half  of  Norway  and  the  s.e. 
shore  of  Greenland.  The  A.  O.,  again,  is  nowhere  practi- 
cally limited  by  the  definition  in  question:  not  a  single  voy- 
ager hesitates  to  use  the  expression  long  before  he  amves  at 
lat.  66^  80'  s. ,  nor  is  a  single  authority  consistent  in  the  use 
of  the  arbitrary  nomenclature. 

The  A.  O.  has  been  explored,  more  or  less  satisfactorily, 
by  various  navigators,  as  far  as  79**  s.  With  a  few  excep- 
tions, however,  little  of  it  is  accurately  known,  the  difficul- 
ties and  dangers  of  its  navigation  rendering  thorough  and 


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ANT-BEAR- ANT-EATER 

qpntinuous  iDvestigation  almost  impracticable.  The  names 
that  may  be  found  in  their  proper  places  are  New  Georgia, 
Kerguefen's  Land,  Sandwich  Land,  New  South  Shetlands, 
New  Orkney??,  Enderby's  Laud,  Graham's  Land,  Balleny, 
Sabrina,  and  Victoria  Land. 

Ta^en  as  a  whole,  these  lands  bear  a  very  small  propor- 
tion to  the  extent  of  an  ocean  which  embraces  half  the  lati- 
tudes and  all  the  longitudes  of  the  s^  hemisphere,  exceeding 
its  kindred  sea  to  the  n.,  &s  a  glance  at  the  map  will  show, 
by  nearly  half  of  Asia  and  N.  Amer. ,  and  the  whole  of 
Europe.  Such  of  these  lands  as  are  really  accessible  at 
all  times  have  been  more  or  less  valuable  in  connection 
with  the  whale  and  seal  fisheries. 

The  features  of  the  A.  O.  itself,  briefly  stated,  are  con- 
stant fogs,  baffling  currents,  innumerable  Kebergs,  and  mag- 
nificent manifestations  of  the  Aurora  Australis.  On  the 
coast  of  Victoria  Land,  beyond  the  parallel  of  70**,  two 
mountains  have  been  observed  to  be  of  a  height  altogether 
unequalled  in  such  a  latitude— Mt.  Terror,  10,000  ft.,  and 
Mt.  Erebus,  12,400.  The  latter  is  a  volcano,  being,  it  is  ap- 
prehended, the  only  phenomenon  of  the  kind  in  either  of  the 
frigid  zones. 

Of  the  two  circum polar  oceans, the  southerly  one  has  excited 
much  less  interest  dian  the  northerly.  The  open  passages 
round  the  two  capes  respectively  into  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
the  Pacific,  have,  from  the  very  beginning,  rendered  unneces- 
sary any  such  voyages  as  those  which,  for  nearly  three  cen- 
tunes,  have  developed  so  much  patience  and  fortitude  in  the 
heroic  explorers  of  the  Arctic  shores. 

ANT-BEAR :  see  Ant-eatkr. 

ANT-CATCHER,  and  ANT  THRUSH:  birds  of  tropical 
and  sub- tropical  countries,  which  feed  chiefly  upon  ants. 
They  are  closely  allied  to  the  Thrushes  (see  Thrush), 
and  are  included  with  them  in  the  family  Turdidce  or 
MeruUdcB  of  recent  ornithologists.  They  are  distinguished 
by  a  straight  sub-cylindrical  strong  bill,  hooked  at  the  tip, 
slender  legs,  and  very  short  tails.  They  form  the  genus 
Myothe'ra  of  Dliger,  now  subdivided  into  several  genera, 
one  of  which.  Pitta,  contains  the  Braves  of  Buffon — birds  of 
brilliant  plumage,  natives  of  s.e.  parts  of  Asia  and  the 
Malayan  archipelago.  The  true  ant-catchers  are  mostly 
American,  are  of  comparatively  sober  plumage,  live  among 
the  huge  ant-hills,  seldom  fly,  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
sonorous  voices,  the  power  of  which  in  some  species  is  ex- 
traordinary. The  largest  species,  known  as  the  King  of  the 
Antcatehers  {Orallaria Bex),  is  about  the  size  of  a  quail. 

btfore,  either  in  time 

fenus  of  8.  Amer. 
rder  Edentata.  The 
toothless,  their  food 
ich  they  procure  in 
Q  a  very  long  cylin- 
iva,  and  then  retract- 


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ANT-EATER 

!n^  it  into  tbe  mouth.  The  head  is  remarkably  elongated, 
with  a  slender  muzzle,  and  a  small  mouth.  The  tongue  U 
doubled  up  in  the  mouth  when  not  in  use  for  catching  i 
Tlie  ears  and  eyes  are  very  small.  The  toes  differ  in  numb 


Great  Ant-eater  {M.  Jubata}, 

the  different  species,  but  are  united  as  far  as  the  base  of  the 
daws, which  are  very  larce  and  strong,  adapted  to  tearing  up 
the  habitations  of  ants.  The  great  A.  -£.  (if.  Jubata\  a  native 
of  the  warm  parts  of  S.  Amer.,  and  called  in  Demerara 
the  Ant-bear,  is  about  4^  ft.  in  length  from  the  snout  to  the 
origin  of  the  tail,  which  is  more  t£an  two  ft.  long,  and  is 
covered  with  very  long  hair.  The  body  is  also  covered  with 
long  hair,  particularly  along  the  neck  and  back.  There 
are  four  cfews  on  each  of  the  fore-feet  and  five  on  the 
hind  ones.  The  A.-E.  spends  much  of  its  time  in  sleep,  the 
long  snout  concealed  in  the  fur  of  the  breast,  the  hind  and 
fore  claws  locked  together,  and  the  bushy  tail  thrown  over 
all,  as  if  for  a  shade  from  the  sun.  It  is  very  unsocial  in  its 
habits,  and  is  regarded  as  very  stupid.  It  has  great  strength 
in  its  fore-legs  and  claws,  and  is  said  to  hug  like  the  bear, 
so  as  to  crush  an  enemy  to  death.  The  female  produces 
one  young  one  at  a  birth,  and  carries  it  about  for  some  time 
on  her  back. — Another  species,  the  Tamandua  (M,  Taman- 
dua),  having  the  same  niunber  of  claws,  has  a  less  elongated 
snout,  comparatively  short  hair,  and  a  prehensile  tail,  is 
scarcely  as  large  as  a  cat,  and  climbs  trees  in  quest  of  its  in- 
sect food.— The  Little  or  Two-toed  A.-E.  (M.  didactyla) 
differs  from  these  species  not  only  in  the  number  of  \\&  toes, 
but  in  other  anatomical  characters. — Closely  a]  lied  to  this 
genus  in  structure  and  habits  is  the  genus  Mdnis,  containing 
the  Pangolins  of  Africa  and  India ;  but  instead  of  hair,  the 
body  is  covered  with  strong  homy  scales.  See  Pangolin. 
—The  name  A.-E.  is  given  at  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope  to  the 
Orycterapus  Capensis,  the  Aard-vark  or  Earth-ho^  of  the 
Dutch  colonists,  a  quadruped  of  about  the  same  size  with 
the  great  A.-E.  of  America,  belonging  to  the  same  natural 
order,  and  resembling  it  also  in  its  clonffated  muzzle  and 
extensile  ton^e,  which  it  employs  in  the  same  way,  but 
provided  with  grinding  teeth  and  flat  claws  adapted  for 
Durrowing.  It  burrows  with  extraordinary  facility,  and  it 
is  in  this  way  that  it  seeks  to  secure  its  safety  when  assailed. 
It  has  very  Sboti  hair,  and  little  of  it.  The  ears  are  mod- 
erately long.  It  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  and  very  timid.— 
The  EchidTUB  of  New  Holland  are  sometimes  called  Porcu- 


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ANTECEDE— AX  TELIOS. 

pine  Ant-caters,  from  their  food,  and  tlicir  similarity  to  the 
true  ant-eaters  in  their  sharp  muzzle  and  extensile  tongue; 
but  they  differ  much  in  some  parts  of  their  structure.  See 
Echidna. 

ANTECEDE,  v.  an'Used'  [L.  aniecidere,  to  go  before— 
from  ante,  before;  cedo,  I  go];  to  go  before  in  time.  As'" 
TECEDiNG,  imp.:  An'teceded,  pp.  An'tece'dekt,  n. 
-sl'dent,  that  which  goes  before  in  time  or  place:  Adj. 
going  before  in  time  or  place.  Antecedently,  ad.  -li. 
An'tece'dence,  n.  -den^  or  An'tece'dency,  n.  -si,  the  act 
or  state  of  going  before  in  time.  An  tece  dents,  n.  plu 
'dents,  the  previous  life  and  character  of  a  person.  An' 
TECEs'spR,  n.  [L.  ante,  cessus,  gone]:  one  who  lived  or  pos- 
sessed before  another. — Syn.  oi*  antecedent,  a.':  precedent; 
preceding;  foregoing;  previous;  anterior;  prior;  former. 

ANTECEDENT:  a  term  in  Logic,  Grammar,  and  Math- 
ematics. Thus  in  Logic,  a  proposition  from  which  an- 
other is  deduced,  or  a  general  principle  which  serves  as  the 
base  and  support  of  some  particular  proposition,  is  called 
the  A.  In  Grammar,  the  A.  is  the  word  which  precedes  the 
relative — e.g.,  'The  man  who  dies  for  his  country  should 
be  held  in  honor':  here  'man '  is  the  A.  In  Mathematics, 
the  A.  of  a  ratio  is  the  first  of  two  terms  which  compose  the 
ratio ;  thus,  in  the  ratio  of  4  to  8,  4  is  the  A.  The  word  is 
also  used  in  the  plural  in  a  peculiar  sense.  *  We  know  very 
little  of  his  antecedents*— le.,  of  his  previous  character  or 
conduct. 

ANTE-CHAMBER,  n.  dn'te-cMm'ber,  or  Antk-room, 
n.  [L.  ante,  before]:  a  room  to  be  passed  through  to  a 
principal  room. 

ANTECIANS,  n.  plu.  dn'te'ski-dm,  or  Antcbci,  n.  plu. 
dn-te'si  [Gr.  anti,  against;  oiked,  I  dwell]:  those  who  live 
in  the  same  latitude  and  longitude,  but  on  different  sides  of 
the  equator. 

ANTEDATE,  v.  dn'tiddt  [L.  anti,  datus,  given]:  to 
date  before  the  true  time.  An'teda'ting,  imp.  An'teda'- 
TED,  pp. 

ANTEDILUVIAN,  a.  dn'U-dUlMi-dn,  or  Antedilu- 
viAL,  9i.-vi-dl  [L.ante,  dilu'mum,  a  deluge] :  existing  or  hap- 
pening before  the  flood  of  Noah.  Antediluvian,  n.,  one 
who  lived  before  the  flood.  The  A.  ages  are  those  which 
elapsed  before  the  flood,  and,  in  theological  language,  the  A. 
religion  means  the  religion  of  the  patriarchs  from  Adam  to 
Noah.  In  Geology,  the  *A.  period '  has  no  reference  to  the 
deluge  recorded  in  the  Mosaic  narrative,  but  only  to  the  lat- 
est transformation  of  the  earth  by  means  of  water. 

ANTELIOS,  a.  n.  dnt-e'lUds:  opposite  or  over  against  the 
9un;  another  spelKng  Anthelios.    See  Anthelion. 


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ANTELOPR 

ANTELOPE,  D.,  dn'te4dp  [F.  antUope—irom  Gr.  antho- 
lap§ — from anthos,  beauty;  ops,  the  eye]:  genus  of  Mammalia 
beloDging  to  the  order  of  Rummants  (q.v.),  and  to  the  hol- 
low-homed section  of  that  order — in  which  the  boms  consist 
of  an  elastic  sheath  surrounding  a  bony  process  of  the  skull, 
and  are  permanent,  not  annually  renewed.  The  antelopes 
have  the  bony  nucleus  of  the  horns  solid,  not  occupied,  as 
in  those  of  goats,  sheep  and  oxen,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
with  cells  communicating  with  the  frontal  sinuses.  They 
are  also  distinguished  from  the  allied  genus  of  goats  by  hav- 
ing the  chin  beardless,  and  from  them  and  sheep  by  the 
horns  not  being  longitudinally  angled  or  ridged.  The  horns 
of  antelopes  are,  however,  very  generallv  anuulated,  or  sur- 
rounded  with  thickened  rings.  The  body  is  slender  and 
deer-like,  the  feet  small  and  elegant,  the  tail  short  and  tuft- 
ed, the  hair  generally  short,  and  the  color  often  lively. 
Some  species,  however,  have  com^ratively  long  hair;  and 
a  few  which  inhabit  cold  mountainous  regions  are  clothed 
with  wool  intermixed  with  longer  and  coarser  hair,  pailicu- 
larly  the  Chamois  (q.v.)  of  the  Alps,  Caucasus,  etc.;  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Goat  (q.v.)  of  N.  Amer.,  and  the 
Chiru  ((J.v.)  of  the  Himalayas.  Manv  species  have  infra- 
orbital sinuses  or  Uar-pits  like  Deer  (q.v.).  The  females 
of  many  species,  as  of  deer,  are  destitute  of  horns;  and  if 
they  alone  came  under  observation,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
say  to  which  genu^  they  belonged.  The  size  is  very  various; 
the  Guevei  or  Pigmy  A.  of  Africa  (A.  pygmcsa)  is  only  8  to 
9  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  while  the  largest  species 
measure  5  or  6  feet.  Almost  all  the  species  of  antelopes  are 
peaceable,  timid  animals,  and  are  distinguished  by  their 
agility  and  fleetness.  Most  of  Ihem  are  gregarious.  Some 
inhabit  plains;  other  are  fourjd  only  in  the  most  inaccessible 
mountainous  regions;  otherc  dwells  in  jungles  and  deep  for- 
ests. N.  Amer.  possesses  two  or  three  species,  which  depart 
considerably,  as  does  also  the  chamois  of  Europe,  from  the 
typical  character  of  th?  genus.  Europe  produces  only  the 
Chamois  and  the  Saiga  {A,  8aiga\  the  Colus  of  Strabo, 
which  inhabits  the  s.  plains  of  Poland  and  Russia.  Asia 
has  a  iJrreater  number  of  species;  but  they  are  most  numerous 
m  Africa,  and  particularly  in  s.  Africa.  The  known  spe- 
cies amount  to  more  than  eighty,  which  are  arranged  in 
sections  or  groups  according  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  horns 
and  other  characters,  but  a  satisfactory  classification  of  them 
is  difficult.  Now  naturalists  make  a  family  of  AnHlopecB, 
and  subdivide  it  into  genera,  for  they  can  be  separated  by 
sufficiently  marked  characters.  The  flesh  of  all  antelopes 
is  used  as  food  ;  hence  they  are  much  objects  of  the  chase. 
They  furnish  also  great  part  of  the  subsistence  of  beasts  of 
prey  in  Africa,  where  some  of  the  species  exist  in  such  num- 
bers that,  particularly  when  severe  drought  occurs  in  the 
regions  which  they  ordinarily  inhabit,  dense  and  multitudi- 
nous herds  occasionally  appear  in  the  interior  of  Cape  Col- 
ony, to  the  terrible  devastation  of  the  crops.  Even  the 
saigas  of  the  Tatarian  plains  congregate  in  herds  of  many 
thousands  in  the  end  of  autumn. 

The  name  A.  is  sometimes  more  particularly  restricted  to 


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ANTELOPE. 

a  species  also  known  as  the  Common  or  Indian  A.,  and  as 
the  Sasin.  It  is  a  native  of  India  and  the  eastern  parts  of 
Asia,  and  is  a  beautiful  animal,  about  2^  ft.  high  at  the 
shoulcfer,  with  erect,  diverging  horns,  bent  in  a  spiral  of  two 
or  three  turns.  The  hair  is  uniformly  short,  except  that,  aa 
in  mimy  other  species  of  A.,  there  are  small  tufts  of  bristles 
on  the  knees.  It  inhabits  open  plains,  and  the  herds  exer- 
cise great  watchfulness.  Its  fleetness  is  such  that  gray- 
hounds  chase  it  in  vain;  and  it  can  easily  bound  over  an 
inclosure  of  11  ft.  in  height,  or  over  a  distance  of  10  or  12 
vaids.  The  flesh  is  held  in  small  esteem,  and  the  animal  is 
less  than  many  of  its  congeners  an  object  of  the  chase.— The 
Saiga  is  a  much  less  graceful  animal;  its  horns  are  short, 
and,  as  in  many  of  this  genus,  curved  first  outwards  and 
then  inwanls,  so  that  the  whole  outline  formed  by  them 
assembles  that  of  a  lyre.  The  horns  are  used  by  the  Rus- 
sians and  Chinese  for  the  manufacture  of  many  articles  of 
domestic  economy;  and  it  is  chiefly  for  their  sake  and  that 
of  the  skm  that  the  saiga  is  hunted,  the  flesh  having  a  dis- 
agreeable taste,  ascribed  to  the  saline  and  aromatic  plants  of 
the  steppes. — The  Dzeren  (A.  gutturom),  sometimes  called 


Addas  (A.  Addax).  Head  of  Antelope  Chlkara. 

the  Chinese  A.,  and  known  among  the  Chinese  by  a  name 
which  signifies  the  Yellow  Goat,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  arid 
deserts  oi  Central  Asia,  the  flesh  of  which  is  highly  esteemed, 
and  which  is  therefore  a  chief  object  of  the  chase  in  these 
re^ons.  It  derives  its  specific  name  from  a  large  movable 
goitre-like  protuberance  on  the  throat  of  the  old  males,  pro- 
duced by  a  dilatation  of  the  larynx. — The  Addax,  or  Nu- 
bian A.  {A.  Addojc),  known  to  the  ancients,  and  mentioned 
by  Pliny,  has  horns  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Indian 
A.,  but  is  a  larger  animal,  less  graceful,  with  a  slight  mane 
on  the  neck,  a  tuft  of  long  hair  on  the  forehead,  and 
large  broad  hoofs  adapted  fbr  treading-  on  fine  and  loose 
sands.  It  inhabits  the  deserts  of  Central  Africa,  and,  con- 
trary to  the  usual  habits  of  the  genus,  is  said  not  to  be 
gregarious  but  to  live  in  pairs.  The  Chikara  and  some 
other  Indian  species  are  distinguished  by  two  additional 
rudimentary  horns  in  front  of  me  ordinary  horns,  and  im- 


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PLATE    3. 


i^ntennA 
Anthropoid  Apeft 


Antfnnip.— 1, 1,  Filiform  AniennaB 
of  CHicujo  Firefly  or  Bvazil  (Pj/rophorus 
lumhiomuf);  2,  Denticulate  AiiteDua; 
8,  Hipiiimiie:  4,  I^mellirorn;  5,  Cla- 
vate:  6.  Geniculate;  7,  ADteima  and 
Autenuuie  of  Ciiistaceau. 


6,6.  Anthers. 


T^SL 


VoLi. 

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AKTBLUCAN— ANTE-NICENB. 

mediately  over  the  orbits.  The  cbikara  inhabits  thick 
forests  and  jungles.  Like  the  addaz,  it  lives  in  pairs;  aa 
do  also  the  Stein  boo  (q.v.)  of  s.  Africa,  an  extremely 
graceful  species;  and  the  Eleene-boc  of  the  same  countnr 
{A.  peiptmla),  a  beautiful  and  active  little  creature,  with 
very  small  horns.  The  kleeneboc  is  of  a  mild  and  gmtle 
disposition,  and  extremely  capable  of  domestication. 
The  GkizeUe  (q.v.)  of  n.  Africa  (A.  JDorcaa),  one  of 
the  species  known  to  the  ancients,  is  very  frequently 
domesticated;  and  from  its  gracefulness  of  form,  its 
eentleness  of  manners,  and  its  bright  black  eyes,  has  af- 
forded to  the  Arabian  poets  one  of  their  most  favorite 
objects  of  comparison.  The  s.  African  Spking-boc  (q.v.) 
is  anotbfT  very  beautiful  species,  and  is  freouently  domesti- 
cated by  the  colonists  at  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope.  Among 
the  numerous  species  which  that  coimtry  produces  may  be 
mentioned  also  the  Blauw-boc  (A,  leucaphctus);  the  Riet-boc 
(A.  arundinaceus);  and  the  Kaffrarian  Okyx  (q.v.),  (A.  Oryx), 
which  somewhat  resembles,  but  is  quite  distinct  from,  the 
Oryx  of  the  ancients  {A.  Leucaryx  or  A.  Oazella),  also  called 
the  Algazel,  a  native  of  the  countries  on  both  sides  of  the 
Red  SesL,  Still  more  worthy  of  notice  among  the  s.  African 
species,  but  in  some  measure  departing  from  the  strict  A. 
type,  is  the  Eland  (q.v.),  the  lar^t  of  all  the  antelopes— 
an  animal  which  may  yetprobably  be  found  very  valuable 
in  domestication.  Tlie  KTudu  (q.  v.)  is  another  noble  spe- 
cies, allied  to  the  eland.  The  !N  yl  ghau  (q.v.)  of  India, 
and  the  Gnu  (q.v.)  of  s.  Africa,  arc  also  among  the  largest 
antelopes,  but  depart  still  further  from  the  generic  type, 
particularly  the  latter,  so  that  a  separate  genus  (Oatoblepas) 
has  been  constituted  for  it,  having  better  claims  to  be  recog- 
nized than  the  other  genera  into  which  it  has  been  proposed 
that  the  antelopes  should  be  divided.  Less  different  from 
the  ordinary  type,  but  still  with  a  marked  approach  to  a 
bovine  appearance,  are  the  Bubalub  (q.v.)  of  the  ancients, 
a  native  of  the  n.  of  Africa,  the  Arabic  name  of  which  sig- 
nifies wild  ox,  and  the  Ea  ama  (q.v.)  or  Harte  bcest  of  the 
Cape  of  Qood  Hope,  which  is  nearly  allied  to  it.  The 
Pbono-hobn  (q.v.)  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  Qoat  (q.v.) 
are  the  best  known  N.  Amer.  species,  and  both  are  found 
onlv  in  the  w.  parts  of  the  continent.  It  has  been  proposed 
to  introduce  the  latter,  as  a  wool-bearing  animal,  into  th« 
fiigblunds  of  Scotland.   The  Pronghorn  sheds  its  horns. 

AirrELUOAN,  a.  MU4SMn  [L.  antSiucd'nus,  that 
tabea  place  before  daylight— from  ante,  lux  or  luotm,  light]: 
before  the  dawn  or  daynght 

ANTE-MERIDIAN,  a.  &n'U-ml^rldUin  [L.  anU,  merid!. 
le»,  mid-day]:  before  noon  or  twelve  o'clock.  Post-mebid'. 
IAN,  after  twelve  o'clock. 

ANTE  MUNDANE,  a.  (in'Umiin'dd/n  [L.  ante,  mun- 
dm,  the  world]:  before  the  creation  of  the  world. 

ANTE-NICENE,  a.  dn'te-nl'sin  [L.  ante,  before;  ^''ic(Ba, 
Nice,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  at  which  the  Nicene  Creed  was 
promulgated  by  a  general  council  held  there,  a.d.  825]:  an* 
terior  to  the  first  council  of  Nice. 


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ANTENNA— ANTERIOR. 

ANTENNAE,  n.  plu.  dn-Un'ne  [L.  antenna,  a  sail-jard]: 
the  feelers  or  horns  of  insects,  crustaoea,  etc.  Anten'nal, 
a.  pertaining  to.  Antennules,  n.  plu.  dn-tinulz,  applied 
to  the  smaller  pair  of  antennee  or  feelers  in  the  Crustacea. 

ANTENNA,  in  Zoology:  jointed  filaments  with  which 
the  heads  of  Insects,  Crustacea,  and  Mvriapoda  are  fur- 
nished, and  which  are  evidently  very  delicate  organs  of 
touch.  They  are  therefore  sometimes  called  feelers.  The 
A.  are  placed  on  the  anterior  or  superior  part  of  the  head; 
the  animals  appear  to  feel  their  way  with  them,  and  to  them 
is  ascribed  the  bee's  jwwer  of  working  in  the  dark.  Some 
8upx)ose  that  they  are  also  organs  of  bearing,  and  by  means 
of  them  it  appears  that  many  insects,  as  bees  and  ants,  have 
the  power  oi  conmiunicating  with  one  another.  They  have 
great  flexibility,  but  differ  very  much  in  the  number  of 
Joints  which  they  contain  (amounting  sometimes  even  to 
100),  in  the  relative  length  and  thickness  of  their  joints,  and 
also  in  their  form,  being  filiform  or  thread-like,  clavate  or 
club-shaped,  feathered,  etc.,  in  endless  variety. 

ANTENUPTIAL,  a.  dn'ti-nup'shdl  [L  ante,  nuptim, 
marriage] :  before  nuptials  or  marriage. 

ANTE-PASCHAL,  a.  dn't^-pds'Ml  [L.  ante,  Bm^patchaX]: 
pertaining  to  the  time  before  Easter. 

ANTEPAST,  n.  dn't^pdst  [L.  ante,  pastus,  fed]:  a  fore- 
taste. 

ANTEPENDIUM,  n.  dn'ti-pSn'dl-iim  [L.  ante,  before; 
penditoj  I  hang  on]:  in  R.  Caih,  Ch.,  a  covering  for  the  front 
of  the  altar— red,  purple,  etc.,  according  to  \Se  color  of  the 
vestments  for  the  mass  of  the  day. 

ANTEPENULT,  n.  dn't^pi-nult'  [L.  ante,  before;  peni, 
almost;  uliimus,  last]:  in  a  word,  the  last  syllable  but  two. 
Antepenultimate,  a.  -pin-ul'timdt,  pertaining  to  the  last 
syllable  but  two. 

ANTEQUERA,  dn-tdrkd'rd  (Antiquariaof  the  Romans): 
important  town  in  the  province  of  Mala^,  Spain;  in  a  fer- 
tile plan,  45  m.  w.  of  Granada.  The  inhabitants  are  en- 
gag^  chiefly  in  agricultural  operations,  but  also  manufac- 
ture b^ze,  silk,  cotton,  and  paper.  They  are  noted  fur  their 
love  of  bright  colors  in  dress.  Although  A.  is  clean  and 
well  built,  ft  is  rarely  visited  by  travellers,  being  consider- 
ably off  the  high  road.  As  late  as  1544,  the  place  possessed, 
in  almost  perfect  condition,  an  ancient  palace  and  theatre; 
but  about  that  time  the  stones  were  plundered  to  build  a 
convent,  and  only  a  few  were  spared,  now  imbedded  in  the 
walls  of  the  town.  A.,  like  all  the  other  cities  of  s.  Spain, 
was  for  a  while  in  the  hands  of  the  Moors;  but  in  1410  it 
was  retaken  by  the  regent  Fernando,  hence  called  El  In- 
fante de  A.  When  the  French  took  the  place,  during  the 
Peninsular  War,  they  converted  a  curious  old  mosque — a 
relic  of  Moorish  sway — into  a  storehouse,  and  on  their  de- 
parture carried  off  with  them  the  mt^gnificent  Moorish  ar- 
mory.   Pop.  25,550. 

ANTERIOR,  a.  dn-te'ri-ir  [L.]:  before  in  time  or  place; 
previous;  in  front.     Aktb'biobly,  ad.    II,  in  an  anterior 


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ANTHELION— ANTHEM. 

manner;  before.  Antb'riob'itt,  n.  4-^,  state  of  beinff  be* 
fore;  priority.— Syn.  of  'anterior':  preceding;  antecedent; 
foregoing;  former;  previous;  prior;  precedent. 

ANTHELION,  n.  dntrhU'yun  [Gr.  anti,  over  against; 
hellbs,  the  sun] :  a  bright  spot  or  gloiy  of  light  seen  opposite 
the  sun;  sometimes  seen  around  t£ehead  of  his  shadow,  or  a 
mock  sun.  ANTHE'LiA,n.plu..  also  called  •glories  of  li^t;' 
luminous  rings,  seen  by  an  observer  on  a  cloud  or  fog  which 
lies  opposite  to  the  sun.  They  occur  chief!  v  in  alpine  regions 
and  in  the  polar  seas,  and  are  onljr  seen  when  sunshine  and 
cloud,  or  fog,  occur  at  the  same  time.  They  appear  in  the 
following  way:  when,  from  an  elevated  position— as  the 
mast  of  a  ship,  or  the  ridge  of  a  hill— the  shadow  of  an 
observer  is  projected  by  the  sun  on  a  cloud  or  fog,  he  sees 
the  head  encircled  by  a  glory  or  luminous  ring,  diminishing 
in  brightness  as  it  leaves  the  head  as  a  centre.  When  tlie 
sun  shines  brightly,  and  the  fog  is  dense,  as  many  as  four 
concentric  rings  of  this  nature  are  seen  by  the  observer 
round  the  shadow  of  his  head,  having  their  common  centre 
in  the  point  where  a  line  from  the  sun  through  the  eye  of 
the  observer  meets  the  fog.  When  the  phenomenon  assumes 
this  form,  the  rings  are  more  or  less  colored— the  colors  of 
the  two  inner  rings  being  generally  brilliant,  those  of  the 
third  more  faint,  while  those  of  the  fourth  are  scarcely  per- 
ceptible. This  last  has  an  angular  radius  of  about  40  ,  and 
is  very  seldom  seen.  It  bears  frequently  the  name  of  the 
Circle  of  Ulloa  or  the  White  Rainbow.  A  phenomenon 
substantially  similar  to  the  A.  occurs  «vhen,  the  sun  being 
near  the  horizon,  the  observer  sees  an  aureola  surrounding 
the  shadow  of  his  head  cast  upon  grass  or  grain  moistened 
with  dew.  The  occurrence  of  A.  is  generally  attributed  to 
the  diffraction  (q.v.)  of  light. 

ANTHELMINTIC,  a.  dn'mirrmn'tlk  [Gr.  anti,  against; 
Mmin$  or  helmin'tha,  a  tape- worm]:  destructive  to  intes- 
tinal worms:  N.  the  medicine  for  intestinal  worms:  such  are 
oil  of  fern,  oil  of  turpentine,  pink-root,  x)omegranate  seeds, 
pumpkin-seeds,  santonin,  senna. 

ANTHEM,  n.  dn'thim  [Gr.  anti,  opposite;  humnoi,  a 
hymn:  P.  antienneV.  a  sacred  song,  or  a  portion  of  Scrip- 
ture set  to  music;  snort  sentences  of  texts  used  in  a  Liturg}c 
Anthem  is  by  some  authorities  considered  to  be  sinv 
p]j  anU-hymn,  in  the  sense  of  a '  composition  different  in 
words  and  music  from  the  ordinary  church  hymn.  Anthem 
is  by  ottiers  said  to  be  from  Gr.  anti,  opposite;  p?ione  voice; 
a*  piece  sung  in  alternate  parts;  thus  a  mere  corruption  of 
mid.  L.  or  Gr.  arUi-p?idnd,  meaning  an  answering  sound:  to 
this  it  may  be  objected  that  we  have  its  derivative  arUiphon  in 
common  use  in  its  own  proper  sense  from  the  earliest  times, 
especially  in  the  R.  Cath.  Church,  in  whose  service  the  word 
anthem  &  unknown.  F.  antienne  is  plainly  connected  with 
Eng.  anthem,  but  can  only  by  force  be  regarded  as  a  de- 
rivative from  antiphona;  F.  antiphone  =  Eng.  antiphony. 
We  have  such  OE.  forms  as  anmymn  and  anthym.  The 
A.  was  introduced  into  the  service  of  the  English  Church 
after  the  Reformation,  and  appointed  to  be  sung  daily,  at 
morning  and  evening  service,  after  the  third  collect.    The 

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ANTHBMIB— AlfTHOLITBa 

woidi  of  fhe  A.  are  taken  from  tke  Psalms,  or  other  soitebk 
parts  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  music  is  either  for  solo, 
soli,  or  chorus,  or  a  mizture  of  all  three.  As  a  spedmen 
of  English  music,  it  can  be  heard  to  perfection  only  in 
cathedral  service.  In  its  origin,  musical  construction,  and 
use,  it  is  similar  to  the  motet  of  the  R.  Oath.  Church,  which 
name  has  been  retained  by  the  Lutheran  Church.  See 
Aktiphont;  Motbt.  ^ 

ANTHEMIB:  see  Chamohilb. 

ANTHER,  u.  Hn'ifUT  [Gr.  antherot,  flowery,  blooming]: 
In  ^5.,  the  head  part  of  the  stamen  of  a  flower,  containmg 
the  pollen  or  ferdliziDg  dust.  Ak'theral,  a.  -al,  pertaining 
to.  Anthekiferods,  a.  an' therAf  &r-u%  [L.  fero,  I  bear]: 
bearing  ant>jers  or  flowers.  An'thbrid'ium,  n.  -Id-i-um 
[Gr.  etdas,  resemblance]:  the  supposed  male  organ  in  crypto- 
gams.   See  Stamen. 

ANTHERIDIUM,  &n'ih^4d'\rum :  name  given  by  late 
botanists  to  an  organ  in  the  mossee  and  ferns  which  they 
mippose  to  be  analogous  in  Its  functions  to  the  stamen  or 
male  organ  of  f  ructiflcation  in  phanerogamous  plants.  An- 
theridia  are  variously  situated  on  the  surface  of  plants  or 
within  their  tissue.  Sometimes  they  are  simple  cells;  some- 
times they  are  composed  of  a  number  of  cells,  containing  a 
mucilaginous  fluid,  and  peculiar  small  bodies  called  Phytoioa 
(q.v.),  which  at  a  certam  period  exhibit  active  movements 
l&e  thoee  of  animalcules.  The  antheridia  fin^dly  discharge 
their  contentB  through  an  opening;  and  it  is  reasonably 
supposed  their  contact  with  another  class  of  organs,  to 
which  the  name  Pistilliditm  (q.v.)  has  been  given,  is 
essential  to  the  production  of  a  sexually  generated  kind 
of  spores,  needed  to  recruit  the  species,  though  ferns, 
as  well  as  many  lower  flowerless  plants,  also  produce 
Asexual  spores.    See  also  Archeoonium. 

A  NTH  KROZOmfl  n.  plu.  dn'fhir-d-zd'ldz  [Gr.  an- 
thirot,  flowery,  blooming;  «Mf,  life;  eidos,  resemblance]:  the 
movable,  impre^zniating,  or  male  corpuscles  of  the  algae, 
mosses,  and  lems ; 

ANTHESIS,  n.  drirthe'tis  [Gr.  arUhms,  bloom— from 
anthos,  a  flower]:  in  hot.,  the  opening  or  bursting  of  the 
flower;  the  period  of  blooming. 

ANTHOCARPOUS,  a.  an'Vwkdr'jms  [Gr.  arUho9,  a 
flower;  karpos,  fruit] :  formed,  as  a  certain  class  of  fruits, 
from  the  united  ovaries  of  a  number  of  flowers. 

ANTHOC YANE,  n.  dn'tho  sl'drU  [Gr.  anihoa,  a  flowA; 
ku'dnos,  dark-blue,  sky-colored]:  the  supposed  blue  coloring 
matter  in  flowers  of  that  hue. 

ANTHODIUM,  n.  an-tMdi^m  fGr.  anthddes,  flowery— 
from  arUhoB,  a  flower;  eidoB,  resemblance]:  the  capitulum 
or  head  of  flowers  of  composite  plants. 

ANTHOLITES,  n.  plu.  dn'thd  Hto,  or  Antholithes,  n. 
plu.  dn'thd-Uthz  -[Gr.  anthos,  a  flower;  lithas^Si  stone] :  a 
general  term  for  tne  fossil  impressions  of  flowers,  such  as 
occur  in  the  shales  of  the  coal-measures;  a  fossil  plant  of 
llie  coal  measures,  apparently  a  spike  of  flowers. 


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ANTHOLOGY. 

ANTHOLOGY,  n.  An-tmo-jl  [Gr.  arUkM,  a  flower;  logoB, 
discourse]:  a  discourse  on  flowers;  a  collection  or  selection 
of  flowers  of  literature,  as  of  poetir  or  epigrams.  Ah'tho 
LOG'iCAL,  a.  pert.  to.  Antliology  is  the  title  usoally  given 
to  a  book  consisting  of  an  unconnected  series  of  choice 
thoughts,  in  prose  or  verse,  generally  the  latter.  Of  the 
coUe^ons  of  this  kind  made  in  ancient  times,  which  oon- 
sirted  mostly  of  epigrammatic  poems,  the  best  known  are  the 

Qreek  AnUujlooi€$.—1he  flrst  Grecik  A.  was  compiled  by 
Meleager  of  Gadara,  Syria,  about  b.c.  60.  Three  or  four 
others  belon^g  to  periods  considerably  subsequent  to  the 
birth  of  Chnst  ace  lost.  Now  extant  are  two  later  collec- 
tions, one  by  Constanthie  Cephalas,  10th  c,  who  borrowed 
largely  from  one  of  the  earlier  anthologies;  and  another  by 
Maximus  Planudes,  a  monk  <^  Ocostantinople,  14th  c,  who, 
by  his  tasteless  selection  from  the  A.  of  Cephalas,  rather 
spoiled  than  increased  the  already  existing  store.  The  A. 
of  Planudes  was  flrst  issued  in  print,  Florence,  1494,  by  a 
learned  Greek,  John  Lascaris,  and  for  a  long  time  was  the 
only  one  known.  It  went  through  successive  editions,  and 
received  various  improvements.  The  latest  edition  (with 
the  Latin  version  of  Grotius,  a  master-piece  of  iatlnity  and 
rapid  execution)  was  commenced  by  Bosch,  1795,  and  fln- 
ished  by  Lennep,  1822.  Meanwhile,  Claude  Salmasius  had 
discoTered  in  the  Heidelberg  Library  (1606)  the  only  extant 
manuscript  of  the  older  and  richer  A.  of  Constantine  Cepha- 
las, which  he  compared  with  that  of  Planudes,  copying  out 
the  po«BU  not  found  m  the  latter.  During  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  the  Heidelberg  manuscript  was  carried  to  Rome;  but 
in  1797,  after  the  peace  of  Tolentino,  the  French  secured 
possession  of  it,  and  brought  it  to  Paris.  In  1816,  it  was  re- 
turned to  Heidelberg.  After  the  important  discovery  of 
Salmasius,  the  work  was  often  mentioned  by  the  name  of 
the  Palatinate  Manuscript,  or  the  Yaticano-Palatinate.  Por- 
tions of  it  were  published  by  Jensius,  Leich,  Reiske,  and 
iS^lotz.  The  entire  collection,  augmented  by  fragments  of 
the  older  poets,  and  by  epigrams  found  on  monuments  and  ' 
in  other  works,  was  edit^  by  Brunck,  Strasburg,  1776, 
under  the  titie  Arutieeta  Veterum  Poetwrum  Oracorum  (Se 
lections  from  the  Old  Greek  Poets),  and  later  by  Jacobs,under 
the  title  of  Anthdogia  Qrmca,  sive  P^tarum  Oneeorum 
Lu9us  ex  BeeenHans  Brunekii  (Greek  A.,  or  Fugitive  Pieces 
of  the  Greek  Poets,  from  the  Corrected  Text  of  Brunck), 
1794-1814,  Leipdc.  Since  then,  it  has  been  published 
variously,  in  whole  or  part.  It  is  impossible  not  to  admire 
these  gems.  There  is  a  rich  varietv  of  poetic  life,  great 
delicacy  of  sentiment,  a  joyous  serenity,  and  an  abundance 
of  wise,  true,  and  humane  thoughts.  To  the  poet,  it  pre- 
sents graceful  images  and  exquisite  conceptions;  to  the  philos- 
opher, maxims  of  wisdom ;  to  the  historian,  monumental 
inscriptions;  to  the  philologist,  the  most  varied  forms  of  an 
imp^^hable  language. 

Latin  Anthologies.—lTi  1573.  Scaliger  published  atLeyden, 
in  imitation  of  the  Greek  A.,  a  Latin  A.,  under  the  titie 
Oataleeta  Veterum  Poeta/rum  (Gatherings  from  the  Old 
FoetB),  and  PitthOus  one  at  Paris.  1690.    A  larger  collection 

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ANTHOLOGY. 

vas  issued  at  Amsterdam  (1759  and  1778)  by  Peter  Burmami 
the  Youn^r,  under  the  title  Anthologia  Veterum  Latin- 
orum  Epigrammatum  et  Poematum  (A.  of  Old  Latin 
Epif^rams  and  Poems),  a  more  correct  and  better-arranged 
edition  of  which  was  published  by  Meyer,  1835. 

Asiatic  literature  is  extremely  rich  m  anthologies,  which 
consist  sometimes  of  extracts  from  the  best  poets,  arranged 
according  to  the  subiect,  and  sometimes  of  'beauties'  of 
their  best  poets,  with  biographical  notices,  in  an  order  either 
chronolo^cal,  or  according  to  the  countries  in  which  the 
authors  lived. 

1.  Arabic  AnthologieB. — Abu-Teman  published  selection! 
from  the  old  Arabic  songs  before  the  time  of  Mohammed, 
arranged  them  in  ten  books,  and  named  the  entire  collection 
after  the  first  book,  which  consisted  of  war-sonfs,  Hdmdsa. 
Another  famous  A.  is  the  Divan  of  the  Hudhailites  (an 
Arabic  tribe),  an  edition  of  which  was  published  by  Kose- 
ffarten.  Abu'l-Faraj  of  Ispahan  (d.  966)  gathered  together 
in  his  Kitdb  cU^hdni  (Book  of  Songs),  all  the  ancient 
Arabic  songs  down  to  the  first  centuries  of  the  Caliphate.  It 
was  published  by  Eose^arten  In  1840.  Abu'l-Faraj  ac- 
companied the  work  with  a  minute  commentary,  which 
makes  it  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  old  Arabic 
literature.  But  the  riehest  and  most  complete  A.  of  the 
later  Arabic  poesy  is  TaUmat  al-dahr  (the  Pearl  of  the 
World),  by  Taalebi,  in  which  the  writers  are  arranged 
according  to  the  provinces  in  which  the^r  lived.  It  has  been 
continued  and  enlarged  since  the  period  of  the  original 
compiler.  Besides  these  and  similar  national  antholo^es, 
collections  have  been  made  in  almost  every  province  where 
the  Arabic  culture  and  spNeech  prevailed.  Such,  for  example, 
are  the  numerous  Arabico  Spanish  ones,  though  these  are 
little  known. 

2.  P^sian  Anthologies,— In  the  Persian  literature,  the 
best  known  works  of  this  sort  are  Taskaratal  Shuara  (Lives 
of  the  Poets),  bv  Daulet  Shah  (d.  1495),  the  contents  of 
which  are  to  be  found  almost  entire  in  Hammer's  work  on 
Persian  belles-lettres  (Vienna,  1818),  and  Aiesh  Kedah  (the 
Fire  Temple),  by  Haje-Lutf-Ali-Beg,  who  lived  about  1770. 
Both  works  give  biographical  notices  of  the  Persian  poets: 
the  first,  in  chronolo^cai  order;  the  second,  in  topomphical 
order,  with  specimens  from  their  works.  An  A.  of  the  best 
Persian  poetry,  arranged  according  to  the  subjects,  is  given 
in  the  Medshua  al  Shuara  (a  Collection  of  Poets). 

8.  Tata/r  Anthologies, — Of  the  poets  who  have  written  in 
the  Tatar— i.e.,  the  East  Turkish  or  Tsha^tai  dialect— we 
possess  a  collection  comprising  441  biographies,  with 
specimens  of  their  poetry:  MaasJialis  alnasais  (Charming 
Company),  by  Mir-Alischir  (d.  1500),  and  the  Lives  of  the 
Tatar  Poets,  by  Sadiki,  extending  down  to  the  17th  c. 

4.  Twrkish  Anthologies, — The  number  of  anthologies  in 
the  West  Turkish,  generally  called  the  Turkish  language, 
is  very  numerous.  The  most  famous  are — Hesht  Sehesht 
(Uie  Eight  Paradises),  by  Sehi  of  Adrianople  (d.  1548); 
Taskarat  al  Shuara  (Lives  of  the  Poets),  by  Latifi  (d.  1582). 
and,  under  the  same  title,  a  similar  work  of  Ashik  Tshelebi 


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ANTHON. 

(d.  1571);  and  the  great  collection,  Subdat  alcuhaar  (the 
Blofifioms  of  Poetry),  by  Eassade  (d.  1621).  The  substance 
of  these  anthologies  is  to  be  found  in  Hammer's  Eutary  of 
We$t  Turkish  Jf^Hrp  (Pesth,  1836). 

5.  Indian  Anthologies. — The  literature  of  the  Mohammedan 
population  of  Hindustan,  which  is  a  mere  copy  of  Persian 
literature,  has  also  several  anthologies.  The  most  important 
are — Guhart  Ibrahim,  by  Ali  Ibraiiim,  containing  bioiraph- 
ical  notices  of  800  Hindustani  poets,  with  specimens  of  their 
writings;  the  collection  called  Ditoani  lihan,  by  Beni- 
Narfiyan;  OtUdastai  Nish&t  (Garland  of  Pleasure),  by  Manu 
Lai  (Calcutta,  1886);  and  Quldastai  Ndtnindn,  by  Eerim-ed- 
din  (Calcutta,  1845).  The  substance  of  these  works  is  to  be 
found  in  (farcin  de  Tassy's  Histoire  de  la  IMteratwre  Hindui 
et  Etndustani  (Paris,  1839-47),  which,  under  the  title  of 
TabaMdU  Shuardi  Hindi,  was  translated  into  Hindustani  by 
Eerim-ed-din  (Delhi,  1848).  In  the  pure  Hindi,  we  have  a 
rich  collection  of  songs,  the  Bdgd  Sdgar,  by  Erishnftnanda 
(Calcutta,  1845). 

6.  Sanscrit  Anthologies, — The  Sanscrit  literature  is  not  so 
rich  in  anthologies  as  the  other  oriental  literatures.  If  we 
do  not  consider  the  Vedic  hymns,  and  the  collections  of 
I>oem8  which  bear  the  general  title  Sataka  (A  Century), 
antiiological  in  the  proper  sense,  there  is  only  one  work  of 
this  kind  known — viz.,  the  PaddhaU,  by  Samgadhara, 
towards  the  close  of  the  14th  c,  in  which  are  gathered 
together  6,000  detached  strophes  of  the  most  famous  epic, 
lync,  and  dramatic  poets  of  India,  arranged  under  certain 
heads. 

7.  Chinese  Anthologies. — ^From  the  earliest  ages,  the  Chinese 
had  the  custom  of  sending,  with  the  yearlv  tribute  to  the 
emperor,  copies  of  such  songs  as  had  acquired  popularity. 
Confucius  selected  from  a  great  number  ox  these  311  of  the 
most  beautiful.  These  are  preserved  under  the  name  Shi- 
king  (Book  of  Songs),  one  of  the  canonical  books  of  the 
Chinese.  This  is  Uie  oldest  A.  hi  the  world.  A  Latin 
version,  by  Lacharme,  was  pub.  Stuttgart,  1880;  a  German 
one,  by  Rilckert.  Altona,  1883.  Besides  this,  there  is  Tefuw- 
ming-wen-siouen,  a  collection  of  the  finest  poems  of  the  time 
of  the  Liang  dynas^[^(A.D.  502-556),  and  also  Thangshi,i^oem'& 
of  the  time  of  the  Thang  dynasty  (618-914). 

ANTHON,  dn'thon,  Charles,  ll.d:  1797-1867,  Jul.  29; 
b.  New  York:  well-known  editor  of  classics.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Columbia  Coll.  at  the  age  of  18,  studied  Taw  in 
his  brother's  office,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  N.  Y.,  1819.  His  time,  however,  was  civen 
chiefly  to  classical  literature;  and  in  1820  he  was  appointed 
adjunct  Prof,  of  Languages  hi  Columbia  Coll.,  which  office 
he  held  for  15  years.  His  series  of  classical  publications 
did  much  to  make  available  for  popular  purposes  the  eru- 
dite researches  of  European  scholars.  His  first  work  was  a 
new  edition  of  Lempriere's  Classical  Dictionary,  almost  im- 
mediately re-issued  in  England .  In  1880,  appealed  his  larger 
edition  of  Horace,  quite  a  novelty,  on  account  of  the  super- 
abundant English  notes  which  accompanied  the  text.  In 
1888,  he  issued  a  smaUer  edition,  for  the  use  of  schools  and 

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ANTHON— ANTHONY. 

colleges.  Virgil,  Caesar,  and  other  andent  writers  haTc  been 
UaiBtrated  in  the  same  attractive  manner.  A/s  editions  of 
the  classics  have  been  very  popular,  but  scholars  regard  them 
with  a  kind  of  learned  aversion,  both  because  of  the  tempta- 
tions which  they  present  to  the  learner  to  overlook  the  difl^ 
culties  of  a  knotty  passage,  and  of  the  superfluous  and  often 
unimportant  matter  dignified  with  the  title  of  *  conmientary' 
or  'notes.'  However,  these  works  have  given  a  healthy 
stimulus  to  the  rudimentary  study  of  the  ancient  authors. 
In  1831,  A.  received  the  degree  of  ll.d.  from  his  Ahna 
Mater.  In  1835,  he  succeeded  Prof.  Moore  in  the  chair  of 
kmguages.  A.  likewise  published  large  works  on  ancient 
geography,  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  mythology,  litera- 
ture, etc. 

ANTHON,  John,  ll.d.:  lawyer:  1784,  May  14—1663, 
Mar.  5;  b.  Detroit;  brother  of  Charlbb  A.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  College  1801,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1805, 
became  a  founder  and  pres.  of  the  New  York  Law  Insti- 
tute, and  published  Anthon's  Law  Student  and  Ammiean 
Precedents  (1810),  and  other  works. 

ANTHONY,  dn'tho-ni,  Henry  Bowkn:  1815,  Apr.  1— 
1884,  Sep.  2;  b.  Coventry,  R.  I.:  statesman.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Brown  Univ.  1883,  edited  the  Providence  Journal 
1888-59,  was  sov,  of  R.  I.,  1849-51,  and  U.  S.  senator 
from  1859  till  nis  death,  serving  on  the  committees  on 
claims,  naval  affairs,  mines  and  mining,  and  post-offices  and 
post-roads. 

ANTHONY,  John  Gould:  1804,  May  17— 1877.  Oct.  16; 
b.  Providence,  R.  I.:  naturalist  He  received  a  limited 
education,  was  engaged  in  commercial  business  Cincinnati 
85  years,  applied  himself  closely  to  the  study  of  natural 
history  from  boyhood,  accompanied  Prof.  Agassiz  on  the 
Thayer  expedition  to  Brazil,  1865,  and  was  in  charge  of  the 
conchologlcal  dept.  of  the  museum  of  comparative  zoology 
from  1863  tUl  his  death. 

ANTHONY,  Saint:  see  Antony,  Saint. 

ANTHONY,  Susan  Brownbll:  reformer:  b.  South 
Adams,  Mass.,  1820,  Feb.  15.  She  was  educated  in  a 
Friends'  school,  taught  school  In  N.  Y.  1885-50,  began 
speaking  in  public  1847,  aided  in  organizing  the  woman's 
N.  Y.  State  Temperance  Soc.  1852,  became  a  leader  in  the 
anti-slavery  movement  1857,  and  began  advocating  the  co- 
education of  the  sexes  1858.  Since  1854  she  has  directed 
her  energies  to  promoting  the  cause  of  woman's  suffrage, 
and  1868  began  publishing  T/ie  BewluOonist  in  aid  of  Uie 
movement.  In  1870-80,  she  lectured  in  all  the  n.  and  sev- 
eral of  the  8.  states,  and  1881  in  conjunction  with  Eliza- 
beth Cady  Stanton  and  Matilda  Joslyn  Gage  published  The 
HUiory  of  Woman  Suffrage  In  two  volumes. 

ANTHONY,  William  Arnold:  physicist:  b.  Coven- 
try,  R.  I.,  1835,  Nov.  17.  He  graduated  at  the  Sheffield 
Scientific  School  (Yale)  1860;  taught  the  sciences  at  £. 
Greenwich,  R.  I.,  1860-61.  Franklin,  N.  Y.,  1863-67,  An- 
tioch  College  1867-70,  and  the  lo.  Agricultural  Collegt 
1870-73;   and  was   prof,  of  physics   in   Cornell   Univ. 


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ANTHONY'S  FIRE— ANTHRACITE. 

1872-67.  He  has  designed  and  consti-ucted  a  number  of 
important  electrical  apparatus,  and  contributed  numerous 
papers  to  the  American  Assoc,  for  the  Ady.  of  Science  and 
the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  of  both  of 
whidb  he  is  a  member,  and  to  seyeral  electrical  and  scien- 
tific publications. 

ANTHONY'S  FIRE,  dn'to-nU,  St.:  erysipelas (q. v.): 
see  Ahtony.  Saint. 

ANTHONY'S  NOSE:  (1)  in  Montgomeryrco.,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  n.  branch  of  the  Mohawk  river,  on  the  extremity  of 
the  hill  or  mountain  called  the  Klips  (rock  or  cliff);  slopes 
from  an  elevation  of  about  500  ft.  toward  the  river,  and 
when  viewed  from  the  river  at  the  n.  entrance  to  the 
Highlands  resembles  a  nose  800-400  ft.  long;  ^2)  bold 
promontory  on  the  e.  side  of  the  Hudson  river  in  Putnam 
co.»  N.  Y.,  projecting  from  the  s.  side  of  Breakneck  Hill, 
opposite  the  site  of  old  Fort  Montgomery,  near  the  s.  en- 
trance to  the  Highlands,  below  West  Point. 

ANTHOPHORE,  n.  dn'ihd-fir  [Or.  arUhot,  a  flower; 
pho'rid,  I  carry]:  in  M.,  a  stalk  supporting  the  inner  floral 
envelopes,  and  separating  them  from  the  cuyz. 

ANTHOPHYLTTE,  n.  dn'thd-fmt  [Or.  antho$,  a  flower; 
phuUon,  a  leaf]:  a  variety  of  hornblende  of  a  gray  or  clove- 
brown  color,  so  named  m>m  the  resemblance  of  its  color  to 
that  of  the  antJiophyUum  or  clove;  it  Is  sometimes  green. 

ANTHOTAXIS,  n.  dn'thotAks'U  [Gr.  arUhos,  a  flower; 
iaxif,  arrangement]:  in  bot.,  inflorescence. 

ANTHOXANTflUM:  see  Vernal  Grass 

ANTHRACENE,  n.  dn'tliraaen,  or  An'thracin,  n.  -tiin 
{Gr.  anthrax^  nrnnthraka,  burning  coall:  a  solid,  cryslalline 
nydrocarbon  (C14H10)  obtained  from  coal-tar.    See  Aliza- 

HENB. 

ANTHRACITE,  n.  dn'thrd-nt  [Gr.  anthrax  or  anthrdka, 
burning  coal] :  a  hmrd  shining  coal  that  hums  without  smoke 
or  flame.  Anthraconitb,  n.  dn-thrdkfo-nU,  a  term  applied 
to  those  varieties  of  marble  which  have  a  coal  black  lustre 
when  polished.    An'thbacit'ic,  a.  -t^'ik,  pertaining  to. 

ANTHRACITE:  hard  coal;  a  mineral  substance  of  the 
nature  of  coal;  consisting  of  carbon  with  a  minimum  amount 
of  hydrogen.  It  is  of  a  black  color,  conchoidal  fracture, 
and  Imperfectly  metallic  lustre  (hence  called  glance-cos]).  It 
bums  slowly,  and  mostly  without  flame,  and  hence  is  some- 
times called  bHnd-cosi},  Its  vegetable  origin  cannot  be 
doubted.  Where  strata  of  .common  coal  have  been  broken 
through  by  trap-dikes,  the  coal  next  the  trap  is  found  to  be 
A.,  with  a  gradual  trsnRition  into  the  softer  state;  hence 
geologists  regard  A.  as  dcbituminized  coal;  it  occurs  where 
rocks  have  been  altered  by  heat  from  disturbance.  Ex- 
tensive mines  of  A.  are  in  e.  Penn.,  whence  is  derived 
most  of  the  fuel  used  in  the  states  of  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board for  manufacturing  and  domestic  purposes.  See 
Coal:  Carboniferous  Syhtjiim. 

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ANTHRAC0BAURU8— ANTHROPOLATBY. 

ANTHRACOSAURUS,  n.  dn'thrd-kd-saw'rua  [Gr.  an- 
thrasD,  coal;  saurot,  a  lizard]:  a  large  fossil  saurian  occur- 
ring in  the  coal-measures  of  Britain. 

ANTHRACOTHERIUM,  n.  an'thrd-kd-thi'rVum  [Gr. 
anthraof,  coal;  therion,SLVri\dheaat]:  a  fossil  thick-skinned 
animal  of  the  hippopotamus  kind,  found  amoug  the  lignites. 

ANTHRAKERPETON.  n.  dn'thrdk^'pS-m  [Gr.  an- 
thrax, coal;  herpiton,  a  reptile]:  a  genus  of  fossil  reptiles  of 
a  primitive  air-breathing  type. 

ANTHRAX,  n.  dn'ihrdks  [Gr.  anVirax  or  anthrdka, 
burning  coal]:  a  carbuncle;  a  local  suppuration  which  may 
be  idiopathic,  or  may  accompany  other  diseases  as  diabetes, 
or  malignant  fevers  such  as  Uie  plague,  etc.^<K)mmon  also 
in  lower  animals.  See  Splenic  Fever:  Cattle- plague. 
Anthracoid,  a.  dn'th/rd-koyd  [Gr.  eido»,  resemblance]:  per- 
taining to  or  resembling  an  anthrax  or  carbuncle. 

ANTHROPOGRAPHY,  n.  dn'thrd-pdg'rd-fi  [Gr.  a/i- 
thropos,  a  man;  graphe,  a  writing]:  that  branch  of  physical 
geography  which  treats  of  the  distribution  of  the  races  of 
mankind.  Anthropoid,  a.  dn'thro-poid  [Gr.  eidos,  resem- 
blance]: applied  to  those  species  of  the  monkey  which  most 
nearly  approach  the  human  form.  Anthropolitb,  n.  dn- 
thr6p'6-lU  [Gr.  lithoa,  a  stone]:  a  petrifaction  of  the  human 
body,  or  a  part  of  it  Aitthropoloot,  n.  dn'thro-pdl'aji  [Gr. 
logoi,  discourse]:  the  natural  history  of  the  human  species; 
the  science  that  has  man  for  its  subject  It  includes  Anat- 
omy, Physiology,  Psychology,  Ethnology,  History,  Sociol- 
ogy, Theology,  ^Esthetics,  etc. :  see  these  titles :  also  Ak- 
THROPOLOOY.and  the  references.  ANTHROPOLOG'iCAij,a. 
-pd-UyVkdl,  pertaining  to.  An  thbopol  ooist,  q.  -o-jt^t, 
one  skilled  in  the  knowledge  of  the  natural  history  of  man- 
khid. 

ANTHROPOLATRY,  n.  dn'thrd-pSl'd-tH  [Gr.  anthrdpoi, 
a  man;  laireia,  worship]:  the  worship  given  to  a  human 
being;  a  term  employed  in  reproach.  Thus,  the  earlv 
Christians  accused  the  heathens  of  A.,  because,  in  thefr 
mythology,  men  were  represented  as  exalted  among  the  gods, 
although  an  apotheom  (q.v.)  was  in  these  cases  alleg^  by 
their  worshippers;  and  the  heathens  retorted  the  charge  be^ 
cause  of  the  worship  of  Christ;  the  reply  to  which  was  the 
assertion  of  his  oneness  with  God.  But  the  term  is  chiefly 
known  in  ecclesiastical  history  in  connection  with  the  em- 
ployment of  it  by  the  Apollmarians  (q.v.)  a^inst  the  or- 
thodox Christians  of  the  4th  and  5th  c.  with  referenoe  to  the 
doc^trine  of  the  perfect  human  nature  of  Christ 


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ANTHROPOLOGY. 

ANTHROPOLOGY,  (In'thrOpdC dji  (Or.  anthropo^, 
man:  logos,  discourse]:  science  of  man;  his  natural  his- 
tory, including  his  entire  nature  and  development.  A.  Is 
not  an  exclusive  science,  but  includes  all  the  sciences  in 
their  reference  to  Man:  for  instances,  see  Man:  Ethnol- 
ogy: CoBMOOONT:  Oovernment:  Philology:  Anatoict: 
Physiulogy:  Psychology:  Instinct:  Emotion:  Sensa- 
tion: Intellbct:  Will:  Soul:  Religion:  Ethics:  etc. 

In  the  division  of  A.  relating  to  Man's  origin  and  his 
place  in  nature,  the  Evolution  theory  is  now  prevalent 
among  scientific  men:  see  Dbbcbnt  op  Man  :  I^vblop- 
mbnt  of  the  Embryo:  Darwinian  Theory:  Species: 
ETC.  A  modification  of  this  view  by  Alfr^  Russel  Wal- 
lace, Darmnwn,  an  Exposition  of  the  TJuory  of  Natural 
Selection  (1889),  is  here  noted— with  additional  remarks 
in  generaL— 'mating  of  the  principle  of  continuity,  re- 
lied upon  for  the  derivation  of  man's  entire  nature  from 
the  brute,  he  says :  •  Because  man's  physical  structure 
has  been  developed  from  an  animal  form  by  natural  • 
selection.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  his  mental 
nature,  even  though  developed  pari  passu  with  it,  has 
been  developed  by  the  same  causes  only.'  According  to 
the  early  teaching  of  Lyell,  certain  causes  were  held  to 
be  amply  sufficient  to  account  for  geological  phenomena. 
But,  in  the  demonstration  of  a  glacial  epoch,  a  new  and 
altogether  distinct  cause  of  many  phenomena,  producing 
new  effects  late  in  the  earth's  history,  yet  continuous 
with  preceding  effects,  is  apparent.  Applying  this  illus- 
tration to  man's  intellectual  and  moral  nature,  Wallace 
goes  on  to  show  that  certain  definite  portions  of  this 
could  not  have  been  developed  by  variation  and  natural 
selection  alone,  and  that,  therefore,  some  other  infiuence, 
law,  or  agency  is  required ;  and  we  may  justly  assume 
that  the  same  unknown  cause  has  profoundly  affected 
man's  whole  development.  The  mathematical  faculty, 
rudimentary  in  savages,  and  amazingly  developed  only 
in  the  last  three  centuries  among  civilized  nations, 
shows  that  the  Darwinian  theory  of  useful  variations,  in 
the  struggle  of  existence,  cannot  account  for  the  origin 
and  increase  of  all  the  faculties  of  mind,  as  it  does  for 
those  of  the  body.  So  with  music:  the  Romans  and 
Greeks  knew  nothing  of  harmony  and  the  essential 
features  of  modern  music ;  only  since  the  15th  century 
has  It  been  marvellously  developed ;  and  it  seems  to  be 
latent,  having  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  battle  of  life, 
in  the  lower  races,  who  now,  under  training,  can  per- 
form creditably  the  best  modem  music.  The  pictorial 
and  plastic  arts  have  appeared  here  and  there,  in  their 
glory,  and  have  not  helped  the  struggle  of  man  with 
man  and  his  environment.  Moreover,  while  among 
animals  the  range  of  variation  is  about  from  80  to  120, 
taking  the  mean  to  be  100,  the  difference  of  capacity 
among  men,  in  mathematics  and  art,  is  enormous ;  and 
the  capacity  often  appears  suddenly  in  a  family.  Similar 
facts  pertain  to  the  faculties  of  metaphysical  specula- 
tion and  of  wit  and  humor.    The  Inference  is  that  wo 

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ANTHBOPOLOGY. 

muet  recognize  in  these  special  faculties,  thus  manifested, 
an  origin  wholly  distinct  from  that  of  animal  character- 
istics— something  which  we  may  best  refer  to  a  spiritual 
essence  or  nature.  And  thus  we  may  further  understand 
much  that  is  otherwise  unintelligible— the  constancy 
of  the  martyr,  the  unselfishness  of  the  philanthropist, 
the  devotion  of  the  patriot,  as  well  as  the  love  of 
truth,  the  delight  in  beauty,  the  passion  for  justice, 
the  admiration  for  courageous  self-sacrifice — all  that 
pertains  to  a  higher  principle  than  that  of  animality.  If 
it  be  objected  that  the  cCdmitted  continuity  of  man's 
progress  from  the  brute  does  not  admit  of  new  causes  or 
exhibit  any  sudden  change,  it  may  be  answered  that  at 
three  points  some  new  cause  or  power  must  necessarily 
have  come  into  action :  first,  at  the  change  from  inor- 
ganic to  organic ;  second,  at  the  introduction  of  sensa- 
tion or  consciousness;  third,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
existence  In  man  of  his  most  characteristic  and  noble 
faculties — none  of  these  explainable  by  any  increasing 
complexity  of  structure.  These  three  distinct  stages  of 
progress  point  clearly  to  an  unseen  universe,  with  its 
inflowing  forces,  and  to  the  world  as  a  consistent  whole, 
adapted  to  the  development  of  spiritual  beings.  It  may 
be  added  that  Wallace  (who  shares  with  Darwin  the 
credit  of  the  theory  of  the  derivation  of  species  by  natural 
selection)  has  in  previous  writings  contended  that  the 
brain  and  hand  of  ape  and  savage  are  already  developed 
far  beyond  any  needs  of  a  wild  life,  as  shown  by  the 
adaptability  of  these  organs  to  the  highest  uses  of  mind 
and  civilization ;  thus  there  was  a  Divine  prophecy  and 
preparation  looking  to  man  in  his  utmost  exaltation. 

In  regard  to  the  alleged  germs  of  moral  and  religious 
sense  in  animals  below  man,  nothing  has  been  adduced 
that  is  philosophical  and  decisive.  In  respect  to  a  reason- 
ing poioerj  it  should  be  remarked  that  a  mental  process 
resembling  this  is  common  to  both  men  and  animala — 
namely,  thinking  by  images,  and  the  suggestion  of  one 
thing  by  another  that  is  similar,  without  any  necessary 
noting,  abstraction,  and  comparison  of  attributes,  and 
followed  by  associated  impulses.  Sensation,  and  the  as- 
sociation of  sensations  present  or  remembered,  were 
regarded  by  the  general  school  of  cerebrallsts  as  sufficient 
to  explain  all  intellectual  processes,  until  the  new  com- 
parative psychology  sought  to  find  something  higher  in 
animals.  Reasoning,  in  its  high  and  proper  sense,  as 
the  noting  of  a  similar  quality  by  comparison,  abstract- 
ing it,  generalizing  it,  and  affirming  it  as  standing  in  a 
fixed  or  universal  relation  to  another  quality — in  short,  as 
dealing  with  concepts,  or  abstract  general  conceptions— 
is  distinctive  of  man.  G.  J.  Bomanes,  the  literary  ex- 
ecutor of  Darwin,  is  the  latest  and  ablest  advocate  of 
reason  in  animals,  but  he  admits  (Ckmtemporary  Review, 
vol.  iv.)  that  the  higher  cognitive  powers  all  are  re- 
solvable into  abstraction ;  Huxley  resolves  ratiooination 
into  predication;  and  both  John  Stuart  Mill  and  his 
father  show  that  this  implies  not  only  the  reco^tion 


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ANTHROPOLOGY. 

of  relations,  but  of  these  as  true.  All  this  is  implied  in 
noting  similarities — that  is,  in  notion,  in  concept,  In 
thought  taicen  in  its  distinctive  sense.  An  animal,  then, 
must  have  all  the  elements  of  reasoning  proper  or  none. 
It  is  the  applying  of  abstractions  to  successive  objects  of 
sense  or  of  thought,  and  the  linking  of  abstractions  as 
fixed  or  inherent.  Quality  cannot  be  regarded  as  such 
except  in  and  for  all  the  processes  and  uses  of  reason. 
As  to  the  apparent  analogy  between  acts  of  animals  and 
the  reasonable  procedure  of  men,  instinct  and  impulsive 
association  are  unquestionably  the  ruling  fact  in  ani- 
mals, and  we  are  to  incline  to  these  explanations  where 
there  is  room  for  doubt.  The  strongly  marked  cases  of 
quasi-reasoning  are  certainly  exceptional,  unlike  the  rea- 
soning of  man,  and  they  may  be  presumably  accidental, 
as  indeed  are  some  of  the  seemingly  wisest  achieve- 
ments of  man.  Animals  have  a  superhiunan  quickness 
and  permanence  of  sense  associations,  and  the  only 
wonder  is,  therefore,  that  wonderful  instances  of  theh- 
so-called  sagacity  are  not  more  common ;  and  this  en- 
dowment it  is  that  makes  recisonable  the  Darwinian 
theory  of  the  building  up  of  instincts  by  the  preserva- 
tion of  useful  variations  of  act.  At  the  same  time,  with 
marvellous  perfection  of  senses,  brutes  blunder  in  per- 
ception to  a  degree  in  which  they  should  not,  if  reason 
accompanied  this  remarkable  perfection ;  they  are  easily 
deceived.  It  is  admitted  that  acts  analogous  to  those  of 
human  intelligence  are  observable  in  the  three  lower  sub- 
kingdoms  of  animals ;  yet  no  one  would  claim  that  rea- 
son is  present  there.  Besides,  the  quasi-reasoning  is 
confined  to  the  narrow  lines  of  subsistence,  attack  and 
defense,  or  mere  play-impulse,  in  all  which  we  should 
expect  that  the  explanation  now  given  would  be  suffi- 
cent.  Beason,  as  we  know  it  in  man,  is  at  first  zero, 
and  long  and  slow  in  development;  whatever  the  mental 
outfit  of  the  lower  orders  may  be,  it  does  not  include 
such  an  element.  The  quasi-reasoning  hardly  advances 
In  the  individual  for  life  and  In  the  species  for  ages — 
the  instances  of  progress  gathered  being  poor  and  rare. 
The  theory  of  rationality  in  brutes  involves  so  high 
processes  of  thought  as  to  be  incredible,  and  there  is  no 
evidence  of  any  language  of  abstractions,  of  concepts, 
which  are  the  staple  of  human  speech ;  moreover,  the 
character  of  all  of  man's  mental  powers  is  so  changed 
by  self-consciousness  that  the  analogy  fails.  In  regard 
to  comparative  anatomy,  the  latest  doctrine  is  that  tho 
size  and  complexity  of  the  brain  are  related  to  all  the 
activities  of  its  possessor;  this  accounts  for  much  simi- 
larity of  brain  between  men  and  animals,  with  dissimi- 
larity of  mind.  At  the  same  time,  there  is  no  high 
manifestation  of  intelligence  without  high  brain ;  and, 
below  man,  the  brain  rapidly  diminishes,  until  it  in  effect 
disappears  below  vertebrates.  Gegenbaur  repeatedly 
says  and  illustrates  that  the  modifications  of  the  supra- 
eeophageal  ganglia  of  Invertebrates  are  in  connection 
with  and  dependent  on  the  sense-organs.  (See  Henry  W. 


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ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Parker's  Spirit  of  Beauty,  chap.  ii.  'Mind  in  Animals* 
For  AQ  example  of  ihe  sudden  and  lasting  linkine  of 
sensation  and  impulse,  see  Bemie  Scieniifique,  1889,  May 
4,  art.  Formation  d'un  instinct  pa/rmi  des  animaxtx  vimut 
en  Bociete. ) 

The  antiquity  of  man  has  been  much  i-eviscd  of  late,  by 
scientific  men.  The  relics  found  in  the  valley  of  the 
Somme,  Prance,  by  M.  Boucher  de  Perthes,  are  always 
quoted;  but  the  examination  of  the  locality  by  Dr.  E. 
Andrews  (see  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  xlv.,  2d  series)  seems 
to  be  overlooked.  In  the  20  ft,  of  gmvel  that  yielded  flint 
implements,  he  found  evidence  of  very  rapid  dcposhion; 
the  overlying  layers  of  clay  had  broken  down  into  large 
cavities  that  must  have  been  formed  by  drifting  blocks 
of  ice,  ultimately  melted;  besides,  there  were  angular 
masses  of  soft  chalk  and  bowlders  of  sandstone  of  a  ton's 
weight,  both  evidently  brought  by  ice;  and  the  whole 
was  not  true  glacial  drift,  but  indicated  river  floods— quite 
inconsistent  with  De  Perthes's  slow  annual  deposit  nnd 
Sir  J.  Lubbock's  opinion  that  it  was  the  extremely  slow 
work  of  untold  ages.  Above  the  gravel  are  26  ft.  of  peat, 
estimated  by  De  Perthes  as  formed  at  the  rate  of  an  inch 
or  two  a  century,  the  total  amounting  to  16,000  to  20.000 
years;  but  it  proved  to  be  forest  peat,  containing  upright, 
very  perishable  trunks  of  birch,  rooted  in  place.  On  the 
suppositions  of  De  Perthes,  some  of  these  tnmks,  over 
8  ft.  high,  must  have  stood  undecayed  2,000  to  2,600 
years  before  they  were  covered,  which  is  incredible. 
Roman  remains  at  the  depth  of  6  ft.  (after  adding  6  or  7 
centuries  since  the  deposit  ceased)  indicated  about  5.800 
years  since  the  beginning  of  the  bed  of  peat.  Dr.  An- 
drews also  visited  the  gravel  half-coucs  formed  against 
a  precipice  by  the  Tini^re  torrent,  near  Villeneuve.  at 
the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Geneva.  A  railway  cut  across 
the  lower  cone,  exhibiting  4  ft.  with  Roman  relics,  un- 
derlaid by  10  ft.  of  the  bronze  age  and  19  of  the  stone 
aee,  seemed  to  give  positive  data  for  Morlot's  eMimate 
of  96.000  to  143.000  years  for  both  cones.  But  he  had 
simply  divided  the  radius  of  the  cones  by  the  present 
annual  deptii  of  deposit,  instead  of  estimating  tlie  cubic 
ft.  of  this,  spread  over  a  large  surface,  and  using  it  as 
divisor  for  the  cubic  contents  of  the  whole — the  quotient 
being  nearly  5,000  years  for  the  lower  cone.  Moreover, 
the  upper  cone  and  the  gorge  above  it  revealed  abundant 
signs  of  great  flood  action,  like  those  of  the  gravel  in  the 
valley  of  the  Somme.  From  the  beiches  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, Dr.  Andrews  derives  5,300  to  7,500  years  since  the 
erosions  and  deposits  there  began  {Amer.  Jour,  /Sci.,  vol.  i., 
2d  series);  and  his  conclusions  are  accepted  by  the  ex- 
pert Prof.  QeoTge  P.  Wright,  1889.  The  most  remarkable 
reversal  of  former  Judgments  is  in  the  case  of  Ningnra 
Palls  as  a  chronometer  of  geological  time — important 
because  the  formation  of  the  gorge,  especially  its  lower 
portion,  began  at  the  end  of  the  ice  age,  which  epoch, 
thus  far,  gives  the  only  trustworthy  evidence  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  man.     Lyell  estimated  the  recession  of  the 


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ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Falls  from  Queenetown  as  occupying  35,000  years.  Desoi 
made  it  a  hundred  times  more---d,500,CK)0  years.  But  an 
accurate  trigonometrical  survey,  witli  map,  was  made 
1842,  by  direction  of  Prof.  Hall ;  and  from  this  and  the 
present  line  of  the  cataract,  G.  K.  Gilbert  of  the  U.  B. 
Geol.  Survey  computes  the  maximum  length  of  time  since 
the  birth  of  the  Falls  to  be  7,000  years,  *  and  even  this 
small  measure  may  need  significant  reduction.*  Similar 
results  have  been  reached  by  Prof.  W.  H.  Winchell  in  re- 
gard to  the  recession  of  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  since  the 
river  occupied  an  old  pre-glacial  bed,  from  above  the  Falls 
to  near  Fort  Snelling(see  Oeol.  Survey  of  Minn.,  1882-85) ; 
also  by  Prof.  Wright,  from  examination  of  the  gorges  of 
tributaries  to  Lake  Erie,  and  from  a  discussion  of  valley 
excavations,  the  small  filling  of  lakes  and  *  kettle-holes ' 
dating  from  the  ice  age,  the  comparative  freshness  and 
unchanged  species  of  organic  remains  in  glacial  deposits, 
and  the  desiccation  of  lakes  in  the  Bocky  Mountain  pla- 
teau (see  The  loaAge  in  North  America,  avid  its  Bearinga 
on  the  Antiqwty  of  Afon,  by  Prof.  Cteorge  F.  Wright  of  the 
U.  8.  Geol.  Survey,  1889).  The  famous  '  Calaveras  skull ' 
and  other  findings  in  old  river-beds,  under  the  lava  de- 
posits of  California,  are  still  quoted  often — referred  by 
Prof.  J.  D.  Whitney  to  the  Pleiocene  or  even  the  Miocene 
age.  Prof.  W.  Boyd  Dawkins  says  that  the  auriferous 
gravels  offer  no  trustworthy  evidence  upon  the  question, 
and  that  the  human  remains  belong  to  the  ancestors  of 
the  present  native  tribes ;  and  Prof.  Le  Conte  (Elementa 
of  Qeology)  remarks  that  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  age  and 
authenticity  of  the  finds  and  the  tmdisturbed  condition 
of  the  gravels,  and  that  the  remains  are  not  paleolithic, 
but  neolithic.  Even  the  findings  in  the  valley  of  the 
Somme  are  assailed  by  some  geologists  (see  remarks  by 
T.  K.  Callard,  F.o.s.,  in  Tra/ns.  Victoria  InsUbOe,  vol. 
xviL).  Dr.  Carpenter  found  that  the  human  jaw  discov- 
ered there  was  an  imposition.  The  pottery  found  by 
Leonard  Homer  in  the  alluvium  of  the  Nile,  30  ft.  4  in. 
below  the  surface,  and  on  which  he  based  an  estimate  of 
13,700  years,  is  of  no  further  account,  since  Boman  pot- 
tery has  been  found  there  at  lower  depths.  Brydone, 
from  seven  alternating  strata  of  lava  and  soil  on  Mt. 
Etna,  deduced  14,000  years ;  however,  six  similar  strata 
were  found  over  Herculaneum.  Much  has  been  made  of 
astronomical  calculations ;  on  these  Croll  put  the  begin- 
ning of  the  glacial  period  240,000  years  ago,  and  Its  end 
70,000 ;  but  if  the  amount  of  the  sun's  heat,  rather  than 
the  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  determined  the  temper- 
ature, the  difference  between  the  mean  annual  temper- 
ature at  the  equator  and  that  of  the  67th  parallel  should 
be  172  degrees  instead  of  76,  as  it  really  is.  Astronomers 
(see  Newoomb's  Popular  Astronomy)  now  tend  to  diminish 
geological  time. 

The  wdty  of  Ike  hmnan  roes  is  not  now  questioned, 
linoe  it  is  found  that  the  races  differ  less  from  each  other 
than  groups  of  animals,  to  whom  a  common  orig^  is  at- 
tdbntedy  aiffer  among  themselves ;  and  the  testa  aooept- 

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ANTHKOPOLOGY. 

^  for  animals  hold  good  among  men  even  of  the  re- 
motest affinities.  The  permanence  of  human  types 
since  the  remotest  historical  times,  in  connection  with 
the  geologically  recent  appearance  of  man,  is  a  great 
difficulty,  but  only  on  the  supposition  that  variations 
must  have  always  been  slowly  accumulative.  In  the 
strongly  marked  Hebrew  race,  there  is  a  type  that 
may  have  been  ortginated  and  fixed  in  one  fainily,  that 
of  Abraham,  within  the  historic  period ;  and,  more  re- 
motely, other  families,  with  more  marked,  even  very  ab- 
normal, differences,  may  have  been  as  sequestered  by 
circumstances  as  the  Hebrew  by  religion,  and  have 
given  rise  to  tribes  and  nations.  The  greatest  difficulty 
is  the  fundamental  unlikeness  in  the  grammatical  struct- 
ure of  certain  languages.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
considered  that  fragments  of  the  human  race  may,  in 
more  ways  than  one,  have  lost  language,  or  lost  an  early 
rude  st«Mge  of  its  structure,  and  built  up  new  syntax 
and  inflections,  and  even  a  monosyllabic  form  like  the 
Chinese — a  supposition  the  more  admissible  since  more 
than  one  instance  is  known  of  isolated  children  originat- 
ing a  language  of  their  own.  As  to  differences  of  mere 
vocabularies,  these  are  illustrated  among  even  neigh- 
boring tribes  of  N.  Amer.  Indians,  who  are  none  the  less 
of  the  same  stock. 

For  the  classifications  of  the  human  race,  see  ETHNOiiOOT. 

The  history  of  the  progress  of  man  begins  with  a  stone 
age,  which,  however,  has  been  continued  to  our  times  in 
some  of  the  ruder  tribes.  There  was  first  the  paleolithic 
period,  when  implements  were  rudely  fashioned  from 
stone,  followed  by  the  neolithic,  with  its  more  varied, 
better  shaped,  and  polished  forms,  and  with  some  rare 
evidences  of  pictorial  embellishment.  Next  came  the 
bronze  age,  exhibiting  higher  art.  Of  the  lowest  sava- 
ges now  living,  the  Australians  and  some  of  the  S.  Amer. 
Indians  are  examples.  Yet  they  are  a  long  way  from 
absolute  savagery,  having  skilfully  wrought  weapons, 
defenses,  and  tools  of  a  various  industry ;  they  manu- 
facture boats,  nets,  mats,  and  baskets,  and  ornament 
their  work ;  they  cook  their  food ;  they  recognize  family 
duty,  and  they  have  their  religious  beliefs.  This  con^ 
dition,  in  its  material  aspects,  certainly  does  not  repre- 
sent the  most  primitive,  which  has  its  ideal  in  the  first 
parents  of  the  Adamic  race,  who  were  beginning  to  name 
things,  were  ignorant  of  good  and  evil,  lived  on  fruits, 
and  had  to  invent  clothing.  Above  the  present  low- 
est stage  comes  the  pasturing  of  flocks,  the  introduc- 
tion of  agriculture,  the  mcuiufacture  of  pottery,  and  at- 
tempts at  picture-writing,  exhibited  more  or  less  by  N. 
Amer.  Indians,  some  of  whom,  as  tribes  on  the  n.w. 
coast,  are  skilful  in  sculpture;  and  others,  like  the 
Zunis,  build  permanent  habitations.  It  is  fair  to  infer 
that  these  existing  gradations  represent  the  prehistoric 
progress  of  which,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  no  record 
survives  other  than  a  few  relics.  All  the  present  civili- 
zations may  be  traced  back  to  rude  beginnings.    The 


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ANTHBOPOMETET. 

great  steps  of  progress  were  the  passage  from  a  wander- 
ing life  to  a  fixed  and  agricultural  system,  the  working 
of  metals,  and  the  invention  of  something  equivalent  to 
writing;  also  the  concentration  of  energy  by  a  govern- 
ment lees  simple  than  the  patriarchal.  The  early  de- 
velopment of  special  arts,  also  of  religious  beliefs  and 
oeremonies,  offers  a  wide  field  for  the  imagination  of  the 
theorist:  and  it  is  reasonable  to  infer  that  the  grand 
piano  originated  in  the  twang  of  a  bow-string ;  but  the 
infinite  expressiveness  of  music  and  of  man*s  suscepti- 
bility to  it  cannot,  therefore,  be  resolved  into  a  twang  of 
dried  sinew.  Dreams  of  the  dead  might  be  conceived  of 
as  having  first  awakened  a  spiritual  faculty,  and  offerings 
or  other  ceremonies  in  honor  of  the  dead  as  having  been 
prompted  by  reverence ;  but  religion  is  not,  therefore, 
made  up  of  dreams  and  ceremonies.  Ck)ming  down  to 
later  historic  times,  anthropology  includes  the  interest- 
ing history  of  the  development  of  all  that  concerns  man. 
Of  this  there  is  no  room  for  an  outline  in  any  sketch  of 
anthropology.  The  earth,  as  adapted  to  the  several 
stages  of  man's  progress  (see  Guyot's  Earth  and  Man) 
and  as  provided  with  materials  for  it — illustrated  in 
geology  and  natural  theology-— also  as  modified  by  man 
and  modifying  his  history  (see  The  Earth  as  ModOied  by 
Bkman  Action,  George  P.  Marsh,  and  Buckle's  HitU.  of 
dcihgaHon),  should  fill  an  important  place  in  the  science 
of  man.  Consult,  further,  Whately's  Essay  on  the  Origin 
of  Civilization,  Tylor's  Researches  into  the  Hist,  of  Mankind, 
Primitive  Oiftture,  Anthropology,  an  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Man  and  Civilization,  and  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson's 
Story  of  the  Earth  and  Man, 

ANTHEOPOMETEY,  n.  dn'thr^^ff&m'i'tri  [Gr.  anthrd- 
pos,  a  man ;  metron,  a  measure] :  the  systematic  exami- 
nation of  the  heights,  weights,  etc.,  of  human  beings; 
the  art  of  measuring  the  remains  of  past  races  of  men 
with  the  view  of  comparing  different  races.  The  art  has 
lately  been  ap])lied  with  remarkable  results  to  the  identifi- 
cation of  criminals,  previously  very  minutely  measured  in 
detail,  as  well  as  in  stature,  for  this  purpose.  An'thro- 
poket'bic,  a.  -mH'rik,  pertaining  to  the  art  of  measuring 
the  hmnan  figure,  or  human  renulns. 


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ANTHROPOMORPHITE. 

ANTHROPOMORPHISM,  dn'thrd-pdn^r'flzm:  the  ap. 
plication,  in  a  figurative  way,  to  God,  of  tenns  which  prop- 
erly relate  to  human  heings.  Thus,  in  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
we  read  of  the  e^e,  the  ear,  the  arm,  the  hand  of  Qod\  and 
of  his  remembering,  forgetting,  etc.  This  A.  appears  to 
arise  of  necessity  from  our  incapacity  of  forming  concep- 
tions of  things  spiritual,  or  finding  any  terms  in  which  to 
express  tliem,  except  by  analogies  derived  from  things  cog- 
nizable by  our  senses,  so  that  even  the  language  of  adora- 
tion is  borrowed  from  the  familiar  things  of  this  world.  It 
is  evident  that  A.  employed  in  an  unguarded  manner,  or  too 
grossly  understood,  might  lead  to  most  serious  error;  and  a 
tendency  has  manifested  itself  at  various  times  in  the  his- 
tonrof  the  Christian  Church  to  ascribe  to  the  Divine  Being 
a  form  and  parts  like  those  of  men.  Thus,  the  Audseans 
(q.v.)  or  Audians,  a  Syrian  monastic  sect  in  the  4th  c,  were 
accused,  and,  it  seems,  Justly,  of  holding  that  Qod  was  pos- 
sessed of  a  human  shape,  and  that,  when  the  Bible  said  that 
'  God  created  man  in  his,  own  im^,'  the  words  are  to  be 
imderstood  of  this  shape  literally.  The  same  error  was  at  a 
later  period  ascribed  to  the  Waldenses,  but  there  was  no 
evidence  of  the  justice  of  the  accusation.  A  tendency  to 
A.  may  indeed  be  regarded  as  always  existing,  and  so  re- 
quiring to  be  guarded  against  in  the  mind  of  every  man; 
but  the  instances  have  been  rare  and  isolated,  although  they 
have  from  time  to  time  occurred,  in  which  anthropomor- 
phite  views  have  been  fully  adopted  and  openly  expressed 
among  Christians.  The  error  of  the  anthropomorphites 
has,  however,  found  countenance  from  the  speculations  of 
philosophers.  Hobbes,  Forster,  and  Priestley  ascribed  to 
the  Divine  Being  a  sort  of  subtile  body.  Fichte,  on  the  other 
hand,  rejected  the  very  doctrine  of  the  personally  of  the 
Divine  Being  as  anthropomorphic,  and  represented  Gkxi  as 
the  moral  order  <ff  the  universe;  and  Schelling,  Hegel, 
Feuerbach,  and  Schleiermacher  substituted,  or  used  terms 
which  might  be  understood  as  substituting,  for  the  objective 
personality  of  God  a  subjective  consciousness  of  God  hi  the 
human  soul. — The  term  Anthropopaihiem  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed to  denote  the  ascription  to  Gkxi  of  human  affections 
and  passions,  although  A.,  in  its  most  general  sense,  includes 
this.  The  langua^  of  Scripture,  in  the  many  instances  of 
this  kind,  must  be  mterpretea  according  to  the  same  general 
principles  which  are  applicable  in  those  of  A.  stnctly  so 
called,  with  the  same  discrimination  of  the  figurative  from 
the  literal,  and  the  same  constant  recognition  of  the  abso- 
lute spirituality  and  unchangeableness  of  God;  yet  so  that 
important  truths  conveyed  by  means  of  such  language,  and 
which  it  is  probable  could  only  be  conveyed  to  us  by  such 
language,  in  accordance  with  our  mental  constitution  may 
Qot  be  rejected  or  obscured. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITE,  n.  dn'thrdpdm^fit  [Qt  a"- 
thrdpos,  man;  viorphe,  form,  shape] :  one  who  attributes  a 
human  form  to  the  Deity,  -mor'fhibm,  n.  the  doctrine. 
-MOR'PHotJS,  a.  pertaining  to  that  which  resembles  a  human 
form.  An THROPOMORPHic,  a.  -mdr'flk,  of  or  pertaining 
to.  An'thbopomorphis'tic,  a.  -tlk,  having  a  tendency  to 
attribute  a  human  form  to  the  Deity. 

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ANTHR0P0PATHI8M-ANTIBRACH1UM. 

ANTHR0P0PATH18M,  n.  dn't^trd'pdp'd'thUfn  [Gr. 
an-ihrdpo8,  a  man;  pdthos,  affection  or  reeling,  passion]: 
the  doctrine  which  ascribes  human  passions  to  the  Su- 
preme Being.  An'thbopopath'ic,  a.  po-pdth'ik;  or  Aj?'- 
thbopopath'ical,  a.  -Ik-dl,  pert  to:  subject  to  human 
passions.  AmrHBOPOPATHT,  n.  dn'thro-pifp'd'thi,  human 
affections  or  passions  as  pert,  to  the  Supreme  Being. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI,  n.  plu.  dn'thrd-pdfd-fi  [Gr.  anthro^ 
poi,  a  maxi;j>hage%n,  to  eat]:  cannibals;  men  that  eat  human 
flesh.  See  CTahnibal.  An thropophaoin'ian,  n.  -diin- 
i-dn,  a  cannibal.  An'thropoph'aqous,  a.  -pO/dgus,  feed- 
ing on  human  flesh.  An'thbopoph'aot,  n.  -pdfd^l,  the 
practice  of  eating  hmnan  flesh. 

ANTHROPOTOMIST.  n.  dn'thrd-put'^-mUt  [Gr.  anthrO 
po9,  a  man;  tome,  a  cutting]:  an  anatomist  of  human  bodies. 

ANTHURIUM,  n.  dn-thu^H-um  [Gr.  anthos,  a  flower; 
mtra^  a  tailj:  in  bot,,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  Arum  family 
having  their  inflorescence  in  the  form  of  spikes  like  tails. 

ANTHU8,  and  ANTHTD^:  see  Pipit. 

ANTHTLLIS:  see  Kidnbt  Vetch. 

ANTI,  dn' fi  [Gr.]:  a  prefix,  with  its  form  Ant,  signifies 
against  or  opponte;  in  place  of. 

ANTIARI8,  and  ANT  JAR:  see  Upas. 

ANTffiES,  fin-teb'  (anciently  Antipolie):  fortified  sea- 
port  in  the  dcpt.  of  the  Alpes  Maritimes,  in  the  s.e.  of  Prov- 
ence, France;  lat.  48°  84'  n.,  long.  7"*  8'  e.;  on  the  e.  side  of 
a  smaU  neck  of  land  called  La-Garoupe,  w.  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Yar;  in  a  fertile  district.  The  harbor  is  serviceable 
(Hilv  for  small  craft.  It  is  a  military  station  of  the  third 
rauK,  has  a  naval  school,  and  considerable  trade  in  olives, 
dried  fruits,  salt-fish,  oil,  etc.  The  anchovies  prepared  at  A. 
are  held  in  high  estimation.  The  environs  of  the  town  are 
beautifully  adorned  with  gardens,  vineyards,  and  orchards. 

A.  is  a  very  old  place,  founded  by  a  colony  of  Greeks 
from  ICassilia  (Marseilles),  of  which  it  was  a  dependency. 
In  the  time  of  Augustus  it  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  an 
Italian  city,  and  many  ruins  still  testify  to  its  ancient  pros- 
perity. After  the  wreck  of  the  old  Roman  empire,  A. 
became  subject  to  successive  tribes  of  barbarians  from  the 
north.  In  the  9th  c,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens;  in 
the  16th  c,  it  was  fortified  by  Francis  I.  and  Henry  IV.; 
during  the  Austrian  War  of  Succession,  it  sustained  a  siege 
of  three  mcmths  (174^.  A.  closed  its  sntes  against  Napoleon 
on  his  return  from  Elba.  The  Anttbei  Legion  was  a  body 
of  foreign  troops,  chiefly  French,  formed  at  A.  kept  by  the 
pope  during  the  French  occupation  at  Rome.  Pop.  (1891) 
7,401. 

ANTIBILI0U8,  a.  dn'tlMlif'is  [Gr.  anii,  against,  and 
}nliou$\i  good  for  the  cure  of  bilious  complaints. 

ANTIBRACHIUM.  n.  dnfi-krdkUim  FGr.  anti,  in  front 
of;  Gr.  braehidn;  L.  braehiUm,  the  arm]:  the  fore-arm  of  the 
higher  vertebrates,  composed  of  the  radius  and  ulna.  Antl 
BRACh'ial,  a.  'iM,  pert.  to. 


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ANTIC— ANTICHRIST. 

ANTIC,  a.  i'ln'tlk  [P.  antique;  OP.  antif,  ancient— from 
L.  anti'quus,  oM]:  odd;  fanciful:  N.  odd  appearance;  a 
buffoon;  in  arefi.,  a  grotesque  figure  use^l  as  an  ornament. 
An  TICS,  n.  plu.  oild  or  extravagant  ^ticulations;  grotesque 
and  foolish  actions.  Anticlt,  ad.  an'tlk-ll.  Note.^On  the 
revival  of  art  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the 
ancient  models  were  imitated  in  sculpture-work,  and  the 
copies  called  antiques;  monstrous  and  caricature  representa- 
tions in  sculpture  became  very  common,  and  known  by  the 
same  name;  hence  any  grotesque  figure  in  sculpture  was 
called  an  antique  or  antic,  figuratively  transferred  to  gro- 
tesque contortions  of  body  or  conduct. 

ANTICHLORE,  an'thkldr:  name  given  to  commercial 
sodium  sulphite  by  paper-makers.  When  the  rags  are  re- 
duced to  a  pulp,  they  are  bleached  by  chloride  of  lime 
(bleaching  powder),  which  thoroughly  soaks  the  pulp,  and 
is  very  difllcult  to  wash  out.  The  traces  of  chlorine  thus 
left  in  the  pulp  pass  into  the  manufactured  paper,  and  tend 
to  bleach  the  writing-ink  which  may  be  traced  thereon. 
To  free  the  pulp  from  the  residue  of  the  chlorine,  some 
sodium  sulphite  is  employed,  and  hence  the  name  A  , 
which  literally  signifies  '  against  {aTUi)  chlorine.' 

ANTICHRIST,  n.  an'ti-krUt  [Gr.  anti,  against,  and 
Ohritty,  a  false  Christ;  an  antagonist  of  Christ.  An'ti- 
Christ'iak,  a.  -ktiatjidn,  opposing  the  Christian  religion, 
or  opposite  to  it.  The  general  notion  of  Antichrist  as  a 
power  opposing  itself  to  the  reign  of  the  Messiah,  may  be 
traced  back  beyond  the  Christian  era.  Its  origin  is  perhaps 
to  be  found  in  the  prophecy  of  Ezekel  (Ezkl.  xxxviii.  ^; 
see  also  Rev.  xx.  8)  concerning  the  doom  of  Gog  and 
Magog.  In  accordance  with  the  old  saying,  '  When  need 
is  sorest,  help  is  nearest,'  the  Jews  conceived  that,  im- 
mediately previous  to  the  Messiah's  rei^,  national  ad- 
versity must  be  experienced  in  an  extrcme  degree,  and  that 
an  agent  of  Satan  would  appear,  who  must  be  overcome 
before  prosperity  could  be  restored.  This  agent  was  A.  The 
idea  is  adopted  in  the  New  Test.,  although  the  term  A.  oc- 
curs in  no  place  of  Scripture  except  John  L  and  11.  Prom 
such  passages  as  the  prophecies  of  the  Saviour,  Matt.  xxiv. 
and  Mark  xiii.,  it  has  be^n  inferred  by  some  that  probably 
the  great  truth  which  this  conception  was  intended  to 
shadow  forth  was  similar  to  that  illustrated  in  the  life  of 
'  the  Man  of  Sorrows'— that  only  through  tribulation  and 
strife  could  the  reign  of  the  Messiah  l^  established,  that 
Christ's  kingdom,  like  Christ  himself,  could  be  made  per- 
fect only  throuj^h  suffering.  And  with  Uiis  the  language  of 
John  in  his  epistles,  and  of  Paul  in  passages  which  seem  to 
embody  the  same  idea,  is  supposed  to  accord.  Nor  is  it  re- 
garded as  a  fatal  objection  to  this  opinion,  that  in  the 
Apocalypse  the  Antichristian  power  or  element  is  associated 
with  the  great  heathen  capital  Rome,  symbolically  desig- 
nated Babylon. 

But  this  opinion  neither  has  been  nor  is  generally  preva- 
lent The  idea  of  A.  early  became  associated  with  that  of 
the  Millennium  (q.v.)  retaminjj  a  form  very  similar  to  that 


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ANTICIPATE. 

wbicti  It  liad  among  me  Oews  Detore  cue  aOTent  ot  ttio 
Bfessiali;  and  popular  opinioii  has  always  sought  to  find 
for  it  some  actual  and  definite  embodiment.  In  the  6th  c, 
&  popular  delusion  prevailed,  founded  on  the  passage  in  the 
Apocalypse,  Rey.  xvii.  8,  that  Nero  was  not  dead  and 
would  return  in  the  character  of  A.  After  the  16th  c,  a 
present  opinion  amon^  Protestants  was  that  A.  is  the 
Kom.  Cath.  Church;  au  idea  entertained  even  at  an  earlier 
period,  as,  for  instance,  by  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  reg 


Pope  John  XXII.,  by  Occam,  Wickliffe.  and  his  pupi 
Cobham,  and  the  Bohemian  reformer  Janow,  and  which 
seems  to  have  prevailed  to  a  considerable  extent  among  the 
Hussites  and  other  opponents  of  Rome.  This  opinion  still 
lin^ring,  but  no  longer  largely  advocated  among  the 
leaders  of  Protestant  thought,  has  been  powerfully  opposed 
by  Roman  Catholic  writers,  as  by  Boesuet,  who,  in  his 
comments  on  the  Apocalypse,  ably  advocates  the  opinion 
that  Pagan  Rome  was  A.  The  opinions  of  Roman  Catho- 
lics, however,  are  much  divided  concerning  A.,  many  main- 
taining that  A.  is  yet  to  come  and  '  to  raise  the  last  persecu- 
tion,' as  *  no  one  has  yet  appeared  to  whom  we  can  apply 
the  character  which  the  infallible  Word  of  Qod -declares 
shall  be  that  of  the  real  A.' — Keenan'9  Oatechism  of  the 
Christian  Beligion, 

The  opinion  previUent  among  Protestants  depends  upon 
the  identification  of  A.  with  the  mystical  Babylon  of  the 
Apocalypse,  and  with  other  symbolic  representations  in  that 
book,  of  a  power  opposed  to  Oie  cause  of  Christ,  and  also 
idth  the  *  Wicked'  one,  the  *  Man  of  Sin,'  and  '  Son  of  Per- 
Ution,'  2  Thess.  ii.  Thus  it  is  still  maintained  by  some 
loat  a  definite  embodiment  of  the  idea  of  A.  is  to  be 
touj?ht  in  histoiT,  and  that  this  is  to  be  fotmd  in  the  Church 
cf  Rome,  or  rather  in  the  papal  power.  And  such  Protest- 
;knt  advocates  refer  to  the  gradual  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  errors  which  they  regard  as  culminating  in  the 
Latin  Church,  as  accordant  with  the  declaration  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  2.  Thess.  ii.,  that  'the  mystery  of  iniquity 
doth  already  work,'  and  with  that  of  John,  '  even  now  are 
there  many  antichrists.' 

There  have  been,  however,  among  Protestants  even  from 
an  early  period  eminent  opponents  of  this  opinion,  among 
whom  may  be  named  Qrotius.  His  own  opinion  was  singu- 
lar, that  Caligula,  the  Roman  emperor,  was  A.  In  the 
Qreek  Church,  the  term  A.  has  been  understood  as  espe- 
cially applicable  to  Mohammed,  or  to  the  dominion  of  the 
Turks  and  Saracens.  Almost  every  great  or  striking 
event— the  arrival  of  the  year  1,000;  the  beginning  of  the 
Crusades;  the  '  black  death'  and  other  plagues  in  the  14th 
c;  the  career  of  Napoleon  in  1805;  and  even  the  political 
movements  of  1848-40— has  suggested  new  interpretations 
of  the  passages  of  Scripture  regarding  A.  See  Revela- 
tion OF  JOHK. 

Hitherto  the  interpretation  of  the  Scripture  texts  re- 
lating to  A.  has  not  been  instructive.  'Much  error,' 
says  Dr.  Samuel  Davidson,  '  has  arisen  from  mixing  up 
DanierB  vision  with  those  of  the  Apocalypse,  because 


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ANTICHRISTIANISM— ANTICIPATE. 

they  refer  to  different  subjects.  The  apostle  borrows 
characteristic  features  from  Daniel's  Antlochus  £pi- 
phanes,  to  fill  out  his  picture  of  Nero.  The  combination 
of  St.  Paul's  Man  of  Sin  with  St.  John's  antichristian 
Nero  has  also  led  to  misapprehension.  The  idea  is 
variously  developed,  according  to  the  mental  peculiari> 
ties  and  knowledge  of  those  who  entertained  it.  Vague 
and  general  at  first,  it  was  afterward  narrowed,  some- 
what in  the  manner  of  the  Messianic  one.  Its  different 
forms  show  that  it  was  no  article  of  faith,  no  dogma 
connected  with  salvation.  Less  definite  in  the  second 
epistle  to  the  Thessalonian^,  it  is  somewhat  specific  in 
the  Bevelation.  .  .  .  The  author  of  John's  first  epistle 
gave  the  idea  of  Antichrist  a  spiritual  width,  consist- 
ently with  the  whole  direction  of  his  epistle.  In  each 
case,  however,  the  writers  moved  within  their  own 
times,  their  knowledge  bounded  by  the  necessary  limits 
of  the  human  intellect,  so  that  their  subjective  viewc 
can  hardly  be  accepted  as  the  emanations  of  minds  pro- 
jecting themselves  into  the  future  with  infallible  cer- 
tainty. What  they  express  about  Antichrist  is  their 
development  of  an  idea  which  sprang  out  of  Jewish  soil 
...  It  is  the  very  individualizing  of  the  A.  idea  which 
removes  it  from  the  sphere  of  actual  realization.'  These 
views,  so  far  as  they  regard  the  Hebrew  cast  of  the 
prophetic  idea  of  A.,  and  the  national  horizon  which 
limited  the  scope  of  its  imagery,  are  probably  shared 
by  the  majority  of  recent  biblical  scholars.  But,  when 
the  personal  element  is  ruled  out,  and  an  abstract  A. 
brought  in  to  fill  its  place,  in  the  interest  of  making  the 
prediction  more  true  to  nature  and  to  the  reality  of 
things,  the  whole  vital  force  of  the  idea  will,  to  many, 
seem  to  be  taken  away.  Increasingly  is  it  felt  that  in 
any  great  moral  confiict  the  personal  element  is  ine^i 
table. — Compare  Davidson's  Introduction  to  the  ,Study  oj 
the  New  Testament^  I. ;  Kenan's  UAntechrist;  jowett's 
Elpistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  TheasaUmiana,  etc.,  I. 

ANTICHRISTIANISM,  dn-ti-kriat  yan-\ann  {aTUichriat- 
ian^  and  ism] :  belief  or  conduct  opposed  to  Christianity ; 
opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  or  of  the  Christ- 
ian Church. 

ANTICHTHON,  dnrfik'thdn  [Gr.  anH,  opposite ;  ckthon, 
earth] :  in  Pythagorean  astronomy;  supposititious  invisi- 
ble planet  that  continually  opposes  the  earth  and  eclips- 
es the  central  fire,  round  which  it  supposedly  revolved. 
Also,  a  dweller  in  an  opposite  hemisphere. 

ANTICIPANT,  a.  dn-^lrpant  [L.  anticipans,  taking 
beforehand] :  anticipating ;  in  anticipation  of :  term 
used  of  periodic  fevers  or  other  diseases  in  which  the 
paroxysms  arrive  earlier  than  their  normal  period. 

ANTICIPATE,  V.  dn-th'i-pdt  \h.  antieipdtus,  antici- 
pated; ante,  before;  eapw,  I  take;  F.  antieiper]:  to  do  or 
take  beforehand;  to  take  first  possession;  to  take  before  the 
proper  lime;  to  foretaste.    ANTic'iPA'TrNG,  imp.    Antic'- 


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ANTICLIMAX— ANTI-CORN-LAW  LEAGUE. 

ipa'tbd,  pp.  Antic'ipa'tion,  n,-pd'shun,  the  act  of  antio- 
ipating;  prevention.  Antic'ipa'tor,  n.  one  who.  Antic- 
IPATIVE,  a.  -pd-Uv,  or  Anticipatory,  a.  -pd-ter-i,  taking 
beforehand.— Syn.  of 'anticipate:*  to  prevent;  obviate;  pre- 
clude; expect;  preoccupy;  foresee;  forestall;  precede. 

ANTICLIMAX,  n.  dn'ti-kli'mdks  [Or.  anti,  opposite  to; 
klimax,  a  ladder  or  staircase]:  a  figure  of  speech  in  which 
the  ideas,  instead  of  saccessively  increasing  in  grandeur, 
sink  lower. 

ANTICLINAL,  a.  dn'ti4cl%'ndl  [Gr.  anti,  against;  klino, 
1  bend]:  in  geol.,  applied  to  strata  which  dip  in  opposite 
directions  in  a  roof-bke  form;  opposite  of  synclinal. 

ANTI-CORNLAW  LEAGUE:  an  association  which 
concentrated  the  efforts  of  the  free-trade  party  in  Britain, 
and  enabled  them  to  carry  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  and 
establish  in  practice  the  principle  of  free-trade.  For  the 
results  thus  accomplished,  see  Cobn-laws:  Free-tbadb, 
etc.  Associations  to  obtain  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws  ex- 
isted in  several  places  before  the  embodiment  of  the  League — 
one  especially  was  founded  in  London  in  1884.  In  1888, 
Mr.  Cobden  and  others  took  the  opportunity  of  the  period- 
ical assemblages  of  the  Manchester  Chamber  of  Conunerce 
for  exposing  Uie  deleterious  influence  of  the  restrictive  com- 
mercial policy  on  the  manufactures  and  trade  of  the 
country.  The  friends  of  free-trade  occasionally  met  in 
Manchester  to  discuss  and  promulgate  their  views;  but  it 
was  in  the  beginning  of  1889  that  the  stren^h  of  the 
party  was  first  drawn  to  a  focus,  by  the  appomtment  of 
delegates  from  the  manufacturing  districts  to  go  to  London, 
and  press  their  principles  on  the  legislature.  Mr.  Charles 
Villiers,  afterwards  pres.  of  the  board  of  trade,  undertook 
the  leadership  of  their  cause  in  the  house  of  commons,  of 
which  Mr.  Cobden,  who  subsequently  served  it  so  effect- 
ively, was  not  then  a  member.  Feb.  19,  Mr.  Villiers  moved 
that  the  house  resolve  itself  into  a  committee  of  inquiry  on 
the  com  laws;  and  again  Mar.  12,  he  moved  that  certain 
manufacturers  be  heard  bv  counsel  at  the  bar  of  the  house 
against  the  com -laws,  as  mjurious  to  their  private  interest. 
'Hie  former  motion  was  rejected  by  342  to  195;  the  latter,  by 
861  to  172.  Immediately  on  the  return  of  the  delewites  from 
their  unsuccessful  effort,  the  League  was  formed.  Its  consti- 
tution dates  from  1889,  Mar.  20,  when  resolutions  were 
adopted,  at  a  meeting  in  Manchester,  for  '  the  formation  of 
a  i)ennanent  union,  to  be  called  'The  Anti-com-law 
League,'  composed  of  all  the  towns  and  districts  repre- 
sented in  tlie  delegation,  and  as  many  others  as  might  be 
induced  to  form  associations,  and  to  join  the  League.  The 
central  oflSce  of  the  League  was  established  in  Manchester, 
having  in  charge  the  influencing  of  public  sentiment  by 
securing  competent  lecturers,  by  obtaining  the  co-oper- 
ation of  the  public  press,  by  correspondence  with  the  local 
associations,  and  by  various  other  means.  The  sum  of 
£5,000  was  put  at  the  disposal  of  the  central  body,  in 
whose  deliberations  a  contribution  of  £50  entitled  the  giver  to 
one  vote.    The  L^gue  collected  and  distributed  large  sums 


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ANTICOSTI— ANTIGONE. 

of  money.  Just  before  its  principles  became  triumphant 
in  the  free-trade  leffislation  of  1846,  it  demanded  a  quarter 
of  a  million  pounds,  which  would  have  been  supplied  had 
it  been  necessary. 

The  teachings  of  the  League  gained  acceptance  as  pre- 
senting a  scientific  truth  in  political  economy.  A  majority 
of  the  parliament  who,  in  1841,  had  been  elected  for  the 
support  of  protection,  were  converted  to  free-trade,  the  con- 
version including  the  prime  minister.  Sir  Robert  Peel.  The 
key-note  to  the  literature  of  the  League  was.  struck  by  the 
beautiful  logical  exposition  of  free-trade  in  General  Thomp- 
son's Catechism  of  the  Cam-lawe,  which,  with  other  tracts, 
was  profusely  dispensed  over  the  countrjr.  To  serve  their 
cause  in  the  same  manner,  the  protectionist  party,  at  a  meet- 
ing held  in  the  Duke  of  Somerset's  house,  1844,  Feb.  17, 
founded  'The  Agricultural  Protection  Soc.  of  Great  Britain'; 
but  the  exertions  of  this  body  seem  to  have  helped  rather 
than  hindered.    See  Fbeb-trade:  Tabiff. 

ANTIC08TI,  Mtl-m'tl:  island  in  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence,  with  lighthouses  at  different  parts  of  the  coast ; 
between  lat  49*=>  and  50<*  n. ,  and  long.  61<>  40'  and  W*  80'  w.  i 
estimated  8,145  sq.  m.  Neither  to  the  settler  nor  to  the 
mariner  is  A.  of  value.  It  is  destitute  of  harbors,  the  n. 
shore  being  mountainous,  and  the  s.  low  and  beset  by  shoals; 
while,  to  increase  the  danger,  tiie  neighboring  currents  are 
said  to  be  capricious.  The  climate  is  severe ;  while  the  sur- 
face is  an  alternation  of  rocks  and  swamps.  There  are 
hardly  any  inhabitants  save  lighthouse-keepers  and  a  few 
officials,  about  600  in  all.  The  island,  attached  to  the  Can- 
adian prcv.  of  Quebec,  has  considerable  salmon,  trout,  cod, 
and  herring  fisheries,  and  is  a  resort  for  seal  and  bear  hunt- 
ing. Extensive  peat  deposits  are  found  in  AnticostL  Marl 
also  occurs. 

ANTICOUS,  a.  dn'tl-Jcus  [L.  anfUme,  in  /ront]:  hi  hot, 
placed  in  front  of  a  flower,  as  the  lip  of  orchids. 

ANTIDOTE,  n.  an'ti-dM  [Gr.  antU'bton,  a  remedy— 
from  anti,  against;  didonai,  to  give] :  a  medicine  to  counter- 
act the  bad  effects  of  poison;  a  remedy  for  any  evil.  See 
Poisons.  Antidotal,  a.  dn'ti^'t&l,  or  An'tido'tical, 
a.  '(2d7i-M;,  expellinff  the  effects  of  poison.  An'tido'tallt, 
ad.  'tdl-i,    An'tido%callt,  ad.  -kdl'li. 

ANTIDROMOUS,  a.  dn-tid'rd-mus  [Gr.  arUi,  opposite 
to;  dromos,  a  course]:  running  in  the  opposite  direction,  as 
spii'als  which  run  alternately  m  opposite  directions;  the  op- 
posite of  homodromous. 

ANTIETAM,  dn-te'tam.  Battle  of  (Confederate  name, 
Sharfsbubg,  Battlb  of):  1862,  Sep.  17,  on  Antletam 
creek  near  Sbarpsburg,  Md.,  between  the  Union  army  un- 
der Qen.  McClellan  and  the  Confederate  army  under  Qen» 
Lee.  The  strength  of  the  opposing  armies  has  been  vari- 
ously stated.  Gen.  McClellan  reported  his  own  at  87,164, 
and  estimated  Gen.  Lee's  at  97,445;  Gen.  Lee  reported 
40,000;  the  Richmond  Snmiirer  credited  him  with  60,000; 
and  Pollard's  Southern  History  of  ihs  War  estimated  the 
Confederate  force  at  45,000  in  the  morning  and  75,000  (q 


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ANTIFEBRIN— ANTIGONB. 

the  aftenuwD.    The  moTements  of  both  armies  had  been 

Sirited  from  Sep.  1.  On  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  dxth.  Gen. 
»  threw  his  forces  across  the  Potomac  near  Leesburg, 
occupied  Frederick,  and  pof^essed  himself  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  Gen.  McClellan.  eager  to  protect  Washington 
and  anxious  to  prevent  a  further  invasion  of  Union  terri- 
tory, forced  Lee  to  abandon  Frederick  on  the  12th  by  in- 
terposing a  strong  force  between  the  Confederates  and 
the  fords  of  the  Potomac,  Lee  moving  toward  Hagerstown. 
WhUe  McClellan  and  Lee  were  watdbing  each  other  here, 
a  Confederate  force  under  *  Stonewall '  Jackson  hastened 
to  Harper's  Ferry,  and  compelled  its  surrender  with  12,000, 
to  18,000  prisoners,  Sep.  15.  On  the  14th  Mc  Clellan  occu- 
pied Cramptoris  Gap  and  the  heights  of  South  Mountain, 
commanding  the  road  to  Hagerstown,  and,  a  second  time 
checking  L^'s  advance,  forc^  him  to  retreat  across  An- 
Uetam  creek  to  Sharpeburg.  A  portion  of  the  Union 
army  under  Gen.  Hooker  f<Mlowed  in  pursuit  on  the  16th, 
had  a  sharp  engagement  with  the  Confederates,  and  gained 
their  object — a  favorable  position.  £arly  the  next  mom- 
ing  Hooker  forced  the  battle  by  attacking  the  Confederate 
left,  while  Gen.  Burnside  engaged  the  right.  Hooker  at 
first  drove  the  left  wing  backward  to  a  cornfield  bordered 
hy  woods,  and  was  bearing  the  brunt  of  the  fighting  when 
be  was  wounded  and  haa  to  be  carried  from  the  field. 
Gen.  Sumner  then  took  command  at  this  point,  and 
though  twice  repulsed  at  the  cornfield,  the  luion  army 
succeeded  in  holding  the  position.  On  the  Union  left, 
Buniside  was  twice  checked  in  attempting  to  cross  the 
creek,  but  in  the  afternoon  drove  the  Confederates  back 
to  a  range  of  hills  where  several  Confederate  batteries  had 
been  posted.  Ordered  to  secure  these  hills,  he  captured 
the  first  batteiy;  but  by  this  time  Lee  had  so  strengthened 
the  second  hill  that  Burnside  reported  he  could  not  hold 
the  ground  already  eained  without  reinforcements,  and  as 
these  were  not  furnished  him  he  was  driven  back  to  the 
bridge.  Gen.  French,  commanding  the  centre  of  the 
Union  line,  pressed  forward  steadily  toward  the  hills,  but 
could  not  esun  them;  while  Gen.  Kichardson  with  a  div. 
of  Sumner^s  corps,  drove  the  Confederates  from  the  river 
nearly  to  Sharpsburg.  Darkness  then  put  an  end  to  the 
fighting  for  the  day.  An  annistice  to  bury  their  dead  was 
granted  the  Confederates  the  next  day,  and  during  the 
night  they  retreated  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac. 
McClellan  reported  his  loss  at  12.469,  includhig  2,010 
killed:  the  Confederates  acknowledged  a  loss  of  13.583  in 
their  Md.  campaign.  McClellan  in  the  campaign  took  13 
guns.  39  colors,  more  than  15.000  stand  of  arms,  and  more 
than  6.000  prisoners,  without  loosing  a  gun  or  color. 

ANTIFEBRIN,  n.  &n'apb'rU  [L.  aniu  against;  febns, 
fever] :  a  remedy  to  abate  fever,  see  Acetanilidb. 

ANTIGONE,  dntlgo-ne:  several  characters  in  Greek 
legend,  (1)  daughter  of  CEdipus  by  his  own  mother  Jo 
casta,  and  sister  of  Eteocles  and  Polynices.  She  accom- 
panied her  father  into  exile,  and  after  his  death  returned 
to  Thebes,    Eteocles,  the  king,  had  banished  his  brother 


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ANTIGONUS-ANTlGtJA. 
Poljmices,  who,  coming  back  with  an  army,  engaged  him 
in  single  combat.  Both  fell,  and  Creon,  who  after  their 
death  had  become  tyrant  of  Thebes,  forbade  their  inter- 
ment. When  he  learned  that  A.  had  buried  Polynices,  he 
shut  her  up  in  a  tomb  or  cave  where  she  died.  A  son  of 
Creon,  betrothed  to  A.,  killed  himself  when  her  fate  became 
known .  (See  Sophocles's  (Edipus  at  Colonus  and  Antigone) ; 
(2)  daughter  of  Eurytion,  wife  of  Peleus,  who  hanged  her- 
self on  receiving  a  false  report  of  her  husband's  marriage 
to  Sterope;  (8)  daughter  of  Laomedon  and  sister  of  Priam, 
who  audaciously  compared  her  beauty  to  Juno's,  and  was 
punished  bv  having  her  hair  turned  into  snakes,  which  so 
tormented  her  that  the  gods  in  compassion  changed  her 
into  a  stork. 

ANTIG'ONUS :  name  of  many  historical  persons,  of 
which  the  most  celebrated  was  the  son  of  Philip  of  Elvmiods, 
and  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great:  b.  c.  881-301. 
In  the  division  of  the  empire  which  followed  the  death  of 
hi3  master,  A.  received  the  provinces  of  Phrygia-Major, 
Lycia,  and  Pamphylia.  Being  accused  of  disotelience  by 
Perdiccas,  who  wished  to  gain  possession  of  all  the  territories 
left  by  Alexander,  A.  entered  into  alliance  with  Cratenis, 
Antipater,  and  Ptolemseus,  and  declared  war  against  Per- 
diccas, B.C.  821.  In  the  same  year,  Perdiccas  was  assassin- 
ated by  his  own  soldiers ;  but  A.  carried  on  the  war 
against  Eiunenes,  to  whom  Perdiccas  had  given  rule  over 
Paphlagonia  and  Cappadocia.  Eumenes,  and  afterwards 
Seleucus,  who  reigned  in  Syria,  were  deposed  by  A.,  whose 
ambition  and  cupidity  grew  beyond  all  bounds.  He  seized 
the  treasures  of  Alexander  kept  at  Ecbatana  and  Susa, 
which  he  refused  to  share  with  his  allies,  Ptolemaeus,  Cas- 
sander  (son  of  Antipater),  and  Lysimachus.  All  the  other 
generals  now  allied  themselves  against  him,  and  a  long 
series  of  contests  took  place  in  Syria,  Phcenicia,  Asia  Minor 
and  Greece,  which  ended  with  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  in 
Phrygia,  when  A.  was  slain  in  his  eighty-first  year. 

ANTICK)NUS  GONATAS,  an4ia'd-nus  gon'd-ias :  King 
of  Macedonia :  reigned  B.C.  277-244 ;  d.  B.C.  248 :  son  oi 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  grandson  of 
the  great  Antigonus.  On  his  father's  death,  b.c.  288,  various 
claimants  for  the  throne  appeared,  and  much  confusion  en< 
sued,  the  result  of  which  was  that  the  royal  power  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Ptolemseus  Ceraunus,  who  soon  perished  in  a 
battle  with  the  Gauls,  when  A.  G.  became  ruler  of  the  coun- 
try (277  B.C.),  and  governed  precariously  in  Uiat  age  of  in- 
tn^ue,  dissimulation,  and  violence,  for  88  years.  He  was 
twice  expelled  from  his  dominions  by  a  hostile  force  from 
Epirus,  but  found  refuge  tmd  assistance  in  the  Peloponnesus. 
The  close  of  his  career  was  comparatively  peaceful. 

ANTIGUA,  dn-te'ga:  West  India  island,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  Leeward  Islands  (see  Antilles);  residence  of  the 
gov. -in-chief  of  the  British  portion  of  the  group;  w.  long., 
between  6r  44'  and  61"  58';  n.  lat.,  between  17*  2'  and  17" 
18  .    It  is  about  18  m.  across;  106  sq.  m.    It  was  first  set' 


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ANTIHELIX— ANTILLES. 

tied,  liUS^,  having  till  then  remained,  in  fact,  uninhabited  on 
account  of  the  ^eat  scarcity  of  fresh  watei.  It  has  twici^ 
Bufitered-fleTerely  from  earthquakes— 1689  and  1848,  and  of 
hurricanes,  the  other  tieavy  scourge  of  the  group.  A.  has 
had  its  full  share.  Numerous  islets,  rocks,  and  shoals  bor 
der  the  shore,  so  that,  generally  speaking,  access  is  difficult 
and  dangerous.  But  St  Johns,  cap.  and  chief  town,  is  at 
the  head  of  a  safe  and  capacious  bay,  which  unfortunately. 
howeyer,  does  not  admit  large  vessels.  English  Harbor 
is,  on  the  whole,  a  more  commodious  port,  and  has  been 
selected  as  the  station  of  the  Royal  Mail  steam-packets.  It 
is  said  to  be  capable  of  receiving  the  largest  ships  in  the 
British  navy. 

A.  is  chiefly  of  tertiary  formation.  The  s.  and  w.  show 
ffrauwacke,  porphyry,  trap,  breccia,  amygdaloid,  and  basal- 
tic greenstone;  the  n.  and  e.  exhibit  calcareous  marl  and 
coarse  sandstone,  interspersed  with  blocks  of  limestone; 
while  the  interior  presents  aigillaceous  strata  and  irregular 
beds  of  coarse  flint. 

Besides  provisions,  generally  almost  sufficient  for  its  own 
consumption,  A.  produces  large  quantities  of  sugar,  molas- 
ses, and  rum.  Total  value  of  imports  (1891)  $885,550;  of 
exports  $787,815 

Immediately  after  the  passing  of  the  imperial  statute 
for  emancipation  of  slaves,  the  local  legislature,  rejecting 
the  probationary  state  of  apprenticeship,  proclaimed  unqual- 
ified freedom  of  the  80,000  slaves,  for  1834,  Aug.  1.  Pop. 
(1891),  with  Barbuda,  80  m.  n.,  86,699,  of  which  Barbuda 
1,000.    There  has  been  small  increase  since  1871. 

ANTIHELIX,  n.  dnt'VhU'lks  [Gr.  an<i,  opposite  to,  but 
here  in  the  sense  of  *  before ';  helix^  anything  twisted  or 
convoluted,  the  car]:  the  curved  prominence  parallel  with, 
and  in  front  of,  thenelix  or  external  prominent  rim  of  the 
auricle  of  the  ear. 

ANTILEGOMENA,  Aiv-Mi^adm' i-^ia,  n.  plu.  [Gr.  antUe- 
gomena,  things  spoken  against]:  applied  especially  to  cer- 
tain books  in  the  New  Test.,  which  were  finally  admitted 
into  the  canon,  though  not  universally  acknowledged  in 
the  early  church.  Such  books  included  the  now  accepted 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  II.  Peter,  11.  and  III.  John,  the 
Epistles  of  James  and  of  Jude,  and  the  Revelation.  Rom. 
Oath,  theologians  classify  these  books  under  one  head, 
calling  them  deuteroeanonical,  or  forming  a  second  canon 
[from  Qr.  detUero,  second].  No  New  Test,  canon  is  known 
to  have  been  formed  until  the  latter  half  of  the  2d 
oentuy. 

ANTILLES,  dn-tU'lez  or  ^n-tW:  term  designating  gener 
ally  the  whole  of  the  West  Indian  Islands,  except  the  Ba* 
hamas.  Generally  speaking,  they  stretch  e.  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  to  about  the  meridian  of  the  Gulf  of  Paria;  then 
a.  to  the  Gulf  of  Paria  itself;  and  lastly,  w.  to  the  Gulf  of 
Maracaybo.  Primarily,  however,  they  are  regarded  not  as 
three  sections,  but  as  two— the  Greater  A.,  to  the  n.  and  w. ; 
and  the  Lesser,  to  the  e.  and  s.  This  distinction,  which  ob- 
vioasly  involves  considerations  of  position  as  well  as  of 


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ANTILLES. 

^Atfnitude,  will  be  found  to  indicate  also  a  difference  of  o^ 
game  structure. 

The  Greater  A.,  reclconing  from  Uie  w.,  are:  Cuba  (Span- 
ish), Jamaica  (British),  Hayti  (independent),  and  Porto 
Rico  (Spanish).  They  extend,  in  w.  long,  from  84"  58'  to 
65'  40 ,  and  in  n.  lat.  from  28"  9'  to  17"  40  —the  higher  of 
these  two  parallels  being  only  21'  or  about  25  m.  within  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer.  On  £e  lowest  estimate,  the  area  is  70.000 
sq.  m.  The  Greater  A.  appear  to  be  of  primitive  formation, 
presenting  lofty  granitic  moimtains.  In  Jamaica,  however, 
there  are  many  hills  of  calcareous  origin. 

The  Lesser  A.  may  be  divided  into  two  chains— the  e., 
trending  rotmd  from  the  e.  of  Porto  Rico  to  the  Gulf  of 
Paria;  and  the  s.,  stretching  away  in  a  direction  nearlypar- 
allel  with  that  of  the  Greater  A.,  along  the  coast  of  Vene- 
zuela as  f  ar  ap  the  Gulf  of  Maracaybo.  By  the  Spaniards, 
followed  by  some  other  nations,  the  latter  chain  is  termed 
the  Leeward  Islands,  and  the  former  the  Windward  Idands. 
In  English  and  French  phraseology,  however,  the  Leeward 
Islands  are  all  thope  to  the  n.  of  15**  n.  lat.,  and  the  Wind* 
ward  Islands  all  those  s.  of  that  parallel. 

In  the  latter  sense  of  the  name,  the  Leeward  Islands^ 
reckoning  from  the  n.,  come  in  nearlv  the  following  order: 
Virgin  luands  (Danish  and  British),  Anegada  (British),  An- 
guifla  (British),  St.  Martin  (French  and  Dutch),  St.  Croix 
(Danish),  Saba  (Dutch),  St.  Bartholomew  (French).  St  Eus- 
tatius  (Dutch),  Barbuda  (British),  St  Christopher's  (British), 
Nevis  (British),  Antigua  (British),  Montserrat  (British),  De- 
seada  (French),  Guadelonx)e  (French),  Marie  Gkdante 
(French),  Dominica  (British).  Theyextend  in  w.  long,  from 
65"  80',  at  the  w.  extremity  of  the  Virgin  Isles  to  61^28',  at 
the  e.  extremity  o^  Dominica;  and  in  n.  lat  from  18**  48', 
at  the  n.  extremity  of  Anegada  to  15"  10',  at  the  s.  extrem- 
ity of  Dominica;  area  about  5,000  sq.  miles. 

The  Windward  islands,  reckoning  from  n.  to  s.  and  then 
frome.  tow.,  are  as  follows:  Martinique  (French),  St.  Lucia 
(British),  Barbadoes  (British).  St.  Vincent  (British),  Grena- 
dines (British),  Grenada  (British),  Tobago  (British),  Trini- 
dad (British),  Testigos  (Venezuelan),  Margarita  (Venezu- 
elan), ToGtuga  (Venezuelan),  Blanquilla  (Venezuelan),  Bueo 
Ayre  (Dutch),  Curapoa  (Dutch),  Aruba  (Dutch).  They  ex- 
tend in  w.  long,  from  59"  20'  at  the  e.  of  Barbadoes,  to  70 
11',  at  the  w.  of  Aruba;  and  in  n.  lat.  from  11",  at  the  8.  of 
Margarita,  to  14"  65',  at  the  n.  of  Martinique.  Their  entire 
area  cannot  exceed  1,500  sq.  m.  The  Windward  Islands, 
in  the  Spanish  sense  of  the  term,  are  otherwise  called  the 
Caribbees;  and  hence  the  sea  which  they  cut  off  from  the 
open  Atlantic  is  called  the  Caribbean  Sea  (q.v.). 

The  Lesser  A.,  as  a  whole,  appear  to  be  chiefly  of  coral 
formation,  or  of  volcanic  origin.  Many  of  them  contain 
extinct  craters;  and,  though  not  destitute  of  harbors,  their 
coasts  are  in  a  great  measure  inaccessible  by  reason  of  reefa 

The  A.  generally— but  perhaps  the  Lesser  more  so  than 
the  Greater— are  subject  to  hurricanes  and  earthquakes. 
Their  principal  productions  are  sugar,  rum,  cotton,  coffee^ 
9tc.  (see  the  titles  of  the  individual  tuands). 


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ANTILOPEr-/vNTIMONY. 

The  name  A.  is  generally  sapposed  to  haye  been  given  by 
mistaiLe  to  the  West  Indian  Islands.  Before  the  discovery 
ci  America  by  Ck>lumbiis,  a  tradition  existed  that  far  to  the 
w.  of  the  Azores  there  lay  land  called  AntiUa,  whose  pod- 
tkm  was  vaguely  indicatta  in  the  maps  of  the  earl  v  oosmog- 
raphers.  Only  eight  months  after  Columbuss  return, 
Peter  Martyr  writes  that  the  islands  which  the  ereat  navi- 
gator had  touched  upon  must  be  the  AnUlke;  and  it  is  cer^ 
tain  that  Cuba  and  fiayti  were  known  as  such  before  a 
single  link  in  the  Caribbean  chain  was  discovered. 

ANTILOPE:  see  Antelope. 

ANTIMONY,  n.  dn'tl-num-i  [mid.  L.  antimo'nlum:  F. 
anUmoine]:  a  metallic  substance  ouch  used  as  an  alloy;  the 
chemical  name  is  stUAum.  Antdconial,  a.  Hn'tl-monUal, 
pert,  to  antimony,  or  containing  it:  N.  the  medicine. 
An'timo'niate,  n.  -ni-di^  a  salt  of  antimonic  acid.  An'ti 
mo'kiat'ed,  a.  -dt'i^,  made  of  antimony  or  mixed  with  it. 
An'timon'ic,  2l'Vc,  or  An'timo'nious,  a.  -ni-ti«,  of  anti- 
moi^:  applied  to  the  acids  of  antimony.  Antimonite,  n. 
dn'n-m^xty  a  salt  of  antimonious  acid;  in  min,^  the  sul- 
phuret  of  antimony  which  forms  the  common  ore  of  that 
metal. 

ANTmONY— symb.  6b  (Lat  8iibwm)i  eouiv.  122:  a 
brittle  metal  of  a  flaky,  crystalline  texture,  and  bluish-white 
color.  It  is  easily  reduced  to  powder;  when  heated  to  840** 
F.,  it  fuses,  fmd  thereafter  being  allowed  to  cool,  it  solidifies 
in  rhombohedral  crystals,  which  are  isomorphous  with  those 
of  arsenic.  Heated  in  a  retort,  where  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
is  excluded,  as  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen,  A.  volatilizes 
as  the  vapor  of  tiie  pure  metal.  When  raised  in  temperature 
in  contact  with  the  air,  it  bums  with  a  white  light— combin- 
ing with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  forming  copious 
white  fumes  of  Uie  terodde  of  A.,  or  '  flowers  of  A.'  The 
metal  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity,  but  may  be 
used,  in  contunction  with  bismuth,  in  the  construction  of 
thermo-electnc  piles.  Exposed  to  the  air  at  ordinary  temper- 
atures, A.  does  not  tarnish  or  rust;  and  this  property, 
combined  with  the  hardness  of  the  metal  and  of  its  com- 
pounds, renders  A.  of  essential  service  in  the  useful  arts,  in 
the  construction  of  alloys,  such  as  Britannia  metal,  type 
metal,  and  plate  pewter.  It  is  likewise  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  the  large  concave  mirrors  iised  in  astronom- 
ical  observations;  and  in  the  casting  of  bells,  to  make  them 
harder  and  whiter,  and  to  give  them  a  clearer  and  stronger 
sound. 

A.  sesquisulphide  (stibuite,  or  gray  A.  ore),  SbaSa,  which 
is  found  abundantly  in  Nevada,  Borneo,  and  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  which  is  mined  also  in  Hungary,  Bohemia, 
Prussia,  and  Bavaria,  is  the  principal  source  of  A.  It 
occurs  usually  in  veins,  is  of  leaden  gray  color,  with  me- 
tallic, sometimes  irridescent  lustre;  it  fuses  readily.  From 
^bnite  metallic  A.  is  obtained  by  fusion  with  charcoal 
that  has  been  saturated  with  solution  of  sodium  carbonate: 
or  it  may  be  reduced  direct  by  roasting  the  sulphide  with 
a  mixture  of  cream  of  tartar  and  nitre,  or  with  iron  filings. 


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ANTINOhf.A^l— ANTINOMUNISM. 

The  raw  A.,  thus  or  otherwise  obtained,  requires  calcina- 
tion to  free  it  from  impurities— arsenic,  iron,  lead,  copper, 
and  sulphur.  One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  purinca- 
tion  is  by  charging  each  of  a  number  of  crucibles  with 
the  raw  A.  (or  resulus),  together  with  soda,  common  salt, 
and  pure  oxidized  antimonial  ore.  On  application  of  heat 
the  foreign  metals  become  oxidized  and  scorified,  and 
*  star  metal  *  or  nearly  pure  A.  is  obtained. 

The  compounds  of  A.  are  numerous:  with  oxygen  it  forms 
(1)  the  hehquioiide,  or  white  A,  ore,  Sb^Ot,  which  enters  into 
the  composition  of  tartar  emetic;  (2)  antimoniaua  acid, 
SbOu  which  forms  one  of  the  components  of  Dr.  James's 
powders;  (3)  antimonic  acid,  SbiO»,  a  very  insoluble  com- 
pound, obtained  by  acting  upon  the  metal  with  concentrated 
nitric  acid.  With  sulphur,  A.  forms  the  subsulpMde,  8b«8i, 
already  referred  to  as  a  natural  ore  of  the  metal,  and  which 
when  roasted  at  a  temperature  sufficient  to  fuse  it,  passes 
into  the  mixed  teroxide  and  tersulpbide  of  A.  known  com- 
mercially as  the  glass  of  A.  A  native  oxysulphide  of  a 
pretty  red  color  is  called  red  A,  ore.  When  the  ordinary 
sulphide  of  A.  is  boiled  with  potash,  or  the  carbonate  of 
potash,  it  dissolves;  and  thereafter,  on  boiling,  deposits  a 
reddish-brown  substance,  known  as  mineral  kermes.  The 
liquid  from  which  the  deposit  has  fallen,  if  treated  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  throws  down  an  orange  precipitate  of 
golden  sulphide  of  A. 

There  is  also  a  chloride  of  A..  SbCij,  prepared  by  heating 
sulphide  of  A.  and  hydrochloric  acid  together,  and  which 
has  the  common  name  of  butter  of  A.  It  is  generally  ob^ 
tained  as  an  oily  liquid,  of  the  consistence  of  melted  butter, 
and  of  a  golden  yellow  color.  Mixed  with  olive  oil,  it  is 
used  by  gun-makers  as  bronzing  salt,  to  impart  a  yellow 
color  to  gun-barrels.  The  surface  of  the  metal  is  after- 
ward polished  by  a  burnisher,  or  coated  with  a  varnish. 

The  various  compounds  of  A  .are  used  as  medicinal  agents, 
both  in  human  ana  veterinary  practice,  especially  the  tartar 
emetic,  a  double  tartrate  of  A.  and  potash,  and  tartaric  acid, 
(ESB0T),H90;  this  is  the  active  ingredient  in  antimonial 
wine.  Several  cases  have  occurred  where  tartar  emetic 
has  been  used  criminally  as  a  poison. 

Basil  Valentine,  in  his  DriumpTiant  Chariot  oj  Antimony, 
says:  'The  shortness  of  life  makes  it  impossible  for  one 
man  thoroughly  to  learn  antimony,  in  which  every  day 
something  new  is  discovered.' 

ANTINOMIAN,  n.  dn'O-noml-dn  fOr.  anti,  against; 
ndmos,  law]:  one  who  denies  that  the  moral  law  is  bmdini? 
on  Christians,  and  affirms  that  faitli  alone  is  necessary  to 
salvation:  Adj.  relating  to.  An' tino'hianism,  n.  -km,  the 
tenets  of.  Antinomy,  u.  dntHn'd-mt,  or  dn'O-nd-mt,  the 
opposition  of  one  law  or  rule  to  another:  see  Kant,  Imml. 

ANTINOMIANISM,  iln'O-nd'ml-dn'Um:  the  doctrine  or 
opinion  that  Christians  are  freed  from  obligation  to  keep  the 
law  of  God.  It  is  generally  regarded  by  the  advocates  of 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  as  a  monstrous  abuse 
and  perversion  of  that  doctrine,  upon  which  it  usually 
professes  to  be  based.     From  several  passages  of  the  New 


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ANTINOUS. 

Testament,  as  Rom.  vi,  and  2  Pet  ii.  18, 19,  it  seems  that 
a  tendency  to  A.  had  manifested  itself  even  m  the  apostolic 
age;  and  many  of  the  Gnostic  sects  were  really  antinomian, 
as  were  probably  also  some  of  the  heretical  sects  of  the 
middle  ages;  but  the  term  was  first  used  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  when  it  was  applied  by  Luther  to  the  opinions 
advocated  by  John  Agricola.  Agricola  had  adopted  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation;  but  in  1527  he  found  fault 
with  Melanchthon  for  recommending  the  use  of  the  law,  and 
particularly  of  tbe  ten  commandments,  in  order  to  produce 
conviction  and  repentance,  which  he  deemed  inconsistent 
with  the  gospel.  Ten  years  later,  he  maintained  in  a 
dlqmtation  at  Wittenberg,  that  as  men  are  justified  simply 
by  the  gospel,  the  law  is  m  no  way  necessary  for  Justification 
or  for  sanctiflcation.  The  'Antinomian  Controversy'  of 
this  time,  in  which  Luther  took  a  veir  active  part,  terminated 
in  1540  in  a  retraction  by  Agricola;  but  views  more  extreme 
than  his  were  afterwardls  advocated  by  some  of  the  English 
sectaries  of  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth;  and,  without 
being  formally  professed  b^  a  distinct  sect,  A.  has  been  from 
dme  to  time  reproduced,  as  a  tendency,  with  various 
modifications.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that 
the  term  A.  has  no  reference  to  the  conduct,  but  only  to  the 
opMofu  of  men;  so  that  men  who  practically  disregard  and 
folate  the  known  law  of  God,  are  not  therefore  antinomians; 
and  it  is  certain  enough  that  men  really  holding  opinions 
more  or  less  antinomian,  have  in  manv  cases  been  men  of 
good  Ufe.  It  is  also  to  be  observed  tnat  the  term  A.  has 
been  applied  to  opinions  difi!erin|;  very  much  from  each 
other.  In  its  most  extreme  sense,  it  denotes  the  rejection  of 
the  moral  law  as  no  longer  binding  upon  Christians;  and  a 
power  or  privilege  is  asserted  for  the  saints  to  do  what  they 
please  v^ithout  loss  of  their  sanctity;  it  being  maintained  that 
to  them  nothing  is  sinful;  and  this  is  represented  as  the 
perfection  of  Christian  liberty.  But  besides  this  extreme 
A,  than  which  nothing  can  be  more  repugnant  to  Ctinstian- 
ity,  there  is  idso  sometimes  designated  by  this  term  the 
opinion  of  those  who  refuse  to  sedL  or  to  see  in  the  Bible 
any  positive  laws  binding  upon  Christians,  and  regard  them 
as  left  to  the  guidance  of  gospel  principles  and  the  constraint 
of  Christian  love;  an  opinion  which,  whatever  may  be 
thought  of  its  tendency,  is  certainly  not  to  be  deemed  of  the 
same  chuiuster  with  the  other.  Ftobably,  the  A.  that  does 
not  arise  out  of  a  disHke  of  morality,  usually  originates  in 
mistaken  notions  of  Christian  liberty,  or  in  confusion  of 
views  as  to  the  relation  between  the  moral  law  and  the 
Jewish  law  of  ceremonial  ordinances. 

ANTINOUS,  dn-Hn'd-us:  a  beautiful  youth  of  Claudi- 
opolis,  in  Bithynia.  He  was  page  to  the  emperor  Hadrian, 
and  the  object  of  his  extravagant  affection,  accompanying 
him  in  all  his  travels,  but  was  either  drowned  accidentally  in 
the  river  Nile,  or,  as  some  suppose,  committed  suicide,  in  122, 
from  a  loading  of  the  life  that  he  led.  His  memory  and 
the  grief  of  the  emperor  were  perpetuated  by  many  statues 
and  bass-reliefs,  of  which  several  are  very  beautiful,  espe- 
cially two  now  in  Rome— one  found  in  the  baths,  and  the 


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ANTIOCH. 

other  Id  tiie  villa  of  Hadrian.  '  In  all  flgurea  of  A./  sayt 
Winckelmaon,  '  the  face  has  a  rather  melancholy  expres- 
sion; the  eyes  are  large  with  fine  outlines;  the  profile  is  gently 
sloped  downwards,  and  the  mouth  and  chin  are  especially 
beautiful.'  The  city  of  Besa,  in  the  Thebais,  near  to  which 
A.  was  drowned,  was  also  rebuilt  by  Hadrian,  and  the 
name  of  AntinoOpoUs  conferred  upon  it,  in  memory  of  his 
favorite.  A.  was  further  enrolled  among  the  gods,  and 
temples  erected  to  him  in  Egypt  and  Greece. 

ANTIOCH,  dn'fi  5k:  ancient  cap.  of  the  Greek  kings  of 
Syria;  the  most  magnificent  of  the  16  cities  of  that  name 
built  by  Seleucus  Nicator  (reigned  b.c.  806-280).  Its  situa- 
tion was  admirably  chosen.  The  river  Orontes,  issuing 
from  the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  flows  n.  as  far  as  the  86th 
parallel  of  lat.,  and  then  s.w.  into  the  Levant.  On  the  left 
t)ank  of  the  river,  after  it  has  taken  this  last  direction,  and 
at  a  distance  of  20  m.  from  the  sea,  lay  the  famous  city, 
in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  and  beautiful  plain,  10  m.  long  by 
five  broad.  By  its  harbor,  Seleuceia,  it  bad  communication 
with  all  the  maritime  cities  of  the  West,  while  it  also  be- 
came an  emporium  for  the  merchandise  of  the  East ;  for 
behind  it  lay  the  vast  Syrian  desert,  across  which  travelled 
the  caravans  from  Mesopotamia  and  Arabia.  On  the  n.  the 
plain  of  A.  is  bounded  by  the  mountain-chain  of  Amanus, 
connected  with  the  8.e.  extremity  of  Mount  Taurus ;  and 
on  the  s.,  which  is  more  rocky,  by  the  broken  declivities  of 
Mount  Casius,  from  which  the  ancient  town  was  distant  less 
than  two  mUes.  In  early  times,  a  part  of  the  city  stood 
upon  an  island,  which  has  now  disappeared.  The  rest  was 
built  partly  on  the  plain,  and  partly  on  the  rugged  ascent 
towanls  Mount  Caiius.  The  slopes  above  the  city  were 
covered  with  vineyards,  while  Uie  banks  of  the  river  dis- 
played, as  they  do  even  at  the  raesent  day,  a  gorgeous  pro- 
fusion of  eastern  fruit-trees.  The  ancients  caUed  it '  A.  the 
Beautiful/  *  the  Crown  of  the  East,'  etc.  It  was  a  favorite 
residence  of  the  Seleucid  princes  and  of  wealthy  Romans, 
and  was  famed  throucrhout  the  world  for  the  abundance  of 
its  conveniences  and  me  splendor  of  its  luxury.  It  received 
from  Strabo  the  name  of  Tetrapolis,  on  account  of  three  new 
sites  having  been  successively  built  upon,  and  each  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall.  Its  public  edifices  were  magnificent. 
The  principal  were:  the  Palace;  the  Senate-house;  the  Tem- 
ple of  Jupiter,  burnished  with  gold;  the  Theatre,  Amphi- 
theatre, and  Ceesarium,  besides  an  aqueduct,  a  public  prom- 
enade, and  innumerable  baths.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Roman  empire,  it  was  as  large  as  Paris,  and  for  many  ^- 
erations  after  continued  to  receive  numerous  embellish- 
ments from  the  emperors.  Nor  did  its  glory  fade  immedi- 
ately after  the  founding  of  Constantinople,  for  though  it  then 
ceased  to  be  the  first  city  of  the  East,  it  rose  mto  new 
dignity  as  a  Christian  city.  Ten  councils  were  held  in  it. 
Churches  sprang  up  exhibiting  a  new  style  of  architecture, 
which  soon  became  prevalent;  and  even  Constantinc  him- 
self spent  a  considerable  time  here,  adorning  it,  and 
strengthening  its  harbor,  Seleuceia.  The  Antiochenes  them- 
selves, however,  brought  about  the  ruin  of  their  beautiful 


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ANTIOCHUS. 

dty.  They  were  famous,  above  all  other  people  in  ancient 
times,  for  Uieir  biting  and  scurrilous  wit,  and  for  their  in- 
genuity for  devising  nicknames;  and  when  the  Persians, 
under  ChosroeS  invaSed  Syria  in  588,  the  Antiochenes  could 
not  refrain  from  jesting  at  them.  The  Persians  took  ample 
revenge  by  the  total  destruction  of  the  city,  which,  how- 
ever, was  rebuilt  by  Justinian.  The  next  important  event 
in  its  history  was  its  conquest  by  the  Saracens  in  the  7th  c. 
In  the  9th  c.  it  was  recovered  by  the  Greeks  under  Niceph- 
iMTUs  Phocas,  but  in  1084  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Mohammedans.  The  Crusaders  besieged  and  took  it,  1098, 
June  3.  At  the  close  of  the  18th  c. ,  the  sultan  of  Egypt  seized 
it;  since  then  it  has  undergone  a  variety  of  vicissitudes,  and  at 

{present  forms  a  portion  of  Svria,  in  the  eyalet  of  Aleppo, 
ts  modem  name  is  Antakim,  It  exhibits  almost  no  traces 
of  its  former  CTandeur,  except  the  ruins  of  the  wall  built  by 
Justinian,  and  of  the  fortress  erected  by  the  Crusaders.  Its 
manufactures  are  few  and  unimportant.  In  1872,  A.  was 
mostly  destroyed  by  an  earthquidte,  and  the  pop.,  which 
was  then  estimated  about  17,000,  was  in  consequence 
greatly  reduced. 

ANTIOCHUS,  dfi'tl'd-kM',  a  common  Greek  name,  borne 
by  thirteen  kings  of  Syria,  four  kings  of  Commagene  (a 
small  country  between  the  Euphrates  and  Mount  Taurus), 
and  many  other  persons  of  note  (see  Smith's  Dictionary  o/ 
Greek  and  Eoman  BiograpTtv). 

ANTIOCHUS  SoTEK,  the  mst  of  the  Sjrrian  dynasty,  or 
Seleucidse,  as  they  were  called  from  their  founder :  prob. 
B.C.  824-261,  was  the  son  of  Seleucus,  the  general  and  one 
of  the  successors  of  Alexander.  A.  was  the  fruit  of  one  of 
those  marriages  which  Alexander  celebrated  at  Susa 
between  his  generals  and  the  princesses  of  Persia.  His 
mother's  name  was  Apama.  From  this  fact  we  gather  the 
probable  date  of  his  birth.  For  the  earlier  career  of  A.,  see 
SELEUCU&  On  the  murder  of  his  father,  B.C.  280,  A.  suc- 
ceeded him  in  his  dominions,  but  he  afterwards  permitted 
Antigoniis  <jk)natas  to  retain  possession  of  Macedonia  on  his 
marrying  Phila,  a  daughter  of  Seleucus.  A.  was  much  oc- 
cupied in  wars  with  the  Gauls,  who  invaded  Asia  Minor, 
and,  on  one  occasion  is  said  to  have  gained  a  victory  over 
them  by  the  help  of  his  elephants,  from  which  circumstance 
he  derived  the  name  of  Soter  (Saviour).  He  was  killed 
in  a  battle  with  the  Gauls,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  A. 
II.  This  A.  is  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  (xi.  6)  as 
the  king  of  the  north— the  king  of  the  south  being  Ptolemy, 
whose  daughter,  Berenice,  A.  had  been  compelled  to  marry. 
On  the  death  of  Ptolemy,  A.  recalled  his  former  wife,  Lao- 
dice;  but  she,  in  revenge  for  the  insult  which  she  had  re- 
ceived, caused  A.  to  be  murdered,  along  with  Berenice  and 
her  son.    A.  lost  the  provinces  of  Parthia  and  Bactria. 

AktiocitusIII.,  sumamed  the  Great,  the  most  distin- 
guished of  the  Seleucidae,  was  the  son  of  Seleucus  Callinicus, 
and  grandson  of  A.  II.:  d.  B.C.  187.  In  his  earlier  wars 
with  Ptolemy  Philopator,  A.  was  generally  successful;  and 
though  defeated  in  a  great  battle  near  Gaza,  he  afterwards, 
by  bn  victory  over  the  Egyptiasi  general,  Scopas,  obtained 
a-5 


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ANTIPAROS. 

entire  possession  of  Palestine  and  Coele-Syria.  In  this  war 
he  was  assisted  by  the  Jews,  to  whom  he  granted  many 
privileges.  Fearing  the  power  of  the  Romans,  A.  at  length 
concluded  a  peace  with  Egypt,  betrothed  his  daughter  Cleo- 
patra to  the  young  king  Ptolemy,  and  gave  her  Coele-Syria 
and  Palestine  as  a  dowry.  The  formidable  enemy  whicn  he 
thus  hoped  to  escai)e  encountered  him  at  a  later  period  of 
his  career.  Having  conquered  Philip  of  Macedonia,  the 
Romans  no  longer  dreaded  a  war  with  A.,  and  accordingly 
sent  him  an  embassy,  demanding  the  surrender  of  the 
Thracian  Chersonese,  and  of  the  places  which  he  had  con- 
quered from  Ptolemy,  whase  guardian  the  Romans  had 
become.  He  was  entirely  defeated  by  the  co^sul  Aciliua 
Glabrio  at  Thermopylae,  B.C.  191,  and  was  compelled  to  re- 
turn to  Asia.  Havine  a  second  time  tried  the  fortune  of 
war,  he  was  defeated  by  Scipio,  who  had  crossed  over  into 
Asia;  and  very  severe  terms  were  imposed  on  him.  He 
found  so  much  difficulty  in  raising  money  to  pay  the  tribute 
demanded  by  the  Romans,  that  he  was  led  to  plunder  a  tem- 
ple in  Elymais,  when  the  people  rose  against  him,  and  killed 
him.  The  fate  of  A  was  foretold  in  the  Book  of  Daniel 
(xi.  18,  19). 

Antiochus  IV.,  sumamed  Epiphanes:  (reigned  b.o. 
175-164):  bv  his  tyranny  and  sacrilege  excited  the  Jews  to 
a  successful  insurrection  imder  their  leaders,  Mattathias, 
Judas  Maccabaeiis,  and  the  other  members  of  that  heroic 
family.  The  monstrous  life  of  A.  is  recorded  in  the  books 
of  the  Maccabees. 

Antiochus  XIII.,  surnamed  Asiaticus,  the  last  of 
the  Seleucidaj.  was  deprived  of  his  kingdom  by  Pompcy, 
who  reduced  Syria  to  a  Roman  prov.,  b.c.  65. 

ANTIPAROS,  dn-tlp'd-ros:  (anciently  called  Olearos  or 
Oliaros):  one  of  the  Cyclades  Islands,  celebrated  for  a  stal- 
actiiic  cave.  It  is  separated  from  Paros  by  a  narrow  strait, 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  eparchy  of  Naxos.  A.  is  7  m.  in 
length  by  about  3  in  breadth;  it  is  scantily  supplied  with 
water,  but  the  flats  in  the  n.  and  w.  are  moderately  fertile. 
Com  and  wine  are  cultivated,  but  not  largely.  The  princi- 
pal occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is  Ashing.  From  Eastron, 
the  onlv  village  in  the  island,  the  distance  to  the  celebrated 
grotto  {s  about  an  hour  and  a  half's  ride.  This  wonderful 
cave  is  not  alluded  to  by  any  Greek  or  Roman  writer  whose 
works  are  extant,  but  must  have  been  visited  by  the  curiosity- 
hunters  of  antiquity,  for,  in  1806,  Col.  Leake  deciphered 
a  Hellenic  inscription  which  contained  the  names  or  those 
who  had  descended  into  it  in  ancient  times.  It  is  situated 
in  the  side  of  a  mountain  on  the  s.  coast  of  the  island,  which 
is  described  as  a  mass  of  white  marble.  The  top  or  entrance 
of  the  cave  has  a  striking  appearance;  but  the  sloping  de- 
scent is  rather  dangerous,  on  account  of  the  cord  by 
which  the  traveller  holds  being  extremely  slippenr 
from  constant  humidity.  The  bottom  once  reached, 
and  the  grotto  entered,  there  is  presented  to  the  eye  a  daz- 
zling specimen  of  stalactitic  formation— the  roof,  floor,  and 
walls  of  the  various  chambers,  all  glittering  with  the  most 
gorgeous  incrustation,  though  it  is  said  that  the  smoke  of 


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ANTIPA8— ANTIPATER. 

the  torches,  and  the  constant  fingering  of  visitors,  are  sully^ 
ing  the  primitive  purity  of  the  massive  columns.  It  is  lie- 
lieved  that  there  are  other  caves  of  equal  splendor  in  the 
vicinity  not  yet  discovered.  The  height  of  the  known  cav. 
em  is  80  ft.;  its  length  and  breadth  more  than  300;  but  it 
seems  the  eye  can  only  take  in  at  once  a  length  of  150  ft., 
and  a  breaath  of  100.  The  grotto  was  first  -made  known  to 
the  modem  world  in  1678,  by  the  then  French  embassador 
to  the  Porte,  M.  dc  Nomtel.    Pop.  of  A.  abt.  500. 

ANTIPAS:  see  Herod  Antipab. 

ANTIPATER,  dn-tip'o-ter:  d.  B.C.  318  or  319:  one  of  the 
ffenerals  and  confidential  friends  of  Philip,  king  of  Mace- 
don:  the  most  celebrated  of  the  many  who  bore  the  name 
A.  in  antiquity.  When  Alexander  led  his  troops  into  Asia, 
he  left  A.— who,  with  Parmenion,  had  endeavored  to  dis- 
suade him  from  the  expedition— as  governor  of  Macedonia. 

A.  discharged  the  duties  of  this  office  with  great  ability, 
suppressing  the  insurrections  in  Thrace  and  Sparta;  but 
Olyinpias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  who  entertamed  a  dis- 
Hlte  to  A.,  prevailed  on  her  son  to  appoint  Craterus  as  regent 
of  Macedonia.  Alexander,  prompted  also,  it  is  supposed, 
by  his  own  jealousy  of  A.,  consented,  but  died  before  the 
change  was  carried  into  effect;  and  A.  was  left  to  share  with 
Craterus  the  government  of  Alexander's  territories  in  Eu- 
rope. The  government  of  Macedonia  was  assigned  to  him; 
and  soon  after,  he  was  called  upon  to  defend  himself  against 
an  alliance  of  the  Grecian  states.  With  the  assistance  of 
Craterus— on  whom  he  afterwards  bestowed  his  daughter 
Phila  in  marria^—and  to  a  certain  extent  of  Leonnatus,  he 
succeeded  in  reducinff  the  allies  to  subjection.  Democracy 
at  Athens  was  abolished,  and  a  garrison  admitted  into 
Munychia,  and  the  leaders  of  the  popular  party  put  to  death. 
When  Demosthenes  was  summoned  to  the  presence  of  A., 
he  took  poison,  which  for  some  time-he  had  been  carrying 
on  his  person,  and  died  in  the  temple  of  Poseidon,  b.c. 
32R2.  This  war  was  followed  by  another  with  Perdiccas.  who 
was  also  his  son-in-law,  in  which  A.  was  again  successful. 
After  tiae  murder  of  Perdiccas  in  821,  A.  was  appointed  to 
the  supreme  regency  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  guardianship 
of  Alexander's  children.  He  died  at  pn  advanced  age,  leav- 
ing the  regency  to  Polysperchon,  to  the  exclusion  of  his 
own  son  Cassander. 

Others  of  this  name  were:  1.  A.,  second  son  of  Cassander, 
king  of  Macedonia,  who  lived  b.c  3d  c— 2.  A,  the  father 
of  Herod  the  Great.  He  lived  in  the  days  of  Pompey  and 
Julius  Caesar,  was  a  firm  friend  of  the  Romans,  and  about 

B.  c.  47  was  appointed  procurator  of  Judea.  He  was  poisoned 
in  48  by  one  whose  life  he  had  twice  saved.— 8.  A.,  grand- 
son of  the  former,  and  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  his  first 
wife  Doris,  a  worthless  prince,  perpetually  conspiring  against 
the  life  of  his  brothers,  until  his  trial  and  condemnation  at 
Jerusalem  before  Quintilius  Varus,  the  Roman  governor  of 
Syria.  He  was  put  to  death  in  prison  five  days  before 
Herod  died,  and  in  the  same  year  with  the  massacre  of  the 
Innocents  at  Bethlehem, 


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ANTIPATHY. 

A.  was  the  name  also  of  various  eminent  men  in  ancient 
times— physicians,  philosophers,  historians,  poets,  mathema 
ticians,  and  grammarians. 

ANTIPATHY,  n.  an-tip'd-ihl  [F.  antipathie,  antipathy 
— from  Qr.  antipathei' a— from  anti,  against;  pathos,  feel 
ing]:  a  feeling  of  hatred;  natural  aversion;  dislike.  An- 
TiPATHETic,  a.  'ik;  or  Antipathetical,  a.  -ik-al, 
having  a  constitutional  aversion  to  a  thing. — Syn.  of  '  antip- 
athy*: hatred;  aversion;  enmity;  repugnance;  ill-will; 
rancor;  malice;  malevolence;  dislike;  disgust;  distaste; 
opposition;  contrariety. 

ANTIPATHY:  term  applied  to  a  class  of  disagreeable 
sensations  felt  by  some  individuals  regarding  things  innocu- 
ous or  agreeable  to  the  majority  of  mankind.  These  pecul- 
iarities are  no  doubt  sometimes  acquired  in  early  life  by  in- 
judiciously terrifying  children  with  some  object — the  men- 
tal impression  becoming  permanent.  A  large  class  of  per- 
sons have  an  A.  to  animal  food,  and  from  childhood  refuse 
to  taste  it.  In  others,  the  aversion  is  limited  to  one  kind  of 
meat,  as  veal  or  pork;  others  are  averse  to  eggs  or  milk. 
Nor  is  this  feeling  a  conscious  caprice,  which  an  exertion  of 
the  will  might  remove;  for  it  is  generally  foimd  that  contact 
with  the  object  of  the  A.  is  resented  by  the  bodily  economy, 
and  ^piptoms  of  poisoning  are  rapidly  produced.  Some 
are  affected  with  these  symptoms  who  have  no  mental  aver- 
sion to  the  article.  We  read  of  a  countess  who  had  a  liking 
for  beef-udder,  but  directly  it  touched  her  lips  they  became 
swollen.  There  is  also  the  case  of  a  boy,  who,  *  if  at  any 
time  he  ate  of  an  egjg,  his  lips  would  swell,  in  his  face  would 
rise  purple  and  black  spots,  and  he  would  froth  at  the 
mouth.'  Some  medicines  affect  particular  persons  danger- 
ously, even  when  given  in  very  minute  doses:  a  single  grain 
of  mercury  has  been  known  to  induce  a  profuse  salivation, 
with  destruction  of Hhe  jawbones.  On  others,  medicines 
have  a  peculiar  effect— astringents  may  purge.  Many  per- 
sons suffer  with  the  most  distressing  irritation  of  the  nasal 
and  palpebral  mucous  membranes,  produced  by  the  exhala- 
tions arising  from  the  fields  during  the  inflorescence  of  the 
hay-crop.  In  others,  an  asthmatic  condition  is  induced  by 
the  same  cause.  The  air  of  some  places  has  a  similar  influ- 
ence on  individuals:  one  gentleman  was  always  attacked 
with  asthma  if  he  slept  in  the  town  of  Kilkenny,  and  another 
rarely  escaped  a  fit  of  that  complaint  if  he  slept  anywhere 
else. 

The  most  remarkable  antipathies  are  those  affecting  the 
special  senses.  Nearly  all  persons  have  a  loathing  at  rep- 
tiles, but  some  Iqvi  faint  on  seeing  a  toad  or  lizard,  others 
on  seeing  insects.  *  The  Duke  d'Lpemon  swooned  at  sight 
of  a  leveret— a  hare  did  not  produce  the  same  effect.  Tydio 
Brahc  fainted  at  sight  of  a  fox,  Henry  III.  of  France  at  that 
of  a  cat,  and  Marshal  d 'Albert  at  a  pig.'—Afillingen, 

Hearing  a  wet  finger  drawn  on  glass,  the  grinding  of 
knives,  or  a  creaking  wheel,  is  suflicient  to  produce  fainting 
in  some.  Smelling  musk  or  ambergris  throws  some  into 
convulsions;  and  we  have  seen  how  articles  of  food  affect 


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ANTIPERIODICS— ANTIPHON. 

othera— often,  no  doubt,  otving  to  perverted  taste.  The 
touch  of  anything  unusually  smooth  has  the  same  efTeci 
sometimes.  Zimmerman  records  the  case  of  a  lady  who  was 
thus  affected  by  the  feeling  of  silk,  satin,  or  the  velvety  skin 
of  a  peach     See  Idiosyucrast. 

ANTIPERIODICS,  &n'ti-pe-rlM'tks:  drugs  that  re- 
lieve or  cure  diseases  of  periodic  occurrence— as  ague  and 
some  forms  of  neuralgia.  Cinchona  and  its  alkaloids  are  A. 

ANTIPERISTALTIC,  a.  dn'tX-per-Utdl'tlk  [Qt.  anti. 
against;  peristaliikos,  drawing  toffctber  all  round—from 
peri,  around;  stello^  I  send]:  applied  to  the  vermicular  con 
traction  of  the  intestinal  tube  when  that  takes  place  in 
durection  from  behind  forwards.  An  tiperistal  sis,  n, 
-^taltis,  the  inversion  of  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  ii^ 
testines. 

ANTIPHLOGISTIC,  a.  dn'tl-fldjU'tik  [Gr.  anti,  against. 
phloffizo,  I  consume  or  bum  up]:  applied  to  medical  treat- 
ment  intended  to  subdue  inflammation;  such  as  bloods 
letting,  purgatives,  low  diet,  etc.:  N.  a  medicine  that 
checks  inflammation 

ANTIPHON.  antlfon:  b.  Rhamnus,  Attica,  b.c.  480; 
son  of  Sophilus,  the  Sophist;  earliest  of  the  ten  Attic  orators 
in  the  Alexandrine  canon:  in  his  youth,  the  reputation  of 
Gorgias,  the  most  showy  and  insincere  of  all  the  Greek 
rhetoricians,  was  at  its  height  A.  soon  became  convinced 
of  the  worthlessness  of  that  oratory  which  the  fashion  of 
the  time  so  highly  valued,  and  resolved  to  introduce  a  new 
and  better  kind.  He  labored  to  make  his  arguments  clear, 
solid,  and  convincing,  so  that  it  might  be  impossible  for  the 
judges  who  listened  to  the  speeches  he  wrote  to  refuse 
their  assent  to  his  propositions.  His  success  was  immis- 
takable.  Although  he  never  made  a  public  appearance  as 
a  pleader  in  the  courts  of  justice,  but  contented  himself 
with  writing  speeches  for  others  to  deliver,  he  acquired 
great  influence,  which  he  did  not  fail  to  exert  for  the  fur- 
therance of  his  political  principles.  To  him  must  be  attrib- 
uted the  overthrow  of  the  Athenian  democracy  (B.C.  411), 
and  the  establishment  of  the  oligarchical  government  of  the 
Four  Himdred;  for  although  Pisander  figured  prominently 
before  the  people  in  this  revolution,  the  whole  affair,  accord- 
ing to  Thucvdides— one  of  A.'s  pupils  in  oratory,  and  a  maa 
admirably  fitted  to  judge  of  such  a  point— was  secretly 
planned  by  him.  The  oli^rchical  government  did  not 
prosper.  Dissensions  quickly  broke  out  among  the  Four 
Hundml,  and  six  months  after,  Alclbiades,  the  brilliant 
demagogue,  was  recalled.  A.  was  brought  to  trial  for  trea- 
son, in  having  attempt  cil  to  negotiate  peace  with  Sparta. 
He  is  said  to  have  made  a  noble  defense  of  himself.  Thucv- 
dides affirms  that  an  abler  was  never  made  by  an^  man  in 
a  similar  position.  It  was  his  first  and  last  oration.  He 
was  condemned  to  death;  his  property  was  confiscated,  his 
house  razed  to  the  ground,  his  remains  forbidden  interment 
in  Attica,  and  his  children  forever  declared  Incapable  of  en- 
joying civic  privileges.  Of  the  60  orations  of  A.  which  the 
andentB  possessed,  only  15  have  come  down  to  us.    Three 


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ANTIPHONY— ANTIPODES. 

of  these  are  written  for  others,  and  are  greatly  admired  for 
their  clearness,  purity,  and  vigor  of  expression;  the  remain- 
ing 18  appearing  to  have  been  intended  as  specimens  of 
school  rhetoric  for  his  pupils,  arc  not  so  highly  esteemed. 

ANTIPHONY,  n.,  or  AnTipnoNE,  n.  dn-Vfo-nl  [Gr. 
antipJwne;  mid.  L.  antipfwna — from  Gr.  anti^  opposite; 
phone,  sound:  F.  antiphone:  AS.  anteferi]:  the  alteniate 
singing  of  two  choirs.  Antephonal,  a.  dn-tffdnul, 
pertaining  to:  N.  a  book  of  antiphons.  Aktiphon,  n. 
an'tv-fon,  the  hynm  sung  in  parts  by  turns;  same  as  an- 
Hphony;  the  chant  of  alternate  singing  in  choirs;  the 
repeating,  chanting,  or  singing  of  versicles  or  parts 
alternately. 

ANTIPHONY,  or  Antiphone:  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  a  species  of  musical  accompaniment  in  the  octave, 
by  instruments  or  voices,  in  opposition  to  that  executed  in 
unison,  which  they  called  llomoplumy. '  A.  (often  called 
Antiphon)  is  also  a  species  of  sacred  song,  sung  by  two 
parties,  each  responding  to  the  other;  a  practice  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Many  of  the 
Psalms  of  David  show  that  antipbonal  singing  was  then  ip. 
use.  Its  introduction  into  the  Greek  Church  is  ascribed  to 
Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  2d  c;  and  Ambrosius,  Bishop 
of  Milan,  is  said  to  have  introduced  it  into  the  Western 
Church,  4th  c.  The  dividing  of  the  antiphonies  into  verses, 
with  rules  regarding  the  same,  is  attributed  to  Pope  Coelestin 
in  432.  Pope  Gregory  I.,  590,  prepared  the  first  regular 
Anitphonarium  (see  Durandi  Rationale  Divinorum  Offlcio- 
rum,  Mainz,  1459).  It  was  early  a  custom,  which  became 
common  after  the  13th  c,  to  date  deeds  with  the  beginning 
words  of  the  A.  (Intraittui),  which  in  those  times  served  for 
the  day  of  the  month  and  of  the  week.  The  Reformed 
Christian  Churches  of  Germany  and  England  have  retained 
a  certain  degree  of  antipbonal  singing. 

ANTIPHRASIS,  n.  dn-tlfrdsis  [Gr.  antl,  opposite; 
phrasis,  a  form  of  speech]:  the  use  of  words  in  a  sense 
opposite  to  their  proper  meaning;  irony.  Ajj'tiphbas'- 
TiCAL,  a.  -ti-kdl.    An'tiphras'tically,  ad.  -Mli. 

ANTIPODES,  n.  plu.  dn-tip'o-dez  [Gr.  anti,  opposite; 
podea,  feet]:  those  who  live  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
globe,  and  whose  feet  are  directly  opposite  to  those  of  the 
speaker;  the  country  occupied  by  such.  Antipode,  n. 
dn'tl-pod,  one  who  lives  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe. 
Antipodal,  a.  having  the  feet  directly  opposite.  Note,— 
As  the  singular  Antipode,  dn'ti-pdd,  is  now  in  use,  there 
may  be  no  good  reason  for  objecting  to  dn'tlpodz  as  an 
alternative  pronunciation  of  the  plural. 

ANTIPODES,  in  (Geography:  inhabitants  of  any  two 
opposite  points  of  the  globe,  or  in  other  words,  the  dwellers 
at  the  opposite  extremities  of  any  diameter  of  the  earth. 
From  this  primary  relation,  there  necessarily  arise  many- 
secondary  relations.  A.  must  be  on  one  and  the  same  meria 
ional  circle,  separated  from  each  other  by  half  the  cinium- 
f  crence.  Being  on  one  and  the  same  meridional  circle,  they 
must  differ  in  long,  exactly  180\  with  tiie  exception  of  tbuo 


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ANTIPOPE. 

poles  themselves,  as  having  no  longitude  at  all:  and  being; 
separated  from  each  other  by  half  the  circumference,  they 
must  be  equidistant  fiom  the  equator  in  opposite  directions. 
Take  New  York,  as  an  example  in  lal.  40°  43'  33"  n.,  and 
long.  74°  0  3'  w.;  its  A.  ipust  be  in  lat.  40'  0  3'  s.  and  in 
long  254"  0'  3'  w..  or  rather  iu  90°  18  27'  e.,  which  is 
merejy  an  undistinguishable  spot  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Take,  as  another  example,  London,  in  lat.  bV  30  n.,  and 
long.  0**  5'  w.  Its  A.  must  be  in  lat.  51"  30'  s.,  and  in  long. 
180  5'  w.,  or  rather  179'  55'  e.~coincldinff  nearly  with  a 
small  island  to  the  se.  of  New  Zealand.  This  small  island, 
m  honor  rather  of  London  than  of  itself,  has  appropriated 
Ihc  term  A.  as  its  own  peculiar  name. 

Between  A.  in  general  there  necessarily  exist  also  other 
lecondaiy  relations.  With  reference  to  the  earth's  daily 
rotation,  the  noon  of  the  one  side  must  be  the  midnight  of 
the  other;  while,  with  regard  to  its  annual  revolution,  the 
summer  and  the  autumn  of  the  one  side  must  be  the  winter 
and  the  spring  of  the  other.  With  respect,  however,  to  the 
former  contrast,  some  explanation  may  be  required.  This, 
for  instance,  being  Wednesday  in  Lonaon,  was  last  midnight 
in  that  city  the  noon  of  Tuesday  or  of  Wednesday  at  A. 
Island?  The  answer  is,  that,  according  to  circumstances,  it 
may  be  held  to  be  either  one  or  the  other.  In  going  east- 
ward— that  is,  in  meeting  the  sun— one,  from  day  to  day, 
anticipates  every  noon  and  every  midnight  in  the  proportion 
of  4  min.  of  time  to  1"  of  long.,  or  of  12  hours  of  time  to  180" 
of  long.;  so  that,  on  reaching  A.  Island  from  London  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  middle  of  Tuesday  night,  by  Green- 
wich reckoning,  is  actually  regarded  on  the  spot  as  the  noon 
of  Wednesday.  In  going  westward— that  is,  in  leading,  as 
it  were,  the  sun— one,  from  day  to  day.  postpones  every 
noon  and  every  midnight  in  the  same  proportion  as  above; 
so  that,  on  reaching  A.  Island  from  London  by  Cape  Horn, 
the  middle  of  Tuesday  night,  by  Greenwich  reckoning,  is 
actually  regarded  on  the  spot  as  the  noon  of  Tuesday.  In 
fact,  navigators  in  opposite  directions,  meeting  at  any  in- 
termediate point  whatever  of  the  earth's  circumference, 
always  differ  in  their  computation  of  time  by  a  whole  day, 
or  24  hours.  In  two  cases,  this  has  been  permanently  exem- 
plified: the  Spaniards  at  the  Philippines,  who  have  come 
from  the  e.  are  a  day  behind  the  Portuguese  in  Macao,  who 
have  come  from  the  w.;  while,  on  the  n.w.  coast  of  Amer- 
ica, the  Russians  from  the  w.  were  a  day  in  advance  of  the 
British  from  the  east 

ANTIPOPE,  n.  an'tl-jjop  [Gr.  anti,  against,  and  pope]: 
a  pontiff  elected  in  opposition  to  the  pope  canonicaUy  chosen. 
The  first  A.  is  reputed  to  be  Felix  during  the  pontificate 
of  Damasus  (36(^384).  Several  emperors  of  Germany 
set  up  popes  against  those  whom  the  Romans  had  elected 
without  consulting  them.  Otho  the  Great  displaced  suc- 
cessively two  bishops  of  Rome;  and  when  Sylvester  III.  had 
expelled  the  simoniacal  and  profligate  pope  Benedict  IX., 
Conrad  II.  king  of  (Germany,  brought  back  this  worthless 
pastor,  who  hastened  to  sell  his  dignity  to  Gregory  VI. 
There  were  now  consequently,  three  popes,  and  their  num- 


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ANTIPYRETIC. 

ber  was  increased  to  four  by  the  election  of  Clement  II.  in 
1046.  Shortly  after,  Alexander  II.  found  a  rival  in  Hono- 
rius  II.;  and  in  1080  the  same  unseemly  spectacle  was  wit- 
nessed, when  Henry  IV..  emperor  of  Germany,  elevated  to 
the  papal  chair  Guibert  of  Ravenna,  under  the  title  of  Clem- 
ent 111.,  in  opposition  to  his  implacable  adversary,  Greg- 
ory VII.  But  after  the  death  of  Gregory,  Clement  was 
himself  opposed  successively  by  Victor  III.  and  Urban  II., 
and  at  last  died  at  a  distance  from  Rome,  having  just  beheld 
the  exaltation  of  Pascal  II.  as  the  successor  of  Urban.  Dur- 
ing the  12th  c.  there  were  several  antipopcs,  such  as  Gregory 
VIII.  and  Honorius  III.  On  the  death  of  the  latter,  France 
began  to  intermeddle  in  these  disgraceful  strifes,  and  upheld 
the  cause  of  Innocent  II.  against  Anaclet;  while  the  kinp 
of  Sicily,  on  the  other  hand,  more  than  once  set  up  a  pontiff 
of  tbeir  own  against  the  choice  of  the  emperors.  Between 
1169  and  1378,  there  were  four  antipopes;  but  the  most  re- 
markable epoch  is  *  the  great  schism  of  the  West,'  pro- 
duced by  these  rivalries  in  1378— a  schism  which  divided 
the  church  for  fifty  years.  It  broke  out  after  the  death  of 
Gregory  XI.,  at  the  election  of  Urban  VI.,  whom  the  voice 
of  the  Roman  people,  demanding  an  Italian  pope,  and  not 
one  who  should  fix  his  pontificate,  like  several  of  his  pred- 
ecessors, at  a  distance  from  Rome,  had  elevated  to  the 
mpal  throne.  The  French  cardinals  objected,  withdrew  to 
Provence,  and  elected  a  new  pope,  under  the  name  of  Clem- 
ent VII.,  who  was  recognized  by  France,  Spain,  Savoy, 
and  Scotland;  while  Italy.  Germany,  England,  and  the 
whole  n.  of  Europe,  supported  Urban  Vl.  These  two  popes 
excommimicatcd  each  other;  nor  did  they  even  fear  to  com- 
promise their  sacred  character  by  the  most  cruel  outrages 
and  the  most  odious  insults.  The  schism  continued  after 
their  death,  when  three  popes  were  elected  by  different  par- 
ties, all  of  whom  were  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Constance 
in  1415.  and  Cardinal  Colonna  elected  in  their  room,  under 
the  title  of  Martin  V.  The  last  A.  was  Clement  VIII. 
— See  Infallibility  of  the  Church:  Pope. 

ANTIPYRETIC,  n.  an'tl-pl-rH'Vc  [Or.  anti,  against; 
puretos,  fever]:  in  med.,  an  agent  to  reduce  the  oodilv 
temperature  in  fever.  Such  agents  are  in  two  classes:  (1) 
those  which  lessen  heat  production;  (2)  tfiose  which  in- 
crease the  loss  of  heat.  In  the  first  class  are  such  drugs  as 
quinine,  salicvlic  acid  and  its  salts,  and  some  of  the  essen- 
tial oils,  eucajyptol.  thymol,  etc.,  which  lessen  production 
of  heat  by  modifying  tissue  change:  also  such  drugs  as 
aconite  and  digitalis  which  influence  the  production  of 
heat  through  the  circulation.  The  2d  class  is  divided  into 
(a)  those  which  by,  dilating  the  cutaneous  vessels  i)ermit 
increased  radiation,  e.g.  alcohol,  antipyrin,  phcnacetine, 
etc.;  (ft)  those  which  by  increasing  perspiration  tend  to 
loss  of  heat  by  evaporation,  e.g.,  opium,  ipecacuanha, 
nitrous  ether,  etc.;  {c)  those  that  abstract  heat  from  the 
body,  e.g. ,  ice  to  the  surface,  cold  bath,  etc.  Antipykin,  or 
Antipyrine.  white  crystalline  powder,  tasteless  and  soluble 
in  water;  dimethyl-oscychiniane,  formula  C'HuN^O, 
product   of    the  destructive   distillation  of   coal-tar  oil 


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ANTIQUARIES—ANTIQUITY. 

It  is  ODC  of  the  most  efficient  febrifuges,  and  not 
harmful  when  administered  by  a  competent  physician. 
Serious  results  and  even  death  have  followed  its  careless 
use,  due  to  its  depressing  action  on  the  heart.  It  is  useful 
whenever  it  is  desirable  to  reduce  the  bodily  temperature, 
and  ia  painful  affections  of  the  nervous  system.  The  ma- 
jority of  patent  nostrums  for  relief  of  headache  contain 
either  A.  or  acetanilid,  and  should  therefore  be  avoided, 
as  the  ingestion  of  such  powerful  drugs  in  unknown  quan- 
tities may  produce  very  serious  symptoms  much  worse 
than  the  primary  trouble. 

ANTIQUARIES,  Society  o^:  see  ARcniKOLOGY. 

ANTIQUE,  dn-tek':  term  applied  to  the  works  of  art  of 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  especially  their  incompara- 
ble sculptures.  The  A.  Style  in  works  of  art  is  distin- 
guished by  critics  from  the  Romantic  or  Mediseval,  and  also 
from  ^e  Modem.  The  sculpture  of  the  Greeks  is  charac- 
terized by  freshness,  originality,  and  ideality;  and  the  phases 
that  it  underwent  have  their  parallels  in  the  development  of 
the  literature  and  general  culture  of  that  people.  In  the 
earliest  times,  the  statues  had  a  rigid,  formal  character,  and 
looked  more  like  the  idols  of  barbarous  nations  than  deities 
in  human  form;  then  came  stem,  Titan-like  forms,  corre- 
sponding with  the  Prometheus  of  iEschylus;  next,  the 
sculptures  of  Phidias,  Polvcletes,  and  Polygnotus— like  the 
characters  in  the  dramas  of  Sophocles— present  to  us  human- 
ity in  its  purest  and  noblest  ideal  forms.  Then,  as  Euripides 
in  poetry  left  the  old  domain  of  destiny,  and  derived  motives 
and  action  from  ordinary  human  passions,  so  statuanr  de- 
scended from  the  ideal,  to  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  forms 
of  actual  life;  as  we  see  in  the  works  of  Praxiteles  and 
Lysippus.  Afterwards,  when  Aristophanes  introduced 
comedy,  forms  of  every-dajr  life  began  to  appear  in  sculpture; 
and  thus  a  ^dual  transition  was  made  from  the  art  of  the 
Greeks,  which  was  ideal,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  to  that 
of  the  Romans,  which  was  real,  monumental,  and  portrait- 
like. The  Romans  were  the  realists  of  the  ancient  world; 
their  indigenous  philosophy  was  of  a  popular  kind;  their 
poetry,  so  far  as  it  was  national,  was  satire;  and  their  works 
of  art  may  be  regarded  as  monuments  and  portraitures  of 
real  life. 

ANTIQUrriES:  see  Archeology. 

ANTIQUITY,  n.  dn-tlk'wi-ti  [F.  antiquite;  L.  anHqf- 
uiias,  ancient  time — from  L.  antiquus,  old]  old  times; 
former  ages;  times  long  since  past.  Antiquities,  plu. 
an-tWwirtlz,  relics  of  olden  times.  Antiquarian,  n. 
dn'iUkwd'ridn,  or  Antiquary,  n.  dn'tl-kwd-ri  [L.  anti- 
qudrius,  studious  of  antiquity]:  a  person  who  studies  the 
histor^r  of  ancient  things.  Antiqua'rian,  a.  pertaining  to 
antiquity.  An'tiqua^ianism,  n.  Antiquate,  v.  dn'th 
kwdi,  to  put  out  of  use;  to  make  old.  An'tiqua'tino, 
imp.  An'tiqua'ted,  pp.:  Adj.  grown  old;  old-fashioned. 
An'tiqua'tedly,  ad. -ft.  An'tiqua'tedness,  n.  Antique, 
a.  dn-Uk  rP.  antique]',  old;  ancient:  N.  a  remnant  of  antiq- 
uity; a  reuc.    Antiquely,  ad.  -ft,  in  an  antique  manner. 

2-« 


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ANTI-RABIC  TREATMENT— ANTISEPTIC. 
AiiTiquENEss,  n.  dn-tek'nes,  ancientness;   the  appearance 
of  being  old. — Syn.  of  '  antique,  a.':  ancient;  antiquated; 
obsolete;  antic;  old;  aged. 

ANTI-RABIC  TREATMENT:  see  Rabies:  Hydro- 
phobia: [Pasteuk]. 

ANTI-RENTERS:  political  party  in  N.  Y.  1843-47:  see 
Pateoon:  Van  Rensselaer,  Killian. 

ANTIRRHINUM,  n.  dn'tl-rl'num.  Antirrhinums,  n. 
plu.  [Gr.  anti,  like,  similar;  rhin  or  rhina,  a  snout]:  a 
^enus  of  plants,  Ord.  Scroph'ularia'ceoBy  the  flowers  of  most 
if  the  species  bearing  a  perfect  resemblance  to  the  snout  of 
pome  animals.    See  Snapdragon. 

ANTISCIANS,  n.  plu.  dntUh'l-dm,  or  Antis'cii,  drir 
tlsh'il  [L.  antiscii— from  Gr.  aiUi,  opposite;  sktd^  a 
shadow]:  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  living  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  equator,  whose  shadows  at  noon  fall  in  con- 
trary directions. 

ANTISCORBUTIC,  a.  dntl'8k5r'bu'tik[QT.  anrt.  against, 
and  aearbuticy.  good  against  the  scurvy:  N.  that  which  is 
good  against  scurvy.    See  Scurvy. 

ANTI-SEMITIC  MOVEMENT:  recent  movement  in 
Europe  involving  socialistic  tendencies,  and  opposing  the 
Jews  as  alien  by  race  and  religion  to  the  iKJOples  among 
whom  they  dwell.  In  Germany,  at  its  first  congress  (1895, 
June),  the  anti-Semites  demanded  the  exclusion  of  all  per- 
sons of  Jewish  connection  from  the  professions,  the  army, 
the  press,  from  all  public  schools,  and  from  thtJ  privilege  of 
accjuiriug  property  or  carrying  on  business  under  German 
names;  and  that  for  the  future  all  Jews  should  be  forbid- 
den to  enter  Germanv  from  without.  In  Austria  the  anti- 
Semites  (1895)  electea  their  candidate  mayor  of  Vienna,  but 
the  emperor  refused  to  confirm  the  election.  In  Switzer- 
land (1893)  a  law  was  passed  forbidding  the  killing  of  an- 
imals according  to  the  Talmud,  by  bleedmg  before  the  death- 
blow. This  law  is  contested  on  the  ground  of  religious 
liberty.  In  France,  the  party  gained  some  power  after  the 
Panama  canal  scandals  (1893).    Sec  Jews:  Russia. 

ANTISEPTIC,  dn'tlsep'tlk  [Gr.  anti,  against;  septos. 
putrid]:  a  substance  that  prevents  or  arrests  putrefaction 
and  analogous  fermentive  changes:  Adj.  opposing  putre- 
faction. It  has  been  proved  that  putrefaction  (q.v.),  fer- 
mentation of  grape-juice  {vinous  fermentation),  of  milk 
kictic  fermentation),  and  many,  though  probably  not  all, 
other  fermentations,  depend  upon  the  presence  of  micro- 
scopic vegetable  organisms.  See  Germ  Thbory.  To  prevent 
these  processes,  then,  it  is  necessary  either  (1)  to  exclude 
these  organisms  altogether;  or  (2)  to  interfere  with  condi- 
tions which  permit  of  their  development;  or  (3)  to  destroy 
their  vitality. 

(1)  These  organisms,  or  their  germs,  are  present  in  ordinary 
air;  but  it  has  been  shown  by  Pasteur,  Tyndall,  Lister, 
Roberts,  and  others,  that  if  air  be  filtered  through  cotton 
wool,  or  (if  moving  slowly)  through  a  fine  bent  tube,  it  may 
be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  putrescible  substances. 
If  these  themselves  contain  no  living  organisms  or  germs. 

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ANTISEPTIC, 
without  causing  putrefaction.     This  method,  however,  has 
bad  no  important  practical  applications. 

(2)  Their  growth  may  be  arrested  (a)  by  a  low  tempera- 
ture. Thus  large  quantities  of  fresh  meat  are  exported 
from  America,  and  even  Australia  end  New  Zealand,  in 
chambers  cooled  to  near  the  freezing-point.  Carcasses  of  the 
long-extinct  mammoth,  with  the  flesh  still  present,  have 
been  found  in  the  ice-cliffs  of  Siberia.  The  longer  time 
that  meat,  milk,  etc.,  keep  in  cold  than  in  hot  weather  is 
familiar.  (6)  By  absence  of  moisture.  Thus,  if  the  con- 
tents of  an  egg  be  thrown  out  on  a  plate,  and  thoroughly 
dried  in  an  oven,  the  whole  becomes  of  a  hard,  homy  con- 
sistence, and  may  bo  kept  in  this  state  for  years.  If  soaked 
in  water,  it  will  soon  begin  to  putrefy.  In  the  same  way 
meat  majr  be  kept  fresh  by  thoroughly  drying  it.  The 
preservation  of  fniits,  etc.,  in  strong  syrup  is  an  example  of 
a  similar  action. 

(3)  The  vitality  of  these  organisms  may  be  destroyed  (a) 
by  heat;  e.g..  meat  and  other  eatables  can  be  preserved  for 
an  indefinite  time  if  they  are  boiled  and  hermetically  sealed 
when  still  hot  in  tin  vessels  (see  Preserves);  (6)  by  variouB 
chemical  substances.  Some  of  the  most  important  are 
common  salt  and  saltpetre,  used  in  curing  fish,  pickling 
meat,  etc.;  alcohol,  in  preserving  zo51ogical  specimens, 
vegetable  essences,  fruits,  etc.;  sulphurous  acid,  boracic 
acid,  and  arsenious  acid;  many  salts,  as  chloride  of  zinc 
(Burnett's  solution,  q.v.),  permanganate  of  potash  (Condy's 
fluid,  see  under  Manganese),  sulphate  of  popper  (blue 
vitriol),  corrosive  sublimate,  nitrate  of  silver;  chlorine  (given 
off  by  chloride  of  lime),  iodine,  iodoform  (CHIs),  glycerine, 
boroglyceride  (CsHaBos),  eucalyptus  oil,  thymol,  creosote, 
carbolic  acid,  salicylic  acid,  tannic  ocid,  quinine,  the  patent 
preparation  '  sanitas,'  charcoal  (both  vegetable  and  animal), 
dry  mold,  used  in  the  earth-closet  system.  See  Sewage 
Earth-closet.  All  these  substances  act  directly  or  in- 
directly as  poisons  to  the  organisms  which  produce  putre- 
faction, etc. ;  most  of  them  are  either  poisonous  or  very 
unpalatable  to  man,  and  cannot  therefore  be  used  in  preserv- 
ing food.  Many  of  them  are,  however,  used  in  the  arts  to 
arrest  the  decomposition  of  putrescible  substances;  e.g. ,  in 
the  manufacture  of  size  for  writing-paper  from  scraps  of 
hides,  sulphite  of  soda  or  antichlore,  containing  sulphurous 
acid,  is  added;  hides  are  preserved  by  salt,  or,  when  tanned, 
by  tannin,  a  compound  of  tannic  acid;  timber  is  found 
less  liable  to  decay  if  charged  with  an  antiseptic,  such  as 
sulphate  of  copper,  chloride  of  zinc,  corrosive  sublimate,  or 
creosote.  It  is  placed  in  a  steam-box,  so  that  the  air  con- 
tained in  its  pores  is  replaced  by  steam;  the  whole  casing  is 
then  closed  tight,  and  allowed  to  cool;  the  steam  condenses 
and  leaves  a  vacuum  in  and  around  the  wood.  If  one  of 
these  substances  is  then  introduced,  it  finds  its  way  into  the 
innermost  i)orcs  of  the  timber.    See  Wood-preserving. 

But  next  to  the  preservation  of  food,  the  most  important 
purposes  for  which  antiseptic  methods  and  substances  are 
used  are  the  jyreveniion  of  infectious  diseases,  and  the  treat- 
ment of  toounds. 

The  properties  of  the  mfectious  matter  of  infectious  dis 

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ANTI-SLAVERY—ANTI-SLAVERY  SOCIETY, 
eases  are  closely  analogous  to  those  of  the  orpnnisnis  that 
lead  to  putrefaction,  etc. ;  and  even  in  cases  where  its  or- 
ganic nature  has  not  been  proved  (see  Qerm  Theory),  can 
be  rendered  inert  by  a  proper  use  of  A.,  or  by  exposure  to  a 
high  temperature.  Thus  anything  that  has  come  near  the 
patient  suffering  from  an  infectious  disease,  also  the  dis- 
charges from  his  person,  can  be  made  harmless  by  carbolic 
acid,  chloride  of  zinc,  or  some  other  antiseptic;  his  bedding 
is  roasted  in  an  oven  at  a  temperature  of  212"  F.  or  more; 
the  room  where  he  has  been  treated  is  fumigated  with  chlo- 
rine or  sulphurous  acid,  and  so  the  disease  is  prevented  from 
spreading.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  medical  practice 
at  the  present  day.    Sec  Disinfectants. 

Many  of  the  evil  effects  which  follow  woimds  and  surreal 
operations  are  due  to  the  presence  of  microscopic  organisms 
(see  PYiBMiA);  and  the  effects  of  their  antiseptic  treatment, 
introduced  by  Mr.  Lister,  have  been  marvellous.    See  Gab 
BOLic  Acid:  Asepsis. 

ANTI-SLAVERY,  n.  dn'tUld'v^-i  [Gr.  anH,  against, 
and  slavery]:  hostility  to  slavery.  See  Abolitionists. 

ANTI-SLAVERY  SOCIETY,  The  American:  organ- 
ized  in  Philadelphia  1833,  Dec. ;  disbanded  after  the  ac- 
complishment of  its  mission  1870,  Apr.  9.  It  was  au  out- 
growth of  the  New  England  Anti-Slaverv  Soc,  organized 
in  Boston  1832,  Jan.  6,  by  William  Llovd  Garrison,  Oliver 
Johnson,  and  others.  The  founders  of  the  American  Soc. 
were  actuated  by  a  belief  that  slavery  was  contrary  to  the 
principles  of  natural  iustice,  our  republican  form  of  govt., 
and  the  Christian  religion;  that  it  was  destructive  of  the 
prosperity  of  the  country;  that  it  endangered  the  peace, 
union,  and  liberties  of  the  states;  and  that  no  scheme  of 
expatriation  could  remove  the  evil.  The  declared  object 
of  the  soc.  was  the  entire  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United 
States;  and  it  pledged  itself  to  strive  to  elevate  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  colored  people,  by  encouraging  their 
intellectual,  moral,  and  religious  improvement,  and  by  re- 
moving public  prejudice,  that  they  might,  according  to 
their  intellectual  and  moral  worth,  share  an  equality  with 
the  whites  of  civil  and  religious  privileges.  But  it  lurther 
and  emphatically  declared  that  it  would  never  counte- 
nance the  slaves  in  attempts  to  vindicate  their  rights  by 
resorting  to  physical  force.  After  its  organization  was 
completed,  the  soc.  published  a  *  Declaration  of  Senti- 
ments,' in  which  it  further  expressed  the  views  of  its 
founders  on  the  question  of  slavery,  and  noted  some  of  the 
measures  determined  on  for  the  accomplishment  of  its  ob- 
ject. The  successive  presidents  of  the  soc.  were  Arthur 
Tappan,  Lindley  Coates,  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  and 
Wendell  Phillips,  and  among  its  other  officers  and  active 

Jromotcrs  were  Benjamin  Lundy,  Lucretia  Mott,  William 
ay,  John  G.  Whitlicr,  Abby  Kelly  Foster,  Gerrit  Smith, 
Samuel  J.  May,  Owen  Lovcjoy,  and  Edward  Beccher. 
The  soc.  encountered  hostility  not  only  in  political  but  in 
social  and  religious  circles  from  its  organization,  and  till 
the  civil  war  began  to  establish  unalterably  the  principles 
for  which  its  members  labored  at  the  risk  of  their  lives. 

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ANTISPASMODIC-ANTITHESIS. 
the  soct  was  constantly  beset  by  danger,  trouble,  and  ma- 
levolence. The  Emancipation  Proclamation  and  the  rati* 
ficatioQ  of  the  13th,  14th,  and  15th  amendments  to  the 
federal  constitution  were  the  substantial  fruits  of  a  long 
and  heroin  struarijle  for  the  oppressed.     Sw  Slavery. 

ANTISPASMODIC,  a.  dn'ti-spdsmdd'ik  [Gr..  anti, 
against;  spasmos,  a  convulsion  or  spasm]:  applied  to 
medicines  that  have  power  to  allay  spasmodic  pains.  See 
Spasm. 

ANTISTHENES,  anrtufthe-nez:  founder  of  the  Cynio 
school  of  philosophy;  son  of  A.,  an  Athenian.  He  fought 
in  his  youth  at  Tanagra  (b.c.  426),  survived  the  battle  of 
Leuctra  (b.c.  871),  and  d.  at  Athens  at  the  age  of  70. 
After  listening  to  the  teaching  of  Socrates,  he  gave  up 
rhetoric,  whidi  he  had  followed  at  first  as  a  disciple  of 
Goipas,  and  applied  himself  wholly  to  philosophy.  He  was 
present  at  the  death  of  Socrates,  ana  never  forgave  his  perse- 
cutors. A.  held  that  virtue  mainly  consists  in  voluntary 
abstinence  from  pleasure,  and  in  a  stem  contempt  of  riches, 
honors,  and  even  learning.  Opinions  of  still  greater  extrav- 
agance are  ascribed  to  A.,  but  it  is  probable  that  they  were 
extreme  views,  which  he  put  into  Uie  mouths  of  the  inter- 
locutors in  his  dialogues,  rather  than  expressions  of  his  own 
views.  Even  in  his  condemnation  of  pleasure,  he  excepted 
such  as  springs  from  the  soul,  or  is  founded  on  true  friend- 
ship. In  consistency  with  \\]b  teaching,  A.  appeared  as  a 
beggar,  clad  in  ragged  garments—an  eccentricity  which 
Socrates  is  said  to  Eve  reproved  by  saving,  *  I  see  your 
pride  through  the  holes  in  your  cloak.'  The  singularity  af- 
fected by  A.  gained  many  imitators,  and  among  them 
Diogenes,  who  chose  to  live  in  a  tub,  and  surpa^ed  the 
master  himself  in  Cynic  practice.  After  the  death  of  Socra- 
tes, A.  taught  rnonl  ana  practical  philosophy  in  the  Athe- 
nian gymnasium  Cynosanjes,  from  which,  it  is  said,  his 
school  derived  its  title.  His  writings— amon^  them  a  po- 
lemical work  against  Plato-^iave  mostly  penshed.  Such 
fragments  as  rmain  have  been  collectca  by  Winckelmann 
iA.,  Fragmenia,  Zurich,  1843).  Ritter  classes  A.  with  the 
^  imperfect  Socraticists.' 

ANTISTUOPHE.  n.  dn-tWiro-fe  [Gr.  anii,  opposite; 
strophe,  a  turning]:  in  anc.  poetry,  the  stanza  of  a  chorus 
or  ode  succeeding  the  strophe;  in  dancing  around  the  altar, 
the  strophe  was  sung  while  turning  from  the  right  to  the 
left,  and  the  antistrophe  in  turning  from  the  left  to  the 
right — otherwise  the  former  in  turning  from  east  to  west, 
and  the  latter  in  turning  from  west  to  east.  An'tistroph'ic, 
a.  str^'ik,  of  or  pertaining  to. 

ANTITHESIS,  n.  dn-tlth'S-sU.  Antith'eses,  n.  plu. 
-i'Sez  [Gr.  antithesis,  placing  in  opposition— from  anti, 
against;  thisis,  a  placing]:  opposition  or  contrast  in  words 
or  sentiments.  Antithetic,  a.  dntl-tMt'ik,  or  An'ti- 
thet'ical,  a.  -i'kdl,  being  in  contrast;  containing  oppod- 
lion  of  words  or  sentiments.    An'tithet'icallt,  ad.  H, 

ANTITHESIS:  figure  of  speech  in  which  words  are 
placed  in  direct  opposition  to  each  other  to  produce  a  strong 


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ANTI-TOXIN— ANTIVARI. 

contrast.  Thus  Lessing,  in  criticism  on  a  book,  says:  *It 
contains  many  good  tilings,  and  many  new;  but  the  good 
are  not  new,  and  the  new  are  not  good.'  A  ,  naturally  and 
moderately  employed,  gives  liveliness  to  style;  but  becomes 
wearisome  when  too  often  repeated. 

ANTI-TOXIN,  anii'ioks'in:  new  treatment  for  diphthe- 
ria by  injection  of  serum  from  the  blood  of  some  animal, 
e.g.  the  horse,  rendered  immune  to  the  disease  by  repeated 
injections  of  bacilli.  Many  favorable  but  occasional  harm- 
ful results  have  attended  its  use.  See  Koch,  Robekt: 
Bactekia. 

ANTI-TRADES:  name  given  to  upper  tropical  winds, 
because  blowing  in  directions  opposite  to  trade-winds. 

ANTITRINITARIAN:  one  who  denies  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  An  A.  differs  from  a  Unitarian  only  in  this 
respect,  that  his  objection  to  the  doctrine  in  question  is  made 
on  philosophical,  while  that  of  the  latter  is  made  on  theo- 
logical grounds.  A  Unitarian  (at  least  according  to  the 
strict  usage  of  former  times— the  theological  limits  of  Uni- 
tarianism  have  now  become  more  vague)  is  one  who  accepts 
the  Bible  as  inspired,  but  does  not  find  in  it  the  doctrine  of 
tho  Trinity;  an  A.  is,  or  maybe,  a  philosophical  theist  who 
denies  the  inspiration  of  Scripture.     See  Unitarian:  8o- 

CINIAN. 

ANTITROPAL,  a.  dn-tWro-pal,  or  Antit'ropoub,  a. 
-pus  [Gr.  anii,  against;  trop^o,!  turn]:  in  M.,  at  the  ex- 
tremity most  remote  from  the  hilum,  as  the  embrjo— or 
inverted  with  respect  to  the  seed,  as  the  radicle. 

ANTITYPE,  a.  an'tUlp  [Gr.  anti,  against;  tupas,  a 
pattern] :  the  reality,  of  which  the  resemblance  or  pittem 
is  called  the  <ype— thus,  the  paschal  lamb  is  called  the 
type,  and  Christ  the  antitype.  See  Type.  Antittpical,  a 
dn'tUtlp'i-kdl,  that  which  explains  the  type.  An'tttyp'- 
ICALLY,  ad.  -li. 

AKTIUM,  dn'shl-um:  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Latium ;  stood  on  the  coast  34  m.  s  s.e.  from  Rome.  Favor- 
ably situated  for  commerce  and  piracy,  it  became,  under  the 
Volscians,  into  whose  hands  it  had  fallen,  one  of  the  most 
powerful  enemies  of  rising  Rome,  until  finally  subdued 
(b.  c.  338).  It  became  a  favorite  resort  of  the  wealthy  Romans, 
and  some  of  the  most  famous  remains  of  ancient  art  have 
been  discovered  among  the  ruins  of  their  villas  and  palaces; 
such  as  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  and  the  Borghese  Gladiator. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  emperors  Caligula  and  Nero; 
and  the  latter  consti-ucted  a  splendid  port  by  means  of  two 
moles  inclosing  a  basin  two  m.  in  circumference.  A.  was 
completely  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  during  the  middle 
ages;  and  it  was  only  in  the  17th  c.  that  the  modem  village 
of  Porto  d'Anzo  arose,  the  population  of  which  does  not 
exceed  500. 

ANTIVARI.  dfirte'vd-re:  seaport  18  m.  n.w.  of  Scutari, 
formerly  of  Albania,  but  on  the  coast-district  assigned  to 
Montenegro  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878;  it  has  a  good 
harbor,  shut  against  war-ships.    Pop.  about  7,000. 


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ANTLER-ANT-LION. 

ANTLER,  n.  dnfler  [P.  andouiller]:  a  branch  of  a  stag*! 
horn;  one  of  the  complete  horns.  Antlered,  a.  dnt'lerdt 
furnished  with  antlers. 

ANTLIA,  n.  antll-d  [L.  anttia,  a  pump]:  the  spiral 
trunk  witli  which  butterflies  and  other  lepidopterous  insccta 
suck  up  the  juices  of  flowers.  It  *  is  formed  hy  the  elongated 
slender  maxillae,  still  characterized  by  the  minute  palpi  at 
their  base.  The  inner  margins  of  the  maxillae  are  concave, 
and  the  edges  of  the  chamiels  are  in  close  contact,  or  are 
confluent,  so  as  to  form  a  canal  along  which  the  juices  of 
the  flowers  can  be  pumped  up  into  the  mouth.  The  labial 
palpi  are  of  large  size,  and  defend  the  antlia  when  it  is  re- 
tracted and  coiled  Jup.* — Owen.  In  astron.,  Antlia  is  an 
abbreviation  for  A.  Pneumatica  (the  air-pump),  one  of  the 
southern  constellations  introduced  by  Lacaille. 

ANTLIATA,  n.  pi.  dnt4i'd'ta  [L.  L.  furnished  with  a 
sucker,  like  a  pumpj:  name  given  by  Fabricius  to  the  Dip- 
terous oi-der  of  insects,  from  their  feeding  by  means  of  a 
sucker  or  pump  (see  Antlia);  but  the  term  antlia  is  now 
confined  to  the  spiral  sucker  of  the  Lepidoptera,  and  the  use 
of  A.  as  a  synonym  for  Diptera  would  be  misleading. 

ANT-LION:  the  larva  of  an  insect  {Myrmeleon  formicari- 
um)  of  the  order  Neuroptera,  remarkable  for  its  habits, 
which  have  been  carefully  observed  by  some  foremost  nat- 
uralists of  Europe.  It  inhabits  sandy  districts,  is  nol 
known  in  Britain,  and  is  more  common  in  the  s.  of  Europe 
than  in  the  north.  The  perfect  insect  is  about  an  inch  long 
and  has  a  considerable  general  resemblance  to  a  dragon-fly. 
The  larva  is  rather  more  than  half  an  inch  long;  it  has  a 
very  large  abdomen,  and  a  small  head,  which,  however,  if 


Ant-lion, 
a.  larva;  &.  perfect  insect. 

furnished  with  two  very  large  incurved  mt^lBSTcs.  It  has 
six  legs,  but  is  incapable  of  rapid  locomotion,  and  generally 
moves  backwards.  It  feeds  upon  the  juices  of  insects,  par- 
ticularly of  ants,  in  order  to  obtain  which  it  excavates  with 
the  greatest  ingenuity  a  funnel-shaped  hole  in  sandy  ground, 
an<uies  in  wait  at  the  bottom,  all  but  its  mandibles  buried 
in  the  sand.  Insects  which  approach  too  near  to  the  edge 
of  the  hole  then  become  its  prey,  by  the  loose  sand  giving 


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ANTOMMARCHI-ANTONELLO. 

way,  so  that  they  fall  down  the  steep  slope.  If  they  do  not 
fall  quite  to  the  bottom,  but  begin  to  scramble  up  again,  the 
A.  throws  sand  upon  tbem  hyr  jerking  its  head,  and  so 
brings  them  back.  It  employs  its  head  in  the  same  way  to 
eject  their  bodies  from  its  pit,  after  their  juices  have  been 
sucked,  and  casts  them  to  a  considerable  uistancc;  and  by 
the  same  means  throws  away  the  sand  in  excavating  its  hole, 
first  plowing  it  up  with  its  body,  and  then  placing  it  upon 
its  head  by  means  of  one  of  its  fore-legs.  It  always  begins 
by  working  round  the  circular  circumference  of  its  future 
hole,  and  gradually  narrows  and  deepens  it;  turning  quite 
round  after  each  time  that  it  works  round  the  hole,  so  as  to 
employ  next  time  the  fore-leg  of  the  other  side.  When  it 
meets  with  a  stone  which  it  cannot  remove,  it  deserts  the 
excavation,  and  begins  another.  The  pit  is  rather  more 
than  two  inches  deep.  After  about  two  years  the  larva  spins 
its  cocoon.    Several  species  occur  in  the  United  States. 

ANTOMMARCHI,  dntoTn-ma/ke,  Francesco:  b.  Cor- 
sica,  in  the  second  half  of  the  18th  c. :  d.  1838,  Apr.  3:  a 
well-known  physician,  who  left  his  situation  in  a  hospital  at 
Florence,  to  accept  appointment  as  private  physician  to  Na- 
poleon Bonaparte  when  banished  to  St.  Helena.  The  ex- 
eraperor  grew  attached  to  him,  and  bequeathed  him  100,000 
francs.  In  1821,  A  returned  to  Europe,  and,  1826,  published 
at  Paris  Les  Derniera  MamerUs  de  Napoleon.  Afterwards  he 
was  accused  of  publishing  as  his  own  anatomical  drawings, 
copies  from  plates  by  another  physician.  Suspicions,  seem- 
ingly not  ill-founded,  were  excited  also  as  to  the  jofenuine- 
ness  of  a  cast  of  Napoleon's  head  which  he  published  in 
Paris.  This  cast  purported  to  have  been  taken  on  Napo- 
leon's death -bed,  but  was  violently  disputed  by  phrenolo- 
gists. About  1836,  he  emigrated  to  America,  and  d.  at  San 
Antonio,  Cuba. 

ANTONELLI,  dn-to-nel'e,  Giacomo,  Cardinal.  1806, 
Apr.  2—1876;  b.  Somnino,  a  village  near  the  Pontine  Marshes. 
His  father,  a  woodcutter,  sent  A.  to  be  educated  at  the 
Grand  Seminary  of  Rome,  where  he  proved  himself  one  of 
Uie  cleverest  students  of  his  time.  He  gained  the  favor  of 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  who  named  him  a  prelate,  and 
gave  him  some  excellent  ecclesiastical  appointments.  In 
1841,  A.  became  under-sec.  of  state  to  the  Ministry  of  the 
Interior;  in  1844,  second  treasurer;  and  in  the  following 

ear,  finance  minister  of  the  two   Apostolic   Chambers. 

*ope  Pius  IX.  having  become  pope,  1846,  raised  A.,  during 
the  next  year,  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal -deacon  of  St. 
Affatha  aUa  Suburra.  In  1848,  A.  was  president  and 
mmister  of  foreign  affairs  in  a  liberal  cabinet,  which  framed 
the  famous  Staiuto  or  Constitution,  proclaimed  1848,  tlie 
principal  articles  of  which  were  so  very  soon  eluded.  In 
the  Ecumenioad  Council,  which  began  its  sittings  in  1869, 
A.  showed  great  tact  and  ability  in  restraining  the  zeal  and 
impetuosity  of  his  impulsive  master.    He  died  in  1876. 

ANTONELLO,  dr^-to-nelo  (of  Messina)  b.  in  Sicily, 
prob.  abt  1414;  d.  prob.  1493:  a  painter  prominent  in  the 
nigtory  of  Italian  art    In  his  day,  the  pamtings  of  Johaim 


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P< 


PLATE    4. 


Anticlinal 
Ant-lion 


a.  Anticline ;  «,  SyncIIne. 


aaa,  Anticlinal  Line;  lb.   Synclinal 
Line. 


Portico  in  Antls.    A, A.  Ant®.      ,  AntlerH.-«.Bi-ow.antler;  b.  Bez-ant- 
jTuiMwviu  A>  ^,^  xwiucc.      j^^.  ^   Antler-royal;  d,  Sur-royal  oi 

Cro  A'n  antler. 


Ant-lion*  ahowinK  perfect  insect,  larva,  and  excavatioa 


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ANTONIANO— ANTONINUS. 

van  Eyck  (of  Flanders)  had  a  wide  celebrity,  and  several 
gpecimens  were  brought  to  Naples,  where  A.  saw  one  of 
them.  Admiring  the  new  style  of  oil-painting,  he  travelled 
into  Flanders,  and  learned  the  secrete  of  the  art  from  Yun 
Eyck.  Afterwards,  he  settled  in  Venice,  and  was  the  first 
Italian  who  painted  in  oil  colors,  in  which  he  gave  instruction 
to  many  arUsts.  His  works  are  now  rather  scarce.  One,  in 
the  Museum  at  Berlin,  bears  the  date  1445. 

ANTONIANO,  dn-to-ne-d'no,  Silvio:  1540-1608;  b. 
Rome:  Italian  improvisatore  and  cardinal.  He  won  a  wide 
reputation  by  his  lectures  as  prof,  of  classical  literature 
in  the  College  of  Sapienza,  Rome.  In  1598  he  was  made 
cardinfd.  He  improvise<l  verses  in  all  the  measures  of  Ital- 
ian poetry,  and  wrote  a  Treatise  an  Education,  and  a  volume 
of  LaMn  Orations, 

ANTONINUS,  Itinerary  op  (Antonini  Itinerarium): 
a  valuable  geographical  work,  containing  the  names  of  all 
the  places  and  stations  on  the  principal  and  cross  roads  cf 
the  Roman  empire,  with  their  distances  from  each  other  in 
Roman  miles.  It  has  been  usually  attributed  to  tha  em- 
peror M.  Aurelius  Antoninus,  whence  its  name.  The  testi- 
mony, however,  of  the  Greek  geographer  -^thicus,  author 
of  the  Cosmographia,  assures  us  that  a  general  survey  of 
the  Roman  emmre  was  commenced  B.C.  44  in  the  consul- 
ship of  Julius  Cffisar  and  M.  Antoninus,  and  completed  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  when  the  results  of  the  sui-vey  received 
the  sanction  of  the  state.  These  results,  it  is  with  some 
probability  inferred,  are  embodied  in  \h\&  Itinerary,  vfhich. 
It  is  further  supposed,  received  additions  and  amendments 
in  the  time  of  the  Antonines.  Subsequent  improvements 
were  made  down  to  the  reign  of  Diocletian.  The  best  edi- 
tions are  those  of  Wesseling  (Amst.  4to,  1735),  and  Parthey 
(fieri.,  1848). 


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ANTONINUS. 

ANTONINUS,  dn-to-ntnus,  Marcus  Aurelius,  Roman 
emperor:  121,  Apr.  20—180,  Mar.  17  (reigned  20  yrs.);  b. 
Rome;  son  of  Annius  Verus  and  Domitia  Calvilla.  His 
original  name  was  Marcus  Annius  Verus.  On  the  death  of 
his  father,  he  was  adopted  by  his  grandfather,  who  spared 
no  pains  to  render  him  pre-eminent  in  every  art  and  science. 
His  fine  qualities  early  attracted  the  notice  of  the  emperor 
Hadrian,  who  used  to  term  him,  not  Verus,  but  Verissimus, 
and  who  conferred  high  honors  on  him,  even  while  a  child. 
When  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  he  was  adopted,  with 
Lucius  C.  Commodus,  by  Antoninus  Pius,  the  successor  of 
Hadrian:  and  Faustina,  the  daughter  of  Pius,  was  selected 
for  his  wife.  In  the  year  140  he  was  made  consul;  and  from 
this  period  to  the  death  of  Pius,  in  161,  he  discharged  the 
duties  of  his  various  oflSces  with  the  ^eatest  promptitude 
and  fidelity.  The  relation  between  him  and  the  emperor 
was  most  warm  and  familiar.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
he  strikingly  illustrated  the  magnanimity  of  his  character,  by 
voluntarily  sharing  the  government  (which  Pius  had  left  in 
his  last  moments,  and  the  senate  offered  to  him  cUone)  with 
young  Commodus,  who  henceforth  bore  the  name  of  Lucius 
Aurelius  Verus,  and  to  whom  he  gave  his  daughter  Lucilla 
in  marriage.  Towards  the  close  of  161,  the  Parthian  War 
broke  out,  and  Lucius,  a  young  man  of  vigorous  bodily 
iiabits,  was  sent  to  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  to  repel  the 
incursions  of  the  barbarians;  but  intoxicated  with  the  ener- 
vating pleasures  of  the  East,  he  obstinatelv  refused  to  go 
beyond  Antioch,  and  intrusted  the  command  of  the  armjr  to 
his  lieutenant  Cassius,  who  gained  several  brilliant  victories. 
Lucius  returned  to  Rome  (166),  and  enjoyed  a  triumph  to 
which  he  had  no  real  claim;  for  all  the  great  achievements 
of  the  war  were  accomplished  by  his  officers,  while  he  was 
revelling  in  the  most  extravagant  licentiousness.  In  the 
mean  time,  Marcus  Aurelius  had  distinguished  himself  by 
the  prudence  and  energy  with  which  he  administered  affairs 
at  home.  A  formidable  insurrection  had  long  been  prepar- 
ing  in  the  (Jerman  provinces;  the  Britons  were  on  the  point 
of  revolt,  and  the  Catti  waiting  for  an  opportunity  tc 
devastate  the  Rhenish  provinces.  Within  Rome  itself  raged 
a  pestilence,  believed  to  have  been  brought  home  by  the 
troops  of  Lucius;  frightful  inundations  ana  earthquakes  had 
laid  large  portions  of  the  city  in  ruins,  destroyed  the  granaries 
in  which  were  kept  the  supplies  of  corn,  and  Uius  created 
almost  universal  distress,  which  stimulate!  to  an  incalcu- 
lable degree  the  terror  which  the  citizens  entertained  of  their 
savage  enemies.  To  allay  the  popular  perturbation,  Marcus 
resolved  to  go  forth  to  the  war  himself.  Hecatombs  were 
offered  to  the  offended  gods,  and  the  Roman  legions  set  out 
for  the  north.  Marcus  and  Lucius  were,  for  the  time,  com- 
pletely successful.  The  pride  of  the  Marcomanni,  and  the 
other  rebellious  tribes  inhabiting  the  country  between  Dlyria 
and  the  sources  of  the  Danube,  was  humbled,  and  they  were 
compelled  to  sue  for  peace  in  168.  In  the  year  169  Lucius 
died.  The  contest  was  renewed  in  170,  and  may  be  said  to 
have  continued  with  little  intermission  during  the  whole  life 
of  the  emperor.    Although  fond  of  ikjucc,  both  from  natural 


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ANTONINUS. 

disposHion  and  philosophic  culture,  he  displayed  the  stemett 
vigor  in  suppressing  the  revolts  of  the  barbarians;  but  in 
omer  to  accomplish  this,  he  had  to  enrol  among  his  soldiery 
VHst  numbers  of  gladiators  and  slaves,  for  his  army  had  been 
thinned  by  the  ravages  of  the  plague.  Ilis  headquarters 
were  Pannonla,  out  of  which  he  drove  the  Marcomanni, 
whom  he  subsequently  nearly  annihilated  in  crossing  the 
Danube.  The  same  fate  befel  the  Jazyges;  but  the  most 
famous  as  well  as  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  his  victories, 
was  the  miraculous  one  gained  over  the  Quadi  (174),  which 
gave  rise  to  copious  discussion  among  Cnristian  historians 
and  others.  Dion  Cassius's  account  is.  that  the  Romans 
were  perishing  of  thirst  in  the  heat  of  summer,  when  sud- 
denly the  cloudless  sky  darkened,  and  abundant  showers 
fell,  of  which  the  soldiers  were  taking  advantage  when  the 
barbarians  attacked,  and  would  have  cut  them  to  pieces,  if 
a  storm  of  hail  and  fire  bad  not  descended  on  the  former. 
That  some  extraordinary  phenomenon  occurred  is  evident, 
for  there  is  a  letter  of  Aurelius  still  extant  in  which  he  com- 
memorates the  event;  and  the  emperor  was  a  man  incapable 
of  uttering  a  falsehood,  not  to  mention  that  there  was  an  en- 
tire army  living  to  disprove  the  statement,  if  untrue.  The 
effect  of  this  remarkable  victory  was  instantaneously  and 
widely  felt.  The  (J^ermanic  trib^  hurried  from  all  quarters 
to  make  their  submission  and  obtain  clemency;  but  the 
practical  advantages  that  might  have  resulted  from  it  were 
nullified  by  a  new  outbreak  in  the  east,  occasioned  through 
the  infamous  treachery  of  his  own  wife,  which  demanded  his 
presence,  and  though  suffering  from  failing  health,  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  Pannonia.  Beferc  his  departure,  however,  he 
learned  that  the  ambitious  governor,  Avidius  Cassius,  who  had 
rebelled  against  him  and  seized  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  had 
I)erished  by  assassination.  The  conduct  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
on  hearing  of  his  enemy's  death  was  worthy  of  the  sublime 
virtue  of  his  character.  He  lamented  that  the  Fates  had  not 
granted  him  his  fondest  wish— to  have  freely  pardoned  the 
man  who  had  so  basely  conspired  against  his  happiness. 
Like  Oesar  in  similar  circumstances,  but  in  a  more  purely 
humane  spirit,  he  received  the  head  of  his  murdered  adver- 
sary with  quite  opposite  feelings  to  what  had  been  antici- 
pated, rejecting  the  bloody  gift  with  all  the  loathing  of  a 
benevolent  nature,  and  even  shrinking  from  the  presence  of 
the  murderers.  On  his  arrival  in  the  east,  he  exhibited  the 
same  illustrious  magnanimity.  He  burned  the  papers  of  Cas- 
sius, without  reading  them,  so  that  he  might  not  be  at  liberty 
to  suspect  any  as  traitors;  treated  the  provinces  which  had 
rebelled  with  extreme  gentleness;  disarmed  the  enmity  and 
dispelled  the  fears  of  the  nobles  who  had  openly  favored  his 
insurgent  lieutenant  While  pursuing  his  work  of  restoring 
tranquillity,  Faustina  died  in  an  obscure  village  at  the  foot 
of  Moimt  Taurus;  and  her  husbabd  (and  this  was,  perhaps, 
the  single  frailty  of  his  character),  though  imdoubtealy 
conscious  of  her  glaring  profligacy  and  infidelity,  paid  the 
most  lavish  honors  to  her  memonr. 

On  his  way  home,  he  visited  Lower  Egypt  and  Greece, 
displaying  everywhere  the  noblest  solicitude  for  the  welfare 

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ANTONINUS. 

of  his  vast  empire,  and  drawing  forth  from  bis  subjects, 
who  were  astonished  at  his  goodness,  sentiments  of  the  pro- 
foundest  admiration  and  regard.  At  Atliens,  which  this 
imperial  pagan  philosopher  must  have  venerated  as  a  pious 
Jew  did  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  he  showed  a  catholicity  of 
intellect  worthy  of  his  grcjit  heart,  by  founding  chairs  of 
philosophy  for  each  of  the  four  chief  sects— Platonic,  Stoic, 
Peripatetic,  and  Epicurean.  No  man  ever  labored  more 
earnestly  to  make  that  heathen  faith  which  he  loved  so  well, 
and  that  heathen  philosophy  which  he  believed  in  so  truly, 
a  vital  and  dominant  reality.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
year  170,  he  reached  Italv,  and  celebrated  his  merciful  and 
bloodless  triumph,  Dec.  iS.  In  the  succeeding  autumn  he 
departed  for  (Germany,  where  fresh  disturbances  had  broken 
out  among  the  restless  and  volatile  barbarians.  He  was 
again  successful  in  several  sanguinary  engagements;  but 
his  originally  weak  constitution,  shattered  by  perpetual 
anxiety  and  fatigue,  at  length  sunk,  and  he  died  either  at 
Vienna,  or  at  Sirmium,  after  a  reign  of  20  years. 

Marcus  Aurelius  A.  was  the  flower  of  the  stoical  philoso- 
phy. It  seems  almost  inexplicable  that  so  hard  and  crabbed 
a  system  should  have  produced  as  pure  and  gentle  an  ex- 
ample of  humanity  as  the  records  of  heathen— we  had 
almost  said.  Christian — history  can  show.  Perhaps,  as  a 
modern  philosophic  theologian  suggests,  it  was  because 
stoicism  was  the  most  solid  and  practical  of  the  philosophic 
theories,  and  the  one  which  most  earnestly  opposed  itself  to 
the  rapidly  increasing  licentiousness  of  the  time,  that  the 
chaste  heart  of  the  youth  was  drawn  towards  it.  At  12 
years  of  age,  he  avowed  himself  a  follower  of  Zeno, 
Epictetus,  etc.  Stoics  were  his  teachers— Diognotus,  Apol- 
lonius,  and  Junius  Rusticus;  and  he  himself  Is  considered 
one  of  the  most  thoughtful  teachers  of  the  school.  Oratory 
he  studied  under  Herodes  Atticus  and  Cornelius  Fronto. 
His  love  of  learning  was  insatiable.  Even  after  he  had  at- 
tained to  the  highest  dignity  of  the  state,  he  did  not  dis- 
dain to  attend  the  school  of  Sextus  of  Chseronea.  Men  of 
letters  were  his  intimate  friends,  and  received  the  highest 
honors  both  when  alive  and  dead.  His  range  of  studies 
was  extensive,  embracing  morals,  metaphysics,  mathematics, 
jurisprudence,  music,  poetry,  and  painting.  Nor  must  we 
forget  that  these  were  cultivated  not  merely  in  tbe  spring- 
time of  his  life,  when  enthusiasm  was  strong,  and  experience 
had  not  saddened  his  thoughts,  and  when  study  was  his 
only  labor,  but  during  the  tumults  of  perpetual  war,  and 
the  distraction  necessarily  arising  from  the  government  of 
so  vast  an  empire.  The  man  who  loved  peace  with  his 
whole  soul  died  without  beholding  it,  and  yet  the  ever- 
lasting presence  of  war  never  tempted  him  to  sink  into  a 
mere  warrior.  He  maintained  uncorrupted  to  the  end  of 
his  noble  life  his  philosophic  and  philanthropic  aspira- 
tions. After  his  decease,  which  was  felt  to  be  a  national 
calamity,  every  Roman  citizen,  and  many  others  in  distant 
portions  of  the  empire,  procured  an  image  or  statue  of  him; 
which  more  than  a  hundred  years  after  was  still  found 
among  their  household  gods.    He  became  almost  an  object 

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ANTONINUS. 

of  worship,  and  was  believed  to  appear  in  dreams,  like  the 
saints  of  subsequent  Christian  ages. 

There  is  one  feature  in  his  character,  however,  which  it 
would  be  dishonest  to  pass  over — his  hostility,  namely,  to 
Christianity.  He  was  a  persecutor  of  the  new  religion,  and, 
it  is  clearly  demonstrated,  was  cognizant,  to  a  certain  extent 
at  least,  of  the  atrocities  perpetrated  upon  its  followers. 
Numerous  explanations  have  been  offered  of  his  conduct  in 
this  matter.  The  most  popular  one  is,  that  he  for  once  al- 
lowed himself  to  be  led  away  by  evil  counselors;  but  a 
deeper  reason  is  to  be  found  in  that  very  earnestness  with 
which  he  clung  to  the  old  heathen  faith  of  his  ancestors.  He 
believed  it  to  be  true,  and  to  be  the  parent  of  those  philoso- 
phies which  had  sprung  up  out  of  the  same  soil;  he  saw 
that  a  new  religion,  the  character  of  which  had  been  assidu- 
ously, though  perhaps  unconsciously,  misrepresented  to 
him,  both  as  an  immoral  superstition,  and  a  mysterious 
I)olitical  conspiracy,  was  secretly  spreading  throughout  the 
empire,  and  mat  it  would  hold  no  commerce  with  the  older 
religion,  but  condemned  it,  generally  in  the  strongest  terms. 
It  was,  therefore,  comparatively  easy,  even  for  so  humane 
a  ruler,  to  imagine  it  his  duty  to  extiipate  this  unnaturally 
hostile  sect.  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill  nnds  in  this  tragical 
error  of  the  great  emperor  a  most  striking  warning  against 
the  danger  of  interfering  with  the  liberty  of  thought.  What 
he  says  is  so  completely  in  harmony  with  the  above  con- 
ception of  the  motives  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  is  in  itself 
so  eloquent,  that  no  apology  is  required  in  quoting  the  pas- 
sage: "If  ever  any  one  possessed  of  power  had  grounds 
for  thinking  himself  the  best  and  most  enlightened  among 
bis  contemporaries,  it  was  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius. 
Absolute  monarch  of  the  whole  world,  he  preserved  through 
life  not  only  the  most  unblemished  justice,  but  what  was 
less  to  be  expected  from  his  stoical  breeding,  the  tenderest 
heart  The  few  failings  which  are  attributed  to  him  were 
all  on  the  side  of  indulgence;  while  his  writings,  the  highest 
ethical  product  of  the  ancient  mind,  differ  scarcely  percepti- 
bly, if  they  differ  at  all,  from  the  most  characteristic  teachings 
of  Christ.  This  man,  a  better  Christian,  in  all  but  the  dog- 
matic sense  of  the  word,  than  almost  any  of  the  ostensibly 
Christian  sovereigns  who  have  since  reigned,  persecuted 
Christianity.  Placed  at  the  summit  of  all  the  previous  at- 
tainments of  humanitv,  with  an  open,  unfettered  intellect, 
and  a  character  which  led  him,  of  himself,  to  embody  in 
bis  moral  writings  the  Christian  ideal,  he  yet  failed  to  see 
Uiat  Christianity  was  to  be  a  good  and  not  an  evil  to  the 
world,  with  his  duties  to  which  he  was  so  deeply  pene- 
trated. Eidsting  society  he  knew  to  be  in  a  deplorable 
state.  But  such  as  it  was,  he  saw,  or  thought  he  saw,  that 
it  was  held  together,  and  prevented  from  being  worse,  by 
belief  anil  reverence  of  the  received  divinities.  As  a  ruler 
of  mankind,  he  deemed  it  his  duty  not  to  suffer  society  to 
fall  in  pieces,  and  saw  not  how,  if  its  existing  ties  were  re- 
moved, any  others  could  be  formed  which  could  a^in  knit 
it  together.  The  new  religion  aimed  openly  at  dissolving 
these  ties:  unless,  tiierefore,  it  was  his  duty  to  adopt  that  re- 


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AirroNi^us. 

ligion,  it  seemed  to  be  his  duty  to  put  it  down.  Inasmuch, 
then,  as  the  theology  of  Christianity  did  not  appear  to  him 
true,  or  of  Divine  origin;  inasmuch  as  this  strange  history 
of  a  crucified  God  was  not  credible  to  him,  and  a  system 
which  purported  to  rest  entirely  upon  a  foundation  to  him 
so  wholly  unbelievable,  could  not  be  foreseen  by  him  to  be 
that  renovating  agency  which,  after  all  abatements,  it  has 
in  fact  proved  to  be;  the  gentlest  and  most  amiable  of  phi- 
losophers and  rulers,  under  a  solemn  sense  of  duty,  author- 
ized the  persecution  of  Christianity.  To  my  mind,  this  is 
one  of  the  most  tragical  facts  in  all  history.  It  is  a  bitter 
thought,  how  different  a  thing  the  Christianity  of  the  world 
might  have  been  if  the  Christian  faith  had  been  adopted  as 
the  religion  of  the  empire,  under  the  auspices  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  instead  of  those  of  Constantine.  But  it  would  be 
equally  unjust  to  him,  and  false  to  truth,  to  deny,  that  no 
one  plea  which  can  be  urged  for  punishing  anti-Christian 
teaching,  was  wanting  to  Marcus  Aurelius  for  punishing,  as 
he  did,  the  propagation  of  Christianity.  No  Christian 
more  firmly  believes  that  atheism  is  false,  and  tends  to  the 
dissolution  of  societjr,  than  Marcus  Aurelius  believed  the 
same  things  of  Christianity;  he  who,  of  all  men  then  living, 
might  have  been  thought  the  most  capable  of  appreciating 
it.  Unless  any  one  who  approves  of  punishment  for  the 
promulgation  of  opinions  flatters  himself  that  he  is  a  wiser 
and  better  man  than  Marcus  Aurelius— more  deeply  versed 
in  the  wisdom  of  his  time— more  elevated  in  his  intellect 
above  it — more  earnest  in  his  search  for  truth— let  him  ab- 
stain from  that  assumption  of  the  joint  infallibility  of  him- 
self and  the  multitude,  which  the  great  A  made  with  so 
unfortunate  a  result.* — See  Kenan's  Marc  Aurkle  (1882). 

ANTONINUS,  Wall  ot  (Antonini  Vallum)',  a  barrier 
erected  between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde  by  the 
Romans,  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  to  restrain  the  en- 
croachment of  the  native  tribes.  A  fragment  of  a  Roman 
pillar,  formerly  in  the  Univ.  of  Edinburgh,  fixes  its  date 
at  140.  The  superintendence  of  the  work  is  generally  at- 
tributed to  the  imperial  legate  Lollius  Urbicus.  Its  length 
was  about  27  English  m. ;  the  e.  termination  being,  accord- 
ing to  two  different  suppositions,  at  Carriden,  or  at  Einniel, 
on  the  Forth;  the  w.  at  Old  Kilpatrick,  or  at  Dunglass 
Castle,  on  the  Clyde.  The  work  consisted  of  a  ditch  about 
20  ft.  deep  and  40  wide,  a  rampart  of  earth  and  stone  about 
20  ft.  high  and  24  ft.  thick  at  the  base,  and  on  the  inner 
or  8.  side  of  the  rampart  a  paved  military  road.  It 
was  protected  by  a  chain  of  nineteen  forts,  with  watch- 
towere  between.  The  line  of  the  wall  may  still  be  traced  to 
a  considerable  extent.  The  most  perfect  fragments  are  at 
Elf  Hill,  on  the  moor  of  Bonnieside,  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  Castlecary;  within  the  park  of  Callander  House,  near 
Falkirk;  and  on  the  .slopes  at  In  vera  von,  not  far  from  the 
railway  station  at  Polmont.  It  is  commonly  designated 
Oraham*8  Dike — a  name  given  to  more  than  one  ancient 
ditch  and  rampart  in  En^nd.  See  Severub,  Wall  of. 
For  best  accounts  of  the  Wall  of  Antonine,  see  Roy's  Mili- 


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ANTONINUS  PIUS. 

tary  Antiquities  of  the  Romans  in  North  Britain  (1793),  and 
Stuart's  Caledonia  Bomana  (2d  cd.,  1852). 

ANTONINUS  PIUS,  dn-td-nVnnsfn'us,  Titus  Auke'- 
Lirs  PuLVUs,  Roman  emperor:  86-161  (reigned  138-161)  b. 
in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  The  family  of  A.  was  originally 
from  Nemausus,  now  Nlmes,  in  Gaul.  A.  inherited  great 
wealth,  and  early  showed  excellent  qualities.  In  120,  he  was 
made  consul;  afterwards  was  sent  by  Hadrian  as  proconsul 
into  Asia,  where  the  wisdom  and  gentleness  of  his  rule  won 
for  him  a  higher  reputation  than  had  been  gained  by  any  of 
his  predecessors.  By  his  wife  Faustina  he  had  four  children, 
of  whom  three  died,  leaving  a  daughter,  Faustina,  after- 
wards wife  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  In  138,  he  was  adopted  by 
the  emperor  Hadrian,  in  consequence  of  merit  alone,  and 
came  to  the  throne  in  the  same  year.  The  reign  of  A.  was 
proverbially  peaceful  and  happy.  In  his  private  character 
be  w&  simple,  temperate,  and  benevolent;  while  in"  public 
affairs  he  acted  as  the  father  of  his  people.  The  persecu- 
tion of  Christians,  which  was  continued  during  his  reign, 
was  partly  stayed  by  his  mild  measures.  He  was  little  en- 
gaged in  war,  excepting  in  Britain,  where  he  extended  the 
power  of  Rome,  and  built  a  wall  between  the  Forth  and  the 
Clyde,  as  a  defense  against  invasions  by  the  predatory  in- 
habitants of  the  north;  but  he  was  frequently  employed  in 
arbitration  and  general  counsel  on  the  affairs  of  foreign 
states.  '  Happy  the  nation  which  has  no  history.'  The 
reign  of  A.  illustrates  this  saying,  for  by  the  justice,  wis- 
dom, kindliness,  and  courtesy  of  the  emperor,  his  vast 
empire  was  preserved  from  the  crimes,  conspiracies,  insur- 
rections, and  bloodshed,  the  recording  of  which  formed  the 
largest  part  of  the  historian's  work  in  the  dark  centuries  of 
the  Roman  empire.     It  is  said  that  only  one  senator  was 


Copper  Coin  of  Antoninus  Pius,  commemorative  of  his  victories 
in  Britain.    From  one  in  the  British  Museum. 

impeached  during  A.'s  lifetime.  Literature  received  great 
encouragement;  the  laws  were  improved;  commerce  ex- 
tended, the  means  of  communication  were  facilitated  by  the 
repair  of  roads,  bridges,  etc. ;  new  sanitary  regulations  were 
introduced,  and  a  taste  for  architecture  fostered  in  the  citi- 
zens. The  epithet  Pius  was  conferred  on  him  on  account 
of  his  conduct  in  defending  the  memory  of  his  predecessor 
Hadrian  against  certain  dishonoring  measures  brought  for- 


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ANTONIUS. 

ward  by  the  senate.  The  column  raised  to  A/s  memory 
by  his  adopted  son  and  successor,  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus 
(q.v.),  was  discovered  in  1709,  and  now  exists  only  in  frag- 
ments. The  so-called  Pillar  of  Antoninus,  now  in  the 
Piazza  Golonna  at  Rome,  is  that  raised  by  the  senate  in 
honor  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  after  his  victory  over  the  Mar- 
comanni. 

ANTONIUS,  &vrtoni-m,  Marcus  (Mabk  Antony),  the 
Roman  triumvir:  B.C.  83-30;  descendant  of  one  of  the  old- 
est patrician  families;  son  of  the  praetor  M.  Antonius 
Crcticus,  and  on  the  side  of  his  mother  Julia,  related  to 
Julius  Cajsar.  His  youth  was  wasted  in  dissipation,  and 
finding  himself  pressed  by  numerous  impatient  creditors, 
he  escaped  to  Greece  in  B.C.  58,  where  for  a  short  time, 
he  listened  to  the  teaching  of  Athenian  philosophers  and 
orators.  His  studies  here  were  soon  interrupted  by  the 
proconsul  Gabinius,  who  appointed  him  leader  ot  his 
cavalry.  In  the  campaign  against  Aristobulus  in  Palestine, 
and  in  E^ypt,  A.  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage  and 
activity,  and  initiated  himself  with  the  soldiers.  After 
assisting  Caesar  in  Gaul,  he  went  to  Rome  in  50.  to  advance 
the  interests  of  the  former,  who  stood  in  great  danger  from 
the  hostility  of  the  oligarchical  party,  and  was  appointed  an 
augur,  and  chosen  one  of  the  tribunes  of  the  people.  In 
the  following  year,  on  account  of  his  adherence  to  the  party 
of  Caesar,  he  was  expelled  from  the  curia,  and  fled  to  Ceesar, 
who  made  use  of  this  event  as  a  pretext  for  his  war  against 
Ppmpey.  At  the  outbreak  of  this  war,  A.  received  the  ap- 
pointment of  commander-in  chief  in  Italy.  In  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia,  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  Caesar's  army. 
In  47,  ho  was  made  master  of  the  horse  by  Caesar,  who  left 
him  to  govern  Italy  during  his  absence  in  Africa.  Antonv, 
as  usual,  disgraced  himself;  was  perpetually  drunk; 
divorced  his  wife,  and  married  an  actress,  with  whom  he 

faraded  offensively  through  the  chief  towns  of  the  peninsula, 
n  44,  he  married  f*ulvia.  the  widow  of  Clodius;  was  made 
consul,  and  vainly  endeavored  to  prevaQ  on  the  Romans  to 
recognize  Caesar  as  emperor.  After  the  assassination  of 
Ccesar,  he  played  the  part  so  well  described  by  Shakespeare: 
and  by  his  funeral  oration,  and  the  well-timed  display  of 
Caesars  bloody  robe,  so  wrought  on  the  passions  of  the 
people,  that  the  conspirators  were  compelled  to  escape  from 
Home,  leaving  the  successful  orator  for  a  while  in  posscjs- 
sion  of  almost  absolute  power.  A.  was  then  occupied  in 
disputes  and  reconciliations  with  Octavianus  (Caesar's  heir), 
besieging  Mutioa,  and  then  denounced  by  Cicero  as  an 
enemy  of  the  state.  In  43,  his  troops  were  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Mutina,  when  he  escaped  beyond  the  Alps;  visited 
the  camp  of  Lcpidus,  who  commanded  in  Gaul;  and  gained 
the  favor  of  tlic  army,  of  which  he  took  the  command. 
Plancus  and  Pollio  joined  him  with  their  troops;  and  A.,  , 
who  so  recently  had  escaped  as  a  helpless  fugitive  from  Italy, 
returned  to  Rome  at  the  head  of  seventeen  legions^  and 
10,000  cavalry.  Octavianus,  who  had  pretended  to  main- 
tain republican  principles,  now  threw  off  the  mask,  and  held 
a  consultation  with  A.  and  Lepidus  on  the  island  of  Reaia 


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ANTONIUS. 

for  Lavino),  Dear  Bologna,  when  it  was  determined  that 
these  triumviri  should  share  the  whole  Roman  world  among 
themselves.  To  secure  their  spoil,  they  retumcil  to  Rome, 
and  began  their  course  of  munler  and  robbery  throughout 
Italy.  Among  their  Orst  victims  fell  Cicero,  the  orator 
whose  eloquence  they  dreaded.  According  to  Appian,  not 
less  than  800  senators  and  2,000  knights  fell  under  the 
power  of  the  triumviri.  After  making  Italy  safe  for  them- 
selves, and  raising  an  enormous  sum  of  money  to  carry  on 
their  war  abroad,  A.  and  Octavianus  led  their  troops  into 
Macedonia  against  Brutus  and  Cassius,  and  defeated  the 
republican  forces.  A.  next  visited  Athens,  and  then  went 
into  Asia,  to  arrange  his  dispute  with  Cleopatra,  queen  of 
Egypt,  whose  conduct  had  offended  the  triumviri.  The 
queen  herself  appeared  to  answer  his  challenge,  and  capti- 
vated A.  by  her  beautv  and  address.  The  general  who  had 
overcome  Brutus  and  Cassius  was  now  made  a  prisoner, 
though  not  of  war.  He  followed  Cleopatra  into  Egypt, 
and  lived  with  her  in  idleness  and  luxury,  until  be  was 
aroused  by  tidings  of  the  quarrel  which  had  taken  place 
in  Italy  between  his  own  relatives  and  Octavianus.  This 
dispute  gave  rise  to  a  short  war,  which  came  to  an  end 
before  A.  arrived  in  Italy.  A  new  division  of  the  Roman 
world  now  took  place  between  the  triumviri,  and  was 
soon  quietly  arranged  at  Brundusium.  A.  took  the  east, 
and  Octavianus  took  the  west;  while  the  ambition  of 
the  feeble  Lepidus  was  appeased  bv  his  having  the  whole 
of  Africa  for  his  portion.  Even  this  shadow  of  dominion 
was  taken  from  him  in  86.  Meanwhile  A.  had  confirmed 
his  friendship  with  Octavianus  by  a  marriage  with  Octavia, 
his  sister.  He  now  returned  to  Cleopatra,  resumed  his 
former  voluptuous  mode  of  life,  squandered  the  wealth  of 
Home  in  gifts  to  his  royal  mistress,  and  became  guilty  of 
gross  injustice.  Octavhu^us  made  use  of  these  facts  to  ex- 
cite the  indignation  of  the  Roman  people  against  A. ,  and  a 
war  between  the  rivals  became  unavoidable.  A.,  in  his 
idleness,  tried  to  postpone  the  trial  of  strength  which  he 
saw  inevitably  approaching,  and  fiUed  the  island  of  Samos 
(where  his  troops  were  qiiartered)  with  musicians,  jugglers, 
and  buffoons.  Meanwhile,  at  Rome,  he  was  deposed  from 
the  triumvirate,  and  war  was  proclaimed  against  Cleopatra. 
Each  partv  collected  its  forces,  and  in  the  naval  engage- 
ment which  took  place  (81),  near  Actium  (q.v.)  A.  was  de- 
feated. His  subsequent  hope  of  finding  troops  still  faithful 
to  him  in  Libya  was  disappointed.  He  returned  to  Egypt, 
where,  with  Cleopatra,  he  once  more  forgot  political  cares 
and  vexations,  until  his  amusements  were  suddenly  inter- 
rupted b^  the  arrival  of  Octavianus  at  Alexandria.  A.  now 
roused  himself,  made  a  charge  with  his  cavalry,  and  repelled 
his  enemy;  but  the  advantage  was  only  momentary.  Deserted 
by  the  Egyptian  fleet,  as  by  his  own  army,  and  suspecting 
that  even  Cleopatra  hod  conspired  against  him,  he  went  to 
her  palace,  from  which  the  queen  had  escaped.  Deceived 
by  a  false  message  informint?  him  of  the  death  of  Cleopatra, 
ii.  committed  suicide  by  falling  upon  his  sword. 
ANTONIUS.  or  Antony  op  Padua.  Saikt;  1195,  Aug 


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ANTONOMASIA— ANTONY. 

15—1231,  J».iie  13;  b.  Lisbon:  on  bis  father's  side,  related 
to  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  He  was  first  a  monk  of  the  Augus- 
tine order,  but  in  1220  he  entered  the  Franciscan  order, 
and  soon  became  one  of  its  most  active  propagators. 
On  his  missionary  voyage  to  Africa,  being  cast  on  the 
coast  of  Italy,  he  preached  with  great  success  at  Monlpellier, 
Toulouse,  Bologna,  and  Padua,  where  he  died.  The  le- 
gends of  A.  abound  in  marvels,  such  as  that  his  eloquence 
as  preacher  was  so  §reat,  that  even  the  fish  in  the  sea  were 
deeply  affected  by  itl  His  anniversaiy  is  June  13.  His 
monument,  a  fine  work  of  statuary,  is  in  the  church  which 
bears  his  name  at  Padua. 

ANTONOMASIA,  An'Wf-no-md'zi-a:  a  rhetorical  figure 
in  which  an  epithet  is  substituted  for  a  proper  name;  e.g. 
'  the  Stagyrite'  for  Aristotle.  Or  the  process  may  be  reversed ; 
e.g.  when  a  very  rich  man  is  called  *  a  Croesusi'  This  figure 
has  a  resemblance  to  metonymy. 

ANTON  ULRICH,  Hn'ton  ooVrik:  1714-80  (supposed): 
second  son  of  Duke  Ferdinand  Albert  of  Braunschweig- 
Wolfenbattel  (till  1735,  Braimschweig-Bevem,  the  title  by 
which  the  prince  was  first  known  in  Russia.  When  the  Russian  • 
empress  Anna  was  looking  out  for  an  alliance  for  her  niece, 
Anna  Carlovna,  princess  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  the  in- 
fluence of  Austria  led  her  to  choose  A.  U.  Accordingly,  he 
came  to  Russia  in  1733,  was  appointed  colonel  of  a  cuirassier 
regt.,  and  placed  in  the  receipt  of  a  considerable  pension. 
The  marriage  was,  however,  long  delayed.  The  princess 
showed  a  decided  distaste  for  the  insignificant  character  of 
the  bridegroom-elect,  and  married  him  only  to  avoid  a  still 
more  hated  union  with  the  son  of  Biron.  The  birth  of  the 
prince  Ivan  took  place  in  1740,  a  year  after  the  marriage. 
About  the  same  time,  the  empress  falling  dangerously  sick, 
appointed  the  infant  prince  her  successor,  and  Biron  regent. 
After  her  death,  A.  U.  made  some  feeble  attempts  to  reverse 
this  appointment,  which  only  led  to  the  punishment  of  those 
supposed  to  have  instigated  them,  and  to  his  own  military 
degradation.  Biron's  conduct  towards  the  parents  of  the 
In^nt  prince  becoming  unbearably  insolent,  Anna  appealed 
in  despair  to  Glen.  Mtlnnich,  who  put  a  sudden  end  to 
Biron's  sway,  and  declared  the  grand  duchess  and  her  hus- 
band regents.  After  a  few  months,  Anna  ungratefully  over- 
threw Mnnnich.  After  his  fall,  as  little  imity  prevailed 
between  the  ministers  at  the  helm  as  between  herself  and 
her  husband,  and  the  government  was  looked  upon  as  both 
foreign  and  contemptible.  Then  came  the  revolution  of 
1741,  Dec.  6,  which  in  one  night  raised  Elizabeth  (q.v.)  to 
the  throne.  A.  U.  and  his  consort  were  eidled,  and  lived 
long  at  Cholmogory,  in  the  government  of  Archangel. 
Three  children  were  bom  to  them  in  exile.  Anna  died  in 
1746.  Catharine  II.  offered  A.  U.  his  freedom,  but  he 
declined  it.  Ultimately,  he  grew  blind.  The  exact  year  of 
his  death  is  uncertain.  Catharine  offered  his  chilcken  an 
asylum  in  Jutland. 

ANTONY,  dnUhnl,  Saint,  sumamed  The  Great 
(also   Antony  op  Thebes),  the   father   of   mouachism- 


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ANTONY. 

abt.  251-356,  Jan.  17;  b.  Koma,  near  Heraklea,  Upper 
Egypt.  His  parents  were  wealthy  and  pious.  Having, 
in  obedience  to  what  he  believed  to  be  a  divine  in- 
junction, sold  his  possessions,  and  distributed  the  pro- 
ceeds among  the  poior,  he  withdrew  into  the  wilderness, 
where  he  disciplined  himself  in  all  those  austerities  which 
have  hallowed  his  memory  in  the  Rom,  Cath.  Church,  and 
formed  the  model  of  the  monastic  life.  When  30  years  of 
age,  however,  desirous  of  obtaining  a  deeper  repose  than  his 
situation  afforded,  he  penetrated  further  into  the  desert,  and 
took  up  his  abode  in  an  old  ruin  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  where 
be  spent  20 years  in  the  most  rigorous  seclusion;  but,  in  305, 
be  was  persuaded  to  leave  this  retreat  by  the  prayers  of  nu- 
merous anchorites,  who  wished  to  live  under  his  direction. 
He  then  founded  the  monastery  of  Faloum,  at  first  only  a 
group  of  separate  and  scattered  cells  near  Memphis  and  Ar- 
sinoC;  which  may  be  considered  the  origin  of  cenobite  life. 
The  persecution  of  the  Christians  by  Maximian  in  311,  in- 
duct St.  A.  to  leave  his  cell  and  go  to  Alexandria,  in  the 
hope  of  obtaining  the  crown  of  martyrdom,  but  having  failed 
in  this,  he  returned  to  his  solitude  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
which,  however,  he  soon  left,  plunging  yet  deeper  into  the 
desert  At  length  he  found  a  lodgment  on  a  bill,  about  a 
day's  journey  from  the  Red  Sea;  but  his  disciples  discover- 
ing his  retreat,  so  pressed  him  with  their  affectionate  im- 
portunities, that  he  ventured  to  accompany  them  back. 
After  many  pious  exhortations,  he  once  more  left  them,  and 
soon  became  the  mighty  oracle  of  the  whole  valley  of  the 
Nile.  In  355,  the  venerable  hermit,  then  104  years  of  age, 
made  a  journey  to  Alexandria  to  dispute  with  the  Arians. 
He  had  mterviews  with  Athanasius  and  other  distinffuished 
persons;  but  feeling  his  end  approaching,  he  retired  to  his 
desert  home,  where  he  died. 

Athanasius  states,  in  his  Life  of  St.  A.,  that  the  saint 
wore  only  a  coarse  shirt  of  hair,  and  never  washed  his  body, 
which  is  more  credible  than  the  stories  that  he  relates  of  his 
encounters  with  the  devil,  or  his  miracles.  His  whole  con- 
duct indicates  the  predominance  of  a  flowing  and  yet 
gloomy  fancy — the  proper  condition  of  religious  asceticism. 
Although  the  father  of  monachism,  St.  A.  is  not  the  author 
of  any  monastic  *  rules ';  those  which  the  monks  of  the  east- 
em  schismatic  sects  attribute  to  him  are  the  production  of 
St.  Basil.  He  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  saint  in  the  Rom. 
Cath.  Church.  Accounts  of  his  life  and  miracles  are  given 
in  the  Acfa  Sanctorum  of  the  Bollandists,  under  date  Jan. 
17,  on  which  day  his  festival  was  kept. 

St.  AuTHOinr's  Pike.— The  Rev.  Alban  Butler,  in  his 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  gives  the  following  account  of  the  origin 
of  this  name:  '  In  1089,  a  pestilential  erysipelatous  distem- 
per, called  tiie  saered  fire,  swept  off^  great  numbers  in  most 
provinces  of  France;  public  prayers  and  processions  were 
ordered  against  this  scourge.  At  length,  it  pleased  God  to 
grant  many  miraculous  cures  of  this  dreadful  distemper,  to 
Uiose  who  implored  His  mercy  through  the  intercession  of 
St  A.,  especially  before  his  relics;  the  church  [of  La  Motte 
St.  Didier,  near  Vienne,  in  Dauphin^]  in  which  they  were 
deposited  was  resorted  to  by  great  numbers  of  pilgrims, 


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A:J^TRAIGUES— ANTRIM. 

and  his  patronage  was  implored  over  the  whole  kingdom 
against  this  disease.'  The  *  Order  of  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
Anthony/  a  religious  fraternity,  founded  about  1090,  for 
the  relief  of  persons  afflicted  with  the  lire  of  St.  A.,  survived 
in  France  till  1790. 

St.  Anthony's  Well,  a  small  fountain  near  the  ruined 
chapel  of  St.  A.,  on  the  n.  slope  of  Arthur's  Seat  (q.  v.),  near 
Edinburgh.  This  interesting  fountain,  which  consists  only 
of  a  stone  basin,  into  which  water  trickles  from  imder  an 
incumbent  rock,  is  celebratetl  in  the  Scottish  song,  *0, 
walytWaly.* 

ANTRAIGUES,  &n-trdg',  Emanxjel-Louis-Henri  De- 
LA  UN  AY,  Comte  d':  1755-1812;  b.  Vivanvis,  dept.  Arddche: 
a  great  politician,  but  very  ambiguous  character.  He  was 
educated  under  the  Abbe  Maury.  His  superior  talents  were 
shown  first  in  his  Memoire  sur  les  Etatsgenh'aux,  leurs 
Droits  et  la  Maniire  de  les  convoquer  (1788).  This  book,  full 
of  daring  assertions  of  liberty,  was  one  of  the  first  sparks  of 
the  fire  which  afterwards  flamed  in  the  French  Revolution. 
In  1789,  when  A.  was  chosen  as  a  deputy,  he  not  only  de- 
fended the  privileges  of  the  hereditary  aristocracjr,  but  also 
ranked  himself  with  those  who  opposed  the  union  of  the 
three  estates;  while  in  the  discussions  on  the  constitution,  he 
maintained  that  the  royal  'eeto  was  an  indispensable  part  of 
good  government.  After  leaving  the  assembly  in  1790,  he 
was  employed  in  diplomacy  at  St.  Petersburg  and  Vienna, 
where  he  defended  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons.  In  1808,  he 
was  employed  under  Alexander  of  Russia  in  an  embassy  to 
Dresden,  where  he  wrote  against  Bonaparte  a  brochure  en- 
titled A  Fragment  of  the  18<A  Book  of  Polyhius,  discovered 
on  Mount  Athos.  He  afterwards  went  to  England,  and  ac- 
quired great  influence  with  Canning.  Despite  his  attach- 
ment to  the  interest  of  the  Bourbons,  he  could  never  win  the 
confidence  of  Louis  XVHI.  In  1812,  he  was  murdered, 
with  his  wife,  at  his  residence  near  London,  by  an  Italian 
servant,  who,  immediately  afterwards,  commitcd  suicide. 

ANTRE,  D.  an'ter  [L.  antrum,  a  cave]:  in  poetry,  a 
cavern;  a  den. 

ANTRIM,  an' trim:  maritime  county  in  the  n.e.  of  Ire- 
land, province  of  Ulster;  bounded,  n.  by  the  Atlantic;  w. 
by  the  n.  part  of  the  river  Bann,  dividing  it  from  London- 
derry, and  by  Lough  Neagh;  s.  by  Lagan  river,  separating 
it  from  the  county  of  Down;  s.e.  by  Belfast  Lough;  and  e. 
by  the  Irish  Channel.  It  stands  third  among  the  Irish  coun- 
yes  in  population,  but  in  extent  only  ninth.  Its  greatest 
length  is  56  m. ;  its  greatest  breadth,  80;  its  extent  of  sea-coast, 
90  m. :  1164  sq.  miles.  About  two-thirds  of  this  is  arable;  a 
fourth  barren;  and  a  seventy  fourth  in  woods.  Off  the  n. 
coast  lie  Rathlin  Isle  and  the  Skerries;  and  off  the  e.  coast, 
the  Maiden  Rocks;  the  e.  coast  is  hilly;  and  from  Lame  to 
Fair  Head, parallel  mountain-ranges  of  no  ^eat  height,  and 
covering  a  third  of  the  county,  stretch  s.w.  into  the  mlerior, 
forming  valleys  opening  seaward,  called  the  Glens  of  An- 
trim. The  interior  slopes  towards  Lough  Neagh.  The 
highest  eminences  are — Trostan,  1,810  feet,  and  Slievemish, 
or  Slemish,  1,782  feet.   The  principal  streams  are— the  Bann, 


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ANTROR«E— ANl^WTERK 

from  Lough  Nea^  to  the  Atlantic;  the  Main,  running  par- 
allel to  the  Bann,  but  in  the  reverse  direction,  into  Lough 
Neagh;  and  the  Bush,  flowing  n.  into  the  Atlantic.  Peat- 
hogs  are  numerous.  Six-sevenths  of  the  surface  consist  of 
basaltic  trap,  often  alternating  with  red  ochre,  and  overly- 
ing hardened  chalk,  green-sand,  new  red  sandstone,  and 
mica-slate.  The  surface  and  edges  of  the  trap-field,  in  some 
places,  present  basaltic  columns  of  varied  outlines.  The 
green-sand  and  new  red  sandstone  crop  out  on  the  e.  ands.e. 
borders,  and  millstone  grit  occurs  in  the  n.e.  Between 
Balljcastle  and  the  mouth  of  the  Bann,  the  basalt  assumes 
very  picturesque  forms;  and  the  Giants*  Causeway  is  one  oi 
the  most  perfect  examples  of  columnar  basalt  in  the  world. 
Fine  salt  mines  occur  at  Duncrue  and  Carrickfergus;  and 
small  coal-fields  near  Ballycastle,  and  in  the  interior.  Rich 
beds  of  iron  ore  of  fine  quality  have  been  recently  opened 
in  Glenravel,  and  a  large  export  has  been  carried  on  from 
Cushendall  and  Camlough.  The  soil  of  A.  is  niostly  light, 
and  the  chief  crop  is  oats.  In  1882,  243,831  acres  were  un- 
der crop,  77,847  bein^  m  oats,  44,974  in  potatoes,  and  4,5(M 
in  wheat.  The  land  is  very  much  subdivided;  and  the  rear- 
ing of  flax,  and  the  various  branches  of  the  linen,  cotton, 
and  coarse  woolen  manufacture,  employ  a  great  portion  of 
the  people.  In  1881,  there  were  upwards  of  96,(K)0  pupils 
on  the  rolls  of  the  national  schools  in  the  county  (28,000 
being  Rom.  Catholics).  The  principal  towns  are  Belfast. 
Lisbum,  Ballymena,  Bally  money,  Carrickfergus,  Larne,  and 
Antrim.  Before  1885,  County  A.  returned  two  members 
to  parliament;  Belfast  borough,  two;  and  Carrickfergus  and 
Lisbum  boroughs,  each  one;  but  since  1885  it  returns  eight 
members,  of  whom  four  represent  the  city  of  Belfast.  Nearly 
one-half  of  the  inhabitants  are  Presbyterians,  the  county 
having  been  extensively  colonized  from  England  and  Scot- 
land. The  original  possessors  were  the  O'Weills,  who,  par- 
tially diroossessed  by  John  de  Courcy,  reappeared  on  the 
failure  of  his  line,  regained  nearly  the  whole  of  the  country, 
and  kept  it  till  the  forfeiture  of  Shane  O'Neill.  Pop.  (1861) 
852,264;  (1861)  868,948;  (1871)  404.015;  (1881)  421,948,  of 
whom  nearly  190,000  were  Presb.,  108,000  Rom.  Cath.,  and 
98,000  Prot.  Episcopalians;  (1891)  471.179. 

ANTRORSE,  a.  Uri-tr^il  [L.  anU,  before;  ner^m,  turn- 
ed]: in  hot.^  having  an  upward  direction  towards  the  sum- 
mit of  some  part. 

ANTWERP,  6tw/'tt?^rp (in  French,  Anvers,  dn-vair'):  cap. 
of  the  prov.  which  bears  its  name,  and  the  chief  com- 
mercial city  of  Belgium;  on  the  river  Scheldt  Its  chief 
gublic  institutions  are  the  Acad,  of  Sciences,  Acad,  of 
ainting  and  Sculpture,  formerly  known  as  the  Acad,  of 
St.  Mark,  a  Medical  and  Surgical  School,  Naval  Arsenal, 
Museum,  and  Zoological  Gardens.  The  cnthedral,  one  of 
the  noblest  Gothic  structures  in  Europe,  is  500  ft.  in  length 
by  240  in  breadth,  with  a  roof  supported  by  125  pillars,  and 
a  very  lofty^  spire.  The  interior  is  enriched  by  the  two 
greatest  of  all  the  pictures  of  Rubens,  T/i£  Elevation  of  the 
Croi8,  and  The  Descent  from  the  Cross.  The  Church  of  St. 
James  contains  the  monument  of  the  Rubens  family.     The 

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AlsrUBlB. 

new  fortifications,  recently  erected,  render  this  commercial 
capital  of  Bclffium  one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified  places 
in  Europe.  The  trade  and  manufactures  of  A.  have  recently 
greatly  extended,  and  the  large  dock  and  quay  accommoda- 
tion having  been  found  too  Tiniited,  8tei)s  have  been  taken 
for  making  a  new  quarter  of  the  town,  with  aniple  harbor^ 
room,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Scheldt.  The  manu- 
factures consist  chiefly  of  sugar,  white-lead,  cotton  goods, 
point-lace,  linen  thread,  carpets,  gold  and  silver  lace.  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  sewing-silk,  black  silk  stuffs,  and  printer's 
ink,  as  it  was  in  former  times  for  its  velvets,  damasks,  and 
satins.  There  are  also  to  be  mentioned  tobacco  manufacture, 
the  cutting  of  diamonds  and  other  precious  stones,  and 
shipbuilding. 

A.  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  8th  c. ;  in  the  12th  and  ISth 
it  gave  signs  of  considerable  prosperity,  and  in  1560 
numbered  more  than  200,000  inhabitants.  The  union  of 
Belgium  with  Holland  in  1815  was  very  favorable  to  the 
commerce  and  general  prosperity  of  A.  By  the  revolution, 
1830,  Aug.,  it  was  linked  to  the  destiny  of  Belgium.  When 
the  revolutionary  party  gained  possession,  the  commandant. 
Gen.  Ohasse,  retreated  to  the  citadel,  and,  exasperated  by 
the  breach  of  truce,  commenced  a  bombardment,  which 
destroyed  the  arsenal  and  about  thirty  houses.  In  1832,  a 
French  army  of  50,000  men,  under  Marshal  (Jerard.  appeared 
before  A.,  to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  citadel,  which 
Gen.  Chaase  refused.  After  the  interior  of  the  citadel  had 
been  reduced  to  ruins  by  the  French  artillery.  Gen.  Chass6 
capitulated;  the  Flemish  fortification,  and  the  forts  Burght, 
Zwindrecht,  and  Austroweel  were  surrendered  to  the 
Belgian  troops,  and  the  Dutch  troops  were  taken  to  France, 
as  hostages  for  the  surrender  of  the  forts  Lillo  and  Lief ken- 
shoek,  according  •  to  an  article  in  the  negotiation  of  1881, 
Nov.  15,  which  stipulated  that  the  five  citadels  held  by  the 
Dutch  troops  in  Belgium  should  be  surrendered.  Pop. 
(1894)  256,620. 

ANUBIS,  n.  d-nuVU:  an  Egyptian  deity,  styled  Anepu 
on  hieroglyphic  monuments;  according  to  mythology,  the 
son  of  Osiris  and  Nephthys.  By  the  Greeks, 
he  was  frequently  styled  Hermes  or  Ilenna- 
nubis,  combining  the  Egyptian  with  the 
Grecian  name,  lie  is  represented  on  monu- 
ments as  having  the  head  of  a  jackal,  with 
pointed  ears  and  snout,  which  the  Greeks 
frequently  changed  to  those  of  a  dog.  Some- 
times he  IS  seen  wearing  a  double  crown.  A 
white  and  yellow  cock  was  sacrificed  to  him. 
His  office,  like  that  of  Hermes  Psychopompus 
among  the  Greeks,  was  to  accompany  the 
ghosts  of  the  deceased  intoHades  (Amenthes), 
and  there  to  assist  Horus  in  weighing  their 
actions,  under  the  inspection  of  Osiris.  As, 
in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  Egyptian 
worship  had  spread  beyond  Egypt  itself,  the 
two  conceptions  of  A .  and  Hermes  were  blent  Anubis. 
together,  and  the  dog*s  head  of  the  former  was  f oimd  imitecl 
to  the  insignia  of  the  latter. 


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ANTJPSHUnUR— ANUS. 

ANUPSETUHUR,  an^iv-skUh-her' :  town  of  India,  in  the 
British  dist.  of  Bolundshuhur,  Northwest  Provinces,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  73  m.  e.  from  Delhi,  on  the 
route  to  Bareilly.  The  channel  of  the  Qan^es  is  here  about 
a  mile  wide,  but  only  about  one-fifth  of  that  space  is  oc- 
cupied bythe  stream  in  the  dry  season.  The  town  is  ill 
built  and  crowded,  the  houses  either  of  mud  or  ill-cemented 
brick.    Pop.  (1871)  10,644. 

ANUS,  n.  d'rma  [L.]:  term  applied  by  anatomists  to  the 
lower  or  (in  the  case  of  animals)  the  posterior  aperture  of 
Ibe  intestinal  canal;  the  rectum  terminating  externally  in  the 
anus.  With  regard  to  il»anatoray ,  it  is  sufficient  to  state  that 
it  is  kept  firmly  closed  on  ordinary  occasions  by  the  external 
and  internal  sphincter  muscles,  the  former  of  which  contracts 
the  integument  aroimd  the  opening,  and,  by  its  attachment 
to  the  coccyx  behind,  and  to  a  tendinous  centre  in  front, 
he1]>s  the  levator  ant  muscle  in  supporting  the  aperture 
during  the  expulsive  efforts  that  are  made  in  the  passage  of 
the  f  teces  or  intestinal  evacuations;  while  the  latter,or  internal 
tphincter,  is  an  aggregation  of  the  circular  muscular  fibres 
of  the  lowest  part  of  the  rectum,  and  acts  in  contracting  the 
extremity  of  the  tube.  The  main  f imction  of  the  levator  ani 
muscle  IS  expressed  in  its  name  it  being  the  antagonist  of 
the  diaphragm  and  other  muscles  which  act  in  the  expulsion 
of  the  fseccs.  The  integument  around  the  anus  lies  in 
radiating  plaits,  which  allow  of  its  stretching  without  pain 
during  the  passage  of  the  fseces;  and  the  mar^n  is  provided 
with  a  number  of  sebaceous  glands,  which,  m  some  of  the 
lower  animals,  secrete  strongly  odorous  mattei's.  See  Ai^al 
Glands.  Infants  are  occasionally  bom  with  an  imperforate 
anus,  or  congenital  closure  of  the  rectum.  In  the  simplest 
form  of  this  affection,  the  anus  is  merely  closed  by  thin 
skin,  which  soon  becomes  distended  with  the  Meconium 
(q.v.).  More  complicated  cases  are  those  (1)  in  which  the 
zut  terminates  some  distance  above  the  seat  of  the  anus  in  a 
blind  sac  or  pouch;  (2)  where  the  rectum  terminates  in  the 
bladder,  etc.  Fortunately,  the  closure  by  a  layer  of  skin  is 
far  the  most  common  form  of  imperforate  anus,  and  the 
little  i^tient  is  at  once  relieved  by  a  very  simple  surgical 
operation.  If,  however,  no  treatment  be  adopted,  too  often 
ihe  case  in  consequence  of  a  popular  delusion  that  the  af • 
action  is  incurable,  the  abdomen  becomes  distended  and 
hard,  vomiting  comes  on,  the  vomited  matters  soon  assume 
a  fsecal  smell,  and  the  infant  dies  in  a  few  days,  either  from 
exhaustion  or  rupture  of  the  intestines. 

Spawn  qf  the  ^hincter  Ani  is  by  no  means  a  rare  affection; 
it  is  characterized  by  violent  pain  of  the  anus,  with  difficulty 
in  passing  Uie  faeces.  On  attempting  an  examination,  the 
muscle  feels  hard,  and  resists  the  mtroduction  of  the  finger. 
It  usually  occiuB  in  suddeit  paroxysms,  which  soon  go  off: 
but  sometimes  it  is  of  a  more  persistent  character.  Its 
causes  are  not  clearly  known,  and  although  most  surgeons 
regard  it  as  a  special  affection,  some  consider  that  the  spasm 
is  not  a  disease  in  itself,  but  merely  a  symptom  of  some 
di^t  excoriation  or  ulceration.  Suppositones  containing 
opium  or  belladonna,  introduced  during  the  period  of  relaxar 


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ANUS. 

tion,  are  sometimes  of  use;  and  if  there  are  ulcers,  tbey 
must  be  specially  treated.  Ulceration  occurring  as  a  breach 
of  surface  at  one  or  more  points  around  the  anus,  but  not 
extending  within  the  orifice,  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in 
persons  who  are  not  attentive  to  cleanliness,  and  especially 
in  women  with  vaginal  discharges.  Strict  attention  to 
cleanliness,  the  patient  being  directed  to  apply  warm  water 
to  the  parts  at  least  twice  daily  with  a  sponge  (which  after 
each  operation  should  be  carefully  rinsed  out),  and  one  or 
two  applications  of  the  solid  nitrate  of  silver,  followed  by 
black-wash,  will  effect  a  speedy  cure.  If  the  ulcer  is  seated 
partly  mthout  the  anus  and  partly  within  the  rectum,  the 
distress  is  much  more  severe,  and  the  treatment  often  requires 
the  use  of  the  knife.  Fismre  of  the  anus  is  a  term  applied 
to  an  affection  consisting  in  one  or  more  cracks,  excoriations, 
or  superficial  ulcerations,  situated  between  the  folds  of  the 
skin  and  mucous  membrane  at  the  ver^  of  the  anus,  and 
only  slightly  involving  the  rectum.  They  give  rise  to 
intense  pain  during  the  passage  of  the  evacuations,  and  for 
some  hours  afterwards  to  great  discomfort,  smarting,  and 
itching.  The  treatment  to  be  adopted  is  to  endeavor  to 
procure  regular  and  somewhat  soft  evacuations,  and  to 
sponge  with  warm  water  immediately  afterwards,  the  parts 
being  dried  with  a  soft  cloth.  One  or  two  applications  of 
solid  nitrate  of  silver  will  sometimes  cure  the  disease;  and 
an  ointment  of  oxide  of  zine,  or  one  containing  chloroform, 
will  sometimes  serve  to  allay  the  irritation  and  heal  the 
^SLrts.—Prurtin8  ani,  which  simply  means  intense  itching 
and  irritation  of  this  part,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  symptom 
of  certain  morbid  changes  rather  than  as  a  special  disorder; 
but  is  very  common,  and  productive  of  much  suffering.  It 
is  often  associated  with  an  unhealthy  state  of  the  intcsthial 
secretions,  or  with  simple  constipation  ;  with  a  congested 
state  of  the  mucous  membrane;  with  a  disordered  condition 
of  the  womb;  with  the  presence  of  thread  worms  in  the 
rectum,  etc. ;  and  it  is  peculiarly  common  ip  persons  whose 
occupations  are  sedentary.  The  affection  is  often  much 
aggravated  by  the  patient's  being  unable  to  refrain  from 
scratching  the  parts,  which  leads  to  excoriations,  ulcerations, 
thickening  of  the  skin,  etc.  The  symptoms  are  usuallT 
most  severe  when  the  sufferer  begins  to  get  warm  in  bea. 
If  the  affection  arise  from  worms,  or  a  loaded  state  of  the 
lar^e  intestines,  enemata  and  purgatives  will  give  immediate 
relief.  If  unhealthy  excretions  exist,  attention  must  be 
paid  to  the  diet,  and  the  occasional  administration  of  a  pill 
containing  same  alterative  and  aperient  as  may  be  advised 
until  relieved,  together  with  the  local  application  of  soap 
and  water  to  the  parts,  will  often  stop  the  itching.  If  there 
are  any  cracks  or  ulcers,  nitrate  of  silver  must  be  applied 
until  they  heal.  To  prevent  the  reappearance  of  these  sores, 
the  patient  should  bathe  the  parts  night  and  morning  with 
a  strong  solution  of  alum.  An  ointment  composed  of  a 
drachm  of  calomel  and  an  ounce  of  lard  is  strongly  recom- 
mended by  Mr.  Smith,  of  King's  College  Hospital,  when 
other  means  have  failed;  who  also  states  tliat  the  dailv 
introduction  of  a  well-oiled  bougie,  made  of  black  wax,  will 


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PLATE    5.     -  4?!y.w 


AatU 


Anvil. 


▲nnblB, 


Antwerp  CathedraL 


Vol  4 

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ANVIL-ANXIETY. 

aometimes  succeed  in  very  obstinate  cases.  For  other 
priDcipal  affections  of  the  anus,  see  f^sruLA:  Piles: 
Pbolapsus. 

ANVIL,  n.  dnvU  [AS.  anJUt;  Low  Ger.  amholt;  Dut. 
atnbeld,  a  block  to  hammer  onj.  an  iron  block  with  a 
smooth  face  and  a  horn,  on  which  smitlis  shape  their  work. 
On  thb  ASYih,  in  a  state  of  formation  ana  preparation; 
not  yet  matured. 

ANVTLLE,  dn'vel,  Jbait  Baptistb  Bourguignon  d*: 
1697-1782;  b.  Paris:  celebrated  French  geographer.  His 
first  study  of  the  ancient  authors  induced  him  to  publish,  at 
the  ace  of  15,  a  map  of  Qreece.  His  rare  qualities 
^ined  the  friendship  of  the  Abbe  de  Songuerae,  whose 
instructions  were  the  source  of  his  profound  and  extensive 
knowledge.  He  advanced  the  science  of  geography,  both 
by  his  very  numerous  maps,  and  by  his  elaborate  treatises. 
TTie  principal  portion  of  A. 's  works,  edited  by  M.  de  Maine, 
was  published  in  1884  by  Levrault.  But  the  death  of  M. 
de  3iame,  in  1882,  stopptxi  the  quarto  edition  near  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  volume.  A.  left  211  maps  and  plans,  and  78 
memoirs,  the  most  of  which  are  inserted  in  the  HecueU  des 
Memoires  de  VAcademie  des  Inscnptions  et  Belles-lettres. 
His  best  map  is  that  of  Ancient  Egypt.  His  Orbis  Veterihus 
Notus,  and  Orbis  Bomanus,  are  of  great  value,  as  also  his 
maps  of  Oaul,  Italy,  and  Qreece,  bom  ancient  and  mediaeval. 
His  collection  of  maps  was  purchased  in  1779  by  the  French 
government  for  the  Koyal  Library. 

ANWARI,  dn'wd-re,  lived  12th  c;  d.  1200-01;  b.  in  the 
prov.  of  Khorassan:  celebrated  Persian  poet;  educated  at 
the  college  of  Mansur,  at  Tus.  He  emerged  from  obscurity 
in  the  course  of  a  night.  The  story  goes  that  the  Seljukide 
sultan,  San  jar,  happened  on  one  occasion  to  visit  Tus,  when 
the  imagination  of  the  youthful  poet  was  so  excited  by  the 
presence  of  the  monarch  and  his  glittering  retinue,  that  he 
resolved  to  write  a  poem  in  his  praise.  By  next  morning  it 
was  finished,  and  presented  to  San  jar,  who  instantly  placed 
the  fortunate  youth  among  his  courtiers.  A.  turned  his 
attention  to  astrology,  which  was  his  ruin;  for  having  pre- 
dicted that  in  1185  or  1186  a  hurricane  would  burst  over  all 
Asia,  overthrow  the  most  solid  edifices,  and  shake  the  very 
mountains,  and  nothing  of  the  sort  really  occurring,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  an  entire  year  of  remarkably  tranquil  weather, 
he  fell  into  disgrace,  and  retired  to  Balkh,  where  he  died. 
His  poems  consist  chiefly  of  long  panegyrics,  and  lihorter 
lyri(»l  effusions.  The  latter  (ghaeels)  are  characterized  by 
simplicity,  ease,  and  naturalness;  but  the  kastdds,  or  long 
poems,  are  disfigured,  like  many  other  eastern  poems,  by 
glittering  imagenr  and  historical  conceits.  His  Elegy  cfn 
the  Ca/ptvrily  ^  aanjar  taken  Prisoner  by  tlie  Ohurides,  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Captain  Kirkpatrick  in  the 
1st  vol.  of  Astatic  MisceUanies  (Calcutta,  1785). 

ANXIETY,  n.  dngzVe-tl  [P.  avxiett,  anxiety— from  L. 
an'x\etdJtem,  anxiety— from  L.  anxius,  anxious;  ango,  I 
press  tight  (see  Anguish)];  distress  of  mind  al>aut  some- 
a-7 


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ANY— AORTA. 

thing  future;  great  uneasiness.  Akxious,  a.  dnkahUs^ 
literaUy,  that  chokes  or  strangles;  distressed  in  mind; 
perplexed.  Anx'iouslt,  ad.  -li.  Ajtx'ioubness,  n.  the 
state  of  being  anxious. — Stn.  of  'anxious':  restless;  dis- 
turbed; uneasy;  unquiet;  concerned;  watchful;— of  *  anxiety*: 
care;  solicitude;  concern;  uneasiness;  foreboding;  disquiet; 
disquietude;  perplexity. 

ANY,  a.  ^n'ni  [A8.  aenig;  Ger.  einig;  Dut  eenig,  one, 
only,  and  postfix  tg]:  every;  whoever;  one  or  some;  one  of 
many:  in  Bible,  at  all.  Anywise,  ad.  Sn'nl-wiz,  in  any 
degree.  Anywhere,  ad.  hwd/r,  in  any  place.  Anyhow, 
ad.  en'nhhoWy  at  anv  rate,  in  any  event;  in  a  careless, 
slovenly  manner.  Anybody,  n.  ^n'nl-bdd'lt  one  out  of 
many  selected  indifferently.  Anything,  n.  indiff^i'ence  by 
way  of  selection;  not  one  thing  more  particularly  than  an- 
other; a  particular  object.  Any  one,  n.  no  one  in  partic- 
ular; '  one,'  when  preceded  by  a  negative.  ANYWHiiiB, 
ad.  for  any  length  of  time. 

AONIAN,  a.  d-dnUdn  [from  Aonld,  a  dist  in  Greece, 
in  which  were  Mt.  Helicon  and  the  fountain  Aganippe;  a 
haunt  of  the  Muses]:  pertaining  to  the  Muses.  Aonides, 
n.  d-oni-dez,  a  name  for  the  Muses. 

AONLAQANJ',  or  Aoun'lah:  town  of  India,  in  the 
British  dist.  Bareilly,  21  m.  s.w.  of  Bareilly,  on  the  route 
to  Allygurh.    It  has  a  large  bazaar.    Pop.  (1871)  9,947. 

AORIST,  n.  ao-rist  [Gr.  dans' tos,  unlimited]:  a  past 
tense  in  the  grammar  of  the  Greek  language;  a  form  of  the 
Greek  word  bv  which  an  action  is  expressed  as  taking  place 
in  an  indefinite  time.  The  Greek  language  is  especially 
fertile  in  the  past  tenses  of  verbs,  having,  in  addition  to  the 
tenses  common  to  other  lan^ua^es — the  imperfect,  perfect, 
and  pluperfect — the  A. ,  which  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
narrative  style  of  writing.  The  distinction  of  first  and  sec- 
ond A.  is  merely  formal.    Aoristic,  a.  d'drU'tlk,  pert  to. 

AORTA,  n.  d-itr'td  [Gr.  d'orie,  the  great  artery — ^from 
ad'rd,  I  bear  or  carry]:  the  great  arterial  trunk  which,  rising 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  sends  its  branches  ramify- 
ing through  the  whole  body^  Aortal,  a.  d-6r'tdl,  or 
Aortic,  a.  OMtr'tik,  pert.  to.  The  A.  in  man  is  subdivided 
by  anatomists  into  the  Arch,  the  Thoracic  A.,  and  the  Ab- 
dominal A.  The  arch  is  a  loop  with  the  convexity  direct- 
ed upwards,  forwards,  and  to  the  right  side,  reaching  at 
its  highest  part  to  a  level  with  the  second  piece  of  the 
breast-bone,  and  then  descending  to  the  left  side  of  the 
third  dorsal  vertebra.  Five  arteries  arise  from  the  arch — 
viz.,  two  coronaries,  for  the  supply  of  the  muscular  tissue 
of  the  heart  itself;  the  innominata;  and  the  left  carotid 
and  left  subclavian  arteries.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  arch  are  three  small  sweUings  or  pouches,  the  aortic  sin- 
uses, below  which  are  the  three  semilunar  valves  or  folds 
of  the  lining  membrane,  which  prevent  regurgitation  of 
the  blood  back  into  the  heart.  The  thora^  A.  extends 
from  the  third  dorsal  vertebra  to  the  diaphragm,  ipuduallj 

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A08TA. 

getting  into  the  middle  line  of  the  spine.  The  thoracic  A. 
gives  off  the  bronchial  arteries 
(two  or  three)  to  supply  the  tissue 
of  the  lungs;  and  some  small 
branches  (three  or  four)  to  the 
oesophagus,  and  intercostal  ar- 
teries, to  supply  the  walls  of  the 
chest  (ten  on  left,  and  nine  on 
right  side).  The  aMominal  A, 
passes  from  the  diaphragm  to  the 
fourth  lumbar  vertebra,  opposite 
the  lower  margin  of  which  it 
divides  into  the  two  common  iliac 
trunks.  The  abdominal  A.  gives 
off  the  two  phrenic  arteries  to  the 
diaphra^;  thecoeliac  axis,  which 
divides  mto  three  large  branches 
for  the  stomach,  liver,  and  spleen; 
the  superior  mesenteric  for  the 
smaU,  and  part  of  the  large  in- 
testine; the  renals  (two);  the 
mprorTeu&is  (two),  one  for  each 
kidney;  the  spermatic;  the  in- 
ferior mesenteric,  for  the  part  of 
the  large  intestine  not  supplied 
by  the  superior  mesenteric;  and 
four  or  five  lumbar  arteries, 
which  supply  tHe  lower  part 
of  the  abdominal  walls  (the 
loins). 

«   ..-^^^jn'l  .2i  «f  «/.rti..      Where   the   A.   bifurcates,  a 

a.  ascenainflr  arcn  or  aorta;  n      _i  xu  j» 

«,  coronary  arteries;  6%  In-  Small  artery,  tne  sacrameata, 
nomioata  artery;  6,  right  or  catidcU  artery,  arises,  and 
^^S'1SSi.fcl^^\lfr^^'  passes  along  in  the  middle  line; 
fiJ^T/?ihor!hiiV^t^;  infish  andin  anhnals  >vith  large 
^,  diaphragm:  AA.phreDic  tails,  this  branch  is  a  continua- 
arteries;    t,    cceliac     axis;  tion  of  the  A. 

^le^r^Vp'aS^j't'Bu:  The  above  is  the  usual  ar- 
perior  mesenteric;  oo,  re-  ran^ement;  but  occasionally  It 
nai  'arteries ;   p,  inferior  vanes,.  especially  in  the  number 

sacral.  arch.     For  the  structure  of  the 

A.  see  Artery;  for  the  compa- 
rative anatomy,  see  Heart:  Circuijltion. 

A08TA.  d-oe'id:  dist.  of  the  prov.  of  Turin,  n.  Italy, 
surrounded  by  the  highest  elevations  of  the  Alps,  and  wa- 
tered by  the  river  Dora  baltea;  area,  over  1,200  sq.  miles.  The 
dense  pine- woods  on  the  bills,  the  alpine  pastures  on  the 
slopes,  the  plantations  of  vines,  almonds,  olives,  figs,  and 
mulbeny  trees  in  the  valleys,  and  the  ores  of  silver,  copper, 
and  iron  in  the  bosom  of  the  mountains,  supply  occupation 
and  means  of  subsistence;  but  the  land  generally  is  not 
adapted  to  the j^rowth  of  com,though  maize, barley,  oats,  etc. , 
are  produced  m  the  lowest  portions  of  the  valleys.  The  dis- 
ease styled  Cretinism  (q.v.)  prevails  to  a  lamentable  extent, 


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AOUDAD— APAFL 

and  few  persons  are  altogether  free  from  Goitre  (q.T.> 
Great  numbers  of  the  poorer  class  emigrate  during  wmtei 
into  the  richer  countries  in  their  vicinity,  and  earn  a  liveli* 
houd  as  chimney-sweepers,  masons,  and  smiths.  Pop:  abt. 
88,000. 

AosTA,  the  principal  town,  49  m.  n.n.w.  of  Turin, 
has  trade  in  cheese,  hemp,  leather,  etc.  It  was  in  ancient 
times  the  chief  residence  of  the  Salassi,  a  brave  race  of 
mountaineers,  with  whom  Appius  Claudius  had  to  con- 
tend on  his  way  into  Gaul.  They  were  finally  destroyed 
by  Terentius  Varro  In  the  time  of  Augustus.  Monuments  of 
the  Roman  times  remain— a  well-preserved  arch,  two  gate- 
ways,  the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  a  bridge.  The 
celebrated  baths  and  mines  of  St.  Didier  are  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. St.  Bernard,  the  founder  of  the  famous  hospice 
which  bears  his  name,  was  Archdeacon  of  A.;  and  Anselm, 
Abp.  of  Canterbury,  was  born  here.    Pop.  (1894)  7,487. 

AOUDAD,  n.  d'o-ddd  [native  name]:  a  ferocious  species 
of  wild  sheep  inhabiting  n.  Africa. 

APACE,  ad.  d-pd^'  [AS.  a,  on:  F.  pas;  L.  pas9u$,  a 
step]:  with  some  degree  of  speed;  in  haste;  quickly; 
l^and-by. 

APACKE8,d-pd'c7td2:  tribe  of  American  Indians  of  the 
Athabasca  family,  having  reservations  in  Ariz,  and  K.  M. 
They  are  very  warlike,  great  raiders,  and  strongly  averse 
to  civilized  forms  of  life.  The  tribe  comprises  several 
semi-independent  bands,  and  tbeir  ^reat  war  chief  is  Ger- 
onimo.  They  have  given  the  frontier  settlers  of  Mexico, 
Ariz.,  and  IS.  M.,  and  the  federal  govt,  much  trouble  ia 
recent  years.  Gcronlino  became  known  1876,  and  has  beca 
captured  several  times  by  U.  S.  troops,  but  almost  invari- 
ably has  made  his  escape.  He  is  considered  by  experi- 
enced army  officers  to  be  the  most  tricky,  lawless,  deceit- 
ful, treacherous,  and  murderous  of  living  Indians.  Gen. 
Crook  chased  his  renegade  band  into  Mexico  1888,  and 
captured  the  chief  and  his  followers.  They  were  placed 
on  a  farm,  and  though  Gen.  Crook  promised  them  pro- 
tection as  lonff  as  they  behaved  themselves,  they  soon  tired 
of  the  restraint.  Geronimo  escaped  from  Fort  Apache 
1885,  May  17 — his  tliird  escape— was  captured  by  Gen. 
Miles  1880,  and  has  since  been  confined  in  Fla. 

APAFI,  dp'pof-e,  Michael  I.,  Prince  of  Transylvania: 
1033-1690,  Apr.  15.  He  belonged  to  an  old  family;  ac- 
companied Prince  George  II.  in  an  expedition  against  the 
Poles  1656;  was  taken  prisoner;  and  aiter  his  release  lived 
at  his  paternal  estate  till  1661,  when  he  was  chosen  prince 
of  Transylvania.  He  reigned  under  the  protection  of  Tur- 
key till  the  siege  of  Vienna  1683,  when  the  Austrian  troops 
entered  his  territory,  and  1687,  Aug.  13.  he  made  a  treaty 
with  the  emperor  by  which  Transylvania  was  placed  un- 
der German  protectiou.  His  death  occurred  on  the  eve  of 
a  fierce  war  begun  by  the  Turks.  His  son.  Michael  II., 
succeeded  US  the  throne.  The  Turks  defeated  the  imperial 
army,  and  captured  several  cities;  but  the  imperial  troopa 
regained  everything,  and  A.  was  induced  to  surrender  hia 
territory  to  Austria  for  a  pensioa    Michael  U.  died  1718. 

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APAGOGE-APATITE. 

APAQOOE,  n.  dp'd-go'je  [Gr.  apagogi,  a  leadiDg^  away 
— from  apo,  from;  ago,  I  leadj:  in  logic,  a  kind  or  argu- 
ment or  proposition  not  very  evident;  in  math.,  the  step 
leading  from  one  proposition  to  another,  when  the  first, 
after  demonstration,  is  employed  in  proving  the  second  or 
others.    Apagogical,  a.  dpd^'i-kdl,  proving  indirectly. 

APANAGE:  see  AppANAas. 

APART,  ad.  d-pdrt  [P.  d  part,  aside,  separate;  L. 
partem,  apart]:  aside;  separately;  at  a  distance.  Apart'- 
MENT,  n.  [OP.  apartement;  P.  oppartement—tTom  mid.  L. 
appardmen'tum]:  something  set  aside;  a  room  in  a  house. 
Apabt'icents,  a  set  of  rooms.    See  Tenement  Houses. 

APATHIN,  6^ten':  town  of  Hungary,  county  of  Bacs, 
near  the  left  hank  of  the  Danube;  49  m.  s.w.  from  Theresi- 
opol.  It  has  manufactures  of  woolen  cloth,  and  consider- 
able trade  in  hemp,  silk,  madder,  and  woad,  the  products 
of  the  vicinity.    Pop.  (18»4)  1 1,047. 

APATHY,  n.  dp'drthi  [P.  apathie,  apathy:  L.  apdthia; 
Gr.  apatheCa,  exemption  from  passion— from  Gr.  a,  with- 
out; pathos,  any  emotion  of  the  mind]:  not  any  feeling; 
freedom  from  passion  or  feeling.  Ap'athibt,  n.  one  desti- 
tute of  feeling.  Apathetic,  a.  dp'dihel'lk,  or  Ap'athet'- 
ICAL,  a.  -i-kdl,  wanting  in  feeling;  insensible.  Ap'athbt'- 
ICALLY,  ad.  -K.— Syn.  of  'apathy':  indifference;  in- 
sensibility; unfcelingness;  supineness;  carelessness;  un- 
concern. 

APATITE,  n.  dp'd-dt  [Gr.  apdti,  deception,  from  liabil- 
ity of  this  mineral  to  be  mistaken  for  other  substances]:  a 
mineral  consisting  mainly  of  phosphate  of  lime  (bone-earth), 
and  which  for  some  years  past  has  been  largely  used  in  the 
preparation  of  manures.  It  is  employed  for  tne  same  pur- 
pose as  bones  or  bone-ash — namely,  to  supply  phosphoric 
acid  to  the  soil.  The  massive  radiated  variety  is  sometimes 
called  phosphorite,  and  when  massive,  earthy,  and  impure, 
it  is  also  known  as  oateoliie.  Coprolites  (q.v.),  or  phosphatic 
nodules,  are  likewise  mainly  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime. 
A.  is  found  as  a  bedded  rock,  in  compact  spheroidal  masses, 
in  veins  and  dykes,  and  as  an  accessory  constituent  of  rocks. 
It  exists  in  nearly  all  geological  formations,  but  is  perhaps 
most  abundant  in  the  older  metamorphic  rocks.  Extensive 
deposits  of  A.  occur  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  From 
KragerOe  in  Norway,  where  it  occurs  associated  with  granitic 
rocKs,  and  from  Elstremadura  in  Spain,  where  it  is  found 
in  cretaceous  strata,  it  has  been  largely  sent  to  England, 
the  total  imports  of  these  mineral  phosphates  having  in  some 
years  reached  5,000  tons.  There  is  a  bed  of  A.,  18  inches 
thick,  of  Silurian  age,  at  Llanfyllin  in  North  Wales,  which  has 
been  extensively  worked.  A  remarkable  deposit  of  a  kind 
of  A.,  or  rather  rock  guano,  which  has  been  termed  '  Som- 
brralte,'  was  discovert  some  years  ago  in  the  small  island 
of  Sombrero,  situated  about  60  m.  to  the  e.  of  St.  Thomas, 
in  Uie  West  Indian  group.  It  covers  a  great  part  of  the  island , 
wiiich  is  about  li  m.  long  by  three-fourths  of  a  m.  in  breadth. 
Mr.  A.  A.  Jolien,  writing  from  the^t  in  1864,  says  there '  is  a 
natural  division  of  the  Sombrero  Guano  into  two  varieties-^ 


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APE 

one  of  an  oolitic  structure,  of  a  great  variety  of  colors,  and 
containing,  in  addition  to  the  bone  (3CaO,PO»)  and  neutral 
(2CaO,P06)  phosphates  of  lime,  the  phosphates  of  alumina, 
iron,  and  magnesia,  etc.  The  other  vanety,  generally  of  a 
broad  concretionary  structure,  is  of  a  white  or  yellowish- 
white  color,  containing  a  little  carbonate  of  lime,  sulphate 
of  lime,  etc.,  but  especially  abounds  in  bone  phosphate  of 
lime.  It  is  almost  certain  that  the  former  more  nearly  re- 
sembles the  original  deposit,  and  is  the  older  of  the  two; 
while  the  latter  is  far  more  uniform  in  composition.  The 
^uano  is  interlaminated  with  ordinary  coral  limestone.  It 
is  now  believed  that  this  hard  or  rock  guano  has  been  formed 
by  water  filtering  through  ordinary  guano,  into  the  cond 
rock  adjoining,  and  turning  it  more  or  less  completely  into 
phosphate  of  Time.  A  simiLir  hard  guano  occurs  at  Monk's 
Island,  and  one  or  two  others  in  the  Caribbc^oi  Sea.  Large 
Quantities  have  been  introduced  into  the  United  States,  uu- 
aer  the  name  of  Sombrero  Guano,  and  are  extensively  em- 
ployed by  the  manufacturers  of  artificial  manures,  in  place 
of  ordinary  bone-ash.  It  is  largely  used  in  Britain  also. 
The  general  treatment  to  which  mineral  phosphate  is  sub- 
jected, is  to  reduce  it  to  powder,  and  act  upon  the  pulver- 
ized matter  with  sulphuric  acid,  which  renders  the  phos- 
phoric acid  in  the  A.  soluble  in  water,  and  thereby  facili- 
tates its  introduction  into  the  plant.  These  substances  re- 
quire to  be  ground  to  a  finer  powder,  and  subjected  to  a 
more  protracted  digestion  than  bones.  In  the  greater  num- 
ber of  cases  where  the  A.  or  Sombrero  Guano  Is  treated  in 
this  way,  it  is  mixed  with  other  manures,  such  as  Peruvian 
Guano,  blood,  or  true  bones,  and  thus  a  complex  substance 
is  manufactured,  which  is  much  more  acceptable  to  the 
plant  than  the  simple  A.  or  mineral  phosphate  itself.  The 
great  importance  of  mineral  phosphate,  in  an  agricultural 
point  of  view,  arises  from  the  fact  that  no  mineral  substance 
possesses  more  influence  over  the  growth  of  the  edible  plants, 
such  as  wheat,  barley,  oats,  turnips,  etc.,  than  phosphoric 
acid  does;  any  cheap  source  of  that  substance,  therefore,  is 
a  great  boon.  The  island  of  Sombrero  contains  as  much 
phosphatic  or  bony  matter  as  is  present  in  manv  millions  of 
oxen,  and  represents  as  much  manure  as  would  be  obtained 
by  the  employment  of  the  bones  of  these  cattle.  It  was  first 
proposed  to  use  A.  as  manure  abt.  1856.  The  dififerent 
varieties  of  A.  contain  a  little  fluoride  or  chloride  of  calcium, 
or  both,  as  well  as  phosphate  of  lime.  Of  these  varieties, 
besides  those  already  mentioned,  there  are  others,  as  Morox- 
ite,  Franwlite,  and  Asparagus  Stone,  It  occurs  both  mas- 
sive and  in  crystals— which  are  generally  small,  and  are 
often  six-sided  prisms,  or  six-sided  tables,  but  some  very 
large  ones  have  been  brought  from  Canada.  It  occurs  in 
some  of  the  tin  mines  in  Cornwall,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  etc., 
and  in  rocks  of  various  ages,  as  mentioned  above.  It  is  of 
various  colors,  more  or  less  green,  blue  or  red,  sometimes 
white  and  often  gray.  In  Spain,  A.  is  used  as  a  building 
stone. 

APE,  iL  dp  [AS.  apa:  Icel.  api:  Dan.  ahe\i  a  kind  of 
monkey;  a  vain  imitator;  a  minuc:  V.  foolishly  to  tiy  to 


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APB-APELLE8. 

imitate.  Ap'nva^  imp.  Aped,  pp.  apt.  Af'bb,  d.  one 
who.  Apibh,  a.  dp'uh,  like  an  ax)e;  foolish;  imitating 
the  manners  of  superiors.  Ap'ishly,  ad.  -U.  Af'ibhness, 
n.  foppery. — Stn.  of  *  ape,  v.':  to  mimic;  imitate;  mock. 

AP£:  name  commonly  given  to  the  tailless  monkeys.  See 
Barbabt  Ape:  Chimpanzee:  Gibbon:  Gk)RrLLA:  Obano- 
Otano,  etc.  It  was  originally  conmiensurate  in  significa- 
tion with  monkey, and  the  terms  were  indiscriminately  used. 
The  origin  of  the  word  is  uncertain.    See  Monkey. 

The  worship  of  apes  or  monkeys  has  been  common  among 
pagan  nations  from  remote  antiquity,  and  still  prevails  ex* 
tensive!^,  heine  practiced  in  Japan,  m  India,  and  by  some  ol 
the  African  trib^.  The  source  of  it  is,  perhaps,  to  be  found 
partly  in  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and 
partly  in  the  qualities  which  apes  have  been  supposed  to 
possess  in  a  conspicuous  degree,  and  of  which  tiicy  have 
been  made  symbolic.  An  A.'s  tooth,  kept  in  a  temple  in 
Ceylon,  was  r^arded  with  extraordinary  veneration,  and 
immense  wealth  was  accumulated  through  the  continual 
offerings  of  the  worshippers;  but  the  temple  was  plundered, 
and  the  tooth  carried  away  by  the  Portuguese  in  1554. 

APEAK,  or  Apeek, ad.  &p^k'  [a  and  peoA-;  F.  dpic,  per- 
pendicularly—from pic,  a  peak,  a  pointj:  on  the  peak  or 
point;  in  a  posture  to  pierce;  a  maritime  term  signifying  the 
position  of  an  anchor  when  the  cable  has  been  drawn  so 
tight  as  to  bring  the  ship  directly  over  it;  the  sailors  then 
say  that '  the  anchor  is  apeak.' 

APELDORN,  d'peUdarn':  a  beautiful  village  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, province  of  Gelderland,  about  17  m.  n.  from  Am- 
hem,  on  a  canal  which  loins  the  river  Grift,  a  branch  of  the 
Yssel,  by  which,  and  the  public  roads  from  Amhem  and 
Utrecht  to  Deventer  and  Zutphen,  and  by  railway,  it  has 
mucL  traffic.  The  Loo,  a  hunting-lodge  of  the  king,  is  in 
the  neigh  borhood .  The  principal  mdustries  are  agriculture, 
making  paper,  grinding  com,  founding  copper,  manufactur- 
ing blfuikets  and  coarse  woolen  cloth,  etc.  Pop.  of  A.  (1894) 
16.283. 

APELLES,  a-p^Vez:  the  most  celebrated  painter  in  ancient 
times:  lived  in  latter  part  of  b.c.  4th  c,  prob.  abt.  b.c.  352- 
808;  son  of  Pythieas,b.  probably  (acconiing  to  Suidas).  at 
Colophon,  on  the  Ionian  coast  of  Asia  Minor;  though  Pliny 
and  Ovid  call  him  a  Coan,  and  Strabo,  and  Lucian  an  Ephe- 
sian.  This,  however,  may  simply  refer  to  the  fact  that  he 
was  made  a  burgess  of  that  town.  He  received  his  first 
instraction  in  art  in  the  Ionian  school  of  Ephesus,  then 
studied  under  Pamphilus  of  Amphipolis,  ana  latterly  at 
Sicyon,  under  Melanthius;  and  thus  he  united  the  fine  color- 
ing of  the  Ionian  with^the  accurate  drawing  of  the  Sicyonic 
8(£ool.  During  the  time  of  Philip,  A.  visited  Macedon, 
where  he  became  the  intimate  friend  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
It  was  probably  at  the  Macedonian  court  that  the  best  days 
of  A.  were  spent.  PUny  relates  that  on  one  occasion  when 
Alexander  visited  A.  in  his  studio,  the  king  exhibited  such 
ignorance  of  art,  that  A.  recommended  him  to  be  silent, 
as  the  boys  who  were  grinding  the  colors  were  laughing 


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APENNINES. 

at  him.  But  the  same  story  is  told  of  Zcuxis  and  Mcga- 
byzus.  lie  afterwards  visited  Rho<les  (wliere  he  was  la 
miliar  with  Protogenes),  Cos,  Alexandria,  and  Ephesus. 
The  period  of  his  death  is  not  known;  but  as  he  practiced 
his  art  before  the  death  of  Philip,  and  as  his  visit  to  Alex- 
andria was  after  the  assumption  of  the  regal  title  by  Ptolemy, 
he  lived,  probably,  between  the  dates  above  stated.  The 
most  celebrated  paintings  of  A.  were  his  Anadyomene,  or 
Venus  Rising  from  the  Sea,  with  a  shower  of  silver  drops 
falling  round  her  like  a  veil  of  gauze:  the  Graces,  and 
similar  subjects;  but  he  cultivated  the  heroic  as  well  as  the 
graceful  style.  His  ideal  portrait  of  Alexander  wielding  a 
mimderbolt  was  highly  esteemed,  and  preserved  in  me 
temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  With  reference  to  this  paint- 
ing, Alexander  said:  *  There  are  only  two  Alexanders — the 
invincible  son  of  Philip,  and  the  inimitable  Alexander  of 
A.'  A.  is  said  to  have  left  an  incomplete  painting  of  Venus, 
to  which  no  other  painter  would  presume  to  give  the  fin- 
ishing touches.  The  disposition  of  A.  was  remarkably  free 
from  envy,  and. he  willingly  acknowledged  the  merits  of 
his  contemporaries.  Amphion,  he  said,  excelled  him  in 
grouping,  and  Asclepiodorus  in  perspective,  but  grctee  was 
his  alone.  On  coming  to  Rhodes,  and  finding  that  the 
works  of  Protogenes  were  not  appreciated  by  his  country- 
men, he  at  once  offered  him  fifty  talents  for  a  picture,  and 
spread  the  report  that  he  intended  to  sell  it  again  as  his 
own.  The  industry  with  which  he  practiced  drawing  was 
so  great  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proverb,  NuUa  dies  sineUnsd, 
Many  other  anecdotes  are  related  of  A.  When  his  pictures 
were  exposed  to  public  view,  he  used  to  place  himself 
behind  a  picture,  to  listen  to  the  criticisms  of  the  common 
people.  A  cobbler  having  detected  a  fault  in  the  shoe  of 
one  of  his  figures,  it  is  said  that  A.  instantly  rectified  it; 
but  when  the  cobbler,  on  the  following  day,  extended  his 
criticism  to  the  legs,  the  painter  rushSi  from  his  hiding- 
place,  and  told  the  cobbler  to  stick  to  the  shoes;  or,  in  the 
Latin  version,  which  has  become  proverbial,  Ne  sutor 
supra  crepidam. 

APENNINES,  n.  dp7'-nlm  [Ital.  Appenni'ni;  anciently, 
Lat.  Mons  Apenninvs]:  a  mountain-chain  extending  unin- 
terruptedly through  the  whole  length  of  the  Italian  peninsula, 
between  87°  and  U'  80  n.  lat.,  and  7'  40'  and  18"  20'  e.  long. ; 
belonging  to  the  system  of  the  Alps,  from  which  it  branches 
off  at  the  Col  de  Tenda.  near  the  sources  of  the  Tanaro. 
From  this  point,  the  chain,  under  the  name  of  the  Ligurian 
A. ,  girdles  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
sea,  and  then  runs  inland  to  a  considerable  extent,  forming 
the  water-shed  between  the  Adriatic  and  the  Mediterranean, 
but  gradually  approaching  the  e.  coast,  till,  in  the  high- 
lands of  the  Abruzzi,  it  is  close  upon  it;  after  which  it 
takes  a  s.w.  direction  through  Naples,  dips  under  the  sea 
at  the  Strait  of  Messina,  and  reappears  on  the  n.  coast  of 
Sicily.  Recent  geographers  divide  the  A.  as  follows:  1.  The 
North  A.,  from  the  Col  de  Tenda  in  the  Maritime  Alps  to 
the  pass  of  Borco  San  Sepolcro,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Arezzo,  on  the  e.  border  of  Tuscany.   2.  T?ie  CentrtH  A, ,  from 


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APENNINES. 

Aiezzo  to  the  vaiW  ot  the  Fescara,  wDich  flows  between 
the  two  Abnizzi.  8.  Tfie  South  A,,  from  the  valley  of  the 
Pescara  to  Cape  Spartivento.  4  The  Insular  A,,  or  the 
Sicilian  range.  The  leading  feature  of  the  A. ,  wherever  they 
approach  the  coast,  is  their  extraordinarily  steep  declivities; 
while  in  Middle  Italy  and  the  adjoining  portions  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Italy,  long-terraced  plateaus,  lower  ranges,  and, 
finaUy,  extensive  coast-plains,  mark  their  gradual  descent 
on  the  w.  The  general  name  for  these  lower  ranges  is  Sub- 
Apenmne;  but  they  have  a  variety  of  particular  designa- 
tions, such  as,  the  mountains  of  Carrara  and  Seravezza, 
Pratomagno  and  Monte  Amiata,  in  Tuscany;  the  Sabine, 
Alban,  and  Yolscian  mountains,  in  the  former  papal  states; 
Monte  Cku'gano  on  the  s.e.  coast,  n.  of  Manfreoonia,  etc. 
The  main  chain  of  the  A.  does  not  send  off  bduis  into  the 
Apulian  peninsula,  or  heel  of  Italy,  which,  for  the  most 
part,  is  rather  level,  or  only  interspersed  with  detached 
groups  of  hills. 

The  direction  of  the  great  chain  of  the  A.  is  favorable  to 
ttie  formation,  on  the  w.  side,  of  important  river-basins, 
such  as  those  of  the  Amo,  the  Tiber,  the  (Jarigliano,  and  the 
Voltumo;  while  on  the  e.  side  we  find  nothing  but  small 
streams,  in  most  cases  destitute  of  affluents,  hurrying  down 
to  the  sea  through  wild,  precipitous  valleys.  In  n.  Italy, 
the  Ligurian  A.,  almost  overhanging  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  can 
only  develop  on  the  s.  puny  streams,  while  the  n.  sends 
down,  through  the  plains  of  Piedmont,  large  tributaries  to 
thePo. 

The  average  height  of  the  entire  chain  of  the  A.  is  about 
4,000  ft.,  which,  however,  in  the  n.  sinks  down  to  little 
more  than  8,600  ft. ;  and  in  the  mountains  of  the  Abruzzi 
rises  to  7,000  feet.  Here,  in  Monte  Como,  the  highest  peak 
of  the  range  known  under  the  name  of  Gran  Sas^  d'ltalia, 
they  reach  an  elevation  of  10,200  ft.,  and  in  Monte  Velino,  of 
7,850  feet.  The  North  A.  attain,  in  Monte  Cimone,  situate 
in  the  s.  of  Modena,  a  height  of  6,978  ft.;  the  South  A.,  in 
Monte  Amara,  a  height  of  9,000  ft.;  the  Insular  A.,  if  we 
exclude  the  isolated  peak  of  JBtna— in  Pizzo  di  Case,  a 
height  of  6,500  feet. 

•file  A.  are  crossed  by  thirteen  principal  passes:  these  are, 
proceeding  from  n.  to  s. :  1.  The  Pass  of  Savona;  2,  of 
Bocchetta;  3,  of  Cisa;  4,  of  Monte  Cimone;  5,  of  Porretta; 
6,  of  Pietramala;  7,  of  Borgo  San  Sepolcro;  8,  of  Furlo; 
9,  of  Serravalle;  10,  of  Aquila;  11,  of  Isemia;  12,  of  Ar- 
cano  and  Troja;  13,  of  Potenza.  The  prevalent  stone  is  a 
species  of  compact  limestone,  of  a  whitish-gray  color,  be- 
longing to  the  Jura  formation.  Besting  on  the  limestone  is 
a  more  recent  formation  of  sandstone  and  marl,  especially 
abimdant  in  the  middle  region  of  the  Sub- A.,  containing  an 
extraordinary  number  of  petrifactions,  and  reckoned  as  be- 
loiu^g  to  the  upper  division  of  the  Parisian  limestone. 
Older  formations,  however,  frequently  crop  out.  Thus,  on 
the  water-shed  of  the  North  and  Central  A.  there  are  found 
transition  clay-slate,  grauwacke-slate,  etc.  The  A.,  espe- 
cially the  Roman  and  Neapolitan,  are  distinguished  from 
all  other  mountain-chains  by  the  rich  variety  of  marbles 

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APENRADE-APETALOUS. 

which  they  contain.  In  some  places  the  quarries  seem  in- 
exhaustible. Volcanic  rocks  are  numerous  in  the  middle 
and  8.  regions,  where  the  agency  of  fire  has  caused  very 
wonderful  formations,  as,  for  instance,  the  crater-lakes  of 
Albano,  Nemi.  Vesuvius,  Solfatara. 

The  principal  chain  exhibits,  for  the  most  part,  a  dreary 
and  barren  appearance;  it  looks  like  a  vast  wall,  with  very 
few  projecting  peaks  to  break  the  dull  monotony  of  the 
scene,  and  therefore  seldom  furnishes  any  salient  points  on 
which  the  eye  of  the  spectator  can  rest  with  pleasure. 
Naked,  riven,  covered  with  thick  debris,  the  declivities  seem 
as  if  scorched  bv  the  southern  sun.  Only  in  the  Abruzzi,  in 
the  Sub- A.,  and  above  all,  in  the  marble  mountains  of  Car- 
rara and  Seravezza,  do  the  bold  and  magnificent  forms  of  the 
Alps  reappear.  Where  the  A.— in  general  so  poorly  sup- 
plied with  streams— exhibit  a  trace  oi  Alpine  abundance  of 
water,  there  is  no  lack  of  rich  pastures  and  dense  forests, 
but  usually  only  thin  grass  and  wild  scrubby  bushes  cover 
the  stony  slopes.  The  greater  number  of  the  roaring  forest 
brooks,  m  the  deep  rocky  ravines,  disappear  during  summer, 
leaving  a  dry  bed.  Where  the  moimtains  dip  down  to  the 
sea,  as  at  the  Riviera  of  Genoa  and  the  Gulf  of  Naples,  a 
rich,  peculiarly  southern  vegetation  clothes  the  declivities. 
Gigantic  agaves,  Indian  figs  {Cactus  Opuntia),  myrtle-bushes, 
orange-groves,  hint  in  these  northern  lands  of.  the  splendors 
of  the  tropics.  Up  to  3,000  ft.  of  elevation,  cornfields,  fruit- 
bearinff  chestnuts,  and  deciduous  oaks  are  found.  Beyond 
this,  aU  vegetation  often  ceases  on  the  steep  and  stony  sides 
of  the  mountains;  but  at  other  times  the  beech  or  the  fir  ap- 
pears in  dense  forests.  There  is  no  region  of  perpetual 
snow;  but  the  summits  of  the  Abruzzi  and  the  lofty  peaks 
of  Lunigiana  are  often  covered  with  snow  from  October  far 
into  May,  and  send  their  icy  breath  so  suddenly  down  into 
the  mild  valleys  that  the  temperature  in  a  few  hours  sinks 
12*'-18''  F..  and  a  warm  spring  afternoon  is  succeeded  by  a 
cold  December  evening.  Afenkine,  a.  pertaining  to  the 
Apennines. 

APENRADE,  d'pin-rd'de:  town  in  the  Prussian  prov.  of 
Schleswig-Holstein;  at  t^e  bottom  of  a  gulf  in  the  Little  Belt; 
with  an  excellent  harbor  and  considerable  shipping.  The 
environs  of  the  town  are  beautiful.  The  first  h&torical  men- 
tion made  of  A.  relates  to  its  destruction  by  the  Slaves  in 
1148;  and,  indeed,  its  position  has  always  laid  it  open  to 
the  casualties  of  northern  war,  whether  on  a  large  or  small 
scale,  as  has  been  especially  seen  since  1848.  Near  the  town 
stands  the  castle  of  Brundlund,  built  by  Queen  Mai^garet  in 
1411,  in  which  the  bailiff  of  the  place  resides.  Pop.  (1894) 
5,988. 

APERIENT,  n.  d-per'i-i^nt  [L.  aperien'i&m,  opening]: 
a  medicine  that  opens  the  bowels;  a  laxative:  Adj. 
opening;  gently  purgative.  Apebhtve,  a  d'pSr^i-dt, 
purgative. 

APERTURE,  n.  dp'er-tur  [L.  apirturd,  an  openhig— 
from  aperlo,  I  uncover]:  an  opening;  a  cleft  or  gap. 

APETALOUS,  a.  d'pSfd4iU  [Gr.  a,  without;  p^tatan,  a 


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APETAL0U&-APHA8IA. 

flower-leaf]:    in  hot.,  having  no  petals  or  flower-leaveg. 
Afet'alous'hess,  n. 

APETALOUS:  a  term  in  Botany,  applied  to  flowers  or 
to  flowering  plants,  and  si^fyinff  that  they  are  destitute  of 
petals  or  corolla  (q.v.).  When  both  the  calyx  and  corolla 
ftre  wanting,  the  flower  is  said  to  be  achlamydeous  (from  the 
Greek  ehlamps,  a  covering),  or  naked.  The  absence  of  the 
whori  of  petals  sometimes  occurs  in  an  exceptional  manner 
in  orders  or  genera  ordinarily  characterized  by  itspresence. 
In  some  plants,  as  in  certain  species  of  the  order  Uaryophyl- 
iaeea,  petals  are  sometimes  present,  sometimes  absent,  a 
tendency  apparently  existing  to  the  suppression  of  this 
whorL 

APEX,  n.  a'pfito,  Afbxes,  n.  plu.  d'^kih,  or  Apices, 
n.  plu.  dp'isez  [L.  apex  or  dpH/cem,  a  pomt] :  the  top  point 
or  summit  of  anything.  Apical,  a.  ap'l-kdl^  relatinfi^  to 
the  top.  ApicuiiUS,  n.  d-pikfului  [dim.  of  apex]:  in  oot, 
a  short  but  sharp  point  in  which  a  leaf  or  other  orffan 
terminates,  but  not  very  stiff.  Apiculatb,  a.  d-pik'u4dt, 
suddenly  terminated  by  a  distinct  point. 

APH^RESIS  or  Aphbbesis,  n.  dfe^rS-t^  [Gr.  apha4- 
f^«#,  a  taking  away,  abstraction— from  apo,  from;  haired, 
I  take  or  seize]:  the  taking  away  a  letter  or  syllable  from 
the  b^inning  of  a  word. 

APHANIPTERA,  n.  dfAvrlp'ter-d  [Gr.  aph'anis,  un- 
seeq,  npt  apparent— fjom  9,  not;  phfiino,  I  show;  pterotkf 
wing] :  old  order  of  insects,  comprising  fleas,  apparently 
without  wings.  Aph'anip'terous,  a.  -us,  pert.  to. — Fleas 
are  now  classlfled  in  the  order  Diplera, 

APHANTTE,  n.  Sf&n^  [Gr.  apha'nes^  obscure,  not  ap- 
parent—from a,  not;  phaino,  I  bring  to  light]:  a  compact 
sort  of  trap-rock,  consisting  of  hornblende,  quartz,  and 
felspar  so  intimately  combined  that  they  cannot  be  individ- 
ually distinguished.  Aphanistic,  a.  dfan  Wtlk,  pertain- 
ing to;  indistinct. 

APHASIA,  n.  a-fd'M^a  [Gr.  apha'M,  inability  to  speak 
from  amazement  or  fear — from  a,  not;  phdo,  I  speakj:  in 
med.,  loss  of  the  cerebral  faculty  of  speech;  k^  of  the 
memory  of  words:  term  adopted  by  the  eminent  i^ench 
physician.  Trousseau,  to  denote  a  remarkable  symptom  of 
certain  conditions  of  the  nervous  system  in  which  the  patient 
is  more  or  less  unable  to  express  his  thoughts  in  speech. 
The  disease  has  been  casually  noticed  by  many  earlier  ob- 
servers, among  whom  was  Dr.  Parry,  of  Bath.  Eng.;  but 
not  until  the  last  twenty  jears  has  it  received  the  attention 
which  its  great  singularity  demands.  Before  receiving  its 
present  name,  it  had  been  termed  Aph&mia  (from  a,  not,  and 
phemiy  I  speak),  and  Alalia  (from  faleo,  1  talk).  Yoisin,  in 
an  elaborate  Memoir  on  this  subject,  1865,  observes  that  it 
may  be  due  to  several  causes.  It  may  be  cc>ngenital  or  ac- 
quired, and  in  the  latter  case  is  due  to  some  form  of  lesioti 
or  injury  of  the  anterior  lobes  of  the  brain.  This  fact  wm 
observed  as  long  ago  as  1825  by  Bouillaud;  but  in  18«1, 
daring  a  discusaon  of  the  Anthropological  Soc.  of  Paris  w 


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APHASIA. 

to  whether  certain  faculties,  such  as  language,  are  or  are 
not  localized  in  special  parts  of  the  brain,  Broea  advanced 
the  view  that  the  faculty  of  language  has  its  seat  not  only  in 
the  anterior  lobes,  but  in  the  left  lobe,  and  occupies  exactly 
the  external  left  frontal  convolution,  -where  the  anterior  lol>e 
meets  the  middle  lobe  immediately  in  front  of  the  fissure  of 
Sylvius.  This  singular  conclusion  was  deduced  from  only 
two  post-mortem  examinations  which  had  just  occurred  at 
the  Bic^tre,  but  a  number  of  previously  published  cases  sup- 
ported it;  and  Dr.  Hughlings  Jackson,  of  the  London  Hos- 
pital, *  has  seen  about  70  cases  of  loss  or  defect  of  speech 
with  hemiplegia,  and  in  all  but  one  the  hemiplegia  was  on 
the  right  side,  indicating  disease  of  the  left  side  of  the  brain.' 
—Lancet,  1804,  Nov.  26.  Moreover,  in  the  two  cases  which 
during  the  year  last  named  proved  fatal  in  the  Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow  infirmaries,  Dr.  Sanders  and  Dr.  (Mrdner 
traced  the  disease  to  the  exuet  spot  described  by  Broea.  It 
may  be  caused  by  wounds,  tumors  of  various  kmds,  includ- 
ing hydatids,  or  by  softening  of  the  left  anterior  lobe,  and 
has  occasionally,  but  very  rarely,  been  found  in  association 
with  lesions  of  other  parts  of  the  cerebrum,  and  even  of  the 
cerebellum  and  spinal  cord.  According  to  Voisin,  in  146 
cases,  the  left  anterior  lobe  was  affected  in  140,  and  the  right 
in  only  6  cases.  A  variety  of  A.  has  been  noticed  in  typhoid 
fever  and  in  the  first  stage  of  small- pox;  also  in  certain 
chronic  cachexias  or  intoxications,  as,  for  example,  in 
syphilis  and  chronic  alcoholism;  and  there  are  cases  in 
which  the  affection  is  purely  nervous,  and  results  from  epi- 
lepsy, an  over-taxed  brain,  etc.  The  patients  in  whom  true 
A.  from  disease  of  the  brain  occurs  are  excellently  described 
by  Dr.  Gairdner  in  his  essay  On  the  Fuiictums  of  Articulate 
Speech,  etc.  (Glasgow,  1866).  This  description,  in  a  con- 
densed form,  is  as  follows:  These  patients  have  been  the 
subject  of  some  form  of  disturbance  of  the  cerebral  func- 
tions, sometimes  with,  but  sometimes  without,  a  .manifest 
disturbance  of  the  intellect.  It  may  have  been  epilepsy  or 
apoplexy,  in  which  latter  case,  as  has  been  already  noticed, 
there  is  often  paralysis,  almost  invariably  on  the  right  side 
of  the  body.  This  paralysis  may  be  of  any  extent  of  com- 
pleteness, out  in  many  cases  the  patient  has  such  command 
over  the  movements  of  the  ton^e  and  lips  as  to  show  that  it 
is  not  from  paralysis  his  speech  is  affected.  The  states  oi 
intellect  and  consciousness  are  equally  variable,  the  patient 
occasionally  appearing  and  behaving  as  if  he  were  in  i)erfect 
>oefi1y  and  mental  health,  except  for  the  A.  Moreover,  the 
A.  shows  itself  in  most  varied  forms.  In  the  more  trivial 
fases  it  is  little  more  than  an  aggravation  of  the  common 
defect  of  forgetting,  or  being  unable  to  recall  the  name  of  a 
person  or  tmng  when  wanted.  Dr.  Gairdner  records  the 
case  of  what  he  calls  '  an  apbasic,'  who  could  conduct  an 
ordinary  conversation  pretty  well,  buf  who  could  not  name 
the  days  of  the  week,  and  would,  for  instance,  call  Monday 
*  the  first  working-day,'  and  who  had  forgotten,  or  could 
not  give  utterance  to  his  own  name.  Sometimes  a  patient 
will  perfectly  articulate  such  expressions  as  these:  *  I 
want ,  I  want ,  Where's  the ,'  almost  always 


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APHELION-APHIS. 

slopping  short  at  the  name  of  the  object.  Sometunes  the 
patient's  yocabolary  is  limited  to  one  or  two  common  words, 
08  *  Yes '  or  *  No';  or  perhaps  he  utters  onlv  one  or  more  un- 
intelligible words,  as  m  the  case  of  one  of  Trousseau's  pa- 
tients, who  for  four  months  uttered  nothing  but  'Consist^  to 
every  possible  question,  unless  when  in  moments  of  great 
irritation,  and  he  would  then  articulate  '  Sacon,  sacon  * — 
probably  an  abbreviation  for  a  French  oath.  Strange  to 
say,  certain  aphasics  who  can  articulate  absolutely  nothing 
else,  can  swear  with  perfect  facility.  Such  exclamations  as 
•Ohl'  'Dear  me!'  'God  bless  my  life!'  and  'D— nit!'are 
often  the  only  utterances  of  these  patients.  Dr.  H.  Jackson, 
in  a  Memoir  on  Aphasia,  in  the  first  volume  of  the  London 
HoupUal  Beports,  has  made  some  excellent  remarks  on  this 
peculiarity,  which  are  well  worthy  of  perusal  by  all  who 
study  mental  philosophy.  He*  ingeniously  regards  an  oath 
not  as  a  ^^rt  of  langua^,  but  as  '  a  sort  of  detonating 
comma.'  The  general  reader  may  also  read  with  advantage 
the  histories  of  two  cases  recorded  by  Trousseau,  in  whioi 
Frenchmen  of  high  mental  capacity,  and  well  acquainted 
with  the  disease  (one  of  them  an  eminent  physician  in  Paris, 
who  had  specially  studied  the  diseases  of  the  brain;  and  the 
other.  Prof.  Lordat,  of  Montpellier),  have  passed  through 
attacks  of  A.,  have  recovered,  and  have  described  their  own 


A  may  be  either  temporary  or  persistent;  in  the  former  case 
being  due  to  loss  of  nervous  energy,  congestion,  or  some 
other  functional  disorder;  while  in  the  latter  case  it  is  prob- 
ably associated  with  disease  of  structure.  It  is  imnecessary 
to  describe  the  treatment,  which  varies  according  to  the 
peculiarity  of  each  individual  case,  and  must  be  left  to  the 
physician. 

APHELION,  n.  d-fd'yun,  Aphelia,  n.  plu.  afeli-d  [Gr. 
apo,  from;  helioa,  the  sim]:  that  point  in  the  elliptical  orbit 
of  the  planet  which  is  most  remote  from  the  sun.  The 
opposite  point,  or  that  nearest  to  the  sun,  is  the  Peri- 
helion. At  the  former  point,  the  swiftness  of  the  planet's 
motion  is  least,  and  bedns  to  increase;  at  the  latter,  it  is 
ereatest,  and  begins  to  decrease.  This  irrc^laritv  of  mo- 
tion is  mo0t  remarkable  in  comets  whose  orbits  deviate  most 
from  the  circle.  The  motion  of  the  comet  of  1680,  at  its 
perihelion,  was  calculated  as  187,000  times  more  rapid  than 
its  motion  in  A.    See  Apsides. 

APHIS,  n.  d'fU,  Aphides,  n.  plu.  of  I  (h'z  [L.]:  ffenus  of 
insects  belonging  to  the  order  Hemipt  era,  sub  order  llomop- 
lera — ^ty pe  of  a  family  called  Aphididm.  Tliey  arc  small  in- 
sects, often  called  plant  lice,  which  suck  the  juices  of 
plants  or  trees  which  they  thus  injure  and  sometimes  de- 
stroy. Different  species,  of  which  there  are  several  hun- 
dred, prey  on  different  portions  of  the  plant  or  tree;  but 
no  part,  from  the  root  to  the  leaf,  is  exempt  from  their 
attacks.  The  woolly  A.  (Sclnzoneyra  Imtigera),  often  de- 
structive to  young  apple  trees,  appears  in  two  forms,  one 
of  which  preys  on  the  roots  and  the  other  on  the  trunks 
and  branchcMS.    It  secretes  a  woolly  substance  which  tends 


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APHIS. 

to  protect  it  from  dampness  in  the  soil  and  from  enemies 
above  ground.  Tiie  A.  mali  attacks  the  leaves  and  young 
twigs  of  the  apple.  Other  species  prey  on  the  cherry, 
peach,  and  other  fruit  trees,  and  on  the  willow,  white  pine, 
and  other  ornamental  and  timber  trees.  A  species  which 
preys  on  the  plum  migrates  to  the  hop  plant  and  often 
does  great  damage  (see  Hop  Fly).    The  Antfiomyia  bras- 

9 


Apple  Aphis  (Erio^oma  Mali)'. 

a,  wlDgleaB  insect,  mae^nifled;  6,  wingless  insect  in  ezcresoence  of 

the  tree,  magnified. 

sic(B  is  exceedingly  destructive  to  the  cabbage  and  turnip, 
and  nearly  all  field,  garden,  and  gi-eenhouse  plants  are 
subject  to  injury  by  some  species  of  A.  The  principal 
remedies  are-  for  the  root  A.,  either  kainit  or  refuse  to- 
bacco powder  mixed  through  the  soil  by  digging;  and  for 
those  which  work  above  ground,  the  use  of  kerosene 
emulsion  (sec  Emulsion)  or  of  a  decoction  of  tobacco. 


Apple  Aphis: 
a  branch  with  excrescences,  reduced. 

Whatever  tends  to  keep  the  plants  and  trees  in  vigorous 
condition  will  tend  also  to  prevent  attacks  by  the  A.,  and 
will  lessen  the  degree  of  injury  if  an  attack  is  made.  It  is 
very  common  to  see  the  leaves  of  trees  and  shrubs  de- 
formed by  red  convexities.  In  the  hollows  of  the 
under  side  of  these,  aphides  live  and  find  their 
food;  the  exhausted  leaf  at  last  curls  up.  They 
iiave   a   proboscis   (fiausteUtimy,  by  which   they    pierca 


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APHLOGISTIC— APHONIA. 

and  suck  plants;  and  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  two 
horn-like  procesaes,  from  which  exuae  frequent  small  drops 
of  a  saccharine  fluid  called  JSoney-deto,  a  favorite  food  of 
ants.  It  has  been  seen  even  to  fall  in  a  kind  of  shower  from 
trees  much  covered  with  aphides.  For  the  means  which 
ants  take  to  obtain  this  food,  see  Ant.  The  legs  of  aphides 
are  long,  afid  they  move  slowly  and  awkwaraly  b^  them. 
The  greater  numl)er  of  them  never  have  wings;  it  is  in  tho 


Potato  Aphis  (Aphis  vaatator): 
macrnlfled  fifty  times. 

autumn  that  perfect  winged  insects  generally  appear.  From 
the  Dairing  of  these  result  eggs,  which  produce  female 
aphiaes  in  the  following  spring,  and  successive  generations 
of  wingless  aphides  are  produced  in  a  viviparous  manner 
without  impregnation  throughout  the  summer,  after  which 
winged  apmdes  again  appear.  Their  increase  is  restrained 
not  only  by  birds,  but  by  insectfi  which  feed  on  them.  A 
family  of  coleopterous  insects,  to  which  the  genus  CoceineUa 
or  Ladybird  (q.v.)  belong,  has  received  upon  this  accoimt 
ihe  name  of  Aphidiphagt,  or  aphis-eaters.  There  are  also 
certain  minute  hymenopterous  msects,  which  destroy  them 
\d  great  numbers  by  depositing  their  e^  in  them;  the  larva 
f  eras  upon  the  living  A. ,  out  of  which  it  at  last  eats  its  way, 
leaving  a  mere  desiccated  skin. 

APHLOGISTIC,  a.  afld^U'Hk  [Gr.  a,  without;  phUh 
ffi20, 1  bum  up]:  flameless. 

APHONIA,  n.  drfb'nlu,  or  Aphony,  dfb-nl  [Gr.  a,  with- 
oat;  phdne,  voice]:  a  loss  of  voice:  distinct  from  mutism,  in 
whida  it  is  impossible  to  form  articulate  sounds,  and  in 
most  cases  the  voice  is  not  entirely  gone,  but  only  more  or 
less  suppresaed.  The  voice  is  essentially  produced  (see 
Voice)  by  three  distinct  agents— viz.,  (1)  the  expiration  of 
air,  (2)  the  opening  of  the  glottis,  and  (8)  the  tension  of  the 
vocal  cords;  hence  anything  interfering  with  expiration,  or 
with  the  functions  of  the  glottis  and  vocal  cords,  niay  cause 
aphonia.  Thus,  it  may  result  from  paralysis  of  the  res- 
piratorv  muscles,  from  pulmonary  emphysema,  and  some- 
times from  pneumonia;  or  it  may  be  caused  by  diseases  of 
the  larynx,  as  chronic  laryngitis,  oedema  of  the  glottis, 
polypus,  etc.;  or  by  pressure  on  the  larjpx  cau^  by 
abscesses,  vegetations,  and  any  kind  of  morbid  ^wth;  or  it 
may  be  traced  to  some  functional  or  organic  disturbance  of 
the  inferior  vocal  cords.    Thus,  the  muscular  fibres  which 


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APHORISM— APHRITE. 

act  on  these  cords  may  become  affected  in  acute  laryngitis 
by  extension  of  the  inflammation,  or  tbeir  action  may  be 
impeded  by  the  pressure  of  false  membrane  in  croup.  In 
typhoid  fever,  the  A.  so  commonly  observed  is  due  to 
ulceration  extending  to  these  structures.  Again,  in  cases  of 
lead  or  phosphorus  poisoning,  there  is  A.  due  to  fatty 
degeneration  of  these  muscles.  Not  unfrequently,  A.  may 
be  traced  to  compression  of  the  recurrent  or  inferior 
laryngeal  nerve,  which  is  the  nerve  supplying  motor  power 
to  all  the  muscles  of  the  larynx,  with  one  trittmg  exception. 

Such  pressure  is  not  unfrequently  caused  by  an  aneurism, 
an  abscess,  tumor,  etc.  In  the  same  way,  a  wound  or 
contusion  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve,  or  one  of  the  recur- 
rent branches,  will  cause  A.,  or,  more  commonly,  an  ex- 
tremely hoarse  modification  of  the  voice,  in  consequence  of 
the  laryngeal  muscles  being  paralyzed  on  one  side,  and 
remainmg  active  on  the  other.  There  are  cases  *of  direct 
nervous  action  being  interfered  with;  but  there  are  man^ 
cases  of  what  may  be  termed  reflex  A.,  qb  when  the  voice  is 
often  more  or  less  lost  in  the  course  of  pregnancy  when 
accompanied  with  convulsions,  or  in  consequence  of  the 
presence  of  intestinal  worms,  or  after  the  rapid  suppression 
of  an  exanthematous  rash,  or  of  a  long-continued  hem- 
orrhagic discharge.  Aphonia  is,  moreover,  very  commonly 
associated  with  hysteria. 

When  aphonia  is  not  due  to  irremovable  causes,  as 
tumors  pressing  on  the  recurrent  nerve,  fattjr  degeneration 
of  the  laryngeal  muscles,  etc.,  it  generally  disappears  after 
a  longer  or  shorter  interval.  It  occasionally  assumes 
remarkable  intermittent  shapes.  In  one  instance,  the 
affection  came  on  regularly  at  the  same  time  of  the  year  for 
seventeen  years,  beginning  daily  at  noon,  and  lasting  the 
remainder  of  the  day,  for  a  period  varying  from  thi^  to 
seven  months.  Another  case  is  recorded  in  which,  during 
fourteen  years,  a  young  woman  could  speak  only  during 
two  or  three  hours  daily. 

In  those  cases  which  are  amenable  to  treatment,  emetics, 
electricity,  strychnine,  leeching,  blistering,  croton-oil  lini- 
ment, and  internal  application  of  nitrate  of  silver,  have  been 
found  the  most  useful  remedies. 

APHORISM,  n.  afo-rUm  [Gr.  aphorU'mos,  a  definition 
—afo,  from;  h^m,  I  mark  bounds  or  limits]:  a  phrase 
limited  or  terminated  in  ita  meaning;  a  short  sentence  ex- 
pressing some  important  truth;  a  maxim,  such  as  *  Habit  is 
second  nature.'  The  aphoristic  style  continued  through  ex- 
tended writings,  is  at  times  impressive,  but  too  long  con- 
tinued it  grows  wearisome.  Aphoristic,  a.  dfo-rUtlk, 
or  Aphoris'tical,  a.  -ti-kdl,  expressing  some  truth  in  a 
short  sentence.  Apn'ORis'TiCALLY,  ad.  U,  Aph'oribt, 
n.  -rUt,  one  who.— Syn.  of  'aphorism ':  proverb;  apothegm; 
byword;  a2dom;  maxim;  saying;  adage;  saw;  truism; 
principle. 

APHRITE,  n.  afrit  [Gr.  apkros,  froth  or  foaml:  a  acaly 
variety  of  calcareous  spar,  having  a  shining  pearly  lustre 
and  a  greasy  feel. 


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APHRODISIAC— APICAL. 

APHRODISIAC,  a.  dfrd-4!i£i-&k  [Gr.  aphrodU'lbs,  per- 
tainhig  to  Yenus]:  that  which  excites  to  sexual  inter- 
course. 

APHRODITE,  df^ro-dl'U:  the  Greek  name  of  Venus; 
according  to  various  traditions,  derived  from  aphros  (foam), 
in  allusion  to  the  old  poetical  my^  which  represented  the 
goddess  as  springing  from  the  foam  of  the  sea.  See  Venus: 
Apslles.  Aphrodisia  were  festivals  celebrated  in  honor 
of  A.,  in  numerous  cities  of  Greece,  but  especially  in  Cyprus, 
At  Paphos,  in  this  island,  was  her  most  ancient  temple. 
Bloodless  sacrifices  alone  were  imagined  to  please  A.,  sucli 
as  flowers,  incense,  etc.  Mystenes  of  an  Impure  kind 
formed  part  of  the  ceremonial  of  the  aphrodisia.  Aphro- 
djsia  were  no  doubt  held  in  the  other  places  where  A.  was 
worshipped,  such  as  Cythcra,  Sparta,  Thebes,  Elis,  etc., 
though  tbey  are  not  mentioned.  At  Corinth  and  Athens, 
the  Aphromsia  were  celebrated  principally  by  prostitutes. 

APHTHjE,  n.  df-M  [Gr.  aphthai,  ulcers  m  the  mouth]: 
small  white  specks  or  sores  on  ttie  tongue,  gums,  palate,  etc. ; 
the  thrush;  small  vesicles  formed  of  the  superficial  layer  of 
a  mucous  membrane,  elevated  by  fluid  secreted  bv  the 
latter.  They  are  usually  whitish  in  color,  and  the  fluid  may 
be  serous  or  puriform.  At  the  end  of  a  few  hours  or  days, 
the  aphthous  vesicle  bitrsts  at  its  summit,  and  shrivels  up, 
exposing  an  inflamed  and  painful  patch  of  the  mucous 
membrane.  The  most  common  site  of  A.  is  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  lips  and  mouth,  but  they  occasionally 
appear  wherever  the  mucous  membrane  approaches  the  skin. 
Infants  are  liable  to  an  aphthous  eruption  termed  thrush 
(q.v.).  A.  in  adults  are  generally  the  consequences  of 
fevers  and  other  diseases,  or  a  symptom  of  disturbance  of 
the  digestive  system.  In  some  cases  of  pulmonary  consump- 
tion, they  form  a  painful  addition  to  the  patient's  sufferings. 
In  ordinary  cases  of  A.,  a  preparation  of  borax,  or  some 
astrin^nt  wash,  generally  effects  a  rapid  cure.  Afh'thous, 
a.  dfthiUt  pertai^g  to  thrush,  or  ulcerous  affections  of  the 
mouth.  Aphthoid,  a.  dfthayd  [Gr.  eidos,  resemblance]: 
resembling  aphthae. 

APHTHONG,  n.  df'iJumg  [Gr.  a,  without;  phthonggo€,m 
80und]i  a  silent  letter  or  letters. 

APHYLLOUS,  a.  df-fU'lus  or  df-  f  Gr.  a,  without;  phtU- 
Ion,  a  leaf]:  in  bot,  destitute  of  leaves;  having  leaves 
suppressed.  Aphtllt,  n.  ^fU-U,  the  suppression  or  want 
of  leaves. 

APIA,  d'pi^:  principal  town  and  commercial  empo- 
rium of  the  Samoan  or  Navigator's  Islands,  in  thes.  Pacific 
Ocean, lat.  13"  30—40*  80*  s.,  long.  169"— 173"  w.  It  is  on 
the  n.  coast  of  Upolu,  about  midway  between  the  e.  and 
w.  extremities  of  the  island,  which  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  Ania  at  the  e..  Be  ITuamasaga  in,  the  centre,  and 
Aana  at  the  w.  end.  A.  also  is  divided  into  three  parts  or 
villages,  which  are  separated  by  small  streams.  Vessels 
generally  make  the  e.  end  of  Upolu  and  run  w.,  keeping  the 
reef  about  one  m.  distant  till  off  the  harbor  of  A.|  where 


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APIACE^— APICAL  CELL. 

pilots  are  taken  on  board,  and  numberless  little  frail  ca- 
noes conlaining  natives  cluster  around.  During  Pres. 
Graut's  administration,  a  kind  of  American  protectorate 
over  the  islands  was  established,  with  Albert  Barnes  Stein- 
berger  in  charge.  This  subsequently  (1886)  gave  way  to 
German  occupation,  though  the  United  States  and  England 
had  large  commercial  interests  in  the  islands  as  well  as 
Germany.  After  a  series  of  native  outbreaks  and  revolu- 
tions, the  Germans  deposed  King  Malietoa  and  exiled 
him  to  the  Marshall  Islands,  and  recognized  Tamasese  as 
his  successor.  ITie  natives  appai-ently  preferred  American 
to  German  protection  and  banded  themselves  under  Halie- 
toa's  priucipal  chief,  Mataafa.  Dissensions  soon  arose  be- 
tween the  natives  and  the  German  consul,  and  later  be- 
tween the  latter  and  American  merchants;  and  these  in 
time  led  to  oilicial  acts  by  the  German  authorities  against 
l)oth  the  natives  and  American  business  representatives 
that  were  deemed  unwarranted  to  the  former  and  hostile 
to  the  latter.  In  1888  a  kind  of  civil  war  broke  out,  in 
which  Germany  claimed  that  the  natives  under  liataafa 
were  encouraged  and  directed  by  an  American  citizen. 
The  question  of  the  govt,  of  Samoa  then  became  one  for 
diplomatic  action.  United  States,  England,  and  Germany 
agreed  to  a  convention  to  be  held  in  &rlin  for  the  settle- 
ment of  all  questions  in  dispute  and  a  new  treaty  was 
signed  there  by  representatives  of  the  three  nations  1889, 
June  14.  In  the  meantime  the  American  men-of-war 
Trenton,  VandcUia,  and  Mpsic,  the  English  CaUiope,  and 
the  German  Adler,  Olga,  and  Eber  were  sent  to  A.  to  pro- 
tect the  several  national  interests.  On  the  afternoon  lo89. 
Mar.  15,  a  hurricane  suddenly  broke  over  the  harbor,  and 
raged  with  fury  till  the  next  day.  Though  each  vessel  at- 
tempted to  steam  out  to  sea  the  Calliope  alone  succeeded  in 
doing  so.  On  the  16th  the  IVenton  (flagship  of  Rear-ad- 
miral Kimberly),  Vandalia,  Eber,  AdUr,  and  Oloa  were 
wrecked  on  the  reefs,  and  the  If ipsie  grounded  ana  greatly 
injured.  The  loss  of  life  was,  Americans,  4  officers,  4S 
men;  Germans,  9  officers,  87  men;  total  146. 

APIA'CEiE:  see  IJmbellifera. 

APIACERE:  see  Ad  Libitum. 

APIARY,  n.  d'pl-dr%  A'piab'ibb.  n.  plo.  -dr'U  [IL 
apid'rlum,  a  bee-house— from  apia,  a  bee]:  a  stand  or  shed 
for  bees;  a  place  where  bees  are  kept.  See  Bkb.  A'piab'ibt, 
n.  one  who  rears  bees.  A'pia'bian,  a.  -d'H-An,  relati^  to 
bees.  Apicultuke,  n.  d'pUkul'tur  [L.  euUura,  a  cnltivat- 
ing]:  rearing  of  bees  for  their  honey  and  wax. 

APICAL,  APICES,  APIC'ULATB,  APICULUS, 
etc.:  sec  imder  Apex. 

APICAL  CELL :  terminal  cell  of  a  growing  shoot,  or 
(beneath  terminal  ea]))  of  a  root,  which,  by  continual 
BUbdivibion,  produces  growth. 


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APICIFIXED— APIOS  TUBEROSA. 

APICIPIXED,  a,  d'pUi-fikst  [L.  apex  or  apicem,  a 
point:  ^ng,  fixed];  in  bot,  fixed  apex  to  apex,  as  the  apex 
of  the  filament  attached  to  the  apex  of  the  anther. 

APICIUS,  o^pUA'i-tt*,  Mabcus  Gabius:  a  Roman  epicure, 
in  the  times  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius;  celebrated  for  his 
luxurious  table  and  his  acquirements  in  the  art  of  cookery. 
When,  by  the  gratificatiou  of  his  favorite  indulgence,  he 
had  consumed  the  greater  part  of  his  fortune,  and  had  only 
some  $400,000  left,  he  poisoned  himself,  in  order  to  avoia 
the  miseiy  of  plain  diet  Two  other  gourmands — one  in  the 
time  of  Fompey,  the  other  in  the  reign  of  Trajan— are 
mentioned  imder  the  name  Apicius.  The  Roman  cookery- 
book,  Calii  ApicU  de  Obsoniis  et  Condimentis  site  de  re 
OuUfumd  (libri  decem),  ascribed  to  A.,  belongs  to  a  much 
later  time,  inasmuch  as  it  abounds  in  inaccuracies  and 
solecisms.  Its  author,  Calitu,  has  thought  proper  to  recom- 
mend his  work  to  gourmands  by  afilxing  to  it  the  celebrated 
name  of  Apicius. 

APIECE,  ad.  a-pes'  [AS.  a,  to  or  on,  and  pieced  to  each, 
as  a  separate  share. 

APIOCRINITE,  n.  apiok'rhi-U  [Or.  a'pUn,  a  pear; 
JcriTwn,  a  lily]:  a  fossil  crinoid,  abundant  in  the  Bradford 
day;  the  pear-encrinite. 

APION,  a-pl-dn,  Greek  grammarian:  b.  at  Oasis,  a  town 
in  Libya,  but  educated  in  Alexandria,  which  he  affected  to 
consider  his  birthplace,  from  a  desire  of  being  thought  a 
jnire  Greek.  He  studied  imder  ApoUonius,  the  son  of 
Archibius,  from  whom  he  acquired  an  admiration  of  Homer, 
and  afterwards  went  to  Rome,  where  he  succeeded  Theon 
as  teacher  of  rhetoric.  He  was  as  remarkable  for  his 
loquacious  vanity  as  for  his  knowled^.  He  declared  that 
himself,  and  every  one  whom  he  mentioned,  would  be  held 
in  immortal  memory;  that  he  was  equal  to  the  first  philos- 
ophers of  Greece,  and  that  Alexandria  should  be  proud  of 
hmi.-  From  his  bragging,  Tiberius  used  to  call  him 
Cymbalum  Mundi  (the  cymbal  of  the  universe). 

With  the  exception  of  one  or  two  fragments,  the  whole  of 
A.'s  numerous  writings  are  lost.  He  composed  a  work  on 
the  text  of  Homer,  partly  in  the  form  of  a  dictionary, 
frequently  referred  to  by  subsequent  authors;  a  work  on 
Egypt,  which  contained  the  far-famed  story  of  Androclu$ 
and  the  lAoUy  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius;  a  work  against 
the  Jews;  one  in  praise  of  Alexander  the  Great;  another  on 
the  greatepicurean  Apicius;  histories  of  various  countrie8,etc. 

APIOS  TUBEROSA,  a'pids  til-bir-v'sa:  ground  nut 
or  wild  bean  (called  Qlycine  Apios  by  Linnaeus):  plant 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  LeguminoscB,  sub-order  rapili- 
oTuusecBy  having  tuberous  roots,  a  twining  stem,  dark  red 
flowere,  leathery,  two-valvular  legumes,  and  pinnate  leaves, 
with  seven  pair  of  smooth  ovato-lanceolate  leaflets.  This 
plant,  a  native  ofN.  Amer.,has  for  a  century  been  cultivated 
in  botanic  gardens  in  Europe,  and  has  recently  been  brought 
into  particular  notice  on  the  continent,  largjely  through  the 
French  traveller  Lamare-Picquot,  who,  during  his  travels  in 
N.  Amer.,  convinced  himself  of  the  value  of  the  tubers  as 


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APIS. 

an  article  of  food,  for  which  they  are  there  used  to  some 
extent.  Various  attempts  have  since  been  made  to  cultivate 
it  like  the  potato;  but  its  cultivation  is  found  difficult, 
because  of  the  length  and  weakness  of  the  twining  shoots, 
and  the  length  of  the  roots.  The  tubers  cooked  in  steam 
are  free  from  all  acridity  and  bitterness,  and  veiy  much 
resemble  potatoes  dressed  in  the  same  way.  They  contain 
more  nitrogen  than  potatoes  (4*6  per  cent.),  also  more  starchy 
farina  (33'^  according  to  an  analysis  by  Payen). 

APIS,  n.  d'pU  [L.  and  Gr.  Apis\:  the  sacred  bull, 
worshipped  with  divine  honors  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
who  regarded  it  as  a  symbol  of  Osiris,  the  god  of  the  Nile, 
the  husband  of  Isis,  and  the  great  divinity  of  Egypt.  A 
sacred  court  or  yard  was  set  apart  for  the  r^dence  of  A.  in 
the  temple  of  Ptah  at  Memphis,  where  a  numerous  rednue 
of  priests  waited  upon  him,  and  sacrifices  of  red  oxen  were 
offered  to  him.  His  movements,  choice  of  places,  and 
changes  of  appetite,  were  religiously  regaitied  as  oracles. 


Apis.— Golden  Calf. 

It  was  an  understood  law  that  A.  must  not  live  longer  than 
25  years.  When  he  attained  this  age,  he  was  secretly  put 
to  death,  and  buried  by  the  priests  in  a  sacred  well,  the 
popular  belief  being  that  he  cast  himself  into  the  water.  If, 
however,  he  died  a  natural  death,  his  body  was  solemnly 
interred  in  the  Temple  of  Serapis  at  Memphis,  and  baccha- 
nalian festivals  were  held  to  celebrate  the  inauguration  of  a 
new  bull  as  A.  As  soon  as  a  suitable  animal  was  found 
having  the  required  marks— black  color  with  a  white  square 
on  the  brow;  the  figure  of  an  eagle  on  the  back,  and  a  knot 
in  the  shai>e  of  a  cantharus  under  the  tongue — he  was  led  in 
triumphal  procession  to  Nilopolis  at  the  time  of  the  new 
moon,  where  he  remained  40  days,  waited  upon  by  nude 
women,  and  was  afterwards  conveyed  in  a  splendid  vessel 
to  Memphis.  His  Theophany,  or  day  of  discovery,  and  his 
birthday,  were  celebrated  as  high  festivals  of  seven  days' 


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APlfiU-A  POCO  A  POCO. 

daration  daring  the  rise  of  the  Nile.  The  worship  of  the 
golden  calf  by  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  and  also  the 
employment  of  golden  calves  as  symbols  of  the  Deity  by 
Jeroboam,  have  bisen  very  generally  referred  to  the  Egyptian 
worship  of  Apis. 

APIS,  APIDiE:  see  Bee. 

APISH,  etc.:  see  under  Ape. 

A'PIUM:  see  Celebt. 

APLACENTALIA,  n.  pin.  ap'lds-^td'lid  [Gr.  a,  with- 
out; Eng.  pkteenta]:  the  section  of  the  Mammalia,  includ- 
ing the  Didelphia  and  Monadelphia,  in  which  the  young  is 
not  furnished  with  a  placenta.    S^  Placenta. 

APLANATIO,  a.  dp'ldttr&flk  [Gr.  a,  without;  plando,  I 
wander]:  appliei  to  a  telescope  or  lens  which  entirely  coi^ 
rects  the  aberration  of  the  rays  of  light. 

APLOMB,  n.  d-pl^'  or  drpldng'  [P.  dpUmb,  to  the  lead, 
perpendicular  ]mb—lit,,  true  to  the  plumb-line]:  the  self- 
poesesdon  which  arises  from  perfect  self-confidence;  the 
settling  down  into  its  fit  place  as  if  it  were  naturally. 

APNCEA,  n.  &p-ne'&  [Gr.  a,  without;  pne'd,  I  breathe]: 
loss  of  breath;  suffocation. 

APO,  dp' 6:  a  Greek  prefix  signifying  'away*;  *  from.' 

APOCALYPSE,  n.  drpdk'drllpa  [F.— from  L.  wpocalyp'- 
tis;  Gr.  apokalup'sis,  an  uncovering— from  Gr.  (^x>,  from; 
kalup'to,  I  cover,  or  conceal]:  an  uncovering  of  hidden 
things;  a  revelation;  a  vision;  the  last  book  of  the  New 
Testament  See  Revelation  of  John.  Apocalyptic,  n. 
d'-pdk'd4fp*i^,  or  Apoc'alyp'tical,  a.  -tl-kdl,  pertaining  to 
revelation.    Apoc'altp'tically,  ad.  -kdl-U. 

Apocalyp'tic  Numbbb:  'the  mystical  number*  666, 
spoken  of  Rev.  xiii.  18.  As  early  as  the  2d  c,  the  church 
had  found  that  the  name  Antichrist  was  indicated  by  the 
Greek  characters  expressive  of  this  number;  while  others 
believed  it  to  express  a  date.  Various  interpretations  have 
been  suggested;  but  the  mystery  remains.  One  of  the  most 
probable  interpretations  is  that  which  was  current  in  the 
days  of  Irenaeus,  and  which  found  the  number  in  the  word 
ZateifUfs  (Latintu)  applied  to  pagan  Rome.  The  Roman 
nation — the  mightiest  pjagan  power  on  earth— was  the  most 
terrible  symbol  of  Antichrist,  and  the  number  666  appears 
in  the  Greek  characters  which  spell  the  name.  Many  Prot- 
estant controversialists  have  supported  their  views  by  this 
interpretation,  applying  the  prophecy  to  papal  Rome;  but 
this  opinion  of  late  finc^  fewer  advocates  among  Protestant 
scholars. 

APOCARPOUS,  a.  dp'6-kdr^pus  [Gr.  apo,  from;  karpos, 
fruit]:  applied  to  fruits  when  their  carpels  are  either  quite 
separate  or  onlv  partially  united.  A.  fbuits,  in  bot,,  are 
Uiose  fruits  which  are  the  produce  of  a  single  flower,  and 
are  formed  of  only  one  carpel,  or  of  a  nuniber  of  carpels 
remaining  free  and  separate  from  each  other. 

A  POCO  A  POCO,  dpc^kodpo'ko  [Ital.]:  In  Music,  by 
degrees;  by  little  and  little. 


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APOCOPE— APOCRYPHA. 

APOCOPE,  n.  a-pitk'o-pe  [Gr.  apo,  from;  kopto,  I  cut]: 
omission  of  the  last  letter  or  syllable  of  a  word.  Apoc'- 
OPATED,  a.  shortened  by  cuttmg  off  the  last  letter  or 
syllable. 

APOCRENIC  ACID,  c^^po-kri^n'lk-:  one  of  the  products 
of  the  natural  decay  of  wood  and  other  plant  textures; 
found  wherever  lignme  or  woody  fibre  is  decomposing  in 
soils,  etc.  As  A.  A.  is  soluble  in  water,  it  follows  that  rain- 
water falling  on  and  percolating  through  soils  containing 
this  substance,  becomes  impregnated  with  it;  and  hence,  in 
many  natural  waters,  A.  A.  is  a  recognized  constituent.  A. 
A.  performs  an  important  function  in  the  growth  of  plants, 
as  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  forms  one  of  the 
stages  through  which  matter  travels  from  dead  plants  again 
into  the  living  vegetable  tissue.  » 

APOCRYPHA,  n.  a-jktk' rl-fd  fGr.  apo,  from,  or  inten- 
sive; krupto,  I  hide]:  thmgs  wholly  kept  back  or  concealed : 
certain  disputed  books  received  as  parts  of  inspired 
Scripture  by  Rom.  Catholics  and  others,  but  generally 
rejected  by  Protestants.  Apockyphal,  a.  a-pOk'rifdl, 
doubtful;    uncertain.     Apoc'ryphallt,  ad.   41,     Apoc'- 

RYPHALNESS,  U. 

APOCRYPHA,  or  Apocryphal  Wrttingb:  originally 
meant  secret  or  concealed,  and  was  rendered  current  by  the 
Jews  of  Alexandria.  ]Ln  the  earliest  churches,  it  was  ap- 
plied with  very  different  significations  to  a  variety  of  writ- 
ings. Sometimes  it  was  given  to  those  whose  authorship  and 
original  form  were  unknown;  sometimes  to  writings  con- 
taining a  hidden  meaning;  sometimes  to  those  whose  public 
use  was  not  thought  advisable.  In  this  last  signification,  it 
has  been  customary,  since  the  time  of  Jerome,  to  apply  the 
term  to  a  number  of  writings  which  the  Septuagint  had 
circulated  among  the  Christians,  and  which  were  sometimes 
considered  as  an  appendage  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  some- 
times as  a  portion  of  it.  The  Greek  Church,  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Laodicea  (860),  excluded  them  from  the  canon;  the 
Latin  Church.on  the  other  hand,  always  highly  favored  them ; 
and  finally  the  Council  of  Trent  (1545-63)  placed  them  on 
an  equality  with  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  Church 
of  England  uses  them  in  part  for  edification,  but  not  for  the 
*  establishment  of  doctrine.'  All  other  Protestant  churches 
In  England  and  America  reject  their  use  in  public  worship. 
But  it  was  formerly  customary  to  bind  up  the  A.  between 
the  authorized  versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
though  this  has  now  ceased,  and,  as  a  consequence,  this 
curious,  interesting,  and  instructive  part  of  Jewish  litera- 
ture is  now  known  to  comparatively  few  besides  scholars. 
The  Old  Testament' A.  consists  of  14  books:  1.  First  Esdras 
(q.v.);  2.  Second  Esdras  (q.v.);  3.  Tobit  (q.v.);  4.  Judith 
(q.v.);  5.  The  parts  of  Esther  not  found  in  Hebrew  or 
Chaldee;  6.  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon;  7.  The  Wisdom  of 
Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus  (q  v.);  8.  Baruch 
(q.v.);  9.  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children;  10.  The 
History  of  Susanna;  11.  The  History  of  the  Destruction  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon  (q.v.);  12.  The  Prayer  of  Manassea. 


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APOCYNACE^. 

King  of  Jodah  (see  Manabsbh);  13.  First  Maccabees  (q.y.); 
14.  Second  Maccabees  (q.v.).  The  precise  origin  of  all  of 
these  writings  cannot  be  ascertained.  It  is  enough  to  state 
here  that  some  bear  traces  of  a  Palestinian,  others  of  an 
Egypto-Alexandrine,  and  others,  a^ain,  of  a  Chaldaioo- 
Perslan  origin  or  influence.  Most,  if  not  all,  bear  internal 
evidence  of  having  been  composed  in  b.c.  1st  and  2d  c. 

The  A.  of  the  New  Testament  may  be  arranged  under 
three  heads:  1.  The  writings  comprising  the  Apocryphai 
Chipels,  which  consist  of  22  separate  documents,  10  in  Greek 
and  12  in  Latin.  They  concern  themselves  with  the  his- 
tory of  Joseph  and  the  Virgin  Mary  before  the  birth  of 
Christ,  with  the  infancy  of  Christ,  and  with  the  history 
of  Pilate.  The  most  important  of  the  set  are  the  Protevan- 
g^Hum  cf  James^  the  Uospd  of  Thomas,  and  the  Acts  of 
jHlate,  which  are  perhaps  the  origines  of  all  the  apocryphal 
traditions.  That  many  of  the  stories  found  in  these  were 
current  in  the  2d  c.  is  abundantly  proved,  but  we  have  no 
evidence  that  any  of  the  books  known  as  Apocryphal  Gos- 

rs  were  then  m  existence,  or  are  older  than  the  4th  c. 
The  AjpacryBluU  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  consisting  of  13  docu- 
ments originally  written  in  Greek,  but  found  also  in  a  Latin 
compilation  probably  of  the  6th  c.  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  Apocryphal  Gk)spels  l^  having  less  of  miracle  and 
more  of  didactic  discourse.  The  more  important  of  the 
collection  are  The  Acts  of  Peter  cmd  Foul,  The  Acts  of  Ba/r- 
nabas.  The  Acts  ofFlUUp,  The  Acts  of  Andrew,  The  Acts  of 
Bartholomew,  and  The  Acts  of  John.  It  is  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain their  age.  Some  are  probably  of  earlier  date  than  the 
Apocryphal  Gkwpels,  but  the  original  M8S.  are  lost,  and 
we  have  them  only  in  late  transcripts  of  the  middle  ages. 
8.  The  Apocryphal  Apocalypses,  consisting  of  seven  docu- 
ments, four  of  which  are  called  apocalypses  by  their  authors. 
There  is  great  and  perplexing  variety  in  the  MBS.  That 
called  Tm  Apocalypse  of  Moses  relates  rather  to  the  Old 
Testament  than  to  the  New;  so  does  T?ie  Apocalypse  of 
Bedras,  a  weak  imitation  of  the  Fourth  Book  of  Esdras. 
The  others  are  The  Apocalypse  of  Paul,  The  Apocalypse  of 
John,  and  The  Assumption  of  2ddry  in  three  forms.  These, 
too,  exist  only  in  late  MSS.  of  the  middle  ages,  and  it  is, 
of  course,  not  quite  certain  that  they  are  the  same  in  form 
as  the  works  bearing  the  same  name  referred  to  in  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers.  The  New  Testament  A.  throws  a 
flood  of  light  upon  the  workings  of  the  early  Christian  con- 
sciousness, and  enables  us  to  see  the  superiority  of  the  ca- 
nonical Scriptures.— See  Tischendorf's  Prolegomena  to  the 
Apocryphal  Literature  of  the  New  Testament  (Leipsic, 
1878);  Clark's  Ante-Nicene  Christian  L%lyrary,\o\.  16  (Edin- 
bui^h,  1870);  Baring-Gould,  Lost  and  Hostile  Gospels  (1814); 
B.  Harris  Cowper,  The  Apocryphal  Gospels  (5th  ed.  1881); 
and  Canon  Churton,  The  Uncanonieal  and  Apocryphal  Scrip 
tures  (1885). 

APOCYNACEiE, d-pds't-nd'see,  or  Apocv'NEiB:  a  natu- 
ral order  of  Dicotyledonous  plants  consisting  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  generally  with  milky  juice,  having  entire  leaves, 
and  no  stipules.    The  calyx  is  usually  5-partite,  persistent; 


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APODA— AP0DIXI8. 

\he  corolla  hypogenous,  monopetalous,  often  with  scales 
iu  its  throat,  re^ar,  5-lobed,  twisted  in  hud.  There  are 
five  stamens,  which  are  inserted  on  the  corolla;  the  anthers 
adhere  firmly  to  the  stigma,  to  which  the  pollen  is  imme- 
diately applied;  the  anthers  are  2-celled,  and  open  longi- 
tadinally;  the  pollen  is  granular.  The  ovaries  are  two, 
each  1-celled;  or  one,  2  celled;  ovules  usually  numerous; 
styles  one  or  two;  the  stigma  is  contracted  in  the  middle, 
and  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  order.  The  fruit  is  a 
follicle  or  capsule,  or  drupe  or  berry,  double  or  single. 
The  seeds  have  a  fleshy  or  cartilaginous  albumen,  or  (rarely) 
are  ex-albuminous.  There  are  about  566  known  species, 
chiefly  natives  of  tropical  countries.  The  Pebiwinkle 
(q.v.)  is  its  only  representative  in  the  flora  of  Britain,  a 
wanderer,  as  it  were,  from  the  tropics,  yet  hardy  enough 
for  the  climate  with  which  it  has  to  contend;  the  OLEAin)BB 
(q.v.)  and  a  few  others  are  foimd  in  the  s.  of  Europe. 
Many  species  are  poisonous;  among  which  is  the  noted 
Tanohin  (q.v.)  or  Takqhbena  of  Madagascar.  Some  are 
used  in  memcine,  in  India  and  other  countries.  A  number 
of  species  yield  Caoutchouc  (q.vj.  The  milk  of  others  is 
bland  and  wholesome,  as  the  Hya  HtA  or  Cow-treb 
(q.v.)  of  Demerara.  Some  are  used  in  dyeing;  WrighHa 
ttnctoria  yields  indigo  of  good  quality.  A  number  yield 
eatable  fniits,  as  WulugJUma  ediUis  and  Cariasa  CcM^nda* 
in  India;  Carissa  edvlis  in  Arabia,  and  certain  species  of 
Carpodtnus,  called  Pishamin  in  Sierra  Leone,  a.naBdnear- 
nia.  Apocynum  eannabinum,  Indian  hemp,  a  herba- 
ceous plant  about  4—5  ft. in  height,  with  unbranched  stem, 
oblong  leaves,  and  lateral  cymes  of  whitish  bell  shaped 
flowers,  yields  a  very  strong  fibre,  which  the  Indians  of 
KorUi  Ainerica  employ  for  making  twine,  cloth,  fishing- 
nets,  etc. 

APODA,  n.  plu.  dp'd-dd  [Gr.  a,  without;  podea,  feet]: 
those  fishes  which  have  no  ventral  fins.  Apodal,  a. 
dp'o-ddl,  destitute  of  feet;  applied  also  to  such  fishes  as  the 
eel,  sword-fish,  wolf -fish,  etc.,  which  have  no  ventral  fins. 
In  the  Linnfean  system,  the  Apodes  are  an  order  of  Fishes, 
in  which  genera  not  otherwise  nearly  allied  are  brought 
together;  but  in  the  systems  of  Cuvier  and  other  recent 
naturalists,  a  less  imx>ortant  place  is  assigned  to  this  dis- 
tinctive character.  Apodia,  n.  <lp-d'di4,  the  absence  of  feet. 

APODEMA,  n.  plu.  dp-dd'^-md  [Gr.  apo,  from;  dSma^  a 
cord,  a  bond;  demdta,  cords  or  bonds]:  certain  appendages 
on  the  bodies  of  Articulata  giving  attachment  to  muscles,  or 
articidating  with  wings  and  the  like.  Apodbmata,  n.  plu. 
dp'd-dMdtd,  certain  chitinous  septa  which  divide  ^e 
tissues  in  the  Crustacea. 

APODICTIC,  dp'o-dlkftlk:  a  logical  term  signifying  a 
judgment  or  conclusion  which  is  necessarily  true;  or,  in 
other  words,  a  judgment  of  which  the  opposite  is  impossi- 
ble. No.  A.  Judgment  can  be  founded  on  experience,  because 
experience  does  not  supply  the  idea  of  an  absolute  necessity. 

APODIXIS,  n.  dp'o-diks'is  [L.  apodixin;  Gr.  apodeix'is, 
a  setting  forth — from  Gr.  apo,   detk'numi,  I  show]:  full 


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APODOSIS-APOLLINARIS. 

demonstratioD.  A^odictic,  a.  dp'o-dik'tik,  or  Ap'odic'- 
ticaij,  a.  -tikal,  evident  beyoDa  contradicUon  ;  clearly 
proving.    Ap'odic'tically,  ad.  4k 

APODOSIS,  n.  a-p6d'6-sis  [G.  a/podusia,  conclusion — 
from  apo,  from;  didomi,  I  give]:  in  gram.,  the  consequent 
clause  in  a  conditional  sentence,  expressing  the  result— the 
clause  expressing  the  condition  being  callea  the  protatis, 

APOGEE,  n.  apo-je  [Gr.  aw,  from;  ge,  the  earth] 
properly  speaking,  the  greatest  distance  of  the  earth  from 
any  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Its  application,  however,  is 
restricted  to  the  sun  and  moon,  the  sun's  A.  corresponding 
to  the  earth's  aphelion,  and  the  moon's  A.  being  the  point 
of  its  orbit  most  remote  from  the  earth.  A.  is  opposed  to 
perigee.    Apogean,  a.  dp'd^e'an,  pertaining  to. 

APOLDA,  drpU'dd:  town  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Saxe- 
Weimar-Eisenach,  Gtermany;  on  the  Werlitz,  a  feeder  of 
the  Saale,  8  m.  n.e.  from  Weimar.  It  is  a  station  on  the 
Thuringian  railway,  between  Weimar  and  Weissenfels, 
and  a  place  of  much  industrial  activity,  having  extensive 
manufactures  of  hosiery.    Pop.  (1894)  550,880. 

APOLLINARIS,  a-pot-l-nd'Tis,  the  Younger:  Bishop  of 
Laodicea  in  Syria  (362);  and  one  of  the  warmest  opponents 
of  Arianism.  Both  as  a  man  and  as  a  scholar,  he  was  held  in 
the  greatest  reverence;  and  his  writings  were  extensively  read 
in  his  own  day.  His  father,  A.  the  Elder,  who  was  presby- 
ter of  Laodicea,  was  bom  at  Alexander,  and  taught  g^m- 
mar,  first  at  Bervtus,  and  afterwards  at  Laodicea.  When 
Julian  prohibited  the  Christians  from  teaching  the  classics, 
the  father  and  son  endeavored  to  supply  the  loss  by  con- 
verting the  Scriptures  into  a  body  of  poetry,  rhetoric,  and 
philosophy.  The  Old  Testament  was  selected  as  the  sub- 
ject for  poetical  compositions  after  the  manner  of  Homer, 
Pindar,  and  the  tragedians;  while  the  New  Testament 
formed  the  groundwork  of  dialogues  in  imitation  of 
Plato.  It  is  not  ascertained  what  snare  the  father  had  in 
this  work,  but  as  he  had  a  reputation  for  poetry,  he  proba- 
bly put  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek  verse.  But  it  was 
chicfiy  as  a  controversial  theologian,  and  ns  the  founder  of  a 
sect,  that  A.  the  Younger  is  celebrated.  He  maintained  the 
doctrine  that  the  logos,  or  divine  nature  in  Christ,  took  the 
place  of  the  rational  human  soul  or  mind,  and  that  the  body 
of  Christ  was  a  spiritualized  and  glorified  form  of  humanitv. 
This  doctrine  was  condemn^  by  several  synods,  especially 
by  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (881),  on  the  ^und  that 
it  denied  the  true  human  nature  of  Christ.  The  heresy 
stjrled  Apollinarianism  spread  rapidly  in  Syria  and  the 
neiehbormg  countries,  and,  after  Uie  death  of  A.,  divided 
itself  into  two  sects— the  Vitalians,  named  after  Vitalis,  Bp. 
of  Andoch;  and  the  Polemeans,  who  added  to  the  doctrine 
of  A.  the  assertion  that  the  divine  and  human  natures  were 
so  blended  as  one  substance  in  Christ  that  his  body  was  a 
proper  object  of  adoration.  On  this  account  they  were  ac- 
cused of  gareolatria  (worship  of  the  fiesh)  and  anilmfpokUria 
(worship  of  man),  and  also  were  styled  syrumsiastaiiiyn, 
together,  and  outia,  substance),  because  they  confused  to^ 


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APOLLINARIS  WATEK-^APOLLO. 

gether  the  two  distinct  substances.  ^The  whole  contro- 
versy, which  occupied  a  great  part  of  the  5th  c,  is  an  in^ 
stance  of  human  reason  wandering  out  of  its  proper  sphere. 
A.  must  not  be  confounded  with  Claudius  A.,  tip.  of  Hie- 
rapolis,  in  Phrygia  (170). 

APOLLI N  AKIS  \V  A  TEH.  a-pol-W-naris:  alkaline  min- 
eral water  containing  carbonate  of  soda,  from  the  Apol- 
linaris  Spring,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ahr,  in  the  Rhine 
province.  It  Is  largely  imported  into  the  United  States. 
.  APOLLO,  n.  d-pdl'ld  [L.  and  Gr.  apdUon]:  a  god  of  the 
anc.  Qreeks  and  Romans,  worshipped  under  various  names. 
A.  may  be  regarded  as  the  characteristic  divinity  of  the 
Greeks,  inasmuch  as  he  was  the  impersonation  of  Greek 
life  in  its  most  beautiful  and  natural  forms,  and  the  ideal 
representative  of  the  Grecian  nation.  His  mild  worship, 
with  its  many  festivals,  accompanied  as  they  were  by  cessa- 
tion from  all  hostilities;  his  various  shrines  at  sacred  places, 
with  theip  oracles,  and  the  general  idea  of  his  character, 
had  a  wide,  powerful,  and  beneficent  influence  on  social  and 

S>litical  life  throughout  the  states  of  Greece.  Homer  and 
csiod  mention  that  he  was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Leto,  but 
neither  states  were  he  was  bom.  The  Ephesians  believed 
that  bofh  he  and  Diana,  his  sister,  were  bom  in  a  grove 
near  their  city.  The  Tegyraeans  of  Boeotfa,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Zoster  in  Attica,  also  claimed  the  honor  of  his  birth; 
while  the  Egyptians  seemed  to  think  he  properly  belonged 
to  them;  but  the  most  popular  legend  was  that  which  made 
him  a  native  of  Delos,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  where  bis 
mother  Leto,  followed  by  the  jealous  wrath  of  Juno  over 
land  and  sea,  at  length  found  rest  and  shelter,  and  was  de- 
livered of  him,  under  the  shadow  of  an  olive-tree,  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Cynthus.  To  spite  the  Queen  of  Heaven, 
who  was  far  from  being  a  f avonte  with  the  oth^r  goddesses, 
these  hastened  to  tender  their  services  to  the  weak  and 
wearied  Leto.  The  voun^  A.  was  the  object  of  great  regard 
and  care.  Themis  fed  him  with  nectar  and  ambrosia,  the 
food  of  the  gods,  which  seems  to  have  suddenly  excited  the 
conceit  of  the  infant  deitv,  inasmuch  as  he  surprised  his 
Diu^  .by  starting  to  his  ji^t,  d^inapding  9.  lyre,  and  aQ- 
nmncin  '  his  intention  to  reveal  the  will  of  Jove. 

In  ancient  literature  A.  is  described  as  possessed  of  many 
and  various  powers,  all  of  which,  however,  are  seen  on 
closer  inspection  to  be  intimately  related  to  each  other.  He 
is  spoken  of:  1.  As  the  god  of  retributive  justice,  who,  armed 
with  bow  and  arrows,  sends  down  his  glitterhig  shafts  upon 
insolent  oflfenders.  In  this  character  he  appears  in  the 
opening  of  the  Bitul.  2.  As  the  instructor  of  bards,  and 
the  god  of  song  or  minstrelsy,  playing  upon  the  phorminz. 
or  seven-strin^d  lyre,  and  smgmg  for  the  diversion  01 
the  other  deities  when  engaged  in  feasting.  8.  As  the  god 
of  prophetic  inspiration,  especially  in  his  oracle  at  Delphi. 
4.  As  the  guardian  deity  of  herds  and  flocks.  5.  As 
the  god  of  medicine,  who  affords  help,  and  wards  oflP  evil. 
In  this  sense  he  is  represented  as  the  father  of  Asclepius 
(iEsculapius),  the  god  of  the  healing  art.  6.  As  a  founder 
of  cities.     Accormng    to  Homer,  ne  assisted  Neptune  io 


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APOLLO  BELVEDERE. 

tmilding  the  walls  of  Troy.  Cyrcne,  Nazos  in  SicOy, 
and  other  cities,  venerated  A.  as  their  founder.  By 
the  later  writers,  A.  was  identified 
with  Helios,  the  sun-god,  thoue^b 
Homer  describes  the  latter  as  a  dis 
tinct  deity.  Several  critics,  however, 
i  have  regarded  Helios,  or  the  sun-god, 
as  the  true  original  A. — an  opinioD 
I  which  may  be  supported  bv  many 
probabilities.  The  supposition  that 
A.  was  identical  with  the  Eg3rptian 
deity  Horus  was  rejected  by  the 
learned  O.  MQller,  who  generally  op- 
posed all  attempts  to  deduce  Grecian 
from  Egyptian  mythology.  Accord- 
ing to  Mttller's  theory,  A. was  a  purely 
Doric  deit>',  whose  first  residence 
was  in  Tempe,  and  who  afterwards 
removed  to  Delphi,  whence  the  fame 
of  his  oracle  was  spread  abroad,  and 
-^pouo-  made  him  to  be  recognized  as  the  na- 

tional divinity  of  Greece.  The  introduction  of  his  worship 
into  Attica  appears  to  have  been  contemporaneous  with  the 
immigration  of  the  lonians,  and  that  worship  seems  to  have 
sprrad  over  the  Peloponnesus,  immediately  after  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Dorians.  Much  controversy  has  taken  place, 
both  with  reference  to  the  idea  which  lies  at  the  root  of  the 
whole  myth  of  the  A.  worship,  and  also  as  to  whether  this 
myth  had  its  origin  in  the  north  of  Greece  or  in  Egypt. 
Even  on  the  supposition  that  the  original  conception  was 
derived  from  the  latter  source,  it  was  to  Greek  art  and  phi- 
losophy that  it  owed  its  development  into  the  ideal  of 
humanity.  The  most  celebrated  oracles  of  A.  were  at 
Delphi,  Abse  in  Phocis,  Ismenion  in  Thel)es,  Delos,  Claros, 
near  Colophon,  and  Patara  in  Lycia.  Among  the  Romans, 
the  worship  of  A.  was  practiced  as  early  as  B.C.  430,  and  pre- 
vailed especially  under  the  emperors.  But  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  Romans  derived  their  conceptions  of  A. 
entirely  from  the  Greeks.  It  was  in  honor  of  A.  and  his 
sister  Diana  that  the  Itidi  scBculares  were  celebrated  every 
hundred  years.  The  attributes  of  A.  are  the  bow  and  qaiver, 
the  cithara  and  plectrum,  the  snake,  shepherd's  crook, 
tripod,  laurel,  raven,  etc. ;  less  frequently,  the  grasshopper, 
cock,  hawk,  wolf,  and  olive-tree.  In  sculpture,  he  is  gen- 
erally represented  with  a  face  beautifully  oval,  high  fore- 
head, flowing  hair,  and  slender  figure. 

APOLLO  BELVEDERE,  d'jkd'ld  bel've-der':  a  celebrated 
statue  of  antiquity,  generally  regarded  as  embodying  the 
highest  ideal  of  manly  beauty.  It  is  usually  supposed  to 
represent  the  '  lord  of  the  unerring  bow '  in  the  moment  of 
his  victory  over  the  Python,  but  numerous  other  eirolana- 
tions  have  been  suggested.  The  figure  (upwards  of  7  feet  in 
height)  is  naked,  but  a  cloak  fastened  round  the  neck  hangs 
gracefully  over  the  extended  left  arm;  the  expression  of  the 
fsLce  is  one  of  calm  and  godlike  triumph,  mixed  with  'beau- 
tiful disdain.'  This  great  work  of  art  was  discovered  in  1 608, 


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APOLLODORUS— APOLLONIUS. 

amid  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Antium,  now  Capo  d'AnzG. 
and  purchased  by  Pope  Julius  11.,  who  placed  it  in  the  Bel- 


Apollo  Belvedere. 

vedere  of  the  Vatican,  whence  the  name  it  beans.  The  date 
of  its  execution  is  with  probability  referred  to  the  reign  of 
Nero,  but  the  name  of  the  artist  is  a  matter  of  mere  conjec- 
ture. The  left  hand  and  the  right  fore-arm,  wanting  in  the 
statue  us  discovered,  were  restored  by  Q.  A.  da  Montorsoli, 
a  pupil  of  Michael  Angelo. 

APOLLODORUS,  a-p6ld-do  rm:  lived  abt.  B.C.  408: 
Athenian  painter,  predecessor  of  Zeuxis.  He  introduc»Bd 
improved  coloring  and  distribution  of  light  and  Fhade. 

APOLLODORUS:  Greek  grammarian,  lived  about  B.C. 
140,  studied  philosophy  in  Athens,  and  grammar  under 
Aristarchus;  wrote  a  work  on  mythology,  giving  an  arrange- 
menth  of  old  myths  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  historical 
period;  also  a  geography,  a  chronicle  in  iambic  verse,  and 
several  grammatical  works.  The  mythology,  which  begins 
with  the  origin  of  the  gods,  probably  went  down  as  far  as  the 
Trojan  cycle,  but  a  portion  of  it  has  perished.  It  has  been 
reckoned  by  some  only  an  extract  from  a  larger  work  by  A., 
though  this  is  mere  hypothesis.  An  edition  of  the  BibHo- 
Iheca  of  A.  was  published  1783,  by  Heyne,  and  one  by 
Hercher  1874. 

APOLLODORUS:  celebrated  architect  in  Uie  time  of  the 
emperor  Trajan,  by  whom  he  was  employed  to  construct  a 
bridge  over  the  Danube  in  Lower  Hungary.  His  severe 
censure,  boldly  pronounced  on  a  design  for  a  temple  of 
Venus,  which  the  emperor  Hadrian  had  sent  to  him,  caused 
A.  to  be  sentenced  to  death,  a.d.  129. 

APOLLONIUS,  ap  ol-lo' nl-u8,  sumamed  Dybcolos  (or 
ill-tempered),  of  Alexandria:  Greek  ^ammarian,  2d  c. 
Some  of  his  grammatical  works  were  edited  by  Bekker.  A. 
was  the  first  who  i  educed  grammar  to  a  system.    His  rcpu- 


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AP0LL0N1U8. 

taticm  was  ao  high,  that  Priscian  calls  him  grammaiieorum 
prineeps  (prince  of  grammarians). 

APOLLONIU8,  son  of  Archebulus  of  Alexandria:  lived 
in  the  time  of  Augustus;  author  of  a  lexicon  of  Homeric 
words. 

APOLLONTOS,  sumamed  Molon:  teacher  of  rhetoric  at 
Rhodes,  and  also  gave  lectures  at  Rome,  where  he  was 
highly  esteemed  by  Cicero  and  Caesar. 

APOLLONIUS  OP  Perqa:  b.c.  240;  is  classed  with 
Euclid,  Archimedes,  and  Diophantus,  as  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  mathematical  sciences  His  work  on  conic  sections 
has  been  preserved,  partly  in  the  original  Greek,  partly  in 
an  Arabic  translation. 

APOLLONIUS  OF  Rhodes  (or  of  Alexandria,  say  some 
authorities):  b.  b.c.  285;  wrote  many  works  on  grammar, 
and  an  epic  poem,  entitled  the  Argonauttca,  marked  rather 
by  leamii]^  and  industry  than  by  poetical  genius,  though  it 
contains  some  truly  artistic  passages,  such  as  those  exhibit- 
tag  the  growth  of  Medea's  love.  It  was  greatly  admired  by 
the  Romans,  was  translated  into  Latm  by  Pubhus  Tcrentius 
Varro,  and  was  imitated,  not  only  in  a  wholesale  manner  by 
Valerius  Flaccus,  but  even  by  Virgil  in  some  passages.  It 
has  been  edited  by  the  Gkrman  scholars  Brunck  and  Wei- 
lauer  (1818-28),  and  by  Kefl  (1853-^). 

APOLLONIUS,  OF  XT' ANA,  in  Cappadocia:  lived  in  the 
time  of  Christ;  a  zcaEilous  follower  of  the  doctrines  of  Pythag- 
oras. He  soon  collected  a  considerable  number  of  disci- 
ples, travelled  through  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  en- 
deavored to  find  his  way  to  India,  in  order  to  becoipe  ac- 
quainted with  the  doctrine  of  the  Brahmins.  On  this  joumev 
be  stay^  for  a  time  in  Babylon,  was  tatroduced  to  the  Mad:, 
and  at  last  reached  the  court  of  King  Phraortes,  in  India, 
who  recommended  him  to  Jarchas,  the  principal  Brahmin. 
When  A.  reiumed  from  this  pilgrimage,  his  fame  as  a  wise 
man  was  greatly  increased;  the  people  regarded  him  as  a 
worker  of  miracles  and  a  divine  being,  and  princes  were 
glad  to  entertain  him  at  their  courts.  He  himself  seems  to 
have  claimed  insight  into  futurity,  rather  than  the  power 
of  working  miracles.  From  Rome  he  was  expelled  on  a 
charge  of  having  raised  a  young  woman  from  the  dead. 
After  extensive  travels  in  Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  and  Ethiopia, 
he  was  accused  of  having  taken  part  in  an  insurrection 
against  Domitian;  but  appeared  before  the  tribunal,  and  was 
acquitted.  Ultimately,  he  appears  to  have  settled  in  Ephe- 
sus,  where  he  opened  a  Pvthagorean  school,  and  continued 
his  teaching  until  he  died,  nearly  one  hundred  years  old. 
His  history  was  written  about  a  hundred  years  after  his 
death  by  Philostratus  (q  v.).  It  contains  a  mass  of  absurdi- 
ties and  fables,  through  which  an  outline  of  historical  facts 
wad  the  real  character  of  the  man  are  sufficiently  discernible. 
Hierocles,  a  heathen  statesman  and  opponent  of  Christianity, 
wrote,  in  the  8d  c,  a  work  on  the  life  and  doctrines  of  A., 
with  a  view  to  prove  their  superiority  to  the  doctrine  of 
Christ.  In  modem  times,  the  notorious  English  freethinka* 
Blount,  and  Voltaire  in  fSimce,  have  renewed  the  attempt 


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APOLLONIUS--APOLOGY. 

APOLLONIUS  OF  Tyre:  hero  of  a  Greek  romance, 
which  enjoyed  great  popularity  in  the  middle  ages,  and  was 
translated  into  almost  all  the  languages  of  Western  Europe. 
In  it  are  related  the  romantic  adventures  which  befell  A.,  a 
Syrian  prince,  previous  to  his  marriage  with  the  daughter 
of  King  AlcLstrates,  of  Cyrene.  To  these  are  added  the  ad- 
ventures of  his  wife,  who  was  parted  from  him  by  apparent 
death,  as  well  as  those  of  his  daughter,  Tarsia,  who  was 
carried  oflE  by  pirates,  and  sold  in  Mit^lene.  The  poem 
closes  with  the  reunion  of  the  whole  family.  The  original 
Greek  work  no  longer  exists;  but  there  are  three  Very  early 
Latin  versions,  of  which  one  was  published  by  Welser  (Augs- 
burg, 1595);  another  is  to  be  found  in  the  Qesta  Bomanorum; 
and  the  third  in  the  Pantheon  of  Gottfried  ot  Viterbo.  From 
this  Latin  source  have  proceeded  the  Spanish  version  of  the 
13th  c. ,  printed  in  Sanchez'  Colleccion  de  Bt^esiatf  Ca^tellanas 
(2d  edition,  Paris,  1842),  several  Frenjh  versions,  in  prose 
and  verse,  as  well  as  several  Italian.  As  early  as  the  11th 
c.  there  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  adaptation  of  the  work,  and 
subsequently  various  English  ones  appeared.  Shakespeare 
has  treated  the  subject  in  his  drama  of  Pericles;  he  substan- 
tially follows  Grower,  in  his  Confemo  Amantis,  who  bases  his 
narrative  on  the  Pantheon  of  Gottfried  of  Viterbo.  Three 
popular  English  stories,  drawn  from  a  French  version  of 
this  romance,  appeared  in  London,  1510, 1576.  and  1607; 
while  the  Dutch,  1403,  derived  theirs  from  the  Gkrman. 
The  romance  was  rendered  into  German,  probably  from  the 
Gesta  Bomanorum,  by  a  certain  *  Heinricn  von  der  Neuen- 
stadt '  (i.e.,  Vienna),  about  1300,  in  the  form  of  a  long,  and 
as  yet  unpublished  poem.  Later  we  have  a  Histori  des 
Kuniges  Appolonii,  translated  from  Gottfried  of  Viterbo;  first 
published  aX  Augsbm'g,  1476.  Simrock,  in  his  Sources  cf 
Shdkspeare,  narrates  the  story  as  it  is  given  in  the  Qesta 
Bomanorum.  A  modem  Greek  translation  of  the  Latin 
romance,  undertaken  in  1500  by  Gabriel  Contiarius,  of  Crete, 
and  several  times  reprinted  at  Venice,  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  lost  Greek  original. 

APOLLYON,  n.  a  p'd'i-on  or  -yon  [Gr.  apol'luo,  1  de- 
stroy]: a  name  used  in  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  to  de- 
signate the  destroying  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit. 

APOLOGUE,  n.  ap'o-log  [F.  apologue^from  Gr.  apolo- 
gds,  a  fable]:  a  fable,  parable,  or  short  story,  intended  to 
serve  as  a  pleasant  vehicle  of  some  moral  doctrine.  One  of 
the  oldest  and  best  apologues  or  parables  is  that  by  Jotham, 
Judges,  ix.  7-15.  Another  celebrated  A.  is  that  of  the 
*  Limbs  and  the  Body,'  related  bv  the  patorician  Menenius 
A^ppa.  .^sop's  fables  are  apologues  that  have  a  world- 
wide reputation.  Luther  held  such  an  opinion  of  the  value 
of  the  A.  as  a  vehicle  of  moral  truth,  that  he  edited  a  re- 
vised ^sop,  especially  for  young  people,  for  which  he 
wrote  a  characteristic  preface. 

APOLOGY,  n.  d-pdl'o^l.  Apologies,  plu.  -d-jh  [Gr. 
apolog'idf  apology— from  apo  from;  logos,  speech:  F. 
apologie,  apology]:  a  speech  in  defense  or  excuse;  an  excuse; 
a  defense.     Apolo«etic,  a.  d^'o-jH'ikj  or  Apol'oobt'' 


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APOLOGY. 

TCAJj,  a.  -Jeft-kdl,  excusing;  defeDdin/ir  by  words.  Apol' 
ogbt'icallt,  ad.  4i.  Apologetics,  n.  plu.  A-pdl%j^tlks, 
that  branch  of  theology  which  defends  the  Scriptures,  and 
seta  forth  the  evidence  of  their  divine  authority.  Apologist, 
n.  A-polo-fiti,  or  Apol'ogiz'eb,  n.  -j%z'4r,  one  who  makes 
an  apolo^,  or  writes  in  defense  of  another.  Apologize, 
V.  d-pU'^'iz',  to  make  an  excuse  for;  to  speak  in  defense 
of.  Apol'ogiz'ing,  imp.  Apol'ogized',  pp.  .;iaf .— Syn. 
of  *  apology':  defense ;  justification  ;  exculpation  ;  excuse; 
plea. 

APOL'OGY:  the  term  is  now  commonlv  understood  as 
synonymous  with  an  excuse  for  defect,  mistake,  misdeed, 
breach  of  an  engagement,  etc. ,  but  was  originally  used  as 
the  title  of  any  work  written  in  defense  of  certain  doctrines, 
as  in  the  A.  of  Socrates,  ascribed  to  Plato  and  Xenophon; 
ttie  A.  for  the  Christians,  by  Tertullian,  and  in  many  other 
defenses  of  the  Christians,  written  by  Justin  Martyr,  Athe- 
nacoras,  Tatian,  Theophilus,  Origen,  Eusebius,  Minucius 
Felix,  Amobius,  Lactantius,  Augustine,  Orosius,  and  others. 
The  A.  in  some  cases  became  rather  a  polemic.  The  attacks 
parried  or  retorted  in  these  apologetical  works  are  such  as 
charges  of  atheism,  want  of  philosophical  knowledge,  anti- 
social tenets,  etc.  Both  the  charg^  and  the  refutations 
brought  forward  serve  to  give  us  an  insight  into  the  char- 
acter of  the  times  when  these  works  were  written.  Thus,  in 
the  A.  by  Tertullian,  it  is  curious  to  find  a  formal  argument 
employed  to  refute  the  assertion  that  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity was  the  cause  of  '  earthquakes '  and  other  natural 
phenomena  which  had  occurred  in  some  parts  of  the  Roman 
empire.  After  the  4th  c,  when  the  church  was  made  dom- 
inant under  the  Roman  emperors,  apologetical  writings 
were  less  called  for;  but  Bartholus  Edessenus  and  Raymun- 
dus  Martinus  wrote  against  the  Jews  and  the  Mohammedans. 
In  the  15th  c,  when  the  revival  of  learning  placed  Christian- 
iW  in  apparent  opposition  to  the  Platonic  philosophy, 
Marsilius  Ficiniis  wrote  in  defense  of  revelation;  and  some 
time  after  the  Reformation,  the  spread  of  frpethinking,  and 
skepticiBm  in  England  was  opposed  by  a  variety  of  apolo- 
eetical  works,  chiefly  maintaimng  the  points  that  Christian- 
^  is  a  divine  revelation,  Christ  a  divine  messenger,  and  his 
dhurch  a  divine  institution.  The  defense  of  Christianity 
on  grounds  of  reason  came  now  to  be  treated  as  a  distinct 
branch  of  theology,  under  the  name  of  Apologetics,  Among 
the  numerous  apologetic  works  by  Protestants,  are  those  by 
Grotins  {De  Veritate,  etc),  Butler  {Analogy  of  Beligion, 
Natural  and  Bevealed),  Lardner  {Credibility  of  the  Gospel 
ffistory),  Leland,  Addison,  Soame  Jenyns  {Internal  Evi- 
dences  if  ihe  Christian  Beligion),  Hugh  Farmer,  Bishop 
Watson  {A.  for  Christianity),  t*&\ey  {Evidences  of  Christian- 
ity, and  Bora  Patina),  Chalmers,  the  Bampton  Lectures 
(q.v.),  etc.  Among  the  Rom.  Cath.  writers,  the  most 
eminent  are  Pascal,  Houtteville',  Guenee,  Bergier,  Mayr, 
and  Chateaubriand. 

Recently,  a  great  number  of  apologetic  works  by  Nean- 
der,  Tholuck,  and  others  have  appeared,  in  reply  to  Strauss'^ 
I4fe  ef  Jesus,  and  the  Vie  de  Jesus  by  Erucst  Kenan. 


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APOMORPHINE— APOPLEXY. 

APOMORPHINE,  n.  dp'o-mi^fin  [Gr.  apo,  from;  Eng. 
nu^rphine]:  a  valuable  and  powerful  emetic  obtaiDed  from 
morphine  by  healing  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

APON:  see  Amboyna. 

APONEUROSIS,  n.  dpdn'u-rd'sU,  Apon'kubo'ses,  plu. 
-rO'sez  [Or.  aponeuro'eiSf  the  end  of  a  muscle — from  apo, 
from;  neuron,  a  nerve,  a  muscle] :  the  extremity  of  a  muscle 
where  it  becomes  a  tendon;  the  fibrous  sheath  of  a  muscle, 
or  investment  of  a  part.  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  A. 
in  Anatomy  is  generally  confined  to  expansions  from  the 
tendons  of  muscles,  as  the  lumbar  A.  If  a  tendon  is  very 
broad  and  expanded,  as  that  of  the  external  oblique  muscle 
of  the  abdomen,  it  is  said  to  be  aponeurotic.  Some  mus- 
cles, as  those  on  the  shoulder-blade,  are  partially  covered 
with  a  tendinous  expansion,  to  which  some  of  their  fibres 
are  attached;  this  is  termed  the  aponeurotic  origin  of  the 
muscle;  it  gives  the  muscle  a  more  extensive  attachment 
without  adaing  materially  to  weight.  Aponeuroses  stretch 
in  some  localities  as  protections  over  larce  arteries;  thus, 
in  bleeding  from  the  vein  nearest  the  inside  of  the  bend  of 
the  elbow,  the  only  structiu^  between  it,  the  lancet,  and  the 
brachial  artery,  is  an  aponeurotic  expansion  from  the  biceps 
tendon  into  the  muscles  of  the  forearm.    See  Fascia. 

APOPETALOUS,  a.  dp'o-p^ta-lm  [Gr.  apo,  from; 
petdlon,  a  petall:  in  bot.^  applied  to  corollas  whose  petals 
are  perfectly  aistinct  and  disconnected;  the  opposite  of 
gamopetalous, 

APOPHTHEGM  or  Apothegm,  n.  dp'o-tMm:  see 
Apothegm. 

APOPHYLLOUS.  a.  d^U-m  [Gr.  apo,  from;  phuOon, 
a  leaf]:  in  hot,  applied  to  perianths  whose  parls  are  distinct 
and  separate. 

APOPHYSIS,  n.  d-pTft-sU  [Gr.  apo,  from  ;  pkuo,  I 
grow]:  in  anat,  a  process  or  protuberance  on  the  surface 
of  a  bone;  in  hot. ,  any  irregular  swelling  on  the  surface;  a 
tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  seed  vessel  of  certain  mosses. 

APOPLEXY,  n.  dp'o-pUksl  [Gr.  apoplex'la,  stupor— 
from  apo,  from;  pkuso,  I  strike]:  a  disease  or  an  affection 
of  the  brain  that  causes  stupor;  a  fit  in  which  all  sensation 
and  power  of  movement  are  suspended.  Apoplectic,  a. 
dp'd^lek'tik,  or  Ap'opi.ec'tical,  tl-kdl,  pertaining  to  the 
disease  of  apoplexy.  Apoplex,  n.  dpo-pUka,  for  Apo- 
plexy. 

APOPLEXY:  an  engorgement  of  blood,  with  or  without 
extravasation,  in  or  upon  any  organ,  as  the  brain  {cereal 
A.),  the  spinal  cord  or  lungs  {ptilmonary  A.).  As  popu- 
larly used,  the  term  denotes  vaguely  a  condition  arismg 
from  some  disturbance  within  the  head.  A.  occurs  in  JUs, 
which  may  be  sudden  or  come  on  by  degrees.  They  are 
characterized  by  loss  of  sense  and  motion,  speechlessness 
and  heavy  sleep,  with  stertorous  respiration  and  a  slow 
pulse.  The  fit  may  last  from  a  few  hours  to  two  or  three 
days,  and  passes  off,  leaving  generally  more  or  less  paralysis, 
and  recurs  at  intervals  of  months  or  years.    The  age  at  which 


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PLATE    6. 


Apollo 
AppU 


Long  armed  Ape  (Jiylobatea 
OamJbqia). 


Apollo,  from  a  bas-relief  at  Bome. 


Sand-eel  CAmmodyiestolnanus)^ 
of  Uie  Apod  a. 


Aoudad  (^Ammotragus  tragelaphus) • 


Apocarpous 

Prufeof  / 


I  Aconite. 


Branch  of  Apple  with  young  Fruit;  a,  piece  of  the  blossom. 

Vol.  2, 


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APOSEPALOUS-^APOSTATE. 

A.  occurs  most  commonly  is  from  fifty  to  seventy,  and  is 
comparatively  rare  before  and  after  these  ages.  Cerebral 
A.  may  arise  from  mere  congestion  of  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  brain,  caused  by  impeded  return  of  the  venous  blood, 
as  from  the  military  stock,  worn  in  some  armies,  pressing 
on  the  Jiigular  veins,  keepmg  the  head  long  in  one  position, 
or  tummg  it  quickly.  Stout  persons,  with  short  necks,  are 
more  liable  to  this  form  of  A.;  though  lean  persons  arc 
also  frequently  its  victims.  But  in  addition  to  congestion, 
there  may  be  an  escape  of  the  watery  portion  of  the  blood 
from  the  congested  vessels,  and  this  collecting,  produces 
serous  A. ;  or,  owing  to  a  diseased  condition  of  the  arterial 
walls, the  vessels  may  burst,  and  A.  from  cerebral  hemorrhage 
be  the  result;  the  latter  is  the  most  common,  and  is  usuallv 
preceded  by  some  softening  of  the  brain  substance  itself. 
If  this  bleeding  be  to  any  great  extent,  death  results;  if  only 
a  small  quantity  escapes,  it  coagulates,  and  forms  a  clot, 
which  is  absorbed  in  time.  Persons  with  diseased  heart 
and  lungs,  and  i)regnant  females,  are  liable  to  apoplectic 
fits.  The  attack  is  generally  preceded  by  vertigo,  headache, 
partial  or  temporary  loss  of  memory,  and  occasionally 
double  vision.  When  these  warnings  occur,  medical  advice 
should  be  sought  to  correct  the  digestive  functions;  and  by 
relieving  the  oppr^sed  brain,  ward  off  the  fit.  When  the 
latter  occurs,  the  patient's  head  should  be  raised,  cold  ap- 
plied, and  in  some  cases  blood  should  be  withdrawn  from 
the  temporal  artery  or  external  jugular  vein.  As  soon  as 
possible,  purgative  medicines  shoula  be  administered.  For 
the  results  of  A.,  see  Pakalysib.  Tumors  within  the  skull 
produce  symptoms  of  A. 

AP0SEPAL0U8,  a.  dp'a-sep'dl-us  [Gr.  apo,  from,  and 
sepahtis]:  in  bot.,  consisting  of  distinct  and  separate  sepals 
or  calyx  leaves. 

AP0SI0PESI3,  n.  a-pos'i-d-pe' sis  [Gr.  and  L.  ap(h<id- 
pesis— from  Gr.  apo,  from;  siopa'd,!  sun  silent]:  a  rhetorical 
device  by  which,  for  emphasis,  modesty,  or  any  other 
effect,  a  speaker  abruptly  breaks  off. 

APOSTASIS,  n.  d-pos'ta-sis  [Gr.  apostdsis,  distance  from, 
an  interval — from  apo,  from;  stasis,  a  standing]:  in  bot., 
the  separation  of  the  whorls  of  leaves,  or  floral  coverings, 
by  an  unusual  length  of  the  intemodes. 

APOSTASY,  n.,  or  Apostacy,  n.  d-pos'td-si  [L.  and 
Gr.  apoatdsfld,  a  standing  off  from — from  apo,  from;  stasis, 
a  placing,  a  standing] :  a  departure  from  a  former  profession 
or  belief.  Apostate,  n.  d-pos'tdt,  one  who  forsakes  his 
former  principles  or  party— usually  in  a  bad  sense:  Adj. 
false;  traitorous.  Ap'ostat'iCal,  a.  -tafl-bU,  after  the 
manner  of  an  apostate.  Apostatize,  v.  d-pos'td-tlz,  to  for- 
sake a  former  profession  or  belief.  Apostatizing,  imp. 
Apos'tatized,  pp.  -tlzd. 

APOSTATE,  d-p^s'tdt :  applied  especially  to  one  who 
changes  his  religion,  and,  by  custom,  always  in  a  condem- 
natory sense,  as  equivalent  to  renegade,  or  one  who  changes 
bis  creed  from  imworthy  motives.  In  early  Christian  times, 
the  woixl  was  appli^  to  those  who  abandoned  their  faith  ig 

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APOSTEME— APOSTLE. 

order  to  escape  from  persecution;  but  it  was  applied  also  to 
such  as  rejected  Chrislianity  on  speculative  grounds  (the 
emperor  Julian,  for  instance).  After  the  5tU  c,  when 
heathenism  was  declining,  mmiy  who  had  no  sincere  belief 
in  Christianity,  yet  made  profession  of  it,  and  were  baptized: 
these  also  were  styled  apostates.  The  apostates  in  times 
of  persecution  were  styled  variously  Sacrificati,  I'hurificati, 
etc.,  according  lo  the  modes  in  which  they  publicly  made 
known  their  return  to  heathenism,  by  offering  sacrifices  or 
incense  to  the  gods  of  Rome.  The  Kom.  Cath.  Church  at 
one  period  imposed  severe  penalties  on  apostasy.  The 
A.  was  of  course  excommunicated;  sometimes  also  his 
property  was  confiscated,  and  he  himself  banished,  or  even 
put  to  death.  It  has  often  been  of  great  moment  to  the  for- 
tunes of  a  nation  that  a  prince  has  apostatized.  The  most 
renowned  instance  in  modem  history  is  that  of  Henry  IV. 
of  France.  In  1833,  there  was  published,  at  Erlangen, 
A  Oallery  of  Important  Persons  who  in  tJie  16^,  Vlth,  and 
18^A  Centuries  went  over  from  the  Protestant  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.— The  term  Apostasy  is  now  employed 
commonly,  and  often  abusively,  as  a  reproach  for  great  or 
sudden  changes  in  political  opinions. 

APOSTEME,  n.  ap'6s4em  [OF.  a^postume^ltom  L.  and 
Gr.  apostema,  an  abscess]:  a  swelling  filled  with  purulent 
matter;  an  absce^:  the  incorrect  spellings,  Imfosthume 
and  Impostume,  are  commonly  used. 

A  POSTERIORI,  a.  d'pdste'rl-or'l  [L.  a,  from;  poste- 
rior, after,  latter]:  arguments  in  reasoning  drawn  from  con- 
sequences, effects,  or  results.    Bee  A  Priori. 

APOSTILL  or  Apostil,  n.  dp^'tU  [F.  apcstille,  a 
postscript — from  mid.  L.  a,  to;  postilla,  notes  added  to 
references:  the  abbreviation  of  L.  post  iUa  verba  auctorU, 
after  those  words  of  the  writer]:  a  marginal  note  on  a  letter 
or  other  written  document;  a  postscript. 

APOSTLE,  n.  dpos'sl  [Qr.  apdstolos,  one  sent  out  or 
forth— from  apo,  away;  stelio,  I  send]:  one  sent  out  by  an- 
other; a  person  sent  to  perform  important  business;  one  of 
the  apostles,  the  immeoiate  followers  of  Christ.  Apos'tlb- 
8HIP,  n.  the  office  or  dignity  of  an  apostle.  Apostolic, 
a.  ap'(is-tdlik,  or  Ap'obtolical,  a.  -ukdly  relating  to  the 
apostles  or  to  the  office  of  an  apostle.  Ap'ostoltcallt, 
ad.  41.  Ap'ostol'tcalness,  n.  Apostolate,  n.  a-pos'td- 
Idt,  a  mission,  the  dignity  or  oflSce  of  an  apostle.  Apobto- 
LiciTY,  n.  d-pos'td-lls^'ti,  the  state  or  quality  of  being  apos- 
tolical. Apostolic  Fathers,  the  early  Christian  writers, 
{•cnerally  of  the  first  century — commonly  restricted  to  Poly- 
carp,  Clement,  Ignatius,  Hennas,  and  Barnabas.  Apos- 
tolic See,  a  title  applied  to  the  government  of  the  pope  of 
Rome  in  reference  to  his  claim  of  being  the  successor  of  St. 
Peter.    See  Apostolic  Succession:  etc. 

APOSTLE:  any  messenger  whatever,  but  especially  used 
to  denote  the  twelve  disciples  whom  Jesus  sent  forth  to 

J  reach  the  gospel .    Their  names  were  Simon  Peter,  Andrew, 
ohn  (the  son  of  Zebedee),  James  (his  brother),  Philip,  Bar 
tholomew  (called  also  Nathaniel),  Thomas,  Matthew  (sur 


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APOSTLES'  CREED.* 

named  Levi),  James  (the  son  of  Alphseus),  Thaddeus,  Simon, 
and  Judas  Iscariot.  Subsequently,  MatUiias  was  chosen  in 
the  room  of  Judas;  and  at  a  still  later  period,  the  number 
of  the  apostles  was  further  increased  by  the  calling  of  Paul 
to  the  apostleship.  The  term  is  sometimes  used  in  the  New 
Testament  in  its  more  general  signification;  thus  Barnabas 
Is  styled  an  A.  (Acts  ziv.).  It  is  a  point  of  controversy  be- 
tween the  supporters  and  opponents  of  episeopacjr,  whether 
or  not  the  term  A.,  as  indicating  an  office,  is  applied  to  any 
except  the  original  twelve,  Matthias,  and  Paul;  it  beine 
maintained^  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  office  is  p^petuated 
in  bishops;  on  the  otiier,  that  it  was  temporary  and  belonged 
exclusively  to  those  who  were  witnesses  to  the  resurrection 
of  Christ,  and  were  employed  by  him  to  found  the  Christian 
Church.  The  apostles  were  twice  commissioned  by  their 
Jlaster  to  go  forth  on  their  work  of  evangelization.  First, 
daring  the  third  year  of  his  public  ministry.  On  this  occa- 
sion, Qieir  labors  were  to  be  restricted  to  the  Jews,  properly 
so  called.  Not  even  the  Samaritans,  thoin^h  natives  of  Pal- . 
estine,  were  to  be  the  objects  of  their  religious  solicitude. 
They  were  earnestly  to  seek  out  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of 
Israel  The  secona  time  was  shortly  before  the  Lord's  as- 
cension, when  their  sphere  of  labor  was  indefinitely  ex- 
tended: 'Qo  je  therefore,  and  make  disciples  of  all  the 
nations,  bapti^g  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of 
the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost'  (Matt  xxviii.  19,  20).  On 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  the  apostles  received  miraculous  gifts 
fitting  them  for  their  arduous  work.  And  after  evangelizing 
for  some  years  in  Palestine,  they  all  departed,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  James,  into  various  quarters  of  the  globe;  but  the 
region  of  thdr  ministry  seems  to  have  principally  comprised 
the  civilized  provinces  and  cities  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Roman  empire— viz.,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece;  though 

SFobabl^  Peter,  and  after  him  Paul,  visited  Rome.  There 
I  no  historical  foundation  for  the  tradition  that  the  first 
apostles  divided  the  then  known  world  into  twelve  parts, 
each  taking  odc  of  these  for  his  special  sphere  of  labor.  This 
figment  was  vei^  likely  originated  by  two  circumstances: 
1.  That  the  disciples  were  oomoianded  to  go  into  all  the 
world  and  preach  the  gospel;  and  2.  That  uc  disciples  in 
poiot  of  fact  had  little  personal  intercourse  vnth  each  other. 
Their  zeal  for  the  propa^tion  of  Christianity  left  them  no 
dme  to  gratify  their  social  inclinations.  As  a  consequence, 
we  have  very  imperfect  accounts  of  their  lives  or  manner  of 
death. 

The  several  apostles  are  usually  represented  in  mediseval 
pictures  with  special  badges  or  attributes:  St.  Peter,  with  the 
Xeys;  St.  Paul,  with  a  sword;  St.  Andrew,  with  a  cross;  St. 
James  the  Less,  with  a  fuller's  pole;  St.  John,  with  a  cup 
and  a  winged  serpent  flying  out  of  it;  St.  Bartholomew, 
with  a  knife;  St.  Philip,  with  a  long  staff,  whose  upper  end 
is  formed  into  a  cross;  St.  Thomas,  with  a  lance;  St.  Mat- 
thew, with  a  hatchet;  St.  Matthias,  with  a  battle-axe;  St. 
James  the  Greater,  with  a  pilmm's  staff  and  a  gourd-bottle; 
St  Simon,  with  a  saw;  and  St.  Jude,  with  a  club. 
APOSTLES'  CREED:  see  Cbbed. 


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APOSTOLIC— APOSTOLIC  BRETHREN. 

APOSTOLIC,  or  Apostolical:  general  term  applied  tu 
everything  derived  directly  from,  or  bearing  the  character 
of  the  apostles.  Either  case  constitutes  apostolicity.  The  Rom. 
Cath.  Church  declares  itself  the  A.  Church;  the  papal  chair 
the  A.  chair,  on  the  ground  of  an  unbroken  series  of  Roman 
bishops,  from  the  chief  apostle,  Peter.  The  Church  of  Eng- 
land, in  virtue  of  regular  episcopal  ordination  from  the  pre- 
reformation  church,  claims  to  be  A. ;  so  likewise  do  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Churches  in  Scotland  and  the  United 
Slates.  Apostolic  Tradition  (see  Tradition)  claims  to  have 
been  handed  down  from  the  apostles.  In  the  same  special 
sense,  the  name  of  A.  Council  belongs  to  that  conclave  of 
the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.),  about  51  or  52,  occa- 
sioned by  the  disputes  raised  at  Antiochby  Judaizin^  Chris- 
tiaus  as  to  the  admisr^ion  of  uncircumcised  Gentiles  into  the 
church.  Certain  congregations  or  churches,  also,  which 
were  the  special  scenes  of  the  labors  of  the  apostles,  bore 
for  centuries  the  title  of  A.  Churches,  more  especially  thoee 
of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Corinth,  and  Rome.  Bat 
with  the  ever-increasing  spiritual  power  of  the  Roman  hier- 
archy, the  name  A.  came  to  be  more  and  more  exclusively 
applied  to  Rome,  and  is  retained  by  her,  despite  the  energe- 
tic protests  of  the  Protestant  Churches.  Hence  the  term 
Apostolic  See,  i.e.,  the  see  of  Rome;  Apostolic  Blessing,  the 
blessing  of  the  pope  as  the  successor  of  St  Peter;  Apostolic 
Vicar,  the  cardinal  who  represents  the  pope  in  extraordinary 
missions;  Apostolic  Chamber,  a  council  intrusted  with  the 
care  of  the  revenues  of  the  see  of  Rome;  Apostolic  Mouths — 
January,  March,  May,  July,  September,  November — the 
months  in  which  the  pope,  according  to  the  Vienna  Con- 
cordat of  1448,  took  possession  of  the  vacant  benefices  in 
Germany,  etc.  A  papal  brief  or  letter  is  styled  A.  in  the 
same  sense. 

APOSTOLIC  BRETHREN,  or  Apostolici:  the  name 
given  in  Italy,  towards  the  end  of  the  13th  c,  to  one  of  those 
sects  which,  animated  by  the  spirit  of  an  Arnold  of  Brescia, 
felt  constrained  to  oppose  the  worldly  tendencies  of  the 
church.  Its  founder  was  Gerardo  Segarelli,  a  weaver  in 
Parma.  Rejected,  from  some  cause  or  other,  by  the  Fran- 
ciscan order,  his  long-continued  and  enthusiastic  meditations 
led  him  to  the  profound  conviction  that  it  was  above  all 
things  necessary  to  return  to  the  simple  foiins  of  apostolic 
life.  Acordingly,  he  went  about  (1260)  in  the  ^b  of  the 
apostles,  as  a  preacher  of  repentance,  and  by  his  practical 
discourses  gathered  many  adherents  into  a  kind  of  free  so- 
ciety, bound  by  no  oaths.  At  first  he  managed  to  avoid  any 
direct  collision  with  the  dogmas  of  the  church;  but  after 
twenty  vears  of  undisturbed  activity  and  growing  influence, 
Segarelli  was  arrested  by  the  Bp.  of  Parma;  and  in  1286» 
upon  the  occasion  of  his  release,  Pope  Honorius  IV.  renewed 
a  decree  of  Pope  Gregory  X.  against  all  reli^ous  communi- 
ties not  directly  sanctioned  by  the  papal  chair.  In  1290, 
Nicholas  IV.  setting  himself  expressly  to  oppose  the  A.  B., 
thev,  on  their  side,  began  avowedly  to  denounce  the  papacy, 
and  its  corrupt  and  worldly  church,  as  the  Babylon  of  the 
Apocalypse.     In  1300,  many,  both  men  and  women,  and 


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APOSTOLIC  CANOJS  8- APOSTOLIC  FATHERS. 

among  them  Se^arelli,  as  haviog,  after  abjuration,  relapsed 
into  heresy,  perished  at  the  stake.  But  his  cause  survived 
him.  Dolcino,  a  more  energetic  and  cultivated  man,  brought 
up  as  a  priest,  who  had  previously  been  active  in  the  Tyrol 
against  the  corruptions  of  the  church,  now  headed  the  orphan 
sect  in  Italy.  He  taught  the  duty  of  a  complete  renuncia- 
tion of  aU  worldly  ties,  of  property  and  settled  abode,  etc. 
Having  retreated  into  Dalmatia,  he  announced  thence  the 
dawning  of  a  new  era,  and  in  1304,  reappeared  in  Upper 
Italy,  with  thousands  of  adherents,  as  the  enemy  of  the 
papacy— at  that  time  humbled  and  impoverished  by  France. 
In  1305,  a  crusade  was  preached  against  him.  He  fortified 
Ihe  mountain  Zebello,  m  the  diocese  of  Vercelli,  but  was, 
after  a  gallant  defense,  compelled  by  famine  to  submit. 
After  horrible  tortures,  which  he  bore  with  the  utmost  for- 
titude, he  was  burned.  In  Lombardy  and  the  s.  of  France, 
remnants  of  the  A.  B.  lingered  on  till  1368.  See  Krone, 
Fra  Dolcino  uiid  die  Paiarener,    (Leipsic,  1844.) 

APOSTOLIC  CAKONS  and  CONSTITUTIONS:  both 
ascribed  by  tradition  to  Clemens  Roman  us;  notes  of  eccle- 
siastical customs  held  to  be  apostolical,  written  in  the  form 
of  apostolic  precepts.  The  ConstUutiones  Apostolica,  eight 
books,  were  composed  probably  in  Syria,  and  contain,  in 
the  first  six  books,  a  comprehensive  rule  for  the  whole  of 
Christian  Hfe.  These  were  probably  written  about  the  end 
of  the  3d  c. ;  but  the  seventh  book,  essentially  an  abridg- 
ment of  them,  may  have  belonge<l  to  the  begmnin^  of  the 
4th  c.  The  eighth  book  was  put  together  in  the  middle  of 
the  4th  c,  for  the  use  of  the  priests,  and  relates  only  to 
the  sacred  offices.  Interpolations,  however,  were  afterwards 
introduced.  The  Canones  Apostolici,  also  recognized  by  the 
church,  were  composed  later.  The  first  fifty,  compiled  in 
the  middle  of  the  5th  c. ,  and  translated  from  Greek  into 
Latin  by  Dionysius  the  Younger,  were  acknowledged  by 
the  Latin  Church  alone.  The  Greek  Church,  on  the  other 
hand,  accepted  the  thirty-five  canons  put  forth  in  the  begin- 
ning of  tlie  6th  c;  and  this  became  a  point  of  discord  be- 
tween the  churches.  Both  collections  wcrc  probably  looked 
upon  at  first  as  apostolic  traditions  merely.  Later,  it  came 
to  be  believed  that  they  were  written  down  by  the  apostles 
themselves,  it  being  thought  probable  that  they  should  have 
expressed  themselves  positively  about  the  constitution  as 
well  as  the  dogmas  of  the  church. 

APOSTOLIC  CATHOLICS:  see  Ibvingites. 

APOSTOLIC  FATHERS:  the  unmediate  disciples  and 
fellow-laborers  of  the  apostles;  and  in  a  more  restricted 
sense,  those  among  them  who  have  left  writings.  The  A. 
P.,  specially  so  called,  are  Barnabas.  Clement  of  Rome,  Ig- 
natius of  AJntioch,  and  Polycarp  of  Smyrna.  It  is  imcertam 
whether  Papias  of  Hierapolis,  and  Ae  author  of  the  Shep- 
herd, were  really  disciples  of  the  apostles.  The  writings  of 
the  A.  F.,  as  to  their  form  and  subjjcct,  maybe  looked  upon 
as  a  continuation  of  the  apostolic  epistles,  though  far  inferior 
to  them  in  spirit.  Their  main  purpose  is  to  exhort  to  faith 
and  holiness  before  Christ's  coming  again. -^Editions  of  the 


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APOSTOLIC  MAJESTY— APOSTROPHE. 

A.  F.  were  published  by  Cotelerius  (Par.  1672),  Jaoobson 
(Oxford  1838),  Hefele  (1839),  and  Dressel  (1857);  another  by 
Zahn,  Gebhardt,  and  others  began  to  appear  in  1875.  There 
are  several  English  translations,  including  one  in  Dr.  Don- 
aldson's Ante-JSiceru  Library,  vol.  i.  (1867). 

APOSTOLIC  MAJESTY:  a  title  held  by  the  kings  of 
Hungary,  conferred  by  Pope  Sylvester  II.,  a.  d.  1000,  upoD 
Duke  Stephen  of  Hungary,  who  had  not  only  much  en- 
couraged the  progress  of  Christianity  in  Hungary,  but 
actually  preached  himself,  in  imitation  of  the  apostles.  In 
1758,  the  title  wjis  renewed  by  Pope  Clement  XIlI.,in  favor 
of  Maria  Theresa  as  queen  of  Hungary,  and  continues  to 
be  used  by  the  emperor  of  Austria  as  king  of  Hungary. 

APOSTOLIC  PARTY:  a  party  conspicuous  in  the 
modem  history  of  Spain;  composed  of  fanatical  Catholics, 
who  were  also  absolutists  so  far  as  the  king  consented  to  be 
their  instrument.  They  formed  themselves  (soon  after  the 
revolution  of  1819)  into  the  A.  P.,  whose  leaders  were  fugi- 
tive priests,  and  whose  troops  were  smugglers  and  robbers. 
After  being  active  in  all  the  subsequent  agitations,  they 
finally  merged  (1830)  in  the  Carlist  pauty. 

APOSTOLIC  SUCCESSION:  common  phrase  used  toder 
note  one  or  both  of  two  things— the  derivation  of  holy  orders 
by  an  unbroken  chain  of  transmission  from  the  apostles, 
and  the  succession  of  a  ministry  so  ordained  to  the  powers 
and  privileges  of  the  apostles.  The  former  is  necessarily  a 
matter  of  fact,  to  be  ascertained  by  history;  the  latter  is 
rather  a  matter  of  opinion— the  Koman  and  Protestant 
Churches,  and  again  individuals  and  parties  in  either,  differ- 
ing widely  from  each  other  in  their  views.  See  Bissop: 
Ordination. 

APOSTROPHE,  n.  dp5s'tr6-fe  [Gr.  apo9tr6pM,tktandag 
away— from  apo,  away;  strepho,  I  tum—i^tY.,  a  turning  away 
from  the  subject]:  a  sudden  breaking  off  a  subject,  and  ad- 
dressing a  present,  an  absent,  or  an  imaginary  being;  a 
mark  (')  put  in  a  word  to  show  the  omission  of  a  letter  or 
letters,  or  merely  as  the  sign  of  the  possessive  case  in  nouns. 
Apostrophic,  a.  ap'd-strdfik,  pertaining  to  an  apostrophe. 
Ap'ostroph'ically,  ad.  -li.  AposTROPmzs,  v.  A-pHs'trd- 
ftz,  while  speaking,  to  turn  aside  and  address  formally  any 
one  present  or  absent.  AposTROPmz'rNG,  imp.  Apob- 
TROPHIZED,  pp.  'fud. 

APOSTROPHE,  in  Rhetoric:  a  figure  by  which  a  speaker, 
changing  the  course  of  his  speech,  addresses,  with  greater 
or  less  emotional  emphasis,  persons  present  or  absoit,  tiie 
dead,  or  inanimate  objects,  either  to  invoke  them  as  wit- 
nesses, or  to  pity,  honor,  praise,  or  blame  them.  When  the 
figure  is  well  managed,  it  has  a  thrilling  effect,  both  in 
oratory  and  poetry;  but  when  extravagantly  introduced,  it 
becomes  ludicrous.  Examples  of  it  abound  in  the  writings 
and  speeches  of  the  great  poets  and  statesmen  both  of  an- 
cient  and  modem  times.— A.  in  Qrammar,  is  the  omission 
of  a  letter  or  letters  in  a  word,  the  omission  being  marked 
by  a  comma,  as  'tii  for  it  ig;  the  comma  so  employed  is  also 
called  an  A, 


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APOTHECARY. 

APOTHECARY,  n.  a-pdth'e-kar-l,  [L.  apothica,  a  store- 
house: Gr.  apot/ieke,  a  store  or  keeping-place — from  apo, 
from;  thike,  a  box  or  chest]:  pcrsou  traiued  ia  pharmacy, 
who  prepares  and  sells  drugs  and  medicines  (see  Chemists 
AND  Dkdggists):  formerly,  in  England  and  Ireland,  one 
of  the  members  of  a  lower  brunch  of  the  medical  profes- 
sion, licensed  not  only  to  sell  drugs  and  medicines,  but 
also  to  practice  the  healing  art. 

In  England,  the  business  or  prof ession  of  an  A.,  although 
not  regulated,  nor,  indeed,  fully  recognized  till  modern 
times,  was  the  subject  of  several  ancieut  statutes,  and  is 
traceable  to  a  remote  period.  Richard  Fitznigel,  who  died 
Bp.  of  Loudon,  is  stated  to  have  been  A.  to  Uenry  II. ;  and 
it  is  anacci-edited  tradition,  that  in  1345  Eliug  Edward  III. 
gave  a  pension  of  sixpence  a  day  to  Coursus  de  Qangland, 
an  A.  in  London,  for  taking  care  of  and  attending  him 
during  his  illness  in  Scotland.  In  1543,  parliament  passed 
a  coriuus  act  whose  preamble  deals  severely  with  the  igno- 
rance and  cupidity  of  the  London  surgeons;  and  provides 
for  the  tolei-ation  and  protection  of  the  irregular  practi- 
tioners, who  afterward,  as  a  body,  acquired  the  distinctive 
name  apothecaries.  This  act  complains  that  the  surgeons 
of  London  were  not  only  unskilful,  but  that  they  '  have 
sued,  troubled:  and  vexed  divers  honest  persons,  as  well 
men  as  women,  whom  God  had  endued  with  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  nature,  kind,  and  operation  of  certain  herbs, 
roots,  and  waters,  and  the  using  and  ministering  of  them 
to  such  as  had  been  pained  with  customable  diseases';  and 
it  ordains  that  thereafter  it  shall  be  lawful  for  such  persona 
so  to  use  and  minister  their  knowledge  of  medicines  and  of 
the  art  of  healing. 

Anciently,  the  apothecaries  were  not  distinguishable 
from  the  grocers  (the  surgeons  being,  in  like  manner,  un- 
distinguishable  from  the  barbers);  indeed,  it  appears  that 
apothecaries  and  grocers  were  synonymous  terms.  In  a 
charter  of  1606,  the  two  bodies  were  expressly  united;  and 
it  was  not  till  1617  that  they  were  formed  into  two  distinct 
corporations  by  a  charter  from  James  I.  In  1815,  the 
apothecaries,  as  a  body,  were  placed  on  the  footing  of  a 
liberal  prnfessioD. 


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APOTHECIA— APOZEM. 
APOTHE'CIA:  see  Lichens. 

ATOTHECIUM,  n.  up  o4he  shUim  [Gr.  apotheki,  a 
store — from  apo,  from;  thtke,  a  box  or  chest]:  in  bot,  a 
cluster  or  case  of  spore-cells  in  lichens,  frequently  cup- 
shaped. 

APOTHEGM,  n.  ap'd-t/u'm  [Gr.  apophtheg  ma,  a  thing 
uttered— from  a^,  from;  pJiuugma,  a  word]:  a  thing 
uttered;  a  sententious  saying;  a  pithy,  instructive  remark: 
the  oracles  of  the  heathen  cods  often  took  this  form,  as 
also  the  proverbs,  memorable  sayings,  etc.,  of  the  sages 
of  antiquity.  Lord  Bacon  made  a  charming  collection 
of  apothegms.  Apothegmatic,  a.  dp'd-theg-mai'ik,  or 
Ap'otheqmat'ical,  a.  AMI,  after  the  manner  of  an 
apothegm.  Ap'otheg'matibt,  n.  one  who  utters  short 
maxims,  or  a  maker  of  them.  The  old  spelling  is  Apoph- 
thegm. 

APOTHEOSIS,  n.  ap'o-the'd-aU  [L.  and  Gr.  apotJieOsis, 
a  deification— from  apo,  from;  theos,  God — lit,  from  a  man 
to  a  god] :  in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  the  ceremony  of 
placing  some  illustrious  man  among  their  gods;  a  deification, 
or  the  raising  of  a  mortal  to  the  rank  of  a  god.  From  the 
polytheistic  point  of  view  there  is  nothing  monstrous  in  this 
idea;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  quite  natural,  and  a  nece^ary 
part  of  the  system.  Among  heathens  generally,  especially 
among  the  Komans,  every  departed  spirit  became  a  deity 
(see  Manes);  *  and  as  it  was  common  for  children  to  worship 
(privately)  the  manes  of  their  fathers,  so  was  it  natural  for 
divine  honors  to  be  publicly  paid  to  a  deceased  emperor, 
who  was  regarded  as  the  parent  of  his  country.'  (See 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Boman  Antiquities,)  At 
the  Conaecratio,  as  it  was  called,  of  a  Roman  emperor,  tie 
body  was  burnt  on  a  funeral  pile,  and  as  the  fire  ascended, 
an  eagle  was  let  loose  to  mount  into  the  sky,  carrying,  as 
was  believed,  the  soul  of  the  emperor  from  earth  to  heaven. 
Many  medals  are  found  with  the  word  consecratto  surround- 
ing an  altar,  with  fire  on  it,  and  an  eagle  rising  into  the  air. 

APOTHESIS,  n.  d-poth'e-sls  [Gr.  apothesis,  a  putting 
back  or  away— from  apo,  from;  thesis,  a  putting  or  placing]: 
In  primitive  churches,  a  place  on  the  south  side  of  the  chmi- 
eel  fitted  with  shelves  for  books,  vestments,  etc. 

APOTOME,  n.  d-pot'ome  [Gr.  ajiotfntie,  a  cutting  off — 
from  apo,  from;  tome,  a  cutting  or  lopping]:  in  math.,  the 
difference  between  two  incommensurable  quantities. 

APOTREPSIS,  n.  dp-otrtp'sU  [Gr.  apotrepsis,  aversion]: 
In  med.,  the  resolution  of  a  suppurating  tumor. 

APOTROPY,  n.  a-pot'rd-pi  [L.  apotropcB^from  Gr.  apo- 
tropaios,  averting  evilj:  in  Greek  poetry,  a  verse  or  hymn 
designed  to  avert  the  wrath  of  incensed  deities.  The  divinity 
chiefly  invoked  on  such  occasions  was  Apollo. 

APOZEM,  n.  dp'(hzem  [L.  apozema:  Gr.  apozema — from 
apozein,  to  extract  by  boiling— from  apo,  from;  zein,  to  boilj: 
a  decoction;  an  extraction  of  the  substance  of  plants  by 
boiling  them  and  preserving  the  infusion.  Apozemicai^ 
a.  dp'S-eim'ik-dl,  pertaining  to,  or  resembling  an  apozem. 


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APPAI^APPALACHIAN  CLUB. 

APPAli  or  Appat.Ti,  v.  dp-paiol'  [W.  pallu,  to  fail;  pall, 
loBS  of  energy  (see  Pall  2):  usually  referred  to  L.  ad,  at; 
.  paUid,  I  become  pale]:  to  lose  the  vital  powers  through 
suddeo  terror;  to  fill  with  dismay.  Affall'ino»  imp. 
Appalled',  pp.  pawld',  Appall'ment,  n.  state  of  being 
filled  with  dismay.  Appallingly,  ad. -W.  Old  appalled 
WIGHT,  in  OE,,  a  man  who  has  lost  his  vigor  through  age. 
Ifots. — Appall  is  simply  ap  and  pall,  '  to  cause  to  pall,' 
'  to  stupefy  with  horror,'  and  ought  not  to  be  confused  with 
p<Ue,  from  palUo;  OF.je  appalys;  compare  It  abbaglidre, 
to  dazzle  or  hurt  the  sight  by  excessive  light.— 8yk.  of 
'appal':  to  dismay;  daunt;  terrify;  frighten;  scare. 

APPAL ACHEE  BAY,  &ppd4drh' e :  a  portion  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  Florida  coast,  kt.  80"  n,;  long.  84^* 
15'  w.  Its  breadth  is  abt  90  m.,  and  it  extends  50  ra.  in- 
land.   St.  Mark's  and  several  smaller  rivers  flow  into  it. 

APPAIiACHEES:  Choctaw  tribe  of  Indians  in  Florida, 
on  Appalachee  Bay.  At  first  friendly  to  the  Spaniards, 
thev  afterwards  revolted  a^inst  the  oppressions  of  the 
whites,  and  a  number  of  hostile  outbreaks  occurred.  They 
ceased  to  be  a  tribe  of  importance  after  1722. 

APPALACHIAN  CLUB,  ap  pa-la  ch\-an:  organization 
similar  to  the  Alpine  clubs  of  Europe  (see  Alpine  Club), 
originating  in  Boston  about  1876,  and  having  its  princi- 
pal field  of  labor  in  the  great  Appalachian  mountain 
range.  The  objects  sought  are  systematic  exploration 
of  the  principal  mountains,  formation  of  new  paths,  plac- 
ing of  guide-boards,  and  prevention  of  the  painting  of  ad- 
vertisements on  rocks  and  of  other  disfigurements  of  the 
natural  scenery.  Discoveries  and  observations  In  geol- 
ogy, botany,  zoology,  and  other  sciences,  are  reported ; 
much  valuable  Information  Is  thus  accumulated.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  members  are  residents  of  New 
England,  but  people  of  other  sections  are  cordially  re- 
ceived. Many  professional  men  and  a  large  number  of 
amateur  scientists  belong  to  the  organization,  and  find 
both  health  and  pleasure  in  prosecuting  its  work. 


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APPALACHIANS. 

APPALACHIANS,  dp'pa-ld'cM  ant:  general  appellatioi^ 
of  the  great  mountain-system— called  also  the  Allcghanics 
— which  stretches  from  the  interior  of  Maine  to  the  borders 
of  Alabama,  its  distance  from  the  sea  gradually  ran^g  be- 
tween about  100  m.  in  the  n.  and  about  300  in  the  s.  Gen  - 
er*lly  this  chain  may  be  regarded  as  the  parent  of  the  At- 
/ttiicie  nrers  of  the  United  States  on  the  one  side,  and  on  the 
other  oi  tht  s.  tributaries  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  of  the  e. 
feeders  of  the  Mississippi:  it  is  not,  however,  the  actual  water- 
shed during  it«  entire  length,  for  it  is  crossed  bv  the  Cot>- 
necticut,  the  Hudson,  aad  the  Delaware,  as  the  Himalayas 
are  pierced  by  the  Ganges,  and  the  Andes  hj  the  Amazon. 
The  chain,  in  fact,  consists  of  several  ranges  generally  paral- 
lel to  each  other,  which,  with  the  intermediate  valleys  that 
occupy  two-thirds  of  the  breadth,  form  a  belt  100  m.  wide 
— its  multiform  character,  liowever,  developing  itself  only  to 
the  w.  and  s.  of  the  Hudson.  The  following  are  the  chief 
ridges,  beginning  from  the  n. :  the  White  Mountains  (or  Hills) 
of  New  Hampshire  present  some  of  the  loftiest  elevations. 
Moose  Hillock  and  Washington  being  respectively  4,636  and 
6,285  ft.  above  the  sea.  Next,  the  Green  Mountains,  which, 
true  to  the  name,  almost  cover  Vermont,  attain,  in  Killing- 
ton  Peak,  a  height  of  8,924  ft. ;  then  come  the  Highlands, 
on  the  e.  of  the  Hudson,  so  striking  an  object  to  the  voy- 
agers on  its  waters;  immediately  beyond  that  river  we  find 
the  Catskill  Mountains,  which,  though  of  inconsiderable 
length,  contain  two  eminences— Round  Top  and  High  Peak 
— respectively  of  8,804  and  8,718  ft.;  while  on  a  terrace  of 
another  member  of  the  group,  2,500  ft.  above  the  Hudson, 
is  perched  the  Moimtain  House,  a  favorite  refuge  from  the 
heats  of  summer;  other  great  summer  hotels  occupy  other 
eminences  of  this  group.  The  Kittatinnies  extend  from  the 
n.  of  New  Jersey  as  far  as  Virginia;  while  nearer  the  sea 
the  Blue  Rid^,  stretching  from  about  the  same  parallel 
down  to  North  Carolina,  is  crowned,  within  the  limits  of 
Virginia,  by  the  Peaks  of  Otter,  4,000  ft.  hi^h.  In  North 
Carolina  are  the  Black  Mountains,  witli  the  highest  summit 
of  the  system.  Black  Dome,  6,760  ft.;  Mt.  iMitchell,  6,701 
ft. ;  Guyot's  Peak,  6,661;  Sandoz  Knob,  6,612;  m  all  about  a 
dozen  peaks  now  known  to  be  higher  than  Mt.  Washington. 
Lastly,  there  lie,  more  to  the  w.,  the  Alleghanies  proper  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  and  the  Cumberland  Moimtains 
on  the  e.  border  of  Kentucky  and  Tennes.<?ee. 

Of  all  these  elevations  not  one  at  all  approaches  the  limit 
of  perpetual  snow.  Yet  France,  while  struggling  with  Eng- 
land in  North  America,  regarded  the  A.  as  a  wall  that  was 
physicallv  to  exclude  her  rival  from  the  basins  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  the  Mississippi.  Virtually  the  supposed  barrier  has 
been  levelled  from  end  to  end.  Through  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  Vermont  runs  a  railway  from  Portland  to  Canada; 
by  canal  or  by  railway,  even  by  lioth  abreast,  New  York  has 
reached  the  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  on  at  least  four 
principal  points  between  Montreal  in  the  e.  and  Buffalo  in 
the  w. ;  Pennsylvania  has  carried  to  Pittsburgh  a  railway  of 
248  m.  from  Harrisburg,  and  a  canal  of  8&  m.  from  Co- 
lumbia; while,  with  the  necessary  exception  of  little  Dela- 


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APPALACHIANS. 

Wire  alone,  eadi  of  the  remainiDg  states  along  the  coast  has 
tto  iitm-wajr  through  the  Appalachians. 

The  chain  abounds  in  coal  and  iron;  and  it  is  a  curious 
Instance  of  the  adaptation  of  the  two  worlds  to  each  other, 
that,  while  the  Spaniard  met  in  the  s.  the  gigantic  counter- 
Murts  of  the  cential  plateau  of  his  own  romantic  land,  the 
Englishman  in  the  n.  stumbled,  as  it  were,  on  those  same 
elements  of  almost  creatiye  energy  which,  within  two  cen- 
turies, were  to  be  instrumental  in  placing  the  daughter  with 
the  mother  among  the  foremost  nations  of  the  earth.  As  an 
evidence  of  the  actual  value  of  the  coal  and  iron  of  the  A., 
PennsylTania— where,  hitherto,  they  have  been  chiefly  found 
— has  since  1840  made  more  rapid  strides  in  population  than 
any  other  state  in  the  Union,  till  between  1860  and  1870,  when 
Illmois  and  other  n.w.  states  Increased  more  rapidly.  Nor 
are  iron  and  coal  the  only  valuable  products  of  the  A. :  the 
mountains  yield  abundance  of  limestone,  marble,  slate, 
building  stone,  copper,  zinc,  chrome,  etc. 

Oeoiogy. — During  the  Azoic  and  Palaeozoic  periods,  the 
district  now  occupied  by  the  A.  was  a  plain.  These  moun- 
tains date  their  or%in  subsequent  to  the  Carboniferous  epoch. 
The  coal  measures  are  the  newest  upturned  beds  associated 
with  the  Appalachian  range;  and  as  the  stratified  rocks,  with 
few  exceptions,  are  laid  down  horizontally,  these  strata 
must  owe  their  inclined  position  to  the  dislocating  agency 
which  elevated  the  mountains;  they,  consequently,  supply 
a  date  anterior  to  its  activity.  At  the  base  of  tne  A.,  on 
their  e.  side,  there  are  a  series  of  red  sandstone  beds,  uncon- 
formable to  the  upturned  strata,  and  occupying  the  valleys 
in  tiiieir  original  horizontality,  thus  evidently  unaffected  by 
the  disruptmg  agency  which  must  have  been  active  prior  to 
their  deposition.  These  beds  have  been  referred  by  geolo- 
gists to  different  ages.  That  th^  are  Old  Red  Sandstone,  as 
eoniectured  by  Madure  and  others,  is  now  universally  de- 
nied. Hitchcock's  supposition  that  tLey  were  Permian  is 
also  considered  as  referring  them  to  too  remote  a  geological 
age.  W.  B.  Rogers  considered  them  first  as  members  of  the 
Triassic  period;  but  has  since,  from  evidence  adduced  from 
the  contained  organic  remains,  shown  reason  for  relating 
them  to  the  beginning  of  the  Jurassic  period.  We  thus  ob- 
tain two  ffrand  limiting  dates — the  Carboniferous  and  Juras- 
sic perloas—within  which  the  A.  must  have  been  formed. 
There  are  grounds  for  bein^even  more  specific,  and  refer- 
ring the  period  of  the  dislocating  agency  to  that  immediately 
subsequent  to  the  Carboniferous,  represented  in  the  stratified 
rod^s  of  other  districts  by  the  Permian  series;  for  the  older 
upturned  rocks  had  not  only  been  ruptured  and  plicated, 
but  also  denuded  into  the  various  shapes  that  they  now 
present,  before  the  horizontal  rocks  were  deposited. 

The  aggregate  thickness  of  the  Paleeozoic,  measured 
in  Pennsylvania,  amounts  to  85,000  ft.  While  exhibithig 
a  remartuble  variety  of  mineral  character,  they  may  be 
classed  under  the  three  great  divisions  of  sedimentary  rocks, 
viz.,  sandstones,  slates,  and  limestones.  Intercalated  with 
them,  as  subordinate  layers,  there  occur  deposits  of  coal, 
cbert,  and  Iron  ore.    They  are  all  more  or  less  f ossiliferouB. 


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APPALACHICOLA. 

Coal  Measures. — The  character  of  the  rocks  of  the  Appa- 
lachian district  of  N.  Amer.  indicates  that  during  the  Car- 
boniferous epoch,  a  slow  subsidence  was  in  progress,  the 
trough  filling  with  the  materials  for  sandstone  and'  shale, 
afterward  raised.  There  seem  to  have  been  vast,  inte- 
rior, marshy  levels  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  able  to 
support  the  vegetation,  which  has  become,  in  the  course  of 
ages,  converted  into  coal.  The  coal-fields  to  the  far  w.  of 
the  A.,  in  Michi^n,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri,  have 
been  connected  with  the  Apimlachian  coal  formation,  which 
includes  all  the  detached  basins,  both  anthracitie  and  semi- 
bituminous,  of  the  mountain  chain  of  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia,  and  also  the  vast  bituminous  trough 
lying  to  the  n.  w.  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  and  AJabama. 

On  the  e.  slope  of  the  A. ,  the  coal,  from  its  proximi^  to 
the  region  of  greatest  disturbance,  has  lost  nearly  all  its 
volatile  constituents,  and  is  converted  into  hard  shining 
anthracite  (q.v.).  In  the  troughs  to  the  w.  of  the  great  Ap- 
palachian valley,  where  the  forces  that  disturbed  the  cruBt 
were  not  so  intense,  the  coal  has  not  parted  with  such  a  large 
proportion  of  volatile  matter,  but  still  is  so  much  altered  aa 
to  be  characterized  as  semi-anthracite.  Both  the  anthracite 
and  semi-anthracite  are  extensively  mined  for  economical 
purposes,  but  their  extent  as  well  as  their  value  is  of  li^e 
unportance  compared  with  the  enormous  Appalachian  bitu- 
minous coal-field.  From  northern  Pennsylvania  to  middle 
Alabama,  its  length  is  about  875  m.,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
between  southern  Pennsylvania  and  northern  Ohio  is  about 
180m. ;  its  area  is  abt.  56,000  sq.  m.,  almost  the  largest  ex- 
panse of  coal  measures  in  the  world.  A  single  coal-seam 
in  this  field  has  been  traced  over  an  extent  of  countr v  225  m. 
long  by  100  broad,  showing  a  superficial  area  of  14,000  sq.  m. 
The  actual  depth  of  workable  seams  in  the  deepest  p^  of 
this  basin  is  estimated  at  40  ft.;  but  when  the  amount  of 
denudation  of  the  upper  measures  over  large  districts  is 
taken  into  account,  the  aven^  depth  of  the  entire  field 
cannot  be  more  than  25  ft.  Taking  this  as  the  thickness, 
the  amoimt  of  coal  in  this  neat  coal  field  would  be  1,387,- 
500,000,000  tons.  When  this  is  compared  with  the  esti- 
mated quantity  of  coal  in  the  British  coal-fields,  viz., 
140,000,000,000  tons,  some  conception  mav  be  formed  of 
the  enormous  extent  of  coal  existmg  in  this  district  of  N. 
America. 

ife^ez^.— Extensive  beds  of  magnetic,  hematitic,  and 
foBsiliferous  iron  ores  occur  in  man^  of  the  formations  of 
the  A.,  from  the  lowest  metamorphic  gneiss  to  the  highest 
coal-measures.  Iron  ore  is  extensively  wrought  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Ohio,  large  quantities  of  the  anthracite  being 
used  in  the  smelting  furnaces.  Veins  of  lead  occur  in  the 
Metamorphic  rocks,  rarely  stretching  up  into  l^e  red  slate. 
In  the  Palaeozoic  beds,  veins  of  copper  and  nickel  occur  in 
suflicient  quantity  to  be  wrought. 

APPALACHICOLA,  dp'pa4dcm-kd'la:  river  rismg  to 
Georgia,  fiowing  through  Florida  hito  the  Gulf  ^f  Merico, 
or  rather  into  the  A.  Bay.    From  the  head-waters  pf  the 


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APPANAGE— APPARATUS. 

diatahooche,  the  A.  is  about  400  m.  loDg,  oayigable  for  boats 
through  nearly  its  entire  course.  It  is,  however,  only  at  the 
junction  of  the  Chatahooche  with  the  Flint  that  the  name 
of  A.  is  applied  to  the  stream;  and  up  to  this  point,  a  stretch 
of  about  70  m. ,  there  is  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  for  steam- 
navigation;  while  the  tides  also  ascend  for  about  two-thirds 
of  the  distance. — A.  is  also  a  seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the 
stream  above  mentioned,  where  is  shipped  the  produce  of 
the  river-basin,  chiefly  large  quantities  of  cotton. 

APPANAQE,  dp'pdnroi  [F.  apanage,  an  appanage-* 
from  OF.  apaner,  to  nourish:  mia.  L.  appand'glum,  any 
pensicHi  or  alimentation— from  ad,  to;  pants,  bread]:  an 
illowance  for  bread  and  other  victuals;  lands  set  aside  for 
the  maintenance  of  vounger  sons  of  a  prince;  sustenance; 
wealth.  A.  is  a  technical  term  in  French  law,  signifying 
the  aflwgnment  or  conveyance  by  the  crown  of  lands  and 
feudal  nghts  to  the  princes  of  the  royal  famil^r,  for  their 
maintenance  according  to  their  rank.  8ee  this  title  in 
Sjiip;ht'8  BoUtieal  DieSonary;  also  in  Merlin's  Repertoire  de 
Jurtaprudenee.  The  word  occurs  in  Scotch  law-books,  prob- 
ably oerived  from  the  French.  It  is  not  a  term  in  English 
law,  though  used  in  common  parlance  to  denote  any  extra- 
territorial Jurisdiction  or  sovereignty  by  governments;  and 
even  any  dignity  or  right  pertaining  to  a  person  of  rank. 
The  duchy  of  Cornwall  may  be  said  to  be  an  A.  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  in  whose  person  also  now  merge  the  rights 
of  the  Prince  of  Scotland,  since  the  junction  of  the  two 
kingdoms  under  the  same  crown.  The  Prince  of  Wales, 
when  he  goes  north  of  the  Tweed,  ought  strictly  to  be  called 
Prince  of  Scotkmd. 

APPARATUS,  n.  dp'pd-rd'tus  [L.  apparatus,  tools  or 
implements— from  o^  to  or  for;  pardtus  prepared]:  things 
prepared  as  means  to  any  certain  end;  a  set  of  instruments, 
tools,  utensils,  or  mechanical  arrangements  to  be  used  for 
a  particular  purpose;  a  set  of  organs  uniting  for  a  common 
function. 


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APPAREL—APPARITIONS. 

APPAREL,  u.  appdr'H  [P.  apparea,  outfit:  ^.  apa- 
reiar,  to  fit,  to  suit:  L.  ad,  for:  mid.  L.  parU'tUus,  a  dun. 
of  L.  par,  equal,  like;  hence  F.  pareil,  alike— !»<.»  that 
which  is  fitted  like  to  like]:  clothing;  dress:  V.  to  dress; 
to  clothe;  to  adorn.  Apparelling,  imp.  dp-p&r' U-ing. 
Apparbllkd,  pp.  dp-par  eld, — Syw.  of  'apparel,  n.': 
dress;  clothing;  vesture;  garments;  attire;  airay;  oostome; 
habit;  clothes;  vestment;  rayment;  uniform. 

APPARENT,  dp^p&'rint  [see  Appear]:  tenn  cxpreasiDg 
a  number  of  important  distinctions,  especially  in  astronomy. 
The  A,  magnitude  of  a  heavenlv  body  is  the  angle  fonned  uw 
two  linesdrawn  from  the  endsof  its  diameter  to  the  spectators 
eye;  this  obviously  depends  upon  the  distance  of  the  body, 
as  well  as  upon  its  real  magnitude.  A  planet  seen  firom  the 
surface  of  the  earth  seems  lower  than  it  would  be  if  seen 
from  the  centre  of  the  earth—the  former  is  its  A,  aUUude, 
the  latter  its  real.  A.  noon  is  when  the  sun  is  on  the  merid- 
ian; true  or  mean  noon  is  the  time  when  the  sun  would  be 
on  the  meridian  if  his  motion  in  the  heavena  were  uniform 
and  parallel  to  the  equator.  See  Equation  of  Tdcb.  The 
daily  and  annual  motions  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens  are  both 
A,  motionit  caused  by  two  real  motions  of  the  earth. 

APPARITIONS,  (ip'pd-rUh'nnz  [see  Appear]:  ghostly 
or  phantom  appearances.  The  belief  in  A. — especially 
of  spirits  of  the  departed — ^has  existed  in  all  ages  and 
countries,  and  usually  declines  only  when  a  people  have 
advanced  considerably  in  the  knowledge  of  physkail  con- 
ditions and  laws.  Not  that  A.  then  cease  to  be  reported, 
but  that  the  more  intelligent  part  of  the  community  are  then 
usually  able  to  explain  away  the  alleged  occurrence  in  some 
way  satisfactory  to  themselves,  not  involving  the  i»o]ectioQ 
of  a  spirit  upon  the  living  sense. 

Nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  there  are  conditions  of 
the  body  when  spectral  appearances,  such  as  occur  to  us  in 
uneasy  dreams,  become  sensible  to  the  waking  vision.  One 
of  these  conditions  is  that  of  the  patient  mider  the  disease  of 
delirium  tremens,  who  not  only  hears  ideal  enemies  plotting 
against  his  life  in  adjacent  rooms  or  behind  hedges,  but 
tmnks  he  sees  them  preparing  to  do  him  mischief,  mmI  has 
becoi  known  to  jump  overboNard  of  a  vessel  into  the  sea,  in 
order  to  escape  the  apprehended  danger.  In  such  excite- 
ments it  is,  though  aHsinff  from  different  causes,  that  an  in- 
tending murderer  thinks  he  hears  the  prince  of  fallen  angels 
tempting  him  on  to  crime,  or  sees  before  him  a  '  <ia^ger  of 
the  mind'  wherewith  to  end  the  life  of  his  victim,  lliere 
are  also  instances  of  spectral  illusions  traceable  to  a  simply 
disordered  state  of  the  digestive  organs.  M.  Nicolai,  an 
eminent  bookseller  in  Berlin,  fell,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
year  1791,  into  a  depression  of  spirits,  and  in  that  oonditton 
neglected  a  course  of  periodical  bleeding  which  he  had  been 
accustomed  to  observe.  The  consequence  was  his  becoming 
liable  for  some  months  to  seeing  trains  of  phantasmata  or 
specdal  figures,  which  moved  and  acted  before  him,  nay, 
even  spoke  to,  and  addressed  him.  He  was  fortunately 
able,  not  merely  to  coolly  observe  the  phenomena,  but  to 


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APPARITION-APPEAL. 

describe  them  in  an  ample  paper  which  he  presented  to  the 
FMioeopbical  6odet3r  of  Berhn.  This  case  may  be  said  to 
have  formed  the  basis  of  a  theory  of  A.,  advanced  by  Dr. 
Ferrier,  Dr.  Hibbert,  and  others,  amoanting  merely  to  this, 
that  they  are  all  to  be  accounted  for  by  peculiar  conditions 
of  the  organism  of  the  individual  sensible  of  them.  Cer 
tainly  a  large  class  of  cases  fall  readilv  under  this  explan 
ation;  but,  if  we  are  to  accept  the  whole  number  of  appari- 
tions reported  on  good  authority,  a  much  more  compre- 
hensive theory  will  be  found  requisite  to  satisfy  the 
thorough  inquirer. 

In  1882,  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research  was  founded 
in  order  to  the  scientific  and  systematic  investigation  of 
reported  apparitions,  clairvoyance,  haunted  houses,  hyp- 
notism, thought-reading,  and  the  phenomena  called  spirit- 
ualistic: and  It  publishes  its  Proceedings.    See  Hypnotism: 

SOMNAUBULISM:   alsO  HALLUCINATIONS. 

APPARITION:  see  under  Appeak. 

APPEAL,  ▼.  dp-pel'  [L.  appeUo,  I  accuse,  I  call  upon: 
P.  appeler,  to  call;  OF.  apeler,  to  invoke,  to  call  upon— 
from  ad,  pello,  I  drive]:  to  call  to  or  invoke;  to  apply  for 
justice;  to  refer  a  disputed  matter  to  another,  as  to  a  hi^bei 
judge  or  court,  or  to  a  superior;  recourse;  resort;  in  OB., 
to  accuse;  to  chai^ge  with  crime:  N.  the  removing  of  a 
cause  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  court;  a  reference  to  an- 
other;  an  address  to  the  judgment  or  f  eeliuj^  of  an  audience; 
an  application  for  justice.    Appeal'ino,  imp.  Appealed^ 

Sp.  dp-peld.  Appealable,  a.  dp-pel' a-U,  that  may  or  can 
e  appealed.  Appellant,  n.  ap-p^l'ldnt,  the  person  who 
appeals.  Appealer,  n.  one  who.  Appellate,  a.  dp-p^l'- 
Idt,  or,  Appel'latob't,  a.  -ter^l,  relating  to  appeals. 
Appellation,  n.  dp'pU-ld'shun,  a  name;  the  wonl  by 
which  a  thmg is  known.  Appellative, a.  -tlv, pertaining 
to  a  common  name.  N.  a  common  name  as  distinguished 
from  a  proper  name.  Appel'lative'ly,  ad.  -tWU,  Ap- 
pellee, n.  dp'pil-le',  the  defendant  in  an  appeal;  one  tried 
for  a  crime  at  the  instance  of  another— now  obsolete. 
Appellor,  n.  dp-pHlcfr,  one  who  appeals.  —  Syn.  of 
*  appellation ';  title ;  name  ;  description  ;  denomination  ; 
designation. 

APPEAL,  in  Law:  the  right  or  process  of  bringing  imder 
the  notice  of  a  higher  coiut  the  judgment  of  a  lower  court 
which  the  appellant  represents  as  erroneous  in  fact  or  law. 
Tormerly  this  right  was  a  valuable  guarantee  against  polit- 
ical oppression  and  private  extortion:  for  example  the  A. 
to  royal  judges  from  courts  of  feudal  barons.  Now,  the 
object  of  A.  is  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  administration  of 
justice.  This  is  effected  not  merely  by  the  reversal  of 
erroneous  ludgments  which  are  appealed,  but  by  the  knowl- 
edge which  eveiT  judge  has  of  precedents  in  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  that  his  own  judgments  are  subject  to  A  The 
most  important  questions  connected  with  the  modem 
system  of  A.  are:  1.  Whether  in  all  cases,  of  whatever 
pecuniary  value,  A  is  allowed,  and  also  whether  at  all 
stages,  or  only  after  final  judgment;  2.  On  what  conditiona 


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APPEAL. 

as  regards  time,  interim  execution,  and  security  for  costs, 
A.  is  allowed;  3.  The  relative  constitution  of  the  lower  and 
higher  courts.  .     • 

lu  the  civil  law,  the  earliest  form  of  A.  was  the  provocaiio 
from  the  juilgment  of  a  criminal  court  to  the  lloman  people. 
This  fell  into  disuse  under  the  Qumtiones  Perpetu4B.  The 
appcllalio  was  a  veto  or  interdict  granted  upon  the  intercessia 
of  one  complaining  of  a  judicial  act.  The  subordination  of 
judges  increased  largely  under  the  empire,  and  for  some 
time  the  emperor,  who  was  tribune  for  life  and  also  pro- 
consul, was  the  only  final  court  of  A.  Latterly,  the  senate 
and  the  praetorian  prefects  also  gave  final  decisions.  Only 
six  months  were  given  for  A.  from  the  most  distant 
provinces.  The  law  is  stated  in  detail  in  the  Digest,  Lib. 
XLIX. 

In  the  Christian  Church,  under  the  judicial  system  de- 
fined in  the  False  Decretals,  frivolous  appeals  direct  to  the 
Roman  Consistory  multiplied  enormously.  The  remon- 
strances of  St.  Bernard  were  gradually  given  eflaciency  by 
the  Lateran  and  Basel  councils,  and  wholesome  r^tricUons 
on  the  right  of  A.,  and  in  favor  of  the  independence  of 
Cisalpine  church  courts,  passed  into  most  modem  con- 
cordats (Fleury,  Inst,  du  Droit  Eccles.,  iv.  28;  Lancelot, 
Inst,  du  Droit  Canon.,  iii.  17).  The  famous  appel  comtM 
d'abus  in  France  was  originally  an  A.  to  civil  justice  against 
the  encroachments  of  church  jurisdiction.  It  is  evident 
that  the  question  of  A.  is  closely  connected  with  the  great 
problems  of  political  history — national  independence,  the 
relations  of  central  and  provincial  authorities,  etc. 

In  English  law,  prior  to  the  Judicature  Acts,  1878-75, 
the  word  A.  was  not  commonly  used.  In  common  law 
courts,  there  was  a  proceeding  in  *  error*  by  *  assignment  of 
errors*  and  *  joinder  of  errors.'  The  old  *  writ  of  error*  and 
'  writ  of  false  judgment'  are  still  sometimes  used  in  England 
in  bringing  up  the  proceedings  of  certain  inferior  courta. 
In  chancery  the  A.  was  formerly  called  're-hearing,'  the 
Vice-chancellor  being  regarded  as  the  delegate  of  the  Lord 
Chancellor.  Under  the  modern  svstem  of  *  fusion,*  every 
judgment  in  the  High  Court  of  tfustice  (except  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Court  of  Probate  where  leave  is  required)  may 
by  simple  motion  be  submitted  to  the  Court  of  A.,  to  have 
it  reversed,  discharged  or  varied.  Interlocutory  proceed- 
ings in  chambers  may  also  be  appealed  to  a  judge  in 
chambers;  and  from  him  A.  lies  to  the  Divisional  Court. 
In  the  Chancery  Division,  the  judge  has  the  discretion 
of  directing  the  matter  to  be  argued  before  him  in  court,  or 
allowing  A.  direct  to  the  Court  of  A.  The  A.  from  the 
London  Bankruptcy  Court  is  also  to  the  Court  of  A.  An  A. 
in  divorce  requires  in  many  cases  to  be  to  the  '  full  court,' 
not  to  the  ordinarv  Court  of  A.  This  last  court  consists 
practically  of  six  Lords  Justices  of  A.,  sitting  in  two  divi- 
sions; one  for  common  law  A.;  the  other  for  chancery, 
probate,  admiralty,  and  bankruptcy  appeals.  As  regards 
A.  from  the  inferior  courts  in  England,  an  A,  lies  from  the 
county  court  to  a  divisional  court  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice,  if  the  judgment  has  boon  pronounced  in  the  ordi- 


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APPEAR-APPEKD. 

nary  or  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  county  court,  but  to 
the  London  Bankruptcy  Ck>urt,  if  the  judgment  has  been 
pronounce  in  the  bankruptcy  jurisdiction  of  the  county 
court. 

In  American  Law,  A.  is  the  removal  of  a  cause  from  a 
court  of  inferior  to  one  of  superior  jurisdiction,  in  order  to 
obtain  a  review  of  the  proceedings  and  a  re-trial.  While  a 
writ  of  error  carries  to  the  higher  court  only  matter  of  law 
for  re-examination,  an  appeal  subjects  both  the  law  and  the 
facts  to  review  and  re-trial,  the  whole  case  being  examined 
and  tried,  precisely  as  if  it  had  not  been  tried  before.  While 
an  appeal  is  pending,  no  action  can  be  taken  on  the  judg- 
ment of  the  inferior  court,  or  until  after  the  final  decision  of 
the  cause.  In  the  matter  of  the  regulation  of  appeals,  the 
rules  differ  widely  in  the  different  states,  while  the  federal 
courts  have  a  practice  of  their  own. 

APPEAR,  V.  ap-per^  [L.  a^'pa/rer^^  to  come  in  sight — 
from  ad,  to;  par^,l  am  seen,  I  appear:  F.  apparoir]:  to 
be  visible;  to  come  in  sight;  to  seem;  to  present  one's  self. 
Affeab'ino,  imp.  Appeared,  pp.  apperd'.  Appear- 
A2SCE,  n.  dp-per-dns,  a  coming  in  sight;  the  thing  seen; 
the  look  of  a  person  or  thing;  show  or  exhibition  of  one's 
self ;  pretense ;  show.  Appear'er,  n.  the  person  that 
appears.  Apparent,  a.  dp-pd'rejU,  that  may  be  easily 
seen;  obvious;  plain;  in  science,  not  real— as  apparent 
moUon.  Apparently,  ad.  -U,  manifestly;  clearly;  openly; 
seemingly.  Apparition,  n.  dp'pd-Hsh'un,  a  ghost ;  a 
spectre;  a  supposed  visible  spirit.  Apparitor,  n.  appd/r'- 
%-ter,  the  attending  officer  of  an  ecclesiastical  court;  a  sum- 
moner. — Syn.  of  'appearance':  air;  aspect;  figure;  mien; 
manner ;  semblance  ;  look  ;  pretense ;  arrival ;  coming;~of 
'apparent*:  clear;  visible;  manifest;  obvious;  plain;  con- 
spicuous; evident;  distinct;  certain;  notorious;— of  'appari- 
tion': ghost;  spectre;  phantom;  vision;  phantasm. 

APPEASE,  V.  dp-pez'  [F.  apaiser,  to  appease— from  L. 
<td,  pacem,  peace]:  to  put  into  a  state  of  peace;  to  quiet;  to 
XJacify.  Appeasing, imp.  Appeased,  pp.  dp-pezd'.  Ap- 
PBAfl ER,  n.  one  who.  Appeasement,  n.  state  of  being 
appeased  or  in  peace.  Appeasable,  a.  dppe'zdU,  that 
may  be  appeased.  Appeab'ableness.  n.  the  quality  of 
being  appeasable.  Appeas  rvE,  a.  -ziv,  quieting.  Appeas- 
rvBLY,  ad.  41. — Syn.  of  'appease*:  to  alleviate;  pacify; 
mitigate;  soothe;  assuage;  allay;  relieve;  quiet;  conciliate; 
propitiate;  compose;  calm;  hush;  cool;  tranquillize. 

APPEND,  V.  dp-pend!  [F.  appendre,  to  hang  up — from 
L.  append/r^,  to  hang  to— from  ad,  to;  pend^o,  1  hang] :  to 
attach  or  hang  to;  to  add  to.  Append'ing,  imp.  Ap- 
pended, pp.  Appendage,  n.  dp-p^n'ddj,  or  Appen'- 
dant,  n.  something  added  to  without  being  essentially  nec- 
essary. Appen'dant,  a.  belonging  to ;  attached.  Ap- 
PENDiCLE,  n.  dp-pendi-kl,  a  small  appendage.  Appendix, 
n.  dp-pSn'dlks;  Appendixes,  n.  plu.  -diksez,  or  Appen'- 
DiCES,  n.  plu.  -dl-nezHj.  appendix]:  something  appended  or 
added,  as  at  the  end  of  a  book;  a  supplement.  Appen- 
PicuuiTS,  a.   dp'p^n-dUivl^t    fL.  appevdiculd,  a  small 


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APPENDICITIS— APPERLEY. 

appendage]:  in  bot.,  having  a  little  appendage,  as  the  BC^Iy 
appendages  of  corollas,  or  found  at  the  base  of  certain  fila- 
ments.— Syn.  of  'append*:  to  add;  annex;— of  'append- 
age': addition;  adjunct;  concomitant. 

APPENDICITIS,  n.  ap-pPn-dx-sl'tU  [L.  from  appendix]'. 
inflammation  of  the  vermiform  appendix  (see  Afpsndix 
Ybbmiforhis).  One,  not  the  usual,  cniise  may  be  lodg- 
ment of  a  foreign  body,  such  as  fruit-pits,  or  a  small 
mass  of  hanlened  fcBces,  in  the  cavity  of  the  vermiform 
appendix.  An  inflnmmalion,  from  whatever  cause  being 
set  up  on  the  inner  coat  of  the  appendix,  extends,  and 
attacks  the  middle,  and  lastly  the  external  coat,  or  peri- 
toneum. The  result  is  usually  a  localized  peritonitis  (per- 
ityphlitis), though  it  may  becx)me  general.  The  intestinal 
tract  never  being  in  an  aseptic  condition,  septic  infection 
followed  by  suppuration  is  common,  with  perforation  of 
the  appendix  and  discharge  of  pus  into  the  abdominal 
cavity.  A.  is  best  treated  with  perfect  rest  in  bed  and  with 
a  bland  non-irritating  fluid  diet.  Quietude  of  the  intes- 
tines is  secured  by  opiates.  If  perforation  occurs,  the  only 
hope  is  in  a  surgical  operation. 

APPENDIX  VERMIF0RMI8,  &ppH'mk$  'oir^V 
f<yrm\8  [L.  appendix,  appendage;  vermiformis,  wonn- 
shapedl:  in  anat.,  the  vermiform  appendix,  a  blind,  worm- 
shaped  process  given  off  from  the  cflecum  (q.v.):  in  man  it 
is  of  about  the  calibre  of  a  goose-quill,  and  3-6  in.  long. 
Its  functions  are  unknown.  It  is  sometimes  the  seat  of 
very  dangerous  inflammation:  see  Apfendicitis. 

APPENZELL.  ^p•p?/l^5^^  { from  AbbaHs  Cella]:  canton 
in  the  n.e.  of  Switzerland;  162  sq.  m.  Divided  into  two 
districts — Innerrhoden  and  Ausserrhoden,  the  former  of 
which  is  peopled  by  Rom.  Catholics,  the  latter  by  Prot- 
estants, and  noted  for  its  dense  population.  The  surface  is 
mountainous,  especially  in  the  s.,  where  Mount  Seutis  at- 
tains an  elevation  of  8,282  ft.  The  chief  river  is  the  Sit- 
tern,  which  flows  through  the  centre  of  the  canton.  A. 
holds  the  13th  place  in  the  Swiss  confederacy;  the  constitu- 
tion of  each  half  of  the  canton  is  a  pure  democracy.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed  in  agriculture,  cattle-keep- 
ing, cotton  manufactures,  and  embroidery.  They  are  fond 
of  dancing,  music,  and  athletic  exercises,  and  have  the 
reputation  of  being  flrst-rate  marksmen.  Pop. (1894)  66,997. 

Afpenzbll,  cap.  of  the  canton  of  A.,  is  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Sittern;  lat  47°  29'  n.,  and  long.  9°  24'  e.  Pop.  4,000: 
see  also  Herisau  (pop.  11,000). 

APPERCEIVE,  v.:  in  OK,  for  Perceive. 

APPERCEPTION,  n.  ip'pir-a^p'shfin  [ad,  and  pereep- 
tion]:  degree  of  perception  which  becomes  conscious  of 
itself  (used  in  psychometry);  a  priori  self -consciousness. 

APPERIL,  n.:  in  OE.,  for  Peril. 

APPERLEY,  dp'per-ll,  Charles  James:  1777-1843, 
Mav  19;  b.  Denbighshire,  Wales :  enthusiastic  hunter,  the 
'  Nimrod '  of  the  Qiuxrtcrly  Revieio,  and  writer  of  articles 
on  hunting  in  the  Sporting  Magazine,  See  I'he  Chase,  the 
Turf,  and  the  Hood,  Quai-terly  Review  (1827). 


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APPERT— APPIANUS. 

APPERT,  ap-piir',  Benjamin  Nicolas Mahie:  b.  Paris, 
1797,  Sep.  10:  French  philanthropist.  He  devoted  himself 
to  physical  and  moral  i-eforms  in  prisons  aud  liospitals,  and 
to  improvement  in  schools.  Amonir  his  works  are  Dix 
Ans  a  la  Cour  dn  Roi  Louis  Philippe;  and  Conference$ 
eontre  U  Systeme  CelluUiire,  opposing  solitary  confinement. 

APPERT,  Francois:  b.  France:  inyentor  of  a  method 
of  preserying  meat,  vegetables,  etc.,  without  use  of  suit, 
described  in  his  work  (Paris  1831). 

APPERTAIN,  V.  dp'per-tdn'  [mid.  \j.  apper'tinfrS— 
from  pertinirB,  to  pertain  to,  to  belong — from  L,  ad,  to; 
per,  through;  tefi^,  I  hold:  P.  appartentr]:  to  belong  to  as 
of  right;  to  belong  to;  to  relate  to.  Ap'pertain'ino,  imp. 
Appertained',  pp.  -tdnd'.  Ap'pertain'ment,  n,  that 
which  appertains  to.  Appbrtbnance,  n.  dp-per'ti-ndns, 
that  which  relates  to  another  thing.  Appee'tinent,  a. 
belonging:  N.  that  which  belongs  to  anything  else. 

APPETENT,  a.  dp'pe-UrU  [L.  ap'piteru  or  app^Un'tem, 
eager  for— from  ad,  for;  pito,  I  seek,  I  desire]:  seeking 
eagerly  for;  desiring;  very  desirous.  Ap'petencb,  n.  -tens, 
or  Appeten'ct,  n.  tin'sl,  eager  desire;  appetite;  the  pro- 
pensity in  living  creatures  to  select  and  feed  upon  such 
substances  as  are  suited  for  their  nourishment.  Apfetible, 
a.  Mpi-ti-U,  pleasing;  desirable.  Appetibilitt,  n.  dp'pl- 
tirbili4l,  Appetitb,  n.  dp'p^-nt  [F.  appetit,  appetite — 
from  L.  appetUus,  eager  desire]:  the  natural  aesire  or 
cnying  for  food  or  drink;  a  strong  desire  for  anything  that 
affords  pleasure.  AppETxnvE,  a.  dp'pl^-t^'tlv,  desiring 
gnUiification.  Appbtizino,  a.  dp'pi-tiz'ing,  that  creates  or 
promotes  a  desire  to  eat,  as  appetizing  food.— 8tn.  of  '  ap- 
petite': passion;  appetency;  deshre;  a  longing;  a  craving; 
cagemess;  hunger. 

APPETITE:  see  Diet:  Digestion:  Food  and  DRmic. 

APPIANI,  dp^.d'ni,  Andrea:  1764,  May  28-1817,  Nov. 
8;  b.  Milan:  styled  in  his  day  'the  Painter  of  the  Qraces.' 
His  poverty  compelled  him  to  gain  a  subsistence  by  decora- 
tiye  painting;  but  in  the  course  of  his  travels  he  studied  the 
works  of  great  masters,  and  formed  for  lumself  an  original 
style,  almost  rivalling  that  of  Corr^gio.  At  Rome,  he 
devoted  his  attention  to  the  frescoes  of  Raphael,  and  made 
siidi  progress,  that  he  soon  excelled  all  living  artists  in 
fresco-painting.  The  best  evidences  of  his  genius  are  found 
in  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  di  8,  Celso  at 
Milan;  and  in  the  frescoes  with  which  he  decorated  the  villa 
of  the  archduke  Ferdinand  in  1795.  Napoleon  I.  appointed 
him  court-painter.  In  return,  he  executed  portraits  of  the 
French  emperor  and  several  of  his  generals.  His  most 
beautiful  frescoes  are  the  paintings  on  the  ceilhigs  of  the 
palace  of  Jtfilan,  which  consist  of  allegorical  illustrations  of 
Napoleon's  career;  and  Apollo  with  the  Muses  in  the  Villa 
Bonaparte.  Almost  all  the  palaces  in  Italy  contain  frescoes 
by  A  His  finest  oil-painting  is  Rinaldo  in  the  ^den  of 
Aimida.  The  fall  of  his  patron.  Napoleon  I.,  left  A  in 
Indigence. 

APPIANUS,  dp'pi^'niie:  native  of  Alexandria,  who  lived 


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APPIAN  WAY— APPIUS  CLAUDIUS  CRASSUa 

duriDg  tbe  reigns  of  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius. 
He  was  author  of  a  Roman  history,  in  24  books,  of  which 
only  11  are  extant.  It  was  not  remarkable  for  anything 
except  the  plan  021  which  it  was  written.  Instead  of 
proccetling  to  exhibit  chronologically  the  growth  of  the 
empire,  from  its  rude  bt^ginning  on  the  Palatme  Hill  to  the 
period  when  its  power  held  the  whole  world  in  awe,  which 
is  at  once  the  popular  and  the  philosophical  method,  he 
divided  his  work  into  ethnographic  sections,  recording 
separately  the  history  of  each  nation  up  to  the  time  of  its 
conquest  by  the  Romans.  First  in  order  were  the  books 
devoted  to  the  olil  Italian  tribes,  and  afterwards  followed 
the  history  of  Sicily,  Spain,  Hannibal's  wars,  Libya, 
Carthage,  and  Numitfia,  Macedonia,  Greece  Proper  and  its 
colonies,  Syria,  Parthia,  the  Mithridatic  war,  the  civil  wars, 
and  the  imperial  wars  in  Illyria  and  Arabia.  As  a  historian, 
A.  is  a  mere  compiler,  and  not  very  accurate  in  his  compila- 
tion. His  geographical  knowledge  is  singularly  deficient, 
considering,  the  age  in  which  he  lived;  e.g.,  in  his  section  on 
Spain,  he  states  that  it  takes  only  half  a  day  to  sail  from 
Spain  to  Britain.  The  edition  of  A.  by  SchweighaQser  is 
highly  esteemed,  but  the  most  complete  is  that  in  the 
Btbliotheque  Grecque  of  Firmin  Didot. 

APPIAN  WAY,  ap'plan  [Lat;  Via  Appia]:  well  named 
by  an  ancient  writer  Regina  Viarum  (the  queen  of  roads); 
formed,  in  part  at  least,  by  Appius  Claudius  Csbcus,  while 
he  was  censor,  b,c.  313.  It  is  the  oldest  and  most  celebrateil 
of  all  the  Roman  roads.  It  led  from  the  Porta  Capeiia  at 
Rome  in  a  southerly  direction  to  Capua,  passing  through 
Three  Taverns,  Appii  Forum,  Terracina,  etc.  Sul^equentiy, 
it  was  carried  on  to  Beneventum,  Tarenlum,  and  thence  to 
Brundusium.  It  had  an  admirable  substructure  or  founda- 
tion, from  which  all  the  loose  soil  had  been  carefullr 
removed.  Above  this  were  various  strata  cemented  with 
lime;  and,  lastly,  came  the  pavement,  consisting  of  large 
hard  hexagonal  blocks  of  stone,  composed  principally  of 
basaltic  lava,  and  jointed  together  with  great  nicety,  so  as 
to  appear  one  smooth  mass.  The  remains  of  it  are  still 
visible,  especially  at  Terracina.  The  cost  must  have  been 
enormous,  for  the  natural  obstructions  are  ^reat.  Rocks 
had  to  be  cut  through,  valleys  filled  up,  ravines  bridged, 
and  swamps  embanked. 

APPIUS  CLAUDIUS  CRAS'SUS:  a  Roman  decemvir 
(in  oflSce,  b.c.  451-449).  While  the  other  decemviri  wore 
engaged  in  repelling  an  inclusion  made  by  the  Sabincs, 
A.  C.  and  his  colleague  Oppius  remained  m  Rome,  with 
two  legions  to  maintain  their  authority.  Meanwhile,  A.  C. 
had  been  smitten  by  the  beauty  of  Virginia,  daughter  of  a 
respected  plebeian  named  Lucius  Virgimus,  who  was  abroad 
with  the  army.  By  force  and  stratagem,  representing  that 
she  was  the  bom  slave  of  Marcus  Claudius,  one  of  his  clients, 
A.  C.  gained  possession  of  the  maid.  His  desi^  was 
penetrated  by  Icilius,  who  was  betrothed  to  Virginia,  and 
who,  aided  by  Numitorius,  her  uncle,  threatened  to  raise  an 
insurrection  against  the  decemviri.     Virginius,  hurriodlj 


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APPLANATE— APPLAUD. 

recalled  from  the  army  by  his  friends,  appeared  and  claimed 
his  daughter;  but,  after  another  mock-trial,  she  was  again 
adjudged  to  be  the  property  of  Marcus  Claudius.  To  sslvq 
his  daughter  from  dishonor,  the  unhappy  father  seized  a 
knife  and  slew  her.  The  popular  indignation  excited  by 
the  case  was  headed  by  the  senators  Valerius  and  Horatius, 
who  hated  the  decemvlrate.  The  army  returned  to  Rome 
with  Yir^nius.  who  had  carried  the  news  to  them,  and  the 
decemviri  were  deposed.  A.  C.  died  in  prison  by  his  own 
hand  (as  Livy  states),  oi  was  strangled  by  order  of  the 
tribunes;  his  colleague,  Oppius,  conmiitted  suicide;  and 
3IaTcus  Claudius  was  banished.  The  Claudia  Qena  (see 
Gkns)  was  one  of  the  most  numerous  and  important  of  the 
patrician  tribes  or  clans  of  Rome;  and  besides  the  sons  and 
ffrands(»8  of  the  decemvir,  there  were  numerous  persons  of 
distinction  who  bore  the  name  of  Appius. 

APPLANATE,  a.  dp'pldnrdt  [L.  ad,  to;  plandtus,  made 
flat — from  pidnus,  level,  flat]:  in  bot„  flattened  out;  hori- 
zontally expanded. 

APPLAUD,  v.  dp-plawd'  [L.  applaud! er?,  to  strike  one 
thinc^  upon  another— from  aa,  for;  plaudo,  I  make  a  noise 
by  <£ipping  the  hands:  F.  apifdaudiry.  to  praise  by  clapping 
the  haiids  or  by  some  loud  noise;  to  express  approbiition  of; 
to  commend.  Applauding,  imp.  AppiiAUD'ED.  pp.  Ap- 
piiAUDER,  n.  one  who.  Applausb,  n.  dp-pjatcz'  [L.  ad, 
fflaumu,  having  clapped  the  hands]:  approbation  by  shoutr 
or  clapping  of  hands,  or  in  some  other  noisy  way;  the  act 
of  praising.  Applausive,  a.  dpplato'zlv,  that  contains  ap- 
plause.—Stn.  of  'applaud':  to  praise;  commend:  extolj 
approve;  magnify;— of  'applause':  acdamation;  acdaim^ 
oommeDd&tSon;  plaudit;  pndae. 


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APPLE. 

APPLE',  n.  ap'pl  [AS.  acpl:  W.  apal:  Icel.  epli:  Dan. 
able]:  a  well-known  fruit  of  the  tree  Pyrus  malus,  ord. 
JiosdcecB.  Apple  op  the  Eye,  the  pupil.  Apple  of  Dis- 
cord, a  subject  of  contention  and  envy.  Apples  op  Sodom, 
the  fruit  of  a  plant  growing  near  the  Dead  Sea,  as  de- 
scribed by  Josephus;  fruit  fair  to  the  eye,  but  dissolving 
into  dust  and  ashes  when  plucked.  Sec  Solanum.  Loyb- 
Apple,  the  tomato. 

APPLE:  well-known  fruit  of  the  treePyru*  malus^  ord. 
Rosacem,  See  Pyrus.  The  wild  A.,  or  CRAB-tree,  very 
generally  fouud  in  temperate  climes  of  the  n.  hemisphere, 
a  rather  small  and  often  somewhat  stunted-looking  tree, 
with  austere,  uneatable  fruit,  supposed  to  be  the  parent  of 
the  prized  varieties  of  apple.  The  apple-tree,  even  in  a 
cultivated  state,  is  seldom  more  than  30-40  ft.  high.  It  has 
a  large,  round  head;  the  leaves  are  broadly  ovate,  much 
longer  than  the  petioles,  woolly  beneath,  acute»  crenat«, 
and  provided  with  glands;  its  flowers  are  always  produced 
3-6  toi^cther,  in  sessile  umbels,  and  are  large,  white,  rose- 
colored  externally,  and  fragrant.  The  fruit  is  roundish, 
or  narrowest  toward  tiie  apex,  with  a  depi'ession  at  each 
end.  That  of  different  varieties  varies  greatly  in  color 
and  size.  It  is  produced  on  spurs,  which  spring  from 
branch  lets  of  two  or  more  years'  growth,  and  continue  to 
bear  for  a  series  of  years.  The  fruit  of  the  A.  is,  with 
regard  to  its  structure,  styled  by  botanists  a  ponie  (q.v.). 
The  eatable  part  is  what  is  botanically  termed  the  mesocarp 
(see  Fruit),  which,  in  its  firat  development,  enlarges  with 
the  calyx,  the  summit  of  the  fruit  being  crowned  at  last  by 
the  dried  5-parted  limb  of  the  calyx;  the  endocarp  bein^, 
when  ripe,  cartilaginous,  and  containing  in  its  cells  seeds 
which  (10  not  correspond  with  them  in  size,  but  are  so  free 
as  often  to  rattle  when  it  is  shaken.  The  flavor  is  more  or 
less  aromatic,  and  ranges  in  different  sorts  from  sweet  to 
acid.  The  time  of  ripening  varies  from  early  summer  to 
late  autumn.  Some  kinds  can  be  kept  only  a  few  weeks; 
others  retain  their  flavor  six  or  eight  months. 

The  A.  thrives  best  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  In  high  n.  latitudes  only  a  few  varieties  can 
be  grown,  and  these  of  inferior  quality.  In  warm  regions 
the  fruit  is  small  and  insipid.  Some  4,000  varieties  are 
cultivated,  and  the  number  is  being  rapidly  increased. 
There  are  kinds  suited  to  all  climates  in  which  the  A.  can  be 
grown,  to  all  tastes,  and  to  all  the  different  purposes  (des- 
sert, cooking,  cider,  etc.)  for  which  the  fruit  is  used. 
Many  varieties  have  merely  a  local  reputation;  others  are 
widely  distributed.  The  quality  of  certain  sorts  is  greatly 
modified  by  soil,  climate,  and  cultivation.  New  vai-ietiea 
are  obtained  from  seed,  but  not  more  than  one  in  several 
thousand  proves  superior  to  kinds  already  grown.  P*ropa- 
gation  of  varieties  is  principally  by  grafting  (q.v.)  and 
budding  (q.v.)  on  stocks  grown  from  seed  (see  Isursery). 
Though  sometimes  dwarfed,  the  A.  is  usually  grown  as  a 
standard  (see  Orchard).  To  secure  trees  sufficiently  hardy 
to  endure  the  climate  of  the  colder  regions  of  the  United 
States,  varieties  have  been  imported  from  Russia,  but  they 


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APPLE. 

have  not  proved  uniformly  successful.  The  A.  needs  a 
good  soil  and  careful  attention.  To  promote  the  growth 
of  the  tree  and  the  production  of  fruit,  fertilizers  contain- 
ing liberal  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  lime, 
should   be  supplied.    If  properly  cultivated,  good  trees 


Apple-blossom. 

from  the  nursery  shold  bear  a  fev^  specimens  of  fruit  8 
years  from  planting,  and  in  10  years  should  yield  paying 
crops,  though  some  varieties  are  much  slower  than  others 
in  coming  into  bearing.  The  wood  of  the  A.  is  hard,  has 
a  fine  grain,  and  takes  a  handsome  finish.  The  tree  is 
hardy  and  vigorous,  though  the  improved  varieties  are 
much  less  so  than  the  natural  sorts;  and  it  lives  50  to 
150  years.  The  Crab  A.  is  often  planted  as  an  ornamental 
tree,  and  some  of  the  Siberian  varieties  are  vigorous  grow- 
ers, liberal  bearers,  and  yield  handsome  fruit,  of  which 
many  specimens  are  1  to  2  in.  in  diameter.  The  fermented 
juice  of  the  A.  is  called  cider  (q.v.);  with  age  and  exposure 
to  the  air  it  turns  into  vinegar  (q.v.).  That  of  the  Crab  A. 
is  called  verjuice.  The  A.  is  subject  to  various  diseases, 
and  is  preyed  upon  by  about  175  species  of  insects,  which 
attack  every  part  of  the  tree,  and  the  fruit.  For  remedies 
for  plant-lice,  see  Aphis;  for  various  caterpillars  and  worms, 
spray  with  tlie  Bordeaux  mixture  (q.v.)  or  a  solution  of 
Paris  green  (1  lb.  to  200-300  gals,  of  water).  For  methods 
of  preventing  and  destroying  this  pest,  see  Borer.  The 
scab,  a  fungoid  disease,  affects  the  leaves  and  fruit;  also 
the  leaves  are  affected  by  various  forms  of  blight  and  rust. 
Spraying  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  seems  tlie  most  effi- 
cient remedy.  A  vigorous  condition  tends  to  prevent  at- 
tacks of  disease  and  insects.  There  is  quite  an  export 
trade  in  apples,  and  immense  quantities  are  required  for 
home  consumption.  The  census  1890  indicated  that  In 
the  U.  8.  more  than  240,000,000  A.  trees  were  being  grown 
for  transplanting. 
Beauflus     or     Biffins     are    apples    slowly    dried    in 


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APPLEBERRY— APPLETON. 

ovens,  and  occasionally  pressed  till  they  become  8oft  and 
flat.  They  are  prepared  in  great  quantities  in  Norfolk, 
Eng. 

The  Siberian  Crab  is  perhaps  the  parent,  by  hybridiza- 
tion or  otherwise,  of  some  of  the  varieties  of  A.  now  in  cul- 
tivation. Two  species  partake  this  designation,  both  natives 
of  Siberia,  and  frequent  in  gardens  in  Britain.  Pyrus 
baccatu  of  Linnaeus,  and  Pyrus  prunifolia  of  Willdenow^, 
which,  however,  scarcely  differ,  except  that  in  the  former 
the  sepals  (leaves  of  the  calyx)  are  deciduous,  in  the  latter 
they  are  persistent— a  circumstance  ,of  very  doubtful  im- 
portance as  a  specific  distinction.  The  fruit  is  sub-globose, 
yellowish,  and  rather  austere,  but  is  good  for  bakmg  and 
for  preserves. 

The  American  Crab  or  Sweet-scented  Crab  (P.  eoro- 
nana)  is  a  native  of  N.  America,  especially  of  the  s.  part 
of  the  AUee^hanies.  It  is  a  small  tree  with  broad  leaves 
and  white  flowers,  becoming  purple  before  they  drop  oflf, 
and  which  have  a  powerful  smell,  resembling  that  of  violets. 
The  fruit  is  flatly  orbicular,  of  a  deep  green  color,  and  sweet 
scented.  It  is  very  acid,  but  is  made  into  cider,  and  also 
into  preserves.  P.  angu^tifoliay  a  native  of  Carolina,  much 
resembles  this«  but  has  much  narrower  leaves  and  smaller 
fruit. 

The  Chinese  Crab  (P.  speciabUis)  is  a  small  tree,  a 
native  of  China.  It  is  very  ornamental  when  in  flower;  the 
flowers  being  in  sessile,  many -flowered  umbels,  and  of  a 
bright  rose-color.  The  fruit  is  irregularly  round,  about  ^he 
size  of  a  cherry,  yellow,  and  fit  to  be  eaten,  like  tiie  medUr, 
only  when  in  a  state  of  incipient  decay. 

APPLEBERRY:  see  Billardiera. 

APPLEBY,  dp' pi  be,  county  town  of  Westmoreian  1, 
Eng.:  lat.  54'  35'  n.,  long.  5'  28'  w.  It  is  in  the  n.  of  the 
CO. ,  on  the  river  Eden,  which  flows  past  Carlisle  into  the 
Bolway  Firth.  A.  has  two  parishes,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  river,  which  is  here  crossed  by  an  old  stone  bridge  of 
two  arches.  There  is  a  castle  in  the  town,  the  keep  of 
which,  called  Caesar's  Tower,  is  still  in  moderately  good 
condition.  The  lent  and  summer  assizes  are  held  at  A. 
Until  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  it  returned  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament.  It  was  then  disfranchised,  though 
it  still  posse»»es  a  municipal  corporation.    Pop.  (1891)  1,776. 

APPLETON,  ap'pl-ion:  town,  cap.  of  Outagamie  co.. 
Wis.,  on  the  Grande  Chute  of  the  Fox  river.  The  Grande 
Chute,  from  which  the  town  sometimes  takes  its  name, 
affords  immense  water-power;  and  at  the  same  time  a  series 
of  dams  renders  the  stream  navigable  for  steambcMEits  through 
its  whole  course— a  navigation  which,  with  the  aid  of  a 
canal  between  the  Fox  on  the  n.,  and  the  Wisconsin  to  tiie 
8. ,  is  carried  all  the  way  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Missisr 
sippf.  There  is  extensive  manufacturing,  and  much  enter- 
prise. The  place  is  the  seat  of  Appleton  College,  and  Law- 
rence University.    Pop.  (1880)  8,005 ;  (1890)  11,825. 


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APPLETON— APPLIOAtE. 

APPLET0N7  Danieij  :  publisher,  founder  of  the  house 
of  D.  Appleton  and  Co. :  1785,  Dec.  10—1849,  Mar.  27 ;  b. 
Haverhill,  Mass.  After  keeping  a  dry-goods  store  at 
Eaverhill,  he  removed  to  Boston,  and  1825  to  New  York. 
In  the  latter  city,  he  placed  his  eldest  son,  William  Henry 
A.,  in  charge  of  a  book  department  which  he  added  to 
his  dry-goods  line,  and  which  it  soon  superseded.  For 
a  time,  the  business  was  principally  confined  to  the  im- 
portation and  sale  of  English  works,  and  an  agency  was 
established  in  London  1835.  The  first  publication  was 
a  32mo  book  entitled  Daily  Crumbs  from  the  Master's 
Table,  William  H.  A.  was  taken  into  partnership  1838, 
and  10  years  later  the  father  retired.  The  business  is 
conducted  by  a  son  and  three  grandsons  of  the  founder 
and  their  publications  have  been  largely  in  the  higher 
lines  of  literature. 

APPLETON,  Gbobge  Swett:  publisher:  1821,  Aug. 
11 — 1878,  July  7;  b.  Andover,  Mass.;  son  of  Daniel  A. 
After  studying  at  Phillips  Acad.,  in  his  native  town,  he 
Bpent  four  years  at  the  Univ.  of  Leipzig.  In  1865  he 
became  a  partner  with  thiee  of  his  brothers  in  the  firm 
of  D.  Appleton  A  Ck).  He  developed  a  large  trade  in 
Spanish  works,  and  introduced  the  department  of  illus- 
trated books,  of  which  the  first  venture  was  Ptcturesqm 
America^  then  the  finest  illustrated  work  ever  issued. 

APPLETON,  Jesse,  d.d.  :  1772,  Nov.  17—1819,  Nov. 
12 ;  b.  New  Ipswich,  N.  H. :  educator.  He  graduated  at 
I>artmouth  College,  taught  for  two  years,  studied  theol., 
and  became  pastor  of  aCongl.  church  at  Hampton,  N.  H., 
1797.  He  was  elected  pres.  of  Bowdoin  College  1807. 
He  was  an  excellent  classical  scholar  and  an  impressive 
preacher.  A  biographical  sketch,  with  a  collection  of 
addresses,  was  published  1820,  sermons  and  lectures  1822, 
and  The  Works  of  Jesse  Appleton,  D.D.,  2  vols.,  1836. 

APPLETON,  Nathan,  ll.d.  :  1779,  Oct.  6— 1861,  July 
14 ;  b.  New  Ipswich,  N.  H. :  merchant.  He  left  college 
to  enter  the  store  of  his  brother,  Samuel  A.,  in  Boston, 
with  whom  he  soon  formed  a  partnership.  He  was  in- 
terested in  the  cotton  factory  at  Waltham,  in  which 
power-looms  were  first  used  in  this  country* ;  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  city  of  Lowell,  a  member  of  the 
state  legislature  for  several  terras,  and  was  elected  to 
congress  1830  and  42.  He  was  a  member  of  various 
learned  societies,  and  very  benevolent. 

APPLETON,  Samubi,:  1766,  June  22—1853,  July  12; 
"b.  New  Ipswich,  N.  H. :  merchant.  He  worked  on  a 
farm,  taught  school,  kept  a  store  in  his  native  town,  re* 
moved  to  Boston  1794,  and  engaged  in  importing,  and 
soon  formed  a  partnership  with  his  brother  Nathan  A. 
He  also  became  interested  in  cotton  manufacturing  at 
Waltham  and  Lowell,  and  accumulated  great  wealth. 
He  often  distributed  his  entire  annual  income  in  charity. 

APPLIABLE,  APPLIANCE,  etc:  see  under  Apply. 
APPLICATE,  n.  ip'pn-kat  [L.  applicnius,  joined  or  at 


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APPLIQUE-APPOINT. 

tached— from  ad,  to;  pllco,  I  fold]:  in  geom.,  a  straight  line 
drawn  across  a  curve  so  as  to  be  bisected  by  the  diameter; 
the  ordinate. 

APPLIQUE,  a.  dpplek'  [F. — from  appUquer,  to  apply, 
to  put  on]:  a  style  of  work  in  which  one  material  is  laid 
upon  another,  as  velvet  on  satin  or  cloth. 

APPLY,  V.  dppH'  [OF.  applier,  to  apply:  L.  appTwdre, 
to  fold  upon— from  L.  ad,  to;  pUco,  I  fold]:  to  lay  on;  to 
put  one  thing  to  another;  to  use  or  employ  for  a  particular 
|)urpose;  to  fix  the  mind  with  attention;  to  make  applica- 
tion; to  suit;  to  keep  at  work.  Applying,  imp.  Applied. 
pp.  ap  pLld:  Adj.  said  of  a  science  whose  laws  have  been 
reduced  to  rules  for  practical  Use,  as  applied  chemistry, 
applied  mathematics  Appli'er,  n.  one  who.  Appltablk, 
a.  dp-plld-bl,  that  may  be  applied.  Appli'ably,  ad.  Wi. 
Appliance,  n.  dp-plVans,  the  act  of  appl}dng;  the  thing 
applied;  means  to  an  end;  resource.  Applicable,  a.  djy- 
plikd-bl,  fit  to  be  applied;  suitable.  Ap'plicability,  n.  ka- 
hU'l'tl,  or  Ap'plicablenebb,  n.  -bl-nes,  the  quality  of 
being  applicable  or  fit  to  be  applied.  Ap'plicably,  ad. 
-bll.  Applicant,  n.  dp'pUkdnt,  one  who  applies;  a  i^ti- 
tioner.  Applicancy,  n.  dp'pllk/ni^,  the  state  of  being 
applicable.  Application,  n.  -kd'shnn,  the  act  of  apply- 
ing; close  study;  great  attention  to,  as  to  business;  entreaty; 
employment  of  means.  Ap  plicative.  a.  -kd-tiv,  capable 
of  being  applied.  Ap'plicatory,  a.  -kd-terl,  capable  of 
being  applied :  N.  that  which  applies. 

APPOGGIATURA,  dp-po'd~t6'rd  [It.]:  in  muHe,  a 
grace-note:  a  form  of  embeUishment  by  insertion  of  notes 
of  passage  in  a  melody.  The  A.  notes  are  printed  in  a 
smaller  character  than  the  leading  notes  of  the  melody,  and 
should  always  be  given  vnth  considerable  expression. 
When  they  are  extemporized  by  a  pei-former  or  singer,  they 
serve  as  an  indication  of  good  or  of  bad  taste.  The  time  of 
an  A.  is  taken  from  the  essential  note  to  which  it  belongs, 
as  in  the  following  example: 

WHtten. 


^.'■1  rr  ffj-i^ 


Played.  ' 


For  Appogia'to,  see  Portamento. 

appoint,  v.  dp-poynt'  [F.  appointor,  to  refer  a  cause, 
to  give  wages;  appaijieter,  to  order,  to  finish  a  controversy — 
from  L.  o3,  to;  punetum,  a  point]:  to  find  fitting;  to  settle 
the  exact  time  for  a  transaction;  to  fix  upon;  to  settle;  to 
ordain;  to  furnish.    Appoint'ing.  Imp.    Appoint'ed,  pp 


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APPOINTMENT— APPORTIOK. 

Afpoint'er,  d.  one  who.  Affoiht'ablb,  a.  -Ml,  that 
may  be  api)ointed.  Afpoott'mient,  d.  state  of  being  ap- 
pointed; being  named  for  an  office;  a  situation  or  ^ce; 
established  oraer.  AppoiNT'icEirrs,  n.  plu.  the  accoutre- 
ments  of  an  officer.  See  £QUiFHE]<rr:  Kit:  Knapsack. 
The  appointments  of  a  ship  are,  collectively,  all  her  various 
articles  of  equipment  and  furniture.  Afpoenteb,  n.  dp- 
pojfn-te',  one  appointed.—SvN.  of  '  appoint':  to  allot;  nomi- 
nate; prescribe;  constitute;  ordain;  order;— of  'appoint- 
ment': designation;  command;  order;  direction;  establish- 
ment; equipment. 

APPOINTMENT,  in  Law:  in  England,  conveyances 
granted  on  a  consideration  are  frequently  reserved  in 
eommon  law;  and  in  family  settlements,  certain  powers, 
as  they  are  called,  such  as  powers  of  jointuring,  selling, 
charging  land  with  the  payment  of  money;  and  the  sub^ 
qoent  exercise  of  the  power  is  called  an  A.  This  A.— which 
may  be  made  either  by  deed  or  by  will—is  not  considered 
as  an  independent  conveyance,  but  is  merely  ancillary  to  the 
deed  or  inistrument  in  which  the  power  of  A.  is  reserved, 
and  from  which  the  party  in  whose  favor  the  A.  is  made 
for  most  purposes  denves  his  Utle.  The  Courts  of  Equity 
give  relief  against  a  defective  A.,  or  defective  execution  of 
a  power,  where  there  is  what  is  called  a  '  meritorious  con- 
siileration'  in  the  person  appl^ng  for  such  relief.  As  to 
what  amounts  to  such  meritorious  consideration.  Lord  St. 
Leonards,  in  his  work  on  Powers,  lays  down  that  Equity 
wiU  relieve  the  following  parties:  1.  A  purchaser,  including 
in  such  term  a  mortgagee  and  lessee;  2.  A  creditor*  8.  A 
wife;  4  A  legitimate  child;  and  5.  A  charity.  • 

In  American  chancery  practice,  A.  is  the  exercise  of  a 
Tight  to  designate  theperson  or  persons  who  are  to  take  the 
use  of  real  estate.  The  A.  must  be  made  by  the  person 
authorized,  who  may  be  any  person  competent  to  dispose 
of  an  estate  of  his  own  in  the  same  manner,  incluoing 
a  married  woman,  even  though  her  husband  may  be  the 
mpomtee;  or  an  infant,  if  the  power  be  shnply  collateral. 
If  the  appointment  be  made  '  to  and  amongst '  several,  a  fair 
allotment  must  be  made  to  each.  The  effect  of  an  A.  is 
to  vest  the  estate  in  the  appointee,  as  if  conveyed  by  the 
original  donor. 

APPOMATTOX  COURT-HOUSE,  dp^d^dt'toks:  small 
Tillage,  county-seat  of  Appomattox  co.,  Va. ;  80  m.  w. 
of  Bichmondy  about  20  m.  e.  of  Lynchburg;  3  m.  n. 
of  Appomattox  Station,  on  the  Norfolk  and  Western 
T.r.  It  is  famous  for  the  surrender,  by  Gen.  Bobert 
E.  Lee,  of  the  Confederate  army  of  n.  Va.  to  Gen.  Grant, 
1865.  April  9,  practically  ending  the  civil  war. 


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APP0RTI0N-APP08ITB. 

APPORTION,  T.  dp-pur' shiin  [F.  apporthnner;  mid.  I4 
appor'tlondrl^  to  distribute  equitably— from  L.  ad,  to; 
portidnem,  a  part]:  to  distribute  in  just  portions;  to  give  a 
share  to;  to  divide;  to  assign.  Appor'tionino,  imp.  Ap- 
por'tioned,  pp.  ihund,  Appor'tionment,  n.  a  dividing 
into  shares  or  portions.  Appor'tioner,  n.  one  who. — Stw. 
of  •  apportion ':  to  allot;  appoint;  destine;  divide;  assign; 
Bhare;  distribute. 

APPORTIONMENT,  in  Law:  In  the  United  States,  the 
allowance  made  in  the  case  of  an  incomplete  performance 
of  a  contract;  the  allotment  of  their  shares  in  a  rent  to  the 
different  parties  indebted;  and  the  determining,  in  the  case 
of  encumbered  estates,  of  the  amount  which  each  of  the 
several  parties  interested  in  the  estate  shall  pny  toward 
the  removal,  or  in  support  of  the  burden  of  the  incum- 
brance. 

APPORTIONMENT  BILLS,  Congrebsional:  acts  of 
congress  passed  in  accordance  with  the  constitution,  de- 
fining the  number  of  representatives  in  congress  allotted 
to  each  state — the  number  being  assigned  after  each  decen- 
nial census,  in  proportion  to  the  total  population.  It  is 
provided  that  the  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  every 
ten  years,  that  the  number  of  representatives  shall  not  ex- 
ceed one  for  every  30,000,  but  that  each  state  shall  have 
at  least  one  representative.  From  the  organization  of  the 
govt,  till  1830,  the  number  of  representatives  had  multi- 
plied nearly  three  times;  being  65  in  1789,  and  240  in  1830. 
Till  this  time  the  allotment  had  increased  from  1  member 
for  every  30,000  pop.  to  1  for  every  47,700.  In  1840  the 
relation  was  changed  to  1  for  every  70,680,  each  census 
increasing  the  ratio  of  divergence,  until  in  1890  it 
reached  1  for  every  173,901  of  pop.,  there  being  then  356 
members.  The  rule  generally  followed  has  been  based 
on  an  intention  to  have  no  mbre  than  300  members, 
and  the  difference  between  this  number  and  the 
actual  figures  has  been  caused  mainly  by  accession  of 
new  stales.  The  latest  act  of  apportionment  was  ap- 
proved 1891,  Feb.  7,  increasing  the  number  of  membCTS 
by  31,  the  same  to  take  effect  1893,  Mar.  4.  By  the  re- 
districting  in  the  several  states  the  increase  of  representa- 
tion was  as  follows:  Ala.  1,  Ark.  1,  Cal.  1,  Ck)lo.  1,  Gra.  1, 
111.  2,  Kan.  1,  Mass.  1,  Mich.  1,  Minn.  2,  Mo.  1,  Neb.  3, 
N.  J.  1,  Or.  1,  Penn.  2,  Tex.  2,  Wis.  1.  In  addition,  the 
increase  by  admission  of  new  states  since  the  nrevious 
apportionment  of  1893,  was:  Ida.  1,  Mont.  1,  N.  D.  1, 
S.  D.  2,  Wash.  2,  Wyo.  1.  The  principle  applied  in  the 
case  of  the  U.  8.  house  of  representatives  is  adopted  in  the 
several  states  in  their  apportionment  for  representation  in 
their  legislative  bodies,  and  such  apportionment  usually 
follows  the  decennial  period.  See  Congress,  United 
States. 

APPOSITE,  a.  dp'pd-zH  [L.  appMiui,  put  or  placed  at 
or  near— from  ad,  to;  potntus,  placed  or  put]:  well  put  in 
respect  of  time,  place,  or  circumstances ;  suitable ;  well 
adapted  to:  in  M.,  having  similar  parts;  similarly  placed; 


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APPOSITION— APPREHEND. 

pkced,  as  side  by  side.  Ap'positely,  ad.  -zU-ll.  Ap'- 
posTTENESs,  n.  fitDcss;  Suitableness.  Apposition,  n.  dp'^ 
potM'un^  the  act  of  placing  beside;  in  gram.,  two  nouns 
following  each  other  in  the  same  case,  the  latter  explanatory 
of  the  former,  or  modifying  it  in  some  way. 
*  APP08I TION:  a  term  hi  Grammar  signifying  the 
annexing  of  one  substantive  to  another,  in  the  same  case  or 
relation,  in  order  to  explainer  limit  the  first,  bs  My  brother, 
the  phyneian;  Thomas  the  Rhymer,  Whole  sentences  or 
clauses  admit  of  A. ;  thus,  *  Napoleon  sought  the  way  to 
India  through  Russia,  a  stroke  of  genius.'  Sometimes  a 
connecting  word  is  used  where  logical  propriety  would  re- 
quire A. ;  as,  the  city  of  London,  for  the  city  London. 

APPRAISE,  V.  dp-prdz'  [P.  apprecier,  to  value;  mid.  L. 
appretidri,  to  put  a  price  upon— from  L  ad,  to;  prH\um, 
a  price]:  to  put  a  price  upon;  to  fix  the  value  of  an  article 
for  the  purpose  of  sale.  Appraising,  imp.  Appraised', 
pp.  -prSzd,  Appraiser,  n.  one  whose  business  it  is  to  put 
values  on  articles  that  are  to  be  sold.  Appraisement,  n. 
dp-prdsfnUnt,  a  valuation  put  on  an  article.— Stn.  of  'ap- 
praise': to  appreciate;  estimate;  esteem;  value. 

APPRAISEMENT:  the  valuation  of  goods  or  real  estate 
by  persons  appointed  by  competent  authority  and  called 
appraisers.  Such  valuation  is  ordered  by  law  or  by  the 
courts,  in  the  case  of  propertv  of  persons  dying  intestate,  of 
insolvents  and  of  others.  Wnere  private  property  is  taken 
for  public  use,  an  A.  is  made  of  it,  that  the  owner  may  be 
paid  its  Just  value.  A.  is  also  often  a  matter  of  agreement 
in  the  private  settlement  of  disputed  questions,  in  purchase 
and  sale,  and  in  forming  co-partnerships,  or  in  making  con-: 
tracts  for  service,  where  property,  real  or  personal,  is  a 
factor.  In  collecting  the  customs  at  ports  of  entry,  the 
appraiser  and  his  deputies  are  oflScials  charged  with  ex- 
amining goods  imported  and  dutiable,  with  a  view  to  pre- 
vent under-valuation  and  to  prescribe  the  proper  classifica- 
tion for  charging  the  legal  duty. 

APPRECIATE,  V.  dp-pre'sht-di  [mid.  L.  appre'tUH,  to 
Value  at  a  price— from  L.  ad,  pre'tlum,  a  price:  F.  apprecier: 
see  Appraise,  from  same  root- words]:  to  set  a  proper  value 
on;  to  esteem  rightly;  in  Amer.,  to  rise  in  value;  to  raise 
the  value  of.  Appreciating,  imp.  Appreciated,  pp. 
Appreciable,  a.  d]h^e'M-d-bl,  that  may  be  properlv 
valued;  capable  of  bemg  estimated.  Appreciably,  aa. 
-Wl.  Appreciation,  n.  dp-presM-d'shun,  the  setting  a 
value  on;  a  just  estimate  of.— Syn.  of  'appreciate*:  to  ap- 
praise; estimate;  esteem;  value. 

APPREHEND,  v.  dp-pre-hSnd'  [F.  apprehendcr— from 
L.  appr^hem^er^,  to  seize  or  take  hold  oi— from  L.  ad,  to; 
prehendo,  I  seize  or  take]:  to  take  hold  of;  to  seize;  to  un- 
derstand; to  think  on  with  fear.  Ap'prehen'ding,  imp. 
Ap'prehen'ded,  pp.  Ap'prehen'der,  n.  one  who.  Ap'- 
prehen'sible,  a.  -^U  [L.  apprehensus,  seized  or  taken 
hold  of]:  that  may  be  apprehended.  Ap'prehen'sion,  n. 
'hen' shun,  the  act  of  taking  or  seizing;  the  being  able  to 
understand  ;   suspicion ;   fear.     Ap'prehen'sivb,  a.  ^v. 


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APPRENTICE— APPROACH. 

f2arful;  in  expectation  of  evil.  Ap'prehen'bivklt,  ad. 
-s'lvli.  Ap  PREHEN'srvENEss,  n.  tlic  quality  or  state  of 
being  apprehensive. — Syn.  of  'apprehend':  to  conceive; 
suppose;  imagine;  presume;  assume;  fear;  dread;  catch; 
arrest;  detain;  ctipture;  understand;  believe.   See  Arrest. 

APPRENTICE,  n.  dp-pren'tis , [OF.  appretUis;  F.  op- 
prentif  a  beginner — from  apprendre,  to  learn:  mid.  L. 
apprenticlus,  an  apprentice— from  L.  ad,  to;  prehendo,  I 
take]:  one  taken  under  a  bond  or  indenture  as  a  beginner  or 
learner;  a  young  person  learning  a  trade  or  professioD: 
V.  to  put  under  a  master  to  learn  a  trade  or  professioQ. 
Apprenticing,  imp.  Appren'ticed,  pp.  -tUt,  Appren'- 
TICE8HIP,  n.  the  service  or  condition  of  an  apprentice. 

APPRENTICE:  one  taken  under  bond  or  indenture  as  a 
beginner  or  learner.  Apprenticeship  exists  at  common  law, 
but,  in  the  United  States,  has  been  generally  r^ulated  bv 
statute,  on  account  of  its  liability  to  abuse.  It  is  not  bind- 
ing upon  an  infant  unless  the  contract  be  entered  into  by 
him  with  the  consent  of  the  parent  or  guardian,  or  by  the 
parent  or  guardian  with  his  consent,  such  consent  to  be 
made  a  part  of  the  contract.  In  a  comnion  indenture  of 
apprenticeship  the  father  is  bound  for  the  performance  of 
the  covenants  by  the  son.  This  contract  must  be  entered 
into,  generally,  by  indenture  or  deed,  and  is  to  continue,  if 
the  A.  be  a  male,  only  during  minority,  and  if  a  female,  only 
till  she  arrives  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  The  law  holds  that 
the  agreement  entered  into  is  binding  upon  the  master 
equally  with  the  A. ;  the  former  stands  in  loco  parentis  to 
the  latter;  that  he  is  bound  to  treat  the  A.  with  kindness, 
and  not  ill-use  him  in  any  way,  must  watch  over  his-general 
conduct  and  afford  him  a  good  example  and  good  advice, 
and  must  so  instruct  him  in  his  trade  or  vocation  that,  if  he 
be  diligent  and  capable,  he  can  thoroughly  learn  itr— although 
the  master  is  not  to  be  held  accountable  for  failure  because 
of  incompetency.  He  cannot  dismiss  his  A.  without  the 
consent  of  all  the  parties  to  the  indenture,  even  though  the 
A.  should  steal  his  master's  property,  or  by  reason  of  in- 
curable illness  become  incapable  of  service,  except  by  the 
sanction  of  some  competent  tribunal.  Upon  the  death  of 
the  master,  the  apprenticeship  is  dissolved. 

APPRESSED,  a.  dp-prest'  [L.  a/>,  for  ad,  at  or  to; 
pressus,  pressed,  kept  under]:  in  bot.,  denoting  leaves  which 
are  applied  to  each  other,  face  to  face,  without  being  folded 
or  rolled  together. 

APPRISE,  V.  dp'prlz'  [P.  appris,  learned,  instructed — 
from  L.  ad,  to;  prehendo,  I  seize  or  takej:  to  instruct  in  the 
knowledge  of  a  thing;  to  inform;  to  give  notice  of.  Ap- 
PRi  8ING,  imp.  Apprised',  pp.  -prlzd'.  For  Apprising, 
an  obsolete  term  in  Scotch  law,  see  Adjudication. 

APPROACH,  V.  dp-]}rdch'  [F.  approcher,  to  draw  near — 
from  mid.  L.  apprirjrnur^,  to  approach — from  L.  ad,  to; 
prope,  near;  jtropriiis,  nearer]:  to  draw  near;  to  come  up 
to:  N.  a  coming  or  drawing  near;  a  path  or  avenue. 
Appro  ACHES,  n.  plu.  -ez,  siege-works;  means  of  access. 
Approach'ing,  imp.    Approached,  pp.  dp-prdcM.    Ar- 


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APPROACHES— APPROPRIATE. 

moACH'ER,  n.  one  who.  Afpboacu'ablb,  a.  -d-bl,  that 
may  be  reached;  accessible.  ApPBOACH'iiENT,  n.  the  act 
of  coming  near.  Approach' less,  a.  that  cannot  be  come 
near  to  or  approached.— Stn.  of  'approach':  access;  ad* 
mittance;  approximation. 

APPROACHES:  in  military  langoa^,  the  sunken 
trenches  or  excavated  roads  constructed  by  oesiegers.  The 
si^^  camp  being  usually  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
fortress  or  city  attackea,  the  soldiers  would  be  exposed  to 
imminent  danger  while  hastening  across  a  belt  of  open 
country  to  enter  any  breaches  made  by  the  large  siege  guns, 
TTcre  it  not  that  concealed  roads  are  nrst  constructed  along 
^hich  they  may  i^proach.  In  some  cases  the  A.  are  not 
actual  trenches,  but  merely  paths  shielded  by  a  piled-up 
wall  of  sandbags,  fascines,  gabions,  woolpacks,  or  cotton- 
bales.  One  of  me  most  tremendous  combinations  of  A.  in 
the  history  of  war  was  at  the  siege  of  Scbastopol  in  1854-55; 
H  comprised  the  digging  of  no  less  than  70  m.  of  sunken 
trench,  and  the  employment  of  60,000  fascines,  80,000 
gabions,  and  1,000,000  sand-bags,  to  protect  the  men  work* 
mg  in  the  trenches  and  at  batteries.    See  Sap:  Smas. 

APPROBATE  AND  REPROBATE:  technical  expres- 
sioii  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  which  simply  means,  that  no 
one  can  be  permitted  to  A.  and  R.— that  is,  to  accept  and 
leiect  the  same  deed  or  instrument.  It  is  applicable  to 
wills,  and  other  legal  writings,  deeds,  or  instruments;  and 
is  analagous  to  election  (q.v.). 
APPROBATION,  n.  etc.:  see  under  Approve. 
APPROPRIATE,  V.  dpprd'prl-dt  [L.  appro'pridtui, 
made  proper  or  peculiar  to  one's  self —from  ad,  to;  proprlua, 
private,  one's  own:  P.  approprier,  to  appropriate]:  to  ap- 
ply to  one's  own  use;  to  set  apart  for  a  particular  use;  to 
claim  or  use  as  by  right:  Adj.  limited  or  set  apart  to  a  par- 
ticular person  or  use;  fit;  suitable.  Appro'priatino,  imp. 
Appropriated,  pp.  Appropriateness,  n.  peculiar  fit- 
ness; suitableness.  Appropriately,  ad.  -li.  Appro'pria'- 
Tioi^,  n.  shun,  the  act  of  setting  apart  for  a  particular  use 
or  purp(»e;  the  setting  aside  of  a  benefice  for  the  use  of 
aome  spiritual  foundation,  as  for  a  college  or  chapter. 
Appro'pria'tor,  n.  one  who  holds  an  appropriated  bene- 
fice. Appropriable,  a.  -dbl,  that  may  be  appropriated 
or  set  apart  Appro'priative,  a.  pridtiv,  that  appro- 
priates.—8  yn.  of  'appropriate,  v.':  to  usurp;  arro^te; 
assume;  ascribe;  claim;  exercise;  annex;— of  '  appropriate, 
a.':  peculiar;  particular;  suitable. 


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APPROVE— APPROXIMATION. 

APPROVE,  V.  approv'  [F,  approuver,  to  approve— 
from  L.  apprtAdri,  to  favor— from  L.  ad,  to;  probo,  I  prove 
or  test;  probtts,  good]:  to  be  pleased  with  as  good;  to 
pronouDce  sufficient;  to  like;  to  commend.  Appro' vtno, 
imp.  Approved',  pp.  -prOcd',  Approvingly,  ad.  -li. 
Approver,  n.  one  who  approves;  a  criminal  who  gives 
evidence  against  his  accomplices;  one  who  makes  trial. 
Approve'ment,  n.  approbation;  evidence  of  an  approver. 
Approbation,  n.  ap'priMi'shun,  the  act  of  approving; 
conmiendation;  expression  of  approval  or  satisfaction  with. 
Approbative,  a.  dp'prO-bd'tlv,  or  Approbatory,  a.  dp'- 
pro-bd'ter-l,  containing  or  implying  approbation.  Ap'pro- 
ba'tively,  ad.  -Ih  Ap'proba  tivenkbs,  n.  in  phren.,  the 
love  of  approbation.  Approv  able,  a.  dp-provd-bl,  that 
merits  approval.  Appro  vableness,  n.  Approval,  n. 
dp-pro' vdl^  approbation. — Syn.  of  'approbation':  approval; 
concurrence;  consent;  liking;  8anction;proof;— of 'approve': 
to  praise;  applaud;  commend;  extol;  confirm. 

APPRO VEU,  or  Prover,  in  the  Law  of  England:  an 
accomplice  in  the  periK'tration  of  a  crime  who  has  been 
admitted  to  give  evidence  against  the  prisoner. 

In  the  Uui ted  States  the  term  A.  is  not  known  in  law: 
the  legal  designation  is  Accomplice;  and  accomplices 
are  admitted  to  give  evidence  for  the  prosecution, 
or,  as  it  is  said,  to  become  stcUe^s  evidence,  upon  an  implied 
promise  of  pardon,  on  condition  of  their  making  a  full  and 
fair  confession  of  the  whole  truth.  The  testimony  of  an 
accomplice  Is  in  all  cases,  however,  regarded  with  just  sus- 
picion; and,  imless  his  statement  is  corroborated  in  some  ma- 
terial part  by  unimpeachable  evidence,  the  jury  are  usually 
advised  by  the  judge  to  acquit  the  prisoner;  and  if  the  ac- 
complice, after  havmg  confessed  the  crime,  and  being  ad- 
mitted as  state's  evidence,  does  not  satisfy  the  condition  on 
which  he  was  so  received  by  failing  to  give  full  information 
without  equivocation,  reservation,  or  fraud,  he  then  forfeits 
all  claim  to  protection,  and  may  be  tried,  convicted,  and 
punished  on  his  own  confession. 

APPROXIMATE,  v.  dp-prdlca'l-mdt  [L.  approx'lmdtu^ 
brought  near— from  ad,  to;  prox'lmtis,  next,  nearest]:  to 
come  near ;  to  approach ;  to  cause  to  approach.  Adj. 
nearest  to  or  next;  nearly  approaching  accuracy.  Approx'- 
ima'ting,  imp.  Approx'ima'ted,  pp.  Approx'ima'tion, 
n.  shun,  a  near  approach;  an  advancing  near;  a  continual 
approach  nearer  and  nearer  to  a  result.  Approx'imately, 
ad.  41,  with  a  near  approximation.  Approx'ima'tive,  a. 
'tid,  that  approaches  closely. 

APPROXMA'TION:  term  in  mathematical  science  des- 
ignating such  calculations  as  are  not  rigorously  correct,  but 
approach  the  truth  near  enough  for  a  given  purpose.  Thus 
in  logarithmic  and  trigonometrical  tables  neariv  all  the 
numl^rs  are  mere  approximations  to  the  truth.  The  c^cu- 
lations  of  astronomy  generally  are  of  this  nature.  Even  in 
pure  mathematics  there  are  parts  in  which  approaches  to  the 
truth,  by  means  of  interminable  series,  are  all  we  are  able 


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APPUI— APPULEIUS. 

to  gabu    The  solutioD  of  equatioiis  beyond  the  fourth  de< 
gree  can  be  got  only  by  A. 

APPUI,  dp-pwe  [Ft. J :  a  stay  or  support  7m  militair  tac- 
tics, the  paints  d'apput  are  such  parts  of  the  field  of  battle 
as  are  suited  to  give  support  or  shelter.  As  the  wings  of  an 
army  (like  the  extreme  sides  of  a  chess-board)  are  the  weak* 
est  points  of  resistance  to  attack,  they  especially  require  sup 
port  or  protection,  and  are  placed,  when  it  is  possible,  m 
localities  which  serve  to  obstruct  the  attacking  forces. 
Lakes,  morasses,  woods,  streams,  and  "steep  declivities  may 
thu3  serve  as  points  cPappui, 

APPULEIUS,  or,  less  properly,  Afuleius,  dp-purUyOs: 
satirical  writer  of  the  2d  c. ;  b.  MiEidaura,  in  Africa,  where 
his  father  was  a  magistrate,  and  a  man  of  large  fortune. 
A  studied  first  at  Cartha£;e,  which  at  that  time  had 
high  reputation  as  a  school  of  literature.  Afterwards  he 
went  to  Athens,  where  he  entered  keenly  upon  the  study  of 
philosophy,  displaying  a  special  predilection  for  the  Pla- 
tonic sdiool.  The  fortune  bequeaUied  to  him  at  his  father^s 
death  enabled  A.  to  trs.vel  extensively.  He  visited  Italy, 
Asia,  etc.,  and  was  ioitiated  into  numerous  religious  myste- 
ries. The  knowledge  which  he  thus  acquired  of  the  priestly 
fraternities,  he  made  abundant  use  of  afterwards  in  his 
QnKden  Ass,  His  first  appearance  in  literature  arose  from  a 
lawsuit  Having  manied  a  middle-aged  ladv,  named 
Pudentilla,  veir  wealthy,  but  not  beautiful,  he  drew  upon 
himself  the  malice  of  her  relations,  who  desired  to  inherit 
her  riches,  and  who  accused  the  youth  of  having  employed 
magic  to  gain  her  affections.  His  defense  (Apologia,  still 
eitant),  spoken  before  Claudius  Maximus,  proconsul  of 
Africa,  was  an  elo(}uent  and  successful  vindication  of  his 
conduct.  After  this  he  seems  to  have  given  zealous  atten- 
tion to  literature  and  public  oratory,  in  both  of  which  he 
attained  great  eminence.  He  was  so  extremely  popular 
that  the  senate  of  Carthage,  and  other  states,  erected  statues 
in  his  honor. 

The  Golden  Ass,  the  work  by  which  his  reputation  has 
survived,  is  a  romance  or  novel,  whose  prindp^l  personage 
is  one  Lucian,  supposed  by  some,  though  on  insufficient 
evidence,  to  be  the  author  himself.  It  &  generally  under- 
stood to  have  been  intended  as  a  satire  on  the  vices  of  the 
age,  especially  those  of  the  priesthood,  and  of  quacks  or 
jugglers  affecting  supernatural  powers,  though  Bitdiop  War- 
Duiton,  and  other  cntics,  fancy  they  can  detect  in  it  an  in- 
direct apology  for  paganism.  Its  merits  are  both  great 
and  conspicuous,  as  are  also  its  faults.  Wit,  humor,  satire, 
fancy,  learning  and  even  poetic  eloquence  abound,  but  the 
style  is  disfigured  by  excessive  archaisms,  and  there  is  a  fre- 
quent affectation  in  the  metaphors,  etc.,  which  proves  A.  to 
nave  been  somewhat  artificial  in  his  rhetoric.  The  most 
exquisite  thing  in  the  whole  work  is  the  episode  of  Cupid 
and  Psyche  (imitated  by  La  Fontaine).  It  is  supposed  to  be 
an  aUegory  of  the  progress  of  the  soul  to  perfection.  Bcr 
Bides  the  Apologia  and  Oolden  Ass,  wo  have  from  the  pen 
of  A  an  Anthology  in  four  books.a  WQrk  on  the  Deemon  o^ 
e-Ji 


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APPUL8E— APRAXIN. 

Socrates,  one  on  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  one  on  77ie  Univerm^ 
etc.  A  considerable  number  of  his  works  are  lost  The 
most  recent  and  careful  edition  of  the  whole  works  of  A.  is 
Uiat  pub.Leipsic,  1842,  by  G.  F.  Hildebrand.  The  Golden  As$ 
was  translatetl  into  English  by  T.  Taylor  (1822),  and  again 
by  Sir  Q.  Head  (1851).  An  English  version  of  the  works 
of  A.  was  pub.  London,  1853. 

APPULSE,  n.  dp-puls'  [L.  appul'aus,  driven  to  or  to- 
wards—from dd,  to,  at;  pumi4,  pushed,  struck]:  the  act  of 
striking  again.st;  in  dstron.,  near  approach  of  two  heavenly 
Ixxlies  to  one  another;  also  Appul'sion,  n.  shun.  Ap- 
pul'bivk,  a.  -itiv,  striking  against  Appul'sivkly,  ad. 
-siv-ll. 

APPURTENANCE,  n.  dp^per'U-niins  [OF.  apurte- 
naunee;  F.  appartenance,  an  appendage:  mid.  L.  apparte- 
n^n'tld,  anything  protected  as  one's  own— from  L.  ad,  to; 
pertined,  I  pertam  or  belong] :  that  which  belongs  to  some- 
thing else;  an  adjunct;  an  appendage.  Appur  tenant,  a. 
joined  to,  or  belonging  to.    See  Appertain. 

APRAXIN,  d-prdk'sin,  Feodoe  Matvayevich,  Count 
of:  1671-1728,  Nov.  10:  distinguished  Russian  admiraL 
When  hardly  twelve  years  of  age,  he  entered  the  service  of 
Peter  the  Great,  who  formed  a  great  attachment  for  him, 
which  lasted  during  the  whole  life  of  the  monarch.  In 
1699,  he  took  part  m  the  first  maneuvers  of  the  Russian 
fleet  at  Taganrog  on  the  Sqbl  of  Azof.  After  1700  he  be- 
came the  most  powerful  person  at  the  court  of  the  czar,  who 
made  him  chief -admiral  of  the  Russian  navy,  of  which,  in 
fact,  A.  may  be  considered  the  creator.  While  Peter  waa 
fighting  the  Swedes  in  the  n.,  A.  was  building  war- vessels, 
fortresses,  and  wharfs  in  the  s.  In  1707,  he  was  appointed 
pres.  of  the  admiralty;  in  1708,  be  defeated  the  S>vedisii 
general,  LUbecker,  in  Ingermannland,  and  saveil  the  newly- 
built  city  of  Petersburg  from  destruction;  in  1710,  he  cap- 
tured the  important  town  of  Viborg,  in  Finland;  and  in  1711, 
commanded  in  the  Black  Sea  during  the  Turkish  war.  The 
following  year  he  returned  to  the  n.;  and  in  1718,  with  a 
fleet  <jf  200  vessels,  he  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Finland, 
took  Helsingfors  and  Borgo,  and  defeated  the  Swedish  fleet. 
The  result  of  his  great  successes  was,  that  at  the  peace  of 
Nystadt,  1721,  Russia  obtained  some  most  valuable  advan- 
tages, being  confirmed  in  her  possession  of  Finland,  just 
conquered,  and  of  Esthonia.  In  spite  of  his  brilliant  reputa- 
tion, however,  he  twice  suffered  an  apparent  eclipse  of  im- 
perial favor.  In  1714-15,  he  was  charged  with  embezzle- 
ment, tried,  and  condemned  to  pay  a  fine;  and  a  few  years 
later  was  denounced  by  Peter  himself  as  '  an  oppressor  of 
the  people,*  and  again  condemned  to  pay  a  fine;  but  his  ser- 
vices were  too  useful  to  be  dispensed  with,  and  in  both  in- 
stances the  czar  neutralized  the  effect  of  the  condemnation, 
by  conferring  upon  him  additional  riches  and  dignities.  lo 
1722,  he  accompanied  Peter  in  his  Persian  war,  and  was 
present  at  the  siege  of  Derbend.  His  last  naval  expedition 
was  in  1726,  when  he  repaired  with  the  Russian  fleet  to 
Jlevel,  to  defend  that  place  against  an  expected  attack  by 


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APRICOT. 

^e  Englisli.  He  d5ed  at  Moscow,  in  the  67fh  year  of 
Ills  age. 

APRICOT,  n.  d'pri4ai  [8p.  olbaricoque—tTom  Ar. 
albirkouk:  Pera.  ha/rkuk,  a  peadi,  of  which  Ij,pr<Bcoc'id, 
Gr.  praikokid,  seems  to  be  a  mere  adaptation:  F.  abrico(\\ 
old  spelling  Apbicock:  (Prunus  Armeniaca):  a  species  of 
the  same  genus  with  the  Plum  (q.v.):  native  of  Armenia, 
and  of  the  countries  eastward  to  China  and  Japan;  a  middle- 
sized  tree  of  15-20.  or  even  80  ft.  high,  with  ovate, 
acuminate,  and  cordate,  smooth,  doubly-toothed  leaves  on 
loDg-stalks;  solitary,  sessile,  white  flowers  which  appear 
before  the  leaves,  and  fruit  resembling  the  peach,  roundish, 
downy,  yellow,  and  ruddy  on  the  side  next  the  sun,  with 
yellow  flesh.  The  A.  was  brought  into  Europe  in  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  since  the  days  of  the  Romans 
has  been  diffused  over  all  its  western  coim tries.  It  has  been 
cultivated  in  England  since  the  middle  of  the  lOtb  c.  The 
A.  Is  nearly  as  hardy  as  the  ordinary  varieties  of  the  peach, 
but  in  order  to  prevent  a  too  early  starting  of  the  buds  in 
mnng,  the  tree  should  have  a  n.  father  than  a  s.  exposure. 
The  soil  should  be  deep  and  rather  dry;  if  overlying  an 
impervious  subsoil  it  should  be  underdrained.  Varieties  are 
propagated  usually  by  budding  (q.v. ),  though  in  the  nursery, 
grafting  (q.v.)  is  sometimes  done.  In  warm  climates  A.  and 
peach  stocks  are  often  used,  but  plum  stocks  are  preferred 
for  cold  regions.  The  A.  ripens  several  weeks  earlier 
than  the  peach.  It  is  particularly  subject  to  attacks 
of  the  curculio  (q.v.).  There  are  about  20  good  varieties. 
Apricots  split  up,  having  the  stone  taken  out,  and  dried, 
are  brought  from  Italy  as  an  article  of  commerce,  in 
particular  from  Trieste,  Genoa,  and  Leghorn:  in  the  s.  of 
France,  also,  they  are  an  article  of  export  in  a  preserved 
and  candied  state.  Dried  apricots  from  BoIuiub  are 
sold  in  the  towns  of  Russia,  the  kernels  of  which  are 
perfectly  sweet  like  those  of  the  sweet  almond.  The 
kernels  are  sweet  in  some  kinds,  and  bitter  in  others — the 
bitterness  being  probably  more  natural,  and  the  sweetness,  as 
in  the  almond,  the  result  of  cultivation.  Generally  speak- 
ing, the  kernels  may  be  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
almonds.  From  the  bitter  kemds,  which  contain  prussic 
add,  the  Eau  de  noyaux  is  distilled  in  France.  The  charred 
stones  yield  a  black  pigment  similar  to  Indian  ink.  The 
wood  Of  the  tree  is  good  only  for  the  purposes  of  the 
turner. 

The  Brian<;on  A.  (Prunus  Brigantiaea),  very  much  re- 
sembles the  conmion  A.  The  fruit  is  glabrous.  It  is  found 
in  D^phine  and  Piedmont.  At  Brian9on,  an  oil,  called 
Muile  ds  marmotie,  is  expressed  from  the  seeds. 

The  SiBBRiAK  A.  (P.  Sibirica),  also  is  very  like  the 
common  A. ,  but  smaller  in  all  its  parts.  The  fruit  is  small. 
It  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  especially  of  the  s.  slopes  of  the 
mountains  of  Dahuria. 

The  A.  Plum  is  an  excellent  kind  of  plum,  much  culti- 
*^ted  in  some  parts  of  France,  and  which,  preserved  in 
raffar,  dried,  and  packed  in  shallow  boxes,  forms  a  consider- 
ttbTa  article  of  trade. 


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APRIL-APRON. 

APRIL,  n.  d'prU  [L.  apri/i»— from  aper'id,  I  open:  F. 
avril:  Sp.  abril:  It.  aprile]:  the  fourth  month  of  ^be  year. 
The  Romans  named  the  month  thus  because  it  was  the 
season  when  the  buds  began  to  open:  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  it 
was  called  Ooster  or  Easter-monUi;  ana  by  the  Dutch  Graas- 
month.  April-fool,  one  deceived  in  some  humorous  and 
ludicrous  way  on  the  1st  of  April,  as  being  sent  on  an  absurd 
errand.  The  custom  is  perhaps  a  travesty  of  the  sending 
hither  and  thither  of  the  Saviour  from  Amias  to  Caiaphas, 
and  from  Pilate  to  Herod,  because  during  the  middle  ages 
this  scene  in  Christ's  life  was  made  the  subject  of  a  miracle- 
play  (q.v.)  at  Easter,  which  occurs  in  the  month  of  A.  It 
is  possible,  however,  that  it  may  be  a  relic  of  some  old  heathen 
festival.  The  custom,  whatever  its  origin,  appears  to  be 
universal  thioughout  Europe.  In  France,  one  thus  imposed 
upon  is  called  un  poisson  d'Avrtl  (an  A.  fish).  In  England, 
such  a  person  is  called  an  A.  fool;  in  Scotland,  a  gowk-. 
Gk)wk  is  the  Scotch  for  the  cuckoo,  and  also  signifies  a  fool- 
ish person.  The  favorite  jest  in  Britain  is  to  send  some 
one  upon  an  errand  for  something  grossly  nonsensical— as 
for  pigeon's  milk,  or  the  history  of  Adam's  Grandfather; 
or  to  make  appointments  which  arc  not  to  be  kept;  or  to 
call  to  a  passer-by  that  his  latchet  is  unloosed,  or  that  there 
is  a  spot  of  mud  upon  his  face.  It  is  curious  that  the 
Hindus  practice  precisely  similar  tricks  on  the  81st  of 
March,  when  they  hold  what  is  called  the  Hull  Festival. 

A  PRIORI,  a.  aprl-dr'l  [L.  a,  from;  prior,  former]:  at 
first  sight;  prior  to  investigation;  appUed  to  reasoning 
which  rests  on  general  notions  or  ideas,  and  is  independent 
of  experience;  the  correlative  of  A  postbriobi,  the  one 
implvmg  the  cattle,  the  other  the  effect.  The  argument 
a  prtori  is  a  mode  of  reasoning  by  which  we  proceed  from 
the  antecedent  cause  to  the  consequent  effect,  or  from  antici- 
pation rather  than  from  experience:  mathematical  proofs 
are  examples  of  a  priori  reasoning.  The  argument  a  pos- 
teriori is  the  opposite,  and  reasons  from  the  effect  to  the 
cause,  from  the  individual  case  to  the  law,  or  generally  from 
experience  and  not  from  anticipation.  A  predilection  for 
one  or  the  other  of  these  forms  of  reasoning  forms  one  of 
the  most  important  distinctions  among  schools  of  philoso- 
phy. Plato  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  A-P.  school, 
Locke  and  Bacon  of  the  other.  A-P.  philosophy  claims  for 
its  conclusions  the  character  of  necessary  truths,  and  denies 
that  there  can  be  a  posteriori  proof  of  anything,  that  kind  of 
reasoning  fumishiug  only  a  confirmation  or  verification. 
The  opposite  school  maintain  that  the  general  notions  or 
principles  on  which  A-P.  reasoning  rests  are  themselves  the 
results  of  experience,  and  that,  therefore,  all  truth  rests 
really  on  a  posteriori  grounds. 

APRON,  n.  a'pum,  or  d'prdn  [OF.  Tuip^rtm,  a  large  cloth: 
F.  nappe,  table-cloth— from  L.  mappa,  a  table-napkin]:  a 
made-up  piece  of  cloth  or  leather  worn  m  front;  a  covering, 
as  of  lead  or  zinc.  A.  of  a  cannon,  a  piece  of  sheet-lead  which 
covers  the  touch-hole,  tied  by  two  pieces  of  white  rope.  A. 
hi  ship-building,  a  piece  of  curved  timber  fixed  behmd  the 


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APROPOS— APSE. 

low«r  pert  of  the  stem»  and  lust  above  the  foremost  end  of  the 
keel;  its  chief  use  is  to  fortify  the  stem,  and  connect  it  more 
firmly  with  the  keel.  The  name  A.  is  riven  also  to  the 
plank-floorinff  raised  at  the  entrance  of  a  dock,  a  little 
higher  than  the  bottom,  to  form  an  abutment  against  which 
the  gates  may  shut  Apboned,  a.  d'prund,  wearing  an 
apron.  A'pboh-man»  n.  a  man  who  wears  an  apron;  a 
workman. 

APROPOS,  ad,  &p'rd-pd'  [P.  apropos],  to  the  purpose; 
seasonably. 

APSE,  n.  dps,  or  Apsis  (q.v.)  &p'»is;  Apsides,  n.  plu. 
dp'n-dizi  semicircular  recess  at  the  east  end  of  the  choir,  or 
cnance1,in  Romanesque  or  what  are  often  called  Anfflo-Sazon 
or  Anglo-Norman  churches;  a  dome-roofed  recess  in  a  build- 
ing; the  arched  roof  of  a  room.  The  curious  origin  of  this 
peculiar  termination  to  the  choir  of  a  church  has  been 
clearly  established  by  recent  €krman  writers.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  heathen  structure  from  which  the  early 
Christians  borrowed  the  form  of  their  churches  was  not  tlie 
temple,  but  the  basilica  or  public  hall  which  served  at  once 
for  a  marke^plaoe  and  a  court  of  justice.  The  basilica, 
for  the  most  part,  was  a  parallelogram,  at  one  of  the  shorter 
sides  of  which,  opposite  to  the  entrance,  there  was  a  raised 
pji^orm  destinea  for  the  accommodation  of  persons  engaged 
In  and  connected  with  the  distribution  of  justice.  This  por- 
tion of  the  building  was  the  prototype  of  the  rounded  choir, 
to  which  the  name  of  A.  was  given,  and  which  is  still  to  be 


Church  at  Sciiwarte,  Bheindorf . 

seen  fn  many  of  the  Rhenish  churches.    For  the  pretor's 
chair,  which  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  this  semicircular 


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APSIS. 

space,  the  altar  was  substituted;  and  the  steps  which  led  to 
the  seat  from  which  he  dispensed  justice  were  destined 
henceforth  to  lead  to  the  spot  where  the  Fountain  of  all  jus- 
tice should  be  worshipped.  Man^  A.'s  are  to  be  met  with 
in  English  churches,  an  enumeration  of  which  will  be  found 
in  Parker's  Glossary  of  Architecture,  On  the  continent  the 
structure  is  much  more  frequent,  and  continued  to  be  used 
to  a  much  later  period,  indeed  is  still  to  be  seen  in  almost 
every  village  along  the  Rhine.  The  lower  part  of  the  A.  is 
there  usually  pierced  by  two  or  three  roimd  arched  windows, 
often  of  irregular  size  and  height,  over  which  there  is  in- 
variablv  an  external  gallery  supported  by  pillars,  in  the 
form  of  which  the  rude  idea  of  a  Roman  pillar  is  at  once  ap- 
parent; and  the  whole  is  joined  to  the  end  of  the  nave,  which 
rises  considerably  above  it,  by  a  roof  in  the  form  of  a  segment 
of  a  cone.  In  larger  churches  there  is  a  complete  row  oi  win- 
dows of  the  same  rounded  form,  divided  by  pillars  similar 
to  those  by  which  the  gallery  is  supported,  and  under  them 
frequently  a  line  of  arches  of  corresponding  construction, 
while  one  or  two  small  and  irregular  holes  of  the  same 
form  give  a  scanty  light  to  the  crjrpt  beneath.  Many  of  the 
smaller  churches  have  no  aisles;  and  the  semicircular  A. 
forms  the  termination  of,  or  rather  contains,  the  chancel. 
The  more  complete  specimens  of  the  style,  however,  such 
as  the  minster  at  Bonn,  afford — with  the  exception  of  the 
transepts  and  the  towers,  which  are  later  additions — ^about 
the  most  perfect  examples  to  be  found  on  this  side  of  the 
Alps  of  the  fonn  of  the  Roman  basilica,  at  first  adapted  to 
Chnstian  uses.    Several  examples  of  the  A.  are  to  be  seen 


Church  of  Dalmeny. 
in  ecclesiastical  structures  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
feature  has  been  introduced  with  fine  effect  in  library 
buildings,  etc. 

APSIS,  n.  dp' sis,  or  Apse,  n.  &ps.  Apsides,  n.  plu.  ap^H- 
dez  [Qr.  hapsis,  a  junction]:  one  of  the  two  extreme  points 
in  the  orbit  of  a  planet — the  one  at  the  greatest,  the  other  at 
the  least  distance  from  the  sun.  The  term  A.  is  also  applied 
in  the  same  manner  to  the  two  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  satel- 
lite— one  nearest  to,  the  other  furthest  from,  its  primary; 
corresponding,  in  the  case  of  the  uioon,  lo  the  perigee  and 


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APT— APTEUYX. 

apogee.  A  right  line  connectiDg  these  extreme  points  fa 
culled  the  line  of  A.  In  all  the  planetary  orbits,  this  line 
has  no  fixed  position  in  space,  but  makes  a  forward  motion 
iu  the  plane  of  the  orbit,  except  in  the  case  of  the  planet 
Venus,  where  the  motion  is  retrograding.  This  fact  m  the 
orbit  of  the  earth  gives  rise  to  the  anomalistic  year  (q.v.). 
This  advancing  motion  of  the  line  of  A.  is  especially  remark- 
able in  the  orbit  of  the  moon,  where  it  amounts  to  40°  40' 
92"  2  annually,  an  entire  revolution  thus  taking  place  in 
rather  less  than  nine  years. 

APT,  a.  apt  [F.  apfe— from  L.  aptns]:  ready;  quick;  fit; 
suitable.  Aptly,  ad.  M.  Aptness,  n.  readiness  or 
quickness  in  leamins^;  fitness.  Aptitude,  n.  dp'ti-tud 
[mid.  L.  aptltudo,  fit  time,  fitness]:  a  disposition  for; 
readiness;  dodlily.— Syn.  of  *  apt ':  ready;  prompt;  clever; 
fit ;  meet ;  suitable  ;  quick  ;  liable  ;  disposed  ;  qualified  ; 
inclined. 

APTEROUS,  a.  dp'ter-us  [Gr.  a,  without;  ptirtm,  a 
wing]:  without  wings.  Apteba,  n.  dp'ter-d,  a  division  of 
insects  in  which  the  adult  is  destitute  of  wings,  as  in  the  lice. 
In  the  Linmean  system,  the  Aptera  form  an  order  of  insects; 
but  more  im^rtant  distinctive  characters  being  found  to 
belong  to  the  insects  included  in  it,  it  is  no  longer  retained 
as  an  order  or  principal  division  in  the  best  entomological 
aystems. 

APTERYX.  n.  dp't&r-Vcs:  a  genus  of  cursorial  birds  pe- 
culiar to  New  Zealand,  which  lorm  a  family  of  the  group 
to  which  the  ostrich-like  birds  belong,  as  also  the  extinct 
nioas  and  oppy^omis.  The  beak  is  long  and  slender ;  the  legs 
and  thighs  strong;  the  claws  of  the  three  anterior  toes 
are  uiKd  as  weapons  of  offense.  The  wings  are  merely 
rudimentary^  and  concealed  by  the  loose,  ahnost  hair-like 
plumage.  The  feathers  of  the  dorsal  plumage  are  lanceolate, 
and  composed  externally  of  long,  disunitc^l  filaments,  the 
downy  portion  towards  the  root  much  developed.  The 
wings  have  not  the  accessory  plumage  so  highly  developed 
in  some  of  the  struthious  birds.    The  skin  is  very  tough. 


Apteryx  Anstralis. 

Four  species  have  been  described ;  the  largest  {Apteryx  haastC) 
stands  about  8  ft.  high;  the  smallest  (A.  ManteUi)  is  about 
23  in.  from  tip  of  beak  to  toe.    The  other  two  species  are 


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APTITUDE-APURIMAC. 

A'  Australis  (of  which  perhaps  A.  ManUlli  is  onlv  a 
variety)  and  A.  Oweni.  Worms  are  the  A.'s  chief  food,  in 
search  of  which  it  deftly  insinuates  its  flexible  beak  into  the 
soft  earth.  The  A.  also  cats  insects,  grubs,  and  some  ber- 
ries. It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  its  nest  is  at  the  bsBse 
of  a  hollow  tree,  or  in  deep  holes  in  the  ground.  The  native 
name  is  kim-kitoi. 

APTITUDE,  APTLY,  APTNESS,  etc. :  see  under  Apt. 

APTOTE,  n.  ap'tot  [Gr.  a,  without;  ptdU>$,  that  can,  or 
is  wont  to  fall] :  an  indeclinable  noun. 

APULIA,  d-pulUa:  part  of  ancient  lapygUi  (so  named 
after  lapvz,  son  of  Dsedalus);  now  includes  the  s.e.  part  of 
Italy  as  far  as  the  promontory  of  Leuca,  and  also  the  ex- 
treme peninsula  of  Calabria.  Here,  in  ancient  times,  lived 
three  distinct  peoples — the  Messapians  or  Salentini,  the 
Peuceni,  and  the  Daimi  or  Apulians.  According  to  old 
Latin  traditions,  Daunus,  king  of  the  Apulians,  when  ban- 
ished from  Illyria,  settled  in  these  parts  of  Italy.  Later 
traditions  say  that  Diomcdes,  the  ^tolian,  with  several 
other  heroes  returning  from  the  Trojan  war,  came  to  Italy, 
and.  in  his  war  with  the  Messapians,  was  assisted  by  Dau- 
nus, but  was  afterwards  deprived  of  his  territory,  and  put  to 
death.  Roman  poetry  has  preserved  these  old  names;  but 
ill  history,  no  mention  is  made  of  any  king  of  A.,  though 
we  find  the  names  of  its  principal  cities — Arpi,  Luceria.  and 
Canusium.  The  second  Punic  war  was  for  some  time  car- 
ried on  in  A.  In  the  present  day,  A.  (now  styled  Puglia) 
is  merely  the  name  of  a  compartment,  which  has  no  political 
meaning,  and  which  includes  the  three  provinces  of  Capi- 
tanata  or  Foggia,  Bari,  and  Terra  di  Otranto  or  Lecce.  It 
is  but  a  shadow  of  its  former  self,  in  the  time  of  the  Greek 
colonies,  under  Roman  dominion,  or  even  under  the  Nor- 
mans, who  took  possession  of  it,  1048.  The  towns  are  de- 
populated, industry  has  disappeared,  and  commerce,  once 
flourishing,  has  passed  away.  Agriculture  is  in  a  very  low 
condition,  and  the  few  roads  are  infested  by  banditti 
See  Gregorovius*  ApuUsehe  LandsckafUn  (2d  ed.,  Leips. 
1880). 

APURA,  d-p6'rd:  navigable  river  of  Venezuela,  which 
rises  near  the  w.  boundary  among  the  e.  Cordillera,  and 
flows  nearly  1,000  m.  eastward,  past  the  towns  of  Nutrias 
and  San  Fernando,  till  it  falls  into  the  Orinoco,  in  lat.  7"  40' 
n.  and  long.  66*'  45'  w. 

APURIMAC,  d-p6^e-mdk':  river  of  Peru,  which,  after  a 
course  of  600  m.,  assumes  the  name,  first,  of  Tambo,  and 
then  of  Ucayali  (q.v.),  which  finally  joins  the  Tanganigua 
to  form  the  Amazon.  The  A.  proper  rises  to  the  n.w.  of 
the  great  table-land  of  Lake  Titicaca,  receiving  from  it, 
however,  no  portion  of  its  waters.  Among  the  tributaries 
of  the  Amazon,  it  is  one  of  the  most  southerly;  while 
amonor  them,  it  approaches  perhaps  the  nearest  to  the  Paci 
fie.  The  A.,  from  its  source  in  lat.  16"  s.,  drai:is  the  e.  face 
of  the  Andes  through  about  5%  till  it  changes  its  name,  as 
above,  in  lO*"  45'  s.,  meanwhile  receiving  several  consider- 
able affluents,  especially  the  Villcamayo,  from  the  opposite 


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PLATE    7. 


Apricot 
Apse 


Apricot  (iVuntw  anneniaca). 


,  Apron  ;  2,  Lower  Apron. 


Apse.— The  Church  of  the  Apostles,  Cologne.    CFrom  a  Photograph .) 


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Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


APUS— AQUA, 
quarter.  The  A.  and  its  feeders  partake  of  the  iiatore 
rather  of  mountain  torrents  tlian  cf  navigable  rivers;  and 
even  for  travelling  by  land,  their  rocky  and  nigged  banks 
are  always  difficult,  and  often  impracticable.  The  valleys 
vaiy  in  climate  and  productiveness  according  to  their  eleva* 
tion.  The  upper  ones  yield  wheat  and  barley,  and  most  of 
the  fruits  of  Europe;  while  the  lower,  or  at  least  the  lowest 
ones,  abound  in  sugar  and  cotton,  plantains  and  pine-apples. 
The  basin  of  the  A.,  as  a  whole,  is  said  to  be  the  finest  part 
of  Peru,  and  to  contain  the  largest  proportion  of  native 
poi^ulation — the  best  specimens  apparenUy  of  the  aboriginal 
dvilizadon. 

APUS,  n.  d'pus  [Gr.  a,  without;  pons,  a  foot]:  a  genus  of 
the  phyUapvda,  having  60  pairs  of  apparent  feet,  all  but 
two  foliaceous  or  leaf-like,  often  found  in  great  numbers  in 
pools  and  ditches;  a  bird  so  called  because  it  did  not  use 
its  feet;  a  martinet  or  martin,  a  bird  with  very  small  feet; 
in  attron,,  a  constellation  near  the  s.  pole. 

APYRENUS,  n.  d'jrl^enus  [Gr.  a,  without;  piirin,  a 
seed]:  in  hot,,  fruit  which  produces  no  seeds,  as  cultivated 
varieties  of  the  orange,  pine  apple,  etc. 

APYREXY,  n.  d'pir  ^A:'*i  [Gr.  a^rmres'w,  I  have  fever 
— frompwr,  fire]:  the  intermission  of  a  fever.  Aptbous, 
a.  d'pir'U9,  fire-proof;  incombustible;  that  sustains  a  strong 
heat  without  alteration.  Apybetic,  a.  a'pir-it'lk,  without 
fever. 

AQUA,  n.  d'ktod  or  (i1(fv)d  [L.  aqua,  water]:  a  word  now 
much  used  as  part  of  a  compound.  Aquafobtis,  -fWtU  [L. 
fcrtU,  strong] :  strong  water;  a  powerful  acid,  so  called  dv 
the  alchemists,  now  named  niiric  add.  Aqua  mabina,  •mor- 
ri'nd  [L,  mdri,  the  sea] :  sea- water;  applied  to  the  precious 
stone,  Deryl,from  its  color.  Aqua  mabine,  n.  d'kwd  md-Ten\ 
the  varieties  of  the  beryl  (q.v.)  which  are  green  or  blue — the 
yellow  variety  is  strictly  called  beryl;  some  green  and  blue 
varieties  of  topaz  also  have  been  thus  called.  Aqua  Reoia, 
'Tiffird  [L.  regUis,  royal] :  royal  water;  a  mixture  of  nitric 
and  muriatic  acids;  a  dissolvent  of  gold,  the  king  of  tiie 
metals;  now  called  nttr(Hnuriatic  add.  Aqua  REoiNiB,  lit- 
erally queen's  toaier,  mixture  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
(oil  of  vitriol)  and  nitric  acid,  or  of  sulphuric  acid  and  nitre. 
Either  mixture  evolves  much  fumes,  and  may  be  used  as  a 
disinfectant,  as  similar  mixtures  are  sold  under  the  name  of 
everlasting  disinfectants.  Aqua  ViT-fi,  -vi'te  [L.  vita,  life] : 
water  of  life;  brandy  or  other  ardent  spirit  During  the  al- 
rhemical  epoch,  brandy  or  distilled  spirits  was  m.uch  used 
as  a  medicine,  was  considered  a  cure  for  all  disorders,  and 
thought  to  prolong  life;  and  as  Latin  was  the  learned 
tongue,  this  restorer  of  health  and  prolooger  of  life  was 
called  aqua  vita.  Aquatic,  a.  dkwaVxk,  living  in  the  water 
or  much  on  it,  as  some  fowls.  Aquarelle,  n.  dk'wdr-U 
[L.  dim.  of  aqua,  water]:  a  puiutiug  in  water  colors. 
Aquarium,  n.  dkwui^am,  a  glass  case  containing 
water,  etc.,  for  plants  and  creatures  that  live  in 
water;  any  large  building  where  such  cases  are  kept 
and  exhibited.  Aquarius,  n.  dkwa'i\-U8  [L.  a  water- 
carrier]:  a  sign  of  the  zodiac.  Aqua  tinta,  a*  hwa  tln'ta, 
8-13 


Digitized  by  LjOOglC 


AQUAUIUM. 

or  Aquatint,  n.  d'ktodrtlnt  [L.  aaua:  It.  tinta,  a  tint  or 
dye— from  L.  tingo,  I  stain] :  a  mode  of  etching  ou  copper, 
by  whicti  imitations  of  drawings  in  Indian  ink,  bister,  and 
Bcpia  are  produced.  On  a  plate  of  copper  a  ground  is  pre- 
pared of  black  resin,  on  which  the  design  is  traceil;  a  com- 
plicated series  of  manipulations  with  varnish  and  dilute 
acid  is  then  gone  through,  until  the  desired  result  is  attained. 
The  process  of  A.  has  fallen  into  comparative  disuse. 

AQUA'RIUM:  a  tank  or  vessel  containing  either  salt  or 
fresh  water,  in  which  cither  marine  or  fresh  water  plants 
and  animals  are  kept  in  a  living  state.  The  name  was  for- 
merly sometimes  given  to  a  tank  or  cistern  placed  in  a  hot- 
house, and  intended  for  the  cultivation  of  aquatic  plants.' 
The  A.,  as  now  in  use — originally  called  Vivarium  orAquet- 
vivarium,  and  intended  chiefly  for  animals,  depends  in  prin- 
ciple upon  the  relations  discovered  by  science  between  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  life,  and  particularly  upon  the  consump- 
tion b^  plants,  under  the  action  of  light,  of  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  given  forth  by  animals,  and  the  consequent  restoration, 
to  the  air  or  water  in  which  they  live  of  the  oxygen  neces- 
sary for  the  maintenance  of  animal  life.  The  A.  must 
therefore  contain  both  pl'^ats  and  animals,  and  in  something 


Simple  form  of  an  Aquarium. 

like  a  proper  proportion.  Zoophytes,  Annelides,  Mollusca, 
Crustacea,  and  fishes  may  thus,  with  due  care,  be  kept  in 
health,  and  their  habits  observed.  The  water  must  be  fre- 
quently a£rated,  which  can  be  accomplished  by  taking  up 
portions  of  it  and  pouring  them  in  again  from  a  small  height. 
The  fresh-water  A.  is  frequently  provided  with  a  fountain, 
which  produces  a  continual  change  of  water;  but  even 
where  this  is  Uie  case,  the  presence  both  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals is  advantageous  to  the  health  of  both.  When  sea- water 
cannot  easilv  be  procured  for  the  marine  A.,  a  substitute 
may  be  maae  by  mixing  with  rather  less  than  4  quarts  of 

S)nng  water  8^  ounces  of  common  table-salt,  i  ounce  of 
psom  salts,  200  grains  troy  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and 

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AQUARIUM. 

40  grafns  troy  of  chloride  of  potassium.  With  care,  the 
water  may  be  kept  good  for  a  long  time.  No  dead  animal 
or  decaying  plant  must  be  permitted  to  remain  in  it.  Salt 
water,  artificially  prepared,  is  not  fit  for  the  reception  of 
animals  at  once;  but  a  few  plants  must  first  be  {)1aoBd  in  it, 
for  which  purpose  some  of  the  green  algic,  species  of  Ulva 
or  Conferva^  are  most  suitable.  The  presence  of  a  number 
of  molluscous  animals,  such  as  the  common  periwinkle,  is 
necessary  for  the  consumption  of  the  continually  growing 
vegetable  mitter,  and  of  the  multitudinous  spores  (seeds), 
particularly  of  confervae,  which  would  otherwise  soon  fill  the 
water,  rendering  it  greenish  or  brownish,  and  untransparcnt, 
and  which  may  be  seen  beginning  to  vegetate  everywhere 
on  the  pebbles  or  on  the  glass  of  the  tank.  In  a  fresh-water 
A.,  molluscous  animals  of  similar  habits,  such  as  species  of 
Jjymruxa  or  Planorbis,  are  equally  indispensable.  For  large 
aquaria,  tanks  of  plate  glass  are  commonly  used ;  smaller 
ones  are  made  of  bottle-glass  or  of  crystal. 
Bleonies,  gobies,  and  gray  mullets  are  perhaps  the  kinds 


Aquariym  with  Fountain  for  Aeratiner. 

of  fish  most  common  in  marine  aquaria;  gold-fishes,  stickle- 
backs, and  minnow^s  are  frequent  m  fresh-water  ones.  These 
have  the  advantage  of  being  more  easily  kept  in  good  health 
than  many  other  kinds,  and  a  further  recommendation  is 
found  in  their  small  size,  and  in  the  fine  colors  of  the  gold- 
fish. The  nests  of  sticklebacks  are  a  subject  of  imfailing 
interest.  Crabs  of  various  species,  and  actmiaB  or  sea-anem- 
ones, are  very  generally  among  the  larger  inmates  of  the 
A,  Serpulae  contribute  much  both  to  its  mterest  and  bcautjr, 
as  they  spread  out  their  delicate  and  finely-tinted  branchisB 
from  the  mouth  of  their  shelly  tube«  and  withdraw  within 


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AQUARIUS— AQUATIC. 

it,  quick  as  thought,  upon  the  slightest  disturbance.  Balani 
or  acorn-shells  are  very  beautiful  objects  when  they  are  seen 
opening  their  summit-valves,  and  rapidly  stretching  out  and 
retractmg  their  little  nets.  Even  periwinkles  and  limpets 
are  interesting,  particularly  when  they  are  watched  by  the 
aid  of  a  magnifying-glass,  as  they  feed,  upon  the  spores  of 
the  confervffi  which  have  just  begun  to  ve^tate  on  the  glass 
of  the  A.,  moving  slowly  along,  with  contmual  opening  and 
shutting  of  the  mouth,  like  cows  at  pasture,  when  the 
structure  and  motions  of  their  mouths  and  the  singular  beauty 
and  brilliancv  of  colors  may  be  observed.  The  use  of  a  good 
magnifying  lens  adds  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  A.,  and 
zoophytes  of  exquisite  forms  and  colors  may  be  watched  in 
the  actual  processes  of  life.    See  Wabdian  Cases. 

AQUARIUS,  arkicd'ri-&8,  the  Water-bearer:  the  eleventh 
sign  of  the  zodiac,  through  which  the  sun  moves  in  part  of 
the  months  of  January  and  February.  It  is  also  the  name 
of  a  zodiacal  constellation,  whose  jxxsition  in  the  heavens 
may  be  found  by  producing  a  line  in  a  southerly  direction 
through  the  stars  in  the  head  of  Andromeda  and  the  wing 
of  Pegasus. 

AQUATIC  Plants  and  Animals:  those  that  live  either 
wholly  or  partly  in  water.  The  term  is  very  vaguely  used, 
those  plants  being  often  called  A.  which  grow  in  ponds, 
ditches,  etc.,  although  not  only  their  inflorescence,  but  great 
part  of  their  foliage,  is  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  as 
well  as  those  which  more  completely  belong  to  that  element; 
and  a  similar  latitude  of  meaning  prevails  with  regard  to 
animals.    Few  phanerogamous  (or  flowering)  plants  exist 


Aquatic  plant 

entirely  under  water,  although  there  are  a  few,  like  the 
common  Zostera  marina,  or  Grass-wrack,  which  do  so,  and 
produce  even  their  flowers  in  that  condition;  others,  of 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  plant  is  usually  under  water, 
produce  their  flowers  upon,  or  considerably  above,  its 
surface,  as  those  of  the  genera  VcUisneria,  Anacharis  (q.v.), 
etc.  The  leaves,  as  well  as  the  flowers,  of  many  float  upon 
the  water,  of  which  the  water-lilies  furnish  well-known  and 
beautiful  examples;  while  in  BanunctUvs  agvatiU's,  that 
exquisite  ornament  of  river  margins,  we  have  an  instance  of 
great  diversity  between  the  lower  leaves  which  remain 
submersed,  and  the  upper  leaves  which  float.    Of  crypto- 


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AQUATIC. 

gamons  plants,  one  great  order,  AlgcB,  is  exclusively  A., 
and  these  seem  adapted  to  perform  under  water  afi  the 
functions  of  their  life.  A.  plants  are,  in  general,  of  less 
compact  structure  than  other  plants,  thus  ligoter  and  better 
adapted  for  rising  in  their  growth  towards  the  surface  of 
the  water;  in  ordS*  to  which  also  some  of  the  algae,  as  may 
be  seen  in  more  than  one  of  the  most  common  sea-weeds, 
are  provided  with  air-bladders  of  considerable  magnitude. 
All  this  is  the  more  necessary,  as  plants  completely  A.  have 
generallv  little  firmness  of  stem,  and  if  their  weight  made 
them  fall  to  the  bottom  would  lie  in  a  mass,  as  they  do 
when  withdrawn  from  the  water,  in  which,  however,  they 
gracefully  float,  their  flexibility  of  stem  enabling  them  to 
adapt  themselves  to  waves  or  currents  which  would  destroy 
them  if  they  were  more  rigid.  So  admirably  are  all  things 
in  nature  harmonized. 

Many  animals,  to  a  considerable  extent  A.  in  their  habits, 
must  not  only  breathe  air,  but  are  adapted  for  spending 
great  part  of  their  existence  on  dry  land.  Such  are  chiefly 
those  that  seek  their  food  in  the  water.  The  pectdiarities  of 
structure  by  which  they  are  fitted  for  wading,  for  swimming, 
for  diving,  and  for  remaining  under  water  a  longer  time 
than  other  animals  can,  are  very  interesting  and  admirable. 
Even  the  fur  of  the  beaver,  the  otter,  the  water-rat,  and 
other  animals  of  this  description,  is  not  liable  to  be 
drenched  like  that  of  other  quaarupeds;  and  the  plumage  of 
water-fowls  exhibits  a  similar  peculiarity.  The  feet  of  many 
are  webbed,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  swim  with  great 
facility;  and  to  this  the  general  form,  as  in  water-fowls, 
likewise  exhibits  a  beautiful  adaptation.  The  webbed  feet 
in  some,  of  which  the  habits  are  most  thoroughlv  A.,  as 
seals,  assume  the  character  of  a  sort  of  paddle,  admirably 
fitted  for  use  in  the  water,  but  by  means  of  which  they  can 
onlv  move  very  awkwardly  on  land.  The  forms  of  whales 
ana  fishes  are  remarkably  adapted  for  progression  in  water; 
while,  instead  of  the  limbs  by  which  other  vertebrate 
animals  arc  enabled  to  move  upon  the  land  or  to  fly  in  the 
air,  their  great  organ  of  locomotion  is  the  tail,  or  rather  the 
hinder  part  of  the  elongated  body  itself,  with  the  tail  as  the 
blade  of  the  great  oar,  which  all  the  prindpal  muscles  of 
the  body  concur  to  move.  Remarkable  provision  is  made 
in  A.  animals  of  the  higher  vertebrate  classes  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  requisite  animal  heat,  by  the  character 
of  the  fur  or  plumage;  a  purpose  which  the  blubber  of 
whales  also  most  perfectly  serves.  In  the  colder-blooded 
animals,  where  no  such  provision  is  requisite,  tbe  structure 
of  the  heart  is  accommodated  to  the  diminished  necessi^ 
for  oxygenation  of  the  blood;  and  although  reptiles  in  their 
'perfect  state  must  breathe  air,  many  of  them  can  remain 
long  under  water  without  inconvenience.  Fishes,  and  the 
many  other  animals  provided  witli  branchiae  or  gills, 
breathe  in  the  water  itself,  derivinff  the  necessary  oxygen, 
which  in  their  case  is  comparatively  little,  from  the  small 
particles  of  air  with  which  it  is  mingled.  They  cannot 
subsist  in  water  which  has  been  deprived  of  air  by  boiling. 
Some  A.  insects  carry  down  with  them  into  the  water 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AQUA  TOFANA. 

particles  of  air  entangled  in  hairs  with  which  their  bodies 
are  abundantly  furnished. 

AQUA  TOFANA:  a  poisonous  liquid  much  talked  of 
in  the  s.  of  Italy  about  the  end  of  the  17th  c.  There  is 
doubt  as  to  its  inventor,  but  it  is  ascribed  to  a  Sicilian 
woman  named  Tofana,  who  lived  first  at  Palermo,  but  was 
obliged,  from  the  attention  of  the  authorities  having  been 
attracted  to  her  proceedings,  to  take  refuge  in  Naples.  She 
sold  the  preparation  in  small  pbials,  inscribed  *  Manna  of 
St.  Nicholas  of  Bari,'  there  being  a  current  superstition  that 
from  the  tomb  of  that  saint  there  flowed  an  oil  of  miraculous 
efficacy  in  many  diseases.  Tbe  poison  was  especially  sought 
after  by  young  wives  that  wished  a  riddance  of  their  hus- 
bands. The  number  of  husbands  dying  suddenly  in  Rome 
about  1659  raised  suspicion,  and  a  society  of  young  married 
women  was  discovered,  presided  over  bv  an  old  woman 
named  Spara,  who  had  learned  the  art  of  poisoning  from 
Tofana.  Spara  and  four  other  members  of  the  society  were 
publicly  put  to  death.  Tofana  continued  to  live  to  a  great 
age  in  a  cloister,  in  which  she  had  taken  refuge,  but  was  at 
last  (1709)  dragged  from  it,  and  put  to  the  torture,  when  she 
confessed  havmg  been  instrumental  to  600  deaths.  Accord- 
ing to  one  account  she  was  strangled;  but  others  alBrm  that 
she  was  still  living  in  prison  in  1730. 

The  A.  T.  is  usually  described  as  a  clear,  colorless,  taste- 
less, and  inodorous  fluid;  five  or  six  drops  were  sufficient  to 
produce  death,  which  resulted  slowly  and  without  pain, 
inflammation,  or  fever;  under  a  constant  thirst,  a  weariness 
of  life,  and  an  aversion  to  food,  the  strength  of  the  person 
gradually  wasted  away.  It  is  even  stated  that  the  poison 
could  be  made  to  proauce  its  effects  in  a  determined  time, 
long  or  short,  according  to  the  wish  of  the  administrator — a 
notion  generally  prevalent  in  those  Hgea  respecting  secret 
poisoning.  The  most  wonderful  stories  are  told  of  the  mode 
of  preparing  this  poison;  for  example,  the  spittle  of  a  person 
driven  nearly  mad  by  continued  tickling  was  held  to  be  an 
essential  ingredient.  Later  investigations  lead  to  the  belief 
that  the  A.  T.  was  principally  a  solution  of  arsenic. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


AQUEDUCT. 

AQUEDUCT,  n.  dk'icS-dukt  [L.  amia,  "water,  or  aqtuB,  of 
water;  ductvs,  led]:  a  course  or  channel  made  for  con- 
veying water  cither  under  or  above  ground.  AquEous,  a. 
d'kvce-iu,  watery;  pertaining  to  or  arising  from  water. 
A'<iUEOU8  NE8S,  n.  the  quality  of  being  watery.  Aqueous 
HUMOR,  in  anatf  the  limpid  nuid  whi^  occupies  the  space 
between  the  crystalline  lens  and  the  cornea.  Aqueous 
ROCKB,  in  geol.,  rocks  whose  material  has  been  deposited  by 
means  of  water,  and  which  lie  in  strata,  as  opposed  lo  un- 
stratitied  or  volcanic  rocks. 

AQUEDUCT:  an  artificial  course  or  channel  by  which 
water  is  conveyed  along  an  inclined  plane.  When  an  A. 
is  carried  across  a  valley,  it  is  usually  raised  on  arches,  and 
where  elevated  ground  or  hills  intervene,  a  passage  is  cut, 
or,  if  necessary,  a  tunnel  bored  for  it.  Aqueducts  were  not 
unknown  to  the  Greeks;  but  there  are  no  remains  of  those 
which  they  constructed,  and  the  brief  notices  of  them  by 
Pausanias,  Herodotus,  and  others,  do  not  give  any  distinct 
notion  of  their  character.  The  aqueducts  of  the  Romans 
were  among  the  most  ma^ificent  of  their  works,  and  the 
noble  supply  of  water  which  modem  Rome  derives  from 
the  three  now  in  use,  of  which  two  are  ancient,  gives  the 
stranger  a  vivid  conception  of  the  vast  scale  on  which  the 
ancient  city  must  have  been  provided  with  one  of  the  most 
important  appliances  of  civilization  and  refinement,  when 
nine  were  employed  to  pour  water  into  its  baths  and  fount- 
ains. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  the  Roman  aqueducts, 
chronologically  arranged: 

1.  The  Aqua  Appia,  begun  by  and  named  after  the  censor 
Appius  Claudius  abt.  B.C.  813.  It  ran  a  course  of  between 
6  and  7  m.,  its  source  being  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pales- 
trina.  With  the  exception  of  a  small  portion  near  the  Porta 
Capena,  it  was  subterranean.    No  remains  of  it  exist. 

2.  Anio  Vettis,  constructed  abt.  B.C. 273,  by  M.  Curius  Den- 
tatus.  It  also  was  chiefly  underground.  Remains  may  be 
traced  both  at  Tivoli  and  near  the  Porta  Maggiore.  Irom 
the  point  at  which  it  quitted  the  river  Anio,  about  20  m. 
above  Tivoli.  to  Rome,  is  about  43  miles. 

3.  Aqua  Mdreia,  named  after  the  pretor  Quintus  Marcius 
Rex,  B.C.  145,  had  its  source  between  Tivoli  and  Subiaco, 
and  was  consequently  abt.  60  m.  lon^.  The  noble  arches 
which  stretch  across  the  Campagna  for  some  6  m.  on  the 
road  to  Frascati  are  the  portion  of  this  A.  which  was  above 
ground. 

4.  Aqtia  Tepula,  B.C.  126,  had  its  source  near  Tusculum, 
and  its  channel  was  carried  over  the  arches  of  the  last-men- 
tioned aqueduct. 

5.  Aqua  JuUa,  constructed  by  Agrippa,  and  named  after 
Augustus,  B.C.  34.  Like  the  Tepulan,  it  was  carried  along 
the  Marcian  Arches,  and  its  source  was  also  near  Tusculum. 
Remains  of  the  three  last-mentioned  aaueducts  still  exist. 

6.  Aqua  Virgo,  also  constructed  by  Agrippa,  and  said  to 
have  been  named  in  consequence  of  the  spring  which  sup- 
plied it  having  been  pointed  out  by  a  girl  to  some  of  Agrippa's 
soldiers  when  in  search  of  water.    The  Aqua  Vergine,  as  it 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AQUEDUCT. 

is  now  called,  is  still  entire.  Laving  been  restored  by  the 
popes  Nicholas  V.  and  Pius  IV. ,  1^8.  The  source  of  the 
Aqua  Virgo  is  near  the  Anio,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Torre 
Salona,  on  the  Via  Collatina,  and  about  14  m.  from  Rome. 
The  original  object  of  this  A.  was  to  supply  the  baths  of 
Agrinpa;  its  water  now  flows  in  the  Fontana  Trevi,  that  of 
the  Piazza  Navona,  the  Piazza  Famese,  and  the  Barcaccia 
of  the  Piazza  di  Spagna.  The  water  of  the  Aqua  Virgo  is 
the  best  in  Rome. 

7.  Aoua  Afsietina,  constructed  by  Augustus,  afterwards 
restored  by  Traian,  and  latterly  by  the  popes.  This  A., 
now  callca  the  Aqua  Paola,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tiber,  and  supplies  the  fountains  in  front  of  St.  Peter's 
and  the  Fontana  Paola  on  the  Montorio.  Its  original  object 
was  to  supply  the  Naumachia  of  Augustus,  whidb  was  a 
sheet  of  water  for  the  representation  of  sea-flghts. 

8.  AqiM  Claudia,  commenced  by  Caligula,  and  completed 
by  Claudius  a.d.  51.  A  line  of  magnificent  arches  which 
formerly  belonged  to  this  A.  still  stretches  across  the 
Campagna,  and  forms  one  of  the  grandest  of  Roman  ruins. 
It  was  used  as  a  quarry  by  Sextus  V.  for  the  construction 
of  the  Aqua  Felici,  which  now  supplies  the  Foimtain  of 
Termini,  and  various  others  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

9.  Anio  Norms,  which  was  the  most  copious  of  all  the 
Roman  fountains,  though  inferior  to  the  Marcia  in  the 
solidity  of  its  structure;  it  was  also  the  longest  of  the 
aqueducts,  pursuing  a  course  of  no  less  than  C^  m.  By 
the  two  last-mentioned  aqueducts,  the  former  supply  of 
water  was  doubled.  In  addition  to  the  aqueducts  aJready 
mentioned,  there  was  the  Aqua  Trajana,  which  may,  how- 
ever, be  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  Anio  Novus,  and 


Section. 

Aqua  Alexandrina. 

several  others  of  later  construction,  such  as  the  Antoniana, 
Alexandrina,  and  Jovia,  none  of  which  were  to  be  compared 
with  the  older  ones  in  extent  and  magnificence. 

Nor  was  it  for  the  uses  of  the  capital  alone  that  aqueductjs 
were  constructed.  The  A.  of  Trajan,  at  Civila  Yecchia, 
which  conveys  the  water  a  distance  of  23  m.,  and  that  in 
the  vicinity  of  Marzana,  near  Verona,  v^ith  others  that 
might  be  mentioned,  still  attest  the  existence  of  aqueducts  in 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AQUEDUCT. 

the  smaller  towns  of  Italy  in  Bomaii  times.  Even  during 
the  unpromising  period  which  succeeded,  the  habit  of  thefr 
construction  was  not  abandoned,  that  of  Spoleto  having 
been  built  by  the  Lombard  Duke  Theodolapius  in  604.  The 
extraordinary  A.  by  which  the  fountain  at  Siena  is  supplied  is 
said  to  have  occupied  two  centuries  in  building;  and  the 
modem  A.  of  Leghorn,  which  is  not  unworthy  of  the 
Roman  models  after  which  it  was  designed,  ia  surpassed  in 
magnificence  by  that  of  Pisa,  with  its  thousand  arches.  In 
tbe  more  distant  provinces  which  fell  under  the  Roman 
power,  aqueducts  were  likewise  constructed— at  Nicomedia, 
£phesus,  Smyrna,  Alexandria,  Syracuse,  and  in  many  of 
tbe  towns  in  Gaul  and  in  Spain.  At  Merida  there  are  the 
remains  of  two  aqueducts,  of  one  of  which  there  are  87 
piers  still  standing,  with  three  tiers  of  arches.  But  the 
most  magnificent  structure  of  this  class  in  Spain,  is  the  A. 
of  Segom,  in  Old  Castile,  for  which  Spanish  writers  claim 
an  antiquity  beyond  that  of  the  Roman  dominion;  but 
-which,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  belongs  to  tbe  time  of 
Trajan.  At  Evora,  in  Portugal,  there  is  likewise  an  A.  in 
good  preservation,  with  a  casteUum  or  reservoir  at  its 
termination  in  tlie  cit^,  consisting  of  two  stories,  the  lower 
one  being  decorated  with  pillars.  But  of  all  the  provincial 
aqueducts,  that  at  Nismes,  in  Provence,  is  at  once  tbe  most 
remarkable  and  the  best  preserved.  The  following  descrip- 
Uon  of  it,  from  Murray's  Hand-book  for  France,  gives  a 
vivid  idea  of  the  very  interesting  class  of  works  to  which  it 
belongs.  '  It  consists  of  three  rows  of  arches,  raised  one 
above  the  other,  each  smaller  than  the  one  below  It;  the 
lowest  of  six  arches,  the  centre  tier  of  eleven,  and  the  upper- 
most of  thirty-five;  the  whole  in  a  simple  if  not  a  stem  style 
of  architecture,  destitute  of  ornament.  It  is  by  its  magnitude, 
and  the  skilful  fitting  of  its  enormous  blocks,  that  U  makes 
an  impression  on  the  mind.  It  is  the  more  striking  from 
tbe  utter  solitude  in  which  it  stands— a  rocky  valley,  partly 
covered  with  brushwood  and  CTeensward,  with  scarce  a 
human  habitation  in  sight,  only  a  few  goats  browsing. 
After  the  lapse  of  16  c,  this  colossal  monument  still  spans 
the  valley,  joining  hill  to  hill,  in  a  nearly  perfect  state,  only 
the  upper  part,  at  tbe  northern  extremity,  being  broken 
away.  The  highest  range  of  arches  carries  a  small  canal, 
about  4i  ft  high  and  4  ft.  wide,  just  lar^  enough  for  a 
man  to  creep  through,  still  retaining  a  thick  Iming  of  Roman 
cement  It  is  covered  with  stone  slabs,  along  which  it  is 
possible  to  walk  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  to  overlook 
tbe  valley  of  the  Gkirdon.  The  height  of  tbe  Pont  du 
Gard  is  188  ft.,  and  the  length  of  the  highest  arcade  878  ft 
Its  use  was  to  convey  to  the  town  of  Nismes  the  water  of 
two  springs,  25  m.  distant  .  .  .  The  conveyance  of 
this  small  stream  was  the  sole  object  and  use  of  this  gigantic 
structure,  an  end  which  would  now  be  attained  by  a  few 
iron  water-pipes.'  Neither  the  date  nor  the  builder  of  the 
Pont  du  Gkurd  is  known  with  certainty,  but  it  is  ascribed  to 
Agrippa,  the  nephew  of  Augustus;  a  conjecture  which  is 
rendered  probable  by  the  fact  of  his  having  restored  the 
Appian,  Marcian,  ana  Anienian,  and  constructed  the  Julian 


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AQUEOUS  HUMOR— AQUEOUS  ROCKS. 

A.  at  Rome.  The  importance  wLich  the  Romans  attached 
to  their  aqueducts  mav  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that 
special  officers,  invested  with  considerable  authority,  and, 
like  all  the  higher  officials,  attended  by  lictors  and  public 
slaves,  were  appointed  for  their  superintendence.  Under 
the  orders  of  these  'guardians  of  the  waters,'  we  are  told 
that,  in  the  time  of  Kerva  and  Trajan,  about  700  architects 
and  others  were  employed  in  attending  to  the  aqueducts. 
These  officials  were  divided  into  various  classes,  and  known 
bv  different  names,  accordinj^  as  their  duties  related  to  the  care 
of  the  course  of  the  A.,  the  eaaiella  or  reservoirs  at  its 
termini,  the  pavement  of  the  channel,  the  cement  w^ 
which  it  was  covered,  and  the  like. 

Among  modem  aqueducts  (using  the  word  in  its  re- 
stricted sense  of  a  masonry  construction  for  water-convey- 
ance) the  A.  built  to  convey  the  waters  of  theriver  Eure  to 
Versailles,  France,  is  considered  in  many  respects  the 
finest  in  the  world.  It  is  about  five  sixths  of  a  m.  long, 
more  than  200  ft.  high,  and  contains  726  50  ft.  arches, 
divided  into  three  rows.  The  subterranean  A.,  which 
contlfucts  water  to  the  village  of  Arcueil.  France,  is  44,- 
300  ft.,  or  more  than  8  m.  long  and  6  ft.  high.  A  similar 
A.,  belonging  to  the  Versailles  system,  is  11,760  ft.  lone. 
The  great  water-works  which  supply  Marseilles  include 
several  aqueducts,  of  which  the  largest  crosses  the  ravine  of 
the  river  Arc,  about  5  m.  from  Aix,  and  is  1,287  ft.  long  and 
262  ft.  high. 

The  Liverpool  A.  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world; 
length  70  m.,  capacity  40,000,000  gallons  per  day.  The 
supply  is  drawn  from  Lake  Vyrnwy,  Wales,  whose  avail- 
able contents  are  over  12.131,000,000  gallons.  Total  cost 
of  the  work,  about  $10,000,000. 

For  the  Croton  A.  of  New  York,  and  for  several  others, 
see  titles  of  various  cities.    See  Water  Supply. 

AQUEOUS  HUMOR,  d'hw^-iU:  the  fluid  which  ocenpicB 
the  space  In  the  eye  between  the  back  of  the  cornea  and  the 
front  of  the  lens,  which,  in  foetal  life,  is  divided  into  aa 
anterior  and  posterior  chamber  b^  the  membra  pupillarfs 
(q.y.),  and  in  adult  life  by  the  ins.  It  consists  of  water, 
vnth,  according  to  Berzdius,  about  a  fiftieth  of  its  weigbt 
made  up  of  chloride  of  sodium  and  eztractive  matters  held 
in  solution. 

Anatomists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  spring  of  this  watery 
secretion,  and  are  inclined  to  doubt  the  existence  of  a  spe- 
cial secreting  membrane,  which  used  to  be  taken  for  granted. 
However,  a  layer  of  delicate  epithalial  cells,  which  exista 
at  the  ba[ck  of  the  cornea  (q.v.),  is  probably  concerned  in 
its  formation.  It  is  rapidly  re-secretai  if  allowed  to  escape 
by  any  wound  in  the  cornea,  and  in  some  cases  is  formed  in 
such  quantity  as  to  cause  dropsy  of  the  eye  (l^ropk- 
ihalmia). 

A'QUEOUS  ROCKS:  rocks,  whose  material  has  been 
deposited  by  means  of  water.  In  Geology,  every  layer 
which  forms  a  portion  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth  ia 
called  a  rock,  whether  its  particles  are  incoherent,  like  soil 
or  sand,  or  compacted  together,  like  limestone  or  sandstODO. 


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AQUEOUS  ROCKS. 

In  thiB  wide  sense,  the  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust  are  cither 
Igneous  (q.v.)  or  sedimentary.  These  sedimentary  rocks 
luive  an  aqueous  origin,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  limited 
number,  like  drift-sand,  which  are  brought  into  their  pres- 
ent position  by  the  action  of  the  wind.  Unlike  the  igneous 
rocks,  whose  particles  have  asumed  their  present  form  in 
the  position  they  occupy,  the  materials  of  the  A.  R.  have 
evidently  been  brought  from  a  distance.  They  owe  their 
ori^  to  some  older  rocks,  whose  decomposidon  or  destruc- 
tion^  has  afforded  the  materials.  The  parent  rock  can  often 
be  identified.  Its  distance  is  indicated  by  the  condition  of 
the  materials,  whether  they  ore  rounded  and  water- worn,  or 
angular  and  shingly. 

The  agents  now  at  work,  aqd  which  have  been  active  in 
past  ^loeical  ages,  rubbing  down  and  transporting  the 
materials  from  which  these  rocks  are  formed,  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 1.  The  sea,  destroying  the  rocks  and  cliffs,  and 
beaches  which  form  its  boundary,  and  carrying  off  the  eroded 
materials  to  form  new  rocks  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
2.  Riven,  including  the  action  of  their  smallest  tributary 
rills,  and  even  of  the  drops  of  rain,  for  these  abrade  and 
carry  off  the  almost  imperceptible  particles  from  the  surface 
where  they  fall;  and  when  united  ihiey  form  the  rill  with 
its  suspended  sediment,  and  these  again  unite  to  form  the 
river,  which  in  its  course  not  only  retains  what  it  has  got, 
but  scoops  up  more  from  its  own  bed,  and  carries  all  to  the  sea 
or  lake,  to  deposit  it  there  as  a  new  stratum.  It  is  difficult  to 
estimate  the  influence  of  this  agency.  Sir  Charles  Lvell 
calculates  that  the  Nile  annually  deposits  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean 3.702,758,400  cub.  ft.  of  solid  matter.  8.  Glaciers 
and  ieehergs.  These  enormous  moving  masses  of  ice  are  not 
only  loaded  wiUi  rock- fragments,  which  are  deposited  as  the 
ice  melts,  but  are  ever  abrading  the  rocks  over  which  they 
pass,  and  thus  supply  materials  to  form  new  layers.  4.  Sev- 
eral stratified  rocks  have  an  evidently  organic  origin,  such 
as  chalk,  and  some  limestones  chiefly  composed  of  animal 
remains,  and  coal  consisting  of  vegetable  carbon;  but  even 
these  have  been  influenced  in  their  formation  by  water  &o 
much  as  to  Justify  us  in  classifying  them  with  A.  R.  5.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  rocks  which  have  been  precipitated 
from  a  fluid  with  which  the  materials  existed  in  chemical 
combination,  as  has  been  the  case  with  beds  of  salt,  gypsum, 
and  calcareous  tufa. 

The  result  of  these  various  actions  is  a  series  of  rocks 
which,  from  their  composition,  may  be  classed  as  Arena- 
ceous, Argillaceous,  Calcareous,  Carbonaceous,  Saline,  and 
Silicious.    (See  these  titles.) 

The  arrangement  of  the  A.  R.  depending  on  their  differ- 
ent ages,  is  of  more  importance  in  modem  geology  than 
that  depending  on  their  internal  constitution.  When  a 
section  of  the  earth's  crust  is  examined,  it  is  found  to  be 
composed  of  a  series  of  layers  which  have  been  produced 
in  succession.  Comparing  this  with  sections  in  other  dis- 
tricts, it  is  noticed  that  there  is  a  regularity  in  the  several 
parts;  for  beds  of  the  same  structure  are  found  in  different 
localities,  and  these  occupy  the  same  relative  position  to  the 


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AQUIFEROUS-AQUILA.. 

adjacent  beds.  A  number  of  observations  have  shown  that 
the  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed  of  a  regular  series  of 
earthy  deposits  fonncd  one  after  another,  during  successive 
periods  of  time.  This  general  induction  forms  the  basis  of 
tlje  following  classification.  For  the  description  of  the  in- 
cluded strata  we  must  again  refer  to  the  names  of  the  differ- 
ent divisions: 

I.  Quaternary  AND  Tertiary  Agb—1.  Superficial  De- 
posits or  Recent  Period;  2.  Pleistocene  Period;  8.  Pliocene 
or  Upper  Tertiary  Period;  4.  Miocene  or  Middle  Tertiary 
Period;  5.  Eocene  or  Lower  Tertiary  Period. 

II.  Secondary  ob  Mesozoic  Age — 6.  Cretaceous 
Period;  7.  Oolitic  Period;  8.  Triassic  Period. 

III.  Primary  or  Paleozoic  Age — 9.  Permian 
Period;  10.  Carboniferous  Period;  11.  Devonian  or  Old 
Red  Sandstone  Period;  12.  Silurian  Period;  18.  Cambrian 
Period. 

AQUIFEROUS,  a.  d'kw)fer-us  [L.  aqua,  water;  fero,  I 
bear]:  water-bearing;  denoting  vessels  or  canals  by  which 
water  is  distributed  throughout  an  organism. 

AQUIFOLIACEiE,  ak-wi-fd'li-d'se'i:  natural  order  cf 
dicotyledonous  or  exogenous  plants,  of  which  the  commoa 
holly  (q.v.)  is  the  best  Known  example,  and  the  only  species 
that  is  a  native  of  Europe.  The  order,  however,  contains 
more  than  one  hundred  species,  the  crater  part  of  which 
are  natives  of  America,  and  many  of  them  belong  to  the 
tropical  and  subtropical  parts  of  it.  The  species  are  all 
evergreen  trees  or  shrubs,  with  simple,  leathery  leaves,  and 
without  stipules.  The  flowers  are  small  and  axillary, 
with  4-6  sepals,  and  a  4-6-parted  corolla,  into  which  the 
stamens  are  inserU^,  alternating  with  its  segments.  The 
ovary  is  fleshy  and  superior,  wiu  two  or  more  cells,  a  soli- 
tary anatropal  pendulous  ovule  in  each  cell,  the  celk  gen- 
erally becoming  bony  as  distinct  stones  in  the  fruit,  which  is 
fleshy.  The  onier  is  allied  to  RhamnacecB,  Gekutraeem,  and 
Eb€nac€€e.  The  most  interesting  species  belong  to  the  genus 
Hex,  or  Holly  (q.v.). 

AQUILA:  see  Eaglb. 

AQUILA,  d'kwe-ld:  cap.  of  the  Italian  province  of  the 
same  name;  on  the  Pescara,  near  the  loftiest  of  the  Apen- 
nines; a  fortified  town  of  the  fourth  class,  thou^  its  citadel 
is  its  only  strong  point.  A.  was  built  b^  Uie  emperor 
Frederic  U.  from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Aimtemuin,  a  town 
of  the  Sabines,  and  the  birthplace  of  Sallust  the  historian. 
In  1703,  it  was  almost  destro;^ed  by  an  earthquake,  in  which 
2,000  persons  perished.  A.  is  a  bishop's  see,  has  civil  and 
criminal  courts,  and  a  lyceum,  and  is  considered  one  of 
the  best  built  towns  in  the  kingdom.  In  1841,  much  politi- 
cal disturbance  took  place  here,  and  several  of  the  inhabit- 
ants were  imprisoned  and  put  to  death  in  consequence. 
Altogether,  public  feeling  in  this  town  and  province  is  far 
more  liberal  than  in  most  other  parts  of  the  Mngdom.  Pop. 
(1881)  18,426  ;  province  (1885)  371,382;  (1891)  874,882. 

AQUILA,  akwl-la,  Ponticus:  celebrated  translator  of 
the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  lived  abt.  180;  b.  Sinope; 


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AQUILARIACEiE— AQUINAS. 

mdd  to  have  been  a  relation  of  the  emperor  Hadrian,  and 
to  baye  been  first  a  Pagan,  then  a  Christian,  and  finally  a 
Jew;  submitting  in  his  last  conversion  to  the  peculiar  relig- 
ious ceremony  of  circumcision.  His  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament— which  appears  to  have  been  undertaken  for  the 
benefit  of  his  Hellenized  countrymen,  was  so  literal,  that 
the  Jews  preferred  it  to  the  Septuagint,  as  did  alao  the 
Judaizing  sect  of   Christians   odled  Ebionites.    Only  a 

5>nion  of  the  work  remains,  which  has  been  edited  by 
ODtfaucon  and  others. 

AQUHiARIACE^,  dJc'tDUld-r^'ae'e:  natural  order  of 
dicotyledonous  or  exogenous  plants,  containing  only  about 
ten  known  species,  all  of  wnich  are  trees  with  smooth 
branches  of  tough  beurk,  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
Asia.  The  leaves  are  entire;  the  perianth  leathery,  turbi- 
nate, or  tubular,  its  limb  divided  into  four  or  five  segments; 
the  stamens  usually  ten;  the  filaments  inserted  into  the 
orifice  of  the  perianth;  the  ovary  two  celled,  with  two 
ovules;  the  stigma  large;  the  fruit  a  2-valved  capsule,  or  a 
drape.  The  order  is  chiefiy  interesting  as  proaucing  the 
fragrant  wood  called  Alobb  Wood  (q.v.). 

AQUILEOIA:  see  Columbinb. 

AQUILEJA,  d-kfjoe-l&'yd,  or  Aglar'  (earlier,  Velia  or 
Aquila):  small  town  in  Austria,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic, 
22  m.  w.n.w.  of  Trieste.  Pop.  about  2,000.  It  is  now 
sunk  in  utter  insignificance,  possessing  no  trade  or  public 
buildings  of  any  note,  except  its  cathedral;  but  in  the  time 
of  the  Koman  emperors,  it  was  one  of  the  most  important 
places  n.  of  the  metropolis.  Its  commerce  was  flourishing, 
for  though  8  m.  distant  from  the  sea,  vessels  could  reach  it 
by  canals  connectins^  it  with  the  rivers  in  its  vicinity.  It 
was  both  the  central  point  of  the  transit  trade  between  the 
n.  and  s.  of  Europe,  and  the  key  of  Italy  against  the  bar- 
barians. Founded  by  a  Roman  colony,  B.C.  181,  it  became 
a  favorite  residence  of  Augustus;  and  a.d.  168,  was  so 
stronMy  fortified  by  Marcus  Aurelius,  as  to  be  considered 
tbe  first  bulwark  of  the  empire  on  the  n.  It  was  called 
Boma  Secunda,  the  Second  Rome.  Here  the  emperor 
Haximin  perished;  and  in  the  vicinity  Constantius  lost  his 
life  in  a  battle  against  his  brother  Constans.  When  the 
town  was  destroyed  by  Attila  (452),  it  had  100,000  in- 
habitants.  It  never  recovered,  although  it  received  some 
ecclesiastical  honors,  but  has  continu^  slowly  dwindling 
down  into  deeper  obscuritjr  and  wretdiedness.  There  are 
Qomerous  remains  of  its  former  splendor.  Councils  were 
bcld  at  A.  in  881,  558,  698,  and  1184. 

AQUILINE,  a.  dk'wUlin  [L.  aquila,  an  eagle]:  hooked 
or  curved  like  the  beak  of  an  eagle. 

AQUILON,  n.  Ak'ml-I6n  [P.  aquilon — from  L.  aqul- 
^nem,  the  north  wind]:  the  swifl-flying  thing;  in  OE,,  the 
north  wind;  Boreas. 

AQUINAS,  a  km'nas,  Thomas,  or  Thomas  of  AquiNO: 
1224-74;  b.  in  the  castle  of  Rocca  Secca;  of  the  family  of 
the  Counts  of  Aquino,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples:  one  of  the 


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I 


AQUINAS. 

most  influeDtial  of  the  scholastic  theologians.  He  received 
the  rudiments  of  his  education  from  the  Benedictine  monks 
of  Moute-Casino,  and  completed  his  studies  at  the  Univ.  of 
Naples.  A  strong  inclination  to  philosophical  speculation 
determined  the  young  nobleman,  against  the  will  of  his 
family,  to  enter  (1243)  the  order  of  Dominicans.  In  onler 
to  frustrate  the  attempts  of  his  friends  to  remove  him  from  i 

the  convent,  he  was  sent  away  from  Naples,  Tvith  the  view  \ 

of  going  to  France;  but  his  brothers  took  him  by  force  i 

from  his  conductors,  and  carried  him  to  the  paternal  castle. 
Here  he  was  guarded  as  a  prisoner  for  two  years,  when, 
by  the  help  of  the  Dominicans,  he  contrived  to  escape,  ; 

and  went  through  France  to  the  Dominican  convent  at 
Cologne,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  instructions  of  the  famous 
Albertus  Magnus  (q.  v.).  According  to  another  account,  he 
owed  his  release  from  confinement  to  the  interference  of  the 
emperor  and  the  pope.  At  Cologne  he  pursued  his  studies 
in  such  silence,  that  his  companions  gave  him  the  name  of 
the  'Dumb  Ox.'  But  Albert,  his  master,  is  reported  to 
have  predicted, '  that  this  ox  would  one  dav  fill  the  world 
with  his  bellowing.'  Thoroughly  imbued  with  the  scholastic, 
dialectic,  and  Aristotelian  philosophy,  he  came  forward,  after 
a  few  years,  as  a  public  teacher  in  Paris.  His  masterly  ap- 
plication of  this  philosophy  to  the  systematizing  of  theolog^^ 
soon  procured  him  a  distinguished  reputation.  It  was  not, 
however,  till  1257,  that  A.  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor,  as 
the  university  of  the  Sorbonne  was  hostile  to  the  mendicant 
monks.  He  vindicated  his  order  in  his  work,  Contra  Im- 
pugnantes  Dei  Cultum  et  Beligionem;  and,  in  a  disputation 
in  presence  of  the  pope,  procured  the  condemnation  of  the 
books  of  his  adversaries.  He  continued  to  lecture  with 
great  applause  in  Paris,  till  Urban  IV.,  in  1261,  called  him 
to  Italy  to  teach  philosophy  in  Rome,  Bologna,  and  Pisa. 
Finally  he  came  to  reside  in  the  convent  at  Naples,  where 
he  declined  the  offer  of  the  dignity  of  archbishop,  in  order 
to  devote  himself  entirely  to  stuay  and  lecturing.  Being 
summoned  by  Gregory  X!.  to  attend  the  (Jeneral  Council  at 
Lyons,  he  was  surprised  by  death  on  the  way,  1274.  at  Fossa- 
miova,  in  Naples.  According  to  a  report,  he  was  ]X)isoned 
at  the  instigation  of  Charles  I.  of  Sicily,  who  dreaded  the 
evidence  that  A.  would  give  of  him  at  Lyons. 

Even  during  his  life  A.  enjoyed  the  highest  consideration 
in  the  church.  His  voice  carried  decisive  weight  with  it; 
and  his  scholars  called  him  the  *  Universal,'  the  '  Angelic 
Doctor,' and  the  *  Second  Augustine.'  A  general  chapter 
of  Dominicans  in  Paris  made  it  obligatory  on  the  members 
of  the  order,  under  pain  of  punishment,  to  defend  his  doc- 
trines. It  was  chiefly  the  narratives  of  miracles  said  to  have 
been  wrought  by  A.  that  induced  John  XXII.,  in  1823,  to 
give  him  a  place  among  the  saints.  His  remains  were  de- 
posited in  the  convent  of  his  order  at  Toulouse.  Like  most 
of  the  other  scholastic  theologians,  he  had  no  knowledge  of 
Greek  or  Hebrew,  and  was  almost  equally  ignorant  of  history; 
but  his  writings  display  a  great  expenditure  of  diligence 
and  dialectic  art,  set  off  with  the  irresistible  eloquence  of 
j5cal.     His  chief  works  are— a  Commentary  on  the  Four 


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AQUITANIA— ARAB. 

Books  of  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard,  the  Sumrna  TheoUxjim, 
QutBstianes  Ditputatce  et  ^nocUibetales,  and  Opuscnla  TJieolo- 
gica.  He  gave  a  new  and  scientific  foundation  to  tlie doctrine  of 
the  church's  treasury  of  works  of  supererogation,  to  that  of 
withholding  the  cup  from  the  laity  in  the  communion,  and 
to  transubstantiation.  He  also  treated  Christian  morals  ac- 
cording to  an  arrangement  of  his  own,  and  wiQi  a  compre- 
hensivcness  that  procured  him  the  title  of  the  *  Father  of 
Moral  Philosophy.*  The  deliniteness,  clearness,  and  com- 
pleteness of  his  method  of  handling  the  theology  of  the 
church  cave  his  works  a  superiority  over  the  text-books  of 
the  earlier  writers  on  systematic  theology.  His  Bumma 
TheologuB  is  the  first  attempt  at  a  complete  theologiail 
system.  Accordingly,  Pius  V.,  to  whom  is  due  the  publi- 
cation of  the  completest  collection  of  A.'s  works  (18  vols., 
Rome,  1570;  a  newer-  but  less  trustworthy  ed.,  28  vols., 
Paris  1636-41),  ranks  him  with  the  greatest  teachers  of  the 
church.  In  his  philosophical  writings,  Uie  ablest  of  which 
is  his  8umma  Fidei  Catholiem  contra  QentiU$,  he  throws 
new  light  over  the  most  abstract  truths.  The  circumstance 
of  A.  being  a  Dominican,  and  boasted  of  by  his  order  as 
their  great  ornament,  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Fnmcis- 
cans  against  him.  In  the  beginning  of  the  14th  c,  Duns 
Scotus  (q.v.),  a  Franciscan,  came  forward  as  the  declared 
opponent  of  the  doctrines  of  A.,  and  founded  the  philosoph- 
ico-theological  school  of  th^  Scotists,  to  whom  the  Tho- 
mists,  moe^y  Dominicans,  stood  opposed.  The  Tliomists 
leaned  in  philosophy  to  Nominalism  (q.v.),  although  they 
held  the  abstract  form  to  be  the  essence  of  things:  tney  fol- 
lowed the  doctrines  of  Augustine  as  to  grace,  and  disputed 
the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Yir^n.  The  Scotists  in- 
clined to  Realism  (q.v.),  and  to  the  views  of  the  Semipela- 
gians,  and  upheld  the  immaculate  conception. 

AQUITANIA,  Akwe-td' nl-a:  Latin  name  of  a  part  of 
Ckul,  originally  including  the  country  between  the  Pyrenees 
and  the  Garonne,  peopled  by  Iberian  tribes  Augustus, 
when  he  divided  Gbul  into  four  provinces,  added  to  A.  the 
country  lying  between  the  rivers  Garonne  and  Loire.  After- 
wards A.  passed  into  the  hands,  first,  of  the  West  Ck)ths, 
.  and  then  of  the  Franks;  and  during  the  Merovinfi^an  dy- 
nas^,  became  an  independent  duchy.  Though  subjugated 
by  Charlemagne,  the  ducbv  again  claimed  indep<;naence 
under  the  weak  monarchs  of  the  Carlovingian  dvnasty.  In 
1137,  it  was  imitcd  to  the  crown  of  France  by  the  marriage 
of  Louis  VII.  with  Eleanor,  heiress  of  A.  In  1152,  A.  be- 
came an  English  possession  through  the  marriage  of 
Henry  II.  with  Eleanor,  whom  Louis  had  divorced,  and  a 
long  series  of  disputes  took  place  l)etweeu  England  and 
Prance  respecting  A.,  which  was  at  length  ultimately  imited 
to  the  crown  of  France  by  Charles  VIL,  1451. 

ARAB,  n.  dr'db,  or  Arabian,  n.  d-rd'bi'dn,  a  native  of 
Arabia.  Arabic,  a.  dr'dMk,  or  Arabian,  a.  drd'bl-dn, 
pertaining  to  Arabia  or  to  the  language  of  its  people. 
Ab'abic,  n.  the  language.  Arabist,  n.  dr'dblst,  one 
versed  in  Arabic.    ARABEsquE,  a.  dr'd-besk  [F.] :  in  thQ 


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ARABESQUE. 

manner  of  the  Arabian  architecture:  N.  an  ornament  in 
arch,,  consisting  of  imaginary  foliage,  stalks,  plants,  etc.; 
the  Arabic  language.  Ab'abibm,  n.  -hizm,  an  Arabic 
idiom.  Aba^t,  n.  dr'cM,  poetic  for  Arabia.  Arabs,  n« 
plu.,  the  wandering  tribes  of  Arabia  and  Northern  Africa; 
now  applied  to  the  destitute  children  wandering  in  tbe 
streets  of  towns.  Arabic  numerals,  the  ordinaiy 
figures  used  in  arithmetic,  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Arabians. 

AKABA,  n.  drd-hd  [Hindustani,  etc.]:  a  wheeled  car- 
riage; a  gun-carriage;  a  kind  of  cart  used  in  Eastern  jour- 
neys or  campaigns.  Those  of  the  higher  classes  are  usually 
ornamented  by  carvings  on  the  sides,  rich  fringes  depending 
from  the  covering,  etc. 

ARAB  AT  A,  n.  dr-Orhd'ta  [Native  name]:  an  American 
monkey  (Mycetes  stramineusf. 

ARABESQUE,  dr'd-besk:  meaning  merely  qfter  the  Ara- 
bian manner,  so  far  as  its  etymology  is  concerned,  might 
be  general'  in  its  application.    It  is,  however,  used  especially 
to  characterize  a  peculiar  kind  of  fantastic  decoration   om- 
monly  employed  in   conjunction  with   architecture,  and 
which  the  Spanish  Moora  are  supposed 
to  have  introduced  into  modem  Europe. 
But  the  species  of  enrichment  to  which 
this  term  is  now  applied  was   exten- 
sively employed   both   by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  the  latter  In  particular 
being  masters  of  the  style.    The  Egyp- 
tians, from  whom  the  Moora  probably 
derived  their  original  notions  of  this 
and  other  forms  of  art,  also  employed 
it  in  enriching  their  monumental  deco- 
rations.   But  the  A.  of  the  Moora  dif- 
fered from  that  of  the  Egyptians  in 
entirely  excluding  the  figures  of  ani- 
mals, the  representation  of  which  was 
forbidden  by  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
and  confining  itself  entirely  to  the  fo- 
liage,   flowera,  fruit,  and   tendrils  of 
plants  and  trees,  curiously  and  elabo- 
rately intertwined.    This  limitation  of 
the  field  of  A.  was  again  departed  from 
when  the  decorations  were  discovered 
on  the  walls  of  the  baths  of  Titus,  in 
Arabesque  Panel,    the  time  of  Leo  X. ;  and  more  recently 
From  the  Mosque  at  those  in  the  houses  at  Herculaneum  and 
Cordova.  Pompeii  came  to  form  the  models  of 

imitation,  and  the  modem  A.  consists 
usually  of  combinations  of  plants,  birds,  and  animals  of  all 
kinds,  including  the  human  figure,  and  embracing  not  only 
every  natural  variety,  but  stepping  without  hesitation 
beyond  the  bounds  of  nature.  The  freedom  with  which  it 
admits  the  fantastic  is,  indeed,  the  leading  peculiarity  of  A., 
which  F.  Schlegel  termed  *  the  oldest  and  original  form  of 
fancy.'    The  arabesques  with  which  Raphael  adorned  the 


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PLATE    8. 


Apse 
Arabesque 


i 


Apse.— Church  of  8ta  Maria-in-Tras- 
tevere,  Rome. 


Aqueduct  of  Segovia,  Spain. 


Aqaednct.— Pont  du  Gard.  Nimes. 


Ajr»b«u  (From  Lewis's  Constanti- 
nople.} 


Cinque-cento  Arabemiue,  from 
tcmb  in  Church  of  S.  Pietro-in  Vin 
culo,  Rome. 

Volri. 


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AKA3GIR. 

^^crtea  of  the  Vatican,  and  which  he  is  said  to  have  im. 
?J*^  from  those  which  he  had  been  instrumental  in  dis- 
^Tp^g  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  are  at  once  the  most  famous 
^  the  most  beautiful  which  the  modern  world  has  pro- 
^^'  Arabesques  are  usually  painted,  though  the  term  is 
?^*Pplied  to  sculptural  representations  of  similar  subjects 
Sto      'elief ,  and  to  carved  or  molded  metal  work.    See 

^^^ABGIR,  d-rdb-pJier',  or  Ababxir,  -ker'  (anc.  Atio- 
^^):  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  vilayet  of  Sivas;  in  a 
5^^*«itainous  and  rocky  district,  not  far  from  the  Euphrates; 
/rj  ^.  8.8. w.  from  Trebizond.  It  is  to  the  enterprise  and 
justly  of  the  Armenians  that  the  town  owes itsprosperity. 
*JJ8  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  goods  from  English  cot- 
^  yam.    The  neighboring  country  is  inhabited  by  Turco- 


^*J?.    Pop.  abt.  ^,000;  of  which  nearly  one-fourth  Ar- 
""^^^uaBs,  and  three-fourths  Turks. 


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ARABIA. 

ARABIA,  a-rd'bUi—c&Wed  by  the  inhabitants,  Jezirat-al- 
Arab  (the  peninsula  of  A.);  by  the  Turks  and  Persians, 
Arablstilu:  the  ercat  s.w.  peninsula  of  Asia;  12^  40'— 34'  n. 
lat.,  and  32"  30'— 60'  e.  long.  Its  greatest  leneth  from  n.w. 
to  s.e.  is  about  1,800  m.;  its  mean  breadth,  about  000; 
1,230,000  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  highlands 
of  Syria,  and  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  (or  by  a  line  from 
El  Arish  on  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Euphrates  delta);  on 
the  e.,  by  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Oman;  on  the 
8.,  by  the  Arabian  Sea;  and  on  the  w.,  by  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  Suez  canal.  Midway  between  Mecca  and  Medina  nms 
the  tropic  of  Cancer.  Ptolemy  is  supposed  to  be  the  author 
of  the  famous  threefold  division  into  Arabia  Petraa,  i.e., 
the  Arabia  of  the  city  of  Petra,  in  the  n.w.;  Arabia  Felix 
(an  incorrect  translation  of  Tcinen,  which  does  not  signify 
*  happy,'  but  the  land  lying  to  the  right  of  Mecca),  along 
the  w.  and  s.w.  coasts;  ima  Arabia  Deserta,  in  the  interior. 
The  more  precise  divisions  are;  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula  (see 
Sinai),  between  the  Gulfs  of  Suez  and  Akaba;  the  Hedjaz 
(Land  of  Pilgrimage),  the  larger  and  northern  strip  to  the  e. 
of  tlie  Red  Sea;  lenun,  the  s.  and  smaller  strip  to  the  e.  of 
the  Red  Sea;  Hadramaut,  the  region  along  the  southern 
coast;  Oman,  the  extreme  s.e.  end  of  the  pemnsula,  as  large 
as  England  and  Wales;  El-Hasa,  along  the  Persian  Gulf; 
N^d,  the  Central  Highlands  of  Arabia. 

In  shape,  A.  is  an  irre^lar  parallelogram,  broadest  at 
the  8.  end;  in  character,  it  is  mainly  African.  The  vast 
central  plateau  rises  from  a  height  of  2,500  ft.  in  the  n.  to 
7,000  ft.  in  the  s.w.,  and  is  bounded  by  w.  and  s.  mountain 
chains,  the  former  attaining,  s.  of  Mecca,  a  height  of  8,500  ft. 
Between  the  moimtains  and  the  sea  is  a  low  hot  strip  of 
land,  partially  fertile,  of  varying  width.  There  is  a  desert 
in  the  n.  of  the  interior,  the  mountainous  country  of  Nejd 
near  the  very  centre,  and  to  the  s.  of  Nejd  another  very 
sterile  sandy  desert.  Hedjaz  and  Yemen  extend  from  the 
Red  Sea  indefinitely  towards  the  interior,  and  consist  partly 
of  the  TeTiama,  or  low  country,  along  the  sea,  and  partly  of 
the  mountain  district  beyond.  Mecca  and  Medina  are  in 
Hedjaz.  Yemen  is  on  the  whole  well  watered,  has  rich  and 
fertile  valleys,  and  contains  one-fifth  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion of  Arabia.  Yemen  has  two  very  important  commercial 
towns.  Mocha  and  Loheia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Hadramaut  is  little  known,  but  resembles  the  Hedjaz  in 
character.  Oman  is  mainly  mountainous,  is  partly  very 
fertile,  and  possesses  the  good  harbor  of  Muscat.  It  has 
some  manufactures  of  cotton,  silk,  and  arms.  Large 
portions  of  A.  are  perfectly  arid,  but  the  more  fertile  portions 
are  so  extensive  as  to  constitute  two  thinls  of  the  total  area; 
one-third  of  the  whole  may  be  accounted  desert  and  un- 
inhabitable. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  interior  of  A.  is  still  very  imperfect 
in  detail.  The  largest  portion  of  it  lies  in  that  great  desert 
zone  which  stretches  from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  to  those 
of  the  Northern  Pacific.  Nejd,  the  n.  highland  or  central 
plateau  of  A.,  is  a  compact  settled  district,  culminating  m 
the  crescent-shaped  Jebel  Toweyk,  intersected  by  numerous 


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ARABIA. 

▼alleys,  roariDg  torrents  during  thi;  rains,  but  dry  depressions 
at  other  times.  North  of  Nejcl,  and  separated  from  it  bv  a 
narrow  arm  of  Nefud,  or  the  n.  desert  of  A.,  is  the  smaller 
plateau  of  Jebel  Shomcr,  crossed  by  the  ranges  of  Jebel  A  ja 
and  Jeliel  Selma.  The  n.  desert,  partly  stonv,  and  partly  a 
burning  expanse  of  red  saud,  is  thinly  sprinkled  over  with 
oases  of  wells  and  grass,  serving  as  nalting- places  for  the 
caravans  of  merchants  or  pilgrims.  The  oasis  of  Jauf,  60 
m.  long  by  10  m.  broad,  contains  three  flourishing  villages. 
Ikihna,  the  s.  and  main  desert  of  A.,  extends  from  Ncjd 
and  the  Hadramaut  coast  range,  and  has  never  been  explored 
by  any  European.  It  is,  however,  an  almost  absolutely 
sterile  sand-waste.    See  Muscat:  Zanzibar. 

Politically,  Hedjaz,  Yemen,  and  El  Hasa  are  really  three 
Turkish  provinces;  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula  is  in  Egyptian 
hands;  England  exercises  much  influence  in  Hadramaut 
through  her  possession  of  Aden;  the  sultan  of  Oman  is 
practically  independent,  and  in  alliance  with  England; 
Nejd,  the  seat  of  the  once  powerful  Wahabi  State  (see 
Wahabib),  may  be  said  to  be  mdependent,  though  the  emir 
of  Shomer  or  Shammar,  its  most  powerful  potentate,  pays 
a  small  annual  tribute  to  the  sherif  of  Mecca,  in  recognition 
of  Turkish  supremacy. 

A.  has,  on  the  whole,  an  African  climate.  Though  sur- 
TOimdcd  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  its  chains  of  hills  exclude 
in  a  great  measure  the  modifving  influence  of  currents  of 
air  from  the  ocean.  In  several  p«5ts  of  A.  hardly  a  refresh- 
ing shower  falls  in  the  course  of  the  ycr,  and  vegetation  is 
almost  unknown:  in  other  sultry  districts,  the  date-palm  is 
almost*  the  only  proof  of  vegetable  life.  Over  lai]?e  sterile 
tracts  hangs  a  sky  of  almost  unbroken  serenity.  The  short 
rainy  season  which  occurs  on  the  w.  coast,  durinjz  the  sum- 
mer.months  in  England  and  the  United  States,  nils  period- 
ically the  wadi8  (hollow  places)  with  water,  while  slight 
frosts  mark  the  winters  in  the  centre  and  n.e.  During  the 
hot  season,  the  Simoom  (q.v.)  blows,  but  only  in  the  n.  part 
of  the  land.  The  terraced  districts  are  more  favorable  to 
culture,  and  produce  wheat,  barley,  millet,  palms,  tobacco, 
indigo,  cotton,  sugar,  tamarinds,  excellent  coffee,  senna,  and 
many  aromatic  and  spice  plants,  as  balsam,  aloe,  myrrh, 
frankincense,  etc.  A.  is  destitute  of  forests,  but  has  vast 
stretches  of  desert  grass  fragrant  with  aromatic  herbs,  and 
furnishing  admimblc  pasturage  for  the  splendid  breed  of 
horses.  Coffee,  one  of  the  most  important  exports,  is  an 
indigenous  product  both  of  A.  and  Africa. 

In  the  animal  kingdom,  an  African  character  prevails 
generally.  Sheep,  goats,  and  oxen  satisfy  the  immediate 
domestic  and  personal  necessities  of  the  inhabitants,  to 
whom  the  camel  and  horse  arc  trusty  companions  in  their 
far  wanderings.  Gazelles  and  ostriches  frequent  the  oases 
of  the  deserts,  where  the  lion,  panther,  hyena,  and  jackal 
hunt  their  prey.  Monkeys,  pheasants,  and  doves  are  found 
in  the  fertile  districts,  where  flights  of  locusts  often  make 
sad  devastation.  Fish  and  turtle  abound  on  the  coast.  The 
noble  breed  of  Arabian  horses  has  been  cgiiltivated  for  several 
thousand  years;  but  the  most  characteristic  of  all  animals  in 


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ARABIA. 

the  peninsula  is  the  camel,  which  has  been  both  poetically 
and  justly  styled  'the  ship  of  the  desert.'  It  may  be 
regarded  as  an  Arabian  animal,  for  it  seems  to  be  proved 
that  it  is  not  a  native  of  Africa,  but  has  migrated  from  the 
peninsula  with  its  master.  The  camel  is  not  found  among 
the  figures  of  animals  in  the  ancient  Egyptian  paintings  on 
walls,  nor  does  it  appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians. The  breed  of  Oman  is  celebrated  for  its  beauty 
and  swiftness.  Among  the  minerals  of  A.  are  iron,  cop- 
per, lead,  coal,  basalt,  and  asphaltum,  and  the  precious 
stones,  emerald,  camelian,  agate,  and  on}^.  Pearls  are 
found  in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

But  the  most  interesting  feature  of  the  peninsula  is  its 
ancient  and  peculiar  population.  The  Arab  is  of  medium 
stature,  muscular  make,  and  brown  complexion.  Earnest- 
ness and  lofty  pride  look  out  of  his  glowing  eyes;  by  nature 
he  is  quick,  sharp-witted,  imaginative,  and  pa^onately  fond 
of  poetry.  Courage,  temperance,  hospitality,  and  good 
faith  are  his  leading  virtues;  but  these  are  often  marrcS  by 
a  spirit  of  sanguinary  revenge  and  rapacity.  His  wife  keeps 
the  house  and  educates  the  children. 

Arabian  life  is  either  nomadic  or  settled.  The  wandering 
tribes,  or  Bedouins,  who  have,  however,  their  allotted  win- 
ter and  summer  camping  grounds,  and  a  strong  home-feel- 
ing, entertain  notions  of  the  rights  of  property  differing 
seriously  from  those  regulating  the  West,  yet  even  their 
most  marauding  tribes  are  not  without  a  traditional  code  of 
law  and  honor.  The  settled  tribes,  styled  Hadesi  and  Fel- 
lahs, are  despised  by  the  Bedoums,  who,  breathing  a  pure 
air,  and  living  on  a  simple  diet,  are  physically  and  morally 
their  superiors.  Arabia  '  is  the  anti-Industrial  central  point 
in  the  world ;'  for  here  centuries  pass  away  without  any  im- 
provement save  what  has  been  introduced,  almost  compul- 
sorily,  by  foreigners.  The  export  of  coflfee,  dates,  fles, 
spices,  and  drugs,  tbough  still  considerable,  is  said  to  oe 
only  a  shadow  of  the  old  commerce  which  existed  before 
the  circumnavigation  of  Africa,  or  when  Aden  was  in  its 
prime,  and  the  Ked  Sea  was  the  ^reat  conunercial  route. 
A.  has  few  manufactures,  but  cames  on  a  transit-trade  in 
foreign  fabrics,  besides  importing  these  to  some  extent  for 
Its  own  necessities.  Education  is  mostly  confined  to  that 
within  the  household,  where,  however,  a  boy  is  instructed 
in  reading  and  writing,  in  grammar,  history,  and  poetry, 
and  where  he  Is  trained  to  habits  of  politeness  and  self-re- 
straint. In  the  few  higher  public  schools,  writing,  gram- 
mar, and  rhetoric  compose  the  whole  curriculum.  The 
government  is  patriarchal,  and  the  chief  men  of  the  various 
tribes  have  the  title  of  Emir,  Sheik,  or  Imaum.  Their  func- 
tion appears  limited  to  leading  the  troops  in  the  time  of  war, 
to  levying  tribute,  and  to  the  administration  of  justice.  A 
spirit  of  liberty  in  the  people  moderates  the  authority  of 
their  chieftains;  but  instances  of  extreme  despotism  have 
not  been  unfrequent  both  in  early  and  modem  times. 

History.— The  history  of  A.  before  the  time  of  Moham- 
med is  involved  in  •mystery,  and  has  little  interest,  on  ac- 
coimt  of  its  want  of  connection  with  the  world's  general 


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ARABIA.. 

progress.  As  indicative  of  the  African  origin  of  the  Arabs, 
the  followini^  ^urticulars  have  been  specined:  the  writings 
Samasa  ana  KUabel aghanee,  which  represent  the  ' pure ' 
Arabs  as  having  first  settled  on  the  extreme  s.  w.  of  the  pen- 
insula, thence  spreading  n.  and  e. ;  the  name  Himyar  (dupky) 
which  is  appli^  to  the  ruling  class,  sometimes  to  the  entire 
nation;  the  Himyaric  tongue,  which,  as  preserved  in 
come  proper  names,  etc.,  shows  decided  African  aflSnities; 
the  kinship  between  the  pre-Islamitic  institutions  of  Yemen 
and  those  of  the  historic  Egyptians,  and  even  of  the  modem 
Abysainians;  the  African  hairing  of  the  physique  and  man- 
ners of  the  pure-blooded  Arabs;  the  facility  of  marria^  be- 
tween the  8.  Arabs  and  the  Africans,  and  the  fecundity  of 
such  unions.  The  earliest  trustworthy  records  present  to 
us  an  Arabia  of  different  kingdoms  and  federal  governments, 
clustered  round  the  desert  interior,  and  all  more  or  less  under 
the  rule  of  a  race  of  southern  origin.  Yemen/q.v.)most 
prc^perous  of  these,  must,  as  the  fragmentary  native  records 
which  have  come  down  to  our  time  attest,  nave  enjoyed  a 
considerable  degree  of  civilization,  with  an  extensive  com- 
merce, a  poetic  literature,  and  practical  arts;  its  institutions 
showing  some  affinity  to  those  of  the  !Nile  Valley,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Red  »ea.  The  Himyaritic  dynasty  long  ruled 
In  Yemen;  and  HimyariHc  is  still  used  of  the  relics  of  the 
oldest  s.  Arabian  tongue.  Hira.  in  the  n.e.  prov.  of  Arabian 
Irak,  on  the  other  hfmd,  assimilated  somewhat  to  the  neigh- 
boring Persia;  Ghassan,  in  the  n.w.,  approaching  more  to  a 
Byzantine  complexion.  In  the  5th  c.  we  find  the  Kore^ah 
dan,  from  which  Mohammed  (q.v.)  sprung,  predominating 
in  A.,  and  masters  of  the  sacred  shrine  of  Kdabch  within 
the  precincts  of  Mecca,  a  possession  giving  them  not  only  a 
religious  pre-eminence  in  the  peninsula,  but  the  disposal  of 
tiie  accumulated  offerings  of  gold,  silver,  jewels,  etc.,  in 
the  temple,  a  fund  of  wealth  which  they  increased  by  com- 
merce on  the  Bed  Sea  coast.  In  the  pre-Islamite  times,  too, 
was  held  the  great  annual  fair  of  Okad,  in  a  plain  of  the 
same  name,  and  at  a  day's  journey  from  Mecca;  a  fair  at 
which  horse  races,  gymnastic  sports,  poetic  contests,  and 
other  amusements  enlivened  the  seriousness  of  trade  trans- 
actions. In  the  reign  of  Augustus,  ^lius  Gallus,  the  Ro* 
man  prefect  of  Egypt,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  unsuc 
cessfuUy  attempted  the  reduction  of  Yemen  to  the  Roman 
empire.  In  529,  however,  Yemen  was  conouered  by  a  larjge 
Abyssinian  army,  and  was  kept  in  subjection  to  the  Ethio- 

gians  for  76  years.  Christianity  found  an  early  entrance 
ito  Arabia.  The  Jews,  in  considerable  numbers,  migrated 
into  A.  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  made  manv 
proselytes,  espcoaliy  in  Yemeni.  This  diversity  of  creeds 
in  the  peninsula  was  favorable  to  the  introduction  of  the 
doctrine  of  Mohammed,  which  forms  the  grand  ejpoch  in 
Arabian  history,  and  brings  it  into  close  connection  with 
the  general  history  of  civilization.  Now,  for  the  first  time^ 
the  people  of  A.  became  united  under  one  sceptre  and  one 
creed,  and  powerful  enough  to  erect  new  empires  in  three 
quarters  of  the  world;  in  Falestine,  Mesopotamia,  and  Per- 
na;  in  Egypt  and  the  n.  of  Africa;  in  Spam.  The  dominion 


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AKABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

of  the  Arabs,  from  the  time  of  Mohammed  to  the  fall  of 
the  Caliphate  of  Bagdad,  1258,  or  even  to  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors  from  Spain,  1492,  is  an  important  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  civilization.  See  Moorb:  Caliph.  But  the  move- 
ments which  had  such  great  effects  on  the  destinies  of  other 
nations  left  the  peninsula  itself  in  an  exhausted  condition. 
Then  followed  the  subjugation  of  Yemen  by  the  Turks  in 
the  16th  c. ;  their  expulsion  in  the  17th  c. ;  Uie  dominion  of 
the  Portuguese  over  Muscat,  1508-1659;  the  conquests  of 
Oman,  and  the  temporary  victories  gained  by  the  Persians 
at  the  close  of  the  16th  c. ;  and,  lastly,  the  appearance  of  the 
Wahabis  (q.v.),  1770.  The  progress  of  the  latter  was  inter 
rupted  by  Mehemet  All  (q.v.),  the  pasha  of  Egypt,  who  sub- 
jugated the  coast-country  of  Hediaz,  with  some  parts  of  the 
coast  of  Yemen.  The  events  of  the  year  1840,  in  Syria, 
compelled  Mehemet,  however,  to  resign  all  claims  upon  the 
territories  lying  beyond  the  Red  Sea.  Since  then,  the  polit- 
ical conditions  have  come  to  be  as  described  above :  see  also 
Wahabis.  Arab  influences  are,  of  course,  still  powerful 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  peninsula,  in  manv  parts  of  Africa, 
and  especially  in  n.  Africa  and  Egypt.  Pop.  of  A.  conjec- 
tured not  much  above  5,000,000. . 

ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE:  usual  term  for  Moorish 
or  Mohammedan  architecture.  So  inseparable  is  the  con- 
nection between  architecture  and  reli^on  that  it  may  be 
stated  as  a  general  rule  that  no  sooner  is  a  new  religion  en- 
gendered than  it  finds  expression  in  new  architecture  forms. 
Of  this,  an  interesting  instance  is  in  the  simultaneous  rise  of 
Mohammedanism,  and  of  the  style  of  architecture  commonly 
called  Arabian  or  Moorish,  but  to  which  the  name  of  Mo- 
hammedan might  far  more  appropriately  be  given,  seeing 
that  it  has  everywhere  followed  the  religion  of  the  Crescent, 
and  that  the  Arabians  previously  had  no  architecture  pecul- 
iar to  themstiives.  It  is  further  remarkable  that  this  style 
seems  to  have  arisen  undesignedly,  or  without  conscious 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  people  among  whom  it  first  ap- 
peared .  The  followers  of  the  Prophet  contemplated  nothing 
peculiar  in  Uieir  ecclesiastical  structures;  and  at  first  their 
mosques  were  built  bv  Christian  architects  from  Constanti- 
nople. As  a  natural  consequence,  they  resembled  Byzan- 
tine churches  modified,  in  the  countries  of  which  the  Moors 
successively  possessed  themselves,  by  the  features  of  the  ex- 
isting churches.  Gradually  the  new  and  fanciful  orna- 
mentation known  as  Arabesque  (q.v.)  was  added  to  the  rec- 
ognized features  of  Greek  and  Roman  edifices.  The  exclu- 
sion of  animal  figures,  which  their  abjiorrence  of  the  very 
appearance  of  idolatry  necessitated,  confined  the  Moham- 
medan artists  to  the  imitation  of  vegetable  productions, 
varied  by  geometrical  patterns  and  inscriptions,  of  which 
the  letters  were  woven  into  forms  suited  for  architectural 
uses.  But  the  most  original  feature  in  their  edifices,  and 
that  by  which  they  have  continued  to  be  marked  from  all 
others,  is  the  horse-shoe  arch.  The  example  in  the  illustra- 
tion presents  a  form  which,  notwithstanding  its  extreme 
beauty,  has,  strange  to  say,  scarcely  ever  been  imitated  in 
the  Christian  church.    TheLrOointed  arch,  on  the  other  hand, 


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ARABIAN  GULF. 

and  the  various  forms  of  the  trefoil  and  quatrefoil  arches, 
though  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  we  are  indebted  for 
them  to  the  rich  invention  of  the  Moorish  architects,  have 
become  so  entirely  Christian  as  to  be  no  longer  associated  in 
our  minds  with  the  religion  of  the  Prophet.     It  is  said  that 


MooriBh  Gateway. 

ibc  pointed  arch  is  to  be  found  in  Mohammedan  buildings 
AS  early  as  780  (Parker's  QUmary  of  Architecture),  whercHa 
the  earliest  examples  of  its  use  in  Christian  architecture  be- 
long to  the  12th  c.  Moorish  architecture  probably  reached 
its  highest  point  of  development  in  the  Alhambra. 
ARABIAN  GULF:  see  Red  Sf.\. 


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ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

ARABLAN  LANGUAGE  and  LITERATURE:  in- 
cluded in  the  Semitic  family.  Regarding  the  oldest  lite* 
rary  culture  of  the  Arabians,  we  have  but  slight  informa- 
tion. That  their  poetry  at  least  must  have  had  a  very 
early  development,  may  be  inferred  from  the  natural  dis- 
position of  the  inhabitants,  characterized  for  their  hi^ 
spirit,  courage,  love  of  adventure,  and  delight  in  the  glory 
of  war.  As  far  bach  as  Solomon's  time,  the  queen  of  Sneba 
(probablv  Arabia  Felix)  was  noted  for  her  sententious  say- 
ings. The  nomadic  tribes,  living  under  the  patriarchal  rule 
of  their  sheiks,  possessed  everything  that  was  fav(»able  to 
the  growth  of  a  simple  and  natural  poetry.  They  had 
quick  and  vivid  feelings,  and  a  rich,  glowing  fancy,  which, 
operating  upon  the  perils,  the  hardships,  and  strange  con- 
federate life  they  led  in  those  barren  sand  deserts,  and 
amon^  naked  rocks,  could  hardly  fail  to  call  forth  a  wild 
and  vigorous  minstrelsy.  Before  the  time  of  Mohammed, 
the  Arabians  had  celebrated  poets  who  sang  the  feuds  of 
tribes,  and  the  praises  of  heroes  and  fair  women.  During 
the  great  fairs  at  Mecca  and  Okadh,  poetic  contests  were 
held  before  the  people  as  at  the  Grecian  games;  and  the  ' 
poems  to  which  tne  prize  was  awarded,  were  re-written  in 
golden  characters,  and  suspended  in  the  Eaaba  at  Mecca,  the 
venerable  national  temple  which  the  Mohammedans  affirm  to 
have  been  built  by  Abraham,  or  Ishmad.  They  are  termed 
the  Moaflakdt—\,  e.. '  the  Suspended  '—from  the  honor  con- 
ferred on  them,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  pathos,  soar- 
ing conceptions,  richness  of  imagery  and  phraseology,  free 
and  imconstrained  spirit,  and  the  glow  of  their  love  and 
hate.  Am^n^  the  famous  poets  of  this  early  period  are 
Nabegha,  Asna,  Shanfara— whose  works  were  translated 
and  published  by  De  Sacy  in  his  Chrestomathie  Arabe—fknd, 
lastly,  Eaab-ben-Zohalr,  who  lived  to  celebrate  the  praises  of 
the  prophet  Mohammed. 

But  the  most  brilliant  period  of  Arabic  culture  is  that 
which  Mohammed  himself  inaugurated  in  the  Koran.  His 
new  doctrines  of  faith  and  life,  collected  tmder  this  title  by 
the  first  caliph,  Abubekr,  were  revised  and  published  by 
Othman,  third  caliph.  The  naturally  adventurous  n>irit  of 
the  Arabs  found  a  suitable  excitement  in  the  half-religious, 
half -military  system  of  Mohammed ;  and,  after  his  death,  their 
fanaticism  prepared  them  for  their  subsequent  career.  Like 
an  overwhelmmc^  torrent,  they  passed  over  the  neighboring 
states,  and  in  the  short  space  of  eighty  years  from  the 
death  of  their  prophet,  had  extended  their  dominion  from 
Egypt  to  India,  and  from  Lisbon  to  Samarcand.  During 
this  time  nothing  can  be  said  of  their  culture  and  refinement 
A  fanatical  desire  of  conquest  prevailed.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, by  their  intercourse  with  civilized  nations,  the  Arabian 
conquerors  were  themselves  subjected  to  the  humanizing  in- 
fluence of  letters,  and,  after  749,  or  during  the  reign  of  the 
Almssides,  literature,  arts,  and  sciences  appeared,  and  wen 
generously  fostered  under  the  splendid  sway,  first  of  Alman- 
sor  (754-775),  and  afterwards  of  the  celebrated  Harun-al- 
Raschld  (786-808).  Learued  n^ja.  ircie  now  invited  from 
iSADy  countries,  and  remunerated   for  their  labors  with 


1 


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PLATE      9  .  Arabian  Architecture 


Arabian  Architcjcture.— The  Mosque  of  Kait  Bey,  Cairo.    (From  f^ 
Photograph  by  Frith . ) 


yol.% 


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ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

princely  munificence;  the  works  of  the  best  Greek,  Syriac, 
and  old  Persian  writers  were  translated  into  Arabic,  and 
spread  abroad  m  numerous  copies.  The  Caliph  Al  Mamun, 
who  reigned  813  to  833,  offered  to  the  Greek  emperor  five 
tons  of  gold  and  a  perpetual  treaty  of  peace,  on  condition 
that  the  philosopher  Leo  should  be  allowed  for  a  time  to 
give  instruction  to  the  former.  There  are  few  instances  of 
such  a  price  offered  for  lessons  in  philosophy.  Under  the 
sway  of  the  same  Al-Mamun,  excellent  schools  were  founded 
In  Bagdad,  Basra,  Bokhara,  and  Eufa;  while  large  libraries 
were  collected  at  Alexandria,  Bagdad ,  and  Cairo.  In  Spain, 
the  high  school  of  Cordova  rivalled  the  literary  fame  of 
Bagdad,  and,  generally,  in  the  10th  c,  the  Arabs  appeared 
eveiywhere  as  the  preservers  and  distributers  of  knowl- 
edge. Pupils  from  France,  and  other  European  countries, 
then  began  to  repair  to  Spain  in  n-eat  numbers  to  study 
mathematics  and!^  medicine  under  the  Arabs.  There  were 
fourteen  academies,  with  many  preparatory  and  upper 
schools  in  Spain,  and  five  very  considerable  public  libranes; 
that  of  the  Caliph  Hakem,  containing,  as  is  said,  more  than 
600,000  vols.  This  state  of  culture,  when  compared  with 
that  prevident  before  Mohammed,  shows  a  rapidity  of  prog- 
ress in  knowledge  almost  as  remarkable  as  the  career  of 
Arabian  conquest. 

In  geography,  histoir,  philosophy,  medicine,  physics,  and 
mathematics,  the  Arabians  renclered  important  services  to 
science;  and  the  Arabic  words  still  employed  in  science- 
such  as  algebra,  alcohol,  azimuth,  zenith,  nadir,  with  many 
names  of  stars,  etc.— remain  as  indications  of  their  influence 
on  the  early  intellectual  culture  of  Europe.  But^eo^phy 
owes  most  to  them  during  the  middle  ages.  In  Afnca  and 
Asia,  the  boundaries  of  geographical  science  were  extended, 
and  the  old  Arab  treatises  on  geography  and  works  of  trav- 
els in  several  countries  by  Abiufeda,  Edrisi,  Leo  Africa- 
nus,  Ibn  Batuta,  Ibn  Foslan,  Ibn  Jobair,  Albiruni  the  as- 
tronomer, and  others,  are  still  interesting  and  valuable. 

History  was  also  studiously  cultivated.  The  oldest  Arable 
historian  now  knowi}  is  Mohammed- al-Eelbi  (d.  819).  About 
the  same  period,  however,  flourished  several  other  historians. 
After  the  dawn  of  the  10th  c,  history  became  a  favorite 
study  of  the  Arabs.  The  first  who  attempted  a  universal 
survey  of  the  subject  were  Masudi,  Tabari,  Hamza  of 
Ispahian,  and  Eutychius,  the  Christian  Patriarch  of  Alex* 
andria.  Masudi's  work  is  entitled  Meadows  of  Gold  and 
Mines  of  Gems,  These  were  followed  by  Abulfaraj  and 
George  Elmakin  (both  Christians),  Abulfeda,  and  others. 
Nuvairi  wrote  a  History  of  Sicily  under  the  Government  of  the 
Arabs.  Various  sections  of  Arabic  histories  relating  to  the 
Crusades  have  been  translated  into  French.  On  the  domin- 
ion of  the  Arabs  in  Spain,  several  works  were  written  by 
Abul-Kasemof  Cordova  (d.  1139),  Temini,  and  others.  For 
extended  notices  the  student  of  Arabic  literature  is  referred 
to  the  translations  by  Quatrem^re  and  others.  Von  Ham- 
mer began  a  history,  which  comes  down  only  to  the  13th 
c  (7  vols.,  1850-56).    See  Zenker's  hibliotheca  Orientalis. 

Arabian  theology  and  jurisprudfjnce  arc  intimately  con- 

»-13 


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ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

nected  and  both  founded  on  the  Koran;  but  are  not  so 
simple  and  uniform  as  is  ^nerally  supposed.  Speculation 
began  to  prevail  first  durmg  the  Ommaiade  dynasty,  and 
the  Aristotelian  philosophy  to  be  studied  by  the  Arabs.  As 
a  coasequence,  the  vague  statements  of  the  Koran  were  soon 
variously  interpreted,  and  a  host  of  sects  gradually  arose. 
See  Mohammedan  Sects.  Of  these  only  four  are  reguxled 
as  orthodox,  leaving  not  less  than  seventy-two  heretiad, 
whose  discordant  tenets  are  stated  in  the  work  of  Shari^ani 
(edited  by  Cureton,  London,  1842).  The  four  orthodox 
sects  are:  the  Hanefites,  who  do  not  reject  tradkion,  but 
subordinate  it  to  rationalism;  the  Shafites,  who  entirely  re- 
fuse the  aids  of  reason  and  philosophy  in  their  treatment  of 
theolo^ry ;  the  Kambalitcs  and  the  Malechites,  who  allow 
speculation  on  points  where  there  is  no  tradition.  The  col- 
lection of  traditions  known  as  the  Sunna  gives  an  account 
of  the  sayings  and  doings  of  Mohamm^,  and,  though 
pedantic  in  its  details,  is  in  substance  more  valuable  than 
the  Koran.  The  interpretation  of  the  Koran  constitutes  the 
principal  part  of  education  in  theological  jurisprudence. 
The  most  celebrated  of  the  commentators  are  Samakhshari 
and  Baidhawi.  The  conquest  of  Algiers  has  rendered  tiie 
study  of  Arabic  or  Mohammedan  law  indispensable  to  the 
French.  The  result  is,  that  several  most  important  works 
on  that  subject  have  appeared  of  late  from  the  Paris  press, 
such  as  Precis  de  Jurisprudence  Musulmane,  sdon  le  Bite 
Malechitepar  KhalH-lbn-Isltak  (translated  by  Perron,  Paris. 
1848),  and  Legislation  Musulmane  Sunmte,  Bite  HdrM 
(Paris,  1848). 

Arabian  philosophy,  which  was  of  Grecian  origin,  held 
the  same  relation  to  the  Koran  as  the  Scholasticism  of  ^e 
middle  ages  did  to  the  Christian  Scriptures—that  is,  it  was 
regarded  as  the  servant  of  faith.  The  chief  study  of  the 
Arabs  was  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  who  became  oiown  in 
Spain,  and  subsequently  in  all  Western  Europe,  through 
translations  from  Arabic  into  Latin;  though  the  Arabs  them- 
selves knew  the  Greek  philoSbpher  onlvin  translations  made 
during  the  time  of  the  Abassides.  Especial  attention  was 
paid  to  logic  and  metaphysics.  The  most  distinguished  of 
their  philosophical  writers  are:  Alkendi  of  Basra,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  9th  c;  Alfarabi,  who  wrote  a  work  on 
First  Pnnciples,  954;  Avicenna  (d.  1086),  who  combined 
the  study  of  logic  and  metaphysics  with  that  of  medicine, 
and  made  considerable  progress  in  chemistry,  nosology,  and 
medical  botany;  Ibn-Tahya,  who  acauired  high  reputation 
as  an  original  thinker;  Alghazali  (a.  1111),  who  wrote  a 
book  entitled  7%e  Destruction  of  all  Iddairous  Philosophical 
Systems;  Abubekr-ibn-Tofail  (d.  1190),  who  taught  in  his 
philosophical  novel  Hai^hnrTokdan  (edited  bjr  Pococke, 
Oxford,  1671)  the  development  of  men  from  animals;  and 
his  pupil,  Averrhoes,  greatly  esteemed  as  an  expositor  of 
Aristotle.  For  an  account  of  these  men  and  their  systems, 
see  8ur  les  jSkoles  Phihsophiqv^s  ehez  les  Arabes,  etc.,  by 
SchmSlders  (Paris,  1842),  and  Ritter's  Ueber  unsere  Kennt- 
niss  der  Arab.  PhilosopMe  (Gott.  1844);  also  Kenan's  Aver 
roh  et  VAverroisme  (1850). 

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ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

Many  of  these  illustrious  Arabian  philosophers  were 
also  physicians.  The  great  skill  which  the  Arabs  ac- 
quired in  their  knowlettee  of  the  uses  and  i>roperties  of 
medicinal  herbs  is  traced  by  Humboldt  to  their  geograph- 
ical position.  The  s.  part  of  Arabia  *  is  characteri^  by  the 
highly  developed  vital  force  pervading  vegetation,  by  whic^ 
an  abtmdance  of  aromatic  and  balsamic  Juices  is  yielded  to 
man  from  various  beneficial  and  deleterious  substances. 
The  attention  of  the  people  must  early  have  been  directed 
to  the  natural  products  of  their  native  soil,  and  those 
brought  as  articles  of  commerce  from  the  accessible  coasts 
of  Malabar,  Ceylon,  and  Eastern  Africa.  Hence  arose  the 
wish  to  distinguish  carefully  from  one  another  those} 
precious  articles  of  commerce,  which  were  so  important  to 
medicine,  manufacture,  etc.  .  .  .  The  science  of  medicine, 
considered  as  to  its  scientific  development,  is  essentially  a 
creation  of  the  Arabs,  to  whom  the  oldest,  and  at  the  same 
time  one  of  the  richest,  sources  of  knowledge— that  of  the 
Indian  physicians— had  been  early  opened.  Chemical 
pharmacy  (see  Alchemy)  was  created  by  the  Arabs,  while 
to  them  are  also  due  the  nrst  official  prescriptions  regarding 
the  preparatioa  and  admixture  of  different  remedial  agents— 
the  dispensing  recipes  of  the  present  day.  These  were  sub- 
sequently diffused  over  the  s.  of  Europe  by  the  School  of 
Salerno'  (Humboldt's  Cosmos,  vol.  ii.  p.  581,  Bohn's  trans- 
lation). Pharmacy  and  materia  mediea  naturally  led  to 
botany  and  chemistry.  For  three  centuries — from  the  8th 
to  the  llth—a  rich  scientific  culture  prevailed.  Schools  of 
philosophy  and  medicine  sprang  up  at  Jondisahur,  Bagdad, 
Ispahan,  Firuzabad,  Bokhara,  Kufa,  Basra,  Alexandria, 
Cordova,  etc.  In  aU  departments  of  medical  science  a 
great  advance  was  made,  except  in  anatomy.  The  reason 
of  this  exception  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  Koran  forbids  the 
dissection  of  bodies.  The  most  famous  writers  on  medicine 
are  Aharun,  Alkendi,  Avicenna  (q  v.),  wh©  wrote  the 
(Janon  cf  Medicine,  for  a  long  time  the  only  handbook  on 
the  subject;  Ali-ben- Abbas,  Ishak-ben-Soleiman,  Abulka- 
«em,  Averrhoes  (q.v.),  who  wrote  a  complete  system  of 
medicine;  Ali-ben-Isa,  etc. 

In  mathematics,  the  Arabs  made  great  advances  by  the 
Introduction  of  the  numerals  and  moide  of  notation  now  in 
use,  of  the  sine  instead  of  the  chord  (in  trigonometry),  and 
of  a  more  extended  application  of  algebra.  Astronomy  was 
zealously  studied  in  the  famous  schools  and  observatones  of 
Bagdad  and  Cordova.  Alzahan  wrote  upon  optics;  Nassi- 
reddin  translated  the  Elements  of  Euclid;  Jeber-ben-Afla 
furnished  a  commentary  on  the  trigonometry  of  Ptolemy, 
etc.  The  Almagest  or  System  of  Astronomy  by  Ptolemy, 
was  translated  into  Arabic  by  Alhazi  and  Sergius  as  early  as 
813.  In  the  10th  c,  Albaten  observed  the  advance  of  the 
line  of  the  apsides  in  the  earth's  orbit;  Mohammed-ben- 
Jeber-al-Batani,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic;  Alpetragius 
wrote  a  theory  of  the  planets;  and  Abul-Hassan-Ali,  on 
astronomical  instruments. 

Beside  these  advances  in  the  solid  branches  of  knowl< 
edge,  the  genius  of  the  Arabs  continually  flowered  into 

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ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

poetry.  Numerous  poets  sprang  up  in  all  lands  where  the 
children  of  the  desert  haa  carried  their  irresistible  faith. 
Their  verse,  however,  was  not  the  rude,  simple  minstrelsy 
of  a  purely  patriarchal  people;  it  gradually  allied  itself  to 
the  prevailing  cultiu^,  and  took,  especially  in  the  golden 
epoch  of  Arabian  civilization,  a  highly  ardstic  form. 
Motenebbi,  Abul-Ala,  and  others  acquired  great  reputation 
for  their  delicate  Idyls;  Busiri,  for  his  eulogy  of  Moham- 
med; Uamaddni,  as  the  first  to  introduce  novels  in  verse 
(of  which  he  wrote  400  under  the  title  of  MakdmcU),  a  style 
of  literature  brought  to  perfection  by  Hariri;  Azzeddin, 
for  his  ingenious  allegorical  poem,  'The  Birds  and  the 
Flowers. '  Besides  these,  a  singularly  wild  and  fantastic  prose 
literature  made  its  appearance,  in  which  the  craving  for  the 
wonderful  and  gorgeous,  so  characteristic  of  the  restless, 
adventure-loving  Arabs,  was  richly  gratified.  Romances 
and  legendary  tales  abounded.  The  most  famous  of 
these  are:  The  Arabian  Nights*  Entertainments  (q.v.),  Ths 
Exploits  of  Antar,  The  Ex^ts  of  the  Champions,  and  The 
Exploits  of  the  Hero.  In  fact,  with  the  exception  of  the 
drama,  there  was  no  sort  of  poetry  which  the  Arabs  did  not 
attempt.  The  effect  of  this  umversality  and  richness  hi 
Arabic  literature  was,  that  it  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
on  modem  European  poetry.  The  tales  of  fays,  charms, 
sorceries,  and  the  whole  gorgeous  machinery  of  enchant- 
ment passed  into  the  poetry  of  the  West  Dunng  the  middle 
ages  of  European  history,  several  of  the  most  popular  and 
widely  spread  books  were  of  Arabic  origin,  such  as  The 
Seven  Wise  Masters  and  The  Fables  of  Btdpai,  though  the 
Arabians  themselves  borrowed  largely  from  the  rersian 
stories  and  the  Greek  fables. 

All  this  culture  of  the  early  ages  of  Mohammedanism 
presents  a  strong  contrast  to  the  ignorance  which  now  pre- 
vails among  the  Arabs.  The  brutal  fanaticism  of  the 
Turks  nipped  the  blooming  promise  of  the  East;  sunk  in 
stupid  indolence,  the  peoples  await  in  apathetic  resignation 
their  deliverance  and  return  to  higher  modes  of  life.  Liter- 
ature furnishes  now  nothing  worthy  of  notice.  Learning 
spends  itself  principally  in  commentaries  and  scholia,  in 
scholastic  discussions  on  the  subject-matter  of  dogmatics  and 
jurisprudence,  and  in  tedious  granmiatical  disquisitions  con- 
ceming  the  old  Arabic  speech,  generally  acute  and  subUe, 
but  always  unprofitable  and  unenlivening.  The  swift  and 
mobile  genius  of  the  East  has  departed  and  pedantic  dulness 
has  usurped  its  place.  There  are  *  Dryasdusts'  even  in  Uie 
desert.  A  few  modem  writers  have  attempted,  with  more 
or  less  success,  to  imitate  European  forms  of  thought  and 
sentiment.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned  Michael  Sabbath 
of  Syria  {La  Cohmbe  Messagere,  Arabic  and  French,  Pans, 
1805);  the  Sheik  Kefaa  of  Cairo  {The  Broken  Lyre,  Paris. 
1827;  Manners  and  Customs  of  th^  Europeans,  Cairo,  1834; 
Travels  in  France,  Cairo,  1825);  and  Nasif-Effendi,  of  Bei- 
mt.  who  wrote  the  critical  observations  in  De  Sacy's  edition 
of  Hariri  {Epistola  Critiea,  Leipsic,  1848). 

The  Arabic  also  possesses  a  Christian  and  Jewish  litera- 
ture, which,  however,  is  chiefly  ecclesiastical.    Its  principal 


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ARABIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

oraaments  are  Entychius,  Elmakin,  and  AbulfaraJ.  Trans- 
ladoDsof  the  Old  Test,  were  made  not  from  the  Hebrew, 
bat  from  the  Septuagint,  or  from  Latin  versions.  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  Spanish  Jews  employed  Arabic  for  their 
learned  compositions;  and  several  of  the  most  important 
'works  of  Moses  Maimonides,  etc.,  were  originally  written 
in  that  tongue. 

The  Arabic  langua^,  it  has  been  remarked,  is  at  once  both 
rich  and  poor.  It  is  necessarilv  destitute  of  innumerable 
words,  describing  those  ideas  ana  objects  which  only  civili- 
SEBtion  can  develop  or  produce;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
rich  and  nimble  fancy  of  the  Arabians  has  multiplied,  to  an 
almost  incredible  extent,  the  svnonyms  of  their  desert-tongue, 
so  that  in  some  cases  several  hundreds  of  expressions  are 
found  for  the  same  thing.  The  Arabic  is  distinguished 
among  the  Semitic  family  of  languages,  for  its  antiquity  and 
soft  flexible  grace.  It  is  divided  into  two  dialects — ^northern 
and  southern.  The  fonner,  through  the  instrumentality  of 
the  Koran,  became  the  predominant  language  of  literature 
and  commerce  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  Arabian 
dominions;  the  latter, called  Himyaric(q. v.),  although  in  all 
probability  the  source  of  the  Ethiopic  language  and  writing, 
18  known  as  yet  only  by  a  few  inscriptions,  etc.  The  ear- 
liest Arabic  grammarian  is  Abul-Aswad-al-Duli,  who  lived 
under  the  fourth  caliph,  AIL  The  first  who  reduced  the  pros- 
ody and  metre  of  the  iiabian  poets  to  a  system  was  Khalil- 
ben-Ahmed-al-Ferahidi  of  Basra.  Al-Jauhari,  who  died 
1009,  drew  up  a  dictionary  of  the  pure  Arabic  speech,  which 
he  entitled  AlrSOwh  (*  Purity  O*  and  which  is  held  in  high 
estimation  to  this  day.  Mobiammed-ben-Yakub-al-Firuza- 
badi,  who  died  1414,  was  the  author  of  an  Arabic  Thesaurus, 
entitled  Al-Kamu%  ('  The  Ocean*),  the  best  lexicon  in  the 
language,  and  has  consequently  been  translated  into  Persian 
and  Turkish.  Jordshani  has  explained,  in  alphabetical  or- 
der, the  meaning  of  the  technical  terms  used  in  Arabic  art 
and  science.  His  work  was  published  by  FlOgel  (Leipsic, 
1845),  under  the  title  of  Defimtiones.  Meidani  made  a  large 
collection  of  Arabic  'saws,'  apothegms,  etc.,  pub.  by 
Fieytog,  Bonn,  1838.  Through  the  conquests  of  the  Arabs 
in  Sicilj^  and  Spain,  their  language  became  known  in 
Europe;  but  notwithstanding  the  numerous  traces  of  its  in- 
fluence in  various  European  tongues,  it  became  forgotten 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain.  The  first 
European  scholars  who  earnestly  took  up  l&e  subject  were 
the  Dutch,  in  the  17th  c;  after  them  the  Germans,  French, 
and  English.  It  is  now,  however,  beginning  to  be  con- 
sidered a  necessary  part  of  a  learned  theologic^  education. 
The  modem  Arabic  of  the  inhabitants  is  substantially  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Koran,  but  the  lapse  of  time  has  gradu- 
ally introduced  changes  in  the  grammatical  forms  of  the 
language  as  in  other  languages.  Wrist's  J.raWc  Orammar 
(new  emtion)  is  one  of  the  b^  extant:  Lane's  Arabic-Eng^ 
U$h  Lexicon  is  a  standard  work;  and  Badger's  English-Arabic 
Lexicon  (1881)  is  also  excellent.  The  grammatical  and  lexico- 
graphical works  of  Caspari,  Freytag,  Fleischer,  De  Sacy,  and 
BocUior,  are  most  important 


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ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAINMENTS. 

Arabic  TTrih'n^.— Like  all  Semitic  writing,  this  prooeeds 
ftom  right  to  left  It  is  borrowed  from  the  old  Syriac,  and 
was  probably  introduced  into  Arabia  by  Christian  missioo- 
aries  about  the  time  of  Mohammed.  In  its  oldest  form  it  is 
called  Eufic,  from  the  town  of  Eufa,  on  the  Euphrates, 
where  the  transcription  of  the  Koran  was  busily  carried  on. 
Its  characters  are  rude  and  coarse,  and  it  has  particular 
symbols  for  only  sixteen  of  the  twenty-eight  Arabic  con- 
sonants. This  writing,  nevertheless,  continued  to  be  em- 
ployed for  800  years,  and  for  coins  and  inscriptians  even 
later;  but  in  the  10th  c.  it  was  displaced  for  common  pur- 
poses by  a  current  handwriting,  the  Neskhi,  introduced  by 
Ebn  Mokla.  This  is  the  character  still  in  use.  In  this  the 
consonants  which  resemble  each  other  are  distinguished  try 
points,  and  the  vowels  by  strokes  over  and  under  the  line. 

ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAINMENTS:  a  collec 
tion  of  Oriental  tales,  first  made  known  to  Europe  by  An- 
tony Galland,  a  French  orientalist,  under  the  title  of  ITie 
ThhuMnd  and  One  NighU,  Arabian  Stories,  Trandated  *nU> 
French;  pub.  Paris,  12  vols.  12mo,  1704-17,  and  received 
by  many  as  the  production  of  the  genius  of  the  tnmslator 
himself,  rather  than  the  collection  of  an  unknown  Arabian 
author,  as  Galland  had  stated  in  his  dedication.  Oriental 
scholars  did  not  hesitate  at  first  to  declare  against  their  au- 
thenticity, and  denounce  them  as  forgeries.  Having  taken 
only  an  obscure  place  in  the  literature  of  the  East,  and  their 
style  unfitting  them  from  being  classed  amon^  models  of 
eloquence  or  taste— having  no  object  of  a  religious,  moral, 
or  philosophical  kind  in  view,  while  tlie  manners  and 
customs  delineated  in  them  were  different  from  all  received 
ideas  of  those  of  the  Moslem  nations— their  success  took  the 
critics  by  surprise.  The  work  became  highly  esteemed  by 
the  public;  it  fill^  Europe  with  its  fame;  it  had  abundance 
of  readers,  and  no  lack  of  editors.  Few  books  have  been 
translated  into  so  many  different  languages,  and  given  de- 
light to  so  large  a  numoer  of  readers.  It  may  be  said  that, 
in  these  oriental  tales,  there  has  sprung  up  a  new  branch  of 
literature,  for  their  influence  on  the  literature  of  the  present 
day  is  easily  discernible.  Here  are  found,  depicted  with 
much  simphcity  and  great  effect,  the  scenes  of  the  town-life 
of  the  Moslem.  The  prowess  of  the  Arab  knight,  his  pas- 
sion for  adventure,  his  dexterity,  his  love  and  his  revenge, 
the  craft  of  his  wives,  the  hypocrisjr  of  his  priests,  and  me 
corruptibility  of  his  judges,  all  are  <uamatically  delineated — 
far  more  vividly  represented,  in  fact,  than  is  possible  in  a 
book  of  travels;  while  ^Ided  palaces,  charming  women, 
lovely  gardens,  and  exquisite  repasts  captivate  the  senses  of 
the  reader,  and  transport  him  to  the  land  of  wonder  and 
enjoyment.  Besides  entertaining  the  mind  with  the  kaleido- 
scopic wonders  of  a  teeming  and  luxurious  fancy,  which  is 
their  most  obvious  merit,  they  present  a  treasure  of  instruo* 
tion  upon  life  in  ^neral,  and  oriental  life  in  particular. 
And  this  is  undeniable,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
aspects  of  society  they  depict  are  far  from  high  in  the  social 
scale,  either  as  to  civilization  or  morality.  In  them  no  stoiy 
is  to  be  found  that  will  rank  in  morality  with  the  story  of 


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ARABIAN  NIGHTS'  ENTERTAINMENTS. 

Joseph  and  his  hretbren,  simply  because  the  Moslem  faith 
will  not  admit  of  that,  any  more  than  the  decline  of  Arab 
civilization  at  the  time  the  tales  must  have  been  originally 
promulgated.  Indeed,  Galland,  the  first  translator,  havine 
a  conviction  of  a  demoralizing  tendency  of  this  kind,  avoided 
gWing  several  objectionable  parts  of  some  of  the  stories. 
xhe  thread  of  the  narrative  in  these  entertainments  is  gener- 
ally simple  and  clear,  often  leading  into  the  departments  of 
fable,  and  occasionally  into  the  regions  of  the  supernatural 
and  the  domains  of  popular  superstition.  The  tales,  even 
w^hen  long,  are  not  tiresome;  lor  they  consist  of  shorter 
stories  branching  oft  from  the  main  one,  or  rather  encased 
^thin  it,  the  smaller  within  the  larger,  and  perhaps  a 
smaller  within  that,  like  the  little  boxes  useil  by  conjurors. 

For  many  years  all  doubt  as  to  the  authenUcity  of  TJis 
Thousand  and  One  Nights  has  been  dispelled.  Several  MS. 
copies  have  been  found,  and  no  less  than  four  editions  of 
the  Arabic  text  have  been  published.  A  more  thorough 
acquaintance  with  mediseval  and  modem  Arab  life  has 
proved  the  genuineness  of  the  stories,  and  the  truthfulness 
of  their  general  representation  of  the  mind  of  the  Moslem. 
In  them  there  are  evident  signs  of  a  declension  from  a 
refined  and  superior  civUization;  the  marvellous  and  super- 
natural is  predominant;  despotism  in  all  its  forms  is  mani- 
fest; and  a  prevalent  falsity  and  insincerity  of  character 
visible,  not  only  in  the  narrative,  but  in  the  tone  of  common 
conversation,  r^lete  as  it  is  with  oaths  and  asseverations. 

The  origin  of  the  work — where  and  by  whom  written — 
is  still  involved  in  mystery.  According  to  some,  the  tales 
are  susceptible  of  a  threefold  division.  The  most  beautiful, 
and  in  fancy  the  richest,  appear  to  have  come  from  India, 
the  cradle  of  story  and  fable;  the  tender,  and  often  senti- 
mental, love  tales  seem  of  Persian  origin;  while  the  masterly 
pictures  of  life,  and  the  witty  anecdotes,  claim  to  be  the 
product  of  Arabia.  Throughout,  however,  everything  is 
conformable  to  the  character  and  customs  of  the  town  pop- 
ulation of  Arabia,  and  to  the  Mohammedan  faith.  The 
Baron  de  Sacy,  1829,  thus  stated  his  opinion  on  these  points. 
Speaking  of  the  work  he  says:  '  It  appears  to  me  that  it 
was  originally  written  in  Syria,  and  in  the  vulgar  dialect; 
that  it  was  never  completed  bv  its  author;  that,  subsequently, 
imitators  endeavored  to  perfect  the  work,  either  by  the  in- 
sertion of  novels  already  Known,  but  which  formed  no  part 
of  the  original  collection,  or  by  composing  some  themselves, 
with  more  or  less  talent,  whence  arise  the  great  variations 
observable  among  the  different  MSS.  of  the  collection;  that 
the  inserted  tales  were  added  at  different  periods,  and  per- 
haps in  different  countries,  but  chiefly  in  Egypt;  and,  lastly, 
that  the  only  thing  which  can  be  affirmed,  with  much  ap- 
pearance of  probaoility,  in  regard  to  the  time  when  the 
work  was  composed,  is,  that  it  is  not  very  old,  as  its  language 

groves,  but  still  that,  when  it  was  brought  out,  the  use  of  to- 
acco  and  coffee  was  unknown,  since  no  mention  of  either  \a 
made  in  the  work.' 

Galland's  French  edition  was  speedily  translate<l  into  all 
the  languages  of  Europe;  edition  following  edition  with 


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ARABIAN  NUMERALS-ARABIAN  SEA, 

great  rapidity,  some  of  them  with  enlargements,  and  others 
with  modifications.  A  new  English  translation  from  the 
Arabic  appeared  in  1839  (new  issue,  edited  by  8.  Lane  Poole, 
1882).  It  was  the  work  of  E.  W.  Lane,  a  gentleman  whose 
long  residence  in  Egypt  enabled  him  to  acquire  so  thorough 
a  knowledge  of  the  language,  manners,  and  customs  of  the 
Egyptian  Arabs,  as  furnished  oiot  only  a  superior  version, 
but  a  series  of  notes  embodying  a  portraiture  of  Egypto- 
Arabian  life  at  once  faithful  and  vivid.  A  complete  trans- 
lation by  Payne  was  pub.  by  the  Villon  Society  (9  vols. 
1882-84);  and  in  1885  Captain  Burton  began  to  iasae  his 
complete  translation  (10  vols.). 

The  popularity  of  this  wonderful  book  has  given  rise  to 
hundreds  of  imitations.  Among  the  best  of  the  French 
are — LesMille  et  Un  Joun,  MiUe  et  Une  Quart  d^Heures,  and 
^e  Contes  dun  Endormeur;  perhaps  the  best  of  the  English 
imitations  is  the  Tales  of  the  Genii,  by  Sir  Charles  Morell; 
while  the  best  of  the  German  appears  to  be  one  from  the 
Perso- Arabic,  the  Faraj  bdd  el  Shidda  (Joy  after  Sorrow), 
a  popular  work,  and  repeatedly  published. 

ARABIAN  NUMERALS,  or  Ciphers:  the  characters 
0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9.  Properly  they  should  be  styled 
Hindu  or  Indian  Numerals,  for  the  Arabs  borrowed  them, 
along  with  the  decimal  system  of  notation,  from  the  Hindus. 
According  to  one  account,  (Herbert  (afterwards  Sylvester  n.) 
learned  the  use  of  them  from  the  Moors  in  Spain  in  the  10th 
c. ;  others  think  it  more  probable  that  Leonardo  of  Pisa  (see 
Alobbra)  first  introduced  them  from  the  East  into  Italy 
abt.  1202.  Yet  the  use  of  them  was  long  in  making  its  way, 
and  was  not  general  before  the  invention  of  printing.  Ac- 
counts continued  to  be  kept  in  Roman  numerals  up  to  the 
16th  c.    See  Numerals:  Numeration. 

ARABIAN  SEA,  anciently  Mare  Erythraum,  or  the  Bed 
Sea :  bay  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  between  India  on  the  e.  and 
Arabia  on  the  w.  Its  northern  boundary  is  Beloochistan; 
while  its  natural  and  convenient  limit  on  the  s.  is  a  line  drawn 
from  Cape  Comorin  in  Hindustan  to  Cape  Guardafui  in  Af- 
rica, and  thence  continued  along  the  coast  to  the  Strait  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb.  In  e.  long,  it  extends  from  43^  32'  at  Cape 
Bab-el-Mandeb,  to  77"  30'  at  Cape  Comorin;  and  in  n.  lat. 
from  8"  5'  at  Cape  Comorin,  to  abt.  26"  at  the  s.w.  point  of 
Beloochistan.  Including  its  two  great  arms,  the  Red  Sea 
proper  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  it  stretches  far  both  n.  and  w. 
Bv  the  former  it  is,  since  the  opening  of  the  Suez  canal  in 
1»89,  connected  with  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  In  this  last 
aspect  the  A.  S.  long  occupied  a  most  prominent  place  in 
the  commerce  of  the  world— a  place  which,  after  having 
lost  it  for  more  than  300  vears  through  the  doubling  of  the 
Cape  of  (Jood  Hope  in  1497,  it  has  lately  in  a  great  measure 
regained,  through  the  enterprise  of  English  capitalists,  the 
Egyptian  government,  and  the  perseverance  of  M.  Lesseps. 

In  Hie  history  of  navigation,  also,  the  A.  S.  proper  is 
specially  entitled  to  notice.  It  was  alon^  its  n.  shores  that 
Nearchus,  admiral  of  Alexander  of  Macedon,  conducted  the 
first  well-authenticated  voyage,  on  a  large  scale,  of  explora- 


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ARABIN— ABACAK. 

tfcm  and  discovery;  and  across  it  the  trade-winds,  blowing 
•Itematelv  from  n.e.  and  8.w.,  were  wont  to  waft  the 
Greeks  of  Egypt,  without  either  chart  or  compass,  about 
the  commencemcDt  of  the  Christian  era.    See  Subz  Canal. 

ARA6IN.  n.  dr'd-W/i  [formed  from  Arabic]:  the  soluble 
g^mmy  principle  of  gum  arabic  (q.v.)«  CisHssOn,  isomeric 
with  cane-sugar;  obtained  pure  by  adding  alcohol  to  a  so- 
lution of  gum-arabic  in  water,  when  the  A.  is  precipi- 
tated in  white  flooculL 

ARABI  PASHA:  see  Eotpt. 

ARABLE,  a.  dr'd^  [F.  arabU^trom  L.  arabUii^iwm 
Li.  aro;  Qr.  aroO',  I  plow]:  land  that  can  be  plowed  or  cul- 
tivated. 

ARACA^,  or  Abbacan,  d'rd-Mn':  most  n.  division  of 
British  Burmah;  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Chittagong,  on  the 
e.  by  Ava,  on  the  s.  by  Pc«u,  on  the  w.  by  the  Bay  of  Ben- 
gal; n.  lat  from  18'  to  21^88',  e.  long,  from  92*  10'  to  94* 
50'.  Its  extreme  len^  is  290  m.;  and  its  breadth,  from  90 
m.  at  the  n..  gradually  diminishes  towards  the  s.,  so  as  to 
yield  an  average  of  little  more  than  45;  14,526  sq.  miles.  A 
range  of  mountains,  nearly  parallel  with  the  line  of  coast, 
the  nighest  poiut  7,000  ft  above  the  sea-level,  separates  A. 
from  Pegu  and  Upper  Burmah.  The  soil  of  the  n.  portion 
of  A  is  alluvial;  but  the  country  is  hilly,  difficult  of  access, 
and  covered  with  forest  Theprovince  is  divided  into  four 
districts— Ak^ab,  Sandoway,  Kyouk-Pyou,  and  North  Ara- 
can.  .The  British  conquest  of  the  provmce  has  been  highly 
beneficial  in  every  way.  Rice  and  salt  are  chief  articles  of 
exportation;  the  others  are  tobacco,  sugar,  wood,  oil,  betel- 
nuts,  buffalo  hides  and  horns,  elephants'  teeth,  dried  fish, 
and  edible  birds' nests.  The  imports  consist  of  British 
woolens,  muslins,  cutlery,  and  glass.  Pop.  (1825-<S)  abt. 
100.000;  (1881)  178,000;  (1880)  248,000;  (1872)  488,868;  (1881) 
587.518;  (1894)  671,899. 

There  have  been  various  indications  of  volcanic  action 
in  A«  In  the  islands  of  Ramree  and  Cheduba  are  springs 
of  muddy  water  which  emit  bubbles  of  gas.  Two  severe 
earthquakes  have  taken  place,  1768  and  1888— the  latter  hay- 
ing thrown  up,  in  several  places,  muddy  water  of  a  sulphur- 
ous smell,  and  also,  on  one  particular  spot,  vapor  and  flame 
to  the  height  of  several  hundred  feet.  Of  Uie  mineral  re- 
sources very  little  is  known.  Iron-ore  has  been  found,  but 
not  in  such  quantity  and  quality  as  to  come  into  profitable 
competition  with  British  iron.  CoeX  exists,  understood  to  be 
ffood;  but  has  not  been  extensively  worked.  There  are  no 
uUces  in  the  province,  nor  are  there  any  rivers  of  importance. 
dKNigh  the  Aeng,  which  appears  to  be  the  most  available 
among  them,  is  said  to  be  navigable  during  spring-tides  45 
m.  from  its  mouth. 

ARACAN,  or  Abracah,  or  Mbo-houno  [Old  Town] :  city 
of  British  Burmah;  formerly  cap.  of  the  pro  v.  of  A.;  about 
00  m.  from  the  sea;  lat  20^  42'  n.,  long.  OS"*  24'  e.  Lyinff 
in  a  swampy  valley  which,  on  almost  every  side,  is  confined 
by  b^lls,  A.  is  subject  to  febrile  disease  m  all  its  forms. 
irevioaB  to  the  first  Biurmese  war—the  occasion  which 
a-14 


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ARACARI— ARACHNIDA. 

brought  it  under  British  dominion—it  is  add  to  have  con- 
tained 18,000  houses;  but  in  1835,  after  it  had  ceased  to  be 
the  seat  of  government,  the  popidation  had  sunk  to  8,000. 
In  1877,  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  hardly  exceeded  2,000. 
The  most  striking  memorial  of  antiquity  is  its  dilapidated 
fort,  consisting  of  three  concentric  walls  such  as  only  a 
powerful  state  could  have  constructed.  Beyond  the  limits, 
too,  of  this  citadel,  the  town,  as  a  whole,  appears  to  have 
been  surrounded  by  a  circumvallation  9  m.  in  length,  com- 
posed partly  of  stesp  and  rugged  eminences  and  partly  of 
artificial  works.  These  defenses,  which  are  believed  to  be 
several  centuries  old,  the  British  carried  by  assault,  1825, 
April  1. 

ARACARI,  d-rd-^'rl,  or  Aricari  {Pteroglauu»):  genus 
of  birds  closely  allied  to  the  Toucans  (see  Toucan),  and 
differing  from  them  chiefly  in  the  somewhat  smaller  bill, 
which  is  not  so  thick  as  the  head.  They  are  generally  dso 
of  smaller  size,  and  the  prevailing  color  of  their  plumage  is 
green,  often  varied  with  brilliant  red  and  yellow.  Like  the 
Toucans,  they  are  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of  S.  America. 

ARA'CEiE:  see  Arum. 

ARACHIS,  dr'dJIni:  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosa,  sub-order  J*apilionacem,  natives  of  the  warm 
parts  of  America,  of  which  the  principal  and,  until  re- 
cently, the  only  known  species  was  the  A,  hypogaa,  some- 
times called  the  underground  kidney-bean,  and  more 
frequently  the  ground-nut,  or  peanut.  It  aJso  receives 
the  names  of  earth-nut  and  mandubi.    It  is  an  annuaJ 

?lant,  with  hairy  pinnate  leaves,  which  have  four  leaflets, 
he  flowers  are  yellow,  the  standard  veined  with  red.  After 
flowering,  the  flower-stalks  elongate  and  bend  toward  the 
earth,  into  which  the  pods  penetaate,  ripening  underground. 
The  seeds  are  in  some  countries  a  principal  article  of  food; 
but  the  importance  of  the  plant  is  due  chieffy  to  the  fixed 
oil  in  the  seeds,  similar  to  olive  oil  or  almond  oil.  It  is 
cultivated  in  all  warm  regions  of  the  world.  The  root 
is  used  sometimes  as  a  substitute  for  licorice.    See  Peanut. 

ARACHNIDA,  drak'nl-dd,  or  Arachnidbb:  sub-class 
of  Traeheate  Arthropoda  (q.v.  under  Articulata),  indud- 
ing  scorpions,  spiders,  mites,  etc.,  and  first  separated  by 
Lamarck  from  the  Insecta  of  Llnnseus.  The  bodv  is  usually 
divided  into  cephalo-thorax  and  abdomen,  the  latter  desti- 
tute of  appendages,  the  former  possessing  six  pairs,  of 
which  the  posterior  four  pairs  are  walking  limbs,  thus 
furnishing  a  ready  means  of  distinction  from  Tnsecta,  which 
have  three  pairs  only.  The  two  nnterior  pairs  known  as 
chelicerse  and  pedipalpl  are  of  various  forms,  the  former 
usually  chelate  or  sub-chelate;  the  latter  chelate,  ambulatory, 
or  antenniform.  Respiration  is  effected  by  means  of  tracheal 
tubes,  or  by  pouches— the  so-called  respiratory  sacs. 

Those  A.  with  segmented  abdomen  are  termed  ArthrO' 
gasira,  or  P^dipalpi;  families  five  of  which  Scorpio,  Thei^- 
phonus,  Chelifer,  Oaleodes,  and  PTialanffium  are  types. 
These  show  a  distinct  gradation  to  true  spiders  drAraneina^ 
which  are  easily  recognized  by  their  unscgmented  abdomen 
usually  furnished  with  spinning-glands,  opening  by  four  to 

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ARACHNOID— ARAD. 

aijL  posterior  papillfle,  and  by  their  sab-chelate  chelicene  and 
ambulatory  pedix>a]pi.  The  mites  and  ticks  (Aearina) 
have  the  unsegmented  abdomen,  continuous  with  the  tho- 
rax, and  the  chelicerse  and  pedimlpi  are  modified  into  a 
sucking  or  piercing  apparatus.  The  LingtuUulida  {Penta- 
stomuw),  the  Tai'diffrada,  and  the  Pycnogonida,  have  usually 
been  reckoned  as  highly  modified  A.,  somewhat  akin  to 
the  Acarimi;  the,  most  recent  anatomists,  however,  tend  to 
remove  them  from  the  A.  altogether.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  has  lately  been  clearly  shown  that  the  Silurian  Ehiryp- 
terida,  and  the  ancient,  but  still  persistent  Limulua  (seo 
King-Crab),  must  be  reckoned  rather  as  A.  than  as  Crusta- 
ceans, and  thus  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Arthropoda, 
the  Tracheata  and  the  Branchiata,  appear  to  have  diverged 
in  palffiozolc  times.  See  Acarus:  Mjte:  Scorpion:  Spi- 
der: Tick:  also  Huxley's  Anctt,  qf  Inwrte^mted  Animak, 
Balfour's  Comparative  Embryoloay,  and  Cambridge's  ma< 
moir  in  Eneye.  Britanniea,  9th  eoL 

ARACHNOID,  n.  i-rak'ncyd  [Gr.  arachfie,  a  spider; 
et€h$,  form]:  in  anat.,  the  serous  membrane  covering  th« 
brain,  and  lyinfl"  between  the  pia-mater  and  dura-fi}at&r: 
Adj.  in  bot.^  ha  vine  fine  hairs  so  entangled  as  to  resemble  a 
cobweb;  spider-web-like.  Arachnida,  n.  plu.  d^dk'ni-dd, 
or  Arach'nidans,  n.  plu.  -nld4m  [see  Id2B,  postfix]:  a 
class  of  articulata,  comprising  spiders,  mites,  and  scorpions. 
Arachnitis,  n.  dr'ak^ltU,  inflammation  of  the  aracumoid 
membrane. 

ARACHNOID  MEMBRANE,  d^dk'naid:  one  of  the 
three  coverings  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord;  a  thin  glis- 
tening, serous  membrane,  which  by  its  parietal  layer  adheres 
inseparably  to  the  dura-mater  on  its  outer  side,  and  more 
loosely  to  the  pia-mater  which  is  between  it  and  the  brain 
substance.  Between  the  pia  mater  and  the  A.  M.  in  some 
situations  there  are  considerable  intervals  (sub-arachnoid 
spaces);  they  are  filled  with  a  fluid  named  cerebro-spinal, 
the  presence  of  which  is  necessary  to  the  proper  action  of 
the  nervous  centres.  See  Cerebro-Spinal  Fluid:  Pia- 
Mater. 

ARAD,  dr'dd:  t  in  the  dist.  of  A.  in  Upper  Hungary; 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Marosh,  an  affluent  of  the  Theiss; 
and  is  also  s^led  Old  A.  to  distinguish  it  from  New  A., 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  A.  carries  on  a  large 
trade  in  com,  tobacco,  etc.,  and  was  at  one  time  the  greatest 
cattle-market  in  Hungary,  and  is  even  yet  inferior  only  to 
Pesth  and  Debreczin.  During  the  17th  c,  it  was  often 
captured,  and  at  last  destroyed  by  the  Turks.  Its  new 
fortifications,  erected  1763,  made  A  an  important  iK)sition 
in  the  revolutionary  war  of  1849,  when  it  was  occupied  for 
a  considerable  time  by  the  Austrian  general  Bcrger,  who 
capitulated  here,  July,  1849.  From  A.  Kossuth  issued  his 
proclamation,  1849,  Aug.  11,  in  which  he  expressed  in  im- 
passioned terms  his  despair  of  the  Hungarian  cause  for  the 
present.  After  the  catastrophe  of  Vildgos,  Aug.  17,  A.  was 
surrendered  to  the  Russians  through  the  treachery  of  Q5r- 
gey.  Pop.  (1891)  47,607,  indudmg  many  Jews  who  are 
vety  wealthy. 


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AILEOMETER— ARAGO. 

New  A.»  a  t  in  the  Banat  of  Temesvar,  containa  (1880) 
5,141  inhabitants,  including  many  Germans,  who  are 
the  principal  persons  in  the  place. — The  dist  or  prov.  of 
A.  has  1,700  sq.  m.  The.  e  dist.  is  occupied  by  a  branch- 
chain  of  the  Carpathian  Mts.,  which  contain  marble 
quarries,  and  mines  of  copper  and  iron;  the  w.  is  level,  and 
produces  wheat,  maize,  and  several  varieties  of  wine,  as 
well  as  abundance  of  fruits.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
Wallachians.     Pop.  of  prov.  (1894)  304,818. 

ARAEOMETER:  see  Areombteb. 

AR^OSTYLE,  n.  d^eo^tU  [L.  areostylus:  Gr.  araiM, 
thin,  narrow,  with  intervals;  stulos^  a  pillar]:  in  arcA.,  a 
kind  of  intercolumniation  in  which  the  pillars  are  so  wide 
apart  that  the  intermediate  spaces  are  each  upwards  of 
three  diameters  of  the  colunm.  This  constitutes  one  of  the 
five  kinds  of  intercolmnniation  described  by  Yitruvius: 
Adj.,  pertaining  to. 

ARiEOSYSTYLE,  n.  d're-<hsU'm  [Gr.  araioa,  thin, 
narrow;  sustulos,  with  columns  standing  close]:  an  arrange- 
ment in  which  columns  are  coupled;  for  example,  in  Uie  w. 
front  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London. 

ARAFAT,  d'rd-fiU,  Mount,  or  Je6<?^«r-'fYiAm«[' Mount- 
ain of  Mercy  '1 :  a  granite  hill  abt.  15  m.  s.e.  of  Mecca;  be- 
lieved by  the  Mohammedans  to  be  the  spot  where  Adam, 
conducted  b^  the  angel  Gabriel,  met  again  his  wife  Eve, 
after  a  punitive  separation  of  200  years,  on  account  of  their 
disobedience  in  Paradise.  It  is  not  above  200  ft  high,  but 
its  circuit  is  a  mile  and  a  half.  Its  importance  since  the 
time  of  Mohammed  arises  from  its  being  the  scene  of  a 
yearly  procession  of  the  faithful  who  visit  Mecca.  Burck- 
hardt,  who  witnessed  the  procession  of  1814,  states  that  not 
less  than  70,000  people  were  present,  and  that  at  least  forty 
different  languages  were  spoken.  The  principal  part  of  the 
religious  ceremony  of  this  pilgrimage  is  a  sermon,  the  bear- 
ing of  which  entitles  all  to  me  name  and  privileges  of  a 
Hadji. 

ARAGO,  dr'ago,  d-rd-gd',  or  d-rd'go,  Dohiniqub:  1786, 
Feb.  26—1853,  Oct  8;  b.  Estagel  near  Perpignan,  dept  of 
the  E.  Pyrenees;  celebrated  French  astronomer  and  natural 
philosopher.  At  the  age  of  17,  he  entered  the  Polytedmic 
School  at  Paris,  where  the  spirit,  promptitude,  and  vivid 
intelligence  of  his  answera  to  the  questions  of  Legendre 
excited  admiration.  In  1804,  he  became  sec.  to  the  observ- 
atory at  Paris.  Two  years  afterwards,  he  was  engl^^ed, 
with  Biot  and  others,  by  tLe  French  government,  to  carry 
out  the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian,  which  had 
been  commenced  by  Delambre  and  Mechain.  A.  and  Biot 
had  to  extend  it  from  Barcelona  to  the  Balearic  Isles.  The 
two  savauM  established  themselves  on  the  summit  of  Mount 
Galatza,  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Catalonian  branch  of  the 
E.  Pyrenees.  Here  they  lived  for  many  months,  communi- 
cating by  signals  with  their  Spanish  collaborateura,  across 
the  Mediterranean  in  the  little  isle  of  Ivi^a,  though  many  a 
night  the  furious  tempests  destroyed  their  hut  together  with 
the  labors  of  weeks.    Visitors  they  had  none,  except  two 


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ARAGO. 

Carthasian  monks,  who  were  wont  to  come  up  and  spend  a 
portion  of  the  evening  in  converse  with  them.  Before  A. 
bad  completed  his  calculations,  Biot  had  returned  to  France, 
and  war  had  broken  out  between  the  two  nations.  A  was 
now  held  to  be  a  spy;  his  signals  were  interrupted;  aud 
with  great  diflSculty  he  succeeded  in  m^ing  his  escape  to 
Majorca,  where  he  voluntarily  imprisoned  himself  in  the 
citadel  of  Belver,  near  Palma.  At  last  he  obtained  his 
liberty  on  condition  of  proceeding  to  Algiers,  which  he  did; 
but  was  captured,  on  his  return  to  France,  bv  a  Spanish 
cruiser,  and  sent  to  the  hidks  at  Palamos.  He  was,  how- 
ever, liberated  after  a  time,  and  sailed  once  more  for  France; 
but  almost  as  he  was  entering  the  port  of  Marseilles,  a  tem- 
pest arose  which  drove  the  vessel  across  the  Mediterranean 
all  the  way  to  Algiers.  The  former  dey,  to  whose  demands 
he  had  owed  his  liberation  from  the  hulks,  was  dead;  his 
successor,  a  ferocious  tyrant,  placed  him  on  his  list  of  slaves, 
and  intended  to  employ  him  as  interpreter.  After  some 
time,  he  was  released  at  the  request  of  the  French  consul, 
and,  narrowly  escaping  another  capture  bv  an  English 
frigate,  finally  foimd  his  way  to  Marseilles  1809,  July.  As 
a  reward  for  his  suffering  in  the  cause  of  science,  the 
Acad,  of  Sciences  suspended  its  standing  rules  in  his  favor, 
and  though  onlv  23  years  of  age,  he  was  elected  member  in 
^e  place  of  Lalande,  who  had  just  died,  and  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Analvtical  Mathematics  in  the  Polytechnic 
School.  Afterwards,  his  attention  was  given  more  to  as- 
tronomy, magnetism,  galvanism,  and  the  polarization  of 
light.  In  1811,  he  read  a  paper  to  the  Academy,  which 
maj  be  considered  the  foundation  of  '  chromatic  polari- 
zation.' In  1812,  he  commenced  his  extraordinary  course 
of  lectures  on  astronomy,  etc.,  which  fascinated  all 
Paris — the  savans,  by  their  scientific  rigor  and  solidity; 
the  many,  by  their  brilliancy  of  style.  In  1816,  with 
Gay  Lussac,  A.  established  the  AnncUes  de  Chimie  et 
de  Physique,  and  confirmed  the  truth  of  the  undulatory 
theory  of  light  In  the  same  year  he  visited  England  for 
the  first  time,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  various  persons 
distmguiflhed  in  science,  especially  Dr.  Thomas  Yoimg.  In 
1818,  appeared  his  Beciuil  d^  Observations  geodesiques,  astro^ 
nomiques  et  physiques.  In  1820,  he  turned  his  facile  and  in- 
ventive genius  into  a  new  channel,  and  made  several  im> 
portant  discoveries  in  electro-magnetism.  Oersted  had  shown 
that  a  magnetic  needle  was  deflected  by  a  voltaic  current 
passing  along  a  wire.  A.  pursued  the  investigation,  and 
found  that  not  only  a  magnetic  needle,  but  even  non-mag- 
netic substances,  such  as  rods  of  iron  or  steel,  became  sub- 
ject to  deflection  also,  exhibiting  during  the  action  of  the 
voltaic  current  a  positive  magnetic  power,  which,  however, 
ceased  with  the  cessation  of  tne  current.  Some  time  after, 
he  demonstrated  that  a  bar  of  copper,  and  other  non-mag- 
netic metals,  when  moved  circularly,  exert  a  noticeable  in- 
fluence on  the  magnetic  needle.  For  this  discovery  of  the 
development  of  magnetism  by  rotation,  he  obtained,  in  1825, 
the  Copley  Medal  of  the  Royal  Socie^  of  London;  and  in 
1834,  Yrhisa  he  again  visited  Great  Bntain,  especial  honors 


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ARAGO. 

werepaid  to  him  by  the  friends  of  science  in  Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow.  Four  years  previous  to  this  second  visit  to 
Gitcit  Britain,  be  had  received  the  honor  he  most  coveted— 
that  of  being  made  Perpetual  Sec.  of  the  Acad.  It  was 
while  holding  this  office  that  he  wrote  his  famous  eloge*  of 
deceased  members,  the  beauty  of  which  has  given  him  so 
high  a  place  among  French  prose- writers.  As  a  politician, 
alS),  his  career  was  remarkable.  He  was  a  keen  republican, 
and  was  prominent  in  the  July  revolution  (1830).  In  the 
following  year  he  was  elected  by  Perpignan  as  a  member  of 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  where  he  occupied  a  position  on 
the  extreme  left.  In  the  February  revolution  of  1848,  he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  pi  o visional  government,  and 
appointed  minister  of  war  and  marine.  In  this  position  he 
resisted  the  proposed  measures  of  the  socialist  party,  and 
advocated  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  as  the  beau- 
ideal  of  democracy.  His  popularity  in  his  own  province 
was  the  means  of  preventing  Uie  discontented  population  of 
the  E.  Pjrrenees  from  proceeding  to  lawless  and  violent 
measures.  On  the  question  of  the  presidency,  A.  opposed 
Louis  Napoleon,  declared  himself  against  the  policy  of  the 
new  ministry,  and  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1851.  Napoleon,  however,  made  a 
special  exception  in  his  favor,  and  allowed  him  to  retain  the 
directorship  of  the  observatory.  His  works  were  edited  by 
Barral  (17  vols.,  1854-62),  and  a  statue  of  him  was  erected 
at  Perpignan  in  1879.  See  Audiganne's  .2I.,  son  genie  et  aon 
influence  (2d  ed.  1869). 

ARAGO,  fexiKKNE:  archivist  in  the  Ecole  deM 
Beaux  Arts  :  1802,  Feb.  9—1892,  Mar.  6 :  brother  of 
Dominique.  He  held  an  appointment  under  the  pro- 
visional government  as  director-general  of  the  post-office,  in 
which  he  showed  great  vigor,  promptitude,  and  sagacity,  and 
achieved  several  postal  reforms;  was  elected  member  of  the 
national  assembly;  was  compromised  by  the  insurrection 
in  June,  and  sentenced  to  exile  for  life.  In  1859,  he  re- 
turned to  France:  and  at  the  time  of  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  was  mayor  of  Paris,  resigning,  1870,  November. 

ARAGO,  Jacques  foiENNE  Victor:  1790-1855,  Jan.  1; 
brother  of  Dominique,  the  maX  savant.  In  1817,  he  accom- 
panied the  expedition  under  Freycinet  in  a  voyage  round 
the  world.  Afterwards,  at  Bordeaux  and  at  Toulouse,  he 
was  engaged  in  several  branches  of  light  literature,  indus- 
triously writing,  in  company  with  other  scribes,  a  multitude 
of  vaudevilles,  besides  publishing  several  poems  and  ro- 
mances. In  1835,  he  unacrtook  the  management  of  the  thea- 
tre at  Rouen;  but  having  become  affiict^  with  blindness, 
he  was  compelled  to  resign  this  post  in  1887.  His  early 
voyage  round  ttie  world  was  the  occasion  of  two  very  pleas- 
ant ^HDks  of  travel:  Promenade  autour  du  Monde  {Pnris, 
1888);  Souvenir  d'un  aveugle,  Voyage  autour  du  Monde 
(Paris,  1888).  In  1849,  though  deprived  of  sight,  he  formed 
a  company  of  speculators,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  it, 
and  departed  for  California,  to  search  for  gold  on  a  large 
Kale.    Mis  companions  mutinied,  and  left  him,  deserWd 


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ARAGO— ARAGOK. 

and  disappointed,  at  Valparaiso.  On  his  return,  ne  pub. 
lished  his  painful  experiences,  under  the  title,  V</yage  d'un 
aveugle  en  Calif omie  et  dans  les  Regions  auriflres  (Paris, 
1851). 

ARAGO,  Jeajt:  1789-1886;  brother  of  Dominique:  was 
general  of  the  republican  army  in  Mexico,  and  wrote,  in 
Spanish,  a  history  of  Mexico. 

ARAGON,  dr'a-gon:  anciently  a  kingdom,  then  a  pro  v. 
in  the  n.e.  of  Spain;  bet  40"  2'  and  42"  54'  n.  lat.,  and 
long.  2*  10'  w.  and  0*  45'  e.;  greatest  length  from  n.  to  s., 
190  m. ;  breadth,  130  m. ;  17,9%  sq.  miles.  It  is  bounded,  n. 
by  the  Pyrenees,  separating  it  from  France;  w. ,  by  Navarre, 
and  Old  and  New  Castile;  s.,  by  Valencia,  and  part  of  New 
Casdle;  and  e.,  by  Catalonia,  and  part  of  Valencia.  The 
riyer  Ebro,  which  descends  from  the  n.  heights  of  Old  Cas- 
tile, flows  through  the  middle  of  A.,  receiving  numerous 
tributaries  both  from  the  lofty  regions  of  the  I^enees  and 
from  the  Sierras  in  the  s.;  of  the  former,  the  principal  are: 
the  Noguera,  which  forms  the  boundary  line  between  A. 
and  Catolonia,  the  Easera.  and  the  Gallega;  of  the  latter,  the 
principal  are:  the  Guadalope,  the  San  Martin,  and  the  Salon. 
The  prov.  is  naturally  divided  into  the  level  coimtry,  alon^ 
the  Ebro,  and  the  n.  mountainous  district  of  Upper  Aragon. 
The  central  plain  is  sterile,  poorly  supplied  with  water,  and 
intersected  by  deep  ravines  (baraneas).  Agriculture  is  here 
confined  to  the  raising  of  maize,  vines,  and  olives;  but  on 
the  sides  of  the  ^bro,  where  water  abounds,  rice  and  other 
grains  are  abundantly  produced;  and  in  the  valleys  of  upper 
A.,  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  of  all  the  Pyrenean  val- 
leys, we  find  a  splendid  vegetation,  and  a  soil  that  enables 
the  inhabitants,  In  spite  of  the  wretchedness  of  their  agri- 
culture, to  grow  considerable  wheat,  rye,  maize,  barley, 
etc.  The  cfimate  of  the  prov.  is  various;  comparatively 
cool  in  the  mountain-districts,  but  often  very  sultry  on  the 
plains.  Spurs  of  the  Pyrenees  strike  down  far  into  the 
prov.,  and  between  these  ridges  the  rich  valleys  lie,  some  of 
them  upwards  of  20  m.  long.  The  slopes  of  the  hills  are 
clothed  with  forests  of  oak,  beech,  and  pine,  and  the  fclltd 
timber  is  floated  down  the  rivers  into  the  Ebro,  and  thence 
down  to  Tortosa  at  its  mouth.  The  minerals  of  the  prov. 
are  copper,  lead,  iron,  salt,  alum,  saltpetre,  coal,  and  am- 
ber.   The  manufactures  are  inconsiderable. 

A.,  peopled  by  a  brave,  active,  enduring,  but  obstinate, 
race,  has  frequently  been  the  arena  of  sanguinary  war- 
fare. It  early  became  a  Roman  prov. ;  and,  on  the  fall  of 
the  empire,  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  West-Gk)ths,  but 
was  conquered  by  the  Moors  in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  c. 
The  rulers  of  A.,  after  it  had  been  recovered  from  the 
Moors,  and  united  with  Catalonia  (1187),  became  powerful; 
obtained  possession  of  the  Balearic  Isles  in  1218;  of  Sicily  in 
1282,  of  Sardinia  m  1826,  and  of  Naples  in  1440.  By  the 
marriage  of  Ferdinand  with  Isabella,  heiress  of  Castile,  in 
1409,  the  two  states  of  A.  and  Castile  were  united,  and 
formed  the  foundation  of  the  sreat  Spanish  monarchy. 
After  Ferdinand's  death  in  1516,  Uie  union  of  the  states  was 


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ARAGONA— ARAL. 

made  pennanent  In  the  war  with  the  French,  1808-9, 
Saragossa,  the  cap.  of  A.,  was  remarkable  for  ita  heroic  de- 
fense under  Palaiox;  and  in  recent  Spanish  ware,  the  people 
of  A.  have  displayed  the  same  courage  which  marked  their 
conduct  on  that  memorable  occasion.  Upper  A.  was  on 
the  side  of  the  queen;  but  Lower  A.  generally  adhered  to  the 
party  of  Don  Carlos.  The  prov.  is  now  divided  into  three 
depts. — Saragossa,  Teruel,  and  Huesca.  The  chief  towns 
are  Saragossa,  Calatayud,  Huesca,  and  Teruel.  See  Saba- 
GOB8A,  etc.     Pop.  of  A.  (1877)  894.727.  ;  (1893)  928,718. 

ARAGONA,  d-rd-gond:  t  of  Sicily,  8  m.  n.n.e.  from 
Girgenti.  It  is  a  poor  town,  and  stands  in  the  midst  of  bare 
green  downs;  but  the  hills  above  it  are  clothed  with  pines, 
cypresses,  olives,  almonds,  and  carobs.  The  only  object  of 
interest  is  the  old  castle  of  the  princes  of  Aragona,  a  huge 
building,  in  the  Renaissance  style,  which  has  fallen  mudi 
Into  decay.    Pop.  10,000. 

ARAGONITE:  see  Akbagonitb. 

AR AGITATO,  drd-gwd'to  {Mycetes  urainus);  the  largest 
known  species  of  new  world  monkeys.  Its  discordant 
yells  may  be  heard  at  a  mile's  distance. 

ARAQUAY,  drd-gm':  large  river  of  Brazil,  rising  in  s. 
lat.  18"  10  and  w.  long.  ^V  30 .  Like  most  of  the  consid- 
erable rivers  of  the  country,  it  flows  towards  the  n.  After 
a  course  of  about  1,000  m.  to  San  Joao,  it  there  joins  the 
Tocantins,  which,  after  a  n.  course  of  80<)  m.  more,  mingles 
Its  estuary  with  that  of  the  Amazon  round  the  Isle  of  Mara  jo. 
Like  most  of  the  rivere  in  this  part  of  Brazil,  the  A.  is  of 
difficult  navigation,  frequently  interrupted  by  rapids. 

ARAISE,  v.  d-rdz  [AS.  a,  and  raue]:  in  OE.,  to  raise. 

ARAL,  dr'alt  Lake:  second  in  size  only  to  the  Caspian 
Sea,  in  the  steppes  of  Asia;  separated  from  the  Caspian  by 
the  plateau  of  UstUrt.  It  lies  wholly  within  the  limits  of 
Russian  Central  Asia,  between  43°  &'  and  46"  44'  n.  lat., 
and  58"  18  and  61°  46'  e.  long.  It  is  fed  by  the  river  Sir 
(the  ancient  Jaxartes)  on  the  n.e.  side,  and  the  Amu  (or 
ancient  Oxus)  on  the  s.c.  It  is  shallow,,  and  has  no  outlet 
Its  level  is  117  ft.  above  that  of  the  Caspian,  and  33  ft  above 
that  of  the  Black  Sea.  Like  other  lakes  drained  only  by 
evaporation,  it  is  brackish.  Owing  to  the  shallowness  of 
its  watere,  navigation  is  difficult;  but  Russian  steamers  have 
been  launched  upon  it,  and  took  part  in  the  operations 
against  Ehiva  in  1873,  June.  The  history  of  the  Sea  of 
Aral  is  very  remarkable.  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  and  Col. 
Yule  have  recently  collected  references  made  to  it  in  Greek, 
Latin,  Arabic,  and  Persian  writere,  and  have  established  the 
fact  that  its  present  area  has  been  dry  land  twice  within  his- 
torical times— the  Jaxartes  and  the  Oxus  then  running  s. 
of  the  Sea  of  Ami  to  the  Caspian.  This  was  the  case  dur- 
ing the  Greco-Roman  period,  and  again  during  the  13th  and 
14th  centuries.  The  nussian  government  has  undertaken 
the  restoration  of  the  Oxus  to  its  old  bed. — See  Proceedings 
9f  Boyal  Geographical  Society,  vol.  xi.,  vol.  xvi.,  and  vol.  i. 
(new  series,  1879);  also  The  Shores  of  Lake  Aral,  by  Major 
Wwd  (Lond.  1876). 


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PLATE    10.  :^S«^ 


Bruuch  of  Araucaria  imbricata. 


Arcade,  Romsey  Church,  Hampshu^. 


Arch  of  Titua. 

Vol  i 


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ABALIA. 

AHATiTA,  &-Td'li-d:  g^tiB  of  plants,  type  of  the  natural 
order  AreUMcea.  This  order  is  dicotyledonous  or  exoge- 
nous, and  consists  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants, 
resembling  the  Umbellifera  (q.v.)  both  in  their  general  habit 
and  in  their  botanical  characters,  but  differing  essentially  in 
the  fruit,  which  is  not  didymous  or  formed  of  two  separable 
carpels  as  m  the  UmbeUitfem.  The  fruit  of  the  Araliaceffi 
ocnisista  of  several  one-seeded  cells,  often  succulent.  The 
Older  contains  about  160  known  species,  natives  of  tropical, 
temperate,  and  cold  climates,  generally  posses^ng  sdmulant 
and  aromatic  properties.  Poisonous  qualities,  are  not  devel- 
oped as  in  the  VmbelUfera.  The  herb^  of  many  species  af- 
fords good  food  for  cattle,  and  some  are  used  for  human  food. 
The  genus  Aralia  contains  a  considerable  number  of  species 
— trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants.  It  has  a  succulent 
fruit,  with  5  or  10  cells,  crowned  with  the  styles.  A.  nudi- 
eauli$  is  a  native  of  the  United  States,  a  species  of  humble 
growth,  having  a  solitary  radical  leaf  with  a  trifld  stalk  and 
ovate  serrated  segments;  the  scape  is  shorter  than  the  leaf. 
The  root  is  said  to  be  equal  in  value  to  sarsaparilla  as  an  al- 
terative and  tonic.  A.  racemosa.  A,  spinosa,  and  A.  JUspida, 
also  natives  of  N.  America,  produce  an  aromatic  gum  resin. 
A,  9pino9a  is  a  stimulant  diaphoretic.  The  berries,  infused 
in  wine  or  spirits,  are  employed  as  a  cure  for  rheumatism. 
It  is  sometimes  called  Toothache-tree:  it  also  bears  the  name 
of  Angelica-tree.  It  is  a  native  of  moist  woods  in  Virginia 
and  Carolina,  growing  to  a  height  of  10  or  12  ft.,  with  a 
single  stem,  spreading  head,  doubly  and  treblv  pinnate 
leaves  and  ovate  leaflets,  and  is  very  ornamental  in  a  lawn. 
A.  polaris,  found  in  the  s.  idand  of  New  Zealand,  and  in 
ttie  greatest  abundance  and  luxuriance  in  Lord  Auckland's 
Islands,  is  described  by  Dr.  Hooker  as  a  '  very  magnificent 
plant,'  a  herbaceous  perennial,  4r-5  ft.  high,  with  large  orbic- 
ular masses  of  green  foliage  and  waxy  flowers,  presenting 
a  veiy  striking  appearance.  A.  edulis,  now  called  Dvmor- 
pharUhtiS  edvM,  is  employed  in  China  as  a  sudorific.  Its 
shoots  are  very  delicate  and  pleasant  when  boiled;  and  the 
roots,  which  have  an  agreeable  aromatic  flavor,  are  used  by 
the  Japanese  as  carrots  or  parsnips  are  in  Europe.  Aralias 
abound  in  the  warm  valleyis  of  the  Himalaya.  The  natives 
collect  the  leaves  of  many  as  fodder  for  cattle,  for  which 
purpose  they  are  of  great  value  in  a  countrv  where  grass  for 
pasture  is  scarce;  but  the  use  of  this  food  gives  a  peculiar 
taste  to  the  butter.  Chinese  rice  paper  has  been  ascertained 
to  be  cut  from  cylinders  of  the  pith  of  an  Aralia.  Ginseng 
(q.v.),  the  root  of  a  species  of  Panax,  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant products  of  the  order  Araliacea,  The  astringent 
roots  of  thirmera  naaJbra,  or  Panke,  are  used  in  tanning,  but 
its  fleshy  leaf-stalks  are  eaten  like  those  of  rhubarb.  It  has 
been  seen  on  the  sandstone  cliffs  of  Chiloe  with  leaves  nearly 
8  ft.  in  diameter. — A,  nudicavlU  is  known  as  Wild  Sarsa- 
parilla see  Sarsapartlla);  and  A.  spinom,  the  Angelica- 
Tree,  is  known  as  Hercules  Club,  having  thick  branchlets. 
Our  native  Ginseng  (q.v.),  and  Dwarf  Ginseng  {A,  trifolta), 
with  deep  globular  tuber,  common  at  the  north,  belong 
here. 


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ARALIACEiE— ARAM. 

ARALIAOE^,  n.  plu.  d-rdlUi'se^  [araUd,  an  Amer- 
ican wordl:  the  ivj  family.  Aralia,  n.  plu.  (i-rd'U-u,  a 
genas  of  the  above,  one  species  of  which  has  fragrant  and 
aromatic  roots,  which  are  used  in  America  as  a  substitute 
for  sarsaparilla.  Araliaceous,  a.  dr-dlt-d' shits,  pertaining 
to  the  Aralia. 

ARALO-CASPIAN.  a.  d-rd'lo-kds'pi^n,  or  d'rdl^:  a 
term  applied  to  the  extensive  basin  or  depr^sed  area  occu- 
pied by  the  Aral  and  Caspian  seas  and  surrounding  districts 
of  country;  'in  geol. ,  applied  to  the  limestone  and  associated 
sandy  beds,  of  brackish-water  origin,  which  have  been 
traced  over  much  more  than  the  area  indicated. 

ARAM,  d'rdm,  Eugene:  1704-59;  b.  Ramsgill,  York- 
shire. His  father  was  a  gardener,  and  could  afford  to  keep 
A.  at  school  only  for  a  short  time;  but  even  while  assisting 
his  father,  he  contrived  to  gratifv  his  passion  for  learning. 
At  an  early  period  of  his  life  he  married,  and  became  a 
schoolmaster,  first  in  Netherdale,  and  afterwards  at  Knares- 
borough,  where  he  resided  till  1745.  In  the  town  of  Knares- 
borough  lived  one  Daniel  Clarke,  a  shoemaker,  and  an  in- 
timate acquaintance  of  A.'s.  On  one  occasion  Clarke  hap- 
pened to  i>urchase  a  quantity  of  valuable  goods,  which  he 
easily  obtained  on  credit;  but  to  the  surprise  of  everybody, 
he  soon  after  disappeared,  and  no  trace  of  him  could  be  dis- 
covered. Suspicion  lighted  upon  A.,  not  as  Clarke's  mur- 
derer, but  as  his  confederate  in  swindling  the  public.  His 
garden  was  searched,  and  in  it  was  found  a  portion  of  the 
goods  which  Clarke  had  purchased.  A.  was  arrested  and 
med,  but  acquitted  for  want  of  evidence.  He  now  left  his 
wife  at  Enaresborough,  and  went  to  London,  and  other 
parts  of  England,  in  his  capacity  of  schoolmaster;  and  in 
spite  of  his  wandering  life,  contrived  to  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  botany,  heraldry,  Chaldee,  Arabic,  Welsh,  and  Irish,  and 
was  planning  a  great  etymological  work,  to  be  entitled  '  A 
Comparative  Lexicon  of  the  English,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  Celtic  Languages,'  when  he  was  suddenly  dragged 
away  from  his  ushership  of  Lynn  Academy,  in  NorMk, 
and  committed  to  prison  on  a  charge  of  muider. 

In  1759,  a  skeleton  was  dug  up  near  Enaresborough,  which 
the  inhabitants  suspected  to  be  that  of  Clarke,  for  they  had 
now  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  unfortunate  man  had 
met  with  foul  play,  especially  as  A.*s  wife  had,  on  several 
occasions,  made  strange  statements  to  the  effect  that  her  hus- 
band and  a  man  named  Houseman  knew  more  of  Clarke's 
disappearance  than  they  chose  to  admit.  Houseman  was 
now  confronted  with  a  bone  of  the  skeleton  which  had  been 
discovered.  He  very  emphatically  denied  that  it  was 
Clarke's.  People  naturally  wondered  how  he  could  be  so 
positive,  the  bones  of  skeletons  being,  to  the  uneducated 
eye,  similar  in  appearance.  They  became  convince  that 
if  the  skeleton  was  not  Clarke's,  Houseman  must^  know 
where  the  latter  was.  At  last  he  confessed  that  he  had 
been  a  spectator  of  the  murder  of  Clarke  by  A.  and  one 
Terry.  He  named  the  place  where  the  body  had  been  hid- 
den.   It  was  searched,  the  buried  skeleton  was  dug  up,  and 


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ARAMiEA— ARANDA. 

A.  was  tried  at  York,  for  the  murder  of  Clarke,  1759,  Aug. 
8.  What  has  giyen  ezti-aordinary  eclat  to  this  trial  is  the 
fact  that  A.  conducted  his  own  defense.  He  attacked,  with 
great  acumen,  plausibility,  and  curious  erudition,  the  doc- 
trine of  circumstantial  evidence;  but  to  no  effect,  for  a  ver- 
dict of  guilty  was  returned,  and  he  was  condemned  to 
suffer  death  three  days  afterwards.  In  the  interval,  he  con- 
fessed his  guilt  to  the  clergymen  who  attended  him.  While 
in  the  condemned  cell,  he  wrote  a  defense  of  suicide;  but 
failed  in  a  practical  illustration  of  the  doctrine,  which  he 
forthwith  attempted. 

ARAM^'A:  the  whole  countir  to  the  n.e.  of  Palestine, 
with  boundaries,  not  rigorously  defined,  as  follows:  n.,  by 
Mount  Taurus;  e.,  by  the  Tigris;  s.,  by  Arabia;  and  w.,  by 
Arabia,  Phoenicia,  and  Lebanon.  It  comprised  the  coun- 
tries known  to  the  Greeks  by  the  various  names  of  Syria, 
Babylonia,  and  Mesopotamia.  The  Aramaic  lanffuage,  a 
branch  of  the  Semitic,  was  common  to  the  whole  country, 
and  was  divided  into  two  principal  dialects — the  west 
Aramaic  or  Syriac,  and  the  east  Aramaic,  or,  as  it  is  im- 
properly termed,  the  Chaldee.  The  former  was  that 
spoken  almost  universally  in  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ. 
Ever  since  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the  pure  Hebrew,  in 
which  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  chapters  in  Daniel  and  Ezra,  had  been  written,  had  grad- 
ually  ^ven  place  to  the  Aramaic.  The  Aramaic  version  of 
the  "Bwle  was  that  used  in  Christ's  time,  who  quotes  from 
it,  and  not  from  the  original  Hebrew;  as,  for  instance,  the 
beginning  of  Psalm  xxii  repeated  on  the  Cross.  The  Talmud , 
especially  the  Babylonian,  has  a  lar^e  admixture  of  Aramaic 
elements.  The  Aramaic  dialect  is,  in  general,  the  harshest, 
poorest,  and  least  elaborate  of  all  the  Semitic  languages, 
and  has  now  almost  entirely  died  out,  and  given  place  to 
the  Arabic  and  Persian.  Indeed,  it  is  found  living  only 
amon^  some  tribes  in  remote  districts  of  the  mountains  of 
Kurdistan,  and  in  two  or  three  villages  in  Sjrria;  yet  it  is  • 
considered  highly  probable  that  it  is  the  root  of  the  whole 
cluster  of  Semitic  tongues. 

ARAMAIC,  a.  dr'il^'ik  [from  Aram,  a  son  of  Shem, 
whose  earliest  descendants  are  supposed  to  have  inhabited 
the  upper  basin  of  the  Tigris] :  a  name  applied  to  the  Syro- 
Cbaldean  language— a  branch  or  dialect  of  the  great  Semitic 
family  of  languages.  Abamean,  or  Ara3L£AN,  a.  drd- 
mean,  pertaining  to  the  Syrians  and  Chaldeans  or  their 
language. 

ARANDA,  d-rdn'dd,  Pedbo  Pablo  Abarca  db  Bolba, 
Count  of:  1718-99;  of  a  distinguished  Aragonese  family: 
entered  at  flrat  on  a  military  career;  but  having  evinced  a 
remarkable  spirit  of  observation,  he  was  appointed  by 
Chmrles  III.  ambassador  to  the  coui-t  of  Augustus  III.,  king 
of  Poland;  which  post  he  fiHeil  for  seven  years.  After  his 
return,  he  was  appointed  capt.-gen.  of  Valencia,  and  in 
1700  recaUed  to  Madrid  on  account  of  its  disturbed  state, 
and  the  pr^dency  of  the  council  of  Castile  was  bestowed 
on  him.    A.  not  only  soon  restored  order  in  the  capital,  but 


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ARANEIDA— ARANY. 

limited  the  power  of  the  Inquisition,  procured  the  expulsion 
of  Uie  Jesuits  from  Spain,  and  carried  the  salutary  terror  of 
ffovemment  into  the  recesses  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  then  in- 
fested by  hordes  of  ferocious  banditti.  Like  many  other 
reformers,  he  was  not  able  fully  to  carry  out  his  liberal 
intentions.  In  1773,  he  was  removed  from  his  high  position 
through  the  influence  of  the  clergy,  the  Dominican  monks 
especially,  and  sent  as  ambassador  to  France.  Griinaldi 
succeeded  him  in  his  office,  and  after  him  Count  Florida 
Blanca;  but  when  the  latter  lost  his  office  in  consequence  of 
court  intrigues,  A.  returned  to  his  position;  soon,  however, 
to  lose  it  again  through  the  agency  of  Godoy,  Duke  of 
Alcudia,  the  queen's  favorite.  He.  however,  remained 
president  of  the  council  of  state,  which  he  had  organized; 
but  upon  his  expressing  his  views  regarding  the  war  with 
France,  he  was  banished  to  his  native  province  of  Aragon, 
where  he  died  in  1799. 

ARANEINA:  see  under  Aranboub. 

ARANE0U8,  a.  A-rd'neus  [L.  ardned,  a  spider  or  cob- 
web]: resembling  a  cobweb.  ARANEiyA,  n.  a-rd-ne-i  na 
the  order  of  the  spiders.    Araneiforh,  a.  dr'a-ne'l-fawrm, 
shaped  like  a  spider  (q.v.). 

ARANG0E8,  n.  pi.  drdn'gdz:  pierced  beads  of  various 
forms  made  of  rough  camelian,  formerly  imported  from 
Bombay  to  be  re-exported  to  Africa  in  the  slave-trade. 

ARANJUEZ,  d-rdn-hwHh'  [a  corruption  of  the  Latin 
Ara-Jovis,  altar  of  Jupiter]:  t.  in  the  prov.  of  3Iadrid, 
Spain;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tagus,  28  m.  s.s.e.  from 
Madrid,  in  a  beautifully  wooded  valley;  connected  with  the 
Spanish  metropolis  by  a  railway.  The  town  is  built  in  the 
Dutch  style  and  has  broad  and  regular  streets  intersecting  each 
other  at  right  angles.  It  is  f am^  for  its  palace  and  gardens. 
The  palace  was  long  a  favorite  resort  in  spring  of  the  royal 
family,  during  which  period  A.  occasionally  reckoned  as 
manv  as  20,000  inhabitants;  the  gardens  were  laid  out  by 
Philip  IL,  who  built  a  palace  also,  for  there  was  only  a 
shooting  villa  here  during  his  father's  time,  but  a  fire  de- 
stroyed a  portion  of  it,  and  more  was  taken  down  by  Philip 
v.,  who  reconstructed  the  edifice  in  French  style.  The 
present  ch&teau  was  completed  by  Charles  IV.  On  account 
of  its  gardens,  the  natives  call  A.  *  the  metropolis  of  Flora.' 
These  gardens  are  interspersed  with  numerous  summer- 
houses,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  is  the  Casa  del  Labrcsdor, 
or  Laborer's  Cottage;  but  their  most  splendid  ornament  are 
the  great  elm  trees  brought  from  England  by  Philip  11., 
which  thrive  magnificently.  Thev  radiate  out  from  a 
central  plot  in  12  distinct  rows.  A.  is  known  historically 
for  the  treaty  of  alliance  concluded  here  between  France 
and  Spain  1772.  Apr.  12,  and  as  the  scene  of  the  abdication 
of  Charles  IV.  1808.  Mar.  18.    Pop.  8,154. 

ARANY,  or'rdfl,  Janos:  1817,  Mar.  2—1882,  Oct.  22;  b. 
Nagy-Szalonta:  next  to  PctOfi  the  most  distinguished  of 
modem  Hungarian  poets.  His  father  was  a  poor  peasant, 
who  spared  no  pains  to  get  him  into  the  church.  In  1882, 
he  entered  the  college  at  Debreczin,  where  he  distinguished 


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ARAPAIMA— ARARAT. 

himflelf  by  his  ditigence;  bat  unable  to  restrain  his  love  oi 
adventure,  he  joined,  1886,  a  company  of  strolling  players, 
with  whom  he  travelled  about  for  several  months,  till, 
driven  by  necessity  and  an  upbraiding  conscience,  he  hur- 
ried home  to  do  what  he  could  for  the  support  of  a  now 
blind  and  aged  parent.  At  Szalonta  he  worked  as  a  teacher 
of  Latin  and  as  a  notary.  When  the  Eisfaludy  Boc.  of 
Pesth  offered  a  prize  for  the  best  humorous  poem,  A.  sent 
inanonymouslv  bis  Az  dveseett  AUcotmdny  (The  Lost  Consti- 
tution of  the  Past).  He  was  successful.  Thus  emboldened, 
be  ventured,  1847,  to  forward  to  the  same  soc.  the  first  part 
of  a  trilo^,  Toldi.  Struck  by  the  beauty  of  this  purely 
national  effort,  the  members  published  it  at  their  own  ex- 
pense, and  again  rewarded  the  author.  A.  soon  became  a 
rilar  favorite,  even  in  the  lowest  ranks  of  the  community. 
1848,  appeared  his  Murdny  Ostroma  (Conquest  of 
Murilny),  which  received  less  attention  owing  to  the  political 
excitement  of  the  time.  The  poet  himself  took  a  slight  part 
in  the  revolution,  but  after  the  dismal  termination  of  the 
war  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  country.  He  was 
afterwards  professor  of  Hungarian  literature,  director  of 
the  Eisfaludy  Soc.,  editor  of  a  journal,  and  sea  of  the 
Hungarian  Acad.  (1865-78).  Later  works  are  K<Ualin  (1860), 
the  third  and  second  parts  of  T<Mi  (1854-79),  Buda  Haldla 
(1864),  and  a  humorous  poem  recounting  his  early  adventures 
(1874).    Part  of  Buda  has  been  translated  into  English. 

ARAPATMA,  dr-d-pi'md:  genus  of  fresh-water  fishes,  tbc 
largest  known  fresh-water  fishes  in  the  world.  They  are 
found  in  the  rivers  of  S.  Amer. ,  and  are  sometimes  taken  in 
the  Rio  Negro  15  ft.  in  length,  and  of  the  weight  of  4  cwt 
They  are  taken  with  the  harpoon,  and  are  highly  esteemed 
for  food,  both  fresh  and  salted.  In  the  salted  state,  they 
have  begun  to  form  an  article  of  commerce,  and  are  con- 
veyed in  large  quantities  to  Para.  The  genus  A,  belongs  to 
the  family  of  (XupeBoeida,  a  familv  of  malacopterous  fi&es, 
allied  to  the  ClupeidcB  or  herring  family,  and  is  remarkable 
for  the  mosaic  work  of  strong,  fiony,  compound  scales  with 
which  the  body  is  covered.    About  six  iq)ecies  are  known. 

ARARAT,  dr'a-rdt  [AirarcU,  in  the  old  Armenian  dialect; 
ie.,  the  plains  of  the  Arp^ans]:  ancient  name  of  the  fertile 
plateau  tibrough  which  flows  the  river  Aras  or  Araxes.  It 
occupies  the  centre  of  the  mountainous  region  of  Armenia, 
belonging  partly  to  Turkey  and  partly  to  Russia.  Notwith- 
standing the  passage  Gen.  viii.  4,  where  it  is  said  that  the 
ark  rested  '  on  the  mountains  of  Ararat,'  it  has  become  com- 
mon to  ^ve  the  name  A.,  not  to  the  entire  range,  but  to  the 
mountam  called  by  the  Armenians  Massis  Leusar — i.e., 
'mountain  of  the  ark '  (known  among  the  Turks  as  A^hri- 
D^di,  'steep  moimtain;'  and  among  the  Persians  as  Koh-i- 
Nod,  '  Noah's  mountain ').  It  rises  in  two  volcanic  cones, 
known  as  the  Greater  and  the  Lesser  Ararat;  the  former, 
17,212  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  It 
18  the  highest  elevation  of  Western  Asia;  and  since  the  war 
of  1827  It  forms  the  point  where  the  Russian,  Turkish,  and 
Petsiaa  territories  meet.    In  1840,  the  form  of  the  mountaia 


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ARA8-ARATUS. 

was  partially  changed  by  a  frij^htf ul  and  deatnictlTe  earth- 
quake. PreviouB  to  this  period,  at  the  base  of  the  mountain^ 
and  at  a  point  where  a  stream  runs  from  a  wild  gorge,  there 
stood  the  village  of  Argurior  Aguri,  surrounded  by  gardens 
and  orchards,  with  upwards  of  1,000  inhabitanta  In  the 
ravine,  2,800  ft.  above  the  village,  stood  the  Armenian 
convent  of  St.  James;  and  1,000  ft.  higher  still,  a  chapd 
dedicated  to  St.  James.  The  beauty  and  mild  air  of  tiie 
district  made  Anguri  a  favorite  summer  resort  of  the  richer 
inhabitants  of  Erwan.  It  was  to  undergo  a  great  change, 
however.  On  June  20, 1840,  dreadful  shocks  of  earthqu^ 
were  felt.  Great  masses  of  the  mountain  were  thrown  into 
the  plain,  the  ravine  was  closed,  the  convent  and  chapel  dis- 
appeared, and  the  village,  and  the  wardens  which  surrounded 
it,  were  buried  under  rocks,  earth,  and  ice,  and  with  the 
inhabitants  utterly  destroyed.  Toumefort  made  a  partial 
ascent  of  the  mountain  in  1700;  since  then,  ascents  have 
been  made  in  1829  by  Professor  Parrot  of  Dorpat  and  his 
companions;  in  1850  by  Colonel  Chodzko,  and  a  large  party 
of  Russians  engaged  in  the  Transcaucasian  triangulation;  in 
1856  by  Major  Robert  Stuart;  and  hi  1870  bv  Dr.  G.  Radde 
and  Dr.  G.  Sicvers.  These  naturalists,  the  former  of  whom 
is  director  of  the  museum  at  Tiflis,  have  carefully  explored 
the  mountain  and  district  in  which  it  is  situated.  See  Uieir 
'Reisen  in  Armenschen  Hochland'  (Pstermann'B  MUthHl- 
ungen  for  1871);  also  the  Tran»cauca9ia  and  A.  of  Mr.  Biyce, 
who  made  the  ascent  in  1876. 

ARAS,  ar'as:  the  ancient  Araxet,  a  river  of  Armenia, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Blnffol  Su  and  the  Ealeh-Su, 
and  uniting  its  waters  with  those  of  the  Eur  (ancient  CJ^rtw) 
after  a  course  of  about  500  miles.  The  main  stream  is  the 
Bingol-Su,  which  rises  to  the  Bingol-Tagh,  lat  41*  80*  n., 
and  long.  41°  10'  e.;  and  flowing  n.n.e.,  is  lotoed  a  little 
below  Hasan-kaleh  by  the  Ealeh-Su,  after  which  the  com- 
bmcd  stream  is  callea  the  A.  It  then  flows  e.,  forming  for 
some  time  the  s.  boundary  of  the  provtoce  of  Ears,  till  it  is 
joined  by  the  Arm,  which  flows  toto  it  from  the  north.  After 
this,  it  divides  Kussian  and  Turkish  Armenia;  at  some  dis- 
tance to  the  s.  of  Erivan  it  turns  to  the  s.e.,  along  the  base 
of  Ararat;  soon  after  which  it  receives  tiie  waters  of  the 
Zenghi,  a  river  descending  s.  past  Erivan.  Near  Djulfa  it 
runs  e.  for  about  60  m.;  after  which  it  runs  to  the  n.e.  for 
upwards  of  125  m.,  till  it  is  joined  by  the  large  river  Eur, 
descending  from  the  Caucasus  through  Geor^.  Their  united 
waters,  after  a  short  e.  course,  turn  suddenly  to  the  s.,  and 
fall  by  three  mouths  into  the  Gulf  of  Eizilgatch,  in  the  Cas- 
pian, in  lat.  89^  20'  n. 

ARATUS,  d-rd'tus,  op  Sicton:  a  distinguished  Greek 
statesman;  b.  abt.  B.C.  271.  His  youth  fell  amona:  the  party 
strifes  of  his  native  town,  in  which  his  father,  Cltoias,  met 
his  death;  and  he  himself  was  only  saved  by  the  efforts  of 
his  aunt,  who  had  him  secretly  conveyed  to  Argos,  whence 
he  returned,  in  his  twentieth  year,  and  liberated  oicyon  from 
its  tyrant,  Nicocles,  b.c  251.  Supported  by  Ptolemaius 
Philadelphus,  A.  restored  the  republican  form  of  govem* 


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ARATU8-ARAUCAJS1A. 

ment  to  Sicyon,  and  nnited  it  with  the  Achalan  League,  of 
whi<^  he  was  appointed  general,  B.C.  245.  During  his 
honorable  but  checkered  career,  this  ofQce  was  conferred  on 
him  seventeen  times.  His  great  object  was  to  unite  the 
'  Greek  states,  and  form  out  of  them  an  independent  nation; 
but  this  was  thwarted  by  their  mutual  Jealousies.  A.  was  a 
brave  general,  a  skilful  tactician,  and  a  disinterested  patriot 
A.  died  by  poison  administered  to  him  by  command  of 
Philip  III.  of  Macedon. 

ARATUS  OF  Soli  (or  Pompciopolis,  in  Cilida):  wrote 
about  B.C.  270,  a  Qreek  didactic  poem,  entitled  Ph€enonwna, 
founded  on  the  astronomical  system  of  Eudozoe  of  Cnidos, 
and  appended  to  it  another  poem,  Diosemeia,  giving  rules 
for  prognostication  of  the  weather.  A  pure  style  and  cor- 
rect versification  mark  both  poems,  wMch  were  translated 
into  Latin  bv  Cicero,  Caesar  Gfermanicus,  and  Rufus  Festus 
Avienus.  A.  was  a  native  of  the  same  province  as  the 
apostle  Paul,  who  quotes  from  him  in  his  speech  on  Mars' 
Hill : '  For  as  certain  of  your  own  poets  have  said.  We  also 
are  his  ofitspring*  (Acts  xvii.  28).  The  best  editions  are  by 
Buttmann  (1826),  Bekker  (1828),  and  KOchly  (1851). 

ARAUCANLA.,  d-rato-kd'ne^:  country  of  the  Araucos  or 
Araucanian  Indians,  in  thes.  of  Chili.  TheOhilian  pro- 
vince of  Arauco,  between  the  rivers  Biobio  and  Valdivia.  was 
incorporated  1862;  but  the  Indians  occupy  a  large  territory 
in  Arauco  and  the  more  s.  provinces  of  Valdivia,  and  still 
maintain  their  independence  of  the  Chilian  republic.  The 
Araucanians  are  interesting  as  furnishing  the  only  example 
of  Indian  self-government  in  the  presence  of  the  European 
races.  Their  country  is  divided  from  n.  to  s.  into  four  parallel 
regions,  varying  from  each  other,  with  some  regularity,  in 
sou  and  climate.  There  are  the  coast  region,  the  plain  re- 
gion, the  region  of  the  Lower  Andes,  and  the  region  of  the 
Hi^er  Andes.  .  The  productions  of  A.  are  similar  to  those 
of  CJhili.  The  pop.  cannot  be  accurately  estimated  on  ac- 
count of  the  independence  of  the  nation;  but  the  most  recent 
estimates  of  the  aboriginal  population  are  from  10,000  to 
50,000. 

A.  has  the  proud  distinction  of  being  the  only  portion  of 
the  new  world  that  has  never  received  the  European  yoke. 
From  the  days  of  Pizarro  and  Almagro  downwards,  it  has 
uniformly  vindicated  its  freedom— its  wars  of  independence 
having  lasted,  with  intervals  of  precarious  truce,  from  1587 
to  1773.  In  1861,  a  French  adventurer,  De  Tonneins  (1820- 
78),  ingratiating  himself  with  the  Indians,  was  elected  king 
of  A.  See  his  L'Araucanie  (Bord.  1878);  R.  Smith's  Arau- 
eamans  (New  York,  1855);  and  M.ediD&*sAborijene8  de  Chile 
(Santiago,  1882). 


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ARAUCARIA. 

ARAUCARIA,  Ar-aw-kd'H-d,:  genus  of  plants  of  the  na> 
tural  order  (JonifercR  (q.v.)  or  Pines,  consisting  of  lofty  trees, 
natives  of  the  s.  bemispherc,  and  distinguished  by  having 
the  male  and  female  flowers  on  separate  plants,  the  pollen 
of  the  male  flowers  contained  in  10-20  cases  pendent  from . 
the  apex  of  each  scale,  the  female  flowers  two  under  each 
scale ;  each  having  one  ovule.  The  species  are  all  evergreen, 
the  leaves  broader  than  in  pines  and  firs,  which  the  trees 
resemble  in  their  general  manner  of  growth.  A.  imbrieata, 
sometimes  called  the  Chili  Pine,  a  native  of  the  Andes  of 
Chili,  forming  forests  on  their  w.  declivities,  attains  a  height 
of  150  ft.,  the  trunk  quite  straight  and  free  from  knots. 


Araucaria  Imbricata: 

End  of  a  branch,  much  reduced,  showiug  the  mode  of  ramiflcatioii« 

and  the  manner  in  which  the  leaves  are  imbricated. 

The  bark  of  the  young  trees  is  studded  with  leaves  from  the 
base  upwards,  even  until  12  or  15  yea:Jps  of  age.  The 
branches  "are  in  whorls  of  6,  7,  or  8.  Young  trees  have 
branches  almost  from  the  ground;  old  trees  have  tall  naked 
stems,  with  a  crown  of  branches.  The  female  strobile  (cone) 
is  roundish  ovate,  8-10  inches  in  diameter,  the  scales  termi- 
nated by  a  long  awl-shaped  point,  the  seeds  wed^e-shaped, 
and  more  than  an  inch  in  length.  The  outer  and  inner  hark 
of  full-grown  trees  are  each  4-6  inches  in  thickness;  the 
outer  bark  of  a  corklike  texture;  the  inner,  fungous  and 
porous.  From  both  outer  and  inner  bark,  and  indeed  from 
all  parts  of  the  tree,  resin  flows  readily  and  in  great  abun- 
dance. The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  about  1|  inch  in  length  and 
i  inch  in  breadth  near  the  base,  sharp- pointed.  The  timber  is 
heavy,  solid,  hard,  fibrous,  yellowish  white,  and  beautifully 
veined.  It  is  very  suitable  for  masts  of  ships.  The  resin,wh]ch 
is  white,  has  a  smell  like  frankincense,  and  a  not  unpleasant 


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ARAUCARIA. 

taste.  It  is  applied  as  a  plaster  to  contusions.  The  seed  is 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  not  unlike  the  chestnut,  and  is  a  most 
important  article  of  food  to  the  Indians.  It  is  eaten  raw, 
boiled,  or  roasted.  A  spirituous  liquor  is  also  distilled  from 
it.  A  single  strobile  sometimes  contains  between  200  and 
300  seeds,  and  one  tree  may  be  seen  loaded  with  20  or  30  of 
these  great  strobiles.  This  Araucaria  was  introduced  into 
Britain  in  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  is  now  frequently 
planted.    It  promises  to  add— like  the  larch  and  the  spruce — 


Araucaria  tmbricata:  Sketched  in  the  Botanic  Gardens,  Edinburgh. 

a  new  feature  to  British  landscapes,  and  will  probably  prove 
important  in  an  economical  point  of  view.  A,  BrasUiana, 
the  BBAZUi  Pink,  has  loosely  imbricated  lanceolate  leaves, 
and  a  looser  and  more  spreading  habit  than  A.  tmbricata. 
The  seeds  or  nuts  are  sold  as  an  article  of  food  in  Rio  Janeiro. 
The  resin  which  exudes  from  the  tree  is  mixed  with  wax 
to  make  candles.  A.  exeehia,  now  called  Eutassa  exceUa 
(and  \y  some  Altingia),  the  Nokfolk  Islaih)  Pine,  a  na- 
tive of  Norfolk  Island,  New  Caledonia,  etc.,  attains  a  height 
of  ieO-220  ft.,  free  from  branches  to  80-100  ft.,  and  wifi  a 
tnmk  sometimes  11  ft.  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  white, 
tougb,  close-CTained,  and  so  heavy  as  almost  to  sink  in  water. 
The  leaves  of  the  young  trees  are  linear  and  spreading;  those 
of  the  adult  are  ovate,  and  closely  imbricated.  The  stro- 
hiles  are  ovate.  4-5  inches  in  length.  A.  Cunninghamii, 
now  also  ranked  in  the  new  genus  Eutassa  or  Altingia,  the 
MoKKTON  Bat  Pene,  a  native  of  the  shores  of  Moreton  Bay 
and  banks  of  the  Brisbane  river  in  New  South  Wales, 
^  much  resembles  the  last.    It  attains  a  height  of  60-lSO 


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ARA.UCARITE8— ARAVULLL 

ft,  And  a  diameter  of  4-8  ft.  The  leaves  of  the  adult  trees 
are  lanceolate  and  imbricated.  The  wood  Is  yellowish,  and 
is  used  for  boat-building,  house-carpentnr,  and  the  common 
kinds  of  furniture.  The  large  seeds  of  A.  BidwUHi  are  used 
for  food  by  the  natives  at  Moreton  Bay. 

Certain  fossil  Coniferm  found  in  carboniferous  sandstone 
have  received  the  name  Arauca/rites.  Livingstone  found 
a  forest  of  large  silicified  trees  near  the  Zambesi,  which  Mr. 
Quekett,  on  examination  of  specimens,  ascertained  to  bo 
'  silicified  coniferous  wood  of  the  Araucarian  type.'  Fossil 
trees  of  the  same  type  occur  in  the  carboniferous  strata  of 
Britain.  The  woody  fibre  exhibits  rows  of  dots  that 
alternate  with  dots  of  other  rows,  unlike  other  pines. 

ARAUCARITE8,  n.  plu,  ^-rowAitfr-ito  [Arauea'ridn,  an 
Indian  tribe  of  Chili]:  in  geol.,  the  fossil  wood  whose 
structure  is  identical  with  that  of  the  living  Ab'auca'hts, 
-Mri-^— trees,  natives  of  the  southern  hemisphere. 

AKAUJO  DE  AZEVEDO,  d-row'tho  ddrm-ta'do.  Ax- 
TONio  DB,  afterwards  Count  daBarca:  1754,  May  14 — 1817 
June  21;  b.  84,  near  Ponte  de  Lima,  Portugal.  At  the  age 
of  11,  he  was  sent  to  Oporto  to  study  under  his  uncle,  ^who 
held  a  high  military  command.  In  1787,  he  was  appointed 
Portuguese  ambassador  to  the  Hague.  Before  entering  on 
his  duties,  he  visited  England,  where  he  omitted  no  oppor- 
tunity of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  English  manufactures; 
commerce,  politics,  etc.  Then  he  employed  himself  simi- 
larly in  Paris. 

At  length  he  resigned  his  ambassadorship  (for  the  politi- 
cal complications,  see  under  FoBTVOAh—Eistory)  and 
travelled  through  Germany,  enlarging  the  sphere  of  his 
studies  in  various  departments,  scientific  and  literary.  After 
the  Peace  of  Amiens,  A.  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  St. 
Petersburg;  in  1803,  he  was  recalled  to  LiBbon,  to  assume 
the  office  of  sec.  of  state;  and  in  1806  he  obtained  the 
highest  political  dignity  in  the  kingdom.  His  efforts  to  in- 
troduce the  various  agencies  of  civilization,  while  he  occu- 
pied this  situation,  were  unremitting.  But  the  sudden  ap- 
proach of  the  French  army  put  an  end  to  all  his  improve- 
ments. The  royal  family,  which  3onaparte  had  formally  de- 
throned in  his  victorious  proclamation,  emigrated  to  Brazi]. 
A.  embarked  also,  taking  a  complete  printing  apparatus, 
his  mineralogical  collection,  arranged  by  Werner,  and  all 
necessarv  chemical  instruments.  During  the  first  years  of 
his  resiaence  in  Brazil,  he  devoted  himself  assiduously  to 
scientific  and  literary  pursuits;  founded  a  school  of  medi- 
cine and  chemistry,  introduced  the  cultivation  of  tea,  an 
improved  machine  for  sawing  wood,  and  a  sugar-alembic, 
ana  established  a  porcelain  manufactory.  He  had  also  a 
magnificent  garden,  the  plants  of  which  were  scientifically 
arranged. 

ARAURE,  d-roto'rd:  t.  of  Venezuela,  8.  America;  lat. 
9'  17  n.,  long.  69*  28'  w.;  60  m.  e.n.e.  of  Trujillo,  in  a 
region  noted  for  its  fertility  in  the  production  of  cotton, 
coffee,  cattle,  etc.    Pop.  10,000. 

ARAYULLI,  dr^OrVuXli:  range   of   mountains   in  w. 


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ARBACE8-ARBALE8T. 

iDdia;  from  about  22'  40'  n.  lat.,  74*'  e.  long.,  to  26^  50'  n. 
ht,  75°  e.  long.  The  highest  summit  is  Abu  (q.v.)-  The 
n.e.  extremity  of  the  range  sinks  into  comparatively  low 
rocky  hills.  The  n.w.  side  is  very  bold  and  precipitous, 
the  8.e.  less  so.  There  is  no  road  practicable  for  wheel- 
carriages  across  this  range  for  a  distance  of  220  m. 

ARBACES,  dr-bd'sez:  founder  of  the  Median  empire,  B.C. 
876.  He  was  one  of  the  generals  of  Sardanapalus,  king  of 
Aasyria,  and  had  command  of  the  contingent  from  the  prov. 
of  Media.  He  conspired  with  Belesys,  a  Chaldsean  priest, 
who  commanded  the  troop  from  Babylon,  and  having 
gained  over  several  other  officers  of  the  king,  they  revolted. 
After  a  short  contest,  Sardanapalus  was  defeated,  and  com- 
mitted suicide.  The  dynasty  founded  by  A.  lasted  till  its 
overthrow  by  Cyrus,  B.C.  559.  Arbaces,  the  Mede,  is  to 
be  distinguii^ca  from  the  satrap  of  the  same  name  who 
commanded  a  division  of  the  army  of  Artaxerxes  in  his  war 
with  his  brother  Cyrus. 

ARBALEST.  dr'bd-lStt,  or  Arbaubt,  n.4Ut,  or  Arblast. 
n.  dr'bldst,  or  Ab'cxjbalist  [L.  areus,  a  bow;  balis'ia,  an 
engine  for  throwing  stones  or  darts]:  in  OJK,  a  crossbow. 
Arbalistbr,  n.  drbdlU'ter,  a  crossbow-man.  The  A.  or 
Crossbow  was  a  weapon  much  in  use  in  feudal  times.  Its 
recognized  position  amon^military  arms  dated  from  about 
the  period  of  Richard  I.    The  smaller  kinds  of  A.  were  bent 


Arbalest. 

by  pressmg  the  band  on  a  small  steel  lever  called  the  '  goat's 
foot';  but  the  larger  kinds  were  bent  by  placing  the  foot  in 
a  loop  or  stirrup  at  the  end  of  the  central  shaft,  and  draw- 
bg  the  cord  upwards  with  the  hand.  At  a  later  period,  the 
bow  was  made  very  strong,  often  of  steel;  in  this  form  it 
required  a  mechanical  contrivance,  called  a  '  moulinet,'  to 
bend  it  Sometimes  ordinary  arrows  were  used  with  the 
A,  but  more  usually  arrows  of  a  shorter  and  stouter  kind, 
called  'carrials'  or  'quarrels,'  were  employed;  these  had 
a  four-sided  pvramidal  form  of  head.  Occasionally  stones 
and  leaden  balls  were  shot  from  the  larger  Arbalests.  The 
arbalisters,  or  crossbow-men,  carried  a  quiver  with  fifty 
arrows  as  an  armament  in  some  of  the  battles  of  the  18th  c. 
They  were  an  essential  component  of  armies  of  that  period, 
taking  up  their  position  in  the  van  of  the  battle-arrav;  some 
were  mounted,  some  on  foot,  and  they  occasionally  wore 
armor.  The  supply  of  arrows  or  quarrels  was  carried 
after  them  to  the  battle-field  in  carts.  The  A.  continued  to 
be  a  favorite  weapon  in  England  throughout  the  18th  c. ; 
bat  in  the  14th,  it  gave  way  to  the  long-bow,  which  was 
found  more  convenient  in  battle.    For  me  long-bow,  see 


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ARBALESTINA— ARBITRAGE, 

Bow  AND  Abrow;  for  the  military  system  to  which  it  be- 
longed, see  Archers  and  Archert. 

ARBALESTI'NA:  in  the  military  system  of  the  middle 
ages,  a  small  window  or  wicket  through  which  the  cross- 
howmen  shot  their  quarrels  or  arrows  at  an  enemy  besieging 
a  fortified  place. 

ARBELA,  ar-beld,  now  Erbil  or  Arbil:  a  small  t.  of 
Assyria,  e.  from  Mossul,  famous  as  having  given  name  to  the 
battle  in  which  Alexander  finally  defeated  Darius,  b.c.  331. 
The  battle  was  really  fought  near  Quagamela  (the  '  camel's 
house'),  to  the  n.w.  of  A, 

ARBITER,  n.  dr'bl  ter  [L.  arbiter^  an  umpire  or  judge 
Pin  arpa,  a  lot  or  symbol]:  one  appointed  to  settle  a  matter 
in  dispute  between  two  or  more  persons;  one  intrusted  with 
the  power  of  decision  or  regukition.  Arbitrament,  n. 
drhttrdm^nt, decision;  determination.  Arbitrable, a. dr- 
bi-trdbl,  determinable.  Arbitral,  a.  dr'bi-trdl,  of  arbitra- 
tion. Arbitrary,  a.  dr'bl-tr&r'l,  despotic;  tyrannical; 
guided  by  will  only.  Ar'bitrar'ilt,  ad.  \4%^  with  no 
other  rule  or  ^ide  than  the  will.  ARBiTRARiNEas,  n.  the 
quality  of  being  tyrannical  or  despotic.  Arbitratb,  v. 
arbirtrdt  [L.  arSitrdtuSy  pronounced  upon,  as  a  dispute]:  to 
hear  and  decide  in  a  disputed  matter;  to  determine.  Ar- 
bitra'ting,  imp.  Ar'bitra'ted,  pp.  Arbitration,  n. 
dr'b^-trd'shun,  the  hearing  and  deciding  of  a  disputed  matter 
by  one  or  more  persons.  Arbitrator,  n.  dr'bt-trd'Ur,  a 
person  chosen  to  decide  a  dispute;  he  who,  or  that  which, 
puts  an  end  to  a  Uiing;  an  arbiter.  Arbitrbss,  d.  dr'- 
bl-trh,  or  Arbitratrix,  n.  dr'bii-tratrik»,  a  woman  who 
decides. — Syn.  of  '  arbiter ':  arbitrator;  umpire:  controller; 
governor;  ruler;  judge;  referee;— of  'arbitrary*:  absolute; 
despotic;  tyrannical. 

AR'BITRAGE:  term  used  for  the  comparison  and  settle- 
ment of  disputed  accounts,  and  the  composition  of  business, 
or  trade  disputes.  The  expression  is  applied,  e.g. ,  to  the  ad- 
justment of  prices  of  tmy  commodity  simultaneously  in  two 
or  more  markets,  in  terms  of  the  quotations  employed  in  a 

fiven  locality,  the  difference  of  exchange  being  calculated. 
t  is  also  applied  to  business  done  on  the  basis  of  such  csX- 
culations,  as  by  making  purchases  in  whatever  is  for  the 
moment  the  cheapest  market,  and  selline  in  the  dearest;  in 
this  sense  it  is  used  in  traffic  in  bills  ana  exchange,  in  coin 
and  bullion,  and  in  stocks,  as  well  as  in  commodities. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARBITRATION. 

ARBITRA.TION:  adjudication  by  private  persons  ap- 
pointed to  decide  a  matter,  or  matters  in  controversy,  or  a 
reference  made  to  them  for  that  purpose,  either  by  agree- 
ment of  the  disputants  or  by  the  order,  or  on  the  sug- 
gestion, of  a  court  of  law.  The  proceeding  generally  is 
called  a  submission  to  c^rbiiration,  or  reference;  the  parties 
appointed  to  decide  are  termed  a/rbiirators  or  referees;  and 
their  adjudication  is  called  an  award.  This  mode  of 
settling  disputes  is  not  only  frequently  resorted  to  by 
litigants  themselves,  who  are  anxious  to  avoid  the  delay 
and  expense  of  proceedings  in  the  public  tribunals,  but 
the  statute-books  bear  witness  to  the  approval  of  it  by  the 
legislature  at  various  times,  and  there  are  recent  statutes 
rendering  A,  or  private  reference,  in  certain  cases  compul- 
sory. International  arbitration  has  been  of  late  repeatedly 
resorted  to  in  matters  of  debate  between  nations.  Thus  as 
between  the  United  States  and  Britain,  the  San  Juan  boimd- 
ary  question  and  the  Alabama  (q.v.)  dispute  were  so 
arranged.  Diplomatic  conferences,  which  often  ob^te 
war,  belong  to  a  different  category.    See  London  Con- 

VEBENCES. 

The  matters  that  may  be  determined  by  an  arbitrator  are 
aU  personal  disputes  and  differences  which  might  otherwise 
be  made  the  subject  of  controversy  in  the  courts  of  civil 
Jurisdiction.  Thus  breaches  of  contracts  generally,  breaches 
ofpromises  of  marriage,  trespass,as8aults,chargesof  slander, 
differences  respecting  partnership  transactions  or  the  pur- 
chase price  of  a  piece  of  property,  all  may  be  referred  to  A. 
Questions  relating  to  real  property  may  also  be  referred, 
such  as  those  relating  to  the  partition  of  lands  of  joint 
tenants  or  tenants  in  common,  to  settlements  of  disputed 
boundaries— to  differences  between  landlord  and  tenant  re- 
specting waste— and  to  the  title  to  land.  Pure  questions  of 
law  majr  also  be  referred  to  the  decision  of  an  arbitrator. 
An  arbitrator  may  have,  therefore,  to  determine  the  liability 
of  a  party  on  a  promissory- note  or  bill  of  exchan^,  or  to 
construe  an  act  of  the  legislature,  or  to  give  a  judicial  opin- 
ion on  the  effect  of  a  will  or  deed.  Actions  at  law,  and  suits 
in  equity,  may  also  be  settled  by  A, ;  and  this  kind  of  refer- 
ence may  be  made  at  any  stage  of  the  proceedings,  sometimes 
even  after  the  verdict,  and  probably  bv  analogy,  after  decree 
in  equity.  Questions  relaong  to  the  future  use  and  enjoy- 
ment of  property,  and  future  or  anticipated  differences 
between  parties,  may  likewise  be  referred.  In  some  of  the 
states,  however,  some  matters  depending  on  points  strictly 
technical  are  excluded  from  A.,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
arbitrators  often  are  not  learned  in  the  law. 

A  matter,  however,  clearly  illegal,  cannot  be  made  the 
subject  of  a  valid  reference.  But  where  transactions  be- 
tween parties  have  been  brought  to  a  close  by  a  general 
award,  apparently  good,  the  courts  have  refused  to  reopen 
them  on  a  suggestion  that  some  legal  item  had  been  admitted 
hi  account. 

It  is  not  the  policy  of  the  law  to  refer  to  A.  felonies 
and  offenses  of  a  public  nature;  because  the  public  safety 
requires  them  to  be  punished,  and  for  this  purpose  they  can 


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ARBITRATION. 

be  properly  tried  only  in  one  of  the  ordinary  courts  of  the 
country. 

Yet  there  are  certain  misdemeanors  which  may  be  settled 
either  by  agreement  or  by  means  of  an  A.,  on  a  principle  of 
very  general  application  which  has  been  well  stated— that 
where  there  is  a  remedy,  b^  action  as  well  as  by  indictment, 
a  reference  of  the  matter  m  controversy  is  good.  And  in 
these  cases  of  misdemeanor,  a  compromise  or  settlement 
under  a  reference  may  be  made,  even  after  conviction,  but 
with  the  sanction  of  the  court. 

As  to  the  parties  who  may  make  a  reference  to  A.,  it  may 
be  stated  generally,  that  every  person  capable  of  making  a 
disposition  of  his  or  her  property  or  release  of  rights,  may- 
make  a  submission  to  an  award. 

Partners  and  corporations  may  make  refer^ices  to  A.  on 
the  principles  above  noted,  and  according  to  the  relation  in 
which  they  stand  to  the  matter  in  dispute. 

As  to  a  reference  to  A.  by  act  of  counsel,  aside  from  client^ 
formerly  advocated  by  hi^h  English  authority,  the  feeling  of 
the  bar  in  England  now  is  that  it  is  unwise  to  refer  or  com- 
promise a  litigation  on  the  independent  authority  of  counsel. 

Disputes  may  be  referred  to  A.  in  any  manner  that  ex* 
presses  the  agreement  or  understanding  of  the  parties  to  be 
bound  by  the  decision  of  the  arbitrator;  and  for  this  purpose 
no  formal  submission,  either  verbal  or  written,  is  necessary; 
but  the  arrangement  must  be  such  as  manifestly  to  show  an 
intention  to  have  the  difference  concluded  by  a  private  ad^n- 
dicatlon  in^thc  nature  of  an  award.  But  where  the  submission 
is  in  writing,  it  must  be  executed  in  due  form.  A  testator, 
however,  cannot  exclude  his  will  from  litigation  by  a  proviso, 
that  aU  differences  respecting  it  shall  be  referred  to  A.. 
although  it  is  thought  that  the  parties  benefited  by  the  will 
might  themselves  so  refer.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  make  the  A.  in  such  a  form  as  that  the  award 
may  be  made  a  rule  of  court— that  is,  may  be  adopted  by  a 
court  of  law  as  its  judgment  on  the  matter  submitted,  a  pro- 
ceeding that  affords  an  obvious  facility  in  enforcing  the 
award. 

The  arbitrator  ought  to  be  a  person  who  stands  perfectly 
indifferent  between  the  disputants;  but  there  are  no  other 
particular  qualifications  for  the  oflSce.  And  the  choice  by 
parties  of  the  person  who  they  agree  shall  decide  between 
them  is  perfectly  free.  Some  legal  writers  have  even  gone 
so  far  as  to  maintain,  that  not  only  infants  and  married 
women,  but  even  idiots  and  lunatics,  can  be  arbitrators,  on 
the  argument  that  every  person  is  at  liberty  to  choose  whom 
he  likes  best  for  his  private  judge,  and  he  cannot  afterwards 
object  to  the  deficiencies  of  those  whom  he  has  himself 
selected.  But  this,  it  is  clear,  is  going  too  far,  and  the 
policy  of  the  law  would  certainly  be  interposed  anunst  such 
extreme  cases.  It  is  better  to  state  the  rule  to  be  that  on 
the  condition  that  the  party  selected  is  of  ordinary  intelli- 
gence, the  choice  of  an  arbitrator  is  absolutely  unfettered. 
The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  case  of  a  party  who, 
by  office  or  position,  is  the  person  pointed  out  for  the  duty 
under  a  reference  made  by  statute.    In  matters  of  compu- 


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ARBITRATION. 

cated  accounts,  mercaDtile  men  are  generally  preferred.  In 
other  cases,  it  is  usual  to  appoint  lawyers,  who,  heing  ac- 
customed to  judicial  investigations,  are  able  to  estimate  the 
evidence  properly,  to  confine  the  examination  strictly  to  the 
XX>int8  in  question,  and,  in  making  the  award,  to  avoid 
thofie  informalities  in  respect  of  which  it  might  afterwards 
be  set  aside.  Both  time  and  expense  are  thus  saved  bjr  fix- 
ing on  a  professional  arbitrator.  It  has,  indeed,  been  wisely 
remarked,  that  an  arbitrator  should  endeavor  to  arrive  at 
his  conclusions  upon  the  same  rules  and  principles  which 
would  have  actuated  the  court  for  which  he  is  substituted— 
a  rule  of  conduct  that  obviously  points  to  the  expedieiicy 
of  a  lawyer  being  the  referee.  J3ut  an  arbitrator  is  not 
bound  by  the*  mere  rules  of  practice  which  prevail  in  the 
ordinary  courts  of  justice,  and  he  has  been  held  justified 
in  allowing  interest  on  both  sides  of  an  unliquidated  account, 
although  such  a  determination  was  against  the  practice  of 
tbe  Court  of  Chancery,  where  the  suit  which  had  been 
referred  had  been  commenced. 

The  proceedings  before  an  arbitrator  are  regulated  ac- 
cording to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  case  submitted, 
but  generallv  it  is  advisable  to  conduct  them  according  to 
the  forms  observed  in  courts  of  law,  and  thev  usually  are 
ao  conducted.  Each  of  the  parties  furnishes  tne  arbitrator 
vrith  the  statement  of  his  case,  which  is  done  by  giving  him 
a  copy  of  the  briefs  on  each  side;  and  on  the  day  appointed 
he  proceeds  to  hear  them  (eiflier  in  person  or  by  their 
counsel  or  attorneys),  and  to  receive  the  evidence  on  each 
side,  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  a  judge  at  an  ordinary 
triaL  Having  so  heard  the  case,  the  arbitrator  proceeds^  to 
make  his  award,  which  need  not  necessarily  be  in  writing, 
for  a  verbal  award  is  perfectly  valid;  but  in  practice  it  is 
usual  for  the  arbitrator  to  make  written  award  which  he 
delivers  to  the  successful  partv.  The  unsuccessful  party 
also  gets  a  copy  of  the  award.  This  award  in  its  effect 
operates  as  a  final  and  conclusive  judgment  respecting  all 
the  matter  submitted,  and  it  binds  the  rights  of  the  parties 
for  all  time. 

An  award  may  be  set  aside  on  the  ground  of  corruption 
and  fraud  in  the  arbitrator,  and  for  any  material  irregu 
larity  or  illegality  appearing  on  the  face  of  the  proceedings. 
But  the  tendency  of  the  courts  is  to  favor  arbitrations  and 
maintain  awards,  unless  such  serious  groimds  as  are  above 
referred  to  can  be  substantiated. 

Where  there  are  two  arbitrators,  the  submission  often 
provides  that  in  the  case  of  their  differing  in  opinion  the 
matter  referred  shall  be  decided  bv  a  third  person,  called 
an  umpire,  who  is  generally  appointed  under  a  power  to 
that  effect,  by  the  arbitrators  themselves.  But  they  cannot 
make  such  an  appointment  unless  specially  authorized  so 
to  do  by  the  terms  of  the  submission.  This  umpire  rehears 
the  case,  and  for  this  purpose  is  invested  with  the  same 
powers  and  bound  by  the  same  rules  as  the  arbitrators. 

In  A.,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  there  can  be  no  ap* 
peal  on  the  merits  of  the  dispute  to  any  public  tribunal. 


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ARBITRATION. 

ARBITRATION,  International:  a  substitute  for  war 
which  iu  our  times  is  receiving  strong  support  from  lead- 
ing minds  iu  Great  Britain  and  the  United  8tates.  Since 
lbl6,  tliere  have  been  112  arbitrations  between  different 
European  nations,  the  United  States,  and  the  states  of 
Central  and  South  America,  in  all  cases  with  practically 
satisfactory  result. 

Much  has  been  done  for  the  principle  of  A.  by  the  Assoc 
for  Reform  and  Codification  of  the  Laws  of  Nations  (now 
known  as  *The  International  Law  assoc.'),  orgauiz^  at 
Brussels  1878,  whose  membership  is  drawn  from  all  the 
chief  nations  and  represents  the  highest  standard  of  ability, 
learning,  and  public  spirit,  and  which  'aims  to  promote 
international  arbitration,  to  conserve  the  peace  of  the 
world,'  etc.  The  International  Peace  soc.  also  has  labored 
effectively  for  the  same  object.  For  notable  instances  of 
A.  in  controversies  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  see  Grnkva  Arbitration:  Vknezuelan  Ques- 
tion. After  long  correspondence  between  the  Marquis  of 
Salisbury  and  Secretary  of  State  Olney,  a  General  Arbitra- 
tion Treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
was  agreed  on,  and,  1897,  Jun.  11,  submitted  to  the  U.  8. 
senate.    The  essential  features  of  the  treaty  were: 

Agreement  to  arbitrate  all  questions  in  difference  which 
the  two  uatious  may  fail  to  adjust  by  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions. 

Pecuniary  claims  of  less  than  £100,000  to  be  settled  by 
majority  vote  of  an  arbitral  tribunal  of  three  persons; 
claims  in  excess  of  that  amount  to  require  a  unanimous 
vote,  or,  failing  of  that,  to  be  submitte<l  to  a  new  arbitral 
tribunal  of  five,  of  whom  a  majority  shall  decide. 

Territorial  claims  to  be  submitted  to  a  tribunal  of  six 
persons,  of  whom  three  shall  be  members  of  the  supreme 
court  or  of  the  circuit  courts  of  the  United  States,  and  shall 
be  selected  by  the  pres.,  and  three  shall  be  members  of 
the  supreme  court  of  justice  or  of  the  judicial  committee 
of  tlie  privy  council  of  Great  Britain,  and  shall  be  selected 
by  the  sovereign:  their  award  by  a  majority  of  not  less  than 
five  to  one  to  be  final:  an  award  by  less  than  the  prescribed 
majority  to  be  final  unless  protested  within  three  montha. 
In  such  case,  or  when  the  vote  is  evenly  divided,  no  re- 
course shall  be  had  to  hostile  measures  till  the  mediation 
of  one  or  more  friendly  powers  shall  have  been  invited  by 
one  or  the  other  party. 

The  treaty  was  received  with  almost  universal  popular 
favor  in  both  countries,  all  the  principal  papers  speaking 
in  the  highest  terms  of  the  patience,  the  zeal,  and  the 
ability  of  the  statesmanship  by  which  it  was  concluded. 
But  in  the  U.  S.  senate  vigorous  opposition  to  its  ratifica- 
ti»n  was  developed,  partly,  it  was  charged,  on  partisau 
grounds,  but  not  without  some  show  of  reason;  and  after 
long  debate  and  many  enfeebling  amendments,  the  treaty 
was  finally  rejected,  1897.  May  5,  by  a  vote  of  43  iu  the 
aflirraaiive  against  26  in  the  negative,  19  of  the  88  senators 
not  voting. 


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ARBOGA— ARBORESCENT. 

ARBOQA,  ar-ho'gd:  ancient  ciQr  in  Sweden,  prov.  of 
Westmannland,  on  a  small  river  of  the  same  name,  by  which, 
with  the  aid  of  a  canal,  the  lakes  Hialmar  and  Malar  are 
united.  A.  was  an  important  commercicd  town,  but  has 
DOW  sunk  into  insi^ficance,  having  only  an  historical  in- 
terest from  the  antiquities  in  its  neighborhood.  Of  all  its 
churches,  cloisters,  and  chapels  there  remain  only  the  town 
and  parish  churches,  the  former  with  an  altar-piece  of  Rem- 
brandt's. Several  kings  of  the  family  of  Vasa  have  resided 
here.  Church  assemblies  were  held  here  in  1896,  1413, 
1417,  1428, 1474;  diets  in  1435,  1440,  1471,  1529,  and  1561, 
in  which  last  year  also  certain  articles,  known  as  the  A. 
Articles,  were  passed,  by  which  Eric  XIV.  was  enabled  to 
limit  the  power  of  the  nobles;  and  in  1625,  Qustavus  Adol- 
phus  issued -an  edict  here,  commanding  that  the  copper  coin 
of  the  realm  should  contain  its  full  worth  of  copper.  Pep. 
(1890)  4.5^6. 

ARBOR,  n.  dr'her  fL.  arhor,  a  tree:  OE.  herbere  {her'bir), 
a  garden]:  a  seat  shaded  with  trees;  a  bower;  an  axis  or 
spmdle.  Arboratob,  a.  drbihrd'ier,  one  who  grows 
trees.  Abbobed,  a.  dr'berd,  furnished  with  an  arbor. 
Abbobous,  a.  dr'bo^rus,  or  Abbobbous,  a.  dr-bo're-us, 
resembling  or  belonging  to  a  tree.  Abbobescent.  a. 
drbo-r^^'int  [L.  arbores'cens  or  anr'horedcen'tem,  growing  to  a 
tree]:  branched  like  a  tree;  having  crystallizations  disposed 
like  the  branches  of  a  tree;  in  moss-like  aggregates  like  the 
frost-flowers  on  a  window-pane;  becoming  woody.  Ab'- 
bobbs'cbncb,  n.  -«^7W,  or  Ab'bobiza'tion,  n.  -izd'shun, 
the  resemblance  of  a  tree  in  minerals;  groups  of  crystals  in 
the  form  of  a  tree.  Ab'bobet,  n.  a  small  tree;  a  shrubbery. 
Abbobbtum,  n.  dr" bo-re' turn  [L.]:  a  place  for  cultivating 
rare  trees  and  shrubs.  Abbobicultubb,  n.  dr'bdri-kuU'ur 
[L.  eultu'ra,  tillage]:  the  art  of  planting  and  managing 
trees  and  shrubs.  Ab'bobxcult'ubal,  a.  -^r-dl,  pertaining 
to.  Ab'bobicxtlt'ubist,  n.  -kuWur-Ut,  one  who.  Ab'bob- 
IBT,  D.  one  who  studies  trees. 

AB'BOR  day  :  in  the  United  States,  a  day  in  each  year, 
Bet  apart  by  legiBlutlve  enactiuent  or  otherwise,  for  vol- 
untary planting  of  trees  by  the  people.  The  custom  was 
started  in  Neb.  1874,  and  was  observed  (1890)  In  35 
states,  In  nearly  all  of  which  the  planting  was  done  by 
public- school  children  with  appropriate  exercises. 

ARBORES'CENT:  term  applied  to  plants  to  signify  that 
Uiey  possess  either  altogether,  or  in  some  measure,  the 
character  of  trees.  Even  the  dwarf  willows  and  birches, 
on  the  confines  of  polar  or  alpine  perpetual  snow,  are  de* 
•cribed  as  the  A  y^etation  of  these  regions. 


«-15 


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ARBORICULTURE. 

ARBORICULTURE,  dr'bir-l-kiU'tilr:  art  of  planting 
and  raisiug  trees  and  shrubs  for  useful  or  ornamental  pur- 
poses, but  uot  including  ttie  cultivation  of  f roit-treeSy  wnich 
comes  under  the  head  of  Horticulture  (q.v.). 

The  ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  practiced 
A.  to  a  very  limited  extent.  Germany  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  country  to  plant  timber-trees  in  a  systematic  man- 
ner, beginning  in  the  15th  c.  Great  Britain  followed  in 
the  nextc.  but  on  only  a  small  scale.  The  early  English 
laws  (see  Foiiest  Laws)  were  framed  for  preserving  game, 
and  not  specially  for  maintenance  of  timbered  lands,  whose 
area  diminished  as  population  increased.  As  larger  quan- 
tities of  timber  were  required  for  building  purposes,  impor- 
tations soon  became  necessary.  Evelyn's  great  work  JSj/lva 
(1664)  stimulated  tree-planting,  particularly  in  the  orna- 
mental line,  and  in  the  17th  c.  nurseries  for  propagation  of 
such  trees  were  established.  In  the  next  c.  considerable 
attention  was  c^iven  to  A.  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  au</ 
early  in  the  19tn  c.  the  demand  for  ship-timber  led  to  ex- 
tensive planting  of  trees  for  that  purpose.  After  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon,  this  demand  was  lessened  and  the 
culture  of  forest- trees  was  neglected,  though  that  of  orna- 
mental trees  and  slirubs,  particularly  of  varieties  from 
abroad,  was  increased.  Societies  have  been  formed  in 
Great  Britain  for  encouragement  of  A.,  and  in  India  tree- 
growing  IS  largely  under  govt,  supervision;  but  Germany 
gives  it  greater  attention  than  any  other  nation. 

Until  recently,  little  was  done  in  the  United  States  in 
planting  timber-trees.  The  need  of  protection  of  crops 
and  live-stock  led  many  farmers,  particularlv  at  the  west, 
to  plant  lines  or  belts  of  trees  for  wind,-breaks;  and 
the  establishment  of  arbor  day  (see  Arbor  Day),  and 
the  work  of  the  newspaper  press  in  calling  attention  to 
the  dangers  threatened  by  the  destruction  of  our  forests, 
have  given  a  great  impetus  to  A.  in  a  large  portion  of  the 
country.  Trees  for  planting  are  obtained  often  from 
swamps  or  upland  woods;  but  much  finer  and  in  the 
end  more  profitable  specimens  can  be  obtained  from 
seed.  The  leading  nurseries  supply  some  of  the  best 
varieties  of  timber-trees,  but  some  planters  prefer  to  grow 
what  they  require.  The  seed  must  be  planted  in  good 
and  carefully  prepared  soil,  and  for  a  few  years  the  trees 
need  careful  culture  and  protection  from  the  various  ene- 
mies to  which  they  are  exposed.  They  should  be  trans- 
planted once  or  twice  before  being  placed  where  they  are 
finally  to  stand,  but  they  should  be  put  in  their  perma- 
nent positions  when  not  more  than  three  or  four  feet  in 
height.  The  transplanting  of  large  trees  is  difficult,  and 
seldom  gives  satisfactory  results.  Small  trees  suffer  much 
less  than  large  ones  when  removed,  and,  if  placed  in  good 
soil  and  carefully  cultivated  for  a  few  years,  will  make  a 
far  more  rapid  and  healthful  growth  than  large  specimens. 
The  varieties  of  trees  for  planting  should  be  selected  with 
reference  to  their  adaptation  to  the  climate  and  soil.  Some 
kinds  which  thrive  in  cold  regions  do  not  thrive  where  the 
summers  are  long  and  hot;  some  wiU  fiafdy  ^ndure  ex- 


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ARBORVINE— ARBOR  VITiE. 

posure  to  winds  and  sea-air,  which  would  be  ruinous  to 
others;  and  the  success  or  failure  of  a  variety  is  deter- 
mined often  by  the  degree  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  To  a 
certain  extent,  however,  the  soil  can  be  fitted,  by  draining 
and  manuring,  for  the  production  of  trees  to  which  it  is 
well  adapted;  and  by  planting  in  sheltered  places  it  is 
often  possible  to  grow  flue  specimens  of  half-hardy  trees 
fur  beyond  their  natural  limits.  The  cultivation  of  trees 
for  strictly  ornamental  purposes  properly  comes  under  the 
h^d  of  iJandscape-jraraening  (q.  v.)  Copse  or  coppice  wood, 
largely  grown  in  England,  is  subject  to  different  treatment 
from  that  given  to  timber  or  ornamental  plantations :  see 
Coppice:  Treb. 

ARBORVINE,  dr'ber^n  [L.  arbor,  a  tree;  vinea,  a  vhie]: 
a  sort  of  bind- weed. 

ARBOR  YITiE,  dr'bar  vi'te  {Ihvja):  a^  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Conifera,  allied  to  the  cypress;  consist- 
ing of  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  with  compressed  or  flat- 
tened branchletB— small,  scale-like,  imbricated  leaves— and 
monoecious  flowers,  which  iiave  4-celled  anthers,  and  the 
scales  of  the  strobiles  (or  cones)  with  two  upright  ovules. — 
The  oommoa  A.  V.  (T.  oecidenUUis)  is  a  native  of  N.  Amer., 

especially  between  lat. 
46^  and  lat.  49%  but  has 
long  been  well  known  in 
Europe.  In  some  locali- 
ties it  forms  a  tree  of  40- 
50  ft.  high;  ils  branches 
are  horizontally  ex- 
panded, and  the  strobiles 
(cones)  small  and  obo- 
vate.  It  is  the  parent  of 
many  varieties,  some  of 
which  are  extensively 
propagated  in  nurseries 
in  the  n.  U.  S.  to  be 
planted   for  ornamental 

{)urposes  either  singly  in 
awns  or  in  the  form  of  a 
hedge.    ( See    Hedge.  ) 
The  wood  of  the  stem  is 
reddish,  soft,  and  very 
light,      but      compact, 
tough,  and  durable,  bear 
exposure  to  the  weather 
remarkably  well  and  is 
Artwr  Vltae  (Tfci^a  ocd<fenfa7i«):     useful    for   fence  posts. 
End  of  branch,  Bhowlnsr  mode   of    t*.      :„      -.p.-     romTnon 
ramiflcaUon  and  fruit.  "    ^^,     .^®7     common 

in  Britam,  but  planted 
diiefly  as  an  ornamental  tree,  and  seldom  attaining  so  great  a 
size  as  in  its  native  country.  It  thrives  in  cool,  moist  situa- 
tkms.  The  Chinesb  A.  V.  (  T.  orientalis),  native  of  China  and 
Japan,  immediately  distinguishable  from  the  former  species 
by  its  upright  branches  and  larger,  almost  globose  and 
rough  strobiles,  is  also  in  Britain,  and  upon  the  continent  of 
Buiope,  a  common  ornament  of  pleasure-grounds;  but  it 


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ARBROATH— ARBUTB. 

docs  not  attain  so  great  a  size  as  the  preceding,  and  is  more 
sensitive  to  the  cold  of  severe  winters.  The  Imlsamic  smell 
is  very  agreeable.  The  tree  yields  a  resin,  having  a  pleasant 
odor,  to  which  hiffh  medicinal  virtues  were  formerly  ascribed; 
hence  the  remarkable  name,  Arbor  Vita  (Latin,  si^ifying 
Tree  of  Life),  given  to  this  species,  and  extended  to  the 
genus.  Other  species  are  known,  but  they  are  less  important 
than  these.  In  its  native  country,  this  species  also  attains 
the  size  of  a  considerable  tree. — There  are  several  other 
species  of  Thuja,  some  of  which  seem  well  suited  to  the  open 
air  in  the  climate  of  Britain  and  the  n.  United  States,  and 
others  require  the  protection  of  greenhouses.  Among  th4 
former  are  T.  plicata,  from  Nootka  Sound;  and  T.  doiabrata, 
native  of  Japan,  a  tree  of  great  height  and  thickness,  and 
which  will  probably  prove  the  most  important  of  tne  whole 
genus.— A  tree,  common  in  N.  Amer.,  and  there  known  by 
we  name  of  White  Cbdab,  is  sometimes  included  in  the 
genus  Thvja,  under  the  name  of  T.  spJiaroidea,  but  is  more 
generally  ranked  in  the  ^enus  Oiipressus  as  C.  tkyoides.  See 
Cypress.  The  timber  is  highly  esteemed,  and  an  infusion 
of  the  scrapings  is  sometimes  used  as  a  stomachic.  Closely 
allied  to  the  genus  ITiuja  is  Callitris.    See  Sandarach. 

ARBROATH,  dr'brdth,  Aberbroth'wick,  or  Aberbko'- 
thock:  seaport  town  in  the  e.  of  Forfarshire,  at  the  mouth 
of  a  stream  called  the  Brothock.  Pop.  (1894),  parliament- 
ary burgh.  22,960.  Here  King  William  the  Lion  founded 
a  Tyronensian  abbey  in  honor  of  Thomas  d  Becket,  1178. 
The  king  was  interred  in  it,  1214.  Li  the  abbey,  Bruce  and 
the  Scottish  nobles  met  in  1320,  to  resist  the  claims  of  Ed- 
ward II.  to  Scotland.  Cardinal  Beaton  was  the  last  of  its 
abbots.  Next  to  Holy  rood,  the  abbey  was  the  most  richly 
endowed  monastery  in  Scotland.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Reformers  in  15d0.  Its  ruins— which  are  cruciform,  270  by 
160  ft. — are  very  picturesque,  presenting  lofty  towers,  col- 
umns, €k)thic  windows,  and  a  nne  circular  e.  window,  *  the 
Round  0  of  A.'  The  chief  industries  of  A.  are  flax-spin- 
ning, jute-spinning,  and  the  manufacture  of  sail-cloth.  The 
new  harbor,  begun  1841,  admits  vessels  of  400  tons;  it  is 
protected  by  a  breakwater.  Serious  damage  was  done  to 
the  wet-dock  entrance  in  1882  by  a  gale  and  high  tide.  In 
1880,  alx)ve  40  vessels  belonged  to  the  port.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  grain,  potatoes,  fish,  pork,  and  pavement,  chiefly 
from  quarries  8  or  10  m.  inland.  A.  is  a  royal  burgh,  and 
in  conjunction  with  Montrose,  Brechin,  Forfar,  ana  Bervie 
burghs,  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  A.  is  supposed 
to  be  the  Fairport  of  TJie  Antiquary,  and  the  Redhead 
Crags  and  Coves  form  some  of  Uie  scenes  in  that  novel. 
The  famous  Bell-rock  Light-house  is  12  m.  s.e.  of  A. 

ARBUSCLE,  n.  dr'buBsl  [L.  arhus'eula,  a  small  tree]:  a 
dwarf  tree;  a  small  shrub  with  the  appearance  of  a  tree,  as 
many  heaths.  Arbuscular,  a.  dr-ous' kuler,  shrub-like. 
Arbustive,  a.  planted  with  shrubs  or  trees;  containing 
copses  of  shrubs  or  trees. 

ARBUTE,  n.  dr'bui  [L.  ar'hutu9]\  the  strawberry  treft 
Abbtttban,  a.  dr-ba't^dn,  pertaining  to. 


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ARBUTHNOT-ARBUTUS. 

ARBUTHN01\  dr'bnth-not,  John:  d.  Hampstead.  1785. 
a  distinguished  writer  and  physician,  contemporary  and 
friend  of  Pope  and  Swift:  son  of  a  Scottish  Episcopal 
clergyman;  bom  at  Arbutbnot,  Kincardineshire,  shortly  after 
the  Kestoration.  He  studied  medicine  at  Aberdeen;  and, 
removing  to  London,  supported  himself  by  teaching  mathe- 
matics. In  1697,  he  published  an  examination  of  Dr.  Wood- 
ward's account  of  liie  Deluge,  which  brought  him  into  no- 
tice. Accident  called  him  into  attendance  on  Prince  Gleorge 
of  Denmark,  who  thenceforth  patronized  him.  In  1709,  he 
was  appointed  physician  to  the  queen,  and  in  1710  waa 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians.  On 
the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  1714,  he  lost  his  situation.  In 
1717,  A.,  with  Pope,  gave  assistance  to  Gay  in  a  farce  en- 
-  titied  Three  Hours  after  Marriage,  which,  though  having 
the  aid  of  a  trio  of  wits,  was  a  failure.  In  1723,  he  was 
chosen  second  censor  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians; 
in  1727,  he  was  made  an  Elect,  and  had  the  honor  to  pro- 
nounce the  Harvcian  oration  for  the  year.  A.  waa  one  of 
the  leaders  in  that  circle  of  wits  which  adorned  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne,  and  was  still  more  nobly  distinguished  by  the 
rectitude  of  his  morals  and  the  goodness  of  his  heart.  He 
assisted  Swift  and  Pope  in  the  composition  of  that  brilliant 
satire,  the  Memoirs  of  Martinus  8criblerus,  contributing 
those  portions  of  it  which  refer  to  science  and  philosophy; 
and  he  was  undoubtedly  the  author  of  the  celebrated  politi- 
cal jeu  cTespritf  the  History  of  John  BuU,  which  has  so  often 
been  imitated.  Besides  several  medical  essays,  he  published 
Tables  of  Greek,  Roman,  and  Jemsh  Measures,  Weights,  and 
Coins  (Lond.  1705-08),  a  work  which  was  long  the  best 
authority  on  the  subject.  There  is  also  a  philosophical 
poem  of  his  composition  in  Dodsley's  Miscellanies,  entitled 
Kfuno  Thyself 

ARBUTUS,  dr'bu-ius:  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Ericea,  containing  a  number  of  species,  small  trees 
and  shrubs,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  American.  The 
fruit  is  fleshy.  ?<!elled,  many-seeded,  usually  dotted  with 
little  projections,  whence  that  of  some  species  has  a  sort  of 
resemblance  to  strawberries;  the  corolla  is  urn-shaped. — A. 
cTnedo,  the  Strawberby  Tree,  is  a  native  of  the  s.  of 
Europe,  found  also  in  Asia  and  America,  and  in  one 
locality  in  the  British  Isles,  the  Lakes  of  Killamey, 
where  its  fine  foliage  adds  much  to  the  charm  of  the 
scenery.  It  requires  protection  in  winter  in  the  climate 
of  Pans.  In  Britain,  it  is  often  planted  as  an  ornamental 
evergreen.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  20-30  ft.,  but  is  rather 
a  great  bush  than  a  tree.  The  bark  is  rugged;  the  leaves 
oblongo-lanceolate,  smooth  and  shining,  bluntly  serrated; 
the  flowers  nodding,  large,  greenish  white;  the  fruit  globose, 
of  a  scarlet  color,  with  a  vapid  sweetish  taste.  It  is,  how- 
ever, sometimes  eaten.  Of  late,  excellent  alcohol  has  been 
made  from  it  in  Italy.  A  wine  is  made  from  it  in  Corsica, 
-which,  however,  is  narcotic,  if  taken  in  considerable 
(]uantity,  as  the  fruit  itself  Is,  if  eaten  too  freely.  The  bark 
and  leaves  are  astringent.—^.  Andraehne  is  ateo  sometimes 
cultivated  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  Britain,  but  is  Im* 

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ARBUTUS-ARC. 

patient  of  severe  frosUi.  Its  fruit,  and  that  of  A.  integrifaUa, 
are  eateu  in  Greece  and  the  East.  But  all  tiie  species  seem 
to  possess  narcotic  qualities  in  greater  or  less  degree;  the 
fruit  of  A.  furens,  a  small  shrub,  a  native  of  Chili,  so  much 
as  to  cause  deliiium. — A,  aculeata,  which  abounds  at  Cape 


Arbutus  Unedo,  showing  branch,  flowers,  and  fniit. 

Horn  and  on  Staten  Island  (lying  s.e.  of  'J'erra  del  Fuc^), 
is  an  elegant  and  most  pleasing  evergreen,  much  resembling 
the  myrUe.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  8  or  4  ft.,  and  pro- 
duces small  white  flowers,  followed  by  a  profusion  of  red 
shining  berries,  which  ornament  the  bush  during  winter. 
Their  flavor  is  insipid,  but  somewhat  astringent.  Mixed 
with  a  few  raisins,  they  have  been  made  by  voyagers  into 
tolerable  tarts.— ^.  Um  ursi,  now  generally  called  Arctosta- 
phylos  Uta  ursi,  the  Red  Bearberrt,  is  a  small  trailing 
everCTeen  shrub,  common  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  anu 
in  Uie  Hebrides,  and  indeed  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe.  Siberia,  and  North  America.  It  grows  in  dry, 
heathy,  and  rocky  places.  The  flowers  are  in  small  crowded 
terminal  racemes,  of  a  beautiful  rose  color.  The  l>erries 
are  austere  and  mealy;  they  are  said  to  form  a  principal 
part  of  the  food  of  bears  in  northern  regions.  Grouse  ^so 
feed  on  them.  The  dried  leaves  are  used  as  an  astringent 
and  tonic  medicine,  and  as  such  have  a  place  in  the  pharma- 
copoeias, being  employe<l  principalljr  in  chronic  affections  of 
the  bladder;  but  those  of  Va4:cin%um  vitis  Idcea  are  often 
fraudulently  substituted  for  them. — The  Black  Bear- 
berrt {A,  or  Arctosiaphylos  alpina)  is  also  a  native  of  the 
northern  parts  of  the  globe,  a  small  trailing  shrub,  with 
black  berries  about  the  size  of  a  sloe,  relishea  by  some,  but 
having  a  pecular  taste  disagreeable  to  others.  The  plant  is 
found  in  the  Alpine  localities  of  N.  Hampshire  and  Maine. 

ARBUTUS,  TBAHiina     or  Mayflower:  see  EpiOiBA 
Rbpens. 

ARC,  n.  drk  [L.  arcui,  a  bow]:  a  part  of  a  circle  or 

_  Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AUG— ARCADIA. 

corned  Hdc.  Arcade,  n.  drkdd'  [P.— from  L.  a/reu9\:  a 
fleries  of  arches;  a  roadway  luider  a  continued  series  of 
arches;  a  covered  street.  Abcad  ed,  a.  furnished  with  an 
arcada  Arc  of  a  Circle,  a  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  cut  off  bj  two  lines  radiating  from  its  centre :  see 
ArchI. 

ARC :  any  part  of. a  curved  line.  A  straight  line  Joining 
the  ends  of  an  A.  is  its  eJwrd,  which  is  always  less  than  the 
A.  itself.  Arcs  of  circles  are  similar  when  they  subtend 
equal  angles  at  the  centres  of  their  respective  circles;  and  if 
similar  arcs  belong  to  equal  circles,  the  arcs  themselves  are 
equal.  The  length  of  an  A.  is  readily  found  if  the  angle 
which  it  subtends  at  the  centre  of  the  circle  is  known,  and 
also  the  length  of  the  whole  circumference.  Let  the  whole 
circumference  be  100,  and  the  angle  of  an  A.  50'',  the  lengUi 
100X60 

of  the  A.  is  360' :  50^:100  : =  14  nearly. 

860 

ARC:  see  Joan  OF  Arc. 

ARC  A,  df^kd,  or  Ark-Shell  [L.  area,  a  chest  or  box]: 
a  genus  of  equivalve  shells,  and  lamello-branchiate  Mollusca, 
the  type  of  a  family  called  Areada,  or  Areaeea;  found  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  world.  In  the  true  ark-shells,  the 
hinge  is  straight. 

ARCACHON,  ar-kd-Mng':  a  bathing-place  which  has 
sprung  up  recently  on  the  s.  side  of  the  Bassin  d'Arcachon, 
85  DL  S.W.  of  Bordeaux,  Prance.  Pop.  (1881)  7,087.  The 
fine  broad  sands  are  admirably  adapted  for  bathing;  and 
the  place  is  sheltered  by  sand-hills,  covered  with  extensive 
fir  woods.  Its  numerous  villas  among  the  flrs  are  much 
frequented  in  winter  by  invalids  afflict^  with  lung  disease. 
Scientific  oyster  culture  is  practiced  here  on  a  large  scale. 
There  are  3,300  oyster  'parks*  in  the  lagoon  of  A.,  lined 
with  6,000  ova  tiles  for  the  collection  of  oyster  spat,  and 
calculated  to  3rield  two  himdred  millions  of  infant  oysters  in 
a  single  season.    See  Oyster. 

ARCADE:  a  row  of  arches,  supported  by  columns, 
eitiier  having  an  open  space  of  greater  or  less  width  behind 
them,  or  in  contact  with  masonry.  The  A.  in  Gothic  cor- 
responds to  the  colonnade  in  classical  architecture.  The 
term  A.  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  row  of  piers,  or  columns 
and  arches,  by  which  the  aisles  are  divided  from  the  nave 
of  a  church,  or  by  which  cloisters,  sometimes  erroneously 
called  piazzas,  are  enclosed;  but  it  is  generally  confined  to 
those  series  of  smaller  arches  which  are  employed  for  pur- 
poses of  ornamentation.  Arcades  of  the  latter  kind  are 
often  found  surrounding  the  square  towers  of  English 
churches.  The  term  is  aL<K>  applied,  improperly,  to  a  glass' 
covered  street  or  lane,  with  a  row  of  shops  or  stalls  on  each 
side. 

ARCADIA,  dr-kd'di-a:  the  middle  and  highest  i)art  of 
the  Peloponnesus:  was  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Achaia,  on 
the  e.  by  Argolis,  on  the  s.  by  Messcnia  and  Laconia,  and 
on  the  w.  by  Elis.  According  to  Pausanias,  it  derived  its 
name  from  Areas,  the  son  of  Callisto.    Next  to  Laconia,  A 


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ARCADIAN— ARCADIUS. 

was  the  largest  country  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  bad  an 
area  of  1,7C)0  sq.  m.,  and  was  pirt  round  by  a  circle  of 
mountains,  which  cut  off  to  a  large  extent  its  communica- 
tion with  the  rest  of  the  pncninsula.  Mountains  also  inter- 
sected it  in  different  directions.  The  western  part  of  what 
was  anciently  A.  is  wild,  bleak,  and  rugged,  and  was  at 
one  time  covered  with  huge  forests;  'the  eastern  is  more 
fertile,  the  mountains  not  so  high,  and  the  vales  more  luxu- 
riant. In  these  eastern  valleys  lay  all  the  principal  cities 
of  A.  The  loftiest  peak  in  A,— the  loftiest  also  in  the 
Peloponnesus— is  Mount  Cyllene,  in  the  n.e.  (7,787  ft). 
The  chief  river  was  anciently  the  Alpheius  (q.v.).  Origin- 
allv  A.  was  named  Pela^gia,  after  its  first  inhabitants,  the 
Peiasgi.  Subsequently,  it  was  divided  into  several  small 
states  which  fonned  a  confederation.  Of  these  states,  the 
chief  were  Mantinea,  Tegea,  Orchomenos,  Pheneus,  Psophis, 
and  Megalopolis.  The  inhabitants,  engaged  chiefly  in 
tending  cattle  and  in  hunting  among  the  wild  highlands, 
remained  long  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  After  civilization 
had  advanced,  and  the  Arcadians  had  become  known  by 
their  love  of  music  and  dancing,  they  still  retained  some 
military  spirit,  and  were  sometimes  engaged  as  mercenaiy 
soldiers.  But  generally  their  character  accorded  with  their 
simple,  rural  mode  of  life;  though  it  seems  certain  that 
human  sacrifices  were  offered  as  late  as  the  period  of  the 
Macedonian  sway.  The  Arcadians  were  not  remarkable 
for  their  intelligence.  In  fact,  an  'Arcadian  youth'  was  a 
synonym  for  a  blockhead.  Pan  and  Diana  were  their  favor- 
ite deities.  Ancient  and  modern  poets  (the  latter  especially 
in  the  time  when  *  pastorals'  were  popular)  have  described 
A.  as  the  land  of  peace,  innocence,  and  patriarchal  simplic- 
ity of  manners. 

ARCADIAN,  a.  drkd'dt  an,  pertaining  to  Arcadia,  in 
the  Peloponnesus;  much  used  in  poetry  in  the  sense  'rural' 
or  *  pastoral.' 

ARCADIUS.  dr-hl'dius:  first  Emperor  of  the  East;  388- 
408  (reigned  395-408);  b.  Spain;  son  of  the  emperor  Theo- 
dosius,  after  whose  death  the  Roman  empire  was  divided 
into  East  and  West.  A.  lived  in  oriental  state  and  splendor, 
and  his  dominion  extended  from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the 
river  Tigris,  and  from  Scythia  to  Ethiopia;  but  tlie  real 
rulers  over  this  vast  empire  were,  first,  the  Gkiul  Rufinus, 
and  afterwards  the  eunuch  Eutropius,  who  openly  assumed 
the  reins  of  government  and  the  command  of  the  army, 
while  A.  reposed  in  luxurious  indifference.  In  899,  the 
eunuch  Eutropius  was  deposed  by  another  usurper,  Gainas, 
who,  in  his  turn,  soon  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  ambition. 
Afterwards,  Eudoxia,  the  wife  of  the  emperor,  assumed  the 
supremacy.  One  really  great  man  adorned  this  period,  the 
virtuous  and  eloquent  (^hrysostom,  who  was  persecuted  by 
Eudoxia,  and  through  her  influence  exiled  in  404,  on  account 
of  his  firm  opposition  to  Arianism,  which  the  empress  herself 
favored.  During  the  reign  of  A.,  his  territories  suffered  by 
barbarian  incursions,  e^irtbquakes,  and  famine,  but  nothing 
could  disturb  the  indifference  of  the  monarch.  He  died 
unlamented. 


Digitized.by  LjOOglC 


ARCANI  DI8CIPL1NA— ARCESILAU8. 

ARCANI  DISCDPLINA  (insti^iction  in  secret  things>. 
aee  Mystagogue,   Secbet,  DieciPLiNE  of  the. 

ARCANUM,  n.  dr-kd'num,  plu.  Arca'ka  [L.  arednu9, 
secret,  concealed]:  thing  secret,  as  if  locked  up.  Arcanite, 
n.  dr'kd-ult,  a  mineral,  a  colorless  or  white  sulphate  oi 
potash,  occurring  mostly  in  crusts  in  lavas. 

ARCE,  a^chd  (anc.  Arx)\  t  of  s.  Italy,  province  of 
Caaerta;  60  m.  e.8.e.  from  Rome.  It  is  situated  on  a  hill 
near  the  Liris;  and  the  summit,  lofty  and  precipitous,  is 
crowned  bv  an  interesting  mediaeval  fortress  called  Rocca 
d*Arce.  This  fortress  was  considered  impregnable  till  it 
was  scaled  and  taken  by  the  invading  army  of  Charles  of 
Anjou  in  1266.  Numerous  inscriptions  in  which  the  name 
of  Cicero  occurs  have  been  discovered  near  A. ;  and  some 
rains  near  the  town  are  known  as  L'€0a  di  Oieerane,  or 
Cicero's  Bam.    Pop.  (1881)  1,551. 

ARCESILAU8,  drsis'Ud'us:  b.c.  816— abt.  241;  b. 
Pitane,  in  .£olia,  Asia  Minor:  a  Greek  philosopher, 
founder  of  the  New  Academy.  He  studied  philoso- 
1*7,  first  under  Theophrastus  the  Peripatetic,  after- 
wards under  Crantor.  After  the  death  of  Crantor,  A.  be- 
came the  chief  master  of  the  Academic  party,  or  those 
who  held  to  the  doctrines  of  Plato;  but  he  introduced 
80  many  modifications  that  its  philosophic  character  was 
completelv  changed.  His  great  rivals  were  the  Btoics, 
whose  opmions  he  attacked,  but  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
attained  any  certainty  in  his  own  convictions.  He  had 
stodied  under  too  many  masters,  and  discussed  too  many 
different  systems,  to  be  sure  of  the  truth  of  an^.  He  de- 
nied the  Stoical  doctrine  of  a  '  convincing  conception,'  which 
lie  affirmed  to  be,  from  its  very  nature,  imintelligible  and 
contradictory.  He  also  denied  the  existence  of  any  sufficient 
criterion  of  truth,  and  recommended  abstinence  from  aU 
dogmatic  Judgments.  In  practice  he  maintained  that  we 
must  act  on  grounds  of  probability.  It  is  not  easy  to  deter- 
mine satisfactorily  what  his  moral  character  was.  A  wit,  a 
poet,  and  a  man  of  frank  and  generous  disposition,  which 
aeems  to  have  captivated  his  disciples  even  more  -than  Ids 
I^hilosot^y,  he  has  yet  been  accused  by  his  enemies  of  the 
gTOBBCBt  profligacy;  and  whatever  extravagance  there  may 
be  in  such  an  extreme  charge,  it  is  nearly  certain  that  he 
died  of  a  debauch  in  his  76th  year.  Nevertheless,  his  ad- 
▼ersaiy  Cleanthes,  the  Stoic,  passed  this  hi^h  eulogium  on 
him:  *  The  morality  which  A.  abolishes  in  his  words,  he  re- 
establiabes  in  his  actions.' 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARCH. 

ARCH,  n.  arch  [F,  archc,  an  arch — from  mkt  L.  arehli, 
the  arch  of  a  bridge:  L.  arctu,  a  bow,  a  curved  line — lit., 
the  circular  part  of  any  building]:  the  hollow  or  concavo 
part  of  a  bridge  or  gateway:  V.  to  cover  with  an  arch;  to 
form  an  arch.  Arching,  imp.  Abched,  pp.  driDhl. 
CouBT  OP  Archbs,  n.  drch'ee,  a  very  anc  court  belonging 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  for  deciding  ecclesiastic^ 
matters,  so  called  ftx)m  the  Church  of  St.  Mary  ie  Bow^  or 
*de  ar'cubus.'  Arch' way,  a  way  or  passage  under  an 
arch.  Trfumphal  Arch,  a  magni6cent  arched  structure 
to  commemorate  the  triumphant  return  of  a  conqueror,  or 
to  perpetuate  some  remarkable  event 

ARCH,  a.  dreh  [Ger.  arg,  morally  bad:  Dut.  erff,  wicked: 
Dan.  arrig,  ill-natured:  Icel.  argr,  lazy,  cowaidly:  AS. 
earg,  bad] :  bad  and  worthless;  waggish;  mirthful  Arch^ly, 
ad  41,  shrewdlv;  roguishly.  Arch'ness,  n.  humor  with  a 
touch  of  wicked  pleasure;  sly  humor;  waggishness. 

ARCH,  a.  drch  or  drk  [Gr.  arehos,  chief;  archein.  to  be 
first:  It.  ard:  Ger.  en,  eminence,  good  or  bad]:  <^ief  or 
principal;  chief,  or  of  the  first  class.  Archangbl,  see  below. 
Archbishop,  n.  drch-bishop,  a  chief  bishop;  a  metropolitan 
having  jurisdiction  over  the  bishops  of  his  province. 
Arghbibh'opric,  n.  -rik,  the  office,  dignity,  or  see  of  an 
archbishop.  Archi-bfiscopal,  s,  drkUipU'kd-pdl,  per- 
taining to.  Archdeacon,  n.  drchrde'kbn,  one  who  assists 
the  bishop  in  the  government  of  his  diocese.  Archi>£a'- 
CON8HIP,  n.  the  office  of  an  archdeacon.  Archdbacokbt, 
n.  drchrde'kOh-ri,  the  living.  Arghidiaconal.  a.  dr'k^-dU 
dk'd-ndl,  pertaining  lo  an  archdeacon.  Arch-en'smt,  n.  a 
chief  enemy;  the  evil  one;  the  devil.  Archduke,  n.  dreA» 
duk',  a  title  of  some  foreign  Drinces.  Archducbcbsb,  u. 
'■diu^h,  his  wife,  sister,  or  daughter.  Archducal,  a. 
'du'kdl,  of  or  belonging  to  an  archduke.  Arch'mock,  n. 
-mok  [see  Arch  3,  and  £n^.  moek]:  in  OE.,  pre-eminent 
mockery.  Note.—AjRCU,  followed  "by  a  consonant,  is  pro- 
nounced drch^  and  by  a  vowel,  drk, 

ARCH:  an  arrangement  of  bricks,  stones,  or  other  mate- 
rials over  an  open  space,  by  which  they  are  made  not  only  to 
support  each  other  by  mutual  pressure,  but  to  sustain  a 
superincumbent  weight.  We  have  the  excellent  author!^ 
of  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  for  stating  that  the  A.  was  known  to» 
and  used  by,  the  ancient  Egyptians;  and  that  the  Assyrians 
were  acquainted  with  its  principles  is  placed  beyond  doubt 
by  the  arched  gateways  so  frequently  represented  in  their 
l^kss-reliefs.  The  A.  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  un- 
known to  the. Greeks — a  supposition  which  becomes  very 
improbable,  if  we  hold  it  to  be  proved  that  it  was  used  by 
nations  with  whose  works  they  must  have  been  familiar. 
But  that  the  Greeks  did  not  employ  it  generally  in  thcii 
architectural  structures,  is  certain;  and  as  it  is  not  less  ocr< 
tain  that  the  Romans  did,  it  is  to  the  latter  people  thi^  the 
nations  of  modem  Europe  are  indebted  for  their  acquaint* 
ance  with  its  great  utility.  The  introduction  of  the  A.  by 
the  Romans  gradually  effected  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
architectural  forms  which  they  borrowed  from  the  Greeks. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARCH. 

The  predominance  of  lionzontai  ones  gave  way  Oy  degrees, 
ulli  as  the  Romanesque  passed  into  the  Gothic  style,  it  was 
superseded  by  the  segments  of  a  circle,  placed  generally  more 
or  less  in  a  perpendicular  direction.  In  its  earliest  applica- 
tion by  the  Romans,  the  A.  did  not  spring  from  the  entabla- 
**^  or  the  columns,  but  was  generally  placed  behind  them, 
*nd  rested  upon  separate  imposts.  Subsequently,  this  ar- 
?*^gement  was  dex)arted  from,  and  the  A.  assumed  the  posi- 
tion which  it  has  since  retained  above  the  colunms;  some- 
Jmes  having  an  entablature  interposed,  and  sometimes  rising 
directly  from  the  capital  of  the  colunm  or  pier,  as  in  the 
Homanesque.  Before  mentioning  very  briefly  the  diflferent 
lonngof  the  A,  it  seems  natural  to  refer  to  a  very  simple 
Jtrocture,  frequently  met  with  in  those  early  edifices  in 
Britain  which  we  are  in  the  habit  of  designating  as  Saxon. 
It  consists  of  two  stones,  their  lower  ends  restmg  on  rude 
piers,  their  tops  leaning  against  each  other,  and  thus  f  onning 
two  sides  of  a  triangle,  which  is  capable  of  supporting  a 
moderate  superincumbent  weight.  The  mechanical  prin- 
ciples on  which  the  A.  depends,  though  here  very  imper- 
[J^y  employed,  seem  sufficiently  called  into  play  to  suggest 
J^  more  extensive  application;  and  it  is  not  impossible 
that  oat  of  this  rude  construction  the  A.,  in  its  later  and 
niore  elaborate  forms,  might  have  developed  itself  without 
"^  from  foreign  sources. 

^'  the  A  itself,  the  following  variations  of  form  may  be 
«jumerated:  The  semicircle  (1),  the  segment  (2),  the  ellipse  (3), 
wnjch  were  the  only  forms  emploved  by  the  ancients,  and 
^uich  alone  were  known  in  mcd&eval  architecture  before 

^    ^^ 

1.  Semicircle.  2.  Segment. 


8.  Ellipse.  4.  Stilted  A.     5.  Horseshoe  A. 

the  time  at  which  the  pointed  A.  was  introduced.  Of  these, 
the  stilted  A.  (4),  and  the  horseshoe  A.  (5),  are  modifications, 
in  both  of  which  the  centre  or  point  from  which  the  A.  is  de- 
scribed is  above  the  line  of  the  impost,  but  in  the  former  of 
which  the  moldings  are  continued  downwards  vertically; 
while  in  the  latter  Uiey  are  slightly  inclined  inwards,  or  tie 
curve  is  prolongctl  till  it  meets  the  impost.  The  horseshoe  A. 
belongs  peculiarlv  to  Arabian  architecture  (q.v.),  not  only 
trom  Its  having  originated  simultaneously  with  the  faith  of  the 
I*ropbet,  but  from  its  continuing  to  be  used  exclusively  by 
Ms  f oUowers.    Next,  in  point  of  time,  though  far  surpasi^ 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARCH. 

ing  all  the  others  in  beauty  and  variety,  is  the  pointed  A., 
the  origin  of  which  is  still  a  subject  of  antiquanan  contra 
versy.    The  greater  or  less  acuteness  of  the  pointed  A.  de- 


6.  EquUat«ral  A. 


8.  Drop  A. 

pends  on  the  position  of  the  two  centre  points  from  which 
its  curved  sides  are  described.    Its  various  proportions  will 


(^ 


10, 11, 13,  Trefoil  Arches. 

be  better  understood  from  the  accompan3ring  diagrams  (6, 
7,  8,  9)  than  from  any  verbal  description. 
Of  the  foil  arches  (10, 11, 12,  18, 14),  or  arches  in  which 


18.  Cinquefoll  i 


14.  Polyfoa  A. 


the  forms  of  a  leaf  are  imitated,  the  first  three  are  examples 
of  the  trefoil,  the  fourth  of  the  cinquefoil,  and  the  fifth  of 


15.  Ogee  A.  16.  Tudor  A. 

the  polyfoil,  the  latter  being  found  in  Arabian  and  Roman- 


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ARCH— AKCH^AN  PERIOD. 

esque  buildings.  At  a  later  period  of  Gothic  architecture, 
with  the  decorated  style,  the  ogee  A.  (15)  wus  introduced, 
and  the  Tudor  or  four-cornered  A.  (16)  appeared  about  the 
commencement  of  the  perpendicular  style.  When  first  in- 
troducod,  the  proportions  of  this  A.  were  bold  and  effective; 
but  it  was  gradually  depressed  till  the  principle  of  the  A. 
was  lost,  and  its  very  form  was  again  merged  first  in  two 
and  then  in  one  flat  stone  or  lintel  over  an  opening.  With 
the  last  form  of  the  Tudor  A.  we  thus  reach  almost  the 
point  of  departure  in  the  construction  of  the  A.,  and 
complete  our  enumeration  of  its 
forms. 

The  sides  of  an  A.  are  termed 
liuunches  or  flanks,  and  its  highest 
part  is  called  the  crown.  The 
wedge-shaped  stones,  bricks,  or 
other  materials  of  which  an  A.  is 
constructed  are  called  voussoirs 
(a,  a,  a);  the  uppermost  one  of  all 
(b)  is  called  the  keystone;  the  low- 
est, which  is  placed  immediately 
over  the  impost,  the  aprinaer,  or 
springing  -  stone ;  the  under  or 
lower  side  of  the  voussoirs,  the 
intrados;  the  upper  side,  the  ex- 
tradas  or  back.  For  the  investigation  of  the  mechanical 
nrinciple  of  the  arch,  and  of  the  conditions  of  stability,  see 
Moseley 's  Mechanical  Principles  of  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture.   See  Bridge:  Impost:  Pier:  Buttress. 

ARCH,  Triumphal:  a  structure  erected  by  the  Romans 
across  roads,  or  at  the  entrance  of  cities,  in  honor  of  vie 
torious  generals.    The  original  triumphal  A.  was  the  Porta 

Triumphalis,  one  of  the 
gates  of  Rome  through 
which  the  triumphal  pro- 
cession entered  the  city. 
Among  the  earliest  de- 
tached arches  built  at 
Rome  was  that  built  by 
Scipio  Africanua  (b.c. 
190)  on  the  Cnpitoliue 
Hill.  Under  the  em- 
perors, these  structures 
became  numerous  and 
magnificent,  and  were 
decorated  with  bass-reliefs 
,   .   .    ^     .  _  '      and  inscriptions.     Three 

Trmmphal  Arch^of^  CooKianUne  at  ^f    ^^^^^    ^^^    properly 

triumphal  arches  still  re- 
main in  Rome,  those,  namely,  of  Titus,  Bcptimius  Severiis, 
and  Ck)n8tantinc.  Numerous  similar  monuments  exist 
in  other  parts  of  the  old  Roman  empire,  as  at  Rimini, 
Susa,  Verona,  Ancona,  Orange  (in  Prance),  Capura  (in 
Spain). 

ARCH^AK  PERIOD,  in  Geology:   otherwise  known 


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ARCH^OCIDARIS— ARCHAEOLOGY. 

as  the  Eozoic  Era:  the  first  system  of  rocks  known  to  geol- 
ogists. Although  the  Archaean  rocks  arc  the  oldest  known, 
thev  are  not  primitive;  but,  behig  stratified,  are  thus  known 
to  be  sedimentary,  the  consolidated  debris  of  still  older 
rocks  of  which  geologists  know  nothing.  It  is  considercti 
probable  that  these  rocks  were  originally  sands,  clays,  and 
limestones,  later  metamorphic:  the  sands  being  changed 
into  quartzites,  the  clays  into  schists,  gneiss,  and  even  gran- 
ites, and  the  limestones  into  marbles.  It  is  noteworthy, 
however,  that  with  these  are  associated  two  kinds  of  beds: 
iron  ore  and  graphite.  In  Canada,  the  whole  series  of 
Archffian  rocks  is  said  to  be  as  much  as  40,000  ft  thick.  It 
is  a  fact  that  the  greatest  beds  of  iron  ore  known  in  anv 
strata  are  found  in  this  system:  thus  the  great  iron-ore  beds 
of  Sweden,  of  Lake  Superior,  of  New  Jersey,  and  of  the 
Iron  Mountain  of  Missouri  are  in  these  rocks,  as  well  as 
those  immense  ones  recently  discovered  in  s.  Utah.  The 
area  covered  by  these  rocks  extends  round  the  world,  crop- 

Eing  out  in  some  places  as  surface  rocks,  but  mostlv  ooverra 
y  the  later  formations.  In  N.  Amer.,  it  occupies  in  the 
a.  a  V-shaped  space,  and  covers  nearly  the  whole  of  Lab- 
rador, nearly  all  of  Canada,  enters  New  York  at  the  Adi- 
rondacks,  and  extends  n.w.  into  the  Arctic  regions.  An- 
other area  includes  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  e.  slope  of  the 
Appalachian  range  extending  from  New  England  to  Georda. 
Involved  in  this  system  are  the  axes  of  certain  of  the  omer 
great  mountain  ranees,  as  the  Colorado,  Park,  and  Wah- 
satch,  and  possibly  the  Sierra  Nevada.  There  are  also  some 
isolated  instances,  including  one  in  Texas  and  one  in 
Missouri.  In  Europe  these  rocks  are  found  in  the  n.w.  of 
Scotland;  in  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Russia;  in  Bohemia  and 
Bavaria,  and  among  the  Alps  and  the  Caipathians.  From 
the  fact  that  these  rocks  are  stratified,  it  is  known  that  they 
were  all  at  one  time  covered  with  water.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  they  contained  the  lowest  forms  of  vegetable 
and  animal  life,  though  this  has  never  been  demonstrated. 
The  enormous  thickness  of  the  Archeean  rocks,  they  being 
probably  ecjual  to  all  later  rocks  together,  represents  an 
amount  of  time  perhaps  equal  to  all  the  rest  of  the  recorded 
geological  history  of  the  earth.  See  Eozoon. 

ARCH.EOCIDARIS,  n.  dr'ki-o^id'dr-U  [Gr.  arehat'of, 
ancient:  Gr.  kid' oris:  L.  eid'aris,  a  turban]:  the  sea-egg:  a 

genus  of  fossil  sea-urchins  characterized  by  their  small 
exagonal  plates  and  long  spines. 

ARCHAEOLOGY,  n.  dr'ke-ol'(hfi,  or  Archaioloot,  n. 
dr'ke-dWhjl  [Gr.  archaioB^  ancient;  logofi,  discourse]:  the 
science  that  treats  of  ancient  things  or  antiquities;  knowl- 
e<lge  about  ancient  art,  partieularly  of  the  middle  ages. 
Ar'ch^ol'ogibt,  n.  one  skilled  in  ancient  things  and 
learning.    ARCHiBOLOGiCAL,  a.  dr'ke-o-Uj'l'kdl,  pertaining 

to,      AR'CHiEOLOQ'iCALLY,  ad.    11, 

ARCHEOLOGY:  name  now  generally  given  to  the 
study  formerly  known  af  that  of  *  antiquities.  The  term 
is  well  understood,  although  its  meaning  is  not  definitely 
fixed.    In  its  widest  sense,  it  includes  the  knowledge  of  the 


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AKCHJfiOLOGY. 

origin,  1angua<^,  religion,  laws,  institutions,  Hteratiire, 
science,  arts,  manners,  customs — everything,  in  a  wonl, 
that  can  be  learned  of  the  ancient  life  and  being  of  a  people. 
When  so  used,  it  comprehends  more  or  less  of  several 
branches  of  knowledge  recognized  as  distinct  or  independ' 
ent  pursuits,  such,  for  example,  as  ethnology,  philology, 
history,  chronology,  biography,  m3rthology,  numismatics. 
In  its  narrower  but  perhaps  more  popular  si^ification,  A. 
is  understood  to  mean  the  discovery,  preservation,  ooilection, 
arrangement,  authentication,  publication,  description,  in- 
terpretation, or  elucidation  of  the  materials  from  which  a 
knowledgie  of  the  ancient  condition  of  a  countiy  is  to  be 
attained.  These  materials  will  be  found  to  divide  them- 
selves into  three  great  classes:  (1)  written,  (2)  monumental, 
and  (3)  traditional.  1.  What  may  be  called  written  A., 
may  be  again  subdivide<l  into  palaeography  (q.v.),  or  diplo- 
matics (q.v.) — that  is,  the  science  of  ancient  writings;  and 
bibliography  (q.v.)  or  the  knowledge  of  printed  books.  2. 
Monumental  A.  admits  of  almost  endless  subdivisions,  ac- 
cording to  the  character  of  the  remains  to  be  studied,  which 
may  be  works  of  art,  such  as  buildings,  sculptures,  paint- 
ings, engravings,  inscriptions,  coins,  m^als,  seals,  armorial 
beftrings,  tapestry,  furniture,  plate,  jewels,  enamels,  glass, 
porcelain,  pottery;  works  of  engineering,  such  as  roads, 
canals,  mines,  piers,  camps,  forts,  walls;  works  of  unskilled 
labor,  such  as  pillars  of  unhewn  stone,  caves,  dikes,  ditches, 
mounds  of  earth  or  stone;  articles  of  dress,  armor,  or  pjer- 
sonal  ornament;  tools,  weaix>n9,  implements,  utensils, 
machines;  appliances  for  locomotion,  such  as  canoes,  boats, 
ships,  carriages;  modes  of  sepulture,  such  as  mummies, 
sarcophagi,  urns,  catacombs,  graves:  vestiges  of  man  and 
animals,  such  as  skulls,  bones,  skins.  8.  Traditional  A. 
includes  as  well  the  imwritten  language  and  oral  literature 
of  a  people,  their  dialects,  legends,  tales,  proverbs,  rhymes, 
songs,  and  ballads,  as  those  sports,  customs,  ceremonies, 
rit^  and  superstitions  now  beginning  to  be  known  by  the 
name  of  '  folk-lore,'  and  formerly  called  '  popular  antiqui- 
ties.' 

The  study  of  A.  in  modem  Europe  may  be  held  to  date 
from  the  revival  of  letters.  It  was  long  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  antiquities  of  the  Qrecks  and  Romans. 
About  the  middle  of  the  16th  c.  Mediaeval  A.,  or  the  an- 
tiquities of  the  dark  and  middle  ages,  began  to  be  cultivated. 
Egyptian  A.,  or  *  Egyptology,'  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
made  comparatively  fittle  progress  until  the  discovery  of  the 
Rosctta  Stone,  containing  a  bilingual  and  triliteral  inscrip- 
tion, which  enabled  Young  in  1819,  and  Charapollion  in 
1821,  to  find  a  key  to  the  hieroglyphics.  The  more  recent 
discoveries  of  Botta,  Layard,  Kawlinson,  and  others,  have 
already  advanced  Assyrian  A.  to  a  point  beyond  all  expecta- 
tion. Indian  A.  has  been  succcssfu  11/ prosecuted,  especially 
during  the  last  forty  years,  chiefly  by  officers  of  the  East 
India  company.  Something  also  has  been  done  by  them 
and  others  for  Chinese  A.  In  the  United  States  much  study 
has  been  given  to  the  mysterious  remains  of  the  aboriginal 
mhabitantfl  of  N.  America.    The  A.  of  Central  and  & 


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AKCH^OPTEUYX-ARCHANGEL. 

Amer.,  as  it  attracted  attention  much  earlier,  so  its  more 
stately  and  instructive  monuments  have  much  bet^r  re- 
warded such  investigations  as  those  of  Lord  Eingsborough, 
Messrs.  Stephens  and  Catherwood,  and  others. 

The  study  of  A.  has  been  largely  promoted  by  the  publi- 
cation, at  the  expense  of  the  state,  in  various  countries,  of 
the  national  chronicles,  charters,  and  records;  by  societies 
and  clubfr  contributing  to  the  same  end,  or  printmg  essays 
on  questions  of  A. :  and  by  the  establidtunent  by  the  state, 
by  associations,  or  by  individuals,  of  museums  for  the  col- 
lection and  classification  of  antiquities.  In  England,  a 
society  for  promoting  the  study  of  antiquity  was  founded 
in  1572.  The  irrational  jealousy  of  the  government  dis- 
solved it  in  1604.  It  was  revived  in  1707,  enlarged  in 
1717,  and  incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1751,  under 
the  name  of  the  *  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London.'  An 
attempt  to  institute  a  similar  society  in  Scotland  was 
made  about  1700  by  *  some  honorable  and  knowine  gen- 
tlemen.' But  it  was  not  until  1780  that  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries  of  Scotland  was  incorporated  by  royal  chsj- 
ter.  The  Royal  Irish  Academy  for  promoting  '  the  study 
of  science,  polite  literature,  and  antiquities/  was  char- 
tered in  1786.  The  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland 
and  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  have  good  museums  of  na- 
tional antiquities.  The  British  Museum  in  London  (estab- 
lished 1753),  besides  a  great  collection  of  early  manuscripts 
and  printed  books,  has  ^leries  of  Assyrian,  Egyptian, 
Etruscan,  Greek,  Roman,  British,  and  Mediaeval  antiquities. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  collections  of  antiquities  on  the 
continent  is  that  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  the 
North,  at  Copenhajren,  arranged  so  as  to  illustrate  a  favorite 
theory  of  the  Scandinavian  archaeologists— that  the  primitive 
antiquities  of  a  country  may  be  assigned  to  three  successive 
ages  or  periods  of  stone,  bronze,  and  iron,  with  as  much 
certainty  and  precision  as  the  comparative  antiquity  of  geo- 
logical strata,  or  periods  of  the  world's  creation,  may  be  de- 
termined by  the  fossils  which  they  are  found  to  contain. 
The  museums  of  the  Louvre  and  the  H6tel  de  Cluny ,  in  Paris, 
contain  fine  collections  of  Assjrrian,  Egyptian,  Greek,  and 
Roman  antiquities,  and  an  imn vailed  collection  of  Mediaeval 
antiquities.  The  Royal  Museum  at  Naples  has  gathered 
together  the  statues,  paintings,  vases,  household  utensils,  and 
other  objects  recovered  dunng  the  last  hundred  years  from 
the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii 

ARCH^OPTERYX,  n.  dr'ke-op't^-iks  [Gr.  archafoi, 
ptemx,  a  win^] :  a  unique  specimen  of  fossil  bird  remains— 
now  in  the  Bntish  Museum,  constituting  the  ord.  Sau'rura, 
having  remarkable  reptilian  aifinities.    See  Solbnhofbn 

A  later,  more  perfe(;t  specimen  is  in  the  Yale  collections. 

ARCHAISM,  n.  dr'kd-izm  [Gr.  archaCos,  ancient — from 
arch^,  beginning]:  an  ancient  expression,  or  one  not  now 
used.  Archaic,  a.  dr-kd'lk,  or  Archa'ical,  a.  -l-*aZ, 
ancient;  peculiar  to  remote  antiquity;  obsolete. 

ARCHANGEL,  n.  drk-dn'jU  [Gr.  archang' gelo9,  an  arch- 
angel—from ao'chos,  a  chief;  ang'gelos,  a  messenger]:  an 


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PLATE    11.  iJ^rr'-fflS" 


Remains  of  Archwopteryx  in  Solenhofen  Stone 


Aroher-flsh  (Toxotes  jacuiator). 


Archer-flsh  CToxotes  jaaUatar),   Another  spedmeu. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARCHANGEL— ARCHBISHOP. 

angel  of  the  highest  order.  Arch'anoel'ic,  a.  jSrik,  per- 
taining to.  Note.—'i/Losi  of  the  other  words  beginning  with 
arch  are  to  be  looked  for  under  the  simple  words;  Abch 
always  meaning  chief,  of  the  first  dass—fxs  Archbishop, 
the  chief  bishop. 

ARCHANGEL,  drk^n'jeh  the  chief  city  in  the  Russian 
dept.  of  Archangel;  in  lat.  64^  32'  n.,  and  lon^.  40**  83'  e., 
about  40  m.  above  the  junction  of  the  river  Dwma  with  the 
White  Sea;  the  seat  of  an  archbishop.  Its  name  is  taken 
from  the  monastery  of  St.  Michael.  A.  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial city  for  the  n.  of  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  is  visited 
by  numerous  vessels— especially  British— from  July  to  Sep- 
tember, the  port  being  clear  of  ice  only  durine  that  period. 
The  houses  arc  built  chiefly  of  wood,  and  their  general  ap- 
pearance is  far  from  handsome.  The  finest  edifices  are  the 
bazaar  or  mart,  and  the  marine  hospital.  A.  has  an  ecclesias- 
tical college  with  nine  professors,  schools  for  engineering  and 
navigation,  etc.  The  chief  articles  of  traffic  are  fish,  train- 
oil,  &1I1S,  furs,  timber,  wax.  iron,  tallow,  bristles,  caviare. 
The  town,  which  is  the  oldest  seaport  of  the  empire,  and 
was  for  a  long  period  the  only  one,  was  founded  in  1584. 
During  summer,  A.  has  a  continual  market.  Pop.  (1898) 
19.936. 

The  government  of  A.  has  an  area  of  331,505  sq.  m.;  pop. 
(1893)  354,411. 

ARCHANGEL:  a  term  which  occurs  in  the  New  Test. ; 
and  which,  according  to  some,  is  there  a  title  of  our  Saviour 
— but  is  usually  considered  to  designate  ah  angel  superior 
in  power  and  glory  to  the  other  angels.  We  read  in  the 
Epistle  of  Jude  of  'Michael  the  A.,'  and  in  Rev.  xii.  7,  of 
•  Michael  and  his  angels.'  In  1  Thess.  iv.  16,  we  are  told 
that  the  coming  of  our  Lord  at  the  last  day  shall  be  '  with 
the  voice  of  the  A.,  and  with  the  trump  oi  Ckxi.'  We  no- 
where read  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  archangels,  although 
the  plural  is  i)opularly  as  much  used  as  the  singular.  The 
notion  of  an  an^lic  hierarchy  certainly  prevailed  amonc 
the  Jews,  the  highest  place  being  assinied  to  Michael;  ana 
the  same  notion  nas  extensively  prevedled  in  the  Christian 
Church.  There  are  passages  of  Scripture  which  seem  to  in- 
dicate different  degrees  ana  classes  amoAg  the  angelic  hosts, 
but  no  clear  revelation  has  been  made  upon  this  subject. 
See  Akoeib. 

ARCHANGEL,  New:  see  Sitka. 

ARCHBISHOP,  drchrbish'cfp  [Qr.  arch,  and  episeopos, 
overseer]:  the  title  given  to  a  metropolitan  bishop  who  su- 
perintends tlie  conduct  of  the  suffragan  bishops  in  his  prov- 
incc,and  also  e'xercises  episcopal  authority  in  his  own  diocese. 
The  title  arose  in  the  8d  and  4th  centuries,  from  the  pro- 
vincial synods  being  held  once  or  twice  a  year  in  the  chief 
town  of  the  province  under  the  presidency  of  the  bishop  of 
the  place.  Another  cause  of  the  origin  of  the  title  is  said  to 
be  the  custom  of  planting  new  bishoprics  as  Christianity 
spread,  a  slight  supremacy  being  still  retained  by  the  origi- 
nal over  the  newly  appointed  chief  pastors.  In  uie  Oriental, 
Choich,  the  archbishops  are  still  called  'metropolitans. 


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ARCHBISHOP. 

from  the  circumstance  first  mendoDed.  In  the  African 
Church,  on  the  other  hand,  the  term  used  was  *  primus.  * 
The  great  archbishoprics  of  the  early  church  were  those  of 
Jerusalem,  Anlioch,  Ephesus,  Alexandria,  Constantmople, 
and  Rome.  Since  the  6th  c,  the  A.  of  Rome  has  assumed 
the  name  of  pope  (papa).  There  is  an  official  letter  bv 
Justinian,  addressed  to  'John,  A.  of  Rome  and  Patriarch  ; 
and  several  ecclesiastical  constitutions  are  addressed  to 
'Epiphanius,  A.  of  Constantinople  and  Patriarch.*  The 
synod  of  Antioch,  841,  assi^ed  to  the  A.  the  superintendence 
over  all  the  bishoprics,  and  a  precedence  in  rank  over  all  the 
bishops  of  the  church,  who,  on  important  matters,  were 
bound  to  consult  him  and  be  guided  by  his  advice.  By 
degrees  there  arose  out  of  this  superiority  of  rank  privileges 
which  at  length  assumed  the  character  of  positive  jurisdic- 
tion in  ecclesiastical  matters.  Many  of  these  rights  passed 
to  the  patriarchs  (q.  v.)  towards  the  end  of  the  4th  and  during 
the  5th  centuries,  and  still  more  to  the  i)ope  in  the  9th. 
The  archbishops  still  retained  jurisdiction,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, over  their  suffragans  in  matters  which  were  not 
criminal,  and  over  those  who  were  subject  to  them  they 
acted  as  a  court  of  appeal.  They  possessed  also  the  right  of 
calling  together,  and  presiding  m,  the  provincial  synods; 
the  superintendence  and  power  of  visitation  over  the  bishops 
of  the  metropolitan  see;  the  power  of  enforcing  the  l^ws  of 
the  church;  the  dispensation  of  indulgences,  and  the  like. 
The  archbishops  further  enjoyed  the  honor  of  having  the 
cross  carried  before  them  in  their  own  archiepiscopate,  even 
in  presence  of  the  pope  himself,  and  of  wearing  the  paMium. 
In  England,  there  are  two  archbishops  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, of  whom  one  has  his  seat  at  Canterbury,  the  capital 
of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Kent;  the  other  at  York,  the 
capital  of  Northumbria.  But  though,  as  ruling  over  a  prov- 
ince in  place  of  a  single  diocese,  both  have  held  the  rank  of 
metropolitans  from  the  first,  the  A.  of  Canterbury  has 
all  along  had  precedence,  not  merely  as  the  successor  of 
Augustine  and  the  senior  A.,  but  as  possessing  a  pre- 
eminent and  universal  authority  over  the  whole  kingdom. 
This  pre-eminence  is  marked  in  the  titles  which  they  respec- 
tively assume— the  A.  of  Canterbury  being  styled  the  pri- 
mate of  all  Eng]an([(jnetrapolitanus  etprimas  totius  Anglia), 
while  the  A.  of  York  is  simplv  called  primate  of  England 
(prim an  et  meiropolitanus  Anglice).  It  is  also  indicated  by 
the  places  which  they  occupy  in  processions— the  A  of 
Canterbury,  who  has  precedence  of  all  the  nobility,  not  only 
preceding  the  A.  of  York,  but  the  lord  chancellor  being 
interposed  between  them.  Previous  to  the  creation  of  an 
archbishopric  in  Ireland  the  authority  of  the  A.  of  Canter- 
bury extended  to  that  island.  The  amount  oi  control  which 
belongs  to  an  A.  over  the  bishops  of  his  province  is  not  very 
accurately  defined;  but  if  any  bishop  introduces  irregularities 
into  his  diocese,  or  is  guilty  of  immorality,  the  A.  may  call 
him  to  account,  and  even  deprive  him.  In  1822,  the  A.  of 
Armagh,  who  is  primate  of  all  Ireland,  deposed  the  Bishop 
of  Clogher  on  the  latter  ground.  To  the  A.  of  Canterbunr 
belongs  the  honor  of  placing  the  crown  on  the  sovereign  s 


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I 


ARCHDEACON. 

bead  at  his  coronation;  and  the  A.  of  York  claims  the  like 
privilege  in  the  case  of  the  qaeen-consort,  whose  perpetual 
chaplain  he  is.  The  province  of  the  A.  of  York,  consisting 
of  the  six  northern  counties  and  Cheshire,  includes  9  dioceses. 
The  rest  of  England,  with  Wales,  forms  the  province  of 
the  A.  of  Canterbury,  and  includes  24  dioceses.  The 
dioceses  of  the  two  archbishops— i.e.,  the  districts  in  which 
they  exercise  ordinary  episcopal  functions — were  remodeUed 
by  6  and  7  Will  IV:  c.  77.  The  diocese  of  Canterbury 
comprises  Kent,  except  the  city  and  deanery  of  Rochester, 
and  some  parishes  transferred  by  this  act;  a  number  of 
parishes  in  Sussex  called  '  peculiars;'  with  small  districts  in 
other  dioceses,  particularly  London.  The  diocese  of  the  A. 
of  York  embraces  the  county  of  York,  except  that  portion  of 
i*.  now  included  in  the  dioceses  of  Ripon  and  Manchester,  and 
some  other  detached  districts. 

In  Ireland,  there  are  two  Protestant  and  four  Roman  Cath- 
olic archbishops.  Of  the  former,  the  A.  of  Armagh  is  pri- 
mate of  all  Ireland;  the  A.  of  Dublin  being  primate  of  Ire- 
land. The^  formerly  sat  alternately  in  the  house  of  lords; 
the  three  bishops  who,  with  them,  represented  the  Church 
of  Ireland  being  chosen  by  rotation.  The  election  of  an  A. 
does  not  differ  from  that  of  a  bishop  (see  Bishop);  but  when 
he  is  invested  with  his  office,  he  is  said  to  be  *  enthroned/ 
whereas  a  bishop  is  '  consecrated.'  He  also  writes  himself 
•  by  Divine  Providence';  a  bishop  being  *  by  Divine  permis- 
sion'; and  has  the  title  of  'Grace,*  and  *Most  Reverend 
Father  in  God,'  while  a  bishop  is  styled  *  Lord,'  and  '  Right 
Reverend  Father  in  Qod. '  The  A.  is  entitled  to  present  to  all 
ecclesiastical  livings  in  the  disposal  of  diocesan  bishops,  if  not 
filled  up  within  six  months;  and  every  bishop,  whether  created 
or  translated,  was  formerly  bound  to  make  a  legal  convey- 
ance to  the  A.  of  the  next  avoidance  of  one  such  dignity  or 
benefice  belonring  to  his  see  as  the  A.  shall  choose. 

In  the  Prot.  Epis.  Church  in  the  United  Slates,  there  are 
no  archbishops.  There  are  in  the  United  States  14  arch- 
bishops of  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church. 

ARCHDEACON,  dreh-dekcm  [Qr.  arch,  and  diaeonos, 
servant!:  an  ecclesiastical  dignitaiy  whose  iurisdicticn  is 
immediately  subordinate  to  tJoaJt  of  the  bishop.  The  A. 
originally  was  simply  the  chief  of  the  deacons,  who  were 
the  attendants  and  assi^^tants  of  the  bishop  in  church  affairs. 
His  duties  consisted  in  attending  the  bishop  at  the  altar  and 
at  ordinations,  assisting  him  in  managing  the  revenues  of 
the  church,  and  directing  the  deacons  in  their  duties.  From 
being  thus  mere  assistants,  archdeacons  in  the  5th  c.  bep^an 
to  share  the  bishop's  powers,  and  step  by  step  attained  to 
the  authority  which  they  now  enjov,  which  from  the  9th 
c.  became  in  many  respects  distinct  from  that  of  the  bishop. 
Several  synods  protesteil  against  the  innovation,  but  it  was 
continued  in  the  11th  and  12th  centuries,  when  the  arch- 
deacons were  reco^ized  as  the  most  influential  of  prelates. 
In  the  18th  c,  their  powers  were  limited  by  the  establish- 
ment of  episcopal  courts.  Their  dignity  and  influence  is 
now  very  much  reduced  in  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church.  There 
were  formerly  60  archdeaconries  in  England,  but  their 


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ARCHDUKE-ARCHEGOSAURUS. 

number  has  been  considerably  increased  fidnce  the  passing  of 
the  act  for  carrying  into  effect  the  report  of  the  EJpclesiastical 
Commissioners  (6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  77);  and  it  is  probable 
that  under  the  provisions  of  that  act  they  may  be  still 
further  increased.  No  person  can  be  appointed  an  A.  till 
he  has  been  six  years  complete  in  priest's  orders  i3  and  4 
Vict.  c.  118,  8.  27).  The  duty  of  parochial  visitation  has 
long  been  regarded  as  belonging  specially  to  the  archidiaconal 
office,  and  it  was  bv  its  exercise  mainly  that  the  archdeacons 
attained  to  the  dignity  of  ordinary  instead  of  delegated 
jurisdiction.  Even  in  performing  this  function,  however, 
and  in  holding  ^neral  synods  or  visitations,  ordering  repain: 
of  churches,  and  the  like,  the  A.  is  properly  to  be  regaitied 
as  being  what  the  canon  law  called  nim,  *  the  bishops  eye.' 
The  iudge  of  the  A.'s  court,  when  he  does  not  preside,  is 
called  *  the  official.*  There  is  an  appeal  to  the  Court  of  the 
Bishop,  or  in  the  case  of  an  A.  of  an  archbishopric,  to  tiie 
Court  of  Arches.  See  Deacon:  Dean:  Priest.  See  also 
Cripp's  Law  Eelaiing  to  the  Church  and  Clergy. 

ARCHDUKE':  a  title  now  taken  by  all  the  sons  (Aitdi- 
duchess  by  all  the  daughters)  of  the  emperor  of  Austria, 
and  by  their  descendants  through  the  male  line.  The  title 
of  A.  was  gradually  assumed  by  the  dukes  of  Austria,  as  a 
mark  of  precedence  over  the  other  dukes  of  the  ^npiie. 
Duke  Rudolph  IV.  of  Austria,  in  1369,  caUed  himself 
Palatinus  Archidux,  but  he  was  not  so  s^led  by  the 
emperor.  His  brothers,  Albert  and  Leopold,  did  not  assume 
the  title  after  his  death,  though  they  had  occasionally  done 
so  in  his  lifetime.  The  thmi  son  of  Leopold,  however, 
Ernest  the-Iron,  revived  it.  Still  he  was  addressed  by  the 
emperor  simply  as  duke.  At  last  the  title  was  formally 
conferred  on  them  by  the  emperor  Frederick  III.  in  1453, 
who  himself,  as  duke,  was  the  first  recipient  of  the  imperial 
gift.  Still  the  usage  was  not  imiform,  for  he  afterwards 
speaks  of  himself  as  duke.  The  privilege  was  extended  to 
the  Tyrolian  branch  of  the  Austrian  House  in  the  person  of 
Sigismund.  The  value  of  the  dignity  thus  assumed  was  a 
cause  of  contention  with  Bavaria  in  1589.  The  Austrian 
view  was,  that  to  duke  it  held  the  same  relation  that  arch- 
bishop does  to  bishop.  The  dukes  of  Austria  claimed  to 
have  always  had  precedence  over  the  other  ducal  houses, 
and  regarded  tlie  title  as  a  mere  indication  of  what  had 
been  universally  acknowledged.  Bavaria,  on  the  other 
hand,  relied  on  the  greater  antiquity  of  its  dukedom.  The 
contest  was  decided  by  the  emperor  Rudolph  II.  in  favor  of 
Austria,  the  precedence  of  which  has  not  since  been  called 
in  question.  Other  dukedoms  claimed  the  privilege  of 
being  so  called,  but  it  was  invariably  denied  by  the  emperor. 

ARCHEGONIUM.  n.  ar'ke^gd'ni-um  [Gr.  arcJie,  begin- 
ning; gone,  seed,  generation]:  the  female  organ  of  sexual 
reproduction  in  mosses,  ferns,  etc. 

ARCIIEG0SAURU8,  n.  dr' ke-gosaw' run  fGr.  archegas, 
founder,  or  arcfu\  beginning;  saurus,  a  lizard]:  a  remarkable 
fossil  Batrachian,  butso  named  by  Goldfuss.  as  constituting 
the  real  beghining  of  reptilian  life,  which  had  previously 


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AfiCHEGOSAURUS. 

been  considered  as  not  extending  below  the  Permian  scries 
of  rocks. 
From  the  engraving,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  head  of  the 


Archegosaurus: 
a,  section  of  a  tooth;  b,  scales. 

A.  Is  protected  by  a  firm  dermal  skeleton,  composed  of 
numerous  plates,  while  the  internal  primary  cartilage  seems 
to  have  continued  unossided.  The  skull  is  tlattened  and 
triangular,  with  rounded  angles,  the  front  one  being  some- 
what len^ened.  The  teeth  are  simple  cones,  having  a 
labyrinthic  structure  similar  to  that  of  the  recent  Lepidosteus. 
The  vertebral  column  remains  in  an  embrvonic  condition; 
the  arches  and  peripheral  elements  of  the  vertcbne  are 
ossified;  but  the  c/iorda  dorscUis,  which  is  persistent,  is  un- 
protected below.  The  ribs  are  short  and  almost  strai^iht, 
roimd  and  slender  in  the  middle,  expanded  and  flattened  at 
the  ends.  The  two  pairs  of  limbs  arc  nearly  equal  in  size, 
and  in  structure  very  much  resemble  those  of  the  Proteus. 
They  have  each  four  long,  slender  digits,  which  obviously 
supported  a  longish,  narrow-pointed  paddle,  adapted  for 
swimming.  Externally,  the  body  was  protected  by  a  cov- 
ering of  oblong  quadrangular  scales,  which  have  been  pre- 
served in  some  specimens. 

Pour  species  have  been  described. 

The  histoiy  of  the  A.  is  shortly  this:  Its  remains,  foimd 
in  the  Bavanan  coal  measures,  had  been  described  as  those 
of  a  fish  under  the  name  of  Fygopterus  Lucius  (Agassiz). 
In  1844,  H.  von  Meyer  first  described  it  under  the  name  of 
AjxUeon  pedestris.  This  specimen  was  found  in  the  coal 
measures  of  MClnster-Appel,  in  Rheni^  Bavaria,  and  was 
supposed  by  Meyer  to  be  related  to  the  salamanders,  and  yet 
/lot  without  considerable  doubt-  forhe  says:  *  Its  head  might 
be  that  of  a  fish,  as  well  as  that  of  a  lizard,  or  of  a  batra- 
chian.'  In  1847,  (Joldfuss  figured  and  described  three  dis- 
tinct species  discovered  in  large  concretionary  nodules  of 
clay-ironstone,  from  the  coal-fi3d  of  SaarbrUck,  giving  to 
them  the  generic  name  of  A.  He  considered  them  to  be 
a  transition  state  between  the  fish-like  batrachia  and  the 
lizards  and  crocodiles.  Professor  Owen  has  subsequently 
described  this  fossil;  he  makes  it  a  remarkable  connecting 
link  between  the  reptile  and  the  fish,  and  on  these  grounds: 
It  is  related  to  the  salamandroid-ganoid  fishes  by  the  con- 
formity of  pattern  in  the  plates  of  the  external  cranial 
skeleton,  and  by  the  persistence  of  the  cTiorda  dorscUis,  as  in 


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ARCHELAUS. 

the  sturgeon,  while  it  is  allied  to  the  reptiles  by  the  persist 
ence  of  the  chorda  dorsalis,  and  the  branchial  arches,  and  by 
the  absence  of  the  occipital  condyle,  or  condyles,  as  in  Lept- 
dosiren,  and  by  the  presence  of  labyrinthic  teeth,  as  in 
Labyrinthodon,  which,  however,  also  ally  it  to  the  ganoid 
Lepidosteus.  There  is  thus  in  the  A.  a  blending  together  of 
the  characteristics  of  reptile  and  fish  in  one  animal  It  oc- 
cupies a  position  between,  and  equally  related  to,  the  sala- 
mandroia-ganoid  fishes  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  laby- 
rinthodont  reptiles  on  the  other,  while  the  latter  lead 
through  the  Lepidosiren  to  the  perennibranchiatc  batrachia 

ARCHELAUS,  dr'ke-U'us:  one  of  the  Heraclids,  who 
when  driven  by  his  brothers  from  his  native  land,  fled  tc 
Macedon,  where  he  became  the  founder  of  a  powerful 
family,  of  which  Alexander  the  Great  was  said  to  be  a  de- 
scendant. 

ARCHELAUS:  natural  son  of  the  Macedonian  king. 
Perdiccas  II. ,  came  to  the  throne  (after  he  had  murdered 
the  rightful  heir)  in  B.C.  413.  His  reign  was  far  better 
than  its  commencement,  as  he  introduced  several  salutary 
measures,  and  was  a  generous  patron  of  art  and  literature. 
Euripides  and  Zeuxis  frequented  his  court;  and  the  palace 
of  the  monarch  was  splendidly  adorned  by  the  paintings  of 
the  latter.  It  is  said  that  Socrates  refused  an  invitation  to 
proceed  thither,  having  no  great  respect  for  the  character 
of  A.,  which  was  stained  with  odious  vices.  He  is  believed 
to  have  been  murdered  by  Craterus,  one  of  his  favorites; 
but  the  story  of  his  death  is  told  differently. 

ARCHELAUS:  a  general  under  Mithridates  the  Great, 
was  sent  into  Greece  with  a  large  fleet  and  an  army  of 
120,000  men  to  oppose  the  Romans  B.C.  87.  Sulla  was  sent 
against  him,  and  bcsiege<l  him  in  Piraeus,  whence  A.  moved 
to  Bceotia,  and  here  collected  all  his  forces.  A  battle  took 
place  at  Chaeroneia,  when  victory  declared  for  the  Romans. 
A.  now  retreated  to  Chalcis,  where  he  waited  until  Mithri- 
dates had  despatched  another  army  of  80,000  men  into 
Greece.  The  second  fight  took  place  at  Orchomenos,  in 
Boeotia,  and  after  two  days*  contest  the  whole  host  led  by 
A.  was  totally  routed  by  Sulla.  A. ,  after  hiding  for  three 
days  in  a  morass,  escaped  to  Chalcis.  After  a  treaty  of 
peace  had  been  effected  between  Sulla  and  Mithridates,  A. 
fell  under  the  displeasure  of  his  monarch,  being  unjustly 
suspected  of  treason,  and  fearing  for  his  life,  as  also  per- 
haps disgusted  at  the  return  he  had  received  for  his  many 
services,  he  went  over  to  the  Romans  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
second  war,  B.C.  81.  After  this  time,  he  appears  no  more 
in  history. 

ARCHELAUS:  son  of  the  former,  married  Berenice, 
daughter  of  King  Ptolemseus  Auletes  (B.C.  56),  and  ruled 
over  Egypt  for  the  short  spare  of  six  months  during  the 
banishment  of  Ptolemaeus.  The  usurper  lost  his  life  in  a 
battle  against  Aulus  Gabinius,  proconsul  of  Syria.  His 
grandson,  also  named  A.,  obtained  from  Marcus  Antonius 
the  prov.  of  Cappadocia,  and  retainetl  it  during  the  reign  of 
Augustus.    Tiberius  accused  him  of  political  innovanons. 


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ARCHELAUS— ARCHEOLOGY. 

and  condemned  him  to  death;  but,  as  he  was  old  and  fatuous, 
liis  life  was  spared.  He  died  soqu  after  bis  trial,  at  Rome, 
A.i>.  17. 

ARCHELAUS:  son  of  Herod,  the  tyrant  ol  Judsea,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  a.d.  1,  and  mamtained  bis  position 
against  an  insurrection  raised  by  the  Pharisees.  His  heir- 
ahip  to  the  throne  being  disputed  by  his  brother  Antipas,  A. 
-went  to  Rome,  where  his  authority  was  confirmed  by  Au- 
eustus,  who  made  him  ethnarcb  of  Judsea,  Samaria,  and 
Tdumsea.  After  a  reign  of  nine  years,  he  was  deposed  by 
Augustus,  on  account  of  his  cruel  tyranny,  and  banished  to 
Vienna,  in  Gaul,  where  he  died.  His  territories  were  added 
to  the  Roman  province  of  Syria. 

ARCHENCEPHALA,  n.  plu.  dr'kSn-9^ fa-Id  [Gr.  archo, 
I  rule,  I  reign  over;  enakephdU,  the  brain]:  Owen's  fourth 
and  highest  group  of  Mammalia,  comprising  Man  alone. 

ARCHENHOLZ,  d¥ken-holU,  Johann  Wilhelm,  Baron 
von:  1745,  Sept.  8—1812,  Feb.  28:  a  German  author.  After 
Bcrvice  in  the  anny,  he  gained  his  discharge  at  the  close  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  passed  several  years  in  travel, 
visiting  almost  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe,  and  sup- 
porting himself  by  authorship,  and,  as  it  was  generally  re- 
ported, also  by  gambling.  He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Seven 
lea/r^  War  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1798),  which  when  compared 
with  the  generally  dry  style  of  his  German  contemporaries  ' 
deserves  praise  on  account  of  its  narrative  interest.  He  also 
wrote  England  and  Italy  (2il  ed.,  Leip.  1787),  Annals  of 
British  History  (1789-98),  and  biographies  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth of  England  and  Gustavus  Yasa  of  Sweden. 
ARCHEOLOGY,  etc.:  see  AacHiEOLOOT. 


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ARCHER 

ARCHER,  n.  drch-er  [P.  archer  ;  OF.  archter,  a  bowman, 
—from  mid.  L.  drear tus,  od  archer:  P.  arehe,  an  arch — 
from  mid.  L.  archla,  an  arch;  L.  arcu$,  a  bow] ;  one  who  uses 
or  is  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  bow.  Abchery,  n.  drch'er-i, 
the  art  of  using  the  bow.  Archers  are  soldiers  whose 
weapons  are  tlie  bow  and  arrow.  Among  the  ancicDts 
specially  eminent  in  this  mode  of  warfare,  we  may  partic- 
ularize the  Thracians,  Cretans,  Parthians,  and  Numidians; 
among  the  modems,  the  Arabians,  Germans,  and  Saracens. 
The  emperor  Frederick  II.  employed  Saracenic  archers 
with  great  effect  in  his  Lombard  campaign;  and  to  them 
is  ascribed  the  victory  at  Cortenuova  in  1237.  The  archers 
belonged  to  the  light  troops,  and  their  province  was  to  open 
the  battle.  The  emperor  Leo  especially  lauded  the  dexterity 
of  the  Arabian  archers.  In  later  ages,  the  bow  came  to  be 
employed  in  England,  where  the  archers  wore  light  annor, 
a  short  sword,  and  a  quiver  with  twenty  or  more  arrows. 
At  first,  these  archers  fought  in  small  groups;  in  later  years, 
in  large  masses.  At  the  battle  of  Cressv,  they  formed  in  divi- 
sions of  4,000  men,  200  in  line  and  400  deep.  The  archers 
decided  the  fate  of  the  day  in  several  battles— such  as  Cresay 
and  Poitiers  (1356),  Agincourt  (1415),  Crevaut  (1423),  Ver- 
neuil  (1424),  and  Rovernay  (1429).  The  French  archers 
never  equalled  the  English,  in  spite  of  the  endeavors  of 
Charles  VI.  and  Charles  VII.  The  latter  orcanized  in  1448 
the  Francarch^rs,  to  which  corps  every  pansh  had  to  con- 
tribute one  man;  but  this  measure  was  attended  with  so 
little  success  that  the  kins  was  induced  to  take  Scottish 
archers  into  his  pay,  to  make  any  head  against  the  English. 
The  French  archers  wore  a  coat  of  buffalo-hide  lined  with 
strong  linen,  and  were  accompanied  by  shield-bearers.  In 
this  manner  2,000  bowmen  with  their  shield-bearers  fought 
under  the  Count  de  Foix  at  the  siege  of  Bayonne  in  1^1. 
The  archers  universally  belonged  to  the  elite  of  the  troops, 
and  received  higher  pay  than  the  rest.  At  one  period,  the 
arbalest  or  crossbow  was  more  in  favor  than  the  long-bow. 
See  Arbalest.  Long  after  the  discovery  of  gunpowder, 
the  bow  and  arrow  were  still  used;  as,  for  example,  at  the 
siege  of  Capua  in  1500;  and  the  siege  of  Peineburg  in  1502. 
Even  in  1572,  (Jueen  Elizabeth  promised  to  place  at  the 
disposal  of  Charles  IX.  6.000  men,  of  whom  the  J^alf  were 
archers.  The  Endish  archers  are  the  subject  of  frequent 
mention  by  our  old  writers.  Chaucer,  in  his  Canterburtf 
Tales,  speaks  of  the  archer 

*  Cladde  in  cote  and  hode  of  grrene, 
•  A  sheafe  of  peacock  arwes  brig hte  and  kene« 
Under  his  belt  he  bare  f  ul  thrif  tilie. 
Wei  coude  he  dresse  his  talcel  yewmanlie. 
His  arwes  drouped  not  with  fetheres  lowe, 
And  in  his  hand  he  bare  a  mighty  bowe.* 

In  a  Treatise  on  Martial  Discipline,  by  Ralph  Smithe, 
written  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  we  have  a  picture 
of  the  English  archer  two  centuries  after  Chaucer's  time: 
'  Captens  and  officers  should  be  skillful  of  that  most  noble 
weapon  the  long-bow;  and  to  see  that  their  soldiers,  according 
to  their  draught  and   strength,  have  good  bowes,   well 


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ARCHER. 

nocked,  well  strynged,  everie  strynge  whippein  their  nocke, 
and  in  the  middes  rubbed  with  wax  brascr,  and  shuting- 
glove,  some  spare  strynges  trymcd  as  aforesaid;  every  inau 
one  shefe  of  arrows,  with  a  case  of  leather  defensible 
against  the  rajTie,  and  in  the  same  four-and-lwenlie  arrowes, 
whereof  eight  of  them  should  be  lighter  than  the  residue, 
to  gall  or  astoyne  the  enemye  with  the  hailshot  of  light 
arrowes  before  they  shall  come  within  the  danger  of  their 
harquebus  shot.  Let  every  man  have  a  brigandine  or  a 
little  coat  of  plate,  a  skull  or  hufkyn,  a  maule  of  leade  of 
five  foote  in  lengthe,  and  a  pike,  and  the  same  hanging  by 
his  girdle  with  a  hook  and  a  dagger.' 

Amon^  the  Asiatic  Turks,  the  Persians,  the  Tatars,  and 
other  nations  of  the  East,  as  well  as  the  American  Indians, 
the  bow  and  arrow  are  still  used  as  weapons  of  war.  In 
Europe,  they  are  nearly  ah&ndoned  for  military  purposes. 
The  chief  aifferences  between  the  two  kinds  of  weapon 
employed  by  the  archers  of  the  middle  ages  are  noticed  under 
Arbat.tcbt:  Bow  and  Arrow. 

Archery  as  an  out-door  exercise  or  pastime  has  in  recent 
years  been  much  practiced  in  England  and  the  United 


Archery  Apparatus. 

States.  During  the  reign  of  Charles  II. ,  archery  was  patron- 
ized  by  the  court,  ToSiill  Fields  being  the  chief  scene  of 
exercise.  After  his  reign,  archery  fell  mto  disuse  for  about 
a  century.  In  1776,  a  Mr.  Wanng  revived  archery  in  the 
neighborhood  of  London;  and  very  shortly  there  were  sev- 
eral toxophilitc  or  archery  societies  formed.  The  system 
survived  till  1798,  when  another  period  of  inactivity  super- 
vened, lasting  till  1844.  In  this  last  named  year,  archery 
was  revived  In  Yorkshire,  and  has  since  extended.  A  re 
commendation  to  the  sport  is  that  ladies  can  take  part  in  it. 
In  the  modem  exercise  of  archery,  there  are  several  varie^ 
ties  of  contests  between  the  antagonistic  parties;  but  the 
usual  variety  is  target-shooting.  In  archery-matches,  a 
number  of  prizes  are  generally  awarded,  the  principal  being 
for  the  greatest  numl^r  of  arrows  shot  into  any  part  of  the 


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ARCHER. 

target,  and  for  the  nearest  approach  to  the  exact  centre. 
The  target  has  a  ^Id  spot  in  the  centre,  a  red  ring  around 
this,  then  a  blue  nng,  then  a  black,  and  outside  of  all  a  white 
ring  bortlercd  with  green.  The  merit  of  the  shooting  con- 
sists in  the  near  approach  to  the  exact  centre  or  *gold.* 
Two  targets  are  generally  used  in  a  match,  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  field,  each  by  one  party.  The  apparatus  mostly 
used  at  these  archenr  meetings  is  represented  in  the  cut  on 
page  426.  1  is  the  bow,  varying  in  weight  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  person  who  is  to  use  it;  2  is  the  arrow;  8  is 
(he  quiver,  a  tin  case  for  holding  arrows  not  immediately 
(n  use;  4  and  6  are  the  pouch  and  belt  for  holding  the  ar- 
rows actually  in  use.  The  tassel  of  the  belt  serves  to  clean 
;he  arrows  when  dusty.  6  is  the  brace  buckled  round  the 
left  arm,  to  protect  it  from  being  hurt  by  the  string  when 
shooting;  7  is  the  shooting-glove,  formed  to  protect  the 
hree  fineers  used  in  drawing  the  strinj^.  Besides  these  ar- 
icles  and  the  target,  archers  are  sometimes  provided  with  a 
large  case  called  an  *  ascham,'  fitted  up  with  the  necessary 
drawers  and  compartments  for  the  reception  of  the  bow, 
arrows,  string,  ana  other  necessary  accoutrements. 

[In  archery  competition,  the  total  number  and  value  of 
each  person's  hits  are  registered  on  a  scoring-card.  The 
shots  are  usually  punctured  on  a  card  with  a  pin,  as  being 
preferable  ♦o  pencil  or  ink  marks;  and  the  mode  of  ascer- 
taining tho  value  of  the  hits,  which  is  increased  in  propor- 
tion as  th6>  reach  the  centre,  will  be  seen  by  the  following 
example: 

FpRM  OF  THE  ScORINO-CARD. 


Names. 

Qo\d. 

Red. 

Blue. 

Black. 

White. 

Total. 

Value. 

A 
B 

85 
26 

119 
90 

... 



It  appears  by  the  card  that  A  has  two  in  the  gold,  four  in 
the  red,  six  in  the  blue,  ten  in  the  black,  and  thirteen 
in  the  outer  white,  making  a  total  of  35.  The  real  value 
of  these  is  ascertained  by  multiplying  the  hits  in  the  gold 
by  nine;  in  the  red,  by  seven;  in  the  blue,  by  five;  in 
tiie  black,  by  three;  ancl  by  leaving  without  alteration  tlie 
number  in  the  white  or  outer.  By  this  process  it  will  ap- 
pear that  A*s  numbers,  accordinff  to  tJie  vcUm  of  each 
circle,  amount  to  119,  and  B's  to  90— hence  A  is  the  winner 
by  29.  But  A's  total  might  have  been  less  than  B*s,  and 
still  he  might  have  been  the  winner,  provided  the  shots  had 
lain  more  towards  the  gold  than  B's. 

As  an  instance  of  the  skill  which  long  and  careful  practice 
mav  insure,  Mr.  Horace  A.  Ford,  who  has  written  an  ex- 
cellent work  on  Archery,  on  one  occasion,  out  of  144 shots, 
made  143  hits— 765  score;  on  another,  144  shots,  137  hits — 
809  score;  and  on  another.  75  shots.  75  hits— 555  score. 


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ARCHER  FISH— ARCHIL. 

ARCHER  FISH:  a  name  given  to  certain  small  East 
Indian  fishes  of  the  Acanthoptery^otis  family  of  JSqttami- 
pennes  or  CluBiodontida,  which  have  the  faculty  o^  project- 
ing^ drops  of  water  with  sure  aim  at  insects,  and  thereby 
causing  them  to  fall  into  the  water,  where  they  are  instantly 
seized  as  prey.  Toxotesjatulator,  one  of  these  species,  is  a 
fish  about  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  a  native  of  Java  and 
other  parts  of  the  Indian  archipelago,  and  is  that  to  which 
the  name  A.  F.  has  been  more  stricUy  appropriated.  It  can 
project  a  drop  of  water  to  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet.  It 
ts  the  only  known  recent  species  of  its  genus,  but  there  is  a 
fossil  one.  Chelmon  rostratus,  also  a  Javanese  fish,  possesses 
the  same  power,  and  the  Chinese  in  Java  keep  it  in  jars  for 
their  amusement,  causing  it  to  practice  its  art  by  placing  in- 
sects within  its  range. 

ARCHETYPE,  n.  dr'kS-Up  [F.  archetype:  L.  a/rcTiHy- 
pum:  Gr.  arehetupon,  an  original — from  €fr.  a7'che,  begin- 
ning; tupos,  form]:  the  orfirinal  or  model  from  which 
copies  are  inade;  an  ideal  primitive  type;  a  pattern.  Ak- 
CHETTPAL,  a.  dr'ke-H'pdl,  original. 

ARCHI-EPISCOPAL,  ARCHIDIACONAL,  etc.:  see 
under  Arch  3. 

ARCHIGRAPHER,  n.  drJ^ra-fer  [Gr.  arehos,  chief; 
graphein,  to  write];  a  chief  secretary. 

ARCHIL,  n.  dr'kU  or  Orchil  [OF,  orchetl;  (/rsetlie— 
from  Sp.  arc/«V^a;  origin  undetermmedj;  a  coloring  sub- 
stance obtained  from  various  species  of  lichens.  The  A.  is 
not  originally  present  in  the  lichens,  bat  is  developed 
daring  a  process  of  putrefaction  and  fermentation.  The 
lichens,  collected  from  rocks  near  the  sea,  are  cleaned, 
ground  into  a  powder  with  water  placed  in  tanks,  and 
ammoniacal  liquids — such  as  purified  gas  liquor  or  stale 
Tirine— added,  when  by  the  combined  influence  of  the 
ammonia,  air,  water,  and  the  constituents  of  the  lichens,  a 
violet-colored  matter  is  generated,  which  appears  for  a  time 
to  dissolve  in  the  water,  but  finally  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vat  in  the  condition  of  a  moist  powder  or  paste.  The 
latter  is  then  mixed  with  some  substance  like  cbalk  or 
stucco  to  give  it  consistence.  The  lichens  which  yield  the 
best  A.  in  largest  quantity  are  Ihccella  tinctoria  and  fuci- 
formis.  The  former  is  called  the  Archil  plant,  and  is  ob- 
tained in  large  amount  from  the  Canaries  and  Cape  de  Verd 
Islands,  and  the  Levant.  Another  lichen,  Lecanora  tartarea, 
is  collected  from  rocks  in  Sweden,  and  largely  exported. 
It  is  sometimes  called  cudbear  (q.v.),  or  cudbear  lichen, 
and  sametimcs  white  Swedish  moss.  A.  is  soluble  in  water 
and  in  alcohol,  to  either  of  which  it  imparts  a  violet  color, 
with  much  of  a  crimson  hue.  It  is  much  employed  in  the 
dyeii^  of  silks,  where  a  beautiful  lilac  color  is  required; 
but  though  a  brilliant  rich  hue  is  imparted  to  the  silken 
fabric,  the  color  is  not  permanent,  being  easily  acted  upon 
by  the  ravs  of  the  sun.  Hence  the  A.  is  selaom  used  by 
itself,  ana  the  cloth  is  first  dyed  lilac  by  another  coloring 
matter,  and  is  then  passed  through  an  A.  dye,  which  imparts 
a  brilliant  lilac  hue  to  the  cloth.    A.  is  seldom  employed 


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ARCHILOCHUS. 

to  dje  cotton  cloth,  but  it  is  often  used,  with  indigo,  in  the 
dyemg  of  woolen  cloth,  and  besides  enabling  the  indigo 
color  to  go  much  further,  it  imparts  its  peculiar  rich  tint  to 
the  blue  or  black  cloth  or  yarn  immersed  in  it;  the  color, 
however,  so  ol>taincd  is  not  so  permanent  as  where  the  A. 
is  left  out.  Cudbear  (q.v.)  and  Litmus  (q.v.)  arc  analogous 
to  A.,  and  are  obtained  from  the  same  lichens. 

The  lichen  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  A.  plant  or 
lichen,  Boccella  tinctoria,  grows  very  sparingly  on  the 
southern  coasts  of  England,  but  abundantly  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  of  the  neighboring  parts  of  the 
A.ilantic,  where  it  often  covers  rocks  near  the  sea,  so  as  to 
form  what  has  been  likened  to  a  sort  of  turf  upon  them. 
The  Spanish  name  is  Orchilla,  from  which  the  French 
Orseille,  the  English  A.  or  Orchil,  and  (as  has  been  thought) 
even  the  botanical  name  Boccella,  are  derived.  It  is  of  a  sab- 
stance  between  cartilaginous  and  leathery,  roundish,  some- 
what erect,  branching  in  a  dichotomous  manner,  of  a  gra^i^ 
brown  color,  with  powdery  warts  {90Tedia)\  the  apotMcia 
(q.v.)  orbicular,  flat,  horny,  almost  black,  with  a  scarcely 
prominent  border.  That  from  the  Canary  Isles  is  generally 
regarded  as  tlie  best.  It  seldom  exceeds  the  thickness  of 
a  pin,  and  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  A  less 
branched  and  more  slender,  prostrate,  or  pendulous  variety 
{Boccella  hypamecha  of  Bory  de  St.  Vincent)  is  common  at 
the  Cape  of  Gk)od  Hope  and  in  the  island  of  Mauritius,  and 
appears  in  commerce  with  the  other,  but  is  inferior.  A 
variety  remarkable  for  its  large  size,  or  perhaps  a  distinct 
species  {R.  flaccida),  is  brought  from  Lima  and  other 
parts  of  the  w.  coast  of  South  America;  it  is  sometimes  as 
thick  as  a  goose  quill,  and  6  or  8  inches  lone,  and  is  of 
excellent  quality.  All  those,  and  RocceUa  fuciformis,  very 
generally  receive  in  commerce,  and  from  archil -makers,  the 
name  of  Orchella  weed,  the  different  kinds  being  dis- 
tinguished according  to  the  countries  from  which  they  are 
imported.  They  are  also  popularly  called  Dver's  Moss. — 
R,  fucifomm  now  yields  perhaps  more  of  the  A.  or  Orchella 
weed  of  commerce  than  R.  tinctoria.  It  differs  from  K 
tinctoria  chiefly  in  being  not  rounded,  but  flat,  and  in  having 
the  apothecia  very  distinctly  bordered.  It  grows  in  similar 
situations^  and  is  also  a  native  of  Britain,  but  abundant 
only  in  warmer  climates,  as  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  Mada- 
gascar, etc.    That  from  Angola  is  reckoned  the  ver}'  best. 

Amonff  the  lichens  from  which  A.  is  manufactured  is 
the  Parelle  d'Autergne  or  OrseUle  de  terre  (Ground  A.)  of 
the  French,  VarioUria  orcina  or  coralUna,  which  is  gaUiered 
for  this  purpose  in  mountainous  districts  of  the  s.  oi  Prance 
and  other  parts  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  is  also  an  article  of 
export  (with  other  similar  lichens)  from  Sweden  to  Holland. 
But  the'gi-eater  facility  with  which  A.  of  the  finest  quality 
can  be  procured  from  the  species  of  Roc4iella,  and  the  in- 
creasing abundance  of  the  supply  from  different  quarters, 
particularly  from  Angola,  tend  to  diminish  the  demand  for 
other  lichens. 

ARCHILOCHUS,  drHld-Ms,  of  Pakos,  in  Lydia:  abt 
B.O.  714-676:  regarded  as  the  first  of  the  Greek  lyric  poeta^ 


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ARCHILOCHITB. 

altbough  the  origin  of  ihe  elegy  is  claimed  for  Callinus,  a 
writer  whose  age  seems  to  have  slightly  preceded  that  of  A. 
Glimpses  of  his  life,  especially  of  the  calamities  that  befell 
him,  were  frequently  given  in  his  writings.  His  father's 
name  was  Telesicles,  his  mother  was  a  slave  called  Enipo. 
At  an  early  aj^e,  becoming  cntaneled  in  political  contests,  he 
abandoned  his  native  town,  and  led  a  colony  of  the  citizens 
to  Thasos.  While  here,  as  he  informs  us  in  some  extant 
▼erses,  he  lost  his  shield  in  a  battle  against  th«  Thracians, 
yet  not  through  cowardice.  Subsequently  he  was  banished 
from  Sparta,  to  which  he  had  gone,  some  say  because  he 
had  vindicated  his  conduct  in  running  away  from  the  fight, 
others  because  of  the  licentiousness  of  his  verses.  lie  is 
said  to  have  ^ned  the  laurel  wreath  at  the  Olympic  Games 
by  an  ode  m  honor  of  Hercules,  but.  this  is  doubtful. 
Having  returned  to  Paros,  he  took  part  in  the  war  which 
broke  out  between  it  and  Naxos,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
lost  his  life,  either,  in  battle  or  by  assassination.  The 
Delphian  oracle  pronoimced  a  curse  upon  his  slayer. 
Variety,  novelty,  and  satirical  bitterness  characterized  his 
lyric  poems;  so  much  so,  that  *  Archilochian  bitterness  *  and 
•Parian  verse'  became  bywords  in  ancient  times.  He 
scourged  his  enemies  in  the  most  merciless  fashion,  and 
always  displayed  the  most  malicious  skill  in  selecting  for 
his  sarcasm  the  points  on  which  they  were  most  sensitive. 
It  is  said  that  Lycambes,  who  had  promised  bis  daughter 
Neobule  in  marriage  to  A.,  having  failed  to  fulfil  the  prom- 
ise, was  so  severely  satirized  by  the  poet,  that  to  escape 
ridicule  both  father  and  daughter  hanged  themselves. 
Among  the  ancients,  A.  was  ranked  with  Homer.  They 
dedicated  the  statues  of  both  on  the  same  day,  and  placed 
the  head  of  A.  beside  that  of  Homer  on  the  same  bust.  It 
is  therefore  supposed,  acd  with  high  probability,  that  there 
must  have  been  far  more  in  A.  than  mere  vehemence  of 
satire.  Even  Plato,  who  was  not  likely  to  err  on  the  side 
of  admiration  in  sudi  a  case,  calls  him  *  the  very  wise ';  and 
Gorgias,  the  rhetorician,  is  reported  to  have  said,  when 
Plato  sent  forth  his  dialogues  against  the  Sophists,  '  Athens 
has  given  birth  to  a  new  A.'  There  must  have  been  strong 
sense  and  a  keen  perception  of  truth  in  the  man,  to  have 
won  so  universal  and  permanent  a  reputation.  Still  the 
line  of  Horace— who  was  a  vigorous  imitator  of  him  in 
many  respects — proves  that  *  rage '  was  considered  '  the 
special  faculty '  of  A. 

*  ArchUochum  propria  rabies  armavit  iambo.* 

Ars  Poetica,  line  7tf. 

'  Rage  hath  armed  Archilochus  with  his  own  Iambus." 

The  word  iambus  was  in  use  before  the  time  of  A.,  and 
was  employed  to  denote  a  species  of  rude  raillery,  such  as 
flashed  out  spontaneously  under  the  inspiring  excitement  of 
the  Bacchic  and  other  festivals.  A.  was,  however,  the  first 
to  reduce  these  irregular  and  capricious  effusions  to  fixed 
rules.  See  Iambics.  The  semi-pentameter,  of  which  he 
made  abundant  use,  was  called  after  hiD[i  Archilochian 


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ARCHIMANDRITE— ARCHIMEDES. 

The  fragments  extant  of  his  poetry  have  been  edited  by 
Bergk  in  his  PoetcB  Lyrici  Gracorum  (Leipsic,  1843). 

ARCHIMANDRITE,  n.  a/r'kv-nuin'dnt  [L.  and  Gr.  arcKU 
mandrl' tes— from  Gr.  archos,  chief;  mandra,  a  fold  or  en- 
closure as  for  cattle,  a  monastery]:  title  of  the  highest  order 
of  superiors  of  monasteries  or  convents  in  the  Greek  Church. 
See  Abbot.  The  Russian  bishops  are  chosen  from  among 
the  archimandrites. 

ARCHIMEDEAN,  a.  dr'kUne'de-dn:  pertaining  to  ^rc^l- 
medes,  a  great  mathematician  of  ancient  times.  Abchi- 
ME  DEAN  8CKEW,  a  machine  for  raising  water,  consisting  of 
a  tube  coiled  spirally  round  a  revolving  axis. 

ARCHIMEDES,  dr-ki-me'dez:  the  most  celebrated  of 
ancient  niatbematicians;  B.C.  287—212;  b.  Syracuse.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  kinsman  of  King  Hiero,  though  he 
does  not  seem  to  have  held  any  public  office,  but  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  science.  In  regard  to  mathematics,  we 
cannot  estimate  fully  the  merits  of  A.  without  a  more  exact 
knowledge  of  the  state  of  the  science  as  he  found  it;  we 
know,  however,  that  he  enriched  it  with  discoveries  of  the 
high(>st  importance,  on  which  modem  mathematicians  have 
founded  tlieir  methods  of  measuring  curved  surfaces  and 
solids.  Euclid  considers  only  a  few  curved  figures  in  rela- 
tion to  one  another,  but  without  comparing  them  with  recti- 
lineal surfaces  and  solids.  The  theorems  necessary  to  this 
transition  are  laid  down  by  A.  in  his  treatises  *  on  the  Sphere 
and  Cylinder,'  'on  Sjjheroids  and  Conoids,' and  'on  the 
Measurement  of  the  Circle.'  His  demonstration  that  the 
area  of  a  segment  of  a  parabola  is  two  thirds  of  the  en- 
closing imrallelogram,  is  the  first  real  example  of  the 
quadrature  (q.v.)  of  a  curvilinear  space.  In  his  treatise  on 
spirals,  he  rises  to  yet  higher  investigations,  which,  how- 
ever, are  not  very  easily  understood  even  by  masters  of  the 
subject. 

A.  is  the  only  one  of  the  ancients  that  contributed  any- 
thing satisfactory  on  the  theoiy  of  mechanics  and  on  hydro- 
statics. He  first  established  the  truth  that  a  body  plunged 
in  a  fluid  loses  as  much  of  its  weight  as  is  equal  to  the  weight 
of  an  equal  volume  of  the  fluid.  See  Archimedes,  the 
Principle  op.  It  was  by  this  law  that  he  determined  how 
much  alloy  the  goldsmith  whom  Hiero  had  commissioned 
to  make  a  crown  of  pure  gold  had  fraudulently  4nlxed  with 
the  metal.  The  solution  of  the  problem  suggested  itself  to 
him  as  he  was  entering  the  bath,  and  he  is  reported  to  have 
been  so  overjojed  as  to  hasten  home  without  waiting  to 
dress,  exclaimmg:  'I  have  found  itl  I  have  found  it!' 
(Eureka  !  Eureka  !)  Practical  mechanism  seems  to  have 
been  an  equally  new  science  in  the  days  of  A.;  for  his 
boast,  that  if  he  had  a  fulcrum  or  stand-point  he  could 
move  the  world,  betrays  the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  ex- 
traordinary effects  of  nis  newly  invented  machines  inspired 
him.  Among  the  numerous  inventions  ascribed  to  A.  is 
that  of  the  endless  screw,  and  the  coMea  or  water-screw 
(see  Archimedes  Screw),  in  which  the  water  is  made  in  a 
manner  to  ascend  by  its  own  gravity.    During  the  siege  of 


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ARCHIMEDES. 

Syracuse  by  the  Romans,  he  exerted  all  his  ingenuity  in  the 
defense  of  the  city.  Poljbius,  Livy,  and  Plutarch  speak 
with  astonishment  of  the  machines  with  which  he  opposed 
the  attacks  of  the  enemy.  But  while  giving  detailed  ac- 
counts of  his  other  contrivances,  they  say  nothing  of  his 
having  set  fire  to  the  ships  b^  means  of  mirrors,  a  story 
which  is  not  very  probable  m  itself,  and  rests  on  later 
narratives.  When  the  Romans  took  the  city  bv  surprise, 
A.,  according  to  tradition,  was  sitting  in  the  public  square 
lost  in  thought,  with  all  sorts  of  geometrical  figures  before 
him  drawn  m  the  sand.  As  a  Roman  soldier  rushed  upon 
him,  he  called  out  to  him  not  to  spoil  the  circle.  But  the 
rude  warrior  cut  him  down.  According  to  his  own  direc- 
tion, a  cylinder  enclosing  a  sphere  was  engraved  upon  his 
tombstone,  in  commemoration  of  his  discovery  of  the  re- 
lation between  these  solids — a  discovery  on  which  he  set 
particular  value.  When  Cicero  was  in  Sicily  as  qutestor 
(75  B.C.),  he  found  the  tomb  hid  among  briers.  His  extant 
works  have  been  edited  by  Torelli  (Oxf .  1792),  and  Heiberff, 
with  a  Latin  translation  (Leip.  1881).  There  is  a  French 
translation  by  Peyrard  (Paris,  1808),  a  German  by  Nizze 
(Strals.  1824).  The  Arenarius  was  translated  into  English 
by  Q.  Anderson  (Lond.  1784).  Its  object  is  to  prove  that 
it  is  possible  to  assign  a  number  greater  than  that  of  the 
grains  of  sand  that  would  fill  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars, 
the  diameter  of  which  A.  assumes  at  a  certain  number  of 
stadia.  The  difficulty  lay  in  expressing  such  a  vast  number 
by  means  of  the  clumsy  notation  of  Greek  arithmetic,  and 
the  device  by  which  the  difficulty  is  eluded  is  considered 
as  affording  a  striking  instance  of  A.'s  genius. 

ARCHIMEDES,  the  Principle  op:  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  science  of  Hydrostatics,  5»o  called  because  the 
discovery  of  it  is  generally  ascribed  to  the  Syracusan  philos- 
opher.   It  may  be  thus  stated:  A  body  when  immersed  in 


a  fluid  loses  cxactl^r  as  much  of  its  weight  as  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  fluid  it  displaces;  or:  A  fluid  sustains  as  much 
of  the  weight  of  a  body  immersed  in  it  as  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  fluid  displaced  by  it.  It  is  proved  experi- 
mentally in  the  following  way.  A  delicate  balance  is  so 
arranged  that  two  brass  cylinders,  A  and  B,  may  be  sua* 
pended  from  one  of  the  scale-pans,  the  one  under  the  other, 


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ARCHIMEDES  SCREW. 

The  lower  cylinder,  B,  is  solid,  or  closed  all  round,  and  fits 
accurately  into  the  upper  cylinder.  A,  which  is  hollow. 
When  the  two  cylinders  are  placed  under  one  scale,  pan- 
weigbis  are  placed  upon  the  other  until  perfect  equilibrium 
is  obtained.  The  cylinder  B  is  now  immersed  in  water,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  buoyant  tendency  of  the  water  Exerted 
upon  it  the  equilibrium  is  destroyed;  but  it  may  be  com- 
pletely restored  by  filling  the  hollow  cylinder  A  with  water. 
The  amount  of  weight  which  B  has  lost  by  being  placeil 
in  the  water  is  thus  found  to  be  exactly  the  same  as  the 
weight  of  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  its  own  bulk,  or, 
which  is  the  same  thing,  to  the  quantity  of  water  displaced 
by  it.  When  bodies  lighter  than  water  are  wholly  immersed 
in  it,  they  displace  an  Amount  of  water  of  greater  wei^t 
than  their  own,  so  that  if  left  free  to  adjust  themselves  they 
swim  on  the  surface,  only  as  much  of  their  bulk  being  sub- 
merged as  will  displace  a  quantity  of  water  weighing  the 
same  as  themselves.  Accordingly,  while  bodies  heavier 
than  water  displace,  when  put  into  it,  their  own  bulk,  bod- 
ies lighter  than  water  displace,  when  allowed  to  float  on 
the  surface,  their  own  weight  of  the  fluid.  Bodies  of  the 
same  weight  as  w^ter,  according  to  the  principle  of  Archi- 
medes, have  no  tendency  to  rise  or  sink  in  it,  for  the  water 
displaced  by  them  weighs  precisely  the  same  as  they  do. 
The  pretty  scientific  toy  called  the  Cartesian  Diver  is  in- 
tended to  illiLstrate  this.  Although  the  principle  of  Archi- 
medes is  generally  establislied  with  reference  to  water,  its 
application  extenos  equally  to  bodies  immersM  in  air  or 
any  other  fluid. 

ARCHIMEDES  SCREW  (called  also  the  spiral  pump): 
machine  for  raising  water,  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Archimedes,  during  his  stay  in  Egypt,  for  draining  and 
irri^ting  the  land.    Fig.  1  represents  it  in  its  simplest  form. 


Fig.  1. 

This  consists  of  a  flexible  tube  bent  spirally  roimd  a  soiia 
cylinder,  the  ends  of  which  are  furnished  with  pivots,  so  as 
to  admit  of  the  whole  turning  round  its  axis.  The  machine 
is  placed  in  an  inclined  position,  so  that  the  lower  mouth 
of  the  tube  may  dip  below  the  surface  of  the  water  to  be 
raised.  In  the  position  represented  in  the  figure,  the  lowest 
bend  (a)  of  the  tube  will  be  filled  with  water,  and  U  now 


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ARCHIPELAGO. 

the  handle  be  made  to  turn  in  tbe  directioff  of  the  bands  ol 
a  watch,  the  mouth  of  the  spiral  tube  will  be  raised  above 
the  surface;  and  the  water  inclosed  in  the  tube,  having  no 
means  of  escape,  will  flow  within  it  until,  after  one  revolu- 
tion, it  will  occupy  the  second  bend,  b.  The  first  bend  (o) 
h^  meanwhile  received  a  second  charge,  which,  after  a 
oecond  revolution,  flows  up  into  the  second  bend  (b),  and 
takes  the  phice  of  the  first  cliarge  which  has  now  moved 
up  to  the  third  bend,  c.  When,  therefore,  as  many  revolu- 
tions of  the  cylinder  have  been  made  as  there  are  turns  in 
the  spiral  tube,  each  of  the  lower  bends  will  be  filled  with 
water;  and  in  the  course  of  another  revolution,  there  being 
no  higher  bend  for  the  water  of  the  first  charge  to  occup% 
it  will  flow  out  of  the  tube  by  its  upper  mouth.  At  each 
succeeding  revolution,  the  lowest  bend  will  be  charged,  and 
the  highest  dischargetl.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  figure  that 
there  is  room  to  dispose  a  second  tube  side  by  side  with  the 
first,  round  the  cylinder,  in  which  case  the  screw  would  be 
called  double-threaded.  In  the  ordinary  construction  of 
these  machines,  the  cvliuder  itself  is  hollowed  but  into  a 
double  or  triple  threadcxi  screw,  and  inclosed  in  a  water-tight 
case,  which  turns  round  with  it,  the  space  between  the 
threads  supplying  the  place  of  such  tubes  as  are  seen  in 
Pig.  1.  Fig.  2  represents  a  double-threaded  A.  S.  of  this 
description,  with  the  case  removed  in  front  It  is  some- 
toes  found  convenient  to  fix  the  exterior  envelope,  and  to 


Fig.  2. 

make  the  screw  work  within  it,  the  outer  edge  of  the  latter 
l«ng  as  close  as  possible  to  the  former  without  actual  con- 
tact. This  modification  of  the  A.  8.  receives  the  name  of 
water-ecrew,  and  frequently  of  Dutch  screw,  from  its  being 
extensively  used  in  Holland  for  draining  low  grounds. 

ARCHIPELAGO,  n.  drki-peld-gd  FGr.  archos,  chief; 
prffl^iw,  sea:  It.  a7'cipel(igo]:  the  iEgean  Sea;  any  sea  closely 
Interspersed  with  islands — now  frequently  applied  simply 
to  a  cluster  of  islands.  Archipelagic,  a.  ar'kl-pelrdg'Vc, 
pertaining  to  an  archipelago. 

ARCHIPEL'AGO:  a  term  applied  originally  to  that  gulf 

of  the  Mediterranean  which  separates  Greece  from  Asia;  but 

now  extended  to  any  sea,  like  it,  thickly  interspersed  with 

idands,  or  rather  to  tbe  group  of  islands  themselves.    The 

8-17 


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ARCHITECT— ARCHITECTURiLL  PAINTING 

islands  in  the  Greek  Archipelago  or  JSgean  Sea  constat  dt 
two  groups,  called  Cyclades  and  Sporades,  the  first  from 
their  being  massed  after  the  manner  of  a  circle,  the  second 
from  their  being  scattered  in  something  of  a  line.  The 
former  lie  to  the  e.  of  Southern  Greece,  while  the  latter 
skirt  the  w.  of  Asia  Minor. 

Of  the  Cyclades  the  principal  islands  arc  Lyra,  Kythnos, 
Thera,  Tenos,  Andros,  Naxos,  Melos,  and  many  more  of 
inferior  size.  They  all  belong  to  Greece  (q.v.).  The  chidf 
islands  of  the  Sporades  are  Scarpanto,  Rhodes,  Cos,  PMmos, 
Nicaria,  Samos,  Scio,  Metelin,  Lemnos,  Imbros,  Samothraki, 
Thasos,  and  many  more  of  inferior  size.  These  all  belong  to 
Turkey,  and  constitute  a  separate  vilayet  of  the  emmre. 
For  the  more  considerable  islands  of  both  groups,  and  for 
the  other  Archipelagoes,  loosely  so  called,  see  their  respec- 
tive titles. 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  islands  of  the  globe  rarely  stand 
alone.  With  very  few  exceptions,  thev  may  all  be  classified 
into  clusters.  In  most  clusters,  afain,  there  is  generaUy 
more  or  less  of  similitude  between  the  different  members  of 
each— similitude  someUmes  of  one  kind,  and  sometimes  of 
another.  Perhaps  the  similitude  most  obvious  even  on  the 
face  of  an  ordinary  map  is  that,  really  like  the  links  of  a 
chain,  the  members  of  a  cluster  have  their  lengths,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  their  breadths,  in  one  and  the  same  direc- 
tion. In  the  West  Indies,  for  instance,  loc^  at  the  Bahamas, 
and  look  also  at  the  Antilles,  Greater  and  Lesser.  In  the 
East  Indies,  again,  the  same  thing  is  seen  in  carrying  the  eye 
from  the  n.  end  of  the  Philippines  to  the  n.  end  of  Sumatra, 
or  even  on  the  Andamans.  Lastly,  on  the  opposite  coasts 
of  the  Upper  Pacific,  observe  the  American  side  upwards 
from  the  s.  end  of  Vancouver's  Island  to  Mount  St  Elias, 
and  the  Asiatic  side  downwards  from  the  upper  extremity 
of  Eamtchatka— which  is  almost  an  island— through  the 
Euriles,  to  the  lower  extremity  of  Japan. 

ARCHITECT,  n.  dr'n-tm  [F.  architeete— from  L.  arehu 
tec' tus— from  Gr.  archltec'ton,  a  chief  builder — from  Gr. 
archos,  chief;  tektoriy  a  builder]:  one  who  designs  and  plans 
buildines;  a  former  or  maker.  Abchitectivb,  a.  drkUtik- 
tlv,  used  in,  or  proper  for,  building.  Ab'chitbcton'ic,  a. 
't^k-tdn'ik,  that  has  the  power  or  skill  to  build.  Ar'chi- 
tecton'ics,  n.  -IA»,  the  science  of  architecture.  AjtCHrrac- 
TURAL,  a.  dr'kUUk'tu-rdl,  pertaining  to  the  art  of  designing 
buildings.  Abchitbcturb,  n.  dr'H-tSk^tur,  the  art  of 
planning  and  constructing  houses  or  ships;  the  appearance 
of  them  when  built  or  framed. 

ARCHITECTUKAL  PAINTING:  painting  havina;  f<w 
its  subjects  the  exteriors  or  interiors  of  remarkable  building; 
churches,  castles,  streets  in  cities,  etc.  It  is  mentioned  by 
Vitruvius,  but  is  comparatively  a  modem  art  Bcnozzo 
(jk)zzoli,  Ghirlandajo,  and  the  Venetian  school,  cultivated 
this  department  of  art  in  the  middle  ages;  and  Pinturicchio, 
by  order  of  Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  paintcd^t  series  of  views 
oi  cities  in  the  style  of  the  Flemish  school,  which,  under  the 
brothers  Van  £yck,  had  distinguished  l^lf  by  caieful 


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ARCHITECTURAL  PAlNTmG. 

treatment  of  architectural  backgrounds,  etc.  For  a  long 
time  A.  P.  was  regarded  only  as  accessory  to  other  styles 
of  art;  but  at  the  close  of  the  18th  c,  P.  Neefs,  in  his  views 
of  the  interiors  of  Gk)thic  churches,  gave  to  this  branch  of 
the  fine  arts  an  independent  form;  and  Steenwyck  the 
Touttger,  in  the  following  century,  extended  its  application 
Id  his  views  of  the  interiors  of  prisons,  of  which  his  picture 
of  PMer  Liberaiedfram  Prison  is  an  example.  The  art  was 
still  further  extended  and  cultivated  by  Van  der  Hcijden, 
BU(Al,  Van  Deelen,  £.  de  Yille,  Johann  Gehring,  and  others, 
who  painted  views  of  church  interiors  in  the  Italian  style, 
palaces,  and  chambers.  The  interior  view  of  the  Church  of 
Amsterdam,  painted  by  Ruisdael,  deserves  especial  notice. 
In  the  18th  c.  the  Venetian  Canale  and  his  nephew  Bellotto 
((^eially  known  by  the  name  of  Canaletto)  painted  many 
views  of  cities,  but  especially  of  the  canals  and  buildings  of 
Yenicek  Collections  of  their  numerous  works  are  found  at 
Dresden,  Wobum  Abbey,  etc. 

In  recent  times,  A.  P.  has  been  very  successfully  cultivated 
in  Qermany,  France,  England,  Holland,  and  Belgium. 
Schiokel  is  celebrated  for  his  fine  union  of  classical  taste 
with  richness  of  decorative  invention.  His  two  most  strik- 
ing works  are  St.  Peter's,  and  the  Duomo  at  Milan;  Paul 
Gropius  has  shown  great  talent  in  his  Cathedral  at  Rheims, 
buDt  in  honor  of  «roan  of  Arc.  His  dioramas  are  well 
known;  and  Domenico  Quaglio  (d.  1887),  throughout  his 
imiumerable  compositions,  has  exhibited  an  exquisite  apprO' 
dation  of  perspective  and  of  the  poetical  arrangement  of 
details.  Among  modem  architectimd  painters  may  be  men- 
tkyned— in  England— Prout  (views  of  Italy,  GJermany,  etc  ); 
Roberts  (whose  genius  has  sought  for  its  materials  in  Spain 
and  the  East,  and  who  paints  the  architecture  of  foreign 
lands  with  rare  truthfulness  and  vigor),  Mackenzie,  Gk)odidl, 
Wilhams,  and  the  water-color  painters  Haghe,  Chase, 
Howse,  and  others;  in  France— Granet  (d.  1849),  the  most 
odebraled  art  painter  of  the  new  French  school;  and  the 
water-color  painters  Ouvrie,  Gamey,  Rochebrune,  and 
Yilleret;  in  Italy— Migliara  and  Nehrlich  (a  German  who 
has  been  styled '  the  modem  Canaletto ');  in  Germany— Von 
Bayer,  Hasenpflug  of  Halberstadt  (who  paints  beautifully 
old  cloister-alleys  under  winter  effects),  Ainmuller,  Ver- 
mecrsch,  Pnlian  of  DOsseldorf  (who  displays  great  skill  in 
the  representation  of  old  streets  and  time-wom  churches), 
Conrad,  G^ftrtner,  Groeb,  Helfft,  Dietrich,  etc.;  in  Holland 
and  Belgium— Waldorp,  Carsen,  Boosbora,  Yon  Haanen, 
Ten  £^  Springer,  and  Bossnet.  • 


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ARCHITECTURE. 

ARCHITECTURE:  art  of  planning  and  constractine: 
A.  is  usually  divided  into  Civil,  Military,  and  Naval.  In 
the  present  article  the  first  is  considered:  for  the  other  two  see 
Portification;  8rap-BUijJ)iNG.  Civil  A.,  in  the  widest 
sense,  may  he  re^rded  either  from  an  artistic,  a  scientific^ 
or  a  utilitarian  pomt  of  view.  In  the  first  case,  as  a  means 
of  giving  external  form  and  sensible  expression  to  mental 
conceptions  or  ideas,  it  is  a  branch  of  aesthetics,  or  of  the 
fine  arte  properly  so  called  (see  Abt),  and  takes  rank  with 
sculpture  and  painting;  in  the  second  case,  it  consists  in  a 
knowledge  of  certain  laws  of  physical  nature,  and  a  con- 
sequent power  of  calling  them  into  play,  or  counteracting 
their  operation,  and  is  consequently  a  branch  of  that  wider 
department  of  science  to  which  the  name  of  Mechanics  (q.  v. ) 
Is  given;  whereas  in  the  last  it  becomes  a  practical  art.  which 
has  for  its  object  the  application  of  the  principles,  both  ar- 
tistic and  scientific,  which  A.  embraces,  to  the  elevation  of 
national  and  individual  character,  and  the  increase  of  the 
physical  comfort  and  well-being  of  mankind.  But  though 
it  admits  of  being  thus  amUyzed  or  separated  in  thought, 
it  must  not  be  imagined  that  A.  can  exhibit  in  practice  any 
one  of  these  principles  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others.  The 
abstract  conception  of  all-pervading  deity,  as  embodied  in 
the  Greek  temple — the  religious  aspu^tions  after  a  personal 
Gk>d,  as  shadowed  forth  in  the  Gfothic  cathedral — can  be 
realized  only  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  mechanics, 
and  the  most  rigorous  adaptation  of  means  to  ends;  whereas, 
in  an  opposite  direction,  the  kraal  of  the  Hottentot,  the 
hut  of  the  Indian  in  the  American  wilderness,  or  even  the 
vulgar  chimney-stack  in  the  dingy  manufacturing  suburb, 
if  properly  constructed  for  their  respective  purposes,  will  be 
found  to  have  obeyed  such  sesthetical  principles  as  they  may 
have  come  in  contact  with.  Nature  is  not  self-contradictory; 
and  art  and  science,  beauty  and  utility,  when  rightly  under- 
stood, are  never  in  conflict.  A  celebrated  Qerman  writer  and 
thinker  (P.  Schlegel)  has  described  A.  as  'frozen  music:' 
and  the  comparison  is  just;  for  music,  though  apparently  the 
freest  and  most  lawless,  is  in  reality  the  most  rigorously 
scientific  of  the  arts.  But  though  a  strict  adherence  to  mil  the 
principles  of  A.  be  indispensable  to  every  genuiiie  architect- 
ural structure,  whatever  be  its  object,  it  does  not  follow  that 
equal  prominence  must  be  ^ven  to  each  of  these  principles 
on  every  occasion.  If  a  building  has  for  its  primary  object 
the  expression  and  conmiemoration  of  snch  feelings  as  ^ef , 
gratitude,  devotion,  or  the  like,  this  object  manifestly  will  be 
best  attained  "by  subordinating  the  scientific  and  utilitarian 
to  the  aesthetic  principles  of  A. ;  and  the  reverse  will  be  the 
case  where  mere  convenience,  and  also,  though  in  a  lesser 
degree,  where  convenience,  in  combination  with  beauty  or 
magnificence,  is  sought.  It  is  in  a  great  measure  by  the 
prominence  which  they  have  given  to  one  or  other  of  these 
principles,  that  diflPerent  nations  have  displayed  their  diver- 
sities of  character  in  their  A.  The  speculative  and  poetical 
character  of  the  Greeks  was  exhibited  in  their  temples,  while 
their  preference  of  the  state  to  the  individual  app^red  in  the 
fact  that  these  structures  were  designed  for  the  worship  of 


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ARCHITECTURE. 

the  protecting  divinity  of  the  city  by  the  citizen  of  the  state, 
not  for  the  worship  of  a  personal  Gkxi  by  the  individual  man. 
Among  the  Romans,  terrestrial  power  and  material  aggran- 
dizement were  the  exclusive  national  aspirations,  and  con- 
sequently their  A.  had  their  own  honor  and  glory  primarily 
in  view.  The  basilicas,  amphitheatres,  and  triumphal 
arches  of  the  Romans  were  their  own;  but  the  temples  which 
they  raised  in  honor  of  their  gods  were  little  else  than  imper- 
fect copies  from  the  Greek,  with  scarcely  any  assignable  na- 
tional characteristics.  Then  in  mediaeval  times,  though,  on 
the  revival  of  spiritual  tendencies,  aesthetic  principles  again 
became  prominent,  they  exhibit  themselves  under  totally 
different  forms;  and  the  distinctions  between  heathen  and 
Christian  thought  could  scarcely  be  more  distinctly  stated 
in  words  than  toey  are  exhibited  to  the  eye  in  the  difference 
between  a  Greek  temple  and  a  Gotliic  cathedral.  Even  the 
relation  which  subsists  between  Christian  and  Mohammedan 
A  (Gothic  A  and  Arabian  A.,  q.v.)  indicates  the  fact  that 
Mohammedanism  was  but  a  sort  of  bastard  Christianity. 
Domestic  life  appeared  in  full  purity  and  vigor  only  in 
modem  times;  and  then  only  do  the  utilitarian  principles  of 
A.  prevaO  over  the  aesthetic.  But  apart  from  the  mental 
chaiacteristies  and  tendencies  of  a  people,  many  other  cir- 
cumstances modify  their  A.  Of  these,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant is  climate.  Arrangements  for  the  permanent  and 
commodious  residence  of  a  family  within  doors  could  not  be 
expected  to  attain  much  perfection  among  a  race  like  the 
Qreeks,  whose  life  was  spent  in  the  open  air;  and  the  cli- 
mate of  Holland,  as  well  as  the  genius  of  the  people  and  the 
character  of  their  occupations,  1ms  had  much  to  do  with  the 
fact  that  Dutch  A.  has  rarely  risen  above  a  town-house. 
Following  thas  the  peculiarities  of  national  character  and 
circumstances,  it  is  obvious  that  the  more  widely  these  differ 
in  any  two  nations,  the  more  dissimilar  will  be  the  styles  of 
A  which  they  produce  respectively.  Moreover,  it  is  appar- 
ent that  the  higher  the  stage  of  national  development,the  more 
ma»-ked  will  be  the  character  which  the  A.  of  the  people  will 
Msume.  A.  thus  bears  a  strict  analogy  to  language.  Both 
are  an  expression  of  thought,  and  in  the  one  and  in  the  other 
the  richness,  variety,  and  precision  of  the  expression  will  be 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  thought  to 
be  expressed.  Further,  in  the  fact  that  all  genuine  A.  is  the 
expression  of  the  ruling  national  ideas  and  forms  of  thought 
of  some  one  particular  people,  we  jjerceive  the  reason  why 
a  building  compounded  of  several  styles  should  be  charac- 
terless and  unpleasing;  and  why  this  should  be  more  and 
more  the  case,  the  more  characteristic  the  styles  compounded, 
and  the  greater  the  equality  preserved  among  them.  The 
Doric  piflar  in  itself,  still  more,  perhaps,  the  Roman  adap- 
tation of  it,  is  the  simplest  and  most  rudimentary  of  all 
pillars;  and  what  we  are  in  the  habit  of  calling  Saxon 
w  the  simplest  and  most  rudimentary  of  all  the  styles 
of  Gothic  A.;  and  hence  the  introduction  of  a  few  Tus- 
can pillars  considerably  modified  into  a  Saxon  or  Ro- 
manic church  does  not  awaken  feelings  of  very  decided 
Kpugnance,  whereas  an  attempt  to  combine  equally  the 


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ARCHITECTURE. 

beauties  of  tbe  ParthenoD  and  of  Cologne  Cathedral  in  the 
flame  building  would  be  revolting.  For  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  the  different  styles  of  A.,  see  Egyptian  A.: 
Indian  A.:  Grebk  A.:  Gothic  A.:  Arabian  A.:  also 
Abch:  Pillar:  ARCHirRAYE:  et€.  The  attempt  may 
here  be  made  to  trace  the  earlier  stages  through  which  A. 
passed  in  the  historical  nations,  before  it  reached  the  point 
at  which  it  afforded  the  means  of  expressing  the  feelhigs  or 
supplying  the  wants  of  mankind. 

1.  The  earliest  stage  of  monumental  A.  in  every  part  of 
the  world  seems  to  have  been  that  in  which  it  supplied  to 
the  existing  generation  the  means  of  setting  a  marie  on  the 
face  of  the  earth,  of  a  nature  so  ineffaceable  it  should  con- 
tinue visible  to  future  generations.  No  attempt  was  yet 
made  to  tell  a  tale  either  by  the  form  of  the  monument,  or 
by  any  figure  or  inscription  engraven  on  it  Apart  from 
the  tradition  intended  to  accompany  it,  it  was  speechless— 
confessedly  unintelligible.  But  it  is  easy  to  see  how  power- 
ful would  be  the  effect  of  such  an  erection  in  preserving 
that  tradition  from  oblivion,  and  fixing  it  down  to  the  par- 
ticular  locality;  for  so  long  as  a  conspicuous  object  exited, 
obviously  the  work  of  human  hands,  the  cause  of  its  exist- 
ence would  be  a  subject  of  curiositv,  which  could  be  grati- 
fied only  by  inquiries  that  must  lead  to  a  recital  of  the  events 
intended  to  be  commemorated.  It  was  with  this  view  that 
Jofidiua  (xxiv.  26)  took  a  stone,  and  set  it  up  under  an  oak 
that  was  by  the  sanctuary  of  the  Lord—'  And  said  unto  all 
the  people:  Behold,  this  stone  shall  be  a  witness  a^nst  us; 
for  It  bath  heard  all  the  words  of  Jehovah  which  He  spake 
unto  us.'  To  this  primary  class  of  monuments  belong  those 
tumuli  or  barrows,  and  conical  heaps  of  stones  called  cairns, 
cams,  or  keams,  which,  when  they  occur  in  Britain,  are 
perhaps  rightly  ascribed  to  the  Celtic  portion  of  the  early 
inhabitante,  but  which  there  is  much  reason  to  believe  have 
been  erected  by  every  race  at  a  certain  stage  of  their  prog- 
ress. The  barrow,  it  is  true,  is  not  whollv  destitute  of 
architectural  arrangements.  Occasionally  it  contains  a 
passage  or  narrow  gallery  leading  to  a  square  enclosure  or 
small  chamber,  in  which  the  remuns  of  bones,  and  of  rude 
urns,  drinking-cups,  and  other  articles,  sometimes  of  Roman 
or  Brito  Roman  manufacture,  are  found.  The  bcurows  are 
always,  however,  of  the  rudest  and  most  inartificial  con- 
struction, and  in  considering  them  we  are  only  on  the 
threshold  of  architectural  science. 

2.  The  earliest  class  of  erections  to  which  this  title  can 
with  any  propriety  be  given  are  those  commonly  spoken  of 
as  Druidical  temples.  These  consist  generally  of  separate 
stones,  often  of  enormous  size,  raised  on  their  ends,  some- 
times in  a  circle,  and  at  other  times  so  as  to  enclose  an  oblone 
space,  which  in  some  cases  is  rooted  in  by  horizontal 
shibs.  These  roofing-stones  are  frequently  of  such  prodig- 
ious weight  as  to  give  rise  to  manv  conjectures  regarding 
the  mechanical  means  by  which,  and  the  mechanical  knowl- 
edge of  those  by  whom,  they  were  placed  in  the  positions 
in  which  we  see  them.  These  strange,  and,  to  us,  almost 
wholly  unintelligible  remains  of  antiquity,  when  of  great 


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ARCHITECTURE. 

extent,  assume  an  air  of  savage  and  gloomy  majesty.  Of 
this  the  most  conspicuous  instance  anywhere  to  be  found  is 
that  of  Slonehenge  (q.v.),  in  Salisbury  Plain  in  Wiltshire. 
Wherever  a  Celtic  population  eidsted,  these  monuments  are 
to  be  found.  Drudical  monuments  arc  more  common  in 
France  than  in  England;  and  in  France,  as  might  be  ex- 
bected,  they  exist  in  the  greatest  numbers  and  variety  in 
Brittany  ^q.v.),  though  none  of  them  approach  the  magui- 
iade,  or.  m  some  respects,  the  workmanship  of  Stonehenge. 
The  Celtic  monument  of  Brittany  are  of  different  classes, 
uid  have  received  different  names— that  which  is  most 
ardiitectural  in  character  being  the  dolmen,  or  cromlech, 
!tt  it  is  called  in  England. '  The  cromlech  consists  generalhr 
of  two  rows  of  perpendicular  stones,  arranged  so  as  to  nt 
Somewhat  closely  to  each  other,  and  covered  with  horizontal 
roofing-slabs,  thus  forming  a  chamber,  generally  of  such 
height  as  to  allow  a  man  to  walk  through  it  upright.  But 
the  largest  and  most  perteci  specimen  of  the  dolmen  is  to 
be  seen,  not  in  Brittany,  but  in  the  neighborhood  of  Saumur 
on  the  Loire.  It  measures  more  than  80  ft.  in  length.  To 
the  same  early  stage  in  th^  science,  though  probably  to  a 
much  earlier  perioNd  in  point  of  time,  are  to  be  referred 
those  Cyclopean  walls  and  fortifications  which  at  Tiryns  and 
MycensB  in  Aigolis  excited  the  wonder  of  the  later  Greeks; 
the  Etruscan  walls  at  Fiesole;  and  the  similar  structures 
found  both  in  Central  and  S.  America. 

8.  The  next  sta^  in  advance  of  that  primeval  and  pre- 
historic one  of  which  the  traces  are  thus  so  widely  spread, 
is  that  at  which  the  science  seems  to  have  culminated  in  all 
but  the  classical  nations  of  antiqui^,  and  those  races  which 
have  had  the  benefit  of  their  genius  and  invention.  We 
have  here  an  accurate  measurement  of  parts,  and  a  corre- 
sponding division  of  the  building.  The  pillar  also  makes  its 
appearance,  though  it  is  by  no  means  used  with  the  same 
freedom,  nor  does  it  exhibit  the  same  variety  of  form  to 
which  it  attained  in  Greek  A.  This  stage  was  attained  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Central  and  8.  Amer.  before  its  discovery 
by  Europeans;  and  in  Mexico,  even  by  the  Toltecs,  an 
earlier  race,  which  had  given  way  before  the  Mexicans  of 
the  days  of  Cortez.  Peruvian  A.  exhibits  neither  columns 
nor  arches;  but  the  remains  of  the  palace  at  Mitla  possessed 
a  portico  with  plain  cylindrical  columns;  and  the  walk 
were  covered  with  rude  sculpture.  In  the  cloisters  of  a 
building  at  Palenque,  a  species  of  inartificial  triangular 
arch,  formed  by  courses  of  stones  projecting  over  each  other, 
was  found.  It  is  very  instructive  as  showing  the  natural, 
and,  so  to  speak,  necessary  character  of  certain  architectural 
forms  at  certain  stages  of  national  development,  to  find  that 
the  pyramid,  which  is  little  more  than  a  regularly  con- 
structed cairn,  is  found  even  more  frequently  in  Mexico  than 
in  Egypt;  and  whether  or  not  it  was  the  primary  form  of 
the  pagoda  of  India,  it  certainly  formed  the  basis  both  of 
Mexican  and  Egyptian  A.  The  keen  discussions  as  to  the 
priority  of  date  of  Indian  and  Egyptian  A.  lose  much  of 
their  importance  when  a  race  is  found  acting  in  all  proba- 
bility independently  of  both,  starting  from  the  same  primary 


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ARCHITRAVE— ARCHIVOLT. 

farm  as  the  one,  and  in  Uie  discovery  of  the  pillar  and  the 
arch  making  two  of  the  most  important  of  the  further  steps 
in  advance  to  wliich  they  respectively  lay  claim.  Keeping 
these  facts  in  view,  it  seems,  moreover,  that  something  more 
is  required  to  prove  a  historical  connection  between  Doric 
and  Egyptian  A.  than  the  circumstance  that  the  columns 
which  they  respectively  employ  possess  a  base,  a  shaft,  and 
a  capital,  or  that  both  are  used  to  support  an  entablature. 
Even  the  long  unbroken  horizontal  lines  which  seem  to  in- 
dicate an  affinity  between  the  architectural  styles  of  Egypt 
and  of  Greece,  and  which  distinguish  them  both  so  sharply 
from  the  Christian  A.  of  mediaeval  Europe,  may  be  the  re- 
sult rather  of  a  similarity  of  circumstances  than  of  an  iden- 
tity of  origin.  Though  these  styles  agree  in  having  columns, 
and  though  the  columns  support  horizontal  entablatures  in 
each  they  disagree  in  the  forms  of  the  colimms,  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  entablature,  and,  indeed,  in  almost  every  other 
particular.  While  Greek  pillars  taper  towards  the  top,  and 
the  walls  arc  vertical,  in  Egyptian  buildings  the  reverse  is 
the  case,  the  pillars  being  vertical  and  the  walls  sloped. 
When  the  ejQTect  of  a  whole  Greek  building,  surroundea  by 
a  colonnade,  and  of  an  Egyptian  building  is  considered,  a 
certain  simDarity  appears— the  base  in  each  case  beine  wider 
than  the  upper  part;  but  the  result  is  produced  in  tne  one 
case  by  sloping  the  pillars,  and  in  the  other  by  sloping  the 
walls,  the  external  edges  of  which  form  a  slightlpr  acute 
angle  with  the  base  of  the  building.  The  great  distmction, 
however,  between  the  A.  of  Egjypt  and  Greece  consists  in 
the  stages  which  they  respectively  reached.  The  A.  of 
Egypt  retained  throughout  a  character  of  gloomy  strength, 
and  never  attained  the  lightness,  freedom,  or  variety  of  that 
of  Greece.  In  one  case,  the  traditionary  forms  continued 
throughout  to  dominate  and  subdue  the  free  spirit  of  art;  in 
the  latter,  art  triumphed  over  tradition,  and  owned  no  laws 
but  its  own.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  distinction  appears 
between  the  stage  of  A.  of  which  Egyptian  may  be  consid-. 
ered  the  type,  and  that  ultimate  biage  readied  by  the 
Greeks  in  one  direction  and  by  the  various  Oermanie 
nations  in  another.  See  Arabian  A. :  Btzantinb 
Art  :  Gothic  A.  For  the  profession  of  architecture,  see 
Building. 

ARCHITRAVE,  n.  dr'Htrdf>  [It.  arehitraw—from  Gr. 
a/rcho»,  chief:  It.  trave,  a  beam  of  timber— from  L.  trabem, 
a  beam]:  in  arch.,  that  part  of  the  entablature  which  rests 
immediately  upon  the  capitals;  a  molding  above  a  door  or 
a  window,  and  the  like. 

ARCHIVES,  n.  plu.  dr'klvz  \F.  archives— trom  L.  arcM- 
turn,  a  depository  for  important  documents— from  Gr. 
archeion.  the  public  hall];  the  place  where  public  docu- 
ments are  kept;  a  collection  of  records  or  documents.  See 
Records.  Archival,  a.  dr-kl'ml,  of  or  containing  ar- 
chives. Archivist,  n.  dr-ki'tyist,  a  keeper  of  records.— Stk. 
of  'archives':  reconls;  chronicles;  registers. 

ARCHIVOLT,  n.  dr'chl-voU  [It.  archivolto— from  archi- 
trace,  and  voUo,  a  vault,  an  arched  place]:  in  arch,,  a  buid 


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ARCHON— ARCHYTA8. 

or  ffroup  of  moldings  and  ornaments  on  the  face  of  a  dafr 
sical  arch;  a  mass  of  moldings  on  the  faces  and  soflSts  of 
medisval  arches. 

ARCHON,  n,  dr'k^  [Gr.  a  ruler,  a  prince],  the  highest 
magistrate  in  ancient  Athens.  The  government  was  origi- 
nally monarchical;  hut  on  the  death  of  Codrus  (q.v),  the 
Athenians,  according  to  the  traditionary  accomit,  resolved 
that  no  one  should  succeed  him  with  the  title  of  king 
(banietul),  and  therefore  appointed  his  son  Medon  with  the 
titte  A.  (ruler).  The  office  was  at  first  for  life,  and  confined 
to  ihe  family  of  Medon;  but  b.g.  752.  the  time  of  office  was 
Mmited  to  ten  years;  and  in  714,  the  exclusive  claims  of 
Medon's  family  to  the  office  of  A.  were  abrogated,  and  ii 
was  thrown  open  to  all  persons  of  noble  birth;  afterwards 
to  all  citizens,  without  distinction  of  rank  (b.g.  477).  In  688, 
&e  office  had  been  made  annual,  and  the  number  of  archons 
had  been  extended  to  nine.  The  year  was  named  from  the 
first  A.,  to  the  second,  styled  Basileus,  belonged  the  care  of 
religious  affairs;  the  third  was  Polemarchos,  or  comn>ander- 
in-<£ief;  and  ihe  remaining  six,  having  to  conduct  all 
criminal  trials,  were  styled  Thesmothetse,  oi*  lawgivers. — 
Among  the  Jews,  during  the  time  of  their  subjection  to  the 
Romans,  the  title  of  A.  had  various  meanings;  but  was 
generally  given  to  the  members  of  the  Sanhedrim  or  supreme 
council.— %i  the  mystical  jargon  of  the  Gnostics,  the  term 
A.  was  frequently  employed,  and  hence  one  of  their  sects, 
eq)ecially  opposed  to  Judaism,  received  the  name  Abchok- 
TIC8.    See  Gnostics. 

ARCHYTAS,  drki'tds,  of  Tarentum:  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  men  of  antiquity;  lived  abt.  b.c.  400.  His 
father's  name  was  Mnesagoras.  A.  is  said  to  have  been  a 
contemporary  of  Plato,  and  on  one  occasion  to  have  saved 
the  life  of  the  latter  when  the  tyrant  Dionysius  wished  to 
put  him  to  death.  His  public  career  was  glorious.  He  was 
seven  times  elected  general  of  his  city,  though  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  office  to  be  held  only  for  one  year;  and  in 
every  campaign  which  he  undertook,  he  was  victorious. 
His  civil  administration  was  equally  fortimate.  Affairs  of 
the  highest  moment  were  repeatedly  intrusted  to  him;  and 
vet,  though  deeply  skilled  in  philosophy  and  politics,  he 
had  a  childlike  simplicity  of  diaracter.  He  was  drowned 
on  the  Apulian  coast.  A.  's  virtues  were  as  conspicuous  as 
iu9  talents.  He  paid  the  most  humane  attention  to  the 
comfort  and  education  of  his  slaves,  and  although  one  of 
the  greatest  geometricians,  he  did  not  disdain  to  make  a 
rattle  for  the  amusement  of  his  children.  He  solved  the 
problem  of  the  doubling  of  the  cube,  and  secured  almost 
the  reputation  of  a  magician  by  his  numerous  mechanical 
contrivances,  the  most  wonderful  of  which  was  the  flying 
pigeon.  A  Pythagorean  in  philosophy,  he  is  generally  sup- 
pled to  have  exerted  a  considerable  influence  on  Plato,  and 
some  affirm  that  even  the  gigantic  understanding  of  Aristotle 
was  indebted  to  him  for  the  idea  of  his  categories.  Only 
fragments  of  his  writing  remain.  They  relate  to  rneUk 
physics,  ethics,  lo^c,  and  ^ysics, 
»-l9 


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ARCIDOSSO-ARgON. 

ARCID0S80,  dr-che-d^'td:  town  of  Central  Italy,  prov 
of  Grosseto,  23  m.  n.e.  from  Grosseto,  on  a  feeder  of  the 
Umbrone,  among  the  Apennines.    Pop.  (1881)  1,987. 

ARCI8SURAUBE,  arsemr-Sb:  small  town  in  the 
French  department  of  Aube;  lat.  48**  82^  n.,  long.  4**  8'  e.; 
remarkable  for  the  battle,  1814,  March  20-21,  between 
Napoleon  and  the  allied  forces  under  Prince  Schwartzen- 
berg.  The  battle,  beginning  with  several  skirmishes  on  the 
first,  and  ending  in  a  general  engagement  on  the  second  day, 
when  the  French  retreated  over  the  Aube,  was  not  in  itsdf 
very  important  But  Napoleon  now  formed  the  plan  of 
operating  in  the  rear  of  the  Allies,  and  left  the  road  to  Paris 
open;  assuming  that  they-  would  not  venture  to  proceed 
without  attempting  first  to  secure  their  rear.  The  Allies 
marched,  nevertheless,  on  the  coital,  and  thus  decided  the 
campaign.    Pop.  abt.  8,000. 

ARCOGRAPH,  n.  drkd-ordf  \L,  a/rcu9,  a  bow:  Gr. 
graphein,  to  grave,  to  describe] :  an  mstrument  for  describing 
an  arc  without  the  use  of  a  central  point;  a  cyclograph. 

ARCOLA,  drkd'la,  or  Arco'lS:  vilk^5e  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Adige,  Northern  Italy,  15  m.  e.s.e.  of  Verona;  famous 
for  the  victory  gained  by  Bonaparte  over  the  Austrians,  1796, 
Nov.  17.  The  Austrians,  relieved  by  the  retreat  of  Moreau 
from  the  Rhine,  had  begun  to  take  the  offensive  in  Italy, 
and  General  Alvinczy  appeared  at  the  head  of  50,000  men, 
with  the  main  body  of  which  he  advanced  to  Caldiero,  and 
threatened  Verona.  Bdtiaparte,  recognizing  the  danger, 
descended  by  night  the  course  of  the  Adige,  crossed  that 
river  at  Ronco,  and  was  thus  in  a  position  to  threaten  the 
left  fiank  of  Alvinczy's  army,  which  was  posted  at  A.  A 
causeway  leads  from  Ronco  across. the  morasses  to  A.,  be- 
fore reaching  which  the  road  crosses  the  small  stream  of 
the  Alpon  by  a  narrow  bridge.  This  bridge  was  defended 
by  the  Austrian  general  Mittrowsky,  witn  fourteen  bat- 
talions of  infantry,  and  two  squadrons  of  cavalry.  On  the 
14th  of  November,  Augereau  attacked  the  bridge  with  two 
battalions  of  grenadiers,  but  beinff  exposed  in  flank  to  the 
Austrian  fire  was  obliged  to  withdraw.  Bonaparte  now 
seized  the  standard  mmself,  and  rushed  on  the  bridge, 
followed  by  the  grenadiers;  but  affain  the  fire  of  the 
Austrians,  who  were  in  much  greater  force  than  the  Frencii, 
made  it  necessary  to  draw  back.  The  struggle  was  renewed 
on  the  16th,  with  a  similar  result;  and  it  was  only  on  the 
17th  that  the  French  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  A., 
not,  however,  by  forcing  the  bridge,  but  by  sending  a  column 
across  the  Alpon,  lower  down,  and  getting  in  rear  of  the 
Austrians.  On  tiiis  Alvinczy  was  obligS  to  retreat  to 
Viccnza.  It  fared  no  better  with  the  other  colunm  of  the 
Austrians  under  Davidovich.  In  this  series  of  battles  the 
Austrians  lost  18,000  men  killed,  and  6,000  prisoners.  The 
French  loss  was  15,000. 

ARQON,  drson',  Jean  Clatjdb  d':  1783-1800;  b.  Pon- 
tarlier:  a  distinguished  French  engineer.  He  was  originally 
intended  for  the  priesthood,  but  on  manifesting  a  decided 
preference  for  the  study  of  Vauban,  his  father,  an  eminent 


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ARCOS  DE  LA  FRONTEUA— ARGOT. 

inrlKODBult,  consented  to  bis  choice  of  a  military  profession. 
In  1754,  he  entered  the  Military  School  at  M^di^res,  and  in 
the  following  year  he  passed  as  an  enc;ineer.  During  the 
Seven  Year?  War,  he  acquired  considerable  reputation, 
especially  in  the  defense  of  Cassel.  His  fertility  of  inven- 
tion was  surprising,  and  his  writings  show  a  rich  and  vigor- 
oos  genius.  He  was  even  bold  enough  to  question  the  wis- 
dom of  certain  strategical  propositions  of  the  Great  Frederick. 
But  his  most  famous  scheme  was  that  by  which  he  hoped 
to  reduce  Gibraltar,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  and 
defended  by  Governor  Elliot.  He  contrived  fioathig  batteries, 
incombustible,  and  not  liable  to  sink,  which,  however,  were 
not  succcasf  ul,  thoueh  this  is  mainly  to  be  attributed  to  the 
fact  of  his  efforts  h&ng  indifferently  supported.  When  the 
French,  under  Dumoimez,  overran  Holland,  A.  took  several 
strongly  fortified  places,  among  others  Breda.  After 
this,  he  retired  from  public  life,  and  confined  himself  to  the 
literature  of  his  profession.  His  most  important  work  is 
Oonnderattans  MiUtaires  et  PolUiques  mr  Us  Fartifieations 
(Paris,  1795).  In  1799,  Bonaparte  called  him  to  the  senate, 
but  he  died  the  year  after. 

ARCOS  DE  LA  FRONTERA,  dr'kot  dd  Id  frdn-tdrd: 
town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadalete,  Andalusia,  Spain. 
Its  principal  manufacture  is  that  of  tanned  leather,  which 
was  the  first  established  in  Andalusia;  thread  and  ropes  are 
also  made.  A.  has  a  wild  and  romantic  situation,  which 
harmonizes  well  with  the  picturesque  garb  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  still  wear  the  old  national  costume.  It  was  called 
ArcoB,  from  beinr  built  in  the  form  of  a  '  bow  *;  and  after 
Alfonso^l-Sabio  had  rescued  it  from  the  Moors,  it  received 
the  additional  name  of  de  la  Froniera.  from  its  frontier 
position,  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Moorish  kingdom  of 
Granada.  Ahnost  impregnaole  by  nature,  it  was  further 
more  embattled  with  walls  and  towers,  part  of  which  sdll 
remain,  and  afford  a  magnificent  view  of  the  Ronda  Moun- 
tains. The  rich  plains  Uiat  lie  below  the  rocky  town  are 
famed  m  the  Spanish  ballads  for  their  breed  of  war-steeds, 
•Arcos  barbs.'    Pop.  (1894)  16.280. 

ARCOT,  dr-kot'  properly  Abkat:  city  of  Hindustan,  in 
the  presidency  of  Madras,  cap.  of  the  dist.  of  n.  Arcot;  on 
the  ri^t  bank  of  the  Palar,  a  river  which,  rising  in  Mysore, 
is,  in  the  rainy  season,  about  half  a  mile  wide  before  the 
town.  It  is  in  n.  lat  12"*  54',  and  in  e.  long.  79*  24';  65  m. 
from  Madras.  Besides  the  military  cantonment,  which  can 
accommodate  three  regiments  of  cavalry,  A.  contains  some 
mosques  in  a  passable  state  of  repair,  and  the  ruins  of  the 
Nawaab's  palace.  A.  is  noticeable  diiefly  for  its  history. 
It  was  the  spot  where  Clive  first  firmly  established  his 
military  reputation.  With  a  force  of  800  Sepoys,  200 
Europeans,  and  three  field-pieces,  he  marched  agamst  A., 
which  was  garrisoned  by  1,100  men;  and  after  having  taken 
it,  he  stood  a  siege  of  fifty  days  against  thousands  of  assail- 
ants, amid  hardships  and  privations  of  every  description. 
Pop.  11,000,  one-fourth  Mohammedans. 

ARCOT:  a  portion  of  the  presidency  of  Madras.    It  oon- 


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ARCTIC-ARCTIC  HIGHLANDS. 
sists  of  two  districts,  the  Dortb^rn  and  the  southern,  of 
"which  the  respective  areas  are  7,256  sq.  m.  and  4,873.  and 
the  respective  populations  (according  to  the  census  of  1891) 
2,180,487  and  2,162,851. 

As  most  of  the  rivers  are  destitute  of  water  in  the  dry 
season,  there  are  thousands  of  tanks  in  A.  Some  of  them 
are  of  an  enormous  size;  that  of  Caverv-pak,  in  particular, 
measures  eight  m.  by  three.  These  tanks  are  indispensable, 
as  well  for  irrigation  as  for  domestic  u^.  The  hot  and 
parchinff  winds  from  the  west,  sweeping  down  the  valleys 
of  the  Lastem  Ghaats,  are  often  fatal  to  binis*on  the  wing, 
and  also  to  human  beings  when  exposed  for  any  length  of 
time.  Glass  cracks  and  flies  in  pieces,  and  wood  shrinks, 
splits,  and  shivers;  and  from  the  mutual  friction  of  the 
sapless  trees  spontaneous  combustion  sometimes  takes  place 
in  the  jungles. 

ARCTIC,  a.  drk'tUc  [L.  arctlcus:  Gr.  orMikos,  near  the 
bear,  northern— from  Gr.  arktos,  a  bear,  a  cluster  of  stars  in 
the  north  heavens  called  the  Bear:  P.  aretique,  northern]: 
pertaining  to  the  north;  northern;  very  cold.  Arctic 
REGIONS,  the  lands  surrounding  the  norfli  pole.  Arctic 
CIRCLE,  an  imaginary  line  passmg  round  the  north  pole  at 
a  distance  from  it  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  or 
2^"^.  The  corresponding  circle  round  the  south  pole  is  the 
Anta/rctic  circle.  Within  each  of  these  circles  there  is  a 
period  of  the  year  when  the  sim  does  not  set,  and  another 
when  he  is  never  seen,  this  period  being  longer  the  nearer  to 
the  pole.  Arctic  current,  an  ocean-current  which 
originates  in  the  n.  polar  regions,  and  flows  southward  to 
the  equator.    Arctic  Sea,  the  sea  lying  around  the  n.  pole. 

ARCTIC  HIGHLANDS:  name  sometimes  applied,  not 
very  appropriately,  to  that  portion  of  the  American  conti- 
nent between  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie. 
It  has  been  the  scene  of  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  overland  efforts 
in  connection  with  the  exploration  of  a  Northwest  Passage, 
from  Heame's  discovery  of  the  Coppermine  down  to  the  recent 
voyage  of  Anderson — the  most  prominent  among  the  intar- 
mediate  laborers  having  been  Franklin,  Richanuon,  Bade, 
Dease,  Simpson,  and  Rae. 


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ARCTIC  OCEAN. 

ARCTIC  OCEAN;  that  part  of  the  universal  sea  which 
sarrounds  the  north  pole.  Its  single  boundary,  that  towards 
the  south,  naturally  divides  itself  into  four  sections — the  n. 
shores  respectively  of  the  two  continents,  and  the  n.  limits 
selectively  of  the  two  intercontinental  oceans. 

The  A.  0.  meets  the  Pacific  at  Behring  Strait,  about  66' 
of  n.  lat.,  90  that  here  the  A.  O.  overlaps  the  Arctic  circle 
by  about  SC .  On  the  side  of  the  Atlantic  the  common  border 
seems  equally  independent  of  arbitrary  definition,  for  Scores- 
by  Sound  almost  as  definitely  terminates  the  s.  e.  coast  of 
Greenland  as  North  Cape  terminates  the  n.  w.coast  of  Europe; 
so  that,  as  both  extremes  are  intersected  bv  about  the  same 
parallel  of  71",  the  A.  O.  here  falls  short  of  the  Arctic  circle 
by  about  4^. 

In  the  old  world,  the  A.  O.,  if  we  include  its  gulfs, 
stretches  s.  of  the  Arctic  circle,  in  the  White  Sea,  fully  2"; 
while  at  Cape  Severo,  the  most  northerly  point  of  Asia,  lat. 
78^  25'  n.,  it  falls  short  of  the  same  by  11'  55'.  Lastly, 
within  the  range  of  the  new  world,  the  A.  O.,  ui  its  strict 
acceptation,  is  everywhere  forced  back  within  the  Arctic 
circle,  about  5'  at  Point  Barrow,  about  7i'  on  Barrow's 
Strait,  and  about  8"  at  the  Strait  of  the  Fury  and  Hecla. 

The  waters  of  the  A.  O.,  however,  may  conveniently  be 
considered  to  extend  beyond  these  their  strict  limits.  So 
far  as  the  mere  aspect  of  the  map  is  concerned,  Davis's 
Strait,  Baffin's  Bay  and  Hudson's  Bay  may  be  regarded  as 
^ulfs  rather  of  the  Atlantic  than  of  the  A.  O.  But  if  essen- 
tial characteristics  are  permitted  to  outweigh  mere  position, 
they  must  be  assigned  rather  to  the  A.  0.  than  to  the  At- 
lantic. Besides  being  all  fed  by  currents  from  the  A  O., 
they  are  all  hyperborean  in  temperature.  Even  the  most 
southerly  of  the  three  illustrates  this.  While  Hudson's 
Straits  present,  in  general,  more  ice  than  Davis's  Strait  or 
Baffin's  Bay,  Hudson's  Bay  itself  has  been  the  scene  of  i)er- 
haps  the  two  most  abortive,  if  not  most  disastrous,  of  all 
modern  attempts  at  northern  discovery.  On  opposite  sides 
of  Southampton  Island,  Lyons  and  Back  were  arrested  by 
impenetrable  packs,  the  one  near  the  Bay  of  Qod's  Mercy, 
and  the  other  oflf  Cape  Comfort — the  latter  point  being  1^", 
and  the  former  being  twice  as  much,  s.  of  the  Arctic  circle. 
Reckoning,  therefore,  to  the  bottom  of  James's  Bay,  as  an 
arm  of  Hudson's,  the  arctic  seas,  thus  appended  to  the  A.O. 
proper,  reach  as  far  s.  as  the  parallel  of  London. 

Little  as  is  yet  known,  at  least  accurately,  of  the  A.  O., 
its  discovery  and  exploration  have  develoi)ed  and  tasked 
more  skill  and  heroism  than  perhaps  the  exploration  and 
discoverj"  of  all  the  rest  of  the  world  since  the  age  of  Colum- 
bus. Without  anticipating  what  is  to  be  said  on  this  subject 
under  the  titles  of  Northeast  Passage,  Northwest  Pas- 
sage, and  Polar  Expeditions,  here  may  be  stated  sum- 
marily the  comparatively  easy  labors  of  the  Russians  while 
issuing,  as  it  were,  from  their  domestic  rivers  to  survey  their 
domestic  shores.  About  a  century  and  a  quarter  ago,  the  Mus- 
covites simultaneously  sent  forth  five  expeditions  to  com- 
plete, if  possible,  the 'Northeast  Passage.  From  the  White 
Sea  to  the  Obi,  four  seasons  were  consumed;  from  the  Obi 


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ARCTIC  OCEAN. 

to  the  Yenisei,  four  seasons;  from  the  Yenisei  to  the  Lena, 
season  after  season  was  spent  in  both  directions  without  suc- 
cess; from  the  Lena  to  the  Kolyma,  six  seasons  were  oc- 
cupied; from  the  Kolyma  to  the  Pacific  every  effort  was 
fruitless,  though  the  Cossack  Deshneff  was  known  to  have 
accomplished  this  part  of  the  enterprise  about  a  ce&tury 
before. 

Arctic  navigation  is  beset  by  almost  every  imaginable  diffl- 
cultv  and  danger.  In  addition  to  the  peculiar  perils  of  ice 
in  all  possible  states,  the  adventurer,  often  blinded  by  fogs 
and  snows,  has  to  face,  generally  without  guide  or  sea- room, 
the  storms,  tides,  and  currents  of  comparatively  unknown 
waters.  If  such  be  his  three  months  of  summer,  what  must 
be  his  nine  months  of  winter  I  On  the  parallel  of  73**,  and 
under  a  temperature  of  15°  below  zero  Fahr. ,  Capt.  McClure 
spent  the  night  of  1851,  Oct.  80,  on  the  ice,  amid  prowling 
bears,  and  that  without  food  or  ammunition — his  only  guide 
being  a  pocket^iompass,  useless  in  the  dark. 

A  combined  series  of  expeditions  were  sent  forth  in  1882 
by  the  various  European  countries  and  the  United  States,  to 
spend  the  winter  in  a  high  latitude  and  make  careful  obser- 
vations in  terrestrial  magnetism  and  meteorology,  as  well  as 
in  geography  and  other  branches  of  science.  ISme  stations 
were  equipped  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  ring  round  the  north 
pole,  and  during  the  winter  1882-88,  valuable  observations 
were  recorded  at  the  stations  in  Jan-Mayen,  Lapland,  Spitz- 
bei]gen,  Nova  Zembla,  Sagastvr  Island  (mouth  of  Lena), 
Point  Barrow,  Great  Slave  Lake,  Lady  Franklin  Bay,  and 
Cumberland  Sound. 

Notwithstanding  the  labors  and  researches  of  two  cen- 
turies and  a  half,  very  little  of  this  vast  ocean  has  been  even 
seen  by  man.  To  the  n.  of  88"  80',  in  fact,  the  A, O.,  so  far 
as  authentic  evidence  goes,  is  a  mere  blank  to  geographers; 
for  Parry,  1827,  barely  reached  lat.  82'  45';  Kane,  in  1854. 
touched  only  81*'  22;  theP<?fam,in  1871, reached  only  82*  16'; 
in  1874,  the  Anstro-Hungarian  Polar  Expedition  just  reached 
82'  5';  and  the  British  Expedition  of  1875-76  could  advance 
no  further  than  88"*  20',  the  highest  latitude  ever  attained. 
At  all  the  intermediate  points  of  longitude,  the  northern  limit 
of  geographical  knowledge  falls  short,  more  or  less  at  eveiy 
point,  of  the  parallel  of  83^  Perhaps  the  actual  average  of 
such  northern  limit,  even  on  the  full  tale  of  860*  of  long., 
may  not  exceed  lat.  75",  so  as  to  leave  absolutely  unknown 
a  circle  of  SO"  of  lat.,  or  nearly  2,100  m.  in  diameter — an 
area  little  inferior  to  that  of  Europe.  This  untrodden  world, 
however,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  continuous  wilderness  of 
ice.  Parry,  at  his  furmest  point,  found  not  an  unbroken 
field,  but  separate  floes,  with  more  or  less  of  open  water  be- 
tween them — the  mildness  of  the  temperature  being  indicated 
by  falls  of  rain;  and  Kane,  again,  at  his  furthest  point,  saw 
a  free  sea  to  the  north,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  rea<^,  from 
a  promontory  240  ft.  high;  while,  to  use  his  own  words,  ^'a 
gale  from  the  n.e.,  of  54  hours  in  duration,  brought  a 
heavy  swell  from  that  quarter  without  disclosing  any  drift 
or  other  ice.'  This  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the  ract  already 
noticed,  that  Hudson's  Straits  and  &,y  are  often  moie  en- 


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ARCTIC  OCEAN. 

cambered  with  xnck  than  the  waters  of  far  higher  latitudes. 
With  regard  to  currents,  Parry,  during  nearly  the  whole  of 
his  boat-sleigh  expedition  of  1827,  found  that  his  place  by 
reckoning  was  considerably  ahead  of  his  place  by  observa- 
tion, or,  in  other  words,  that  his  northward  progress  on  the 
floes  was  neutralized  more  or  leas  by  the  southward  progress 
of  the  floes  themselves,  the  existence  of  a  current  towards 
the  south  being  thus  shown.  McClure  derived  advantage 
from  the  current  whether  advancing  through  open  water  or 
'Uif  ting  along  at  the  mercy  of  the  pack.  The  experience  of 
Weyprecht  and  Payer  was  different  from  that  of  any  pre- 
cedmg  navigators,  since  they  found  that  they  steadily  drifted 
north.  While  McClure  had  the  fortune  to  return  with  the 
news  of  the  discovery  of  the  Northwest  Passage,  McClintock 
has  shown  that  the  discovery  must  have  been  anticipated 
by  Sir  John  Franklin.  Succeeding  expeditions,  of  which 
a  great  number  have  been  equipped  by  England,  Germany, 
France,  Sweden,  the  United  States,  Austria,  and  Denmark, 
have  been  directed  mainly  towards  the  north  pole.  The 
reports  of  the  expedition  of  1875-76  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  pole  is  surrounded  by  an  inacce^ble  region  of  ice, 
to  which  has  been  given  the  name  of  the  Palaeocrystic  Sea, 
or  Sea  of  Ancient  Ice.  The  Northeast  Passage  was  accom- 
pliahed  for  the  first  time  by  Professor  Nordenski51d  in  1878- 
79;  and  repeated  successful  voyages  have  been  made  with 
cargoes  between  Western  Europe  and  the  mouths  of  the  Obi 
and  Yenisei,  by  way  of  the  Km  Sea. 

The  only  section  of  the  southern  A.  O.  that  is  moderately 
weU  known  to  a  a  distance  from  the  continent  is  that  which 
washes  the  n.e.  of  America.  It  contains,  under  the  col- 
lective name  of  Polar  archipelago,  many  large  islands.  Off 
the  coast  of  the  old  world  are  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla, 
New  Siberia,  Wrangel  Land,  King  Charles  Land,  etc.  The 
latest  discovery,  made  by  Weyprecht  and  Payer,  1878,  is 
that  of  Franz  Joseph  Land,  an  extensive  and  mountainous 
tract,  lying  about  200  m.  due  n.  of  Nova  Zembla.  Its  s. 
coast  is  in  about  80''n.  lat.,  and  it  was  seen  to  extend  as  far 
n,  as  83*,  occupying  at  least  15  degrees  of  longitude.  The 
chief  straits  are  Lwicaster  Sound,  Barrow's  Strait,  Smith's 
Sound,  Strait  of  the  Fury  and  Hecla,  Wellington  Channel, 
Banks  Strait,  etc.  The  chief  rivers,  all  of  them  on  the 
mainland,  are  the  Obi,  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena,  of  the 
first  class;  the  Mackenzie,  the  Yana,  the  Indigirka,  and  the 
Kolyma,  of  the  second;  and  many  others  of  the  third. 

The  principal  commercial  production  of  the  A.  O.  has 
been  the  whale.  The  whale  fisheries  on  the  w.  of  Spitz- 
bergen, and  on  both  sides  of  Greenland,  scarcely  need  be 
mentioned.  But  it  may  not  be  generally  known  that, 
according  to  official  returns  quoted  by  Admiral  Beechcy, 
the  Am^cans  had  in  two  years  drawn  more  than  |8,0()0- 
000  from  the  whale-fishery  at  Behring  Strait  alone. 

On  the  side,  of  East  Siberia,  however,  the  A.  O.  produces 
a  more  remarkable  article  of  traffic.  Here  are  found,  in 
the  greatest  abundance,  the  bones  of  the  mammoth .  Spri ng 
after  spring,  the  aUuvial  banks  of  the  lakes  and  rivers, 
crumbling  under  the  Uiaw,  give  up,  as  it  were,  their  dead: 


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ARCTOGALIDiE— ARCUS  SENILIS. 

while  the  islands  lying  off  the  Yana  teem  with  these  memo 
rials  of  antiquity.  (See  Nordenski51d's  Voyage  of  theVega^ 
1882.) 

The  American  half  of  the  A.  O.,  if  it  cannot  boast  of 
fossil  ivory,  presents  something  still  more  difficult  to  be 
explained,  tn  lat.  74**  25',  and  lat.  76"*  15  respectively. 
Captain  McCIure  and  Lieutenant  Mecham  discovered  large 
deposits  of  trees,  apparently  indigenous,  of  considerable 
size.  Writing  of  Banks*  Island,  McClure  has  the  foUowins 
passages:  '  From  the  summit  of  these  hills,  which  are  3(K! 
ft  high,  to  their  base,  abundance  of  wood  is  to  be  found, 
and  in  many  places  layers  of  trees  are  visible,  some  protnid- 
hig  12  or  14  ft.,  and  so  firm  that  several  people  may  jump 
on  them  without  their  breaking;  the  largest  trunk  yet  found 
measured  1  ft.  7  in.  in  diameter '—equivalent  in  girth  to 
about  5  ft.  Again,  '  I  entered  a  ravine  some  miles  inland, 
and  found  the  n.  side  of  it,  for  a  depth  of  40  ft.,  composed 
of  one  mass  of  wood.  Some  of  it  was  petrified,  the  re- 
mainder verv  rotten,  and  worthless  even  for  burning.' 
Writing  of  Frince  Patrick  Island,  Mecham  has  the  follow- 
ing passage:  'Discovered  buried  in  the  e.  bank  of  the 
ravine,  and  protruding  about  8  ft.,  a  tree  of  considerable 
size.  During  the  afternoon  I  found  several  others  of  a 
similar  kind;  circumference  of  first  And  second  tree  seen, 
3  ft. ;  of  another,  2  ft.  10  in.  From  the  perfect  state  of  the 
bark,  and  the  distance  of  the  trees  from  the  sea,  there 
can  be  but  little  doubt  that  they  grew  originally  in  this 
country.' 

ARCTOGALIDJE,  drktd^dri-de  fGr  arlcios,  a  bear; 
gale,  a  weasel]:  family  of  carnivorous  Mammalia,  containing 
the  skimks  {Mephites)  and  some  allied  animals. 

ARCTOMYS,  drk'to-mU  [Gr.  arktos,  a  bear:  L.  mus,  a 
mouse] :  the  Mammalian  genus  to  which  the  Marmots  be- 
long.  It  is  placed  under  the  Bodentm.  They  have  pointed 
cheek-teeth.  There  are  several  species,  the  A,  marmotta, 
or  Marmot,  livmff  in  the  mountains  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
the  A,  bobac  of  Poland  and  n.  Russia,  the  M,  eitiUus,  the 
Zizel  or  Souslik,  and  several  from  America.  See  Mar- 
mot.  A.  monav  is  tlie  common  woodchuck. 

ARC'TUM:  see  Burdock. 

ARCTURUS,  n.  drk-turus  [Gr.  arktos,  a  bear;  oura,  a 
tail]:  a  fixed  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  in  the  constel- 
lation Boutis,  which  is  situated  behind  the  tail  of  the 
Great  Bear. 

ARCUATION,  n.  dr' ku-d' sfiun  [L.  arcus,  a  bow]:  the 
act  of  bending;  cnK)kedncss;  in  gardening,  the  method  of 
propagating  certain  trees  bjr  bending  down  to  the  groimd 
the  branches  which  spring  from  the  offsets  or  shoots  after 
they  have  been  planted.  Arcuatb,  a.  dr'kudt,  bent  in  the 
form  of  a  bow. 

ARCUS  SENILIS,  drk'iU  s^n-iTis:  a  not  very  well 
chosen  term  for  change  occuring  in  the  cornea  of  the 
eye,  in  consequence  of  fatty  degeneration  of  its  marginal 
part.     The  term  is  objectionable,  because  the  chanj|;e  usually 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARD— ARDEOHE. 

oommences  before  the  advent  of  old  age.  and,  further,  be- 
cause the  arcus,  or  arch,  is  usually  converted  into  a  com- 
plete circle  by  the  time  that  the  patient  has  reached  the  age 
of  sixty  or  seventy  years.  The  arciui  senilis  usually  com- 
mences at  or  even  before  the  age  of  forty  years,  as  an  opaque 
whitish  crescent,^  skirting  either  the  upper  or  lower  margin 
of  the  cornea;  and  from  this  commencement  it  extends 
along  the  edge,  till  it  finally  becomes  a  complete  circle, 
which  sometimes  assumes  a  chalky  whiteness,  and  gives  to 
the  eye  a  very  peculiar  appearance.  On  careful  examina- 
tion, it  may  be  seen  that  a  narrow  interval  of  partially 
clear  cornea  always  intervenes  between  the  arcus  and  the 
opaque  sclerotic  As  far  as  the  eye  is  concerned,  the  for- 
mation of  this  circle  is  of  little  importance,  but  it  is  of  great 
diagnostic  value  to  the  physician  if,  as  Mr.  Canton  and 
several  late  observers  maintain,  its  presence  indicates  the 
co-existence  of  fatt^  degeneration  of  the  heart. 

ARD,  drd,  or  Aird:  a  Celtic  root,  meaning  'height' 
(cf .  Lat.  arduus,  high),  which  appears  in  many  geographical 
names,  especially  in  Ireland  and  Scotland. 

ARDAHAN,  a/r-dd-Mn' :  village  of  about  800  hpuses  in 
the  portion  of  Turkish  Armenia  ceded  in  1878  to  Russia; 
35  m.  n.w.  of  Kars.  Its  position  gives  it  strategic  impor- 
tance. Its  fortress  was  dismantled  by  the  Russians  in  the 
war  of  1854-56;  in  1878,  the  Berlin  Congress  sanctioned  the 
cession  to  Russia  of  A.,  which  had  been  captured  early  in 
the  war.  On  accotmt  of  the  severity  of  the  climate,  the 
houses  of  A.  are  mainly  underground  consttuctions. 

ARDASSINE,  n.  dr-dU'sUn  [Fr.  ardassine:  Ar.  and  Per. 
ardan,  a  kind  of  raw  silk]:  the  finest  kind  of  Persian  silk 
used  in  the  French  looms. 

ARD  EA:  see  Hebok. 

ARDEB,  n.  dr'deb  [Ar.  irdab  or  urdab]:  measure  of  grain 
containing  almost  eight  bushels,  used  in  the  parts  of  Africa 
where  the  Arabs  most  abound. 

ARDECEre,  dr-ddah':  dept.  in  the  s.  of  France,  taking 
its  name  from  the  river  A.,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhone;  in- 
cludes the  most  northern  part  of  ancient  Languedoc.  Great- 
est length  from  n.  to  s.,  74  m.;  greatest  breadth,  44;  2,130 
sq.  m.  A.  is  almost  wholly  mountainous.  In  the  n.w.  of 
Xhe  dept.,  the  Cevennes  culminate  in  the  volcanic  Mont- 
Mez^ne,  5,972  ft.  in  height.  The  variety  of  the  numerous 
extinct  volcanic  peaks,  deep  craters,  rugged  valleys,  masses 
of  tufa,  grottoes,  rock-labynnths,  ranges  of  basaltic  columns, 
gigantic  dams,  etc..  give  an  extraordinarily  picturesque 
scenery.  The  upland,  which  has  winter  for  six  or  eight 
months,  is  devoted  to  pasturage;  but  the  terraces  and  val- 
leys near  the  Rhone  have  a  war^  climate,  and  produce  good 
wine  (white  and  red),  olives,  figs,  almonds,  chestnuts,  etc. 
There  are  manufactures  of  silk,  paper,  leather,  iron,  etc., 
and  good  roads,  with  water-carriage,  facilitate  commerce. 
Lead,  iron,  copper,  manganese,  etc.,  are  wrought.  The 
chief  towns  are  rrivas,  Aubenas,  Bourg,  St.  Andeol.  Pop 
0881)  376.867 ;  (18S6)  375.492;  (1891)  371.269. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARDEE— ARDENNES. 

ARDEE':  town  iu  the  w.  of  Louth  county,  Ireland,  cm 
die  river  Dee,  12  m.  inland  It  contains  two  ancient  cas- 
tles—one built  about  1200,  now  used  as  the  town-house: 
the  other  a  scjuare  building,  now  used  as  a  prison.  The 
chief  trade  is  in  com  and  other  agricultural  products.  Pop. 
(1894)  2,972. 

ARDEID^,  dr-dS'l-dS:  family  of  grallatorial  or  wading 
birds.  They  have  large,  long,  and  strong  beaks  and  power- 
ful win^,  yet  their  flight  fe  slow.  They  are  migratory, 
frequentmg  the  margins  of  lakes  in  various  countries,  or  of 
th(3  ocean,  and  are  known  as  herons,  bitterns,  etc. 

ARDENCY,  n.  d/r'den-si  [L.  ardent  or  arden'tem,  burn- 
ing: OF.  ardanl,  burning]:  a  state  of  burning;  warmth  of 
passion  ;  zeal ;  eagerness.  Ar dent,  a.  burning;  eacer  ; 
scealous.  Ardently,  ad.  41,  Ardoh,  n.  dr'der  pF, af^eur 
— from  L.  ardor,  burning]:  heat;  warmth;  fervency: 
affection.  Ardent  sfirits,  distilled  spirits— so  named 
from  their  hot,  burning  qualities. 

ARDENNES,  dr-dln':  the  w.  division  of  the  slate- 
plateau  of  tlie  Lower  Rhine.  It  extends  over  portions  of 
belgiym,  France,  and  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  consists  of  a 
broken  mass  of  hills,  for  the  most  part  of  no  great  eleva- 
tion, which  gradually  slope  towards  the  plains  of  Flanders. 
In  early  times,  the  name  was  given  to  the  whole  of  the 
region  lying  between  tbe  Rhine  and  the  8ambre,  a  length 
of  about  160  m.  The  average  height  of  the  hills  is  less  than 
2,000  ft.;  but  in  the  e.  Mont  St.  Hubert  attains  an  elevation 
of  2,800  ft.  Larfi^e  ti'acts  of  this  region  consist  not  of  hills, 
but  of  gently  unaulating  plateaus  densely  covered  with  oak 
and  beech  forests,  while  other  portions  are  marshv,  heathy, 
and  barren.  The  districts  through  which  the  Meuse  and 
other  rivers  flow  present  some  extraordinarv  appearances. 
The  channel  of  the  river  is  sometimes  bound  in  by  rugged 
and  precipitous  cliffs  more  than  600  ft.  hi^.  The  prin- 
cipal rocks  of  the  A.  are  clay-slate,  grauwacke,  quartz, 
etc.,- interspersed  with  extensive  strata  of  primitive  lime- 
stone. Coal  and  iron  mines  are  wrought  in  the  n. w. ;  lead, 
antimony,  and  manganese  also  are  found.  There  is  litUe 
cultivadon  of  grain,  but  multitudes  of  cattle  and  sheep  are 
rearetl. 

ARDENNES:  a  frontier  dept.  in  the  n.  of  France,  bor- 
dering upon  the  provs.  of  Naraur  and  Luxembourg  in  Bel- 
gium. It  formed  a  part  of  the  old  prov.  of  Champagne. 
Length,  from  n.  to  s.,  63  m.;  breadUi,  from  e.  to  w.,  60: 
area,  2,020  sq.  m.  The  n.e.  of  A.  belong  to  the  basin  of 
the  Meuse;  the  s.w.  is  watered  by  the  Aisne;  both  of  these 
rivers  are  enriched  with  affluents,  and  united  by  the  Canal 
of  A,  About  one  eighth  of  the  whole  surface  is  hilly,  and 
covered  with  forests  and  wide  tracts  of  pasturage.  In  the 
n.  extremity  of  the  dept.,  near  Givet,  marble  is  obtained; 
but  the  prevailing  rock  is  limestone,  veined  with  lead  and 
iron.  South  of  t£is,  and  stretching  across  the  dept.  from  e. 
to  w.,  are  great  layers  of  slate,  with  here  and  there  flint, 
quartz,  etc.  In  the  s.e.,  muschelkalk,  rich  in  iron-ore, 
abounds;  and  in  the  8.w.,  the  soil  is  composed  of  arid  chalk, 


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ARDNAMURCHAN  POINT— ARDUOUS. 

a  Daked»  treeless,  elevated  plain.  Only  the  valleys  are  fe^ 
tile,  and  produce  com.  The  vine  u  cultivated  only  at 
MSzi^res,  in  the  southwest.  Slate,  marble,  and  iron,  and 
porcelain^clav  and  sand  for  making  glass  are  obtained.  Ex- 
cellent work-horses  and  sheep  are  reared.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  earthenware,  glass,  marble,  woolen  cloths,  me- 
tallic wares,  etc.  The  principal  towns  are  Mezi^res.  Bethel, 
Rocroy,  Vouziers,  and  Sedan,  where  Napoleon  UI.  sur- 
rendered to  the  Prussians,  1870,  Sept  2.  Pop.  (1891)  824,923. 

ARDNAMURCHAN  POINT,  drdniirm&r'Mn:  the  n.w. 
promontory  of  Argyleshire,  and  the  extreme  w.  point  of  the 
mainland  of  Britain.  A  light-house  was  erected  here  in 
1849,  visible  at  a  distance  of  20  miles.  For  10  m.  around, 
the  country  consists  of  trap,  resting  on  sandstone  often  hard- 
ened, and  blue  slates.  The  trap  veins  form  many  striking 
reticulations  in  the  strata.  South  of  Uie  point  are  founa 
numerous  oolitic  and  lias  fossils. 

ARDOCH,  ar'dok:  small  village  in  Scotland,  county  of 
Perth,  8  m.  s.s.w.  of  Crieflf,  celebrated  for  a  Roman  camp, 
the  nearest  entire  now  in  Britain.  The  camp  is  2i  m.  n.  of 
the  Greenloaning  station  of  the  Caledonian  railway,  in  the 
grounds  of  A.  House.  The  intrendied  works  form  a  rect- 
angle, 500  by  430  ft,  the  four  sides  facing  the  cardinal 
pomts.  The  n.  and  e.  sides  are  protected  by  five  ditches 
and  six  ramparts,  these  works  being  270  ft.  broad  on  the  n. 
side,  and  180  on  the  east.  A  deep  morass  is  on  the  s.e.,  and 
the  perpendicular  banks  of  the  Enaig  Water,  rising  50  ft 
high,  protect  the  camp  on  the  west  The  prsBtorium,  or 
^neral's  quarter,  now  called  Chapel  Hill,  rises  above  the 
level  of  the  camp,  but  is  not  exactly  m  the  centre,  and  is  nearly 
a  sq.  of  60  ft.  each  side.  Three  of  the  four  gates  usual  in 
Roman  camps  are  still  seen.  A  subterranean  passage  is 
said  to  have  formerly  extended  from  the  prsetorium  under 
the  bed  of  the  Knaig.  Not  far  n.  of  this  station,  on  the  way 
to  Crieff,  may  be  traced  three  temporary  Roman  camps  of 
different  sizes.  Portions  of  the  ramparts  of  these  camps 
still  exist  A  mile  w.  of  A.,  an  immense  cairn  of  stones 
lately  existed,  182  ft  long,  45  ft  broad  at  the  base,  and  30 
ft  in  sloping  height  A  human  skeleton,  7  ft.  long,  in  a 
stone  coffin,  was  found  in  it. 

ARDOYE,  dr-dwd':  t.  of  Belgium,  prov.  of  W.  Flanders, 
17  m.  s.  from  Bruges.    Pop.  6,500. 

ARDROSSAN,  dr-dros'san:  small  seaport  and  summer 
bathing-place  in  Ayrshire.  Its  harbor,  sheltered  by  an 
island,  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  accessible  on  the  w. 
coast  of  Scotland,  and  has'  been  greatly  improved,  at  vast 
expense,  by  the  carls  of  Eglintoun.  There  is  a  large  export 
of  coal  from  this  place,  and  ship-building  is  carried  on.  On 
a  hill  above  the  town  stand  the  ruins  of  A.  Castle,  said  to 
have  been  surprised  by  Wallace  when  held  by  the  forces  of 
Edward  I.  Wal?:-ce  aestroyeil  the  garrison,  and  threw  the 
dead  bodies  into  a  dimgeon  called  '  Wallace's  Larder.'  Pop. 
(1894)  5.209. 

ARDUOUS,  a.  dr^du-us  [L.  ar'duui,  steep,  inacoeasiblel: 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARE— ARECA. 

of  difficult  attainment;  attended  with  great  labor.    Ab'* 
DUOUBLY,  ad.  -us-ll.    ARDUOUBNEse,  n.  dr'du-u8-nis, 

ARE,  V.  dr  [Dan.  ere:  Sw,  cere:  Icel.  cru,  are:  8w. 
vara:  Dan.  ixiere,  to  be,  to  exist]:  part  of  the  verb  be. 
Are  not,  do  not  exist 

ARE,  n.  air  [L.  dred,  an  open  place];  the  unit  of  the 
French  land-measure,  a  square,  the  side  of  which  is  10  me- 
tres (or  32,809  ft.)  long  (see  Metre),  and  which,  therefore, 
contains  100  sq.  metres  =  1,076  English  sq.  ft.  The  next 
denomination  in  the  ascending  scale  is  the  decare,  contain 
ing  10  arcs;  but  the  denomination  commonly  used  in  de> 
scribing  a  quantity  of  land  is  the  /lecio/re  of  100  ares,  =  2*47 
English  statute  or  imperial  acres. 

AREA,  n;  d'rP-d  [L.]:  any  inclosed  or  open  space;  an 
open  space  in  front  of  or  aroimd  a  sunk  flat  or  floor  of  a 
building.  As  a  term  of  math,,  it  means  quantity  of  surface. 
The  calculation  of  areas,  or  mensuration  of  surfaces,  is  one 
of  the  ultimate  objects  of  geometry.  The  measuring  unit 
is  a  square  inch,  a  square  foot,  etc.,  accordin":  to  the  imit  of 
length.  As  a  figure  is  thus  measured  by  finding  an  equiva- 
lent for  its  surface  in  squares,  the  process  is  sometimes 
(»lled  the  quadrature  of  the  figure. 

ARE  AD,  Areed,  or  Arede,  v.  d-red  [AS.  ar(Bd,  coun- 
sel; arcedian,  to  read;  rcBden,  to  interpret,  to  read:  Ck>tb. 
redan,  to  counsel,  to  provide]:  in  OE,,  to  advise;  to  declare; 
to  show;  to  read. 

ARECA,  n.  d-re'M:  a  genus  of  palms  containing  several 
species,  having  pinnate  leaves  cmd  double  spathes.  The 
fruit  is  a  fibrous  one  seeded  drupe,  a  nut  with  an  outor 
fibrous  husk.  A.  Catechu,  the  Pinang  Palm,  or  Betel  nut 
Palm,  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  whose  nut  yields  a  sort 
of  catechu.  See  Catechu.  This  Areca-nut  or  Betel-nut  is 
very  much  used  in  all  parts  of  the  East,  the  chewing  of  it 
with  quick-lime  and  tL^  ;caf  of  the  betel-pepper  being  one 
of  the  mast  prevalent  habits  of  the  people.  Sec  Betel. 
The  nut  is  a1)out  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg\  the  fibrous  husk 
alK)ut  half  an  inch  thick.  It  is  austere  and  astringent.  It 
is  doublful  if  it  possesses  a  narcotic  power,  or  if  this  is  to 
be  ascrilied  entirely  to  the  leaf  which  is  used  with  it.  Are- 
ca-nuts  are  a  consfderable  article  of  tnule  in  the  East.  The 
timl)er  of  the  palm  which  produces  them,  and  its  leaf-stalks 
and  spatlies  are  also  used  for  domestic  purposes.  The  tree 
is  often  40  or  50  ft.  high,  and  in  peneral  less  than  a  foot  in 
diameter.  Tbe  leaves  are  few,  but  very  large,  their  leaflets 
more  than  a  yard  long.  In  Malabar,  an  inebriating  lozenge 
is  prepared  from  the  sap.— ^.  oleracea^  the  Cabbage  Palm: 
of  the  West  Indies,  is  a  very  tall  tree,  100^200  ft.,  whose 
huge  terminal  leaf -bud  is  sweet  and  nutritious,  and  is  some- 
times used  for  the  table  as  cabbage,  but  when  it  is  cut  off 
the  tree  is  destroyed.  The  stem  of  this  tree,  notwithstand- 
ing its  groat  height,  is  remarkably  slender.  The  nuts  are 
produce  in  great  numl)ers;  they  are  about  the  size  of  a  fil- 
bert, and  have  a  sweet  kernel. — A,  sapida,  the  New  Zealand 
Palm,  is  remarkable  as  extending  southward  beyond  the 
geographical  limits  of  any  other  of  its  order,  as  far  indeed 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARECIBO— ARENARIA. 

*«Ut  88"  22'  8.  It  is  a  small  p«lm.  only  from  6  to  10  ft 
*^gh,  with  leaves  4-6  ft.  loog.  Ihc  young  inflorescence  is 
^ten,— ^.  'cesiiaria,  a  native  of  the  East,  is  so  called  bo- 
^Mse  clothing  is  made  from  its  flbres. 

ARECIBO,  d-rd'Sibd:  t.  of  Puerto  Rico,  Spanish  West 
^<lie8,  on  the  n.  coast  of  the  island.    Pop.  10,000. 

AREF ACTION,  n.  dr'd-fdk'shan  [L.  arefac'er^,  to  make 
"7— from  area,  I  am  dry;  facld,  1  make]:  the  state  of 
^wing  dry;  the  act  of  drying.  Akefy,  v.  dr'efi, 
lodiy. 

ABENA,  n.  d^e'nd  [L.  arena,  sand] :  a  part  of  an  am- 
pliitheatre  (so  called  because  it  was  usuall^  strewed  with 
Aand,  though  when  a  fit  of  extravagance  seized  Uie  Roman 
^'^perorB  they  used  borax  and  cinnabar  instead),  where  the 
^nibats  of  gladiators  and  wild  beasts  took  place.  It  had 
^our  main  entrances,  and  was  surrounded  by  a  wall  about 
J^  ft.  high,  so  that  the  spectators  were  perfectly  safe. 
^e  name  was  afterwards  applied  b^  the  Romans  to  any 
•^ilciing  for  exhibitions  of  baiting  animals,  horsemanship, 
J*^  On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  name  has  been  given 
«>  large  summer  theatres  for  dramatic  performances  in  the 
OF>eti  air.  It  is  applied  also,  in  a  general  sense,  to  any 
8cene  of  contest  or  display  of  power. 

A.KENACEOUS,  a.  dr'-i-nd'shus:  composed  of  grains  or 
P^^^oles  of  sand;  having  the  properties  oi  sand. 
.  -A.iiKNA.'cEOU8  Rocks:  rocks  composed  entirely,  or  to  a 
*^&e  extent,  of  grains  of  silex.  Beds  of  loose  sand  occur 
^^^isively  in  the  more  recent  deposits.  The  grains,  either 
j^  quartz  or  flint,  are  generally  water- worn  and  rounded. 
JB.^}<ler  deposits,  the  grains  of  sand  are  bound  together  by 
jJ**ciou8,  c^careous,  argillaceous,  or  ferruginous  cements. 
alo  ^Wom  that  a  rock  is  composed  of  quartzy  materials 
j^.T?^;  graihs  or  particles  of  other  mineral  substances  are 
g^^^fjntly  mingled  with  the  grains  of  quartz.  Silvery 
j^^es  of  mica  are  seldom  absent;  and  thejr  often  occur  in 
Y^^5^  parallel  to  the  planes  of  stratification,  causing  the 
lac?  ^  ''P'^*  "^^  ^^^  slabs,  and  exposing  a  glittering  sur- 
off\  These  are  called  micaceous  gandsUmes.  When  grains 
^^^®'<ispar  occur,  it  is  a  feldUpathic  sandstone.  Often  large 
^^r^^ties  of  calcareous  matter,  either  as  cement  or  as  dis- 
»t^i  ^i^ins,  occur;  and  these  are  called  calcareous  sandr 
^^f'  The  presence  of  lime  can  always  be  detected  by  the 
j^j^^^^acence  which  takes  place  on  the  application  of  muri- 
it  j^  ^^  other  acid.  When  the  sandstone  is  coarse-grained, 
be  -^J^^^ially  called  grit.  If  the  grains  are  large  enough  to 
if  t^*^^^  pebbles,  it  becomes  conglomerate  or  jmddingstone; 

2^^    fn^ments  are  sharp  and  angular,  it  is  called  breccia. 

of  *J^^^NARIA,  dr-e-nd'ri-d,  or  Sandwort:  genus  of  plants 
lai.|A^^  natural  order  CanryophyUecB,  differing  from  Stel- 
gp^jTi  (Stitch wort,  q. v.)  chiefly  in  the  undivided  petals.  The 
pl^^^  are  numerous,  annual  and  perennial  herbaceous 
of  ^y*;^  of  humble  growth,  rarely  somewhat  shrubby,  natives 
li^v^5^^  temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  world.  Some  are 
**^  and  alpine  plants.    Many  are  found  chiefly  in  sandy 

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ABENATION— AREOLA. 

■oilB.    The  floweiB  are  generally  small  and  inoonapicoooi^ 
but,  if  closely  examined,  are  seen  to  poesesB  no  little  beauty. 

ARENATION,  n.  dr-e-nd'shun  [L.  arenatio,  from 
4»rmare,  to  sprinkle  with  sand]:  in  med.,  a  sand-bath; 
sprinkling  hot  sand  upon  the  body 

ARENDAL.  drin-ddl':  town  on  the  s.e.  coast  of  Norway, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Nid-elf  in  the  bay  of  Christiania. 
It  is  built  partly  on  piles,  partly  on  rock,  and  this  with  its 
situation  gives  it  a  veiy  romantic  aspect.  The  bay,  pro- 
tected by  the  island  of  TromOe,  forms  an  excellent  harbor, 
and  favors  the  commerce  of  the  town,  whidi  is  consider- 
able, in  proportion  to  its  size.  A.  is  intersected  by  canals; 
its  exports  are  iron  from  the  neighboring  mines,  and 
wooden  articles.  Ship-building  is  carried  on;  and  on 
a  smaller  scale,  distilleries  and  tobacco-factories.  King 
Louis  Philippe,  after  the  Fr^ich  Revolution,  when  wander- 
ing  in  the  north  as  Duke  of  Orleans,  made  some  stay  here. 
Pop.  4,000. 

ARENDALITE,  n.  d-rlHi'ddUt,  [In  Ger.,  arendalit, 
from  Arendal,  near  which  it  is  found]  :  a  mineral,  a  sub- 
variety  of  ordinary  Epidote.  It  generally  occurs  in  dark- 
green  crystals. 

ARENDATOR.  n.  dr'en-dd'tor  [L.  L.]:  hi  Livonia  and 
other  provinces  of  Russia,  one  who  farms  the  renta  or 
revenues;  one  who  contracts  with  the  crown  for  the  rents 
of  the  farms. 

ARENG',  or  Abxnoa.  see  Qomuto  Pauc 

ARENI'COLA:  see  Annkleda. 

ARENICOLITES,  n.  plu.  dr'^nikmut  [L.  arena,  i 
eolo,  1  inhabit;  Gr.  lUhos, a  stone]:  a  term  used  to  de^ 
those  circular  holes  or  markings  which  appear  on  the 
upper  surface  of  many  sandstones,  having  apparently  been 
worm-burrows. 

ARENILITIC,  a.  d^ht'tlWik  [L.  arena,  sand:  Gr. 
lithoi,  a  stone]:  of  or  like  sandstonei  Abenosb,  a.  dt^i-ndt, 
or  Abenoub,  a.  dr^S-nus,  sandv.  Arknasious,  a.  dri  naS- 
rUUy  sandy;  composed  wholly  or  in  large  part  of  sand. 
Aabnuloub,  a.  drTenliirLuM,  fuU  of  sand;  gritty. 

AREOLA,  n.  d^r'UAd  [L.  driUla,  a  small  open  space,  a 
small  garden-bed:  F.  arSole]:  the  colored  circle  round  tht 
nipple  or  a  pustule.  Abb'oljs,  n.  plu.  -U,  small  interstices 
of  cellular  or  other  tissues;  little  spaces  on  the  area  or  sur- 
face. Abbolab,  a.  d-re'd4er,  of  or  like  an  areola.  Abbo- 
LATE,  a.  d^'d^ldi,  marked  by  areolae,  or  liule  spaces  or 
cavities.  Abe'cla'tioit,  n.  -ihun,  any  small  space  dis- 
tinctly bounded  by  something  different  in  color,  text- 
ure, etc.  Areolar  Tissue,  the  tissue  that  loosely  con- 
nects skin  with  muscle,  and  also  forms  a  soft  connective 
packing  between  muscles,  around  blood-vessels  etc.,  umI 
IS  composed  mainly  of  interlaced  'white  fifacous'  and 
*  yellow  elastic '  tissues. 


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AREOMETER 

AREOMETER,  n.  dr'i-dm'l.UT  [Gr.  cvraCos,  raw,  thin; 
metron,  a  measure]:  an  instrument  lor  measuring  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  liquids.  Ab'eom'etry,  n.  -tri,  A^'bomst- 
kicaIj,  a.  'Tirkdl,  pertaining  to. 

AREOMETER  [Fr.  areomktre,  or  pise^liqueur:  Ger. 
Ardometer  or  Sgnktcage],  called  also  Hydrometer:  an  in- 
strument which  is  allowed  to  float  freely  in  liquids,  to  deter- 
mine their  specific  ^yity  or  tliat  of  solid  bodies.  By 
specific  gravi^  (q*^*)  is  meant  the  ratio  that  the  weight  of 
way  vohime  of  a  substance  bears  to  the  weight  of  the  same 
volume  of  water.  Thus,  a  cubic  foot  of  alcohol  weighs 
T98  oz.,  while  the  same  quantity  of  water  weighs  1,000  oz.;  • 
the  specific  gravity  of  alcohol  is  set  down,  therefore,  as 
-^Jt  or  '19Q,  A  cubic  foot  of  sulphuric  acid  weighs  1,841 
oz.,  and  has,  consequently,  a  specific  gravity  of  1*841. 
These  relations  are  not  confined  to  the  particular  volume, 
Goe  cubic  foot,  of  these  bodies,  but  hold  for  any  equal 
volumes  of  them.  Equal  volumes  of  alcohol,  water,  and 
salphuric  acid  have  always  to  each  other  the  ratio  respect- 
ively of  7d8, 1,000,  and  1,841;  and  this  is  only  an  in  stance  of 
the  general  principle,  that  equal  volumes  of  different  sub- 
stances have  weights  bearing  to  each  other  the  direct  ratio 


tig,!. 


Areometers. 

of  Che  specific  gravities  of  these  substances.  This  is  the 
principle  on  which  areometers  with  weights,  or  weight- 
areometers,  are  constructed.  If,  however,  equal  weights  of 
My  two  of  these  liquids  were  taken,  it  would  be  found  that ' 
.708  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  would  weigh  as  much  as  1*000 
ciL  ft.  of  alcohol;  I'OOO  cu.  ft.  of  sulphuric  acid  as  much 
as  1*841  cu.  ft.  of  water;  or  '798  cu.  ft.  of  sulphuric  acid 
as  much  as  1*841  cu.  ft.  of  alcohol:  more  generally  thus— - 
when  equal  weights  of  two  different  fluids  are  taken,  the 


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AREOMETER. 

volumes  of  each  are  inversely  as  their  specific  gravities. 
On  this  latter  principle  depends  the  use  of  areometers  with 
scales,  or  scale-areometers.  The  scale-A.  is  employed  much 
more  commonly  than  the  weight- A.,  and  is,  in  consequence, 
a  much  more  important  instrument.  Of  the  various  forms 
of  scale-areometers,  that  contrived  hy  Gay-Lussac  deserves 
particular  notice,  from  the  simplicii^r  of  the  tnode  of  gradu- 
ation; and  an  account  of  it  will  give  the  hest  idea  of  the 
general  nature  of  such  instruments.  See  Fig.  1.  It  con. 
gists  of  a  uniform  glass  tube,  AB,  blown  into  two  bulbs,  C 
and  D,  at  the  bottom.  The  lower  bulb,  D,  is  loaded  with 
.  mercury,  so  that  when  the  instrument  floats  in  any  liquid 
the  stem,  AB,  is  maintained  in  a  vertical  position.  Suppose 
that  the  quantity  of  mercury  is  so  adjusted  that  when  placed 
in  water  the  A.  sinks  to  the  point  W ,  which  may  in  conse- 
quence be  called  the  water-point.  According  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  Archimedes,  the  weight  of  the  volume  of  water 
displaced  by  the  instrument  up  to  this  point  is  equal  to  Uie 
weight  of  the  instrument.  Suppose,  for  the  sake  of  sim- 
plicity, that  the  water  so  displaced  is  a  cubic  inch,  the 
weight  of  the  A.  will  be  that  of  a  cubic  inch  of  water,  or 
250  grs.  (more  correctly  252*5  ers.  at  60°  F.).  If  the  A.  be 
now  placed  in  a  fluid  heavier  man  water,  such  as  a  mixture 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  water  having  a  specific  gravity  ^  or 
1  25,  it  is  manifest  that  if  it  is  sunk  again  to  the  water-pomt. 
the  displaced  fluid  would  weigh  }  of  250  =  812^  grs.,  or 
62^  grs.  more  than  the  weight  of  the  instrument.  As  much, 
therefore,  of  the  stem  of  the  A.  must  rise  above  the  liquid 
as  will  reduce  the  weight  of  the  displaced  liquid  to  250  grs., 
or  reduce  the  volume  to  f  of  what  it  was  before.  If  the 
stem  in  this  case  rises  to  B,  the  volume  displaced  by  the 
part  WB  is  ^  of  the  volume  displaced  by  the  instrument  at 
the  water-pomt.  If  the  whole  be  divided  into  100  parts, 
and  the  mark  100  be  at  W,  B  must  be  marked  80,  as  tne  A. 
displaces  up  to  that  point  t  of  100;  and  if  the  intervening 
space  on  the  stem  be  divided  into  20  equal  parts,  each  of 
them  will  correspond  with  ^J^  of  the  water  volume — viz., 
•01  of  a  cubic  inch,  or  witn  yj^  of  the  weight  of  the  in- 
strument— viz.,  2*6  grs.  If  the  same  scale  be  carried  above 
the  point  W.,  and  the  divisions  marked  as  ascending  from 
100,  the  A.  will  be  serviceable  likewise  for  fluids  less  dense 
than  water,  and  will  mark  the  volumes  \^hich  it  displaces 
in  each  of  them.  The  A.  thus  graduated  gives  immediately 
the  volumes  which  it  displaces  in  different  liquids;  and 
from  these,  seeing  that  it  displaces  in  every  case  a  weight 
of  liquid  equal  to  its  own,  the  specific  gravities  may  be 
calculated  according  to  the  principle  already  stated — viz., 
that  equal  weights  of  two  different  fluids  have  volumes 
Inversely  as  their  specific  gravities.  If,  in  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  water,  the  A.  stands  at  90,  accordin/r  to  the 
above  principle  90  volumes  of  the  mixture  weigh  as  much  as 
100  01  water;  therefore  its  specific  gravity  is  W  or  li- 
Again,  if  in  a  mixture  of  spirits  and  water  it  should  stand 
at  110, 110  volumes  of  the  mixture  weigh  as  much  as  100 
of  water,  so  that  its  specific  gravity  is  ff^f.  or  |^.  In  aU 
oases,  then,  100  is  to  be  divided  by  the  number  read  on 


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PLATE    12.  iJSSiJ 


Roccella  tinctoria^  from  which  Archil      Greek  Archimandrite,  from  an 
is  obtained.  original  sketch. 


Archimedean  Screw.  Argrall  (jCaprorHsArgcUi). 


Arg^all  Sheep.  Another  flpechneiDu 

roUSk 


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AREOMJETEH. 

the  A«,  to  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  in 
which  it  floats. 

The  delicacy  of  the  A,  depends  on  the  distance  of  the 
divisions  on  the  scale,  or  on  the  thinness  of  the  stem  com- 
pared with  the  bulbs.  An  instrument  possessing  this  ad- 
vantage cannot  be  made  to  serve  both  for  liquids  heavier  and 
lighter  than  water,  for  the  stem  would  be  of  an  inconvenient 
length;  and  it  is  usual  to  construct  two  areometers— one 
marked  with  the  water-point  at  the  top,  and  the  scale  de- 
scending to  50,  for  flu  ills  heavier  than  warter;  and  the  other, 
with  the  water-point  at  the  bottom,  and  the  scale  ascending 
to  150,  for  fluids  lighter  than  water  The  scale  is  generally 
marked  on  a  slip  of  paper  fixed  inside  the  stem.  Gay-Lus- 
sac's  A.  is  known  also  under  the  name  'volumenometer.* 
Although  it  cannot  be  surpassed  either  for  accuracy  or  sim- 
plicity, it  is  much  less  used  than  other  instruments  of  a 
similar  nature  furnished  with  arbitrary  scales,  requiring  the 
aid  of  tables  to  interpret  the  readings.  The  best  known  of 
these  is  Twaddle's  A.,  used  in  England;  and  Bcaume's  A., 
extensively  adopted  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  A. 
with  an  equally  divided  scale  is  a  very  ancient  instrument; 
it  was  known  among  the  Greeks  under  the  name  of  '  baryl- 
lion.'  On  some  areometers  the  divisions  are  not  at  equal 
distances,  but  are  so  drawn  as  to  give  at  once,  without  table 
or  calculation,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid  in  which  they 
are  placed.  Although  very  desu^able,  in  practice  they  do 
not  possess  the  accuracy  of  the  A.  with  equally  divided 
scales,  because  the  graduation  of  them  is  attended  with  con. 
siderablc  difficulty. 

No  form  of  A.  can  be  made  to  determine  specific  gravi- 
ties with  perfect  accuracy,  and  such  instruments  are  onl^ 
useful  where  a  ready  and  good  approximation  is  all  that  is 
needed.  They  are,  in  consequence,  employed  chiefly  to 
ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of  the  vanous  liquors  and 
solutions  which  occur  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  and 
very  frequently  they  are  graduated  with  reference  to  special 
liquids,  as  spirits,  wine,  milk,  brine,  etc.  The  Alcoholo- 
meter or  Hydrometer  of  Sykes  is  an  instrument  of  this  latter 
description,  and  is  used  by  exdse  officers  for  estimating  the 
strength  of  spirits.  It  is  represented  in  Fig.  2.  BC  is  a 
hollow  brass  ball,  surmounted  by  a  flat  stem,  AB,  and 
loaded  below  by  a  short  conical  stem.  CD,  terminated  by  the 
pear-shaped  bulb,  D.  It  is  accompanied  by  eight  weights, 
by  which  the  weight  of  the  instrument  may  be  increased, 
and  the  range  of  the  scale  extended  to  fluids  heavier  as  well 
as  lighter  than  water.  One  of  these  weights,  W,  is  shown 
in  the  figure;  it  is  furnished  with  a  slit,  so  as  to  allow  of  it 
beiog  shpped  on  to  the  narrowest  part,  C,  of  the  lower  stem. 
The  stem,  AB,  is  graduated  into  11  equal  parts,  and  these 
again  into  halves;  and  the  instrument  is  so  adjusted  that 
its  iodications  give  the  volumes  of  water  that  must  be  added 
to  or  taken  from  100  volimies  of  the  mixture  under  exami- 
nation to  reduce  it  to  proof  spirit  (see  Alcohol),  which  is  a 
mixture  of  nearly  equal  parts  of  water  and  alcohol.  Thus, 
if  the  A.  indicates  11  over  proof,  11  volumes  of  water  must 
be  added  in   order  to  brm^  the  liquid  down  to  proof* 


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AREOMETER. 

Btrength;  and  100  gallons  of  such  strength  would  be  reckoned 
as  111;  100  gallons,  at  11  under- proof,  would  in  tbe  same 
way  be  charged  as  89.  Very  carefully  constructed  tables 
accompany  tbe  instrument,  in  which  the  specific  gravity  and 
percentage  of  alcohol  of  different  mixtures,  at  different 
temperatures,  are  marked,  corresponding  to  each  degree  of 
the  A.  Since  the  specific  gravity  of  alcohol  is  known,  it 
might  be  thought  that  if  that  of  a  mixture  of  it  with  water 
were  known,  the  relative  proportions  of  each  would  also  be 
known.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  alcohol  and 
water  possess  a  chemical  affinity  for  each  other,  which 
causes  the  combined  volumes  of  the  two  to  measure  less 
than  the  two  volumes  separately.  Thus,  50  volumes  of 
alcohol  mixed  with  50  volumes  of  water  do  not  make  100 
volumes  of  the  mixture,  but  only  96,  and  iherehy  the 
specific  gravity  of  tbe  mixtiu^  is  higher  than  it^ would  have 
been  if  no  contraction  had  taken  place.  As  the  law  of 
this  contraction  is  very  complicated,  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  two  in  a  combination  of  given  specific  gravity 
are  to  be  estimated  only  from  tables  foundea  upon  experi- 
mental data. 

The  peculiar  feature  of  areometers  with  weights  is,  that 
instead  of  a  scale  thev  have  only  one  mark  on  the  stem,  to 
which  the  A.  is  in  all  cases  sunk.  One  of  the  best-known 
instruments  of  this  kind  is  the  A.  of  Nicholson.  It  consists 
of  a  brass  tube,  BC  (Fig.  8),  abt  1  inch  in  diameter,  closed 
above  and  below  by  conical  ends,  to  the  upper  of  which  a 
wire  is  fixed,  canning  on  the  top  of  it  a  cup.  A,  capable  of 
containing  the  weights;  and  to  the  lower  a  hook  is  attached, 
from  which  hangs  the  cup,  D.  The  lower  part  of  the  cup, 
D,  is  also  provided  with  a  hook,  and  the  whole  instrument 
is  kept  vertical,  partly  by  the  weight  of  the  cup,  and  partly 
b^r  the  weight  of  the  ball,  E,  suspended  from  it.  On  the 
wire  a  notch,  W,  is  made,  to  serve  as  the  mark  or  fixed 
point  to  which  the  A.  is  sunk.  The  specific  gravities  of 
liquids  are  determined  by  Nicholson's  A.  in  the  following 
way:  The  weight  of  the  A.  itself  is  first  ascertained— let  it 
be  in  a  given  case  2,000  gr.— it  is  then  put  into  water  at 
the  temperature  60*  F. ,  and  weights  (say  500  gr.)  put  in,  till 
it  is  sunk  to  W.  It  is  now  removed  to  the  liquid  under 
examination;  and  if  the  weight  required  to  sink  tbe  instru- 
ment now  to  the  standard  point  be  only  100  gr.  we  have  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  equal  to  fiJJ  or  |J.  In 
lx>th  flaias  the  same  volume  has  been  displaced,  and  that  is 
in  each  case  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  A;  but  the  weight 
of  the  A.  in  the  second  case  was  2,000  +  100,  and  in  the 
former,  2,000  +  500;  hence  the  above  result.  Nicholson's 
A.  is  seldom  used  for  finding  the  specific  gravity  of  fiuids; 
its  use  is  almost  entirely  restrictea  to  ascertainmg  Uiat  of 
small  solid  substances,  as  gems  and  small  pieces  of  minerals. 
The  following  example  will  show  how  this  is  done:  If  in 
the  cup  of  the  A.  already  mentioned,  when  placed  in  water, 
the  gem  be  put,  and  only  440  gr.  be  then  necessary  to 
bring  the  instrument  to  W,  60  gr.  is  manifestly  the 
weight  of  the  gem,  because  500  gr.  were  needed  without 
it  to  do  the  same  thing.    The  gem  is  next  placed  in  th« 


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AREOPAGUS. 

.  lower  cup,  D,  and  if  460  gr.  are  dow  Deeded  to  sink  the  A. 
to  the  standard  point,  the  gem  has  thus  lost  20  gr.  of  its 
weight  by  being  immersed  in  the  water.  According  to  the 
principle  of  Archimedes  (q.v.),  these  20  gr.  are  also  the 
weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  that  of  the  gem;  so 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  gem  is  | J,  or  3.  By  reversing  the 
cap,  D,  which  is  furnish^  with  perforations  to  allow  free 
paasage  to  the  air,  and  attaching  the  weight,  E,  to  the  handle 
of  it,  the  specific  gravity  of  substances  lighter  than  water 
may  also  be  determined  by  this  instrument.  The  other 
forms  of  wdght-aieometers  are  those  o&  Fahrenheit,  Tralles, 
and  Charles.  For  the  more  accurate  determination  of 
Uie  specific  gravities  of  liquids  and  solids,  see  Specific 
Qravttt 

AREOPAGUS,  dfi-dp'di;iis  (L.— from  Gr.  arefos,  be- 
longing to  Mars:  Area,  iSlars,  and  pago8,  a  hill]:  a  mount 
lying  w.  of  the  Acropolis,  at  Athens,  and  celebrated  as  the 
root  where  the  most  venerable  court  of  justice  in  ancient 
times  held  its  sittings.  Abbofagite,  n.  dr-ebp'd-fit:  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Areopagus. 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  satisfactorily  why  the  Athenian 
hill  obtained  its  name;  probabl^r  it  was  on  account  of  sacri- 
fices having  been  offered  there  in  early  times  to  the  GoA  of 
War;  but  all  its  historic  importance  is  derived  from  the 
Areopa^itic  Council,  the  origin  of  which  reaches  far  back 
into  antiquity,  and  is  ascribed  bv  some  to  the  semi-mytho- 
logical Cecrops.  Orestes,  according  to  tradition,  was  tried 
baore  this  court,  and  it  is  certain  that  it  must  have  existed 
kme  before  the  first  Messenian  war  (B.C.  740),  for  the  Mes- 
senmns,  in  offering  to  submit  to  its  decisions  certain  points 
of  dispute,  speak  of  it,  even  then,  as  *  old. '  Solon,  however, 
made  many  changes  in  its  constitution,  enlarging  its  sphere 
of  jurisdiction  to  such  an  extent  that  it  ceased  to  be  any 
longer  a  mere  criminal  court,  and  acquired  henceforth  social 
and  politiod  powers  in  addition  to  the  former.  Before 
Solon's  time  it  was  strictly  oligarchical.  It  now  became  a 
tertium  quid  between  aristocracy  and  democracy,  the  new 
qualificanon  for  oflSce  introduced  by  Solon  being  property 
instoid  of  Mrth,  It  thus  naturally  allied  itself  with  aris- 
tocracv,  so  that  we  can  perfectly  understand  why  it  should 
have  been  considered  a  check  upon  the  impetuous  democ- 
racy, though  it  would,  perhaps,  be  fairer  to  regard  it  as  a 
dieck  upon  both  extremes.  It  is  not  known  how  many 
members  were  included  in  its  council.  The  nine  archons— 
if  they  had  recommended  themselves  by  a  faithful  discharge 
of  their  duties— were  elected  life-members  of  it.  Solon 
made  the  council  *  overseers  of  everything,'  and  we  find  in- 
stances of  their  manifold  authority  in  the  subsequent  his- 
tory of  Greece.  They  granted  money,  at  the  time  of  the 
Persian  invasion,  from  a  reserve  treasury  of  their  own,  the 
ordinary  public  treasury  being  empty.  After  the  battle  of 
Chffironea.  they  put  to  death  all  who  had  deserted  their 
country.  In  social  matters,  their  powers  appear  to  have 
been  curiouslv  minute.  They  had  ofticers  whom  they  sent 
or  accompanied  into  private  houses,  on  occasion  of  a  fes- 
tivity, to  see  that  the  rooms  were  not  overcrowded;  they 


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AREQUIPA— ARET^US. 

called  to  account  persons  who  lived  in  such  riotous  extrav- 
agance  that  their  example  might  be  considered  hurtful  to 
the  community,  and  conferred  marks  of  honor  on  those  of 
an  opposite  cliaracter.  Their  sphere  of  influence  seems  to 
have  extended  to  religion  also.  Innovations  m  the  worship 
of  the  gods,  neglect  of  the  sacred  ceremonies,  impiety  in 
any  form,  brought  the  offenders  under  the  rebuke  and  pun- 
ishment of  the  A.  It  is  likewise  asserted  that  they  possessed 
and  exercised  great  authority  in  the  education  of  the  young, 
although  this  statement,  and  that  regarding  some  charitable 
functions  attributed  to  them,  are  of  dubious  value. 

Until  the  time  of  Pericles,  the  brilliant  and  powerful  ruler 
of  the  democracy,  the  A.  maintained  its  ancient  dignitjr. 
lie  soon  discovered,  however,  that  unless  shorn  of  its  privi- 
leges it  would  prove  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the 
realization  of  his  designs.  Against  much  vigorous  opposi- 
tion, he  succeeded  in  carrying  a  decree  (B.C.  458),  by  which, 
as  Aristotle  says,  the  A.  was  *  mutilated,'  and  democratic 
tribunals  acquired  supreme  authority.  It  is,  however,  far 
from  being  clear  what  were  the  precise  changes  which 
Pericles  effected,  whether  he  abridged  its  powers  as  a  crimi- 
nal, or  as  a  social  and  political,  court.  From  the  high 
estimation  in  which  it  was  held  for  centuries  after,  in  me 
first  of  these  capacities,  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  it  was 
its  social  and  political  supremacy  that  was  destroyed. 
Probably  the  A.  was  made  responsible  to  the  demo$,  or 
body  of  citizens.  It  lingered  in  life  for  a  very  long  period. 
It  is  heard  of  as  late  as  a.d.  880.  and  it  seems  from  the 
case  of  the  apostle  Paul  (Acts  xvii.  19,  22),  that  it  had  in 
his  day  a  certain  authority  in  religious  matters. 

AREQUIPA,  d-rd-ke'pd:  term  applied  primarily  to  a 
mountain  in  the  w.  Cordillera  of  the  Peruvian  Andes,  and 
secondarily  to  a  city  at  its  foot,  being  from  this  again  ex- 
tended to  a  district,  a  province,  a  department,  and  a  diocese. 
1.  The  city,  lat.  16°  18'  s.,  long.  72"  18'  w.,  is  the  third 
largest  in  Peru,  inferior  only  to  Lima  and  Cuczo.  It  has 
considerable  trade  both  with  the  interior  and  by  sea.  Its 
port  is  Islay,  one  of  the  larger  harbors  of  the  republic.  Pop. 
of  A.  (1800)  32,000.-2.  The  department  is  bounded  n.  by 
Lima;  e.  by  Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  and  Puno;  s.  by  Moquega, 
which,  with  it,  forms  the  diocese;  and  w.  by  the  Pacific 
It  is  subdivided  into  seven  provinces.  Like  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  maritime  region  of  Peru,  it  is  generally  arid 
and  sterile.  Pop.  160,282. — 3.  The  mountam  js  volcanic, 
of  the  form  of  a  tnmcated  cone,  and  of  theheiglitof  20,000 
feet.    Its  neighborhood  is  subject  to  earthquakes. 

ARfeS:  see  Maks. 

ARETiEUS,  dr't-ts'iis:  a  famous  physician  of  Cappa 
docia,  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  Ist,  and  in  the 
beginning  of  the  2d  century  after  Christ.  -  He  is  consid- 
ered to  rank  next  to  Hippocrates  in  the  skill  with  which  he 
treated  diseases;  but  he  did  not,  in  every  instance,  follow 
the  practice  of  the  *  Father  of  Medicine.  He  was  less  at- 
tentive to  *  the  natural  actions '  of  the  system,  which  he 
frequently  counteracted,  if  he  thought  desirable;  admin u 


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ARETHU8A— ARETINO. 

*«red  active  purgatives  copiously,  employed  narcotics,  and 
did  not  object  to  bleeding.    He  was  noted  for  total  want 
of  professional  bigotry;  hence,  not  conunittin^  himself  to 
*ny  particular  set  of  opinions,  in  his  accuracy  m  the  detail 
of  symptoms  and  the  diagnosis  of  disease  he  is  superior  to 
inost  of  the  ancient  physicians.     His  great  work,  written 
jn  singularly  elegant  and  concise  Ionic  Greek,  is  divided 
into  two  parts.     The  first  four  books  treat  of  the  causes 
and  symptoms  of  acute  and  chronic  diseases;  the  second, 
the  cure  of  the  same.    They  are  in  a  state  of  almost  com- 
plete preservation,  and  have  been  translated  into  various 
European  languages,  besides  having  been  frequently  edit* 
ed  in  the  original.    There  have  been  editions  by  Wigan 
(Oxford,    17^;     Kuhn   (Leipzig,    1828);   and    Ermerius 
(Utrecht,  1847).    An  English  translation  by  Reynolds  was 
pub.  1887. 

ARETUU'SA:  see  Alfheius.  :  Orchidace*. 
ARETI'NIAN  SYLLABLES:  the  syllables  ut,  re,  mi, 
f<«»  »i,  la,  used  in  music  by  Guido  d'Arezzo  for  his  system 
of  hexachords. 
ARETINO,  GUIDO:  see  Guido  Aretino. 
ARETINO,  d-rd-U'no:,  Pie'tro,  Italian  author:  1492, 
Mar.  20—1556;  b.  Arezzo,  Tuscany;  natural  son  of  a  gen- 
tleman named  Luigi  Bacci.    Banished  from  his  native 
JJJ^n,  he  went  to  Perugia,  where  he  wrought  as  a  book- 
binder, and  gathered  up  a  few  scraps  of  learning,  until, 
seized  with  a  desire  of  becoming  famous,  he  abandoned 
*JJs  occupation,  and  wandered  through  Italy  in  the  service 
^  prions  noblemen.    At  Rome,  he  distinguished  himself 
^  hia  wit,  impudence,  and  talents,  and  secured  even  the 
^*P*^  patronage,  which,  however,  he  subsequently  lost  by 
^^^^S  licentious  sonnets.    A.  now  went  to  the  Medicean 
^^»  Where  John  de'  Medici  grew  so  fond  of  him  that  he 
^^'^Q   his  bed  with  the  adventurer,  and  even  j)rocured 


fitir^i^  opportunity  of  'ngratiating  himself  with  Francis  I. 
^.^iiari  in  1524.  A  few  years  later,  he  settled  at  Venice, 
Yl^'^^  ^l8o  he  acquired  powerful  friends.  The  Bishop  of 
A  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^y  soothed  the  irritation  of  the  pope  against 
;pjj*  "J*^  also  recommended.him  to  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
ojjj  ^tter,  as  well  as  his  chivalrous  rival,  Francis,  and 
^j?r,  ftreat  persons,  pensioned  the  fortunate  wit,  besides 
iain^j^^^  him  with  splendid  presents.     He  likewise  ob- 

Na>    ^^nsiderable  sums  for  his  literary  efforts. 

^^Q  *^^re  had  undoubtedly  gifted  A.  with  some  fine  quali- 

^jntl|L  "^t  these  were  vitiated  by  his  love  of  sensual  gratifl- 

Xt  is^*^^.-    His  death  accorded  with  the  character  of  his  life, 

▼eut\^^^*^  that  while  laughing  heartily  at  some  trifling  ad- 

stool  *^  of  one  of  his  abandoned  sisters,  he  fell  from  a 

incl\i*H  ^^  ^^  killed  on  the  spot.    His  poetical  works 

of  Wit    ^^®  comedies  and  a  tragedy.    The  former  are  full 

nierit    *^^  genuine  comic  humor;  the  latter  is  not  without 

Fren  'k  ^^®  SonnetU  Luaauriosi  have  been  translated  into 

^^se^  K  ^^^^''  *^®  ^^^^^  ^^  AcadMnie  des  Dames.    Besides 

ogiy^ '  '^^  wrote  a  number  of  other  pieces,  some  of  which 

*^ot  been  published.    His  satire  procured  for  him 

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ARETINO— AREZZO. 

the  name  of  '  the  Scourge  of  Princes/  but  U  seems  cleasr 
that  he  was  equally  fitted  to  be  their  sycophant.  Although 
the  very  unpersonation  of  licentiousness,  he  had  neverthe- 
less the  impudence  to  publish  some  books  of  a  devotional 
kind,  with  the  view  of  obtaining  the  favor  of  the  pope« 

ARETINO,  Spinkllo:  1316  (or  1828)-1408;  b.  Arezzo, 
Tuscany:  early  Italian  painter  of  great  genius.  He  studied 
under  Jacopo  del  Casentino;  but  before  he  had  attained 
his  majority,  he  had  surpassed  his  master  in  the  vigor  and 
liveliness  both  of  his  conceptions  and  coloring.  His  repu- 
tation attained  its  full  bloom  after  he  went  to  Florence, 
where  he  pain],ed  in  fresco,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Maria 
Maggiore,  several  incidents  in  the  life  of  the  Virgin  and 
of  San  Antonio  Abate.  The  monastery  of  San  Miniate, 
near  Florence,  contains  to  the  present  day  a  few  of  his 
frescoes.  He  also  adorned  the  monasteries  of  San  Ber- 
nardo at  Arezzo,  and  Monte  Oliveto  near  Florence.  Vasari 
thought  that  the  finest  works  of  A.  were  those  which  he 
executed  for  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  illustrating  the  life 
of  San  Ranieri.  Of  these,  however,  we  have  only  prints, 
and  cannot  therefore  judge  satisfactorily.  HIb  prmcipal 
works,  still  remaining,  are  those  from  the  life  of  Pope 
Alexander  III.  in  the  town  hall  of  Siena. 

Throughout  all  Italy,  A.  was  greatly  admired  for  his  in- 
vention, the  grace  and  simplicity  with  which  he  arranged 
his  figures,  and  the  finish  of  his  style.  His  Madonnas  had 
remarkable  sweetness  of  expression;  and  his  coloring  was 
in  most  cases  bold  and  beautiful.  Yasari  prefers  hun  to 
Giotto. 

AREZZO,  d-rU'so  (Abetium):  chief  city  of  the  Italian 
province  of  A. ;  in  a  fertile  valley  near  the  confluence  of  the 
Chiana  with  the  Amo,  lat.  48'  27'  n.,  long.  11'  52'  c.;  88  m. 
e.s.e.  from  Florence.  A.  is  perhaps  the  oldest  town  in 
Tuscany,  and  was  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  the  ancient 
Etruscans.  It  was  devastated  by  Sylla  during  the  Social 
War;  and,  like  many  other  Italian  cities,  was  sacked 
by  the  Goths  when  they  burst  into  the  peninsula.  During 
the  contest  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  in  a  later  age,  it 
became  subject  to  Florence,  whose  troops  defeated  those  of 
A.  at  the  battle  of  Camaldino,  in  which  the  poet  Dante 
took  part.  The  Piazea  Grande,  the  Pieve,  an  old  church 
founded  on  the  site  of  a  heathen  temple,  and  the  cathedral, 
which,  like  almost  all  the  other  churches,  has  an  unfinished 
fa9ade,  are  its  principal  public  buildings.  The  cathedral 
has  a  splendid  high  altar  in  marble  by  Giovanni  Pisano; 
and  the  several  churches  contain  dne  specimens  of  the  old 
Tuscan  school  of  painting.  These  ecclesiastical  decorations 
are  contrasted  with  the  general  aspect  of  the  city,  which  has 
dark  and  dirty  streets.  Its  industry  is  at  present  at  a  very 
low  ebb,  there  being  few  or  no  manufactures,  and  its 
people  are  not  generally  favorites  in  Italy;  but  perhaps  no 
city  of  its  size  ever  produced  a  greater  number  of  celebrated 
men,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned — MsBcenas,  the 
famous  patron  of  letters  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Augus- 
tus; Petrarch;  Pietro  Aretino;  Guido  de  A.,  inventor  of 


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AUGaL— argand. 

ibo  gamut;  Leonardo  de  A.,  the  historian;  Cesalpino,  the 
botanist;  Hedi)  the  physician;  Pope  Julius  III.;  the 
Botorious  Marshal  d'Ancre;  and  VasttHj  author  of  Litea  qf 
the  Painlers.  Michael  Angelo  was  also  bom  in  the  vicinity 
cf  A.  Its  extensive  walls  and  numerous  churches  bear 
record  of  its  more  flourishing  and  more  populous  period. 
Pop.  (1881)  11,816.  The  province  of  A.  contains  1,276  sq. 
m.;  is  fertile  in  com,  wine,  and  oil;  pop.  (1891)  243,506. 

ARGAL,  n.  dr'gdl,  or  Ar'gol,  n.  [said  to  be  from 
Arabic:  Gr.  argo§,  white]:  crude  tartar,  or  impure  cream 
of  tartar.  It  is  found  as  a  crust  in  old  wint  casks.  See 
Abqol. 

ARGAL,  ad.  dr'gdl  [a  corruption  of  L.  ergo]:  ia  O.E,, 
%lang  for  ergo^  therefore. 

AR'GALA:  see  AnJtTAKT. 

ARGALI,  n.plu.  <!r>d-/irnativename]:  the  (hiaamnum, 
or  gigantic  wild  sheep  of  Siberia  and  Central  Asia.  It  is 
found  from  Kamtchatka  to  the  Himalava  Mountains, 
where,  however,  it  is  seen  in  only  the  more  elevated  regions. 

*  We  came  suddenly,' 
flays  Dr.  Hooker  in  bis 
Himalayan  Jourruflt 
'upon  a  flock  of  jdgantic 
wild  sheep,  feeoing  on 
scanty  tufts  of  dried 
^  sedge  and  grass;  there 
were  twenty-five  of  these 
enormous  animals,  of 
whose  dimensions  the 
Head  of  the  Argali  Sheep.  term  sheep  gives  no  idea; 

they  are  very  long- 
legged,  stand  as  high  as  a  calf,  and  have  immense  boras, 
so  large  that  the  fox  is  said  to  take  up  his  abode  in  their 
hollows  when  detached  and  bleaching  on  the  barren  moun- 
tains of  Thibet.'  The  horns  of  the  male  are  nearly  4  ft. 
long,  and  14  in.  in  circumference  at  the  base,  where  they 
are  triangular.  The  general  color  is  fulvous  gray,  white 
beneath,  with  a  whitish  disk  around  the  tail.  The  wool  is 
concealed  by  hair.  The  name  A.  is  Mongolian,  and  was 
adopted  by  Pallas.  A  similar  but  smaller  species  also  is 
found  on  the  Himalaya  Mountains.  The  Rocky  Mountain 
Sheep,  or  Bighorn,  is  sometimes  called  the  American  A. 
See  Sheep. 

ARGAN  (Argania  ndenKsglon,  Sideraxylon  gpinomm  of 
Linnjpus):  a  low  spiny  evergreen  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Sapotaeem,  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  kingdom  of 
Morocco,  bearing  an  ovate  drupe  about  the  size  of  a  plum, 
dotted  with  white,  and  full  of  a  white  milky  juice.  The 
Moors  extract  an  oil  from  the  fruit,  which  they  use  with 
their  food. 

ARGAND,  dr'gdnd,  or  dr-g5n\  Aime:  b.  Geneva,  abt. 
the  middle  of  the  18th  c;  d.  1803,  Oct.  24:  physician  and 
chemist.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  well-known  Argand 
lamp  (q.v.);  and  early  becoming  involved  in  a  dispute  with 


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AROAKD  LAMP-ARGEL. 

one  Lange  of  Paris  re^ardiog  the  originality  of  his  invention, 
he  went  thither  to  vindicate  his  claim,  but  rather  than  riak 
the  chances  of  a  lawsuit  he  consented  to  share  the  honor, 
and  a  patent  was  obtained  bv  which  Lange  and  A.  alone 
Were  authorized  to  make  and  sell  the  new  lamps  in  France 
for  15  years.  The  French  Revolution,  however,  destroyed 
their  privilege,  and  A*  retired  to  England.  After  some 
time,  he  returned  to  his  native  country,  a  victim  to  melan- 
choly  and  fantastic  humors,  and  diedi 

ARGAKt)  Lamp,  or  Argand  Burner:  a  form  of 
Vick,  or  gas-burner,  giving  a  circular  flame.  The  chief 
difficulties  that  attended  the  use  of  lamps  as  a  source  of 
light  were— first,  in  procuring  the  complete  combustion  of 
the  oil,  so  as  to  keep  the  flatne  from  smoking;  and  second, 
in  preventing  the  level  of  the  oil  in  the  reservoir  from  sink- 
ing as  the  combustion  goes  oh.  The  round  fcottoti-Kricki 
used  in  the  old  simple  form  of  lamp^  was  always  attended 
with  smoke  and  smell.  The  oils  and  fats  are  exceedingly^ 
rich  in  carbon,  containing  70  to SOper  cent. of  that  element, 
and  onlv  10  to  12  of  hydrogen.  The  round,  thick  column, 
then,  01  oil-vapor  rising  from  the  wick  of  an  old-fashionea 
Iftpip,  presented  too  little  extent  of  surface  to  the  air;  the 
o^rygen  of  all  the  air  that  could  get  access  was  chiefly  taken 
up  in  burning  the  hydrogen,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  the  carbon  ascend* 
ed  in  the  burnt  air  as  smoke.  A.'s 
improvement  was  that  he  made  the 
wick  in  the  form  of  a  ring.  The  flame 
thus  became  a  hollow  cylinder  with  a 
current  of  air  ascending  through  the 
inside,  so  that  the  burning  surface 
was  doubled.  It  would  appear,  how- 
ever, that  the  lamp  did  not  satisfy 
A^n^A  Ti.,-«^-  ^^c  expectations  of  A.,  till  his  younger 
Argand  Burner.  ^^^^^^  accidentally  discovered  Uie 
effect  of  a  glass  cylinder,  as  a  chimney  over  the  flame,  by 
which  the  flame  was  steadied,  a  draught  create,  and  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  light  yielded.  The  principle 
of  the  Argand  Burner  for  gas  is  the  same^-increased  com- 
bustion by  means  of  an  ascending  column  of  air  within. 

ARGAUN':  village  in  the  territory  of  the  Nizam;  in  lat. 
2V  2'  n.,  long.  77"  S'  e.;  on  the  route  between  Ellicbpore 
and  Aurungabad.  Its  single  claim  to  notice  is  that,  1808^ 
Nov.  28,  about  two  months  after  the  battle  of  Assaye^ 
Mai. Gen.  Wellesley  here  gained  another  victory  over  the 
Mahrattas.  To  commemorate  this  action,  a  medal  was 
struck  in  1851,  about  a  year  before  the  death  of  the  illus- 
trious conqueror. 

ARGEAN,  a.  dr-je'dn  [from  Argo,  the  ship  which  carried 
Jason  and  his  companions  to  Colchis  in  quest  of  the  golden 
fleece] :  pertaining  to  the  Argo  or  the  ark. 

ARGEL  or  Arohel,  dr'gH  {Solenastemma  A.,  or  Cffnan- 
ehum  A.):  plant  of  the  natural  order  Asdepiadace^p,  native 
of  Arabia  and  of  the  north  of  Africa,  deserving  notice  only 
because  of  the  frequent  use  of  its  leaves  for  the  adulteration 
of  sonna.    They  arc  lanceolate  and  leathery^  and  may  readr 

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ARGELANDER— ARGENS. 

fly  be  distinguished  from  genuine  senna  leaves  by  their  text- 
ure, their  being  down^,  their  greater  heaviness,  the  com* 
parative  absence  of  veins,  and  the  s^metry  of  their  sides, 
the  sides  of  the  true  senna  leaves  heme  unequal.  Th^  are 
acrid,  and  cause  sickness  and  griping,  out  opinions  differ  as 
to  their  possessing  purgative  properties. 

ARGELANDER,  dr'c^Ji4dn-cUry  Friedrich  Wilhblm 
August:  1799,  March  22-1875;  b.  Memel,  Prussia:  one  of 
the  most  eminent  astronomers  of  our  time.  He  stu<^ed  at 
Kdnigsberg,  where  the  science  of  finance  first  attracted  him; 
but  he  was  subsequently  drawn  to  astronomy  by  the  lectures 
of  Bessel,  by  whom  he  was  employed  to  make  calculations 
and  observations.  In  1820,  he  was  appointed  assistant  to 
Bessel  in  the  Kdnigsberg  Observatoiy,  and  in  1823  suc- 
ceeded Walbeck  as  astronomer  at  the  observatory  of  Abo.  in 
Finland.  Here  he  commenced  a  series  of  observations  on 
the  fixed  stars  which  have  a  perceptible  'proper  motion.' 
His  studies  were  imf  ortunately  interrupted  by  a  fire  which 
destroyed  the  observatory;  but  after  a  time  he  resumed  them 
in  a  new  observatory  at  Helsingfors,  and  published  a  cata- 
logue of  not  less  than  560  stars  having  *  proper  motions.' 
Thk  contained  the  results  of  his  observations  at  Abo,  and 
received  from  the  Academy  oi  St.  Petersburg  the  great 
Demidov  prize.  Afterremovingto  the  University  of  Bonn 
ui  1887,  A.  published  his  UranomeMa  Nom  (Berlin,  1848), 
containing  celestial  charts  of  the  fixed  stars  in  our  hemi- 
sphere seen  with  the  naked  eye;  also  (1846)  h\R  Aitronomical 
(kmrwUums,  containing  the  results  of  an  examination  of  the 
northern  heavens  from  45**  to  80*^  declination.  His  Atku  of 
ths  Heawns  will  combine  with  these  works  to  perpetuate 
his  memory.  A.  was  long  engaged  in  a  series  of  observa- 
tions on  uie  changes  of  light  in  variable  stars;  he  also 
demonstrated  the  theory  that  there  is  a  progressive  motion 
of  the  solar  ^stem  in  space. 

ARGEMONE,  drje-mone:  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Papavercuxa,  distingui^ed  by  4-6  petals,  4-7  radi- 
ating concave  stigmas,  and  an  obovate  capsule,  opening  by 
valves  at  the  point.  A.  Mexicana,  sometimes  called  Mex- 
can  poppy,  is  an  annual  herbaceous  plant  with  large  yellow 
flowers,  and  sessfle,  waved  and  sinuated,  spiny  leaves,  varie-  * 
gated  with  white.  It  is  a  native  of  Mcxico.introduccd  in 
southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is  now  common 
also  in  many  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries,  in  which 
it  has  been  naturalized.  Its  seeds  are  narcotic,  pur^tive, 
and  diuretic,  exhibiting  in  a  strong  degree  those  qualities  of 
the  order  of  which  the  seeds  of  the  poppy  are  devoid. 
Th^  are  used  in  the  West  Indies  as  a  substitute  for  ipecac- 
uanha, also  instead  of  opium;  and  the  juice  of  the  plant  is 
employed  as  a  remedy  for  ophthalmia. 

ARGENS,  dr4h6n',  Jean  Baptiste  de  Boteb,  Mabquis 
d':  1704,  June  24— 1771,  Jan.  11;  b.  Aix,  in  Provence.  He 
was  originally  intended  for  a  learned  career;  but.  from  a  love 
of  adventure,  he  entered  the  army  at  fifteen.  Fascinated  by 
a  certain  actress,  he  eloped  with  her  to  Spain,  but  was  cap- 
tured and  brought  back  to  Provence.  In  spite  of  his  glaring 
breach  of  discipline,  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  em« 

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ARGEN80L  A -ARGENSON. 

ployed  in  the  French  embassy  to  Constantinople,  and  oi  uis 
return  re-entered  the  artny.  Bein^  disabled  by  accidents 
in  military  service,  and  disinherited  by  his  father,  he  tried 
his  fortune  in  authorship,  and  by  his  LeUres  Juites,  Letires 
Chinoises,  Lettres  Cabalistiqties,  and  La  Fhihaophie  du  Bon 
Sens  (London,  1737),  attracted  the  notice  of  Frederick  II., 
then  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  and  became  a  favorite  at  the 
cou4  when  Frederick  came  to  the  throne.  The  kint  ap- 
pointed him  chamberlain,  and  a  director  of  the  Art  Academy 
at  Berlin,  with  a  salary  of  6,000  livres.  He  Was  a  constant 
associate  of  Frederick,  who  liked  exceedingly  his  frank  and 
vivacious  character,  but  used  to  tease  him  on  account  of  his 
hypochondriacal  fits.  When  almost  a  sexagenarian,  he  re- 
newed the  adventures  of  his  youth  by  again  falling  a  victim 
to  the  charms  of  an  actress.  Mademoiselle  Cochois,  whom 
he  married  without  Frederick's  permission.  This  and  other 
circumstances  irritated  the  despotic  monarch,  who  deprived 
A.  of  his  pension;  and  A.  returned  to  Provence,  and  died  at 
Toulon.  His  numerous  writings,  but  e8t>ecially  his  Hisioire 
de  I* Esprit  Bumain,  Lettres  et  Memoires,  and  those  above 
mentioned,  once  had  considerable  reputation. 

ARGENSOLA,  dr-Mn-ao'ld,  Lupebcio  and  BABTOLOMi 
JiBONABDO  de:  two  of  the  first  among  the  Spanish  poets  in 
the  'golden  age,*  were  bom  at  Barbastro,  in  Aragon;  the 
former,  1565;  the  latter,  1566.  They  died,  the  former,  1613; 
the  latter,  1681,  Feb.  26.  They  studied  at  the  University  of 
Huesca.  Lupercio  afterwards  went  to  Madrid,  while  Barto- 
lom6  entered  the  priesthood.  In  character,  fortune,  and 
career,  however,  they  were  closely  united.  Both  were  pat- 
ronized by  Maria  of  Austtla,  who  appointed  one  her  chap- 
lain, and  the  other  her  private  secretary.  The  latter  was 
subsequently  made  chamberlain  to  the  arehduke  Albert  of 
Austria,  ana  Philip  III.  appointed  him  historiographer  of 
Aragon.  Bartolome  was  employed  by  the  Count  de  Lemos 
to  edit  the  Oonquista  de  UuMolucas  (Madrid,  1609),  and  when 
this  nobleman  was  appointed  viceroy  of  Naples,  both  the 
brothers  A.,  who  had  acquired  fame  as  poets,  attended  his 
court  at  Naples,  where  Lupercio,  who  then  filled  the  oflSce 
of  secretary  of  state,  died.  Bartolome  returned  to  Spain 
•  with  the  viceroy  in  1616,  and  occupied  the  position  formerly 
held  by  his  brother  as  historiographer  of  the  kingdom  of 
Aragon,  where  he  proceeded  wfth  the  work  left  unfinished 
by  Lupercio—a  continuation  of  Zurita's  Annals  of  Aragon. 
While  engaged  in  this  work  he  died.  The  collected  poems 
of  the  two  brothers  were  first  pub.,  1634,  by  the  son  of 
Lupercio,  and  passed  throueh  several  editions.  These 
poems  (Rimas)  consist  of  epistles,  odes,  sonnets,  and  satires, 
and  are  sin^larly  alike  in  character.  Th^  are  imitative  of 
the  style  of  the  Latin  poets  (especially  Horace,  for  which 
reason  the  brothers  have  been  styled  '  the  Spanish  Horaces'), 
and  display  more  care  and  polish  than  originality  of  in- 
vention or  richnesss  of  fancy.  Bartolome  A.  as  a  prose- 
writer  is  reckoned  among  the  Spanish  classics.  The  style 
of  his  continuation  of  Zurita  is  a  great  advance  on.  the 
original;  especially  in  correctness. 

ARGEN80N,  dr-Mn-sdn',  Mabo  Pibbbb,  Comtb  d\ 

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ARGENT— ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

1096-1764:  celebrated  French  statesman.  He  succeeded 
M.  de  Breteuil  as  secretary  of  state  to  the  war  minister 
1742.  On  the  death  of  Cardinal  Fleury,  in  the  following 
year,  the  whole  care  of  the  war  then  raging  devolved  on 
him.  He  found  affairs  in  a  deplorable  condition.  The 
French  troops  were  in  full  retreat  across  the  Rhine;  the 
Austrians  already  swarmed  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  and 
the  very  political  existence  of  France  was  imperilled;  but 
A.,  by  his  vigor  and  lucky  choice  of  generals,  changed  in 
one  year  the  fortunes  of  the  war.  After  the  victories  of 
Fontenoy  and  Lawfeldt,  and  the  capture  of  Bergen-op- 
Zoom  i)eace  was  secured  by  the  famous  treaty  of  Aix-la- 
Cbapelle,  signed  1748.  He  was  an  illustrious  patron  of 
literature. 

ARGENT,  n.  dfjhit  [F.  argent,  silver — from  L.  argen'- 
turn,  silver;  drg^'tSUSf  of  the  lustre  of  silver]:  the  white 
color  inooatsof  arms:  Adj.  silvery:  bright.  Argentine, 
a.  S/r'jin-tln,  like  silver:  N.  a  mineral.  Argent al,  a. 
dr-jhi  tdl,  or  Argentic,  a.  dr-jhi'tVc,  of  or  like  silver. 
AResNTAN,  n.  dr'jin't&n,  German  silver.  Arqentation, 
n,  d'/jin-td'shiin,  an  overlaying  with  silver.  Argentif- 
erous, a.  dr'jin-tif'&r'iis  [L.  fero,  I  produce]:  containing 
silver.  Argentite,  n.  drj^-tW,  sulphuret  of  silver,  the 
most  important  and  richest  ore  of  silver,  of  a  blackish 
lead-gray  color. 

ARGENTEUIL,  dr-zhdn-tm\'  town  of  France,  dept.  of 
Seine  et  Oise.  Its  priory,  now  in  ruins,  was  founded  in 
the  7fh  c,  and  was  by  Charlemagne  made  a  nunnery,  of 
which  the  famous  HeloTse  became  abbess.  Pop.  (1891) 
13.339.  ^ 

ARGEN'TEUS  CODEX:  see  Ulfilas. 

ARGENTINE,  drjH-tln  (Argentina):  genus  of  small 
fishes  of  family  Salmonida  for  the  resplendent  silvery 
lustre  of  their  sides,  and  the  abundaiice  of  nacre  (q.v.)  on 
their  air-bladder.  A.  denotes  also  a  silvery  siliceous  car- 
bonate of  lime:  also  white  metal  coated  with  silver. 

ARGENTINE.  dr'jH-tln:  city  in  Wyandotte  co.,  Kan., 
near  the  Kansas  river;  and  on  the  Atchison  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  railroad,  5  m.  from  Kansas  City,  Mo.  It  is  in 
an  open  farming  country;  has  1  state  bank,  and  1 
weekly  newapaper;  and  a  number  of  furniture  and  other 
industries,  including  a  large  smelting  and  refining  estab- 
lishment. A.  has  electric  light  and  water  works.  Pop. 
(1890)  4,733. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC:  federal  republic  of  S. 
America,  taking  its  name  from  the  river  La  Plata  (*  river  of 
silver,'  a  misnomer):  (see  Plata,  Rio  de  la);  lat.  22^30'— 56** 
8.,  long,  at  the  widest  part  54°— TO*'  31'  w. :  1,125,086  sq.  m.: 
bounded  w.  by  the  Andes,  which  separate  the  A.  from 
Chile;  n.  by  Bolivia;  e.  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uruguay, 
and  the  Atlantic:  southward  it  extends  to  Cape  Horn. 
Capital,  Buenos  Ayres.  The  islands  of  Fuegia,  on  the  s. , 
belong  partly  to  it  and  partly  to  Chile.  The  area  and  pop. 
by  the  census  of  1895,  May  10,  were  as  follows: 


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ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 


Provinces. 


Capitals  of    . 
Provinces.    ^^^  ^•^^ 


Littoral:    Buenos  Ay  res... 

Bueiii'sAyres  (province).  La  Platte 

Santa  Fe Santa  F6. . . . 

Entre  Rios C«>ncepcion. 

Corrk  nles jCorrientes. . 

Andes:  Kioja Kioja ... 

Catamarcu Catamarca . 

San  Juan San  Juan... 

Mendoza I  Mendoza. 

Central:    Cordova [Cordova . . . . 

Snn  Luis iSan  Lui«. . . . 

Santiago  del  Fstero Santiago 


Tucuman . 

Northern:    Salta. 

Jujuy 


Tucuinon. 

Salta 

Jujuy 


Total 

Territories. 

Misiones 

Formosa  » 

Chaco       f 

Pnmpa 

Rio  Nejrro  ] 

Neuquen  | 

Chubut  V 

Santa  Cruz  ( 

Tierra  del  Fuego   J 


Grand  total . 


63.000 
18,000 
45.000 
54.000 
31.500 
31,500 
29,700 
M.OOO 
54.000 
1H,000 
.31,500 
13,500 
45,000 
27,000 


Pop. 


515,700 


28,982 
125,612 
191,&42 

208,000 


921,2;K 
406..%O 
802,571 
2^.344 
70,010 
89.615 

114.814 
»5:l,0UO 

81,5:^7 
160,534 
213,000 
118,ll»T 

55,000 


8,873.696 


.J 


K     100,000 


1,125,086    i     8,973,626 


Principal  Citibs  and  Towns,  1895,  Auo. 


Buenos  Ayres  (with  subs) 

Cordoba  

Rosario 

Tucuman 

015,226 
5M00 

1-J4  305 
25,000 
•J8.709 

ParauA 

Salta 

Corrientes 

La  Plata 

Santa  F4 

18.000 

20,000 

14.000 

CO,lh« 

Mendoza  

85,J88 

Except  the  most  purely  Indian  districts  to  the  w.  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  proviuces  of  the  A.  R.  lie  chiefly  in  the 
basin  of  the  Rio  de  La  Plata,  embracing  much  the  largner 
half  of  the  same.  Mountains  abound  in  the  n.w.;  and  ele- 
vated ranges  are  found  also  in  Entre  Rios,  which  is  situat<>d, 
as  its  name  implies,  between  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay. 
But,  with  these  exceptions,  nearly  the  whole  country  pre- 
sents boundless  plains,  covered  alterrately  with  rich  pas- 
turage and  gigantic  thistles.  The  climate  and  productions 
vary  considerably — ^being  tropical  and  temperate  re- 
spectively to  the  n.  and  s.  of  Corrientes  (in  27®  27'  n.  lat.). 
The  chief  agricultural  products  are  wheat,  maize, 
flax,  and  linseed;  but  principal  exports  are  hides, 
wool,  meat,  etc.  Agriculture  is  backward,  less  than 
one  per  cent,  of  the  surface  being  under  cultivation.  The 
rearing  of  live-stock  is  the  great  business  of  the  coimtiy. 
Millions  of  cattle  wander  at  will  across  the  plains,  or  are 
kept  on  breeding-estates  of  vast  extent;  and  likewise  of 
mules  and  horses  there  are  immense  bimds.  Besides  the  Rio 
de  La  Plata,  which  is  rather  an  estuary  than  a  river,  and  its 
far-reaching  affluents,  the  hydrography  of  the  A.  R.  com- 
prises the  head-waters  of  some  southern  streams,  which  fall 
into  the  open  Atlantic,  such  as  the  Rio  Colorado,  the  Rio 
Negro,  etc. ;  and  along  the  w.  border  under  the  shadow,  as 
it  were,  of  the  Andes,  salt-lakes  are  common.     In  conncc- 


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ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

lion,  doubtless,  with  ibis  feature  in  the  hydrography,  mines 
of  rock-salt  exist,  and  salt  here  and  there  abundantly  en- 
crusts the  plains,  both  to  the  satisfaction  and  to  the  benefit 
of  the  roaming  herds.  The  names  of  the  country  and  its 
estuary  are,  as  already  characterized,  to  a  great  extent  mis- 
nomers, yet  silver  ore,  gold,  copper,  sulphur,  coal,  and  alum 
have  been  found  near  the  Andes.  Little  mining  has  yet 
been  done.  The  exports  (1890)  were  as  follows:  wheat, 
tons  327,894;  maize  707,281;  flour  12,017;  seeds  830; 
peanuts  289;  potatoes  871;  baled  hay  19,120;  barley 
1,308;  linseed  30,720.  The  export  of  frozen  meats  was: 
mutto:i,  tons  20,413,  value  fl, 633,105.  The  canning  of 
meats  is  an  industry  of  very  recent  introduction,  but  has 
already  reached  considerable  proportions.  The  export  of 
hides,  hair,  horns,  tallow,  wool,  etc.  amounted  to 
$4,773,490:  of  live-stock  there  were  exported:  asses  6,793; 
horses  29,052;  sheep  50,002:  mules  11,755;  horned  cattle 
150,003.  The  acreage  of  sugar  plantations  was  42,500 
acres;  product  (1889)  35,000  tons  of  sugar,  8,155,424  litres 
alcohol.  Of  wines  the  exports  (1890)  were  10,685  litres. 
The  imports  were  $142,240,812;  exports  $100,818,993. 

The  foreign  trade  of  the  A.  R.  1888-9  was  mainly  with 
the  following  countries: 


The  table  following  shows  in  dollars  the  revenue  and 
expenditure  for  four  years: 


18S7 


Revenue $58, 13^,000  $5r,6r)l,71 1  $74,676,706  $73,407,670 


Expenditure I  51.098  2;^7 


1888.    I        18811. 


60,801,6311  50,687.544    92,863,846 


The  following  statcnieut  is  from  an  unofficial  but  trust- 
worthy source  in  Bueuos  Ayres:  When  Gen.  Roca  re- 
tired from  power  in  1886,  the  financial  condition  of  the 
A.  R.  was  as  follows:  Currency,  $70,000,000;  debt 
$117,200,000;  revenue  (gold)  $37,200,000:  the  value  of  the 
currency  dollar  was  then  80  cents  gold.  In  1890,  Aug.: 
currency  $200,000,000;  debt,  $355,800,000;  revenue  (gold) 
$29,200,000;  value  of  the  paper  dollar,  40  cents  gold.  In 
1891,  Nov.,  the  position  was:  currency  $300,000,000; 
debt  $475,000,000;  revenue  (gold)  $22,500,000:  value  of 
paper  dollar  27^  cents  gold. 

There  were  in  the  A.  R.  (1891)  7,230  m.  of  railway.  1890 
the  railways  represented  $346,493,054  capital;  gross  re* 
ceipts  $41,157,486,  net  profit  $14,270,122.     Some  of  the 


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ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

railroad  companies  hold  a  guarantee  of  the  govt,  to  make 
their  net  income  equal  to  7  per  cent,  of  their  capital. 
The  public  expenditure  on  this  account  was  (1890) 
$14,693,280. 

The  state  religion  is  Rom.  Cath.,  but  all  creeds  are  tol- 
erated. In  1890  there  were  5  theoL  seminaries;  3.288 
elementary  schools,  with  7,054  teachers  and  260,695  pupils; 
16  lyccums  for  secondary  instruction,  450  teachers  and 
3,127  pupils;  2  universities,  1,007  students;  34  normal 
schools,  with  12,154  students;  and  mining,  agricultural, 
milit.,  and  naval  schools.  Under  the  judicial  system  each 
province  has  its  own  courts,  and  there  is  a  national  su- 
preme court  of  five  judges  and  an  atty.gen.,  who  also 
constitute  a  court  of  appeals.  In  all  criminal  cases  the 
constitution  guarantees  trial  by  jury.  The  executive  au- 
thority is  vested  in  a  pres. ,  elected  for  6  years  and  ineligi- 
ble for  ree lection;  the  legislative  in  a  senate  of  30  mem- 
bers, and  a  house  of  deputies  of  86  members;  and  the 
provincial.in  govs,  and  legislatures  elected  by  the  people. 
— The  army  consists  of  about  7,400  men,  b^des  the  na- 
tional guard  of  350,000.  The  navy  consists  of  28  vessels 
— including  three  iron-clads  and  4  torpedo-launches. 

History. — In  1515,  Juan  Diaz  da  Solis,  while  searching 
for  a  passage  into  the  Great  South  Sea  newly  seen  by 
Balboa,  entered  the  Rio  de  La  Plata,  in  1526,  Sebastian 
Cabot,  son  of  the  discoverer  of  Newfoundland,  pene- 
trated nearly  to  the  confluence  of  the  Parana  and  the 
Paraguay,  being  arrested  by  the  rapids,  which  afterward 
gave  name  to  Corrientes.  In  1535,  Buenos  Ayres  was 
founded,  to  command,  though  indirectly,  the  most  prac- 
tical channel  of  the  only  outlet  of  the  country,  a  city 
which,  in  conjunction  with  its  own  colony  of  Monte  Video, 
on  the  opposite  bank,  has  virtually  monopolized  the  his- 
tory of  a  region  equal  in  extent  to  w.  Europe.  Gradually 
other  cities  were  planted,  partly  by  colonists  from  Spain, 
partly  by  adventurers  from  Peru.  The  chief  staples  of 
the  country— horses  and  cattle — ^had  been  largely  intro- 
duced before  1552.  Until  1775,  the  basin  of  the  Rio  de  La 
Plata  was  a  dependency  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Lima.  In 
that  year,  however,  was  erected  the  viceroyalty  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  which  added  Bolivia,  under  the  name  of 
Upper  Peru,  thus  embracing  the  head-waters  of  the  Ama- 
zon, and  most  of  the  plateau  of  Titicaca.  The  year  1806 
ushered  in  a  change.  Spain,  as  ally  of  France,  being 
then  at  war  with  England,  Buenos  A3nres  and  Monte  Video 
were  occupied  by  the  English — a  change  which  though, 
brief,  sowed  the  seeds  of  revolution  by  showing  the  col- 
onists the  weakness  of  their  former  masters,  and  moving 
them  to  assert  their  independence.  The  triumphant 
militia,  after  deposing  and  ex|)elling  the  legitimate  vice« 
roy  for  cowardice,  elected  in  his  stead  the  French  officer 
who  had  led  them  to  victory.  Napoleon's  dethronement 
of  the  Bourbons,  1808,  occasioned  an  outbreak  through- 
out Spanish  America,  and  from  1810  the  A.  R.  was  in  con- 
fusion. In  1816,  a  general  congress  declared  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  *  United  Provinces  of  Rio  de  La  Plata';  but 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


I 


ARGENTUM— ARGES. 

those  provinces,  1827,  returned  to  a  state  of  isolation.  In 
1831,  Buenos  Ay  res,  Enlre  Rios,  Corrientes,  and  Santa 
F4,  sometimes  classed  as  the  coast  or  riverine  states,  en- 
tered into  a  federal  compact,  and  invited  the  others  to  form 
a  volantary  alliance.  This  Argentine  Confederation  led  to 
little  but  anarchy  till  1885,  when  Gen.  Rosas  was  elected 
capt.gen.  or  gov.  of  it,  with  almost  absolute  power.  He 
scoured  order  for  a  time;  but  his  personal  ambition,  and 
his  policy  to  make  Buenos  Ayres  supreme,  led  to  his  ulti- 
mate overthrow  1851.  Buenos  Ayres  refusing  to  submit 
to  Urquiza,  the  next  gov.  of  the  A.  R.,  declared  itself  in- 
dependent 1854,  but  was  compelled  by  a  signal  defeat  at 
Cepeda  1859  to  re-enter  the  confederation.  Another  war, 
in  which  its  army  was  ably  led  by  Gen.  Mitre,  placed  that 
province  in  its  present  position  of  supremacy.  In  1865, 
the  A.  R.  became  involved  with  Brazil  and  Uruguay  in  a 
war  against  Paraguay,  which  ended  1870,  having  accom- 
plished  little  in  tne  interest  or  to  the  credit  of  A.  R.  A 
revolution  broke  out  in  Buenos  Ayres  1890,  Julv,  which 
resulted  in  the  resignation  of  Pres.  Celman,  and  the  suc- 
cession of  the  vice-pres.,  Carlos  Pelligrini.  A  financial 
panic  prevailed  through  the  summer,  and  nearly  bank- 
rupted the  Baring  Bros,  of  London,  fiscal  agents  of  the 
A.  R.  Luis  Saenz-Pena  was  elected  pres.  1892,  Apr.,  and 
Dr.  Uriburu  vice-pres.  A  state  of  siege  had  existed  dur- 
ing the  elections  and  the  week  preceding,  and  many 
prominent  citizens,  including  the  radical  candidate  for  the 
presidency.  Dr.  Yrigoyen,  were  arrested.  The  govt,  pro- 
fessed to  have  conclusive  evidence  against  the  arrested 
radicals  of  intended  murder  and  the  use  of  dynamite. 
The  state  of  siege  lasted  until  after  the  meeting  of  the 
electors  in  the  provincial  capitals  June  2.  The  successful 
candidate.  Dr.  Xuis  Saenz-Peiia,  was  supported  by  the  two 
principal  political  parties.  During  the  same  year  a  scheme 
for  colonizing  Russian  Jews  in  the  A.  R.,  patronized  by 
Baron  Hirsch  of  Paris,  ended  in  utter  failure  after  more 
than  200  Jewish  families  had  settled  on  the  lands  appor- 
tioned for  their  use.  The  land  selected  for  the  colony  was 
ill-chosen,  and  the  people  were  not  of  the  kind  to  estab- 
lish pioneer  settlements  in  a  new  country.  In  1892,  Aug., 
800  of  the  colonists  returned  to  Europe.  The  previous  year 
(1891)  no  fewer  than  28,000  persons  (other  than  Jews)  re- 
tumeid  to  Europe;  but  the  tide  of  *  remigration '  seemed 
to  be  growing  slack  1892,  and  that  of  immigration  began 
again  to  rise;  the  immigrants  in  Jan.  numbered  4,228. 

ARGENTUM,  n.  dr-jSn'mm  [L.]:  silver  (q.v.);  chem. 
abbreviation.  Ag. 

AR'GES:  genus  of  small  fishes,  of  the  family  SihiridcB* 
of  extreme  interest  on  account  of  their  being^  frequently 
thrown  out  in  vast  numbers  by  some  of  the  8.  American 
volcanoes,  with  torrents  of  muddy  water.  Humboldt  was 
the  first  accurately  to  inquire  into  this  wonderful  fact,  and 
to  describe  one  of  these  fishes,  which  he  referred  to  the 
genus  Pimelodss,  and  called  P.  cyclopum.  It  is  now  called 
A,  ejfelopum.  The  quantities  of  these  fishes  ejected  from 
the  volcanoes  in  the  neighborhood  of  Quito  are  somethnes 


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ARGIL— ARGILLACEOUS  ROCKS. 

80  great,  that  the  stench  of  their  putrefaction  is  felt  at  a 
great  distance,  and  putrid  fevers  are  caused  by  it.  They 
are  expelled  from  craters  or  from  lateral  opening  at  an  ele- 
vation of  16,000  or  17,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  is  supposed 
that  the^  exist  in  lakes  within  the  cavernous  recesses  of  the 
moun tarns,  but  nothing  is  positivel^r  known  on  this  subject. 
Their  capacity  of  enduring  the  high  temperature  of  the 
water  with  which  they  are  ejected  has  excited  much  interest. 
Several  species  are  known,  to  which  the  common  name  of 
pretladHlas  is  given  in  the  country,  and  which  are  placed  by 
ichthyologists  in  the  genus  A.,  and  the  closely  allied  g^era, » 
Brontes  and  Astroblepits, 

ARGIL,  n.  dr'jU  [L.  argil'la,  white  clay:  F.  argile]: 
pure  clay;  potter's  clay.  ARGiLLACEOtJS,  a.  dr'jU-ld'shm 
[L.  argilld'cius,  clayey]:  consisting  of  clay  or  argil;  clayey. 
Ar'gillip'erous,  a.  -Ufer-us  [L.  fero,  I  produce]:  produc- 
ing clay,  or  abounding  in  clay.  ARorLLiTE,  n.  ar'jU'lU,  a 
term  applied  to  clay -slate.  Argil  is  a  term  now  little 
used,  but  the  derivative  argillaSous  is  still  in  frequent 
use  as  descriptive  of  soils,  geological  deposits,  etc.,  and 
in  the  name  Argillaceous  alaie  or  Argillaceous  Schist, 
instead  of  which,  however,  the  name  Clap-slate  (q.v.) 
is  more  generally  employed.  The  term  argillaceous  is 
rather  /ague,  and  sometimes  clayey,  sometimes  aluminous, 
would  seem  to  be  its  equivalent.      See  Argillaceous 

RoCKB. 

ARGILE  PLASTIQUE,  dr-jU  plds-ak:  a  series  of  beds 
at  the  base  of  the  Tertiary  system  in  France,  resting  on  a 
conglomerate  or  breccia  oi  rolled  and  an^ar  chalk-llints. 
They  consist  of  extensive  deposits  of  sand,  with  occasional 
beds  of  plastic  clays,  used  for  pjottery.  Marls  occur,  inclos- 
ing, in  some  places,  the  lluviatile  shells  that  are  met  with  in 
the  same  position  in  the  London  basin,  and  in  other  places 
large  numbers  of  a  species  of  oyster.  Beds  of  impure  lig- 
nite also  occur.  The  A.  P.  is  the  equivalent  in  tne  Pans 
basin  of  the  Woolwich  and  Reading  series,  or  Lower  Eocene 
of  the  English  geologists.     See  Eocene. 

ARGILLACEOUS  ROCKS,  dr'jU-ld'shUs:  all  rocks 
composed  entirely  or  to  some  extent  of  clay.  Pure  clay  is 
known  as  kaolin  or  porcelain  clap.  It  is  a  hydrated  silicate 
of  alumina.  Decomposed  feldspar,  from  which  the  silicatee 
of  potash,  soda,  etc.,  have  been  washed  out,  supplies  the 
material  which  forms  kaolin.  Common  clap,  however,  con- 
tains many  impurities;  the  chief  are  sand,  in  variable  pro" 
portions,  and  oxide  of  iron,  which  gives  its  color  to  Uie 
mass.  Any  matter  that  contains  sufficient  alumina  (more 
than  10  per  cent.)  to  enable  it  to  retain  its  shape  when  molded 
and  pressed,  is  called  clay.  Plastic  clays  occur  abundantly 
in  the  superficial  deposits  in  the  Tertiary  strata.  The  older 
clavs  become  more  or  less  indurated.  When  they  are  regu- 
larly laminated,  and  split  into  thin  layers  in  the  direction  of 
the  laminae,  they  are  called  sTuile.  In  day-slate,  the  clay  has 
become  highly  indurated  and  metamorphosed,  so  as  to  split 
into  plates  that  are  altogether  independent  of  the  original 
lamination,  and  frequently  cross  it  at  right  angles.     Clay- 


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ARGIVE— ARG0LI8. 

elate  forms  extendve  deposits  in  the  Azoic  rocks,  but  it  is 
not  confined  to  these,  for  the  Palaeozoic  shales  are  often 
converted  into  clay-slate,  when,  from  their  proximity  to 
crystalline  rocks,  or  other  cause,  they  have  been  subjected 
to  the  action  of  heat. 

A.  R.  can  generally  be  distinguished  by  the  peculiar 
'  argillaceous '  odor  which  they  give  out  when  breathed 
upon. 

ARGIVE,  n.  dr'jlv  [Argos,  in  Greece]:  a  Greek;  pi. 
Aboivi.    See  Aboolib. 

ARCKHj,  or  Aboal  (q.v.):  a  crude  variety  of  cream  of 
tartar  which  forms  a  crust  in  the  interior  of  wine- vats  and 
wine-bottles.  Originally,  it  exists  in  the  juice  of  the  grape, 
and  is  soluble  therein;  but  during  the  fermentation  of  the 
juice,  and  as  it  passes  into  wine,  much  alcohol  is  developed, 
which  remaining  in  the  fermenting  liquor  causes  the  pre- 
cipitation of  the  A.;  the  latter  being  very  sparingly  soluble 
in  an  alcoholic  liquid.  Some  wines,  when  they  are  bottled, 
are  not  fully  ripe,  and  more  alcohol  being  thereafter  devel- 
oped, a  further  precipitation  of  A.  takes  place  as  a  crust  in 
the  bottles,  and  hence  the  meaning  of  the  term  crusted  part, 
A.  is  generally  of  a  reddish  tinge,  obtained  from  the  color 
of  the  grapes,  but  sometimes  is  of  a  grayish-white  color, 
when  it  has  been  deposited  during  the  fermentation  of  the 
juice  of  colorless  grapes.  The  m2  or  white  A.  is  denomi- 
nated in  commerce  crude  tartar,  and  its  principal  uses  are 
in  the  preparation  of  cream  of  tartar  (q.v.)  and  tartaric  acid 
(q.v.).  Ilie  constituents  of  A.  are  oitartrate  of  potash 
(cream  of  tartar),  (KO,HO,T),  tartrate  of  lime,  with  color- 
ing and  extractive  matters. 

AR'GOLA:  see  Adjutant. 

ARGOLIS,  dr'gO'lU:  the  n.  e.  peninsula  of  the  Morea 
(Greece),  lying  between  the  bays  of  Nauplia  and  -^gina, 
forming  a  nome,  or  department,  in  the  modern  kingdom  of 
Greece.  The  plain  of  Argos,  famous  in  ancient  tunes  for 
its  breed  of  horses,  is  naturally  fertile,  but  is  now  made 
pestilential  by  morasses.  It  is  surrounded  by  an  eastern 
continuation  of  the  range  of  mountains  on  the  n.  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  which  also  girds  the  riven  and  shattered- 
lookmg  coast.  The  highest  summits  attain  an  elevation  of 
between  5,000  and  6,000  ft.  The  plain  of  A.  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive in  the  whole  peninsula,  bemg  12  m.  in  length,  and  5 
in  breadth.  The  e.  part  is  higher  and  more  rocky  than  the 
west.  Near  where  the  plain  opens  on  the  sea,  the  ground  is 
marshy.  This  was  the  JLemean  Marsh  of  antiquity.  The 
nome  of  A.  and  Corinthia  has  now  Nauplia  as  its  capital. 
Pop.  (1889)  Ui.Sm 

It  was  from  the  importance  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  A. 
that  the  Greeks  were  collectively  often  styled  Argivi  by  an- 
cient  writers.  A.  was  colonized  in  very  early  tunes. 
According  to  the  old  traditions,  Inachus,  the  Pelasgic  chief, 
settled  here  b.c.  1800,  and  Danaus,  e.g.  1500,  with  colonists 
from  Egypt.  Here  Pelops  ruled,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Atreus,  Agamemnon,  etc.    Here  also  Hercules  was  bom, 

2-20 


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ABQON. 
and  achieved  his  Tictories  over  the  Lemean  hydra  and  the 
Nemean  lion. 

The  ancient  capital,  Argos,  was  situated  about  8m.  from 
2he  sea,  and  was  considered  the  oldest  city  in  Greece.  It 
was  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  that  Inachus  of  whom 
we  have  spoken,  or  by  his  grandson  Argus:  but  as  the  whole 
period  in  which  his  deeds  are  said  to  have  been  accom- 
plished belongs  to  the  unhistorical  age,  we  cannot  possibly 
determine  the  truth  of  such  a  statement.  It  is  certiun,  how- 
ever, that  at  one  period  A.  was  the  head  of  a  league  com- 
posed of  several  Doric  states  or  cities — Cleonae,  Phlius, 
Bicyon,  Troezen,  Hermione,  uEgina,  and  Epidaurus.  Lat- 
terly, Sparta  robbed  it  of  its  supremacy  and  influence.  The 
population  of  A.,  durinff  its  most  prosperous  condition  in 
ancient  times,  was — inclusive  of  the  town-territory — ^up- 
wards of  100,000.  It  was  noted  for  the  attention  it  paid  to 
the  worship  of  the  gods.  Juno  was  the  principal  divinity, 
but  many  of  the  other  gods  had  temples  and  statues  also. 
This  gave  a  stimulus  to  the  fine  arts,  and  we  know  that  A. 
had  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  ancient  schools  of  statu- 
ary. The  natives  were,  moreover,  renowned  for  their  love 
of  music.  Herodotus  considered  them  the  finest  musicians 
in  Greece.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  cultivated  literature. 
Few  poets,  and  no  orators  or  philosophers,  were  bom.among 
them.  The  modem  Argos,  built  on  the  site  of  the  ancient, 
is  7  m.  from  Nauplia,  and  is  a  large  and  thriving  town.  It 
still  exhibits  some  remains  of  antiquity,  though  these  were 
nearly  wholly  destroyed  in  1825,  dunng  the  Greek  war  of 
independence.  Cotton,  vines,  and  rice  are  grown.  Pop. 
11,000. 

ARGON,  n.  dr'gdn  [Qr.  a,  without;  and  ergon,  work]: 
elementary  gas  comprising  about  '008  of  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere.  Its  discovery,  ascribed  to  Lord  Rayleigh  in 
conjunction  with  Prof.  Ramsav, — verbally  announced  1894, 
Aug.  18,  but  fully  described  1895,  Jan.  31,  at  a  meeting  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  England, — is  spoken  of  as  a  'triumph 
of  the  last  place  of  decimals,'  owing  to  the  extreme  deli- 
cacy and  exactitude  of  the  experiments  of  the  discoverers 
upon  the  density  of  atmospheric  gases.  Similar  investiga- 
tions had  been  conducted  by  Regnault  (q.v.);  and  in  1785 
the  Hon.  Henry  Cavendish  (q.v.)  stood  upon  the  brink  of 
the  same  discovery.  All  of  the  many  discoveries  of  new 
elements  made  within  the  past  forty  years,  have  been  of 
rare  metals.  Not  since  1826,  when  Balard  discovered 
bromine  (q.v.),  had  any  addition  been  made  to  the  list  of 
non-metals.  The  discovery  of  A.  is  considered  to  rank 
in  lustre  with  the  achievement  of  Adams  and  Le  Yerrier 
in  1846,  whose  simultaneous  but  independent  calculations 
led  to  the  predicted  existence  at  a  certain  point,  and  the 
subsequent  discovery  there,  of  the  till  then  unknown 
planet  Neptune. 

Nitrogen,  when  derived  chemically,  has  a  constant  den- 
sity differing  from  the  density  of  atmospheric  nitrosen 
by  a  constant  quantity.  It  was  the  attempt  to  explain 
this  constant  difference  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  A. 
A.  is  obtained  by  two  processes: 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARGON. 
*  In  the  first,  common  air  is  passed  over  red -hot  copper, 
which  absorbs  much  of  the  oxygen,  the  product  being 
oxide  of  copper.  The  remaining  gas,  largely  nitrogen,  is 
then  sent  through  a  combustion-tube  over  more  heated 
copper;  a  small  U-shaped  tube  containing  sulphuric  acid, 
to  indicate  the  rate  of  flow;  a  larger,  straight  tube  contain- 
ing soda-lime  and  pentoxide  of  pbosphorus,  to  absorb  any 
moisture  or  other  impurity;  and  then  another  combustion 
tube  filled  with  turnings  of  the  metal  magnesium,  also 
raised  to  intense  heat.  Magnesium  has  an  affinity  for 
nitrogen,  and  heat  favors  their  union.  The  gaseous  resi- 
due passing  thence  is  crude  argon,  the  principal  constit- 
uents of  air  having  been  almost  entirely  absorbed  on  the 
way  through  the  apparatus. 

The  second  method,  a  little  more  expeditious,  is  to  put 
ordinary  air  into  aclosed  glass  vessel  over  an  alkaline  liquid, 
add  a  certain  amount  of  free  oxygen,  and  then  send  powerful 
electric  sparks  between  the  platinum  terminals  of  suitable 
wires  lea  into  the  vessel.  By  means  of  the  intense  heat  of 
the  electric  arc  the  two  gases  are  made  to  unite  chemically, 
in  a  new  proportion,  and  form  nitrous  acid,  which  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  alkali.  Finally,  the  crude  argon  is  carefully 
refined  by  the  use  of  the  same  substances  (heated  copper, 
soda-lime,  phosphorus  pentoxide,  and  magnesium)  as  are 
employed  in  the  first  process. 

A.  is  a  colorless,  odorless  gas;  density  about  19'90,  hydro- 
gen being  the  unit.  It  is  about  two  and  a-half  times  as 
soluble  in  water  as  nitrogen,  100  volumes  of  water  dissolv- 
ing 4*05  volumes  of  A.  at  13*9''.  At  low  temperatures  and 
under  high  pressure  it  was  first  liquefied  and  solidified  by 
Prof.  K.  Olszewski  of  the  University  of  Cracow,  the  re- 
sults of  whose  experiments,  with  additional  figures  for 
comparison,  are  tabulated  as  follows,  the  term  *  critical ' 
referring  to  the  degree  of  temperature  and  amount  of  pres- 
sure requisite  to  effect  a  change  from  gaseous  to  liquid 
form: 


Name  of  sub- 
stance. 


Ilydropen  . 
Nitrogen... 
Carbonic  oz..  - 
Oxygen. 
Argon... 


If 

u 

t 

E 

«w 

af^ 

Boiling 

6C 

o 

"S^c 

ll 

if 

point. 

.5 

To 

p 

«3 

IB 

g£ 

£ 

-2900o|20-0 

t 

t 

-140-0 

:i50 

-194-4^ 

—214-0'' 

140 

0-885 

-139-5 

35-5 

-1900 

-2070 

140 

T 

—  118-8 

50-8 

-1827 

? 

16-0 

1-124 

-1210 

50-6 

-1870 

-189-6 

19-9 

About  1-5 

Color  of 
liquid. 


Colorless 

Bluis\i 
(>olorless 


Professor  William  Crookes,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  discovered  that 
in  a  vacuum-tube  A.  gives  two  distinct  spectra  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  induction  current  employed;  but, 
while  the  two  spectra  of  nitrogen  are  of  dinerent  types, 
one  being  a  line  and  the  other  a  band  spectrum,  those  of 
A.  are  both  line  spectra. 


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ARGONAUT. 

A.  is  remarkably  inert  (whence  ito  name).  At  the  time 
of  the  announcement  of  its  discovery,  none  of  its  affinities 
were  known;  but  M.  Berthelot,  a  French  chemist,  soon 
found,  not  only  that  A.  was  not  absolutely  inert,  but  that 
it  waa  chemically  active  under  normal  atmospheric  con- 
ditions. The  silent  electric  discharge  causes  it  to  com- 
bine with  various  organic  compounds,  notably  benzene.  It 
was  subsequently  extracted  chemically  by  Lord  Rayleigh 
and  Prof.  Ramsay  from  cleveite,  a  rare  Norwegian  earth, 
which  was  incidentally  found  at  the  same  time  to  contain 
helium,  a  substance  theretofore  supposed  to  exist  only  in 
the  sun  and  a  few  of  the  stars,  being  indicated  in  then: 
spectra  by  a  peculiar,  simple  yellow  line. 

Many  of  the  properties  of  A.  are  still  unknown.  Its 
discovery  opens  up  a  great  field  for  research.  In  view  of 
its  wide  distribution,  much  time  must  probably  elapse  be- 
fore its  functions  in  the  economy  of  both  organic  and  in- 
organic nature  can  be  fully  determined.  The  atomicity  of 
A.  is  a  vexed  question,  though  it  is  considered  probably 
monatomic  with  atomic  weight  40,  approximately  twice  the 
densitv.  Data  bearing  on  this  question  point  to  a  con- 
fiict  of  authority  between  the  long-accepted  periodic  law 
of  classification  of  the  elements  according  to  their  atomic 
weights,  discovered  by  Mendeleeff ,  and  conclusions  drawn 
from  the  ratio  of  specific  heat  at  constant  volume  to  that 
at  constant  pressure — thus  possibly  necessitating  modifica- 
tion of  chemical  theory.  A.  is  supposed  by  M.  Berthelot 
to  have  some  causal  connection  with  the  aurora  borealU. 

ARCJONATJT,  n.  drgd-nawt  [L.  arganau'ia:  Gr.  argo- 
nau'tes,  an  Argonaut— from -4rj7o,  JasonV^hip:  Gr.  nauUs, 
a  sailor  (see  Ajiobak)]:  one  who  sailed  in  the  diip  Argo; 
the  paper-nautilus,  a  cephalopodous  moUusk.  Aroo6t,  h. 
dr'goH  [Sp.  Argos,  the  Argo]:  a  merchan^ship  liaily 
laden;  a  large  merchant-ship. 

AR'GONAUT  (Argonauta):  genus  of  cephalapodoua 
Mollusca,  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Paper  Nautilus, 
and  in  consequence  of  similarity  in  the  form  of  the  shell, 
often  confounded  with  the  genus  Ncmlilua  (q.v.)>  ^^  ^  ^act 
much  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Poulpe  (Ocuinis).  The  shell 
is  not  chambered  like  that  of  the  true  nautilus,  but  has  one 
ipiral  cavity,  into  which  the  animal  can  entirely  withdraw 
itself.  The  animal  has  no  muscular  attachment  to  Ahe 
shell,  and  some  naturalists  therefore  suspected  that  it  might 
be  merely,  like  the  Hermit  Crab,  the  inhabitant  of  a  shell 
originally  belonging  to  some  other  animal;  but  Uiis  ques- 
tion has  been  set  at  rest  by  the  observations  of  Madame 
Power,  proving  the  beautiful  but  fragile  shell  to  be  the  pro- 
duction of  the  A.  itself.  It  has,  however,  also  been  discov- 
ered that  the  shell  is  peculiar  to  the  female  A.,  and  does  not 
answer  the  ordinary  purposes  of  the  shells  of  mollusca,  but 
rather  that  of  an  'incubating  and  protective  nest.'  The 
eggs,  which  are  very  numerous,  are  attached  to  filamentary 
stalks,  and  by  these  the  whole  compacted  mass  is  united  to 


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ARGONAUT. 

the  involuted  spire  of  the  shell,  where  it  is  usually  concealed 
by  the  body  of  the  parent.  The  descriptions,  until  recently 
admitted  into  the  works  of  the  most  reputable  naturalists, 
of  argonauts  sailing  about  in  pretty  little  fleets  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water,  employing  six  of  their  tentacuk  as 
oars,  and  speading  out  two,  which  are  broadly  expanded 


Fio.  1. 


for  the  purpose,  as  sails  to  catch  the  breeze,  are  now 
regarded  as  entirely  fabulous,  and  indeed  are  founded  upon 
a  misapprehension  of  the  position  of  the  animal  in  its  shell. 
And  of  the  use  of  the  two  expanded  arms  or  vela  (sails). 
The  membranes  of  these  arms  are  extended  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  animal,  so  as  to  envelop  the  shell,  and  appear  to  be 


Fio.  2. 

the  secreting  organs  employed  in  its  fabrication.  Two 
species  of  A.  are  common  in  the  Mediterranean.  Fig.  1 
represents  one  of  them  as  it  used  to  be  commonljr  repre 
sented  with  oars  and  sails.  Fig.  2  represents  it  as  it  really 
exists,  with  the  membranes  of  the  dorsal  arms  covering  the 
shell.  'Pie  other  arms  are  cut  oJS  At  a,  in  Fig.  2,  is  seen 
the  mass  of  eggs. 


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ARGONAUTS. 

ARGONAUTS,  dr'go-naiots:  heroes  of  Greek  antiquity 
[so  named  from  their  ship  Arg6\,  who,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, about  a  generation  before  me  Trojan  war,  undertook 
a  long  voyage  into  unknown  seas,  under  the  command  of 
Jason.  Homer  alludes  to  the  story;  Hesiod,  Mimnermus, 
Pindar,  the  Pseudo-Orpheus,  and  many  others  relate  it,  all 
in  different  ways,  the  accounts  in  some  instances  being 
utterly  irreconcilable.  The  plainest  and  most  complete 
narrative  is  that  of  Apollodorus,  as  follows:  Jason  was 
conmilssioned  by  his  uncle,  Pelias — ^who  ruled  over  lolcus, 
in  Thessaly— to  fetch  from  the  country  of  iEetes  (Colchis) 
the  golden  fleece  of  the  ram,  which  was  suspended  on  an 
oak,  and  guarded  by  a  sleepless  dragon.  He  therefore 
caused  Ar^s,  the  son  of  Phrixus,  to  build  a  ship  of  50 
oars;  and  m  pursuit  of  this  adventure  gathered  together 
the  choicest  heroes  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  50  in  number, 
with  whom  he  sailed .  The  first  landing-place  was  Lemnos, 
where  the  A.  stayed  two  years,  because  the  women,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  wrath  of  Aphrodite,  had  slain  all  the  men, 
excepting  Thoas.  Next  thev  sailed  to  the  Doliones,  and 
were  hospitably  received  by  King  Cizycus,  who  was  after- 
wards accidentally  killed  by  Jason.  After  landing  at 
Mysia,  where  they  left  Hercules  and  Polyphemus — ^who 
had  wandered  too  far  inland  in  pursuit  of  the  lost  Hylas — 
they  came  to  the  country  of  the  Bebryces,  where  King 
Amycus  was  killed  by  Pollux,  or  Polydeuces,  in  a  pugil- 
istic flght.  They  next  sailed  along  the  coast  of  Thiace  to 
Salmydessus,  where  two  of  their  number,  Zetes  and  Calais, 
having  delivered  the  blind  seer,  Phineus,  from  certain 
winced  monsters  called  Harpies,  he  in  return  gave  them 
good  counsel  respecting  their  future  adventures,  and  es- 
pecially warned  them  against  the  dangerous  passage  be- 
tween the  opening  and  closing  Symplegades,  from  which 
they  escaped  with  but  little  injury  to  their  vessel.  The 
story  goes  that  Phineus  advised  the  A.  to  let  loose  a 
dove  when  they  approached  the  dreaded  rocks,  and  to 
judge  from  its  fortune  what  they  themselves  might  ex- 
pect. The  bird  escaped  with  the  loss  of  its  tail.  The  A. 
resolved  to  risk  the  passage,  and  after  heroic  efforts  got 
safely  through,  their  ship  only  losing  some  of  the  orna- 
ments of  its  stern.  After  visiting  several  other  lands,  they 
arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Phasis  in  Colchis.  Here 
the  king,  JSetes,  promised  to  give  up  the  golden  fleece  to 
Jason,  on  condition  that  the  latter  should  yoke  to  a  plough 
the  two  fire- breathing  bulls  with  brazen  hoofs,  and  shomd 
sow  the  dragon's  teeth  left  by  Cadmus  in  Thebes.  Jason, 
by  the  help  of  the  famous  sorceress  Medea,  daughter  of 
-Jjetes,  who  had  fallen  passionately  in  love  with  the  bold 
navi^tor,  fulfilled  these  conditions;  and  was  also  assisted 
by  Medea  in  still  more  wonderful  exploits.  He  obtained 
from  her,  imder  promise  of  marriage,  a  charm  against  fire 
and  steel,  and  was  enabled  to  destroy  all  the  warriors  who 
sprang  up  from  the  land  sown  with  the  dragon's  teeth. 
While  this  was  taking  place,  ^etes  had  resolved  to  bum  Uie 
ship  Argo,  and  put  to  death  the  crew;  but  Jason,  informed 
of  the  scheme  by  Medea,  anticipated  it,  hastened  into  th« 


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ARG08— ARGUE. 

^rove,  stupefied  the  dragon-sentinel  by  an  opiate  charm 
prepared  by  Medea,  seized  the  golden  fleece,  and,  embark- 
ing in  the  Argo  with  his  mistress  and  her  brother  Absvrtus, 
sailed  away  from  Colchis  by  night,  ^etes  followed,  but 
was  hindered  in  his  pursuit  by  an  atrocity  committed  by 
his  fierce  daughter.  It  is  said  that  she  slew  her  brother  Ab- 
syrtus,  and  cut  him  into  several  pieces,  which  she  threw 
overboard,  one  at  a  time.  While  King  ^etes  stayed  to 
gather  up  the  fragments  of  his  son,  Jason  escaped  from 
the  pursuit.  The  A.  now  reached  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Eridanus;  but  were  driven  on  the  Absyrtian  Islands  by  a 
storm  sent  from  Jove  who  was  angry  on  account  of  the 
murder  of  Abortus.  Meanwhile  the  mast  of  the  Argo — 
which  had  been  cut  from  the  sacred  grove  of  Dodona — 
delivered  an  oracle  to  the  effect  that  Jove  could  not  be 
appeased  unless  they  sailed  towards  Ausonia,  and  were 
purified  through  the  expiatory  agency  of  Circe.  This  was 
accomplished;  and,  next,  the  A.  passed  by  the  Sirens,  from 
whose  charms  they  were  preserved  by  Orpheus,  who  sang 
to  them,  but  coula  not  hinder  one  of  their  number,  Butes, 
from  swimming  off  to  the  sea-maidens;  then  through  Scylla 
and  Charybdis,  by  the  help  of  Thetis,  and  at  length  landed 
on  the  island  of  Corcyra,  where  Alcinous  ruled.  On  leav- 
ing this  place,  they  encountered  a  storm  at  night,  but  were 
saved  by  Apollo,  who,  in  flashes  of  lightning,  revealed  to 
them  the  haven  of  Anaphe,  where  they  raised  an  altar  to 
their  preserver.  At  Crete,  their  landing  was  opposed  by  the 
giant  Talus,  who  was  slain  by  Medea.  They  subseouently 
touched  at  ^gina,  and,  sailing  between  Eubcea  and  Locris, 
arrived  safely  at  lolcus,  after  a  four  months'  voyage.  Jason 
dedicated  the  good  ship  Argo  to  Keptune,  at  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth. 

It  is  perhaps  useless  to  speculate  on  the  real  character  of 
the  Argonautic  expedition,  even  if  it  be  more  than  a  mere 
myth.  The  accounts  given  by  other  writers  differ  so  widely, 
especially  in  the  geographical  parts,  from  those  of  Apollo- 
dorus,  that  it  becomes  impossible  to  determine  satisfactorily 
whether  the  expedition  sailed  north,  east,  or  west.  The 
common  historical  interpretation  of  the  legend  is  that  Jason 
sailed  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  which  had  for  its  aim  and 
stimulus  the  hoi^  of  new  commercial  relations;  othera 
would  modify  this  hypothesis,  and  suggest  that  the  enter- 
prise was  partly  commercial,  partly  piratical,  and  partly 
adventurous,  and  that  Jason's  crew  was  in  all  probability 
composed  of  young,  restless,  and  ambitious  4>irits,  who 
were  ready  for  an^'thing  that  might  turn  up. 

ARGOS:  see  Argolis. 

AR€K)8T0LI,  dr-gosftd-le:  seaport  on  the  s.w.  of  Cepha- 
Ionia;  cap.  of  the  island;  lat.  88''  Kf  n.,  long.  19'  59'  e.; 
its  quay  is  a  mile  long.    Pop.  8,000. 

AR€K)T,  n.  dr-got  [P.  argot,  slang]:  one  of  the  wan- 
derers or  waifs  of  soaety;  the  secret  or  cant  language  of 
London  thieves. 

ARGOVIE:  see  Aargau. 

ARGUE,  V.  dr'gu  [L.  argu'^^,  to  declare;  P.  argtcer^ 


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ARGUELLES. 

It.  argu*r&—Ht.,  to  make  dear]:  to  debate  or  discuss;  to 
reason;  to  dispute.  Ab'guino,  imp.  Aroubd,  pp.  dr'~ 
gud,  Ab'oueb,  n.  one  who  ai^es.  Abguhent,  n.  dr'gu- 
meni,  a  reason  alleged  or  offered;  a  discussion.  Abou- 
MBHTABLB,  a.  dr' gu-meu' torbl,  that  may  be  argued.  Ab'- 
gumbnta'tion,  n.  -td'shun,  reasoning;  the  act  of  reasoning. 
Ajt'ouMEKTATiyB,  a.  'td-fi/o,  consisting  of  argument;  given 
to  argument  Aboumsk'tatively,  ad.  <lt>-/i.  Ab'qu- 
mbn'tatiybness,  n.  the  quality  of  beinf  argumentadve.— 
Syn  of  'argue':  to  debate;  dispute;  deli^rate;  discuss; 
contend;  evince;  reason;  expostulate;  remonstrate;  manifest; 

Srove; — of 'argument':  argumentation;  reason;  reasoning; 
iscussion;  controversy;  proof. 

ARGUELLES,  <Sr-^tt>^ry^,AuGU8Tm:  a  prominent  Span- 
ish politician  1776,  Aug.  28-1844.  Mar.  23.  b.  Ribadesclla. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  independence  in  1806, 
he  went  to  Cadiz,  where  he  agitated  for  tiie  organization  of 
a  regency,  with  a  free  constitution,  as  the  best  method  of 
consolidating  the  resources  of  the  nation.  In  1812,  he  was 
sent  as  representative  of  his  native  province  to  the  cortes, 
where  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
mittee to  whom  was  intrusted  the  drawing  up  of  the  plan  of 
a  new  constitution.  His  splendid  talents  as  a  public  speaker 
soon  won  him  the  admiration  of  the  liberal  party,  who  used 
to  term  him  the  Spanish  Cicero.  But  on  the  return  of 
Ferdinand  VII.,  A.  fell  a  victim  to  the  reactionary  ^irit 
which  ensued,  and,  ,1814,  May  10,  he  was  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned; but  at  his  trial  he  displayed  such  dexterity  that 
It  was  found  impossible  to  convict  him.  Different  judges 
were  nominated  five  successive  times,  but  they  could  not 
agree  in  their  decision .  At  last  the  monarch  himself  passed 
■  sentence,  which  was,  that  A.  should  be  confined  for  ten 
years  in  the  prison  at  Ceuta.  He  was  not,  however,  alone  in 
his  misfortunes.  Fourteen  persons  were  condenmed  with 
him,  among  whom  was  his  friend  Juan  Alvarez  Guerra. 
In  their  confinement  they  experienced  such  barbarous 
treatment  that  in  four  years  three  died,  two  became  mad, 
and  the  rest  received  grievous  injuries.  The  revolution  of 
1820  restored  them  to  freedom.  A.  became  minister  of 
the  interior,  but  soon  resigned,  in  consequence  of  the  kinc^ 
complaining  of  the  weakness  of  the  executive.  Although 
provoked  beyond  measure  by  the  narrow  bi^try  of  the 
court,  he  did  not  rush  into  extremes,  but  continued  a  con- 
stitutional liberal  to  the  end  of  his  life.  In  the  cortes  at 
Seville  in  1823,  he  voted  for  the  suspension  of  the  tojbV 
power;  but  after  the  violation  of  the  constitution  he  fled 
to  England,  where  he  remained  till  the  amnesty  of  1883. 
On  his  return  to  Spain,  being  nominated  to  the  cortes,  he 
was  repeatedly  made  president  and  vice-president  of  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  and  always  showed  himself  a  mod* 
erate  but  unwavering  reformer.  In  July,  1841,  on  the 
discussion  of  the  law  regarding  the  sale  of  church  prop- 
erty, he  delivered  himself  strongly  against  all  concordats 
with  the  pope.  Next  to  Espartero,  he  was  the  most  pop- 
ular man  in  the  kingdom  with  the  enlightened  party. 
During  the  regency,  he  was  appointed  guardian  to  tho 


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AHGUMENT— ARGUS. 

7?"^f  queen,  Isabella,  but  died  soon  after  at  Madrid.  In 
oa  old  age  he  still  exhibited  the  fiery  eloquence  that 
iMrkedhw  youth. 

AR'GUMENT,  in  Logic:  properly,  the  eround  or  premise 
on  which  a  conclusion  is  rested;  popularly  it  is  applied  to 
a  series  of  reasons  alleged,  or  to  a  controversy.  Argumenta- 
Ucn  is  reasoning  put  Into  regular  shape,  with  a  view  to  con- 
▼ince  or  silence  an  objector.  Logicians  have  given  dis- 
tinctiye  names  to  various  kinds  of  arguments.  Thus,  we 
have  the  Argumentum  ad  Jiominem,  which  is  no  real  proof, 
Imt  only  an  appeal  to  the  known  prepossessions  or  admis- 
sions of  the  persons  addressed.  In  this  style,  when  a  man 
upholds  one  method  of  fraud,  he  may,  by  an  appeal  to  his 
consistency,  be  driven  to  uphold  another.  The  A.  ad 
tmtatem,  again,  has  no  regard  to  anything  save  objective 
tnith.  Next  we  have  the  A.  e  am^ensu  gentium,  or  an  ap- 
peal to  the  common  belief  of  mankind,  which,  of  course, 
may  be  used  to  prove  or  disprove  anything.  The  A.  a  tuto 
rests  upon  the  supposed  safety  or  prudence  of  adopting  a 
certain  conclusion.  It  is  son.  Himes  used  by  Roman  Catho- 
lics against  Protestants  in  the  following  form:  Protestants 
teach  that  salvation  is  possible  in  any  church;  this  is  denied 
hy  Catholics;  therefore,  ivia  safer  to  belong  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  as  even  the  Protestant  admits  that  a  man  may  be 
saved  in  that  church.  Lastly,  the  Argumentum  a  haculo 
(or  use  of  the  cudgel), though  objectionable,  may  be  called 
concise  in  its  style,  and  has  settled  many  controversies. 

ARGUMENTUM  AD  HOM'INEM:  see  Argument. 

ARGUS,  n.  dr'gus:  in  Gr.  and  L.  Myth.,  son  of  2^us  and 
Kiobe,  succeeded  Phoroneus  in  the  government  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  which  took  from  him  its  name  of  Argos,  as 
did  also  the  territoiy  of  Argolis. 

Argu6„  a  fabled  being  sumamed  Panoptes  (all-seeing), 
had  one  hundred  eyes,  eome  of  which  were  always  awake. 
He  was  enormously  strong,  and  on  account  of  his  wonderful 
exploits  Juno  appointed  him  to  watch  over  lo,  transformed 
into  a  cow.  Mercury  heiv<r  coTnmissioned  by  Zeus  to  carry 
off  the  cow,  slew  A.  by  stoning  him;  or,  as  Ovid  says,  first 
charmed  him  to  sleep  by  playing  on  the  flute,  and  then 
beheaded  him.  Juno  used  the  eyes  of  A.  to  decorate  the 
peacock's  tail.  The  name  A.  is  used  to  designate  a  very 
Watchful  person. 

Argub:  the  builder  of  the  ship  Argo.  See  Argonauts. 

ARtJUS  or  Argus  Pheasant:  genus  of  gallinaceous 
birds,  remarkable  for  magnificence  of  plumage.  The  only 
luiown  species  is  A.  gigantevs,  formerly  called  Phasianus 
-^i  and  still,  very  generally,  the  A.  pheasant.  The  sides 
of  the  head  and  neck  are  destitute  of  feathers;  the  tail 
consists  of  twelve  feathers,  of  which  the  two  middle  ones 
m  the  male  are  very  much  elongated ;  the  secondary 
jj^Aers  of  the  wings  are  much  longer  than  the  primary. 
The  name  A.  has  allusion  to  the  many  beautiful  eye-like 
^^•rkinM  which  adorn  the  plumage  of  the 'male,  and 
P^rticug^riy  the  secondaries  of  the  wings.  The  long 
•^^udaries  are  said  to  impede  the  flight  of  the  bird;  bul 


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ARGUTE— ARGYLL. 

its  win^  are  much  employed  to  aid  it  in  running.  The 
female  is  of  comparatively  tame  plumage,  not  only  want- 
ing the  eye-like  markings,  hut  even  the  ffreat  length  of  the 
secondanes  and  of  the  middle  tail-feathers.  The  size  of 
the  hird,  when  divested  of  its  plumage,  is  not  much  greater 
than  that  of  a  common  ham-door  fowl,  but  the  tail-feathers 


Argus  Pheasant  {A.  giganteus). 

of  the  male  are  nearly  four  ft.  long.  The  A.  is  a  native 
of  Sumatra  and  other  eastern  islan£,  of  the  peninsula  of 
Malacca,  Siam,  etc.  It  is  said  to  be  found  even  in  the  n. 
parts  of  China.  It  is  impatient  of  confinement,  and  has 
very  seldom  been  brought  alive  to  Europe. 

ARGUTE,  a.  dr'ffut  [L.  argutus,  sharp,  piercing]: 
acute;  shrewd;  subtile.  Abgutb'ness,  n.  acutcaess  or 
wittiness. 

ARGYLL,  dr-gU',  Archibald  Cahpbell,  Marquis  of, 
1508-1661:  an  eminent  political  character  of  the  17th  c; 
succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  A.  1688.  Already  he  had 
shown  that  religious  principle  which  marked  his  whole 
life,  and  that  perilous  union  of  attachment  to  the  king  and 
of  faith  in  the  principles  against  which  the  king  made  war. 
In  the  general  assembly  at  Glasgow,  1688,  Nov.,  he  <)penly 
took  the  side  of  the  Covenanters,  and  thenceforth  be- 
came recognized  as  their  political  head.  In  1640^  he  com- 
manded a  military  expedition  through  Badenoch,  Athole, 
Mar,  and  Angus,  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  subjection 
to  the  Scottish  parliament.  On  the  king's  mit  to  Scot- 
land, in  1641,  he  found  it  convenient  to  show  peculiar 
favor  to  A.,  and  created  him  a  marquis.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  hostilities,  A.  was  still  desirous  for  negotiation,  but 
was  finally  <x)mpelled  to  take  the  field.  In  April,  1644,  he 
dispersed  the  royalist  forces  under  the  Marquis  of  Huntly, 
in  Aberdeenshire.    He  was  less  successful  in  withstanding 


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ARGYLL. 

the  genius  of  Montrose,  who,  1645,  Feb.  2,  almost  anni- 
hilated his  anny  at  Inverlochy.  His  estates  had  suffered 
8o  much  in  the  preceding  year  from  the  ravages  of  the 
brilliftnt  cavalier,  that  a  sum  of  public  money  was  voted 
for  his  support.  In  Aug.,  1646,  he  went  to  London,  with 
Loudon  and  Dunfermline,  to  treat  with  the  parliament  for 
a  mitigation  of  the  articles  presented  to  the  king.  He  was 
at  the  same  time  the  bearer  of  a  secret  commission  from 
the  king  to  treat  with  the  Duke  of  Richmond  and  the 
Marquis  cf  Hertford,  on  the  propriety  of  a  Scottish  dem- 
onstration in  favor  of  Charles.  On  the  defeat  of  the 
'Engagement'  plan,  to  which  he  had  been  decidedly  op* 
pos(3,  the  government  of  Scotland  devolved  on  A.  and  the 
other  Presbyterian  leaders.  In  the  parliament  of  Feb. 
1649,  Charles  II.  was  proclamed  kinf,  and  at  Scone,  1651, 
Jan.  1,  A.  put  the  crown  on  his  head.  At  this  time  it  was 
even  said  that  the  complaisant  monarch  intended  to  marry 
one  of  his  daughters.  As  head  of  the  committee  of  estates, 
A.  took  vigorous  measures  to  oppose  Cromwell's  invasion 
of  Scotland,  and  still  adhered  to  the  kin^,  after  the  sub- 
lugation  of  the  coimtry.  After  the  battle  of  Worcester, 
he  retired  to  Inverary,  where  he  held  out  for  a  year  against 
Cromweirs  troops.  Falling  sick,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
General  Dean.  He  refused  submission  to  the  Protector, 
hut  took  an  engagement  to  leave  peaceably,  which  he 
strictly  kept.  On  the  Restoration,  he  repaired  to  White- 
hall, encouraged  by  a  flattering  letter  from  the  king  to  his 
son.  Impeached  with  the  crime  of  having  submitted  to 
the  usurper  (to  whom  he  had  refused  allegiance),  he  was 
conunitted  to  the  Tower,  and  1661,  Feb.  18,  was  brought 
before  the  Scottish  parliament  on  the  charge  of  treason. 
He  defended  himself  with  spirit,  but  in  vain.  He  was 
condenmed,  and  suffered  death  at  Edinburgh,  May  27, 
having  displayed  dignity  and  meekness  through  his  trial, 
and  on  the  scaffold. 

ARGYLL,  Abchibald  (Campbell),  9th  Earl  of:  son  of 
Archibald  Campbell,  Marquis  of  A.:  was  early  distin- 
guished by  personal  accomplishments,  and  exhibited  great 
Dravery  on  the  disastrous  day  of  Dunbar,  where  he  com- 
manded a  regiment  on  the  royal  side.  After  Worcester, 
he  continued,  like  his  father,  in  arms,  and  made  himself 
80  obnoxious  to  the  parliamentary  leaders,  that  he  waa 
specially  excepted  by  Cromwell  from  the  act  of  grace  in 
1654. .  After  much  harassing  persecution,  he  submitted 
to  the  parliament,  but  continued  to  be  closely  watched. 
On  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  he  was  received  in^ 
high  ^vor  (as  a  balance  to  the  execution  of  the  death 
sentence  on  his  father),  and,  unfortunately  for  his  own 
fame,  participated  in  some  of  the  iniquitous  acts  of  the 
Scottish  legislature.  He  had,  however,  numerous  and 
active  enemies;  and,  on  the  ground  of  an  intercepted 
letter,  in  which  he  had  complained  of  neglect,  he  was  tried 
and  condemned  to  death  by  the  Scottish  parliament  for 
the  imaginary  crime  of  IcBsa  majestas.  The  influence  of 
Clarendon  restored  him  to  liberty  and  favor;  even  the 
king  himself  was  favorable  to  him;  but  his  explanation  in 


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ARGYLL. 

subscribing  tiie  iu famous  test  framed  by  the  Scottish 
parliament  in  1681  was  declared  treasonable,  and  he  was 
again  condemned  to  death.  The  devotion  of  his  -wife 
enabled  him  to  escape  from  Edinburgh  Castle  in  the  dis- 

fuise  of  a  paffc;  and  after,  remaining  concealed  some  time, 
e  fled  to  Holland.  Landing  in  the  n.  of  Scotland,  1685, 
May,  with  an  armed  force,  to  co-operate  in  the  revolt  of 
Monmouth,  he  was,  after  a  series  of  misfortunes,  taken 
prisoner,  hastily  condemned,  and  beheaded  1685,  June  30. 
His  son  Archibald,  one  of  the  deputation  sent  by  the  Scot- 
tish convention  to  present  the  crown  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  was  created  Duke  of  Argyll,  1701. 

ARGYLL,  George  John  Douglas  (CAMPBSiiii),  8th 
Duke  of:  b.  1828;  succeeded  his  father  in  1847.  At  the 
age  of  19,  his  grace,  then  Marquis  of  Lome,  wrote  a  pam- 
phlet entitled -4  Letter  to  the  Peers  from  a  Peer's  Son,  on  the 
subject  of  the  struggle  which  ended  in  the  disntption  of 
the  Scottish  Church.  Seven  years  later  he  published  an 
essay  on  Presb)rtery,  which  contains  a  historical  vindica- 
tion of  the  Presbyterian  system.  On  taking  his  seat  in  the 
house  of  peers,  he  soon  commanded  the  respect  of  that  dig- 
nified assembly.  On  the  formation  of  the  coalition  min- 
istry  by  Lord  Aberdeen,  his  ^race  was  invested  with  the 
office  of  Lord  Privy  Seal,  which  he  continued  to  hold  in 
Lord  Palmerston  's  administration.  In  1855,  he  became  poet- 
master-general.  In  Palmerston's  next  ministiy,  formed 
in  1859,  he  again  successively  held  the  same  office.  Mr. 
Gladstone  appointed  him  secretary  of  state  for  India  in  1868 
and  again  in  1880.  He  resigned  office  in  1881,  disapproving 
the  Irish  Land  Bill.  In  1874,  he  had  supported  the  aboli- 
tion of  patronage  in  the  Church  of  Scotland.  In  1854,  he 
was  chosen  lord  rector  of  the  Univ.  of  Glasgow:  in  1855, 
presided  at  a  meeting  of  the  British  Assoc,  in  that  city;  and 
m  1861,  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Soc.  of  Edin- 
burgh. His  grace  is  hereditary  master  of  the  queen  *8  house- 
hold in  Scotland,  chancellor  of  the  Univ.  of  St.  Andrews, 
a  trustee  of  the  British  Museum,  also  hereditary  sheriiBf 
and  lord-lieut.  of  'Argyleshire.  Besides  numerous  papers 
on  zoology,  geology,  etc.,  he  has  written  The Betgntf  Law^ 
1866;  Primeval  Man,  1869;  and,  in  1870,  A  IBsUiry  cf  the 
Antiquities  of  lona.  An  iinportant  work  by  him  on  the 
Unity  cf  Nature  appeared  1884.  His  eldest  son,  the  Mar- 
quis of  Lome,  married  the  princess  Louise  in  1871;  and  in 
1878  was  appointed  governor-general  of  Canada.  (In  the 
ducal  title  A.  w;is  formerly  spelt  Argyle.) 

ARGYLL,  John  (Campbell),  2d  Duke  of:  1678-1748, 
Sept.  8:  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  A.:  took  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  political  and  military^ffairs  of  his  time. 
As  royal  commissioner  in  1705,  he  had  a  principal  share  in 
bringing  about  the  Act  of  Union.  As  a  soldier,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  under  Marlborough  atRamilies,  Ouden- 
arde,  Lille,  Ghent,  and  Malplaquet.  Previous  to  the 
change  of  ministry  in  1710,  A.  had  been  a  keen  whig.  He 
now  veered  with  the  wind  of  the  court,  and  became  a 
declaimer  against  the   Duke  of  Marlborough.    As  the 


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ARGYLESHIRK 

reward  of  his  apostasy,  he  was  appointed  by  the  torles 
generalisBimo  of  the  British  army  in  Spain;  but  considering 
himself  unhandsomely  treated  by  the  ministry,  he  shortly 
afterwards  returned,  and  findinj^  his  influence  greatly  di- 
minished, he  again  became  a  whig.  His  career  up  to  the 
rebellion  of  1715  was  most  tortuous  and  imprincipled,  and 
seriously  detracts  from  his  meritorious  services  during  that 
critical  period.  He  was,  however,  completely  successful 
in  quelling  disturbances,  and  his  services  were  rewarded 
in  1718,  among  other  dignities,  with  an  English  peerage, 
and  the  title  of  Duke  of  Greenwich.  His  restless  vanity 
and  ambition,  however  constantly  prompted  him  to 
political  intrigues.  In  1721,  he  again  played  into  the 
hands  of  the  tories,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  entire 
patronage  of  Scotland.  In  1787,  he  rose  into  immense 
popularity  in  his  own  coimtry,  by  his  spirited  defense 
before  parliament  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh  in  regard  to 
the  Porteous  mob.  He  died  on  the  8d  Sept.  17&.  He 
was  a  man  of  lax  principles  and  selfish  character,  but  pos< 
sessedof  considerable  snrewdnesB  and  talent,  and  noted 
for  kindness  and  courtesy  in  private  life,  which  procured 
hun  the  title  of  "the  good  Duke  of  Argyll ." 

ARGYLE8HIRE,  dr-gU'aJUr  [Airer-Oaedhil,  territory  of 
the  Gki«l]:  a  county  in  the  w.  of  Scotland,  cut  up  into 
many  peninsulas  by  arms  of  the  sea,  and  including  numer- 
ous islands.  It  is  bounded  n.  by  Inverness-shire;  w.  and 
8.  by  the  sea;  e.  by  Perthshire,  Dumbarton,  Loch  Long, 
and  Firth  of  Clyde.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  115  m. ; 
greatest  breadth,  about  60  m. ;  its  extent  of  coast-line  is 
very  great,  amounting  to  668  m.,  owing  to  the  indentation 
of  the  coast  by  numerous  lochs  running  inland.  Next  to 
Inverness,  it  is  the  largest  county  in  Scotland— area,  8,210 
sq.  m.,  of  which  1,063  are  occupied  by  the  numerous  isl- 
ands. No  part  is  above  12  m.  from  the  sea  or  from  large 
inland  lochs.  The  county  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
Cantire,  North  and  South  Areyle,  Lorn,  Appin,  Cowal, 
Morven.  and  Sunart.  The  chief  islands  are  Mull,  Islay, 
Jura,  Tiree,  Coll,  Lismore,  and  Colonsay,  with  lona  and 
Stafta.  There  are  upwards  of  thirty  other  islands  of 
smaller  size.  The  general  aspect  of  A.  is  wild  and  pic- 
turesque, marked  by  rugged  and  lofty  mountains  and 
deep  mland  h&yB.  There  are  some  fertile  valleys.  The  n. 
partis  entirely  mountainous,  and  presents  some  of  the 
grandest  scenery  in  Scotland,  as  Glencoe.  The  highest 
•peaks  are  Bidean  nam  Bian,  8,766  ft.;  Benloy,  8,706;  Ben 
Cruachan,  8,689;  Ben  Starav,  8,541;  Ben  Doran,  8,628; 
Buachaille  Etive,  8,845;  Ben-a-Bheithir,  8,862;  Culvain, 
8,224;  Sgor  Dhomhail,  2,915;  Ben  More  (Mull),  8,185. 
The  chief  bays  are  (going  south) — Loch  Moidart,  Loch 
Sunart,  Linn  he  Loch,  branching  off  into  Loch  Eil  and 
Loch  Leven,  Loch  FVne,  and  Loch  Long.  There  are  no 
rivers  of  any  size.  The  streams  are  short  and  rapid,  the 
principal  being  the  Urchay,  running  through  Glenorchy 
into  Loch  Awe,  and  the  Awe,  connecting  that  lake  with 
Loch  Etive.  The  inland  or  fresh-water  lochs  are  Loch 
Awe  and  Loch  Lydoch.    The  rocks  of  A  are  mica-slate. 


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ARGYNNjS-AKIA. 
which  predominates  on  the  maiolanri:  trap  in  Mull  and 
Lorn;  quartz  rock  in  Islay  and  Jura;  granite  around  Loch 
Etive  and  in  Knapdale;  patches  of  lias  and  oolite  in  many 
of  the  isles;  and  a  little  old  red  sandstone  w.  of  Loch 
Fyne  and  in  South  Cantire.  Lead-mines  occur  at  Stron- 
tian  (where  the  mineral  Strontianite  was  discovered,  and 
from  which  the  nai^es  of  the  earth  called  StronUa  and  the 
metal  Strontium  are  derived),  at  Tyndrum,  and  in  Islay 
and  Coll.  There  is  a  copper-mine  in  Islay.  The  Easdale 
and  Ballachulish  quarries  supply  the  best  roofing-slates  in 
Scotland.  Coal  occurs  near  Campbelton;  fine  marble  in 
Tiree,  etc.;  excellent  wtinite  near  Inverary;  and  lime- 
stone in  most  parts  of  tne  county.  The  fertile  parts  of  A. 
lie  along  the  arms  of  the  sea  and  the  mountain  streams. 
The  soil  is  mostly  a  light,  sandy,  and  gravelly  loam,  along 
the  coasts  and  the  sides  of  rivers,  and  gravelly,  with  a  till 
bottom,  on  the  hillsides.  Sheep  and  cattle  rearing  are  the 
chief  occupations  of  the  farmer.  More  sheep  are  reared 
in  A.  than  in  any  other  Scotch  county,  and  nearly  a  million 
acres  are  in  permanent  pasture.  In  number  of  cattle,  A. 
yields  only  to  the  counties  of  Aberdeen,  Ayr,  Lanark,  and 
Ferth.  In  1881,  A.  had  24,481  acres  under  grain,  and 
12,990  under  green  crops,  as  well  as  60,154  acres  under 
permanent  pasture,  exclusive  of  heath,  or  mountain  land. 
A.  abounds  in  deer  and  game.  Loch  Fy^^e  is  famed  for 
its  herrings.    Loch  Awe  abounds  in  salmon  and  trout. 

In  many  parts  of  A.  the  peasantry  are  6till  very  i>oor, 
notwithstanding  that  steamers  now  connect  every  portion 
of  the  coast  with  the  commercial  centre  of  Scotlaiaa.  The 
manufactures  are  unimportant,  the  chief  being  whisky,  in 
Campbelton  and  Islay,  and  coarse  woolens  for  home  xkso. 
The  chief  towns  and  villages  are  Inverary,  Campbelton, 
Oban,  Dunoon,  Lochgilphead,  Tarbeit,  and  Tobermory. 
The  three  former  unite  with  A3rr  and  Irvine  in  returning 
one  member  to  parliament;  the  county  returns  another. 
This  extensive  county  is  divided  ecclesiastically  into  not 
more  than  fifty  parishes,  which  contain  only  two  royal 
burghs,  Inverary  and  Campbelton,  the  former  of  which  ia 
a  station  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  Justiciary.  The  prin- 
cipal proprietors  are  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  the  head,  and 
the  Earl  of  Breadalbane,  a  branch  of  me  Campbell  family. 
Among  the  antiquities  of  A.  are  the  ruins  of  lona  and 
Oronsay,  and  many  duns,  or  circular  forts,  along  the  coast. 
In  Cantire  formerly  lived  the  Macdonalds,  or  Lords  of  the 
Isles,  whose  power  was  weakened  by  James  III.  Pop.  • 
(1871)  76,679 ;  (1881)  76,440,  mostly  using  the  GaeUo 
language;  a -considerable  decrease  since  1881,  chiefly  from 
emigrntion;  (1891)  74,085. 

ARGYKNIS:  a  name  of  Venus  (q.v.). 

ARIA,  n.  dT'i'ii  [It.  arid;  F.  air,  breath— from  L.  d^, 
air]:  an  air  or  tune,  in  muMc;  a  rhythmical  song,  as  dis- 
tinct from  recitative.  The  term  was  formerly  applied  to 
a  measured  lyrical  piece  either  for  one  or  several  voices; 
but  is  now  commonly  applied  to  a  sons  introduced  in  a 
cantata,  oratorio,  or  opera,  and  intended  for  one  voic« 


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ARIADNE— ARIANO. 

supported  by  instruments.  Arietta  or  Aribttb,  a  short 
melody  or  tune.  Arioso,  a  passage  in  the  style  of  the  A., 
often  introduced  into  recitative.  A.  Btjbto,  a  comic 
•ong,  etc. 

ARIADNE,  d'ri-ddni:  in  Legend,  daughter  of  Minos, 
king  of  Crete,  bv  Pasiphae.  When  Theseus,  with  the 
offerings  of  the  Athenians  for  the  Minotaur,  landed  in 
Crete,  A.  conceiyed  a  passion  for  the  beautiful  stranger, 
ftnd  gave  him  a  clew  by  means  of  which  he  threaded  the 
mazes  of  the  labyrinth,  and  was  enabled  to  slay  the  mon- 
ster. For  this  service  Theseus  promised  to  marry  h«r, 
and  she  escaped  with  him,  but  was  slain  by  Diana  on  the 
idaDd  of  Naxos. — According  to  another  tradition,  A.  was 
left  by  Theseus  at  Naxos,  where  she  was  foimd  by  Bac- 
chus returning  from  his  triumph  in  India,  who  was  cap- 
tivated by  her  beauty,  and  married  her.  At  her  death  he 
gave  her  a  place  among  the  gods,  and  suspended  her 
wedding-crown  as  a  constellation  in  the  sky.  A.,  as  left 
forsaken  by  Theseus,  and  as  married  to  Sacchus,  has  been 
a  favorite  subject  with  artists. 

ARIALDU8,  a-H-al'dus:  a  deacon  of  the  church  of 
Milan,  during  the  11th  c;  prominent  in  the  ecclesiastical 
contentions  of  his  times.  The  Rom.  Cath.  Church  in  the 
n.  of  Italy  was  then  very  corrupt,  a  wide-spread  licen- 
tiousness, originating  from  the  unnatural  institution  of 
priestly  celibacy,  prevailing.  Great  numbers  of  the  cler^ 
kept  concubines  openly.  Such  as  looked  earnestly  m 
those  days  at  this  flagrant  evil  were  disposed  to  consider 
the  strict  enforcement  of  celibacy  the  only  effectual  cure. 
Chief  among  these  reformers  stood  A.,  whose  life  was  one 
continued  scene  of  violent  controversy.  Although  suc- 
cessively sanctioned  by  Popes  Stephen  X.,  Nicholas  II., 
*nd  Alexander  U.,  he  found  little  sympathy  among  his 
brethren,  and  used  to  complain  that  he  could  get  only 
l&ymen  to  assist  him  in  his  agitation.  Having  at  len^h 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  papal  bull  of  excommunication 
^piust  the  Abp.  of  Milan,  a  fierce  tumult  ensued  in  the 
city,  whose  inhabitants  declared  against  A.  and  his  coad- 
jutors. A.  now  fled  to  the  country;  but  his  hiding-place 
being  betrayed,  he  was  conveyed  captive  to  a  desert  isle 
"^  Lake  Maggiore,  where  he  was  murdered  by  the  emis- 
JJjesof  the  abp.,  and  his  remains  thrown  into  the  lake, 
*w6,  June  28.  He  was  afterwards  canonized  by  Pope 
^exander  U. 

ARIAN,  n.  d'rirdn: .  one  adhering  to  the  doctrines  of 
*h  T&  ^^^  tau^t  that  Jesus  was  inferior  to  Qod,  and  that 
jT  Holy  Spirit  is  not  Qod:  Adj.  pertaining  to  Arius. 
^^'^I'lSM,  n.  d'Hdn4em,  the  doctrines  of  the  Arians.    See 

^^ttA'NA:  see  Abyak  Race. 
Qi'^^ANO,  d-re-d'nd  (Arianum):  city  of  s.  Italy,  province 
fo^^^elino,  beautifully  situated,  2,800  ft.  above  the  sea, 
50  ^^  of  the  most  frequented  passes  of  the  Apennines-, 
<j„5^-  n.e.  from  Naples.  It  is  a  bishop's  seat,  and  nas  a 
^^  dihedral.    Pop.  1?.  600. 


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ARIAS  MONTANUS— ARlfeGE. 

ARIAS  MONTANTJS,  a'ri-ds  mdn-td'n^,  BEifEDicrrus: 
1527-1 5d8:  b.  in  the  village  of  Frexenaldela  Sieija,  among 
the  mountains  separating  Estremadura  from  AndaJusia:  a 
Rom.  Cath.  divine,  noted  as  a  linguist.  He  studied  at 
Seville  and  Alcald  de  Henares,  where  he  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  acquisition  of  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Chaldee.  On 
a  tour  through  Italy,  France,  Germany,  England,  and  the 
Netherlands,  he  obtained  a  knowledge  of  various  modem 
tongues.  He  was  at  the  celebrated  Council  of  Trent;  but 
on  his  return  to  his  own  country  he  gave  his  whole  time  to 
literature.  In  1568,  Philip  II.  persuaded  him  to  superintend 
At  Antwerp  the  publication  of  the  famous  edition  of  the 
*  Polyglot  Bible,*  executed  in  that  city  at  the  suggestion  of 
the  printer,  Christopher  Plantin.  After  four  years*  labor 
the  work,  issued  under  the  title  Biblia  Sacral  HebrcUce, 
Chaldaice,  Qrcsce,  et  Latine,  PhiUppi  11.  Regis  CcMoUd 
Fietate  et  Studio  ad  Saerosancim  Ecclemm  Usum  Chph,  JPlan^ 
tinus  excudebat,  was  received  with  universal  applause; 
though  the  Jesuits,  to  whom  A.  was  strenuously  opposed, 
alone  attempted  to  fasten  the  charge  of  heresy  on  the  author, 
who  made  several  joume3r8  to  Rome  to  clear  himself  of  the 
accusation.  Philip  II.  rewarded  him  with  a  pension  of 
2,000  ducats,  besides  various  other  emoluments.  He  died  at 
Seville.  His  literary  works  are  very  numerous.  They  re- 
late principally  to  the  Bible  and  to  Jewish  antiquities;  but 
he  also  wrote  a  poem  on  Rhetoric,  and  a  History  of  Kature. 

ARICA,  d-refkd:  seaport  of  Tachna.  the  most  s.  depart- 
ment of  Peru;  lat.  18**  28'  s.,  long.  70"  24'  w.  Though 
it  has  merely  a  roadstead,  it  affords  safe  anchorage  to 
shipping,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  outlets  of  the  trade  of 
Bolivia,  being  connected  with  La  Paz  in  that  republic  by 
a  mulepath  which  leads  across  the  west  Cordillera  of  the 
Andes.  Its  exports  mostly  con»i8t  of  copper,  silver,  alpaca. 
wood,  and  guano.  A.  has  frequently  suffered  from  earth- 
quakes; a  most  destructive  one  occured  In  1868.  It  'was 
stormed  and  taken  by  the  Chilians  in  1880,  and  afterwards 
set  on  fire.  About  280  vessels  of  some  260,000  tons  enter 
this  port  annuallv,  and  about  the  same  number  clear  it 
with  cargoes.  The  climate  is  salubrious.  Pop.  about 
4,000.  The  dept.  of  Tacna  is  now  held  by  Chile  (q-v  ). 

ARICHAT,  d-re-shdt':  seaport  of  Cape  Breton  Island, 
province  of  Nova  Scotia,  with  a  harbor  for  the  largest  ves 
sels.  It  is  near  the  Gut  of  Canso,  the  most  southerly  of 
three  channels  of  communication  between  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  Atlantic.  The  town  is  largely  engaged 
in  fishing,  and  at  the  head  of  its  harbor  a  lead-mine  nas 
recently  been  opened.    Pop.  abt.  1,000. 

ARID,  a.  arid  [L.  artdus,  dry:  F.  arids]:  dry;  devoid  of 
moisture.  Ariditt.  n.  d-rid'i-ti,  or  Ab'idness,  n.  diyness; 
want  of  moisture. 

ARID  AS,  dr'i-dds  [from  some  of  the  Indian  langoams]: 
a  kind  of  taffeta  from  the  East  Indies  woven  of  fibres  from 
various  plants. 

ARI^GE,  or  ARRiBaB,  d're-Mi':  river  in  the  s.  of  France^ 


Digitized  by  LjOOglC 


ARIES-ARION. 

ftees  In  the  dept.  of  the  East  Pyrenees,  flows  through  a 
beautiful  vale,  and  falls  into  the  Garonne  near  Toulouse. 

The  dept.  of  Ariege,  along  the  n.  slopes  of  the  Pyre- 
nees,  fonned  a  part  of  the  old  county  of  Foix,  the  terri 
tory  of  Couserans,  and  the  province  of  Languedoc; 
bounded  n.  and  w.  by  Haute  Garonne,  e.  by  Aude,  s.  by 
the  republic  of  Andorra  and  the  Pyrenees.  It  contains 
some  of  the  highest  mountain-summits  in  France,  such  as 
Fontargente,  9,164  ft.;  Serr^re,  9,592  ft. ;  Montcalm,  10,518 
ft.;  Ertats,  10.611  ft.;  Montvalier,  9,120  ft.  The. dept., 
nevertheless,  has  a  mild  climate.  Area  1,880  sq.  miles.  The 
inhabitants  are  engaged  chiefly  in  agriculture,  pasturage; 
iron  mines,  and  the  manufacture  of  woolens,  linen,  pot 
tery,  etc.  The  three  arrondissements  are  Foix,  Pamiers, 
and  St.  Qirons.  Chief  towns— Foix,  Pamiers,  St.  Girons. 
Pop.  of  A.  (1891)  227.491.. 

ARIES,  n.  dr^i-ez  [L.  a  ram,  an  anc.  battering-ram]:  the 
Ram;  one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  including  the  first  80 
degrees  of  the  ecliptic  measured  from  the  vernal  equinox, 
or  that  point  where  the  vernal  passage  of  the  sun  across 
the  equator  takes  place.  The  vernal  equinox,  or,  as  it  is 
also  called,  the  first  point  of  A.,  is  constantly  changing  its 
position  among  the  fixed  stars,  in  consequence  of  the  pre- 
cession of  the  equinoxes,  moving  w.  at  the  rate  of  50' -2 
annually.  It  is  from  this  circmnstance  that  the  sign  A. 
no  longer  corresponds  with  the  constellation  A.,  as  when, 
about  2,000  years  a^,  the  ecliptic  was  divided  into  12 
equal  parts  called  signs,  each  named  after  the  group  of 
stars  through  which  it  passed.  The  present  sign  A.  is  in 
the  constellation  Pisces,  about  80*  w.  of  the  original  sign; 
and  although  the  sun  at  the  vernal  equinox  will  always  be 
at  the  first  point  of  A.,  yet  nearly  24,000  years  will  elapse 
before  that  point  will  again  coincide  with  the  beginning 
of  the  constellation  A. 

ARIGHT,  ad.  d-rU  [AS.  ariht,  on  right]:  in  a  proper 
form;  rightly;  without  mistake. 

ARIL,  n,  dr-W,  or  Arillus,  n.  dr-Ulus  [F.  anile,  an 
arillus:  Sp.  arillo,  a  small  hoop^from  aro,  a  hoop — from 
L.  aridus,  dry]:  a  peculiar  covering  of  the  seed  in  some 
plants,  formed  by  an  expansion  of  the  funiculus  (the  cord 
which  attaches  the  ovule  to  the  placenta),  or  of  the  placenta 
itself,  as  in  the  pulpy  A.  of  the  white  water-lilies  and  pas- 
sion-flowers, and  in  the  hairs  of  the  willow-seed.  This 
expansion  takes  place  after  fertilization,  and  sometimes  in- 
vests the  seed  entirely,  sometimes  only  partially.  Arilled, 
a,  dr-Ud!,  or  Arilate,  a.  dr-U'dt,  having  an  aril.  Aril 
LODE,  n.  dr'U'Od  [Gr.  eidos,  resemblancej:  an  investment, 
somewhat  similar  to  the  A.,  but  derived  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  micropyle,  as  in  the  mace  of  the  nutmeg, 
and  the  brightly  colored  investment  of  the  seed  of  the 
8pind!e-tree. 

ARIN08,  d-re'n6s:  river  of  Brazil,  which  after  a  n.w. 
course  of  700  m.,  enters  the  Tapajos,  itself  an  affluent  ol 
the  Amazon;  lat.  9^  80'  s.,  and  long.  58'  20'  w. 

AHI'ON:  a  celebrated  lute-player,  native  of  Methynma, 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARI08T0. 

in  Lesbos,  about  B.C.  700:  regarded  by  the  aneienio  as  the 
inventor  of  the  dithyrambie  metre.  According  to  a  tradi- 
tion first  given  by  Herodotus,  afterwards  decorated  by  the 
poets,  A.  was  sent  by  Periander,  ruler  of  Corinth,  to 
Sicily  and  Italy,  and  at  Tarentiun  won  the  prize  in  a  poeti- 
cal contest.  As  he  returned  laden  with  gifts  in  a  Corinth- 
ian ship,  the  avaricious  mariners  determined  to  slay  him 
and  seize  his  wealth;  of  this  the  poet-musician  was  fore- 
warned by  Apollo  in  a  dream.  lie  asked  for  permission 
to  try  his  skill  in  music;  and  after  playing  on  his  lute, 
threw  himself  from  the  deck  into  the  sea.  Here  several 
dolphins,  charmed  bv  his  music,  had  assembled  round  the 
ves.sel.  On  the  back  of  one  of  them  the  musician  rode 
safely  to  the  promontorjr  of  Tcenarus,  where  he  landed, 
and  journeyed  on  to  Corinth.  The  sailors,  who,  arriving 
afterwards,  assured  Periander  that  A.  was  dead,  were  con- 
fronted with  him,  when  they  confessed  their  guilt,  and 
were  crucified.  The  lute  and  dolphin  were  raised  among 
the  constellations;  and  the  story  became  a  favorite  theme 
with  artists.  A.  W.  Schlegel,  in  one  of  his  best  poems, 
gives  this  story  of  A. 

ARIOSTO,  A-re-OB'to,  Ludovioo:  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Italian  poets:  1474,  Sep.  8—1538,  June  6;  b.  Reggio;  eldest 
son  of  the  military  governor  of  that  city.  He  was  bred  to 
the  law,  but  abandoned  it  for  poetry.  However,  at  an 
early  period  of  life,  he  was  compelled  to  exert  himself  for 
the  support  of  a  large  family,  left  as  a  burden  on  him  at 
the  death  of  his  father.  His  imaginative  powers  were  de- 
veloped in  early  life.  In  1503,  after  he  had  written  two 
comedies,  with  several  lyrical  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian, 
he  was  introduced  to  the  court  of  the  Cardinal  Hippolytus 
d'£ste,  who  employed  him  in  many  negotiations.  Here, 
in  Ferrara,  in  about  ten  years,  he  produced  his  great  poem 
Orlando  FuriosOt  pub.  in  that  city,  m  one  vol.  4to,  in  1516,  in 
forty  cantos.  After  the  death  of  the  cardinal,  the  duke, 
his  brother,  invited  the  poet  to  his  service,  and  acted  to 
him  with  great  kindness  and  liberality.  In  the  early  part 
of  1521,  a  second  edition  of  his  poems  was  published,  the 
Orlando  Furiono  being  still  in  forty  cantos.  Shortly  after 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  duke  to  suppress  an  insurrec* 
tion  which  had  broken  out  in  the  wild  mountain -district 
of  Gkirfagnana;  a  task  which  seems  more  like  a  punish- 
ment than  a  mark  of  honor.  A.,  however,  succeeded  in 
this  arduous  undertaking;  and  after  remaining  three  years 
governor  of  the  quarter,  he  returned  to  Ferrara,  where  he 
flved  comfortably,  nominally  in  the  service  of  his  patron, 
but  in  reality  enjoying  what  he  hijjhly  prized— an  abun- 
dant leisure  for  prosecuting  his  studies.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  he  composed  his  comedies,  and  gave  the  finishing 
touch  to  his  Orlando,  At  length,  in  the  latter  part  of  1^^, 
that  poem  made  its  appearance  in  a  third  edition,  enlarged 
to  its  present  dimensions  of  forty-six  cantos.  He  now  be- 
came seriously  ill  of  a  painful  internal  distemper,  of  which, 
after  a  few  months  of  suffering,  he  died  on  the  6th  of 
June,  1533,  in  his  fifty-ninth  year,  and  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  San  Benedetto,  at  Ferrara,  where  a  magnificent 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AMOVISTUS. 

monument  indicates  the  resting-place  of  his  remains.  A. 
is  described  as  a  man  of  noble  personal  appearance  and 
amiable  character.  His  Orlando  Furiaao  h  a  romantic, 
imaginative  epic,  marked  by  ^reat  vivacity,  playfulness 
of  fancy,  and  mgenuity  in  the  linking  together  of  the  sev- 
eral episodes.  It  takes  its  name  and  its  theme  from  a 
chivalrous  romantic  poem  by  Boiardo,  the  Orlando  Innam- 
crato.  That  poem  treats  of  the  wars  between  Charle- 
m&pxe  and  the  Saracens,  confounded  as  thev  were  by  tra- 
dition with  those  of  Charles  Martel,  wherein  Orlando,  or 
Roland,  stood  forward  as  the  champion  of  Christendom. 
Orlando  is  the  hero  of  Boiardo's  piece,  and  falls  in  love 
with  Angelica,  a  clever  and  beautiful  oriental  princess, 
sent  by  the  Paynim  to  sow  discord  among  the  knights  of 
the  Christian  armies.  The  story  of  this  lady,  being  left 
unfinished  in  the  Orlando  TnnamoratOt  is  taken  up  by  A., 
who  makes  her  fall  in  love  herself  with  an  obscure  squire 
MedoTO,  on  which  Orlando  gets  furious,  and  long  contin- 
ues in  a  state  of  insanity.  Besides  his  great  work,  A. 
wrote  comedies,  satires,  sonnets,  and  a  number  of  Latin 
poems,  all  more  or  less  marked  with  the  impress  of  his 
genius.  In  1845,  Giamperi,  a  librarian  of  Florence,  an- 
nounced that  he  had  discovered  at  Argenta,  near  Ferrara, 
an  autograph  manuscript  by  A.,  containing  a  second 
epic,  Bmaldo  Ardito,  describing,  like  the  Orlando,  the 
battles  of  Charlemagne  and  his  paladins  a^inst  the  Sara- 
cens. The  manuscript  had  been  mutilated,  and  contained 
in  a  complete  form  only  the  cantos  3,  4,  5,  while  2  and  6 
were  unperfect;  and  it  was  stated  that  the  entire  poem  had 
consisted  of  twelve  cantos.  The  work  was  published  im- 
der  the  title  Binaldo  Ardito  di  L.  Ariosto,  Frammenii  Ined- 
iU  Pubblicati  ml  ManuscriOo  OriginaU  (Florence,  1846). 
In  genius  and  style,  it  has  been  found  by  critics  not  to 
accord  with  the  Orlando,  Of  the  Orlando  there  are  many 
English  translations:  by  Harrington  (1607  and  1684);  Croker 
(1755);  Huggins  (1757);  Hoole  (1783);  and  by  Stewart  Rose 
(1828).  In  the  last  only  is  there  to  be  found  a  fair  repre- 
sentation of  the  feeling  and  spirit  of  the  ori^nal.  One  of 
A.'s  comedies  had  been  rendered  into  Engliwi  by  Gascogne 
as  early  as  the  year  1566. 
ARI0VI8TUS,   a'H^Mtus   [probably   the   latinized 


form  of  the  German  Heer-fUrsty  army-princel:  a  German 
chief  m  the  century  before  Christ,  leader  of  the  Marco- 
mannl  and  other  German  tribes,  who  was  requested  by  the 
Sequani,  a  Gallic  people,  to  assist  them  In  a  contest  against 
the  -fidul.  Having  gained  a  victory  for  the  Swiuanl,  A. 
was  so  well  pleased  with  their  fine  country  (now  Bur- 
gundy), that  he  and  his  followers  determined  to  abide 
there.  Many  other  Germans  followed  him  Into  G«ul, 
where  he  soon  collected  an  army  of  120,000  men.  The 
Gallic  people  turned  now  for  help  towards  the  Romans, 
and  Caesar  demanded  an  Interview  with  A.,  who  proudly 
replied,  that  *  he  did  not  see  what  Caesar  had  to  do  with 
(iaul.'  After  another  message  from  Caesar  had  been 
treated  in  the  same  scornful  manner,  the  Roman  forces 
onder  Cesar  advanced  and  occupied  Vesontium  (now 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARISE— ARISTiEUS. 

Besaii90D),  the  chief  city  of  the  Sequani.  A  furious  en* 
gagement  took  place  (b.c.  58),  in  -which  Roman  discipline 
prevailed  over  the  German  forces,  which  were  utterly 
routed.  A.,  with  only  a  few  followers,  escaped  over  tht 
Rhine  into  his  own  country.  His  subsequent  history  is 
unknown. 

ARISE,  V.  lirlz'  [AS.  arisan:  Goth,  rewin:  Icel.  risa,  tc 
arise:  (Jer.  reisen,  to  start]:  to  get  up;  to  come  into  view;  tc 
ascend.  Arising,  imp.  Abose,  pt.  d-ros^^  got  up.  Aribrn, 
pp.  &^\zn\  got  up;  mounted  upwards. — Syn.  of  '  arise ':  tc 
mount;  ascend;  climb;  scale;  proceed;  issue;  ^ring;  flow; 
emanate. 

ARISPfj,  d-rU'pd ;  t  in  Sonora,  the  extreme  n.w.  dept.  of 
the  Mexican  Confederation.  It  is  in  the  Sierra  Madre, 
the  w.  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Sonora,  which  is  said  to  lose  itself  in  an  inland  lake.  The 
surrounding  district  abounds  in  the  precious  metals,  as 
also  in  cotton,  wine,  grain,  and  live  stock.  Pop.  (est.) 
7,600. 

ARISTA  AND  ARIS TATE:  see  Awn. 

ARISTiEUS,  dr'U'te'm  [from  a  Greek  word  signifying 
ihe  besti'.  an  ancient  divinity  whose  worship  in  the  earliest 
times  was  widely  diffused  throughout  Greece,  but  whose 
myth  is  remarkably  obscure.  According  to  the  common 
tradition,  he  was  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Cyrene,  the  latter 
the  ^rand-daughter  of  Peneius,  a  river-god  of  Thessaly. 
She  IS  said  to  have  given  birth  to  A.  on  the  coasts  of  Libya, 
in  Africa,  whence  the  region  is  alleged  to  have  derived  Its 
name  of  Cyrenaica.  Hermes  placed  the  child  under  the 
protection  of  the  Horse,  the  fosterers  of  cities,  culture,  and 
education.  According  to  another  tradition,  A.  was  the 
son  of  the  nymph  Melissa,  who  fed  the  infant  with  nectar 
and  ambrosia,  and  afterwards  intrusted  his  education  to 
Chiron.  The  great  diversities  in  the  legend  were  pi^bably 
caused  by  the  fusion  into  one  of  separate  local  divinities, 
whose  functions  were  similar,  and  whose  histories  were, 
in  consequence,  carelessly  commingled.  After  A.  left 
Libya,  he  went  to  Thebes,  in  Boeotia,  where  he  was  taught 
by  the  Muses  the  arts  of  healing  and  prophecy,  and  where 
he  married  AutonoC,  the  daughter  of  Cadmus,  by  whom 
he  had  several  children.  After  the  unfortunate  death  of 
his  son  Actseou  (q.v.),  he  went  to  Ceos,  where  he  liberated 
the  inhabitants  from  the  miseries  of  a  destructive  drought 
by  erectinff  an  altar  to  Zeus  /<?m<w«— i.e.,  the  ram- 
maker,  lie  now  returned  to  his  native  land;  but 
shortly  after  set  out  a  second  time  on  a  voyage  of 
beneficence.  He  visited  the  islands  of  the  JSgean 
Sea,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Magna  Grcecia,  leaving  every- 
where traces  of  his  divine  benignity.  At  last  he  went  to 
Thrace,  where  he  was  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  Dion* 
ysus;  and  after  a  brief  residence  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount 
Hsemus,  he  disappeared  from  the  earth. 

This  myth  is  one  of  an  extremely  pleasing  character,  from 
the  invariable  beneficence  which  is  attributed  to  A.  It  is 
less  disfigured  by  anthropopathic  errors  than  most  of  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARISTARCH— ARISTEAS. 

the  n  ^^  ^"^ck  divinities.  A.  was  specially  worshipped  as 
^  J  P'^lector  of  vine  and  olive  plantations,  and  of  hunters 
g^^^^<lsmen.  He  also  trained  men  to  keep  bee-hives,  and 
J  „jf^**  ^ixe  burning  heats  of  the  sun  from  tne  open  fields. 
7^!Z  ?^>^bology  often  identified  A.  with  the  higher  gods 
^"^^PolJo,  Dionysus. 
^i^T ARCH,  n.  drUtdrk  [from  Arislar'ehus  of  Alex- 
.™J-  ^  severe  critic. 

A^^T^RCHUS,  drWidr-kus,  of  Samos:  a  celebrated 
^  i^  ^^tronomer,  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  who  lived, 
5iort^to~^^*  '^^  ^^  writing  have  perished,  except  a 
moon  ^^^?^  ®°  ^^®  ®^^^  ^^^  distances  of  the  sun  and  the 
'"*^  "  Xn  this  he  shows  the  method  of  estimating  the  rela- 
tive distances  of  the  sun  and  the  moon  from 
the  earth,  by  the  angle  formed  by  the  two 
bodies  at  the  observer's  eye  at  that  moment 
when  the  moon  is  exactly  half -luminous.  It 
will  be  obvious  from  a  glance  at  the  annexed 
figure  that  the  three  bodies  must  then  form 
a  right-angled  triangle,  of  which  the  moon 
is  at  the  right  angle.  The  angle  MES  then 
baing  observed,  it  is  easy  to  find  the  ratio 
between  EM  and  ES.  This  is  quite  correct 
in  theory;  but  the  impossibility  of  deter- 
mining when  the  moon  is  exactly  half-illu- 
minated renders  the  method  useless  in  prac- 
.  tice.  Besides,  in  the  days  of  A.  there  were 
»j^  '^  no  instruments  for  measuring  angles  with 

i^tor^^  ^^®  accuracy.  A.  estimated  the  angle  at  E 
^J^^  ,  and  determined  EM  to  be  A  of  ES;  the  truth  being 
J"W  the  angle  at  E  differs  only  by  a  fraction  of  a  minute 
irom  a  right  angle,  and  that  EN,  the  distance  of  the  moon 
irom  the  earth,  is  about  ^  of  ES,  the  distance  of  the  sun. 
According  to  some  accounts,  A.  held,  with  the  Pythagorean 
school,  that  the  earth  moves  round  the  sun;  but  this  seems 
to  be  a  mistake.  Vitruvius  speaks  of  A.  as  the  inventor  of 
a  kind  of  concave  sun-dial. 

ARISTAR'CHUS,  of  Samothrace:  a  grammarian,  who 
lived abt.  b.c.  150  in  Alexandria,  where  he  founded  a  school 
or  mmmar  and  criticism,  and  educated  the  children  of 
Ptolemy  Philopator.     His  life  was  devoted  chiefly  to  the 
elucidation  and  restoration  of  the  text  of  the  Greek  poets, 
especially  of  Homer.     The  form  in  which  we  now  have 
the  Homeric  poems  preserved  is  in  a  great  measure  owing 
to  his  judgment  and  industry.    The  strictness  of  his  critical 
principles  has  made  his  name  a  general  term  for  a  severely 
just  and  judicious  critic.    Being  afflicted  with  a^  incura- 
ble dropsy,  he  ended  his  life  by  voluntary  starvation  at  the 
age  of  72.    The  fragments  of  his  writings  that  have  been 
preserved  are  to  be  found  scattered  through  the  Scholia  on 
Homer,  first  published  by  Villoison  (Venice,  1788). 

ARI8TATE,  a.  drUtdt  [L.  arts' ta,  a  beard  of  com]: 
famished  with  beards,  lij^e  barley  and  many  grasses; 
awned. 

ARISTEAS,  d-rU'te-ds:  an  entirely  fabulous  character 

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ARISTIDES. 

who  may  be  styled  '  the  Wandering  Jew'  of  popular  tra- 
dition in  ancient  Greece.  First  we  find  A.  teaching  Homer; 
then,  some  ages  afterwards,  bom  at  Proconnesus,  an  island 
in  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  It  is  stated  that  haying  visited 
the  Arimaspae,  the  gold- watching  griffin,  and  the  Hyper- 
boreans, he  died  on  his  return  home;  but,  soon  afterwards, 
a  traveller  asserted  that  he  had  been  met  and  accosted  by 
A.  Consequently,  neighbors  searched  the  house  where 
the  body  of  A.  was  supposed  to  be  lying,  but  it  could  not 
be  found.  Seven  years  afterwards,  he  appeared  as  an 
author,  and  wrote  a  poem  entitled  Arimaspeia,  in  three 
books,  giving  accounts  of  northern  and  central  A^ia,  which 
were  copied  bv  Herodotus  and  others.  After  thus  estab- 
lishing himself  as  a  poet,  he  vanished  again;  and  after 
840  years  of  mystery  reappeared  at  Metapontum,  in  the 
south  of  Italy,  where  he  advised  the  people  to  erect 
an  altar  to  Apollo,  and  an  altar  to  'the  everlasting 
Aristeas,'  assurmg  them  that,  when  Apollo  founded  their 
city,  he  (A.),  in  the  form  of  a  raven,  had  accompanied  the 
god,  and  had  assisted  in  the  ceremony.  In  the  early  con- 
troversy of  the  Cl^istian  Church,  heathens  sometimes 
quoted  this  tale  of  A.  as  a  counterpart  to  the  miracles  re- 
corded in  the  New  Testament. 

ARISTIDES,  sumamed  *  The  Just':  son  of  Lysimachus, 
and  descended  from  one  of  the  best  families  in  Athens:  d. 
B.C.  468.  He  was  one  of  the  ten  leaders  of  the  Athenians 
against  the  Persians  at  the  battle  of  Marathon  (b.c.  490). 
It  had  been  arranged  that  each  leader  (or  atrategas)  should 
hold  the  supreme  command  for  one  dav;  but  A.,  who  saw 
the  folly  of  this  want  of  unity,  induced  his  companions  to 
give  up  their  claims,  and  make  Miltiadcs  commander-in- 
chief,  which  proved  the  means  of  winning  tho  b94;tle.  In 
the  following  year,  A.  was  chief  archon,  and  in  this  posi- 
tion, as  in  every  other,  secured  the  general  respect  of  the 
citizens.  Some  years  later,  probably  because  he  had  op- 
posed the  plans  of  Themistocles,  that  unscrupulous  leader 
brought  about  the  banishment  of  A.  It  is  said  that  when 
an  illiterate  citizen,  who  did  not  know  him  personally,  re- 
quested him  to  write  his  own  iiame  on  the  voting  shell,  he 
asked  the  man  whether  A.  had  injured  him.  'No^'said 
the  voter;  '  but  I  am  weary  of  hearing  him  always  styled 
"  the  Just."  '  A.  submitted  to  the  sentence  with  dignity, 
praying  to  the  gods,  as  he  left  the  city,  that  the  Athenians 
might  not  have  cause  to  repent  of  their  decision.  Only 
three  years  later,  Xerxes,  with  an  overwhelming  force, 
had  invaded  Greece.  A.,  hearing  that  the  Greek  fleet  was 
8urroun(^ed  by  that  of  the  Persians,  hastened  from  JBgina 
to  apprise  Themistocles  of  the  danger,  and  offer  his  aid. 
After  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  battle  of  Salamis,  A. 
was  restored  to  popular  favor,  and  soon  afterwards  aided 
greatly  in  achieving  the  victory  at  PlaUea,  in  which  he 
commanded  the  Athenians.  In  B.C.  477,  he  introduced  a 
change  of  the  constitution,  by  which  all  citizens  without 
distinction  of  rank,  were  admitted  to  political  offices.  As 
showing  the  confidence  reposed  in  A.,  it  is  related  that 
Themistocles  having  announced  that  he  had  a  scheme  very 


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ARISTIPPU8. 

advantaffeous  for  Athens,  but  which  he  could  not  disclose 
In  a  public  assembly,  A.  was  deputed  to  consult  with 
Themistocles  on  the  subject.  The  plan  was  to  secure  the 
naval  supremacy  of  Athens  by  burning  all  the  vessels  of 
the  other  Greek  states,  her  allies,  then  lying  in  a  neighbor- 
ing harbor.  A.  reported  to  the  people  that  nothing  could 
be  more  advantageous  than  the  plan  of  Themistocles,  but 
nothing  could  be  more  unjust;  and  the  matter  was  inunedi- 
ately  rejected  by  the  people.  After  a  variety  of  other  pub- 
lic services,  A.  died  in  old  age,  and  universally  respected, 
so  poor  that  it  is  said  his  funeral  had  to  be  provided  for  by 
the  public. — ^He  left  a  son  and  two  daughters,  for  whom 
provision  was  made  by  state  bounty. 

ARISTIPPU8,  dr'U-tip'p&s:  founder  of  the  Cyrenaic 
school  of  philosophv  amon?  the  Greeks:  b.  Gyrene,  Africa, 
abt.  B.C.  424;  son  of  Aritaaes,  a  wealthy  gentleman  of  that 
city.  Having  come  over  to  Greece  to  attend  the  Olympic 
games,  he  heard  so  much  of  Socrates,  that  he  was  filled  with 
an  eager  desire  to  see  the  sage,  and  hurried  to  Athens,  where 
he  b^ame  one  of  his  pupils.  He  remained  with  Socrates 
up  nearly  to  the  last  moments  of  the  great  teacher,  though 
he  does  not  at  any  period  seem  to  have  followed  his  doc- 
trines or  his  practice.  We  know  that  subsequently  he  was 
the  object  of  strong  dislike,  both  to  Plato  and  to  Antis- 
thenes  the  Stoic.  He  passed  a  considerable  part  of  his 
life  in  Syracuse,  at  the  court  of  Dionysius,  the  tyrant, 
where  he  acquired  the  reputation  of  a  philosophic  volup- 
tuary. That  his  manners  must  have  been  at  once  ex- 
tremely graceful  and  accommodating,  is  clear  from  the 
saying  of  his  opponent,  Plato,  who  declared  that  'A.  was 
the  only  man  he  knew  who  could  wear  with  equal  grace 
both  fine  clothes  and  rags.'  Diogenes  Laertius  records  a 
number  of  his  dicta,  some  of  whicn  take  the  form  of  bons- 
moto  and  indicate  a  sharp,  cutting,  livelv,  and  self-com- 
placent nature.  A.  lived  also  at  Corinth,  in  intimacy  with 
the  famous  courtesan  Lais,  but  towards  the  close  of  his 
life  he  is  supposed  to  have  retired  to  Gyrene.  His  daugh- 
ter Arete  seems  to  have  been  a  person  of  superior  abilities, 
inasmuch  as  her  father  imparted  his  leading  doctrines  to 
her,  and  she  to  her  son,  A.  the  Younger  (hence  called 
Msirodidakiaiy  *  taught  by  the  mother*),  by  whom  they  are 
supposed  to  have  been  systematized.  A.  in  all  probability 
published  nothing  during  his  life.  He  prided  himself  more 
upon  spending  life  days  In  what  he  conceived  to  be  a  phi- 
kieophical  manner,  than  in  elaborating  a  philosophical 
system  for  the  benefit  of  the  race. 

The  Cyrenaic  school,  all  the  teachers  of  which  were  proba- 
bly imbued  with  the  spirit  of  A.,  and  merely  carried  out  his 
doctrines  to  their  legitimate  results,  professed  a  great  con- 
tempt for  speculative  philosophy,  and  for  physical  and  mathe- 
matical knowledge.  They  confined  their  investigations  to 
morals,  and  formed  an  ethical  system  completely  in  harmony 
with  the  gay,  self-poss^sed, worldly,  and  sk^tical  character 
of  their  master.  The  chief  points  of  the  Cfyrenaic  system 
were:  1.  That  aU  human  sensations  are  either  pleasurable 
or  paiafol,  and  that  pleasure  and  pain  are  the  only  criterions 


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ARISTOBDLUS— ARISTOCRACY. 

of  good  and  bad.  2.  That  pleasure  consi^s  in  a  TCntle, 
and  pain  in  a  violent,  motion  of  the  souL  3.  That  happi- 
nees  is  simply  the  result  of  a  continuous  series  of  pleasun^ 
ble  sensations.  4.  That  actions  are  in  themselves  morally 
indifferent,  and  that  men  are  concerned  only  with  their 
results.  Wieland  in  his  bistorico-philosophical  romance, 
Aristipp  und  einige  $einer  Zeitgenomen  (A.  and  Some  of  his 
Contemporaries),  {Sresents  us  with  a  charming  picture  of  the 
life  and  opinions  of  the  great  philosophic  sensualist,  who 
stood  out  in  strong  relief  against  the  gloom  and  austerity  of 
Antisthenes  and  the  Cynical  school.  The  doctrine  that 
makes  pleasure  the  chief  good  is  often  called  Hedonimn, 

ARISTOBULUS,  d-rU'to-bu'lus:  an  Alexandrian  Jew 
who  lived  under  Ptolemsus  Philometer  abt.  B.C.  175,  and 
was  considered  by  the  early  Fathers  as  the  founder  of  the 
Jewish  philosophy  in  Alexandria.  He  was  long  considered 
the  author  of  the  Exeqeticai  Commentaries  an  the  Books  of 
Moeee  which  went  under  his  name,  but  it  is  now  admitted 
that  the  work  in  question  was  the  composition  of  a  later 
period.  Only  fragments  of  it  remain.  It  was  intended  to 
show  that  the  oldest  Greek  writers  borrowed  from  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures;  and  to  support  this  theory,  numerouB 
quotations  were  professedly  taken  from  Linus,  Mussos, 
Orpheus,  etc.,  of  which  the  Christian  apologists  made 
abundant  use.  These,  however,  have  lon^  been  considered 
forgeries,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not  exhibit  a  trace  of  tiie 
antique  Greek  spirit,  but  make  the  writers  speak  in  the  tone 
and  style  of  the  Old  Testament  (see  Valcken«Br*s  treatise). 
For  the  Hasmonean  or  Maccabee  prince  A.,  see  Jbwb. 

ARISTOCRACY,  n.  dr'U-tdk'rd-si  [Gr.  aris'tokratia, 
the  rule  of  the  best  bom — from  aristos,  best;  hratos,  rule, 
strength] :  government  by  nobles;  the  nobility  or  chief  per- 
sons of  a  country.  Aristocrat,  n.  ar-Wtd-krat  or  dr'U-to- 
krdt\  one  who  favors  an  aristocracy;  one  of  the  nobles; 
familiarly,  a  haughty  person.  Aristocratic,  a.  dr'U-id- 
krdtlk,  or  Ar'istocrat'ical,  a.  -l-kdl,  belonging  to  the 
aristocracy;  familiarly,  very  dignified;  haughty.  Ar'isto- 
crat'ically,  ad.  -U.  Ar'istocrat'icalness,  n.  the  quali^ 
of  being  aristocratical.  Artstocratism,  n.  dr'Utd-krdf' 
lem,  the  principles  or  habits  of  aristocrats.  Ar' istocratizb', 
V.  'krdt-lz\  to  raise  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  level  in  the 
social  scale,  as  by  education,  investing  with  the  fran- 
chise,  etc. 

ARISTOCRACY  [Gr.  ariftoeratia,  from  aristos,  best,  and 
kratos,  power]:  means  etymologically  the  power  or  govern- 
ment of  the  best,  noblest,  or  most  worthy;  and  in  the  sense 
which  it  originallv  bore,  A.  had  reference  not  to  a  social  class, 
but  to  a  form  of  government  in  which  the  sovereignty  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  a  minority  of  the  citizens  of  Uie  state, 
exclusive  altogether  of  the  slave  population,  which  generally 
existed  in  antiquity.  It  is  in  this  sense  also  that  we  use  it 
when  we  speak  of  the  Italian  states  of  the  middle  ages  as 
aristocracies.  In  order  to  constitute  an  A.,  it  was  further 
necessary  that  the  minority  which  composed  it  should  con- 
sist of  the  highest  class,  in  point  not  of  wealth  alone,  hut  of 


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PLATE    13.  iS" 


Argus  PheosaDt.   CFrom  Darwin.) 


Ark,  coDtaining  the  Rolls  of  the  Law.— Great  Synagogue,  Aldgate,  London 

Vol.2 


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ARIBTOGEITON. 

Urth  and  culture;  the  govemment  of  a  minority  in  numbera 
simply,  ^inj?  known  by  the  more  odious  name  of  an 
oligarchy.  Were  the  whole  government  of  England  in- 
trusted to  the  bouse  of  lords,  even  though  that  body  were 
to  become  vastiv  more  numerous  than  it  is,  so  long  as  it 
did  not  include  half  of  the  adult  males,  and  were  not  elective, 
but  hereditary,  the  country  would  be  ruled  by  an  A.,  and  its 
rulers  would  be  aristocrats  in  the  antique  sense  of  the  term. 
In  this,  its  political  sense,  the  term  A.  has  never  been  accli- 
matized in  England,  because  the  thing  which  it  simifies 
has  always  been  imknown.  The  territorial  nobility,  though 
possessing  great  influence  in  the  £Xivemment  of  the  coimt^, 
has,  at  everv  stage  of  its  career,  been  controlled  either  by 
the  crown  from  above  or  the  commons  from  below;  and 
thus  it  is  that,  though  more  important  in  social  influence 
than  in  any  other  country,  the  English  A.  has  never  assumed 
the  form  of  a  ruling  class.  When  used  with  reference  to  £ng< 
lish  society,  the  term  A.  has  two  significations — a  narrower 
and  a  wider  one.  According  to  the  first,  it  is  nearly  synon v- 
mous  with  nobility  (see  that  title  and  its  relative  subai- 
visioDs).  According  to  the  second,  it  is  ff^onymous  with 
gentry f  and  includes  the  whole  body  of  the  people,  titled 
and  untitled,  above  a  certain  very  indefinite  social  line. 
Perhaps  the  nearest  approximation  which  we  shall  make  to 
a  definition  of  A.  in  this,  its  proper  English  sense,  will  be 
by  adopting  that  which  Aristotle  has  given,  not  of  am- 
tocrtUia,  but  of  eugeneia,  or  good  birth.  '  Gkxxl  birth,' 
he  sa^s,  'is  ancient  (long inherited)  wealth  and  virtue.' 
(Bolitie,  lib.  iv.  c.  7.)  'The  question  as  to  the  extent  to 
which  either  of  these  qualities  is  requisite  to  consti- 
tute a  claim  to  admission  into  the  rai^  of  the  A.,  is 
<»ie  to  which  probably  not  two  persons,  either  within  or 
without  the  pale,  woi^d  return  the  same  answer;  but  that 
the  absence  of  either  would  be  a  ground  of  exclusion  is  a 
point  on  which  there  will  be  little  difference  of  opinion. 
In  England,  no  amount  of  mere  wealth  will,  in  general, 
confer  it  either  on  a  tradesman  or  his  immediate  descend- 
ants (see  Gentleman);  and  scarcely  any  deeds,  however 
noble,  will  give  it  to  him  who  is  not  the  possessor  of  in- 
herited fortune.  Neither  Bums  the  ganger,  nor  Shaw  the 
life-guardsman,  has  ever  been  regarded  as  an  aristocrat, 
thou^  nobody  denies  that  the  one  was  a  poet,  and  the 
other  a  hero.  But  when  the  claim  to  recognition  as  an 
aristocrat  has  been  inherited,  it  will  scarcely  be  lost  by  the 
individual  himself,  however  adverse  may  be  his  worldlj 
circumstances,  or  however  ignoble  his  conduct;  and  it  is 
not  difiScult  to  imagine  an  devation  of  moral  tone  which 
would  confer  it  even  on  a  beggar.  In  the  United  States, 
the  claim  to  A.  is  scarcely  asserted  under  that  term;  and  the 
term  itself  is  scarcely  used  except  with  some  suggestion  of 
opprobrium;  though  the  thing  indicated  may  be  claimed  or 
siought  for  under  another  name. 
ARISTOGEI'TON:  see  IlARMODiusand  Aristogeiton. 


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ARISTOLOCHIA. 

ARISTOLOCHIA,   d-ris'td-ld'ki-d:  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Aristolochiacea  or  Amrinem.    This  order, 
which  is  dicotyledonous  or  exogenous,  consists  of  herba- 
ceous plants  or  shrubs,  often  climbing  shrubs,  and  contains 
upwards  of  130  known  species,  chiefly  natives  of  warm 
climates,  and  particularly  abundant  in  the  tropical  re^ons 
of  S.  America.    The  leaves  are  alternate,  simple,  stalked, 
often  with  a  stipule;  the  flowers  axillary,  solitary,  hermaph- 
rodite, of  a  dull  color;  the  perianth  at  its  base  adhering 
to  the  ovary,  tubular,  sometimes  regular,  but  generally  very 
irregular;  the  stamens  6-12,  epigynous  (or  mserted  upon 
the  ovary),  distinct,  or  adhering  to  the  style;  the  ovary  is 
generally  six-celled,  with  numerous  ovules;  the  style  simple, 
the  stigmas  radiating,  as  numerous  as  the  cells  of  the  ovary; 
the  fruit  dry  or  succulent;  the  seeds  with  a  very  minute 
embryo  at  the  base  of  fleshy  albumen. — The  genus  A.  Is 
distinguished  by  a  tubular  oblique  perianth,  generally 
inflated  at  the  base,  the  mouth  dilated  on  one  side,  and  by 
stamens  adherent  to  the  style,  so  that  it  is  Included  in  the 
Linniean  class  Oynandria,    The  species  are  mostly  shrubby, 
and  natives  of  tropical  countries,  some  of  them  climbing  to 
the  summits  of  the  loftiest  trees.     Several  are  found  in  the 
south  of  Europe;  one  only,  the  common  Birthwobt  {A. 
ClemaUtis),  occurs  upon  the  European  continent  as  far  n.  as 
about  lat.  50%  and  is  a  doubtful  native  of  England.    It  is 
a  perennial  plant,  with  erect,  naked,  striated  stem,  heart- 
shaped  dark-green  leaves  on  long  stalks,  the  flowers  stalked, 
and  growing  to  the  number  of  sometimes  seven  together 
from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  the  tube  of  the  perianth  abo>i^ 
an  inch  long,  and  of  a  dirty 
yellow  color.    It  grows  chief- 
ly in  vineyards,  hedges,  about 
the  borders  of  fields,  among 
rubbish,  and  in  waste  places. 
It  has  a  long  branching  root,  / 
with  an  unpleasant  taste  and 
smell,  which,  with  the  roots 
of  A.  rotunda  and  A.  longa, 
two  herbaceous  species,  na- 
tives of  the  south  of  Europe, 
was  formerly  much  used  in 
medicine,  being  regarded  as  of 
great  service  in  cases  of  diffi- 
cult parturition,  whence  the 
English  name.     These  roots 
possess  powerful  stimulating 
properties,  and  those  of  the 
southern  species  are  still  used 
as  emmenagogues.    The  root 
of  A.  Indica  is  used  in  the 
same  way  by  the  Hindoos. — 

A.    VBTpenUvria,    Virginian        Aristolochia  aematftls. 
Snakbroot,  Is  a  native   of 

most  parts  of  the  United  8tMes,  growing  in  woods.  It  has 
a  flexuous  stem,  8-10  inches  high,  bearing  heart-shaped 
very  acute  leaves.     The  flowers  are  on  stalks,  which  rise 


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ARISTOLOCHIA. 

from  the  root;  the  oriflce  of  the  perianth  is  triangular. 
The  root  has  a  penetrating  resinous  smeli,  and  a  pungent, 
bitter  taste.  It  has  long  been  a  fancied  remedy  for  the  bite 
of  the  rattlesnake.  It  possesses  stimulant  and  tonic  prop- 
erties. It  is  an  article  of  export  from  the  United  States  to 
Europe,  and  bears  a  high  price,  being  highly  esteemed  as  a 
medicine  in  certain  kinds  of  fever. — Its  reputation  as  a  cure 
for  serpent-bites  is  shared  by  other  species,  particularly  A. 
anffutcida  and  A.  gua'co  (the  Guaco  of  Colombia),  natives 
of  the  v»rarraer  parts  of  America.  The  juice  has  certainly 
the  power  of  stupefying,  and  even  of  killing,  serpents;  and 
it  is  said  that  a  number  of  species  are  used  by  Egyptian 
juffglers,  in  order  to  their  handling  serpents  with  impunity. 
— Several  South  American  species  seem  also  to  possess 
medicinal  properties  analogous  to  those  of  the  Virginian 
snakeroot. — A.  Sipho,  a  climbing  shrub,  of  15-20  ft.  in 
height,  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  is  frequently  planted  in  the  United  States,  in 
Britain,  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  to  form  shady 
bowers.  It  has  very  large  heart-shaped  leaves  (a  foot  in 
breadth)  of  a  beautiful  green.  The  Howers  hang  singly, 
or  in  pairs,  on  long  stalks;  the  tube  of  the  perianth  is 
crooked  in  its  upper  part,  inflated  at  the  base,  and  veined 
with  reddish- brown  veins,  having  a  sort  of  resemblance  to 


k 


Aristolochfa  Serpentaria: 

a,  a  flower;  6,  a  flower  not  open,  showing  the  parts  of  fructiflcatlon 

c;  d,  the  stamens;  e,  the  stigmas. 

the  bowl  of  a  tobacco-pipe,  for  which  reason  the  shrub  is 
flometimes  called  Pipe-shrub,  Pipe- vine,  or  Dutchman's 
Pipe. — The  tropical  species  are  distinguished  for  their 
beauty  and  the  peculiar  forms  of  their  flowers.  Some  of 
them  are  much  prized  ornaments  of  our  hot-houses.  The 
genus  AsARUM  also  belongs  to  the  order  ArisiolochiacecB. 


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ARISTOPHANES. 

ARISTOPHANES,  dr'ts-tSfa-nez:  theonly  writer  of  the 
pld  Greek  comedy  of  whom  we  possess  any  entire  works: 
b.  Athens,  abt  b.c.  444;  son  of  one  Philippus.  We  know 
very  little  of  his  history.  Plato,  in  his  Sympoeium,  relates 
that  he  was  fond  of  pleasure  ^«  statement  which  it  is  easy 
to  credit  when  we  consider  tAe  tendencies  of  his  prof ession 
in  all  ages.  It  seems  equally  clear,  however,  from  the 
vigorous  and  consistent  expression  of  his  convictions  in  his 
various  works,  and  from  the  fearless  manner  in  which  he 
assails  the  political  vices  of  his  day,  that  he  was  possessed 
of  an  honest  and  independent  spirit.  He  appeared  as  a 
comic  writer  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
(B.C.  427).  The  piece  which  he  produced  was  entitled 
Dattalets  (the  Banqueters),  and  received  the  second  prize. 
It  ridiculed  the  follies  of  extravagance,  and  like  all  his  sub- 
sequent works,  was  pervaded  by  a  contempt  of  modem  life, 
^and  an  admiration  of  the  sentiments  ana  manners  of  the 
earlier  generations.  Next  year,  he  wrot«  the  Babyhniaiu, 
in  which  he  satirized  Cleon,  the  so-called  demagogue,  so 
sharply,  that  the  latter  endeavored  to  deprive  him  of  the 
rights  of  citizenship,  by  insinuating  that  he  was  not  a  real 
Athenian.  This  in  all  probability  ^ave  rise  to  the  various 
traditions  of  A.  having  been  bom  m  Rhodes,  Egypt,  etc. 
Fra^ents  of  these  plays  remain.  In  425,  his  Aakamians 
obtamed  the  first  prize.  It  was  written  to  expose  the 
madness  of  the  war  then  wa^ng  between  Athens  and 
Sparta,  and  exhibits  the  feelmgs  of  the  'peace-party* 
in  the  former  city.  It  is  still  extant.  In  424,  appeared 
Hippeis,  the  Knights  or  Horsemen.  It  was  the  first  which 
the  poet  produced  in  his  own  name,  and  evinces  Vhe 
singular  boldness  of  the  author.  It  is  levelled  against 
Cleon,  and  presents  us  with  a  striking  picture  botJbi  of  a 
vulgar  and  insolent  charlatan,  and  of  the  fickle,  cunning, 
credulous,  and  rather  stupid  mob  over  whom  he  precari- 
ously tyrannizes.  It  is  related  of  this  piece  that,  when  no 
actor  would  undertake  to  play  the  part  of  the  powerful 
Cleon,  A.  himself  impersonated  the  demagogue.  Unfortu- 
nately for  the  character  of  Cleon  as  well  as  that  of  the 
Athenian  democracy,  these  caricatures  and  misrepresenta- 
tions of  A.  have  been  received  as  historical  pictures.  How 
far  they  are  from  the  truth  has  been  clearly  shown  by 
Grote  m  his  History  of  Greece.  See  Cleon.  In  428,  A. 
produced  the  Clouds,  which  and  the  Knights  are  the  two 
most  famous  of  his  comedies.  They  exhibit  in  overflow- 
ing richness  that  fancy,  wit,  humor,  featire,  and  shrewd 
insight  which  characterize  this  greatest  of  all  Greek  comic 
writers.  The  Glovds,  however,  displays  at  the  same  time 
the  weaknesses  and  limitations  of  A.  's  mind.  Its  aim  was 
to  deride  the  pretensions  of  the  new  sophistical  school,  and 
to  point  out  its  pernicious  tendencies.  So  far  well.  But 
A.,  who  was  no  philosopher,  demonstrates  his  own  inca- 
pacity to  appreciate  the  highest  range  of  thought  and 
character,  by  selecting  no  less  a  person  than  Socrates  as 
the  most  perfect  representative  of  a  sophist.  A.,  who  was 
both  religiously  and  politically  conservative,  had  appar- 
ently no  clewer  conception  of  abstract  trath  than  is  in- 


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ARISTOPHANES-ARISTOTELIAN. 

volved  in  reverence  for  the  sanctities  of  the  past,  the  old 
gods,  old  traditions,  old  manners,  ai^d  old  sentiments.  He  . 
had  an  instinctive  hatred  of  innovations,  and  considered  all 
equally  pernicious.  As  he  had  represented  Cleon  the  re- 
former as  a  vulgar  innovator  and  demagogue,  ruled  by  the 
lowest  considerations,  he  makes  the  innovating  views  of 
Socrates  also  proceed  from  corrupt  motives,  veiled  perhaps 
with  more  craft.  Alcibiades  is  caricatured  in  this  brilliant 
comedy  as  a  wildly  extravagant  vouth,  whose  career  of 
ruin  is  accelerated  by  the  insidious  instructions  of  Socrates, 
and  a  hint  is  thrown  out  towards  the  end  of  the  piei  e, 
which  unfortunately  proved  to  be  the  '  shadow  *  of  a  *  coal- 
ing event. '  A.  represents  the  father  of  Alcibiades  as  about 
to  bum  the  philosopher  and  his  whole  phronHsterion  (sub- 
tlety-shop); and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  dra- 
matic vilification  of  the  purest  of  heathen  moralists  led  to 
that  persecution  which,  twenty  years  later,  culminated  in 
his  condemnation  and  death.  In  422,  appeared  the  Wasps, 
still  extant,  in  which  the  popular  courts  of  justice  are  at- 
tacked; and  three  years  later,  in  his  Peace,  he  returns  to 
the  subject  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which  is  ridiculed 
with  great  cleverness.  In  414,  he  produced  two  come- 
dies, Ampldaraus  and  the  B^ds,  both  of  which  cari- 
cature, in  the  liveliest  manner,  the  Sicilian  expedition, 
then  being  meditated,  but  which  proved  so  utter  a  failure. 
The  Lysistrata  belongs  to  the  year  411,  and  exhibits  a  civil 
war  of  the  sexes,  as  the  monstrous  issue  of  that  in  th« 
Peloponnesus.  In  his  Plutus  and  EeclesiaamscB,  which  ap- 
peared in  408  and  892,  he  assailed  the  new  passion  for 
Doric  manners  and  institutions,  and  ventured  to  ridicule 
Plato,  in  that,  however,  in  which  the  philosopher  is  weak- 
est— namely,  his  political  theory.  Euripides,  also,  as  the 
sophist  among  poets,  is  severely  handled  in  the  Frogs. 

A.  wrote  fifty-four  comedies,  of  which  only  eleven  are 
extant.  He  is  acknowledged  to  stand  far  aoove  all  his 
contemporaries  or  successors  of  the  middle  and  new  com* 
edy  in  wealth  of  fancy  and  beauty  of  language.  Hi» 
choruses  sometimes  exhibit  the  purest  spirit  of  poetry;  and 
Plato  himself  says  that  the  soul  of  A.  was  a  temple  for  the 
Graces.  The  ingenuity  which  he  shows  in  the  mechanical 
artifices  of  verse  is  not  less  wonderful.  Frogs  are  made  to 
croak  choruses,  pigs  to  grunt  through  a  series  of  iambics, 
and  words  are  coined  of  amazing  length — the  Ecelesiassusof 
closes  with  one  composed  of  170  letters.  It  only  remains 
to  be  added,  that  the  personalities  in  which  A.  indulged 
descend  at  times  into  coarseness  and  indecency,  and  that 
even  the  gods  whom  he  undertook  to  defend  are  treated 
with  levity,  and  placed  in  the  most  ludicrous  lights. 

ARI8TOPHANIC,  a.  dr'U-id-fdn'ik  [from  Aristoph'arUs 
(q.v  )]:  shrewd;  witty. 

ARISTOTE  LIA:  see  Maqut. 

ARISTOTELIAN,  a.  Ar'U'idiel'i-dn, or  Aribtotel'ic,  a. 
[from  Aristotle  (q.v.)]:  pertaining  to  Aristotle  or  his  phil- 
osophy: N.  a  follower  of  Aristotle's  philosophy.  Aristo- 
te'liakibm,  n.  the  Peripatetic  system  of  philosophy  founded 
by  Aristotle. 


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ARISTOTLE. 

ARISTOTLE,  dr'U4oU:  B.C.  384-822;  b.  at  the  Grecian 
colonial  town  of  Staeeira,  on  the  w.  side  of  the  Strjmonic 
Gulf  (now  the  Gulf  of  Contessa,  in  Turkey  in  Emx^).  He 
belonged  to  a  famiiy  in  which  the  practice  of  physic  was 
hereditary.  His  faUier,  Nikomachus,  was  the  friend  and 
physician  of  Amvntas  II.,  king  of  Macedonia,  father  of 
Philip,  and  grandfather  of  Alexander  the  Great  A.  lost  « 
both  parents  while  he  was  quite  young,  and  was  brought  up 
under  the  care  of  Proxenus,  a  citizen  of  Atameus,  in  Asia 
Minor,  who  was  then  settled  at  Sta^eira.  It  is  to  be  con- 
jectured that  his  education,  such  as  it  was,  would  take  the 
direction  of  preparing  him  for  the  family  profession,  and 
that  whatever  knowledge  and  ix>wer  of  manipulation  at- 
tached to  the  practice  of  physic  at  that  time  would  be 
among  his  earl^  acquisitions.  In  after-life,  he  occupied 
himself  largely  in  the  dissecting  of  animals,  and  was  ac- 
quainted with  all  the  facts  that  bad  been  derived  from  this 
source  by  others  before  him.  It  seems  probable,  however, 
that  he  early  abandoned  the  intention  of  following  physic 
as  a  profession,  and  aspireil  to  that  cultivation  of  imiversal 
knowledge  for  its  own  sake,  in  which  he  attained  a  distinc- 
tion without  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 

In  his  18th  year  (B.C.  367)  he  left  Stageira  for  Athens, 
then  the  intellectual  centre  of  Greece  and  of  the  civilized 
world.  Plato,  on  whom  he  doubtless  had  his  eye  as  his 
chief  instructor,  was  then  absent  at  Syracuse  in  that  extraor- 
dinary episode  of  his  life,  connecting  him  as  political 
adviser  with  the  two  successive  Syracusan  despots— Dion- 
ysius  the  Elder,  and  Dionysius  the  Younger— and  with  Dion. 
A.,  therefore,  pursued  his  studies  by  books,  and  by  the  help 
of  any  other  masters  he  could  find,  during  the  first  three 
years  of  his  stay.  On  the  return  of  Plato,  he  became  his 
pupil,  and  soon  made  his  master  aware  of  the  remarkable 
penetration  and  reach  of  his  intellect  The  expressions  said 
to  have  been  used  by  Plato  imply  as  much;  for  we  are 
told  that  he  spoke  of  A.  as  the  '  Intellect  of  the  School.' 
Unfortunately,  there  is  a  total  absence  of  particulars  or  pre- 
cise information  as  to  the  early  studies  of  the  rising  philoso- 
pher. He  remained  at  Athens  twenty  years,  during  which 
the  only  facts  recorded,  in  addition  to  his  studying  with 
Plato,  are,  that  he  set  up  a  class  of  rhetoric,  and  that,  in  so 
doing,  he  became  the  rival  of  the  celebrated  orator  and  rhe- 
torical teacher,  Isocrates,  whom  he  appears  to  have  attacked 
with  great  severity.  It  was  in  the  schools  of  rhetoric  that 
the  young  men  of  Athens  got  the  principal  part  of  their  edu- 
cation for  public  life.  They  learned  the  art  of  speaking 
before  the  Dikasteries,  or  courts  of  law,  and  the  public  as- 
sembly, with  eflSciency  and  elegance;  and  incidentally  ac 
quired  the  notions  of  law  and  public  policy  that  regulated  the 
management  of  affairs  at  the  time.  We  can  easily  suppose 
that  A.  would  look  with  contempt  upon  the  shallowness — in 
all  that  regarded  thought  or  subject  matter— of  the  common 
rhetorical  teaching,  of  which,  doubtless,  the  prevailing  excel- 
lence would  lie  in  the  form  of  the  address,  being  artistic 
rather  than  profound  or  erudite.  One  of  the  disciples  of 
Isocrates,  def  endmg  his  master  against  A.,  wrote  a  treaitise 


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ARISTOTLE. 

irnerem  aUudon  is  made  to  a  work  (now  losc;  on  proverofi^ 
the  first  recorded  publication  of  the  philosopher. 

The  death  of  PUto  (B.C.  847)  was  the  occasion  of  A.'8  de- 
parture from  Ath^cs.  It  was  not  extraordinary  or  unrea- 
sonable that  A.  shoola  hope  to  succeed  his  master  as  Uie  chief 
of  his  school,  named  Gie  Academy.  We  now  know  that 
no  other  man  then  existing  had  an  equal  title  to  that  pre- 
eminence. Plato,  however,  iett  his  nephew  Speusippus  as 
his  successor.  We  may  suppose  the  disappointmeut  thus 
arising  to  have  been  the  principal  reason  for  A.'s  determi- 
nation to  stay  no  longer  in  Athens;  but  there  are  other  reasons 
also  that  majr  be  assigned,  arising  out  of  Us  relations  with 
the  Macedonian  royal  family  at  a  time  when  t2ie  Athenians 
and  Philip  had  come  into  open  enmity. 

Whatever  may  be  the  explanation,  he  went  in  his  87th 

5 ear,  after  a  stay  of  nearly  twenty  years  in  Athens,  to  the 
[ysian  town  of  Atameus,  in  Asia  Minor,  opposite  to  the 
island  of  Lesbos.  Here  he  lived  with  Hermeias,  the  chief 
of  the  town,  a  man  of  singular  energy  and  ability,  who  had 
conquered  his  dominion  for  himself  from  the  Persians,  at 
that  time  masters  of  nearly  all  Asia  Minor.  A.  had  taught 
him  rhetoric  at  Athens,  and  he  became  in  return  the  at- 
tached friend  and  admirer  of  his  teacher.  For  three  years 
the  two  lived  together  in  the  stronghold  of  Atameus;  but 
by  treachery  and  false  promises,  the  Khodian  Mentor,  an 
officer  in  the  Persian  service,  got  possession  of  the  person  of 
Hermeias,  put  him  to  death,  and  became  master  of  all  the 
places  held  oy  him.  A.  accordingly  fled,  and  took  refuge  in 
Mitylene,  the  chief  city  of  the  neighboring  island  of  Lesbos. 
He  also  took  with  him  Pythias,  the  sister  of  Hermeias,  and 
made  her  his  wife.  In  a  noble  ode,  he  has  commemorated 
the  merits  of  his  friend  thus  lost  to  him  through  the  treach- 
ery of  a  Qreek  renegade.  His  wife,  Pythias,  died  a  few 
years  afterwards  in  Macedonia,  leaving  hhn  a  daughter  of 
the  same  name.  His  son,  Nikomachus,  to  whom  he  dedi- 
cated his  chief  work  on  ethics — called,  in  consequence,  the 
Nikomaehean  Ethics— was  bom  to  him  at  a  later  period  of 
his  life  by  a  concubine. 

After  twoyears*  stay  at  Mitylene,  he  was  invited  (b.c.  842, 
age  42)  by  Philip  to  Macedonia  to  educate  his  son  Alex- 
ander, then  in  his  14th  year.  What  course  of  study  Alex- 
ander was  made  to  go  through,  we  cannot  state.  He  en- 
Joyed  the  teaching  of  A.  for  at  least  three  years,  and  con- 
tracted a  strong  attachment  to  his  preceptor,  which  events 
afterwards  converted  into  bitter  enmity.  The  two  parted 
finally  when  Alexander  commenced  his  expedition  into 
Asia  (B.C.  384),  and  A.  came  from  Macedonia  to  Athens, 
having  recommended  to  the  future  conqueror,  as  a  com- 
panion in  his  campaigns,  the  philosopher  Clallisthenes, 
whom  he  educated  with  Alexander.  Now  at  the  age  of  50, 
he  entered  on  the  final  epoch  of  his  life;  he  opened  a  school 
called  the  'Lyceum,'  from  its  proximity  to  the  temple  of 
Apollo  Lyceius.  Prom  his  practice  of  walking  up  and  down 
in  the  garden  during  his  lectures,  arose  the  other  name  of  his 
school  and  sect,  the  Peripatetic.  It  would  appear  to  have 
been  his  habit  to  give  a  morning  lecture  to  select  pupils  on 


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ARISTOTLE. 

the  more  abstruse  subjects,  and  one  in  the  eycningof  a  more 
popular  kind  to  a  general  audience.  He  may  now  be  sup- 
posed to  have  composed  his  principal  writings;  but  unfor- 
tunately, there  is  nothing  known  of  the  dates  of  any  of  them. 
This  crowning  period  of  his  life  lasted  twelve  years.  After 
the  death  of  Alexander,  the  anti-Macedonian  party  at  Athens 
obtained  ascendency,  and  among  other  consequences,  an  ac- 
cusation was  prepared  against  A.,  the  pretext  being  impietv. 
Willi  the  fate  of  Socrates  before  his  eyes  he  chose  a  timely 
escape,  and  in  the  beginning  of  B.C.  822  took  refuge  at 
Chalcis  in  Euboea,  where  in  the  autumn  he  died,  aged  62. 
He  had  long  been  afSicted  with  indigestion,  and  ultimately 
sank  under  this  malady. 

The  philosophy  of  A.  differed  from  that  of  Plato  on  many 
points,  especially  in  the  fundamental  doctrine  termed  the 
Theoiy^  of  Ideas.  The  Platonic  'ideas'  or  'forms'  were 
conceived  as  real  existences,  imparting  all  that  is  common 
to  the  particular  facts  or  realities,  instead  of  heme  derived 
from  them  by  an  operation  of  the  mind.  Thus,  me  actual 
circles  of  nature  derive  their  mathematical  properties  from 
the  pre-existing  '  idea,'  or  tircle  in  the  abstract;  the  actual 
men  owe  their  sameness  to  the  ideal  man.  A.  was  opposed 
to  this  doctrine  throughout,  although  he  always  speaks  of 
its  author  with  respect,  and  sometimes  with  affection.  The 
whole  method  of  A.  was  in  marked  contrast  to  the  Platonic 
handling  of  philosophical  subjects:  he  was  a  most  assiduous 
observer  and  collector  of  facts,  from  which  he  drew  induc- 
tions with  more  or  less  accuracy.  Plato,  on  the  other  hand, 
valued  facts  merely  in  criticiBing  the  views  that  he  was  bent 
upon  demolishing,  and  not  as  a  means  of  establishing  sound 
theories. 

The  writings  of  A.  may  be  said  to  have  embraced  the 
whole  circle  of  the  knowledge  of  his  time.  Many  of  them 
are  lost;  those  that  remain  refer  principally  to  the  following 
departments. 

Astronomy,  Mechanics,  Physics,  were  treated  of  by  him 
at  some  length;  but  here  his  failure  was  complete,  if  we  look 
at  his  writings  from  the  point  of  view  now  acquired.  He 
was  the  victim  of  capricious  fancies,  based  upon  doctrines 
common  among  his  contemporaries,  accepted  by  him  as 
principles  of  reasoning,  and  conducting  him  to  the  most 
unsound  conclusions.  His  theory  of  the  rotation  of  the 
sphere,  the  necessary  perfection  of  circular  motion,  of  the 
impossibility  of  a  vacuum,  and  the  like,  did  more  to  confuse 
than  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  nature.  Nor  can  it  be 
said  that  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  putting  these  subjects  on 
a  rational  basis;  for  he  was  very  shortly  followed  by  a  series 
of  men,  who  both  observed  and  reasoned  soundly  respecting 
them,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  their  great  subsequent 
progress— namely.  Euclid,  Apollonius,  Archimedes,  Era- 
tosmenes,  and  Hipparchus. 

The  thirteen  books  called  Metaphysics  contain  much  pro- 
found thought,  but  are  obscure  and  defectively  arttmged; 
indeed,  neither  the  actual  arrangement  of  the  books,  nor  the 
title  which  they  bear,  can  be  ascribed  to  A.  himself.  The 
subject  to  which  they  are  devoted  is  Ontology — the  science 
of  Mm,  quatenu9  i^w*— which  he  terms  Philo9ophia  Prima, 


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ARISTOTLE. 

and  somethnes  Theology.  He  distinguishes  three  branches 
of  theoretical  philosophy.  1.  Physics— the  study  of  sensible 
material  particular  things,  each  of  which  differs  from  every 
other,  and  all  of  which  have  in  themselves  the  principle  of 
change  or  motion.  2.  Mathematics— that  of  geometrical  and 
numerical  entities,  known  by  general  definitions,  susceptible 
neither  of  change  nor  of  movement,  capable  of  being  con- 
sidered and  reasoned  upon  apart  from  matter,  but  not  ca- 
pable of  existing  apart  from  matter.  3.  The  First  or  Highest 
Philosophy — which  studies  the  essences  of  things  eternal, 
anchangeable,  and  apart  from  all  that  change,  movement, 
and  differentiation  which  material  embodiment  involves. 

The  Metaphysics,  or  First  Philosophy,  does  in  fact  deal 
with  the  extreme  abstractions  or  generalities  of  all  sciences. 
It  is  a  collection,  partly  of  doubts  and  diflBculties,  partly  of 
attempted  solutions,  upon  these  last  refinements  of  the 
human  mind.  It  includes  many  valuable  comments  on  the 
philoeophyof  Plato  and  others  anterior  to  or  contemporary 
with  A.  The  general  terms  and  subtle  distinctions  which 
this  treatise  first  brought  to  view  were  highly  prized  through- 
out the  philosophy  of  the  middle  £^ges. 

He  appears  in  a  very  different  light  in  his  great  work  on 
Animals.  He  has  here  amassed  a  stock  of  genuine  observa- 
tions, and  also  introduced  a  method  of  classification  which 
continues  to  this  day  as  the  most  approved  groundwork  of 
zoological  classification.  In  this  work  we  see,  perhaps,  in 
the  most  advantageous  light,  the  two  great  qualities  of  his 
mind,  rarel^r  coupled  in  the  same  individual— the  aptitude 
for  observation,  and  logical  method.  The  excellence  shown 
in  bis  various  writings  generally  depends  upon  one  or  other 
of  these  qualities. 

His  Organon  or  Logic  is  his  complete  development  of 
formal  reasoning,  and  is  the  basis  and  nearly  tbe  whole 
substance  of  syllogistic  or  scholastic  logic.  This  science  he 
almost  entirely  created.  Mr.  Grote  observes  (History  of 
Greece,  part  li.  chap.  Ixviii )  that  '  what  was  begun  by 
Socrates,  and  improved  by  Plato,  was  embodied  as  a  part 
of  a  comprehensive  system  of  formal  logic  by  the  genius  of 
A.;  a  system  which  was  not  only  of  extraordinary  value  in 
reference  to  the  processes  and  controversies  of  its  time,  but 
which  also,  having  become  insensibly  worked  into  the 
minds  of  instructed  men,  has  contributed  much  to  form 
what  is  correct  in  the  habits  of  modem  thinking.  Though 
it  has  now  been  enlarg:ed  and  recast  by  some  modern 
authors  (e^>ecially  by  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill  in  his  admirable 
Syiiem  of  Lome)  into  a  structure  commensurate  with  the  vast 
increase  of  Knowledge  and  extension  of  positive  method 
belonging  to  the  present  day — we  must  recollect  that  the 
distance  oetween  the  best  modem  logic  and  that  of  A.  is 
hardly  so  great  as  that  between  A.  ana  those  who  preened 
him  by  a  century — Empedocles,  Anaxagoras,  and  the 
Pythagoreans;  and  that  the  movement  in  advance  of  these 
latter  conunences  with  Socrates.' 

A  considerable  portion  of  his  writings  relate  to  the  Human 
Mind  and  Body.  In  one  of  these,  a  short  treatise  on 
Memory  and  Recollection,  he  gave  the  first  statement  of  the 
laws  of  Association  of  Ideas. 

&-28 


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ARI8T0XENUS-ARITHMETIC. 

Hifl  treatises  on  Rhetoric  and  Poetics  were  the  earliest 
development  of  a  Pliilosophy  of  Criticism,  and  still  continue 
to  be  studied.  The  same  reinark  is  af^licable  to  his  elaborate 
disquisitions  on  Ethics. 

Perhaps  one  of  his  greatest  works  is  his  Politics,  based 
upon  a  collection  made  by  himself  of  158  different  constitu- 
tions of  states;  the  collection  itself  being  unhappily  lost. 
Here  is  seen  the  spirit  of  the  inductive  observer,  which 
indeed  is  no  less  apparent  in  the  works  mentioned  in  the  last 
paragraph.  It  is,  however,  a  singular  fact,  that  he  gives  no 
evidence  of  having  read  the  historian  Thucydidcs;  and  his 
only  reference  to  Herodotus  is  on  a  point  of  natural  histoiy. 
Yet  the  narratives  and  descriptions  contained  in  the  works 
of  both  these  writers  are  i)rolrabl^  of  as  much  value,  and  as 
much  in  point,  in  a  Political  Philosophy,  as  the  very  best 
observations  made  by  himself. 

The  great  current  distinctions  of  Matter  and  Form,  Sub- 
stance and  Quality,  Actuality  and  Potentiality,  are  due  to  A. 
See  Grole's  Aristotle,  1872. 

ARISTOXENUS,  dr'U-toks'i-nus,  of  Tarentum:  pupil  of 
Aristotle;  one  of  the  oldest  writers  upon  music,  lived  abt 
B.C.  830.  He  was  eitraordinarily  active  and  versa tOe  in 
literary  studies,  and  is  said  to  have  composed  upwards  of  450 
treatises  on  music,  history,  and  philosophy.  On  the  death 
of  Aristotle,  he  fully  expected  to  be  appointed  his  successor, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  deeply  mortined  when  Theophras- 
tus  was  preferred;  but  this  statement  is  discredited  by  many. 
He  founded  a  school  of  musicians,  who  were  called  after 
him  Aristoxeneans,  and  whose  distinguishing  characteristic 
was  that  they  Judged  of  the  notes  in  the  diatonic  scale 
exelusivelv  by  the  ear,  while  the  Pythagoreans  determined 
these  mathematically.  Except  his  Elements  of  Bdrmanp, 
in  three  books,  which  we  still  possess,  only  a  few  fragments 
of  his  writings  survive  in  later  authors. 

ARITHMETIC,  n.  d-rith'm^tlk  [Gr.  aHthmet'%ke:  L. 
anlhmet'iea,  arithmetic— from  Gr.  arith'mos,  number:  F. 
arithmetique]'.  the  science  of  numbers;  the  art  of  counting 
or  computing.  Arithmetical,  a.  ar'Uh-mHt-kdlf  pertain- 
ing to  arithmetic.  Ar'ithmet'icallt,  ad.  -kdl-l.  Arith- 
HETiciAN,  n.  d-rith'm^'tlsh'dn,  one  skilled  in  arithmetia 
Arithmaivct,  n.  dr'Uh  mdn'sl  [Gr.  manteCa,  divination] 
divination  by  numbers.  Ar'ithmom'btbr,  n.  -e-ter  [Gr. 
metron,  a  measure] :  an  abacus. 

ARITHMETIC:  the  science  that  treats  of  numbers.  It 
is  sometimes  divided  into  theoretical  and  practical;  the 
former  investigating  the  properties  of  numbers  and  their 
combinations,  the  latter  applying  the  principles  so  estab- 
lished, in  the  form  of  rules,  to  actual  calculations.  Some 
restrict  the  term  A.  to  this  art  of  reckoning,  assigning  the 
investigation  of  the  principles  to  analysis. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  A.  made  little 
progress,  owing  to  their  clumsy  modes  of  notation.  Few 
of  their  writings  on  the  subject  have  come  down  to  us; 
the  most  important  are  those  of  Euclid  (7-10  B.  of  the 
Elements),  Archimedes,  Diophantus,  and  Nicomachus. 
After  the  introduction  of  the  decimal  system  and  the 


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ARITHMETICAL  SIGNS. 

Arabic  or  Hindu  numerals  (see  Numerals),  about  the 
11th  c,  A.  began  to  assume  a  new  form;  but  it  was  not  till 
the  16th  c.  that  the  Double  Rule  of  Three,  or  Compound 
Proportion,  was  discovered,  and  decimal  fractions  were 
introduced.  The  invention  of  Logarithms  in  the  17th  c. 
is  the  last  great  step  in  advance  that  the  art  has  made. 
Passing  over  the  elementary  operations  of  Addition,  etc., 
see  the  chief  titles,  such  as  Fbactions:  Decimals:  Pbo- 
portiom:  Logarithms:  etc. 

AmTHMETICAL  COMPLEMENT:  that  which  a 
number  wants  to  make  it  reach  the  next  highest  decimal 
denomination.  Thus  the  A.  C.  of  4  is  0,  for  4  -f  6  =  10, 
and  that  of  642  is  358,  because  642  +  858  =  1,000.  The 
A.  C.  of  a  logarithm  is  what  it  wants  to  make  it  reach  10. 

ARITHMETICAL  3fEAN:  that  number  that  lies 
equally  distant  between  two  others:  thus,  the  A.  M.  be- 
tween 11  and  17  is  14,  which  is  found  by  taking  half  their 
sum. 

ARITHMETICAL  PROGRESSION:  a  series  of  num- 
bers that  increase  or  diminish  by  a  common  difference,  as 
7.  10,  13,  16,  19,  22;  or  12,  lOj,  9,  74,  6.  To  find  the  sum 
of  such  a  series,  multiply  the  sum  of  the  first  and  last 
terms  by  half  the  number  of  terms.  The  scries  of 
natural  numbers,  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  form  an  A.  P.,  of  which 
the  difference  is  1. 

ARITHMETICAL  PROPORTION:  the  relation  exist- 
ing  between  four  numbers,  of  which  the  first  is  as  much 
«  ereater  or  less  than  the  second,  as  the  third  is  than  the 
fourth;  the  equality  of  two  differences  or  arithmetical 
ratios.  In  such  cases  the  sum  of  the  extremes  is  equal  to  that 
of  the  means.  Thus  6  and  4, 21  and  19,  are  in  arithmetical 
proportion;  for  4  differs  from  6  by  2,  as  docs  19  from  21; 
the  sum  of  the  extremes,  6  4- 19  =  25,  is  consequently 
equal  to  that  of  the  means,  4  -|-  21  =  25.  It  is  not  the  same 
as  the  *  Rule  of  Three,'  in  which  the  members  are  in  geo- 
metrical proportion.  Arithmetical  Proportionals, 
numbers  so  related  to  each  other  (opposed  to  geometric 
jjroportkmah), 

ARITHMETICAL  RATIO:  the  difference  between  any 
two  numbers  constituting  part  of  a  series  in  arithmetical 
progression. 

ARITHMETICAL  RELATION:  comparison  together 
of  numbers  in  an  arithmetical  progression  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  how  much  they  differ  from  each  other. 

ARITHMETICAL  SIGNS:  arbitrary  marks  or  symbols 
iised  to  denote  the  oi>eration8  to  be  performed  on  numbers, 
or  the  relations  existing  between  them;  e.  g.,  7  4-  5 
indicates  that  7  and  5  are  to  be  added  together;  7  —  5,  that 
5  is  to  be  subtracted  from  7;  7*  that  7  is  to  be  raised  to  the 
fifth  power;  7  +  5  =  15  —  8,  that  when  7  and  5  are  added 
together,  the  result  is  eoutU  to  the  difference  between  15 
and  3.  The  sign  X  in  8x4  means  that  8  is  to  be  multiplied 
by  4;  the  sign  4  in  8-7  4  means  that  8  is  to  be  divided  by  4, 
Mostly  the  same  signs  are  used  in  Algebra  also. 


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ARIU8. 

AR1U8:  a-Ti'us,  or  alrl-us:  the  celebrated  founder  of 
AriaDism;  b.  Libya;  and  as  is  supposed  shortly  after  the 
middle  of  the  3d  c.  About  806,  Alexandria  was  thrown 
into  confusion  by  the  violence  of  its  religious  disputes, 
and  in  these  A.  was  largely  active.  At  first,  he  took 
part  with  Meletius,  Bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  Upper 
Egypt,  a  man  who  was  strenuously  opposed  to  certain 
notions  of  discipline  entertained  by  Feter,  Bishop  of 
Alexandria;  but  afterwards  he  become  reconciled  to 
the  latter,  who  made  A.  a  deacon.  The  reconciliation, 
however,  was  brief.  A.  once  more  took  the  part  of 
Melelius,  and  was  excommunicated  by  Peter  in  conse- 
quence; but  the  latter  dying  soon  after,  Achillas,  his  suc- 
cessor, restored  A.  to  his  office,  and  even  advanced  him  to 
the  dignity  of  presbyter,  813.  His  new  function  required 
that  he  should  interpret  the  Scrij^tures,  and  as  he  pos- 
sessed an  abundance  of  natural  gifts,  united  with  great 
learning,  his  preaching  became  popular,  and  his  peculiar- 
ities of  opinion  were  vehemently  embraced.  ITie  first 
time,  however,  that  A.  was  brought  into  collision  on 
a  point  of  doctrine  with  his  ecclesiastical  superiors  was 
in  318.  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  successor  of 
Achillas,  having  in  a  public  assembly  of  clergy,  while 
speaking  of  the  Trinity,  said  that  it  contained  one  single 
essence,  or  indivisible  unity  of  substance,  A.  alleged  that 
such  a  conception  was  impossible  to  the  human  niind,  and 
accused  Alexander  of  SSabellianism — i.  e.,  of  destroying  the 
distinction  of  persons.  The  dispute  grew  hot,  and  a  con- 
ference which  was  held  to  settle  it  only  embittered  the 
disputants.  In  maintaining  his  ground,  A.  went  beyond 
his  first  statement  of  the  absolute  distinctness  of  person 
between  the  Father  and  the  Son;  he  maintained  that  the 
Son  was  not  co-equal  or  co-eternal  with  the  Father,  but 
only  the  first  and  highest  of  all  finite  beings,  created  out 
of  nothing  by  an  act  of  (Jod's  free  will,  and  that  he  ought 
not  to  be  ranked  with  the  Father. 

A.  was  successful  in  securing  the  adherence  of  large 
numbers  both  of  the  clergy  and  laitv  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
and  Asia  Minor.  In  331,  a  synod  of  bishops  was  held 
at  Alexandria.  These  deposed  and  excommunicated 
A.,  and  active  measures  were  taken  to  let  this  decision 
be  known  over  all  the  Christian  churches;  Alexander 
himself  wrote  numerous  letters  (two  of  which  art 
still  extant),  exhorting  the  bishops  not  to  receive  the 
'heretic*  In  consequence  of  these  violent  Btep«,  the 
breach  was  widened.  To  escape  persecution,  A.  retired  to 
Palestine,  where  he  wrote  a  letter  to  his  friend  Eusebius, 
who  was  Bishop  of  Nicomedeia,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  and 
not  far  from  Constantinople.  Eusebius,  one  of  the  most 
influential  Christians  of  his  time,  warmly  sympathized 
with  him;  wrote  in  his  behalf  to  Pauliuus,  Bishop  of  TjTe, 
and  others;  absolved  him  from  the  Alexandrian  synod's 
excommunication;  and  in  323  convened  another  synod  in 
Bith3mia,  which  pronounced  favorably  on  A.  He  even 
enlisted  Constantine  on  the  side  of  the  latter,  to  this 
extent  at  least,  that  the  half-pa^n  emperor  addressed  ad 


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ARIUS. 

monitions  to  both  Alexander  and  A.,  assuring  them  that 
the  point  in  dispute  was  a  trifling  one,  and  ought  not  to 

Srovoke  a  serious  quarrel.  While  A.  was  r&siding  &x 
ricomedeia,  he  wrote  a  theological  work  in  verse  and 
prose,  called  ThaUia,  some  fragments  of  which  remain, 
and  indicate  an  earnest  and  philosophic  mind,  but  contain 
expressions  which  could  not  but^pain  a  believer  in  the 
proper  divinity  of  Christ.  The  Thaleia  is  said  to  have 
been  sung  by  the  Arian  neoph3rtes,  who  thus  kindled  the 
passions  of  their  adversaries,  and  increased  the  virulence 
of  the  contest.  The  comedians,  who  were  pagans,  took 
advantage  of  the  occasion  to  ridicule  ihe  Christian  relig- 
ion in  the  theatres.  The  officers  of  the  emperor  in  several 
cities  wished  to  repress  this  profane  temerity,  but  the  in- 
terference only  created  grjeater  confusion. 

It  now  became  impossible  for  the  empyeror  to  remain 
neutral  or  indifferent,  with  safety  to  himself  or  to  the 
tranquillitv  of  the  empire.  Uosius,  Bishop  of  Corduba, 
whom  he  bad  appointed  mediator  betwixt  Alexander  and 
A.,  tookpart  with  the  former,  and  reported  unfavorably 
of  A.  The  result  was,  that  Constantme,  in  order,  as  he 
thought,  to  effect  a  final  settlement  of  the  question,  con- 
voked the  memorable  Council  of  Nicaea  (Nice,  q.v.^,  in 
Bithynia,  325.  Three  hundred  and  eighteen  bishops  from 
almost  all  the  Christian  world,  especially  from  the  East, 
were  present,  besides  numbers  of  priests,  deacons,  and 
acolytes.  A.  boldly  expounded  and  defended  his  opinions. 
He  declared  in  the  most  unambiguous  manner  that  the 
Son  of  God  was  created  out  of  nothing;  that  he  had  not 
always  existed;  that  he  was  not  immutable  or  impec- 
cable; that  it  was  through  his  free-will  he  remained 
^ood  and  holy;  th^t  if  he  had  chosen,  he  could  as  easily 
have  sinned  as  not;  in  a  word,  that  he  was  a  mere  creature 
and  work  of  the  Deity.  He  further  affirmed  that  the  Son 
of  God  was  not  of  the  same  substance,  with  the  Father; 
that  he  was  not  the  *  Word '  or  '  Wisdom,'  properly  speak- 
ing; and  that  the  Scriptures  only  attribute  these  names  to 
him  as  they  do  to  other  created  intelligences.  These 
propositions  were  listened  to  with  great  calmness  by  the 
bishops,  but  the  inferior  clerey,  or  at  least  a  majority  of 
them,  manifested  the  most  violent  opposition.  The  docu- 
ment containing  his  confession  of  faith  was  torn  to  pieces 
before  his  face.  Arguments,  however,  of  a  more  rational 
kind  were  also  employed.  Alexander  was  ably  seconded  by 
the  young  deacon,  Athanasius,  the  equal  of  A.  in  eloquence, 
and  in  the  power  of  his  logic.  It  was  principally  by  the 
reasonings  of  Athanasius  that  the  council  was  persuaded 
to  define,  in  the  most  precise  manner,  as  the  doctrine  of 
the  Godhead,  the  absolute  unity  of  the  divine  essence,  and 
the  absolute  equality  of  the  three  persons.  All  the  bishops 
subscribed  it  except  two,  Theonas  of  Marmarica  and 
Becundus  of  Ptolemais,  who  had  the  heroism  (for  it  must 
be  considered  such)  to  follow  the  banished  A.  into 
Illyricum. 

An  imperial  edict  was  now  issued  commanding  the  writ- 
ings of  A.  to  be  burned,  and  threatening  with  capital  punish 


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ARIUS. 

ment  all  who  should  be  convicted  of  concealing  them. 
This  change  in  the  emperor's  sentiments  as  to  the  impor- 
tance of  the  doctrine  at  issue  is  attributed  by  some  writers  to 
his  recognizing  the  will  of  Heaven  in  the  harmonious  con 
sent  of  so  many  bishops.  A  more  probable  explanation  is, 
that  he  anticipated  the  utmost  social  confusion  from  the 
collision  of  opinion,  and  resolved  to  crush  that  which  was 
at  once  the  youngest  and  the  weakest,  hoping  thereby  to 
remove  the  ground  of  disturljanoe.  He  misjudged;  how- 
ever. At  Alexandria,  the  Arians  continued  in  a  state  of 
ox>en  insurrection,  and  began  to  league  themselves  with 
other  condemned  sects,  for  mutual  defense.  The  great 
influence  of  Eusebius  was  also  exerted  on  behalf  of  the 
exiled  heretic,  as  well  as  that  of  Ck)nstantia,  the  sister  of 
the  emperor,  who  had  herself  embraced  Arian  tenets,  and 
in  828  permission  was  granted  him  to  return  from  Illyricum. 
Constantine  was  very  gracious,  perhaps  because  he  thought 
the  chances  of  peace  being  restored  to  the  community  were 
now  greater,  for  it  had  been  represented  to  him  by  Eusebius 
that  me  doctrines  of  A.  did  not  essentially  differ  from  those 
of  the  Nicene  Council.  In  880,  A.  had  an  interview  with 
the  emperor,  and  succeeded  in  convincing  him  that  Euse- 
bius had  spoken  the  truth.  In  the  confession  of  faith  which 
he  presented,  he  declared  his  belief  that  the  Son  was  bom 
of  the  Father  before  all  a^.  and  that  as  the  '  Word,'  he 
had  made  all  things  both  in  heaven  and  earth.    The  em- 

S3ror  was  satisfied,  and  sent  orders  to  Athanasius,  now 
ishop  of  Alexandria,  to  receive  A.  into  the  communion  of 
the  church.  This  Athanasius  refused  to  do,  and  a  series  of 
tumults  was  the  consequence.  Eusebius  was  greatly 
irritated.  He  called  a  synod  of  bishops  at  Tyre,  335,  which 
proceeded  to  depose  Athanasius.  The  emperor  was  even 
prevailed  on  to  remove  the  latter  to  Gaul,  though  he 
alleged  as  his  reason,  that  he  wished  to  deliver  him  from 
the  machinations  of  his  enemies.  In  the  same  year,  another 
synod  met  at  Jerusalem,  which  revoked  the  sentence  of  ex- 
commimication  uttered  against  Arius  and  his  friends. 
Still  the  majority  of  tiie  Christians  of  Alexandria  clung  to 
the  doctrines  of  Athanasius,  and  resolutely  resisted  every 
effort  to  establish  the  new  opinions  among  them.  Disap- 
pointed in  his  expectations,  Arius  in  336  proceeded  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  presented  the  emperor  with  an- 
other apparently  orthodox  confession  of  faith;  whereupon 
orders  were  issued  to  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Constantinople, 
to  administer  to  Arius  the  holy  communion  on  the  Sunday 
following.  This  was  considered  a  grand  triumph  by 
Eusebius  and  his  friends,  and  when  the  day  arrived,  they 
escorted  A. ,  as  a  guard  of  honor,  through  the  streets  of  the 
metropolis.  When  about  to  enter  the  temple,  in  which  it 
was  intended  that  he  should  be  received  with  solemn  pomp, 
he  retired  a  moment  to  relieve  nature,  but  fainted,  and  died 
of  a  violent  hemorrhage.  His  disciples  declared  that  he 
had  been  poisoned,  while  the  orthodox  devoutly  affirmed 
that  God  had  answered  the  prayers  of  Alexander. 

A.  was  exceedingly  handsome,  but  the  harassing  cares  ol 
a  life  spent  in  a  continual  struggle  with  his  adveraaries  aro 


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AUIUS. 

said  to  have  given  him  a  worn  and  haggard  look.  His 
manners  were  graceful  and  modest;  he  was  noted  for  even 
an  ascetic  abstmence,  and  the  purity  of  his  moral  character 
was  never  challenged. 

After  the  death  of  A.,  his  followers  rallied  round 
Eusebius,  now  Bishop  of  Constantinople  (338),  from  whom 
they  were  styled  Eusebians.  The  reconoiliatory  middle 
party  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  (died  840),  who  wished  to  end 
the  great  controversy  by  abstaiuin^  f  rom  all  strict  dogmatic 
assertions  on  the  matter,  soon  dwmdled  into  insignificance 
between  the  two  contending  parties.  Constans,  who  ruled 
the  West  after  the  death  of  Constautine  (387),  and  Con- 
stantius,  in  the  East,  made  an  essay  towards  reconciliation; 
but  it  failed  at  the  synod  of  Sardeis  (847),  where  the 
occidental  bishops  gathered  themselves  round  Athanasius 
in  support  of  the  Homooitsian  doctrine  (identitv  or  sameness 
of  substance)^  while  in  a  separate  council  at  rhilippopolis, 
Uie  oriental  bishops  asserted  the  Eomoiousian  doctnne  (im- 
pljring  merely  similarity  of  substance).  Slight  as  might 
appear  the  verbal  difference  between  the  two  parties,  the 
bitterness  of  the  controversy  was  intense,  and  pKcrvaded  al- 
most all  departments  of  public  and  private  life.  Constan- 
tins  having,  b^  the  death  of  Ck>nstans  (850)  and  conquest 
over  Magnentius  (853),  gained  dominion  over  the  West,  the 
Arian  cause,  which  he  favored,  triumphed  at  the  synod  of 
Arelate  or  Aries  (858)  and  at  that  of  Milan  (355).  The 
Nicene  doctrine  had  sdll  strong  support  on  its  side,  and  was 
strictly  maintained  by  the  banished  Athanasius  and  his 
friends,  while  the  Antinicseans,  soon  after  their  triumph, 
were  divided  into  at  least  three  parties.  The  old  Arians, 
also  styled  Anomoeoi,  or  Heterousians,  asserted,  in  the 
boldest  style,  their  doctrine  of  '  distinct  substances.'  The 
semi- Arians  (a  large  majority  in  the  Eastern  Church)  main- 
tained the  Homoiousian  doctrine  of  similar  substances.  A 
third  party  held  the  same  doctrine  with  some  qualification. 
Morally,  the  victory  was  leaning  to  the  side  of  the  Nicseans. 
Julian  the  Apostate  (861-863),  hi  his  hatred  of  the  Christian 
religion,  left  all  parties  at  liberty  to  contend  as  they  pleased 
with  one  another,  so  that  they  did  not  interfere  with  his 
plans.  Jovianus  and  his  followers  in  the  West,  Yalentini- 
anua  I.,  Gratianus,  and  Yalentinianus  II.,  extended  full 
toleration  to  both  parties.  Arianism,  at  last,  was  virtually 
abolished  in  the  Roman  empire,  under  Theodosius  in  the 
East  (879>895),  and  Yalentinianus  II.  in  the  West  Among 
the  Qerman  nations,  however,  it  continued  to  spread  through 
missionary  efforts.  Bishop  Ulfilas,  the  translator  of  t£e 
Bible  into  the  MsesoQothic  langua^,  had  been  the  means 
of  converting  the  West  Gbths  to  Anan  Christianity  as  early 
as  848;  and  they  adhered  to  it  until  the  synod  of  Toledo  in 
589.  The  East  €k)ths,  Vandals,  Burgundians,  the  Suevi  in 
Spain,  and  the  Longobards  also  adopted  Arianism;  but  in 
all  these  instances  the  Nicene  doctrine  ultimately  prevailed, 
most  slowlv  amongthe  Longobards,  who  retained  the  Arian 
creed  until  662.  l*ure  Armnism  can  hardly  now  be  said 
to  exist.  It  has  gradually  lapsed  into  Unitarianism.  See 
Unitarians. 


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ARIZONA. 

ARIZONA,  dr-t-zd'nd:  one  of  the  lerritoriefl  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  8.w.  p^t,  separated  from  the  Pacific 
by  s.  California  and  by  the  rocky  and  arid  desert  of  Lower 
California.  It  li^  between  the  parall^  of  81  "*  20'  and 
87'  n.  and  the  meridians  of  109°  and  114°  35'  w.  Its  ' 
latest  computed  area  according  to  land  office  reports  is 
118,916  sq.  m.,  or  72,906,240  acres.  It  has  been  only  par- 
tially surveyed,  however,  and  its  area  is  believed  to  be 
much  CTeater  than  this,  roughlv  computed  at  about  that  of 
New  England,  New  York,  and  Wew  Jersey.  A.  is  bounded 
on  the  n.  by  Utah,  the  87th  norallel  forming  its  n.  boundary 
as  far  w.  as  the  114th  meriaian.  From  the  86th  parallel  s.» 
the  w.  boundary  is  irregular,  following  the  course  of  the 
Colorado  river.  The  s.  boundary  runs  w.  along  the  parallel 
of  81"  20'  to  the  111th  meridian,  and  then  n.w.  to  82*  80', 
where  it  strikes  the  Colorado.  A.  is  bounded  on  the  e.  by 
New  Mexico.  A.  occupies  a  large  part  of  the  plateau 
region,  the  s.  continuation  of  the  Great  Basin  mountain 
ranges,  and  a  portion  of  the  group  of  ranges'  of  which 
those  on  the  s.  coast  of  California  are  members.  The 
prevalent  character  of  the  surface  is  arid,  and  in  the  s.w. 
portion  are  large  tracts  of  shifting  sands.  The  highest 
known  mountain  elevation  is  Mount  San  Francisco,  at 
the  northernmost  end  of  the  plateau  of  that  name,  and 
whose  summit  is  12,700  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  But 
although  the  general  appearance  of  the  surface  of  the 
countiy  is  mountainous  and  forbidding,  the  variety  being 
desert  spaces,  mesas,  or  table  lands,  void  of  water,  yet  there 
are  many  valleys  of  great  natural  beauty  and  fertility;  the 
valleys  of  the  Colorado  Chiquito  and  Rio  Salinas  being 
true  garden-spots,  while  in  the  surrounding  mountains  are 
excellent  stock-ranges,  with  fine  grazing  and  plenty  of 
water.  Even  the  table-lands,  when  properly  irrigated,  prove 
wonderfully  productive,  yielding  65  bush,  of  wheat  of  fine 
qualit^r  to  the  acre,  and  producing  Indian  com  and  root- 
crops  in  enormous  quantities.  The  water-ways  of  A.  are 
the  Colorado  and  Gila  rivers,  with  their  tributaries.  Here 
the  bottom  lands  are  fertile,  but  the  valley  below  the  cafions 
is  barren  and  unproductive.  The  n.  section  of  the  territory 
is  well  wooded  and  fertile,  the  grass  is  inexhaustible,  and 
water  is  accessible;  here,  too,  are  the  invaluable  mining 
districts.  S.e.  Arizona  lacks  both  water  and  timber.  The 
n.w.  portion  is  well  timbered  with  iuniper  and  pine,  and 
there  are  numerous  large  springs  and  lakes.  The  face  of 
the  country  in  the  extreme  n.e.  presents  a  succession  of 
mountain  ranges  and  valleys,  the  hills  being  covered  with 
forests  of  yellow  pine.  Here,  however,  as  in  so  many  parts 
of  A.,  is  great  scarcity  of  water.  The  most  remarkable 
feature  of  the  topography  of  this  territory  is  the  tendency 
of  its  rivers  and  streams  to  form  cafions  of  vast  depth  with 
precipitous  sides.  It  seems  as  though  these  waters  had  been 
endowed  with  a  force  elsewhere  unknown,  to  enable  them 
to  cut  their  way  to  the  Gulf  of  California  through  such 
^gantic  moimtainous  masses  of  rock.  The  entire  territory 
18  drained  by  the  Colorado  and  its  tributaries,  with  the  result 
of  the  arid  condition  of  the  interior.    Many  of  Uiese  tribu- 


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ARIZONA. 

taries  are  themselyes  considerable  streams,  rushing  each 
through  its  own  gloomy  and  cavemous  cafions;  but  the 
majestic  Colorado  is  the  monarch  of  them  all.  This 
tremendous  and  swift  river,  increased  by  the  waters  of 
nearly  200  streams,  large  and  small,  covers  a  descent  of 
more  than  8.000  ft.  m  600  m.  The  Great  Caiion  of  the 
Colorado  is  one  of  the  natural  wonders  of  the  world,  whose 
secrets  were  never  disclosed  until  the  memorable  and  fatal 
expeditions  of  Maj.  J.  W.  Powell,  1869  and  1871,  made 
them  known  to  the  world.  Through  its  whole  course  there 
is  a  succession  of  cafions,  which  give  this  river  an  aspect 
possessed  by  no  other  in  the  world.  At  irregular  intervals 
the  rapid  current  plunges  down  steep  declivities  a  distance 
of  from  75  to  850  ft.  The  waUs  of  the  Qrand  Cation  are 
at  some  points  more  than  a  mile,  in  height,  dark  gorges 
where  the  sun  never  penetrates  except  for  a  few  moments 
at  high  noon.  The  vast,  frowning  masses  of  rock  display 
the  most  wonderful  freaks  of  nature,  bein^  battlemented, 
8carped,caste11ated,and  pinnacled, after  a  fashion  most  grand 
and  impressive.  From  the  termination  of  the  Grand  Caiion 
the  Colorado  is  navigable,  though  with  difficulty,  owing  to 
the  numerous  rapids,  to  its  mouth,  a  distance  of  612  m. 
The  deep  cafions  of  the  principal  rivers  render  enormous 
tracts  of  land  unfit  for  anything  except  grazing,  and  even 
that  with  difflcultv,  owing  to  the  extreme  scarcity  of  water 
at  any  distance  inland. 

Geology. — The  exploration  of  the  geological  and  minera- 
logical  conditions  of  A.  have  been  confined  mainly  to  the 
portion  of  the  territory  just  described.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  Colorado  river  has  cut  through  strata  representing  a 
thickness  of  25,000  ft.,  nearly  five  m.  of  vertical  heignt, 
exposing  in  its  course  every  geological  formation  found 
in  North  America,  from  the  quaternary  alluvial  deposits 
to  the  primary  azoic  rocks,  with  intervals  showing  the 
alterations  effected  by  volcanic  action.  About  16,()00  ft. 
of  these  strata  are  in  A.,  display  ing  the  superficial  deposits, 
alluvium,  possibly  diluvium,  clay,  and  sandstone  detritus, 
etc.  In  the  n.e.  part  of  the  territory  are  coal-bed^,  an- 
thracite, and  excellent  in  quality.  There  are  also  marbles 
and  sandstones  of  all  colors,  granites,  and  other  valuable 
building-stones.  The  mineral  wealth  of  A.  is  great,  in 
veins  and  placers  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  and 
carbonates  and  oxides  of  iron,  platinum,  and  quicksilver, 
widely  distributed.  Gold  is  found  free  in  both  placers 
and  quartz  lodes;  silver  in  galena,  and  combined  with 
lead,  and  copper  as  sulphides  and  carbonates;  copper  is 
found  in  the  form  of  gray  sulphurets;  quicksilver  in  the 
form  of  cinnabar  and  possibly  other  combinations;  tin, 
platinum,  and  nickel,  nearly  pure;  iron  ores  of  all  kinds,  and 
well  situated  for  producing  the  finer  qualities  of  iron  and 
steel.  Besides  the  anthracite  coal  in  the  n.e.,  there  is 
bituminous  coal  adapted  to  smelting  purposes,  at  Camp 
Apache  and  elsewhere.  Immense  deposits  of  salt  of  the 
purest  quality  have  been  found,  and  there  are  large  beds 
of  sulphur,  gypsum,  hydraulic  lime,  valuable  mineral 
springs,  natural  lodestones  of  great  magnetic  power,  and 
fossil  woods  of  many  varietfes.      There  are  also  opal 


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ARIZONA. 

pebbles;  garnets,  red,  white,  and  yellow;  azurite,  mala- 
chite, chalcedony,  sapphires,  opals,  and  possibly  some 
diamonds.  The  plains  appear  to  be  altogether  of  quater- 
nary and  tertiary  deposits.  In  the  Colorado  valley  the 
sedimentarv  strata  consists  of  quaternary  and  tertiary 
gravels  and  conglomerates,  varied  in  a  few  localities  with 
white  infusorial  earth.  The  bottom-lands  consist  of  cal- 
careous  sands  and  clays.  A  section  of  the  Grand  Cafior 
shows  the  following  order:  Upper  carboniferous  lime- 
stone; cross-stratified  sandstone;  red  calcareous  sandstone 
with  gypsum;  lower  carboniferous  limestone;  limestones, 
shales  and  grits — Devonian;  limestones,  mud  rocks,  and 
sandstones — Silurian ;  Potsdam  sandstone,  granite. 

Botany. — The  vegetation  of  s.  and  w.  A.  is  scanty, 
limited  to  a  few  genera,  such  as  cactus,  aloe,  artemisia, 
iron-wood,  and  mesquite.  In  the  middle  and  n.e.  the 
vegetation  is  more  generous,  including  rich  grasses,  pine, 
and  cedar  forests;  and  in  the  river-bottoms  ash,  walnut, 
cherry,  willow,  cottonwood,  and  on  some  of  the  moun- 
tains oak.  Wherever  the  land  can  be  irrigated,  it  is 
found  that  a  full  growth  may  be  obtained  of  Indian  com, 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  grapes,  figs,  oranges,  lemons,  sweet 
potatoes,  tomatoes,  tobacco,  and  the  castoi-bean.  In  the 
valleys  of  middle  and  e.  Arizona  there  are  broad  sections 
of  arable  land,  where  all  the  cereals  and  root-crops  of  the 
n.  Atlantic  states  can  be  grown,  while  this  region  is  un- 
surpassed as  grazing  land;  a  thick  growth  of  gramma  and 
bunch  grass  extends  all  over  it. — The  climate  of  A.  varies 
in  the  different  parts.  In  the  central  portion  snow  falls 
but  does  not  lie.  In  s.  A.  the  temperature  ranges  between 
34"  and  118^  F.  The  atmosphere  is  dry,  and  this  region 
is  not  subject  to  malarial  disorders;  the  average  rainfall  is 
between  8  and  8  inches.  The  climate  of  A.  is  recom- 
mended by  physicians  as  beneficial  to  constitutions  im- 
poverished by  bronchial  or  lung  diseases.  The  tempera- 
ture in  summer  rarely  exceeds  90%  and  in  winter  gener- 
ally remains  above  zero.  The  largest  quantity  of  rain 
fall?  in  July  and  August. 

Zoology. — Wild  animals  are  not  numerous  in  A.  There 
are  two  species  of  deer,  the  Rocky  Mountain  antelope,  the 
bighorn,  or  mountain  sheep,  and  the  Rocky  Mountain 
goat.  The  black  and  cinnamon  bears  are  somewhat 
numerous;  the  puma  or  cougar  is  found  in  the  forests,  and 
the  jaguar  in  the  lowlands;  there  are  also  occasional  in- 
stances of  the  finding  of  the  ocelot,  the  wild-cat,  and  the 
lynx,  as  well  as  the  gray  wolf,  and  one  or  two  species  of 
fox;  the  prairie  wolf,  or  coyote,  does  not  exist  in  the  terri- 
tory, but  there  are  peccaries,  raccoons,  opossum,  skunks, 
and  the  gopher,  or  prairie-dog.  Large  herds  of  mustangs, 
or  wild  horses,  are  said  to  roam  over  the  plains  of  s.  A. 
There  are  large  numbers  of  birds,  183  distinct  species 
having  been  sent  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  by  the 
Wheeler  expedition.  Game  birds  include  pheasants, 
partridges,  quails,  and  grouse,  the  sage-hen,  and  prairie- 
hen.  Eagles,  vultures,  buzzards,  and  owls  are  numerous, 
and  here  is  found— the  only  place  in  North  America— the 
king  vulture,  little  inferior  in  size  to  the  condor,  or  lam- 


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ARIZONA. 

mergeier  of  the  Andes.  Tberc  are  many  varieties  of  fish, 
some  of  them  peculiar  to  the  territory.  The  reptiles  aud 
serpents  are  formidable,  and  in  some  parts  very  numerous. 
In  the  Gila  and  Lower  Colorado,  alligators  are  found; 
horned  toads,  lizards,  scorpions,  and  centipedes  flourish  in 
the  chapparal  and  among  the  cacti;  and  the  table-lands 
oflFer  a  home  to  large  numbers  of  rattlesnakes.  Strangely 
the  skunk  is  here  found  dangerous,  from  its  carnivorous 
propensities,  attacking  the  exposed  limbs  and  features  of 
sleepers,  the  bite  being  not  only  savage,  but  said  to  pro- 
duce a  condition  similar  to  hydrophobia. 

AffrictUture,— In  1880  the  farm  lands  covered  135,573 
acres  (of  which  56,071  were  improved);  comnrised  767 
farms,  valued,  with  fences  and  buildings,  at  $1,127,946; 
contained  implements  and  machinery  valued  at  $88,811; 
had  live-stock  valued  at  $1,167,989;  and  yielded  products 
valued  at  $614,827. — In  1890  the  principal  cereal  produc- 
tions were:  barley  252,992  bushels,  from  16,644  acres;  corn 
82.535  bushels,  4,331  acres;  oats  33,996  bushels,  1,472 
acres;  and  wheat  100,328  bushels,  6,225  acres.  Official 
estimates  1892  gave  wheat  170,000  bushels  and  corn  81,- 
000. — 1893,  Jan.  1,  the  farm  and  ranch  animals  comprised: 
horses  52,175,  value  $1,565,250;  mules  1,840,  $67,000; 
milch  cows  16,907.  $355,047;  oxen  and  other  cattle  822,- 
154,  $12,414,525;  sheep  580,879,  $1,306,978;  and  swine 
19,536,  $122,100— total  head  $1,492,991,  value  $15,830,900. 
— la  the  10  counties,  Apache,  Cochise,  Coconino,  Gila, 
Graham,  Mohave,  Maricopa,  Pima,  Yavapai,  and  Yuma, 
there  were  (1892)  512  m.  of  irrigating  canals,  not  includ- 
ing laterals,  by  which  343,000  acres  nave  been  reclaimed, 
and  a  total  of  1,730,000  acres  are  still  capable  of  being  re- 
claimed under  the  present  water  development;  ana  in 
the  whole  territory  it  is  believed  that  fully  one-third  of 
the  area,  or  about  24,000,000  acres,  could  be  reclaimed 
with  sufficient  capital  and  adequate  storage  facilities. 
The  agricultural  experiment  station,  with  headquarters  at 
the  Univ.  of  A.,  is  doing  invaluable  work  for  the  agricul- 
tural development  of  the  territory  by  the  various  investi- 
gations it  is  conducting. 

Mining, — Gold  and  silver  mining  was  prosecuted  by  the 
Spaniards  and  Mexicans  long  before  the  country  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  United  States,  aud  some  mines  were 
exceedingly  productive,  including  the  Cerro  Colorado, 
Mowry,  ^auta  Rita,  Salero,  Cahuabi,  San  Pedro,  and  the 
celebrated  quicksilver  mine  of  La  Paz.  All  the  explored 
portion  of  A.  below  the  36th  parallel  has  been  divided  into 
mhiing  districts,  the  most  numerous  lying  in  the  s.e.,  in- 
cluding the  Dos  Cabezas  dtstriot,  Sierra  Bonita.  Dracoon 
Range,  Globe,  Tombstone,  Huachuca,  Patagonia.  Wash- 
ington, Harshaw,  and  Santa  Rita. — The  mineral  product 
of  A.  1892  was:  copper  $4,500,000;  gold  $3,000,000;  and 
silver  $2,200,000;  total  $9,700,000,  or  an  increase  of  more 
than  $2,000,000  over  the  previous  year.  The  most  valu- 
able copper  mines  were  in  Cochise,  Gila,  Yavapai,  and 
Graham  cos.;  gold,  Yuma,  Yava^i,  and  Pima;  and  the 
most  notable  silver  mines  are  at  Tombstone,  Cochise  co., 


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ARIZONA. 

though  there  was  a  little  production  in  every  mining  co. 
in  the  territory.  Continued  prospecting,  exu'usion  of  rail- 
roads, and  opening  of  new  stage  routes  are  daily  increas- 
ing the  development  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  terri- 
tory. Large  deposits  of  onyx,  of  a  quality  declared  first- 
class  by  competent  experts,  have  been  discovered  in  vari- 
ous localities,  and  the  quantity  bids  fair  to  be  large. 
Coconino  co.  is  developing  a  first-class  building  sandstone, 
and  Yavapai  co.  a  large  and  valuable  deposit  of  red  and 
grav  sandstone.  The  development  and  exportation  of 
building  stone  is  expected  to  increase  largely  because  of 
the  recent  act  of  con^press  authorizing  the  location  and 
titling  of  land  containing  building  stone. 

Commerce. — During  lw2  the  total  value  of  foreign  com- 
modities imported  into  A.  was  $2,879,998,  of  which  $2,- 
744,543  were  non-dutiable.  The  revenue  collections 
aggregated  $49,998;  almost  the  entire  revenue  of  the  dis- 
trict was  derived  from  the  duty  on  lead  and  copper  con- 
tained in  silver  ore  imported  from  Mexico.  The  ore  im- 
portations included  gold  $6,152  oz.,  value  126,134;  silver 
1,501,822  oz.,  value  $1,327,874;  lead  2,284,459  lbs.,  value 
$65,814;  and  coppr  266.885  lbs.,  value  $13,849— total 
value  of  ores  $1,533,171;  aggregate  value  of  gold  and  silver 
bullion  and  coin  imporU  $1,228,787. 

iJai^rood*.— The  railroad  system  of  A.  shows  the  follow- 
ing development:  (1850)183  m.;  (1860)  743;  (1870)  1,157; 
(1880)  1,848;  (1890)  3,422-20;  (1892)  3,596-47. 

Education. — The  common-school  system  Is  firmly  estab- 
lished on  a  carefully  constructed  code.  The  school  age, 
which  was  formerly  from  6  to  24  years,  is  (1893)  from  6  to 
18  ^ears,  and  all  children  between  these  ages,  excepting 
Chmese  and  the  children  of  Indians  not  taxed,  are  entitled 
to  admission  and  free  education;  and  if  unable  to  procure 
text-books,  they  are  furnished  them  by  the  district.  £ach 
district,  under  recent  laws,  must  maintain  a  school  for  five 
months  each  year,  to  secure  its  proportion  of  county 
moneys.  The  general  school  fund  is  derived  from  a 
direct  tax  on  all  property  of  each  county  at  a  minimum 
rate  of  75  cts.  per  $100  of  assessed  property;  also  from  per 
capita  tax,  gamblers'  and  liquor  licenses,  fines,  forfeitures, 
penalties,  etc.;  and  the  fund  is  proportioned  for  the  use  of 
districts  according  to  the  number  of  children  therein,  as 
ascertained  by  annual  census.  The  school  buildings  are 
ample,  com  f ortable,  and  adequately  furnished .  Fu  1  ly  one- 
third  of  the  children  of  school  age  are  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools,  and  nearly  one-half  attend  at  least  a  por- 
tion of  the  year.  The  grammar-school  course  is  so  graded 
that  its  completion  meets  the  requirements  for  admission 
to  the  Territorial  Normal  School  at  Tenipe,  which,  with 
the  Univ.  of  A.,  provides  a  complete  system  of  public 
school  education. 

ArcfuBology, — Evidences  exist  all  over  A.  that  a  very 
lar|;e  population  once  occupied  this  part  of  America. 
Ruins  of  extensive  buildings  and  large  towns  can  be  found 
in  every  valley  of  southern  A.,  and  ancient  waterways 
line  every  agricultural  section.    Modern  irrigators  have 


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ARIZONA. 

surveyed  aDcfent  canals  and  found  them  to  run  under 
eniptiYc  lava.  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  cause  of  the  ex- 
termination of  the  cliff  and  cave  dwellers  and  the  residents 
of  the  once  populous  communities — whether  by  earth- 
quake, epidemic,  or  warfare;  but  there  are  everywhere 
evidences  of  a  hasty  departure  of  former  occupants,  and 
there  is  much  similarity  between  the  pottery  and  utensils 
of  the  present  natives  and  those  of  the  people  who  are 
gone.  The  oldest  Indians  living  say  that  their  traditions 
tell  them  that  these  ruins  were  there  when  their  people 
came.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  general  govt,  has 
taken  steps  to  preserve  some  of  the  most  notable  ruios, 
especially  those  of  Casa  Grande;  and  Gov.  Murphy  urgeil 
(18d2)  the  appointment  by  the  govt  of  an  ethnological 
commission,  believing  that  startMng  discoveries  can  and 
will  be  made  in  that  region  affecting  the  history  of  the 
human  race.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  party  of  Mexi- 
can laborers,  digging  in  the  extension  of  the  Santa  Cruz 
canal  in  1892,  Mar.,  discovered  one  of  the  strangest  of  the 
old  Aztec  cities,  about  20  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  largest  building  was  a  triangular  structure 
800  X  200  ft.,  and  in  it  were  18  bodies,  all  of  medium  size, 
and  mummified.  The  territorial  exhibit  at  the  Columbian 
World's  Exposition  included  the  largest  relief  map  ever 
made,  showing  in  detail  all  the  pre-historic  views  of  the 
valleys  of  the  Salt  and  Gila  rivers,  and  giving  a  bird's  eye 
view  of  nearly  1,000  sq.  m.,  which  it  is  estimated  once 
supported  a  population  of  2,000,000  to  8,000,000  people 
who  have  passed  into  oblivicm  without  leaving  a  tradition 
as  to  whence  they  came,  or  when  and  why  they  disap- 
peared. This  map  was  prepared  under  the  direction  of 
Frof.  F.  W.  Putnam,  of  Harvard  University. 

Finances  and  Banking. ^The  assessed  taxable  property 
of  the  territory,  1892.  aggregated  $27,923,162.55.  the  largest 
Items  being,  railroad  property  $6,038,893.41 ;  catlle  $5,0:«.- 
207;  improved  farm  lands  $4,748,962.43;  city  and  town  lots 
$2,266,883.50;  and  improvements  thereon  $2,453,068.20. 
The  rate  of  taxation  differed  in  each  co.,  the  average  for  all 
purposes  being  $3.27  per  $100  valuation,  80  cts.  of  which 
was  for  territorial  purposes  solely.  The  territorial  indebt- 
edness, bonded  and  floating,  including  interest,  was  $860,- 
829.85;  county  indebtedness  $2,305,084.50;  and  cities'  in- 
deblness  $188.811.46— total  $3,354,725.81.  In  1892,  Sep  , 
there  were  4  national  banks  (cap.  $300,000);  5  incorporated 
banks  (cap.  $275,2(X));  4  private  banks,  and  3  state  banks 
(cap  $150,000). 

Hutory.— The  first  modern  exploration  of  A.  known  to 
history  was  by  the  Spaniards.  As  early  as  1526,  Don  Jose 
de  Vasconcellos  crossed  it  In  the  direction  of  the  Grand 
Canon,  and  later  it  was  visited  by  other  Spanish  explorers, 
evidences  of  whose  settlements  are  still  lound.  But  long 
before  this  A.  is  known  to  have  been  the  seat  of  an  ex- 
tensive and  civilized  race,  whose  remains  exist  on  the 
Colorado  plateau  and  in  the  Gila  basin,  comprising  the  walls 
of  considerable  structures,  built  of  solid  masonry,  quanti- 
ties of  finely  made  and  ornamented  pottery,  ruins  of  care- 


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ARIZONA. 

fully  constructed  fortifications,  evidences  sufficient  to 
give  basis  for  the  estimate  that  at  least  100,000  people  oc- 
cupied the  yalley  of  the  Gila  alone.  Ruins  of  old  arastras, 
or  smelting  works,  show  that  silver  mining  was  practiced 
by  the  ancient  races,  and  occasionally  the  bones  of  human 
beings  are  brought  to  light,  surrounded  by  the  implements 
and  appurtenances  of  domestic  life.  Ihat  the  Moquis 
are  descendants  of  one  of  these  ancient  races  is  assumed 
from  their  dwellings,  some  of  which  date  back  in  their 
construction  to  a  high  antiquity.  The  Moquis  live  in  the 
n.e.  part  of  the  territory,  in  the  ancient  province  of 
Tusayan.  They  are  pagans  by  religion,  and  many  of 
their  prayers  and  invocations  indicate  conditions  of  the 
highest  antiquity.    Their  dwellings  are  of  stone   asually 

g laced  on  some  elevation,  and  three  or  four  stories  in 
eight.  There  are  more  than  60  towns  discoverable,  of 
buildings  of  this  character,  only  seven  or  eight  of  which 
are  now  occupied. — The  history  of  A.  as  a  territory  of  the 
United  States  begins  in  1848,  when,  by  the  treaty  of 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  the  territory  of  Kew  Mexico  was 
ceded  by  the  Mexicans  to  this  countiy,  including  that 
portion  of  A.  lying  n.  of  the  Gila  river.  The  portion 
lying  s.  of  that  river  was  acquired  1853,  Dec.  80,  by  what 
is  known  as  the  **  (Jadsden  purchase"  from  Mexico,  for 
110,000,000.  An  act  of  congress  passed  1863,  Feb.  24, 
gave  this  land  a  political  status  as  the  territory  of  A. 

Government. — The  executive  authority,  according  to 
acts  of  congress  under  which  all  the  territories  were  or- 
ganized, is  vested  in  a  gov.,  appointed  by  the  pres.  for  a 
term  of  4  years,  salary  $3,500  per  annum;  the  legislative  in 
a  legislature  comprismg  (1893)  a  council  of  12  members  and 
a  house  of  24,  all  members  elected  by  the  people;  and  the 
Judicial  in  a  supreme  court  consisting  of  a  chief-Justice 
and  three  assoc.  Justices,  appointed  bv  the  pres.,  a  dist. 
court,  and  the  usual  court  officers,  l^he  gov.  is  assisted 
by  a  territorial  sec.,  treas.,  auditor,  adjt.gen.,  supt.  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  and  atty.gen. — The  successfve  govs.,  with 
their  terms  of  service,  are  as  follows:  John  A.  Gurley 
1862-3;  JohnN.  Goodwin  1868-66;  Richard  C.  McConnick 
1866-69;  A.  P.  K.  Saflford  1869-76;  Charles  E.  D.  French 
1876-7;  John  P.  Hoyt  1877-8;  John  C.  Fremont  1878-82; 
Frederick  A.  Tritle  1882-85;  C.  Meyer  Zulick  1885-89; 
Louis  Wolfley  1889-91;  John  N.  Irwiu  1891-2;  Nathan  O. 
Murphy,  1892-8;  Louis  C.  Ilughcs  1893-7;  Benjumin  J. 
Franklin  1897-. 

Counties,  Cities,  and  Totons, — In  1880  the  7  cos.  had  pop., 
Pima  17,006;  Maricopa  5,689;  Apache  6,283;  Yavapai 5,018; 
Yuma  8,215;  Pinal  3,044;  and  Mohave  1.190.  The  cities 
and  towns  were:  Tucson  7,007;  Prescoit  1.836;  Phcenix 
1,708;  and  Yuma  1,200.— In  1890  the  10  cos.  had  pop.,  Pima 
12,673;  Maricopa  10,986;  Yavapai  8,685;  (Coconino  co.  was 
organized  from  part  of  Yavapai  in  1891 :)  Cochise  6,988; 
Graham  5,670;  Apache  4,281;  Pinal  4,251;  Yuma  2.671: 
Gila  2,021;  and  Mave  1,444.  The  cities  and  towns  were. 
Tucson  5.150;  Phc3nix  3,152;  Toml)stone  1,875;  Yuuia 
1,773;  Prescott  1.759.  Cap.  Phoenix. 
ropulation.^ldSO)  iOAiO;  (1890)50,620. 


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ARK— ARKADELPHIA. 

ARE,  n.  drk  [AS.  eark:  L.  Sp.  and  It.  area,  a  chest]: 
among  the  anc.  Jetoi,  an  oblong  chest  or  cnse  in  whicn 
were  deposited  the  two  tables  of  the  law,  and  over  which 
was  the  mercy-seat;  a  chest;  a  vessel;  the  large  vessel  or 
Hoating  structure  tliat  was  a  place  of  safety  to  Noah  and 
his  family  at  the  Flood.  It  was  800  cubits  long,  50  wide, 
and  80  high;  but  as  we  do  not  know  the  length  of  the 
cubit,  this  simply  gives  us  its  proportions.  It  probably 
had  little  resemblance  to  a  ship,  but  was  more  like  an 
oblong  house.  The  A.  of  bulrushes,  in  which  Moses  was 
protected,  was  made  of  papyrus  reeds  and  covered  with 
slime  to  keep  out  the  water.  The  word  Ark  is  used  fig- 
uratively for  a  pliice  of  shelter.  See  also  Ark  op  the 
Covenant.  Akkite,  n.  dr'kU,  one  of  the  pei-sons  saved 
in  the  ark:  Adj.  pertaining  to  the  ark  of  Noah. 
.  ARKADELPHIA,  drk-ti-deVfid:  t.  of  Clark  co.,  Arkan- 
sas,  65  m.  s.w.  of  Little  Rock,  on  the  Ouachita  river,  and 
<>n  the  Arkansas  division  of  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  Ss. 
Southern  r.r.  It  contains  a  Baptist  college,  a  newspaper 
office,  and  several  churches.    Pop.  abt.  2,000. 


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ARKANSAS. 

ARKANSAS,  dr'kan-9aw  or  dr-kdn'gSs:  one  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  s.  central  part:  having  the  Missouri  river  on  the 
n.;  the  Mississippi  on  the  e.,  separating  it  from  Tennessee 
and  Mississippi;  on  the  s.  Louisiana  and  Texas;  and  on 
the  w.  Texas  and  Indian  Territory;  58,850  sq.  m.,  or  34,464,- 
000  acres.  The  surface  of  A.  is  varied,  the  Ozark  Mount- 
ains crossing  it  from  n.e.  to  s.w.,  with  outlying  spurs,  or 
subordinate  ranges,  including  the  Black  Hills  in  the  n.,  the 
Ouachita  Hills  in  the  s.,  and  the  Caue  Hills  in  the  n.w. 
To  the  s.  are  broad  prairie  districts,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  state  is  diversified  between  hills  and  fertile  and 
beautiful  valleys.  The  entire  state  is  rich  in  timber,  in- 
cluding vast  forests  of  pine,  the  different  species  of  oak, 
pecan,  hickory,  locust,  walnut,  cypress,  cedar,  and  others. 
Arkansas  has  no  sea-coast,  but  it  is  remarkablj^  well  pro- 
vided with  navigable  streams.  The  Mississippi  river,  which 
separates  the  slate  from  Tennessee  and  ^lissdssippi,  ex- 
tends along  its  whole  eastern  border — ^a  tortuous  course  of 
nearly  400  m.  Of  this  great  stream,  one  of  the  largest 
affluents  is  the  Arkansas  river,  which  rises  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  traverses  the  centre  of  the  state  in  a  general 
s.w.  direction,  about  1,500  m.,  and  is  navigable  from  its 
mouth  into  the  Indian  Territory.  The  Red  river,  also 
navigable,  rises  in  New  Mexico  and  flows  through  the  s.  w. 
part  of  the  state,  to  the  great  commercial  advantage  of 
Sevier,  Lafayette,  and  Hempstead  counties.  In  the  Ozark 
Mountains  of  Missouri  rises  the  St.  Francis  river,  which  is 
for  a  short  distance  the  boundary  between  Missouri  and 
Arkansas,  and  which  runs  into  the  Mississippi  a  little  above 
Helena,  crossing  the  n.e.  comer  of  the  state.  This  also  is 
a  large  river,  but  its  navigation  is  greatly  impeded  by  snags. 
At  one  point  the  St.  Francis  widens  into  a  lake,  some 
50  m.  long,  and  from  5  to  20  m.  wide,  a  phenomenon  sup- 
posed to  have  resulted  from  a  sinking  of  the  earth  caused  by 
the  great  earthquake  of  1811.  The  St.  Francis  is  450  m. 
long,  navigable  at  certain  seasons  for  a  distance  of  about 
150  miles.  White  river  rises  in  the  n.w.  comer  of  the 
state,  runs  n.  into  Missouri,  then  returns  and  takes  a  crooked 
course  in  a  generally  s.e.  direction  through  A.,  emptying 
into  the  Mississippi  a  few  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Ar- 
kansas. This  river  is  about  600  m.  long,  navigable  from 
300  to  400  m.,  according  to  the  season.  The  Black  river 
is  a  tributary,  navigable  about  100  m. ;  the  Spring  river  is 
another  less  important  affluent.  The  Wachita  or  Ouachita 
river  rises  s.  of  the  Arkansas  river  in  the  w.  part  of  the 
state,  and  runs  s.e.,  parallel  with  that  stream,  fertilizing 
the  richest  portion  of  s.  Arkansas,  and  then  runs  through 
a  part  of  Louisiana,  emptying  into  the  Red  river  near  the 
junction  of  the  latter  with  the  Mississippi.  It  is  navigable 
for  about  850  m.  from  its  mouth,  and  has  for  tributaries 
the  Little  Missouri,  Sabine,  Saline,  Bayou  Boeuf,  etc. 
In  Pike  coimt^,  on  the  Little  Missouri,  is  a  natural  bridge, 
one  of  the  curiosities  of  the  state.  It  is  an  objectionably 
feature  of  the  low  river  valleys  of  Arkansas,  that  they  arc 
deficient  in  spring,  or  any  good,  potable  water.  As  a 
consequence,  the  nver  water  itself  is  used  for  drinking  and 


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ARKANSAS. 

culinary  purposes,  after  being  filtered,  and  rain  water  Is 
collected  ana  kept  in  large  tanks  sunk  in  the  ground. 

4  line  drawn  across  the  state  from  s.w.  to  n.e.,  follow- 
ing that  of  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern  rail- 
way, divides  the  upper  mountainous,  forest  and  mineral 
lands  from  the  lowlands  and  alluvial  plains.  In  the  n.  part 
are  rich  mineral  deposits.  Coal  is  known  to  exist  in  twelve 
counties  watered  by  the  Arkansas  river,  the  mineral  being 
a  high-grade  semi-anthracite,  comparatively  little  workect 
and  supposed  to  cover  an  area  of  12,000  sq.  m.,  the  veins 
vaiying  between  one  foot  and  nine  ft.  in  thickness,  and 
from  50  to  60  ft.  below  the  surface.  There  are  also 
cannel  and  bituminous  coals  is  abundance;  iron  ore  of 
excellent  quality  is  plentiful  in  the  Ozark  Mountains;  zinc 
ore  is  more  abundant  than  in  any  other  state  except  New 
Jersey.  Galena,  or  lead  ore,  frequently  bearing  silver,  is 
found  in  different  parts  of  the  state;  gold  has  been  found 
in  some  sections,  manganese  is  abundant,  and  it  is  believed 
that  A.  contains  more  gypsum  than  all  the  other  states  of 
the  Union.  Oil-stone  of  a  superior  quality  exists  in  an 
immense  bed  in  the  Wachita  valley,  and  salt  is  produced 
from  the  saline  springs  in  the  same  vicinity.  The  forma- 
tion of  the  land  along  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  river, 
in  the  e.  part  of  the  state,  presents  a  strip  ranging  from  80 
to  100  m.  wide,  low  and  flat,  covered  with  dense  forests, 
interspersed  with  swamps  and  small  ponds,  sometimes  of 
stagnant  and  unhealthy  water.  This  land  is  annually 
overflowed  at  the  recurrence  of  the  floods  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. From  this  section,  westward,  the  land  gradually 
rises,  near  the  centre  of  the  state  becoming  hilly,  these 
hills  terminating  in  the  Ozark  Mountains,  still  further 
west,  beyond  which  an  extensive  elevated  plain  continually 
increases  in  lieight  towards  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  which 
it  terminates.  The  valley  of  the  St.  Francis  river,  in  the 
n.e.  part  of  the  state,  is  a  continuous  swamp,  filled  with 
shallow  lakes  and  bayous,  and  covered  with  a  heavy  growth 
of  cypress,  eum,  and  sycamore;  on  the  higher  land 
the  CTowth  is  white-oak  and  hickory,  with  occasional 
thickly  set  cane-brakes.  Besides  the  minerals  already 
mentioned,  A.  has  extensive  beds  of  lignite,  millstone, 
and  grindstone,  porcelain  clay,  mineral  ochres,  and  granite 
and  other  building  stones.  Among  the  natural  objects  of 
curiosity  and  importance  are  the  numerous  mineral  and 
medicinal  springs,  and  the  celebrated  Hot  Springs,  about 
60  m.  s.w.  from  Little  Rock,  visited  annually  by  thou- 
sands. These  springs  are  strongly  impregnated  with 
carbonic  acid,  alkalies,  and  carbonates,  and  have  a 
temperature  varying  between  93°  and  148*;  they  are 
claimed  to  effect  positive  and  permanent  cure  in  the  case 
of  a  number  of  chronic  diseases.  But  the  mineral  springs 
are  not  confined  to  the  *  Hot  Springs '  district.  There  are 
many  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  and  one  in  Fulton  co. 
discharges  15,000  bbls.  of  water  per  hour,  and  is  in  con- 
stant action  at  a  temperature  of  60". 

The  soil  of  A.  of  course  varies  with  the  varying  charac- 
teristics of  the  geology  and  surface  conditions.  The  river 
bottom  lands  are  the  most  valuable  in  an  agricultural 


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ARKANSAS. 

view,  being  capable  of  producing  luxuriantly  tobacco, 
corn,  cotton,  sweet  potatoes,  grapes,  peacbes,  melons,  and 
other  fruits.  As  the  land  rises  from  these  bottoms,  it. be- 
comes less  productive,  but  there  arc  immense  tracts  sub- 
merged, which,  if  drained  properly,  would  present  the 
finest  agricultural  advantages.  ITie  rolling  prairies  of  the 
uplands  are  generally  well  watered,  though  there  is  a 
notable  exception  in  the  case  of  Grand  Praine,  90  m.  long 
and  80  broad,  lying  between  the  Arkansas  and  White 
rivers,  almost  entirely  destitute  of  water.  Besides  the 
natural  products  already  mentioned,  there  are  the  sassa- 
fras, maple,  and  mulberry  among  trees,  the  osage-orange^ 
which  grows  luxuriantly,  the  beech,  ash,  elm,  cotton-wood, 
willow,  holly,  butternut,  juniper,  plum,  dogwood,  pal- 
metto,  laurel,  ironwood,  scrub  oak,  hazel,  sumac,  and 
others.  There  are  also  wild  plums,  haws,  persimmons, 
pawpaws,  whortleberries,  and  chinquapins.  Among  the 
fruits  are  apples,  apricots,  nectarines,  cherries,  strawber- 
ries, etc.  Any  of  the  cereals  grow  readily;  there  are  nu- 
merous varieties  of  native  grasses,  and  though  cotton  is 
the  staple  product  of  the  state,  the  crop  of  hay  is  not  far 
behind  it  in  importance.  Game  abounds  in  the  forests 
and  prairies,  including  deer,  bear,  wild  turkey,  prairie 
hen,  and  quail;  the  streams  abound  in  fish;  there  are  few 
alligators;  different  species  of  snakes  abound  in  certain 
sections.  The  climate  of  A.,  though  generally  temperate, 
is  subject  to  fierce  north  winds  which  produce  sudden  and 
violent  changes.  The  average  mean  temperature  at  Little 
Rock  is  62*'  66',  the  extremes  being  15'  and  99%  with  an  oc- 
casional  lower  fall.  The  rain-fall  is  heavy,  and  violent 
thunder  storms  occur  in  the  spring  and  summer. 

A  thorough  geological  survey  oi  A.  was  made  1887-92, 
with  results  of  which  the  state  may  be  proud. 

Agriculture.— In  1880  the  farm  lands  covered  12,061,547 
acres  (of  which  3,596.603  were  improved);  comprised  94,- 
433  farms,  valued,  with  fences  and  buildings,  at  $74,249,- 
655;  contained  implements  and  machinery  valued  at  $4,- 
637.497;  had  live-stock  valued  at  $20,472,425;  and  yielded 
products  valued  at  $48,796,261. — In  1891  the  principal 
cereal  productions  were:  corn,  89,982,818  bushels,  from 
1.648,443  acres;  oats,  4,180,877  bushels,  288,883  acres;  and 
wheat,  955,668  bushels,  140,464  acres.  The  cotton  crop 
was  691,423  bales,  from  1,700.612  acres.  Official  estimates 
1892  gave:  corn,  84,844,000  bushels:  oats,  4,988,000;  and 
wheat,  1,837.000.— 1893,  Jan.  1,  the  farm  and  ranch 
animals  comprised:  horses  190.820,  value  $9,916,082; 
mules  137,189,  $8,871,887;  milch  cows  838.868,  $3,896,925; 
oxen  and  other  cattle  711,278,  $5,782,338;  slieep  240.326, 
$361,714;  and  swine  1.563,322,  $4.689,967— total  head 
8,181,748,  value  $83,618.913.— The  estimated  acreage  of 
cotton  1892-3  was  1,825.835. 

Bailroads.— The  railroad  development  of  A.  before  1880 
was  not  rapid,  perhaps  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  supreme 
court  had  declared  $5,850,000  railroad  aid  bonds  illegal. 
In  1860  there  were  38  m.;  1880,  859  m.;  1892.  2,348  mfies. 


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ARKANSAS. 

Manufactures  m  Arkansas  are  increasing  rapidly  in  im- 
portance, the  total  number  of  establmiments,  1880, 
being  1,202  compared  with  261  in  1850;  the  value  of  the 
product  being  $6.756,lo9,  compared  with  f  537,908  in  1850. 
In  1880,  the  number  of  hands  employed  was  4,557,  the 
amount  of  wages  paid  being  $925,858.  The  specified  in-  , 
dustries  of  most  importance  were  lumber,  of  which  the 
product  amounted  to  $1,793,848;  flouring  and  grist-mill 
products,  $2,249,289;  oil,  cotton-seed  andfcake,  $590,000; 
the  balance  scattering. 

Mining,— In  close  proximity  to  the  coal-beds  are  inex- 
haustible deposits  of  hematite  and  other  iron  ores,  with 
limestone,  and  hard-wood  for  charcoal  near  at  hand 
There  are  also  convenient,  large  and  never-failing  water 
powers.  In  the  n.  part  of  the  state  zinc  mines  have  been 
opened  with  some  success,  also  lead  and  silver.  The  old- 
est mine  in  the  state  is  in  Pulaski  county,  and  contains 
lead,  copper,  pyrites,  and  zinc  blende;  it  is  eight  m.  from 
Little  Rock.  Since  the  war  considerable  exploration  has 
been  made,  and  it  is  thought  that  a  mineral  belt  runs  from 
Little  Rock  s.w.  through  the  counties  of  Pulaski,  Saline, 
Montgomery,  Garland,  Hot  Springs,  Polk,  Pike,  and  Se- 
vier. In  Polk  CO.  manganese  of  fine  quality  has  been  dis- 
covered; in  Garland  co.,  lead,  copper,  and  the.  celebrated 
novaculite  hone-stone,  also  tripoli.  Saline  co.  is  among 
the  richest  in  mineral  wealth;  containing  iron,  copper, 
lead,  argentiferous  galena,  and  nickel;  steatite  (soapstone) 
and  serpentine  also  are  found  in  this  county.  In  Logan 
CO.  is  a  fine  quality  of  micaceous  fire-clay,  and  Carroll  co. 
produces  a  beautiful  quality  of  pink  marble.  But  little 
capital  has  been  invested  m  mining  in  A.,  though  it  is 
conceded  to  offer  a  rich  field  for  investment  in  that  direc- 
tion. 

The  commerce  of  A.  is  mainly  domestic,  and  mostly  by 
means  of  the  Mississippi  river,  the  Arkansas  and  other 
navigable  waters.  The  export  trade  of  the  state  covers 
cotton,  com,  oats,  wool,  lumber,  hides.  A  very  important 
and  growing  business  interest  has  sprung  up  from  the 
popnlarity  ox  the  hot  and  medicinal  springs,  which  draw 
visitors  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  thus  giving  a  con- 
siderable impetus  to  industry,  and  awakening  extended  in- 
terest in  the  local  resources. 

Education. — Although  the  popular  interest  in  public  in- 
struction has  not  been  as  deep  or  as  enthusiastic  in  A.  as 
In  some  older  states,  the  iniprovement  in  recent  years  has 
been  very  encouraging.  The  ^reat  deficiencv  is  in  the 
means  for  normal  training,  resulting  in  a  lack  of  competent 
teachers.  It  appears  that  few  children  are  sent  to  school 
before  seven  years  of  age,  while  few  remain  after  seventeen, 
facts  which  mdicate  the  need  of  better  primary  and  high 
school  facilities,  respectively.  The  school  system  of  A.  is 
under  the  administration  of  (1)  a  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years; 
(3)  a  board  of  commissioners  of  the  common  school  fimd,  of 
wtiich  the  superintendent  is  secretary;  (3)  a  county  exam- 
iner for  each  co.,   appointed  by  the  county  courts,  and 


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ARKANSAS. 

(4)  district  directors,  three  for  each  district,  elected  by  the 
people  for  three-year  terms,  with  liabUity  to  change  oi  one 
each  year.  Annual  reports  of  school  statistics  are  made 
by  the  district  directors  to  the  county  examiners,  by  the 
examiners  to  the  state  superintendent,  and  by  him  to  the 
governor.  Directors  failing  in  this  duty  are  liable  to  a 
heavy  fine.  Teachers  are  required  to  keep  a  register  of 
school  statistics  and  make  full  monthly  reports,  on  penalty 
of  loss  of  a  month's  pay.  In  the  intervals  of  public  school^ 
they  are  permitted  to  teach  private  schools  in  the  school 
buildings.  Separate  schools  for  whites  and  blacks  are  re- 
quired, as  in  the  other  southern  states.  The  prescribed 
studies  are  the  ordinary  English  branches,  there  being  no 
provision  for  high  schools,  except  in  the  cities  and  large 
towns.  The  books  for  study  are  selected  by  the  state 
superintendent  The  means  for  the  support  of  the  state 
system  of  public  schools  are  derived  from  the  income  of  a 
state  school  fund,  from  a  per  capita  tax  of  $1  on  men  ovei 
21,  from  such  appropriations  as  the  l^islature  mav  set 
apart,  and  from  optional  district  taxes,  the  last  limitea  to  5 
mills  on  $1  of  the  assessed  value  of  property  subject  to 
taxation. — In  1890  the  children  of  school  age  num- 
bered: white  297,904,  colored  107,68^— total  405.587,  and 
the  enrolment  was:  white  154,259,  colored  51,003— total 
205.262.  During  the  year  $869,899  were  paid  in  wages  to 
teachers  and  $1,016,776  expended  for  all  public  school 
purposes.  The  permanent  school  fund  1893,  Jan.  1,  was 
nearly  $650,000.  The  State  Industrial  Univ.  was  better 
equippcKl  in  every  dept  than  heretofore;  the  number  of 
matriculates  and  the  avera^  daily  attendance  1891-2  were 
largely  in  advance  of  previous  years;  the  curriculum  has 
been  raised  to  a  higher  standard;  and  the  mechanical  and 
agricultural  depts.  were  yielding  large  practical  results. 
An  appropriation  of  $125,727  was  asked  by  the  univ.  for 
1893-4.  The  medical  school  of  the  State  Univ.,  at  Little 
Rock,  was  amply  equipped,  had  a  faculty  of  15  prominent 
physicians  ana  surgeons,  and  graduated  (1891)  16  students, 
(1892)  25.  In  the  branch  normal  school  for  colored  youth, 
machine  shops  have  been  erected,  and  mechanical  training 
is  in  successful  operation.  The  school  for  the  blind  had 
1892,  Dec.,  198  pupils  and  49  teachers  and  employes;  and 
the  deaf-mute  institute,  138  pupils  and  35  teachers  and  em- 
ployes. 

History.— OiigiiiBily  B,  portion  of  the  territory  of  Louis- 
iana, purchased  from  Napoleon  I.,  1808,  for  $15,000,000, 
the  present  state  of  Arkansas  seems  to  have  derived  its 
designation  from  the  name  applied  by  the  Algonquins  to  a 
specific  tribe  of  Indians  whidi  had  their  habitat  within  its 
borders.  In  the  early  French  documents  the  word  is  written 
Alkansas,  In  1812,  the  present  state  of  Louisiana  was  set 
apart  from  the  rest  of  the  purchase  and  admitted  into  the 
Union,  and  the  remainder  was  organized  as  Missouri  terri- 
tory, and  continued  as  such  undl  1819,  March  2,  when 
Missouri  in  turn  became  a  state,  and  the  present  state  of 
A.  a  separate  territory  under  that  name.  From  this  time 
until  1836,  June  15,  the  government  was  territorial    At 


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ARKANSAS. 

that  time  a  convention  at  Little  Rock  framed  a  constitution, 
and  A.  was  admitted  as  a  state.  Its  progress  was  generally 
slow,  although  it  nearly  doubled  in  population  evenr  ten 
years  to  1860.  In  1861,  Jan.,  a  popular  vote  was  held  on 
the  question  of  appointing  a  convention  to  decide  with  re- 
gard to  secession,  and  it  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  con- 
vention by  27,412  to  15,826.  The  convention  met  in  March 
and  again  in  May,  when  a  secession  ordhiance  was  passed 
by  a  practically  unanimous  vote.  In  the  meantime  the 
various  arsenals  had  been  seized  by  the  state  authorities, 
and  a  year  later,  March  6  and  7,  1862,  was  fought  the 
decisive  battle  of  Pea  Ridge  between  the  Confederates,  led 
by  Qen.  Van  Dom,  and  the  Union  forces,  by  Curtis,  in 
which  the  latter  was  the  victor,  and  at  once  seized  and 
occupied  Helena.  Another  serious  defeat  of  the  Con- 
federates was  that  of  1863,  Dec.  7,  when  €k;n.  Hindman 
was  worsted  at  a  point  near  Fayettoyille  by  Gen.  Blunt, 
losing  about  1,200  men.  On  Jan.  11,  following,  Qen,  Mc- 
Clemand  and  Admiral  Porter  captured  Arkansas  Post  on 
the  A.  river;  and  1863.  July  4,  Gen.  Prentiss  defeated  the 
Confederates  under  Gen.  Hohmes,  in  their  attempt  to  re- 
capture Helena.  The  disasters  of  the  Confederates  culmi- 
nated in  the  capture  of  Litiie  Rock,  1863,  Sep.  10,  by  an 
expedition  commanded  by  €^n.  Steele,  and  on  Oct.  80  the 
first  step  was  taken  looking  towards  the  re-establishment  of 
a  state  govt  in  a  public  meeting  at  Fort  Smith.  In  1864, 
Jan.  8,  a  convention  at  Little  Kock  continued  this  move- 
ment by  framing  ^  loyal  constitution,  and  on  this  being  put 
to  vote  at  a  general  election  in  March,  it  was  carried,  and 
entire  state,  county,  and  congressional  tickets  elected,  and 
hy  April  the  new  state  organization  was  in  full  force, 
under  the  reconstruction  acts  of  1867.  A.  and  Mississippi 
became  the  fourth  military  district.  It  was  not  until  1869» 
March  22,  that  martial  law  ceased  throughout  the  state. 

I\nancei. — Diuring  its  early  history  A.  was  a  suflPerer 
from  serious  financial  mismanagement,  a  heavy  state  debt 
being  incurred,  whose  existence  has  ever  since  seriously 
hnpraed  the  piogress  of  the  state.  The  load  eventually 
became  so  heavy  that  an  act  of  repudiation  was  nearly 
carried  by  a  popular  vote,  the  alleged  repudiable  indebted- 
neas  amounting  to  about  $11,000,000,  while  an  admitted 
debt  amounts  to  $5,000,000  more.  Ko  decision  on  this 
question  has  as  yet  been  reached. — The  report  of  the  state 
auditor  for  1891-2  showed  total  receipts  $8,589,984.76;  dis- 
bursements $6,a54,133.27;  balance  $2,235,801.49.  Assessed 
valuations  wore:  (1880)  $86,409,364;  (1890)  $174,737,755; 
(1892)  $187^50,000.  The  total  bonded  debt  1892.  Oct.  1, 
was:  principal  $1,931,100;  interest  due  $2,978,332.50;  total 
$4,909.432.50.— In  1892,  Sep.,  there  were  13  national  banks 
(c>ap.  $1,925,000);  44  state  banks  (cap.  $2,561,662);  10  in- 
corporated banks  (cap.  $294,900);  13  private  banks. 

UavemmenL — The  executive  authority  is  vested  by  the 
constitution  (1874)  in  a  gov.,  elected  for  2  years,  salary 
$3,000  per  annum;  the  legislative  in  a  general  assembly. 
comprisiDg  a  senate  of  not  less  than  30  nor  more  than  85 
members  (32,  1890)  elected  for  4  years,  and  a  house  of 


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ARKANSAS. 

representatiyesof  not  less  than  73  nor  more  than  100  mem- 
bers (95.  1890)  elected  for  2  years,  salary  of  each  96  per 
day;  and  the  judicial  in  a  supreme  court  of  8  ludges,  salary 
$3,000  each  per  annum,  circuit  courts  for  which  one  judge 
is  elected  in  each  judicial  district,  co.  courts  of  one  judge 
each,  who  is  also  judge  of  probate,  courts  of  common  pleas 
held  by  the  co.  judges  at  the  direction  of  the  general  as- 
sembly, chancery  court  in  Pulaski  co.,  prosecuting  atty. 
in  each  circuit,  and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  gov.  must 
be  a  citizen  of  tbe  United  States,  at  least  80  ^cars  of  age, 
and  must  have  resided  in  the  state  7  years.  In  case  of  a 
tie  vote  for  gov.,  choice  is  made  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly.  The  constitution  gives  him  power  to  veto 
any  single  item  in  an  appropriation  bill.  In  his  death,  ab- 
seuce,  or  disability,  the  pres.  of  the  senate  acts  in  his  stead. 
All  other  members  of  the  executive  dept.  are  elected  at  the 
same  time  and  in  the  same  manner  as  tbe  governor.  The 
general  assembly  holds  biennial  sessions  in  odd-numbered 
years,  meeting  on  the  second  Monday  in  Jan.,  and  limited 
to  60  days.  In  case  of  disagreement  between  tbe  two 
houses  with  respect  to  tbe  time  of  adjournment,  the  gov. 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  may  think  proper, 
not  beyond  tbe  day  of  the  next  meeting  of  tbe  gen.  a»> 
sembly.  Senators  must  be  25  years  of  age  and  have  a 
state  residence  of  2  years,  and  representatives  must  be  21 
years  of  age  and  have  similar  residence.  Impeachments 
are  to  be  preferred  bv  the  house  and  tried  by  the  senate, 
the  chief -Justice  presiding.  All  state  officers  are  liable  to 
impeachment,  t>r  may  be  removed  by  the  gov.  for  cause 
upon  the  loint  address  of  two-thirds  of  each  house. 
Judges  of  the  supreme  court  are  elected  for  terms  of  8 
years;  they  must  be  80  years  of  age  and  in  practice  8  years 
prior  to  election.  Judges  of  the  circuit  courts  must  be  28 
years  of  age,  and  residents  in  tbe  circuits.  Wbere  a  cir* 
cult  judge  is  absent  or  disqualified,  the  members  of  the 
bar  may  elect  a  temporary  special  judge,  and  when  any 
supreme  judge  is  disqualiiied  to  sit  in  any  case,  the  gov.  ap- 
poluu  a  special  judge  to  take  his  place.  Tbe  sec  of  state 
receives  a  salary  of  11,800  per  annum;  treas.  $2,250;  audi- 
tor $2,250;  atty.gen.  $1,500;  supt.  public  instruction  f  1,600; 
land  commissiouer  $1,800;  U.  S.  dist.  judges  (2)  $1,000, 
$1,200;  collector  of  internal  revenue  $2,750;  and  10  dep- 
uty collectors  $1,200— $1,500.  Tbe  state  govt.  (1890)  is 
democratic,  with  a  party  majority  of  28  in  the  senate,  48 
in  the  house,  71  on  joint  ballot  State  elections  are  held 
biennially  in  even-numbered  years,  on  the  first  Monday  in 
Sep.;  congressional  and  presidential  elections  Tuesday 
after  first  Monday  in  Nov.  Indians,  idiots,  and  persons 
convicted  of  crime  are  excluded  from  voting. 

No  CO.  or  municipal  corporation  can  become  a  stock- 
holder in  any  company,  or  lend  its  credit  to  any  such  com- 
panj:  nor  can  it  levy  a  tax  exceeding  -i  of  1  per  cent,  for 
all  general  purposes.  No  person  who  denies  the  being  of 
a  God  can  hold  any  office,  or  testify  in  any  court. 

The  successive  govs.,  with  their  terms  of  service,  are  as 
follows:  2'err..'  James  Miller  1819-25;  George  Izard  1826- 


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ARKANSAS. 

20:  John  Pope  1829-85;  WUliam  S.  Fulton  1835-6;  BtaU: 
James  8.  Conway  1886-40;  Archibald  Yell  1840-44;  Sam- 
nel  Adams  (acting)  1844;  Thomas  8.  Drew  1844-48;  John 
8.  Roane  1848-52;  Ellas  N.  Conway  1853-60;  Henry  M. 
Rector  1860-64;  Isaac  Murphy  1864-68;  Powell  Clayton 
1868-71;  Ozro  A.  Hadley  (acting)  1871-2;  Elisha  Baxter 
1872-75;  Augustus  H.  Garland  1875-77;  William  R.  Miller 
1877-81;  Thomas  J.  Churchill  1881-88;  James  H.  Berry 
1888-85;  Sfanon  P.  Hughes  1885-89;  James  P.  Eagle 
1889-98;  W.  M.  Fishback  1898-95. 

PolUies. — The  state  govt.,  1893,  was  democratic  in  state 
officers  and  legislature,  with  a  party  majority  in  the  latter 
of.  senate  26,  house  70,  joint  ballot  96.— A.  has  (1893)  8 
electoral  votes.  Her  vot^s  for  pres.  and  vice-pres.  have 
been  as  follows:  1886,  Martin  Van  Buren  and  Richnrd 
M.  Johnson,  8;  1840,  Martin  Van  Buren  and  Richard  M. 
Johnson;  1844,  James  E.  Polk  and  George  M.  Dallas;  1848, 
Lewis  Class  and  William  O.  Butler;  1852,  Franklin  Pierce 
and  William  R.  Kinje:,  4;  1856,  James  Buchanan  and  John 
C.  Breckinridge;  1860,  John  C.  Breckinridge  and  Joseph 
Lane;  1864.  no  vote;  1868.  Ulysses  S.  Grant  and  Schuvler 
Colfax,  5;  1872,  6  votes  not  counted;  1876,  Samuel  J.  Til- 
den  and  Thomas  A.  Hendiicks;  1880.  Winfield  S.  Hancock 
and  William  H.  English;  1884,  Grover  Cleveland  and 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  7;  1888,  Grover  Cleveland  and  Allen 
G.  Thurman;  1892,  Grover  Cleveland  and  Adlai  E.  Steven- 
son. 8. 

Counties,  OUies,  and  Towns. — A.  is  divided  into  75  coun- 
ties. In  1890  the  most  populous  counties  were:  Pulaski 
47,829;  Jefferson  40,881;  Sebastian  33,200;  Washington 
32.024;  Benton  27,716;  Phillips  25,841;  White  22,946; 
Hempstead  22,796;  Independence  21,961;  Crawford  21,714; 
Clark  20,997;  Logan  20,774:  Franklin  19.934;  Columbia 
19,893;  Conwav  19,459;  Lonoke  19,263;  Lee  18,886;  Faulk- 
ner 18,842;  and  Yell  18,015.  The  most  populous  cities  and 
toumswere:  Little  Rock  25,874;  Fort  Smith  11.811;  Pine 
Bluff  9,952;  Hot  Springs  8,086;  Helena  5.189;  Eureka 
Springs  8,706;  Texarkana  8,528  (2.852  additional  in  the 
part  in  Tex.);  Fayetteville  2,942,  and  Camden  2,571. 

Population.— {1Q20)  white  12,579,  free  colored  77,  slave 
1,617,  total  14,273;  (1880)  white  25,671,  free  colored  141, 
slave  4,676,  total  80,388;  (1840)  white  77,174,  free  coloreil 
465,  slave  19,985,  total  97,574:  (1850)  white  162.189;  free 
colored  608,  slave  47,100,  total  209,897;  (1860)  while 
324.191,  freecoloredn44,  slave  111,115,  total  485,450;  (1870) 
white  362,115,  colored  122,169.  total  484,471;  (1880)  white 
591 ,581 ,  colored  210,666,  total  802,525;  (1890)  white  818,752. 
colored  809,427,  total  1,128,179. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARKANSAS  CITY— ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT. 

ARKANSAS  CITY:  cilv  in  Cowley  co.,  Kan.,  at  the 
confluence  of  Walnut  Creek  with  the  Arkansas  river;  on 
the  Atchison  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  St.  Louis  and  San 
Francisco,  and  the  Missouri  Pacific  railroads;  14  m.  s.  of 
Winfield,  250  m.  s.w.  of  Kansas  City.  It  has  a  city  hall, 
5  banks  (3  national,  1  state,  1  private),  2  loan  and  lDve$^ 
ment  cos ,  2  daily  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  There  are 
manufactures  of  lumber,  flour,  chairs,  mattresses,  wind- 
mills, etc.  It  is  in  a  stock-raising  and  grain-grow- 
ing country,  possesses  water-power,  and  has  an  extensive 
trade  with  Indian  Territory.    Pop.(1880)  1,012;  (1890)  8,347. 

ARKANSAS  RIVER:  next  to  the  Missouri  the  largest 
affluent  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  2,000  m.  long,  rising  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  borders  of  Utah,  and  Joining 
the  'Father  of  Waters'  lat.  33'  54'  n.,  long.  91*  10*  w. 
Flowing  generally  through  a  level  country,  it  presents  few 
obstacles  to  navigation.  The  principal  difficult]^  is  con- 
nected with  its  periodical  rise  and  fall— the  difference 
between  season  and  season  being  not  less  than  25  ft.  Not- 
withstanding this,  the  A.  is  navigable  for  steamboats, 
durine  nine  months  of  the  year,  800  m.  from  its  mouth. 
It  divides  the  state  which  takes  its  name  into  nearly  equal 
parts,  varying  in  breadth  within  the  limits  of  the  same 
from  8  furlongs  to  half  a  mile.  Its  banks,  in  its  lower 
course,  contain  much  stone-coal. 

ARKANSITE,  n.  drk'&n-zU  [from  Arkansas,  where  it 
is  found]:  a  mineral,  a  variety  of  Brookite.  It  occurs  in 
thick  black  crystals. 

ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  Ark  of  the  Tkstimont, 
or  Ark  of  Jehovah:  one  of  the  most  imt)ortant  parts  of 
the  furniture  of  the  Tabernacle  which,  by  Divine  direction, 
the  Israelites  constructed  in  the  wilderness;  and  afterwards 
of  the  temple  built  by  Solomon  at  Jerusalem.  From  Ex. 
XXV.,  xxxv]i.,  it  appears  that  it  was  a  chest  of  shitfim-wood 
(doubtless  the  wood  of  a  species  of  acacia),  overlaid  with 
gold  within  and  without,  two  cubits  and  a  half  in  length, 
one  cubit  and  a  half  in  breadth  and  in  height — that  is,  ac- 
cording to  the  common  estimate  of  the  length  of  the  cubit,  3 
ft.  9  in.  in  length,  and  2  ft.  8  in.  in  breadth  and  height — the 
lid  being  formed  entirely  of  pure  ^old, with  a  crown  or  raised 
border  of  gold  round  about.  Within  the  ark  was  deposited 
the  'testimony,'  consisting  of  *  the  two  tables  of  the  law,* 
i.e.,  the  stone  tablets  upon  which  the  ten  commandments 
were  inscribed.  The  golden  lid  of  the  ark  was  called  the 
mercy-seat  or  prapitiaiory,  and  above  it  were  the  cherubim 
(q.  v.),  made  of  the  same  piece  of  gold  with  it,  and  between 
them  was  the  place  of  the  ShecTUnah  or  manifestation  of  the 
Divine  presence.  The  ark  had  also  golden  rings,  throuj^h 
which  passed  staves  of  shittim-wood,  overlaid  with  gold, 
for  carrying  it  in  the  joumeyiugs  of  the  Israelites,  concern- 
ing which  very  particular  niles  were  laid  down  (see 
Numbers,  iv.).  While  carried  it  was  covered  first  with  a 
•covering  of  badgers'  skins,'  and  above  this  with  'a  cloth 
wholly  of  blue;*  and  in  the  tabernacle  and  temple  it  was 
put  'nto  the  *  most  holy  place,'  into  which  the  higlf-prlest 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARKONA— ARKSUTITE. 

alone  was  to  enter  upon  the  '  day  of  atonement.'  The  arb 
was  called  the  A.  of  the  C,  because  it  was  the  appointed 
sjrmbol  of  the  presence  of  God  as  the  God  of  Israel,  and  of 
his  covenant  with  his  people.  The  things  of  the  Jewish 
dispensation  bein^  regarded  as  typical,  and  the  Jewish 
religion  as  essentially  one  with,  the  Christian,  the  ark  is 
commonly  regarded  as  a  type  of  Christ;  the  excellency  and 
unchang^bleness  of  the  moral  law,  as  indicated  by  the 
place  assigned  to  it  within  the  ark,  which,  however, 
sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  typical  sacrifice,  was  interposed 
between  it  and  men,  who,  having  transgressed  it,  were  ex- 
posed to  its  curse;  and  the  mercy-seat,  in  like  manner 
sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  sacrifice,  was  interposed,  as  it 
were,  between  the  law  and  God,  who  is  represented  in  the 
Old  Testament  as  '  dwelling  between  the  cherubim,'  and 
thence  shining  forth  as  the  God  of  mercy,  favorable  to 
those  that  sought  Him.  A  complete  harmony  is  thus  made 
out  between  these  Old  Testament  types  and  the  Christian 
facts. — It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  sacred  arks  or  chests 
have  been  connected  with  the  worship  of  various  heathen 
nations,  and  have  been  placed  as  the  most  sacred  thin^  in 
the  innermost  parts  of  the  temple,  which  only  the  priests 
were  permitted  to  enter.  The  relation  of  these  to  the  ark 
of  the  Jews  has  been  the  subject  of  much  learned  inquiry, 
but  has  not  yet  received  thorough  elucidation. — The  ark 
appears  not  to  have  been  brought  back  from  Babylon,  and 
so  never  to  have  been  in  the  second  temple.  No  figure  of 
it  appears  among  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple  repre- 
sented on  the  Arch  of  Titus. 

ARKONA,  dr-kond:  n.e.  promontory  of  the  island  of 
RQgen,  in  the  Baltic,  almost  the  most  n.  extremity  of 
Germany.  Its  steej)  clifi:s  mainly  consist  of  mixed  chalk 
and  loam,  with  horizontal  veins  of  flint;  there  is  a  small 
deposit  of  pure  chalk  towards  the  east.  Myriads  of  sand- 
martins  build  in  the  clefts  of  these  cliffs.  The  view  from 
their  summit  extends  to  the  coast  of  Jasmund  on  the  right, 
on  the  left  to  the  islands  of  HiddensOe  and  MOen.  The 
name  A.  is  very  ancient.  In  the  chronicles  of  Saxo 
Grammaticus  we  find  it  written  Archona,  but  its  deriva- 
tion is  quite  uncertain.  On  the  w.  side  is  the  famous  wall 
or  fortified  inclosure  in  which  stood  the  temple  of  the 
Wend  deity  Swantewit.  King  Waldemar  I.  of  Denmark, 
after  a  bloody  conflict,  took  possession  of  the  fortress  in 
1168,  .burnt  the  idol  and  its  temple,  and  carried  away  its 
treasures  to  Denmark.  On  its  site,  a  lighthouse,  75  ft. 
high,  was  built  in  1827. 

ARKOSE,  n.  dr'kds  [Eng.  arlc]:  a  mineral  compound 
formed  of  the  same  materials  as  granite,  from  the  disintegra- 
tk>n  of  which  it  has  evidently  b^n  derived. 

ARK8UT1TE,  n.  drk'96-m,  or  Ark'sudite.  -dit  [from 
Arkffut  Ficrd,  in  s.  Greenland]:  mineral  classed  by  Dana  in 
his  Cryolite  group  of  fluorine  compounds.  It  is  a  white, 
translucent)  and  brittle  species,  with  vitreous  lustre,  except 
on  cleavage  faces,  where  it  is  pearly.  Its  composition  is, 
fluorine,  5108;  alumina,  17-87;  lime,  701;  soda,  2300; 
water  0*57.    It  bus  been  proved  to  be  Chioliie, 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARKWRIGHT. 

ARKWRIGHT,  drkrU,  Bm  Richard:  1782,  Dec.  28— 
1792;  b.  Preston,  Lancashire:  celebrated  for  Inventions  in 
cotton -spinning.  Of  humble  origin,  the  youngest  of  thir- 
teen children,  and  bred  to  the  trade  of  a  barber,  his  early 
opportunities  were  exceedingly  limited.  In  1760,  he  gave 
up  his  business  as  a  barber  in  Bolton,  and  became  a  dealer 
in  hair.  A  secret  process  for  dyeing  hair,  said  to  have 
been  discovered  by  himself,  increased  considerably  the 
profits  of  his  trade.  Very  little  is  known  regarding  the 
first  movements  of  his  mind  in  the  direction  of  mechanical 
mvention.  His  residence  in  the  midst  of  a  cotton-spinning 
{H)pulation  naturally  led  him  to  take  an  interest  in  the 
processes  used  in  that  manufacture.  That  the  develop- 
ment of  his  mechanical  ingenuity  was  not,  however,  due 
to  circimistances,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  his  first  effort 
was  an  attempt  to  discover  the  perpetual  motion.  Ha  vine 
no  practical  sKill  in  mechanics,  he  secured  the  services  of 
a  watchmaker,  named  Kay,  to  assist  him  in  the  construc- 
tion of  his  apparatus.  About  1767,  he  seems  to  have  given 
his  whole  attention  to  inventions  in  cotton-spinning.  Id 
the  following  year  he  removed  to  Preston,  where  he  set  up 
his  first  machine,  the  celebrated  tpinning -frame,  consisting 
chiefly  of  two  pairs  of  rollers,  the  first  pair  moving  slow^ly 
in  contact,  ana  passing  the  cotton  to  the  other  pair,  which 
revolved  with  such  increased  velocity  as  to  draw  out  the 
thread  to  the  required  degree  of  fineness.  No  previously 
invented  machinery  had  been  able  to  produce  cotton  thread 
of  suflicient  tenuity  and  strength  to  be  used  as  warp.  Aji 
invention,  indeed,  by  Mr.  Charles  Wyatt,of  Birmingham, 
which  was  patented  in  1788,  but  never  succeeded,  deprives 
A.  of  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  to  use  rollers  in 
spinning;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  he  owed 
anything  to  this  previous  attempt.  The  first  suggestion  of 
the  idea,  he  said,  was  derived  from  seeing  a  red-hot  iron 
bar  elongated  by  being  made  to  pass  between  rollers.  At 
this  time  A.  was  so  jxwr  that  he  needed  to  be  furnished 
with  a  suit  of  clothes  before  he  could  appear  to  vote  at  ao 
election  as  a  burgess  of  Preston.  He  soon  removed  to 
Nottingham,  to  escape  the  popular  rage,  which  had  already 
driven  llargreaves,  the  inventor  of  the  spmning-jenny,  out 
of  Lancashire.  Here  he  fortunately  fell  in  with  Mr. 
Jedidiah  Slrutt,  of  Derby,  the  celebrated  improv«]>of  the 
stocking  frame,  who  entered  into  partnership  with  him,  in 
conjunction  with  bis  partner,  Mr.  Need.  In  1769,  A.  set 
up  his  first  mill,  driven  by  horses,  and  took  out  a  patent 
for  his  invention.  In  1771,  he  set  up  a  larger  factory,  with 
water-power,  at  Cromford,  in  Derbyshire.  The  remark- 
able capabilities  of  his  mind  were  strikingly  evinced  in  the 
management  of  the  great  business  which  now  demanded 
his  undivided  attention.  ^  Without  i>ei8onal  exi)erience, 
and  with  no  model  to  guide  him,  he  introduced  a  system 
of  management  so  admirable  that  it  was  afterwards 
universally  adopted,  and  has  never  been  materially  im- 
proved. In  1775,  he  took  out  a  fresh  patent  for  various 
additional  improvements  in  machinery.  The  success 
attending  these  undertakings  stimulated  rivals  to  invade 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARKYS-ARLE8. 

his  patent;  and  to  such  an  extent  did  other  cotton-spinners 
use  his  designs,  that  he  was  obliged,  in  1781,  to  prosecute 
at  once  nine  different  manufacturers.  The  first  action 
against  Colonel  Mordaunt,  backed  by  a  strong  combination 
of  Lancashire  manufacturers,  was  lost,  solely  on  the 
ground  that  his  description  in  his  specification  was  not 
sufliciently  clear  and  distinct.  The  other  actions  were 
abandoned;  and,  in  the  following  year,  A.  published  a 
pamphlet  containing  a  statement  of  his  case.  In  a  new 
trial,  in  1785,  he  obtained  a  favorable  verdict.  The  whole 
question,  however,  was  brought  finally  before  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench,  a  few  months  later,  when  A.  's  claim  to  the 
inventions  patented  was  for  the  first  time  called  into 
dispute.  On  the  doubtful  evidence  of  a  person  named 
Highs,  or  Hayes,  combined  with  that  of  A.'s  old  assistant, 
Kay,  the  jury  decided  against  him,  and  his  patent  was 
annulled.  This  was  but  the  formal  outcome  of  an  opposi- 
tion which  had  from  the  beginning  marked  out  A.  as  an 
object  of  hostility.  The  manufacturers  at  first  combined 
to  discountenance  the  use  of  his  yarn.  When  the  yam 
was  made  into  calicoes,  and  parliament  was  petitioned  to 
lessen  the  duty  on  that  cloth,  they  strenuously  opposed  the 
measure,  but  m  vain.  Popular  animosity  was  also  excited 
against  the  man  who  abridged  labor,  but  in  reality  increased 
its  sphere;  and  on  ono  occasion,  a  laree  factory  belonging 
to  A.  was  destroyed  in  the  presence  of  a  powerful  military 
and  police  force,  without  a  word  of  interference  from  the 
magistrates.  The  energy  and  good  sense  of  A.,  however, 
triumphed  over  all  opposition;  and  at  the  lime  of  his  death, 
in  1793,  the  value  of  his  property  amounted  to  about  half 
a  million  sterling.  In  1780,  he  was  api)ointed  high-8hcriff 
of  Derbyshire;  and  on  the  occasion  of  presenting  an  address 
to  the  king,  congratulating  him  on  his  escape  from  tiie 
knife  of  the  maniac  Margaret  Nicholson,  he  received  the 
well-merited  honor  of  knighthood.  A  severe  asthma  had 
pressed  upon  him  from  his  youih;  and  a  complication  of 
disorders,  the  result  of  his  busy  sedentary  life,  terminated 
his  honorable  career  at  the  comparatively  early  age  of 
sixty.— See  Spinning. 

ARKYS,  n.  drk'U  [Or.  arkus,  a  net]:  genus  of  spiders. 
The  A,  lander,  a  native  of  S.  Amer.,  is  yellow  with  red  at 
the  sides. 

ARLES,  n.  plu.  drlz  or  arh  [Scotch:  L.  arrha:  F.  arrhes: 
It  arra,  earnest  money,  a  deposit:  Gael,  earl,  provision, 
caution]:  in  Scot.,  a  piece  of  money  given  for  confirming  a 
bargain,  as  in  hiring  a  servant;  earnest-money.  Able,  v. 
4W,  to  give  a  piece  of  money  to  a  person  to  confirm  a  bar- 
gain. Arliko,  imp.  dr'llng,  Arlrd,  pp.  arid,  hired  by 
receiving  arles. 

ARLES,  drh  (anciently,  Arelate):  one  of  the  oldest 
towns  ill  France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  princiiml  branch 
of  the  Rhone,  after  it  has  divided  into  a  delta,  in  the  dept. 
of  Bouches  du  Rhone.  A.  has  considerable  trade.  It 
manufactures  silk,  hats,  tobacco,  brandy,  etc.,  and  is  a 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARLINGTON—ARM. 

market  for  Ibo  productions  of  tbe  surrouDdiDg  country. 
It  also  possesses  a  college,  a  naval  school,  a  public  library, 
and  a  superb  museum  of  antiquities  in  natural  history. 
The  marshes  which  long  rendered  the  district  unhealthy 
have  been  largely  drained,  and  a  canal  has  been  formed 
which  connects  it  with  the  s.  coast,  liailways  also  bring  it 
into  easv  communication  with  Marseilles,  Avignon,  Nlmcs, 
3Iontpeilier,  etc.  Under  the  Romans,  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
prefect;  afterwards  the  residence  of  the  Gothic  kini^, 
Eurich;  and,  879,  was  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom  of 
Arelate.  See  Burgundy.  In  the  early  Christiajn  times, 
important  synods  were  convened  here  (314,  854,  452,  and 
475).  Among  the  antiquities  are  a  magnificent  amphithea- 
tre, which  could  conUun  between  20.000  and  80,000  specta- 
tors; the  ruins  of  a  palace  of  Constantiuc  the  Great;  and  a 
metliicval  cathednil  with  a  splendid  portal  arch.  Pop. 
(1898)  municipaliiy,  24,288;  town,  14,481. 

ARLINGTON,  ar' ling-ton:  town  in  Middlesex co.,  Mass.; 
on  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroad :  6  m.  n.w.  of  Boston, 
with  which  it  is  connected  also  by  horse-railroad.     This 

{)letisant  and  prosperous  town  has  niarket-giirdeuing  and 
cc-cutting  industries,  1  national  and  1  saving  bank,  a 
weekly  newspaper,  several  churches,  a  public  library,  and 
a  number  of  mniiufacturing  establishments.  Pop.  (1880) 
8,906;  (1890)  5,629. 

ARM,  v.  drm  [P.  armer;  Sp.  armar,  to  arm;  P.  arme, 
a  weapon— from  L.  armdH,  to  arm— from  arma,  weapons 
of  war]:  to  furnish  with  arms;  to  take  up  arms.  Akm'ikg, 
imp.  Armed,  pp.  drmd:  Adj.  drm'M,  furnished  with 
weapons;  morally  fortified;  in  her.,  colored.  Arm'less,  a. 
without  weapons.  Arms,  n.  plu.  dnm,  wea{>ons  of  war; 
state  of  hostility;  war  in  general;  signs  armorial.  Army, 
n.  dr'wil/  Armies,  plu.  drmlz  [F.  armee]:  a  body  of  men 
armed  for  war;  a  host;  a  large  number.  Firearms,  war- 
like weapons  only  eflFective  with  powder  and  shot,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  swords  and  lances.  Pass  or  Passage  op 
arms,  a  kind  of  combat  with  swords.  Btakd  of  Arms,  a 
complete  set  of  arras  for  one  soldier.  Under  Arms,  in  a 
state  of  immediate  readiness  for  fighting.  To  Arms,  a  call 
or  summons  to  engage  in  actual  hostilities.  Small- arms, 
those  which  can  conveniently  be  carried  by  a  soldier.  To 
THROW  or  LAY  DOWN  ARMS,  to  Surrender  to  an  enemy  by 
giving  up  arms.  Side-arms,  such  arms  as  may  be  worn 
attached  to  the  person,  as  sword,  bayonet,  etc  Coats  ok 
Arms,  in  her.,  any  signs  or  devices  of  hcraldrjr  painted  or 
engraved,  used  as  symbols  of  quality  or  distinction.  Arma, 
n.  plu.  d?md,  in  boL,  such  appendages  of  plants  as  prickles 
and  thorns.  Army-list,  n.  a  published  printed  list  of 
officers  of  the  army.  Arming-Buckle,  n.  in  heraldry,  a 
lozenge-shaped  buckle.  Arming-Doublet,  n.  a  surcoat. 
Arming-Points,  n.  pi.  the  fastenings  keeping  the  several 
pieces  of  armor  from  separating.  Arming-Press,  n  & 
press  used  in  book-binding. 

ARM.  n.  drm  [AS.  earm;  L.  armus,  the  shouldei- Joint, 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARM. 

the  ann;  Icel.  armr]:  a  limb  of  a  body;  a  branch  of  a  tree; 
Inlet  of  the  sea.  Armful,  n.  arm' f oof,  as  much  as  an  arm 
can  embrace  when  bent  in  towards  the  breast.  Armhole, 
n.  drmhU,  Pro  v.  and  OE.,  the  arm  pit;  the  hole  in  a  gar- 
ment for  the  arm.  Arm-like,  a.  -Ilk,  of  the  form  or  ap- 
pearance of  an  arm.  Armless,  a.  without  arms.  Arm'let, 
n.  a  little  arm;  a  bracelet.  Arm-chair,  n.  a  chair  with 
arms  to  sup|X)rt  the  elbows.  Arm -pit,  n.  the  cavity  under 
the  shoulder.  Forb-arm,  n.  the  part  of  the  arm  lying 
between  the  elbow  and  the  wrist.  Arm  op  the  sea,  a 
port  which  runs  far  into  the  land.  Arm's-length,  n.  tlic 
length  of  the  arm :  Adj.  at  a  distance.  Arms-End,  n.  the 
end  of  the  arms ;  a  good  distance  otf.  Arm -Shaped, 
a.  shaped  like  the  arm.  Arm'b-Reach,  n.  the  distance  to 
which  the  arm  can  reach.  Arm-in- Arm,  or  Arm-and- 
Arm,  ad.  or  a.  with  one's  arm  interlocked  in  that  of 
another. 

ARM:  the  upper  extremity  of  the  human  bodv;  consist- 
ing of  two  portions — the  A.,  strictly  so  called,  and  the 
forearm;  the  former  having  one  bone,  the  humerus  (1), 
which  moves  freely  by  a  globu- 
lar head  upon  the  scapula,  form- 
ing the  shoulder- joint;  and  the 
latter  having  two  bones,  the  ra- 
dius (3)  and  ulna  (2),  which  move 
on  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus, 
forming  the  elbow- joint,  and  be- 
low with  the  carpus  forming  the 
wrist. 

The  humerus  is  attached  by  a 
loose  capsular  ligament  to  the 
scapula,  allowing  great  freedom 
of  motion;  and  were  it  not  for 
the  muscles  passing  into  I  and  K, 
would  be  frequently  dislocated, 
but  it  is  supported  by  these  mus- 
cles on  all  sides  except  under- 
neath or  opposite  the  armpit, 
into  which  the  head  of  the  l)oue 
is  often  driven.  The  roundness 
of  the  shoulder  is  due  tQ  the  head 
of  the  humerus,  so  that  any  dis- 
placement is  accompanied  by  a 
flattening,  which  at  once  suggests  the  nature  of  the  acci- 
dent. On  the  shoulder  is  a  large  triangular  muscle,  the 
deltoid,  which  lifts  the  A.  from  the  side.  At  the  back  is 
the  triceps,  which  extends  the  forearm;  in  front  are  two 
muscles  which  flex  or  bend  it— the  biceps,  and  the  brachialis 
anticus;  and  on  each  side  below  are  muscles  passing  to  the 
forearm  and  hand;  while  on  each  side  above,  the  great 
muscle  of  the  back  (latissimus  dorsi)  and  that  of  the  chest 
(the  pectoralis  major)  are  inserted  on  each  side  of  a  groove, 
wherein  lies  one  of  the  tendons  of  the  biceps  (q.v.)  The 
motions  of  the  ulna  are  flexion  or  bending  effected  by  the 
^cepe,  and  extension  or  straightening  by  the  great  ex  ten- 


Bones  of  the  Human  Arm. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARM. 

sor  muscle,  the  triceps,  ite  projections,  D  and  A,  bein^  r» 
ceived  in  these  movements  into  corresponding  depressiona 
on  the  humerus.  The  move- 
ments of  the  hand  are  princi- 
pally due  to  the  radius,  the  head 
of  which  rolls  at  C  and  H  upon 
the  ulna  at  F  and  L,  thereby 
turning  the  palm  downwards 
(pronation),  or  restoring  the 
palm  upwards  (supination), 
these  movements  being  effected 
by  muscles,  two  for  each  move- 
ment, which,  taking  their  fixed 
points  from  the  humerus  and 
ulna,  pull  the  radius  round  on 
the  latter.  The  elbow-joint  is 
giuglymoid  or  hinge-like,  and 
therefore  has  strong  lateral  lig- 
aments; but  it  is  extremely 
liable  to  dislocations,  often  ac- 
companied by  fracture,  espe- 
cially in  the  voung.  The  acci- 
dent being  followed  by  severe 
inflammation,  the  joint  is  very 
apt  to  stiffen,  thereby  seriously 
(see  Anchvlosis)  deteriorating 
from  the  usefulness  of  the  limb; 
it  is,  therefore,  unadvisable  to 
keep  the  limb  too  loug  in  any 
one  position  after  such  an  in- 
jury. This  joint  is  also  very 
liable  to  disease;  but  as  this  is 
confined  to    the   ends  of   the  Human  Arm: 

bones,  the  small  portions  of  the  ^bc.  deltoid  mu8cle;  d.  conioo 
latter  affected  can  be  readily  brachialfs  myscle ;  r,  r,  trf- 
cut  out,  and  the  arm  be  restored  c^ps:  c,  i,  extenRore  of  wrtet 
to  usefulness  and  mobility  in  a  ^r^^T^t  tX 
few  weeks.  and  radial  and  ulnar  Rides  of 

The  upper  extremity  is  sup-  the  wrist,  and  I  palm  of  the 
plied  with  blood  by  the  brachial  SStokJte'bi!^  "  WiS 
artery,  the  continuation  of  the  fascia;  o,  biceps, 
axillary  trunk.  The  veins  col- 
lect into  large  superficial  trunks,  which  unite  at  the  bend 
of  the  elbow,  at  which  situation  one  is  frequently  selected 
for  venesection,  and  then  pass  on  to  the  axillary,  on  the 
outside  by  the  cephalic  vein,  on  the  inner  side  by  the 
basilic. 

The  nerves  pass  down  as  large  cords  by  the  side  of  the 
artery,  and  diverge  from  it  to  their  ultimate  distributions; 
the  musculo-spiral  soon  passing  round  at  the  back  to  ap- 
pear on  the  outside,  and  become  the  radial  aud  posterior 
interosseous  nerves;  the  ulna  running  behind  the  internal 
condyle,  N.,  (Fig.  1),  for  which  it  has  obtained  the  term 
'funny  bone,'  from  the  electric-like  thrill  which  passes 
along  the  arm  when  the  nerve  is  struck  or  pressed.    The 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARM— ARMADA. 

median,  as  its  name  implies,  keeps  a  middle  course  with 
the  artery. 

In  wounds  of  the  forearm,  the  bleeding  is  often  exces- 
eiye  but  may  be  at  once  controlled  by  pressure  on  the 
brachial  artery,  on  the  inner  side  of  the  biceps. 

The  arm  atfords  excellent  illustrations  of  some  of  the 
principles  of  mechanics.  The  insertion  of  the  muscles  so 
near,  as  will  be  seen,  to  the  fulcra  or  centres  of  motion, 
involves  a  loss  of  power  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word; 
there  is,  however,  a  corresponding  gain  in  velocity  at  the 
end  of  the  lever;  and  for  most  of  the  purposes  to  which 
the  hand  is  put,  agility  is  of  far  greater  moment  than  dead 
strength. 

ARM:  in  maritime  language  (besides  the  obvious  appli- 
cation to  weapons  of  wanare),  a  term  applied  to  each  ex- 
extremity  of  a  bibb,  or  bracket,  attached  to  the  mast  of  a 
ship  for  supporting  the  trestle-trees.  The  same  name  is 
also  riven  to  a  part  of  the  anchor.  See  Anchor. — In  mili- 
tary lan^age,  the  infantry,  the  cavalry,  the  artillery,  and 
the  engineers  are  each  called  'an  A.'  of  the  service- 
equivalent  to  branch  or  department. 

ARMADA,  n.  dr-md'dd  [Sp.  armada,  the  fleet,  the  navy 
— ^from  armar,  to  arm — from  L.  armdr^,  to  equip  with 
arms;  a/rmdi&f  armed]:  a  fleet  of  war-ships;  especially  the 
CTeat  Spanish  fleet  of  war-ships  which  attempted  the 
invasion  of  England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1588. 
The  king  of  Spain,  Philip  II.,  had  resolved  to  strike  a 
decisive  blow  at  the  Protestant  interest,  by  conquering 
England,  which  Pope  Bixtus  V.  hiad  made  over  to  him. 
The  ports  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  other  maritime  domin- 
ions belon^ng  to  him  had  long  resounded  with  the 
noise  of  his  preparations,  and  the  most  eminent  Rom. 
Cath.  soldiers  from  all  parts  of  Europe  flocked  to  take  a 
share  in  the  expedition.  The  Marquis  of  Santa-Croce,  a 
sea-officer  of  great  reputation  and  experience,  was  selected 
to  command  the  fleet,  which  consisted  of  180  vessels, 
of  greater  size  than  any  hitherto  seen  in  Europe. 
The  Duke  of  Parma  was  to  conduct  the  land-forces, 
20,000  of  whom  were  on  board  the  ships  of  war,  and 
84,000  more  were  assembled  in  the  Netherlands,  ready 
to  be  transported  into  England;  so  that,  as  no  doubt  was 
entertained  of  success,  the  fleet  was  ostentatiously  styled 
the  Invincible  A.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  terror  and 
consternation  which  seized  all  ranks  of  people  in  England 
upon  the  news  of  this  terrible  A.  being  under  sail  to 
invade  them.  A  squadron  of  not  more  than  thirty  ships 
of  the  line,  and  those  very  small  in  comparison,  was  all 
that  Elizabeth  had  to  oppose  it  by  sea;  and  it  was  con- 
sidered impossible  to  make  any  effectual  resistance  by 
land,  as  the  Spanish  army  was  composed  of  men  well 
disciplined  and  long  inured  to  danger.  But  although  the 
English  fleet  was  much  inferior  m  number  and  size  of 
shipping  to  that  of  the  enemy,  it  was  much  more  manage- 
able, while  the  dexterity  and  courage  of  the  mariners  were 
^refttly  superior.    Lord  Howard  of  Ettingham,  a  man  of 


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ARMADA. 

great  \ralor  and  capacity,  took  upon  bim,  as  lord  high 
admiral,  the  command  of  the  navy;  Drake,  Hawkins,  and 
^'robisher,  the  most  renowned  seamen  in  £urope,  served 
under  him ;  while  another  squadron,  consisting  of  forty 
vessels,  English  and  Flemish,  commanded  by  Lord 
Seymour,  lay  off  Dunkirk,  in  order  to  intercept  the  Duke 
of  Parma,  ouch  was  the  preparation  made  by  the  Eng- 
lish; while  all  the  Protestant  powers  of  Europe  regarded 
this  enterprise  as  the  critical  event  which  was  to  decide 
forever  the  fate  of  their  religion.  Meantime,  while  the 
Spanish  A.  was  preparing  to  sail,  the  admiral,  Santa- 
Croce,  died,  as  likewise  the  vice-admiral,  Paliano;  and 
the  command  of  the  expedition  was  given  to  the  Duke  of 
Medina  Sidonia,  a  person  utterly  mexperienced  in  sea 
affairs:  these  unexpected  circumstances  served,  in  some 
measure,  to  frustrate  the  design.  Some  other  accidents 
also  contributed  to  its  failure.  Upon  leaving  the  port  of 
Lisbon,  the  A.  next  day  met  a  violent  tempest,  which  sank 
some  of  the  smallest  of  the  ships,  and  obliged  the  rest  to 
put  back  into  the  harbor.  After  some  time  spent  in  re- 
Btting,  the  Spaniards  again  put  to  sea,  where  they  took  e 
fisherman,  who  gave  them  intelligence  that  the  English 
fleet,  hearing  of  the  dispersion  of  the  A.  in  a  storm,  had 
returned  to  Plymouth,  and  that  most  of  the  mariners 
were  discharged.  From  this  false  intelligence,  the 
Spanish  admiral,  instead  of  going  to  the  coast  of  Flanders, 
to  take  in  the  troops  stationed  there,  resolved  to  sail 
directly  to  Plymouth,  and  destroy  the  shipping  laid  up  in 
the  harbor.  But  Efllngham  was  very  well  preparea  to 
receive  him,  and  had  just  left  port,  when  he  saw  the 
Spanish  A.  coming  full  sail  towards  him,  disposed  in  the 
form  of  a  half -moon,  and  stretching  seven  miles  from  one 
extremity  to  the  other.  The  English  admiral,  seconded 
by  Drake,  Hawkins,  and  Frobisher,  attacked  the  Span- 
iards at  a  distance,  pouring  in  their  broadsides  with  ad- 
mirable dexterity.  They  did  not  choose  to  engage  the 
enemy  more  closely,  because  they  were  greatly  inferior  in 
number  of  ships  and  guns,  as  well  as  in  weight  of  metal; 
nor  could  they  attempt  to  board  such  lofty  vessels  without 
manifest  disadvantage.  In  tills  action,  however,  two 
Spanish  galleons  were  disabled  and  taken.  As  the  A.  ad- 
vanced up  tlie  Channel,  the  English  still  followed  and  in- 
fested its  rear;  and  as  their  ships  continually  increased  from 
different  ports,  they  soon  found  themselves  in  a  capacity  to 
attack  the  Spanish  fleet  more  nearly,  and  accordingly  fell 
upon  them  while  they  were  taking  shelter  in  the  port  of 
Calais.  To  increase  their  confusion,  Howard  selected  eight 
of  his  smaller  vessels,  which,  after  filling  them  with  com- 
bustible materials,  he  sent  one  after  another,  as  if  they  had 
been  fire-ships,  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy.  The  Spaniards, 
taking  them  for  what  they  seemed  to  be,  immediately  bore 
off  in  great  disorder;  while  the  English,  profiting  by  their 
mtnic,  captured  or  destroyed  about  twelve  ships.  The 
Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia  being  thus  driven  to  the  coast  of 
Zealand,  held  a  council  of  war,  in  which  it  was  resolved 
that,  as  thehr  ammunition  began  to  fail,  as  their  fleet  had 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARMADILLO. 

received  great  damage>  and  as  the  Duke  of  Parma  had  re- 
fused to  venture  his  army  under  their  protectiou,  they  should 
return  to  Spain,  by  sailing  round  the  Orkneys,  as  the  winds 
were  contrary  to  their  passage  directly  back.  Accordingly, 
they  proceecled  northward,  and  were  followed  by  the  Eng- 
lish fleet  as  far  as  Flamborough  Head,  where  they  were 
terribly  shattered  by  a  storm.  Seventeen  of  the  ships, 
having  5,000  men  on  board,  were  afterwards  cast  away  on 
the  Western  Isles  and  the  coast  of  Ii-eland.  Of  the  whole 
A.,  fifty- three  ships  only  returned  to  Spain,  and  these  in  a 
wretched  condition.  The  seamen,  as  well  as  the  soldiers 
who  remained,  were  so  overcome  with  hardships  and 
fati^e,  and  so  dispirited  by  their  discomfiture,  that  they 
filled  all  Spain  with  accounts  of  the  desperate  valor  of  the 
iihiglish,  and  of  the  tempestuous  violence  of  that  ocean  by 
which  they  were  surrounded. 

ARMADILLO,  n.  dr'ma-dU'ld  [Sp.  dim.  of  armddo,  a 
man  in  armor — from  L.  anna,  arms,  from  its  scaly 
covering]  {DasypuMY,  genus  of  Mammalia  of  the  order 
Edentata  (i.  e.,  toothless)— not,  however,  truly  toothless, 
but  having  feeble  teeth  destitute  of  true  roots,  and  set  apart 
from  each  other,  and  so  that  those  of  the  one  jaw  fit  into 
the  interstices  of  those  of  the  other.  The  number  of  the 
teeth  is  different  in  different  species.  The  muzzle  is 
elon^tcd,  and  the  tongue  smooth  and  slender,  with  a 
glutmous  saliva,  adapted  to  the  capture  of  ants  and  other 


Armadillo. 

insects,  after  the  manner  of  the  ant-eaters,  bat  not  long  and 
extensile,  like  theirs.  The  limbs  are  short  and  strong,  as 
are  also  the  claws,  and  the  animals  have  a  great  aptitude 
for  digging  and  burrowing,  by  means  of  which  they  seek 
to  shelter  themselves  from  enemies— burrowing  in  sand  or 
soft  earth  with  such  rapidity  that  it  la  almost  impossible  to 
dig  them  out,  and  indeed  it  can  only  be  done  by  persever- 
ing till  they  arc  exhausted.  But  that  which  peculiarly 
distinguishes  the  A.,  and  in  which  this  genus  differs  from 
all  the  other  mammalia,  except  the  Ghlamyphorus  (q.v.),  is 
the  bony  armor  with  which  the  body  is  covered,  and 
which  consists  of  xwlygonal  plates  not  articulated,  united 
on  the  head  to  form  a  solid  covering,  and  similarly  to  form 

Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARMADILLO— ARMAGH. 

solid  backlera  over  the  shoulders  and  the  haunches;  and 
between  these,  disposed  in  transverse  bands,  which  allow 
of  freedom  of  motion  to  the  body,  similar  bands,  in  most 
species,  protecting  also  the  tail.  Within  these  plates  the 
animal  is  able  to  roll  itself  up  like  a  hedgehog.  Armadil- 
los feed  not  only  on  insects,  but  on  vegetable  and  animal 
food  of  almost  every  kind,  which  by  decomposition  or 
otherwise  has  acquired  a  sufficient  softness.  Some  of  tbcm 
prefer  vegetable  food,  others  delight  chiefly  in  carrion. 
They  are  all  natives  of  the  warm  and  temperate  parts  of 
South  America,  in  the  woods  and  pampas  of  which  they 
are  found  in  immense  numbers.  They  are  timid  and' in- 
offensive, although,  when  they  are  incautiously  assailed, 
injury  may  be  received  from  their  claws.  Their  flesh  is 
esteemed  a  delicacy,  particularly  that  of  the  species  which 
feed  chiefly  on  vegetable  food.  The  largest  species  is  fully 
three  ft.  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail;  the  smallest,  not  above 
ten  inches.  The  species  are  niunerous,  and  the  ^enus  has 
been  divided  into  a  number  of  sub-genera,  which  some 
naturalists  elevate  into  genera,  naming  the  family  LoriaUa 
(i.  e.,  mailed).  TotMs  family  belongs  also  the  genua 
GfUamyphorus,  also  South  American.  Fossil  remains  of 
gigantic  extinct  armadillos  have  been  found  in  the  pleisto- 
cene strata  of  South  America,  forming  the  genus  Ql^todUm 
of  Owen,  so  named  from  the  fluted  teeth. 

ARMADIL'LO :  scientific  name  of  a  genus  of  Crustacea 
of  the  order  laopoda  of  Cuvier.  This  is  one  of  the  geuera 
usually  included  under  the  popular  name  of  Woodlouse. 
and  one  of  which  {PoreeUio)  is  very  generally' known  by 
that  of  Slater.  The  armadillos  derive  their  name  from  the 
scaly  armor  of  their  body,  in  which  an  analogy  is  found  to 
the  mailed  quadrupeds  of  South  America.  These  little 
creatures  have,  in  a  remarkable  degree,  the  power  of  rolling 
themselves  into  a  t^l,  when  alarmed,^ so  as  to  expose 
nothing  but  the  plates  of  the  back,  and  have  thence  re- 
ceived the  name  of  PUl  Beetles.  Like  some  of  the  other 
closely  allied  Isopoda,  they  were  at  one  time  reputed  to 
possess  medicinal  virtues,  now  accounted  merely  iniaginary. 
They  were  not  only  used  in  a  dried  and  pulverizea  state, 
but  they  are  said  to  have  been  actually  swallowed  entire  as 
pills.  The  Isopoda  are  now  made  a  sub-order  of  Teirade- 
capoda  (fourteen-footed). 

ARMAGH,  dr-md':  a  small  inland  county  in  Ulster,  Ire- 
land,  bounded  n.  by  Lough  Neagh,  e.  by  Down,  s.  by 
Louth,  w.  by  Monaghan  and  Tyrone:  greatest  length  32 
m.,  and  breadth  20;  512^  sq.  in.,  about  four- fifths  being 
arable,  and  a  36th  part  in  woods.  The  surface  is  hilly  in 
the  s.,  and  undulating  in  the  centre,  attaining  in  Slieve 
Gullion,  in  the  s.w.,  the  height  of  1,893  ft.  The  other 
chief  heights  are  the  Newry  Mountains,  1,385  ft.;  the 
Armagh-breaguelliils,  1.200;  and  Mullyash,  1.034.  The 
country  bordering  upon  Lough  Neagh  is  low  and  boggy, 
and  the  Louth  plain  extends  into  the  s.  end  of  A.  The 
principal  rivers,  navigable  in  their  lower  parts,  are  the 
Upper  Bann,  flowing  out  of  Down  n.w.  U  m.  before  it 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARMAGH— ARMAGNAa 
enters  Lough  Keagh;  and  the  Blackwater,  which,  in  its 
lower  part,  separates  A.  from  Monaghan.  The  rocks  of 
A.  are— Lower  Silurian  in  the  s.  and  middle  of  the  county; 
the  trap  of  Antrim,  with  the  underlying  greensand,  around 
Portadown;  carboniferous  limestone  in  the  basins  of  the 
Blackwater,  and  its  tributary  the  Callan;  granite  in  the 
mountains  of  the  s.e.;  and  tertiary  strata  bordering  Lough 
Nea^h.  The  soil  is  fertile  except  in  the  southern  ex- 
tremities. Li  1880,  163,236  acres  were  in  crop,  the  prin- 
cipal crops  being  oats,  potatoes,  wheat,  turnips,  and  flax. 
The  stock  in  that  year  was  13,815  horses,  79,474  cattle, 
9,125  sheep,  15,186  pigs.  The  n.  and  central  parts  of  A. 
have  a  dense  population,  and  contain  low  hills  cultivated 
to  the  tops,  hedgerows,  orchards,  and  thickly-scattered 
farm-steadings.  The  county  is  mostly  in  the  diocese  of 
Armagh.  It  returns  three  members  of  parliament.  The 
chief  towns  are  A.,  Lurgan,  Portadown,  and  Newry  (which, 
however,  is  mostly  in  Down].  Pop.  (1871)  179,260;  (1881) 
163,177;  of  whom  about  half  are  Kom.  Cath.,  while  of  the 
remainder,  the  Episcopalians  greatly  outnumber  the  Pres- 
byterians (1891)  148,289. 

ARMAGH:  capital  of  the  county  of  A.,  in  a  carbonif- 
erous limestone  district,  in  the  n.w.  of  the  county.  It  is 
situated  around  and  on  a  gentle  eminence,  hence  its  orig- 
inal name,  Ard-Magha,  'the  high  field.'  It  is  built  of 
limestone.  The  cathedral,  of  red  sandstone,  is  cruciform — 
184  by  119  ft.— and  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  that 
erected  b^  St.  Patrick  in  the  5th  c.  Tt  has  had  extensive 
repairs,  chiefly  at  the  cost  (£10, 000)  of  the  late  lord  primate, 
John  George  Beresford.  A  Gothic  Rom.  Cath.  cathedral 
occupies  the  principal  height  to  the  n.,  and  the  primatial 
palace  that  to  the  s.  There  is  a  fever  hospital  for  forty 
patients,  maintained  by  the  late  primate,  and  a  lunatic 
asylum  for  four  counties.  A.  is  the  seat  of  the  archiepis- 
copal  see  of  the  primate  and  metropolitan  of  all  Ireland, 
"who,  before  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church, 
had  an  income  of  £12,087  a  year.  The  chief  manufacture 
is  linen- weaving.  A.,  from  the  year  495  to  the  9lh  c,  was 
the  metropolis  of  Ireland,  the  native  kings  living  at 
Samania,  2  m.  to  the  w.  of  the  city.  It  was  then  renowned 
as  a  school  of  theologv  and  literature — its  college  being 
the  first  in  Europe.  After  the  Reformation,  it  suffered 
severely  in  the  conflicts  between  the  English  and  Irish;' 
and  it  contained  only  three  slated  houses  in  1765.  Pop. 
(1871)  8,946;  of  whom  4,691  were  Rom.  Cath.,  8^020  Epis- 
copalians, 918  Presbyterians.    In  1891,  it  was  8,803. 

ARMAGNAC,  dr-mdn-ydk'  (Ager  Aremonicua):  old  name 
of  a  district  in  the  s.  of  France,  which  at  one  time  seems 
to  have  extended  from  the  valleys  of  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
Garonne.  It  is  now  included  in  the  departments  of  Hautes 
Pyrenees  and  Gers.  The  remarkably  fertile  land,  pro- 
ducing grain  and  the  best  descriptions  pf  wine,  and  also 
favorable  for  pasturage,  is  cut  up  into  an  extraordinary 
number  of  small  estates,  and  divided  among  numerous 
petty  proprietors.    The  principal  branch  Qf  trade  Is  tho 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


A  RMAGN  AC— ARMAN8PERG. 

distillation  of  the  brandy  known  in  commerce  as  Bau 
d'Armagnae,  which  rivals  those  of  Cognac  and  Sainton^ 
The  ancient  capital  is  Lectoure,  on  the  river  Crers,  with 
alx)ut  8,000  inhabitanU.  To  the  s.  of  it  lies  Auch,  the 
chief  town  of  the  department  of  Gers.  Pop.  about  12,000. 
The  people  are  noted  for  their  simplicity,  strength,  and 
bravery;  but  are  extremely  credulous  and  ignorant.  For- 
merly, their  services  were  highly  valued  in  times  of  war. 
The  A.  family,  descended  from  the  old  Merovingian  king. 
Clovis,  was  important  in  French  history. 

ARMAGH  AC,  Bernard  VII.,  Count  d':  leader  of  the 
*  Armagnacs  *  in  their  civil  war  with  the  Burgundians,  and 
afterwards  chief  minister  and  constable  of  France  imde. 
Queen  Isabeau.  His  unscrupulous  and  tyrannical  mcHs- 
ures  made  him  odious  to  the  people,  and  in  1418,  when 
Paris  was  taken  by  the  Burgundians,  he  and  a  large  num 
ber  of  his  followers  were  massacred. 

ARMAGNAC,  Jean  V.,  Count  d':  b.  abt.  1420:  grand 
son  of  Bernard.  He  was  excommunicated  by  the  pop*^ 
for  marrying  his  own  sister,  who  had  been  engaged  to 
Henry  VI.  of  England.  He  joined  the  League  of  the 
Public  Good  against  Louis  XI.  of  France,  through  which 
he  lost  his  estates,  but  they  were  restored  to  him.  He  waa 
put  to  death  by  the  king's  troops  in  1473. 

ARMAMENT,  n.  drmd-m^nt  [L.  armamen'ia,  imple- 
ments, utensils— from  arma,  weapons  of  war] :  a  land  or 
naval  force  fitted  out  for  war.  Also,  all  the  weapons  col- 
lectively employed  in  sea  and  land  battles,  are  called  the  A. 
of  a  ship  or  of  an  army. 

ARM  AN,  n.  dr'mdn:  a  confection  for  restoring  appetite 
in  horses. 

ARM  AND,  dr-mihi',  Charles,  Marquis  de  la  Rouarie, 
deh  Id  ro-d-re:  1756-93:  French  soldier  who  volunteered  ir 
the  American  army  during  the  Revolutionary  war,  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  brig. gen.  He  afterwards  took  part  in 
the  French  Revolution,  on  the  royalist  side,  servmg  in 
Brittany  and  Anjou. 

ARMANSPERG,  dr'mdn-9p^g\  Joseph  Ludwio,  Count 
of:  1787-1853;  b.  in  Lower  Bavaria:  formerly  president 
of  the  government  in  Greece.  He  early  began  an  adminis- 
trative and  diplomatic  career.  On  the  accession  of  Kinc 
Louis  to  the  throne.  A.,  who  had  already  occupied  several 
important  posts,  was  summoned  to  Munich,  where,  rapidly 
rismg  from  one  dignity  to  another,  he  at  length  Ix^mme 
minister  of  finance  and  of  foreign  affairs.  In  both  capaci- 
ties he  proved  active  and  successful;  but  he  drew  upon 
himself  the  hatred  of  the  Camarilla  by  his  strenuous  oppo> 
sltion  to  the  claims  of  Rome,  as  well  as  by  his  attempts  to 
identify  himself  with  the  decidedly  liberal  party.  The 
consequence  was  that,  in  1831,  he  lost  his  post,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  appointed  ambassador  to  London,  but  pre 
ferred  retiring  to  his  family  estate.  However,  he  could 
not  resist  the  king's  repeated  request  that  he  would  under- 
take the  formation  of  his  son's  government  in  Greece;  anU 


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ARMATOLES— ARMATURE. 

accordingly,  accompanying  young  King  Otho,  A.  landed 
at  Nauplia,  1833,  Jan.  For  four  years  he  was  at  the  head 
of  public  affairs,  and  Greece  derived  many  benefits  from 
his  administration;  but  the  heat  of  party  strife  and  court 
intrigues  led  to  his  dismissal,  and  he  left  Greece,  1887, 
March,  retiring  to  his  estate  near  Deggendorf . 

ARMATO'LES:  a  body  of  Greek  militia,  first  formed 
under  the  reign  of  Sultan  Selim  1.  about  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  c.  They  were  intended  to  preserve  the  fertile 
plains  from  the  ravages  of  the  Klephts  (mountain  robbers 
of  Thessaly)  who  had  never  been  entirely  conquered  by 
the  Turks.  The  A.  themselves  were  originally  Klephts, 
but  received  their  more  honorable  designation  when  the 
Porte  liad  metamorphosed  them  into  a  sort  of  military  po- 
lice. The  safety  of  the  public  roads  was  inti-usted  to  their 
care.  The  whole  of  Northern  Greece  was  divided  into 
sixteen  districts  {eapUaineries)^  each  placed  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  chief  of  these  militia,  who,  however,  had  him- 
self to  receive  orders  from  a  Turkish  pasha  or  Greek 
bishop.  But  although  the  A.  frequently  suppressed  the 
brigandage  of  the  Klephts,  they  still  regarded  them  in  the 
light  of  brothers,  inasmuch  as  they  had  a  common  origin 
and  faith;  both  detested  the  oppressors  of  their  country; 
and  the  sentiment  of  patriotism  overruled  every  other  con- 
sideration. This  sympathy  at  last  appeared  to  the  Turks 
so  dangerous  that  they  grew  alarmed,  and  desired  to  sub- 
stitute for  the  A.  the  Mohammedan  Albanians,  who  were 
the  implacable  enemies  of  the  Greeks,  which  resolution  did 
not  a  little  to  hasten  the  insurrection  which  the  Porte  ever 
dreaded.  The  moment  it  broke  out,  the  A.  pronounced 
themselves  in  favor  of  the  national  cause,  and  in  the 
war  of  independence  that  ensued  distinguished  themselves 
by  their  brilliant  exploits. 

ARMATURE,  n.  dr'md-tur  [P.  armature,  brace,  fenc- 
ing: L.  armdiura,  armor,  equipment — from  arma,  arms]: 
pieces  of  soft  iron  placed  at  the  extremities  or  poles  of 
magnets  to  preserve  their  magnetic  power.  When  magnet  s 
are  allowed  to  remain  any  length  of  time  without  such 
appendages,  in  consequence  of  the  disturbing  influence  of 
terrestrial  magnetism  they  lose  consid- 
erably in  strength;  but  when  they  are 
provided  with  them  their  magnetism  is 
kept  in  a  state  of  constant  activity,  and 
thereby  shielded  from  this  disturbance. 
The  reason  of  this  is  found  in  two  facts 
well  known  in  the  science  of  magnetism 
— viz.,  that  when  a  piece  of  soft  iron  is 
brought  into  contact  with  the  extremity 
of  a  magnet,  it  is  itself  induced  to  be- 
come magnetic;  and  that  the  unlike 
poles  of  two  different  magnets  jjowcr- 
fully  attract  each  other.  Kefernng  to 
the  figure,  the  north  pole,  N,  of  the 
horseshoe  magnet,  NHH,  acting  on  the 
armature,  sn,  induces  it  to  become  a  magnet,  having  Us 


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ARMED  VESSEL. 

south  pole,  »,  next  to  N,  and  its  north  pole,  n,  at  the  op- 
posite extremity.  The  pole,  8,  by  virtue  of  its  magnetic 
affinity,  powerfullv  attracts  the  north  pole,  n,  thus  formed, 
and  adds  its  own  inducing  influence  to  heighten  the  mag- 
netic condition  previously  induced  in  the  armature  by  the 
pole  N.  The  A.,  from  the  combined  action  of  both  poles 
of  the  horseshoe  magnet,  is  thus  converted  into  a  power- 
ful magnet,  with  its  poles  lying  in  an  opposite  direction 
to  that  of  the  primary  poles.  The  original  magnet  is,  in 
consequence,  brought  into  contact  with  one  of  its  own 
making,  the  exact  counterpart  of  itself — a  condition  highly 
favorable  to  the  maintenance  of  its  strength.  It  is  due  to 
the  same  mutual  attractions  that  a  much  larger  weight  can 
be  suspended  from  the  A.  thus  placed,  than  the  single  poles 
can  together  sustain.  Bar  magnets  may  be  armed  in  the 
same  way  by  laying  them  at  some  distance  parallel  to 
each  other,  with  their  unlike  poles  towards  the  same  parts, 
and  then  connecting  their  extremities  by  two  pieces  of  soft 
iron.  When  a  magnet,  such  as  a  compass-needle,  is  free 
to  take  up  the  position  required  by  the  magnetism  of  the 
earth,  the  earth  itself  plays  the  part  of  an  armature. 

Armature,  in  Botany:  the  hairs,  prickles,  etc.,  covering 
an  organ. 

ARMED  VESSEL:  distinguished  from  a  man-of-war  by 
the  temporary  period  of  its  employment,  bein^  a  mercbaut 
ship  in  the  service  of  a  govt,  for  a  specified  time  and  pur- 
pose, armed  and  equipped  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  case.  Thus  privateers  and  letters-of-marque 
are  included  under  this  head;  so  in  Great  Britain  are  certain 
lines  of  royal  mail  steamers,  which  can  be  placed  in  com- 
mission in  time  of  war;  and  the  same  was  the  case  during 
the  American  civil  war,  when  many  freight  and  passenger 
steamers  were  employed  as  transports  and  for  other  impor- 
tant naval  uses;  notably  the  VaiiderbUt  and  the  Star  of  the 
WeH,  In  1893  arrangements  were  effected  through  an  act 
of  congress  for  the  building  (or  transfer)  of  a  number  of 
traps- Atlantic  passenger  steamers— some  beine  of  the 
largest  class  and  highest  speed — which  should  receive 
American  registration,  on  the  condition  that  they  should 
be  at  the  service  of  the  U.  8.  govt,  as  naval  vessels  in  time 
of  war. 


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ARMENIA. 

ARMENIA,  ^T'mt'nl-a:  a  high  table-land  on  the  s.  slope 
of  the  Caucasus,  stretching  down  towards  Mesopotamia. 
It  has  had  different  boundaries  in  the  various  centuries  of 
its  history.  It  is  the  original  seat  of  one  of  the  oldest 
civilized  peoples  in  the  world,  the  Armenians,  who  belong 
to  the  Indo-Germanic  family  of  nations.  Their  oldest 
records  contain  nothing  certain  bevond  the  facts  that,  in 
ancient  times,  they  were  governed  by  independent  kings, 
but  afterwards  became  tributary  to  the  Assyrians  and 
Medes.  That  dim  period  which  wavers  between  myth  and 
history  begins,  in  the  case  of  A.,  about  the  middle  of  the 
6th  c.  B.C.,  when  Kin^  Dikran,  or  Tigranes  I.  of  the  Haig 
dynasty,  restored  the  mdependence  of  the  kingdom.  Tlie 
last  king  of  this  d3rnasty  was  slain  in  battle  against  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  who  conquered  the  country.  After 
Alexander's  death,  A.  passed  through  several  changes  of 
fortune  under  the  Seleucidae,  who  appointed  governors 
over  it.  Of  th^e,  two— Artaxias  and  Zariadres — made 
themselves  independent  of  their  sovereign,  Antiochus  the 
Great,  while  he  was  encraged  in  his  contest  with  the  Ro- 
mans, B.C.  228-190.  They  divided  the  province  into  two 
districts — ^Artaxias  taking  A.  Major  (that  part  of  the 
country  lying  e.  of  the  Euphrates),  and  Zariadres  A.  Minor 
(the  part  to  y;ie  w.  of  that  river).  The  dynasty  of  Artaxias 
did  not  reign  long;  for  about  the  middle  of  the  2d  c.  e.g., 
we  find  A.  Major  in  the  possession  of  a  branch  of  the 
Parthian  Arsacidae,  of  which  the  most  powerful  king  was 
Tigraues  the  Great,  who,  added  to  the  conquests  made  by 
his  predecessors  in  Lower  Asia  and  the  region  of  the 
Caucasus,  Syria,  Cappadocia,  and  A.  Minor;  defeated  the 
Parthians,  and  took  from  them  Mesopotamia  and  other 
countries.  He  lost  all  these  territories  by  his  war  with 
the  Romans,  into  which  he  was  led  by  his  father-in-law 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  B.C.  63.  After  this,  the 
Msaults  of  the  Romans  from  the  w.,  ever  pt)wing  more  and 
more  vigorous,  and  those  of  the  Parthians  from  the  e., 
hastened  the  downfall  of  A.  Major.  The  successors  of 
Tigranes  became  dependent,  partly  on  one  nation,  partly 
on  the  other,  while  internally  the  nobles  broke  through 
the  restraints  of  a  feeble  monarchy,  and  claimed  the 
privileges  of  petty  kings.  Under  Trajan,  A.  Major  was 
for  a  short  time  a  Roman  province.  Its  subsequent  history 
exhibited  an  unbroken  series  of  tumults  and  wars,  of 
violent  successions  to  the  throne,  despotic  reigns,  and  rapid 
decay.  In  a.d.  232.  the  province  was  conquered  by  the 
Sassanides,  who  held  possession  of  it  28  years,  until 
Tirldates  III.,  the  rightful  heir,  was  restored  to  the  throne 
by  Roman  assistance. 

About  this  time  Christianity  became  the  religion  of  A., 
which  was  thus  the  first  nation  to  embrace  the  new  religion. 
Tirldates  himself  had  been  converted  by  St.  Gregory  the 
Illuminator  as  early  as  about  300.  The  old  religion  of 
Armenia  had  for  its  basis  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster,  with 
a  curious  intermixture  of  Greek  m}i.ho]ogy  and  of  ideas 
peculiar  to  the  coimtry.  It  is  certain  that  the  Armenians 
worshipped  as  their  mightiest  gods  Aramazt  and  Mihir 


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ARMENIA. 

(Ibe  Ormuzd  and  Mithras  of  the  old  Persians);  but  they 
had  also  a  kind  of  Venus,  whom  they  styled  Anaitis,  and 
soveral  other  deities,  to  whom  they  offered  animal  sacrifices. 
This  change  of  creed,  however,  made  no  improvement  in 
the  political  circumstances  of  the  falling  state.  The 
Byzantine  Greeks  on  one  side,  and  the  Persians  on  the 
other,  regarded  A.  as  their  prey;  and  in  428,  Bahram  V.  of 
Persia  made  A.  a  province  of  the  empire  of  the  Sassanides, 
and  with  the  deposition  of  Artasir  the  dynasty  of  the 
Arsacidae  was  brought  to  a  close.  The  rule  of  the  Sa.ssau- 
ides  in  A.  was  marked  chiefly  by  their  sanguinary  but  un- 
successful attempts  to  extirpate  Christianity.  In  632,  the 
unhappv  country  was  subjected  to  another  form  of  despot- 
ism under  the  Arabian  caliphs,  and  suffered  terribly  during 
their  contest  with  the  Byzantine  emperors.  In  885,  Aschod 
I.,  of  an  old  and  powerful  Armenian  family,  ascended  the 
throne,  with  the  permission  of  the  caliphs,  and  founded  the 
third  Armenian  dynasty — that  of  the  Bagratida;.  Under 
them  A.  was  prosperous  till  the  11th  c,  when  divisions 
and  internal  strife  began  to  weaken  the  country;  till  at 
length  the  Greeks,  having  murdered  the  last  monarch  of 
the  Bagratidse,  seized  a  part  of  the  kingdom,  while  the 
IMrks  and  Kurds  made  themselves  masters  of  the  rest — 
only  one  or  two  of  the  native  princes  maintai^jng  a  perilous 
independence.  In  1242,  the  whole  of  A.  Major  was  con- 
quered by  the  Mongols,  and  in  1472  became  a  Persian 
province.  Afterwards  the  w.  part  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turkish  sultan,  Selim  II. 

The  fate  of  A.  Minor  was  hardly  better.  The  dynasty 
founded  by  Zariadres  prevailed  to  the  time  of  Tigranes  the 
Great,  sovereign  of  A.  Major,  who  conquered  the  country 
about  B.C.  70.  Afterwards  A.  Minor  was  subjugated  by  the 
Romans,  and  made  a  Roman  province.  On  the  division  of 
the  empire  into  eastern  and  western,  it  became  attached  to 
the  former,  and  shared  in  all  its  changes  of  fortune  until 
near  the  close  of  the  11th  c.  At  this  time  A.  Minor— which 
had  long  been  a  place  of  refuge  for  many  who  had  fled  from 
the  rage  of  the  Turks  and  Persians  in  me  sister  province — 
was  again  raised  to  independence  by  Rhupen  (a  refugee  from 
A.  Major,  and  descendant  of  the  Bagratidae).  His  succes- 
sors extended  their  dominion  over  Cilicia  and  Cappadocia. 
and  were  prominent  in  the  Crusades.  This  dynasty  ruled 
prosperously  until  1874,  when  A.  Minor  was  conquered  by 
the  Eji^tian  sultan  Schaban.  Since  that  time  A.,  with  the 
exception  of  the  parts  which  Russia  has  won  in  the  present 
century  from  Persia,  and  which  are  better  governed,  has  re- 
mained subject  to  the  despotism  of  the  Turks  and  Persians. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  Armenians  have  steadily  preserved 
their  nationality,  both  in  its  physical  and  moral  lineaments; 
their  faith,  and  even — though  only  a  relic  of  their  ancient 
culture — a  higher  civilization  than  Uieir  conquercJrs.  The 
political  storms  which  devastated  the  country  during  the 
middle  ages,  and  the  persecutions  of  the  Turks,  have  driven 
many  of  the  inhabitants  from  their  homes.  This  is  the 
reason  why  we  find  them  scattered  over  all  Asia  and  Europe 
and  in  recent  years  in  the  United  States.    In  Hungary, 


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PLATE    14. 


Armadillo 
ArmilanM 


Armed  at  all  pointa.— From  Towner  of  Arinilausa,  from  an  illumination  of 
London.  14th  centurj. 


Armet-grand.       Armet-petit. 
Armet. 


Vol,^ 


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ARMENIAN— ARMENIAN  CHURCn. 

TransylYania,  and  Oalicia  they  number  10,000.  They  are 
veiT  numerous  in  Russia,  but  most  of  all  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Constantinople,  where  they 
number  200,000. 

The  greater  part  of  A.  is  an  elevated  table-land.  Its  area 
is  estimated  at  90,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  about  2,000,000.  It  is 
watered  by  the  rivers  Kur,  Aras.  Joruk,  Euphrates,  and  to 
a  slight  extent  by  the  Tigris.  The  lakes  which  lie  within 
this  mountainous  region  are  Van,  Urumiyah,  and  Sevan. 
The  Armenian  plateau,  on  the  e.  side  of  which  the  volcanic 
range  of  Ararat  lifts  itself,  forms  the  central  point  of  several 
mountain-chains,  such  as  Taurus  and  Antitaurus,  the  moun- 
tains of  Kurdistan,  and  those  which  run  n.  to  the  Black 
Sea.  It  shows  many  traces  of  volcanic  agency,  and  even 
yet — as  was  shown  by  the  severe  earthquake  of  the  summer 
of  1840,  and  by  the  total  destruction  of  Erzroum  in  1859— 
has  an  internal  volcanic  activity.  The  climate  in  the  higher 
regions  is  hot  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter,  but  in  the  val- 
leys it  is  more  temperate.  The  country  labors  under  a  great 
scarcity  of  wood,  and  in  some  parts  is  sterile,  through  a  de- 
ficiencjr  of  water;  in  other  parts  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile, 
producing  rice,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  wine,  cotton,  and  many 
varieties  of  fruit.  Cattle  breeding  and  ^zing  are  more 
extensive  than  agriculture.  The  mountams  contain  iron, 
copper,  lead,  salt,  and  naphtha.  The  number  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  pure  Armenian  origin  is  reckoned  at  nearly  1,000- 
000,  but  there  is  a  large  admixture  of  Turkomans,  Greeks, 
Jews,  Kunls.  etc.  The  Armenians  belong  physically  to  the 
finest  variety  of  the  Indo-Germanic  race.  Their  intellectual 
capacity  is  also  remarkable,  as  is  shown  both  by  their  liter 
ature  and  their  singular  dexterity  in  business.  Still,  long 
cenfiiries  of  oppression  have  exerted  a  withering  influence 
on  their  native  strength  of  character.  The  n.e.  portion  of 
A.,  about  one-third  of  the  whole,  was  wrested  from  Persia 
in  1828,  and  is  under  the  Russian  sceptre.  About  a  sixth 
port  to  the  s.e.  still  belongs  to  Persia.  The  w.  portion,  com- 
prising two-thirds  of  the  Armenian  area,  is  Turkish.  After 
the  war  of  1877-78  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  the  Berlin 
Conference  sanctioned  the  cession  to  Russia  of  a  strip  of  A., 
including  Ears  and  Ardahan;  and  the  sultan  engaged  to 
carry  out  in  A.  much-needed  rjforms,  guarantee  the  Ar- 
menians security  against  the  Circassians  and  Kurds,  and 
undertook  to  report  to  the  European  powers  the  measures 
adopted.    Pop.  of  A.  abt.  2,000,000. 

ARMENIAN,  a.  dr-meni-dn:  pertaining  to  the  country 
of  Armenia;  denoting  a  stone  found  in  Armenia:  n.  an  in- 
habitant. Armenium,  n.  dr-me'ni-um,  a  pigment  of  the 
ancients,  produced  by  grinding  the  Armenian  stone,  a  sup- 
posed blue  carbonate  of  copper,  combined  with  lime. 
Armenian  Whetstone,  in  m/n.,  Dana's  rendering  of  the 
Greek  name  given  by  Theophrastus  to  emery. 

ARMENIAN  CHURCH:  probably  established  as  early 
as  the  2nd  c,  at  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Ar- 
menia, was  not  firmly  established  till  about  the  end  of  the 
8d  c.,when  the  apostolical  exertions  of  Bishop  Gregory  (q.  v.), 


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ARMENIAN  CHURCH. 

converted  Tiridates.  See  Armenia.  Tbe  Bible  was  tran» 
lated  into  the  Armenian  language  in  the  5tb  c.  After  this 
period  great  animation  characterized  the  A.  C.  Numbers 
flocked  to  the  colleges  at  Athens  and  Constantinople.  In  the 
ecclesiastical  controversy  concerning  the  twofold  nature  of 
Christ,  the  Annenian  Christians  held  with  the  Monophysites 
(q.v.);  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon;  and  constituted  themselves  a  separate  church, 
which  took  tbe  title  of  Gregorian  from  Gregory  himself. 
For  several  centuries  a  spirit  of  scientific  inqu&y,  especially 
in  theology,  manifested  itself  among  them  to  a  far  wider 
extent  than  in  the  other  eastern  churches.  Their  greatest 
divine  is  Nerses  of  Elah,  belonging  to  the  12th  c,  whose 
works  have  been  repeatedly  published.  The  most  recent 
edition  was  issued  in  Venice,  1838.  The  Gregorians  have 
continued  to  entertain  a  deeply  rooted  aversion  to  the  so 
called  orthodox  church.  The  Horn.  Cath.  pope  at  varioua 
times,  especially  (1145, 1341,  1440)  when  the  Armenians  ac- 
ceptcil  the  help  of  the  West  against  the  Mohammedans, 
tried  to  persuade  them  to  recognize  the  papal  supremacy; 
but  for  the  most  part  only  tbe  nobles  consented  to  do  so, 
while  the  mass  of  the  people  clungto  their  peculiar  opinions, 
as  we  see  from  the  complaint  of  Fope  Benedict  XII.,  who 
accuses  the  A.  C.  of  117  errors  of  doctrine.  There  is  a  sect 
of  United  Armenia'M  in  Italy,  Poland,  Galicia,  Persia, 
Russia,  and  Marseilles.  Since  the  formation  of  this  body  in 
1835,  vigorous  and  constant  attempts,  succored  especially 
by  French  influence,  have  been  raaae  to  secure  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  pope  as  the  head  of  the  Rom.  Cath.  portion 
of  the  A.  C.  When  this  end  seemed  nearer  attainment  than 
ever  before,  the  ultramontane  utterances  of  their  represent- 
ative, Mgr.  Hassun,  at  the  Ecumenical  Council  at  Rome, 
1870.  in  favor  of  infallibility,  created  such  a  reaction  at 
home  as  has  greatly  strengthened  for  the  present  the  cause 
of  the  old  Gregorian  party.  The  recent  humiliation  of 
Fmnce  has  furtner  weakened  the  cause  of  the  propapal 
party.  In  theology  the  A.  C.  attributes  only  one  nature  to 
Chnst,  and  holds  that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeds  from  the 
Father  alone;  the  latter  doctrine,  however,  being  held  by  it 
in  common  with  the '  orthodox  Greek  Church,'  although  con- 
trary to  the  theology  of  the  western  churches.  With  re- 
spect to  tbe  '  seven  sacraments,'  it  entertains  the  peculiar 
notions  that  at  baptism  one  must  be  sprinkled  three  times, 
and  as  often  dipped;  that  confirmation  is  to  be  conjoined 
with  baptism;  that  the  Loixl's  Supper  must  be  celebrated  with 
pure  wine  and  leavened  bread;  that  the  latter,  before  being 
banded  round,  must  be  dipped  in  the  former;  and  that  ex- 
treme unction  is  to  be  administered  to  ecclesiastics  alone, 
and  that  immediately  after  (instead  of  before)  their  death. 
It  believes  in  the  worship  of  saints,  but  not  in  purgatory. 
It  exceeds  the  Greek  Church  in  the  number  of  its  fasts,  but 
has  fewer  religious  festivals.  These,  however,  are  more 
enthusiastically  kept.  Divine  service  is  held  in  Turkey 
chiefly  by  night.  Mass  is  celebrated  in  the  old  Armenian 
language;  preaching  is  carried  on  in  tbe  new  Its  sacerdotal 
constitution  differs  liule  from  the  Greek.    The  head  of  the 


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ARMENIAN  LITERATURE. 

church,  whose  title  is  Catholikos,  resides  at  Etshmiadzin, 
a  monastery  near  Erivan,  the  capital  of  Russian  Armenia. 
To  this  place  every  Armenian  must  make  a  pilgrimage  once 
in  his  life.  The  monks  of  this  church  follow  the  rule  of 
St  Basil.  The  Wartabieds  form  a  peculiar  class  of  ecclesi- 
astics; they  live  like  monks,  but  are  devoted  exclusively  to 
learning.  Secular  priests  mudi  marry  once,  but  none  are  at 
liberty  to  take  a  second  wife.  Missionaries  from  the  evan- 
gelical churdies  in  the  United  States  have  had  much  success 
amone  the  Armenians  in  gathering  churches,  and  establish- 
ing schools  and  colleges. 

ARME  NIAN  LITERATURE:  previous  to  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  by  Gregory  (a.d.  800),  the  Armenians 
had  adhered  to  the  Assyrian  or  Medo-Persian  system  of 
culture;  but  excepting  a  few  old  songs  or  ballads,  no  re- 
mains of  that  early  period  exist.  After  their  conversion  to 
Christianity,  the  Greek  language  and  its  literature  soon 
became  favorite  objects  of  study,  and  many  Greek  authors 
were  translated  into  Armenian.  "(See  Wenrich  De  Aicctarum 
OrmcoTum  vernonibtts  AraMds,  Armeniads,  etc.  Leipzig, 
1842.)  The  Armenian  language  has  an  alphabet  of  its  own, 
consisting  of  86  letters,  introduced  by  Miesrob  in  406.  The 
most  flourishing  period  of  A.  L.  extends  from  the  4th  to 
the  14th  c.  The  numerous  Armenian  theological  writers 
and  chroniclers  of  this  era  supply  materials  for  a  history  of 
the  East  during  the  middle  ages  which  have  hitherto  been 
too  much  ne^ected.  These  Armenian  writers  generally 
celled  the  style  of  the  later  Greek  and  Byzantine  authors; 
but  in  adherence  to  facts  and  good  taste,  they  are  superior 
to  the  general  order  of  oriental  historians.  In  the  14th  c, 
literature  began  to  decline,  and  few  remarkable  works  were 
afterwards  produced;  but  since  the  time  of  their  dispersion, 
the  Armenians  have  preserved  recollections  of  their  national 
literature;  and  wherever  thev  are  found— in  Amsterdam, 
Lemben^,  Leghorn,  Venice,  Astrakan,  Moscow,  Constanti- 
nople, Smyrna,  Ispahan,  Madras,  or  Calcutta— the  printing- 
office  is  always  a  feature  in  their  colonies.  The  most  inter- 
esting Armenian  settlement  is  Uiat  of  the  Mechitarists  (q.v.), 
on  the  island  of  San  Lazaro,  near  Venice. 

The  Bible  translated  into  Armenian  (the  Old  Testament 
from  the  text  of  the  Septuagint)  by  Meisrob  and  his 
scholars  is  esteemed  the  highest  model  of  classic  style. 
Translations  of  several  Greek  authors,  made  about  the  same 
time,  have  been  partly  preserved,  and  contain  some  writings 
of  which  the  originals  have  been  lost— namely,  the  Chroni- 
cle of  Eusebius;  the  Discourses  of  Philo:  Homilies  by  St. 
Chry«)slom,  Severianus,  Basil  the  Great,  and  Ephraim 
Syrus.  Several  old  geographical  and  historical  works  have 
been  preserved.  Among  philosophical  and  theological 
writers  may  be  mentioned:  David,  the  translator  and  com- 
mentator of  Aristotle,  Esnik,  and  Joannes  Ozniensis. 
The  VUm  Saiictorum  Galenda/rii  Armeniaci  (Lives  of  Arme- 
nian Saints,  12  vols.  Ven.  1814)  contains  raan^  notices  of 
the  history  of  Armenia.  In  poetry  and  fiction,  A.  L.  is 
poor.  Somal,  in  his  work  entitled  Ouadro  delta  Storia 
LiUeraria  di  Armenia  (Venice.  1829),  gives  a  general  view 


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ARMENTIERES— ARMPELT. 

of  the  contents  of  A.  L.  The  Armenian  belongs  to  the 
Indo-Gennanic  group  of  languages,  but  has  many  pecul- 
iarities of  structure.  It  is  harsh  and  disagreeable  to  the 
ear.  The  old  Armenian,  the  language  of  literature,  is  no 
longer  a  living  tongue;  while  the  new  Armenian,  split  up 
into  four  dialects,  contains  many  Turkish  words  and 
grammatical  constructions. 

ARMENTIERES,  dr-mon-t^-dr' :  town  of  fne  dept.  of 
Nord,  France,  on  the  Lys,  8  m.  from  Lille.  The  town  is 
well  built,  active  and  prosperous,  having  manufactures  of 
cotton,  linen,  and  hemp,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  grain. 
A.  was  formerly  famous  for  its  cloth,  cheese,  and  bricks 
Pop.  (1891)  28,638. 

ARME  RIA:  see  Thrift. 

ARMET,  n.  dr'met  [Ft.]:  helmet  used  in  the  13th,  14th, 
and  15th  c.  Armet-orand,  n.  an  armet  worn  with  a 
beaver.  Armet-pktit,  armet  worn  without  a  beaver.  It 
had  a  guard  for  the  face  consisting  of  three  bars. 

ARMFELT,  drmfelt,  Gubtaf  Mauritz:  1757,  Apr.  1— 
1814,  Aug.  19;  b.  Juva,  govt,  of  Abo;  eldest  son  of  Baron 
A.  For  services  in  opposing  the  machinations  of  the 
nobles,  while  officer  of  the  Swedish  royal  guard,  he  was 
appointed  by  Gustavus  III.  to  a  post  in  the  service  of  the 
crown  prince.  During  the  war  between  Sweden  and 
Russia  (1788-90),  in  which  he  was  commander  of  one  of 
the  three  divisions  of  the  Swedish  army,  his  courage  and 
spirit  advanced  him  still  higher  in  the  good  graces  of  the 
monarch.  He  defeated  a  Russian  force  at  Summa,  near 
Fredrikshamm;  and  as  military  representative  of  Gusta- 
vus, had  the  honor  of  concluding  a  peace  at  Verela,  1790, 
Au^.  14.  Gustavus,  after  his  assassination,  1792.  March 
16,  m  the  brief  interval  before  his  death,  added  to  his  will 
a  codicil  intrusting  the  regency  to  his  brother,  Charles, 
Duke  of  Sudermania,  during  the  minority  of  Gustavus 
IV.,  naming  A.  governor  of  Stockholm,  and  member  of 
the  council  appointed  to  advise  with  the  regent.  The 
Duke  of  Sudermania,  however,  could  not  brook  a  check 
upon  his  liberty  of  action,  and  found  means  to  destroy  the 
codicil.  A.  *s  influence  rapidly  decreased.  He  was  rarely 
permitted  to  see  the  young  king;  and  at  last,  after  a  secret 
interview  with  young  Gustavus,  departed  as  ambassador 
to  Naples,  1792,  July.  While  in  Italy,  he  entered  into 
correspondence  with  certain  parties  in  Sweden  for  the 
purpose  of  overthrowing  the  regency,  and  inducing  the 
states  to  proclaim  Gustavus  IV.  of  age.  The  correspond- 
ence was  discovered.  A.  fled  to  Poland,  afterwards  to 
Russia.  He  was  condemned,  during  his  absence,  for  high 
treason,  and  stripped  of  his  goods  and  titles,  while  one  of 
his  associates,  the  beautiful  Countess  Rudenskold,  was 
subjected  to  the  most  brutal  punishment,  being  publicly 
declared  *  infamous,'  exposed  on  a  scaffold  for  some  hours, 
and  imprisoned  in  a  house  of  correction  for  life.  A.  ex- 
pressed his  horror  of  such  an  atrocity  in  language  suf - 
flciently  emphatic,  yet,  at  a  later  period,  he  did  not  scruple 
to  accept   oflice  under  Charles,  on  his  election  to  me 


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ARMIDA. 

throne.  In  1799,  Gustavus  IV.  received  the  crown  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  and  A.  was  restored  to  all  his  honors. 
In  1805,  he  was  appointed  gov.gen.  of  Finland;  and  in 
1806  he  commanded  the  Swedish  army  raised  for  the  in- 
vasion of  Norway;  but  his  plans  were  so  completely  frus- 
trated, that  he  was  compelled  to  witness  the  invasion  of 
Sweden  by  the  successful  Norwegians,  and  was  in  couse- 
quence  recalled  and  dismissed  by  the  king.  In  the  follow- 
ing  year  a  revolution  took  place,  Gustavus  was  deposed,  the 
Duke  of  Sudermania  elected  in  his  place,  and  A.  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  Military  Council.  But  shortly 
afterwards,  being  implicated  in  the  poisoning  of  the 
Prince  of  Augustenburg,  ho  fled  to  liussia,  where  he 
lived  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  iu  high  honor.  The 
title  of  count  was  conferred  on  him,  he  was  made  chau: 
eel  lor  of  the  University  of  Abo,  president  of  the  board  of 
Finnish  affairs,  and  member  of  the  Russian  senate,  lie 
died  at  Tzarskce  Selo,  1814,  Aug.  19. 

ARMIDA,  ar-me'dd,:  one  of  the  most  prominent  female 
characters  in  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered^  As  the  poet 
tells  us,  when  the  Crusaders  arrived  at  the  holy  city,  Satan 
held  a  council  to  devise  some  means  of  disturbing  the  plans 
of  the  Christian  warriors,  and  A.,  a  very  beautiful  sorcer- 
ess, was  employed  to  seduce  Rinaldo  and  other  Crusaders. 
Rinaldo  was  conducted  by  A.  to  a  remote  island,  where, 
in  her  splendid  palace,  surrounded  by  delightful  gardenjj 
and  pleasure-grounds,  he  utterly  forgot  his  vows,  and  the 
great  object  to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life.  To  liberate 
him  from  his  voluptuous  bondage,  two  messengers  from  the 
Christian  arm^ — Carlo  and  Ubaldo — came  to  the  island, 
bringing  a  talisman  so  powerful  that  the  witchery  of  A. 
was  destroyed.  Rinaldo  escaped,  but  was  followed  by 
the  sorceress,  who,  in  battle,  incited  several  warriors  to 
attack  the  hero,  and  at  last  herself  rushed  into  the  tight. 
She  was  defeated  by  Rinaldo,  who  then  confessed  his  love 
to  her,  persuaded  her  to  become  a  Christian,  and  vowed  to 
be  her  faithful  knight.  The  story  of  A.  has  been  made 
the  subject  of  an  opera  by  Gluck  and  by  Rossini. 


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ARMIES. 

ARMIES:  armed  forces  under  regular  military  organi- 
zatioD,  employed  for  war.  An  army  may  comprise  aU  the 
military  men  employed  by  the  state,  or  only  a  portion 
under  a  particular  commander.  When  an  armed  force  is 
under  no  constituted  authority,  and  imperfect  in  organiza- 
tion and  discipline,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  worthy  of  the 
name  of  an  army,  and  may  be  little  better  than  a  horde  of 
banditti.  Of  this  nature  are  filibusters  (q.v.).  Through 
ages  of  experience,  the  principles  of  military  organ izatiou, 
and  the  laws  to  which  A.  are  specially  amenable,  have 
gradually  reached  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  The  primi- 
tive wars  among  barbarous  people  are  always  stealthy,  de- 
pending on  the  forest  and  the  wilderness  for  their  tactics, 
and  considered  successful  if  an  enemy  can  be  attacked  un- 
awares, despoiled,  and  carried  into  slavery.  After  a  time, 
war  advances  to  the  position  of  an  art,  and  is  conducted 
by  men  who  have  received  a  certain  training.  An  army 
becomes  an  instrument  not  only  for  vanquishmg  enemies, 
but  for  seizing  countries.  Even  then  the  highest  |)osition 
of  an  aiiny  is  not  reached;  for  the  defense  of  a  country  re- 
quires more  military  skill,  perhaps,  and  a  better  organiza- 
tion of  troops,  than  an  attack.  See  Army  (various  titles): 
also  Armor:  Arms. 

Ancuent  Armies— i^^^n^. — The  most  extraordinary 
conqueror  among  the  Egyptians,  Sesostris  or  Rhamses, 
lived  sixteen  centuries  before  the  Christian  era;  and 
although  the  evidence  for  his  deeds  of  valor  is  question- 
able, there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  organization  of  his 
A.  can  be  pretty  accurately  traced.  His  father,  Ameno- 
phis,  laid  the  foundation  for  the  military  glory  of  Sesostris. 
When  the  latter  was  bora,  Amenophis  caused  all  the  male 
children  who  were  bora  on  the  same  day  as  his  son  to  be 
set  apart  as  a  special  body,  to  be  reared  for  a  military  life; 
they  were  taught  everything  that  could  strengthen  their 
bodies,  increase  their  courage,  and  develop  their  skill  as 
combatants  and  leaders;  and  were  to  consider  themselves 
bound  as  the  chosen  dependents  or  companions  of  the 
young  prince.  In  due  time  Sesostris  became  king  of 
Egypt;  and  then  he  formed  a  sort  of  militia,  distributed  as 
military  colonists,  each  soldier  having  a  portion  of  land  to 
maintain  himself  and  his.family.  When  this  militia  had 
been  drilled  to  military  efficiency,  Sesostris  headed  them 
as  an  army  for  military  conquest  in  Asia,  and  placed  the 
chosen  band  above  mentioned  as  officers  over  the  different 
sections  of  the  army. 

Persians. — In  the  great  days  of  the  Persian  empire,  the 
flower  of  the  army  consisted  of  cavalry,  who  were  distin- 
guished for  their  bravery  and  impetuosity  of  attack.  The 
infantry  were  little  better  than  an  armed  mob.  The  war- 
chariots,  too,  though  calculated  to  strike  terror  when 
dashing  iuto  hostile  ranks,  were  available  only  on  level 

f  round.  As  to  the  numbers  of  men  composing  the  great 
*ersiau  A.,  the  stAtemeuts  are  too  wild  to  be  trastworthy. 
Allowing  for  all  exaggeration,  however,  it  is  certain  that 
the  Persian  A.  were  very  large.  When  Darius  was  opposed 
to  Alexander  the  Crreat,  his  army  was  set  dowji  «^t  various 


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ARMIES. 

numbere— from  750,000  to  1,000,000  men.  The  king  was 
in  the  centre,  surrounded  by  his  courtiers  and  body-guard; 
the  Persians  and  Susians  were  on  the  left;  the  Syrians  and 
Assyrians  on  the  right.  The  foot-soldiers,  forming  ihe 
bulk  of  the  army,  and  armed  with  pikes,  axes,  and  maces, 
were  formed  in  deep  squares  or  masses;  the  horsemen  were 
!n  the  intervals  between  the  squares,  and  on  the  right  and 
left  flanks;  and  the  chariots  and  elephants  in  front. 

LaeetUBmanians. — The  Greeks  introduced  many  impor- 
tant changes  in  A.,  both  in  organization  and  in  maneu- 
vers. Every  man,  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  country  at 
least,  was  more  or  less  a  soldier,  inured  to  a  hard  life, 
taught  to  bear  arms,  and  expected  to  fight  when  called 
upon.  The  loading  men  in  each  state  paid  attention  to 
organization  and  tactics  in  a  way  never  before  seen.  It 
was  not  standing  armies,  but  a  sort  of  national  militia, 
that  gained  Marathon,  Platsea,  and  Mycale.  So  far  as 
concerned  the  arrangement  of  A.,  the  Lacedaemonians 
invented  the  phalanx  {ii.y.),  a  particular  mode  of  grouping 
foot-soldiers.  This  phalanx  consisted  of  eight  ranks,  one 
behind  another;  the  front  and  rear  ranks  being  composed 
of  picked  men,  and  the  intermediate  ranks  of  less  tried 
soldiers.  The  number  of  men  in  each  rank  depended  on 
the  available  resources  of  the  commander.  These  men 
were  mostly  armed  with  spears,  short  swords,  and  shields. 

Athemang — The  Athenians  made  a  greater  number  of  dis- 
tinctions than  the  Lacedaemonians  in  the  different  kinds 
of  troops  forming  their  A.  They  had  heavy  infantry,  con- 
stituting the  men  for  the  phalanx,  and  armed  with  spears, 
daggers,  corselets,  and  shields;  light  infantry,  employed  in 
skirmishes  and  in  covering  the  phalanx,  and  armed  with 
light  javelins  and  shields;  a  sort  of  irregular  infantry, 
who,  with  javelins,  bows  and  arrows,  and  slings,  harassed 
the  enemy  in  march,  and  performed  other  services  analo- 
gous in  some  degree  to  those  of  sharpshooters  in  a  modern 
army.  It  is  recorded  that  Miltiades,  the  Athenian  hero  at 
Marathon,  invented  the  'double-quick  march,'  to  increase 
the  momentum  of  a  phalanx  when  rushing  on  the 
enemy. 

Macedonians. — Philip  of  Macedon,  the  father  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  having  the  sagacity  to  see  that  he  could 
not  vanquish  his  neijjhbors  so  long  as  he  adopted  the  same 
formation  and  tactics  as  themselves,  set  about  inventing 
something  new.  He  resolved  to  have  a  standing  army  in- 
stead of  a  militia;  to  have  at  command  a  set  of  men  whose 
trade  was  fighting,  instead  of  citizens  who  were  traders  and 
soldiers  by  turn.  As  a  further  change,  he  made  the  phalanx 
deeper  and  more  massive  than  it  had  been  among  the  Lace- 
daemonians. He  brought  into  use  the  Macedonian  pike,  a 
formidable  weapon  24  ft.  in  length.  With  a  phalanx  sixteen 
.  ranks  in  depth,  four  rows  of  men  could  present  the  points 
of  their  long  pikes  protruding  in  front  of  the  front  rank, 
forming  a  bristling  array  of  steel  terrible  to  encounter. 
Besides  these  heavy  infantry,  there  were  light  troops 
marshalled  into  smaller  bodies  for  more  active  maneuvers. 
Philip  organized  throe  kinds  of  cavalry — heavy,  armed  with 


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ARMIES. 

pikes,  and  defeDded  by  cuirasBes  of  iron  mail;  light,  annod 
with  lances;  and  iiTc^:u]ar.    * 

Thebanx. — This  nation  introduced  the  anny-formation  of 
eolutnn8f  much  deeper  than  broad,  or  having  more  men  in 
file  than  in  rank.  A  new  kind  of  tactics  was  introduced  in 
accordance  with  this  formation;  the  movement  being  in- 
tended to  pierce  the  enemy's  line  at  some  one  point,  and 
throw  them  into  confusion 

liomans. — These  able  warriors  initiated  chan^  in  army 
matters,  which  had  wide  influence  on  the  nations  of  the 
civilizc<l  world.  About  200  B.C.,  every  Roman,  from  the 
age  of  17  to  46.  was  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  as  a 
soldier;  the  younger  men  were  preferred;  but  all  were  avail- 
able up  to  the  middle- time  of  life.  They  went  through  a 
very  severe  drilling  and  discipline,  to  fit  them  alike  for 
marching;,  fighting,  camping,  working,  carrying,  and  other 
active  duties.  Every  year  the  senate  decreed  the  formation 
of  legions,  or  army  corps,  deputing  this  duty  to  the  consul 
or  pretor.  Magistrates  sent  up  the  names  of  eligible  men, 
and  tribunes  selected  a  certain  number  from  this  list.  Sec 
Legion.  Tbe  Roman  legion,  in  its  best  days,  had  many 
excellent  military  qualities — ^great  facility  of  movement;  a 
power  of  preserving  order  of  battle  unimpaired ;  a  quick 
rallying  power  when  forced  to  give  way;  a  readiness  to 
adapt  itself  to  varying  circumstances  on  the  field  of  battle; 
a  formidable  impetuositv  in  attack;  and  a  power  of  fight- 
ing the  enemy  even  while  retreating.  The  heavy  infantry 
were  armed  with  javelins,  heavy  darts,  pikes,  and  swords; 
the  lighter  troops  with  bows  and  arrows,  slings,  and  light 
javelins;  while  the  defensive  armor  comprised  shields, 
cuirasses,  helmets,  and  greaves. 

Those  ancient  nations  which  had  no  distinctive  features 
in  their  A.  are  not  noticed  here. 

MEDiiKVAL  Armies.— The  downfall  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire marked  the  dividing-point  between  ancient  and 
mcdiaival  times  in  military  matters,  as  well  as  in  other 
things  that  concern  the  existence  of  nations.  The  bar- 
barians and  semi-barbarians,  who  attacked  on  all  sides  the 
once  mighty  but  now  degenerate  empire,  gradually  gained 
possession  of  the  vast  regions  which  had  composed  it 
The  mode  in  which  these  conquests  were  made  gave  rise 
to  the  Feudal  System  (q.  v.).  What  all  had  aided  to  acquire 
by  conquest,  all  demanded  to  share  in  proportions  more  or 
less  eciual.  Hence  arose  a  division  of  the  conquered  terri- 
tory; lands  were  held  from  the  chief  by  feudal  tenure, 
almost  in  independent  sovereignty.  When  European  king- 
doms were  gradually  formed  out  of  the  wrecks  of  the 
empire,  the  military  arrangements  took  on  a  peculiar 
form.  The  king  could  not  maintain  a  standing  army,  for 
his  barons  or  feudal  chieftains  were  jealous  of  allowing 
him  too  much  power.  He  could  only  strengthen  himself 
by  obtaining  their  aid  on  certain  terms,  or  by  allowing 
them  to  weaken  themselves  in  intestine  broils,  to  which 
they  had  always  much  proneness.  Each  baron  had  a 
small  army  composed  of  his  own  militia  or  retainers, 
available  for  battle  at  short  notice.    The  contests  of  the^C  ' 


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ARMIES. 

small  armies,  sometimes  combined  and  sometimes  isolated. 
make  up  the  greater  part  of  tlie  wars  of  the  middle  ages. 
Of  military  tactics  or  strategy,  there  was  very  little;  the 
campaigns  were  desultory  and  indecisive;  and  the  battles 
were  gained  more  by  individual  valor  than  by  any  well- 
concerted  plan. 

One  great  exception  to  this  military  feudality  was 
furnished  by  the  Orusades  (q.v.).  80  far  as  concerns  A., 
however,  in  their  or^nization  and  discipline,  these  expe- 
ditions effected  but  little.  The  military  forces  which  went 
to  the  Holy  Land  were  little  better  than  armed  mobs,  up- 
held by  fanaticism,  but  not  at  all  by  science  or  discipline. 
Numbers  and  individual  bravery  were  left  to  do  the  work, 
combination  and  forethought  being  disregarded. 

A  much  greater  motive-power  for  change,  during  the 
middle  ages,  was  the  invention  of  gunpowder.  When 
men  could  fight  at  a  greater  distance  than  before,  and  on 
a  system  which  brought  mechanism  to  the  aid  of  valor, 
everything  connected  with  the  military  art  underwent  a 
revolution.  Historically,  however,  this  great  change  was 
not  very  ap|)arent  until  after  the  period  usually  denomi- 
nated the  middle  ages.  The  art  of  making  good  cannon 
and  hand-guns  grew  up  gradually,  like  other  arts;  and  A. 
long  continued  to  depend  principally  on  the  older  weapons 
— spears,  darts,  arrows,  axes,  maces,  swords,  and  daggers. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries, 
the  chief  A.  were  those  maintained  by  the  Spaniards  and 
the  Moors  on  one  European  battle-ground,  by  the  English 
and  the  French  on  another,  and  by  the  several  Italian  re- 
publics on  a  third.  In  those  A.,  the  cavalry  were  regarded 
as  the  chief  arm.  The  knights  and  their  horses  alike  were 
frequently  covered  with  plate  or  chain  armor;  and  the 
offensive  weapons  were  lances,  swords,  daggers,  and  bat^ 
tie-axes.  A  kind  of  light  cavalry  was  sometimes  formed 
of  archers  on  smaller  horses.  As  to  army-formation, 
there  was  still  little  that  could  deserve  the  name;  there 
was  no  particular  order  of  battle;  each  knight  sought  how 
he  could  best  distinguish  himself  by  personal  valor;  and  to 
each  was  usually  attached  an  esquire,  abetting  him  as  a 
second  during  the  contest.  Sometimes  it  even  happened 
that  the  fate  of  a  battle  was  allowed  to  depend  on  a  com- 
bat between  two  knights.  No  attempt  was  made,  until 
towards  the  close  of  the  15th  c,  to  embody  a  system  of 
tactics  and  maneuvers  for  cavalry;  and  even  that  attempt 
was  of  the  most  primitive  kind.  Nor  was  it  far  otherwise 
with  the  foot-soldiers;  they  were  gradually  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  use  of  firearms;  but,  midway,  as  it 
were,  between  two  systems,  they  observed  neither  com 
pletely;  and  the  A.  in  which  they  served  presented  very 
little  definite  organization. 

MoDBRK  Armies. — The  formation  of  standing  armies 
may  be  said  to  have  introduced  the  modem  military 
system.  When  the  remarkable  exploit  of  Jeanne 
d'Arc  (Joan  of  Arc)  had  enabled  Charles  VII.  to  check 
the  victorious  progress  of  the  English  in  France,  he  set 
about  remodellmg  his  army.    By  gradual  changes,  amid 


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ARMIES. 

mat  difficulty,  he  conyerted  his  ill^govemed  forces  into  ft 
disciplined  standing  army.  During  the  reign  of  his  son, 
Charles  YIII.  (1483-98),  the  consequences  of  this  change 
made  their  appearance.  Charles  conducted  a  well- 
appointed  army  mto  Italy  (1494),  in  support  of  some  pre« 
tensions  which  he  had  to  the  throne  of  Kaples. 

The  change  made  by  C^harles  YII.  was  not  simply  that 
of  substitutmfl^  a  compact  standing  army  for  an  ill-organ- 
ized medley  oi  feudal  troops  and  of  mercenaries;  feudalism 
itself  gave  way  imder  the  influence  of  this  combined  with 
other  reforming  agencies.  So  far  as  concerned  the  actual 
formation  and  discipline  of  the  standing  A.  above  noticed, 
a  few  changes  were  from  time  to  time  introduced :  pistols 
and  carbines  were  given  to  the  cavalry;  cuirasses  were 
worn  by  the  heavy  troopers;  and  new  evolutions  were  in- 
troduced. During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-48),  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  and  Wallenstein  adopted  opposite  modes 
of  dealing  with  masses  of  infantry:  the  former  spread  them 
out  to  a  great  width,  and  only  six  ranks  in  depth;  whereas 
the  latter  adopted  a  narrower  front,  with  a  depth  of  twenty 
to  thirty  ranks.  Frederick  the  Great,  in  the  next  century, 
introduced  a  most  complicated  system  of  tactics  and  drill- 
ing; insomuch  that  when  he  could  maneuver,  he  nearly 
always  won  his  battles;  but  when  the  result  depended  on 
bold  and  unexpected  onslaughts,  he  was  more  frequently 
a  loser  than  a  winner.  The  great  military  leader  in  the 
early  part  of  the  present  century,  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
made  a  larger  use  than  any  previous  European  general  of 
the  method  of  moving  masses  of  troops  with  great  celerity, 
beating  the  enemy  in  detail  before  they  could  combine  m 
one  spot. 

It  is  desirable  to  present,  in  the  most  condensed  form,  a 
few  statistics  of  the  actual  A.  of  Europe;  leaving  to  titles 
of  the  several  countries,  cities,  and  battle-fields,  all  details 
concerning  special  armies  and  military  encounters. 

The  army  forces  of  all  the  countries  of  the  world  1893 
were  as  follows. 

Argentine  Republic:  11  generals,  288  field  officers,  880 
subalterDS,  238  engineers,  789  artillerists,  2.227  horse.  2,321 
foot— total  5,585  combatants.  Militia  236,000  men  of  1 7-45 
years.  There  was  a  milit.  school  with  125  cadets,  and  a 
school  for  non-commissioned  officers. 

Austria- Hungary:  on  peace  footing,  inf.  188,655,  cav. 
48.846,  artil.  88,132,  technical  troops  10.148,  train  3,851, 
sanitary  4,698,  higher  officers  4,116,  establishment,  etc., 
15,501— total  337,419.  On  the  war  footing  the  total 
strength  was  1,872,178.  The  yearly  contingent  of  re- 
cruits for  the  army  amounted  to  103,100.  Milit.  service 
begins  at  21  years,  and  the  men  serve  8  years  in  the  line 
and  7  years  in  the  reserve.  Horses  (peace)  56,930,  (war) 
279,886. 

Belgium:  (peace)  inf.  27.295.  cav.  5,657,  artil.  7.954,  en- 
gineers 1,545,  gendarmerie  2.446.  gen.  staflf,  train,  admin- 
istrative, milit.  school,  etc.,  2,714 — ^total  45.711;  horses, 
8,836.    War  footing,  154,780  men,  14.000  horses.    Beside 


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ARMIES. 

the  army,  there  was  a  *  civic  guard '  organized  in  com- 
munes of  10,000  inhabitants. 

Bolivia:  1,113  men.  140  officers  in  actual  service:  all  cit- 
izens are  bouud  to  serve  in  the  *  national  guard.' 

BrazU:  (1891)  28,877  men,  1,600  officers,  15,000  gen- 
darmerie. 

British  Empire:  regular  army  (exclusive  of  India)  7,453 
commissioned  officers,  098  warrant  officers,  15,886  sergts., 
3,684  drummers,  fifers,  etc.,  125,680  rank  and  file— toial 
153,696;  liorses  14,531.  The  organized  milit.  forces  of  col- 
onies, dependencies,  etc.,  of  Great  Britain  were  as  follows: 
Honkong,  artil.  corps  100  men.  India  (European  army), 
73,405  officers  and  men;  (native  army)  144,839 — total 
218.244.  Straits  SettkmerUs  (for  the  Straits  Settlements  and 
all  other  colonies  and  dependencies  only  the  local  forces 
are  enumerated  here.  The  imperial  forces  are  included 
in  the  total  for  the  whole  empire),  armed  police  force  of 
2,081,  volunteer  artil.  105  officers  and  men.  Cape  Colony, 
mounted  riflemen  819,  Cape  police  871  men,  609  horses; 
every  able-bodied  man  18-50  years  old  is  subject  to  milit. 
service  both  beyond  as  well  as  within  the  colonial  limits. 
Zamibar,  1.200  men.  Canada,  volunteer  force  of  87,613 
officers  and  men.  Jamaica,  volunteer  militia  600.  New 
South, Wales,  regular  milit.  force  538,  4,146  volunteers, 
4,601  reserves.  New  Zealand,  volunteers  8,112,  perma- 
nent militia  artil.  force  of  149  officers  and  men;  all  males 
of  17-55  years  liable  to  serve  in  the  militia.  QueeuMUnd, 
drilled  force  of  4,500  men;  males  18-60  years  are  subject 
to  milit.  tlnty.  8,  Australia,  militia  force  of  1,873,  and 
volunteers  777,  artil.  corps  52.  Tasmania,  volunteei-s  2, 1 06 
officers  and  men.  Victoria,  organized  force  of  5,571. 
W.  Australia,  volunteer  force  of  688  officers  and  men. 

Bitlgaria:  see  Turkish  Empire. 

Canada:  see  British  Empire. 

Cape  Colony:  see  British  Empire, 

C/iile:  2  regts.  artil.,  1  battalion  coast  artil.,  1  of  sappers, 
8  of  inf..  8  of  cav. — total  5,800  officers  and  men;  national 
guard  48,580. 

China:  men  of  all  arms  980,000. 

Colombia,  Republic  of:  peace  footing,  5,500  men.  Every 
able-bodied  man  liable  to  milit.  service. 

Costa  Bica:  600  men;  militia  31,824. 

Denmark:  total  war  strength  60,000,  exclusive  of  the  cx- 
tni  reserve,  numbering  16,5(K). 

DutcJi  East  Indies:  see  Netherlands, 

Ecuador:  8,341  officers  and  men ;  national  guard  30,000. 

Egypt:  see  Turkish  Empire, 

France:  in  the  active  home  army  there  were  499,851  offi- 
cers and  men,  of  whom  475,302  were  in  the  regular  army, 
the  rest  in  the  gendarmerie  and  the  garde  republicaine; 
there  were  121,018  horses.  The  army  of  Algeria  com- 
prised 56,616  regular  troops,  1,058  gendarmeiie.  and  the 
number  of  horses  is  14,395.  In  Tunis  were  12,748  men  in 
the  regular  army,  153  in  the  gendarmerie;  horses  8,577. 
Total  men  and  officers  at  home  and  in  Algeria  and  Tunis 


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ARMIES. 

670,603  men  and  officers,  and  188,990  horses.  The  territo- 
rial army  numbered  37.000  officers  and  579,000  men.  All 
these  forces,  with  the  reserves,  amount  to  about  2,500,000 
soldiers;  and  including  all  able-bodied  men,  France  could 
reckon  on  a  grand  total  of  3,750.000  men  (see  France). 

Qerman  Empire:  regular  army  comprised  20,440  officers, 
491,217  rank  and  file,  93,908  horses.  J^o  official  statement 
has  ever  been  published  of  Glermany*s  war  strength,  but 
the  'intelligence  division'  of  the  Bntish  war  office  (1888) 


compiled  the  following  table  (which  includes  in  the  first 
table  of  figures  the  'regular*  army): 

Field  Army. 

Qarrison 
army. 

Grand 
totaL 

Active 
troops. 

Reserve 
troops. 

Total. 

Officers 

82,377 

4,247 

7,928 

942,408 

28i),472 

9,5S6 

1,300 

1,933 

«i4,W15 

72,963 

31.913 

5,547 

9,8G1 

1,297.323 

353,415 

10,209 

2,055 

3,090 

868,027 

86,324 

48,19 

Surj^eoDS 

7,602 

Other  officials 

Rank  and  file 

Horses 

12,957 

2,165,960 

439,759 

To  this  grand  total  of  men  and  officers  add  railroad  staff 
and  specim  services  and  (in  case  of  inviision)  the  landsturm 
(700,000),  and  the  result  falls  little  short  of  8,000,000  men 
(see  Germany). 

Oreat  BriUixn  and  Ireland:  see  BrUisli  Empire. 

Qruce:  standing  army  of  28,229  officers  and  men,  and 
3,800  horses.  The  reserves  numbered  104.500,  and  the 
territorial  army  146,(X)0  men. 

Ouatemala:  army  of  3,718  officers  and  men;  the  reserve 
militia  had  67.300. 

Haiti:  regular  army  of  6,828  officers  and  men;  there 
was  also  a '  guard  of  the  govt./  numbering  650  men,  com- 
manded by  10  generals. 

Honduras:  active  army  of  500  men;  the  militia  num- 
bered 20,000. 

India:  see  British  Empire. 

lUdy<  under  arms  276,013  officers  and  men.  and  556,153 
officers  and  men  'on  permanent  leave;*  the  *  mobile*  mili- 
tia numbered  449,016,  and  the  'territorial'  1,553,158; 
grand  total  2,844,389. 

Japan:  peace  strength,  3,922  officers,  74,095  rank  and 
file,  7,383  horses;  the  reserve  had  a  strength  of  96,845,  and 
and  the  landwehr  of  70,659  men. 

Kongo  Free  State:  authorized  force,  8,792  natives,  com- 
manded by  European  officers. 

Madagascar:  standing  army  estimated  at  20,000  officers 
and  men. 

Mexico:  total  strength  27.244  officers  and  men.  The 
effective  reserve  force  was  stated  to  be  131.523  inf.,  25,790 
dragoons,  3,650  artil.  All  men  capable  of  bearing  arms, 
20-50  years  old,  were  subject  to  milit  service. 

Monaco:  no  army,  only  a  '  guard  of  honor ' — 75  men  and 
officers. 

Montenegro:  law  requires  that  all  men  17-60  years  old, 
capable  of  bearing  arms,  be  trained  as  soldiers,  and  they 
are  liable  to  milit.  service. 


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ARMIES. 

Morocco:  about  10.000  inf.  soldiers  and  400  cav.,  beside 
2,000  irregular  cavalry. 

Net/ierlandit:  regular  army  of  about  24,000  officers  and 
men.  la  tbc  Datc/i  East  Indies  tbe  army  is  purely  colo- 
uial,  and  numbers  about  84,000  officers  and  men. 

Nicaragua:  active  army  of  1,200  men,  with  a  reserve  of 
10,000  and  national  gil&rd  of  5,000. 

Norway:  active  army  of  about  40,000  men,  reserve  in- 
cluded. 

Orange  Free  Slate:  no  standing  army,  but  every  able 
bodied  man  is  compelled  to  take  up  arms  when  neccssiiy 
demands  it. 

Paraguay:  army  comprised  82  officers,  1,345  men.  Men 
aged  20-35  years  are  liable  to  milit.  service. 

Persia:  milit.  establishment  comprised  105,500  men,  but 
of  these  less  than  25.000  were  in  active  service. 

Peru:  total  force  5,900  men. 

Portugal:  standing  armjr  of  37,278  officers  and  men.  In 
Portuguese  colonies  there  is  an  army  of  8,880  officers  and 
men. 

Roumama:  peace  establishment  2,086  officers,  835  em- 
ployes, 48.500  men,  13,200  horses;  territorial  army  com- 
prised 81,843  men,  4,401  horses. 

Russia:  army  on  peace  footing  numbered  (regular  troops) 
781.000,  with  88,750  horses;  (Cossacks)  58,600,  with  45,500 
horses;  militia  3,500  with,  3.000  horses— grand  total  843,000 
men,  137,250  horses.  On  the  war  footing  the  strength  in 
men  was  2,532,496,  and  in  horses  577.796. 

Salvador:  array  of  4,000  men  and  15,000  militia. 

Santo  Domingo:  small  army  of  inf.,  cav.,  and  artillery. 

Serma:  standing  army  about  18,000  men;  the  three 
classes  of  reserves  raise  the  milit.  strength  to  210,000  men. 

Siam:  small  standing  army;  all  nmie  inhabitanis  are  re- 
quired to  serve  the  state  in  camps  three  mouths  in  each  year. 

South  African  Republic:  only  a  small  force  of  horse 
artil.;  the  able-bodied  men  liable  to  milit.  duty  numbered 
37,378. 

Spain:  army  on  peace  footing  numbered  115,735,  on 
war  footing  1,083,515. 

Sweden:  standing  army  of  80, 543  officers  and  men,  6,231 
horses. 

Switzerland:  army  divided  into  three  classes,  viz.;  eh'te 
128,000,  landwehr  about  80,000,  landsturm  about  269,000; 
in  the  elite  were  enrolled  all  men  aged  20-32  years  capable 
of  bearing  arms;  in  the  landwehr  all  82-44  years;  in  the 
landsturm  all  citizens  not  otherwise  serving,  aged  17-50 
years. 

Turkish  Empire:  milit.  service  required  of  all  the  Mus- 
sulman population:  strength  of  the  active  army  about 
9,000  officers  and  150,000  men.  Among  llie  tributary  stales 
Bulgaria  had  an  army  of  35,800  men  on  pence  footing,  and 
125.000  on  war  footing.  Egypt's  army  immbered  about 
13,000  men. 

United  States:  regular  army  numbered  (1892,  Dec.)  26, 900 
ofQcers    and    men.    The  organized  militia  (or  '  national 


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ARMIGER— ARMILLA. 

guard '  of  the  several  state^^)  numbered  about  10,000  offi- 
cers and  1 10,000  men.  All  men  aged  18-45  years  are  liable 
to  do  railit.  duty  at  the  call  of  the  president.  The  num- 
ber of  males  of  milit.  age  (1890)  was  10,231,239.  See 
United  Statbs  Armt. 

Uniguay:  standing  army  of  3,482  officers  and  men.  an 
armed  police  of  3,980,  and  an  active  civilian  force  of  3,264. 

Veiuzuela:  standing  army  numbered  5,000  men. 

ARMIGER,  n.  dt'mij^r  [L.  armlger,  bearing  or  carry- 
ing weapons— from  arma,  arms;  gero,  I  carry] :  in  her., 
esquire;  one  with  a  right  to  armorial  bearings.  Abmiq- 
EROUS,  a.  dr-m^'^^is,  bearing  arms. 

ARMIL,  n.  drm'U  [L.  armilla,  a  bracelet— from  armug, 
the  arm]:  an  ancient  astronomical  instrument  consisting  of 
one,  two,  or  more  rings  placed  in  the  plane  of  the  equator, 
or  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian;  a  kind  of  a  sun-dial. 

ARMILAUSA,Q.  dr-mUlato'ea  PL.  armidauM,  a  military 
cloak]:  cloak  covering  the  shoulders,  worn  in  England  in 
mediseval  times. 

ARMILLA,  n.  dr-mUld  [L.  armil'la,  an  ornament  for 
the  arm,  a  hoop];  in  mech,,  an  iron  ring,  hoop,  or  brace;  in 
a7iat.f  the  circular  ligament  of  the  hand.  Armillated, 
a.  dr'mU'ld^t^d,  wearing  bracelets.  Abmillart,  a. 
dr'mU'Ur-i,  consisting  oi  rings  or  circles;  applied  to  an 
ai  tlficial  sphere  composed  of  a  number  of  circles  or  movable 
rings;  appearing  in  the  form  of  several  rings  or  bracelets 
put  together  in  due  position.  Th6  Armillart  Sphere  is 
an  instrument  intended  to  give  a  just  conception  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  heavens,  and  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  as  seen  by  an  observer  on  the  earth.  It  consists  of 
a  number  of  rings  fixed  together  so  as  to  represent  the 
principal  circles  of  the  celestial  sphere,  and  these  are 
movable  round  the  polar  axis  within  a  meridian  and 
horizon,  as  in  the  ordinary  celestial  globe.  It  was  by 
means  of  such  rings  furnished  with  sights  that  Hipparchus, 
Ptolemy,  and  other  ancient  astronomers  made  manv  of 
their  observations,  and  we  find  even  Tycho  Brahe  making 
most  of  his  planetary  observations  with  the  help  of  such 
an  instrument.  It  is,  however,  now  used  only  as  an 
aid  to  instruction  in  astronomy,  and  in  this  respect  is 
generally  supplanted  by  the  celestial  globe.  The  object 
of  the  Armillary  Sphere  will  bo  better  understood  by 
reference  to  the  celestial  globe  in  the  diagram.  Suppos- 
ing the  observer  on  the  earth  to  be  in  the  centre  of  the 
sphere,  the  earth  on  which  he  stands  shuts  out  from  his 
view  the  lower  half  of  the  heavens,  or  the  part  lying  below 
the  horizon,  HH.  The  hemisphere  above  him  may  be 
regarded  as  divided  into  two  equal  portions,  an  eastern  and 
a  western,  by  the  meridian,  MM, which  passes  through  the 
pole,  P,  and  the  zenith,  Z,  of  which  the  eastern  half  is 
shown  in  the  figure.  The  north  pole  is  supposed  to  be 
elevated  above  the  horizon,  and  its  elevation  is  measured 
by  the  arc  NP,  or  the  height  above  the  north  point;  and  the 
heavens  appear  to  rotate  round  an  axis,  PQ,  of  which  P  is 
one  extremity;  the  south  pole,  Q,  the  other  extremity. 


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ARMINIAN-ARMINIUS 

being  below  the  horizon.  The  meridian  MM,  and  the 
horizon  HH,  are  the  only  circles  which  maintain  a  fixed 
position  with  regard  to  the  observer.    Of  the  other  leading 


celestial  circles,  the  equator  or  equinoctial .  LL,  extending 
from  the  east  to  the  west  point  of  the  horizon,  the  tropics 
of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  respectively  BB  and  CC.  and  the 
Arctic  circle,  AA,  although  rotating  with  the  stars,  main- 
tain the  same  position  with  regard  to  the  horizon;  while 
the  ecliptic,  KK,  is  constantly  cnanging  its  inclination  and 
position  towards  it.  Circles  which  extend  from  pole  to 
pole,  cutting  the  equator  at  right  angles,  are  called  circles 
of  declination.  The  circle  which  passes  through  the  vernal 
equinox  t  (see  Aries),  is  denominated  the  equinoctial 
colure;  and  that  passing  through  the  summer  solstice,  O 
(see  Solstice),  the  solstitial  colure.  The  circles  just  named, 
together  with  the  Antarctic  circle,  are  represented  by 
corresponding  rings  in  the  Armillary  Sphere.  If  S  be  a 
star,  the  following  are  the  names  given  to  the  arcs  which 
determine  its  position  with  regard  to  these  circles:  *fV, 
Right  ascension;  SV,  Declination;  SP,  Polar  distance;  SZ. 
Zenith  distance;  XS,  Altitude;-  (XN  +  180"),  Azimuth, 
reckoned  from  the  south  pole  westward. 

ARMINIAN.  n.  (ir-m)nlan  [from  Armin')tis].  one  who 
holds  the  doctrines  of  Jacobus  Arminius  (q.v.):  Adj.  per 
taining  to  the  doctrines  of  Arminius.  Armin'ianism,  n 
■i  dnhm,  the  jieculiar  doctrines  of  Arminius  (q.v.). 

ARMINIUS:  famous  German  hero:  6th   c:  see  Hku- 

MAMN,  or   UERMAI4. 


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ARMINIUS. 

ARMHsTIUS,  dr'tnln'i-us.  Jacobus,  the  founder  of  Ar 
miDiaQism:  1560-1609,  Oct.  19;  b.  at  Oudewaier  (Old 
Water).  His  real  name  in  Dutch  was  James  Hannenscn; 
but  in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  custom  among 
scholars  in  those  days,  he  latinized  it.  His  father  was  a 
cutler,  and  died  when  A.  was  a  child.  After  a  preliminary 
education  at  Utrecht,  he  commenced  (1575)  a  course  of 
study  at  the  newly  founded  Univ.  of  Lieyden,  where  he 
remained  for  six  years,  and  where  he  seems  to  have  ac- 
quired a  high  reputation,  for  the  Amsterdam  merchbnts 
undertook  to  bear  the  expense  of  his  further  studies  for 
the  ministry,  on  condition  that  he  would  not  preach  out  of 
their  city  unless  permitted  to  do  so.  In  1582,  he  went  tc 
Geneva,  and  received  the  instructions  of  Theodore  Beza^ 
the  most  rigid  of  Calvinists.  Here  he  made  himself  odious 
by  the  boldness  with  which  he  defended  the  logic  of  Peter 
liamus.  In  opposition  to  that  of  the  Aristotelians  of  Geneva, 
and  in  consequence  had  to  retire  to  Basle,  whither  his 
fame  must  have  preceded  him,  for  he  was  offered  by  tho 
faculty  of  divinity  In  that  unlv.  the  degree  of  doctor 
gratis,  which,  however,  he  did  not  venture  to  accept,  on 
account  of  his  youth.  At  Basle  he  studied  under  Gyniffius. 
He  subsequently  (1586)  travelled  Into  Italy.  On  his  return 
to  Amsterdam  (1588),  he  was  appointed  minister.  Shortly 
after  this,  he  was  commissioned  to  defend  the  doctrine  of 
Beza,  re^rdlng  predestination,  against  the  changes  which 
the  ministers  of  Delft  had  propped  to  make  on  It.  A. 
carefully  examined  both  sides  of  the  question,  but  the 
result  of  his  study  was  that  he  himself  began  to  doubt, 
and  at  last  came  to  adopt  the  opinions  he  had  been  com- 
missioned to  confute.  Some  time  after  this  change  of 
view,  he  came.  In  the  course  of  his  expositions,  to  the 
Epistle  to  the  Komans,  the  most  explicitly  doctrinal  in  the 
New  Testament,  the  8th  and  9th  cnapters  of  which  have 
always  been  considered  the  strongholds  of  Calvinism. 
His  treatment  of  this  epistle  excited  much  dissatisfaction, 
and  Involved  him  in  sharp  disputes  with  his  orthodox 
brethren.  Still  his  views  were,  as  yet,  either  ambiguously 
or  vaguely  expressed,  or,  at  least,  had  not  attained  consist- 
ency, for  In  1604  he  was  made  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Univ.  of  Leyden. 

The  greatest  enemy  of  A.  was  Francis  Gomar,  his  col- 
league m  the  Univ.  of  Leyden.  In  the  course  of  the  year 
1604,  the  latter  attacked  his  doctrines,  and  from  that  hour 
to  the  end  of  his  life,  A.  was  engaged  In  a  series  of 
bitter  disputes  with  his  opponents.  The  o^um  theologicum 
was  perhaps  never  exhibited  In  more  unmlngled  purity. 
Armmlus  asserted.  In  substance,  that  God  bestows  for- 
giveness and  eternal  life  on  all  who  repent  of  their  sins 
and  believe  In  Christ;  he  wills  that  all  men  should  attain 
salvation,  and  only  because  he  has  from  eternity  fore- 
seen the  belief  or  unbelief  of  individuals,  has  he  from 
eternity  determined  the  fate  of  each.  On  the  other  hand, 
Gomar  and  his  party,  appealing  to  the  Belgic  Confession 
and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  maintained  that  God  had. 
by  an  eternal  decree,  predestinated  what  persons  shalli  as 


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ARMINIUS. 

nelng  elected  to  salvation,  be  therefore  awakened  to  r» 
pen  tan  ce  and  faith  and  by  grace  made  to  persevere 
therein;  and  what  persons  shaU,  as  bein^  rejected  (reprobaU), 
bo  left  to  sin,  to  unbelief,  and  to  perdition.  See  I'redesti* 
nation:  P^severanck  op  Saints. 

While  these  fierce  disputes  were  continuing,  A.  who  waa 
not  destitute  either  of  friends  or  influence,  was  made 
rector  magniflcus  of  the  univ.,  but  resigned  the  honor,  1606, 
Feb.  8,  having  held  the  office  only  one  year.  All  the 
pulpits  in  Holland  now  fulminated  agamst  him.  At 
length,  1608,  A.  himself  applied  to  the  states  of  Holland 
to  convoke  a  synod  for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  contro- 
versy; but,  worn  out  with  care  and  disease,  he  died  before 
it  was  held,  leaving  seven  sons  and  two  daughters  by  bin 
wife,  Elizabeth  K^l,  daughter  of  Laurent  Reael,  a  judge 
and  senator  of  iftnsterdam. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  A.  himself  was  much  less 
Arrainian  than  his  followers.  He  had  not  matured  his 
opinions  sxifficiently  to  elaborate  a  complete  system  of 
anti-Calvinlstic  doctrine,  though  it  is  perfectly  certain 
that  the  conclusions  at  which  his  disciples  arrived — as 
stated  in  the  famous  '  Five  Articles ' — are  the  logical  and 
legitimate  results  of  his  teaching.  He  always  complained, 
however,  that  his  opinions  were  misrepresented;  but  this 
LB  invariably  the  fate  of  controversialists,  and  the  penalty 
of  controversy.  A.  was  an  extremely  good  man,  as  even 
his  enemies  allow;  his  abilities  were  also  of  a  high  order; 
his  thinking  is  clear,  bold,  and  vigorous;  his  style  remark- 
ably methodical,  and,  his  scholarship  respectable,  even 
though  not  profound. 

After  the  death  of  A.,  his  followers  gained  strength, 
and  boldly  asserted  their  views,  but  still  remained  a  mi- 
nority. In  1610,  they  presented  to  the  assembled  states  of 
the  province  of  Holland  a  '  Remonstrance ' — from  which 
they  were  styled  '  Remonstrants ' — which  contained  the  fol- 
lowing propositions:  1.  That  €k>d  had  indeed  made  an 
eternal  decree,  but  only  on  the  conditional  terms  that  all 
who  believe  in  Christ  shall  be  saved,  while  all  who  refuse 
to  believe  must  perish;  so  that  predestination  is  only  con- 
ditional. 2.  That  Christ  died  lor  all  men,  but  that  none 
except  believers  are  really  saved  by  his  death.  The  inten« 
tion,  in  other  words,  is  universal,  but  the  efficacy  may  bo 
restricted  by  unbelief.  3.  That  no  man  is  of  himself  able 
to  exercise  a  saving  faith,  but  must  be  bom  again  of  God 
in  Christ  through  the  Holy  Spirit.  4.  That  without  the 
grace  of  God,  man  can  neither  think,  will,  nor  do  anything 
good;  yet  that  grace  does  not  act  in  men  in  an  irresistible 
wapr.  5.  That  believers  are  able,  by  the  aid  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  victoriously  to  resist  sin;  but  that  the  question  of 
the  possibility  of  a  fall  from  grace  must  be  determined  by 
a  further  examination  of  the  Scriptures  on  this  point. 

This  last  point,  left  as  an  open  question,  was  decided  by 
the  Remonstrants  in  the  aflirmative  soon  afterwards  (1611). 
Whereupon  the  Gomarists  (Calvin ists)  put  forth  a  strong 
•Counter- remonstrance,'  asserting  plainly  absolute  predes- 
tination and  reprobation.    After  several  fruitless  du^cua* 

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AUMINIU8. 

Bions,  the  states  of  Holland,  1614,  Jan.,  acting  under  the 
adyice  of  Oldenbameveld,  a  senator,  and  the  learned  Huge 
Grotius,  issued  an  edict  of  full  toleration  for  both  parties, 
prohibitingat  the  same  time  the  continuance  of  the  con- 
troversy. The  Counter-remonstrants  (or  Calvin ists)  refused 
to  submit  to  this  edict,  and  the  strife  soon  became  so  furious 
that  in  1617,  or  soon  afterwards,  the  Arminians  found  it 
necessary  to  guard  themselves  from  personal  violence  by 
appointing  a  safeguard  of  militia- men  (Waardgelder^, 
The  controversy  now  merged  in  the  strife  of  party  politics. 
The  ambitious  Maurice  of  Orange  took  advantage  of  the 
passions  of  the  majority  to  crush  his  opix)ncnt8  of  the  re- 
publican party,  whose  leaders  were  adherents  of  the  Ar- 
minian  doctrines.  Several  Arminians  were  put  to  death — 
among  them  the  aged  senator  Olden bame veld,  1619,  May 
13 — while  Grotius  and  others  wete  imprisoned.  In  these 
circumstances,  the  Synod  of  Dort  was  held  (1618-19),  at- 
tended by  selected  representatives  from  the  Netherlands, 
England,  Scotland,  the  Palatinate,  Switzerland,  Nassau, 
East  Friesland,  and  Bremen.  From  this  convocation, 
1619,  Jan.  14,  the  thirteen  Arminian  pastors,  with  the 
learned  and  eloquent  Simon  Episcopiusat  their  head,  weie 
excluded.  The  doctrines 'of  the  Counter-remonstrants 
were  embodied  in  93  canons;  the  Belgic  Confession  and 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  were  confirmed  as  authorities 
for  the  reformed  churches  of  the  Netherlands;  and  300 
Arminians  (chiefly  preachers)  were  expelled  from  office. 
In  consequence  of  this  decision,  the  defeated  party  sought 
shelter  in  France,  Holstein,  England,  etc.  Aften*'aras, 
under  Frederick  Henry,  the  stadtholder  after  Prince 
Maurice  (1630),  they  were  again  tolerated  in  Holland, 
and  in  1634  Episcopius  opened  his  theological  college  in 
Amsterdam. 

Since  that  time,  the  Remonstrants  (or  Arminians)  in  Hol- 
land have  inclined  more  and  mere  towards  freedom  of 
thought  on  religious  questions  and  independence  in  church 
government.  The  rejection  of  all  creeds  and  confessions; 
the  free  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures;  a  preference  of 
moral  to  doctrinal  teaching;  Arian  views  respecting  the 
Trinity;  the  virtual  rejection  of  the  doctrines  of  original 
sin  and  imputed  righteousness,  and  the  view  of  the  sacra- 
menU)  as  merely  edi^in^  forms  or  ceremonies:  all  these  and 
other  points  of  belief  display  the  same  tendency  which  is 
found  in  their  church  polity.  Their  annual  conference  on 
ecclesiastical  affairs  is  composed  of  ministers  and  lay -depu- 
ties, and  meets  in  June,  alternately  at  Amsterdam  and 
Rotterdam.  The  number  of  Remonstrants  is  now  only 
about  5,000,  and  is  decreasing.  In  1809,  they  had  34  con- 
gregations with  40  preachers  m  Holland;  but  in  1880,  only 
about  20  congregations.  The  largest  society  of  Arminians 
is  in  Rotterdam,  and  numbers  only  600  members. 

Although  the  Arminians  are  thus  dwindling  away  as  a 
distinct  body,  their  tenets  respecting  predestination  have 
been  adopted  with  greater  or  less  moaificalion  by  several 
great  modern  Christian  denominations  (see  Methodists; 
Baptists);  as  well  as  by  multitudes  of  the  individual  mom- 


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ARMIPOTENCE— ARMITAGE.  . 

bers  of  those  churches  whose  formularies  are  Calvinistic 
See  CAiiViNiSM.  They  are  also  very  prevalent  in  the 
Church  of  Rome. 

ARMIPOTENCE,  n.  dr-mip'S-tinB  [L.  arma,  weapons  of 
war;  potens^  powerful]:  power  in  arms.  Abmip'otent,  a. 
powerful  in  arms. 

ARMISONANT,  a.  dr-mWd-Tidnt,  or  Armisonous,  a  dr- 
mis'd-nuM  [L.  arma,  arms;  tonanSt  sounding];  having  sound- 
ing arms,  or  rustling  armor. 

ARMISTICE,  n.  dr'mU-iU  [F.  cmnistiee— from  L.  anna, 
arms;  sisto,  1  stand  stilt]:  a  cessation  from  hostilities  be- 
tween armies,  or  nations,  for  a  short  time;  a  truce.  It 
sometimes  takes  place  when  both  sides  are  exhausted,  and 
at  other  times  when  an  endeavor  to  form  a  treaty  of  peace 
is  being  made.  A  particular  example  will  best  illustrate 
the  nature  of  an  A.  The  reptesentatives  of  England, 
France,  Austria.  Prussia,  Sardinia,  Turkey,  and  liussia, 
met  in  congress  at  Paris,  1856,  Feb.  25,  to  consider  the 
terms  of  a  treaty  of  -peace,  which  should  terminate  the 
•  Crimean*  between  five  of  the  powers.  It  was  agreed 
at  the  first  sitting  that  an  A.  should  be  declared,  to  be  an- 
nounced by  telegraphic  message  to  the  commanders  in 
the  Crimea,  and  to  last  until  Mar.  31.  During  that  period 
of  about  one  calendar  month,  the  hostile  armies  were  to 
remain  strictly  at  peace,  though  the  fleets  of  the  allies 
were  to  continue  their  blockade  of  Russian  ports.  The 
information  reached  the  generals  late  on  Feb.  28.  On  the 
morning  of  the  29th,  a  white  flag  was  hoisted  in  the  Rus- 
sian camp  outside  Sebastopol;  several  Russian  officers  as- 
sembled around  it;  and  a  glittering  cavalcade  of  British, 
French,  and  Sardinian  officers  proceeded  thither.  The 
accredited  officers  compared  notes,  found  the  terms  of  the 
A.  clear,  agreed  on  a  boundary-line  between  the  hitherto 
hostile  forces,  and  formally  gave  pledges  for  a  cessation  of 
fighting.  The  courtesy  oi  civilized  nations  at  once  suc- 
ceeded to  the  horrors  of  war;  the  Russian  commander  gave 
a  magnificent  entertainment  to  the  allied  commanders,  and 
was  entertained  in  turn;  the  soldiers '  fraternized,'  by  little 
gifts  of  tobacco,  and  ludicrous  attempts  at  conversation, 
across  a  small  stream  which  formed  part  of  the  boundary- 
line.    The  A.  ended  Mar.  81  with  a  treaty  of  peace. 

ARMITAGE,  dr'ml-t^,  Thomas,  d.d..  ll.d.:  Baptist 
minister:  b.  Pontefmct,  England,  1819,  Aug.  2.  He  was 
a  Wesleyan  preacher  from  his  youth,  but  came  to  New 
York  1838  and  joined  the  Meth.  Episc.  Church.  Ten 
years  later  he  entered  the  Bapt.  denomination  and  be- 
came pastor  of  the  5th  Ave.  Bapt.  church,  New  York. 
He  became  eminent  and  popular  as  a  preacher  and  orator, 
and  at  the  same  time  widely  known  as  one  of  the  lending 
theological  writers.  He  wns.one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Bible  Union,  and  at  one  lime  its  pres.  He  in- 
terested himself  deeply  in  the  revision  of  the  Scriptures. 
In  1889  he  retired  from  his  pastorate.  He  wrote  Lectvres 
on  Prea4ihing:  Ittt  Ideal  and  Inner  Life  (1880);  and  A  His- 
tory  of  the  BapMs  (1880).    He  died  1896,  Jan.  20. 


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ARMOR. 

ARMOR,  or  Armour,  n.  dr'm^  FOE.  armwre;  F.  or- 
mure;  OF.  armeure,  armor — from  L.  armcUHra,  armor, 
equipment — from  arma,  arms]:  dress  for  war  made  of  iron 
or  steel;  weaponsof  war.  Armorer  or  Armourer,  d.  dr- 
m^-er,  one  who  makes  weapons  of  war.  Armorial,  a.  rfr- 
md'rl-dl,  belonging  to  arms;  pertaining  to  coats  of  arms; 
heraldic.  Ar'morist,  n.  one  skilled  in  heraldry.  Armory, 
or  Armoury,  n.  dr'nw-rit  a  place  where  weapons  of 
war  are  kept,  or  where  they  are  made;  a  storehouse  for 
arms;  a  collection  of  ancient  armor  and  weapons — such  as 
those  in  the  Tower  of  London,  in  Sir  Samuel  Meyrick's 
mansion  at  Goodrich  Court  on  the  Wye,  and  in  Warwick 
C'astle.  The  term  is  applied  also  to  armorial  bearings 
Ar'mor-bbarer,  one  who  carries  the  arms  of  a  soldier  of 
rank.  Armor-plated,  a.  -pld-ted,  covered  with  defen- 
sive plates  of  metal,  as  ships  of  war.  Armor  Is  a  general 
name  for  the  apparatus  tor  personal  defense  as  contra- 
distinguished from  arms  or  weapons  of  offense.  Little  of 
it  is  worn  by  soldiers  at  the  present  day,  as  hand-to-hand 
conflicts,  in  which  it  is  especially  sewiceable,  are  not  the 
common  mode  of  modem  warfare.  It  was  before  the 
invention  of  gunpowder  that  A. — often  called  in  England 
harneu — was  especially  used. 

All  the  ancient  nations  who  occupy  a  place  in  history 
were  accustomed  to  adopt  one  or  other  of  the  defensive 
clothing  or  implements  which  collectively  come  under  the 
denomination  of  A.  Leather  A.  was  sometimes  worn;  but 
brass,  iron,  and  other  metals  were  preferred.  Some  of  the 
more  luxurious  leaders  had  much  silver  and  gold  in  their 
A.  In  the  Bible,  shields,  helmets,  breastplates,  and 
greaves  are  mentioned  among  the  articles  of  A.  borne  or 
worn  by  the  Israelites  and  their  opponents.  The  classical 
writers — Homer,  Xenophon,  Herodotus,  Livy,  Tacitus, 
Varro,  etc. — supply  abundant  evidence  of  the  use  of  A. 
among  the  nations  concerning  whom  they  wrote. 

It  is  believed  that  the  early  Britons  bore  little  or  no 
other  A.  than  shields.  The  Anglo-Saxons  were  more  fully 
provided.  At  different  times  before  the  Norman  Conquest 
they  appear  to  have  had  four-cornered  helmets;  loriae 
made  of  leather;  scale-A.;  leathern  helmets;  wooden  shields 
covered  with  leather;  sheep-skin  shields;  conical  caps  or 
helmets  of  metal;  pectorals  or  neck -guards;  breast-guards 
of  undressed  hide;  flat-ringed  A.;  byrnes or  tunics  of  over- 
lapping  pieces  of  leather;  close-fit-ting  cuirasses  of  leather, 
and  sometimes  of  strong  linen;  leg-guards  of  twisted 
woolen  cloth;  shields  of  various  sizes,  from  half  a  yard  to 
a  yard  and  a  half  in  length;  and  casques  having  more  or 
less  resemblance  to  the  ancient  helmets.  When  Ihe  Danes 
were  in  Britain,  they  had  at  first  no  other  A.  than  leathern 
neck-pieces,  which  descended  some  way  over  the  shoul- 
ders and  chest;  and  greaves  or  shin-pieces  for  the  legs.  In 
the  time  of  Canute  or  Knute,  however,  they  adopted  a 
kind  of  A.  which  Sir  Samuel  Meyrick  supposes  them  to 
have  borrowed  from  the  Norsemen  or  Norwegians.  It 
comprised  a  tunic,  with  a  hood  and  long  sleeves;  panta- 
loons which  covered  feet  as  weU  as  legs;  and  sugar-loaf 


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ARMOR. 

shaped  helmets  or  skull-caps,  with  attached  pieces  which 
hid  nearly  the  whole  face  except  the  eyes.  All  these  were 
probably  made  of  leather;  bnt  most  of  the  surfaces  were 
strengthened  by  macles  or  mascles,  a  perforated  net- work 
of  steel. 

With  William  the  Conqueror  came  in  the  kinds  of  A. 
which  were  at  that  time  prevalent  among  the  knights  and 
soldiers  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  which  became 
afterwards  more  or  less  combined  with  the  A.  previously 
known  in  England.  William  himself  occasionally  wore  a 
hauberk  of  rmg-A.  This  kind  of  A.  was  much  worn 
during  his  reign,  the  rings-  being  usualljr  attached  to  a 
foun£tion  of  leather.  One  curious  variety  of  ring- A  , 
called  the  haubergeon,  had  the  tunic  and  breeches  all  in 
one  piece.  The  helmets  were  generally  conical,  with  a 
nasal  or  nose  guard  descending  from  the  front.  A  distinct 
ring- A. ,  called  A<w»,  was  often  worn  on  the  legs.  The  shield 
was  generally  kite-shaped,  unlike  the  oval  shields  carried 
by  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Gradual  changes  in  these  various 
portions  of  A.  were  made  between  the  reigns  of  William 
Hufus  and  John.    In  the  time  of  Henry  Hi.  were  stitched 


Suit  of  Armor,  presented  by  the  Emperor  Mazlmllian  to  Henry  VIII. 

and  padded  hauberks  and  chausses,  called  '  ouvrages  de 
pourpointerie  *;  suits  of  ring-A.;  greaves  or  shin-pieces  of 
steel;  poleyns  or  knee-guards;  vambraces  or  arm-guards; 
jacks,  jaques,  or  jackets,  made  of  leather,  and  worn  over 
the  ring-A.;  interlaced  ring-A.,  of  oriental  invention,  not 
requiring  to  be  stitched  to  any  garment  or  foundation; 
helmets,  visors,  and  skull-caps  of  various  forms;  and  chan- 
frons,  or  A.  for  the  head  and  face  of  horses.  During  Ed- 
ward lll.'s  reign,  iron  plate- A.  was  much  used  by  troopers, 
in  the  various  forms  oi  helmet,  breast-plate,  gauntlet,  and 
greaves.  In  the  14th  c,  chain-mail  tell  into  disuse,  and 
was  succeeded  by  plate-A. ;  this  last-named  kind  became 
more  and  more  complicated,  and  reached  its  greatest  pitch 
of  elaboration  in  the  reira  of  Richard  III.  During  tht? 
times  of  Henry  VII.  and  VIII.,  the  A.  was  sometimes 
fluted,  often  elaborately  engraved,  and  even  damascened 
or  inlaid  with  gold,     under  James  1.,  the  knightly  ideas 


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ARMORACIA-ARMORIC. 

of  the  feudal  times  gave  way,  and  the  use  of  A.  declined; 
a  knight  armed  cap-d-pie  was  a  rarity.  Charles  I.  tried  in 
vain  to  revive  its  use;  and  the  days  of  Cromwell  were  the 
last  in  which  A.  was  much  worn  by  the  regular  soldiers, 
though  helmets  and  cuirasses  are  still  worn  by  certain  cav- 
alry corps,  more  for  show  than  for  service. — For  the  chief 
pieces  of  A.,  see  the  proper  titles.  For  other  applications 
of  the  term  A.,  see  Armor-plates:  Diving  dress. 

ARMORACIA,  n.  dr-mor-d'A-d  [L.  armorada;  Gr.  or- 
TMrakia,  horse-radish— from  Armorica,  where  it  was  said 
to  grow  abundantly]:  horse-radish,  or  water-radish;  ^enua 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  BrasakaeecB,  or  Crucifers. 
It  contains  one  species,  the  A,  eamphobia,  or  Great  Water- 
radish,  wild  in  Britain;  and  another,  the^.  ruuUeana,  or 
Common  Horse-radish,  naturalized.  The  former  has  yel- 
low flowers,  and  the  latter  white.  The  scientific  name  of 
the  latter  is  now  Nasturtium  Armaracia, 

AK'MOKEii,  or  Armourer:  a  word  whose  old  meaning 
has  nearlypassed  away  with  the  system  to  which  it  be- 
longed. The  armor-smiths,  or  makers  of  armor,  were 
among  the  most  skilful  workers  in  metal  during  the  feudal 
times;  but  their  trade  afterwards  fell  away.  In  the  year 
1690,  the  workmen-armorers  of  London,  in  a  petition  to 
parliament,  complained  that  their  trade  was  well-nigh 
ruined. 

Armorers,  in  a  somewhat  different  sense  of  the  word, 
belong  to  some  modern  armies  and  navies:  in  some  armies 
there  are  armorers  to  every  regiment,  or  battalion,  or  bri- 
gade, not  to  make  armor,  but  to  repair  arms. 

On  shipboard  the  A.  is  a  first-class  petty  officer,  who  has, 
under  the  gunner,  charge  of  all  the  muskets,  pistols,  cut- 
lasses, boarding-pikes,  etc.,  which  he  is  expected  to  keep 
clean  and  in  readv  order.  He  is  assisted  oy  certain  sea- 
men called  the  'A.'s  crew';  and  all  are  skilled  in  the 
general  routine  of  smith's  work. 

ARMORIC,  a.  dr-m&r'ik,  or  Armor'ican,  a.  -i-kdn:  re- 
lating to  Armorica  or  Brittany,  in  France.  Armorica,  dr- 
mdr'i'kd:  the  country  of  the  Armorici,  i.e., '  the  dwellers  on 
the  sea '  [Celt,  or,  on  or  near;  and  mor,  sea],  the  name  by 
which  the  people  occupying  the  coast  of  Gaul  between  the 
Seine  and  the  Loire  were  known  to  Csesar.  At  a  later 
period,  the  name  was  confined  to  the  country  af terwiutls 
styled  Britannia  Minor,  or  Bretagne  (q.v.). 


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ARMORPLATES. 

ABMOR-PLATES:  thick  slabs  of  iron  to  protect  the 
sides  of  ships  of  war  and  the  fronts  of  fortifications;  a 
recent  invention.  In  1818  John  Stevens,  of  N.  J.  designed, 
an  iron-clad  steam  battery.  In  1843  Mr.  Baimano.  of 
New  York,  proposed  tliat  war-ships  should  be  clad  with 
several  thicknesses  of  |  inch  iron  plate,  riveted  one  on  an- 
other. Robert  L.  Stevens,  of  N.  J.,  was  commissioned  by 
tlie  U.  S.  govt,  to  build  an  iron-plated  war-vessel  driven 
by  screws.  In  1854  the  French  sent  several  floating- bat- 
teries to  the  Black  Sea,  clad  with  iron  plates;  and  the 
Enelish  admiralty  hastily  imitated  this  example,  producing 
ei<j:bt  very  slow  and  unmanageable  batteries,  1865-6.  In 
1860  the  French  sent  to  sea  La  G Loire,  a  timber- built  ship 
of  war.  altered  from  a  90  gun  three-decker  to  a  40 -gun 
corvette,  clad  with  4^-iuch  iron  plates,  having  a  burden  of 
3.000  tons.  The  Brit.  govt,  then  began  the  creation  of  an 
armor-clad  navy.  Many  problems  had  to  be  solved— 
whether  to  case  old  wooden  ships  with  armor;  to  build  and 
case  new  wooden  ships;  or  to  build  new  vessels,  whose 
hull  as  well  as  armor  should  be  of  iron.  Other  problems 
were — bow  near  the  bulwarks  should  the  armor  plates 
come,  how  near  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  how  near  the 
stem  and  stern;  also,  what  thickness  of  iron,  and  whether 
the  same  thickness  in  every  part. 

All  the  British  armored  men  of -war  built  between  1860- 
76  are  '  iron-clads,'  plated  solely  with  iron;  and  in  that 
period  the  thickness  of  the  plates  increased  from  4^  inches 
to  14  inches,  the  weight  increasing  proportionately  from 
4-5  tons  to  20-25  tons.  The  first  *  steel -faced '  plates  used 
were  on  the  turrets  of  the  Inflexible,  steel-plate  of  9  inches 
thick  forming  the  outside,  iron. plate  of  7  inches  thick  the 
back  layer,  a  slab  of  strong  teak  being  interposed  *  sand- 
wich fsisbion  •  between  the  two.  Other  British  turret-ships 
have  armor  12-18  in.  thick.— In  the  Italian  navy,  the 
DuUio  and  Dandolo  are  armored  with  steel  plate  of  the 
thickness  throughout  of  22  inches,  and  the  still  more  gi- 

rtntic  men  of-war,  Italia  and  Lepanto^  have  a  panoply  of 
ft  thickness,  throughout.  The  two  largest  French  iron- 
clads, the  Devantation  and  the  Foudvoyant,  are  plated  to  a 
thickness  of  14  inches  throughout.  Germany's  Kaiser 
and  DeutseJUaud  have  a  10-inch  armor  mail  throughout. 

Since  1860,  experiments  have  been  conducted  by  the  British 
and  other  governments  to  determine  the  conditions  of  the 
utmost  practicable  resisting  power  in  ship-armor  and  the 
utmost  practicable  destructive  power  in  ship  artillery,  ex- 
periments causing  a  constant  enlargement  of  cannon  and 
constant  thickening  of  armor-plate.  The  experiments  in 
England  have  been  conducted  principally  at  Shoeburyness. 

In  earlv  experiments  on  the  Warrim-  target,  Alderson's 
steel  shell,  Armstrong's  conical  shell,  and  Palliser's  chillcd- 
Iron  shell  were  flred  at  it  from  a  7-inch  gun  at  200  yards; 
the  Palliser  shot  excelled  the  others,  going  clean  through 
the  target,  armor  and  all.  and  bui-stiug  &hind.  On  an- 
other occasion,  a  Palliser  115  1b.  shot  went  through  the 
target  even  at  an  angle  of  30®  from  the  perpendicidar. 


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AUMORPLATES. 

The  advantage  contemplated  in  the  'sandwich  fashion' 
of  armor-plating  adopted  in  the  case  of  the  InflaMe  and 
other  ships  was,  in  addition  to  the  increased  defensive  power 
imolied  in  the  increased  thickness  of  plating,  that  broader 
ana  larger  plates  of  practicable  weight  could  by  this  means 
be  produced,  and  that  higher  excellence  of  workmanship 
could  be  insured  to  thinner  plates  than  to  plates  of  20  inches 
and  upwards  of  thickness.  The  Italian  aidmiralty  tested  on 
an  unprecedented  scale  the  relatively  defensive  properties  of 
iron  and  steel  armor,  in  1876,  and  decided  on  the  adoption 
of  steel  armor,  the  Duilio  and  Dandolo  thus  being  the  lirst 
steel-plated  ships. 

The  next  move  in  armor  plating  was  with  a  view  to  com- 
bining the  superior  resistance  to  perforation  characterizing 
hard  steel  with  tlie  superior  resistance  to  cracking  poasessed 
by  tough  rolled  iron;  and  *  steel-faced '  armor— with  a  front- 
plate  of  steel  and  a  back-plate  of  rolled  iron— attained  pre- 
cedence of  iron  in  English  war  ships.  The  hard  steel  pUte 
in  front  resists  perforation  better  than  iron,  breaking  up 
the  projectiles,  or  rendering  them  unavailing,  while  the 
steel  and  iron  plate  does  not  crack  as  woula  steel  alone. 
For  thicknesses  up  to  12  inches,  a  steel-faced  plate,  it  is 
calculated,  possesses  as  much  resistance  to  perforation,  in 
case  of  normal  impact  (or  straight  charge),  as  an  iron-plate 
from  25  to  80  per  cent,  thicker  and  heavier;  and  in  case  of 
oblique  Impact,  the  superiority  of  the  steel-faced  over  the 
iron  plate  is  still  greater,  glancinsr  projectiles  at  angles  of 
obliquity  at  which  mere  iron  would  be  ^  bitten '  into.  Iron, 
though  mferior  to  steel-faced  plate  for  protection  of  the 
sides  and  batteries  of  ships,  is  found  superior  for  plates  3 
to  4  inches  thick  used  for  sheeting  decks.  A  test  at  Spez- 
zia  1882,  indicated  that  a  larger  number  of  bolts  were 
needed  for  a  given  area  of  steel  or  steel -faced  plate  than 
had  been  previously  supposed. 

Armor  clad  forts  are  also  attracting  attention,  iron  has 
been  used  largely  in  the  defenses  of  Plymouth  and  Ports- 
mouth, Eng.  In  1864,  a  Ime  of  iron<:lad  forts  was  built  up 
At  Shoeburvness,  to  test  several  modes  of  construction. 

Regarded  as  articles  of  manufacture,  armor-plates  were  at 
first  produced  mainly  by  hammering,  several  thicknesses  of 
Iron  being  welded  one  upon  another,  at  a  white-heat,  by 
blows  of  a  ponderous  steam-hammer;  but  it  is  now  more 
customary  to  produce  them  by  rolling  than  by  hammering- 
pressure  being  considered  to  produce  more  satisfactory 
results  than  percussion. 

In  theU.  S.  navy,  armor  plating  had  very  small  applica- 
tion till  since  1883.  Tlie  'ironclads*  were  mostly  fourth- 
rate  monitors  with  single  turrets,  though  a  few  experi- 
ments with  other  styles  of  ships  were  made.  Practically, 
compared  with  European  nations,  the  United  States  had 
no  armored  vessels.  Since  the  construction  of  the  *  new 
navy '  began,  the  United  States  has  developed  results  in 
armor  platinsr  surpassing  those  ever  before  achieved  in 
the  world.  Until  the  IL  S.  navy  dcpt.  took  up  the  ques- 
tion of  armor  development,  but  two  Mnds  of  plating  were 
known— the  all-steel  product  of  Le  Creuzotin  France,  and 


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PLATE     15.  lf»~. 

Armor,  from  the  EfBgy  of  Sir 
Richard  Peyton,  in  Tone  Church, 
Shropshire.— A.  Bascinet;  B,  Jewellea 
orJe  round  the  bascinet;  C,  Gorget,  or 
fforjriere  of  plate;  D,  Pauldrons;  E, 
Breastplate-cuirass;  F,  Rere-braces; 
G,  Coudes,  or  elbow-plates;  H,  Gaunt* 
lets;  I,  Vambrace;  J,  Skirt  of  taces; 
K,  Military  belt  or  cingulum,  richly 
jewelled;  L,  Tuilles  or  tuillet«;  M. 
Cuisses;  N,  Genouilleres,  or  knee 
braces;  O,  Jaml>es;  P,  Spnr-straps; 
Q,  SoUerets:  R,  Misericorde,  or  dagger; 
8,  Swoid  suspended  by  a  transverse 
belt. 


Amotto  (Bura  oreUaiid). 


Armor.  —  Fig. 
1.— From  Brass  of 
Sir  John  de  St. 
Quentin,1897.Fig. 
2.— Complete  suit 
of  Plate -armor, 
begmning  of  16th 
century.-  1,  Hel- 
met: 2,  Visor:  8, 
Gori^et;  3a.  Ca- 
ms 1 1 ;  4.  Breast- 
plate: 5,  Skirt;  6, 
Arm-pieces;?, 
Elbow-piece:  8, 
Gauntlet:  9,  Hau- 
berk: 10.  Thigh - 
piece;  11,  K  nee- 
piece:  12.  Grewres 
13,  Sollerets;  14, 
La  nee- rest;  15, 
Belt. 


roL9 


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ARMOR-PLATES. 

the  Eng.  'compound  armor/  consisting  of  a  steel  face 
welded  to  a  wrougbt-iron  backing.  The  depl.  becan  with 
experiments  with  an  alloy  of  nickel  instead  of  aU-steel. 

in  a  trial  of  armor-plates  at  Annapolie,  Md.,  IbW, 
Sep.,  three  types  were  tested— namely,  one  of  solid 
steel  with  about  0-33  per  cent,  of  carbon;  one  of 
nickel-steel— i.e.,  mild  steel  with  5  per  cent,  of  nickel ; 
and  one  of  steel  backed  with  iron — the  Wilson  patent. 
The  plates  were  set  side  by  side  and  were  backed  with  36 
in.  of  oak.  The  gun  used  in  the  first  series  of  trials  was 
a  6-ln.  rifle,  171  ft.  long,  set  with  its  muzzle  30  ft.  from 
the  plates,  and  mounted  on  a  carriage,  so  that  it  could 
be  turned  to  point  squarely  against  any  part  of  the  sev- 
eral plates.  The  projectiles  were  Holtzer  chrome-steel 
shells,  17  in.  long,  6  in.  diameter,  weight  100  lbs.  The 
firing  charge  was  44}  lbs.  of  cocoa  powder.  The  Initial 
velocity  was  about  2,075  ft.  per  second.  Each  plate  was 
4  ft.  high,  6  ft.  wide,  10-5  in.  thick ;  four  shots  were  fired 
at  each.  The  concluding  test  was  a  shot  fired  at  each 
plate  with  an  8-in.  rifle,  firing  an  armor-piercing  project- 
ile which  weighed  210  lbs.  and  was  fired  by  a  charge  of 
85  lbs.  of  powder,  with  an  Initial  velocity  of  1,800  ft.  per 
second.  The  result  proved  the  great  superiority  of  the 
solid-steel  armor  over  the  compound  iron  and  steel 
plat^.  As  regards  the  relative  efficiency  of  the  solid- 
steel  and  the  nickel-steel  plate,  the  latter  proved  far  su- 
perior to  the  others,  as  it  vi'as  not  cracked  by  the  8-in. 
shot  in  the  centre,  as  was  the  all-steel  plate:  though  the 
penetration  of  the  all-steel  plate  was  less  than  that  of  the 
nickel-steel.  It  had  long  been  recognized  that  the  theory 
upon  which  the  English  comjxiund  armor-plates  were 
constructed  was  correct,  although  its  application  in  prac- 
tice had  failed  to  produce  the  desired  result.  The  obiect 
was  to  harden  the  surface  of  the  plate,  but  the  method 
adopted,  of  welding  two  difl'erent  materials,  resulted  in 
an  imperfect  union,  and  rendered  the  plate  liable  to  de- 
struction by  the  cracking  or  stripping  off  of  the  hard 
face.  To  obviate  this  difficulty  a  process  of  tempering, 
known  as  the  Harvey  process  (from  its  inventor.  Hay- 
ward  A.  Harvey,  of  Orange,  N.  J.),  which  had  been  suc- 
cessfully adopted  in  the  manufacture  of  tool  steel,  was 
applied  to  armor-plates  at  the  instance  of  the  dept.,  and 
among  those  tried  at  Indian  Head  1801  were  several  which 
had  been  treated  in  the  manner  described.  The  results 
confirmed  the  opinion  already  formed  as  to  the  use  of 
nickel  steel,  as  indicated  at  Annapolis,  and  were  also  ex- 
tremely favorable  to  the  new  method  of  treatment;  but  it 
was  evident  that  the  process  needed  perfecting.  New 
trtal-plates.  therefore,  were  procured  from  two  contractors, 
and  their  first  test  was  at  Indian  Head,  July  20.  The  first 
plate  used  was  a  lOfinch  plate  of  njckel-steel  made  by  the 
Bethlehem  Iron  Co..  the  plate  having  been  forged  to  12i 
inches  aud  then  *  Harveyed  '  and  finally  reforged  to  its 
former  dimensions.  The  results  of  this  trial  were  in  some 
respects  remarkable,  yet  a  lack  of  uniformity  was  shown 
io  the  surface  of  the  plate,  found  on  investigation  to  be 
8-26 


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ARMOR.PLATES. 

due  to  the  process  of  reforming,  resulting  in  a  lower  tem- 
perature and  consequently  increased  softness  of  one  side 
of  the  plate. 

A  second  plate  also  had  been  prepared  of  nickel-steel,  in 
all  respects  identical  with  the  first,  except  that  it  had  been 
forged  to  its  final  thickness  before  the  Harvey  process  was 
applied.  In  the  trial  of  this  plate  1893,  July  80,  five  Holtz- 
er  8-inch  shells.  250  lbs.  each,  with  striking  velocity  of 
1,700  foot-seconds,  and  each  with  an  energy  of  5,000  foot- 
tons,  were  fired  at  the  plate  at  a  distance  of  80  yards,  mak- 
ing the  severest  test  to  which  an  armor-plate  had  ever  been 
subjected.  The  result  was  extraordinary.  The  five  pro- 
jectiles were  broken  up  on  the  surface  of  the  plate.  The 
plate  itself  showed  no  signs  of  injury  further  than  an 
opening  of  a  slight  temper  crack  four  inches  in  length 
from  one  edge,  and  a  bulge  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness 
at  the  back  of  the  plate  opposite  each  point  of  impact. 
The  points  of  the  projectiles  were  splashed,  as  it  were,  on 
the  face  of  the  plate,  filling  up  the  indentations  made  by 
the  blows  with  their  own  material,  which  b^me  welded 
to  the  substance  of  the  plate  itself,  leaving  it  practically 
a  smooth  surface.  The  results  of  this  trial  demoustratra 
that  the  new  American  armor  was  superior  to  any  other  in 
the  world,  and  tliat  in  comparison  with  it  the  plating  of 
the  great  armored  fleets  of  Europe  offered  but  a  slight  ca- 
pacity for  resistance  to  projectiles.  Other  naval  powers 
took  immediate  notice  of  the  revolution  brought  about  .by 
our  navy  dept.  in  the  manufacture  of  armor.  A  test  plate 
t7as  at  once  ordered  by  the  Brit  admiralty,  and  another 
by  the  Russian  ministry  of  marine.  The  trial  of  the 
English  plate,  with  Oinch  instead  of  8-inch  guns,  took 
place  Nov.  17,  at  Portsmouth,  with  result  identical  with 
that  in  this  country.  Dec.  18  a  trial  of  the  nickel-har- 
veyed  plate,  10  in.  thick,  made  for  the  Russian  govt.,  was 
held  at  Ochta.  After  four  6-inch  shots  had  been  fired, 
without  producing  any  greater  impression  than  in  previous 
trials,  the  authorities  determined  to  try  a  heavier  gun,  with 
a  view  to  determining  what  would  destroy  the  plate.  Ac- 
cordingly a  9-inch  gun  of  85  calibres  was  used,  and  a  pro- 
jectile weighing  406  lbs.  was  fired  at  the  plate  with  striking 
velocity  of  1,655  foot-seconds.  It  penetrated  and  broke 
up,  cracking  the  plate  seriously  in  several  places,  but  no 
part  of  the  plate  fell  off  the  backing.  A  second  shell  of 
the  same  calibre  was  then  fired  with  striking  velocity  of 
1,889  foot-secouds.  As  a  result  of  tliis  unprecedented 
test,  the  plate  was  broken  to  pieces,  and  the  whole  target 
of  plate  and  backing  fell  together  to  the  ground  face 
downward  toward  the  gun.  The  woodwork  and  wrought 
iron  backing  fell  forward  with  the  plate.  The  shell  with 
its  point  broken  just  pierced  the  wrought  iron  of  the 
backing.  It  is  considered  that  had  it  been  a  ship  the  in- 
side of  the  vessel  would  have  been  quite  uninjured. 


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ARMOUR— ARMOUR  INSTITUTE. 

ARMOUR,  di^m&r,  Philip  D.:  capitalist:  b.  Stock- 
bridge,  Madison  co.,  N.  Y.,  1833,  May  16;  sou  of  a  farmer 
of  Scotch  descent.  He  studied  at  the  Cazenovia  seminary. 
In  1852,  with  two  or  three  companions,  he  went  to  Cali- 
fornia, where  be  remained  six  years  and  accumulated  a 
considerable  fortune.  For  a  time  he  resided  in  Milwaukee, 
and  engaged  in  the  grain  business  and  pork-packing.  He 
removed  to  Chicago  1875,  the  firm  being  Armour  &  Co., 
dealers  in  grain  and  provisions.  His  packing-house  has 
been  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world.  He  has  become 
noted  both  for  his  girts  and  for  his  personal  work  in 
philanthropy.    See  Aumour  Ixstitutb. 

ARMOUR  INSTITUTE:  manual  and  technological 
training  school,  presented  to  the  city  of  Chicago,  111.,  by 
Philip  D.  Armour  (q.v.)  1892.  Dec;  designed  to  supple- 
ment the  Armour  Mission  previously  established,  whose 
building  cost  $250,000.  The  A.  I.  is  supported  by  the  in 
come  from  the  Armour  Flats,  a  block  of  tenements  erected 
by  Mr.  Armour  and  valued  at  $1,000,000.  The  Institute 
building  is  of  stone  and  marble  and  iron,  is  lighted  by 
electricTl^  and  heated  by  steam,  and  is  absolutely  fire- 
proof. The  purpose  being  to  instruct  in  the  arts  and 
8ciencea<  it  is  divided  into  depts.  The  first  of  these, 
chemistry  and  physics,  contains  a  laboratory  and  lecture- 
room,  where  lectures  are  delivered  on  chemistry,  physiol- 
ogy, and  hygiene.  Another  dept.  is  for'students  in  draw- 
ing, free-hand,  mechanical,  and  architectural;  and  for 
students  in  commerce  and  business — the  classes  being 
open  to  both  sexes.  The  whole  of  one  floor  is  occupied 
for  studios,  used  by  students  in  drawing  or  designing  book- 
covers,  wall-paper,  carpets,  and  decorations.  Another 
floor  is  assigned  to  the  domestic  arts,  cooking,  dress-making, 
millinery,  etc.  The  fifth  floor  is  divided  into  a  gymnasium 
60  X  53  ft.,  and  a  technical  museum.  In  the  art  dept., 
classes  are  taught  embroidery  and  needle- work,  and  de- 
signing in  stone,  wood,  and  the  metals.  In  the  cooking 
dept.  a  complete  kitchen  and  dining-room  are  directed  by 
an  accomplished  duf.  Besides  the  general  co-education 
of  the  sexes,  voung  women  are  taught  the  essentials  to  fit 
them  for  professional  positions  or  for  economical  manage- 
ment of  the  household.  The  appliances  for  these  pur- 
poses include  a  completely  equipped  laundry.  There  is 
instruction  in  practical  nursing.  Typewriting  and  stenog- 
raphy also  are  taught.  A  library  and  an  equipment  of 
chemical,  physical,  mechanical,  and  other  apparatus  com- 
plete the  efficiency  of  this  admirable  institute,  opened  1893. 


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ARMOZEEN— ARMS. 

ARMOZEEN,  n.,  or  Armozinb,  n.  dr'md-een  fPr.  <ir- 
masin — corrupted  from  Ormut,  or  Hormue,  an  island  in 
the  Persian  Gulf]:  a  Utick  plain  silk,  generally  black,  used 
for  clerical  robes. 

ARMS:  as  weapons  of  offense — divided  into  two  great 
classes — those  that  act  by  means  of  gunpowder,  and  those 
that  do  not.  Of  arms  that  act  otherwise  than  by  explosion, 
the  greater  part  have  been  in  use  from  the  earliest  times; 
they  include  the  bow  and  arrow,  sling,  pike,  spear,  lance, 
dart,  javelin,  dagger,  ax,  mace,  spiked  or  knotted  club, 
scythe  for  chariots,  dirk,  bayonet,  sword,  cutlass,  etc.,  to- 
gether with  such  artillery  as  the  ballista,  catapulta,  and 
battering-ram.  Weapons  depending  on  the  use  of  gun- 
po\vder  are  of  two  kinds — those  that  can  be  held  in  the 
hand,  and  those  that  are  too  heavy  to  be  portable.  In  the 
first  class  are  found  the  names  of  the  hand-cannon,  hand- 
gun, arquebus,  haquebut,  demi-haque,  matchlock,  wheel- 
lock,  firelock,  currier,  snaphaunce,  caliver,  esclopette,  pet- 
roucl,  dragon,  hand-mortar,  dag,  tricker-lock,  carbine, 
fusil,  fowlingpiece,  blunderbuss,  pistol,  musket  or  mus- 
quet,  musketoon,  rifle,  etc.  In  the  second  class,  more  us- 
ually included  under  the  name  of  artillery,  are  found  the 
spriugel,  war  wolf,  bombard,  cart-of-war,  culverin,  demi- 
ciilverin,  serpentine,  falcon,  saker,  cannon,  howitzer,  pe- 
tard, carronade,  mortar,  rifled  cannon,  war-rockets,  etc. 
For  the  more  important  of  these  (of  which  nine-tenths  are 
utterly  obsolete)  see  the  proper  titles. 

ARMS,  Armo'rial  Bearings,  or  Ensigns:  devices, 
wliich  when  painted  on  a  shield  form  a  coat  of  arms. 
Tiiese  terms  in  popular  speech  include  all  the  accompani- 
mi  nts  of  a  shield— viz.,  the  crest,  helmet,  and,  where  such 
ex  fit,  the  supporters,  etc.     See  these  terms:  also  Usa- 

▲I.  DRY. 

ARMS,  Assumftivb:  see  Heraldry. 

ARMS,  Bells  of:  tents  mostly  of  a  conical  shape,  for 
coQtaining  the  small-arms  for  each  companv  in  a  regiment 
of  infantry.  The  tent  is  frequentljr  painted  >vitb  the  coloi 
of  the  facings  of  the  regimental  uniforms- 

ARMS,  Coat  of  :  see  Heraldrv 


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ARMS-ARMBTRONG. 

ARMS,  MsasENQEB  at:  see  Mbssbngbrs-at-Abmb. 

ARMS,  Sbrgbant  at:  see  Sergeant- at-Arms. 

ARMS,  Stand  of:  the  complete  set  necessary  for  the 
equipment  of  one  soldier,  whetner  horse  or  foot. 

ARMSTRONG,  drm'str&ng,  John:  1709-1779,  Sep.  7;  h. 
Castletown,  a  pastoral  parish  in  Roxburghshire,  of  which 
his  father  was  minister.  He  studied  medicine  at  the  Univ. 
of  Edinburgh,  and  soon  afterwards  commenced  practice 
in  London,  and  became  known  by  the  publication  of  sev- 
eral fugitive  pieces  and  medical  essays.  In  1737,  he  pub- 
lished a  very  objectionable  poem.  The  Economy  of  Lave, 
which  injured  his  reputation  for  a  time.  His  principal 
work.  The  Art  cf  Preserting  Health,  a  didactic  poem  in 
blank  verse,  extending  through  four  books,  appeared  in 
1744.  In  1760,  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  forces  in 
Germany.  Returning  to Xondon,  he  resumed  practice,  and 
died  there.  He  was  the  author  of  several  vols,  in  verse 
and  in  prose. 

ARMSTRONG,  John:  1758-1848  (or  55) ;  b.  Carlisle, 
Penn. :  American  soldier  and  author.  He  served  in  the 
Revolutionary  war,  and  at  its  close  wrote  the  Newburgh 
Letters,  taking  up  the  cause  of  the  officers  who  were  suffer- 
ing for  their  pay.  These  letters  were  published  anony- 
mously, and  caused  much  excitement  Washington  took 
the  matter  In  hand,  wisely  averted  the  dangers  of  the  move- 
ment, and  did  what  he  could  to  r^ress  the  wrongs  of  the 
soldiers.  See  Irvlng's  Life  <tf  Washington,  He  was  a 
brigadier  gen.  in  the  war  of  1812.  He  held  several  im- 
portant civil  offices,  and  was  secretary  of  war,  1818-14.  Be- 
ing held  responsible  for  the  capture*of  Washington  by  the 
British,  he  resigned,  1814,  Sept  He  published  several 
historical  works  relating  to  the  wars  in  which  he  had 

ARMSTRONG,  John:  1784,  May  8—1829,  Dec.  12;  b. 
Ayres  Quay  near  Bishop- Wearmouth:  eminent  phvsician 
and  medical  writer.  He  studied  medicine  at  the  Univ.  of 
Edinburgh,  commenced  practice  at  Bishoj)- Wearmouth, 
and  in  1818  he  removed  to  London,  where  his  practice  be- 
came extensive,  and  he  was  elected  physician  to  the  fever 
hospital.  His  works  on  medical  science  were  numerous, 
and  of  much  value,  especially  regarding  typhus  fever,  and 
febrile  diseases  generally.  His  lectures  to  his  medical 
classes  were  published  after  his  death,  with  the  title. 
Lectures  on  (fie  Morbid  Anatomy,  Nature,  and  Treatment  of 
Acute  and  Chronic  Diseases,  by  Vie  late  John  Armstrong, 
M.D.  Edited  by  Joseph  i2£&---one  of  his  pupils.  (London, 
1834,  8vo.) 

ARMSTRONG,  Samuel  Chapman,  ll.d.:  military 
officer,  and  educator:  1839,  Jan.  30—1893,  May  11;  b. 
Wailuka,  Main,  Hawaii;  son  of  Richard  A.,  d.d.  (1805-^, 
b.  Penn.  of  Scotch-Irish  descent).  Gen.  A.'s  mother  was 
b.  in  Mass.,  of  Puritan  stock.  His  parents  went  1831  as 
missionaries,  of  the  Amer.  Board,  to  the  Sandwich  Isl- 
ands. He  came  to  this  country  1860,  to  complete  his 
educatton,  and  graduated  at  Williams  Coll.,  Mass.,  1862. 


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ARMSTRONG. 

In  that  year,  he  organized  a  company  of  vols,  and  entered 
the  Union  army  as  capt.  Three  months*  imprisonment 
followed  his  capture  at  Harper's  Ferry.  His  gallantly  at 
Grettyshurg  won  his  promotion  as  major  125th  N.  Y.  vols. 
He  was  promoted  lieuUcol.  9th  U.  S.  colored  inf.  1863; 
col.  8th  U.  8.  colored  inf. ;  and  brevetted  brig.gen.  vols. 
1865.  1866,  Mar.,  he  was  placed  by  Qeu.  O.  O.  Howard 
in  charge  of  10  counties  in  e.  Ya.  with  headquarters  at 
Hampton,  then  a  great  contrband  camp.  In  this  district 
there  was  much  irritation  between  the  swarms  of  colored 
refugees  and  Qen.  Lee's  disbanded  soldiers  and  the  former 
residents;  but  order  and  peace  were  sifcured  by  the  firm 
and  kindly  rule  of  Qen,  A.  At  this  time,  according  to 
his  suggestion  and  plan,  was  established  the  Hampton 
Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  (<l.v.).  Unexpectedly 
to  himself  Glen.  A.  was  offered  the  chief  directon  of  this 
work,  to  which  he  devoted  his  life  with  unfla^ng  ardor 
and  self  sacrifice.  Qen.  A.  has  annually  raised  by  his 
own  efforts  at  the  north  $60,000  to  carry  on  this  great 
work.  In  1891,  in  Boston,  while  making  a  plea  for  Hamp- 
ton he  was  stricken  with  paralysis,  from  which  he  never 
entirely  recovered.    He  died  at  the  scene  of  his  labors. 

ARMSTRONG,  Lord  (William  Qeobgb  Armstrong), 
LL.D.,  D.C.L.:  noted  for  his  inventions,  especial] v  in  artil- 
lery and  in  water-power  machinery:  b.  1810.  Newcastle, 
where  his  father  was  a  merchant.  A.  was  articled  to  a  solici- 
tor in  Newcastle  and  became  his  partner,  but  gave  his  leisure 
to  his  favorite  pursuits  in  chemistry  and  mechanics,  and 
his  inventive  faculty  was  constantly  active.  About  1838 
he  invented  a  much  improved  hydraulic  engine;  in  1845 
a  hydraulic  crane;  in  1842,  an  apparatus  for  producing 
electricity  from  steam,  in  reality  from  the  friction  sustained 
by  the  small  quantity  of  water  which  accompanies  the 
steam  in  its  discharge.  These  and  other  inventions 
brought  him  into  notice;  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Soc.  1846;  and  shortly  afterward,  in  conjunction 
with  some  friends,  commenced  the  Elswick  engine  works, 
in  the  Bliburbs  of  his  native  town,  an  establishment  on  a 
large  scale  for  producing  mechanical  constructions. 

In  1854,  while  war  was  raging  in  the  Crimea,  the  War- 
olfice  was  solicited  by  many  inventors  to  make  trial  of 
new  forms  of  cannon  and  projectiles.  Mr.  A.,  one  of  tlie 
number,  was  employed  to  make  explosive  apparatus  for 
blowing  up  the  ships  sunk  at  Sebastopol.  This  led  him 
soon  afterwards  to  consider  improvements  in  ordnance, 
and  he  devised  a  form  of  breech-loading  cannon,  com- 
bining many  peculiarities  in  structure  and  action.  He  re- 
ceived encouragement  to  make  a  few  field-pieces  on  his 
new  method.  He  made  lengthened  experiments  on  the 
strength  of  iron  and  steel,  on  the  relative  merits  of  cast 
and  wrought  iron,  on  the  best  number  of  grooves  in  rifling, 
on  the  best  pitch  or  twist  for  these  grooves,  on  the  most 
convenient  modes  of  loading  at  the  breech  of  the  gun,  on 
the  mechanism  for  lessening  the  recoil,  on  the  b^  form 
and  stnictiire  of  shot  and  shells,  and  on  the  fuses  beat 
suited  for  igniting  the  shells  during  their  flight 

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ARMSTRONG. 

Most  of  the  early  experiments  were  with  guns  tbrow. 
ing  6-lb.  and  18-lb.  shot  and  shells,  and  subsequently 
£^lb.  shells.  The  last-named  gun  was  built*  up  piece- 
meal; to  avoid  flaws  or  faults,  and  to  insure  strength,  lijrht- 
ness,  and  durability.  It  was  made  in  8-f t.  lengths.  Bars 
of  WTOught-iron,  2  inches  wide,  were  heated  to  white- 
ness, twisted  spirally  round  a  steel  bar  or  core,  and  welded; 
other  bars  were  twisted  over  these  in  a  similar  way,  but 
with  an  opposite  turn  of  the  spiral;  a  third,  and  perhaps 
a  fourth  were  added,  accordmg  to  the  thickness  and 
strength  needed.  Another  heating  to  whiteness  pre- 
ceded a  thorough  welding  of  all  me  layers  of  bars  by 
a  steam  hammer.  The  ends  of  two  of  these  3-f  t.  pieces 
were  then  nicely  trimmed  and  adjusted,  placed  in  contact, 
and  bound  together  by  the  enormous  pressure  of  a  wrought- 
iron  ring  shrunk  on  while  at  a  white  heat.  By  varying  the 
number  and  length  of  these  sections,  a  gun  of  any  length 
could  be  made.  The  core  was  then  removed,  and  the 
bore  of  the  gun  rifled  by  exquisite  machinery.  The  rifle- 
grooves  were  so  small  and  close  as  to  be  upwards  of  40  in 
number;  their  pitch  or  twist  such  as  to  make  a  complete 
circuit  in  a  gun  10  ft.  long.  The  breech  of  the  gun  was 
wholly  distinct,  and  constructed  in  a  different  way;  it 
could  be  drawn  backward  by  unscrewing,  and  had  a  hole 
through  its  centre  for  introducing  the  shot  or  shell  and 
the  charge.  At  first  the  inventor  adopted  a  steel  interior 
for  his  gun;  but  afterwards  relied  on  the  toughest  wrought- 
iron.  The  projectile  employed  with  this  gun  might  be  solid 
shot,  shell;  case-shot,  or  canister-shot;  but  the  shell  was 
that  to  which  most  interest  is  attached.  It  was  about  three 
diameters  in  length;  and  thus  a  82-lb.  shot  or  shell  could 
be  fired  from  a  gun  of  much  smaller  calibre  than  if  it  were 
spherical.  The  shell  was  built  up  of  about  50  separate 
pieces  of  cast-iron,  very  accurately  fitted,  and  enveloped 
m  an  iron  sheath.  Outside  of  it  were  two  bands  of  Iciad^ 
soft  enough  to  be  forced  into  the  rifled  grooves  of  the  gun, 
and  thus  to  acquire  the  rotator3r  movement  by  which  the 
straightness  of  flight  is  so  much  insured. 

The  actual  results  obtained  by  a  gun  such  as  is  above 
described  were  almost  incredible.  An  ordinary  long  82- 
pounder  weighs  57  cwt. ;  Armstrong's  82-pounder  weighs 
26  cwt.  The  former  requires  10  lb.  of  powder  as  a  charge; 
for  the  latter  5  lb.  will  suffice.  The  former  will  send  a 
shot  or  shell  8,000  yards;  the  range  of  the  latter  exceeds 
9,000  yards.  The  fuses  attached  to  the  shells  are  so  exqui- 
sitely adjusted  that  the  shell  can  be  made  to  burst  either 
directly  on  leaving  the  gun,  or  half-way  on  its  path,  or 
when  it  strikes  an  object;  in  the  last-named  case,  even  a 
sack  of  shavings  will  afford  the  necessary  concussion ;  and 
yet,  so  close  is  the  structure,  that  an  uncharged  shell  has 
been  fired  completely  through  9  ft.  of  solid  oak  without 
the  pieces  separating.  A.'s  elaborate  experiments  were 
made  chiefly  with  a  6-pounder,  l{-inch  calibre,  and  so 
light  that  two  men  could  carry  it  (without  its  carriage); 
this  small  gun  could  reach  1,500  yards  with  wonderful  ao 


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ARMSTRONG. 

curacy  of  aim,  and  bad  a  range  of  8,000  yards  at  a  certain 
elevation. 

When  'A.  had  spent  much  of  his  time  and  thoughts 
during  four  years  on  this  subiect,  the  government,  sup- 
ported by  the  strongly  expressea  opinions  of  artillery  offl 
cers  of  all  ranks,  proposed  to  secure  the  result  of  these  ex- 
periments for  the  nation.  A.  offered  to  the  government, 
without  any  stipulation,  not  only  all  his  past  inventions, 
but  also  all  such  as  he  might  hereafter  discover.  This  led 
to  arrangements  which  the  ministers  in  parliament  char> 
actenzea  as  liberal  and  patriotic  on  his  part;  and  the  terms 
thus  suggested  were  accepted.  An  office  was  created  for 
him,  that  of  chief -engineer  of  rifled  ordnance,  for  seven 
years  provisionally;  and  a  certain  amount  of  salary  was 
determined  on,  in  consideration  at  once  of  his  past  in- 
ventions and  of  his  future  services.  He  was  knighted  by 
the  queen  in  1868. 

The  peculiar  connection,  partaking  in  some  degree  of  the 
nature  of  a  partnership,  between  the  government  and  the 
Elswick  firm,  underwent  chances  from  time  to  time,  and 
was  brought  to  a  close  in  1863.  During  its  continuance, 
guns  of  gradually  increasing  power  were  made  on  A.'s 
system;  8,  5,  and  12  pounders;  then  18,  20,  32,  and  40 
pounders;  then  rapidly  increasing  in  calibre,  until  at  length 
a  600-pounder  was  produced,  weighing  upwards  of  20  tons. 
The  coil  system  of  construction,  the  adoption  of  a  large 
number  of  rifle  grooves,  and  the  use  of  the  beautifully 
formed  segment  shell,  were  continued;  but  A.  made  vari- 
ations in  the  combination  of  steel  and  iron,  and  adopted 
muzzle-loading  for  manvof  his  larger  guns.  Elaborate  ex- 
periments made  by  the  War-office  led  to  a  conclusion  that 
the  A.  breech-loader  has  many  disadvantages  for  large  ord- 
nance. Notwithstanding  its  range,  accuracy,  power  of 
working  in  a  small  space,  easiness  to  clean,  and  safety  to 
the  gunners  while  loading,  it  is  neither  so  cheap  nor  so 
simple  as  the  muzzle-loader;  it  is  difficult  to  handle,  com- 
plicated, apt  to  get  out  of  order,  and  not  so  useful  for  gen- 
eral purposes.  The  comparative  cheapness  has  had  much 
to  do  witii  the  preference  of  the  War-office  for  the  Wool- 
wich gun,  a  muzzle-loader.  A.  supplies,  and  has  long 
suppli^,  many  foreign  governments  with  his  guns,  chiefly 
of  large  calibre.  The  manufacture  is  of  the  highest  order, 
effect^  through  the  medium  of  machine  tools  of  exquisite 
construction;  but  the  practical  utility  of  the  gun,  as  com- 
pared with  the  Whitworth,  Palliser,  and  other  kinds,  is 
still  matter  of  controversy.  See  Machine  Gun. 

The  great  reputation  and  commercial  success  of  A.  depend 
on  his  skill  as  a  constructor  of  water-power  machinery. 
Early  in  his  career,  in  1847,  when  a  plan  was  adopted  for 
supplying  Newcastle  with  water,  he  suggesteil  that  the 
power  derived  from  the  descent  of  the  water  through  pipes 
from  the  reservoir  should  be  utilized  for  working  hydraulic 
cranes  on  the  quay,  and  for  various  mechanical  purposes  in 
the  town;  this  was  done  with  marked  success.  The  system 
has  rapidly  grown;  imtil,  at  length,  the  A.  hydraulic  ma- 
chineiy  is  largely  adopted  in  England  and  other  countries 


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ARMY— ARMY  REGISTER. 

for  raisfngy  lowering,  hauling,  and  other  purposes  in  con- 
nection with  railways,  canals,  docks,  piers,  harbors,  lock- 
gates,  manufactories,  warehouses,  6tc.  The  fabrication  Of 
the  machinery  employs  a  very  large  number  of  hands  at 
Elswicky  where  the  works  are  carried  on  by  a  ioint-stock 
company.  A.  belongs  to  several  scientific  societies,  and 
was  in  1863  elected  president  of  the  British  Assoc.  He 
has  been  active  in  the  inquiries  concerning  the  operation 
of  the  patent  laws.  Cambridge  and  Oxford  have  conferred 
honorary  degrees  on  A.,  and  he  is  a  member  of  several 
foreign  knightly  orders.  He  was  knighted  by  the  queen 
1858;  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  A.  1883. 

ARMY:  a  body  of  men,  organized  and  armed  for  war. 
The  following  are  distinctions  m  the  application  of  the  name 
A.  A  Omenng  A.  is  encamped  or  in  cantonments,  for  the 
protection  of  the  different  passes  or  roads  which  lead  to  the 
town  or  other  place  to  be  protected.  A  Siege  A,  is  ranged 
isffoond  or  in  front  of  a  fortified  place,  to  capture  it  by  a 
regular  process  of  besieging.  A  Blockading  A,,  either  in- 
dependent of  or  auxiliary  to  a  siege  A.,  is  intended  to  pre- 
vent all  ingress  and  egress  at  the  streets  or  gates  of  a  be- 
sieged place.  lLuA,of  Observation  takes  up  an  advanced 
position,  and  by  celerity  of  movement  keeps  a  close  watch 
on  all  the  maneuvers  of  the  enemy.  An  A,  ^fBeconnais- 
$anee  has  a  more  specifd  duty  at  a  particular  time  and  place, 
to  ascertain  the  strength  andf  position  of  the  enemy's  forces. 
A  Flying  A,  comprises  a  strong  body  of  horse  and  foot, 
moving  quickly,  to  alarm  the  enemy,  and  to  protect  garri- 
sons. 

For  historical  notices  or  for  descriptions  of  national  mili- 
tary forces,  see  Armies:  British  Army:  United  States 
Army.  For  the  formation,  organization,  discipline,  arms, 
equipment,  duties,  and  tactics  of  armies,  see  the  proper 
UUes. 

ARMY  ADMINISTRATION:  the  whole  of  the  opera- 
tions  connected  with  the  raising,  clothing,  paying,  main- 
taining, and  controlling  of  an  army.  They  are  distinct 
matters  from  military  command  ana  discipline.  The  su- 
preme command  of  the  British  army  is  assigned  to  the  sov- 
ereign; but  the  secretary  of  state  for  war  is  her  responsible 
representative  in  all  that  concerns  administration— the  com- 
mander-in-chief bcinff  her  representative  in  matters  relating 
to  military  command  and  discipline.  The  secretary  is  the 
organ  through  whom  the  wishes  of  the  sovereign  are  recon- 
ciled with  the  wishes  and  intentions  of  parliament.  Until 
the  war  with  Russia  in  1854,  the  administrative  depart- 
ments were  much  scattered;  but  now  they  are  all  consoli- 
dated under  the  secretary  of  state  for  war.  See  War  Db- 
PARTMBNT.  In  the  United  States,  the  president  is  com- 
mander in-chief  of  all  the  military  forces  of  the  nation;  tlie 
secretary  of  war,  appointed  by  the  president,  has  the  charge 
of  military  admhnistration  under  the  president's  direction. 

ARMY  REGISTER:  an  annual  publication  under  au- 
thority of  the  U.  S.  govt.,  giving  the  official  list  of  the  U. 
S.  Army.    It  shows  the  regiments,  companies,  etc.;  the 


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ARMY  SCHOOLS— ARNAULD. 
officers;  with  the  deaths  and  promotioDS  during  the  year 
previous.    A  similar  publication  in  Great  Britain  is  called 
the  Army  List. 

ARMY  SCHOOLS:  arrangement  for  instruction  under 
govt,  auspices,  in  connection  with  the  U.  S.  army.  They 
comprise  two  plans;  one  for  education  of  enlisted  men; 
the  other  for  the  children  of  enlisted,  men  for  whom  it  is 
compulsory,  and  for  those  of  officers,  for  whom  it  is  op- 
tional. The  schools  for  soldiers  are  termed  post  schools* 
and  are  conducted  by  otticers  of  recognized  ability,  de- 
tailed for  the  purpose,  and  whose  duty  it  is,  to  instruct 
enlisted  men,  and  who  are  assisted  by  competent  persons 
detailed  from  the  rank  and  file,  in  the  proiiortion  of  not 
more  than  1  to  every  15  men.  Where  a  post  has  a  chap- 
lain he  is  also  the  instructor.  Officers  from  the  inspector- 
general's  dept;  inspect  these  schools  at  stated  periods,  and 
exercise  authority  in  regard  to  the  systems  of  education 
and  methods  employed.  Children's  schools  are  established 
at  posts  where  the  number  of  soldiers'  children  warrants 
it,  and  where  no  other  means  for  iustniclion  exist;  and  in 
such  cases  the  children  of  private  citizens  living  in  the 
neighborhood  of  army  posts  are  permitted,  on  payment 
of  a  small  stipulated  sum,  to  partake  of  the  advantages. 

ARMY  "WORM  {Laieania  vnipunc(a):  agrav  caterpillar, 
striped  with  dark  and  yellow  lines,  allied  to  tlie  cut  worm 
(q.v.),  sometimes  very  destructive  to  cereal  and  forage 
crops.  Though  found  at  thes.,  it  is  more  common  in  the 
n.  and  central  states.  The  moth  is  brown,  with  white  dot 
on  the  fore-wing.  Its  eggs  are  laid,  from  Apr.  to  June 
according  to  latitude,  on  grass  plants,  between  the  shenlli 
and  blade,  and  hatch  in  7  to  10  days.  The  larva  eats  vo- 
raciously till  it  reaches  its  full  size,  nearly  2  in.  in  length, 
in  al)Out  four  weeks.  It  then  forms  a  cell  in  the  ground, 
changes  to  the  pupa  state,  and  in  14  to  21  days  emerges  as 
a  moth.  In  the  n.  there  are  sometimes  2  broods,  and  at  the 
s.  3  are  common  in  a  single  season.  Many  of  the  moths, 
and  a  still  larger  number  of  the  larvse,  live  through  the 
winter.  In  regions  where  it  finds  its  home,  this  insect  is 
usually  present  in  grass-fields,  but  seldom  attracts  much 
attention.  Occasionally  there  is  a  season  in  which  its 
numbers  are  greatly  increased,  and  it  causes  farmers 
immense  loss.  When  compelled  to  migrate  for  food  the 
caterpillars  march  in  a  solid  body  like  an  army,  take  a 
straight  course,  and  consume  every  green  thing  in  their 
path.  In  about  2  weeks  from  the  beginninjf  of  their 
march  they  enter  the  ground  to  be  transformed  into  moths. 
Their  appearance  cannot  be  confidently  predicted,  but  is 
most  likely  after  a  rnild  winter  preceded  by  a  dry  summer. 
Myriads  of  these  insects  are  destroyed  by  contagious  dis- 
eases; also  birds  and  other  insects  are  very  destructive. 
Their  vast  numbers  make  it  difficult  to  check  their 
migrations;  but  the  plowing  of  deep  furrows  with  the 
steep  sides  away  from  the  worms,  placing  boards  on  edge 
to  form  a  fence,  and  poisoning  with  Paris  green  the  grass 
or  grain  in  their  path,  have  been  tried  with  varying  success. 

ARNAULD,  iirnO',  Ang^lique:   1624,  Nov.  28— 1(»4, 


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ABNAtJLD. 
Jan.  29;  dau.  of  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andlily.  From  bet 
earliest  years,  she  showed  extraordinary  force  and  resolutu- 
ness  of  character.  When  not  quite  twenty  years  of  a^fo, 
she  became  a  nun  at  Port-Iioyal  des  Champs,  where  she 
had  been  educated  by  her  aunt,  Marie  Jaqueline  Ang6- 
lique  Arnauld,  sister  of  the  great  Arnauld.  Nine  years 
afterwards  she  was  made  sub-prioress;  and,  removing  some 
years  later  to  Port-Royal  cie  Paris,  she  held  the  same 
office.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Port- Royalists,  A. 
A.,  hv  her  piety  and  courage,  sustained  the  spirit  of  the 
sisterhood.  The  whole  family,  male  and  female,  were  de- 
termined Jansenists,  and  none  more  so  than  Mother  Ang^- 
lique  de  Saint- Jean  ^ler  conventual  name),  who  met  her 
many  misfortimes  with  earnest  intrepidity.  A  royal  order 
was  issued  to  break  up  the  nunnery.  The  police  arrested 
the  inmates,  who  were  dispersed  in  various  convents 
throughout  France,  and  constant  efforts  were  made  by  the 
Jesuits  to  induce  them  to  sign  the  '  Formulary  of  Alex- 
ander VII.*  A.  A.  was  alone  exempted  from  listening  to 
their  ar^ments  and  solicitations,  her  *  obstinacy '  being 
supDosed  invincible.  At  length,  by  command  of  the  Abp. 
of  Paris,  the  nuns  were  restored  to  Port-Royal  des  Champs; 
but  for  some  years  they  were  subjected  to  a  strict  surveil- 
lance by  soldiers,  who  watched  all  their  movements,  and 
allowed  them  no  intercourse  with  persons  out  of  the  con- 
vent. In  1669,  however,  was  issued  the  edict  of  Clement 
IX.  for  the  peace  of  the  church,  which  was  a  kind  of  com- 
promise on  the  vexed  question  of  Jansenism  and  Jesuit- 
ism. The  nuns  received  back  the  privileges  of  which  they 
had  been  stripped,  and  constituted  their  society  anew. 
A.  A.  was  again  elected  prioress.  In  1678,  she  was  made 
abbess.  After  the  death  of  her  protectress,  the  Duchesse 
de  Longueville,  1679,  the  persecution  recommenced.  At 
last  Ang^lique  sank  under  a  complication  of  griefs,  and 
died.  She  was  learned  without  being  pedantic,  pious 
without  bigotry,  and  gentle  to  others  in  proportion  as  she 
was  severe  to  herself.  A.  A.  wrote  several  works,  the 
most  valuable  of  which  is  Memoires  pour  ^ervvr  d  la  Vieds 
Mhre  Mcme  Angelique  Arnauld  de  mints  Madeleine,  lU- 
fomuUriee  de  Port-Boyai, 

ARNAULD,  Antoine:  1560-1619,  Dec.  29;  b.  Paris:  the 
greatest  advocate  of  his  time  In  France.  He  was  descend- 
ed from  an  ancient  family  in  Auvergne,  which  had  distin- 
guished itself  in  both  civil  and  military  affairs.  A.  was  not 
less  remarkable  for  his  eloquence  than  for  his  probity.  His 
zealous  defense  of  the  Univ.  of  Paris  against  the  Jesuits 
in  1594  won  for  him  a  wide  celebrity.  It  was  reprinted 
in  1717.  He  published  another  work  against  the  Society 
of  Jesus  and  several  tractates  of  an  earnest  political  char- 
acter. The  Jesuits  accused  him  of  being  a  Huguenot, 
but  the  accusation  was  unfounded,  for  he  had  no  personal 
predilection  in  favor  of  Prot^tantism  as  a  distinct  relig- 
ious system.  He  had  several  children,  who  formed  the 
Qucleus  of  the  Jansenists  and  Port-Royalists. 


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ARNAULD 

ARNAULD.  Antotnb,  known  as  the  great  A.':  1612^ 
Feb.  6 — ^1694,  Aug.  8;  b.  Paris:  twentieth  and  youngest  son 
of  Antoine  (1560-1619).  Although  originally  intended  fof 
the  bar;  he  disliked  the  legal  profession,  and  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  the  church.  At  the  Sorbonne,  he  became  a  pupil 
of  Lescot,  the  confessor  of  Cardinal  Kichelieu,  and  after- 
wards bishop  of  Chartres.  Lescot  initiated  him  into  the 
scholastic  theolo^;  but  his  attention  and  admiration  were 
drawn  to  the  writings  of  Augustine,  who,  he  himself  ad- 
mitted, first  showed  him  the  difference  between  the  two 
states — that  of  a  nature  whole  and  sound,  and  that  of  a 
nature  corrupted  by  sin.  In  1641,  the  Sorbonne  wished  to 
receive  him  into  their  society,  oa  account  of  his  •xtraordi- 
nary  piety  and  talents,  but  Cardinal  Richelieu  opposed 
this.  In  the  following  year  he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and 
in  1648  he  published  a  work  entitled  De  la  FrequsrUe  Com- 
munion, which  was  received  in  the  most  favorable  manner 
by  all  except  the  Jesuita  who  had  taken  alarm  at  the  vir- 
tues of  A.,  and  were  already  attempting  to  defame  one 
whom  they  instinctively  fell  to  be  a  reproach  to  their  or- 
dc;r.  As  a  consequence  of  this  publication,  he  was  now 
admitted  'of  the  Society'  of  the  Sorbonne.  A.  not^only 
replied  to  the  aspersions  of  the  Jesuits  in  his  AtertimmnenU 
but  also  sent  forth  a  work  which  was  the  prelude  to  a  long 
and  fierce  contest  with  his  adversaries,  TlUologie  Morale 
(Us  JesuUes  (Moral  Theology  of  the  Jesuits).  But  *he  hatred 
of  the  latter  was  not  confined  to  literary  libels;  they  ad- 
vised the  chancellor  of  the  Sorbonne  to  carry  the  dispute 
to  Home,  whither  A.  would  be  obliged  to  follow  and  de- 
fend himself.  In  this  scheme,  however,  they  were  de- 
feated. 

A.  now  buried  himself  in  seclusion  for  twenty-one  years, 
during  which  period  his  pen  was  almost  continuously  ac- 
tive. In  1644,  appeared  his  Tra^tiUon  de  Vl^Um  eur  la 
Penitence  (Opinion  of  the  Church  on  the  Doctrine  of  Peni- 
tence). It  was  a  reply  to  the  attacks  which  the  Jesuits 
had  made  against  his  jBVequent  Communion,  A.  was  still 
entangled  in  the  disputes  which  arose  out  of  this  treatise, 
when  he  became  involved  in  another  controversy  that 
colored  the  whole  of  his  subsequent  career,  and  may  be 
said  to  have  won  for  him  his  position  in  history.  This  was 
the  ^reat  Jansenist  controversy.  In  1640,  had  appeared  a 
posthumous  work  of  Jansenius,  bishop  of  Ypres,  entitled 
Augustinus;  seu  Doctrina  SaneU  AugueUni  de  Humana 
Naturm  SancUiate,  ./Egritudine,  MxUeind,  adcenus  Pelagi- 
anos  et  Ifassilienses,  it  laid  down  with  a  rigor  equal  to 
that  of  Calvin  the  doctrines  of  predestination,  the  corrup- 
tion of  human  nature,  and  the  depravity  of  the  will.  It 
wab  specially  intended  as  a  counteractive  against  the  lax 
principles  and  loose  morality  of  the  Jesuits,  many  of  whom, 
and  especially  their  great  champion,  Molina,  entertained 
extreme  Pelagian  views  of  the  freedom  of  the  human  w^ill, 
which  they  had  cunningly  interwoven  into  their  '  scarlet- 
colored  '  web  of  ethics.  The  work,  in  the  meantime,  was 
condemned  by  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  1641,  Aug.  1.  A.,  who 
V*iickly  apprehended  its  vital  importance  in  the  existing 


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ARNAULD. 

iitate  of  things,  boldlv  yentured  to  defend  it  against  tho 
censures  of  the  papal  bull.  He  published  several  pam< 
rihlets,  closing  with  a  first  and  second  ApologiedeJan9enius, 
It  is  to  the  honor  of  the  religion  of  A.,  however,  that  it 
-was  not  always  controversial.  Whenever  a  moment  of 
armistice  was  permitted  him,  he 'occupied  it  in  writing 
such  works  as  Manirs  de  VEglUe  Catholique,  La  Correction, 
La  Grace,  La  Verite  de  la  HeUgUm,  De  la  Foi,  de  VE^per- 
a/fuye,  eidela  Gharite,  and  the  Manuel  de  Saint  Augustine, 
lie  alk)  varied  these  occupations  by  translating  into  Latin 
1  is  Frequent  Communion,  and  by  the  composition  of  his 
NauB  OtieeUonee  contra  Benat.  Deacartis  MedUationes,  and 
several  smaller  tractates.  In  addition  to  his  literary  labors, 
he  undertook  the  direction  of  the  nuns  of  Port-Royal  des 
Champs,  a  convent  of  which  his  sister,  Marie  Jaquelioe 
Angehque  Amauld,  was  abbess.  In  this  retreat  he  was 
surrounded  by  many  friends,  thirsting  like  himself  for  the 
quiet  pleasures  of  study,  some  of  whom  have  left  their 
mark  in  the  world,  such  as  Pascal,  Nicole,  etc.  Here  they 
wrote  ill  common  numerous  excellent  works.  A.  executed 
parts  wf  the  Qrammaire  QenSrale  Baieonnee  de  Oeometrie,  and 
L'Art  de  Penser,  In  1649,  the  Jansenist  controversy  broke 
out  more  fiercely  than  ever.  TheAumMinue  of  the  Bish- 
op of  Ypres  was  again  attacked  and  condemned  by  the 
Sorbonne  and  the  pope.  A.  replied  in  his  Cansideraiions, 
In  1650,  appeared  what  he  conceivea  to  be  his  best  work, 
L'Apoloffie  pour  lea  Saints  Peres.  For  the  next  half-dozen 
years  he  was  engaged  in  constant  and  painful  disputes; 
yet,  in  spite  of  the  polemical  character  of  his  life,  the  im- 
pression of  his  piety  and  earnestness  was  deepened  in  the 
mind  of  the  nation;  and  on  reading  some  of  his  composi- 
tions, even  Alexander  VII.  is  reported  to  have  praisea  the 
author,  and  to  have  exhorted  him  for  the  future  to  despise 
the  libels  of  Ills  adversaries.  During  the  strife  he  pub- 
lished La  Concorde  des  Ehxmff'Xes  and  V  Office  du  Saint- Sa- 
erement.  In  1655-56,  for  prudential  reasons,  he  left  his  re- 
treat at  Port-Royal;  about  the  same  time  he  was  expelled 
from  the  Sorbonne  and  the  faculty  of  theology. 

In  1656,  the  war  with  the  Jesuits  was  renewed — net, 
however,  by  A.  in  person.  An  unknown  knight  with 
closed  visor  had  ridden  into  the  lists — the  great  Pascal. 
Under  the  nom  de  plume  of  Louis  de  Montalto,  he  dis- 
charged his  scorpion  wit  against  the  Jesuits  for  al>out  a 
year  and  a  half  in  the  Provincial  Letters.  A.  furnished 
him  with  materials;  but,  in  1658,  he  took  the  field  inprojrrid 
persond  by  publishing  his  Oinf  Ecrits  en  favour  des  Cures 
de  Paris  conire  les  Casuistes  relaches.  In  1662,  appeared  Im 
Noutelle  Heresie  (of  the  Jesuits);  in  1669,  the  first  vol.  of  his 
Morale  PraUque  (of  the  Jesuits),  the  last  of  which  was  not 
published  until  the  year  of  his  death. 

A.,  who  was  a  sincere  Catholic  after  hie  t'ni»hion,  next 
had  a  theological  controversy,  properly  so-called,  with  the 
reformed  minister  Claude,  the  consotiuence  of  which  was 
his  vol.,  Du  Renversement  de  la  Morale  de  J.  G.  par  la  Doc- 
trine des  Calvinistes  touchani  la  Jusiification  (1672),  In  1675, 
be  returned  to  the  subject  in  his  Intpiete  ue  h  Morale  d^ 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARNAULD— ARNDT. 

Oalvinisles,  Some  years  previous  to  this,  A .  had  enjoyed 
the  peace  of  Clement  IX.,  which  put  a  stop  for  the  time 
to  the  Jansenist  controversy.  He  had  been  presented  to 
the  papal  nuncio  and  to  the  Grand  Monargue,  both  of  whom 
flattered  him  highly;  but  the  Jesuits,  who  could  not 
breathe  freely  in  his  prepuce,  used  their  utmost  efforts  to 
prejudice  Louis  against  him,  and  at  last  the  king  issued 
an  order  for  his  arrest.  A.  hid  himself  for  some  time,  but 
finally  withdrew  into  Belgium.  He  felt  his  exile  keenly, 
though  honored  by  mediy  persons  of  learning  and^ig- 
nity;  and  could  not  rest  in  one  city,  but  wandered  from 
place  to  place,  ever  showing  the  same  astoniBhing  vigor 
of  mind  and  the  same  polemical  tendency.  It  is  strange  that 
this  man,  who  was  celebrated  among  his  friends  for  equa- 
nimity and  gentleness  of  heart,  should  have  been  so  bitter 
in  his  controversies,  even  with  his  friends,  for  he  wrote 
not  against  his  enemies  only,  but  against  Pascal,  Domat, 
Nicole,  his  protector,  Pope  Innocent  XI.,  and  his  old 
friend,  P^re  Malebranche.  So  earnest  was  he  for  the 
truth — which  earnestness  had  no  doubt  been  greatly  inten- 
sified by  persecution  and  controversy — that  he  could  never 
thoroughly  recognize  that  there  might  be  truth  on  the 
other  side  also.  1^  died  at  Brussels.  His  works,  which 
amount  to  upwards  of  100  vols.,  were  pub.  Paris,  1775-63. 

ARNAULI),  Robert  d'Akdilly:  1588-1674,  Sept.  27; 
eldest  son  of  Antoine  Arnauld,  the  advocate;  brother  of 
the  great  Arnauld.  He  was  a  person  of  considerable  con- 
sequence at  the  French  court,  where  his  influence  was 
ever  exerted  beneficially.  Balzac  spoke  very  highly  of 
him.  At  the  age  of  fifty  five,  he  quitted  the  bustle  of  the 
world  for  the  solitude  of  Port-Royal  des  Champ,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  reli^ous  history  and  tioffraphy. 
His  chief  works  are  translations,  such  as  those  of  the  Con- 
fesshns  of  8t.  Augustine  and  of  the  History  of  the  Jetrs,  by 
Josephus.  The  latter  work  is  esteemed  more  elegant  than 
accurate,  however.  In  1668,  appeared  his  translation  of 
the  Lives  of  the  Holy  Fathers  of  the  Desert,  and  of  several 
Saints;  and  in  1670,  that  of  the  works  of  St.  Theresa.  He 
was  likewise  the  author  of  some  pieces  of  religious  verse. 

ARNAUTS,  n.  plu.  dr'nawts,  a  native  name  for  the  Al- 
banian mountaineers,  and  meaning  *  brave  men.' 

ARND,  or  Arndt,  dmt,  Johann:  1555-1621;  b.  at 
Balleustadt,  Anhalt;  was  Lutheran  pastor  at  Quedlin- 
burg,  Brunswick,  and  elsewhere,  and  died  at  Celle,  Han- 
over. He  was  remarkable  for  his  piety  and  active  benevo- 
lence; but  he  is  known  chiefly  for  a  work  entitled  Trus 
Christianity  ( Wahres  Christenthum),  which  was  translated 
into  most  European  languages,  and  is  yet  popular  in  (Ger- 
many. Its  object  is  *  edification ' — the  promotion  of  prac- 
tical religion;  and  it  is  written  with  ^reat  warmth  and 
Unction,  and  in  a  strain  of  piety  bordering  on  mysticism. 
It  has  been  called  the  Protestant  H  Kempis,  and  its  author 
the  Fenelon  of  the  Protestant  Church.  There  is  an 
English  translation  by  W.  Jaques  (Lond.  1815,  2  vols.). 

ARNDT.  Ernst  Morxtx:  1769-1960,  Jan.  29;  b.  in  tb« 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARNE. 

island  of  ROgen:  prof,  in  the  Univ.  of  Bonn,  and  for  half 
a  century  one  of  the  leading  political  writers  of  Germany. 
After  travelling  over  ^reat  part  of  Europe,  he  became,  in 
1806,  prof,  of  history  m  Greifswald.  Here,  among  other 
writings,  he  published  his  Ui»tory  of  Serfdom  in  Pomerania, 
for  which  he  was  formally  denounced  and  accused  by 
several  nobles.  In  his  SpCrii  of  the  Times  (Altenb.  1807), 
he  attacked  Napoleon  with  such  boldness  that,  after  the 
battle  of  Jena,  he  had  to  take  refuge  in  Stockholm.  Re- 
tuminj^  under  a  feigned  name,  he  resumed  his  functions 
at  Greifswald  in  1810;  but  war  becoming  imminent,  he  re- 
signed the  following  year,  and  became  an  active  co-oper- 
ator with  the  minister.  Von  Stein,  and  other  patriots,  in 
throwing  off  the  foreign  yoke.  His  numerous  fugitive 
writings,  full  of  energy  and  fire,  contributed  not  a  little 
to  rouse  and  sustain  the  spirit  of  Germany  for  the  war  of 
Ifberation.  His  best  poems  belong  to  this  period,  and 
several  of  them  have  become  national  son^.  (A  new 
selection,  Leip  1850.)  His  song.  What  is  me  OemiaWs 
Fatherland?  is  sung  wherever  German  is  spoken.  In  1818, 
he  was  made  prof,  of  modem  history  in  the  new  Univ.  of 
Bonn,  but  bec»me  involved  in  1819  in  the  prosecutions  for 
what  were  called  'demago^c  movements,' and  was  sus- 
pended. Though  acquitted  on  trial,  he  was  made  to  re- 
tire, retaining  his  salarv.  After  twenty  years'  suspension, 
he  was  restored  in  1840.  His  writings  are  numerous:  we 
imiy  mention  his  Beschreibung  und  Geschichte  der  Schoti- 
Idnd,  Inseln,  etc.  (Leip.  1826):  a  collection  of  his  fugitive 
Sehrfften  fur  und  an  meine  lieben  Deutschen  (8  vols.  Leip. 
1845);  and  Erinnerungen  aus  dem  aussern  Leben  (8d  ed. 
Leip.  1842).  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  German 
national  assembly  in  1848,  but  seceded  from  it  with  the 
whole  Gagem  (q.v.)  party  in  1849.  He  powerfully  sup- 
I)orted  the  party  who  advocated  a  constitutional  hereditary 
monarchy,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  appointment 
of  the  archduke  John  as  regent,  and  in  the  frmtless  depu- 
tation to  Berlin  to  offer  the  enapire  to  the  king  of  Prussia. 
After  the  dissolution  of  the  Frankfort  assembly,  A.  did 
not  cease  in  his  fugitive  writings  to  advocate  the  views  of 
the  German  national  party. 

ARKE,  dm,  Thomas  Augustine,  Mus.  Doc:  1710-78; 
b.  London:  one  of  the  best  and  most  cenial  of  English 
composers.  He  received  his  early  education  at  Eton. 
His  lather,  who  was  an  upholsterer,  intended  to  educate 
him  for  the  bar;  but  the  love  of  music  was  too  strong  to 
be  restrained.  Young  A.  became  skilful  as  a  violin-player, 
forming  his  style  chiefly  on  the  model  of  Corel li;  and  his 
zeal  in  the  study  of  music  induced  his  sister  (afterwards 
celebrated  as  Mrs.  Gibber)  to  cultivate  her  excellent  voice. 
He  wrote  for  her  a  part  in  his  first  opera,  Easamond,  which 
was  firs*  performed  with  great  success  in  1783.  Next  fol- 
lowed his  comip  operetta,  Tom  Thumb,  or  Vie  Opera  of 
Operas;  and  afterwards  his  Gomus  (1738),  showing  greater 
c'lltivation  of  style.  He  married  a  singer,  Cecilia  loun^ 
(1840);  and  after  a  successful  visit  to  Ireland,  was  engaged 
as  composer  to  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  and  wrote  many 
TQCal  pieces  for  the  V^uxhall  concerts.    The  national  vAxt 

Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


ARNEB— ARNEE. 

Rule  Britannia,  which  was  originally  given  in  a  popular 

B;rformance,  The  Masque  cf  Alfred,  was  his  compositioii. 
e  composed  also  two  oratorios,  the  opera  Eliza,  and 
another,  Artawerxes,  in  the  Italian  style;  but  his  genius 
was  better  adapted  to  simple  pastoral  melody  than  to  great 
dramatic  compositions.    He  died  in  London. 

ARNEB,  n.  or' neb:  fixed  star  of  8i  magnitude,  called 
also  a  Leporis. 

ARNEE,  u.  Ar-ne',  or  Arna  [native  name]:  the  lareest 
animal  of  the  ox  kind  yet  known.    It  is  a  native  of  India, 


Skull  and  Horns  of  Amee. 

and  is  found  chiefly  in  the  forests  at  the  base  of  the 
Himalayas  and  in  the  n.  e.  provinces,  never  descending  to 
the  low  plains.  It  is  simply  the  wild  buffalo,  and  differs 
from  the  tame  variety  in  being  larger  and  fiercer.  Alone 
of  Indian  wild  auimals,  it  will  charge  unprovoked.    The 


Amee. 
(From  an  Indian  picture.) 

A.  is  technically  termed  Btthaltu  Ami.  The  color  is  slaty 
black;  the  hide  very  thick,  with  scanty  hairs.  A  pair  of 
horns  in  the  British  Museum  measure  more  than  six  feet 
ejich  along  the  outer  curve.  When  the  head  of  an  A.  is 
placed  with  the  muzzle  on  the  ground,  it  requires  the 
outstretched  arms  of  a  man  to  hold  the  points  of  the  Ii<hii8* 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARNHEIM-ARNICA. 

from  the  maimer  in  which  the  A.  is  introuucecT  in  Indian 
paintings,  it  seems  to  have  been  sometimes  tamed. 

ARNHEIM,  dm' him,  or  Abnhem,  the  Roman  Arenacam: 
cap.  of  the  prov.  of  Guelderland,  Holland;  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  boats; 
has  a  considerable  transit- trade  between  Amsterdam  and 
Qermany.  The  environs  of  this  strongly  fortified  town  are 
exceedingly  picturesque.  Among  its  most  remarkable  build- 
ings are  tne  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  which  contains 
monuments  of  the  dukes  of  Guelderland;  an^d  the  town- 
house,  noted  for  the  grotesque  adornment  of  its  front,  whicL 
has  gained  it  the  name  of  Duivelshuis.  There  are  several 
paper-mills  in  the  neighborhood.  Here  Sir  Philip  Sidney 
died  in  1586,  after  the  battle  of  Zutphen.  In  1813,  A.  was 
taken  by  storm  by  the  Prussians,  under  General  Bulow, 
and  the  way  thus  prepared  for  the  occupation  of  Holland. 
Pop.  (1879)  40,978.   (1891)  50.194. 

ARNHEM  LAND,  dm'Mm-:  name  formerly  applied  to 
a  region  in  North  Australia;  80  called  from  the  ship  of  the 
Dutch  navigators  who  discovered  it,  1618. 

ARNICA,  n.  dr'ni-ka  [Gr.  a/mian,  a  little  lamb— from 
arna,  a  lamb — from  the  resemblance  of  the  leaf  to  the  soft 
coat  of  a  lamb]:  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Componta,  the  tribe 
SenecionidecB  The  flowers  of 
the  ray  are  female  and  lig- 
ulate,  those  of  the  disk  her- 
maphrodite and  tubular:  The 
receptacle  is  naked;  the  pappus 
hairy.  The  root,  leaves,  and 
flowers  of  the  Mountain  A.  {A. 
montana),  sometimes  called 
Mountain  Tobacco,  and  Leop- 
ard's Bane,  are  much  valued 
in  medicine,  and  administered 
in  various  forms  as  a  stimulant 
in  paralytic  affections,  tvphoid 
fevers,  and  other  diseases. 
They  are  also  applied  with 
much  benefit  to  bruises,  to 
promote  the  re-absorption  of 
extravasated  blood.  Thev 
contain  a  peculiar  volatile  oil, 
a  resin,  an  extractive  matter, 
and  an  alkaloid  {Amieina), 
The  root  is  perennial  and 
crooked,  the  stem  about  two 
ft.  high,  simple  or  little 
branched,  with  few  leaves, 
be&ring  on  the  summit  a  head 
of  flowers  of  a  dark  golden 
yellow,  often  two  inches  in 
br^idth.  It  flowers  from  June 
to  August,  forms  an  ornament  Amfca  montana. 

of  mountain  meadows  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  and  ift 


Digitized  by  LjOOQ  IC 


ARNICINE— AKNO. 

found  as  far  b.  as  Portugal,  and  as  far  n.  as  Lapland. 
A,  mollis,  n.,  and  A.  nudicatUiSf  s.,  are  N.  American. 

ARNICINE,  n.  dr'ni-sen  [see  AsincA] :  a  bitter  principle 
contained  in  the  flowers  of  the  Amiea  montana, 

ARNIM,  dr'ntm,  Elizabeth  von,  better  known  as 
Bettina,  wife  of  Ludwig  Achim  von  Amim  (q.  v.):  1785-1859; 
b.  at  Fraukfort-on-the-Maine.  From  her  childhood  excitable 
and  eccentric,  an  early  and  profound  impression  was  made 
upon  her  mind  by  the  suicide  of  her  friend,  the  Canoncss 
von  Gunderode.  The  next  great  event  of  her  life  was  her 
devoted  attachment  to  and  Intimacy  with  €k)ethe,  at  that 
time  a  man  of  nearly  sixinr.  Their  correspondence,  entitled 
€heihe*a  Letters  to  a  Ohtld,  was  published  in  1885.  aiwl 
translated  by  Bettina  into  English.  Her  letters  are  poetical, 
graceful,  and  fascinating,  though  often  careless  and  extrava* 
mint,  and  abound  is  graphic  sketches  of  men  of  the  time. 
Goethe  turned  many  of  these  letters  into  verae.  Bcttina'd 
later  works  were  semi-political  in  their  character,  and,  like 
her  earlier,  full  of  fantastic  beauty. 

ARNIM,  Karl  Otto  Ludwig  von:  177»-1861;  b.  Berlin: 
well-known  writer  of  travels  and  other  works.  After 
studying  at  Halle  and  G<^ttingcn,  he  travelled  at  different 
times  over  the  most  of  Europe,  and  was  employed  on  the 
embassies  at  Stockholm  and  London.  His  Fluchttge  Bemerk- 
ungen  eines  flu4ihUgen  Beisenden  (Passing  Remarks  by  a 
Passing  Traveller,  6  vols.,  Berl.  1887-50),  is  recommended 
for  its  clear,  elegant  style,  as  contrasted  with  the  lumbering 
and  involved  writing  of  the  *  Academic  *  school.  A.  also 
wrote  in  English  Napoleon  »  Conduct  Unoards  Pruma  (Loml. 
1814),  and  published  German  National  Metodies,  with 
German  and  English  text  (Lond.  1816).  He  was  the  author 
of  a  play  and  several  poems. 

ARNIM.  Ludwig  Achim  von:  1781,  Jan.  26—1881,  Jan. 
21;  b.  Berlin:  fantastic  but  original  German  writer  of 
romances.  After  studying  the  physical  sciences,  he  began 
his  career  as  an  imaginative  author  with  ArieVs  Betielations, 
a  romance  which,  though  based  on  the  principles  of  the  new 
poetic  school  which  had  then  risen  in  Germany,  indicated, 
nevertheless,  that  the  author  could  strike  out  a  way  of  his 
own.  His  travels  through  Germanjr  afforded  him  an  oppor- 
tunity of  catching  the  peculiarities  of  i)opular  life  in 
its  various  provincial  manifestations.  He  was  especially 
interested  in  the  old  popular  poetry,  and  stirred  up  among 
his  countrymen  a  warmer  sympathy  for  it  by  the  publication, 
with  Clemens  Brentano,  of  The  Boy*s  Wonderhom  (Heidel- 
berg, 1806-08).  In  1809,  appeared  the  Winter  Qardm,  a 
collection  of  novels;  In  1810,  the  romance  entitled  The 
Poterty^  RieJies,  QuUt,  and  Bepentanee  of  the  Counteu 
Dolores;  in  1811,  Halle  and  Jerusalem^  the  Sports  of  a 
Student,  and  the  Adventures  of  a  Pilffrim,  in  which  last  his 
humor  took  a  very  saucy  turn.  In  1817,  he  published  the 
Grown  Chiardians,  a  work  characterized  by  its  originality, 
richness  of  fancy,  and  vivid  portraittires.  The  later  years 
of  his  life  were  spent  partly  in  Berlin  and  partly  at  hU 
estate  near  Dahme,  where  he  died. 

AR'NO:  next  to  the  Tiber  the  most  considerable  river  of 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARNOLD. 

central  Italy;  rises  on  Mount  Falterona,  an  offset  of  the 
Apennines,  4,444  ft.  above  the  sea,  25  m.  n.  of  Arezzo. 
It  flows  s.e.  through  the  deep  and  fertile  valley  of  Casen- 
lino;  enters  the  nchly  cultivated  plain  of  Arezzo,  where 
it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Chiana;  then  flows  n.w.  and  n. 
through  the  upper  valley  of  the  A.  ( Valda/rTio),  one  of  the 
most  delicious  parts  of  Tuscany;  afterward  it  receives  the 
Sieve,  its  largest  tributary,  and  turns  its  course  toward  the 
w.,  flowing  pjist  Florence.  Empoli,  and  through  the  town 
of  Pisa.  Total  length  about  140  m.  In  old  times,  the 
embouchure  of  the  A.  was  at  Pisa;  now  it  is  about  four  or 
^ve  m.  distant,  lat.  43**  41'  n.,  long.  10"  15'  e.  The  A.  is 
navigable  for  barges  as  far  up  as  Florence,  but  in  the 
summer  this  frequently  becomes  impossible.  The  Italian 
poets  speak  of  *the  golden  A.,'  but,  in  truth,  its  waters 
have  mostly  the  unpleasant  color  of  milk  and  coffee  mixed. 
The  A.  is  noted  for  rapid  and  destructive  inundations. 
The  most  memorable  are  those  of  1537,  Sep.,  when  the 
whole  of  the  Valdarno  wa»  laid  under  water,  which  rose 
to  the  height  of  8  ft.  in  parts  of  Florence;  and  that  of 
1740,  caus^  by  the  long  continuance  of  the  sirocco,  which 
completely  melted  the  snows  on  the  Apennines. 

ARNOLD,  dr'nuld,  or  Arnaldo,  dr-ndl'do,  op  Brescia: 
bom  Brescia;  d.  1155:  reformer,  who  attacked  the  corrupt 
tion  of  the  clergy  of  his  day.  He  was  educated  in  France 
under  Abelard,  and  adopted  the  monastic  life.  By  hiff 
preaching,  the  people  of  his  native  place  were  exasperated 
against  their  bishop,  and  the  fermentation  and  iusurrec- 
lionary  spirit  spread  over  a  great  part  of  the  country,  when 
he  was  cited  before  the  second  Laleran  Council,  and  ban* 
ished  from  Italy.  He  retired  to  France,  but  experienced 
the  bitter  hostility  of  St.  Bernard,  who  denoimced  him  aa 
a  violent  enemy  to  the  church.  He  thereupon  took  refuge 
in  Zurich,  where  he  lived  several  years.  Meanwhile  his 
doctrines  exerted  powerful  influence  in  Rome,  which  ended 
in  a  general  insurrection  against  the  govt.,  whereupon  A. 
repaired  thither,  and  endeavored  to  lead  and  direct  the 
movement.  He  exhorted  the  people  to  organize  a  govt, 
similar  to  the  ancient  Roman  republic,  wim  its  consuls, 
tribunes,  and  equestrian  order.  But  thev,  provoked  by 
the  treachery  and  opposition  of  the  papal  party,  and  dis- 
united among  themselves,  gave  way  to  the  grossest  excesses. 
Tbe  city  was  for  ten  years  in  great  disorder.  Lucius  II. 
was  killed  bv  the  populace  in  an  insurrection  1145;  and 
Eugenius  III.,  to  escape  a  similar  fate,  fled  into  France. 
These  violent  slniggles  were  subdued  by  Pope  Hadrian  IV., 
who,  feeling  the  weakness  of  his  tempoml  authority,  turned 
to  the  spiritual,  and  resorted  to  the  extreme  measure  of 
laying  the  city  under  excommunication;  when  A.,  whose 
party  became  discouraged,  and  fell  to  pieces,  took  refuge 
with  friends  in  Campania.  On  the  arrival  of  the  emperor, 
Frederick  I.,  for  his  coronation  1155,  A.  was  arrested, 
brought  to  Rome,  tried,  hanged,  his  body  burned,  and  the 
ashes  thrown  into  the  Tiber.— His  followers  were  called 
Arnoldists. 


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ARNOLD. 

ARNOLD,  Benedict:  1740-1801;  b.  Norwich.  Conn., 
of  res[)ectable  parentage.  He  was  educated  at  the  common 
s'-liool,  being  intended  for  a  mercantile  life.  He  was  twice 
apprenticed  to  druggists,  and  each  time  ran  away  to  enlist 
ill  the  army,  only  to  desert  at  the  risk  of  his  life.  He 
finally  began  the  dnig  business  on  his  own  account  in  New 
Haven,  but  failed  under  suspicious  circumstances.  He 
seems  to  have  been  fascinated  with  the  surroundings  of 
military  life,  and,  being  plausible,  obtained  the  captaincy 
of  a  local  militia  regiment.  When  the  revolution  broke 
out,  A.  entered  ^the  service  of  his  country,  and  was  ap- 
lK)iiited  colonel.  '  He  gained  distinction  by  vigorous  action 
on  Lake  Champlain,  but  his  dishonesty  soon  involved  him 
in  difficulty  with  the  Massachusetts  committee  of  safety, 
and  he  resigned  in  augjer.  He  returned  to  the  service, 
however,  and  was  appointed,  with  Gen.  Montgomery,  to 
the  command  of  an  expedition  against  Quebec,  which  failed, 
and  in  which  Montgomery  was  killed  and  A.  severely 
wounded.  He  was  invalided  tA  Monti*eal,  where  some  dis- 
graceful transactions  added  to  the  heavy  cloud  on  his  rep- 
utation. He  somewhat  redeemeti  himself,  1776,  Oct., 
when,  on  Lake  Champlain,  he  fought  a  brilliant  naval  en- 
gagement with  a  much  hirger  force  of  the  enemy,  in  which 
hLs  daring  gave  him  the  name  of  a  hero  among  his  country- 
men. S^n  after  this,  the  action  of  congress,  in  naming^ 
Ave  major- generals  from  among  officers  his  juniors  in  rank 
and  his  inferiors  in  ability,  roused  an  implacable  resent- 
ment which  opened  his  way  to  treason.  When  the  Eng- 
lish evacuated  Philadelphia,  A.  was  sent  there  in  com- 
mand. Here  he  lived  extravagantly,  ran  into  debt,  and 
was  accused  of  the  meanest  peculation;  and  was  tried  by 
court-martial  and  sentenced  to  be  reprimanded  by  the 
commander-in-chief.  This  painful  duty  was  performed 
by  Washington  as  gentlyas  possible,  but  A.  was  more  em- 
bittered than  before.  Washington,  who  still  had  confi- 
dence in  him,  at  his  solicitation  placed  him  in  command 
of  the  important  post  of  West  Point.  A.  entered  at  once 
into  negotiations  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  for  the  surrender 
of  this  charge  to  the  British,  for  a  stipulated  reward  of  a 
brigadier-general's  commission  in  the  British  army  and  the 
promise  of  £80,000.  The  accidental  arrest  of  Major  Andre 
(((.v.),  the  agent  of  Clinton  in  effecting  the  negotiations, 
and  the  discovery  of  his  papers,  resulted  in  the  exposure 
of  A.*8  treachery,  and  the  securing  of  West  Point  from 
danger.  Andre  was  hung  as  a  spy,  Arnold  escaped,  1780, 
Sep. ,  on  board  the  sloop-of-war  Vulture,  entered  the  Brit- 
ish service,  received  £6,000  and  a  commission,  and  after- 
ward engaged  in  some  depredations  on  the  James  river. 
Later,  he  was  sent  to  attack  New  London,  Conn.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  retired  to  England,  and  afterward  did 
some  business  in  New  Brunswick  and  Guadeloupe;  but 
his  latter  days  were  passed  ol)scurely  in  London,  where  he 
died,  followed  by  the  contempt  even  of  those  in  whose  in- 
terest he  had  sought  to  bet  my  his  country.  A.  married, 
1779,  Miss  Shipncn,  of  Phikdelphia,  who  died  1796;  lio 
had  several  children. 


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ARNOLD. 

ARNOLD,  Sir  Edwin:  author:  b.  Rochester,  England, 
1832,  June  10.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  Univ.  1854;  was 
appointed  principal  of  the  eovt.  Sanskrit  CoHege  at  Poona, 
India,  and  fullow  of  the  Univ.  of  Bombay;  resigned  1861 
and  became  editorially  connected  with  the  Loudon  Daily 
Telegraph,  with  which  he  slill  (1890)  remaius;  received  the 
Turkish  order  of  the  Medjidie  1876;  and  became  a  com- 
panion of  the  Star  of  ludia  1877.  Besides  editorials,  criti- 
cisms, and  reviews,  he  has  published  Belsliaezar^s  Feast, 
prize  poem  (1853):  Poems,  Narrative  and  Lyiical)  Oriselda, 
a  Drama;  Education  in  India;  The  Euterpe  of  Herodotus; 
The  Book  of  Oood  Counsels;  The  Poets  of  Greece;  Hero  and 
Leander  (1874);  The  Indian  Song  of  Songs  (1B75);  The 
Light  of  Asia  (1879);  Indian  Poetry  (1881);  Pearls  of  the 
FaWi.  (1883);  The  Song  Celestial  (1885);  Lotus  and  Jewel 
(1888)  and  The  Light  of  the  World  (finished  1890).  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  the  autumn  1889  and  1891-3. 

ARNOLD.  Jonathan:  patriot:  1741,  Dec.  14—1798, 
Feb.  2;  b.  Providence,  R.  I.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
colonial  assembly  of  R.  I.  1776,  entered  the  revolutionary 
army  as  a  surgeon,  and  afterward  had  charge  of  a  hospi- 
tal. He  removed  to  St.  Johnsbury,  Vt.,  served  one  term 
in  the  continental  congress,  and  was  judge  of  the  Orange 
CO.  (Vt.)  court  16  years. 

ARNOLD,  Matthew:  English  literary  Critic  and  poet: 
1822.  Dec.  24—1888,  Apr.  15;  eldest  son  of  Dr.  Thomas  A. 
of  Rugby ;  educated  at  Winchester  and  Rugby.  He  greatly 
distinguished  himself  at  Oxford,  where,  1845,  he  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel  College.  In  1851  he  was  ap- 
pointed an  inspector  of  schools;  and  in  1857  prof,  of 
poetry  at  Oxford,  which  position  he  resigned  1867.  In  1859, 
and  again  1865,  he  was  sent  by  the  govt,  in  connection  with 
the  commission  appointed  to  mquire  into  the  state  of  edu- 
cation in  France,  Germany,  and  Holland.  In  1883  a  pen- 
sion of  £250  was  conferred  on  him,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  lectured  in  the  United  Slates,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  great  respect,  though  with  no  great  enthusiasm. 
His  lecture  on  '£merson,'  refusing  him  the  high  rank  as 
poet  and  philosopher  usually  assigned  him.  provoked  much 
hostile  criticism.  A.  held  the  honorary  degrees  of  Edin- 
burgh and  Oxford,  and  an  Italian  order. 

A.  was  known  first  as  a  poet  of  classic  taste  and  exquisite 
purity  of  imagination,  but  his  writings  in  later  years  were 
almost  exclusively  in  prose.  His  chief  productions  in  verse 
are  Poems  (1853),  containing,  among  other  fine  pieces, 
Sohrab  and  Rustum,  Tristram  and  Yseult,  Balder,  and 
Merope  (1858),  an  attempt  to  naturalize  in  English  litera- 
ture the  form  of  the  Greek  drama;  and  New  Poems  (1867). 
His  prose  writings  are  numerous.  Among  the  chief  are 
lectures  on  Translating  Homer  (1861);  Report  on  Education 
in  France f  Germany,  and  Holland  {lS6i);  A  French  Eton, 
or  Middle-class  Education  and  the  State  (1864);  Essays  on 
OriHeism  (1865);  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  Celtic  Literature 
(1867);  Schools  and  Universities  of  the  Continent  (1868). 
Culture  and  Anarchy^  an  Essay  in  Political  and  Social 


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ARNOLD. 

Oriticiim  (1869);  and  Higlier  SchooU  and  UnitenUies  in 
Germany  (1874).  In  8t.  Paul  and  Protestantism  (1870),  aiwl 
still  more  in  Literature  and  Dogma  (1872).  he  startled  the 
public  by  bis  piercing  and  audacious  application  of  litemry 
criticism  to  religion.  In  1875  be  publislied  God  and  the 
Bible;  in  1877,  Last  Essays  on  Chureh  and  BeHgion;  in 
1879,  Mixed  Essays;  and  in  1882,  Irish  Essays,  and  Others, 
He  delivered  interesting  public  addresses. 

ARNOLD.  Richard:  1828.  Apr.  12—1882,  Nov.  8; 
b.  Providence,  R.  I.  He  graduated  from  West  Point  1850, 
was  connected  with  the  exploration  of  the  route  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  railroad,  rendered  distinguished  services 
in  the  civil  war,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brevet  maj.gen. 
U.  S.  A.,  and  was  afterward  in  command  of  various  forts. 
He  died  at  Governor's  Island,  N.  Y. 

ARNOLD,  Thomas,  d.d.:  headmaster  of  Ruffbv 
School,  England:  1795,  June  13—1842,  June  12;  b.  West 
Cowes,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  In  1807  he  was  sent  to  the 
public  school  of  Winchester,  where  he  remained  till  1811, 
when  he  was  elected  a  scholar  of  Corpus  Christi  Ck)llege, 
Oxford.  In  1815  he  was  elected  fellow  of  Oriel  Colle^ 
and  he  gained  the  chancellor's  prize  for  the  two  university 
essays,  Latin  and  English,  181^17.  As  a  boy,  he  is 
said  to  have  been  shy  and  retired:  as  a  youth,  disputatious, 
and  somewhat  *bold  and  unsettled  in  his  opinions;  but 
before  ho  left  Oriel,  he  had  won  the  good  opinion  of  a 
college  which  at  that  time  boasted  such  names  as  Copies- 
ton,  Davison,  Whatelv,  Keble,  Hawkins,  and  Hampden. 
He  took  deacon's  orders  1818,  and  the  year  afterward 
settled  at  Laleham,  near  Staines,  where  he  occupied  him- 
self in  preparing  pupils  for  the  university.  In  1820  he 
married  Mary,  sister  of  one  of  his  earliest  school  and 
college  friends,  and  youngest  daughter  of  the  Rev.  John 
Penrose,  rector  of  Fled  borough,  Nottinghamshire.  About 
ten  years  were  spent  in  this  quiet  and  comparatively 
obscure  life;  he  was  preparing  himself  for  the  arduous 
post  that  he  afterward  occupied;  he  was  maturing  his 
opinions,  and  he  had  also  already  commenced  his  great 
literary  undertaking,  the  History  cf  Rome.  It  was  a  period 
which  he  himself  was  accustomed  to  look  back  upon  with 
some  regret.  His  letters  at  this  epoch  reveal  a  fine  ambi- 
tious spirit  bending  cheerfully  to  the  task  of  tuition,  more 
useful  than  glorious;  they  show  also  that  those  religious 
and  political  views  which  afterward  distinguished  him  were 
being  matured  in  the  privacy  of  Laleham.  'I  have  long 
had  in  my  mind,*  he  thus  writes  to  a  Mr.  Blackstone,  *a 
work  on  Christian  politics,  or  the  application  of  theOospel 
to  the  state  of  man  as  a  citizen,  in  which  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  a  religious  establishment,  and  the  education  proper 
for  Christian  members  of  a  Christian  commonwealth, 
would  naturally  find  a  place.  It  would  embrace  also  an 
historical  sketch  of  the  pretended  conversion  of  the  king- 
doms of  the  world  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ  in  the  4th  and 
5th  c,  which  I  look  upon  as  one  of  the  greatest  tours 
d'adresse  that  Satan  ever  played.  ...  I  mean  that  by 
inducing  kings   and    nations  to   conform   nominally  to 


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ARNOLD. 

Christianity,  and  thus  to  get  into  their  uands  the  direction 
of  Christian  society,  he  has  in  a  great  measure  succeeded  in 
keeping  out  the  peculiar  principles  of  that  society  from 
any  extended  sphere  of  operation,  and  insuring  the 
ascendency  of  his  own . '  At  Laleham  A.  became  acquainted 
with  >iiebuhr*s  Htstory  of  Borne.  This  was  an  era  in  his 
life.  It  produced  a  revolution  in  his  historical  views,  and 
his  own  History  qf  Home  became  modelled  almost  too 
faithfully  on  that  of  the  great  German. 

From  Laleham  he  was  called  to  the  arduous  duties  of  the 
head-mastership  of  Rugby  School.  On  these  he  entered 
1828,  Aug. ;  and  here  he  carried  nearly  to  perfection  his 
system  of  public  education.  He  produced  and  maintained 
among  ihe  boys  a  high  tone,  moral  and  religious  He  had 
the  t^ict  to  make  himself  both  loved  and  feared.  He  guided 
with  great  dexterity  the  piiblie  opinion  of  the  school.  *  In 
the  higher  forms,*  says  his  biographer,  '  any  attempt  at 
further  proof  of  an  assertion  was  immediately  checked. 
••If  you  say  so,  that  is  quite  enough;  of  course  I  believe 
vour  word  ; "  and  there  grew  up  in  consequence  a  general 
feeling  that  it  was  a  shame  to  tell  A.  a  lie — he  always 
believes  one.'  On  one  occ^on,  when  he  had  been  com- 
pelled to  send  away  several  boys,  he  said:  *lt  Is  Twt  neces- 
sary that  this  should  be  a  school  of  300,  or  100,  or  of  50 
boys,  but  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  a  school  of  Chris- 
tian gentlemen.'  But  the  school  was  far  from  occupying 
the  whole  energies  of  A.  The  HisUrry  of  Home  went  on; 
he  took  part  in  all  the  great  questions  of  the  day,  political 
and  theological.  In  politics  he  was  a  whig,  without  being 
fettered  by  the  ties  of  party.  In  the  theological  discus- 
sions of  the  day  he  was  distinguished  chiefly  by  his  broad 
views  of  the  nature  of  a  Christian  church.  It  was  his 
leading  idea  that  a  Christian  people  and  a  Christian  church 
ought  to  be  synonymous  expressions.  He  would  never 
tolerate  that  use  of  the  word  church  which  limited  it  to 
the  clergy,  or  which  implied  in  the  clergy  any  peculiar 
sacredness,  or  any  traces  of  mediatorial  fuuclioii.  The 
priest  was  unknown  to  him  in  the  Christian  community; 
this  placed  him  at  once  in  antagonism  to  the  High  Church 
party;  and  even  clergymen  of  the  Low  Church  complained 
that  he  did  not  set  sufficient  value  on  their  sacred  order. 
But  all  men,  of  whatever  party,  admitted  and  admired  the 
zeal  with  which  he  taught  that  the  full  spirit  of  Christianity 
should  permeate  the  whole  civil  or  political  life.  If  he 
seemed  to  lower  the  altitude  of  the  clergy,  it  was  only 
because  he  would  raise  the  general  level  of  the  laity.  As 
an  Englishman,  he  was  convinced  that  '  the  founders  of 
our  present  constitution  in  church  and  state  did  truly  con- 
sider them  to  be  identical,  the  Christian  nation  of  England 
to  be  the  church  of  England;  the  head  of  that  nation  to 
be,  for  that  very  reason,  the  head  of  the  church.'  It  may 
be  doubted  whether  this  is  quite  historically  correct;  but 
it  certainly  presents  a  noble  theory  to  the  ima<?iuation. 

In  domestic  life.  Dr.  A.  was  most  happy;  here  he  was 
distinguished  by  unfailing  cheerfulness  and  amiability.  In 
1833  he  purchased  Fox  How,  a  small  estate  between  liydal 


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ARNOLD-ARNOTT. 

and  Ambleside,  and  in  this  channiDg  retreat  be  enjoyed  in 
the  vacations,  among  the  family  circle,  bis  own  uninter- 
rupted studies.  Fox  How  has  become  a  classical  spot  to 
tourists.  For  a  brief  time  Ae  held  a  place  in  the  senate 
of  the  London  Univ.;  he  resigned  the  seat  on  finding  that 
he  could  not  introduce  some  measures  w^hich  he  had  at 
heart.  In  1842  he  received  from  Lord  Melbourne  the 
ofifcr  of  the  Regius  professorship  of  modern  history  at 
Oxford.  This  appointment  he  accepted  with  peculiar 
gratification.  He  delivered  some  introductory  lectures, 
which  were  heard  with  enthusiastic  interest;  and  it  -was 
his  intention,  on  his  retirement  from  Rugbv,  to  enter  with 
zeal  on  the  duties  of  his  professorship.  But  this  and  all  other 
literary  enterprises  were  cut  short  by  a  sudden  and  painful 
death.  Tlie  last  vacation  was  at  hand,  the  journey  to  Fox 
How  was  to  be  taken  in  a  'few  days,  when  he  was  seized 
with  a  fatal  attack  of  spasm  of  the  heart.  Few  biographies 
cud  more  abruptly  or  more  mournfully;  but  the  sufferer 
met  his  death  with  perfect  fortitude  and  in  the  full  Chris- 
tian hope. — His  principal  works  are/fw  vols,  of  sermons;  the 
History  of  Borne  (8  vols.),  broken  oflfby  bis  death  at  the  end 
of  the  second  Punic  war;  and  an  edition  of  Thucydides,  See 
Life  and  Correspondence  of  A,,  by  the  Rev.  A.  F.  Stanley, 
afterward  Dean  of  Westminster  (1845;  12th  ed.,  with  addi- 
tions, 1881). 

AR  NOLD,  Thomas  Kerchever:  1800-1853,  March  9; 
b.  Stamford,  England:  clergyman  and  author  of  educa- 
tional works.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  1821 ;  was  appointed 
rector  of  Lyndon.  Rutlandshire,  1830,  and  there  continued 
till  his  death.  He  published  his  Qreek  Prose  Composition 
1849,  and  his  Latin  Prose  Composition  1850;  both  works  had 
an  instant  great  success.  He  compiled,  with  J.  £.  Riddle, 
an  Eng.'Lat.  Lexicon,  pub.  1847. 

ARNOTT,  or  Arnut,  n.  dr'nut  [AS.  eorthnot:  contr. 
for  earth-nut]',  a  sort  of  nut-like  root,  commonly  found  in 
hilly  grass-pastures,  its  presence  in  the  earth  being  indi- 
cated by  its  tuft  of  white  flowers  on  a  slender  stem;  the 
tuberous  roots  of  Bunlum  bulbocds' tanutn  and  B,  flexitosum, 
ord.  Umbell^fercB,  eaten  under  the  name  of  pig-nuts  or 
earth-nuts. 

ARNOTT,  Neil,  m.d.:  1788-1874, March 2;  b.  Arbroath; 
educated  at  the  grammar  school  of  Aberdeen,  and  at  Mar- 
ischal  College  in  the  same  city.  A.  studied  medicine  at 
Abei-dcen  and  London;  was  some  years  in  the  naval  service 
of  the  East  India  Company,  and  in  1811  a  medical  practi- 
tioner in  London.  He  was  appointed,  1815,  physician  to  the 
French  embassy,  and  afterward  to  the  Spanish  embassy. 
In  1836  Dr.  A.  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  senate  of 
the  Univ.  of  London.  In  1837  he  was  named  a  physician 
extraordinary  to  the  queen.  He  died  in  London.  Besides 
his  Elements  of  Physics,  or  Natural  Philosophy,  General  and 
Medical {IH21),  Dr.  A.  pub.  a  treatise  on  Warming  and  Ven- 
tilating (1888),  On  tJie  Smokeless  Fireplace,  Chimney  Voltes, 
etc.  (1855),  and  other  treatises.  He  made  useful  inventions 
(see  Water-bed:  Wafminq  and  Ventilation).     His 


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ARNOTTO-ARNSBERG. 

^nius  showed  itself  in  a  ver^  unusual  combination  of  in- 
ventive power  with  the  art  of  popular  exposition. 

ARNOTTO,  or  Aknatto,  n.  dr-ndttd,  or  d/r-ndt'td  [said 
to  be  a  corrupted  W.  I.  word]:  also  spelled  Annoto,  An- 
NOTTA,  Annatto;  also  called  Kotjcou,  and  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  Orleak:  a  red  coloring  matter  obtained  in  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies  from  the  reddish  pulp  sur- 
rounding the  seeds  of  the  Amotto-tree  {Bixa  ordlana) 
by  washing,  maceration,  fermentation,  and  subsequent 
evaporation.  It  appears  in  commerce  in  cakes  or  balls  of 
2  to  4  lbs.  weight,  wrapped  in  leaves,  externally  brown,  in- 
ternally of  pale  blood-red  or  yellowish-red  color,  and 
which  have  a  peculiar  animal  smell  and  an  astringent 
taste.  Pure  A.  seldom  appears  in  the  market.  It  is  ob- 
tained by  the  mere  rubbing  off  and  drying  of  the  red  pulpy 
pellicle  which  covers  the  seed;  but  that  which  is  thus  ob- 
tained is  ve^  pure,  and  occurs  in  small  round  or  angular 
lozenges.  The  Indians  rub  this  coloring  matter  into  the 
skin  of  their  whole  body,  thus  intending  both  to  adorn 
themselves,  and  to  obtain  protection  agamst  the  bites  of 
mosquitoes.  A.  is  used  in  the  medicine  of  civilized  coun- 
tries, for  coloring  plasters,  ointments,  etc. ;  and  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  by  farmers  for  giving  a  rich  color  to 
butter  and  cheese.  It  is  also  used  in  dyeing,  although  it 
does  not  produce  a  durable  color.  It  is  employed  to  im- 
part an  orange  tint  to  simple  yellows.  It  is  an  ingredient 
m  some  varnishes.  It  dissolves  in  alkalies,  producing  a 
brown  solution,  from  which  it  is  precipitated  by  acids. 
It  imparts  little  color  to  water,  but  dissolves  in  alcohol; 
alcohol  and  suffar  of  lead  throw  down  a  brick-red  precipi- 
tate  from  the  alcoholic  solution.  In  South  America,  A.  is 
very  extensivelv  mixed  with  chocolate,  not  only  for  the 
sake  of  the  color,  but  also  for  the  improvement  of  the 
flavor. — The  genus  Bixa  belongs  to  the  natural  order 
FUieouriiacea  (q.v.),  and  is  distinguished  by  complete 
flowers  with  simple  stigma,  a  hispid  calyx  of  five  sepals, 
and  a  two-valved  capsule.  The  A.  shrub  is  a  native  of 
tropical  America,  but  has  been  introduced  into  other 
warm  co\m tries.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  7-8  ft.,  and 
has  heart-shaped,  pointed  leaves  and  large  flowers  of  a 
peach-blossom  color,  which  grow  in  loose  clusters  at  the 
extremities  of  the  branches.  The  capsules  are  oblong, 
and  contain  30-40  seeds  enveloped  in  red  pulp  (the  A.). 
The  seeds  are  said  to  be  cordial,  astringent,  and  febri- 
fugal. The  roots  are  used  in  broth.  They  have  the 
properties  of  A.  in  an  inferior  degree. 

ARNSBERG,  dn^Urg:  one  of  the  three  depts.  of  the 
Prussian  province  of  Westphalia  (q.v.),  having  2,900  sq. 
m.  With  the  exception  of  the  valley  of  the  Lippe,  the 
whole  dept.  belongs  to  the  highlands  of  the  Lower  Rhine. 
Only  in  a  few  of  the  valleys  is  there  good  arable  soil;  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  a  great  deal  or  good  timber,  more 
tfaad  a  third  of  the  whole  area  consisting  of  forests.  But 
the  principal  resources  of  the  district  are  its  subterranean 
riches,  in  coal,  u?on,  lead,  silver,  etc.    Its  abundant  water* 


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ARN8TADT— AROMA. 

power  has  also  led  to  the  establishment   of   nameroua 
factories,  mills,  etc.     Pop.  (1890)  1,842.711. 

Armsberg,  chief  town  of  the  dept.,  is  on  the  Rhur,  44 
m.  s.e.  from  MOnster.  It  has  several  manufactures,  such 
as  linen,  broadcloth,  potash,  etc.  In  the  orchard  below 
the  castle  is  still  pointed  out  the  spot  where  the  famouw 
Femgerichte  (q.v.)  of  A.  was  held.    Pop.  (1890)  6,7-33. 

ARN8TADT:  dm'itdt:  chief  town  in  the  principality  of 
Schwarzbuig-Sonderhausen,  in  a  picturesque  country  on  the 
bonks  of  the  Qera,  12  m.  s.  of  £rfurt.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 
Tburingian  cities,  traceable  as  far  back  as  a.d.  704.  For* 
merly  it  was  the  chief  cmporiiun  for  the  trade  in  fruit  and 
timber  between  the  fertile  lowlands  and  the  Thuringi&& 
forest  region,  but  is  now  a  manufacturing  town,  employing 
many  huids  in  weaving,  glovemaking,  brewing,  pottery, 
etc.  A  rich  vein  of  rock-salt  bias  been  recently  discovered 
in  the  nei^borhood  of  the  town,  and  a  new  oopper-miDe 
opened.    Pop.  (1880)  10,516;  (1890)  11,587. 

AROINT,  or  Arotnt,  ad.  d^roynt  [OE.  ryrU,  begone;, 
get  out  of  the  way:  Icel.  fyma,  to  make  room:  said  to  be  a 
corruption  of  L.  averrunctts,  averting  evil,  but  baidlx 
probable]:  in  OE,,  begone;  away;  a  vaunt  thee. 

AROESZALLAS,  d'rdk-M  dsh':  t.  of  Jazygia,  Hungary, 
44  m.  n.e.from  Pestb,  an  entrepot  for  the  trade  between  that 
city  and  Upper  Hungary.  It  stands  in  a  plain  on  the  GyOa- 
gOys  Patak,  a  small  stream,  by  which  it  is  almost  endicled. 
The  surrounding  country  is  fertile,  and  affords  ezcelleut 
pasture.    Pop.  (1890)  11,189. 

AROMA,  n.  drd'md  [Gr.  (trdma:  F.  arofM]:  the  fra- 
grant principle  in  plants;  an  agreeable  odor  or  smell.  Aju>- 
MATic,  a.  dro-mdi  ik,  or  Ab'omat'ical,  a.  spicy;  fragrant. 
Ar'omat'ically,  ad.  -H,  Abomatics,  n.  plu.  dr'^^ndfUcB, 
spices  or  perfumes.  Aromatize,  v.  d-rd'md-tiz,  to  render 
fragrant;  to  perfume.  Aro'matiz'ino,  imp.  ARo'MATizia>, 
pp.  -ti2d.  Aromatization,  n.  drd'md  tl-td'sMn,  the  act 
or  rendering  aromatic.  Aromatizer,  n.  d-ro'md-ti'e^, 
one  who.  Aromatoub,  a.  d-rd'-md-tus,  full  of  fragrance; 
impregnated  with  a  fine  odor. 

AROMA:  term  sometimes  employed  to  designate  mb- 
stances  whose  extremely  minute  particles  are  supposed  to 
affect  the  organ  of  smeU  so  as  to  j^roduce  particular  odors, 
and  frequently  as  synonymous  with  odor.  The  particles 
diffused  through  the  atmosphere,  and  affecting  the  olfactory 
nerves— if  the  theory  of  particles  of  matter  so  diffused  lie 
correct— must  indeed  be  extremely  minute,  as  odoriferous 
substances  such  as  musk,  the  smell  of  which  is  felt  at  a  con- 
siderable distance,  continue  to  diffuse  their  odor,  and  accord- 
ing to  this  theory,  these  particles,  for  years,  without  sensible 
diminution  of  weight.  See  Nobb,  etc  The  term  A.  is 
usually  employed  only  with  reference  to  particular  kinds  of 
odors,  not  easily  defined  or  distinguishea  in  words.  Thus, 
we  speak  of  the  A.  of  roast  meat,  and  of  the  A.  or  aromatio 
smell  of  hyssop,  mint,  and  other  plants.    Aromatic  smdla 


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AKOMATICS— AROMATIC  VINEGAR. 

are  very  characteristic  of  some  natural  orders  of  plants,  as 
LabiaUB  (Mint,  etc.)  and  Oomposita  (Milfoil,  etc.).  They 
have  been  generally  supposed  to  depend  upon  essential  oUs, 
but  resins  are  often  eqiially  aromatic. 

AROMAT'ICS:  a  class  of  medicines,  which  owe  their 
properties  to  the  essential  oils,  to  benzoic  and  cinnamic 
acids,  to  volatile  products  of  distillation,  or  to  odorous 
glandular  secretions.  The  plants  that  contoibute  to  this 
class  of  medicines  are  those  which  yield  essences,  camphor, 
or  odorous  resins,  and  among  the  families  which  yield 
\he.  most  important  aromatics  are  the  Labiate,  Umbelliferse, 
Lauraces,  Myrtacese,  Aurantiacese,  Coniferse,  Scitaminese, 
Orcbideee,  etc.  In  some  cases,  the  aromatic  matter  is  dif- 
fnaed  through  all  parts  of  the  plant,  but  it  is  usually  con- 
densed in  imrticular  organs,  such  as  the  root,  in  the  case 
of  ginger  and  galanga;  or  the  bark,  in  the  case  of  cinna- 
mon, cancUa,  and  cascarella;  or  the  flowers,  as  in  the  case 
of  cloves;  or  the  fruit,  as  in  the  case  of  anise  and  vanilla: 
or  the  wood,  as  in  the  case  of  sandal- wood  and  aloes- wood; 
or  the  leaves,  as  in  the  case  of  most  of  the  LabiataB,  Um- 
bellifene,  etc. 

Aromatics  may  be  arranged  in  the  following  sub-classes: 

(1)  Those  in  which  the  active  principle  is  an  essential  oil, 
as  the  oil  of  thyme,  lavender,  cajeput,  neroli,  fennel,  etc. 

(2)  Those  contaming  camphor,  or  an  allied  body,  such  as 
artificial  camphor  obtained  from  turpentine.  (8)  Bitter 
aromatics,  in  which  there  is  a  mixture  of  a  bitter  principle 
and  an  essential  oil,  as  chamomile,  tansy,  wormwood,  etc 
These  are  tonics  and  vermifuges^  (4)  Those  of  which 
musk  is  the  type,  such  as  civet  and  amber;  and  certain 
plants  with  a  musk-like  odor,  such  as  Malva  moscata,  Mim- 
tUui  mosehatus,  and  Hibiscus  abelmosehus.  (5)  Those  con- 
taining a  fragrant  resin,  as  benzoin,  myrrh,  olibanum, 
storax,  and  the  balsams  of  Peru  and  Tolu,  which  have  stim- 
ulant properties.  (6)  Lastly,  those  artificially  produced 
by  destructive  distillation,  as  tar,  creosote,  benzol,  or  the 
i^ous  empyreimiatic  oils. 

As  a  general  rule,  these  substances  act  as  diffusible  stimu- 
lants of  more  or  less  power,  and  as  antispasmodics,  while 
those  in  which  a  bitter  principle  is  present  act  as  vermi- 
fuges and  tonics.  The  wnole  class  was  formerly  regarded 
as  possessing  disinfectant  and  antiseptic  properties,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  some,  as  coal-tar,  creosote,  etc., 
strongly  possess  this  property.  In  this  country  we  usually 
associate  aromatics  with  other  medicines;  but  in  France 
aromatic  infusions,  lotions,  baths,  etc.,  are  much  prescribed. 
For  illustration,  this  is  the  rule  for  the  composition  of  Aro- 
matic infusion:  Take  equal  parts  of  the  leaves  of  sage, 
ordinary  and  lemon  thyme,  hyssop,  origanum,  wormwoad, 
and  mint:  infuse  50  parts  of  these  leaves  in  1(X)  parts  of 
boiling  water. 

AROMATIC  VINEGAR:  differing  from  ordinary  vine^ 
gar  (which  is  acetic  acid  diluted  with  water)  in  containing 
certain  essential  oils  which  impart  an  agreeable  fragrance. 


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ARONIA— ARPEGGIO. 

It  Is  generally  prepared  by  adding  the  oils  of  cloves,  lav- 
ender, roflcmary,  and  Acarus  Calamtu  (and  sometimes  cam- 
phcr)  to  crystallizable  acetic  acid,  or  by  distilling  tbe  acetate 
of  copper  in  an  earthen  retort  and  receiver,  and  treating 
the  liquid  which  passes  over  with  the  fraoant  oils  men- 
tioned above.  A.  V .  is  a  very  pleasant  and  powerful  per- 
fume; it  is  very  volatile,  and  when  snuffed  up  bv  the  nos- 
trils is  a  powerful  excitant,  and  hence  is  serviceable  in 
fainting,  languor,  headache,  and  nervous  debility.  A.  V. 
is  generally  placed  on  a  sponge  in  a  smelling  bottle  or  in  a 
vinaigrette;  it  can  also  be  purchased  as  a  liquid  in  phials; 
and  a  drop  or  two  allowed  to  evaporate  into  a  sickroom 
overpowers,  but  does  not  destroy,  any  impleasant  odor. 
The  liquid  must,  however,  be  cautiously  dealt  with,  as  it  is 
highly  corrosive. 

ARONIA:  see  Crat^gus. 

AROOSTOOK,  Or-ros'took:  river  rising  in  the  n.  of  Maine, 
and  emptying  into  the  St.  John  In  New  Brunswick,  after  a 
course  of  abt.  120  miles.  It  has  historical  interest  from  its 
connection  with  the  long-a^tated  question  of  the  n.e.  bound- 
ary between  British  America  and  the  United  States. 

AROSE,  V.  d-raz:  see  Arise. 

AROUND,  prep,  d-rownd  fa,  on,  and  round]:  about;  on 
all  sides:  Ad.  in  a  circle;  on  every  side. 

AROURA,  n.  d-rayf'rd  [L.  arura;  Gr.  aroura — from  L. 
aro;  Gr.  ai'oo,  to  plow]:  com  land;  acorn-field;  a  Grecian 
measure  of  superficial  extent,  a  quarter  of  a  plethron,  and 
containing  one  and  a  half  hcktoL  Porter  makes  it  equivalent 
to  107-37833  sq.  feet. 

AROUSE,  V.  &  nnm'  FAS.  a,  intensive,  and  nmm^  a 
secondary  form  of  raUe\\  to  stir  up;  to  excite;  to  stir 
from  rest  to  activity.  Arous'ino,  imp.  Arottbbd,  pp. 
armtdd' , 

AROW,  ad.  d'Tb'  \a,  on,  and  wtr]:  in  a  row;  one  after 
the  other. 

ARPAD,  dr'pdd:  the  national  hero  of  Hungary:  son  of 
Amos,  the  leader  under  whom  the  Magj^ars  first  gained  a 
footing  in  Hungary:  chosen  duke  on  his  father's  death, 
889,  and  by  incessant  warfare  with  the  Bulgarians,  Walla- 
chians,  Moravians,  etc.,  extended  the  first  conquests  of  the 
Magyars  on  all  sides.  He  also  made  more  than  one  suc- 
cessful incursion  into  Italy  about  900,  and  returned  laden 
with  bootv.  He  died  907,  leaving  his  son  in  supreme  com- 
mand. The  A.  dynasty  became  extinct  in  the  male  line 
with  Andreas  111.,  1301.  A.  yet  lives  in  the  popular  son^ 
of  the  country,  and  his  history,  even  in  the  oldest  chroni- 
cles, is  mixed  up  with  a  deal  of  legendary  matter. 

ARPEGGIO,  h.  dr-pHjo  [It.— from  arpa,  a  harp]:  in 
musiCf  a  chord  of  which  the  notes  are  given,  not  contem- 
poraneously, but  in  quick  succession,  with  a  harp-like 
effect.     From  any  one  chord,  several  forms  of  A.  may  be 


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ARPENT-ARQUEBUS. 

produced.  Bass  chords  thus  treated  form  an  Atberti  Bass, 
80  named  from  Domenico  Alberti  (1730),  a  popular 
singer  and  player,  who  often  played  the  bass  in  this  style. 
A.  sometimes  means  a  harp-accompaniment. 

ARPENT,  dr'pent:  old  French  land-measure,  corres- 
ponding to  acre.  The  name  is  from  the  ancient  Gallic 
aripennis,  identified  by  Columella  with  the  Roman  actus, 
or  half  jugerum.  Ordinarily  an  A.  may  be  reckoned  as 
five-sixths  of  an  acre;  but  the  precise  cortiparative  value  of 
the  three  most  in  use  will  be  seen  in  the  following  table: 

French  Hectares. 

Acre,  English  imperial  or  statute,    .    0-40466 

Arpent,  of  Paris,   ....        0-32400 

'*       d'ordonnance,      .        .        .    0-48400 

"       common,  ....        040000 

ARPINO,  dr-pe'nd,  the  Arpinum  of  the  ancients:  t.  of 
8.  Italy,  birthplace  of  Cicero  and  Caius  Marius,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Caserta,  65  m.  n.  by  e.  of  Naples,  on  the  lower 
ridge  of  a  lofty  hill,  abt.  6  m.  to  the  left  of  the  river  Gari- 
gliano,  the  ancient  Liris.  The  old  town,  in  early  Roman 
times,  was  on  the  top  of  a  steep  rock,  forming  part  of  the 
territory  of  the  Volscians.  Many  remains  of  the  ancient 
structures  are  still  seen,  especially  a  cyclopean  wall,  which 
runs  along  the  n.  brow  of  the  hill  occupied  by  the  present 
town,  and  extending  to  the  ancient  citadel.  About  B.C. 
188,  the  citizens  received  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  Rome, 
with  all  its  privileges,  and  Arpinum,  during  the  later  years 
of  the  republic,  was  a  nourishing  municipal  town. 

Manufactures  of  woolen  cloth,  parchment,  paper,  and 
leather  are  carried  on.  The  town  has  a  charming  ap- 
pearance from  the  highly  picturesque  woods  and  mount- 
ains around.  Iron,  white  marble,  variegated  red  marble, 
and  marble  of  a  yellowish  color  are  got  in  mines  and 
quarries  in  the  neighborhood.    Pop.  abt.  6,000. 

ARQUA,  dr-ktod':  village  in  the  prov.  of  Padua,  Venice, 
12.  m.  s.w.  of  Padua,  in  the  heart  of  the  Euganean  Hills. 
Petrarch's  fumiiure  is  still  preserved  in  the  house  in  which 
he  died  here  (1374,  July  18),  and  his  monument  of  red 
marble  is  in  the  churchyard.    Pop.  1,200. 

ARQUATED  a.  dr'kwd-ied  [L.  ar(jiiatus—ivom  arquus 
Marcus)  a  l)ow]:  bent  like  a  bow;  curved. 

ARQUEBUS,  n.  dr'kweMs  [F.  arqudmae:  It  archUmao: 
Dut.  hceek^usse,  a  gun  fired  from  a  rest— from  Jmak,  a 
hook;  hut,  a  gun]:  an  old-fashioned  hand-^un.  Arqxte- 
BUSTER,  n.  dr'kwe-bus-er\  a  soldier  armed  with  an  arquebus. 
Arqubbxtsade,  n.  dr'kwe-busdd',  originally  a  shot- wound 
from  an  arquebus,  now  applied  to  a  distilled  water  used 
for  the  cure  of  wounds  or  bruises;  other  spellings  are, 
Arqtjebxtse,  Habqitebusb,  etc. 

ARQUEBUS,  or  Harquebus:  the  first  form  of  hand- 
gun which  could  fairly  be  compared  with  the  modem 
musket.    Those  of  earlier  date  were  fired  by  applying  a 


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ARQUERITE-ARRACACHA. 

match  by  hand  to  the  touchhole;  but  about  the  thne  of  the 
battle  of  Morat,  1476,  guns  were 
used  having  a  contrivance  suggest- 
ed by  the  trigger  of  the  arbalest  oi 
cross-bow,  by  which  the  burning 
match  could  be  applied  with  more 
quickness  and  certainty.  Such  a 
gun  was  the  A.  Many  of  the  yeo- 
men of  the  guard  were  armed  with 
this  weapon,  on  the  first  formation 
of  that  corps  in  1485.  The  A.  be- 
ing fired  from  the  chest,  with  the 
butt  in  a  right  line  with  the  barrel, 
it  was  difiicult  to  bring  the  eye 
down  low  enough  to  take  good  aim; 
but  the  Qermans  soon  introduced 
an  improvement  by  giving  a  hooked 
form  to  the  butt,  which  elevated 
»  the  barrel;  and  the  A.  then  ob- 
tained the  name  of  the  hagttelnit. 
Arquebusier.  Soldiers  armed  w ith  these  two  kinds 

of  weapon  were  designated  argue- 

huders  and  JiaquebuUers — the  former  were  common  in  the 

English  army  in  the  time  of  Richard  III.,  the  latter  in  that 

of  Henry  VUl. 

ARQTJERITE,  n.  dr'k^-rit:  a  native  silver  amalgam, 
occurring  in  crystals  and  arborescent  crusts  in  the  mines  of 
Arqueros,  near  Coqulmbo,  in  Chili. 

ARQUIFOUX,  n.  dr'kwUfS  [F.]:  in  commerce,  an  ore  of 
lead  used  by  potters  to  give  a  green  varnish  to  the  articles 
which  they  manufacture. 

ARRACACHA,  dr-r(i-kd'cM(Arraeaehae9eulenta):  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Umbelltfera,  native  of  the  elevated 
table-lands  in  the  neighborhood  of  Santa  Fd  de  Bogota  and 
Caraccas,  and  of  regions  of  similar 
climate   in    other   parts  of    tropical 
America.    It  is  much  cultivated  m.  its 
native  country  for  its  roots,  used  as  an 
esculent.    The    root   divides  into  a 
number   of    parts,    which    resemble 
cows'  horns  or  large  carrots.    When   < 
boiled,  they  are  firm  and  tender,  with  I 
a  flavor  not  so  strong  as  that  of  a  pars-  ^ 
nip.    The  plant  is  very  like  hemlock, 
and  has  a  similar  heavy  smell.     Hum- 
boldt,   indeed,     referred    it    to    the 
genus  Conium  (Hemlock),  but  it  has 
since  been  made  the  type  of  a  new 
genus.     The    flowers    are    in    com- 
pound umbels,  and  are  of  a  dull  pur- 
ple color.  The  A.  was  at  one  time  very  ArracachA. 
strongly  recommended  asa  substituted  or  potatoes;  it  was 
introduced  into  Britain  through  the  exertions  of  the  Horti- 
cultural Soc,  and  its  cultivation  perseveringly  attempted; 
but  it  has  been  found  unsuitable  to  the  climate  of  Britaiu 


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ARRACK. 

and  of  other  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  has  been  tried,  per- 
ishing on  the  approach  of  the  frosts  of  winter  without 
having  perfected  its  roots.  The  dry  weather  of  summer 
is  also  unfavorable  to  it.  The  climate  of  the  s.  of  Ireland 
resembles  that  of  its  native  regions  more  than  any  other  in 
the  British  Islands.  It  seems  to  require  a  very  regular 
temperature  and  constant  moisture.  In  deep,  loose  soils, 
it  yields  a  great  produce.  It  is  generally  propagated,  like 
skirret,  by  offshoots  from  the  crown  of  the  root.  By 
rasping  the  root  and  washing,  a  starch,  similar  to  arrow- 
root, 18  obtained, — There  is  another  species  of  the  same 
genus,  A.  most^icUa,  a  native  of  the  same  regions,  the  root 
of  which  is  uneatable. 

ARRACK,  n.  dr'rik  FAr.  araq,  sweat,  juice],  (called 
also  Rack  or  Raki):  the  East  Indian  name  for  all  sorts  of 
distilled  spirituous  liquors,  but  chiefly  for  that  procured 
from  toddy  or  the  fermented  juice  of  the  cocoa  and  other 
palms,  and  from  rice.  The  palms  in  other  tropical  coun- 
tries furnish  a  fermented  beverage  similar  to  the  toddy  of 
India,  and  in  a  few  instances  also  it  is  distilled,  but  arrack 
essentially  belongs  to  India  and  the  adjacent  countries. 
The  cocoa-nut  palm  (Cocos  nuf^era)  is  a  chief  source  of 
toddy  or  palm  wine,  and  is  obtained  from  trees  ranging 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  years  old,  or  when  they  show  the 
first  indication  of  flowermg.  After  the  flowering  shoot  or 
Bpadix  enveloped  in  its  spathe  is  well  advanced,  and  the 
latter  is  about  to  open,  the  toddy-man  climbs  the  tree  and 
cuts  off  the  tip  of  the  flower-shoot;  he  next  ties  a  ligature 
round  the  staDc  at  the  base  of  the  spadix,  and  with  a  small 
cudgel  he  beats  the  flower-shoot,  and  bruises  it.  This  he 
does  daily  for  a  fortnight,  and  if  the  tree  is  in  good  con- 
dition, a  considerable  quantity  of  a  saccharine  juice  flows 
from  the  cut  apex  of  the  flower-shoot,  and  is  caught  in  a 

Sot  fixed  conveniently  for  the  purpose,  and  empti^  every 
ay.  It  flows  freely  for  fifteen  or  sixteen  days,  and  less 
freely  day  by  day  for  another  month  or  more;  a  slice  has 
to  be  removed  from  the  top  of  the  shoot  very  frequently. 
The  juice  rapidly  ferments,  and  in  four  days  is  usually 
Bour;  previous  to  that,  it  is  a  favorite  drink  known  in  India 
by  the  natives  as  callu,  and  to  the  Europeans  as  toddy. 
When  turning  sour,  it  is  distilled  and  converted  into  A., 
known  better  to  the  Hindus  by  the  name  of  naril,  and  by 
the  Cingalese  as  pol  or  nawasi.  A  similar  spirit  is  made 
largely  from  the  magnificent  fan-leaved  palm,  Boras8us 
fla&Utfcrfms,  and  also  from  the  so-called  date-sugar  palm, 
Areuga  mecharifera.  Large  quantities  of  arrack  are  made 
from  fermented  rice  prepared  as  malt — both  in  India,  Cey- 
lon, and  Batavia;  in  the  last-mentioned  place,  sugar  and 
molasses  are  added  to  the  rice. 

It  is  probable  that  the  use  of  arrack  is  more  widely  dif- 
fused amone  the  human  race  than  the  produce  of  the  vine 
(wine  and  brandy)  and  of  barley  (whisky,  beer).  The 
date-palm  of  the  Sahara,  the  oil-palm  of  w.  Africa,  and 
the  cocoa-nut  palm  of  the  Pacific  Islands  are  made  to 
yield  it. 
The  unscientific  method  of  preparing  these  alcoholic 


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ARRAGONITE— ARRAH. 

spirits  renders  them  generally  very  distasteful  to  European 
taste,  the  process  of  rectification  being  rarely  if  ever  em- 
ployed. Some  carefully  prepared  samples  of  great  age. 
however,  find  favor,  and  are  used  in  making  punch  and 
other  drinks,  not  only  in  India  and  Java,  but  small  quan- 
tities also  find  their  way  to  Britain,  for  the  gratification 
of  palates  trained  in  India.  The  cocoa-nut  tree  is  espe- 
cially valuable  for  this  industry,  because  it  bears  twelve 
times  in  the  year  after  it  once  begins,  and  continues  bear- 
ing for  as  much  as  forty  years.  It  is  the  rule,  therefore, 
to  prevent  imdue  exhaustion  of  so  valuable  a  tree,  to  dis- 
continue the  collection  of  juice  at  intervals,  and  allow  the 
natural  process  of  fruit-bearing  to  go  on:  in  this  way,  it  is 
usual  to  divide  the  year  between  the  two  crops.  Of  late 
years  a  considerable  amount  of  rum  has  been  produced  in 
the  East  Indies  from  the  sugar-cane  and  the  molasses 
yielded  by  it.  This  is  often  called  arrack  by  the  natives, 
and  leads  to  errors  as  to  the  statistics  of  the  latter  material. 
The  word  Saki»  used  by  the  Japanese  for  rice  spirit,  seems 
only  an  alteration  of  Baki  or  Arrack.  An  imitation  A.  is 
prepared  by  dissolving  benzoic  acid  in  rum,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  20  grains  of  the  former  to  2  pounds  of  the 
latter. 

ARRAGONITE,  n.  dr-rdgb-nli  [Arragm,  in  Spain]— 
also  spelled  Aragonite:  a  mineral  essentially  consisting  of 
carbonate  of  Mme,  and  so  agreeing  in  chemical  composi- 
tion with  calcareous  spar  (q.v.),  but  differing  from  it  in 
the  form  of  its  crystals,  of  which  the  primary  form  is  a 
rhombic  prism  with  angles  of  116"  16'  and  63°  44',  the  sec- 
ondary fonns  being  generally  prismatic  and  pyramidal. 
The  effect  of  heat  on  them  snows  another  difference,  A. 
being  reduced  to  powder  by  a  heat  in  which  calcareous 
spar  remains  unchanged,  ouch  differences  between  min- 
erals of  the  same  chemical  composition  appeared  very 
improbable,  and  when  Stromeyer,  1818,  detected  the  pres- 
ence of  a  little  carbonate  of  strontia  in  A.,  they  were  im- 
mediately ascribed  to  this  as  their  cause;  but  it  has  since 
been  shown  not  only  that  the  quantity  of  strontia  is  very 
small,  variable,  and  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  accidental, 
but  also  that  the  differences  between  the  two  minerals  may 
be  accounted  for  by  difference  of  temperature  when  crys- 
tallization was  taking  place.  A.  appears  to  be  the  product 
of  a  crystallization  taking  place  at  a  higher  temperature  than 
that  in  which  calcareous  spar  is  produced;  ana  accordingly 
it  is  frequent  in  volcanic  districts  and  in  the  neighboiti^Td 
of  hot  springs,  as  at  Carlsbad.  It  is  frequently  found  in 
trap-rocks,  as  in  Scotland.  It  sometimes  occurs  stalactitic. 
Its  crystals  are  sometimes  prisms  shortened  into  tables, 
sometimes  they  are  lengthened  into  needles.  Twin  crys- 
tals {modes)  are  very  common.  8(Uin  Spar  is  a  variety  of 
it,  in  which  the  crystals  are  of  a  fine  fibrous  silky  appear- 
ance, and  combined  together  into  a  compact  mass.  FIm 
ferri{i.e.,  flower  of  iron)  is  a  name  given  to  a  coralloidal 
variety  which  sometimes  occurs  in  iron  mines. 

ARRAH,  dr'rd:  largest  town  in  the  dist.  of  Shahabad 

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ARRAIGN— ARRAIGNMENT. 

Bengal;  administratiye  headquarters  of  the  district.  It  la 
a  municipality,  in  a  fertile  country.  It  is  on  the  route 
between  Dinapore  and  Ghazipore,  25  m.  w.  of  the  former, 
and  75  m.  e.  of  the  latter.  During  the  mutiny  of  1867,  A. 
was  of  interest  second  only  to  Cawnpore,  Delhi,  and 
Lucknow,  connected  as  it  was  with  a  heroic  defense,  a 
heavy  disaster,  and  a  brilliant  victory.  The  defense  was 
that  of  an  isolated  house,  for  ei^ht  days,  against  3,000 
sepoys  with  2  field-pieces,  the  garrison  consisting  of  less 
than  20  whites,  all  civilians,  and  50  Sikhs,  whose  fidelity 
was  doubtful  till  proved  by  trial.  The  disaster  was  the 
noctuma> surprise  in  the  jungle  of  a  detachment  almost 
entirely  European,  sent  to  the  relief  of  the  beleaguered 
dwelling — the  loss  having  been  290  out  of  415.  The  victory 
was  won  by  a  force  of  172  men,  12  of  them  mounted 
volunteers,  and  3  guns,  over  a  host  numbering  nearly  20 
to  1.  In  fact.  A.,  happily  with  the  exception  of  the  cold- 
blooded massacre  of  women  and  children,  presented,  in 
miniature,  nearly  all  the  phases  of  the  most  formidable 
and  eventful  insurrection  on  record:  see  Kaye's  HisUjry  qf 
the  Sepoy  War.    Pop.  of  A.  (1891)  46,905. 

ARRAIGN,  V.  dr-rdn'  fOF.  arraigner,  or  aragnier,  to 
discourse  with,  to  arraign— from  mid.  L.  ad  rcUiones  stdre, 
to  plead— from  rationes,  pleadings  in  a  suit— from  L. 
rationem,  reason,  argument]:  to  call  one  to  account;  to  set 
as  a  prisoner  at  the  b&r  of  a  court  of  justice;  to  charge  with 
faults;  to  accuse  publicly.  Arraign  ma,  imp.  Ar- 
BAiQNED,  pp.  ar-rdncC.  Arraion'br,  n.  one  who.  Ar- 
BAiGKMENT,  u.  ctrrdn'mPnt,  the  act  of  setting  a  prisoner 
before  the  bar  of  a  court  for  trial;  accusation.— syn.  of 
'arraign':  to  accuse;  impeach;  censure;  charge;  criminate; 
indict. 

ARRAIGN'MENT,  in  the  practice  of  the  Criminal  Law: 
calling  a  prisoner  by  his  name  to  the  bar  of  the  court  to 
answer  the  matter  charged  upon  him  in  the  indictment. 
And  having  the  presumption  of  innocence  in  his  favor,  it 
is  the  law,  and  so  laid  down  in  the  most  ancient  books, 
that,  though  charged  upon  an  indictment  of  the  highest 
nature,  he  is  entitled  to  stand  at  the  bar  in  the  form  and  in 
the  garb  of  a  free  man,  without  irons  or  any  manner  of 
shackles  or  bonds,  unless  there  be  evident  danger  of  his 
escape,  or  of  violence  at  his  hands.  When  arraigned  on 
the  charge  of  treason  or  felony,  the  prisoner  is  called  upon 
by  name  to  hold  up  his  hand,  by  which  he  is  held  to  con- 
fess his  identity  with  the  person  charged.  This  form, 
however,  is  not  an  essential  part  of  the  proceedings  at 
the  trial,  and  it  is  sufficient  for  the  prisoner,  when  ar- 
raigned, to  confess  his  identity  by  verbal  admission  or 
otherwise.  When  thus  duly  arraigned,  the  indictment  is 
distinctly  read  to  the  accused,  and  he  then  either  confesses 
the  fact — that  is,  admits  his  guilt — or  he  puts  himself  upon 
his  trial  by  a  plea  of  Not  guilty.  Formerly,  one  of  the 
incidents  of  the  A.  was  the  prisoner  standing  mute,  as  it 
was  called — that  is,  refraining  from,  or  refusing,  a  direct 
answer  io  the  indictment;  in  which  case  the  court  proceeded 


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ARRAN. 

to  inqufjre  whether  the  silence  was  of  malice  on  the  part  of 
the  prisoner,  or  was  produced  by  the  visitation  of  Qod, 
and  to  deal  with  him  accordingly.  But  now  it  is  lawful 
for  the  court  to  order  the  pro^r  officer  to  enter  a  plea  of 
*  Not  guilty/  on  which  the  trial  shall  proceed,  as  If  the 
plea  tSd  been  by  the  prisoner  himself.  Where  there  is 
reason  to  doubt,  however,  that  the  prisoner  standing  mute 
is  sane  or  not,  inquiry  is  had  forthwith,  resulting  either  in 
the  entering  of  the  plea  'Not  guilty,'  or  in  deuvering  to 
custody  of  a  prisoner  found  insane. 

According  to  Sir  Matthew  Hale,  the  term  A.  is  derived 
from  arraisaner,  ad  raUanem  poflare,  to  call  to  account  or 
answer,  which  in  ancient  French  law  would  be  ad-resoner, 
or,  abbreviated,  a-resner.  See  Trial:  Ikdictmknt:  In- 
formation: Proskcution;  Plea:  Verdict:  Not  Proven. 

AR'RAN:  island  hi  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
Scotland;  about  6  m.  s.w.  of  Bute,  18  w.  of  Avrshire, 
and  4  e.  of  Cantire,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Kil- 
brennan  Sound.  It  is  of  oval  form,  about  20  m.  long  and 
12  broad;  165  sq.  m.,  of  which  about  15,000  acres,  or  a 
seventh  part,  are  cultivated.  The  general  aspect  of  A.  is 
mountainous  and  heathy,  and  in  the  n.  the  jagged  peaks 
are  singularly  grand.  Around  the  coast  is  a  low  belt  of 
ground,  with  lofty  cliffs  on  the  s.  and  s.w.,  from  which 
the  country  rises  abruptly.  The  highest  point  is  (jk)atfell 
(in  Gaelic  named  Oaoth  Bheinn  or  ieinn  Ohaoiih,  *  Wind 
Moimtain  %  an  obtuse  pyramid,  2,865  ft.  high,  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  island.  From  its  sides  slope  the  romantic 
glens  of  Rosa  and  Sannox,  and  at  its  base  to  the  s.e.  opens 
Brodick  Bav,  at  the  head  of  which  lay,  until  lately, 
Brodick  village.  The  houses  which  composed  it  have 
now  been  removed,  and  a  new  village  has  sprung  up  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  called  Invercloy,  where  there 
is  a  spacious  hotel.  To  the  s.  of  this,  roimd  a  bluff  head- 
land, is  Lamlash  Bay,  the  chief  harbor  of  A.,  and  the  best 
on  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  sheltered  by  Holy  Island,  once  the 
seat  of  a  monasteiy.  A  picturesque  mass  of  columnar 
basalt,  900  or  1,000  ft.  high,  succeeds.  Farther  s.  lies 
Whiting  Bay,  near  which  are  two  cascades,  100  and  50  ft 
high  respectively.  At  the  s.e.  point  of  A.  is  Eildonan 
Castle,  opposite  which  is  the  small  isle  of  Pladda,  crowned 
by  a  light-house.  Large  caverns  are  in  the  cliffe  of  the  s. 
and  s.w.  coast.  In  one  of  these,  '  the  King's  Cave,'  in  the 
basaltic  promontory  of  Druimodune,  Robert  the  Bruce 
hid  himself  for  some  time.  Shiskan  Yale,  opening  into 
Druimodune  Bay,  is  the  most  fertile  part  of  A.  Loch 
Ranza,  a  bay  in  the  n.  end  of  A.,  runs  a  mile  inland,  and 
is  a  herring-fishing  rendezvous.  There  is  daily  com- 
munication with  A.  by  means  of  steamboats  from  the 
Clyde,  the  ports  touched  at  being  Brodick,  Lamlash,  and 
Corrie. 

The  geology  of  A.  is  almost  unique,  and  displays  a  greater 
succession  of  strata  than  any  other  part  of  the  Britisn  Isles 
of  equal  extent.  The  s.e.  half  of  A.  consists  of  Devonian 
sandstone,  extending  from  the  e.  coast  4.  or  5  m.  inland, 
and  running  s.w.  from  Brodick  beyond  the  centre  of  the 


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ARRAN-ARRANGE. 

island;  and  of  trap  rocks  and  carboniferous  strata,  which 
occupy  the  middle  and  w.  portions.  The  n.w.  half  con 
lasts  of  a  central  granite  nucleus,  including  Goatfell, 
bordered  on  the  w.  by  a  tract  of  mica-slate,  and  on  the  n.e. 
and  8.  bj  lower  Silurian  rocks,  which,  again,  have  a  run 
of  Devonian  sandstone  on  the  e.  and  s.  Lias  and  oolite 
lie  on  the  mica-slate.  The  streams  in  A.  are  only  rivulets, 
and  one  of  them  tumbles  over  a  precipice  800  ft.  hi^h. 
Some  level  parts  in  the  s.  half  of  A.  are  fertile.  The  chief 
crops  are  oats  and  potatoes.  Cattle,  sheep,  fish,  and  oats 
are  exported.  The  greater  part  of  A.  belongs  to  the 
Duke  of  Hamilton,  whose  seat  is  Brodick  Castle.  A. 
forms  part  of  the  county  of  Bute,  and  contains  two  par- 
ishes. Many  antiquities  occur,  such  as  calms,  unhewn 
obelisks,  monumental  stones,  and  Druidical  circles. 
Several  stone  cofiins  were  found  in  a  cairn  200  ft.  in  cir- 
cumfeience.  Loch  Ranza  Castle,  now  in  ruins,  was  once 
a  residence  of  the  Scots  kings.  See  works  by  Lands* 
borough  and  Biyce.    Pop.  of  A.  (1894)  5,234. 

AR'RAN,  South  Isles  of:  three  small  islands  lying 
n.e.  and  s.w.  across  the  entrance  to  Galwav  Bav,  about  1 
m.  off  the  w.  coast  of  Ireland,  and  27  w.  of  Galway  city. 
Th^  form  the  barony  of  A.,  and  give  the  title  of  earl  to 
the  Gore  family.  Total  area,  11,287  acres.  The  principal 
or  w.  island,  Inishmore,  is  7  m.  long  and  2  broad;  Intsh* 
maan,  or  'Middle  Isle,'  is  next;  and  then  Inishere  to  the 
s.e.  The  islands  consist  of  the  carboniferous  limestone  of 
the  bed  of  Galway  Bay,  and  rise  to  the  height  of  100  to 
200  ft.  on  the  w.  side,  ending  in  cliffs  facing  the  Atlantic. 
Most  of  the  land  is  rudely  cultivated.  The  chief  crops  are 
rye,  oats,  and  potatoes.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  engage 
in  fishing;  and  the  corragh  or  wicker-work  skiff  is  slTU 
seen  here.  They  are  subject  to  famines  from  parching 
rainless  w.  winds  in  August,  destroying  the  potato-crop. 
These  islands  contained  at  one  time  20  churches  and 
monasteries.  Inishmore  was  the  centre  of  these,  still 
known  as  Aran-na-naomh,  or  'Arran  of  the  Saints.' 
Many  pilgrims  still  visit  the  old  shrines  and  relics  scat- 
tered through  the  islands.  St.  Kenanach  Church,  built  in 
the  7th  c,  still  stands,  all  but  its  stone  roof,  and  the  stone 
oratories  and  little  bee-hive  stone  huts  of  the  monks  of 
the  6th  and  7th  centuries  remain.  There  are  nine  circular 
Cyclopean  fortresses  of  unhewn,  uncemented  stones  (por- 
tions of  the  walls  still  being  20  ft.  high),  supposed  to  have 
been  built  in  the  Ist  c.  by  the  Fir-Bolg  or  Belga;.  The 
largest  of  these,  Dun-Aengus,  on  a  cliff  in  Inishmore,  220 
ft.  nigh,  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  barbaric  monu- 
ments in  Europe.  Pop.  in  1871,  8,050,  of  which  number 
2,122  inhabited  Inishmore,  433  Inishmaan,  and  495  Inish- 
ere. Of  the  total  pop.  all  but  57  were  Roman  Catholics; 
604  could  read  and  write,  143  could  read  only,  and  the  rest 
were  illiterate.    Eslimaled  pop.  (1894)  6,496. 

ARRANGE,  v.  drrdm'  [P.  arrcmger,  to  set  in  order— 
from  F.  rang,  a  row:  W.  rhene:  Scot.  rcUgn,  a  row,  a 
ring]:  to  dispose  in  a  row  or  line;  to  put  into  proper  order; 


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ARR  A  NGING— ARRAS. 

'  to  adjust;  to  dispose.  Arrano'iko,  imp.  Arrakgbd,  ppw 
dr-rdngd\  Arrahg'br,  n.  one  who.  Arrangement,  n. 
dr-rdr^'m^nt,  putting  into  proper  order;  settlement;  a  classi 
fication.— Stn.  of  'arrange':  to  adjust;  accommodate; 
adapt;  dispose;  settle;  prepare;  determine. 

ARRANGING,  in  Music:  adapting  a  piece  of  music  so 
as  to  be  performed  on  an  instrument  or  instruments  dif- 
ferent from  those  for  which  it  was  originally  composed; 
as  when  orchestral  or  vocal  compositions  are  set  for  the 
pianoforte,  oi  the  reverse.  An  arrangement  is  often  a 
mere  lifeless  transposition  of  the  original,  the  only  guiding 
principle  being  the  mechanical  jwssibilityof  perfcrmance. 
Of  this  kind  are  most  of  the  pianoforte  arrangements 
of  the  orchestral  works  of  Moxart,  Beethoven,  etc. — partly 
from  the  arranger  working  merely  for  hire,  and  partly 
from  a  mistaken  reverence  for,  and  fear  of  altering,  the 
original.  It  is  different  when  an  arranger,  who  thoroughly 
comprehends  the  spirit  of  the  original,  takes  advantage  of 
the  peculiar  means  of  expression  afforded  by  the  new  form 
of  presentation,  to  reproduce  as  much  as  possible  the 
origmal  effects.  In  this  last  respect,  the  arrangements  of 
Franz  Liszt  have  excelled  all  others,  althou^  in  some 
cases  he  may  have  overstepped  the  boundary  of  propriety. 
See  PoT-PoUKRi:  Fantasia. 

ARRANT,  a.  dr'rdnt  [AS.  eargian:  OE.  argh,  to  be  a 
coward :  Ger.  a/rg,  bad:  AS.  earg,  evil  (sec  Arch  2yi: 
notorious;  impudent;  infamous.  Ar'rantly,  ad.  -a. 
Note. — Mr.  Skeat  says  arrant  is  corrupted  from  Pro  v. 
and  OE.,  arnhand,  timid,  cowardly,  the  participle  of  a/rgh, 
to  be  cowardly. 

ARRAS,  n.  dfrds  [Arrets,  a  town  in  France  where 
first  made]:  tapestry;  hangings. for  rooms,  woven  with 
figures:  see  Tapestry.* 

AliRAS,  dr-ras'  (ancient  Nemetacum):  fortified  town, 
cap.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  as  it  was  formerly  of  the  province 
of  Artois,  France;  on  the  banks  of  the  Scarpe,  partly  on 
an  eminence  and  partly  on  a  plain;  consists  of  four  divis- 
ions— the  city,  upper  town,  lower  town,  and  citadel.  It 
Is  a  principal  station  on  the  French  Northern  railway, 
distant  from  Paris  by  this  route  134  m.,  and  from  Brus- 
Bels  97.  The  houses  are  of  hewn  stone;  in  the  lower  town 
Ihejr  are  handsomely  built  and  uuifonn;  the  streets 
straight  and  wide,  set  off  with  several  fine  squares,  and 
many  beautiful  public  buildings.  Among  the  principal 
edifices  are  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  the  residence 
of  the  prefect,  the  town-hall,  the  theatre,  and  the  public 
library. 

A.  ranks  as  a  fortified  town  of  the  third  class,  its  forti- 
fications being  the  first  that  were  constructed  by  the  cele- 
brated Vauban,  according  to  his  own  system.  It  has  been 
the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  390,  and  two  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cils have  been  held  here — in  1025  and  in  1490. 

The  corn-market  of  A.  is  the  most  important  in  the  n. 
of  France.  Its  principal  manufactures  are  iron-ware, 
WQoleo  and  cotton  goods,  hosiery,   lace,  pottery,  and 


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ARRAY— ARREST. 

leather.  Its  trade,  which  is  considerable,  is  in  com  and 
flour,  oil,  wine,  and  brandy,  with  the  industrial  products 
of  the  city. 

It  appears  from  the  writings  of  Jerome  that  A.  was  re- 
markable for  its  woolen  manufactures  in  his  time;  and 
during  the  middle  ages,  it  was  famed  for  its  tapestrjr; 
indeed,  the  name  of  the  to^'n  was  transferred  to  this 
article  of  manufacture,  and  arras  was  the  name  given  in 
England  to  the  richly-figured  hangings  that  adorned  the 
halls  of  the  kin^  and  the  barons. 

In  1482,  A.  with  Artois  was  ceded  by  the  states  of  the 
Netherlands  to  Louis  XI.  of  France;  but  the  inhabitants 
having  revolted,  the  kine  laid  siege  to  the  town,  stormed 
it,  ana  slew  or  expelled  the  people,  whom  he  replaced  by 
others  brought  from  all  parts  of  his  dominions,  ordering 
the  city  to  be  thenceforward  called  Franchise,  to  obliterate 
the  ver^  name  of  A.  Soon  afterwards  (1493)  it  was  ceded 
to  Maxunilian  of  Austria,  and  was  possessed  by  the  Span- 
ish branch  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  till  1640,  when 
Louis  XIII.  of  France  took  it  after  a  long  siege.  By  the 
treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  it  was  finally  ceded  to  France. 
A.  suffered  much  in  the  time  of  the  first  French  revolu- 
tion, especially  in  1793.  Robespierre,  the  Terrorist,  was  a 
naUve  of  the  town.     Pop.  (1872)  21,447;  (1891^  25,701. 

ARRAY,  v.  a/r-rd'  [OF.  arroyer,  to  set  in  order:  It 
arreda/re,  to  get  ready:  led.  reida,  to  lay  out:  Sw.  redo, 
order] :  to  put  hi  order;  to  prepare  or  dispose;  to  dress;  to 
envelop:  N.  men  drawn  up  for  battle;  dress.  Arrat'inc^ 
imp.  AanATSO,  pp.  dr-rdd\  Arbat'bb,  n.  one  who. — 
Bts,  of  '  array,  v.':  to  arrange;  dispose;  dress;  attire;  ap- 
parel;— of 'array, n.':  costume;  habit;  clothing;  garments; 
vesture;  raiment. 

ARRAY'ER:  a  title  given  to  certain  military  officers  in 
England  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  c.  There  were  two 
in  each  county,  sometimes  called  Commissaries  of  Musters. 

ARREARS,  n.  Hr-rcrz^  [F.  arriere,  away,  behind:  OF. 
ariere,  backwards— from  L.  cm?,  to;  retro,  backwards] :  a  sum 
of  money  past  due;  what  remains  unpaid.  Arrearage,u. 
ar-rir'aj,  in  OE.,  that  which  remains  unpaid;  arrears. 

ARREST,  V.  drrht'  [OF.  arrester:  F.arreter,  to  detain, 
to  arrest — from  mid.  L.  ar' restart,  to  arrest — from  L.  ad, 
resto,  I  stop:  It.  arrestar^\  to  bring  one  to  a  stand;  to  lay 
bands  upon  any  one,  or  upon  his  goods;  to  make  a  prisoner 
of;  to  stop;  to  hinder;  to  restrain;  to  seize  by  authority: 
N.  hindrance;  restraint;  seizure  by  authority.  Arrest'ino, 
imp.  Arrested,  pp.  a/r-r^st'ed*  Arrest'er,  n.,  or  Ar- 
rest'or,  n.  -ir,  one  who.  Arrest'ment.  n.  arrest  (also,  see 
ATTACHJdacNT,  in  Law).  Arrestment  of  wages  (see  Gar- 
nish—etc.)  Ar'  resta'tion,  n.  -tas/iUn  [F.]:  an  arrest  or 
seizure. — Syn.  of  '  arrest,  v.*:  to  hold:  detain;  keep;  retain; 
preserve;  obstruct;  delay;  check;  hinder;  stop;  seize;  ap- 
prehend. 

ARREJST,  in  Law:  to  take  into  custody  under  authority 
of  the  Jaw,  on  account  of  the  suspicion  or  commission 
of  crime,  or  to  answer  a  demand  in  a  civil  suit.     In  civil 


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ARREST  OP  JUDGMENT. 

pfocedure,  A.  may  be  defined  as  the  execution  of  a  judicial 
or  prerogative  order,  in  whidi  the  liberty  of  the  person  may 
be  restrained,  and  obedience  to  the  law  compelled ;  me 
actual  physiad  seizure  or  arrest  is  not  essential ;  it  u  suf- 
ficient u  tne  party  be  within  the  power  of  the  ofiScer,  and 
sul«nit  to  the  arrest.  Legal  proYisions  concerning  A.  yary 
in  details  in  the  different  states :  but  generally  are  as  fol- 
lows :  The  A.  is  made  by  the  properly  designated  authori- 
ty; usuaUy  by  the  shenlf  or  one  oi  his  deputies;  or,  in 
the  case  of  a  process  of  the  U.  8.  courts,  hy  a  mar^iaL 
Persons  not  liable  to  arrest  Kre—administraton  in  suits  on 
the  intestate^s  premises ;  ambasaadort  and  tiieir  seryants ; 
oMomeys-atAaw  ;  barristers  attending  court,  or  on  circuit ; 
hail  attending  court  as  such  ;  bankrupts,  under  certain  dr- 
cmnstances ;  clergymen,  while  engaged  in  the  perfonnance  of 
diyine  sendee ;  ^^^cte^rs  attending  a  public  election;  eitecutors 
sued  on  the  testator's  liability;  heirs  sued  as  such ;  mem- 
bers of  congress  and  the  state  legislatures,  while  attending 
the  lespecofye  assemblies  to  which  they  belong;  etc,  etc. 
In  criminal  cases  an  A.  can  be  made  by  any  peace  oflScer, 
as  a  Justice  of  the  peace,  sheriff,  coroner,  constable,  or 
watchman ;  and  in  the  instance  of  a  felony  committed  in 
the  presence  of  the  oflScer,  without  a  warrant ;  also,  on  a 
reasonable  suspicion,  or  where  there  are  grounds  for  the 
belief  that  a  felony  is  about  to  be  committed,  or  is  in  prep- 
aration ;  but  without  a  warrant  only  in  the  case  of  a  fd- 
ony.  A  priyate  perscm  may,  and  by  law  he  shcnild,  make 
an  A.  in  case  of  a  felony  conmiitted  in  his  presence,  or 
during  the  commission  of  a  breach  of  the  i>eaoe,  or  mxm 
reasonable  suspicion  that  the  person  arrested  is  the  felon, 
if  a  felony  has  been  committed.  But  the  priyate  person  so 
arresting  may  be  held  liable  unless  he  be  ready  to  proye.the 
commission  of  the  felony,  or  the  grounds  for  suspicion. 
Any  person  is  liable  to  A.  for  crime  except  ambassadors  and 
thdr  seryants.  An  A.  may  be  made  by  night  as  well  as  by 
day,  and  for  treason,  felony,  breach  of  the  peace,  or  gen- 
erally for  an  indictable  offense,  on  Sunday  as  well  as  oQier 
days ;  and  the  ofiSoer  may  break  open  doors,  even  of  the 
cruninal's  own  house,  eyen  to  arrest  a  person  therdn  not 
Aie  owner,  as  may  a  private  person  in  fresh  pursuiL  under 
circumstances  which  authorize  him  to  make  the  A.  An 
officer  authorized  to  make  the  A.,  whetiier  by  warrant  or 
from  the  circumstances,  may  use  necessary  force  (but  he 
Viay  not  strike  except  in  self-defense) ;  he  may  kiU  the 
felon  if  he  cannot  otherwise  be  taken,  and  so  may  a  private 
person  in  makln?  an  A.  which  he  is  eni<nned  to  make.  If 
a  warraut  (q.v.)  has  been  issued,  the  proper  person  to  make 
the  arrest  is  he  to  whom  it  was  issued,  whether  named  or 
described  by  his  office.  Any  wilful  obstruction  of  a  law- 
ful A.  is  deemed  a  very  aggravated  offense. 

ARREST  OP  JUDGMENT:  in  English  legal  practice, 
an  expedient;  now  modified  in  the  Unit^  States  so 
that  a  motion  for  A.  of  J.  has  place  when  a  plaintiff 
is  not  entitled  to  a  verdict;  or,  that  without  such 
motion,  the  court  may  suspend  its  dedsion.    The  effect 


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AURHENATHERUM— ARRIANUa 

b  practically  acquittal,  though  not  barring  »  fresh  indict 
ment.    See  Judohent. 

ARRHENATHERUM,    dr-rMn-dth'^-Hm:    eeuus    of 
Grasses,  allied  to  Holctu  (see  Soft-grass)  and  ATcna  (see 


Oat),  and  distinguished  by  a  lax 
panicle,  2-flowered  spikelets  with 
two  glumes,  the  lower  floret  hav- 
ing stamens  only,  and  a  long 
twisted  awn  above  the  base;  the 
upper  floret  perfect,  with  a  short 
straight  bristle  below  the  point.— 
The  name  A.  is  from  the  Greek 
arrhen,  male,  and  aiher,  an  awn. 
A.  avenaceum  (Avena  elaiior  of 
Linnaeus,  also  known  as  Rolens 
avenaceits),  common  in  Europe  and 
N.  Amer.  is  called  Oat- Grass, 
from  the  resemblance  to  the 
coarser  kinds  of  oats  in  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  panicle.  In 
France,  it  is  very  much  cultivated 
for  fodder,  and  is  often  called 
French  Rye-grass,  though  it  has 
no  affinity  to  the  true  Rye-Grass 
(Lolium),    At  the  s.  it  is  known 

as    EVBHGREEN    GrASS.        It    IS    a 

tall  perennial  grass,  2-8  ft.  high, 
becomes  luxuriant  early  in  the  sea- 
son, and  continues  long  produc- 
tive. It  is  rather  coarse,  has  a 
somewlmt  bitter  taste,  endures  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold,  drought 
and  moisture,  is  one  of  tiic  earliest 
pasture  grasses,  and  also  remains 
Arrtitihathenim •  fresh  late  in  the  autu mu.     I  f  cu red 

s,penicle.reduce<i;6;root  \f  '»^y  ^^  should  be  cut  early  in 
and  lower  part  of  culm,   the  season.    A  variety  havmg  a 
reduced ;    c.   a    single   knotted   or  bulbous  base  to  the 
spikelet,  natural  size.        gtem,  instead  of  a  simple  fibrous 
root,  called  by  some  botanists  A.  bulbamim,  is  an  inferior 
grass  and  a  troublesome  weed. 

ARRIANUS,  dr-H'd'nus,  Flavius;  b.  abt.  100,  in  Nico- 
media,  Bithynia:  a  disciple  of  Epictetus,  the  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, whose  system  he  warmly  advocated.  The  learned 
men  of  Athens  were  highly  pleased  with  the  earliest  prod- 


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ARRIERE—ARRIERE-BAN. 

nets  of  his  pen,  and  honored  him  with  the  freedom  of 
their  city.    A.  had  chosen  Xenophon  as  his  model  of  CK>m- 
Dosition,  and  hence  the  Athenians  called  him  the  young 
Xenophon.    In  124,  he  was  introduced  to  the  emperor 
Hadnan  in  Greece,  who  conferred  on  him  the  freedom  of 
the  city  of  Rome.     He  was  appointed  prefect  of  Cappa- 
docia  in  186.    Under  Antonmus  Pius,  the  successor  of 
Hadrian,  he  was  promoted  to  the  consulship.  But  some  four 
years  afterwards,  he  appears  to  have  retired  from  public 
life,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature  in  his  native  place. 
As  the  pupil  and  friend  of  Epictetus,  he  edited  the  Manual 
of  Ethics  (Encheiridion)  left  by  his  master,  and  wrote  the 
Lectures  of  Epictetus,  in  eight  books,  of  which  only  four 
have  been  preserved — to  be  had  in  Schweighauser's  PhUo- 
Sophia  Epiciete4B  Monumenta,  vol.  iii.  (Paris,  1827).  He  wrota 
also  Tht  Conversations  of  Epictetus,  a  work  which  has  been 
lost,  except  a  few  fragments.    The  most  important  work 
by  A.  is  the  Anabasis  of  Alexander,  or  ffistory  of  the  Cam- 
paiqns  cf  Alexander  the  Great,  which  has  come  down  to  us 
entire,  all  but  a  gap  in  the  12th  chapter  of  the  7th  book. 
This  book,  our  chief  authority  on  the  subject  of  which  it 
treats,  is  of  great  value.     In  close  connection  with  it,  A. 
wrote  his  If^Uan  History,  giving  an  account  of  the  people 
of  India.    Other  writings  by  A.,  his  letter  to  Hadnan  on 
A  Voyage  round  the  Coasts  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  and  another, 
A  Voyage  round  the  Coasts  of  Hie  Bed  Sea,  are  valuable  with 
regard  to  ancient  geography.    There  is  still  another  work 
by  our  author — a  Treatise  on  the  Chase  {Kynegetieosj — in 
which,  as  well  as  in  the  Anabasis,  he  has  imitated  Xeno- 
phon. 

A.  was  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his  day.  His  works 
bear  the  marks  of  care,  honesty,  and  correctness;  and  they 
were  numerous,  though  several  have  not  been  handed 
down  to  our  time.  All  that  we  are  possessed  of  appear  to 
have  had  translations  into  Latin.  There  is  a  good  French 
translation  of  the  Anabasis  by  Chaussard,  with  commen* 
tary,  8  vols.  (1802),  also  a  good  one  of  the  Lectures  qf  Epic- 
tetus by  Tburot  (1888).  The  best  critical  edition  of  A.  is 
that  by  MQller  (Paris,  1846). 

ARRIERE,  dr-rer'  [Fr.— from  L.  ad,  to,  towards;  retro, 
back]:  of  an  army,  the  rear;  arrears. 

ARRIERE-BAN,  n.  dr-rer'ban  [the  French,  not  under- 
standing the  old  Teutonic  term  htri,  an  army,  have  sup- 
posed A.  to  have  the  word  arrierem  its  composition,  which 
IS  probably  an  error]:  a  general  proclamation  by  which 
the  old  French  kings  summoned  to  their  standard,  for  the 
purpose  of  war,  their  feudatory  vassals,  with  those  also 
who  were  in  a  state  of  vassalage  to  them;  fig,,  any  general 
summons  issued  by  an  authoritative  voice.  Arrierb-feb, 
or  Arriere-fikp,  n.  a  fee  or  fief  depending  on  one  above 
it.  These  fees  commenced  when  dukes  and  counts,  ren- 
dering their  governments  hereditary,  distributed  to  their 
officers  parts  of  the  domains,  and  permitted  those  officers 
to  gratify  the  soldiers  under  them  in  the  same  manner. 
Arhiere- VASSAL,  u.  the  vassal  of  a  vassal.  AuRiSRE-yous- 


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ARRIS— ARROW. 

SUKR,  n.  [Pr.  toussure,  coving]:  in  arc/*.,  a  secondary  arch, 
an  arch  placed  within  an  opening  to  form  a  larger  one. 
Sometimes  it  has  the  effect  of  taking  off  the  bearing  upon 
a  wooden  lintel. 

ARRIS,  n.  dr'U  [OF.  areste:  mid.  L.  arista,  the  outer 
angle  of  a  house]:  in  joinery  and  masonry,  the  line  or  edge 
of  meeting  of  two  surfaces.  Arris-pillkt,  a.  triangular 
piece  of  wood  used  to  raise  the  slates  or  lead  of  a  roof 
against  the  shaft  of  a  chimney  or  a  wall,  so  as  more 
readily  to  throw  off  the  rain;  used  also  for  forming  gutters 
around  skylights.  It  is  sometimes  called  a  Ulting-fillet. 
Arris-gutter,  n.  a  wooden  gutter  shaped  like  the  letter  V. 

ARRISH,  n.  ar'Uh,  Arrishbs,  n.  plu.  arlsh-iz:  the 
Devonshire  name  for  eddish,  or  the  grass  on  stubble  fields, 
and  the  like.    See  Eddibh. 

ARRIVE,  V.  drrU/  [P.  arriver,  to  reach— from  It 
arrivare;  niid.  L.  adripdrS,  to  come  or  bring  to  shore— 
from  L.  ad,  to;  ripam,  shore] :  to  come  to  shore;  to  reach  a 
place;  to  gain  by  effort.  Arriy'ino,  imp.  Arrived,  pp. 
dr-^iixf .  Arrival,  n.  reaching  a  place  from  a  distance; 
the  act  of  coming  to. 

ARROBA,  d-rd'bd:  a  weight  commonly  used  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  Brazil,  and  the  principal  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
colonies.  In  the  first  of  these  countries,  it  is  equivalent  to 
to  the  English  quarter  of  a  cwt.,  or  28  lbs.;  it  is  nearly  the 
same  in  Portugal,  etc.  In  Spain,  the  A.  is  also  a  measure 
for  wine,  brandy,  etc.,  and  contains  four  of  our  quarts. 

ARRODE,  V.  d-rdd'  [L.  arrodo—tTom  ad,  to;  rodo,  to 
gnaw]:  to  gnaw;  to  nibble.  Arrobion,  n.  ar-rd'zhiin,  act 
of  gnawing,  or  state  of  being  gnawed. 

ARROGATE,  v.  dr'rdgdt  [L.  arrogdtus,  claimed  as  one's 
own;  ar'rdgans,  claiming  more  than  one's  due — from  ad, 
rogo,  I  ask:  P.  arroger,  to  arrogate]:  to  claim  more  than 
one's  due;  to  assume  more  than  is  proper;  to  prefer  a  claim 
in  a  spirit  of  pride;  to  claim  undue  power.  Aji'ROOAT'iNa, 
imp.  Ar'ro6a'tei>,  pp.  Ar'rooakce,  n.  -gd/M^  or 
Ar'rooanot,  n.  gdn-t^,  or  Arrogation,  n.  dr'rS^'iMLn, 
or  Ar'rooantnbss,  n.  the  act  or  quality  of  taking  too  much 
upon  one's  self;  conceitedness;  presumption.  Ar'rogant, 
a.  -gdnt,  assuming  too  much  importance;  presuming  and 
overbearing;  hau^tjr.  Ar'rooantly,  ad.  -11,  Arrooative, 
a.  ar'rd-gd'ti'd,  claiming  undulv. — Syn.  of  *  arrogance ':  pre- 
sumption ;  self-conceit ;  pride ;  vanity  ;  haughtiness ;  as. 
sumption ;  lordliness ;  disdain  ;  conceitedness;— of  *  arro- 
gant': overbearing;  presumptuous;  haughly;  assuming; 
lordly;  proud;  exorbitant;  magisterial;— of  'arrogate': 
to  appropriate;  usurp;  assume. 

ARRONDISSEMENT,  n.  dr-rimg'des-nwng'  [P.— from 
rond,  round— from  L.  rotun'dtis,  round]:  in  fiance,  a  sub- 
district  or  division  of  a  department,  or  territory,  for  ad- 
ministrative and  judicial  purposes.  See  Department 
(French). 

ARROW,  n.  dr'ro  [AS.  aretee:  W.  aro,  a  weapon:  Icel 
9r,  an  arrow:  Sw.  hurra,  to  hurl];  a  pointed  and  barbed 


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ARROW  GRASS—ARROW-ROOT. 

weapon  of  war  shot  from  a  bow,  not  now  used  in  Emopeaa 
warfare ;  a  long  rod  pointed  sharply,  and  barbed.  Set; 
Abch£BT:  Bow  and  Abbow.  Abbowt,  a.  dr'rd-i,  of  or 
like  an  arrow.  Abbow-hkadbd,  a.  dfro-hidtid,  applied  to 
wed^like  alphabetic  figures,  veiy  ancient;  also  called 
cuneiform.  Arrow-shaped,  a.  shaped  like  an  arrow. 
Akkow-seed,  n.  seed  shaped  like  an  arrow.  Arrow- 
maker,  n.  a  maker  of  arrows.  Arrow-makers  were  for 
merly  called  fietehers  and  bowyers,  and  were  deemed  per- 
sons of  importance.  Arrow-poison,  poison  used  by  sav- 
ages to  tip  their  arrows  with.  That  of  Central  America 
is  curarine.  Ab'row-root',  n.  a  farina  or  flour,  prepared 
from  the  roots  of  the  West  Indian  plants  Maran'ta  arun- 
dindeia  and  M.  Indica,  ord.  MararUdei^B  or  Cannddm—^er' 
hape  so  called  from  the  Indians  having  employed  the  root 
in  the  cure  of  wounds  made  by  poisoned  arrows.  Broad 
Arrow,  an  anc.  symbol  of  rank  and  authority;  the  common 
British  government  mark  placed  on  their  movable  prop- 
erty, in  me  form  of  a  widely  feathered  arrow,  or  simply  as 
the  broad  barb  of  an  arrow,  thus—  f  ;  three  wedge-shaped 
marks  diverging  from  their  united  points,  cut  on  stones  as 
marks  or  points,  from  which  measurements  are  made  by  the 
ordnance  survey  department. 

ARROW-GRASS,  n.  English  name  of  the  botanical 
^enus  Trtglochin, 

AR'ROWHEAD  {8ag%tUma\:  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat. 
ord.  AlismaeecB,  distinguished  by  unisexual  flowers,  having 
three  herbaceous  sepals  and  three  colored  petals,  numer- 
ous stamens,  and  numerous  carpels,  which  are  compressed, 
one-seeded,  and  on  a  globose  receptacle.  They  are  aquatic 
plants,  natives  of  very  difTerent  climates,  from  the  tropics 
to  the  cold  re^ons  of  the  world. — ^The  Coichon  A.  {8, 
variabilis)  of  N.  Amer.  varies  much  in  the  shape  of  the 
arrow-shaped  leaves  which  rise  above  the  surface  of  the 
water.  It  is  one  of  those  plants  which  have  had  an  unde- 
served reputation  as  cures  for  hydrophobia.  The  corma 
(or  solid  bulbs),  dried  ahd  powdered,  have  sometimes  been 
used  for  food,  but  have  an  acrid,  unpleasant  taste. — The 
Chinese  A.  (8.  Sinensis)  is  a  native  of  China,  and  has  long 
been  cultivated  in  that  country  and  Japan  for  its  eatable 
conns,  which  in  a  fresh  state  are  somewhat  acrid,  but 
abound  in  starch.  It  has  arrow-shaped,  acute  leaves,  and 
a  branched  polygonal  scape  (leafless  stem).  The  United 
States  has  7  species  and  14,  varieties. 

ARROW-HEADED  CHARACTERS:  see  Cuneipc^rm. 

ARROW-HEADS:  see  Elf-Arrow-headb. 

ARROW-ROOT:  a  variety  of  starch  extracted  from  l^e 
roots  of  certain  plants  of  tropical  countries.  It  is  a  fine 
starchy  farina,  valued  as  a  delicacy,  and  as  an  easily  digesti- 
ble food  for  children  and  invalias.  It  is  obtained  from 
the  tuberous  roots — or,  more  correctly,  the  root-stocks 
(rhieomesy-of  different  species  of  the  genus  Maranta, 
belon^ng  to  the  natural  order  Marantaeea,  and  charac* 
terized  by  solitary  ovules,  a  fleshy  style  curved  downwards 
branching  stems,  and  white  flowers.    The  species  chiKQy 


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ARROW-ROOT. 

jrieldin^  it  is  M,  arandinaeea,  a  native  of  tropical  Amer- 
ica, cultivated  in  the  West  India  Islands,  and  growing 
about  two  ft.  high,  with  ovato-lanceolate,  somewhat  hairy 
leaves,  clusters  of  small  flowers  on  2-flowered  stalks,  and 
globular  fruit  about  the  size  of  currants.  The  roots  (or 
rhizomes)  contain  a  laree  proportion  of  farina.  They  are 
often  more  than  a  foot  long,  of  the  thickness  of  a  finder, 
jointed,  and  almost  white,  covered  with  large  paper-Tike 
scales.  They  sometimes  curve  so  that  the  points  rise  out 
of  the  earth,  and  form  new  plants.  They  are  dug  up  when 
a  year  old,  washed,  carefully  peeled,  and  reduced  to  a 
muky  pulp.  Mills  for  this  purpose  have  been  introduced; 
but  in  Jamaica  the  roots  are  usually  reduced  by  beating  in^ 


Arrow-root  (if.  anmdin<icea)i 
a,  tubers;  6,  leaf  and  flowers;  c,  stamen  and  style. 

deep  wooden  mortars;  in  Bermuda,  by  meand  of  a  wheel- 

n.  The  pulp  is  then  mixed  with  much  water,  cleared 
bres  by  means  of  a  sieve  of  coarse  cloth  or  hair,  and 
the  starch  is  allowed  to  settle  to  the  bottom.  The  water 
dissolves,  and  so  removes  the  greater  part  of  the  albumen 
and  salts,  the  starch  quickly  settling  down  as  an  insoluble 
powder.  Successive  washm^  are  employed  for  further 
purification.  The  A.  is  finally  dried  in  the  sun  or  in  dry 
mg- houses,  great  care  being  taken,  by  means  of  gauze,  to 
exclude  dust  and  insects.  The  careful  peeling  of  the 
roots  is  of  great  importance,  as  the  skin  contains  a  resin- 
ous matter,  which   imparts  a  disagreeable  flavor  to  A. 


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ARROWROOT. 

with  which  it  is  allowed  to  mix.  Great  care  is  taken  to 
preserve  the  A.  from  impurities;  and  the  knives  used  in 
peeling  the  roots,  and  the  shovels  used  in  lifting  the  A., 
are  made  of  German  silver.  The  West  Indian  A.,  most 
esteemed  in  the  market,  is  grown  in  Bermuda;  the  next, 
and  almost  equal  to  it,  in  Jamaica.  The  East  Indian  A.  is 
not  in  general  so  highly  valued,  perhaps  because  substi- 
tutes for  the  genuine  A.  more  frequently  receive  that 
name.  Maranta  arundinacea  is  now,  however,  cultivated 
to  some  extent  both  in  in  the  East  Indies  and  in  Africa. 
M.  Indica,  which  was  supposed  to  be  distinct  from  M.  arun- 
(Htuicsa,  is  now  regarded  as  a  mere  varietv  of  it,  with  p>er- 
fectly  smooth  leaves.  It  is  cultivated  both  in  the  East  In- 
dies and  in  Jamaica.  A.  is  obtained  also  from  N.  AUauyia 
and  M.  nobUis  in  the  West  Indies,  and  from  M.  ramonmnia 
in  the  East. 

The  amount  of  f  ecula  or  starch  present  in  the  roots  of  the 
Maranta  varies  according  to  age,  from  8  per  cent  in  those 
of  the  young  plant,  to  26  per  cent,  when  full  grown,  at  10 
to  12  montl^  old;  and  the  roots  then  present  £c  following 
composition  in  100  parts: 

Starch,  fecula,  or  arrow-root,     ....  26 

Woody  fibre, 6 

Albumen 1| 

Gummy  extract,  volatile  oil,  and  salts,  .        .  1 

Water, 65J 

A.  is  exported  in  tin  cases,  barrels,  or  boxes,  carefully 
closed.  It  is  a  light,  opaque,  white  powder,  which,  when 
rubbed  between  the  fingers,  produces  a  slight  crackling  noise, 
like  that  heard  when  newly-fallen  snow  is  being  nmde  into 
a  snowball.  Through  the  microscope,  the  particles  are 
seen  to  be  convex,  more  or  less  elliptical,  sometimes  obscurely 
triangular,  and  not  very  different  in  size.  The  dry  farina 
is  quite  inodorous,  but  when  dissolved  in  boiling  water  it 
has  a  slight  peculiar  smell,  and  swells  up  into  a  very  perfect 
jelly.  Potato  starch,  with  which  it  is  often  adulterated, 
ma^  be  distinguished  by  the  greater  .size  of  its  particles, 
their  coarser  and  more  distinct  rings,  and  their  more  glisten- 
ing appearance.  Refined  sa^flour  is  used  for  adulteration, 
many  of  the  particles  of  which  have  a  truncated  extremity, 
and  their  surface  is  irre^lar  or  tuberculated.  A.  is  also 
sometimes  adulterated  with  rice-starch  and  with  the  com- 
mon starch  of  wheat-flour. 

Not  less  than  800,000  lbs.  of  A.  are  annually  imported 
into  the  British  Isles.  As  an  article  of  diet,  it  is  often  pre- 
pared for  invalids  and  children  by  merely  dissolving  it  in 
boiling-water  and  flavoring  with  sugar,  lemon-juice,  wine, 
etc.  It  is  also  often  prepared  with  milk,  made  into  pud- 
dings, etc.  When  most  simply  prepared,  it  forms  a  light 
meal,  which,  however,  is  not  very  nutritious.  See 
Nutrition. 

A  farina  somewhat  similar  to  A. ,  and  partly  known  by  the 
distinct  name  of  Tom  les-mois,  is  obtained  from  some  species 
of  the  allied  genus  Canna  (q.  v.).    But  East  India  A.  is  in 


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ARROYO  M0LIN08-ARRU  ISLANDS. 

pari  obtained  from  the  tubers  of  Curcuma  anffustifolia. 
Other  species  of  Oureuma  (see  Tubmebic),  as  C.  Zerumbet, 
C.  lettcorhdza,  and  O.  rubescens,  jield  a  similar  farina;  the 
same  tubers  which,  when  young,  yield  a  beautiful  and  pure 
starch,  yielding  turmeric  when  old.  In  Travancore,  this 
starch  is  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  young  tubers  of  the  Galangal  (q.v.),  (Alpinia  Galanga), 
another  plant  of  the  same  natural  order  {Seitcmdnem)^  are 
another  source  of  this  farina. — A  farina  somewhat  resem- 
bling A.,  and  often  sold  under  that  name,  is  obtained  from 
different  species  of  the  nat.  ord.  GyeadaceoB,  as  from  the 
dwarf  fleshy  trunks  of  Zamia  tenuis,  Z.  furfuracea,  and  Z. 
jmmila  in  the  West  Indies,  and  from  the  large  seeds  of 
Dion  edule  in  the  lowlands  of  Mexico.— The  starch  of  Cas- 
sava, Manihot  or  Manioc  (see  Manioc),  is  sometimes  im- 
ported into  Europe  imder  the  name  of  Brazilian  A.  Potato- 
starch,  carefully  prepared,  is  sometimes  sold  as  Euglish  A.; 
and  the  farina  obtained  from  the  roots  of  the  Arum 
mncuUUum  (see  Arum),  as  Portland  A.  Otaheite  A.  is  the 
starch  of  Taeca  (q.  v.)  pinnatiJida.—Al\  these,  as  well  as 
Oswego  and  Ohi<»go  corn-starch — the  starch  of  maize  or 
Indian  com — are  so  nearly  allied  to  true  A.  as  not  to  be 
certainly  distinguishable  by  chemical  tests;  but  the  forms  of 
the  granules  diner,  so  that  they  can  be  distinguished  by  the 
microscope. 

The  name  A.  is  commonly  said  to  have  had  its  ori^n 
from  the  use  of  the  fresh  roots  by  the  South  American  In- 
dians as  an  application  to  wounns  to  counteract  the  effects 
of  poisoned  arrows;  and  the  expressed  juice  has  been  re- 
cently recommendeil  as  an  antidote  to  poisons,  and  a  cure 
for  the  stings  and  bites  of  venomous  insects  and  reptiles. 
But  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  name  is  really  another 
form  of  Ara,  the  Indian  name. 

ARROYO  MOLINOS,  dr-ro'yo  mo-le'nds:  villajge  in 
Estremadura,  Spain,  noted  as  the  scene  of  Gen.  Girard's 
complete  discomfiture  by  Lord  Hill,  1811,  Oct.  28.  €k?n. 
Girard  had  been  sent  out  by  Soult  on  a  plundering  foray 
with  5,000  men,  when  he  was  surprised  cftrly  in  the  morning 
by  Lord  Hill,  who,  with  two  regiments,  the  71st  and  92d, 
dashed  through  the  rain  upon  the  enemy,  who  fled  in  all 
directions,  leaving  behind  everything,  arms,  packs,  etc.; 
1300  prisoners  were  taken;  the  whole  artillery,  colors,  bag- 
gage, eto  French  historians  (Thiers,  etc.),  however,  main- 
tain that  the  battle  was  *  undecided,'  and  that  their  country- 
men only  retreated  in  good  order,  under  the  pressure  of 
much  larger  forces. 

ARRU  ISLANDS,  ar-rd':  a  Dutch  possession,  of  New 
Guinea,  between  5° -7°  s.  lat.,  and  184" -185'  e.  long.; 
2,650  sq.  m.;  pop.  15,000,  of  whom  400  are  Christians,  300 
Mohammedans,  the  remainder  heathens.  Principal  islands 
are  Meykor,  Wammer,  Udjicr,  Wokkam,  and  Babi.  Dobo 
on  Wammer  is  the  chief  mart.  Sa^o  and  cocoa  nut  palms 
arc  plentiful,  and  some  tobacco,  nee,  sugar-cane,  maize, 
and  edible  roots,  etc.  are  cultivated.  I'he  forests  yield  tim- 
ber, and  the. sea  yields  fish.    The  rocks  give  edible  nests, 


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ARSACES— ARSENIC. 

and  the  woods  shelter  wild  swine,  hares,  parrots,  pigeons, 
birds  of  paradise,  etc.  Cotton  goods,  iron  and  copper 
wares,  Chinese  pottery,  heads,  knives,  rum,  and  arrack  are 
imported,  and  bartered  for  mother-of  pearl,  trepang,  edible 
nests,  pearls,  tortoise  shell,  birds  of  pajradise,  etc. 

ARSACES,  dr^M-sH,  or  ar-tA'iez :  name  of  several  Par- 
thian and  Armenian  kings.  The  accounts  concerning  them 
which  have  been  transmuted  to  us  by  the  ancient  historians 
are  exceedingly  vague  and  contradiciQiy;  and  modem  criti- 
cism has  found  itself  unable  to  reconcile  or  simplify  the 
confused  statements:  see  Armenia:  Parthia. 

ARSE,  drs  [AS.,  otm,  eafn\;  the  buttocks  or  hind-part  of 
an  animal. 

ARSENAL,  n.  dr'il^n&l  [OF.  armmac;  mid.  L.  onB^fna, 
a  place  for  fabricating  arms  and  naval  stores:  Sp.  and  F. 
arnencU;  It.  darsena,  and  armnale,  a  dock-yard^from  Arab. 
ddrsanah,  a  place  of  work]:  a  great  military  or  naval 
repository,  where  munitions  of  war  are  to  some  extent 
manufactured,  but  more  particularly  stored  until  required 
for  use.  Every  national  dockyard,  every  magazine,  evciy 
armory,  is  to  some  extent  an  A. ;  therefore  the  meaning 
of  tlie  word  is  not  definite.  The  United  States  arsenals, 
armories^  and  depots  (1890),  are:  Arsenals:  Allegheny, 
Penn.;  Augusta,  Ga.;  Benicia,  Cal.;  Columbia,  Tenn.; 
Fortress  Monroe,  Va.;  Frankford,  Penn.;  Indianapolis, 
Ind.;  Kennebec,  He.;  New  York;  Rock  Island,  111.; 
San  Antonio,  Tex.;  Watertown,  Mass.;  and  Watervliet, 
K.  Y.  Armories:  National,  Springfield,  Mass.  Depots, 
ordnance:  Cheyenne,  Wyo.;  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.; 
Fort  Snellinff,  Minn.;  and  Vancouver,  Wash.  Depots, 
powder:  St  Louis,  Mo.;  Ellis  Island,  N.  Y.;  Dover.  N.  J. 

In  England,  Deptford  is  a  storehouse  for  naval  clothing 
and  provisions,  and  Weedon  and  the  Tower  (q.v.)  great 
military  repositories;  the  only  establishment  vast  enough  to 
deserve  the  the  name  A.  is  at  Woolwich  (q.v.). — In  France, 
the  chief  arsenals  ai-e  at  Cherbourg,  Brest,  and  Toulon. 

ARSENIC,  n.  dr^s^-nlk  [L.  an&n'lcum;  Gr.  anen'lkon. 
arsenic— from  Or.  arsen'ikos,  masculine,  male— so  named 
from  its  sui>erior  strength]:  a  semi-metallic  element ;  a 
poisonous  mineral  substance,  in  the  form  of  a  white  or 
steel-gray  powder,  also  called  Absek'ious  Acm,  -i-£#. 
Arskkious,  a.  pertaining  to.  Arsbn'ic,  a.,  or  Absbnical, 
a.  dr-sin%Ml,  containing  arsenic.  Arsbnicatb,  y.  dr- 
sin'i-kdt,  to  combine  with  arsenic.  Absen'iga'tino.  imp. 
Absen'iga'tbd,  pp.  Arsbkiatb,  n.  dr^n'i-dt,  or  Ar- 
SBNATB,  n.  dr'ain-dt,  a  salt  of  arsenic  acid.  AssiEinTB,  n. 
dr'si-nU,  a  salt  of  arsenious  acid.  Arsinb,  n.  dr'sin,  in 
ehem,,  a  body  constituted  on  the  plan  of  a  compound  am- 
monia in  which  the  nitrogen  is  replaced  hv  hydrogen. 
Absbnidb,  n.  dr'sinAdy  or  Arseniurbt,  n.  irae-fii'v-r^f, 
arsenic  in  combination  with  a  metal.  Arsbniurettrd, 
a.  combined  with  arsenic.  Arsenous,  a.  dr^t^n^ttt,  per- 
taining to  arsenic,  or  having  it  as  one  of  its  coiistituents. 


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ARSENIC-ARSENICAL  MINERALS. 

ARSENIC:  popular  name  for  arsenious  acid  (q.v.),  but 
properly  reslricted  to  the  metal,  symbol  As,  equiv.  760. 
This  ia  rarely  found  free  in  nature,  Ml^  in  oombiuation  it 
occurs  largely.    See  Arssnical  MiNiorAiiS.    The  metal' is 

rnerally  prepared  from  Arsenious  Acid.  As,Oa,by  mixing 
with  its  own  weight  of  charcoal,  placing  the  mixture  in 
a  well-covered  crucible,  and  subjecting  the  whole  to  heat, 
when  the  metal  set  free  by  the  charcoal  rises,  and  condenses 
in  the  upper  part  or  cover  of  the  crucible.    Metallic  A.  is 
very  brittle,  can  easily  be  reduced  to  powder  by  hammering, 
or  even  pounding  in  a  mortar; 
and  when  a  freshly  cut  surface 
is  examined,  it  presents  a  bril- 
liant  dark   steel-gray  lustre, 
which,  however,  readily  tar- 
nishes on  exposure  to  the  air. 
The  metal,  as  such,  is  not  con- 
sidered poisonous,  but  when 
introduced    into   the   animal 
system,  it  is  there  faintly  acted 
upon  by  the  juices,  and  in  j 
part  dissolved,  at  the   same  I 
time,     exhibiting    poisonous 
properties.    When  heated  in 
the  open  air,  it  bums  with  a 
pecul^    bluish    flame,    and  Native  Arsenic, 

emits  a  characteristic  alliaceous  odor.  The  only  use  to 
which  the  metal  A.  is  applied  in  the  arts  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  leaden  shot  of  the  various  sizes,  when  its 
presence  in  small  quantity  in  the  lead  renders  the  latter 
much  more  brittle  than  it  ordinarily  is.  Of  all  the  com- 
pounds of  A.  the  most  important  is  theonealreadv  alluded 
to,  Arsenious  Acid,  an  oxide  of  A.  With  sulphur,  A. 
forms  two  important  compounds:  Realgar,  As^Sa,  a  red, 
transparent,  and  brittle  substance,  which  is  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  signal-light  called  Wiite  Indian 
Fire;  and  OrphneM,  AssSa.or  King's  Yellow,  a  cheap  pig- 
nient  of  a  yellow  color.  With  hydrogen,  A.  forniA 
arseniuretted  hydrogea  AsH*,  a  very  poisonous  gas,  and 
one  which  has  been  fatal  to  several  chemists. 

ARSENICAL  MINERALS:  chiefly  in  primitive  rocks, 
frequently  associated  with  other  metalliferous  minerals. — 
Natite  Arsenv:,  although  nowhere  very  abundant,  is  not 
un frequently  found  in  mines  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
usually  with  sulphur  and  metallic  sulphurets.  In  Britain, 
it  occurs  at  Tyndrum  in  Perthshire.  It  has  usually  a  fine 
granular  character.  It  is  seldom,  if  ever,  quite  pure, 
usually  containing  a  little  antimony  and  iron,  ana  fre- 
quently a  very  little  silver  or  gold. — A  very  similar  and 
still  rarer  mineral,  found  in  similar  situations,  is  known  as 
Arsenic-antimony,  and  consists  oi  about  two  parts  of  metal- 
lic arsenic,  and  one  of  metallic  antimony. — Arsenic-silver, 
or  Arsenical  Silter,  is  another  very  rare  mineral,  consistiog 
chiefly  of  arsenic  and  iron,  but  containing  also  about  13 
per  cent,  of  silver  and  a  little  antimony. — Arsenic-glance, 
found  at  Marienberg  in  Saxony,  and  containing  about  3 


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ARSENICAL  SOAP— AKSENIOSIDERITE. 

per  cent,  of  bismuth  or  less,  is  thought  to  be  an  allotropic 
form  of  arsenic.  Realgar  (q.v.)  is  a  monosulpbide,  with 
70  per  cent,  of  jtfgHnic  (As).  OrpimeiU  (q*v.)  is  a  tri- 
sulphide,  with  61  p<Afcent.  As.  They  occur  together  in  the 
Norris  oieyser  basiu,  Yellowstone  Park,  and  m  seanis  in 
clay  under  lava,  Iroa  co.,  Utah.  DimorphUe  (As4Ss?)  is 
found  at  a  f uniarole  near  Naples.  Domeykite  is  a  copper 
arsenide,  As  28  3,  found  at  Li.  Superior.  Nic^olite  is  a 
nickel  arsenide,  As  56*1;  it  occurs  at  Franklin  Furnace, 
N.  J.,  Silver  Cliff,  Colo.,  and  with  StnaUUe  (a  cobalt  diar- 
senidc.  As  71*8)  in  gneiss  at  Chatham,  Conn.  Oerifdorjfite, 
incrusted  on  galena  and  splialerite  at  Phoenixville,  Penn., 
is  a  sulph-arsenide  of  nickel,  nearly  half  As.  LoUingite,  or 
Arseuosiderite,  is  an  iron-diarsenide,  and  Arseniosiderite 
(q.v.)  is  another  thing — an  arsenic  pentoxide  compound 
with  iron,  lime,  and  water.  Arsenopgrile  or  Mispickel  is 
a  sulph-arsenide  of  iron,  sometimes  cobaltiferous  (Danite), 
sometimes  nickeliferous;  it  is  nearly  half  As.  Saffioritt  is, 
like  Smaltite,  a  co\ml|;  diarsenide.  As  79*8:  and  BfimmtU- 
bergite  is  similar,  with  nickel  instead  of  cobalt.  A  cobalt 
ai-senide,  nearly  four-flfths  As,  is  named  Skuttentdiie, 
There  are  also  tellurium  and  manganese  arsenides  de- 
scribed, and  Sartorite  is  a  lead  and  arsenic  compound  with 
sulphur,  while  EpigenUe  is  a  sulphide  of  this  wiih  copper 
and  iron.  Arsenolite,  an  As  trioxide,  has  75*8  ner  cent,  of 
this  element;  and  another,  differing  in  crystallization,  is 
Vl(in(letite.  Some  lead  phosphate  (PgratnorphUe)  contains 
As,  and  HcUdingerite  is  lime  arsenate;  other  arsenates  are 
that  of  manganese,  AUa4sUe;tL  more  complex  one,  Arsenio- 
pleite;  and  a  hydrous  ferric  one,  ScorodUe.  Still  other 
minerals  that  contain  arsenic  are  EcdemUe^  Trippkeite, 
PUticUey  Beudanite,  Atdestite,  etc.  Commercial  arsenic  is 
derived  from  ores  worked  also  for  nickel,  cobalt,  etc. 

ARSENICAL  SOAP:  important  preparation  in  Taxi- 
dermy (q.v.).  Its  use  is  not  necessary  for  the  thin  skins  of 
the  smaller  birds  and  smallest  mammals,  arsenic  in  dry 
powder  being  sufficient;  but  for  thicker  skins  it  is  thought 
to  have  more  penetrating  quality. 

ARSENIOSIDERITE,«r-»^/i-T-o-«wi'^-«  [Qi.arsen'  Vcon^ 
arsenic;  mderos^  iron]:  fibrous  mineral  found  in  France 
and  Saxony,  the  large  silky  fibres  radiating  in  concretions, 
like  cacoxenite,  which  it  resembles  also  in  yellowish  color; 
its  composition  answers  to  arsenic  pentoxide,  with  iron 
and  lime.  ArsenoMerite  differs  slightly  in  spelling  from 
Arseniosiderite,  but  much  in  composition  (FeAsa);  it  is 
now  named  LoUingite;  and  is  the  sjime  as  Arscnocrocile. 
It  varies  from  silver  white  to  steel  gray,  and  has  varieties 
such  as  LeucopyrUe  (Fe»As<)  and  oUiers  with  a  little  sul- 
phur or  cobalt. 


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PLATE    16, 


ArqQ«bQsiar 
Artesian 


Arqaebiuier  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century. 


Artesian  Well.  -Diagram  showing  per- 
vious strata  in  a  basin-shaped  curve.  A.  B.  C, 
three  wells  communicaiintf  at  b,  c.  d,  e.  f, 
with  undenn*ound  pervious  strata  containing 
water  which  descends  by  gravitation  from 
the  higher  levels,  D,  £,  F. 


Diagram  of  the  Structure  of  an  Artery.— 1,  External  coat:  a.  fibrous,  6, 
elastic;  2,  Middle  coat:  c,  muscular;  S,  Internal  coat:  d,  elastic,  e,  endo- 
thelial. ^  VO     , 


Arrow-root  (Maranta  arundtnacea):  A,  Flowering  branch;  B,  Base  of 
Oower  stem;  0,  Branch  of  the  rhizome. 

VoLfL 


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ARSENIOUS  ACID. 

ARSENI0U8  ACID:  the  arsenical  compound  most  fa- 
miliarly known,  popularly  called  Arsenic.  It  is  obtained 
principally  during  the  roasting  of  the  arsenical  nickel  ores 
In  Germany  in  furnaces  conmiunicating  with  flues.  When 
the  arsenic  of  the  ore  bums,  it  passes  into  the  condition 
of  A.  A.  (A83O3),  and  rising  as  vapor  into  the  somewhat 
cool  flue,  is  there  deposited  as  a  grayish  powder,  known  by 
the  names  of  SmdUng-hou^e  Smoke,  Flowers  of  Arwnie,  Poi- 
son-jUmr,  or  Bough  A.  A.  In  this  condition  the  A.  A.  is 
contaminated  with  some  impurities,  from  which  it  may  be 
separated  by  introducing  the  gray  powder  into  an  egg- 
shaped  vessel,  and  applying  heat  at  the  lower  end  when 
the  A.  A.  rises  in  vapor  and  condenses  in  the  cool  end  as 
a  transparent  glassy  or  vitreous  substance.  Ordinary  A. 
A.  of  the  shops  (which  is  what  is  popularly  known  as  ar- 
Menie)  is  a  white  crystalline  powder,  which  feels  decidedly 
gritty,  like  fine  sand,  when  placed  between  the  teeth,  and 
has  no  well-marked  taste,  it  is  very  heavy,  so  much  so 
as  at  once  to  be  noticeable  when  a  paper  or  bottle 
containing  it  is  lifted  by  the  hand.  It  is  soluble  in  water 
to  the  extent  of  1  part  of  A.  A.  in  about  100  parts  of 
cold  water,  and  1  part  of  A.  A.  in  about  10  parts  of  boil- 
ing water.  As  ordinarily  sold  in  quantities  under  10  lbs. 
in  weight,  the  A.  A.  is  required  by  the  law  of  some  coun- 
tries to  be  colored  with  A  of  its  weight  of  indigo,  or  -j*j  of 
its  weight  of  soot*  the  ooiect  of  the  admixture  being  to 
render  any  liquid  to  which  the  A.  A.  mi^ht  be  added, 
with  a  murderous  intent,  of  a  black  or  bluish-black  hue, 
and  thus  indicate  the  presence  of  something  unusual.  In 
packages  of  10  lbs.  and  upwards,  A.  A.  is  allowed  to 
be  sold  in  the  pure  white  crystalline  form  without  colora- 
tion. When  placed  in  a  spoon  or  other  vessel,  and  heated, 
the  A.  A.  volatilizes,  and  condenses  in  crystals  on  an^r  cool 
vessel  held  above.  By  this  means  it  can  be  distinguished 
from  ordinary  flour,  which,  when  heated,  would  char,  and 
leave  a  coal  behind;  and  from  chalk,  stucco,  baking-soda, 
tooth-powder,  and  other  white  substances,  which,  when 
heatea,  remain  in  the  vessel  as  a  non-volatile  white  residue. 
Again,  when  A.  A.  Is  placed  on  a  red-hot  cinder,  and  the 
escaping  vapors  cautiously  brought  under  the  nostrils, 
the  strong  alliaceous  odor  characteristic  of  arsenic  is  given 
off.  The  mode  in  which  A.  A.  comports  itself  when 
thrown  upon  water  is  likewise  peculiar.  Instead  of  at 
once  descending  through  the  water  like  sand,  the  A.  A., 
notwithstanding  its  great  density  (sp.  gr.  3*70),  partially 
floats  on  the  surface,  as  wheat-flour  does;  and  that  portion 
which  sinks  in  the  water  rolls  itself,  into  little  round  pel- 
lets, which  are  wetted  only  on  the  outside,  and  contain 
much  dry  A.  A.  within.  The  solution  of  A.  A.  in  water 
Is  recognized  by  three  tests: 

1.  Ilydro8uli>huric  acid  and  hydrochloric  acid  produce 
a  yellow  preeipUateotaroeiiiouB  sulphide,  AsaSs,  which  is 
soluble  in  ammonia. 

2.  Ammonio-sulphatc  of  copper,  an  apple  green  precipitate 
of  arsenite  of  copper,  CuHAsOs. 


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ARSENI0U8  ACID. 

8.  Ammonio-nitrate  of  silver,  a  yellov)  predpiUUe  of  ar8e> 
nile  of  silver,  AgaAsOa, 

In  many  cases  A.  A.  is  used  as  a  means  of  destroying 
animal  life,  but,  happily,  the  processes  for  the  detection 
of  the  poison  in  organic  mixtures  and  in  the  animal  tissues 
are  so  unerring,  that  it  is  hardly  within  the  range  of  pos- 
sibility that  an  animal  can  be  destroyed  by  the  administra- 
tion of  A.  A.  without  very  decided  evidence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  poison  bein^  obtained  on  examination  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  anunal  structure;  indeed,  it  may  be 
safely  said  that  there  is  no  limit  to  the  detection  of  the 
poison,  as  even  after  the  animal  structure  has  be^i  so  far 
decomposed  that  little  renuiins,  yet  still  the  poison,  from 
its  inaestructibiiity,  survives,  and  wUl  indicate  itself 
clearly,  on  the  application  of  the  several  tests. 

For  the  isolation  and  recognition  of  A.  A.  in  organic 
mixtures,  such  as  the  contents  of  a  stomach,  three  pro- 
cesses may  be  followed.  The  method  generally  pursued, 
and  that  upon  which  greatest  dependence  is  placed,  is 
called  Reinsch's  process,  from  the  name  of  its  discoverer. 
The  manner  of  its  application  is  to  treat  the  organic  mix- 
ture with  water,  sumcient  to  render  it  thin,  then  add  hy- 
drochloric acid  to  the  extent  of  one-eiffhth  of  the  volume 
of  the  liquid;  apply  heat,  and  when  the  whole  has  been 
raised  to  near  the  boiling-point,  introduce  clean,  newly 
burnished  pieces  of  copper  in  the  form  of  wire,  gauze,  or 
foil.  If  A.  A.  be  present  in  the  mixture,  a  steel-gray 
coating  of  metallic  arsenic  will  form  on  the  surface  of  the 
copper.  This  apparent  tarnishing  of  the  copper  may  take 
place  when  no  A.  A.  is  in  the  mixture,  and  may  be  pro 
duced  by  salts  of  mercury,  antimony,  etc.,  as  well  as  by 
sulphur  compounds,  and  even  occasionally  by  fatty  mat- 
ters. To  distinguish  between  the  coatins^  formed  by  A.  A. 
and  that  produced  by  other  substances,  the  copper  is  taken 
out  of  the  mixture,  washed  with  water,  to  remove  acid; 
immersed  in  ether,  to  dissolve  off  any  adherent  fatty  mat- 
ter; dried  between  folds  of  blotting-paper;  introduced  into 
the  lower  end  of  a  dry  glass  test-tube,  and  there  cautious- 
ly heated.  The  metallic  arsenic  (As)  is  driven  off  by  the 
heat  from  the  surface  of  the  copper,  rises  in  vapor  into 
the  upper  portions  of  the  test-tube;  there  meets  the  oxygen 
of  the  air,  with  which  it  combines,  forming  A.  A.,  As«Oa, 
and  thereafter  deposits  itself  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
cool  part  of  the  tube  in  little  glistening  crystals.  On  al- 
lowing the  tube  to  cool,  adding  water  thereto,  and  apply- 
ing heat.,  the  water  dissolves  the  crystals  of  A.  A.,  yield- 
^iig  a  solution,  to  separate  portions  of  which  the  liquid 
tests  mentioned  above  may  be  successfully  applied.  This 
process  may  likewise  be  ^nployed  in  the  detection  of  A. 
A. in  animal  tissue,  as  in  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  etc.,  by 
first  dividing  the  animal  matter  into  small  pieces,  and 
thereafter  treating  with  water,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  cop- 
per. The  precautions  which  require  to  be  exerci^d  m 
trying  this  process  are,  that  the  hydrochloric  acid  and 
copper  are  themselves  ifree  from  A.  A.  Hydrochloric  acid 
has  long  been  known  to  be  liable  to  con  tarn  at  times  a  very 


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AR8ENIOU8  ACID. 

Bendble  proportion  of  the  poison,  and  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary, before  using  the  acid  in  any  experiment,  to  make  a 
preliminary  trial  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  into  which 
when  heated  a  piece  of  copper  is  immersed;  and  if  no  tar- 
nishing occurs  after  a  quarter  of  an  hour's  trial,  the  acid 
may  be  declared  free  from  contamination  with  arsenical 
compounds.  The  liability  of  copper  to  contain  arsenic 
assumed  importance  in  connection  with  a  trial  in  Britain, 
1859,  Aug.,  for  murder  by  slow  poisoning  with  arsenic. 
In  this  case  a  considerable  amount  of  copper  was  dissolved 
during  the  testing,  and  supplied  the  poison  in  quantity 
enough  to  produce  a  faint  coating  on  a  piece  of  copper 
which  was  subsequently  introduce  into  the  liquid.  The 
result  was,  that  A.  A.  was  at  first  declared  to  be  present 
in  the  material  under  examination;  but  further  experi- 
ments demonstrated  that  the  copper  itself  had  afforded 
the  arsenic.  To  free  copper  from  any  arsenic  which  it 
may  contain  originally,  it  is  only  necessary  to  heat  the 
copper  over  a  gas  or  spirit-lamp  name,  when  the  arsenic 
volatilizes,  and  leaves  the  copper  uncontaminated  there- 
with. 

The  other  two  processes  for  the  detection  of  A.  A.  in 
organic  mixtures  are— 1.  That  recommended  by  Marsh,  in 
which  the  material  is  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and 
metallic  zinc  in  a  gas-generating  apparatus,  when  the  arsenic. 


Kanh's  prooeaa  Beneliu8*8  procesB. 

combining  with  hydrogen,  forms  arseniuretted  hydrogen 
AsHs,  from  which,  in  the  act  of  escaping,  the  metallic 
arsenic,  and  subsequently  A.  A.,  can  be  obtamed  ;  2.  That 
known  as  Berzelius's  process,  in  which  dry  arsenical  com- 
pounds are  mixed  with  a  reducing  flux,  and  heated  in  a 
constricted  tube,  when  the  metal  arsenic  is  produced,  which 
in  its  turn  is  converted  into  A.  A.  by  heating  in  a  wide  test- 
tube.  The  processes  of  Marsh  and  Berzelius  are  not  so 
generally  followed  as  that  of  Reinscb;  but  in  each  and  all 
It  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of 
mistake,  (1)  tliat  metallic  arsenic  be  obtained  from  the  organic 


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ARSENIOUS  ACID. 

mixture:  (2)  that  the  metaUic  arsenic  be  convertetl  into  A 
A.;  and  (8)  that  this  A.  A.,  treated  with  water,  should 
yield  a  solution  which  will  give  the  three  liquid  tests  men- 
tioned previously. 

A.  A.  forms  compounds  (salts)  with  alkalies  and  other 
bases,  which  are  called  Arsenites.  Some  of  these  are  em- 
ployed in  commerce  and  medicine.  A.  A.,  boiled  with  a 
solution  of  potash,  or  carbonate  of  potash,  forms  an 
arsenite  of  potash,  used  in  medicine,  known  as  Fotpler's 
Solution.  The  more  largely  used  sheep-dipping  mixtures 
are  composed  of  A.  A.,  soda,  sulphur,  and  soap,  which, 
when  used,  are  dissolved  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and 
thus  constitute  essentially  dilute  solutions  of  arsenite  of  soda. 
A  compound  of  A.  A.  and  the  oxide  of  copper,  called  the 
arsenite  of  copper,  or  Schsel^s  Qrem,  is  a  pigment  largely 
used  by  painters  as  a  pretty  and  cheap  green  paint  The 
same  substance  is  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  common  ffreen  paper-hangings  for  the  walls  of  rooms ; 
and  recent  mvestigations  show  that  rooms  covered  with 
paper  coated  with  this  green  arsenite  of  copper  are  detri- 
mental to  the  health  of  occupants,  from  the  readiness  with 
which  minute  particles  of  the  poisonous  pigment  are  de- 
tached from  the  walls  bv  the  slightes*;  friction,  are  diffused 
through  the  room,  and  ultimately  pass  into  the  animal 
system.  Another  green  pigment  is  named  Schtoeinfuiih 
Oreen,  and  contains  A.  A.,  oxide  of  copper,  and  acetic 
acid,  and  is  a  double  arsenite  and  acetate  of  copper. 

Arsenic  (Arsenioub  Acid),  Properties  cf,  as  a  Drug.— A., 
has  long  been  used  as  a  medicine.  When  taken  into 
the  stomach,  it  is  soon  absorbed  into  the  blood,  and  circu- 
lates with  that  fluid,  exhibiting  great  power  over  certain 
diseases,  especially  skin  diseases,  as  psoriasis,  lepra,  eczema 
((}.v.),  etc.  It  is  classed  among  the  tonic  minerals,  and 
given  for  nervous  disorders,  especially  those  that  are 
periodic.  Of  late  it  has  been  much  recommended  for 
rheumatism;  and  Dr.  Begbie,  of  Edinburgh,  considered  that 
among  the  remedies  for  chorea  (St  Vitus'  dance)  it  holds 
the  foremost  place.  In  ague,  also,  and  remittent  fever,  as 
well  as  in  other  disorders  originating  from  the  same  source, 
A.  and  quinine  are  chief  remedies.  They  are  considered  to 
act  as  alteratives  of  the  blood.  The  usual  method  of  ad- 
ministering A.  is  in  small  doses  (from  three  to  five  drops)  of 
the  liquor  arsenicalis,  largely  diluted  with  water,  twice  or 
thnce  in  the  day.  Arsenic  is  sometimes  given  combined 
with  iodine  and  mercury  (Donovan's  solution). 

When  given  in  the  doses  above  mentioned,  for  eight  cr 
ten  days,  symptoms  of  poisoning  begin  to  appear ;  the  skin 
becomes  hot,  the  pulse  quick,  the  eyelids  hot  and  itchy ; 
the  tongue  has  a  silvery  appearance;  the  throat  is  dry  and 
sore,  the  gums  swollen  and  tender;  and  if  the  treatment  is 
persisted  in,  salivation  ensues,  and  then  come  nausea, 
vomiting,  diarrhea,  nervous  depression,  and  faintness 
(Begbie).  The  quantity  necessary  to  destroy  life,  of  course, 
varies.  Dr.  Christison  records  the  case  of  a  'man  who  died 
in  six  days,  after  taking  thirty  grains  of  the  powdered  white 
A.;  but  a  much  smaller  dose  will  prove  fatal ;  a  girl  was 


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ARSENOCROCITE— ARSINOE. 

idlled  with  two  grains  and  a  half  of  A«  contained  in  two 
ounces  of  fly-water.  According  to  Dr.  Swaine  Taylorj  a 
medical  witness  is  justified  in  stating,  that  under  circum- 
stances favorable  /or  its  operation  the  fatal  dose  for  an 
adult  is  from  two  to  three  grains.  Death  from  a  poisonous 
dose  of  A.  may  occur  in  a  few  hours,  or  after  the  lapse  of 
days.  A  woman,  aged  56,  used  a  solution  of  A.  in  water  to 
cure  the  itch;  she  experienced  severe  suffering,  and  died 
after  two  years,  having  had  symptoms  of  arsenical  poisoning 
aU  that  time. 

A.  has  been  used  frequently  as  a  slow  poison,  the  symp- 
toms being  attributed  to  inflammation  of  the  bowels  from 
natural  causes.  Fortunately,  in  most  cases  its  detection  is 
easy.  Orflla  found  A.  in  the  soil  of  cemeteries,  a  fact 
which  has  created  some  discussion  among  toxicologists. 
A.  is  used  by  anatomists  as  an  antiseptic,  but  is  dangerous, 
as  it  is  apt  to  get  into  cuts  on  the  hands,  and  under  the  fin- 
ger-nails, and  cause  disagreeable  symptoms.  In  Styria,  A. 
IS  taken  by  the  peasant  girls  to  increase  their  personal  at 
tractions;  and  it  has  been  ascertained  that  in  other 
Austrian  provinces,  A.-eating  is  largely  practiced  by  men, 
who  nevertheless  attain  old  age — an  instance  of  the  toler- 
ance which  can  gradually  be  set  up  against  dangerous 
poison.  These  ignorant  A. -eaters,  who  generally  begin  the 
use  of  the  drug  secretly,  claim  that  it  improves  the  com- 
plexion, an(>  so  strengthens  the  respiratory  organs  as  to 
enable  bearers  of  heavy  burdens  to  climb  mountains 
with  ease.  When  the  habit  is  established  it  cannot  be 
given  up;  and  sudden  cessation  causes  death. 

No  effective  chemical  antidote  for  A.  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered. In  case  of  an  overdose  or  of  intentional  poison- 
ing, the  following  treatment  is  recommended:  Evacuate 
the  stomach  by  the  stomach-pump,  using  lime-water;  ad- 
minister large  draughts  of  tepid  sugar  and  water,  chalk  and 
water,  or  lime-water;  avoid  the  use  of  alkalies,  but  admin- 
ister charcoal  and  hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron;  take  a 
tepid  bath,  and  use  narcotics.  If  the  fatal  symptoms  be 
averted,  let  the  patient  for  a  long  time  subsist  wholly  on 
farinaceous  food,  milk,  and  demulcents. 

ARSENOCROCITE:  see  Arseniosiderite. 

ARS-FOOT,  d/rs'foot:  English  name  for  the  Great- crested 
Grebe  (PxUceps  cristatus).  Small  A.,  the  Little  Grebe 
(Podkeps  minor), 

ARSINOE,  ar-stn'o-e:  b.  abt.  b.  c.  816:  daughter  of 
Ptolemy  I.,  king  of  Egypt,  and  of  Berenice.  She  was 
married  in  her  sixteenth  year  to  the  aged  Lysimachus,  king 
of  Thrace,  whose  eldest  son,  Agathocles,  had  already  wed- 
ded Lysandra,  the  half-sister  of  A.  Desirous  of  securing 
the  throne  for  her  own  children,  A.  prevailed  on  her  hus- 
band to  put  Agathocles  to  death  ;  the  consequences  of 
which  crime,  however,  were  fatjd  to  the  Thracian  mon- 
arch ;  for  Lysandra,  having  fled  with  her  children  to  8e- 
leucus  in  Asia,  managed  to  induce  him  to  declare  war 
against  her  unnatural  father  in-law.  Lysimachus  was 
slain,  and  Sdeucus  seized  the  kingdom.    A.  now  sought 


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ARSIS— ART. 

fcfiige  in  Macedonia,  which,  however,  was  also  taken  poa 
session  of  by  Seleucus ;  but  on  tbe  assassination  of  the  lat- 
ter, after  a^few  months,  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  the  half- 
brother  of  A.,  she  received  a  hvpocntical  offer  of  marriage 
from  Ptolemy,  who  wanted  to  destroy  her  two  sons,  lest  they 
should  prove  formidable  rivals  to  his  ambition.  She  con 
sented  to  the  union,  and  opened  the  gates  of  the  town  in 
which  she  had  taken  refuge,  but  her  diUdren  were  butch- 
ered before  her  eyes.  She  then  fled  to  f^gypt  (b.  c.  279), 
where  she  married  her  own  brother,  Ptolemy  IL  Phila- 
(lelphus.  These  unnatural  unions  subsequently  became 
common  among  the  Greek  kings  of  Egypt  It  does  not  i^ 
pear  that  A.  had  any  children  by  her  lnx>ther,  though  she 
was  regarded  by  him  with  fl;reat  affection.  He  named  several 
cities,  and  also  an  entire  district,  by  her  name.  After  her 
death,  he  ordered  Dinochares,  the  ait^tect  to  build  a 
temple  to  her  memory,  and  roof  tbe  edifice  with  loadstones, 
so  that  her  iron  statue  might  seem  to  float  in  tbe  air. 

ARSIS,  n.  dr'»is  [Gr.  ams,  the  rise  of  the  voice  in  a  syl- 
lable—from airo,  I  raise]:  in  poetry,  the  accented  pliable 
of  a  foot,  or  that  on  which  the  stress  of  the  voice  »  put, 
the  other  part  of  the  foot  being  called  the  thene;  in  mvsic, 
applied  to  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  hand  in  beating  time. 
It  is  also  applied  to  the  elevation  and  depression  of  the  voice 
in  speaking. 

ARSON,  n.  dr'son  [P.  arson;  mid.  L.  amonem,  a  burn- 
ing—from L.  c^rstis,  Dumtl:  the  crime  of  wilfully  selling 
on  fire  property.  A.  (called  m  Scotland  wifful  flre  raising), 
is,  according  to  the  laws  of  all  civilized  countries,  a  crime 
of  the  deepest  atrocity;  for  it  involves  not  only  destruction 
of  property,  but  also  destruction  of,  or  at  least  indifference 
to,  the  life  of  others.  In  the  criminal  law  it  Is  a  felony, 
and  has  been  described  in  England  and  some  states  of  the 
Union  as  the  malicious  and  wilful  burning  of  the  house 
or  building  of  another  man:  in  some  of  the  states  (New 
York,  etc.),  it  is  the  setting  on  fire  of  any  building— even 
one's  own  house — which  contains  a  human  being,  or  of 
any  outbuilding  whose  burning  will  manifestly  endanger 
such  a  build  ing.  To  constitute  such  felony,  there  must  be  an 
cuUual  burning— some  wasting  of  fibre  by  combusticm;  for 
intent,  however  clear,  would  not  sufiSce  at  common  law  to 
support  a  charge  of  A.  The  extinguishment  of  the  fire 
does  not  bar  the  charge.  Some  states  declare  it  ,to  be  A. 
to  set  fire  with  intent  to  defraud  an  insurance  company. 
In  general,  U.  S.  law  does  not  apply  the  term  A.  in  the  case 
of  as  many  kinds  of  property  as  the  English  law. 

ART,  V.  drt  [Icel.  ert:  AS.  eart:  Dan.  er  (see  Are)]: 
the  2d  sing,  of  the  pres.  tense  of  verb  be. 


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ART. 

ART,  n.  &H  [F.  art,  art— from  L.  artem,  an  art]:  the 
rules  and  method  of  domg  a  thmg  well;  anythhig  done  by 
human  skfll— the  opposite  of  nature;  knowledge  applied 
to  the  uses  of  everyday  life — the  opposite  of  science;  a  trade; 
skill;  cunning.  Arts,  n.  plu.  a  mediseval  term  used  to  des- 
ignate certain  articles  or  subjects  of  study;  a  modem  art 
course  is  'Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  moral  philosophy, 
logic,  rhetoric,  and  natural  history,'  but  the  subjects  vary 
in  differmt  universities.  Abt  and  pabt,  a  share  in  con- 
trivance and  execution.  Abtbitl,  a.  drtfool,  cunning; 
crafty.  Art'fully,  ad.  4i,  with  artorcumning;  skilfully. 
Artless,  a.  unskilful;  natural;  simple.  Abt'lesslt,  ad. 
4i.  ART'LEesNBSS,  u.  ARTFULNESS,  u.  sklH;  cimuine. 
Artifice,  n.  dr-tUfts  [P.  artifice— from  L.  faclo,  I  make]: 
a  trick;  an  ingenious  contrivance,  in  a  gooa  or  bad  sense. 
Abtificrr,  n.  dr-ttfi^er,  a  workman;  a  contriver.  Ar- 
tificial, a.  dr'ttfUh'dl,  made  by  art;  not  produced  by- 
nature;  feigned;  fictitious.  Ar'tifi'ciallt,  ad.  -Zi.  Ar. 
TiFfciALNBss,  u.  the  quality  of  being  artificial.  Artifi- 
ciALTTT,  n.  d?tt-flsh'i-dl'i^il,  appearance  or  result  of  art. 
Art'  Union,  -Unifun,  a  subscription  lottery  of  paintings, 
engravings,  etc.  Artisan,  n.  dr'tUiun  [P.  artisan]:  a 
workman;  a  mechanic.  Fine  Arts,  fin' arts,  those  pro- 
ductions of  human  skill  and  genius  more  immediately  ad- 
dressed to  the  taste,  or  to  the  imagination— such  as  paint- 
hig,  sculpture,  engraving,  music,  etc.  Master  of  Arts, 
in  medicswU  Umes,  one  declared  qualified  to  teach  students 
in  arts,  as  Doctor  was  one  declared  qualified  to  teach  stu- 
dents in  theology  or  in  law.  Degrees  in  A^ts,  academic 
titles  conferred  on  persons  after  a  certain  imiversity  course 
of  study,  and  a  stnct  examination  in  the  subjects  of  that 
course,  the  lower  degree  being  Bachelor  of  Arts  ^.A.  or 
A.B.],  and  the  higher.  Master  of  Arts  [M.A.  or  A.M.].— 
8yk.  of  *art':  knowledge;  learning;  erudition;  literature; 
science;  skill;  readiness;  adroitness;  dexteritv;  trade;  busi- 
ness ;  profession ;  contrivance ;  calling ;  lurtifice ;  cunning  ; 
deceit;  tact;— of  '  artful':  cunning;  deceitful;  adroit;  crafty; 
dexterous;  skilful;  designing;  artificial;  fictitious;— of  'ar- 
tificer ':  artisan  ;.  artist ;  mechanic;  —of  *  artifice  * :  trick ; 
finesse  ;  stratagem  ;  subterfuge;— of  '  artless ':  unafifected ; 
sincere  ;  candid  ;  guileless  ;  frank ;  open  ;  simple  ;  un- 
designing. 

ART,  in  the  sense  of  Fine  Art:  a  production  (or  the 
science  or  practice  of  such  production)  of  human  skill  or 
genius  more  immediately  addressed  to  the  taste  or  imag- 
ination; distinguished  from  the  useful  arts,  or  the  indus- 
trial operations  for  supplying  the  common  necessities  of 
life.  Fainting  and  Poetry  are  fine  arts;  Agriculture,  Nav- 
igation, and  Medicine  are  usefid  arts. 

Omitting  here  the  profound  impulse  of  A.,  a  soul-striv- 
ing after  the  perfect,  we  consider  it  onlv  as  pleasurable. 
Many  enjoyments  no  artist  would  think  of  attempting 
to  provide.  The  gratifications  of  eating  and  drinking,  of 
exercise  and  repose,  warmth  and  coolness,  form  a  class  in 
contrast  with  the  pleasures  of  music,  sculpture,  or  the 
drama.     It  is  a  matter  of  nicety  to  draw  the  line  between 


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ARt. 

these  two  re^ons  of  pleasurable  susceptibility;  indeed,  a 
precise  line  is  not  drawn.  Certain  peculiarities  can  be  as- 
signed as  diuqualifying  circumstances,  such  that  any  mode 
of  pleasure  laboring  under  them  is  debarred  from  entering 
into  A. ;  but  after  these  are  allowed  for,  tiiere  will  remain 
a  disputed  border-land,  on  w|uch  no  general  criterion  will 
hold. 

The  various  indulgences  called  sensual  are  examples  both 
of  ori^nal  contrast,  and  of  possible  blending  by  ideal  pre- 
sentation, with  the  pleasiu^  of  A.  In  the  first  place,  as 
man's  frame  is  constituted,  these  bodily  functions,  while 
incidentally  ministering  to  his  pleasure,  are  in  the  main 
subservient  to  maintaining  his  existence,  and  being  in  the 
first  instance  guided  for  that  special  end,  they  do  not 
necessarily  rank  among  gratifications  as  such ;  in  the  sec- 
ond place,  they  are  connected  with  the  production  of  what 
is  repulsive  and  loathsome,  which  mars  their  purity  as 
sources  of  pleasure ;  and  in  the  third  place,  they  are  essen- 
tially confined  in  their  influence  to  the  single  individual ; 
for  the  sociability  of  the  table  is  an  element  superadded. 
Now,  a  mode  of  pleasure  subject  to  one  or  more  of  these 
three  conditions  may  belong  in  an  eminent  degree  to  the 
list  of  utilities,  and  constitute  an  end  of  industry,  but  does 
not  come  under  the  class  now  considered.  Wealth  is  dis- 
qualified by  the  third  condition,  inasmuch  as,  while  in  the 
shape  of  money,  it  is  confined  to  some  single  proprietor. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  pleasures  of  Power  and  Dig- 
nity. Even  Affection  is  too  exclusive  to  come  under  the 
artistic  head.  Anything  so  restricted  in  its  sphere  of  ac- 
tion as  to  constitute  exclusive  individual  property,  and  mve 
occasion  to  envy  and  jealousy,  is  not  a  pleasure  aimed  ai 
by  the  producer  of  Fine  A. ;  for  there  do  exist  objects  that 
can  give  delight  as  their  primary  end,  that  have  no  dis- 
agreeable or  revolting  accompaniments,  and  whose  enjoy- 
ment is  not  restirictea  to  a  single  mind ;  all  which  consid- 
erations obviously  elevate  the  rank  of  such  objects  in  the 
scale  of  human  enioyments.  The  landscape,  the  glowina^ 
sunset,  the  song  of  the  lark,  the  fiowers  of  the  field  and 
the  garden,  3ield  unalloyed  pleasure,  and  preate  no  monop- 
oly. The  painter,  sculptor,  and  musician  aim  at  corre- 
sponding effects. 

The  eye  and  the  ear  are  the  chief  avenues  of  artistic 
delight;  the  other  senses  are  more  or  less  in  the  monopo- 
list interest.  Moreover,  one  important  feature  in  the 
somewhat  capricious  attribute  termed  refijiement  attaches 
more  particularly  to  the  objects  of  these  two  senses;  name- 
ly, the  power  of  protracted  enjoyment  without  fatigue.  A 
coarse  effect  is  one  that  is  intense  and  pungent,  but  too  ex- 
hausting to  be  kept  up;  such  is  a  noisy  clash  of  loud  in- 
struments in  a  musical  perfonuance,  or  a  tale  of  overdone 
marvels.  To  remove  all  the  fatipiing  accompaniments, 
and  thereby  tone  down  the  exciting  influence,  while  re- 
taining as  much  as  possible  the  really  pleasurable  part,  is 
to  refine  upon  the  effect,  and  produce  a  higher  w^ork  of 
art.  Now,  in  the  sensations  of  taste  and  smell  generally,  the 
stimulus  is  apt  to  be  of  short  duration,  the  pleasure  is  said 


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ART. 

to  |»ll  soon.  Yet  there  are  degrees  in  the  case;  some  of  the 
choicer  odors  can  for  hours  together  produce  a  gentle  and 
pleasing  sensation.  But  it  is  the  ear,  and  perhaps  still  more 
the  eye,  that  can  remain  open  to  agreeable  stimulation  for 
the  greatest  length  of  time;  and  in  this  fact,  with  the  un- 
consuming  nature  of  their  objects,  the  artist  finds  good 
reasons  for  striving  earnestly  towards  the  gratification  of 
those  two  senses. 

The  sensual  efement^  can  be  brought  into  A.  by  being 
contemplated  in  the  idea,  in  place  of  oeing  enjoyea  in  the 
rt'Ality.  A  painter  or  poet  may  depict  to  the  mind  a  feast, 
and  impart  a  pleasure  that  differs  essentially  from  the  de- 
lights of  eating  and  drinking.  The  imagined  repast  has 
nothing  to  do  with  present  bodily  necessities;  the  dis- 
agreeable accompaniments  can  be  kept  out  of  view;  and 
any  nimiber  of  persons  may  share  in  the  effect.  So  with 
the  elements  of  wealth,  power,  dignity,  and  affection, 
which  in  their  actuality  lack  the  liberal  character  of  the 
true  artistic  delight;  when  pleasure  can  be  derived  from 
the  spectacle  of  them  in  the  hands  of  the  select  number  of 
their  possessors — pleasure  apart  from  a  rising  of  selfish  de- 
sire— then  they  become  an  enjoyment  that  can  be  shared 
by  the  general  multitude,  like  the  blue  sky  or  the  tower- 
ing peak.  It  is  the  fact  that  mankind  find  a  charm  in 
contemplating  the  wealthy,  the  powerful,  the  elevated, 
the  illustrious,  the  beloved;  and  accordingly  such  ele- 
ments are  freely  adopted  into  artistic. compositions. 

If  all  the  sensual  gratifications  could  become  artistic  by . 
being  contemplated  in  idea,  or  merely  thought  of,  as  in 
the  above  case  of  imagining  a  rich  feast,  aside  from  the 
rising  of  desire,  there  would  exist  the  means  of  dis- 
tinctly circumscribing  the  select  region  of  the  beauti- 
ful or  artistic,  and  oi  resolving  a  difficult  problem.  It 
would  be  admissible  for  the  poet  or  painter  to  suggest 
any  of  those  inferior  pleasures  to  the  mind  by  descriptive 
touches,  and  he  would  thereby  elevate  them  into  the 
region  of  art.  But  it  is  found  that  every  mode  of  sensual 
gratification  is  not  open  to  this  merely  ideal  presentation, 
since  the  ideal  is  instantly  seized  as  the  vehicle  for  desire, 
and  so  becomes  subjected  and  practically  effaced  in  the 
sensual.  Even  as  regards  eating  and  drinking,  exception 
is  taken  against  the  too  free  allusion  to  those  pleasures; 
while  the  sensuality  of  love  is  hardly  to  be  suggested 
through  the  most  distant  allusion.  The  reader  may  revel 
in  tales  of  mere  tender  emotion — of  parental  love  and  of 
pure  affection — but  those  other  subjects  are  kept  at  the 
utmost  distance;  and  he  would  be  said  to  be  revelling  in 
sensuality,  if  he  were  merely  to  indulge  in  the  imagina- 
tion of  those  species  of  delight.  There  is,  therefore,  no 
other  course  but  to  recognize  that  there  are  limitations 
which,  whether  original  in  man's  nature  or  not,  have  be- 
come established  among  his  actual  and  continuing  rela- 
tions— ^limitations  of  the  sphere  of  the  artist,  rendering  it 
quite  impossible,  at  the  present  stage  of  man's  develop- 
ment, to  draw  anv  clear  and  universal  boundary-line 
between  the  beautiful  and  agreeable  generally. 

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ART. 

Sublimity,  Beauty,  Grace,  Harmony,  Melody,  Patho^ 
Ideality,  ricturesqueness.  Proportion,  Order,  Fitness, 
Keeping,  and  the  Ludicrous — though  they  do  not  all  re- 
late to  Ine  so-called  beautiful,  are  all  involved  in  the  circle 
of  pleasure  now  under  consideration;  and  it  is  obvious 
that  no  one  fact  can  run  through  this  variety  of  designa- 
tions. There  must  be  a  great  multitude  of  agents  oper- 
ating to  produce  these  different  impressions,  which  are  re- 
lated to  one  another  only  by  attaching  in  common  to  the 
{esthetic  class  of  compositions.  Doubtless,  several  of 
these  names. may  be  employed  to  mean  the  same  thing, 
being,  in  fact,  partially  synonymous  terms;  as  Beauty 
and  Grace — Proportion,  Fitness,  and  Keeping;  but  hardly 
any  two  terms  are  synonymous  throughout,  and  there 
are  distinct  conceptions  implied  in  Sublimity,  Beauty, 
Picturesqueness,  Fitness,  and  the  Ludicrous. 

Among  the  elementary  sensations  and  emotions  of  the 
human  mind  that  are  of  a  pleasurable  kind,  a  certain 
number  may  enter  at  once  into  the  composition  of  A.; 
such  are  the  pleasures  of  sound  and  sight,  the  emotion  of 
surprise,  and  plot-interest.  Others  may  enter  by  ideal 
presentation;  as  the  gratifications  of  the  remaining  senses, 
and  the  emotions  of  fear,  tenderness,  irascibility,  power. 
The  feelings  more  specific  to  A.  are  those  produced  by 
Harmony  under  its  various  aspects.  When  sweet  sounds 
are  harmoniously  combined,  we  have  the  musical  art;  the 
painter  has  a  similar  aim  in  reference  to  colors  and  forms; 
and  so  through  all  the  Fine  Arts  this  quality  is  found  re- 
curring as  the  crowning  work  of  the  artistic  hand. 
Nothing  is  so  indisputably  included  within  the  circle  of 
the  festhetical  or  beautiful  as  flnelv  struck  harmonies, 
melodies,  or  concords.  Whatever  else  may  be  included 
in  a  composition,  it  is  the  admission  of  these  that  gives  the 
specific  charm,  although  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  dispense 
with  other  elements  of  interest  common  to  art  and  to 
every-day  life.  Story  is  essential  to  Romance  and  Poetry; 
sweetness  in  the  separate  sounds  is  requisite  for  good 
Music;  and  color  in  itself  imparts  aesthetic  pleasure  apart 
from  harmonious  union. 

The  agreeable  effect  designated  by  Fitness  takes  rank 
with  the  artistic  pleasures;  we  may  call  it  the  aesthetic  of 
the  useful.  When  a  work  is  not  only  done  effectually, 
but  done  with  the  appearance  of  ease,  or  the  total  absence 
of  restraint,  difficulty,  and  pain,  a  delight  is  expeiienced 
quite  different  from  the  satisfaction  growing  out  of  the 
end  attained.  Much  of  the  pleasure  of  architectural  sup- 
port is  referable  to  this  source. 

Among  the  susceptibilities  touched  by  artistic  arrange- 
ments is  the  sense  of  Unity  in  multitude,  arising  when  a 
§reat  number  of  things  are  brought  under  a  comprehensive 
esign,  as  when  a  row  of  pillars  is  crowned  by  a  pediment. 
The  use  of  simple  figures — the  triangle,  circle,  sNquare,  etc. 
— for  inclosing  and  arranging  a  host  of  individuals,  has 
the  tendency  to  make  an  easily  apprehended  whole  out  of 
a  numerous  host  of  particulars.  In  all  large  works 
abounding  in  detail,  the  mind  craves  some  such  compre 


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ART. 

hensive  plao,  whereby  to  retain  the  total,  while  surveying 
the  parts.  A  building,  an  oratorio,  a  poem,  a  history,  a 
dissertation,  a  speech,  should  have  a  discernible  principle 
of  order  throughout,  the  discernment  of  which  gives  an 
artistic  pleasure,  even  in  works  of  pure  utility. 

The  craving  for  Variety  and  Novelty  is  a  powerful 
impulse  of  the  human  mind,  and  makes  itself  especially 
apparent  in  the  appreciation  of  works  of  A.  The  greatest 
works  cease  to  please  after  a  time,  and  temporary  fashion 
may  occasionally  lord  it  over  the  perennial  m  taste. 

The  Fine  Arts,  individually  considered,  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  by  drawing  a  distinction  of  some  impor* 
tance  as  re^rds  the  question  of  an  artistic  standard.  One 
class  contams  the  effusiw  arts,  or  those  which  consist  of 
mere  outbursts  of  the  inward  spontaneity,  regulated  by 
the  effect  of  the  display  on  the  sense  of  the  beholder  or 
listener.  Music  is  a  good  example.  The  spontaneous 
effusions  of  the  human  voice,  and  those  prompted  by  the 
various  emotions,  are  corrected  and  tuned  by  the  ear  into 
melody  and  harmony,  and  after  this  process  has  been  often 
repeated,  pleasing  airs  and  compositions  arc  the  result.  It 
is  the  same  with  the  Dance,  considered  as  a  fine  art.  In 
like  manner,  dramatic  gesture  and  display,  and  the  graces 
of  elocution  and  fine  address,  are  the  natural  promptings 
rendered  pleasing  by  being  changed  and  modified  for  that 
express  end.  The  first  movements  are  mere  random,  but 
the  delicate  sensibility  of  the  beholder  causes  some  to  be 
suppressed,  and  others  brought  out,  until  a  really  pleasing 
combination  is  attained.  Contrasted  with  the  purely 
effusive  are  the  so-called  imitative  arts,  or  those  that  involve 
the  representation  of  some  of  the  appearances  of  the  outer 
world.  Such  are  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Poetry.  In 
these,  the  artist,  while  still  aiming  at  pleasing  effects,  is 
trammelled  with  a  new  condition — namely,  a  certain 
amount  of  fidelity  to  his  original.  In  the  others,  there  are 
no  originals,  other  than  those  whose  existence  is  only  that 
of  natural  ideals  of  harmony  in  the  mind.  The  musician 
imitates  nothing;  and  is  bound  by  the  sole  condition  of 
gratifying  the  ear;  but  a  painter  chooses  his  subject  from 
nature,  and  although  he  must  contrive  to  yield  the  pleasures 
of  color,  outline,  and  grouping,  he  must  do  so  with  a 
certain  respect  to  the  object  copied.  The  poet,  in  depicting 
the  life  of  men,  comes  under  the  rule  of  fidelity  to  this 
extent,  that  an  obvious  misrepresentation  is  apt  to  give  a 
painful  shock,  and  mar  the  pleasure  that  would  otherwise 
be  derived  from  the  poetry  itself.  It  is  not  so  much  that 
truth  is  a  part  of  the  artist's  pleasure,  as  that  falsehood  is  a 
stumbling-block  in  the  way;  for  even  the  imitative  arts  are 
so  only  in  part.  There  is  no  imitation  in  the  metre  and 
cadence  of  a  son^,  yet  these  often  constitute  its  main 
charm.  So  a  certain  license  of  fantastic  effusion  is  allowed 
to  poets,  subject  to  no  rules  but  the  giving  of  pleasure. 
The  creation  of  imaginary  worlds,  when  avowed,  is  not 
objected  to;  and  the  criterion  of  fidelity  to  the  actual  is 
accordingly  laid  aside  for  the  time.  The  various  arts  of 
Decoration  and  Design  are  for  the  most  part  effusive. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ART. 

although  occasionally  imitatiye.  Architecture  is  not  ii 
any  way  imitative;  the  coincidence  between  the  e^thic 
roof  and  the  intermingling  foliage  of  a  double  row  of  trees 
is  mere  accident. 

These  observations  are  necessary  in  order  to  qualify  tbo 
current  maxim,  that  Nature  (as  known  in  actual  operation) 
is  the  artist's  standard,  and  Truth  (as  developed  in  facts) 
his  chief  end;  conditions  that,  in  their  strictness,  apply 
only  to  science,  and  to  science  in  its  more  outward  domain 
as  physical.    It  is  the  scientific  man  that  should  never 
deviate  from  nature,  and  should  care  for  truth  above  every 
other  consideration.    The  artist's  standard  \»feeUnff,  his 
end  the  refined  ideal ;    he  may  go  to  nature,  as  known  in 
operation,  but  it  is  to  select  what  chimes  in  with  bis 
feelings  of  artistic  effect,  and  pass  by  the  rest.    He  is  not 
bound  to  adhere  to  what  nature  shows  him  even  in  her 
choicest  displays;  his  own  taste  bein^  the  touchstone,  he 
alters  the  orieinals  at  his  will:  he  hasn^ht  to  claim  knowl- 
edge of  a  higher  '  nature'  than  is  yet  visible  to  him.    The 
student  of  physical  science,  on  the  other  hand,  must 
embrace  every  fact  with  open  arms.    If  a  nauseous  fungus 
or  loathsome  reptile  meet  the  eye  of  a  naturalist,  he  is 
bound  to  record  it  as  faithfully  and  minutely  as  he  would 
dilate  on  the  violet  or  the  nightingale.    When  a  painter 
adopts   the  human  figure  as  a  bs^is  for  setting  forth 
harmonies  of  color,  beauties,  and  form,  and  picturesqueness 
of  grouping,  he  ought  not  to  jar  the  universal  sense  of 
consistency  by  a  wide  departure  from  the  usual  proportions 
of  humanity.     Still,  the  observers  do  not  look  for  anatom- 
ical exactness;  they  know  that  the  studies  of  an  artist  do 
not  imply  the  knowledge  of  a  professor  of  anatomy;  but 
they  expect  the  main  features  of  the  reality  to  be  adhered 
to.    In  like  manner,  a  poet  is  not  great  because  he  exhibits 
human  nature  with  literal  fidelity  to  its  actual  development 
in  operation;  to  do  that  makes  the  reputation  of  a  historian 
or  mental   philosopher.    The  poet  works  by  his  metres, 
his  cadences,  his  touching  similes,  his  graceful  narrative, 
and  his  exaltation  of  reality  into  the  region  of  ideality, 
and  if  in  all  this  he  avoids  serious  mistakes  and  ^ross  ex- 
:erations,  he  succeeds  in  his  real  vocation,  which  is  to 

Ee  glimpses  of  a  possible  nature  of  a  grade  higher  than 
yet  been  reached  in  the  actual.  It  is  imperative,  how- 
ever, that  he  keep  his  grand  ideal  within  limits  where  it 
can  be  identified  as  still  one  with  the  natural. 

The  attempt  to  reconcile  the  artistic  with  the  true  (or 
actual) — art  with  nature  as  known — has  given  birth  to  a 
peculiar  school,  in  whose  productions  a  restraint  is  put 
upon  the  flights  of  pure  imagination,  and  which  claims 
the  merit  of  informing  the  mind  as  to  the  realities  of  the 
world,  while  gratifying  the  various  emotions  of  taste. 
Instead  of  the  tales  of  Fairyland,  the  Arabian  Nights,  and 
the  Romances  of  Chivalry,  we  have  the  modem  novelist, 
with  his  pictures  of  living  men  and  manners.  In  painting, 
we  have  natural  scenery,  buildings,  men,  and  animals 
represented  with  scrupulous  exactness.  The  sculptor  and 
the  painter  exercise  the  vocation  of  producing  portrait* 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ART. 

that  shall  band  down  to  future  ages  the  precise  linear 
ments  of  the  men  and  women  of  their  veneration;  hence, 
the  stud^^'of  nature  has  become  an  element  in  artistic 
education;  and  tbe  artist  often  speaks  as  if  the  exhibition 
of  facts  were  his  leading  purpose.  It  is  probably  this 
endeavor  to  subject  the  imagination  more  strictly  to  the 
conditions  of  visible  reality,  that  has  caused  the  singular 
Inversion  whereby  the  definition  of  science  is  made  the 
definition  of  art. 

But  while  fidelity,  in  the  imitative  class  of  arts,  is  to  be 
looked  upon,  in  the  first  instance,  as  avoiding  a  stumbling- 
block  rather  than  constituting  a  charm,  there  are  stul 
certain  ways  wherein  we  derive  from  it  a  sort  of  pleasure 
that  may  be  called  aesthetic.  We  feel  drawn  by  fellow- 
feeling  .towards  one  who  has  attended  to  the  same  objects 
as  ourselves,  or  who  has  seized  and  put  into  vivid  prom- 
inence what  we  have  felt,  without  ever  having  expressed. 
The  coincidence  of  mind  with  mind  is  always  productive 
of  the  agreeable  effect  of  mutual  sympathy,  and,  in  some 
circumstances,  there  is  an  additional  effect  of  pleasing 
surprise.  Thus,  when  an  artist  not  merely  proauces  in 
his  picture  those  features  of  the  original  that  strike  every 
one,  but  includes  all  the  minuter  objects  that  escape  the 
notice  of  the  generality,  we  sympathize  with  his  attention, 
we  admire  his  powers  of  observation,  and  become,  as  it 
were,  his  pupils,  in  extending  our  study  and  knowledge  of 
nature  and  life.  We  feel  a  pungent  surprise  at  discover- 
ing, for  the  first  time,  what  has  been  long  before  our  eyes; 
and  so  the  minute  school  of  artists  labor  at  this  species  of 
effects.  Moreover,  we  are  brought  forward  as  judges  of 
the  execution  of  a  distinct  purpose;  we  have  to  see  whether 
he  that  is  bent  on  imitation  does  his  work  well  or  ill;  and 
if  our  verdict  is  favorable,  our  admiration  is  excited  ac- 
cordingly. There  is,  too,  a  certain  exciting  effect  in  the 
reproduction  of  some  appearance  in  a  foreign  material,  as 
when  a  plain  surface  is  made  to  3rield  the  impression  of 
solid  effect,  and  canvas  or  stone  imitates  living  humanity. 
Finally,  the  sentiment  of  realit^r,  as  opposed  to  fiction  or 
falsehood,  appealing  to  our  practical  urgencies,  disposes  us 
to  assign  a  value  to  every  work  in  which  reality  is  strongly 
aimed  at,  and  to  derive  an  additional  satisfaction  when 
fidelity  of  rendering  is  induced  upon  the  charms  peculiar 
to  A.  Thus  imitation — which,  properly  speaking,  is  a 
mere  accident  attaching  to  Sculpture,  Fainting,  and 
Poetry,  and  has  no  place  in  Music  or  Architecture— may 
become  the  centre  of  a  small  group  of  agreeable  or  accept- 
able effects.  These  effects  are  the  more  prized,  because 
we  have  been  surfeited  with  the  purely  aesthetic  ideals.  We 
tarn  refreshed  from  the  middle-age  romance  to  the  graphic 
novel  of  our  own  time. 

Besides  being  a  source  of  pleasure,  art  is  frequently 
spoken  of  as  &vin^  an  elevating  and  refining  influence 
on  the  mind  and  character;  for  which  reason  it  is  con- 
sidered a  proper  object  of  public  encouragement  in  civil- 
ized communities.  This  elevating  influence  is  owing  to 
the  higher  nature  of  artistic  pleasure  as  above  described. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ART. 

the  Uste  for  which  helps  to  rescue  mankiiid  from  the  ex- 
clusive domiuioD  of  sensual  and  selfish  enjoyments.  This 
l>eueticent  influence  has  not  been  realized  when  art  has 
been  degraded  to  the  service  of  the  sensual.  Further,  il 
must  be  admitted  that  the  devotion  to  art  may  be  itself 
excessive,  and  have  the  effect  of  withdrawing  men  too 
much  from  the  urgency  of  practical  life,  rendering  them 
a  prey  to  political  despotism,  as  well  as  indifferent  to 
moral  principle. 

See  ^sTHBTics:  also  the  authors  named  in  that  article. 
See  also  Bain  on  the  EhnoHoM  and  the  Will;  Herbert  Spen 
cer;  Ruskin:  Lotze;  Schasler. 

ART,  History  of:  a  portion  of  the  history  of  civiliza- 
tion. As  regards  each  particular  people,  the  histor3r  of 
their  efforts  to  conceive  and  express  absolute  perfection, 
or  what  is  commonly  called  ideal  beauty,  in  form  and 
color,  is  one  of  the  chief  tests  of  the  stage  of  progress 
which  they  have  attained.  Nor  is  it  as  an  indication  of 
their  command  over  physical  nature,  of  the  abundance  of 
their  external  resources,  or  even  of  their  intellectual  ac- 
tivity alone,  that  the  history  of  the  art  of  a  people  is  thus 
important.  It  exhibits  their  moral  and  even,  in  a  certain 
sense,  their  religious  position,  for  the  inseparable  connec- 
tion between  the  beautiful  and  the  good  is  in  no  way  more 
clearly  manifested  than  in  the  fact  that  the  first  inroads 
of  demoralization  and  social  disorder  are  invariably  indi- 
cated by  a  diminution  in  the  strength  and  punty  of 
artistic  forms.  It  has  been  usual  to  include  under  tbe 
term  history  of  art  the  history  of  the  arts  of  form  only, 
including  architecture,  but  excluding  poetry  and  music, 
though  these  latter  are  generally  included  whet  we  speak 
of  the  fine  arts.     See  Art. 

The  classical  nations  of  antiquity  were  not  insensible  to 
the  importance  of  tracing  the  development  of  that  rich  ar- 
tistic life  which  they  had  originated,  and  we  accordingly 
find  the  germs  of  artistic  history  in  Pliny,  Quintilian, 
Pausanias,  and  others.  In  the  middle  a^s,  every  trace  <d 
a  general  historical  tr^tment  of  art  disappears,  though 
casual  remarks  and  incidental  notices  on  the  subject  of 
artists  and  the  arts  are  abundant,  particularly  in  such  works 
as  the  Liber  PonHficalis  of  Abbot  Anastasius,  commonly 
known  as  'the  Librarian, Mn  consequence  of  his  having 
filled  that  office  at  the  Vatican  in  the  9th  century.  But  a 
history  of  art,  in  the  sense  which  we  have  here  assigned  to 
the  term,  made  its  appearance  in  the  world  for  tne  first 
time  on  the  revival  of  letters,  in  the  16th  and  16th  centu- 
ries; when  the  artistic  treasures  of  the  heathen  world, 
which  had  come  upon  mankind  as  novelties,  were  brought 
into  contrast  with  that  peculiar  type  which  art  had  as- 
sumed under  Christian  influences  during  the  middle  ages, 
on  the  one  hand  (see  Byzaktikb  Art),  and  on  the  oiber 
with  that  rich  harvest  of  fresh  invention  which  ripened 
during  the  long  lives  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (q-v.)  and 
Michael  Angelo  (q.v.),  in  the'period  of  which  Kaphael's 
^.  V. )  short  career  may  be  regarded  as  the  noon-day.   While 

asari  (q.v.)  traced  the  great  epochs  of  Italian  art  from 


'^, 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ART. 

only  a  biographical  point  of  view  in  his  celebrated 
work,  the  students  of  classical  literature  collected  such 
expressions  of  opinion  on  artistic  subjects  as  the  writ- 
ing of  the  ancients  contained,  and  Palladio,  Ligorio, 
Vigpola,  and  others  measured  ancieut  buildings  and 
their  constituent  members.  In  this  way  a  vast  mass 
of  information  on  artistic  subjects  was  brought  together. 
But  though  the  materials  which  might  have  served  for  a 
history  of  art  were  thus  supplied,  it  was  long  afterwards 
that  any  proper  historical  treatment  arose;  and  the  knowl- 
edge oi  ancient  art  which  had  been  gained  was  applied  to 
their  respective  purposes  by  artists  on  the  one  hand  and 

Ehilologists  on  the  other.  As  regarded  modem  art,  the 
iographical  method  of  Yasari  was  adhered  to,  and  to  this 
circumstance  we  are  indebted  for  the  innumerable  artistic 
Anecdotes  which  have  been  preserved.  The  remarkable 
variations  in  style  which  exhibited  themselves  between  the 
16th  and  18th  centuries  gave  rise  to  a  species  of  historical 
treatment  which  had  for  its  object  the  discovery  of  the 
common  features  by  which  the  artists  of  the  respective 
periods  were  distinguished.  But  the  history  of  style, 
rtrictly  speaking,  bepns  with  Winckelmann  (q.v.),  who 
was  the  hrst  to  divide  ancient  art  into  epochs,  and  to 
trace  its  connection  with  the  general  history  of  human 
progress.  It  was  from  this  period  that  the  history  of  art 
came  to  be  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the  history  of  civiliza- 
tion. Even  where  the  biographical  method  continued  to 
be  followed,  it  was  henceiortn  with  this  difference,  that 
the  division  into  schools  took  the  place  of  mere  chronologi- 
cal arrangement.  The  strongly  classical  tendency  which 
exhibited  Itself  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  the 
romantic  reaction  and  consequent  admiration  for  the  mid- 
dle age  which  succeeded,  though  both  must  be  regarded 
as  one-sided  influences,  had  an  unquestionable  effect  in 
calling  attention  to  what  was  really  great  in  the  artistic 
productions  of  these  respective  periods;  and  during  the 
present  century,  the  history  of  art  has  gradually  assumed 
a  more  important  place  as  a  department  of  general  history. 
In  only  very  recent  times,  however,  has  a  complete  ar- 
tistic history  appeared  in  Kugler's  Handbook  of  the  History 
if  Art,  partially  translated  into  English,  and  edited  by  Sir 
Charles  Eastlake.  In  the  original  work,  which  is  ex- 
cellent, the  immense  mass  of  material  that  the  subject 
offered  has  been  arranged  in  periods,  and  treated  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  present  a  sketch  complete  in  itself,  while 
its  connection  with  and  dependence  on  general  history, 
social,  political,  and  philosophical,  are  carefully  indicated 
throughout.  With  Kugler's  history,  that  of  Schnaase  is 
to  be  mentioned — a  work  giving  a  philosophical  and  his- 
torical account  of  the  origin  of  the  various  styles,  and 
their  connection  with  eacn  other;  as  also  the  works  of 
LObke,  Springer,  and  Carriere.  Kinkel's  history  of  Chris- 
tian art  has  unhappily  remained  incomplete.  Waagen, 
Passavant,  Reumont  are  well-knowTi  authors.  There  are 
many  other  historical  works  of  importance  on  special  de- 
partments and  separate  schools  of  art,  monographs  such  as 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARTA— ARTABOTRYS. 

Stirling- Maxwell's  Annals  of  the  ArUds  of  Spain,  and 
Velasquez  and  his  Works  ;  Ruskin  's  Modem  Pain  ters  ;  Crowe 
and  Cavalcasellc's  Hist,  of  Painting  in  Italy,  and  their 
Raphael;  Mignaty's  Le  Corr^ge;  Murray's  History  of  Greek 
Sculpture.     See  Painting  :  Sculptukk. 

ARTA,  dr'td,  or  Nau'da,  ancient  Ambracia:  a  town 
in  Epirus,  ceded  by  Turkey  to  Greece,  1881:  on  the  w. 
line  of  the  new  frontier,  about  7  m.  from  the  ffulf  to 
which  it  gives  name,  and  39  m.  s.  from  Janiua.  It  is  ou 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Arta,  the  ancient  AracOius.  It 
is  the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop;  has  a  considerable  trade  and 
manufactures,  chiefly  of  cloths  and  leather;  but  suffers 
greatly  from  malaria.  The  town  has  never  recovered  from 
the  disasters  of  1828,  when  it  was  stormed  by  the  Greek 
patriots  under  Marco  Botzaris.  Portions  of  the  old  walls 
and  foundations  of  the  Acropolis  are  the  only  relics  of 
Hellenic  times.  Remains  of  the  lower  empire  exist  in  a 
convent  founded  845  by  the  empress  Theodosia.  Pop. 
(1893)  4,535,  two-thirds  Greeks. 

The  ancient  city  of  Ambracia,  founded  by  a  Corinthian 
colony  about  B.C.  635,  was  at  one  time  a  flourishing  inde- 
pendent state,  with  a  considerable  territory,  it  was 
ruined  by  the  Amphilochians,  and  became  subject  to 
Philip  of  Macedon.  Pyrrhus  made  it  the  capital  of  Epirus; 
afterwards  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  ^tolians,  and  thee 
of  the  Romans. 

ARTA,  Gulf  of:  an  arm  of  the  Ionian  Sea, 25  m.  long 
and  10  wide,  between  Greece  and  Turkey.  Until  1881  the 
whole  of  the  n.  coast  was  Turkish;  but  in  that  year  the 
portion  c.  of  the  river  Arta  was  ceded  to  Greece.  It  was 
arran  jjed  that  the  gulf  should  be  neutral,  the  fortress  com- 
manding the  entrance  to  the  gulf  on  either  side  beinff  dis- 
armed. Under  its  ancient  name  of  the  Ambraciot  Gulf, 
it  separated  Epirus  and  Acamania. 

ARTABAZUS,  dr^  td-ha' zus:  name  of  several  distin- 
guished Persians  in  the  times  of  the  Achsemenidae.  When 
Xerxes  advanced  against  Greece,  one  commander  named 
A.  led  the  Parthians  and  Chorasrai.  At  a  later  period  he 
warned  Mardonius,  but  in  vain,  against  engaging  in  battle 
at  Platiea;  and  on  the  first  fndications  of  aereat,  he  with- 
drew his  own  division,  amounting  to  40,000  men,  from 
the  field,  and  succeeded,  though  with  great  difficulty,  in 
forcing  his  way  through  the  wilds  of  Thessaly,  Macedonia, 
and  Thrace  to  Byzantium,  where  he  crossed  to  Asia. 
Subsequently,  he  acted  as  negotiator  between  the  Spartan 
Pausanias  and  Xerxes. 

Another  Artabazus  was  general  under  the  Persian 
king,  Artaxcrxes  Mnemon,  and  revolted  against  Ar- 
taxerxes  Ochus  B.C.  356.  For  this  offense  he  appears  to 
have  been  forgiven-,  and  subsequently  we  find  him  accom- 
panying King  Darius  after  the  battle  of  Arbela.  Alex- 
ander rewarded  his  fidelity  by  appointing  him  satrap  of 
Bactria. 

ARTABOTRYS.  dr-td-bd'trls  [Gr.  artad,  to  fasten; 
botruSf  a  cluster  of  gra|)es — no  called  because  it  possesses 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARTAGUETTE— ARTA3CERXE8. 

tendrils]:  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Anona- 
cem.  A.  odoraUstima,  or  Sweet-scented  A.,  is  a  beautiful 
Chinese  plant,  which  makes  a  fine  covering  for  walls. 

ARTAGUETTE,  dr-td-git':  d.  1786;  b.  France:  soldier. 
He  accompanied  Bienville,  the  colonial  French  gov.  of 
La.,  to  America,  and  was  employed  in  subjugating  the  In- 
dians. His  success  in  overcoming  the  great  iM^atcbez  tribes 
was  rewarded  with  the  command  of  the  111.  and  Wabash 
regions.  When  Bienville  determined  -  to  punish  the 
Chickasaw  tribe  for  joining  English  traders  and  interfering 
with  the  conmiercial  interests  of  the  French  on  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  he  gave  A.  command  of  «n  expedition  consist- 
ing of  50  French  troops  and  more  than  1,000  friendly  In- 
dians. In  1786,  June,  A.  descended  the  Mississippi  river 
with  his  Indians,  and  when  within  striking  distance  of  the 
Chickasaw  stronghold,  established  a  concealed  camp,  and 
awaited  the  arrival  of  the  troops  from  New  Orleans.  For 
some  cause  the  troops  did -not  appear,  and  be  reluctantly 
ordered  an  attack  on  the  Chickasaws,  doubting  his  ability 
to  longer  restrain  his  allies.  His  Indians  captured  two 
strongholds,  and  in  attacking  the  third  A.  was  twice 
wounded,  and  when  he  fell  his  followers  fled,  excepting  a 
Jesuit  priest  who  remained  to  dress  his  wounds.  After 
the  retreat,  the  Chickasaws  burned  A.,  the  priest,  and  their 
other  prisoners  at  the  stake. 

ARTANTHE:  see  Matico. 

ARTAXA,  dr-Piks'a,  or  Abtaxias,  d/r-tdk^iros:  name 
of  three  kings  of  Armenia.  A.  I.  was  a  een.  under  An- 
tiochus  the  Great,  and  when  the  latter  was  defeated  by  the 
Romans  made  himself  independent  in  Armenia  and 
founded  the  kingdom,  b.c.  190.  A.  II.  was  chosen  king 
after  his  father  had  been  dethroned  and  taken  bv  Mark 
Antony  to  Alexandria  B.C.  84;  was  expelled  oy  the 
Romans;  reinstated  by  Phraates  FV.  or  Parthia;  and 
murdered  by  his  nobles  for  his  cruelty.  A.  III.,  whose 
original  name  was  Zeno,  was  a  son  of  the  king  of  Pontus, 
and  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  Romans  a.d.  18. 

ARTAXATA,  dr-Wcsd'td:  strongly  fortified  city  in 
Upper  Armenia,  said  to  have  been  l)uUt  by  Annibal  for 
King  Artaxias.  It  was  burned  by  Corbulo;  rebuilt  by 
Tiridates,  who  renamed  it  Neronea,  in  honor  of  Nero;  and 
was  afterward  known  as  Ardesh. 

ART  A  XERXES,  dr'tdka-^ks'ez:  the  name  of  several 
kings.  A.  I.,  sumamed  Longimantis,  second  son  of 
Xerxes,  escaped  from  the  conspiracy  of  Artaban  and 
others,  and  ascended  the  throne  b.c.  465.  His  long  reign, 
extending  to  425,  was  marked  by  a  decline  of  power. 

Artaxbrxks  II.,  sumamed  Mnemon,  succeeded  his 
father,  Darius  II.,  b.c.  405.  After  gaining  the  victory  over 
his  brother  Cyrus,  he  became  involved  in  war  with  Sparta, 
which  ended  with  the  Antalcidean  Treaty  of  Peace:  he 
d.  361. 

Artaxbrxes  III.  sumamed  Ochus,  son  and  successor  of 
A.  II.,  reigned  in  the  true  style  of  oriental  despotism 
until  B.C.  8^8.  One  of  his  most  daring  exploits  was  in 
8-80 


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ARTANTHE— ARTEDL 

Egjrpt,  where  he  caused  the  divine  bull  Apis  to  be  slaugh- 
tered  and  cooked  as  ordinary  beef.  A.  III.  was  poisoned. 
338,  by  his  eunuch  Bagoas.  It  is  said  that  his  Hesh  was 
eaten  by  cats,  and  that  hilts  for  scimitars  were  made  of 
his  bones. 

The  founder  of  the  new  Persian  dynasty,  or  the  8«s- 
sanids  (which  ruled  a.d.  226-651),  was  named  Artaxerxes. 

ARTE  AG  A,  dr-td/i'gd,  Ebteban:  d.  1799;  b.  Madrid: 
historian.  He  was  educated  for  a  Jesuit  priest,  and  was 
engaged  Id  missionarv  and  educaliona)  work  in  Spain  till 
the  suppression  of  his  order,  when  he  removed  to  Italy. 
His  best-known  publication  is  a  hi8ror\'  of  the  Italian 
lyrical  drama,  Le  Rivolueioni  del  Teatro  Muncale  ItaUano, 
2  vols.  (Bolonga  1783). 

ARTEAGA,  Josfi  MabIa:  about  1880-1866.  Oct.  21; 
b.  Aguas  Calientcs,  Mexico:  soldier.  Bom  of  poor  parents, 
he  received  a  common-school  education,  and  was  appren- 
ticed to  the  tailor's  trade.  About  1850  he  was  appointed  a 
sergeant  in  the  army,  and  serving  through  the  various 
revolutions  had  attained  the  rank  of  gen.  at  the  time  of  the 
French  invasion.  He  rendered  important  service  in  fightin|r 
the  French  army  supporting  Maximilian  till  the  battle  of 
Amatlan,  where  he  was  captured,  after  which  the  French, 
fearing  his  military  skill,  shot  him  at  Uruapdn. 

ARTEDI,4r.M'<K,  Peter:  1705,  Feb.  22—1786,  Sep.  21; 
b.  at  Anund,  province  of  Angermannland,  Sweden:  cele- 
brated naturalist.  He  was  at  first  designed  for  the  priest- 
hood, and  entered  the  Univ.  of  Upsala,  to  pursue  the  usual 
course  of  philosophy  and  theologjr;  but  he  soon  betook 
himself  to  medicine.  In  1728,  Linnoeus  went  to  Upsala 
to  study  the  same  science,  and  intimacy  sprung  up  be- 
tween the  young  men.  They  worked  together,  and  to  a 
certain  extent,  on  the  principle  of  a  division  of  labor. 
Physiology,  chemistry,  and  mineralogy  they  pursued  in 
common;  but  to  this  A.  added  ichthyology,  and  Linnasus 
ornithology  and  entomology.  In  1734,  A.  sailed  for  Ene- 
land,  and  Linnaeus  went  to  Lapland,  each  having  made 
the  other  his  heir  and  executor  of  all  his  scientific  docu- 
ments. While  in  London,  A.  wrote  the  preface  to  his 
IcJithyologia.  Next  year  he  went  to  Leyden  in  Holland, 
.where  he  found  Linnfleus  just  arrived  from  the  north. 
Each  showed  the  other  the  results  of  his  labors.  A.'s 
career  was  abruptly  ended  by  his  falling  into  one  of  the 
canals  near  Amsterdam. 

A.'s  only  complete  work  is  the  Philosophia  lehihyologiea. 
The  Synonymologica  is  described  as  a  work  of  extraordi- 
nary labor,  but  somewhat  confused.  Linneeus  faithfully 
performed  his  duty  as  his  friend's  executor.  He  arranged, 
corrected,  and  completed  his  manuscripts,  and  published 
the  whole,  together  with  the  life  of  the  author,  in  1788. 
According  to  Cuvier,  the  great  work  of  A.  is  the  first 
named,  which  gave  a  truly  scientific  character  to  the  study 
of  fishes.  The  only  error  of  any  magnitude  which  occurs 
in  it  is  including  the  Cetacese  among  fishes.  A.  was  also 
a  distinguished  botanist.   He  was  the  first  to  indicate,  as  a 


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ARTEMIA— ARTEMISIA.. 

special  characteristic,  the  presence  or  absence  of  involucni 
in  the  umbelliferous  plants,  whose  species  are  so  difficult 
to  distinguish  from  each  other.  Linneeus  has  called  a 
genus  of  these,  in  memory  of  his  friend,  Ariedia. 

ARTEMIA,  dr-to'mW  [Gr.  Ar'temis,  Diana]:  jenus  of 
BntomottraeaTU  belonging  to  the  family  Brancnipodida. 
The  A.  8aiina,  or  Brine  shrimp,  loves  water  so'  salt  that 
most  other  marine  animals  die  in  it.  At  the  salt-pans,  at 
Lymington,  £ng.,  the  workmen  call  them  brine-worms. 

ARTEMIS:  see  Diaka. 

ARTEMISIA,  dr-U-mUh'l^ :  Queen  of  Caria  (reign* 
log  B.C.  852-850):  wife  of  Mausolus,  and  celebrated  for 
the  ma^iflcent  mausoleum  which  she  caused  to  be  erected 
to  her  nusband's  memory.    See  Mausoleum. 

Another  Artemisia,  queen  of  HaHcamassus,  accom- 
panied Xerxes  in  his  expedition  against  Greece,  and  dis- 
tinKulshed  herself  at  the  battle  of  Salamis  (b.c.  480);  she 
ended  her  life  in  consequence  of  an  unfortunate  attach- 
ment, by  leaping  from  a  rock. 

ARTEMISIA,  n.  dr'U-mUh'i-d  [Ar'temis,  one  of  the 
Dames  of  Diana,  who  presided  over  women  in  child-bed]: 
genus  of  plants  of  the  naU  ord.  Composiia,  sub-order 
2\{fru/i/foree ,  in  which  the  flowers  of  the  disk  are  hermaph- 
rodite, those  of  the  ray  in  one  row,  the  bracts  forming 
a  roundish  imbricated  head,  the  receptacle  naked  or 
hairy,  the  achenia  obovate,  and  destitute  of  pappus. 
The  heads  of  flowers  are  numerous  and  small;  the 
leaves  are  generally  much  divided.  There  are  many 
species,  herbaceous  plants  and  shrubs,  natives  chiefly  of 
temperate  regions.  They  have  generally  an  aromatic 
smell,  more  or  less  agreeable,  and  a  warm,  sometimes  acrid 
and  bitterish  taste. — To  this  genus  belong  Wormwood 
(A.  AbnrUhtum),  the  Apnnthion  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  to 
-whom  its  medicinal  properties  were  well  known.  It  is  a 
native  of  Britain,  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  the  north- 
em  parts  of  Asia  and  America,  crowing  in  waste  places, 
bv  waysides,  etc.  It  is  a  perenniiu,  2  to  4  ft.  high ;  its  leaves 
bipinnatifld  and  clothed  with  a  silkv  down,  and  its  small 
hemispherical  drooping  heads  of  flowers  are  of  adingv 
yellow  color,  and  are  produced  in  axillary  panicles.  It  is 
aromatic  and  bitter,  containing  a  bitter  principle  and  an 
essential  oil,  both  of  great  strength,  upon  account  of  which 
it  is  used  in  medicine  in  various  forms  (oil,  extract,  tinc- 
ture, etc.),  as  a  stomachic  and  anthelmintic  or  vermifuge. 
It  was  formerly  in  much  use  as  a  febrifuge.  It  is  frequent 
in  gardens,  occupying  an  important  place  in  the  domestic 
pharmacopceia,  and  is  an  essential  ingredient  in  a  number 
of  compound  medicines.  Its  roots,  and  those  of  some 
other  species  of  this  genus,  have  been  recommended  in  epi- 
lepsy.— Sea  Wormwood  {A.  maritima,  including  a  variety 
which  has  been  called  A,  Galliea),  a  native  of  salt-marshes 


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ARTEMISIA. 

in  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  has  similar  proper 
ties,  and  is  occasionally  used  for  the  same  purposes;  ^ 
also  UoifAN  Wormwood  (A.  PonUca),  a  native  of  the 
middle  and  south  of  Europe,  but  not  of  Britain — ^Tar- 
tarian Wormwood  (A.  Santonica),  a  native  of  Tartary, 
Persia,  and  other  parts  of  the  East;  and  Indian  Worm- 
wood (A,  Indica),  a  native  of  the  Himalaya,  abounding  'U 


Wormwood  {ArtemiHa.  AbHnfkiwn), 

elevations  of  2,000-6,000  ft.  Indian  wormwood  grows  to 
the  height  of  12  ft.  It  is  considered  in  India  a  powerful 
deobstnient  and  antispasmodic.  Tree  Wormwood  {A.  ar- 
borescens),  a  native  of  the  s.  of  Europe  and  the  Levant,  is 
also  larger  and  more  shrubby  than  the  common  wormwood, 
which  m  characters  and  qualities  it  much  resembles,— 
The  dried  flower-buds  of  a  number  of  species  of  A.  are 
sold  under  the  names  of  Wormseed  and  of  Semen  CorUra, 
Semen  CincB,  Semendne,  etc.,  and  have  long  been  in  much 
repute  as  an  anthelmintic.  A,  Santonica,  and  A,  Sieberi  (or 
A.  Contra),  a  native  of  Palestine,  are  believed  to  yield 
much  of  the  wormseed  which  is  brought  from  the  Levant, 
also  A.  Judaica,  a  native  of  the  East  and  of  Barbary, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  principal  source  of  the  Barbaiy 
wormseed.  The  flower-bush  of  A.  gUmieraia,  A.  Lerehi- 
ana,  and  A.  paudflora,  natives  of  the  banks  of  the  Volga, 
are  also  said  to  form  part  nf  the  wormseed  of  the  shops; 


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ARTEMUS  WARD. 

and  those  of  A,  VaMiatia  are  collected  in  the  n.e.  of  Persia, 
and  form  the  Semen  dna  Levanticum  or  bemen  Oina  in 
gr<WM.  The  flower-buds  of  A,  ccerttlescens,  a  Mediterranean 
plant,  said  to  have  been  found  on  the  sea-coast  of  England, 
lorm  the  anthelmintic  called  Semen  SeripkU  or  Barbotine, 
Those  of  A,  eampharaia,  another  native  of  the  s.  of  Europe, 
are  used  in  the  same  way.  Even  those  of  A.  AMnthhtm 
and  A,  vulgaris  are  used  under  the  name  of  wormseed. — 
The  plants  from  which  the  bitter  aromatic  liquor  called 
JSittntU,  Bau,  or  Oreme  d*abtihihe  is  prepiured,  are  small 
low-growing  species  of  A.  (A.  mutelUna,  A,  glacUUii,  A. 
Tupntria,  A.  aptcata,  etc.),  found  on  the  Alps  and  known 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps  bv  the  name  of  C^enipi,  This 
liquor  was  first  introduced  as  a  febrifuge  during  the  French 
campaign  in  Algeria  in  1844,  and  was  mixed  by  the  French 
soldiers  with  their  wine.  Tliey  acquired  a  habit  of  drink- 
ing it  diluted  with  water  as  a  beverage;  and  its  use  rapidly 
axtended»  with  very  evil  oonseqtiencefl.  Bee  Assehzhb. — 
MuawoBT  (A.  vtUgaria),  which,  a  native  of  Europe,  be- 
coming American,  like  A.  Abamthium,  and  often  found 
in  waste  places^  ffrows  to  the  height  of  8^  ft,  with  pin- 
natifid  leaves  ana  somewhat  racemed  small  flowers,  which 
have  each  five  florets  of  the  ray.  It  emits,  when  rubbed^ 
an  agreeable  smell,  and  has  a  bitter  taste.  In  Germany, 
the  young  shoots  and  leaves  are  used  in  cookery  for  sea- 
8on£ng.  it  is  used  also  for  the  same  medicinal  purposes 
as  wormwood,  but  is  weaker.  Its  leaves,  and  those  of 
some  of  the  other  species,  are  used  as  fomentations  for 
cleansing  and  healing  wounds. — Southebitwood  (A.  abiih 
ianwn)  is  a  shrubby  plant  with  long  stoaigbt  stems,  8-4 
ft.  hi^,  the  lower  leaves  bipinnate,  upper  leaves  pinnate, 
their  segments  hair-like.  It  is  a  native  of  the  s.  of  Europe 
and  middle  parts  of  Asia,  and  has  long  been  a  favorite 
plant  in  cottage  gardens  in  Britain.  It  has  an  aromatic 
and  pleasant  odor.  The  leaves  are  used  to  drive  away 
moths  from  linen;  and  in  some  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  as  an  ingredient  in  the  manufacture  of  beer.  The 
smell  of  this  plant  appears  to  be  peculiarly  disagreeable  to 
bees,  which  retreat  from  it;  and  a  little  branch  of  southern- 
wood ia  sometimes  efilcaciously  used  when  they  are  swarm- 
ing, to  promote  their  ascent  into  the  new  hive  placed  over 
thCTi.--TARRAGON  {A.  Dracunculua)  is  a  perennial  plant, 
native  of  Siberia,  long  cultivated  in  gardens  in  Britain. 
It  has  a  branching  stem  1-1^  ft.  high,  with  narrow  leaves. 
It  is  fragrant,  and  has  an  aromatic  smell  and  taste.  The 
leaves  and  tender  tips  are  a  favorite  ingredient  in  pickles. 
An  infusion  of  the  plant  in  vine^r  is  used  as  a  fish-sauce. 
—The  leaves  of  A,  Maderaspatcma  are  regarded  in  India 
as  a  valuable  stomachic,  and  are  also  used  in  anodyne  fo- 
mentations.— Mox4  (q.v.)  is  prepared  by  the  Chinese  from 
the  leaves  of  A,  Moxa  and  otner  species,  the  whole  surface 
of  whose  leaves  is  covered  with  a  thick  down. — A,  aceiica, 
a  Persian  species,  is  said  to  have  a  strong  odor  of  vinegar. 
Many  species  of  A,  belong  to  K.  Amer.,  and  characterize 
especially  the  dry,  barren  plains  of  the  west. 
ARTEMUS  WARD:  see  Brownb,  Charles  FarbjCB. 


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ARTERIE8. 

AR'TERIES,  Diseases  of:  morbid  ooDditions  of  the 
arteries  occasioned  mostly  by  the  deposition  of  atheroma 
(a  Greek  word  signifying  a  timior  or  deposit  containing 
matter  like  (Uhere,  meal  or  groats^  in  the  deeper  layers  of 
the  inner  coat  of  the  vessel;  a  new  mterlining  to  the  artery 
being  thus  furnished.  Atheroma  (q.v.)  has  the  effect  of 
weakening,  enlarging,  and  occluding  arteries,  according 
to  the  extent  and  penod  of  the  deposition*  In  the  earliest 
stage,  atheroma  consists  of  a  thin,  soft,  and  clear  mem- 
brane, lining  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  tube.  It  seems  a 
mere  addition  to  the  artery,  in  whose  original  coats  there 
is  no  appearance  of  disease.  It  is  probably  a  deposit  on 
the  inner  surface  from  the  blood.  On  the  inner  surface 
of  the  new  coat,  a  similar  layer  gnuluall^  forms,  and  in  the 
course  of  thne  becomes  the  foundation  of  subsequent 
formations;  and  when  many  strata  have  thus  been  deposit- 
ed, the  collective  mass  ceases  to  be  trans^MU^nt,  and  be- 
comes converted  into  an  opaque  material  similar  to  hard- 
ened albumen,  and  finallv  to  ligament.  Until  this  consoli- 
dation occurs,  the  coats  of  the  artery  are  not  much  affected; 
but,  by  their  adhesion  to  the  hardened  deposit,  they  lose 
their  strength,  elasticity,  and  natural  color,  and  their  func- 
tions are  destroyed.  The  indurated  deposit  mav  now  un- 
dergo one  or  other  of  these  changes:  it  may  either  soften 
in  Its  interior,  in  which  case  it  aegenerates  into  a  pulpy 
mass  of  cholesterine,  oil-globules,  alouminous  and  chalkv 
molecules;  or  it  may  be  converted  into  a  layer  of  hard, 
chalky,  bone-like  matter.  This  latter  change  (cretefaction 
or  ossification)  takes  place  only  in  the  external  oldest  lay- 
ers of  thick  deposits;  and  nothing  intervenes  between  the 
bony  plate  and  the  middle  coat  of  the  artery,  for  the  inner 
or  linmg  coat  partakes  in  the  morbid  change.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  either  of  these  clianges  (softening  or  hardening) 
must  gradually  lead  to  disease  of  the  arterial  coa'^  gener- 
ally. The  process  of  change  is  slow,  and  the  change  itself 
can  be  detected  in  the  nving  subject  only  at  an  ad- 
vanced stage.  In  the  radial  artery  and  others  which  lie 
superficially,  the  finger  can  often  detect  rings  or  tubes  of 
chalky  matter.  Most  commonly,  however,  the  state  of  the 
arteries  is  detected  by  some  secondary  symptom. 

Atheromatous  deposit  is  attended  at  first  with  a  narrow- 
ing of  the  calibre  of  the  vessel,  varying  with  the  thickness 
of  the  deposit  and  most  marked  at  the  points  of  bifurca- 
tion. Smaller  arteries  may  be  completely  obliterated, 
while  the  larger  arteries  may  be  very  much  contracted. 
Thus,  the  common  iliac  has  been  found  to  have  its  canal 
diminished  by  about  one-half,  and  the  great  ascending 
branches  of  the  arch  of  the  aorta,  the  subclavian  ana 
carotid  arteries,  have  been  found  very  nearly  closed.  A 
later  consequence  of  the  same  disease  is  dilation  of  the 
vessel.  The  power  of  the  outer  coats  being  insufiicient  to 
compress  the  deposit  and  to  close  in  upon  the  blood,  by 
which  each  contraction  of  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart 
distends  them,  they  remain  wide  and  distended  during  the 
relaxation  of  the  ventricle,  and  the  artery  thus  slowly  ex- 
pands; the  enlargement  beinemost  marked  at  parts  where 


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ARTERIES. 

there  is  most  obstruction  to  the  blood-current,  as,  for  ez^ 
ample,  in  curved  arteries.  These  dilations  are  apt  to  ter- 
minate in  regular  aneurism — a  tumor  containing  blood,  and 
conununicatmg  with  the  cavity  of  an  artery.  See  Aneu- 
rism. The  changes  already  described  have  an  effect  on  the 
retractile  power  of  the  arteries.  A  healthy  artery,  if  cut 
across,  may  shorten  to  the  extent  of  an  inch  and  a  half,  as 
has  been  actually  measured  by  Mr.  Moore  (*  Diseases  of 
the  Arteries,'  in  Holmes's  System  cf  Swraery,  vol,  iii.  ij. 
ffiJ9);  but  the  retractile  power  is  destroyed  bjr  the  deposi- 
tion of  bony  rings  or  plates.  But  although  incapable  of 
shortening,  the  arteries  sometimes  become  abnormally 
lengthened,  and  consequently  become  not  only  dilatea, 
but  also  tortuous.  If  the  outline  of  superficial  arteries 
thus  affected  be  watched,  each  pulsation  of  the  heart  is 
seen  to  increase  their  curvature;  and  deep-seated  arteries 
(as  the  iliac)  are  thus  often  forced  from  their  normal  posi- 
tions. Another  condition  involving  much  danger  is  this: 
an  ossified  artery  loses  the  smoothness  which  the  interior 
of  the  vessel  ought  to  present,  and  from  the  displacement 
or  cracking  of  a  bony  plate  there  may  be  sharp,  rough 
prejections  exposed,  to  which  the  fibrlne  of  the  circulating 
blood  may  adhere.  These  little  clots,  becoming  detached, 
may  be  carried  with  the  blood  till  they  become  arrested, 
and  plug  up  an  artery,  thus  presenting  cases  of  embolism 
or  thrombosis  (q.v.).  Again,  the  relation  of  this  dis- 
ease to  accidents  and  surgical  operations  on  arteries  Is 
obvious.  A  blow  may  crush  a  diseased  artery,  when  a 
healthy,  elastic  vessel  might  have  escapee.  Jijury.  Such  a 
slight  movement  as  suddenly  lifting  the  arm  to  the  head, 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  hat  in  a  sharp  gale,  has 
been  known  to  have  been  followed  by  aneurism  of  the 
axillary  artery.  A  ligature  applied  to  any  ossified  artery 
is  very  apt  to  cause  it  to  break,  and  the  difficulty  of  secur- 
ing such  vessels  Is  often  very  great.  It  Is  to  this  form  of 
disease  that  most  of  the  failures  of  operations  for  aneurism 
are  due. 

An  important  cause  of  occlusion  of  arteries  Is  the  clos- 
ing of  the  canal  by  intrusion  of  a  foreign  body,  especially 
by  fibrinous  plues  originally  formed  in  the  heart,  and 
transported  to  other  parts  In  the  stream  of  the  blood. 
When  a  lar^e  artery,  for  example  the  principal  artery  of 
one  of  the  limbs,  is  'suddenly  plugged  in  its  higher  part,  a 
sensation  of  severe  pain  Is  commonly  the  Immediate  result 
of  the  accident.  In  some  cases  the  pain  extends  along 
the  course  of  the  vessel,  which,  though  pulseless.  Is  ex- 
tremely tender;  In  othei*8,  the  suffering  is  referred  to  some 
distant  part  of  the  limb,  as,  for  Instance,  to  the  calf. 
Signs  of  a  deficient  circulation  succeed,  and  they  may 
amount  to  pallor,  loss  of  temperature,  numbness  of  the 
surface,  or  even  to  that  ''torpor"  which  is  observed  to 
precede  the  total  death  of  a  limb  In  certain  cases  of  inju- 
ries of  vessels.  Such  torpor  implies  not  only  a  loss  of  clr 
culating  blood,  but  also  a  cessation  of  all  feellne  and 
motor  power  In  the  limb. ' — Moore,  op.  cU.  ,p.  886.  Although 
gangrene  (q.v.)  Is  always  to  be  feared  as  the  result  of  an 


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ARTERIOTOMY— ARTERY. 

obstructed  artery  of  large  size,  it  does  not  invariably  fol- 
low; as  a  collateral  circulation  may  be  established,  and  the 
life  of  the  limb  may  be  thus  saved.  Very  young  persona 
will  endure  the  obliteration  of  very  large  vessels  without 
gangrene;  and  a  case  is  on  record  (Misd.  Chit,  Trans,,  vol. 
xxiz.  p.  214)  in  which  '  all  the  main  arteries  of  both  upper 
extremities  and  of  the  left  side  of  the  neck  were  reduced 
to  solid  cords/  and  yet  no  gangrene  ensued.  From  the 
description  of  the  symptoms,  the  nature  of  a  case  of  sud- 
den occlusion  of  a  large  artery  by  a  plug  may  possi- 
bly be  recognized,  or,  at  all  events,  suspected  even  by 
B,  non-professional  observer.  Medical  aid  must  at  once  be 
sought.  The  earlv  indications  of  treatment  are  to  preserve 
the  temperature  of  the  part,  to  favor  the  establishment  of 
a  collateral  circulation,  to  protect  the  limb  from  irritation 
or  injury,  to  give  nourishmg  blood-making  food,  and  to 
relieve  pain  by  the  judicious  use  of  opiates.  The  later 
treatment,  if  the  affection  is  not  checked,  is  described  in 
the  article  Gangrene.— ^rtor»^,  or  Inflammation  <tf  ike 
Arteries,  was  a  disease  which  was  formerly  recognized  by 
physicians.  No  such  specific  general  disease  is  now  rec> 
ognized,  but  the  changes  which  have  been  already  de- 
scribed as  occurring  in  consolidated  atheromatous  deposits 
—either  softening  or  ossification — are  accompanied  by  an 
unnaturally  vascular  condition  of  the  attenuated  arterial 
walls,  extending  to  true  local  inflammation,  and  even  to 
suppuration. 

ARTERIOTOMY:  the  opening  of  an  artery:  an  operation 
that  has  been  strongly  advocated  in  those  cases  in  which 
it  is  desirable  to  produce  upon  the  cerebral  circulation 
more  decided  and  immediate  effect  (as  in  severe  forms  of 
sanguineous  apoplexy)  than  could  be  produced  by  ordinaiy 
venesection.  It  is  supposed  by  some  surgeons  to  relieve 
pressure  on  the  brain  more  efiSciently  than  opening  the 
lugular  vein  could  do;  and  whether  this  is  the  case  or  not. 
It  is  simpler  and  less  dangerous.  The  only  vessel  operated 
on  is  either  the  temporal  artery  itself  or  one  of  its  main 
branches.  The  operation  is  a  simple  one,  but  should,  of 
course,  be  imdertaken  only  by  a  surgeon.  To  arrest  the 
flow  of  blood  when  sufficient  has  been  taken,  the  artery 
should  be  completely  divided,  and  after  the  parts  have 
been  sponged,  a  compress,  or  small  pad,  should  be  applied 
to  the  wound,  and  secured  by  a  bandage,  which  must  be 
carefully  adjusted,  so  as,  if  possible,  to  remain  undisturbed 
for  four  or  five  days,  when  it  may  be  removed,  and  the 
wound  covered  with  a  strip  of  plaster. 

ARTERY,  n.  dr^Ur-i  [L.  and  Gr.  arterU,  a  windpipe, 
an  artery]:  one  of  the  vessels  that  convey  the  blood  from 
the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  Abterial,  a.  dr-ie'rindl, 
of  or  contained  in  arteries.  Arterialize,  v.  dr-te'ridl-U, 
to  render  the  blood  coming  from,  or  present  in,  the  veins 
similar  to  that  contained  in  the  arteries;  to  oxygenate  blood. 
Arte'riali'zino,  imp.  Arte'riaIjIZED,  pp.  -ied.  Ar- 
TBRiALizATiON,  n.  drteH-dl-ied'shun,  the  process  of  mak- 
ing into  arterial  blood.  Artbriotomy,  n.  dr-Wrir6t'6-m\ 
IQr.  tome,  a  cutting]:    opening  an  artery  to  let  blood 


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ARTERY. 

Abterioloot,  n.  dr-t^ri^'d-jl  [Gr.  arUM,  an  artery; 
loffoa,  a  discourse]:  a  discourse  regarding  the  arteries;  that 
part  of  medical  science  which  treats  of  the  arteries.  Ab- 
TERins,  dr-U-ri'tlt:  see  Artkries,  Diseases  op. 

ARTERY  [named  from  the  old  idea  that  these  tubes 
were  air-earners]:  the  vessels  through  which  the  blood 
XHisses  from  the  left  side  of  the  heart  to  the  tissues  through- 
out the  body.    The  structure  of  an  arterial  tube  is  very 
complex,  ana  a  section  of  it  may  be  roughly  subdivided 
into  three  layers,  called  the  coats  of  the  artery:  an  external, 
which  is  elastic  and  distensible;  a  middle,  which  is  mus- 
cular, contractile,  and  brit- 
tle; an  internal,  also  brittle, 
smooth,     and     transparent, 
beine  lined  with  epithelium 
on  the  side  washed  by  the 
blood.    The  table  is  also  en-, 
veloped    in   cellular   tissue,  i 
termed  the  sheath  of  the  A.  | 
When  an  A.  is  wounded  by  I 
a  sharp  instrument,  the  effect 
varies  with  the  direction  of 
the  cut.    Thus,  if  longitud- 
inal,   the    edfes    may    not 
separate,  and  tne  wound  may 
heal  without  much  bleeding; 

circular  orifice  allows  of  a  };  FSn^lSted, 
profuse  hemorrhage.  If  the  8.  Muscular, 
A.  be  completely  divided,  its  J-  Sf^' 
walls  do  not  collapse  like  g;  ^i^i 
those  of  a  vein,  but  pass 
through  certain  changes  provided  by  nature  to  prevent 
fatal  bleeding.  The  cut  orifice  contracts  and  each  coat 
retracts  from  the  coat  external  to  itself ,  so  that  tlie  internal 
coat  is  retracted  farther  than  the  middle,  and  the  middle 
farther  than  the  external  coat.  In  addition  to  this  re- 
traction, the  three  coats  curl  inward,  thus  considerably 
narrowing  the  orifice,  and  presenting  a  surface  on  which 
a  clot  is  more  readily  formed.  This  clot  extends  to  the  first 
large  branch  of  the  artery.  The  part  of  the  artery  thus 
plugged  becomes  in  course  of  time  a  mere  fibrous  cord,  and 
the  portion  of  the  body  previously  supplied  by  this  artery 
is  nourished  by  collateral  circulation  (see  Anastomosis). 
When  an  A.  is  compressed  by  a  ligature,  the  brittle  inner 
and  middle  coats  crack,  curl  inwards,  and  heal.  See 
Bleeding. 

The  arteries  of  the  human  body  are  all  offsets,  more  or 
less  direct,  of  the  aorta.  As  each  main  trunk  passes  into 
a  portion  of  the  body,  it  divides  into  two  principal  divisions: 
one,  which  breaks  up  into  branches  for  the  supply  of  the 
tissues  in  the  vicinity — the  A.  of  supply;  and  another, 
which  passes  almost  branchless  to  supply  the  parts  beyond 
— the  A.  of  transmission.  These,  however,  anastomose 
(q.v.)  freely,  so  that   the  distant  tissues  are  not   solely 


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IntemaL 

middle. 

extemiiL 


ARTESIAN  WELLS. 

dependeDt  for  their  supply  on  only  one  arterial  trunk. 
Thus,  the  femoral  A.  divides  in  the  groin  into  the  profunda, 
or  deep  femoral,  to  supply  the  thigh,  and  the  miperfieial 
femoral,  to  supply  the  leg  below  the  knee.  Again,  the 
common  carotid  divides  into  external  carotid,  to  supply  the 
neck  and  head,  and  the  tntertuU  carotid,  to  supply  the 
brain.  Although  arteries  have  generally  the  same  distri- 
bution or  arrangement  of  branches,  the;f  occasionally  vaiy, 
and  thereby  are  apt  to  puzzle  a  superficial  anatomist.  Mr. 
Thomas  Kunn  of  London,  an  excellent  human  anatomist, 
has  clearly  shown  that  these  anomalies  in  arterial  distribu- 
tion are  all  governed  bv  the  law  of  arterial  distribution 
just  mentioned,  a  fact  which  not  only  simplifies  the  study 
of  arterial  anatomv,  but  assists  the  operative  siugeon  out 
of  perplexing  positions.  For  the  principal  arteries,  see 
their  distinctive  titles.  The  best  authority  on  arteries  is 
the  splendid  work  of  R.  Quain.     See  Arteries,  I>ib- 

EASES  OF.  * 

ARTESIAN- WELLS,  n.  dr-iiehdn:  borings  or  perfora- 
tions made  in  the  earth,  in  order  to  obtain  a  constant  flow 
of  water— so  called  from  Artoii,  in  Prance  (the  anc. 
Arteeium),  where  first  used.  The  possibility  of  obtaining 
water  in  this  way  in  a  particular  district  depends  on  its 
geological  structure.  All  rocks  contain  more  or  less  water. 
Arenaceous  rocks  receive  water  mechanically,  and,  accord* 
ing  to  their  compactness  and  purity,  part  with  a  larger  or 
smaller  proportion  of  it.  A  cubic  yard  of  pure  sea-sand 
can  contain,  in  addition  to  the  quantit}r  of  dry  sand  which 
occupies  that  space,  about  one-third  oi  its  bulk  of  water. 
It  would  part  with  nearly  the  whole  of  this  into  a  well 
sunk  in  it,  and  regularlv  pumped  from.  Chalk  and  other 
rocks,  composed  of  fine  particles,  closely  compacted 
together,  contain  as  large  a  proportion  of  water;  but  from 
the  power  of  capillary  attraction,  little  or  none  of  this 
water  would  be  drained  into  a  well  sunk  in  such  rock. 
From  the  existence,  however,  of  numerous  crevices  in 
chalk  through  which  the  water  freely  flows,  and  from  the 
general  presence  of  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than  the 
porous  rock  is  able  to  retain,  wells  sunk  in  chalk  often 
yield  water.  There  is  yet  a  third  class  of  rocks,  which 
are  perfectly  impervious  to  water,  such  are  cla3r8,  which 
are  absolutely  retentive,  neither  allowing  water  to  be 
obtained  from  them  nor  to  pass  through  them.  When 
such  rocks  occur  in  basins  (q.v.)  in  alternating  layers,  and 
in  such  order  that  pervious  beds  are  inserted  between 
impervious  ones,  it  is  evident  that  if  a  perforation  is  made 
through  the  retentive  barrier-bed  in  the  lower  portion  of 
the  basin,  the  water  contained  in  the  water-logged  strata 
will  rise  through  the  bore  to  a  height  depending  upon  the 
pressure  of  water  which  has  accumulated  in  the  confined 
sloping  space  between  the  two  imocrvioti^i  beds. 

The  American  system  of  driving  wells,  invented  byCol. 
N.  W.  Green,  was  first  applied  1861.  and  patented  1868. 
The  plant  includes  an  Andrews  patent  point  for  penetrat- 
ing the  earth,  this  point  being  coupled  to  a  pipe,  on  whidi» 


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ARTESIAN  WELLS. 

after  it  has  been  driven  down  to  water,  an  ordinary  pump 
is  screwed  on  and  the  air  exhausted,  when  the  water  rises 
rapidly  in  the  tube,  whence  it  is  readily  lifted  by  the  pump. 
See  BouiNO.  A  large  number  of  these  wells  are  in  use  m 
the  United  States  for  furnishing  water  for  irrigation,  stock- 
raising,  brewing,  etc.  Important  wells  are  in  St.  Louis 
(begun  1849),  Chicago,  Louisville,  New  York,  Columbus, 
O.,  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  Charleston,  8.  C.  (begun  1848), 
New  Orleans,  La.,  Titusville,  Penn.,  Philadelphia,  Penn., 
Andover,  S.  Dak.,  and  Rondout,  N.  Y.  The  deepest  of 
these  wells  is  that  driven  for  the  St.  Louis  Insane  Asylum, 
1866-69,  8.843-5  ft.  in  depth,  with  a  diam.  two-thirds  of 
the  way  of  4iin.  A  well  in  Chicago  of  1,200  feet  dis- 
charges about  1,250,000  gals,  with  a  head  of  125  ft.  above 
Lake  Michigan.  Gen.  Pope,  when  in  command  of  Texas, 
1855,  sunk  a  well  in  the  Staked  Plains  900  ft.,  and  ob- 
tained  good  water. 

Many  such  wells  are  in  London  and  its  vicinity;  those 
which  form  the  ornamental  fountains  in  Trafalgar  Square 
descend  into  the  upper  chalk  to  a  depth  of  898  ft.  One  of 
the  most  famous  artesian  wells  is  that  of  Grenelle,  in  the 
outskirts  of  Paris,  where  the  water  is  brought  from  the 
gault  at  a  depth  of  1,798  ft.  It  yields  516^  gals,  of  water 
m  a  minute,  projected  82  ft.  above  the  siu-face;  temperature, 
81* -7  F.  An  artesian  well  in  course  of  construction  at 
Pesth  yielded,  at  a  depth  of  8,100  ft.,  175,000  gals,  of 
water  per  day,  of  a  temperature  of  161**  F.,  projected  85 
ft.  above  the  siurface.  It  is  to  be  simk  till  the  water  reaches 
178**^ 

It  is  believed  that  the  Chinese  have  been  long  acquainted 
with  artesian  wells.  Such  wells  have  been  in  iise  for  cen- 
turies in  Austria,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Vienna, 
where  they  are  abundant.  No  knowledge  existed  as  to  their 
source,  and  consequently  the  boring  for  them  was  engaged 
in  and  conducted  m  a  rude  and  empirical  manner.  £a  ex- 
cavation was  made  till  a  bed  of  clay  was  reached  ;  on  this 
a  perforated  mill-stone  was  laid,  and  through  the  hole  the 
clay  was  bored  until  water  rose.  As  soon  as  geology  took 
the  position  of  a  science,  and  the  theory  of  A.  W.  was  pro- 
pounded, the  engineer  was  able,  after  the  geological  survey 
of  a  district,  to  discover  whether  a  supply  of  water  could 
Uiere  be  obtained  in  this  way.  Already,  districts  formerly 
diy  and  arid  have  received  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  by 
means  of  such  wells,  and  many  more  applications  have  yet 
to  be  made.  (Tchihatchcf,  at  the  British  Association'  in 
1882,  affirmed  that  A.  W.  were  made  in  old  Greek  times  in 
the  Sahara,  at  Baalbek,  etc.;  and  ihat  crabs  are  found  at  the 
bottom  of  recent  ones).  Artesian  borings  have  been 
executed  in  the  Sahara  of  the  province  of  Constantine  with 
remarkable  success.  The  first  attempt,  after  a  few  weeks' 
labor,  produced  a  constant  stream,  forming  a  river  and 
yielding  4,010  quarts  of  water  per  minute,  at  a  temperature 
of  78*  F.  In  1880,  there  were  above  150  such  borings  in 
the  province.  The  result  is  proving  beneficial  not  only  to 
the  country  materially,  but  also  to  the  character  and  habits 


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ARTEVELDE— ART  EXHIBITIONS. 

of  itsuomadic  Arab  inhabitants.  Several  tribes  have  alrnd^ 
settled  down  around  these  wells,  and  forming  thus  the  centres 
of  settlements,  have  constructed  villages,  planted  date- 
palms,  and  renounced  their  previous  wandering  existence. 

A.  W.  have  supplied  a  portion  of  the  data  upon  which 
the  internal  temperature  of  the  earth  has  been  calculated. 
They  have  their  origin  below  that  zone  which  is  affected  by 
the  changing  superficial  temperature  of  the  seasons,  and 
consequently  the  water  is  of  a  constant  temperature.  Thus 
the  Grenelle  artesian  well  has  a  temperature  of  81* '7  F., 
while  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  cellar  of  the 
Paris  Observatory  is  only  68*.  MM.  Arago  and  Waif erdin 
observed  the  temperature  as  the  work  proceeded,  and  found 
that  there  was  a  gradual  and  regular  increase  downwards. 
The  latter  gentleman  made  a  series  of  very  accurate  and 
careful  observations  on  the  temperature  of  two  borings  at 
Creuzot,  within  a  mile  of  eadi  other,  commencing  at  a 
height  of  1,080  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  going  down  to  a  depth, 
the  one  of  2,678  ft.,  the  other  about  1,900  ft.  The  results, 
after  every  possible  caution  had  been  taken  to  insure  cor- 
rectness, gave  a  rise  of  IT.  for  every  56  ft.  down  to  a 
depth  of  1,800  ft.,  beyond  which  the  rise  was  more  rapid, 
being  1"  for  every  44  ft.  of  descent.  There  are  many  veiy 
deep  borings  in  the  United  States. 

ARTEVELDE,  dr'td-vil-d^h,  Jacob  :d.  1845,  Aug.  19: 
a  brewer  of  Ghent,  celebrated  as  a  popular  leader  In  the  14th 
c.  In  the  war  between  England  and  France,  he  gave  his 
aid  to  the  former,  while  the  counts  of  Flanders  supported 
the  latter.  A.,  after  gaining  great  advantages  over  the 
party  of  the  nobles,  went  too  far  when  he  prop<Sed  that  the 
son  of  Edward  III.  of  England  should  be  elected  Count  of 
Flanders.  For  this  the  Flemings  were  not  prepared,  and, 
in  consequence,  A.  was  killed  in  a  popular  insurrection. 
His  son  Philip,  in  1381,  was  leader  of  the  people  of  Ghent 
in  their  civil  war  against  Bruges,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
Count  Louis.  The  latter  was  afterwards  assisted  by  dharles 
VI.  of  France,  and  Philip  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Koebeke, 


ART  EXHIBITIONS:  public  displays  of  the  works  of 
living  artists,  with  the  view,  on  the  one  hand,  of  affording 
gratification  and  instruction  to  the  community,  and,  on  the 
other,  of  procuring  pui'chasers  for  the  works  exhibited. 
They  have  taken  place  in  most  of  the  principal  towns  of 
Europe,  for  more  than  a  century  and  a  half  Though 
sometimes  connected  with  Art  Unions  (q.v.).  A.  E.  are 
nmch  older  institutions,  though  as  the  offspring  of  a  neces- 
sity which  did  not  exist  in  earlier  times  they  are  essen- 
tially modern.  So  long  as  artists  were  patronized  chiefly 
by  the  church,  by  their  respective  governments,  or  by  indi- 
viduals of  sovereign  rank,  their  works  were  placed  either 
in  churches,  in  public  buildings,  or  in  palaces,  and  were 
thus  continually  exhibited  to  the  public  ;  but  when  private 
patronage  came  to  be  their  chief  support,  and  their  works, 
if  sold  at  all,  were  certain  to  be  buried  in  private  houses, 
the  necessity  for  making  Arrangements  by  which   they 


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ART  EXHIBITIONS. 

could  be  displayed  to  the  public  either  before  thev 
were  disposed  of,  or  afterwards  with  the  conseot  of  their 
owners,  became  apparent.  Until  aided  by  Art  Unions,  A. 
E.  for  the  most  part  had  no  success.  The  earliest  collec- 
tive art  exhibition  was  probably  that  of  the  members  of 
the  Acad,  of  Fine  Arts  at  Rome ;  anything  of  the  kind 
which  had  previously  existed  being  confined  to  the  works 
of  a  particular  artist  and  his  pupils,  enriched  perhaps  by  a 
few  contributions  from  his  fncnds.  Something  of  this 
earlier  character  probably  attached  to  these  Roman  exhibi- 
tions ;  and  the  first  art  exhibition,  in  the  sense  in  which  we 
now  understand  it,  seems  to  have  been  that  of  the  French 
Academy,  1678.  From  1745  to  the  period  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, this  exhibition,  which  from  its  commencement  had 
been  confined  to  the  works  of  members  of  the  Academy, 
took  place  biennially.  During  the  Revolution  it  was 
Uirown  open  to  foreign  artists,  and  in  1796  it  was  again 
made  annual.  An  exhibition  was  attempted  in  England, 
1760.  but  it  was  not  till  1769  that  the  regular  exhibitions 
of  the  Royal  Acad,  commenced.  The  works  exhibited 
in  1760  were  only  130,  the  number  of  exhibitors  being  69; 
in  that  of  1880  there  were  exhibited  1,650  works  by  about  850 
artists.  The  annual  revenue  which  the  Acad,  derives  from 
the  fee  of  one  shilling  by  each  visitor  has  also  been  steadily 
increasing.  The  exhibition  of  the  Scottish  Acad.,  next  in 
importance,  dates  from  1826.  To  the  first  exhibition,  178 
works  were  sent  by  27  contributors  ;  the  exhibition  of  1880 
consisted  of  1,  120  works,  contributed  by  502  artists.  The 
annual  revenue  of  the  Scottish  Acad,  from  this  source 
exceeds  £2,500.  The  only  other  exhibition  of  the  same 
class  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  that  of  Dublin,  supported 
by  an  annual  grant  from  government — the  exhibitions  of 
Ix>ndon  and  Edinburgh  being  merely  furnished  with  rooms 
erected  at  government  expense.  Several  private  societies 
in  London  and  the  provinces,  however,  have  similar  ex- 
hibitions: among  these  are  the  British  Institution,  the  Soc. 
of  British  Artists,  the  National  Institution,  the  Soc.  of 
Painters  in  Water-colors,  and  its  rival,  the  New  Soc.  of 
Painters  in  Water-colors.  There  are  also  exhibitions  in 
several  of  the  large  provincial  towns,  such  as  Manchester, 
Liverpool,  Glasgow,  etc.  On  the  continent  of  Europe, 
wherever  an  acad.  of  art  exists,  there  is  now  an  exhibi- 
tion, which  takes  place  for  the  most  part  annually,  some< 
times  biennially.  In  all  the  large  cities,  and  in  many 
smaller  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  chief  uni- 
versities and  colleges,  there  are  permanent  art  collections, 
Wsides  important  annual  exhibitions  under  the  charge  of 
private  societies  in  increasing  numbers. 

The  London  Exhibition  of  1851,  commonly  known  as  the 
Oreat  Exhtbition,  was  not  only  on  a  larger  scale,  but  intro- 
duced new  features  into  these  displays.  Though  confined 
to  industrial  objects  and  works  of  plastic  art,  it  gave  an 
impulse  to  A.  E.  strictly  so  called,  which  showed  itself 
almost  simultaneously  in  the  great  international  artistic 
exhibition  of  Brussels ;  and  even  those  exhibitions  which 
have  been  formed  more  closely  on  its  model—those  of 


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ARTFUL— ARTHUR 

Dublin  and  New  York.  1858,  London,  1863.  Paris,  1867, 
Vienna,  1878.  PliUadclphia,  1876,  and  Paris,  1878— all  have 
included  4he  fine  artA. 

ARTFUL,  AK  TlflClfi,  etc.:  see  under  art. 

ARTHANITIN.  drthan'U  in  [from  Arihanita officinalis, 
a  plant  now  called  Gydamen  EuropaumV,  in  chem.,  a  crystal- 
line substance  which  may  be  extracted  irom  the  roots  of  the 
Cyclamen  Europaum,  Primula  wris,  Anag<Ulis  arvcnns, 
and  LimoseUa  aquatica  ;  called  also  Gydamin.  It  is  purga- 
tive, besides  prcKlucing  vomiting. 

ARTHRITIC,  a.  dr-thrU\k,  or  Abthritical,  a.  artkrit- 
irkal  [Gr.  arthron,  a  joint]:  pertaining  to  the  joints  or 
to  (be  gout.  Arthritis,  n.  dr-thri'tU,  inflammation  of 
the  joints;  the  gout.  See  Joints:  Rheumatism:  Gout. 
Arthrodtnia,  n.  dr-thrMini-a,  pain  in  the  ^ints; 
chronic  rheumatism.  Arthrodtnic,  a.  -Ik,  pertaimng  to. 
Arthroloot  [Gr.  arthron,  joint ;  loff09,  discourse] :  a  dis- 
course concerning  the  joints ;  that  part  of  anatomical  science 
which  treats  of  the  joints.  Arthrosis,  n.  dr-lhrosU,  artic- 
ulation. 

ARTHRODIA,  n.  dr4hrd'di'd  [Gr.  ar'throd,  I  fasten  by 
ioiuts]:  a  joint  in  which  the  head  of  one  bone  is  recetved 
mto  the  socket  of  another;  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  Arthbo- 
DiAL,  a.  pertaining  to. 

ARTHR0GA8TRA :  see  Arachnida. 

ARTHROLOBIUM,  dr-thro-ld'bUum  [Qt:  arthron,  a 
ioint ;  iobos,  a  legume] :  joint- vetch  ;  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  legumiDous  order. 

ARTHRONOMALUS,  drthro-Twm'aUuM  [Gr.  arthron, 
a  joint ;  anomalos,  uneven,  irregular]  :  a  genus  of  centi- 
p^es.    A.  longicornis,  a  British  species,  is  phosphorescent, 

ARTHROPODA,  n.  plu.  dr-thropd-dd  [Gr.  arthron,  a 
joint;  podes,  feet]:  Uiose  articulate  animals  such  as  crusta- 
ceans, spiders,  and  insects,  which  are  provided  with  jointed 
limbs.  This  term  is  now  used  instead  of  Cuvier's  artic- 
tUata  (q.v.). 

ARTHUR,  King  of  a  tribe  of  ancient  Britons :  supposed 
\o  have  lived  6th  c.  He  is  usually  represented  as  a  Chris- 
tian prince,  struggling  bravely  to  maintain  the  liberty  and 
faith  of  bis  coimtiy  against  die  pagan  Saxons,  but  there  is 
no  evidence  for  the  statement  that  he  fought  against  the 
Saxon  Cerdic.  Neither  the  Welsh  bards  nor  Nennius  assert 
this ;  in  fact,  it  is  merely  an  inference  drawn  from  the  sup- 
position that  the  scene  of  A.'s  exploits  was  the  w.  and  s.w, 
of  England.  But  Mr.  Skene  {Th^  Four  Ancient  Books  oj 
Wales,  vol.  i. ,  pp.  60-60)  seeks  to  prove  from  an  examina- 
tion of  Nennius  {Historia  Britonum,  cap.  50),  that  the  lo- 
calities of  the  twelve  great  battles  which  A.  fought  are  in 
Strathclyde,  and  therefore  that  he  belongs  to  the  region  now 
called  Scotland  rather  than  to  England.  If  there  is  any 
reality  in  A.'s  history  at  all,  this  is  probably  the  correct 
view  of  it,  but  the  influcoce  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's 
fictions,  and  of  the  French  romances,  succeeded  in  fixing 
the  Cumbrian  prince  in  the   more   important  part   of  the 


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ARTHUR. 

island.  .  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  no  mention  whatever  is 
made  of  A.  by  the  venerable  Bede,  the  oldest  of  our  histo- 
nana,  or  by  the  annalists  of  the  Saxon  Chronicle;  and  Mr. 
Skene's  explanation,  that  these  authorities  only  '  record  the 
struggle  between  the  Britons  and  the  Saxons  south  of  the 
Humber/  is  hardly  satisfactory. 

In  the  lavs  of  the  Welsh  bards,  supposed  to  be  as  early  as 
the  6th  and  7th  centuries  (although  no  manuscript  is  extant 
of  older  date  than  the  12th  c),  A.  and  his  brave  compan- 
ions are  celebrated,  but  modestly  and  without  miracle.  It 
is  in  Nennius  that  the  legendary  additions  begin  to  develop 
themselves,  though  Mr.  Skene  does  '  not  hesitate  to  receive 
the  Arthur  of  Nennius  as  the  historic  Arthur.'  Then  fol- 
low at  a  distance  of  three  or  four  centuries  the  so-called 
Armoric  collections  of  Walter,  arch-deacon  of  Oxford,  from 
whom  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  (q.v.)  professes  to  translate, 
and  in  which  the  marvellous  and  supernatural  elements 
largely  prevail.  Here  for  the  first  time  the  magician 
Merlin  comes  into  association  with  A.  According 
to  (Jeoffry,  A.*s  father,  Uther,  conceiving  a  passion  for 
Icema,  wife  of  Gorlois,  Duke  of  Cornwall,  is  changal  by 
Merlin  into  the  likeness  of  Gorlois,  and  A.  was  the  result. 
After  his  father's  death.  A,  becomes  paramount  leader  of 
the  British,  and  makes  victorious  expecb'tionsto  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Denmark,  Norway,  and  even  to  iTrance,  where  he 
defeats  a  great  Roman  army.  During  his  absence,  his 
nephew,  Modred,  revolts,  and  seduces  Prince  A.'s  wife, 
Qoanhumara.  A.,  returning,  falls  in  a  battle  with  his 
nephew  ;  and  is  carried  to  the  Isle  of  Avallon  to  be  cured 
of  his  wounds.  Geoffrey's  work  apparently  gave  birth 
to  a  multitude  of  fictions  which  came  to  be  considered 
as  quasi-historical  traditions.  From  these,  exagger- 
ated by  each  succeeding  age,  and  recast  by  each  narra- 
tor, sprung  the  famous  metrical  romances  of  the  12th 
and  18th  centuries,  first  in  French,  afterwards  in  English, 
from  which  modem  notions  of  A.  are  derived.  In  these  his 
habitual  residence  is  at  Caerleon,  on  the  Usk,  in  Wales, 
where,  with  his  beautiful  wife  Guinevere,  he  lives  in 
splendid  state,  surrounded  by  hundreds  of  knights  and 
letiutiful  ladies,  who  serve  as  patterns  of  valor,  breeding, 
and  grace  to  all  the  world.  Twelve  knights,  the  bravest 
of  the  throng,  form  the  centre  of  this  retinue,  and  sit  with 
the  king  at  a  round  table,  the  *  Knights  of  the  Round  Ta- 
ble.' From  the  court  of  King  A.,  knights  go  forth  to  all 
countries  in  search  of  adventures — to  protect  women,  chas- 
tise oppressors,  liberate  the  enchanted,  enchain  riants  and 
malicious  dwarfs,  is  their  knightly  mission.  A  Welsh  col- 
lection  of  stories  called  the  MaMnogion,  of  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries,  translated  into  English  by  Lady  Charlotte  Guest, 
1849,  gives  an  idea  of  the  Arthurian  legends.  Some  of  the 
stories  *  have  the  character  of  chivalric  romances,'  and  are 
therefore  probably  of  French  origin  ;  while  others  *  bear 
the  Impress  of  a  far  higher  antiquity,  both  as  regards  the 
manners  they  depict,  and  the  style  of  language  in  which 
they  are  composed.'  These  latter  rarely  mention  A.,  but 
the  former  belong,  as  Mr.  Skene  puts  it,  to  the  *  full-blown 


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ARTHUR. 

Arthurian  romance.'  Early  in  the  12th  c,  the  Arthurian 
metrical  romance  became  known  in  Germany,  arid  there 
assumed  a  more  animated  and  artistic  form  in  the  Parutal 
of  Wolfram  of  Eschenbach,  Tristan  and  Isolt  of  Gottfried 
of  Strasburg,  Erec  and  Iwein  of  Hartmann,  and  Wigalois  of 
Wirnt.  The  most  renowned  of  the  heroes  of  the  Arthuiiaa 
school  are  Peredur  (Parzival  or  Perceval),  Tristan  or  Tris- 
tram, Iwein.  Erec,  Gawein,  Wigalois,  Wigamur,  C^uriel, 
and  Lancelot.  From  Fraiice,  the  Arthurian  romance 
spread  also  to  Spain,  Provence,  Italy,  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  was  again  retransplanted  into  England.  One  of  the 
publications  that  issued  from  the  press  of  Caxton  (1485), 
was  a  collection  of  stories  by  Sir  Thomas  Malory,  either 
compiled  by  him  in  Engli^,  from  various  of  the  later 
French  prose  romances,  or  translated  directly  from  an  al- 
ready existing  French  compendium.  Copland  reprinted 
the  work  in  1557,  and  in  1634  the  last  of  the  black-letter 
editions  appeared.  A  reprint  of  Caxton's  Kynge  Artkur,^iih 
an  introduction  and  notes  by  Robert  Southey,  was  issued  in 
1817  {The  Byrth.  Lyfe,  ani  Actes  of  Kyng  Arthur,  etc.,  2 
vols.  4to).  The  best  edition  is  that  by  Thomas  Wright 
(Lond.  3  vols.,  1866)  from  the  text  of  1634.  The  name  of 
King  A.  was  given  during  the  middle  ages  to  many  places 
and  monuments  supposeo  to  have  been  in  some  way  asso- 
ciated with 'his  exploits,  such  as  '  Arthur's  Seat'  near  Edin- 
burgh, *  Arthur's  Oven '  on  the  Carron  near  Falkirk,  etc 
What  was  called  the  sepulchre  of  his  queen  was  shown  at 
Meigie,  in  Strathmore,  m  the  16th  c.  The  interest  of  the 
legends  about  King  A.  and  his  knights  has  been  revived  by 
Tennyson's  IdyUs  of  the  King  (W5d  et  seg.),  and  some  of 
Wagner's  operas.  See  Turner's  History  of  ths  Anglo-Saxons; 
Ritson's  King  Arthur  ;  Villemarque,  Contes  JPopulctires  da 
Andens  Bretons  (1842) ;  GrSsse,  JSagenkreise  des  MittdaUers 
(1842) ;  Skene's  F(mr  Ancient  Books  of  Wales  (1866} ;  Glen- 
nie's  Arthurian  Localities  (1869) ;  CJors  Popular  Uomances 
of  the  Middle  Ages  (1871);  Fontan,  Arthur,  ou  le  Boi- 
chasseur  (1874). 

ARTHUR,  Prince  of  Brittany:  see  King  John. 

ARTHUR,  Chestbr  Alan:  twenty-first  president  of 
the  United  States;  1830,  Oct.  5.— 1886, Nov.  18, b. in  Frank- 
lin CO.,  Vt.;  son  of  a  Baptist  minister,  of  Scotch -Irish 
extraction.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a  student  at 
Union  College,  New  York ;  studied  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  an  early  age.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  great  civil 
war,  1861,  he  held  the  post  of  inspector-general ;  and  dur- 
ing the  war  was  quartermaster-general  for  the  New  York 
forces.  He  subsequently  returned  to  law  practice,  and 
became  the  head  of  an  eminent  law  firm.  A.  was  promi- 
nent in  politics,  on  the  republican  side ;  and  in  1871  Pres. 
Grant  appointed  him  collector  of  customs  at  the  port  of 
New  York.  Not  being  an  advocate  of  the  administrative 
system  known  as  Civil  Service  Reform,  which  Pres.  Hayes 
favored,  the  pres.  removed  him  from  this  post,  1878,  and 
he  returned  to  the  practice  of  law.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  republican  party  in  the  state  of  New  York;  and 


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ARTHUR'S  SEAT—ARTICHOKE. 

though  belonging  to  the  section  of  the  republicans  op 
posea  lo  that  represented  by  (ien.  Grartield,  was  elected 
vice-pres.  of  the  United  States  when  Garfield  was  elected ' 
to  the  presidency,  1881.  The  death  of  Gartield,  resulting 
from  an  assassin's  pistol-shot,  called  the  vice  pres.  to  the 
supreme  magistracy ;  and,  1881,  Sept.  22,  A.  was  inaugu- 
rated president,  in  which  office  he  served  till  the  end  of 
the  term,  1885,  March  4.  Returning  to  New  York,  his 
already  failing  health  restrained  him  from  public  activity, 
and  his  death  occurred  in  the  following  year.  As  a  po- 
litical leader  A.  had  great  energy  and  success,  though  his 
later  leadership  became  unfortunately  identilied  with  a 
faction  in  his  party  ;  as  president,  he  rose  to  the  new  de- 
mands and  the  peculiarly  difficult  duties  of  the  exalted  of- 
fice to  which  an  assassination  had  introduced  him ;  win- 
ning in  large  degree  the  approval  of  former  opposers  by 
the  dignity  and  fidelity  of  his  administration. 

ARTHUR'S  SEAT :  a  hill  in  the  inunediate  vicinity  of 
Edinburgh,  822  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  ascent 
is  easy,  and  the  prospect  from  the  top  unrivalled.  A.  S. 
is  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from  Arthur,  the  British 
king.  When  the  hill  received  this  appellation  is  not 
known  ;  but  at  the  close  of  the  15th  c.  the  poet  Kennedy 
mentions  'Arthur  Sate  or  ony  hicher  hill.' 

The  hill  is  formed  of  a  mass  of  trap  of  various  species, 
upheaved  through  the  carboniferous  strata  of  Central  Scot- 
land, and  presenting  on  the  w.  and  s.  sides,  at  the  height 
of  570  ft.,  a  perpendicular  range  of  precipices,  called  Sal- 
isbury Crags,  60  to  80  ft.  high.  The  trap  is  in  tabular 
masses,  and  has  elevated  and  hardened  the  carboniferous 
sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone  beds,  which  dip  e.,  and 
crop  out  on  the  w.,  besides  being  broken  through  and 
overflowed  by  the  trap-rocks.  In  the  centre  of  the  hill, 
the  trap  often  encloses  fragments  of  sandstone,  and  di- 
vides it  by  veins.  The  central  and  upper  part  of  the  hill, 
and  the  remarkable  columns  called  '  Samson's  Ribs,'  are  of 
basalt. 

ARTIAD,  n.  d'/tl-(id[Gr.  artm,  complete,  even,  opposed 
to  odd]  :  in  ehem.,  name  given  to  elements  of  even  equiva- 
lency, as  dyads,  tetrads,  etc. ;  those  of  uneven  equivalency, 
as  monads,  triads,  etc.,  are  called  perissads  [Gr.  perissof, 
uneven]. 

ARTICHOKE,  n.  dr'ti-chok  [F.  arUchaut^tvom  It.  a/rii- 
c*oa»]:a  thistle-like  perennial  plant, now  growinjz  wild  in  the 
8.  of  Europe,  but  probably  a  native  of  Asia;  the  Cyn'ara  scoV- 
ymus.  The  genus  Cynara  belongs  to  the  natural  order 
CompodUBy  sub-order  CynarocepTuilcB,  and  is  distinguished  by 
the  bracts  of  the  involucre  beine  fleshy  at  the  base,  and 
emarginate,  with  a  hard  point  and  the  receptacle  fringed. 
0.  Kolymus  has  the  radical  leaves  8-4  ft.  long,  somewhat 
spiny,  some  of  them  pinnatifid,  some  undivided.  The 
stem  is  two  or  three  ft.  high,  branched,  with  large  heads 
of  violet-colored  (sometimes  white^  thistle-like  flowers  at 
the  summits  of  the  branches.  Tne  involucre  is  tumid, 
and  consists  of  fleshy,  roundish-ovate,  crenate,  acuminate. 


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ARTICLE. 

imbricated  scales.  The  seeds  are  elongated  and  quad- 
rangular, with  smooth  and  firmly  attached  pappus.  The 
plant  has  been  long  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the  delicate 
succulent  receptacles  of  the  heads  of  flowers,  taken  befor* 
the  flowers  expand,  which  are  boiled  and  eaten,  or,  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  eaten  raw  with  salt  and  pepper.  The 
part  used  is  the  same  which  in  thistles  is  callea  by  chil- 
dren the  cJieese,  and  is  sometimes  eaten  by  them.  The 
tender  central  leaf -stalk  is  also  occasionally  used  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  Cardoon.  Several  varieties  are  in 
cultivation,  differing  in  the  more  or  less  spiny  leaves,  and 
the  more  or  less  globose  form  of  the  head.  Artichokes 
are  generally  propagated  by  rooted  slips  or  suckers  in 
spring.  These  are  planted  in  rows  about  four  ft.  asunder, 
and  two  ft.  apart  in  the  row.  The  A.  bed  continues  pro- 
ductive for  several  years.  Seaweed  is  an  excellent  manure 
for  it. — The  Cardoon  (q.  v.)  belongs  to  the  same  genus. — 
The  JBRUSAI.EM  A.  (q.v.)  is  a  totally  different  plant. 

ARTICLE,  n.  dr'tl-ld  [F.  artieU-^from  L.  artie'tUtu,  a 
little  joint— from  arttLS,  a  joint:  It.  artieoloh  a  jointed 
thing  or  part;  a  clause- or  item;  a  particular  thing;  a  con- 
tribution in  a  periodical;  in  gram.,  a  word  put  before  a 
noun  to  point  it  out  and  limit  its  application:  Y.  to  bind  by 
conditions;  to  stipulate.  Articled,  pp.  dr'ti-Md:  Adj. 
bound  by  conditions.  Articulate,  v.  dr-Wc'u-lai  [L.  ar- 
tlctUdtus,  furnished  with,  joints]:  to  unite  by  means  of 
joints ;  to  pronounce  woros  distinctlv;  in  OE,,  to  make 
terms;  to  treat:  Adj.  distinct;  jointed.  Articulately, 
ad.  -li.  Artic'ulateness,  n.  the  quality  of  being  artic- 
ulate. Articulation,  n.  dr  tik'n-ld'shun,  the  uniting 
together  b^"  mean-  of  joints,  as  in  the  bones  of  a  skeleton; 
distinct  pronunciation;  an  arrangement  of  joints.  Artic- 
ulating, imp.  Articulated,  pp. :  Adj.  possessing 
joints.  Articulator,  dr-tlk'u-ld'ter,  one  who  articulates. 
Articular,  a.  dr-tiku-ler,  of  or  belonging  to  the  joints. 
Artic  ularly,  ad.  li,  Articulata,  n.  plu.  dr'tiku-ld'id, 
one  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom,  designat- 
ing those  creatures  which  are  encircled  by  jointed  rings,  as 
worms,  lobsters,  etc.,  now  frequently  known  by  the  name 
Arthropod  A.  Articles  op  roup,  in  Scot,,  the  written 
or  printed  conditions  binding  on  purchasers  at  a  public  sale 
by  auction.  Articles  op  war,  the  military  code  of  laws 
for  the  government  of  soldiers.  Lords  op  articles,  in 
Scot,  hist,  the  committee  of  Scottish  parliament  who  pre- 
pared all  articles  and  bills  in  proper  form  to  be  placed  be- 
fore parliament.  Thirty-nine  articles,  the  summary  of 
doctrines  containing  the  authorized  teaching  of  the  Church 
of  England. 

ARTICLE :  in  general  a  part  of  a  systematic  w^hole. 
Thus,  we  speak  of  the  several  articles  of  a  confession  ;  the 
articles  of  war ;  a  leading  article,  etc. 

The  use  of  A.  as  a  grammatical  term  arose  as  follows: 
In  such  a  sentence  as,  '  He  found  that  (or  the)  man  thai  he 
was  looking  for,'  the  Greeks  considered  the  defining  par- 
tides  as  connecting  the  two  parts  of  the  sentence,  and 


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ARTICLES  OF  FAITH— ARTICLES  OF  WAR. 

called  them  joints  (Gr.  anrUira,  Lat.  a/rUculi);  the  name  was 
subsequently  confined  to  the  first  of  the  two»  the  other 
being  called  the  relative. 

In  English,  there  are  two  articles — the  definite  the,  and 
the  indefinite  a  or  an;  and  other  modern  languages  have 
corresponding  words.  But  articles  are  not  essential  to 
language.  The  Latin  had  no  articles,  and  the  Greek,  as 
well  as  the  older  Germanic  langqages,  the  Moeso-Gothic 
and  Old  Norse,  e.g.,  had  only  the  definite  A.  *In  no 
language,'  sa^rs  Dr.  Latham,  Mn  its  oldest  stage,  is  there 
ever  a  word  giving,  in  its  primary  sense,  the  idea  of  an  or 
of  th£.  As  tongues  become  modern,  some  word  with  a 
nmilar  sense  is  used  to  express  the  relation.  In  the  course 
of  time,  a  change  of  form  takes  place,  corresponding  to 
the  change  of  meaning.' 

The  definite  articles  originate  uniformly  in  demonstra- 
tive pronouns.  Eng.  (7<d  is  only  a  weakened  form  of  that 
(An^o-Sax.  ihcg().  The  same  is  the  case  with  Ger.  der; 
and  French  le,  Ital.  U  and  h,  and  Sp.  el,  are  all  from  the 
Lat.  Ule,  *  that.'  In  like  manner,  an  or  a  is  from  the  old 
form  of  one  (ane);  Ger.  ein  is  both  ons  and  a;  and  so  are 
Fr.  un,  Ital.  and  Sp.  uno,  both  from  Lat.  unus  =  ane. 

In  the  Scandinavian  tongues,  the  article  is  attached  to 
the  end  of  the  word;  the  I^ish,  e.g.,  writes  kong-en,  the 
king;  hus-et,  the  house. 

ARTICU:8  OF  FAITH:  summary  of  religious  views, 
set  forth  by  a  church  or  a  company  of  churches,  and  used 
in  many  cases  as  a  denominational  standard.    See  Creeds 

AND  CONFESeiONB. 

ARTICLES  OF  WAR:  regulations  made  for  the  go\-- 
ernment  of  the  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  couutry; 
laws,  or  rules,  governing  the  modes  of  trial  and  of  pun- 
ishment for  breaches  of  discipline,  and  denominating  the 
offenses  to  which  these  modes  are  appropriate. 

United  States  Army. ^The  articles  in  force  are  com- 
prised in  an  act  of  congress  1806,  Apr.  10,  and  are  128  in 
number,  of  which  80  refer  to  punishments,  the  remainder 
relating  to  organization  of  courts-martial  and  courts  of 
inquiry,  and  cognate  subjects.  The  following  is  a  sum- 
mary. Ofiicers  can  be  tried  only  by  general  courts-martial,  . 
and,  unless  impossible,  only  by  officers  of  their  own  or 
higher  rank.  Officers  commanding  army  corps,  regts., 
garrisons,  or  forts,  are  empowered  to  order  courts  for  trial 
of  enlisted  soldiers  for  all  offenses  except  such  as  are  cap- 
ital; and  in  time  of  war,  a  field  officer  can  be  detailed  in 
each  regt.  to  try  such  minor  offenses.  Such  courts  cannot 
punish  by  imprisonment  for  more  than  1  month,  nor  by 
.  fine  exceeding  one  month's  pay.  Officers  under  arrest  are 
entitled  to  see  a  copy  of  charges  brought  against  them, 
and  to  trial  within  a  specified  time.  In  time  of  peace  any 
gen.  officer  in  command  of  an  army  or  a  dept.,  and  in 
time  of  war  any  division  or  brigade  commander,  is  author- 
ized to  order  a  general  court-martial ;  but  in  case  such  gen. 
officer  or  commander  is  the  accuser,  the  court  is  appointed 
by  the  pies.,  and  its  findings  must  be  sent  to  the  sec.  of 
war,  and  by  him  to  the  pres.  for  approval.    Offenses  in- 


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ARTICLES,  THE  THIRTY-NINR 

elude  uulawful  enlistments,  wasting  or  spoiling:  nmmuDi- 
tion  or  accoutrements,  disrespect  toward  a  supnirior  officer, 
cliallenge  to  a  duel,  fraud,  embezzlement,  ele.  Punish- 
ments include  Unc,  imprisonment,  dismissal,  and  death. 
Since  IH?.*),  floggtuc  as  a  punishment  has  been  abandoned: 
and  hr.indtng,  marking,  or  tattooing  are  forbidden.  The 
punishment  of  death  can  be  inflict^  only  after  confirma- 
tion by  the  pi*es.,  except  in  the  case  of  spies,  mutineers, 
and  murderers,  guerillas,  and  others  who  commit  crimes 
in  violation  of  the  laws  of  warfare;  and  in  the  cases  of 
sleeping  on  post,  inciting  to  mutiny,  cowardice  in  the 
pi-esence  of  the  enemy,  etc. 

United  States  JVau^.-— Sixty  articles  govern  procedure  in 
cases  of  insubordination  or  crime,  and  are  applied  by 
courts-martial.  The  offenses  and  punishments  enumer- 
ated vary  little  from  those  above  dted  for  the  army. 
No  officer  is  subject  to  dismissal  or  death,  except  when 
the  sentence  has  been  confirmed  by  the  pres.:  for  all  otiier 
cases  the  designated  punishment  can  be  inflicted  by  the 
officer  who  orders  the  court.  Offenses  committed  on 
shore  receive  the  same  punishment  as  if  committed  at  sea. 
The  proceedings  of  a  court-martial  are  subject  to  revision, 
and  the  sentence  to  remission  or  mitigation,  by  the  officer 
ordering  the  court-martial.  The  punishment  of  death, 
where  authorized,  need  not  necessarily  be  inflicted  by  the 
court-martial,  which  is  empowered  to  substitute  therefor 
imprisonment  for  life. 

ARTICLES,  THE  SIX :  often  mentioned  in  the  eccle- 
siastical history  of  England  in  the  16th  c. ;  imposed  by  act 
of  parliament,  1539,  when  Henry  YIII.  was  displeased 
with  some  of  the  bishops  most  favorable  to  the  Rcfoima- 
tion,  and  their  opponents  for  a  lime  regained  the  ascend- 
ency. These  A.  asserted  the  doctrme  of  transubstantiar 
tion,  declared  communion  in  both  kinds  not  to  be  neces- 
sary, condemned  the  marriage  of  priests,  enjoined  the  con- 
tinued observance  of  vows  of  chastity,  and  sanctioned  pri 
vate  masses  and  auricular  confession.  The  act  imposing 
them  was  popularly  called  'the  six-stringed  whip.*  Se- 
vere penalties  were  appointed  for  writing  or  speaking 
against  them,  and  for  abstaining  from  confession  or  the 
sacrament  at  the  accustomed  times,  for  priests  failing  to 
put  away  their  wives,  and  for  persons  writing  or  speak- 
ing against   the   doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 

ARTICLES,  THE  THIRTY-NINE.  of  the  Church  of 
England:  articles  of  reliffion  agreed  upon  by  the  arch- 
bishoptand  bishops  of  both  provinces  and  the  whole  clergy 
in  the  convocation  at  London,  4th  year  of  Elizabeth,  1562, 
under  Abp.  Parker.  To  have  a  clear  view  of  the  history 
of  these  important  articles,  we  must  go  back  to  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  original  ones,  forty-two  In  number,  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  council  appointed  In  the 
will  of  Henry  VIII.  to  conduct  the  government  during 
the  king's  minority,  was  for  the  most  part  favorably  dis- 
posed towards  the  Reformed  opinions,  and  the  manage- 
ment of  church  affairs  devolved  almost  entirely  upon  Aop. 
Oranmer.     In  the  year  1549>  an  act  of  paruament  was 


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ARTICLES.  THE  THIRTY-NINE. 

TOSsed,  empowering  the  king  to  appoint  a  commission  of 
83  persons,  to  make  ecclesiastical  laws.  Under  this  act, 
a  commission  of  8  bishops,  8  other  divines,  8  civilians,  and 
8  lawyers  (among  whom  were  Cranmer,  Ridley,  Hooper, 
Coverdale,  Scory,  Peter  Martyr,  Justice  Hales,  etc.)  was 
appointed,  1551,  and  one  of  its  lirst  acts  was  to  draw  up  a 
code  of  articles  of  faith.  These  were  forty-two  in  num- 
ber, and  were  set  forth  by  the  king's  authority  in  1553. 
Stiype  and  Burnet  make  it  appear  that  these  forty-two 
articles  were  agreed  upon  in  the  convocation  that  was  sit- 
ting in  1553,  but  this  was  not  the  fact.  Fuller,  speaking 
m  his  quaint  way  of  this  convocation,  declares  that  it  had 
*no  commission  from  the  king  to  meddle  with  church 
business,  and,'  he  adds,  'every  convocation  in  itself  is  born 
deaf  and  d  amb,  so  that  it  can  neither  hear  nor  speak  con- 
cerning complaints  in  religion  till  first  Ephphaiha,  "Be 
thou  opened,"  be  pronounced  unto  it  by  royal  authority. 
However,'  he  contmues,  'this  barren  on  vocation  is  en- 
titled the  parent  of  those  forty- two  articles  which  are 
printed  with  this  title,  Arliculi  ds  quihu^  in  Synodo  Londi- 
nensi  1552  a.d.  inter  Episcopos  et  alias  convenerat.*  To 
these  articles  was  prefixed  the  Catechism,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  Cranraer  had  the  principal  hand  in  their  com- 
position ;  for  he  owned  before  Queen  Mary's  commission 
'.hat  thejr  were  his  doing.  But  immediately  after  their 
publication,  Edward  died,  and  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the 
convocation  summoned  with  the  parliament  in  the  first 
year  of  Queen  Mary  was  to  declare  that  these  forty-two 
articles  had  not  been  set  forth  by  the  agreement  of  that 
house,  and  that  they  did  not  agree  thereto.  In  1558, 
Elizabeth  succeeded  her  sister.  In  1559,  Parker  was  in- 
stalled in  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  immediately  the 
other  vacant  sees  were  filled.  And  now  came  a  fresh  op- 
portunity of  drawing  up  some  articles  of  faith  which 
might  serve  as  a  test  of  orthodoxy  in  the  Reformed  Church. 
Parker  applied  himself  to  this  work,  and  for  the  purpose 
revised  the  forty-two  articles  of  Kinijf  Edward,  rejecting 
four  of  them  entirely,  and  introducing  four  now  ones,  viz., 
the  5th,  12th,  29th,  and  30th  as  they  now  stand,  and  al- 
tering more  or  less  seventeen  others.  This  draft  Parker 
laid  before  the  convocation  which  met  in  1562,  by  which 
further  alterations  were  made ;  and  the  39th,  40th,  and 
42d  of  King  Edward's,  which  treated  of  the  resurrection, 
the  intermediate  state,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  final  salva- 
tion of  all  men,  were  finally  rejected.  The  41st  of  King 
Edward's,  which  condemned  the  Millenarians,  was  one  of 
the  four  which  Parker  omitted.  Thus  the  articles  were 
reduced  to  thirty-nine.  They  were  drawn  up  and  ratified 
in  Latin,  but  when  they  were  printed,  both  in  Latin  and 
English,  the  29th  was  omitted,  and  so  the  number  was 
further  reduced  to  thirty-eight.  From  these  thirty-eight 
there  was  a  further  omission,  viz.,  of  the  first  half  of  the 
20th  article,  which  declares  that  *  the  church  hath  [)ower 
to  decree  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  hath  authority  in  con- 
troversies of  faith.'  As  all  the  records  of  convocation 
perished  in  the  great  fire  of  1666,  it  is  very  difficult  to  as- 
certain how  the  omissions  arose.     Howeter,  in  1571,  the 

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ARTICULATA. 

articles  once  more  underwent  revision.  Abp.  Parker  and 
Bp.  Jewel  made  a  few  slight  alterations,  and  the  29th  be* 
ing  restored,  the  convocation  which  was  then  sitting  rati- 
fied them  both  in  Latin  and  English,  and  an  act  of  parliar 
ment  was  passed  in  that  year  compelling  the  clergy  to 
subscribe  '  such  of  them  as  only  concern  the  confession  of 
the  true  Christian  faith,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Sacra- 
ments.* There  still,  however,  remained  some  difficulty 
as  to  which  was  the  authorized  copy,  some  of  the  copies 
being  printed  with,  and  others  without,  the  disputed 
clause  of  the  20th;  but  this  was  finally  settled  by  the  can* 
ons  passed  in  the  convocation  of  1604,  which  left  the  thir- 
ty-nine articles  as  they  now  stand.  '  His  Majesty's  Decla- 
ration,' which  precedes  them,  and  directs  that  they  shall 
be  interpreted  'in  their  literal  and  grammatical  sense,' 
was  prefixed  by  Charles  I.  in  1628. 

It  IS  interesting  to  know  from  what  other  sources  the 
thirty-nine  articles  are  derived.  Some  of  them,  as  the  1st, 
2d,  25th,  and  81st,  agree  not  only  in  their  doctrine,  but 
in  most  of  their  wording,  with  the  Confession  of  Augs- 
burg. The  9th  and  16th  are  clearly  due  to  the  same  source. 
Some  of  them,  as  the  19th,  20th,  25th,  and  84th,  resemble, 
both  in  doctrine  and  verbally,  certain  articles  drawn  up 
by  a  commission  appointed  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  annotat- 
ed by  the  king's  own  hand.  The  tlth  article  on  justifi- 
cation, is  ascribed  to  Cranmer,  but  the  latter  part  of  it 
only  existed  in  the  articles  of  1552.  The  17th,  on  predes- 
tination, may  be  traced  to  the  writings  of  Luther  and  Me- 
lanchthon. 

The  thirty-nine  articles  have  been  described  as  'contain- 
ing a  whole  body  of  divinity/  This  can  hardly  be  nmin- 
tained.  They  contain,  however,  what  the  Church  of 
England  holds  to  be  a  fair  scriptural  account  of  the  lead- 
ing doctrines  of  Christianity,  together  with  a  condemna- 
tion of  what  she  considers  to  be  the  principal  errors  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  and  of  certain  Protestant  sects.  Aa 
far  as  they  go  (and  there  are  many  things  unnoticed  by 
them)  they  are  a  legal  definition  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  Ireland ;  though  it  is  to  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  that  members  of  that  com- 
munion look  for  the  genuine  expression  of  her  faith 
They  were  adopted  by  the  convocation  of  the  Irish  Church 
in  1635,  and  by  the  Scotch  Episcopal  Church  at  the  cloe^ 
of  the  18th  c.  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambrid^,  con- 
tains the  only  copies  of  the  A.  in  manuscript  or  print  that 
are  of  any  authority.  Among  them  are  the  Latin  manu- 
script of  the  A.  of  1562,  and  the  English  manuscript  of 
the  A.  of  1571,  each  with  the  signatures  of  the  archbishons 
and  bishops  who  subscribed  them.  See  An  Account  of  the 
Thirty -nine  Articles,  by  Dr.  Lamb. 

For  other  'Articles,'  see  Lambeth:  Perth:  Schmal- 

KALD. 

ARTICULATA,  dr-tlk'ii-ld'Ul  (or  Articulated  Aia- 
MAi>^:  one  of  the  great  primary  divisions  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  according  to  the  system  of  Cuvier  (see  Zoology), 
and  including  those  animals  <if  which  the  body  is  distinctly 
segmented— the  higher  worms,  as  well  as  In9ectB,Crastaceaii8, 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ  IC 


ARTICULATE  SOUNDS— ARTICULITE. 

Arachnids,  and  Myriapods.  The  four  latter  groups  were 
separated  from  the  Annelida  (q.v.,  and  see  also  the  article 
WoBMs)  bj  Von  Siebold,  on  account  of  their  possession  of 
hollow  jomted  limbs,  into  a  separate  sub -kingdom,  Ar- 
thropoda.  The  term  Arthropoda  is  now  largely  u^  instead 
of  Articulata. 

Arthropoda. — In  this  great  division  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  the  body  consists  of  a  usually  definite  number  of 
se^ents,  each  bearing^  a  pair  of  hollow  and  almost  always 
jomted  limbs,  into  which  tbe  body  muscles  proceed. 

In  all  cases,  the  epidermis  ^ves  rise  to  an  ext^nal  homy 
layer  of  VUitine  (q.v.),  which  usually  attains  considerable 
strength  and  thickness,  and  in  Crustaceans  is  further 
strengthened  by  impregnation  with  salts  of  lime.  The  seg- 
ments of  the  liody  and  their  corresponding  appendages  ex- 
hibit considerable  differentiation,  especially  in  the  anterior 
region  of  the  body,  where  also  some  or  many  segments  may 
completely  coalesce,  their  appendages  also  beconung  extraor- 
dinarily modified  for  various  ifunctions;  so  that  it  requires 
the  combined  research  of  both  the  embryolopst  and  the 
comperadve  anatomist,  to  analyze  the  organism  into  its 
constituent  parts.  The  nervous  system  is  a  ventral  chain  of 
ganglia  united  by  longitudinal  and  transverse  commissures, 
and  one  pair  of  ganglia  is  developed  for  each  segment,  al- 
though some  of  thccc  also  coalesce  more  or  less  completely 
in  the  adult. 

The  A.  divide  naturally  into  two  great  alliances— the 
water-breathers,  or  BrauchiaUi  (see  Gills),  and  the  air- 
breathers,  or  Tracheata  (see  Respiration);  the  former  in- 
cluding the  Cttistacea,  and  the  latter  the  Prototracheata  or 
Peripaiidea,  the  Myriapoda,  the  ArcLchnida,  and  the  Insecta, 
For  the  relation  of  tibe  Arthropoda  to  other  groups,  see 
Zoology.  Also,  see  Crustacea  :  Myriapoda  :  Arachneda  : 
and  Insects:  the  group  Peripatidea  having  been  most 
recently  established  as  a  distinct  class.  The  Peripatidea  are 
represented  by  a  single  genus,  Peripatus,  which  appears, 
both  from  its  extreme  simplicity  of  structure  and  its  wide 
distribution  (8.  Amer.  and  the  Antilles,  S.  Africa,  New 
Zealand)  to  be  of  very  remote  antiquity.  At  first  supposed 
to  belong  to  a  mere  subclass  of  Annelids,  its  arthropod 
character  was  not  established  till  the  voyage  of  the  Challenger, 
when  the  discovery  was  made  that  it  has  distinct  tracbese, 
which  open  irregularly  over  the  surface  of  the  body,  instead 
of  being  disposed  in  regular  relation  to  the  segments.  Its 
segments  and  their  appended  limbs,  its  visceral  anatomy, 
and  its  development  are  all  distinctly  arthropodan,  and  show 
that  we  have  here  almost  the  most  primitive  imaginable 
form  of  the  Tracheate  Arthropoda.  Peripatus  is  about  1  i 
inches  long,  inhabits  deca)'ed  wood,  and  bas  the  curious  and 
suggestive  habit  of  spinning  a  web  over  itself  when  alarmed. 
(&ee  Moseley,  Notes  of  a  JSaturalist  in  t/ie  Challenger), 

ARTICULATE  SOUNDS:  see  Letters. 

ARTICULATION:  see  Joints. 

ARTICULITE,  dr-tWu-llf  [L.  artimilus,  a  little  Jomt: 
Eng.  suf.  -^j:  a  mineral,  called  alsq  itacolunxlte,  a  variety 
of  quartz  (q.v.). 


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ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS. 

ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS:  known  only  since  the  time  of 
Ambrose  Pare,  whose  (Eutres  de  V/iirvrgie  were  pub. 
1575 — with  the  exception  that  there  is  recorded  the  cele- 
brated artificial  hand  of  the  German  knight,  Geiz  von 
Bcrlichingtui*— who  lived  in  the  early  partof  the  16th  c. 
(1513),  and  who  was  named  T/is  Iran-/ianded — which 
weighed  three  pounds,  was  so  constructed  as  to  grasp  a 
sword  or  lance,  and  was  invented  by  a  mechanic  of 
Nuremberg.  The  twelfth  chapter  of  Ambrose  PaK's 
volume,  translated  by  Thomas  Johnson,  1605,  shows  *  by 


FIg.l. 

what  means  arms,  legs,  and  hands  may  be  made  by  art, 
and  placed  instead  of  the  natural  arms,  legs,  and  hands 
that  are  cut  off  or  lost.*  The  accompanying  figures  are 
copies  of  his  drawings  of  '  an  hand  made  artificially  of 
iron'  (Fig.  1),  and  of  *the  form  of  an  arm  made  of  iron 
verie  artificially*  (Fig.  2).  He  also  gives  a  drawing  of  *  a 
wooden  leg  made  for  a  poor  man  '  (Fig.  3),  which  is  simply 
the  common  wooden  leg  with  bucket  receptacle  still  in 
use.  No  improvements  worthy  of  record  were  made  from 
the  time  of  Ambrose  Pare  to  the  beginning  of  the  present 
c,  when  Baillif  of  Berlin  constructed  a  hand  which  did 
not  exceed  a  pound  in  weight,  and  in  which  the  fingers, 

•  The  iron  hand  of  this  knight,  who  has  been  immortalised  by 
Goethe,  is  preserved  at  Jaxthausen,  near  Heilbronn,  and  a  duph- 
cate  of  it  is  in  the  Schloss  at  Erbach,  in  the  Odenwald.  It  is  stated 
in  Scott's  Border  Antiquities,  vol.  il.,  p.  906,  that  the  family  of 
Clephane  of  Carslogrie  '  have  been  in  possessioA  from  time  immemo- 
rial of  a  hand  made  in  the  exact  representation  of  that  of  a  man, 
curiously  formed  of  steel,'  which  was  conferred  by  one  of  the 
kinfra  of  Scotland  on  a  laird  of  Oarslo^ie.  who  had  lost  his  hand 
in  the  service  of  his  country.— See  jNotcs  and  Queri€9  for  ibCT, 
July  17,  p.  35.  « 


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ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS. 

^vv^ithout  the  aid  of  the  natural  hand,  not  only  exercised 
the  moyements  of  flexion  and  extension,  but  could  be 
closed  upon  and  retain  light  objects,  such  as  a  hat,  and 
even  a  pen.  'Artificial  hands,'  says  Mr.  Heather  Bigg, 
'  are  now  constructed,  by  means  of  which  a  pin  may  be 
picked  up  from  the  ground,  a  glass  raised  to  the  lips,  food 
carried  to  the  mouth,  and  a  sword  drawn  from  the  scab- 
Hard,  and  held  with  considerable  firmness;  while  a  com- 


Fig.  8. 

bined  arm  and  hand  is  fabricated,  which  is  equal  to  the 
ordinary  requirements  of  histrionic  declamation.'— O^- 
praxy,  1865,  p.  157.  The  utility  of  an  artificial  arm  de- 
pends much  on  the  nature  of  the  stump.  A  stump  above 
the  elbow  is  best  suited  for  an  arm  when  it  gradually 
tapers  to  its  lowest  end,  and  terminates  in  a  rounded  sur- 
face. When  an  arm  is  removed  at  the  shoulder- joint,  and 
there  is  no  stump,  an  artificial  arm  can  still  be  fixed  in  its 
proper  place  by  means  of  a  corset.  In  amputation  below 
the  elbow-joint,  the  beat  stump  is  one  which  includes 
about  two- thirds  of  the  fore-arm;  while  a  stump  formed 
hy  amputation  at  the  wrist  is  very  unsatisfactory.  The 
simplest  form  of  artificial  arm  Intended  to  be  attached  to 
a  stump  terminating  above  the  elbow,  'consists  of  a 
leathern  sheath  accurately  fitted  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
stump.  The  lower  end  of  the  sheath  is  furnished  with  a 
wooden  block  and  metal  screw-plate,  to  which  can  be  at- 
tached a  fork  for  holding  meat,  a  knife  for  cutting 
food,  or  a  hook  for  carr3inff  a  weight.' — Op.  cit.  p.  160. 
The  arm  should  be  so  carriea  as  to  represent  the  position 
of  the  natural  arm  when  at  rest.  It  is  retained  in  its  posi- 
tion by  shoulder  and  breast  straps,  and  forms  a  light,  use- 
ful, and  inexpensive  substitute  for  the  lost  member. 
More  complicated,  and  therefore  more  expensive,  pieces  of 
apparatus  are  made,  in  which  motion  is  ^ven  to  the 
fingers,  a  lateral  action  of  the  thumb  is  obtained,  and 
the  wrist  movements  are  partially  imitated;  and  a  degree 
of  natural  softness  is  ^ven  to  the  hand  by  a  covering  of 

fiitta-percha  and  India  rubber.     Such  a  hand,  says  Mr. 
igg,  IS  often  more  symmetrical  in  aspect  than  the  natural 
hand,  but  it  possesses  no  efficient  grasping  power.    Hence 
2-81 


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ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS. 

piK)vi8ion  has  to  be  made  for  attaching  various  instnunenU 
to  its  palm,  such  as  special  hooks,  which  can  be  removed 
at  pleasure,  for  driving,  shooting,  etc. ;  apparatus  for  usinc 
the  knife  and  the  fork,  for  grasping  the  pen,  etc. ;  indeeo, 
the  number  and  variety  of  instnunents  capable  of  being  ap- 
plied to  an  artificial  hand  are  very  great.  Nothing  has 
tended  so  much  to  the  very  hij^hest  development  of  arti- 
ficial arms  and  hands,  as  an  accident  which  happened  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  to  the  celebrated  French 
tenor,  M.  Roger,  who  lost  his  right  arm  above  the  elbow. 
It  was  necessary,  for  his  future  appearance  on  the  stage, 
that  he  should  have  an  artificial  limb,  which  would  serve 
the  purposes  of  histrionic  action,  and  permit  him  to  grasp 
a  sword  and  draw  it  from  its  scabbard.  Such  a  contriv- 
ance was  invented  in  1845  by  Van  Petersen,  a  Prussian 
mechanician,  and  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  commis- 
sioned MM.  Gambey,  Rayer,  Velpeau,  and  Magendie  to 
report  upon  it.  For  a  history  of  the  nature  of  the  limb, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  report,  which  appeared  in  the 
Comptes  Bendus  for  that  date,  or  to  Mr.  Bigg's  Orihoprcay, 
pp.  176-181.  The  apparatus,  which  weif^  less  than  18 
ounces,  was  tested  upon  a  soldier  who  had  lost  both  arms. 
By  its  aid  he  was  enabled  to  pick  up  a  pen,  take  hold  of  a 
leaf  of  paper,  etc.;  and  the  old  man's  joy  during  the  ex- 
periment was  so  great,  that  the  Academy  presented  him 
with  a  pair  of  these  arms.  Van  Petersen 's  conceptions  have 
been  extended  and  improved  by  Messrs. 
Charriere,  the  celebrated  surgical  me- 
chanics of  Paris,  aided  by  M.  Huguier, 
the  well-known  surgeon.  A  very  mar- 
vellous arm  has  also  been  almost  simul- 
taneously constructed  by  M.  Bechard, 
which,  *  by  means  of  a  single  point  of 
traction,  placed  in  pronation,  executes 
first  the  movement  of  supination,  next 
in  succession  the  extension  of  the  fin- 
gers and  abduction  of  the  thumb:  the 
hand  is  then  wide  open.'— Bigg,  op,  cU. 
p.  190. 

Artiflcal  legs  having  fewer  require- 
ments to  perform  than  artificial  arms, 
are  comparatively  simple  in  structure. 
We  borrow  the  description  of  our  fig- 
ure of  the  ordinary  bucket  leg  in  com- 
mon use  among  the  poorer  classes  from 
Mr.  Bigg's  Ormopraay.  *  It  consists  of 
a  hollow  sheath  or  bucket,  A^  accu- 
rately conformed  to  the  shape  of  the 
stump,  and  having — in  lieu  or  the  more 
symmetric  proportions  of  the  artificial 
leg — a  *  *  pin, "  B,  placed  at  its  lower  end 
to  insure  ccnnection  between  it  and  the  ground.  This 
form  of  leg  is  strongly  to  be  recommended  when  expense 
is  to  be  avoided,  as  it  really  fulfils  all  the  conditions  ex- 
cepting external  similitude  embraced  by  a  better  piece  of 
mechanism.     It  is  likewise  occasionally  employed  with 


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ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS. 

benefit  by  tbose  patients  who,  from  lack  of  confidence, 
prefer  "learning  the  use  of  an  artificial  leg  by  first  practic- 
ing with  the  commonest  substitute.'  As,  when  the  body 
rests  on  a  single  leg,  the  centre  of  gravity  passes  through 
the  tuberosity  of  thv5  ischium,  it  is  essential  that  the  bucket 
should  be  so  made  as  to  have  its  sole  point  of  bearing 
against  this  part  of  the  pelvis. 

Of  the  more  complicated  forms  of  artificial  leg  three  are 
especially  popular.  The  first  of  these  is  of  English  origin, 
and  owing  to  its  having  been  adopted  by  the  late  Marquis 
of  Anglesea,  is  known  as  the  AngUsea  leg.  For  a  descrip- 
tion of  it,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Grain's  work  on  Artifi- 
cial Limbs,  one  of  the  firm  of  Grays  having  been  the  con- 
structor of  the  leffs  used  by  the  marquis.  This  was  for  a 
long  time  the  fashionable  artificial  leg.  The  second  leg 
worthy  of  notice  is  that  invented  by  an  American  named 
Palmer,  and  called  the  Palmer  leg.  From  its  lightness 
and  the  greater  ease  of  walking  with  it,  it  has  long  su- 
perseded the  Anglesea  le^  in  America.  In  the  third  of 
these  legs,  also  invented  m  America,  and  known  as  Dr. 
Bly*s  leg,  the  principal  faults  of  the  two  other  legs  have 
been  completely  overcome.  The  advantages  of  this  leg 
are  thus  summed  up  by  Mr.  Bigg,  who  has  lully  described 
and  figured  its  mechanism:  (1)  Adaptation  to  all  amputa- 
tions either  above  or  below  the  knee.  (2)  Rotation  and 
lateral  action  of  the  ankle-joint.  (3)  Power  on  the  part 
of  the  patient  to  walk  with  ease  on  any  surface,  however 
irregular,  as,  owing  to  the  motion  of  the  ankle-joint,  the 
sole  of  the  foot  readily  accommodates  itself  to  the  uneven- 
ness  of  the  ground,  which  is  an  advantage  never  before 
possessed  by  any  artificial  limb.  (4)  The  ankle-joint  is 
rendered  perfectly  indestructible  by  ordinary  wear,  owing 
to  its  centre  being  composed  of  a  glass  ball  resting  in  a 
cup  of  vulcanite;  thus  it  never  gets  out  of  repair,  as  the 
Anglesea  leg  frequently  does,  and  the  original  cost  is  al- 
most the  only  cost.  (5)  The  action  of  the  ankle-joint  is 
created  by  five  tendons,  arranged  in  accordance  with  the 
position  assigned  to  them  in  a  natural  leg.  These  tendons 
are  capable  of  being  rendered  tight  or  loose  in  a  few  in- 
stants, so  that  the  wearer  of  the  leg  has  the  power  of  ad- 
justing with  precision  the  exact  degree  of  tension  from 
which  he  finds  the  greatest  comfort  in  walking,  and  also  of 
giving  the  foot  any  position  most  pleasing  to  the  eye.  (6) 
There  is  a  self-acting  spring  in  the  knee-joint,  urging  the 
leg  forward  in  walking,  and  imparting  automatic  motion, 
thus  avoiding  the  least  trouble  to  the  patient.  (7)  The 
whole  is  covered  by  a  beautiful  flesh-colored  enamel, 
which  can  be  washed  with  soap  and  water.  (8)  At  the 
knee-joint  there  is  a  mechanical  arrangement  representing 
the  crucial  ligaments,  and  affording  natural  action  to  that 
articulation  by  which  all  shock  to  the  stump  in  walking  is 
avoided.  Hermann's  artificial  limb  is  still  more  highly  ap- 
proved by  many,  as  affording  more  support  when  the  knee 
is  bent.  See  Max  Schede  s  work  on  Amputation,  the 
SyBtem  of  Surgery  by  Holmes  and  Hulke  (3d  ed.  1888),  or 
other  surgical  authority. 


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ARTIGA— ARTIGAB. 

In  cases  of  arrested  development  of  the  lower  Umbe^ 
short-legged  persons  may  be  made  of  the  ordinary  height 
by  the  use  of  two  artiticial  feet  placed  twelve  or  more 
inches  below  the  true  feet,  and  attached  to  the  legs  by 
means  of  ipetallic  rods,  jointed  at  the  knee  and  ankle. 

Other  parts,  not  entitled  to  be  called  limbs,  can  also  be 
replaced  by  mechanical  art — such  as  the  nose,  lips,  ears, 
palate,  cheek,  and  eye.  In  the  present  advanced  state  of 
plastic  surgery,  deficiencies  of  the  nose,  lips,  and  palate 
can  usually  be  remedied  by  an  operation;  cases,  however, 
may  occur  where  an  artificial  organ  is  required.  Arti/icial 
ears  are  moulded  of  silver,  jpaiuted  the  natural  color,  and 
fixed  in  their  place  by  a  spring  over  the  vertex  of  the  head. 
Loss  of  an  eye  causes  sad  disfigurement;  but  the  artificial 
eyes  of  Boissonueau  (see  his  Ansetgnements  OenSraitx  tur 
les  YetLX  Ariifieiels)  can  hardly  be  detected. 

ARTIGA,  ar-te'gd,  Fbancisco  de:  b.  at  Iluesca  abt.  the 
middle  of  the  17th  c,  d.  1711:  Spanish  landscape-painter, 
engraver,  and  author.  He  taught  at  Iluesca  in  a  chair  of 
mutliematics  endowed  by  himself,  and  wrote  on  mathe- 
matics and  other  subjects. 

AHTIGAS,  ar-te'gds,  Juan,  or  Fernando  Josd:  abt. 
1760-185J6;  b.  Montevideo:  S.  American  general  and  dic- 
tator. He  began  his  career  in  Buenos  Ayres  in  the  insur- 
rection a^inst  Spain,  and  afterwards  joined  the  republican 
army  besieging  the  Brazilians  in  Montevideo,  but  quarrelled 
with  the  director,  and  was  outlawed.  He  then  organized 
a  band  of  gatichos,  defeated  the  Buenos  Ayres  tro(^3s,  and 
established  himself  as  dictator  In  Montevideo.  Later  he 
met  with  a  series  of  defeats,  and  died  in  exile. 


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ARTILLERY. 

ARTILLERY,  n.  dr-mfer-l  [P.  a/rtOUrie,  enrines  of  war 
— ^from  mid.  L.  ctrtUldrUi,  any  kind  of  warlike  weapons 
or  machines;  ctriiUdtor,  a  maker  of  machines — from  artem, 
in  mid.  L.  ^nse,  'art  of  war 'J:  weapons  of  war  of  any 
kind;  cannon;  great  guns,  etc.  Abtillertman,  the  man 
inrho  assistBto  manage  a  cannon.  Artillerist,  n.  one 
skilled  in  gunnery. 

ARTILLERY:  sometimes  meaning  large  cannon  or 
ordnance  of  every  kind;  sometimes  including  the  shot  and 
shells;  sometimes  applying  to  the  soldiers  who  manage  the 
cannon.  For  large  pieces  of  ordnance,  as  a  class,  see 
Canhon:  for  specialties  see  Carronade:  Howitzer:  Gxin: 
Mortar:  etc.:  and  in  some  cases  the  names  of  the  inventors, 
as  Armstrong  Gun:  Lancaster  Gun:  etc..  See  also 
F1REARM8:  Rifled  Arms:  Gunnery:  Shells:  Shot.  The 
term  EquipmeiU  of  A.ia  applied  to  a  combination  of  men, 
materiel,  and  horses,  suitable  for  coast^efenses,  sieges,  or 
the  arming  of  fortified  posts.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
equipments  of  light  A.,  under  the  names  of  horse,  field, 
rocket,  mountain,  and  reserve;  and  others  of  Tieavy  A.,  for 
the  attack  and  defense  of  coasts  and  fortified  places.  These 
various  equipments  are  generally  divided  into  smaller  col- 
lections OEdled  Batteries  (q.v.),  for  more  easy  control  and 
maneuvering.  Park  of  A.  is  a  collective  name  given  to  the 
whole  of  Uie  guns,  carriages,  ammunition,  and  other 
appurtenances  essential  to  the  working  of  field  or  siese  A. 

Artillery  Corps. — ^Before  the  invention  of  gunpowaer,  the 
larger  projectile  weapons,  sometimes  called  engines  ofioar, 
sometimes  artillery,  were  worked  by  rough  soldiers,  who 
needed  no  particular  apprenticeship  to  &at  art.  When, 
however,  lai^  balls  of  iron  came  to  be  propelled  by  the 
tremendous  force  of  gunpowder,  a  great  revolution  gradually 
took  place,  though  garrison-guns  and  siege-guns  were  im- 
proved more  rapidly  than  field-guns.  N^veilheless,  field- 
guns  changed  me  whole  aspect  of  military  tactics;  for  it 
became  necessary  that  an  army  should  form  in  order  of 
battle  at  a  much  greater  distance  from  the  enemv  than  in 
older  times.  And  as  cannon  were  made  more  rapidly  mov- 
able, so  did  tactics  vary.  Gradually,  a  body  of  men  was 
set  apart  to  study  the  force  and  action  of  gunpowder,  the 
flight  and  range  of  projectiles,  the  weight  and  strength  of 
cannon,  and  the  maneuvering  of  heavy  masses.  The  French 
were  the  first  to  make  these  researches;  after  them,  the 
English;  and  later,  the  Gknmans.  During  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  an  important  step  was  taken  in  Germany — ^that  of  in- 
cluding the  artillerymen,  who  were  till  then  a  sort  of  ffuild, 
as  a  component  in  the  regular  army.  Gustavus  Adolphus 
in  Sweden,  Frederick  II.  in  Prussia,  and  Napoleon  I.  in 
France,  all  attached  a  very  high  degree  of  importance  to  the 
A.  as  an  arm  of  the  service.  After  the  great  wars  in  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  nearly  all  the  states  of 
Euro^  formally  recognized  the  A  as  the  third  great  branch 
of  military  service  (next  after  the  infantry  and  cavalry); 
indeed,  in  almost  all  present  armies,  it  takes  practically  the 
flrst  place. 


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ARTIODACTYLA. 

Field' A.,  or  LigM  yl.,  is  designed  for  aervice  in  the  field, 
and  comprises  flying  A.,  foot  A.,  horse  A.,  and  mountain 
A.  Flying  A.,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  intended  to  execute 
yery  rapid  evolutions,  the  ^ns  and  the  gunners,  with  the 
ammunition  chests,  etc.,  being  moved  from  one  position  to 
another  in  the  field  by  horses.  Foot  A.  is  served  by  artil- 
lerymen on  foot,  and  accompanies  bodies  of  infantry. 
Horse- A.  consists  of  light  guns  or  machine  guns;  the  giin- 
ners  are  mounted  while  executing  maneuvres.  Mountain- 
A.  comprises  light  guns  of  small  calibre,  which  are 
mounted  on  light  carnages  or  borne  on  the  backs  of  pack 
animals.  The  fleld-A.  of  an  army  or  mUitary  establish- 
ment is  divided  into  batteries,  each  consisting  of  4-8  guns, 
with  a  certain  complement  of  wagons,  men,  and  general 
outfit.  For  an  army  in  the  field,  8  pieces  of  A.  to  1,000  in- 
fantry is  the  approved  prcportion.  Heavy  A,  comprises 
sea-coast  A.  and  siege-A.  The  guns  of  the  sea-coast  A. 
service  are  of  the  heaviest  kind  and  are  mounted  in  per- 
manent works.  Siege-A.,  consisting  of  heavy  guns 
mounted  on  carriages  for  transportation,  accompanies 
armies  in  their  operations:  it  is  employed  to  defend  field 
works  or  to  reduce  the  works  of  an  enemy. 

The  A.  service  of  the  U.  S.  army  comprises  5  separate 
rcgts.  of  12  batteries  each  (2  of  each  12  batteries  being 
*  1  ight '),  with  282  officers  and  3, 675  men.  The  un  if orm  has 
red  facings  and  trimmings. — The  A.  service  of  France  had 
(1890)  19  regts.  mounted  A.  of  12  batteries  each,  every  regt. 
having  77  officers,  1,374  men,  767  horses;  19  other  regts., 
with  9  batteries  mounted  and  8  batteries  of  horse* A.,  the 
strength  of  these  regts.  being  77  officers,  1 ,280  men,  845 
horses;  4  mounted  batteries,  each  with  4  officers,  158  men. 
182  horses;  20  batteries  of  mountain  A.,  each  consisting  of 
4  officers,  288  men,  167  horses;  total  480  field  battenes, 
2,060  pieces.  The  fortress  A.  of  France  comprised  16 
battalions  of  6  batteries  each,  a  battery  being  4  officers,  152 
men,  6  horses;  and  there  are  4  batteries  in  Algeria — total 
100  batteries. — The  field-A.  of  the  German  empire  com- 
prised (1890)  88  regts.  having  1.984  officers,  40,929  men, 
22,457  horses,  1,638  guns.  The  foot  A.  had  14  regts.  and 
8  battalions,  788  officers,  17,244  men. 

ArtiUery  aSc/iooIs.— The  headquarters  for  A.  instruction 
in  England  are  at  Woolwich.  France  has  seven  A.  schools. 
In  Pmssia,  the  A.  and  engineer  schools  are  combined. 

The  School  of  Anil  lery  for  the  U.  S.  army  is  at  Fortress 
Monroe.  A  col.  of  the  artillerr  is  in  conmiand,  assisted 
bv  a  lieut.col.  and  a  major.  The  course  of  study  occu- 
pies two  years,  and  includes  both  theory  and  practice. 

ARTIODACTYLA,  n.  plu.  dr'ti-o-dak'tUd  [Or.  ardlk, 
even;  daktulos,  a  finger,  a  toe]:  a  division  of  the  hoofed 
quadrupeds  in  which  each  foot  has  an  even  ntunber  of 
toes,  as  two  or  four.  The  great  mammalian  order  Ungu- 
lata  (see  Mammalia:  Unoulata)  is  divided  into  two 
groups;  first,  the  Perisaodactyla,  including  the  horse,  tapir 
and  rhinoceros,  besides  a  multitude  of  extinct  forms,  and 
distinguished  by  the  third  digit  of  each  limb  being  sym- 


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ARTIODACTYLA. 

metrical  in  itself,  bv  tlie  presence  of  ao  odd  number  of 
digits  on  tue  hind-foot,  by  tlie  number  of  dorso-lumbar 
vertebwB  being  at  least  twenty-two,  and  so  on;  wliile  the 
second  sub-oraer,  the  ArHodaetyla,  have  the  third  digit, 
un^mmetrical  in  itself,  but  forming  a  symmetrical  pair 
with  the  fourth  digit.  While  the  hind- foot  bears  an  even 
number  of  digits,  the  number  of  dorso-lumbar  vertebrsB 
never  reaches  twenty-two,  and  rarely  exceeds  nineteen. 
Numerous  minor  osteological  differences  exist  between 
the  two  sub-orders,  which  broadly  correspond  to  the 
ancient  divisions  of  solid-hoofed  and  cloven-hoofed  re- 
spectively.   See  Foot. 

The  A.  divide  into  two  groups — the  Ifon-ruminanHa 
and  the  Ruminantia.  The  former  have  usually  more  than 
one  pair  of  upper  incisors,  and  the  molars  have  a  more  or 
less  tuberculated  pattern,  whence  they  are  frequently 
termed  Bunodonta.  The  metatarsal  bones  remain  sepa- 
rate, and  there  are  no  horns.  The  stomach  has  rarely 
more  than  two  divisions.  The  Non-rundnantia  include  two 
existing  families,  Suidm  and  JEHppopoiamidce,  The  8uida 
(pies]  fiive  the  skin  moderately  thick  and  hairy;  the  third 
and  fourth  toes  are  much  longer  than  the  second  and  fifth. 
The  teeth  are  frequently  as  niany  as  forty-four,  and  the 
molars  are  multituberculate.  The  HippopotamidcB  have 
the  skin  extremely  thick,  with  scanty  hairs;  the  head,  body, 
and  limbs  extremely  massive;  and  the  four  toes  resting 
on  the  ground.  The  Ruminantia  have  never  more  than 
one  pair  of  upper  incisors.  In  the  lower  jaw,  the  canines 
closely  resemble  and  are  situated  beside  the  six  incisors, 
which  thus  seem  to  have  increased  to  eight.  The  molars 
bear  a  double  series  of  crescentic  ridges,  whence  the  name 
Selenodanta  is  frequently  applied  to  the  ruminant  group. 
Tlie  stomach  has  at  fewest  three,  and  usually  four  divi- 
sions. Thus  in  the  sheep  or  ox,  the  cardiac  portion  of  the 
stomach  is  difterentiated  into  the  enormous  rumen,  or 
paunch,  and  the  reticulum,  or  honey-comb  stomach,  with 
which  it  communicates.  After  the  fodder  has  been 
chewed  again,  it  passes  readily  into  the  third  division,  the 
psalterium,  or  manyplies,  which  acts  as  a  filter,  and  allows 
only  the  finely-comminuted  portions  of  the  food  to  enter 
the  highly  glandular  abamasum,  or  rennet  stomach.  Id 
which  gastric  juice  is  secreted,  and  proteid  digestion 
goes  on. 

The  existing  groups  of  ruminants  are  the  Tr<igulidoB,  the 
Cotylophora,  and  the  Oamelidm.  The  TragulvcUe  (sometimes 
erroneously  termed  musk-deer)  are  the  least  differentiated 
forms,  and  show  interesting  affinities  to  the  non-ruminants. 
The  Oatylophora,  including  the  ox  and  deer  tribes  (Bovidae 
and  Cervidee),  are  the  central  family,  broadly  distinguished 
by  the  cotyiedonary  placenta  and  the  structure  of  their 
horns;  those  of  the  Oervidae  being  naked,  deciduous,  and  an- 
nually renewed  processes  of  the  frontal  bones;  while  those 
of  most  Bovidffi  (sheep,  antelopes,  oxen,  buffaloes)  are  non- 
deciduous  processes  of  the  frontal  bone,  covered  by  the 
thickened  and  hardened  epidermis  known  as  horn.    But 


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ARTISAN— ARTOCARPACE^. 

fn  one  sub-familv,  the  giraffes,  the  horns  arise  as  separate 
ossifications,  and  are  covered  by  hairy  skin. 

The  third  family,  the  CameUdm,  are  aberrant  ruminants. 
They  walk  on  broad  integumentary  cushions,  developed 
below  the  phalanges  of  the  third  and  fourth  toes,  which 
alone  are  developed,  the  nails  not  forming  hoofs.  Large 
pointed  canines  are  present  in  each  jaw.  The  stomach  has 
a  characteristic  structure.  The  placenta  is  diffused.  There 
are  only  two  existing  groups — the  Camels  of  the  old  world, 
and  the  Llamas  of  the  new. 

Artiodactyle,  a.  -tU:  havingan  even  number  of  toes. 

See  Ruminantia:  BoviD-fi:  Deeb:  also  Hog:  Hippo- 
potamus: Antelope:  Sheep:  Ox:  BuFf  alo:  Qirafpe: 
Camel:  Llama:  Alpaca:  etc. 

ARTISAN,  n  :  see  under  Akt. 

ARTIST,  n,  dr'tUt  [L.  artem,  an  art]:  one  who  exer- 
cises any  of  the  fine  arts  or  crafts,  particularly  that  of  a 
painter,  a  sculptor,  an  architect,  or  a  photographer.  Ar- 
tiste, n.  dr-test'  [F.  artiste,  an  artist— from  L.J:  a  female 
painter,  musician,  singer,  or  dancer.  Abtistic,  a.  dr-IW- 
tik,  or  Abtis'tical,  a.  -ti-kdl,  of  an  artist;  according  to  a 
high  degree  of  art    Abtis'tically,  ad.  -H. 

ARTOCARPACEiR,  dr'to-kSr-pd'se-e:  n.  ord.  of  mono- 
chlamydeous  exogens,  of  which  the  Bread-fruit  (Artocarpu4 
indsa)  is  the  type;  nearly  allied  to  that  of  Moracem  (mulber- 
ries, figs,  etc.),  and,  like  it,  bv  many  botanists  regarded  aa 
a  sub-order  of  Urticacem  (nettles,  etc.).    The  distinction  be- 


Bread-fruit  (A.  incita). 

tween  Artocarpaceae  and  Moraceae  lies  chiefly  in  the  straight 
embryo  and  large  cotyledons  of  the  former.  The  fruit  is 
often  a  sorogia  (a  single  succulent  fruit  formed  of  the  ag- 
^eeated  ovaries  of  a  whole  head  of  flowers),  as  in  Bread - 
fruit  (q.vA.    There  are  upwards  of  fifty  known  species. 


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ARTOCARPUS-ARTS. 
natiTes  exclusively  of  the  tropics.  The  milkv  juice  oi 
some  yields  Caoutchouc  (q.v.)l  ^^cl  ^^^t  of  a  few  species 
is  so  bland  as  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  milk.  See 
Cow-tree.  The  juice  of  others  is,  however,  very  poison- 
ous, as  that  of  Anttains  tocnearia,  the  Antjar  poison,  one  of 
the  poisons  called  Upas  by  the  Javanese.  The  fruits  are 
wholesome;  the  importance  of  the  Bread-fruit  in  the  South 
Sea  Islands  is  well  known;  and  the  seeds  of  the  Musanga 
of  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa,  and  of  Browmum  alieagtrum 
in  the  West  Indies,  are  eaten  as  nuts.  The  fibrous  bark 
of  the  Bread-fruit  tree  is  made  into  cloth;  its  wood  is  used 
for  building,  its  male  catkins  for  tinder;  its  leaves  serve 
as  substitutes  for  table-cloths  and  wrapping-papers,  and 
its  milky  juice  for  bird-lime.  The  bark  of  AnHcma  sacd- 
dcra  is  used  in  Western  India  for  making  sacks,  which  are 
formed  by  cutting  a  branch  of  the  dimensions  of  the  sack 
wanted,  and  simply  turning  back  and  drawing  off  the 
bark  after  it  has  been  soaked  and  beaten,  the  wood  being 
sawn  off  so  as  to  leave  a  little  portion  to  form  the  bottom 
of  the  sack.    The  fibrous  bark  of  Ceeropia  peltata,  or  Trum- 

Cetwood,  is  used  for  cordage.    The  stem  and  branches  are 
oUow,  and  are  used  for  wind  instnmients.    The  wood  of 
some  species  is  valuable,  such  as  Letter-ioood  (q.v.). 

ART0CARPU8,  n.  dr'to-kdr'jfyus  [Gr.  artos,  bread;  kar- 
po8,  fruit]:  the  bread-fruit  tree  of  the  S.  Sea  Islands;  the 
Artoca/r^pus  incUa. 

ARTOIS,  dr-twd':  formerly  a  prov.  of  France,  bounded 
by  Flanders  and  Picardy,  and  almost  corresponding  with 
the  modem  department  of  Pus-de-CaUm  (q.v.).  The  cap. 
of  A.  was  Arras.  Louis  IX.,  in  1289,  made  A.  a  county, 
and  gave  it  to  his  brother  Robert,  who  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Robert  II.,  sumamed  Posthumous,  d.  1802.  Af- 
terwards it  passed  into  the  hands  of  Flanders  and  Bur- 
gundy, but  was  ceded  to  France  by  treaties  in  1659  and  '78. 
Charles  X.,  in  his  early  life,  and  also  after  his  abdication, 
was  known  by  the  title  of  Count  d'Artois. 

ARTOTYRTTE,  n.  drtd-tl'Ht  [Qt.  arios,  bread  ;  turos, 
cheese] :  one  of  a  sect  in  the  primitive  church  who  celebrated 
the  Lord's  Supper  with  bread  and  cheese,  on  the  ground 
that  the  first  oblations  of  men  were  not  only  the  fruits  of 
the  earth,  but  their  flocks  (Gen.  iv.  8,  4). 

ARTS,  Degrees  in:  ranks,  or  stages,  in  learning,  gained 
by  a  student,  and  ofladally  certified  to  by  a  proper  colle- 

fate  or  university  faculty.  The  term  'Arts,'  or  *  Liberal 
rts,'  as  technically  applied  to  certain  studies,  came  into 
use  during  the  miadle  ages,  and  on  the  establishment  of 
universities,  the  term  *  Faculty  of  Arts '  denoted  those  who 
devoted  themselves  to  Science  and  Philosophy,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  faculty  of  Theology,  and  afterwards  of 
Medicine  and  Law.  The  number  of  'Arts'  embraced  in 
the  full  mediaeval  course  of  learning  was  seven;  Grammar, 
Logic,  Rhetoric  (constituting  the  THvium),  Music,  Arith- 
metic, (Geometry,  and  Rhetoric  (the  QyMdritium),  The 
terms  Master  and  Doctor  were  originally  applied  synony- 
mously to  any  person  engaged  in  teaching.    In  process  of 


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ARTS. 

time,  the  one  was  restricted  to  the  liberal  arts,  the  other 
to  Divinity,  Law,  and  Medicine.  When  regulations  were 
established  to  prevent  unqualified  persons  from  teaching, 
and  an  initiatory  stage  of  discipline  was  prescribed,  these 
terms  became  significant  of  a  certain  rank,  and  of  the  pos- 
session of  certain  powers,  and  were  called  gradus,  *  steps ' 
or  '  degrees.'  The  passing  of  the  initiatory  stage,  said  to 
have  been  instituted  by  Gregory  IX.  (1227-41),  conferred 
the  title  of  bachelor  (q.v.),  and  an  additional  course  of  dis- 
cipline and  examination  was  necessary  to  obtaining  that 
of  master.  The  title  of  Master  of  Arts  originally  implied 
the  right,  and  even  the  duty,  of  publicly  teaching  some  of 
the  branches  included  in  the  faculty  of  Arts;  a  custom 
which  is  still  retained  to  some  extent  in  the  Grerman  uni- 
versities, but  has  fallen  into  disuse  in  Britain,  France,  and 
America,  where  the  title  is  nearly  honorary.  See  Dbgrke 
LL.A.  (Literate  in  Arts)  is  a  mmor  decree,  recently  insti- 
tuted at  some  of  the  Scottish  universities,  and  at  St.  An- 
drews is  open  to  women.  The  degrees  of  Bachelor  and 
Doctor  of  Science  are  granted  for  eminence  in  subjects 
some  of  which  belong  to  the  Faculty  of  Arts. 


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ART  UNIONS—ARTVIN. 

ART  UNIONS:  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  public 
interest  in  line  art,  and  for  providing  opportunities  for 
disposal  by  sale  of  the  approved  works  of  artists.  They 
are  intended  to  supply  tlie  place  of  that  encouragement 
iw'hich,  at  an  earlier  period,  artists  received  from  princes 
and  prelates. 

The  origin  of  A.  U.,  claimed  by  the  Germans,  seems  to 
belong  to  the  French  in  the  days  of  the  first  Napoleon. 
From  France  they  passed  over  into  Belgium,  where  they 
established  themselves  even  in  the  less  important  towns, 
ten  years  before  thev  were  introduced  into  Gfermany.  The 
Art  Union  of  Mechlin  dates  from  1812;  the  Art  Union 
{KaaHterein)  of  Munich,  established  1828,  became  the 
model  of  most  of  those  which  afterward  arose.  The  most 
important  was  established^ at  Ddsseldorf,  1829,  for  the 
Rhine  provinces  and  Westphalia,  and  has  promoted  the 
execution  of  works  of  art  of  the  highest  class;  expending 
on  such  works  in  20  years  (1849-69)  more  than  ^00,000, 
and  placing  paintings  on  a  large  scale  in  public  buildings. 
The  Bohemian  Assoc,  at  Pnigue,  and  those  of  Beriin  and 
Cologne  have  wrought  zealously  in  the  same  high  line — 
the  latter  urging  on  the  completion  of  one  of  the  greatest 
architectural  monuments  of  northern  Europe — the  cathe- 
dral of  Cologne.  The  establishment  of  permanent  galleries 
of  art  in  the  cities  to  which  thev  respectively  belong  is 
also  one  of  the  higher  objects  of  A.  U.— The  first  A.  U.  in 
Britain  was  established  at  Edinburgh  1834. 

The  American  A.  U.,  established  in  New  York  1888,  had 
close  relations  with  the  D&sseldorf  Assoc,  and  rose  in 
eleven  years  to  an  income  of  over  $95,000,  and  a  member- 
ship of  18,960.  It  was  discontinued  1849,  under  the  state 
laws  prohibiting  lotteries.  The  lottery  is  certainly  an  un- 
forttmate  feature  in  the  plan  of  the  A.  U.,  appealmg  for  a 
noble  end  to  ignoble  motives 

As  regards  the  constitution  of  A  U.,  the  following  ar- 
rangements are  common  to  them  all.  Each  member,  in 
return  for  an  annual  contribution  (in  Britain,  usually  a 
guinea),  receives  an  acknowledgment,  which  acts  as  his 
ticket  in  the  lottery  by  which  the  works  of  art,  purchased 
with  the  sum  thus  contributed,  are  distributed  among  the 
members.  Generally,  a  fixed  proportion  of  the  contribu- 
tions is  retained  and  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  an  en- 
graving, presented  to  those  who  have  drawn  blanks  in  the 
lottery.  The  engraving  is  usually  executed  by  a  local  en- 
graver, after  a  work  of  the  local  school  intended  to  be  pat- 
ronized. TTie  association  further  makes  provision  for  an 
exhibition,  either  permanent,  as  at  Munich,  or  annual,  as 
in  London  and  Edinburgh,  consisting  mainly  of  the  works 
of  local  ariists,  though  most  associations  now  admit  those 
of  strangers. 

ARTVIN,  drtvSn:  town  of  Russian  Armenia,  on  the 
Charuch;  84  m.  s.  of  Batum.    Pop.  8,000. 


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ARUM. 

ARUM,  n.  d'rt^  [L.  Sirum;  Gr.  artm,  supposed  to  be  anc 
Egyptian  word]:  a  genus  of  spadicifioral  endogens  belong- 
ing to  the  nat.  ord.  Araata  or  AroidecB,  This  order  com- 
prises herbaceous  plants,  some  of  which  are  stemless; 
shrubby  plants,  some  of  which  are  arborescent;  and  plants 
which  clunb  bv  aerial  roots,  clinging  to  the  trees  of  tropical 
forests.  The  leaves  are  sheathing  at  the  base,  convolute 
in  bud,  usually  with  branching  veins.  The  flowers  are 
male  and  female,  naked,  arranged  upon  a  spadix,  which  is 
generally  enclosed  in  a  tpaihs  (q.v.):  the  male  flowers  at 
the  upper  part  of  the  spadix,  and  the  female  flowers  at  its 
base.  The  ovary  is  free.  The  fruit  is  succulent,  the  seeds 
pulpy,  the  embryo  in  the  axis  of  fleshy  or  mealy  albumen, 
with  a  lateral  cleft  in  which  the  plumule  lies;  the  albumen, 
however,  is  wanting  in  some  plants  of  the  order. — ^As  thus 


Arum  maculatom. 

a.  leaves  and  root;  b,  spathe.  with  base  of  spadiz  ezpoted; 
o,  trait. 

de4ped»  tliia  orjer  C9ntaiiis  alo^ost  800  known  spegio^ 

natives  ohiefly  of^tropical  countrieiis ;  but  some  belong  to 
colder  oUmates.  '  The  N.  Amer.  repreeentatives  are  In- 
dian Turnip,  Green  Dragon,  Arrow  Arum,  Water  Arum, 
Skunk  Cabbage,  Goldpn  Club,  and  Calamus. — The  genua 
A.  has  a  convolute  spathe;  the  spadiz  naked  at  the  nolnt« 
In  some  species,  a  stench  like  that  of  carrion  is  proauce^ 
during  flowering,  as  well  as  a  remarkable  degree  of  heat. 
Plants  are  of  course  slightly  warmer  than  the  air  aroimd 
them,  the  heat  being  produced  by  the  breaking  up  and 
oxidation  of  their  protoplasm,  and  by  the  true  respiration, 
in  short,  which  goes  on  in  all  living  tissues  (see  Animai, 
Heat);  but  flowers,  in  general,  are  only  1"*,  or  1^',  warmei 
than  the  air,  whereas  the  flowers  of  some  of  the  Arunw 


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ARUM. 

and  nearly  allied  plants  are  sensibly  warm  to  the  touch, 
and  that  of  A.  oord(folium  has  been  found  to  have  a  heat 
of  121°  F.,  while  that  of  the  air  was  only  66'  F.— The  only 
British  species  is  A.  maculatum,  Cuckow-pint  or  Wake- 
robin,  which  is  abundant  in  England  and  in  most  parts 
of  Europe,  growing  chiefly  in  moist  shady  woods  and 
nnder  hedges.    It  has  a  tuberous  perennial  root;  its  leaves 
sk^^  all   radical,  on  long  stalks,  stronely  arrow-shaped, 
often  spotted;  the  spathe  greenish  yellow,  inclosing  a 
rather  &ort  violet  or  brownish  red  spadix.    It  produces 
scarlet  berries,  1-2  seeded,  about  the  size  of  peas,  clustered 
upon  the  spadix.    The  root  has  a  burning  acrid  taste, 
which,  however,  it  loses  in  drying  or  boiling.    In  a  fresh 
state,  it  is  a  drastic  purgative,  too  violent  for  medicinal 
use;  indeed,  it,  as  well  as  the  leaves,  is  an  active  poison; 
yet  a  nourishing  farina  \s  prepared  from  it,  after  the  acrid 
tuice  has  been  removed.    This  farina  is  a  pure  starch,  and 
is  known  in  England  by  the  name  of  Portland  Arrow-root. 
It  was  formerly  prepared  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the 
isle  of  Portland,  where  also  the  tubers  (corms)  themselves 
are  eaten  by  the  country-people.    A  cosmetic  called  Cy- 
press Powaer  is  made  from  them  in  France,  and  they  are 
used  in  Switzerland  as  a  substitute  for  soap.    They  con- 
tain, indeed,  a  quantit}rof  Saponine,  to  which  their  acridity 
is  supposed  to  be  owing.    They  lose  great  part  of  their 
acridity  in  drying,  and  were  formerly  used  in  medicine  as 
a  stimulant  in  impaired  digestion,  a  diuretic  in  dropsies, 
and  an  expectorant  in  chest  complaints.    The  plant  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  India  for  food. — A.  Indicum  is  also 
much  cultivated  in  Bengal  for  its  esculent  stems  and  small 
pendulous  tubers. — Acridity  in  the  juice,  and  the  presence 
of  an  amvlaceous  substance  of  very  nutritious  quality, 
from  whicn  the  acrid  juice  is  easilv  separated,  are  charac- 
teristics of  many  plants  of  this  order,  particularly  species 
of  Caladium  and  Coloeasia,  much  used  for  food  in  warm 
countries,  imder  the  names  Cocco  (q.v.)  Eddobs,  etc. — 
AmorphophaUus  eampanulatvs  {A.  campanuUUum),  called 
Ol  by  the  Bengalese,  is  very  much  cultivated  in  some 
parts  of  India  for  its  roots  (flat  underground  corms)  which 
form  a  very  important  article  of  food;  yet  in  a  fresh  state 
it  is  so  acrid  that  it  is  employed  as  an  external  stimulant, 
and  is  also  used  as  an  emmenagogue.    Other  species  of 
AmarphaphaUus  are  still  more  powerfully  stimulant. — IVo 
large  species  of  ArisoBma,  another  genus  very  closely  allied 
to  A.,  were  found  by  Dr.  Hooker  to  afford  food  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Sikkim  Himalaya  at  an  elevation  of  up- 
wards of  10,000  feet.    Their  tuberous  roots  are  bruised  bv 
means  of  wooden  pestles,  and  thrown  into  small  pits  with 
irater,  until  the  commencement  of  acetous  fermentation, 
^hen  the  acridity  is  mostly  dissipated;  but  the  process  is 
40  imperfect  that  cases  of  miurv  from  the  poisonous  juice 
•re  frequent.    The  tubers  of  Ariscema  atrcrvbens  {A,  tru 
f^yUum  of  Linnaeus),  a  native  of  the  United  States,  and 
there  known  as  Dragon-root  and  Indian  Turnip,  yield 
a  pure  white  starch  like  that  of  A,  maculatum.    Their 
m^cinal  uses  also  are  similar;  they  are  employed  as  a 
stimulant  of  the  secretions.  The  DBAQON-PUiirr,  A.  Dra^ 

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ARUN— ARUNDEL. 

uneulus,  a  native  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  is  not  uncominoii 
in  gardens  in  Britain,  although  it  has  a  carrion- like  smell, 
and  its  emanations  are  apt  to  produce  headache  and  other 
disagreeable  effects.  It  has  a  smgular  appearance — straight 
stalks,  three  feet  high,  curiously  spotted  like  the  belly  of 
a  snake. — The  peculiar  acridity  of  the  Aracea  is  most  re- 
markably displayed  in  the  Dumb  Cane  (q.v.). 

AR'UN:  river  rising  in  St.  Leonard's  Forest,  in  the 
middle  of  North  Sussex,  Eng.  ;  and  after  a  course  of  85  m., 
falling  into  the  English  Channel.  A  canal  unites  it  with 
the  Wey,  a  feeder  of  the  Thames. 

ARUNDEL,  ar'undel :  small  town  5  m.  inland  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Anm,  in  a  tertiary  and  chalk  district,  on  the 
s.  side  of  the  South  Downs,  in  the  s.  w.  of  Sussex.  It  con- 
sists mainly  of  a  very  steep  street  rising  from  the  right  bank 
of  the  Arun  to  the  summit  of  a  hill  crowned  by  a  castle. 
The  Arun  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  150  tons  up  to  the 
town.  Bark  and  timber  are  the  chief  exports.  A,  was 
disfranchised  by  the  Reform  Bill  of  1867.  It  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  four  aldermen,  and  twelve  councilors.  The 
castle,  from  its  site,  is  a  striking  object,  and  was  built  soon 
after  the  Norman  conquest.  It  is  an  oblong,  including  5| 
acres  within  its  walls.  It  was  laid  in  ruins  during  the  civil 
wars  of  Charles  I.,  but,  bein^  the  baronial  rraidence  of  the 
dukes  of  Norfolk,  the  late  duke  restored  it  to  its  former 
(Jothic  magnificence.  The  keep,  containing  the  dungeon,  is 
a  circular  Norman  tower  of  imposing  strength.  Pop.  (1881) 
2,748:  (1891)  2,644. 

ARUNDEL,  TH03CA8,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  the 
reigns  of  Richard  IL,  Henry  IV.,  and  Henry  V.:  1853-1413, 
Feb.  20;  second  son  of  Robert  Fitz-Alan,  Earl  of  Arandel 
and  Warren.  He  was  first  Archdeacon  of  Taunton,  and  at 
the  early  age  of  twentv-one  he  was,  by  the  pope's  appoint- 
ment, consecrated  Bishop  of  Ely.  In  1388,  he  was,  by  the 
same  authoriU^,  transferred  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  York. 
He  was  also  for  some  years  lord  high  chancellor  of  England. 
Having  been  banished  the  kingdom  for  taking  a  leading  part 
in  the  first  attempt  which  was  made  to  deliver  the  nation  from 
the  oppression  of  Richard  U.,  he  was  honorably  received  at 
Roire,  and  by  Pope  Boniface  IX.  nominated  Abp.  of  St 
Anarews,  with  a  promise  of  future  preferment  in  ^England 
In  1396  he  was  enthroned,  with  great  pomp,  Abp.  of 
Canterbury.  He  was  a  bitter  persecutor  of  the  Lollardt 
and  followers  of  Wickliffe,  and  a  chief  instrument  in  pro- 
curing the  horrible  act  for  the  burning  of  heretics  (/)* 
Ha^rdito  Gamburendo),  passed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 
He  even  carried  his  bigotry  so  far  as  to  solicit  from  th€ 
pope  a  bull  for  digging  up  Wickliffe's  bones,  which  was 
wisely  refused  him.  He  also  procured  a  synodal  constitu- 
tion, which  forbade  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into 
the  vulgar  tongue.  Among  others  whom  he  caused  to  be 
convicted  of  heresy,  and  sentenced  to  the  flames,  was  Lord 
Cobham,  one  of  the  principal  patrons  of  ihe  new  sect,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  Soon  after,  A. 
was  seized  with  an  inflammation  in  the  tiiroat,  from  which 
he  died. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ARUNDELIAN— ARVONIAN. 

ARUNDELIAN,  a.  dr'un^l'yan  [from  the  Earl  ol 
Arundel] :  a  name  applied  to  certain  ancient  marbles  pre- 
sented by  him  to  the  Universitj  of  Oxford. 

ARUNDEL  MARBLES  :  part  of  a  collection  of  ancient 
sculptures,  formed  about  the  beginninfi"  of  the  17th  c.  by 
Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of  Ahmdel,  and  presented,  1667,  to 
the  Univ.  of  Oxford,  by  his  grandson,  Henry  Howard, 
afterwards  Duke  of  Norfolk.  The  principal  portion  of  it  is 
the  *  Parian  Chronicle,'  consisting  of  the  fragments  of  an  in- 
scription in  marble,  supposed  to  nave  been  executed  in  the 
island  of  Paros,  about  B.C.  268.  In  its  perfect  state,  this 
inscripidon  contained  a  chronological  table  of  the  principal 
events  in  Grecian  history  from  the  time  of  Cecreps  (b.c. 
1582),  to  the  archonshlp  of  Diognetus  (b.c.  264).  The 
chronicle  of  the  last  nineteen  years  is  lost,  and  the  extant 
portion  of  the  inscription  is  much  corroded  and  defaced. 
This  curious  and  interesting  monument,  the  authenticity  of 
which  has  been  questioned  and  maintained  with  almost 
egual  ingenuity  and  learning,  was  purchased  for  the  Earl 
of  Arundel,  with  many  other  relics  of  antiquity,  at  Smyrna, 
bv  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  William)  Petty.  The  inscription,  and 
all  the  other  principal  sculptures  in  the  Oxford  Collection, 
are  to  be  found  fully  illustrated  in  the  relative  publications 
of  Selden.  Prideaux,  Maittaire,  and  Chandler,  under  the 
various  titles  of  Marmora  Arundelliana  and  M,  Oxoniensia. 

The  A.  M.  were  part  of  the  superb  collection  of  works  of 
art,  for  the  supply  of  which,  from  the  treasures  of  antiquity, 
the  Earl  of  Arundel  engaged  the  services  of  two  distin- 
guished men  of  letters,  Evelyn  and  Petty.  This  collection, 
nvalling  the  galleries  of  princes,  was  unfortunately  dis- 
I)er8ed  after  his  death,  and  many  of  its  choicest  treasures 
were  lost  sight  of.  His  collection  of  sculpture  alone,  when 
entire,  numbered  87  statues,  128  busts,  and  250  inscribed 
marbles,  besides  altars,  sarcophagi,  fragments,  and  gems. 

ARUNDINACEOUS,  a.  d-r&n'dl'nd'ahiis  [L.  arundo,  a 
reed] :  resembling  or  having  the  structure  of  reeds.  Abun- 
DTNEOUB,  a.  dr'tinrdin'i-us,  abounding  with  reeds.  Arun- 
DIFBB0U6,  a.  PL.  arundo,  a  reed;  fero,  to  bear]:  reed-bear- 
ing; cane-beanng. 

ARUN'DO :  see  Rebd. 

ARU8PICE,  n.  A^rus'pii,  or  Aruspex.  n.  a-r&s'peks  [L 
artulpex  or  hobru9'pex,  a  soothsayer— from  hira,  the  intes 
tine;  tpkUd,  I  behold] :  ip  aiic.  Borne,  a  diviner  by  the  in- 
fection of  the  entrails  of  beasts.  Abuspict,  n.  drus'pi-al, 
the  art  of  foretelling  events  by  the  inspection  of  the  entrails 
of  beasts  slain  in  sacrifice. 

ARVIC'OLA:  see  Vole. 

ARVONIAN,  a.  dr-vd'ni^n  [from  Arvonia,  the  Roman 
name  of  a  district  of  Wales! :  pertaining  to  Arvonia.    Ii 

d.,  the  A.  is  a  Pre-Cambnan  formation  found  in  Pem- 
keshire,  Carnarvonshire,  and  Anglesea.  Dr.  Hicks  di- 
vides  the  Pre-Cambrian  formation  into  Dimetian,  Arvo- 
nian,  and  Pebidian,  Each  of  these  must  have  been  many 
thousand  feet  In  thickness,  and  their  horizontal  extension 
is  very  wide.  The  A.  formation  contains  the  quartz-f el- 
sites  and  porphyries,  called  Ao^fe/Wnto  by  T6rell,  B,nd  petro 
tUesD  rocks  by  Hunt. 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


ARYAN. 

ARYAN,  a.  dr'ydn  or  dr'l-dn  [Sans,  arya,  noble,  of  a 
good  family:  connected  with  or  in  L.  ardH,  to  plow, 
and  perhaps  with  Gael,  ghrian,  proud ;  Arii,  a  tribe  of 
HiRh  Asia,  mentioned  in  Herodotus]:  name  applied  to  the 
Inao-£uropean  or  Indo-Gkrmanic  race,  and  to  their  Ian- 
^ages.  As  applied  to  a  race  it  includes  a  family  of  na- 
tions, consisting  of  two  branches,  geographically  separated, 
an  eastern  ana  a  western.  The  western  branch  compre- 
hends the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  and  their  descendants  in 
America  and  elsewhere,  with  the  exception  of  the  Turks, 
the  Magyars  of  Hungary,  and  the  Finns  of  Lapland  (see 
EuBOPE};  the  eastern  comprehends  the  inhabitants  of  Ar- 
menia, of  Persia,  of  Afghanistan,  and  of  Northern  Hindu- 
stan. See  Hindustan.  The  evidence  on  which  a  family 
relation  has  been  established  among  these  nations  is  that 
of  lan^age.  Between  Sanskrit  (the  mother  of  the  mod- 
em Hmdu  dialects  of  Hindustan),  Zend  (the  language  of 
the  ancient  Persians),  Greek  (which  is  yet  the  language  of 
Greece),  Latin  (the  language  of  the  Romans,  and  the 
mother  of  the  modem  Romanic  languages,  i.e.,  Italian, 
French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Wallacman),  Celtic  (once  the 
language  of  great  i)art  of  £nrope,  now  confined  to  Wales 
and  pans  of  France,  Ireland,  and  Scotland),  Gk>thic  (which 
may  be  taken  as  the  ancient  type  of  the  Teutonic  or  Ger- 
manic languages — including  English — and  of  the  Scandi- 
navian), and  Slavonic  (spoken  in  a  variety  of  dialects  all 
over  European  Russia  and  a  ^reat  part  of  Austria),  the  re- 
searches of  philology  have  within  the  present  century  es- 
tablished such  affinities  as  can  be  accounted  for  only  by 
supposing  that  the  nations  speaking  them  had  a  common 
origin.  No  one  of  these  nations,  whether  existing  or  his- 
toncal,  can  claim  to  be  the  parent  nation  of  which  the 
others  are  colonies.  The  relation  among  the  languages  men  - 
tioned  is  that  of  sisters— slaughters  oi  one  mother,  which 
perished,  as  it  were,  in  giving  them  birth.  No  monuments 
of  this  mother-language  have  been  preserved,  nor  have  we 
any  history  or  even  tradition  of  the  nation  that  spoke  it. 
That  such  a  people  existed  and  spoke  such  a  tongue  is  an 
inference  of  comparative  philology,  the  process  at  reason- 
ing being  analogous  to  that  followed  in  the  kindred  sci- 
ence of  geology.  The  geologist,  interpreting  the  inscrip- 
eions  written  by  the  finger  of  Nature  upon  the  rock-tablets 
of  the  earth's  strata,  carries  us  back  myriads  of  ages  before 
man  appeared  on  the  scene  at  all,  and  enables  us  almost 
to  see  one  formation  laid  above  another,  and  one  plant  or 
animal  succeed  another.  Now  languages  are  to  the  ethnol- 
ogist what  strata  are  in  geology;  dead  languages  have 
been  well  called  his  fossils  and  petrifactions.  By  skilful 
interpretation  of  their  indications,  aided  by  the  light  of  all 
other  available  monuments,  he  is  able  to  spell  out,  with 
more  or  less  probability,  the  ethnical  records  of  the  past, 
and  thus  obtain  a  glimpse  here  and  there  into  the  gray 
cloud  that  rests  over  the  dawn  of  the  ages. 

When  these  linguistic  monuments  are  consulted  as  to 
the  primitive  seat  of  the  Aryan  nations,  they  point,  as  al- 
most all  ethnologists  are  agreed,  to  Central  Asia,  some- 
where probably  e.  of  the  Caspian,  and  n.  of  the  Hindu 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ  IC 


ARYAN. 

Euflh  and  Paropamisan  Mountains.  There,  at  a  period 
long  previous  to  all  £uroi>ean  history— while  Europe  was 
perhaps  only  a  jungle,  or,  if  inhabited  at  all,  inhabited  by 
tribes  akin  to  the  Finns,  or  perhaps  to  the  American  In- 
dians— dwelt  that  mother-nation  of  which  we  have  spoken. 
From  this  centre,  in  obedience  to  a  law  of  movement 
which  has  continrued  to  act  through  all  history,  successive 
migrations  took  place  towards  the  n.  w.  The  first  swarm 
formed  the  Celts,  who  seem  at  one  time  to  have  occupied 
a  great  part  of  Europe;  at  a  considerably  later  epoch  came 
the  ancestors  of  the  Italians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Teutonic 
peoples.  All  these  seem  to  have  made  their  way  to  their 
new  settlements  through  Persia  and  Asia  Minor,  crossing 
into  Europe  by  the  Hellespont,  and  partly,  perhaps,  be- 
tween the  Caspian  and  the  Black  Sea.  The  stream  that 
formed  the  Slavonic  nations  is  thought  to  have  taken  the 
route  by  the  north  of  the  Caspian.  At  a  period  subsequent 
to  the  last  n.  w.  migration,  the  reumant  of  the  primitive 
stock  seems  to  have  broken  up;  part  poured  southwards 
through  the  passes  of  the  Himalaya  and  Hindu  Kush  into 
the  I^iniab,  and  became  the  dominant  race  in  the  valley 
of  the  Ganges ;  while  the  rest  settled  in  Persia,  and  be- 
came the  Medes  and  Persians  of  history. 

It  is  from  these  eastern  members  that  the  whole  family 
takes  its  name.  In  the  most  ancient  Sanskrit  writings 
(the  Veda),  the  Hindus  style  themselves  Aryans ;  and  the 
name  is  preserved  in  the  classic  Arii,  a  tribe  of  ancient 
Persia,  Aria,  the  modern  Herat,  and  Ariana,  the  district. 
Ariana,  or  Airyana,  is  evidently  an  old  Persian  word,  pre- 
served in  the  modem  native  name  of  Persia,  Airan  or 
Iran.  Arya,  in  Sanskrit,  signifies  '  excellent, '  '  honorable,  * 
being  allied  to  the  Greek  ar i(stos),  the  best;  or  to  the  root 
or  (Lat.  arare,  to  plow),  distinguishing  tillers  (ea/rers)  of 
the  earth  from  the  nomadic  Turanians.  French  savans 
limit  the  word  Aryan  to  the  eastern  section  of  the  Indo- 
European  stock. 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  Latham's  theory  of  the  Eu 
ropean  origin  of  the  Aryans  was  supported  by  Spiegel  and 
Benf  ey,  and  still  finds  asserters :  bee  Penka,  Originea  Art- 
aiiiea  (1888),  and  O.  Schrader,  Sprachvergleichung  und  Ur- 
geaMchie.  Some  of  the  European  lan^ages  would  there- 
fore be  a  truer  representation  of  the  original  Aryan  tongue 
than  the  Indie  ones.  The  ori^al  home  of  the  Aryan 
would  be  Scandinavia,  or  the  neighborhood  of  the  Baltic  ; 
and  the  Arvan  hiinself ,  a  coarse  nomad,  without  metals, 
clothed  in  skins.  Following  the  other  view,  Max  MQller 
has  drawn  a  picture  of  the  Aryan  family  while  yet  one 
and  undivided,  in  which  the  state  of  thought,  language, 
religion,  and  civilization  is  exhibited  in  a  multitude  of 
details.  Where  the  same  name  for  an  object  or  notion  is 
found  used  by  the  widely  spread  members  of  the  family. 
It  is  juBtlj  inferred  that  that  object  or  notion  must  have 
been  familiar  to  them  while  yet  resident  together  in  the 
paternal  home.  It  is  in  this  way  established,  that  among 
the  primitive  Aryans  not  only  were  the  natural  and  pri- 
maiy  family  relations  of  father,  mother,  son,  daughter. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ARYTENOID— AS. 

hallowed,  but  even  the  more  conventional  a£Qnitie8  of 
father-in-law,  mother-in-law,  sister-in-law;  that  to  the  or- 
ganized family  life  there  was  superadded  a  state  organiza- 
tion with  rulers  or  kings ;  that  the  ox  and  the  cow  consti- 
tuted the  chief  riches  and  means  of  subsistence ;  and  that 
houses  and  towns  were  built. 

One  general  observation  made  by  Mailer  is  so  interest- 
ing that  we  take  the  liberty  of  quoting  it  entire.  'It 
should  be  observed/  he  says,  '  that  most  of  the  terms  con- 
nected with  chase  and  warfare  differ  in  each  of  the  Aryan 
dialects,  while  words  connected  with  more  peaceful  occu- 
pations belong  generally  to  the  common  heirloom  of  the 
Aryan  language.  The  proper  appreciation  of  this  fact  in 
its  general  baring  will  show  how  a  similar  remark  made 
by  Niebuhr,  with  regard  to  Greek  and  Latin,  requires  a 
very  different  explanation  from  that  which  that  great 
scholar,  from  his  more  restricted  point  of  view,  was  able 
to  give  it.  It  will  i^ow  that  aU  the  Aryan  nations  had 
led  a  long  life  of  peace  before  the^  separated,  and  that 
their  language  acquired  individualitv  and  nationality  as 
each  colony  started  in  search  of  new  homes — ^new  genera- 
tions forming  new  terms  connected  with  the  warl&e  and 
adventurous  life  of  their  onward  migrations.  Hence  it  is 
that  not  only  Greek  and  Latin,  but  all  Arvan  languages 
have  their  peaceful  words  in  common ;  and  hence  it  is  that 
they  all  differ  so  strangely  in  their  warlike  expressions. 
Thus  the  domestic  animals  are  generally  known  by  the 
same  name  in  England  and  in  India,  while  the  wild  beasts 
have  different  names,  even  in  Greek  and  Latin.' 

In  this  mainly  pastoral  life,  the  more  important  of  the 
primitive  arts  were  known  and  exercised:  fields  were  tilled; 
grain  was  raised  and  ground  into  meal;  food  was  cooked 
and  baked;  cloth  was  woven  and  sewed  into  garmenta;  and 
the  use  of  the  metals,  even  of  iron,  was  down.  The 
numbers  as  far  as  a  hundred  had  been  named,  the  decimal 
principle  being  followed.  The  name  for  a  thousand  had 
not  come  into  requisition  until  after  the  dispersion,  for  it 
differs  in  the  different  Aryan  tongues. 

Finally,  it  was  among  the  yet  undivided  Aryans,  while 
abstract  language  did  not  yet  exist,  while  every  word  was 
a  metaphor,  and  the  setting  of  the  sun,  for  example,  could 
onl3r  be  expressed  by  his  growing  old  and  dying,  that  tho8e 
stories  of  gods,  heroes,  and  monsters  originated,  which, 
with  more  or  less  of  variety,  but  still  with  a  family  like- 
ness, formed  the  pagan  mythology  of  every  member  of  the 
group. 

ARYTENOID,  a.  a-rU-enopd  [Gr.  arutai'na,  a  pitcher; 
eido9f  resemblance]:  resembling  the  mouth  of  a  pitcher;  in 
anat.,  applied  to  two  small  cartilages  at  the  opening  of  the 
larynx  to  which  the  vocal  chords  are  attached, 

ARZIGNANO,  drd-zen-yd'nd:  town  of  n.  Italy,  11  m. 
w.  by  s.  from  Vicenza.     Pop.  8,000. 

AS,  conj.  prep,  or  ad.  de  [contr.  of  AS.  eaUstoa^  all  so: 
Qer.  als]:  signifying  agreement  in  manner  in  general;  like- 
ness of  manner;  for  example:  equally. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AS— ASA. 

AS,  rel.  pron.  (Jtz[lcel.  ee:  mod.  Icel.  er,  rel.  pron.,  as]: 
in  old  and  common  Prov.  Eng.,  a  relative  pronoun  used  in- 
stead of  who,  which,  and  that,  as,  '  bring  the  box  as  stands 
at  the  fire-place';  'he  had  a  daughter  (u  was  named 
Hannah':  seeSkeat. 

AS,  n.  as  [L.]:  the  designation  both  of  a  Roman  weight 
(called  also  libra)  corresponding  very  nearly  to  an  English 
pound  (q.v.),  ana  of  a  coin  made  of  the  mixed  metal  aes,  or 
bronze.  The  As  (coin)  originally  no  doubt  weighed  a 
(Roman)  pound;  but  it  was  gradually  reduced  to  ^5  of  a 
pound,  and  even  lower.  It  is  thus  difBcult  to  assign  any 
tixed  value  to  the  As.    About  b.c.  270,  the  denarius  (abt. 


17  cents)  contained  10  ases;  so  that  the  value  of  the  As 
was  then  a  little  less  than  2  cents;  when  16  ases  went  to 
the  denarius,  the  value  was  about  a  cent.  It  was  by  the 
9e«terUtL9  (q.v.)  that  money  was  reckoned  at  Rome.  The 
oldest  form  01  As  usually  bore  the  figure  of  an  ox,  a  sheep, 
or  other  domestic  animal  {pecus)-,  from  which  it  is  usualljr 
supposed  that  the  Latin  word  for  money,  pecunia,  is 
derived. 

A'SA,  third  kingof  Judah:  (reignod  B.C.  955-914);  son 
of  Abijah,  and  grandson  of  Jeroboam.  At  the  beginning 
of  his  reign,  he  was  very  young,  and  his  character  appar- 
ently undeveloped,  for  he  allowed  his  grandmother, 
Maacah,  to  encourage  idolatry;  but  on  assuming  the  gov- 
ernment, one  of  his  earliest  acts  was  to  remove  her  from 
all  authority  '  because  she  had  made  an  abominable  image 
for  an  Asherah'  (1  Kings,  xv.  18;  2  Chron.  xv.  16).  His 
zealous  efforts  to  extirpate  the  vices  and  impieties  of  the 
people  were  on  the  whole  successful.  He  took  away  the 
Sodomites  out  of  the  land,  and  the  altars  of  the  strange 
gods,  broke  the  images,  and  cut  down  the  groves.  For 
the  next  ten  years  he  devoted  himself  to  strengthening  the 
defenses  of  his  kingdom,  and  organized  a  magnificent  army 
of  more  than  half  a  million,  which  seems  to  have  been 
looked  upon  as  a  menace  by  other  monarchs,  for  one  of 
these,  Zerah  the  Cushite,  took  tlie  initiative,  and  penetrat- 
ing through  Arabia  Petrtm,  invaded  Judah,  but  was  de- 
feated with  immense  slaughter.  Before  the  battle  com- 
menced, Asa  had  invoked  the  aid  of  Jehovah;  and  some 
time  after  the  victory,  he  and  all  his  people  entered  into  a 
solemn  covenant  *  to  seek  the  Lord  God  of  their  father 
with  all  their  heart  and  with  all  their  soul '  (2  Chron.  xv. 


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ASA  DULCIS-ASAPETIDA. 

12).  Peace  lasted  for  twenty  years  in  the  kingdom,  but 
in  tlie  30ih  year  of  Asa's  reign,  war  again  broke  out  be- 
tween him  and  Baasha,  king  of  Israel.  He  sought  and 
obtained  the  aid  of  the  Syrian  monarch,  Benhadad;  but  at 
the  expense  of  *  the  treasures  of  the  house  of  JehoviU),'  and 
although  successful  against  his  adversary,  he  was  indig- 
nantly upbraided  and  threatened  by  the  prophet  Hanani 
for  not  relying  on  Jehovah  alone.  Asa,  flushed  with  suc- 
cess, threw  the  prophet  into  prison,  and,  it  would  appear, 
'  in  his  rage '  oppr^sed  some  of  the  i)eople  at  the  same 
time — perhaps  those  only  who  sided  with  Hanani,  for  we 
know  that  at  his  death  the  nation  honored  him  with  a 
splendid  funeral;  ^nd  the  sacred  historian  pays  the  highest 
tribute  to  his  memory,  declaring  that  'Asa's  heart  was  per- 
*fect  with  the  Lord  all  his  days/ 

ASA  DULCIS,  ds'd  dul'Os  [i.e.,  Sweet  Asa]:  a  drug  in 
high  repute  among  the  ancients  as  an  antispasmodic,  de- 
obstruent,  and  diuretic;  also  for  supposed  virtues  of  the 
most  extraordinary  kind,  such  as  neutralizing  the  effects 
of  poison,  curing  envenomed  wounds,  restormg  sight  to 
the  blind,  youth  to  the  &g^d,  etc.  Its  value  was  estimated 
by  its  weight  in  gold.  The  princes  of  Cyrene  caused  a 
figure  of  the  plant  producing  it  to  be  struck  on  the  reverse 
01  their  coins,  and  it  was  sometimes  called  I/uer  Oyrenai- 
cum.  The  plant  is  of  the  genus  Thapeia  (of  the  natural 
order  UmbelUfercB)^  either  T.  Oarganiea,  or  a  nearly  allied 
species,  T.  Silpkium — perhaps  the  drug  was  produced  by 
both.  They  are  natives  of  the  s.  of  Europe  and  of  Bar- 
bary,  and  appiAr  to  be  very  active  purgatives. 

ASAPETIDA.  or  Assapcktida,  n.  (u'd-fiti-dd  [L.  a$a, 
a  gum;fcUldus,  fetid:  Ar.  cud,  healing]:  a  gum-resin,  which 
has  been  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  ezud^  juice 
of  the  Silphaan  of  Dioscorides,  so  highly  esteemed  among 
the  Greek  physicians;  but  which,  perhaps,  was  the  Am 
dulds.  It  name  is  perhaps  derived  from  the  Persian  word 
OM,  which  means  rnastw.  This  dru^  is  brought  from  Persia 
and  Afghanistan,  and  is  procured  bv  drymg  the  milky 
juice  which  flows  from  the  root  of  the  plant  Fenila  {Narthex) 
A.,  which  has  been  referred  to  the  genus  Ferula  by  Lin- 
noeus,  and  to  Narthex  by  Dr.  Falconer.  The  root  of  the 
A.  plant  is  lon^  and  generally  undivided;  white  inside,  but 
having  a  blacK  covering;  and  contains  in  its  interior  a 
quantitv  of  juice  of  an  overpowering  odor,  which  much 
resembles  that  of  garlic.  Ferula  or  Narthex  A.  has  its 
radical  leaves  tripartite,  their  segments  bipinnatifid,  and 
nearly  two  ft.  in  length.  The  ^m-resin  is  said  by  some 
to  be  obtained  also  from  FeruTa  Persiea,  a  plant  which 
has  the  root-leaves  very  much  divided,  and  all  either  tri- 
pinnate  or  quadripinnate.  The  nsjnejferuia,  like  the  Per- 
sian oMf  refers  to  the  appearance  of  the  stem  of  the  plant. 
Ferula  Persica  has  long  been  propagated  successfully  in 
Britain,  and  even  bqngs  its  seeds  to  perfection. 

A.  is  prepared  in  the  dry  southern  provinces  of  Persia, 
but  chiefly  in  Khorassan  and  Afghanistan,  and  also  to  the 
n.  of  the  Hindu  Kush  range  of  mountains.    About  April, 


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ASAPHBS— ASARAJBACCA. 

the  root-leaves  are  taken  away,  and  the  root  itself  is  more 
or  less  exposed  by  removal  of  the  soil  from  about  it. 
After  six  weeks,  a  slice  is  cut  horizontally  from  its  sum- 
mit, and  a  thick  white  juice  exudes,  the  smell  of  which 
even  exceeds  in  strength  that  of  the  arug  when  dry.  The 
drug  is  sometimes  brought  to  the  market  in  the  form  of 
tears,  but  more  frequently  in  lumps  made  up  of  irregu- 
larly shaped  tears,  agglutinated  together  hj  a  softer  sub- 
stance. A.  is  extensively  used  m  medicine,  and  has 
stimulant  and  tmti-spasmodic  properties.  When  taken 
internally  it  undergoes  absorption,  and  may  be  detected 
in  almost  every  secretion  of  the  body,  as  the  saliva,  breath, 
and  urine.  According  to  the  analysis  of  Pelletier,  A.  is 
composed  of  the  following  substances:  resin,  65  parts; 
volatile  oil,  3-6;  gam,  19-44;  bassorin,  11*66;  various 
salts,  '30.  In  many  parts  of  the  East,  this  drug  is  used  as 
a  condiment,  in  which  respect  it  seems  to  take  the  place 
of  the  garlic  of  some  European  nations. 

ASAPHE8,  n.  ds'd-fez  [Gr.  asdpkis,  dim,  indistinct]: 
genus  of  Ichneumons,  of  which  the  best-known  species, 
A,  valgariSt  deposits  its  eggs  in  aphides,  on  which  the 
larvse,  when  hatched,  prey. 

ASAPH,  ST.,  8dnt  a^af:  cathedral  city,  a  station  on  the 
Vale  of  Clwyd  railway;  on  a  small  hill  between  the  rivers 
Clwyd  and  Elwy,  in  the  n.  of  Flintshire,  Wales.  The  cathe- 
dral, on  top  of  the  hill  on  which  the  city  is  built,  is  cruci- 
form, 178  ft.  bjr  68  ft.,  with  a  tower  93  ft.  high;  one  of  the 
smallest  of  British  cathedrals.  It  was  built,  1284,  on  the 
side  of  a  wooden  structure  founded  before  596.  Kentigem, 
or  St.  Mungo,  Bishop  of  Glasgow,  and  his  disciple  St.  A., 
are  said  to  have  founded  the  see  of  St.  A.  in  the  6th  c. 
The  bishop,  who  has  a  revenue  of  £4,200,  is  patron  of  121 
of  the  148  benefices  in  the  diocese.  St.  A.,  with  the  Flint 
district  of  boroughs,  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  of  St.  A.  (1891)  1.900. 

ASAPHUS,  n.  ds'a-fus  [Gr.  asdphes,  obscure^:  in  geol., 
a  genus  of  trilobites,  so  named  from  the  obscurity  resting 
on  their  true  nature,  being  at  first  confounded  with  in- 
sects.   See  Tkilobitb. 

ASARABACCA,  n.  &^ d/r-d-hd'k d  [L.  a9drum,  wild  spike- 
nard; bacca,  a  berry]:  Asa/rum  Europomm:  plant  of  the  nat. 
ord.  -4.mtofecAwk;«8(see  Aristolochia);  native  of  Europe, 
growing  in  woods;  rare,  perhaps  not  truly  indigenous,  in 
Britain.  The  whole  plant  has  acrid  properties;  the  roots 
and  leaves  are  aromatic,  purgative,  and  emetic.  The  use 
of  A.,  however,  as  an  emetic  has  been  much  superseded 
by  that  of  ipecacuanha,  which  is  milder  and  safer.  The 
powdered  roots  and  leaves  enter  into  the  composition  of 
cephalic  snuffs,  which  cause  sneezing,  and  are  employed  as 
a  counter-irritant  in  cases  of  headache,  ophthalmia,  tooth- 
ache, etc.  The  plant  contains  a  volatile  oil,  and  a  crystalline 
substance  called  Abarine,  dsdr-tn,  or  Asaronb,  to  which 
it  seems  to  owe  its  active  properties.  The  genus  Asarum  is 
distinguished  by  twelve  homed  stamens,  distinct  from  each 
other  and  from  the  style,  and  by  a  bell-shaped  three-lobed 


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ASARUM— ASBEN. 

perianth.  A.  Europaum  has  a  very  short  stem  with  two 
shining  kidney-shaped  leaves  on  long  stalks,  from  the  axil 
of  which  springs  a  single  drooping  greenish-brown  flower. 
—A  nearly  allied  species.  A,  Oanadense,  a  native  of  N.  Amer. 


Aaarabaoca  {Agarvm  Europcswn), 
b,  detached  anther;  c,  style. 

is  stimulant  and  diaphoretic,  and  is  used  under  the  name 
of  Canada  Snake-root,  instead  of  Arisiolochia  Serpen' 
ia/ria.  It  is  also  called  Wild  Ginger,  and  used  as  a  spice, 
being  of  a  warm  aromatic  quality,  and  not  acrid,  like  its 
European  congener. — Two  other  specieB,  Va,  and  Bouth. 

ASARUM:  see  Asarabaoca. 

ASBEFERRITE,  n.  az-U-fh''rU  [Ger.  asbegtos,  inextin' 
guishable:  h.ferrum,  iron]:  a  erayish- white,  or  ash-gray 
mineral,  a  variety  of  amphibole.  Dana  classes  A.  with 
dannemorite  under  the  head  'Iron-Manganese  Amphi- 
bole.' 

ASBEN,  d8-bH\  or  A'Ir  :    see  Air, 


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ASBESTOS-ilSBOLINB. 

ASBESTOS,  n.  d$-bes'tos,  or  Asbbs  tub  [Gr.  ofibeitoB,  xok^ 
qnenchablej:  a  fibrous  mineral  of  the  hornblende  family, 
having  the  fibres  elastic  and  flexible,  somewhat  resembling 
flax,  and  which  cannot  be  consimied  by  fire;  the  different 
Tapieties  receive  the  names  of  rock-wdixi,  rock-cork,  moun^ 
tain-leather,  fossil  paper  or  flax,  etc.  Asbestine,  a.  ds-bis- 
tin,  of  or  like  asbestos.  Asbes'tiform,  a.  -tUfavyrm  [L. 
forma,  shape] :  assuming  the  fibrous  character  of  asbestos; 
like  asbestos.  Asbestic,  a.  ds-bestlk,  pertaining  to  asbestos; 
made  of  asbestos.  Asbestoid,  n.  a  mineral  resembling  as- 
bestos in  form;  called  also  byssolite:  Adj.  of  the  form  of 
asbestos;  fibrous. 

ASBESTOS,  ds-bes'tda,  or' Abbiss'tuq, -tua :  mineral 
eubfetance,  var.  of  amphibole  (when  not  fibrous  serpentine), 
akin  to  hornblende,  actinolite,  and  tremolite ;  like  thene, 
it  consists  chiefly  of  silica,  magnesia,  alumina,  and  ferrous 
oxide ;  but  there  are  wide  diflferences  between  specimens. 
It  is  mined  in  large  quantities  in  Ya.,  Md.,  N.  T.,  and 
other  states,  and  in  Canada.  It  consists  of  fine  crystalline 
elastic  fibres,  of  silky  lustre,  and  varying  in  color  from 
white  to  gray  or  green.  Woven  into  cloth,  it  forms  a 
fireproof  texture.  The  most  prized  variety  of  A.  is 
Amianthits,  with  fibres  snowy  white,  long,  and  flexible ; 
it  occurs  abundantly  in  Canada.  The  inferior  qualities 
have  shorter  and  less  flexible  fibres,  and  usually  are  of 
dark  color ;  besides,  they  are  of  greater  specific  gravity : 
they  are  known  as  common  asbestos,  mountain  leather, 
and  motrntain  wood.  The  long-fibred  A.  is  spun  into 
threads,  which  are  woven  into  fabrics  used  for  filter- 
linings  and  for  lagging  in  steam-boilers.  The  threads 
are  used  also  for  stuffing  steam-pipe  joints,  and  a  large 
rope  of  them  serves  for  piston-packing.  Paper  has  been 
made  of  A.,  and  would  prove  invaluable,  in  case  of  fire, 
for  charters  and  other  important  documents,  were  it  not 
that  the  writing  disappears  when  the  material  has  been 
subjected  to  a  red  heat.  Patents  have  been  granted  in 
the  United  States  upon  methods  of  using  A.  for  fire-brick 
and  crucibles,  as  an  absorbent  in  lamps  and  carburetters, 
as  a  boiler-covering,  etc. ;  also  as  a  material  for  coffins : 
Instead  of  coffins  made  all  of  asbestos,  it  is  usual  now 
merely  to  line  a  wooden  shell  with  A.  paper.  Boofing 
materials  of  A.  consist  of  a  roof-coating  and  a  cement 
for  repairing  metal  roofs.  An  A.  felt  is  manufactured 
for  use  wherever  steam -pipes,  boilers,  furnaces,  etc., 
need  to  be  confined  to  prevent  radiation. 

ASBJORNSEN,  Petbb  Chrioten:  1813,  June  1&-1885, 
Jan.  6;  b.  Christiania,  Norway:  distinguished  author.  He 
studied  at  the  university,  and,  1858,  was  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  foreste.  His  official  duties  gave  him  opportu- 
nity for  collecting  the  popular  tales  of  the  peasantry;  and 
he  is  known  for  his  great  collection  of  NortDegian  Folk-tales 
(1843,  extended  with  the  help  of  J.  Moe),  and  his  Norwe- 
gian Fairy  Tales  and  FolkUyre  (1845;  8d  ed.  1870). 

ASBOLINE,  ds'ho-Un  [Gr.  asbolos,  soot]:  in  ehem,,  a 


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ASBOLITE— A8CAL0N. 

yellow,  ofly  substance,  very  acrid  and  Utter,  obtained  fnmi 

sooi;. 

ASBOLITE,  n.  cB'ftW-W,  or  Abbolah,  cw'WWn  [Gr 
asbolaiiw,  to  cover  with  soot]:  called  also  earthy  cobalt 
Dana  makes  it  a  variety  of  wad.  and  considers  it  to  be  that 
mineral  combined  with  oxide  of  cobalt 

ASBURY,  dsher-l,  Fkancis:  1745-1816;  b.  Staffordshire, 
£ng.:  ordained,  1784,  the  first  bishop  of  the  Meth.  Epis. 
Church  in  the  United  States.  Apprenticed  to  a  mechanic  in 
1759,  in  Staffordshire,  the  preachmg  of  an  itinerant  Meth. 
preacher  turned  his  mind  to  religion,  and  two  years  later, 
at  the  age  of  16,  he  began  to  preach  in  his  own  neighbor- 
hood, lie  became  an  itinerant,  1767,  preached  for  three 
years  in  England,  and  was  sent,  1771,  as  a  missionary  to 
America.  John  Wesley  appointed  him  general  assistant 
for  this  country.  In  his  new  and  responsible  position,  A. 
soon  infused  fresh  vigor  into  the  cause  in  America,  dis- 
patching missionaries  all  over  the  country,  organizing 
new  societies,  and  preaching  with  great  force  and  elo- 
quence. Ue  remained  in  the  colonies  during  the  Revolu- 
tionary war,  showing  great  discretion.  In  1TO4,  it  was  de- 
termined to  establish  an  independent  Meth.  Epis.  Church 
in  America,  and  A.  was  made  Joint  superintendent  with 
Thomas  Coke,  who  had  been  ordainea  by  Mr.  Wesley. 
In  the  following  year  the  first  Meth.  college  in  America 
was  founded.  A.  was  a  passable  Greek  and  Hebrew 
scholar,  though  without  a  university  education.  He  never 
married,  from  a  determination  to  devote  himself  to  his 
great  work.  The  statistics  of  his  professional  career  are 
remarkable:  he  is  said  to  have,  travelled  over  270,000  m., 
presided  at  224  conferences,  ordained  more  than  4,000 
ministers,  and  preached  more  than  16,000  sermons.  He 
left  three  vols,  of  his 'Journals,'  which  are  highly  es- 
teemed. 

ASBURY  PARK,  d^h^-l:  post-village  in  Ocean  tp., 
Monmouth  co.,  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  N".  J.,  6.  m.  s.  of 
Long  Branch ;  51  m.  from  New  York.  It  is  a  favorite  sum- 
mer resort,  covering  abt.  500  acres,  handsomely  laid  out, 
with  a  public  hall,  free  reading-room,  and  other  advantages. 
It  contains  a  number  of  large  hotels  and  numerous  board* 
ing  houses,  and  the  drives  in  the  vicinity  are  attractive. 
Between  Asbury  Park  and  Ocean  Grove  is  Wesley  Lake, 
about  three  quarters  of  a  m.  long,  a  beautiful  sheet  of 
water  devoted  to  boating.  Pop.  abt.  4,000;  simimer  visit 
ors  number  above  20,000. 

ASCALAPHU8,  n.  ds-kcU'df^  FGr.  askalaphos,  a  word 
in  Aristotle,  apparently  meaning  a  Kind  of  owl] :  genus  of 
neuropterous  insects  belonring  to  the  family  Afyrmeleari- 
ttdcB,  or  Ant-lions.  They  differ  from  the  Mjnrmeleon  proper 
in  having  much  longer  antennse  and  shorter  bodies,  while 
their  larvse  do  not  construct  a  pitfall. 

AS'CALON,  or  Ash'kelok:  ruined  city  of  Palestine,  on 
the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  86  m.  w.s.w.  of  Jerusalem. 
Its  name  occurs  often  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  was  in 
ancient  times  a  fortified  city,  and  the  principal  town  of  one 


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ASCANIU8— ASCARIDES. 
of  the  five  lordships  of  the  Philistines.  Herod  the  Great 
OTubellished  it  with  baths,  palaces,  and  fountains;  but  it 
suffered  in  the  wars  with  the  Romans.  There  was  a 
celebrated  temple  of  Derketo,  the  Venus  of  the  Syrians,  at 
A.  After  continuing  long  under  the  dominion  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  city  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Saracens  in  the  7th  c.  In  1099,  a  great  battle  was  fought 
on  the  plains  of  A.,  between  the  Crusaders  and  Saracens, 
when  the  Christians  gained  a  decisive  victory.  The  city, 
however,  a  number  of  years  after,  was  recaptured  by  the 
Moslems,  and  held  by  them  as  a  strongly  fortified  place 
until  1163,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders  under 
Baldwhi  III.  In  1187,  it  was  retaken  by  the  Saracens,  but 
afterwards  (1192)  fell  into  the  hands  of  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion.  Subsequently,  being  more  than  once  dismantled 
and  repaired  during  the  wars  between  Richard  and  Saladin, 
it  was  reduced  to  desolation  by  Sultan  Bibars  in  1270. 

The  ruins  of  this  ancient  city  occupy  an  extensive  semi- 
circular eminence,  sloping  gently  to  the  e.,  but  abrupt  and 
steep  towards  the  sea.  Part  of  the  walls  are  still  standing, 
with  the  remains  of  Gtothic  churches,  a  palace,  and  several 
edifices  of  more  ancient  date,  which  attract  the  notice  of 
the  traveller  and  the  antiquary. 

A8CANIUS,  ds-kd'ne-oos:  abt.  the  middle  of  the  18th  c: 
Swedish  naturalist  and  inspector  of  mines  in  the  n.  of 
Norway.  He  was  a  correspondent  of  Linnaeus,  and  pub- 
lished a  work  on  natural  history. 

ASCANIUS,  <iS'Mni-u8,  also  called  Iulus:  according  to 
Virgil  and  Livy,  the  son  of  jEneas  and  Creusa,  and  founder 
of  Alba  Longa.  One  tradition  says  he  succeeded  his  father 
as  king  of  the  Latins.  The  Julia  gens  of  Rome  claimed 
him  as  an  ancestor. 

A8CAPART,  ds'kd'pdrt:  a  giant  80  ft.  high,  said  to  have 
been  conquered  by  Sir  Be  vis  of  Hampton,  whom  with  his 
wife  and  horse,  A.  carried  under  his  arm.  He  is  repre- 
sented on  the  city  gates  of  Southampton,  Eng.  Shake- 
speare, Pope,  and  others  allude  to  him. 

ASCARIDES,  n.  plu.  ds-kai^i-dH,  sing.  As'caris  [Gr. 
cukdris,  a  long  round  worm  in  the  bowels]:  the  small  intes- 
tinal thread-worms.    See  Abcabib. 


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A8CARI8. 

ASCARIS,  cuHcar^i:  genus  of  Entozoa,  or  intesdnil 
worms,  of  the  ord.  Nemaicidea  of  Cuvier  and  others.  The 
ascarides  have  a  bodv  approaching  to  cylindrical,  but 
thickest  in  the  middle.  They  inhabit  the  intestines  of 
animals.  The  species  are  numerous.  One  of  the  best 
known  is  A.  lumbricoideSf  often  called  the  common  round 
worm,  which  occurs  in  the  intestines  of  man  and  of  some 
of  the  lower  animals,  as  the  hog,  ox,  horse,  etc.,  and  whidi 
often  occasions  severe  disease,  and  sometimes  death,  par- 
ticularly when  it  ascends  from  the  intestines  to  the  stomach. 
Its  presence  even  in  its  most  ordinary  situation  in  the  small 
intestines  is  attended  with  unfavorable  eflPects   upon  the 


ABcaris  lumbricoides  (male). 
One-third  of  the  true  linear  dimensions;  a  is  the  head  of  the  worm. 

general  health ;  and  the  greater  the  number  present— 
which,  however,  is  not  usually  large  —  the  greater,  of 
course,  is  the  injury ;  although  when  they  remain  in  the 
intestines,  worms  of  this  species  are  less  injurious  and  less 
annoying  than  other  and  even  much  smaller  intestinal 
worms.  In  subjects  otherwise  diseased,  they  occasionally 
find  their  way  out  of  the  intestines  into  the  dosed  serous 
cavities  of  the  body,  and  even  pass  through  ulcerated  parts 
of  the  external  integument;  but  the  moutn  is  formed  only 
for  suction,  and  is  provided  Mrith  no  means  of  boring 


The  mouth  of  Ascaria  lumbricoides,  magnified. 

Showing  the  fleshy  tubercles  spread  out,  with  cockscomb-Hire  mu»^ 

cles  interior  to  them,  and  the  entrance  to  the  intestinal  canal. 

through  the  healthy  intestine.  An  immense  number  of 
remedies  (anthelmintics  or  vermifuges)  have  been  proposed 
and  used  to  expel  this  parasite,  some  of  which  are  very 
effectual.  They  do  not  in  general  kill  the  worms,  but  act 
bv  making  their  dwelling-place  disagreeable  to  them.  See 
Vermifuge.  It  is,  however,  remarked  by  EQchenmeister, 
in  his  work  on  Parasites,  tiiat  the  treatment  of  cases  of  this 
description  is  as  yet  purely  empirical,  because,  although 
there  must  be  a  condition  of  the  intestinal  canal  which 
favors  the  thriving  of  worms,  we  are  by  no  means  certain 
what  it  is. 


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A8CARIS. 

The  A:  Itimbrieaides  is  ordinarily,  in  size  and  appear- 
ance much  like  the  Common  Earthworm  {Lumlm^ri  eter^ 
regtris),  from  which  resemblance  it  has  received  its  specifio 
name,  although  the  resemblance  is  rather  in  general  form 
than  in  more  essential  characteristics.  It  has  been  seen 
fifteen  inches  in  length.  Its  mouth  consists  of  three  fleshy 
tubercles,  which  can  be  spread  out  upon  the  intestine  to 
form  a  broad  circular  sucker,  and  within  which  there  is  a 
small  tube  capable  of  being  protruded.  The  alimentary 
canal  consists  of  a  muscular  gullet  and  stomach,  and  a 
thin-walled  intestine.  Between  the  muscular  layers  of  the 
body  is  produced  a  pale  reddish  oily  matter,  with  a  strong 


Ascarls  Termicularis  (male).         Ascaris  ▼ermicularis 
Magnified  twenty-flve  diameters;  (female). 

a,  the  mouth.  Ma^cnifieU  eight  diameterr. 

and  very  peculiar  odor,  which  is  gradually  communicated 
to  spirit  in  which  the  worm  is  preserved.  The  males  are 
smaller  than  the  females,  and  much  more  rare.  The 
females  produce  eggs  in  great  numbers;  but  it  is  uncertain 
if  ever  they  are  developyed  within  the  intestine  in  which 
the  parent  worm  resides.  They  are  certainly  capable  of 
being  developed  elsewhere,  and  probably  the  young  enter 
the  intestines  of  the  animals  of  which  they  are  eventually 
to  be  the  paraiites,  after  having  spent  a  certain  sta^e  of 
their  existence  tn  very  different  circumstances;  the  worm 
in  a  very  young  state  having  never  been  found  in  the  in- 
testines of  man  or  of  quadrupeds,  the  situation  of  its  per 


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A8CELLI-ASCEND. 

feet  development.  The  inhabitants  of  damp  valleys  are 
believed  to  suffer  more  than  others  from  the  A.  lumbrieoidm. 
It  is  said  also  to  be  particularly  frequent  in  persons  who 
are  much  accustomed  to  eat  raw  leaves  and  roots;  and  it 
has  been  supposed  that  the  young  niay  exist,  perhaps  in  an 
encysted  state,  in  the  bodies  of  insects  or  other  verv  small 
animals  which  are  accidentalljr  eaten  along  with  such  food, 
as  the  young  tapeworm  finds  its  way  into  the  human  in- 
testines from  its  residence  as  a  creature  of  very  different 
size  and  form  in  the  flesh  of  the  sheep  or  the  pig.  I'he 
once  prevalent  idea  of  the  equivocal  generation  of  these 
worms  is  now  completely  abandoned. 
A.  vermicularis  is  another  species  usuallv  referred  to  this 

fen  us,  and  is  the  only  other  species  troublesome  to  man- 
ind.  It  is  known  as  the  Thread-worm  or  Maw-worm, 
and  is  ver^  common  both  in  children  and  in  adults.  It 
infests  chiefly  the  lower  part  of  the  intestines,  and  par- 
ticularly the  rectimi,  great  numbers  being  often  present 
together,  and  occasioning  intolerable  itcning,  irritation, 
and  loss  of  sleep,  although  there  is  not  in  general  much 
serious  injury  to  health.  The  same  anthelmintics  em- 
ployed against  other  intestinal  worms  are  found  efficacious 
also  in  the  expulsion  of  this;  and  clysters  are  often  em- 
ployed with  great  success.  The  thread- w^rm  is  white,  not 
more  than  l^lf  an  inch  in  length,  the  male  much  less. 
Some  recent  authors  of  hi^h  reputation  have  separated 
this  species  from  A.,  and  call  it  Oxyuri»  wnnieuUnis,  but 
the  term  AscaHdes  is  often  employed  in  medical  works  with 
exclusive  reference  to  it;  and  indeed  this  name,  derived 
from  the  Greek  askarieo,  to  jump  or  move  briskly,  prob- 
ably owes  its  origin  to  the  liveliness  of  motion  which  this 
species  exhibits.  It  has  been  recently  discovered  that  its 
nervous  system  is  very  highly  develoijed,  consisting  of 
many  ganglia,  with  connectmg  and  ramifying  cords. 
A8CELLI:  see  Asctjb. 

ASCEND,  V.  disind'  [L.  ascend'M,  to  ascend— from  ctd, 
to;  acando,  I  mount  up;  scansua,  mounted  up:  It.  cueejid&re]: 
tomoimtup;  to  go  up;  to  rise.  Abcbnd'ikg,  Imp.:  Adj. 
in  hot,,  rising  erect  from  the  ground  and  forming  a  curve; 
applied  to  ovules  attached  a  little  above  the  base  of  the 
ovary.  Asoend'bd,  pp.  Ascbndablb,  a.  dssind'dM,  that 
may  be  ascended.  Ascend' akt,  a.  superior;  surpassing;  in 
Mtron.,  above  the  horizon :  N.  commanding  mfluenoe ; 
superiority.  Ascendency,  n.  as^ndin-si,  power ;  con- 
trolling influence.  Ascenbive,  a.  di^n'He  [L.  <t9c&n9us, 
mounted  up]:  rising  or  tending  to  rise.  Ascbnbion,  n. 
dss^n'shun,  the  act  of  going  up.  Ascensional,  a.  -d/, 
pertaining  or  relating  to.  Ascent,  n.  ds^ent',  act  of 
rising;  rising  of  a  hill;  an  eminence.  Ric^ht  ascension, 
in  astrtm.,  me  arc  of  the  equinoctial  intercepted  between 
the  first  point  of  Aries  and  the  circle  of  decliniation  passing 
through  the  place  of  the  heavenly  body.  Abgen'sion-dat, 
n.  the  day  on  which  our  Lord's  ascension  is  commemorated. 
— Stn.  of  'ascend':  to  mount;  arise;  rise;  climb;  scale; 
tower;  soar;— of  *  ascendency ':  influence;  sway;  prevalence; 
domination;  control;  authority;  dominion. 


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ASCENSION— ASCERTAIN. 

ASCENSION,  d8-$in'shun:  one  (rf  the  oomparanveiy 
tew  single  islands  on  the  globe,  being  about  800  m.  n.w. 
of  St.  Helena,  and  almost  as  far  to  the  s.s.w.  of  St.  Matthew. 
It  is  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  its  discovery  by  a 
Spanish  navigator  on  Ascension-day.  It  is  nearlv  m  the 
middle  of  the  South  Atlantic,  the  lat.  of  its  fort  being  7** 
65'  65'  s.,  and. its  long.  14°  26'  5'  w.  A.  is  8  m.  long  by  6 
broad;  about  35  sq.  m.  Though  discovered  as  early  as 
1501,  yet  it  remained  uninhabited  till  1815,  when,  in  connec- 
tion with  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  detention  in  St.  Helena,  tiie 
English  took  possession  of  it.  It  is  now  used  as  a  nava) 
victualling-station  and  hospital.  Like  St.  Helena,  it  is  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  generally  mountainous— one  peak  rising 
to  a  hei^t  of  2,870  ft.  From  the  extreme  dryness  of  the 
climate,  which,  however,  is  healthful,  the  surface  is  nearly 
destitute  of  verdure.  Amon^  indigenous  productions  are  the 
tomato,  castor-oil  plant,  and  pepper;  European  vegetables 
are  cultivated.  Pop.  (1871)  27,  15  beinff  residents  on  the 
island,  and  12  being  in  the  Royal  Naval  Hospital.  See  Mrs. 
Gill's  Six  Months  in  A,  (1879). 

ASCENSION,PiQHT  [Qer.  gerade  avf8teigung\:  in  astron. 
one  of  the  arcs  which  determine  the  position  relatively  to  the 
equator  of  a  heavenly  body  on  the  celestial  sphere,  the  other 
arc  being  the  declination.  See  Armillabt  Sphebe  (under 
Armilla).  It  is  the  arc  of  the  equator  intercepted  between 
the  first  point  of  Aries  (q.v.),  and  the  point  at  which  the 
circle  of  declination  passinj^  through  the  star  cut«  the 
equator.  Measured  always  &om  w.  to  e.,  rieht  A.  on  the 
heavens  corresponds  to  longitude  on  the  earth.  The  right 
A  of  a  heavenly  body  is  ascertained  by  means  of  the  transit 
instrument  and  clocK.  The  transit  instrument  determines 
its  meridian  passage,  and  the  transit  clock  gives  the  time  at 
which  this  takes  place.  When  the  first  point  of  Aries  is  in 
the  meridian,  the  clock  stands  at  0  hoiurs,  0  minutes,  0 
seconds,  and  it  is  so  arranged  as  to  indicate  24  sider^  hours, 
the  time  that  elapses  between  two  successive  passages  of  that 
point.  The  reading  of  the  clock,  therefore,  at  the  passage 
of  any  heavenly  body  gives  its  right  A.  in  time,  and  thw, 
when  multiplied  by  15,  gives  the  same  in  degrees,  minutes, 
and  seconds.  The  right  A.  is  usually  given,  however,  in 
time.  The  old  term,  oblique  A. ,  was  given  to  the  riffht  A. 
of  the  point  of  the  equator  that  rose  simultaneously  ^dth  the 
heavenly  body;  and  the  dlflerence  of  the  oblique  and  right 
A.  was  called  the  *  ascensional  difference.* 

ASCENSION-DAY, or  Holy  Thursday:  day  on  which 
Christ's  ascension  is  commemorated;  one  of  the  great  religious 
festivals  of  the  Christian  Church,  traceable  from  about  the 
middle  of  the  4th  c.  It  occurs  on  the  fortieth  day  after 
Easter  (Acts,  i.  3).  Connected  with  the  religious  observ- 
ances of  this  dav  were  certain  civic  ones;  which  in  some 
parts  of  England  and  Scotland  are  continued  to  this  day— 
viz.,  beating  the  bounds,  or  riding  the  marches — though  their 
religious  connection  is  apparently  forgotten.    See  Rogation 

DaTB:  PBBA3CBULATION. 

ASCERTAIN,  v.  ds'sir-tan'  [OP.  aceHa/mer^itom  L. 


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ASCETIC. 

ad:  F.  certain,  certain— from  L.  ad,  to;  eertus,  sure]:  to 
make  certain;  to  make  sure  by  examination;  to  establish. 
As'cEBTAiN'iira.  imp.  As' cbrt aimed',  pp.  -tdnd'.  Ascer- 
tainable, a.  ds84r-tdnd-bl,  that  may  be  made  sure  of  hy 
search  or  examination.  Ascebtaenment,  n.  ds'sertdn'ment^ 
establishment;  discoyery.    As  cebtaih'eb,  n.  one  who. 

ASCETIC,  n.  dss^tik  [Gr.  askltlkos,  relating  to  the 
practice  of  anything;  asketos,  exercised,  practiced;  askesis^ 
the  discipline  practiced  by  the  wrestlers]:  one  unduly  rigid 
or  austere;  one  who  retires  from  the  world:  Adj.  retired 
from  the  world;  austere;  also  Ascet'ical,  a.  pJcdL  Abcet'- 
ics,  n.  -IkSf  a  treatise  on  the  subject  of  asceticism  or  giTing* 
rules  to  be  observed  by  ascetics.  Asceticism,  n.  dB-sefi-^iem, 
the  practice  of  ascetics.  Among  the  -Greeks,  akkem  denoted 
the  exercise  and  discipline  practiced  by  the  athletes  or 
wrestlers,  who  had  to  harden  their  bodies  by  exertion  and 
to  avoid  all  sensual  and  effeminating  indulgences.  In  the 
schools  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  especially  of  the  Stoics, 
the  word  which  signified  the  discipline  practiced  by  the 
wrestlers,  signified  the  practice  of  mastering  the  desires  and 
passions,  or  of  severe  virtue.  In  these  senses  it  passed  into 
the  language  of  the  early  Christians.  The  language 
of  the  apostle  Paul  in  comparing  the  Christians  to 
wrestlers  who  had  to  contend  with  Satan,  the  world,  and 
the  flesh,  contributed  to  this.  But  the  philosophy  of  the 
time  had  more  to  do  with  it,  which  held  the  freeing  of  mind 
from  matter  to  be  the  means  of  union  with  Gk)d;  or,  at  least, 
that  the  refraining  from  all  luxurious  pleasure  was  the  way 
to  restore  the  soul  to  its  original  purity.  To  understand  tlie 
vast  influence  that  ascetic  ideas  have  exercised  on  the 
Christian  religion,  we  must  look  beyond  the  bounds  ot  the 
Christian  history.  Thehr  root  lies  in  the  oriental  notion, 
that  the  Absolute  or  All  is  the  only  real  existence;  and  that 
individual  phenomena,  especially  matter  in  all  its  shapes, 
are  really  nothing,  and  are  to  be  despised  and  avoideci,  as 
involving  the  principle  of  separation  from  the  Absolute. 
The  East,  accordingly,  is  the  native  soil  of  A.  The  glowing 
imagination  of  the  oriental  carries  the  practice  of  it  to  a 
monstrous  extravagance,  as  is  seen  in  the  frightful  self- 
tortures  inflicted  by  the  yogins  (see  Yoga)  and  fakirs  (see 
Fakir),  the  suicides  in  the  sacred  Gkmges  and  otherwise, 
and  the  practices  recently  prevalent  of  offering  children  in 
sacrifice,  and  of  burning  widows;  most  of  which,  however, 
have  been  suppressed  by  the  British  government  Bud- 
dhism,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  puritan  revival 
or  reformation— the  Methodism  of  the  Indian  religion — 
carried  the  principle  beyond  its  previous  bounds.  In  its 
contemning  the  world;  in  its  inculcating  a  life  of  solitude 
and  beggary,  mortification  of  the  body,  and  abstinence  from 
all  uncleanncss  and  from  all  exciting  drinks,  the  object  was 
to  keep  as  distant  and  detached  as  possible  from  this  '  Vide 
of  Sorrow.*  See  BcDDHiRBi  and  Nibvana.  The  sober 
Chinese,  and  the  more  moral  and  rational  Persians,  never 
carried  asceticism  to  these  extravagances;  and  the  earnest 
£^01>tians  sought  to  confine  it  to  monogamy  of  the  priests, 
abstaining  from  the  flesh  of  swine  and  from  beans,  rigid 


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ASCETIC. 

purity,  ciicumcisioD,  moderate  fla^llation,  and  frequent 
contemplation  of  death  (for  which  there  were  remembrancers 
provided,  even  in  the  midst  of  festivities).  These  are 
certainly  milder  formfi  of  A.,  but  the  principle  is  the  same. 

It  is  in  the  light  of  this  fore-history  that  we  must  consider 
Judaic  and  Christian  asceticism.  In  the  oriental  mind, 
especial Iv  in  Egypt,  circumcision,  avoiding  of  all  unclean- 
ness,  and  fasting,  were  signs  of  humiliation  before  Qod;  and 
in  the  Mosaic  ntual  they  were  conditions  of  Uie  favor  of  the 
holy  Jehovah.  Voluntary  vows,  abstaining  even  from  law- 
ful food,  wine,  etc.,  were  held  to  have  a  special  purifying, 
consecrating  efficacy,  particularly  for  prophets  and  men  of 
specjal  calhngs.  But  self-castigation  was  foreign  to  the 
sobriety  of  Judaism,  and  even  hermitism  came  into  estab- 
lished practice  onlv  shortly  before  Christ,  in  Palestine 
among  the  Essenes  (q.v.),  in  Egypt  among  the  Therapeut® 
(q.v.),  though  doubtless  Jewish  A.  had  become  more  stem 
and  gloomy  since  the  exile  in  Babylon. 

A.  was  far  less  congenial  to  the  reflective  nations  of  the 
West,  above  all  to  the  cheerful  Greeks.  A  Gieek  felt  him- 
self entitled  to  enjoyment  as  well  as  his  gods;  hence  Greek 
religious  festivals  were  pervaded  by  cneerfulness.  The 
only  exception  appears  to  be  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  which 
never  took  hold  of  the  people  generally,  and  the  passine 
phenomenon  of  the  Pythagorean  fraternity.  The  attack 
made  by  the  Socratic  school  upon  the  body  as  the  prison  of 
the  soul— a  view  reminding  one  of  the  East— and  the  ex- 
travagant contempt  for  the  elegances,  and  even  decencies,  of 
life  professed  by  the  later  Stoics  and  Cynics,  were  no 
genume  fruita  of  the  popular  Greek  mind;  and  we  must 
also  ascribe  to  the  infusion  of  oriental  philosophy  the  ascetic 
tendencies  of  Neoplatonism,  in  holding  abstmence  from 
flesh  and  from  marriage  as  chief  conditions  of  absorption 
into  thfi  divinity. 

It  was  into  the  midst  of  these  ideas  that  Christianity  was 
introduced.  The  Jewish  converts  brought  with  them  their 
convictions  about  fasting.  Fasting  and  Nazaritic  observ- 
ances  were  thought  sanctifying  preparatives  for  great  un- 
dertakings; and  the  inculcation  of  abstinence  from  mar- 
riage, on  tie  ground  of  the  expected  speedy  reappearance 
of  Christ,  falls  in  with  the  same  notion,  namely,  that  the 
flesh,  that  is,  the  sensuous  part  of  our  nature,  is  the  seat  of 
sfn,  and  must  therefore,  first  of  all,  be  rigorously  chained. 
The  oriental  traditions  of  A.;  the  spirituality  of  Christian- 
ity, pointing  away  from  earth  to  heaven ;  opposition  to  the  cor- 
rupUon  of  3ie  heathen  world;  the  distinction  made  b.etween 
belief  and  knowledge,  as  a  higher  and  lower  stage  of  intel- 
ligence, leading  to  a  corresponding  distinction  of  a  higher 
and  lower  stage  of  virtue,— all  combined  to  make  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  first  two  centuries  hold  aloof  from  the  world  and 
its  wisdom,  and  favor  abstinence  from  marriage,  more  es- 
pecially on  the  part  of  the  clergy.  This  ascetic  spirit  began 
as  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  2d  c.  to  court  trial  in 
the  perilous  practice  of  men  and  women  living  together 
under  vows  of  continence.  We  find  Cyprian  aissuadinff 
from  the  dangerous  experiment,  and  even  the  authority  ox 


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ASCETIC. 

the  church  inteipofied 'to  the  same  effect  But  duriag  the 
first  three  centuries  no  irrevocable  vows  yet  bound  the  deVv 
otees  to  a  lifelong  A.    Fasting  was  also  comparatively  rare. 

But  the  tendency  to  outward  manifestations  began  W 
^w  stronger.  The  inward  and  spiritual  life  of  the  Chris- 
tians had  greatly  declined;  and  if  the  previous  bloody  per- 
secutions had  diriven  individuals  from  human  society  into 
the  deserts,  the  growing  secularization  of  the  church,  after 
Christianity  became  the  state  reli^on,  had  the  same  effect 
to  a  still  jpeater  degree.  All  this  paved  the  way  for  ttie 
chief  manifestations  of  A. — namely,  monastidsm,  whi«^h 
the  church  deemed  herself  compelled  by  the  overwhelmiu^ 
tide  of  opinion  within  and  without  to  recognize,  and  take 
under  her  charge.  See  Monachism.  From  the  African 
Church,  represented  by  Tertullian  and  Augustine,  a  spirit 
of  gloomy  and  crushing  supematuralism  spread  deeper  and 
deeper  over  the  Western  Church  generally,  intensifying 
the  ascetic  tendencies,  and  loading  to  sdll  more  marked 
separation  from  a  despised  world.  There  were  not  wanting 
healthier  minds — as  Jovianus,  Vigilantius,  and  others— to 
raise  their  voices  against  fasting,  monkery,  and  the  outward 
works  of  A.  generally;  but  such  protests  were  vain,  and 
became  more  rare. 

From  the  11th  c,  the  Cathari,  Waldenses,  and  other 
sects,  though  themselves  ascetics  in  some  sense,  yet  assailed 
the  external  A.  of  the  church;  the  classic  Petrarch  fought 
on  the  same  side;  and  so  did  Wickliffe,  Huss,  and  Jerome 
of  Prague,  in  their  premature  struggle-  at  reformation. 
After  a  preliminary  skirmish  by  Erasmus,  the  struggle  was 
decided  in  the  reformation  of  Uie  16th  c  The  f unoSmental 
principle  of  that  movement,  that  salvation  is  secured  by 
justification  through  faith,  and  not  through  dead  works, 
struck  at  the  root  of  monkery  and  mortification  iL  general. 
But  the  victory  has  not  been  so  complete  as  is  often  as- 
sumed. The  ascetic  spirit  often  shows  itself  still  alive 
under  various  disguises  even  in  Protestantism.  The  Men- 
nonites  inculcated  a  rigid  A.;  and  with  the  Shakers  of 
America,  celibacy  is  practiced  as  a  virtue.  The  essence  of  A. 
is  to  hold  bodily  self-denials  and  suffering  to  be  meritorious  in 
the  si^ht  of  God^  in  and  for  themselves,  without  regard 
to  their  promoting  the  good  of  others  or  their  improving 
the  individual's  own  character.  In  tliis  light,  some  traivs 
presented  by  the  earlier  Puritanism,  H&thodism,  and 
Quakerism  may  appear  ascetic.  It  is  not  impossible  tiiat 
vegetarianism,  total  abstinence,  and  other  recent  austerities, 
though  advocated  on  other  grounds,  recommend  tliemselves 
to  the  feelings  of  many  from  their  falling  in  with  this 
deep-seated  propensity  to  A.,  which  seems  a  perverted  de- 
velopment from  the  great  truth  that  subjection  to  the  fie^ 
degrades  man's  spirit. 

Even  in  the  Roman  Church,  ascetic  practices  have  been 
modified  in  recent  times;  fastings  are  less  rigorous,  and  the 
self-sacrifice  of  conventual  life  is  more  directed  to  beneficial 
ends.  Mohammedanism  has  undergone  the  same  chanse. 
In  the  Greek  Church,  mpnastidsm  had  always  a  mildef 
form. 


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PLATE    17. 


Artichoke 
Aacidian 


Compound  Ascidlan  (after  Milne- 
Edwaras).  Rosettes  of  6  or  7  united 
individuals,  with  separate  inlialent, 
but  united  exhalent  apertures;  m,  the 
*_.._.  ._^  .         o,  the  common  ex- 

The   colonies  are 
of  seaweed. 


Ferula  Asafetida. 


As  ( 


British  Museum. 


in 


Structure  of  a  simple 
Ascidiaii.  showinj?  m- 
halent  aperture,  lead- 
ing into  respiratory 
pharynx;  looped  ah- 
mentary  canal,  open- 
ing along  with  genital 
duct  into  cloacal  cliam- 
ber;  nerve  ganglion  be- 
tween inhalent  and  ex- 
halent apertures;  re- 
productive organs  near 
the  base,  eggs  in  body- 
cavity,  etc.;  heart  at 
very  base;  Axing  pro- 
cesses. ( After  Haockel.) 


Artichoke. 


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ASCH— ASCHAM. 

ASCH,  dsh:  t.  in  the  w.  of  Bohemia,  14  m.  w.n.w. 
from  Eger.  It  has  cotton,  silk  and  woolen  manufactures. 
Pop  (i«80)  13,209. 

ASCHAFFENBURG.  dshdffen^for^:  chief  t.  on  the 
right  hank  of  the  Maine,  in  the  Bavarian  district  of  Un- 
terfranken;  lat  60''  1'  n.,  long.  9**  T  e.  It  is  built  upon 
an  eminence,  and  has  bolh  {^  healthful  and  attractive  situ- 
ation; but  the  streets  are  narrow,  irregular,  and  slope 
steeply  towards  the  river.  The  castle  of  Johannisberg, 
built  1605-14,  by  Johann  Schweikhardt,  dector  of  Mentz, 
and  the  favorite  hunting  residence  of  many  of  his  suc- 
cessors, forms  a  quadrangle,  with  towers  at  each  comer, 
and  overlooks  the  whole  town.  Besides  the  collegiate 
church,  the  military  barracks,  and  the  town  hospital,  A.  pos- 
sesses a  Roman  villa,  built  by  King  Louis  1.,  1849,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Castor  and  PoUux  edifice  discovered  at  Pompeii. 
A.  is  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of  colored  papers;  it 
has  considerable  trade  in  wood,  building-stone,  tobacco, 
wine,  etc.  A.  existed  as  early  as  the  invasion  of  Germany  by 
the  Romans,  who  built  a  «astle  here.  In  974,  Otto  I.,  Duke 
of  Swabia  and  Bavaria,  founded  the  collegiate  church,  which 
greatly  increased  the  prosperity  of  the  place.  After  Otto's 
death  the  town  came  into  the  possession  of  the  abps.  of 
Mentz,  and  remained  with  them  until  the  dissolution  of  the 
Germanic  empire.  In  1814,  with  the  principality  of  which 
it  is  the  capital,  it  was  ceded  to  Bavaria.  Pop.  (1894) 
18,630,  principally  Rom.  Cath. 

ASCHAM,  as'hjm,  Roger  :  1515—68  ;  b.  Kirby  Wiske, 
Yorkshire:  distinguished  English  writer  and  classical 
scholar.  He  received  his  early  education  in  the  family  of 
Sir  Anthony  Wingfield,  and  in  1530  entered  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  b.a., 
1534.  The  study  of  the  classics,  especially  Greek,  had  re- 
cently been  revived  at  Cambridge,  and  the  natural  bent  of 
A.  impelled  him  with  ardor  to  these  studiea  His  repu- 
tation as  a  classical  scholar  soon  brought  him  numerous 
pupils ;  and  in  lack  of  a  Greek  chair  at  that  time,  he  was 
appointed  by  the  univ.  to  read  lectures  in  the  public  schools. 
He  at  first  opposed  the  then  new  method  of  pronunciation, 
still  used  in  England  ;  but  afterwards  adopted  and  defend- 
ed it.  His  leisure  hours  were  given  to  music,  penman- 
ship, and  archery.  In  defense  of  the  latter  art,  he  wrote, 
in  1544,  a  treatise  entitled  Toxophiltis,  the  pure  English 
style  of  which,  independently  of  its  other  merits,  ranks  it 
with  classical  English  literature.  For  this  treatise,  dedi- 
cated to  Henry  VIII.,  he  was  rewarded  with  an  annual 
pension  of  £10,  equivalent  to  about  £100  of  the  present 
money.  About  the  same  time,  he  was  appointed  univer- 
sity orator.  In  1548,  on  the  death  of  his  former  pupil, 
Grindal,  he  was  called  to  supply  his  place  as  master  of 
languages  to  the  Lady  Elizabeth.  In  this  office  he  gave 
the  highest  satisfaction  ;  but  at  the  end  of  two  years  ab- 
ruptly resigned  It,  on  account  of  some  offense  he  had 
taken  at  some  persons  in  the  princess's  household.  That 
he  did  not  lose  lavor  at  court,  however,  is  manifest,  from  his 


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ASCHERSLEBEN-ASCIDIA, 

having  soon  been  appointed  secretary  to  Sir  Richard  Moiy - 
sin,  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Charles  Y.  He  spent 
tliree  years  in  Germany,  and  published  an  account  of  his 
observations  in  that  country.  He  also  made  a  short  tour 
in  Italy.  During  his  absence,  he  had  been  appointed  Latin 
secretary  to  Edward  YI.  On  his  return,  after  the  deatli 
of  the  king,  the  interest  of  Gardiner,  Bp.  of  Winchester, 
secured  his  appointment  to  the  same  office  under  Mary  ; 
his  pension  also  was  doubled.  His  prudence  and  modera- 
tion preserved  him  from  offending  by  his  Protestantism. 
After  the  death  of  Mary,  Elizabeth  retained  him  at  court 
in  the  double  capacity  of  secretary  and  tutor,  which  he 
discharged  till  his  death.  His  principal  work.  The  School- 
moBler,  a  treatise  on  classical  education,  was  pub.,  1571,  by 
his  widow.  His  Latin  letters  and  poems  have  been  fre- 
quently reprinted.  The  best  edition  of  the  former  is  that 
of  Elstob  (Oxford,  1708).  To  an  ediUon  of  his  English 
works,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Bennet  (1767),  is  prefixed  a  life  by 
Dr.  Johnson. 

AfiCHAM,  a  case  for  the  reception  of  the  bow,  arrows^ 
strings,  and  other  accoutrements  of  the  archer,  derives  its 
name  from  the  author  of  the  TuBophilus. 

ASCHERSLEBEN,  dsh-^-ld'bthi:  t.  in  the  dist.  of 
Magdeburg,  prov.  of  Prussian  Saxony;  lat  51*  46'  n., 
long.  11**  27'  e.;  on  the  river  Eine;  fe  m.  distant  from 
Magdeburg.  The  inhabitants  are  occupied  chiefly  in 
agriculture  and  gardening ;  its  trade  is  not  very  important. 
It  has,  however,  considerable  manufactures  of  woolen», 
lineus,  earthenware,  etc.  Pop.  (1880)  19,501;  (1890)22,865. 

ASCIDIA,  n.  plu.  ds-sidi-d,  or  ds-kidM,  or  Ascid'ians^ 
n.  plu.  -i-dm  [Or.  askidion,  a  little  bag] :  small  marine  or- 
ganisms, belonging  (with  the  Salpiose)  to  the  Tumcata, 
The  classification  of  the  TurUcaia  has  been  much  debated. 
Once  grouped  with  the  Mollusca,  they,  the  Polyzoa,  and 
Brachiopoda  were  subsequently  separated  from  the  mol- 
lusks,  and  made  to  constitute  the  MoUuscoidea ;  while 
recently  the  affinities  of  the  A.  with  the  Yertebrata 
have  had  special  interest  in  connection  with  the  theory  of 
development.  See  Mollusca  :  Polyzoa  :  Zooloot  :  Dak- 
wiNiAN  Thbory.  The  ascidians,  with  the  other  Tunvaia, 
are  acephalous,  or  destitute  of  a  head,  and  are  enclosed, 
not  in  a  shell,  but  in  an  elastic  tunic  with  two  orifices, 
composed  of  a  substance  apparently  identical  with  the 
cellulose  of  plants,  consisting  only  or  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen. Within  the  external  tunic  is  a  muscular  membrane, 
regarded  as  corresponding  to  the  mantle  of  other  mollus- 
ca, and  the  openings  of  which  agree  with  those  of  the 
tunic.  The  greater  part  of  the  ca^ty  of  the  mantle  forms 
a  branchial  sac,  the  lining  of  which,  folded  in  various 
ways,  constitutes  the  gills  (branchiaf) ;  and  into  it,  by  the 
respiratory  movements,  currents  of  sea-water  are  continu- 
ally brought,  passing  out  through  the  vent  o.*  anal  orifice. 
Multitudmot  ciHam  the  mouth  and  branchial  sac  cause 
by  their  action  this  continual  flow  of  water.  The  motion 
of  the  cilia  is  apparently  quite  involuntary.    By  this  flow 


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ASCIDIA.. 

of  water,  the  particles  of  food  requisite  for  the  animal 
are  brought  fb,  s6  thftt  the  aeration  of  the  blood  and  the 
supply  of  the  stomach  are  carried  on  together  and  by  the 
same  means.     The  esophagus  or  gullet  opens  from  the 
branchial  sac,  which  is  indeed  regarded  as  probably  an 
expansion  of  the  upper  part  of  it — a  dilated  pharynx. 
Under  the  branchial  sac  is  the  stomach ;  and  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  which  is  more  or  less  tortuous,  finally  returns 
upon  itself,  so  that  the  two  orifices  are  not  far  separate. 
The  lirer  consists  of  follicles  produced  into  tubes,  and 
communicating  with  the  stomach  by 
a  single  openmg.    There  is  a  heart 
and  a  circulation  of  blood,  with  the 
remarkable  peculiarity  of  alternations 
in  its  course,  the  circulation  every 
now  and  then  pausing  and  being  re- 
versed.    The  transparency  of  many 
of  the  ascidians   permits  these  and 
other     internal    movements    to    be 
easily  observed.      The  nervous  svs- 
j  tem  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  a 

single  ganglion,  situated  between  the 
mouth  and  the  anal  orifice,  sending 
out  filaments  to  both  of  them,  and 
other  branches  over  the  surface  of 
Nerrous  System  of  the  mantle.  The  mantle  is  capable 
AscidiAn.  ^^  contracting  suddenly  to  eject  a 

^rgliil^^dJthe^an'l  Jet  of  water,  and  with  it  an;r  body 
tie  (the  external  tunic  the  presence  of  which  IS  disagree- 
being  removed).  able.      The   mantle    contracts   and 

ejects  water,  also  when  the  animal  is  touched,  and  this 
appears  to  be  the  only  means  of  defense.  There  is  no 
trace  of  eyes  or  other  organs  of  special  sense. 

The  ascidians  are  found  in  all  seas,  and  often  constitute 
an  important  part  of  the  food  of  fishes.  Some  of  them 
are  occasionally  used  as  human  food,  as  Cynthia  mierooo9- 
mu$  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.    Many  of  them 


Section  of  Social  Aacidlan. 

a,  mouth;  6,  vent;  c;  stomach;  d.  intestinal  canal; 
e,  common  tubular  stem. 

are  very  small,  but  some  attain  a  size  of  five  or  six  inches 
in  diameter,  and  when  touched  eject  water  to  a  consider- 
able height,  the  largest  of  them  to  about  three  feet.  They 
nx%  all  fixed  by  the  base,  in  their  mature  state,  to  some 


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A8CIDIA. 

•olid  substance,  as  a  rock  or  seaweed ;  sometime*  b>  tlie 
^tervention  of  a  stalk  or  peduncle.  In  some  kinds  {ooekU 
A^ddians),  the  peduncles  of  a  number  of  individuals  are 
connected  by  a  tubular  stem,  and  to  some  extent  they 
have  a  common  circulation  of  blood,  although  each  has 
its  own  heart,  respiratory  apparatus,  and  digestive  system; 
and  if  a  ligature  is  drawn  around  the  pedimcle  of  one  so 
as  to  cut  it  off  from  the  common  circulation,  circulation 
takes  place  in  it  as  in  a  solitary  ascidian.  In  other  kinds 
(more  strictly  called  (Compound  Agddians — ^which  designa- 
tion, however,  is  by  some  authors  applied  to  those  just  de- 
scribed, while  these  are  called  Aggregate  AsetcUans),  the 
tunics  of  many  are  united  into  a  mass,  and  they  form 
svstems  like  zoophytes.  The  compound  system  some- 
tunes  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  an  actinia.  Yeiy 
frequently  it  forms  a  slimy  crust  upon  algse,  shells,  etc, 
or  projects  in  globular  or  conical  masses,  'more  like  a 
lump  of  inanimate  matter  than  a  being  endowed  with  vi- 
tality * — *  a  curious  and  interesting  internal  or^nization, 
veiled  by  the  coarsest  exterior.'  The  individuals  are 
sometimes  connected  by  a  gelatinous  flesh,  which  consists 
of  cellulose,  and  there  is  sometimes  a  calcareous  deposi- 
tion in  this  connecting  substance  as  in  the  compound 
polyps.  The  individuals  in  these  svstems  have  always 
sprung  by  gemmation  from  one,  and  both  the  solitary  and 
compound  ascidians  propa^te  by  eggs.  The  young  have 
the  power  of  active  locomotion,  resemble 
tadpoles  in  form,  and  swim  by  means  of 
a  vibratile  tail,  which  disappears  when 
they  settle,  being  usually  detached  by 
contraction  at  the  base.  The  sexes  are 
supposed  to  be  distinct  in  only  some  of 
the  ascidians.  The  ovaries  are  usually 
large,  and  the  ova  are  carried  away  by 
the  stream  which  passes  through  the  Asctdian  (yoon^X 
animal.  It  is  in  the  solitary  ascidians 
that  the  highest  organization  is  to  be  observed,  and  in 
which  a  distinction  of  sexes  appears.  In  them,  a  muscu- 
lar ring  surrounds  the  mouth,  and  can  be  clos^  to  ex- 
clude what  is  unfit  to  enter.  Within  this  aperture  there 
is  also  a  fringe  of  tentacula,  short  and  simple,  or  longer 
and  minutely  divided.  In  the  compound  ascidians,  gem- 
mation does  not  begin  till  the  single  animal  has  been  full v 
developed  ;  thereafter,  bud  after  bud  is  produced,  accord- 
ing to  the  plan  upon  which  the  compound  system  is  con- 
structed, and  *the  procreative  force  of  the  germ-mass 
finally  exhausts  itself  in  the  formation  of  male  and  female 
organs,  in  which  that  force  is  again  mysteriously  renewed 
under  its  two  forms  of  the  spermatozoon  and  the  germinal 
vesicle,  by  the  combination  of  which  the  reproductiye 
cycle  again  begins  its  CQurse.' 

The  special  mterest  in  the  A.  of  late  years  has  been  in 
consequence  of  the  discovery,  by  a  Bussian  naturalist, 
Kowalevsky,  of  what  is  believed  to  be  a  notochord  (em- 
bryonic backbone),  and  above  it  a  spinal  nervous  cord, 
in  the  tadpole-shaped  larva  of  an  ascidian;  but  this 


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ASCIDIOIDA— ASCLEPIADACEiE. 

is  questioned  by  some  naturalists.    See  Packard's  Zo- 
ology, 

ASCIDIOIDA,  n.  plu.  ds-kidl-oy' d&  [Gr.  askid^Um,  a 
little  bag;  eido9,  resemblance] :  a  class  of  molluscous  animals 
which  have  often  the  shape  of  a  two-necked  bottle;  same 
sense  as  eucidia;  synonym  of  '  Tunicata.' 

ASCIDIUM,  n.  ds-kidi-um,  Ascm'iA.  n.  plu.:  in  bat,  a 
fonn  of  leaf  in  which  the  stalk  is  hollowed  out  and  closed 
by  the  blade  as  by  a  lid;  a  pitcher-leaf. 

ASCII,  n.  plu.  ds'i-i,  or  dsk' i-l,  Asciass,  n.  plu.  ds'ldm, 
Hftdskl^m  f L.  asGius,  shadowless— from  Qr.oukUs,  shadow- 
leas,  dark— from  Gr.  a,  without;  sicid,  a  shadow]:  applied 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  torrid  zone,  who  are  shadowless 
at  noon.  They  are  also  called  Amphis'cii,  because  when 
not  shadowless  their  shadows  will  at  noon  fall  northwards 
one  part  of  the  year  and  southwards  at  another.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  n.  temperate  zone  at  noon  have  their 
ahadows  always  falling  northwards,  and  those  of  the  s. 
temperate  zone  always  south,  and  are  called  ANns'cn,  -^H-l. 
In  the  frigid  zones,  when  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon,  the 
shadows  of  the  inhabitants  are  directed  to  every  point 
of  the  compass  hi  succession,  and  they  are  called  PsBis'cn, 
-H-i. 

ASCIT^,  &8-m,'tet  or  Ascitans,  ds-n'tdryz  [Gr.  askos,  a 
leathern  bottle]:  a  sect  of  Montanists  who  arose  in  the  2d 
c.  Their  name  was  designed  to  express  the  fact  that  some 
Bacchanals  of  their  party  believed  the  passage  in  Matt.  ix. 
17,  which  speaks  oi  pouring  new  wine  into  new  bottles, 
required  them  to  blow  up  a  skin  or  bag,  and  dance  aroimd 
it  when  inflated,  which  accordingly  they  did  with  suitable 
vigor,  as  an  act  of  solemn  worship. 

ASCITES,  n.  plu.  dsn'tez  [Gr.  cbskos,  a  cavity  or  blad- 
der]: dropsy  of  the  abdomen;  a  morbid  accumulation  of 
serous  fluid  in  the  cavity  of  the  peritoneum.  Ascitic,  a. 
dS'tU'lk,  or  Ascit'ical,  a.  -ikdl,  dropsical.  Abcit'icallt, 
ad.  4i,    See  Dbofst:  Liver,  Diseases  of  the. 

ASCrriTIOUS,  a.  ds'tH-iUhus  [L.  aseis'co,  I  receive,  I 
adopt]:  additional;  supplemental. 

ASCLEPIAD,  n.  ds-kle'jn-dd:  a  choriambic  verse  first 
used  by  Asclepias,  consisting  of  four  feet— viz.,  a  spondee, 
two  choriamb],  and  an  iambus.  Asclepiadeak,  a.  dskU- 
pi-M'e-dn,  or  Asclefiad'ic,  a.  4k,  pertaining  or  relat- 
mgto. 

ASCLEPIADACE^,  ds-kle'p^-d'dd'se-e,  or  Asclepia- 
DEiB:  nat.  ord.  of  dicotyledonous  or  exogenous  plants, 
mostly  shrubs,  often  with  twining  stems,  almost  always 
with  milky  juice.  The  leaves  are  entire,  and  have  cilia 
between  their  stalks  in  place  of  stipules.  The  flowers  are 
peculiar  in  their  structure,  though  symmetrical  and  regular. 
The  calyx  is  divided  into  five  segments,  the  corolla  into 
five  lobes;  there  are  five  stamens,  and  the  stigma  has  five 
angles.  The  filaments  are  usually  united  to  form  a  tube, 
generally  furnished  with  a  coronet  of  peculiar  hood-shaped 
i^pendages;  the  anthers  are  two-celled,  the  pollen  grains 


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ASCLEPLA^DACEiE. 

oohering  in  wax-like  masses,  which  fall  out  of  the  anther 
cells,  and  become  attached  to  glands  at  the  angles  of  the 
stigma;  there  are  two  ovaries  and  two  styles  very  close 
together,  and  often  very  short,  with  one  dilated  stigma 
common  to  both.  The  fruit  consists  of  two  follicles,  or, 
by  abortion,  of  one  only,  having  numerous  imbricated 
seeds  with  thin  albumen,  the  ends  of  the  seeds  terminat- 
ing in  long  down.  There  are  about  one  thousand  known 
species,  natives  chiefly  of  warm  climates.  Some  of  them 
are  cultivated  in  gardens  and  hot-houses,  upon  account  of 


Vinoetoxicum  officinale, 
a,  root;  6,  fruit;  c,  a  single  seed. 

their  curious  or  beautiful  flowers,  among  the  mo6t  familiar 
of  which  are  some  of  the  species  of  A»el^ncu  (q.  v.)  or  Swal- 
low-wort; perhaps  none  of  them  is  more  highly  esteemed 
than  8teph<inotis  floribunda,  the  fragrance  of  which  equals 
its  beauty;  it  is  sought  for  bridal  garlands.  No  hot-house 
climber  is  better  known  than  Hoya  ca/rrwa,  at  each  flower 
of  which  a  drop  of  honey  hangs.  A  number  of  species  are 
medicinal,  as  Indian  Sarsaparilla  (q.v.),  {Hcnnidemnus  In- 
dictU);  Mudar  (q.v.),  (Calotrapis  giganiea),  highly  prized  in 
the  East  Indies;  Sareostemma  glatumm,  the  Ipecacuanha  of 
Venezuela;  Tylophora  aslhmaiica  and  8ecamo7is  emeUca,  the 
roots  of  which  are  used  as  emetics,  and  in  smaller  doses  as 
cathartics,  and  the  former  of  which  is  reckoned  among 
the  most  valuable  medicinal  plants  of  India;  .C^^nanehum 
acuium,  which  yields  a  purgative  called  Montpelier  Scam- 


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ASCLEPIAD^-ASCLEPUDES. 

many,  and  VineeUmeum  offidnoUe,  which  possesses  similar 
properties.  Argel  (q.v.),  much  used  for  adulterating  senna, 
belongs  to  this  order. — The  down  of  the  seeds  is  us^  some- 
times as  a  substitute  for  silk  or  cotton  (see  Asclbpias);  and 
the  stems  of  not  a  few  species  afford  useful  fibres,  as  those 
of  the  Aaclepias  Syriaca  (see  Asclepias),  the  Mudar  (q.v.), 
and  other  species  of  Calotropis,  natives  of  India  and  Persia, 
Hoya  viridiflora,  Holoat&mma  Bheedianum,  etc.  The  Mudar 
or  Yercum  fibre  is  very  highly  extolled  by  Dr.  Royle  {Fi- 
brous Plants  cf  India).  The  bark  of  Ma/rsdenia  ienadsdma, 
a  small  climbing-plant,  yields  a  fibre  called  Jetee,  of  which 
the  Rajmahal  mountaineers  make  bowstrings,  remarkable 
for  their  great  elasticity,  which  they  are  supposed  to  owe 
in  some  measure  to  the  presence  of  caoutchouc.  The  fibre 
of  M.  Boy  lei  is  used  in  liepal.  Orthanthera  viminea,  which 
grows  at  the  base  of  the  Himalayas,  and  has  long  leafless 
wandlike  stems  of  ten  ft.  in  height,  yields  a  fibre  of  re- 
markable length  and  tenacity,  supposed  to  be  peculiarly 
suited  for  rope-making.  The  fibres  of  Leptcuienia  Jaque- 
manUana  and  Periploea  aphyllum  are  used  in  Sinde  for 
making  the  ropes  and  bands  used  in  wells,  as  water  does 
not  rot  them. — The  milky  juice  of  most  species  of  A.  is 
acrid,  but  in  some  it  is  bland,  and  they  are  used  for  food, 
as  is  the  milk  itself  of  the  Kiriaghuna  or  Cow-plant  of  Cey- 
lon {Oymnema  laetiferum).  A  few  species,  as  Marsdenia 
Unctoria,  a  native  of  Silhet,  yield  indigo  of  excellent  qual- 
ity. The  flowers  of  the  genus  8tapelia  have  a  strong  smell 
ox  canlon,  and  flies  sometimes  lay  their  eggs  upon  them, 
as  it  were,  by  mistake.  There  are  about  20  species  in 
e.  and  central  United  States,  of  which  the  Butterfly  Weed 
{A.  tuberoea)  is  the  most  brilliant. 

ASCLEPI'AD^,  or  Asclepiadbs:  see  ^sculafius. 

ASCLEPIADES,  dskle^Vd-d^:  a  Greek  physician,  b. 
at  Prusa,  in  Bithynia;  lived  during  the  early  part  of  Cice- 
ro's life.  He  has  been  confounded  with  several  other  per- 
sons of  the  same  name.  He  seems  to  have  wandered  about 
considerably  before  he  finally  sesttled  at  Rome;  as  we  read 
of  his  beinjo:  at  Alexandria,  Parium  on  the  Propontis,  and 
Athens.  It  is  not  known  either  when  he  was  bom  or  when 
ke  died.  A.  was  opposed  to  the  principles  of  Hippocrates 
in  medicine.  Pliny,  who  professes  very  little  r^pect  for 
him,  reduces  his  medicinal  remedies  to  five:  abstinence 
from  flesh,  abstinence  from  wine  imder  certain  circimi- 
stances,  friction,  walking,  and  '  gestation '  or  exercise  in 
carrying,  by  which  he  proposed  to  open  the  pores,  and  let 
the  corpuscles  which  caused  disease  escape  in  perspiration; 
for  his  leading  doctrine  was,  that  all  disease  rose  from  an 
inhannonious  distribution  of  the  small,  formless  corpus- 
cles of  whieh  the  body  was  composed.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  very  popular  with  the  Romans  on  accoimt  of  his 
pleasant  and  simple  cures.  His  maxim  was,  that  a  physi^ 
clan  ought  to  cure  surely,  swiftly,  and  agreeably.  A.  is 
also  alleged  to  have  been  the  first  who  distinguished  be* 
tween  acute  and  chronic  diseases,  but  his  knowledge  of 
anatomy  was  apparently  sligihU     The  fragments  of  his 


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A8CLEPIAS— A8C0LL 

writings  which  remain  have  been  gathered  together,  cor 
reeled,  and  published  by  Gumpert,  under  the  title,  Ateld' 
piadis  BUhym  FragmeiUa  (Weimar,  1798). 

A8CLEPIAS,  ds-JUe'jiMB,  or  Swallow- wort:  genus  of 
plants,  type  of  the  nat.  ord.  Asdepiadac&B,  The  corolla  is 
wheel-shaped  and  reflexed;  the  coronet  fleshy,  and  each  of 
its  hooded  tips  has  a  horn.  The  species  are  generally  up- 
right— seldom  climbing  and  twinmg — ^herb^ceous  plants 
with  opposite,  whorled,  or  alternate  leaves.  Thejr  are 
mostly  American.  The  flowers  are  disposed  in  simple 
umbels  between  the  leaf-stalks. — A,  Sjfriaca,  Syrian  or 
Virginian  Swallow- wort,  sometimes  called  Virginian  Silk, 
appears  to  be  a  native  of  N.  Amer.,  and  not  of  Syria  as 
was  supposed.  It  is  frequently  cultivated  in  flower- 
gardens.  It  has  an  unbranched  stem  4r-7  ft.  high;  thick, 
ovate  leaves,  covered  with  a  grayish  doM^n  on  the  under 
side,  and  large,  stalked,  nodding  umbels  of  many  dull  red 
flowers,  which  diftuse  a  strong  and  sweetish  odor.  The 
whole  plant  is  full  of  an  acrid  white  milk,  which  contains 
caoutchouc.  The  young  shoots  are  eaten  in  N.  Amer.  like 
asparagus,  as  those  of  A.  stipitacea  are  in  Arabia.  A  brown 
well-tasted  sugar  is  prepared  in  Canada  from  the  flowers; 
and  the  silk-like  down  of  the  seeds  has  been  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  either  alone,  or  with  wool 
or  silk,  but  is  more  frequently  employed  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  wadding,  and  for  stuoffing  mattresses  and  pillows. 
The  plant  is  valuable  chiefly  for  the  fibre  of  its  stalks, 
which  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  thread,  cloth,  ropes, 
nets,  etc.,  in  many  parts  of  K.  Amer.,  and  on  accoimt  of 
which  it  has  been  recommended  for  general  cultivation  in 
Europe.  The  fibre  is  said  to  be  of  superior  quality.  The 
plant  rapidly  extends  by  its  creeping  roots,  and  readily 
becomes  a  weed,  where  it  has  been  introduced. — The  roots 
of  several  other  N.  Amer.  species  are  used  as  diaphoretics 
and  expectorants,  as  A,  incamaia,  A.  iuberoaa,  etc.  The 
latter  is  a  very  ornamental  garden-flower,  and  Is  called 
Butterfly  Weed  and  Pleurisy  Root  in  the  United  States, 
where  it  is  frequent  on  stony  and  sandy  groimds.  A. 
Curassavica  is  called  Wild  Ipecacuanha  in  the  West  Indi^ 
and  a  decoction  of  it  is  used  by  the  negroes  as  an  emetic 
and  purgative. 

ASCOLI,  dsk6-le  (anciently,  AsoiUum  Picenum):  old  city 
of  Italy,  cap.  of  the  province  Ascoli-Piceno;  seat  of  a 
bishop;  lat.  42"  5(y  n.,  lon^.  18**  87'  e.  It  is  built  on  a 
hill,  on  the  right  bank  of  tne  Tronto,  which  formed  the 
boundary  between  the  late  Roman  and  Neapolitan  terri- 
tories. From  the  Adriatic,  it  is  16  m.  w.;  from  Ancona, 
53  s.  Its  harbor  (Porto  d'Ascoli)  has  some  coasting- 
trade,  and  is  defended  by  two  forts.  The  town  is 
beautifully  situated,  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  fer- 
•tile  valley  through  which  the  river  flows,  and  of  the  rug- 
ged Apennines,  which  here  rise  7,212  ft. 

In  ancient  times,  it  was  inhabited  by  the  Piceni,  the 
descendants  of  a  colony  of  Sabines,  who  maintained  their 
independence  against  the  Romans  until  b.c.  268.  Nearly 
two  centuries  later,  they  were  prominent  in  the  Sodal 


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Development  of:  I,  Ascidlan ;  J,  Aniphloxus;  K,  Frog.  1,  ovum;  2, 
se^mentine  ovum;  3,  morula,  or  blastospnere;  4,  gastrula;  5,  further  ad- 
vanoed  embryo. 


Attachment  and  degeneration  of  lai^al  Agcidiau  :  A,  Immediately  after 
attachment  to  stone  or  shell;  B,  showing  the  degeneration  of  tail,  spinal 
cord,  etc.;  C,  a  young  Ascidian  which  exhibits  the  symmetry  and  essential 
structure  of  the  adult;  by  brain;  m,  mouth;  n,  notochord;  g,8,  gill-slifs;  t,  tail. 


Aacldians.— l,Perophora:  a.  mouth; 
ft,  vent;  c,  intestinal  canal ;  d,  stomach ; 
e,  common  tubular  stem;  2,  Ascidia 
echinata;  8,  Ascidia  virginea;  4, 
Qynthla  quadra  ngularis;  5,  Botryllus 
▼lolaceus. 


Portable 
Aspersoriam. 


Aspergillus. 


roi.a 


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ASC0MYCETE8— ASELLUS. 

War;  and  on  the  taking  of  their  town  by  Pompeius  Strabo, 
were  subjected  to  the  severest  punishments.  The  town 
was  annexed  to  the  panal  states  by  Pope  Clement  V.  1426; 
and  with  them  passed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Pop. 
(18y3)  17.b44. 

ASCOMYCETES,  n.  aiUcomlse'tez  [Gr.  aakoB,  a  bladder; 
mukes,  a  mushroom]:  in  bot.,  the  group  of  Fungi  which 
reproduce  by  asci.     See  Ascus. 

ASCOSPORES,  n.  plu.  d^'kii-»pdrz  [Gr.  askos,  a  bladder, 
and  spores]:  in  bot,  the  spores  or  reproductive  cells  devel- 
oped in  asci. 

ASCRIBE,  V.  ds-krib'  [L.  oscrtbeH,  to  add  to  a  writing 
—from  ad,  to;  scrlbo,  I  write— /«Y.,  to  add  to  a  writing]:  to 
impute  to;  to  assign  to  as  a  cause;  to  attribute.  Abgbi'bable, 
a.  bd-bly  that  may  be  attributed  to.  Ascm  binq,  imp. 
Ascribed,  pp.  askr%bd'.  Ascription,  n.  aa-krip shun\\hQ 
act  of  attributing  to.  Ascripti'tious,  a.  -tl'shus,  ascribed; 
imputed;  assigned. 

ASCUS,  n.  d^kus,  Asci,  plu.  m'kl  [Gr.  cukos:  L.  ascus, 
a  bladder] :  in  bot.,  large  cells,  in  which  new  cells  or  spores, 
usually  eight  in  number,  are  developed— a  common  mode 
of  reproduction  in  certain  cryptogams;  called  also  Ascblli. 
AsciORROUB,  a.  as-s^'isrus  [L.  g&ro,  to  wear,  to  carry 
about] :  having  asci. 

ASELLI,  d-zel'e,  Asel'lio,  or  Asellius,  Caspar: 
abt.  1581— abt.  1626;  b.  Cremona:  celebrated  Italian 
physician.  He  served  at  first  as  a  military  surgeon,  after- 
wards became  prof,  of  anatomy  and  surgery  ^t  Padua.  In 
1622,  while  at  Milan,  le  discovered  the  lacteal  vessels. 
Before  A.'s  time,  anatomists  had  supposed  that  the 
chyle  was  carried  from  the  intestines  into  the  liver  by  the 
mesenteric  veins.  One  day,  dissecting  a  living  dog,  he 
noticed  for  the  first  time  the  multitude  of  little  vessels, 
which  suck  up  the  nutritive  portion  of  the  food.  At  first, 
he  took  them  for  nerves;  but  on  pricking  one  with  the 
point  of  his  scalpel,  a  white  liquid  spurted  out,  and  the 
discovery  flashed  on  him  in  a  moment.  He  seems,  how- 
ever, never  to  have  understood  or  described  them  with 
complete  accuracjr.  His  treatise  on  his  discovery  was 
pub.  a  year  after  his  death.  It  is  entitled  De  Lactibus,  si've 
Laeteis  Venis,  Quarto  Vasorum  Mesaraiccrum  Oetvere,  Now 
Tnvento,  Dissertatio,  and  has  several  times  been  reprinted. 

It  is  remarkable  that  such  men  as  Gaspard  Honman  and 
Harvey  zealously  combated  the  opinions  of  A.  It  was 
nearly  half  a  century  before  professional  men  admitted 
that  a  great  discovery  had  been  made  in  anatomy.  See 
Lacteals. 

ASEL'LUS,  in  Ichthyology:  generic  nwne  now  disused, 
but  by  which  the  cod  and  other  Oadtdcs  were  formerly 
sometimes  designated.  It  is  retained  in  the  pharmacopoeias, 
in  the  name  of  Cod-liver  Oil,  Oleum  jecoris  aselli. — The 
same  generic  name  is  now  employed,  in  a  different  depart- 
ment of  natural  history,  to  denote  a  genus  of  small  Isopod 
Crustaceans,  one  of  which,  A.  aquatic^is,  is  sometimes 
called  the  Water  Hog-louse.  This  ^enus  is  the  type  of  ^ 
family,  AselUdcs. 
^-^ 

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ASEPSIS. 

ASEPSIS:  XL  €^^'»t$  [Gr.  a,  without;  seepns,  patrefmc- 
tion]:  in  surgery  a  state  of  the  most  rigid  cleanliness  of  the 
patient,  of  tne  surgeon  and  assistants,  of  all  instruments 
used  in  the  operation,  and  of  the  ligatures,  sutures,  and 
dressings.  It  differs  from  Antisepsis  (see  Aktiseftic)  in 
that  A.  aims  at  exclusion  of  all  germs  of  disease,  while 
Antisepsis  is  directed  toward  their  destruction.  In  order 
that  a  surgiod  operation  may  be  performed  asepticallj  the 
patient  must  be  bathed,  and  the  portion  to  be  operated  on 
must  be  scrubbed,  shaved,  and  disinfected  by  a  germicidal 
agent;  the  surgeon's  and  his  assistants'  hands  must  in  like 
manner  be  scrubbed,  particular  attention  being  given  to  the 
finger,  nails,  under  which  gtsrms  find  a  fertile  soil.  The  in- 
struments are  rendered  sterile  and  free  from  germs  best  by 
heat,  either  dry  or  moist;  so  baking  or  boiling  is  resorted 
to.  The  sponges  used  to  absorb  blood  must  be  absolutely 
aseptic,  as  must  also  the  catgut  used  for  ligatures,  and  the 
material  for  sutures,  which  may  be  silver  wire,  catgut,  or 
silk.  Bv  thus  precluding  all  possibility  of  the  entrance  of 
germs,  the  surgeon  may  now  undertake  operations,  such  as 
amputations  or  laparotomies,  with  every  feeling  of  security, 
knowing  that  if  his  aseptic  precautions  have  been  perfect 
he  may  reasonably  expect  the  wound  to  heal  by  primary 
union  without  fever,  and  without  formation  of  a  drop  of 
pus.  Since  A.  has  been  practiced  operations  are  performed, 
with  perfect  recovery  of  the  patient,  that  previousiv  would 
have  been  considered  foolhardv  and  certainly  fatal;  hospital 
gangrene  is  unknown,  'blood  poisoning*  almost  unheard 
of,  and  the  mortality  foUowing  operations  reduced  to  a 


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ASEPTA— ASGILL. 

ASEPTA,  n.  d-dip'td,  [Or.  oi&ptOB,  not  liable  to  putrefy]: 
substances  not  liable  to  putrefaction.     Aseptic,  a.  not 
pliable  to  putrefy. 

A' 8ES  [singular  in  Old  Norse  As,  pi.  Aetir;  in  Gothic, 
An$;  in  Saxon.  08  (Ek)]'.  a  race  of  gods  in  Northern  or 
Scandinavian  Mythology  (q.v.),  though  not  the  oldest,  yet 
the  most  powerful,  like  the  Jupiter  dynasty  among  the 
Greeks.  They  are  usually  considered  as  numbering  twelve 
gods,  and  as  many  goddesses.  The  gods  are — Odin,  Thor, 
Baldur,  Niord,  JVeyr,  Tyr,  Bragi,  Heimdal,  Widar,  Wall, 
UUer,  and  Forseti;  the  best  known  of  the  goddesses — 
Frigga,  Freyja,  Idunna,  Eira,  and  Saga.  The  worship  of 
the  A.,  or  the  Odin  religion,  at  least  in  its  outlines,  was 
rooted  not  only  among  the  nations  of  Scandinavia,  but 
among  the  (Germanic  races  generally.  Besides  other  traces, 
proofs  of  it«  prevalence  are  found  in  a  multitude  of  Gothic, 
Saxon,  and  Old  High  German  proper  names;  many  of 
wb^ch  continue  in  use,  though  their  connection  with 
(German  paganism  passes  unperceived:  Oswald,  Esmond, 
Oswin,  Anselm,  Ansgar,  etc. 

ASEXUAL,  a.  d^k$'u-dl  [Gr.  a,  without,  and  aeaniaX]. 
having  no  distinct  sex;  appliecl  to  modes  of  reproduction  of 
living  creatures,  in  which  the  sexes  are  not  concerned. 

ASGARD,  ds'gdrd:  in  Scandinavian  Mythology  (q.v.), 
the  home  of  the  gods.  Odin  and  the  other  jjods  dwelt  in 
the  mansion  Gladsheim,  the  goddesses  in  Ymgulf .  War- 
riors slain  in  battle  lived  here  in  Walhalla.  Every  day 
the  gods  assembled  in  council  beneath  the  ash- tree 
Yggorasil. 

ASGILL,  as'gil,  John:  an  eccentric  English  litterateur; 
b.  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  d.  1788,  Nov.  He 
studied  for  the  bar;  but  being  addicted  to  writing  political 
pamphlets,  he  soon  became  involved  in  pectmiary  difficul- 
ties. Upon  the  passing  of  the  act  for  the  resumption  of 
forfeited  estates  in  Ireland,  1699,  he  went  thither,  found 
the  whole  countiy  wrangling  in  lawsuits,  secured  a  lucra- 
tive practice,  and  obtained  a  seat  in  the  Irish  parliament. 
But  he  had  recently  published  an  extraordinary  pamphlet, 
entitled.  An  Argument  proving  that,  according  to  the  Covenant 
cf  Eternal  Life  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  Man  may  he  trans- 
lated hence  into  that  Eternal  Life  toithout  passing  through 
Death,  aithough  the  Human  Nature  of  Christ  himself  could 
not  thus  be  translated  till  he  had  passed  through  Death  (1700). 
The  public  flew  into  a  rage  agamst  this  absurd  production; 
the  Irish  parliament  voted  it  a  blasphemous  libel,  and  the 
astonished  author  was  expelled  from  the  house  after  four 
days.  In  1705,  A.  returned  to  England,  and  entered  the 
English  parliament  as  member  for  Bramber,  in  Sussex. 
But  the  fame  of  his  unlucky  pamphlet  haunted  him  per- 
petually: the  English  house,  resolving  to  be  not  less 
virtuous  than  the  Irish  one,  took  up  the  treatise,  condemned 
it  to  be  burnt  by  the  common  hangman,  as  profane  and 
blasphemous,  and  expelled  A.,  1707,  Dec.  18.  After  this, 
he  betook  himself  for  a  living  to  professional  practice  of  ^ 
humble  grad^— still  inditing  pamphlets, 


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ASH. 

ASH,  n.  d9h  [AS.  c»c:  Icel.  Mhr]:  a  well  known  tree. 
Adj.  made  of  or  pertaining  to  the  ash;  the  Fraxinu*  esud- 
nor,  or  common  ash,  ord.  OUdc^a.  Abhen,  a.  dshen, 
made  of  ash.  Ash-kets,  or  Ashen -keys,  seed  vessels  of 
the  ash-trce,  called  by  botanists  iamaras,  i.e.,  dry,  inde- 
hiscent,  winged,  two-celled,  two-seeded  capsules.  Their 
length  and  lateral  compression  make  the  resemblance  to 
keys.  The  term  is  used  in  heraldry,  the  seed-vessels  being 
occasionally  represented  on  an  escutcheon. 

ASH  {Fraxinusy,  genus  of  trees  belonging  to  the  nat. 
ord.  Olmcea,  and  distinguished  by  very  imperfect  flowers, 
in  which  the  calyx  is  obsolete,  and  the  corolla  either  want- 


Common  Ash. 

ing  or  8-4-partite;  the  fruit  is  a  Mimara,  a  seed-vessel  folia^ 
ceous  at  the  extremity.  The  leaves  are  deciduous,  and 
are  pinnate  with  a  terminal  leaflet.  There  are  about  fifty 
species,  natives  mostly  of  Europe  and  North  America. — 
The  Common  Ash  {F.  excelsior)  grows  wild  in  the  middle 
and  s.  of  Europe  and  n.  of  Asia.  It  is  an  undoubted 
native  of  Britain.  The  flowers  are  quite  naked;  the  leaves 
have  five  or  six  pairs  of  leaflets.  The  flowers  appear  before 
the  leaves  in  spring,  and  the  tree  is  not  covered  with  leaves 
until  the  season  is  far  advanced,  losing  them  again  early  in 
autumn.  It  is,  however,  a  most  beautiful  umbrageous 
tree,  highly  ornamental' in  parks;  though  extremely  inju- 
rious to  the  grass  or  crops  immediately  around  it.  It  rises 
to  the  heiffht  of  100-150  ft.,  generally  with  a  smooth  stem. 
The  wood  is  white,  tough,  and  hard,  much  valued  by 
wheelwrights,  cartwrights,  coach-makers,  joiners,  and 
turners,  it  is  also  excellent  for  fuel.  Sometimes  it  be- 
comes irregular  in  the  disposition  of  its  fibres,  and  finely 
veined,  and  is  then  prized  by  cabinet-makers.  The  wood 
of  the  young  trees  is  almost  as  valuable  as  that  of  the  old. 
Indeed,  the  value  of  the  timber  is  greatest  in  trees  of  which 
the  growth  has  been  rapid,  as  it  exhibits  the  characteristic 
toughness  in  the  highest  degree.  The  A.  prefers  a  loamy 
soil,  but  grows  in  almost  any,  and  succeeds  in  situations 
too  elevated  or  too  exposed  for  most  other  trees.    Cultiv«- 


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ASH. 

tion  has  produced  and  perpetuated  a  number  of  varieties, 
of  which  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Weeping  A.,  with 
boughs  bent  almost  straight  down  to  the  ground;  the  Gurled- 
teated  A.,  with  dark-green  wrinkled  or  curled  leaves;  and 
the  Entire-leaved  A.,  a  very  curious  variety,  with  many  or 
all  of  the  leaves  simple  (not  pinnated),  which  has  been 
erroneously  regarded   by  some  botanists    as    a  distinct 


ComiUoU   Ami. 

^cies,  and  named  F,  simpltcifolta  F.  heterophylla  etc.— « 
The  Small-leaved  A.  {F.  parvifolia)  and  the  Lentibk 
A.  {F.  Unlimfolia)  are  both  natives  of  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  are  very  graceful  and  ornamental 
trees. — The  American  A.,  or  White  A.  {F.  Americana), 
is  readily  distinguished  from  the  Common  A.  by  its 
lighter  bark  and  paler  green  leaves.  The  flowers  have 
a  calyx,  and  the  leaflets  are  shortly  stalked  and  entire 
(those  of  the  Common  A  being  sessile  and  serrated).  It  is 
abundant  in  New  Brunswick  and  Canada,  but  becomes 
rare  to  the  s.  of  New  Jersey.  The  trunk  often  rises  mor« 
than  40  ft.  undivided.  The  wool  is  used  for  the  same  pur 
poses  08  that  of  the  Common  A.— The  Red  A.,  or  Black  A. 
{F.  pubeseens),  is  very  similar,  but  of  smaller  size,  and  has 
a  deep  brown  bark.  It  is  most  abundant  in  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia,  especially  in  swampy  ground.  —The 
Black  A. ,  or  Water  A.  of  the  New  England  States,  New 
Brunswick,  etc.  {F.  mmbueifolia),  is  a  large  tree  with  buds 
of  a  deep  blue  color.— The  Blue  A.  of  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  etc.  {F.  quadrangnlatn),  is  also  a  large  tree. 
The  branches  arc  quadrangular,  the  young  shoots  having 
on  the  angles  four  membranes  which  extend  their  whole 
length. — The  Green  A.  {F.  juglandifolia=riridifi)jecog' 
nized  by  the  brilliant  green  of  its  young  shoots,  is  found 


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ASHAMED. 

cfakfly  in  the  middle  states;  and  the  Cabolina  A.  (F.  Car^ 
Uniana),  remarkable  for  the  great  size  of  its  leaflets,  chiefly 
in  the  southern  states.  Besides  these.  North  America  pro- 
duces a  number  of  other  species  or  varieties.  The  wood  of 
all  of  them  is  used  for  somewhat  similar  purposes  to  that  of 
the  Common  A. — In  the  s.  of  Europe  grows  the  Majstsa  A., 
or  Flowebino  A.  (F.  Omus,  called  Omus  Buropaa  by 
«ome  botanists),  whose  flowers  have  a  4-partite  calyx,  and 
four  small  yellowish-white  petals.    The  tree  has  much  le 


Common  Ash. 

o,  a  branch  with  leaves ;  b,  flowers;  c,  fmit  (on  a  oonaiilerably 

larger  scale  than  the  leaves  and  flowers). 

ambiance  to  the  Common  A.  From  it  the  substance  called 
Manna  (qy.)  is  obtained  by  means  of  transverse  incisions  in 
the  bark;  but  in  very  favorable  situations,  it  flows  spontane- 
ously during  the  greatest  heat  of  summer.  Manna  jb  chiefly 
collected  in  Calabria  and  Sicily.  A  nearly  allied  species, 
F.  rotundifolia,  a  native  of  Greece  and  the  Ionian  Islands, 
vields  it  also  in  perhaps  eoual  quantity.  The  Conmion  A. 
is  said  sometimes  to  produce  the  same  exudation  in  the 
same  warm  climates. 

The  Mountain  A.  is  the  Rowan  Tree  (q.v.),  and  be- 
longs to  a  different  nat.  ord.  Its  resemblance  to  the  A. 
is  chiefly  in  its  leaves. 

The  A.  has  a  peculiar  importance  in  Scandinavian  my- 
thology. The  nrst  man  and  woman  formed  were  Ask  and 
Embla  (Ash  and  Elm).  The  court  of  the  gods  is  repre- 
sented in  the  Edda  as  held  under  an  A.,  called  YggdrasU 
(q.v.).  Connected,  perhaps,  with  these  traditions  is  ths 
superstitious  belief  in  A.  twigs  as  a  charm  against  witch- 
craft and  magic. 

ASHAMED,  pp.  or  a.  a-sMmd!  [AS.  cucamian:  Meso- 
€k>th.  goikaman,  to  be  ashamed:  AS.  a,  on;  and  £ng. 
Mhame]:  confused  from  a  sense  of  guilt  or  unworthiness; 
covered  with  shame.  Abham'edly,  ad.  so  as  to  manifest 
shame;  bashfully. 


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ABHANTI— ASHBURTON. 

ASHANTI,  or  AsHANTEB,  a-skan'te:  ne^ro  kingdom  in 
w.  Africa,  n.  of  Gold  Coaat  Colony;  lat.  5-9%  long.  C-i* 
w. ;  cap.  Ooomassie  (q.v.)  or  Kamassie.  A  large  part  of  the 
country  is  in  forest;  and  the  open  land  is  very  fertile,  pro- 
ducing maize,  millet,  rico,  yams,  tobacco,  so^^,  cocoa, 
gums,  dye-woods,  and  pineapples  and  other  fruit.  Drain- 
age and  limited  communication  are  by  the  Volta,  Prah, 
and  Asslnie  rivers.  Being  shut  in  from  the  sea-board  and 
having  only  a  caravan  route  between  Coomassie  and  Cape 
Coast  Castle,  A.  has  but  little  commerce,  its  exports  being 
mainly  gold-dust  and  palm-oil.  The  natives  show  skill  in 
manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  earthenware,  and  sword- 
blades,  but  are  still  quite  savage.  It  is  believed  that  the 
establishment  of  the  A.  kingdom  was  made  several  centuries 
ago  by  an  emigration  from  n.  of  the  Kong  Mountains.  In 
1700  Osai  Tutu  I.  conquered  Akim,  AsSn,  Gaman,  Den- 
kira,  and  neighboring  states,  and  made  Coomassie  his  cap- 
ital. During  1807-2o  the  people  were  involved  in  war  with 
Great  Britain  and  were  driven  from  the  sea-coast  and  the 
territory  now  forming  a. part  of  the  Gold  Coast  Colony.  In 
187^-4  they  were  again  at  war  with  the  English,  concern- 
ing cession  of  the  Dutch  forts  to  Great  Britain;  and  their 
capital  was  burned  by  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  1874,  Feb.  6. 
The  king  then  renounced  all  claims  on  the  protectorate  of 
the  Gold  Coast  Colonv,  promised  to  protect  traders,  and 
paid  an  indemnity  to  the  Brit.  govt.  In  1876  the  Ashantis 
defeated  the  Juabins,  and  the  latter  took  refuge  within  the 
Brit,  protectorate.  Since  the  burning  of  Coomassie  the 
Brit.  govt,  has  not  attempted  to  assert  territorial  rights 
there,  and  probably  the  last  white  traveller  in  A.  was  Free- 
man, 1888.  A.  was  (1893)  the  only  independent  state  in  the 
*  hinterland  *  adjacent  to  the  European  possessions  on  the 
Gold  and  Slave  Coasts.  Pop. estimated,  1,000,000—8,000,000. 

ASHBOURNE,  or  Abhborhb,  or  Ashbubn,  MCh^km: 
market-town  in  a  rich  district  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  Dove,  in  the  w.  of  Derbyshire,  18  m.  n.w.  from  Derby. 
Ib  lies  in  a  fertile  valley,  amid  beautiful  scenery.  The 
parish  church  is  cruciform,  dating  from  the  18tn  c,  re- 
stored 1845.  There  are  manufactures  of  cotton,  lace,  and 
iron.  At  A. ,  1644,  the  parliamentarv  troops  defeated  those 
of  Charles  I.    Pop.  (1881)  8,485;  (1891)  8,810. 

ASHBURTON,  Lord  (Alexaitder  Baring):  1774-1848, 
May  18:  yoimger  son  of  Sir  Francis  Baring,  Bart.  In 
early  life  he  was  for  many  years  commercial^  engaged  in 
the  United  States  and  the  Canadas,  in  the  service  of  the 
great  London  mercantile  house  founded  by  his  father,  at 
whose  death,  1810,  he  became  the  head  of  the  firm  of 
Baring  Brothers  &  Co.  In  1812,  he  was  elected  M.P.  for 
Taunton;  representing  that  place,  Callington,  and  Thet- 
ford,  in  the  liberal  interest,  tfll  1881,  and  in  1882  was  re- 
turned for  North  Essex  as  a  moderate  conservative.  In 
the  short  administration  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  (188^-85),  he 
was  pres.  of  the  board  of  trade,  and  master  of  the  nnnt, 
and  was  made  Baron  A.  by  patent,  1886.  Apr.  In  1842, 
Lord  A.  was  appointed  special  ambassador  to  the  United 
Btfttes,  to  settle  the  n.w.  boundary  question,  and  other  dis- 


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ARHBURTOK-^ASHEBA. 
pmtes  threateniDg  war;  tnd  in  Aug.  ot  that  year,  he  con- 
cluded the  famous  treaty  of  Washington,  commonly  called 
the  A.treaty^establishing  by  definite  agreement  the  frontief 
Une  between  the  state  of  Maine  and  Canada.  By  this  treaty 
Beren-twelfths  of  the  disputed  ground,  and  the  Britiah 
aettlement  of  Madawaska,  were  given  to  the  United  States; 
but  it  secured  a  better  military  frontier  to  England,  and 
included  heights  commanding  the  St.  Lawrence,  which 
the  award  of  the  king  of  Holland,  who  had  been  choeen 
arbiter,  had  assigned  to  the  Americana.  B^  the  8th  and 
9th  articles,  provisions  were  made  for  puttmg  an  end  to 
the  African  slave-trade;  and  the  10th  article  provided  for 
the  mutual  extradition  of  suspected  criminals.  Lord  A. 
opposed  free-trade,  but  strongly  supported  the  P^^nny- 
postage  system  when  first  proposed  by  Rowland  Hill  in 
1837.  His  eldest  son,  William  Bingham  Baring,  Lord  A., 
1799-1864,  was  educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  entered 
parliament,  1836,  as  member  for  Taimton;  was  appointed 
sec.  to  the  board  of  control,  1841,  Sep.;  and  beoEune  pay- 
master-gen. of  the  forces,  and  treasurer  of  the  navy,  18&, 
Feb. 

ASHBUBTON:  small  town  in  the  s.  of  Devonshire,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  two  paved  streets  croasing  eadi  other. 
The  business  is  mining,  slate  quarrying,  and  serge  manu- 
facture.   Pop.  abt.  8,000. 

ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH,  Ash'be-dH-a'edeh' :  smalltown 
near  the  source  of  the  Mease,  tributary  of  the  Trent,  hi  the 
n.w.  of  Leicestershire.  Leather-making  is  the  principal 
manufacture.  In  the  neighborhood  are  collieries,  and  sahne 
:&  containing  common  salt  in  greater  proportion  than 
%;  also  ironstone,  and  fine  clay.    A  canal  80  i 


the  sea;  also  ironstone,  and  fine  clay.  A  canal  80  m.  long, 
without  a  lock,  connects  the  town  with  Coventry.  The  ruins 
of  A.  Castle  stand  on  a  height  s.  of  the  town.  Maiy  Queen  of 
Scots  was  once  confined  in  this  castle.  St  Helenas  Church, 
an  ancient  structure  with  a  tower,  is  the  burying-place 
of  the  Hastings  family,  as  weU  as  of  Selina,  Countess  of 
Huntingdon,  the  founder  of  the  sect  called  the  Countess 
of  Huntingdon's  Connection.    Pop.  of  A.  (1891)  4,585. 

ASH-COLORED,  a.  [see  Ashbs]:  colored  between  brown 
and  gray,  like  allies. 

A6HD0D:  see  Azotitb. 

ASHE,  ash,  John:  patriot:  1720-1781,  Oct.  24;  b. 
Grove ly,  N.  C.  He  served  several  terms  in  the  colonial 
assembly,  opposed  the  enforcement  of  the  Stamp  Act, 
end  led  the  force  which  destroyed  Fort  Johnson  1775. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  flirst  congress  of  the  province, 
organized  a  regt.  of  troops  and  paid  the  expense  of  its 
equipment,  became  brig.gen.,  made  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  take  Augusta  from  the  British,  and  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Wilmington  1781.  His  death  resulted  from 
small-pox,  and  from  cruel  treatment  by  his  captors. 

ASHERA,  n.  dsh'^r-d  [Heb.J:  the  word  translated 
'  grove,*  in  the  Old  Test.  Scnptures,  but  it  appears  to  have 
been  only  a  pole  of  wood,  or  a  stem  of  a  tree,  set  upright 
on  a  ch-cular  altar  as  an  object  of  worship.  See  Phallus 
and  LiNOA. 


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ASHES— A8HE  V ILLE. 

ASHES,  n.  phi.  &iih!U  [AS.  (Moa,  or  oam.*  loel.  a%ka: 
Goth.  (KQo:  €ter.  oackt^  dust,  refuse]:  the  dust  or  matter 
that  remains  from  a  burnt  body;  the  remains  of  any  body 
reduced  to  dust  Ash,  sing,  a  variety  of  ash,  as  in  cinder- 
ash,  or  tobacco-ash;  often  used  for  <mA«9,  as  in  potcuh, 
Abht,  a.  dsh'i,  pale;  like  ashes.  Abh'brt.  n.  dsh'4r4,  an 
aah-pit.  Abh't-palb,  pale  as  ashes.  Ash- Wednesday, 
(q.y.),  the  first  dajr  of  Lent  Ash-firb,  the  subdued  or  low 
me  used  in  chemical  furnaces. 

ASHES:  remains  of  animal  and  vegetable  bodies  after 
burning.  It  is  not  strictly  correct  to  speak  of  the  A.  of  a 
mineral.  When  lead,  for  instance,  Ib  exposed  to  heat,  it 
turns  to  dross,  which  has  the  appearance  of  A.,  but  is 
merely  the  lead  combined  with  oxygen.  In  the  same  way, 
volcanic  A.,  as  they  are  called,  are  only  a  finer  kind  of 
pumice-stone,  the  solidified  scum  of  molten  lava.  The  A. 
of  organic  substances  destroyed  by  fire  consist  of  the 
fixed  salts  contained  in  these  substances.  In  land-plants, 
the  most  important  are  salts  of  potash,  with  silica  and 
lime;  In  sea-plants,  soda  takes  the  place  of  potash.  By 
lixiviation  of  the  A.,  the  potash  or  soda  is  dissolved  and 
separated  from  the  insoluble  mass,  and  is  then  purified 
by  crystallization.  The  A.  of  sea-plants  contain  also 
more  or  less  iodine.  Peat  and  turf  A.  contain,  besides 
alkalies,  more  or  less  clay  and  sand;  the  same  Ib  true  of 
pit-coal,  which  sometimes  contains  iron. 

Formerly  A.  or  the  inorganic  ingredients  of  plants  were 
considered  unessential  to  their  existence,  but  chemistry  has 
taught  that  a  certain  proportion  of  mineral  food  is  abso- 
lately  necessary  to  their  development. 

The  A.  of  animals  are  similar  to  those  of  vegetables. 
Bone  A.  consist  largely  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid,  and 
are  a  valuable  fertiUzer.  In  timbered  countries  wood  A. 
are  an  article  of  considerable  trade.  They  are  used  in  var- 
ious arts,  e.g.,  soap-boiling,  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  glass- 
making;  for  manufacture  of  potash,  and  for  promoting 
growth  of  plants  (see  Fertilizers),  to  which  they  supply 
potash,  carbonate  of  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  and  a  little 
magnesia.  They  are  useful  also  in  making  available  for 
plants  stores  of  nitrogen  which  the  soil  contains,  or  which 
it  supplies  only  in  forms  not  readily  assimilated. 

The  covering  of  the  head  with  A.  has  long  been  a  com- 
mon sign  of  mourning  among  eastern  nations,  indicative  of 
the  very  deepest  distress.  Instances  of  this  are  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  Penitents  in  the  early  Christian  Church  signi- 
fied their  sorrow  and  humiliation  in  like  manner,  by  stand- 
ing at  the  door  of  the  church  in  'sackcloth  and  ashes.' 
6^  Ash-Wbdnesdat. 

ASHEVILLE,  dah'vil:  cap.  of  Buncombe  co.,  N.  C; 
on  the  East  Tennessee  Virginia  and  Georgia  and  the 
Western  North  Carolina  railroads ;  near  French  Broad 
river ;  125  m.  w.  of  Charlotte,  275  m.  w.  of  Raleigh.  There 
are  five  churches ;  three  academies  and  a  female  college ; 
two   daily,   two   weekly,  one    semi-monthly,  and  two 


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ASHPORD— ASHLAB. 

monthly  papers;  two  national  and  two  state  banks 
(combined  cap.  $320,000) ;  and  several  hotels.  It  is  in 
a  large  tobacco-growing  district,  and  has  four  factories  in 
which  this  product  is  prepared  for  market.  There  are  an 
iron  foundry,  a  planing-mill,  and  various  other  indus- 
tries, as  well  as  important  trade  with  the  local  dis- 
trict, and  quite  an  export  trade  in  tobacco.  The  location 
Is  pleasant,  on  the  w.  side  of  the  Blue  Bidge,  about 
2,500  ft.  above  sea-level ;  and  the  river  is  crossed  by  a 
fine  iron  bridge.  The  elevation,  fine  scenery,  and  pure 
air  have  made  A.  an  attractive  health  resort.  Pop.  (1880) 
2,616;  (1890)  10,286. 

ASHFQRD,  dsh'ford:  town  on  the  w.  of  the  conflaence 
of  the  two  upper  branches  of  the  river  Stour,  near  the 
middle  of  Kent.  Damask  is  manufactured  here.  Pop. 
J1891)  10,728,  which  has  largely  increased  from  its  having 
Decome  the  junction  station  of  three  great  lines  of  railway. 

ASHLAND,  dLsh  land:  town,  Schuvlkill  co.,  Penn.:  in 
the  Mahanoy  valley;  on  the  Lehigh  Valley  and  the  Phila- 
delphia and  Reading  railroads;  ^12  m.  from  Pottsville. 
119  m.  n.w.  from  Philadelphia  *  It  has  11  churches:  a 
ttate  hospital  for  miners;  about  20  schools;  one  daily  and 
three  weekly  newspapers;  a  national  bank  (cap.  $60,000); 
an  opera-house;  and  several  hotels.  The  town  is  lighted 
by  gas,  and  electricity,  and  has  waterworks  and  a  public 
park.  There  are  immense  coal  mines,  large  machine- 
shops,  foundries,  planing-mills,  flour-mills,  and  manu- 
factures of  various  kinds.  Many  of  the  people  are  of 
foreign  birth.    Pop.  (1880)  6,052 ;  (1890)  7,848. 

ASH' LAND :  city,  cap.  of  Ashland  oo.,  Wis. ;  on  Lake 
Superior,  and  on  the  Wisconsin  Central,  the  CMoago 
St.  Paul  Minneapolis  and  Omaha,  the  Northern  Paoifle, 
and  the  Lake  Shore  and  Western  railroads;  80  m.  e. 
of  Duluth.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  sheltered  by  the 
Apostle  Islands ;  is  the  lake-port  for  export  of  sH  the 
ore  produced  in  the  rich  €k)gebic  range;  i&  connected  by 
steamers  with  all  lake-ports,  and  by  excursion-boats  with 
Washburn  and  Bayfield ;  is  a  favorite  summer  resort. 
and  has  the  largest  charcoal  blast-furnace  in  the  world,  8 
of  the  largest  ore  docks  in  the  country;  8  lumber  wharves; 
gold  and  silver  smelting- works;  2  opera-houses;  8  saw- 
mills; street  railroad;  govt,  land  office;  gas  and  electric 
light  plants;  3  national  ^mks  (cap.  $325,000)  and  1  savings 
bank;  Vaughn  Public  Library;  11  churches;  2  dailv  and  5 
weekly  newspapers;  valuation  1892,  $6,605,560;  and 
debt  $216,000.    Pop.  (1885)  4,844;  (1890)  9,956. 

ASHLAR,  or  AfiUEB,  n.  Ath'Ur  [OF.  aitder;  Soot 
aiilair,  hewn  stone — from  F.  aisseUe,  the  arm-nit,  ttie  hollow 
between  a  branch  and  the  stem  of  a  tree— from  L.  acnUa, 
the  arm-pit:  It.  aseiare,  to  cut  or  hew  with  an  ax]:  rongh- 
hewn  stones  used  for  facing  walls,  as  distinguished  from 
rubble  or  rough  stones  which  are  used  as  they  come  from 
the  quarry  without  being  dressed;  free  or  common  stone 
rouehly  diressed  with  tools  to  fit  on  one  another  in  courses 
without  packing.    A.  is  laid  usually  in  regular  ooorses  in 


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ASHLEY— A8HMUN. 

building,  and  is  of  TariouB  kinds,  according  to  the  style  of 
working  that  side  of  the  stone  which  is  to  form  the  facing 


I .  I  .  I .  I 


"1 ' — I ' — I ' — I — 


Ashlar. 

of  the  wall.  Thus,  there  are  tooled  A.— the  marks  of  the 
tooling  being  either  random  or  in  grooves;  polishes  A.,  in 
which  the  face  of  the  stone  is  rubbed  smoodi;  and  rustic  A., 
in  which  only  the  joints  are  accurately  hewn,  the  face  of 
the  stone  being  left  projecting  irregularly.  Quarriers  ap- 
ply the  term  A.  to  squared  stones  before  being  hewn. 
Ash'lebing,  n.  in  earpen.,  the  flxinff  of  short  upright 
quarterings  between  rafters  and  the  floor.  In  old  docu- 
ments, the  term  appears  tmder  a  variety  of  forms,  such  as 
achlere,  ashelar,  aslure,  and  estlar.  Jfbte.—Ske&t  traces 
OF.  aisseUe,  in  the  sense  of  'a  little  plank/  to  mid.  L. 
emdla,  a  dim.  of  <us%s,  a  board,  houses  being  formerly 
erected  with  a  facing  of  planks,  and  the  name  was  finally 
transferred  to  the  facing  with  rough  hewn  stone. 
ASHLEY,  Lobd:  see  Shaftesbury. 

ASHMEAD-BARTLETT,  William  Lehman;  b.  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1851;  son  of  an  Eng.  non -conformist 
minister.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  Univ.  Through  bis 
mother's  acquaintance  with  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts 
(q.y.)  he  became  her  protege,  and  later  her  private  sec. 
In  1881,  Feb.  12,  he  married  the  baroness,  &7  years  his 
senior,  who,  by  this  marriage,  surrendered  part  of  her 
immense  foi-tune.  A.  was  elected  to  parliament,  and  re- 
elected 1886  and  '92,  sitting  for  Westminster.  By  royal 
license  he  assumed  the  name  Burdett-Coutts. 

ASH  MOLE,  EUAS:  1617,  May  23— 1692.  May  18;  b. 
Lichfield,  Eng. ;  lawyer  and  author.  During  the  civil  wars 
he  was  a  royalist  cap. ;  at  Oxford,  he  applied  himself  to 
the  sciences  and  astrology.  In  1662  he  issued  Theatrum 
Chymicwm  Britannieum,  which  procured  for  him  a  high 
reputation,  and  (1658)  Wa^  to  Bliss,  a  work  on  the  philoso- 
pher's stone.  In  1682,  he  gave  the  Univ.  of  Oxford  **  The 
Ashmolian  Collection  "  of  rarities  which  had  belonged  to 
John  Tradescant. 

ASH'MUN,  Jehudi:  1714r-1828,  Aug.  28;  b.  Champlain. 
N.  T.:  American  philanthropist.  He  was  educated  for  the 
ChrisUan  ministry;  but  eventually,  as  editor,  author,  and 

Xit,  became  an  advocate  and  helper  of  the  African  CJolo- 
tion  Soc.  for  founding  a  colony  of  liberated  negroes  on 
the  w.  coast  of  Africa.  See  Libekia.  He  conducteaa  body 
of  liberated  negroes  from  Baltimore,  and  landed  at  Cape 
Mesurado,  the  seat  of  the  infant  colony,  in  autumn,  18SS2. 
Dr.  Ayres  and  the  other  agents  of  the  society  having  mean- 
while abandoned  the  settlement  from  severe  illness,  be  as- 
sumed the  superintendence  of  affairs  as  the  sole  representa- 


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ASHOCA— A8H-WEDNE8DAY. 

live  of  that  body;  and  for  more  than  six  years,  he  gave  him- 
self with  great  courage,  tact,  and  ability,  to  establishing 
the  infant  colony  of  Liberia.  His  health  udled;  he  returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  died  soon  afterwards.  A  memoir 
of  his  life,  by  R.  R.  Gurley,  appeared  at  Wai^ington,  1885. 

ASHO'CA:  see  Asoca. 

ASHORE,  ad.  S^-shdr'  [AS.  a,  on,  and  shore]:  on  shore; 
on  the  land. 

ASHTABULA,  dth'ta-bU'ld:  t.  in  Ohio,  in  township  and 
county  of  the  same  name ;  on  both  sides  of  Ashtabuliw 
river,  near  its  mouth ;  54  m.  from  Cleveland,  8  m.  from 
Lake  Erie ;  on  the  Ashtabula,  Youngstown  and  Pittsburgh, 
and  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  railroads.  It 
was  laid  out,  1887.  A.  contains  three  banks  (one  national), 
2  newspaper  offices,  and  6  churches.  Its  manufactures 
comprise  a  rolling-mill,  machine  shop,  2  shaft  factories, 
and  2  manufactories  of  sashes,  blinds,  and  doors.    Pop. 

(1880)  4,445;  (1890)  8.316. 
ASH'TON-IN-MACKERFIELD :  township  in  a  carbon- 

iferous  district,  in  the  middk  of  South  Lanchashire. 
Pop.  (1881)  9,825,  chiellv  engaged  in  collieries,  and  in  the 
cotton  manufacture;  (1891)  18,879. 

ASH'TON-UNDER-LYNE :  town  in  the  s.  e.  of  Lan- 
cashire; a  great  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture.  The 
population  va  employed  also  in  bleaching,  dyeing,  and 
calico-priutiDg,  in  collieries,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
machines,  bricks,  etc.  A.  returns  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment. To  the  w.  is  a  large  moss  or  shaking  boff,  contain- 
ing fir-trees  full  of  turpentine,  and  black  o&,  with  a 
loamy  bottom  at  the  depth  of  10  ft.    Pop.  (1871)  87,889; 

(1881)  43,889;  (1891)  40,494. 

ASHTORETH,  n.  (Mto-rHh  [Gr.  astar'te:  in  Phoenician, 
the  wife  of  Baal  J:  a  goddess  of  the  ancient  Sidonians  and 
Philistines,  identified  with  Venus  of  the  Romans;  Astarte. 
AsHTABOTH is  the  plu.  form  of  Ashtareth,    See  Abtabtb. 

ASH- WEDNESDAY :  first  day  of  Lent  (q.  v.),  so  called 
from  the  Rom.  Oath,  ceremony  of  strewing  -ashes  on  the 
head  as  a  sign  of  penitence.  This  custom,  introduced 
probably  by  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604),  was  sanctioned 
by  Pope  Celestin  III,  1191,  and  afterwards  generally  pre- 
vailed. Before  mass,  the  ashes  were  consecrated  on  the 
altar,  sprinkled  with  holy  water,  and  signed  three  times 
with  the  cross,  while  the  priest  recited  the  words.  Memento 
quia ptdvis eSf  et  inpulveremreeerteris!  ('Remember  that 
thou  art  dust,  and  must  return  to  dust!')  Next,  they 
were  strewed  on  the  heads  of  the  officiating  priests,  the 
clergy,  and  the  assembled  people.  The  ashes  were  said  to 
be  those  of  the  palms  consecrated  on  the  preceding  Palm 
Sunday  (q.v.) — The  Protestant  Church  in  Germany  does 
not  observe  A.  In  the  Church  of  England,  it  is  observed 
by  the  stricter  members,  but  only  &s  a  day  of  penitential 
service,  without  anything  of  the  ceremony  from  which  it 
derives  its  name  ;  and  the  comminaUon — a  series  of  denun- 
ciations against  impenitent  offenders — is  appointed  to  bt 
read  in  the  service  of  this  day. 


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ASIA. 

ASIA,  €^M-a :  largest  division  of  land  on  the  globe, 
generally  regarded  as  the  birthplace  of  the  human  race, 
and  the  most  ancient  seat  of  civilization.  Its  superficial 
area,  including  islands,  has  been  estimated  at  from  16  to 
20,000,000  sq.  m.,  and  its  population  at  840,000,000.  This 
enormous  continental  mass  lies  almost  entirely  in  the  n. 
division  of  the  e.  hemisphere,  while  its  worm  of  islands 
extends  across  the  equator  on  the  s.e.  On  three  sides,  it 
is  surrounded  by  the  ocean ;  but  on  the  w.,  is  partially 
connected  with  Africa  and  Europe.  The  continent  is 
more  than  four  times  as  large  as  Europe.  Some  idea  mav 
be  formed  of  its  vast  extent  by  the  calculation  that,  though 
it  contains  more  than  half  of  the  whole  population  of  the 
globe,  the  number  of  its  inhabitants  is  so  small  compared 
with  its  area,  that  Europe  may  be  said  to  be  three  times  more 
densely  populated.  The  coast-line  is  about  83,000  m.  in 
length ;  and  on  the  s.  and  e.,  is  diversified  by  seas,  bays, 
and  gulfs,  affording  advantages  to  navigation  and  com- 
merce far  superior  to  those  of  Africa,  but  mferior  to  those 
possessed  by  Europe  and  America.  On  the  w.  side,  the 
Dardanelles  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora  may  be  regarded  as 
but  a  slight  interruption  of  the  great  table- lands  of  Europe 
and  A.  which  form  the  continent  of  the  old  world. 

JSarieontal  ConfiguraUon. — A.  is  bounded  n.,  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean ;  e.,  by  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  s.,  by  the  Indian 
Ocean ;  and  w.,  by  Europe,  the  Black  Sea,  Archipelago, 
Mediterranean,  and  the  Red  Sea.  On  the  extreme  n.e., 
the  peninsular  land  of  Eamtchatka  is  separated  from 
North  America  only  by  the  narrow  Behring's  Strait.  On 
the  s.e.,  a  bridge  of  numerous  islands — Sumatra,  Java, 
Borneo,  Papua,  etc. — extends  towards  Australia.  The 
body  of  the  continent  may  be  regarded  as  a  trapezium,  of 
which  the  offsets,  consistmg  of  several  large  peninsulas, 
bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of  Europe ;  though  in  A. 
everything  is  on  a  more  gigantic  scale.  Thus,  one  of 
these  offsets,  the  peninsula  of  Arabia,  is  four  times  as 
large  as  France.  On  the  w.  extends  the  peninsula  of  A. 
Minor  or  Anatolia,  divided  from  Europe  by  the  Strait  of 
Constantinople,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  Dardanelles, 
with  the  Black  Sea  on  the  n.,  and  the  Levant  on  the  s. 
On  the  s.  of  A.,  the  peninsular  configuration  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  princi^l  masses,  corresponding  to  the  s. 
coast  of  Europe ;  Arabia  ma;^  be  considered  as  a  counter- 
part to  Spain ;  Italy,  with  its  neighbor-island,  Sicily,  is 
representeii  by  Hindustan  and  Ceylon ;  and,  as  in  Europe, 
the  broken  Grecian  peninsula  is  connected  with  A.  by  a 
bridge  of  numerous  islands  extending  on  the  s.e.,  so  in  A., 
the  Eastern  Peninsula  (or  India  beyond  the  Ganges),  lying 
between  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  Chinese  Sea,  is  con- 
nected with  Australia  on  the  s.e.  by  the  vast  Eastern 
Archipelago.  This  world  of  islands  is  divided  into  the 
several  groups  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  Borneo,  Celebes 
Molucca  Islands,  Sumatra,  and  Java,  Timor  and  the  nu- 
merous adjoining  isles.  The  e.  coast  of  A.  is  character- 
ized by  the  deep  mdentations  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  the 
^^Thin^se  Sea,  Xellpw  Sea^  and  Sea  of  Japan,  Okhotsk 


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ASIA. 

and  Kamtchatka ;  all  fringed  with  numerous  islands,  and 
separated  by  the  peninsula  of  Corea,  the  island  of  Sagha- 
lien,  and  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka.  On  the  n.,  the 
Siberian  coasts  are  also  deeply  indented ;  but  rather  by 
the  embouchures  of  large  rivers  than  by  arms  of  the  sea. 
The  whole  length  of  continental  A.,  from  the  Dardanelles 
to  the  Japan  Islands,  is  6,000  m. ;  its  breadth,  from  Malac- 
ca to  the  n.e.  cape  of  Siberia,  is  5,800  m.;  with  its  islands 
it  extends  from  10*  s.  lat.  to  78**  n.,  and  from  26*  e.  long, 
to  190*  e.  or  170*  w.  Such  an  extent  of  surface  must  in- 
clude all  varieties  of  soil,  climate,  and  production. 

Vertical  C(mfigur(iiion.—l^qaa]ly  grand  are  the  features 
of  this  continent  when  regarded  vertically:  it  has  the  most 
extensive  lowlands,  the  most  immense  table-lands,  the  highest 
chains  of  mountains,  and  the  most  elevated  smnmits  in  the 
world;  tracts  doomed  to  everlasting  snow  or  scorching 
sterility,  salubrious  valleys  of  continual  verdure,  and  noisome 
jungles  of  the  rankest  growth.  The  table-lands  of  Afiia 
occupy  two-fifths  of  the  whole  continent.  The  eastern 
extremity  is  2,000  m.  broad;  the  western,  less  than  1.000. 
The  whole  mass  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of  two  parts, 
separated,  or,  to  speak  more  properly,  perhaps,  connected 
by  the  lofty,  snow-covered  mountain-isthmus  of  the  Hindu 
Kush.  These  great  divisions  are  styled  respectively:  1.  The 
Eastern  Plateau,  includkig  the  Table-land  of  Tibet  and  the 
Desert  of  Qoh\;  2.  The  Western  Plateau,  or  Table-land  of 
Iran.  The  former,  a  vast  four-sided  mass,  condderably 
larger  than  the  whole  area  of  Europe,  extends  2,800  m.  from 
the  mountain  chain,  Hindu  Eush,  to  the  Tonquin  Gulf  in 
China.  On  the  south,  the  plateau  is  divided  from  the 
plains  of  Hindustan  by  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  which 
have  a  mean  height  of  18,000  ft.,  while  several  of  their 
summits  rise  25,S[K)-29,000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Even  the  passes  over  this  enormous  range  of  mountains  are 
almost  as  high  as  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  Here 
Dhwalagiri,  long  supposed  to  be  the  Mont  Blanc  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  with  precisely  the  same  signification,  viz., 
'  white  mountain,'  rising  to  26,826  ft.,  leaves  all  the  peaks 
of  the  Andes  far  below;  while  Eunchiniinga  reaches  to 
28,156  ft.,  and  Mount  Everest,  now  believed  to  be  the  loftiest 
summit  in  the  world,  attains  the  height  of  29,002  ft.  Cul- 
tivation  is  found  at  10,000  ft.  above  the  sea;  while  flocks 
graze  some  4,000  ft.  higher.  In  Eastern  Tatary  and  Tibet. 
9ie  ground  is  cultivated  at  a  height  only  2,000  ft  lower  than 
the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc.  On  the  e..  the  table-land  of 
Tibet  is  bounded  by  the  Chinese  mountain-ranges  Yun-ling 
and  Ehing-khan,  which,  towards  the  s.,  are  connected  wi£ 
wild  Chinese  alpine  regions  of  which  little  is  known;  while, 
towards  then.,  they  extend  into  another  mountainous  region. 
Inhere  the  eastern  chain  of  Shangpe-shan  opposes  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  a  wall  of  rock  3,000  ft.  high.  On  the  north, 
the  chain  of  the  AltaY  Mountains,  8,000  m.  long,  and  divided 
into  several  groups,  forms  the  boundary  between  the  great 
pUiteau  and  the  plain  of  Siberia,  which  is  larger  than  the 
whole  of  Europe. 

The  Western  Plateau,  or  Table-land  of  Iran,  rises  genci 


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ASIA. 

ally  aboat  5,000  ft.  above  the  sea;  but  in  some  parts  to  7,000 
ft.;  descendiDg,  however,  to  2,000  and  1,200  ft.  in  the  central 
and  southern  parts,  where  it  spreads  out  into  sandy  and 
gravelly  plains.  It  has  been  divided  into  three  sections:  the 
rlateau  of  Iran  proper;  the  Median- Armenian  Alpine  region; 
and  Uie  Anatolian  Table-land.  The  first  division,  or  the 
Plateau  of  Iran,  has  a  mean  altitude  of  about  8,000  ft.  Bait 
plains,  with  gravel  and  sand,  form  large  portions  of  Hie 
surface,  and  mountain-walls  on  all  sides  hem  it  in.  On  the 
n.  edge  stand  the  Persian  mountains;  on  the  e.  are  the  steep 
and  lofty  parallel  chains  of  the  Indo-Persian  boundary 
mountains;  and  on  the  s. ,  the  plateau,  for  1,000  m.  along  the 
Persian  €Kilf  and  Arabian  Sea,  is  bounded  by  the  wild  ter- 
raced r^ons  of  Beloochistan  and  Farsistan.  The  second 
division,  or  the  Median-Armenian  Alpine  region,  includes 
the  mountainous  regions  of  Armenia,  Kurdistan,  and  Azer- 
bijan.  Here  the  table-land  is  compressed  to  about  half  its 
general -widUi.  From  this  plateau,  of  which  a  part  is  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  as  '  the  mountains  of  Ararat,'  rises  the 
volcanic  cone  commonly  styled  Mount  Ararat,  to  the  height 
of  17,212  ft.  above  the  sea.  Anatolia,  the  third  and  most 
westerly  division  of  the  table-land,  is  bounded  alon^  the 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea  by  mountains  rising  to  6,000  or 
7.000  ft.,  and  partly  covered  with  forests;  on  th«  s.w.,  the 
Taurus  chain  of  mountains,  beginning  in  the  islands  of 
Rhodes,  Cos,  etc.,  extends  in  several  ramifications  through 
a  part  of  Asia  Minor,  runs  in  a  single  range  along  the  coast 
of  Karamania,  and  in  the  e.  has  an  occasional  height  of 
12,000  and  18,000  ft. 

The  Western  Plateau,  thus  divided  into  three  sections,  is 
full  of  diversities  of  soil  and  scenery.  A  great  part  of  the 
table-land  of  Iran  (or  Persia)  is  extremely  barren  and  arid, 
which  serves  to  explain  the  enthusiastic  terms  in  which  the 
Persian  poets  have  spoken  of  the  beautiful  valleys  here  and 
there  among  the  mountains.  The  coasts  of  the  Persian 
€Milf  are  sandy  wastes.  Between  Irak  and  Ehorassan,  a 
desert  of  clay,  covered  with  salt  and  nitre,  varied  only  by 
patches  of  verdure  here  and  there,  occupies  27,000  sq.  m., 
and  joins  the  wide  sandy  desert  of  Eerman.  A  great  part 
of  Beloochistan  is  an  arid  plain,  covered  with  red  sand. 

Besides  these  central  masses,  there  are  several  detached 
mountain  chains  and  plateaus.  The  Ural  Mountains, 
forming  the  land-boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
separated  from  the  Altai  chain  by  salt  lakes,  marshes,  and 
deserts,  are  divided  into  three  sections:  the  Northern, 
Central,  and  Southern  Ural.  The  second  of  these  divisions 
is  rich  in  minerals — gold,  platina,  magnetic  iron,  and  cop- 
per. On  the  isthmus  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian,  the  alpine  ridges  of  the  Caucasus  reach  a  height 
of  from  10,000  to  11,000  ft.,  while  individual  peaks  tower 
17,000  or  18,000  ft.,  as,  in  the  still  faintly  volcanic  peak  of 
Elbruz  (18,498  ft.)  and  Kasbeck  (16,523)---both,  however, 
on  the  n.  or  European  side  of  the  main  mass  of  the 
Caucasus.  The  high  lands  of  Syria  rise  imdually  from 
the  neighboring  deserts  to  the  height  of  10,000  ft.  in 
Libanus  and  iSitilibanus,  and  slope  steeply  in  terraces 


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ASIA. 

dowii  to  the  narrow  coast-lands  of  Phcenicia  and  Palestine. 
The  plateau  of  the  Deccan,  in  ladia,  rises  to  an  average 
height  of  from  1,500  to  2,000  ft.,  and  is  divided  on  the  w. 
from  the  narrow  coast-level  of  Malabar  by  the  Western 
GhauU,  4,700  ft.;  on  the  e.,  from  the  broad  level  coast  of 
Coromandel,  by  the  Eastern  Ghauts.  On  the  n.,  it  is 
divided  from  the  low  plains  of  Hindustan  by  the  Vindhya 
and  Malwah  mountain-chains;  and,  on  the  s.,  the  Ghauts 
unite  at  the  sources  of  the  Cavery,  and  form  the  Neil^herry 
(or  Blue  Mountains,  8,760  ft.  high),  the  loftiest  in  the 
peninsular  portion  of  Hindustan.  These  slope  steeply 
down  to  a  low  narrow  plain,  then  rise  again  to  a  consider- 
able height  in  the  Aligherry  range,  sink  into  the  sea  at 
Cape  Comorin,  and  reappear  in  the  group  of  Adam's  Peak 
in  Ceylon.  The  Malayan  Mountains,  or  chain  of  the 
Eastern  Peninsula,  may  be  regarded  as  offsets  of  the 
Siue-shan,  and  eictend  to  the  extreme  s.  point  of  A., 
reappearing  with  volcanic  peaks  in  the  Sunda  Islands. 

The  six  great  LowlaJids  of  A.  are,  Ist,  The  Sibericm  low- 
laud  in  the  n.,  by  far  the  largest.  It  stretches  from  the 
n.  declivities  of  the  Altai  and  ifral  Mountains  to  the  shor^ 
of  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  is,  for  the  most  part,  cold,  gloomv, 
and  barren.  2d,  The  Buchcman  lowland,  or  the  wild 
sterile  waste  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Lake  Aral, 
much  of  it  beneath  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  composed  to 
a  lar^e  extent  of  gravelly  soil.  8d,  The  l^/rian  and 
Arabian  lowland,  the  s.  of  which  is  hot  and  arid,  with  al- 
most no  oases;  but  the  n.  is  watered  by  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  4th,  The  lowlands  of  Hindiutan,  comprising 
the  great  Indian  desert,  400  m.  broad,  together  with  the 
vast  and  fertile  plains  of  Bengal,  generally  called  the 
Valley  of  the  G^anges,  and  ranking,  perhaps,  next  to  China 
as  a  region  of  fertility.  5th,  The  Indo-Uhinese  lowlands, 
comprising  the  long  levels  of  the  Burman  empire,  through 
which  flows  the  Irrawady,  and  the  rich  regions  of  Cam- 
bodia and  Slam.  6th,  The  Chinese  lowlands,  commencing 
in  the  e.  at  Pekin,  and  extending  as  far  s.  as  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  containing  210,000  sq.  m.,  an  area  seven  times  the 
size  of  Lom hardy.  It  is  watered  by  a  copious  river-system 
and  numerous  canals,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  vast 
garden,  exceeding  in  productiveness  all  other  parts  of  the 
world. 

Uydrogra/phy.  —  The  hydrography  of  A.  displays  as 
striking  a  variety  as  tiie  structure  or  its  land.  The  alpine 
regions  send  down  in  some  directions  torrents  of  water, 
which  form  rivers  almost  rivalling  in  ma^iflcence  those 
of  America,  and  which  flow  for  hundreds  oi  miles  through 
plains  of  unsurpassed  fertility.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  wide-stretching  tracts,  like  the  deserts  of  Africa, 
destitute  of  water,  and  doomed  to  eternal  sterility.  Only 
one  large  sheet  of  water,  Lake  Hamoon  or  Seistan  (q.v.), 
refreshes  the  high  table-land  of  Iran.  The  low  steppe  of 
Turan  contains  the  Caspian  Sea  (q.v.),  the  largest  of  all 
lakes,  and  Lake  Aral  (qv.).  In  the  vallev  of  Cashmere 
lies  Lake  XJlar,  40  m  in  circumference,  ana  the  onlv  con- 
eiderable  aheei  of  water  In  the  Himalaya  ^ajn.     hx  th^ 


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ASIA. 

n.  base  of  this  mountain- chain,  Lake  Palte  is  remarkable 
for  its  annular  form.  In  Tibet  and  the  Altai  Mountains, 
lakes  are  veiy  numerous. 

One  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  Asian  river- 
systems  is  found  in  its  double  rivers,  or  two  streams  rising 
in  the  same  re^on,  flowing  in  almost  parallel  directions, 
and  either  nnitmg,  or  nearly  so,  before  entering  the  sea. 
Among  these  twin  rivers  may  be  mentioned — the  Syr  Daria 
and  Amu-Daria,  flowing  into  Lake  Aral;  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  in  Western  A.,  surrounding  the  plain  of  Meso- 
potamia, uniting  at  Koona,  and  together  flowing  into  the 
Persian  Gulf;  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra;  and  the  Ynng- 
tse-kiang  and  Hoang-ho,  in  China,  rising  near  each  other, 
then  widely  separated  in  their  courses,  but  again  approach- 
ing each  other,  and  both  falling  into  the  Yellow  Sea,  only 
100  m.  apart. 

The  six  great  river-systems  of  A.,  comprising  rivers  (see 
their  respective  titles),  are— the  Mesopotamian,  that  of 
Northwest  India,  that  of  Northeast  India  and  Tibet,  the 
Indo-Chinese,  the  Chinese,  and  the  Siberian.  The  first 
comprises  the  two  famous  streams,  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
The  second  comprises  the  Indus  with  its  tributaries.  The 
third  comprises  the  Brahmaputra  and  Ganges.  Thefourik 
comprises  the  rivers  of  the  Indo  Chinese  peninsula;  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  Irrawady,  the  Martaban  or  Saluen, 
the  Me-nam,  and  the  Me-king  or  Cambodia.  T\ie  fifth 
system  is  the  Chinese,  comprising  four  great  streams,  all  of 
which  flow  in  an  e.  or  n.  direction  into  the  Pacific;  the 
Hong  kiang,  or  Canton  river;  the  Yang-tse-kiang  (or  Son 
of  the  Sea);  the  Hoang-ho,  or  Yellow  river;  and  the  Amur. 
The  sixth  comprises  the  large  rivers  of  Siberia,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  the  Obi,  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena. 
They  all  have  their  sources  in  the  Altaian  Mountains;  flow 
n.,  or  nearly  so;  and  for  800  or  900  m.  before  their  embou- 
chure, traverse  a  drearjr,  flat,  monotonous  waste,  until  their 
sluggish  waters  creep  mto^the  Frozen  Sea. 

Geology. ^^\iQ  geological  structure  of  Asia  is  so  complex, 
the  different  formations  are  so  broken  up  and  scattered,  that 
a  general  description  would  be  unintelligible.  For  the 
ffeological  structure  and  phenomena  of  circumscribed 
districts,  needful  to  a  correct  impression  of  the  geology  of 
Asia  as  a  whole,  see  the  separate  titles.  See  India:  China. 
Tibet,  etc. 

NaturcU  History.— The  vast  extent  of  A.,  and  its  great 
diversities  of  climate,  naturally  lead  to  the  expectation  of  a 
great  variety  of  natural  productions,  both  animal  and 
vegetable.  This  expectation  is  heightened,  by  considering 
how  completely  thiB  vast  continent  is  divided  into  separate 
portions  by  mountain-ranges  of  great  altitude,  and  how  ex- 
tensive the  mountainous  tracts  themselves  are,  as  well  as 
the  great  extent  of  the  elevated  plateaus  or  tablelands,  and 
when  we  add  to  these  considerations  that  of  the  peculiar 
character  of  wide  regions— wastes  of  sand— level  steppes— 
and  extensive  distncts  of  which  the  soil  is  strongly  im- 
pregnated with  salt.  Accordingly,  in  both  the  flora  and 
fauna  of  Asia,  an  immense  variety  appears. 


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ASIA. 

The  most  northerly  part  of  the  continent,  howeTor, 
differs  comparatively  little  in  its  productions  from  the  cot 
responding  parts  of  Europe  and  America.  It  exhibits  the 
same  arctic  flora,  with  differences  comparatively  incon 
siderable.  Pines,  birches,  and  willows  form,  as  in  the  other 
continents,  the  last  forests  of  the  north;  but  upon  account  of 
the  more  severe  climate,  they  do  not  reach  a  limit  80  north- 
erly as  in  Europe,  and  particularly  in  the  w.  of  Europe. 
Some  of  the  common  plants  of  Europe  are  abundant 
as  far  east  as  Eamtcbatka :  the  Crowberry  (JSmpetrum 
nigrum),  so  plentiful  in  the  moors  of  Scotland,  is  sdU  m(»e 
plentiful  throughout  Siberia;  the  same  Vaediua  (bilberries, 
etc.).  and  jRt^' (brambles,  etc.)  abound  in  the  Eamtchatkan 
forests  as  in  those  of  ScandinaWa.  There  are,  however,  in> 
teresting  differencea  Heaths  are  comparatively  rare  in 
Asia,  its  flora  agreeing  in  this  respect  with  that  of  America* 
rather  than  with  that  of  Europe.  The  larch,  which  in 
Europe  occurs  only  on  the  central  mountains,  extends  far 
northward  at  the  mouth  of  the  Obi  to  the  utmost  limits  of 
arborescent  vegetation;  probably  a  mere  variety  of  the  same 
species,  although  it  has  been  described  as  distinct  In 
Eamtcbatka,  a  different  kind  of  birch  replaces  the  com- 
mon birch  of  Europe  as  a  forest  tree,  and  the  Siberian  stone 
pine  is  different  from  that  of  the  s  of  Europe.  Siberia  hi 
its  less  frigid  regions  produces  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  of 
which  herbaceous  plants  of  unusually  large  size  for  a  cold 
or  temperate  climate  are  a  characteristic  feature;  as  species 
of  Rhubarb,  Angelica,  and  Cow-parsnip  {Herttdeum),  some 
of  which  are  now  well  known  in  Britain.  It  is  indeed  from 
the  central  and  eastern  temperate  parts  of  Asia  that  the 
cultivated  species  of  rhubarb  are  derived,  and  from  the 
same  region  the  rhubarb  root,  valuable  in  medicine,  is 
brought.  In  the  abundance  of  Qros^ulariaeea  (currants), 
the  warmer  parts  of  Siberia  resemble  North  America,  though 
most  of  the  species  are  different 

To  the  s.  of  the  Altaian  Mountains,  the  flora  of  Asia  cor- 
responds in  part  with  that  of  the  great  eastern  plain  of 
Europe;  but  it  exhibits  also  peculiarities  which  may  in  some 
measure  be  ascribed  to  the  saline  character  of  large  districts, 
the  stony  or  sandy  desolation  of  others,  and  the  elevation  of 
the  peat  central  plateau.  The  flora  of  Asia  Minor  and  of 
Svna  has  a  genend  resemblance  to  that  of  the  s.  of  Europe^ 
although  with  features  also  which  belong  rather  to  that  of 
India  or  of  Africa.  Shrubby  LabiaUB  are  particularly^ 
characteristic  of  this  region,  from  which  not  a  few  of  them 
have  found  tiieir  way  into  the  gardens  of  Europe  and  of 
other  parts  of  the  world,  on  account  of  their  iragrance, 
their  medicinal  qualities,  or  their  use  for  the  grateml  sea- 
soning of  food. — The  tropical  flora  of  Arabia  abounds  in 
trees  which  yield  fragrant  b^sams  and  resins,  particularly 
of  the  nat.  ord.  Amyridace4B.  Indeed,  both  the  warmer 
temperate  and  the  tropical  regions  of  Asia  excel  other  parts 
of  the  world  in  the  number  and  variety  of  the  odoriferous 
drugs  which  they  produce,  with  odors  of  the  most  various 
characters,  from  myrrh  and  frankincense  to  asafetida. 
Arabia  has  long  been  noted  for  the  production  of  coffee^ 


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ASIA. 

DOW  extendvelj  cultivated  in  other  warm  parts  of  A. 
The  date-palm  is  as  characteristic  of  Arabia  as  of  E^3rpt. 
Acacias  and  mimosas  also  abound.— The  flora  of  Persia  in 
part  resembles  that  of  Arabia,  though  it  is  less  tropical,  and 
the  height  of  its  mountains  gives  it  in  some  places  a  very 
different  character. — The  abundance  of  Seitaminem  is  re 
garded  as  particularly  characteristic  of  India;  and  plants  of 
this  order  yield  ginger,  galangal,  cardamoms,  turmeric,  and 
other  articles  of  commerce,  among  which  not  the  least  im- 
portant is  a  kind  of  arrow-root.  Its  LeguminosoB  are  also 
very  numerous,  both  herbaceous  and  shrubby,  or  arbores- 
cent, many  of  them  exhibiting  great  beauty  of  foliage  and 
splendor  of  flowers;  some  producing  useful  kinds  of  pulse; 
others  timber,  gum,  medicines,  etc  The  number  of  valu- 
able medicinal  plants  which  belong  to  the  Indian  flora  is 
very  great,  as  is  alBo  that  of  dyew<x>ds;  and  it  abounds  in 
fine  miits,  of  which  the  mango  and  mangosteen  may  be 
particularly  noticed.  Gucurhitacem  (gourds)  are  very  numer- 
ous; as  are  also  trees  of  the  genus  Ficus  (fig),  some  of  which 
produce  caoutchouc,  and  among  which  are  the  sacred 
peepul  and  the  banian-tree,  remarkable  for  .the  roots  which 
descend  from  its  branches  to  become  new  stems,  and  for  the 
extent  of  ^und  which  it  canopies.  Palms  are  numerous 
in  the  tropical  parts  of  A. ,  and  particularly  in  its  s.e.  regions, 
but  less  numerous  than  in  the  tropical  parts  of  South 
America.  The  cocoa-nut  is  one  of  the  most  common  palms 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  sea.  Bmne  of  the  Asiatic  palms  are 
valuable  for  the  sago  which  they  yield.  The  nat.  ord. 
DipUracea  is  one  of  those  that  are  pecuUar  to  India  and 
southeastern  A.,  and  includes  some  of  the  noblest  timber- 
trees;  but  the  Indian  teak,  so  valuable  for  shipbuilding,  is 
of  the  order  VerhenacecB.  The  flora  of  the  Eastern  Penin- 
sula, Siam,  Cochin-Ohina,  and  the  s.e.  of  A.  generally, 
differs  considerably  from  that  of  India,  and  exhibits,  if 
possible,  a  richer  variety.  The  change  from  the  InAan 
flora  is  still  greater  in  the  islands,  and  a  resemblance  to  that 
of  Polynesia  and  of  Australia  b^ns  to  appear.  The  bread- 
fruit takes  the  place  of  its  congener,  the  jack  of  India. 
These  regions  produce  nutmeg,  cloves,  and  other  spices. 
The  Lcx/uTCbcem  are  abundant,  yidding  cinnamon,  cassia,  and 
camphor.  Gutta  percha  has  recently  been  added  to  the 
number  of  the  most  valuable  exports.  China  and  Japan 
have  many  plants  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  are  remark- 
able for  the  prevalence  of  the  TemstroBmiacecB,  the  nat.  ord. 
to  which  the  tea-plant  and  the  camellia  belong.  It  is  scarce- 
ly necessary  to  mention  how  extensively  tea  is  cultivated 
in  China,  and  how  important  it  is  in  the  conmiercc  of  the 
world.  The  diversitj  of  climate,  however,  both  in  China 
and  Japan,  is  so  considerable,  as  to  imply  no  small  diversity 
of  proQUCtlons.  In  like  manner,  the  Himalava  Mountains 
have  a  flora  very  different  from  that  of  the  Indian  plains, 
and  which  in  some  of  its  most  characteristic  features,  par- 
ticularly in  the  prevalence  of  large  rhododendrons  and 
magnolias,  has  been  found  renlarkably  to  agree  with  the 
flora  of  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States;  while  at  still 
greater  altitudes  there  is  a  strong  resemblance  to  that^of 


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ASIA. 

Ddore  northern  regions,  or  of  the  Earopean  Alps;  forests  oil 
pines  appear,  and  with  them  the  deoda/r,  a  cedar  scarcely,  if 
at  all,  different  from  the  cedar  of  Lebanon.  The  moan- 
tains  of  Java  produce  oaks  and  other  trees  resembling 
those  of  the  temperate  zone,  although  the  species  are 
peculiar.  But  many  parts  of  A.  have  as  yet  been  veiy  im- 
perfectly explored. 

Many  of  the  cultivated  plants  of  Europe  are  known  to 
be  natives  of  A.,  and  others  are  supposed  to  be  so.  As  the 
cradle  of  the  human  race,  and  the  scene  of  the  earliest 
civilization,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  it  supplied  the  first 
fruits  and  other  vegetable  productions  which  man  sought 
to  improve  by  cultivation;  and  of  some  which,  as  the  apple 
and  the  cherry,  are  probably  natives  of  Europe,  it  seems 
probable  that  the  first  improved  varieties  were  introduced 
from  A.  We  do  not  know  with  certainty  of  what  part  of 
the  earth  some  of  the  principal  cereal  plants  or  grams  are 
natives— as  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  rye;  but  there  seems 
great  probability  i&  tiie  supposition  that  they  are  of  Asi- 
atic origin.  Rice  fsertainly  is.  It  has  been  cultivated 
from  time  immemorial  in  some  of  the  warm  parts  of  A.; 
and  its  introduction  into  other  quarters  of  the  world  is 
comparativelv  recent.  Maize — ^introduced  from  America 
— IB  now  to  be  reckoned  amon$^  the  most  important  cul- 
tivated plants  of  A.,  and  its  cultivation  is  rapidly  extend 
ing,  as  IS  that  of  the  potato.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
beans,  pea8e»  and  buckwheat  are  the  principal  crops  of  re- 
gjions  simflar  In  climate  to  those  in  which  they  are  cul- 
tivated in  Europe  and  America.  Barley  and  buckwheat 
are  cultivrated  in  the  Himalayas  at  the  extraordinary  ele- 
vation of  almost  12,000  ft.,  and  crops  of  barley  are  to  be 
seen  even  15,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Millet  of  different 
kinds,  dutra,  and  other  grains  of  inferior  importance,  are 
cultivated  to  some  extent  in  India  and  other  warm  regions; 
also  different  kinds  of  pulse.  The  banana  and  plantain 
are  of  the  same  importance  as  in  other  tropical  countries; 
and  the  yam  and  cocco  or  eddoes  contribute  largely  to  the 
supply  of  human  food.  The  sugar-cane  is  cultivated  in 
the  warm  parts  of  A.,  but  not  with  so  much  spirit  or 
success  as  in  America,  although  it  Is  a  native  of  the  East 
and  not  of  the  West  Indies.  Pepper  is  one  of  the  native 
productions  of  the  East  Indies,  and  is  extensively  cultivat- 
ed. Tobacco,  whether  or  not  any  species  of  it  is  indige- 
nous to  A.,  is  now  produced  in  large  quantities.  Indigo 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  India,  and  the  opium  poppy 
too  extensively.  Different  species  of  cotton  are  natives  of 
India,  and  have  long  been  cultivated  there  and  in  China. 
Hemp  is  cultivated  in  India,  not  for  its  fibre,  but  to  afford 
the  means  of  intoxication;  and  flax  chiefly  for  the  oil  of 
its  seeds;  but  both  hemp  and  flax  are  exteuMvely  cultivated 
for  their  fibres  in  other  parts  of  A.;  and  India  and  the 
other  tropical  regions  produce  many  plants  valuable  for 
their  fibres,  among  which  are  species  of  Musa,  Corehonu 
(vielding  the  jute  of  commerce),  and  Urtka  (nettle). 
Among  the  crops  of  India  is  sesamum,  valued  for  the  ctl 
o(  its  seeds. 


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ASIA. 

It  seems  probable  that  we  are  indebted  to  the  warmer 
temperate  parts  of  A.  not  only  for  the  orange,  the  lemon, 
and  all  the  other  species  of  the  geuus  Citrus,  but  also  for 
the  olive,  the  peach,  and  nectarine,  the  apricot,  the  tig, 
the  mulberry,  and  the  vine,  with  many  other  of  the  fruits 
now  most  generally  esteemed  and  cultivated.  China  and 
Japan  bein^  the  seats  of  an  ancient  civilization,  many  use- 
ful plants  have  long  been  cultivated  there,  which  have 
scarcely  yet  found  their  way  into  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Floriculture  has  been  practiced  there  with  great  assiduity 
from  a  remote  antiquity;  and  varieties  of  Hydrangea,  Ca- 
mellia, Tree  Peony,  Chr3rsanthemum,  etc.,  have  from  time 
inunemorial  been  scarcely,  if  at  all,  less  numerous  'than 
those  of  the  Tulip  and  Hyacinth  in  Holland. 

The  zoology  of  A.  is  not  less  interesting  than  its  botany. 
Among  domestic  animals,  the  most  important  are  the  ox 
and  buffalo,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the 
camel,  and  the  elephant.  A  number  of  species  of  ox  and 
buffalo  are  natives  of  A.,  from  more  than  one  of  which 
the  domesticated  races  appear  to  have  derived  their  origin. 
Very  distinct  from  all  the  others  is  the  yak  (q. v.)  of  Tibet, 
a  creature  which  is  of  sreat  use  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  ele- 
vated refi^ions  of  the  Himalayas,  and  is  to  them  almost  what 
the  reindeer  is  to  the  Laplander.  The  sheep  and  goat  are 
natives  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Central  A.  The  horse 
and  the  ass  seem  to  belong  to  the  same  regions;  aifd  all  of 
these  have  been  domesticated  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
camel  is  of  incalculable  value  as  a  beast  of  burden  in  the 
regions  of  heat  and  drought,  and  as  affording  the  means 
of  traversing  the  ^reat  deserts.  It  is  used  principally  in 
the  s.w.  of  A.  and  in  India.  The  elephant  is  a  native  of 
the  tropical  parts  of  A.,  but  is  of  a  different  species  from 
that  of  Africa.  The  reindeer  constitutes  the  chief  wealth 
of  some  of  the  tribes  of  the  north.  Dogs  are  also  used  bv 
some  of  the  Siberian  tribes  for  drawing  their  sledges.  Dif- 
ferent races  of  dogs  are  domesticated  m  different  parts  of 
A.,  and  a  small  kind  is  fattened  for  its  flesh  in  China;  but 
in  the  Mohammedan  parts  of  A.,  the  dog  is  reckoned  an 
imclean  animal,  and  is  known  chiefly  as  a  prowler  about 
towns  and  villages,  and  a  devourer  of  offal. 

The  tropical  parts  of  A.  abound  in  monkeys,  of  which 
the  species  are  very  numerous.  Among  them  are  some 
with  long  and  some  with  short  tails,  but  none  with  pre- 
hensile tails,  like  the  sapajous  of  America.  Many  are  al- 
together tailless,  and  among  these  is  the  orang-outang, 
found  in  the  s.e.  islands.  A  much  larger  ape,  called  the 
pongo,  has  been  said  to  exist  in  Borneo,  but  it  is  still  a 
doubtful  species.  The  same  warm  regions  abound  in  bats, 
many  of  which  are  of  large  size,  and  feed  upon  fruits,  not 
upon  insects.  The  flying  lemur  or  colugo  is  another  re- 
markable animal  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. — ^Bears  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  A. — the  white  bear  m  the  extreme 
north,  and  other  formidable  species  in  the  more  temperate 
parts;  while  the  tropical  regions  produce  bears  which  are 
not  ferocious,  and  feed  chiefly  on  insects,  fruits,  and  honey. 


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ASIA. 

Badgers  also  aie  found  in  A.,  and  quadrupeds  of  seyeral 
other  plantigrade  genera,  allied  to  the  bear,  but  of  com- 
paratively small  size  and  inoffensive  habits,  as  the  beauti- 
ful Panda  {Ailwrus)  of  the  n.  of  India,  and  the  Binturongs 
(Ictides)  of  Malacca  and  the  neighboring  archipelago. — 
Animals  of  the  Weasel  family  (MugtelidcB)  are  numerous, 
among  which  the  Teledu  (Mydams  meUoeps)  of  Java  rivals 
the  skunks  of  America  in  the  horrible  stench  with  which 
it  surrounds  itself  for  defense.  More  important  are  the 
sable  and  the  sea-otter,  pursued  in  the  n.  regions  upon  ac- 
count of  their  furs. — Of  the  Dog  family,  or  C%zn«2te,  A.  haa 
not  only  wild  dogs,  but  also  wolves,  foxes,  hyenas,  and 
jackals;  the  two  former  abounding  chiefly  in  the  colder, 
the  two  latter  in  the  warmer  regions.  The  arctic  fox  in- 
habits the  most  northerly  shores  and  islands.  The  warmer 
parts  of  A.  produce  a  number  of  species  of  the  allied  fam- 
ily of  the  ViverridcB,  among  which  are  the  mangouste  or 
Indian  ichneumon — famous,  like  the  Egyptian  ichneumon, 
for  the  destruction  of  serpents — and  the  civet,  from  which 
is  obtained  a  celebrated  perfume. — Of  feline  animals,  the 
most  dreadful  are  the  lion  and  tiger;  the  latter  of  which  is 
peculiar  to  A.,  abounding  in  the  warm  regions  of  the  s. 
and  e.,  never  extending  westward  beyond  the  mountains 
and  deserts  which  separate  India  from  Persia;  but  advanc- 
ing far  to  the  n.,  beyond  the  limits  to  which  the  Hon  ad- 
vances, and  even  to  the  confines  of  Siberia.  The  leopiurd, 
the  ounce,  and  many  other  cats,  some  of  them  large  and 
dangerous,  are  found  in  A.,  especially  in  the  warmer  parts. 
Among  them  is  the  chetah,  or  hunting-leopard,  tamed  for 
the  chase  in  India. — A  few  small  marsupial  (or  pouched) 
quadrupeds  {PhalangeTs)  are  found  in  the  Moluccas,  ana 
form  on3  of  the  links  by  which  the  natural  history  of  A. 
is  connected  with  that  of  Australia. — The  Qlires  or  Boden- 
Ua,  on  the  contrary,  are  numerous  in  all  parts  of  A,  and 
many  species  are  peculiar  to  it.  Squirrels,  marmots,  rats, 
mice,  hares,  etc.,  are  common  in  all  except  the  most  north- 
erly regions.  The  brown  rat,  now  so  common  in  Europe, 
is  said  to  have  emigrated  from  Persia  as  recently  as  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  c.  Lemmings  abound  in  Siberia 
and  the  Tatarian  deserts,  of  which  the  jerboa  is  also  an 
inhabitant.  Porcupines  are  frequent  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  A.,  and  the  beaver  is  found  in  the  north. — Of  eden- 
tate quadrupeds,  the  Pangolins  (Marm)  al^^ne  are  Asiatic, 
and  these  are  confined  to  the  tropical  regions.— Of  Pachy- 
dermata,  th^re  are,  besides  the  elephant,  the  horse,  etc., 
already  mentioned,  several  species  of  rhinoceros,  wild 
boars,  the  babjrroussa,  and  a  species  of  tapir;  all  except  the 
wild  boar,  natives  of  the  warmest  climates.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  facts,  however,  connected  with  the  nat- 
ural history  of  A.  is  the  abundance  of  remains  of  the 
mammoth,  or  fossil  elephant,  in  the  coldest  parts  of  Si- 
beria, its  tusks  still  affording  a  considerable  supply  of  ivory. 
Of  ruminating  animals,  besides  those  of  the  ox-kind,  al- 
readv  mentioned,  and  the  sheep  and  goat,  there  are  deer, 
antelopes,  and  musks  or  musk-deer.    The  reindeer  and  elk 


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ASU. 

fire  natives  of  Siberia;  further  s.  the  species  of  deer  are 
much  more  numerous,  and  the  same  countries  produce 
many  species  of  antelope.  The  musks  are  found  in  the 
central  and  southern  parts  6f  the  continent;  one  of  them, 
a  native  of  the  highest  mountains,  yielding  the  much^ 
prized  perfume  from  which  it  derives  its  name. — A.  has 
vultures,  eagles,  and  other  Falconida,  owls,  ravens,  and 
other  birds  of  the  crow  kind,  herons,  storks,  cranes,  etc. 
Swans,  geese,  ducks  of  various  species,  and  many  other 
AnatidoB,  frequent  its  waters,  some  of  them  abounding 
even  in  the  oldest  regions.  Albatrosses  are  very  numerous 
on  the  Kamtchatkan  shores;  flamingoes  on  those  of  the 
more  s.  countries.  Pigeons  abound,  and  among  them  is 
the  turtle-dove.  The  gouras  of  the  Indian  Archipelago 
are  birds  of  the  pigeon  family,  of  which  one  species  is  al- 
most as  large  as  a  turkey.  There  are  many  kinds  of  thrush, 
finch,  warbler,  bunting,  sparrow,  and  other  birds  identical 
with  or  allied  to  those  of  Europe,  amon^  which  is  the 
nightingale,  often  mentioned  by  the  Persian  poets,  and 
many,  also,  that  are  peculiar  and  characteristic,  particu- 
larly in  the  warmer  regions.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  splendid  birds  of  paradise  of  the  s.e.  islands,  peacocks, 
pheasants,  etc.  The  ^llinaceous  birds  of  Asia  are  nu- 
merous, and  from  this  continent  was  probably  derived 
the  domestic  poultry  of  other  parts  of  the  earth.  The 
abundance  of  the  parrot  tribe  is  a  point  of  resemblance 
between  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  and  other  tropical  coun- 
tries, but  lories  are  peculiar  to  the  East  Indies.  The  os- 
trich inhabits  the  deserts  of  Arabia  as  well  as  of  Africa. 
The  cassowary  is  found  in  the  s.e.  islands.  The  edible 
swallows'  nests  of  the  East  Indian  coasts  have  long  been 
celebrated. — ^Lizards  and  other  saurian  reptiles  are  very 
abundant  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia;  and  great  croco- 
diles and  gavials  infest  the  rivers  of  the  East  Indies.  Boas, 
pythons,  and  other  great  serpents  are  found  in  the  trop- 
ical regions,  which  produce  also  many  venomous  serpents. 
The  cobra  da  capello  is  one  of  the  most  dreaded.  But  the 
temperate  parts  of  Asia  also  have  venomous  serpents, 
scarcely  less  danserous.  Some  of  the  East  Indian  tortoises 
are  remarkable  for  their  great  size,  and  turtles  are  found 
in  the  seas. — Both  the  salt  and  fresh  waters  of  Asia  pro- 
duce many  kinds  of  fish.  The  SalmanidcB  of  the  rivers  of 
Siberia  supply  an  important  part  of  the  food  of  its  inhabit- 
ants. The  goldfish,  now  well  known  in  Britain,  is  a  na- 
tive of  China.  Some  of  the  fish  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
Asia  have  attracted  attention  from  the  peculiarity  of  their 
form  or  habits.  Insect  life  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  the 
warm  parts  of  Asia,  as  in  all  other  warm  countries.  Bees 
are  numerous,  and  honey  is  produced  in  great  quantities. 
Of  other  insects,  it  seems  only  necessary  here  to  mention 
the  silk-worm,  introduced  from  Asia  into  Europe;  and  the 
locust,  which  sometimes  devastates  great  tracts  of  the 
Asiatic  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Black  Sea,  and  occasionally  extends  its  ravages  into  regions 
farther  west.    Of  molluscous  animals,  the  pearl-oyster  de- 


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ASIA. 

serves  particular  notice,  upon  account  of  the  important 
pearl-fisheries  in  different  places. 

Ethnography,— The  whole  population,  consisting  of 
840,000,000  people,  may  be  divided  into  the  Mongolian, 
Aryan,  and  Semitic  ^up.  The  fini  of  these  includes 
all  the  peoples  and  tribes  m  the  e.,  n.,  and  8.e.,  of  Asia; 
the  second  (see  Aryan)  comprises  the  inhabitants  of  North- 
em  India,  Afghanistan,  Persia,  and  part  of  Asiatic  Tur- 
key; the  third  includes  the  Syrian,  Hebrew,  and  Arabian 
races.     See  Ethnology. 

A  further  subdivision  and  classification  may  be  made  as 
follows:  1.  The  East- Asian  group,  including  the  peoples 
of  Tibet,  China,  Japan,  Corea,  and  the  Indo-Chinese  pen- 
insula; all  alike  in  the  use  of  monosyllabic  languiu^es. 
This  last  people,  however,  must  be  subdivided  into  West- 
em  and  Eastem,  the  former  comprising  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Burman  empire,  Pegu,  Laos,  and  Biam,  having  affini- 
ties with  the  Hindus;  and  the  latter  comprising  the  in- 
habitants of  Tonquin,  Cochin-China,  and  Cambodia,  hav- 
ing affinities  with  the  Mongolians  of  Tibet  and  China.  2. 
The  Tatar  group,  including  the  Turkomans,  Mongols, 
and  Tuugusians,  who  are  spread  over  the  whole  table-land 
of  Central  Asia  and  the  neighboring  lands  in  the  north. 
The  Turkoman  family  is  divided  into  three  sections — ^the 
first  including  the  east  Turkomans,  inhabiting  Tashkend, 
Khiva,  Balkh,  and  Usbekistan;  the  second  including  the 
so-called  Tatars  of  the  Urals  and  the  neighborhood  of  As- 
trakhan and  Kazan;  the  third  including  the  Turks  or  Os- 
manli.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  small  tribes  in  Si- 
beria, all  the  Turkish  varieties  are  Mohammedans,  use 
the  Arabic  alphabet,  and  employ  numerous  Arabic  words 
in  their  dialects.  8.  The  Siberian  group,  including  the  Sam- 
oiedes,  people  of  Kamtchatka,  etc.,  speaking  languages 
which  have  only  recently  been  studied  by  philologists. 
4.  The  Ma^y- Polynesian  group,  mixed  with  Australasian 
negritos,  are  spread  over  all  the  islands  of  Polynesia  and 
the  Indian  Archipelago.  The  Malayan  people  of  Java, 
Sumatra,  Celebes,  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  the  Sunda 
Islands,  Moluccas,  and  Philippines,  have  ^.n  incipient  lit- 
erature, formed  under  Moslem  and  (since  the  16th  c.)  under 
European  influence.  The  South  Sea  islanders  are  clearly 
divided  into  two  races  by  physical  form,  color,  and  lan- 
guage. One  race  is  allied  to  the  Australasian  negrito,and 
the  other  to  the  Malayan.  In  most  of  the  islands,  there  is 
a  partial  intermixture  of  the  two  races,  but  generally  the 
distinction  is  obvious.  It  is  probable  that  all  the  copper- 
colored  Polynesians  belong  to  the  same  family  with  the 
people  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  5.  The  Deeean  group, 
mcluding  all  the  people  employing  the  Tamul,  Camatic, 
Telugu,  and  Sinhalese  languages,  aH  having  a  certain 
measure  of  civilization  and  a  literature.  6.  The  Indo- 
Oermanic  or  Aryan  group,  marked  and  subdivided  by  the 
three  languages,  Sanskrit,  Persian,  and  Armenian.  About 
thirty  distinct  nations,  each  having  a  peculiar  dialect 
and  literature,  belong  to  the  first  subdivi^on ;  the  seoQud 


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ASIA. 

kcrudes  the  peoples  of  Beloochistan,  Afghanistan,  Persia, 
and  Kurdistan ;  the  third,  the  Armenians.  All  these  fami« 
lies  have  literatures  partly  written  in  dead  languages — 
the  Sanskrit,  Pali,  Zend,  and  old  Armenian.  7.  The 
heterogeneous  tribes  inhabiting  the  Caucasus,  whose  af- 
finities are  not  yet  settled.  8.  The  Semitic  group,  includ 
ing  all  the  peoples  whose  languages  are  related  to  the 
Hebrew  and  Arabic. 

Religions. — The  same  Asian  characteristic  of  variety  and 
wide  contrast  is  found  in  the  creeds  as  in  the  countries 
and  tribes  of  people;  the  Brahminical  religion  of  India; 
the  doctrines  of  Buddha,  Confucius,  and  of  Lao-tse  in 
China;  the  worship  of  the  Grand  Lama  in  Tibet;  the 
creed  of  Islam  in  several  varieties  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
India;  the  rude  heathenism  of  the  north;  the  various 
sects  of  native  Christians  in  Armenia,  Syria,  Kurdistan, 
and  India;  tho  Greek  Church  in  Siberia;  these  and  other 
forms  of  religious  profession  show  diversities  and  con- 
trasts  nearly  as  striking  as  those  of  Asian  geography. 
Christianity,  now  the  religion  of  Europe  ana  America, 
owes  its  origin  to  Asia.  For  the  existmg  religious  sys- 
tems of  Asia,  see  Mohammedanism:  India  {Religion): 
Buddhism:  Lamaism:  etc. 

dvUigation. — The  number  of  people  civilized — in  the 
Asiatic  sense  of  the  word— is  far  greater  than  that  of 
wild  and  nomadic  hordes;  but  culture  here,  when  ar- 
rived at  a  certain  point,  assumes  a  stationary  character, 
widely  differing  from  the  restless  intellectual  activity 
and  industrial  progress  of  Europe.  The  laws  of  states, 
families.  Industry,  commerce, '  art,  and  science  are  in 
India  and  China  so  many  branches  of  one  fixed  and 
permanent  religious  system,  which  has  maintained  its 
sway  through  many  centuries,  and  would  long  remain 
unchanged,  if  left  imdisturbed  by  European  influence. 
The  Arabs,  Persians,  and  Turks,  collectively  known  as 
the  Easterns,  are  distinct  in  civilization  from  the  Hindus 
and  Chinese.  The  institution  of  slavery  among  the  for- 
mer, of  caste  among  the  Hindus,  and  the  civil  and  politi- 
cal equality  of  China,  are  distinguishing  marks.  The 
Turk  is  a  monotheist  and  fatalist;  the  Hindu  is  either  a 
mystical  pantheist  or  polytheist,  acknowled^ng  a  multi- 
tude of  gods;  the  Chinese  is  rather  a  utilitarian  moralist. 

Industry. — The  industry  and  commerce  of  the  Asiatic 
continent  bear  no  adequate  proportion  to  its  capabilities : 
see  the  titles  of  the  different  countries. 

Poliiical  Aspect.— The  political  institutions  of  A  present 
some  striking  contrasts.  While  the  barbarous  hordes  in 
the  n.  Uve  almost  without  the  idea  of  government,  and 
scarcely  know  that  the  Russian  czar  claims  them  as  his 
subjects;  and  the  nomadic  tribes,  imder  their  khans  or 
sheiKs,  have  a  sort  of  patriarchal  government,  subordinate 
to  higher  powers;  monarchy  and  despotism  have  existed 
in  their  extreme  forms  among  the  more  cultivated  nations. 
The  government  of  China  is  an  absolute  monarchy  in 
form,  but,  in  fact,  is  strictly  limited  by  the  force  of  tra- 

«-85 


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ASIA. 

dition .  The  emperor  is  apparently  unlimited  In  authority; 
but  it  is  an  essential  duty  of  an  emperor  to  rule  exactly 
according  to  the  precepts  handed  down  by  his  ancestors. 
Reverence  for  ancestors  and  their  institutions  is,  there- 
fore, the  sole  presiding  and  conservative  principle  which 
has  so  long  preserved  the  great  Chinese  empire  from  po- 
litical changes.  A.,  now  so  passive,  anciently  was  active 
in  the  great  movements  of  the  world's  history;  contended 
against  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  afterwards  contributed  to 
the  greatness  and  glory  of  the  Macedonian  and  Romnn 
empires.  From  the  n.  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  came  the  vast 
hordes  of  the  Huns  who  spread  themselves  abroad  over 
Europe.  The  armies  of  Genghis  Khan  and  Tamerlane 
overran  the  Slavonian  plains,  while  the  Arab  caliphs,  with 
their  fanatical  troops,  established  their  religion  and  gov- 
ernment in  three-quarters  of  the  world.  Under  the  Os- 
manli  fell  the  eastern  Roman  empire,  and  still  the  Turk 
maintains  a  political  position  in  Europe,  though  a  position 
now  becoming  very  leeble  and  insecure.  In  proportion  as 
Europe  has  aavanced,  A.  has  declined  in  political  power, 
so  as  to  countenance  the  theoiy  of  a  gradual  movement 
of  the  spirit  of  civilization  and  progress  from  the  eastern 
to  the  western  world.  As  soon  as  the  Asiatic  nations  have 
reached  a  certain  moderate  pitch  of  culture,  the  histoir 
of  civilization  ceases  so  fgr  as  they  are  concerned,  and  is 
followed  by  the  mere  chronology  of  states  or  dynasties. 
It  appears  that  all  ^reat  future  changes  in  the  destinies  of 
the  peoples  of  Asia  must  proceed  from  European  im- 
pulses. When  Portuguese  ships  had  rounded  the  Cape  and 
so  reached  India,  a  new  «ra  of  Asian  history  began.  The 
Portuguese,  the  Spaniards,  Dutch,  French,  Danes,  and 
English  planted  their  standards  on  Indian  soil.  The  Eng- 
lish speedily  extended  their  dominion  here,  and  soon  over- 
shadowed all  the  other  Europe^  powers;  though  the 
Portuguese  and  French  still  maintain  their  footmg  in 
Hindustan,  and  the  French,  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Dutch 
own  large  territories  in  Further  India  or  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. Lately  England  has  increased  her  influence  in 
the  extreme  w.  of  Asia ;  having  secured  the  occupation 
of  C^rus,  while  guaranteeing  the  defense  of  the  Asiatic 
dommions  of  the  Porte.  Meanwhile  Russia  has  extended 
her  sway  over  Siberia,  Caucasia,  and  Turkestan ;  securing 
thus  the  keys  of  China  and  the  approaches  to  Persia. 
Even  in  some  of  the  nominally  independent  powers,  Euro- 
pean influence  is  very  powerful ;  the  throne  of  Persia, 
lor  example,  is  surrounded  by  European  diplomatists. 
And  while  Russia  and  Britain  are  striving  to  sh&re  be- 
tween them  supremacy  in  Asia,  the  French  and  the  Ameri 
cans  have  a  large  share  of  the  commerce  of  the  eastern 
coasts. 

The  following  table  gives  an  approximate  estimate  of  the 
area  and  population  of  A.»  according  to  the  more  important 
existing  political  divisions: 


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ASIA. 

RcrssiAN  Asia—  Sq.  in. 

Caucasus 182,457 

Kir8:hi£  Steppe 7.)5,798 

Turkestan 400,414 

Caspian  Sea»  etc 383.618 

Siberia 4.833.496 

6,564,768 
Wkstbrh  Asia— 

Asiatic  Turkey 6S7,6I0 

Saiuos  (trib.  to  Turkey) 2^ 

Cyprus  (Brlt.> 8.580 

IiicU^pf*ndent  Arabia 968,a00 

Adeu  and  Perim 80 

1,659,732 
Iran  and  Tdran— 

I'ersia 648,000 

Afghanistan 210.000 

Katlristan .- 20,000 

B«lo  KJhistan 106.800 

Khiva 24.900 

Bokhara  and  Karategin 92,000 

1,109,100 
India  — 

British  Terntory 961.992 

•*    Feudatory  Slates 695,167 

Oeylon 25.364 

French  Possessions 196 

Portueuese  Possewjions 1,447 

Himalaya  States  (Brit.) 89,600 

1.676,766 
Indo  Chtnbsb  Peninsula— 

Wild  Tribes  of  Assam  (Brit.) 18  675 

Lower  Burmah  (Brit.) 87.220 

Upper  Burmah  (Brit.) GS  922 

Straits  Settlements  (Urit.) 1,450 

Siam 250.000 

Malacca  States... 31.500 

Cochin  China  (Fr.) 2^1000 

Tonkin  (Fr.) 34,roo 

Cambi^dJa  (Fr.) 32.390 

Anam  (Fr.) ^ 106,250 

644,107 
China  and  Japan— 

China  proper  and  Manchuria 1,699,151 

Vassal  States  (MonKolia,  Tibet,  Zun- 

garia,  JL  Turkestan,  Corea) 2,881,560 

Hon/i-Kong  (Brit.) 32 

Macao  (Port.) 5 

Japan 147,656 

4,728,403 

BOOTHKASTBRN  ASlA — 

Dutch  E.  Indies 719,674 

Philippines,  Marianes,  Carolines,  Sniu 

Archipelago  (Sp.) 116,256 

E.Timor,  etc  (Port.) 6,290 

N.  Borneo  and  Labuan  (Brir.) 31,110 

Borneo  States  (Sarawah  and  Brunei). .  4S  ,ooo 

921.330 

Total,  Asia 17,304,206 


Population . 
7,5;W.828 
2,000,970 
3,341,913 
301,476 
4,538,561 

17,719,748 

21,608,055 

48,500 

209,286 

4,000,000 
41,910 

25,907,751 

7.653,600 
4,000.000 
l,Oi)0,000 
875.000 
700.000 
2,500,000 

.  16,228,600 

221,172,952 

66.a'>0,479 

3.00S,239 

283.053 

494.830 

3,500,000 

294,509,559 

461.420 
4.569,680 
2,lWil.730 

606,5rr 
6,000.000 

300,000 

1.916,429 

12.000,000 

1.500.000 

6,000,000 


85,238,836 

393,500,000 

9,430.000 

221.441 

67,030 

40.072,090 

443,290,401 

29,765,031 

7,121.178 
300,000 
180.000 
400,000 

37,766,203 

870,661,188 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASIA— ASIPHONATE. 

ASIA,  Centbal:  tenn  usually  applied  in  its  geograpbU 
cal  sense  to  the  region  between  the  Altai  Mountains  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  including  part  of  Siberia,  all  Turkestan,  Af- 
ghanistan, Beloochistan,  and  part  of  Persia.  An  earlier 
usage— that  of  Humboldt^— gave  this  name  to  the  khanates 
of  Bokhara  and  Independent  Tartary.  In  Russian  official 
language,  Central  Asia  is  an  administrative  division  of  tiie 
empire  lying  to  the  s.w.  of  Siberia,  and  comprising,  with 
part  of  what  u^ed  to  be  called  Siberia,  the  recent  Kussian 
annexations  in  Turkestan.  Russian  Central  Asia  is  divided 
into  the  governments  of  AkmoUinsk.  Semipalatmsk^Toi^gal, 
Uraisk,  Semiretxihensk,  Syr-Daria,  Sarefchan,  Euldja, 
Amu-Daria,  the  Trane-Caepian  tenitory,  and  Ferghana. 
The  total  area  is  stated  at  1,227,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  4,490,000. 

ASIA  MI'NOR:  ancient  name  of  what  is  now  called 
Anatolia  (q.  v.).  Here,  in  Ionia,  was  the  early  seat  of 
Grecian  civilization,  and  here  were  the  countries  or  Phryria, 
Lycia,  Caria,  Paphlagonia,  Bithynia,  Lydia,  Pamphylia, 
Isauria,  Cilicla,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  etc.,  with  Troy; 
£phesus,  Smyrna,  and  many  other  great  and  famous  cities. 
Here,  from  the  obscure  era  of  Semiramis  (about  b.c.  2CK)0). 
to  the  time  of  Osman  (about  a.d.  1300),  the  greatest  con> 
querors  of  the  world  contended  for  supremacy;  and  here 
took  place  the  wars  of  the  Medes  and  Persiajis  with  the 
Scythians;  of  the  Greeks  with  the  Persians;  of  the  Romniis 
with  Mithridates  and  the  Parthians;  of  the  Arabs,  Sclji^ks, 
Mongols^  and  Osmanlis  with  the  weak  Byzantine  empire. 

A8IAK,  a.  a8hi-dn,  or  Asiatic,  a.  d'ahi-dtUe:  of  or 
pertaining  to  Asia  Asiatic,  n.  an  inhabitant  of  Asia. 
AsiATicisM,  n.  d'shlMi-^Hem,  imitation  of  oriental  man- 
ners. 

A8IARCH,  n.  ashl-drk  [Gr.  asuxrehis]:  under  the 
Romans,  the  director-general  of  religious  ceremonies  in  the 
province  of  Asia.  The  expression^occurs  in  Acts  xix.  81, 
"And  certain  also  of  the  Asiarchs."  Properly  speaking^, 
there  was  but  one  A.  residing  at  Ephesus,  the  others  re- 
ferred to  being  his  subordinates. 

ASIDE,  ad.  d-sid'  [AS.  a.  on,  and  nde]:  to  one  side; 
apart  from  the  rest;  at  a  little  distance  from  the  straight 
line:  N.  in  a  drama,  a  speech  made  by  one  actor  and  sup- 
posed not  to  be  heanl  by  the  rest  To  bet  asidb,  to  annul 
the  effect  of,  as  a  verdict  or  judgment  of  a  court  of  law;  to 
place  away  for  a  future  occasion  or  purpose. 

ASILID^,  n.  d-»il'l-de:  family  of  Diptera,  generally 
called  Hornet-flies.  They  are  fierce  and  voracious, 
usually  feeding  on  insects  which  they  catch  on  the  wing. 
In  flyiDK,  they  make  a  humming?  noise ;  at  rest,  hit  on 
top  of  plants.    All  are  harmless  to  man.    Asilus,  genus. 

ASINALUNGA,  dse'nd46n'gd,  or  Sina  Longa:  town  ol 
Tuscany,  32  m.  s,e.  of  Siena.    Pop.  1.600. 

ASININE,  a.  ds'l-nln:  see  under  Ass. 
.  ASIPHONATE,  a.  dmf6-ndt[QT.  a,  without;  H^^idn,  a 
siphon]:  not  possessing  a  respiration  tube  or  siphon;  applkd 
to  a  division  of  the  lamellibranchiatc  moUusks. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASITIA— ASMODEUS. 

ASITIA.  n.  a^XsIt'l-d  [Gr. — from  a.  without;  sitos,  wheat 
food]:  in  med.,  loss  of  appetite,  loathing  of  food. 

ASK,  V.  ask  [AS.  aman:  Qt^x.  luiacJun,  to  inquire,  to 
demand:  Dut  eische/i:  Icel.  ceskia,  to  demand,  to  require]; 
to  beg;  to  solicit ;  to  seek  from ;  to  question  ;  to  inquire. 
Asking,  imp.  Asked,  pp.  dskt,  Ask'er,  n.  one  who. — 
Syn.  of  .*  ask  *:  to  request ;  beg ;  beseech ;  supplicate ;  en- 
treat ;  implore  ;  solicit ;  crave  ;  adjure  ;  interrogate ;  seek; 
petition;  require;  demand;  claim;  mquire. 

ASKANCE,  ad.  da-karuf  [It.  schiancio,  athwart,  across; 
seaTisare,  to  turn  aside:  Dut.  scfiuin,  aslant:  OF;  a  scanehe, 
obliquely] :  sideways ;  looking  towards  one  comer  of  the 
eye.    Askant,  ad.  ds-kant ,  obliquely;  on  one  side. 

ASKEW,  ad.  ds-ku'  [Icel.  skeifr:  Ger.  9chief,  oblique, 
wry:  Icel.  d  ska,  askew:  L.  seoBdus,  on  the  left  hand] :  awry; 
obliquely;  aside. 

ASKEW,  or  As'cough,  Anne:  d.  1546,  July  18:  one 
of  the  sufferers  for  Protestant  opinions  at  the  dawn  of  the 
Reformation  in  England.  Havmg  embraced  the  views  of 
the  reformers,  she  was  turned  out  of  doors  by  her  husband, 
a  gentleman  of  Lincolnshire,  a  zealous  Rom.  Oath.  On 
this  she  went  up  to  London  to  sue  for  a  separation;  but  wns 
eventually  arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  and  was  examined 
by  the  Bishop  of  London  and  others  on  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  the  truth  of  wbich  she  denied.  After 
further  examination  and  torture  by  the  rack,  she  was  burned 
at  the  stake,  in  Smithfield. 

ASLANT,  n.  as-ld^ni  [Turk,  and  Tart,  aslan,  arslan,  a 
lion]:  old  Turkish  coin  worth  from  115  to  120aspers(q.v.). 
The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  Dutch  dollar  in  the 
Levant. 

ASLANT,  ad.  A-Mnt  [AS.  a,  on,  and  dant:  Scot,  ask- 
lent,  askew:  OF.  escUncher,  to  slip]:  not  at  a  right  angle; 
on  one  side;  leaning  towards. 

ASLEEP,  ad.  drtiUp'  [AS.  a,  on,  and  sleep]:  in  a  state  of 
deep;  at  rest 

ASLOPE,  ad.  d4ldp'  [AS.  a,  on,  and  slope"];  in  a  sloping 
manner. 

ASMANNSflAUSEN,  ds'mdnS'how'zen:  village  in  the 
jurisdiction  of  Radesheim,  Nassau ;  famed  for  the  wine 
produced  on  the  slate-mountains  in  its  vicinity.  Of  this 
there  are  two  kinds,  red  and  white,  the  former  greatly  pre- 
ferred. It  has  a  rich  red  color,  like  Burgundy;  possesses  a 
rare  aromatic  flavor;  and  is  noted  for  its  uncommon  strength 
and  Are.  But  it  retains  its  excellent  qualities  only  about 
three  or  four  years;  after  which,  year  by  year,  it  becomes 
weaker,  and  loses  its  color.  The  choicest  sort,  preferred  by 
connoi^urs  to  all  the  other  red  wines  of  the  Rhine,  and 
even  to  Burgundy  itself,  is  cultivated  in  the  ducal  vineyards 
at  Wiesbaden. 

ASMATOGRAPHY,  n.  ds-md-tdg'rd-fi  [Gr.  ama,  a 
Bong;  graphe,  a  writing]:  a  writing  or  treatise  on  songs. 

A8MODEU8,  dz-mo-d^'iis  (properly,  Abchmbdai,  *  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASMONEAN— ASP. 

destroyer  y,  an  evil  genius  or  demon  mentioned  in  the  later 
Jewish  writings.  A.  was  described  as  the  author  of  many 
evils.  In  the  book  of  Tobit  (q.y.),  he  is  represented  as  slay- 
ing the  seven  husbands  of  Sara,  and  hence,  in  modem 
times,  has  been  jocularly  spoken  of  as  the  destroying  demon 
of  matrimonial  happiness.  In  the  Talmud.  A.  is  described 
as  the  prince  of  demons,  and  is  said  to  have  driven  Solomon 
from  his  kingdom. 

ASMON£AN,  or  AsifON.AAN,  a.  ds'md-n^&n:  pertaining 
to  the  Asmoncans,  a  famUy  that  reigned  over  the  Jews  IS^ 
years,  till  B.C.  39.    See  Maccabres. 

ASO'CA  {Jonesia  Asoca):  Indian  tree  of  the  nat.  ord. 
Leguminom,  suborder  Cossalpinem;  remarkable  for  the 
beauty  of  its  red  and  orange  flowers.  The  leaves  are 
abruptly  pinnate,  shining,  and  very  beautiful.  The  A.  is 
often  mentioned  in  Indian  poetry,  and  is  connected  also  in 
various  ways  with  the  Hindu  mythology. 

ASO'EA,  or  Asho'ka,  or  Dhab-mabo'ka:  an  Indian 
king,  who  lived  b.c.  3d  c;  called  the  'Buddhist  Con* 
stantine,'  having  organized  Buddhism  as  the  state  religion. 
As  king  of  Magadha  or  Behar,  A.  became  a  zealous  con* 
vert  to  Buddhism  abt  B.C.  267,  and  in  244  he  convened 
the  third  of  the  great  Buddhist  councils  at  Patna.  Through- 
out his  kingdom  and  the  conquered  provinces  he  published 
the  grand  principles  of  the  system;  and  the  edicts  by  which 
these  sermons  were  preached  are  still  found  mven  deep  oo 
pillars,  caves,  and  rocks  from  Peshawar  and  E^athiawar  to 
Orissa.  About  40  such  rock  inscriptions  are  still  extant; 
but  he  is  said  to  have  erected  84,000  memorial  colunms. 
His  civil  organization  and  administration  of  Justice  were 
admirable. 

ASOLA,  d-8d'ld:  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Bresda;  Id 
m.  w.n.w.  of  Mantua.    Pop.  1,(K)0. 

ASOMATOUS,  a.  d-som'd-tiis  [Gr.  a,  without;  a&md,  a 
body;  som'ata,  bodies]:  without  a  material  body. 

ASONANT.  a.  dso  n^nt  [Gr.  a,  without:  L.  sanan'tsm. 
sounding]:  without  sound;  not  resonant 

A80P1A,  d'Sd'pl-d  [Gr.  Asdpos,  god  of  the  river  Asopus 
in  Achaia]:  genus  of  moths  of  the  family  iV^^<^*  ^- 
farinalis  is  the  so-called  Meal-moth. 

ASP,  n.  asp,  or  Aspic,  n.  as'pUc  [OF.  a9pe:  P.  tupic^ 
a  kind  of  viper— from  L.  aspis,  or  cipidem,  a  venomous 
serpent]:  a  small  serpent  whose  bite  is  fatal,  the  name  of 
which  has  come  down  from  ancient  times;  the  vague  descrip- 
tions of  ancient  authors,  however,  causing  uncertainty  as  to 
the  species.  It  is  very  generally  supposed  to  be  the  If€^ 
Hc0e,  the  El  Haje  or  Haje  Nasher  of  the  Arabs,  which  is 
very  common  in  Egypt,  Cyprus,  etc.,  and  often  appears  in 
hieroglyphic  and  other  sculptures  as  one  of  the  sacred 
animals  of  ancient  Egypt.  It  is  sometimes  from  3  to  5  ft. 
in  len^,  of  nearly  equal  thickness  throughout,  with  a 
gradually  tapering  tail ;  brownish,  varied  with  dark  and 
pale  spots;  the  scales  of  the  neck,  back,  and  upper  surface 
of  the  tail  slightly  carinated;  the  tail  about  one-fourth  of 


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ASP. 

the  whole  len^  o£  the  animal.  The  neck  is  capable  of 
considerable  dilatation,  through  the  distension  of  its  loose 
skin,  although  not  so  much  as  that  of  the  nearly  allied 
cobra  da  capello  of  India  {Nqja  tripudians).  The  dilatation 
of  the  neck  takes  place  when  the  serpent  is  irritated.  The 
ju^lers  of  Egypt  are  accustomed  to  perform  tricks  witli 
this  serpent,  as  those  of  India  with  the  cobra  da  capello, 
causing  it  to  dance  to  their  music;  after  they  have  first, 
however,  carefully  extracted  the  poison-fangs.  It  is  very- 
venomous.  Several  varieties  exist  at  the  Cape  of  €k)oa 
Hope,  one  of  which  is  nearly  white;  and  one  is  called 
Spuugh  Slang,  or  Spitting  Snake,  by  the  coloiiists,  from 
its  supposed  power  of  ejecting  its  poison  to  a  distance  when 
initatea:  the  poison  which  distils  from  the  fangs  in  such 


Naja  Haje. 

drciunstances  being  probably  carried  off  by  the  forcible  ex 
pirations  which  the  creature  makes— a  characteristic,  how- 
ever, not  exclusively  belonging  to  a  particular  variety. — 
Other  serpents  of  the  same  family,  Vtperida,  are  by  some 
believed  to  be  the  true  asp,  particularly  Vipera  Eenis  and 
V.  Cerastes.  The  former  is  a  grayish  or  yellowish  brown 
color,  with  rays  and  eye-like  spots  on  the  upper  parts;  it  is 
found  both  in  India  and  the  n.  of  Africa.  The  latter  is  of 
a  grayish  color,  and  has  a  very  broad  heart-shaped  head,  a 
short,  obtuse,  rounded  muzzle,  and  the  superciliary  or  eye- 
.brow  scales  remarkably  developed,  so  that  one  of  them  is 
often  produced  into  a  sort  of  spine;  it  inhabits  the  deserts 
of  n.  Africa.— The  name  asp  is  now  ffenerally  given  to 
Vipera  Aspis,  a  native  of  the  Alps,  foiud  also  in  the  s.e.  of 
Europe  and  in  Sicily,  which  much  resembles  the  common 


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ASP— ASPARAGUS. 

▼iper,  but  is  more  slender,  and  has  a  larger  head;  it  ia  also 
more  venomous. 
ASP,  n.:  see  Abpen. 

ASPALATHUS,  as-pdVa-lhus  [Gr.  agpalcUhos,  a  thorny 
shrub  whose  bark  and  roots  yielded  a  fragrant  oil — ^named 
from  the  island  AspakUhus,  where  it  grew;  it  has  not  been 
certainly  identified]:  ancient  unidentified  shrub;  also  a 

Slant  called  the  Rose  of  Jerusalem,  or  Our  Lady's  Rose; 
1  modem  bot,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order 
LeguminosfE,  sub-order  PapUionaeea,  It  contains  about  150 
shrubs  and  under-shrubs, 

A8PALAX,  ds'pa4aa  [Gr.  aspaktx,  or  apoUaa,  a  mole]: 
genus  of  BodenUa  to  which  belongs  the  A,  typMtu  of 
Turkey,  s.  Russia,  and  Persia.  It  mis  no  real  afiSnity  to 
our  mole,  which  belongs  to  Iruectiwra, 

ASP AR AGIN,  iis-p&r' d-fin,  C4H«N,0,:  a  crystalline  sub- 
stance which  exists  ready  formed  in  the  common  aspar- 
agus, in  the  marsh-mallow,  in  comfrey,  in  potatoes,  in 
chestnuts,  in  leaves  of  the  deadly  nightshade,  in  licorice- 
root,  in  the  milky  Juice  of  lettuce,  in  the  tubers  of  the 
dahlia,  and  in  the  young  shoots  of  vetches,  peas,  beans,  etc 
According  to  Piria,  the  young  shoots  of  these  plants,  when 
formed  in  the  light,  contain  as  much  asparagine  as  when  they 
are  grown  in  the  dark,  but  the  asparagine  disappears  as  the 

Slant  arrives  at  the  flowering  stage.  Other  chemists,  indud- 
ig  Pasteur,  find  that  the  vetches  grown  in  light  are  free 
from  asparagine.  This  substance  is  readily  obtained  from 
the  expressed  juice  of  the  young  shoots  of  asparagus,  of 
young  vetches,  etc.,  which,  after  filtration  and  evapora- 
tion to  a  syrup,  soon  deposits  it  in  crystalline  prisms  of 
a  ri^ht  rhombic  form.  These  crystals  dissolve  freely  in 
boilmg  water,  the  cooled  solution  having  a  mawki^  and 
cooling  taste,  and  a  slight  acid  reaction.  Asparagin  ex- 
hibits two  remarkable  transformations.  (1)  When  its 
aqueous  solution  is  heated  with  alkalies  or  acids,  it  is  de- 
composed into  aspartic  acid,  C4HTNO4,  and  ammonia;  from 
this  and  other  reactions,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  should  be 
regarded,  according  to  modem  views,  as  the  amide  (^.v.) 
of  aspartic  acid.  (2)  While  a  solution  of  pure  asparagme- 
crystals  remains  unchanged,  if  any  coloring  matter  is  pres- 
ent the  solution  passes  into  fermentation,  and  the  whole  of 
the  asparagine  is  converted,  by  the  assimilation  of  hydrogen, 
from  the  pigment  into  succinate  of  ammonia,  a  reactioi 
which  may  be  expressed  as  follows: 

Aspara^.  Succloate  of  AmmonSft. 

C4HbN,0,,H,0  -f  H,  =  2NH,,C4H.04 
like  most  of  the  amides,  this  substance  unites  both  with 
adds  and  alkalies,  but  the  resulting  compounds  are  of 
little  general  interest.  That  asparagine  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  physiology  of  plants,  is  obvious  from  its  wide 
distribution. 

ASPARAGUS,  n.  ds-pd^A-gus  [L.— from  Gr.  (upa9'agoi\, 
p.  well-known  plant,  whose  turios  or  young  shoots  are  used 
at  table;  the  cultivated  Atpar'agut  offle'ina'lis,  oid.  LiU^- 


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ASPARAGUS. 

c^,  AsPARAGmous,  a.  ds'par-dj'l-ifiUB,  eaten  like  asparagus. 
AsPARAGiN,  n.  dspdrUtjin,  or  Abfar'amid,  mid,  a  crys- 
talline substance  obtained  from  asparagus.  Alpar'agub* 
6TONE,  a  translucent  mineral  of  a  greenish-yellow  color, 
sometimes  passing  into  a  wine  color.  See  Apatttb.  Ab- 
par'tic  Acm,  an  acid  obtained  from  asparagine. 

ASPARAGUS:  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord.  LUiaeem, 
having  an  almost  bell  shaped  six-partite  perianth  upon  an 
articulated  stalk,  six  stamens,  one  style,  with  three  re- 
curved stigmas,  and  the  cells  of  the  berry  two-seeded.  The 
species  of  this  genus  are  herbaceous  or  shrubbjr  plants, 
natives  chiefly  of  the  s.  of  Europe  and  of  Africa,  with 
abortively  dioecious  flowers;  the  stem  is  unarmed  in  some, 
in  others  thorny;  at  its  first  sprouting  leafless,  and  covered 
with  scales  at  the  top;  afterwards  very  much  branched,  with 


^ 


Asparagus. 

a,  a  yotrng  shoot;  b,  flowers;  c,  the  upper  end  of  a  stem,  showing 

branches,  leaves,  and  frmt  (all  reduced). 

numerous  fasciculate,  generally  bristle-like  leaves.  The 
most  widely  diffused  species  is  the  Common  A.,  ^.  offici- 
nalis, a  native  of  Europe,  which  grows  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
and  on  the  seashore,  in  meadows  and  bushy  places,  especiid- 
ly  in  sandy  soils,  and  it  is  also  in  genend  cultivation  as  a 
garden  vegetable;  its  young  shoots,  when  they  first  sprout 
from  the  earth,  beinff  a  much  esteemed  article  of  food, 
though  in  only  a  slight  degree  nutritious.  These  sprouts 
contain  a  peculiar  crystalline  substance,  called  Asparoffinef 
(q.v.)  and  have  a  specific  action  on  the  urinary  organs,  so 
that  their  long  continued  use  in  very  large  quantities  is  apt 
even  to  produce  bloody  urine.  They  are  no  longer  retained 
in  the  pharmacopoeia,  but  both  the  shoots  and  roots  of  A. 

8-36 


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ASPASU.       - 

are  still  occaaionally  used  as  a  diuretic  in  dropsies,  and  as  a 
Uthic  to  dissolve  urinarj  calcali.  A.  was  grown  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  but  has  been  greatly  improved  bj  cultiya- 
tion.  It  is  propagated  usually  bj  seeds  wbich  may  be 
sown  where  the  crop  is  to  be  produced,  though  transplant- 
ing in  the  spring  after  sowing  is  usual.  The  ground  snoold 
be  deeply  trenched  or  plowed  and  a  very  heavy  coating  of 
manure  incorporated  with  the  soil.  Rather  light,  sandy 
ground  is  preferred.  Plants  may  be  set  in  spring  or  fall« 
in  rows  f^S  ft.  apart  and  9  in.  apart  in  the  row,  and  shonld 
be  kept  free  from  weeds.  In  cold  regions,  on  the  approach 
of  wmter,  the  ground  should  be  covered  with  stable  man- 
ure to  the  depth  of  8  or  4  in.,  which  should  be  forked  into 
the  ground  early  in  the  spring.  In  warm  climates  manme 
shoiud  be  applied  in  the  spring.  Cutting  can  be  commenced 
in  three  or  four  years  from  sowing  the  seed,  and  the  bed 
should  remain  productive  20  years.  There  are  about  a 
dozen  varieties. — ^The  A.  beetle  (Grioceris  asparagt),  intro- 
duced from  Europe  about  1860,  is  often  very  destructive. 
Hand-picking,  letting  domestic  fowls  run  among  the  plants, 
the  use  of  pyrethrum  i>owder,  and  destroying  aU  A.  plants 
except  those  required  for  shoots,  are  the  principal  remedies. 
— ^A  kind  of  spirit  is  sometimes  made  from  A.  seed,  and 
the  berries  form  a  substitute  for  coffee.  The  shoots  of  sev- 
eral other  species  also  are  eaten,  as  those  of  A.  tenu^foUut, 
A,  actU^folitu,  and  A.  aitbus^  natives  of  the  s.  of  Europe. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  sprouts  of  the  Bitter  A.,  ^.  §caoer, 
which  is  very  similar  to  the  Common  A.,  are  uneatable  on 
account  of  their  great  bitterness.  Climbing  A.  with  ex- 
quisite feathery  leaves  is  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  plant. 

ASPASIA,  as-pa'shl-a  [Qr. — ^from  Aspctda  (q.v.),  or 
aspaaomai,  to  welcome  kindly]:  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  order  Orchidace<B, 

ASP  A  ST  A,  dt-pd'M'd:  b.o.  5th  c.:  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable women  of  antiquity;  b.  Miletas,  dau.  of  Axiochus. 
The  fact  that  in  Athens  all  foreign  women,  whatever  their 
character,  were  equally  esteemed,  or  rather  disesteemcd,  and 
that  their  children,  even  when  b^x>tten  in  wedlock,  were 
held  illegitimate,  has  originated  the  exroncous  notion  that 
A.  was  a  courtesan.  She  certainly  broke  through  the  re- 
straint which  confined  Athenian  matrons  to  the  seclusion  of 
their  own  homes;  for  after  her  union  with  Pericles,  who 
had  parted  from  his  first  wife  by  her  own  consent,  her  house 
became  the  rendezvous  of  all  the  learned  and  distinguished 
people  in  Athens.  Socrates  often  visited  her.  Her  elo> 
quence  and  knowledge  of  politics  were  extraordinarily  great. 
Her  husband — ^though,  strictly  speaking,  the  Athenian 
law  would  have  refused  this  appellation  to  Pericles— was 
honored  with  the  title  of  Olympiau  Jove,  while  she  her- 
self was  diniified  with  the  name  of  Juno.  From  the  comic 
writers  and  others,  she  received  much  injustice.  It  was 
Hermipt)us,  the*  comic  poet,  who  took  advantage  of  a  tem- 
porary irritation  of  the  Athenians  against  Perk^les,  to 
accuse  A.  of  impiety;  but  the  eloquence  of  the  great  states- 
man disarmed  the  enmity  of  the  judges,  and  procured  her 
acquittal.  Her  influence  over  Pencles  must  have  been 
singularly  great,  though  it  has  obviously  been  exaggerated. 

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ASPASIOLITE  -ASPEN. 

and  even  caricatured.  The  brilliant  but  not  historically  ac 
curate  Aristophanes  charges  her  with  the  origin  both  of  the 
Saraian  and  Feloponnedan  wars,  the  latter  on  account  of  the 
robbery  of  a  favorite  maid  who  belonged  to  her.  Plutarch 
vindicates  her  against  such  accusations;  and  Thucydides, 
who  details  minutely  the  causes  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
does  not  mention  her  name  in  connection  witJti  these.  After 
the  death  of  Pericles,  A.  married  Lys'icles,  a  cattle-dealer 
(an  important,  lucrative,  and  dignified  profession  in  ancient 
times),  who,  through  her  influence,  soon  became  an  emi- 
nent man  in  Athens.  The  name  of  A.  was,  after  her 
death,  applied  to  many  women  of  remarkable  accomplish- 
ments and  amiability. 

ASPASIOLITE,  ds-pd'ei-o-m  [Gr.  aspamos,  greatly  wel- 
comed]: a  mineral  of  a  green  or  grayish  color.  It  occurs 
in  Norway  with  iolite,  of  which  it  may  be  only  an  altered 
state. 

ASPlfe,  ds'pd:  t.  of  Valencia,  Spain,  province  of 
Alicante:  21  m.  w.  from  Alicante,  near  the  river  Elcha. 
It  is  moderately  well  built,  but  the  streets  are  narrow  and 
winding.  It  has  nrmierous  flour-mills  and  oil-mills,  also 
soap-manufactories  and  brandy  distilleries.  There  is  con- 
siderable trade  in  wine.     Pop.  6,744. 

ASPECT,  n.  ds'pekt  [L.  (^pectus,  looked  at  attentively— 
from  ad,  specto,  1  look]:  that  which  looks  towards ;  look  ; 
appearance;  position  or  situation;  view.  Aspect' able,  a. 
thai  may  be  looked  at  or  beheld. 

AS'PECTS,  in  Astronomy:  certain  positions  of  planets 
with  respect  to  one  another,  as  seen  trom  the  earth.  In 
the  days  of  astrology,  there  were  five  Aspects — Conjunc- 
tion (indicated  by  the  svmbol  6 ),  Sextile  (*),  Quartile  (  d  ), 
Trine  (a),  Opposition  l^).  Two  planets  are  m  conjunc- 
tion when  they  have  the  same  longitude;  the  aspect  is 
sextile  when  they  are  60*  apart;  quartile,  when  the  distance 
is  90";  trine,  when  it  is  ISO**;  and  at  180**  they  are  opposite 
to  one  another,  or  in  opposition.  Astrology  ascribed  to 
these  A.  great  influence  over  the  fate  of  individuals  and  of 
nations.  The  only  two  of  the  terms  now  in  use  are  con- 
junction  and  opposiHon. 

ASPEN,  n  as'pen,  or  Abp  [AS.  at^pen:  Icel.  dtp,  aspen]: 
a  tree  of  the  poplar  kind  whose  leaves  quiver  or  shake  at 
the  slightest  breath  of  air;  the  Populus  tremula,  ord.  Salt- 
ede^xB:  Adj.  pertaining  to  an  aspen. 

ASPEN,  or  Tremulous  Poplar {Pap'ulus  trem'ula,  see 
Poplar):  tree  frequent  in  Europe  and  m  Siberia.  It  is  a 
native  of  Britain,  and  is  frequent  in  Scotland,  where  it  is 
found  even  1,500  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  has  received  the 
specific  name  tremula,  from  the  readiness  with  which  its 
leaves  are  thrown  into  a  tremulous  motion  by  the  slightest 
breath  of  wind — a  property  for  which,  indeed,  the  aspen- 
leaf  has  become  proverbial.  The  leaves  are  nearly  orbicu- 
lar, but  broadly  toothed,  so  as  almost  to  exhibit  angles.  The 
footstalks  are  compressed,  which  favors  the  readiness  of 
motion.    It  grows  quickly,  with  a  straight  stem,  reaching 


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ASPER-A8PERA.tr 

to  a  height  of  from  60  to  80  or  even  100  ft  In  tmfiiTor- 
able  situations,  it  becomes  dwarfish.  The  wood  is  soft, 
porous,  li^ht,  white,  and  smooth;  it  does  not  make  good 
fuel,  but  18  very  fit  for  the  turning-lathe, and  especially  for 
bein^  made  into  troughs,  trays,  pails,  etc.  It  is  deemed 
excellent  for  arrows,  if  the  stem  be  peeled  and  allowed  to 
dry  before  it  be  cut  down,  the  wood  becomes  harder,  and 
is  then  capable  of  being  used  as  timber  for  the  interior  of 
houses;  and  on  this  account  the  tree  is  of  great  importanca 


Aspen  (PoptUuB  tremvia)  reduced, 
a,  a  portion  of  a  branch  with  catkins;  6,  do.,  with  leaves. 

in  many  districts,  and  the  more  so  as  it  succeeds  in  any 
soil,  although  it  prefers  one  which  is  moist  and  gravelly. 
The  bark  contains  a  ^reat  quantity  of  a  bitter  alkaloid, 
Salicin,  The  charcoal  made  from  this  tree  can  be  used  in 
tae  uianuiacture  oi"  guupowilor. — Populvs  tremuloidM,  a 
similar  species,  native  of  N.  America,  is  called  the  Ameri- 
can A.  It  is  regarded  by  some  as  a  mere  variety.  Very 
similar,  also,  is  another  N.  American  species,  P.  graikdi- 
dentalay   ovate,  large-toothed  leaf,   instead  of  cordate. 

ASPER,  n.  (JM'pirrL.  L.  asperua,  aspnts,  aaperum,  agpruvi: 
mod.  Gr.  aspros,  white:  Turk,  aqtscheh,  akt9cm,  white — used 
substantively  as  the  name  of  a  coin]:  an  old  Turkish  silver 
coin,  worth  a  little  more  than  one  cent. 

ASPERATE,  V.  as'p&r-at  [L.  asperdtus,  made  rough— 
from  asper,  rough]:  to  make  rough  or  uneven.    As'pera-  ■ 

TmO,  imp.  As  PERATED,  pp.  ASPERATION.  n.  MpSr-d'' 
shun.  AsPEU,  or  Aspre,  a.  (Wper^  rou^h;  sharp  in 
sound;  bitter  in  spirit:  N.  the  rough  breathing  (*)  placed 
over  the  initial  letter  of  many  Greek  words,  when  that 
letter  is  a  vowel,  and  over  the  second  letter  if  a  diphthong. 
It  indicates  that  the  vowel  is  to  be  aspirated,  i.e.,  pro- 
nounced as  if  A  preceded  it.   It  is  used  also  before  p  at  the 


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ASPERGES— ASPERIFOLIOUS. 


beginninfi:  of  a  word, 
nounced  like  rh. 


to  indicate  tliat  it  shoald  be  pro- 


ASPER(iES,  n.  ds-prr'Jeji  [L.  asper'gcs,  nrst  word  of 
praver  from  Ps.  li.  7,  *  Thou  sJudt  sprinkle  me,  O  Irf^rd, 
with  hyssop,'  etc]:  fonnula  sung  in  the  li.  Cath.  Ch.  by 
the  priests  while  spriukliog  holy  water  over  the  congrega- 
tion, or  over  the  sick;  the  instrument  by  which  this  is 
done,    consisting  of  a  broad  brush  with  a  handle.     See 

ASPERGILL. 

ASPERGILL,  n.  ds'p^r-jil,  or  Aspergillus,  n.  ds'p^r- 
jil'lUs  [L.  anpergo^  I  scatter  or  throw!:  in  the  R.  Cath.  Ch. 

a  short  staff  surmounted  by  a  brush  for  sprinkling  holy 

water.     As'fergil'lifor'mis,  a.  -jU'll-fiynn'U  [L.  forma, 

shape]:  io  bot,  applied  to  little  tufts  of  hair  which  assume 

the  form  of  a  brush. 

A8PERGILLUM,  ds'pir-jWlum:  remarkable  genus  of 

Lamellibranchiate  Conchiferous  Mollusca,  in  which  the 
shell  has  the  form  of  an  elongated  cone, 
terminating  at  the  larger  end  in  a  disk, 
which  is  pierced  with  numerous  small 
tubular  boles,  the  little  tubes  of  the  outer 
range  being  largest,  and  forming  a  sort  of 
ray  around  it.  The  animals  of  this  genus 
are  borers,  some  of  them  living  in  sand, 
others  burrowing  in  stone,  wood,  or  thick 
shells.  A.  Javanum  is  popularly  called  the 
Watering-pot,  and  the  same  resemblance  has 
suggested  the  name  A.  (from  the  Latin  as- 
wrgo,  to  sprinkle).  The  most  interesting 
feature  in  the  structure  of  the  shelly  tubi 
of  A.  is  the  {>resence  of  two  small  valves, 
incorporated  in  the  substance  of  the  tube, 
to  which  they  bear  a  very  small  proportion. 
'They  there  form  the  stamp,'  says  Owen, 
*  of  its  true  aflOnities,  but  subserve  as  little 
any  ordinaiy  final  purpose  as  the  teeth 
buried  in  the  gums  of  the  fetal  whale. 
The  afltoities  are  with  mollusca  inhabiting 
bivalve  shells.  A  rudimentary  bivalve 
shell  is  found,  in  like  manner,  cemented 

into  the  shelly  tube  of  the  fossil  Teredina,  which  bored 

the  drift-wood  of  the  London  clay. 
There  is  also  a  genus  Aspergillus  in  Botany  contain- 

iijg  many  of  the  small  fungi  commonly  known  by  the 

nume  of  mould  (q.v.),  which  occur  on  decaying  substances 

of  various  kinds.    Some  of  the  species  are  peculiar  to 

diseased  animal  tissues. 
ASPERGILLUS:  genus  of  fungi  comprising  many  of  the 

species  of  common  molds. 

ASPERIFOLLB,  as-p^r-i-fo' U-i  [L.  asper,  rough ;/o;twfw, 

a  leaf]:  Linnaeus's  name  for  the  natural  order  of  plants  now 

called  Borag%nace(B,  or  Borageworts. 
ASPEBIFOLIOUS,  a.  iis' p^r-X-fdVl-^,  or  Aspkrifo'li- 


AspergUlum. 
a,  the  disk  with 
holes;  6,  the 
rudimentary 
▼alves. 


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ASPERITY— ASPERSE. 

ATB,  -at,  FL.  asper,  rou^;  folium,  a  leaf]:  having  leaves 
rough  to  ttie  touch. 

ASPERITY,  n.  as-p^'Uti  [F.  atperite,  roughness— from 
L.  asperitcu,  roughness— from  asper,  rough]:  roughness  of 
surface;  the  quality  that  grates  on  the  ear;  sourness;  harsh- 
ness.—Syn.  of  'asperity':  acrimony;  animosity;  tartness; 
harshness;  moroseness;  crabbedness;  sourness;  sharpness. 

ASPERMOUS,  a.  d-^per'mut  [Gr.  a,  without;  sperma, 
seed]:  in  bot,,  without  seed. 

ASPERN,  di'p^m,  or  GRoee  Asperh:  village  of  Austria, 
Cn  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  5  m.  e.n.e.  of  Vienna. 
Pop.  abt.  700. 

This  and  the  neighboring  village  of  Essling  are  celebrated 
as  the  scene  of  a  sanguinary  battle  in  the  sunmier  of  1809, 
between  the  French  army  under  Napoleon  I.  and  the 
Austrians  under  Archduke  Charles.  After  the  battle  of 
Eckmtthl,  in  which  the  Austrians  were  defeated,  the  arch- 
duke retired  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  leaving  the 
road  to  Vienna  open  to  the  French.  The  French  army 
entered  Vienna,  1809,  May  12,  when  the  archduke  concen- 
trated his  forces  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river.  Napo- 
leon threw  bridges  over  the  river,  and  on  the  21st  the  French 
army  began  crossing  to  the  attack.  The  Austrians  at 
first  seemed  to  give  way;  but  when  about  half  the  French 
had  crossed  the  river,  they  returned  to  the  charge  and 
almost  surrounded  the  enemy  in  the  narrow  plain  between 
the  two  villages.  Here  ensued  the  battle  of  A.,  a  terrible 
conflict,  the  grand  object  of  the  contending  hosts  being 
the  possession  of  the  villages.  At  the  close  of  the  day,  it 
remained  undecided;  but  next  morning  it  was  renewed  with 
fury  on  either  side,  when,  after  terrible  slaughter  Napo- 
leon ordered  a  retreat,  and  his  shattered  ranks  retired  to 
the  little  island  of  Lobau,  in  the  middle  of  the  river,  whence 
they  afterwards  slowly  withdrew  to  the  right  bank.  The 
loss  on  the  side  of  the  Austrians  was  given  at  4,000  killed 
and  16,000  wounded;  that  of  the  f^nch  at  double  that 
amoimt.  Marshal  Lannes,  the  most  daring  among  the 
French  generals,  was  among  the  slain.  Both  the  vulages 
were  reduced  to  heaps  of  ruins. 

ASPERNATION,  n.  ds-p&r-nd'ahun  [L.  a9pema4io-'tTom 
ab,  from;  spemor,  to  despise]:  contempt;  disdain. 

ASPEROLITE,  as-pero-VU  [L.  asper,  rough:  Gr.  Uthcs, 
stone]:  a  variety  of  chrysocolla.(q.v.)  It  is  a  very  brittle 
mineral,  of  a  bluish-green  color,  found  in  Tagilsk,  Russia. 

ASPERSE,  v.  as'pirs'  [L.  aspertfus,  besprinkled]:  to 
sprinkle  over;  to  cover  all  over  with  evil  reports;  to  slander. 
AsPERs'iNG,  imp.  Abpbrsed,  pp.  dspirsf,  slandered. 
Aspers'bb,  n.  -dr,  one  who.  Ajspebsion,  n.  <is^>er'shun,  a 
sprinkling,  as  with  dust  or  water;  the  act  of  spreading 
foul  and  slanderous  reports.  Aspersort,  a.  ds-p^'ser-l, 
defamatory.  Asper'sivk,  a.  -slv,  involving  aspersions; 
calculated  to  asperse.  Asper'sivblt,  ad.  by  way  of  as- 
persion.—8  yn.  of  'asperse':  to  slander;  detract;  defame; 
calumniate;  vilify;  vilipend. 


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ASPERSORIUM—ASPHALT. 

ASPEBSORIUM.  n.  ds-pir-sd' ri-Um  [L.L.  asp&rsorium: 
Ital.  aspermrio]:  the  stoup,  or  holy- water  basin,  in  med- 
isBval  churches;  the  aspergill  (q.v.). 

ASPERUGO,  a8-p6r-u'gd  [L.  a  plant  with  prickly  leaves 
— ^from  asper,  rough]:  ^enus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
order  Baraginacece,  &  contains  only  one  species,  A. 
pracumbens,  or  German  Mad  wort,  a  very  hispid  plant,  with 
solitary  blue  flowers  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

ASPERULA:  see  Woodruff. 

ASPETTI,  ds-pH'ti,  TiziANo:  1565-1607:  b.  Padua;  d. 
Pisa:  sculptor,  said  to  have  been  a  nephew  of  the  painter 
Titian.  This,  however,  is  doubtful,  as  Titian  was  bom  in 
1477.  A.  worked  at  Venice,  Padua,  Florence,  and  Pisa. 
Vasari  calls  him  the  Titian  of  Padua,  and  praises  his  work 
highly.  A  statue  of  St.  Anthony  at  Padua,  and  statues  of 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  on  the  facade  of  St.  Mark's  Church  at 
Venice,  are  among  his  works. 

ASPHALT,  or  Asphaltum,  n.  As-fdU'  or  Hs-fSXt^m  [L. 
cuphaltum;  Gr.  aspTuUtos,  bitumen — ^f rom  Gr.  a,  not;  8ph(Ulo, 
I  cause  to  slip]:  a  compact  form  of  bitumen  (q.v.);  a  blackish 
or  dark-brown  substance  of  solid  consistence.  Asphaltic, 
a.  ds-f&l'tik,  pertaining  to  asphalt.  Asphalting,  process 
of  covering  or  of  paving  with  asphaltum.  Asphaltotype, 
negative  photograph  produced  on  a  plate  coated  with  a  film 
of  bitumen. — Asphalt  appears  to  be  the  hardened  form  of 
more  liquid  bituminous  substances,  e.g.,  petroleum,  which 
have  ooaed  out  of  the  ground.  The  li^gest  natural  deposit 
of  A. is  the  Pitch  Lake  in  the  island  of  Trinidad  (q.v.).  A. 
is  found  also  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  in  large  quantity. 
Artificial  A.  is  made  from  gas-tar  (q.v.).  The  various  kinds 
of  A.  have  a  pitchy  odor,  when  pure  a  resinous  lustre,  do 
not  soil  in  handling;  are  insoluble  in  water,  sparingly 
soluble  in  alcohol;  but  are  in  great  part  dissolved  by  ether, 
oil  of  turpentine,  and  naphtha,  in  which  respect  A.  differs 
essentially  from  coaL  Petroleum  (q.v.)  is  essentially  A. 
dissolved  in  naphtha.  The  specific  gravity  of  A.  is  very 
near  that  of  water,  ranging  from  1,(X)0  to  1,100.  A.  was 
employed  by  the  ancient  Ei^yptians  for  embalming  their 
dead,  and  was  used  in  Babylon  as  mortar.  Its  modem  ap- 
plications are  numerous.  It  is  an  ingredient  in  Japan  var- 
nish, and  in  the  enamel  on  '  patent  leather ';  and  is  used 
with  other  materials  to  make  waterproof  roofing  and  floor- 
ing, linings  for  cisterns,  and  with  pasteboard  materials  in 
construction  of  water-pipes.  It  is  much  used  to  form 
'damp  courses'  in  walls  of  buildings — ^i.e.,  a  layer  of  it,  \ 
inch  to  f  inch  thick,  is  spread  over  the  thickness  of  a  wall 
near  the  ground- level,  to  prevent  ascent  of  damp;  and 
f  reauently  the  whole  internal  ground  area  of  a  house  is  cov- 
ered with  a  layer  of  A.  Where  a  house- wall  is  against  a 
bank  of  earth,  the  whole  surface  is  protected  from  damp  by  a 
lining  of  it.  Timber  for  use  in  constructions  under  water 
is  made  more  durable  by  saturation  with  A.  heated.  One 
or  two  kinds  of  A.,  such  as  those  found  at  Seyssel  in  e. 
France,  and  at  Val-de-Travers  in  Switzerland,  are  really 
bituminous  limestones:  the  latter  is  known  all  over  the 
world  as  a  material  for  x)avement  (q.v.).     This  Val-de- 


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ASPHALTIC.  COAL. 

Travers  A.  is  prepared  by  reducing  the  natural  rock,  wbicb 
contains  7  to  20  per  cent,  of  bitumen,  to  powder,  and  then 
putting  it  with  some  melted  bitumen  into  a  caldron.  After 
being  fused  and  stirred  for  some  time,  it  is  run  into  molds 
to  form  blocks  of  about  1  cwt.  each.  These  blocks  aro 
called  '  asphaltic  mastic,'  and  the  finest  kinds  contain  87 
per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  13  of  bitumen,  and 
should  not  melt  below  168**  F.  It  has,  especially  since  1854, 
been  extensively  used  in  paving  streets  on  the  European 
continent,  and  foot- ways  in  British  cities.  In  the  United 
States,  the  A.  used  is  mostly  made  of  refuse  tar  from  gas- 
works, mixed  with  slaked  Hme  and  gravel  (see  Gas-tar). 
The  pigment  known  as  asphaltum  is  prepsLred  sometimes 
from  natural  A.,  but  usually  from  the  residue  of  distilled 
bituminous  substances.  Unfortunately,  its  fine  transparent 
brown  color  has  tempted  some  distinguished  modem  art- 
ists to  use  it  largely.  Through  its  property  of  not  drying 
thoroughly  and  free  of  cracks,  several  fine  pictures  painted 
years  ago  by  Horace  Vemet,  Sir  Qeorge  Harvey,  and  others, 
are  now  mere  wrecks. 

ASPHALTIC  CX)AL:  a  substance  resembling  coal,  found 
in  the  cavities  of  the  older  rocks,  and  supposed  to  have 
been  deposited  in  a  liquid  or  plastic  state.  There  are  many 
varieties,  differin|^  in  composition  and  reactions,  so  that 
A.  C.  is  not  a  species,  but  a  general  name.  One  is  Albertite 
(q.v.);  another,  Grahamite,  in  W.  Virginia;  another,  Uin- 
tahite,  in  Utah;  so,  also,  Cloustonite,  Orkney,  etc  They 
are  not  true  coal,  but  supposed  to  be  derived  from  inspissated 
mineral  oil,  and  some  occur  in  fissures. 


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ASPHODEL. 

ASPHODEL,  n.  Asp-O^l  [Gr.  asphbd  ms,  a  plani  sacrea 
to  Proserpine,  daffodil]:  a  general  name  for  certain  hardy 
perennial  plants,  the  yellow  and  white  being  common  gar- 
den flowers;  the  day-lil^%  called  also  the  king's  spear; 
properly  lIemerdc<U' lis  is  the  day-lily,  and  AspJMHus 
alba  is  the  common  garden  plant,  formerly  called  king's 
spear — both  of  Lilldcea:  this  genus  of  plants  has  bv  many 
botanists  been  made  the  type  of  a  nat.  ord.  AsphodelecB; 
now,  however,  it  is  generally  regarded  as  forming  part  of 
the  order  LCltacecB.  The  Asphtil£lem  are  either  hbrous* 
ropted  or  bulbous- rooted.  Amone  the  latter  are  onions, 
h3racinths,  squills,  star  of  Bethlehem,  etc.;  among  the 
former,  asparagus.  A.,  etc.    The  roots  of  the  asphodels  are 


White  AsphodeL 

fleshy  and  thick.  The  species  are  not  very  numerous,  and 
are  natives  mostly  of  the  countries  around  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.    The  Yellow  A.  (A.  luieus)  and  the  White  A. 


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ASPHYXIA. 

^.  aUnu)  have  long  been  known  and  prized  as  garden- 
flowers.  •  The  yellow  A.  has  an  unbranched  stem  f^S  ft. 
high,  much  covered  by  the  sheathing  bases  of  the  long 
narrow  leaves.  The  leaves  of  the  white  A.  are  all  radical, 
and  its  flowers  are  in  branched  clusters.  Both  species 
flower  about  the  time  when  spring  passes  into  simuner. 

ASPHYXIA,  n.  dsfik'sUd,  or  AsPHTxr.n.  d^fikH  [Gr. 
agphuxid,  the  stopping  of  the  pulse— from  a,  without; 
iphuxia,  the  pulse— /»^.,  pulselessness]:  the  temporary  or 
permanent  cessation  of  the  motions  of  the  h(^ut  as  in 
drowning  and  suffocation,  due  to  the  want  of  air,  or  the 
presence  of  irrcspirable  gases.  Asphyxiate  v.  a^-fikttl-dt, 
to  suffocate,  as  in  drowning,  or  by  breathing  the  fumes  of 
certain  burning  substances.  Asphtx'ia'tikg,  imp.  As- 
PHTxiATBD,  pp.  a.  ds-fiks'i-d't^d,  suffocated  as  bj^  han^g 
or  drowning,  or  by  an  accumulation  of  carbonic  add  in 
the  blood. 

ASPHYXIA,  (U-fik'tH-d,  or  Asphyxy,  as-ftkftH:  term 
usually  apolied  to  the  condition  resulting  from  the  blood 
in  the  body  no  longer  being  brought  into  the  proper 
relations  to  the  atmospheric  air  by  respiration,  so  as  to 
allow  a  suflSciently  free  exchange  of  carbonic  acid  for 
oxygen.  See  Rbspibation.  A.  mav  result  from  several 
causes.  No  air,  or  but  a  scanty  supply,  may  be  admitted, 
as  in  strangulation,  drowning,  choking,  or  disease  in  the 
windpipe;  the  chest  may  be  prevented  from  expanding 
either  from  a  superincumbent  weight  or  paralysis,  as 
when  a  man  breaKs  the  upper  part  of  his  neck  above 
the  phrenic  nerve,  thus  paralyzing  the  diaphragm;  again, 
although  there  may  be  every  capacity  for  respuation,  tJie 
air  itself  may  be  in  fault,  and  contain  too  little  oxygen  in 
proportion  toother  elements,  such  as  carbonic  acid  or  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  which  when  inhaled  act  as  poisons. 
Aquatic  animals  may  be  asphyxiated  either  by  depriving 
of  oxygen  the  water  that  the^  inhabit,  or  by  impregnating 
It  with  the  gases  above  mentioned. 

As  the  condition  of  A.  advances,  in  drowning  or  other- 
wise, the  small  vessels  of  the  lungs  become  gorged  with 
blood,  which  the  heart  no  longer  has  power  to  force  freely 
through  them,  the  right  side  of  the  heart  and  pulmonary 
artery  become  filled  with  blood,  while  but  little  returns 
to  the  arterial  or  left  side  of  the  heart. 

The  person  becomes  pallid,  except  in  such  vascular  parts 
as  the  lips,  cheeks,  and  finger-tips,  which  become  blue; 
and  soon  the  blood,  no  longer  aerated,  produces  the  phe- 
nomena of  poisoning  by  carbonic  acid.  After  some  slight 
convulsive  movements  the  person  becomes  insensible,  the 
pulsations  of  the  heart  grow  gradually  feebler,  and  at  last 
cease  altogether.  In  man  this  occurs  in  from  a  minute 
and  a  half  to  five  minutes.  Some  persons,  as  the  Cevlon 
divers,  can  by  habit  do  without  a  fresh  supply  of  air  for  a 
longer  period;  and  some  diving  animals  have  an  arrange- 
ment of  blood-vessels  bv  which  they  are  enabled  to  be 
under  water  for  a  long  time.  Restoration  of  asphyxiated 
persons  mav  be  attempted  with  hopes  of  success  at  a  very 
long  period  after  apparent  death.    The  object  of  all  meth* 


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ASPHYXIANTS— A8P1NWALL. 

ods  is,  of  course,  to  fill  the  lungs  with  fresh  air.  One  of 
the  most  efficient  is  that  of  the  late  Marshall  Hall:  Lay 
Jhe  person  down  at  once  with  his  head  on  his  left  arm, 
open  the  mouth,  and  draw  the  tongue  forward,  then  roll 
him  gently  over  towards  the  left  till  he  is  nearly  quite 
over  on  his  face,  then  on  to  his  back  again,  making  the 
body  bjr  its  own  weight  compress  the  chest,  which,  on 
exx)ansion  by  its  elasticity,  tills  with  air.  Repeat  this 
about  15  times  in  a  minute.  This  remedy  nearly  super- 
seded all  others  for  the  restoration  of  still-born  infants 
and  other  asphyxiated  persons,  before  the  introduction  of 
the  method  of  Dr.  Sylvester,  an  account  of  which  is  given 
under  RESPrRATioN,  Artificial. 

ASPHYXIANTS:  chemical  substances  enclosed  in 
shells  or  other  projectiles,  which  when  set  free  produce  a 
suffocating  and  poisonous  effect.  The  French  secretly 
made  experiments  with  asphyxiating  shot  at  Brest  in  1851. 
The  principle  of  these  missiles  seems  to  have  been  to  carry  • 
into  an  enemy's  ship  the  means  of  generating  deadly  gases 
which  would  suffocate  the  crews  between  decks.  Scien- 
tific artillerists  dread  and  discountenance  these  novelties; 
they  have  learned  to  regard  war  almost  as  a  mathematical 
science,  or,  at  any  rate,  as  an  elaborate  application  of  such 
science;  and  they  see  nothing  but  savage  cruelty  in  the 
'  diabolical  chemistry '  of  asphyxiants.  Gen.  Sir  Howard 
Douglas,  in  a  late  edition  of  his  Natal  Ounnery,  says: 
'The  author  learns,  with  great  regret,  that  some  awful  ex- 
periments  have  been  made  with  fearful  success,  in  the 
royal  arsenal,  with  asphyxiant  projectiles,  combining  in  a 
frightful  degree  incendiary  with  suffocating  effects. '  The 
Earl  of  Dundonald,  Capt.  Norton,  Mr.  Macintosh,  and 
many  other  inventors,  some  years  ago  brought  asphyxiat* 
ing  compositions  to  the  notice  of  the  English  admiralty 
and  War-office;  and  the  French  arsenals  were  known  to 
possess  many  such  in  store.  Some  of  these  compositions 
are  liquids  which  bum  fiercely,  and  ignite  wood  and  can- 
vas readily;  some  are  contained  in  shells  which,  on  burst- 
ing, scatter  the  suffocating  and  burning  substances  all 
around;  and  some  assume  other  forms. 

ASPIC,  n.  ii^pik  [F.  aspic:  Eng.  spike,  lavender-spike, 
corrupted  from  OF.  espic:  L.  spurns,  lavender] :  savory 
jelly  extracted  from  meat,  as  calves*  feet,  veal,  ham.  etc., 
together  with  onions,  carrots  and  savory  herbs,  flavored 
with  wine,  liquors,  etc. 

ASPIC:  see  Asp  1. 

ASPIDIUM:  see  Fern,  Male. 

ASPIDOPHORUS,  ds-p^yer-Hs  [Gr.  aspis,  a  small, 
roimd  shield;  pharos,  carrying]:  genus  of  fishes  of  old  order 
AcanthopterygU  kdl^  the  family  with  hard  cheeks.  (Ouvler). 

ASPIDORHYNCHUS,  n.  ds'jMd^ng'1cii»lQT,  at^pida, 
shield ;  rhungehos,  a  b^k]:  a  genus  of  fossil  fishes  char- 
acterized by  the  taperine  or  beak-like  prolongation  of  their 
upper  jaws,  armed  with  numerous  sharp-pointed  conical 
teeth. 

ASPINWALL,  (is'piri-vmil:  town  in  Colombia,  virtu- 
ally a  colony  of  the  United  States;  at  the  Atlantic  ez' 

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A8P1RATB-ASPIRAT0R. 

tremitv  of  the  Panama  railway,  and  of  the  interoceanic 
canal  in  progress;  about  8  m.  to  the  n.  of  the  old  Spanish 
port  of  Chagres,  49  m.  from  Panama,  and  equidistant  from 
the  great  trmling  capitals  of  Valparaiso  and  San  Francisco. 
From  its  oommandinff  position  as  a  place  of  transit,  A.  is 
one  of  the  busiest  and  most  prosperous  towns  in  the  new 
world.  It  monopolizes  the  benefits  of  the  traffic  in  both 
directions,  to  the  almost  utter  exclusion  of  the  rapidly  de- 
caying Panama.  The  climate  of  A.,  formerly  yeir  un- 
healthy, has  been  greatly  improved  by  drainage.  A.  de- 
rives its  name  from  Mr.  Aspinwall,  the  originator  of  the 
Panama  r.r.  Colon  is  the  P.  O.  name:  A.  is  not  recognized. 
AS'PIRATE:  name  given  to  the  letter  h  in  grammar, 
as  marking,  not  an  articulate  sound,  but  a  brmhing.  It 
is  applied  also  to  a  class  of  consonants.  There  is  felt  at 
once  to  be  a  relation,  accompanied  by  a  difference,  be- 
tween .p  and  /,  t  and  ih,  etc.  To  express  the  difference, 
the  Greeks  called  the  first  of  such  a  pair  pmUm  (bare), 
the  second  dcttu  (rough^;  the  Latin  grammarians  adopted 
the  terms  lene  and  aspirate,  probably  from  the  erroneous 
notion  that  the  difference  consists  in  the  addition  of  the 
sound  of  A.  There  being  no  sound  and  no  character  in 
Latin  corresponding  to  me  Greek  0  {theia),  the  Romans 
represented  it  by  th;  and  this  misleading  expedient  is 
continued  for  representing  this  aspirate  and  several 
others  in  all  the  alphabets  derived  from  the  Roman. 
According  to  some,  the  word  ought  to  h%  asperate,  Le., 
'  roughened.'  Of  the  sixteen  mutes  in  a  complete  system 
[see  Letters),  eight  are  lene,  each  having  its  correspond- 
g  aspirate. 

Lene—     p,  b,  i,        d,  k,    g,   $,    s. 

Aspirate— ff  v,  t^in),  th{ine),  eh,  gh,  th,  th. 
In  the  corresponding  words  of  allied  languages,  nothing 
is  more  common  than  the  inter- 
change of  an  aspirate  and  lene: 
Ex.,  Lat.  paler,  Eng.  father;  Gr. 
Ihura,  Ger.  thur,  Eng.  door;  Lat. 
cflffKut),  Fr.  ehtf,  Eng.  chUf;  Ger. 
teeib,  £ng.  wtfe.  Aspirated  lett«« 
are  also  frequently  interohange- 
able  with  one  another:  thus,  Gr. 
ther,  a  wild  beast,  is  in  Lat.  fera: 
Lat.  facere,  to  do,  becomes  in 
Span.  Juicer, 

ASPIRATOR:  apparatus  cm- 
ployed  to  draw  air  or  other  gases 
through  bottles  or  other  vessels. 
It  is  of  great  use  in  the  examination 
of  gases  by  the  analytic  chemist. 
The  simplest  form  is  that  repre- 
sented in  the  figure,  where  A.  is  a 
large  vessel  callable  of  being  filled 
witn  water,  having  a  tube  with 
stop-cock  at  B,  a  second  tube  with 
stop-cock  at  0,  and  a  thermometer 
In  working,  the  apparatus  is  filled 


t 


Aspirator. 

introduced  at  D. 


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ASPIRE— A8PLENIUM. 

with  water;  the  tube  C  is  attached  to  the  vessels  through 
which  the  gas  is  to  be  drawn;  and  the  stop-cocks  at 
C  and  B  being  opened,  the  weight  of  the  water  escaping 
at  B  act3  as  suction,  and  draws  m  the  gas  from  the  tube  C 
and  the  attached  bottles  or  other  vessels.  The  thermo- 
meter at  D  denotes  the  temperatures  of  the  water,  and 
subsequently  gas,  contained  in  the  reservoir,  while  the 
upright  turn  of  the  tube  B  keeps  any  air  from  entering 
the  reservoir  by  that  route. — A  more  complicated  form 
of  A.,  but  much  more  convenient  to  experiment  with, 
is  that  known  as  Brunners'  A.;  the  principle  of  action, 
however,  is  the  same. 

ASPIRE,  V.  as-plr'  [F.  (Mpirer— from  L.  asplrdri,  to 
breathe  or  blow  towards— from  ad,  splro,  1  breathe— ^«Y. ,  to 
breathe  towards]:  to  desire  with  eagerness;  to  pant  after; 
to  aim  at  something  that  can  be  obtaineil  with  difficulty. 
Aspi'binq,  imp.:  Adj.  ambitious:  N.  the  desire  of  seme 
thing  great.  Aspired,  pp.  dsplrd'.  Aspi'rer,  n.  one 
who.  Aspi'ringI/T,  ad.  U,  AsPiRAJfT,  n.  as-plrant,  one 
who  seeks  with  eagerness.  Aspirate,  v.  aspi-rdt  [L. 
a^pirdtus,  breathed  towards]:  to  pronounce  with  a  lull 
breath:  N.  a  letter  with  a  mark  to  show  it  must  be  pro- 
nounced with  a  full  breath:  Adj.  pronounced  with  a  breath- 
ing. As'pira'tinq,  imp.  Aspirated,  pp.  as' pi  rated. 
Aspiration,  n.  ds'pUrd'sMn  [F.— L.]:  the  act  of  pro- 
nouncing a  letter  with  a  full  breath;  an  iuxlent  wish  or  de- 
sire to  attain.  As'pira'tor,  n.  -rater,  an  apparatus  cm- 
ployed  by  chemists  for  drawing  air  or  a  gas  through 
bottles.  Aspiratory,  a.  ds-p^'ra-teri,  pertaining  to 
breaking. 

ASPIS,  ds'pis,  or  Clupea,  du'pe-a:  an  ancient  town  sit- 
uated on  the  Mediterranean,  abt.  50  m.  e.  of  Carthage,  to 
Which  it  belonged.  It  was  fortified  and  had  an  accessible 
harbor.  In  the  first  Punic  war,  Manlius  and  Regulus 
landed  at  A.,  and  in  the  third  war  it  sustained  a  siege.  It 
is  also  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  Julian  civil  war. 
Prom  A.D.  411  to  646,  it  was  an  important  bishopric,  and 
was  the  last  place  in  Africa  where  the  Christians  resisted 
the  Moslems. 

ASPIS:  a  governor  under  Artaxerxes,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Cappadocia.  Having  incited  the  country  to  revolt, 
he  was  captured  by  Datames,  and  was  put  to  death. 

ASPLENIUM,  d9-ple'nl-um:  genus  of  Ferns,  of  the 
ord.  or  sub-ord.  PolypodiacecR.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, and  widely  diflf used  in  both  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres.  Many  of  them  are  ct'  great  beauty;  and  the 
small  size  of  some  recommends  them  to  cultivators  of 
ferns  who  have  limited  space.  Some  of  the  species  bear 
the  English  name  Spleenioort,  as  A.  Trichomanes,  A.  viri^6y 
A,  Adiantum-niffrum,  etc.,  having  been  formerly  supposed 
efficacious  in  removing  obstructions  of  the  viscera.  From 
the  same  circumstance  the  name  A.  [Gr.  «,  privative,  and 
9plen,  the  spleen]  is  derived.  They  have  now  fallen  com* 
pletely  into  disuse,  but  were  at  one  time  very  much  em- 
ployed, chiefly  in  the  form  of  a  syrup  like  CapiUaire  (q.  v.), 


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ASPORTATION— A8QUITH. 

and  were  administered  not  onlj  in  cases  of  congb,  asthma, 
diseases  of  the  iiver,  and  cutaneous  diseases,  but  even  in 
stone  and  gravel.  But  perhaps  none  of  them  was  so  ex- 
tensively used  as  the  species  which  is  styled  in  old  books 
Ck>mmon  Spleen  wort  (^.  Ceferach\  now  the  type  of  a  dis- 
tinct- genus,  and  known  as  Cet'erach  officinarum.  The 
genus  A.,  in  our  species,  has  the  spore-clusters  (son)  long, 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  unbranched  veins,  oblioue  to  the 
midrib  of  the  leaf -lobe — rarely  on  both  sides.  There  are 
nine  species  in  e.  and  central  United  States,  of  which  A. 
Triehomanes  is  one  of  the  most  common,  with  tufts  of 
slender  leaves. 

ASPORTATION,  n.  &s' pdr-tH' sh^n  [L.  asporUit^dnem,  a 
carrying  or  taking  away — from  ab,  from;  porta,  I  carry]: 
act  of  carrying  or  conveying  away. 

ASPREDO,  ds-pri'do  FL.  (upredo,  roughness]:  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  sub-class  Tdeogtei,  order  TdeoeepJuUi,  and 
family  SUvrida.  They  are  the  only  known  fishes  which 
have  no  mobility  in  the  operculum.  They  have  six  or 
eight  barbels.  They  are  akin  to  the  famous  Electric 
Silurus  or  *  eel  *  of  the  Nile  and  Senegal  rivers. 

ASPRO,  d^prd  [Qr.  coj^ob:  L.  (uper,  rough]:  genus  of 
spiny-finned  fishes  belonging  to  the  Perch  family.  They 
live  in  the  Rhone,  Danube,  and  other  rivers. 

ASPROMONTE,  n.  da-prd-mdn'ti:  a  mountain  in  8.w. 
Italy,  near  which,  1862,  Aug.  -  28,  a  battle  took  place  be- 
tween Garibaldi's  troops  and  those  of  Pallavicini.  During 
the  fight,  Garibaldi  was  wounded  and  captured.  He  was 
afterward  sent  to  Caprera.     A.  is  near  Reggio. 

ASPROPOT'AMO:  see  Acheloub. 

ASQUINT,  ad.  a-shwlnt'  [Dut.  BchuinU,  a  slope,  obliq- 
uity (see  Askance)]:  toward  one  side;  obliquely. 

ASQUITH,  Herbert  Henry:  English  statesman:  b. 
Morley,  England,  1852,  Sep.  12;  son  of  J.  Dixon  A.  He 
was  educated  at  the  City  of  London  School,  and  at  Balliol 
Coll.,  Oxford,  of  which  he  was  scholar,  and  afterward 
fellow,  receiving  his  degree  B.A.,  1874.  He  studied  law, 
was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  1876,  June,  and  ap- 
pointed queen's  counsel  1890,  Feb.  In  1886  A.  was  elected 
member  of  parliament  for  East  Fif eshire.  He  was  engaged 
as  one  of  the  counsel  for  Cliarles  S.  Pamell  in  the  trial  be- 
fore the  *  Pamell  Commission,'  1888-90;  he  also  appeared 
in  the  celebrated  '  baccarat'  trial,  1891.  He  was  appointed 
home  sec.  in  Gladstone's  cabinet,  1892,  Aug.  16.  He  mar- 
ried, 1877,  Helen,  daughter  of  F.  Melland,  of  Manchester, 
England. 


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ASS. 

ASS,  n.  ds  [L.  cuHnus,  an  ass:  Icel.  ami:  W.  a9yn:  Ger. 
esd:  Pol.  anol,  an  ass] :  a  well-known  beast  of  burden,  dull 
and  slow,  but  patient  and  hardy;  a  dull,  stupid  person. 
AsiKiNE,  a.  ds'l-nln,  pertaining  to  an  ass;  like  an  uss. 
Ajsses'  Bridge,  Proposition  V.  Book  I.  of  Euclid's  €^m- 
etiy,  being  the  first  difficult  proposition. 

ASS  (Equus  Annus):  a  well-known  quadruped,  usually 
referred  by  naturalists  to  the  same  genus  as  the  horse 
(q.v.):  though  there  are  recent  attempts  to  make  it  a  type 
of  a  distinct  genus  (Atinus),  including  all  the  solid-hoofed 
quadrupeds  {aoUdungiUa  or  Emiida,  see  Horbe)  except  the 
horse  itself.  The  distinction  Is  founded  on  the  short  hair 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  tail  and  the  tuft  at  the  end  of  it, 
the  darker  stripes  with  which  the  color  is  marked,  and  the 
absence  of  the  hard  homy  warts  which  are  found  on  the 
hinder-legs  of  the  horse,  although  the  fore-legs  exhibit 
warts  in  a  similar  position.  The  long  ears  of  the  A.  are 
one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  species,  but  they  are 
longer  in  domestication  than  in  a  wild  state.  It  is  usually 
also  distinguished  by  a  black  cross  over  the  shoulders, 
formed  by  a  longitudinal  and  a  transverse  streak,  the  gen- 
eral color  being  gray;  but  when  the  general  color  is 
darker  or  lighter  than  usual,  the  cross  is  often  less  appar- 
ent, or  observed  with  difficultjr.    The  facial  line  is  arched. 

Some  uncertainty  still  exists  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
domestic  A.;  a  number  of  wild  races  having  been  de- 
scribed, some  of  which  are  perhaps,  like  the  wild  horses 
of  America,  the  progeny  of  animals  that  have  escaped  from 
domestication.  The  probability,  however,  appears  to  be 
that  the  A.  is  a  native  of  Central  Asia,  where  it  is  found  In 
a  perfectly  wild  state,  in  Tatary,  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  etc., 
on  the  banks  of  the  Indus,  and  even  to  the  s.  extremity  of 
Hindustan;  but  its  ran^e  does  not  extend  so  far  n.  as  that 
of  the  wOd  horse— which  may  perhaps  partly  account  for 
the  Inferioritv  of  the  domestic  A.  in  northern  climates. 
The  wild  A.  is  found  both  in  mountainous  districts  and 
in  plains;  vast  troops  roam  over  the  great  Asiatic  deserts, 
migrating  according  to  the  season,  in  summer,  as  far  n.  as 
the  Ural;  in  winter  s.  to  the  borders  of  India.  It  is  fond  of 
bitter  and  saline  herbage,  and  of  brackish  water.  It  was 
first  accurately  described  by  Pallas,  under  the  name 
Koulan,  which  it  bears  on  the  high  steppes  around  the 
Caspian  Sea.  It  was,  however,  well  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  is  called  Onagtfr  and  Asinus  sylvestris  by 
Pliny,  who  also  mentions  under  the  name  of  Eemionus, 
another  species  (Emitis  Eenuomts),  native  of  the  same 
regions,  now  called  the  Kiang,  or  the  DziggeOiai.  The 
latter  name  appears  to  be  of  Turkish  origin,  and  to  signify 
Mountain  A.,  but  seems  to  be  sometimes  applied  to  one  of 
these  species  and  sometimes  to  the  other.  This  seems  also 
to  be  the  case  with  some  of  their  other  eastern  names,  as 
Khur  or  OooTy  and  is  a  source  of  no  little  confusion. — 
The  cross  on  the  shoulders  is  less  observable  in  the  Koulan 
than  it  usually  is  in  the  domesticated  A.  In  one  remarkable 
particular,  the  domesticated  A.  agrees  with  the  EguuB 
Memiontu,  and  difters  from  the  Koulan,  the  infra-orbital 


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ASS. 

foramen  of  the  skull  being  situated  much  lower.  But  the 
Kiang  neighs  like  a  horse,  and  the  other  braffs.  The 
harshness  of  the  voice  of  the  A.  is  ascribed  to  two  small 
peculiar  cavities  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the  larnyx. 

The  allusions  to  the  wild  A.  in  the  Old  Testament,  par- 
ticularly Job  xxxix.,  naturally  excite  the  surprise  of  rid- 
ers acquainted  only  with  the  dull  domestic  drudge,  the 
emblem  of  patience  and  stolidity;  but  to  this  day  they  are 
beautifully  appropriate  to  the  wild  A.  of  '  the  wiidernestt.' 


The  Wild  Ass. 

which  has  the  '  barren  land '  or  '  salt  places '  for  its  dwell 
ing,  and  the  '  range  of  the  mountains '  for  it«  pasture. — 
The  wild  A.  has  a  short  mane  of  dark  woolly  hair,  and  a 
stripe  of  dark  bushy  hair  runs  along  the  ridge  of  the  iM^ck 
from  the  mane  to  the  tail.  It  has  longer  legs,  and  carries 
its  heud  higher  than  the  domestic  A.  Its  troops  have 
always  a  leader.    It  is  a  high-spirited  animal,  very  fleet 


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A8SAB-A88AL 

and  veiy  wary,  trying  to  the  utmost  the  powers  of  the 
hunter.  It  is  a  principal  object  of  the  chase  in  Persia, 
where  its  flesh  is  prized  as  venison  is  in  Europe,  and  it  is 
accounted  the  noblest  of  game.  Xcnophon,  in  his  Anabasis, 
describes  the  wild  A.  as  swifter  of  foot  than  the  horse,  and 
its  flesh  as  like  that  of  the  red  deer,  but  more  tender. 

The  domestic  A.,  also  in  Arabia,  Persia,  Syria,  and  other 
eastern  countries,  is  a  much  flner  animal  than  as  it  is 
usually  seen  in  Europe,  except  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  Malta, 
where  it  is  treated  better,  and  is  more  highly  valued.  In 
the  east,  where  it  was  formerly  chosen  by  the  rich  and  the 
great,  it  is  still  used  for  riding.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest 
animals  domesticated,  bat  its  introduction  to  n.  Europe  is 
comparatively  recent.  Though  sometimes  used  for  li^ht 
work,  the  A.  is  kept  in  the  U.  S.  principally  for  raising 
mules  (see  Mule).  Ky.,  Tenn.,  111.,  and  Mo.  are  among 
the  states  in  which  asses  are  most  largely  bred.  The  first 
valuable  stock  brought  to  this  country  arrived  1787,  in 
which  year  Gen.  Washington,  who  was  interested  in  breed- 
ing mules,  received  a  male  and  two  females  from  the  king  of 
S])ain,  and  a  Maltese  male  and  female  from  Gen.  Lafayette. 
The  A.  can  be  kept  on  much  cheaper  food  than  the  horse, 
and  is  less  liable  to  diseases  and  accidental  injuries.  Though 
commonly  regarded  as  obstinate  and  stupid,  it  is,  when  well 
bred  and  kindly  treated,  both  docile  and  intelligent. 

There  are  two  hybrids  between  the  A.  and  the  horse — 
the  Mule  (q.v.),  bred  between  the  male  A.  and  the  mare; 
and  the  Hinny  (q.v.),  the  offspring  of  the  horse  and  the 
female  A. 

The  milk  of  the  A.  contains  more  su^ar  of  milk  and  less 
caseine  than  that  of  the  cow,  and  is  therefore  recom- 
mended as  a  nutritious  diet  in  cases  of  weak  digestion. 
It^  usefulness  in  cases  of  consumption  has  been  long 
known,  and  it  was  often  prescribed  as  a  kind  of  specific 
when  that  disease  was  treated  on  principles  very  different 
from  those  which  regulate  its  treatment  now,  and  when 
very  nutritious  food  was  not  usually  prescribed  to  con- 
sumptive patients. 

The  leather  called  shagreen  (q.v.)  is  made  by  a  peculiar 
process  from  the  skin  of  the  A.,  which  also  affords  excel- 
lent leather  for  shoes,  and  the  best  material  for  drums. 
The  bones  of  the  A.,  which  are  very  solid,  were  used  by 
the  ancients  for  making  flutes. 

ASSAB,  dS'Sdb':  Italian  trading  station  on  the  w.  coast 
of  the  Red  Sea,  near  Bab-el-Mandeb.  It  was  first  acquired 
by  a  private  company  of  Italians,  but  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  government  of  Italy,  18«1. 

ASSAFCETIDA:  see  Asafktida. 

ASSAGAY,  or  Assagai,  better  spellings  of  Assboai— 
which  see. 

ASSAI,  ad.  ^-sd'i  [It.  ctssai:  Fr.  cuaez,  enough— from  L. 


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A88AI— A8SAL. 

ad,  to;  satis,  enough]:  in  mus,,  very;  as  largo  atmU,  very 
slow. 


A88AI,  As-n': 
prepared    from 


a  beverage  much  used  on  the  Amazon, 
palms  nearly  allied  to  the  Cabbage 
Palm  (q.v.).  The  most  common  spe- 
cies of  A.  palm  is  60  ft.  high,  with 
a  smooth  stem  about  four  inches  in 
diameter.  The  fruit  is  small,  in  size 
and  color  resembling  sloes,  but  is 
produced  in  ^reat  (quantity  upon 
branched  spadtces,  which  are  thrown 
out  horizontally  beneath  the  crown 
of  leaves.  It  consists  of  a  hard  seed, 
with  a  very  thin  covering  of  a  firm 
pulp  or  flesh.  The  tree  grows  in 
swamps  flooded  by  the  high  tides. 
Boys  climb  the  trees  for  the  fruit, 
upon  which  warm  water  is  poured, 
and  by  rubbing  and  kneading,  a 
liquid  is  procured,  consisting  simply 
of  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  and  water, 
which  is  constantly  vended  in  the 
streets  of  Parii,  and  of  which  the  in- 
habitants are  extremely  fond.  This 
is  A.  It  is  a  thick,  creamy  liquid, 
of  a  purplish  color,  and  a  flavor  like 
that  of  a  freshly  gathered  nut.  It  is 
commonly  used  along  with  the  bread 
made  from  Manioc  (q.v.),  called 
farinha,  and  either  with  or  without 
suffar.  Half  the  population  of  Pari 
m&e  a  daily  meal  of  A.  and  farinha; 
and  upon  this  hundreds  are  said 
chiefly  to  subsist.  The  stem  of  the 
A.  palm  is  something  used  for  poles 
and  rafters,  and  its  terminal  bud  as  a 
cabbage  or  as  a  salad  with  oil  and  vinegar,  but  it  is  too 
much  valued  for  its  fruit  to  be  often  cut  down  for  these 
purposes. — Another  species,  Euterpe  Catinoa,  is  found  in 
forests  of  a  dnr  sandy  soil  and  very  peculiar  vegetation, 
known  as  Catmga  forests.  The  beverage  made  from  it 
is  sweeter  than  the  common  kind,  but  the  produce  of  the 
tree  is  much  smaller. 

A88AIL,  V.  04  M'  [F.  assaWir,  to  assault— ht)m  mid.  L, 
asaaillrS,  to  assault— from  L.  od,  to;  solid,  I  leap]:  to  leap 
or  fal!  upon  by  violence;  to  attack  with  a  view  to  overcome 
or  injure,  as  in  words  or  writing.  Assail'ing,  imp. 
Assailed,  pp.  ds-sdld'.  Assailable,  a.  ds-sdl'd-bl,  that  may 
be  attacked.  Assailant,  n.  dssdl'dnt,  or  Assail'eb,  one 
who  assails  or  attacks.  Assail' ant,  a.  assaulting;  attacking. 
-Stn.  of  'assair:  to  attack;  assault;  encounter;  invade. 

AS8AL,  ds-sdl':  salt  lake  hi  the  e.  of  Africa,  d5  m.  8.w. 
of  Taiurrah,  the  chief  seaport  of  Adel;  lat.  ll*  40' n.,  long. 
42**  40'  e.  Its  length  is  8  m.;  its  breadth,  4  m.  It  lies  m 
a  land  remarkable  for  its  wild,  waste,  and  sterile  character. 


S*?**^^ 


*lAUU(v^ 


Assat  Palm  (Euterpe 
oleraoea). 


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ASSAM— ASSART. 

A.  is  enclosed  on  all  sides  but  the  e.  by  hills,  and  Is  nearly 
700  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  Abyssinian  caravans 
resort  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  salt  which 
incrusts  its  shores  like  ice,  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  half 
a  foot.  It  has  been  supposed  that  it  was  at  one  time  con- 
nected with  the  Bay  of  Tajurrah. 

ASSAM,  HS'Sain' :  province  at  the  n.e.  extremity  of  Brit. 
India;  lat.  28''-28'*  n.,  lony.  8r-97"  e.;  49,004  so.  m.;  di- 
vided into  18  dists.;  principal  towns,  Gauh&ti  and  Sylbet; 
seat  of  govt.,  Shillong.  It  forms  part  of  the  basin  of  the 
Lower  Brahmaputra,  and  from  that  and  about  60  other  riv- 
ers derives  exceptional  drainage  and  irrigation.  In  1890-1 
it  had  2.676.271  acres  under  cultivation,  8,922,310  not  culti- 
vated, and  2.358.558  in  forests;  and  of  the  acreage  under 
cultivation,  1,275,144  were  in  riqe,  230,822  in  tea  plants,  167,- 
606  in  oil  seeds,  58,295  in  food  grains  excepting  rice,  and 
17,830  in  sugar-cane.  There  were  722,150  estates,  with 
^ross  area  7,^,023  acres.  Other  products  are  gold,  ivory, 
iron,  lead,  petroleum,  coal,  mustard,  and  musk;  the  tea 
crop  is  usuidly  about  three-fourths  of  the  total  production 
in  India.  Chief  imports  are  woolens,  India  fabrics,  salt, 
opium,  ^lass,  earthenware,  tobacco,  and  betel.  Chie  of  the 
most  striking  features  of  A.  is  the  abundance  of  wild  ani- 
mals, such  as  tigers,  rhinoceroses,  leopards,  buffaloes,  and 
elephants.  Of  elephants,  not  less  than  500  are  annually 
caught;  and,  when  tamed,  bands  of  them  may  be  seen, 
harmless  as  cows,  in  the  charge  of  a  single  attendant.  The 
forests  teem  with  game,  and  the  rivers  with  fish.  The 
province  has  steambcSt  communication  with  Calcutta,  Pibroo 
gurh,  and  intermediate  points;  and  railway  traffic  with  Cal- 
cutta, Dhoobri,  and  towns  between.  Of  the  pop.  by  1891  cen  - 
sus.  2,997,072  were  Hindus,  1,483,974  Mohammedans, 969. 765 
Animistic,  and  16,844  Christians.  Education  was  under  en- 
couraging development.  The  revenue  in  year  ending  1891. 
Mar.  81,  was  Rx.  1,027,214;  expenditure  Rx.  698.480.— In 
1826,  at  the  close  of  the  first  Burmese  war,  A.  was  ceded  to 
the  British.  The  upper  portion  of  the  province,  however, 
under  a  native  rajah,  till  1838,  when,  in  consequence  of  his 
misgovemment,  tne  entire  country  was  placed  under  Brit, 
administration.  The  native  state  of  Manipur,  where  the 
Brit,  resident  and  the  chief  commissioner  of  A.  were  mas- 
sacred 1891,  is  subordinate  to  A.— Pop.  (1881)  4,881,426; 
(1891)  5.476,833. 

ASSAMAR,  n.  aa'sa-mdr:  in  chem.,  a  bitter  substance 
contained  in  the  brown  oil  obtained  by  the  destructive 
distillation  of  cane  sugar. 

ASSARIUS,  n.  cts-sar'X-iiB  [L.  oMOfrius:  Gr.  (umrion — 
both  from  L.  as,  a  Roman  coinj:  .in  classic  times,  a  coin 
worth  nearly  two  cents.  In  Matt.  x.  29  it  is  translated 
penny. 

ASSART,  n.  (U-drt  [mid.  L.  assar^ta:  F.  essart,  land 
cleared  of  wood  by  having  the  trees  grubbed  upl :  in  OE., 
parts  of  forests  cleared  of  wood  and  mode  arable-  in  law 
the  crime  of  cutting  down  forest  wood* 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ASSASSINS. 

ASSASSIN,  n.  ^s-ads' An  [Ar.  JuuhisJUn,  drag-eater 
viz.,  of  bhang  or  extract  of  iieinp — from  hcuthiSk,  the  in- 
toxicating preparation  of  the  hemp:  F.  as9as«in\\  one  of  a 
famous  esustem  s(k^  of  professional  murderers,  called  as- 
sfuisins,  stimulated  thereto  by  the  use  of  extract  of  hemp; 
one  who  kills,  or  attempts  to  kill,  by  surprise  or  by  secret 
attack.  Assassinate,  v.  iU-s&s'  tfl-iiat,  to  kill,  or  to  attempt 
to  kill,  by  surprise;  to  murder  by  a  secret  attack.  AsaAS'  - 
sina'tino,  imp.  Assab'sina'tkd.pp. -mV<^.  Abbassina- 
TiON,  n.  a%'8ds  m-na'shXtn,  the  act  of  murdering  by  secret 
violence  or  by  surprise.  Assas'  sina'  tor,  n.  -«i'  -nu'  Ur,  a 
murderer  by  surprise. — Syn.  of  'assassinate':  to  kill;  mur- 
der; slay;  slaughter. 

ASSASSINS:  a  military  order,  branch  of  the  secmt 
sect  of  the  Ismailis  (q.v.).  The  secret  doctrines  of  these 
Ismailis,  who  had  their  headquarters  in  Cairo,  declared 
the  deifcendants  of  Ismady  the  last  of  the  seven  so-called 
imaums,  to  be  alone  entitled  to  the  caliphate;  and  gave  an 
allegorical  interpretation  to  the  precepts  of  Islam,  which 
led,  as  their  adversaries  asserted,  to  considering  all  posi- 
tive religions  equally  right,  and  all  actions  morally  indif- 
ferent. The  atrocious  career  of  the  A.  was  but  a  natural 
sequence  of  such  teaching.  The  founder  of  these  last, 
Hafisan-ibn-Sabbah-el-Homairi,  of  Persian  descent,  and 
imbued  with  the  free-thinking  tendencies  of  his  country, 
had,  about  the  middle  of  the  llth  c,  studied  at  Nishapur, 
under  the  celebrated  Mowasek,  and  had  subsequently 
obtained  from  Ismail!  (2aw,  or  religious  leaders,  a  par- 
tial ipsight  into  their  secret  doctrines,  and  a  partial 
consecration  to  the  rank  of  dai.  But  on  betaking  himself 
to  the  central  lodge  at  Cairo,  he  quarrelled  with  the  headF 
of  the  sect,  and  was  doomed  to  banishment.  He  suc- 
ceeded, however,  in  making  his  escape  from  the  ship  and 
reaching  the  Syrian  coast,  after  which  he  returned  to 
Persia,  everywhere  collecting  adherents,  with  the  view  of 
founding,  upon  the  Ismaili  model,  a  secret  order  of  hie 
own,  a  species  of  organized  society  which  should  be  a 
terror  to  his  most  powerful  neighbors.  In  1090,  Hassan 
conquered  the  fortress  of  Alamut,  in  the  Persian  district 
of  Rudbar;  and  continued  to  increase  in  strength,  intimi- 
dating princes  and  governors  by  a  series  of  secret  mur- 
ders, and  gaining  possession  of  several  fortified  castles,  with 
their  surrounding  territories,  both  in  the  mountain  rango 
s.  of  the  Caspian,  in  Kuhistan,  and  in  the  mountains  of 
Syria  (Massiat).  The  internal  constitution  of  the  ordei, 
which  had  some  resemblance  to  the  orders  of  Christian 
knighthood,  was  as  follows:  First,  as  supreme  and  absolute 
ruler,  came  the  Sheikh-al-jebal,  the  Prince  oi  Old  Man  of 
the  Mountains.  His  vicegerents  in  Jebal,  Kuhistan,  and 
Syria  were  the  three  Dai-al-kirbal,  or  grand-priors  of  the 
order.  Next  came  the  Dais  and  Refiks,  which  last  were  not, 
however,  initiated,  like  the  former,  into  every  stage  of  the 
secret  doctrines,  and  had  no  authority  as  teachers.  To 
the  uninitiated  belonged,  first  of  all,  the  Fedavis,  or 
Fedais — i.e.,  the  devoted;  a  band  of  resolute  youths,  the 
ever  ready  and  blindly  obedient  executioners  of    the  Old 


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ASSAULT. 

Man  of  ^e  Mountain.  Before  he  assigned  to  them  their 
bloody  tasks,  he  used  to  have  them  thrown  into  a  state  of 
ecstas^,  by  the  intoxicating  influence  of  the  haskish  (the 
hemp-plant),  whence  the  order  was  called  Hashishin^  or 
hemp-eaters.  The  word  was  changed  by  Europeans  into 
Assassins,  and  transplanted  into  the  lanj^agesof  theWest 
with  the  signification  of  murderers.  The  Lasiks,  or  nov- 
ices, formed  the  sixth  division  of  the  order,  and  the  labor- 
ers and  the  mechanics  the  seventh.  Upon  these,  the  most 
rl^d  observance  of  the  Koran  was  enjoined;  while  the 
initiated,  on  the  contrary,  looked  upon  all  positive  religion 
as  null.  The  catechism  of  the  order,  placed  by  Hassan  in 
the  hands  of  his  dais,  consisted  of  seven  parts,  of  which 
the  second  treated,  among  other  things,  of  the  art  of  worm- 
ing themselves  into  the  confidence  of  men.  It  is  easy  to 
conceive  the  terror  which  so  unscrupulous  a  sect  must 
have  inspired.  Several  princes  secretly  paid  tribute  to  the 
Old  Man  of  the  Mountams.  Hassan,  who  died,  1124,  at  the 
age  of  70,  appointed  as  his  successor  Eia-Busurg-Omid, 
one  of  his  grand-priors.  Kia-Busurg-Omid  was  succeeded 
in  11S8  by  his  son  Mohammed,  who  Knew  how  to  maintain 
his  power  against  Nureddin  and  Jussuf-Salaheddln.  In 
1168,  Hassan  II.  was  rash  enough  to  extend  the  secret 
privilege  of  the  initiated — exemption,  namely,  from  the 
positive  precepts  of  religion — to  the  people  generally,  and 
to  abolish  Islam  in  the  Assassin  state;  Which  led  to  hia 
falling  a  victim  to  his  brother-in-law's  dagger.  Under 
the  rule  of  his  son,  Mohammed  II.,  who  acted  in  his 
father's  spirit,  the  Syrian  dai-al-kebir,  Sinan,  became 
independent,  and  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Chris- 
tian king  of  Jerusalem  for  coming  over,  on  certain  condi- 
tions, to  the  Christian  faith;  but  the  Templars  killed  his 
envoys,  and  rejected  his  overtures,  that  they  might  not 
lose  the  yearly  tribute  which  they  drew  from  him.  Mo- 
hammed was  poisoned  by  his  son,  Hassan  III.,  who  rein- 
stated Islamism,  and  thence  obtained  the  surname  of  the 
New  Moslem.  Hassan  was  succeeded  by  Mohammed  III. , 
a  boy  of  nine  years  old,  who,  by  his  effeminate  rule,  led  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  order,  and  was  eventually  murdered 
by  the  command  of  his  son,  Rokn-eddin,  the  seventh  and 
last  Old  Man  of  the  Mountains.  In  1256,  the  Mongolian 
prince,  Hulagu,  burst  with  his  hordes  upon  the  hill-forts 
of  Persia,  numbering  about  a  hundred,  held  by  the  Assas- 
sins, capturing  and  destroviug  them.  The  Syrian  branch 
also  was  put  dow^n  about  the  end  of  the  13th  c,  but  rem- 
nants of  the  sect  lingered  for  some  time  longer  in  Kuhis- 
tan.  In  1352,  the  A.  reappeared  in  Syria,  and  indeed 
they  are  still  reported  to  exist  as  a  heretical  sect  both  there 
and  in  Persia.  The  Persian  Ismailis  have  an  imaum,  or 
superintendent,  in  the  district  of  Kum,  and  still  inhabit 
the  neighborhood  of  Alamoot  under  the  name  of  Hosseinis. 
The  Sjrrian  Ismailis  live  in  the  district  of  Massiat  or 
Massyad.  Their  castle  was  taken  from  them  in  1809  by 
the  i^ossaris,  but  afterwards  restored.  See  Hammer, 
Oeaehichte  d&r  Ammnm  (Stutt.  and  Tub.  1818);  Guyard, 
FragmmU  (1874). 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ASSAULT— ASSAULT  AND  BATTERY. 

ASSAULT,  n.  &s-9awU'  [OF.  assalt:  F.  assaut^^u  assanlt 
—from  L.  asaal'tus,  Icapca  upon— from  L.  od,  salttu,  a 
leaping  (sec  Absail)]:  an  assailing  or  setting  upon;  a  violent 
or  hostile  attack;  in  mil. ,  the  act  of  attemptmg  to  capture  a 
town,  eta,  bj  main  force:  Y.  to  fall  upon  with  violence; 
to  attack  in  words  or  writing.  Assault'eno,  imp.  As- 
8AULTBD,  pp.  asMwlt'ed.  Assaulter,  n.  one  who.  As- 
sault ant,  n.  an  assailant :  Adj.  leaping  upon;  assailing. 
AssAULTABLB,  a.  as-MwUd-bl,  that  may  be  assailed  or  as- 
saulted.—Stn.  of  '  assault,  v.':  to  attack;  assail;  encounter; 
invade  ;  storm ;  charge: — of  '  assault,  n.*:  invasion  ;  attack; 
incursion;  onset;  descent;  storming;  charge;  onslaught. 

ASSAULT:  sudden  and  violent  attack.  In  A.  on  a 
fort  i  tied  post,  the  troops  are  told  off  into  '  storming-par- 
ties/  'supports,' and  'firing-parties.'  The  storming-par- 
ties  are  those  who  take  the  most  terrible  duty,  being  that 
of  making  a  forcible  entry  into  the  place.  The  firing-par- 
ties or  musketeers  seek  to  shield  the  storming-parties  aa 
much  as  possible  from  the  fire  of  the  enemy;  they  spread 
themselves  out  in  extended  order,  to  keep  down  the  fire 
of  the  garrison — aiming  at  any  soldier  who  may  show  his 
head  above  the  parapet,  and  seeking  to  disable  the  artil- 
lerymen by  tiring  into  the  en^brasurcs.  Many  assaults  are 
made  by  surprise;  and  in  that  case  the  storming  and  firing 
parties  order  all  their  preliminary  movements  as  quietly 
as  possible.  In  most  cases,  there  is  a  necessity  for  the 
stormers  to  descend  into  a  dry  ditch,  and  to  ascend  from 
the  ditch  to  a  breach  or  a  gate  in  the  fortified  walL  To 
aid  in  this  duty, '  ladder-parties'  are  placed  at  the  disposal 
of  the  storming-parties;  these  men  have  previously  been 
practiced  in  carrying  scaling-ladders,  descending  and  as- 
cending ditches,  and  adjusting  the  ladders.  In  some 
celebrated  sieges,  ladders  40  ft.  lone  have  been  used, 
where  the  ditch  was  deep  and  the  wall  or  bastion  high; 
but  it  is  seldom  that  a  storming-party  could  venture  on  so 
perilous  a  work,  for  the  men  crowded  on  such  a  ladder 
would  endanger  each  other.  The  'supports'  are  troops 
who  keep  a  little  in  the  rear  of  the  storming  and  firing 
parties. 

ASSAULT  AND  BATTERY  ^see  Battery),  in  Law: 
the  crime  of  violently  attacking,  or  of  offering  to  do  cor- 
poral hurt  to  another.  Under  Assault  are  involved  the 
offenses  of  battery,  beating  and  toaunding,  and  mayhem, 
since  it  is  implied  in  them  all.  The  above  offenses  all  in- 
volve an  actual  attack  on,  and  injury  to,  the  person  of  the 
party  assaulted.  But  there  may  be  an  assault  without  such 
actual  hurt.  Violence  or  force  is  not  a  necessary  element 
in  this  offanse,  but  the  least  touching,  however  trifling, 
of  another's  person  in  an  angry,  rude,  insulting  manner,  is  a 
battery;  for  the  law,  says  Blackstone,  cannot  draw  the  line 
between  different  degrees  of  violence,  and  therefore  totally 
prohibits  the  first  and  lowest  stage  of  it,  every  man  s 
person  being  sacred,  and  no  one  havinga  right  to  meddle 
with  it  in  any  the  slightest  manner.  The  remedy  for  an 
injury  of  this  kind  may  be  either  by  a  civil  action,  as  fat 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASSAULT  AND  BATTERY. 

danuiges,  or  by  indictment,  as  for  a  misdemeanor.  Where 
the  battery  is  on  a  married  woman,  her  husband  may  sue 
for  damages  by  action  of  trespass;  if  the  maltreatment  be 
so  serious  as  to  have  deprived  the  husband  for  any  time  of 
his  wife's  company,  the  law  then  gives  him  a  separate 
remedy,  by  an  action  in  which  he  may  recover  special 
damage,  on  the  ground  of  the  loss  of  his  wife's  society 
while  she  was  suS^ering  from  the  beating. 

Assault  without  actual  hurt  or  violence  is  a  common  as- 
MuU,  and  hence  in  criminal  law,  assaults  are  distinguished 
by  their  being  common  or  aggravated.  A  common  assault 
has  been  defined  as  an  attempt  or  offer  to  do  a  corporal  hurt 
to  another,  as  by  striking  at  another  with  a  stick  or  weai>on, 
though  the  poxiy  striking  misses  his  aim.  The  principle 
is,  that  it  is  sufficient,  in  order  to  constitute  such  an  offense, 
that  there  has  been  such  an  exhibition  of  a  violent  and 
offensive  animus  as  to  show  at  once  the  intention,  and  the 
power,  to  commit  it.  So,  drawing  a  sword  or  bayonet,  or 
even  holding  up  a  fist  in  a  menacm^  manner,  throwing  a 
bottle  or  glass  with  intent  to  wound  or  strike,  presentmg 
a  gun  at  a  person  who  is  within  the  distance  to  which  the 
gun  will  carry,  pointing  a  pitchfork  at  a  person  who  is 
within  reach,  or  any  other  similar  act,  accompanied  with 
such  circumstances  as  denote  at  the  time  an  intention, 
coupled  with  a  present  ability,  of  using  actual  violence 
agamst  the  person  of  another,  will  amount  to  an  assault. — 
Russell  on  Grimes  and  Misdemeanors,  vol.  i.  p.  750.  It  has 
even  been  laid  down,  that  to  present  a  pistol,  purjjorted 
to  be  loaded,  so  near  as  to  produce  danger  to  life  if  the 

gistol  had  gone  off,  is  an  assault  in  point  of  law,  although, 
1  fact,  the  pistol  was  not  loaded. 

But  no  vxjTds,  however  provoking  or  irritating,  can 
amount  to  an  assault.  On  the  other  hand,  the  injury 
need  not  be  effected  directly  with  the  hand  of  the  person 
making  the  assault.  Thus,  there  may  be  an  assault  b^  en- 
couraging a  dog  to  bite,  by  riding  over  a  person  with  a 
horse,  or  by  wilfully  and  violently  driving  a  cart,  etc., 
against  the  carriage  of  another  person.  Nor  is  it  necessary 
that  the  assault  should  be  immediate;  as  where  a  defend- 
ant threw  a  lighted  squib  into  a  market-place,  which, 
beinz  tossed  from  hand  to  hand  by  different  persons,  at 
last  hit  the  plaintiff  in  the  face,  and  put  out  his  eye,  it 
was  adjudged  that  this  was  actionable.  And  the  same  has 
been  held  where  a  person  wantonly  pushed  a  drunken  man 
against  another,  and  thereby  hurt  him.  A  defendant  put 
some  cantharides  into  coffee,  in  order  that  a  woman  might 
take  it;  and  she  did  take  it,  and  was  made  ill  by  it;  and 
this  was  held  to  be  an  assault.  It  is  also  an  assault,  wil- 
fully and  of  malice  to  expose  another  to  the  inclemency 
of  the  weather;  so  is  the  taking  indecent  liberties  with 
females  without  their  consent,  although  they  did  not 
actually  resist;  and  to  such  indecent  liberties  a  very  wide 
application  has  been  given,  even  to  the  extent  of  holding 
a  medical  practitioner  guilty  of  assault,  who  stripped  a 
yoimg  girl  of  her  clothes,  on  the  pretense  that  he  could 
not  otherwise  judge  of  her  illness.    Not  only  does  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ASSAULT  AND  BATTEUY. 

striking  that  takes  place  at  a  prm-jighi  constitute  an  as- 
sault as  between  the  combatants  themselves,  but  ali  per- 
sons present  in  consent  and  co-operation  may  be  punished 
as  aiders  and  abetters.  A^ain,  an  assault  maj  t>e  com- 
mitted by  unlawfully  imprisoning  or  detaming  the  person 
of  another;  and  by  such  detention  is  meant  every  confine- 
ment of  the  person,  whether  it  be  in  a  common  prison  or  in 
tk  private  house,  or  by  a  forcible  detaining  in  the  public 
streets.  Numerous  other  cases  could  be  stated,  showing 
how  nicely  and  protectively  the  law  on  this  subject  has 
been  elucidated;  but  the  explanation  we  have  given  is 
sufficient  for  its  popular  illustration. 

Generally,  it  may  be  laid  down,  that  the  essential  thing 
is  the  intention  with  which  the  alleged  act  is  done,  so  that 
no  matter  how  violent  or  menacing  the  conduct  of  the  ac- 
cused may  have  appeared  to  be,  nor  even  how  serious  the 
injury,  if  it  can  be  shown  that  the  whole  was  uninten- 
tional or  accidental  and  undesigned,  there  is  no  assault. 

It  is  a  good  defense  to  prove  that  the  alleged  battery 
happened  by  accident,  or  that  it  was  not  in  anger,  or  that  it 
was  merely  the  correction  which  a  parent  or  master  \s  en- 
titled to  use  to  a  child,  or  scholar,  or  servant,  or  that  it 
was  done  in  self-defense,  or  in  defense  of  a  wife,  a  hus* 
band,  a  parent,  a  child,  a  master,  or  a  servant;  or  that  it 
was  such  personal  force  as  a  proper  officer  was  entitled  to 
employ. 

With  respect  to  aggravated  assaults,  their  special  charac- 
ter arises  from  the  great  criminality  of  the  object  intended 
to  be  effected.  Thus,  attempts  to  murder,  or  to  do  great 
bodily  harm,  to  ravish,  and  to  obstruct  officers  of  the  law 
in  the  execution  of  legal  process,  are  all  of  the  nature  of 
aggravated  assaults;  as  are  also  attempts  to  commit  rob- 
bery, or  any  other  felony.  The  success  of  the  attempt  is 
not  a  feature  of  the  case;  such  an  attempt  involving 
violence  constitutes  an  aggitivated  assault 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASSAY. 

ASSAY,  V.  d»-^'  [P.  esMyer,  to  tir:  essai,  a  trial— from 
mid.  L.  eccdglum:  Gr-ea-d^i^m,  a  weighing,  a  trial]:  to  prove 
by  examination;  to  try  or  prove,  as  metals;  to  attempt;  to 
endeavor:  N.  examination;  trial,  as  of  the  purity  of  silver 
or  gold;  tested  value.  Assaying,  imp.  Assayed,  pp. 
ds-Ad!,    Assay'er,  n.  one  who. 

ASSAY,  or  Assaying:  process  employed  in  determining 
the  proportion  of  pure  metal  in  a  metallic  ore  or  in  an  alloy. 
This  method  of  analysis  is  more  generally  followed  in  the 
examination  of  compounds  of  silver  and  gold,  but  is  re- 
sorted to  likewise  in  the  investigation  of  ores  of  iron, 
copper,  tin,  zinc,  bismuth,  antimony,  mercury,  and  lead. 
In  manufactured  articles,  also,  such  as  silver-plate,  and 
gold-plate,  some  foreign  metal  (usually  copper)  is  present* 
to  impart  hardness  to  the  metal;  and  in  Great  Britain, 
each  article  is  assayed  at  the  Goldsmiths'  Hall,  previously 
to  being  sold,  so  as  to  determine  the  exact  richness  of  the 
metal  whereof  it  is  made.  In  the  A.  of  compounds  con- 
taining silver,  the  apparatus  employed  is  a  cupel — ^a  small 


CupeL 

basin-shaped  vessel  of  the  form  and  size  of  the  figure, 
made  of  bone-ash;  and  a  muffle,  composed  of  fire-clay, 
about  eight  inches  in  length  and  three  to  four  inches  m 
diameter,  shaped  like  a  miniature  railway  tunnel,  open  nt 


Muffle. 

the  one  end,  A,  closed  at  the  other  end,  B,  and  having 
numerous  slits  or  air-holes,  C,  along  the  side.  The  more 
simple  A.  of  silver  consists  in  the  examination  of  argen- 
tiferous lead  ore.  By  a  preliminary  process,  the  sulphur 
is  separated  (see  Lead);  and  weighed  fragments  of  the 
mixed  lead  and  silver  being  placed  on  cupels,  the  latter 
are  introduced  into  the  muflle,  which  has  been  previously 
heated  in  a  furnace,  where  it  still  remains.  The  fire  is 
then  increased,  and  air  being  admitted  to  the  muffle,  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with  the  lead,  forming  oxide  of 
leaa(PbO),  which  in  part  volatilizes  through  the  openings 
in  the  side  of  the  muffle,  and  in  other  part  sinks  into  the 
porous  bone-earth  of  which  the  cupel  is  made.  While 
the  lead  is  thus  carried  away,  the  silver  remains  behind 
as  a  molten  metallic  globule,  and  when  the  last  traces  of 
lead-fumes  leave  the  silver  bead,  the  latter  suddenly 
Ughiene,  and  immediately  thereafter  becomes  brilliant  and 
»-«7 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ASSAY. 

white.  On  being  slowly  allowed  to  cool,  the  globule  of 
silver  may  be  weighed,  and  the  amount  of  pure  metal 
\hus  determined.  The  use  of  the  cupel  during  this 
process  has  led  to  the  term  eupeUaUon  being  employed  in 
place  of  A.  When  silver  contains  copper,  which  it  does 
in  ordinary  coinage  and  silver-plate,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  mix  lead  with  the  alloy  before  attempting  to  separate 
the  copper.  The  manner  in  which  the  lead  is  generally 
added  is  to  roll  the  alloy  of  silver  and  copper  in  a  piece  of 
sheet-lead  or  lead-foil,  and  place  the  whole  package  on  the 
cupel.  During  the  heating  in  the  muffle,  the  lead  oxidize 
as  usual,  and  in  part  passing  into  the  bone-earth  of  the 
cupel,  carries  the  copper  with  it.  The  amount  of  lead  re- 
quired  to  effect  the  separation  of  copper  from  silver  in  this 
way  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

a.     ^  _^    #aii     .  Amcunt  of  Copper  Quantity  of  Lead   Quantll^  of  Lead  in 
8t«»dard  ofSUrer      Alloyjn  One        neoeBMur  for  One      relation  to  that 

1,000  0  X 

950  50               8 

900  100               7 

800  200  10 

700  800  13 

600  400  14 

500  500  16  to  17 

400  600  16  '*  17 

300  700  16  *'  17 

200  800  16  "  17 

100  900  16 "  17 

Pure  copper.      1,000  16  "  17    "  16  "1 

The  metallurric  chemist,  while  performing  an  A.,  can 
determine,  by  the  examination  of  the  stains  on  the  cupel 
after  the  process  has  been  finished,  what  metal  may  have 
accompanied,  and  been  separated  from,  the  silver,  even  in 
minute  quantity.  Thus,  lead  alone  imparts  a  straw-yel- 
low or  orange  stain;  copper  a  gray  or  dark-brown  tint;  and 
iron,  a  black  stain. 

During  the  A.  of  silver  by  the  foregoing  or  dry  method, 
a  certain  loss  of  metal  usually  occurs,  which  averages  2 
parts  in  1,000;  and  this  has  induced  the  authorities  in  the 
mints  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  other  European  king* 
doms,  and  of  the  United  States,  to  adopt  a  humid  procesi 
for  the  A.  of  silver,  which  will  determine  the  value  of  a 
silver  alloy  to  within  0*5  (or  half  a  part)  in  1,000.  The 
humid  or  wet  A.  consists  in  dissolving  the  compound  of 
silver  in  nitric  acid  of  density  1*26,  and  thereafter  adding 
a  solution  of  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium,  NaCl), 
which  causes  the  precipitation  of  the  chloride  of  silver 
(AgCl)  in  white  flocculi.  The  common  salt  is  made  of  a 
dennite  strength,  and  is  poured  out  of  a  measured  or  grad- 
uated vessel,  till  all  further  precipitation  of  the  silver 
ceases,  when  the  amount  required  of  the  solution  of  com- 
mon salt  is  read  off,  and  by  a  simple  calculation  its  equiv- 
alent in  pure  silver  is  obtained. 

The  A.  of  gold  ores  is  conducted  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  of  silver     When  the  ore  contains  gold,  lead,  and  cop- 


loy. 

of  Copper. 

part. 

parts. 

60tol 

70  "1 

50  "1 

40-1 

85  "1 

r  " 

82  "1 

27  "  1 

23  "1 

20  "1 

18 '*1 

Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ASSAY. 

per  only,  it  suffices  to  mix  more  lead  with  it,  and  heat  in 
the  cupel  in  the  muffle  furnace,  when  the  lead  and  copper 
sink  into  the  cupel,  and  the  ^old  forms  a  globule  on  the 
upper  surface.  The  proportion  of  lead  required  is  regu- 
lated by  the  amount  of  copper  present  in  the  alloy. 

I>n,eortlon  of  Opld  contained  In  One  H?S>m&?4l^.JS??S7 


^oftbeAUoy.                                     q 

^pper  by  Cupelltttion. 

1,000  thousands 

1  part. 

900 

10  parts. 

800 

16     '• 

700 

22     " 

IMX) 

24     *' 

600 

26     " 

400         "    and  under. 

84     " 

When  the  gold  is  accompanied  by  silver  as  well  as  cop- 
per, iron,  and  lead,  it  is  necessary  in  the  first  place  to  sub- 
ject the  alloy  to  the  A.  procets  in  the  ordinary  way,  which 
rids  it  of  the  copper,  iron,  and  lead,  but  leaves  the  silver 
still  incorporated  with  the  gold.  The  weight  of  this  re- 
sidual button  gives  the  combined  weights  of  the  silver  and 
gold  present  in  the  alloy.  The  method  of  separating  the 
silver  from  the  gold  is  called  parting,  and  consists  essen- 
tially in  acting  on  the  alloy  with  hot  nitric  acid,  which 
dissolves  away  the  silver,  forming  the  soluble  nitrate  of 
silver,  AgNOs,  and  leaves  the  gold  undissolved.  When 
the  silver  is  present  in  small  proportion,  the  ^old  assumes 
a  protective  mtiuence,  and  keeps  the  nitric  acid  from  act- 
ing on  the  silver;  and  to  effect  this  separation  satisfac- 
torily, it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  about  three 
parts  of  silver  to  one  of  gold.  As  that  proportion  does 
not  occur  naturally,  or  in  any  kind  of  manufactured  gold- 
plate,  it  is  requisite  to  incorporate  some  silver  with  it. 
This  is  generally  accomplished  by  taking  the  proper  quan- 
tities of  gold  and  silver,  wrapping  them  up  in  a  piece  of 
lead-foil,  and  heating  on  a  cupel.  The  lead,  during  its 
disappearance  from  the  heating  vessel,  causes  the  most  in- 
timate amalgamation  of  the  silver  and  gold,  which  are  left 
on  the  cupel  as  a  metallic  button.  The  latter,  on  being 
allowed  to  cool,  is  beaten  out  on  an  anvil  with  a  smooth 
hammer,  and  is  then  passed  througn  steel  rollers,  which 
yield  a  ribbon  of  alloy  about  the  thickness  of  an  enamelled 
address-card.  The  ribbon  of  metal  being  coiled  up,  is 
technically  called  a  comet,  and  when  introduced  into  the 
flask  with  nitric  acid,  the  entire  solution  of  the  silver  is 
accomplished,  while  the  gold  is  left  as  a  brown-colored 
spongy  mass,  of  the  shape  and  size  of  the  comet.  To  give 
the  metal  the  appearance  and  compactness  of  ordinary 
gold,  the  very  f nable  metallic  ribbon  is  gently  transferred 
from  the  parting  gUtss  to  a  crucible  by  inverting  the  former 
into  the  latter;  and  the  liquid  which  runs  in  with  the  ^old 
being  poured  off,  the  crucible  and  its  contents  are  raised 
to  a  red  heat  in  a  furnace,  when  the  gold  recovers  its 
beautiful  yellow  color  and  metallic  lustre,  and  at  the  same 
time  becomes  soft  and  flexible.  The  gold  is  now  pure, 
And  in  a  flt  condition  to  be  weighedi  and  the  amount  ob« 


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ASSATE— ASSEERGHUR. 

tained  indicates  the  proportion  of  pure  gold  in  the  original 
alloy.  As  the  quantity  of  silver  which  is  required  to  be 
present  during  this  process,  in  order  that  the  parting  by 
nitric  acid  may  readily  take  place,  is  three  parts  of  silver 
to  one  of  gold,  it  is  customary  to  call  this  department  of 
a  gold  A.  quartation,  or  inqtiartation. 

I)uring  the  A.  of  silver  or  of  gold,  it  is  necessary  to 
guard  against  any  sudden  increase  or  decrease  in  tempera- 
ture. Independently  of  the  probable  loss  of  metal  through 
the  fracture  of  the  cupels,  it  is  found  that  when  the  final 
buttons  of  pure  metal  are  obtained  on  the  red-hot  cupel, 
if  great  care  be  not  taken  to  cool  the  whole  very  slowly, 
the  bead  of  gold  or  silver  spits,  and  little  portions  are 
thrown  off.  See  Alloy  (in  (Siemistry):  Alloy  (in  Law): 
Mint  (United  States):  also  Hall  (Hall-mark):  Gold- 
smiths' Company:  Plate-marks. 

The  mode  of  assaying  gold  above  described  often  is  not 
applicable  for  examination  of  jewelry  and  other  manufac- 
tured articles,  as  removal  of  even  a  few  grains  might  be 
the  destruction  of  the  article,  and  in  such  circumstances 
the  touchsUme  is  resorted  to  This  stone  was  originally 
brought  from  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor,  and  consisted  of  a 
coarse-grained  quartz  saturated  with  bituminous  matter, 
but  black  basalt  and  other  stones  are  now  employed  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  manner  of  using  the  stone  is  to 
draw  a  streak  upon  it  with  the  auriferous  article;  and  from 
the  color  of  the  streak  the  richness  of  the  gold  can  be  very 
accurately  determined  by  the  practiced  assayer.  The  sub- 
sequent action  of  nitric  acid  on  the  golden  streak  serves 
still  further  as  a  means  of  determining  the  purity  of  the 
metal,  as  the  acid  readily  dissolves  the  copper  and  silver, 
and  leaves  the  gold.  See  Mitchell's  Manual  of  H-aetieal 
Assaying  (5th  ed.,  by  Crookes,  1881). 

ASS  AYE,  ds-sV:  t.  in  the  n.e.  of  the  nizam's  dominions, 
at  the  fork  of  the  Juah  and  Kaitna;  noticeable  as  the  scene 
of  the  flrstgreat  victory  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  then 
Ma^.gen.  Wellesley^  1803.  Sep.  23.  The  British  troops  in 
action  were  only  abt  4,500,  while  the  Mahrattas  under 
Scindia  and  the  rajah  of  Berar  numbered  50,000,  of  whom 
10,000  were  commanded  by  French  officers.  Cannon  num- 
bering 98,  7  standards,  all  the  baggage,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  ammunition  of  the  Mahrattas  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
conquerors,  whose  military  supremacy  was  soon  acknowl- 
edged over  a  great  portion  of  India.  In  1851,  a  medal  was 
struck  in  commemoration  of  the  victory. 

ASSEERGHUR,  a'ser-giir':  fort  on  an  Isolated  mountain 
at  the  n.e.  angle  of  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  lat  2V  2& 
n.,  long.  76*  26'  e.;  elevation  above  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tain, estimated  750  ft.  Its  extreme  length  and  breadth  are 
respectively  1,100  and  600  yds. ;  from  the  irregularity,  how- 
ever, of  the  outline,  the  area  is  computed  at  not  more  than 
300,000  sq  yds.,  or  somewhat  less  than  ^th  of  a  sq.  m. 
With  the  exception  of  two  avenues  of  ascent,  both  of  them 
difficult  and  strongly  fortified,  the  space  is  everjrwhere 
terminated  by  a  carefully  scarped  precipice,  varying  ia 
height  from  80  to  100  ft.  This  formidable  fastness  has  beea 
twice  taken  by  the  British— in  1803  and  1819. 


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ASSEGAI— ASSEMBLY.  GENERAL. 

ASSEGAI,  D.  a$'se-ga,  or  Assagay,  or  Absagai,  d, 
is'd-gd  [Sp.  azagaya,  a  spear  or  half -pike]:  a  dart  or  javelin 
iisctl  by  the  Kafirs,  etc.:  V.  to  pierce  or  kill  with  an  assegai. 
As  SEGATING,  imp.    AssBGAiED,  pp.  OS  e-god. 

ASSEMBLE,  v.  dssem'bl  [F.  assembler,  to  gather,  to  atn 
semble— f  rom  mid.  L.  asslm&ldref  to  bring  together  into  one 
place— from  L.  ctd,  simid,  together:  AS.  samod,  together]: 
to  gather  a  number  of  persons  or  things  together;  to  meet 
together.  Assem'sling.  imp.  Assembled,  pp.  assem'hld. 
Assembler,  n.  -bier,  one  who.  Assemblage,  n.  aS'Sem- 
bliij,  a  mass  of  persons;  a  collection  of  particulars.  As- 
sembly, n.  ds-sem'bll,  a  number  of  persons  met  in  the 
same  place  for  a  common  object ;  a  congregation ;  a  con- 
vocation. General  assem'bly,  the  highest  ecclesiastical 
court  in  the  Established  and  Free  churches  of  Scotland, 
and  in  the  Presb.  churches  in  Ireland  and  in  the  United 
States.— Syn.  of  *  assemble  ':  to  muster ;  collect ;  convene  ; 
convoke ; — of  *  assembly ':  assemblage  ;  group ;  collection  ; 
company  ;  meeting  ;  congregation ;  parliament ;  diet ;  con- 
gress; convention;  synod;  convocation;  coimcil. 

ASSEMBLY  [assembleey,  in  the  conduct  of  an  army, 
the  second  beating  of  the  drum  before  a  march,  at  which 
the  soldiers  strike  their  tents  if  encamped,  roll  them  up,  and 
stand  to  arms. 

ASSEMBLY,  GENERAL:  in  Scotiand,  Ireland,  and 
the  United  States,  denotes  the  highest  court  of  the  Presb. 
Church.  It  differa  from  the  Anglican  Convocation  in  its 
constitution  and  in  its  powers,  representing  as  it  does  both 
the  by  and  the  clerical  elements  m  the  church,  and  possess- 
ing supreme  legislativt?  and  judicial  authority  in  all  matters 
purely  ecclesiastical.  The  General  A.  of  tne  Established 
Church  of  Scotland  consists  of  representatives,  clerical  and 
lay,  from  all  the  presbyteries  of  the  church.  The  royal 
burghs  of  Scotland  also  return  elders  to  the  (General  A.  of 
the  Established  Church,  and  each  of  the  Scottish  imiver- 
flities  sends  a  representative.  The  Assembly  meets  once  a 
year,  in  the  middle  of  May,  at  Edinburgh,  and  sits  for  ten 
days  Its  deliberations  are  presided  over  by  a  moderator, 
wliose  election  is  the  first  step  in  the  proceedings,  after  a 
sermon  by  his  predecessor.  In  former  times  this  ofTlce  was 
filled  sometimes  by  laymen:  among  others,  in  1567,  bv 
George  Buchanan.  In  modem  times,  the  moflerator  is  al- 
ways a  clergyman.  Eighty-four  presbyteries,  composing  16 
synods,  return  members  to  the  G^ene^al  A.  of  the  Established 
Church  of  Scotland.  Its  relation  to  the  state  is  represented 
by  a  royal  commissioner,  who  exercises  no  function  in  the 
A.  beyond  that  of  adding  by  his  presence  the  sanction  of 
the  civil  authority  to  its  proceedings.  The  other  function- 
aries are  a  principal  and  a  deputy  clerk,  both  clerg3rmen,  a 
Srocurator,  and  an  agent.  All  business  not  despatched 
uring  the  session  of  the  A.  is  referred  to  a  commission, 
with  me  moderator  as  convener,  which  meets  immediately 
after  the  dissolution  of  the  A.,  and  again  quarterly.  The 
General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  which 
has  16  synods  comprising  78  presbyteries,  and  the  General 


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ASSEMBLY.   NATIONAL. 

Assembly  of  the  Irish  Presb.  Church,  are  similarly  cx>n- 
stttuted,  the  principal  difference  being  the  absence  of  the 
royal  commissioner..  In  the  United  States,  the  General 
Assemblies  of  the  Presb.  Church,  of  the  Presb.  Church 
South  (a  secession  from  the  former),  of  the  Cumberland 
Presb.  Church,  and  of  the  United  Presb.  Church,  are  con- 
stituted on  the  same  general  model  with  some  differences 
in  detail.  The  Generfl  Assembly  of  the  Presb.  Church  in 
the  United  States  has  now  become  a  very  large  body,  as  it 
is  formed  of  delegates  from  the  presbyteries  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  delegate  to  every  24  members  of  those  bodies. 
See  Presbytery:  Synod:  Barrier  Act:  etc. 

ASSEM'BLY,  NATIONAL  (France):  title  assumed  hy 
the  commons  of  the  states-general  (q.v.),  convoked  by  Louis 
XVI.  of  France,  and  opened  1789,  May  5.  The  states^ 
general  consisted  of  two  privileged  orders,  clergy  and 
nobles,  and  of  the  ticrn-etat  or  commons.  The  pnvileged 
orders  refused  to  join  the  third  estate  and  deliberate  in  a 
common  chamber,  and  the  latter,  of  its  own  authority, 
June  17,  assumed  the  title  of  AssembUe  Nationale,  and  the 
right  to  act  in  the  name  of  France.  The  court  attempted  to 
annul  this  resolution  in  a  royal  sitting,  June  23;  but  the  de- 
puties of  the  third  estate,  along  with  Uie  liberal  members  of 
the  other  two  orders,  had  bound  themselves  by  oath  not  to 
separate  until  they  had  given  France  a  constitution,  and  had 
declared  every  attempt  at  violence  on  the  part  of  the  court, 
treason.  They  refused  to  quit  the  common  hall,  and  the 
court  yielded,  and  conunanaed  the  nobles  and  clergy  to  join 
the  National  A.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  revolution, 
and  the  A.  proceeded  with  astounding  rapiditv  to  metamor- 
phose old  France.  The  abolition  of  all  privileges,  Aug.  4, 
was  foUowefl  bv  abolition  of  hereditary  jurisdiction,  and  of 
restraints  on  religion  and  the  press,  and  by  the  declaration 
of  the  Rights  of  Man  (q.v.).  In  1790,  Feb.,  the  monastic 
orders  were  suppressed,  and  all  remnants  of  feudalism  swept 
away;  in  March,  leitres  de  cachet  and  the  oppressive  salt-tax 
were  abolished;  in  June,  all  orders  and  titles  of  nobility. 
In  July,  non-Catholics  had  the  property  confiscated  from 
their  ancestors  restored;  Jews  were  relieved  from  personal 
taxation;  and  game-laws  done  away.  A  decree  of  Oct.  18 
abolished  the  cruel  criminal  penalties  of  Louis  XIV.  In 
1791,  Jan.,  all  corporations  and  guilds  were  abolished,  and 
free-trade  introduced.  In  Feb.,  political  rights  were  con- 
ceded to  Quakers;  in  May,  tlie  customs  at  city  gates  were 
abolished;  in  June,  the  torture;  the  violation  of  the  secrecy 
of  letters  was  also  declared  criminal.  In  Sep.,  all  citizens, 
of  whatever  color  or  reli^on,  received  political  rights. 

The  principles  on  which  the  Assembly  proceeded  were 
the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  the  independence  of  the  com- 
munes, the  limitation  of  the  royal  power  through  a  con- 
ditional veto  (q.v.),  the  separation  of  the  political  authori- 
ties, and  the  responsibility  of  ministers.  Accordingly,  the 
A.,  shortly  after  it  was  constituted,  declared  that  to  it  alone, 
subject  to  the  royal  veto,  belonged  the  legislative  power. 
Several  decrees,  1789,  Sep.,  determined  that  the  legislative 
body  should  form  only  one  chamber,  and  should  be  renewed 


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ASSEMBLY,  NATIONAL. 

every  two  years;  other  decrees  declared  the  king  invio- 
lable, and  tne  throne  inalienable.  A  decree  of  Nov,  7  for- 
bade the  deputies  to  undertake  the  place  of  ministers;  in 
Dec.,  the  new  organization  of  the  communes  was  begun. 
In  1790,  Jan.,  France  was  divided  into  departments;  in 
April,  trial  by  jury  was  introduced;  in  May,  it  was  declared 
that  the  right  of  war  and  peace  belonged  to  the  nation  alone, 
that  is,  to  the  A. 

In  regard  to  finance,  which  had  been  the  immediate  cause 
of  the  Assembly's  being  convoked,  the  reforms  were  equally 
thorough.  It  was  decreed  at  the  outset  that  taxes  were  to 
be  apportioned  and  raised  without  regard  to  rank  or  person. 
Then  followed  the  approval  of  a  loan  of  80  millions  of 
francs.  A  decree  of  1789,  Nov.,  ordered  the  publication  of 
the  public  accounts;  another  in  Dec.  established  a  national 
bank.  In  1790,  March,  appeared  the  first  law  sanctioning  the 
sale  of  400  million  francs'  worth  of  the  national  domains; 
and  in  April,  another  ordering  the  issue  of  amgnats  (q.v.) 
on  the  national  property;  in  Oct.,  these  assignats  were  de- 
clared to  bear  no  interest.  These  measures  were  followed, 
in  the  beginning  of  1791,  by  a  series  of  laws  regarding 
coining,  taxation,  encouragement  to  industry,  revenue 
management,  etc.  A  committee  of  the  A.  appointed  to 
reform  church  matters,  made  a  complete  overturn  of  the 
old  ecclesiastical  system.  After  a  declaration  that  Roman 
Catholicism  had  ceased  to  be  the  state  religion,  tithes  were 
abolished,  and  church  property  confiscated.  Church  orna- 
ments and  valuables  were  appropriated  as  patriotic  gifts  to 
the  state;  the  civil  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  was  taken 
away,  and  monks  and  nuns  were  freed  from  their  vows. 
The  clergy  was  put  under  a  civil  constitution.  Each  de- 
partment was  a  see,  and  the  communes  ruled  and  paid 
bishop  and  cures.  All  the  clergy  were  amenable  to  the 
civil  courts,  without  appeal  to  the  pope  or  the  interference 
of  any  ecclesiastical  authority  whatever.  Every  clergyman 
had  to  take  an  oath  accepting  this  constitution,  which  led 
to  the  emigration  of  a  number,  and  subsequently  to  enact- 
ments of  excessive  rigor  against  refractory  priests  {pretres 
insermentes). 

The  A.  having  thus  laid  the  revolution  on  a  fotmdation 
of  8,250  decrees,  and  having  sworn  to  the  new  constitution, 
and  secured  its  acceptance  by  the  king,  closed  its  sitting, 
1791,  Sep.  30.  From  its  having  framed  the  constitution 
(which  lasted  only  12  months),  this  assembly  is  usually 
called  the  Constituent  A.  It  made  way  for  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly,  which  was  to  reform  the  civil  and  criminal 
laws  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  new  constitution. 
A  decree  had  provided  that  no  member  of  the  Constituent 
should  be  returned  to  the  Legislative  A.  But  the  demo- 
cratic party  received  such  preponderance  at  the  elections, 
that  the  A.  forgot  its  mission  from  the  very  first,  and  com- 
menced a  war  with  the  remnants  of  the  royal  authority, 
which  ended,  1792,  Aug.  10,  with  the  overthrow  of  the 
throne  and  the  suspension  of  the  king.  The  constitution 
had  provided  for  an  appeal  to  the  nation  in  extreme  cases, 
and  the  Legislative  A.  now  exercised  that  right  by  con- 


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ASSEMBLY   OP  DIVINES. 

vokine  a  National  Convention  (q.v.)»  which,  being  inTested 
with  the  powers  of  the  sovereign,  was  to  decide  on  the  fate 
of  the  monarchy,  and  remodel  the  whole  political  system. 

The  title  of  National  A.  has  been  assumed  by  various 
other  parliamentary  bodies,  originating  in  popular  commo- 
tions, and  aiming  at  radical  political  changes;  as  the  French 
A.  that  met  after  the  revolution  of  1848,  Feb.,  which  was 
followed  1849,  Apr.,  by  a  Legislative  A.;  the  German 
National  A.  at  Frankfort;  and  the  Prussian  National  A. 
Under  the  existing  French  republic,  the  senate  and  the 
chamber  of  deputies  united  form  the  National  A. 

ASSEMBLY  OF  DIVINES',  or  Westminster  As- 
sem'blt:  a  convocation  appointed  by  the  Long  Parliament 
for  settling  the  doctrine,  liturgy,  and  government  of  the 
Church  of  JSngland.  It  consisted  of  120  clergymen  and  90 
laymen — 10  of  whom  were  lords  and  20  commoners — 
together  with  4  clerical  and  2  lay  commissioners  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  Amon^  the  more  distinguished  of 
the  divines  were  Usher,  Saunderson,  Reynolds,  Brownri^g, 
Ward,  Twisse,  Lightfoot,  Gataker,  Burges,  Goodwin, 
Calamy,  and  Nye;  of  the  laymen,  Selden,  Prideaux,  the 
two  Vanes,  Rouse,  Pym,  Whitelocke,  St.  John,  and 
Maynard.  The  Scottish  divines  were  Henderson ,  Gillespie. 
Rutherford,  and  Baillie.  Twenty-five  of  those  whose  names 
were  contained  in  the  ordinance  calling  the  Assembly,  dated 
1643,  June  12,  never  appeared  at  the  discussions,  one  or 
two  of  them  having  died  about  the  time  of  the  first  meeting, 
and  the  others  fearing  the  displeasure  of  the  kine.  To 
supply  the  place  of  these  absentees,  some  additional 
members,  called  the  superadded  divines,  were  summoned 
to  attend.  The  A.  held  its  first  meeting  1643,  July  1,  and 
continued  to  sit  till  1649,  Feb.  22,  during  which  time  it 
had  met  1,163  times.  Its  most  important  work  was  con- 
cluded long  before  that  time.  One  of  the  first  things  it 
did  was  to  give  its  sanction  to  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  against  which  Dr.  Burees  alone  stood  out  for 
several  days.  The  Presbyterians  formed  a  large  majority 
in  the  Assembly,  and  exercised  a  correa^nding  infiuence 
on  its  decisions.  In  doctrine,  the  members  were  almost 
unanimous;  but  on  the  subject  of  church  ffovemment, 
opinions  extremely  opposite  were  maintained  with  keen- 
ness, especially  on  the  question  touching  the  sphere  and 
limits  of  the  civil  power  in  matters  ecclesiastical.  The 
principal  fruits  of  its  deliberations  were  the  Directory  of 
Jhiblic  Worship,  submitted  to  parliament  1644,  Apr.  20; 
the  Cortfemonof  FaiUi,  1646,  Oct.  and  Nov.;  the  Shorter 
Catechism,  1647,  Nov.  5;  and  the  Larger  Catechism  1648, 
Sep.  15.  ITiese  several  formularies,  which  contain  a  clear 
and  rigid  embodiment  of  Calvinistic  theology  and  Pres- 
byterian church  government,  constitute  to  this  day  the 
authorized  standards  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  of 
Scotland,  Ireland,  England,  and  the  United  States.  The 
Directory  of  Public  Worship  was  ratified  by  both  houses  of 
parliament,  1644,  Oct.  2,  and  the  doctrinal  part  of  the 
CoT^ession  of  Faith  1648,  March.  An  order  of  the  house 
of  commons,  1647,  Oct.  18.  ordained  that  the  Presbyterian 


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ASSENT— ASSERT. 

fwrm  of  church  government  should  be  tried  for  a  year, 
but  no  further  legislation  followed.  What  has  hitherto 
been  known  as  to  the  details  of  the  proceedings  of  this 
convocation  has  been  derived  chiefly  from  the  Letters  of 
Baillie,  and  Lightfoot's  Journal. — See  Hetherington's 
Hutcrycfihe  Westmimter  Assembly  (1843);  and  the  2d  vol. 
of  Masson's  lAfe  of  MilUm,  published  in  1871  (pp.  509-527), 
where  a  list  of  the  members,  with  brief  biographic  notices, 
is  givei>.    See  Creeds  Ajn>  Confessions. 

ASSENT,  V.  as-^ent'  [OP.  assentir,  to  assent,  to  consent 
— ^from  L.  assentio,  I  assent — from  arf,  to;  seniU,  I  think] : 
to  think  in  accordance  with  some  one;  to  admit  as  true;  to 
yield;  to  agree:  N.  act  of  admitting  or  agreeing  to;  consent. 
Asbbnt'ino,  imp.  Assent'ed,  pp.  Assbnt'eb,  one  who. 
Assentation,  n.  ds-sSn-td'shun,  hypocritical  assent  to 
everything  which  another  says;  pretended  concurrence 
in  every  opinion,  however  absura,  which  he  broaches. 
AssBNTiENT,  a.  dS'Sin'8hl-&nt,  assenting  to,  as  opposed 
to  dissentient.  Assent'ivb,  a.  -iv,  assenting.  Absent'- 
INGLT,  ad.  -ii.— Syn.  of  *  assent,  v.':  to  accMe;  yield;  ac- 
quiesce; consent;  accord;  agree;  concur;  coincide;  comply; 
conform;  submit;  concede;  approve. 

ASSENT  ROYAL:  see  Parliament. 

ASSER,  n.  ds'sSr  [L.  asser,  a  small  beam  or  lath]:  in 
arch.,  a  thin  rafter,  board,  or  lath. 

ASSER,  ds'^,  John:  d.  910:  biographer  of  Alfred  the 
Great.  The  Saaim  Chronicle  records  some  events  of  his  ca- 
reer. He  was  a  monk  of  St.  Davids,  from  the  Latin  name  of 
which,  Menevia,  he  is  termed  in  the  old  records  Asseritts 
Meneventis.  About  885,  his  reputation  for  leamine  and 
piety  procured  him  an  invitation  to  the  court  of  Alfred, 
where  he  resided  at  intervals  during  the  rest  of  the  king's 
life,  assisting  him  in  his  studies,  and  receiving  his  affec- 
tionate confidence,  of  which  he  seems  to  have  been  every 
way  worthy.  The  king  promoted  him  to  various  dimities, 
ana  finally  made  him  Bishop  of  Sherborne.  Several  works 
have,  with  more  or  less  authority,  been  attributed  to  A. 
The  only  one  undoubtedly  his  is  Annates  Berum  Oestarum 
Aelffredi  Magni.  This  simple  and  most  interesting  narra- 
tive was  first  pub.  1574  by  Abp.  Parker.  Its  trust- 
worthiness was  questioned  (1842)  by  Thomas  Wright,  in 
the  article  '  Asser '  of  his  Biograpnia  Briiannica  Litteraria. 
Lingard  and  Dr.  Pauli  have  replied;  and  the  prevailing 
impression  of  scholars  in  Anglo-Saxon  literature  is  that 
there  is  no  reason  for  doubting  its  general  accuracy.  The 
best  ed.  is  that  of  Wise  (Oxf .  8vo.  1722). 

ASSERT,  V.  ds^Srf  [OF.  asserteur,  to  assert:  L.  assertus, 
bound  or  fastened  to  one's-self— W<.,  to  join  or  fasten  to]: 
to  affirm  positively;  to  maintain.  Absbrt'ing,  imp.  Ai- 
bbbt'ed,  pp.  Assertion,  n.  as-sdr'shun  [P.  assertion — 
from  L.  as8ertldnem\\  the  act  of  asserting;  an  affirmation. 
Assertive,  a.  dsser'tiv,  that  affirms  positively.  Asser'- 
tively,  ad.  4i.  Asbert'ory,  a.  involving  an  assertion; 
designed  to  support  an  assertion.    Assbrt'or,  n.  one  wha 

2-88 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASSES— ASSETS. 

— Stn.  of  'assert':  to  aflSrm;  fksseyerate ;  aver;   protest; 
maintain;  pronounce;  declare;  vindicate, 

ASSES,  Feast  of:  see  Fools,  Feast  of. 

ASSESS,  V.  ds-ses'  [OF.  asusser,  to  assess— from  L. 
(usessus,  sat  down — from  ad,  to;  seasus,  sat  or  remained, 
set]:  to  set  or  fix  a  rate  to  be  paid;  to  value;  to  rate.  Ajs- 
BEs'siNo,'  imp.  Assessed,  pp.  dss^sf,  Asses'sabi^.  a. 
'8(l-bl,  that  may  or  ought  to  be  assessed.  Asses'bably,  ad. 
-in.  Assessment,  n.  the  amount  of  a  tax  laid  on  a  prop- 
erty. See  Tax— Taxation.  Assessor,  n.  -ser  [F.  cMesseur, 
an  assessor— from  L.  asaesaarem] :  one  who  sits  by  a  judge 
or  an  arbiter  as  a  legal  adviser  or  as  a  helper:  in  OE.,  one 
next  in  dignity;  one  authorized  to  fix  the  value  of  taxes. 
AssESSORiAL,  a.  dasH-ad'rl-dl,  or  Assessionabt,  a.  Cs- 
s^shon-er'i,  pertaining  to  an  assessor. 

A8SESSI0N,  n.  ds-sis'shun  [L.  cuaeaaia— from  ad,  to; 
aeaaio,  a  sitting]:  a  sitting  near  one  to  give  one  counsel. 
Asses' sioNARY,  a.  pertaining  to  assession. 

ASSETS,  n.  plu.  da^a^ta,  or  Asset,  n.  sing,  da'aei  [OE. 
aaaeth:  Scot,  aaayih,  compensation,  satisfaction:  L.  ad,  for; 
aatia,  enough:  F.  aaaez,  enough:  Ger.  aatt,  satisfied — lit.,  up 
to  what  is  enough]:  funds  or  property  available  for  pay- 
ment of  debts,  etc.  In  strictness  the  term  is  not  appli- 
cable to  the  property  of  a  person  who  dies  intestate,  and 
without  any  debts  to  be  paid.  In  general  acceptation, 
however,  it  is  understood  to  mean  the  property  left  for 
distribution  by  a  deceased  person,  whether  testate  or  in- 
testate; and  in  commerce,  and  also  in  bankruptcy  and  in- 
solvency, the  term  is  used  to  designate  the  stock  in  trade 
and  entire  property  of  all  sorts  belonging  to  a  merchant  or 
to  a  trading  association. 

A.  are  either  peraonal  or  real,  the  former  comprehending 
such  goods,  chattels,  and  debts  as  devolve  on  the  executor; 
and  the  latter  including  all  real  estate,  whether  devised  or 
descending  to  the  heir  at  law.  In  connection  with  this  dis- 
tinction, A.  are  also  said  to  be  A.  by  deacent,  and  A.  in 
hand,  the  former  of  these  being  recoverable  from  the  heir 
to  whom  the  land  descends,  and  so  far  as  such  lands  will 
extend — the  latter  signifying  such  property  as  a  person 
leaves  to  his  executors  suflicient  for  the  clearing  of  bur- 
dens and  bequests  affecting  his  personal  estate.  A.  are 
also  in  their  nature  either  le^a4  or  equitable,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  remedy  which  may  be  used  by  creditors 
against  the  executor  or  heir.  Where  there  are  several  cred- 
itors of  equal  decree,  the  executor  is  boimd  to  pay  him 
who  first  obtains  judgment  for  his  debt;  and  he  cannot  re- 
sist on  the  ground  that  nothing  will  be  left  for  the  other 
creditors.  If,  after  exhausting  the  whole  A.  which  have 
come  to  his  hands,  by  the  pa3rment  of  debts  in  due  order, 
he  be  afterwards  sued  by  a  creditor  remaining  unpaid,  he 
is  entitled  to  protect  himself  by  an  allegation  that  he  has 
fully  administered,  or  technically  by  a  plea  of  plena  ad- 
miniatramt;  and  upon  this  plea  the  creciitor  is  entitled  to 
judgment  that  he  shall  be  paid  out  of  any*  other  A.  thai 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASSEVERATE— ASSIGN. 

shall  come  to  the  defendants,  which  is  called  a  judgment 
of  A.  in  future. 

ASSEVERATE,  v.  dL^s^v'&r-dt  [L,  assSverdtus,  stated 
earnestly — from  ad^  severus,  earnest,  serious] :  to  assert  with 
much  earnestness;  to  declare  positively;  to  affirm  solemnly. 
Absev'eka'ting,  imp.  Assbv'bba'ted,  pp.  Abseyera- 
TiON,  n.  dS'8^v'er-d'shun,  a  positive  declaration;  a  solemn 
affirmation  or  assertion.— Syn.  of  'asseverate':  to  affirm; 
protest;  declare;  aver;  assert. 

ASSIDE'ANS:  see  Chasidim. 

ASSIDENT,  a.  ds'airdint  [L.  (usiden'tem,  sitting  by  or 
near— from  cui,  to;  sedSo,  I  sitj:  associating  with  or  sitting 
by  others— applied  to  symptoms  or  signs  of  a  disease. 


aousLY,  ad.  -H.  Assid'uoubness,  n.  the  quality  of  being 
assiduous ;  close  diligence.  Assiduity,  n.  ds'st-dui-ti, 
close  application  ;  ffreat  diligence.— Syn.  of  *  assiduous ': 
diligent;  active;  industrious;  laborious;  sedulous;  attentive; 
unwearied;  indefatigable;  persevering;  unintermitted. 

ASSIENTO,  or  Asiento,  n.  ds'l-en'io  [Sp.  asiento,  a 
treaty,  a  contract]:  a  contract  or  convention;  a  special 
treaty:  specially  applied  to  a  compact  between  Spain  and 
some  foreign  nation,  according  to  which  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment conferred  upon  the  Tatter,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, the  monopoly  of  the  supply  of  negroes  for  its  Amer- 
ican colonies.  It  was  Charles  I.  of  Spain  who  first  con- 
cluded an  A.  with  the  Flemings.  Next,  a  similar  compact 
was  entered  into  with  the  Genoese  (1580),  the  Portuguese 
(1696),  and  on  the  accession  of  Philip  V.  to  the  Spanish 
throne  in  1702,  with  the  French  Guinea  company,  which 
from  that  time  took  the  name  of  A.  company,  upon  the 
understanding  that  for  ten  years  it  should  have  the  exclu- 
sive right  of  annually  importing  4,800  negroes  of  both 
sexes  to  the  continent  and  islands  of  Spanish  America.  The 
A.  was  next  transferred  to  England  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht 
in  1713,  and  made  over  by  government  to  the  South  Sea 
company  for  80  years,  permission  being  also  granted  to 
the  company  to  send  yearly,  during  the  term  or  contract, 
a  ship,  carrying  500  tons  of  goods,  to  these  Spanish  colo- 
nies. The  misunderstandings  that  grew  out  of  this  last 
clause  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  war  that  broke  out 
between  the  two  nations  in  1789.  At  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1748,  the  English  company  having  still  four 
years  to  run,  their  rights  were  guaranteed  to  them;  but  they 
relinquished  them  at  the  Madrid  Convention  of  1750,  upon 
the  pajrraent  of  £100,000,  and  the  concession  of  certain 
commercial  advantages. 

ASSIGN,  V.  dssln'  [F.  asstgner,  to  assign— from  L.  aa'- 
signdre,  to  mark  out  something,  to  seal- from  L.  ad,  to; 
signo,  I  mark  out]:  to  mark  out  something  for  bestowal;  to 
point  out;  to  allot  to;  to  transfer:  N.  a  person  to  whom 
property  is  transferr(>d.    Absign'ino,  imp.    Assigned,  pp. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASSIGN— ASSIGNATa 

d^^nd':  Adj.  that  is  fixed  or  allotted.  Ahsigneb,  d.  ds- 
nn'Sr,  odc  who.  Absiqmor,  d.  ds-si-nawr'.  In  law,  one  who 
assigns.  Assiqnable,  a.  (U^nd-bl,  that  may  be  trans- 
ferred; that  can  be  allotted  or  specified.  Assignation,  n. 
ds'sig-nd'shun  [F. — L.]:  a  making  over  to;  an  appointment 
to  meet,  as  of  lovers;  a  designation  or  marking  out.  Ab- 
siGNBB,  n.  ds'sl-ne,  a  person  appointed  to  do  something; 
one  to  whom  an  assignment  is  made.  Assignment,  n. 
dS'Sln'mint,  the  thing  assigned;  the  transference  of  some 
right  or  interest. 

ASSIGN,  To,  in  Law:  to  transfer  or  grant  over  to  a 
third  party  a  security,  a  right  of  credit,  or  other  right, 
whether  in  possession  or  in  reversion,  granted  by  a  party 
indebted  or  under  obligation  to  the  party  assigning.  The 
words  of  assignment  are  to  A.,  traritfer,  and  aet  over,  and 
they  operate  to  transfer  both  real  and  personal  property. 
See  Assignment:  Assignation:  Assignment  of  Ebror: 
Bankruptcy. 

ASSIGNATION:  a  legal  term  m  Scotch  conveyancing, 
analogous  to  the  English  word  Assignment  (q.v.)t  though 
assignment  is  in' Scotland  the  technical  term  for  the  trans- 
ference of  certain  property,  such  as  copyrights,  patents, 
and  registered  vessels. 

A8SIGNAT8,  n.  plu.  do'in-yds'  [F.— (see  Assign)]:  pa- 
per money  issued  by  the  French  government  during  the 
first  revolution.  After  appropriatmg  to  national  purposes 
the  land  belonging  to  the  church,  the  French  national  as- 
sembly (see  Assembly,  National),  instead  of  bringing  it 
into  the  market  at  a  time  of  insecurity,  when  its  value  was 
depreciated, issued  bonds  on  the  security  of  it,  which  were 
called  amgnats,  as  representing  land  amgned  to  the  holder. 
This  paper  money  consisted  chiefly  of  notes  for  100  francs 
(abt.  f  20)  each,  though  many  of  them  were  for  sums  as 
low  as  ten  or  five  francs,  and  even  lower;  and  the  first  issue 
amounted  to  400  million  francs  (abt.  $80,000,000).  The  first 
A.,  issued  in  the  spring  of  1790,  bore  interest;  subsequent  is- 
sues did  not.  The  facility  of  this  plan  of  providing  gov- 
ernment income  led  to  its  being  repeatedly  resorted  to  as 
the  property  of  wealthy  emigrantsr— persons  who  aban- 
doned their  country  in  alarm — fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
rulers,and  was  confiscated,  till  the  amount  rose  to  the  enor- 
mous sum  of  45,578  million  francs,  besides  a  great  number 
of  forged  A.  manufactured  abroad  and  smuggled  into  the 
kingdom.  The  value  of  the  A.  naturally  soon  began  to 
decline,  and  confidence  once  gone,  the  declension  became 
fearful.  In  1798,  June,  one  franc  in  silver  was  worth 
three  francs  in  paper;  in  Aug.,  It  was  worth  six.  The  state 
took  extreme  measures  to  compel  the  acceptance  of  A.  at 
their  full  nominal  value.  The  effects  of  these  were  to 
cause  the  A.  to  flow  back  into  the  public  treasury,  to  raise 
the  prices  of  all  commodities,  and  to  make  everyone  averse 
to  have  any  dealings  with  the  state.  One  of  these  conse- 
quences was  attempted  to  be  met  by  fixing  a  maximum  of 
prices.  But  no  one  could  compel  producers  and  deal- 
ers to  produce  and  sell  at  a  loss;  so  that  all  business  be- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ASSIGNEE  IN  BANKRUPTCY— ASSIGNMENT 

came  disorgauized.  At  last  the  value  of  a.  came  aimust  w 
DotbiDg.  Millions  of  individuals  had  suffered  incalculable 
loss,  and  only  a  few  who  had  bought  public  lauds  with  the 
A.  that  cost  them  little  or  nothing,  had  enriched  them- 
selves at  the  expense  of  the  community.  In  1796,  March, 
a  louis  d'or  (24  francs)  brought  7,200  francs  in  A.  After 
this,  they  were  withdrawn  from  the  currency  (1796)  and 
redeemed  at  a  thirtieth  of  their  nominal  value  by  man- 


^"^tol^']  ii  \<juiJi/XtJoli. 


lz'//«  ■*•*■/» 


Domames^riaiixMiaux'. 
.AssigJiat 


Fac-simile  of  Assignat. 

doto,  a  new  kind  of  paper  money,  which  enabled  the  hold- 
er at  once  to  take  possession  of  public  lands  at  the  estimat- 
ed value,  while  A.  could  only  be  offered  at  a  sale.  The 
nxindats  also  soon  fell  to  a  seventieth  of  their  nominal 
value,  and  were  returned  to  government  in  payment  of 
taxes  or  of  land. 

At  length,  in  1796,  July,  the  system  of  paper-credit,  so 
obstinately  persisted  in  by  government,  and  so  disastrous 
in  its  results  to  the  public,  came  to  an  end.  A  law  was 
passed,  declaring  that  every  one  was  entitled  to  transact 
business  in  whatever  circulating  medium  he  pleased ;  that 
the  mandats  should  be  taken  at  their  current  value;  and 
that  the  taxes  be  received  either  in  coin  or  in  mandats  at 
that  rate.  The  A.  were  executed  on  a  coarse  kind  of 
paper,  and,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying  fac-simile, 
the  devices  were  so  meagre  as  to  be  easily  counterfeitf^d. 

ASSIGNEE'  IN  BANK  KUPTCY:  see  Bankruptc^^. 

ASSIGN  MENT,  in  Law:  a  conveyance  (usually  in  writ- 
ing) by  which  one  transfers  to  another,  for  asutticient  con- 
sideration, a  right  in  expectancy,  in  reversion,  or  in  posses- 
sion.    The  common  or  popular  meaning  of  this  word  is  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASSIGNMENT  OP  ERRORr-ASSINIBOLL 

transfer  of  any  property,  real,  personal,  and  mixed,  wheth- 
er the  same  be  in  possession,  or  in  action;  the  technical 
form  being  to  assign,  transfer,  and  set  over;  but  the  words 
grant,  bargain,  and  sell,  or  any  other  words  which  will  show 
the  intent  of  the  parties  to  make  a  complete  transfer,  will 
amount  to  an  A.  The  deed  by  which  an  A.  is  made  is 
also  called  an  A.  By  an  A.  of  a  right  all  the  accessories 
which  belong  to  it  pass  with  it;  as,  if  the  assignor  of  a 
bond  had  collateral  security,  or  a  lien  on  property,  the 
collateral  security  and  the  Hen  will  pass  with  the  assign- 
ment of  the  bond.  The  assignment  of  anything  carries 
with  it  all  that  belongs  to  it  by  right  of  accession;  if, 
therefore,  the  thing  produce  interest  or  rent,  the  interest 
or  the  arrearages  of  the  rent  since  the  A.  will  belong  to 
the  assignee.  There  are  exceptions  to  assignments;  such 
as  personal  trusts,  the  duties  of  a  guardian,  the  salary  of  a 
judge,  the  commission  or  pay  of  a  public  officer,  the  right 
of  action  for  fraud,  and  rights  pendente  Hie.  The  indorse- 
ment of  negotiable  bHls  effects  their  A.  Ordinarily 
assi^ments  are  the  resort  of  insolvent  debtors  for  the  pro- 
tection pf  their  creditors,  and  to  obtain  their  discharge 
from  further  obligation,  and  such  cases  are  regulated  m 
the  different  states  by  specitd  statutes.  In  the  case  of  an 
A.  of  a  policy  of  insurance,  by  consent  of  the  imderwriter, 
or  by  statute,  the  A.  vests  in  the  assignee  all  the  rights  of 
the  assignor,  exception  being  made  where  a  condition  to 
the  contrary  is  expressed  in  the  policy.  By  an  A.  of  dow- 
er the  share  of  a  widow  in  her  deceased  nusband's  real- 
estate  is  set  apart  for  her  use  by  the  heir  or  his  guardian, 
or  by  whomsoever  is  in  possession  of  the  land  subject  to 
dower;  or,  if  voluntary  A.  be  refused,  this  may  oe  en- 
forced oy  direction  of  the  court  after  legal  proceedings. 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  ERROR:  see  Appeal:  Erkor. 

ASSIMILATE,  v.  dsslm'Udt  [L.  as^mmtvt,  asshni 
lated— fromL.  €ul,  to;  simUia,  like:  F.  awimUer,  to  assimi- 
late]: to  make  like;  to  bring  to  a  likeness;  to  change  int« 
its  own  substance.  AssiM'iLA'TrNO,  imp.  Assdc'ila  ted, 
pp.  AssDc'iLABLE,  a.  4d^,  that  may  be  assunilated.  As- 
similative, a.  a9^lm'l4d't\v,  or  Absim'ilatob't.  a.  'Ur\ 
that  can  make  into  a  like  or  similar  substance.  Assimila- 
tion, n.  as^irn'lldshun  [F. — L.]:  the  process  bj  which 
plants  and  animals  convert  food  into  the  various  tissues  of 
their  OAvn  proper  substance.  See  Nutrition.  Assimv- 
labil'ity,  capability  of  being  assimilated.  Assim'ilatb- 
NES8,  quality  of  being  similar  to;  likeness. 

ASSINIBOIA,  ds-8tn-i-hoy' d:  Canadian  dist.,  formerly  a 
part  of  the  Northwest  Territories,  but  formed  by  an  order 
in  council  in  1882.  It  is  w.  of  Manitoba;  is  bounded  on  the 
8.  by  the  United  States  frontier,  w.  (at  111**  w.)  by  Alberta 
territory,  n.  (at  52°  n.)  by  the  new  territory  of  Saskatche- 
wan; area  89,535  sq.  m.;  it  is  intersected  by  the  Canadian 
Pacific  railway,  by  the  Q'appelle,  South  Saskatchewan,  and 
Souris  rivers;  and  contains  the  towns  of  Regina  (new  cap. 
of  the  n.w.),  Fort  Pelly,  and  Fort  Ell  ice.  A.  in  general 
resembles  Alberta  (q.v.).     Pop.  (1891)  30,372. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ASSINBOINE— ASSIZE. 

A9BIOTB0INE,  as-idn't-oairn;  nver  of  British  N.  Amer- 
ica, rising  in  lat.  51*  40  n.,  and  about  long.  105°  e.  At 
Winnipeg  it  joins  the  Red  river  (q. v.),  which  discharges 
its  waters  into  I>ake  Winnipeg.  At  a  point  140  m.  from 
lt8  moutli,  tlie  A.  is  280  ft.  broad;  its  course  measures 
about  4U0  miles.  The  river  gives  name  to  a  tribe  of 
Indians. 

ASSI8I,  d-se'se  (Asnsium):  town  of  Central  Italy;  upon 
a  steep  hill,  13  m.  s.e.  of  Perugia.  It  stands  in  a 
lingularly  pictur^ue  situation,  and  is  surrounded  by 
a  wall  mmked  with  towers,  and  overhung  by  a  lofty 
citadel  in  ruins.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  St.  Francis,  who 
here  founded  the  Convento  Sacro,  the  first  monastery  of 
the  Mendicant  order  that  bears  his  name,  a  large  and 
beautiful  structure,  and  one  of  the  earliest  specimens  of 
the  Gothic  style  of  architecture  in  Italj.  The  church  and 
the  galleries  of  the  monastery  contam  fine  paintings  by 
Cimabue,  Giotto,  and  other  old  masters.  Besides  the  Con- 
vento Sacro,  there  are  eleven  other  monasteries  in  A.  Of 
these,  the  largest  is  the  Portiuncula,  which  has  a  richly 
decorated  church,  with  a  cupola  by  Vignola.  In  the  last 
century,  this  place  was  a  great  resort  of  pilgrims,  visiting 
the  tomb  of  the  saint,  of  whom  one  hundred  thousand  are 
said  to  have  been  assembled  here  on  one  day. 

A.  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Assisium,  a  municipal 
town  of  Umbria,  and  presents  the  remains  of  the  forum, 
the  baths,  and  the  aqueducts  of  the  days  of  the  Romans. 
In  the  piazza,  or  square,  there  stands  a  beautiful  portico 
ol  the  ancient  temple  of  Minerva,  consisting  of  fluted 
Corinthian  columns  and  a  pediment.  There  is  abim- 
dance  of  olive-trees,  and  some  fine  mineral  springs  in  the 
vicinity.  The  town  has  given  title  to  a  bishop  smce  240. 
It  has  manufactures  of  needles  and  files.     Pop.  8,70O. 

ASSIST,  V.  ds-gist  [P.  assister,  to  assist— from  L.  as- 
»Ut^ri,  to  stand  by  one — ^from  ad,  to;  sisto,  I  am  made  to 
stand]:  to  stand  by  one  as  counsel  before  a  tribunal ;  to 
help;  to  relieve;  to  aid;  to  succor.  Assist' eng,  imp.  As- 
sisted, pp.  Assistance,  n.  ds-sls'tdns  [F.l:  help;  succor; 
aid.  Absib'tant.  or  Absis'ter,  a.  helping;  lending  aid :  N. 
one  who  helps  or  lends  aid.  —  Syn.  of  *  assist ':  to  help  ; 
aid  ;  succor ;  relieve ;  second  ;  back ;  support ;  favor ; 
benefit ;  sustain ;  befriend;  further. 

ASSIZE,  n.  ds-fiz',  plu.  Abbizes,  ds-sVzez  [OF.  oww,  a 
set  rate,  a  tax,  an  assembly  of  judges:  It.  assisa,  settled 
pattern  of  dress:  L.  assessio,  a  sitting — from  ad,  to;  aesstis, 
sat]:  a  session  or  sitting  as  of  a  court  of  justice;  the  set  day 
on  which  a  court  is  to  be  held;  in  plu.,  a  court  of  justice  in 
England  held  two  or  three  times  a  year  in  a  county  or  cir- 
cuit; 9ing.,  in  OE.,  a  statute  regulating  the  measure  and 
price  of  commodities.  Assize,  v.  to  fix  measures  or  rales; 
to  settle.  Absiz'ing.  imp.  Asbized,  pp.  ds-aizd.  Abbi'zer, 
n.  -zer^  one  who.  Assize  op  bread,  in  OE.,  the  settled 
rate  for  the  sale  of  bread. 

ASSIZE:  a  word  literally  signifying  a  *  sitting  '  or  'ses- 
sion ':  used  in  the  principal  European  legal  systems,  and 


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ASSOCIATE. 

very  much  in  the  same  sense,  or  rather  senses,  in  all,  for  it 
has  more  than  one  distinctive  meaning.  As  is  common 
with  regard  to  most  of  the  ancient  British  legal  techni- 
cality, the  Latin  language,  in  the  first  instance  (amdeo),  and 
then  the  French  {asm),  appear  to  have  led  to  its  introduc- 
tion into  the  phraseology  of  the  law  of  England  and  Scot- 
land. In  Eugland  the  word  may  signify  a  jury  (as  in 
Scotland),  and  it  is  sometimes  usea  to  denote  an  ordinance, 
decree,  or  law.  But  in  modem  practice,  it  is  commonly 
applied  to  the  sessions  or  sittings  of  the  judges  of  the  su- 
perior law-courts,  held  periodically  in  each  county,  for  ad- 
ministering civil  and  criminal  justice.  These  courts  came 
into  use  instead  of  ancient  justices  in  eyre,  jvsUda  rei  in 
itinere.  They  are  now  appointed  by  Commissions  issued 
twice  a  year  to  the  judges  of  the  high  court  of  justice, 
two  judges  being  generally  assigned  to  each  circuit.  The 
circuits  are,  since  1875,  seven  in  number — ^Northern,  North- 
eastern, Midland,  Southeastern,  Oxford,  Western,  and 
North  and  South  Wales;  and  in  going  them,  the  judges  or 
commissioners  sit  by  virtue  of  four  several  authorities:  1. 
The  commission  of  the  peace;  2.  A  commission  of  oyer  and 
terminer;  3.  A  commission  of  general  jaU  delivery.  The 
other  authority  is,  4.  That  of  nid  prins,  which  is  a  conse- 
quence of  the  ancient  commission  of  A.  being  annexed  to 
the  office  of  justices  of  A.  by  the  statute  of  Westminster 
the  second.  The  circuit  system  does  not  extend  to  Lon- 
don and  Middlesex,  which  have  instead  courts  of  nisi 
privSy  which  are  held  before  the  chief  or  other  judge  of 
the  superior  courts  for  the  trial  of  civil  caus^ja,  at  what 
are  called  the  London  and  Westminster  sittings:  these  dis- 
tricts have  also  the  central  criminal  court,  with  its  en- 
larged jurisdiction. 

The  circuit  courts  of  Justiciary  in  Scotland,  of  which 
there  are  three — the  north,  the  west,  and  the  south — 
resemble  the  assizes  in  England;  but  in  civil  causes  their 
authority  is  very  limited. 

In  the  sense  of  an  ordinance  or  law,  the  term  A.  has 
various  applications,  although  chiefly  in  the  more  ancient 
systems  oi  jurisprudence.  Thus,  the  *  Assizes '  of  Jeru- 
salem were,  according  to  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  (vol,  xi. 
p.  93),  a  code  of  feudal  laws  for  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem, 
formed  1099  by  an  assembly  of  the  Latin  barons  and  of  the 
clergy  and  laity  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  There  were 
also  the  '  Assizes '  or  ordinances  regulating  the  price  of 
bread,  ale,  fuel,  and  other  common  necessaries  of  life,  all 
of  which  ordinances  have  been  abolished.  See  Courts: 
Judge:  Judiciaky:  Jury  Trial:  Fairs. 

ASSOCIATE,  v.  (iisd'shl-dt  [L.  oMocUtus,  associated, 
united— from  L.  ad,  to;  socio,  I  join;  soclus,  a  companion: 
F.  assoeier]'  to  make  one  person  a  companion  to  another; 
to  join  in  company  as  a  friend  or  companion:  N.  a  com- 
panion; a  partner.  Asso'ciA'Tma,  imp.  Asso'cia'ted,  pp. 
Association,  n  as-so'shl  a' shun  [F. — L.l :  the  union  of 
persons  in  a  company,  usually  for  mutual  benefit;  a  society; 
connection,  applied  to  ideas.  Asso'ciA'TryB,  a.  -tlv,  having 
the  quality  of  association.    Afleo'ciA'TOB,  n.  one  who. 


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ASSOCIATED  PRESS— ASSOCIATION. 

Asso'ciABLB,  a.  -d-blf  companionable.  Abso'ciabl£NE86, 
n.,  or  Asso'ciABiLiTY,  n.  -Inl'l-tl,  the  quality  of  bein^ 
companionable.  Asso'ciateshif,  n.  the  state  or  office  of 
an  associate.  Abso'cia'tional,  a.  -sIit-d'shuTiralf  pertaining 
to.  Association  of  ideas,  the  process  by  which  one  idea 
when  excited  presents  to  the  mind  contiguous  or  similar 
ideas. — Syn.  of  *  associate,  n.*:  companion  ;  comrade  ;  col- 
league; mate;  jmrtner;  fellow;  friend ;  ally;  coadjutor;— of 
'association':  partnership;  alliance;  combination;  society; 
company. 

ASSOCIATED  PRESS:  close  corporation  organized 
for  collection  and  distribution  of  news  for  use  of  the 
journals  who  acquire  membership  in  it  (sjiid  to  be 
worth  $250,000),  formed  in  New  York  1849.  It  includes 
the  New  York  Herald,  Tribune,  limes.  World,  Journal, 
Evening  Post,  Commercial  Advertiser  (evening  ediliou), 
Journal  of  Commerce,  autl  Mail  and  Express.  The  Asso- 
ciated Press  has  agents  in  every  principal  part  of  the 
world,  who  send  local  news  to  its  nearest  headquarters, 
whence  it  is  forwarded  to  the  main  office  in  New  York. 
Thence  it  is  distributed  to  the  local  members  by  pneumatic 
tube  (being  manifolded),  and  to  the  coimtry  press  by  tele- 
graph. TTae  jyapers  of  the  country  press,  and  newspapers 
not  members,  are  given  the  facilities  of  the  Associated 
Press  by  purchasing  the  news,  at  a  regular  rate  per  week, 
and  at  a  price  agreed  upon,  which  is  fixed  in  accordance 
with  the  amount  of  news  taken.  No  member  of  the  Asso- 
ciated Press  can  sell  out,  nor  can  any  new  member  be  ad- 
mitted without  the  consent  of  all  the  rest. 

Europe,  Asia,  and  the  Colonies  are  supplied  with  news 
by  Renter's  Telegram  Company,  founded  in  Europe  by 
Baron  Jules  Renter  about  the  same  time  as  the  Associated 
Press.  There  is  also  in  London  the  Central  News  Agency, 
a  rival  of  Renter's,  though  confining  itself  more  partic- 
ularly to  the  collection  and  distribution  of  British  news. 
The  New  York  City  Press  Association  is  attached  to  the 
Associated  Press,  and  collects  local  news  (covering  New 
York,  Louff  Island, Westchester  County  and  Staten  island), 
which  is  distributed  locally  by  its  own  messengers,  and 
elsewhere  by  the  Associatea  Press  through  the  telegraph. 

ASSOCIATE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  in  the  United 
States:  see  United  Presbyterian  Church  op  North 
America:  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States. 

ASSOCIATE  REFORMED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH: 
see  United  Presbyterian  Church  op  North  America. 

ASSOCIATE  SYNOD— ASSOCIATE  PRESBYTERY, 
etc. :  designations  adopted  among  the  dissenters  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  See  Scotland,  Church  op:  United 
Presbyterian  Church.  In  the  United  States  also  there 
we  an  Associate  Synod  and  an  Associate  Reformed  Church, 
offspring  of  the  Scottish  Secession. 

ASSOCIA'TION:  see  Co-operation:  League:  Company: 
Societies. 


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ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS:  the  process  by  which  an 
idea  calls  up,  or  is  called  up  by,  other  ideas.  This  is  an 
important  departmeiit  In  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human 
Mind,  as  it  relates  to  a  pervading  fact  at  the  foundation  of 
our  intelligence.  An  exposition  of  this  subject  supplies 
an  exposition  of  a  number  of  the  complex  phenomena  of 
mind  more  satisfactory'  than  if  those  phenomena  were 
treated  separately.  Yniat  is  meant  by  A.  is  familiarly 
illustrated  by  such  occurrences  as  the  following:  When  we 
see  the  sky  becoming  overcast,  we  think  of  rain  as  about 
to  follow,  the  notion  of  rain  not  having  previously  been 
present  to  our  mind.  When  we  hear  the  church-bells,  we 
are  apt  to  think  of  the  throngs  in  the  street,  or  of  some  of 
the  other  circiunstances  of  public  worship.  When  we 
pass  a  house,  we  are  reminded  of  its  occupant;  and  meeting 
a  person  we  know,  we  may  be  carried  m  thought  to  his 
office,  and  from  that  to  other  persons  holding  the  same 
office,  and  so  on.  If  an  object  is  before  a  person's  eyes, 
as  a  mountain,  he  is  said  to  receive  an  impression  or  sensa- 
tion of  it,  in  consequence  of  the  actual  presence  of  the 
thing;  but  it  is  possible  for  him  to  remember  the  mountain, 
or  to  have  an  idea  of  it,  when  far  away  from  the  reality, 
in  which  case  there  must  be  some  power  in  the  mind  itself, 
different  from  the  susceptibility  to  objects  present,  a  power 
of  retaining,  reviving,  or  resuscitating  those  states  at  first 
induced  by  contact  with  the  actual.  Besides  the  sights, 
and  sounds,  and  touches  caused  by  contact  with  real 
things,  we  are  greatly  occupied  with  sights,  sounds,  and 
touches  remembered,  anticipated,  or  imagined,  which  is  to 
live  in  a  world  of  ideas;  and  it  is  in  this  world  that  the 

Erocess  termed  Association  has  its  sphere.  When  an  idea 
;  brought  before  the  mind  without  its  original,  as  when 
one  pictures  to  his  mind  the  late  Duke  of  Wellington,  the 
circumstance  is  owing  to  the  mention  of  his  name,  or  of 
some  incident  connected  with  him;  and  the  remembrance 
of  his  personal  appearance,  as  he  may  have  been  seen  when 
alive,  IS  said  to  be  the  result  of  an  association  existing  in 
my  mind  between  two  ideas,  so  that  the  one  is  able  to 
recall  or  restore  the  other.  The  association  between  names 
and  things  comprehends  one  of  the  most  extensive  applica- 
tions of  the  power  in  question. 

The  circumstances  under  which  one  idea  brings  forward 
another  into  the  view  are  principally  these  two^viz.,  first, 
previous  proximity;  and  second,  likeness.  The  terms 
*  Contiguity '  and  '  Similarity '  are  used  in  Mental  Philos- 
ophy to  express  them.  The  first  is  exemplified  in  the 
examples  of  association  given  above;  for  in  most  of  those 
it  will  be  found  that  the  conjoined  notions  have  been 
f  re<^uently  in  the  view  at  the  same  time,  in  consequence  of 
which  they  have,  as  it  were,  grown  together,  or  become 
part  of  the  same  whole.  Thus,  we  have  often  noticed  the 
darkened  sky  followed  by  a  shower;  the  two  facts  have 
occupied  the  attention  simultaneously,  and  in  virtue  of 
some  power  belonging  to  our  mental  framework,  they 
have  cohered  into  an  inseparable  couple  or  aggregate  in 
the  mind.    This  is  proximity,  or  contiguity.     When  one 


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ASSOCIATION  OP  IDEAS. 

idea  suggests  another  which  was  never  in  company  with  it 
before,  it  is  generally  through  the  force  of  some  likeness 
between  the  two.  I  meet  an  old  man  in  the  street  with  a 
very  peculiar  face,  which  reminds  me  of  the  bust  of 
Socrates.  These  two  things  had  never  accompanied  one 
another  in  my  mind  before,  and  therefore  it  could  not  be 
the  force  of  proximity  that  made  the  second  to  arise  at  the 
instigation  of  the  first;  but  there  was  a  certain  amount  of 
likeness  or  similarity  between  the  old  man's  features  and 
the  features  of  Socrates,  as  represented  in  the  bust;  and  it 
is  a  fact  of  man's  mental  constitution,  no  less  certain  and 
no  less  important  than  the  foregoing,  that  in  cases  where 
something  now  before  the  mmd  has  a  strong  cast  of 
resemblance  to  something  foimerly  observed  or  conceived, 
but  not  at  present  thought  of  in  any  way,  the  present  is 
apt  to  recall  that  past  idea,  whatever  it  may  be.  By  the 
force  of  likeness,  the  traveller  in  new  countries  is  constantly 
reminded  of  the  scenes  and  objects  familiar  to  him,  and 
so  is  induced  to  draw  comparisons  between  the  one  and 
the  other.  Identification  and  comparison  both  imply  that 
things  are  brought  together  by  virtue  of  their  similarity, 
they  not  having  been  in  company  before.  The  principle 
of  proximity  operates  most  in  Memory,  Habit,  and  Routine; 
similarity  has  to  do  with  invention  and  originality,  and  is 
essential  to  the  processes  of  Keason  and  Imagination. 

Law  cf  Contiguity. — The  principle  of  association  by 
proximity  is  not  confined  to  ideas.  We  must  state  it  in  a 
more  comprehensive  form,  in  order  to  comprise  the  full 
sphere  of  its  application;  for  our  mechanical  habits  are 
formed  through  the  very  same  power  of  our  constitution 
that  enables  us  to  recall  or  remember  ideas.  The  taught 
movements  of  a  soldier  or  of  a  skilled  workman  are  con- 
nected together  so  firmly  that  one  succeeds  to  another 
almost  of  its  own  accord.  Everything  of  the  nature  of 
aoquisition  supposes  a  plastic  property  in  the  human 
system,  ^ving  permanent  coherence  to  acts  that'  have 
been  performed  together. 

The  following  is  a  general  statement  of  the  law  under 
consideration: 

Actions^  Sensations,  States  of  Feeling,  and  Ideas,  occurring 
together,  or  in  close  succession,  tend  to  grow  togetJier,  or  cohere 
in  such  a  way  that  when  any  one  of  them  is  aftertoards  j/re- 
tented  to  t/ie  mind,  the  others  are  apt  to  arise. 

And  first,  as  to  association  of  Actions,  or  voluntary  move- 
ments. When  we  perform  a  train  of  movements  without 
any  further  aid  of  the  will  than  to  commence  the  series, 
there  must  be  a  fixed  connection  between  ei«.ch  and  the  one 
that  follows,  and  this  connection  may  be  either  instinctive 
or  acquired.  There  are  various  cases  of  instinctive  trains, 
such  as  the  action  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  intestines,  and 
the  movements  of  deglutition.  When  a  morsel  of  food 
reaches  the  back  part  of  the  mouth,  the  muscles  of  the 
throat  seize  hold  of  it.  and  transmit  it  to  the  stomach,  inde- 
pendent of  our  will.  The  connected  movements  in  this 
case  are  provided  for  in  the  original  structure  of  the 
nervous  and  muscular  system.    In  walking  there  is  partly 


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ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS. 

an  instinctive  tendency  to  alternate  the  limbs,  and  partly  a 
confinning  acquisition,  tlie  result  of  practice.  But  m  tboae 
complicated  operations  that  human  beings  are  taught  to  exe- 
cute in  the  various  avocations  of  life,  the  associating  prin- 
ciple is  everything.  The  apparently  simple  and  easy  act  of 
taking  food  is  a  complicated  act^uisition;  in  other  words, 
an  extensive  group  of  associated  movements.  'I  he  seizing 
of  the  morsel  is  followed  by  the  movement  of  the  arm  that 
carries  it  to  the  mouth;  the  mouth  is  opened  simultane- 
ously; after  which  follow  the  processes  of  bitinj^  and  chew- 
ing; all  which  take  place  with  the  certainty  ot  a  machine, 
and  without  effort  or  attention  directed  to  them.  These  as- 
sociations were  originally  built  up  by  slow  degrees.  'Ab  a 
general  rule,  it  takes  many  repetitions  to  cement  so  firm  a 
union  between  successive  and  simultaneous  movements  as 
is  implied  in  the  above  instance.' 

A  good  example  of  the  association  of  movements  is  fur- 
nish^ in  our  acquirement  of  spoken  language,  as  in  com- 
mitting to  memory  words,  sa3rin^,  and  passages  of  books. 
Wlien  a  child  has  perfectly  acquired  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the 
chain  of  association  is  so  firmly  knit,  that  the  articulation 
of  the  words  '  Our  Father'  is  followed  almost  irresistibly 
with  those  next  succeeding,  and  so  on  to  the  end.  Thic 
cohesion  in  this  case  is  between  the  vocal  movements  corre- 
sponding to  the  enunciation  of  the  words.  Having  gone 
many  times  through  this  one  definite  succession,  the  stream 
of  nervous  power,  in  some  way  that  we  cannot  at  preeent 
explain,  acquires  a  tendency  to  fall  into  this  one  definite 
track,  and  in  future  to  bring  on  the  movements  in  the  exact 
order  that  they  have  so  frequently  followed. 

It  is  not  merely  actual  movements  that  can  be  Joined  to- 
gether in  this  way,  but  the  ideas  of  movement;  for  a  man, 
meditating  in  language,  and  not  speaking  out  his  thoughts, 
can  consolidate  his  trains  so  as  to  remember  them  after- 
wards. 

When  we  proceed  to  Sensations  and  the  Ideas,  or  subse- 
quent traces,  of  Sensations,  and  take  toj^ther  with  these 
Ae  variety  of  our  movements  with  their  ideas,  we  find  un- 
limited scope  for  the  associating  principle;  and  the  conse- 
quences of  its  operation  spread  far  and  wide  in  the  domains 
of  our  happiness,  our  knowledge,  and  our  active  capacity. 
It  is  possible  here  only  to  present  a  few  illustrative  ex- 
amples. 

In  the  various  mechanical  acquirements,  which  include 
the  whole  of  special  handicraft  industry  and  skill,  as  well 
as  the  use  of  the  bodily  members  in  the  more  general 
actions  of  diiily  life,  there  may  be  traced  the  linkings  of 
actions  with  actions,  or  actions  with  sensations  an4  ideas. 
The  helmsman  steering  a  ship  associates  in  his  mind  each 
deviation  of  the  needle  from  the  proper  point  with  the 
specific  muscular  exertion  to  be  applied  to  the  wheel  to 
rectify  the  ship's  direction  The  workman  fabricating  in 
wood,  metal,  or  stone,  acquires  a  firm  connection  between 
each  aspect  of  the  material  and  the  muscular  power  to  be 
applied  to  bring  it  one  step  nearer  the  desired  form.  The 
power  cf  copying  anything  that  we  see,  as  in  writing,  draw- 


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ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS. 

Jiig,  raoldmg,  etc.,  when  completely  mastered,  is  made  up 
of  associations  between  a  visible  appearance  and  the  train 
of  movements  calculated  to  reproduce  it.  After  practice, 
all  this  is  done,  as  it  is  callea,  mechanically,  or  without 
those  operations  of  considering,  willing,  and  remembering 
directions,  that  are  essential  to  the  learner  in  a  new  art. 
The  associations  that  grow  up  after  a  certain  amouDt  of 
practice  are  in  this  case  associations  between  movements 
and  appearances  to  the  eye,  or  sensations  of  sight.  In  the 
greater  nUmber  of  crafts,  the  eye  is  the  guiding  sense  to  the 
operator,  but  not  in  all.  Sometimes  the  effect  is  vocal,  as 
in  performin|^  music,  and  in  making  and  tuning  musical 
instruments,  m  speaking,  etc.  In  other  arts,  the  touch  is 
the  ^ding  sense,  and  in  some,  as  in  cookery,  the  taste  and 
smell  direct  the  operator.  Each  accomplished  workman 
has  in  his  mind  many  hundreds,  not  to  say  thousands,  of 
couples  or  aggre^tes  of  definite  movements  with  other 
movements  and  with  sensations,  contracted  in  the  course  of 
his  apprenticeship  to  his  calling. 

Of  the  circumstances  that  favor  and  promote  this  exten- 
sive circle  of  acquisitions,  several  may  be  named  as  im- 
IK>rtant.  In  the  first  place,  a  natural  activity  of  tempera- 
m&nt,  or  an  abundant  now  of  power  to  the  active  members, 
as  shown  in  a  peat  and  various  mobilitv  of  the  frame,  is  a 
good  basis  of  bodily  acquirements.  When  a  force  of  the 
system  runs  feebly  towards  the  muscular  framework,  being 
perhaps  expended  in  other  ways,  as  in  the  thinking  powers, 
more  time  is  requisite  to  attain  difficult  mechanical  arts. 
Another  important  circumstance  is  acuteness  or  delicacy 
of  the  gense  mvolved  in  the  operation.  A  keen  eye,  sensi- 
tive to  minute  degrees  of  effect,  is  wanted  in  all  the 
various  occupations  that  turn  on  visible  appearances ;  f«  good 
ear  is  indispensable  to  music  and  the  arts  of  producing 
sounds,  and  so  on.  With  a  naturally  dull  sensibility  to 
flavor,  no  man  can  eadly  become  a  good  cook,  or  a  taster 
of  tea  or  wine.  The  third  consideration  is  the  natural 
power  of  adhesive  association  belonging  to  the  individual 
character.  Some  minds  have  originally  a  more  powerful 
adhesiveness  than  others,  either  for  things  generally,  or  for 
special  departments.  We  see  this  when  a  number  of  boys 
come  together  at  school,  and  in  apprentices  learning  to- 
ffethcr.  Some  are  always  found  taking  the  start  of  the  rest 
in  rapidity  of  acquirement;  and  although  the  reason  may 
he  found  in  some  of  the  other  circumstances  now  mentiouea, 
yet  observation  shows  that  when  everything  else  is  allowed 
for,  there  remain  natural  differences  in  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  adhesive  bond  is  cemented;  some  acquiring 
without  effort  what  others  take  both  time  and  labor  to  ac- 
complish. The  fourth  principal  circumstance  is  the  inter- 
est taken  in  the  work,  or  the  depee  to  which  it  engages  the 
feelings  of  the  learner.  This  is  a  material  consideration, 
accounting  for  the  acquisitions  made  in  matters  that  we 
have  a  strong  taste  for  without  our  having  a  pre-eminence 
in  those  other  points  that  constitute  natural  capacity. 
These  four  conditions  apply  more  or  less  to  acquisition 
generally. 


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ASSOCIATION  OP  IDEAa 

A  detailed  excmpILScation  of  this  great  principle  of  ooi 
nature  might  be  given  through  all  the  departments  of  the 
human  intellect.  The  acquirements  of  speech,  as  already 
said,  contain  a  wide  range  of  instances.  The  adhesion  of 
language  is  partly  in  the  vocal  organs,  partly  in  the  ear, 
and  partly  in  the  eye,  when  we  come  to  written  and  printed 
characters.  The  associations  of  names  with  things,  with 
actions  (as  in  o))eying  direction  and  command),  and  with 
other  names  (in  acquiring  forei^  languages),  are  a  gradual 
growth  favored  by  such  conditions  as  the  above.  The  ac- 
quirements in  Science,  Fine  Art,  and  Business,  and  in  every- 
ming  that  constitutes  skill  or  knowledge,  proceed  upon  tms 
plastic  property  of  the  mind.  It  also  enlarges  the  sphere  of 
our  pleasures  and  pains.  There  are  connections  established 
in  the  mind  between  our  states  of  feeling  and  the  things  that 
have  often  accompanied  them,  so  that  the  accompaniment 
shall  have  power  to  revive  the  feeling.  It  is  thus  that  we 
contract  affections,  both  benevolent  and  malevolent,  towards 
persons  and  things,  our  friends,  our  home,  our.  country,  our 
property,  our  pursuits. 

This  power  of  stirring  up  dependent  associations  to  an 
extent  that  may  be  almost  called  unlimited  (though  there 
are  limitations),  is  peculiar  to  the  animal  organization. 
Nothing  parallel  to  it  occurs  in  the  mineral  or  vegetable 
world.  It  is  a  property  of  mind  alone,  and  has  its  seat  in 
the  nervous  tissue.  We  know  that  growth  or  change  is 
requisite  to  the  progress  of  the  adhesion;  for  it  proceeds 
most  rapidly  in  youth,  health,  and  nutrition,  and  decays 
in  old  age,  and  during  exhaustion  and  disease.  And  even 
to  keep  our  acquisitions  from  fading  away,  it  is  retiuLsite 
that  they  should  be  occasionally  revived.  A  language  ac- 
quired in  early  years  may  be  utterly  lost  by  disuse.  Sus- 
tained practice  seems  particularly  necessary  in  early  edu- 
cation; children's  acquisitions  are  very  liable  to  disinte- 
grate, if  not  kept  up  and  confirmed  by  new  additions. 

Law  of  SimUariiy. — This  may  be  expressed  as  follows: 
Present  Actions,  Sensations,  Thoughts,  and  Emotions  tend 
to  revive  their  Like  among  previous  impressions. 

If  the  mind  worked  only  by  the  principle  of  contiguity, 
nothing  would  ever  occur  to  us  except  in  some  connection 
already  formed.  But  some  explanation  is  necessary  as  tc 
the  precise  relationship  subsisting  between  the  two  distinct 
forces  of  mental  resuscitation,  in  order  to  show  at  once 
their  distinctness  and  their  connection.  When  the  cohe- 
sive link  between  any  two  contiguous  actions,  sensations,  or 
ideas,  is  confirmed  by  a  new  occurrence  or  repetition,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  present  impression  must  revive  the  sum- 
total  of  the  past  impressions,  or  reinstate  the  whole  mental 
condition  left  on  the  occasion  immediately  preceding. 
Thus,  if  I  am  disciplining  myself  in  the  act  of  drawing  a 
round  figure  with  my  hand,  any  present  effort  must  recall 
the  state  of  the  muscular  and  nervous  action,  or  the  precise 
bent  acquired  at  the  end  of  the  previous  effort,  while  that 
effort  had  to  restore  the  condition  at  the  end  of  the  one 
preceding,  and  so  on.  But  this  reinstatement  of  a  former 
condition  by  a  present  act  of  the  same  kind  is  really  and 


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ASSOCIATION  OP  IDEAS. 

truly  a  case  of  the  principle  before  us,  or  of  like  recalling 
like;  and  without  such  recall,  the  progressive  adhesion  of 
contiguous  things  would  be  impossible.  It  would  appear, 
therefore,  that  similarity  is  tacitly  assumed  in  the  opera- 
tion of  contiguity,  and  is  indispensable  to  the  process  by 
which  our  acquisitions  are  gradually  built  up.  Why,  then 
do  we  set  up  the  associating  force  of  likeness  as  something 
independent  and  distinct?  To  answer  this  question,  we 
must  advert  to  the  fact,  that  in  those  cases  where  the  same 
impression  is  deepened  by  everv  new  repetition,  the  old 
and  the  new  are  not  merely  similar,  they  are  identical^  and 
the  resuscitation  takes  place  without  fail,  and  as  a  matter 
of  course.  But  in  going  deeper  into  the  explanation  of 
the  human  intellect,  we  encounter  many  classes  of  similars, 
where  there  is  not  absolute  identity,  but  the  mixing  up  of 
a  certain  amount  of  cUversiiy  with  the  likeness  actually  ex- 
isting. The  botanist  classing  together  all  the  plants  of  the 
same  order,  as,  for  example,  the  Bosaeea,  has  to  be  struck 
with  the  occurrence  of  certain  common  characters — ^viz., 
the  properties  that  distinguish  the  order — in  the  midst  o( 
great  varieties  in  all  other  respects.  It  is  important  that 
he  recognize  these  general  marks,  whether  the  plants  be 
trees  or  shrubs,  whether  they  be  poisonous  or  wholesome, 
and  under  many  other  diversities.  It  is  exceedingly  im- 
portant in  science,  in  the  business  of  life,  and  even  in  the 
creations  of  fine  art,  that  the  mind  should  take  cogni- 
zance of  likeness  surrounded  by  un likeness;  which  is  the 
case  that  renders  it  necessary  to  characterize  as  distinct 
the  associating  force  now  under  discussion.  In  the  case 
of  perfect  identity  between  a  present  and  a  past  impres- 
sion, the  past  is  recovered,  and  fused  with  the  present, 
instantaneously  and  surely.  So  quick  and  certain  is  the 
process,  that  we  lose  sight  of  it  altogether;  we  are  scarcely 
made  aware  of  the  existence  of  an  associating  link  of  simi- 
larity under  such  circumstances.  But  when  we  pass  from 
complete  to  incomplete  or  partial  identity,  we  are  more 
readily  led  to  perceive  the  existence  of  this  link  of  attrac- 
tion between  similars,  for  we  find  that  the  restoration 
sometimes  does  not  take  place;  cases  occur  where  we  fail 
to  be  struck  with  a  similitude:  the  spark  of  resuscitation 
does  not  pass  between  the  new  impression  and  the  old 
dormant  one.  Then  it  is  that  we  recognize  diflFerences 
between  different  minds;  one  man  tracing  resemblance 
and  makinff  out  identity  better  than  another.  Moreover, 
we  can  assign  reasons  connected  with  the  culture  of  the 
individual,  which  partially  explain  superiority  or  inferi- 
ority in  this  important  faculty;  iust  as  we  have  pointed 
out  the  conditions  favorable  to  the  rapid  growth,  of  the 
adhesive  bond  of  proximity.  The  failure  in  reinstating 
an  old  impression  by  virtue  of  a  present  one  like  it,  is 
ascribable  solely  to  the  want  of  complete  identity.  When 
in  some  new  presentation  of  an  object,  the  old  familiar 
form  is  muffled,  obscured,  distorted,  disguised,  or  in  any 
way  altered,  it  is  merely  a  chance  if  we  recognize  it;  the 
amount  of  likeness  still  remaining  will  have  a  tendency 
to  revive  the  object,  while  the  points  of  difference  or  un 


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ASSOCIATION  OP  IDEAS. 

likeness  will  operate  afi^inst  the  revival,  and  tend  to  restore 
things  of  their  own  kindred.  If  we  hear  a  musical  air 
that  we  are  accustomed  to,  the  new  impression  revives  the 
old  as  a  matter  of  course;  but  if  the  air  is  played  with 
complex  harmonies  and  accompaniments  which  are  strange 
to  us,  it  is  possible  that  the  effect  of  these  additions  may 
be  to  check  our  recognition  of  the  melody;  the  unlike  cir- 
cumstances may  repel  the  reinstatement  of  the  old  expe- 
rience more  strongly  than  the  remaining  likeness  attracts 
it.  If  our  hold  or  the  essential  character  of  the  melody 
Is  feeble,  and  if  we  are  stunned  and  confounded  by  the 
new  accompaniments,  there  is  every  probability  that  we 
shall  not  be  put  upon  the  old  mental  track  maae  by  the 
same  air;  in  other  words,  we  shall  not  identify  the  per- 
formance. 

A  few  examples  may  show  the  workings  of  this  associ- 
ating power,  and  the  consequences  thence  arising.  The 
intellectual  operations  known  under  the  names  Classifica- 
tion, Generalization,  Induction,  and  Deduction,  all  pro- 
ceed upon  the  discovery  of  likeness  amonj^  things  lying 
wide  asunder  in  space  and  time,  and  very  often  veUed  by 
diversity.  Thus,  in  order  to  include  in  one  list  all  the 
species  of  the  rode,  botanists  have  had  to  trace  the  charac- 
ters of  the  genus  through  its  various  members,  wherever 
they  occur,  and  under  the  greatest  differences  in  every 
other  respect.  It  takes  a  keen  identifying  faculty — that 
is,  a  strong  natural  tendency  for  the  resurrection  of  like 
to  meet  like — to  see  the  resemblance  of  some  of  these 
species  to  the  rest;  and  it  has  happened  in  many  depart- 
ments of  knowledge  that  a  class  has  remained  incomplete 
for  a  time,  purely  from  the  disguised  character  of  some  of 
the  individuals.  So  in  the  process  termed  induction,  by 
which  a  general  law  is  arrived  at  by  comparing  instances 
of  it  everywhere,  there  must  be  an  attraction  of  similars, 
in  order  to  bring  together  in  the  mind  the  collection  of 
particulars  that  tne  induction  is  based  upon.  Thus,  New- 
ton assembled  in  his  view  the  various  transparent  bodies 
that  he  had  found  in  the  course  of  his  experiments  to 
refract  or  bend  light  strongly,  his  only  intellectual  instru- 
ment for  doing  so  being  the  bond  of  likeness  operating  as 
a  power  of  recall.  Having  looked  at  them  in  company, 
he  saw  that  some  were  remarkable  for  their  weight  or 
specific  gravity,  and  others  for  containing  inflammable 
ingredients;  upon  which  he  raised  the  general  induction, 
connecting  these  two  properties  with  high  refrangibility. 
Then,  deducUvely,  he  applied  this  generalization  to  the 
diamond,  which  refracts  light  more  than  anv  other  known 
substance;  and  as  it  is  not  a  heavy  material,  he  extended 
the  other  inference  to  it — namely,  that  it  was  made  up  of 
some  inflammable  material,  an  inference  afterwards  con- 
firmed by  the  discovery  that  it  Is  crystallized  carbon. 
Many  of  the  ^eatest  discoveries  in  science  have  turned 
on  the  identification  of  modes  of  action  never  before 
supposed  the  same,  as  when  Franklin  was  struck  with 
the  resemblance  between  the  atmospheric  thunder  and 
lightning  and  the  phenomena  of  conunon  electricity. 


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PLATE    19.  *"^ 


I 


s 

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§ 


VolZ 

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ASSOCIATION  OP  IDEAS. 

Another  wide  field  for  the  operation  of  the  same  princi- 
ple is  the  region  of  illustrative  comparisons,  whereby  two 
things  widely  remote  are  brought  together,  in  the  view 
either  to  elucidate  one  another,  or  for  the  sake  of  ornament 
and  poetic  effect.  Most  men  of  genius  in  literature  and  poet- 
ry have  contributed  original  illustrations,  similes,  meta- 
Ehors,  or  comparisons  in  the  course  of  their  compositions, 
hakespeare  carries  the  palm  in  this  faculty.  The  writings 
of  Bacon  are  remarkably  rich  in  those  that  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  exposition.  Science  is  with  him  the  '  interpreta- 
tion '  of  nature:  final  causes  are  *  vestal  virgins';  they  have 
no  fruit:  fallacies  are  'idols.'  Edmund  Burke,  another 
master  of  illustrative  comparison,  has  termed  revolutions 
the  '  medicine '  of  the  state,  and  regular  government  its 
'food.' 

An  inquiry  into  the  circumstances  that  render  one  mind 
more  prolific  in  new  identifications  and  comparisons  than 
another,  apart  from  difference  of  original  capacity,  must 
refer  mainly  to  the  fact  that  the  one  has  had  the  greater 
previous  familiarity  with  the  class  of  things  thus  brought 
up  by  the  attraction  of  similarity.  A  mathematician  is 
the  most  likely  person  to  bring  up  comparisons  from 
mathematics;  a  botanist  is  prepared  to  identify  plants;  a 
travelled  man  provides  illustrations  from  foreign  countries; 
a  historian,  from  historpr.  The  sailor  is  notoriously  rich  in 
nautical  similes  and  illustrations.  When  any  one  not 
speciallv  versed  in  a  subject  is  yet  prone  to  draw  upon  it 
profusely  in  the  way  of  comparison,  we  must  then  refer  to 
CTeat  natural  endowment  as  the  sole  explanation.  For  a 
full  exemplification  of  both  the  associating  principles  and 
of  the  complications  that  they  give  birth  to,  see  Bain  on 
The  Senses  and  the  Intellect. 

The  earliest  known  attempt  to  lay  down  the  laws  where- 
by thought  succeeds  to  thought,  is  in  Aristotle's  treatise 
on  Memory.  He  enumerates  three  different  principles  of 
mental  resuscitation — viz..  Similarity,  Contrariety  and 
Co-adjacency.  He  has  been  followed  by  most  other  phi- 
losophers as  regards  all  the  three  principles.  It  is  now, 
however,  clearly  seen  and  generally  admitted,  that  con- 
trariety is  not  an  independent  associating  force.  When  a 
thing  suggests  its  opposite  or  contrary,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  two  have  been  previously  together  in  the  min^ 
and  have  therefore  acquired  a  mutual  hold  by  contiguity. 
Such,  for  example,  are  black  and  white,  wet  and  dry,  health 
and  sickness,  prosperity  and  adversity,  etc.  Contraries,  in 
fact,  have  a  natural  inseparability;  they  are  of  the  class  of 
relatives  like  father  and  son,  which  imply  each  other  nec- 
essarily, and  have  no  meaning  except  by  mutual  reference. 
It  requires  no  new  principle  of  our  constitution  to  account 
for  suggestion  in  this  particular  case.  Moreover,  when 
things  are  strongly  contrasted  with  one  another,  as  high 
position  before  a  fall,  the  mind  is  greatly  impressed  with 
the  shock  of  transition,  and  so  retains  a  lively  recollection 
of  the  sequence,  having  by  that  means  a  greater  tendency 
to  pass  from  the  one  to  the  other.    Thus,  then,  the  enu- 


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ASSOILZIE— ASSOUAN. 

meration  of  Aristotle  is  reduced  to  the  two  principles  that 
we  have  now  expounded. 

Hobbes  recognized  the  principle  of  contiguity  as  the 
foundation  of  reminiscence;  but  the  Aristotelian  philoso- 
pher, Vives,  who  wrote  in  the  14th  c.,was  the  first  to 
specify  in  minute  detail  the  various  circumstances  that 
determine  the  adhesive  bond  of  recollection.  Hume's 
enumeration  is  weir  known  to  have  comprised  the  three 
principles  of  resemblance,  conti^tyand  causation,  which 
he  illustrates  as  follows:  '  A  picture  naturally  leads  our 
thoughts  to  the  original,  (^resemblance].  The  mention  of 
one  apartment  in  a  buildmg  naturally  mtroduces  an  inqui- 
TY  or  discourse  concerning  the  others,  [contiguity].  And 
if  we  think  of  a  wound  we  can  scarce  forbear  reflect- 
ing on  the  pain  which  follows  it,  [causation].'  Causation, 
however,  is  merelv  a  case  of  contiguity;  so  also  we  may 
say  of  Order  in  Race,  and  Order  in  Time,  which  have 
been  given  as  distinct  principles. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  generalize  Similarity  into 
Contiguity,  but  without  success.  For  a  full  and  critical 
view  of  the  history  of  these  laws  see  Sir  W.  Hamilton's 
edition  of  Reid. 

ASSOILZIE.  V.  oB-soyle  FOP.  ab^oiUer  or  otwifer— from 
L.  a6,  from;  »olvo,  I  loose]:  in  Scots  law,  to  free  one  accused 
from  a  charge;  to  find  a  criminal  not  guilty;  to  set  at 
liberty.  Assoilzieing,  imp.  ds-^yllng.  Assoilzisd,  pp. 
assoyl'ld,  Assoil,  v.  as-^oyV,  in  OE.,  to  free  from  guilt; 
to  release;  to  absolve.  AEfioiL'iNO,  imp.  Assoiled.  pp. 
ds-^oyld',    AssoiLMENT,  n.  ds-ioi/l'mSnt,  acquittal;  release. 

ASSONANT,  a.  ds'so-ndnt  [F.  assonant — from  L.  a«*- 
stm^ns  or  assonan'iem,  assonant,  resounding— from  L.  ad^ 
to;  sonans,  sounding] :  resembling  in  sound.  Absonancs, 
n.  as'so-ndns  [F.]:  resemblance  of  sounds. 

ASSORT,  V.  assart'  [F.  assortir,  to  match,  to  agree — 
from  L.  adt  sortlri,  to  cast  or  draw  lots — from  sortem,  a  lot: 
It.  sorta,  a  sort,  a  kindj:  to  arrange  or  put  in  lots;  to  ar- 
range mto  sorts  or  classes;  to  agree  or  suit.  Assort'ing, 
imp.  Assorted,  pp. :  Adj.  put  in  lots ;  arranged.  As- 
souTER,  n.  one  who.  Assortment,  n.  the  act  of  separat- 
ing into  lots  or  arranging  into  classes;  a  number  of  things 
of  the  same  kind. 

ASSOUAN,  ds-»wdn\  or  Essuan',  or  Eswan',  ancieni 
Syene:  town  of  Upper  Egypt  on  the  bank  of  the  Nile,  neai 
the  borders  of  Nubia;  110  m.  s.  of  Thebes;  lat.  24'*  5'  80" 
n.,  long.  32'*  54'  e.  There  are  few  remains  of  the  ancient 
city.  Some  granite  columns  present  themselves  among 
the  ruins,  but  do  not  aeem  of  an  early  date;  %nd  part  of  a 
temple  stands  with  a  dilapidated  portico.  Of  the  town- 
wall  that  part  to  the  s.  of  the  ola  town  b  still  standing; 
and  beyond  it  is  the  cemetery  of  A.  where  there  are  numer- 
ous tombs,  mostly  cenotaphs  with  Arabic  inscriptions.  In 
the  neighborhood  are  several  granite  quarries,  some  of 
them  remarkable  for  remains  of  ancient  material  cut  from 
the  rock,  and  partially  hewn,  and  for  antique  inscriptions 
and  tablets,  announcing  the  removal  of  blocks  and  the 


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ASSUAGE— ASSUMPTION. 

reign  of  the  Egyptian  monarch  by  whose  order  they  had 
been  quarried.  The  environs  of  A.  are  sterile  and  sandy; 
but  the  palm  thrives,  and  the  dates,  which  are  excellent, 
form  the  staple  of  the  trade.  Some  traflSc  is  carried  on  in 
senna,  henna,  charcoal,  wicker-baskets  and  slaves. 

The  ancient  name  Syene  is  the  Coptic  word  souan  or 
stian,  sij^nifying  '  opening;*  and  the  modern  one  is  formed 
by  addmg  the  Arabic  tf^,  'the,'  softened  intoe«,  viz.,  AV 
tnian,  *  the  opening.*  A.  and  its  vicinity  are  highly  inter- 
esting to  geologists  and  mineralogists ;  the  kind  of  granite 
called  syenite  receives  its  name  from  the  town. 

ASSUAGE,  V.  d8-8waj'  [OF.  assouager  or  asoager,  to 
relieve,  to  assuage— from  L.  ady  to  ;  sudtis,  sweet] :  to 
soften  ;  to  mitigate  ;  to  allay  ;  to  abate  or  subside.  Ab- 
suag'ing,  imp.  Abstjaged,  pp.  as-swajd'.  Assuagement, 
a.  mitigation.  Absua'ger,  n.  one  who.  Assxjasiye,  a. 
ds-8wa!iAv,  softening ;  alleviating ;  soothing ;  mitigating. — 
Stn.  of 'assuage*:  to  allay;  alleviate;  relieve;  pacify; 
mitigate;  soothe;  calm;  tranquillize;  appease. 

ASSUBJUGATE,  v.  a8-9ub'j<HhgcU  [L.  ad,  and  mbjugaW]: 
in  OE.,  to  subjugate;  to  bring  into  subjection. 

ASSUETUDE,  n.  dsw^-tiid  [L.  assuetudo, custom— from 
£d,  9uisco,  I  become  used]:  custom;  habit 

ASSUME,  V.  oB-mm'  [F,  dsmmer,  to  assume— from  L. 
ttssumerpy  to  take  to  myself— from  ad,  to ;  siimOy  I  take; 
sumptttSy  taken]:  to  take  a  person  or  thing  to  one's-self; 
to  take  upon  one's-self ;  to  appropriate;  to  pretend  to  pos- 
sess; to  take  for  granted  without  proof.  Assum'ing.  imp. : 
Adj.  haughty  ;  arrogant.  Assumed,  pp.  ds-sumd'.  As- 
bum'ingly,  aa.  -It.  Assum'ek,  n.  one  who.  Assumption, 
n.  ag  sum'Mn  [OF. — from  L.  assumptus,  taken  to  one's- 
self]:  the  act  of  taking  to  one's-self;  the  act  of  assuming; 
supposition;  *thc  taking  up  into  heaven,  applied  by  Rom. 
Catholics  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Assumptive,  a.  -tlv,  that 
may  be  assumed.  Assump'ttvely,  ad. -^iWi.  Assumpsit, 
n.  (issump'sit  (L.  he  has  taken  to  himself]:  in  law,  a  volun- 
taiy  promise  to  perform  for,  or  to  pay  to,  another;  an  action 
to  recover  damages  for  non-performance  of  promise. — 
Syn.  of  '  assume ':  to  arrogate;  usurp;  appropriate;  aflfect; 
pretend;  apprehend;  imagine;  suppose;  presume. 

ASSUMPTION:  village  and  river  of  Lower  Canada. 
About  8  m.  below  the  village,  the  river  flows  into  the  St. 
Lawrence,  or  rather  into  the  Ottawa,  nearly  opposite  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  island  of  Montreal. 

ASSUMPTION":  city,  cap.  of  Paraguay:  see  Asuncion. 

ASSUMPTION  OF  THE  VIRGIN  MARY:  a  festival 
of  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches,  celebrated  Aug.  15. 
In  the  6th  c,  the  idea  that  the  soul  and  body  of  the  Virgin 
had  been  carried  up  to  heaven  by  Christ  and  his  angels, 
which  had  originated  in  a  Gnostic  legend  of  the  8d  or  4th 
c,  began  to  gain  credence  in  the  church;  and  in  the  East 
at  the  beginning  of  the  7th  c.  (in  the  West  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  9th  c.)  the  festival  of  the  A.  was  instituted  in 
commemoration  of  the  event.    Until  then,  from  the  4th  c. 


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A8SURANCE-ASSYNT. 

the  same  date  had  been  observed  in  memory  of  her  death. 
Liguori,  in  his  Olmifs  of  Mary,  gives  a  very  minute  account 
of  the  circumstances  of  her  Assumption. 

A8SUR  ANCE:  see  Insurance. 

ASSUKANCE,  Common:  described  by  Blackstone  as 
the  legal  evidence  of  the  translation  of  property,  whereby 
every  man's  estate  is  assured  to  him,  and  all  controversies, 
doubts,  and  difficulties  are  either  prevented  or  removed. 
For  common  assurances  or  conveyances,  see  Deed  and  Con- 
veyance. 

ASSURE,  V.  d-8h6r'  [F.  asturer:  QiF,  (useurer,  to  secure, 
to  prop  up— from  mid.  L,  assecurdr^,  to  give  security  by  a 
pledge— ftx>m  L.  ad,  to;  aecu'ruSy  sure,  certain]:  to  make 
sure  by  a  token  of  ^ood  faith;  to  make  certain;  to  give 
confidence  by  a  promise;  to  insure,  Assur'ing,  imp.  As- 
bured',  pp.  (i  sJuird':  Adj.  certain;  convinced;  boldly  con- 
fident; in  OE.,  affianced.  Assuredly,  ad.  dshcTredli. 
Assuredness,  n.  the  state  of  being  assured.  Assurer, 
ti.  Assurance,  n.  d-sMrdns,  a  declaration  to  dispel  doubt; 
the  utmost  certainty;  impudence;  conviction;  a  contract  to 
make  good  a  loss  oy  death  or  by  fire,  now  restricted  to 
life  contingencies.  —  Syn.  of  *  assure ':  to  assert ;  vouch  ; 
avouch;  declare;  aver;  protest;— of '  assurance*:  impudence^ 
boldness;  audacity;  hardihood;  effrontery;  shamclessness; 
confidence;  hope;  expectation;  trust. 

ASSURGENT,  a.  ds-serj^nt  [L.  assurgen'tem,  naiag  up 
— from  ad,  to;  surgo,  I  rise]:  in  bot.,  rising  upwards  m  a 
curve. 

ASSWAGE,  V.  dtswqf':  old  spelling  of  A^uaoe,  which 
see. 

AS'SYNT:  mountainous,  moorish,  and  very  rugged 
dist.  or  parish,  25  m.  long,  15  broad,  in  s.w.  Sutherlaud- 
shire;  consisting  mostly  of  a  network  of  rotky  heights, 
interspersed  with  a  multitude  (200)  of  dark,  motionless  tarns 
or  pools,  of  various  sizes,  with  some  large  lochs,  the  largest 
Loch  A8S3mt,  6J  m.  long  and  1  broad.  The  district  con- 
sists of  gneiss,  Silurian  rocks,  and  primitive  limestone. 
There  are  a  dozen  mountains  2,000-3,273  ft.  high.  Some  of 
the  mountains  are  covered  with  white  bleached  stones  and 
protruding  rocks  like  patches  of  snow.  The  mountains 
have  frequently  the  form  of  artificial  pillars  and  cairns, 
and  are  the  remains  of  an  enormous  denudation  of  the 
nearly  horizontal  strata  of  the  district.  Suilven  is  in  form 
a  sugar-loaf,  rising  2,399  ft.  above  the  sea,  amid  a  rugged 
table-land  of  lower  gneiss  hills.  To  Ardvreck  Castle,  on 
a  promontory  on  the  east  side  of  Loch  A.,  the  great  Mar- 
quis of  Moutrose  was  brought  prisoner,  1650. 


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ASSYRIA. 

ASSYRIA,  ^ts-^'i-d:  (called  Athura  on  Persian  cunei- 
form inscriptions,  and  Ajssura  on  the  Median):  the  north- 
ernmost of  the  three  great  countries  that  occupied 
the  Mesopotamian  plain;  bounded  on  the  n.  by  the 
Kiphates  Mountains  of  Armenia;  on  the  s.  by  Susiana 
and  Babylonia;  on  the  e.  hy  Media;  and  on  the  w.,  ac- 
cording to  some,  by  the  Tigris,  but  more  correctly  by 
the  water-shed  of  the  Euphrates,  for  many  Assyrian  ruins 
are  found  w.  of  the  Tigris.  It  was  thus  about  280  m.  long 
from  n.  to  s.,  and  rather  more  than  150  broad  from  e.  to 
w.  This  plaiji  is  diversified  by  mountain-chains  on  the  n. 
and  e.,  and  watered  by  the  Tigris  and  its  aflBluents,  be- 
tween two  of  which— the  Zab  rivers — lay  the  finest  part  of 
the  country,  called  Adiabene.  As  it  was  the  boundary- 
land  between  the  Semitic  people  and  Iran,  it  became  the 
scene  of  important  political  events.  Its  extraordinary 
fertility  enabled  it  to  support  a  large  population.  The 
high  degree  of  prosperity  and  civilization  reached  by  its 
inhabitants  in  very  early  times  is  attested  not  only  by  an 
cient  writers,  but  by  the  extensive  ruins  of  mighty  cities, 
by  the  canals  and  contrivances  for  irrigation,  and  by  the 
many  proofs — furnished  by  recent  excavations— of  an  ac- 
quaintance with  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  ruins  of  many 
cities  are  grouped  around  Nineveh;  while  lower  down  the 
Tigris  exhibits  an  almost  unbroken  line  of  ruins  from 
TeKrit  to  Bagdad.  Under  the  Mohammedans,  this  fine 
country  is  now  almost  a  desert. 

Eitiory. — Ancient  authorities  differ  widely  from  each 
other  respecting  the  rise  and  progress,  the  extent  and  the 
duration  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  Ctesias,  a  Greek  of 
Cnidus,  court-i)hysician  to  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  is  quoted 
by  various  ancient  writers;  and  his  information,  though 
utterly  incredible  and  fabulous,  has  been  followed  by  most 
classical  historians,  and  by  the  whole  series  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal writers.  Many  ingenious  but  futile  attempts  have  been 
made  to  reconcile  his  history  with  the  Scripture  narrative. 
Berosus,  a  priest  of  Bel  at  Babylon,  who  wrote  about  B.C. 
268,  and  Herodotus,  differ  widely  from  Ctesias,  but  are 
confirmed  in  many  important  particulars  by  the  Bible,  and 
by  the  continually  increasing  evidence  derived  from  cunei- 
form inscriptions. 

In  the  Bible  narrative,  we  are  told  that  Nineveh  was 
founded  by  Asshur  from  Babylon  (Gen.  x.  11>.  The  lat- 
ter city  therefore  must  have  been  the  capital  of  a  more  an- 
cient empire,  as  Berosus  asserts,  and  recent  discoveries  go 
far  to  prove,  though  Greek  writers  maintain  the  reverse. 
The  next  notice  we  have  of  A.  does  not  occur  till  B.C.  770, 
when  Pul,  king  of  A.  invaded  Palestine,  but  was  bought 
off  by  Menahem,  king  of  Israel.  Ti^lath-pileser,  who  suc- 
ceeded Pul  (B.C.  788),  conc^uered  Syria,  and  carried  off 
many  of  the  Jews  into  captivity.  Next  Salmanezer  (B.C. 
781)  subdued  Israel,  which,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, had  refused  to  pay  tribute.  The  next  is  Sennachenb 
(B.C.  713),  who  attacked  Egypt,  and  threatened  Judah  un- 
der Hezekiah.  He  was  slain  by  his  two  sons,  and  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Esarhaddon.  who  was  also  master  o( 


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ASSYRIA. 

Babylon  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11),  which,  under  Nabonassar, 
had  been  independent  of  !Nineveh  since  b.c.  747.  Very 
little  credit  is  to  be  attached  to  the  expedition  of  Holofcr- 
nes  recorded  in  the  book  of  Judith. 

After  this,  the  empire  appears  to  have  eradually  decayed, 
until  at  last,  in  the  reign  of  Sardanapams  II.,  or  Saracus, 
a  league  was  formed  for  its  destruction  between  Nabo- 
polassar,  governor  of  Babylon,  and  Oyaxares,  king  of  Me- 
dia, which  was  strengthened  by  the  marriage  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, son  of  the  former,  to  Nitocris,  daughter  of  the  lat- 
ter. The  war  and  siege  are  said  to  have  been  interrupted 
by  an  invasion  of  the  Scythians,  which  drew  off  C^yaxares; 
but  at  length  Nineveh  was  taken  and  destroyed  about  b.c. 
606,  or,  according  to  Rawlinson,  625.  In  the  time  of 
Darius  Hystaspes,  A.  rebelled  without  success  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Media.  In  the  time  of  Herodotus,  the  capital 
had  ceased  to  exist;  and  when  Xenophon  passed  it,  the 
very  name  was  forgot,  though  he  testifies  to  the  extent  of 
the  deserted  city,  and  asserts  the  height  of  the  ruined  walls 
to  be  150  ft.  An  inconsiderable  town  seems  to  have  ex- 
isted on  it»  ruins  in  the  reign  of  Claudius;  and  the  last  no- 
tice we  have  of  Nineveh  in  the  classics  is  in  Tacitus. 

According  to  the  Greek  legends,  the  Assyrian  empire 
was  founded  by  Ninus.  To  this  monarch  and  his  consort 
Semiramis  are  ascribed  ex]>editions  on  an  incredibly  mag- 
nificent scale  against  Bactria,  Ethiopia,  and  India.  We 
are  told  that  Semiramis  led  an  army  of  8,000,000  infantry, 
500,000  cavalry,  and  100,000  chariots,  and  a  fleet  of  2,000 
ships,  and  was  encountered  by  forces  more  numerous  still, 
and  defeated;  that  she  returned  to-  Nineveh,  where  she 
soon  afterwards  died,  and  was  reckoned  among  the  gods, 
and  was  succeeded  by  her  son  Ninyas,  an  effenunate 
prince.  The  succeeding  part  of  the  history  as  related  by 
Ctesias  is  equally  false,  though  that  writer  managed  to 
make  the  ancient  world  give  credit  to  his  narrative  in  pref- 
erence to  that  of  Herodotus.  He  gives  a  list  of  monarchs 
from  Ninus  to  Sardanapalus,  which  is  now  considered  a 
clumsy  forgery.  According  to  him,  for  thirty  venerations 
after  Ninyas,  the  kings  led  a  life  of  luxury  ana  indolence 
in  their  palace;  the  last  of  them,  Sardanapalus,  made  a 
vigorous  defense  against  Arbaces,  the  rebel  governor  of 
Media,  but  finding  it  impossible  to  defend  Nineveh,  he  set 
fire  to  his  palace,  and  burnt  himself  with  all  his  treasures; 
this  event  took  place  1,306  years  after  Ninus.  Now,  the 
above  account  represents  Nineveh  to  have  perished  nearly 
three  centuries  before  the  real  date,  which  was  about  b.c. 
605;  also  it  is  utterly  incompatible  with  Scripture.  Herod- 
otus assigns  to  the  empire  a  duration  of  520  years,  and 
Berosus  of  526.  In  order  to  reconcile  these  conflicting 
accounts,  historians  have  supposed  that  Nineveh  was  twice 
destroyed,  but  this  supposition  is  now  generallv  rejected. 
However,  that  Nineveh  was  actually  destroyed  by  fire  is 
proved  from  the  condition  of  the  slabs  and  statues  found 
in  its  ruins,  which  show  the  action  of  intense  heat. 

A.  became  a  Median  province  B.C.  605,  and  afterwardt 
In  conjuiKtion  with  Babylonia,  formed  one  of  the  satrv 


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.    ASSYRIA. 

pies  of  the  Persian  empire.  In  b.  c.  881  A.  at  Gaugemela, 
near  Arbela,  in  A.,  Alexander  defeated  Darius  Codoman- 
nus.  In  B.C.  812,  A.  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Selei^cidte,  whose  cap.  was  Seleucia,  on  the  Tigris.  It  was 
afterwards  subject  to  the  Parthian  kings,  whose  cap.  was 
Ctesiphon,  and  was  more  than  once  temporarily  in  posses- 
sion of  the  Romans.  When  the  Persian  monarchy  of  the 
Sassanides  was  destroyed  by  the  successors  of  Mohammed, 
A.  was  subject  to  the  caliphs.  Their  seat  was  Bagdad 
from  A.D.  762-1258.  It  has  been  under  the  Turks  from 
1638,  at  which  period  it  was  wrested  from  the  Persians. 

Some  historical  points  now  to  be  mentioned  have  been 
satisfactorily  ascertained  from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions. 
For  these  we  are  indebted  to  Rawlinson's  Eerodottu. 

It  has  not  been  ascertained  when  A.  first  became  in- 
dependent of  Babylon  (q.  v. ).  The  seat  of  government  was 
first  at  Asshur  (now  Kileh-Shergat),  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tigris,  60  m.  s.  of  the  later  capital,  Nineveh.  At  this 
place  have  been  found  the  bricks  and  fragments  of  vases 
bearing  the  names  of  the  earliest  known  Assvrian  kings, 
for  Ninus  and  Semiramis  are  to  be  considered,  mere  inven- 
tions of  Greek  writers.  The  earliest  known  king  is  Bel-lush, 
one  of  a  series  of  four.  These  reigns  probably  occupy 
from  B.C.  1278  to  1200.  Of  the  next  series  of  six,  the 
names  of  five  are  recorded  on  the  famous  Kileh-Shergat 
cylinder,  the  earliest  purely  historical  document  as  yet 
diiscovered  in  Mesopotamia. 

Tiglethi-nin,  the  last  of  the  Klleh  -Shergat  series,  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Asshur-dani-pal,  the  warlike  Sardan- 
apalus  I.  of  the  Greeks.  He  made  Calah,  the  modern 
Jvimrttd,  his  capital,  40  m.  further  n.  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Tigris.  His  annals  are  very  complete.  Among  other 
conquests,  he  mentions  that  he  had  taken  tribute  from 
Tvre,  Sidon,  and  other  Phoenician  cities.  He  was  founder 
CI  the  n.w.  palace  at  Nimrud,  which,  next  to  that  of  Sen- 
nacherib at  Eoyunjik,  is  the  largest  and  most  magnificent 
of  all  the  Assyrian  edifices.  The  greater  portion  of 
the  sculptures  now  in  the  British  Museum  are  from  this 
building. 

Sardanapalus  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shalmanubar, 
whose  deeds  are  briefly  recorded  on  the  black  obelisk  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  the  full  account  being  apparently 
reserved  for  the  colossal  bulls,  which  seem  to  have  been 
the  usual  dedication  after  a  victory.  Of  his  campaigns,  the 
most  interesting  to  us  are  those  in  which  he  defeated  Ben- 
hadad  of  I>amascu8,and  Ben-hadad's  murderer  and  succes- 
sor Hazael.  According  to  his  own  account,  Shalmanubar 
defeated  Hazael,  killing  16,000  of  his  fighting-men,  and  cap- 
turing more  than  1,000  -chariots  (b.c.  884.).  The  obelisk 
also  records  the  tribute  paid  bv  Tahua,  son  of  Kliumri, 
i.e.,  Jehu,  son  of  Omri,  king  or  Israel.  Now  Jehu  was 
son  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  had  done  his  utmost  to  extirpate 
the  family  of  Omri:  but  probably  Jehu,  like  other  usurp- 
ers, was  anxious  to  identify  himself  with  the  family  which 
he  had  dispossessed,  and  of  course  the  Assyrians  accepte(i^ 
tb«  title  he  gave  himself. 


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ASSYRIA. 

Iva-ltLsh,  probably  the  Pul  of  the  Scriptures,  is  recorded 
on.  a  poYement-slab  from  Nimnid  to  have  received  tribute 
from  Samaria,  Tyre,  Damascus,  Idumsea,  and  Palestine, 
which  assertion  agrees  with  the  account  given  (2  Kings, 
XV.)  of  the  1,000  talents  paid  by  Menahem.  With  this'  kmg 
ends  the  first  dynasty,  in  which  we  have  18  monarchs 
from  Bel-lush  to  Iva-lush  (b.  c.  1273-747). 

The  later  Assyrian  empire  begins  with  Tiglath-pileser  II. 
(B.C.  747),  and  ends  with  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  (b.c. 
625).  It  is  plain  from  Scripture  that  the  empire  was  in  a 
flourishing  condition  during  the  reigns  of  those  kings  who 
came  in  contact  with  the  Hebrews,  and  this  account  ex- 
actly accords  with  the  monuments,  but  contradicts 
Herodotus.  Probably,  on  the  accession  of  Tiglath-pileser 
II.,  Babylon  had  revolted,  and  this  partial  rebellion  had 
reached  Herodotus  in  an  exaggerated  form.  The  annals  of 
this  prince  exist  in  only  a  very  fragmentary  state.  The 
name  of  his  successor,  Shalmaneser,  nasnotyet  been  found 
on  the  monuments,  The  capture  of  Samaria  is  usually 
ascribed  to  this  prince,  but  his  successor,  Sargon,  expressly 
asserts  that  Samaria  was  taken  by  himself  in  his  first  year. 
Sargon 's  palace  at  Khorsabad,  near  Nineveh,  fumishea  the 
valuable  series  of  monuments  now  in  the  Louvre.  Sargon 
was  succeed  ed  by  his  son,  Sennacherib.  He  fixed  the  seat  of 
government  at  Nineveh,  and  employed  the  forced  labor  of 
§60,000  men  to  repair  the  great  palace.  Later  in  his  reign 
he  built  a  new  and  more  magnificent  edifice,  which  he  dec- 
orated with  sculptures  representing  his  various  exploits. 
This  is  the  palace  excavated  by  Layard.  It  <X)ntained  at 
least  three  spacious  halls — one  of  them  150  ft.  by  125,  and 
two  long  galleries,  one  of  200,  the  other  of  185  it.,  besides 
innumerable  chambers.  The  excavated  portion  covers 
above  eight  acres.  The  annals  of  Sennacherib  extend 
only  to  ma  eighth  year.  He  relates  at  length  his  success- 
ful attack  upon  Babylon,  his  invasion  of  Judaea,  the  sub- 
mission of  Hezekiah,  and  his  deportation  of  200,000  Jews. 
This  expedition  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  second 
invasion,  in  which  he  failed  ignominiously,  and  which  is 
not  recorded  on  his  monuments.  His  assassination  very 
shortly  after  his  return  from  Nineveh,  after  his  second  ex- 
pedition, readily  accounts  for  this  silence. 

Esarhaddon,  his  son  and  successor,  held  his  court  some* 
times  at  Nineveh,  ^sometimes  at  Babylon.  Bricks  bearing 
his  name  have  been  discovered  at  BUlah,  and  a  tablet  at 
Babylbn  dated  in  his  reign.  This  explains  how  Manasseh 
was  biought  to  him  at  Babylon,  when  he  was  led  captive 
from  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.^  No  record  has  yet  been 
discovered  of  this  expedition  agamst  Palestine.  His  edifices 
are  not  inferior  to  those  of  his  predecessors.  He  employed 
Greek  and  Phoenician  artists,  and  to  them  probably  are 
due  the  beautiful  bas-reliefs  that  adorn  the  eaifices  of  his 
erection.  The  decline  of  the  empire  probably  commenced 
with  Asshur-bani-pal  II.  The  arts  of  peace  flourished, 
while  the  military  vigor  of  the  nation  declined.  The 
sculptures  of  this  reign  are  decidedly  superior  to  the  ear- 
lier in  spirit,  delicacy,  and  f reedow  from  conventionality. 


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PLATE    20. 


AMyria 
A^nrolate 


Assyria.— The  God  Nergal.    (Bdtish  Museum.) 


1,  Hyoid  plate  of  Asterolepls,  l-9th  natural  size;  2,  Internal  ridge  of 
hyoid  plate,  1  4th  natural  size. 


Sir  Francis  Drake's  Astrolabe.— Royal  naval  collection. 


Vol.  2. 

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ASSYRIA. 

The  slabs  show  that  hnnting,  not  war,  was  this  king's  fa- 
vorite pursuit.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Asshur-emit- 
ili,  the  last  king  of  whom  any  records  have  yet  been  discov- 
ered. It  is  uncertain  whether  Nineveh  was  destroyed 
under  him  or  under  a  successor,  the  Saracus  of  Berosus, 
the  effeminate  Sardanapalus  of  the  Greeks.  The  character 
usually  given  of  this  last  king,  as  a  debauchee  throwing  off 
his  indolent  habits,  and  after  performing  prodigies  of  valor, 
perishing  by  a  glorious  death,  rather  thaii  surrender,  is  de- 
rived solely  from  Ctesias.  All  we  distinctly  know  is  that, 
finding  himself  betraj'ed  to  the  Median  king  by  Nabo- 
polassar,  j^vernorof  fiabylon,  he  set  fire  to  his  palace  and 
perished  m  the  flames. 

A  singularly  important  cuneiform  discovery  was  made 
by  Mr.  George  Smith  of  the  British  Museum,  the  substance 
of  which  was  made  public  at  a  meeting  of  the  Biblical 
Archaeological  Soc.,  1872,  Dec.  While  engaged  on  an 
examination  of  the  collection  of  Ass^Tian  tablets  in  the 
British  Museum,  Mr.  Smith  lighted  upon  a  curious  series 
of  legends,  including  a  copy  of  the  story  of  the  Flood. 
On  discovering  these  documents,  which  were  much 
mutilated,  he  searched  over  all  the  collections  of  fragments 
of  inscriptions,  consisting  of  several  thousands  of  smaller 

f)ieces,  and  ultimately  recovered  80  fragments  of  these 
egends.  The  tablets  were  originally  at  least  12  in  number, 
forming  one  story  or  set  of  legends,  the  account  of  the 
Flood  being  on  the  11th  tablet.  Of  the  inscription 
describing  the  Flood,  there  are  fragments  of  three  copies, 
contfdning  duplicate  texts.  These  texts  belong  to  the  time 
of  Asshur-bani-pal  (abt.  b.c.  660),  and  were  found  in  the 
library  of  that  monarch  in  the  palace  at  Nineveh.  Tlie 
original  text,  according  to  the  statements  on  the  tablets, 
belonged  to  the  city  or  Erech,  and  appears  to  have  been 
either  written  in  or  translated  into  the  Semitic  Babylonian 
at  a  very  early  period.  Mr.  Smith  is  of  opinion  that  its 
compcMsition  cannot  be  placed  later  than  b.c.  17th  c,  while 
it  may  be  much  older.  The  Assyrian  story  of  the  Deluge 
is  both  like  and  unlike  the  Scri[)ture  narrative.  The 
Flood  is  sent  as  a  punishment  for  sin;  the  builder  of  the 
ark  is  called  Sisit  (the  Ximthrus  of  the  Grseco-Chaldaean 
Berosus);  he  gathers  into  the  vessel  all  his  male  and  female 
servants,  all  the  sons  of  the  army,  and  all  the  beasts  of  the 
field;  the  storm  of  rain  lasts  only  six  days,  and  yet  sub- 
merges the  whole  earth;  all  life  is  destroyed;  Sisit  sends 
forth  a  dove  which  can  find  no  resting-place,  and  returns; 
then  a  swallow,  which  is  also  forced  to  return;  then  a 
raven,  which  does  not  come  back.  The  ark  rests  on  a 
moimtain,  the  animals  are  lib^^rated,  an  altar  is  built  by 
the  grateful  patriarch,  and  Bel,  the  Great  God,  makes  a 
•covenant'  with  Sisit.  The  minuter  details  of  this 
Assyrian  legend  diverge  p-eatly  from  the  Hebrew  account, 
and  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  in  each  we  have  an  inde- 
pendent tradition  of  some  great  natural  catastrophe  in  the 
early  ages  of  human  history.  Mr.  Smith  notices  that  the 
biblical  narrative  is  the  version  of  an  inland  people;  the 
name  of  the  ark  in  Genesis  means  a  chest  or  box,  and  not 


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ASSYRIA. 

a  sbip;  there  is  no  notice  of  the  sea  or  of  launching,  no 
pilots  are  spoken  of,  no  navigation  is  mentioned.  The 
inscription,  on  the  other  hand,  belongs  to  a  maritime 
people;  the  ark  is  called  a  ship,  the  ship  is  lamiched  into 
the  sea,  trial  is  made  of  it,  and  it  is  given  in  charge  to  a 

Eilot.  This  seems  to  point  to  the  Persian  Gulf  as  the 
irthplace  of  the  old  legend.  Mr.  Smith  returned  in  1874 
from  Chaldfiea,  and  gave  an  account  of  his  valuable  dis- 
coveries in  a  work  entitled  Assyrian  Discoveries  (1875). 
Believing  that  many  more  legends  and  histories  lay  beneath 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  cities  of  Chaldsea,  he  was  on  his 
way  to  prosecute  his  third  exploration,  when  he  succumbed 
to  the  hardships  and  privations  of  the  task,  and  died  at 
Aleppo,  1876,  Aug. 

(jMnernment. — The  government  was  despotic,  as  suited 
the  character  of  the  people.  The  empire  was  a  mere  con- 
geries of  kingdoms  bound  to  the  supreme  authority  only 
by  certain  obligations  of  paying  tribute,  giving  presents, 
and  showing  due  respect.  Each  kingdom  retained  its  own 
rulers,  laws,  and  religion,  although  we  do  find  some 
attempts  to  rule  by  satraps  and  collectors  of  tribute. 
Tiglath-pileser  also  boasts,  in  an  inscription,  of  having 
punished  and  crucified  the  Chaldeans  who  refused  to  wor- 
ship his  gods.  In  consequence  of  this  imperfect  organi- 
zation, the  empire  was  exposed  to  frequent  revolts  of  the 
subject  nations,  when  such  opportunities  offered  as  a 
disputed  succession,  or  want  of  energy  in  the  ruling  prince. 
Then  the  labor  of  conquest  had  to  begin  anew,  and  it  was 
sought  to  diminish  the  danger  of  the  central  power  by  in- 
flicting severe  pimishments  on  the  rebels.  The  history  of 
the  Jews  has  made  us  familiar  with  one  of  these  devices — 
viz.,  the  wholesale  deportation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
offending  district.  It  may  be  readily  believed  that  such 
an  empire,  though  imposing  from  the  magnificence  and 
wealth  of  the  capital,  yet,  from  the  impoverishment  and 
weakness  of  the  subject  states,  was  continually  liable  to 
fall  to  pieces,  and  was  ill-fitted  to  resist  an  attack  from 
without.  That  A.  did  actually  last  for  five  centuries,  was 
owing  to  its  long  succession  of  warlike  princes,  and  to  the 
energy  of  the  population. 

Beitffion. — The  religion  of  the  Assyrians  was  nearly 
identical  with  that  of  the  Babylonians.  It  was  a  gross 
polytheism,  their  gods  being  thousands  in  number,  and 
each  village  having  its  own  particular  deity.  From 
thousands  of  theological  tablets  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
it  is  known  that  each  divinity  had  many  names,  and  some 
of  them  as  many  as  fifty  titles  besides.  Again,  many 
deities  prominent  in  the  Babylonian  pantheon  are  either 
unknown  or  subordinate  in  the  Assyrian.  Besides,  the 
same  ^ds  did  not  remain  equally  popular  throushout. 
The  supreme  god  was  Asshur,  probably  the  deified 
patriarch.  His  worship  was  confined  to  Assyria.  He  is 
generally  associated  in  the  inscriptions  with  yin  and 
NergcU  (2  Kings,  xvii.  30),  who  are  represented  by  the 
man-bull  and  the  man-lion.  The  winged  globe,  so  often 
seen  in  the  sculptures,  from  which  a  figure  with  a  homed 


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ASSYRIA. 

Mmet  shoots  his  arrows,  is  supposed  to  be  the  emblem  of 
Asshur.  Next  in  rank  is  the  eoyeming  triad,  answering 
to  the  Pluto,  Jupiter,  and  T^eptune  of  the  classiciu 
mythology;  the  next  group  corresponds  to  jiEther,  the  sun 
and  the  moon;  then  tive  mferior  deities,  representing  the 
five  planets.  Each  god  is  associated  with  a  goddess. 
Mylitta,  or  Beltis,  is  tne  '  queen.'  The  male  and  female 
powers  of  the  sun  are  represented  in  the  Scripture  phrase, 
•Adrammelech,  andAnamelech,  gods  of  Sepharvaim'— that 
is,  of  Sippara,  a  town  a  few  miles  above  Babylon.  Bel- 
merodach  was  originally  an  inferior  deity,  son  of  Hea,  the 
fish-god;  but  under  the  later  Babylonians,  we  lind  him 
monopolizing  the  greater  part  of  the  homage  which  used 
previously  to  be  divided  among  several.  Nisroch  (2 
Kings,  xix.,  87)  has  not  been  yet  ascertained.  Nebo  (Isaiah, 
xlvi.)  is  one  of  the  five  planetary  gods,  and  corresponds  to 
Mercury.  The  systems  of  notation,  divisions  of  time,  the 
planets  and  stars,  animals  and  metals,  divination  and 
astrology,  were  all  more  or  less  closely  connected  with 
theology. 

Ethnology. — The  Assyrians  have  been  assigned  by  some 
ethnologists  to  the  Aryan  race,  but  it  is  now  generally  ac- 
knowledged that  they  were  a  branch  of  the  Semitic  family 
of  nations,  and  therefore  were  members  of  the  same  grand 
division  of  the  human  race  as  the  Syrians,  the  Phoenicians 
with  their  colonies,  the  Jews,  and  the  modem  Arabians. 
In  B.C.  20th  c,  Semitism,  as  a  distinct  ethnic  element,  ap- 
pears to  have  first  developed  itself.  The  original  races 
variously  called  Scythic,  Turanian,  or  Tatar,  appear  to 
have  once  been  spread  over  the  whole  space  from  the  Cau- 
casus to  the  Indian' Ocean,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  mouths  of  the  Ganges.  Their  type  of  language  has 
continued  to  our  time  to  exist  in  four-fifths  of  Asia,  and 
in  some  of  the  remoter  comers  of  Europe,  as  among  the 
Finns,  Lapps,  Turks,  and  Hungarians.  In  Mesopotamia, 
and  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  where  natural  advantages 
induced  men  early  to  form  settled  communities,  the  rude 
and  inartificial  type  of  language  was  developed  into  Hami- 
tism,  and  afterwards  still  further  improved  into  Semitism. 
Then  seems  to  have  commenced  a  series  of  migrations. 
Asshur  went  forth  probably  at  this  time  from  Babylon  to 
A.,  Abraham  and  his  followers  to  Palestine,  the  Joktanian 
Arabs  to  Arabia.  From  these  seats,  Semitism  was  after- 
wards carried  to  Cyprus,  to  the  s.  seaboard  countries  of 
Asia  Minor,  to  Carthage,  Sicily,  Spain,  and  Western 
Africa. 

The  traditions  of  A.  indicate  a  very  early  connection 
between  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  and  the  cities  on  the  Euphrates. 
Mesopotamia  undoubtedly  contained  a  large  proportion  of 
Arabians,  and  this  accounts  for  the  fact  that  Herodotus 
styles  Sennacherib  king  of  the  Arabians  and  Assyrians. 
The  Chaldeeans,  colonies  of  whom  were  planted  in  Ar- 
menia by  the  Assyrian  kings,  are  supposed  by  some  to  have 
been  a  foreign  tribe,  which  had  immigrated  from  the  n., 
and  become  a  priestly  caste.  But  the  Akkad  race,  of  which 
the  Chaldsean  is  a  tribe,  is  with  more  probability  thought 


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ASSYRIA. 

to  have  inhabited  Babylonia  from  the  remotest  times,  and 
by  it  the  earliest  civilization  in  Mesopotamia  was  origi- 
nated. Probably  the  art  of  picture-wntine  was  possessed 
by  the  Hamitic  tribes  who  lived  m  the  valley  of  the  NUe, 
and  passed  eastward  to  the  Euphrates.  The  Akkad  lan- 
guage appears  to  have  been  formed  before  Semitism  attain- 
ed its  peculiar  development  and  organization.  Lon^  after 
Semitism  had  become  predominant  in  Mesopotamia,  the 
Akkad  or  Chaldsean  alphabet  continued  to  be  the  scientific 
language  in  which  all  the  tablets  relating  to  mvthology. 
astronomy,  or  science,  as  well  as  most  historical  and  oA- 
cial  records,  were  written.  This  alphabet  was  adopted 
with  certain  modifications  by  the  Semitic  tribes,  which 
became  predominant  in  Assyria.  The  cuneiform  charac- 
ters were  elaborated  from  the  forms  of  natural  objects, 
and  gradually  became  phonetic  from  being  symbolic,  and 
for  convenience  of  engraving,  assumed  the  form  of  arrow- 
heads instead  of  the  roimded  and  flowing  forms  which  are 
introduced  by  the  use  of  plastic  materials.  After  the  Aryan 
race  had  spread  more  extensively  in  Western  Asia,  the 
Persian  monarchs,  when  they  wi^ed  to  make  any  com- 
munication to  their  sub^'ects  generally  intelligible,  found 
it  necessary  to  publish  it  in  three  languages  belonging  to 
the  principal  divisions  of  human  speech;  hence  the  tri- 
lingual inscriptions  of  Behistun,  etc.,  which  consist  of  an 
Indo-European,  a  Tatar,  and  a  Semitic  column.  It  is  still 
necessary  in  many  places  to  employ  three  tongues,  repre- 
sentatives of  the  three  families,  Persian,  Turkish,  and 
Arabic— See  Lenormant,  La  Langue  PnmiUve  de  la 
CJuild'ee. 

AnHauiUes,  CiviligaHon,  etc. — The  excavations  carried  on 
by  M.  Botta,  French  consul  at  Mosul,  and  by  Layard  near 
Mosul,  Ehorsabad,  and  Eoyunjik,  have  laid  open  palaces 


Lion-hunt. 
(From  the  Northwest  Palace  at  Nimrud.) 

and  buildings  full  of  sculptures,  all  covered  with  inscrip- 
tions, in  deciphering  which  considerable  progress  has  been 
made,  and  more  may  be  expected.  Among  the  most  re- 
markable monuments  now  in  the  British  Museum  are  two 
winged,  human-headed  lions,  12  ft.  high,  and  12  ft.  in 
length;  winged  human-headed  bulls  of  similar  dimensions 
with  the  lions;  winged  sphinxes;  and  the  famous  obelisk 


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ASSYRIAN— ASTACUff. 

of  black  marble,  sculptured  on  the  four  sides.  On  this 
last  are  represented  a  victory,  a  prisoner  prostrate  at  the 
feet  of  the  king,  and  foreign  people  offering  tribute,  and 
leading  such  animals  as  the  Bactrian  camel,  elephant,  lion, 
and  rhmoceros — animals  found  only  in  lands  lar  e.  of  the 
Tigris.  The  bas-reliefs  are  very  numerous,  exhibiting 
especially  war  and  hunting.  The  march,  the  onset,  the 
pursuit,  the  siege,  the  passage  of  rivers,  the  submission 
and  treatment  of  captives,  secretaries  noting  the  number 
of  heads  taken  in  battle,  and  the  amount  of  spoil;  the  chase 
of  the  lion,  of  the  antelope,  of  the  wild  ass,  and  other  ani- 
mals— such  are  the  favorite  subjects  of  the  Assyrian  sculp- 
tor. Nor  are  they  treated  in  the  conventional  style  of 
Egypt,  but  in  a  manner  which,  for  grace,  spirit,  correct- 
ness, and  delicacy  of  execution,  excels  everything  else 
known  in  Asiatic  art.  The  artists  follow  some  modes  of 
representation  different  from  the  modern;  for  instance,  a 
bull  has  five  legs  given  him,  in  order  that  from  all  points 
of  view  he  may  be  seen  with  four;  a  ladder  stands  edge- 
ways against  a  wall,  to  show  it  is  not  a  pole.  A  truthful 
impression  is  always  aimed  at.  The  labor  bestowed  on 
the  careful  finish  of  a  priest's  dress,  and  in  the  tasteful 
decoration  of  an  article  of  furniture,  proves  them  to'  be  the 
work  of  an  ingenious  and  painstaking  people.  From  the 
bas-reliefs  we  gain  little  information  respecting  the  private 
life  of  the  A8S)rrians.  There  are  a  few  which  represent 
the  foddering  of  cattle,  women  riding  on  mules,  etc. 

It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  Nineveh— a  wealthy  and 
luxurious  city— imported  many  of  the  products  of  other 
countries,  yet  the  manufactured  goods  would  mainly  be 
of  home  production.  The  jars,  bronzes,  glass  bottles, 
carved  ornaments  in  ivory  and  mother-of-pearl,  engraved 
gems,  bells,  earrings,  arms,  utensils,  are  of  excellent  work- 
manship. The  ornaments  especially  are  in  good  taste, 
and  evince  no  inconsiderable  skill  in  the  workmg  of  met- 
als. Transparent  glass  was  not  unknown,  nor  the  use  of 
the  lens  as  a  magnifying  agent.  The  Assyrians  knew  the 
principle  of  the  arch,  the  use  of  the  lever  and  roller,  and 
the  construction  of  aqueducts  and  drains.  In  the  arts  of 
peace,  they  appear  to  have  been  not  inferior  to  any  ancient 
nation;  while  their  conquests,  and  the  long  duration  of 
their  empire,  suffice  to  prove  their  capacity  for  war.— See 
Rawlinson's  Five  Great  Monarcliies  of  the  Ancient  World, 
Chaldaa,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Media,  and  Persia;  George 
Smith's  Assyrian  Discoveries  (1875),  his  Assyria  (8. P. O.K.), 
and  his  BabyUyrUa  (new  ed.  by  Sayce);  and  the  article 
Babylonia,  in  the  Ency.  Brit.,  9th  ed. 

ASSYRIAN,  a.  Orsir'i-dn:  of  or  pertaining  to  Assyria; 
N.  an  inhabitant  of.  Abbtriol'ogist,  n.  -ol'o-jist,  one  who 
makes  the  antiquities  and  history  of  Assyria  his  special 
study. 

ASTACOLITE,  n.  as-tdJcd-llt  [Gr.  astakos,  the  crayfish 
or  lobster;  lithos,  a  stone] :  a  term  applied  to  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  crustaceans,  like  the  crayfish  or  lobster. 

AS'TACUS:  see  Crayfish:  Lobsters. 


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ASTARTE— ASTER. 

AST  ARTE,  (U-tdr'U  (Aahiaroih  in  the  Old  Test.):  chief 
female  deity  of  the  Phoiiiiciaas,  Carthaginians,  and  Sjrri- 
ans  (Syria  Dea),  worshipped  also  by  the  Jews  in  times 
when  idolatry  prevailed.  A.  was  the  original  from  which 
the  Greeks  borrowed  their  Aphrodite  (q.v.).  As  Baal  was 
god  of  the  sun,  A.  was  goddess  of  the  moon.  Her  chief 
temples  were  in  Tyre  and  8idon.  According  to  ancient  ac- 
counts, her  worship  was  of  a  licentious  character.  The 
oldest  known  image  of  her — that  in  Paphos — ^represented 
her  simply  under  the  form  of  a  white  conical  stone.  In 
Canaan  and  Phoenicia  she  was  subsequently  typified  un- 
der the  form  of  a  cow,  or  sometimes  she  had  only  a  cow's 
or  bull's  head;  still  later,  her  emblem  became  a  star;  and 
tinally,  she  was  conceived  of  as  the  'queen  of  heaven/ 
sitting  on  a  lion,  her  head  surrounded  with  rays,  and  in 
the  one  hand  a  thunderbolt,  in  the  other  a  sceptre. 

ASTARTE:  genus  of  MoUusca,  with  bivalve  shells;  type 
of  a  family  Astartida,  very  closely  allied  to  the  Venend^ 
or  Venus  family.  It  is  interesting  chiefly  with  reference 
to  geologic  changes  and  the  history  of  life  and  organization, 
bcoiuse  only  a  &w  species  are  now  known  to  exist,  and 
these  limited  to  the  North  Atlantic  and  Arctic  oceans; 
whereas  the  fossil  species  are  extremely  numerous,  com- 
mencing with  the  lias  period,  and  distributed  over  the  whole 
world.  The  AstartidsB  may  be  regarded  as  having  given 
place  to  the  Veneridae,  which  commenced  with  the  oolitic 
period,  and  are  among  the  most  abundant  bivalve  mollusca 
of  the  present  time. 

ASTATIC,  a.  ds-tdtik  [Gr.  a,  without;  statos,  that 
stands  or  remcdns]:  being  without  polarity,  as  a  mag- 
netic needle;  not  being  under  the  influence  of  a  directive 
agent. 

A-STAY  :  the  position  of  an  anchor  when,  during  heav- 
ing, the  cable  forms  an  angle  with  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  line  with  the  stays  of  the  ship. 

ASTEISM,  n.  &^'ie-izm  [Gr.  aHeitmoi'- from  oBtewt, 
urbane;  astti,  a  city]:  in  rhet.,  refinement  of  speech;  ur- 
banity of  manners. 

ASTELMA,  n.  as-tSl'ma  [Gr.  a,  without:  ^elma.  a 
girdle] :  genus  of  plants  belon^ng  to  the  order  Asterctcea. 
The  species  are  bwiutiful  Cape  shrube  with  *  everlasting  * 
flowers. 

ASTER,  n.  ds'tth*  [Gr.  aster,  a  star]:  genus  of  plants 
of  the  nat.  ord.  GomposiUp,  which  Lindley  has  therefore 
chosen  to  call  Asterace(p,  The  flowers  have  a  star-like  ar- 
rangement. The  ray  and  the  disk  are  of  different  colors. 
The  genus  contains  a  great  number  of  species,  both  herba- 
ceous and  shrubby,  which  have  been  arranged  into  six  or 
seven  groups,  regarded  by  many  as  distinct  genera.  Only 
one  species,  A,  TripoUum  or  Tripolium  Tvlgare,  the  Sea 
Starwort,  is  a  native  of  Britain.  It  is  common  in  salt 
marshes.  A  number  of  perennial  species  ars  in  cultivation 
as  garden-flowers,  of  which  the  New-England  A.  {A.  Noe<B 
AnglicB)  and  the  Michaelmas  Daisv  {A,  TradeBcanU),  both 


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A8TERABAD-ASTER0ID. 

oatiyes  of  N  America,  are  perhaps  the  most  common,  and, 
with  some  of  the  other  species,  are  prized  as  among  the 
comparatively  few  flowers  to  be  seen  at  that  dull  season 
when  autumn  is  giving  place  to  winter.  But  the  best  known 
and  most  valued  of  all  the  asters  is  the  China  A.  (A.  »i- 
nenms),  a  summer  annual,  of  which  many  varieties  are  in 
cultivation,  and  new  ones  are  continually  introduced.  It 
was  brought  from  China  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  18th  c. 
The  varieties  exhibit  great  diversities  of  form  and  color. 
The  plant  delights  in  a  rich  free  soil.  Id  the  n.  parts  of 
the  United  States,  the  seed  is  usually  sowd  in  April  in  a 
hot-bed,  or  in  pots  under  a  frame,  and  the  voung  asters  are 
planted  out  in  the  open  air  in  May.  They  flower  from  July 
lo  the  end  of  autumn. — A.  arffopMUus,  or  Haxtonia  argo- 
phyUa^ya  §  shnjb,  native  qI  Van  Diemen's  L^d,  smelling 
strongly  of  musk.  There  are  no  less  than  50  species 
of  wild  A.  in  e.  and  central  United  States,  giviog  great 
beauty  to  our  autumn  foregrounds. 
A8TERABAD':  see  Astrabad. 

A8TERACANTHUS,  n.  dsUr-d-kan'thUs  [Gr.  a%ter,  a 
star;  akarUfia^  a  thorn  or  spinel:  a  genus  of  fossil  fin. spines 
of  fishes,  often  of  large  size,  having  their  surfaces  ndily 
ornamented  with  star-like  tubercles. 

ASTERIA,  n.  (ts-U'ri-d,  or  Asterite,  n.  ds'tir-lt  [Gr. 
aster,  a  star]:  a  variety  of  conmdum  or  star  sapphire, 
whjdi,  when  cut  in  a  certan  way,  shows  a  bright  opal- 
escent star  of  six  rays.  Asteriated,  a.  ds-te'rl  d'tH, 
radiated;  star  like. 

ASTE'RIAS  and  ASTERI'AD^:  see  Starfish. 

ASTERISK,  n.  ds'ter-isk  [Gr.  asUfrUkos,  a  little  star— 
from  (uteT,  a  star]:  a  sign  or  symbol  (*),  used  in  writing 
and  printing,  either  as  a  reference  to  a  note  at  the  bottom 
or  on  the  margin  of  the  page.    The  obelisk  (q.v.),  or  dag- 

fer  (t),  and  many  other  marks,  are  similarly  employed; 
ut  when  there  are  several  references  on  the  same  page,  it 
is  now  common  to  use  the  numerals  1,  2,  8,  etc.  The  A. 
and  other  similar  signs  may  have  an^  arbitrary  meaning 
assigned  to  them  at  the  will  of  the  writer,  an  explanation 
being  previously  given  of  what  the  signification  is  to  be. 
Omission  of  worfi  may  be  marked  with  two  or  more  stars. 
The  Greek  grammarians,  or  critics,  used  the  A.  to  mark  a 
passage  that  had  been  unjustly  suspected,  but  was  to  be 
neld  as  genuine,  or  a  passage  in  any  way  remarkable; 
the  obelisk  marked  an  interpolated  or  an  objectionable 
word  or  passage. 

ASTERN,  ad.  drskm'  [AS.  a,  on  or  at,  and  »t&m,  be- 
hind]: at  the  stem ;  in  or  at  the  hinder  part  of  a  ship; 
behind.  To  oo  astern,  to  move  backwards  as  a  vessel, 
as  from  the  action  of  currents  or  the  wind.  To  back 
▲BTEBiT,  to  move  backwards. 

ASTEROID,  n.  ds'ter-oyd  [Gr.  aster,  a  star;  oidos,  like 
ness]:  one  of  the  minor  planets.  See  Planetoids.  Ab- 
TBRofDAL,  a.  pertaining  to  the  small  planets.  A6TBRIBU, 
n.  iulUr'^Um,  a  cluster  of  stars;  a  constellation. 


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ASTEROIDEA-ASTHMA, 

ASTEROIDEA.  n.  phi.  iU'Ur-cy'de'a  [Gr.  asUr,  a  stsr; 
eidoB^  reflemblancel:  the  order  of  animals  of  which  the 
common  five  rayed  star-fish  is  taken  as  the  t7i)e;  an  order 
of  EchinodertM  having  one  opening  to  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  a  rayed  or  star-like  structure.  Ab'teroid. 
n.  -at/d,  one  of  the  asteroidea:  Ai>j.  of  or  pertaining  to; 
rayed;  star-like. 

ASTER0LEPI8,  n.  d8'ter'd4i'pi9  or  ^-[Qt.  mier,  a 
star;  lepis,  a  scale]:  a  gigantic  ganoid  fossil  fish  of  the  old 
red  sandstone. 

A8TEBOPHTLLITE8,  n.  plu.  dt^Ur-d-fUUs  [Or.  otter, 
u  star;  phuUon,  a  leaf] :  genus  of  fossil  plants  abundant 
in  the  coal-meaaures,  and  called  sometimes  Star-leaf, 
from  their  star-like  whorls  of  linear  leavee.  Their  affin- 
ity is  not  yet  positively  decided,  but  they  are  usually 
considered  the  branches  of  the  CalamUea  or  Calcimoden' 
dron. 

ASTHENIC,  a.  d9-mn'ik  JGr.  a,  without ;  Meno9, 
strength]:  weak;  debilitated.  Asthehia,  n.  da-ihe-nl'd,  in 
med,,  want  or  loss  of  strength;  debilitv.  As'thenol'ogy, 
n.  -dl'd-ji  [Gr.  logos,  discourse]:  a  discourse  on  diseases 
connected  with  debility. 

ASTHMA,  n.  dit'md  [Gr.  asthma^irom  do,  I  blow,  I 
breathe]:  a  disease  of  the  organs  of  breathing  attended 
with  cough  and  difficulty  of  breathing.  Asthmatic,  a. 
d9t-mdt'ik,  or  Asthmat  ical,  a.  -i-kdl,  troubled  with  diffi- 
culty of  breathing. 

A.  is  characterized  by  the  breathing,  previously  natural, 
becoming  difficult,  accompjanied  bv  wheezing  and  a  dis- 
tressing sense  of  tightness  in  the  chest.  A.  generallv  ap- 
pears at  first  after  some  inflammatory  affection  oi  the 
respiratory  mucous  membrane,  and  more  especially  in 
those  who  have  led  dissipated  lives.  In  others,  it  is  clearly 
hereditary,  and  frequently  affects  several  members  of  the 
same  family.  A.  may  be  habitual,  or  may  occur  in  spasms, 
generally  preceded  by  some  premonitory  symptoms,  as  in 
some  by  great  drowsiness;  in  othera,  by  extreme  wakeful- 
ness and  unusual  mental  activity  and  buoyancy  of  spirits; 
and  a  ph^ician  reports  one  case  in  which  an  attack  of 
ophthalmia  occurred. 

The  spasms  may  occur  at  any  hour;  but  in  nineteen  ovt 
of  twenty  cases  they  waken  the  patient  from  sleep  between 
three  and  four  in  the  morning.  The  horizontal  position 
facilitating  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart, 
and  therefore  to  the  lungs,  the  disadvantage  at  which  the 
muscles  of  respiration  are  placed,  and  the  greater  readi- 
ness with  which  sources  of  irritation  act  during  sleep,  ex- 
plain this  fact. 

Persons  subject  to  A.  scarcely  dare  fall  asleep  after  any 
imprudence  in  diet;  if  they  continue  awake  tiU  their  sup- 
per is  fairly  digested,  and  the  stomach  empty,  they  may 
go  to  sleep  fearlessly,  and  have  a  good  night's  rest  The 
asthmatic  paroxysm  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Hyde  Salter, 
a  late  authority  in  England  on  this  common  but  terrible 
disease:  '  The  patient  goes  to  bed  and  sleeps  two  or  three 


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ASTI-ASTIGMATISM. 

hours,  becomes  distressed  in  his  breathing,  and  begins  to 
wheeze,  so  as  to  awaken  those  in  adjoining  rooms.  He 
awakes,  changes  his  position,  falls  asleep  again  and  again, 
and  the  miserable  tight  between  A.  and  sleep  may  go  on, 
till  the  increased  suffering  does  not  allow  the  patient 
longer  to  forget  himself  for  a  moment;  he  becomes  wide 
awake,  sits  up  in  bed,  throws  himself  forward,  plants  his 
elbows  on  his  knees,  and  with  fixed  head  and  elevated 
shoulders,  labors  for  breath  like  a  dying  man.* 

If  the  spasm  is  protracted,  the  oxygenation  of  his  blood 
is  imperfectly  performed,  owing  to  the  scanty  supply  of 
air,  and  his  extremities  get  cold  and  blue,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  violent  muscular  efforts  at  respiration  cover 
him  with  sweat.  The  pulse  is  always  small.  The  muscles 
of  the  back  and  neck  attached  to  the  ribs  act  as  extraor- 
dinary muscles  of  respiration.  The  chest  enlarges  during 
the  paroxysm,  but  in  it  there  is  almost  perfect  stagnation 
of  air.  TTie  respiratory  tubes  affected  are  very  small,  and 
the  parts  at  which  they  are  so  constricted  are  constantly 
shifting. 

The  remedies  commended  for  A.  are  numerous,  but  not 
to  be  depended  on.  They  consist  in  paying  attention  to 
the  digestive  system,  and  m  anti-spasmodics,  taken  either 
internally  or  by  inhalation. 

ASTI,  ds'te  {Asia  Pimpeia):  city  of  Piedmont,  ^ovt.  of 
Alessandria,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tanaro,  on  the  rail- 
way from  Turin  to  Genoa,  26i  m.  e.s.e.  of  Turin.  It  is  a 
large  town,  with  walls  considerably  dilapidated,  and  the 
streets  generally  very  narrow  and  irregular.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  court  of  justice  and  a  royal  college. 
There  is  carried  on  a  considerable  trade  in  silk  and  woolen 
fabrics,  leather,  and  hats,  as  well  as  in  wines  and  agricul- 
tural produce.  A.  is  a  town  of  high  antiquity,  having 
been  famous  for  its  pottery  before  its  capture  by  the 
Gauls,  B.C.  400.  On  the  occcasion  of  its  bein^  again  taken 
and  destroyed  in  an  irruption  of  the  Gauls,  it  was  rebuilt 
by  Pompey,  and  received  the  name  of  Asta  Pompeia.  In 
the  middle  ages,  A.  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  repub- 
lics of  Upper  Italy.  It  was  captured  and  burnt  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  I.,  1155;  and  after  a  series  of  vicissi- 
tudes, it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Visconti  of  Na- 
ples, by  whom  it  was  ceded  to  the  French,  in  whose  hands 
It  remained  till  the  middle  of  the  16th  c,  when  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  as  it  still  re- 
mains.   Alfleri  was  bom  here,  1749.     Pop.  (1893)  81,033. 

The  district  of  Asti,  one  of  the  six  subdivisions  of  the 
govt,  of  Alessandria,  is  bounded  on  the  w.  and  n.  by  the 
province  of  Turin,  s.  by  Alba,  s.e.  by  Alessandria  Proper 
and  n.e.  by  the  province  of  Casale.  The  surface  is  hilly 
and  picturesque.  The  soil  rests  upon  limestone  abound- 
ing in  fossils,  and  is  fertile,  producing  com,  fruit,  and 
wme.  It  is  celebrated  for  a  fine  white  wine  resembling 
champagne,  called  vino  d*Asti.  Silk  is  one  of  its  most  im- 
portant products. 

ASTIGMATISM,   n.   a-dtWma-tkm    [Gr.    a,    without; 

'2—40 

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ASTIGMATISM. 

itigmatiedf  to  prick,  to  pimctare]:  condition  of  the  eje  in 
which  parallel  rajs  of  light  are  not  brought  to  a  focus  by 
the  media.  It  is  a  frequent  cause  of  defective  eyesight.  A. 
in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  is  due  to  irregularity  in  the 
curvature  of  the  cornea;  though  it  may  arise  from  imper- 
fections in  the  lens,  irregular  contraction  of  the  ciliary 
muscle,  or  possibly  defect  m  the  retina.  In  the  normal  eye, 
parallel  Ta.ys  are  brought  to  a  focus  accurately  on  the  retina. 
In  the  myopic  and  hypermetropic  eyes,  rays  are  brought  to  a 
focus,  though  not  on  the  retina;  but  in  the  astigmatic  eye, 
rays  of  light  never  come  to  a  focus  either  on  the  retina  or 
elaewhere.  According  to  the  laws  of  refraction,  the  smaller 
the  curve  of  the  refracting  body  the  shorter  the  course  of 
the  traversing  ray.  If,  therefore,  in  one  meridian  of  the 
cornea,  the  curvature  is  smaller  than  that  at  right  angles  to  it, 
it  is  evident  that  rays  of  light  traversing  the  smaller  curve 
will  be  brought  to  a  focus  sooner  than  the  rays  traversing 
the  greater  curve.  Suppose  a  case  in  which  the  verticS 
meridian  brings  rays  accurately  to  a  focus  on  the  retina,  but 
in  which  rays  passing  through  the  horizontal  meridian  are 
brought  to  a  focus  behind  the  retina,  as  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying diagram  (in  which  Vertical  denotes  rays  striking 
the  cornea  from  a  meridian  standing  as  it  were  upright  be- 
fore the  eye,  while  Horizontal  denotes  rays  striking  the  cor- 
nea from  a  meridian  extending  from  side  to  side  before  it. 


It  will  be  seen  that  at  no  one  place  is  an  actual  focus  ob- 
tained, both  of  the  rays  from  the  horizontal  meridian  and 
of  the  rays  from  the  vertical  meridian — that  when  the  latter 
are  focused  on  the  retina,  the  former  have  not  yet  reached 
a  point;  and  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  former  rays  have 
reached  a  focus  the  latter  rays  are  far  divergent,  having 
come  to  a  point  and  crossed  at  the  retina.  This  condition 
may  exist  in  various  forms:  (a)  simple  hypermetropic  A.,  in 
which  the  rays  in  one  diameter  fall  on  tne  retina,  but  rays 
at  right  angles  fall  behind:  (6)  simple  myopic  A.,  the  exact 
reverse  of  .tiie  preceding,  rays  in  one  diameter  being  focused 
on  the  retina  and  the  rays  at  right  angles  being  brought  to 
a  focus  in  front  of  the  retina:  (c)  compound  hypermetropic 
A. ,  in  which  all  rays  fall  behind  the  retina,  but  some  further 
back  than  others:  (d)  compound  myopic  A.,  in  which  all 
rays  fall  in  front  of  the  retina,  but  some  further  in  front 
than  those  at  right  angles  to  them:  (e)  mixed  A.,  a  form  in 
which  rays  in  one  meridian  fall  behind  the  retina,  and  in 
the  meridian  at  right  angles  the  rays  are  focused  in  front 
of  the  retina,  a  combination  of  hypennetropia  and  myopia 
in  the  same  eye.  The  effect  of  A.  is  to  blur  outlines  of 
objects,  rendering  them  much  less  distinct  and  clear  cut. 
A.  is  also  a  frequent  source  of  headache,  and  of  many  of  the 
nervous  phenomena  of  civilized  life.  Many  sufferers  have 
been  permanently  relieved  of  their  headaches  by  th6  accurate 

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ASTIR— ASTOR. 

fitting  of  a  pair  of  glasses  which  corrected  their  astigmatism. 
— A. is  corrected  by  means  of  cylindrical  glasses,  either  alone 
or  in  combination  with  spherical  lenses  which  unequally 
refract  light,  bringing  parallel  rays  to  different  foci  to  suit 
each  case.  —For  fuller  information,  see  Noyes,  Diseases  of 
the  Eye;  Soelberg  Wells,  On  Diseases  of  the  Eye;  Fox  and 
(jtould.  Diseases  of  the  Bye;  Bnidenei  Carter  On  Vie  Eye, 

ASTIR,  acL  d.-ster^  [AS.  a,  on,  and  8tir\i  on  the  move; 
active. 

ASTOMATOUS,  a.  &-ttdm'd-ttis  [Gr.  a,  without;  «tom'. 
ata,  mouths]:  mouthless;  without  a  trae mouth  or  aperture; 
also  spelt  Abtomous,  ds'id-mus. 

AS'TON.  Luise:  b.  abt.  1820,  near  Halberstadt,  Prussia: 
German  authoress  of  some  note,  but  known  principally  for 
her  zeal  for  the  'rights  of  women,'  accompanied  with 
eccentricities  of  conouct  which  brought  her  into  collision 
with  the  police.  During  the  Slesvig-Holstein  war,  how- 
ever, she  showed  heroism  and  self-sacrificing  devotion  as 
a  hospital  nurse.  She  has  written  various  books,  of  no 
great  note. 

ASTONE,  V.  ds-tdn',  or  Astony,  v.  ds-tdn'l  [see  Aston- 
ish]: in  OJS.,  to  confound  with  fear  and  amazement;  to 
terrify;  to  astonish.  Astonied,  pp.  ds-tdn'id,  for  astonished, 
a  word  occasionally  occurring  in  Scripture. 

ASTONISH,  V.  aston'ish  [OF.  esUmner,  to  amaze— from 
L.  attondre,  to  thunder  at,  to  stress— from  L.  ad,  to;  tono, 
I  thunder:  AS.  a,  intensive,  stuninn,  to  make  stupid  with 
noise]:  to  strike  dumb  as  with  fear  or  wonder;  to  fill  with 
sudden  fear  and  wonder;  to  amaze;  to  confound  vnth  sur- 
prise. Astonishing, imp.  Astonished, pp. -IM^.  Aston'- 
ISHINOLT,  ad.  11.  Aston'ishment,  n.  confusion  of  mind 
from  fear  or  wonder;  amazement;  the  cause  of  amazement. 
— Syn.  of  'astonish':  to  surprise;  amaze;  astound;  over- 
whelm. 

ASTOR,  as'tar,  John  Jacob:  1763-1848;  b.  in  a  village 
near  Heidelberg.  Germany.  After  spending  some  years  m 
London,  he  came  to  America,  1783,  and  soon  invested  his 
small  capital  in  furs.  By  economy  and  industry,  he  so  in- 
creased his  means  that  after  six  years  he  had  acquired  $200,- 
000.  He  became  the  founder  of  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany, and  although  ihe  increasing  influence  of  the  English 
Fur  Companies  in  N.  America  was  imf  avorable  to  his  plans, 
he  ventured  to  fit  out  two  expeditions  to  the  Oregon  terri- 
tory—one by  land,  and  one  bjr  sea— the  purpose  of  which 
was  to  open  a  regular  commercial  intercourse  with  the  na- 
tives. After  many  mishaps,  his  object  was  achieved  in 
1811,  and  the  fur-trading  station  of  Astoria  (q.v.)  was  estab- 
lished; but  the  war  of  1812  stopped  its  prospmty  for  a  time. 
From  this  period  A.'s  commercial  connections  extended 
over  the  world,  and  his  ships  were  found  in  every  sea.  At 
his  death  he  left  property  amounting  to  $80,000,000.  He 
left  a  legacy  of  (400,000  for  the  establishment  of  a  poUie 
library  in  New  York.  See  Astok  Librabt.  (See  Wash- 
in^n  Irving's  Astoria,)— ES&  wealth  was  mainly  inherited 


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A8T0RGA— ASTORIA. 

by  his  son,  William  B.,  who  continued  to  aagment  it  tin 
his  death  in  1875,  when  he  is  said  to  have  left  more  than 
150,000,000.  He  added  1450,000  to  his  father's  bequest 
for  a  public  library.  He  was  known  as  the  '  landloni  oi 
New  York '  from  the  extent  of  his  property  in  that  city. 

ASTOR,  William  Waldorf:  great  graodson  of  John 
Jacob  A.  the  elder,  and  son  of  John  Jacob  A.  2d:  b.  Kew 
York,  1848,  Mar.  81.  He  was  educated  by  private  tutors 
in  the  United  States  and  Europe;  graduated  at  the  law 
school  of  Columbia  College  1875;  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  state  assembly  1877  as  a  republican,  and  the  state  sen- 
ate 1879,  serving  on  the  committees  on  militia,  cities,  judi- 
ciary, commerce  and  navigation,  and  public  expenditures; 
was  defeated  for  member  of  congress  1880;  was  appointed 
U.  S.  minister  to  Italy,  succeeding  the  late  George  P. 
Marsh,  1882;  and  held  the  office  till  1885.  He  practiced 
his  profession  but  a  short  time,  and  excepting  his  public 
duties  has  applied  himself  to  the  care  of  the  vast  landed 
estate  of  his  family.  In  his  leisure  he  has  published  two 
Italian  romances;  Valeniino  (New  York,  1886),  and  l^oraa: 
a  Story  of  Milan  (1889).  By  the  death  of  his  father  1890, 
Feb.  22,  he  became  the  head  of  his  family  and  inherited 
OQe  of  the  vastest  estates  of  modem  times. 

A8T0RGA.  ds-tor'gd,  Emanuelb  d':  b.  1680,  in  Sidly : 
musician.  His  father,  a  baron  of  Sicily,  in  the  contest  le- 
roectiug  the  annexation  of  the  island  to  Spain,  was  de- 
livered to  the  enemy  by  his  own  mercenary  soldiers,  and 
was  put  to  death  l70l.  Through  the  mterest  of  the 
Spanish  Princess  Ursini,  A.  was  educated  in  a  monas- 
tery at  Astorga  in  Leon.  Here  he  made  great  progress 
in  music,  and  afterward  was  at  the  court  of  the  Duke 
of  Parma,  and  of  the  Emperor  Leopold.  His  best  work 
is  the  StabcU  Mater,  a  masterly  composition,  of  which 
the  original  score  is  preserved  in  Oxford. 

ASTORIA,  <i8-t0'r\-a :  city,  cap.  of  Clatsop  oo..  Or. ;  at 
the  junction  of  the  Young's  and  the  Columbia  rivers, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia ;  98  m.  n.  w.  of  Portland, 
555  m.  n.  of  San  Francisco.  It  was  founded  by  John 
Jacob  Astor,  1811,  as  a  fur-trading  station  (see  Washing- 
ton Irving^s  Aatoria),  It  has  a  harbor  affording  un- 
limited anchorage;  defended  by  Fort  Stevens  on  the 
s.  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  Columbia,  6  m.  below  the 
city,  and  by  Fort  Canby  on  the  n.  side,  12  m.  below; 
and  undergoing  improvement  by  the  federal  govt,  on  an 
appropriation  of  $1,300,000.  The  business  portion  is 
built  entirely  on  piles  over  tide-water,  on  ''•he  s.  bank  of 
the  river,  here  4  m.  wide,  and  the  residence  streets  rise 
in  parallel  terraces  on  the  face  of  a  lofty  hill.  The  city 
is  a  port  of  entry,  and  has  more  than  3  m.  of  excellent 
wharfage  front.  Water  is  brought  11  m.  to  a  reservoir 
holding  3,000,000  gallons,  giving  a  pressure  of  240  ft.  at 
tide-water ;  the  water-works  system  cost  $100,000.  The 
city  has  electric  light  (ooet  $75,000)  and  gas  plants.  It 
oontalns  public  high  and  graded  schools,  6  church  edi- 
fices (Bapt..  Congl.,  Meth.  Episc,  Presb..  Prot.  Epffic., 


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ASTOR  LIBRARY— ASTOUND. 

apd  Rom.  Cath.).  Odd  Fellows'  temple,  Rom.  Cath. 
hospital,  1  national  bank  (cap.  $50,000),  1  private  bank, 
and  2  daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  Salmon  fishing 
and  canning  are  principal  industries :  there  are  about  40 
canneries  in  the  city  and  suburbs ;  average  value  of  the 
season's  salmon  catch,  $2,500,000.  Lumbering  also  is 
an  important  industry,  about  400,000  ft.  per  day  of  logs 
being  *  driven.*    The  city  ships  largely  to  San  Francisco 

and  Liverpool.  Pop.  (1890)  6, 184;  fishing  season  10,000. 
ASTOR  LIBRARY:  a  thartered  institution,  given  to  the 
city  of  New  York  by  the  will  of  John  Jacob  Astor,  who 
died,  1848,  leaving  a  legacy  of  $400,000  for  the  purpose. 
From  this  amount  the  original  building  of  the  libranr  in 
Lafayette  Place  was  erected,  and  opened  to  the  public,  1854, 
Jan.  1.  Two  years  later,  WDliam  B.  Astor,  eldest  son  of 
the  former,  gave  land  adjoining,  on  which  was  erected  a 
second  building,  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  first,  and  to 
these  two  has  since  been  added  a  third  similar  structure. 
The  entire  edifice  is  connected,  and  forms  a  frontage  of  about 
200  ft,  with  a  depth  of  105  ft.  and  a  height  of  70  ft  William 
B.  Astor  added  to  the  orighial  bequest  about  $250,000  dur- 
ing his  life,  and,  by  a  codicU  to  his  will,  $200,000  addition 
al.  His  son,  John  Jacob  A.  2d  (1822,  Jime  10—1890.  Feb. 
22),  bequeathed  the  trustees  $400,000,  directing  that  the  net 
income  should  be  expended  from  time  to  time  in  the  pur- 
chase of  books  to  be  added  to  the  library  and  for  no  other 
purpose;  and  a  further  sum  of  $50,000  as  a  permanent 
fond  whose  income  should  be  used  onlv  for  payiug  the 
trustees  the  sum  of  $10  each  for  attending  each  regular 
meeting  of  the  corporation.  These  bequests  brought  the 
entire  donations  of  the  Astor  family  to  the  library  in  land, 
books,  and  monev  to  nearly  $1,500,000.  The  first  board 
of  trustees  comprised  Washington  Irving,  William  B.  As- 
tor, D.  Lord.  Dn  J.  G.  King,  Dr.  J.  G.  Cogswell,  Fitz 
Greene  Halleck,  Samuel  B.  Ruggles,  S.  Ward.  Charles 
Astor  Bristed,  and  the  mayor  of  New  York,  ex  officio. 
Dr.  Cogswell  collected  all  the  books  for  the  original 
building — known  as  the  South  Library— and  made  the 
entire  catalogue.  He  held  the  oflftce  of  supt.  till  1861, 
when  Frederick  Schraeder  succeeded  him.  Dr.  E.  R. 
Straznicky  was  supt.  1871-73,  James  Carson  Brevooit 
1873-75,  and  Robbins  Little  has  held  the  office  since  1878. 
The  A.  L.  is  a  public  library  of  reference,  no  books  being 
permitted  to  be  removed  from  the  premises.  Any  per- 
son over  14  years  of  age  is  entitled  to  the  privilege  of 
consulting  the  various  works  of  a  general  chamcter.  For 
special  books,  unique  productions,  rare  Americana,  and 
the  rich  collection  of  publications  that  cannot  now  be 
duplicated  in  Europe  or  America,  special  permission 
must  be  obtained.  The  library  is  closed  on  Sundays, 
public  holidays,  and  during  the  month  of  Aug.  for  clean- 
ing. In  1894  it  had  260.611  vols.,  and  an  income  from 
piSduclive  funds  of  $47,054.  In  1895  the  A.  L.  was  con- 
solidated with  ihe  Lenox  Library  and  the  Tilden  Trust. 

ASTOUND,  V.  <w  tatond'  [see  Astonish]:  to  strike  dumb 
with  amazement.    Astound'ing,  imp.    Astounded,  pp. 


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ASTRABAD-ASTRAGALK^. 

aSTRABAD,  d^tra-biid:  town  in  the  n.  of  Persia,  cm). 
of  the  province  of  A. ;  at  the  foot  of  the  n.  slope  of  the  El- 
bruz Mts.,  on  a  small  river  which  runs  into  A.  Bay,  at  the 
s.e.  extremity  of  the  Caspian.  It  is  20  m.  from  the  Caspiaii 
Sea;  lat.  86  50'  n.,  long.  54°  81'  e.  It  was  long  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Eajar  princes  from  whom  the  present  shah 
of  Persia  is  descended;  but  on  account  of  its  situation  in  a 
remote  comer  of  the  kingdom,  it  was  not  made  the  metrop- 
olis, and  it  has  sunk  in  importance.  It  is  still  inclosed  by 
a  dry  ditch  and  mud-wall,  3  m.  in  circumference,  but  its 
great  towers  have  disappeared.  Trade  has  increased  since 
the  establishment  of  a  Russian  consulate.  The  causeway 
constructed  by  Shah  Abbas  is  kept  in  good  repair,  and  con- 
nects A.  with  Elhorassan,  Afghanistan,  etc.  The  town  is 
veiT  unhealthful  during  the  "summer  rains.      Pop.  6,000- 

ASTRADDLE,  ad.  dsirdd'di  [AS.  a,  on,  and  straddle]: 
with  the  legs  on  opposite  sides  of  a  thing. 

ASTRiEA,  n.  ds-tre'a  [Gr.  (uter,  a  starj:  the  goddess  of 
Justice ;  one  of  the  minor  planets.  A&tbj&idm,  n.  plu. 
ds-tre'i^e,  the  family  of  star-corals,  so  called  from  the  great 
development  of  theu*  radiating  septa.  Astb^b  ah,  a.  per- 
taining to  Astrsea;  favored  by  ner  presence. 

ASTRiEA,  oM-^i'a:  daughter  of  2^us  and  Themis,  or 
of  Astrseus  and  Aurora,  was  the  goddess  of  justice,  the  last 
of  all  the  goddesses  who  left  the  earth  when  Uie  golden  age 
'  had  passed  away  and  men  began  to  forge  weapons  and  per- 
petrate acts  of  violence.  She  took  her  place  in  heaven  as 
the  constellation  Virgo  in  the  zodiac— Greek  art  usually 
represented  her  with  a  pair  of  balances  in  her  hand,  and  a 
crown  of  stars  on  her  head.— A.  is  ^so  the  name  of  one  of 
the  Planetoids  (q.v.). 

ASTR JiJ'A,  ASTRiEID^ :  see  Coral:  JtfADREPORE. 

ASTRAGAL,  n.  ds'trd-gdl  [L.  a&trdgdlus;  Gr.  asira^- 
aids,  the  upper  joint  of  the  neck,  the  ankle-joint]:  a  small 
circular  or  semicircular  bead;  the  ring-like  molding  round 
the  top  and  bottom  of  the  column  of  a  pillar ;  the  beaded 
zinc  bars  used  by  zinc-workers  in  making  diamond  and  or- 
namental window-frames.  Abtsagalus,  n.  dstragd-ltis,  in 
aruit,  a  bone  of  the  foot,  which,  by  a  convex  upper  surface 
and  smooth  sides,  forms,  with  the  leg-bones,  the  hinge  of 
the  ankle-joint.  Its  lower  surface  is  concave,  and  rests  on 
the  OS  calcis,  or  heel-bone,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  strong 
ligament.  In  front,  it  has  a  round  head,  which  rests  in  the 
concavity  of  the  scaphoid,  another  bone  of  the  tarsus,  and 
upon  an  elastic  ligament,' its  pressure  upon  which  gives  in 
a  ^at  measure  the  necessary  elasticity  to  the  foot :  it  is  at 
tins  joint  that  inversion  and  eversion  of  the  foot  take  place. 
It  is  evident  that  the  A.  is  a  bone  of  great  importance  to 
the  member,  as  it  supports  the  weight  of  the  body  in  stand- 
ing, and  enters  into  most  of  the  movements  of  the  foot. 
It  is  occasionally  displaced,  usually  in  front  of  the  outei 
ankle. 

ASTRAGAL'EiE:  see  Astragalus. 


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ASTRAGALOMANCY— ASTRAGALUS. 

ASTRAGALOMANCY,  as^rda'a-lo-mdn'»i  [Gr.  astra^ 
galo$,  dice ;  manteia,  divinationj :  pretended  divination 
X>erformed  by  throwing  down  small  dice  with  marks 
corresponding  to  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  observing 
what  words  they  formed.  It  was  practiced  in  the  temple 
of  Hercules  in  Achaia. 

ASTRAGALUS,  ^irdff'd'lus:  genus  of  plants  of  the 
Bat.  Old.  Legumino$oB,  sub-order  I^c^umacecB.    The  pod  is 


Astragalus  BoStlons. 
more  or  less  perfectly  2-celled.  The  leaves  are  pinnate, 
with  a  terminal  leaflet.  The  species  are  numerous,  shrubby, 
and  often  spiny,  or  unarmed  and  herbaceous.  A  number  of 
the  shrubby  species  yield  the  substance  called  Tragacanth 
(q.v.),  or  Gum  Tragacanth. — A.  BoSticus  is  cultivated  in 
Hungary,  Germany,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  for  its  seeds, 
which  are  roasted,  ground,  and  used  as  a  substitute  for  cof- 
fee, or  mixed  with  it  to  improve  its  flavor. — The  Sweet  Milk- 
vetch,  or  Wild  Licorice  (A.  glycyphyUos),  a  native  of  Brit- 
ain and  other  parts  of  Europe,  perennial,  with  lon^  and 
very  thick  roots,  which  penetrate  deep  into  the  soil,  and 
almost  prostrate  stems,  8  feet  in  length,  is  occasionally  cul- 
tivated for  food  of  cattle.  In  the  w.  and  s.w.  United  States 
there  are  various  species,  including  A.  caryocarpu4i,  the 
Ground  Plum;  and  A.  Mollimmvs,  or  'loco- weed,'  which  is 
supposed  to  have  caused  the  death  of  many  thousand  horses 
and  cattle.     In  Vermont  and  n.  occur  2  highland  si)ecies. 


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ASTKAKANITE— ASTRAL. 

ASTRAKANITE,  di'trchkan-U  [Gr.  (utrakanUr—trom 
Astraklian  (q.v.)]:  mineral  with  whitish  crystals;  sama  9m 
bloedite. 

ASTRAKHAN,  ds-trd-kdn':  originally  a  province  of  th« 
Mogul  empire,  bat  united  with  the  Russian  empire,  1554. 
At  present  A.  forms  one  of  the  s.e.  governments  of  Russia 
in  Europe;  bounded  on  the  s.  bj  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
Caucasus;  on  the  w.  hy  the  country  of  the  Don  Cossacks; 
on  the  n.  by  the  g^vt.  of  Saratov;  and  on  the  e.  by  Oren- 
burg: 91,2^  sq.  m.  The  province  of  A.  is  almost  entirely 
a  barren  waste,  the  only  fertile  portions  being  the  banks  of 
the  Volga,  which  divides  the  province  into  two  equal  parts. 
Salt  is  procured  from  the  marshes  of  the  steppes,  consider- 
able numbers  of  cattle  are  reared,  and  the  annufd  value  of 
the  sturgeon-fishing  in  the  Volga  is  as  much  as  2,500,000 
roubles  (about  f  2,000,000).  The  climate  varies  from  70**  F. 
in  summer  to  18^  in  winter.  Pop.  (1887)  982,589,  composed 
of  Russian,  Tartar,  and  a  geeat  diversity  of  elments. 

ASTRAKHAN':  chief  town  of  the  govt,  of  A.;  on  an 
island  of  the  Volga,  near  the  Caspian  Sea;  lat.  46**  21'  n., 
long.  48''  4'  e.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Qreek  abp.  and  an  Ar- 
menian bp.;  has  87  Greek,  2  Rom.  Cath,  1  Prot.,  and  2 
Armenian  churches;  15  mos<^ues,  an  Indian  temple,  a  gym- 
nasium, a  seminary  for  priests,  a  botanical  garden,  and 
many  manufactories.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  wood, 
irregularly  built.  The  fisheries  in  the  Volga  supply  occu- 
pation to  many  inhabitants  of  A.  and  its  neighoorhood. 
The  principal  exports  are  leather,  linen,  and  woolen  goods, 
salted  sturgeon,  caviar,  and  isinglass.  Imports  are  cnietly 
gold-embroidered  silken  goods  from  Persia,  silk  staffs, 
woolen  goods,  rice,  rhubarb,  raw  silk,  drugs,  etc.  From 
July  to  Oct.  the  neighborhood  of  A.  is  frequently  visited 
by  swarms  of  locusts.    Pop.  (1880)  57,700;  (1887)  73,710. 

ASTRAKHAN:  a  fine  curly  kind  of  fur  on  the  pelts  of 
young  lambs,  the  product  of  a  variety  of  sheep  found  in 
Bokhara,  Persia,  and  Syria. 

ASTRAL,  ds'tr&l  [Gr.  aster,  a  star]:  belonging  to  the 
stars;  starry.  Astrax  Body,  in  Theosophy  (q.v.),  a  sort  of 
spiritual  body  detachable  from  man's  material  body  during 
life,  and  subsistiuff  after  the  death  of  the  material  body. 
Astral  Lamp,,  a  kind  of  argand  lamp  casting  an  unin- 
terrupted light  from  under  a  concave  glass.  Astral 
Spirits,  spirits  which,  in  some  eastern  religions,  were 
supposed  to  animate  the  heavenlv  bodies.  The  star  and 
fire  worship  of  the  eastern  religions  rested  on  the  doc- 
trine that  every  heavenly  body  is  animated  by  a  pervading 
spirit,  as  it  were,  a  soul;  and  this  doctrine  passed  into  the 
religio-physical  theories  of  the  Greeks  and  Jews,  and  even 
into  the  Christian  world.  In  the  demonology  or  spirit-sys- 
tems of  Christendom  in  the  middle  ages.  Astral  Spirits  are 
conceived  of  sometimes  as  fallen  angels,  sometimes  as  souls 
of  departed  men,  sometimes  as  spirits  originating  in  fire, 
and  hovering  between  heaven,  earm,  and  helL  Their  inter- 
course with  men  and  their  influence  were  variously  rep- 
resented. In  the  15th  c,  the  demonologists,  or  special 
students  of  this  subject,  systematized  the  strange  fancies 


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A8TRANTIA— ASTKOCARYUM. 

of  that  wild  period;  and  A.  S.  were  made  to  occupy  thft 
first  rank  amonir  evil  or  demoniacal  spirits.  Paracelsus, 
however,  and  others  attributed  to  every  himian  being  an 
astral  spirit,  or  sidereal  element,  in  which  the  human  soul, 
or  spirit  proper,  is  thought  to  inhere,  and  which  lives  for 
a  time  aiter  the  person  dies.  Astral  lamp,  lamp  simi- 
lar to  an  Argand  lamp  (q.v.). 

A8TRANTIA,  as-trdn'ihi-a  [Qr.  oitron,  a  star;  anti,  here 
implying  comparison  with]:  Masterwort;  genus  of  plants 
of  order  Umhelliferm.  Mabterwort  niisapplled  to  cow- 
parsnip. 

ASTRAPiEA,  d»'tra-pe-a  [Gr.  attrapaioB,  pertaining  to 
lightning! :  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Sfereu- 
liaeea,  mbe  Dombeya.  It  has  large  heads  of  flowers  so 
splendid  in  color  that  they  suggested  the  generic  name. 

ASTRAY,  ad.  drstrd'  [AS.  a,  on,  and  stray]:  out  of  the 
ri^t  way  or  proper  place. 

ASTRICT,  V.  OnStrikf  [L.  oMrictu*,  drawn  tight— from 
ad,  to;  atringo,  I  bind]:  to  bind  firmlv;  to  contract.  Astric- 
TiON,  n.  d-itrlk'ihun,  the  act  of  binding  close  or  contract- 
ing; the  contraction  of  parts  by  the  application  of  medi- 
caments. AflTRiCTrvB.  a.  d-strik'tlv,  binding;  also  Astric- 
TOBT,  a,  dstrik^Ur-i, 

AQTBIDE,  ad.  dstrid'  [AS.  a,  on,  and  stride]:  with  the 
legs  apart. 

ASTRIFEROUS,  a.  as-trifer-iis  [L.  astrum,  a  star;  fero, 
I  bear]:  bearing  stars;  starry.  Astrigebous,  as-trig' er-us, 
canying  stars. 

ASTRINGB,  V.  dsMr0'  [L.  astringer^,  to  bind  or  tie 
tight  together— from  ad,  to;  stringo,  I  bind  fast]:  to  bind 
tight]  V  together;  to  contract  by  pressing  together.  AsTRmo'- 
ING,  imp.  Abtringed',  pp.  -strir^d',  AsTBmGENT,  n. 
d-sMn'jint  fL.  astrin'gens  or  astringen'tem,  binding  or 
tyine  fast]:  that  which  contracts  or  draws  together  muscu- 
lar fibre ;  the  opposite  of  laxative;  the  principle  in  bark 
that  tans  hides  for  leather:  Adj.  binding.  Abtrin'- 
OBKCT,  n.  'jin-si,  the  power  of  contracting  parts,  as  tiie 
soft  solids  of  the  body.    Astrin'gentlt,  ad.  -/i. 

ASTRINGENTS:  medicines  used  for  contracting  the 
animal  fibres  and  canals,  so  as  to  check  fluxes,  hemorrhage, 
and  diarrhea.  The  drugs  most  commonly  used  as  A.  are 
alum,  catechu,  oak-galls,  rhatany-root,  etc.  Many  of  the 
vegetable  A.  owe  tluit  property,  in  whole  or  in  great  part, 
to  tannin.  A  severe  aegree  of  cold  is  a  powerful  as- 
tringent. 

ASTRIPOTENT,  a.  ds-trip'o-tSrU  [L.  astrum,  a  star; 
patsns,  powerful]:  ruling  the  stars. 

ASTROCARYUM,  ds-trd-kd'ri-um  [from  the  Gr.  astron, 
a  star,  and  karyan,  a  nut]:  a  genus  of  Palms,  of  which 
about  sixteen  species  are  known,  natives  of  tropical 
America,  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  acute  and  for- 
midable spines— in  some  cases,  a  foot  lon^— with  which 
almost everypart — ^stem,  leaves,  spathe,  and  fruit-stalk— 
is  armed.  Tney  have  beautiful  pinnated  leaves;  some  of 
them  are  lofty,  others  of  very  moderate  height,  as  8-16 


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A8TR0CAEYUM. 

ft.,  while  some  are  almost  altogether  stemless.  The  fruit 
of  some  species  is  eatable — a  juicy  pulp  covering  a  stony 
8eed~«s  the  fruit  of  the  Mukumuru  palm  (-4.  Murumwru), 
the  pulp  of  which  is  said  to  resemble  a  melon  in  flavor, 
has  a  sort  of  musky  odor,  and  is  highly  esteemed.  It  is 
8-12  ft.  high,  abundant  about  Pari  and  elsewhere  on  the 
Amazon.  Cattle  roam  the  forests  in  quest  of  its  fruit, 
and  swine  fatten  on  the  seed,  which  they  crush  with  their 
teeth,  although  to  break  it  requires  a  smart  blow  of  a 


Tuc(im  Palm  {A.  wlgcare). 

hammer,  and  in  hardness  it  almost  resemoles  vegetable 
ivory.  Another  edible  fruit  is  that  of  the  Tdcuma' palm  (A. 
Tucuma),  abundant  in  the  same  regions.  These  fruits  are 
about  an  inch  long,  the  Murumuni  ovate,  the  Tucumd 
almost  globular.  The  Tucumd  palm  is  30-40  ft.  high, 
the  stem  encircled  with  narrow  rings  of  black  spines, 
which  are  disposed  with  beautiful  regularity.  The  Tuct^M 
palm  (A,  vulgare\  a  species  quite  distinct  from  the 
Tucumd,  and  more  lofty,  is  of  great  importance  to  the 
Indians,  and  in  places  where  it  is  not  indigenous,  is  culti- 
vated with  care  on  account  of  the  epidermis  of  its  unopened 
leaves,  of  which  they  make  cordage,  useful  for  bow- 
strings, fishing-nets,  etc.  The  fibre  is  at  once  fine,  strong, 
and  durable,  and  may  perhap  become  important  as  an 
article  of  commerce,  beautiful  hammocks  are  made  of 
tucum   thread.    Martins,  in  his  great  work  on  Palms 


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ASTROGNOSY— ASTROLABE. 

(Palm  Trees  of  the  Amaeon,  Lond.  1858),  has,  by  mistake. 
represented  the  Tucum^  instead  of  the  Tucilm  palm  as 
yielding  this  fibre.  The  fibre  is  obtained  by  cutting  down 
the  terminal  bud  or  column  of  unopened  leaves  which  rises 


Stemless  Palm  (A.  acaule). 

6,  spadix,  with  spathe  forming  a  hood  over  fruit;  c,  fruit,  about 

one-flfth  natural  sisse. 

from  the  centre  of  the  crown  of  foliage.  The  tender  leaflets 
are  then  carefully  stripped  of  their  epidermis,  in  pale, 
ribbon-like  pellicles  which  shrivel  up  almost  to  a  thread. 
These  are  tied  in  bundles,  and  dried,  and  afterwards 
twisted  into  thread,  or  made  into  thicker  cords,  by  mere 
rolling  and  manipulation. 

ASTROGNOSY,  n.  astrog'Tw-trl  [Gr.  (utron,  a  star; 
gnom^  inquiry,  knowledge]:  knowledge  of  the  stars. 

A8TR0GRAPHY,  n.  ds-trog'rd-fi  [Gr.  aster  or  astron,  a 
star;  grapho,  I  describe]:  a  description  of  the  stars. 

ASTROro,  n.  dS'troyd'  [Gr.  astron,  a  star;  eidos^  form] 
in  her.,  a  mullet. 

A8TR01TE,  n.  as-trd'lt  [Gr.  astran,  star;  lithos,  stone] 
any  star  stone,  i.e. ,  stone  of  a  radiate  structure  or  superficially 
radiated;  specially,  an  ancient  gem,  called  by  Pliny  asteria. 
Some  have  thought  this  the  mineral  cat's-eye,  others  ami- 
anthus or  asbestos  inclosed  in  quartz.  Phillips  and  Dana 
regard  it  as  a  variety  of  the  sapphire — that  sometimes  called 
the  asieriated  sappmre. 

ASTROLABE,  n.  ds'trd-lab  [Gr.  astron,  a  star;  labein,  to 
take]:  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  any  circular  instru- 
ment for  observing  the  stars.  Circular  rings,  arranged  as 
in  the  armillary  sphere  (see  under  Armella),  were  used 
for  this  purpose.  A  projection  of  the  sphere  upon  a  plane, 
with  a  graduated  rim  and  si^ht  for  taking  altitudes,  was 
known  as  an  A.  in  the  palmy  days  of  astrology,  and  was  the 
badge  of  the  astrologer.  The  A.  has  been  superseded  by 
the  mstruments  of  modern  astronomy.  See  Quadrant: 
Skxtant. 


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ASTROLATRY— ASTllOLOGY. 

A8TR0LATRY,  n.  ds-irol'&^M  [Gr.  astron,  a  star, 
latrei'a,  worship]:  the  worship  of  celestial  bodies;  star- 
worship. 

A8TR0LITH0L0GY,  dstro-lUhdlo^i  [Gr.  asiron,  a 
star;  lithoi,  a  stone;  U^ffoi,  a  discourse]:  the  science  which 
treats  of  meteorites  or  aerolites. 

ASTROLOGY,  n.  ds4r6l'6^i  [Gr.  astron,  a  star;  logoi, 
discourse]:  a  science  that  pretends  to  foretell  events  by  ob- 
serving the  stars.  AfirrBOLOOBB,  n.  ^er,  a  person  who 
pretends  to  foretell  events  by  the  stars.  Astbological, 
a.  ds'ti-d-iofl-kdl,  or  Abtrolooio,  -ik,  pertaining  to.  Ab'tro- 
LOo'iCALLY,  ad.  'i-kdl^l.  Astbolooizb,  v.  di^r&l'i^fiz,  to 
practice  astrology.  ABTBOL'oai'ziNG^imp.  Abtbol'ogized', 
pp.  jUd'. 

ASTROL'OGY:  originally  nearly  the  same  as  (utranomp, 
'  the  knowledge  of  the  stars';  at  length  restricted  to  the 
science  of  predicting  future  events,  especially  the  f ortimes 
of  men,  from  the  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  This 
was  considered  the  higher,  the  real  science;  while  the  mere 
knowledge  of  the  stars  themselves,  their  places  and  motions 
(astronomv),  was,  till  recently,  cultivated  mostly  with  a 
view  to  (judicial)  astrology.  A.  is  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient forms  of  superstition;  it  prevailed  among  the  nations 
of  the  East  (Egyptians,  Chaldseians,  Hindus,  Chinese^  at  the 
very  dawn  of  mstory.  The  Jews  became  much  addicted 
to  it  after  the  captivity.  It  spread  into  the  West  and  to 
Rome  at  about  the  Christian  era.  Astrologers  were  an  im- 
portant class  at  Rome,  where  they  were  called  Chaldfleans 
and  Mathematicians;  and  though  of  ten  banished  by  the  sen- 
ate and  emperors  under  pain  of  death,  and  otherwise  per- 
secuted, they  held  their  ground.  The  Roman  poet  Man- 
ilius,  author  of  an  astronomical  poem  still  extant,  was 
addicted  to  A. ;  and  even  Ptolemy  the  astronomer  did  not 
escape  the  infection,  which  in  his  time  had  become  uni- 
versal. A.,  which  accords  well  with  the  predestinarian 
doctrines  of  Mohammedanism,  was  cultivated  with  great 
ardor  by  the  Arabs  from  the  7th  to  the  Idth  c.  Some  of 
the  early  Christian  fathers  argued  against  the  doctrines  of 
A.,  others  received  them  in  a  modified  form.  In  its  pub- 
lic capacity  the  Roman  Church  several  times  condemned 
the  system;  but  many  zealous  Rom.  Catholics  have  culti- 
vated it.  Cardinal  d'Ailly,  *  the  Eagle  of  the  doctors  of 
France,'  (d.  1420),  is  said  to  have  calculated  the  horoscope 
of  Jesus  Christ,  and  maintained  that  the  deluge  might  have 
been  predicted  by  A.  For  centuries  the  most  learned  men 
continued  devoted  to  this  delusive  science;  Regiomonta- 
nus,  the  famous  mathematician  Cardan, even  Tycho  Brahe 
and  Kepler  could  not  shake  off  the  fascination.  Eei)ler 
saw  the  weakness  of  A.  as  a  science,  but  could  not  bring 
himself  to  deny  a  certain  connection  between  the  positions 
('  constellations ')  of  theplanets  and  the  qualities  of  those 
bom  under  them.  The  Copemican  system  gave  the 
death-blow  to  A.  When  the  earth  itself  was  found  to  be 
only  one  of  the  planets,  it  seemed  absurd  that  all  the  others 
should  be  occupied  in  influencing  it.    The  argument  has 


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A8TROMETEOROLOGY— ASTROMBTER. 

really  little  force,  but  it  produced  the  effect.  Belief  in  A. 
is  not  now  ostensibly  professed  in  any  Christian  country, 
though  a  few  solitaiy  advocates  have  from  time  to  time  ap- 
pear^, as  J.  M.  Pfaff  in  Germany,  Astrologie  (Bamb. 
1816);  and  ignorant  impostors  use  it  to  get  money  from  the 
superstitious.  But  it  still  holds  swav  in  the  East,  and 
among  Mohammedans  everywhere.  Even  in  Europe  the 
craving  of  the  ignorant  for  divination  is  still  gratified  by 
the  publication  of  multitudes  of  almanacs  containins^  as- 
trological predictions,  though  the  writers  no  longer  believe 
in  them. 

Many  passages  of  old  writers  are  unintelligible  without 
some  knowledge  of  astrological  terms,  numlSers  of  which 
have  taken  root  in  the  language.  In  the  technical  rules  by 
which  human  destiny  was  foreseen,  the  heavenly  haiLses 
played  an  important  part.  Astrologers  were  by  no  means 
at  one  as  to  the  way  of  laying  out  those  houses.  A  very 
general  way  was  to  draw  great  circles  through  the  n.  and 
8.  points  of  the  horizon,  as  meridians  pass  through  the 
poles,  dividing  the  heavens,  visible  and  invisible,  into 
twelve  equal  parts— six  above  the  horizon,  and  six  below. 
These  were  the  twelve  houses,  and  were  numbered  on- 
ward, beginning  with  that  which  lay  in  the  e.  immediately 
below  the  horizon.  The  first  was  called  the  house  of  life; 
the  second,  of  fortune,  or  riches;  the  third,  of  brethren; 
the  fourth,  of  relations;  the  fifth,  of  children;  the  sixth, 
of  health;  the  seventh,  of  marriage;  the  eighth,  of  death; 
or  the  upper  portal;  the  ninth,  of  religion;  the  tenth,  of 
dignities;  the  eleventh,  of  friends  and  benefactors;  the 
twelfth,  of  .enemies,  or  of  captivity.  The  position  of  the 
twelve  houses  for  a  given  time  and  place — the  instant  of 
an  individual's  birth,  for  instance — was  a  theme.  To  con- 
struct such  a  plan  was  to  ecut  the  person's  nativity.  The 
houses  had  dinerent  powers,  the  strongest  being  the  first; 
as  it  contained  the  part  of  the  heavens  about  to  rise,  it 
was  called  the  {teeeruiant,  and  the  point  of  the  ecliptic  cut 
by  its  upper  boundary  was  the  horotcope.  Each  house 
had  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies  as  its  loriif  who  was  strong- 
est in  his  own  house. 

ASTROMETEOROLOGY,  de-M^m^a-iyr-^l' 0:j%  [Gr. 
(uiron,  a  star;  metedTcHogiar-irom  metedroB,  meteor;  hgoB, 
discourse]:  the  investigation  of  the  influence  exerted  by 
sun,  moon,  and  stars  upon  the  weather.  The  sun  exerts 
transcendent  influence ;  but  there  is  no  ground  for  ^e 
common  notion  that  changes  of  the  moon  effect  changes  in 
the  weather;  and  no  suoi  influence  is  traceable  to  the 
stars. 

A8TROMETER,  n.  dS'trdm'i-t^  [Gr.  asPron,  a  star; 
metron,  a  measure]:  an  instrument  devised  for  compar- 
ing the  brightness  of  stars.  Abtkom'btby,  n.  -^^rl,  meas- 
urement and  numerical  eApreaakwi  of  the  apparent  magni- 
tude of  the  fixed  stars. 


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ASTRONOMY. 

ASTRONOMY,  n.  ds-Mn'd-mi  [Gr.  attron,  a  star; 
a  law]:  the  science  that  treats  of  everything  conneeted  with 
the  heavenly  bodies.  Astbonoheb,  n.  tU-irvn'dmtr^  ooe 
given  to  the  study  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Astbonomic,  a. 
astro  iwrnlk,  or  As'tbonom'ical.  a.  -nom l-kdC,  pertidn- 
ing  to.  As'tbongm'icallt,  ad.  -li,  Astsonomizk,  y.  d#- 
tron'o-mlz,  to  assume  the  habits  and  study  of  an  astronomer. 
AsTBON OMi'zmo,  imp.    AsTBONOMizflD',  pp.  -miof . 

ASTRON'OMY:  science  of  the  heavenly  bodies;  prop- 
erly divided  under  three  heads.  1.  Qeometrical  or  lidih^ 
ma rim^^., including  the  exact  determination  of  the  numer- 
ical and  geometrical  elements  of  the  heaven  lybodiee — ^that 
is,  their  distances,  shapes,  magnitudes,  the  figures  that  they 
describe  in  their  motions,  etc.  2.  Physical  A.,  or  the  na- 
ture of  the  powers  or  forces  that  carry  on  the  heavenly 
motions,  the  laws  that  they  observe,  and  the  calculation  di 
the  motions  from  a  knowledge  of  these  laws.  8.  Sidereal 
A.,  or  whatever  is  ascertained  regarding  the  universe  of 
the  fixed  stars.  Practical  A,  might  form  another  division, 
which  would  include  a  knowledge  of  the  various  astro- 
nomical instruments ;  and  a  familiarity  generally  with 
the  rules  and  calculations  by  which  the  requisite  results 
are  deduced  from  observations. 

For  parts  of  this  extensive  subject,  see  Aberratiok  ow 
Light:  Aerolites:  Circle:  Combt:  Eclipses:  Equator: 
Libration:  Meteors:  Moon:  NsBULiE:  Parallax: 
Planetoids:  Planets:  Precession:  Refraction:  Solab 
System:  Stars:  Sun:  Transit  Instrument:  etc  See 
also  the  principal  names  mentioned  in  the  brief  sketch  of 
the  history  of  astronomical  discovery  which  follows  here. 

The  history  of  A.  dates  from  a  very  earlv  period.  It  is 
the  most  ancient  of  all  the  sciences.  The  Cninese,  Hindus, 
Chaldseans,  Egyptians,  and  even  the  Greeks,  are  known  to 
have  investigated  the  heavens  very  long  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  But  with  the  first  four  nations,  A.  may  be  said 
to  have  been  a  sentiment  rather  than  a  science^ — a  vague 
notion  built  up  out  of  crude  speculations,  rather  th^  a 
correct  theory  founded  on  systen^itic  observation.  In 
China,  A.  was  intimately  associated  with  state  politics;  the 
Indians,  Chaldseans,  ana  Egyptians  made  it  a  matter  of 
religion;  and  each  of  these  nations  applied  it  to  astrological 
purposes.  In  Greece  alone  was  it  prosecuted  for  its  own 
sake. 

The  Chinese,  Chaldseans,  Hindus,  and  Egyptians  each 
claim  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first  students  of  A., 
and  each  has  had  advocates  of  its  claim.  The  Tirvalore 
tables  (asserted  by  the  Hindus  to  belong  to  an  epoch  of 
B.C.  8103 — the  commencement  of  the  Cali-yu^,  or  iron 
age,  of  their  mythology — at  which  period  a  conjunction  of 
the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  is  said  to  have  occurred)  are, 
so  far  as  their  date  is  concerned,  altogether  untrustworthy. 
Modern  calculations  have  conclusively  proved  that  no  such 
conjunction  could  possibly  have  taken  place  at  the  time 
specified;  and  the  elements  of  the  tables  are,  in  the  general 
opinion  of  scientific  men,  of  a  character  far  In  advance  of 
the  actual  observations  of  that  period.    There  is  no  doubt 


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ASTRONOMY. 

that  the  epoch  is  fictitious— that  the  date  of  these  tables  ii 
fixed  much  earlier  than  their  internal  evidence  lustifies; 
but  it  is  a  question  whether  they  were  the  result  of  the 
obseryations  of  Uindus  themselves  at  some  later  period 
before  the  Christian  era,  or  whether  they  were  constructed 
after  that  era  from  data  furnished  to  them  by  the  Arabs  or 
Greeks.  Those  who  hold  the  former  view,  quote  the  well- 
known  mathematical  attainments  of  the  Indians,  and  their 
aversion  to  intercourse  with  foreigners,  as  arguments  in 
its  favor;  those  who  support  the  latter,  point  out  that  the 
tables  are  a  mean  between  those  of  Ptolemy  and  Albateg- 
nius,  or  Al  Batani,  a  distinguished  Arabian  astronomer, 
and  therefore  likely  to  have  been  derived  from  these  two 
sources.  Those  who  are  interested  in  the  question  of  the 
ori^ality  of  these  tables,  may  refer  to  Delambre,  and  to 
Bauly's  Uist.  de  VAst/ronomie  Indienne. 

The  Chinese  have  astronomical  annals  claiming  to  go 
back  to  B.O.  2857.  In  these  there  is  little  record  of  any- 
thing but  of  the  appearance  of  comets  and  solar  eclipses; 
and  regarding  the  latter  phenomena,  they  tell  nothing,  save 
the  fact  and  date  of  their  occurrence.  Professional 
astronomers  were  compelled  to  predict  every  eclipse  under 
pain  of  death.  The  popular  idea  was,  that  an  eclipse  was 
a  monster  having  evil  designs  on  the  sun,  and  it  wa9 
customary  to  make  a  great  noise,  by  shouting,  beating  of 
gongs,  etc.,  in  order  to  friehten  it  away  from  its  solar 

grey.  The  many  eclipses  which  the  Chinese  report  have 
een  recalculated,  but  not  more  than  one  anterior  to  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  could  be  verified.  At  an  early  period, 
however,  the  Chinese  appear  to  have  been  acquainted  with 
the  luni-solar  cycle  of  nineteen  years  (introduced  into 
Greece  bv  Meton,  and  since  known  as  the  Metonic  Cycle), 
and  they  had  also  divided  the  year  in  to  865^  days.  Solstitial 
observances  are  said  to  have  been  made  by  means  of  a 

fnomon,  b.c.  11th  c.  To  the  burning  of  all  scientific  books 
y  one  of  their  princes  (Tsin-Chi-Hong-Ti),  b.c.  231,  the 
Chinese  attribute  the  loss  of  many  theories  or  methods 
previously  in  use.  The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  was 
not  known  to  the  Chinese  until  a.d.  400,  but  long  before 
Uiat  they  were  familiar  with  the  motion  of  the  planets. 

The  mass  of  evidence  points  to  the  plains  of  Chaldsea  as 
the  primal  seat  of  observative  A.  The  risings  and  settings 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  eclipses  were  subjects  of 
observation  and  notation  by  their  priests  at  a  very  remote 
period.  Simplicius  and  Porphyry  mention  that  there  was 
transmitted  to  Aristotle  from  Babylon,  by  order  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  a  catalogue  of  eclipses  observed  during 
1,908  years  preceding  the  conquest  of  that  city  by  the 
Macedonians.  Ptolemy  gives  six  of  the  eclipses  from  this 
catalogue,  but  the  earliest  does  not  extend  further  back 
than  B.C.  720.  The  probability  therefore  is,  that  the  state- 
ment of  Simplicius,  as  to  their  earljr  date,  is  an  exaggera- 
tion. In  these  observations,  the  time  is  given  only  in 
hours,  and  the  part  of  the  diameter  eclipsed  withm  a 
quarter;  but  rough  as  they  are,  they  are  the  earliest  trust- 
worthy observations  extant;  and  a  comparison  of  them 


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ASTRONOMY. 

with  modem  observations  led  Hal  ley  to  the  discovery  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  moon's  acceleration — that  is,  that  she 
now  moves  i-ound  the  earth  with  greater  velocity  than 
formerly.  It  is  remarkably  illustrative  of  the  Chaldasan 
habit  of  diligent  observation,  that  the  Chaldfieans  were 
acquainted  with  the  cycle  of  6,585i  days,  during  which  the 
moon  makes  about  228  synodical  revolutions,  and  ex- 
periences the  same  number  of  eclipses,  alike,  too,  in  order 
and  magnitude,  comparing  cycle  with  cycle.  The 
clepsydra  as  a  clock,  the  gnomon  for  determining  the 
solstices,  and  a  hemispherical  dial  for  ascertaining  the 
positions  of  the  sun,  were  used  by  the  Chaldaeans,  and  they 
have  the  credit  of  the  invention  of  the  zodiac  and  the 
duodecimal  division  of  the  day. 

The  Egyptians,  it  is  supposed,  were  the  first  instructors 
of  the  Greeks  in  A.  They  do  not,  however,  api)ear  to 
have  observed  much  for  themselves.  The  meaning  of 
what  data  they  have  left  behind  them  can  be  guessed  at  in 
-Duly  a  few  instances.  No  mention  is  made  by  Ptolemy  of 
the  idea  ascribed  to  them,  that  the  planets  Mercury  and 
Venus  moved  round  the  sun;  the  probability  therefore  is, 
«Dce  Ptolemy  was  not  likely  to  overlook  such  a  novel 
theory,  that  they  entertained  no  such  notion  at  the  t^me  of 
tiis  visit,  but  that  it  is  an  after-thought  of  later  ages.  From 
'.he  accuracy  with  which  some  of  the  p3rramias  face  the 
cardinal  points,  there  is  a  supposition  that  they  must  have 
been  erected  for  astronomical  purposes;  but  if  it  be  true, 
as  is  stated,  that  Thales  taught  the  Egyptians  how  to  find 
the  height  of  the  pyramids  by  the  shadow,  and  that  the 
latter  iniormed  Herodotus  that  the  sun  had  twice  been  seen 
to  rise  in  the  west,  the  conclusion  is  that  the  A.  of  the 
ancient  Eg^rptians  was  very  meagre  and  absurd. 

Before  this  point  of  history,  A.  is  little  else  than  tradi- 
tion. The  Greeks  have  the  honor  of  elevating  it  into  the 
dignity  of  a  science.  Tliales  (b. c.  640),  f  oimder  of  the  Ionic 
school,  laid  the  foundation  of  Greek  A.  He  it  was  who 
first  set  forth  the  theory  of  the  earth's  sphericity.  The 
sphere  he  divided  into  five  zones.  He  predicted  the  year 
of  a  great  soUu'  eclipse,  but  this  it  is  now  supposed  he  must 
have  casually  succeeded  in  doing — the  Greeks  at  this  time 
having  no  observations  of  their  own  to  guide  them — by 
means  of  the  Chaldsean  Saros,  or  period  of  eighteen  years 
and  ten  days,  which  gives  a  regular  recurrence  of  eclipees. 
He  made  the  Greeks,  who,  prior  to  his  time,  were  content  to 
navigate  their  vessels  by  the  Great  Bear— a  rough  ap- 
proximation to  the  north — acquainted  with  the  lesser  con- 
stellation of  that  name,  a  much  better  guide  for  the  mariner. 
His  system,  however,  contained  much  absurdity.  Among 
other  things,  he  held  that  the  stars  were  composed  of  fire, 
and  that  the  earth  was  the  centre  of  the  universe.  The 
successors  of  Thales  held  opinions  which  in  many  respects 
are  wonderfully  in  accordance  with  modem  ideas.  Anax- 
imander,  it  is  said,  held  that  the  earth  moved  about  its 
own  axis,  and  that  the  moon's  light  was  reflected  from  the 
sun.  To  him  is  also  attributed,  on  somewhat  slender 
authority,  the  belief  in  the  grand  idea  of  the  plurality  of 


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ASTRONOMY. 

worlds.  Anaxagoras,  who  transferred  the  Ionic  school 
from  Miletus  to  Athens,  is  said  to  have  offered  a  conjecture 
that,  like  the  earth,  the  moon  had  habitations,  hills,  and 
valleys. 

Pythagoras  (b.c.  500),  the  next  astronomer  of  eminence, 
was  far  m  advance  of  his  predecessors.  He  promul^ted, 
on  grotmds  that  were  fanciful,  the  theory,  since  established, 
that  the  sun  is  the  centre  of  the  planetary  world,  and  that  the 
earth  circulates  ro\md  it.  Pythagoras  also  first  taught  that 
the  morning  and  evening  star  were  in  reality  one  and  the 
same  planet.  But  the  views  of  Pyth^oras  met  with  little 
or  no  support  from  his  successors  until  the  time  of  Coper- 
nicus. Between  Pythagoras  and  the  advent  of  the  Alex- 
andrian school,  nearly  a  couple  of  centuries  later,  the  most 
Srominent  names  in  astronomical  annals  are  those  of 
[eton  (b.c.  432),  who  introduced  the  luni-solar  cycle,  and 
in  conjimction  with  Euctemon  observed  a  solstice  at 
Athens,  b.c.  424;  Callippus  (b.c.  880),  who  improved  the 
Metonic  cycle;  Eudoxus  of  Cnidus  (b.c.  370),  who  brought 
into  Greece  the  year  of  365i  days,  and  wrote  some  works 
on  A. ;  and  Nicetas  of  Syracuse,  who  is  reported  to  have 
taij^ht  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis. 

To  the  Alexandrian  school,  owing  its  existence  to  the 
munificent  Ptolemies,  the  world  owes  the  first  systematic 
observations  in  A.  Hitherto  the  truths  of  A.  rested  on  no 
better  evidence  than  the  conjectures  of  sagacious  minds, 
and  these  being  opposed  to  the  testimony  of  the  senses, 
met  with  but  little  acceptance  from  the  world.  The  Alex- 
andrian school  originated  a  connected  series  of  observa- 
tions relative  to  the  constitution  of  the  universe.  The 
positions  of  the  fixed  stars  were  determined,  the  paths  of 
the  planets  carefully  traced,  and  the  solar  and  limar  ine- 
qualities more  accurately  ascertained.  Angular  distances 
were  calculated  with  instruments  suitable  to  the  purpose 
by  trigononfetrical  methods,  and  ultimately  the  school  of 
Alexandria  presented  to  the  world  the  first  system  of  theo- 
retical astronomy  that  had  ever  comprehended  an  entire 
plan  of  the  celestial  motions.  The  system  we  know  to  be 
false,  and  inferior  to  the  Pjrthagorean  notions;  but  it  had  the 
merit  of  being  founded  upon  a  long  and  patient  observation 
of  phenomena,  a  principle  which  finally  brought  about  the 
destruction  of  the  system,  while  the  previous  theories  were 
the  results  of  mere  hypothesis. 

The  most  interesting  points  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Alexandrian  school  are  the  attempts  made  to  determine  the 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  and  the  magnitude  of 
the  terrestrial  globe.  Aristarchus  of  Samos— the  pioneer  of 
the  Copemican  system,  as  Humboldt  calls  him — is  the 
author  of  an  ingenious  plan  to  ascertain  the  former.  See 
Aristabchus  op  Samos. 

Among  the  eminent  members  of  this  school  were  Timo- 
charis  and  Aristyllus,  who  made  the  observations  which, 
together  with  ooservations  of  Hipparchus  (q.v.)  enabled 
the  latter  to  discover  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes; 
Eratosthenes  (q.v.),  the  first  who  attempted  to  determine  on 
true  principles  the  magnitude  of  the  earth,  and  to  clear,  as 


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ABTRONOBTF. 

Humboldt  expresses  it,  *  the  descriptioii  of  tlie  earth  from 
itii  fabulous  traditions';  snd  Autolycus,  whose  books  on  A. 
are  the  earliest  extant  in  the  Qreek  language. 

With  Hipparchus  of  Bithynia  (B.C.  160-125),  far  the 
greatest  name  of  all  in  astronomical  science  down  to  ( jat 
period,  begins  the  real  written  history  of  scientific  A.;  for 
not  until  bis  era  were  there  facts  verified  and  sufiioicnt  in 
number  on  which  to  build  a  system.  Hipparchus  was  at 
once  a  theorist,  a  mathematician,  and  an  observer.  He 
catalogued  no  less  than  1,081  stars— the  first  trustworthy 
catalogue  that  we  have.  He  discovered  the  precession  dT 
the  equinoxes;  he  determined,  with  greater  exactitude  than 
his  predecessors  had  done,  the  mean  motion,  as  well  as  the 
inequality  of  the  motion  of  the  sun;  also  the  length  of 
the  year.  He  determined  the  mean  motion  of  the  moon, 
her  eccentricity,  the  equation  of  her  centre,  and  the  in- 
clination of  her  orbit;  and  he  suspected  the  IncquaUtv  af- 
terwards discovered  by  Ptolemy  (the  evection).  He  in- 
vented processes  analogous  to  plane  and  spherical  trigo- 
nometry, and  was  the  first  to  use  right  ascensions  and  de- 
clinations, which  he  afterwards  abandoned  in  favor  c^ 
latitudes  and  longitudes. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  and  a  half  after  the  demise 
of  this  indefatigable  astronomer,  no  name  of  note  appears. 
Ptolemy  (a.d.  130-150)  is  the  next  who  i*iscs  above  the  mass 
of  mediocrities.  Besides  being  a  practical  astronomer,  he 
was  accomplished  as  musician,  geographer,  and  mathema- 
tician. His  most  important  discovery  in  A.  was  the  libra- 
tion  or  evection  of  the  moon.  He  also  was  the  first  to  point 
out  the  effect  of  refraction.  He  extended  and  improved 
many  of  the  theories  of  Hipparchus,  and  was  the  founder 
of  the  false  system  known  by  his  name,  universally  ac- 
cepted as  the  true  theory  of  the  universe,  until  the  re- 
searches of  Copernicus  overthrew  it  The  Ptolemaic 
system,  expoimded  in  the  Great  CoUection,  or,  as  it  was 
called  by  the  Arabs,  the  Almage$t^trom  which  source  most 
of  the  modem  knowledge  of  Greek  A.  is  derived — placed 
the  earth  immovable  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  making 
the  entire  heavens  revolve  round  it  in  the  course  of  twenty- 
four  hours. 

With  Ptolemy  closes  the  originality  of  the  Greek  sdiool 
His  successors  were  men  of  no  mark,  confining  themselves 
for  the  most  part  to  astrology,  or  to  comments  on  earlier 
writers.  To  the  Arabs  are  due  the  next  advances  in  A, 
They  commenced  making  observations  a.d.  762,  in  the 
reign  of  the  Caliph  Al  Mansur,  who  gave  great  encourage- 
ment to  science,  as  did  also  his  successors,  the  'good 
Haroun  Alraschid '  and  Al  Mamoum.  both  of  whom  were 
diligent  students  of  A.  For  four  centuries,  the  Arabs  pro- 
secuted the  study  of  the  science  with  assiduity,  but  they  are 
meritorious  chiefly  as  observers.  They  had  little  capacity 
for  speculation,  and  throughout  held  the  Greek  theories  in 
superstitious  reverence.  They,  however,  determined  with 
much  more  accuracy  than  the  Greeks  had  done  the 
precession  of  the  eqmnoxcs,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic, 
and  the  solar  eccentricity;  and  the  lengtn  of  the  tropical 


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ASTRONOMY. 

year  was  ascertained  within  a  few  secotuls  of  the  truth. 
The  most  illustrious  of  the  Arabian  school  were  Albategnius 
or  Al  Batani  (880),  who  discovered  the  motion  of  the  solar 
apogee  (see  Akokalibtig  Yeab),  and  who  was  also  the  first 
to  make  use  of  sines  and  versed  sines  instead  of  chords;  he 
conrected  the  Greek  observations,  and  was  altogether  the 
most  distinguished  observer  between  Hipparchus  and  the 
Coperpican  era;  and  Ibn-Yunis(lOOO),  an  excellent  mathe- 
matician, who  made  observations  of  great  importance  in 
determining  the  disturbances  and  eccentricities  of  Jupiter 
and  Saturn,  and  who  was  the  first  to  use  cotangents  and 
sooants. 

In  northern  Persia,  an  observatory  was  erected  by « 
descendant  of  the  renowned  warrior  Genghis  Khan,  where 
some  tables  were  constructed  by  Nasir-Eddin;  and  at  Sar- 
macand,  Ulugh  Beg,  a  grandson  of  Timur,  made,  1488, 
many  observations,  and  me  most  correct  catalogue  of  stars 
whi^,  down  to  his  time,  had  been  published. 

In  the  18th  c,  A.  was  again  introduced  into  western 
Europe,  the  first  translation  from  the  Almagest  being  made 
under  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  of  Germany,  abt.  1280; 
and  in  1253  an  impulse  was  given  to  the  science  by  the 
formation  of  astronomical  tables  under  the  auspices  of 
Alfonso  X.  of  Castile.  An  Englishman,  named  Holjrwood 
(Sacrobosco),  J  220,  wrote  a  book  of  great  repute  in  its  day 
on  the  spheres,  chiefly  abridged  from  Ptolemy;  and  among 
others  who  did  much  to  promote  a  taste  for  A.  were  Pur- 
bach  (1460),  Re^omontanus  (John  MuUer,  died  1476),  and 
Waltherus,  pupil  of  the  latter,  who  made  numerous  obser- 
vations of  merit. 

At  this  point  comes  into  view  the  illustrious  name  of 
Copernicus  (1478-1548),  to  whom  was  reserved  the  grand 
honor  and  the  danger — for  there  is  ever  danger  in  bringing 
old  notions  into  disrepute  bv  introducing  new  truth— of 
disproving  the  Ptolemaic  idea,  and  of  promulgating  a 
correct  though  imperfect  theory  of  the  universe.  His 
system  is  in  some  part  a  revival  and  systematic  application 
of  the  opinions  said  to  have  been  held  by  Pythagoras.  It 
makes  the  sun  the  immovable  centre  of  the  universe, 
around  which  all  the  planets  revolve  in  concentric  orbits, 
MercuiT  and  Venus  within  the  earth's  orbit,  and  all  the 
other  planets  without  it.  In  the  Copemican  theory,  there 
remained  many  of  the  old  notions  since  shown  fallacioua 
It  is  a  current  belief  that  Copernicus,  afraid  to  state  boldly 
such  heterodox  views  of  the  universe  as  those  he  entertained, 
ffave  them  forth  in  the  form  of  an  hypothesis.  Humboldt 
{Cosmo8,  vol.  ii.  p.  845),  denies  that  he  did  so.  This  dis- 
tinguished authority  says:  '  The  language  of  Copernicus 
is  powerful  and  free,  and  bursts  forth  from  his  inmost  con- 
victions, and  thus  sufticiently  refutes  the  ancient  opinion, 
that  he  has  brought  forward  the  system  which  is  immor- 
talized by  his  name,  as  a  hypothesis  made  for  the  conven- 
ience of  calculating  astronomers,  or  as  one  which  has  but 
a  probable  foundation.'  The  same  author  also  refutes  the 
popular  notion  that  Copernicus  died  a  few  hours  after  re- 
ceiving a  printed  copy  of  his  book.    He  was  broken  down 


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ASTRONOMY. 

in  body  and  mind  when  his  work  On  the  Bewlutiont  qf  the 
HeawrUy  Bodiee  was  brought  to  him,  but  he  did  not  die 
until '  many  days  afterwaras,  1548,  May  ^4.' 

Among  the  contemporaries  of  Copernicus  were  Rhein- 
hold,  who  constructed  the  Prutenic  tables;  Recorde,  the 
first  to  write  on  A.  in  English;  and  Nonius,  a  Portuguese, 
who  invented  a  method  for  dividing  the  circle.  The  study 
of  A.  was  also  much  aided  about  this  time  by  the  liberality 
of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  William  IV. 

Decidedly  the  most  industrious  observer  and  eminent 
practical  astronomer  from  the  time  of  the  Arabs  to 
the  latter  half  of  the  16th  c.  was  Tycho  Brah6  (1546- 
1601).  Considerable  odium  attaches  to  him  on  account  ot 
his  repudiation  of  the  Copemican  svstem,  but  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  in  the  time  of  l^cho  that  system 
was  not  supported  by  the  conclusive  evidence  which  now 
renders  it  unquestionable.  Tycho 's  system,  which  made 
the  sun  move  round  the  earth,  and  all  the  other  planets 
round  the  sun,  they  moving  with  it  round  the  earth,  ex- 
plained all  natural  phenomena  then  observed  equally  well, 
while  it  must  have  appeared  more  probable  than  the  crude 
and,  at  that  era,  undemonstrable  theories  of  Copernicus. 
Tycho  Brah§  compiled  a  catalo^e  of  777  fixed  stars, 
more  nearlv  perfect  than  any  previous.  He  made  the  first 
table  of  refractions,  and  discovered  the  variation  and  an- 
nual equation  of  the  moon,  the  inequalities  of  the  motion 
of  the  nodes,  and  the  inclination  of  the  lunar  orbit,  and 
rejected  the  trepidation  of  the  precession,  which  had 
hitherto  injuriously  affected  all  tables.  He  also  made 
some  interesting  cometary  investigations. 

To  his  researches  are  mainly  due  the  discovery  by  Kep- 
ler (1571-1680)  of  those  famous  laws  which  have  rendered 
his  name  immortal.  See  Eepi.er.  To  Kepler  is  due  the 
credit  of  divesting-  the  Coperuican  system  of  its  absurdi- 
ties. Kepler  is  also  said  to  have  had  some  notion  of  the 
law  of  gravitation. 

(Galileo  Gfalilei  (1564-1643)  first  applied  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  heavens  the  telescope,  which  he  made  from  a 
general  description  of  the  instrument  of  Hans  Lipperhey 
of  Holland,  first  inventor  of  the  telescope.  He  was  re- 
warded by  the  discovery  of  the  inequalities  on  the 
moon's  surface.  The  important  discoveries  of  the  four  sat- 
ellites of  Jupiter,  the  ring  of  Saturn— not  then  distinctly 
recognized  as  a  circle — the  spots  on  the  sun,  and  the 
crescen t  form  of  Venus,  followed  in  quick  succession .  For 
propagating  the  Copemican  doctrine  of  the  universe, 
Galileo  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Roman  Church, 
and  was  compelled  by  the  Inquisition  to  retract  his  opin- 
ions. 

But  the  eternal  ]aws  of  nature  are  not  to  be  suspended 
by  the  recantation  of  a  philosopher  forced  by  the  tjrranny  of 
priestcraft.  The  earth  moved  onward  round  the  sun  in 
spite  of  both;  and  scientific  truth  was  now  too  old  to  remain 
in  the  restrictive  leading  strings  of  any  ecclesiasticism. 

The  next  great  epoch  in  the  histonr  of  A.  brings  into 
view  England  and  Newton  (1642-1737).    In  the  interval, 


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ASTRONOMY. 

practical  A.  had  profited  largely  by  the  logarithms  of  Na 
pier;  the  mathematical  researches  of  Descartes;  the  appli 
cation  of  the  telescope  to  the  quadrant  by  Ctescoigne,  an 
Englishman,  and  afterwards  by  Auzout  and  Picard;  by 
Homer's  discovery  of  the  progressive  motion,  and  measure- 
ment of  the  velocity,  of  light;  by  the  invention  of  Vernier; 
and  the  application  of  the  pendulum  to  clocks  by  Huygens, 
who  also  brought  into  use  the  spiral  spring,  and  made  some 
raluable  observations  on  the  ring  and  satellites  of  Saturn; 
as  well  as  by  the  investigations  of  Norwood,  Horrocks, 
Hooke,  Hevelius,  Gilbert,  Leibnitz,  and  Dominicus  Cassini, 
to  the  lajst  of  whom  especially  the  scientific  world  owes 
much.  Among  a  variety  of  valuable  observations  and  dis- 
coveries may  be  mentioned  his  thorough  investigation  of  the 
zodiacal  light,  his  determination  of  the  rotations  of  Jupiter 
and  Mars,  and  of  the  •  motions  of  Jupiter's  satellites  from 
their  eclipses,  his  discovery  of  the  dual  character  of  Saturn's 
ring ;  also  of  four  of  his  satellites.  Newton's  fame  rests  upon 
his  discovery  of  the  law  of  gravitation,  upon  which  the 
common  belief  is  that  he  was  led  to  speculate  by  the  fall  of 
an  apple.  Newton  announced  his  discovery  in  the  Prindpia, 
1687,  which  was  briefly  that  every  particle  of  matter  is  at- 
tracted by,  or  gravitates  to,  every  other  particle  of  matter, 
with  a  force  inversely  proportioned  to  the  squares  of  their 
distances.  The  first  gleam  of  this  grand  conclusion  is  said 
to  have  so  overpowered  Newton  that  he  had  to  suspend 
his  calculations,  and  to  call  in  a  friend  to  finish  tbe  few 
arithmetical  computations  that  were  incomplete.  This  dis- 
covery is  perhaps  the  grandest,  certainly  the  most  impress- 
ive, recoraed  effort  of  human  genius.  Newton  made  also 
the  important  discovery  of  the  revolution  of  comets  round 
the  sun  in  conic  sections,  proved  tbe  earth's  form  to  be  an 
oblate  spheroid,  gave  a  theory  of  the  moon  and  tides,  in- 
vented nuxions,  and  wrote  upon  Opiics. 

While  the  foundations  of  physical  A.  were  thus  broadly 
laid  by  Newton,  Plamsteed— the  first  astronomer  royal  at 
Greenwich,  to  whom,  until  recently,  scant  justice  has  been 
done— and  Halley,  were  greatly  improving  and  extending 
tbe  practical  department  of  the  science.  To  the  former  we 
are  indebted  for  numerous  observations  on  the  fixed  stars, 
on  planets,  satellites,  and  comets,  and  for  a  catalogue  of 
2,884  stars.  His  Huioria  CalesUs  formed  a  new  era  In  sid- 
ereal A.  Dr.  Halley,  who  succeeded  Flamsteed  as  astron- 
omer royal,  discovered  the  accelerated  mean  motion  of  the 
moon,  and  certain  inequalities  in  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  but 
he  is  most  famed  for  his  successful  mvestigations  into  the 
motions  and  nature  of  comets.  His  successor  was  Dr. 
Bradley,  who,  in  the  year  of  Newton's  death,  made  the 
important  discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light,  which  fur- 
nishes the  only  direct  and  conclusive  proof  we  have  of  the 
earth's  annual  motion.  To  him  also  we  are  indebted  for 
our  knowledge  of  the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis.  He  was, 
besides,  an  unwearied  observer,  and  left  behind  him  at  his 
death  upwards  of  60,000  observations.  Altogether,  Brad- 
ley's is  deservedly  one  of  the  most  honored  names  in  mod- 


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ASTRONOMY, 
era  A.   Dr.  Maskelyne,  wbo  whs  appointed  to  the  obeenrft- 
tory  after  Bradley,  originuted  the  Nawtkal  Almanac, 

Merely  to  mention  t&b  names  of  men  who  from  the  death 
of  Bradley  to  the  present  time  have  added,  by  tbeoir  and 
observation,  to  the  knowledge  of  A.,  would  extend  this 
synopsis  much  beyond  due  limit.  The  18th  c.,  which 
opened  with  lustre  derived  from  the  physical  demonsUations 
of  Newton,  closed  magnificently  with  the  telescopic  disoov- 
eriea  of  Sir  William  Umchel,  who  added  to  our  universe 
a  primary  planet  (Uranus)  with  its  satellites,  save  two  more 
satellites  to  Saturn,  resolved  the  milky-way  Into  couBtleBB 
myriads  of  stars,  and  unravelled  the  mystery  of  nebul® 
aiui  of  double  and  triple  stars.  Laland,  Lagrange,  Lacaille, 
and  Delambre,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  18th  c,  did  much  by 
their  researches  and  analyses  to  systenoatize  and  improve 
the  science  of  A.  The  instrumental  means  of  observation 
were  also,  during  that  time,  brought  to  high  perfection. 
Laplace,  in  his  great  work  the  Meeanique  CUuU  (1799- 
1808),  gave  what  further  proof  was  needed  of  the  truth  and 
sufficiency  of  the  Newtonian  theory. 

The  19th  c.  opened  with  the  discovery  c^  the  four  small 
planeto— Ceres  (1801),  by  Piazzi;  Pallas  (1802),  and  Vesta 
(1807)  by  Olbers;  and  Juno,  by  Harding,  1804.  In  1845, 
Hencke  discovered  the  fifth  of  this  group  revolving  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  to  which  the  name  of  Astraea  was  given; 
and  by  the  end  of  1802,  357  planetoids  (q.v.)  bad  been  dis- 
covered. The  greatest  events  of  the  century  have  been 
the  discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune  1846,  and  the  photo- 
graphing of  the  heavens. 

Observations  upon  UranUs  had  shown  the  motions  of  that 
planet  to  present  great  irregularities,  which  could  not  be 
explained  by  the  action  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn:  and  after 
carefully  examining  the  analytical  theor^r  of  Uranus,  Le- 
vcrrier,  a  young  academician  of  France,  in  the  sumsier  of 
1846,  published  the  elements  of  an  undiscovered  planet,'  the 
cause  of  the  perturbations.  He  boldlv  declared  its  exist- 
ence, calculated  its  mass,  and  referred  to  its  place  in  the 
heavens ;  and  scarcely  a  month  afterwards,  Sep.  23,  the 
hitherto  concealed  object  (Neptune)  was  found  by  M.  Galle 
of  Berlin.  It  has  been  only  by  accident  that  France  has  the 
honor  of  this  remarkable  achievement.  Mr.  Adams  of  Cam- 
bridge, £ng.,  had  arrived  at  results  more  perfect  than  those 
of  Levcrrier.  and  had  coinmunicated  them  to  Mr.  Challis, 
professor  of  A.  at  Cambridge,  1845,  Sep.,  a  year  before  the 
discovery  of  the  planet,  and  nearly  a  year  b^ore  the  i>ubli> 
cation  of  Levemer's  final  calculations.  Mr.  Challis,  it  ap> 
pears,  commenced  a  search .  for  the  planet,  July  29;  and, 
Aug.  4  and  12,  he  actually  seized  the  planet,  and  recorded  two 
positions  of  it,  but  did  not  recognize  it,  through  not  com- 
paring his  observations,  which  a  pressure  oi  occupation, 
and  an  impression  that  the  discovery  required  a  mudi  more 
extensive  search,  prevented.  But  for  this,  and  the  non  pub- 
lication of  the  Cambridge  mathematician's  results  at  the 
time  they  were  forwardcSd  to  Sir  George  Airy,  1845,  Oct , 
the  honorable  position  of  M.  Leverricr  would  have  been  oc- 
cupied by  Mr.  Adams,  and  that  of  M.  Gallc  by  Mr.  Challis. 


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ASTRONOMY. 
Among  the  astronomical  phenomena  thai  in  tlie  19th  c. 
have  engaged  the  attention  of  astronomers,  the  spots  on  the 
sun  hold  a  chief  place.  Galileo,  as  we  have  seen,  dis- 
cerned these  spots,  but  the  credit  of  having  been  the  first 
to  notice  them  is  in  dispute  between  him  and  four  of  his 
contemporaries.  Systematic  and  continuous  observation 
of  sun  spots  were  made  by  Schwabe  of  Dessuu  during  46 
yrs.,  18^6-72.  The  periodicity  of  the  phenoniena  was  soon 
discovered  by  Schwabe:  he  found  that  the  spots  wax  and 
wane  in  frequency  in  a  period  of  about  11  years.  The 
tables  prepared  by  Schwabe  suggested  to  others  a  relation 
between  sun  spots  and  magnetic  declination — a  fact  si- 
multaneously noted  by  several  physicists.  A  relation  was 
also  discovered  to  exist  between  the  sun  spot  period  and 
auroral  phenomena.  Prof.  Loomis  of  Yale  College  finds 
that  the  auroral  maximum  generally  occurs  a  little  later 
than  the  magnetic  maximum.  He  infera  that  a  sun  spot 
is  a  result  of  a  disturbance  of  the  sun's  surface,  which  is 
accompanied  by  an  emanation  of  some  influence  from  the 
sun,  which  is  almost  instantly  felt  upon  the  earth  in  an 
unusual  disturbance  of  the  earth's  magnetism,  and  a  flow 
of  electricity,  developing  the  auroral  light  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  earth's  atmosphere. — Spectrum  analysis  has 
in  our  day  yielded  results  unimaginable  to  astronomers  of 
an  earlier  period.  When  the  telescope  brought  within 
the  reach  of  vision  celestial  objects  not  discernible  by  the 
unaided  eye,  it  might  well  have  been  believed  that  in  the 
development  of  that  instrument,  and  there  alone,  lay  the 
hope  of  enlarging  man*8  knowledge  of  the  starry  heavens. 
But  the  spectroscope  analyzes  the  physical  constitution  of 
the  most  distant  orbs,  determining  their  chemical  compo- 
sition, or  at  least  giving  evidence  of  the  presence  in  them 
or  the  laclc  of  elements  found  in  our  own  globe.  So,  too, 
the  spectroscope  pronounces  infallibly  on  the  fotnte,  whether 
solid,  liquid,  vaporous,  or  gaseous,  of  distant  bodies.  The 
improved  methods  of  analysis  and  the  marvellous  advance 
in  the  construction  of  optical  and  other  philosophical  in- 
struments, have  enabled  astronomers  to  attack  the  prob- 
lems of  binary  or  of  multiple  stars,  and  to  decide  whether 
such  groups  form  systems  revolving  about  one  auotlier  or 
around  a  common  centre;  of  variable  stars;  the  proper  mo- 
tions of  stars;  the  translation  of  the  solar  system  in  space; 
the  constitution  of  the  nebulse;  the  nature  of  the  sun's 
spots  and  faculse;  the  phenomena  presented  by  the  solar 
envelope  in  eclipses;  and  the  like.— Eh*.  John  William 
Draper  of  New  York  was  a  pioneer  in  astroDomical  photog- 
raphy. His  first  success  was  had  in  obtaining  a  distinct 
photograph  of  the  fixed  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum;  he  next 
photographed  the  moon,  1840.  Draper's  photograph  of 
the  moon  was  without  a  parallel  till  1889,  when,  by  the  aid 
of  the  large  instrument  of  the  Lick  Observatory,  Mt.  Ham- 
ilton, Cal.,  an  imase  of  our  satellite,  having  a  diameter  of 
5  in.,  was  obtained.  But  in  1890  the  two  brothers  Paul 
and  Prosper  Henry  of  Paris,  instead  of  receiving  the  image 
of  the  moon  direct  from  the  telescope  on  a  photographic 
plate,  made  it  first  traverse  another  lens,  which  magnified 
it  to  15  diameters;  this  magnified  image  was  then  photo- 


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ASTRONO>rr. 
graphed  in  sections.  Dr.  Henry  Draper,  son  of  John 
Wiliiam  D.,  photographed  the  great  nebula  in  the  con- 
stellation Orion  1880.  Three  years  later  the  same  nebula 
was  photographed  \%ith  the  most  brilliant  success  by  Dr. 
Commons  of  jBaling.  Eng.  Photography  has  materially 
helped  to  solve  many  problems  regarding  the  constitution 
of  the  sun. — As  early  as  1860  Lewis  M.  Rutherfurd  of 
New  York  recognized  the  great  service  that  might  be  ren> 
dered  by  photography  in  constructing  maps  of  the  stars^ 
but  the  suggestion  was  for  a  time  resultless.  and  was  not 
ftcted  on  till  1882  (and  then  not  intentionally),  when  Dr. 
David  Gill  of  the  Cape  Observatoiy  made  his  celebrated 
photograph  of  the  greater  comet  of  that  year.  The  pho- 
tograph showed  distinctly  a  number  of  stars  down  to  the 
9tli  magnitude.  Two  years  later  stars  down  to  the  16th  mag- 
nitude were  photographed  by  the  brothers  Henry  of  Paris; 
their  photograph  of  the  Pleiades  showed  1,421  stars  in  the 
neighborhood  of  that  constellation;  it  also  showed  a  nebula 
surrounding  one  of  the  principle  stars,  though  no  nebula 
hjid  ever  been  detected  by  the  eye,  even  when  assisted  by 
the  most  powerful  optical  instruments.  N.  B.  Wolf  of 
ihe  Paris  Observatory  had  then  devoted  the  whole  of  3 
years  to  preparing  a  chart  of  the  stars  in  Pleiades,  but  had 
catalogued  no  more  than  671  stars.  The  photograph,  exhib- 
iting with  the  most  unimpeachable  accuracy  1,421  stars, 
was  the  work  of  three  hours.  With  instruments  of  still 
greater  precision  and  delicacy,  other  photographs  have 
been  obtained  which  show  that  the  constellation  Pleiades 
presents  an  almost  continuous  field  of  nebulous  matter. 
The  value  of  Prof.  Rutherfurd*s  suggestion  was  thus  dem- 
onstrated and  a  stellar  map  of  the  whole  heavens  was 
projected.  An  international  congress  of  astronomers  was 
called  to  meet  in  Paris  1887  to  consider  ways  and  means 
of  executing  the  project.  The  congress  appointed  a  com- 
mission to  procure  the  construction  of  a  photographic 
stellar  map.  The  work  of  constructing  the  map  was  allo- 
cated in  sections  to  the  astronomers  of  different  countries. 
Each  section  photograph  is  to  represent  the  stars  in  an 
area  of  4  sq.  degrees.  Before  the  map  is  completed  no 
less  than  22,000  plates  will  have  been  exposed  to  the  sky, 
each  for  about  an  hour.  Since  1883  Dr.  Edward  C.  Pick- 
ering of  the  Harvard  College  Obsei-vatoiy  has  been  en- 
gaged in  the  work  of  determining  the  light  and  color  of 
stars  by  photography.  Photography  was  first  employed 
in  observing  a  solar  eclipse  1860,  and  by  its  aid  it  was 
proved  beyond  question  that  the  corona  is  a  solar,  not  a 
terrestrial  phenomenon. — As  a  means  of  determining  the 
proper  motion  of  stars  spectroscopic  analysis  has  proved 
to  be  of  great  service.  If  a  star  is  receding  from  the  point 
where  the  observer  stands,  the  wave-length  of  any  portion 
of  its  light  must  be  apparently  lengthened ;  if  it  is  approach- 
ing, the  wave-length  must  be  shortened.  The  English  as- 
tronomer Huggins  has  in  this  way  recognized  in  some  of 
the  brighter  stars  motions  of  recession  or  approach  amount- 
ing in  some  cases  to  80  or  40  miles  per  second. — Since  the 
opposition  of  Mars  (1877)  that  planet  has  been  an  object  of 
special  study.    At  that  opposition  Prof.  Asaph  Hail  of 


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ASTROPHOTOMETRICAL-^STURIAS. 

Washington  discovered  the  two  pygmy  moons  of  Mars* 
and  Prof.  Schiaparelli  of  Milan  began  that  series  of  studies 
of  the  planets'  surface  which  led  to  his  discovery  that  Mars 
is  covered  in  its  equatorial  and  temperate  zones  with  a  net- 
work of  straight  dark  lines  which  he  calls  'canals.'  See 
also  the  following: 

ACCKLBKATI0N«  ALTAZIMUTH,  APHBLION,  APSIB,  ASCKKBION  RiOHT, 

C0N8TBLLAT10N,  CoPBRMicAN  System,  Ctclk,  Day,  Babth,  Ecliftio, 
Elkkbnts,  Equatorial,  Ei^uiNOXBs,  Galaxy,  Orayitation,  Harvest 
Moon,  Horizon,  Kepler's  Laws,  Lat.  and  Lono.,  Lunar  Theory, 
Meridian,  Mural  Circle,  ^odes.  Notation,  Observatory,  Occul- 
TATioN,  Orbit,  Orrery,  Fbnttmbra,  Pbrioeb,  Perihelion,  Period, 
Perturbation.  I^habbs,  Photography  Celestial,  Ptolemaic  Sys- 
tem, Satellitbs,  Seasons,  Solstice,  Twilight,  Year,  Zodiac,  etc. 

ASTROPHOTOMETRICAL.  a.  dstro-Jd-too-mSt'rik^l 
[Gr.  Mtron,  a  star;  phos,  light;  metron,  a  measure]:  per- 
taining to  the  measurement  of  the  light  which  reaches  the 
earth  from  the  several  stars. 

A8TR0PHYT0N,  n.  ds-fro-fi't&n  [Gr.  astran,  a  star, 
phuton,  that  which  has  grown]:  genus  of  star-fishes,  oon< 
taining  the  Shetland  Argus. 

•  ASTROSCOPE,  n.  ds'tro  skSp  [Gr.  astron,  a  star;  skoped, 
to  look  at]:  astronomical  instrument  for  representing  the 
relative  position  of  the  stars,  as  delineated  on  two  cones. 
A  celestial  globe,  however,  is  more  accurate  and  more  con- 
venient. 

ASTROTHEOLOGY,  dstro^the-d^ofi  [Gr.  a«fron,  a  star; 
theologia,  theolosy]:  theology  founded  on  what  is  known 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  the  laws  which  regulate  their 
movements. 

ASTUR:  see  Falconida:  Goshawk. 

ASTURIAS,  ds-tffre-ds  (now  Oviedo,  5-c^^'d^:  a  north- 
em  province  of  Spain;  bounded  e.  by  Santander,  s.  by  Leon, 
w.  by  Ckdicia,  n.  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  low  hills 
of  Leon  and  Old  Castile  rise  gradually  to  the  mountain- 
chain  which  forms  the  s.  boundary,  and  towers  to  about 
11,000  ft.  in  the  summit  P^na-de-P^na/randa,  The  main  road 
from  Leon  to  Oviedo  passes  over  the  mountain-chain  at  Pa- 
Jares.  The  n.  slopes  are  broken  ,bjj^  steep  and  dark  valleys 
or  chasms,  which  are  amonf^  the  wildest  and  most  pictur- 
esque in  Spain.  The  summits  of  the  mountains  are  covered 
with  snow  even  as  late  in  the  year  as  August.  The  climate  is 
damp:  clouds  hang  almost  continually  about  the  peaks, 
gathering  to  them'  the  f  o^  of  the  Atlantic.  From  the  mass 
of  calcareous  rock,  marble  cra^  rise  from  200  to  more  than 
400  ft.  The  principal  kinds  of  wood  are  oak,  chestnut,  sil- 
ver and  Scotch  firs.  In  the  remoter  districts  are  some 
superb  forests.  Alpine  pasturage  decks  the  slopes,  and  a 
richer  covering  of  green  is  found  in  the  narrow  valleys.  In 
the  wider  valleys,  tiie  soil  vields  barley,  wheat,  maize,  figs, 
olives,  grapes,  oranges.  The  coasts  have  good  fisheries. 
The  chief  minerals  of  the  province  are  copper,  iron,  lead, 
cobalt,  arsenic,  antimony,  and  coal.  The  pasturage  of  the 
higher  valleys  supports  an  excellent  breed  of  horses,  with 
numerous  homed  cattle. 

A.  was  never  firmly  occupied  by  the  Arabs,  but  afforded 
a  place  of  refuge  to  the  Goths  in  the  8th  c.     Here  the  fa- 


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ASTUTE— ASYLUM. 

mous  Pelajo  was  made  king,  a.d.  7t8;  and  his  saooeflsors, 
after  contending  successfully  nurainst  the  Arabs,  were  made 
kings  of  Leon  in  the  10th  c.  The  Asturian  still  boasts  of 
his  independence  as  a  free  hida)^,  and  is  simple  in  man- 
ners, and  Ixave,  bat  less  industnous  and  sociable  than  his 
neighbors  in  Biscay  and  Galicia.  Many  Asturians  leave 
their  province  to  seek  a  livelihood  in  other  parts  of  Spain, 
and  after  saving  money  return  to  dwell  among  their  native 
hills  and  valleys.  They  have  been  termed  the  Swiss  of 
Spain ;  and  they  are  equally  faithful  and  fond  of  money 
Among  them,  the  Vaqueros  form  a  distinct  caste,  intermar 
i^ng  among  themselves,  and  leading  a  nomadic  course  of 
life,- spending  the  winter  on  the  sea-coast,  and  the  summer 
on  the  hills  of  Leytariegos.  Otiedo,  the  cap.  of  A.,  has, 
since  1883.  given  its  name  to  the  whole  province. 

The  eldest  son  of  the  Spanish  king  has  the  title  of  Prince 
of  A.,  professedly  an  imitation  of  the  English  Prince  of 
Wales,  having  been  taken  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster  in  1388,  when  his  daughter  married  the  eldest  sod 
of  Juan  I.    Area  of  A.,  4,091  sq.  m. ;  pop.    (1887)  5»5,420. 

ASTUTE,  a.  ds4uf  [L.  Mtutus,  crafty— from  L.  astus^ 
craft,  cunning;  may  bo  connected  with  Gr.  astu,  a  city, 
thus  meaning  one  having  the  shrewdness  and  cunning  of 
the  city]:  sagacious;  sharp;  discerning;  crafty.  Abtutb- 
NK38,  n.  shrewdness;  cunning.  Astute'ly,  ad.  -H. — Syn. 
ol  'astute':  cunning;  wily;  crafty;  penetrating;  sly; subtle; 
sagacious;  shrewd;  Keen. 

ASUNCION,  d-^uTP^e^n',  Nukstea  SeI^ora  de  la,  or 
ASSUMPTION:  city,  cap.  of  Paraguay,  on  the  w.  bank 
of  the  Paraguay  river;  lat  25*^  16'  s.,  Ion.  52"  42°  w.  It 
has  a  trade  in  hides,  tobacco,  wax,  and  Paraguay  tea.  It 
was  founded,  1535,  by  the  Spanish,  and  soon  b^»mie  a  place 
of  importance,  though  not  of  beauty,  being  ill-built  and 
dirty.  The  houses  are  scarcely  better  than  huts ;  even  the 
government  residence  is  of  one  story.  The  surrounding  coun- 
try is  rich  in  pastures,  and  produces  wheat,  maize,  sugar, 
tobacco,  honey,  wax,  etc.  A.  has  much  commerce  by  the 
river,  and  important  railway  connections  s.  and  w.  Pop. 
abt.  22,000. 

ASUNDER,  ad.  dsiin'dir  [AS.  a,  on,  and  iunder]: 
apart;  separately;  in  a  divided  state. 

A8URA,  n.  {i-9ur'a  [Skr.]:  a  demon;  an  enemy  of  the 
gods.  The  name  seems  to  have  been  given  at  one  time  to 
the  Turanian  aborigines  in  conflict  with  the  Aryan  invaders 
of  India,  and  at  another  to  the  Buddhist  reli^onists  in 
conflict  with  the  professors  of  the  Brahminic  faith. 

ASYLUM,  n.  A-si' lum,  AsyLUMB,  n.  plu.  [L.  asy'lum — 
Crom  Gr.  as'ulon  —from  Gr.  a,  not;  suldo,  I  rob  or  plunder: 
It.  asilo :  F.  (uUe] :  a  place  out  of  which  he  that  has  fled  to  it 
may  not  be  taken  or  robbed ;  a  place  of  refuge  ;  a  sanctu- 
ary ;  a  hospital  for  the  insane. — Syn.:  a  refuge  ;  sanctuanr ; 
shelter ;  retreat.  In  ancient  times,  sacred  places,  espedaliy 
the  temples  and  altars  of  the  gods,  were  appointed  as  asy- 
lums to  which  criminals,  an  well  as  persecuted  persons, 
might  fleo  for  refuge ;  and  to  molest  them  in  such  places 


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ASYMMETRY— ASYMPTOTE. 

was  regarded  as  an  impiety.  An  analogous  institution  is 
found  in  tlic  laws  of  the  Jews,  Num.  xxxv.,  where  six  'cities 
of  refuge '  are  appointed  for  persons  guilty  of  manslaugliter. 
Among  the  Greeks  in  early  times,  these  asylums  may  have 
be«n  sometimes  useful  in  preventing  hasty  retribution  ;  but 
ID  the  course  of  time  they  were  so  much  abused  that  their 
sanctity  was  in  a  great  measure  disregarded.  Thus  Pausa- 
nias,  who  fled  to  the  altar  of  Minerva,  was  taken  and  slain 
there  by  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  in  other  cases  the  refugee 
was  compelled  to  leave  the  A.  by  fire  or  starvation.  In 
Home,  the  emperor  Tiberius  abolished  all  such  places 
of  refuge  from  law.  excepting  those  in  the  temples  of 
Juno  and  u£sculapius.  The  custom  of  allowing  to  reak 
or  supposed  criminals  a  place  of  safety  in  temples,  was 
adopteu  also  by  the  ancient  Christian  Church.  In  the  time 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  the  churches  were  made  asylums; 
and  Theodosius  II.  extended  the  privilege  to  all  courts,  al- 
leys, gardens,  and  houses  belondng  to  me  church.  In  681, 
the  synod  of  Toledo  extended  t£e  privilege  of  A.  to  a  space 
of  30  paces  around  everv  church.  In  the  lawless  periods  of 
the  middle  ages,  the  influence  of  the  church  often  prevented 
deeds  of  gross  injustice  and  violence ;  but  the  sanctity  of 
church&i»;  was  abused  by  criminals ;  and  this  led  to  several 
modifications  which  gradually  destroyed  the  privilege  of 
Sanctuary  (q.v.).  In  England,  it  was  abolished  by  acts 
passed  1534  and  1697.  The  word  A.  is  now  applied  to 
places  of  shelter  for  unfortunate  or  destitute  persons,  and 
especially  to  hospitals  for  the  blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and 
especially  for  the  insane.  See  Lunacy. 
'  ASYMMETRY,  n.  a-slm'met-rl  [Gr.  asufrmetria-'fTom 
atummetros,  incommensurable,  unsymmetric;  or  from  a, 
without;  summetna,  symmetry;  summetroa,  commensurate 
with— from  sun,  together;  metron,  a  measure]:  want  of 
symmetry;  want  of  proportion.  Asym'mbtraj.,  or  Ab'ym- 
METRICAL,  a.  not  agreeing,  inharmonious. 

ASYMPTOTE,  n.  as'lm-tot  [Gr.  as&mptdtus,  not  falling 
together— from  a,  not ;  iun,  together ;  ptotos,  apt  to  falll : 
alme  that  approaches  nearer  ana  nearer  to  some  curve  with- 


Asymptote. 

out  ever  meeting  it:  Abj.  approaching  but  never  meeting. 
An  example  of  an  A.  will  be  seen  under  Hyperbola.  As 
another  illustration,  let  AB  be  a  straight  line  which  can  be 
produced  to  any  length  towards  B.     Take  any  point,  C, 


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A8YNARTE1E— ATACAMITE. 

without  the  line,  and  draw  a  perpendicular  reaching  to  any 
distance,  D,  beyond  the  line ;  set  off  any  equal  distances,  £ 
—1,  1—2,  2—3,  etc., along  AB  ;  and  drawCld,  C2<f ,  C8d ', 
etc  .  making  Id,  2<f,  W  etc.,  equal  to  ED.  Now,  it  is 
evident  that  each  of  the  points  d,  d,  etc.,  is  nearer  to  the 
line  AB  than  the  one  to  the  left  of  it ;  if,  therefore,  a  curve 
is  traced  through  these  points  (the  curve  is  caUed  the  eon- 
ehoid),  it  must  continually  approach  the  line  AB.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  evident  that  the  curve  can  never  meet  AB ; 
for  a  line  drawn  from  C  to  any  point  in  AB,  however  dis- 
tant that  point,  must,  when  produced,  cross  AB.  AB  is 
thus  an  ^.  to  the  curve.  To  tJie  senses,  indeed,  the  curve 
and  line  soon  become  one,  because  all  phvstcal  or  sensible 
lines  have  brea^Uh.  It  is  only  with  regara  to  mathemoHeaL 
lines  (see  Like)  that  the  proposition  is  true ;  and  the  truth 
of  it  has  to  be  conceived  by  an  effort  of  pure  reason,  for  it 
cannot  be  represented.  Asymptotic,  a.  d*-im4dt'Uc,  or 
Asymptotical,  a.  [Eng.  euipnptote:  F.  agymptatique]:  per- 
taining or  relating  to  the  asymptotes  of  a  hyperbola;  per- 
petually approachmg  anything,  but  never  meeting  it 

A8YNARTETE,  a.  d-nn^r'tet  [Gr.  osunarMoe,  not 
united,  inconsistept — from  a,  without;  sunarttio,  to  hang 
up  with,  to  knit  or  join  together—from  sun,  together;  ariad, 
to  fasten  to]:  not  fitted  or  adjusted,  disconnected.  AfiYi<- 
artbts  sentence,  in  gram.,  a  sentence  of  which  the  mem- 
bers are  not  united  by  connective  particles.  Asynartbtb 
TERSE,  in  pros.,  a  verse  consisting  of  two  members,  4iaving 
different  rhythms;  as  when  the  first  consists  of  iambuses 
and  the  second  of  trochees,  or  the  first  of  dactyls  and  the 
second  of  iambuses. 

.  ASYNDETON,  n.  d^n'd^4on  [Gr.  a,  not ;  9undito9, 
bound  together]:  a  figure  in  rhet,y  which  keeps  the  parts  of 
speech  together  without  the  use  of  conjunctions— as,  '  heal 
the  sick,  cleanse  the  leper,  raise  the  dead,  cast  out  devils'— 
where  the  connecting  woid  '  and '  is  omitted. 

AT,  prep,  dt  [AS.  aet:  Icel.  at:  Dan.  ad:  Skr.  adhi, 
upon:  L.  ad,  to]:  near  to;  beside;  in  or  near;  with;  towards. 
At  last,  denoting  the  end  has  been  reached  after  inter- 
ruptions, disappomtmenta,  etc.  At  length,  denoting  the 
goal  or  end  has  been  reached  after  a  long  period  or  interval 
of  time— this  phrase  and  preceding  often  used  synony- 
mously. 

ATACAMITE,  n.  Or-tdk -a-mlt:  a  native  ore  of  copper, 
called  also  copper-sand;  abundant  in  some  parts  of  S. 
America,  as  in  the  desert  of  Atac'oArna  between  Chili  and 
Peru,  from  which  it  derives  its  name;  at  Remolinos, 
Santa  Rosa,  and  other  districts  in  Chili,  and  at  Sarapaca 
in  Bolivia,  where  it  is  associated  in  veins  with  ores  or  sil- 
ver; found  also  as  a  crust  in  the  lavas  of  Vesuvius  and 
Etna,  especially  on  those  of  Vesuvius  erupted  in  the  years 
97,  1804,  1820,  and  1822.  The  natural  varieties  of  A.  are 
crystallized,  massive,  and  pulverulent  or  granular.  The 
massive  or  compact  variety  is  usually  reniform,  with  a 
fibrous  structure.  The  crystals  are  short  and  needle- 
shaped;  the  primary  form  is  a  rhombic  prism.       It  has 


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AT  AG  A  S— AT  AHU  ALPA. 

been  sometimes  incorrectly  described  as  a  ctiloride  of 
copper;  and  sometimes  as  a  hydrochlorate  (muriate)  of 
copper;  it  is  to  be  regarded  rather  as  a  hydrated  cupric 
oxychloride,  ChiCla,8CuHaO,.  It  is  a  rich  and  produc- 
tive ore,  containing  about  55  or  60  per  cent,  of  copper. 
The  percentage  composition  of  various  specimens  of  A.  is  as 
follows: 

Copper     Muriatic     wat^r         Tofc*! 
Protoxide     Add.        Water.        Total. 

Compact  atacamite 720         16-3         11-7         100 

76-5         110         12-5         100 

Sandy  atacamite 705         115         180         100 

CrystaUized  atacamite...  730         102         10*8         100 

A.  forms  often  on  the  surface  of  copper  exxx)8ed  to  the 
air  or  sea- water;  and  the  greenish  incrustation  observed  on 
antique  bronze  utensils,  weapons,  and  other  articles,  and 
commonly  known  as  the  (trugo  ncinUs,  is  composed  of  this 
salt.  On  some  antique  bronzes  from  Egypt  the  A.  is 
crystalline.  A.  is  worked  in  South  America  as- an  ore  of 
copper;  and  considerable  quantities  are  sent  to  England  to 
have  the  metal  extracted  therefrom.    See  Copper. 

ATAQAS,  n.  dt'a-gds:  a  gallinaceous  bird,  the  red  cock. 

ATAQHAN,  n.  at  Organ,  or  Yat'aghan  [Fr.  yataghan 
— from  Turk.  ycUagdny,  a  long  dagger  worn  with  pistols 
in  the  belt,  in  a  metal  scabbard,  generally  of  silver,  and 
among  the  wealthier  gilt,  or  of  gold. 

ATAHUALPA,  d-td-hiodl'pd:  d.  1538:  favorite  son  of 
Huayna  Capac,  Inca  of  Peru  (d.  1525).  The  father's  death 
was  about  seven  years  before  Pizarro's  arrival  in  Peru.  The 
mother  of  A.  not  being  of  the  pure  Inca  blood,  her  son 
was  formally  excluded  from  Inheriting  the  throne;  but  his 
handsome  figure,  bold  spirit,  and  quick  intelligence  so 
won  upon  the  affections  of  his  father,  that  on  his  death- 
bed he  declared  it  to  be  his  will  that  A.  should  receive  as 
his  portion  the  ancient  kinedom  of  Quito  (recently  con- 

?uered),  while  Huascar,  his  eldest  son,  should  possess 
*eru.  For  five  years  the  brothers  lived  on  terms  of  real  or 
apparent  friendship;  but  at  length  the  restless  ambition  of 
A.,  who  was  constantly  aspiring  to  new  conquests,  ex- 
cited the  uneasiness  of  Huascar,  who,  in  an  evil  hour,  was 
induced  to  send  an  envoy  to  his  brother,  with  instructions 
to  require  him  to  render  homage  for  his  kingdom  of  Quito. 
A.  fired  at  the  proposal,  and  war  was  instantly  declared. 
Placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  veterans  which 
his  father  had  left  him,  he  invaded  Peru,  and  in  the  spring 
of  1532  completely  defeated  Huascar  on  the  plains  of  Quf 
paypan,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cuzco,  the  native  Peru- 
vian metropolis,  only  a  few  months  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards.  Huascar  was  taken  prisoner  and  confined 
in  the  strong  fortress  of  Xauxa.  Then  followed,  according 
to  Oarcilasso  de  la  Vega,  a  series  of  atrocious  massacres  of 
all  in  whose  veins  ran  the  blood  of  the  Incas;  but  his  staf 
ments  are  so  monstrous,  and  have  so  little  congruity,  tha^ 
they  are  rejected  by  Prescott  as  intrinsically  incredible. 
In  the  meantime,  the  Spaniards  had  disembarked  at  Tum- 
bez;  and  after  along,  brave,  and  x>erilous  march  through 


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ATALANTA. 

the  unknown  country,  Pizarro.  at  the  head  of  his  two 
hundred  cavaliers,  approached  the  victorious  camp  of  A., 
where  he  found  some  fifty  thousand  men  assemhled.  By 
a  daring  but  diabolical  stratagem,  Pizarro  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  person  of  the  king,  who  had  come  to  visit  him 
in  a  friendly  spirit.  While  a  priest  was  explaining  the 
Christian  religion,  and  the  power  of  the  pope  over  all  the 
kingdoms  of  the  earth,  and  how  the  pope  had  presented 
Peru  to  the  Spanish  monarch,  in  whose  name  they  had 
come,  A.,  indignantly  interrupting  him,  told  tdm  that  the 
pope  (whoever  he  was)  must  be  a  crazy  fool  to  talk  of  giv- 
mg  awav  countries  which  were  not  his  own.  When  he 
inquired  on  what  authority  such  claims  were  made,  the 
priest  pointed  to  the  Bible,  on  which  A.  dashed  the  book 
on  the  ground,  and  the  fields  began  to  lill  with  In- 
dians. The  moment  was  critical.  The  crime  which 
Pizarro  had  resolved  upon  the  night  before  must  be  exe- 
cuted then  or  never.  He  waved  a  white  scarf,  which  was 
the  signal  agreed  upon.  The  mysterious  artillery  poured 
sudden  death  into  the  terrified  masses  of  Peruvians,  while 
the  Spanish  cavalry  rode  them  down  with  merciless  fury. 
Confusion  neized  the  natives;  they  submitted— being  xm- 
armed — to  this  terrible  butchery,  only  anxious  to  save  their 
sacred  Inca;  but  all  their  eflforts  to  accomplish  this  proved 
imavailing,  and  after  exhausting  hours  m  the  miserable 
work  of  murder,  the  inhuman  Spaniards  succeeded  in  cap- 
turing him.  A.  was  treated  with  a  great  show  of  kindness 
at  first,  and  more  especially  when  he  offered  as  a  ransom, 
'  not  merely  to  cover  the  floor,  but  to  fill  the  room  in  which 
he  stood  with  gold  as  high  as  he  could  reach.'  When  A.'s 
brother,  Huascar,  who  was  still  a  prisoner,  'heard  of  this, 
he  offered  still  more  advantageous  terms  for  himself. 
To  prevent  this,  A.  had  him  secretly  assassinated.  The 
golden  treasure  which  was  to  constitute  the  ransom  of  A. 
now  began  to  pour  in,  and  at  length  A.  demanded  his 
freedom.  This  Pizarro  refused  to  grant,  and  accused  A. 
of  plotting  against  him.  The  result,  after  much  base 
treachery  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniard,  was  a  mock  trial,  in 
which  A.  was  condemned  to  be  burned;  he  was  led  to  the 
stake,  1533,  Aug.  29;  but  on  agreeing  to  be  *  baptized '  h5« 
sentence  was  commuted  to  death  by  strangulation. 

ATALANTA,  dt-a-lan'ta:  a  mythical  pei-sonage,  daugh- 
ter of  lasus  and  Clymene;  b.  in  Arcadia;  celebrated  as  a  himt- 
ress,  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow.  Her  father, 
who  had  wished  a  son,  exposed  her,  while  an  infant,  on 
Mount  Parthenios,  where  she  was  found  near  the  entrance 
of  a  cave  by  hunters,  who  brought  her  up,  and  afterwards 
restored  her  to  her  parents.  While  living  as  a  wild  moun- 
tain-maiden, she  slew  the  centaurs  Rhcecus  and  Hylaus, 
Afterwards  she  sailed  with  the  Argonauts  (q. v.)  to  Colchis, 
and  was  prominent  in  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian  boar 
(q.v.).  She  had  many  suitors,  but  was  merciless  in  the 
conditions  which  she  imposed  on  them.  Being  the  swift- 
est of  mortals,  she  offered  to  become  the  wife  of  him  that 
should  outstrip  her— the  penalty  of  defeat  being  death. 
At  length  she  was  conquered  by  a  trick  of  one  Meilanion, 


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ATALIKGHAZEE-ATCHESON. 

whom  she  was  compelled  to  marry.  He  obtained  from 
Venus  a  gift  of  three  golden  apples,  which  he  successively 
dropped  in  the  race;  and  A.  was  so  charmed  by  their  beauty, 
that  she  could  not  refrain  from  stooping  to  gather  them^ 
and  so  lost. — Mention  is  made  of  another  A.  m  Greek  an- 
tiquity, to  whom  a  different  parentage  is  assigned,  but  re- 
garding whom  the  myth  is  essentially  the  same. 

ATALIK-GHAZEE,  n.  d-tdl'ik-gd'ze  [Hmd.  atalik,  a 
private  tutor,  a  preceptor:  Arab  ,  Hind,  ghazi,  a  Moham- 
medan hero,  esi>eciaDy  if  victorious  in  the  battle  against  the 
*  infidel '] :  title  given  to  the  ruler  of  eastern  Turkestan. 

ATARAIPU,  d'td'H-po'  [signifying  Devirs  Bock]:  a 
singular  eminence  in  British  Guiana,  a  granite  pyramid, 
which  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain  abt.  900  ft.,  wooded 
for  rather  more  than  one-third  of  the  height,  but  bare 
thence  to  the  peaked  summit. 

ATAVISM,  n,  dt'a-vizm  [L.  atdmis,  an  ancestor — from 
avu^,  a  grandfather]:  the  reappearance  of  any  peculiarity 
of  a  family  in  a  generation,  after  a  period  of  latency;  in 
zooL,  the  tendency  of  species  or  varieties  to  revert  to  an 
original  type.  Darwin  used  the  term  reversion  to  type  as 
almost  a  synonym  for  Atavism. 

ATAXIC,  a.  d-tdk  sik,  or  Atactic,  a.  d-tdktlk  [Gr.  a, 
without;  taxis,  order — from  lasso,  I  put  in  order]:  wanting 
order;  irregular.  Ataxia,  n.  d-tdk' si-a,  irregularity;  want 
of  co-ordination  in  the  movements  of  a  limb  or  organ. 

ATBARA,  or  Bahr-el-Aswad:  see  Nile. 

ATCHAFALA YA,  dch-af-a-ll' a:  a  branch  of  the  Missis- 
sippi at  its  delta.  It  forms  so  large  an  an^le  with  the  main 
river,  that,  after  a  course  of  only  130  m.,  it  enters  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  120  m.  to  the  w.  of  New  Orleans.  From  the 
Ked  river,  which  enters  the  Mississippi  just  above  its  own 
point  of  departure,  the  A.  had  received  so  much  drift- 
wood, that  some  years  since  a  stationary  raft  had  been 
formed,  10  m.  long,  220  yds.  broad,  and  18  ft.  deep — ^an 
obstacle  to  navigation  which  the  state  of  Louisiana  re- 
quired four  years  to  remove. 

ATCHEEN,  dt-cMn':  till  1873  an  independent  kingdom 
forming  the  n.w.  part  of  Sumatra;  6,370  sq.  m  The  in- 
terior is  mountainous,  Abong  Abong  attaining  a  height  of 
10,988  ft.  The  natives  are  well  made,  industrious,  intel- 
ligent, but  treacherous.  In  1873,  the  Dutch  declared  war, 
and,  though  at  first  repulsed,  by  1879  had  wholly  conquer- 
ed the  country.  Pop.  (1890)  290,700,  of  which  196  Euro- 
pean. The  people  barter  for  opium  with  Penang  and 
Singapore,  pepper,  edible  nests,  goid-dust,  camphor,  ben- 
zoin, sulphur,  satin-wood,  betel  nuts,  etc. 

A.,  the  cap.,  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  5"  86'  n.  lat., 
95''  26'  e.  long. ;  in  a  large  valley  formed  by  ranges  of  hills, 
of  which  the  Golden  Mountain  is  the  highest.  Pop. 
86,000. 

ATCHESON,  n.  dfcM-san.  or  Atchison,  n.  dfchlstm 
[named  after  Mr.  Atkinson  (or  the  Scotch  pronunciation 
Atcheson),  an  Englishman  who  was  assay-master  of  the 


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ATCHEVEMENT— ATELE8. 

mint  at  Edinburgh  in  the  beginning  of  James  YI/s  reign]: 
a  copper  coin,  washed  with  silver,  struck  in  the  reign  of 
James  YI. :  value,  eight  pennies  Scotch,  or  {  of  an  English 
penny. 

ATCHEVE'MEKT:  term  nearly  equivalent  to  armorial 
bearings  and  often  used  of  a  funeral  escutcheon.  See 
Hatchment. 

ATCHISON,  &ch'i-s&n:  city  in  Kansas,  cap.  of  Atchison 
CO.,  pleasantly  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri 
river  at  the  extreme  point  of  the  "-Great  Bend  '  of  that 
stream.  It  is  abt.  30  m.  above  Leavenworth,  the  e. 
terminus  of  the  A.  <&  N.  railroad  and  of  the  Centra! 
Branch  of  the  Union  Pacific  railroad,  the  w.  terminus  of 
the  Missouri  Pacific  railroad,  then.w.  terminusof  a  branch 
of  the  Chicago  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  railroad,  and  the 
e.  terminus  of  the  Atchison  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  raUroad. 
It  is  a  very  important  railroad  centre;  on  the  eight  roads 
which  meet  here  ninety  or  more  trains  arrive  and  depart 
dally.  It  has  large  and  varied  industries,  particularly  in 
fiour  mills,  machme  shops,  engine  works,  and  furniture 
and  carriage  factories.  Its  commerce  is  extensive  and  rap- 
idly growing.  In  1892  it  was  the  third  city  in  the  state  in 
distribation  of  milling  products  and  of  general  incoming 
products;  had  8  m.  of  paved  streets,  4  m.  of  sewers,  elec- 
tric light  plant,  new  union  depot,  3  national  banks  (cap. 
$250,000),  2  state  banks  (cap.  $140,100),  1  trust  co.,  3  daily, 
8  weekly,  and  1  monthly  periodicals,  6  public  schools,  14 
churches,  several  public  halls,  public  library,  city  hospital, 
and  the  State  Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home.  Among  its  edu- 
cational institutions  were  the  Western  College  of  the  Gen. 
Synod  of  the  English  Evang.  Luth.  Church;  St.  Benedict's 
College;  and  the  Atchison  Institute,  founded  1870.  A  fine 
iron  bridge  crosses  the  Missouri  river,  connecting  the  dty 
with  the  railroad  lines  that  terminate  on  its  e.  bank.  In 
1891  the  assessed  valuations  were:  real  $2,855,110,  personal 
$492,970,railroad  $110,980.  Pop.  (1880)  15,105;  (1890)  13,963. 

ATE,  V.  di  or  H,  pt.  of  Eat,  which  see. 

ATE,  n.  d'te,  in  Or.  myth.:  according  to  Homer,  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter— or  of  Eris,  as  Hesic^  says — a  venge- 
ful goddess,  ever  attending  dpsnomia,  or  transgression  of 
law,  though  she  herself  prompted  men  to  transgress.  She 
was  bani&ed  from  Olympus  by  Jove,  whom  die  had  in- 
cited to  take  an  oath  of  which  he  subsequently  repented. 
She  then  travelled  swiftly  to  and  fro  over  the  earth,  always 
intent  on  exercising  a  pernicious  influence  upon  mankind. 
But  her  steps  were  followed  by  the  goddesses  Idtai  (pray- 
ers), benevolent  daughters  of  Jove,  who  healed  those  who 
had  been  afflicted  by  A.  The  tragic  writers  describe  A. 
as  the  goddess  of  retribution.  Their  representations  al- 
most identify  her  with  Kkmesis  and  Ebdtntb. 

ATEAL,  Attbillb,  n.  a-tel',  or  Attilb,  -U  [teal]:  Scotch 
name  of  a  duck,  the  Widgeon  (anas  penelope),  or  an  allied 
species. 

ATELES,  dt'i'lez  [Gr.  incomplete] :  genus  of  American 
monkeys,  of  the  division  with  long  prehensile  tails,  to 


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ATELESTTTE— ATELIERS  NATIONAUX. 

which  the  name  Sapajou  (q.y.)  is  sometimes  collectiyely 
applied.  In  the  genus  A.,  the  head  is  round,  and  the  facial 
angle  about  60"*;  the  limbs  are  remarkably  lonff  and  slender, 
upon  which  account  the  English  name  Spider  Monkey 
(q.y.^  is  sometimes  used  as  a  generic  designation;  and  the 
forelimbs  are  either  entirely  destitute  of  a  thtunb,  or  have 
a  mere  rudimentary  one,  a  peculiarity  in  allusion  to  which 
the  name  A.  was  given.  The  name  Coaita  or  Quata  is 
frequently  given  to  some  of  the  species  of  A.,  but  is  some- 
times limited  to  A,  Paniaeus,  as  Spider  Monkey  sometimes 
is  to  A.  a/racknoides.  One  of  the  best-known  species  is  the 
Marimonda  (A.  Beleebub),  a  common  monkey  of  Guiana, 
immensely  numerous  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco. 

ATELESTITE,  n.  d-m'h-tU  [Gr.  aides,  hicomplete]:  so 
spelled  in  Dana's  System,  1892 — formerly  Atblbsite,  and 
tnen  classed  under  Eulytine,  a  bismuth  silicate:  a  rare 
yellow  mineral,  bismuth  arsenate.  Atslits  is  a  copper 
chloride,  volcanic. 

ATELIER,  n.  dt-H-f/a  [F.  1:  the  workroom  of  a  painter  or 
sculptor— called  also  a  '  studio.' 

ATELIERS  NATION AUX,  dt-O-ya  nA-A-d-nd,  or  Na- 
tion aIj  Workshops:  establishments  for  governmental  pro- 
vision of  work,  and  organizing  of  labor;  notable  in  con 
nection  with  the  French  revolution  of  1848.  Immediately 
after  the  downfall  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  the  formation  of 
the  provisional  govt.,  1848,  Feb.,  a  permanent  dept.  was 
established,  called  The  Committee  of  the  Oovemmentfor  the 
Workmen,  acting  on  the  doctrine  that  all  workmen  were 
entitled  to  a  living  provided  for  them  on  a  -certain  uniform 
scale.  While  private  emnlojment  was  not  forcibly  abol- 
ished, indacements  were  held  out  which  made  workmen 
leave  and  employers  break  up  the  existing  establishments. 
Consequently,  nearly  all  the  Parisian  worsen  threw  them- 
selves on  the  govt. ,  and  others  flocked  in,  in  alarming  numbers 
— ^mostly  with  little  idea  of  the  duty  of  working,  even  were 
there  distinct  employment  for  them.  One  incidental  experi- 
ment illustrates  the  condition.  In  the  Hdtel  Clichv,  1,600 
tailors  were  assembled  to  make  uniforms  for  the  new 
garde  mobile.  The  men  were  to  receive  among  them  for 
the  completed  work  as  much  as  an  army-contractor  would 
have  demanded;  meanwhile  they  were  paid  two  francs  a 
day  for  subsistence;  the  rest  was  to  be  divided  among  them 
at  the  end.  The  men,  expecting  to  receive  not  only  their 
proper  wages,  but  also  the  enormous  sum  which  they  sup- 
posed to  form  the  profit  of  the  contractor,  were  wild  with 
disappointment  when  they  found  nothing  to  divide.  There 
was,  in  fact,  a  loss.  Early  in  May  the  body  of  work- 
men dependent  on  the  govt,  had  increased  to  180,000; 
and  when  the  govt,  found  it  necessary  to  abolish  the 
system,  the  discontent  fermenting  in  Paris  was  kindled  into 
the  armed  insurrection  put  down  by  the  national  forces 
under  Cavaignac,  only  after  the  terrible  fighting  of  the 
Days  of  June.  Advocates  of  the  principle  of  competition  as 
affainst  the  theory  of  governmental  ors^ization  of  labor 
adduce  the  A.  N.  as  a  test  showing  the  latter  an  utter 
failure.    On  the  other  side  it  is  claimed  that  the  times  an^ 


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ATELLAN^. 

the  social  conditions  rendered  a  real  test  impossible— the 
govt,  a  mere  expedient  stag^ring  through  a  few  months  of 
transition  to  despotism,  and  society  itself  a  heaving  sea. 
iSee  Comuukism:  Socialism:  Blanc,  Louis. 

ATELLANiB,  OrUUlA'ni,  FabulcB  AteOanm  (tleo  styled 
Lvdi  Om):  a  kind  of  popular  drama  in  Rome,  introduced 
from  Atella,  a  town  in  Campania,  between  Capua  and 
Naples.  After  the  Greek  drama  had  been  brought  to 
Rome  by  Livius  Andronicus,  the  old  FhbtUas  AtellaruB  were 
still  retained  as  interludes  and  after- pieces.  They  are  not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  Greek  satiric  drama,  although 
their  character  was  to  some  extent  the  same.  In  the 
latter,  satyrs  figured;  while  the  former  personated  real 
Oscan  characters.  The  Maccus  and  Bucco  of  the  Fabvlas 
AtellancB  may  be  considered  the  origin  of  the  modem  ItaUan 
arlecehino  (harlequin),  and  other  characters  of  the  same 
stamp.  They  were  the  favorite  characters;  spoke  the  Oscan 
dialect,  and  excited  laughter  by  its  quaint  old-fashioned 
words  and  phrases.  The  A.  were  neither  so  dignified  as 
the  coiYuxdia  praiextata,  nor  so  low  as  the  comadM  taber- 
naria,  but  indulged  in  a  kind  of  genial  and  decent  drollery. 
The  caricature  was  at  first  always  pleasant,  and  though 
quizzical,  it  did  not  lapse  into  obscenity,  like  the  mimi. 
Respectable  Roman  youths,  who  could  not  appear  as  actors 
in  the  regular  Greek  drama  without  losing  caste,  were  al- 
lowed to  take  parts  in  the  A.  A  few  fragme^pts  of  these 
popular  farces  nave  been  collected  by  Bothe  m  his  Poetarum 
Latinoriim  Sc^nicorum  Fragmenta  (Leip.  1834).  See  also 
Munk,  De  Fabuiia  AteUaim  (Leip.  Ib40> 


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A  TEMPO— ATHABASCA. 

A  TEMPO,  ad.  d-tim'pd  [It.  in  tamel:  in  mtme,  used  to 
indicate  that  the  interruptea  time  is  to  be  restored. 

A  TEMPO  GIUSTO,  d  tempo  joif  to  [It.,  in  correct  time]: 
in  muB.,  used  to  denote  that,  ^ter  a  recitative,  the  per- 
former should  keep  the  music  true  and  correct,  whidi, 
during  the  recitative,  hail  been  altered  to  suit  the  action  and 
passion  of  the  scene. 

ATEK,  d'ter  [L.  (Uer^  black]:  pure  black;  as  a  prefix, 
vgeMatro, 

ATE8HGA,  d't4sh-gd'  [the  Place  of  Fire]:  a  spot  on  the 
peninsula  of  Apsheron,  on  the  w.  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
It  is  considered  sacred  by  the  Guebres,  or  Persian  Fire- 
worshippers,  who  visit  it  in  large  numbers,  and  bow  before 
the  holy  flames  which  issue  from  the  bituminous  soil.  It 
is  about  a  mile  in  diam^r,  and  from  its  centre,  in  clear 
dry  weather,  creeps  forth  a  blue  flame  (caused  by  the 
ignition  of  the  naphtha),  which  shines  with  great  brightness 
by  night. 

ATE8SA,  dries' 8d:  town  of  s.  Italy,  province  of  Chieti; 
23  m.  s.s.e.  from  Chieti.  It  has  a  beautiful  collegiate 
church,  and  several  other  churches  and  convents.  Pop. 
5,200. 

ATEU'CHUS:  see  Beetxe:  ScARABiEUs. 

ATH,  or  Aath,  dt:  strongly  fortified  town  in  the  prov* 
ince  of  Hainault,  Belgium;  on  the  Dender;  lat.  50*  86'  n., 
long.  Z^  46'  e.  It  has  an  arsenal,  hospital,  and  college,  and 
important  manufactures  of  linen,  calicoes,  lace,  gloves, 
cutlery,  large  hammers,  etc.,  and  carries  on  a  brisk  trade. 
The  ancient  church  of  St.  Julien  in  A.  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
traordinarily  high  tower.  The  town  has  been  several  times 
besieged  and  taken;  in  1G97,  by  Catinat  and  VauUin;  in 
1706,  by  the  allied  forces  under  the  Dutch  general  Ower- 
kerke;  in  1745.  by  the  French  after  a  short  siege;  and  in 
1792,  by  the  forces  of  the  Republic  under  Bemeron.  Pop. 
about  10,000. 

ATHABASCA,  dth'a-hdg'ka:  river  and  lake  in  the  n.w. 
of  N.  America,  forminff  part  of  the  great  basin  of  the  Mac- 
kenzie; therefore,  in  the  Northwest  Territory  of  the  Canadian 
Dominion.  The  river  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mts.  near  Mount 
Brown,  the  highest  point  ih  the  range.  Its  actual  source  is 
the  small  lake  (see  under  Akerica),  known  as  the  Commit- 
tee's Punch  Bowl,  which  sends  its  tribute  at  once  through 
the  A.  to  the  Frozen  Ocean,  and  through  the  Columbia  to 
the  Pacific.  Its  general  course  is  n  e.,  tiU,  after  passing 
through  A.  Lake,  or  rather  crossing  its  w.  end,  it  turns 
towaras  the  n.w.,  and,  after  a  course  of  80  or  40  m.,  unites 
with  the  Peace  river,  from  beyond  the  Rocky  Mts.,  to  form 
the  Slave  river,  which,  again,  after  passina:  through  Great 
Slave  Lake,  takes  the  name  of  the  Mackenzie.— ia^«  A. 
receives  nearly  all  its  waters  from  the  A.  river,  and  is 
noticeable  for  the  fact  that  its  principal  feeder  traverses  not 
its  length  but  its  breadth,  and  that  not  in  its  middle,  but  at 
its  extremity.    The  lake's  single  outlet  is  the  river  A. 

ATHABAS  CA:  a  new  division  ol  the  Canadian  nortb* 


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ATHA-BEN-HAKEM— ATHANAMC. 

west,  between  Britisb  Colombia  and  the  A.  river;  fonned 
1882;  122,000  sq.  m.  It  contains  the  fertUe  Peace  riTor 
districts. 

ATHA-BEN-HAKEM:  see  Hohammedah  Sects. 

ATHALIA,  n.  o^tMaa  [Or.  athales,  not  Terdant, 
withered]:  genus  of  saw-flies,  tenthredimcUB,  A,  spinarum 
or  eenU/olcB  is  the  Tnmip  Saw-fly,  so  called  because  its 
larvse,  which  are  the  animals  called  bla€k$  or  niggers,  feed 
on  turnips.  The  perfect  insect  is  common  in  some  years 
from  May  to  August.  It  has  a  black  head,  a  red  thorax, 
with  two  lar^  and  several  smaller  spots  on  the  back,  and 
an  orange-colored  abdomen. 

ATHALI'AH:  daughter  of  Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  married 
Jehonim,  King  of  Judah,  who  died  b.c  885.  After  the 
death  of  her  son  Ahaziah,  who  siAx^eeded  him,  but  reigned 
for  onljr  one  year,  she  paved  her  own  way  to  the  throne 
by  putting  to  death  (as  she  supposed)  all  the  seed-royaL 
'  but  Jehosheba,  the  daughter  or  king  Jehoram,  sister  of 
Ahaziah,  took  Joash,  the  son  of  Ahaziah,  and  stole  him  from 
among  the  king's  sons,  who  were  slain.'  The  youns  prince 
thus  rescued  was  privately  educated  in  the  temple,  and, 
after  A.  had  reigned  six  years,  the  high-priest  Jehoiada 
placed  Joash  on  the  throne  (b.c.  878).  A.,  hearing  the 
noise  attending  the  coronation,  hastened  to  the  temple, 
where  the  people  were  shouting,  '  Qod  save  the  king! '  As 
she  looked  round  in  astonishment  on  the  young  king,  whom 
she  had  supposed  to  be  dead,  surrounded  by  priests,  Levites, 
rulers,  captains,  and  a  rejoicing  multitude,  she  '  rent  her 
clothes,  and  cried. '  *  Treason !  treason ! "  *  By  the  command 
of  the  high  priest,  she  was  led  out  of  the  temple,  and  slain 
in  the  gateway  of  the  palace.  The  house  of  Baal,  with  its 
altars  and  images,  was  broken  down.  This  narrative  (2 
Kings  xi.;  2  Chron.  xxi.  6;  xxii.  10-12;  xxiii.)  is  the  sub- 
ject of  Racine's  drama,  Athalie. 

ATHANARIC,  a-thdna-rik:  King  of  the  Western  Goths 
(d.  881),  whose  settlements  lav  on  the  n.  bank  of  the  lower 
Danube.  Because  he  had  taken  advantage  of  the  weakness 
of  the  Roman  empire  when  the  imperial  armies  were  en- 
^ged  in  suppressmg  the  rebellion  of  Procopius,  war  was 
declared  against  him  by  the  epperor  Valens.  A.  acted 
strictly  on  the  defensiyc  during  two  campaigns,  in  which 
the  Romans  gained  no  advantage  over  him;  but  in  the  third 
year  of  the  war  (869),  he  hazarded  a  general  battle,  and  was 
defeated,  whereupon  he  sued  for  peace,  and  with  that  ob- 
ject had  a  conference  with  Valens  m  a  boat  on  the  Danube. 
Peace  was  concluded,  and  A.  had  his  attention  occupied  in 
settling  dissensions  arising  out  of  the  Arian  controvert 
which  then  agitated  his  people,  when  the  first  advance  of  the 
Huns  on  Europe  alarmed  the  Gk>thic  nation.  A.  attempted 
to  secure  the  eastern  borders  of  his  kingdom;  but  the  Huns 
forced  the  passages  of  the  Dnieper,  defeated  the  Qoths,  and 
advanced  in  great  force  into  the  plains  of  Dacia.  When,  in 
874,  the  Western  Goths  were  received  by  the  Rcnnans  as 
allies,  and  bad  settlements  granted  them  on  the  s..  of  the 
Danube,  A.,  with  a  part  of  his  people,  refused  to  accoiQ- 


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ATHANA8IAN. 

pan^  them,  removing  to  the  w.,  and  fortifying  himself 
against  the  new  enemy.  In  SbO,  however,  be  was  obli^ 
to  retire,  when  he  accepted  the  hospitality  of  the  empire, 
and  removed  to  Constantinople,  where  he  was  cordially  and 
honorablv  received  by  the  emperor  Theodosius.  At  this 
time  diea  Fritigem,  Kin?  of  the  Goths,  that  had  settled  on 
the  8.  of  the  Danube;  and  A.  being  made  kinff  of  the  whole 
western  Gk>thic  nation,  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace,  in  be- 
half of  the  whole,  which  had  the  effect  of  incorporating 
that  people  with  the  other  subjects  of  the  empire.  He  died 
at  Constantinople. 

ATHANA8IAN,  a.  dih'a-nd'zhdn:  pertaining  to  Atha- 
nasius,  a  bishop  of  Alexandria  in  the  fourth  century,  or  to 
the  creed  called  by  his  name.  Athana'sian  Creed:  third 
of  the  three  ecumenical  symbols,  named  from  its  composi- 
tion being  attributed  to  Athanasius;  it  is  also  known,  from 
its  initial  words  in  Latin,  as  the  creed  Quicunque  Vult. 
The  first  part  of  this  creed  contains  a  detailed  exposition 
of  the  Trinity;  the  second,  the  doctrine  of  the  incarnation. 
Modern  criticism  has  called  in  question  the  title  of  Atha- 
nasius to  be  considered  the  author  of  this  creed.  It  was 
known  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  6th  c,  but  not 
under  its  present  name.  It  is  spoken  of  as  *  Athanasius's 
Tract  on  the  Trinity,'  in  some  Articles  of  the  middle  of 
the  8th  c,  and  is  supposed  to  be  alluded  to,  '  as  the  Faith 
of  the  holy  prelate  Athanasius,'  in  the  council  of  Autun, 
about  670.  Athanasius  himself  makes  no  mention  of  this 
creed,  although  its  doctrines  are  essentially  his;  nor  do 
any  of  the  church  fathers.  Other  two  circumstances  speak 
against  its  authenticity:  it  is  in  Latin,  and  Athanasius 
wrote  in  Greek;  the  expressions,  a^ain,  are  different  from 
those  used  by  Athanasius  in  speaking  of  the  same  things. 
By  Protestants,  therefore,  and  even  by  most  Itom.  Cath- 
olics, its  Athanasian  origin  has  been  given  up,  and  its  pro- 
duction has  been  assigned  with  probability  to  the  6th  c, 
and  to  Gaul;  Hilary,  Abp.  of  Aries  (abt.  480),  being  con- 
jectured to  be  the  author.  The  title  of  Athanasian  prob- 
ably became  attached  to  it  during  the  Arian  controversy 
in  Gaul,  as  being  an  exposition  of  the  system  of  doctrine 
which  was  opposed  to  the  Arian  system,  and  which  would 
naturally  be  called  Athanasian  from  its  chief  propounder. 
It  was  received  into  the  public  offices  of  the  Gallic  Church 
in  the  7th  c,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  10th  c.  it  was  . 
adopted  at  Rome  and  all  over  the  West.  In  Britidn,  it 
was  probably  in  use  as  as  early  as  800.  The  Greek  Church 
was  late  in  receiving  it,  and  even  then  not  without  alter- 
ing the  article  concerning  the  *  Procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.'  The  Reformers  adhered  to  the  Athanasian  Creea, 
and  Luther  called  it  *a  bulwark  of  the  Apostles'  Creed.' 

The  Athanasian  Creed  is  the  most  rigid  and  intolerant  of 
the  three  Catholic  symbols,  and  has  given  rise  to  much  con- 
troversy; and  though  it  is  still  generally  received  by  many 
Protestants  as  well  as  by  Rom.  Catholics,  the  regard  once 
had  for  it  has  declined.  The  points  in  this  creed  that  give 
offense  to  some  are  defended  by  others,  on  the  plea  that  it 
was  drawn  up  not  for  the  sake  of  gratuitously  dogmatizing 
on  abstruse  speculative  truths,  but  to  counteract  other  dog 


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ATHANASIUS. 

mas  held  to  be  dangerously  heretical.  Wat^rland,  in  his 
CrUicAil  Uistory  of  the  Athanadan  Creed,  says:  *  The  use  of  it 
will  hardly  be  thought  superfluous  so  long  as  there  are  any 
Arians,  Photinians,  Sabelhans,  Macedonians,  Apollinarians, 
Nestorians,  or  Eutychians,  in  these  parts.'  (See  these  titles.) 
With  respect  to  what  are  called  the  *  damnatory  clauses ' 
(the  clauses,  namely:  *  Which  Faith  except  every  one  do 
keep  whole  and  undefiled,  without  doubt  he  shall  perish 
everlastingly;'  and,  *  This  is  the  Catholic  faith,  which  except 
a  man  believe  faithfully,  he  cannot  be  saved '),  the  churches 
which  adopt  the  creed  do  not  mean  by  them  to  imprecate 
curses,  but  to  declare,  as  a  logical  sequence  of  a  true  faith 
being  necessary  to  salvation,  that  those  who  do  not  hold 
the  true  faith  are  in  danger  of  perishing;  as  it  is  said, 
Mark  xvi.  16,  *  He  that  disbelieveth  shall  be  condemned.' 
These  clauses  are  also  held  to  apply  to  those  who  deny  the 
substance  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  not  infallibly  to 
every  person  who  may  be  in  error  as  to  any  one  particular 
article.  A  rubric  to  this  effect  was  drawn  up  by  the  com- 
missioners appointed  in  1689  for  the  review  of  tlie  English 
Common  Prayer  Book,  but  none  of  their  suggestions  took 
effect.  Compare  also  the  18th  Article  of  the  Church 
of  England  with  these  clauses.  It  is  probably  the  grow- 
ing opinion  in  Britain  that  this  creed  may  well  be  spared 
from  the  authoritative  utterances  of  the  church.  It  was 
rejected  (1786)  from  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  as 
adopted  by  the  Prot.  Epis.  Church  in  the  United  States. 

ATIIANASIVS,  dth-a-nd'shi'Us,  Primate  of  Egypt:  296- 
378;  b.  Alexandria:  there  is  no  record  of  his  lineage  or  his 
parents.  Alexander,  then  ofliciating  as  primate  or  patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  brought  him  up  m  his  own  family,  and 
superintended  his  educAtion,  with  the  view  of  his  entering 
the  Christian  ministry.  In  his  youth,  he  often  visited  the 
celebrated  hermit  St.  Antony,  and  embraced  for  a  time 
the  ascetic  life  with  the  venerable  recluse.  He  was  but  a 
youth  and  only  a  deacon  when  appointed  a  member  of 
the  first  general  council  at  Nice,  in  which  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  erudition  and  his  eloquence. 

His  patron,  Alexander,  having  died  in  the  foUowing 
year,  he  was  duly  elected  to  the  primacy  by  the  clergy 
and  people;  and  was  but  newly  installed  in  his  office,  when 
Arius,  who  had  been  banished  at  the  time  of  the  condem- 
nation of  his  doctrine  at  Nice,  was  recalled,  and  made  a 
recantation  of  his  erroneous  principles.  A.,  it  is  said, 
refused  on  this  occasion  to  comply  with  the  will  of  the 
emperor  that  the  heretic  should  be  restored  to  commimion. 
On  this  account,  and  in  consequence  of  several  other 
charges  brought  against  him  by  the  Arian  party,  he 
was  summoned  by  the  emperor  Constantine  to  appear 
before  the  synod  of  Tyre,  385,  which  deposed  him  from 
his  office.  His  sentence  was  confirmed  by  the  synod  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  following  year,  when  he  was  banished  to 
Treves.  In  838,  Constantius,  now  emperor  of  the  East, 
though  unfriendly  to  the  principles  of  the  Trinitarians, 
recalled  A.  from  his  banishment,  and  restored  him  to  the 
primacy  at  Alexandria.  His  entrance  into  the  city  was 
like  a  triumphal  procession;  but  the  Arians  soon  rose 


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ATHANASIUS. 

against  him,  and  (in  841)  he  was  again  condemned  by  a 
council  of  90  Arian  bishops  assembled  at  Antioch.  Against 
this  decision  a  protest  was  made  by  100  orthodox  bishops 
at  Alexandria;  and  in  a  council  held  at  Sardis,  800  bishops, 
with  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  at  their  head,  confirmed  the 
decision  in  favor  of  A.,  who  was  again  replaced  in  his 
office  (849).  The  Arians  once  more  acquired  the  ascen- 
dancy after  Constantius  (in  853)  had  been  made  emperor 
of  both  the  East  and  the  West;  for  in  that  year  A.  was 
condemned  by  a  council  held  at  Aries,  and  the  sentence 
was  contirmed  by  another  held  at  Milan  in  855,  the 
influence  of  the  sovereign  being  strongly  exerted  to  secure 
his  condemnation.  As  the  resolute  patriarch  had  declared 
that  he  would  not  leave  his  place  without  an  express 
order  from  the  emperor,  violent  means  were  resorted  to 
for  his  expulsion.  While  engaged  in  conducting  divine 
service,  he  was  interrupted  by  a  company  of  soldiers,  from 
whom  he  made  his  escape  into  the  Egyptian  desert.  A 
price  was  set  on  his  head;  and  to  avoid  his  persecu- 
tors he  retired  from  the  usual  haunts  of  the  anchorets  to 
a  remote  desert  in  upper  Egypt,  where  he  was  attended 
by  one  faithful  follower.  Here  he  wrote  sevefal  works 
to  confirm  orthodox  Christians  in  their  faith.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Julian  to  the  imperial  throne,  toleration  was 
proclaimed  to  all  religions,  and  A.  returned  to  his  former 
position  as  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  (861).  His  next  contro- 
versy was  with  the  heathen  subjects  of  Julian,  to  whom  the 
patriarch,  by  his  zeal  in  opposing  their  religion,  had  made 
iumself  very  offensive.  To  save  his  life,  he  was  compelled 
again  to  flee  from  Alexandria,  and  remained  concealed  in 
the  Theban  desert  imtil  863,  when  Jovian  ascended  the 
throne.  After  holding  ofllce  again  as  patriarch  for  only 
a  short  space  of  time,  he  was  expelled  anew  by  the  Arians, 
under  the  emperor  Valens.  A.  now  found  refuge  in  the 
tomb  of  his  father,  where  he  remained  hidden  four  months, 
until  Valens,  moved  by  petitions  from  the  orthodox  Alex- 
andrians, restored  the  patriarch  to  his  see;  in  which  he 
continued  till  his  death. 

A.  was  the  leading  ecclesiastic  in  a  most  trying  period 
of  the  early  church.  His  ability,  his  conscientiousness, 
his  persistency,  his  fearlessness  in  the  storms  of  opposition, 
his  activity  and  patience,  all  mark  him  as  an  extraordinary 
man.  Though  twenty  years  of  his  life  were  spent  either 
in  exile,  or  its  equivalent,  yet  his  steadfastness,  combined 
with  the  support  of  a  large  party,  gave  him  finally  the 
victory.  He  was  a  clear  thinker;  and  as  a  speaker,  was 
distinguished  for  extemporaneous  precision,  force,  and 
persuasiveness. 

His  writings  are  polemical,  historical,  and  moral;  all 
marked  by  a  style  simple,  cogent,  and  clear.  The  polem- 
ical works  treat  chiefly  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  the 
incarnation  of  the  Bon  of  God,  and  the  divinity  of  the 
Holy  Spirit. 

The  earliest  edition  of  the  collected  works  of  A.  in  the 
original  Greek  appeared  in  two  vols.,  folio,  Heidelberg, 
1600.  Better  is  the  great  edition  by  Montfaucon  (169b); 
and  the  recent  standard  edition  in  *t  ^  library  of  the  Fathers 

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ATHAN0R-ATHEI8M. 

by  the  Abb§  Migne  (1860).  A.  's  Four  Orations  against  thft 
Arians,  and  his  Oration  against  the  Oentiles,  were  trans- 
lated by  Parker  (1713);  his  Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of 
the  Word,  by  Whiston  (1718;  another  ed.,  1880).  The 
Epistles  of  A.  in  defense  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  on  the 
Councils  of  Ariminum  and  Seleucia,  together  with  his  first 
Oration  a^inst  the  Arians,  were  translated,  with  notes,  by 
Cardinal  Newman  (1842).  See  the  church  histories  b^' 
Neander  and  others;  and  works  on  A.  by  MOhler  (2d  ed. 
1844),  and  BOhringer  (2d  ed.  1874). 

ATHANOR,  n.  dih'a-natDT  [Ger.  a^A^w^— from  Arab. 
at-tannUr:  Heb.  tannUr,  a  furnace]:  a  digesting  furance 
formerly  in  use  among  chemists;  designea  to  maintain  a 
regulated  amount  of  heat 

ATHARVANA,  n.  athdr'vana  [8kr.]:  the  fourth  and 
last  of  the  Indian  Yedas.  Its  language  is  more  modem 
than  that  of  the  other  three:  see  under  ybda  (Atharwiteda). 

ATHEISM,  n.  d'thiism  [Gr.  at/Uda,  denying  the  gods— 
from  a,  without;  thSds,  a  god:  F.  atheisme,  atheism! :  the 
disbelief  in  the  existence  of  God.  Atheist,  n.  dihe-Ui, 
one  who  does  not  believe  in  the  existence  of  G^;  an  infidel, 
an  unbeliever.  Athbibtic,  a.  d'the-^^tlk,  pertaining  to;  or 
A'THEiBTiCAii,  a.  'Wti-kdi.  A'theib'tically,  ad.  -kdl-i. 
A'thbis'ticaxkbbs,  n.  the  quiditjr  of  being  atheisticaL 
Athbizb,  v.  d'the-lZf  to  render  atheistic;  to  speak  or  write 
in  an  atheistic  manner.  Atheizeb,  n.  d'ihe-l-z^,  one  who 
atheizes;  one  who  teaches  or  encourages  atheism.  Atheous, 
a.  d'(heu9,  in  OE.^  atheistic;  godless. 

ATHEISM:  the  doctrine  of  those  who  deny  the  existence 
of  €k>d.  The  term  atheist,  which  conveys  terrible  associa- 
tions to  many  minds,  has  been  so  freely  applied  by  the 
zealous  of  all  ages  to  those  whose  notions  or  the  invisible 
powers  differed  from  their  own,  that  it  has  lost  something 
of  its  former  force.  A  little  ingenuity  serves  to  make  out 
a  case  of  eongtrucUTe  A.  from  any  set  of  opinions  at  all 
differing  from  the  common.  Thus,  the  ancient  Greeks 
accused  some  of  their  philosophers  of  A.  though  they  did 
not  deny  the  existence  of  a  divinity,  but  only  rejected  the 
common  notions  of  a  plurality  of  gods.  And  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  after  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  had  been 
fixed  and  defined,  those  that  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ 
were  not  unusually  branded  as  atheists. 

The  general  revulsion  from  this  name  is  shown  in  its 
earnest  repudiation  by  the  adherents  of  pantheism  (q.v.), 
who  reject  a  personal  Gk)d,  and  substitute  the  idealized 
principle  of  order  that  pervades  the  universe.  It  is  hardly 
to  be  denied,  however,  that  the  idea  associated  with  the 
word  God  has  hitherto  involved  personality  as  its  very 
essence;  and  except  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  odium, 
there  could  be  little  propriety  in  retaining  the  word  when 
the  notion  is  so  completely  altered. 

The  view  of  those  who,  like  Kant,  believe  it  impossible 
to  demonstrate  satisfactorily  the  existence  of  Gk)d,  though 
the  divine  existence  must  be  held  on  other  grounds,  is 
called  speculative  A.,  in  opposition  to  the  dogmatic  A.  of 
those  who  attempt  to  disprove  that  existence. 


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ATHELING— ATHEN^US. 

ATHELING,  n.  (Uhillng  [AS.  athel,  noble;  ing,  son 
of]:  in  OE.,  one  of  noble  or  royal  descent;  the  royal  heir- 
apparent 

ATH'ELNEY,  Isle  op:  a  marsh  at  the  junction  of  the 
rivers  Tone  and  Parret,  in  the  middle  of  Somersetshire. 
Here  Alfred,  when  driven  from  his  throne,  hid  from  his 
enemies,  and  founded,  in  888,  a  Benedictine  abbey,  now 
entirely  gone.  Among  the  many  relics  found  in  this  spot 
is  a  ring  of  Alfred's,  preserved  in  the  Oxford  Museum. 
The  name  Athelney  means  *  island  of  the  nobles,'  or  *  royal 
island.' 

ATHELSTAN,  iith'el'SUln,  Saxon  monarch  who  first 
took  the  title  King  of  England:  abt.  895-941,  Oct.  25; 
grandson  of  Alfred  the  Great.  Alfred  had  assumed  the 
title  only  of  Song  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Alhelstan  was  , 
crowned  at  Eingston-upon-Thames,  925,  and  seems  to  have 
had  ambition  and  talent.  It  is  supposed  that  his  desi^ 
was  to  unite  in  subjection  to  his  single  sway  the  entire 
island  of  Britain.  His  resources,  however,  were  not  equal 
to  the  undertaking,  and  he  had  to  content  himself  with  the 
acquisition  of  portions  of  Cornwall  and  Wales.  On  the 
death  of  Sigtric,  King  of  Northumbria,  who  had  married 
one  of  his  (Siu^hters,  A.  took  possession  of  his  dominions. 
This  excited  me  alarm  and  animosity  of  the  neighboring 
states,  and  a  league,  composed  of  Welsh,  Scotch,  ana 
Irish,  was  formed  against  the  English  king,  for  the  purpose 
of  placing  Aulaff,  the  son  of  Sigtric,  on  his  father's  throne. 
A  tierce  and  decisive  battle  was  fought  at  Brunenburgh, 
in  which  the  allies  were  utterly  defeated,  and  which  became 
famous  in  Saxon  song.  After  this,  the  reputation  of  A. 
spread  to  the  continent.  His  sisters  were  married  into  the 
royal  families  of  France  and  Germany,  and  he  had  great 
influence  and  consideration.  At  home,  he  showed  deep 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  people,  improved  the  laws, 
built  monasteries,  and  encouraged  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  vernacular.    He  died  at  Gloucester. 

ATHENiEUS,  dth-a-ne'ua:  a  Greek  rhetor  and  Utterct- 
ieur,  at  the  close  of  the  2d  and  beginning  of  the  3d  c. ; 
b.  Naucratis,  Egypt.  His  work,  entitled  DeipnosaphisUB 
(Banquet  of  the  Learned)  in  fifteen  books,  but  of  which 
remam  only  the  first  two,  and  parts  of  the  third,  eleventh, 
and  fifteenth  in  an  abridged  lorm,  is  very  interesting,  as 
it  preserves  copious  fragments  of  old  writers,  and  treats, 
in  the  form  of  dialogue,  of  almost  all  the  topics  of  ancient 
Greek  manners,  private  and  public  life,  arts,  sciences,  etc. 
The  work  is  not  mdicative  of  genius  or  of  high  ability; 
the  author,  for  the  most  part,  appears  in  the  character  of 
an  agreeable,  well-read,  epicurean  gentleman,  excessively 
fond  of  tidriits,  both  of  scandal  and  cookery.  He  tells 
many  stories  to  the  disadvantage  of  people  whom  history 
praises;  but  these  we  are  by  no  means  bound  to  believe, 
nor,  indeed,  is  he  a  man  whose,  opinions  are  worth  much 
on  any  subject,  but  as  a  melange  of  literary,  social,  and 
domestic  gossip,  the  value  of  the  work  is  unrivalled.  A. 
appears  to  have  read  enormously;  he  states  that  he  had 
made  extracts  from  800  plays  of  the  middle  comedy  alone; 


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ATHENAGORAS— ATHENIAN. 

but  his  dialogue  is  prolix  and  lumbering.  The  best  editions 
are  by  SchweighAuser  (14  vols.  1807),  Dindorf  (3  vols. 
1827),  Meineke  (4  vols.  1867).  There  is  an  English  trans- 
lation of  A.  (3  vols,  in  Bohn's  series,  1854). 

ATHENAGORAS,  dlh-e-nagd-ras:  Christian  philoso- 
pher in  the  2d  c.,who  taught  first  at  Athens,  afterwards  at 
Alexandria.  He  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  apologetical 
writers,  and  is  favorably  known  by  his  Legatio  pro  Chris- 
tiania,  which  he  addressed  to  the  emperor  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  177.  He  therein  defended  the  Christians  against  the 
monstrous  accusations  of  the  heathen,  viz.,  that  they  were 
guilty  of  atheism,  incest,  and  cannibalism.  His  work  is 
written  in  a  philosophical  spirit,  and  is  marked  by  great 
clearness  and  cogency  of  style.  There  remains  also  a  val- 
uable treatise  of  A.  on  the  resurrection  of  the  dead. 

ATHENAIS  dth-e-nd'-U:  b.  Athens  abt.  the  end  of  the 
4th  c;  d.  460;  dau.  of  Leontinos  the  Sophist.  She  re- 
ceived from  her  father  a  superior  education,  being  skilled 
in  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  rhetoric,  astronomy,  geom- 
etry and  the  science  of  arithmetic.  After  his  death  she 
went  to  Constantinople,  to  obtain  iustice  for  the  harsh 
treatment  to  which  her  brother  subjected  her.  Here  her 
beauty  and  intelligence  made  her  the  favorite  of  Augusta 
Pulcheria,  sister  of  Theodosius  II.,  who  considered  that 
she  would  make  an  excellent  wife  for  the  emperor.  In  421, 
A.,  having  been  baptized  and  named  Eudocia,was  married 
to  Theodosius,  and  in  438,  made  a  splendid  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  bringing  with  her,  on  her  return,  the  supposed 
relics  of  the  first  martyr,  Stephen.  Aftewards,  she  lost  the 
favor  of  Pulcheria— the  real  manager  of  affairs — and  was 
banished  from  the  court,  retiring  to  JerusiUem,  where  she 
suffered  many  persecutions,  and  died,  in  the  odor  of  sanc- 
tity. A.  wrote  an  epic  poem  on  the  war  of  Theodosius 
against  the  Persians,  and  several  other  metrical  works, 
which  have  not  been  preserved. 

ATHENE,  or  Athena:  see  Moterva. 

ATHENEUM,  or  AxHENiKUM,  n.  aW^-Tu'um  [Gr.  Athe- 
naian,  the  temple  of  Minerva  at  Athens;  Athene,  the  god- 
dess Minerva]:  a  public  reading  or  lecture  room.  The  A. 
at  Athens  was  frequented  by  poets,  learned  men,  and 
rhetoricians,  who  there  read  aloud  their  works. — The  A. 
in  Rome  was  a  school  or  college  erected,  by  the  emperor 
Hadrian,  for  the  study  of  poetry  and  rhetoric,  wnth  a 
regular  staff  of  professors.  It  existed  for  a  long  period. 
In  the  time  of  Theodosius  II.,  it  had  three  professors  of 
oratoiy,  ten  of  grammar,  five  of  sophistry  or  dialectics, 
one  of  philosophy,  and  two  of  jurisprudence. — In  modem 
times,  the  name  A.  has  been  revived  as  an  appellation  for 
certain  literary  institutions,  and  also  as  a  collective  title 
for  literary  essays  and  reviews.  A.  is  the  title  of  two 
weekly  journals  of  literature,  science,  and  art — one  pub- 
.lished  in  London,  the  other  in  Paris. 

ATHENIAN,  a.  d-the'nl-an:  of  Athens;  N.  an  inhabitant 
of  Athens. 


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ATHENS. 

ATHENS,  dth'im:  cap.  of  the  ancient  state  of  Attica; 
said  to  bave  been  founded  by  Cecrops,  about  b.c.  1500, 
and  styled  Cecropia;  but  even  the  ancients  themselves 
doubted  this  tradition.  Equally  uncertain  is  the  story  that 
it  was  first  styled  A.,  in  honor  of  Athene,  during  the  reign 
of  Erichthonius.  The  ancient  citadel  was  situated  on  a 
square  craggy  rock,  513  ft.  high,  with  a  flat  summit  1,000 
ft.  long,  and  500  broad.  Gradually,  as  population  increased, 
A.  extended  over  the  wide  and  beautiful  plain  below. 
This  increase  is  said  to  have  been  due  to  the  organization 
of  the  twelve  Attic  tribes  into  a  political  confederacy  or 
union  by  Theseus,  the  brightest  figure  in  the  'dark  ages' 
of  Attic  history.  The  position  of  A.  near  the  Gulf  of  Bar- 
onica,  opposite  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus,  was 
favorable  to  the  acquirement  of  naval  power.  The  city, 
four  or  five  miles  from  the  sea,  had  three  harbors,  all  situ- 
ated on  the  s.w.  side,  and  connected  with  it  by  walls. 
The  oldest  of  these  harbors  was  Phalerum,  the  nearest  to 
the  city,  and  accessible  at  all  times  by  a  dry  road.  The 
Piraeus  was  used  as  a  harbor  first  by  Themistocles.  Mim 
ychia  was  the  Acropolis  of  the  whole  rocky  peninsula 
termed  the  Piraeus,  and  of  immense  importance  strateget- 
ically.  The  last  two  harbors  were  connected  with  the  city 
by  the  famous  *  long  walls,'  of  which  we  read  so  much  in 
Athenian  history.  They  were  forty  stadia,  or  nearly  five 
m.  in  length.  Two  streams  flowed  in  the  vicinity  of  A. ; 
on  the  e.  side,  the  Ilissus,  which  also  washed  the  s.  part 
of  the  city;  and  on  thew.,  the  Cephisus,  about  a  mile  and 
a  half  beyond  the  walls.  To  the  w.  lay  Salamis,  with 
Eleusis  on  the  n.w.,  Phylae  and  Decelea  on  the  n.,  Mara- 
thon on  the  n.e.,  and  Hymettus  on  the  s.  All  along  the 
coast  were  splendid  buildings. 

The  whole  of  the  ma«iiticent  prospect  was  crowned  by 
the  Acropolis,  where  all  the  most  glorious  monuments  of 
A.  were  assembled.  First  rose  the  Parthenon  (q.v.),  or 
Temple  of  Minerva,  a  pile  which  even  now,  after  the  lapse 
of  centuries,  remains  among  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
The  Propylaea,  all  built  of  white  marble,  formed  the  en- 
trance to  the  Parthenon,  Close  to  it,  on  then,  side  of  the 
Acropolis,  rose  the  Erechtheium,  the  most  venerated  of 
all  Athenian  sanctuaries,  and  connected  with  the  oldest 
religious  history  of  the  city.  The  whole  of  it  was  destroyed 
by  thePersians,but  was  restored  during  the  Peloponuesian 
war.  Ite  ruins  still  exist,  and  give  a  correct  idea  of  the 
external  form  and  structure.  In  some  points  it  differed 
from  all  other  Greek  temples.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  of  the 
many  magnificent  buildings  which  were  the  glory  of  an- 
cient Athens,  that  gods  were  never  more  superbly  hon- 
ored in  any  land.  The  enthusiastic  love  of  the  beautiful 
which  animated  the  Athenians,  turning  their  relieion  into 
an  art,  and  making  worship  an  education  in  aesthetics,  is 
nowhere  so  clearly  visible  as  in  their  religious  architec- 
ture. Their  mythological  faith  stood  daily  before  their 
eyes  in  monumental  splendor,  for  almost  every  deity  had 
his  temple  or  shrine  in  the  city.  Two  of  the  tinest  build- 
ings— the  Temple  of  Theseus,  and  that  of  Jupiter  Olym- 


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ATHENS. 

pus — ^were  on  the  outside  of  the  city;  the  first  to  the  n.w., 
and  the  second  to  the  s.  The  former,  built  about  b.c. 
465,  therefore  older  than  the  Parthenon,  was  both  a  tem- 
ple and  a  tomb,  inasmuch  as  it  held  the  remains  of  Theseus 
himself.  It  had  the  privilege  of  an  asylum  for  slaves, 
and  the  large  space  of  ground  which  it  inclosed  was  fre- 

Juently  used  as  a  muster-ground  for  the  Athenian  soldiery, 
t  was  built  of  the  favorite  Pentelic  marble,  in  the  Doric 
style  of  architecture,  and  is  the  best  preserved  of  all  the 
monuments  of  ancient  Athens.  For  centuries  it  was  a 
Christian  church,  appropriately  dedicated  to  St.  George, 
the  chivalrous  hero  of  the  '  dark  ages '  of  Christianity,  as 
Theseus  had  been  of  the  '  dark  ages '  of  the  Attic  history; 
but  is  now  the  national  museum  of  the  city.  The  Temple 
of  Jupiter,  of  which  fifteen  grand  Corinthian  columns  are 
still  extant,  to  the  s.e.  of  the  Acropolis,  and  near  the 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ilissus,  in  size,  splendor,  and  beauty 
excelled  all  other  Athenian  structures.  Immense  sums  of 
money  were  expended  upon  it  from  the  time  when  it  was 
commenced  by  Peisistratus,  until  it  was  completed  by 
Hadrian,  a  period  of  700  years.  The  building  of  it  was 
frequently  suspended,  so  that  Philostratus  calls  it  *a 
struggle  with  time.'  At  the  time  the  Persians  sacked  the 
city,  It  was  fortunately  only  beginning  to  be  built,  and  so 
escaped  destruction.  Aristotle  speaks  of  it  as  a  work  of 
despotic  grandeur,  and  equal  to  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt. 
The  exterior  was  decorated  by  about  120  fluted  colunms, 
61  ft.  in  height,  and  more  than  6  ft.  in  diameter.  It  was 
864  ft.  long,  and  171  broad,  and  contained  the  celebrated 
statue  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter  in  ivory  and  gold, the  work 
of  Phidias. 

Besides  these  wonders  of  art,  the  city  contained  places  of 
interest  of  which  tne  memory  will  perpetually  remain — the 
Academy  where  Plato,  whose  estate  lay  near  it,  gave  his 
lessons  in  a  grove  of  plane-trees  adorned  with  statues  ;  tradi- 
tion alleged  it  to  have  belonged  originally  to  Academus. 
Hipparcbus  surrounded  it  with  a  wall,  and  Cimon  adorned 
it  with  walks,  fountains,  and  olive-groves.  The  Lyceima, 
most  important  of  the  Athenian  ^mnasia,  where  Aristotle 
lectured ;  and,  near  to  this,  the  Cynosarges,  where  Antis- 
thenes  the  Cjmic  expounded  his  *  harsh  and  crabbed '  doc- 
trine ;  the  hill  of  the  Areopagus,  where  the  most  venerable 
court  of  judicature  was  hela  ;  and  the  Prytitoeum.  or  stn- 
ate-house.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  w.  of  the  Acro- 
polis is  a  low  hill,  which  marks  the  locality  of  the  Pnyx,  a 
place  of  public  asssemblv,  forming  a  large  semicircular 
area,  bounded  at  the  base  oy  a  limestone  wall,  from  which 
projects  a  pedestal,  carved  out  of  the  rock,  and  ascended  bv 
steps.  This  most  interesting  place  has  been  preserved  iJ- 
most  in  its  integrity,  and,  as  we  look  around,  we  are  carried 
back  to  the  times  when  some  six  thousand  Athenian  citi- 
zens were  here  assembled,  when  the  orator,  standing  upon 
the  pedestal,  could  survey  the  Acropolis,  with  all  its  temples, 
the  venerable  Areopagus,  and  bevond  th«  city,  the  extended 
plains  and  villages  of  Attica,  with  corn-fields,  olive  grounds, 
and  vineyards. 


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ATHENS. 

A.,  in  its  most  flourishing  period,  numbered  21,000  fre6 
citizens;  from  which  we  may  calculate  that  it  contained 
about  200,000  inhabitants.  More  than  two  thousand  years 
have  passed  over  the  beautiful  city,  and  still  its  remains  ex- 
cite the  admiration  of  tbe  world.  The  Turks  surrounded 
it  with  wide  irregular  walls,  partly  built  out  of  the  ruins 
of  the  old  walls,  and  containing  many  fragments  of 
noble  columns.  Of  the  Propylfiea,  the  riffht  wing,  or 
Temple  of  Victory,  was  destroyed  in  1656  by  the  explo- 
sion of  a  powder-magazine.  Six  columns,  with  lofty  arches, 
remain  to  mark  the  site  of  the  opposite  wing.  The  interior 
of  the  Parthenon  was  used  for  some  time  as  a  Turkish 
mosque.  Eight  columns  remain  on  the  e.  of  the  front,  several 
colonnades  at  the  sides  ;  and  of  the  back  pediment,  where  the 
combat  of  Minerva  and  Neptune  was  sculptured,  nothing 
remains  save  the  head  of  a  sea-horse,  and  two  decapitated 
female  figures.  Of  the  pediment  in  front,  several  figures 
belonging  to  the  group  representing  the  birth  of  Minerva 
are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and  justly  regarded 
as  masterpieces  of  ancient  sculpture.  Of  aU  the  statues 
which  the  Parthenon  contained,  only  one,  that  of  Hadrian, 
has  been  preserved.  Ruined  as  it  has  been,  the  general  as- 
pect of  the  Parthenon  is  still  sublime.  Of  the  Erechtheium 
(or  Temple  of  NeptimusErecbtheius)  there  are  considerable 
remains,  especially  the  beautiful  female  figures  styled  Cary- 
atides. 

The  situations  and  vast  extent  of  the  two  theatres  may 
still  be  traced,  though  grain  is  now  grown  in  the  arenas. 
All  these  remains  belong  to  the  Acropolis.  In  tbe  city  be- 
low, there  are  no  such  splendid  memorials.  The  Horolo- 
gium,  or  octagonal  Temple  of  the  Winds  (built  by  Andro- 
nicus  Kyrrhestes),  has  been  well  preserved  ;  but  a  few  frag 
ments  found  in  broken  walls  are  all  that  remain  to  tell  of 
the  splendid  Gvmnasium  built  by  Ptolemseus.  Beyond  the 
dtv,  the  attention  of  the  spectator  is  arrested  by  the  sublime 
rums  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus.  Pedestals  and 
inscriptions  have  been  found  here  and  there,  sometimes 
buried  in  the  earth.  The  sculptures  on  the  friezes  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  Temple  of  Theseus,  representing  the  exploits 
of  Theseus,  have  been  well  preserved,  while  the  external 
sculptures  are  almost  utterly  destroyed.  A  Turkish  burial- 
place  now  occupies  tbe  hill  where  the  Areopagus  held  its 
sittings.  The  site  of  the  Lyceum  is  indicated  only  by  scat- 
tered stones,  and  a  modem  house  and  garden  occupy  the 
place  of  the  Academy.  Scarcely  anything  remains  to  show 
the  old  magnificence  of  the  harbors  Pirceus,  Phaleros,  and 
Munychia. 

It  is  probable  that,  in  the  time  of  Pausanias,  many  struc- 
tures remained  belonging  to  the  period  before  the  Persian 
war,  as  Xerxes,  during  his  short  time  of  mastery  over  A., 
would  scarcely  have  been  able  to  destroy  more  than  the 
fortifications  and  principal  public  buildings.  Themistocles, 
in  his  restoration  of  the  city,  had  chiefiy  a  regard  to  util- 
ity; Cimon  paid  attention  to  its  decoration;  but  Pericles 
far  exceeded  them  in  the  magnificence  of  his  designs,  which 
iv^re  too  vast  to  be  carried  mto  effect  in  later  times.    The 

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ATHENa 

civilization,  spreading  from  A.  as  its  centre,  raised  Macedon 
and  other  states  into  dangerous  rivalry.  The  defeat  at 
Chffironeia  was  as  fatal  to  the  fine  arts  as  to  the  liberty  of 
the  Athenians.  After  the  works  at  the  Piraeus  had  been 
destroyed  by  Sulla,  the  naval  power,  and  with  it  the  whole 
political  importance  of  A.,  rapidly  declined.  It  is  true 
that  the  city  was  treated  leniently  by  its  conquerors ;  the 
temples  and  statues  were  preserved  from  violation,  and  A., 
with  all  the  trophies  of  eight  centuries  of  greatness,  re- 
mained under  tlie  Antonines ;  but  the  free  national  spirit  of 
the  Athenians  had  departed  for  ever,  and  slowly,  but  sure- 
ly, the  fine  arts  shared  the  fate  of  Grecian  liberty.  Their 
treasures,  which  had  been  spared  by  the  Roman  emperors, 
were  gradually  stolen  awajr  by  various  thievish  collectors, 
especially  for  the  decoration  of  Byzantium,  or  were  de- 
stroyed by  unthinking  Christian  zeal  and  barbarian  invasion. 
About  A.D.  420,  the  ancient  religion  and  temple-service  of 
A.  had  entirely  disappeared;  afterwards,  the  schools  of  phi- 
losophy were  closed  by  Justinian,  and  Greek  mythology 
was  gradually  forgotten.  St.  George  took  the  place  of  The- 
seus, and  the  Parthenon  was  converted  into  a  cjiurch.  The 
surviving  industry  of  A.  was  injured  by  Roger  of  Sicily, 
who  removed  its  silk  manufactures.  In  1456,  A.  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Omar,  and,  to  consummate  its  degradation, 
under  the  low,  sensual  Turks,  the  city  of  Athene  was  re- 
garded as  an  appan^  of  the  harem,  and  governed  by  a 
black  eunuch.  The  Venetians,  having  captured  the  city  in 
1687,  intended  to  carry  away  as  a  trophy  the  quadriga  of 
victory  from  the  w.  front  of  the  Parthenon,  but  shattered  it 
in  their  attempt  to  remove  it.  In  1688,  A.  was  again  de- 
livered into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  and  the  work  of  demoli- 
tion now  proceeded  rapidly.  The  grand  remains  of  antio- 
uity  were  used  as  quarries  to  supply  materials  for  all  ordi- 
nary buildings,  and,  in  the  course  of  another  century,  the 
city  was  reduced  to  its  lowest  point  of  degradation. 

Modem  A.  (styled  by  the  Turks  Athina  or  Setines)  is  now 
the  capital  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece,  Previous  to  the 
Greek  revolution  (1831),  it  was  a  provincial  city  of  inferior 
importance,  the  seat  of  a  Greek  metropolitan  bishop,  and  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  of  the  Turkish  governor  in  Eu- 
boea.  In  1821,  the  war  of  liberation  commenced,  and  the 
Turks  surrendered  Athens  in  the  following  year ;  but  again 
captured  it  in  1826,  and  took  the  Acropolis  in  1827.  After 
this  it  was  left  in  ruins  until  1880,  when  Attica  was  de- 
clared united  with  Greece  by  the  protocol  of  the  London 
Conference.  In  1834,  Otho,  the  sen  of  the  Bavarian  mon- 
arch, who  had  been  elected  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  new 
kingdom,  removed  his  residence  from  Kauplia  to  A.  Im 
provcments  now  proceeded  rapidly  :  Turkish  manners  and 
customs  disappeared ;  the  contemptible  wooden  houses  and 
crooked  streets  were  superseded  by  new  ones— among  which 
the  Hermes,  ^olus,  Athene,  and  New  Stadion  streets  are 
conspicuous ;  and,  in  1836,  the  foundation  of  a  new  palace 
was  laid,  completed  in  1843.  The  municipal  affairs  of  A. 
are  now  regulated  by  a  mayor  (demarches)  and  coundl 
elected  by  the  citizens.    Modem  A.  has  a  gymnasium,  a 


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ATHENS. 

library  enriched  with  many  donations  from  France  and 
Germany,  and  a  imiversity,  where  about  52  professors  and 
tutors  are  engaged.  The  number  of  students  is  about  twelve 
hundred.  Much  literature  is  published  here.  The  French 
and  United  States  governments  have  each  fpunded  an  Archae- 
ological Institute  in  the  city.  A.  has  soap-works,  leather- 
works,  and  silk  and  cotton  factories.  It  is  connected  with 
Pir»us  (q.v.).  its  port,  by  rail.    Pop.  (1889)  107,846. 

PoUUeal  Hutory  cf  A. — It  was  the  Ionic  race  that  mani- 
fested most  signally  the  distinguishing  characters  of  Greek 
civilization;  and  of  this  portion  of  Hellas,  A.,  in  the 
brilliant  part  of  its  history,  stands  out  most  prominently. 
According  to  tradition,  its  political  power  was  first  estab- 
lished by  Theseus,  King  of  Attica,  who  made  A.  the 
metropolis.  Here  he  instituted  the  ^eat  popular  festival 
of  the  Panathensea,  and,  by  encoura^ng  settlements  in  the 
city,  greatly  increased  its  population.  He  divided  the 
citizens  into  three  classes:  nobility,  agriculturists,  and 
mechanics.  Until  the  death  of  Codrus,  b.c.  1068,  A.  was 
governed  bykin^;  afterwards,  by  archons  elected  from  the 
nobility.  The  time  of  holding  office  was  limited  to  ten 
years,  B.C.  752,  and  to  one  year  b.c.  683,  when  nine 
archons  were  annually  elected,  one  being  called  the  arctwn 
ewmymus,  because  the  year  was  distinguished  by  his  name. 
Here  begins  the  authentic  history  of  A.  These  archons, 
together  with  the  council  of  nobles,  afterwards  called  the 
Areopagus,  exercised  the  whole  power  of  the  state,  and 
administered  justice.  The  Athenian  government  was  thus, 
like  all  other  Hellenic  governments,  an  oligarchy;  but  the 
changes  introduced  by  the  archon  Solon,  b.c.  594,  though 
remarkably  moderate,  laid  the  foundation  of  that  demo- 
cratic constitution  which  was  perfected  by  Cleisthenes. 
The  condition  of  the  population  at  the  time  of  Solon  was 
one  of  extreme  suffenng  and  discord,  arising  chiefly  from 
the  oppressive  execution,  by  the  aristocratic  archons,  of 
the  law  of  debtor  and  creditor.  This  law  was  of  old  ex- 
tremely harsh  in  Greece  as  well  as  in  Rome;  it  assigned  the 
debtor  that  could  not  fulfil  his  contract  as  the  slave  of  his 
creditor.  The  great  part  of  the  soil  of  Attica  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  rich,  and  the  mass  of  the  population,  who 
tilled  the  lands  as  tenants,  were  either  in  hopeless  arrears, 
or  already,  with  their  families,  actual  slaves.  Driven  to 
desperation,  the  populace  were  ready  to  rise  in  mutiny; 
the  oligarchy  were  afraid  or  unable  to  enforce  the  laws; 
and  thus  it  was  agreed  to  confer  dictatorial  power  on  Solon, 
well  known  for  his  wisdom,  integrity,  and  sympathy  with 
the  people,  and  allow  him  to  solve  the  problem.  The 
disease  being  desperate,  Solon  applied  the  desperate  remedy 
of  abolishing  existing  contracts,  liberating  tnose  that  had 
been  reduced  to  slavery,  and  forbidding  for  the  future  any 
one  from  pledging  his  own  person  or  that  of  a  member  of 
his  family.  He  next  reformed  the  political  constitution 
by  dividing  the  freemen  into  four  classes,  according  to  the 
amount  of  their  property.  It  was  only  the  richer  classes 
that  paid  taxes  and  were  eligible  to  the  offices  of  state; 
but  all  had  votes  in  the  assembly  that  elected  the  archons. 


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ATHENS. 

and  all  sat  in  judgment  on  their  past  conduct,  on  the  expiir 
of  their  year  of  office.  The  government,  though  still 
oligarchical,  was  thus  modified  in  the  direction  of  democ- 
racy by  popular  control.  Its  free  operation  was  for  some 
time  (B.C.  560-51,0)  interrupted  by  the  usurpation  of 
Peisistratus  and  his  sons,  whose  tyranny,  however,  was 
mild  and  enlightened,  the  forms  at  least  of  the  Solonian 
constitution  being  preserved. 

On  the  banishment  of  the  Peisistratidse  (b.c.  510),  a 
further  political  reform  was  introduced  by  Cleisthenes, 
who  extended  the  basis  of  the  constitution,  and  rendered 
it  essentially  democratic.  To  Cleisthenes  is  ascribed  the 
origin  of  the  practice  called  ostracism  (q.v.). 

Then  followed  the  brilliant  period  of  the  Persian  war, 
when  out  of  the  circumstances  which  had  seemed'  to 
threaten  destruction,  A.  rose  to  the  highest  point  of  power 
and  prosperity.  Miltiades  at  Marathon,  ana  Themistocles 
at  Salamis,  gained  the  victories  which  infused  new  courage 
and  enthusiasm  into  the  Greek  nation.  The  period  between 
the  Persian  war  and  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  b.c. 
500-836,  was  the  most  glorious  in  Athenian  history;  and  in 
444,  Cimon  and  Pericles  raised  the  city  to  its  highest  point 
of  grandeur  and  beauty.  But  under  Pericles,  the  be^:in- 
ning  of  a  decline  took  place,  through  the  decay  of  ancient 
morals  and  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which  ended  in  the 
captune  of  A.  by  the  Lacedaemonians.  After  this,  A. 
retained  only  the  shadow  of  its  former  power  and  dignity. 
The  thirty  appointed  ministers  of  government  were,  in 
fact,  so  many  tyrants,  supported  by  the  Lacediemonian 
army.  After  eight  months  of  despotism  had  been  endured, 
the  tyrants  were  expelled  by  Thrasybulus,  a  free  constitu- 
tion was  restored  to  A.,  and  a  new  period  of  prosperity 
commenced.  But  it  did  not  long  endure;  a  formidable  foe, 
Philip  of  Macedon,  appeared  in  the  north.  The  Athenians 
having  opposed  him  m  the  Phocian  war,  Philip  took  from 
them  several  of  their  colonies.  Then  foUowea  the  defeat 
of  the  Athenians  at  Chseroneia  (b.c.  838),  a  fatal  blow.  A. 
with  other  states  became  subject  to  Macedon.  The  free 
spirit  of  the  citizens  was  broken,  and  they  degenerated  in 
moral  character.  After  Alexander's  death,  a  fruitless 
Attempt  was  made  to  regain  their  liberty.  Antipater 
instituted  an  oligarchy  of  wealth.  Soon  afterwards,  A. 
was  taken  by  Cassander,  and  placed  under  the  rule  of 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  who  employed  his  power  wisely  and 
beneficently.  Once  more  the  old  constitution  of  A.  was 
restored  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and  a  short  interval  of 
independence  was  enjoyed,  until  the  city  was  taken  by 
Antigonus  Gonatas.  After  liberating  themselves  from  the 
dominion  of  Macedon,  and  joining  the  Achaian  confeder- 
acy, the  Athenians  were  so  mi^ided  as  to  support 
Mithridates  against  the  Romans.  This  last  error  was  fatal. 
Sulla  conquered  A.,  destroyed  the  port  of  the  Pirwus, 
and  left  only  the  appearance  of  liberty  and  independence, 
which  entirely  vanished  in  the  time  of  Vespasian.  Still, 
after  the  spirit  of  liberty  and  progress  had  departed,  A. 
Ipn^  remained  safe  from  spoliation.    The  Bomans,  {n  their 


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f 


PLATE      21.  Athant 


Vol.  2. 

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ATHENS— ATHEROMA. 

respect  for  Grecian  pre-eminence  in  art  and  philosophy, 
moved  also  by  religious  reverence,  long  regarded  Athens 
as  a  captive  too  noble  and  beautiful  to  simer  any  indignity. 

ATHENS:  city  of  Clarke  co.,  Ga.,  on  the  Oconee  river, 
135  m.  n.e.  of  Atlanta  by  the  Athens  branch  of  the  Creorj^a 
railroad.  It  has  considerable  cotton  trade,  receivmg 
annuaUy  about  85,000  bales,  6,000  of  which  are  consumed 
by  the  local  manufactories.  It  has  two  national  banks, 
three  weekly  papers,  eleven  churches,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  Univ.  of  Georgia  and  the  Lucy  Cubb  Institute.  The 
university  is  non-sectarian,  with  agricultural,  mechanical, 
legal,  and  medical  departments,  and  has  four  branch 
agricultural  colleges  in  different  parts  of  the  state.  The 
iranklin  College,  State  College,  and  Law  School  are  at  A. 
Pop.  (1870)  4,251;  (1880)  6,099 ;  (1890)  8,627*. 

ATHERINE,  dth'e-rin  (Atheri'na):  genus  of  small 
fishes,  allied  to  the  Mullet  family  {MugUtdm),  but  latterly 
separated  into  a  distinct  family,  A  thtgrimdm.  The  Atherines 
have  more  than  twice  as  many  vertebrae  as  the  Mullets; 
they  are  of  a  rather  slender  form,  but  few  of  them  exceed 
six  inches  in  length.  They  have  a  protractile  mouth,  and 
very  small  teeth;  some  are  quite  toothless.  Almost  all  the 
known  species,  which  are  numerous,  and  foimd  in  the  seas 
of  different  parts  of  the  world,  have  a  broad  silvery  band 
along  each  flank.  Some  of  them  are  much  esteemed  for 
their  delicacy.  They  all  congregate  in  great  shoals.  They 
abound  in  tne  Mediterranean.  One  species,  A.  Presbyter, 
is  very  common  on  the  s.  coast  of  England  and  on  some 
barts  of  the  coast  of  Ireland,  but  is  rare  on  the  e.  coast  of 
critain.    In  the  markets  of  some  of  the  southern  towns  of 


Atherlne  {Atherina  Brttibyter), 

England,  where  the  Smelt  (q.v.)  is  unknown,  it  is  sold 
nnoer  that  name:  in  the  United  States  are  a  few  species  of 
the  family,  e.g.,  the  Common  Silvereides  of  our  e.  coast,  5 
in.,  and  tne  common  Brook  Silversides,  8i  in.,  both  trans- 
lucent green. 

ATHERMANCTT,  n.  arih^'mamr(A  [Gr.  athermantos,  not 
heated— from  athermos,  without  heat— from  a,  without; 
thermos,  hot] :  term  used  by  Melloni  to  express  the  power 
which  certain  bodies  have  of  stopping  radiant  heat.  Atheb'- 
XAiroTJB,  pertaining  or  relating  to  athermancy. 

ATHEROMA,  n.  dth'i-ro'md  [Gr.  or  L.  atherdma, 
a  tumor  filled  with  matter]:  a  form  of  fatty  degener- 
ation; a  curdy  tumor.  A.,  or  'fatty  deposit,'  is  generally 
found  in  the  tissues  of  aged  persons,  or  those  who  have 
lived  dissipated  and  ill-nourishe<d  lives.  In  appearance,  it  is 
yellow  and  cheesy,  showing  under  the  microscope  fatty 
granules  and  crystals  of  cholesterine.    Its  most  common 


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ATHEROSPERBiA— ATHLETE. 

situation  is  between  the  middle  and  inner  coatB  of  ar> 
teries,  and  is  dangerous,  inasmuch  as  it  interferes  with 
the  elasticity  of  the  arterial  tube,  rendering  it  more 
liable  to  injury,  and  less  able  to  repair  itself,  uiould  any 
occur.  A.  generally  precedes  aneurism  (q.v.).  See  Ar- 
teries, Diseases  of.  Cysts  filled  with  contents  reeeni- 
bling  bread-sauce,  which  frequently  occur  in  the  scalp,  are 
termed  atheromatous  tumors.  .  Atheromatous,  a.  dlker- 
Om'd'tus,  containing  matter  of  the  nature  of  atheroma. 

ATHEROSPERMA,  n.  dthrer-o^sp^'ma  [Gr.  other,  the 
beard  or  spike  of  an  ear  of  com;  gperma,  seed.  So  called 
from  the  seed  being  crowned  by  a  permanent  hairy  style] : 
genus  of  plants, the  typical  one  of  the  order  Atherotpermaeem, 

ATHEROSPERMACE^,  n.  pi.  dth-er-i^-tperfnd'se-^ 
[from  the  typical  genus  atheroaperma] :  an  order  of  exogenous 
plants  placed  by  Lindley  in  his  Menispermal  Alliance.  Their 
English  name  is  plume  nutrnegs.  They  are  unisexual  plants, 
having  neither  calyx  nor  corolla,  but  only  an  involucre. 
In  the  male  flowers  the  stamens  are  numerous;  in  the  female, 
the^  are  less  so.  Each  involucre  has  several  ovaries,  with 
sohtary  erect  ovules,  which  afterwards  become  feathered  at 
the  summit  by  the  persistent  styles.  They  are  natives  of 
New  Holland  and  South  America.  In  1840,  Lindley 
estimated  the  known  species  at  four  only. 

ATH'ERSTONE:  maritet-town  of  Warwickshire,  Eng- 
land; on  the  borders  of  Leicestershire.  16  m.  n.c.  from  Bir- 
mingham; on  the  Roman  road  called  Watling  Street.  The 
town  is  irregularly  built;  many  houses  are  very  ancient. 
Pop.  4,000. 

ATHETOSIS,  n.  &th-^-tosfts  [Gr.  athetos,  unfixed,  change- 
able]: disease  in  which  the  patient  is  unable  to  control  the 
slow  and  irregular  movements  of  fingers  and  toes  which  are 
due  to  some  spinal  or  cerebral  disturbance.  Athetoid, 
resembling  or  pertaining  to. 

ATHIRST,  a.  d-tJierBf  [AS.  a,  on,  and  thirst]:  thirsty; 
wanting  drink. 

ATHLETE,  n.  dih'lit,  plu.  Athletes,  dthU'tez,  or  dih- 
Utz'  [Or.  athleUe,  a  wrestler— from  cUMos,  a  contest]:  a 
wrestler;  one  who  contends  in  public  games  in  trials  of 
strength.  Athletic,  a.  dth-Utlk,  pertaining  to  trials  of 
strength  ;  strong ;  robust;  vigorous.  Athlet'ioallt,  ad. 
-kal'l.  Athleticism,  n.  dth-i^ti-siem,  the  art  of  training 
one  as  an  athlete;  the  state  of  being  so  trained;  athletics. 
Athletics,  n.  dth-let'iks,  the  art  of  developing  muscular 
strength  for  the  sake  of  prize  or  other  contests,  or  for  the 
ordinary  physical  work  of  life.  Athletism,  n.  dth'tS-tUm', 
muscular  strength 

ATH'LETE :  a  combatant,  pugilist,  wrestler,  or  nmner, 
"in  ancient  Greece.  Athletics  were  studied  in  Greece  as  a 
branch  of  art,  and  led  to  several  useful  rules  of  diet,  exer- 
cise, etc.,  applicable  to  ordinary  modes  of  life.  Bodily 
strength  and  activity  were  so  highly  honored  by  the  Greck^ 
that  Uie  A.  held  a  position  in  socie^  totally  different  from 
that  of  the  modem  pugilist.  When  he  proposed  to  enter  the 
lists  at  the  Olympic  or  other  public  games,  he  was  examined 


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ATHLONE-ATHOLE. 

withreffard  to  his  birth,  social  position,  and  moral  character. 
A  herald  then  stepped  forth  and  called  upon  any  one,  if  he 
knew  aught  disgraceful  to  the  candidate,  to  state  it.  Even 
men  of  genius  contended  for  the  palm  in  athletic  exercises. 
Chrysippus  and  Cleanthes,  the  famous  philosophers,  were 
victorious  athletes,  or  at  least  agonistcB,  i.e.  persons  who 
pursued  gymnastic  exercises,  hot  as  a  profession,  but  for 
the  sake  or  exercise.  The  profound  and  eloquent  Plato  ap- 
peared among  the  wrestlers  in  the  Isthmian  games  at 
Corinth,  also  in  the  Pythian  games  at  Sicyon.  Even  the 
meditative  Pytha^ras  is  said  to  have  gained  a  prize  at  Elis, 
and  gave  instructions  for  athletic  training  to  Eurymenes, 
who  afterwards  gained  a  prize  at  the  same  place.  So  great 
was  the  honor  of  an  Olympian  victor,  that  his  native  city- 
was  regarded  as  ennobled  by  his  success,  and  he  himseft 
considered  sacred.  He  entered  the  city  through  a  special 
breach  made  in  the  walls;  he  was  supported  at  the  public 
expense;  and  when  he  died,  was  honored  with  a  public 
funeral.  Euthymus,  of  Locri  in  Italy,  who  had,  with 
only  one  exception,  been  regularly  victorious  at  Elis,  was 
honored  with  a  statue,  to  which,  even  during  his  life- 
time, homage  was  paid  by  command  of  an  oracle.  Ath- 
letic sports,  first  witnessed  at  Rome  B.C.  186,  were  intro- 
duced by  M.  Fulvius  at  the  end  of  the  iEtolian  war,  and 
became  excessively  popular  in  the  time  of  the  emperors. 
At  Home,  the  athletes  formed  a  corporation. 

ATHLONE,  aih-lon':  small  town  in  the  centre  of  Ireland, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Shannon,  chietiy  in  the  county  of 
Westmeath,  but  partly  in  that  of  Roscommon.  It  is  the 
largest  town  between  Dublin  and  Galway,  and  lies  on  a  com- 
manding situation,  8  m.  below  Lough  Ree,  in  a  carbonifer- 
ous limestone  district.  The  chief  manufactures  are  felt 
hats,  friezes,  linens,  and  stays.  A  canal  here,  a  mile 
long,  enables  large  river  steamers  to  navigate  the  Shannon 
for  116  m.  from  Killaloe  to  Carrick-on-Shannon,  unin- 
terrupted by  the  river  rapids.  The  Shannon  is  crossed  by 
a  fine  bowstring  and  lattice  iron  bridge  of  two  arches, 
175  and  40  ft.  span.  Till  1885  A.  returned  one  member 
to  parliament.  A.  Castle,  on  the  Roscommon  bank  of  the 
Shannon,  founded  in  the  reign  of  King  John,  is  now 
one  of  the  chief  military  positions  in  Ireland.  The  forti- 
fications cover  15  acres,  and  contain  barracks  for  1,500 
men.    Pop.  of  A.  6.755. 

ATHOL,  dih'ul:  post  village  in  Worcester  co. ,  Mass. ;  on 
Miller's  river,  from  which  great  water-power  is  obtained. 
It  is  70  m.  w.n.w.  of  Boston,  28  m.  n. w.  from  Worcester,  48 
m.  n.e.  from  Springfield;  at  the  junction  of  the  Boston  and 
Albany  and  the  Fitchburg  railroads.  It  has  three  banks, 
two  being  national  and  one  savings,  and  publishes  two 
weekly  papers.  There  are  considerable  manufactories 
of  boota,  shoes,  woolens,  etc.  Pop.  (1870)  8.617;  (1880) 
4,807;  (1890)  6,819. 

ATHOLE,  d'tMl  [^Pleasant  Land]:  a  dist.  of  450  sq.  a., 
in  the  n.  of  Perthshire,  occupying  a  great  part  of  the  s. 
slopes  of  the  Grampian  Mountams.  and  intersected  by 


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ATHOR— ATHOS. 

toany  narrow  glens,  down  which  flow  the  rapid  tribn 
taries  of  the  Tay.  It  is  chiefly  composed  of  gneiss  and 
quartz  rock,  with  beds  of  primary  limestone.  Dr.  Hut- 
ton's  explorations  among  the  nanite  veins  in  Glen  Tilt 
were  among  the  chief  means  of  establishing  the  Plutonic 
theory  of  geology.  A.  was  once  one  of  the  best  bimting 
districts  in  Scotland.  Athole  deer-forest  is  said  to  con- 
tain 100,000  acres,  and  10,000  head  of  deer,  of  which  100 
are  killed  annually.  In  the  picturesque  Pass  of  Eillie- 
crankie,  m  this  district,  17  m.  n.w.  of  Dunkeld,  Claver- 
house  fell  in  1689,  though  victorious  over  the  troops  of 
King  William  UI. 

A'THOR,  or  Athyr,  but  properly,  Eet-her,  i.e.,  'tiie 
habitation  of  Qod':  an  Egyptian  goddess  who,  in  the 
mythological  system  of  that  people,  is  ranked  among  the 
second  class  of  deities.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Ra,  the 
sun.  By  the  Greeks,  she  was  identified  with  Aphrodl*^e 
(Venus).  The  cow  was  regarded  as  her  symbol,  and  in 
hieroglyphics  she  generally  appears  with  the  head  of  that 
animal  bearing  between  her  noms  the  figure  of  the  sun's 
disk.  A.  is  also  represented  as  a  cow  itself,  and  as  a  bird 
with  human  face,  horns,  and  the  sun's  disk.  On  the  old- 
est monuments,  she  is  frequently  portrayed  bearing  a 
temple  on  her  head,  as  in  the  Athor-capitais  of  the  Ptole- 
maic buildings,  falsely  supposed  to  be  heads  of  Isia. 
Originally,  the  goddess  had  a  cosmogonic  significance: 
later,  she  was  called  the  'mistress  of  dance  ana  jest,'  and 
held  in  her  hands,  as  symbob  of  joy,  the  cord  of  love  and 
the  tambourine.  Queens  and  princesses  were  often  repre- 
sented by  the  figure  of  A.  Her  worship  was  general  in 
Egypt.  Her  most  sacred  abode  was  at  Denderah.  After 
her  the  third  month  of  the  Egyptian  year  was  named. 

ATHOS,  dlh'dB,  Ha'gion  O'bos,  or  Mon'tk  San'to,  i.e., 
the  Holy  Hill:  the  principal  mountain  of  a  chain  extend- 
ing in  a  peninsular  form,  from  the  coast  of  Macedonia 
into  the  iCgean  Sea,  between  the  gulfs  of  Contessa  and 
Mont6  Santo,  and  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow  isthmus.  The  length  of  the  peninsula  is  40  m. ; 
breadth,  4  m.  According  to  tradition,  it  received  its  name 
from  A.,  son  of  Neptune,  or  from  A.,  a  giant  who  battled 
a^inst  the  gods.  The  highest  summit  in  the  chain,  or 
Mount  A.  proper,  a  solitarv  peak  at  the  s.  extremity  of  the 
peninsula,  rises  6,850  ft.  above  the  sea.  In  ancient  times, 
several  towns  were  built  on  A.  Herodotus  mentions  five. 
The  most  memorable  thing  in  connection  with  A.  is  the 
canal  which  Xerxes  cut  through  the  isthmus,  in  order  to 
escape  the  stormy  gales  which  rendered  the  navigation 
round  the  promontory  very  perilous,  and  which  had  shat- 
tered the  fieet  of  Mardonius  some  years  before.  Traces  of 
this  canal  still  exist.  In  the  middle  ages,  A.  was  covered 
with  monasteries,  of  which  ^  remain  (besides  several 
hermitages,  chapels,  etc.).  The  largest  are  the  monasteries 
of  Ivoron  and  St.  Laura;  the  richest,  Vatopaedi.  The  en- 
tire number  of  monks  who  inhabit  the  'Holy  Hill'  is 
about  8,000.    They  form  a  kind  of  monastic  republic 


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ATHRIXIA— ATITLAN. 

under  the  Torkish  government,   to  which  they  pay  an 
annaal  tribute  of  nearly  $20,000.     The  monks  follow  the 
rule  of  St.  Basil,  and  lead  an  ascetic  lif e»  engaged  chiefly 
in  agriculture,  gardening,  and  the  care  of  bees.    In  diet, 
they  restrict  themselves  to  herbs,  fruits,  and  fish.    They 
carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  amulets,  images,  crucifixes, 
-wooden  articles  of  furniture — all  of  their  own  manu- 
facture— and  reap  profits  from  the  numerous  visits  of  pil- 
grims.    Caryes,   the  principal  place  in  the  peninsula,  is 
picturesquely  situated   in  the  midst  of  vineyards  and 
j^ardens,  and  has  1,000  inhabitants.    Here  the  market 
IS   held;  but  no  female,  even  of   any  animal,  is  per* 
mitted  to  be  present,  or  even  to  enter  the  x>eninsula.    In 
the  middle  ages,  A.  was  the  centre  of    Greek  learning 
and  Christian-Byzantine  art.    Now,  scarcely  more  than 
two  or  three  monks,  of  moderate  education,  can  be  found 
in  a  monastery.     The  libraries  are  neglected,  though  con- 
taining several  beautiful  (but  not  important)  old  manu- 
scripts. 

ATHRIXIA,  n.  a-thriks'Ui  [Gr.  athnsxh-from  a,  without; 
Ihrix,  hair,  in  allusion  to  the  absence  of  hairs  from  the 
receptacle  and  the  stigmas  of  the  ray]:  genus  of  plants  be* 
longing  to  the  order  AsteracecB,  or  Vomposites,  A,  eapt&nm 
is  a  pretty  greenhouse  shrub,  with  narrow  lanceolate  leaves 
and  bright  crimson,  solitary  heads  of  flowers. 

ATHWART,  prep,  d-thwavyrt'  [AS.  a,  on,  and  thwart: 
on  thiri,  an  accommodation  of  Icel.  um-thv&rt,  across]: 
across;  from  side  to  side:  Ad.  among  seamen,  across  tho 
line  of  the  ship's  course;  in  a  manner  to  cross  or  perplex; 
from  side  to  side  of  a  ship,  in  contradistinction  to  '  fore 
and  aft.' 

ATHY,  a-thV:  small  town  in  thes.w.  of  Ejldare  county, 
Ireland,  on  the  e.  side  of  the  river  Barrow,  here  joined  by 
the  Grand  canal.  It  lies  in  a  carboniferous  limestone  dis- 
trict   Its  chief  export  is  grain.    Pop.  (1881)  4,181. 

ATHYMIA,  n.  a-thi'ml-a  [Gr.  athumia — from  athumed, 
to  be  down-hearted— from  a,  without;  thumos,  the  soul  as 
the  seat  of  passion] :  faint-heartedness;  despondency. 

ATHYRIUM,  n.  a-Mr'Ujim  [Gr.  a,  without;  thurian,  a 
little  door;  a  wicket]:  genus  or  sub-genus  of  ferns. 

ATILT,  ad.  d-tUf  [AS.  a,  on,  and  tilt]:  in  the  positioQ 
of  a  man  making  a  thrust:  in  the  posture  of  a  barrel  raised 
behind  that  the  nquor  may  run  out. 

ATIMY,  n.  dt't-ml  [Gr.  atimia,  dishonor— from  atimad, 
to  dishonor— from  a,  without;  time,  worship,  honor;  tid, 
to  pay  honor]:  in  ancient  Greece^  infamy;  public  disgrace 
inflicted  on  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  certain  offenses. 

A-TIPTOE,  ad.  A-tlp'to  [AS.  a,  on,  and  tiptoe]:  on 
tiptoe. 

ATITLAN,  d-ti'Udn'  (or  Atitan,  d-U-tdn%  Lake:  body  of 
water  in  the  dept.  of  Solola,  Guatemala.  It  is  24  m.  long 
8  to  10  m.  wide,  and  a  line  of  1,800  ft.  has  obtained  no 
soundings.  Several  small  streams  enter  it,  but  it  has  no 
visible  outlet,  and  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano.    Just  s.  of  it  are  the  volcano  of  A.,  12,58b 

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ATKINSON— ATLANTA. 

feet  high,  and  the  Indian  t.  Santiago  de  A.  The  lake  is 
surrounded  by  high  clifts  devoid  of  vegetation. 

ATKINSON,  dt'kXn-8on,  Edward,  ll.d.:  political  econ> 
omist:  b.  Brookline,  Mass.,  1827,  Feb.  10.  He  received 
his  education  chiefly  in  private  schools,  and  from  his  youth 
made  a  specialty  of  investigating  economic  subjects,  not 
only  political,  but  also  domestic  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  Boston  Manufacturers*  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Co., 
whose  members  were  factory  owners,  agreeing  to  run  their 
business  on  a  uniform  plan  and  by  established  rules.  A. 
gave  much  study  to  the  subject  of  railroads,  their  man- 
agement and  their  effect  on  the  movement  of  population 
and  the  conditions  of  trade;  and  lectured  and  wrote  ex- 
tensively concerning  them.  He  informed  himself  thor- 
oughly also  on  agricultural  subjects,  and  paid  attention  to 
household  matters,  especially  cooking.  He  invented  a  style 
of  oven  or  cooking  stove,  called  the  Aladdin  Cooker,  which 
produced  a  surprising  saving  in  fuel,  and  concerning  which 
he  lectured,  accompanying  nis  lectures  with  experiments. 
He  interested  himself  in  cooking-schools  and  charity  kitch- 
ens. Dr.  A.  resides  in  Boston.  Among  his  more  impor- 
tant addresses  are  Banking,  delivered  at  Saratoga  1880  be- 
fore the  American  Bankers'  Assoc. ;  Insufficiency  of  Eco- 
nomic  Legislation,  before  the  American  Social  Science  Assoc. ; 
W/utt  Makes  the  Rate  of  Wages;  and  an  address  on  the  Ap- 
plication  of  Science  to  the  Production  or  Consumption  of  Food, 
before  the  American  Assoc.,  1885.  Among  his  pamphlets 
and  books  are  Cheap  Cotton  hy  Free  Labor  (1801);  The  Col- 
lection of  Revenue  (1866);  Our  National  Domain  (1879); 
The  Railroads  of  the  United  States  (1880);  Cotton  Mantifae- 
turesof  the  United  States  (1880);  The  RaUxcay  and  the 
Farmer  (1881);  The  Distribution  of  Products  (1885);  and 
Prevention  of  Loss  by  Fire,  an  address  (1885). 

ATLANTA,  n.  &t-ldn'ta  [from  the  Atlantic,  in  which  the 
species  occur  (?)]:  genus  of  Molluaca,  the  typical  one  of  the 
family  Atlantid(e.  The  shell,  which  is  minute,  is  gla^y, 
with  a  dextral  operculum,  though  it  is  a  dextral  shell — a 
unique  combination. 

ATLANTA,  at-ldn'ta:  city,  cap.  of  Fulton  co.,  and  of 
the  state  of  Ga. ;  on  the  Atlanta  and  Florida,  Atlanta  and 
West  Point,  Central  of  Georgia,  East  Tennessee  Vii^ginia 
and  Georgia,  Georgia  Pacific,  Richmond  and  Danville, 
Seaport  Air  Line,  and  Western  and  Atlantic  Tailroa48;  101 
m.  n.w.  of  Macon,  171  m.  w.  of  Augusta,  291  m.  s.e.  of 
Nashville;  area  9i  sq.  m. ;  popularly  known  as  the  *  Gate 
City.'  Its  situation  is  peculiarly  advantageous,  1,100  ft. 
above  sea-level,  and  7  m.  from  the  Chattahoochie  river,  a 
site  exceptionally  adapted  for  a  great  commercial  and  rail- 
road centre.  The  city  is  laid  out  in  a  circle  3  m.  In  diam- 
eter, with  the  Union  depot  in  the  centre. — In  188©  it  had 
50  m.  of  paved  streets  (cost  $1,456,000);  50  m.  of  sewers 
(cost  $542,000);  147  m.  of  sidewalk  (cost  $468,000);  94  m. 
of  street  railways,  the  cpreater  part  electric  lines;  water- 
works svstem  (bonded  debt  $1,027,000);  fire  dept.  (cost  in 
year  $lS4,380);  police  dept.  (cost  1891-2  $158,593);  and 
electric  street  lights  (cost  in  year  $56,000).  The  city  had 
income  (1891)   $1,550,141.60,  (1892)   $2,241,174.78,   total 

Digitized  by  LjOOQ  IC 


ATLANTA. 

$3,791,312.38;  expenditure  (1891-2)  $8,423,340.78;  balance 
(1893,  Jan.  1)  $367,975.65.  In  1896  tbe  estimated  net  public 
debt  amounted  lo  $2,956,000,  wliiie  the  nsscssed  yaluation 
of  taxable  property  nmounted  to  $55,131,197:  tbe  combine  d 
state,  county,  and  city  tux  rate  was  $1.25  per  $100.  Tbe 
debt  1892  was  city  bonded  $8,101,000  and  water  bonded 
$1,027,000;  total  $4,128,000.  Tbere  were  2  national  banks 
(cap.  $400,000),  Ostate  banks  (cap.  of  8  reporting  $1,750,000), 
1  incorporated  bank  (cap.  $500, (X>0),  1  private  bajik;  6  loan 
and  Investment  cos.,  and  2  fire  insurance  cos.  (cap.  $500,000, 
assets  $738,182.  liabilities  $214,913);  and  3  daily,  22  weekly, 
1  semi-montbly,  and  23  montbiy  publications. — Of  90 
churches  the  Meth.  Episc.,  S.  had  18  for  whites  and  11  for 
colored;  Bapt.  17  for  whites  and  19  for  colored;  Presb.  9 
for  whiles  and  2  for  colored;  Prot.  Episc.  7  for  whites 
and  1  for  colored;  Congl.  4  for  whites  and  1  for  colored; 
Rom.  Cath.  2;  and  dhristian,  Lutheran,  Adventist,  and 
Unit.,  1  each. — There  were  19  public  school  buildings, 
valued  at  $500,000;  10,651  pupils;  134  white  and  40  colored 
teachers;  newly  established  night  school;  12  colleges  and 
schools  for  white  pupils  and  6  for  colored;  and  educational 
expenditures  $152,3()0.  Notable  educational  institutions 
include  the  State  Technological  School  (to  secure  which  the 
city  gave  $150,000),  North  Georgia  Female  College,  Atlanta 
iMedical  College,  Oglethorpe  College,  Clark  Theol.  School 
(colored  Meth.),  Atlanta  Univ.  (colored),  two  business  col- 
leges, an  English  and  German  select  school,  an  orphans' 
free  school,  Spelman  Seminary  (Bapt.),  Morris  Brown  (Col- 
lege (African  Meth.  Episc.),  and  Hebrew  Orphan  Home. — 
Its  commercial  tonnage  and  revenue  during  1892,  from  New 
York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  Providence, 
were  78,000,000  and  $455,753  respectively;  and  from  Cairo, 
Cincinnati,  Columbus,  E.  St.  Louis,  Evansville,  Henderson, 
Lexington,  Louisville,  Memphis,  and  Nashville  339,000,000 
and  $943,873  respectively.  An  official  report  on  the  manu- 
factures of  the  city  1891  showed:  633  plants,  $16,190,000 
capital,  15,208  hands,  $33,012,000  value  of  products;  in- 
crease since  1880:  437  plants,  $13,721,544  capital,  11,528 
hands,  $28,012,000  value  of  products.  Principal  industries, 
acoording  to  capital  employed,  were,  manufacture  of  found- 
ry products,  25  plants,  $3,250,000  capital,  3,150  hands, 
$6,150,000  value  of  prcKlucts;  cotton  goods,  3  plants, 
$1,400,000  capital,  1,100  hands,  $1,500,000  products;  lum- 
ber, 80  plants.  $1,250,000  capital,  300  hands,  $1,500,000 
products;  fertilizers,  7  plants,  $1,250,000  capital,  300  hands, 
$1,500,000  products;  cotton-seed  oil  and  cake,  4  plants, 
$950,000  capital,  550  hands,  $1,250,000  products;  brick,  12 
plants,  $925,000  capital,  725  hands.  $1,800,000  products; 
furniture,  9  plants,  $725,000  capital,  750  hands,  $2,000,000 
products;  bags,  paper,  etc.,  3  plants,  $350,000  capital,  500 
hands,  $850,000  products;  olaning  and  box  mill  products, 
15  plants,  $850,000  capital.'450  hands,  $725,000  products; 
carriages  and  wagons,  18  plants,  $300,000  capital,  100 
hands,  $2,800,000  products. — The  monument  to  Henry  W. 
Grady,  the  hospital  erected  as  a  memorial  to  him  by  popu- 
lar subscription  at  a  cost  of  about  $100,000,  the  Forsythe- 
tti.  bridge  (building  at  a  cost  of  $130,000;,  the  park  pi-escnicd 


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ATLANTES^ATLANTIC  CITY. 

to  the  city  by  L.  P.  Grant  and  named  after  him,  and  the 
extensive  U.  S.  milit.  poet  that  the  ^neral  govt,  is  estab- 
lishing, are  among  recent  local  attractions: — Other  baildings 
of  note  are  the  capitol,  of  white  marble,  cost  nearly 
$2,000,000,  the  U.  S.  Custom-house  and  Post-office,  new 
county  court-house;  chamber  of  commerce,  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building,  the  Equitable  Building,  completed  1892  at  cost  of 
$1,000,000,  and  the  new  Kimball  House,  completed  1885. — 
The  founding  of  the  city  was  due  to  its  selection  as  the 
point  of  departure  for  branch  roads  to  Athens,  Milledge- 
ville,  Columbus,  and  other  cities,  from  the  main  line  of 
railroad  (the  Western  and  Atlantic)  between  A.  and  Chat- 
tanooga. It  was  surveyed  and  laid  out  1844-^,  named  first 
Terminus,  afterward  MarthasviUe,  and  1847,  when  incor- 
porated, Atlanta.  The  first  bulling  in  A.  was  a  log  hat, 
1836;  the  first  store  was  opened  18&;  in  the  same  year  Uie 
first  locomotive  ran  over  the  new  railroad,  and  until  1864 
its  growth  was  continuous.  In  that  year  Qen.  Shennan,  in 
his  famous  march  to  the  sea,  occupied  Atlanta,  the  inhabi- 
tants fied,  and  the  city  was  occupied  by  Union  soldiers. 
The  occupation  lasted  until  Nov.,  when  the  army  departing 
left  a  mass  of  smoking  ruins.  The  return  of  the  inhabi- 
tants to  their  devastated  homes  was  the  beginning  of  a 
wonderful  progress.  As  a  notable  historical  fact,  it  may  be 
stated  that  a  factory  in  A.  which,  during  the  war,  was  used 
for  manufacture  of  swords  and  bayonets,  was  afterward 
turned  into  a  nlow-factory.— Pop.  (1880)  37,409;  a890) 
65.533— of  which  native  bom  63,662,  foreign  bom  1,871, 
colored  28,117;  (1896,  estimated)  100,000.  See  Cotton- 
States  Exposition. 

ATLANTES,  &t-ldntez:  so  called  by  the  Greeks  in  ref- 
erence to  the  mythical  Atlas  (q.v.):  male  figures  used  in- 
stead of  columns.     The  Romans  called  them  Telamones. 

ATLANTIC,  a.  dt-ldntlk,  of  or  pertaining  to  the  ocean 
so  named. 

ATLANTIC:  city,  cap.  Class  co.,  Iowa,  on  the  Chicago 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific  r.r.,  60  m.  e.  of  Omaha.  Notame 
buildings  are  the  court-house  and  the  hi^^h-school;  teachers 
in  schools  20,  enrolment  1,100.      The  Holly  system  sap- 

Elies  water.  Manufacturing  establishments:  pork-packing 
ouse,  starch  factory,  cannery  of  vegetable  products. 
Banks:  1  national,  cap.  $50,000;  1  state,  can.  $60,000,  un 
divided  profits  $15,000;  8  private  banks.  Newspapers:  1 
daily,  3  weekly.     Pop.  (1890)  4,851. 

ATLANTIC  CITY,  Ot-ldn'tik:  popular  seaside  resort  in 
Atlantic  co.,  N.  J.,  60  m.  s.w.  of  Philadelphia,  and  146  m. 
from  New  York;  on  Absecom  Beach  on  a  sandy  island,  10 
m.  in  length,  and  abt.  f  m.  in  width,  which  extends  be> 
tween  Absecom  Inlet  and  Great  Egg  Harbor  Inlet,  and  is 
separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  mainland.  The  beach 
is  considered  one  of  the  best  and  safest  on  the  coast,  and 
the  locality  is  the  favorite  resort  of  the  citizens  of  Phila- 
delphia, besides  drawing  thousands  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  during  the  height  of  the  season.  The  city  is 
prettily  laid  out  with  broad  and  pleasant  av^iues.  Pop.  of 
city  (1870)  1,048;  (1880)  5,477;  (1890)  13,055 


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ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN:  so  called  either  from  Mount 
Atlas,  or  from  the  fabulous  island  of  Atlantis:  that  part  of 
the  oceun  that  divides  the  old  world  from  the  new.  Its 
extreme  breadth  is  about  5,000  m.,  and  its  narrowest  part, 
between  Cape  St.  Roque  in  Brazil,  and  the  nearest  point 
in  Africa,  about  1,600  m.  If  the  A.  be  supposed  to  be 
bounded  by  the  polar  circles,  and  t\j  include  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  Hudson  Bay,  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  the  other  con- 
nected water-surfaces,  it  covers  an  area  computed  at  35 
million  sq.  m.  The  A.  is  naturally  divided  into  three  por- 
tions— then.,  8.,  and  intertropical  A.  It  has  open  connec 
tion  with  the  n.  and  s.  polar  seas;  and  in  the  remarkable 
parallelism  of  its  coasts,  resembles  rather  a  vast  river  tha  ^ 
an  ocean.  Its  n.  half  sends  oif  numerous  ramifications  on 
both  sides,  some  of  them  forming  almost  shut  seas:  on  the 
w.,  Hudson's  Bay,  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico;  on  the  e.,  the  Baltic,  North,  Mediterranean,  and 
Black  Seas.  In  the  s.,  both  coasts  present  a  comparatively 
unbroken  line;  and  there  is  a  remarkable  correspondence 
between  their  projecting  and  retiring  angles,  the  convex 
coast  of  Brazil  lying  opposite  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and 
the  projection  of  Sene^ambia  answering  to  the  retirement 
of  the  American  coast  m  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

The  whole  of  the  new  world,  with  the  exception  of  the 
narrow  strip  lying  w.  of  the  Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains, 
belongs  to  the  bamn  of  this  ocean.  It  drains  comparatively 
little  of  the  old  world,  as  may  be  seen  by  tracing  the 
water-shed  on  a  map.  Owing  to  the  numerous  seas  and 
inlets  connected  with  it,  the  extent  of  its  shores  is  immense, 
over  50,000  m.,  several  thousands  more  than  that  of  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans.  Except  near  the 
continents,  the  Atlantic  has  few  islands  compared  with  the 
Pacific.  The  chief  islands  in  the  open  ocean  are  Iceland, 
Far5e,  Bermudas,  Azores,  Ascension,  St.  Helena,  the  Falk- 
land Islands,  South  Georgia,  and  Sandwich  Land. 

The  chief  A.  currents  are  two.  The  Equatorial  Curt'ent, 
which,  starting  from  about  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  in 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  with  a  rate  of  motion  varying  from 
18  to  24  m.  a  day,  proceeds  w.  on  both  sides  of  the  equator 
till  near  Cape  San  Roque,  where  it  divides,  one  branch 
running  s.  along  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  the  other  along 
the  coast  of  Guiana  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  velocity 
of  this  current  is  24  m.  a  day  at  the  point  where  it  curves 
8.,  whence  it  gradually  diminishes  in  strength  as  it  pro- 
ceeds 8.  to  little  more  than  6  m.  aday.  Within  the  south 
A.  there  is  a  complete  circulation  oi  the  waters,  induced 
by  the  prevailing  winds,  and  maintained  about  12  ra. 
a  day.  Its  force  also  varies  with  the  months,  being  de- 
termined by  the  prevailinff  force  of  the  wind  of  each 
month.  Its  breadth  varies  from  200  to  400  m.;  and  since 
it  is  fed  by  currents  from  n.  and  s.  of  it,  its  temperature  is 
considerably  lower  in  the  e.  than  in  the  w.  part  of  its 
course.  The  other  great  curreu  t  is  the  OulfSirenm.  This, 
originally  part  of  the  equatorial  current,  after  flowing  past 
the  Guiana  coast,  and  through  the  Caribbean  Sea,  issues 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  throui^h  the  Strait  of  Florida, 

2-43 


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ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 

and  after  following  the  direction  of  the  American  coast  to 
about  40**,  turns  seaward,  touches  the  great  Newfound- 
land Bank,  and  gradually  curving  round  is  lost  as  a  dis- 
tinct current  about  the  Azores.  See  Gulp  Stream.'  The 
water  of  this  stream  is  often  upwards  of  20'  warmer  than 
the  surrounding  ocean.  The  Gulf  Stream  has  an  immense 
influence  on  the  Atlantic.  Besides  these  great  currents, 
the  A.  abounds  in  smaller  ones,  such  as  the  northerly  cur- 
rents along  the  east  Greenland  and  Labrador  coasts  (this 
Arctic  current  extending  as  far  south  as  3d°  n.  lat..  its  rate 
being  from  24  to  10  m.  a  day);  the  southerly  current  aIons[ 
the  w.  of  Greenland;  Kennel's  current,  w.  of  the  Bay  oi 
Biscay;  and  the  great  current  along  the  w.  of  Africa, 
from  Morocco  southward,  till  it  is  merged  in  the  Guinea 
current.  The  whole  of  these  currents  follow  in  every  case 
the  prevailing  winds  of  the  regions  where  they  flow. 

Since  over  the  whole  of  the  e.  half  of  the  A.,  from  abt. 
n.  lat.  45**  northward,  the  prevailing  winds  are  s.w.,  there 
is  over  the  same  region  a  general  flow  of  the  water  of  the 
ocean  towards  the  n.e.,  passing  the  British  Isles,  and  thence 
along  the  coast  of  Norway,, to  some  distance  e.  of  the 
North  Cape.  It  is  to  this  flow  that  the  mild  temperatures 
of  n.  w.  Europe  must  be  referred.  The  amelioration  of  the 
winter  climates  from  this  cause  is  very  great,  amounting 
to  about  80°  in  the  Hebrides,  and  to  fully  40°  in  the  Lofo- 
den  Islands.  This  effect  is  directly  due  not  to  the  winds 
alone,  but  to  the  winds  and  sea  combined.  The  influence 
of  currents  ^n,  the  temperature  of  the  ocean  is  so  great, 
that  even  in  August,  the  isothermal  of  50"  touches  3ie  n. 
of  Norway  in  lat.  72°  n.,  whereas  to  s.e.  of  Newfoundland 
the  same  isothermal  descends  to  about  lat.  42**  n.  Afain, 
on  the  meridian  of  74**  w.,  the  change  of  temperature  from 
lat.  40'  to  85°  n.,  or  in  800  m.,  is  18° -0;  whereas  on  the 
meridian  of  20°  w.  from  lat.  40°  to  10%  a  distance  of  1,800 
m.,  the  change  of  the  temperature  of  the  sea  is  only  15* '0. 

The  temperature  of  the  A.  about  the  equator  is,  if  we 
except  the  part  between  20'  and  35"  w.  long.,  above  80*: 
that  of  the  G^ilf  of  Guinea  reaches  the  maximum  of  85^  in 
April;  from  Oct.  to  May  it  is  above  80";  in  June  and  Sept. 
about  80°;  and  in  July  and  August  it  falls  below  80°:  that 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea  is  above  80^  from  July  to  Oct.,  during 
the  rest  of  the  year  below  80°,  except  in  July.  Between 
10°  and  80°  lat.  n.,  the  temperature  of  the  e.  part  of  the  A.  is 
always  from  8°  to  7°  colder  than  the  w.,  and  the  maximum 
and  minimum  temperatures  take  place  later  in  the  year  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea  than  off  the  African  coast. 

/s 

the 
physical  geography  of  the  A.  The  most  important  of  the 
observations  are  those  of  deep  and  bottom  temperatures, 
from  their  connection  with  oceanic  circulation,  and  the 
distribution  of  life  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  the  bear< 
ings  of  the  questions  thereby  raised  on  geological  specula- 
tion. See  Sea.  Animal  life  abounds  at  much  greater 
depths  than  was  formerly  supposed;  although  beyond  6,000 
ft.  It  gradually  diminishes.    A  ^eat  part  of  the  bottom  of 


Much  has  been  done  recently,  particularly  by  H.M.'s 
ships  Porcupine  and  C/iaUenger,  in  throwing  light  on  the 


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ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 

the  north  Atlantic  is  covered  with  slimjr  •  ooze,'  composed 
for  the  most  part  of  the  chalk-producmg  globigerina ;  in 
very  deeppaits  this  is  replaced  by  a  brown,  clay-like  mud, 
wirh  few  traces  of  animal  forms. 

Regarding  the  depth  of  the  A.,  it  is  only  recently  that 
reliable  data  have  been  obtained;  along  certain  tracts,  espe- 
cially those  sounded  bv  the  Cfiallenger,  the  profile  of  the 
bottom  can  now  be  laid,  down  with  considerable  certainty. 
The  deepest  sounding  made  by  the  Challenger  with  its  im- 
proved method  of  sounding  (see  Soundings),  is  3,876 
lathoms,  or  23,350  ft. ,  at  a  pomt  about  90  m.  oil  St.  Thomas, 
West  Indies.  A  remarkable  ridge,  about  400  m.  wide,  and 
10,000  to  12,000  ft.,  or  2  to  2}  m.  below  the  surface  of  the 
sea,  extends  along  the  bottom  of  the  A.  from  Cape  Clear  in 
Ireland  to  Cape  Kace  in  Newfoundland,  1,640  m.  Along 
this,  known  as  the  *  Telegraph  Plateau;'  the  Atlantic  cables 
are  laid.  The  accompanying  diagram  exhibits  the  depths 
and  temperatures  in  the  track  between  New  York  and 
Bermuda. 


HORIZOICTAU  ZCALK    Of    NAliTICAl.   MILCf  « 

Section  of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  between  New 
York  and  Bermuda: 
showing  the  Soundings  (in  futhoms)  and  Isothermal  Lines  obtained 
in  H.M.S.  Challenger,  Captain  Q.  S.  Nares,  1873. 


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ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH. 

ATLANTIC  TELEGKAPii:  for  suDmarine  communl 
cation  of  messages  between  America  and  Europe.  In  1842, 
Prof.  Morse  oi  New  York,  having  stretched  a  subma- 
rine cable  between  Castle  Garden  and  Governor's  Island, 
New  York,  and  succeeded  in  transmitting  an  electric  cur- 
rent from  one  end  to  the  other,  expressed  his  opinion  that 
it  would  be  possible  to  effect  an  electrical  c6mmunication 
through  the  sea.  After  further  investigations,  he  an- 
nounced to  the  sec.  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States, 
'  that  a  telegraphic  communication  on  his  plan  might  w  ith 
certainty  be  established  across  the  Atlantic'  Three  yeai^ 
earlier,  Sir  William  O'Shaughnessy,  at  Calcutta,  gave 
practical  proof  that  electrical  messages  could  be  conveyed 
through  water,  for  short  distances,  by  transmitting  signals 
through  a  cable  which  he  hadjaid  across  the  Hoogly  river; 
but  it  was  not  until  1854  that  Mr.  Cyrus  W.  Field  of  New 
York  proposed  that  the  project  should  be  undertaken,  and, 
with  others,  began  to  discuss  means  for  its  practical  reali- 
sation. Lieut.  Maury,  u.s.n.,  discovered  that  the  bed 
of  the  Atlantic,  between  Ireland  and  Newfoundland,  forms 
a  kind  of  plateau,  covered  with  soft  ooze,  favorably  situat- 
ed as  a  jesting-place  for  a  cable.  See  Atlantic  Ocean. 
In  1855,  negotiations  were  carried  on,  partly  in  America, 
but  chiefly  in  England,  to  establish  a  company  and  raise 
capital;  which  objects  were  attained  in  1856.  Tlie  *New 
York  and  Newfoundland  Telegraph  Company '  connected 
Newfoundland  with  the  mainland  of  America  by  cables 
and  land-wires;  but  *the  Electric  Telegraph  Company,' 
— all  whose  privileges  under  liberal  grants  and  guaran- 
ties from  the  British  and  U.  S.  govts,  passed,  1856,  to 
a  new  organization,  the  *  A.  T.  Company ' — undertook  the 
laying  of  a  cable  from  Newfoundland  to  Ireland,  with  a 
capital  of  f  i;750,000,  in  shares  of  15,000  each.  After  ex- 
periments, numbering  about  2,000,  with  6^  different  kinds 
of  cable,  to  determine  the  one  best  fitted  to  convey  elec- 
tricity through  such  a  length,  and  at  such  a  depth  beneath 
the  sea,  a  lenclh  of  2,500  English  m.  of  cable  was  ordered, 
and  completed  in  the  summer  of  1857.  The  conductor  con- 
sisted of  7  fine  copper  wires.  No.  22  gauge,  twisted  tightly 
together,  forming  a  cord  V?  inch  thick,  and  weighing  107 
\hA.  per  mile.  This  thickness  was  increased  to  j  inch  by  a 
core  of  three  layers  of  gutta-percha.  Outside  the  core  was 
a  jacket  of  hempen  yarn,  saturated  with  pitch,  tar,  bees- 
wax, and  boiled  linseed  oil.  The  outer  sheath  consisted 
of  18  strands,  each  formed  of  seven  No.  22  iron  wires.  The 
whole  diameter  was  about  ^  inch,  and  the  weight  one  ton 
per  mile,  equal,  when  submerged,  to  abt.  14  cwt.:  382,500 
m.  of  iron  and  copper  wire  were  used  in  its  construction. 
In  the  manufactunng  processes,  the  wires  and  yams  were 
twisted  round  each  other  by  revolving  drums  and  circular 
tables  worked  by  steam-power;  while  the  coatings  of  gutta- 
percha were  applied  by  forcing  the  substance  through  dies 
which  had  the  copper  conductor  passing  through  their 
centre.  The  frigate  Niagara  and  the  Ime-of-battle  ship 
Agamemnon,  the  first  lent  by  the  U.  S.  government  and  the 
last  by  the  English,  took  1.250  nj,  of  the  cable  each,  and 


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ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH. 

steamed  forth  f  roraValentia  (>v.  coast  of  Ireland),  1857,  Aug. 
7,  the  Niagara  paying  out  her  portion  of  cable  as  she  went. 
On  the  11th,  in  an  attempt  to  slacken  the  the  rate  of  pav- 
ing out,  the  cable  snapped,  and  the  end  sank  in  2,000  fath- 
oms water,  at  280  m.  from  Ireland.  The  appliances  on 
board  were  not  sufficient  to  remedy  the  disaster,  and  the 
two  ships  returned  to  Plymouth,  where  the  two  portions  of 
cable  were  placed  in  tanks  imtil  the  next  following  year. 
The  A.  T.  Company  raised  more  capital,  made  900  m. 
additional  cable,  and  prepared  for  a  new  attempt  in  1858. 
The  Niagara  and  Agamemnon  were  again  employed;  but 
the  submersion  was  to  begin  in  mid-ocean,  one  ship  pro- 
ceeding e.,  and  the  other  w.,  after  splicing  the  two  halves 
of  the  cable.  They  left  Valentia,  June  10;  but  it  was  not 
till  the  20th  that  they  could  finish  the  splice  and  commence 
the  submersion.  On  the  29th,  a  double  breakage  took 
place,  and  144  m.  of  cable  went  to  the  bottom  wholly  sev- 
ered from  the  rest.  The  Agamemnon  returned  to  England 
for  improved  appliances  and  further  instructions;  and  a 
month  was  thus  lost  On  Julv  29,  the  two  ships  again 
spliced  their  two  halves  of  cable  in  mid-ocean,  and  pro- 
ceeded with  their  work  till,  Aug.  6.  the  Agamemnon  reached 
Valentia,  and  the  Niagara  Newfoundland,  and  exchanged 
congratulatory  messages  through  the  whole  length  of 
cable.  Soon  afterwards,  the  extremities  of  the  cable  hav- 
ing been  put  into  connection  with  the  recording  instru- 
ments, the  following  message  was  flashed  under  the  ocean 
in  36  minutes:  'Europe  and  America  are  united  by  tele- 
graph; glory  to  God  in  the  highest;  on  eafth,  peace  and 
food  will  toward  men.*  Also  greetings  were  exchanged 
etween  the  queen  and  the  president,  and  between  many 
public  bodies  and  official  persons.  The  station  at  New- 
foundland was  connected  by  wires  and  cables  with  the 
general  telegraphic  system  of  America,  and  that  at  Val- 
entia with  the  general  system  of  Europe.  The  cable  con- 
tinued working  until  Sept.  1,  sending  129  messages  (averag- 
ing 11  words  each)  from  England  to  America,  and  271 
from  America  to  England.  The  signals  then  ceased,  and 
the  cable  became  useless:  it  had  been  injured  by  the  win- 
ter's sojourn  at  Plymouth. .  Then  came  a  great  revulsion 
in  public  feeling;  incredulity  and  ridicule  took  the  place 
of  enthusia-sm;  although  a  smgle  message  of  the  number 
sent  was  known  to  have  saved  the  commercial  world  abt. 
$300,000  in  insurance  of  vessels.  Still  Mr.  Field  did  not 
lose  his  courage;  indeed  his  efforts  were  redoubled  on 
both  sides  of  the  ocean.  For  six  years,  1858-64,  the  com- 
pany was  engaged  in  endeavoring  to  raise  new  capital,' 
and  to  obtain  increased  subsidies  from  the  English  and 
American  governments;  while  scientific  men  were  mak- 
ing improvements  in  the  form  of  cable,  and  in  the  ap- 
paratus for  submerging  it.  At  length  the  Telegraph  Con- 
struction and  Maintenance  Company  (formed  by  an  amal- 
gamation of  the  Gutta-percha  Company  with  the  wire- 
cable-making  firm  of  Glass  &  Elliott)  made  an  entirely 
new  cable,  much  thicker  and  more  costly  than  the  former 
one.     The  conductor,  300  lbs.  per  mile,  and  +  inch  thick. 


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ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH. 

consisted  of  seven  No.  18  copper  wires,  each  ^  inch  thick. 
The  core  was  formed  of  four  layers  of  gutta-percha  alter- 
nating with  four  of  Chatterton's  Compound  (a  solution  of 
gutta-percha  in  Stockholm  tar);  the  core  and  conductor 
together  were  700  lbs.  per  mile,  and  /(j  inch  thick.  Out- 
side this  was  a  jacket  of  hemp  or  jute  yam,  saturated 
with  preservative  composition.  The  sheath  consisted  of 
10  iron  wires,  No.  13  gauge,  each  previously  covered  with 
five  tarred  Manilla  yams.  The  whole  cable  was  1  j  inch 
thick,  and  weighed  85|  cwt.  per  mile,  with  a  breaking 
strain  of  7}  tons. 

As  the  cable  (2,300  m.)  weighed  more  than  4,000  tons, 
it  was  resolved  to  employ  the  Qreat  Eastern  steamship  to 
carry  it  out  and  lay  it.  Three  enormous  iron  tanks  were 
built  in  the  fore,  middle,  and  aft  holds,  from  50  to  60  ft. 
diameter  each,  by  20^  ft.  deep;  and  in  these  the  cable  was 
deposited,  in  three  vast  coils.  The  Oreat  Etutern  started 
from  Valentia,  1865,  July  23,  with  her  burden,  the  main 
cable  being  joined  end  to  end  to  a  more  massive  shore 
cable,  which  was  drawn  up  the  cliff  at  Foilhummer- 
um  Bay,  to  a  telegraph  house  at  the  top.  The  electric 
condition  of  the  cable  was  kept  constantly  under  test 
during  the  progress  of  the  ship;  and  more  than  once  the 
efliciency  was  disturbed  by  fragments  of  w^ire  piercing  the 
gutta-percha,  and  destroymg  the  insulation.    On  Aug.  2, 


Section  and  External  Appeaiatice  uf  Atlantic  Cable  of  1800. 

the  cable  snapped  by  over-straining,  and  the  end  sank  to 
the  bottom  in  2,000  fathoms  of  water,  at  a  distance  of  1,064 
m.  from  Ireland.  Then  commenced  the  remarkable  pro- 
cess of  dredging  for  the  cable.  A  five-armed  grapnel, 
suspended  from  the  end  of  a  strong  iron-wire  rope,  flvem. 
long,  was  thrown  overboard;  and  when  it  reached  the  bot- 
tom, it  was  dragged  to  and  fro  across  the  line  of  cable  by 
slow  steaming  of  the  Oreat  Eastern;  the  hope  being  that  one 
or  other  of  the  prongs  would  catch  hold  of  the  cable.  A 
series  of  disasters  followed  by  the  breaking  of  swivels,  and 
the  loss  of  grapnels  and  ropes;  until  at  length,  Aug.  11,  it 
was  found  that  there  were  no  more  materials  on  board  to 
renew  the  graj)pling.  The  Cheat  Eastern  Teiurned  to  Eng- 
land, leaving  (including  the  operations  of  1857-8)  near^ 
4,000  tons  of  electric  cable  useless  at  the  bottom  of  toe 
Atlantic. 


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ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH. 

A  new  capital,  and  new  commercial  arrangement)  alto- 
gether, were  needful  for  a  renewal  of  the  attempt.  Another 
cable  was  made,  slightly  differing  from  the  former.  The 
jacket  outside  the  core  was  made  of  hemf)  instead  of 
jute;  the  iron  wires  of  the  sheath  were  galvanized,  instead 
of  being  left  in  their  natural  state;  ana  the  manilla  hemp 
which  covered  them  was  left  white  instead  of  being  tarred. 
These  few  changes  made  it  weigh  nearly  500  lbs.  per  mile 
less,  mainly  through  the  absence  of  tar;  while  its  strength 
or  breaking  strain  was  increased.  Enough  of  this  cable 
was  made  to  span  the  Atlantic,  with  allowance  for  slack; 
while  a  sufficient  addition  of  the  1865  cable  was  provided 
to  remedy  the  disaster  of  that  year. 

The  Atlantic  telegraph  operations  in  1866  were  remark 
able  and  interesting.  On  July  13,  the  Great  Eastern  set 
forth  from  Valentia,  with  the  assistant  steamers  Terrible, 
Medway,  and  Albany.  The  route  was  chosen  midway  be- 
tween those  of  the  1858  and  1865  cables,  for  the  most  part 
a  few  miles  from  each.  The  Great  Eastern  exchanged  tel- 
egrams almost  continuously  with  Valentia  during  her  pro- 
gress. The  mishaps  were  few  in  number,  and  easily 
remedied;  and  the  Great  Eastern  safely  entered  the  harbor 
of  Heart's  Content,  Newfoundland,  on  the  27th.  After 
this,  operations  commenced  for  recovering  the  end  of  the 
1865  cable,  and  completing  the  submersion.  The  Albany, 
Medicay,  and  Terrible  set  off,  Aug.  1,  to  the  spot  on  the 
ocean  beneath  which  the  end  of  the  cable  was  lying,  or  as 
near  to  it  as  calculations  could  establish.  Certain  buoys, 
left  anchored  there  twelve  months  previously,  had  been 
carried  away  by  the  storms  of  the  preceding  winter;  but 
the  latitude  and  longitude  had  been  very  carefully  regis- 
tered. The  Great  mstem  started  from  Heart's  Content  on 
the  9th,  and  then  commenced  a  series  of  grappling  opera- 
tions, which  continued  the  rest  of  the  month.  The  cable 
was  repeatedly  caught,  and  raised  to  a  greater  or  less 
height  from  the  ocean-bed;  but  something  or  other 
snapped  or  slipped  every  time.  After  much  trial  of  pa- 
tience, the  end  of  the  cable  was  safely  fished  up  Sept.  1; 
and  electric  messages  were  at  once  sent  through  to  Valentia, 
as  well  as  if  the  cable  had  not  had  twelve  months'  soak- 
ing in  the  Atlantic.  An  additional  length  having  been 
flpuced  to  it,  the  laying  recommenced;  and  on  the  oth  the 
squadron  entered  Heart's  Content;  having  thus  succeeded 
fn  laving  a  second  line  of  cable  from  Ireland  to  America. 
"With  improved  cables  and  machiuery,  tbe  work  has 
been  80  greatly  expedited  that,  1^94,  July  2,  the  Fara- 
day completed  the  laying  of  a  cable  between  Wiitervillc, 
Ireland,  and  Cunso,  Nova  Scotia,  having  laid  the  deep-sea 
portion  (about  1.600  nautical  m.)  iu  12  days.  On  the  27th 
of  the  same  month,  the  Scotia  completed  the  laying  of  tbe 
cable  between  Valentia,  Ireland,  and  Heart's  Content,  New- 
foundland, iu  somewhat  less  than  12  days. 

The  following  lines  of  telegraph  cables  have  now  (1897) 
been  laid  beneath  the  Atlantic  or  some  portion  of  it: 

AnglO' American  Telegraph  Co.:  from  Valentia,  Ireland, 
to  Heart's  Content,  Newfoundland,  4  cables,  7,505  m.;  from 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ATLANTIDiE 

Minon  near  Brest,  Fmnce,  to  St.  Pierre.  Miquelou  (off  the 
8.  Coast  of  Newfoundlnnd),  1  cable.  2,718  m. 

Ounmerciitl  Cab'e  Co.:  Walerville.  Ire'ainl.  to  Canso, 
Nova  Scotia,  3  cables,  6,8^8  m.;  Caiiso,  Nova  Scolia, 
to  New  York,  1  cable,  8:28  m.;  Causo,  Nova  Scotia,  to 
liotrkport,  Mass.,  1  cable.  519  m. 

Direct  United  SUites  OihU  Co.:  from  Ballinskellig's 
Bay,  Jrelniid,  to  Halifax.  Nova  Sootia,  1  cable,  2.564  m.; 
fnMn  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  to  Rye  Beacli,  N.  H.,  1  cable, 
5;j5  111. 

Wf stern  Union  Telegraph  Co  :  Sen n en  Cove,  near  Pen- 
zance, Eugland,  to  Dover  Bay,  near  Canso,  Nova  Scotia, 
2  cables,  5,107  m. ;  Dover  Bay,  Nova  Scotia,  to  New 
York,  2  cables,  1,776  m. 

Gompagnie  Fran^aiee  du  TiUgraphe  de  Paris  a  Xcw 
Toi'k:  from  Brest.  Fmnce,  to  St.  Pierre,  Miquelou,  1  cable, 
2.282  m.;  from  St.  Pierre  to  Cape  Cod,  Mass.,  1  cable, 
828  m. 

Brazilian  Submarine  Telegraph  Co.:  from  Carcavellos, 
near  Lisbon,  Portugal,  to  Madeira,  Cni>e  de  Verde  Island, 
and  Pernainbuco.  Brazil,  6  cables,  7.i>69  m. 

Central  and  SouVi  American  Telegraph  Co.:  15  cables, 
7,496  m. 

Cuba  Submarine  Telegraph  Co.:  4  cables,  1,048  m. 

Anglo- Spanish' Poi'titguese  /System :  11  cables,  8,566  m. 

Direct  Spanish  Telegraph  Co.:  from  Lizard  Point,  Eng- 
land, to  Bilbao,  Spain,  4  cables,  708  m. 

Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Co.:  2  cables,  1,052  m. 

Halijax  and  Bermuda  Cable  Co.:  1  cable,  8.-»0  m. 

Western  and  Brazilian  Telegraph  Co.:  16  cables,  6,147  m. 

West  India  and  Panama  Telegraph  Co.:  22 cables,  4,554m. 

West  Coast  of  Ameiica  Telegraph  Co.:  Scabies,  1,964m. 

West  African  Telenraph  Co.:  12  cables,  8,055  m. 

African  Direct  Telegraph  Co.:  8  cables,  2,749  m. 

There  are,  besides  the  lines  above  specitied,  numerous 
cables  along  the  various  coasts,  the  lines  along  the  Amer- 
ican coasts  aggregating  more  than  2,000  m. 

The  means  of  grappling  and  raising  cables  in  mid-ocean, 
as  well  as  of  ascertaining  the  exact  location  of  any  break, 
have  been  carried  to  such  perfection  that  any  needed  re- 
pairs are  readily  made.        See  Telegraph. 

ATLANTID^,  n.  pi.  at-lantl-de:  in  ethn.,  according 
to  Latham,  one  of  the  primary  varieties  of  the  human  spe- 
cies. The  maxillary  profile  is  projecting;  the  nasal  one 
generally  flat ;  the  frontal  one  retiring ;  the  cranium 
dolichocephalic,  the  parietal  diameter  being  gcD^^rally 
narrow;  eyes  rarely  oblique;  skin  often  jet  black,  very 
rarely  approaching  a  pure  white;  liair  crisp,  woolly,  rarelv 
straight,  still  more  rarely  light-colored.  Languages  with 
an  agglutinate,  rarely  an  amalgamate  inflection.  Distribu- 
tion, Africa.  Influence  on  history  of  the  world,  incon- 
siderable.—In  zool.,  family  of  molluscs  belonging  to  class 
Gasteropoda,  order  NueleooranMata.  There  is  a  symmet- 
rical di.scoidal  shell,  sometimes  closed  by  an  operculum. 
The  gills  are  contained  in  a  dorsal  mantle-cavity. 


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ATLANTIS— ATLAS. 

ATLANTIS,  according  to  ancient  tradition,  a  vastisL 
and  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  first  mentioned  b^  Plato, 
who  represents  an  Egyptian  priest  as  describing  it  to  So- 
lon, but,  of  course,  according  to  Plato's  view  of  the  mat- 
ter. In  this  description,  A.  appeared  as  an  island  larger 
than  Libya  and  Asia  Minor  taken  together,  and  lying  off 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Plato  gives 
a  beautiful  picture  of  the  interior  of  this  imaginary  land, 
and  enriches  it  with  a  fabulous  history.  Some  early  wriu 
crs  supposed  that  the  Canary  Islands  were  the  remains  of 
the  old  A. ;  for  Plato  had  stated  that  at  the  close  of  the 
long  contest  which  its  inhabitants  maintained  against  the 
Athenians,  nine  thousand  years  before  his  time,  the  sea 
suddenly  engulfed  the  island,  and  had  ever  since  been  un- 
navigable,  by  reason  of  the  shoals  of  mud  created  by  the 
sunken  island.  Some  found  it  in  the  Scandinavian  pen- 
insula; others  (first  Bircherod,  1685)  have  supposed  the 
vast  island  of  A.  mentioned  by  Plato,  as  well  as  the  great 
unnamed  island  spoken  of  byPliny,  Diodorus,  and  Amo- 
bius,  may  have  been  the  new  world.  For  curious  array  of 
evidence  that  A.  was  the  scene  of  the  first  civilization  and 
the  deluge,  see  Atlantis,  by  Ignatius  Donnelly. 

ATLAS,  n.  at  las,  Atlases,  n.  plu.  dt'ldaez  [Gr.  Atlas, 
name  of  a  giant  who,  the  ancient  Greeks  pretended,  bore  up 
the  earth  upon  his  shoulders]:  a  collection  of  maps  bound 
together;  the  first  vertebra  or  top  joint  of  the  neck,  or  that 
which  supix)rts  the  head.  Atlantes,  n.  plu.  di-ldniez,  in 
arch.,  the  whole  or  half  figures  of  men  employed  instead  of 
colimnns  or  pillars.  Atlantean,  a.  dtlante'dn,  or  At- 
LANTiAN,  a.  dt-liin'shUhi,  pertaining  to  Atlas,  or  to  the 
isle  of  Atlantis;  strong;  gigantic.  Atlantides,  n.  pi. 
dt-ltin'tl-dez  [L.  AUantides,  Atlantiades]:  in  class,  myth., 
the  daughters  of  Atlas,  seven  of  whom  were  called  also 
Pleiades,  after  their  mother  Pleione.  After  their  death 
they  were  supposed  to  have  been  transformed  into  the 
constellation  Pleiades;  in  aatron.,  a  designation  sometimes 
given  to  the  stars  constituting  the  Pleiades. 

ATLAS:  that  piece  of  the  human  vertebral  column 
which  is  nearest  to  the  skull;  in  other  words,  it  is  the  first 
cervical  vertebra.  It  may  be  known  from  the  other  six  by 
its  bein^  without  a  body  or  spinous  process,  by  its  being 
a  mere  irregular  bony  ring,  partly  divided  into  two  un- 
equal parts  by  a  constriction;  this  division  in  the  recent 
subject  is  completed  by  a  ligament,  the  part  in  front  beinff 
occupied  by  the  tooth-like  process  of  the  second  cervical 
vertebra,  and  that  behind,  by  the  spinal -marrow.  On  each 
side,  the  ring  is  very  thick;  it  is  smooth  and  cupped  above 
to  receive  the  condyles  of  the  occipital  bone.  The  corre- 
sponding parts  below  are  tint,  and  rest  on  the  second  cer- 
vical vertebra. 

The  A.,  with  the  occipital  bone,  forms  the  joint  on 
which  the  head  moves  in  bowing;  and  turns  on  the  pivot 
of  the  second  cervical  vertebni,  when  the  head  is  moved 
from  side  to  side. 

AT' LAS,  in  Ancient  Myth. :  according  to  Uesiod's  Tlieog- 

2-44 


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ATLAS. 

onyy  one  of  the  Titans,  son  of  lapetuH  and  Clymene,  bro. 
of  Menoetius,  Prometheus,  and  Epimetheus.  Apollo- 
dorus,  however,  states  him  to  have  been  a  son  of  Asia,  and 
Hyginus,  a  son  of  -^ther  and  Gaea.  He  married  Pleone, 
daughter  of  Oceanus  (or  Hesperis,  his  own  niece),  and  be- 
came the  father  of  the  Pleiades.  Ab  leader  of  the  Titans, 
he  attempted  to  storm  the  heavens,  and  for  this  supreme 
treason  was  condemned  by  Zeus  to  bear  the  vault  of  heaven 
on  his  head  and  hands — the  sting  of  this  mythological 
punishment  obviously  being,  that  A.  was  compelled  to 
support  what  he  thirsted  to  destroy.  The  later  writers, 
however,  rationalize  th^  myth,  and  state  that  A.  was  a 
mighty  king  who  had  great  skill  in  astronomy,  and  only 
tried  to  storm  heaven  intellectually. — In  consequence  of 
the  ancient  views  which  made  the  vault  of  heaven  rest  on 
solid  pillars  or  other  supports,  the  name  A.,  originally 
mythological  and  cosmogonic,  was  introduced  into  geog- 
raphy. Mercator,  in  the  16th  c,  gave  the  name  A.  to  a 
collection  of  maps;  probably  because  the  figure  of  A.  sup- 
porting the  heavens  had  been  given  on  the  title-pages  of 
such  works. 

ATLAS:  a  mass  of  mountain-land  in  the  w.  part  of  n. 
Africa.  Herodotus  mentions  a  smoking  mountain  of  this 
name  situated  on  the  s.w.  of  the  Little  Syrtis,  twenty  days' 
journey  w.  from  the  Ghiramantes,  styled  by  the  natives  ttie 
'pillars  of  heaven.*  By  later  writers,  after  the  time  of 
Poly  bins,  the  name  A.  was  always  given  to  the  chain  of 
mountains  in  n.w.  Africa  extending  from  the  island  of 
Ceme  (now  Cape  de  Ger)  n.w.  through  Mauritania,  and 
Tingitana  (now  Fez  and  Morocco),  and  including  also  the 
heights  dispersed  through  the  region  of  Sahara.  It  is  di- 
vided into  the  Little  Atlas  and  the  Great  Atlas;  the  former 
denominating  a  secondary  range  in  the  country  of  Sous, 
and  the  other  the  loftier  mountains  of  Morocco.  The  A. 
is  not  properly  a  mountain-chain,  but  rather  a  very  irreg- 
ular mountainous  mass  of  land  formed  of  many  chains 
running  in  various  directions,  meeting  in  mountain-knots, 
or  connected  by  yokes,  or  short  chains  of  inferior  height, 
and  diversified  still  further  by  several  solitary  mountains 
and  groups  of  mountains.  The  A.  attains  its  greatest 
height  (13,000  ft.)  in  Morocco,  the  only  part  where  it  rises 
above  the  snow-line,  and  obtains  the  name  of  Jebel-el- 
Thelj,  or  Snowy  Mountains.  Its  highest  peaks  are  Miltsin 
— 27  m.  s.e.  of  the  city  of  Morocco — Bibawan,  and  Taghe- 
rain.  The  most  southern  chain  diverging  here  from  the 
central  mass  bears  the  name  Jebel-Haanar.  The  heights 
approach  the  sea,  and  form  the  promontories  jutting  out 
into  the  Atlantic.  From  Morocco,  the  A.  gradually  de- 
creases in  height  towards  the  e.  In  Algeria,  the  elevation 
is  only  7,678  ft.;  in  Tunis,  4,476  ft.;  and  in  Tripoli,  3,200 
ft.  The  whole  mountain-sjrstem  is  intersected  by  the  val- 
lev  of  the  Muluia  river,  which  flows  through  the  n.e.  part 
of  Morocco,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean.  The  slopes 
on  the  n.,  w.,  and  s.  are  covered  with  vast  forests  of  pine, 
oak,  cork,  white  poplar,  wild  olive,  etc.  The  valleys  are 
well  watered  and  capable  of  cultivation  with  great  firofit. 
The  A.  seems  to  be  chiefly  calcareous  in  its  composition. 

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ATLASITE— ATMOMETER 

The  mineral  wealth  remains  almost  wholly  unexplored, 
though  copper,  iron,  lead,  antimony,  etc.,  are  reported  to 
exist  in  abundance. 

ATLASITE,  n.  ut'lds-U  [apparently  from  Ger.  atlas, 
satin,  named  from  the  satiny  or  silky  character  of  the  miner- 
al. The  term  corresponds  to  Ger.  aUaserZy  fibrous  mala- 
chite]: a  mineral  believed  by  Dana  to  be  a  possible  mixture 
of  azurite  and  atacamite.  It  is  a  copper  carbonate  that 
contains  chlorine. 

ATMIDOMETER,  n.  at-mUUm'et'er  [Gr.  atmido$,  genit. 
of  atmis,  the  steam  of  a  fomentation.  Cognate  with  atmis] : 
an  instrument  still  in  use,  invented  b^  Babington,  for 
measuring  the  evaporation  from  water*  ice,  snow,  etc.  It 
consists  of  two  glass  or  metal  bulbs,  one  of  them  placed 
above  the  other,  with  which  it  communicates  by  a  narrow 
neck.  The  lower  one  is  weighted  with  shot  or  mercury, 
and  the  upper  has  on  it  a  small  glass  or  metal  stem,  with  a 
scale  graduated  in  grains  and  half  grahis.  On  the  top  of  all 
there  is  a  shallow  pan.  The  instrument  being  immersed  in 
a  vessel  of  water  through  a  circular  hole  in  wtich  the  stem 
rises,  distilled  water  is  gradually  poured  into  the  pan  above, 
causing  it  to  sink  to  the  point  at  which  the  zero  of  the  stem 
is  on  a  level  with  the  cover  of  the  vessel.  As  then  the  water 
in  the  pan  gradually  evaporates,  the  stem  slowly  ascends, 
the  amount  of  evaporation  being  indicated  in  grains  on  the 
graduated  scale. 

ATMOLOGY.  n.  al-Trwl'tt-ji  [Gr.  atmos,  vapor ;  logos, 
discourse] :  the  science  of  vapor.  At'molog'ical,  a.  -Idj'- 
l-kdl,  pertaining  to  the  science  of  vapor.  Athol  ooibt,  n. 
-o^fUt,  one  who. 

ATMOLY25E,  v.  atmo-Viz'  [Gr.  atmos,  smoke  or  steam; 
lusis,  a  loosing  or  setting  free — from  lud,  to  loose  I:  to 
separate,  at  least  partially,  two  gases  or  vapors  of  un- 
equal diffusibility,  which  are  combined  with  each  other. 
Atmolysis,  n.  at-mol't-sls,  the  act  or  operation  of  separat- 
ing two  gases  In  combination,  from  each  other. 

ATMOMETER,  n.  at-numeter  [Gr.  atmos,  vapor; 
metron,  a  measure]:  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
amount  of  evaporation  from  any  moist  surface  in  a  given 
time:  sometimes  termed  Atmidometer.  It  was  invented 
by  Sir  John  Leslie,  and  consists  of  a  very  thin  ball  of 
porous  earthenware,  from  one  to  three  inches  in  diameter, 
having  a  small  neck  firmly  cemented  to  a  long  and 
rather  wide  tube  of  glass,  to  which  is  adapted  a  brass 
cap  with  a  narrow  collar  of  leather  to  fit  closely.  It 
is  filled  with  distilled  or  pure  water,  and  its  cap  screwed 
tu4itly.  It  is  then  suspended  out  of  doors  in  a  situation 
where  It  is  exposed  freely  to  the  action  of  the  wind, 
but  it  is  sheltered  from  rain.  As  the  water  evaporates 
from  the  external  surface  of  the  ball,  it  transudes  through 
its  porous  substance,  and  the  waste  is  measured  by 
th^  corresponding  descent  of  the  liquid  in  the  stem.  To 
test  the  amount  cf  this  descent,  there  is  a  finely-graduated 
scale.  When  the  water  has  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the 
stem,  the  latter  requires  to  be  filled  again.  The  accuracy 
of  the  A,  is  only  ppproxiraate. 


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ATMOSPHERE. 

ATMOSPHERE,  n.  at'mik-fer  [Gr.  atmos,  vapor;  tphaira, 
a  sphere]:  the  whole  mass  of  air,  clouds,  and  vapor  sur- 
rounding the  earth.  Atmospheric,  a.  at'mos-fefik,  or 
Atmospherical,  a.  A-kal,  pertaining  to  the  air;  produced 
or  operated  on  by  the  atmosphere.  Atmospherically, 
ad.  -II.  At'mospher  ic  pressure,  the  weight  of  the  at- 
mosphere on  a  surface,  t)eing  about  15  lb.  to  me  square  inch 
at  the  level  of  the  sea.  Atmospheric  tides,  tides 
which  must  exist  in  the  atmosphere  as  they  do  in  the  ocean, 
from  the  attractions  of  the  moon  and  sun. 

ATMOSPHERE:  the  gaseous  envelope  which  surrounds 
the  earth.  The  A.  is  indispensable  to  animal  and  veget- 
able life,  the  modifying  and  retaining  of  solar  heat,  the 
transmission  of  sound,  the  gradual  shading  of  day  into 
night,  the  disintegration  of  rocks,  and  the  occurrence  of 
weather  phenomena.  In  consequence  of  the  action  of 
gravity,  the  A.  assumes  the  form  of  a  spheroidal  stratum 
concentric  with  the  ^arth  and  presses  heavily  on  its  sur- 
face. It  exhibits,  in  common  with  all  fluid  bodies,  the 
usual  characteristics  of  hydrostatic  pressure,  but  its  internal 
condition  differs  from  that  of  a  liquid  inasmuch  as  its  par- 
ticles repel  each  other,  and  can  only  be  held  in  proximity 
by  external  force.  From  this,  it  follows  that  the  volume 
01  any  portion  of  air  varies  much  more  under  the  influence 
of  external  pressure  than  that  of  an  equal  volume  of  water; 
hence,  the  stratum  of  air  nearest  the  earth  is  denser  than 
strata  in  the  upper  regions,  where,  from  their  being  sub- 
jected to  the  weight  of  a  smaller  mass  of  superincxunbent 
air,  the  repul.sive  force  of  the  particles  has  freer  play. 

That  air  has  weight,is  illustrated  by  the  following  simple 
experiment.  If  a  hollow  glass  globe  of  five  or  six  inches 
in  diameter  be  weighed,  first  when  filled  with  air,  then  af- 
ter the  air  has  been  extracted  from  it  by  means  of  the  air- 
pump,  it  will,  when  thus  exhausted,  weigh  sensibly  less 
than  it  did  before,  and  the  difference  of  the  two  results  will 
represent  the  weight  of  the  quantity  of  air  withdrawn.  It 
has  been  determined  by  Biot  and  Arago  that  100  cubic 
inches  of  dry  air,  when  the  barometer  is  at  80  inches,  and 
the  thermometer  at  60'  Fahrenheit,  weigh  81*074  grains. 
The  law  of  Archimedes  (see  Archimedes,  Principle  of), 
that  a  body  immersed  in  a  fluid  loses  a  part  of  its  weight 
equal  to  the  weight  of  the  volume  of  fluid  displaced  by  it, 
finds  its  application  in  the  A.  as  well  as  in  water,  if  a 
glass  globe  filled  with  air  and  closed  be  suspended  at  the 
extremity  of  the  beam  of  a  delicate  balance,  and  be  kept  in 
equilibrium  by  a  brass  weight  at  the  other  extremity,  and 
if  the  whole  be  then  placed  under  the  receiver  of  an  air- 
pump,  and  the  air  extracted,  the  equilibrium  previously 
existing  in  air  will  be  disturbed,  and  the  larger  body 
will  become  the  heavier.  The  reason  of  this  is,  tWt  when 
first  weighed,  they  each  lose  as  much  of  their  own  weight 
as  that  of  the  respective  volumes  of  air  displaced  by  them, 
and  are  therefore  made  buoyant, though  in  different  degrees, 
the  ball  with  the  larger  volume  having  the  greater  buoy- 
aocy.  In  a  vacuum,  they  are  deprived  of  this  buoyancy, 
and  the  larger  body,  suffering  the  greater  loss,  becomes 


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ATiMOSPHERE. 

sensibly  heavier  than  the  other.  In  like  manner,  a  balloon 
tilled  with  heated  air  or  hydrogen  gas  is  lighter  than  the 
volume  of  air  displaced  by  it.  It  is  therefore  forced 
upward  until  it  reaches  a  stratum  of  such  density  that  the 
weight  of  the  volume  of  air  there  displaced  by  it  equals  the 
weight  of  the  balloon  itself.  In  this  stratum  it  will  remain 
poised,  or  move  horizontally  with  the  currents  to  which 
It  may  be  exposed. 

In  endeavoring  to  determine  the  form  of  the  atmospheric 
envelope,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that,  according  to 
tlie  law  of  fluid-pressure,  in  order  to  produce  a  state  of 
equilibrium  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  pressure  of  the  A. 
must  be  equal  at  that  level  over  the  whole  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Gravity  acts  with  less  force  on  the  air  at  the 
equator  than  on  that  at  the  poles,  in  consequence  of  the 
spheroidal  form  of  the  earth.  It  has  therefore,  in  addition, 
to  contend  with  the  centrifugal  force,  which  entirely  fails 
at  the  poles,  and  which  has  a  tendency  to  lighten  the  air  by 
acting  contrary  to  gravity.  Ilence  we  infer,  that,  in  order 
to  produce  the  same  pressure  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  the 
atmospheric  height  at  the  equator  must  be  greater  than  that 
at  the  poles,  and  that  the  A.  must  therefore  possess  the 
form  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  whose  oblateness  is  consider- 
ably greater  than  that  of  the  earth  itself.  The  greater  heat 
at  the  tropical  regions  must  also  have  the  effect  of  in- 
creasing the  oblateness. 

The  fieight  of  the  A.  has  not  yet  been  determined.  That 
it  must  have  a  certain  limit,  is  evident  from  the  considera- 
tion that  there  must  be  a  point  at  which  gravity  on  the 
one  hand,  and  centrifugal  force  and  the  repulsive  action 
of  the  particles  on  the  other,  are  poised,  and  beyond  which 
— the  latter  forces  overbalancing  the  foiTaer  force — the 
aerial  particles  would  be  borne  away  from  the  earth.  As, 
however,  the  law  of  the  diminution  of  temperature,  which 
materially  affects  the  repulsive  action,  is  unknown  for  t^e 
upper  regions  of  the  air,  it  is  impossible  to  calculate  the 
height  of  the  atmosphere  from  the  relations  of  these  forces. 
From  the  observation  of  luminous  meteors,  it  is  inferred 
that  it  is  at  least  100  m.  high,  and  that,  in  an  extremely 
attenuated  form,  it  may  reach  200  m. 

The  pressure  of  the  A.  is  one  of  its  most  important  prop- 
erties. Its  effect  is  exhibited  in  the  action  of  the  ordinary 
water-pump.  The  piston  is  fitted  air-tight  in  its  cylinder, 
and  on  being  drawn  up  creates  a  vacuum.  The  water  with- 
in the  pump,  being  thus  freed  from  pressure, while  that  out- 
side of  it  is  exposed  to  the  pressure  of  a  column  of  air  reach- 
ing to  the  surface  of  the  A.,  is  at  once  forced  up  by  reason 
of  the  weight  of  air  which  it  must  rise  to'  balance.  The 
ascent  of  the  water  takes  place  until  the  piston  has 
reached  the  height  of  nearljr  84  ft.,  from  which  we  con- 
clude that  a  column  of  air  is  equal  in  weight  to  a  column 
of  water  of  the  same  horizontal  section,  and  of  the  height 
of  nearly  34  ft.  As  mercury  is  18*6  times  heavier  than 
water,  a  mercurial  column  freed  from  atmospheric  pres- 
sure at  the  one  extremitj^,  and  subjected  to  it  at  the  other, 
is  18*6  times  less  in  height  than  the  column  of  water,  or 


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ATMOSPHERE. 

about  30  inches.  From  the  more  convenient  size  of  this 
column,  mercury  has  been  adopted  as  the  standard  for  at- 
mospheric pressure,  and  is  employed  in  ordinary  barome- 
ters (q.v.).  A  mercurial  column  30  inches  in  height  and 
1  square  inch  in  section  weighs  15  lbs.  (more  accurately 
14-73),  which  gives  the  equivalent  weight  of  a  column  of 
atmospheric  air  of  the  same  section. 

The  word  A.  is  often  employed  to  express  this  weight  or 
pressure  on  a  sq.  inch  of  surface,  so  that  when  we  speak, 
m  Mechanics,  of  the  pressure  of  steam  on  a  boiler  as 
amounting  to  three  atmospheres,  we  mean  a  pressure  of  45 
lbs.  on  the  sq.  inch.  The  pressure  of  the  A.  on  a  sq.  inch 
being  thus  ascertained,  we  have  merely  to  multiply  it  by 
the  number  of  sq.  inches  on  the  earth's  surface  to  obtain 
the  total  weight  of  the  A.  It  amounts  to  11-67086  trillions 
of  lbs.  or  about  nrxjiinjinr  ^^  ^^®  earth's  majBS.  It  must  be 
observed  that  the  height  of  the  barometric  column  is  not  a 
constant  quantity,  as  it  varies  with  the  latitude, the  season  of 
the  year,  and  the  hour  of  the  day.  At  London  its  mean 
height  is  29*88  inches;  at  Paris,  29*02  inches.  The  pressure 
of  tne  A.  in  the  northern  hemisphere  increases  as  we  recede 
from  the  equator,  reaching  a  maximum  at  80°  n.  lat.,  and 
decreasing  from  30'^  to  65%  where  it  again  begins  to  rise. 
The  greater  height  at  SO''  is  said  to  be  due  to  the  accumula- 
tion of  air  at  that  latitude  by  the  action  of  the  trade-winds. 
As  tlie  heat  of  the  earth's  surface  increases  the  rarity  of 
the  air  above  it,  and  causes  the  air  at  the  top  of  the  heated 
column  to  overflow,  it  would  be  expected  that,  during  the 
year,  the  barometer  would  stand  at  a  minimum  in  sum- 
mer, and  a  maximum  in  winter.  In  reality,  however, 
though  the  barometer  is  highest  in  mid-winter,  there 
is  another  maximum  in  mid-summer,  making  thus  two  min- 
ima—one  in  spring,  the  other  in  autumn.  This  arises  from 
the  part  borne  by  watery  vapors  in  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  heat  of  mid-summer  mtroduces  into 
the  air  a  large  quantity  of  moisture,  in  the  form  of  elastic 
vapor,  which,  adding  its  pressure  to  that  of  the  dry  air, 
raises  what  would  otherwise  be  the  minimum  barometric 
column  to  a  higher  point  than  that  at  which  it  stands  in 
spring  and  autumn.  Similar  causes  affect  the  pressure  of 
the  A.  during  the  24  hours  of  the  day.  There  are  two 
maxima— one  at  10  a.m.,  the  other  between  10  and  11 
P.M.;  and  two  minima — at  4  a.m.  and  4  p.m.  Very 
slight  variations  indicate  the  existence  of  atmospheric  tidal 
waves;  but  this  subject  is  still  obscure.  The  pressure  of 
the  A. exercises  a  most  important  influence  on  the  organism 
of  the  human  frame.  A  man  of  ordinary  stature  is  exposed 
to  a  pressure  of  about  14  tons;  but  as  the  air  permeates  the 
whole  body,  and  presses  equally  in  all  directions,  no  in- 
convenience is  found  to  result  from  it.  From  experiments 
mstituted  by  the  brothers  Weber  in  Germany,  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  the  heads  of  the  thigh  and  arm  bones  are 
kept  in  their  sockets  by  the  pressure  of  the  A.;  and  in  bal- 
loon ascents  the  aeronaut  often  suffers  from  bleeding  at 
the  nose,  lips,  and  even  eyes — a  fact  that  would  seem  to 


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ATMOSPHERE. 

indicate  that  the  strength  of  the  blood-vessels  has  been  ad- 
Justed  with  reference  to  atmospheric  pressure. 

Chemical  Comj^asUionoftfieA. — Recent  chemical  researches 
give  the  following  as  the  meau  composition  of  100  volumes 
and  of  100  grains  of  dry  air: 

Volumes.  Grains. 

Nitrogen, 7902  76'84 

Oxygen 20*94  2310 

Carbonic  acid,  ....      004  006 

10000         10000 

Besides  the  substances  just  named,  other  gaseous  matters  oc* 
cur  (see  Argon)  in  quantities  too  small  sensibly  to  increase 
the  bulk  of  the  A.;  sucb  as  ammonia  and  nmmoniacal  sails, 
carburetted  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  carbonic  oxide,  sul- 
phurous and  sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  perhaps  iodine, 
the  quantity  and  even  the  presence  of  which  are  affected  by 
local  and  meteorological  causes.  Roughly  speaking,  then, 
dry  air  may  be  said  to  consist  of  4  volumes  of  nitrogen  and  1 
of  oxygen,  with  a  slight  admixture  of  carbonic  acid,  and  a 
mere  trace  of  several  other  substances.  As,  however,  the 
air  of  the  A.  is  never  found  dry,  we  must  add  to  the  con- 
stituents already  named  watery  vapor,  tlie  amount  of  which 
is  constantly  changing,  accoitling  to  locality,  weather,  wind, 
and  temperature.  It  is  stated  that  of  1,000  grains  of  atmos- 
pheric air,  the  proportion  due  to  aqueous  vapor  varies 
from  a  minimum  of  4  to  a  maximum  of  16  grains.  By  far 
the  most  active  chemical  constituent  of  the  A.  is  oxygen, 
essential  to  the  existence  of  animal  life,  the  maintenance  of 
combustion,  the  rusting  of  metals,  and  the  occun*ence  of 
many  other  chemical  phenomena.  A  small  portion  of  this 
oxygen  occurs  in  the  form  of  ozone  (q.v.),  a  modification 
wliich,  according  to  recent  chemical  discoveries,  is  important 
in  the  chemistry  of  the  A.  The  nitrogen  which  forms  the 
bulk  of  the  A.  has  few  chemical  properties  of  importance, 
but  performs  the  important  part  of  diluting  the  oxygen, 
which,  if  it  occurred  alone,  would  act  with  too  great  intensity. 
The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  is  shown  by  the 
production  of  the  white  carbonate  of  lime  in  lime-water 
freely  exposed  to  its  influence.  Carbonic  acid  is  produced 
in  all  processes  where  carbonaceous  matter  unites  itself  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air,  such  as  in  animal  respiration,  in  com- 
bustion, in  fermentation,  in  putrefaction,  and  similar  pro- 
cesses. The  green  leaves  of  plants,  on  the  other  hand,  pos- 
sess, iu  presence  of  sunshine,  the  power  of  decomposing  car- 
bonic acid  into  its  elements,  absorbing  the  carbon  for  their 
own  tissues,  and  restoring  the  oxygen  to  the  A.  in  its  orig- 
inal purity.  Between  the  processes  above  mentioned,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  action  of  plants  on  the  other,  the 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  is  kept  nearly  constant. 
Prom  the  table  it  mil  be  seen  that  10,000  volumes  of  at- 
mospheric air  contain  four  volumes  of  carbonic  acid.  If  it 
occurred  in  a  much  larger  proportion,  being  poisonous,  it 
would  become  dangerous  to  animal  life;  and  if  it  (xicurred 
In  a  much  less  proportion,  the  vegetable  world  would  lack 


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ATMOSPHERE. 

its  re^isite  nourishment.  The  other  substances,  of  which 
traces  are  always  or  only  sometimes  found  in  atmospheric 
air,  are  difficult  to  detect  in  the  air  itself,  but  are  generally 
found  dissolved  in  rain-water,  more  especially  in  that  which 
has  fallen  immediately  after  along  drought.  Of  these,  by 
far  the  most  important  and  widely  diffused  are  ammonia 
and  ammoniacal  salts,  which  are  of  essential  importance  to 
the  vegetable  economy,  because,  dissolved  in  the  rain,  they 
furnish  plants  with  the  nitrogen  required  b^r  them  for  the 
production  of  their  flowers  and  fruit  Nitric  acid  is  de- 
tected in  the  air  after  thunder-storms,  8ulj>huretted  hydrogen 
in  the  tainted  air  of  sewers  and  such  like  places,  and  sul- 
phurous and  sulphuric  acid  only  in  the  neighborhood  of 
chemical  or  smelting  works.  A  considerable  quantity  of 
carbonic  oxide  and  carburetted  hydrogen  escapes  uncon- 
sumed  from  our  furnaces;  and  although  the  latter  gas  is  in 
addition  given  off  to  the  air  in  marshy  and  bituminous  dis- 
tricts, the  two  occur  in  almost  inappreciable  quantity  in  the 
atmosphere. 

In  addition  to  its  gaseous  constituents,  the  A.  contains  solid 
substances  in  a  state  of  exceedingly  fine  division,  the  pres- 
ence of  which  is  revealed  in  the  sunbeam.  Many  of  these 
minute  particles,  being  the  seeds  or  germs  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals, must  exert  an  important  influence  on  the  organic  sub- 
stances on  which  they  may  finally  settle,  inducing  in  many 
of  them  the  conditions  of  disease  or  putrefaction^ 

When  the  composite  nature  of  the  A.  was  first  discovered, 
it  was  supposed  to  be  a  chemical  combination  of  nitrogen 
and  oxygen,  but  further  inquiries  have  rendered  this  opinion 
highly  improbable.  When  any  two  bodies  unite  with  each 
other  chemically,  the  substance  which  results  from  their 
combination  invariably  possesses  properties  which  the  orig- 
inal constituents  did  not  possess.  Now  the  atmospheric 
union  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  is  distinguished  by  no  pro- 
perties which  may  not  be  attributed  individually  to  these 
gases.  We  have,  then,  in  this  respect,  no  indication  that 
die  atmospheric  combination  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  is  a 
chemical  one.  Again,  when  an^  composite  gas  is  dissolved 
in  water,  the  proportion  of  the  ingredients  dissolved  in  it  is 
exactl  V  the  same  as  that  in  which  they  occur  in  the  com- 
pound itself;  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  air  dissolved  in 
water,  which  is  found  to  be  richer  in  oxygen  than  atmos- 
pheric air.  Now,  as  oxygen  dissolves  more  readily  in 
water  than  nitrogen,  it  is  manifest  that  this  larger  propor- 
tion of  oxygen  anscs  from  both  gases  acting  independently 
of  each  other  in  respect  to  the  water,  a  condition  that  would 
be  impossible  if  they  were  in  chemical  union.  From  these 
and  other  corroborative  facts,  the  A.  is  considered  to  be 
simply  a  mechanical  combination  of  the  gases  contained  in 
it.  This,  however,  does  not  prevent  the  A.  from  having  a 
uniform  composition,  as  might  at  first  sight  be  supposed; 
for  when  gases  are  mixed  with  each  other,  they  intermin^ 
thoroughly  throughout  the  whole  space  occupied  by  them. 
Local  causes  may  temjwrarily  affect  the  relative  proportion 
of  the  atmospheric  ingredients,  but  the  changes  are  so  mi- 
nute as  to  be  detected  by  only  the  most  delicate  analysis. 


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ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY. 

ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY:  ojxjned to scientiflc 
investigation  first  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  He  demonstrated 
the  identity  of  the  lightning  of  the  heavens  with  the  electric 
spark.  By  his  famous  kite-experiment,  he  ascertained  that 
the  thunder  cloud  assumes  an  electrical  condition  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  the  conductor  of  an  electrical  machine, 
and  that  the  same  mechanical  and  luminous  effects  arc  com- 
mon, though  in  different  degree,  to  both.  The  attention 
directed  first  by  this  discovery  to  the  A.  E.,  as  displayed  in 
the  thunder-cloud,  has  since  befen  extended  to  the  electrical 
condition  of  the  air  in  all  the  different  states  of  the  weather. 
It  is  now  found  that  the  air  is  sensibly  electrical  not  only 
when  the  sky  is  overcast  with  thunder-clouds,  but  when  the 
weather  is  clear,  or  when  no  thunder-clouds  are  present. 
Observations  on  A.  E.  are  made  by  delicate  electrometers 
connected  with  insulated  rods  at  the  top  of  the  buildine,  or 
other  collecting  apparatus.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
results  got  by  continental  observers:  When  the  sky  is  clear 
and  free  from  clouds,  the  A.  E.  is  always  positive,  and  an 
electroscope  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  is  charged  with 
positive  electricity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  electricity  of 
the  ground  is  found  to  be  negative.  This  \,m  shown  in  a 
very  ingenious  way  by  Volta,  who,  by  catching  the  fine  spray 
of  a  fountain  on  the  plate  of  a  straw  electroscope,  found  the 
straws  to  diverge  with  the  negative  electricity  communi- 
cated to  them  by  the  water,  which  was  necessarily  of  the 
same  character  as  that  of  the  ground.  Because  of  this  fact 
electroscopes,  or  the  collecting  apparatus  connected  with 
them,  must  not  be  overtopped  by  the  neighboring  trees  or 
buildings,  the  negative  electricity  of  which  materially  af- 
fects the  indications  given;  and  it  is  due  to  the  same  fact 
that  no  A.  E.  is  discovered  in  the  middle  of  a  wood,  or  in  a 
room,  however  high  the  ceiling.  Under  a  clear  sky,  the 
potential  of  the  A.  E.  is  found  to  increase  as  we  ascend,  the 
lower  aerial  strata  being  less  electrical  than  the  higher. 
Becquerel  proved  this  by  a  simple  experiment  on  the  plateau 
of  Mount  ot.  Bernard.  On  a  piece  of  oiled  silk  he  placetl  a 
silk  thread,  covered  with  tinsel,  one  end  of  which,  termin- 
ated by  a  ring,  was  connected  with  the  rod  of  a  straw  elec- 
troscope, and  the  other  end  was  tied  to  an  arrow  armed  with 
a  metal  point.  When  the  arrow  was  shot  horizontally,  the 
straws  showed  no  divergence;  but  when  the  arrow  was  shot 
upwards,  they  opened  as  it  ascended,  and  diverged  most 
when  the  arrow,  in  ascending,  disengaged  the  ring  from  the 
rod  of  the  electroscope.  The  same  fact  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing way:  When  a  very  delicate  electroscope  is  adjusted 
for  any  particular  position,  it  will,  when  elevated  a  few  feet 
above  that  position,  give  indication  of  positive  electricity, 
and  when  placed  a  few  feet  below,  it  will  be  charged  nega- 
tively. In  clear  weather,  likewise,  the  A.  E.  is  found  to  be 
subject  to  certain  dailv  periodical  variations,  and  appears  to 
have  two  maxima  amf  two  minima  in  the  course  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  first  maximum  takes  place  a  short  time 
after  sunrise,  and  the  second  shortly  after  sunset;  the  first 
minimum  shortly  before  sunrise,  and  the  second  in  the  after- 
noon, when  the  heat  of  the  day  is  greatest.     In  cloudy 


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ATMOs!>ttERIC  RAILWAY. 

w&ither  tbe  electroscope  is  affected  sometimes  positivelj, 
sometimes  negatively,  and  is  ^nerally  leas  influeDced  than 
in  clear  weather.  The  ekctncity  of  lain,  snow,  hafl,  etc., 
is  sometimes  positive,  sometimes  negative.  In  Stuttgart, 
for  instance,  it  was  foond  in  the  course  of  a  year  that  the 
rain  was  71  times  positive  to  69  times  negative,  and  the 
snow  24t  times  positive  to  6  times  negative. 

Sir  William  Thomson  has  made  various  observations  on 
atmospheric  electricity.  His  delicate  electrometers  ^ve  him 
not  only  freat  facility  of  observation,  but  their  debcacy  far 
transcends  that  of  any  instrument  hitherto  employcSd  in 
such  observations.  Instruments  such  as  his  electrometers, 
that  are  sensitive  to  the  electromotive  force  of  a  single 
Daniell's  cell  with  any  condensing  contrivance,  are  a  won- 
derful advance  in  observing  power.  Sir  William's  collect- 
ing apparatus  is  an  insulated  can  of  water  placed  inside  a 
window,  with  a  nozzle  extending  four  feet  and  a  half 
beyond  the  walh,  the  window  being  open  only  so  far  as  to 
admit  of  the  nozzle-tube  passing  without  touching.  The 
<»n,  when  the  stop-cock  is  opened,  assumes  the  potential 
of  the  air  outside  at  the  point  where  the  jet  breaks  up  into 
drops.  In  the  portable  electrometer  for  outside  observa- 
tions, he  uses  as  the  collector  a  burning  match  at  the  top 
of  a  long  rod  attached  to  the  instrument.  The  collecting 
apparatus  is,  of  course,  insulated  and  connected  with  the 
electrometer.  He  estimates  the  amount  of  atmospheric 
electricity  per  foot  or  per  inch.  He  calculates  the  differ- 
ence of  potential  at  the  perpendicular  distance,  say,  of  a 
foot  from  any  portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  whether  the 
level  ground  or  an  upright  wall.  He  finds,  as  mentioned 
above,  that  the  earth  is  always  negative  in  clear  weather, 
and  the  air  positive,  and  that  the  difference  of  potential 
per  foot  is  very  different  at  different  times.  Thus,  in  the 
Isle  of  Arran,  he  found  this  to  vary  in  ordinary  fine 
weather  from  22  to  44  Daniell's  cells;  with  an  e.  or  n.e. 
wind,  the  difference  of  potentials  was  from  6  to  10  times 
that  per  foot.  He  also  finds  sudden  and  unaccountable  vari- 
ations of  potential  within  even  comparatively  few  minutes, 
And  he  can  suggest  onl}*^  that  there  may  be  cloudless  yet 
cloud- like  masses  of  clear  air  floating  in  the  atmosphere, 
which  are  charged  with  electricity,  and  which  in  their 
passage  over  or  near  the  electrometer  give  rise  to  these 
marked  variations. 

The  cause  of  A.  E.  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion. 
The  electricity  developed  by  evaporation  and  vegetation 
has  been  thought  by  some  to  account  for  the  positive 
electricity  of  the  air;  but  this  view  has  been  combated, 
and  as  yet  no  theory  has  been  proposed,  which  satisfac- 
torily accounts  for  it.  For  the  electricity  of  the  thunder- 
cloud, see  Lightning. 

ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY:  railway  on  which  the 
locomotive-power  is  supplied  by  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere more  or  less  directly  on  the  carriages  themselves. 
Vallance  patented  a  plan  for  conveyance  of  passengers 
along  a  railway  within  an  air-ti^ht  tunnel  exhausted  in 
front  of  a  carriage  working  as  a  piston,  the  pressure  of  the 


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ATOK—ATOM. 

atmosphere  acting  on  the  carriage  from  behind.  This 
plan  was  made  public  in  1825,  and  ultimately  brought  into 
experimental  operation  at  Brighton,  proving  the  possibility 
of  such  a  mode  of  transit.  The  general  opinion  as  to  its 
merits  was,  that  though  it  might  succeed  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  goods,  or,  with  a  smaller  tube  than  the  tunnel, 
might  suit  well  the  conveyance  of  the  mails,  it  could  not 
be  expected  to  enjoy  the  favor  of  the  travelling  public, 
on  account  of  its  dark,  close  tunnel.  Thus  the  subject  of 
atmospheric  railways  had  ceased  to  attract  attention,  when 
the  curiosity  of  the  public  was  again  called  to  it,  by  the 
proposal  of  another  plan  of  propulsion,  by  Henry  Pinkus, 
an  American  gentleman,  resident  in  England,  who  took 
out  a  patent  for  it  about  the  year  1885,  under  the  name  of  the 
Pneumatic  railway.  The  apparatus  for  this  was  to  consist 
of  a  cast-iron  tube  of  about  forty  inches  diameter,  having 
a  slit  of  about  two  inches  wide  on  its  upper  side,  the  slit 
(which  was  covered  by  a  flexible  flap  or  valve)  furnishing 
an  opening  through  which  the  mechanism  of  a  piston  work- 
ing within  the  tube  might  be  connected  with  that  of  the 
leading  carriage  without. 

Under  improved  arrangements  of  the  details,  Messrs. 
Clegg  and  Samuda  made  an  experiment  of  this  plan  in  1840, 
on  a  part  of  the  line  of  the  West  London  railway  ;  and  so 
favorable  was  the  issue,  that  the  directors  of  the  Dublin  and 
Kingston  railway  adopted  the  atmospheric  pressure  system 
for  a  projected  extension  of  their  line  from  Kiugstown  to  Dal- 
key.  Accordingly,  parliamentary  sanction  was  obtained 
for  the  line,  and  the  flrst  A.  K.  was  in  full  operation  at  the 
beginning  of  1844.  In  that  year  the  London  and  Croydon 
raflwav  company  began  to  my  down  a  line  of  A.  R.  alon^^ 
side  or  their  locomotive  line  from  London  to  Croydon.  Th^ 
South  Devon  railway  company  also  adopted  the  atmospheric 
mode  of  working  on  a  part  of  their  railway.  Both  of  these 
lines,  however,  were  soon  abandoned  as  unsatisfactory. 

The  result  of  these  trials  has  clearly  shown  that  the  A.  R. 
system  cannot  compete  with  ihe  steam  railway  in  ordinary 
travel.    See  Pneumatic  Dispatch. 

ATOK,  n.  at  ok  [8.  Am.  name]:  variety  of  Mephitis 
Americana,  found  at  Quito,  whence  Humboldt  called  it 
Oulo  Quitensis.    It  is  sometimes  termed  the  Zorra. 

ATOLL,  n.  afol  [a  Malayan  word]:  a  coral  island,  con- 
sisting of  a  ring  or  circular  belt,  with  a  lagoon  or  lake  in 
the  centre.    See  Coral  Islands. 

ATOM,  n.  atom  [L.  atamus:  Gr.  atomos,  indivisible — 
from  Gr.  a,  not;  temno,  I  cut]:  a  particle  of  matter  that 
cannot  be  made  smaller;  anything  extremely  small;  the 
smallest  quantity  of  an  element  which  can  enter  into  com- 
bination—as distinguished  from  a  molecule,  consisting  of 
two  or  more  atoms.  Atomed,  a.  di'omd,  small  as  atoms. 
Atomic,  a.  d-tom'tk,  or  Atom'ical,  a.  -i  kul,  relating  to 
atoms;  consisting  of  atoms.  Atom  ic  heat,  term  intnv 
duced  by  M.  Regnault.  The  atomic  heat  of  the  elements 
in  a  solid  stale  is  nearly  a  constant  quantity,  the  mean 
value  being  6*4.    This  number  is  obtained  by  multiplying 


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ATOM. 

the  specific  heat  of  an  clement  by  its  atomic  weight.  The 
atomic  heat  of  an  element  represents  the  quantity  of  heat 
which  must  be  imparted  to  or  removed  from  atomic  pro 
portions  of  Uie  several  elements,  in  order  to  produce  equal 
variations  in  temperature.  Atom  icali.y,  ad.  4'i.  Ato- 
MIST,  n.  dto-mist,  one  who  holds  to  the  doctrine  of  atoms. 
Atomizb,  v.  dt'd-mW,  to  re<luce  to  atoms.  At'omizek, 
n.  an  instrument  used  for  reducing  a  liquid  into  spray, 
for  disinfecting,  cooling,  perfuming,  and  similar  purposes. 
Atomizing, imp.  Atomized,  pp. aio-mud'.  At omless, 
a.  Atomism,  n.  dto-mlzm,  or  Atom'icism,  the  doctrine  of 
atoms.  Atomicity,  n.  dt'om-Wi-ti,  the  power  with  which  the 
atoms  of  one  body  can  combine  with  the  atoms  of  another. 
Atomicities,  plu  -Utlz.  Atom ic  theory,  in  chem.,  the 
supposed  resolution  of  bodies  into  ultimate  particles  or 
atoms,  and  the  relative  proportions  in  which  they  combine 
to  form  compound  substances.  Atomy,  n.  dto  mi,  an 
atom;  an  abbreviation  for  *  anatomy.' 

ATOM  :  an  indivisible  particle.  In  ancient  phDosophy, 
two  theories  of  the  nattire  of  matter  wore  recognized,  and 
these  have  continued  to  form  subiects  of  ar^ment  among 
speculative  men  since  B.C.  510.  One  theory  is,  that  matter 
is  infinitely  divisible.  Thus,  a  needle  may  be  divided  into 
tw^o,  and  each  of  the  parts  may  in  its  turn  be  broken  or  cut 
into  two,  and  each  of  the  latter  again  and  again  be  subdi- 
vided, till  the  parts  become  so  small  that  it  may  lie  impossi- 
ble to  see  them  by  the  naked  eye ;  but  these  parts  are  re- 
garded as  capable  of  still  further  division,  without  limit  or 
stoppage,  provided  more  perfect  or  delicate  means  could  be 
employed  to  act  upon  tbem.  The  second  theory  regarding 
0^e  constitution  of  matter  is,  that  in  the  repeated  division 
^nd  subdivision  of  a  solid,  liquid,  or  gas,  a  point  %\ill  be 
reached  at  length  when  it  will  no  longer  be  possible,  by 
any  conceivable  means,  to  break  a  molecule  in  two,  the 
molecule  being  a  real  unity,  not  composed  of  separable  parts 
— in  other  words,  an  atom.  The  latter  theory  recognizes 
the  finite  divisibility  of  matter,  and  considers  that  all  matter 
is  more  or  less  compactly  built  up  of  myriads  of  atoms  ag- 
gregated together,  and  having  spaces  or  pores  between  the 
several  atoms  or  particles.  If  it  were  possible  to  subject 
such  matter  to  the  scrutiny  of  a  sufficiently  powerful  mag- 
aifying-glass,  or  microscope,  and  thus  exhibit  or  behold  the 
atoms  so  separated  bv  spaces,  then  an  appearance  would  be 
presented  similar  to  that  which  the  painter  chooses  to  depict 
on  the  canvas  when  he  is  representing  a  snow-storm,  and 
where  every  little  flake  of  snow  is  separateil  from  its  neigh- 
bor one  by  a  space  in  which  there  are  none;  or  that  which 
would  be  observed  if,  during  a  hailstorm,  some  great  power 
were  to  cry,  *  Haiti '  and  that  instant  every  minute  hailstone 
was  arrested  in  the  spot  it  had  reached. 

This  view  of  the  physical  nature  of  matter,  known  as  the 
atomic  or  coi*pusmlar  theory ^  has  in  modem  times  received 
some  support  from  the  nicts  embodied  in  the  chemical 
atomic  theory  originated  by  Dalton.  Granting,  however, 
that  the  chemist  can  prove  that  his  simple  and  compound 
forms  of  matter  are  built  up  of  chemical  atoms,  the  prob- 


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ATOMIC  THEORY. 

1cm  still  remains  to  be  solved  as  to  the  possible  identity 
3f  physical  ,and  chemical  atoms.  What  the  chemist  re- 
gards as  an  A.  in  his  science,  may  not  be  an  ultimate 
and  indivisible  A.  in  a  physical  point  of  view  ;  the  chem- 
ical A,  though  incapable  of  division  as  a  chemical  A., 
mav  still  be  composed  or  built  up  of  many  physical  atoms, 
and  may  be  capable  of  being  subdivided  into  such.  Indeed, 
while  the  atomic  theory'  of  Dal  ton,  when  first  announced, 
was  eagerly  seized  upon  as  the  best  possible  evidence  for 
the  existence  of  both  chemical  and  physical  atoms,  the  ten- 
dency of  recent  researches  and  discussions  in  chemistry  has 
been  to  show  that  the  chemical  A.  is  different  from  the 
physical,  and  does  not  necessitate  the  existence  of  the  latter. 
See  Atomic  Theory.  According  to  the  ordinary  accepta- 
tion  of  the  term,  the  chemical  A.  is  a  molecule  of  matter 
having  a  definite  weight,  magnitude,  and  form,  possibly 
alike  for  the  atoms  or  the  same  material,  but  differing  in 
those  of  different  substances.  The  form  of  an  A.  is  sup- 
posed by  some  men  of  science  to  be  the  same  as  that  which 
the  fragments  of  a  substance  assume  when  it  is  split  in 
the  direction  of  the  planes  of  the  cleavage  of  its  crystals 
(see  Crystallography)  ;  but  a  more  general  belief  has 
been,  that  all  atoms  are  spherical,  and  that  the  various  crys- 
talline forms  are  produced  by  the  manner  in  which  the  atoms 
are  grouped  together.  In  regard  to  the  size  of  atoms,  Sir 
William  Thomson  has  shown,  by  three  entirely  different 
trains  of  argument  from  observed  facts,  that  the  diameter 
of  an  A.  cannot  be  greater  than  TswuhTmut  ^«r  less  than 
«5(niJinnnn>  of  an  inch.    See  Matter  :  Vortex. 

Al  OM'IO  THE  ORY,  in  Chem  :  a  theonr  as  to  the  ulti- 
mate  constitution  of  material  bodies.  Analysis  shows  that 
compound  bodies  contain  certain  elements  (see  Chemis- 
try) in  certain  proportions.  These  proportions  have  been 
minutely  examined  by  chemists  since  the  lime  when  the 
balance  was  first  applied  to  chemical  investigation,  and  it 
has  been  proved  that  the  respective  quantities  of  each  of 
the  combining  elements  are  not  dependent  entirely  upon  ex- 
ttrnal  conditions,  but  are  regulated  by  certain  laws.  These 
laws  were  partially  observed  and  discussed  by  earlier  chem- 
ists and  physicists,  but  it  was  reserved  for  Dalton  (q.v.), 
systematizing  the  somewhat  incoherent  labors  of  his  prede- 
cessors, to  announce,  in  positive  language,  the  four  laws 
which  regulate  the  union  of  various  kinds  of  substances, 
and  which  are  still  acknowledged  by  chemists  as  the  laws 
OF  COMBINING  PROPORTION,  or  the  Atomic  Theory.  These 
laws  regulate  the  combination  of  unlike  substances  W  iceight, 
and  not  by  volume;  and  they  are  based  upon  the  preliminary 
acknowledged  fact,  capable  of  experimental  demonstration, 
that  the  same  compound  substance  is  always  composed  of 
the  same  in^^ients  or  elements. 

The  flrsf  law  of  combination  by  weight  comprehended 
under  the  A.  T.  is  the  law  of  constant  proportion, 
which  teaches  that  the  elements  or  ingredients  which  form 
a  chemical  compound  are  always  united  in  it  in  the  same 
proportion  by  weight.  Thus,  water,  which  consists  of  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen,  does  not  contain  one  or  both  of  these 


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ATOMIC  THEORY. 

elcmenta  in  indefinite  amount,  but  it  is  invariably  made  np 
of  8  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen  to  1  part  by  weight  of  hy- 
drogen. It  makes  no  difference  whether  the  total  amount 
of  either  element  be  represented  by  grains,  ounces,  pouncb, 
or  tons,  it  will  always  be  found  that  the  proportion  of  8 
parts  of  oxygen  to  1  part  of  hydrogen  is  kept  up.  Neither 
does  the  source  of  the  water  make  any  difference,  for  pure 
water  obtained  from  rain,  snow,  or  hail,  the  river  or  the 
sea,  the  sap  of  plants  or  the  juices  of  animals,  invariably 
contains  the  same  elements  in  the  same  proportions.  Again , 
conimon  salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  whether  it  be  obtained 
from  sea- water,  salt-spring,  rock-salt,  or  even  the  blood  of 
animals,  always  consists  of  chlorine  and  sodium  in  the  exact 
and  ncver-var}'ing  proportion  of  35^  parts  of  chlorine  to  28 
parte  of  sodium.  While  the  law  of  constant  proportion 
teaches  that  the  same  compound  is  always  built  up  of  the 
same  ingredients  in  the  same  proportion,  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  the  same  elements  or  components  in  the 
same  proportions  will  invariably  form  the  same  compound 
body.  It  is  far  otherwise;  and  many  examples  can  be  ob- 
tained, especially  from  organic  chemistry,  where  the  same 
components  in  the  same  proportions  produce  very  different 
substances.  Thus,  starch  and  cotton  Oignine)---very  dis- 
similar substances— consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen in  the  very  same  proportions;  and  gum-arabic  and  cane 
sugar  are  similarly  circumstanced.    See  Isomeric  Bodies. 

The  second  law  is  the  law  of  reciprocal  proportion, 
wliich  teaches  that  the  proportions  in  which  two  substances 
unite  with  a  third  have  a  simple  arithmetical  relation  to 
that  proportion  in  which  they  unite  with  each  other.  Thus 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  unite  in  the  proportion  of  8  to  1  to 
form  water.  Carbon  and  hydrogen  are  present  in  olefiant 
gas  in  the  proportion  of  6  to  1,  and  oxygen  and  carbon 
unite  in  the  proportion  of  8  to  6  to  form  carbonic  oxide. 
Again  we  have  a  compound  of  oxygen  and  iron  containing 
these  elements  in  the  proportion  of  8  to  28;  we  have  also  a 
compound  of  sulphur  and  iron  in  the  proportion  of  16  to 
28;  and  sulphur  and  oxygen  unite  together  to  form  sulphur- 
ous acid  gas,  which  contains  equal  weights  of  the  two 
elements— the  proportion  of  1  to  1  having  a  simple  arith- 
metical relation  to  the  proportion  8  to  16. 

Numbers  representing  the  proportions  in  which  the 
elements  combine  (such  as  1  for  hydrogen,  8  for  oxygen, 
6  for  carbon,  16  for  sulphur,  28  for  iron,  etc.),  are  called 
their  'combining  proportions,'  or  Atomic  Weiaht*  (q.v.). 
It  is  obvious  that  analysis  alone  cannot  enable  us  to  fix 
definitely  such  numbers'^  There  is  nothing  in  the  eompoa'' 
Uon  of  their  compounds  to  lead  us  to  adopt  the  proportional 
numbers  given  above  for  hydrogen,  orjrgen,  carbon, 
sulphur,  and  iron,  rather  than  simple  multiples  or  sub- 
multiples  of  them.  In  fact,  the  numbers  adopted  by 
Berzelius,  and  now  reintroduced,  are  in  the  proportion — 
hA'drogen  1,  oxygen  16,  carbon  12,  sulphur  82,  iron  66. 
For  the  reasons  for  preferring  certain  particular  numbers 
to  any  multiples  or  submultiple  of  them,  see  Chemistry. 

The  third  law  is  the  law  of  multiple  proportion, 


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ATOMIC  THEORY. 

which  is,  that  when  one  substance  combines  with  another 
in  several  proportions,  the  higher  proportions  are  multiples 
of  the  lirst  or  lowest.  Thus,  hydrogen  unites  with  oxygeH 
in  two  proportions;  as  1  of  hydrogen  to  8  of  oxygen,  when 
ordinary  pure  water  is  the  result  of  union;  and  as  1  of 
hydrogen  to  16  of  oxygen,  when  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  ti^ 
powerful  bleaching  agent,  is  produced— the  difference  in» 
the  respective  amounts  of  the  oxygen — 8  and  16— being, 
that  the  latter  is  a  multiple  of  the  former  by  2.  Again, 
carbon  unites  with  oxygen  in  two  proportions:  as  6  of 
carbon  to  8  of  oxygen,  when  the  inflammable  gas,  carbonic 
oxide,  is  formed;  and  as  6  of  carbon  to  16  of  oxygen,  when 
the  non-inflammable  gas,  carbonic  acid,  is  the  result. 
The  variation  in  this  instance  is,  that  the  oxygen  is  present 
in  the  one  case  as  8,  and  in  the  other  as  a  multiple  of  that 
number  by  2,  viz.  16.  One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  this 
law  is  in  the  union  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen:  14  parts  of 
nitrogen  can  unite  with  8  of  oxygen,  and  thus  form  laugh- 
ing-gas; but  the  same  amount  of  nitrogen  can  combine  with 
16,  24,  82,  or  40  of  oxvgen — in  the  latter  case  constituting 
anhydrous  nitric  acid— all  of  the  higher  numbers  being 
multiples  of  the  first  or  lowest,  viz.  8  by  2,  8,  4,  and  5. 

The  fourth  law  is  the  law  of  compound  proportion, 
which  teaches  that  the  combining  proportion  of  a  com- 
pound substance  is  the  sum  of  the  combining  proportions 
of  its  components.  Thus,  the  compound  body,  carbonic 
acid,  which  consists  of  6  of  carbon  united  with  16  of 
oxygen,  has  the  combining  proportion  22,  which  is  the 
sum  of  the  combining  proportions  of  the  carbon  and 
oxygen  composing  it,  viz.  6  +  16  =  22.  Similarly,  the 
compound  substance  lime  contains  20  of  the  metal  calcium 
combined  with  8  of  oxygen,  and  has  the  combining  propor- 
tion of  20  +  8  or  28.  When  carbonic  acid  and  lime  are 
linked  together,  as  in  marble,  which  is  the  carbonate  of 
lime,  then  they  are  united  in  the  proportion  of  22  parts  of 
carbonic  acid  and  28  of  lime.  Kot  only  is  22  the  propor- 
tion in  which  carbonic  acid  will  combine  with  lime,  but 
it  is  the  proportion  in  which  it  will  form  compounds  with 
every  other  substance  of  similar  chemical  constitution. 

The  preceding  laws  regulating  the  union  of  substances 
by  weight  have  been  obtained  by  comparing  together  the 
results  of  numerous  experiments,  and  every  careful  analysis 
serves  to  confirm  their  accuracy.  But  Dal  ton's  theory  was 
not  limited  to  the  statement  of  these  laws;  it  was  also  an 
attempt  to  explain  them.  It  assumes  that  each  elementary 
substance  consists  of  extremely  small  indivisible  particles 
or  atoms;  that  the  atoms  of  any  one  element  are  all  exactly 
alike,  but  differ  fix)m  the  atoms  of  every  other  element. 
Among  other  points  of  difference,  they  differ  in  weight, 
and  although  the  absolute  weight  of  an  atom  is  unknown, 
the  weights  of  two  atoms,  one  of  one  element,  the  other  of 
another  element,  are  in  the  proportion  of  the  combining 
weights  of  the  elements  they  belong  to.  Thus  the  com- 
bining weight  of  sulphur  is  twice  that  of  oxygen:  the 
absolute  weight  of  an  atom  of  either  is  not  known;  but  the 
A»  T  assumes  that  each  atom  of  sulphur  is  twice  as  heavy 


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ATOMIC  THEORY. 

as  an  atom  of  oxygen.  Further,  Dalton's  theory  assuinea 
that  the  ultimate  particles  of  compound  bodies  contain  a 
comparatively  small  number  of  atoms  of  the  component 
elements.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  this  theory  explains  the 
laws  enunciated  above.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered 
that  while  the  theory  satisfactorily  explains  the  laws,  the 
laws  do  not  prove  the  theory.  It  is  quite  conceivable  thai 
such  laws  mi^ht  exist,  although  matter  did  not  consist  of 
atoms.  The  A.  T.,  however,  rests  not  only  on  a  chemical, 
but  also  upon  a  physical,  foundation.  According  to  the 
modem  molecular  theory,  mat *er  consists  of  small  particles, 
each  of  which  is  in  motion,  and  this  motion  is  the  more 
rapid  the  hotter  the  substance  is.  These  small  particles  or 
*  molecules  *  cannot  be  broken  up  without  changing  the 
character  and  properties  of  the  substance.  They  are  not, 
however,  atojns.  In  the  case  of  compounds,  as  the 
molecules  of  any  one  substance  are  all  similar  to  one 
another,  each  molecule  must  contain  all  the  components; 
and  in  many  elementary  substances  it  can  be  proved,  as- 
suming the  truth  of  the  molecular  theory,  that  each 
molecule  consists  of  several  similar  atoms.  A  molecule, 
then,  is  either  a  single  atom,  as  in  same  elementary  sub- 
stances,  or  a  group  of  atoms  which  remain  together  during 
those  movements  which  depend  on  the  temperature  of  the 
substance.  Now,  the  velocity  of  these  motions  increases 
as  the  temperature  is  raised;  when,  therefore,  the  tem- 
perature is  raised  so  high,  and  the  velocity  of  the  molecules 
becomes  so  great  that  the  collision  of  the  molecules  with 
one  another  is  sufficiently  violent  to  break  them  up  and 
separate  their  constituent  atoms,  the  substance  is  decom- 
posed, the  atoms  rearranging  themselves  into  new  croups 
(or  molecules)  capable  of  remaining  unbroken  under  the 
new  conditions.  This  explains  the  decomposition  of  com* 
pounds  by  the  action  of  heat. 

When  the  temperature  is  not  so  high,  and  the  violence 
of  collision  insufficient  to  break  up  the  molecules,  these 
are  merely  shaken,  thrown  into  a  state  of  vibration,  and 
thus  the  hold  of  the  atoms  upon  each  other  is  loosened. 
Now,  if  two  substances  are  mixed  together,  it  may  happen 
that  some  atoms  in  the  one  set  of  molecules  are  so  attracted 
by  some  atoms  in  the  other  set,  that,  when  a  molecule  of 
the  one  set  meets  one  of  the  other  set  in  a  vibrating  or 
loosened  condition,  an  exchange  of  atoms  may  lake  place 
between  them,  or  each  may  lose  a  part  of  its  atoms,  these 
going  to  form  a  new  molecule.  This  gives  an  explanation 
of  the  action  of  one  substance  upon  another,  and  further 
shows  why,  in  general,  a  certain  temperature  is  required 
in  order  that  the  action  may  take  place. 

Gay  Lussac  first  pointed  out  that  a  relation  exists  oe- 
tween  the  density  of  a  gas  and  its  atomic  weight.  Avo- 
gadro  greatly  simplified  the  statement  of  these  relations 
by  announcing  the  law  of  molecular  volumes  of  gases,  a 
law  which  Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell  has  since  proved  to  be  a 
necessary  consequence  of  the  molecular  theory  of  gases. 
This  law  is,  that  a  given  volume  of  gas  at  a  given  temper- 
ature and  pressure  contains  the  same  number  of  mole- 
cules whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  gas. 


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ATOMIC  YOLUMES— ATOMIC  WEIGHTS. 

rrom  this  law,  to  which  may  be  given  the  name  of 
'Avogadro's  law/  and  from  Boyle's  law,  and  the  law 
(often  called  Charles's  law)  that  the  volume  of  a  gas  is  di- 
rectly proportional  to  the  absolute  temperature — that  is,  to 
its  temperature  reckoned  from  a  point  378°  centigrade  be- 
low the  freezing-point  of  water — it  follows  that  the  volume 
occupied  by  a  given  mass  of  a  gas  is  a  function  of  the 
pressure,  the  temperature,  and  the  molecular  weight  of 
the  gas;  understanding  by  the  '  molecular  weight '  of  a 
substance  a  number  M,  such  that  M :  2 : :  the  absolute 
weight  of  a  molecule  of  the  substance :  the  absolute  weight 
of  a  molecule  of  hydrogen.  The  number  2  appears  in  this 
proportion  because  we  assume  the  atom  of  hydrogen  as  our 
unit  both  of  atomic  and  of  molecular  weight,  and  it  can 
be  proved  (see  Chemistry)  that  the  molecule  of  hydrogen 
gas  consists  of  two  atoms.  If,  then,  P  be  the  pressure  in 
millimetres  of  mercury  at  0"*  C;  t,  the  temperature  of  the 
gas,  as  indicated  bv  a  centigrade  thermometer;  M,  the 
molecular  weight  of  the  substance;  and  V.  the  volume  (in 
cubic  centimetres)  occupied  by  a  gramme  of  the  gas, 
760        ^  X  273        22400       ,      ^  ,      ^ 

V  =  -p-  X  —273 —  X  —^f—-    1°  ^^6  gaseous  state,  the 

average  distance  between  the  molecules,  although  ex™ 
tremely  small,  is  great  compared  with  the  size  of  the  mole- 
cules, so  that  the  volume  of  the  gas  depends  almost  ex 
clusively  upon  the  distance  between  the  molecules;  it  is 
not  so  in  the  case  of  solids  and  liquids,  in  which  the  mole- 
cules are  so  closely  packed  as  to  be  almost  always  in  con- 
tact. The  volume  occupied  by  solids  and  liquids  depends, 
therefore,  far  more  upon  the  atoriu  of  which  the  substance 
is  made  up,  than  upon  its  molecular  structure.  For  further 
recent  modifications  of  the  A.  T.,  see  Mattek;  Chemistry. 

ATOMIC  VOLUMES:  see  Atomic  Theory:  Chem- 
istry. 

ATOMIC  WEIGHTS :  the  proportions  hy  weight  in 
which  the  various  elementary  substances  unite  together. 
It  is  necessary  that  one  element  be  selected  as  the  starting- 
point  of  the  series,  and  an  arbitrary  sum  affixed  to  it,  and 
thereafter  all  the  other  elements  can  have  their  sums 
awarded  to  them,  according  to  the  proportional  amounts 
in  which  they  combine  with  each  other.  The  second  law, 
mentioned  under  the  Atomic  Theory  (q.v.),  explains 
the  manner  in  which  this  can  be  done,  and  how  far  the 
numbers  are  arbitrary.  In  all  systems  of  atomic  weights 
in  modem  use,  the  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  is  taken  ap 
unity,  and  the  atomic  weights  of  the  other  elements  are 
then  fixed,  so  as  to  give  on  the  whole  the  simplest  and  most 
consistent  formula  for  their  compounds. 

There  are  two  systems  of  atomic  weights  at  present  in 
use:  First,  The  'old' system,  which,  alter  much  discussion, 
was  generally  adopted  about  1845;  and,  second,  the  new  sys- 
tem, which  is,  in  many  respects,  a  revival  of  the  system  of 
Berzelius,  and  came  into  general  use  by  scientific  chemists 
about  1860.  For  the  reasons  for  the  change  of  atomic 
weights,  see  Chemistry;  also  Elements,  CHEMiCAii. 


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ATOMIC  WEiGnxa 

ELEMENTARY   SUBSTANCES,  WITH   THEIR   SYMBOT^  AND 
ATOMIC  WEIGHTS. 


Namb  of  Elbmekt. 

Siymbol. 

Atomic  Weights. 

Old. 

18  7 
l*iO 
75  0 
685 
2U80 
11  0 
800 
560 
133  0 
200 
60 
460 
35  5 
260 
295 
81-7 
47  5 
568 
190 

4-7 

1960 

10 

87-8 

1270 
990 
280 
46-0 

108-5 

70 

120 

276 

1000 
48-0 
29-5 
94  0 
14  0 

1000 
80 
580 
81-0 
990 
890 
500 
86-4 
520 
896 
14-0 

1080 
230 
438 
16  0 

182  0 
640 

2040 
67  8 
59  0 
250 
920 
600 
61  3 
808 
825 
44-8 

Neir. 

Antimony  ^Stibium) 

Arsenic 

Al 

8b 

As 

Ba 

Bi 

K 

Br 

Cd 

Cs 

Ca 

C 

Ce 

CI 

Cr 

Co 

Cu 

Di 

Er 

K 

Ga 

G 

Au 

H 

In 

I 

Ir 

Fe 

La 

Pb 

U 

SS 
25 

Ni 
Nb 
N 

Os 

O 

Pd 

P 

Pt 

K 

Rh 

Rb 

Ru 

Se 

Si 

^ 

8r 

S 

Ta 

Te 

Tl 

Th 

Sn 

Ti 

W 

U 

V 

Y 

Zn 

Zr 

274 

1220 
75  0 

Barium 

Bismuth 

Boron 

Bromine 

1370 

2080 

11  0 

80  0 

Cadmium 

Caasiura 

1120 
13$-0 

Calcium , 

400 

Carbon 

12  0 

Cerium 

320 

Chlorine 

85-5 

Chromium 

52  0 

Cobalt 

Copper  (Cuprum) 

Didymium 

Erbium 

50-0 
684 
«iO 
112  6 

Fluorine 

OalUum 

Glucinum  (Beryllium) 

Gold  (Aurum)     

190 

680 

9-4 

1960 

Hydrogen 

Indium 

10 
1130 

Iodine 

Iridium  

127  0 
198-0 

Iron 

560 

Lanthanum 

920 

Lead  (Plumbum). 

S070 

Lithium 

Magnesium  

7-0 
240 

Manganese 

Mercury  (Hydrargyrum) . . 
Molybdenum 

550 
2000 
960 

Niclcel 

Niobium 

69*0 
MO 

Nitrogen  

140 

Osmium 

20OO 

Oxygen 

16-0 

PaUadium 

106-0 

Phosphorus 

Platinum 

810 
1980 

Potassium  (Kalium)  

Rhodiiun 

890 
1040 

Rubidium 

Ruthenium 

86*4 
1040 

Selenium 

790 

Silicon 

280 

Silver  (Argentum) 

1080 

Sodium  (Natrium) 

28-0 

Strontium 

876 

Sulphur 

82-0 

Tantalum 

Tbllurium,  ,  ,■. .... 

1820 
1280 

Thallium 

2040 

Thorium 

Tin  (Stannum) 

115*6 
118-0 

Titanium 

600 

Tungsten  (Wolfram) 

Uranium 

Vanadium 

1840 
1200 
51-8 

Yttrium 

01  6 

Zinc  

ZirRnntum ^ 

650 
89  6 

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ATONE— ATONEMENT. 

ATONE,  V.  a  ton  [from  at  one,  deDoting  to  be,  or  to 
cause  to  be,  at  ODe]:  to  turn  again  from  the  wrong  to  the 
right;  to  agree;  to  make  amends;  to  ^ve satisfaction  for  an 
offense  or  a  crime  ;  to  expiate  by  sacritice  ;  to  reconcile ;  to 
appease.  Atok'ino,  imp  :  Adj.  making  amends  or  satis- 
faction. Atoked,  pp.  a-tond'.  Atonement,  n.  d-Um'' 
mint,  reconciliation  after  enmity ;  satisfaction  ;  expiation; 
an  expiatory  sacrifice.    Aton'er.  n.  one  who. 

ATONEMENT,  in  TheoK:  the  reconciliation  of  man 
with  Ood.  Sin  violates  the  ground  of  union  which  the 
personal  creature  has,  by  nature,  with  the  holy  God.  The 
act  of  sin  is  one  of  separation;  the  act  begets  the  state  of 
sin,  the  state  contlrms  and  repeats  the  act.  llie  doctrine 
of  the  A.  treats  of  the  mediation  necessary  for  restoring 
the  union  between  God  and  man,  which  has  been  lost  by 
sin.  The  A.,  therefore,  must  ever  be  the  fundamental 
doctrine  in  every  religion  of  sinful  creatures.  In  the 
Christian  religion,  it  manifestly  occupies  this  central  posi- 
tion; for  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  A.  is  but  the  ex- 
planation of  its  great  historic  fact — the  embodiment  in 
one  person  of  the  divine  and  human  natures  in  perfect 
agreement.  In  the  {>erson  of  Christ,  God  and  man  are 
atoned  or  made  to  be  at  one:  Christ  is  their  Atonement. 

So  fundamental  is  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  in  the 
Christian  religion,  that  it  does  not,  like  many  other  doc- 
trines, form  a  ground  of  distinction  among  the  great  bodies 
into  which  the  Christian  world  has  been  divided.  All 
historic  churches  may  be  said  to  be  equally  orthodox  on 
this  point.  The  Church  of  Rome,  the  Greek  Church, 
the  various  Protestant  churches  with  the  exception  of  some 
temporary  and  unimportant  sects,  with  doctrines  scarcely 
recognizable  as  within  the  bounds  of  Christianity — all 
agree,  taking  their  standards  as  a  criterion,  in  resting  the 
sinner's  hope  of  salvation  on  the  mediatorial  work  or 
atonement  of  Jesus  Christ.  Nevertheless,  there  have  been 
from  the  beginning  of  speculative  Christian  theology,  and 
continue  within  the  several  churches,  various  ways  of  con- 
ceiving^ and  explaining  the  exact  nature  and  mode  of 
operation  of  this  mediatorial  work.  What  follows  is  a 
brief  sketch  of  the  historical  development  of  these  specu- 
lations. 

Christianity  differs  from  heathenism  in  the  clear  per- 
ception which  It  has  of  the  antagonism  that  sin  has  in- 
troduced between  God  and  man.  Heathenism  but  vaguely 
conceives  of  this  variance,  and  consequently  has  but  an 
ill-defined  notion  of  the  atonement  required,  the  notice 
seldom  containing  more  than  the  idea  of  a  reconciled  union 
of  the  individual  man  with  nature  and  the  universal  life. 
Even  where  its  mythical  divinities  assume  personality,  it 
Is  but  an  ideal  personality  without  any  concrete  reality  of 
life,  and  consequently  without  any  real  si^ificance  for 
the  conscience.  In  this  state  the  abject  subjection  of  man 
to  outward  nature,  or  to  the  visible  system  of  things,  pre- 
vents Ms  rising  into  that  sphere  of  conscious  freedom 
which  shows  sin  sinful,  and  demands  an  A.  with  one  who 
is  Lord  both  of  nature  and  man. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ATONEMENT. 

In  Judaism,  man  stands  above  outward  nature,  in  con 
scious  relation  to  a  personal  God,  whose  written  law  ex- 
hibits the  ret|uirements  of  his  relationship  with  man— re- 
quirements which  are  never  met,  and  which  only  make 
him  fearfully  conscious  of  the  ever-widening  breach  be- 
tween him  and  his  God.  Thus  the  law  awakened  the  sense 
of  guilt,  and  the  desire  for  an  A.;  a  desire  that  it  could 
never  satisfy.  The  never-ceasing  demands  of  these  ever- 
unfuimied  requirements  were  constantly  acknowledged 
by  its  whole  sacrificial  euUus,  which  expressed  the  hiduen 
rround  of  Jewish  hope,  and  prophetically  pointed  to  its 
future  manifestation. 

But  though  the  Holy  Scriptures,  throughout  the  Old 
Testament,  exhibit  the  making  of  an  A.  by  vicarious  sac- 
rifice (Lev.  xvi.  21;  xvii.  ll);.and  thpugh  the  idea,  both  of 
the  suffering  and  the  deliverance  of  many  by  the  sins  and 
virtues  of  one,  was  common  to  all  antiquity,  the  idea  of 
the  suffering  and  vicarious  Messiah,  plainly  declared  in 
the  writings  of  the  prophets  (Luke,  xxiv.  46;  Isainh,  liii.; 
Psalm  xxii.),  and  not  entirely  hidden  from  the  more 
thoughtful  and  devout  contemporaries  of  Jesus  (Luke,  ii. 
84;  John,  i.  29),  was  foreign  to  the  Messianic  faith  of  the 
great  body  of  the  people. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Christ  is  evenrwhere  exhibited 
as  one  sent  from  God  for  the  salvation  of  the  world  (John, 
iii.  16,  17);  and  as  the  condition,  on  the  part  of  man,  of 
his  obtaining  this  salvation,  we  read  of  the  requirement  of 
repentance,  faith,  and  reformation  (Matt.  iv.  17;  v.  8, 11; 
vi.  12;  Mark,  xvi.  16;  Luke,  xv.  11),  while,  on  the  part  of 
€rod,  as  conditioning  and  mediating  his  forgiveness  of 
sins,  we  have  exhibited  the  entire  life  of  Christ  upon 
earth  conceived  of  as  embracing  severallv  its  individual 
features  (Acta,  v.  31;  Rom.  iv.  !^;  viii.  34);  but  more  es- 
pecially his  death  as  a  ransom  for  our  sins  (Matt.  xx.  28; 
xxvi.  28),  as  a  vicarious  sacrifice  (1  Peter,  i.  19;  2  Cor.  v. 
21),  by  which  we  are  redeemed  from  the  bondage  of  sin  (1 
Tim.  li.  6;  Gal.  iii.  13;  2  Peter,  ii.  1),  and  obtam  forgive- 
ness (liom.  V.  19;  1  Cor.  xv.  3;  1  John,  i.  7J,  and  eternal 
life  and  peace  with  God  (John,  x.  11;  Col.  i.  20).  Christ 
is  therefore  the  Mediator  between  God  and  man  (1  Tim.  ii. 
5),  having  made  peace  through  the  blood  of  his  cross 
(Col.  i.  20);  the  propitiation  for  our  sins  (1  John,  ii.  2;  iv. 
10);  and  our  high-priest  who  offers  himself  a  sacrifice  to 
reconcile  us  wiUi  God  (Heb.  ii.  17;  v.  1;  ix.  28).  More- 
over, we  are  also  taught  that  God  has  in  Christ  reconciled 
the  world  with  himself  (Rom.  v.  10;  Col.  i.  22;  2  Cor. 
V.  19). 

In  accordance  with  this  full  and  explicit  teaching  of 
Holy  Scripture,  we  find  that  the  sufferings  and  death  of 
Christ  were  ever  regarded  as  of  primary  and  essential  im- 
portance in  his  work  of  redemption;  notwithstanding,  we 
look  in  vain  through  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Church  for  anything  like  a  systematic  development  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Atonement.  The  germs  of  the  doctrine  ex- 
isted, but  without  any  logical  connection  or  clearness,  h 
was  the  fact  of  the  A.  in  Christ  that  was  made  prominent  and 


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ATONEMENT. 

central.  '  On  this  head  there  has  been  a  twofold  mistake 
— sometimes  the  existing  beginnings  of  many  later  elabor- 
ated dogmas  have  been  overlooked;  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  has  been  attempted  to  point  out  with  literal  distinctness 
church  doctrines  as  if  already  developed.'  The  early 
church  fathers  dwell  with  a  sort  of  inspired  devotion  upon 
those  facts  of  the  gospel  which  represent  Christ  as  the 
sacrifice  for  our  sins,  as  the  ransom  paid  for  our  redemp- 
tion, as  our  deliverer  from  the  power  of  Satan,  as  the 
restorer  to  mankind  of  whatever  was  lost  by  the  fall 
of  Adam;  but  they  seldom  attempt  to  show  how  these 
blessed  results  connect  themselves  with  the  sufferings  and 
death  of  Christ;  neither  do  they  show  in  what  manner  the 
A.  has  objectively  been  made,  nor  how  it  is  brought  to  the 
experience  of  its  mdividual  subjects. 

In  many  ways  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ  were 
regarded  in  relation  to  their  A.  for  sin.  During  the  first 
four  centuries  there  appeared  no  certainly  of  opmion  as  to 
whether  they  were  a  ransom  price  paid  to  Grod  or  to  the 
devil.  The  latter  supposition  was  the  more  prevalent, 
shared  by  Origeu  and  St.  Augustine.  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
explains  this  opinion  by  saying  that  the  devil  consented  to 
receive  Jesus  as  a  ransom,  because  he  regarded  him  as 
more  than  an  equivalent  for  all  those  under  his  power;  but 
that,  notwithstanding  his  subtilty,  he  was  outwitted,  for, 
owing  to  the  humiliation  in  which  Christ  was  veiled,  he  did 
not  nilly  recognize  him  as  the  Son  of  God,  and  conse- 
quently was  himself  deceived.  But  having  cousenl-ed  to 
receive  him  as  a  ransom  for  mankind,  he  was  righteously 
deprived  of  his  dominion  over  man,  while  he  could  not 
retain  Jesus  when  he  discovered  him  to  be  the  Holy  One 
of  God,  being  horrified  and  tormented  by  his  holiness. 

Athauasius  first  of  all  successfully  controverted  this 
notion,  and  maintained  that  the  ransom  was  paid  to  God. 
He  argued  that  as  God  had  threatened  to  punish  trans- 
gressors with  death,  he  could  but  execute  his  threat.  But 
then  it  was  not  becoming  the  character  of  God  to  allow  his 
purpose  in  the  creation  of  man  to  be  frustrated  by  an  im- 
position practiced  upon  him  by  the  devil.  The  only  expe- 
dient, therefore,  which  remained  for  his  deliverance  from 
death  was  the  incarnation  and  sacrifice  of  the  Logos  in  his 
stead,  by  which  the  justice  and  veracity  of  God  would  be 
maintained,  man  delivered,  the  law  fulfilled,  and  the 
power  of  the  devil  broken.  It  has  often  been  stated  that 
TertuHian  uses  the  term  satisfaction  with  respect  to  Christ's 
A.  for  sin,  but  this  is  incorrect,  for  although  he  employs 
the  term,  he  never  does  so  in  the  sense  of  a  vicarious  satis- 
faction, but  only  in  the  sense  of  making  amends  for  our 
own  sins  by  confession  and  repentance. 

These  elemental  and  mythical  conceptions  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  A.  remained  in  a  most  imperfect  and  alto- 
gether undeveloped  condition,  until  the  acute  and  subtle 
genius  of  the  Piedmontese  Abp.  of  Canterbury  reduced 
them  to  order,  and  presented  them  In  logical  consistency. 
Anselm,  therefore,  must  be  regarded  as  the  author,  at  least 
as  to  its  form,  of  the  doctrine  of  vicarious  satisfaction. 


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ATONEMENT. 

which,  under  Tarious  modifications,  has  ever  since  con- 
tinued as  the  '  orthodox '  doctrine  of  the  church.  The 
following  is,  in  all  essential  respects,  his  statement  of  the 
doctrine :  The  infinite  guilt  which  man  had  contracted  by 
the  dishonor  of  his  sin  against  the  infinitely  great  God, 
could  be  atoned  for  by  no  mere  creature;  only  the  God- 
man,  Christ  Jesus,  could  render  to  God  the  infinite  satis^ 
faction  required.  God  only  can  satisfy  himself.  The  hu- 
man nature  of  Christ  enables  him  to  incur,  the  infinity  of 
his  divine  nature  to  pay,  this  debt.  But  it  was  incumbent 
upon  Christ  as  a  man  to  order  his  life  according  to  the  law 
01  God;  the  obedience  of  his  life,  therefore,  was  not  able 
to  render  satisfaction  for  our  ^ilt.  But  although  he  waB 
under  obligation  to  live  in  obedience  to  the  law,  as  the 
Holy  One  he  was  under  no  obligation  to  die.  Seeing,  then, 
that  he  nevertheless  voluntarily  surrendered  his  infinitely 

Erecious  life  to  the  honor  of  God,  a  recompense  from  God 
ecame  his  due,  and  his  recompense  consists  in  the  for- 
giveness of  the  sins  of  his  brethren,  the  race  of  man. — In 
this  form  of  the  doctrine  we  are  taught  the  necessity  of  an. 
active  vicarious  satisfaction;  but  Anselm  nowhere  teaches 
the  passive  satisfaction,  he  nowhere  says  that  Christ  endured 
the  punishment  of  men.  Nor  do  we  'find  in  his  writings 
the  aevelopment  of  the  subjective  side  of  the  doctrine — 
namely,  how  the  satisfaction  rendered  to  God  mediates  the 
A.  in  the  experience  of  the  believer. 

After  the  time  of  Anselm,  and  before  the  Reformation, 
two  views  of  the  A.  divided  the  opinions  of  the  church : 
one  regarding  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  it  was  ac- 
complished as  absolutely  necessary,  and  deriving  its  effi- 
ciency from  its  objective  nature;  the  other  supposing  a 
subjective  connection  between  the  sufferings  of  Jesus  and 
the  price  of  redemption,  because  this  was  best  fitted  to 
effect  the  moral  transformation  of  men.  According  to 
Anselm,  the  satisfaction  rendered  by  Christ  was  greater 
than  the  guilt  for  which  he  atoned;  and  it  needed  to  be 
greater,  for  the  payment  of  the  debt  due  to  God  gave 
men  no  claim  to  the  favor  of  Gk>d.  Thomas  Aquinas  and 
his  followers  maintained  Augustine's  opinion  of  the  infin- 
ite value  of  the  blood  of  Christ  rendering  it  more  than 
sufficient;  while  the  Scotists  maintained  that  it  was  suffi- 
cient only  because  God  was  pleased  to  regard  it  as  suflJ- 
cient.  But  in  the  period  between  Anselm  and  the  Refos 
mation,  little  or  no  progress  was  made  in  the  development 
of  this  doctrine. 

We  come  now  to  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  when  the 
objective  speculations  of  the  schoolmen  are  brought  under 
the  subjective  requirements  of  human  souls,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  the  A.  is  viewed  in  this  light.  In  the  writings 
of  Luther,  one  will  only  with  difficulty  arrive  at  his  intel- 
lectual apprehension  of  this  doctrine  in  its  scientific  form; 
but  setting  out  with  the  consciousness  of  sin,  one  will  everr- 
where  discover  his  firm  conviction  that  in  Christ  all  sin  is 
•'vanquished,  killed,  and  buried,  and  righteousness  remain- 
cth  a  conqueror  and  reigneth  for  ever.'  The  following  la 
an  outline  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine,  as  laid  down  in  the  (^ 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATONEMENT. 

ecrdienformel:  It  is  only  by  faith  that  we  can  receive  the 
blessings  presented  to  us  in  the  gospel  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
Faith  iustifies,  because  it  appropriates  the  merit  of  Christ. 
Therefore,  the  righteousness  which  is  imputed  to  the  be- 
liever, simply  by  the  grace  of  Grod,  is  the  obedience,  the 
suffering,  and  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  by  which  he 
has  satislied  the  claims  of  the  law,  and  atoned  for  our  sins. 
For  as  Christ  is  not  merely  man,  but  God  and  man  in  one 
person,  he  was,  as  Lord  oi  the  law,  no  more  subject  to  it 
than  he  was  subject  to  suffering  and  death.  For  this  rea- 
son, his  two-fold  obedience — that  which  he  rendered,  on 
the  one  hand,  by  his  suffering  and  death,  and,  on  the  other, 
by  his  righteous  fulfilment  of  the  law  on  our  behalf— la 
imputed  to  us,  and  God  acquits  us  of  our  sins,  and  regards 
us  as  just,  in  view  of  his  complete  obedience  in  what  he 
did  and  suffered.  This  obedience  embraces  the  entire  ex- 
istence of  Christ  upon  earth,  and  is  so  complete  that  it 
fully  covers  the  disobedience  of  men,  so  that  their  dis- 
obedience is  not  reckoned  against  them  for  condemnation. 
Therefore,  Christ  is  our  righteousness  only  so  far  as  in  his 
entire  person  the  most  perfect  obedience  is  exhibited, 
which  he  was  able  to  render  in  that  he  was  neither  God 
alone  nor  man  alone,  but  both  in  one,  €k>d  and  man. 

According  to  Calvin:  if  one  asks  how  Christ  has  recon- 
ciled us  with  God,  and  purchased  a  righteousness  which 
made  him  favorable  to  us,  it  may  be  answered  generalljr, 
that  Christ  accomplished  this  by  the  whole  course  of  his 
obedience.  But  although  the  life  of  Christ  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  paying  the  pnce  necessary  for  our  deliverance, 
the  Scriptures  ascribe  our  redemption  especially  to  his 
death.  Calvin  attached  great  importance  to  the  particular 
mode  of  his  death — any  other  mode  of  death  would  not 
have  rendered  the  same  satisfaction  to  God.  He,  however, 
says  little  or  nothing  about  Christ's  fulfilling  the  law  for 
us,  but  dwells  upon  nis  delivering  us  from  its  curse.  He 
does  not,  therefore,  exhibit  his  active  obedience  separated, 
as  an  essential  part  of  his  satisfaction  for  sin,  from  his 
passive  obedience.  The  importance  attached  to  the  obedi- 
ence of  his  life  arises  from  its  natural  and  necessary  con- 
nection with  his  suffering  and  death.  And  the  great  im- 
portance attached  to  his  death  is  drawn  rather  from  the 
view  of  its  subjective  necessity,  than  from  the  idea  of  the 
divine  righteousness — namely,  that  without  such  a  death 
there  would  have  been  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  sub 
jective  realization  of  deliverance  from  sin  and  guilt. 
Calvin's  view  differs  from  that  of  the  Lutheran  Concord*- 
enformel  in  that  he  does  not  regard  the  relationship  of  God 
to  man  merely  from  the  standpoint  of  punitive  ana  satisfy- 
ing righteousness,  which  always  leads  to  the  merely  nega- 
tive notion  of  a  Redeemer  from  guilt  and  punishment,  but 
looks  upon  Christ  as  the  highest  Mediator,  through  whom 
the  nature  of  God  is  communicated  to  man.  There  was  a 
necessity  for  Christ's  incarnation,  not  merely  because, 
apart  from  the  suffering  of  the  God-man,  the  divine  right- 
eousness could  not  be  atoned,  but  also  because,  without  such 
^  divine  Mediator,  there  could  be  no  vital  relation  between 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATONEMENT. 

Qod  and  man.  '  Had  man  remained  free  from  all  taint,  he 
was  of  too  Humble  a  condition  to  penetrate  to  God  without 
a  Mediator.' 

While  the  reformers  established  the  doctrine  of  the  A. 
on  the  theory  of  Anselm,  and  extended  it  so  as  to  make 
the  sufferings  of  Christ  include  the  divine  curse,  and  in- 
troduced distinctions  between  Christ's  active  and  passive 
obedience,  8ocinus  endeavored  to  prove  the  falseness  of 
Anselm's  theory.  He  shared  with  the  Protestants  the  sub. 
jective  principle,  which  the  period  of  the  Reformation 
established,  but  developed  it  in  a  one-sided  manner. 
Bocinianism  represents  man  as  attaining  to  oneness  with 
himself  and  with  Grod  by  his  own  moral  energy.  It  rejects 
that  idea  of  the  righteousness  of  God  which  makes  it  im- 
possible for  him  to  forgive  sin  without  a  satisfaction,  as  im- 
posing finite  limitations  upon  the  divine  Being;  and  also 
objects  to  the  doctrine  of  satisfaction,  on  the  ground  that 
satisfaction  for  sin  and  forgiveness  of  sin  are  incompatible 
with  each  other;  and,  moreover,  objects  that  sin  and  pun* 
ishment  are  of  so  personal  a  nature  as  not  to  allow  of  their 
being  transferred:  It  further  opposes  the  doctrine  of  the 
active  and  passive  obedience  of  Christ,  on  the  ground  that 
the  one  excluded  the  other.  Another  objection  maintained 
the  actual  impossibility  of  Christ's  rendering  the  supposed 
satisfaction  for  sin. 

The  doctrine  which  it  sought  to  establish  in  the  place  of 
the  one  it  attempted  to  overthrow  may  in  brief  be  stated 
as  follows:  Man  is  reconciled  to  God  by  repentance  and 
reformation.  Only  from  an  act  of  man  changing  his  dis- 
position, and  not  from  an  act  of  God  changing  his  relation 
to  man,  follows  his  reconciliation  with  God.  Grod  is  in 
himself  ever  the  same  towards  man — reconciled  from 
all  eternity;  man  alone  has  to  assume  a  new  relation;  as 
soon  as  he  does  this,  he  is  immediately  reconciled;  by  this 
act  of  his  will,  he  is  at  one  with  (Sod.  Only  in  man's 
moral  state  is  there  any  obstacle  to  his  reconciliation, 
lliis  greatest  and  holiest  accomplishment,  the  reconcili- 
ation of  man  with  God,  is  achieved  by  an  act  of  his  will. 

In  this  purely  subjective  theory,  repentance  occupies 
the  place  of  faith  m  the  orthodox  doctrine,  and  faith  be> 
M)me8  identical  with  obedience;  for  repentance  and  refor- 
mation are  regarded  aa  bui  the  two  sides  of  the  same  act 
of  the  will.  It  follows  from  this  that  justification  is  of 
works  ss  well  as  reconciliation.  A  necessity  for  the  suf- 
feringB  of  Christ  is  shown  for  the  following  objects— that 
he  might  become  our  example;  better  fitted  to  render  us 
help;  that  we  might  have  a  pledge  and  guarantee  of  the 
divine  forgiveness;  and  as  conditioning  his  resurrection 
and  ascension  to  glory. 

We  must  now  hasten  tolhe  form  of  this  doctrine  amon^ 
'  Modem  Calvinists,'  without  attempting  further  to  exhibit 
the  links  in  the  chain  of  its  historic  connection.  *  Modem 
Calvinism'  represents  the  A.  as  that  satisfaction  for  sin 
which  was  rendered  to  God,  in  his  public  character  as  moral 
governor  of  the  world,  by  the  perfect  obedience  unto  death 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.    The  nature  of  this  satisfaction 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


PLATE    22. 


AtoU 
Attio 


Atoll. 


Atrium  of  the  House  of  Pansa  in  Pompeii  (restored). 


0 


Atropal  Orule. 


r^[mi^imim. 


m.fimfmfimT\m 

A,  Attic  of  Somerset  House,  London. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATONEMENT. 

was  a  moral,  not  a  pecuniary  satisfaction.  It  preserves 
to  the  moral  government  of  God  its  authority,  while  its 
tendency  is  to  procure  the  forgiveness  of  sin.  The  value 
of  the  sufferings  of  Christ  consists  in  their  tendency  to 
aphold  the  divme  moral  government  unimpaired  while 
pardon  is  extended  to  those  who  have  violated  it,  rather 
than  in  the  intrinsic  excellence  of  those  sufferings,  which, 
though  essential  to,  did  not  constitute  their  value.  There 
was  a  moral  necessity  for  Christ's  sufferings  and  death — 
obstacles  to  the  bestowment  of  pardon  had  to  be  removed 
— the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  had  to  be  secured. 
The  whole  contents  of  Chnst's  earthly  existence,  em- 
bracing both  his  active  and  passive  obedience — a  dis- 
tinction unsupported  by  the  word  of  God — must  be  re- 
garded as  contributing  to  the  A.  which  he  made.  Of  the 
actual  sufferings  of  Christ  immediately  attending  his 
death,  it  is  not  allowable  to  speak  with  confidence,  so 
little  has  been  revealed.  It  may,  however,  be  considered — 
whether  the  Saviour's  deprivation  of  his  Father's  coun- 
tenance may  not  have  been  indirectly  caused  rather  by 
his  awful  and  afflicting  sense  of  the  evil  of  sin,  than  other- 
wise.— As  to  the  'extent'  of  the  A.,  there  is  a  broad  dis- 
tinction to  be  made  between  the  gujjicUncy  of  the  A.,  and 
its  effieieTicy.  It  may  be  true  that  Jehovah  did  not  intend 
to  exercise  upon  all  men  that  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
which  is  necessary  to  secure  the  salvation  of  any  one,  but 
as  the  A.  was  to  become  the  basis  of  moral  government,  it 
was  necessary  that  it  should  be  one  of  infinite  worth,  and 
so  in  itself  adequate  to  the  salvation  of  all.  The  bodv 
called  Universalists  (q.v.)  hold  both  the  efficiency  and  ulti- 
mate sufficiency  of  this  great  event  in  history. 

The  foregoing  represents  the  modified  view  of  the  doc- 
trine as  advocated  by  Dr.  Payne,  and  as  held,  in  all  essen- 
tial respects,  by  such  men  as  Pye  Smith  and  Wardlaw, 
which,  in  its  earlier  form,  and  as  found  in  the  writings  of 
Owen  and  Edwards,  maintains  that  the  A.  was  made  only 
for  the  elect;  and  that  its  necessity  with  respect  to  them 
arose  out  of  the  eternal  justice  of  Grod,  which  required 
that  every  individual  should  receive  his  due  desert;  and, 
consequently,  that  the  suffering^  of  Christ  were  the  endur- 
ance of  punishment  equivalent  in  amount  or  value  of  suf- 
fering, if  not  identical  in  nature — as  Owen  maintains — 
with  that  to  which  the  elect  were  exposed;  and,  moreover, 
that  the  meritorious  obedience  of  Christ  in  fulfilling  the 
law  imputes  a  righteousness  to  those  for  whom  the  A. 
secures  salvation,  which  gives  them  a  claim  to  the  reward 
of  righteousness. 

The  doctrine  of  the  A.  has  taken  various  forms  in  the 
philosophic  theology  of  Germany  from  Eant  to  the  present 
time.  See  Nbander.  Passing  by  these,  we  mav  attend 
to  some  leading  forms  of  the  doctrine  advocated  during 
recent  years,  wnich  mav  fairly  represent  present  opinion. 

Let  us  begin  with  the  view  of  modern  Unitarianism, 
which  may  yerj  clearly  and  fairly  be  presented  in  the 
words  of  one  oi  the  most  able  of  its  advocates,  the  Rev. 
Prof.  John  James  Tayler:  • ' '  There  is  <me  mediator  between 


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ATONEMENT. 

God  and  men,  the  man  Christ  Jesus. "  This  can  only  ref ei 
to  unrivalled  pre-eminence,  not  to  exclusive  function.  For 
all  higher  mmds  do,  in  fact,  mediate  hetween  their  leas 
gifted  fellow-creatures  and  the  great  realities  of  the  invisible 
world.  This '  *  one  "  is  a  human  mediator,  "  the  man  Christ 
Jesus  " — not  a  being  from  another  sphere,  an  angel  or  a 
God— but  a  brother  from  the  bosom  of  our  own  human 
family.  "  He  gave  himself  a  ransom  for  cUl "  who  embrace 
his  otfers  and  will  hearken  to  his  voice.  He  brings  from 
God  a  general  summons  to  repent;  and  with  that  he  con- 
veys, through  faith,  a  spiritual  power  to  shake  off  the  bond- 
age of  'sin,  and  put  on  the  freedom  of  a  new  heart  and  a 
new  life.  He  is  a  deliverer  from  the  power  of  sin  and  the 
fear  of  death.  This  is  the  end  of  his  mediation.  This  is 
the  redemption  of  which  he  paid  the  price.  His  death, 
cheerfully  met  in  the  inevitable  sequence  of  faithful  duty, 
was  only  one  among  many  links  in  the  chain  of  instru- 
mentalities by  which  that  deliverance  was  effected.  It 
was  a  proof  such  as  could  be  given  in  no  other  way,  of 
trust  in  God  and  immortality,  of  Udelity  to  duty,  and  of  love 
for  mankind.  In  those  who  earnestly  contemplated  it,  and 
saw  all  that  it  implied,  it  awoke  a  tender  response  of  grati- 
tude and  confidence,  which  softend  the  obdurate  heart, 
and  opened  it  to  serious  impressions  and  the  quickening 
influences  of  a  religious  spirit. ' 

Prof.  Jowett  advocates  an  opinion  peculiarly  his  own, 
if,  indeed,  language  so  confessedly  vague  and  indefinite 
can  be  said  to  embody  an  opinion.  It  is  this:  *  That  the 
only  sacrifice.  A.,  or  satisfaction  with  which  the  Christian 
has  to  do,  is  a  moral  and  spiritual  one;  not  the  pouring  out 
of  blood  upon  the  earth,  but  the  living  sacrifice  **  to  do  th^ 
will,  O  Gk)d;"  in  which  the  believer  has  part  as  well  as  hia 
Lord;  about  the  meaning  of  which  there  can  be  no 
more  question  in  our  day  than  there  was  in  the  first  ages.' 
— '  Heathen  and  Jewish  sacrifices  rather  show  us  what  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ  was  not,  than  what  it  was.  They  are  the 
dim,  vague,  rude,  almost  barbarous  expression  of  that 
want  in  human  nature  which  has  received  satisfaction  in 
him  only.  Men  are  afraid  of  something ;  they  w^ish  to  give 
away  something;  they  feel  themselves  bound  by  some- 
thing ;  the  fear  is  done  away,  the  gift  offered,  the  obliga- 
tion fulfilled  in  Christ.  Such  fears  and  desires  can  no  more 
occupy  their  souls ;  they  are  free  to  lead  a  better  life;  they 
are  at  the  end  of  the  old  world,  and  at  the  beginning  of  a 
new  one.  '—The  work  of  Christ  is  set  forth  in  Scripture  un- 
der many  different  figures,  lest  we  should  rest  in  one  onl^. 
His  death,  for  instance,  is  described  as  a  ransom.  It  is 
not  that  God  needs  some  payment  before  he  will  set  the 
captives  free.  Ransom  is  deliverance  to  the  captive. 
*  Whosoever  committeth  sin  is  the  servant  of  sin.*  Christ 
delivers  from  sin.  'If  the  Son  shall  make  you  free,  ye 
shall  be  free  indeed. '  To  whom  ?  for  what  was  the  ransom 
paid?  are  questions  about  which  Scripture  is  silent,  to 
which  reason  reason  refuses  to  answer. 

A  remarkably  original  work  on  the  Atonement  was 
issued  several  years  ago,  by  the  Rev.  John  M'Leod  Camp* 


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ATONEMENT. 

bell.  His  views  are  as  follows :  The  "^ork  of  the  Soil  of 
God  who  came  lo  do  and  did  the  will  of  his  Father,  must, 
in  view  of  the  deliverance  which  he  wrought,  be  regarded 
cs  twofold :  first,  as  dealing  with  man  on  behalf  of  Gk)d, 
and  second,  as  dealing  with  Qod  on  behalf  of  man. 

In  dealing  with  man  on  behalf  of  Grod,  Christ  revealed 
to  us  the  Father  in  his  relation  to  a  sinful  world,  showed 
us  what  our  sins  were  to  God,  vindicated  in  the  world  the 
Father's  name,  and  witnessed  to  the  excellency  of  that  will 
a^inst  which  we  were  rebelling.  In  thus  revealing  the 
will  of  the  Father  towards  sinful  men,  he  necessarily  be. 
came  a  man  of  sorrow  and  suffering,  but  these  arose  nat- 
urally out  of  what  he  was,  and  the  relation  in  which  he 
stood  to  those  for  whom  he  suffered;  and  to  the  holiness 
and  love  of  his  very  nature  must  we  refer  their  awful  in- 
tensity and  immeasurable  amount.  He  suffered  what  he 
suffered,  through  seeing  sin  and  sinners  with  God's  eyes, 
and  feeling  in  reference  to  them  with  God's  heart.  By 
what  he  suffered,  he  condemned  sin,  and  revealed  the 
wrath  of  God  against  it.  His  holiness  and  love  taking  the 
form  of  suffering,  compose  the  very  essence  and  adequacy 
of  his  sacrifice  for  sin. 

Again,  in  dealing  with  God  on  behalf  of  man,  the  one- 
ness of  mind  with  the  Father  wliich  towards  man  took  the 
form  of  condemnation  of  sin,  became  in  his  dealing  with 
the  Father  in  relation  to  us  a  perfect  confession  of  our  sins, 
which  was  a  perfect  Amen  in  humanity  to  the  judgment 
of  God  on  the  sin  of  man.  Such  an  Amen  was  due  m  the 
truth  of  all  things,  due  on  our  behalf,  though  we  could 
not  render  it,  due  from  him  as  in  our  nature  and  our  true 
brother.  He  who  was  the  truth,  could  not  be  in  humanity 
and  not  utter  it;  and  it  was  necessarily  a  first  step  in  deal- 
ing with  the  Father  on  our  behalf.  This  confession  of  our 
sins  by  him  who,  as  the  Son  of  God  and  the  son  of  man  in 
one  person,  could  perfectly  measure  and  know  the  evil  of 
man's  alienation,  was  a  peculiar  development  of  the  holy 
sorrow  in  which  he  bore  the  burden  of  our  sins;  and  which, 
like  his  sufferings  in  confessing  his  Father  before  men,  had 
a  severity  and  intensity  of  its  own.  But  apart  from  the 
sufferings  present  in  that  confession,  this  Amen  from  the 
depths  of  the  hiunanity  of  Christ  to  the  divine  condemna- 
tion of  sin,  is  necessarily  conditioned  by  the  reception  into 
the  bosom  of  the  divine  humanity,  of  the  full  apprehension 
of  the  wrath  of  God,  as  well  as  of  the  sin  against  which 
that  wrath  comes  forth  into  his  soul  and  spirit;  and,  so  re- 
ceiving it,  he  responds  to  it  with  a  perfect  response,  and 
in  that  perfect  response  he  absorbs  it.  For  that  response 
has  all  the  elements  of  a  perfect  repentance  in  humanity, 
for  all  the  sin  of  man — a  perfect  sorrow — a  perfect  contri- 
tion— all  the  elements  of  such  a  repentance,  and  that  in  ab- 
solute perfection;  all — excepting  the  personal  consciousness 
of  sin — and  by  that  perfect  response  or  Amen  to  the 
mind  of  God,  in  relation  to  sin,  is  the  wrath  of  Grod  rightly 
met,  and  that  is  awarded  to  divine  justice  which  is  its  due, 
and  could  alone  satisfy  it. 

Tbw  wof esBion  of  the  world's  sift  hj  xk^  Head  ftftd  Rep' 


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ATONEMENT. 

resentative  of  humanity,  was  followed  up  bv  his  interces- 
sion a^  a  part  of  the  full  response  of  the  mind  of  the  Son 
to  the  mind  of  the  Father — a  part  of  that  utterance  in  hu- 
manity which  propitiated  the  divine  mercy  by  the  righteous 
way  in  which  it  laid  hold  of  the  hope  for  man  which  was 
in  God.  *  He  bore  the  sins  of  many,  and  made  interces- 
sion for  the  transgressors.  * 

The  Rev.  F.  D.  Maurice  professed  to  hold  a  purely  bib- 
lical theology,  as  opposed  to  the  theolo^es  of  conscious- 
ness, which  he  repudiates.  He  seeks  his  doctrine x)f  the 
A.  in  the  answer  which  the  Bible  gives  to  the  demands  of 
a  sin-smitten  conscience.  A  sinner  rvxjuires,  and  is  content 
to  be  told  on  the  authority  of  Scripture,  that  the  Son  of 
God  has  taken  away  sin.  This  message  from  God  is  the 
gospel  for  all  men.  The  sinner  wants  to  be  assured  that 
God  has  spoken,  that  he  has  declared  himself  the  Hecon- 
cilcr,  and  desires  to  be  shown  how  and  in  whom  he  has  ac- 
complished that  work  on  his  behalf. 

To  this  question— How  and  in  whom  the  work  of  recon- 
ciliation has  been  accomplished? — ^Mr.  Maurice  replied, 
in  effect  and  almost  in  words  as  follows:  The  will  of  God 
is  set  forth  in  the  Bible  to  be  a  will  .which  is  good  to  all, 
and  the  ground  of  all  that  is  right,  true,  just,  and  gracious; 
the  Bible  also  sets  forth  the  Son  of  God  as  being  one  in  will, 
purpose,  and  substance  with  the  Father,  and  that  his  whole 
life  on  earth  was  an  exhibition  of,  and  submission  to,  bis 
Father's  will;  that  the  Son  of  God  was  Lord  of  men,  the 
Hoot  and  Head  of  humanity,  and  the  source  of  all  light 
and  righteousness  in  man:  that  being  thus  one  with  God 
and  one  with  man,  he  brought  the  will  of  Grod  into  our 
nature,  fulfilled  it  in  our  nature  perfectly,  and  carried  it 
down  into  the  lowest  condition  into  which  it  had  fallen 
through  sin;  that  in  the  fultilment  of  this  will  in  our  na- 
ture, as  its  head,  he  shared  its  sufferings,  enduring  that 
wrath,  or  punishment  which  proceeded  from  Holy  Love, 
thus  making  real  in  his  own  consciousness,  on  the  one  hand 
the  sins  of  the  world,  and  on  the  other  the  consuming 
fury  of  the  holiness  of  the  love  of  Grod — with  an  anguish 
which  only  a  perfectly  pure  and  holy  Being,  who  is  a  per- 
fectly sympathizing  and  gracious  Being,  can  feel:  that  the 
man  Christ  Jesus  was  for  this  reason  the  object  of  his  Fath- 
er's continual  complacency — a  complacency  fully  draws 
out  by  the  death  of  the  cross — which  so  perfectly  brought 
out  to  view  the  uttermost  power  of  self-sacrifice  which  lay 
hidden  in  the  divine  love;  and  consequently  that  Christ 
exhibited  humanity,  in  its  head,  atoned  for,  reconciled.  In 
this  way,  to  Mr.  Maurice,  is  Christ '  the  Lamb  of  God,  who 
taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world. ' 

Finally,  Dr.  Trench,  who  may  be  regarded  as  fairly 
representing  the  prevalent  views  of  the  more  devout  and 
thoughtful  men  of  the  present  day  holding  'orthodox' 
opinions,  speak  as  follows:  *  The  spirit  of  man  cries  out 
for  something  deeper  than  repentance,  confession  of  sin, 
amendment  of  life;  something  which  shall  reach  further 
back;  which  shall  not  be  clogged  with  sinful  infirmities^ 
as  his  own  repentance  even  at  the  very  best  must  be. 


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ATONEMENT 

Men  cry  for  some  work  to  rest  upon,  which  shall  not  be 
their  work,  but  which  shall  be  God's;  perfect,  complete. 
They  feel  that  there  must  be  something  which  God  has 
wrought,  not  only  in  them,  but  also  and  first  of  all  f</r 
them;  they  yearn  for  this,  for  A.,  propitiation,  ransom,  and 
conscience  purged  from  dead  works  by  the  blood  of 
sprinkling;  a  rock  to  flee  to  which  is  higher  than  they, 
than  their  repentance,  than  their  faith,  than  their  obedi- 
dience,  even  than  their  new  life  in  the  spirit.  Now,  this 
rock  is  Christ;  and  John  the  Baptist  pointed  to  this  rock, 
when,  to  those  about  him  who  longed  after  more  than 
amendment  of  life,  he  exclaimed,  in  the  memorable 
words:  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God  which  taketh  away  the 
sin  of  the  world. "  * 

Christ's  sacrifice  was  vicarious — he  died  not  merely  for 
the  good  of,  but  in  the  room  and  in  the  stead  of,  others; 
tasted  death /<?r  them.  He  did  this  of  his  own  free  will. 
He  saw  that  nothing  else  would  overcome  their  sinful  per- 
versity and  wilful  obduracy,  and  that  this  would  be  ef- 
fectual to  do  so. 

Christ  took  upon  himself  the  penalties  of  a  sinful 
world,  and  his  self-sacrifice  is  only  not  righteous,  because 
it  is  so  much  better  than  righteous,  because  it  moves  in 
that  higher  region  where  law  is  no  more  known,  but 
known  no  more  only  because  it  is  transfigured  into  love. 
Vicarious  suffering  is  the  law  and  condition  of  all  highest 
nobleness  in  the  world.  It  is  this  which  God  is  continu- 
ally demanding  of  his  elect,  they  approving  themselves 
his  elect  as  they  freely  own  themselves  the  debtors  of  love 
to  the  last  penny  of  thje  requirements  which  it  makes. 

But  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ  were  not  merely 
vicarious,  they  were  also  satisfactory;  and  thus  atoning  oi 
setting  at  one,  bringing  together  the  holy  and  the  unholy, 
who  could  not  have  been  reconciled  in  any  other  wav.  It 
is  not  maintained  that  (rod  could  have  pleasure  m  the 
sufferings  of  the  innocent  and  the  holy,  and  that  innocent 
and  holy  his  own  Son;  but  only  that  he  must  have  the 
highest  pleasure  in  the  love,  the  patience,  the  obedience 
which  those  sufferings  gave  him  the  opportunity  of  dis- 
pla3ring,  which  but  for  those  he  never  could  have  dis- 
played. Christ's  sublime  devotion  to  the  will  of  God  per- 
mitted the  Father  to  say,  *  I  have  found  a  ransom.*  Christ 
satisfied  herein,  not  the  divine  anger,  but  the  divine  crav- 
ing and  yearning  after  a  perfect  holiness,  righteousness, 
and  obedience  in  man,  which  craving  no  man  had  satis- 
fied, but  all  had  disappointed  before. 

Dr.  Horace  Bushnell  has  written  on  the  A.  with  won- 
derful spiritual  insight  and  with  rich  suggestiveness.  His 
views  on  the  A.  have  entered  deeply  as  a  modifying  force 
into  the  recent  thought  of  the  church  at  large.  His  theory, 
however,  is  not  so  formulated  as  to  yield  itself  easily  to  a 
logical  classification,  except  that  it  has  a  leading  place 
among  *  moral  influence  theories.' 

See  the  following  works,  consulted  and  used  in  the 
preparation  of  this  article:  Baur's  Christliehe  Lehre  ton  der 
Vertohnung;  Hase's  Uutterus  Bediviime;  Neander*8  Chmir 


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ATONIC— ATRATO. 

liche  DogmengeBcJiichte ;  Giseler's  Lehrbuch  d&r  Doomen' 
ffe^chichte ;  Hagen  bach's  Lehrbuch  der  DogmengetchiehU, 
vierte  Auflage;  Calvin's  Institutes  of  the  Christian  BeUgion; 
Edwards,  Concerning  the  Necessity  and  BeasonaUenem  of  the 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Satisfaction  for  Sin;  Owen's  Death  of 
Death  in  the  Death  of  Christ,  and  Qf  the  Death  of  Chrisi; 
Payne's  Lectures  on  Divine  Sovereignty;  Chalmers's  Ituti- 
iutes  of  Theology;  Wardlaw's  Systematic  Theology;  Camp- 
bell's (John  M'Leod)  JVa^wr^  of  the  Atonement,  etc.;  Tay- 
ler's  (J.  J.)  Christian  Aspects  of  Faith  and  Duty  (Discourse 
on  *  Christ  the  Mediator');  Maurice's  Theologieal  Estays; 
Jowett's  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  lirst  and  second  editions 
(Article  '  On  Atonement  and  Satisfaction');  Trench's  Fite 
Sermons  (sermon  on  *  Christ  the  Lamb  of  God.')  See  also 
Bushnell's  The  Vicarious  Sacrifice;  Shedd's  ESsiory  of 
Christian  Doctrine. 

ATONIC,  a.  a-tun}k  [Or.  a,  not;  tonos,  tone]:  wanting 
tone;  debilitated.    Atony,  n.  atb-nl,  loss  of  vital  energy. 

ATOP,  ad.  a-t4tp'  [AS.  a,  on,  and  top]-,  at  or  on  the  top. 

ATRABILIARY,  a.  atra-bWl-er-l,  or  Atrabiixar.  a. 
at'rd-bWi-er,  or  Atrabila'rian,  a.  -dri-dn,  [F  atrabHaire 
—from  mid.  L.  atrabilarius,  abounding  in  black  bOe — 
from  L.  ater,  black;  bilis,  bile]:  causing  black  bile;  melan- 
cholic;  hypochondriac.  Atrabilious,  a.  dfrd-bU't-iis, 
having  abundance  of  black  bile,  as  the  supposed  cause 
of  melancholia;  melancholic;  hypochondriac. 

ATRACTENCHYMA,  n.  dt'rdk  t^ngldm-d  [Gr.  atrak- 
tos,  a  spindle,  a  distaff;  chumos,  juice,  sap]:  in  bot.,  tissue 
composed  of  spindle-shaped  cells. 

ATRAMENTACEOUS,  a.  dt-ra-mH-td'shus,  or  Atra- 
MENTAL,  or  Atramek'tous,  -tiis  [L.  atramentum,  any- 
thing black;  ink— from  ater,  dull-black;  Eng.  aeeous]: 
pertaining  or  relating  to  ink;  inky;  black  as  inK.  Atba- 
menta'rioub,  a.  -td  rhiis,  suitable  to  be  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  ink.  Applieil  especially  to  copperas,  one 
of  its  ingredients. 

ATRATO,  d'trd'to:  river  of  Colombia,  important  not  by 
its  size,  buJt  by  its  position  in  connection  with  the  scheme 
of  communication  by  water  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific.  Such  use  of  the  A.  was  long  ago  predicted  by 
Humboldt. 

The  main  stream  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Darien  by  nine 
mouths — the  quantity  of  water,  from  the  almost  daily 
rains,  being  large  in  proportion  to  the  area  drained,  which 
does  not,  at  the  utmost,  exceed  800  m.  by  75.  Of  the  nine 
mouths,  the  third  in  rank,  the  Boca  Coquito,  appears  to 
offer  the  most  available  facilities  for  improving  the  navi- 
gation. About  220  m.  above  this  entrance,  opposite  to 
Quibdo,  the  A.  is  850  ft.  wide  and  8  ft.  deep  at  the  shallow- 
est parts,  while  the  entire  fall  to  the  sea  averages  less  than 
three  inches  to  a  mile.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  A. 
itself  cannot  advantageously  be  followed  thus  far,  be- 
cause, as  one  advances  to  the  south,  the  intervening  ridge 
to  the  west,  and  its  streams  toward  the  Pacific  become  less 
and  «rss  practicable. 


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ATRI— AtROCIOUS. 

A  comparatively  convenient  route  was  surveyed  through 
the  munificence  of  Mr.  F.  M.  Kelley,  a  private  citizen  of 
New  York.  Ascending  the  Boca  Coquito  as  before,  this 
route  leaves  the  main  stream  at  a  distance  of  63  m.  from 
the  sea,  following  the  Truando,  one  of  its  western  afflu- 
ents, for  86  m.  more  without  impediment  or  interruption. 
Prom  this  point  on  the  Truando  to  the  Pacific  there  re- 
main 82  m.  The  heaviest  work  would  be  a  tunnel  of  8^ 
m.  in  length.  According  to  the  plan  the  canal  would  be 
without  a  lock.  The  plan  (commended  as  the  result  of  ex- 
amination by  the  U.  S.  govt.,  1871),  utilizing  the  middle 
branch  of  the  A.  and  the  Jurador,  flowing  into  the  Pacific, 
would  require  48  m.  of  canal.  At  the  Internationa] 
Congress,  Paris,  1879,  for  deciding  the  best  route  for  the  ib- 
teroceanic  canal,  the  A.  route  was,  with  various  others,  dis- 
cussed and  rejected  in  favor  of  one  from  Limon  to  Pan- 
ama. 

ATRI,  &'tTi  (Hadria  Picena):  town  of  Italv,  14  m.  s.e- 
of  Teramo;  on  a  steep  hill,  6  m.  from  the  Adriatic.  Nu- 
merous remains  of  public  buildings,  baths,  and  walls  attest 
its  ancient  importance.     Pop.  4,000. 

ATRIP,  ad.  d-trip'  [o,  and  trip]:  said  of  an  anchor  when 
just  raised  off  of  tne  ground  in  a  perpendicular  direction. 
A  topsail  is  A.  when  it  is  just  started  from  the  cap. 

AT'RIPLEX:  see  Chenopodiace.k:  Orache. 

ATRIUM,  n.  at'rlUm  [L.  aMum,  a  front  hall]:  in  zooL, 
the  cavity  or  cloaca  into  which  the  intestine  opens  in  the 
Tunieata:  in  aruU.,  that  portion  of  the  auricle  of  the  heart 
into  which  the  venous  blood  is  emptied.  Atrial,  a.  at'  rldU, 
designating  a  water- vascular  system,  furnished  with  con- 
tractile dilatations  supposed  to  be  a  rudimentary  respiratory 
apparatus,  but  probably  only  a  secretory  organ. 

AT'RIUM,  in  Rom.  Arch.:  the  covered  court  or  en- 
trance-hall which  was  the  chief  part  of  a  Roman  house. 
It  was  lighted  from  the  roof,  which  sloped  toward  an 
opening  in  the  centre  (the  complumum),  through  which 
the  rain-water  fiowed  into  a  kind  of  cistern  situated  on  the 
floor  (the  implumum).  On  both  sides,  passages  led  to  the 
several  chambers.  Its  size  was  in  proportion  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  house.  After  the  burning  of  Rome  in  the 
reign  of  Nero,  great  attention  was  paid  to  the  decorations 
of  the  entrance-halls  or  atria.  Here  the  female  slaves  were 
engaged  in  weaving  and  other  domestic  occupations,  under 
the  superintendence  of  their  mistress.  Family  pictures 
were  preserved  in  the  A.;  it  also  contained  the  nuptial 
couch,  and  it  served  as  a  general  waiting-room  for  visitors 
and  clients.  .  The  atria  or  the  temples  were  used  as  places 
of  assembly. 

ATROCIOUS,  a.  d-tro'shiU  [P.  atroce^tTom  L.  atrdc&m, 
horrid,  terrible]:  very  wicked  ;  extremely  cruel ;  criminal 
in  the  highest  degree.  Atro'ciously,  ad.  41.  Atbo'- 
GIOUSKE8S,  n.  the  quality  of  being  atrocious.  Atrocity, 
n.  d-trds  i-ti  [F.  atrocite,  great  cruelty — from  L.  atrocitdtem]: 
enormous  wickedness;  cruelty  in  the  highest  degree. — 
8yn.  of '  atrocious ':  heinous;  flagitious;  flagrant;  enormous; 
grievous. 


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ATROPA— ATROWLL 
ATROPA:  see  Belladonna. 

ATROPHY,  n.  atro-fi,  or  Atrophia,  n.  H-trdfi-a  [Gr. 
atrophia,  want  of  food  or  nourishment— from  a,  without; 
irophe,  nourishment):  a  wasting  away  without  manifest 
cause;  a  consumption;  a  morbid  condition  of  animal  or 
vegetable  life,  resulting  in  deficient  nutrition  of  the  body, 
or  part  of  the  body,  and  consequent  decay  and  waste  of  its 
substance.  The  term  is  applied,  not  to  the  mere  withholding 
the  requisite  supply  of  nutriment,  but  to  the  condition  pro- 
duced by  various  diseases  that  affect  the  body.  See  ri  u> 
TRinoN:  also  Digestion:  Dyspepsia:  Hypebtrophy. 
ATROPic.a.  </-^r6»p'lA;,  wasted;  defectively  nourished;  mbot.^ 
exhibiting  an  abortion  and  degeneration  of  organs.  Atro^ 
PHiED,  a.  dt'ro-fid,  unfed;  not  supported  by  their  propei 
nourishment ;  hence,  wasting,  or  wasted  away.  (Lsed  of 
muscles,  nerves,  etc.) 

ATROPIA,  n.  d-trd'pH-d,  or  Atropin,  n.  di'rd-ptn,  or 
Atropina,  n.  &-tropl-n&,  C,TH«aNOa  [Atrdpo9,  m  ane. 
myth. ,  one  of  the  Fates,  whose  duty  it  was  to  cut  short  the 
thread  of  life]:  a  very  poisonous  alkaloid,  existing  in  all 
parts  of  the  deieully  night-shade  {Atropa  Belladonna),  and  in 
the  seeds  of  the  thorn  apple  {Datura  Stramonium);  hence 
called  also  Datura  or  Daturinb.  The  pharmacopccial 
directions  for  extracting  it  from  the  roots  of  belladonna  by 
means  of  alcohol  are  somewhat  complicated.  It  is  first 
taken  up  in  combination  with  malic  acid,  which  is  removed 
by  the  addition  of  lime;  sulphuric  acid  is  then  added,  which 
throws  down  the  lime  and  forms  sulphate  of  atropia;  the 
atropia  is  liberated  by  potassium  carbonate,  which  also 
separates  and  resolves  impurity,  and  is  taken  up  by  chloro- 
form, which,  after  being  aistilled  off,  leaves  A.,  which  must 
be  finally  purified  by  decolorization  with  charcoal,  and  crys- 
tallization from  an  alcoholic  solution.  The  crystals  occur 
in  colorless  silky  needles,  united  in  tufts.  A.  is  a  highly 
poisonous  irritant  narcotic;  a  mvdriatic  antispasmodic  and 
anodyne;  in  small  doses  a  cardiac,  respiratory,  and  spinal 
stimulant;  in  large  doses,  a  paralyzer  of  the  secretory  and 
motor  nerve-endinga.  It  is  extensively  used  in  treatment  of 
diseases  of  the  eye,  to  dilate  the  pupil,  and  to  paralyze  the 
accommodative  act.  The  effect  of  A.  on  the  pupil  is  most 
marked,  and  the  quantity  required  is  infinitesimal,  variously 
stated  from  ^nrW  pr.  (Wood)  to  y^W  ^^-  (Donders).  Atro- 
PisM,  n.  (tfro-pUmf  the  symptoms  produced  by  the  fre- 
quent medicinal  use  of  belladonna. 

ATROPOUS,  a.  at'ro-pus,  or  Atropal,  a.  qfro-pdl  [Gr. 
rt,  without;  trope,  a  turning]:  in  hot,  the  ovule  with 
foramen  opposite  to  the  hilum;  an  ovule  having  its  original, 
erect  position.— Syn,:  orthotropous,  and  orthotropal. 

ATHOWLl,  dtrow'le:  town  of  British  India;  chief  place 
of  apergunnah  of  tlie  same  name;  in  the  dist.  of  Allygurh, 
N,W.  Provinces;  68  m.  n.n.e.  from  Agra.  The  streets  are 
wide,  the  bazaar  good,  and  the  supply  of  water  abundant, 
Pop.  (1871)  15,053;  (1891)  15,40a 


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ATRYPA-ATTACHMENT. 

A'TRYPA:  geous  of  fossil  brachiopod  or  lamp  shells, 
having  close  resemblance  to  the  well-known  Terebratula, 
It  posaesscd  a  pei-forntion  for  the  passage  of  the  peduncle, 
by  which  the  animal  attached  itself  to  foreign  bodies.  This 
foramen  is  not  visible  in  all  examples  of  the  same  species, 
from  the  beak  touching  and  overlying  the  umbo  of  the 
other  valve;  the  animal  was,  therefore,  probably  free  dur- 
ing a  portion  of  its  existence.  The  name  (derived  from  a, 
without,  and  trypa,  foramen)  was  given  to  this,  genus  by 
Dalman,  as  he  erroneously  supposed  that  the  perforation 
was  entirely  absent.  Jud^g  from  the  markings  on  the 
interior  of  the  shell,  the  animal  seems  to  have  differed  little 
from  the  recent  Bhpneonella,  except  that  it  had  large  cal- 
careous spines  for  the  support  of  its  labial  appendages.  A. 
is  a  strictly  palaeozoic  brachiopod,  the  solitary  Permian 
species  being  the  last  representative  of  the  genus.  Of  the 
179  described  species.  100  are  Silurian,  5o  Devonian,  22 
Carboniferous,  and  1  Permian. 

ATTACCA,  n.  dt-tdkka  [Ital.  attaceo,  a  sticking,  a 
cleaving  to— from  aUaca/re,  to  hang,  to  fasten]:  in  mus,,  a 
direction  given  at  the  end  of  a  movement  to  proceed  to  the 
next  one  without  any  intermediate  pause.  (Often  with  the 
word  subito.) 

ATTACH,  V.  dt-tdch'  [F.  attacker,  to  tie,  to  bind,  to 
fasten:  at  for  ad.  or  P.  a,  to;  Breton  tocA,  a  nail;  tacha,  to 
fasten  with  a  nail:  Ir.  taca,  a  peg:  It.  attaccare,  to  attach]: 
to  fasten  or  hang ;  to  take  by  legal  authority  ;  to  arrest ;  to 
fix;  to  win  or  gain  over.  Attach  ing,  imp.  Attached, 
pp.  dt'tdcht'.  Attachable,  a.  -dbL  Attachment,  n. 
seizing  of  goods  by  legal  authority;  warm  affection;  fidelity; 
strong  regard  to.  Attache,  n.  dlrtd-aM  [F.]:  one  (gen- 
erally a  young  diplomatist)  attached  to  an  ambassador  as 
one  of  his  suite  or  attendants.— Syn.  of  *  attach ':  to  fix; 
affix;  connect;  combine;  unite;  tie;  tack;  fasten;  subjoin; 
annex;  charm;  enamour;  win;— of  'attachment*:  affection; 
inclination ;  adherence  ;  fidelity  ;  attendance  ;  regard  ;  ad- 
junct. 

ATTACH'MENT,  In  Law:  a  writ  applyhig  both  to  per- 
sons and  to  propertv.  A.  of  Person  is  a  process  issued  by 
a  court  of  record,  directing  the  sheriff  to  produce  before  it 
the  person  within  named,  jruilty  of  contempt  of  court, 
cither  by  neglect  or  abuse  of  its  process  or  of  subordinate 
powers,  or  disregard  of  its  injunction,  and  it  is  in  some 
degree  in  the  nature  of  a  criminal  process. 

2l.  of  Property  is  generally  in  the  instance  of  debt,  being 
issued  to  the  cr^itor  as  against  the  property  of  the  debtor. 
Its  issuance  is  from  a  court  of  law,  courts  of  equity  having 
no  power  in  the  premises:  in  some  states,  however,  it  is 
authorized  in  chancery.  In  New  England  a  writ  of  A.  is 
always  incident  to  a  summons  in  actions  upon  contract,  but 
in  the  other  states  it  is  issued  only  upon  affidavit  showing 
cause,  verifying  the  plaintiff's  base  of  action,  and  exhibiting 

gx)und8  of  A.  In  accordance  with  the  local  statute  author- 
ing the  writ.    In  general,  the  remedy  by  A.  is  allowed 
only  to  a  creditor;  in  some  states,  however,  there  are  special 
«— «6 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ATTACHMENT— ATTACK. 

statutory  provisions  by  which  damages  arising  ex  delicto 
may  be  sued  for  by  A.  Corporations  may  be  proceeded 
against  by  A.;  but  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  trustees, 
and  others  acting  only  as  representatives,  are  not  liable,  as 
such,  in  this  manner. 

The  levy  of  an  A.  does  not  change  the  estate  of  the  de- 
fendant in  the  property  attached;  nor  does  the  attaching 
plaintiff  acquire  any  property  thereby;  nor  can  he  acquire 
through  his  A.  rights  to  the  property  attached,  not  in- 
hering in  the  defendant  at  the  time  of  A. :  unless  he  be  able 
to  show  the  existence  of  fraud  or  collusion  impairing  bis 
rights.  The  levy  constitutes  a  lien  on  the  property  or  credits 
attached,  but  this  lien  is  of  no  value  unless  the  plaintiff 
obtain  judgment  against  the  defendant,  and  proceed  to  sub- 
ject the  property  to  execution.  Where  two  or  more  attach- 
ments are  levied  simultaneously  a^inst  the  same  property, 
they  are  entitled  severally  to  an  aliquot  part  of  the  proceeds 
of  the  property.  Where  several  attachments  are  levied  suc- 
cessively on  the  same  property,  a  junior  attaching  creditor 
may  impeach  a  senior  A.,  or  judgment  thereon,  for  fraud. 
During  the  pendency  of  a  suit,  an  officer  may  deliver  over 
attached  property  in  his  hands  to  some  responsible  person, 
styled  a  receipter  or  bailee,  who  must  receipt  for  it  while 
awaiting  the  action  of  the  court  In  some  states  poesession 
may  be  retained  by  the  defendant  by  executing  a  l)ond  with 
sureties  for  the  deli  very  thereof,  either  to  satisfy  the  execu- 
tion, or  when  and  where  the  court  may  direct  An  A.  may 
be  dissolved  by  a  final  judgment  for  the  defendant,  or,  on 
motion,  on  account  of  defects  in  the  plaintiff's  proceedings, 
apparent  on  their  face. 

Garnishment  is  an  effectual  A.  of  the  defendant's  effects 
in  the  garnishee's  hands,  but  no  judgment  can  be  rendered 
against  the  garnishee  until  judgment  against  the  defendant 
shall  have  been  recovered.  A  debt  not  due  may  be  attached 
in  the  hands  of  the  garnishee,  but  he  cannot  be  required  to 
pay  the  same  until  it  becomes  due. 

ATTACHMENT,  Fobbign:   see   Fobeion   Attach- 

HENT. 

ATTACK,  V.  ai^tak:  [F.  ati4Jbqtier;  Sp.  aiacar,  to  attack 
(see  Attach)]:  to  fall  upon  with  force  or  violence;  to  as- 
sault; to  assail  in  words;  to  begin  to  dissolve  as  a  chemical 
agjent:  N.  a  falling  upou  with  violence;  satire;  unfriendly 
criticism.  Attack'iko,  imp.  Attacked,  pp.  cU-taJfcf  .— 
Attack' ABLE,  a.  ahl,  able  to  be  attacked.  Attack'eb, 
n.  -er,  one  who  attacks.— Syn.  of  'attack,  v.':  to  assail;  as- 
sault; encounter;  invade;— of  *  attack,  n.':  onset;  charge. 

ATTACK',  in  Warfare:  an  advance  upon  the  enemy, 
with  a  view  of  driving  him  from  his  position,  whether  m 
the  open  field  or  within  fortifications. 

In  an  attack  in  the  open  field,  the  general  first  ascertains 
the  strength  and  position  of  the  enemy,  by  means  of  a  re- 
connaissance or  of  spies.  He  then  seeks  to  discover  at  what 
point  the  enemy  can  make  the  least  resistance,  generally  on 
one  or  other  flank.  He  next  arranges  to  concentrate  his 
chief  strength  upon  this  particular  point;  and  to  mask  his 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ATTACK. 

rea\  intention  by  feigned  operations  in  other  places.  He 
then  attacks  with  energy  and  force;  his  troops  advancing 
without  halt  till  near  enough  to  use  their  weapons  with  the 
greatest  effect.  The  more  the  attack  lias  the  character  of  a 
'surprise/  the  greater  the  probability  of  its  success.  In 
order  to  make  £is  success  as  much  felt  as  possible,  and  to 
be  provided  also  against  unforeseen  disaster,  the  attacking 
boay  should  be  followed  at  a  distance  by  a  reserve;  a  neglect 
of  this  precaution  has  frequently  caused  the  entire  failure 
of  an  attack.  Various  forms  have  been  devised  for  the 
attack;  but  the  usual  form  is  the  parallel  or  frontal.  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  however,  won  most  of  his  battles  by  the 
oblique  attack,  in  which  one  wing  is  more  advanced  than 
the  other.  The  first  Napoleon  preferred,  by  means  of  his 
heavy  columns,  to  penetrate  and  bretik  up  the  enemy's 
centre.  Another  mode  combines  an  attack  on  one  flank  as 
well  as  in  front,  by  two  separate  corps;  so  as  either  to  get 
into  the  enemy's  rear,  or  to  jxirplex  him  as  to  his  retreat.  A 
skilful  general  will  be  guided  by  circumstances  in  his  selec- 
tion among  these  modes.  An  attack  by  night  might  act 
most  signally  as  a  surprise;  but  as  this  reqidres  a  very  exact 
knowledge  of  the  ground,  an  attack  at  early  dawn  is  gener- 
ally preferred. 

The  different  arms  of  the  service  render  each  its  own  kind 
of  aid  during  an  attack.  Fii*st  come  the  skirmishers,  or 
perhaps  whole  battalions  of  light  and  active  troops,  whose 
rifles  or  long-range  guns  commence  the  firing.  Then  come 
the  main  body  of  infantry  in  heavy  column;  they  halt 
within  musket- shot,  fire,  and  charge  with  the  bayonet— the 
skirmishers  meanwhile  deploying  round  to  the  rear  of  the 
column,  but  holding  themselves  in  readiness  to  harass  the 
enemy's  flanks.  English  troops  especially  excel  in  the  at- 
tack by  bayonet  in  line;  many  other  armies  rely  more  on  the 
momentum  of  a  compact  and  heavy  column  in  an  attack. 
There  are  positions  in  which  the  cavalry  attack,  with  its 
shock  and  the  use  of  the  sword,  is  more  emcacious  than  that 
of  the  infantry.  The  troopers  approach  at  a  trot,  break  into 
a  gallop  at  a  distance  of  one  or  two  hundred  paces  from  the 
enemy,  and  endeavor  by  their  weight  and  impetuosity  to 
force  the  enemy's  Ime.  There  are  many  forms  of  cavalry 
attack,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  groimd  and  the  posi- 
tion of  the  enemy.  The  artillery,  working  at  a  distance, 
often  begin  an  A.  long  before  the  infantry  and  cavalry  can 
come  up,  harassing  and  confusing  the  enemy.  At  800  to 
1200  yds.  distance,  the  artillery  pour  out  shot  and  shell,  and 
try  to  silence  the  enemy's  guns,  so  as  to  make  way  for  the 
A.  of  the  infantry;  while  the  bayonet-charge  is  being  made, 
the  artillery  keep  in  check  the  enemy's  cavalry.  If  the  A. 
succeeds,  the  infantry  and  artillery  take  up  the  ground 
recently  occupied  by  the  enemy,  leaving  the  cavalry  and 
riflemen  to  maintain  a  pursuit;  but  if  it  fail,  the  artillery 
and  cavalry  take  up  such  positions  as  will  cover  the  retreat 
of  the  infantry. 

Jn  an  A.  upon  a  fortress,  the  operation  is  a  part  of  that 
of  besieging  (see  Siege);  but  very  often  intrenchments  are 
attacked  in  the  open  field.     Such  an  A.  has  the  character 


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ATTACUS— ATTAINDER 

of  a  surprise,  when  the  works  are  approached  under  cover 
of  night,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  break  into  them  on  all 
sides.  In  such  case  there  is  a  reserve  corps,  which  is  rap- 
idly brought  up  when  wanted;  but  the  attacking  corps  re- 
tire behind  the  reserve  if  repulsed.  The  artillery  post 
themselves  on  the  prolongation  of  the  line  of  works,  and 
try  to  dislodge  the  enemy's  guns  and  gunners;  or  pour  a 
concentric  hre  sufficient  to  breach  the  works.  The  in- 
fantry advance  as  close  as  will  enable  them  to  fire  upon 
the  gunners.  When  the  enemy's  fire  is  silenced,  the  en- 
gineers (under  cover  of  the  artillery)  proceed  to  remove 
palisades  and  all  other  obstacles,  and  to  bridge  over  ditches 
and  openings.  Then  follow  the  operations  oi  the  storming- 
party.    See  Assault. 

ATTACUS,  n.  dt'tak-ui  [L.  attain/*— from  Gr.  aiiako$ 
and  atiakes,  a  kind  of  locustj :  genus  of  moths  belonging 
to  the  family  BombyHda.  A,  Cynthia  is  the  Allan  thus 
Silkworm,  so  called  because  its  caterpillar  feeds  upon  the 
Ailanthus-tree,  Ailanthus  gUmduUmis. 

ATTAGA8,  n.  dt'ta-gas,  or  Attagen,  n.  afta-jSn  [Gr. 
attagas.  a  long-billed  bird,  fond  of  the  water,  and  esteemed 
a  great  delicacy.  The  Godwit(?).  Also  L.  attagen,  a  hazel- 
hen,  or  heath-cock,  foimd  in  Spain,  the  south  of  France, 
etc.]:  the  attagcuf  of  Buffon,  the  attagen  of  Aldrovandi,  is 
believed  by  Cuvier  to  be  the  young  or  the  female  of  Tetroi 
bonuna,  and  the  attagen  or  g  inga  to  be  the  pintailed  grouse. 
The  latter  of  these  is  found  all  roimd  the  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

ATTAIN,  V.  aUtan'  [P.  atUindre,  to  touch,  to  attain— 
from  L.  attingere,  to  touch  against—from  L.  €id,  tango,  I 
touch]:  to  come  to  or  reach  oy  exertion;  to  arrive  at;  to 
gain;  to  achieve.  Attain' ing,  imp.  Attahted,  pp.  dt- 
tdnd'.  Attainable,  a.  ut-tdnd-bl,  that  mav  be  attained  l^ 
eflForts  of  the  body  or  mind.  Attainabil  nr,  n.  -bUitl, 
or  Attain  ablenebs,  n.  -dUnis,  the  quality  of  being  at^ 
tainable.  Attainment,  n.  the  act  of  arriving  at  or  reach- 
ing by  effort;  proficiency  in  any  branch  of  knowledge.— 
Syn.  of  *  attain  *:  to  acquire  ;  obtain  ;  gain  ;  win  ;  earn ; 
procure. 

ATTAINDER :  the  legal  consequence  of  judgment  of 
death  or  outlawry,  in  respect  of  treason  or  felony;  for- 
merly involving  forfeiture  of  estate,  real  and  personal,  and 
corruption  of  blSxi,  and  generally,  in  present  usage,  involv- 
ing extinction  of  civil  rights  and  capacities.  Thus,  an 
attainted  person  cannot  sue  in  a  court  of  justice;  he  lodes 
all  power  over  his  property;  and  he  is  by  his  A.  rendered 
incapable  of  performing  any  of  the  duties  or  entering  into 
any  of  the  privileges  of  a  free  citizen.  But  absolute  and 
severe  as  formerly  were  the  consequences  of  A.,  neither 
the  government  nor  the  crown  could  exercise  absolute  or 
capncious  authority  regarding  an  attainted  person;  every- 
thmg  was  to  be  according  to  principle  and  rule,  and  for 
the  ends  of  public  justice.     Formerly  an  attaintCKi  person 


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ATTAINT— ATT  ALEA. 

could  not  give  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice;  but  that  dis. 
ability  has  been -removed. 

Since  the  revision  of  the  law,  1870,  the  forfeiture  of  es- 
tate and  corruption  of  blood  by  A.  are  no  longer  legal  in 
Britain.  For  A.  by  express  legislative  enactment  in  par- 
liament, see  Bill  op  Attainder.  In  the  United  States 
A.  has  never  had  legal  existence,  being  utterly  forbidden 
by  the  federal  constitution  (art.  i.  sec.  9),  *  No  bill  of 
attainder  or  ex-post  facto  law  shall  be  passed.' 

ATTAINT,  V.  dt-tdnf  [OF.  aUaindre,  to  accuse,  to  stain; 
attaint,  accused,  stained— from  L.  oMingi^re,  to  touch  against 
— from  L.  adf  to;  tingo,  I  stain,  or  tat^go,  I  touchl:  to  reach 
or  attain  to;  to  corrupt;  to  taint;  to  disgrace;  to  find  guilty 
of  treason  or  felony;  to  render  infamous:  N.  a  stain;  re- 
proach; hurt.  ATTAiNT'rNG,  imp.  Attaint  ed,  pp.  At- 
TAiNTUKE,  n.  atrtan'tar,  state  of  being  attainted.  At- 
tainder, n.  Ht-Uln'der,  that  which  renders  impure ;  in 
Britain,  the  act  of  parliament  decreeing  the  loss  of  civil 
rights  and  estate  for  the  crime  of  treason  or  other  capital 
offense,  is  called  an  Act  of  Attainder;  the  judicial  process 
is  called  a  Bill  of  Attainder.  (iV<?fc.— There  cjm  be  but  little 
doubt  that  tango^  I  touch,  and  not  tingo,  I  stain,  is  the 
primary  root- word.  The  confusion  has  arisen  from  the 
fact  that  the  reputation  of  a  person  is  reached  or  totiv?ied  by 
the  sentence  of  a  court  of  justice,  and  so  his  character  is  dis 
graced  and  stained,  and  becomes  attainted  ;  etymologjcally, 
to  attaint  is  *  to  convict,'  and  attainder  is  *  the  conviction ' 
—see  Skeat  and  Wedgwood.) 

ATTAINT',  Writ  of  :  anciently  in  England  a  mode  of 
inquiring  whether  a  jury  had  given  a  false  verdict;  now 
abolished. 

ATTAKAPAS,  dt-tUk'a-pd :  a  large  and  fertile  district 
in  the  8.w.  of  Louisiana,  which  includes  the  parishes  of 
Iberia,  Lafayette.  St.  Martha,  St.  Mary,  and  Vermillion. 
It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  large  production  of  sugar 
and  molasses. 

ATTALEA,  dt-td-lea :  genus  of  ^alms,  comprising  a  num- 
ber of  species,  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  S.  America. 
They  have  in  general  lofty,  cylindrical,  smooth  stems,  but 
there  are  some  stemless  species.  The  leaves  are  large  and 
pinnate.  Tlie  fruit  has  a  dry,1ibrous  husk,  inclosing  a  nut 
with  three  cells  and  three  seeds.  The  leaves  of  some  spe- 
cies are  much  used  for  thatching,  and  those  of  some  are 
woven  into  hats,  mats,  etc.  The  nuts  of  A.  excelm  and  of 
A.  spedosa  are  burned  to  dry  the  India-rubber  obtained 
from  the  Siphonia  elastica,  which  acquires  its  black  color 
from  their  smoke.  The  leaf-stalks  of  A.fun(fera,  found 
in  the  s.  maritime  provinces  of  Brazil,  and  there  called 
Piassaba,  yield  a  tibre  much  used  for  cordage  The 
ropes  made  of  it  are  very  strong,  and  extremely  durable  in 
salt  water.  The  Piassaba  palm  of  the  n  parts  of  Brazil, 
however,  is  totally  dilterent,  and  much  of  the  Piassaba 
(q.v.)  fibre  exported  to  other  countries  is  obtained  from  it 
The  fruit  of  A.  fwrtifera,  known  by  the  name  of  Coquilla 
nut  (q.v.)  is  as  large  as  an  ostrich's  ^^^g,  and  supplies  a  kind 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATTAR— ATTEND. 

of  vegetable  ivory,  used  for  making  umbrella  handles,  etc. 
The  fruit  of  .4.  compta,  the  Pind6va  or  Indaj£  palm,  is  of  the 
size  of  a  goose's  e^^,  and  the  kernels  are  eatable.  It  is  a 
stately  and  beautiful  tree,  with  a  wide-spreading  crown. 

ATTAR,  n.  attar,  or  Otto  of  roses,  ^'ft>  [Hind.  cUr^ 
essence:  Arab,  itr,  perfume] :  a  precious  oil  made  m  eastern 
countries,  generally  from  roses ;  a  valuable  perfume.  See 
Otto. 

ATTELABU8,  n.  duma-buM  [L.  aUdabu^^trom  Gr. 
atteldbos,  a  small,  wingless  species  of  locust]:  genus  of 
ColMptera  (Beetles),  belonging  to  the  family  CurcuUonida, 
or  WeetiU;  originally  introauced  by  Limueus  with  the 
character,  '  Head  attenuated,  behind  inclined.  Antenns 
somewhat  thick  towards  the  apex.'  In  the  18th  edition  of 
hid  Systema  Naturm  (1767),  as  many  as  thirteen  q)ecies 
are  enumerated.  Most  of  these,  however,  are  now  trans- 
ferred to  the  genus  Coleoptera. 

ATTEMPER,  v.  at-Um'p^r  [OF.  atemprer,  to  modify— 
from  L.  4id,  to;  tempero,  I  mix  in  due  proportion]:  to  mix 
in  proper  proportions;  to  soften  or  moderate;  to  modify;  to 
miugle.  Attem'pering,  imp.  Attem  pbred,  pp.  i)ird. 
Attbh'perlt,  ad.  -/i,  in  OE,,  in  a  temperate  manner. 
Attem'pbrmekt,  n.  the  act  of  tempering,  or  the  state  of 
being  tempered. 

ATTEMPT,  V.  dtthnt  [F.  attenfer,  to  attempt:  OF. 
atempter,  to  undertake;  tempter,  to  try— from  L.  ad,  to; 
tenia,  I  try]:  to  try;  to  make  an  effort  to  accomplish;  to 
endeavor:  iJ.  an  attack;  an  endeavor  to  gain  a  point  At- 
tempt'ikg,  imp.  Attempt' ed,  pp.  Attempt'er,  n.  one 
who.  Attempt' ABLE,  a.  -d-N,  that  may  be  attempted  or 
tried.  Attemptability,  n.  dt-timp-ta-bU'i4i,  capability  of 
being  attempted;  a  person  or  persons,  or  a  thing  or  things  ca- 
pable of  being  attempted.  Attemptate,  n.  dt-tim'tdt,  an 
attempt  or  endeavor,  especially  to  commit  a  crime.  In 
1589,  Puttenham  ranked  this  word  as  one  quite  recently  in- 
troduced into  the  language.  It  arose,  however,  somewhat 
earlier  than  he  thought. — Stn.  of  'attempt,  n.':  trial ;  ex- 
ertion ;  endeavor;  effort;  attack;  essay. 

ATTEMPT,  to  commit  a  felony  or  criminal  offense :  in 
many  instances  equally  co^izable  by  the  criminal  tribu- 
nals with  the  completed  crime  itself.  See  Treason  :  Fel- 
ony: Misdemeanor. 

ATTEND,  V.  dt-ti^nd'  [F.  attendre:  OF.  atendre,  to  wait: 
It.  attendere,  to  expect,  to  await— from  L.  cUiendhri,  to 
attend— from  L.  ad,  to;  tendo,  I  stretch  out] :  to  wait  on; 
to  accompanv;  to  be  present;  to  listen  to;  to  fix  the  atten- 
tion upon.  Attend'ing,  imp.  Attend'ed,  pp.  Attbnd'- 
ant,  n.  a  follower;  a  servant:  Adj.  accompanying;  being 
present.  Attendance,  n.  dt-Unddiis,  act  of  serving  or 
waiting  on;  duty;  in  OE.,  attention;  regard.  Attention. 
n.  dt-t^n'ithan  f^. — L.]:  the  act  of  attending;  paying  heed 
to;  steady  application  of  the  mind;  act  of  courtesy.  At- 
tentive, a.  dt-ten'tlv,  paying  due  regard  to;  mindful. 
Attbnt,  a.  [L.  attentus,  attentive]:  contr.   for  attentiw. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ATTENTATES— ATTERBURY. 

Attbn'tivbly,  ad.  tlv-U.  Attbn'tivbness,  d.  the  quality 
of  being  attentive.  To  dance  attendance,  to  wait  on 
and  obey  the  caprices  of  another  obsequiously.— 8 yn.  of 
'attend  *:  to  mind;  regard;  notice;  heed;  wait  on;  hearken; 
listen  ;  accompany ;  escort;— of  *  attention  ':  application  ; 
study;  care;  heed ;  consideration;  regard  ;  respect;  advert- 
ence;—of  *  attentive ':  careful ;  mindful ;  observant;  watch- 
ful; circumspect;  intent. 

ATTENTATES,  n.  pi.  att^n'tdU  [Ft.  attentat,  an  at- 
tempt—from L.  attentata,  nom.  plu.  of  pp.  of  attento,  to 
stretch  out,  to  attempt] :  proceedings  in  a  court  of  judicature, 
pending  suit,  and  after  an  inhibition  is  decreed ;  things 
done  after  an  extra-judicial  manner. 

ATTENUATE,  v.  at-tenu-dt  [L  atUnnatus,  made  very 
thin — from  ad,  to;  tenuo,  I  make  thin— from  tenuis,  thin: 
P.  attemier]:  to  make  very  thin;  to  reduce  in  thickness  or 
density.  Attbn'tjating,  imp.  Attenuated,  pp.  At- 
tenuation, n.  dUten'u-dahun  [F. — L]:  the  act  of  making 
thin,  fine,  or  slender.  Attbnuant,  a.  dt-tl^n'u-dnt,  making 
thin:  N.  a  medicine  which  attenuates. 

ATTERATE,  v.  dtUr-at  [L.  nUero,  to  nib  at,  towards, 
or  against — from  ad,  to;  tero,  to  rub]:  to  rub  away;  to 
form  or  accumulate  bv  rubbing  away.  At'terated,  pp. 
At'terating,  imp.  Attera'tion,  n.  -d'shimf  the  process 
of  wasting  the  land  away  by  the  action  of  the  waves. 

ATTERBURY,  &t' er-Ur-l,  Francis,  Bp.  of  Rochester : 
1662,  March  6—1732,  Feb.  15;  b.  Milton,  near  New- 
port Pagnel,  Buckinghamshire;  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  In  1698,  he  went  to 
London,  where  his  rhetorical  powers  soon  won  repu- 
tation. He  became  a  royal  chaplain,  minister  of  Bride- 
well, and  lecturer  of  St.  Bride's.  He  was  combative, 
turbulent,  and  ambitious;  a  caustic  and  reckless  controver- 
sialist; and,  as  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  ecclesiastical 
against  the  civil  authority,  he  received  promotion;  becom- 
ing, 1704,.  Dean  of  Carlisle;  1707,  Canon  of  Exeter.  In 
1710,  he  was  chosen  prolocutor  to  the  lower  house  of  con- 
vocation, and  in  the  same  year  he  had  the  chief  hand,  ac- 
cording to  the  common  belief,  in  drawing  up  the  famous 
defense  of  Dr.  Sacheverell;  in  1712,  he  became  Dean  of 
Christ  Church;  in  1718,  he  was  made  Bp.  of  Rochester  and 
Dean  of  Westminster.  The  death  of  Queen  Anne  extin- 
guished his  hopes  for  the  primacy,  as  his  known  character 
and  Jacobite  leanings  made  him  no  favorite  with  (Jeorge  I. 
His  deep  complicity  in  a  succession  of  plots  for  the  restor- 
ation of  the  Stuarts  brought  upon  him  at  length  the  charge 
of  treason,  and,  1722,  Aug.,  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower.  By  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties,  passed  in  the 
lords  by  88  to  48,  A.,  who  had  defended  himself  with 
ereat  ability,  was  deprived  of  all  his  ecclesiastical  offices, 
incapacitated  from  holding  anv  civil  or  spiritual  office  in 
the  kind's  dominions,  and  condemned  to  perpetual  banish- 
ment. He  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  was  active  in  Jacobite 
conspiracies  till  his  death.     His  fame  as  a  writer  rests 


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ATTEST— ATTICA, 
chiefly  on  his  letters  to  Pope,  Swift,  etc.;  as  a  letter- 
writer,  indeed,  he  has  seldom  been  surpassed. 

ATTEST,  V.  dt-tesi  [F.  atteeter,  to  attest— from  L. 
aiiestdri,  to  bear  witness  to — from  L.  ad,  to;  testar,  I  bear 
witness— from  testis,  a  witness]:  to  bear  witness  to;  to  cer- 
tify; to  affirm  solemnly  in  words  or  writing.  Attesting, 
imp.  Attbst'ed,  pp.  Attestor  or  Attes'tbr,  n.  one 
who.  Attestation,  n.  dt't^td'shun  [F.— L.]:  the  act  of 
bearing  witness  to;  putting  a  name  to  a  writinff^in  order  to 
show  it  to  be  authentic  (see  Deeds:  Wills:  Witnesses: 
Testing  Clause);  in  mil.,  the  act  of  signing  a  declaration 
and  taking  a  verbal  oath  on  the  part  of  a  recruit,  that  he 
will  serve  the  sovereign  faithfully  for  a  specified  number  of 
jrears.  Attes'tative,  a.  or  Attes'tivb,  a.  -tlv,  attest- 
mg  ;  containing  an  attestation. 

ATTEYNANT,  a.  dt-tdn'dnt  [L.  attin&ns^from  attineo]: 
attainable;  appertaining. 

ATTIC,  a.  dt'tik  [L.  Atiwus:  Gr.  AUikos,  pertainingto  At- 
tica or  Athens:  It.  attico:  F.  atti^ue]:  pertaining  to  Attica,  a 
slate  InGreece;  elegant;  classical;  applied  bv  Athenian  arch- 
itects to  an  order  or  series  of  small  square  pillars  placed  upon 
the  uppermost  part  of  a  building:  K.  an  Athenian;  a  low 
story  rising  above  the  cornice  that  terminates  the  main 
elevation  of  a  building;  the  flat  or  floor  on  the  upper  part 
of  a  house;  a  garret;  in  arch.,  a  plain  or  decoratea  parapet- 
wall  on  the  upper  part  of  the  facade  of  a  building.  Atti- 
cism, n.  dt'ti-sizm,  the  purest  style  of  the  Greek  language — 
Attic  dialect  being  the  dialect  of  Athens,  in  which  most 
of  the  great  works  of  Greek  antiquity  were  written.  At- 
TicizE,  V.  (it'tl'»iz,  to  make  use  of  atticism.  At'ticiz'ing, 
imp.  Atticized,  pp.  dt'tl-maa'.  Attic  muse,  n.  ai'tik  muz, 
a  mie  poetic  vein. 

ATTICA,  dt'ti-ka:  one  of  the  political  divisions  or  states 
of  Ancient  Greece  or  Hellas,  of  which  Athens  was  the  cap- 
ital. The  territory  is  triangular,  having  its  n.e.  and  s.w. 
sides  washed  by  the  sea,  while  on  the  n.  it  is  connected 
with  the  mainland.  In  ancient  times,  it  was  bounded  on 
the  w.  by  Megaris  and  the  Gulf  of  Saronica;  on  the  s., 
which  ran  out  into  the  *  marble  steep '  of  Sunium,  by  the 
iEgean  Sea;  on  the  e.,  by  the  JSgean  Sea;  and  on  the  n., 
by  Boeolia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  lofty  range  of 
hills,  the  most  famous  part  of  which  was  formerly  called 
Cithaeron.  Ancient  A.  was  thus  walled  in  from  the  rest 
of  Greece.  The  two  principal  rivers  were  the  Cephissus  and 
Ilissus;  and  if  they  exhibited  the  same  features  in  ancient 
times  as  now,  must  have  been  mere  mountain-torrents, 
dry  in  summer.  The  unfruitfulness  of  the  soil,  and  the 
scarcity  of  water,  compelled  the  inhabitants  occasionally 
to  send  out  colonies.  According  to  ancient  tradition,  the 
aboriffines  of  A.  were  civilized  first  under  Cecrops,  who 
is  said  to  have  come  hither  from  Sais,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Nile  in  Egypt,  about  B.C.  1550;  and  to  have  introduced  the 
culture  of  olives,  and  of  several  species  of  grain,  as  also 
to  have  implanted  milder  manners,  and  taught  the  wor- 
ship of  the  gods.     He  is  stated  to  have  divided  the  country 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATTICUS— ATTIGU0U8NESS. 

into  twelve  communities  or  states.  This,  however,  was  not 
the  only  division  known  in  ear^  A.  A  still  older  division 
into  phylait  or  tribes,  existed,  also  a  minute  subdivision 
into  demoi,  or  townships.  By  Theseus,  Athens  was  united 
with  the  eleven  other  states  of  A.  under  one  government, 
of  which  Athens  was  made  the  seat.  After  this  union  of 
the  several  states,  the  whole  of  A.  shared  in  the  fortunes 
of  Athens  (q.v.),  and,  under  Vespasian,  became  a  Roman 
province.  On  the  division  of  the  Roman  empire,  A.  nat- 
urally fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Greek  emperors.  In  a.d. 
S^,  It  was  captured  by  Alaric,  King  of  the  Goths.  It  is 
impossible  to  determine  precisely  what  its  population  was 
in  ancient  times.  Clinton  estimates  it  at  upwards  of  half  a 
million,  but  this  is  probably  too  large. 

In  the  present  arrangement,  Attica  and  Boeotia  form  a 
dept.  or  govt,  in  the  kingdom  of  Greece.  The  surface  of 
the  country  is  broken  into  hills  and  narrow  plains.  The 
most  considerable  hills  are — Parues,  4,634  ft.;  Cithieron, 
4,624;  Pentelicus,  famous  for  its  marble  in  ancient  times, 
of  a  white  brilliant  appearance  and  perdurable  character, 
3,641;  and  Hvmettus,  3,368.  The  largest  plains  extend  in 
the  neighborhoods  of  Athens  and  Eleusis.  As  early  as  the 
time  of  Solon,  A.  was  well  cultivated,  and  produced  wine 
and  com.  Mount  Hvmettus  was  celebrated  for  its  bees 
and  honey,  and  metals  were  found  in  the  range  of  Lau- 
riiim.  ligs,  olives,  and  grapes  are  still  cultivated.  Goats 
and  sheep  find  suitable  pasturage;  but  the  country  does 
not  now  produce  much  grain.  Pop.  of  A.  and  B.  (1879) 
185,864;  (1889)  257,764. 

ATTICUS,  at't'kiis,  Titus  Pomponius:  one  of  the  most 
noble  and  generous  men  in  ancient  Rome:  b.c.  109— b.c.  82: 
born  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  Cicero.  His  excel- 
lent education  with  Torquatus,  the  younger  Marius,  and 
Cicero,  was  supplemented  by  a  stay  in  Athens,  where  he 
remained  many  years,  glad  to  be  separated  from  the  polit- 
ical distractions  of  his  native  land.  After  b.c.  65,  when 
he  was  induced  by  Sulla  to  return  to  Rome,  he  still  de- 
voted himself  chiefly  to  study  and  the  pleasures  of  friend- 
ship, and  refused  to  take  part  in  political  affairs,  though 
exerting  much  influence  on  pnblic  matters.  A.  had  in- 
herited great  wealth,  which  he  had  increased  by  judicious 
mercantile  speculations.  His  mode  of  life  was  frugal. 
When  he  was  informed  that  a  disorder  under  which  he  was 
laboring  was  mortal, he  voluntarily  starved  himself  to  death. 
Among  his  personal  friends,  Cicero  held  the  first  place. 
The  Annates,  written  by  A.,  containing  genealogical  his- 
tories of  the  old  Roman  families,  were  highly  commended 
by  his  contemporaries.  In  A.  fine  culture  and  a  fortunate 
social  position  had  highly  developed  the  faculty  of  good 
taste.  He  had  no  creative  genius,  but  was  possessed  of 
such  delicate  discernment  that  he  could  detect  the  flaw 
that  would  have  been  invisible  to  Cicero.  Every  author 
was  anxious  to  secure  his  favorable  opinion.  None  of  his 
writings  have  been  preserved.  His  biography  is  found  in 
Comefius  Nepos,  and  in  Cicero*s  Epistles  to  A, 

ATTIGU0USNES8,  n.  dttlg'u-Us-nh  [Eng.  aUiguous-^ 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ATTILA. 

from  L.  attiguui^trom  attigo,  old  form  of  atUtiffo,  to  touch]: 
the  quality  of  being  attiguous;  contiguity. 

ATTILA,  (itU-a  [Ger^buel;  Hungarian,  BUulr,  conjee, 
tured  to  have  been  oris^ally  titles  of  honor]:  King  of  the 
Huns  (d.  463);  son  of  Mundzuk,  a  Uun  of  the  royal  blood. 
In  484,  he  succeeded  his  uncle  Roas  as  chief  of  countless 
hordes  scattered  over  the  n .  of  Asia  and  Europe.  His  brother 
Bleda,  or  B15del,  who  shared  with  him  the  supreme  author- 
ity over  all  the  Huns,  was  put  to  death  by  A.  444  or  445. 
1  lie  Huns  regarded  A.  with  superstitious  reverence,  and 
Christendom  with  superstitious  dread,  as  the  '  Scourge  of 
Qod.*  It  was  believed  that  he  was  armed  with  a  super- 
natural sword,  which  belonged  to  the  Scythian  sod  of 
war,  which  must  win  dominion  over  the  whole  world.  It 
is  not  known  when  the  name  *  Scourge  of  God  *  was  first 
applied  to  A.  He  is  said  to  have  received  it  from  a  hermit 
in  Gaul.  The  whole  race  of  Huns  was  regarded  in  the 
same  light.  In  an  inscription  at  Aquileia,  written  a  short 
time  before  the  siege  in  452,  they  are  described  as  tmnd- 
nentia  peccaiarum  fiageUa  (the  threatening  scourges  of  sin- 
ners). The  Vandals,  Ostro^ths,  €kpi(£e,  and  many  of 
the  Franks,  fought  under  his  banner,  and  in  a  short  time 
his  dominion  extended  over  the  people  of  Germany  and 
Scythia — i.e.,  from  the  frontiers  of  Gaul  to  those  of  China. 
In  447,  after  his  unsuccessful  campaign  in  Persia  and  Ar- 
menia, he  advanced  through  Illyria,  and  devastated  all  the 
countries  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean. 
Those  in  habitants  who  were  not  destroyed  were  compelled 
to  follow  in  his  train.  The  emperor  "nieodosius  collected 
an  army  to  oppose  the  inundation  of  the  barbarians,  but 
was  defeatea  in  three  bloodpr  engagements.  Constanti- 
nople owed  its  safety  solely  to  its  fortification  and  the  ignor- 
ance of  the  enemy  in  the  art  of  besieging;  but  Thrace, 
Macedon,  and  Greece  were  overrun;  seventy  flourishing 
cities  were  desolated,  and  Theodosius  was  compelled  to 
cede  a  portion  of  territory  south  of  the  Danube,  and  to 
pay  tribute  to  the  conqueror,  after  treacherously  attempt- 
ing to  murder  him.  In  451,  A.  turned  his  course  to  the 
West,  to  invade  Gaul,  but  was  here  boldly  confronted  by 
A6tius,  leader  of  the  Romans,  and  Theodoric,  King  of  the 
Visigoths,  who  compelled  him  to  raise  the  siege  of  Or- 
leans. He  then  retired  to  Champagne,  and  in  the  wide 
flain  of  the  Mame— called  anciently  the  Catalaunian 
•Iain — waited  to  meet  the  enemy.  The  army  of  the  West, 
under  Aetius  and  Theodoric,  encountered  the  forces  of  the 
Huns  near  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  city  of  Chalons- 
sur-Mame.  Both  armies  strove  to  obtain  the  hill  of  mod- 
erate height  which  rises  near  Mury,  and  commands  the 
field  of  little,  and  after  a  terrible  contest  the  ranks  of 
the  liomans  and  their  allies,  the  Visigoths,  were  broken. 
A.  now  regarded  victory  as  certain,  when  the  Gothic 
prince,  Thorismund,  immediatelv  after  his  father  had 
fallen,  assumed  the  command,  and  led  on  the  brave  Goths, 
who  were  burning  to  avenge  the  death  of  Theodoric.  Their 
charge  from  the  height  into  the  plain  was  irresistible.  On 
every  side  the  Huns  were  routed,  and  A.  with  dif9culty 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATTIRE— ATTITUDE, 
escaped  into  his  encampment.  This,  if  old  historians  are 
to  be  trusted,  must  have  been  the  most  sanguinary  battle 
ever  fought  in  Europe;  for  it  is  stated  by  contemporaries 
of  A.  that  not  less  than  252,000  or  300,000  slain  were  left 
on  the  field.  A.  having  retired  within  his  camp  of  wag- 
ons, collected  all  the  wooden  shields,  saddles,  and  other 
baggage  into  a  vast  funeral  pile,  resolving  to  die  in  the 
flames  rather  than  surrender;  but  by  the  advice  of  Aetius. 
the  Roman  general,  the  Huns  were  allowed  to  retreat 
without  much  further  loss,  though  they  were  pursued  by 
the  Pranks  as  far  as  the  Rhine.  In  the  following  year,  A. 
had  recovered  his  strength,  and  made  another  mcursion 
into  Italy,  devastating  Aquileia,  Milan,  Padua,  and  other 
cities,  and  drivine  the  terrified  inhabitants  into  the  Alps, 
Apennines,  and  the  lagoons  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  where 
thev  founded  Venice.  The  Roman  emperor  was  helpless, 
and  Rome  itself  was  saved  from  destruction  only  bv  the 
personal  mediation  of  Pope  Leo  I.,  who  visited  the 
dreaded  barbarian,  and  is  said  to  have  subdued  his  ferocity 
into  awe  by  the  apostolic  majesty  of  his  m'ien.  This  de- 
liverance was  regarded  as  a  miracle  by  the  affrighted 
Romans,  and  old  chronicles  relate  that  the  apostles  Peter 
and  Paul  visited  the  camp  of  A.,  and  changed  his  purpose. 
By  468,  however,  A.  appears  to  have  forgotten  the  visit  of 
the  two  beatified  apostles,  for  he  made  preparations  for 
another  invasion  of  Italy,  but  died  of  hemorrhage  on  the 
night  of  his  marriage  with  the  beautiful  Ildiko.  His 
death  spread  consternation  through  the  host  of  the  Huns. 
His  followers  cut  themselves  with  knives,  shaved  their 
heads,  and  prepared  to  celebrate  the  funeral  rites  of  their 
king.  It  is  said,  that  his  body  was  placed  in  three  coflfins 
— the  first,  of  gold;  the  second,  of  silver;  and  the  third,  of 
iron;  that  the  caparison  of  his  horses,  with  his  arms  and 
ornaments,  was  buried  with  him;  and  that  all  the  cap- 
tives who  were  employed  to  make  his  grave  were  put  to 
death,  so  that  none  might  betray  the  resting-place  of  the 
King  of  the  Huns. 

Jomandes  describes  A.  as  having  the  Mongolian  charac- 
teristics— low  stature,  a  large  head,  with  small,  brilliant, 
deep-seated  eyes,  and  broad  shoulders. 

ATTIRE,  V.  at-iir'  [OF.  atour,  female  head-dress;  atirer, 
to  adorn— from  O.  Ger.,  and  O.  Sax  foV,  glory]:  to  adorn 
with  garments ;  to  dress ;  to  array :  N.  clothes  ;  apparel. 
Attir'ing,  imp.  Attired,  pp.  dt-tlrd.  ATrm'KR,  n. 
cne  who. 

ATTITUDE,  n.  at'tUud  [F.  attitude,  posture— from  It. 
cUtitu'din^,  disposition  to  act:  Sp.  actitud,  attitude,  posi- 
tion]: position  of  persons  or  things;  posture;  a  position  as- 
sumed or  studied  to  serve  a  pui-pose.  Attitudinal,  a.  at- 
ti-tu'dUvU,  pertaining  to.  ATTiTUDmiZE,  v.  ditl-tudl-rm, 
to  assume  affected  airs  or  postures.  At'tttu'dini'zing, 
imp.  ATTiTUDmizED,  pp.  'Tilzd.  Attitudinarian,  n. 
dt-ti-tu-dln-drUin,  one  who  gives  particular  attention  to 
attitudes.— Syn  of  'attitude':  posture;  action;  gesture; 
gesticulation;  appearance. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATFLE— AITORN. 

ATTLE,  n.  lii'tl  [perhaps  corrapted  from  addle,  rotten, 
which  sec] :  a  term  used  iu  Corawall  for  rubbish  tbrov^n  out 
of  a  mine,  containing  little  or  no  ore. 

ATTLEBOROUGH,  at'UMrrd:  post  village  in  the  tp. 
of  A.,  Bristol  CO.,  Mass.,  31  m.  n.c.  from  Boston,  on  the  Bos- 
ton and  Providence  railroad.  The  township  is  situated  on 
Ten  Mile  river.  Chief  manufact ares  are  clocks,  jewelry,  and 
buttons  ;  in  the  jewelry  tra<le  il  shares  with  Providence  the 
bulk  of  that  business  east  of  Newark  and  New  York,  con- 
taining more  than  fifty  establishments,  turning  out  gilt  and 
gold  jewelry,  finger-rings,  ear-rings,  bracdets,  lockets, 
chains,  charms,  breastpins,  etc.  Most  of  these  goods  are 
plated,  or  gilded,  and  are  sold  by  travelling  agents.  There 
are  several  cotton-mills,  running  about  fifty  thousand  spin- 
dles, also  various  other  manufactories.  A,  was  settled  1669, 
and  its  garrison  \vas  one  of  those  holding  Uie  line  of  fortifi- 
cations against  the  Indians,  from  Boston  to  Newport  The 
town  foniierly  included  Cumberland,  R.  I. ;  it  was  called 
•North  Purchase,'  and  was  incorporated  1694,  Oct.  19. 
A  branch  railroad  connects  A.  with  North  A.,  also  with 
Trenton  on  the  e.    Pop.  (1880)  11,111 ;  (1890)  7,577. 

ATTOCK,  at-tok':  town  and  fort  of  the  Punjab,  on  the 
left  or  e.  bank  of  the  Indus.  The  town  stands  below  the 
fort,  a  parallelogram  of  800  yds.  by  400,  established  by  the 
emperor  Akbar,  1581,  to  defend  the  passage  of  the  river, 
but  it  is  no  longer  a  position  of  strength.  The  great  railway 
bridge  across  the  Indus  here  was  opened  18&  It  has  5 
arches  130  ft.  high,  and  renders  continuous  the  railway 
connection  between  Calcutta  and  Peshawur  (1600  m.).  Pop. 
4,210. 

The  situation  of  A.  is  important,  whether  in  a  commer- 
cial or  in  a  military  view.  It  is  at  the  head  of  the  steam- 
boat navigation  of  the  Indus,  being  940  m.  from  its  mouth  ; 
while  about  2  m.  above  it,  the  Cabul  river,  the  only  con- 
siderable aflfluent  of  the  Indus  from  the  w.,  is  practicable 
for  vessels  of  40  or  50  tons  to  a  distance  of  50  m.  The  val- 
ley of  this  last-mentioned  stream,  presenting  the  best  ap- 
proach to  the  e.  and  s.  from  central  Asia,  has  been  the 
route  of  nearly  all  but  the  maritime  invaders  of  India  from 
the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great  downwards.  Taxila, 
where  the  Macedonians  crossed  the  Indus,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  same  as  Attock. 

ATTOLLENT.  a.  dUUMUnt  [L  ad,  to;  toUen'tem,  liftmg 
or  raising]:  in  OK,  raising  or  lifting  up. 

ATTORN,  V.  dt't&rn'  [OF.  aitomer,  to  direct,  to  dis- 
pose—from toTmer,  t(mmer,  to  turn:  Ital.  cUtomiare,  to  en- 
compass, to  enclose  ;  attorner,  about :  L.  L.  cUtomare, 
attorniare,  attumare,  to  commit  business  to  anofJier,  to 
attorn— from  clas.  L.  ad,  to;  torno,  to  turn  in  a  lathe,  to 
round  off — from  Gr.  tornva,  a  carpenter's  tool  like  our 
compasses]:  to  transfer  the  feudal  allegiance  of  a  vassal, 
or  the  vassals  generally,  to  a  new  lord  on  his  obtaining  an 
estate  from  its  former  possessor;  to  profess  to  become 
tenant  of  a  new  lord.    Attorning,  imp. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATTORNEY. 

ATTORNEY,  n.  dt-ter'nt,  Attor'neys,  n.  plu.  [Norm. 
F.  aVoume:  mid.  L.  atiorndtus,  put  in  the  place  of  any  one 
— ^from  L.  tomdr^,  to  turn,  to  fashion:  OF.  atorne,  directed, 
arranged  for  business]:  one  put  in  the  turn  or  place  of  an- 
other; one  who  acts  for  another,  as  in  a  court  of  law;  a 
lawyer.  Attorneyship,  n.  the  office  of  an  attorney. 
Attorney-general,  in  Eng.,  the  head  law  officer  of  the 
crown:  in  the  United  States,  an  official  in  each  state,  and  in 
the  cabinet  at  Washington,  having  charge  of  the  legal 
business  of  the  governments  which  they  respectively  serve; 
they  appear,  or  serve,  in  all  suits  in  which  their  government 
is  a  party,  and  advise  in  all  its  legal  proceedings  and  in- 
terests. Power  or  Letter  of  attorney,  written  author- 
ity given  to  one  person  emp*?wering  him  to  act  for,  or  to 
transact  certain  business  for  another. 

ATTORNEYS  or  Counsellors  at-Law,  and  SOLIC- 
ITORS :  legal  practitioners  who  cofiduct  litigation  in  courts 
of  justice ;  (in  England)  preparing  the  cause  for  the  barris- 
ters, whose  diity  and  privilege  it  is  to  plead  and  argue  in 
open  court  on  behalf  of  the  contending  parties;  m  the 
United  States  usually  both  preparing  the  case  in  private, 
and  presenting  it  in  court.  A.  and  8.  also  practice  convey- 
ancing, or  the  preparation  of  legal  deeds  and  instruments, 
and  they  manage  much  other  general  business  connected 
with  the  practice  of  the  law,  for  which,  as  well  as  for  the 
discharge  of  all  their  duties,  they  are  mostly  remunerated 
by  a  fixed  and  minute  scale  of  charges. 

They  are  called  A.,  as  practitioners  in  the  courts  of  com- 
mon law,  because  the  attorney  is  one  who  is  put  in  the  place, 
stead,  or  turn  of  another.  In  former  times  when  prosecut- 
ing or  defending,  suitors  were  obliged  to  appear  personally 
in  court ;  but  now  A.  may  represent,  and  can  often  prose, 
cute  or  defend  any  action  or  suit  in  the  absence  of,  the 
parties.  They  are  called  Solicitors  in  the  courts  of  chan- 
cery and  equity ;  and  the  same  name  is  sometimes  given  to 
this  profession  when  transacting  family  or  other  general 
business  out  of  court,  and  in  their  own  chambers.  Solicitor 
is  the  term  sometimes  applied  also  to  the  law-officer  of  a  city, 
etc.  A.,  being  admittea  by  the  courts,  of  which  therefore 
they  are  officers,  have  many  privileges  as  such ;  and  they 
are  in  consequence  peculiarly  subject  to  the  control  and 
censure  of  the  judges. 

In  the  United  States,  A.  and  S.  are  officers  in  a  court  of 
Justice  employed  by  parties  in  suits  to  manage  the  same 
before  the  court.  These  may  either  be  selected  by  the 
parties  to  the  action,  or,  in  case  of  default  in  this,  may  be 
designated  by  the  court.  The  eligibility  of  legal  practi- 
tioners to  hold  such  positions  is  decided  by  local  legislation 
or  by  the  rules  of  the  court.  Thas  women  can  act  aa  at- 
tomeys-at-law  only  in  the  several  states  when  permitted  by 
special  statute,  but  any  woman  of  good  standing  at  the  bar 
of  the  supreme  cx)urt  of  any  state  or  territory  or  of  the 
Dist.  of  Columbia  for  three  years,  and  of  good  moral 
character,  may  become  a  member  of  the  bar  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  the  U.  8. 

In  the  absence  of  fraud,  the  client  is  ooncluded  by  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATTOUR— ATTRACTION. 

acts,  and  even  by  the  omissions,  of  his  attorney ;  the  duties 
of  the  attorney  being— to  be  true  to  the  court  and  to  his 
client ;  to  mana^  the  business  of  his  client  vrith  care,  skiU, 
and  integrity ;  to  keep  his  client  informed  as  to  the  state 
of  his  business ;  to  keep  his  secrets  confided  to  him  as  sudi; 
and  he  is  privileged  from  disclosing  such  secrets  when  called 
as  a  witness.  For  a  violation  of  these  duties,  an  action 
will,  in  i^neral,  lie,  and,  in  some  cases,  he  ma^  be  punished 
by  attachment  Official  misconduct  may  be  mquired  into 
in  a  summary  manner,  and  the  name  of  the  offender,  on 
conviction,  be  stricken  from  the  roll. 

ATTOUR,  prep,  and  ad.  di'0r'  [Ft.  anUmr,  round 
about ;  or  Eng.  out,  aver,  pronounced  rapidly  and  indis- 
tinctly]: as  prep.,  over;  across;  beyond;  above;  further  on- 
ward than;  exceeding  in  number;  past;  as  adv.,  moreover. 

ATTRACT,  V.  ilt-trdkt  [OF.  attraicter,  to  attract—from 
mill.  L.  attraetdre,  to  draw  forth — from  L.  ad,  to;  tr(ietus, 
drawn]:  to  draw  to  by  some  kind  of  influence;  to  aUure. 
Attractlno,  imp.  Attracted,  pp.  dt-trakted.  At- 
trac'tor.  n.  one  who.  Attractable,  a.  at  trdJttd-dl,  that 
may  be  attracted.  ATTRACTABiL'nT,  n.  bUUtl,  power  of 
attraction.  Attractile,  a.  dt'trdk'tU,  that  can  attnict. 
Attraction,  n.  dt'trak$hun,  the  act  of  drawing  to;  that 
which  draws;  the  power  that  bodies  have  of  coming  tof;eth- 
er  and  uniting — attractions  take  place  between  bodies— 
afflnitieB  between  the  particles  of  a  bod  v.  Attractive,  a. 
dUtrdktlv,  drawing  to ;  alluring.  Attractively,  ad. 
-tlvll.  Attractiveness,  n.  the  quality  of  being  attractive 
or  engaging.  Attract' inglt,  ad.  -11.  Attraction  of 
gravitation,  that  power  which  acts  at  all  distances 
throughout  the  universe.  Capillary  attraction,  that 
power  which  causes  liquids  to  rise  in  small  tubes  or  porous 
substances.  Chemical  attraction  or  affinity,  the  power 
by  which  the  ultimate  particles  of  bodies  of  unlike  Idnds 
unite  themselves  together  to  form  a  new  body  possessing  new 
and  specific  properties.  Cohesive  attraction  or  Attrac- 
tion OF  COHESION,  that  power  which  causes  the  particles 
of  a  body  to  unite  or  cohere  to  form  a  recognizcil  body, 
whether  aeriform,  fluid,  or  solid.— Syn.  of  'attract':  to 
allure;  invite;  entice;  draw;  charm;  engage. 

ATTRACTION:  general  name  for  the  force  or  forces 
by  which  all  bodies,  from  the  minutest  particles  to  the 
largest  planets,  suns,  and  systems  of  suns,  tend  to  ap- 
proach, or  are  drawn  towards  one  another,  and  when  m 
contact,  are  held  together.  The  term  is  generic,  em- 
bracing a  vast  variety  of  facts,  which  are  subdivided 
under  five  heads  or  species  of  A.  These  are — 1.  Gravita- 
tion; 2.  Cohesion;  8.  Adhesion,  including  Capillary  A.; 
4.  Chemical  Affinity;  5.  The  attractions  of  Klectncity, 
Magnetism,  etc.  See  Gravitation:  Cohesion,  etc.,  as 
above.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  deduce  all  these 
phenomena  from  one  principle  of  A.,  modified  by  an  op- 
posing force  of  repulsion,  but  as  yet  without  success. 
Still  less  can  they  be  explained  by  assuming  only  one 
force — A.  alone,  or  repulsion  alone — ^for  this,  too,  has  been 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


ATTRAHENT— ATTRITION. 

attempted.  The  idea  of  an  attractive  force  acting  as  the 
bond  of  the  universe  was  first  introduced  as  a  scientific 
hjrpothesis  by  Newton,  and  was  violently  combated  by 
Leibnitz  and  others. 

ATTRAHENT,  a.  dttrd-JUnt  fL.  atirahen'tein,  drawing 
to— from  ad,  to;  traho,  I  draw] :  drawing  or  attracting. 

ATTRECTATION,  n.  dttrek-td'shun  [L.  attrectatio— 
from  attrecto,  to  touch,  to  handle— from  ad,  to;  tracto,  to 
drag  about— freq.  from  traho,  to  drawl:  the  act  of  handling 
frequently;  the  state  of  being  frequently  handled. 

ATTRIBUTE,  v.  at-trXb'ui  [P.  atlHbut,  an  attribute— 
from  L.  attrUmtus,  given  or  assigned  to— from  L.  ad,  to; 
tributtu,  granted;  bestowed]:  to  make  over  to;  to  give  as 
due ;  to  ascribe  to.  ATTBiB'uxrNG,  imp.  Attkibuted. 
pp.  dt4rib'u-ted.  Attribute,  n.  df'trl  but,  a  quality  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to,  or  inherent  in,  dny  person  or  thing. 
Attributivb,  a.  dttrWu-tvo,  pertaining  to  an  attribute: 
N.  in  gram.,  applied  to  words,  as  adjectives,  which  denote 
an  attribute.  Attributable,  a.  dt-trlb'u-tu-bl,  that  may 
be  ascribed  to.  At'tribu'tion,  n.  -bushun  [F.— L.]:  the 
act  of  attributing  to;  commendation.— Syn.  of  *  attnbute, 
V.':  to  ascribe;  impute;  assign;— of  '  attribute,  n.':  property; 
quality;  symbol. 

ATTRIBUTE,  hi  the  Fine  Arts:  a  species  of  symbol, 
consisting  of  a  secondary  figure  or  object  accompanying 
the  principal  figure— as  the  trident  of  Neptune,  or  the  owl 
of  Minerva  Attributes  serve  to  mark  the  character  meant, 
and  add  to  the  significance  of  the  rejjresentatioD.  The 
necessity  of  usinff  them  lies  in  the  limited  means  of  ex- 
pression possessed  by  the  formative  arts.  Attributes  may 
oe  either  essential  or  conventional.  Essential  attributes 
have  some  real  relation  or  resemblance  to  the  object  or 
idea  to  be  expressed;  and  are  often  such  as  could  stand 
alone  as  sjonbols — ^as  the  bee,  representing  diligence.  At- 
tributes in  the  strictest  sense,  and  as  distinguished  from 
symbols,  are  such  as  are  significant  only  m  connection 
with  a  figure,  to  which  they  in  a  manner  belong;  e.  g.,  the 
wings  of  genii,  the  finger  on  the  mouth  of  Harpocrates. 
The  last  is  an  example  of  an  accidental  or  conventional  A., 
of  which  kind  are  also  the  anchor,  to  express  hope;  the 
erom,  faith.  Common  attributes  in  Christian  art  are — the 
harp  for  King  David,  and  writing  materials  for  the  evangel- 
ists, especially  the  apostle  John. 

ATTRIBUTE,  in  Logic:  the  opposite  of  Substance. 
The  latter  is  congidered  as  self-existent,  while  the  former 
can  be  conceived  as  possessing  only  a  dependent  existence. 
Attributes  are  commonly  said  to  belong  to  substances. 
Thus,  wisdom,  holiness,  goodness,  and  truth  are  termed 
attributes  of  Qod,  who  is  himself  regarded  as  the  sub- 
stance in  which  they  inhere;  in  like  manner,  whiteness  is 
called  an  A.  of  snow. 

ATTRITION,  n.  di-trUhun  [F.  attrition— from  L.  attri- 
fionem— from  attrlttts,  rubbed  or  worn  away — from  L.  ad, 
to;  tritiis,  rubbed]:   the  act  of  wearing  by  rubbing;  state 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


ATTUNE--ATWOOD'S  MACHINK 

of  being  worn  by  friction;  the  least  measure  of  sorrow,  or 
lowest  degree  of  repentance,  the  result  of  fear— as  opposed 
to  contrition,  the  highest  degree  or  real  repentance.  Attrite, 
a.  aUtrli,  in  OE.,  worn  by  rubbing;  penitent.  Attrite- 
NE88,  n.  dttrit'n^s,  the  quality  of  being  rubbed  away  or 
worn  down  by  friction. 

ATTUNE.  V.  dUtun'  [L.  ad,  to.  and  tune]',  to  put  in 
tune;  to  make  musical;  to  arrange  fitly.  AiruN'mG,  imp. 
Attuned,  pp.  dttvtnd', 

ATUA,  n.  A'tU'd,  or  Akua,  n.  dltA-d  [Polynesian  Atu, 
Master  or  Lord— primarily,  core  or  kernel  J:  the  chief  word 
for  God  throughout  eastern  Polynesia— meaning  primarily, 
'  He  who  is  the  very  core  and  life  of  man.' 

ATUN,  n.  (t-tun:  a  fish,  the  Thyrgites  aiun,  belonging 
to  the  family  of  Triehiurida,  or  Hair-taHed  fishes.  It 
feeds  voraciously  oh  the  calainarv,  is  found  in  the  ocean 
near  s.  Africa  and  Australia,  and  Is  prized  for  the  delicacy 
of  its  flesh. 

ATWAIN,  ad.  d4w&n'  [AS.  a,  in,  and  ttoain];  in  OE., 
in  twain:  asunder. 

AT  WEEN,  or  Attween,  ad.  a.  prep,  d-twen'  [AS.  a.  in; 
twegen,  two,  twain]:  in  prof).  Eng.,  in  the  midole  of  two 
things;  between;  in  Scot.,  occupying  a  middle  position,  as 
*atwecn  the  twa.*   Atwo,  ad.  d-t^',  m  OE.,  into  two. 

ATWIXT,  prep,  a-twikstf  [O.  Eng.  form  of  betwixt— 
from  AS.  a;  tweak,  two  | :  betwixt. 

AT' WOOD'S  MACHINE':  an  instrument  for  illustrat- 
ing  the  relations  of  time,  space,  and  velocitv  in  the  motion 
of  a  body  falling  under  the  action  of  gravity.  It  was  in- 
vented by  George  Atwood,  or  Attwood,  a  mathematician  of 
some  emmence  (1745-1807^),  educated  at  Cambridge,  who 
became  fellow  and  tutor  of  Trinity  College  in  that  univ., 
and  published  a  few  treatises  on  Mechanics  and  Engineer- 
ing. It  is  found  that  a  body,  falling  freely,  passes  t£rough 
16  ft.  in  the  first  second,  64  ft.  in  the  first  two  seconds,  144 
ft.  in  the  first  three  seconds,  and  so  on.  Now,  as  these 
spaces  are  so  large,  we  should  require  a  machine  of  im- 
practicable size  to  illustrate  the  relations  just  mentioned. 
The  object  of  Atwood's  Machine  is  to  reduce  the  scale  on 
which  gravity  acts  without  in  any  wayalterinff  its  essential 
features  as  an  accelerating  force.  The  machine  consists 
essentially  of  a  pulley,  P  (see  Fig.  1),  moving  on  its  axis 
with  very  little  friction,  with  a  fine  silk  cord  passing  over 
it,  sustaining  two  equal  cylindrical  weights,  p  and  g,  at  its 
extremities.  The  pulley  rests  on  a  square  wooden  pillar, 
graduated  on  one  side  in  feet  and  inches,  which  can  be 
placed  in  a  vertical  position  by  the  levelling-screws  of  the 
sole  on  which  it  stands.  Two  stages,  A  ana  B,  slide  alon^ 
the  pillar,  and  can  be  fixed  at  any  part  of  it  by  means  oi 
fixing-screws.  One  of  these  stages.  A,  has  a  circular  hole 
cut  into  it,  so  as  to  allow  the  cylinder,  p,  to  pass  freely 
through  it;  the  other  is  unbroken,  and  intercepts  the 
passage  of  the  weight.  A  series  of  smaller  weights,  partly 
bar-shaped,  partly  circular,  may  be  placed  on  the  cylmders 


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^^* 


ATWOOD'S  MACHINE. 

in  the  way  represented  in  Figs.  2  and  8.  A  pendulum 
usually  accompanies  the  machine,  to  beat  seconds  of  time. 
The  weight  of  the  cylinders,  p  and  g,  being  equal,  they  liave 
no  tendency  to  rise  or  fall,  but  are  reduced,  as  it  were,  to 
masses  without  weight.  When  a  bar  is  placed  on  p,  the 
motion  that  ensues  is  due  only  to  the  action  of  gravity 
upon  it,  so  that  the  motion  of  the  whole  must  be  consider- 
I  ably  slower  than  that  of  the  bar 

falling  freely.  Suppose,  for  in- 
stance, that  p  and  g  are  each  7i 
ounces  in  weight,  and  that  the 
bar  is  1  ounce,  the  force  acting 
on  the  system— leaving  the  fric- 
tion and  inertia  of  the  pulley  out 
of  account  —  would  be  ^^  of 
gravity,  or  the  whole  would  move 
only  1  ft.  in  the  first  second,  in- 
I  stead  of  16.    If  the  bar  be  left 

!  free  to  fall,  its  weight  or  moving 

I  force  would  bring  its  own  mass 
through  16  ft.  the  first  second; 
but  when  placed  on  p,  this  force 
is  exerted  not  only  on  the  mass 
of  the  bar,  but  on  that  of  p  and  g, 
which  is  15  times  greater,  so  that 
it  has  altogether  16  times  more 
matter  in  the  second  case  to  move 
than  in  the  first,  and  must  in  con- 
sequence, move  it  16  times  more 
slowly.  By  a  proper  adjustment 
of  weights,  the  rate  of  motion 
may  be  made  as  small  as  we 
please,  or  we  can  reduce  the  ac- 
celerating force  to  any  fraction 
.,  ^    - ,  of  gravity.     Suppose  the  weights 

Atwood  8  Machine.  ^^^  '^^  ^  adjusted  that  under  the 
moving  force  of  the  bar  or  circular  weight  the  whole 
moves  through  1  inch  in  the  first  second,  we  may  institute 
the  following  simple  experiments:  Experiment  1. — Place 
the  bar  on  p,  and  put  the  two  in  such  a  position  that  the 
lower  surface  of  the  bar  shall  be  horizontally  in  the  same 
plane  as  the  0  point  of  the  scale,  and  fix  the  stage  A  at  1 
mch.  When  allowed  to  descend,  the  bar  will  accompany 
the  weight,  p,  during  one  second  and  for  1  inch,  when  it  will 
be  arrested  by  the  stage  A,  after  which  p  and  g  will  con- 
tinue to  move  from  the  momentum  they  have  acquired  in 
passing  through  the  first  inch.  Their  velocity  will  now 
be  found  to  be  quite  uniform,  beinc  2  inches  per  second, 
illustrating  the  principle  that  a  falling  body  acquires,  at 
the  end  of  the  first  second,  a  velocity  per  second  equal  to 
twice  the  space  it  has  fallen  through.  Exp.  2. — Take,  in- 
stead of  the  bar,  the  circular  weight,  place  the  bottom  of 
p  in  a  line  with  the  0  point,  and  put  the  stage  B  at  64 
inches.  Since  the  weight  accompanies  p  throughout  its 
fall  we  have  in  this  experiment  the  same  conditions  as  in 
the  ordinary  fall  of  a  body.    When  let  off,  the  bottom  of 


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ATYA— AUBAJNB. 

the  cylinder,  p,  reaches  1  inch  in  1  second,  4  inches  in  3 
seconds,  9  inches  in  8  seconds,  16  inches  in  4  seconds,  25 
inches  in  5  seconds,  49  inches  in  7  seconds,  and  64  inches 
and  the  stage  in  8  seconds— showing  that  the  spaces  de- 
scribed are  as  the  squares  of  the  times.  Exp.  8.  If  the  bar 
be  placed  as  in  iSrp.  1,  and  the  stage  A  be  Hxed  at  4  inches, 
the  bar  will  accompany  the  weight,  p,  during  two  seconds, 
and  the  velocity  acquired  in  that  time  by  p  and  g  will  be 
4  inches  per  second,  or  twice  what  it  was  before.  In  the 
same  manner,  if  the  sta^e  A  be  placed  at  9, 16, 25,  etc.,  inch- 
•s,  the  velocities  acquired  in  falling  through  these  spaces 
would  be  respectively  6,  8,  10,  etc.,  mches— two  inches  of 
velocity  bein^  acquired  in  each  second  of  the  fall.  From 
this  it  IS  manifest  that  the  force  under  which  bodies  fall  is 
a  uniformly  accelerating  force — that  is,  adds  equal  incre- 
ments of  velocity  in  equal  times.  By  means  of  the  bar 
and  the  stage  A,  we  are  thus  enabled  to  remove  the  ac- 
celerating force  from  the  falling  body  at  any  point  of  its 
fall,  and  then  question  it,  as  it  were,  as  to  the  velocity 
which  it  has  acquired. 

ATYA,  n.  a-ti'a  [from  Atys:  Gr.  Atus,  the  name  of 
several  persons  mentioned  in  clasnic  history  or  mythology. 
The  most  notable  was  an  effeminate  and  foppiw  youth, 
killed  by  Tydeus  in  the  Theban  war]:  name  given  by  Leach 
to  a  genus  of  decapod  long-tailed  crustaceans.  They  have 
the  forceps  terminating  the  four  claws  cleft  as  far  as  its 
base,  or  appearing  to  he  composed  of  two  fingers  in  the 
form  of  lashes  united  at  their  origin* 

ATYPIC,  a.  a-tlpik  [Gr.  a,  without:  L.  tifptu—trom 
Gr.  tupa$,  a  model,  a  type]:  in  nat.  9ci.,  not  having  typical 
characters. 

ATYPU8.  n.  arti'pu%  [Gr.  a,  without;  tupos,  a  type]: 
ffenus  of  spiders  belonging  to  the  the  family  Mygaf%dm. 
The  A,  8oUeri  excavates  in  the  ground,  to  the  depth  of 
seven  or  eight  inches,  a  cylindrical  tube,  which  it  lines 
with  silk.    It  is  found  in  France. 

AUBAGNE,  o-bdn  (anc.  Atbania)'.  town  of  the  dept.  of 
Bouches-du-Rhone,  France;  on  the  Huveaune,  9  m.  e.  from 
Marseilles,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is 
built  with  some  regularity  and  elegance.  The  ancient 
town  stood  on  a  hill,  at  the  base  of  which  the  present 
town  is  situated.  It  was  the  cap,  of  the  Albicii,  subdued 
by  Julius  Caesar.  The  castle,  once  of  great  strength,  is 
now  in  ruins.  The  church  was  founded  1164.  This  town 
is  a  place  of  considerable  activity,  manufacturing  pottery 
tiles,  paper,  etc.  It  has  tannenes  and  distilleries.  Pop> 
5,200. 

AUBAINE,  n.  d4>dn'  [P.  aubairUy  escheat,  right  of  suc- 
cession in  a  sovereign  to  an  alien's  goods — ^from  attbain,  a 
foreigner]:  in  France,  the  right  in  succession  of  the  sove^ 
eign  to  the  goods  of  a  foreigner  not  naturalized,  at  his  death 
—abolished  1819;  ancienthr  the  barbarous  right  of  the 
sovereign  to  wrecked  vessels  and  goods,  and  the  power  to 
kill  or  sell  the  alien  sailors  as  slaves.    See  Albaik& 


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AUBE-AUBER 

ATJBE,  db:  river  in  France;  tributary  of  the  Seine,  ris- 
ing near  Pralay,  on  the  plateau  of  Langres;  flowing  n.  w. 
by  Rouvres,  La  Ferte,  Bar,  and  Arcis;  and  falling  into  the 
Seine  at  Pont-sur-Seine,  after  a  course  of  90  m. 

AUBE:  a  dept.  of  France,  occupying  the  s.  part  of  the 
old  prov.  of  Champagne,  and  a  small  portion  of  Bur- 
gundy: bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  Marne;  e.  by  th^ 
Haute-Mame;  s.w.  by  the  Yonne;  n.w.  by  the  Seine-et- 
Mame.  The  e.  part  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  A;  the  w. 
to  the  basin  of  the  Seine.  Area,  2,810  sq.  m.  The  climate 
is  mild,  moist,  and  changeable;  but  on  the  whole  health- 
ful. A  great  portion  of  the  area  is  arable  land.  The  n.e. 
is  applied  chiefly  to  pasturage;  but  the  s.e.  is  far  more 
fertile,  rich  in  meadow-land  and  forest,  and  producing 
grain,  hemp,  rape,  hay,  timber,  and  wine.  In  mmerals  the 
department  has  little  besides  limestone,  marl,  and  potters* 
clay.  The  chief  manufactures  are  woolen  cloth,  cotton 
and  linen  goods,  ribbons  and  stockings,  leather,  parch- 
ment, etc.  The  sausages  and  bacon  of  A.  have  long  been 
famous.     Troyes  is  the  cap.     Pop.  (1891)  255,548. 

AUBENAS,  ob-nd':  town  in  France,  dept.  of  Ard^che; 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ardeche, 
14  m.  s.w.  from  Privas,  in  the  middle  of  the  volcanic 
region  of  Vivarais.  From  a  distance  its  appearance  is 
good,  but  the  streets,  with  the  exception  of  one  traversed 
by  the  diligence,  are  narrow  ana  crooked,  the  squares 
small,  and  the  houses  very  irregularly  built.  An  old  and 
rapidly  decaying  wall,  flanked  with  towers,  girds  th^ 
town,  which  contains  an  ancient  castle.  A.  is  the  prin- 
cipal mart  for  the  sale  of  chestnuts  and  silk  in  the  depart-^ 
ment.  Several  important  fairs  are  also  held  here.  It  has 
manufactures  of  silk,  paper,  cotton,  coarse  cloths,  leather, 
etc.,  the  machinery  of  the  mills  being  driven  by  water. 
Pop.  (1891)  7,824. 

AUBER,  o-hair',  Daniel  Francois  Esprit:  1784,  Jan. 
29—1871,  May  14;  b.  Caen,  Normandy:  composer  of 
operas.  His  father  was  a  print-seller  in  Paris,  and  sent 
his  son  to  London  to  learn  the  trade.  But  his  irresistible 
passion  was  for  music,  and  he  soon  returned  to  Paris. 
Among  his  earliest  compositions  may  be  noticed — the 
concertos  for  the  violoncello,  ascribed  to  Lama  re  the 
violoncellist;  the  concerto  for  the  violin,  played  by  Mazas 
with  great  applause  at  the  Conservatory  of  Music,  Paris; 
and  the  comic  opem,  Julie,  with  a  modest  accompaniment 
for  two  violins,  two  altos,  and  a  bass.  These  works  were 
very  successful;  but  A.,  aspiring  to  greater  things,  now 
engaged  in  a  deeper  study  of  music  under  Cherubiui,  and 
wrote  a  mass  for  four  voices.  His  next  work,  the  opera 
Le  8ej<mr  MiUtaire  (1813),  was  so  coldly  received  that  A. 
grew  disheartened,  and  resolved  to  abandon  the  idea  of 
reaching  eminence  as  a  musical  composer.  However,  the 
death  of  his  father  compelled  him  to  be  dependent  on  his 
own  resources;  and  in  1819  appeared  Le  Testament  et  le$ 
Billeti-douXf  also  unsuccessful;  but  in  La  Bergkre  Chdte- 
lame  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  subsequent  fame.    In 


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AUBERGE— AUBRY  DE  MONTDIDIER. 

all  these  early  essays,  as  well  as  in  the  opera  of  Bmma 
(1821),  his  style  was  original;  but  afterwards  he  became  an 
imitator  of  Rossini.and  disfigured  his  melodies  with  false 
decorations  and  strivings  for  effect.  All  his  latter  works 
excepting  La  Maette  de  P&rUd  (Masaniello),  1838,  aie  writ- 
ten with  an  assumed  mannerism,  but  in  a  light  and  flow- 
fcig  style,  with  many  piauant  melodies  which  have  made 
the  tour  of  Europe  and  America.  The  operas  Leieettar 
(1822),  La  Neige  (1828),  Le  Concert  d  la  Ckmr,  and  LeoeadU 
(1824);  Le  Ma^on  (1825).  Fiarella  (1826),i:ia  Fiajhcee  (1829), 
Fra  Diawlo  (1830),  were  followed  by  a  series  of  lighter 
works:  L'EUxir  d' Amour,  Le  Dieu  el  la  BoijadtTt,  Lee 
Faux  Jfannaveurs,  etc.;  the  later  operas,  Ougtave  ou  le 
Bal  Maeque,  La  Lac  dee  Fece^  Le  Cheval  de  Bronte,  Lee 
Diamante  de  ta  Cknironne,  La  Part  du  IHable  La  Sirtne,  and 
Haydee,  exhibiting  the  same  popular  qualities  as  their  pred- 
ecessors; but  their  interest  is  evanescent,  as  they  are  de- 
ficient in  depth  of  thought  and  feeling.  Ilis  lat«r  works 
are  Jenny  Bell  (1855),  and  Manon  Leeeaut  (1856).  In  1842, 
A.  was  appointed  director  of  the  Conservatory  of  Music, 
Paris. 

AUBERGE,  n.  o-bairHi  [Fr.]:  an  inn;  a  place  of  enter- 
tainment for  travellers. 

AUBERGINES,  n.  pi.  o-bair-zhen  [Ft.]:  a  name  for  the 
fruit  of  two  species  of  solanum. 

AUBERVILLIERS,  o-b^-ve-yd' :  village  in  France;  a 
suburb  of  Paris.  It  is  notable  for  a  church .  known  as 
Notre  Dame  des  Virtus,  containing  a  picture  of  the  Virgin 
which  was  believed  to  possess  miraculous  powers.  A  little 
to  the  east  of  A.  is  a  fort  constructed  in  1843.  Pop.  nearly 
20,000. 

AUBIGNfl,  Merle  d':    see  Merle  d'Aubigk6. 

AUBIGNfi,  o-ben-yd\  Theodore  Agrippa  d':  1550, 
Feb.  8 — 1630,  Apr.  29;  b.  near  Pons  in  Saintonge:  famous 
French  scholar.  He  had  remarkable  talent  for  the  acqui- 
sition of  languages.  Although  of  noble  family,  he  inher- 
ited no  wealth,  and  chose  the  military  profession.  In  1567, 
he  distinguished  himself  by  his  services  to  the  Protestant 
cause,  and  was  rewarded  by  Henry  IV.,  who  made  him 
vice-admiral  of  Guienne  and  Bretagne.  His  severe  and 
inflexible  character  frequently  embroiled  him  with  the 
court;  and  in  1620  he  betook  himself  to  Geneva,  where 
he  died.  His  best-known  work  is  his  Hietoire  Univereelle, 
1550-1601  (Amst.  1616-20),  which  was  burned  in  France  by 
the  common  hangman,  as  also  his  Hietoire  Secrete,  ecriie 
(ir  lui-meme  (1721).  His  spirit  of  biting  satire  appears  in 
is  Confession  Catholique  du  Sieur  de  Sancy  and  Adventures 
du  Baron  de  Foeneste.  His  complete  works  are  published 
in  5  vols.  (Par.  1878);  and  Lives  of  him  by  Reaume  (Par. 
1883),  Morillot  (Par.  1884),  and  Von  Sails  (Heidelb.  1884). 

AUBRY  DE  MONTDIDIER,  o-bre' d4h  mon-de-de-a:  a 
French  knight  in  the  time  of  Charles  V. ;  assassinated,  as 
tradition  says,  in  the  forest  of  Bondy  by  Richard  de 
Maeaire,  1871.    The  latter  became  suspected  of  the  crime 


l{ 


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AUBURN. 

on  account  of  the  dog  belonging  to  the  deceased  Aubry 
invariably  showing  towards  him  an  unappeasable  enmity. 
Macaire  was  therefore  required  by  the  kmg  to  tight  with 
the  animal  in  a  judicial  combat,  which  was  fatal  to  the 
murderer.  This  tale  was  afterwards,  under  the  titles  of 
Aubry*9  Dog,  The  Wood  of  Bondy,  The  Dog  of  Moniargis,  fre- 
quently acted,  the  'dog'  always  gaining  the  greatest  share 
of  applause.  After  being  performed  with  success  at 
Vienna  and  Berlin,  it  was  appointed  to  be  played  at  the 
Weimar  Theatre,  of  which  Goethe  was  the  manager;  but 
the  poet  resigned  his  office  before  the  dog  made  his  debut. 

AUBURN,  a.  aw'Um  [OF.  or  Sp.  aibran,  a  wild  duck 
in  its  tirst  year,  having  generally  a  peculiar  brown:  mid.  L. 
albumus,  light  colored— from  L,  aUms,  white]:  of  a  tan  or 
dark  color;  of  a  rich  chestnut  color. 

AUBURN,  aw'bem:  flourishing  city,  cap.  of  Androscog- 
gin CO.,  Maine;  on  the  Androscoggin  river  (by  which  it  is 
separated  from  Lewiston  City),  and  on  the  Maine  Central 
R.K.,  34  m.  n.  from  Portland.  Its  principal  manufactures 
are  cotton,  boots,  ard  shoes.  It  has  two  national  banks, 
a  court  house,  six  churches,  two  savings-banks,  two  news- 
papers, a  furniture  factory,  a  large  cotton-mill,  foundry, 
and  the  Auburn  high  school.  The  capital  employed  in 
the  shoe  manufacture  is  over  a  million  dollars,  tummg  out 
annually  more  than  four  million  pairs  of  shoes,  valued  at 
about  $3,600,000.    Pop.  (1876)  6,169;  (1890)  11,228. 

AUBURN:  city,  cap.  of  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y.,  25  m.  from 
Syracuse  by  the  New  York  Central  R.  R.,  2  m.  from 
Owasco  Lake,  9  m.  from  Skaneateles;  pleasantly  situated 
on  elevated,  undulating  ground,  and  has  wide  thorough- 
fares lined  with  shade-trees.  Genesee  st.  is  the  principal 
thoroughfare,  and  contains  the  handsome  county  court- 
house and  other  prominent  public  buildings.  The  most 
remarkable  institution  here  is  the  Auburn  state  prison, 
whose  vast  and  massive  structures  stand  near  the  depot, 
and  cover  eighteen  acres  of  ground,  enclosed  by  a  stone 
wall  3,000  ft.  long  and  from  12  to  35  ft.  high.  This  prison 
is  conducted  on  the  'silent  system,'  and  usually  contains 
over  1,000  prisoners  employed  in  mechanical  labors. 

A.  has  a  Prpsbyterian  theological  seminary,  founded  1821, 
an  academy,  and  five  public  schools.  There  are  16  churches, 
2  national  banks  (cap.  $400,000),  2  savings  banks,  2  private 
banks,  2  opera-houses,  2  daily,  5  weekly,  1  monthly,  and  1 
quarterly  periodicals,  and  an  orphan  a«ylum.  On  Fort  Hill, 
in  the  suburbs,  is  a  pleasant  cemetery,  where  lie  the  remains 
of  William  H.  Seward,  whose  home  was  in  A.  Owasco 
Lake,  2  m.  from  A.,  is  11  m.  long  and  about  a  mile  wide, 
surrounded  by  hills.  Here  a  small  steamer  plies  in  summer, 
and  the  neighborhood  is  a  favorite  summer  resort  with  the 
citizens  of  A.  The  outlet  of  Owasco  Lake  runs  through 
the  town,  furnishing  water-power  which  is  utilized  by 
many  manufacturing  establishments,  whose  products  in- 
clude cotton  and  woolen  goods,  carpets,  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  other  tools,  paper,  flour,  and  beer.  In  1890 
there  were  53  manufacturing  industries  which  had  209  estab- 


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AUBUSSON. 

Ilshments,  $10,832,611  capital,  and  6,001  hands;  paid  $2,- 
472,574  for  wages,  and  $3,519,477  for  materials;  and  re- 
ceived $9,064,098  for  prodacts.    Pop.  (1890)  25,887. 

AUBUSSON,  d'hus-sin  :  town  of  the  dcpt.  of  Creuse, 
France,  125  m.  w.  from  Lyons;  picturesquely  situated  on 
the  Creuse,  in  a  narrow  valley  or  gorge,  surrounded  with 
mountains  and  rocks.  It  is  well  huilt,  consisting  chiefly 
of  one  broad  street.  It  is  celebrated  for  the  manufacture 
of  carpets,  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Arabs 
or  Saracens,  who  settled  here  in  the  8th  c.  Tanning  and 
dyeing  are  carried  on,  and  there  is  some  trade  in  wine: 
Pop.  7,000. 

AUBUSSON,  d-bu-On't  Pierrb  d',  grand  master  of  the 
order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem:  1423-1503;  b.  of  an 
ancient  and  noble  French  family.  His  early  history  is 
imperfectly  known,  but  he  is  said  to  have  borne  arms, 
when  very  young,  against  the  Turks  in  the  wars  in  Hun- 
gary, and  to  have  distin^lBhed  himself  by  zeal  and  valor. 
Uere  he  acquired  that  mtense  antipathy  to  the  '  Infidels ' 
which  subsequently  animated  his  whole  public  career,  and 
^ve  a  peculiar  bias  to  his  ambition.  Having  returned  to 
S^rance,  he  accompanied  the  dauphin  in  his  expedition 
against  the  Swiss.  His  mind,  however,  constantly  reverted 
to  the  ominous  encroachments  in  the  East  of  the  dreaded 
Mussulman,  and  at  last  he  enrolled  himself  at  Rhodes 
among  the  brotherhood  of  Christian  knights,  from  which 
time  his  history  emerges  into  clear  light.  He  swept  the 
Levant,  and  chastised  the  pirates  who  prowled  pjerpetually 
amoDff  the  Greek  isles.  In  1458,  he  succeeded  in  forming 
a  kind  of  Christian  leaj^e  between  the  French  monarch 
and  Ladislaus,  King  of  Hungary,  against  Mohammed  II. 
He  was  continually  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  a  vast 
organization  of  all  Christendom  to  overthrow  the  power  of 
the  Turks.  Step  by  step  he  won  his  way  to  supreme  power 
in  his  order.  In  1476  he  was  elected  grand  master.  It  was 
a  critical  period  for  the  civilization  and  religion  of  Europe. 
Constantinople  had  recently  been  taken  and  the  Byzantmc 
empire  destroyed  by  Mohammed  II.  Every  day  the  con- 
queror marched  further  west.  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Cen» 
tral  Greece,  Servia,  Wallachia,  Bosnia,  Negropont,  Les. 
bos,  and  the  islands  of  the  Adriatic  had  been  successively 
conquered  by  him.  Proud  of  his  rapid  success,  and  sus- 
tained by  an  immense  prestige,  the  sultan  threatened  to 
dictate  terms  from  Rome  to  the  entire  West.  Rhodes, 
however,  stood  in  his  way,  the  sentinel  isle  of  Christianity, 
on  the  great  maritime  route  between  Asia  and  Europe. 
Mohammed  saw  that  here  the  battle  between  the  two  faiths 
must  be  joined;  and  in  1480,  May,  a  Turkish  army  of  100,- 
000  men,  commanded  by  a  Greek  renegade,  Palceologos, 
landed  in  the  island  and  began  the  siege  of  the  town. 
Two  desperate  assaults  were  made.  The  Turks  were  re- 
pulsed, and  sailed  away,  leaving  9,000  dead.  Mohammed 
was  enraged,  and  planned  a  second  expedition,  which  was 
Interrupted  by  his  death  at  Nicomedeia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
1481,  Hay.  After  this  A.  was  prominent  in  the  religious 
diplomacy  pf  the  papal  court.    Mwiwbil^  2m  ©xwtioiw  t9 


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AUCH— AUCKLAND. 

improve  the  internal  organization  of  the  brotherhood  ex- 
cited admiration  throughout  Christendom.  At  the  age  of 
78  he  was  appointed  generalissimo  of  the  forces  oi  the 
German  emperor,  the  French  king,  and  the  pope  against 
the  Turks;  and  enthusiastically  entered  on  his  duties,  and 
sailed  to  attack  Mitylene;  but  the  expedition  failed  on  ac- 
count of  the  discordant  aims  of  the  various  belligerents. 
Broken  by  disappointment  and  vexation,  the  grand  master 
returned,  and  died  at  Rhodes. 

AUCH,  Ofh:  cap.  of  the  dept.  of  Gers,  in  the  s.  of 
France;  on  the  river  Gers,  43  m.  w.  of  Toulouse;  lat.  43° 
dS'  n.,  long.  0'  85'  e.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  abp..  and  has  a 
museum  of  natural  science,  with  an  old  and  beautiful 
cathedral,  the  painted  windows  of  which  are  greatly  ad- 
mired. Its  chief  articles  of  trade  are  woolen  and  cotton 
staffs,  fruits,  wine,  and  brandy. 

In  ancient  times  it  was  called  Elimberis;  and  at  a  some- 
what later  pjeriod  took  its  name  from  the  Auscii,  whose 
chief  town  it  was.  In  the  8th  c,  it  became  the  cap.  of 
Gascony;  and  later,  of  the  coimty  of  Armagnac.  Fop. 
(1881)  12,175. 

AUCHAN,  n.  aw'kan,  or  Achan,  n.  d'chan  [deriv.  un- 
certain]: a  kind  of  pear. 

AUCHENIA,  aw-ke'nt-a  [from  the  Gr.  axicTien,  the 
neck] :  genus  of  ruminating  quadrupeds,  of  which  the 
Llama  (q.v.)  and  the  Alpaca  (q.v.J  are  best  known.  The 
genus  is  exclusively  8.  American;  mdecd,  the  species  occur 
only  on  the  lofty  ranges  of  the  Andes.  They  are  nearly 
allied  to  the  camels,  and  may  be  regarded  as  their  repre- 
sentatives in  the  zoology  of  America.  They  form,  with 
them,  the  family  CamelidcB  (see  Camel),  and  were  included 
by  Linnseus  in  the  genus  Camelus.  Thev  agree  with  the 
camels  in  certain  important  anatomical  characters,  partic- 
ularly in  the  structure  of  the  stomach;  and  resemble  them 
very  much  in  general  form,  in  the  long  neck,  small  head, 
prolonged  and  movable  upper  lip,  and  small  apertures  of 
the  nostrils.  They  differ  from  them  partly  in  dentition, 
and  partly  in  the  more  cloven  feet  and  movable  toes.  The 
nails,  also,  are  stronger  and  curved,  and  each  toe  is  sup- 
ported behind  by  a  pad  or  cushion  of  its  own;  by  all 
which  the  feet  are  admirably  adapted  for  the  rocky 
heights  which  the  animals  inhabit.  The  genus  A.  is  by 
some  naturalists  called  Llama, 

AUCHTERARDER,  ok't&r-ar'd^ :  village  in  the  s.e.  of 
Perthshire,  on  the  w.  of  the  Scottish  Central  railway.  The 
chief  employment  is  cotton-weaving.  The  popular  opposi- 
tion to  the  presentee  to  the  church  of  A.  originated  (1889) 
the  struggle  which  ended  in  the  secession  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland  and  the  formation  of  the  Free  Church, 
1848.     Pop.  (1881)  2,666. 

AUCKLAND:  the  northern  provincial  dist.  of  New 
Zealand,  mcluding  fully  a  half  of  North  Island,  abt.  400 
m.  long  by  200  wide  at  its  greatest  breadth.  A.  has  a  coast 
line  of  nearly  1,200  m.;  and  is  remarkable  for  its  rivers, 
which  serve  as  cwriage-waya  for  tbe  prodUQQ  Of  th§  iA* 


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AUCKLAND. 

terioT.  There  are  three  almost  natural  diyisions  of  this 
district:  North  Peninsula,  East  Coast,  and  the  Waikato 
Country — the  latter  two  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  natives 
Ck)ld,  copper,  tin,  iron,  coal,  and  other  minerals  are  in  A. 
The  value  of  the  gold  exported  1857-^  was  £4,917,780. 
A.  is  ver^  rich  in  timber,  the  most  important  tree  bein^ 
the  Eaun  pine.  The  fossil  gum  found  wherever  the  Kaun 
forests  have  been  is  an  important  article  of  export.  Much 
New  2^1and  flax  is  grown.  In  1881,  the  total  value  of 
the  exports  was  £813,113;  including  wool.  Kauri  gum 
(£353,728),  timber,  flax,  and  gold.  The  imports  were  val- 
ued at  £1,490,124.  The  climate  of  A.  is  pleasant  and 
healthful.  Volcanic  action  has  deeply  left  its  mark  on  the 
surface  of  A. :  there  is  still  an  active  volcano  near  the  city 
of  Auckland;  and  the  warm  lake  and  geyser  scenery  of  the 
region  is  very  remarkable.  A.  is  now  called  strictly,  not 
province,  but  .'provincial  district.'  Pop.  (1875)  79,104; 
(1881)  99,451 ;  (1891)  133,267. 

AUCK'L  AND:  second  city  of  New  Zealand,  on  the  Hau- 
raki  Gulf:  till  1865,  cap.  of  New  Zealand,  when  the  seat 
of  govt,  was  transferred  to  Wellington.  A.  is  distant  from 
Sydney  1,236  m.;  from  Melbourne,  1,650.  Picturesquely 
situated,  its  position  for  commerce  is  also  excellent,  as  in 
addition  to  its  harbor  at  Waitemata  it  has  also  a  western 
harbor,  the  Manakan,  6  m.  distant.  There  is  a  wharf 
1,690  ft.  in  len^h.  A.  is  surrounded  by  numerous  thriv- 
ing villages,  with  several  of  which  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
way. It  contains  a  well  laid-out  botanical  garden,  and 
numerous  public  buildings,  government  house,  barracks, 
etc.  It  supports  two  daily  papers.  About  230  sailing-ves- 
sels and  62  steamers  are  registered  as  belonging  to  A.  A. 
was  founded  1840.  The  temperature  appears  to  be  singu- 
larly equable.  The  mean  of  the  coldest  month  is  51*  F., 
and  that  of  the  warmest  68".  The  annual  rainfall  is  45^ 
inches;  and  the  davs  of  rainfall  average  100.  Pop.  (1891) 
28,778  ;  but  including  suburban  districts,  51,127. 

AUCKLAND,  atok'land,  Bishop:  town  in  the  middle  of 
the  county  of  Durham ;  on  an  eminence,  140  ft.  above 
the  plain  of  the  Wear.  A.  contains  the  abbey-like  palace 
of  the  bishop  of  Durham.     Pop.  (1881)  10,087. 

AUCK'  LAND,  Earl  of,  George  Eden,  Gov.  Gen.  of 
India:  1784—1849,  Jan.  1;  son  of  William  Eden,  Lord 
Auckland,  whom  he  succeeded,  1814,  as  Lord  A.  He  joined 
Earl  Grey's  administration,  1833,  Nov.,  and  in  July  fol- 
lowing, in  Viscount  Melbourne's  first  ministry,  he  became 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  He  vacated  that  office  in 
Nov.,  but  was  appointed  again,  1846.  In  1835,  he  went 
out  to  India  as  gov. -gen.,  and  returned  to  England.  1841. 

AUCKLAND,  Lord,  William  Eden:  1744—1814, 
May  28 ;  third  son  of  Sir  Robert  Eden,  Bart.,  of  West 
Auckland,  Durham.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Ox- 
ford, and  called  to  the  bar  1768.  In  1772,  he  was  appointed 
under-sec.  of  stale,  and  afterwards  filled  the  positions  of 
a  lord  of  trade,  a  commissioner  to  treat  with  the  insur- 
gent colonists  of  North  America,  chief  sec,  to  the  lord 


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AUCKLAND  ISLANDS— AUCTIONEER. 

Heut.  of  Ireland,  minister  plenipotentiary  to  France  (con- 
cluding a  commercial  treaty  with  that  country,  1786),  am- 
bassador to  Spain,  ambassador  to  Holland,  and  joint-post- 
master-geli.  In  1788,  he  was  created  an  Irish  peer  as  Baron 
A.,  and  in  1793  a  British  baron.  A.  was  the  author  of  the 
Principles  qf  the  Penal  Law  (1771,  8vo);  Remarks  on  ihs  Ap- 
parent Circumstances  qf  the  Far  (1795);  Speech  on  the  Income- 
tax  (1799);  Speech  in  Support  of  the  union  with  Ireland 
(1800);  and  other  pamphlets. 

AUCKLAND  ISLANDS:  group  of  islands s.  of  New 
Zealand,  abt.  the  51st  parallel  s.,  and  the  167th  meridian  e 
The  largest  of  them  measures  80  m.  by  15.  It  has  two  good 
harbors,  and  is  covered  with  the  richest  vegetation.  The 
Auckland  Islands  are  valuable  chiefly  as  a  whaling  station, 
bein^  at  the  confluence,  as  it  were,  of  the  Pacific  and 
Southern  oceans. 

AUCTION  [from  the  Latin  auc^,  increasing  or  enhance- 
ment]: a  sale  conducted  in  a  manner  to  increase  the  price 
of  goods  by  stimulating  purchasers.  This  definition,  how- 
ever, does  not  apply  m  the  case  of  what  is  known  as 
'  Dutch  Auction  *  (properly  no  auction  at  all),  in  which  the 
usual  process  is  revereed,  and  a  price  is  put  bjr  the  auc- 
tioneer upon  the  goods  offered,  which  price  is  reduced 
till  it  reaches  a  sum  which  some  purchaser  is  willing  to 
give.  The  word  A.  and  the  mode  of  sale  are  both  of  Roman 
origin,  and  the  system  is  believed  to  have  been  first  em- 
ployed in  the  disposition  of  spoils  of  war,  when  a  spear 
was  stuck  into  the  ground  to  attract  customers,  and  the 
sale  was  said  to  occur  stib  hasia  (imder  the  spear).  Auc- 
tions are  conducted  under  'specific  conditions  of  sale,' 
these  being  the  terms,  and,  in  fact,  a  portion  of  the  con- 
tract between  buyer  and  seller.  The  fall  of  the  auction- 
eer's hammer  is  accepted  as  concluding  the  sale,  unless 
some  other  means  are  specified  in  the  conditions.  These 
conditions  usually  accompany  the  catalogue  and  descrip- 
tion of  the  article  or  articles  offered  for  sale;  and  the  de- 
scriptions, etc.,  are  obliged  by  law  to  be  honest,  and 
to  describe  as  faithfully  as  is  practicable  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  object  or  right  to  be  disposed  of. 
Conditions  which  are  bmding  to  seller  and  purchaser 
alike,  are — 1st,  no  attempt  slmll  be  made  by  the  seller 
by  means  of  fictitious  oners  to  enhance  the  selling  price 
of  his  goods;  2d,  that  no  combination  or  conspiracy 
among  purchasers  to  prevent  competition  shall  be  permit- 
ted. In  the  conduct  of  auctions  the  exposer  or  seller  may 
fix  an  '  upset  price '  on  his  goods,  or  may  reserve  any  por- 
tion of  them  to  himself,  unless  the  same  be  declared  to  be 
'  without  reserve,'  in  which  case  all  bidding  or  reservation 
in  behalf  of  the  seller  is  barred. 

AUCTION,  n.  awkshun  [L.  auctumem,  increase]:  a  pub- 
lic sale  of  any  description  of  property  to  the  highest  bidder. 
AucTiONARY,  a.  -er-i,  pertaining  to.  Auctioneer,  n. 
awkshitn-er't  one  empowered  to  sell  property  by  auction: 
V.  to  dispose  of  goods  by  auction.    Auc'tionebr'ing,  n. 

AUCTIONEER,  a/wk' shuTi-er' :  the  person  who  conducts 
a-47 


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AUCUBA— AUDiEUS. 

an  auction  (q.y.)-  The  A.  is  in  a  certain  sense  the  agent 
both  of  seller  and  purchaser,  and  by  the  fall  of  his  ham- 
mer, or  by  writing  the  purchaser's  name  in  his  book,  he 
binds  him  to  accept  the  article  sold  at  the  price  indicated. 
The  A.  mav  also,  and  frequently  does,  act  as  agent  for 
absent  purchasers,  or  for  persons  who  have  instructed  him 
to  make  biddings  for  them  during  the  sale.  In  both  cases, 
however,  the  purchaser  must  be  oonafide,  otherwise  the  A. 
would  himself  become  a  '  puffer.'  Where  the  A.  .declines 
or  omits  to  disclose  the  seller's  name,  he  undertakes  his 
responsibilities  to  the  purchasers.  To  the  seller,  again, 
he  is  responsible  for  ordinary  skill,  assiduity,  and  pru- 
dence. 

AUCUBA,  aw'ku-ba:  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat.  ord. 
Oomaem  (q.v.)  of  which  the  only  known  species  is  A. 
Japanica,  an  evergreen  shrub  resembling  a  laurel,  but  with 
dichotomous  or  verticillate  yellow  branches,  and,  as  seen 
in  Europe,  alwavs  with  pale  green  leaves  curiously  mottled 
with  yellow,  it  is  dioecious,  produces  its  small  purple 
flowers  in  summer,  and  ripens  its  fruit,  a  small  red  drupe, 
in  March.  It  is  a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  and  is  now 
known  to  be  at  least  as  hardy  as  the  common  laurel.  It 
is  often  called  the  Variegated  Laurel,  and  is  a  very  com- 
mon ornamental  shrub.  The  mottled  appearance  of  the 
leaf  is  said,  however,  not  to  belong  to  the  plant  in  its  ordi- 
nary natural  state;  but  only  this  variety  has  yet  been 
brought  to  Europe,  and  of  it  only  the  female  plant. 

AUDACIOUS,  a.  ato-dd'shus  \F.  audaci&ux;  It  a/udacet 
audacious:  F.  audaee;  L.  anddeld,  boldness— from  L. 
auddcem,  bold]:  very  bold  and  daring;  impudent;  forward. 
AuDACiousLT.  ad.  4i,  Audacitt,  n.  aw-dtitfUi,  bold- 
ness; impudence.  AuDACiousNBaB,  n.  the  quality  of 
being  audacious.— Stn.  of  *  audacity ':  effrontery;  hardi- 
hood; hardiness;  boldness. 

AUDiEUS,  aw-de'&s,  Audi'ub  (or,  according  to  his  native 
Syriac  name,  Udo) :  d.  abt.  870 :  founder  of  a  religious  sect 
in  Mesopotamia.  He  commenced  by  accusing  the  regular 
clergy  or  worldliness,  impure  morals,  etc.,  and  is  said  to  nave 
opposed  to  their  manner  of  life  a  strict  asceticism.  His 
conduct  and  his  doctrine  seemed  dangerous  to  the  welfare 
of  the  church,  and  he  was  ezconmiunicated.  His  some- 
what numerous  disciples  then  clung  more  closely  to  him, 
and  he  was  elected  their  bishop.  In  888,  he  was  banished  to 
Scythia,  where  he  instituted  a  kind  of  rival  church,  and 
where  he  died.  Modem  knowledfi;e  of  his  character  and 
opinions  is  derived  from  unfriendly  authorities,  such  as 
Augustine,  Athanasius,  etc.,  therefore  to  be  accepted  with 
caution.  But  his  labors  among  the  f  erce  barbarians  in  the 
north  are  acknowledged  to  have  been  beneficial,  a^nd  one 
writer,  Epiphanius,  states  that  he  ous^ht  to  be  considered 
sehmmiUccu,  but  not  heretical.  But  if  the  leading  feature 
of  his  system  was,  as  is  alleged,  a  decided  tendency  to  an- 
thropomorphism, it  does  not  appear— according  to  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  tbe  church  usually  proceeded— why  he 
■hould  not  have  been  called  a  heretic.    He  is  said  to  have 


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AUDE— AUDIBLE. 

held  that  the  language  of  the  Old  Testament  lustifies  the 
belief  that  God  has  a  sensible  form— a  doctrine  deemed 
heretical  in  all  ages  of  the  church's  history.  This  particu- 
lar tenet  took  firm  hold  on  many  minds,  and  in  the  subsequent 
century  was  widely  spread  through  monasteries  of  Egypt 
AuD^  ANiSM,  or  Audi'anism,  the  doctrine  of  A.  Audjs- 
ANs,  followers  of  Audoeus. 

AUDE,  dd  (Atax) :  river  in  the  s.  of  Franco ;  rises  in  the 
e.  Pyrenees,  not  far  from  Mont  Louis ;  flowe  for  some  time 
parallel  to  the  canal  of  Languedoc ;  and  falls  into  the  Med- 
iterranean 6  m.  e.n.e.  of  Karbonne,  after  a  course  of  more 
than  120  m. 

AUDE  :  maritime  dept.  in  the  s  of  France.  It  comprises 
some  old  'counties*  formerly  a  portion  of  the  province  of 
Languedoc :  2,430  sq.  m.  The  s.  part  of  A.  is  mountainous, 
but  the  greater  portion  of  it  belongs  to  the  valley  of  the  lower 
A.  and  me  canal  of  Languedoc.  Its  n.  boundanr  is  formed 
hv  the  Black  Mountains,  the  most  southerly  offsets  of  the 
devenncs.  The  coast  is  flat,  with  no  bays  or  roadsteads, 
but  several  lagunes.  The  climate  is  warm,  but  variable. 
The  mountains  are  composed  of  granite,  while  the  soil  of 
the  plains  is  chiefly  calcareous,  and  near  the  coast— where 
salt  and  soda  are  procured— is  extremely  fertile,  producins^ 
cereals,  olives,  fruits,  and  wines.  A.  is  rich  in  iron  and 
coal,  and  mineral  springs.  The  woolen  and  silk  manufac- 
tures are  of  considerable  value.  There  is  considerable  ex- 
port of  com,  honey,  etc.  Chief  town,  Carcassonne.  Pop. 
of  A.  (1881)  327.9&  ;  (1886)  332,080;  (1891)317.372. 

AUDEBERT,  ddbair',  Jean  Baftistb  :  disthiguished 
French  naturalist ;  1759-1800 ;  b.  Rochefort ;  studied  the 
arts  of  de^gn  and  painting  at  Paris ;  and  in  early  Hit  gained 
eminence  as  a  miniature-painter.  Having  been  much  em- 
ployed by  naturalists  in  painting  the  more  rare  and  beauti- 
ful objects  in  their  collections,  he  published  on  his  own 
account  (Paris,  1800)  a  splendid  volume,  which  raised  him 
at  once  to  celebrity,  both  as  painter  and  author.  This 
work,  the  ffistorie  Naturelle  des  Sirwes,  des  Maki»,  et  de9 
GhUopith^qttes  (Natural  History  of  Monkeys,  Lemurs,  and 
Plyinff  Lemurs),  was  a  large  folio,  with  62  colored  plates, 
remarkable  for  truth  and  beauty.  His  method  of  color- 
printing  in  oil,  then  novel  but  now  common,  was  to  dispose 
all  the  colors  on  one  plate  instead  of  using  a  separate  plate 
for  each  color.  His  use  of  gold  and  bronze  in  the  illustra- 
tions and  letterpress  was  also  new.  In  his  Histoire  de$  CoH- 
bris,  des  OUeattx-motiches,  des  Jaeamars  et  des  PramSrojm 
(Natural  History  of  Humming  birds,  Jaeamars,  and  Prome- 
ropses),  he  gave  his  plates  even  greater  brilliancy  and  finish. 

AUDIBLE,  a.  awdi-bl  [mid.  L.  atidib'lhs,  that  may  be 
easily  heard— from  L.  audlOy  I  hear:  It.  audible,  audible]: 
that  may  be  heard;  loud  enough  to  be  perceived  by  the  ear. 
Au'dibly,  ad.  bU,  in  a  manner  to  be  heard.  Audiblenbss, 
n.  awdl-bl-nes,  the  quality  of  being  audible.  Au'DiBiiiiTY, 
n.  -bWUti,  the  being  loud  enough  to  be  heard.  Audience, 
n.  ato'dirins  [F.— L.  audUn'ila,  hearing]:  admittance  to  a 
bearing ;  an  interview ;   an  assembly  of  hearers.      Au'- 


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.  AUDIOMETER— AUDITA  QUERELA. 

DIEKCB  CHAMBER,  D.  cMffi'b^,  a  chamber  in  which 
audiences  are  granted.  Au'diencb  court,  n.  cort,  a  court 
belonging  to  the  Abp.  of  Canterbury.  Being  accustomed 
formerly  to  hear  causes  extra-ludiciall^  in  his  own  palace, 
he  usually  requested  that  dimcult  points  should  be  dis- 
cussed by  men  learned  in  the  law,  called  audUors,  whence 
ultimately  sprang  up  by  degrees  a  court  held  to  have  equal 
authority  with  that  of  Arches,  though  inferior  to  it  both 
in  dignity  and  antiquity.  The  audience  court  is  now 
merged  in  the  Court  of  Arches,  the  duties  of  its  former  pre- 
siding officer  being  discharged  by  the  Dean  of  the  Arches. 

AUDIOMETER,  n.  aw-dEi-^m'it-ir,  or  Audiketer,  n. 
aw-dlm' U'^  [L.  audio,  I  hear ;  Gr.  metr<m,  measure]:  an 
Instrument  devised  by  Prof.  Hughes,  the  inventor  of  the 
microphone,  and  described  by  Dr.  Richardson  at  a  meet- 
ing of  the  Royal  Soc,  1879.  Its  object  is  to  measure  with 
precision  the  sense  of  hearing.  Among  its  constituent 
parts  are  an  induction  coil,  a  microphone  key,  and  a  tele- 
phone. 

AUDIPHONE,  aw'dlfdn:  an  kivention  by  Mr.  Rhodes 
of  Chicago,  to  a^t  the  hearing  of  deaf  persons  in  whom 
the  auditory  nerve  is  not  entirely  destroyed.  The  instru- 
ment, made  of  a  thin  sheet  of  ebonite  rubber  or  hard  vul- 
canite, is  about  the  size  of  a  palm-leaf  fan,  with  a  handle  and 
strings  attached  to  bend  h  into  a  curving  form,  and  a  small 
clamp  for  fixing  the  string  at  the  handles.  The  A.  is  pressed 
by  the  deaf  person  using  it  against  his  upper  front  teelh, 
with  the  convex  side  outwards ;  when  so  placed  it  communi- 
cates the  vibrations  caused  by  musical  sounds  or  articulate 
speech  to  the  teeth  and  bones  of  the  skull,  thence  to  the 
organs  of  hearing.  For  different  sounds,  it  requires  to  be 
focused  to  different  degrees  of  convexity.  A  simple  strip 
of  fine  glazed  mill-boaxd  has  been  recommended  by  some 
experimenters  as  cheaper  and  equally  serviceable ;  and 
birch-wood  veneer  has  been  used  with  success  for  the  same 
purpose. 

AUDIT,  n.  ato'dit  [L.  atidU,  he  hears ;  auditwn,  a  hear- 
ing, a  report— from  audio,  I  hear]:  an  examination  of  ac- 
counts by  a  person  or  persons  appointed  for  the  purpose,  in 
order  to  ascertain  whether  they  be  correct ;  final  account :  Y. 
to  examine  and  settle  as  to  the  correctness  of  accounts. 
Auditing,  imp.  Audited,  pp.  aw'di-tid.  Au'ditor,  n. 
-dl-ter,  a  hearer ;  an  officer  appointed  to  examine  accounts, 
in  behalf  either  of  the  government,  of  courts  of  law,  of  cor- 

§  orations,  or  of  private  persons.  Au'ditorship,  n.  the  of- 
ce  of  an  auditor.  Auditory,  n.  awdi-ter-i,  an  assembly  of 
hearers:  Adj.  able  to  hear;  pertaining  to  the  sense  of  heanng. 
Auditorium,  n.  aio-di-tdrl-uin  [L.  audUoHum,  a  lecture- 
room,  a  hall  of  iustice] :  in  ancient  churches,  the  nave ; 
that  part  of  a  theatre  or  public  building  in  which  the 
audience  sit.  Audit  house,  n.  a  house  appendant  to  most 
cathedrals,  and  designed  for  the  transaction  of  business 
connected  with  them. 

AUDITA  QUERELA,  used  as  n.  auhdi'ta  hwe-re'la 
[L. — Ut,  a  heard  complaint,  or  a  complaint  having  been 


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AUDITORY  NERVE. 

heard]:  in  law,  a  writ  now  rareljr  used,  which  stayed 
judgments,  and  gave  the  person  against  whom  it  had  gone 
forth  a  rehearing  on  the  ground  that  he  had  a  good  de- 
fense, but  that  by  the  forms  of  law  he  had  no  opportunity 
of  making  it. 

AUDITORY  NERVE,  in  Anat.:  the  nerve  associated 
with  the  facial;  seventh  nerve  in  order  of  origin  from  the 
brain,  counting  from  the  front  backwards.  The  seventh 
pair  consists  of  the  portio  dura  or  facial,  the  portio  mollis 
or  auditory,  and  a  small  intermediate  portion.  The  portio 
mollis  apparently  commences  by  some  white  streaks  in 
the  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle;  it  then  runs  forward  to 
the  back  of  the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  and 
enters  the  internal  auditory  meatus.  The  facial  then 
leaves  it  to  pass  along  the  canal  called  the  Aqaeductus 
Fallopii,  and  the  auditory  divides  into  two  portions,  which 
diverge — the  smaller  one  posterior  for  the  semicircular 
canals  and  the  vestibule,  the  other  for  the  cochlea.  Those 
entering  the  semicircular  canals  divide  into  five  branches, 
forming  at  last  a  nervous  expansion  somewhat  analogous 
to  the  retina.  Figs.  1  and  2  represent  the  Auditory  Nerve 
(1)  dividing  into  its  two  portions,  the  lesser  branch  sup- 
plying the  semicircular  canals  (2),  the  larger  branch  sup- 
plying the  cochlea  (3).  Fig.  1  represents  the  semicircular 
canals  of  the  left  side,  with  their  bony  rings  round  the 


Tig.  1.— Left  Auditory  Nerve. 

membranous  labyrinth.  In  this  figure,  the  cochlea  is  cut 
in  half,  longitudinally  from  base  to  apex,  showing  a  sec- 
tion of  the  spiral  canal,  with  the  nerve  proceedmg  up 
tlirough  its  axis.  Fig.  2  represents  the  membranous  laby- 
rinth (2),  with  the  bony  framework  cut  away,  and  with 
the  cochlea  opened  so  as  to  show  the  manner  in  which  the 
nerve  spreads  out  in  the  spiral  lamina. 

Several  theories  have  been  held  at  different  periods  with 
regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  nerves  terminate  in  thb 
cochlea,  and  how  sound  is  transmitted  from  the  latter  to 


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AUDITORY  NERVE. 

the  brain.  The  latest  and  most  widely  accepted  is  that  of 
M.  Schultze.  It  has  been  shown  by  experiment,  that  when 
a  nerve  in  connection  with  a  muscle  is  acted  upon  by  a 
succession  of  very  rapid  strokes  from  the  little  hammer  of 


1 
Fig.  2.-Ri^t  Auditory  ixfflTOi 

a  tetamnotOT,  and  when  the  strokes  have  arrived  at  a  cer- 
tain number  in  the  second,  a  stimulus  is  sent  along  tht 
nerve  exciting  the  muscle  to  action.  It  is  in  the  same  way 
that  M.  Schultze  supposes  the  impression  of  sound  to  be 
propagated  to  the  nerves  of  the  cochlea,  by  means  of  a 
series  of  little  tetanmotors  called  the  teeth  of  Corti,  who 
discovered  them.  They  are  situated  in  the  spiral  lamina, 
which  separates  the  spiral  canal  in  the  interior  of  the 
cochlea  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  half  or  scala.  The 
spiral  lamina  consists  of  an  osseous  septum,  next  to  th« 
central  axis  of  the  cochlea,  and  of  a  membranous  l^er 
which  prolongs  the  osseous  septum  to  the  outer  wall  of  the 
cochlea,  thus  completing  the  spiral  lamina.  This  mem- 
branous septum  is  double,  and  between  its  layers  there  ii 


Fig.  8. 
Ok  the  oBseouB  septum  grooved  for  the  passage  of  the  cochlear  nerre, 
b,  whJQh  terminates  by  a  free  end  Inside  the  chamber,  c,  along  the 
floor  of  which  it  lies  for  a  short  distance;  d,  d  are  the  two  UiyerB 
of  the  membranous  septum.  Lying  In  contact  with  the  end  of  the 
nerve  is  the  enlarged  extremity  of  a  rod,  e.  which  is  connected  in  a 
flail-like  manner  by  the  hinge,  /,  to  another  rod,  which  is  fixed  at  p. 

a  chamber  which  contains  the  teeth  of  Corti,  ranged  side 
by  side  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  spiral  lamina* 


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AUDLEY— AUDUBON. 

and  gradually  growing  shorter  from  base  to  apex,  like  the 
strings  of  a  harp  or  pfinoforte.  The  chamber  is  filled  up 
by  a  tremulous  jelly-like  fluid.  The  diagram.  Fig.  8, 
represents  a  perpendicular  section  of  the  spiral  lamina. 
The  fluids  of  the  ear  receive  vibratione  for  the  nerve-end- 
ings. The  harp-like  rods  of  Corti  are  supposed  to  give 
pitch  of  sound.  When  the  semicircular  canals  are  cut, 
the  animal  becomes  dizzy.  Dizziness  implies  loss  of  our 
eense  of  level  and  direction — functions  of  the  canals. 

AUDLEY,  awdli.  Sir  James:  d.  1369:  one  of  the  original 
knights  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  founded  1344  by  Ed- 
ward III.,  on  his  return  from  France  after  the  victory  of 
Cressy.  A.  accompanied  Edward  the  Black  Ftince  to 
France,  1846.  He  was  so  conspicuously  brave  at  the  battle 
of  Poictiers,  that  the  prince  retained  him  as  his  own  knight, 
and  declared  him  the  bravest  soldier  on  his  side.  He  con- 
ferred on  him  an  annual  revenue  of  500  marks,  which  A. 
immediately  gave  up  to  his  squires.  This  act  of  disinter- 
estedness became  known,  and  the  Black  Prince  conferred  a 
further  annual  sum  of  600  marks  upon  him.  A.  also  ac- 
companied the  Black  Prince  into  Spain,  and  in  1369  the 
office  of  seneschal  of  Poitou  was  conferred  upon  him.  He 
took  part  in  the  capture  of  La-Roche-sur-Yon  in  Poi- 
tou, in  the  same  year,  and  died  a  few  months  afterwards. 

AUDRAN,  d-dron',  Gerard:  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
engravers  of  the  French  school:  1640-1703;  b.  Lyons;  of  a 
family  distinguished  in  this  department  of  art.  After 
three  years'  residence  at  Rome,  where  he  studied  under 
Carlo  Maratti,and  won  high  repute  by  his  engraving  of  Pope 
Clement  IX.,  he  was  recalled  to  rtancc  1^  Colbert,  and 
appointed  engraver  to  his  majesty  Louis  XlY.  Here  he 
engraved  the  principal  works  of  Lebrun,  with  whom  he 
lived  in  closest  friendship.  His  masterpieces  are  a  series 
of  engraving  illustrating  the  battles  of  Alexander.  He 
died  at  Pans. 

AUDUBON,  aw'du-b&n,  John  James;  distin^ishcd 
American  ornithologist;  liSO,  Mav— 1851,  Jan.  27;  b.  Lou., 
<  of  French  parentage.  Under  hLs  father's  guidance,  the 
I  youth  conceived  a  passion  for  the  study  of  birds;  and  a 
'  book  of  ornithological  specimens  determined  him  to  be- 
come a  draughtsman.  About  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  went 
to  Paris,  and  studied  under  the  celebrated  David.  In  1798, 
he  was  settled  on  a  farm  in  Pennsylvania  by  his  father, 
but  he  did  not  distinguish  himself  as  an  agriculturist.  In 
1810,  he  sailed  down  the  Ohio,  with  his  wife  and  child,  on 
a  bird-sketching  expedition.  The  following  year,  he 
visited  Florida  n>r  a  like  purpose;  and  for  many  years  he 
continued  his  ornithological  researches  among  the  Amer- 
ican woods,  to  the  neglect  of  his  ordinary  business.  The 
latter  he  finally  abandoned;  and  in  1824  he  went  to  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  was  introduced  to  Prince  Charles  Lucien 
Bonaparte,  who  so  warmly  encouraged  him  in  his  plans 
that  he  determined  on  publication.  After  two  years' 
further  exploration  of  the  forests  of  his  native  country,  he 
came  to  Europf  irith  the  view  to  secure  subscribers  for 


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AUER-AUP. 

ids  work  on  The  Birds  of  America.  He  met  with  a  warm 
reception  trOfii  such  men  as  Herschel,  Cuvier,  Humboldt, 
Brewster,  Wilson,  and  Sir  Walter  Scott.  The  issue  of  his 
work  was  soon  commenced,  each  bird  being  delineated 
life-size.  The  colored  engravings  were  executed  chiefly 
t>/  the  late  Mr.  W.  H.  Lizars  of  Edinburgh.  The  work 
was  completed  in  87  parts,  elephant  folio,  containing  4^ 
^tes.  While  the  work  was  in  process  of  publication 
«)>road  (it  was  finished  1889),  A.  visited  America  three 
times,  for  further  researches.  In  1831,  he  began  thepub- 
(fcation  of  his  American  OmiihologiccU  Biography  in  Kdin- 
bargh,  also  finished  1839.  In  1889,  A.  finally  returned  to 
America,  where,  in  1844,  he  published  a  reduced  edition 
of  his  works.  Assisted  by  Dr.  Buchanan,*  he  published 
also  The  Quadrupeds  of  America,  and  a  Biography  of  Amer- 
ican Quadrupeds. 

AUER,  ow'er,  Aloib:  1813,  May  11—1869,  July  10;  b.  at 
Wels,  Upper  Austria;  trained  in  a  printing  establishment 
of  his  native  town  to  be  a  compositor,  corrector,  and  man- 
ager. During  his  few  leisure  moments,  A.  gained  a 
knowledge  of  French,  Italian,  English,  and  ouier  lan- 
guages, in  which  he  underwent  an  examination  in  1885 
and  '86,  before  the  Univ.  of  Vienna.  His  brilliant  appear- 
ance on  this  occasion  opened  the  way  to  the  chair  of  Ital' 
ian  in  the  college  at  Linz.  After  travels  in  Oermany, 
France,  and  England,  he  became  director  of  the  imperial 
state- press  at  Vienna,  and  in  1860  he  was  made  a  knight. 
He  published  a  work  showing  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  603 
languages;  a  OrammaUcal  Atlas,  etc.;  and  in  Die  Entdeck- 
ung  des  Naturselbsidrucks  (1864),  he  expounded  his  discov- 
ery, of  Nature- Printing  (q.v.).  He  also  made  improve- 
ments in  typographical  and  mechanical  processes. 

AUERBACH,  oto'er-Mk,  Bbrthold:  popular  G^erman 
author,  of  Jewish  extraction:  1812,  Feb.  28—1882,  Ffeb.  8; 
b.  at  Kordstetten,  hi  the  WUrtemberg  Black  Forest.  He 
studied  at  Carlsruhe,  Stuttgart,  TQbmgen,  Munich,  and 
Heidelberg.  He  early  abandoned  the  study  of  Jewish 
theology  and  turned  to  literature;  aifd  is  r^rded  by  many 
as  the  greatest  German  writer  of  fiction.  His  first  publica- 
tion was  on  the  relation  of  Judaism  and  Modem  LUerature 
(1836).  His  first  novel,  Spinoza,  contained  many  suggestive 
philosophical  thoughts,  and  bright  sketches  of  JewiSi  life; 
It  wa8  followed  by  a  translation  of  the  works  of  Spinoza  (5 
vols.  Stuttff.  1841).  In  the  Village  lales  {Schtoarewdlder 
Dorfgesehichten,  1843)  he  showed  his  power  in  the  charming 
portraiture  of  Gkrman  peasant  life;  a  second  series  app^irea 
in  1848.  Auf  der  Eohe  (1865)  has  been  pronounced  the  bets 
novel  in  the  Carman  tongue.  The  Village  Tales  were  trans- 
lated into  English,  Swedish,  and  Dutch,  and  were  generally 
admired.  Among  his  works  are  JSchrift  und  V<Kk  (18^); 
DasLandhausamBhein{l^^)\  Wiederunser;  GedenkhUU- 
ter  zur  Geschichie  dieser  Taae  (1871):  WakffHed  (1874). 
Brigitta,  published  in  1830,  dealt  with  peasant-life  in  the 
style  of  his  best  village  tales. 

AUF,  n.:  see  Oaf,  a  silly  fellow. 


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AU  FAIT-AUGHT. 

AU  FAIT,  a.  bfc^  [F.,  in  fact,  indeed,  in.  reality]:  ac- 
quainted with ;  skilled  in. 

AUGEAN  STABLE,  n.  a/uhje'dn  st&'U:  in  Grecian  Myth. : 
a  stable  belonging  to  Augias,  or  Augeias,  son  of  Helios  and 
Iphiboe  (or  Pborbas  and  Hcrmione)  Augeas  was  king  of 
Elis,  and  renowned  for  his  wealth  in  oxen,  of  which  he 
fed  8.000  head  in  his  stables.  After  many  years,  in  which 
these  stables  had  never  been  cleaned,  Hercules  was  com- 
missioned by  Eurystheus  to  cleanse  them  in  one  day,  and 
was  promised  as  payment  a  tenth  part  of  the  oxen.  Hercu- 
les accomplished  the  task,  by  turning  the  courses  of  the 
rivers  Peneus  and  Alpheus  through  the  masses  of  ordure. 
When  A.  refused  to  pay  the  stipulated  wages  a  war  ensued, 
and  A.  was  slain  by  Hercules  Cleansing  the  A.  stable  is 
the  type  of  a  needed,  but  nearly  impossible,  reform. 

AUGELITE,  n.  aw'Jil-U  [Ger.  augelith — from  Gr.  auge, 
bright  light,  radiance ;  suflax  ite]:  a  colorless  or  pale-red 
mineral,  with  its  lustre  strongly  pearly  on  cleavage  sur- 
faces. The  composition  is :  phosphoric  acid,  35*3 ;  alumi- 
na, 4915;  water,  12*85,  with  some  lime,  iron,  etc. 

AUGER,  n.  aw'g&r  [A8.  nafgar — from  rutfa,  the  nave  of 
a  wheel;  gar,  a  piercer:  Fin.  napa,  a  navel,  me  middle  of  a 
thing]:  an  iron  tool  for  boring  holes. 

AUGEREAU,  dzh-rd',  Piebrb  Francjoib  Charles, 
Duke  of  Casti^hone,  Marshal  and  Peer  of  France,  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  and  intrepid  of  that  band  of  general 
officers  whom  Napoleon  gathered  around  himself:  1757, 
Oct.  21—1816,  June  It;  son  of  a  tradesman.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen,  he  enlisted  in  the  French  carabiniers;  afterwards 
was  in  the  Neapolitan  service  till  1787,  when  he  settled  in 
Naples  as  a  fencing-master.  With  other  French  residents, 
he  was  banished  from  that  city  in  1792,  and  immediately 
volunteered  into  the  French  revolutionary  army  intended 
for  the  repulsion  of  the  Spaniards.  His  services  were  so  con- 
spicuous, that  in  l^s  than  three  years  he  was  made  general 
of  a  division.  In  1795,  he  accompanied  the  army  to  Italy, 
where  he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  especially  in  the 
field,  but  also  in  council.  He  gained  much  glory  in  the 
battles  of  Millesimo,  Ceva,  Lodi,  Castiglione  (for  which  he 
xeceived  his  title),  Roveredo,  Bassano,  etc.  In  1797,  he  was 
appointed  to  command  the  Army  of  the  Rhine;  but  a  few 
months  later  he  was  transferred  to  be  commander  of  the 
tenth  division  at  Perpi^an.  This  post  he  resided  in  1799, 
when  he  was  elected  as  deputy  in  the  council  of  t£e  Fi  ve  Hun- 
dred. In  1801,  he  received  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Holland;  in  1804,  he  was  miade  a  marshal;  in  1805,  he  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  army  which  reduced  the  Vorarl- 
berg;  afterwards  he  was  engaged  at  Wetzlar,  Jena,  Eylau; 
also  in  Italy  (1809};  Spain  (1810);  Beriin,  Bavaria,  and 
Saxony  (1818). 

AUGER-SHELL,  n.  (m'ger-sMl:  the  English  name  of 
the  shells  belonging  to  the  genus  Terebra.  It  is  given  in 
consequence  of  their  being  long  and  pointed. 

AUGHT,  or  Ought,  n.  a/ict  [AS.  drV3iht;  Goth.  vmht$^ 
a  thing]:  anything;  a  tittle  or  jot. 
»-48 


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AUGIER— AUGITE. 

An(HER»  d'Ehe-A',  Quillaumb  Yictob  Emilb:  French 
dramatist;  b.  Valence,  1820,  Sept  17;  educated  for  tbe 
profession  of  an  advocate,  but  soon  turned  to  literature, 
especially  the  drama.  In  1844,  he  composed  a  piece  in  two 
acts,  and  in  verse,  entitled  La  Cigui,  which  he  offered  to 
the  Th^fttre  Fran9ai6,  but  without  success.  The  Od6on, 
however,  received  it,  and  it  was  played  at  that  theatre  with 
considerable  applause  for  nearly  three  months.  This  is  said 
to  be  the  best  of  A.'s  works,  containing  moral  lessons,  set  in 
a  framework  of  the  antique,  and  mode  attractive  by  elo- 
gjmt  versification.  In  the  following  year,  the  Thefttre 
Fran9ais  sought  his  services,  and  he  produced  for  that 
theatre  his  second  comedy,  entitled  Un  MomrM  de  Bien,  in 
three  acts,  and  in  verse — a  comedy  of  the  dav,  only 
partially  successful.  A  third,  L*AvtfUurih^,  18&,  was 
better  received,  but  was  thought  too  full  of  common  place 
moralizing.  OabrieUe,  1849,  a&o  highly  moral,  gainea  for 
its  author  the  Monthvon  prize.  In  1852,  he  wrote  Diane; 
in  1853,  La  Pierre  de  Touchs  (with  Jules  Sandeau);  also 
Philiberte,  After  this  time,  his  pieces  belong  to  the  comedy 
of  intrigue.  Such  are  Le  Mariage  d^Olympe;  Le  Oendre  de 
M.  Poirier,  written  in  partnership  with  Jules  Sandeau;  and 
La  Revanche  de  Georges  Dandinr—sU  produced  1855;  La 
Jeuneese,  in  1858;  Lee  lAonnee  Paurres,  in  the  same  year, 
written  in  conjunction  with  £.  Foussicr;  and  the  Beau 
Mariage,  also  in  conjunction  with  Foussier,  in  1859.  Either 
singly  or  with  others,  A.  has  also  written  Lea  Effrontee^  Le 
FiH  de  Oiboyer,  MaUre  ChiSrin,  La  Contagion,  La  Chasse 
au  Soman,  L Habit  Vert,  Pavl  Ibreetier,  and  8aphih-tbo 
last  an  opera,  music  by  €k>unod.  In  1856,  he  published  a 
small  vol.  of  Poesies.  Usually,  A.  is  regardea  as  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  school  of  good  sense;  m  his  later  pieces, 
however,  approaching  too  much  to  the  manner  of  the 
younffer  Dumas.  In  1858,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academic  Franpaise,  and  was  made  a  commander  in  the 
Jjtgton  d'Honneur.  1868.    D.  1889,  Oct.  25. 

AUGITE,  n.  aw'jU  [Gr.  au' gi,  brightness!:  alaminoos 
var.  of  Pyroxbnb,  a  mineral  very  nearly  allied  to  horn- 
blende (q.v.),  which  has,  indeed,  by  some  mineralogists  been 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  it,  though  the  distinction  between 
them  is  important,  as  characterizing  two  distinct  series  of 
igneous  rocks.     Augitic,  a.  aw-jit'lk,  pertaining  to. 

Aitgvte  consists  of  47-56  per  cent,  of  silica,  20-25  per 
cent,  of  lime,  and  12-19  per  cent,  of  magnesia,  thema^esia 
sometimes  giving  place  in  whole  or  in  part  to  protoxide  of 
iron,  and  the  varieties  containinfif  2-15  alumina;  some  have 
a  little  soda  or  -potassa,  etc.  Us  specific  gravity  is  2*935- 
8 '434.  It  is  little  or  not  at  all  affected  by  acids.  It  is 
usually  of  a  greenish  color,  often  nearly  black.  It  crystal- 
lizes in  six  or  eight-sided  prisms,  variously  modified;  it  often 
occurs  in  crystiQs,  sometimes  imbedded,  often  in  grains  or 
scales.  It  is  an  essential  component  of  many  igneous  rocks, 
particularly  of  basalt  (q.v.),  dolerite,  and  A. -porphyry  (see 
Porphyry),  from  which  chiefly  it  derives  its  importance  as 
a  mineral  species.  Augite  Kock,  consisting  essentially  of  A 
alone,  occurs  in  the  Pyrenees.     A.  is  a  oommon  mineral  in 


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AUGMENT— AUGSBURG. 

trap-Tocks.  It  is  rarely  associated  with  quartz,  in  which  re- 
spect it  difPers  from  hornblende,  but  very  often  with  labia- 
dorite,  olivine,  and  leucite.  Fluorine,  generaUy  present  in 
small  quantity  in  hornblende,  has  never  been  detected  in  A. 


a,  Couiuiuu  Au^te;  6,  Oreen  Augite. 

The  form  of  the  crystals  also  is  different  in  the  two  minetals, 
as  well  as  their  cleavage;  but  Prof.  Gustav  Rose  of  Beiiin 
has  endeavored  to  show  that  the  difference  between  A.  and 
hornblende  arises  only  from  the  different  circumstances  in 
which  crystallization  has  taken  place,  and  that  A.  is  the 
production  of  a  comparatively  rapid,  and  hornblende  of  a 
comparatively  slow,  cooling.  He  regards  some  of  the  va- 
rieties as  intermediate.  His  views  have  been  supported  by 
experiments,  and  by  a  comparison  of  A.  with  certain  crys- 
talline substances  among  the  scoriae  of  foundries.— 2>r<77M»^, 
ScUUiUe,  and  Ooeeolite  are  varieties  of  Pyroxene;  also  Diallage 
(q.v.^  Hedenbergite,  and  other  minerals. 

AUGMENT,  V.  awgmhitf  [L.  augmen'tum,  an  increase: 
P.  atigmenter,  to  increase— from  L.  aug<}d,  I  increase]:  to 
increase;  to  make  or  become  large  in  size  or  extent.  Aug- 
ment, n.  cncg'nUnt,  an  increase;  a  prefix.  Augment'ing, 
imp.  Augment'ed,  pp.  Augmentablb,  a.  cMg-nUnfa-bl, 
that  may  be  increasea.  Aug'meih'a'tion,  n.  -td'shun,  an 
increase;  the  act  of  enlarging.  Augmentative,  a.  -td-tiv, 
having  the  power  to  augment:  N.  in  gram.,  opposite  of 
diminutive.  Augmen'ter,  n.  one  who.— Stn.  of  'augment, 
n.':  increase;  accession;  augmentation;  addition. 

AUGMENTATION,  in  Heraldry:  see  Heraldbt. 

AUGMENTATION,  in  Music:  reproduction  of  a  mel- 
ody, or  principal  subject  of  a  composition  in  the  course  of 
the  progress  of  the  piece,  in  notes  of  greater  length  than 
those  notes  in  which  the  melody  is  first  introduce.  The 
tempo  remains  unaltered.  A.  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
treatment  of  the  subjects,  or  themes,  for  fugues,  and  prop- 
erly used  produces  great  effects. 

AUGMENTATION,  PRocitSS  op,  in  Scotch  Law :  an 
action  in  the  Court  of  Teinds  (q.v.)  by  the  minister  of  a 
parish  against  the  titular,  or  beneficiary,  and  heritors,  for 
the  purpose  of  procuring  an  increase  to  his  stipend. 

AUGMENTATION  COURT:  court  erected  by  King 
Henry  VIII.  for  the  increase  of  the  revenues  of  his  crown, 
by  the  suppression  of  monasteries. 

AUGSBURG,  otogs'b^rg:  historically  one  of  the  most 
ootable  cities  in  Germany;  in  the  angle  between  the  rivern 


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AUGSBURG  CONFESSION. 

Wertach  and  Lech;  chief  city  of  the  circle  of  Swabia  and 
Neubur^,  in  Bavaria.  Though  of  an  antique  and  rather 
deserted  appearance,  A.  has  numerous  fine  buildines,  and 
especially  one  noble  street,  the  '  imperial '  Maximilian 
Btrasse,  adorned  with  bronze  fountains.  The  industry  of 
A.  is  reviving;  several  cotton  and  woolen  factories  are  in 
operation,  as  well  as  manufactories  of  paper,  tobacco,  and 
machinery.  Its  gold  and  silver  wares  retain  their  ancient 
reputation.  The  art  of  copper  engraving  is  extinct;  but 
piintine,  lithographer,  and  bookselling  have  taken  a  new 
start.  The  AUgemetne  Zeitung,  the  best  known  of  the  Ger- 
man newspapers,  was  published  here  till  18^  (now  at 
Munich).  There  are  in  A.  ten  printing  establishments, 
many  bookshops,  and  more  breweries.  Banking  and  stock- 
jobbing are  extensively  carried  on;  and  it  is  still  the  em- 
porium of  the  trade  with  Italy  and  s.  Germany.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  system  of  railways  connecting  it  with  Nam- 
berg  and  Leipsic,  with  Switzerland,  Munich,  etc.  The 
foundation  of  A.  was  the  'colony*  planted  by  the  em- 

Seror  Au^rustus,  b.c.  12,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Yin- 
elici,  probably  on  the  site  of  a  former  residence  of  that 
people.  It  was  called  Augvsta  VtndeUcorum,  whence  the 
present  name.  It  became  the  cap.  of  the  province  of  Rke- 
tia,  was  laid  waste  by  the  Huns  in  the  5th  c,  and  came 
next  imder  the  dominion  of  the  Prankish  kings.  In  the 
war  of  Charlemagne  with  Thassilo  of  Bavaria  it  was  again 
destroyed.  After  the  division  of  Charlemagne's  empire, 
it  came  under  the  Duke  of  Swabia;  but,  enriched  by  com- 
merce, was  able  to  purchase  gradually  many  privileges, 
and  became,  1276,  a  free  city  of  the  empire.  It  reached 
the  summit  of  its  prosperity  by  the  end  of  the  14th  c. 
About  1868  its  aristocratic  government  was  set  aside  for  a 
democratic,  which  lasted  for  170  years,  till  the  aristocracy, 
favored  by  Charles  V.,  regained  the  ascendancy.  A.  con- 
tinued in  K^eat  eminence  for  its  commerce,  manufactures, 
and  art,  till  the  war  between  Charles  V.  and  the  Protest- 
ant League  of  Schmalkald  (1540).  With  Namberg,  it 
formed  the  emporium  of  the  trade  between  n.  Europe  and 
the  south,  and  its  merchants  were  princes  whose  ships 
were  in  all  seas.  See  Fugger.  It  was  also  the  centre  of 
German  art,  as  represented  by  the  Holbeins,  Burkmair, 
Altdorfer,  and  others.  Many  diets  of  the  empire  were 
held  in  A.,  and  the  leading  events  of  the  Reforma- 
tion are  associated  with  its  name.  The  discovery  of  the 
road  to  India  by  the  Cape,  and  of  America,  turned  the 
commerce  of  the  world  into  new  channels,  and  dried  up 
the  sources  of  A. 's  prosperity.  It  lost  its  freedom  with 
the  abolition  of  the  German  empire  in  1806.  and  was  taken 
possession  of  by  Bavaria.  Pop.  (1880)  61.408;  (1895)80.7»8. 
AUGSBURG  CONFESSION:  the  chief  standard  of 
faith  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  Its  history  is  the  follow- 
ing :  With  a  view  to  an  amicable  arrangement  of  the 
religious  split  that  had  existed  in  Germany  since  1517, 
Charles  V.,  as  protector  of  the  church,  had  convoked  a 
diet  of  the  empire,  to  meet  at  Augsburg,  1580,  April  8,  and 
had  required  from  the  Protestants  a  short  statement  of  ^« 


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AUGSBURG  CONFESSION. 

doctrines  in  which  they  departed  from  the  Horn.  Cath. 
Church.  The  Elector  John  of  Saxony,  therefore,  in 
March,  called  on  his  "Wittenberg  theologians,  with  Luther 
at  their  head,  to  draw  up  articles  of  faith,  to  lay  before 
him  at  Torgau.  The  commissioned  doctors  took  as  a 
basis,  as  far  as  pure  doctrine  was  concerned,  articles  that 
had  been  agreed  to  the  previous  year  at  conferences  held  at 
Marburg  and  Schwabach,  in  the  form  of  resolutions  of  the 
Lutheran  reformers  of  Germany  against  thft  doctrines  of 
Zwingli.  These  doctrinal  articles  with  a  supplement,  and 
with  a  practical  part  added,  were  laid  before  the  elector 
at  Torgau.  Melanchthon  then,  taking  the  Torgau  articles 
as  a  foundation,  with  the  advice  of  various  Protestant 
theologians,  as  well  as  princes  and  other  secular  author- 
ities, composed  the  document,  which  he  first  called  an 
Apology,  but  which  in  the  diet  itself  took  the  name  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession.  This  work  was  begun  at  Augsburg 
in  May.  Luther  was  not  present  in  Augsburg,  being  then 
tmder  the  ban  of  the  empire,  but  his  advice  was  had  re- 
course to  in  its  composition.  The  Torgau  articles  were  in 
German;  the  Confession  was  both  in  German  and  Latin; 
and  Melanchthon  labored  incessantly  at  its  improvement  till 
it  was  presented  to  the  emperor,  June  25.  The  character 
of  Melanchthon,  in  the  absence  of  Luther,  had  led  him,  in 
setting  about  the  composition  of  the  document,  to  aim  at 
maintaining  a  spirit  of  love,  forbearance)  and  mediation, 
as  well  as  the  utmost  brevity  and  simplicity.  Its  object, 
which  became  gradually  apparent  only  after  the  meeting 
of  the  diet,  was,  in  the  first  place,  to  give  a  collected  view 
of  the  belief  of  the  Lutheran  Protestants,  aiming  at  the 
same  time  at  refuting  the  calunmiesof  the  Rom.  Catholics, 
and  at  laying  a  foundation  for  measures  of  reconciliation. 

The  first  part  of  Uie  Confession  contains  21  articles  of 
faith  and  doctrine  :  1.  Of  God ;  2.  Of  Origmal  Sin ;  8.  Of 
the  Son  of  God ;  4.  Of  Justification  ;  6.  Of  Preaching ;  (J. 
Of  New  Obedience  ;  7  and  8.  Of  the  Church  ;  9.  Of  Bap- 
tism ;  10.  Of  the  Lord's  Supper;  11.  Of  Confession;  12. 
Of  Penance;  13.  Of  the  Use  of  Sacraments;  14.  Of  Church 
Government ;  15.  Of  Church  Order ;  16.  Of  Secular  Gov- 
ernment ;  17.  Of  Christ's  Second  Coming  to  Judgment ;  18. 
Of  Free  Will ;  19.  Of  the  Cause  of  Sin ;  20.  Of  Faith  and 
Good  Works ;  21.  Of  the  Worship  of  Saints.  The  second 
and  more  practical  part,  with  discussion  at  greater  length, 
contains  seven  articles  on  disputed  points  :  22.  On  the  "rwo 
Kinds  of  the  Sacrament ;  23.  Of  the  Marriage  of  Priests ; 
24.  Of  the  Mass ;  25.  Of  Confession ;  26.  Of  Distinctions 
of  Meat ;  27.  Of  Conventual  Vows ;  28,  Of  the  Authority 
of  Bishops. 

This  document,  signed  by  some  six  Protestant  princes 
and  two  free'  cities,  was  read  before  the  emperor  and  the 
diet,  1530,  June  25.  Melanchthon,  not  looking  upon  the 
Confession  as  binding,  began  soon  afterwards  to  make  some 
alterations  in  its  expression  ;  at  last,  in  1540,  he  published  a 
Latin  Edition  (ConfessioVariata)  in  which  there  were  impor- 
tant changes  and  additions.  This  was  especially  the  case 
with  the  tuticlc  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  in  which,  with  a  view 


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AUGSBURG  INTERIM-AUGURIES. 

to  conciliation,  he  endeavored  to  unite  the  views  of  the  Lu- 
therans and  Cal  vinists.  This  gave  rise  to  much  controvert ; 
orthoilox  Lutberanism  repudiated  the  alterations  of  Me- 
lanchthon,  and  long  continued  to  subject  his  memory  to 
great  abuse ;  though  it  is  clear  that  Melanchthon  and  his 
adherents  contemplated  no  substantial  departure  in  doctrine 
from  the  original  Confession.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  form 
of  the  Confession  found  in  the  Lutheran  standards  is  iden- 
tical with  the  unaltered  Augsburg  Confession,  as  the  two 
original  documents— German  and  Latin— laid  before  the  diet 
have  been  lost.  The  chief  distinction  between  the  orthodox 
Lutherans  and  the  reformed  churches  of  Gkrmanj  has  all 
along  been  adherence  to  the  '  unaltered  *  or  to  the  *  altered ' 
Confession.  It  was  even  a  matter  of  controversy  whether 
the  *  reformed '  were  entitled  to  the  rights  securied  to  the 
Protestants  by  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg,  concluded 
1555,  on  the  ground  of  the  *  unaltered '  Confession. — Thouffh 
the  Augsburg  Confession  is  still  formally  adhered  to  by  the 
Protestant  churches  of  (Germany,  it  is  confessedly  no  longer 
the  expression  of  the  belief  of  the  vast  majority  of  the  mem- 
bers, after  the  great  advances  made  by  theology,  and  the 
many  alterations  in  public  opinion  and  feeling. 

AUGS'BURG  INTERIM :  see  Interim. 

AUGUR,  n.  aw'ger  [L.  augur,  an  augur— probably  from 
dfds,  a  bird  ;  and  gur,  telling— from  garrU),  I  talk  idly]: 
among  the  anc.  Romans,  one  who  professed  to  tell  future 
events  by  natural  tokens,  as  the  singing  and  flying  of  birds, 
and  the  flashing  of  lightning;  a  soothsayer:  Y.  to  profess  to 
foretell  events;  to  guess;  to  be  asioi.  Au'gubino,  imp.: 
Adj.  engaged  on  conjectures  ;  foreboding:  N.  the  imagi 
nary  interpretations  of  signs.  Auoubed,  pp.  aw'gerd. 
Au  GUBSHTP,  n.  the  oflBce  or  dignity.  AuGUBAii,  a.  atr'- 
gH-rdl,  or  Auqu'rial.  -rUil,  pertainmg  to.  Auguboub,  a. 
awgu-rus,  foreboding;  pretficting.  AuguratBjV.  aw'gu-rdt, 
to  predict.  Au'gura'ting,  imp.  Au'gura'tbd,  pp.  Au- 
GURT,  n.  aw'gu-rlf  or  Auguration,  n.  aw-g&r-d'shtin,  the 
art  of  foretelling  events  by  the  flights  of  birds;  an  omen  or 
prediction.  Auqurist,  n.  aw'gur-Ut,  one  who  practices 
augury ;  an  augur.— Syn.  of  *  augur,  v.':  to  presage ;  fore- 
bode ;  betoken ;  prognosticate ;  portend ;  predict. 

AU'GURIES  and  AUSPICES :  omens  of  future  events 
The  entire  religious  and  political  life  of  the  early  Romans 
was  deeply  penetrated  by  the  influence  of  their  superstitions, 
among  which  auguries  and  auspices  held  a  prominent  place. 

Like  almost  all  primitive  nations,  the-  Romans  bdieved 
that  every  unusual  occurrence  had  a  supernatural  signifi- 
cance, and  contained,  hidden  in  it,  the  will  of  Heaven  re- 
garding men.  To  reveal  or  interpret  this  hidden  will  was 
uie  exclusive  privilege  of  the  augur,  who  apparently  de- 
rived his  official  desi^ation,  in  part  at  least,  from  am,  a 
bird ;  while  Roman  history  abundantly  proves  that  the  ob- 
servation of  the  flight  of  birds  was  the  principal  means 
adopted  for  discovering  the  purpose  of  the  gods.  It  was 
not,  however,  any  one  who  could  be  appointed  an  augur. 
The  gods  selected  their  own  interpreters— that  is  to  say. 


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AUGURIES  AND  AUSPICES. 

they  conferred  the  dirino  gift  upon  them  from  their  veiy 
birth ;  but  an  educational  discipline  also  was  considered 
necessanr ;  hence  a  *  college  of  augurs'  figures  in  the  very 
dawn  of  Roman  histor^r.  Romulus,  it  is  almost  certain, 
was  an  augur.  He  is  said  to  have  been  skilled  in  the  art  of 
divination  from  his  youth  ;  and  by  *  divination  *  we  must 
spedallv  understand  augury ;  for  the  Romans,  with  patriotic 
piety,  held  all  the  forms  of  divination  practiced  in  other 
countries  to  be  useless  and  profane.  Previous  to  the  Ogul- 
nian  law,  passed  b.c.  807,  there  were  only  four  augurs, 
selected  from  the  patricians.  By  this  law,  however,  the 
plebeians  became  eligible  for  the  pontifloial  or  augural  of- 
fices, and  five  were  immediately  created.  For  more  than 
two  hundred  years,  the  number  continued  the  same,  till 
Sulla,  B.C.  81,  increased  it  to  fifteen.  Finally,  in  the  first 
days  of  the  empire,  when  all  parties,  tired  of  the  long  civil 
wars,  hurried  to  throw  their  privileges  at  the  feet  of  the 
monarch  who  had  brought  peace  into-their  homes,  the  right 
of  electing  augurs  at  his  pleasure  was  conferred  on  Augus- 
tas, after  which  the  number  became  indefinite. 

At  first,  the  augurs  were  elected  by  the  Comiiia  CuricUa; 
but  as  the  sanction  of  the  former  was  necessary  to  give 
validity  to  the  acts  of  the  latter,  tiiey  could  always  '  veto ' 
any  elections  which  were  obnoxious  to  them  ;  so  that  the 
power  of  electing  members  to  fill  up  vacancies  naturallv  fell 
mto  the  hands  of  the  college  itself,  and  so  continued  till  b.c. 
108,  when  a  tribune  of  the  people  named  Ahenobarbus 
carried  a  law  by  which  it  was  enacted  that  for  the  future 
vacancies  in  the  augural  and  pontifical  offices  should  be  filled 
not  hj  those  religious  corporations  themselves,  but  by  a 
majority  of  certain  picked  tribes.  This  new  law  was  occa- 
sionaUy  repealed  and  re  enacted  during  the  civil  wars  which 
lasted  till  Uie  time  of  Augustus.  The  scramble  for  power, 
however,  during  these  political  vicissitudes,  as  well  as  the 
general  advance  of  knowledge,  had  rendered  its  prophetic 
pretensions  ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  educated  people.  By 
Cicero's  time,  it  had  lost  its  religious  character  altogether, 
but  was  still  re^rded  as  one  of  the  highest  political  digni- 
ties, and  coveted  for  the  power  it  conferred. 

The  modes  of  divination  employed  bv  the  augurs  were 
five  in  wimhQT—augurium  ex  ccdo,  ex  avibus^  ex  tnpttdm,  ex 
quadrupedibus,  ex  dirts.  Tiie  first,  relating  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  celestial  phenomena,  such  as  thunder  and  light- 
ning, was  apparently  of  Etruscan  oridn,  and  held  to  be  of 
supreme  significance.  The  second  related  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  noise  and  flight  of  birds.  Not  every  bird,  how- 
ever, could  be  a  sure  messenger  of  the  gods.  Generally 
speaking,  those '  consulted/  as  it  was  called,  were  the  eagle, 
vulture,  crow,  raven,  owl,  and  hen.  The  first  two  belonged 
to  the  class  of  aXUes,  or  birds  whose  ^^A*  revealed  the  will 
of  the  gods :  the  last  four  to  the  class  of  oscineSt  whose  voice 
divulg^  the  same.  These  two  modes  of  augury  were  the 
oldest  and  most  important.  Of  the  other  three,  the  auguries 
ex  tripudiis  were  taken  from  the  feeding  of  chickens ;  the 
auguries  ex  (^uadrupedibus,  from  four  footed  animals— as, 
£or  instance,  if  a  dog,  or  wolt  or  hare,  ran  across  the  path 


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AUGUST. 

of  ft  Rmnaii,  and  startled  bim  by  any  mnisua]  motion,  be 
mentioned  it  to  an  augur,  wbo  was  expected  to  be  able  to 
advise  bim  wbat  to  do ;  tbe  auguries  ex  diri»  (a  vague  kind 
of  augury),  from  any  trivial  accidents  or  occurrences  not 
inclu&d  in  tbe  previous  four— sucb  as  sneezing,  stumbling, 
q>iUing  salt  on  tbe  table,  etc. 

At  Kome,  tbe  auspices  were  taken  on  tbe  summit  of  tbe 
Oapitoline  Hill ;  and  tbe  ground  on  wbicb  tbe  augur  stood 
was  solemnly  set  apart  for  tbe  purpose.  Tbe  latter  tben  took 
a  wand,  and  marked  out  a  portion  of  tbe  beavens  in  wbicb 
bis  observations  were  to  be  made.  Tbis  imaginary  portion 
was  called  a  templum  (bence  eontemplari,  to  contemplate), 
and  was  subdivided  into  rigbt  and  left.  According  as  the 
birds  appeared  in  eitber  of  tbese  divisions  were  the  auspices 
fovorable  or  unfavorable.  How  vast  were  the  political  in* 
fluence  and  aulbority  of  tbe  augurs  is  seen  from  the  fact, 
that  almost  nothing  of  any  consequence  could  take  place 
without  their  sanction-and  approval.  Tbe  election  of  every 
important  ruler,  king,  consul,  dictator,  or  pretor,  every  civic 
officer,  every  religious  functionary,  was  invalid  if  Uie  au- 
spices were  unfavorable.  No  general  could  lawfully  engage 
in  battle—no  public  land  could  be  allotted— no  muriage  or 
adoption,  at  least  amonir  the  patricians,  was  held  vaUd— 
unless  the  auspices  were  first  taken,  while  the  Comitia  of  the 
Centuries  could  be  dispersed  at  a  moment's  notice  by  the 
veto  of  any  member  of  the  augural  colle^. 

The  two  terms,  auguries  and  auspices  are  generally 
used  as  synonymous.  But  a  slight  difference  is  percep- 
tible; not  the  augurs  only,  but  tbe  chief  magistrates  of 
Rome  (inheriting  the  honor  from  Romulus),  held  the  '  au- 
spices,' while  the '  auguries '  were  exclusively  in  possession 
of  the  augurs ;  but  the  mode  of  divination,  and  the  end  to 
be  obtained  by  it,  seem  to  have  been  the  same  in  boUi  cases. 

The  power  of  taking  the  auspices  in  war  was  confined 
to  the  commander-in-chief;  ana  any  victory  gained  by  a 
legate  was  said  to  be  won  under  the  auspices  of  bis  supe- 
rior, and  the  latter  alone  was  entitled  to  a  triumph.  Hence 
has  originated  the  very  common  phrase  '  under  the  au- 
spices '  of  some  one,  which  usually  denotes  nothing  more 
than  that  the  person  alluded  to  merely  lends  the  influence 
of  his  name. 

AUGUST,  a.  aw^ust'  [L.  atigrutus,  sacred,  majestic: 
It.  nuguBto  ;  F.  auou9te\i  majestic;  grand;  inspiring  awe. 
August'nkss,  n.  dignity  of  appearance;  grandeur  in  mien. 
August'ly,  ad.  -Zl.— Stn.  of  'august':  grand;  great;  sub 
lime  ;  noble  ;  majestic ;  imposing  ;  magnificent ;  stately ; 
splendid;  superb;  solemn;  awful. 

AUGUST,  n.  ato^gust:  sixth  month  in  the  Roman  year, 
which  began  with  March;  it  was  originally  styled  BeitiUs, 
and  received  its  present  name  from  the  emperor  Augustus 
on  account  of  several  of  the  most  fortunate  events  of  his 
life  having  occurred  during  this  month.  On  this  month 
he  was  first  admitted  to  the  consulate,  and  thrice  entered 
the  city  in  triumph.  On  the  same  month,  the  legions 
from  the  Janiculum  placed  themselves  under  his  auspices, 
Egypt  was  brought  under  the  authority  of  the  Roman 


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PLATE    2  3.  fse"*** 


Aacaba  jsponica. 


CsBsarasan  Augur.— 
From  a  Roman  bas-relief. 


The  Great  Auk  (^Alca  impennUi)* 

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AUGUSTA. 

pie,  and  an  end  put  to  the  ciyil  ware.   (See  Macrobius, 

12.)  As  the  fifth  month,  or  QuirUilii,  had  previously 
been  styled  Julius  in  honor  of  Julius  Csesar,  a  day  was 
taken  from  Februanr  to  make  A.  equal  with  July. — 
Augustan,  a.  aw-gii/tdn,  pertaining  to  Augustus  or  bis 
age;  literary  or  refined. 

AUGUSTA,  aw-gu$'ta:c9,piial  of  Richmond  co.,  Ga.,  at 
the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Savannah  river,  182  m.  n.  w. 
of  Savannah;  the  third  city  in  Geor^  in  wealth  and 
population.  It  was  laid  out  in  1785,  being  named 
after  the  Princess  Augusta,  the  favorite  daughter  of 
GFeorge  II.  The  dty  is  situated  on  a  beautiful  plidn,  with 
wide,  straight  streets,  one  of  which.  Green  street,  is  168  ft. 
broad,  and  oeautif  ally  shaded.  The  houses  are  large,  and 
surrounded  by  ptrdens.  The  facilities  for  commerce  and 
transportation  mclude  the  Savannah  river  and  six  lines  of 
railway,  A.  being  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Georgia  rail- 
road system.  The  river  supplies  a  magnificent  water- 
power,  extensively  used  in  manufacturing,  tnrough  a  canal, 
completed  1846,  and  greatly  enlarged  1872.  The  city  owns 
the  water-works  (value  $5(X),000)  and  the  canal  (value  $1,- 
500,000),  and  1892  had  a  revenue  of  $90,000  from  them.  In 
1890  there  were  48  manufacturing  industries,  which  had 
417  establishments,  $7,075,996  capital,  and  5,861  hands; 
paid  $1,886,807  for  wa^es,  and  $4,974,610  for  materials; 
and  received  $8,681,888  for  products.  The  great  Sibley 
mill,  erected  on  the  site  of  a  powder  manufactory  used  dar- 
ing the  war,  contains  35,176  spindles,  and  844  looms.  The 
average  yearly  cotton  receipts  of  A.  are  150,000  bales.  The 
city's  trade  amounts  to  $55,000,000  per  annum.  Its  bank- 
ing business  is  the  largest  of  any  city  in  the  south,  com- 
prising 10  banks  with  an  annual  business  of  $2(X),0()0,000; 
the  foreign  exchange  of  the  city  amounting  to  $17,000,000 
per  annum.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  City  Hall,  Ma- 
sonic Hall,  Gdd-Fellows*  Hall,  and  Orphan  Asylum.  There 
are  8  daily,  5  weekly,  and  8  monthly  periodicals,  21  churches, 
a  U.  S.  arsenal,  and  several  hospitals.  There  is  a  high 
school  for  young  women,  and  one  for  colored  pupils  n>r 
both  sexes.  The  grammar,  intermediate,  and  primary 
schools  number  15,  for  white  and  colored  children.  The 
Medical  College  of  Georgia  is  located  here.  Amon^  the 
private  institutions  of  learning  are  the  Houghton  Institute, 
founded  by  private  bequest  in  1852,  and  accommodating  500 
pupils;  the  St.  Mary's  Academy,  the  Sacred  Heart  Acad- 
emy, C!ommercial  College,  and  the  Telfair  private  school. 

The  South  Carolina  railway  connecting  A.  with  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  was  the  first  steam  railway  built  in  the  United 
States,  incorporated  in  1827,  and  first  used  in  1881.  The 
Georgia  railroad  was  chartered  in  1833,  and  completed  to 
Atlanta  10  years  later.  The  headquarters  of  this  road  are 
in  A.,  with  machine  and  repair  shops  employing  200  hands. 

'There  are  also  the  Central  railroad  of  Georgia,  the  Port 
Boyal  and  Augusta  railroad,  the  Charlotte  Columbia  and 
Augusta  railr(^,  the  Columbia  Wilming^n  and  Augusta 
railroad,  and  the  Augusta  and  ELnoxville  railroad  recently 
completed.     The  city  has  an  inexhaustible  water  system. 


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AUGUSTA— AUQUSTI. 

sappUed  from  the  canal;  a  perfect  system  of  sewage,  and  a 
model  fire  d^>artment.  In  1891  the  valuations  were:  real 
$16,041,973,  personal  $5,309,326,  total  $21,351,299;  1892. 
total  $22,112,942;  and  debt  1892,  fdi  bonded,  $1,751,300. 
Pop.  (1880)  21,891;  (1890)  33,800. 

AUGUSTA:  a  town,  cap.  of  Maine;  on  both  banks  of 
the  river  Kennebec,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  520  ft.  long; 
lat.  44"  19*  n.,  long.  69-  50*  w.  Up  to  A.  the  river  is 
navigable  for  sloops  from  its  mouth,  43  m.  in  a  straight 
line;  while  a  dam  immediately  above  the  city  enables 
steamboats  to  ply  more  than  20  m.  above,  as  far  as 
Waterville.  A.  is  on  the  railway  between  Portland  and 
Bemgor.  The  dam  has  created  a  vast  water-power,  used 
for  manufacturing.    Pop.  (1880)  8,655;  (1890)  10,521. 

AUGUSTA,  Maria  Louisa  Cathkrinb,  Queen  of 
Prussia,  Empress  of  Germany;  b.  1811,  Sep.  8;  daugh- 
ter of  Charles  Frederic,  Grand  Duke  of  Saxe  Wei- 
mar, her  mother  being  a  daughter  of  Paul  I.  of  Russia. 
The  princess  having  been  educated  at  the  court  of  her 
grandfather,  Charles  Augustus,  Grand  Duke  of  Saxe 
Weimar,  intimate  friend  of  Goethe,  Wieland,  and  other 
men  of  letters  resident  at  Weimar,  made  their  acquaint- 
ance, and  was  on  familiar  terms  in  particular  with  the 
great  German  poet,  (Joethe.  Augusta  married  WOliam, 
Prince  of  Prussia,  1829,  June  11,  and  by  this  marriage 
became  afterwards  the  queen  of  Prussia,  and,  in  1871, 
empress  of  Germany.  The  empress  has  had  but  two 
children,  the  crown  prince  of  Germany,  who  married  the 
princess  royal  of  England,  and  the  princess  Louisa.  She  is 
nighly  esteemed  for  oenevolence,  and  respected  as  a  pat- 
ron of  the  arts  and  literature.  During  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  her  exertions  were  unremitting  m  behalf  of  wounded 
soldiers.  In  1872,  she  founded  a  seminary  for  the  educa- 
tion of  daughters  of  officers  slain  In  the  war.   D.  1890. 

AUGUSTENBURG,  owgda-t^-bera':  little  village  in  the 
centre  of  the  island  of  AJsen;  noted  as  the  residence  of 
the  Duke  of  Holstein -Sender burg- Augustenbur^,  also  for 
its  splendid  '  stables,'  and  for  the  castle  belongmg  to  the 
ducal  family.    Pop.  800. 

AVQVBTl,  cw-goof^te:  German  theologian;  1772-1841, 
Apr.  28;  b.  at  Eschenberga,  near  Gotha.  He  studied  at 
Jena  under  the  celebrated  Griesbach.  In  1798,  he  became 
lecturer  in  philosophy,  and  in  1800,  prof,  extraordinary 
of  the  same.  Three  years  later  he  succeeded  Ilgen  in 
the  chair  of  Oriental  Literature;  but  his  love  of  theologi- 
cal studies  led  him  to  accept  a  theological  professorship 
in  the  Univ.  of  Breslau.  In  1819,  he  was  transferred  to 
Bonn,  and  made  a  director  of  the  consistory  at  Cologne. 
In  his  early  career,  A.  was  a  rationalist;  subsequently 
he  returned  to  orthodox  Lutheranism,  but  was,  to  the  last, 
free  from  bigotry.  Of  his  writings,  the  most  important 
if  bis  Manual  qf  OhrUUan  ArchcBology  (Leip.  1886-7). 


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AUGUSTINE. 

AUGUSTINE,  aw'giis-tXn,  Aurelius,  St.:  greatest  of 
the  Latin  fathers  of  the  church;  854.  Nov.  13—480,  Aug. 
28;  b.  Tagaste,  a  town  of  Numidia.  His  father,  Patricius, 
who  was  poor,  but  of  good  family,  and  a  magistrate,  con- 
tinued a  pagan  till  advanced  in  years,  and  was  baptized 
only  shortly  before  his  death.  Patricius  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  remarkable  for  elevation  of  mind;  on  the  con- 
trary, one  may  fairl;^  conclude;  from  his  son's  statements, 
that  he  was  an  irascible,  kind-h^ted  man,  intent  on  his 
son's  advancement  in  this  world  more  than  in  that  which 
is  to  come.  His  temper  often  caused  great  sorrow  to  his 
gentle  and  pious  wife,  who  loved  him  faithfully,  however, 
and  was  therefore  rewarded  with  the  secret  bv  which  she 
could  charm  the  evil  spirit  out  of  him.  Patricius  was 
ver^  anxious  that  A.  should  become  a  fine  scholar,  as  he 
noticed  that  not  a  few  people  in  his  day  were  obtaining 
large  incomes  by  their  '  wits.'  A.  was  accordingly  sent  to 
school  at  Madaura  and  at  Carthage.  Before  this  he  had 
enjoyed  the  inestimable  felicity  of  a  religious  education  at 
home.  His  mother,  Monica,  had  been  his  best  instructor. 
Neander  truly  says:  '  Whatever  treasures  of  virtue  and 
worth  the  life  of  faith,  even  of  a  soul  not  trained  by  sci- 
entific culture,  can  bestow,  were  set  before  him  in  the  ex- 
ample of  his  pious  mother.' 

The  energy  and  penetration  of  intellect  exhibited  by 
the  young  A.  excited  the  most  flattering  hopes.  When  he 
left  home  for  Carthage,  a  joyous,  ardent,  and  resolute 
student,  a  bright  career  of  worldly  prosperity  seemed  to 
open  before  him.  But  strong  as  A.  was,  the  temptations 
of  Carthage  were  stronger.  His  nature,  deep,  impetuous, 
passionate,  thirsted  forexcitemeot.  He  had  just  reached 
the  age  when  happiness  is  conceived  to  be  synonymous 
with  pleasure,  and  Carthage,  the  second  citv  of  the  em- 
pire, was  rank  as  Rome  in  its  sensual  corruptions.  A.  fell, 
in  his  CoTtfeagionSt  he  paints  the  frightful  abyss  into  which 
he  felt  himself  plunged;  nor  does  he  seek  to  excuse  him- 
self; on  the  contrary,  the  shadow  of  his  guilt  is  thrown 
forward  over  all  his  boyish  life,  and  he  displays  even  a 
morbid  zeal  and  acuteness  in  pointing  out  what  others, 
less  censorious,  might  term  the  frivolous  errors  of  his 
childhood,  but  which  seemed  to  A.  the  parents  of  his  sub- 
«equent  vices,  and  therefore  equally  bad  and  equally 
reprehensible.  Before  he  had  reached  his  eighteenth  year 
his  mistress  bore  him  a  son,  who  was  named  Adeodatus — 
afterwards  baptized  along  with  him  at  Milan.  The  thing 
which  appears  to  have  first  stirred  his  deeper  being  into 
life  was  a  passage  which  he  suddenly  came  across  m  the 
Hariermus  of  Cicero,  treating  of  the  worth  and  dignity  of 
philosophy.  To  use  the  language  of  Neander:  '  The  con- 
flict now  began  in  his  soul  which  lasted  through  eleven 
years  of  his  life  As  the  simplicity  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures possessed  no  attractions  for  his  taste — a  taste  formed 
by  rhetorical  studies  and  the  artificial  discipline  of  the 
declamatory  schools — especially  as  his  mind  was  now  in 
the  same  tone  and  direction  with  that  of  the  emperor 
Julian,  when  the  latter  was  conducted  to  the  Platonic 


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AtJGUSTINI!. 

theosopby;  as,  moreover,  he  found  so  many  things  in  the 
doctrines  of  the  church  which,  from  want  of  inward  ex- 
perience, could  not  be  otherwise  than  unintelligible  to  him, 
while  he  attempted  to  grasp,  by  the  understanding  from 
without,  what  can  be  understood  only  from  the  inner  life, 
from  the  feeling  of  inward  wants,  and  one's  own  inward 
experiences;  so,  under  these  circumstances,  the  delusive 
pretensions  of  the  ManicluBan  sect,  which,  instead  of  a 
blind  belief  on  authority,  held  out  the  promise  of  clear 
knowledge  and  a  satisfactory  solution  of  all  questions  re- 
lating to  things  human  and  divine,  presented  the  stronger 
attractions  to  his  inexperienced  vouth.'  A.  now  became 
a  professed  Manichtean.  Returning  to  his  native  town,  he 
lectured  for  a  short  time  on  '  grammar ' — ^that  is  to  say, 
on  literature.  Soon  afterwards,  he  returned  to  Carthage, 
to  pursue  his  profession  under  more  favorable  auspices. 
Here  he  wrote,  in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  his  first  work, 
De  Apia  et  FuUhro — a  treatise  on  sesthetics,  unfortunately 
lost.  About  the  same  time  his  spiritual  nature  became 
keener  and  more  imperative  in  ita  demands.  The  futile 
speculations  of  the  visionary  sect  to  which  he  had  attached 
Mmself  now  became  apparent.  He  had  a  series  of  inter- 
views and  conversations  with  Faustus,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  teachers  of  Manichseism;  and  these  so  utterly 
disappointed  his  expectations,  that  he  left  the  society  in 
disgust  and  sad  bewilderment,  after  having  wasted  ten 
years  in  a  fruitless  search  for  wisdom  and  truth. 

In  883,  he  wen<  to  Rome,  followed  by  the  tears,  the 
prayers,  and  the  anxieties  of  his  excellent  mother,  who 
was  not,  however,  bereaved  of  hope,  for  both  her  faith 
and  her  love  were  strong.  After  a  short  stay,  A.  left 
Rome,  and  proceednd  to  Milan,  where  he  became  a  teacher 
of  rhetoric.  No  change  could  have  been  more  fortunate. 
At  this  time  the  biUiop  of  Milan  was  the  eloquent  and  de- 
vout St.  Ambrose.  An  intimacy  sprung  up  between  the 
two.  A.  often  went  to  hear  his  friend  preach.  He  was 
not,  however,  as  yet  a  Christian.  He  had  only  emerged, 
as  it  were,  from  MiinichaBanism— the  region  of  night- 
clouds  and  shadows— and  was  gazing  on  the  gray  dawn  of 
the  Platonic  philosophy,  prophetic  of  the  noon-tide  splen- 
dors of  Christianity  B(K)n  to  burst  upon  his  vision.  Still, 
A.  did  not  afterwards  despise  this  preliminary  training;  he 
was  too  great  and  honest  a  man  for  that.  He  confesses 
that  the  Platonic  writings  *  enkindled  in  his  mind  an  in- 
credible ardor;'  they  awakened  his  deeper  spiritual  nature, 
which  keenly  upbraided  him  with  his  sins.  Once  more  he 
studied  the  Bible,  though  from  a  purely  Platonic  point  of 
view,  and  rather  wishing  to  find  in  it '  those  truths  which 
he  had  already  made  himself  acquainted  with  from  the 
Platonic  philosophy,  but  presented  in  a  different  form.' 
He  began  to  think  that  Christ  and  Paul,  by  their  glorious 
life  and  death,  their  divine  morality,  their  great  holiness, 
and  manifold  virtues,  must  have  enjoyed  much  of  that 
'highest  wisdom'  which  the  philosophers  thought  con- 
fined to  themselves.  For  some  time  he  clung  to  his 
Platonic  Christianitv.  and  shaped   the  doctrines  of  the 


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AUGUSTINE. 

Bible  according  to  it;  but  when  he  found  that  it  was  weak 
to  overcome  temptations,  and  that '  he  himself  was  con- 
tinually home  down  by  the  ungodly  impulses  which  he 
thought  he  had  already  subdued/  the  necessity  of  a  living 
personal  Crod  and  Saviour  to  rescue  him  from  the  con- 
demnation of  his  own  conscience,  and  impart  a  sanctifying 
vitality  to  the  abstract  truths  which  he  worshipped,  shone 
clear  through  all  the  stormv  struggles  of  his  heart  In  the 
eighth  and  ninth  books  of  his  VovfesgitmSt  he  has  left  a 
noble  though  painful  picture  of  his  mward  life  during  this 
momentous  crisis.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  Spirit  of 
God  triumphed.  A.,  with  his  natural  son,  Adeodatus, 
of  whom  he  seems  to  have  been  justly  fond,  was  baptized 
by  Ambrose  at  Milan,  887,  April  25.  Shortly  afterwards 
he  set  out  on  his  return  home.  At  Ostia,  on  the  Tiber,  his 
beloved  mother,  who  had  followed  him  to  Milan,  died;  her 
eyes  had  seen  the  salvation  of  her  son,  and  she  could  de- 
part in  peace.  After  her  death,  and  before  leavine  Italy 
lor  Africa,  A.  wrote  his  treatises,  De  Moribus  Scclesue 
Caiholica  et  de  Moribus  Mankhaorum ;  Ds  Qaantitaie 
Anima;  and  De  Idbero  Arbitrio,  It  is  imnecessary  to  re- 
late at  any  length  the  subsequent  life  of  Augustine.  His 
character,  and  principles  of  action  had  become  fixed,  and 
he  now  brought  the  whole  majesty  of  his  intellect  to  bear 
upon  the  side  of  Christianitv.  Having,  as  was  then  cus- 
tomary for  converts,  divided,  his  goods  among  the  poor,  he 
retired  into  private  lifs,  and  comoosed  several  treatises — 
De  Oenesi  Contra  ManicTiCBOs;  De  Mudcd,  De  Magistro,  and 
De  Verd  Beligione,  which  secured  him  high  reputation.  In 
891,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  by  Valerius,  Bishop  of  Hippo; 
and  during  the  next  four  years,  though  earnestly  ensued 
in  the  work  of  preaching,  contrived  to  write  three  oiner- 
ent  works.  In  895,  he  was  made  colleague  of  Valerius. 
Then  ensued  a  period  of  hot  strife,  known  in  church  his- 
tory as  the  Donatist  and  Pelagian  controversies.  A.,  hav- 
ing passed  through  so  fierce  a  fire  of  personal  experience 
on  religious  questions,  was  very  jealous  both  of  what  he 
knew  to  be  the  truth,  and  of  what  he  only  thottght  to  be 
the  truth.  This,  added  to  his  acute  and  profound  intel- 
lect, made  him,  in  spite  of  the  lack  of  historical  erudition, 
a  most  formidable  and  relentless  antagonist.  For  this 
portion  of  his  career  see  Pelagius  :  Pelagianism.  In 
897,  appeared  his  Goitfessiones,  in  18  books — a  deep,  earnest, 
and  sacred  autobiography  of  one  of  the  greatest  intellects 
the  world  has  seen.  Passages  of  it  have  no  parallel  ex- 
cept in  the  Psalms  of  David.  In  418,  he  commenced  his 
De  OivUate  Dei,  and  finished  it  426.  It  is  generally  con- 
sidered his  most  powerful  work.  Exception  may  be  taken 
to  much  that  it  contains.  The  learning  is  no  doubt  con- 
siderable, but  it  is  not  accurate.  A.  was  an  indifferent 
scholar;  he  had  studied  the  Latin  authors  well;  but  of 
Greek  'he  knew  little,  and  of  Hebrew,  nothing.'  Many 
of  his  reasonings  are  Dased  on  false  and  untenable  prem- 
ises, and  he  erred  often  in  his  etymological  explanations; 
but  in  spite  of  these  and  other  drawbacks,  the  final  im- 
pression left  on  the  mind  is,  that  the  work  is  one  of  the 


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AUGUSTINE. 

mostpTofoQDd  and  lasdiig  monuments  of  human  genhUL 
In  428,  A  published  his  BetradaHoneg  in  which  he  makes 
a  recension  of  all  his  previous  writingis.  It  is  a  work  of 
great  candor.  He  frankly  acknow]e<^es  such  errors  and 
mistakes  as  be  bad  discovered  himself  to  have  committed, 
explains  and  modifies  numerous  statements,  and  modestly 
reviews  his  whole  opinions.  His  end  was  now  drawing 
niglu  In  429,  the  Vandals,  imder  the  barbarian  Genseric, 
landed  in  Africa;  next  vear  they  besieged  Hippo.  A., 
now  in  his  seventy-sixth  year,  prayed  that  God  would 
help  his  imhappy  church,  and  grant  himself  a  release  out 
of  this  present  evil  world.  He  died  in  the  third  month  of 
the  siege. 

No  mind  has  exerted  greater  influence  on  the  church 
than  that  of  Augustine.  Consistency  of  theological  opin- 
ion is  not  to  be  looked  for  from  him,  nor  from  any  of  the 
church  fathers.  A  larger  sphere  of  freedom  was  permitted 
to  religious  speculation  in  those  unfettered  days,  before 
creeds  were  encircled  with  that  traditionary  sanctity  that 
they  now  possess.  Nevertheless,  there  is  little  difliculty  in 
determining  the  central  tenets  of  his  theological  belief.  He 
held  the  corruption  of  human  nature  through  the  fall  of 
man,  and  the  consequent  slavery  of  the  human  wiU.  Both 
on  metaphysical  and  religious  grounds,  he  asserted  the 
doctrine  of  predestination,  from  which  he  necessarily 
deduced  the  corollary  doctrines  of  election  and  reproba- 
tion; and  finally,  he  strenuously  supported,  against  the 
Pelagians,  not  only  these  ot)inions,  but  also  the  doctrine 
of  the  perseverance  of  the  saints.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
but  fair  to  add  that,  even  on  such  points,  his  lan^age  is 
far  from  uniform;  that  much  of  the  severity  of  his  doc- 
trines arose  from  the  bitter  and  painful  remembrance  of 
his  own  early  sins,  and  from  the  profound  impression 
which  the  corrupt  state  of  society  in  his  time,  and  the  vast 
desolations  of  barbarism,  had  made  on  his  earnest  and 
susceptible  soul;  and  that,  in  his  desire  to  give  glory  to 
God,  he  sometimes  forgot  to  be  kind  or  even  lust  to  man. 
In  illustration  of  this  may  be  mentioned  the  fact  (see 
Neander,  Moshcim,  and  Waddington's  Church  Histories), 
that  the  maxim  which  justified  the  chastisement  of  relie- 
ous  errors  by  civil  penalties,  even  to  burning,  was  estab- 
lished and  confirmed  by  the  authority  of  A.,  and  thus 
transmitted  to  following  ages.  In  his  epistle  to  Dulcitius, 
a  civil  magistrate  who  shrank  from  putting  in  force  the 
edict  of  Honorius  against  heretics,  he  uses  these  words: 
'  It  is  much  better  that  some  should  perish  by  their  own 
fires,  than  that  the  whole  body  should  bum  m  the  ever- 
lasting flames  of  Gehenna,  through  the  desert  of  their 
impious  dissension.'  In  the  opinion  of  Neander,  it  was 
to  the  somewhat  narrow  culture,  and  the  peculiar  per- 
sonal experience  and  temperament  of  Augustine,  that  the 
doctrines  of  absolute  predestination  and  irresistible  grace, 
first  systematized  by  him,  owed  much  of  that  harshness, 
and  one-sidedness  which  so  long  obstructed  their  general 
reception  by  the  church,  and  which  continue  to  ren^Ur 
them  repulsive  to  multitudes. 


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AUGUSTINE. 

His  life  has  been  written  by  Tillemont,  and  his  entire 
works  have  been  repeatedly  edited.  The  Benedictine  edi- 
tion (Paris,  11  vols.,  1679-1700)  is  the  best.  Numerous 
editions  of  the  C<mfemone9  and  Be  CmtcUe  Dei  have  ap- 
peiuned;  the  most  recent  of  the  latter  by  Marcus  Dods, 
D.D.  In  the  •  Library  of  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Catholic 
Church,'  are  translations  into  English  of  A.'s  Confessions, 
MeposUion  on  St.  John's  Oospel  and  on  the  Psalms,  JSermons 
on  the  New  Testament,  and  Short  Treatises.  His  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  is  translated  by  Trench,  and  his  Letters  by  Rev. 
J.  G.  Cunningham. 

AUGUSTINE,  St.,  first  Abp.  of  Canterbury:  d.  604: 
was  originallv  a  monk  in  the  convent  of  St.  Andrew  at 
Rome.  In  596  he  was  sent,  with  forty  other  raonks,  by 
Pope  Gregory  I.,  to  convert  the  Anglo-Saxons  to  Christian- 
ity, and  establish  the  authority  of  the  Roman  see  in  Britain. 
The  missionaries  were  kindly  received  by  Ethel bert,  King 
of  Kent,  whose  wife  Bertha,  daughter  of  the  king  of  the 
Parisians,  was  a  Christian,  and  retained  a  Prankish  bishop 
in  her  suite  as  chaplain.  A  residence  was  assigned  to 
them  at  Canterbury,  then  called  Duroremum,  where  they 
devoted  themselves  to  monastic  exercises  and  preaching. 
The  conversion  and  baptism  of  the  king  contribute 
greatly  to  the  success  of  their  efforts  among  his  subjects, 
and  it  is  recorded  that  in  one  day  A.  baptized  10,000  per- 
sons in  the  river  Swale.  Nominal  as  much  of  this  con 
version  must  have  been,  there  is  abundant  testimony  to 
the  fact  that  a  marked  improvement  in  the  life  and 
manners  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  followed  the  evangelistic 
labors  of  A.  and  his  companions. 

In  597,  he  went  to  Aries,  by  direction  of  the  pope,  and 
was  there  consecrated  Abp.  of  Canterbury  and  Metro- 
politan of  England.  On  his  return,  he  despatched  a 
presbyter  and  monk  to  Rome,  to  inform  the  pope  of  his 
success,  and  obtain  instruction  on  certain  questions; 
Gregory's  advice  with  regard  to  the  propagation  of  the 
faith  are  admirable  examples  of  that  pious  ingenuity 
which  has  often  characterized  the  missionary  policy  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Thus,  instead  of  destroying  the  heathen 
temples,  A.  was  reconmiended  to  convert  them  into  Chris- 
tian churches,  by  washing  the  walls  with  holy  water, 
erecting  altars,  and  substituting  holy  relics  and  symbols 
for  the  images  of  the  heathen  gods.  A.'s  subsequent 
efforts  to  establish  his  authority  over  the  native  British 
church  were  not  so  successful  as  his  missionary  labors. 
He  was  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  the  monastery  bear- 
ing his  name,  founded  by  King  Ethel  bert.  His  body  was 
removed  to  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury,  1091.  Bebe's 
Historia  Ecclesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum  is  the  great  author- 
ity for  the  life  of  St.  Augustine.  A  thoughtful  and  pleas- 
ing sketch  of  it  is  in  the  Rev.  Arthur  P.  Stanley's  mstori- 
c(u  Memorials  of  Canterbury,  Lond.  1855. 

The  site  and  remains  of  St.  A.  's  monastery  were  pur- 
chased, 1844,  by  Mr.  Beresford  Hope,  by  whom  they 
were  presented  to  the  Abp.  of  Canterbury  in  trust,  for  the 
erection  ox  a  missionary  college  in  connection  wHh  Ux» 


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AUGUSTIN8. 

Church  of  England.  This  institution  was  incorporated 
by  royal  charter,  1848.  The  buildmgs,  in  which  as  much 
of  the  ancient  structure  as  possible  has  been  preserved, 
have  accommodation  for  about  45  students,  whose  course 
of  study  extends  over  three  ^ears.  Twenty  exhibitions 
have  been  founded  in  connection  with  the  college. 

AUGUSTINS,  n.  blu.  aw-ffiu^tine,  or  AuouBTmES: 
monks  who  follow  the  doctrines  and  rules  of  St  Aujrastine. 
AuousTiKiAK.  n.  (Ho'guS'tin'Udn,  one  of  an  order  of  monks 
so  named;  one  who  holds  with  St  Augusdne  that  grace  is 
absolutely  effectual  from  its  inherent  nature. 

AUGU8TINS,  or  AuGUSTiiras,  or  Augustik'ians: 
names  of  several  religious  bodies  in  the  Rom.  Oath. 
Church.  Whether  St.  Augustine  ever  framed  any  formal 
rule  of  monastic  life,  is  uncertain;  but  one  was  de- 
duced from  his  writings,  and  was  adopted  by  as  many 
as  thirty  monastic  fraternities,  of  which  the  chief 
were  the  Canons  Regular,  the  Knights  Templars  (q.v.^, 
the  Begging  Hermits,  the  Friars  A'eachers  or  Domini- 
cans (q.v.).  and  the  Premonstratensians  (q.v.).  The 
Canons  R^gxtlab  of  St.  Augustinb,  or  Austin  Canons, 
appear  to  have  been  founded  or  remodelled  about 
the  middle  of  the  11th  c.  Their  discipline  was  less 
severe  than  that  of  monks  properly  so-called,  but  more 
rigid  than  that  of  the  secular  or  parochial  clergy.  They 
lived  under  one  roof,  having  a  common  dormitory  and 
refectory.  Their  habit  was  a  long  cassock,  with  a  white 
rochet  over  it,  all  covered  bv  a  black  cloak  or  hood, 
whence  they  were  often  called  Black  Canons.  In  Eng- 
land, where  they  were  established  early  in  the  12th  c, 
they  had  about  170  houses,  the  earliest,  it  would  seem, 
being  at  Nostell,  near  Pontefract,  Yorkshire.  In  Scot- 
land, they  had  about  25  houses:  the  earliest  at  Scone  was 
founded  1114,  and  filled  by  canons  from  Nostell;  the 
others  of  most  note  were  at  Inchcolm  in  the  Firth  of 
Forth,  St.  Andrews,  Holyrood,  Cambuskenneth,  and 
Inchaffray. 

The  Begging  Hbrmtts,  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  or 
Austin  Friars,  were  a  much  more  austere  order,  renounc- 
ing all  property,  and  vowing  to  live  by  the  voluntary 
alms  of  the  faithful.  They  are  believed  to  have  sprung 
from  certain  societies  of  recluses  who,  in  the  11th  and  12th 
c,  existed  especially  in  Italy  without  any  regulative  con- 
stitution. At  the  instigation,  as  is  alleged,  of  the  rival 
fraternities  of  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  Pope  Innocent 
IV.,  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  c,  imposed  on  them  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine,  whom  they  claimed  as  their  founder. 
In  1256,  Pope  Alexander  IV.  placed  them  imder  the  con- 
trol of  a  superior  or  president  called  a  *  general.'  In  1J^7, 
a  code  of  rules  or  constitutions  was  compiled,  by  which 
the  order  long  continued  to  be  govemea.  About  1570, 
Friar  Thomas  of  Jesus,  a  Portuguese  brother  of  the  order, 
introduced  a  more  austere  rule,  the  disciples  of  which  were 
forbidden  to  wear  shoes,  whence  the  were  caXJeddiicaieeaU 
or  *  barefooted  friars.' 

The  degeneracy  of  the  order  in  the  14th  c  called  intQ 


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AUGUSTOWO-AUGUSTULUS. 

existence  new  or  reformed  Augustinian  societies,  among 
which  was  that  Saxon  one  to  which  Luther  belonged 
But  in  his  day  even  these  had  fallen  victims  to  the  general 
corruption  of  the  priesthood,  and  he  inflicted  serious  in* 
iury  upon  it  by  his  unsparing  denimciations.  After  the 
French  Revolution,  the  order  was  wholl>[  suppressed  in 
France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  partly  in  Italy  and  s. 
Germany.  It  was  diminished  even  m  Austria  and  Naples. 
It  is  most  x)owerful  in  Sardinia  and  America. 

The  name  of  Augustinks  was  given  also  to  an  order  of 
nuns  who  claimed  descent  from  a  convent  founded  by  St. 
Augustine  at  Hippo,  and  of  which  his  sister  was  the  first 
abtefs.  They  were  vowed  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the 
service  of  hospitals.  The  Hdtel-Dieu  at  Paris  is  still  served 
by  them. 

AUGUSTOWO,  ow-g68-td'v6:  town  of  Poland,  cap.  of  a 
circle  of  the  same  name:  on  the  Netta,  a  feeder  of  the  Bug; 
188  m.  n.e.  from  Warsaw.  It  was  founded  bv  Sigismund 
Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  1557.  It  has  woolen  and  linen 
manufactures,  and  some  trade  in  horses  and  cattle.  Great 
part  of  the  surrounding  districts  is  occupied  by  lakes  and 
marshes,  or  covered  with  forests.    Pop.  12,000. 

AUGUSTULU8,  aw-giif'tu-liis,  Romulus:  the  last  em 
peror  of  the  western  portion  of  the  Roman  empire.  His 
name  was  Augustus,  but  the  diminutive  title  under  which 
he  is  universally  known  was  eiven  him  bj  the  Romans  on 
account  of  the  essential  littleness  of  his  character.  He 
was  the  son  of  Orestes,  a  Pannonian  of  birth  and  wealth, 
who  rose  to  high  rank  under  the  emperor  Julius  Nepos, 
whose  favor  he  repaid  by  stirring  up  the  barbarian  troops 
in  the  pay  of  Rome  to  mutiny  against  him.  On  the  flight 
of  the  emperor,  Orestes  conferred  the  vacant  throne  on  nis 
son  A.  (476),  retaining  all  substantial  power  in  his  own 
hands.  Orestes  failing  to  conciliate  the  barbarians,  who 
had  helped  him  against  Nepos,  with  a  grant  of  the  third 
of  the  lands  of  Italy,  they,  under  the  command  of  Odo- 
acer,  besieged  him  in  Pavia,  and  capturing,  put  him  to 
death.  A.  yielded  at  once,  and  being  of  too  httle  conse- 
quence to  be  put  to  death,  he  was  dismissed  to  a  villa  near 
Naples  with  an  annual  pension  of  6,000  pieces  of  gold. 


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AUGUSTUS. 

AUGUSTUS,  aw^m'tfti,  Caitts  Julius  Cj£9ar  Octat- 
IANU8:  B.C.  68,  Sep.  23-^a.d.  14,  Aug.  19;  son  of  Octavius 
and  Alia  (dau.  of  Julia,  younger  sister  of  Julius  Caraar). 
The  Octavian  family  came  originally  from  VelitPBB,  in  the 
country  of  the  Volsci;  and  the  branch  from  which  A.  de- 
scended was  rich  and  honorable.  His  father  had  risen  to 
the  rank  of  senator  and  pretor,  but  died  in  the  prime  of 
life,  when  A.  was  only  four  years  old.  A.  was  carefuUy 
educated  in  Rome  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother 
and  his  step-father,  Lucius  Marcius  Philippus.  At  the 
age  of  12,  A.  delivered  a  funeral  oration  over  his  grand- 
mother; at  16,  he  received  the  toga  virilis.  The  talents  of 
the  youth  recommended  him  to  his  grand-uncle,  Julius 
Osesar,  who  adopted  A.  as  bis  son  and  heir.  At  the  time 
of  Cajsar's  assassination  (B.C.  44,  March  15),  A.  was  a  stu- 
dent under  the  celebrated  orator  ApoUodorus,  at  Apollonia 
in  Illyricum,  where,  however,  he  had  been  sent  chiefly 
with  a  view  to  gain  practical  instruction  in  military  affairs. 
He  returned  to  Italy,  assuming  the  name  of  Julius  Caesar 
Octavianus,  and  at  his  landing  at  Bnmdusium  was  wel- 
comed by  deputies  from  the  veterans  there  assembled;  but 
declining  their  offers,  he  chose  to  enter  Rome  privately. 
The  city  was  at  this  time  divided  between  the  two  parties 
of  the  republicans  and  the  friends  of  Mark  Antony;  but 
the  latter  had,  by  adroit  maneuvers,  gained  the  ascend- 
ency, and  had  almost  absolute  power.  A.  was  at  first 
haughtily  treated  by  the  consul,  who  refused  to  surrender 
the  property  of  Csesar.  After  some  fighting,  in  which 
Antony  was  worsted,  and  had  to  flee  across  the  Alps,  A., 
who  had  made  himself  a  favorite  with  the  people  and  the 
army,  succeeded  in  getting  the  will  of  Julius  Cssar  car- 
ried out.  He  found  an  able  friend  and  advocate  in  Cicero, 
who  had  at  first  regarded  him  with  contempt.  The  great 
orator,  while  ima^ming  that  he  was  laboring  in  behalf  of 
the  republic,  was  in  fact  only  an  instrument  for  raisine  A. 
to  supreme  power.  When  Antony  returned  from  Qaul 
with  Lepidus,  A.  joined  them  in  establishing  a  triumvirate. 
He  obtained  Africa,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily;  Antony,  Gaul; 
a\id  Lepidus,  Spain.  Their  power  was  soon  made  absolute 
by  the  massacre  of  those  unfriendly  to  them  in  Italy,  and 
by  victories  over  the  republican  army  in  Macedonia,  com- 
manded by  Brutus  and  Cassius.  After  the  battle  of  Phil- 
ipjn,  won  by  A.  and  Antony,  of  which  the  former  un- 
juBtly  claimed  all  the  credit,  whereas  it  mainly  belonged 
to  the  latter,  the  triumvirs  made  a  new  division  of  the 
provinces—A.  obtaining  Italy,  and  Lepidus  Africa.  The 
Perusian  war,  excited  by  Fulvia,  wife  of  Antony,  seemed 
likely  to  lead  to  a  contest  between  A.  and  his  rival;  but  was 
ended  by  the  death  of  Fulvia,  and  the  subsequent  marriage 
of  Antony  with  Octavia,  sister  of  Augustus.  Shortly  after- 
wards, the  claims  of  Sextus  Pompcius  and  Lepidus  havinff 
been  settled  by  force  and  fraud,  the  Roman  world  was  di- 
vided between  A.  and  Antony;  and  a  contest  for  suprem- 
acy commenced  between  them.  While  Antony  was  lost 
in  luxurious  dissipation  at  the  court  of  Cleopatra,  A.  was 
industriously  striving  to  gain  the  love  and  confidence  of 


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AUGUSTUS. 

the  Roman  people,  and  to  damage  his  rival  in  public  esti- 
mation. At  leneth  war  was  declared  against  the  queen  of 
Eg3rpt^  and  at  Mie  naval  battle  of  Actium  (q.v.),  b.c.  81, 
A.  was  victorious,  and  became  sole  ruler  of  the  Roman 
world.  Soon  afterwards,  Antony  and  Cleopatra  ended 
their  lives  by  suicide.  The  son  of  Antony  by  Fulvia,  and 
Osesarion,  son  of  Ccesar  and  Cleopatra,  were  put  to  death; 
and  in  b.c.  29,  after  disposing  of  several  affairs  in  Egypt, 
Greece,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  A.  returned  to  Rome  in 
triumph,  and  closing  the  temple  of  Janus,  proclaimed 
universal  peace. 

His  subsequent  measures  were  mild  and  prudent.  To  in- 
sure popular  favor,  he  abolished  the  laws  of  the  triumvirate, 
adorned  the  city  of  Rome,  and  reformed  many  abuses.  At 
the  end  of  his  seventh  consulship  (b.c.  27),  he  proposed  to' 
retire  from  office,  in  order  that  the  old  republican  form  of 
ffovemment  might  be  re-established,  but  he  was  ultimately 
induced  to  retain  his  power.  Hitherto,  since  Csesar's  death, 
the  consul  had  been  named  Octavian;  but  now  the  title  of 
Augustus  (meaning  '  sacred '  or  *  consecrated ')  was  con- 
ferred on  him.  In  the  eleventh  consulship  of  A.  (b.c.  28), 
the  tribnnitian  power  was  conferred  on  him  for  life  by  the 
senate.  Republican  names  and  forms  still  remained,  but 
they  were  mere  sbadows.  A.  was  in  all  but  name  absolute 
monarch.  In  B.C.  12,  on  the  death  of  Lepidus,  he  had  the 
high  title  of  Pont! f ex  Maximus,  or  High  Priest,  bestowed 
on  him.  The  nation  surrendered  to  him  all  the  power  and 
honor  that  it  had  to  give. 

After  a  course  of  victories  in  Ada,  Spain,  Pannonia, 
Dalmatia,  Gaul,  etc.,  A.  (b.c.  9)  suffered  the  greatest  de- 
feat he  had  sustained  in  his  long  career,  in  the  person  of  his 
feneral,  QuintUius  Varus,  whose  army  was  totally  destroyed 
y  the  Germans. 

This  loss  so  afflicted  A  ,  that  for  some  time  he  allowed 
his  beard  and  hair  to  ctow,  as  a  sign  of  deep  mourning,  and 
of  ted  exclaimed:  '  O  varus,  restore  me  my  legions! '  From 
this  time  A.  confined  himself  to  plans  of  domestic  improve- 
ment and  reform,  and  so  beautified  Rome,  that  it  was  said, 
*  A.  found  the  city  built  of  bricks,  and  left  it  built  of  mar- 
ble.' He  also  founded  cities  in  several  parts  of  the  empire; 
and  altars  were  raised  bj[  the  grateful  people  to  commemo- 
rate his  beneficence;  while,  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  the 
name  Augustus  (August)  was  ^ven  to  the  month  Sextilis. 

Though  surrounded  thus  with  honor  and  prosperity,  A 
was  not  free  from  domestic  trouble.  The  abandoned  con 
duct  of  his  daughter  Julia  was  the  cause  of  sore  vexation  to 
him.  He  had  no  son,  and  Marcellus,  the  son  of  his  sister, 
and  Gains  and  Lucius,  the  sons  of  his  daughter,  whom  he 
had  appointed  as  his  successors  and  heirs,  as  well  as  his 
favorite  step-son  Drusus,  all  died  early;  while  his  step- son 
Tiberius  was  an  unamiable  character  whom  he  coula  not 
love.  Age,  domestic  sorrows,  and  failing  health  warned 
him  to  seek  rest;  and,  to  recruit  his  stren^,  he  undertook 
a  Journey  to  Campania;  but  his  infirmity  increased,  and  he 
dfed  at  'Nola  in  the  77th  year  of  his  age.  According  to 
tradition,  shortiy  before  his  death,  he  called  for  a  mirror, 


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AUGUSTUS. 

ftrranged  his  hair  neatly,  and  said  to  his  attendants:  '  Have 
I  played  my  part  weUr  If  so,  applaud  me! '  A.  bad  eon- 
summate  tact  and  address  as  a  ruler  and  politician,  and 
could  keep  bis  plans  in  secrecy  while  be  made  use  of  the 
passions  and  talents  of  others  to  forward  his  own  designs. 
The  good  and  great  measures  which  marked  his  reign  were 
originated  mostly  by  A.  himself.  He  encouraged  agricul- 
ture, patronized  the  arts  and  literature,  and  was  himself  an 
author;  but  only  a  few  fragments  of  his  writings  have  been 
preserved.  Horace,  Virgu,  and  all  the  most  celebrated 
Latin  poets  and  scholars  were  his  friends.  His  was  the 
Augu9tan  Age  of  literature.  His  death  threw  a  shade  of 
sorrow  over  the  whole  Roman  world;  the  bereaved  people 
erected  temples  and  altars  to  his  memory,  and  numbered 
him  among  the  gods. 

AUGU8  TU8,  Elector  of  Saxony:  1526,  July  81—1586, 
Feb.  (ruled  1553-86);  son  of  Duke  Henry  the  Pious,  and 
of  Katherine  of  Mecklenburg;  b.  at  Freiberg,  then  the  seat 
of  his  father's  court.  In  1648,  he  married  Anna,  daughter 
of  Christian  III.  of  Denmai^,  who  was  universally  popular 
for  her  devoted  adherence  to  Lutheranism  and  her  domestic 
worth.  After  the  death  of  his  brother,  Maurice,  1553, 
A.  succeeded  to  the  electorate.  His  rule  is  noticeable 
chiefly  as  bearing  upon  the  history  of  the  newly  estab- 
lished Protestant  Church.  Equally  intolerant  and  incon- 
sistent in  his  theology,  A.  first  used  his  utmost  influence 
in  favor  of  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  the  sacraments;  and 
then,  1574,  adopted  the  Lutheran  tenets,  and  persecuted  the 
Calvinists.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  must  be  owned, 
to  his  honor,  that,  by  his  skilful  internal  administration,  he 
raised  his  country  far  above  the  level  of  any  other  in  Ger- 
many, introducing  valuable  reforms  in  jurisprudence  and 
finance,  and  giving  a  decided  impetus  to  education,  agricul- 
ture, manufactures,  and  commerce.  He  even  wrote  a  book 
on  the  management  of  orchards  and  gardens,  and  commanded 
that  every  newly-married  pair  should,  within  the  first  year 
of  their  marriage,  plant  two  fruit-trees.  The  Dresden 
Library  owes  its  origin  to  him,  as  do  also  most  of  its  gal- 
leries of  art  and  science.  His  own  favorite  private  pursuit 
was  that  of  alchemy,  in  which  the  Electress  Anna  took  part 
In  1586,  Jan. — the  electress  having  died  in  the  previous  year 
--A.  married  a  young  princess  of  An  halt,  but  died  a  month 
after,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  Freiberg.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Christian  I. 

AUGUSTUS  II.,  Febderick,  commonly  called  the 
Strong.  Elector  of  Saxony,  King  of  Poland:  1670-1738, 
Feb.;  b.  Dresden;  second  son  of  the  elector  John  Geoige 
III.  and  of  the  Danish  princess  Anna  Sophia.  His  extraor- 
dinary strengUi  was  developed  by  a  careful  physical  edu- 
cation, and  his  mental  faculties  more  successfully  culti- 
vated than  his  morals.  From  1687  to  1689  he  travelled 
over  the  greatest  part  of  Europe,  but  was  prohibited  by  his 
father  from  visiting  Rome,  upon  his  father's  death  (1691), 
he  went  to  Vienna,  and  there  formed  an  intimacy  with 
Joseph,  King  of  Rome,  which  materially  influenced  his 
politics.    When,  in  1694,  he  succeeded  to  his  brother  George 


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AUGUSTUS. 

as  elector,  instead  of  turning  his  arms  against  France, 
according  to  previous  arrangement,  he  undertook  the  com- 
mand of  the  Austro  Saxon  army  against  the  Turks  in  Him- 
gary .  After  the  battle  of  Olasch,  1696,  he  returned  to  Vienna 
as  a  candidate  for  the  throne  of  Poland,  vacated  by  Jolm 
Sobieski.  Bidding  higher  than  Prince  Conti  for  the  crown 
(10,000,000  Polish  florins),  and  adoptmg  the  Rom.  Cath. 
faith,  he  was  elected  king  by  the  venal  nobles;  and  having, 
by  his  imposing  force,  awed  the  adherents  of  Conti,  be  was 
crowned  at  Cracow,  1697,  Sep.  15.  Ascending  the  throne, 
he  promised  to  regain,  for  his  new  kingdom  the  provinces 
that  had  been  ceded  to  Sweden;  but  his  efforts  to  do  this 
only  led  to  the  defeat  of  himself  and  his  allies,  his  own  de- 
position as  king  of  Poland,  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Lesz- 
cynski,  and  the  ignominious  peace  of  Altranstftdt,  1706.  So 
complete  was  his  humiliation,  that  A.  was  compelled  to  send 
a  letter  of  congratulation  to  the  new  Polish  king,  together 
with  all  the  crown- jewels  and  archives.  However,  on  re- 
ceiving intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  Charles  XII.  at  Pultowa, 
1709,  he  declared  the  treaty  of  Altranstftdt  annulled,  marched 
with  a  powerful  army  into  Poland,  formed  a  fresh  alliance 
with  the  czar,  and  recommenced  a  war  with  Sweden,  which 
continued  with  fury,  till  the  death  of  Charles  XII.  at 
Frederickshall,  1718,  gave  a  new  aspect  to  affairs,  leading 
first  to  a  truce,  and  eventually  to  a  peace  with  Sweden. 
Meanwhile,  a  confederation,  headed  by  a  Polish  nobleman, 
had  been  formed  against  the  Saxons,  and  repulsed  them  with 
much  success,  till,  in  1716,  through  the  mediation  of  the 
czar,  a  compact  was  made  between  the  Poles  and  A.,  agree- 
ably to  which  the  Saxon  troops  left  the  kin^om.  The 
king  now  found  himself  obliged  to  employ  conciliation,  and 
the  splendor  of  his  dissolute  court  soon  won  the  favor  of  the 
Polish  nobles,  who  followed  his  example  but  too  closely. 
Saxony  had  bitter  cause  to  regret  the  union  of  the  crowns. 
Its  resources  were  shamefully  squandered,  even  when  want 
and  famine  were  in  the  land,  on  the  adornment  of  the 
capital,  on  the  king's  mistresses,  his  illegitimate  children, 
and  the  alchemists  who  deluded  him  with  hopes  of  the 
elixir  of  life.  A.  supported  the  fine  arts  as  ministering  to 
luxury,  but  did  little  for  the  cause  of  science.  Despotic  in 
principle,  though  easy  in  temx)er;  ambitious  as  well  as 
luxurious;  reckless  aliKe  in  the  pursuit  of  war  and  pleasui'e, 
death  overtook  him  in  the  midst  of  projected  festivities. 
On  his  way  to  the  Warsaw  diet,  gangrene  of  an  old  wound 
set  in,  he  died,  and  was  buried  at  Cracow.  By  his  wife— a 
Protestant,  dau.  of  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg-Kulmbach 
—he  left  an  only  son,  who  succeeded  to  him.  The  most 
celebrated  of  his  numerous  illegitimate  offspring— amount- 
ing, it  is  affirmed,  to  somewhere  about  800— was  Maurice, 
Count  of  Saxony. 

AUGUSTUS  III.,  Frederick,  Elector  of  Saxony,  Kmg 
of  Poland ;  1696,  Oct.— 1768;  the  son  and  successor  of 
Augustus  II.;  carefully  educated  by  his  mother  in  the 
Protestant  faith.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  however,  he  left 
her  tutelage  for  a  tour  through  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy,  where  he  changed  his  religion,  secretly  professing 


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AUK. 

adhesion  to  the  Roman  Church,  at  Bologna,  1712,  though 
the  fact  was  not  publicly  known  in  Saxony  till  fire  reare 
later.  It  is  possible  that  an  eye  to  the  crown  of  Poland, 
and  to  an  alliance  with  one  of  the  Austrian  princesses,  mav* 
have  had  something  to  do  with  this  step.  After  succeed- 
ing his  father  in  the  electorate,  1788,  he  was  chosen  king 
of  Poland  by  a  part  of  the  nobility,  and  triumphing  over 
the  rival  claims  of  Stanislaus  Leszcynski,  supported  by 
Louis  XV.,  was  unanimously  proclaimed  three  years  later. 
Ue  inherited  his  father's  sumptuous  tastes,  though  not  his 
talents;  and  his  love  of  art,  cultivated  by  his  Italian  tour, 
enriched  the  gallery  of  Dresden  with  noble  paintings^ 
The  government  of  his  country  he  made  over  entirely  to 
his  prime  minister.  Count  von  Bruhl,  whose  whole  poliL 
ical  system  consisted  in  complete  dependence  upon  Russia. 
In  1742,  alarmed  at  the  increased  power  Prussia  had  ob- 
tained by  the  conquest  of  Silesia,  A.  formed  an  alliance 
with  Maria  Theresa;  and  by  the  secret  treaty  of  Leipsic, 
contracted  to  supply  her  with  50,000  men.  But  their 
united  troops  were  completely  routed  by  the  Prussians, 
1745;  Frederick  II.  pushed  on  into  Saxony,  and  A.  fled 
from  his  capital,  saving  his  art-treasures,  but  leaving  his 
state-papers  in  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  In  174o,  the 
peace  of  Dresden  restored  him  Saxony;  but  the  close  of  the 
year  again  saw  him  embroiled  with  Prussia.  Joining  the 
camp  at  Pima,  he  narrowly  escaped  being  taken  prisoner, 
and  fled  to  Poland,  where  his  popularity,  never  very  great, 
was  much  diminished  by  his  recent  reverses  in  Saxony, 
added  to  which  the  Empress  Catherine  of  Russia  used 
every  effort  to  dislodge  him,  as  bein^  an  allv  of  France. 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Hubertsbu^,  A.  re- 
turned to  Dresden,  where  he  died.  His  son,  Frederick 
Christian,  succeeded  him  in  the  electorate,  and  Stanislaus 
Poniatowski  became  king  of  Poland. 

AUK,  awk  [Dan.  alke],  (Alca):  genus  of  web-footed 
birds,  type  of  a  famil)r  called  AkadcB,  which  was  in  great 
part  included  in  the  Linnsean  genus  Alca,  and  to  many  of 
the  species  of  which,  now  ranked  in  other  genera,  the 
name  A.  is  still  popularly  extended.  The  Aleada  are 
among  those  web-footed  birds  called  Brachyptere$  {i,6., 
short-winged)  or  Divers  by  Cuvier,  remarkable  for  the 
shortness  of  their  wings,  which  they  employ  as  fins  or 
paddles  for  swimming  under  water,  some  being  even  in- 
capable of  flying;  and  for  the  position  of  their  legs,  fur- 
ther backward  than  in  other  birds,  which  makes  walking 
difficult,  and  compels  them,  when  on  land,  to  maintain  an 
upright  attitude.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  very 
compressed  bill,  which,  in  the  true  auks,  is  vertically  ele- 
vated, and  so  sharp  along  the  ridge  as  to  resemble  the 
blade  of  a  knife;  and  by  their  entirely  palmated  feet,  des- 
titute of  hind  toes.  The  auks  are  confined  to  the  seas  of 
the  n.  hemisphere — the  penguins  taking  their  place  in  the 
8.  All  of  them  have  a  dense  plumage,  generally  with  a 
beautifully  polished  appearance  and  silvery  lustre.  The 
icenus  Alca,  as  restrict^  by  Cuvier  and  others,  contains 
only  two  species,  distinguished  from  the  PufB^  (<!•▼•)> 


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AUKL 

which  also  belong  to  this  family,  chiefly  by  the  greater 
length  of  the  bill,  and  its  being  covered  with  feathers  as 
far  as  the  nostrils.  The  bill,  both  in  the  auks  and  puffins, 
is  transversely  and  strongly  grooved.  But  even  the  two 
known  species  of  the  restricted  genus  Alca  differ  from 
one  another  in  a  most  important  particular — the  wings  of 
the  one,  the  Great  A.,  bemg  so  short  that  it  is  quite  incap- 
able of  flight,  like  the  penguins,  of  which  it  may  be 
deemed  the  true  northern  representative,  while  the  other, 
the  razor-bill,  has  comparatively  long  wings,  and  flies 
well. 

The  Great  Auk  (Alca  impennis),  so  far  as  is  known.  Is 
now  extinct.  It  was  about  three  ft.  in  height,  an  inhabit-, 
ant  of  the  temperate  region  of  the  n.  Atlantic.  At  one  time 
large  numbers  bred  on  St.  Ellda,  and  in  prehistoric  times 
it  appears  to  have  bred  on  Oronsay  or  neighboring  skerries, 
and  possibly  frequented  other  islands  of  the  Hebrides.  It 
was  occasionally  seen  at  Orkney  and  Shetland,  and  prob- 
ably bred  at  Papa  Westra  untO  1812.  It  was  rare  along 
the  shores  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  but  in  prehistoric 
times  frequented  the  fjords  of  Denmark,  as  its  remains 
have  been  repeatedly  found  in  the  Danish  kiOkkenmOd- 
dings.  There  is  only  one  breeding-place  in  Greenland  on 
record,  and  that  is  Gunnbiomeskjoeme,  supposed  the 
same  as  Daneirs  or  Graah's  Islands.  It  bred  on  several 
skerries  off  the  coast  of  Iceland,  and  the  last  Great  Auks 
are  supposed  to  have  been  killed  on  one  of  these  named 
Eldey  in  1844.  In  the  North  American  habitat  it  bred  in 
great  numbers  on  Funk  and  other  islands  off  the  coast  of 
Newfoundland,  on  some  islands  in  the  Bay  of  St.  Law- 
rence, at  Cape  Breton,  and  probably  at  Cape  Cod.  Its  re- 
mains have  been  foimd  in  shell-heaps  at  several  places  on 
the  coast  of  Maine  and  Massachusetts.  The  Great  Auk 
was  invaluable  as  food,  and  but  for  the  abundant  fresh 
supplies  afforded  by  it8  carcasses  to  the  early  voyagers,  the 
fisheries  at  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  woulcf  hardly 
have  been  developed  as  they  were.  The  birds  were  so 
stupid,  they  sat  still  until  they  were  knocked  over  by  the 
seamen's  short  clubs,  or  allowed  themselves  to  be  driven 
on  board  the  vessels  in  hundreds  across  sails  or  planks 
stretched  from  the  gunwales  to  the  shore.  The  rapidity 
with  which  this  bird  moved  under  water  was  extraordi- 
nary; one  of  them  having  been  pursued  by  a  six-oared  boat 
for  hours  in  vain.  Like  most  of  the  Alcada,  the  Great 
Auk  each  year  laid  only  one  egg,  about  5  inches  in  length, 
and  8  in  maximum  breadth.  It  laid  it  on  the  bare  rock, 
without  any  attempt  at  a  nest. — The  Razor-bill  (q.v.)(^. 
tarda)  is  the  only  other  species  now  commonly  included  in 
the  genus  Alca,  The  name  Little  Auk  is  often  given  to 
a  bird  called  also  the  Rotche  (q.v.)  (Mergulus  alle,  for- 
merly Aka  aUe),  common  in  Arctic  regions. — The  common 
puffin  is  sometimes  called  the  Labrador  Auk. — The  n. 
parts  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  abound  in  auks  remarkable  for 
a  somewhat  quadrangular  bill,  notched  near  the  tip,  and 
which  form  the  genus  Phalerie.  One  of  them,  P.  jmt- 
iaetUa,  is  known  as  the  Parrakeet  Auk. — All  the  auks 


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.AULA— AULIC. 

feed  upon  fish^,  crustaceans,  and  other  marine  animals, 
which  they  pursue  under  water,  and  for  which  they  dive 
to  great  depths.  8ee  Symington  Grieve's  The  Qreai  Auk 
(Edin.  1885). 

AULA,  n.  oAJo'la  [L.  aula — from  Gr.  auU,  a  courtyard 
or  its  wall ;  the  court  or  quadrangle  around  which  the 
bouse  itself  was  built ;  any  court  or  hall ;  the  court,  or 
aula  regia]:  a  court  bam ;  in  some  old  eed,  writers,  the 
nave  of  a  church.  A.  reoia  or  regis,  a  court  estab- 
lished by  William  the  Conqueror  in  his  own  hall,  and 
comprised  of  the  great  officers  of  state  usually  attendant  on 
his  person.  It  was  ultimately  transferred  to  Westminster 
Hall. 

AULAPOLAY',  or  Aleppi:  town  of  India,  in  the  native 
atate  of  Travancore,  on  the  sea-coast;  9*  W  n.  lat.,  76* 
24'  e.  long.  There  is  no  shelter  for  shipping,  but  ships 
anchor  four  or  five  m.  from  the  shore.  There  is  consider- 
able trade  in  timber,  betel-nut,  coir,  pepper,  and  carda- 
moms. This  town  communicates  with  Quilon  and  Tri- 
vandrum  on  the  s.,  and  with  Cochin  on  the  n.,  bv  canals 
parallel  with  the  sea-coast,  connecting  a  series  of  lakes  or 
back-waters.  Between  these  and  the  sea  is  a  communica- 
tion by  a  wide  creek,  through  which  the  timber  for  expor- 
tation is  floated,  brought  from  the  forests  of  the  Rajah  of 
Travancore  on  the  Western  Ghauts. 

AULARIAN,  n.  awld'H-dn  [L.  aula,  a  hall],  at  Oxfoid, 
the  member  of  a  hall,  as  distinguished  from  a  collegian. 

AULAX,  n.  aw'ldka  [Gr.  aulax,  a  furrow,  in  allusion 
to  the  furrows  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  in  one 
wpeciesl:  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  order  ProteaeecB,  or 
Proteada,  The  species  are  pretty  shrubs,  with  narrow 
leaves. 

AULD  LANG-SYNE,  n.  awkF  Idna-Hn'  [Scot  auid,  old; 
langayne,  time  long  past— from  lang,}ong,  and  syne,  then, 
time  past,  since] :  days  that  are  long  post;  long,  Icmg  ago. 

AULETIC,  a.  aw-Ut'lk  [Qt.  auleUhoe,  suitable  for  a  pipe 
or  flute — from  aulos,  a  flute  or  other  wind  instrument]: 
pertaining  to  the  pipe  or  flute. 

AULIC,  a.  aw'lik  [L.  aulicue;  Gr.  enUlkoe^trom.  Gr.  aule, 
a  royal  palace]:  of  or  pertaining  to  a  royal  court. 

AuLic  Council  :  one  of  the  two  highest  courts  of  the  old 
German  empire,  co-ordinate  with  the  Imperial  Chamber. 
It  came  into  existence  1495,  and  seems  to  have  been  at  first 
employed  principally  in  preparing  business  matters  regard- 
ing the  crown  lands  and  the  empire  generallv,  in  order  to 
expedite  the  decisions  of  the  Imperial  Chamber.  It  soon 
began  to  assume  or  acquire  higher  functions.  After  150^, 
the  states  submitted  important  grievances  to  its  independ- 
ent consideration;  but  it  did  not  receive  a  fixed  constitu- 
tion before  1559.  In  1654,  it  was  formally  recognized  as 
the  second  of  the  two  supreme  courts,  and  equal  m  dignity 
to  the  Imperial  Chamber.  It  was  composed  of  a  pres.,  a 
vice-pres.,  a  vice-chancellor,  and  eighteen  councilors,  all 
chosen  and  paid  by  the  emperor,  wi&  the  exception  of  the 


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PLATE    24.  i^ 


Anroehs 


Aak.~Razor-biU  CAlca  torda).  Auricula  (^Primula  auricula). 


Auricula  iPrimula  awiculaO   Another  specimen. 


AurochM  iBos  uiwt). 


VoLZ 


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AULOPUS— AUMALE. 
vice-chancellor,  who  was  appointed  by  the  Elector  of 
Mainz.  Of  the  eighteen  councilors,  six  were  Protestants, 
whose  votes,  when  they  were  unanimous,  could  not  be  set 
aside  by  those  of  the  others,  so  that  a  religious  parity 
was  to  some  extent  preserved.  The  councilors  were 
divided  into  three  classes — counts,  barons,  and  men  of 
learning — all  of  whom  were  on  a  footing  of  equality,  ex- 
cept that  the  last  mentioned  received  a  higher  salary,  and 
were  usually  advanced  into  the  ranks  of  the  nobility.  The 
council  held  aloof  from  politics,  but  under  its  jurisdiction 
were  placed:  Ist,  all  matters  of  feudality  in  which  the  em- 
peror was  immediately  concerned;  2d,  all  questions  of 
appeal  on  the  part  of  the  states  from  decisions  in  favor  of 
the  emperor  in  minor  courts;  3d,  whatever  concerned  the 
imperial  jurisdiction  in  Italy.  On  the  death  of  the  em- 
peror, the  council  was  dissolved,  and  had  to  b«,  recon- 
structed by  his  successor.  It  finally  ceased  to  exist  on  the 
extinction  of  the  old  German  empire,  1806. 

AULOPUS,  n.  awl'op'US  [Gr.  axilos,  a  flute;  pouB,  foot]: 
genus  of  fishes  belonging  to  family  SalmonidcB. 

AUL08T0MA,  n.  aw-los'iom-a,  or  Aulos'tomus,  n. 
[Gr.  aulas,  a  flute;  stoma,  mouth — lit.,  flute-mouthed]: 
genus  of  spiny-finned  fishes,  of  family  FistuUmda,  Like 
the  rest  of  the  family,  the  snout  ends  in  a  tube.  The  only 
known  species  is  from  the  Indian  Ocean. 

AUM AILED,  a.  ow^mMd':  OE.  for  Enamelled  (q.v.). 

AUMALE,  o-mdl':  town  of  Algeria;  on  one  of  the  head, 
waters  of  the  Sahel,  57  m.  s.e.  from  Algiers;  on  the  great 
road  from  Algiers  to  Constantine.  It  is  a  strong  military 
post,  with  barracks,  magazines,  and  hospitals.  Pop.  5,196, 
of  whom  1,468  European. 

AUMALE,  O'lndl',  Charles  de  Lorraine,  Due  d':  1554 
-1631;  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  League  in  the  politico-re- 
Kgious  wars  which  devastated  France  in  the  latter  half  of 
ihe  16th  c.  The  aim  of  the  League  was  ostensibly  to  sup- 
press the  Huguenots,  but  in  reality  to  secure  the  supreme 
power  to  the  Guises.  Closely  allied  by  blood  to  this  crafty 
und  ambitious  family,  A.  from  the  very  first  entered  with 
fanatical  sympathy  into  its  schemes;  and  after  the  murder 
of  the  Duke  of  Guise  at  Blois  in  December,  1688,  he  be- 
came, with  the  Duke  of  Mayenne,  the  leader  of  the  party. 
In  1589,  he  seized  Paris,  dissolved  the  parliament,  and  im- 
prisoned its  members.  Shortly  afterwards  he  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops  to  attack  the  town  of 
Senlis,  but  was  defeated  by  La  Noue,  and  compelled  to 
retreat.  Always  unfortunate  in  war,  his  presence  seemed 
to  insure  the  overthrow  of  his  friends.  He  commanded  a 
portion  of  the  forces  of  the  League  at  the  battles  of  Arques 
and  Ivri,  where  the  Huguenots  triumphed  under  their 
skilful  and  sagacious  monarch,  Henry  IV.  But  A.  was  as 
obstinate  as  he  was  unlucky,  and  in  the  end  proved  him- 
Bclf  as  traitorous  as  he  was  obstinate.  He  held  out  for  the 
League  in  Amiens  until  the  populace  expelled  him,  when 
he  suddenly  allied  himself  with  the  Spaniards  who  had 
Invaded  Picardy,  refused  the  royal  paraon,  and  delivered 

8-49 


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AUMALE— AUNOT. 

over  to  the  enemy  several  places  in  his  possessione  For 
this  he  was  impeached,  condemned,  and  sentenced  to  be 
broken  alive  on  the  wheel.  His  property  was  coiitiscated, 
but  he  himself  escaped,  and  lived  in  exile  till  hh  death. 

AUMALE,  Henri-EugAne-Philippe,  Louis  d*Or- 
rEANS,  Due  d';  b.  Paris,  1822,  Jan.  16;  fourth  son  of  the  late 
king  of  France,  Louis  Philippe.  He  enjoyed  the  privilege 
— rare  among  princes — of  being  educated  with  his  fellow- 
men,  at  the  college  of  Henri  IV.  When  16  jrears  of  age,  ho 
entered  the  army,  soon  distinguished  mmself  by  his 
bravery,  and  passed  rapidly  through  the  various  grades  of 
rank.  In  1843,  in  Algeria,  he  commanded  a  subdivision  of 
the  French  army,  and  performed  some  brilliant  exploits, 
the  most  signal  of  which  was  his  surprising  Abd-el-Kader, 
when  encamped  in  the  environs  of  Goudjilab,  1848,  May 
16,  capturing  a  multitude  of  cattle,  4  standards,  8,600  pris- 
oners, and  the  correspondence  and  treasure  of  the  euiir. 
He  was,  in  consequence,  elevated  to  the  rank  of  lieut.gen., 
and  appointed  to  the  government  of  the  prov.  of  Ck)nstan- 
tine.  In  1847,  he  8uc(*eeded  Marshal  Bugeaud  as  gov.- 
gen.  of  Algeria.  While  holding  this  high  officii,  he  was 
exposed  to  a  series  of  bitter  attacks  by  the  democratic  'op- 
position' in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  but  was  ably  de- 
fended by  Guizot.  After  the  expulsion  of  his  father, 
he  withdrew  from  Algeria,  having  lirst,  with  self-denying 
patriotism,  exhorted  the  colony  peaceably  to  obey  the 
orders  of  the  metropolis.  He  resided  in  England  till  1871, 
when  he  returned  to  France,  and  was  elect*^  a  member  of 
the  assembly.  He  was  elected  a  general  of  division, 
1872,  and  presided  over  the  coimcil  of  war  which  tried 
Marshal  Bazaine.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy 1871,  expelled  from  France  1886,  July  13,  and  au- 
thorized to  return  1H89,  Mar.  9.  He  notified  the  Freneh 
people  188(>,  Aug.  29,  of  his  intention  to  bequeath  to  the 
Institute  of  France  his  domain  of  Chantilly,  with  all  its 
vast  treasures  of  war,  art,  literature,  and  history,  the 
whole  estimated  to  be  worth  $50,000,000.  He  died  1897. 

AUMBRY,  n.  awm'brl,  or  Atjmbt,  n.  awm'rl  [other 
spellings  of  Ambry,  which  see]:  in  a  church  or  cathedral, 
a  closet  in  the  side  of  the  wall  by  the  altar,  in  which  the 
sacred  vessels  were  kept;  they  are  of  difTerent  sizes  in 
other  parts  of  a  sacred  edifice,  and  used  for  various  pur- 
poses. 

ATIME:  see  Awme. 

AUNE,  5n;  French  cloth -measure  corresponding  to  the 
English  elL  Both  words  are  derived  from  the  Lat.  ulna. 
The  English  ell  =  IJ  yard  =  45  inches;  the  French  aune 
umelle  (or  nouvelle)  =  1^  m^tre  =  47i  inches  English.  The 
old  avne  was  a  little  shorter. 

AlIN0Y,5-nw?fl,MARIECATHERINE-jTJMKLLEDEBERNK- 

viLLE,  Comtesse  ti':  abt.  1650-1705,  Jan.:  celebrated 
French  authoress  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XiV.  She  com- 
posed fairy  tales,  romances,  and  historical  menaoirs. 
Among  her  fairy  tales  were  The  TeUow  Dtoarf,  Tht  WliiU 
Cat,  and  Cherry  and  Fair  Star,  Many  of  these  fictions 
4wve  been  translated  into  English,  and  are  greedily  read 


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AUNT— AUliANTIACE^. 

AUNT,  n.  dnt  [F.  tante:  OF.  ante,  an  aunt— from  L. 
amUa,  an  auntl*.  the  sii*ter  of  one's  father  or  mother. 

AURA,  n.  aw'ra  [L.  and  Gr.  aura — from  Gr.  5(3,  I  blow 
or  breathe]:  a  very  gentle  breeze;  a  breath;  a  subtle  invisible 
vapor  supposed  to  proceed  from  a  body;  in  med.,  a  peculiar 
sensation  which  sometimes  gives  warning  of  a  fit  of  epilepsy. 
Auric,  a.  aw'rlk^  pertaining  to  the  aura. 

AURAL,  a.  mo'rdl  [L.  auris,  an  ear]:  pertaining  to  the 
ear  and  its  diseases. 

AURALITE,  n.  aw'ra-llt  [Ger.  auralit — from  avra  (?); 
Gr.  litJios,  stonej:  a  mineral  from  Abo,  in  Finland.  Ac 
cording  to  the  Brit.  Mus.  Catalogue,  it  is  a  variety  of 
Dichroite;  according  to  Dana,  it  is  an  altered  condition  of 
lolite. 

AURANTIACEJE,  aw-rdn'ti-d^se-B  [from  aurantinm* 
mod.  Lat.  for  an  orange]:  a  nat.  ord.  of  exogenous  plants, 
shrubs,  and  trees,  now  appended  to  the  order  Rutacem, 
Both  leaves  and  bark  are  generally  very  smooth,  and  all 
parts  are  filled  with  little  transparent  receptacles  of  a  frag- 
rant volatile  oil,  which  especially  abounds  in  the  leaves  and 
in  the  rind  of  the  fruit.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  and 
always  articulated  with  their  stalks,  which  are  frequently 
winged.  The  flowers  have  a  short,  3-5  toothed,  withering 
calyx,  and  8-5  petals,  which  are  broad  at  tlie  base,  some- 
times slightly  coherent,  and  imbricated  in  bud.  The 
stamens  are  equal  in  number  to  the  petals,  or  a  multiple  of 
their  number;  the  filaments  sometimes  slightly  coherent  in 
one  or  more  bundles;  the  anthers  terminal  and  erect.  The 
stamens  and  petals  are  inserted  on  a  disk.  The  ovary  is 
free;  there  is  one  style  with  a  thickish  stigma.  The  fruit 
(a  hesperidium)  is  pulpy,  with  a  leathery  or  spongy  rind,  of 
one  cell,  or  of  a  number  of  separable  cells;  the  seeds  at- 
tached to  the  axis,  with  thick  cotyledons  and  no  albumen, 
not  unf  requently  containing  more  embryos  than  one. — The 
order  contains  abt.  100  known  species,  natives  of  warm 
climates,  and  almost  all  of  the  East  Indies.  The  species  of 
the  genus  Citrus  (q.v.)  are  the  best  known,  among  which 
are  the  orange,  lemon,  citron,  etc.  But  the  order  contains 
many  other  plants  producing  agreeable  fruits,  among 
which  the  .j^le  Marmdos  (see  ^gl.e)— called  Bhel,or  Bael, 
in  India — Gookia  punctata  (the  Warapee),  Olyc(mnis  citri- 
folia,  and  THpJutaia  ir\foliata  deserve  particular  notice. 
The  fruits  ripe,  and  unripe,  juice  and  rind,  the  flowers, 
leaves,  bark,  etc.,  of  a  number  of  species  are  employed 
medicinally.  The  leaves  of  Bergera  Kcmigii  are  used  by 
the  Hindus  as  a  stomachic  and  tonic,  the  bark  and  roots  as 
stimulants. — Feronia  elepTiantum,  a  large  tree  growing  in 
most  parts  of  India,  yields  a  gum  which  closely  resembles 
giunarabic,  and  is  used  for  similar  purposes.  The  young 
leaves  of  this  tree  have  a  smell  like  that  of  anise,  and  are 
used  by  the  native  practitioners  of  India  as  a  stomachic 
and  carminative. — Skimmia  (or  lAmonia)  Laureola  and 
Skimmia  Japonica  are  remarkable  exceptions  in  this  order, 
as  to  the  climate  to  which  they  are  adapted:  the  former 
grows  on  the  cold  and  lofty  mountains  of  the  u.  of  India, 


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AURATE— AURELIANUS. 

braving  frost  and  snow;  the  latter,  a  beautiful  sbmb,  re- 
cently introduced  into  Britain  from  Japan,  is  perfectly 
bardy  even  in  the  severest  winters;  its  evergreen  leaves 
and  pretty  little  red  berries  remaining  uninjured  by  frost. 

AURATE,  n.  aw' rut  [L.  aurum,  gold]:  a  salt  of  auric 
acid.  Aura'ted,  a.  of  or  like  gold.  Auric,  a.  aw'rik,  of 
or  from  gold;  resembling  gold;  pertaining  to  gold;  in  chem. 
applied  to  those  gold  compounds  in  which  that  element  has 
its  higher  valency,  e.g.,  auric  sulphide,  auric  oxide. 
AuROUS,  n.  aw'rUSy  full  of  gold;  (more  loosely)  containing 
more  or  less  of  gold;  in  chem.,  with  gold  univalent  in  its 
composition. 

AUREATE,  a.  aw'r^-at  [mid  L.  auridtus,  golden — from 
aurdtiis,  gilded — from  L.  aurum,  gold]:  in  OK,  golden. 
AuREOLiN,  n.  aw-re'd-lin,  name  in  trade  for  the  pigment 
cobalt-yellow.    Aureous,  a.  aw^re-Us,  of  golden-yellow  color. 

AURELIA,  n.  aw-relUa  [L.  anrum^  gold:  au'redlast 
golden]:  the  chrysalis  of  an  insect,  more  especially  of  a  but- 
terfly. See  Chrysalis.  Aure'lian,  a.  -i-du,  pertaining  to 
the  aurelia:  N.  an  amateur  collection  of  insects.  Aureola, 
a.  ato-ri'd'ld,  golden,  as  applied  to  a  crown  or  golden  nimbus: 
N.  a  circle  of  rays  round  the  head  of  a  portrait,  to  indicate 
something  more  than  human — ^popularly  called  a  glory. 

AURELIANUS,  avyre4i-d'naa,  Lucius  DoMinus— also 
named  Claudius  Domttius  and  Valerius— one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Roman  emperors :  21^276;  of  hum- 
ble origin,  his  father  having  been  a  husbandman.  Enlisting 
early  as  a  common  soldier,  he  rapidly  distinguished  himself, 
and  held  the  highest  mUitary  ofiflces  under  Valerianus  and 
Claudius  II.  On  the  death  of  Claudius  (270),  A.  was  elected 
emperor  by  the  army.  He^commenced  his  reign  by  vigor- 
ous attack  on  the  barbarian  Alemanni,  or  Marcomanni, 
■whom  he  expelled.  Thereafter,  he  began  a  new  line  of 
fortified  walls  round  Rome,  not  completed  till  the  reim  of 
Probus  (276).  Their  ruins  still  mark  the  boundaries  of  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Aurelian.  Finding  that  the  province  of  Da- 
cia  (now  Wallachia)  could  not  be  maintained  against  the 
assaults  of  the  Goths,  he  surrendered  it,  on  certain  conditions, 
and  strengthened  the  frontier  of  the  Roman  empire  by 
making  the  Danube  its  boundary.  He  next  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  East,  where  the  renowned  queen   Zenobia 


(q.  V.)  had  extended  her  sway  from  Syria  to  Asia  Minor  and 
Egypt.  A.  defeated  her  in  two  battles,  and  besieged  her  in 
Palmyra,  from  which  she  attempted  to  escape,  when  she 


saw  defense  would  prove  ima vailing.  She  was  taken  pris- 
oner, and  soon  the  city  surrendered,  and  was  treated  lement- 
ly.  Shortly  after  A.  had  departed,  a  new  insurrection  took 
place.  He  returned,  in  273,  and  gave  the  splendid  city  up 
to  destruction.  A.  was  again  called  to  the  East  by  a  rebel- 
lion in  Egypt,  instigated  by  Firmus,  a  merchant  of  great 
influence,  which  he  speedily  quelled.  Besides,  Tetncus, 
who  had  held  imperial  power  in  Gaul  since  before  the  death 
of  Gallienus.  finding  himself  unable  to  wield  it,  surrendered 
it  to  Aurelian.  By  restoring  good  discipline  in  the  army, 
order  in  domestic  affairs,  and  political  unity  to  the  Roman 
dominions,  A.  merited  the  title  awi^ed  to  him  bj  the 


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AIJRELIUS— AURI-ARGENTIPEROUS. 

senate — *  Restorer  of  the  Roman  Empire.'  lie  fell  a  victim 
to  conspiracy  during  bis  campaign  against  the  Persians. 

AURE'LIUS,  Marcus:  see  Antoninus. 

AURELLE  DE  PALADINES,  b-rW  dth  pd-ld-den, 
Louis  Jean  Baptiste  d':  soldier:  1804,  Jan.  9 — 1877,  Dec. 
17;  b.  Mabzieu,  Lozere,  France.  Educated  at  St.  Cyr  milit. 
school,  he  entered  the  army  1824;  served  with  distinction 
in  Africa  1841-48;  brig.gen.  1851.  He  earned  high  distinc- 
tion at  the  Alma  and  at  Inkermann  in  the  Crimean  war. 
He  was  promoted  gen.  of  div.  1855;  retired  1870,  but  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  with  Germany,  was  given  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Loire,  which  he  thoroughly  organized. 
1870,  Nov.  9,  he  defeated  the  Bavarian  gen.  Von  der  Tann 
at  Coulmiers;  but  in  Dec.  suffered  severe  loss  in  a  conflict 
with  the  army  of  Prince  Friedrich  Karl,  of  Prussia,  and 
was  removed  from  his  command.  He  was  chosen  life  sen- 
ator 1876.  He  wrote:  Campayne  de  1870-ly  and  La  Pre- 
miere Armee  de  la  Loire. 

AUREOLA,  n.  aw-reo-la  [from  L.L.  adj.  aureolus,  dim. 
of  L.  anreiiSy  golden]:  in  Clwistian  art,  a  gold-colored  or 
gilded  background,  representing  an  emanation  of  rays  of 
glory,  given  to  figures  or  symbols  of  the  three  persons  of 
the  divine  trinity,  of  Jesus  Christ,  of  the  Madonna  and 
Child,  or  of  the  Virgin  alone,  particularly  when  she  is  por- 
trayed in  her  assumption  into  heaven.  In  form  the  A.  is 
usually  oval,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  scutum  (shield) 
and  vesica  piscis  (fish-bladder).  The  A.  differs  from  the 
Nimbus  (q.v.)  in  that  the  nimbus  represents  rays  of  glory 
emanating  from  and  surrounding  only  the  head  of  the  sub- 

J'ect,  while  A.  is  very  commonly  employed  in  both  senses, 
n  German,  too,  the  words  IleUigenschetn  (radiance  of  holi- 
ness) and  Qhrie  are  used  indifferently  to  signify  A.  and 
nimbus.  In  the  language  of  mediteval  theol.  the  A.  is  a  cer- 
tain special  enhancement  of  the  essential  glory  of  the  elect 
in  heaven,  and  is  awarded  to  certain  orders  of  th^e  blest. 
Thomas  Aquinas  gives  it  to  virgins,  martyrs,  doctors,  and 
preachers:  to  virgins  because  of  their  triumph  over  the  flesh, 
to  martyrs  for  their  triumph  over  the  world;  to  doctors  and 
preachers  for  their  triumph  over  the  devil. 

AUREOLE,  n.  aw'  re-ol  [L.L.  aureola]',  an  aureola  (q.v.); 
a  nimbus;  a  halo  real  or  figurative. 

AUREUS,  n.  aw'rP-Us  [L.,  of  gold]:  anc.  Roman  gold  coin 
first  minted  B.C.  207,  with  the  same  die  as  the  denarius 
(q.v.),  hence  called  denantis  aureus  (gold  denar).  The  first 
aorei  issued  were  of  very  tine  gold,  weighing  -^  lb.,  and 
each  was  equivalent  to  25  silver  denarii  or  100  sesterces 
(q.v.).  Under  the  commonwealth  the  A.  was  very  seldom 
coined;  under  the  emperors  it  was  issued  frequently,  but  its 
weight  was  steadily  diminished:  under  Marcus  Aurelius  it 
weighed  A  lb. ;  and  under  Caracalla  ^  lb.  In  Constantine*8 
reign  ana  afterward  it  was  called  solidus  (q.v.). 

AU  RE  VOIR,  o  ri-imdr'  [F.]:  till  we  meet  again;  good-bye. 

AURI-ARQENTIFEROUS,  a.  aw'ri-dr-j^nt-lf'er-ns  [L. 
aurum,  gold;  argenturn,  silver;  fero,  bear,  carry]:  bearmg 
or  contiEdning  gold  and  silver. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


AURICHALCITE— AURICULA. 

AURKIIALCITE,  n.  aw-ri-MV sU  [L.  mincJmleufn  or 
on'r/mlrfiin — fnun  (jlr.  orrir/uUkos,  yellow  copj>er  ore — from 
ofos,  a  mountain,  cludkoH,  copper,  bronze,  brass]:  a  min- 
eral placed  by  Dana  under  the  fourth  section  of  his  Hy- 
drous Carbonates.  It  occurs  in  a^ncular  crystals,  forming 
drusy  incrustations;  also  columnar,  plumose,  granular,  or 
laminated.  Its  lustre  is  i)early;  its  color  pale  green,  or 
sometimes  azure.  The  hardness  is  2.  A.  is  a  basic  car- 
lx)nate  of  zinc  and  copper,  formerly  called  brass  ore  because 
containing  zinc  and  copper,  though  not  brassy  in  appearance. 
The  com]>osition:  oxide  of  copj)er,  16 "03  to  32 '5;  oxide  of 
zinc,  32-02  to  5()-82;  carbonic  acid,  1408  to  24  69;  water, 
91)3  to  10-80;  lime,  0  to  8-62.  It  is  found  in  England,  Scot- 
land, Spain,  Asia,  and  America.  Buratite,  by  some  called 
lime  aunchalcUe,  occurs  in  France  and  Austro-Hongary. 

AUIUCLE,  n.  aw'ri-kl  [L.  auric  u'a,  the  ear-flap— from 
auris,  an  ear :  F.  auricule]:  the  outside  ear ;  that  cavity  in 
the  heart  which  receives  the  blood  from  the  system  or  breath- 
ing organs,  and  pumps  it  hito  the  ventricle — in  the  human 
heart  the  auricles  bein^  somewhat  ear-shaped.  See  Heart. 
AuRiCLED,  a.  aw'rikld,  having  ear-shaped  lateral  appen- 
dages. Auricular,  a.  aw-rlk'u-ler,  pertaining  to  the  ear; 
told  to  the  ear ;  secret.  Auric'ularly,  ad.  -Ti,  Auric'- 
UTJV.R  CONFESSION,  confcssion  of  sins  made  in  the  ear  of  the 
jmest  in  the  confessional  with  a  view  to  absolution.  AuRic- 
ULATE,  a.  'Idt,  or  Auric'ulated,  a.  shaped  like  the  ear. 
Auriform,  a.  aw'rifavyrm  \Ij.  forma,  a  shape] :  in  the  shajxj 

of  an  car.  Au'rist,  n. 
one  who  treats  diseases  of 
the  ear.  Auriscope,  n. 
aw'rl-skop  |Gr.  skopeo,  I 
see  or  view];  an  instni- 
nicnt  which  covers  the 
auricle  ia  order  to  ascer- 
tain by  it  the  condition  of 
the  internal  ear  and  iis 
passage.    Auriculo-ven- 

TRICULAR  ORIFICE,  U.  the 

orifice  through  which  the 
blood  passes  from  the 
auricle  into  the  ventricle. 
It  is  guarded  on  either 
side  by  valves.  Auric- 
ula, n.  atc-rik'u-ld,  a 
species  of  primrose  called 
beards  ear,  a  native  of 
Swiss  Alps,  ord.  Primu- 
i  IdcecB. 

'      AURICULA.  avH^u- 
la  (Primula  Aurumla) :  a 
plant  of  the  same  genus 
with  the  Primrose  (q.v.). 
Auricula  (wild  state).  much  cultivated  in  flower- 

gardens.     It  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Romans,  and 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AURICULA. 

has,  for  nearly  200  years,  received  particular  attentidD 
from  the  florists  of  England  and  Holland.  Its  cultivation  is 
very  successful  in  the  little  gjirdens  of  opcraiivrs  near  large 
towns.  The  A.  has  smooSi,  dark  green  leaves,  scapes  (or 
leafless  stems),  and  calyxes,  covered  with  a  mcc^iy  powder. 
A  similar  fine  meal  appears  also  on  the  flowers,  and  adds 
much  to  their  beauty.  The  A.  is  a  native  of  the  Alps  and 
other  mountains  of  the  middle  and  s.  of  Europe,  and  of  sub- 
alpine  situations  in  the  same  countries.  It  is  found  also  on 
the  Caucasus  and  the  mountains  of  Syria ;  itgi-ows  in  shady 
and  moist  places.  In  a  wild  state,  it  has  comparatively 
small  flowers,  of  a  simple  yellow  color,  on  short  stalks, 
forming  an  umbel  of  generally  six  or  seven  on  one  scape, 
with  the  same  delightful  fragrance  which  it  has  in  cultiva- 
tion. The  leaves  are  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps 
as  a  remedy  for  coughs. 

By  cultivation  and  art,  the  A.  has  been  brought  to  great 
splendor  of  color.  Red,  pink,  crimson,  apple-green,  and 
mulberry  are  the  chief  colors  of  the  ditlerent  varieties. 
More  than  1200  varieties  have  been  reckoned,  and  new 
ones  are  continually  appearing,  some  entirely  of  one  color, 
others  of  two  or  more;  some  delicately  shaded,  some  vari- 
egated. The  mere  color  of  an  A.  is  not  of  so  much  conse- 
quence, in  the  eye  of  a  florist,  as  the  form  and  shading. 
The  chief  requisites  of  a  good  A.  are  large  flowers,  so 
many  of  them  on  one  sc^pe  as  to  give  fulness  to  the  umbel, 
the  flower-stalks  so  strong  that  the  flowers  do  not  hang 
down;  the  scape  itself  must  be  so  tall  that  the  umbel  of 
flowers  may  rise  completely  above  the  leaves,  and  so  strong 
as  to  bear  it  erect;  the  flower  must  be  nearly  round;  the 
white  or  yellow  eye  in  its  centre  must  be  distinct  and 
round,  its  color  not  mixing  with  the  ground  color,  which, 
however,  may  mix  at  the  outer  part  with  the  green  of  the 
margin.  The  green  margin  adds  much  to  the  beauty  of 
many  varieties.  The  mealiness  of  the  flower  differs  much 
in  different  varieties. — The  A.  blooms  in  April  and  May, 
and  often  a  second  time  in  the  end  of  autumn.  It  thrives 
in  a  rich  light  soil,  and  cultivators  diligently  prepare  for 
it  composts  of  various  kinds,  in  general  chiefly  of  fresh 
loamy  soil,  and  of  well-rotted  horse  or  cow  dung,  often 
with  a  little  sand.  The  finer  varieties  are  always  cultivated 
in  pots,  and  require  great  attention.  They  are  protected 
from  the  severe  weather  of  winter,  and  during  the  flower- 
ing season  from  wind  and  rain.  They  ought,  however, 
previous  to  flowering,  to  stand  in  an  airy,  sunny  situation. 
They  are  propagated  by  offsets,  generally  in  the  latter  part 
of  August.— When  it  is  proposed  to  raise  the  A.  from  seed, 
care  ought  to  be  taken  to  select  the  finest  flow^ers,  which 
are  encouraged  to  ripen  their  seeds  by  exposure  to  sun  and 
air,  hand-glasses  bemg  placed  over  them  during  heavy 
rains.  The  seed  is  sown  either  in  autumn  or  spring,  gener- 
ally in  boxes  placed  under  shelter,  or  in  a  slight  hot-bed. 
The  more  weakly  plants  are  tended  with  particular  care, 
as  they  are  generally  found  to  produce  the  finest  flowers. 

The  name  A.,  originally  Latin,  is  derived  from  auris,  an 
ear,  on  account  of  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  leaves  to 
the  ears  of  an  animal. 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AURICULA— AURILLAC. 

AURICULA:  agenus— and  AURICU'LID^:  a  fainilj— 
of  Gastropod  Mollireca.  They  have  a  spiral  shell,  covered 
with  a  horny  epidermis,  the  tirst  whirl  very  large  and  the 
«pire  short,  the  aperture  elongated  and  toothed.  They 
oelong  to  that  section  of  Gastropods  in  which  the  sexes 
«u*e  united  in  the  individual,  and  to  the  same  order  with 


Auricula. 

the  common  snails,  having  respiratory  organs  adapted  for 
breathing  in  air,  though  some  of  them  are  capable  of  sub- 
sisting for  a  considerable  time  in  water.  Some  of  them 
inhabit  fresh-water  marshes,  others  prefer  the  vicinity  of 
salt  water.  They  generally  belong  to  w^arm  climates,  and 
some  of  them  attain  a  large  size.  Auricula  Mida,  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  is  known  to  shell-collectors  by  the 
name  of  Midas's  Ear. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION:  see  Confession. 

AURIC  ULATE,  in  Botany:  a  temi  applied  to  leaves, 
stipules,  etc.;  signifying  that  they  have  at  the  base  two 
small  ear-like  lobes. 

AURIFEROUS,  a.  aip-r)f'er-us  JL.  aurum,  gold;  fero,  I 
produce] :  yielding  or  producing  gold. 

AURIGA,  n.  aw-rVga  [Sp.  and  L.  auriga,  a  wagoner— 
from  anrea,  a  bridle;  ago,  I  drive,  I  manage]:  one  of 
the  ancient  northern  constellations,  the  Wagoner;  in  anat., 
the  fourth  lobe  of  tlie  liver ;  in  surgery,  a  bandage  for  the 
sides. 

AURIGRAPHT,  n.  aw-rig'ra-fl  [L.  aurum,  gold ;  Gr. 
grapho,  I  write]:  the  act  or  process  of  writing  with  gold 
instead  of  ink. 

AURILLAC,  o-re-ydk':  t.  of  France,  cap.  of  thedept.  ot 
Cantal  (Auvergne);  in  a  pleasant  valley  on  the  banks  of  the 
Jourdanne,  about  269  m.  s.  from  Pans.  It  is  said  to  owe 
its  origin  to  a  Benedictine  monastery  founded  in  the  9th 
c.  by  St.  Gerard.  The  English,  in  the  14th  and  15th  cen- 
turies, often  besieged  the  town,  and  it  was  frequently 
taken  and  pillaged  during  the  religious  wars  in  France 
in  the  16th  c.  The  streets  are  wide  but  irregular, 
and  are  kept  clean  by  streams  supplied  by  a  reservob 
above  the  town  and  by  a  canal  from  the  Jourdanne.  The 
neighboring  quarries  supply  slates  to  cover  the  houses. 
The  principal  buildings  of  A.  are  the  churches  of  Notre 
Dame  and  St.  Gerard,  St.  Stephen's  Castle,  the  theatre, 
college  buildings,  which  contain  a  valuable  public  library, 
and    the    corn-market.     Paper,   jewelry,    lace,    copper 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AURIN-AURORA. 

uteDsils,  leather,  and  beer  are  the  chief  industrial  products. 
Pop.  (1891)  15,824. 

AURIN,  n.  aw' Tin  [L.  aurum,  gold]:  a  substance  of  a 
golden- red  color  obtaiued  from  caAolic  acid ;  one  of  the 
aniline  dyes,  known  also  as  '  rosolic  acid  *  or  '  coralline 
yellow.' 

AURIUM,  n.  aw'H-um  [L.  gen.  pi.  of  auris,  an  ear]: 
in  med.,  aurium  tinnitus,  tingling  of  the  ears,  i.e.,  in  the 
ears. 

AUROCHS,  n.  plu.  aw'rcks  [Ger.  aurochs  and  auerochs; 
L.  urua;  Qr.  ouro8,  a  wild  b\ill]:  the  bison  or  wild  ox  of 
Poland. 

AURORA,  n.  aw-rora  [L.  Aurora,  the  goddess  of  the 
morning]:  the  rising  light  of  the  morning;  the  plant  crow- 
foot. AuROBAL,  a.  belonging  to  the  morning.  Aurora 
BOBEALiB,  n.  bore-alls,  shooting  lights  of  varied  colors 
seen  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  heavens,  generally  called 
the  northern  lights.  Aurora  aubtralib,  n.  -aws-trd'lU,  the 
southern  Hghts. 

AURORA,  aw-rora:  city  in  Kaneco.,  111.;  on  the  Fox 
river,  and  the  Chicago  and  Iowa,  and  Chicago  Burlington 
and  Quincy  railroads;  38  m.  from  Chicago.  It  has  a 
capable  fire  department,  provided  with  steam  fire-engines 
and  Holly  water-works,  a  fine  city  hall,  iron  bridges,  a 
handsome  hall  used  for  a  public  library.  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  building,  etc.  The  city  is  lighted 
by  electricity.  There  are  two  national  banks  and  a  num- 
ber of  important  manufacturing  establishments  which  ob- 
tain power  from  the  Fox  river.  There  are  here  railroad 
repair  shops;  these,  belonging  to  the  Chicago  Burlington 
and  Quincy  railroad,  employing  about  one  thousand  men. 
A.  has  excellent  public  schools;  also  the  Jennings  Semi- 
nary, which  is  of  high  repute.  Pop.  (1870)  11,162;  (1880) 
11,878;  (1890)  19,688. 

AURORA:  city  in  Dearborn  co.,  Ind.;  on  the  Ohio 
river;  25  m.  below  Cincinnati,  on  the  Louisville  branch 
of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  railroad.  It  has  a  large  trade 
in  hay,  a  number  of  manufactories,  a  high  school,  one 
national  bank,  and  publishes  three  weekly  papers.  Its 
river  trade  is  large  and  growing  rapidly.  JPop.  (1870) 
8.804;  (1880)  4,484;  (1890)  3,929. 

AURORA  (styled  Ede  by  the  Greeks):  the  goddess  of 
the  dawn,  or  'morning  redness;'  dau.  of  Hyperion  and 
Theia,  sister  of  Helios  and  Selene,  wife  of  the  Titan 
Astraeus.  Zephyrus,  Boreas,  Notus,  Hesperus,  and  the 
other  stars  were  her  children.  She  was  described  as  rising 
in  the  mominff  from  her  bed  in  the  ocean,  borne  along 
on  a  chariot  drawn  by  the  divine  steeds  Lampus  and 
Phaeton,  ascending  heaven  from  the  river  Oceanus,  where 
she  lifted  with  her  *  rosy  fingers '  the  curtain*  of  night,  and 
'  announced  the  light  both  to  gods  and  men.  Homer  fre- 
quently describes  A.  as  the  goddess  of  day,  and  the  tragic 
writers  identified  A.  with  Hemera  (the  day).  She  was 
represented  as  clothed  in  a  rosy-yellow  robe,  with  a  star 
2-so 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AURORA  BOREALIS. 

Miinfng  on  her  forehead,  and  a  torch  in  her  right  hand. 
8hc  had  a  passion  for  mortal  youths,  and  carried  off  Orion, 
Cleitus,  and  Tithonus. 

AURORA  BOREALIS,  aw-rd'ra  bth-e-dlU,  or  North- 
ern Lights  (Ger.  NordLichty.  the  luminous  phenomenon 
Been  towards  the  north  of  the  heavens  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  higher  latitudes.  During  the  winter  of  the  n.  hemi- 
sphere, the  inhabitants  of  the  arctic  zone  are  without  the 
light  of  the  sun  for  months  together,  and  their  long  dreary 
night  is  relieved  by  the  light  of  this  beautiful  meteor,  fre- 
quent in  those  regions.  Those  who  have  explored  the 
southern  seas  have  seen  the  same  phenomenon  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  south  pole,  so  that  the  term  Polar  Lights  might 
be  more  appropriate  than  Northern  Lights  to  designate  the 
aurora.  The  appearance  of  the  Aurora  Borealis  lias  been 
described  by  a  great  variety  of  observers,  both  in  north- 
em  and  central  Europe,  all  substantially  to  the  same 
effect.  A  dingy  aspect  of  the  sky  in  the  direction  of  the 
north  is  generally  the  precursor  of  the  Aurora  Borealis; 


Aurora  Borealis. 

this  gmdualljr  becomes  darker  in  color,  and  assumes  the 
form  of  a  circular  segment  surrounded  by  a  luminous 
arch,  and  resting  at  each  end  on  the  horizon.  This  ditrk 
segment,  as  it  is  called,  has  the  appearance  of  a  thick 
cloud,  and  is  frequently  seen  as  such  in  the  fading  twilight 
before  the  development  of  the  auroral  light.  Its  density 
must,  however,  be  very  small,  as  stars  are  sometimes  seen 
shining  brightly  through  it.  This  dark  segment  is  bounded 
by  a  luminous  arch  of  a  bluish-white  color,  which  varies 
in  breadth  from  1  to  6  diameters  of  the  moon,  having  the 
lower  edge  sharply  defined,  and  the  upper  edge  only  when 
the  breadth  of  the  arch  is  small.    Tlds  arch  may  be  con- 


Digitized  by  VjOOglC 


AURORA  BOREALIS. 

sidered  to  be  a  part  of  a  luminous  ring  elevated  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  above  the  earth's  surface,  and  having 
its  centre  corresponding  with  s^jme  point  near  the  n.  iK)le. 
An  observer  several  degrees  s.  of  this  auroral  ring  would 
see  towards  the  n.  only  a  snjall  arc  of  it,  the  larger  part 
being  hid  by  the  earth;  to  one  situated  not  so  far  s.  it 
would  appear  as  a  larger  and  higher  arch;  to  one  placed 
below  it,  It  would  be  seen  as  ftn  arch  passing  through  the 
zenith;  and  to  one  within  the  ring  and  further  n,  it  would 
be  found  as  an  arch  culminating  in  the  s.  On  this  sup- 
position, nearly  all  the  various  positions  of  the  auroral 
arch  may  be  accounted  for.  The  centre  of  the  ring  corre- 
sponds probably  with  the  magnetic  north,  which  is  at  pres- 
ent situated  in  the  island  of  Boothia  Felix.  Hence  it  is 
that  in  Greenland,  to  the  east  of  this  island,  the  auroral 
arch  has  been  seen  stretching  from  n.  to  s.  with  its  highest 
point  in  the  w.  The  lummous  arch,  once  formed,  re- 
mains visible  for  several  hours,  and  is  in  a  constant  state 
of  motion.  It  rises  and  falls,  extends  towards  the  e.  and 
towards  the  w.,  and  breaks  sometimes  in  one  part,  some- 
times in  another.  These  motions  become  all  the  more 
observable  when  the  arch  is  about  to  shoot  forth  rays; 
then  it  becomes  luminous  at  one  point,  eats  in  upon  the 
dark  segment,  and  a  ray  of  similar  brightness  to  the  arch 
mounts  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning  towards  the  zenith. 
The  ray  seldom  keeps  the  same  form  for  any  length  of 
time;  but  undergoes  continual  changes,  movinjj  e.  and  w., 
and  fluttering  like  a  ribbon  agitated  by  the  wmd.  After 
some  time,  it  gradually  fades  in  brightness,  and  at  last 
gives  way  to  other  rays.  When  the  aurora  attains  its  full 
brightness  and  activity,  rays  are  projected  from  every  part 
of  the  arch,  and  if  they  do  not  rise  too  high,  it  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  comb  furnished  with  teeth.  When 
the  rays  are  verv  bright,  they  sometimes  assume  a  green, 
sometimes  a  violet,  a  purple,  or  a  rose  color,  giving  to  the 
whole  a  variegated  and  brilliant  effect.  The  accompany- 
ing sketch,  taken  from  MQller's  KofnrnseJie  Phytdk,  of  the 
Aurora  Borealis  in  Norway,  represents  a  beautiful  aurora 
of  this  comb-shaped  character.  When  the  rays  darted  by 
the  luminous  arch  are  numerous  and  of  great  length,  they 
culminate  in  a  point  which  is  situated  in  the  prolongation 
of  the  dipping-ne'edle,  somewhat  s.e.  of  the  zenith.  There 
they  form  what  is  called  the  Boreal  Crown;  and  the  whole 
heavens,  towards  the  e.,  w.,  and  n.,  present  the  appearance 
of  a  vast  cupola  of  Are,  supported  by  colunms  of  variously 
colored  light.  When  the  rays  are  darted  less  brilliantly, 
the  crown  first  disappears,  then,  here  and  there,  the  light 
becomes  faint  and  intermittent,  till  at  last  the  whole  pne- 
nomenon  fades  from  the  sky. 

The  preceding  description  indicates  the  general  features 
of  the  appearance  of  the  Aurora  Borealis;  but  several 
auroras  have  been  described  which  presented  striking 
peculiarities.  Sometimes  the  phenomenon  assumed  the 
lorm  of  one  or  more  curtains  of  light,  depending  from 
dingy  clouds,  whose  folds  were  agitated  to  and  fro,  as  if 
by  the  wind.    Sometimes  this  curtain  seemed  to  consist  of 


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AURORA.  BOREAXIS. 

separate  ribbons  of  light,  arranged  side  by  side  in  groups 
of  different  leugtlis,  and  attaining  their  greatest  brilliancy 
at  the  lower  edges. 

The  height  of  the  aurora  has  been  variously  estimated. 
The  first  observers  were  incliijed  to  place  t*ie  seat  of  it  be- 
yond the  atmosphere;  but  this  hypothesis  jh  untenable,  as 
the  aurora  does  not  seem  to  be  affected  by  the  rotation  of 
the  earth,  but  appears  to  be  in  every  respect  a  terrestrial 
phenomenon.  By  taking  observations  of  the  altitude  of 
the  highest  point  of  the  arch  of  the  same  aurora  at  differ- 
ent stations,  heights  varying  from  6  to  500  m.  have  been 
calculated.  The  cause  of  these  widely  differing  results 
may  be  found  in  the  probability  that  exists  of  each  observer 
seeing  a  different  arch  of  the  aurora  for  himself,  and  he 
is,  in  consequence,  furnished  with  no  comparable  or  re- 
liable data  for  his  calculations.  It  is  now,  however,  gener- 
ally admitted,  on  what  are  considered  sufficient  grounds, 
that  the  Aurora  Borealis  occurs  at  various  heights,  and 
that  it  is  seldom  found  beyond  90  m.  above  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  The  distance  of  the  stations  at  which  the  same 
aurora  has  been  visible  indicates  the  enormous  geographi- 
cal extent,  and  likewise  the  great  altitude,  which  the  phe- 
nomenon frequently  attains.  One  aurora,  for  instance — 
that  which  occurred  1839,  Sept.  3,  was  seen  in  the  Isle  of 
Skye  by  M.  de  Saussure;  at  Faris,  by  the  astronomers  of 
the  Observatory;  at  Asti,  in  northern  Italy,  by  M.  Que- 
telet;  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  by  Mr.  Herricfc;  and  at  New 
Orleans  by  credible  observers.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  observers  of  eminence  assert  that  the  aurora  8C»me- 
times  descends  to  the  region  of  the  clouds,  and  appears 
almost  as  a  local  phenomenon.  Boscovich  estimated  the 
height  at  825  m. ;  other  observers  have  named  a  few  hun- 
dred feet.  Dr.  Soph  us  Tromholt,  who  carried  out  a  series 
of  investigations  on  the  subject  of  the  Aurora  Borealb  in 
the  extreme  n.  of  Norway,  affirms  (in  his  book  Under  the 
Bays  of  the  Aurora  Borealis^  1885)  that  the  height  of  those 
observed  by  him  ranged  from  62  to  124  m.  It  seems  to  be 
entirely  untrue  that  the  light  of  the  aurora  is  ever  service- 
able to  people  in  their  work;  its  contribution  to  lighten 
the  darkness  is  almost  nil ;  the  momentary  flashes  oi  real 
luminosity  are  very  brief  and  of  no  practical  value. 

The  noise  that  is  alleged  to  accompany  the  Aurora 
Borealis  in  high  latitudes  would  indicate  for  it  a  compar- 
atively moderate  height.  Some  of  those  who  have  heard 
it  compare  it  to  the  noise  produced  by  the  rolling  of  one 
piece  of  silk  upon  another;  and  others  to  the  sound  of  the 
wind  blowing  against  the  flame  of  a  candle.  In  Siberia, 
it  has  been  related  that  this  noise  sometimes  resembles 
that  attending  the  discharge  of  fireworks;  and  that  the 
dogs  of  the  hunters,  when  overtaken  by  such  an  aurora, 
lay  themselves  with  terror  on  the  ground.* 

The  intimate  connection  between  the  Aurora  Borealis 

♦  Arctic  voyagers,  such  as  Parry  and  Franklin,  throw  doubt  on 
the  existence  of  any  stich  noise,  for  not  one  of  the  numerous  and 
brilliant  auroras  seen  by  them  was  ever  attended  with  Uie  £aintesl 
sound. 


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AUROTELLURITE— AURUNGZEBE. 

and  the  magnetism  of  the  earth  is  shown  by  various  facts. 
During  the  occurrence  of  the  phenomenon  the  magnetic 
needle  appears  very  much  disturbed,  sometimes  deviating 
several  dfegrees  from  its  normal  position,  and  appearing  to 
be  most  affected  when  the  aurora  is  brightest;  and  this 
oscillation  is  frequently  perceived  far  beyond  the  district 
where  the  aurora  is  seen.  The  vertex,  likewise,  of  the 
luminous  arch  is  almost  always  found  to  be  in  or  very  near 
the  magnetic  meridian,  and  the  boreal  crown  has  its  seat 
in  the  prolongation  of  the  freely  suspended  needle.  There 
seems,  moreover,  to  be  a  connection  between  the  magnetic 
poles  of  the  earth  in  regard  to  the  aurora,  for,  so  far  as 
has  been  ascertained,  the  meteor  occurs  simultaneously  at 
both.  The  Aurora  Borealis  appears  to  be  an  electric  dis- 
charge connected  with  magnetic  disturbance.  If  one  of 
Gassiot's  vacuous  tubes  is  brought  near  an  electric  ma- 
chine, or  between  the  poles  of  an  induction  coil,  flashes 
of  light  pass  between  the  ends,  which  bear  a  striking  re- 
semblance to  the  Aurora  Borealis.  A  comparison  of  the 
spectra  of  the  two  goes  far  to  establish  iaentity.  The 
auroral  spectral  line,  according  to  Angstrftm,  is  a  yellow 
line  near  the  sodium  line,  and  is  the  same  as  the  air  line 
seen  in  the  solar  light  when  the  sun  is  near  the  horizon. 
Other  lines,  however,  have  been  seen,  which  cannot  as  yet 
be  produced  by  the  physicist  from  any  known  substance. 

A  line  drawn  through  the  s.  of  Spain  to  the  n.  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  through  Cuba,  approximately 
marks  the  s.  limit  of  the  Aurora  Borealis  (in  the  northern 
hemisphere);  though  occasional  displays  have  been  no- 
ticed further  south.  To  the  n.  of  a  line  passing  through 
Edinburgh,  the  frequency  of  the  Aurora  Borealis  rapidly 
increases,  until  a  maximum  is  reached  in  a  line  through 
the  n.  of  Spitzbergen,  after  which  the  frequency  dimin- 
ishes as  the  North  Pole  is  approached. 

AUROTELLURITE, n.  aw-ro-m-lu'rit  [L. avrum, gold-, 
mod.  L.  tellurium f  the  metal  so  called :  Gr.  lithos,  a  stone]; 
a  mineral,  the  same  as  Sylvauite. 

AURUM :  see  Gold. 

AURUNGABAD,  o-run'ga-bdd',  or  Throns-iown:  town 
in  the  territory  of  the  Nizam;  on  the  Doodna,  a  tributary 
of  the  Godavcry.  Its  monuments  of  former  grandeur  are 
a  palace,  now  in  ruins,  built  by  Aurungzebe,  and  the 
mausoleum  of  Aurun^ebe's  daughter.    Pop.  est.  60,000. 

Other  places  in  India  are  named  Arungabad. 

AURUNGZEBE,  d-rung-zdb'  (properly,  Aurangzlb, 
*  Ornament  of  the  Throne  *):  most  powerful  of  the  Great 
Moguls,  the  last  who  ruled  with  energy  and  effect:  1618, 
Oct.  22—1707,  Feb.  21.  He  was  ten  years  old,  when  his 
grandfather  died,  and  his  father,  Shah-Jehan,  ascended 
the  throne.  A.  early  aspired  to  wield  the  rod  of  empire, 
but  he  craftily  hid  his  designs  beneath  the  cloak  of  piety. 
In  1657,  his  father,  who  had  previously  promoted  him  to 
high  civil  and  military  otfices  in  the  state,  in  which  A. 
distinguished  himself,  was  seized  with  an  illness  from 
which  he  was  not  expected  to  recover.    The  reins  of  power 


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AURUNGZEBE. 

were  at  once  seized  by  his  eldest  son,  Dara,  who  treated 
his  brothers  very  arbitrarily — Shuja  at  that  time  bein& 
ffovernor  of  Bengal,  A.  of  the  Deccan,  and  Miirad  oi 
Gu'.erat.  The  tirst  immediately  took  up  arms.  A.'s 
policy  was  to  let  the  two  tight  it  out,  and  exhaust  each 
other,  and  then  to  play  off  his  third  brother  against  the 
victor.  He  conferred  with  Murad;  assured  him  he  had  no 
earthly  ambition;  that  the  crown  he  strove  for  was  a  spirit- 
ual, not  a  temporal  one;  and  that,  for  affection's  sake,  and 
with  a  view  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  true  faith  (Dara 
was  liberal  in  his  religious  opinions,  and  had  written  a 
book  to  prove  that  Mohammed  and  Brahma  agreed  in  all 
essential  points)  he  would  support  his  pretensions  to  the 
throne.  Miirad  believed  him,  and  the  forces  of  the  two 
were  joined.  Meanwhile,  Dara  having  overcome  Shujd's 
army,  directed  his  forces  against  his  other  two  brothers; 
but  A.'s  plausibility  prevailed  over  Dara's  generals,  who 
deserted,  and  Ddra  had  to  seek  safety  in  Hight.  By  this 
time,  however,  8hah-Jehan  had  somewhat  recovered.  A. 
professed  the  utmost  loyalty,  but  secretly  gave  his  bqj).  'z 


Aurun^ebe.— From  a  Native  DrawiDg. 

structions  to  take  possession  of  Shah- Jehan's  palace,  whicL 
was  done,  and  the  aged  monarch  was  made  prisoner.  A 
next  seized  and  contined  his  too  confiding  brother,  Miirad; 
and  after  a  struggle  of  two  or  three  years*  duration,  Ddra 
and  Shuja  also  fell  into  his  power,  and  all  three  were  put 
to  death.  The  sceptre  was  now  firmly  within  the  grasp  of 
Auruugzebe.  He  professed  not  to  care  for  the  imperial 
insignia,  but  was  ultimately  induced  to  receive  them,  1678, 
Aug.  3.  He,  at  the  same  time,  assumed  the  presumptuous 
title  of  Alemgir,  *  Con(iueror  of  the  World.*  He  also  took 
the  title  of  Mohi-eddln,  *  the  lieviver  of  Religion.'  In  the 
seventh  year  of  A.'s  reign,  his  father  died,  at  a  good  old 
age;  but  there  are  suspicions,  nevertheless,  that  his  death 
was  hastened  by  slow  poison,  administered  by  command 
of  his  son. 


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AUSABLE— AUSONIA. 

A.'s  long  reign  of  half  a  century  was  distinguished  by 
great  outward  prosperity ;  but  the  empire  was  diseased  at 
its  heart.  Everywhere  there  was  distrust;  A.,  who  had 
established  his  empire  by  fraud,  was  naturally  distrusted  by 
all.  He  lacked  confidence  in  his  statesmen,  who,  in  their 
turn,  distrusted  him  and  one  another.  His  sons  imitated 
him  in  his  disobedience  to  his  father,  and  the  Hindus,  whom 
he  treated  with  great  harshness,  excited  the  Mahrattns 
against  him  in  the  south.  Still  his  great  abilities  sufficed  ' 
during  his  reign  not  only  to  preserve  his  empire,  but  even  to 
enlarge  it.  Discord  between  the  monarchs  of  Bijapur  and 
Qolconda,  due  mainly  to  his  policy  when  acting  as  governor 
of  the  Deccan,  enabled  him  to  add  these  two  Kingdoms  to 
his  empire.  But  the  seeds  of  decay  sown  in  his  reign  bore 
ample  fruit  in  the  reign  of  his  son.  The  decadence  of  the 
Mogul  empire  dates  from  A.'s  death,  at  Ahmednuffgur,  in 
the  89th  year  of  his  age,  and  50th  of  his  reign.  The  latter 
Tears  of  A.'8  life  were  passed  in  misery.  The  memory  of 
his  own  crimes  weighed  heavy  on  his  soul.  He  lived  in 
constant  dread  that  he  himself  would  receive  of  the  measure 
which  he  had  meted  out  to  others.  His  court  was  remark- 
able among  oriental  courts  for  its  economy  and  freedom 
from  ostentation.  A.'s  character  was  not  without  its  good 
features,  as  instanced  by  the  fact  that  in  the  third  year  of 
his  reign,  when  there  was  a  great  famine  in  the  land,  he 
gave  unreservedly  the  funds  of  his  trcasuiy,  which  had 
been  greatly  augmented  by  his  frugality,  to  procure  food 
for  his  people. 

AUSABLE,  aw-sd'bl:  city  of  Iosco  co.,  Mich.,  on  the 
Detroit  Bay  City  and  Alpena  railroad;  50  m.  from  Bay  City. 
Principal  industries:  lumbering,  salt-making,  and  fishing. 
There  are  two  state  banks,  one  with  capital  $25,000,  the 
other  $50,000,  $3,500  surplus,  and  $8,500  undivided  profits. 
Two  weekly  newspapers  are  publisned.     Pop.  (1890)  4,328. 

AUSCULTATION,  n.  aws'kni-ta's/ihn  [F.  anscnltation— 
from  L.  av8cultdtl&nem,  a  listening  with  attention — from  L. 
aimc'vla,  old  form  of  auric'nla,  dim.  of  auriSy  an  ear]: 
mode  of  detecting  diseases,  especially  of  the  heart  and  lun^,. 
l^  listening  to  tlie  sounds  produced  in  the  cavity  of  the 
chest.  This  is  done  either  by  the  unassisted  ear  (Immediate 
A.),  or  by  the  aid  of  a  simple  sound-conveying  instrument, 
the  stethoscope  (q.v.)  (Mediate  A.).  By  care  and  attention, 
the  normal  sounds  produced  by  respiration  and  the  l>eating 
of  the  heart  may  be  distinguished  from  the  several  abnormal 
sounds  indicating  disease.  A.  is  among  the  most  important 
discoveries  in  modern  medical  science  (see  Percusston). 
AusctJLTATORY,  a.  aics-kfU' tutir'Xy  pertaining  to  hearing. 
Aus'cuLTA'Ton,  n.  one  who  listens. 

AUSONIA,  n.  aw-sl/nt-a  [L.  Atisonia — from  Avmne^,  the 
inhabitants  of  Ausona,  a  town  in  Latium]:  an  ancient  name 
of  Italy;  in  antron.,  an  asteroid,  the  63d  found.  It  was 
discovered  by  De  (iasparis,  1861,  Feb.  Jl. 


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