tihvavy of t:he theological ^eminarjo
PRINCETON • NEW JERSEY
•a^D*
Part of the
Addison Alexander library,
rjresented by R.L. and A. Stuprt
( "^-^ r,^
COMMENT AEY
THE APOCALYPSE.
MOSES STUART,
PROFESSOR OF 3ACRED LITERATURE IN THE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
AT ANDOVER, MASS.
VOLUME 11.
ANDOVER:
ALLEN, IM OR RILL AND WARD WELL,
JNEW YORK : M. H. NEWMAN.
1845.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1845, by
MOSES STUART,
in the Clerk's Office of ihe District Court of Massachusetts.
ANDOVER :
ALLEN, MORRILL AND WARDWELL,
PRINTERS.
CONTENTS or VOL. II.
12, Cabbalistic^
the first catastr
5—8
MATTERS SPECIALLY DISCUSSED IN THIS VOLUME.
On the word Jehovah, and the corresponding o tui' 6 i]v xal o ig/oftEvng
On tJie scvin spirits before the throne
On the quotation of Zech. 12: 10 in Rev. 1: 7
The seven cities in Asia to which the seven churches belonged
Analysis of the seven Epistles to the seven churches
On the Nicolaitans of Rev. 2: 6 .
The hidden manna and the white stone »
In what sense is Christ uqxv of the creation of God ?
The theophany in chap. iv.
The four living creatures ....... 112-
How could the Lamb take the sealed book ?
Are the seven predicates, in the doxology of 5:
Fundamental principles in the exegesis of
vi — xii. .....
Sealing of the servants of God
How are the twelve tribes made out in Rev. 7:
The seven trumpets ....
The locusts under the first woe-trumpet
The horsemen under the second
The little open Iwok of 10: 2
The temple that is measured, 11: 1, 2
The two witnesses of 1 1: 3
The beast in 1 1: 7
On the second catastrophe, xii- — xix.
Woman clothed with the sun
Who is the beast from the sea ? 13: 1 seq.
Blasphemous names and worship of the Roman emperors
Paac
15
17
30
42
56
62
76
97
106
-119
127
135
ophe,
138—151
168
172
180
186
195
205
213
219
231
245
249
264
274
CONTENTS OF VOL. 11.
The second beast from the land . . .
The 144,000 on mount Zion, and symbols of victory
Answer to Neander on the same ....
The seven vials ; comparison between them and the trumpets
Design and nature of chap. xvii. ....
Concluding remarks on chap, xii — xix.
Third catastrojihe ; Gog and Magog ....
Resurrection of the martyrs .....
Historico-exegetical inquiry respecting Gog and Magog
General judgment; Death and Hades cast into the lake of fire
New Jerusalem compared with Ezekiel's new city
Exc. I. Angelology of the Scriptures
Exc. n. Symbolical use of numbers
Exc. in. The wounded head of the beast (13: 3), and the sixth
(17: 3, 10)
Exc. IV. Th.e number of the beast, 13: 18 .
Exc. V. Designations of time in the Apocalypse
Exc. VL Millennial resurrection
Appendix: Herder on the Apocalypse
kinj
283
291
293
308
318
351
353
356
364
370
378
397
409
434
452
459
474
491
#
m
COMMENTARY.
INSCRIPTION.— CHAP. 1. 1—3. ■*
(1, 2.) The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him, to show his
servants what must speedily come to pass; and sending by his angel he signified
to his servant John, who proclaimed the word of God and tiie testimony of Jesus
Christ, whatsoever he saw.
This apparently simple and intelligible sentence has been regarded
by many as replete, in the original, with real difficulties. It has there-
fore been the subject of much controversy among critics ; nor, down to
the present hour, has all doubt respecting its true meaning been removed.
The manner in which I have translated and pointed it, will probably be
called in question by some, and may be wholly rejected by others.
Ajtnidst the multitude of discrepant opinions and criticisms respecting
the passage, it would be difficult to select any one which appears to my
mind as deserving of unqualified approbation. After an attentive ex-
amination of most of them, I have felt compelled to choose a meaning
that seems appropriate to the true grammatical construction of the text ;
and I must now present to the reader the grounds and reasons of nay
choice.
A critical examination of the words, and then of the apparent mean-
ing of each clause, comes first in order, before we can arrive at any
general conclusion in respect to the meaning of the whole.
u^no-AuXviUig has often been said not to be a word of pure Greek
idiom. " Proprie Scripturarum est," says Jerome, commenting on it as
it occurs in Gal. 1: 12; and he then adds: A nullo sapientum saeculi
apud Graecos usurpatur. But he is mistaken ; for Plutarch uses it (see
Rob. Lex. sub. v.), and Porphyry employs it, Vita Plot. c. 16. Julius
Pollux also, in his Onomast., ranks together as synonymes 8ia-A(0.inpcUf
iy.y.alvU'a(, dnoxalv xJj ai , 8i,)Maca, etc. The verb draxulvTZTco i^,
of the same meaning substantially as dTZo-AulvTzrco, i. e. it literally sig-^
nifies to uncover, to disclose, and so (secondarily) to bring to light, to
repeal, etc. ^va)iaXv\\)ig may therefore be well translated revelation,
VOL. II. 1
1^'
«
CiiAr. I. 1.
It is here employed as the title of the book at the head of Avhich it stands,
and of course it hicks the article ij, vvliidfh, if prefixed, might convey a
wrong sense, i. e. it might mean the revelation in a mbnadic sense, ex-
cUidiug other books from the hke cUiim ; or else it might imply some
pi'cvious mention of the book, or previons knowledge "tsf it in the read*
Lf's mind ; all of which would be incongruous. In English, however,
fliire lies not the same objection gainst. employing the definite ai-ticle
in this case, as our usage does not altogetiigr accord with the Greek.
Accordingly, wfifind the definite article Me commonly employed bi-fore
the word Revelation ; and I have conformed to. this usage in the version
• above. • •
That the word u7Toy,dXv^pi^, as here employed, means a revelation of
an exffnordinary nature, a disclosure of thiiajs to come made by special
<^ divine arrangement and aid, is 'plain from tha coutext itself, which de-
^•eloi>6 the extraordinary means by which it waSj^made, and then calls it
(v. 3) by the name of «roog) //?£/'«, which,- by sacred usage, imports what
has been stated. The same thing is manifest from a comparison of the
Ti'ord (iTZoy.dXiMug, as employed in the like sense, in 2 Cor. 12: 1. G^.
1:''12. 2: 2. Eph. 3: 3. These passages cast light on that part of the
meaning which indicates special divine interposition ; while the idea of
developing or disclosing something secret, hitden, mysterious, or inac-
cessible to common minds, is at the same time specially brought to view
•§fhy the use of u7Zoy.dkvxf.'ig in such passages as Rom. IG: 25. 1 Cor, 14:
G, 26. Sirach 22: 22. 42: 1. The context abundantly eoniirms such a
sense here ; for it affirms two things, viz. first, tlbat this dTToy.dlvxpig has
respect to what is to take place in future, and secondly, that God and
* Christ and his angel all cooperate in making the disclosure to John. —
There is indeed a possible sense of the word dnoydXvxiug which is dif-
ferent from liiis, viz. when it means manifestation or exhibition of any
thing or person ; in which case it is nearly equivalent to imqidvsia, e. g.
in 1 Cor. 1: 7. 2 Thess. 1: 7. 1 Pet. 1: 7, 13. 4: 13 ; and this sense
Heinrichs (strangely enough) adopts here. But what then must become
of the obvious sense of ijv edcoxEv avzcp o &eog, dciiai y.. r. A. ?
ydTzoxdlvxiJig 'Jr^oov Xqigtov — Is Christ subject or object ? That is,
is ne the personage who is in possession of the revelation and disclos|p
it according to his will ; or is he the individual to wdiom the revela-
tion has respect, and in regard to whom it makes disclosures ? The
^ Genitive case, 'LjooiJ Xqigzov, would in itself bear either construction ;
^' and both constructions are common throughout the Scriptures ; but here
the sequel — /'jv tdcoy.ev 6 S^eog renders it quite certain that the fii'st sense
is the only one which the passage will bear.
Hv ... 6 d'tog, an important declaration in respect to its bearing on
the person and^office of Christ ; but one, I may add, altogether in unison
i
■^
•» CriAP. T. 1. 3
with other Scriplnros, specially witli (lie Gospel of John. — "E^Mxev, im-
parted, comnufvicated, which' is the appropriate shade of meaning; in
tliis case,^iiinsinucli as information, insfrnctton is coneemed with it.
See the same shade of sense in John 17: 7, 8, thriee, and also Acts
7: .'^8, "With the particular meaning of this verb there is indeed no
dithcultj ; but the sentiment of the whole passajie is a question oplitli-
culty, if there bea.ny; fed* the appears to represent the RedeemdLeven
in his jrlorified state, (for such it Was when the Apncaltj)S(» was wnttcn), ■■"M^M
as dependent on the Father ft>r revelations of sueli a nature. But let ^^^^
the reader now eomparo John 5: 19, 20. 7; 16. 8: 28 (where fdu^u^e is? *
said of the Father i» resjiect to the Son, which well explains e8oy/.£vAn^
our text). 1-2: 41*. 14: 10. 17: 7, 8. Matt. 11: 27. i^ark 13:32. Acts
1: 7 (in connection with Mark 13: 32). Most fully doef' Paul^%xhibit
his belief in the sentiment of mediatorial dependence in 1 Cor. 15: «
24 — 28. By this last. passage it appears, that Christ remains 4n ihe
state of Virerferent merely until the consummation of all things, when
his delegated dominion will b» given up. The texts in Mark 13: 32
and Acts 1: 7 (comp. Luke 2: 52) show, that Christ as to his human
nature was progr-essire in knowledge, and of course that there were
some things not yet known to him in this nature before his ascension -
to glory ; and among tlfese things was the particular and exact time of
his coming. The i'dco/.ti' of our text Avould seem however to im|)ly, that
even after his exaltation the Mediator received those disclosures froniy
file Father, which are made in the Apocalypse. This is perfectly con-
gruous with the view given by Paul ifa 1 Cor. 15: 24 — 28, which ne-
cessarily implies the dpjiendcnt state of the Mediator until the final con-
summation of all things, and that his dominion as Mediator is only a *'
delegated one. I may add, that the sentiment of our text is truly Jo-
hannean, whoever the author of it may be. • ♦
^iiha ■/.. T. ).. Nothing could be more appropriate to the nature of
the lx)ok before us, than the choice of the verb dn^ai here, which nat-
urally and usually means to s/iow or exhibit anything to the evidence of
ike senses, i. e. to present to view, to submit to inspection. The verb
has here a palpable reference to the nature of the sequel, in which John
•is taught a ^h ydt'cixyat \>y sensible tokens and symbols. The meta-
pluyrical sense, teach, disclose, is very unfrequent, even in the New Tes-
I tament; and of the four instances arranged, under, this head in Rob.
Lex., two at least do not properly belong there, but refer to sensible e^
hibitions. The composite idea^ however, of disclosing by the use iff
signs and symbols, belongs to dtl^ui in the case before us.
if o/V Sov).oii; avTov. The critical editions differ as to the reading
avToi), which Griesbach, Knapp, Vaterf'and PLifln adopt ; while. Wet-
Stein, Bengel, Matthai, and Lachmanu read uvrnv. The latter reading
Chap. I. 1.
would refer the pronoun to God, while avrov refers it to Christ. The '
sense is not materially different in either case ; for the servants of God
are tlie servants of Christ, and vice versa. That Christ is the subject
(implied) of the Infinitive Stl'^ai seems to be clear from the tenor of
the sentiment ; for the sequel shows that Christ, or his angel, appears
and makes all the disclosures of the book. — But who are the dovXoig ?
Are they prophets, apostles, teachers ? Or does this word here desig-
nate the worshippers of God, the servants of Christ in general ? For
the former sense one might contend, so far as the usus loquendi in re-
spect to dovXog is concerned ; see Rom. 1: 1. GaL 1: 10. Phil. 1: 1.
Col. 4: 12. Tit. 1: 1. James 1: 1. 2 Pet. 1: 1. Jude v. 1. Rev. 22: 9
(avvdovlog). So the well known usage in Hebrew of i-i^n"^ "la;;, in a
multitude of instances ; see Ges. Lex. sub. v. But then it is equally
true, that dovXog (and 13?) is sometimes applied to the mass of the
people of God, to the community of his worshippers ; even in the Apoc-
alypse itself is this the case. Rev. 2: 20. 7: 3. 11: 18 (where it is ex-
pressly used as comprehending ayioi and TiQOCftjtui). 19: 2, 5. 22: 3.
Still, the other sense of dovlog, viz. prophet, teacher, is also common to
the Apocalypse ; e. g. 1: 1 (dovXcp . . . 'Itodvvr^), 10: 7 where TZQoqifjTag
is added as epexegetical, 15: 3. In 22: 6 it may designate either the
prophets, or the pious in general ; for the sense is good if taken in either
way. In Hebrew, ii'^l^"^ l^v is altogether a common appellation for a
true worshipper of Jehovah, and the whole Jewish nation are often ad-
dressed as being the servants of God, because they are his professed
worshippers. — In such a case then as the one before us, the context must
decide ; and this evidently favours the sense of the word in Rev. 2: 20,
viz. the mass of the Chi-istian community or Christians. Accordingly
the seven churches of Asia are immediately addi-essed in the sequel,
and to them the book before us is dedicated (so to speak) and sent,
plainly in order to be published or circulated by them. It is then to
the churches that the things in the Apocalypse are shown.
"A del yevsa&ai, what must take place, i. e. by an arrangement of an
overruling and all-controlhng pi'ovidence. In other words ; what is pre-
dicted in the Apocalypse will certainly come to pass. Such things are
not left to chance, they are not fortuitous, for 8el yevta&ui, they must
needs happen. In other words still ; God, who gave a revelation of
future things to Christ, has ordained them and will bring them to pass.
^Ev Tuyei, a controverted expression, on which much has been made
to depend. Some commentators, recognizing the evident fact that the
apocalyptic predictions cover much ground and require a long series of
years for their accomplishment (see Rev. 20: 4, 7), have zealously en-
deavoured to show that rdyu designates only the maturity of things for
any particular event, and, as connected with this, the certainty of the
m
Chap. 1. 1. 5
event itself. So Eichhorn ; anil after liim, Ileinriclis and others. But
* f the texts appoiiled to liy thorn do not show tliis ; nor is there any neces-
sary affinity between the certainty of a thing and its speedy accomplish-
ment. E. g. a general judgment is certain ; but it is not therefore speed-
ily to take place. The plain and obvious sense of fv rd/fi is speedily,
quickly, shordy ; so o •muqo<; fyyv^:, in v. 3, plainly interprets it. See
also Kev. 2: IG. 3: 11. 11: U. 22: 7, 12, 20. If now anything clear
can be made out from the Apocalypse, it is at least clear that chaj). iv —
xi. have special reference to Jerusalem and Judea. Equally clear is it
that chap, xii — xix. have reference to persecuting and heathen Kome.
In both cases persecution was urgent and raging, when the Apocalypse
was written ; which, as we have seen (Vol. I. § 16), .was before the de-
Istruction of Jerusalem. Now, although the closing part of Jthe Revela-
tion relates beyond all doubt to a distant period, and some of it to a fu-
ture eternity, yet the portion of the book which contains this is so small,
teid that part of the book which was speedily fullilled is so large, that no
reasonable difficulty can be made concerning the declaration before us.
'i-w- ru/i(, i. e. speedily, did the things, on account of which the book
was priucipally written, in fact tiike place. And although the Komish
persecutions were afterwards repeated, yet it is enough to vindicatO" the
expression before us, that the overthrow of the then persecutipg power
was very speedy, and that this overtlirow was an eai-nest of the fate of
all future persecutcwrs.
Kat iGi'iitartv, lit. showed or indicated by signs or symbols. The verb
Giifiaiv(a evidently comes from ai^a = a/jidiiov, sign, token, symbol. The
word is exquisitely chosen in reference to the sequel of the book, almost
all of which consists of symbolic representation. In the like way is the
verb aiiitaii'co employed in John 12: 33. 18:. 32, (referring to what
Jesus had said on a former occasion, see in 12: 31 — 33). 21: 19. Li a
similar sense it occurs irt Acts 11: 28. 25: 27 ; yet less exactly accord-
ing to the natural and original meaning of the word, for in Acts it sig-
nifies to indiccde in a generic sense. Plutaax-h (De Orac. Delph. p. 104)
represents Heraclitus as saying, in respect to the oracle : ^Ovze Xtyai ov-
T£ y.QvnrH, u)j.u (yt^fidvei, i. e. it neither speaks out plainly, nor wholly
conceals, but indicates by symbols or in an enigmatical way,' — But with
■what is this verb to be constructed ? Who is agent, and what is object ?
Li all mstances aijove referred to, in John and in Acts, the verb has an
object after it, although a compound one. Is it so here ? Dr. Robin-
son, in his Lexicon, has put it down as absolute, i. e. without an object.
Most critics have represented ijr (at the beginning of the second clause
and refcn-ing to dnoy.u).inj't>;) as the object or Ace. case after tatjiiurev.
But this is a hard construction. My own view of the cjise is, as the trans-
lation above indicates, that oau elde is the object, which, according to
6 Chap. I. 1.
the usual law of brftchylogy in the Greek language, stands for ixtTra
oca elde. In this case all is plain and easy, specially when we regard
og i/AUQzvQtjGe . . . 'Jijoov Xqkjzov as a parenthetic and epex^getical
clause ; which it plainly is. Then, moreover, we have this simple sen-
timent : ' Christ, employing an angel as his messenger, by symbols dis-
closed to his servant John whatsoever things he saw in pro})hetic vision.'
At all events, this interpretation accords well with the state of facts. It
should beTemarked, also, that although the word 8ei^ai is finely chosen,
iGi'ifiavs is evidently a still more exquisitely select designation of what
was done in order to make a revelation to John.
But who is the agent for ^oijiAave ? Most interpreters say that it is
Jesus Christ; and they appeal to Rev. 22: 16, "I, Jesus, have sent
mine angel to testify to you these things respecting the churches."
This would be conclusive, were it not that there is another passage
which seems, with equal or. greater force, to plead for another construc-
tion ; i. e. Rev. 22: 6, " The Lord God of the spirits of the prophets
hath sent his angel dniiai roiti8ovXnt.g, uvtov a Ssi yevsad^ai iv ruyei."
Can this be anything less than a direct appeal to the very words of
Rev. 1: 1, which have already been considered? Moreover as {ysog is
the undoubted agent to the verb edcoxev, and iaj^fiavm stands connected
with thatvverb by xai, without any intimation of a change of agent, so
this would seem to be sufficient to settle the question upon fair grounds.
Had Li'icke noted the passage in Rev. 22: G, he might have saved him-
self the trouble he has taken (Stud, imd Kritiken, IX. p. 655) to ac-
count for a change of agent in the case of iai'niuve. ' Such changes/
he says, ' are not a matter of doubt in the Apocalypse ; and here dti^ia
ToTg dovXoi^- •/.. T. X. which precedes, shows beyond a question that
Christ is the agent, and therefore he is to be regarded as the agent to
f(7J/jM«t'e.' But as nothing important is gained for the sense of the pas-
sage by such a change of agents, and as sucli changes (I venture to
say) are not so frequent in the Apocalypse as Ci'icke seems to intimate,
so we may construe the whole in the regular grammatical order, mak-
ing 0 d^hog the agent. Still, I do not think any violence is done, if
Christ be made the agent.
JiTioGtelXag makes a difficulty, not as to subject or agent, for this
must be the same which is connected with i(7t'jiiarf., but as to object.
Sending wliat, by the angel? JItzo-auXviLhv is the common answer.
But this, as a book, he did not send ; nor as a communication did he
send it by an angel, for John saw the symbols with his own prophetic
eye, and the angel was merely his companion, helper, or interpreter.
In tliis strait, if we turn now to Rev. 22: 6, we shall find the matter
thus stated: dntGrstls rov uyyaXov avzov dei^ui zoig dovXoig uvtov. In
the passage before us, then, anoatdXag x. r. X. stands connected with
Cii^p. I. 2. 7
ffn'Sta ■/.. T. X. implied, aiul the tlioii;;h(, iu the Aviiter's iiiiild, if lilled
(lilt, wouUl spi'in to 1)0, •/.(CI, (i7naTtiku<; diu rnv uyyt'kov uvzov [kV to
^tl'itu X. z. /..], iaijfiun zo} dovlco x. r. X. Instead ot" this, Ewuld takes
(<,TO(7r6A(<s" ill the ubsohite sense, Hke i^S nVr in Ex. 4: 13. Tlie
w liole elyiise might indeed be understood in u kind of absolute way, as
being ecjuivalent to the following expression — making use of his angel
as an agent, lie signified, ete. But tiie mode of solving it suggested by
22: C>, is mftro grammaticid and more fueile. The present form of the
clause is plainly brachyfcgical.
JiwXo), i\s designating prophets, apostles, and special messengers of
God, has already been explained abo\ e. — Ainov is the right reading
here, arfd not avzov as some editions ha\'e it, and even Lachmann ; for
v.hetlier God or Christ be the ageut to ioi[nftv£ and dnoaruila'i, ai'Tod
would be the more regular reading; see N. Test. Grumm. § 110. 5.
Note 2.
'Jcodn'ij is in apposition with 8ov).o), and is designed as an explanato-
ry adjunet. But as there were doubtless many Johns at that time, this
propei* name itself would seem to need some further explanation. Ac- '
eordingly we have it ij^ the sequel.
"Os ifiUQtvni^ct . ^. T. Xqicszov, also an epexegetieal clause Avhicli has
been itself more discussed and controverted, than almost anything in
the whole Apocalypse. The reason of this is, that the sentiment of
the clause stands co^ected with the great critical inquiry : Who was
the author of the Revelation ? A large class of critics find here de-
scribed the Gospel of John (zov'koyov rov ■{}eoiJ), the P^justles of John
(tijv fiuQTVQiav I. XQiaim), and finally the Apocalypse itself dou aiSs,
(eras they generally read o(J« re tJ'dt). Others find in the first two
expressions only the Gospel and Epistles taken a$ a whole, and in the
latter expression they find a declaration that John was an eye-ivitness of
all which he had written ; and they a{)peal to 1 John 1: 1 — 3 for a de-
claration of similar import. But in this last passage John declares,
that he discloses not only what he had seen, but also what he \\i\A heard;
and this very appropriately, for the greater part of his Gospel and of
his first Epistle, consists of doctrines which he had heai'd, or which had
been taught him by Jesus Christ. "Oan, side would seem, then, to be
altogether too limited to express the subject matter of the Gospel and
Epistles ; wliile it is entirely appropriate wheu referred to the visions of
tlie Apocalypse. Liicke, in order to avoid a reference to the Gospel
and Epistl(^ here, represents loyov d-t-ov and nuQWQtav Xqigtov as
merely descriptive of tlie Ajiocalypse itself, and then regards dautlSe
as only an adjunct explanatory clause, intended to designate the maimer
in which the Ajiocalypse was matle known to its author. "Which of
these two parties is in the right? Or is either of them ? These ques-
8 Chap. L 2.
tions must be answered by resorting, first of all, to the meaning of each
subordinate part of the clause before us.
'EfJUQTVQtjOe has oftentimes, in the New Testament, its usual sense of
testifying, i. c. of bearing witness, of giving testimony respecting any-
thing. This is ])lainly the natural and usual import of the word. . But the
corresponding Hebrew verb with its correlative noun, and ^aoTVQt'co with
its correlative noun, not uufrequently convey a meaning specifically di-
verse from this. Thus the Hebrew T'^fn (from 11") signifies he affirm-
ed, he solemnly affirmed or declared, he solemnly enjoined, etc ; and its
correlate noun fii" means not only testimony, but also precept, solemn
declaration, etc. The word fjuQzvQeo} is a favorite one in the writings
of John ; e. g. John 3: 11, " o o'lSufiev luXoviiev, xai o sojQuxa^ev fiuQ-
zvQovfisv, i. e. what we know we speak of, and what we have seen ive
declare ;" for so the parallelism obhges us to interpret fiaQtvQOVfiev.
So 3: 32, " What he has seen and heard, ToiJzo huqzvqh, this he de-
clares or publishes to the world." So in 1 John 1: 2. 1 Cor. 15: 15.
Acts 23: 11. Jflthn 21: 24, where o ftagzy^Mv designates the evangelist
'as a historian, declaring to the world the words and deeds of Jesus. So^
in Rev. 22: 16, "I, Jesus, have sent mine angel ftuQzvQijout, to declare
these things respecting the churches." So also in the verse before us
fjiUQZVQiav is plainly a parallelism of Xoyov, which means declaration,
or what is spoken or declared ; also in Rev. 1: 9. 6: 9. 12: 11 where
■we have \oyov fiaQrvQiag avrwv, i. e. the word or doctrine -which they
published or declared ; 12: 17, where fiuQzvQiav parallelizes with iv-
zolug ; 20: 4. — The plain result is, that iiAuoriiQrjae means declared, pub-
lished, openly and solemnly cffirmed or proclaimed. If any one chooses
still, in conformity to the Greek mode of expression here, to translate
the word by testified, there is no objection to this ; for one of our best
English lexicographers has defined testify as sometimes meaning to de-
clare or publish freely. Usage sanctions such an explanation of the
English word.
But what is it which John published or declared ? Tov loyov rov
■&SOV xal 77JV ^laQrvQiuv 'Jijaov Xqiotov. Is d'f-ov and Xqiotov here sub-
ject or object ? That is, does the author speak of the word which has
respect to God, and the testimony which has respect to Christ ? Or
does he mean the word of which God is the author and communicator,
and the testimony which Christ discloses ? Beyond all reasonable doubt
the latter ; for so a comparison with the former part of v. 1 would plainly
imply, and so the nature of the case seems plainly to demand. John
testified whatever God and Christ had communicated to him for this
purpose. So in v. 5, Jesus Christ is accordingly called o fxuQzvg 6 nia-
Tog, not the faithful martyr, but the witness whose declarations are
worthy of all credit. Liicke (Stud, and Krit. IX. p. 654 seq.) has
Chap. I. 2. 9
strenuously contended that Xiyov and nanrvQlav here arc = unoxd-
ii'ii'ii", i. e. the Apocalypse. It is certainly a possible sense ; for Xoyng
■Oiov = ^'^"^ "-Z^ may l)e predicated of any oracle, prediction, declara-
tion, disclosure of any kind whatever, whether by visions, symbols, or
otherwise ; as the lexicons abundantly show, and as every attentive
reader of the Scriptures must have observed. And the same may be
said of the Johannean usage of naQTVQiav. So in Is. 8: IG, 20, nvrn
parallelizes with ri""ri, precept, instruction, somct/iinr/ tauf/Zit. So, in the
passages cited above, ftanzvoia is for substance parallel with ).6yog and
with ivToXtj. But it is manifest, at the same time, that loyor &eov and
fKCQTvni'a XnicjTov are equally well fitted to designate what John had
done, or was doing, as a preacher of the Gospel, or as a writer of evan-
gelical narrative. It is not then the nature of the phraesology here
which can determine the question before us ; for this would a[)ply equally
well to christian preaching, to a christian writing, or to the composition
of the Apocalypse itself. An appeal for decision must therefore be
made to other circumstances than the nature of the pliraseology.
Such an appeal, I think, may be made with confidence to Rev. 1: 9,
where John says, in addressing the churches : " I . . . your brother, and
companion in the affliction and kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ,
was in the isle called Patmos, d(u tor )Mynv tov xhnv, y.ui 8iu rt^v ftUQ-
TVQiav Ir^cov." Now he could not be thei'e because of having written
and published the Apocalypse ; for this was written after he went there,
possibly, even after he had left there. Liicke, in order to avoid the dif-
ficulty which this throws in his way, suggests that did docs not mai'k
here, as usual, a preceding cause or ground of being sent to Patmos, but
a subsequent and ultimate end to be obtained by going thither. But
AViner, in the latest edition of his New Testament Grammar (§ 53. c),
strenuously denies that such a meaning can be given to bid before the
Accusative case ; yet Liicke appeals to its use in Rom. 4: 25 and Phil.
2: 30, not only as deciding the possibility of such a meaning, but rather
as decisive of such an one in point of fiict. But these examples may be
solved on a different ground. At any rate, since they are the only ones
in the New Testament to Avhich Liicke ventures to make an appeal, and
as they are against the usual tenor of Greek usage, one cannot feel en-
tire confidence in the appeal ; see Vol. I. p. 259 seq. Jid is a word
•which occurs too often not to be well-known as to its usual meanings ;
and in the Apocalypse itself the instances of it, as construed with the
Accusative case, are somewhat numerous, e. g. 2: 3. 4: IL 7: 15. 12:
12. 13: 14. 18: 8, 10, 15; all with the usual meaning. In addition to
these are several cases exactly correspondent with the one in chap. 1:9,
wliich admit of no reasonable controversy. In Rev. 6: 0, -Tolni si)caks
of souls seen by him under the altar slain, 8id tov Xoyov tov d^eov xai
VOL. II. 2
10 Chap. I. 2.
diii rtjv fianrvQi'av ijv er/ov, by which chuise the antecedent and moving
cause or ground of their sufferings and death is designated, viz. their
perseverance in professing and declaring tlie Cliristian faith and doc-
trine. In Rev. 12: 11, of the victorious host of the redeemed in hea-
ven it is said : These have come off conquerors dia ro uiiiu tov uqviov
y.ai diu tov h'tyov t/}^,' [laorvQiag avzwv, i. e. ' through, or by means of,
the blood of the Lamb, and through the influence of that word which
they have testified.' So again in Rev. 20: 4, the Apocalyptist sees, on
thrones in heaven, " the souls of those who had been beheaded 8ta rrjv
liaQZVQiav 'Ji;C)Ov y.(ii dia rov loyov tov {f^nov ; where the meaning, on
account of the testimony, etc., cannot possibly be mistaken. These in-
stances, and the relatiorf of them all to one and the same subject, render
diu in Rev. 1: 9 so clear, that doubt seems to be out of place. And
this fin-ther objection may be made to LiJcke's exegesis, viz. that it re-
presents John as going to Patmos either for the sake of publishing the
gospel there, or for the sake of writing the Apocalypse ; both of which
designs are wholly improbable. That bleak and desolate spot, which is
scarcely noticed by any geographer of antirpiity, and never could have
had anything but a few fishermen's huts upon it, was not a very attrac-~
tive place to go for the sake of preaching, compared with Asia Minor
and the adjacent islands swarming with a po]iulation which could hardly
be numbered. And to go there _/or the sake of writing the Apocalyjjse I
It is surely one of the last places -which an author could ihink of, at
least on the score of comfort or convenience. Besides this, John states
in the beginning of the same verse (v. 9), that he was a companion of
other Chi'istians tv -OIiWei . . . ycu vnojAOvri, which stands so connected
with his being in Patmos, as to show that he was there iv i>A/t|'f/, or as
an exile, on account of the gospel. This, it cannot well be denied, is
the plain and natural implication of the passage.
From these considerations taken together we naturally come to the
conclusion, that the clause og ^iiunrvQijcev . . . J. Xqigzoij is epexegeti-
cal, descri[>tive of the particular John just mentioned, and intended to
distinguish him from others of the same name. We may also note, that
inasmuch as Xoyov d^sov is in itself only a kind of generic declaration, so
liuQTvoi'av I. Xqigzov is here added, in order to show that Christian
doctrine is what the Avriter particularly intends to designate.
That John, then, who had been a preacher of the Gospel, that John
who had declared and openly published the Gospel, was the servant of
Clu'ist to whom the symbols of the revelation that follows were disclosed.
Nothing more can be drawn with certainty from the text, than this gene-
ric sense ; for if we refer to Rev. 20: 4, '• The souls of those, who had
been beheaded ^/« t/}*' fiaQzvQiuv 'Itjoov, xal diu 70>' Xoyov tov {yeov,"
surely we cannot say that none had been, beheaded except such as had
Chap. I. 2. 11
written Gospels or Epistles ; nor can the expression there be limited
even to teachers and preachers. But then there is some dilTerence be-
tween that case and tlie one in Rev. 1:2; for in this latter we have the
verb fiictnrvQtjfin', whidi of coui"se designates publication, declaration,
open proclamation of the divine word, and can be applied only to preach-
in2. teachiiii!:, or writin-j;. But to which of these the writer means to
c? c o
apply it, cannot be determined by anything that he here says. Of the
fact, however, that John wrote the Apocalypse before he wrote his
Gospel, (in case he was the author of botli), there can now, I think, be
no reasonable ground of doubt. Erangelinni postea scripsit, says Vic-
torinus (f 3(>2) in the earliest Commentary on the Apocalypse that we
have, i. e. fifter his residence at "Patmos, as (tm context shows ; Bib.
J\Iax. Patrum, III. p. 418, C. And although the little book of Victo-
rinus comes to us probably in a somewhat mutilated and garbled state,
yet the expression quoted seems in all probability to be a part of the
genuine work. At all events, it agrees well with what the laws of criti-
cism would sefem to decide or to require.
Putting all tliese eonsideratioris together it appears to be sufliciently
plain, that eJohn is here described as a teacher or preacher^ of the divine
word, and of that word as disclosed by the Gospel = the testimony of
Jesus Christ, But whether it was the apostle John — the same who was
the author of the Gospel and the Epistles — seems not to be decided by
the declarations under consideration. There is, indeed, nothing in them
which contradicts this, or is incongruous with it ; but still, it must be
confessed, thei^ is nothing which decides with certainty in favour of it.
If now the Gospel and Epistles were subsequent works, (of which I can-
not doubt), how could they be referred to in this passage as being al-
ready extant ?
"Oau f?5f, and not ooa ze ii8e as the VuJgate text reads, and as many
critics have also read. For their purpose this was a convenient read-
ing; for some of them made three distinct declarations of this and the
two preceding clauses ; viz. first, John wrote the Gospel ; secondly, he
wrote the Epistles ; and thirdly, he wTOte the Apocalypse, which last,
they say, is here appropriately described as containing ocra f-ldt, i. e. th©"
visions and symbols disclosed to John. But tlie 7f, on which this dis-
tinction is maiidy built, wjis long ago rejected even by Bengel ; and
since that time, by all the critical editions. The Mss. leave us no good
room to doubt as to the reading oaa eWe; for A. B. G. 7. 8. 9. 12. 14.
23. 20. 30. 32. 33. 42, all the Mss. of Matthaei, one of Alter, six of
Birch, and the Vulgate, Syriac, Arabic (Erp.), Coptic, Aetliiopic, and
Armenian versions all omit it. Ewald contends for t« ; but it is because
he construes the preceding declarations as amounting merely to an as-
13 Chap. I. 2.
sertion, that John was a public and open professor of the Christian reli-
gion, and then oait zs tide means, that [he declared^ whatever he saiv,
i. e. what he had been an eye-witness of. This is a forced construction,
to say the least ; and inasmuch as the whole book of the Apocalypse no-
where else offers us a single re, with any good evidence of its genuine-
ness, (t£ in Rev. 21: 12 is generally rejected), so it would be acting
against the laws of evidence and of internal probabihty to admit it here.
I have joined oou elde with i6i]iiave as object ; but if the reader pre-
fers to make it merely an explanatory clause, in apposition with loyov
'&aov and [laQzvQi'av I. Xfjiazov, then the whole clause will designate
John as testifying the divine word, even the gospel of Christ, in all the
extent to which it was disclosed to him. In this case eJdnv would pa-
rallelize exactly with the Hebrew tiin, when applied to a prophet (the
old designation of whom was fith, a seer), which nm stands connected
at times with 'I'z'i , e. g. Is. 2: 1 ; so that "li'i njn , and tide Xoyov ■&eov
would be exactly parallel expressions. The possibility of this con-
struction I would not be understood to deny. But the other one which
I have given, inasmuch as it assigns a definite object to iai'niave, and
therefore makes the whole sense of the passage run smoothly and con-
gruously, I must prefer.
One remark more should be added in reference to the Aor. ^laQrv-
QTjae. Why does John here employ this indefinite Praeterite, if by X6'
yov {^eov and fiuQivQiav I. Xqigtov he means to designate the book it-
self of the Apocalypse, or at any rate the revelation contained in it which
was yet to be written ? LiJcke, who supposes this to be the case (Stud,
und Krit. IX. p. 658), accounts for it by saying, that to the uvayivdoa-
Hmv and the uxovovzeg (v. 3), the act of writing the book was past, and
so John could employ ^laQrvQijoe. Yet the writer of John's Gospel,
even after he had completed his whole work, speaking of himself in the
last clause of it as having performed this labour, calls himself 6 huqzvqwv
he who testifies, thus using the present tense. So, plainly, would the
•writer have done in Rev. 1: 2, had he referred there to the written
Apocalypse which follows in the sequel ; for how could he say, in the
'Very outset of the work, that he had written it? Even if we suppose
the preface to have been last written (as is usually the case), yet it must
not wear that appearance when written ; otherwise it would be no pre-
face to the book. Besides this, John himself, neai- the close of this very
book, speaks of himself as ' o a-/.ovbiv y.ai pJncxiv the things contained
in it,' 22: 8. It would be unnatural, therefore, for the writer to employ
the Aorist in v. 2, in case his meaning were such a one as Lucke ad-
vocates. But the Aorist, in i-eference to his past preaching and teach-
ing, is quite in its proper place here ; for that the Aorist frequently de-
Chap. I. 3. 18
signates actions in the past time that were accustomed to he done, or were
often repeated, is now acknowledged by jvll leading grammarians, and ia
indeed easily established by reference to frequent usage.*
(•\) Blessed is lio who roadotl>, nnd tlipy who hoar, the words of this prophecy,
and keep in mind the things written therein, for the time is near.
The manner of the declaration will at once be understood by advert-
ing simply to the custom in ancient times, when very few private copies
of the Scriptures existed, of reading them in public, and thus making
them known to the mass of the people. 'Yivayivdoay.byv here refers tt) a
])nblic reader ; o\ (ly.ovovTeg to those who listened to him, i. e. to the mass
of the people. Sentiment: * Happy ai'c all who possess a knowledge of
■what is revealed in this prophetical book !' yioyovg, the things said.
T),g 7tQorfi,t(i(('s, of t/iis propheey, where tz/s,' is emphatic, and therefore
equivalent to our demonstrative this; and Trnoq^ijZfiug \s the same as
(i7Tox(().v\l<iv above, for rr,g has an evident reference to it. It is also
equivalent to oaa elds.
Ti^nnvrTf^, keeping in inind, i. e. remembering and pondering upon.
So the Hebrew "i":r, which is often rendered diaztQt'co by the Septua-
gint, c. g. in Gen. 17: 9. 37: 11. Num. 28: 2 ah See Ges. Lex. No. 2.
It is also true, that rz/^tw may mean keep in the sense of observing and
obeying, for such is the case with "ir'i ; but this sense is not altogether
apposite here, inasmuch as the Tinocpr^reia before us consists mainly of
predictions and not of precepts.
'0 yun y.atQog iyyvg,forthetime/i. e. the appropriate and ordained pe-
* Winer (Gramm. § 41,5. b. 1, 4th ed.) seems to deny such a sense of the Ac-
rist in the New Testament, viz. that of marking customarij or often repealed action
in the past time, and manifests an inclination to limit the Aorist in the New Tes-
tament to marking only brief, temporary, and soon completed action. But we
may open the New Testament almost anywhere, and find reason to call such an
opinion in question ; e. g. John 4: 12, i'mE, i. e. .Jacob hubilualhj drunfc and so his
children, and his flocks ; 4: 20, " Our fatiiers TTQoaenvvriaar , loere accvstomed to
icorsltip, or hubiluallij icorslttjiped \n ihts mountain, etc.;" 5:29, oi TTOirjoavTifj
they who hare persevered in doing good ; ib. oi Ss r« (f.aii?.a TTQa^avTtg, they who
hare persevered in doing eril ; G: 3), tSojy.aVj often and fur a long time he gave
them bread ; and so in many cases. Rost (Gramm. § 166. Anm. 4) very forcibly
illustrates this from the classics: "Most critics enjoin upon the citizens not to
steal, etc. . . but if any one transgress, iTrt&saav, they ii-ere accustovird to inflict a
penalty upon him ;' " Socrates iSu^a^f^ icns accustomed to leach his disciples with-
out any reward;" "The Persians f7roA/(a);a«J', vsually made war with readiness
and boldness ;" " Many things iVfOf, Aacc o/ilen happened to men beyond their
expectation." Indeed this principle is generally recognized by all distinguished
grammarians at the present time ; see Kohner, Gramm. II. § 442. And such be-
ing the case, ffutfjrvffjjaiv, in Rev. 1: 2 is altogether in place, as designating the
past habitude of John in publishing or teaching the Gospel.
14 Chap. I. 4.
riod, n3?iT2, is near at hand. In Avhat sense this is to be understood, has
ah-eady been discussed under iv ia'fs.i of v. 1.
SALUTATION AND INTRODUCTION. I. 3—20.
To the seven churches of piocoiisular Asia is the work which the writer has
undertaken inscribed. The iiames of these (1: ll)Js a pledge for the importance
of tlie churches addressed. Whether the cliurches of that day in Asia were limi-
ted-to this number, is a question easily solved; for in Col. 4: 13 the church at Hi-
erapolis is mentioned in connection wltli that at Laodicea, and the former is in the
near neighbourhood of the latter. Colossae, also, was in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Laodicea. All three were on the confines of Phrygia and Lydia, and be-
longed, no doubt, to the circle of proconsular Asia. So, a few years later than
when the Apocalypse was written, we know there were large and flourishing
churches in Tralles where Ignatius lived, and at Magnesia in its near neighbour-
hood, both in Lydia and but a moderate distance from Ephesus. Whether the
Apocalyptist was conversant with these, and with many other churches of Asia
besides those mentioned in the Revelation, cannot be decided by express evidence ;
but the probability surely is, that such a man as John, (whether apostle or other
preacher of the gospel), would not have founded, or formed acquaintance'vrrth,
seven churches only in Asia, wlien the whole region was filled with cities and an
immense population. There must be other reasons, then, why on]y skvcn church-
es are here addressed ; and these will be the subject of discussion in the sequel
when we come to v. IL
Asia is a name to which very different meanings are attached, by different
writers and at different periods of time. It means, (1) The whole eastern Con-
tinent. (2) Hither Asia or Asia Minor, from the Sinus Issiciis and Armenia Mi-
nor to the Aegean Sea. (3) That part of Asia which Attalus III , king of Perga-
mus, gave by testament to the Romans, i. e. Mysia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Lydia,
Caria, Pisidia, and the southern coast, i. e. all the western, south-western, and
southern parts of Asia Minor. (4) In the New Testament, the western coast
from Mysia downwards, with the inland country to a considerable distance back,
comprehending the western part of Phrygia, appears to be named Jisia ; and this
tract constituted procimsula?- Jisia, in the narrow meaning of that appellation.
The last is possibly the meaning in the text. See Usher, Diatribe Da Asia Pro-
consul ari.
To the churches addressed, John gives the usual Christian salutation
so comiuon in the epistles of Paul, and elsewhere :
(4) John, to the seven churches which aie in Asia : Grace be unto you, and
peace, from Him who is, and was, and is to come.
Xagis, favour, benevolence or benejlcence, viz. on the part of God,
who bestows blessings. The sense is optative or precative. Then tl-
Qr^vti = mbc, i. e. peaceful security/ and enjoyment, tranquil happiness ;
and both of these in the full sense, (for such doubtless was the writer's
mind), that is, in a sense which respects things temporal and spiritual.
Only this enlarged meaning can answer the demands of the passage.
Chap. I. 4. 15
u-lno (» Mv y.ai o ijv xui n f())^oittvO';. In the vulgatc text roi; is in-
serted af'tvi- <cto ; but it is su|»i)oi1e{l by no juleqnate autliority, find is
evidently a gloss of some coypist, who sought lor a palpable index of
the Genitive case after the preposition Iktto. The peculiar construction
of the whole clause is manifest at first sight. The words following
(lm'> are all taken together as one indeclinable noun, corresponding to
and expressive of the Hebrew word nin^ , Jehovah, which is indeclina-
ble, i. e. aduiils of no variation of form. AVhatever may have been the
origin of this Hebrew appellation, i. e. whether it be purely of Hebrew
etymology, or, as some have maintained, a foreign word expressive of
suiM'enie Godhead, and adoi)te(l by the Hebrews (with some slight va-
riation which conforms it to the. genius of their language), still it is cer-
tain, that at a very early jieriod nin^ was considered as expressive
of the God ivhlch exists always, and was regarded as connected with the
verb n'^r\ or n'n, to he. vSo in Ex. 3: 14 ; Moses had inquired (v. 13)
'by what name he should announce the God of the Hebrews to his na-
tion,' and he is answered : " n>nx "irx n;;nx, I am that I am . . . tell
them that iT;nx has sent you to them." Here, as Jehovah himself
speaks, he employs t\\Q first person of the future tense of ii"ri instead of
the third, which would be n;;r!'i or (from fT^n = ti^fi ) trin^ . The man-
ner of this address seems therefore to take it for granted, that ir^n or
n^n is the root of the word ninii . Theodoret (Quaest. 15 in Ex.) tes-
tifies that the Samaritans pronounced the name tiin^ as JylBE, i. e. ti,^t)l
yahve, (B being soft, as he read it, like our English V) ; while he says
(ibid.) that the Hebrews called it Jy:fii (Tao). How he came by such
a knowledge of the ovojia drExqcortjTov, uofoaarov, unonntjTov, as he
himself and Eusebius call it, it would be ditricult to say ; but he speaks
confidently, and would seem to know what he affirms. But let the pro-
nunciation be as it may, the word ti'.n'j is indeclinahle ; and John has
imitated this, in the expression before us. 0 oiv, is he who now exists ;
6 ?;»', is he who has existed, the verb itself (in the Praeterite) being here
employed, because there is no form of a partici[)le praeterite which
could be joined with the article ; while o f()-/^6{ieroi; = xsn , means rjui
futurus est, he who is to come or is to be. The Greek verb £//it affords
indeed a future participle, viz. iao^svog ; but then the Hebi'ew verb
T^'^ri has properly none such, and therefore xsn is used in the place of it,
which our text imitates. So, often in the New Testament, where we
find, in order to signify that which is future or that ichich will he, the
word come (t^rj^nixai) employed ; e. g. days to come, world to come, king-
dom of God to come, good and evil to come, wrath to come, etc. etc.
John then wishes that giace and peace from Jehovah, i. e. tlie self-ex-
istent and eternal God, may be given to the churches whom lie addresses.
Evidently his periphrastic designation of the word Jehovah implies thus
16 Chap. I. 4.
much ; nor can there be any good reason to doubt, that in the time
when the Apocalypse was written, it was customary among the Jews to
regard such a meaning as connected with the word njiri . Early Jew-
ish writings confirm this view. Thus Targ. Jon. on Deut. 32: 39, Ego
ille qui est, et qui fuit, et qui erit . . . Annon pater unus ? Et ipse
fuit, et ipse est, et ipse erit. Targ. Hieros. in Ex. 3: 14, Qui fuit, est,
et erit, dixit mundo. More of the same nature from the later Rabbins
may be found in Schoettgenii Hor. Heb. in loc. Even among the hea-
then we find some striking descriptions of the Godhead, which are of
a similar nature. Plutarch (De Is. et Osir. p. 354), speaking of a
temple of Isis at Sais in Egypt, says : " It bore this inscription : 'Eya
£i[xi ndv to yeyovog, aai ov, •aoi ioof/tvov • nai rov ifiov ninXov ovdet'i; nco
'&vijTav (iTTEAcilvxliev. So Orpheus (in auctor. Lib. de Mundo) : Zevg
y.Ecp(i).>'j, Zavg fit'aau, /liog d' In ndvia ■zs'tvatui. Moi'e striking still is
the resemblance in Pausanias (Phocic. 12) : Zevg ijv, Ztvq mii, Zeiig
eaaezai, w fi^'yale Zev !
Striking as this is, however, we are not obliged to suppose, that the Hebrews
borrowed the name Jehovah from the heathen, nor their modes of reasoning in re-
gard to its significance. The thought is natural to a reflecting mind, that an
eternal Being must have existed in time past, tiiat he now exists, and will con-
tinue to exist. No wonder then that r,h~^ , dcr Seycnde (as the Germans say), i. e.
the Blister (if I may so express it), was used as a most significant name of the
eternal and self-existent God. That the Hebrews sometimes formed proper
names from the future tense of a verb, is well known; and in the present case,
if — "ir;' , as Ewald and Hitzig confidently suppose, was the true pronunciation of
the word, all is plain; for this form is a Hiph. Future, and means He who causes
existence. That the vowels which are connected with this name at present, in
the Hebrew Scriptures, are not the original and proper ones, seems to be quite
certain ; for tlie present vowels aie always the appropriate ones to ";'i"ts or C'rVx ;
and in one of these ways, that is by using one of these appellations, the Jews
always read or pronounce the name rrin"'. From time immemorial they have
done so; for the Septaagint version almost always renders m-"» by XvQcoe =^'l^'!{i,
and Philo, Josenhus, Thcodoret, and Eusebius, with the Rabbins, all bear testimo-
ny that the true sound of the name was never uttered, except in the temple;
Bib. Repos. I. p. 739. This gives us a ground why John has adopted the peri-
phrasis in Rev. 1: 4. The direct namemr"' he did not choose to pronounce, even
if he had ever heard it. He was unwilling thus to shock the feelings of his Jew-
ish readers. Tiie name y.vQiog he did not select, in this case, because it fell below
the significancy which he wished to exhibit. Consequently he employed a peri-
phrasis for !-;■-', that was common among his readers, and would be perfectly
understood by them.
The reader who wishes to see properly exposed the attempts of several recent
writers, to show that the name niTT; was borrowed by the Hebrews from some of
the heathen nations, is referred to an Essay of Tholuck on this subject, translated
and printed in the Bib. Repos. IV. p. 89 seq. ; where the author has not only
made out his own position in a triumphant manner, but reduced his opponents to
straits which will alternately excite the indignation and perhaps the contempt of
some readers. That the Hebrews might coin such an expressive name as Jeliovah,
• Chap. I. 5. 17
i3 sufficiently evident from the fact, thrit oflier nations have done thintrs of tlie like
nature ; e. or. the Zend languatre calls God ICuaildtti, i. e. a se datus, or self-exis-
ti'nl; and the Sanscrit e'.iiploys Scdijumdala, i. e. the oriijiiiator of his own exis-
tence. Did the Hebrews know less of God Uian the old Parsces, or the authors
of the antiquated Sanscrit?
(5) And from the seven spirits which are before his throne; and from Jesus
Christ, the faithful witness, the first-born of the dead, and the ruler of the kings
of the earth ; — tQ him who loved us, and washed us from our sins in his blood.
Kca lino tmv tnra TTvavitdTiov . . . i>()Oj'oi' avTov. Three opinions
respecting this passage deserve consideration ; (1) It means God, a
most perfect Spirit. (2) It means the Ifoly Spirit, endowed with a
most perfect natin'e. (3) It means the sevoi archangels, or presence-
angels, who stand near the throne of God, and are (so to speak) prime
ministers in the execution of his will.
(1) God. Eichhorn paraphrases the verse thus : "A Jehova, natura
perfectissima." His basis of argument is, that ' God is called nvsi\ua ;
and then, in reference to the various and different powers or influences
whicli he exerts, he is " sine uUo discrimiue" called m'EVfiata ; Coram,
p. 16 seq. As to the first affirmation, it is true that God is called Tirev-
fiu, John 4: 24 ; but this is only in reference to his pneumatic or imma-
terial nature. The Spirit of God, as the third person in the Trinity,
does not here come into consideration ; inasmuch as Eichhorn's position
is a generic, and not a specific one. — As to the other position, that ' God
is called nrnniurcf. sine ullo discnmine,' 1 know of no passage in the
Bible to justify such an assertion.
His second ground of proof is, that 'the Jews so construed Is. 11: 2
as to make seven spirits out of it, all of which belong to the divine na-
ture.' But there the spirits mentioned are expressly affirmed to belong
to the Messiah. Whence the proof is to come, that the Jews formed
out of this passage the notion that God consists of seven spirits, I know
not. I have searched in vain for it. The oldest evidence of the Cab-
balistic interpretation of the Jews, is generally admitted to be the Zo-
har; certainly Cabbalism rests mainly on this work. Whether this
work is in fact as old as the Mishna, as some have supposed, or even
older, must be regarded as very doubtful, when any one reads the Mish-
na and finds it so full of superstitions and hair-splitting conceits, and
yet partaking little or nothing of the spirit of Cabbalism. As the Zohar
noio is, there are parts of it, beyond all question, of modern date ; see
Nordheirner in Bib. Repos. of 1839. No. IV. p. 14 (for 272). But
conceding the antiquity of the great mass of it, we shall still look to it
in vain for the doctrine which Eichhorn asserts. Schoettgen, deeply
versed in literature of this kind and not a mere gleaner like Eichhorn,
in his Horae Heb. (H. p. 262), has produced four different passages
VOL. II. 8
18 Chap. I. 5.
from the Zohar, all of which assert, that four s])irits belong to the MeS'
siah (not to God), founding this opinion on Is. 11: 2, where the word
Ji^"! , spirit, occurs only four times. Again, a solitaiy passage he pro-
duces from the same wofk, which ascribes seveyi spirits to the Messiah.
But how all this can prove that the Jews of John's time were accus-
tomed to ascribe seven spirits to God, one cannot well see. Beyond all
reasonable question, the Zohar and all the Cabbalistic books are much
later than the Apocalypse ; and there is cei'tainly no evidence in this
latter book of speculations resembling those of the Cabbalists. There
is nothing which at first view seems apparently to be of this nature, that
cannot be accounted for on a different ground. And of the same opin-
ion is Ewald, Comm. p. 90.
Should the appeal be made here (as it has often been), to the Cab-
balistic doctrine of the Sephiroth (m'l'^Sp), i. e. the personification of
the divine attributes, this will answer no purpose on the present occa-
sion ; for the Sephiroth were not seven but ten ; all of which stand on
the ground of equality in respect to ranh, although not exactly so as to
order. The fiction of the Sephiroth is briefly this. To the divine Be-
ing, simply considered, the generic appellation Cjio I'^it , without end, i. e.
the Infinite One, is given. Then to him are ascribed parts or attributes,
which are arranged so as to make out a kind of figure or form like to
that of a man. First comes "ir3 , crown, representing the head ; then
ln723n wisdom and n3">3 intelligence, the two eyes ; then nbilj great-
ness and iTn^na might, i. e. the shoulders and arms ; then rnxsri or-
nament, girdle magnificently adorned ; then nua splendour and lin
majesty, i. e. the loins bedecked with glittering weapons ; then l^'O'}
foundation, i. e. feet, and n^isb'^ kingdom, which is the footstool, i. e.
under his feet or subject to him. Such are the Sephiroth ; but that all
this is entirely remote from the passage vmder consideration, is plain
enough. Compare Note in Dr. Laurence's Book of Enoch, p. 44,
edit. 2.
By what then are we to be persuaded, that John meant to describe
the Godhead here, when he employed the phrase seven angels before
his throne 1 The very nature of the case decides against such a sup-
position ; for how would the text then run ? In substance thus : Grace
and peace . . .from God, and from God. I will not say that repetition
of a nature somewhat similar to this never occurs ; but I would say,
that I know of no instance hke to this in all the salutations of the New
Testament. It would be incongruous. But if this is not enough, then
we may at least be permitted to ask one question more : What means
the adjunct clause — which are before his throne ? Are God's attributes,
then, not in himself, but standing before his throne ? If there is any-
thing in all the Zohar that exceeds the incongruity of such a supposi-
Cn.vr. I. 5. 19
tion, let it be produced. And this iidjunct clauj^e seems to make a final
decision of this question. The sei'm sjnrifs arc at least something di-
verse tropi n mv y.(u o r^r y.ui n fnyoj(H>ng.
It is a matter of some surjirise, therefore, to find a writer so sharp-
sighted and independent of masters as Ewald, leaning here, as he docs,
to the views of P^ichhorn. IMore still, to find him laying down the like
positions about the early views of the Jews, in regard to God as a
Spirifiis srpfiformis, (to which Liickc also assents Einl. p. 38G), with-
out a single appeal to testimony in order to establish it ; excepting that
lie refers us to the seven eyes of Jehovah which run to and fro through
the whole earth, Zech. 3: 9. 4: 10. But this is entirely of a different
nature ; the seven eyes are obviously a designation of the navn\iHa of
Jehovah, and the running to and fro through the whole earth designates
his universal inspection. So in the Apocalypse (5: 6), the Lamb has
seven eyes and seven horns, emblematic "of the seven spirits of God
which he sends forth into all the earth ; which representation, although
it has for its ba.<is the passage in Zechariah, is still employed in a man-
ner specifically different. So also the heast has seven heads. Rev. 13: 1 ;
and in a like way seven is employed often in the Apocalypse, and (I
may add) throughout the Scriptures. But in all these cases the seven
eyes, or heads, or horns, belong to the individual being who is named in
connection with them ; they do not stand before his throne. More to
Ewald's purpose would have been an appeal to Prov. 8: 30, where
eternal Wisdom is personified, and represented as '"V:ss , near to him,
i. e. to Jehovah, and always rejoicing before him. But here, again,
simply participation and aid in the counsels and doings of Jehovah are
designated by the phraseology in question. Less than what is said
could not be said, if the personification is to be carried through. In the
case before us, if the writer had meant to designate Jehovah as pos-
sessing seven spirits, i. e. attributes, it is obvious he would have said,
even from Him who hath the seven spirits, i. e. possesses all perfect
spiritual attributes ; in which case, too, the dno must have been left
out, for this discriminates and marks separate objects. We may dis-
miss this exegesis then with the conviction, that it is incongruous and
altogether unsupported.
(2) The Holt Spirit. This interpretation is defended by Vitringa
and many others. It has at least a better claim than the j)receding
one, inasmuch as it would free the passage from tautology, and would
signify that all the persons of the Godhead are addressed in the pious
supjilication or desire of the writer; and thus it would fully harmonize
with 2 Cor. 13: 14. To confirm this view Vitringa appeals to Rev. 4:
5, where the seven spirits of God are said to be seven lamps biirninr/ be-
fore his tlirone. ' These,' says he (Comm. p. 15), 'must be something
0
20 Chap. I. 5.
in Deo not extra Deum, for they are that which enables him to see.'
Hence he concludes, that they must be the Spirit of God; and by
analogy the same thing may be said of the seven spirits in Rev. 1: 5.
But in regard to the seven lamps, they are said to be burning before the
throne of God, not within him ; directly contrary to the assumption of
Vitringa, and showing plainly that the seven spirits are called seven
lamps, because they are all-splendid and glorious, like the o'^S'ib in Is.
6: 1, and like the living creatures (min) in Ezek. 1: 13, who are ex-
pressly said to be like lamps. — Vitringa further appeals to Is. 11: 2,
where seven spirits are ascribed to Christ ; but the appeal is inapposite,
because there he is represented as possessing them, and they are not
said, as here, to stand before his throne. Last of all he employs the a
priori argument : 'Is it probable, that John would have omitted the
Holy Spirit and inserted only angels, in such a passage as this ?' But
what if we should ask : Is it probable that in all the benedictions of
Paul, or of the New Testament, the Holy Spirit should be included
only once ? What answer must be given we know, for we find the
Holy Spirit mentioned in such a connection but once. In a great ma-
jority of the cases, only the Saviour is included in the benedictions.
How then can a matter of this nature be decided by an argument a
priori ?
Moreover, may we not well ask : Did it comport with John's views
of the nature of the Holy Spirit, to represent him as subordinate, and
as standing before the throne of God in the attitude of waiting for his
commands ? There is nothing of this in the Bible. We do, indeed,
often read of God's sending his Spirit ; and also of his sending his Son ;
but never, of either as placed simply in the attitude of his ministering
servants. Christ, after his incarnation, might well be I'epresented as be-
ing sent ; but the Logos and the Holy Spirit, considered simply as divine,
i. e. as belonging to the Godhead, cannot, without degradation, be repi'e-
sented as in the waiting attitude of servants.
We come then from the necessity of the case to a third meaning,
viz. that of ATTENDING Or MINISTEKING PRESENCE-ANGELS.
Among the ancient fathers not a few embraced this view ; such as
Clemens Alex., Andreas of Cesarea, and others. So among the mod-
erns, Valla, Beza, Drusius, Hammond, and many others. It was not
an opinion, then, hitroduced merely by adherents to the Romish custom
of making intercession to the angels. AVe shall see in the sequel, that
it does by no means lead to the establishment of such a doctrine re-
specting intercession. That presence-angels are here designated, is the
interpretation which I adopt ; and this for reasons which may be briefly
stated.
(rt) The nature of the whole expression, as has already been indica-
^A
Chap. I. 5. Ulr
ted, favours this view. The seven spirits before his throne^ naturnlly
means those who stand in his presence, waiting his commands in the
attitude of ministering servants ; see and compare Rev. 4: 5. 7: 9, 15.
8: 2. 11: 4, 10. 12: 10. 14: 3. 20: 12, which passages, aUhough not all
of tlie same tenor with the text before us, still decide that those who are
before the throne are diHferent from those on the throne.
(h) Several jiassages in the Revelation go directly to confirm the
opinion in question. !•>. g. Apoc. 8: 2, "■ I saw t o i' s' snru uyytXovg,
who stand before God." This is the first mention of these seven an-
gels, which occurs after the introduction to the book. The article rovg
of course designates here tlic well-kiuncn seven angels, i. e. archangels
or presence-angels, which the reader was exjiected readily to recognize.
Such a meaning is unavoidable, under such circumstances. — Here also,
I cannot doubt, is to be ranked the passage in Rev. 4: 5, where the se-
ven lamps burning before the throne, are said to be t« snra nvtvuara
70V xhnv, i. e. fhe seven spirits.
If the question be raised, as it has been, ' whether 7zvevf.taTa can be
applied to angels', the answer is not difficult. Any lexicon or concor-
dance of the New Testament will satisfy the reader at once, that nvev-
fiu and 7Tnvf(HTa, usually with some adjective or participle qualifying
them, but sometimes without, are very often employed to designate the
devil and his angels. That good angels may be designated by nvev^a-
T«, is certain from Ileb. 1: 14. So in Rev. 3: 1. 4: 5. 5: 6, where, if
any one should suppose that the word jirtvftura designates the attributes
of Christ, he may see that this is quite improbable ; for in Rev. 3: 1,
fjftoi' r« iTZTU TTi'tvfiaTU Tov &S0V is joined with y.ui tov<; Ima daztQUi;,
i. e. the seven churches, and thus it is manifest that tj^av is here em-
ployed, not in the sense of possessing as an attribute, but of having or
holding the disposal of that which is named as the object following this
participle. So in Rev. 4: 5, ' the seven nvevftaza are the seven lamps
(i. e. resplendent or glorious beings), which statid before the throne of
God f and so in Rev. 5: 6, ' the seven spirits are sent forth into all the
earth.^ That Jewish usage permitted good angels to be called TTrevfiaza,
is plain moreover from Josephus, who says : ayytXog . . . O^tlov nrei'fiu,
Antiq. IV. 6. 3.
All the passages just cited from the Apocalypse serve to show, that
THE SEVEN ANGELS was a famiUar idea with the writer. And that, in
this respect, he only followed the common nsus loquendi of his time,
may be satisfactorily shown. Thus the book of Tobit, one of the ear-
liest, most simple, and attractive, of all the apocryphal books (12: 15),
introduces Raphael as saying: " I am . . . one of the seven angels . . ,
who enter into the presence of the glory of the Holy One." The
Book of Enoch (ch. xx.) gives the seven names of the angels who
22 Chap. I. 5.
watch, i. e. of the I'^'i'^S , the watchers or the holy presence-angels, so
called because they stand in the attitude of watchers or waiting for the
divine commands, or perhaps because they perfonn the part of guar-
dian angels (comp. Matt. 18: 10). The designation is evidently taken
from Dan. 4: 10, 14, 20. (Eng. vers. 13, 17, 23.) This same word,
watchers, is familiarly employed in the Syriac liturgies for guardian-
angels, or archangels ( l *i «S ). So in the Book of Enoch, in the
Greek translation given by Syncellus, (Laurence, p. 187), angels both
good and bad are called 'EyQ^yoQoi, watchers ; see also Enoch, chap.
XX. as quoted above. Nor is this idea of seven archangels confined
merely to the Hebrews. We find seven Amshaspends, or archangels, in
the theosophy of Zoroaster ; see Kleuker's Zendavesta, I. Th. II. p.
189, where their seven names are given in the Zend language. All this
evidence of general usage from books antecedent to the Apocalypse, or
nearly contemporary with it, helps to confirm the idea, that John spoke
in accordance with such usage.
It may be proper moreover to remark, that whatever the number of
archangels or presence-angels may have actually been, conformity to
plan of the book throughout would lead the author here to mention
only seven. The churches addressed are but seven ; and the idea of
the writer seems plainly to be, that each church had its appropriate
guardian angel. Of course seven angels ai'e the requisite number.
That blessings may be conveyed to the churches whom he salutes, by
these guardian angels, the " ministering spirits who are sent forth to
minister unto the heirs of salvation" (Heb. 1: 14), the wi'iter expresses,
in our text, his fervent wish.
If now it be said, that ' such an interpretation leads to angel-worship,
or at least to the invocation of angels ;' the answer is, that the Apoca-
lyptist has expressly, and perhaps purposely, guarded us against such a
practice in Rev. 19: 10. 22: 9, " See thou do it not !" Or if it should
be said, that ' there is no analogy and no example elsewhere of such an
invocation as that before us, in case the text should be thus explained ;'
it would be Avell for the objector to consult 1 Tim. 5: 21, "I chai'ge
thee before God, and Jesus Christ, and the elect angels" How comes
Paul to class these angels with God and Jesus Christ ? Plainly be-
cause, considered as presence-angels, they, together with God and
Christ, constitute (so to speak) the supreme court of heaven, or that
awful judicatory which will take cognizance of all the actions of men.
Here now the Holy Spirit is either omitted by Paul, or else impliedly
comprised in the word God ; and the elect angels are appealed to as
witnesses of the solemn charge which Paul is about to give. And why ?
Because, as they are " ministering spirits," they watch over and report
Chap. I. 5. M
all which is done by the professed disciples of Christ. Comp. also Rev.
3: 0. ]Mark 8: o8. Luke 0: 2G. 12: 8, where a similar idea is found.
Li a light somewhat dillerent, indeed, the Apocalyptist presents thera,
viz., as the dispensers of divine blessings to the churches. But this is
altogether a scriptural idea. What he says then is this, viz., It is his
fervent desire that the blessings of grace and peace may be bestowed
on the seven churches of Asia — blessings which Jehovah dispenses,
by his presence-angels, and by the Mediator the Lord Jesus Clirist.
The definite and specific part which each is to perform iu this dispensa-
tion of blessings, the writer does not designate ; nor was it to his pur-
pose so to do. Enough that tliis was already understood by his read-
el's ; and surely he addressed thorn as if he supposed them to be ac-
quainted with the subject in general. In fact, an act of direct homage
or worship is not necessarily involved in such wislies as the Apoca-
lyptist here expresses. They amount simply to this, viz., that he fer-
vently hopes for and desires the bestowment of important blessings on
the seven churches of Asia, on the part of those superior guardians of
the churches who are primarily and principally concerned with the be-
stowment of them. If one should say to an ambassador, appointed to
a foreign court : " I heartily wish you a favourable reception from the
King and his Counsellors," this would not assert, nor even imply, an
equality between the two parties named. Neither does the inclusion
of guardian angels in the \vish which accompanies the salutation of the
author before us, imply that he makes them equal to God and Christ,
or the proper object of religious worship.
For a more extended view of the angelology of the Scriptures, and
of the Apocalypse where angels act so conspicuous a part, I must refer
the reader to Excursus I. at the close of this work ; and in respect to
the use of the number seven, in this case, I must refer him to Excursus
n, where he will find the symbolical use of numbers somewhat fully
discussed.
'Jiiaov, the Saviour, rrj^ , contracted from rsnr'iir;' = Jehovah will
save. Xgiarov, the anointed One = n'^«''a , Unctus, referring to the
ceremony of consecration to the office of king or priest by anointing.
In the New Testament it refers, as it would seem, specially to the
otfice of king or y.vnio^ ; in accordance with the usage in Ps. 2: 2, G. It
is this office or dignity, which is the predominant theme of the INIessian-
ic Psalms, e. g.^ Ps. ii. viii. xlv. ex. etc. Also of Dan. 7: 13, 14, and
many otlier passages. Here Xqiotov stands connected with nn()}Tnzoy.og
and iiQ/bn', both indicative of snprewacg, i. e. the Saviour, the Anointed
One, means the lawfully constituted su])reme Lord and King.
'O iiunrvg 6 niOTO',', the faithful tvitness, i. e. one on whose testimony
entire reliance may be placed. IIiaTog, faifhfid, worthy of credit, to he
24 Chap. L 5.
confided in. Mdnrv^, not marfyr in the modern sense, although in fact
Christ might be called a martyr to the truth, but here, in reference to
V. 2. (/rtnrt's," means one who (fives testimony, one who declares or makes
disclosures ; see on ffi((QTVQt;ae under v. 2. "^AHiat the writer means is,
that Jesus Christ, who discloses or testifies the things contained in the
Eevelation which follows, is worthy of all credit. Ewald applies TiiOTog
specially to the keeping of the promises made in the Apocalypse ; but
this is surely a singular mode of construing ttigto^ here, for it plainly
qualities uanrv^, and uaoTi\^ means one who declares or discloses. For
what other purpose can .T^rro,,' be designed, except to signify that what
the witness declares is worthy of credit or confidence ?
Inasmuch as o ftdgrvg 6 niarog is here in apposition with /. Xqig-
TOi, Ave might expect the Genitive instead of the Nominative case. Eich-
horn says that the present construction is contra linguae Graecae ana-
logiam ; but that it is by no means unfi-equent. may be seen bt consulting
YoL I. § 15. 1. N. Test. Gi^amm. § 97. 5. Bernhardy's S^Titax. p. 68
seq. See also Kiihner s Gnmim. § 508. 2. Eichhorn in order to rec-
tify the writer's Greek, proposes Os ianv 6 uunn;: iusead of the pre-
sent text ; which at least is unnecessary.
O TTQcoTOToxo^ ToSr rsxQtor. The v^il^jite text has ix here ; but with-
out due authority of Mss. It is indeed a more facile reading, and is ex-
hibited by Paul in Col. 1: 18, fTQcoTozn-AO'^ ix rcov nxQcor. The only
question of dithculty is. whether the writer means to say. that of all who
had died Christ is the most distingwised, i. e. the leader or chief; or
whether he means to say, that he is first and preeminent among all who
are raised, or are to be raised, from the dead, or, in other words, that he
takes the lead in the resurrection and precedes all others in point of
rank. The mere form of the expression would favour the former sense ;
and for such a use of jtoiototoxo^ one might compai'e Eom. 8: 29, and
also Heb. 12: 23 where it is applied to the preeminence of the church in
general. For the latter meaning we may appeal to Col. 1: 18. and to
the usage of (cyuaTuait in connection with yexncoy as a (ren. following
it. Thus we have uyuGTuais' fx r^xocoy in Luke 20: 35. Acts 4: 2. 17:
31 ; but dyuGTaai^ rexocoy in Matt. 22: 31. Acts 17: 32. 24: 21. 26: 23.
Bom. 1: 4. 1 Cor. 15: 12, 13, 21, 42. Heb. 6: 2 ; and both formulas are
used substantially in the same sense. Indeed there can scarcely be any
doubt, that the writer has here in view an exhibition of Christ as a risen
and living Saviour, who has already led the way in that glorious resur-
rection on which the sequel of the book so much insists. Compare the
like shade of thought in Rev. 2: 8, Os iyiviro rrxoo^, xai tD/rrf. So
Paul 1 Cor. 15: 20, •• Xow is Christ risen from the dead, and become
t«.7«o//; Tcor xfxoiui;uiycoy." 'Arxun/^i'i is employed by Paul in the same
sense as 7tQ(iat6zoxo<i by John ; with the exception, that there is in nQoa-
^ ^ Chap. I. 6. 25
TOToxos' a metaphorical meaning which refers to birth, i. e. to sach a re-
Ptoration of life a^* may be compared with a hirth. So in Rev. 20: 4, 5,
also in 2: 8, tt'tM is rei>eatedly applied to revivtscence. John then means
.*o say, that Christ is the first of all the dead, on whom a resurrection-
life (sit venia I) had been l>estowed, and that among all sueh he holds
and will hold the preeminence ; just as primogeniture among the Hel»rew8
designated, at the same time, priority of birth and priority of privilege.
And if any one should object, that the Old Testament Scripture and the
New present us with several cases of resurrection antecedent to that of
Christ, this objection would be of no validity ; for in those ca^es individ-
uals were raised only to another natural terrestrial life, and they must
again be subject to death ; whereas death had no more dominion over
the risen Saviour . . . ' for in that he lived, he lived unto God,' Kora, 6:
(♦, 10. So he was in fact drraoyrj roiv xexoiuriunoyv, and nnonoto'Aog
rexQuir, the first who enjoyed the privilege of a resurrection to eternal
glory, and at the same time was invested »vith all the rights of primoge-
niture, i. e. was constituted leader, uQ/(ar, of all who would thus be
i-aised from the dead.
0 do/ior zbiv ^uadt'biv ti,^ yr^^;. Here uq/ojp designates the head,
leader, the first in rank, or him who rules over other kings that have a name
like his own, but not power like hLs; corap. Rev. 17: 14. 19: 16, ^aat).-
(v^ {iu<j().t'(av xai xvnto.; y.vrn'ojv ; also Ps. ii. xlv. ex. Is. 9: 6, 7. Eph.
1: 22. 4: LO. PhiL 2: 9—11. Col. 1: 1.0—18. Heb. 1: 2, 3. In our
text the kings of the earth are named, because a contest with them is
disclosed in the sequel of the book, and the victory and supremacy over
them are exhibited.
Such are the predicates of the Saviour, whose victories are the theme
of the book. The mention of such qualities naturally calls forth a dox-
ology directed to the glorious personage who possesses them.
(6) To him who loveth us, and has washed us from our sins in his own blood,
and made us a kingdom [i. e. kings], priests unto God even his Father — to him
be glory and dominion forever and ever. Amen I
The division of verses in the vulgate text is palpably wrong here.
Verse G should begin as I have marked it ; for so the sense clearly indi-
cates.— \-iyu7ibnTi, pres. Part., instead of dyunrinum in the vulgate text,
which is without good authority, and does not give so full and emphatic
a sense as dyanwvri.
yJoi'GavTi, in several Codd., and in some of high authority, (also in the
'^ynuc yer-i'ion), h resA Kvouvzi, freed, redeemed. The sense is good;
but the present reading, )j)vaarTi, (from ).ovco to trash, purify, cleanse),
is more vivid here, and more in conformity with the Hebrew idiom.
Thus in Ps. 51: 4, ■'S^ra "?OS3, tocuh me, i. e. cleanse me, from mine ini-»
VOL. II. 4
26 Chap. I. fi.
quity. So Ps. 51: 9, and to the same purpose Heb. 10: 22, ioQUVtia-
[it'roi .... dno ovvtid/jaecog novtjQcig, purijied from an evil conscience.
The primary and literal meaning of Xovauvti, I have retained in the ver-
sion, in order to present the exact image of the original. Hie usual
Jewish rite of purification by blood, however, was performed by sprink-
llny, not by bathing in it. The writer employs lovauvTi. to designate
the abundant or ample purification made by the blood of Christ. As to
the efficacy of this blood to purify from sin, comp. the more literal ex-
pression in 1 John 1: 7. Heb. 9: 14. 1 Pet. 1: 18, 19, and uTTtlomuoOs
in 1 Cor. 6: 11. See also Rev. 5: 9. Eph. 1: 7. Col. 1: 14, et al. All
the ancient sacrifices, offered in accordance with the Levitical rites, could
avail no more than to remove external and ceremonial impurity, and
procure temporal pardon. The blood of Christ accomplishes that which
they i)refigured ; see and comp. Heb. 9: G — 10: 14.
!/^77o tdjv a^iunrmv, ft'om the impurity, turpitude of sin, and so (by
consequence) from its penalty. Thus in Matt. 1: 21, " Thou shalt call
his name Jesus, for he shall save his people dno rav uiiUQTibiv dvzav,"
1. e. from the power and penalty of tlieir sins. That the blood of Christ
shed upon the cross has a purifying and redeeming efficacy — is a truth
which constitutes the very essence and peculiarity of Christianity, in dis-
tinction from doctrines taught by other religions ; many of which doctrines,
specially respecting moral and social duties, are substantially like to those
of a similar nature in the gospel. That which makes Christianity what it
is — a peculiar religion — finds its nucleus in the truth here developed.
Kai t7ioii](rsv . . . ^aailsiav, kin ff ship, i. e. kings, the abstract being put
for the concrete, as in a multitude of cases elsewhere in the Scriptures.
In respect to the grammatical construction of the clause, it is evident
that noii]aavn — like dyunwvTi and ).ovaavri — would be the normal form.
But participles in Hebrew and Greek often commence a sentence, which
is continued by a verh in a succeeding clause. This is a species of the
oratio variata ; N. Test. Gramm. §196. Heb. Gramni. § 5G4. In the
later Hebi'ew this construction abounds peculiarly, e. g. in the book of
Daniel ; and so also in the later Greek. — BuGilsiav has been introduced
instead of the vulgate ^uctXek', into the critical editions of the New
Testament, and is supported by such a weight of external testimony,
that it is difficult to decline the admittance of it. Still in Rev. 5: 10, we
find without contradiction or variation, y.(u tTZOi'ijaug uvzovg zco {yeco rjfi-
cov ^aatleh' x«« lEQEtg, giving the same sense in more (acile Greek. But
as an offset to this, one may appeal to Ex. 19: 6, where God says re-
specting the Hebrews : " Ye shall be unto me d"':0.3 "^^r"? j « kingdom
of priests'' ; Avhich the Septuagint have rendered ^aoD.tinr iwdrti'iia, a
royal priesthood, and so also Peter, in 1 Pet. 2: 9. This version is de-
fended by Storr (N. Apol. p. 414), and some others ; and although
CiiAP. I. G. 27^
EwaKl (in loo.) denies the correctness of such a version, it may ha de-
iVndod by the idiom of the Hebrew, which not unl'reiiiKMitly employs the
first of two nouns ia«the construct state as an adjective, as well as the
L\tter of them (which is most common), Ileb. Gramm. § 440. h. If the
present critical rcadinix, p'«(Tf/.^m*', itntii,', is correct, then has John j^ivon
a liti'ral translation of the Hebrew words in Ex. I'J: G, construing each
word as grammatically independent of the other, or at least not regard-
ing them as in the construct state. In such a case Uoeig is to be consid-
ered as epexegetical ; and the sense of the passage then would be :
' He has constituted us a kingly order, the members of which are all
like priests, i. e. holy and consecrated to the service of God, and in pos-
session of an elevated dignity.' The sense indeed must be substantially
the same, whether the vulgate or the critical reading be adopted. The
writer means to say, that those who are loved by the Saviour, and have
been cleansed by his blood, have been elevated to a high and holy state,
like that of kings and priests. That the language is tropical, needs
scarcely to be suggested ; for if all Christians are actually kings, who
then are their sitb/'ects f And if all are actually priests, where and for
whom do they perform huM-atic rites ? As the literal sense, then, is out
of all question, the figurative one becomes a matter of necessity ; and
such a sense is the one which has already been suggested. If a distinc-
tion is to be made between the words h'/if/s and priests, in passages of
this nature, (and it is not difficult to make one), then we must regard
liiiffs as designating the high elevation of Christians, and also the abun-
<lance and honours (in a spiritual sense) bestowed upon them ; while
the appellation priests designates their peculiar consecration to God and
their holiness of character, and also implies a claim of veneration as
due to them. All this is plain to any one, who duly considei-s the na-
ture of the terms employed and the writer's design in selecting them.
Other parts of the Scriptures, also, affbrd abundant evidence of such a
ustts loquendi among the Jews. Let the reader carefully compare Is. 61:
G. 1 Pet. 2: o. Rev. 5: 10. 20: 6, as to UnhTg. Then as to (imiltig,
comp. Ps. 49: 14, " The upright shall have dominion." Dan. 7: 22, 27.
^latt, 19: 28. Luke 22: 29, 30. 1 Cor. 6: 2, 3. 2 Tim. 2: 12. Rev. 2:
2G, 27. 3: 21. Literal we may suppose such phrases to be, only v,rhen
we come to the conclusion, that all the language employed by the Scrip-
tures respecting God and heaven, must be literally interpi'eted. And
if the writer in the present case meant, as he doubtless did, to express
himself sti*ongly respecting the honour, dignity, and j)rivileges of saintvS,
wliat more appropriate language could he employ, than that which he
lijus selected ? Kings merely would not mean enough. Elevation, dig-
nity, |)Ower, splendour, and abundance, might indeed be included in this
idea; but to add priests, in order to designate holiness of character and
28 Chap. I. 6.
consecration to God, seemed to be necessary here, in order fully to meet
the writer's wishes, and the nature of the case. See a ditfcrent but
kindred method of making out a like representation, in Rom. 8: 16, 17.
John 1: 12. 1 John 3: 1.
Toi x9-£fj) y.cu TzariH avzov, [priests] to God even his Father means,
that they were consecrated or devoted to him, and employed in his ser-
vice ; a wide distinction thei'efore existed between them and the so-
called priests of the heathen world, and even between them and ritual
Levitical priests.
AvTc^ ?; 86^a /Uti to 'AQUTog, where the article stands before each
noun ; appropriately as it respects the Greek idiom, but it is not customa-
ry in English. The article in such a case denotes, that the glory and the
praise or dominion, which are appropriate to such a Saviour as he had
described, should be ascribed to him. That uvzm refere to dyanMvti
iand Xovoavti, to him who loves and has cleansed sinners, is certain from
the construction of the sentence ; for on any other ground of construc-
tion the whole of the first part of the sentence would be without any ap-
propriate sense, and the Dative case would stand without anything re-
lated to it, or to be attributed to the person designated by it. Avtc^
merely resumes the dyaTZcom and Xovaavri, which had been suspended
by the intermediate clause. — /Jo^a, in classical Greek, usually means
opinion, sentiment, expectation, supposition, etc. ; but sometimes it is
employed in the sense of existimatio, i. e. estimation, fame, honour, repu-
tation or respect. Kindred to this last class of meanings is the word
86'^a in New Testament doxologies. To him be 6'oi« means, to him let
the church render honour or respect ; for this is giving glory to God, as
we usually express it.-— A'()«zo? Ewald renders praise, and refers us to
the Hebrew Ti'l "Ti^S, on which he remarks, that i'J (strength) often
means the praise which results from the exercise of strength in the way
of defence, etc. So many lexicons and critics also say. But it is at
least needless here. When the writer had just said of the Lord Jesus,
that he is the first horn of the dead, and the prince of the Icings of the
earth, is it not appropriate to attribute 'AQarog to him here ? In the la-
ter Greek, superior command, lordship, dominion, regal authority, is of-
ten designated by y.Qazog ; and why not retain its usual and appropriate
meaning here ?
Elg Tovg alojvag zwv aiMvav, to ages of ages, i. e. forever and ever,
as we are wont to express the idea of a never ending period. The
Greek is a mere copy of the Hebrew D"ir)Vi:s> ^"^hvJ ; and this, according
to Hebrew usage, is the strongest expression which the language can
employ, in order to designate an endless period of time ; for it has
a superlative intensity, similar to that of servant of servants, i. e. most
abject or degraded servant, and the like. The classic writers do not
•_ CiiAP. 1. 7. 29
employ this phraseology for such a purpose ; the Greek here is He-
braistic.
Here then is a cloxology or ascription of honour and dominion to the
Saviour, through endless ages. And this, sanctioned by a solemn ufii]v.
In what light must John have viewed the Saviour, in order to make
such an ascription to him? If it be said that John has so done through
mistake, and because his feelings were overjjowered by the splendour of
the vision in which the Saviour appears ; then why is he not cor-
rected here, as he is in Rev. 19: 10. 22: 9, when about to direct his
homage amiss ? Instead of this, we find him, in this book, often repeat-
ing the same ascriptions of praise to the Lord .Jesus as are rendered to
Grod the Father ; and this even Eichhorn and Ewald confess. Plainly
nothing less than spiritual homage is paid to the Redeemer here — a
homage which the writer prays may be forever continued.
(7) Behold, lie coinelh in the clouds, and every e3'e shall sec him, and tiiey
who pierced him, and all the tribes of the land shall wail because of him ; yen,
amen.
'Jdov, hke the Hebrew riin , ecce, calls the special attention of the
reader or hearer to what is said in the sequel. — "EQ/srai, he is coming,
as we also say, in English, respecting an event yet future, specially
when that event is nigh at hand. That such was the case in the present
instance, is manifest from h T«/ff, and xaiQng f'/yv^', in vs. 1 and 3.
Meza T(3v rE(f)e).(ov means, accompanied or surrounded by the clouds,
for iitrd (with) frequently indicates the relation of a thing in the
midst of other things which accompany or surround it. The idea here
is, that he will come seated on a cloud as his throne or chariot, or at
least in a cloud moving or conveying these. 8o God is said to be sur-
rounded, in Ps. 18: 11. The clouds are his chariot, Ps. 104: 3. Comp.
also Ex. 19: 16. 40: 34. Is. G: 4. 19: 1. Ezek. 1: 4. The object of
this figurative language, is to show that Christ will come in a majestic
and awful manner, as enthroned upon a cloud fraught with thunder,
lightning, and tempest, and thus will execute vengeance upon his ene-
mies. The same idea is exhibited in Matt. 24: 30, with which comp.
Nah. 1: 3. The passage in Acts 1: 9 is of a different tenor.
//«,• orpl}(diws% every eye, i. e. every person, every individual; where
synecdoche (a part taken for the whole) is employed. This usage is too
common to need any explanation. — "Owszai, Mid. Fut., wliich tense is
common in a great portion of the usual irregular verbs, and is thus em-
ployed in the simple active sense. The old root of the present verb
was DTTTO), which is out of use ; OTrrdvo) is occasionally found, from which
oipnuiu may be formed. That the lexicons should range this word un-
der onuo), would seem strange, were we not habituated to such inoon-
30 Chap. I. 7.
gruities. The sentiment, that every eye shall see hinij is evidently in-
tended to be preparatory for that which is said in the sequel : x«f y.o\pov-
rai X. T. X. If the reader will turn to the words of the vSaviour in
Matt. 24: 30, he will perceive that the verse before us is throughout only
a I'eijetition of what is there said, with some small variations appropriate
to the time Avhen the Apocalypse was written.
It may be proper here, in order to show how common the idea of the
Son of man as coming in the clouds of heaven was among the Jews of
early times, to note, that one appellation bestowed on him was ''335, q- d.
cloud-comer ; and also ibss "i3 , (= f fot,- vtCftXrj'i ?) which, when applied
to the Son of man, must mean his sudden and unexpected coming or de-
scent from the clouds; comp. Matt. 16: 1. This language doubtless
took its rise from Dan. 7: 13. See Bengel Archiv, VIII. p. 24 ; also
Ewald in loc.
Kai oiiirtg avTor i^Extrrtjoav, is quoted from Zech. 12: 10, as is also
a part of the preceding and of the following words ; which is evident
from comparison : l''^^" ^llSDl ^';j|^'i-"irN nx iiLJ-^atil . By the phrase be-
fore us, those are particularized, among the mass that shall see with
dread the tokens of an approacliing avenger, who were specially con-
cerned with the crucifixion of the Lord of glory. ^E'ityJvzrjoav (from
fy.y.£pzi'(xi) may of course signify putting to death or destroying in any
manner ; for it may be used generically, just as slaying with the sword
is. But the verb is peculiarly appropriate to the designation of ]>iercing
with a spear, or with any sharp weapon, and is often used for this pur-
pose. Those who are not inclined to admit of any specific Messianic
views in the Old Testament, construe it tropically in Zech. 1 2: 10, and
apply it oidy to Jehovah. But that the writer of the book before us in-
terpreted it as. a specific Messianic prediction, is plain enough to every
unprejudiced eye. More still may be said. John is the only Evangel-
ist who has given us an account of piercing Jesus' side with a spear, as
he hung upon the cross, John 19: 34. In the context there (v. 37) he
expressly refers to the passage in Zech. 12: 10 as pi'edicting this ; and
there he translates ^^p'n by iSey.ivr>jaav, just as in the present case.
Yet the Septuagint version renders the passage : ii»^Xsipovzai noog fis
dp&' COP xa7(x)Q)^j'jGavTo, i. e. they shall look to me because they have
insulted me. And although Aquila, Symm., and Theodotion, render
ii^pl by itr/JviVjaav, yet their versions, as is probable, were not extant
in the time of the Apocalyptist. John then must have translated the
Hebrew original, in this case, for himself. And here it should be noted,
that in both cases, viz. in the Gospel and in the Apocalypse, the version
is exactly the same, as to all the important words. This looks like the
same hand in both. Ewald, to avoid the force of this appeal, suggests,
that formerly the Septuagint copies may have read i^ey.tvrrjaav, which
CirAr. I. 7. 31
■w.is displaced by Origen, or some other cmcndntor. If this be a lawful
escape from the force of the appeal, then there is no case %vhere a man
can be bound by appeal to the Septuafjint text; for he may always say:
' Onre it contained a ditVerent rcadin-;.' This is cerUnu]y possible ; but
yet, until some evidence for a chanjie is ])roduced, we must abide by the
text as it is. His suggestion, that two diiferent writers might easily
have hit upon the same translation of ''"ip'^J , certaiidy.has more weight
in it than the other apin-al ; and indeed the nature of the case, thus pre-
sented, shows that no more than prohaJnlity can ha nrged, in favour of
the jtosition that the same hand was concerned with both passages.
See Stein, in Winer's Theol. Journal, V. p. 24 seq., who has strenuously
insisted on the force of this evidence, in favour of the apostolic origin of
Apocalypse. I should say, that the circumstance of a reference to the
pierced side of the Saviour, meiifioiied only by John among all the Evan-
gelists, and again distinctly brought to view here, affords stronger ground
of presumption that the same hand was employed in both the passages,
than the circumstance of the sameness of translation as mentioned above.
Aoi/'OJT«(, Fut. ]Midd. voice, a])propriately here: heat themselves, viz.
smite upon the breast, or thigh, as was customary on occasions of deep
agitadon and fear, and of soi-row. — ^En uviov, because of him, on ac-
count of him ; Rob. Lex. tnl, III. 2. c. a.
Tlaaai ai q^v7,a) rtji; j7/>,' is language borrowed fiom the ancient Pie-
brew Scripture, where the Jews are often spoken of as the tivelve tribes,
among whom all the land of Canaan was partitioned. Of course the
expression here is designed to be comprehensive, and to denote all who
dwelt in the land here referred to. What land this was, seems plain
from the context, where reference is made to those concei'ned in the
crucifixion of Christ. Then again the very manner of the description,
qv).ai', etc., shows that Palestine is here in view on the part of the Avri-
ter. And so the se(|uel, chap, vi — xi, fully demonstrates. I would not
deny that r-nsr-^ may be sometimes used respecting difierent -nations,
and so the corresponding (pvlai, as in the Septuagint.; but here the con-
nection demands a different understanding of it, and such an one,
moreover, comports with common usage.
A «/, «/</;)', a douljle ex[)ression of so he it, assuredly, certainly, one
in Greek and one in Ilelirew. Comp. Rev. 22: 20. The like double
expression has Paul in Rom. 8: 1 6, u^^a, 6 narfiQ ! Besides this, the
designation of both Greek and Hebrew names is comnio:i in John's
Gospel; e. g. John 1: 3!), 4.'}. 9: 7. comp. Ileb. 7: 2. Two words of
synonymous import are designed to strengthen the expression of an
idea. John means to say, that the coming of the Lord Jesus to punish
bis enemies and crucifiers, is altogether certain.
32 Chap. I. 8.
(8) T am Alpha and Omega, saith the Lord God, who is, and was, and is to
come, the Almighty.
What is meant by Alpha and Omega is plain from Rev. 1: 17, where
it is explained by 6 TrQaTo<; y.ai 6 iayajog; and again in Rev. 22: 13,
where all these appellations are joined together. The reference is
plain, Alpha being the first and Omega the last letter' of the Greek
alphabet. Among the Rabbins, the expression jO'om t< to n is common,
in order to designate the whole of anything from the beginning to the
end; e. g. Jalk. Reub. fol. 17. 4, "Adam transgressed the whole law,
from N to r." lb. 48. 4, " Abraham kept the whole law, from x to n ,"
etc. See other examples in Schoettgen Hor. Heb. I. p. 1086. The
article here, before the names of the letters, is appropriate in Greek,
although we do not employ it in English. The respective letters, as
well-known and monadic, may very properly receive it.
But who is it that makes the claim involved in the application of such
language to himself? yityn xvQtog 6 d^eog, is the answer in most of the
critical editions ; and certainly the majority of witnesses testify in fa-
vour of this reading. Ewald, however, pi-efers the vulgate reading
■AVQiog, in consequence of what is said of Christ in Rev. 1: 17. 22: 12
— IG. And indeed one can hardly make this comparison, without
feeling a probability that o &s6g has in fact been added to the original
text. But be this as it may, it is clear that the passage as it is, which-
ever reading may be adopted, may refer to Christ as the speaker ; for
it may be the same that is " coming in the clouds, etc.," who is the
speaker in this present case. So Ewald, and even Heinrichs, concedes.
The former says : Christum deo proximum et in Apocalypsi saepius
Dei epithetis ornatum haec effari ostendant [nexus loci, etc.] ; the lat-
ter: Ipse [Christus] in omni carmine divinis praedicatis insignitur.
Still, the weight of external testimony is greatly in favour of xvQiog 6
'O'Eog, as may be seen in Griesbach. Admitting this latter text, it is
more facile to regard God as the speaker. V. 8 is then a confirma-
tion on the part of God himself of what the Apocalyptist had just been
saying, in respect to the coming of Christ and the consequent punish-
ment of his enemies. It is as much as to say : ' I the almighty and un-
changeable God will execute this commination.' The sense therefore
is good and apposite, when taken in this way. Nor need the reader be
jealous lest something should hereby be detracted from the honour and
glory of Christ ; for the very same things are, beyond all doubt, said of
him in Rev. 1: 17. 22: 13. There is surely no need of forcing doubt-
ful passages into the rank of proof-passages.
The vulgate has (Iq/Ji y.ai. 7tlog after the clause " I am Alpha and
Omega." But this is not sufficiently supported.
Chap. I. 9. 83
As to 6 Mf xai n /]i' xni 6 {Qxriftevog, see on v. 4 It is merely a
paraphrastic explanation of the word Jehovah. — O TTccrtoxndiaQ is the
usual word employed by the Septuagint to render rixsri , when consti-
tutinji a part of the name of Grod; and so they also translate "^vd; and
the Greek word is well adapted to designate the leading idea of both
these Hebrew appellations. Higher titles than these cannot be bestow-
ed on any being ; and such are here bestowed on Him who is the
FiKST AND THK LAST. The clausc in question seems to favour the
reading xi'/xos o i>fOs".
The writer having thus finishod his sahitation, and expressed the thoughts
which naturally connected themselves with the mention of Jesus Christ as the
Redeemer and Vindicator of his church, now proceeds to relate the vision, which
he saw in a state of prophetic ecstasy at the isle of Patmos. In this state he was
addressed by a loud voice behind hiiu, like that of a trumpet, commanding him to
tcritt down what was about to be communicated to him, and address it to tiie
seven churches of Asia that are named. Turning around in order to discover the
personaije b\' whom he was thus addressed, he saw a glorious being in the form
of man, surrounded by seven splendid lights, clothed with ruagnificciit apparel,
and encircled by a radiance of his whole person which was supernatural. In his
riglit hand were seven stars, and as it were a two-edged sword issuing from his
mouth. Overpowered by the vision he fell senseless at his feet. While in that
state, tiie right hand of the Saviour was extended to raise him up, and words of
encouragement and of kindness were addressed to him. He was told what was
meant by the seven stars and the seven golden lamps, and commissioned to
write what was then disclosed, and what would afterwards be disclosed, and send
it to the churches which had been named.
Such is the preparation for the communications which John is about to receive.
What was then disclosed, and which was primarily intended for the seven
churches, next follows, and is contained in Epistles addressed respectively to each
of them.
(9) 1 John, your brother, and companion in the affliction and kingdom and
patience of Jesus Christ, was in the isle called Patmos, because of the word of
God and on account of the testimony of Jesus.
That the name of the person to whom the following visions were dis-
closed, was John ; and that the same individual to whom the disclosures
were made wrote an account of them ; is clear from this verse, compared
with Rev. 1: 3, 4, and specially with 22: 8, near the close of the work.
The same thing is apparent from the often repeated commands to write
down what the author saw and heard; e. g. in 1: 11, 19. 2: 1, 8, 12,
18. 3: 1, 7, 14. 10: 4 (command to refrain from writing). 14: 13.
19: 9. 21: 5. All these commands have at least the appearance of dic-
tating to one in the act of writing, and directing him now to insert this
and now that, in order that it might not We omitted. In 10: 4, John
hears the seven thunders uttering their voice, and expressing some-
thing which he immediately begins to write down, when a voice fi*om
VOL. II. 9
I? V,
34 Chap. I. 9.
heaven arrests him, and commands him to abstain. In 14: 13. 19: 9,
and 21: 5, sentiments of pecuhar importance are specially required to
be written. In regard to all of the epistles to the seven Churches, the
command in each case has every appearance of an injunction to vrrite
down, upon the spot, what is dictated to John at that time and in that
place. At all events. Rev. 10: 4 shows that a process of writing was
in operation, during the visions themselves. Whatever may be said
about the incongruities of this process during an ecstasy, or rather, a
series of ecf-tasies ; whatever of dithculty there may be in supposing
John to be furnished with materials for writing in such a place as Pat-
mos ; it cannot do away, or even obscure, the plain and obvious import
of these passages. How can we decide exactly what constitutes the
physiological condition of a state of prophetic ecstasy, how long it may
continue, or what an individual who is in it may accomplish, even
dui'ing the vision ? At all events, what difficulty is there in supposing,
that John may have receded the whole disclosures made by his visions,
as they w^ere at intervals presented in succession to his mind ; just as
w'e may suppose Isaiah, or any other prophet, to have written at inter-
vals between visions, or even during or under prophetic inspiration or
influence ? A short period would suffice for the entire composition of
the Apocalypse, in such a glowing state of mind. As to materials for
writing, even if John were prohibited from carrying them with him
into his exile, how easy and natural Avas it for his numerous friends, at
Ephesus and the neighboring coast, to supply them at Patmos, which is
but a few hours' sail from Ephesus ! Besides, that this island was en-
tirely destitute of inhabitants, is not certain, nor even probable. That
there were at least fishermen's huts in such a place, one cannot well re-
frain from believing. Such is the case at present, desolate and barren
as it is ; such was probably the case when .John wrote.
As to the argument derived from iyev6fj(>]v ev nvtv^an, i. e. the Aor.
ij'£p6i.tijv, which, it is said, indicates a former period, and therefore must
have been penned after the return of John to Ephesus, I catniot perceive
that much if any weight can be justly attached to it; although Li'icke
(Einl. p. 143) expressly says, that it decides this point unstreitig, i. e.
beyond controversy. What other tense than this of the verb yi'vofuu,
could John employ, in a narration such as this of successive phenomena
like those in his vision? 'Ey£v6i^o]v — '■' Iivas in the spirit on the Lord's
day," declares the occurrence of an event which preceded the commu-
nications that were made to him and are related in the sequel. How
could he relate these things in order, and not sj)eak in the Praeterite
tense (as he has done) of those which first happened ? Besides, the
Eict that he addresses an epistle to the church at Ephesus, favours the
idea that he was absent from them when it was wi-itteu. I do not say
Chap. I. 9. 85
that it is decisive, but that it increases the probability tliat the Apoo:i-
lypse was con)|)osed while he was at Patinos. Last of all ; there are
interrn/s between the visions, noted in the book itself, dnrinf» which we
may very naturally suppose that to be written which bad preceded ; e. ^.
4: 1 bejriiis a new ecstasy, with a lard ravra in regard to the former
one which concerned the seven churches. 8o again in 7: 1. 7: 9. 15:
5. IS: 1. 19: 1, successice periods are distinctly marked. "With equal
or with even greater distinctness does the nature of the case, in such a
transition as that in 12: 1 scq., mark succession and intercal. So in 20:
1 seq. 20; 11 seq. 21: 1 seq. It is indeed most natural to suppose, that
visions, so overpowering as those of John must have been, would be
experienced rather at intervals than continuously; and if so, what valid
objection is there against the supposition, that some of the intermediate
time was employed in writing down what had alreadybeen communicated ?
That the John named in this verse was the apostle John, I must on
the whole believe; but not merely or principally from what is here said.
There is plaiidy nothing inconsistent with this opinion in the matter of
the verse ; but still, there is nothing hqre said, which might not have
been predicated of some other individual.*
* It is not mere cnnjcclnre, for the sake of aiding my own views, wiien I sug-
gest, Ihit the bodily exhaustion which attended such visions was very great.
Tiiis may be seen by comparing Ezek. 1; 2^. 3: 14, 15, Ql, which exhibits the
state of body and mind that fillowed the rapture of that prophet. See the same
in Dan. 8: 17, 18 10: 0, 16, 17. Tliose passages exhibit tiic manner in which a
prophet may be, and nsualh' was, affected during his ecstasy; while Dan. 7; Jo,
28. 8: 27 show that severe indisposition of" body and mind may be consequent up-
on prophetic ecstasies. In perfect accordance with these texts is Rev. 1: 17, sliow-
iag that John was wholly overpowered by a vision of Ihn Saviour. Comp. Zech.
4: 1. No other instance of any vision, or series of visions, so long as those of the
Apocalypse, and all within a short period of time, can be found in the Scriptures;
and the nature of the case, as well as the manner of the book itself which marks
so ninny intervals, serves to show that a series of successive visions, connected as
to their general object, were not only seen, but successively recorded, by tlie
Apocalyptist.
Lflcke, in order to avr>id the force of the argument derived from the r.j/lsllrs to the
churches in favour of the position that John must have been at somcforrign place,
suggests th-it the epistolary form arises merely from the ordinary usage of the
apostles in addressing the churches, and amounts to nothing more than a kind of
rhetorical fiction. 1 will not say that this is incongruous with the nature of the
case, or very improbable in itself; for any apostle, or pastor of a church, residing
with them, might address the churches, or a particular church, in this way. But
nofliing obliges us, in this case, to resort to such a method of explanation. Why
then should we do so? John is at Patmos. There he sees a series of divine vi-
sions. He undertakes to communicate to the churches, in whose welfare he feels
a peculiar interest, an account of them. He states where he was when tliey com-
menced ; and relates successively the events that occurred and the disclosures
which were made. What could he do, more or less, than use the Fraeterite tense
■*jr
36 Chap. I. 9.
^dslcfog v(i(av, your brother, a frequent appellation by which Chi*is-
tians called each other, as indicating not only a strong feeling of friend-
ship but also a sameness of faith; so Acts 9: 30. 11: 29. 1 Cor. 5: 11.
Rev. 12: 10, et al. saepe. The apostles named themselves the brethren
of other Christians, and called others their own brethren. The same
Avas done by private individuals, in respect to other Christians. So
nothing definite as to the rank or office of John, can with any certainty
be argued from' the appellation which he here gives himself.
2^vyy.otvo}vog , . . /. XQiatov, a co-partner, a fellow-partaker in the
affliction. The article before '&XiW£i is not without emphasis here, in-
asmuch as it seems to mark a persecution or atHiction then existing on
account of the Christian religion, ty &Xiil<£i I. Xqigtov. It might be
construed as meaning affliction like to that of Christ, for so the Geni-
tive relation of Xqiotov would permit us to explain it ; but the other
method of interpretation is most consonant with the tenor of the book,
and clearly it is equally allowable ; see N. Test. Gramm. § 99.
The^ai'ticle also belongs (in sense) to ^aoiXeia and v7iO(iovri, but it is
omitted in these last cases by a veiy common usage ; N. Test. Gramm.
§ 89. 9. The relation of [^aailei'a here to J. Xqigzov is, from the ne-
cessity of the case, somewhat different from that of {yXiipei. The wri-
ter means to say, that he and those whom he addressed were fellow-part-
ners in the kingdom of Christ, or fellow-citizens (to speak in a political
in such a case ? And how can the use of this tense prove that he had migrated
to some other place, before he wrote to the churches? And why maj' we not
suppose that he actually designed, that the seven epistles should be regarded as
realities ? In what way could he instruct the churches, or publish his book of vi-
sions, more effectually than in this ?
We ought not to admit artificial explanations, when natural ones suffice. Let
it be that John was an ajiostle, or a mere presljyter, the nature of the case (as to
the Jacls before us) is not changed. The very numerous references in the book
to the process of writing, and more especially 10: 4, are explained most easily and
naturally in the manner which I have indicated. Nothing decisive or very satis-
factory can be alleged against this explanation. The proximity of Patmos to the
continent of Asia must have ahvays enabled the friends of John to hold some
communication with him during his exile. It is not only possible, then, but alto-
gether probable, that the book was written at Patmos, as it naturally purports to
be.
The critical reader, who is aware how many theories have been spun out of the
words under consideration, and how much influence they have had on the higher
criticism of the book, will not regard with disapprobation an attempt to elucidate
this matter, although it may have occupied more time and space than he would
willingly spare. Even Ewald, in his recent work on the Apocalypse, says that
the use of iytvo/J-t^v (which he names the Imperfect, p. 96), decides that John had
returned from Palmes before he wrote his book ; which, he adds, also appears
from the whole tenor of the book. Is not this deducing too much, and deducing
it with a great deal too much confidence, from the premises in question ?
Chap. L 0. 8f
way) of the new spiritual ein|)ire or kingdom of Christ; so that he and
they sustained one eoninion relation to it.
Tnoiiori, lias been ditferently eonstrued by different interpreters. It
appe.ars most natiu'ally to designate patient endurance of the -O^XiifJig al-
ready mentioned ; and in its relation to J. Xqkttov it is in the same prc-
dieainent as i^a/uvs,', inasmuch :vs the sentiment is, 'patient endurance
oh account of Christ, or for Christ's sake.' Both the writer and the
churches addressed had been persecuted in common, because of their
Christianity ; to one and the same kingdom did they in' fact belong ;
patient endurance in suffering for Christ's sake, they had both exhibited.
Others explain it thus : Patience like that of Christ (lleinrichs). Oth-
ers still ; Patient waiting (n^^^ or rbnin ) for Christ, or constancy
in expecting his coming (Ewald). This latter sentiment would involve
the idea, that those addressed by John were already possessed of such
views in respect to Christ's coming as are exhibited in the Apocalypse ;
which, arguing from the maimer of address in this book, does not seem
altogether probable. I prefer the other and more simple explanation ;
merely adding that the Christian maxim quoted by Paul (2 Tim. 2: 12) :
" If we suffer we shall also reign with him," evidently conveys in sub-
stance the same sentiment as the passage before us : for, first, we have
the &).iU'(i; ; then the ^aatlEia ; and then, very naturally, in view of
such a reward which is to be consequent upon suffering, comes the vno-
fiori'j, the patient endurance of all the evils that might be inflicted.
'Lyt'vof^r^v ii' . . . Jlur^io). In relating this occurrence, as has been re-
marked above, a Praeterite would of course be employed ; for the being
there took place before what is related in the sequel happened.
Patmos is a small island some six or eight miles in length, and but little more
than a mile in breadth. It is merely mentioned by the ancients; Plin. Hist. nat.
4: '23. Strabo, 10: 488. Eustath. ad Dionys. Perieg. 530. It is now called Patino
or Patmosa (not Palmosa or Patmo, as Winer has it in his Bib. Lex ). It has nei-
ther trees, nor rivers, nor any land for cultivation, except some little nooks among
the ledges of rocks. Here the banished, from the Roman provinces of Asia, as it
would seem, were sent in ancient times; as those from the Grecian provinces in
Europe were sent to Gyarus or Gyara, which is in the midst of the Cyclades and
of the same character as Patmos. So Juven. Sat. X. 170, Gijnrae claiisus scopit-
lis, (respecting an exile). Patmos has now a village of fishermen's huts ; and so
had Gyarus, in ancient times. jNo island among all the Sporades (Patmos belongs
to that cluster) was so appropriate for a place of exile as this; and hither the text
represents John as being sent.
/Jta rov loyov . . . ^L]6ov. On the meaning of this remarks have al-
ready been made, under Rev. 1: 2. That 8id, with the nouns which
follow, here designates the cause or occasion of John's being in Patmos,
seems to be certain from the use of this same formula in Rev. G: 9. 12:
11, and specially 20: 4 ; cases about which there can be no well-ground-
38 Chap. I. 9.
ed doubt. The natural, not to say the necessary, meaning of did (with
the Ace.) indicates cause or occasion. Jm necessarily designates here
something \\\\\c\\ preceded, in the order of time, the main event that was
brought about, or, in other words, the cause or ground (marked by 8id)
of an event must precede the event itself which was the consequence.
Winer even insists, that did with the Ace, in the New Testament, al-
ways marks the reason or ground of a thing, or else the means, and nev-
er an idtimate design or intention to be accomplished ; N. Test. Gramm.
§ 53. c. ed. 4. At all events, in the Apocalypse, such is the usage in
every case, as it seems to me, if the present be excepted. To say then,
(as some have done), that John went to Patmos in order to preach there,
or in order to write the Apocalypse, is virtually renouncing the ascer-
tained meaning of language in such cases, and cannot therefore have any
good claim to credit. The Apocalypse has explained itself in regard to
the manner in which this phraseology is employed and is to be interpret-
ed ; as the references above most clearly show. It was, then, because
John had been a preacher of the word of God, and had proclaimed the
testimony of Jesus Christ, that he was exiled to Patmos. In fact, the
suggestion that John went to Patmos in order to lorite the Apoca-
lypse, is so improbable upon the very face of it, as not to deserve any
serious refutation.
Eichhorn (Einl. ins N. Test. II. p. 367), and Bleek (Schleiermach.,
etc., Zeitschrift. II. p. 151), have thrown out the suggestion, that John
states his being at Patmos only as a visionary matter, i. e. he was trans-
ported there merely in prophetic ecstasy ; and there, because it was an
a})propriate place for visions ; and we are referred to Ezek. 3: 14, 15.
8: 3. 40: 2. Dan. 8: 2, and the like, for examples of a similar nature.
But such examples these are not ; for these prophets expressly state,
that they were brought to this place or to that, in vision, or hy the poiver
of the Spirit of God, and therefore leave no room for misapprehension.
Yet John, in the case before us, has not at all suggested the idea, that
he was in the Spirit before he came to Patmos, but simply states that
he was residing there when the Spirit came upon him. Why should
we confound cases so entirely discrepant ? No one can well mistake
Ezekiel or Daniel ; yet it would seem that the whole Christian world
must have mistaken John, except Eichhorn, Bleek, and the very few
who accede to their interpretation. At least, if the views of these cri-
tics are correct, such is the case. Were it a matter which concerned an
obscure or difficult text of Scripture, such a mistake might have taken
place. But in so plain a matter as the present apparently is, it would
seem to be at least xi dionov. If we must suppose a fiction in this
case, is it not strange that John did not prefer Sinai, or Carmel, or Ta-
bor, (all sacred places), as the scene. The Apocalyptist, we cannot
Chap. I. 10. 89
reasonably doulit it, means to be vnderstood as stating a fact ; and whe-
tlior it be ciupposi'il that this lact took |)la('e under Nero, or under Donii-
tian, both ot" whom persecuted and banished Christians, everything
wears the air of phvin probability. "Why should the author, who has
not concealed his name, conceal the pl((ce where he was when his ec-
stasy came upon him ? And why should not the statement be credited
on the sjinie ground that we credit that of Ezekiel (Ezek. 1: 2), who
says that he wa? by the river Chebar, when the first vision of God was
disclosed to hiiH? Liicke (Einl. p. 242), and Ewald (Comm. p. 9G),
admit the rea/iti/ o( tlie writer's residence at Patmos ; as do nearly all
the older critics.
(ID) ] was in the spirit on the Lord's day ; and I heard behind me a loud voice,
as of a trumpet.
'r.y^ro(iiiv h nvivaun means that John was xinder spiritual injiuence ;
and in a case like the present, that he was under the special and extra-
ordinary influence of the Spirit; for such is the usage of the Scriptures
in respect to this [thraseology. The same idea is elsewhere expressed,
by being iv t-MTuaei, Acts 10: 10. 11: 5. 22: 17, i. e. transported as it
were out of one's self, put into a condition different from that which be-
longs to the ordinary development of one's own powers and faculties.
Ezekiel names this state a seeing of the visions of God, i. e. seeing vi-
sions disclosed by divine influence, Ezek. 1: 1. 8: 3. 40: 2. Such vi-
sions are habitually ascribed by the prophets to divine influence ; Jer.
24: 1. Ezek. 11: 25. Amos 7: 1, 4,7. 8: 1. Zech. 3: 1. Specially
are such visions caused by the Spirit of God ; or by the hand of the
Lord (i. e. divincpower or influence), which is an equivalent expres-
sion ; Ezek. 1: 3. 8: 1. 37: 1. 40: 1. In Ezek. 11: 24, theprophet
speaks of being brought in vision into the land of Chaldca a'^rf'N; H'lia ,
i. e. by the Spirit of God. Paul, in 2 Cor. 12: 1 — 4, has given a vivid
descnption of such a state of supernatural ecstasy. That John means
to assert, in the case before us, that he was in a pneumatic state, i. e.
under peculiar and extraordinary divine influence, seems at least to be
philologically certain ; and that the nature of the disclosures, which follow
throughout the book, import the same thing, is equally plain. Our idiom
obliges us to translate in the spirit ; but the Greek employs no article and
is therefore more exactly represented by the phrase in a pneumatic state.
'Ev 7g xfpfaxjj ijiitQfi, on the Lord's day ; elsewhere called ju/a aa^^d-
Tojr, the first of the week. Acts 20: 7. 1 Cor. IG: 2. These two passages
show, that this first day was one of public social worship among Clnis-
tians, in the ai>ostolic age. The appellation, Lord's day, occurs nowhere
in the New Testament, save in the passage before us. But it occurs
twice in the Epistle of Ignatius to the ^klaguesians (about A. D. 101), who
40 Chap. I. 10.
calls the Lord's day, the queen and prince of all days. Chrysostom (on
Ps. 119) says: "It was called the Lord's day, because the Lord arose
from the dead on this day." Whether such was the case, or whether
it was so named because the Lord was worshipped on that day by Chris-
tians, is of no moment as to the fact itself that such a day was set apart
and specially regarded by the primitive Christians. Later fathers make a
marked distinction between the Sabbath and the Lord's day ; meaning by
the former, the Jewish seventh-day sabbath, by the latter, the first day of
the week kept as holy by Christians. So Theodoret (Fab. Haeret. IL
1), speaking of the Ebionites, says : "■ They keep the Sabbath according
to the Jewish law, and sanctify the Lord's day in like manner as we
do." A party in the Christian church adhered to this usage so long and
so tenaciously, that finally the Council of Laodicea (about A. D. 350)
made a decree, that ' Christians should no longer keep the seventh day
by refraining from labour ;' see Bingham's Ecc. Antiq. V. p. 286.
Viewed in this light, it is easy to see that what Paul says (Rom. 14: 5.
Gal. 4: 10. Col. 2: 16) concerning the unimportance of observing spe-
cial days, i. e. new moons and sabbaths, is said of the Jewish days of
this nature ; and so the context in all these places plainly indicates, for
he is discussing matters insisted on by Judaizers. No Christian, as he
avers, is bound to observe the Jewish holidays ; although the man who
does observe them should not be dealt hardly with on this account.
TV hat he thus says, has of course no application to the proper Lord's
day.*
* As to the question, whether Christians were accustomed to observe the Lord's
day with any good degree of strictness, I know of no testimony more credible, or
more to the purpose, than that of Euseb. Comm. on Ps. 21: 30 (22: 29 in our En-
glish version) ; Ps. 45: 6 (46: 5) ; I^sTSH; 17 (59: 16) ; and above all (which is the
locus dussicus) on Ps. xci. (xcii.). Here he says: " The Word [Christ], by the
new covenant, translated and transfei-red the feast of the Sabbath to the morning
light, and gave us the symbol of true rest, viz. the saving Lord's day, the first [day]
of the light, in which the Saviour . . . obtained the victory over death, etc. . . .
On this day, which is the first [day] of the light and of the true Sun, we assem-
ble, after an interval of six days, and celebrate holy and spiritual Subbatk ; even
all nations [assemble] redeemed by him throughout the world, and do those things
according to the spiritual law, which were decreed for the priests to do on the
Sabbath. . . . Jill things ichalever that it was duty to do on the Sabbath [i. e. the
Jewish seventh day], these ice have transferred to the Lord's day, as more appro-
priately belonging to it, because it has a precedence, and is first in rank, and
more honourable than the .Teicish Sabbath. ... It is delivered to us [Tra^aSiSorat,
it is handed down by tradition], that ice should meet together on this day ; and it is
ordered that we should do those things announced in this Psalm," [Ps. xcii.].
Comp. Justin Martyr, Apol. L c. 89. Why this decisive passage, as to the usages
of early Christians, should have been hitherto overlooked by commentators and
theoloo-lans, (so far as I know, such has been the fact), one might find it dilficult
to say. it certainly testifies strongly against the usages, now unhappily so com-
Chaj». I. 11. 41
It should be noticed, perhaps, that some commentators (e. p;. Eich-
liorn) rvjjard -/.vnurAtj I'mi-'cfft here as desip;natiniT the paschal flai/, on the
cveninj? of which the early Christians were wont to assemble, and wait
and worship nntil very late, with the hope and expectation of Christ's
coming ; see Jerome on Matt. xxiv. Bnt this usa<:i^e is plainly one of
later ori<j:in ; for no ear/i/ writing mentions this day as having any special
preeminence.
Meyuli^i; applied to t'oice, of course means loud. — cot," (julniyyog
heightens the description. It was not merely an ordinary loud human
voice, but loud as that of a trumpet. It is almost needless to remark,
tliut the loudness only is the point of comparison here, not the quality
of the trumpet's voice, much less the inarticulate nature of it ; as the
sequel shows. — y/tyovai;',' in grammatical construction agrees with odX-
niyyo-;. Nor is the meaning ditlicult ; for a loud voice as of a trumpet
speaking, is a voice speaking trumpet-like. P^ichhorn (as usual) has
here corrected the author's Greek, and substituted Xtyovaav. It does
not need the critic's aid. One reason why a trumpet is here designated
as the object of comparison, is the frequent use made of this instrument
on occasions of great moment; see in Ex. 19; 19. 20: 18. Ps. 47: 5.
Zech. 9: 14. 1 Cor. lo: 52. 1 Thess. 4: 16.
(11) Saying : What thou secst write in a book, and send to the seven churches,
to Ephesus, and to Smyrna, and to Pergaiiuis, and to Thyatira, and to Sardis,
and to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea.
"0 ^/.i'nei'i' does not mean simply, what thou at the present moment
seest ; for the present tense, both participle and verb, is often employed
in a diffusive sense (if I may so speak), and comprehends what is to
come, as being connected with the present. So we may here translate :
Quod visurus es ; for so the sense of the passage, in connection with the
sequel, clearly demands it to be understood.
£(V i)ip.tor — we say copied into a book, but loritten ix a hook ; and
in accordance with the latter phrase, is the usual idiom of the Greek
ysyoaitia'iop iv t(p ^i^h'o). But in John 8: 6, 8, (if the genuineness be
allowed), we have two cases of i'ynaiftv iiV ; showing at least, a resem-
blance in minutiae between the Gospel and the Apocalypse, for the
idiom is found nowhere else in the New^ Testament. Inscribe in librutn,
we might translate the phrase, i. e. engrave it upon a roll or parchment.
mon on and over the continent of Kurope, in respect to the observance of tiie
Lord's day.
I have only to add, that such a day, commemorative of the resurrection of
Clirist from the dead, and set apart for holy spiritual exercises, was peculiarly ap-
propriate to the visions of God. The Saviour apj)ears to John in his glory, as
risen from the dead, (comp. Rev. 1; 5, 18). The day and the vision both proclaim
the fact of his resurrection.
VOL. II. 6
42 Chap. I. 11.
— After Xk'yovcya, at the beginning of the verse , the vulgate text inserts
iy(6 ti'iAt TO yl xai to ii, o TTQoJzng •auI o iayaroii • xai ; which, for good
reason, has been omitted in the critical editions. The weight of au-
thority is plainly against it.
T(ug snroc hy-hioiun; — The vulgate here omits tntd-, as Evvald
thinks, with good reason. But he has founded his argument on the sup-
position, that John wrote the Apocalypse for all the churches in Asia.
Yet, while I allow the correctness of such a supposition in a qualified
sense, I still do not see why he might not dedicate the whole work to
the seven churches, and by sending it to them, publish it in this way to
the world. The sending it to the seven churches does not denote that
the book was not a matter of general concern, but only that some things
in it were speciality appropriate to them ; and this consists well with the
admission of mzu into the text. Again, the vulgate inserts rai'i h Jlaia
after l-A'Ahjaiuig, which is not sustained by the Codices, and is not here
necessary to the sense.
Ephesus was the capital of proconsular Asia, and was then the
largest and most magnificent city in all that region. It lay upon the
river Cayster, at the head of a large bay, and about half-way between
Miletus on the south and Smyrna on the north. In ancient times it had
an immense trade ; and the splendid temple of Diana there (Acts 19:
34 — 36) was one of the wonders of the world. It was burnt down by
Herostratus ; but soon it was still more superbly rebuilt. Many Jews
resided there ; and there Paul laboured more than two years, Acts 18:
18 seq. 19: 10 seq. A great and flourishing church was founded there
by this apostle ; and with that church the apostle John, according to the
voice of all antiquity, had a most intimate connection. At Ephesus, it
would seem, was his home, after he left Palestine. There are, at the
present time, but some half a dozen miserable huts on the spot of the
ancient city, belonging to squalid Greek peasants ; and the Turks name
the place Ayasaluc. Such is the end of the most strenuous efforts of
man to establish and render perpetual worldly splendour and magnifi-
cence. It is even difRcult now to ascertain with certainty, where the
temple of Diana stood ; a building 425 feet long, 200 broad, 70 feet
high, and with 127 marble pillars. The candlestick has indeed been
removed out of its place (Rev. 2: 5), and all the glory of the splendid
metropolis extinguished.
Smyrna lies at the head of a bay that puts far up into the main land,
and is a very ancient city, situated near the river Meles, and one of the
reputed birth places of Homer, thence sometimes named Melesigenes.
Its excellent harbour has rendered it, from time immemorial, one of the
most commercial places in hither Asia. Its population is now variously
estimated, from 120,000 to 160,000, consisting of Greeks, Turks, Ar-
-i
Chap. I. 11. 43
mcnians, Jew?, and Europeans. Tlie rigid system of supervision and
oppression, established by the Tnrks, has almost extinguished the de-
velopment of any religion there exeept the Mohammedan. The Turk-
ish name of the place is Ismir, i. e. the old name abridged.
PK.RGAMrs is in the southern part of Mysia ; whieh also constituted a
part of ^ If ()/?'«, so named from the settlement of the Aeolian Greeks
there after the fall of Troy. It was on the banks of the river Caicus,
and at the time when the Apocalypse was written was the metropolis
of that ]iart of Asia which was held by the Romans. When Antiocluis
the Great, king of Syria, was defeated by the Komish power in Asia,
Eumenes, a king of the region in and around Pergamus, (in which city
he dwelt), aided them in their contest, and was rewarded by them with
an enlargement of his dominions. Here Pvumenes established a famous
library, as a kind of rival to that of Ptolemy at Alexandrisx. It consis-
ted of some 200,000 vohmies. The last of the Atlalian race of kings
(Attains III.), being childless, left this kingdom, by his last will, to the
Romans (B. C. 133). It is an old tradition, that when Ptolemy refused
Eumenes the privilege o^ Q\\^ov\'m^ papyrus from Egypt for the use of
his libi-ary, the latter invented parchment (called 7Zt(ty«.iujv/'j from the
place of its invention) as a substitute. Pompey (some sixty years
B. C.) gave the whole of the library at Pergamus to Cleopatra of Egypt,
and it was transported thither, and perished with the library at Alexan-
dria, by order of the Mohammedan Caliph. The kingdom of whieh
Pergamus was the capital, lasted about 152 years. This city is still a
considerable one, inhabited principally by Turks, but containing also
about 3000 nominal Christians. Its present name is Pcrrjamo.
Thyatira lies near the borders of Lydia and Mysia, but more usually
it is reckoned to the former. It is about a day's journey south of Perga-
mus, and about the same distance east of Elaea on the sea-coast. It is
now called Akhisar ("\Vhite Castle), and contains a population of nearly
30,000, of whom 3000 are said to be nominal Christians. In the Apoc-
alyi>se the name is neuter plural (xivdi^iija), and so in many Greek
writers ; but the Latins and some of the Greeks employed the feminine
singular to designate it. That it was a considerable place in the time
of John, there can be no room to doubt.
Sardis (plur. 2.'uodti',-, sometimes —andi^' in Greek authors), now
Surf, was the capital of Lydia, and stood at the foot of mount Tmolus,
on the banks of the river Pactolus famous for it golden sands. Here the
celebrated Croesus lived and reigned, who was proverbially so rich, and
who was captured by Cyrus A. C 548. It was a very large and rich
city under the Romans. In the reign of Tiberius, however, it suffered
greallj' by an eaithquake ; but it appears to have been speedily rebuilt.
Tiberius himself contributed liberally for this purpose. It is now a
44 Chap. L 11.
scene of ruins, there being only a few mud huts there, inhabited by
Turks and Greeks.*
Philadelphia is south-east of Sardis in Lydia, and on the small
river Cogamus. Once it was a large and powerful city. At the time
when the Ottomans overran all the region around, this city held out for
more than eighty years against them. Finally Bajazet obliged it to yield.
It is still a considerable place ; and there are more than twenty church-
es here, although not Christians enough now to fill more than two or three
of them. A recent traveller (Emerson ut supra) gives a glowing account
of the scenery in and around the city. It is at present called Allah
Shehr.
Laodicea, in the south-west part of Phrygia, at a small distance
from Colossae and Hierapolis, is situated near the junction of the two
small rivers Asopus and Caprus (which soon fall into the Lycus), on a
plain washed at its edges by each. The ruins now extant of many
* A recent traveller, who lodged there for a night, has given a description of
the scene by moonlight at a midnight hour, which I cannot forbear to transcribe.
" Every object was as distinct as in a northern twilight; the snowy summit of
the mountain [Tmolus], the long sweep of the valley, and the flashing current of the
river [Pactolus]. 1 strolled along towards the banks of the Pactolus, and seated
myself by the side of the half exhausted stream.
" There are iew individuals, who cannot trace on the map of their memory some
moments of overpowering emotion, and some scene, which, once dwelt upon, has
become its own painter, and left behind it a memorial that time could not efface.
I can readily sympathize with the feelings of him who wept at the base of the py-
ramids; nor were my own less powerful, on that night, when 1 sat beneath the
sky of Asia to gaze upon the ruins of Sardis, from the banks of the golden sanded
Pactolus. Beside me were the cliffs of the Acropolis, which, centuries before, the
hardy Median scaled, while leading on the conquering Persians, whose tents had
covered the very spot on which I was reclining. Before me weie the vestiges of
what had been the palace of the gorgeous Croesus; within its walls were once
congregated the wisest of mankind, Thales, Cleobulus, and Solon. It was here
that the wretched father mourned alone the mangled corse of his beloved Atys ;
it was here that the same humiliated monarch wept at the feet of the Persian boy,
who wrung from him his kingdom. Far in the distance were the gigantic tumuli
of the Lydian monarchs, Candaules, Halyattys, and Gyges; and around them
were spread those very plains, once trodden by the countless hosts of Xer.xes when
hurraying on to find a sepulchre at Marathon.
"There were more varied and more vivid remembrances associated with the siorht
of Sardis, than could possibly be attached to any other spot of earth; but all were
mingled with a feeling of disgust at the littleness of human glory; all— all had
passed away ! There were before me the fanes of a dead religion, the tombs of
forgotten monarchs, and the palm-tree that waved in the banquet-hall of kings ;
while the feeling of desolation was doubly heightened by the calm sweet sky
above me, which, in its unfading brightness, shone as purely now as when it
beamed upon the golden dreams of Croesus." — Emerson's Letters from the Aege-
an, p. 113 seq.
Chap. I. 12. 4%
theatres, temples, etc., show thai it was once- a large city. The whole
rising ground on which the city stood, is one vast tumulus of ruins,
abandoned entirely to the owl and the fox. This city was so situated,
as to become the battle-ground of contending parties in Asia Minor,
fii-st under the Romans, and then under the Tiu-ks. It has doubtless
suffered also from earthciuakes. For centuries, we know not how many,
it has been a perfect mass of ruins. In its neighl)ourhood is a village
named Eski-hissm\ which has been built up from its ruins, and contains
some fifty or sixty people, among whom, (on the visit of a recent
traveller there), there were but two nominal Christians. " The name
of Christianity," says Emerson (ut sup. p. 101), "is forgotten, and the
only sounds that disturb the silence of its desertion, are the tones of the
Muezzin, whose voice from the distant village [Eski-hissar] proclaims
the ascendancy of Mohammed. Laodicea is even more solitary than
Ephesus ; for the latter has the prospect of the rolling sea, or of a
whitening sail, to enliven its decay ; wdiile the former sits in widowed
loneliness, its walls are grass-grown, its temples desolate, its very name
has perished." A thunder storm gathered on the mountains at a dis-
tance, while this traveller was examining the ruins of Laodicea. He
retreated to Eski-hissar and waited until the fury of the storm was
abated, but set olF on his journey again before it had entirely ceased to
blow and to rain. "We preferred," says he (p. 102), "hastening on,
to a farther delay in that melancholy spot, where everything Avhispered
desolation, and where the very wind that swept impetuously through
the valley, sounded like the fiendish laugh of time exulting over the
destruction of man and his proudest monuments."
Such has been and are the situation and circumstances of the seven
churches of Asia, who are addressed by the Apocalyptist. I have
already remarked, that John was probably acquainted with other
churches in this region besides those named. The particular reason
why he addresses but seven churches, and no more, I have also endea-
voured to give in another place; Vol. I. § 13. p. 219 seq. The exe-'
getical problems which have been raised in regard to this matter of
seven, by Vitringa and others, are also examined in the same section to
which the reader has just been referred.
(Iti) And 1 turned to see the voice which spake with me; and wlien I had
turned, 1 beheld seven golden lamps;
BXfTTFtv means primarily to see with one's eyes objects visible to the
sense of sight. But it is also employed to denote the perception or
notice of the mind; and then it means, as here, to discern, to descry, to
perceive, to observe. »So in Matt. 15: 31. John 5: 19. 2 Cor. 12: 6.
Bom. 7: 23. Heb. 10: 25 al.
46 Chap. L 13.
'EXdXfi fiez ipiov, so, with the Genitive, wlien a writer means to rep-
resent an address as it were dialogistically, colloquens ; but with the
Dative following, when an address is made in the way of discourse ad-
dressed to an assembly ; yet sometimes with TiQog and the Accusative,
in this latter way.
Ema i.v'/(_via>i, seven lamps, i. e. seven splendid radiant lights. In v.
20 these are said to be symbols of the seven (Asiatic) churches. The
imagery is neither novel nor strange. In Dan. 8: 10, the Jewish wor-
shippers are named the host of heaven, and Antiochus is represented as
casting down this host, and also some of the stars, i. e. some who were
conspicuous among this host, viz. the priests officiating in the temple.
So in Rev. 1: 20, the stars in the hand of the Saviour are said to be the
(iyytXoi of the churches. In our text, the imagery of lamps is specifi-
cally different from that in Daniel, but generically it is the same, viz.
that of a brightly shining light. Paul, speaking of the Philippian
Christians, says : Among whom [the wicked], i. e. surrounded by whom,
ye shine as (fcoGzijOFi; in the world, Phil. 2: 15. Jesus says of himself:
" I am the light of the world," John 8: 12 ; and he says of his disciples :
"Ye are the light of the world," Matt. 5: 14. In Rev. 2: 28 the^
Saviour says respecting him Avho is victorious in the Christian contest :
" I will give him the morning star," i. e. I will make him all bright and
glorious, like the morning star. Such is the imagery common in the
Old Testament and in the New ; so that the sources of it in the verse
before us are obvious. But the writer doubtless had in his mind the
passage in Zech. 4: 2, where the prophet sees a candelabra of gold, M'ith
seven lamps thereon ; which plainly indicate, as there represented, that
the light of the temple, i. e. its ritual and services, shall be complete,
and not remain in the unfinished and imperfect state in which it then
was. Here the application is different ; but the costume resembles that
of Zechariah.
(13) And in the midst of the seven lamps, one like to a son of man, clothed
with a long robe, and girt about the breast with a golden girdle.
'Ev fitGO) [To;ra)] indicates that he was in a position, where he Avas
surrounded by the seven lights. — "OiioiQv vUp clvi^QOdTiov, one like to a
son of man, i. e. one having a human form, like that of man. It would
be incongruous to say : One like to the Son of Man ; for, inasmuch as
he who now makes his appearance is himself the Son of Man, i. e. the
Messiah, so it would be merely saying that he was like himself. This
is, to say the least, a very improbable affirmation for such a writer as
John, and in such a connection as the present. Ewald, however, ren--
ders the phrase : Similis aliquis homi7ii ; and he understands by it the
Son of Man as designated in Daniel 7: 13. But how the article could
Chap. I. 13. 4f
be omitted in such a case of well known and specific reference as this
(so understood) would be, it is dilficult to explain. There can be no
good ground to doubt, that the appellation Son of Man, so often applied
by the Saviour to himself, (never applied to him but once by any of his
disciples, Acts 7: oG), was grounded upon Dan. 7: 13, where it is plain-
ly given to the expected ^Messiah, and has reference to the human nature
which he would assume ; comp. John 1: 14. Rom. 9: 5. 1: 3. 1 Tim. 3:
16. The Saviour appears to have habitually employed this designation
of himself in the way of humility, {irantlvaiaEv iuvTov, Phil. 2: 8) ; and
his disei|)lt'S appear to have refrained from emidoying it through fear of
deiiradinsi; him bv it, inasmuch a.s cnx ",2 and the Chaldee X^'3 "3 were
O O .- ' T T ' V TT -
usually mere designations of common men as descendants of other men.
In the case before us, I cannot well doubt that the meaning is conformed
to th(i Hebrew idiom, which, sjiecially the later Hebrew idiom, employs
son of man so often as a simj)le designation of man, or at least in the
way of corapellation addressed to him as such ; e. g. Ezek. 2: 1, 3, fi,
8. 3: 1, 3, 4, 10, 17, 25. 4: 1 al. saepe. So Beza, Vitringa, and many
others. The majesty and sublimity of the personage who makes his
appearance in the present case, are described in the sequel, and nothing
more is here designated by o^ioiov vio) dy&QMTKp, than that the form
was human. I may remark, in addition to what has been said, that the
Jewish people were prone to call the Messiah by the name Son of God,
rather than to name him Son of Man ; see and comp. Luke 22: 69, 70.
John 1: 49—51. 12: 34. Matt. 16: 13, 16. The book of Enoch, how-
ever, shows that some of the Jews, or rather, some of the Jewish Chris-
tians of that period not unfrequently gave the appellation Son of Man
to the Messiah ; e.g. chap. 46: 1—3. 48: 2. 61: 10, 13, 17. 62: 15. 68:
38—41. 69: 1. Son of God it also virtually calls him, 102: 4 (No. 2).
Also once. Son of woman, 61: 9.
noSijori is an adjective from nodijQrjg, and is a brachylogical expression
for noSi'jQij yizaia. It means a garment or robe which reaches doxvn to
the feet, i. e. a long, full, flowing robe, (the "~"^"w of the Hebrews, 1 Sam.
15: 27, and so in Sirach 27: 8. 45: 8), which was worn by kings and
nobles and priests; comp. Is. 6: 1. Enoch 14: 22. The Accusative
case after itdtdvfiivov and nsQtt^coafit'vov is easily explained, as the
verbs in the active voice have the sense o^ putting on, girding on, and of
course may govern two Accusatives, viz. one of the person and one of
the thing ; while the passive voice, (here pass, part.), retains the latter
Accusative; N. Test. Gramm. §105. 1. — ntoii^oja/uyov, from ntoi-
^ojytvut, (old root ^djm or ^(oro)). The nobl^ni^, being a loose flowing
robe, required a girdle to confine it about the person. See Dan. 10: 5
as the prototype.
48 Chap. I. 14.
(14) And his head and his hair were white as white wool, as snow ; and his
eyes like a flame of fire.
In Dan. 7: 9, the Ancient of days is represented as clothed in a gar-
ment ivliite as snotv, and the hair of his head is like pure wool. In Dan.
10: 6, the angel who makes his appearance is represented as having " a
face like the appearance of lightning." In the Apocalypse XsvAog is,
for the most part, predicated of garments ; e. g. 3: 4, 5, 18. 6: 11. 7: 9,
13. 19: 14, in which case it means a glistening lohite. Once it is predi-
cated of a gem or precious stone (2: 17), and once of a cloud (14: 14) ;
in which cases there can be scarcely a doubt that it means radiant,
splendid, quasi silvery, i. e. of a pure splendour approaching to white,
like silver, or rather like that of u-on or other metals heated to what is
named a white heat. So in Matt. 17: 2, the raiment of Jesus, during his
transfiguration, is said to be Xhv/m wg zb cpag, i. e. all luminous and ex-
ceedingly bright. In Luke 9: 29 his garment, on that occasion, is said
to be XevAog i^aoTQanrmv, radiantly white. From a comparison of
these various passages it seems to be clear, that in the clause before us
Xevxai designates pure white splendour. Ensis candens, says VirgiJ.
(Aen. XII. 91) of a glittering polished sword ; and Pliny (Hist. Nat. II.
25) speaks of a comet argenteo crine. Storr (Diss, on Apoc. p. 4) thinks
that gray hairs, as the insignia of a venerable old man, are here intend-
ed ; which imageiy, if at all employed, would seem to be more appro-
priate to the Ancient of days in Dan. 7: 9, than to him who had re-
cently risen from the dead, clothed with immortal youth and vigour.
Besides, what would // necfaXij mean, in this case, since this, as well as al
TQiysg, is said to be Xw/j'; ? In a word, there can be no doubt that the
purest splendour, like that of the lightning (so it is expressly described
in Dan. 10: 6), or like that of metals heated to the highest point, is in-
tended by the writer. White hair, considered in any other light, would
be wholly inappropi'iate here. The comparison with ivool and snow, two
of the whitest natural objects, is not unfrequent in the Scriptures ; comp.
Is. 1: 18. We meet with the same imagery in the Book of Enoch, 46:
1, 14: 22, coupled with the expression '■'■ brighter than the sun^ In a
somewhat different sense in 105: 2, 10, although perhaps even here it
means resplendent, comp. 105: 4. Ilesychius : Afvxo'r, Xu^itiqov.
Ot 6q}d-aX}io\ . . . TzvQog, an image common elsewhere ; Dan. 10: 6,
eyes as lamps of fire ; Enoch 105: 2, 4. II. XIII. 474, et saepe. Poetry
is full of the like expressions, e. g' fiery look, lightning glance, etc. To
no member of the body is this imagery so appropriate, as to the eye.
Chap. I. 15. 49
(!;') Anil his fcot worf like polished brass, ijlowinir as in the fiirnaco ; and his
voice like a voice of nianj- waters.
XfdxoXt^drm — There can be no doubt hero, that the writci' means to
employ the same imagery which is employed by Ezokiel respecting the
ihcophaiiies, where the prophet represents the splendour as like to ^"^'^^'n,
1: 4, 27. 8: 2. Probably this word is compounded of "rn: brass, and
^■0 smooth or polished ; for bb;? n'ins, polished brass (Ezek. 1: 7), seems
to be its e<iuivalent or synonyme. Like to this would be yaXxnh'^avov,
from yu).x<).; /./.Trt/ifL", polished brass. The exchange of ^ and n, also of
Q and )', is too well known in Greek to need any special explanation.
Dan. 10: 6 also exhibits "bp i^'^lns, in the same connection as the above
passages. This polished brass, so called, was doubtless of a peculiar
kind, and very splendid. — Other derivations the reader may find, in
abundance. Eichhorn : " From the Greek ;r«?.xOi.', brass, and the He-
brew "ib irhite . . . ut insoleiitiiis quid [auctor] proderet ;" and surely
the author accomplished his object, if he did compound the word in this
way. Others : yaXxog Xi^avog, i. e. aes Libaniticum or Lebanon-brass.
Sept. (in Ezech.) /;Afxr()or,Yulg. aurichalcham, i. e. a mixture of gold and
brass. Much is said by the ancients of the splendour of this elcctrnm ; some
making it to consist of a mixture of gold and brass, others of silver and
gold, etc. See Wetstein in loc, who produces many passages, of various
tenor, from both Greek and Latin writers. Comp. also Ges. Heb. Lex.
voc. ''^'^'^~- Salmasius (Exercitt. in Sol. p. 810) produces an example
of the word ya).y.o).i^ai'ov from an old Greek author, in which it means
a species of frankincense, of a fiery resplendent colour ; and this inter-
pretation Ewald prefers. But the evident reference of our author to
Ezekiel and Daniel, in his description, shows that the ">"3'^n of these
writers is meant ; and therefore, X\\^i polished brass is the most probable
meaning. Still, the derivation of the Hebrew word, by some of the
older critics, from wirs brass and sV?'? gold, is not an impossible nor
even an improbable one ; and then the word would mean ijlfiXToor, elec-
triim or aurochalcum ; which would give a good sense. To my own
mind, bbj? n'rnD, in Ezek. 1: 7 and Dan. 10: 6, speaks decisively in fa-
vour of the first interpretation.
IltTTvoMfiiPoi — Several versions appear to have read TTeTivncafispcp ;
and so also some two or three manuscripts. Eichhorn patronizes this
as the preferable reading, making it agree with yaXxoXi^uvco ; " non
enim," says he, " pedes erant in fornace igniti, sed aes." Lachmann, on
the authority of Codd. A. C, reads ;rf;7i'()a)//iV;^i'; with what sense, I
am not aware. The weight of authority, as well as the sense, speaks
in favour of neTtVQcofii'voi, glowing. Having compared the feet to a
splendid metal, the writer pursues and heightens the comparison by
VOL. II. 7
• .•/
50 Chap. I. 16.
supposing that they resemble the raetal when subjected to a vehement
lieat, in whieh case its radiance is greatly increased.
Kai II (pcovij avrov . . . ttoXIcov. This simile is common in the Old
Testament; e. g. Ezek. 1: 24. 43: 2. So in Rev. 14: 2. 19: G. Also
in 4 Ezra G: 17. Comp. Dan. 10: G. The roaring of the ocean, i. e.
of the waves of the sea, is meant by the voice of many waters ; and a
more truly sublime comparison could not be made, by adverting to any-
thing else in the whole compass of natural objects.
(16) And he hold in his right hand seven stars ; and out of his mouth issued a
sharp two-edged swcrd ; and his aspect was like the sun shining in his strength.
E^oiv is brachylogy for iyav t]p, and is an idiom very common in this
book, in which the author imitates the later Hebrew of Daniel, which is
filled with participles used in the room of verbs ; an idiom, moreover,
which is somewhat common everywhere in the Hebrew, although pecu-
liarly prevalent in the book of Daniel. This book is specially a proto-
type of the Apocalypse. See Vol. I. § 15, p. 243 seq.
JdartQug Inru. The question, how these are to be disposed of by our
minds in a congruous manner, is attended with some difficulty. The
hand of an apparently human form, (ofioioi' v'to) uv&Qanov), seems
hardly appropriate to hold seven stars. P^ichhorn represents the expres-
sion as meaning, that on the hand or fingers was a ring, or rings, in
which were set seven diamonds or precious stones glittering Uke stars.
So Heinrichs. But Ewald justly rejects this interpretation. Wolfius,
Vitringa, and many others, are silent on the subject. There are two
ways, however, in which it may be interpreted. (1) 'Ev means not only
in but also at, by, near, with, see Rob. Lex. h. I.e.; so that to suppose
the seven stars were near to his right hand, i. e. within his grasp, is one
mode of solution which the diction admits of. (2) Another is, that the
right hand was disj^layed open, and the seven small stars rested on it ;
Iv often means on or upon in the like cases ; Lex. ut sup. 1. b. On
the supposition (altogether consonant Avith Scripture and the popular
views), that the form apparent in this case was larger than that of usual
life, in order that it might be specially imposing, there can be no particu-
lar difficulty in the position, that the stars were seen as resting upon
the hand. Small stars indeed they must be ; and so they might be, in-
asmuch as they represented only individual ayytloi. of the seven church-
es, V. 20. The idea conveyed by this symbol is, that those who were
represented by the stars, were altogether at the disposal of him in tvhose
hand they were held. As to the nature of the imagery, see on Iv/vlag
under v. 12.
Pofiqaia . , , i'/.7TOQevo[iti'tj — The participle here is used for the
Chap. I. IG. 51
Ira|)crfcct of the verb ; see on t^cov above. The nature of the imagery,
however, presents some ditruMiUies. Are we to suppose, (as some pic-
tures represent ihe case), that to the minilof Jolm the Saviour appeared
with a sword (in re vera) issuing from liis mouth? This would at
h-ast make a representation very unusual, and (may we not add?) some-
what unnatural. In order to avoid this, it has been usual to refer to
the poicer of the divine trord to destroy the wicked, or to accomplish
anything that is requisite to be done. This word is sometimes called
the ireo//* of Jehovah's mouth, and represented as omnipotent, either to
create or destroy; so in Is. 11: 4. 2 Thess. 2: 8. Ps. 33: G. Perhaps
Job 2G: 13. llosea G: 5, " slain them by the words of my mouth, . . .
hewed them by the prophets," i. e. by their denunciations. See also
Wisdom of Solomon 11: 20. In 4: Ezra, (a book of the primitive age),
the imagery of this nature approaches so near to what may be regarded
as the view of John in the present case, that it is worth recital. Chap.
xiii. 4, speaking probably of the Messiah as coming " cum millibus
coeli," he says of him : " Exibat vox de ore ejus, ardescebant omnes."
Again (v, 10) : " Emisit de ore suo sicut flatum ignis, et de labiis ejus
S[)iritus flammae . . . et succendit omnes." In v. 38 he says, that the
Messiah will destroj' his enemies " per legem, quae igni assimilata est,"
i. e. by the denunciations of the divine law. The foundation being
thus laid by representing the divine word or communication as endowed
with an irresistible power of excision, it was easy to take another step,
and call this word a sword, which is the usual emblem of a destroying
power. So in Heb. 4: 12. AVisd. 18: lo, 16, 6 Tzavzodvvafiog aov Xoyoi,'
. . . it'qoi' oiv Tijp uiv7i('y/.mzov Inirayiiv gov q^focov, 'aiu arag inhjcmae
ik ndi'TU Oavuiov ; a veiy vivid representation. So in ICnoch Gl: 4,
comp. with 61: 15. And in conformity with this, the Rabbins are wont
to speak ; see quotations to this purpose in Wetstein on 2 Thess. 2: 8,
and in Schoettg. Hor. Heb. on the same passage. In conformity with
this idiom, the tongue or language of men is often repi'esented as a
sharp destroying sword ; Ps. 57: 4. 59: 7. Job 5: 15. In Prov. 14: 3
it is called a rod ; in Jer. 9: 8 it is represented as an arrow. If now
the writer had said, that the word or tongue, i. e. language, of the Sa-
viour was like a sharp two-edged sword, there would have been no diffi-
culty ; the idiom on all sides supports and illustrates this. But he
seems plainly to present an object visible to the eye of his mind, which
object is the symbol of a destroying power. And as to this, Eichhorn
says: " Si quid judieo, forma alioquin augusta deturpatur." Heinrichs
makes it merely a figurative expression, and not descriptive of an ap-
parent symbol ; and so does Ewald, although he adds much good illus-
tration. But ad all else here is symbol, so must this also be, in order to
be congruous. We have then simply to suppose (as in 4 Ez. 13: 4»
52 Chap. I. 17.
10), tliclt tlie breath which issues from the mouth of the heavenly pei'-
sonage assumes, in the view of the Apocaly])tist, the form of a shai-p
two-edged sword ; and we may compare this phenomenon, in some re-
spects, with the cloven tongues of fire in Acts 2: 3. In this latter case,
indeed, the object in view is different, inasmuch as the symbol is indica-
tive of abiUty to speak in many languages. But there is no incongruity
(as Eichhorn avers) in the present case, when we suppose the breath
to assume an ensifform shape or development, not as remaining in the
mouth, but after it has issued from the mouth. This would be a most
terrific symbol of the power of destruction. No painter, indeed, even
of the most glowing fancy, could do anything more than caricature such
a tremendous image ; and because he could not, the representation is
declared by some to be incongruous; But could a painter draw on
canvas the scene in Ps. 18: 7 — 16 ? Not even a distant actual resem-
blance of it. And yet this Psalm will not be charged, I trust, with in-
congruities. -Neither should John be so clmrged, in the present-case.
Kai i] oUng . . . dwdnei uvzov. The question here is : What verb
must be supplied after j] oihg ? Usually ijv is supposed to be the comple-
ment necessary to the sense. But if rjv were to be inserted, the verb
cfttivH in the next clause must naturally be changed to a Participle, viz.
(fai'vcop, as is evident fi'om the nature of the sentence. We must there-
fore supply tcpavrj, or (in conformity with the preceding constructions)
qxuvovaa, i. e. cpai'vovoa t/v, and so literally translate : And his counter
nance [s/zo^^e], as the stin shi?ieth in his strength. The present brachylogy
saves the repetition of the verb cpaiva : and this, not at the expense of
perspicuity, for the sense is quite plain. — The sun Iv zy dvvdfiei avzov,
is the sun at mid-day, when his beams are most powerful ; see Judg.
5: 31, for the source of the image. Meaning : ' His aspect was resplen-
dent, like the mid-day sun.'
(]7) And when I saw hiin, I fell at his feet as one dead; and he laid his right
hand upon me, saying: Be not afraid ; 1 am the first, and the last, even he who
liveth.
"EnEaa, Aor. 1 from the old root tisto^ = nlnroi which is a syncopate
of mWfiraj; see Gramm. § 83. 1. — '^ig vEHQog — Such was the usual effect
of a theophany on those who were the subjects of ecstatic vision ; comp.
Ex.53: 20. Is. 6: 5. Ezek. 1: 28. 43: 3. Dan. 8: 17, 18, 27. 10: 7—9,
17. Enoch 58: 1—3. 70: 3, 4. 4 Ez. 10: ^. 12: 5, 6.—'E&>]y.E zriv de^-
iav 7,. %. X., and the like is said in most of the cases to which reference
is here made. The right hand is stretched out, in order to raise up him
who is fallen.
The reason why he should not fear is now suggested. His helper is
d TZQmzog xal 6 ea^^azog. These are certain predicates of the eternal
Chap. I. 18. .53
God; pee Is. 41: 4. 43: 10. 41: (>. 48: 12. To these the writer adds
x«) 0 C(^v = Ti bx, Josh. 3: 10, i. e. tJie living God. The distinction
of vei*ses, as made in our vulgatc editions, interrupts and mars the sense
here ; for o ^oji' is evidently connected closely with o TtQwzog xat o sa-
XCiTog. The sequel stands distinctly by itself. T/ie living One, or (he
Ucing God, was an epilhet among the Hebrews, which distinguished the
true God from all false ones, and represented hira as ever energetic and
jtotent to do whatever might be pleasing in his sight. So Ewald ; al-
though Eichhorn and lleinrichs place a colon after fj'w £<//f, and make
it to mean : " I am he who was formerly your beloved INIastcr, etc. ;"
evidently in order to avoid the ascription to Christ of the attributes which
follow. But in vain ; for Rev. 22: 13 makes the same claim in behalf
of the Redeemer, the force of which cannot be fairly avoided. Mean-
ing : • I am the eternal and unchangeable Being, who always lives ; and
therefore I am able to j)erform all that I promise, either in respect to the
rewarding of my friends, or the punishing of mine enemies.'
(13) I was dead indood, vet behold ! 1 live forever and ever, and 1 have the
keys of Death and Hades.
'Eytrofir;v . . . 7c5y aicoyon', i. e. I was indeed subject to the power of
death, yet only for a little time, for behold! I live forever and ever, I
have risen to a life which can never be interrupted, never cease.
"L';roj T«s vXiii'i . . . fldov — mine are the keys of Death and Hades ; i. e.
mine is the power to open the gates of the under-world or region of the
dead, and to rescue whenever I please, from the power of Death and
Hades. I regard {yuvato.; and «5/;\,' here as peisojiif cations of the world
of the dead, i. e. Death is the king, and Iladcs his subjects, or (so to speak)
his executive ministers. So Rev. 6: 8. 20: 13, 14 would seem to compel
us to interpret the passage ; for there personification is altogether evident
and necessary. As to keys and the associated idea of unlocking, one
need but compare Ps. 9: 13. Is. 38: 10. Matt. IG: 18, in order to see
that tlie Hebrews ascribed to the under-world or region of the dead, doors
or gates — imagery borrowed from the doors of sepulchres. In like man-
ner the great Abyss has doors to be unlocked ; Rev. 9: 1. 20: 1 — 3.
The Rabbins say, that God has reserved four keys to himself, which he
has not committed to any of the angels, viz., the key of rain, of aliment,
of the sepulchre, and of pai-turiency. Wetstein (in loc.) has many cita-
tions which show how common this sentiment was among them. If it
were prevalent when the Apocalypse was written, and John had any
respect to it in the passage before us, it would furnish another particu-
lar in which he ascribes to the Saviour the prerogatives of the Godhead.
In the case before us, the speaker means to refer to his own resurrection,
as a proof of the fact asserted in regard to his power over the world of
54 Chap I. 19, 20.
the dead ; and he >vho has such power, can send his enemies to Hades,
or recall his friends from there, at his pleasure. Therefore : Mtj cpo^ov.
(19) Write now what things thou hast seen, and what they signify, and also
those things wliich will take place hereafter :
Ovv, continuative or transitive particle here ; Avhich seems to be its
primary and original design = 7iow then, hereupon, i. e. in addition to
what has already been said ; see Rob. Lex. — "A tidei,' refers to the vi-
sion of the Saviour, related in vs. 10 — 18. — Kai u hoc, and what they
signify. In regard to such a meaning of ua(, times almost without num-
Jber in the Scriptures, there can be no doubt ; see Matt. 13: 37 — 39
where this verb occurs seven times with such a meaning. See also
Rev. 1: 20, and comp. Rev. 17: 9, 15, 18. Gen. 41: 26, 27. Ezek. 37:
11, et passim. The sequel in v. 20, to [ivarijQtov x. t. X., appears to be
in apposition with a etai here, and exegetical of it ; so that special re-
gard seems to be had, in the phrase a Eiai, to the symbols of the seven
golden lamps and the seven stars. V. 20 explains these symbols. — The
matter being thus understood, it appears that what John is commanded
to write, has respect not only to the seven churches of Asia, but also to
futia^e events ; so that « eideg respects the first, and « fitXXei jivtadai
the last, i. e. the latter clause looks forward to the rest of the book.
Construed in the other way, viz., " Write what thou hast seen, and
what things are, and what is to take place," makes the second clause
unmeaning ; for the « nal, in this sense, diifer not from the « iudsg. In
the inter])retation which I have given, Vitringa, Eich., Heinrichs, and
Ewald, all unite. V. 20 seems to render this interpretation quite ne-
cessary.
(20) The mystery of the seven stars which thou hast seen upon my right hand
and the seven golden lamps. The seven stars are anoels of the seven churches ;
and the seven lamps are seven churches.
The first part of this verse, (as I have already intimated), appears to
be in apposition with <2 eldf.g and epexegetical of it. If any one prefers
it, he may repeat yQcix^iov (mentally) before it ; which will give it the
same meaning as apposition ; or he may regard it as the Ace. absolute ;
see like examples in N. Test. Gramm. § 115. 4.
Mvazt'iQiov means something secret, unknoicn, hidden, or obscure to
common minds; see Matt. 13: 11. Mark 4: 11. Luke 8: 10. 1 Cor. 14:
2. Eph. 5: 32. Rev. 10: 7. 17: 5, 7. There is evident reference here,
in the word fivanqQiov, to the symbols of the lamps and of the stars,
which, in themselves and without any explanation, would be of uncertain
signification, i. e. the meaning of them would be beyond the reach of the
ordinary powers of the human mind. But this apparent mystery is dis-
closed in the sequel.
Chap. I. 20. 55
^Siv £i8tg. Knapp rotuins for ; and with him agree Matthaei, Vater,
AVt'tstt'in, Titinann, (iricsbach, Ilalin, and the Vuljjate text. Clearly
the evidence pre[)onderates very niueli in favour of this ; for only four
or five Mss. have ov>;, and Lachmann alone has adopted it. Liicke, and
probably Ewald, consent to Laohniann, because they assume the posi-
tion, that the Apocalypse in no case exhibits an example of the attrac-
tion of the pronoun. But see tlie like attraction in 18: G, about the
genuineness of which there is no controversy.
'Em zz/s," Stiidi' nov. If we compare the sm here with the ir before
the same expression in v. IG, the inference would rather seem to be that
they are equivalent to each other. Such is the fact as to the substance
of the meaning. But the shades of expression differ ; iv means in,
within, designating the palm or inside of the hand ; while Ini means on
or upon, i. e. upon the palm of the hand, for any other position would
be unnatural.
O'l tTTTa daTtQSi; . . . eiai • I have translated dyytloi here, and e/.Ah]-
oiui in the next clause, without the article ; as they are in the original.
As predicates they are more naturally anarthrous ; while the adjuncts
here still render them definite, and the article is not needed. We might
insert the article, however, in the English version, and still render the
text ad sensicm.
The seven angels here mentioned, have given occasion to much specu-
lation and diversity of opinion. Are they teachers, bishops, overseers?
or is some other office designated by the word uyyflog here ?
(a) Old Testament usage, viz. the later Hebrew, employs the word
r^xb"; (= uyytlo^) to designate a prophet, Hag. 1: 13 ; also a priest,
Mai. 2: 7, and probably Ecc. 5: G. As priests, in the appropriate sense
of this word, did not exist in the Christian churches, (for these had no
Mosaic ^'itual of sacrifices and oblations), so we must compare uyyelog
here with "i<5': (prophet) in Hag. 1: 13. n()oq)ijTai there were in the
Christian church; see 1 Coi-. 12: 28. Acts 13: 1. 1 Cor. U: 29, 32, 37.
Ei)h. 2: 20. 3: 5. 4: 11. Taken in this sense, the word designates here
the leading teacher or religious instructor in the Asiatic churches. The
nature of the case would seem to indicate a leader here ; else why should
he be specially addressed as the representative of the whole body, in
each of the churches ? But,
(6) Another exposition has been given. Viti'inga (Dc Vet. Synag.
))p. 910 seq.) has compared the uyye).o<; of the Apocalypse with the n^V*?
~"Z^ of the .Jewish synagogues, which means legatus or delegatus eccle-
siue, and compares well with uyy^h)>; ty.y.hfaiug as to the form of the
phrase. The ofHce of the individual thus named was, to superintend
and conduct the worship of the synagogue ; i. e. he recited prayers and
read the Scriptures, or invited others to perfoi*m these duties ; he called
56 Introduction to Chap. IL HE.
on the priests to pronounce the final benediction, in case he himself was
not a priest ; he proclaimed the sacred feasts ; and, in a word, he super-
intended the whole concerns of religious worship, and ordinarily took the
lead in them himself. He was a nQnmtMg, or an inioxonog, and also a
8i8aay.u7.og in a greater or less degree ; conip. John 3: 10, 6 diddaxaXog.
The best account of this office is in Schoettgen, Horae Heb. pp. 1089
seq., who has pointed out some en'ors and deficiencies of Vitringa. See
also Buxtorf, Lex. Chald. under the two Hebrew words above named
respectively, pp. 1885, 2411. But he is too brief to give much satis-
faction.— From the views contained in these writers, Ew^ald has made
out the office of ayyhXog ("ii3:» '!!"'V-^) to be a kind of clerk, secretary, and
sexton to tlie churches, and concludes that didnovog is much, better fitted
to express the meaning of dyytlog here, than Imay.onog. But of this
mere secondary office I find nothing in the sources named ; and the nar
ture of the case shows, that the superior officer is in this instance, and
should be, addressed. He is probably called uyyeXog ixaXt^oiag in con-
formity to the Hebrew Chaldee, 'n^a^J niV:J, (possibly in reference to
Hag. 1: 13 or Mai. 2: 7) ; and may be named legatus ecclesiae, because
he is delegatus ab ecclesia, in order that he may offer their public devo-
tions to God, and superintend their social worship. Exactly the limits
of the office and its specific duties, neither the word dyyeXog explains,
nor does the context give us any particular information.
THE EPISTLES TO THE SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA.
[The preparation being thus made, by the majestic appearance of the Saviour
and his condescending kindness, for John to receive communications ; and he
being enjoined by Christ to commit to writing both the explanation of what he
had alreadj^ seen, and what was about to be disclosed ; the seven epistles to the
seven churches are first dictated to iiim, that he might write them down, and send
them to those churches in order that they might be read. When I say dictated, I
do not mean to affirm, that John heard with his outward ear all the contents of
these epistles spoken audibly to him ; for, as he was in a state of ecstasy (1: 10),
so it would be difficult for us to determine how much belonged to the outward,
and how much to the inward man. But being in the. spirit, he seems to himself,
at all events, to hear the words of the epistles, i. e. the contents of them, or the
ideas which they comprise, are deeply impressed upon his mind and memory, so
that he could easily commit them to writing. It is not necessary in this case,
any more than in others, to suppose a mechanical and verbal dictation of all the
words ; as a king, for example, might dictate to his amanuensis verba I.envs. It
is enougl), that the inner man becomes so thoroughly imbued, in vision, with
the subject matter to be contained in the epistles, that John is altogetlier furnished
for the work of writing them, and of sending them lo tlie churches. He receives
his commission to do this from the Lord Jesus Christ ; and is instructed so as to
INTRODUCTION TO ClIAP. IT. III. 57
make an official communicntion from hiin. Thai tho writirifr was done at succes-
sive intervals bftwoeii jjarls of the vision — is the first and natnral impression de-
rived from a continuous reading of the whole. Rev. 10: 4 tends much to confirm
this impression ; and as there are no urgent reasons against this view of the sub-
ject, it seems to me quite proper and congruous to adopt it. At the same time,
we need not attach much importance to our opinion witii respect to this particu-
lar matter; wiiicli,as all must confess, is not explicitly disclosed to us. Enough
that John was under divine influence and guidance (aV -Trir//«rt) when he wrote
the epistles before us, and that the Lord Jesus conniiissioned him to disclose to
the churches the things which they contain. The epistles in themselves seem to
wear the appearance of having, as it were, been dictated to the writer ; and that
they are even more than ordinarily the result of special divine influence as to
manner, as well as~tndtfcr, T sliould cheerfully concede, or rather, I am quite dis-
posed to believe. They certainly- in some respects do diffl-r in manner from the
remainder of the book ; they difl'er from the simple style of John in his Gosp»l
and in his general epistles. But, on account of the peculiar influences that op-
erated on the writer when they were composed, this diflTerence is not strange ;
nor can much be made of it in criticism, (the attempt has often been made), if
these positions are substantially correct. But still the manner in which these
epistles are composed, deserves special attention.
(1) The reader should not fail to note, that in each of tiie seven epistles, the
address to the churches is prefaced by some of the characteristics ascribed to the
Saviour in chap. i. ; either by such as were displayed in his personal appearance,
or by such as the writer had himself already explicitly ascribed to him. This
niiffht serve to make an impression on those who would read the epistles, like to
tiiat made upon John by the vision itself. The regularity with which this is done
in all the epistles, deserves to be specially noted ; e. g. Rev. 2: 1 comp. with Rev.
1: 16, 13.— 2: 8. comp. with 1: 18.— 2: 12 comp. with 1: 16, second clause.— 2; 18
comp. with 1: 14, 15. — 3: 1 comp. with 1: 20, and 1: 4, 6, which, when taken in
connection, seem to imply the dominion of Christ over the seven spirits. — 3: 7
comp. with 1: 5 (o juuQTvg 6 TTiarug), and 1: 18. From the latter the figure of the
key may be taken, (or perhaps from Is. 21: 22), while the substantial meaning of
the clause is comprised in o aQyo)V roTf ^aot/.toiv Ttjs y^? in 1; 5. — 3: 14 comp.
with 1: .5 (clause just quoted), only that in 3; 14 the scope of the expression is
enlarged, and it becomes a^'pi ^*i^ xzi'asojg rov &ioi>. From all this it is plain, that
the writer in composing the epistles, had his mind filled with the vision as related
in chap. i. ; and that the same hand is plainly employed in both. Throughout, the
plan is uniform ; while the manner of executing it is constantly, and, one might
almost say, sedulously varied.
(2) After the salutation, and mention of attributes which characterize him who
addresses the churches, next in order comes olSa rd i'^ya aov or aov t« t(jya.
With this declaration, which means that all their demeanor (for f'(>ya comprises
internal as well as external developments) is known to the Lord Jesus Christ, is
associated a specification of the various characteristics of each church, as well
what is matter of praise as what is matter of blame. To two of the churches,
viz. that of Smyrna and Philadelphia, he gives his unqualified approbation; 2: I).
3: 8. To the churches of Sardis and Laodicea he administers sharp rebuke ; 3:
1 — 3. 3: 1.5, 16. To the churches of Ephesus, Pergamos, and Thyatira, he gives
praise, and also administers rebuke, inasmuch as in some respects they deserved
the one, and in some the other. But here the approbation in all cases precedes
VOL. II. 8
'' 4"
58 INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. II. III.
the blame, tlius showing, as Paul in his epistles was wont to show, that it was more
grateful to coinmcnd than to reprove.
(3) Encouragement, admonition, exhortation, or warning, then follows, accord-
ing to what the nature of the case respectively demands. Particulars are stated
wherein reformation is needed ; and grounds of hope and encouragement are
placed before those, who are making vigourous efforts in the way of duty. All
are admonished that Christ is at hand, and that he will punish or reward, as their
respective conduct and character may require.
(4) The closing part of all the epistles exhibits a remarkable uniformity, which
still is mingled with variety. Each close exhibits the admonition : u i^wv ove,
dxovauTi'j tiro jrvtiifiu ?.iyei raig ixx/.tjOMi? , in the very same words. In connec-
tion with this, u viy.MV or tw viitulpTi appears, and to each person thus character-
ized, promises are made, all of which vary in costume and manner, but convey
substantially the same ideas. To one church it is said : They shall eat of the
txee of life, which is in the paradise of God, 2: 7 ; to another : They shall not be
harmed by the second death, 2; 11; to another : They shall eat of the hidden
manna, and wear a mitre, adorned with a pellucid and precious stone in front, on
which the incommunicable name [Jehovah] is engraved, 2: 17 ; to a fourth : They
shall have kingly power, and be made splendid as the morning star, 2. 27 — 29; to
a fifth : They shall be clothed in white, and their names be kept in the Lamb's
book of life, 3: 5 ; to a sixth : They shall have a permanent place in the temple
of God, and be enrolled as citizens belonging to the heavenly city, 3: 12; to a
seventh : They shall sit down as kings, with tlie Redeemer, on his throne o( ex-
altation in the heavenly world, 3: 21. Thus, while all the epistles are exactly
alike as to the admonition which urges them to hearken unto him who addresses
the churches, yet all at the same time vary in regard to the costume and tenor of
the promises which are made, in case of final victory over spiritual enemies. Has
not a writer, now, who exhibits so much grave uniformity in one case, and so
pleasing a variety in another, the first adapted to solemn admonition, and the last
to relieve the mind from all approach to dullness occasioned by repetition — has
not such a writer, to say the least, a tact of no ordinary character.''
One other circumstance should be noted here. This is, that the monition : '0
iyotv ovs, clicovadTOj ti to irvsvfia iJyet ralg iny.lTjotai?, in the first three epistles,
precedes the promises connected with 6 viaoiv >t. t- k. ; while in the last four of the
epistles, 6 i'ywv one sf. r. ).. folio ics such promises, and stands at the very close of
the epistles. There is doubtless a designed and significant division into classes of
three and four.
Nor should it escape the reader's observation, tiiat in nearly all these epistles,
the manner of the threat or the promise, near the close of the epistle, is intimately
connected with the attributes of the Redeemer described at the commencement of
it. Let the comparison be attentively made of the following passages, viz., 2:
1 with 2: 5.-2: 8 with 2: 10, 11.-2: 12 with 2: 16.— 2: 18 with 2: 28.-3: 1 with
3: 5. — 3: 7 with 3: 12. — 3: 14 with 3: 21. Let these comparisons be carefully made,
and the result must be a conviction, that more closely interwoven composition
cannot well be imagined. It is surely no ordinary hand, that can perform such a
task with so much skill.
From the view given above it results, that in conformity with the trichotomy
of the book thioughout, each of these epistles is divided into three parts, viz.,
(a) A reference to some of the attributes of him who addresses the church, (b)
Pisclosure of the characteristics of the church, with appropriate admonition, en-
couragement, or reproof, (r) Promises of reward to all who persevere in their
BPHESIAN church: ChaP. II. 1, 2. Ki^
Christian course, and ovcrconio tlio spiritual enemies wlio assault tliem ; src at
the close of No. 4 abuve. This trichotomy has no special influence on the inter-
pretation of these epistles ; but it is wortiiy of special note as it regards the rlie-
torical chiiracteristics of the book.
CHAPTER 11.
(1) To the anijel of the church at Ephesus write : Thus saitli he who holdcth
the seven stars in his rigiit hand, who walketii in the midst of the seven golden
lamps.
Tude, i. c. t« (from o> ij, to, used as a demonstrative) and the enclitic
de, of which particle some of the lexicons take no specific notice ; see
Ki'ihner's Gramm. § 349. c. Used adverbially here for thus, so. If
we translate it these things, the sense is the same.
KQurdJi; holding, i. e. exercising dominion over, having power over,
holding as it were within one's grasp. The metaphorical sense is here
aimed at, althougli the literal grasping of the stars in the hand is the
imagery employed. See on v. 20 and v. 16 of chap. i. Christ's pow-
er over the churches is thus significantly expressed.
Qi) I know thy works, and tliy toil, and thy patience, and that thou canst not
bear with those who are evil ; and hast tried those who say they are apostles and
yet are not, and hast found them to be dissemblers.
"Enyu aov is here generic, embracing all developments of character,
whether internal or external. The two nouns that follow are specifica-
tions of particular parts of iQya, which, among the Ephesian Chris-
tians, stood out most prominently to view. — Konov (from nonzai) would
seem to mean lamentation, beating one's self, i. e. through grief. But
here it designates toil, icearisome effort, labour adapted to fatigue and
discourage those who perform it ; a sense which is not frequent in the
classics, but is sometimes found there. The corresponding Hebrew is
^•:r, which the Septuagint translate by y.onog. — Tnounri'iP aov, patieiit
endurance, i. e. of the evils brought upon them by their y.6nog, or by
the circumstances of trial in which they then were.
Jvvr}, for dvvaaai the more usual form : see N. Test Gramm. § 69.
II. 5. — ^aazuaai, literally to bear or carrg a burden, etc. ; figuratively, to
hear zcith, to endure as a matter of toleration. — Kaxovg, which might
designate evil or wicked men at large, has here a more limited sense,
inasmuch as it refers to those heretical dissemblers who were then
troubling the Ephesian church ; see xpevdelg in the next clause, and
com p. v. 6.
Ennoanag, tried, sifted, thoroughly examined ; in what way, it is not
said ; but as the action is commended, some lawful and proper method
60 EPHESiAN CHURCH : Chap. II. 3.
of trial is quite plainly implied. — AnoctoXovg thai indicates of course,,
that the evil doers in question made high claims to authority and quali-
fications to teach. But who they were, i. e. to what particular sect
of heretics they belonged, is not certain. The name of Nicolaitans (v.
6) seems to be symboUcal ; as do the corresponding names in 2: 14 and
2: 20. Eichhorn conjectures, that they were disciples of John the
Baptist, because Paul found some of these at Ephesus, Acts 19: 1 — 5.
More probable is the conjecture that they were Judaizers, and (if we
may compare 2: 14 and 2: 20 for the sake of illustration) of the anti-
nomian cast, or perhaps of the Gnostic party. It may throw some light
on the efforts and claims of these false apostles, should we compare 2
Cor. 2: 17. 3: 1. 11: 4, 5, 13. 12: 11. Gal. 1: 7. 2: 4. PhU. 3: 2, 3.
In 2 Cor. 11: 13 these teachers are called xpsvdanoGroXoi, as in the
text before us they are named ipevdsTg. Perhaps they may have been
like those mentioned in 1 John 2: 18 seq. 4: 1 seq. 2 John v. 10.
That some of the false teachers of that day assumed the name of dnoa-
ToXoi, is clear from the texts referred to, as well as from the passage
before us. But as we have no specific history, on which we can rely,
of the minute differences of the earliest heretical sects, so we must leave
particulars in a state of some uncertainty. At the time when the Apoca-
lypse was written, no doubt all was clear to the readers.
^^'tvdeig here seems to mean false as to the pretences which they
made of being apostles. Of course the implication is, that they were
teachers of false things, in other words, that they taught error. Had
they taught nothing but tnith, they would not have been thus severely
reprimanded.
(3) And still thou hast patience, and hast borne with [evils] for my name's
sake, and art not wearied out.
Kai v7TO{i.ovjjv exug repeats the idea before expressed in order to give
intensity to the description. Notwithstanding all the trouble which the
Nicolaitans had given them, in spite of all the persecutions which they
had endured, they still continued to exhibit a highly commendable ex-
ample of patient endurance. The two words i^dazaoag and xexonia-
xag, as employed in this verse, constitute what grammarians call an
antanaclasis with the words ^aardaui and xonov in the preceding verse,
i. e. the former are a repetition or echo (for so uvtafaxXuaig literally
means) of the latter, and at the same time they are employed in a dif-
ferent sense. In v. 2, ^aatdaai has reference to a state of mind, i. e.
to mental toleration or endurance ; in v. 3, i^dazaaag refers to the ac-
tual endurance of sufferings or vexations ; in v. 2, -aotzov means weari-
some toil ; in v. 3, y.s.'/.omanag (from the same root as nonog) means to
EPiiESiAN CHURCH : Chap. II. 4, o. Gl
be wearied out. The force of the expression may be thus represented :
' Tliou ctinst not bear with false teachers, but thou canst bear with
troubles and perplexities on account of me ; thou hast undergone weai'i-
some toil, but thou art not wearied out thereby.'
(4) Nevertheless I have [aomcwiiat] against thee, because thou hast forsaken
tliy first love.
£^(0, i. e. i^^ ti. Kara, with the Genitive here implies an accusa-
tion or charge, for it means against. — MydnViV ttqcotijv — first fervour of
love to C'iu'ist ? Or does it designate their former spirit of benevolence
and kindness toward all men ? Either would make good sense ; but as
V. 5 exhibits tlie course opposite to forsaking the first love, and enjoins
such an opposite course upon the Ephesian churches (^/loiijaai. ta nqmra
i'liya) as a remedy of the alleged evil, the more congruous interpreta-
tion would seem to be : ' Thou hast made defection from thy former
benevolent and beneficent coui*se of conduct, and hast need of repen-
tance and reformation in this respect ;' for so the sequel seems to speak,
comp. V. 19. Eichhoru construes aydnijv as meaning lenity toward the )
false teachers ; but where in all the New Testament is such lenity
commended, still less commanded? On the contrary, the Ephesian
church are commended because they hate the deeds of the Nicolaitans,
V. 6. — Jicfijxag, irregular Aor. I. of dqiitjfii; the Perfect is urpeixa.
Some of the lexicons state the Perfect erroneously, i. e. making it the
same as Aor. I.
It would seem probable that the church at Ephesus, vexed with
troubles from without and within, had somewhat declined from that
universal kindness and good will of which they had once aflforded a
conspicuous example. How strongly this spirit was inculcated by the
primitive teachers of true Christianity, is everywhere apparent. Comp.
as specimens, Rom. 13: 9, 10. 1 Cor. 13: 13. Acts 20: 35.
(r>) Remember, then, whence thou hast fallen, and repent, and do thy former
works; but if not, I will come to thee quickly, and will remove thy candlestick
out of its place, except thou repent.
UtnTcoxag, thou hast fallen, old root TztTco, Perf. nenszco'/ia, by syn-
cope TTtTTtbyy.a. A state of exalted Christian attainments in holiness
may well be deemed the height or perfection of our nature ; and decline
from this may aptly be named falling. — Metavotjoov means to change
one's mind or purposes, and along with this, a corresponding change of
demeanor. — In tu nQoira tQya 7Toti,c!ov, the word nQOJza plainly stands
for nnortna. The Hebrew has no gradjitions of comparison formally
Ijiadejout; hence in Hebrew-Gi'eek the superlative and comparative
forms often intermingle their sense, the superlative sometimes being
H
^
62 EPHESIAN CHURCH : ChAP. II. 6.
comparaiive (as here), and sometimes conveying its appropriate mean-
ing. ^ ^
Et 8s iJtj, lit. but if not, or (which is here an equivalent) othenoise.
Filled out the phrase would be : Ei 8e firj noiria^g. — "EQ/o^ai, venturus
sum, like the Pres. part, in Hebrew (n2 "'3X), it has a future sense,
specially a proximate future ; see N. Test. Gramm. § 136. c. — ^oi, Dat.
after a verb of approach ; N. Test. Gramm. § 106. 8. b,
Ka) xtvrjam . . . fiezavotjarjg should be all conjoined in sense. The
latter half of v. 5 contains two clauses, (1) I will speedily come upon
thee, i. e. for retribution. (2) I will -make retribution, in case thou shalt
remain impenitent, by removing thy candlestick out of its place, i. e. by
extinguishing its hght. The phraseology here is plainly borrowedTrom
the phenomena of the preceding vision in chap. i. The Lord Jesus ap-
pears walking in the midst of seven golden lamps, 1: 13, i. e. surround-
ed by them. These lamps are symbols of the seven Asiatic churches.
To remove one of them from its place, would be to withdraw it from the
special and immediate presence and care of the Saviour, and thus to cut
off its privileges and take away its precedence. How effectually this
has been done, the present state of Ephesus fully testifies ; see under
1: 11.
'Eav 111], i, e. h uv fii^, si = if, states a supposition ; ju// is a subjective
qualified negative, adapted to a case of supposition like this, and also to
the Subjunctive mode. J^v makes more prominent the conditionality
of the clause. We may translate thus : Except thou shalt repent, or in
case thou shouldest not repent.
(6) But still thou hast this, that thou hatest the deeds of the Nicolaitans ; which
I also hate.
yilld, yet, i. e. notwithstanding what I have said in the way of accu-
sation, thou hast this which is matter of approbation, viz. that (for so on
imports here) thou hatest, etc. ; where the latter clause stands in apposi-
tion with tovzo, and is explanatory of it. Such a use of the demonstra-
tive (ovTog, zovTo), where the clause added is intended to be made em-
phatic, is very common in the New Testament, and is also found in
classic authors. It may be followed by on or iva before the emphatic
clause; N. Test. Gramm. § 123. 4. See a large mass of examples in
Winer's N. Test. Gramm. § 23. 4. John and Paul abound most in this
idiom.
A'^ixolahwv, a designation which has given rise to much discussion
and conjecture, both in ancient and in modern times. Irenaeus is the
first of the Christian fathers who mentions this sect, Adv. Haeres. I. 26.
ed. Massuet. He traces its origin to Nicolaus, one of the seven deacons,
mentioned in Acts 6: 5 ; and he states, that their characteristic tenets
EPHESiAN church: Chap. II. 6. 63
were, the lawfulness of promiscuous intercourse with women, and of eat-
ing things offered to idols. So Eusebius, Hist. Ecc. III. 29 ; who also
quotes a passage from Clem. Alex. Strom. II. (pp.490, 552), the substance
of which is, that Nicolaus, having a beautiful wife, was jealous of her, and
being reproaclicd with this, renounced all intercourse with her, and in-
duced his children to live in a state of perpetual celibacy. The tradi-
tion was, in Clemens' time, that Nicolaus had said : JlaQaxQUG&cu t^
auny.i dei. This some interpreted as enjoining illicit pleasure ; but
Clemens, as renouncing it and commanding to mortify carnal desires.
Hence he vindicates Nicolaus, while he still sujjposes the sect to have
arisen under his name, and by a perversion of what he had said. To
the same purpose Epiphanius (Haeres. XXV.), who has made additions,
which a.ssert the dissolute life of Nicolaus, after the occurrence above
related respecting his wife. Tertullian (De Prescript, llaeret. c. 33)
speaks of -Nicolailans as a branch of the Gnostic family; and also as
extinct ; for his words ai'e : " Sunt et nunc alii Nicolaitae ; Gaiana [i. e.
Caiana of C«m] haeresis dicitur." See also ibid. c. 46, ad finem. In
this latter passage, he names Nicolaus as one of the seven deacons men-
tioned in Acts G: 5. In like manner, respecting this last particular, do
Philastrius and Augustine speak, in their treatises respecting heretics.
Eusebius (in Ecc. Hist. III. 29) also speaks of the heresy of the Nico-
laitans as then for a long time extinct: '/i<T/ aixrAQoraxov avreozi] XQO-
ror, i. e. it lasted but a very little period. Yet Irenaeus, Epiphanius,
Andreas (Comm.), and others, seem to speak of the Nicolaitans as a
sect still in existence, and of a proselyting spirit. How shall these con-
flicting opinions be reconciled ? They cannot be ; and the aspect of the
whole matter is such as to show, that various floating reports gave rise
to these patristical traditions respecting the Nicolaitans. Vitringa re-
jects the whole with scorn (Comm. in loc), so far as Nicolaus, one of
the seven deacons, is concerned. Mosheim, instead of strenuously de-
fending the origin of the sect from Nicolaus, (as Ewald affii-ms, Comm.
in loc), in his Ecc. Hist. (P. II. V. 15), considers the matter a doubt-
ful one ; and in his Commentt. de Rebus Christ. (§ 69), he says expli-
citly : " Habent res faclionis hujus [sc. Nicolaitarum] plurirauui obscu-
ritatis, quani frustra ingenio fugare conamur." He tiiinks it most pro-
bable, tliat the Nicolaitans of Epiphanius and the later fathers were a
branch of the Gnostics, so named from some leader among them called
Nicolaus. However this may be, (improbable I cannot deem it), it
seems to be quite clear, that nothing definite can be gathered from ec-
clesiastical history, respecting the existence and character of a sect in
reality bearing the appellation of Nicolaitans, during the primitive age
of Christianity.
Most commentators, therefore, since the days of Vitringa, have pre-
64 EPHESIAN CHURCH : Chap. II. 6.
ferred another method of solving the difficulty before us. This is, to
consider the name Nicolaitans as symbolical ; like that of Balaam in
Rev. 2: 14, 15, and Jezebel in 2: 20. In this case it compares well with
the Hebrew Di'ba , Balaam = n» bj'S , dominus vel tyrannus populi ;
for NmoXaog is compounded of vinog victoria and "kaog populus. An-
other explanation may be given of the Hebrew word n^ba , which re-
sults in the like conclusion, viz. t:S "^3, he destroyed the people, or
(using the verb in the common Syriac sense) he prevailed over or con-
quered the people. If the Nicolaitans were like those who are mentioned
in V. 14, 15, (and this hkeness the latter verse asserts) ; and if they
taught (like Balaam), that it was lawful to eat things offered to idols
and to commit fornication ; they might well be named Balaamites, i. e.
Niy.oXatzai. It was common among the early Hebrew Christians, to
give persons of Hebrew origin a Greek name corresponding in sense
with their Hebrew one ; e. g. NS'^3 , IIsTQog ; xn'^ia , Joquag, etc. So
here, NrAolai'rai = Si" b^'3 or Ci>ba. The position of most commenta-
tors belonging to this class is, that merely the writer of the epistle ap-
plies such a name, in a symbolical or figurative way, to the party who
are stigmatized in the present case. So Janus, de Nicolaitis ; Heu-
mann, PoecUe, II. p. 391 ; Vitringa in loc, and in Observ. Sac. IV. 9 ;
Storr, Apologie der Offenb. p. 260 ; Miinscher, Ueber die Nicolaiten,
in Gabl. Journal, V. pp. 17 — 29. So also in the Commentaries of
Lange, Eichhorn, Matthaei, and others. As I cannot fully accede to
this opinion, it will be proper briefly to subjoin my reasons.
The manner in wliich the appellation (Nicolaitans) is used here and
in V. 15, would seem to import that the name was current in the church-
es at Ephesus and Pergamus. That there were some persons in these
churches, who practised the vices named in v. 14, there can be no good
ground of doubt ; comp. v. 20, which shows that the same immoralities
were practised also at Thyatira. Now as these were the very same
vices into which the Israelites of old fell (Num. 25: 1 — 3. 1 Cor. 10: 7,
8) ; and into which they fell, as it would seem, through the devices of
Balaam (v. 14) ; so those who practised them were called Balaamites
= NirAolatrai in Greek as above stated. Whether some person by the
name of Nicolaus was actually their leader, as Wolfius supposes (Curae
in loc.) ; or whether mere popular impulse, guided by the nature of the
case, invented and bestowed the appellation ; must remain an uncertainty.
Nor can it be of any importance to determine this. It was a character-
istic and significant appellation, a lucky hit (as we say) in the appHca-
tion of epithets. The whole aspect~of~the various cases, in vs. 6, 15,
and 20, seems to my mind, plainly to denote, that the name was actual-
ly current at the time, and that the practices intended to be designated
by the use and application of it were then well known, so that no doubt
EPHESiAN church: Chap. II. 7. 65
could exist in the mind of the reader with regard to the meaning of
John's words. As to the rise of such a sect among Christians, one would
indeed naturally think it to be strange. Yet the abuse of such declara-
tions jvs Paul makes in 1 Cor. 8: 4. 10: 25, and specially in 1 Cor. 6:
12, might easily give rise, among the ignorant and viciously inclined, to
the indiscriminate eating of meats, and to the indulgence of carnal de-
sires. Still these very things had been expressly forbidden by the
apostles. Acts 15: 29. 21: 2d\ and therefore such vices ai*e mentioned
here, as we might well expect, with an expression of severe displeasure
against them. Such a view of the case seems to afford the most natural
and easy solution of the difficulty in regard to the passage before us ;
and by taking this course, we are unembaiTassed with the obstacles that
lie in the way of tracing the heresy in question to Nicolaus one of the
seven deacons ; while we educe from the passage a very significant
meaning.*
(7) He who hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith to the cliurches.
To him who overcometh will 1 give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the para-
dise of my God.
But who, or what is to Tznvfia in this case ? Is it the Spirit who
dwelt in Christ (John 3: 34), and which " God gave him not by measure"
i. e. without measure ? Or is it the Spirit who was in John during his
prophetic ecstasy ? Comp. 1: 10. The first inquiry to be made, in order
to answer these questions, seems naturally to be : Who is it that now
speaks, i. e. who utters the words of v. 7 ? It is manifestly the Saviour
who speaks ; but he addresses the churches through John, his disciple
and servant. Just before his departure, Jesus made to his disciples a
promise of sending them the Holy Spirit (John 15: 26), who was to
teach them all things (John 14: 20). Now w-hether we consider this
Spirit as being given to John, and so, through him, addressing the
churches ; or whether we regard the Spirit as manifesting his will,
through the Saviour, unto the churches who were to be warned and in-
structed ; the difference of signification in the passage will not be very
imj)ortant. The Saviour possessed a human nature, as well as a divine ;
and to this human nature the Spirit was imparted without measure,
John 3: 24. Ewald says : " Hand dubie spiritiis prophetiae est, quo
r —
* For the older literature in regard to this question, the student sliould consult
Wolfius, Curae in loc. For the more recent literature, besides the sources al-
ready named, he may consult Walch, flist. der Ketzereien, 1. p. lG7seq. Scheff-
ler-Tiburtius, de Nicolaitis, 18-25. These writers advocate tlie old opinion. In
Constitult. Apostol. VI. 8, Ignat. Ep. ad Trail, c. 11, the heretics in question are
called tf)tvSioi>i/xoi Nixolou'rai ; which would appear to favour the idea, that the
authors of these compositions rejected the notion that these heretics originated
from the Nicolaus mentioned in Acts 6: 5.
VOL. II. 9
66 EPHESIAN CHURCH : ChAP. II. 7.
correptus (Rev. 1: 10) Johannes omnia liaec praescribit." In Rev. 19:
10 we are told, that " The testimony of Jesus is the Spirit of prophecy,"
i. e. it is a prophetic Spirit which gives testimony respecting Jesus ; so
that the testimony here considered as given by Jesus himself, or by John
his servant, proceeds, in either case, from the same prophetic Spirit who
addresses the churches.
As to the formula o e^^v ovg, uxovadto) n. r. X., Jesus was accustomed
to repeat the same after the addresses which he made to those who sur-
rounded him; see Matt. 11: 15. 13: 9. Luke 8: 8. It seems to have
been a not unusual caution given by teachers to hearers, and to mean :
' Let him who heareth what is said, well consider it.'
T(p vrAOJvn — not homini puro, as Eichhorn, who compares the Sy-
riac Vsl = ri2T purus, but — vincenti, i. e. to him who overcomes, viz.
the world, and particularly to him who perseveres in his christian course,
and rises superior to all obstacles and all opposition made by persecu-
tors— to him will be given, etc. Throughout all the epistles here, and
indeed throughout the whole book, it is perfectly plain that the writer
is composing his work ingruente persecutione. In fact, the great design
of the book originally was, to comfort and encourage those who were in
circumstances of distress, specially on account of persecution. The op-
posite of 6 vv/MV is given in Rev. 21: 8, viz. ol dttXoi y.ui oi anioroi, i. e.
the timid and those who confide not in the divine promises. As to the
repetition of the pronoun avt^, see Vol. I. p. 248, as to general usage.
I may remark, however, that it is here superfluous as to the essential
meaning, but is added to give intensity, (comp. 2: 17. 6: 4) ; and the
usage, moreover, of repeating the pronoun together with the noun or sub-
ject to which it refers is very common in Hebrew. Heb. Gramm. § 543,
comp. also § 545. § 546. Constructions like this are very common in the
New Testament; see Mark 5: 2. 9: 28. Matt. 26: 71. They are not
uncommon even in the Classics; see N. Test. Gramm., § 121. n. 4.
ihaysiv ix rov ^vXov rijg ^(oijg is the object of the verb dcoao), accord-
ing to a very frequent usage of the Lifinitive mode, which may be sub-
ject or object. The imagery here is drawn from the garden of Eden,
in which was the tree of life, adapted to make the natural life of man
perpetual, Gen. 3: 22. The tree of life is here spoken of, beyond all
doubt, in reference to a celestial paradise ; comp. Rev. 22: 2, where it is
spoken of as belonging to the yij y.aift'j, as an appendage of the abode of
the blessed, gleaning : ' To him who perseveres in his fidelity to me,
and triumphs over all opposition and persecution, will I give an abun-
dance in the future world, with life everlasting.' — cpaynv in makes the
expression more specific. The Genitive after cfaynv might be used
without the preposition, inasmuch as the verb has di partitive sense, and
CHURCH AT SMYRNA : ClIAP. II. 8. 67)
<payetp rtvo^ is normal. — ^vXov <^coij>; = life-giving tree, or life-preserv-
ing tree.
I I(i()adEt'aq), a word of oriental derivation. Thus in Sanscrit, para-
desha or paradiskn ; in Armenian, pardes. The Sept. employ it for '|^
in Gen. 2: 8 scq. Xeiioplion, Diodorus Siculus, and Jose|)hus, also use
it; see Kob. Lex. In the New Testament, we find it in Luke 23: 43.
2 Cor. 12: 4, in eaeh place, as here, designating the abode of blessed
spirits. It is a frequent word among the Rabbins in the like sense.
See many quotations from them in Schoettgen, Horae Heb. in loc. By
the heathen writers, both oriental and Greek, it is employed to desig-
nate a pleasure-garden^ particularly a royal one which surrounded the
king's palace or citadel. The tropical sense of it here is evident ; and
the imagery is certainly vivid.
'Ev Toj nanadtiaoi tov {l-eov jiov — in the vulgate text : ip fitacp rov
fianadtiaov tov O^tov. But the weight of authority seems rather against
the vulgate reading. Some have felt a ditRculty here on account of the
{iov after &£0v. Riit why should they ? Does not the newly risen Sa-
viour speak of my God, in John 20: 17? And does he not say the
same in Rev. 3: 2, and four times repeated in 3: 12 ? Why might he
not say 7ni/ God, as well as say my Father ? For the Father is God.
Besides ; had he not a human nature, as well as a divine ? And could
he not truly say, in respect to this, my Father, or m.y God ? Those who
make such objections seem to forget that Christ is {^mvO-QMuog, and
that w^hat he says, at any time, is to be applied to the one nature or to
the other ^0 re nata. All serious difficulty vanishes, when the matter
is viewed in this light. We may add, also, that so long as the human
nature remains in union with the divine, such language will never be
inappropriate. Whether this will be always, perhaps the Bible has not
expressly said ; yet it is difficult for us even to entertain a supi)Osition
which would deny this. See what Paul has said, 1 Cor. 15: 24 — 28 ;
which, however, goes absolutely and positively no farther than to de-
clare the delivering up to the Father of all delegated and mediatorial au-
thority.
(8) And to the angel of the church in Smyrna write : Thus saith the First and
the Last, who was dead and revived.
riQcoTog xut saiaiog, see remarks on 1: 17, and comp, 1: 17, 18. —
'K^rjatv here == dvtXtjcsev, i. e. came to life, revived ; see Rev. 13: 14.
20: 4, 5. Comp. also C«oj in Matt. 9: 18. John 5: 25. 11: 25. Acts 1: 3.
25: 19. Rom. 6: 10, 13. 2 Cor. 13: 4. Our English version renders
i^r^ne, is alive. The version is not untrue as to the material sense ; but
the shade of meaning as well as the expression, in our text, assigns
both the death and the return to life to the past time ; strictly in accor-
68 CHURCH AT SMYRNA : ChAP. II. 8.
dance with fact. Appropriately does the speaker claim to be a living
Saviour in the most extensive sense of the word, for how else could he
perform the promises which he makes, or execute the threatenings which
he utters ?
(9) I know thy works, and tliine affliction, and thy poverty (although thou art
rich), and the blasphemy of those who say they are Jews, and are not, but the
synagogue of Satan.
QXixpiv may be understood as having reference to the sufferings con-
nected with nrwf^uav and ^)M(j(fi)]fiiav ; or it may have a more generic
sense, and mean all the sufferings and straits to which the profession of
Christianity reduced the church of Smyrna at that period. I prefer the
latter as being much more expressive, more characteristic of the times,
and agreeing better with the order of the words. — TlKn-^dav is doubt-
less here to be understood in its literal and usual acceptation. The
article before it, and also before -O-Xixptv, supplies the place of gov, and is
so translated atTove. The converse of nzcoyeiav, viz. nXovciog d, is
clearly to be understood in a secondary or spiritual sense ; for the object
of the speaker is to show, that while they are poor in one sense, i. e.
literally, they are rich in another, i. e. spiritually.
BXuoqujfxt'av ix . . . savrovg. Here fx marks definitely and emphati-
cally the agents from whom the defamatory accusations proceeded, and
is therefore more specific than ^laoq}rjfA.iav rav leyovrav x. z. 1., which
might possibly be taken in an active or in a passive sense. 'Ex makes
the expression so definite, that the meaning is certain.
'Jovdaiovg — ^in the figurative sense, i. e. the true Israel? comp. Rom.
9: 6 — 8. According to this mode of exposition, the speaker means to
say, that those who slandered the church at Smyrna, and occasioned
trouble to them, professed to be true converts to Christianity, but* were
not in fact so ; in other words, they did not belong to the spiritual Israel,
i. e. the seed of Abraham by faith (comp. Gal. 3: 7), but in reality be-
longed to the synagogue of Satan, i. e. to that synagogue in which Sa-
tan held a predominance, or to those professed worshippers whose tem-
per and conduct Satan influenced. If this be the meaning, then there
seems to be evident reference to the conduct of Jewish zealots, who
went so far, when engaged in warm dispute, as to make accusations of
Christians before the heathen magistrates, in order to have vengeance
inflicted upon them; comp. 2 Thess. 1: 3 — 6. See also the spirit of
the Judaizers as represented in the epistle to the Galatians. It may be,
however, that the meaning of the passage before us is, that the Jews, who
were not professed Clu'istians, but who cherished a fiery zeal in favour
of the Mosaic rites and forms, and consequently felt not a httle enmity
against Christians, were the persecutors here alluded to. Almost all of
CHURCH AT SMYRNA : ChAP. II. 9. 69
the persecutors of Christians, in the primitive age, were first excited to
persecution by this chiss of men. Construed in this way, the speaker
means to say, that they are not even so much as true Jews, which they
profess to be, but of the synagogue of Satan. The extreme bitterness
of spirit wliich those defamers exhibited, would seem to incline us to
this latter interpretation ; indeed I can scarcely doubt that it is the
right one. We can find a touching narrative of what was actually done
to the church at Smyrna, at a later period, under the reign of Aurelius
and Lucius Verus, when Polycarp suffered martyrdom ; which may
serve as a comment on the coniluct of the Jews in the present case.
Euscbius (Hist. Ecc. IV. 15) has told the story at length, with appeal
to ancient documents ; and by this it appears, that when Polycarp was
apprehended and brought before the Proconsul at Smyrna, the Jews
were the most furious of all the multitude in demanding his condemna-
tion. When the mob, after he was sentenced to death, set about gather-
ing fuel to burn him, " the Jews, lidhcra nQO&v^iojg, tOt,- iOo^' avToJg,
ran to procure the fuel." And when, inasmuch as the burning failed,
the blessed martyr had been transfixed with weapons, the Jews besought
and urged the magistrate, that his body might not be given up to Chris-
tians. Possibly, at the very time when the epistle before us was writ-
ten, Polycarp might have belonged to the church at Smyrna — as he
lived to extreme old age, and history represents him as saying before
the Proconsul, that he had served Christ eighty-five years ; yet, if the
Apocalypse was written (as I doubt not it was) before the destruction
of Jerusalem, this cannot well be made out. Be this as it may, the
temper of those who belonged to the synagogue of Satan is sufficiently
exhibited in the narration of Eusebius, and also of the church at Smyrna
in their epistle respecting the death of Polycarp ; from which epistle
Eusebius has largely quoted.
The boasting of the Jews (comp. 3: 9), in this case, with regard to
their name, in which they were wont to glory, may be well illustrated
by comparing 2 Cor. 11: 22. Rom. 2: 17. Phil. 3: 5. Another appella-
tion of honour was n^ri"' bnp. Num. 16: 3. 20: 4, saepe al. Instead of
this, avvayoiyri zov ^azara is the appellation here given, which at once
characterizes and condemns them.
(10) Fear not at all the things which Ihou art about to suffer. Behold the devil
will cast some of you into prison, that ye may be tempted ; and ye shall have af-
fliction ten days. Be faithful unto death, and I will give thee the crown of life.
'0 diu^oXog. He had just said, that the persecutors belonged to the
synagogue of Satan, i. e. they were under the influence of that malignant
being. As the primary agent, that being is here designated. Men
were his instruments, (voluntary ones indeed), in the present case.
70 CHURCH AT PEEGAMOS : ChAP, II. 11, 12.
Prison was the first degree of punishment, when supposed malefactors
were arrested, Acts 12: 3, 4. 16: 23.
"Jva neiQaa&rJTE. The turn of this phi'ase depends on the meaning
given to iva. If a telic sense be given, viz. in order that, then the de-
sign of Satan is signified, which was to tempt them, by subjecting them
to suffering, to recant their Christian profession. If an ecbatic sense be
given to iVa, viz. so that, then the rendering should be : So that ye must
undergo trial, i. e. trial will be the consequence of your imprisonment.
I prefer the former, because the v/.^aatg, in this case, is given in a sub-
sequent clause. But if any prefer the second mode of interpretation,
they may compare Gen. 22: 1. Ex. 16: 4. James 1: 2, 3, in which they
may see that trial is not only compatible with the divine government of
the church, but an ordinary part of its discipline.
'H(itQK>v di'y.a, i. e. a short time, a few days, or a moderate space of time;
comp. Gen. 24: 55. Dan. 1: 12, 14. 1 Sam. 25: 38. Neh. 5: 18. Jer.42: 7.
Acts 25: 6. Let the reader mark well the symbolic use of number, in this
case ; for the exact literal one will be insisted on, I trust, by no one.
Qavdzov refers here, probably, to a violent deatKT Christians were
not to shrink even from this. In case they remained faithful, a crown
of life would be given to them, i. e. a crown of glory in that world where
immortal life is to be enjoyed ; comp. 1 Pet. 5: 4. James 1: 12, and spe-
cially Rev. 4: 4. The main idea is like that in Rev. 2: 7, q:ayttv h. zov
^vXov rijg C™/;? ; but the difference between the two cases is, that here
the exalted and glorious state of the martyrs is more distinctly marked
by the nature of the imagery employed.
(11) He who hath an ear, Jet him hear what the Spirit saith to the churches.
He who overcometh, shall not be harmed by the second death.
Jldr/.r^&y, lit. to suffer i7ijustice ; but secondarily, as here, to suffer
harm or injury. The second death is that which follows the general resur-
rection and judgment, Rev. 20: 14. 21: 8. This is here opposed to the
crown of life. On the use of ov fxij see Gramm. § 148. 4. Meaning:
' The faithful martyr shall receive a crown of unfading glory (1 Pet. 5:
4), and never experience any other death than that of the body.' The
promise to the faithful is, as often in the writings of John, announced
both in the affirmative and negative form.
(12) And to the angel of the church in Pergamos write : Thus saith he who
hath the sharp two-edged sword;
'Pofiq)(uav diGTo^iov, o^elav, see 1: 16, with the remarks there made.
The manner in which the idea of such a sword issuing from the mouth
came into the mind of the writer, seems to have been as stated in those
remarks. "We may suppose that when the Saviour, in the vision related
cnuRcii AT PERGAMOs : Chap. II. 13. 71
in chap, i, uttered words, as they proceeded from his mouth the halitu3
which accompanied them assumed, in the view of John, the form of an
ijriieous two-edged sword : thus indicating the awful power of his dec-
larations, and specially of his condemning sentence. Here he is about
to reprove, in part ; and they who arc addi-essed, are warned of the pow-
er of his reproof by the writer's employing this imagery. — "Exav, in this
case, of course does not mean to possess as an attribute, but (as often
elsewhere) to hare or hold at. one's disposal. Meaning: ' He, who has
power by a single word to chastise, or even to destroy, addresses you ;
hearken then to his warnings !' *
(13) I know thy works and where thou dwcllcst, even wliere Satan's throne
is; and thou holdest fast my name, and hast not denied my faith, even in tlie
days in which Antipas [was] my failiiful martyr, who was slain among you, where
Satan dwelletli.
77oii •MtTOiyM'i, i. e. I know well in what an impious and cruel place
thou dwellest. — Onov . . . aazavd, even where the very metropolis of
Satan is, or where he sits enthroned, i. e. where he exercises his power
of stirring up hatred and persecution in a peculiar and successful man-
ner. This is explained by the context, which states that Antipas had
been actually slain there, on account of the Christian faith ; an allega-
tion the like of which is not made in respect to any of the other cities
•where the churches addressed had their abode. Ewald refers to An-
dreas as maintaining, that the city of Pergamos was distinguished above
all the Asiatic cities for idolatry. He represents it, indeed, as y.azetdco-
Xo^; but particularly as distinguished for its bitter enmity to Christians.
Here Aesculapius was worshipped with much zeal ; and Wetstein has
accumulated passages from the classics in oi'der to prove this ; — to what
purpose, as it regards the plain and sim[)le interpretation of our text, it
would be difficult to show. He has done the same, in order to illustrate
vtxQOi; xnl fl^ijoe in v. 8 ; which surely is labour lost. Who will sup-
pose, that the fabled power of Aesculapius to restore life, is alluded to in
these ciises, when there are other plainer and more appropriate sources
to which the language may be referred ? It is not the heathen mythology
which here comes into view, but the Hel>re\v demonology, so far as
Satan is concerned.
KoHTti.,- TO oi'oud NOV. Tlicy had professed to be Christians ; they
had taken the name of Christ upon them ; and to this profession and
name they steadfa-^tly adhered, amidst all the terrors of persecution. —
Kai OVA . . . mariv fjov, the same sentiment again, for substance, in the
way of negation, i. e. a hzoTtji;, as the grammarians call it. See exam-
ples of this usage in heathen writers, in Kuinoel on John 1: 3, 20. To
deny the Christian faith would also involve the act of letting go or of
m
•*^
72 CHURCH AT PEKGAMOS : ChAP. II. 13.
renouncing the Christian name. The church at Pergamos had done
neither the one nor the other.
^Ev ralg )j(itQaig ... 6 motog. " NotabiHs est," says Ewald, " hoc
versu construct io7u's negligentia, quam alibi frustra in Apocalypsi quae-
ras." This negligentia some have attempted to remedy, by omitting iv
ah' and writing Jivrinu (Gen.) ; others, by throwing out og ; but the
bodices, so far as yet known, will not allow us to do either. Can we
choose, then, an easier method of solution, which is by supposing -qv to
be implied after Jivrlnag ? The omission of the verb Hfii in cases with-
out number, every intelligent reader must be acquainted with ; see Rom.
11: 11. 1 Cor. 15: 21. IMatt. 27: 4. Mark 5: 9. Heb. 10: 18. Rom. 4:
13, et al. saepe. If any one should say, that in all these cases the noun
connected with lori implied, is the subject of the proposition ; or that
the predicate could not have the article, in case we insert i]v after Av-
7 mag; let him compare 1 Cor. 15: 56, Phil. 3: 19. 1 Cor. 11: 3. The
difficulty with the supposition does not lie in this ; for the article, in this
case, would be demanded in order properly to specify ftuQTvg emphati-
cally. It lies merely in the fact, that ellipses of the verb £i.[xi are mostly
of the third person singular of the present tense, (a few in the third plu-
ral) ; see Winer's Gramm. § (jQ. 2. But it is also true, that in the
Apocalypse we have a large number of instances in which the Imper-
fect of tqu (//f) is omitted, and must be mentally supplied ; e. g. Rev
1: 16 twice. In 4: 1, 5 — 7 are repeated cases where ?]v seems to be
omitted, both with a participle and without it ; also in 4: 5, xaiofievui,
6: 2, 5. 7: 9. 10: 2, 8 (bis). 19: 11, 12, 13. 21: 14, etc. All these lat-
ter cases, however, ai'e somewhat different from the one before us, inas-
much as a participle is expressed, which must be joined with the implied
past tense of e/ju/. In this way, i. e. by supplying i]v, Vitringa, Daubuz,
and others unhesitatingly exjilain the clause before us. But if we hesi-
tate to adopt this method, we may resort to the context, in order to de-
termine what verb we must suppose to be implied. This will afford us
either ovy. ijQvijaaro avrrjv, sc. niaziv, or else tuQarijaev avzo, sc. ovofia.
I should prefer the latter, because it is the more leading and prominent
idea. It is indeed rather an uncommon ellipsis ; and EAvald, as we
have already seen, says that the like of it is nowhere else to be found in
^the Apocalypse. Yet if we concede this, there are many cases of ellip-
sis in the Greek classics not less striking, nor less unexpected by the
reader, than this ; as any one may see by consulting a full exemplifica-
tion of them in the grammars.
I can, after all, scarcely refrain from believing, that o niorog, og aTtsx-
Tav&tj was originally written 6 mGzog dn£y.rdvd^q ; for thus all is plain
and facile. It is easy to see how the intruder og came in, i. e. in con-
sequence of the ending of the preceding word. The Syriac version
J CHURCH AT PERGAM09 : ChAP. II. 14. f$ ^
here does not aid us ; for it reads thus : " My witness, who was my
faitiiful one, who was killed among you." It is evident that the trans-
lator found some diflieulty in the text ; for this must have led him thus
to paraphrase it.
Of the Antipas here named we know nothing further; excepting that
Andreas (Comm. written near the close of Cent. V.) mentions, that he
had road a martyrology of him. Eusebius (Ecc. Hist. IV. 15) mentions
the names of several persons at Fergamos, who suffered martyrdom
about the same time as Polycarp ; which, however, was long after the
death of Antipas. In the Acta Sanctorum (II. pp. 3, 4) is a martyr-
ology of Antipas from a Greek Ms.; but it is full of fable and fiction,
which a later age had added to the original story.
Ottov 6 auTar(t<; xarof/.tT, a repetition of what is said in the first part
of the verse ; which shows the intensity of th(^ writer's feelings in regard
to the malice and devices of Satan, as exhibitedHt Pergamos.
fc (14) Hat I have a few things atrainst thee, that thou hast there some who hold
the doctrine of Balaam, who taujrlit Balak to cast a stumblinir block before the
cliildren of Israel, to eat things otfered to idols and to commit fornication.
"Ex(^ y-ciTa aov oh'ya, a little diflferent in form from s^co xard nnv in
V. 4, but substantially of the same meaning. There ri is implied, i. e.
sojnewhat ; here oh'ya, a feiv things, is expressed. There, the complaint
is that their first love had become cold, while still it is conceded that
they are zealously opposed to the Nicolaitans ; here, the church tole-
rates these heretics with lenity, or at least with a kind of indifference ;
but in respect to other things, they are not complained of.
"Eyug implies that the church has, within its own body, the Balaam-
ites or Nicolaitans. Otherwise they would not be responsible for the
toleration of them. — didcv/^v BaXaufi. AVhat this Avas, may be learned
from Num. 25: 1, 2 comp. with Num. 31: IG, from which it appears,
that, through the counsel of Balaam, the Moabites and Midianites com-
])ined to tempt the children of Israel by idol worship connected with fe-
male devotees to it ; so that the Jewish people committed fornication
and ate of the idol sacrifices ; for such must be the meaning of Num.
25: 2: "And the people ate, and bowed down to their gods," viz. to
those of Moab. Ewald is in an error, when he says that eidojlo&vTa
are not mentioned in the history of Balaam, for they are plainly implied
in the phrase quoted. The reference, however, in this passage, is not
merely to the example of Balaam, so far as criminality is alleged, but
also to a principle established by the apostolic decree in Acts 15: 28
seq., where all the churches are required dntjeo&ai tidcoXoO^vzcov . . .
ncu noQvtlag. Balaam was an odious name among the Hebrews, and
VOL. II. 10
mf-
74 CHURCH AT PERGAMOS : ChAP. II. 14.
for good reasons ; to refer then to vicfes which he taught, was to stigma-
tize them as peculiarly odious.
'Edidaaxe T(p BaXux is an offence to the critics, because verbs of
teaching govern two Accusatives, the one of the thing tauglit, and the
other of the person who is taught. Here ^alnv x. r. X. is the thing
taught, and the person is put in the Dative. But the Hebrews, with
whom, in such a case, the same idiom as that of the Greeks is the usual
one, dQ not always follow it ; e. g. b l^b , i. e. with h before the person,
Job 21:22. So h trnin, Deut. 3'3: 10. Hos. 10:12 (bis). Besides
this, however, there is another method of explanation, viz. by transla-
ting thus : ' Who taught, by Balak, to cast, etc,' i. e. who used Balak as
his instrument, in thus enticing the children of Israel. The persons
tliat were taught in this case would be, by implication, the Moabites
and Midianites, who were directed by Balak to entice the Hebrews ; and
that they did so, the sacred history relates. But after all, the reading
rco is very doubtfully supported, having only A. C. and 11. in its favour.
Wetsteiu, Vater, and Tittmann, all read rov ; Griesbach, Knapp, and
Lachraann, t&j. Mill, iv rw ^ahv/., i. e. in the history of Balak. Tov
is nonnal and is to be preferred, if supported by better authority ; but
as to the question, whether it is better in this case, the critics are divi-
ded. That rule of criticism, (here applied), which prefers the reading |
that is not normal, in a case of tolerable support, is to be received with
much caution at the best. If a writer shows that he is well acquainted
with a particular idiom, and if he usually follows it, the presumption is
certainly in favour of it, when other things are equal. But if zqj is to
be admitted here, it may, as a last resort, be regarded as the Dattvus
commodi, which would make argood sense ; just as, in the history of Ba-
laam, Num. 22: 6, Balak says to the prophet, Jlgaoai fiot tov Xaov
tovTOv, curse for me this people. So Bengel ; and certainly it is
not a strained exegesis.
BaXf-lv ay.dvdalov is a Hebraistic expression, and has its origin in
the idiomatic expressions, " way of the righteous, way of the Lord, way
of wisdom, etc.," in which way all good men are said to walk. Now a
stumbling block either occasions a fall, or impedes one's progress, when
placed on a way. So temptation to sin is a stumbling block in the way
of the righteous, or in the path of duty. The temptations which through
the counsel of Balaam were placed before the Hebrews, occasioned the
sin of many, and the destruction of 24,000 by the plague, Num. 25 : 9.
— UoQvevoai is often used as a generic word, in which case it designates
pollution in general, without reference to the state of parties as married
or unmarried.
fpuysiv tidcoXo&VTa. A feast upon the viands which had been offered
to an idol, where gluttony and rioting were common, which feast was
^
^ CHURCH AT PER0AJ103 : ChAP. 11. 15. 16. M
attended by numerous prostitutes flevoted to the impure rites of idola-
try, would almost necessarily lead those who joined in it to idolatry and
impurity. Hence the apostolic decree in Acts 15: 28 seq. ; and hence
an abhorrence of sharing in such a tcjist is here expressed,
(I.')) So tliou also liast those who liold llie doctrine of t)ic Nicolaitaiis, in like
manner.
'O^wi'o)^, at the close, is best sujiported, and seems entitled to recep-
tion. Other readings are o fuxjdi (Text. Recept.) ; o (xiaa ofioiaig ; ijv
fiiaoi ; oftoidJi; i,v fiiam. Mill and Yater prefer thq vulgate text.
OvTcOi,', so, i. e. in like manner as Balak retained a'ftllse prophet who
misled the Hebrews, so thou retainest Balaamites, i. e. those wlio teach
the things like to those which Balaam taught. — Tt^v 8idax>i^ '^'^v A Vxo-
7.a'niov I take to moan the same as the preceding t/)j' diduyJfV Buhcdft.
At least the Nicolaitaiis here are plainly the same as in v. 6 above ; so
that the heresy in question, as it would seem, pervaded the churches at
Ephesus, Pergamus, and also Thyatira, comp. v. 20, where the sanae
vices are mentioned. '0^o/cos\ in like manner, i. e. the heretics among
you hold and teach the doctrine of the Nicolaitans in like manner as
Balaam held and taught his doctrine ; in other words, they teach so as
to lead some to eat things sacrificed to idols and to commit fornication.
How any bearing the name of Christians could teach thus, it is difficult
at first to imagine ; but see the remarks on this subject, under v. 6.
above.
I do not feel ^uite sure, aftej all, that,.the speaker in this case does
not mean to aver/tluit thwe are two classes oflieretics, in the bosom of
the church at Pergamos. If so, then we have nothing, either in v. 6.
or V. 15, which defines the errors of the Nicolaitans. INIorcover, on
this ground they would seem to be distinguished from the Balaamites —
ho^p distinguished, we have only uncertain tradition to determine. On
the whole, however, a comparison of vs. 6, 13, 14, and 20, leaves the
im|>ression on my mind, that the same pestilential heresy existed in
each of the three respective churches, and that it was a matter of indif-
ference, whether it was named the doctrine of Balaam, or the doctrine
of the Nicolaitans, inasmuch as the Hebrew and Greek appellatives
(Balaam and Nicolaus) have one and the same meaning. The suppo-
sition of two heretical sects, makes our text at first view more-facile of
interpretation ; but the other exegesis given above, seems to be capa-
pablc of a good defence.
(IG) Repent therefore ; and if thou dost not, 1 will come to thee quickly, and
make war with them by the sword of my mouth.
2^01, to thee., i. e. the Saviour announces his intention to visit that church.
76 CHURCH AT PERGAMOS : ChAP. 11. 17.
Yet extreme punishment is not designed for the whole ; for he says
nohfii^aa) iiet avzav, i. e. with the Nicolaitans. I have retained
the manner of the original in my version, because it may be retained
consistently with our idiom. But we should more readily express the
sentiment thus : I will war against them with the sword of my mouth.
'PofKfdtav Tov GTOfiuTog is the sword before mentioned in v. 12 above,
and also in 1: 16. Here the application is such, that we recognize at
once the nature and design of the imagery. " He said, and it was done ;
he commanded, and it stood fast." The sentence by him of condemna-
tion and excision is fatal. His sword can neither be resisted nor warded
oflF; comp. Heb. 4: 12. On the nature of the imagery, see under 1: 16.
I cannot think, with Wetstein and Herder, that there is any reference
here to the sword of the angel who resisted Balaam, Num. 22: 23.
The two cases are of a tenor quite diiFerent.
(17) He who hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches.
To him who overcometh — to him will I give of the hidden manna ; and I will
give him a white stone, and upon the stone a new name engraved, which no one
knoweth except he that receiveth it.
On 7(>5 t'(X03V7i X. r. X., see above on v. 7. — Tov ^uvva tov xsxQvufiS-
rov, a vivid image of sustenance, or rather of enjoyment, in a future
world. It is easy to trace its soui'ce. In Ex. 16; 32 — 34, God com-
mands that a pot of the manna rained down upon the Israelites should
be gathered, and deposited in the ark of the testimony, for a memorial
to all future generations of what the Lord had done. Comp. Heb. 9: 4.
In Ps. 78: 24, 25, manna is called Df^irn ',5'i and t'^'i'^SX nnb , i. e. the
com of heaven and the bread of the mighty ones, i. e. (probably) of an-
gels, as in our English version. So in Ps. 105: 40, it is called trib
'D'^'o^:^ , the bread of heaven. The excellence of this nourishment is thus
strongly characterized. Then, in the next place, the joys of the blessed
in a future world are often represented in the Scriptures under the
image of a feast ; see Hev. 3: 20. 19: 9. Now as manna was rained
down from heaven, and manna is angers food, it is very easy and nat-
ural for the mind to think of the manna laid up in heaven (so to speak)
as being in store for the saints, when they shall be admitted to asso-
ciate with the angels. Kty-QVfxfitvov is to be taken in the sense of the
Hebrew 'j^iS^ , laid up, stored in a safe and secret place. Still, the form
of the expression has reference probably to Ex. 16: 32 — 34. The
manna, which was deposited by divine command in the ai'k of the cove-
nant, the Jews regarded as a specimen of heavenly food. Hence they
invented many fictions concei'ning it. One was, that Jeremiah the
prophet, just before the destruction of Jerusalem, commanded the tab-
ernacle [which the author of this fiction, as it would seem, supposed was
CHURCH AT PERGAMOS : ClIAP. II. 17. 77
deposited in the most Holy Place], and the ark of the testimony, and
the altar of incense, to follow him to mount Sinai ; and there he hid
them in a cave, to be bronpht out again only in the days of the Mes-
siah ; see 2 Maoo. 2: 4 — 7. Com]), with this the apocryphal story of
Jeremiah, in Fahr. Cod. Apoc. Y. Test. p. 1112 seq. Abulfar. Hist.
Dynast, p. 57. The reader will find an abundance of Rabbinical pas-
sages, designed to illustrate and confirm this tradition, in Eisenmenger's
Entdeckt. Jiulenthum, II. p. 8.iG seq., and in Wetstein in loc, and
Schoettgen llor. lleb. in loc. In the times of the Messiah, as it would
seem, the Jews expected that the manna thus hidden would be discov-
ered, and distributed to his followers, as well as laid up again in the
temple. That John however had any reference to this fabulous tra-
dition, there is no satisfactory evidence. Eichhorn, as is usual with
him, traces the expression in the text to this fable ; but there is enough
in tlie Scriptures, independently of this, to account for the figurative ex-
pression here employed. Why should we suppose the writer to go
elsewhere for his sources, when he shows throughout his book a mind
most thoroughly imbued with the Hebrew Scriptures, and that of all
sources they ai'e the most favourite one, and most frequently resorted to
by him ? As the manna was laid up in the ark, no one could even ap-
proach it but the high-priest, who, once in each year, went into the
most holy place in order to make atonement. Yet even he could not
taste of it. But under the new dispensation, where all are to be made
"kings and priests unto God," Christians may enter for themselves
into the most holy place, (for the veil is rent), and may even partake of
the manna deposited there. Yet all this, it will be remembered, is but
imagery employed in order to portray the ample and delightful enjoy-
ments of the faithful in the world to come.
'Em 7/)i' rpijqov .... luf^i ^('a'ojv has been, as it would seem, a real
crttx interpretum. The reason of this does not appear to be so much in
the difficulty of the passage itself, as in the sources to which resort has
been had in order to explain it. Greek sources of imagery have been
sought for, while only Hebrew ones can satisfactorily solve the difficulty.
(1) Yitringa,Jjange, and many others, have referred to the Greek
usage of absolving those who were tried on the ground of any accusa-
tion, by white balls or stones, and condemning by black ones. But this
does not well compare with the case before us. There, the balls were
thrown into an uriTT here the white stone is given to the victor him-
self. There, was no inscription on the balls ; here, is a new and secret
name inscribed. We may also add, that such imagery would naturally
convey the idea of an accusation made on the part of some one against
the victor ; whereas it may well be supposed, that the writer here would
have been disposed to say, with Paul : r<V iyauktaei xara ixkiAzav
&SOV?
78 CHURCH AT PERGAMOS : Chap. IL 17.
(2) Grotius, Eichhorn, and others, refer to the tessera given to the
victor in the Olympic games, on which was inscribed the reward to be
received from his native city, viz. a sum of money, public support, etc. ;
and this gave him a title to the same. The like custom also existed at
Rome, although somewhat modified ; for the Roman emperors scattered
tesserae of a similar nature among the populace, on distinguished occa-
sions.— But in these cases the white stone is wanting ; and moreover,
the mystic inscription which no one but the recipient could read. Vi-
tringa thinks, upon the whole, that both of these sources are to be united
on the present occasion. Let us see if something more satisfactory
cannot be adduced.
(3) It is a frequent and favourite idea with the Apocalyptist, that
Christians will be made kings and priests unto God ; see Rev. 1: 6. 5:
10. 20: 6 ; comp. also Is. 61: 6. 1 Pet. 2: 5. In Ex. 28: 36 seq., the
mitre or turban of the high-priest is described. On its front was to be
put a plate of gold, inscribed i^iiT^b ^"ip, sacred to Jehovah. The name
Jehovah was the incommunicable and secret name, (see on Rev. 1: 4
above), which could be pronounced only by the high-pi-iest, and was
known, as the Jews say, only to him. Here then are all the materials
for the explanation of the passage before us. Victors in the Christian
strugTle are to be made priests, yea exalted as it were to the dignity
of high-priests ; for this only would parallelize with the declaration,
that they are to be made kings. Instead of a plate of gold in their
mitre they are to have a tohife stone, Unjcpov ).fvy.>jv, i. e. a pellucid or
resplendent diamond, (for U'tirfog is often used in the sense of a precious
stone), on which should be an inscription equivalent to rtin"'b "cn'p,
sacred to Jehovah. That Xevnov in the Apocalypse has such a mean-
ing, i. e. resplendent or pellucid, as is here ascribed to it, is clear ; see
Comm. on Itvmv, 1: 14. Under the new order of things, i. e. since the
Messiah's coming, the ancient inscription nini^ uinp is not, as formerly,
to be engraved. The name Aoyoq (John 1: 1. Rev. 19: 13) is to be
written in its room, in order to denote that the victor is a follower of the
Lamb. Perhaps the expression does not mean, that this identical word
shall be the one which is to be employed, but it seems at least to mean,
that some secret and sacred appellation equivalent to Aoyog shall be
inscribed. Yet it seems safe to abide by Xoyog, because, when applied
to Christ, it has a secret or mystical sense. Thus all which has been
said above respecting the secret name, o (av xai o tjv y.ai 6 iQ](6fiEvog,
has a direct bearing upon this passage. The iieto name is doubtless
some name of the Saviour. Thus understood, all is perfectly plain and
easy. Christian victors will wear, on the frontlets of their victory-
mitres, the name of their great Leader, the Captain of their salvation.
To him is ascribed an incommunicable and seo-et name, just as it is
4
CHDBCH AT THTATIRA : ChAP. II. 18, 19. 79
given to Jehovah in Rev. 1: 4. This name of the new order of priests
(i. e. of Christian priests in a spiritual sense) is of course, and should
be, ditJercnt from that on the mitre of tlie high-priests of old. Hence
orofia xnipnv.
Eielihorn and others have considered the xf'tjcfnv here merely as a
ticket of introduction to the heavenly feast of the mainia. But so con-
sidered, the writer would exhibit a plain vareQOv jiQoreQOV in the collo-
cation of his idejis. The clause in such a case, ought to occupy the
penult and not the ultimate place in the sentence. I understand the
connection of the whole somewhat differently from Eichhorn. The
Jewish high-priest was the only ])erson who could go in where the
manna was kept, i. e. into the most holy place. And even he could
not taste of it. See now what Christ has done ! All his faithful follow-
ers are not only made high-priests, and admitted where the manna is,
but permitted to feed upon it. I may add, that the expression, o ovdf.ig
oldtr tt fiij 6 Xttii^uvMv, seems evidently to refer to the well known fact,
that no one of the Jews, the high-priest excepted, knew how to pro-
nounce the word irn"' written upon his mitre. He only who wore the
mitre, could pronounce that Avord. So he only who wears the Chris-
tian diadem can read the inscription of the 7iew name upon it, and fully
understand it.
Here then we have, instead of mystic, confused, unintelligible im-
agery, a most glowing description of the future reward of the faithful
followers of Christ. Nor is it any objection to this explanation, that
two distinct promises of reward are here made, — for such is the case in
other instances ; see Rev. 2: 26 — 28. 3: 5.
(Iri) And to the angel of the church in Thyatira write : Thus saith the Son of
God, who hath his eyes as a flame of" fire, and liis feet are like polished brass.
Seethe remarks on Rev. 1: 14, from which this passage is taken.
But here there is a slight variation in the construction, (there (6g
q).()i nvQc^', here (og (fXoyu TivnOi), on account of the Accusative case
(6q>\yu).ftovs) which precedes. Avrov after oq&aXfiovg is of somewhat
doubtful authority; and the sense is better without it. The appellation
6 vii),' jnv dtov, very frequent in John, is employed only here in the
Aix)calyp?e. It was an early name of the Messiah ; see Ps. 2: 7.
Enoch 104c: 2.
(Ul) I know thy works, and love, and faith, and ministry, and thy patience,
and thy recent labours more abundant than thy former ones.
^yuTTijv should not be restricted here ; for it appears to mean the
love of God and man, and diaxoviav seems to be one of the proper fruits
of it. — niaziv marks the confidence of the church at Thyatira in the
80 CHURCH AT THTATIRA : ChAP. II. 20.
doctrines and promises of the Christian religion. — Jiaxoviav designates
active service in administering to the necessities and wants of others,
particularly in the supply of food ; so often in the New Testament,
see Lexicon. Hence didxovog, whose business it originally was to over-
see the matter of distributing charities, Acts vi. — 'Tnofiovi^ is patient
endurance of the sorrows and troubles of life, and here it has reference
specially to the troubles brought upon the church by persecution.
Tu fQya 60V ru 'ioiaru /.. r. 1., i. e. in the recent season of pressure
and distress, the church had, even beyond their accustomed efforts, ex-
erted themselves for the relief of others, and shown in all respects an
increase of the practical Christian graces. The first ra SQya in the
verse is generic. The virtues subsequently mentioned are particulars
of the genus ; and they are thus brought to view, because they were
prominent. So at the close of the verse, iqya again has a kind of
generic meaning, comprising the practical Christian graces.
(20) But 1 have somewhat against thee, that thou dost leave unrestrained thy
wife Jezebel, who declareth herself [to be] a prophetess, and teacheth and leadeth
astray my servants to commit fornication and to eat thing-s sacrificed to idols.
"E-^K) xurd 60V, see on 2: 4. — 'Acfug 2 pers. sing. Pres., an unusual
form, from the old contract dcfsw = uq)i)ji.u. The literal meaning is, to
let alone, to suffer or leave tmrestrained, to permit ; and so I have ex-
pressed it ; in the version above.
'le^d^eX, the name of Ahab's idolatrous wife, who had such an unhap-
py influence over him, is here plainly a symbolical name ; but it is very
expressive. The Avoman here denoted had, as it appears, an influence
on some in the church, like to that of Jezebel on her husband. — The
principal difficulty lies in calling this woman rz/f yvvai'Aoi 60v, thy wife.
Whose wife is meant ? That of the uyy^log, understood merely as the
bishop or pastor of the church ; or that of the church at large, who are
addressed through the medium of the bishop ? If the bishop only were
addressed, we should be obliged to suppose that his proper wife was here
actually meant. But as it seems to be certain that the whole church are
addressed (comp. v. 10 above and also v. 23), so t?}j' yvvaixd 6ov can
mean only some woman in it, whose influence is great and also very cor-
rupting. It would seem to be the intimate relation which the woman
adverted to sustains to the church, that appears to give occasion for the
appellation 7rjv yvvaixd 60v. The church had power to divorce her, (if
we may keep up the metaphor) ; and in view of her character and efforts
they are reproved for not doing so.
The heresy taught in this case, appears to be the same as that refer-
red to in 2: 6 and 2: 14, 15. The woman in question, whose proper
name (probably from motives of delicacy) is withheld, was evidently one
CHUKCH AT THTATIRA : ChAP. II. 21, 22. 81
who assumed the office of a public teacher (x«« diSdaxei), and gave her-
self out (for so it is said) ns an authorized TTQncpiJTi^;. In the primitive
age it was sometinu-s a matter of tact, that women taught and spoke^in
public; 4cts 21: 9. 1 Cor. 11: 5. 14: 34. Rom. IG: 1. 1 Tim. 2: 11, 12.
In 1 Cor. 11: 5, Paul merely regulates public speaking by females, when
it tjikes place; in 1 Cor. 14: 34 and 1 Tim. 2: 11, 12, he forbids it, be-
cause it leads to indecorum and disorder. Under tlie ancient dispensa-
tion there were several prophetesses, such as Miriam, Deborah, ITulda,
etc. The like under the new; Acts 21: 9. 1 Cor. 11:5. Whether the
Jezebel in this case did hovB^cK practise what she taiiglit, is not, perhaps,
expressly said ; but it seems to be somewhat plainly intimated (v. 23) ;
and indeed it is scarcely possible to suppose, that a woman would teach
such things without practising them. Practice must precede such a
thorough depravation of princii)le and abandonment of modesty and de-
cency.
(21) And I have given her time tliat she miirht repent, and yet she will not re-
pent of her fornication.
"Edcoy.a XQOvov of course shows that the error in question had been of
some standing. Forbearance had already been exercised, and the time
was now come in which other measures would be resorted to. — TlnQvdag
avTijg may possibly mean the corrupt and abominable doctrines which
she taught ; but it seems likely, as above intimated, that doctrine and
practice went together. In respect to ^lezavoFjoui ix, see remarks on the
next verse.
(2"^) Behold, 1 cast her upon a bed, and those who have committed adultery
with her into great affliction, unless they repent of her deeds.
BuXXco etg xXivrjv means to cast her upon a sick-bed, or (as we say)
make her bed-ridd So ^uXXta alone in Matt. 8: 6, 14. Matt. 9: 2, im
y.h'ri^i,' ^f:p,r,u.^vov means the same. So t^t'^Xijro in Luke 16: 20, de-
notes the languishing state of Lazarus. But here ^dlXw tig y.Xiv>iv
makes an antithesis to the noQvtia of the preceding verse, and forms a
kind of mental antanaclasis. The harlot's bed and the bed of sickness
and distress are placed in contrast, in the way of implication.
OXiuiii' layuXr^v corresponds in sense with, and therefore explains,
^uXXo) eig xlivtjv. — Mtravotjaaniv ix, a construction peculiar to this book ;
see in V. 21 above. In the Hebrew, Dns is sometimes followed bp p =
fx, see Ges. Lex., also in 9: 20, 21. 16: 11. Once with utio in Acts 8:
22. In all other cases the verb is used absolutely and in an intransitive
sen^e. In English we may say : He will repent this, or. He will repent
of this. The latter idiom is exhibited in the Apocalypse. Repent of
her deeds means, repeat of such deeds as hers.
TOL. n. 11
82 CHURCH AT THYATIRA : ChAP. II. 23, 24.
(23) And her children will I slay by deadly disease, and all the churches shall
know that 1 am he who searcheth the reins and the heart; and I will render to
you — to each one — according to your works.
Ta riv.va avzrig ano-Aieva, lit. children, or figuratively ? The latter
I should deem most probable here ; for ri'A.va seems to include all who
had imbibed her sentiments. " Ye are of your father, the devil," said the
Saviour to the Jews, i. e. ye are children of Satan. Still, if t« rty.va is
to be taken literally, and in distinction from zoy* fioiysvovrag (v. 22), then
the threat will be like that in 2 K. 9: 7 — 9. Ex. 20: 5 ; and it involves
the idea of severe punishment. Treason has, in almost all countries of
the East, been followed witla the extirpation of the whole family connect-
ed with the culprit. The allusion here would be to the severe punish-
ment usually consequent on high misdemeanours.
'Et> ■&avuT(p, with pestilence or deadly disease. So in 6: 8. 18: 8.
QuvuTog = the Heb. ^an ; see Septuagint &drarog for ^21 in 2 Sam.
24: 13. So the Syriac and Rabbinic xniti, in the same sense. Deadly
disease is the version which most exactly corresjtonds to &dvarog here.
ndaai ui i'AxhjGi'ai. . . . y.aQdiug. Here the speaker claims the pre-
rogative oi omniscience ; comp. Ps. 7: 9. 1 Sam. 16: 7. 1 Chron. 28: 9.
Ps. 139: 1. Jer. 11: 20. 17: 10. 20: 12. That is: 'I will make all the
churches to understand, that I know all, even the most secret, acts of
wickedness committed in the midst of them, however concealed from
human view. All the thoughts of the heart are naked and open to my
view.'
'Tfiiv, to you collectively ; ixuarcp, to each individual particularly and
personally. 'Exdarcp renders the expression more emphatic.
(24) But I say to you, the remainder who are in Thyatira, so many as hold not
this doctrine, who have not known the depths (of Satan), as they say, on you I
lay no other burden.
Tori," lEinoTg x. r. 1., i. e. to all of the church not involved in the
charges already made, I utter no words of commination, but only of ex-
hortation and promise. — Ova i'xovai, do not hold, i. e. possess, entertain,
retain.
Bu&ea, depths, i. e. mysteries, or deep and therefore secret things
which can be understood only by [ivozui ; with evident allusion to the
common views of the heathen respecting their mysteries, e. g. the mys-
teries of Eleusis, etc. The heretics here stigmatized undoubtedly pre-
tended to a deeper, i. e. more profound, knowledge of Christianity than
others ; and by virtue of such knowledge they had attained, as they also
pretended, to a conviction, that the eating of idol-sacrifices and the grati-
fication of their lusts were ddtdq)OQa, q. d. matters of indifference in a
spiritual respect — for what power, they probably inquired, could the
CHURCH AT THYATIRA : ChAP. II. 25. 83
boify have over the immortal mind? The common English version —
*' the depths of Satan, as they say " — would represent the heretics in
question as themselves giving such an appeUation to tlieir own fancied
mysteries. Evidently they would not have so named them, that is, they
would not have introduced the name of Satan in connection with them;
for this would at once hotli condemn them and render them odious in
the eyes of others. J'ov ^.'ecravd, therefore, is evidently a characteriz-
ing expression thrown in by the speaker, and is to be read and consid-
ered as I have marked it, viz. in the way of parenthesis. So Vitringa;
and so Ewald, who translates : " ^Mysteria, quae dicunt, rcvera Satanae."
This mention of jtretended ^utfta in the doctrines of these heretics
reminds us forcibly of Gnostic fivariiQia, the leaven of which sect would
seem to have ah-eady begun its fermentation. TertuUian (at the close
of the second century) thus characterizes some of that sect : Si bona
fide quaeras, concreto vultu, suspenso supercilio : Altum kst, aiunt.
Adv. Val. c. 1. Irenaeus also says of them : Qui profunda Bythi adin-
venisse se dicant ; and again : Profunda Dei adinvenisse se dicentes ;
Cont, Haer. II. 38, 39 (edit. Massuet, II. 22).
If, instead of I'eferring toj,' Xtyovai to the heretics, we refer it to the
name given to their mysteries by the advei'se party, then there would
be no need of construing the passage as I have done above. The sen-
timent would then run thus : ' Who have not known the depths of Sa-
tan, as men are accustomed to name them.' It is very probable, that
the zealous Christians here (see v. 19) would bestow on the pretended
mysteries such an appellation. But the change of person from vfiTp in
the beginning of the verse, to the third pers. plur. here, is against this
solution.
JllXo ^UQO-;, any ot/ier burden; comp. Matt. 20: 12, and ^3^ in Is.
21: 15. Eichhorn understands ^uoo^ figuratively of precept, and com-
pares Matt. 11: 30. 23: 4. But in the passage before us the speaker
has not been uttering precepts ; and what could (iXXo mean, on such a
ground as Eichhorn's ? On the other hand ; commination he has utter-
ed. The difficulties arising naturally from the then existing state of
things, and which would ensue upon the expurgation of the church, were
all which the Loi'd Jesus thought proper to burden the church of Thya-
tira with, at the time when he thus addressed them. This appears to
be the plain and simple meaning of the passage.
(20) Nevertheless, hold fast that which ye have, until I shall come.
"While he imposes no penalty upon the faithful party, he still exhorts
them to remain firm and unwavering in their present love, and faith,
and good works. Under temptations such as assailed them, they had
special need of caution in this respect.
^4^\
84 CHtJRCH AT THTATIRA : ChAP. IL 26, 27.
yiXQ^? ov av tj^co, i. e. shall come to vindicate the faithful, and punish
transgressors. The time was not far distant when they might expect
this. But the use of Aor. I, Subj. hei'e, (ij^oj), with civ, intimates that
the time of coming is left undetermined ; it may be sooner or later.
The design of the speaker is to leave it undefined, in order to promote
watchfulness.
(26) And as to him who overcometh, and watchfully performeth until the end
the works which I require — to him will I give authority over the nations.
O vi'Acov and o zrjoav are plainly the Nominative absolute, so common
in the Old Testament and not unfrequent in the New ; see Heb. Gramm.
§ 415 — 417. N. Test. Gramm. § 97. 2. — J^lxQ'' '^^^ovg used adverbially,
and so without the article. The end of trial or probation, or of life, is
here meant ; for the promise is to each individual who may be obedient.
— Tr^QCJV, like the Hebrew *TaT^ , keep, observe, i. e. watchfully perform,
obey. — "EQya {a.ov means, such works as I have prescribed or command-
ed ; comp. the relations expressed by the Genitive, N. Test. Gramm.
§ 99. Here tu tQja fiov is tacitly opposed to ra, eQya 'le^d^eX. — 'E^ov- 1
Giav im zojv tdvwv, i. e. I will make him king ; comp. 1: 6 and the
texts there cited. Meaning : ' I will give him an exalted station, with
abundance and honour like those of kings ;' comp. 1 Cor. 4: 7, 8.
(27) And he shall rule them with an iron sceptre, as potter's vessels shall he
dash them in pieces; as I have received of my Father.
The allusion here is to Ps. 2: 9, with a slight change of the verbs
(from second pers. to the third) in order to adapt them to the present
purpose of the speaker. To rule with a rod or sceptre of iron, is to ex-
ercise a sovereign and irresistible sway. In other words, such dominion
cannot be successfully opposed or rendered null. — To dash in pieces as
potter's vessels, implies the complete subjugation and destruction of all
who oppose. — But the reading awTQi^srai here (Praes.) does not seem
to couple well with TZOifiuvEi (Fut.). ^^vvzQi^ijOtrai, to wliich Griesbach
attaches a^ood degree of probability, seems more congruous. If this be
not admitted, th^»-I- should prefer to change the accent over notjiavEl
and write Tioifidvei, i. e. Present tense, which would make both parts of
the sentence consentaneous. As to the Present being used for the fu-
ture, no serious difficulty surely can be urged here ; see N. Test. Gramm.
§ 136. 1. c, and Vol. I. p. 239, b. The imagery of a potter's vessel
struck by an iron sceptre, is a very vivid representation of the dangerous
and perishable condition of the enemies of the church.
^iig •Aclyoi . . . natQog fiov, i. e. cog xrlyco e'tXtjcpa i^ovaiuv [from v. 26J
Tzoifidveiv xal avvTQi'^f.o&ai naqd tov nazQog fiov, the ellipsis being easily
filled up from the preceding context. The meaning is, that liis disciples
CHURCH AT SABDIS : ChAP. II. 28. III. 1. 86
shall reign with him, or be partners in his kingdom ; SQC the passages
quoted under Rev. 1: 6, pivrticularly Luke 22: 29, 30. 2 Tim. 2: 12.
Rev. 3: 21. — On the phnise e^Xijcpa x. r. X., see the quotations under
Rev. 1: 1, which exhibit the dependence of the Mediator, as such, upon
Grod the Father.
(28) And I will give to him the morning star.
In chap. 1: 14 — 16, the Saviour is presented as all resplendent and
glorious, 'shining like the sun in his strength.' In 2 Sara. 21: 17, Da-
vid is called the light of Israel. In Dan. 12: 3, the wise, it is said, will
" shine as the brightness of the tirmament [the sun], . . . and as the
stars forever and ever." In Dan. 8: 10, those are called the host of hea-
ven and the stars, who perform service in the temple of God, and who
will be cast down by Antiochus. The king of Babylon is compared to
the morning star, on account of splendour, in Is. 14: 12. In Num. 24:
17, Balaam prophecies that a Star shall arise out of Jacob, i. e. the
Messiah. Now as Jesus had just said, that he would give his faithful
followers like dominion with his own, so here a splendour or glory like
his own (as t>4(/'»i^()co;roi,' or Mediator), he declares shall be imparled to
them. Iivill give him the morning star, then, means : I will clothe him
with radiance like that of the morning star, i. e. I will make him all
bright and glorious. Observe that the writer does not say : doidco avzm,
etc., as merely equivalent to i)-/)(Tco uvtov, etc., i. e. I will make him a
morning stai", but his meaning is, / will give him the radiance of the
morning star. Comp. Rev. 12: 1, the woman clothed with the sun ; also
Ps. 104: 2, " 'Who coverest thyself with light, as with a garment." See
also Rev. 22: 16, where Christ himself is called the morning star, i. e.
all splendid and glorious. Daubuz (Comm. in loc.) says the meaning
is : ' I will make him partaker of the first resurrection (Rev. 20^ 6),
which is the morning star to the second.' iJ"tl'^^ v-v/'o^.^^ 11^. | 0 5 7 «
CHAPTER III.
(1) And to the angel of the church in Sardis write : Thus saith he who hath
the seven spirits of God, and the seven stars. I know thy works ; that thou hast
a name that ihou livest, and art dead.
0 f/cof ru enrd nvsvfiara rot} {}eoiJ. Are these attributes merely of
himself, i. e. is he represented here as a mere Spiritus septiformis f
Or as having the seven presence angels under his control, or at his dis-
posal— having them as his attendants and the ministers of his will ?
Beyond all reasonable doubt the latter ; for, on the other ground, how
are we to interpret the next clause, [^y/(ov^ roiib" iTtzu uaziQU^' ? These,
surely are not attributes of the Saviour, but symbols of the seven uyyi-
86 CHURCH AT SARDIS : ChAP. III. 1.
Xoi of the churches, comp. 1: 20. As to the seven angels before the
throne of God, see under 1: 4, and comp. here Rev. 8: 2, and 4: 5. In
this last passage, the seven lamps before the throne of God, are said to
be the seven spirits of God ; or, reversing the order of the declaration
for the sake of perspicuity, the seven spirits of God are seven burning,
i. e. sliining or resplendent lights ; for the expression means all radiajit
like the flame of lamps. That such is the meaning, seems plain from a
comparison of other like passages ; e. g. in Ezek. 1: 13, the living
creatures, who support the throne of God and convey it instantaneously
to any part of the universe, are said to be like burning coals of fire, and
like the appearance of lamps. So in Is. 6: 1, the Seraphim (c^Enb from
Sj'nb, exurere, comburere), i. e. the bright or shining ones, ardentes, lu-
centes, surround the throne of God. In Zech. 3: 9. 4: 10 and Rev. 5:
6, another like symbol is employed, viz. that of seven eyes running to
and fro through the whole earth ; the mode of conception here being
that which forms an image of bright, sparkling, or resplendent eyes
(see Rev. 2: 18), which throw radiance on every part of the universe
and make all things plain and conspicuous. But here, the seven eyes \
are indicative of properties belonging to him who possesses them ; and
in this respect they dilFer from the preceding passages which refer to
angels ; comp. Rev. 2: 18. The meaning in all the preceding passages
which respect angels, is substantially the same, viz., that angels of the
highest rank, those glorious beings who stand immediately before the
throne of God, are in attendance on the divine Majesty, or (as here)
on the Saviour, and are " swift to do his will." Supreme power in him
whose servants they are, is thus significantly designated. — As to t/av,
there can be no doubt that the more usual signification is given to it by
this interpretation. At any rate the next clause shows, that the pos-
sessio7i here does not relate to the possession of attributes but to a poicer
of disposal. Thus, as Eichhom, Heinrichs, and Ewald, all testify, the
Apocalyptist attributes to the Saviour the same prerogatives as he does
to the supreme Godhead. In Enoch 48 5 : 2, 3, the Messiah is repre-
sented as having three spirits dwelling in him. Comp. also 60: 13, ib.
Tovg mra dartQag, see on 1: 16. — "On x. r. I., before on the verb
oida is of course implied. — "Ovofia, here, a name and nothing more, as
the sequel shows. — "On ^yg, we should express the clause in English
thus : ' That thou hast a name to live.' So the Greek might have been ;
but nothing is more common than on after verbs of knowing, saying,
reporting, etc. — Z^g Indicative Praes. and always of this pecuhar
form, in the New Testament ; see Lexicon. The sense here is of
course a spiritual one. — A'exQog, dead spiritually ; a common idiom,
to designate those who are cold and stupid with respect to spiritual
things, and specially those who are in an unregenerate state, Eph. 2: 1,
*/*
CHURCH AT SARDis : Chap. III. 2, 3. 87
5. Col. 2: 13. Rom. G: 13. Matt. 8: 22. The word vexQog is here used
in a modified sense ; for the speaker does not mean to deny that thiiro
are some Christians at Sardis. "What he means to say is, that they are
genenJly in a cold mid hfeless state.
(2) Be watchful, and strengthen wliat remains and is ready to die ; for I have
not found thy works perfect before God.
rnrjoQbSv, watchful or woleful, in opposition to the drowsy condition
of the chiu'ch. — 2.TtlQiaov, strengthen or confirm, viz. that which is now
appai'ently weak and ineiiicient, i. e. rouse up into active and living
energy. — Ta ).oinu, lit. remaining things, i. e. the Christian graces or
virtues which now seem ready to expire.
Fun — i. e. do so, for I have not found, etc. ; or, I say this, /or or he-
cause, etc. — ThnhiQOjfit't'u, complete, \\\.fidl, i. e. in the sense of being
complete in all respects, la other words : Thy works are not such, in
the sight of God, as comport with the high demands of Christian faith.
— 'Erwmnv tov deov admonishes them, that " the Lord seeth not as man
seeth ;" he looks on the heart and forms a true judgment, not being
misled, as men are, by appearances and professions. — Dlov, see remarks
on fiov used in the same connection, in 2: 7.
(3) Remember, there fore, liow thou hast learned and heard, and keep [tliose
things] in mind, and repent. If now tliou siiouldest not be watchful, I will come
as a thief, and thou shall nut know in what hour I will come upon thee.
77cos' may signify in what manner, how, in which case it probably
designates something peculiar as to the manner in which the church at
Sai-dis had been taught the gospel. Such would be the ordinary signi-
fication of the word. But it might, perhaps, be construed adverbially
here as an intensive ; e. g. Luke 12: 50, nag cvvt')^Ofiai, how greatly
am I distressed ! John 11: 36, ;rojs,- icfiilti avz6v,hoiv much he loved him.
»So here : Remember how much thou hast learned and heard. But I
apprehend that ncog is used as a simple intensive only with verbs which
imply /ec/in^r. The other vmode_ii£-«xegesis comes to the same sense
substantially, although the idea conveyed is indefinite and generic, i. e.
the reader is not expressly informed of the manner in which they had
been taught, but the implication is, that it was unusually good.
EtXr^qag (from Xa^^dpo3) is sometimes employed for receiving in the
way of a learner, e. g. Diod. Sic. II. 29 ; and in 1 Cor. 11: 23. 15: 3
al., the same meaning is given to 7ianu).uu^avbi. So n;?b in Hebrew ;
also n-b , doctrina, scientia, quasi )SjH'tg. So the converse of ).afiduvo3,
viz. dt'dojfit, often means to impart instruction. — "Hy.ovaag refers to the
oral instruction which had been imparted, and which they had heard.
Tr^nti, keep in mind, (see on Tr^QovvTei; 1: 3), i. e. keep in mind what
88 CHURCH AT SARDis : Chap. III. 4.
thou hast heard and been taught. — Mszavor^Gov, repent of your present
cold and lifeless state. — Ovv may be rendered here as a coniinuative.
It marks additional matter, dependent on, or connected with, what goes
before; so that iav oyj' must be rendered, «/" moreover, if now. — ' ^g
'AltTtzijg designates the idea of a sudden and unexpected coming, Uke
that of a thief in the dead of night. In Joel 2: 9 it characterizes the
sudden invasion of the locusts. Comp. Matt. 24: 43. Luke 12: 39, 40.
1 Thess. 5: 4. 2 Pet. 3: 10. Rev. 16: 15. With us the image in itself
would seem to be of a forbidding nature, because yXtnitiQ is an odious
personage. The frequency of this comparison in the Scriptures, how-
ever, shows how much the^ taste is modified by usage. It also shows,
what is elsewhere generally the case, that comparisons are to be extend-
ed, for the most part, only to one single leading point or particular. If
we should extend the comparison, in the present case, beyond the simple
point of sudden and unexpected coming, it would become odious and un-
just. It should however be noted, that it is only when punishment is
threatened, that such a coming is designated by the sacred writers. The
comparison as to the single point intended, is undoubtedly a strong and "^
forcible one ; and this is illustrated by the sequel of the passage before
us : na) ov ^rj yvwg x. r. X. The taste which now prevails in the west-
ern world would doubtless have led to the selection of a different object
for comparison, on an occasion like the present ; but such a choice was
sanctioned by Hebrew usage, and was in accordance with the usics lo-
quendi of the day ; which is a sufficient justification of the Apocalyptist.
On ov ^ir] yvojg (Aor. II. Subj.), see Gi'amm. § 148. 4. As to TZoiav
aQav, Accusative of time when, see Vol. I. p. 249.
(4) But still, thou hast a few names in Sardis, who have not defiled their gar-
ments; and they shall walk with me in white, for they are worthy.
"E^fig, thou posscssest, i. e. there are among you. — 'Ovofiata here for
persons, individuals ; comp. Acts 1: 15. Rev. 11: 13, for the like usage.
In Hebrew D'lJ , in cases almost without number, is used as a kind of pe-
riphrasis for God or Jehovah, sometimes absolutely, and sometimes fol-
lowed by the word God or Jehovah ; e. g. those who love thy name, Ps.
5: 11, 12. My name is in him, Ex. 23: 21. My name shall be there
[in the temple], 1 K. 8: 29. So, to call on the name of the Lord ; to
praise the name of the Lord ; the name of the God of Jacob defend thee ;
the name of the Lord is a strong tower, etc. In the New Testament
this idiom abounds even still more ; see Rob. Lex. 6VojU«, d. Thus, to
believe in his name ; trust in his name ; do this or that for his name's
sake ; be baptized into his name, or into the name of the Father, etc. ;
to assemble in his name ; suffer for his name, etc. Even without a suf-
fix pronoun, or a Gen. following, Dia is used for God, in Lev. 24: 11, 16,
CHTRCH AT SARDIS : ChAP. III. 4. 89
comp. Dcut. 28: 58. 'Ovonnra and ri"S"r (in the plural) appear to be
employed in such a sense, only when some enumerntion is supjioscd to
take place; comp. Num. 1: 2, 18, 20. 3: 40, 43. 2G: 53, and also Acts
1: 15. Rev. 11: 13., So here, the adjective oXlya implies some kind of
enumeration, in order to ascertain the fact which it asserts.
"1^/ ovx fftoh'vav . . . avzoov. Clean white garments are very natural
emblems of innocence, and have been extensively spoken of as such
among many nations. Hence to be clothed with polluted garments, i. e.
garments soiled, stained, etc., is an emblem of a character which is soil-
ed or polluted, see Zech. 3: 3 seq.
Kca 7ifninaTt]aov(ii . . . iv J.ev/.oi'i', i. e. inasmuch as they have remain-
ed pure and uncontaminated, they shall enjoy the reward of so doing, by
a continued and permanent state of purity and glory with the Redeemer
in the world to come. The source of the metaphorical language iv lev-
aoTg, may be easily explained. The priests were required to clothe
themselves in white linen. Lev. IG: 4. Ex. 28: 39, 42. Lev. G: 10. In
like manner the saints in the world of glory are to be clad. Rev. G: 11.
7: 9. 19: 8, where the ^vooirov is said to be r« 8iy.ai(6fiaTa rojv nyt'cov,
i. e. to be an emblem of dixaioifiuza. Or it may be illustrated in anoth-
er way. In Heb. *nw means to be white ; "lin white linen ; d'^nin inge-
niti, nobiles, so called because they wore vestments of this material. I
am aware that Gesenius refers this to the Arabic ^». , ingenuus fuit ;
but as the Hebrew verb T^n has no such sense, and the other derivation
(from nin) is easy and obvious, it seems to me preferable. As the first
method of explaining fV P.ivxor,' would represent the faithful as being
priests to God, so the second designates them as princes or kings. Both
ideas are common to the Apocalypse, and the reader may choose which
he pleases. I give the preference to the former, because the becoming
jonWs seems to be a favourite trope with the writer; comp. 2: 17, and texts
cited under 1: G. Comp. also Acts 1: 10. Matt. 28: 3. Acts 10: 30. Mark
IG: 5. Luke 24: 4, for illustration of the general nature of the imagery.
Contemporary writers employ the like imagery abundantly and for similar
purposes ; Enoch 89: 41, 42, 45, 46. That white and splendid vest-
ments are laid up in heaven for the faitliful, is a common idea among
writers of this description, and among the Rabbins ; see 4 Ezra 2: 39,
44, 45. Enoch 61: 18. Ascens. Is. 3: 25. 4: 16. 8: 26. 9: 9, 25. Zohar
(Amst.) I. 66. II. 210. Eisenm. Jud. IL p. 310. Schottg. Hor. Heb.
in loc.
"u-ihol tiniv, i. e. by a pure and unspotted life, they have manifested a
fitness for such a reward. — To walk with the Redeemer means here to be
associated with him in the world to come, and to participate in his glory.
Perhaps there is an allusion to Zech. 3: 7, " I will give thee S'^sbrra
VOL. II. 12
90 CHURCH AT PHILADELPHIA : ChAP. III. 5, 7.
{n£Qi7iarovvt£g) among those who stand here," i. e. the guardian angels
of the temple shall accompany thee and protect thee.
(5) He that overcometh — the same shall be clothed in white vestments ; and I
will not blot out his name from the book of life, and I will acknowledge his name
before my Father, and before his angels.
0 vixav, Nom. abs., see Gramm. § 97. 2. The insertion of ovro? hei'e
before the verb, is designed to give emphasis ; Gramm. § 123. 1.
Ov firj i^'.ilEi'ipoj . . . rijg ^ojiig, I will not blot out, i. e. I will suffer to
remain or cause to be retained. The form of expression is a litotes,
i. e. an affirmative sense attached to a negative form of expression. —
Bl^Xog ^(otjg is a frequent idea in both the Old and New Testament.
Heaven is first conceived of as a city ; then those admitted to dwell there
are citizens ; their names of course are conceived of as inscribed in the
city-register. Names thus inscribed in cities on earth, are blotted out
when life ceases, or when crime is committed and forfeiture of privilege
ensues. Not to he blotted out of course implies, therefore, continued life
and privilege. See and comp. Ex. 32: 32. Is. 4: 3. Ps. 56: 8. Dan."^
12: 1. Comp. also Rev. 13: 8. 17: 8. 20: 12. 21: 27. Enoch 105: 21.
Further developments respecting a book in the heavenly archives in
which the names and all actions of men are recorded, will be found in
Rev. 20: 12. Dan. 7: 10. The book of Enoch is filled with such views;
see 47: 3. 88: 104—118. 89: 21, 25, 30—33. 96: 16. 99: 4. 103: 1, 2.
105: 16, 17, 23. So also 4 Ezra 6: 20. Ascens. Is. 9: 22.
'OnoXoyrjoo) to oVojmcc uvtov, I will openly or publicly declare or ac-
knowledge his NAME, in reference to the name enrolled in the book of
life, or, in a sense like that which ovofia has in numberless cases, viz.
him, i. e. this person. See on v. 4 above. — 'Evmtziov rtoy dyyt'Xwv
avTov, before his angels. The idea is that God in heaven is surrounded
(and so the Scriptures represent him) with numberless hosts of angels.
In presence of these, as well as of the supreme Majesty, the names of
believers will be acknowledged. Comp. Rev. 1: 4, and the remarks
there made; also Mark 8: 38. Luke 9: 26. 12: 8. 1 Tim. 5: 21. But
perhaps (probably as it seems to me) only the presence-angels are meant
here, as in Rev. 1: 4, comp. Rev. 8: 2.
(7) And to the angel of the church in Philadelphia write : Thus saith he who
is holy and true ; who hath the key of David; who openeth and no one shutteth,
and shutteth and no one openeth.
'O uyiog= t:3'ti^, a title of the Godhead, Hosea 11: 9. Hab. 3: 3,
and ^X'liy';! ^"np passim. — 0 dXyj&ivog is a different way of expressing a
the same idea which [iccQTvg marog expresses in 1: 5, i. e. he who will \
perform all his promises or keep his word.
CHURCH AT PHILAPELPHIA : ChAP. III. 8. 91
Tijv yXeiv rov .laviS. In Rev. ii: 5 the Messiah is called t) Qi'ta
/4nvid, i. e. a ront-sproftt or root-shoot of David; and in Kev. 22: 16,
ij ni'^a xa) to yf'vo-; .luvid, the root-shoot and offspring of David, i. e.
the son of David; the expression being poetical. In Luke 1: 32 the
angel Gabriel announces to Mary, that ' the Lord God will give to the
child about to be born, the throne of David his father.' I take the
sense to be the same here ; although the mode of expression, hey of
David, is evidently borrowed from Is. 22: 22, where, in the same words
which are here employed, dominion over the house of Judah, like to that
of David, is promised to Elinkim the son of Hilkiah. The metaphor of
the key stands there connected with the house of David, which makes
the meaning obvious. Access to, and control over, the house of David,
i. e. the regal house or palace, is plainly designated by the hey ; in other
words, regal dominion is the meaning. Here, the word house is omitted,
which makes the meaning less obvious. The words which follow : o
dvoiymv . . . avolyu designate, of course, complete and entire control,
i. e. supreme dominion. One who had this power over a house, would
have the supreme control of it. So here ; the Messiah, who is o ayiog
•Au) 0 ulr^y^ivo^, has power to perform all his promises, for his control is
supreme and entire. So in 1: 18, tjfo) tag yXug zov \)-avdrov y.ai rov
adov, i. e. I have supreme control over the regions of death, or the
world of the dead. — Khiv (from y.Xet'g) makes an anomalous contraction
(for xltiSa) in the Accusative singular ; so in the plural nldg for xXsi-
Sag; see Buttm, § 58.
(8) I know thy works ; behold, T have set before thee an open door, which no
man can shut; because thou hast some little strength, and hast kepi my word,
and hast not denied niy name.
Open door has an evident reference to the phraseology of the pre-
ceding verse, i. e. to the keys, on which depend the opening and the
shutting. As it plainly means the enjoyment of some privilege, (for an
open door must mean ready and easy access to any place), in its present
connection, it must of course signify the easy and abundant attainment
of privileges and blessings. If the question be asked: What are these
blessings? The answer seems to be plainly given in the 9th and 10th
verses, viz., (1) Their Jewish persecutors will be made to humble
themselves, and to confess the Saviour's protecting power. (2) The
church at Philadelphia shall but lightly experience the trials which are
coming upon the world around them. To sum up all here promised in
one sentence : * I will humble thy persecutors, and mitigate for thee
trials to which the churches in general are ex[)Osed.'
Perhaps the tropical language of an open door might be explained
with more facility by reversing the order in which we conceive of the
I
92 CHURCH AT PHILADELPHIA : ChAP. III. 8.
blessings that are to be bestowed. We have, in the preceding view^
regarded the matter in the light of ' easy and free access to positive
blessings ;' but would not the context rather lead us to interpret open
door as having respect to a liberation from a state of bondage or danger ?
This chui'ch is to be kept from the trials which are to overtake x)thers.
A ready way of escape Avill be proffered to them, i. e. an o})en door is
set before them. In substance, this amounts to the same as the pre-
ceding method of interpretation ; but we make a somewhat different
application of the tropical language.
Ewald interprets it of a promise to multiply converts to the church,
appealing to Acts 14: 27. 1 Cor. 16: 9. 2 Cor. 2: 12. Col. 4: 3. No
doubt, open door might designate an enlarged power of making con-
verts ; but the context here has told us what is meant, so that we are
not at liberty to devise another meaning, however possible or even
probable. On the other hand, Eichhorn and Heinrichs interpret open
door of easy access to the heavenly temple or palace, at all times. In
itself this meaning is not objectionable ; but the context, as has been
remarked, points us to a different interpretation. Vitringa gives it a
little different turn from Ewald : ' I will give thee free access to preach-
ers and all the means of grace, and will increase thee, although thou
art now small or few in number ;' (for so he construes ort [irAQuv tieig
dvva[.uv). This is a meaning not improbable in itself; but the context
forbids it here. Vs. 9, 10, are plainly epexegetical of {^VQav dveqjy^i'viiv.
As to on ^lY.qav e^eig dvvafitv, the question seems to be, whether it
applies to the small numbers of the church, or to the spiritual energy
and life which they possess. Most of the leading expositors refer it to
the fewness of numbers, making dyvajxiv equivalent to number or quanti-
ty. So the preceding interpreters ; and so in Rob. Lex. and others.
That dvvaiug may mean abundance (comp. ^^n), is plain from Rev. 18:
3 ; but in this passage such a tropical meaning is not forced upon the
word by the context. No other example of the same kind occurs in the
N. Testament; and this alone seems hardly adequate to justify the in-
terpretation which we are examining. The phrase itself — a small
abundance — proffers something that seems incongruous and rather for-
bidding. H[ence I must side with our English version : " Thou hast a
little strength," by which^ as I presume, the translators meant to desig-
nate the spiritual condition of the church at Philadelphia. The objec-
tion to this may be comprised in the question : How can a little strength
be a reason for bestowing the blessings upon them, which are promised
in the sequel ? Plainly not a good reason, I admit, in case we are to
regard the expression as a positive declaration amounting to this : ' Thou
hast but a little strength;' for this would be matter of accusation,
instead of promise. But I do not interpret the phrase in this way.
CnURCn AT FIIILADELPIIIA : CnAP. III. 9. 93
I refjard it as a /L/ror;/s', i. e. a softened mode of expression in a kind of
negative form, which inipUes much more than the words strictly taken
would seem to import. This is a favourite figure or mode of expression
in these seven epistles; comp. 2: 2, 3, 13, 24. 3: 5, 12, 16, and the last
clause of the verse before us. What has he said to the church at Sar-
dis ? AexQOi; il, i. e. thou ai't destitute of due spiritual life or activity.
As the opposite of this, what says he in the present case? DIi/.Qav tyjig
di'iaiiir, i. e. thou hast some energy. But why does he not speak in
the positive t'ovm, and say ^tyu)jiV? Because the church were proba-
bly not entitled to commendation so high. They were not in the high-
est state of action ; but they had steadfastly adhered to their Christian
profession, and they had never become recusants, notwithstanding all
their trials. Hence the promises which are made to them in the sequel.
That the speaker means to say something in the way of commenda-
tion, in the clause before us, I cannot well doubt ; for this the tenor of
the discourse, and the two succeeding clauses that are annexed to [.ax-
Quv f/ffs' dvyuftiv, indicate. If we suppose a P./ro'r//i,' in the case before
us, then we have this sentiment : ' Thou hast some portion of Christian
vigour, hast kept my word,' etc. Much less congruous does the other
mode of interpretation appear to me ; although I deny not its possibility.
'ETi;ni,ang in the sense of 1;"^, obeyed, watdifuUy observed. — yloyov
means whatever he has declared, i. e. all his prescriptions or commands.
— Ovu riQv/j<ja), thou hast not denied. When the heathen or Jews
brought Christians before the civil magistrates, and accused them of
practising a religio non licita, they were required to renounce and de-
nounce the name of Christ. The church of Philadelphia had refused
to do this. They had met persecution and danger with steadfastness
and with constancy. — "Ovo^a may be taken here as above, i. e. to ovo[ia
Hov may be regarded as = nL A good reason, however, for a some-
what different explanation is, that ovo^a is employed hei'e because
Christians were called upon, in persecution, to renounce their name as
Christians, as well as their faith in Christ. This name the church at
Philadelphia had not renounced.
(9) Behold, I will cause those who are of the synagogue of Satan, who say tiiat
they are Jews (and yet are not), but speak falsely — behold I will make them come
and do homage before thy feet, and know that 1 have loved thee.
J t da fit = '^r^ , faciam, ponam, I will cause, or I will so arrange this
matter. After dtdrnfu we must mentally supply avzov^, which makes
its appearance below after nou'iaa. — '£x expresses (with avrois" implied)
Sk partitive sense, or rather it indicates the source whence' avroi;*; flows,
viz., the synagogue of Satan. Such a meaning of f x is common in the
New Testament ; see Rob. Lex. i/, h. Comp. also Ges. Ileb. Lex. 'jp ,
ifrai
94 CHURCH AT PHILADELPHIA : Chap. III. 10.
No. 1. — Hvvaymy^g x. r. X., see on 2: 9, where the same expression
occurs. The speaker means to say, that however much they may boast
of their zeal or their name, they are not Jews in the true and noble
sense of that word. Corap. John 8: 33, 39, 40. Tojv ItyovTcav, Geni-
tive plural, concord ad sensum with the noun of multitude Gvvaybjyijg.
'Idov TTOi/jooi avTovg resumes the sentence which had been suspended
by intermediate matter, and exchanges the didoifit, of the first clause for
the more explicit verb noii^aco. — fva ^^mai x. r. X., equivalent to the
Infinitive modes 7Jy.£tv and nQoay.vvHV, N. Test. Gramm. § 162.3. Note
2. nQoay.vrt'oo has the generic sense of falling prostrate or doing hom-
age ; and this homage may be either to God or man. In the former
case, it is spiritual worship, in the latter, it is civil homage. The lexi-
cons under iin'i and 7tQoaxvvt'(o wiU supply examples of both. The
idea of worship here, in the spiritual sense, is out of question. Pros-
tration of enemies as merely humbled and subdued, in this case, is all
that can be meant. Ewald supposes that the conversion of these ene-
mies is implied. Possibly it is ; but this meaning is not a necessary
one. Enough for the purposes of the speaker, that the enemies of the
church at Philadelphia are to be humbled and abased before his faith-
ful servants. It might be hoped, indeed, that such a frame of mind
would lead them on still further to recognize the power of the Christian
religion. Comp. Is. 60: 14. 49: 23.
Kai yvMOiv . . . (j« = yvavai Inf., as above in the case of 7iQ0Cy.vvaiv.
The meaning is, that the elevation of the Christian cause and the
humiliation of its enemies shall be such, that those enemies will be con-
strained to acknowledge the special power, protection, and kind regard
of the great Head of the church toward Christians.
(10) Because thou hast kept the word of my patience, I also will keep thee
from the hour of temptation, which is coming on all the world, to try those who
dwell on the earth.
Tov }.6yov Tt;g imonovrig juov, i. e. my command to exercise patience
under trials ; vno^wvijg [iov appears to mean, the patience tvhich I re-
quire. Eichhorn and Heinrichs construe these words as the Gen. of
similitude, i. e. patience such as I have exhibited ; but the sense above
given better accords with ixriQriadg fiov tov Xoyov in v. 8.
Kcd CE TTjQr^Goc), I wHl keep in another sense, i. e. preserve ; so that
there is here an antanaclasis with the preceding izi^Qtjffag. — 'SiQug is to
be taken in the generic sense, viz. season, time, period. — neigaafiov
here in the sense of temptation, i. e. temptation (in this case) to recant
the Christian profession, because of the sufferings of which it was the
occasion in times of persecution.
MsXlomtiS e'eZ^fTL^at, is about to come, or which is speedily coming ;
CHURCH AT PHILADELPHIA : ChAP. III. 11, 12. 95
for so fttlXco usually signifies, being employed to designate the proxi-
mate future. — OUovfit'vijv ohjg, the tchole world; corap. ;r«(j«v t»}j' ot-
xovitt'yt,v in Luke 2: 1, where possibly it means Judea, but probably the
Avhole Konian empire. At any rate, the phrase is often used indefinitely
for a wide extent of country ; and so it may designate the whole Roman
empire. Here the most probable meaning is the same, or at least the
whole region of the Roman Asia Minor, or the whole country around
the region of Philadi'lphia. So the i'")xn-b3 or ban of the Hebrews. —
IInQuoui, Infinitive, defines, or expresses the purpose or end to be ac-
complished. N. Test. Gramm. § 162. 4. — Kuzoi-AOvvTag tm rijs yij<i,
i. e. the temptation or trial coming upon the inhabitants of the land ; this
phrase being added for the sake of more ample specification, rijg is
most evidently here synonymous with oi/.ovuHii^ oh,';, and y.aroixovvTag
ini T/]b '/!,<; is a common llebi'aistic idiom for designating the inhabitants
of a country.
Meaning : ' I will exempt you from the severe trials of persecution
which will be experienced by all the countries around you, or I will
mitigate these trials.' This shows, that an active and wide-spread per-
secution was then either going on or about to go on, and was still to be
continued, when this book was written. Of course this brings up the ^
inquiry, whether the Apocalypse must not have been written during
Nero's life ; for when he died the persecution ceased immediately, as all
agree.
(11) I am coming quickly ; hold fast what thou hast, that no one may take
away thy crown.
Kqutsi 0 ix^ig, keep steadfast in thy firm and hitherto unwavering
faith. Do this iva fir^deig ^-"'f^ff '^ov azt'cfuvov aov, in order that, or so
that, none shall deprive you of your proffered reward. Christians were
encouraged with the promise of their being made kings and priests to
God. In either case a mitre or crown, (see the splendid image in 2: 17),
would belong to them. — Mri8t}g hi^rj expresses the same sense as the
passive voice may not be taken away, = jW^ dvaiQrj&rj, for firfdsig is the
indef. Nom. — ^u^rj, take away; so Matt. 5: 40. Rev. 6:4. So the
Hebrew nph ; see both words in the lexicons. The idea is, that persC'
verance is essential to the final reward of Christians.
(12) He who overcometh— I will make him a pillar in the temple of my God,
and he shall no more go out; and I will write upon him the name of my God,
and the name of the city of my God, of the new Jerusalem which cometh down
out of heaven from my God, and my new name.
noif,a(o avTov azvXov Ewald compares with Is. 22: 23 for illustra-
tion, this being the sequel of the passage referred to in v. 7 above ; see
commentary on that verse. There the prophet Isaiah speaks of Elia-
96 CHTTRCH AT PHILADELPHIA : ChAP. III. 12.
kim, as about to become " a nail in a sure place, and also a glorious
throne ;" see a kindred expression in Ezra 9: 8, 9. To me it seems
more natural and easy lo adopt the familiar view of Paul and Peter
(1 Cor. 3: 16, 17. 6: 19. 2 Cor. 6: 16. 1 Pet. 2: 5), which represents
Christians as parts of a great temple or spiritual building, of which Christ
is the chief corner stone. If the metaphor is carried through with con-
sistency, such a temple must of course be supposed to have arvXoi, pil-
lars. These are a conspicuous, ornamental, and highly useful part of
the temple. What pillars are then to a temple literally considered, the
like will such Christians as those in Philadelphia be, in the spiritual
temple built by the Saviour. The principal idea is plain, and very
sti'iking. The promise is special, on the ground that the virtues in ques-
tion are special. Comp. Gal. 2: 9, where azvloi has a kindred sense.
That the idea of steadfastness lies at the basis of all, is plain from the
context and from the nature of the case.
Kui iico . . . in is to be referred, not to the jnllar, (for this image is
completed with the preceding clause), but to the man, avzov, i. e. to him
who overcometh. Ife shall never more go out, i. e. never depart from,
or be removed from, the temple in which he is stationed. He shall there
occupy a steadfast and a constant place. See the like sentiment in
John 6: 37. 10: 28, 29. 1 John 2: 19.
Kou yQuxpco fV uvTov, i. e. upon the man, the conqueror. Inscrip-
tions, indeed, were often made upon pillars ; but ov fiij l^eX&y cannot
well be predicated of a pillar. Inscriptions were also made upon meii,
and upon parts of their costume ; see Rev. 7: 3. 22: 4. 14: 1, where the
servants of God have niir^^ marked on their foreheads or ratlwr frontlets.
So the followers of the beast and false prophet. Rev. 13: 16. 14: 11. 19:
20. 20: 4. I take the imagery here to be of the same nature as that in
Rev. 2: 17, where the 7ieio name inscribed on a splendid diamond in
front of the mitre or crown is mentioned. In 2: 17 only the 7ieiv name,
i. e. the name of the Saviour or Logos, is mentioned ; for there the com-
parison is made simply with the mitre of the Jewish high priests which
had but one name inscribed upon it. Here the speaker enlarges the
idea, and comprehends the name of Jehovah, of the new Jerusalem
(Rev. 21: 2), and also the new name, viz. that of the Redeemer. The
name of God inscribed on one's forehead, designates the generic idea of
one devoted to objects and purposes spiritual and heavenly ; the name
of the Neio Jerusalem, marks the peculiar city to which the conqueror
belongs ; the new name is that which is peculiar to the Christians as
such, to a disciple of the Lord Jesus Christ. With such a distinction
impressed on him, or at least borne upon the frontlet of his mitre, the
conqueror would be recognized and acknowledged by all as entitled to
his place in the New Jerusalem.
ciiURcn AT LAOPiCEA : Chap. III. 14. iff
A'«/)7;s,* '/f.nov(in).i',u ; see the sploiulid description in Rov. 21: 10 8eq.
Tiip idea of a heavenly city and temple, or nither of a city the whole' of
Avhioh is itself like a temple (Rev. 21: 22). is a familiar one in the New
Testament: see Rev. xxi. Rev. 22: 14. Ileh. 11: 10, IG. 12: 22. 13:
14. Phil, o: 20, wluM'c noltm'jia means citizenship. Gal. 4: 26 al. — ft
^iUTa^alriwaa •/.. r. ).., so in Rev. 21: 2, where it is considered as a
splendid appendapre of the iieto earth which is to be created, at the final
consummation of all thinprs. To indicate its heavenly or spiritual na-
ture, it is represented as descending from God out of liea\en. As a
citizen of this glorious and eternal city, the conqueror in question is to
wear its insignia or badges. — To oroud finv to xauov, see on 2: 17,
The Saviour's name, beyond all reasonable doubt, is designated by this.
— As to the gramtnatioal construction of /; nuTa^ui'invna (Nom. instead
of the normal Gen.) see, in respect to this idiom which is somewhat
common, N. Test. Gramm. § 172. 1, also Vol. I. p. 234 seq.
(II) And to the anorcl of th> clmrcli in Liodicoa write : Thus saitli the Ampn,
the faithful and true witness, the beginning [head, prince] of the creation of God.
'O ^^fu'jv signifies the same as that which is immediately after subjoin-
ed, viz. TTiarog y.ui (D.i^OiiO'^; see on ftaQtV'^ niGii)^ in 1: 5. The ob-
ject of employing these designations here seems to be, to remind the
church addressed that the comminations of its Lord and IMaster are to
be believed, as well as his promises. See, on similar repetitions in He-
brew and Greek, Vol. I. p. 230.
H un/Jj T//? y.Ti'aeco<: has been, as might be expected, a subject of con-
test among critics, on account of its appHcation to Christ. (1) It has
been compared with 6 7iQ(or6roy.og tcov vsnomv in 1: 5, and so made to
mean the first of the neic spiritual creation, i. e. the first in order of those
raised from the dead. But if this was the writer's meaning, would he
not — must he not — have said: uq/Jj Tm^f^r^Qptyav in rav rs/.nojv?
And even this would have been a unique expression. There is some
resemblance however to such a phraseology, in dnanyrj rwv xe/,oiiaj^E-
tcor in 1 Cor. 15: 20. Yet this resemblance is more ap[)arent than reaL
" The first-fruits of those who have fallen asleep " means, he who is
first in order raised from the dead ; while UQpj jav fyeysQfin'cov iy. ruv
vexQbiv would mean, the Lord or King of the dead. This is an idea
which is not expressed in the Scriptures, except in such cases as Rom.
14: 9, where universality of dominion is designated by saying, "that he
might exercise dominion over the dead and the living." The solution
before us. then, is not satisfactory.
(2) The author of creation ; see Staeudlin's Jloral IntfiiAfction to
the New Testament, p. 201. But although the sentfinent thus conveyed
VOL. IL 13
98 CHURCH AT LAODICEA : ChAP. III. 14.
is biblical (John 1:3. Heb. 1: 2. Col. 1: 16), yet it cannot well be
shown that the word dfiyJi means creator or author of all things.
(3) llie first created being. So Ewaltl, and some others. Ewald re-
fers to an alleged Jewish opinion, in the apostolic age, that angels were
created before the world ; and therefore the Messiah, who was superior
to them, must have been created before angels. He thinks that Job
38: 7, " When the morning stars sang together, etc.," was the source of
the alleged Jewish opinion ; and such an opinion is in fact found in
Genesis Parva, an apocryphal Hebrew book of late origin mentioned
by Jerome, and quoted by Zonaras, Lib. I. Annal. p. 4. The passa-
ges respecting this may be found in Fab. Cod. Apoc. V. Test. I. p. 851.
Ewald appeals also to the Rabbinical dicta cited in Eisenmenger's Ent-
deckt. Judenthum, II. p. 370 seq. ; but here, while Jalkoth Hadash is
cited for such an opinion, one may find also other opinions, viz. that the
angels were created on the second day, and on the fifth day, and every
day, etc. ; all of which is accompanied with some gross and repulsive
conceits. Ewald also appeals to Suicer's Thesaurus, I. p. 32 seq. ;
which, however, merely gives the opinions of the Christian fathers,
during and after the fourth century. Of the earlier fathers only Ori-
gen is cited ; and he held that angels, and indeed all pure intelligent
substances, were created nQo rwv alcovcov, i. e. from eternity. So we
are destitute of the proof requisite to establish such a Jewish opinion as
Ewald appeals to, at the early period in question. Even if the Rab-
bins cited in Eisenmenger had testified in such a way as Ewald repre-
sents, it would be little or nothing to the purpose. Who does not know,
that most of the curious and speculative conceits which they exhibit,
were of Cabbalistic origin, and later than the first century ? *
■* Tliat Christ was expected by the Jews to be superior to the angels, is clear
enough from the manner of the appeal in Heb. i., where the writer seems to re-
gard this opinion as undeniable, and speaks merely in the way of confirming it,
in order that lie may urge it upon his readers with the more force. See also Rev.
19: 10. 1 Pet. 1: 12. 3: 22. Phil. 2: 10. Col. 1: 15— 17. 2: 10. But that Christ
was created before the foundation of the world, (Ewald asserts that the Jews of
the Saviour's time held such an opinion, and that the Saviour himself at least
recognized it), is not proved at all by any of the texts to which tiiis critic appeals.
1 Pet. 1: 20 Eph. 1:4. 3: 9 — II, surely cannot be relied on, as he supposes, for
such a purpose ; for they are quite foreign to it. And as to Col. 1: 1.5, ttqujto-
Toxo? Ttj? y.Ti'ofoj?, it must be merely a constructive exegesis, which can make out
from this the sentiment in question. Does not TTQiororoito?, in ils figurative sense,
(the literal sense is out of question here), apply io jirce7nincnce of ran/e, rathev
than mere precedence of age or time .' And is not this the design of Patil here ?
Would a writer like him represent the Messiah as the Creator of all Ihmgs,
(Eph. 3: 9. 1 Cor. 8: 6. Col. 1: 16, 17), and then say that he was himself created,
i. e. was a mere creature? So long as the passage in Col. 1: 15 is fairly suscep-
tible of another sense than that which Ewald gives it, so long, with such views
CHURCH AT i.aodicea: Ciiap. III. 14. 99
(4) Tfie bff/iiini)i(/ (ill till' iU'tivc sense) of the creation, i. c. llic Cre-
ator of all tilings; scarcely (littering from No. 2 above. So V'ilringa
and many others. This would be a nietonymical use of the word, put-
ting the effect for the cause, i. e. the beginning of the creation for hiin
who caused it to begin. I will not say that this is an impossible sense
of the phraseology; but surely we should adopt such an exeg''sis only
by virtue of some plain necessity ; for in such a case only could we
adopt it with any good degree of satisfaction. But in the present case,
another and more obvious meaning is [lossible, and one more conformed
to the USKS loquendi of the New Testament. For,
(o) -■l(>X'i ^'^ often used for preeminence, princedom, and also (very
naturally) for rulers, princes; Luke 20: 20. Luke 12: 11. Tit. 3: 1.
Eph. 1: 21. 3: 10. 6: 12. Col. 2: 10, 15. 1 Cor. 15: 24. Rom. 8: 38.
Col. 1: 16. See also Josephus and Xen., for like usage, in Kol). Lex.
Why then, when we have the aQ-j^cup rav ^uaiXiar before us of 1: 5
before nie, should I be tiisposed to give it a sense difiiTinir from liis iiiclliod of
construction.
It is true, that some of the Rabbins, taking Mic. 5: 2 as tlie basis, " His goings
forth are from everlasting," have said that the Messiah was created before the
world ; see Eisenineng. I. p. 316. But then the same Rabbits make the Law, the
Temple, and Paradise, etc., eternal in the same sense. All this moreover, i. e.
this in such a shape, is of the later speculation. That Christ would have a nature
wliich existed before the world was, is plain enough from the te.xts above cited,
which show that he was the Creator of the worlds; but that this nature was it-
self a created one, — titiit is quite another question, see John I: 3. Rom. 9: 5.
Rev. 1: 17. 2: 8. See also Ascens. Is. 9: 5, " He who turned thee back again is
thy Lord Gon, the Lord Christ, who will be called in the world, Jvsus." So
too in Enoch 46: 3 — 5, " Before the sun and the signs were created, before the
stars of heaven were formed, his vame iras inrohcd in the presence of the Lord
of spirits. . . . The Elect and the Concealed One existed in his [God's] presence,
before the world was created, and forever.''' Comp. Enoch 61: 10," Kings, princes,
and all who possess the earth, shall glorify him [the Messiah] who has dominion
over all things, him who was concealed ; for from the beginning the Son of Man
existed in secret, whom the Most High preserved in the presence of his power
and revealed to the elect." (v. 13.) " All shall pray to him, and petition him for
mercy." Such passages make it clear, indeed, what the Jews thought of the
anlemnndane existence of Christ; but not a word in all this of his being created,
or being created before the angels.
Why should we then, or how can we with propriety, adopt the opinion of
Ewald, liiat a^f-/.^ t^? xriatoj? means the first created Ininir? If this meaning had
been intended, would not the writer have said : TTQiZro? rrdprojv xrtofirlrojr, or
■:r(j(~>ros Toiy xTiod'tVTi'jv ? And farther ; as 6 /un(jTvg u TTiarog here is plainly taken
from Rev. 1:5, and there, in connection with this piirase, stands 6 oQywv tiov
/?aot/Ay»' T^ff y^ff, is it not evident tiiat the writer had this in his mind here, and
that he has repeated the same sentiment merely with some small modification,
i. e. he has used the alistract u(jY.^ instead of the concrete aftyoir, and has made
the extent of the dominion (now designated by rTjq xrtatcis rov d'tov) wider than
before (in 1: 5), when he merely said : roiv ^aciiUwv t//? yTjs?
100 CHURCH AT LAODICEA : ChAP. 111.15 — 17.
where such a sense is certain, should we hesitate to give the like sense
here, viz., Head or Lord of the creation of God ? Not, as Wetstein,
^'ichhorn, and olhers, Head of the church ; for then it would be: Trjg
y.airijg y.ria£fx)g tov -O^tov, Gal. 6: 15. 2 Cor. 5: 17. But here we may
give the phrase a more enlarged sense, like that in Phil. 2: 9 — 11, Head ^
of the whole creation. This is surely firmer ground than that of Vi- ^
tringa.
(15) I know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot. 1 would that thou
wert eillier cold or hot !
Cold would imply a state absolutely unchristian. Hot here means a
fervid and zealous state, such as the times and circumstances then imperi-
ously demanded of Christians. "OqieXov = utinam, in reality Aor. II of
ocpsiXco, used in epic poetry and the later Greek as a particle, instead of
the regular form of the verb, which would be cocfuXov. It is followed by
the Indie, or Opt. Griesbach reads tjg here, Subj. ; but the Subj. is not
appropriate to this particle, and therefore 7]g is the better reading.
(16) So then, because thou art luke-warm, and neither cold nor hot, I will vo-
mit thee out of my mouth.
XXiciQog here designates tepid, i. e. like tepid water, which is odious
to the palate and provokes vomiting. The imagery is intensely strong,
and denotes high disgust at the state of indifference in which the Laodi-
cean church were. This balancing between Christ and the world, when
dangers press and difficulties are frequent and formidable, is not allow-
ed to the soldiers of the cross. When they enlist under the banner
of 'their great Captain, they enlist for service, not for the sake of fur-
loughs.
One is tempted also to make another application of the sentiment here,
which however probably was not in the mind of the writer. This is, that
when we hear some persons protesting against the use of hot or cold di'inks,
as ruinous to health, and insisting on the tepid, we may reply : The
Apocalyptist has appealed to our very nature, as revolting at the xXidQog
which you recommend. Should we have been created with such a taste,
if it were in itself destructive ? Excess in di'inks hot or cold, as excess
everywhere else and in all things, is no doubt injurious ; but it would
be difficult to show that a moderate use of them is so.
(17) Because thou sayest : I am rich, and have become wealthy and have need
of nothing, and dost not know that thou art wretched and miserable, and poor,
and blind, and naked ;
yh'ysig may be taken in the same sense in which q)t][ii and ^rx are
often used, viz., for internal speaking, i. e. thinking, imagining, supposing,
etc. It matters but little, whether we suppose here the Laodicean church
CHt'RCn AT LAODICEA : Chai'. III. 17. 101
to liave merely thonglit in their liearts that which the sequel of the text
exhibits, or expressed themselves outwardly to the same effect. The
latter ease would merely indicate either a little more frankness, or a lit-
tle more impudence, as the case mifjht he.
IlXovaiOf' in respect to wealth, property, or in respect to spiritual gifts
and graces ? The former, I can scarcely doubt. There are and have
been, indeed, many spiritual boasters in the world ; but then they are
for the most part men of an enthusiastic turn of mind, and commonly
have much fervour, such as it is; whereas the Laodicean church are
plainly characterized as wordling-Christians, grown luke-warm as to di-
vine things by the eager pursuit of riches. The world is filled with ex-
amples of the same nature, at the present hour. — ThnlovT^'Mt only ren-
ders the atfirmation more intense ; and the following clause adds still
more to this intensity, viz., and I have need of nothing. In other words,
I have accumulated riches to such a degree, that all my wants and de-
sires can be gratified.
'0 T(().ui^6no.; y.ai 6 ehfirn^' with the ar|,icle ; but nzw/og etc. without
it. The anicle before iXatirn^', however, is omitted in some Qodic^,
probably becajjselhe common principle in this case, would seem tore-
quire the omission ; for continuous nouns or adjectives, connected and
coordinate, usually omit the article after the first noun or adjective ; N.
Test. Graram. § 89. 9. But I prefer the reading 6 fXativn^, because I
regard t]ie writer as intending to lay some special emphasis or stress on
tuXuiTKonog and f'Afffros," ; which ai'e no doubt to be taken in a spiritual
sense. It must be, that if the Laodiceans were in reality Christians,
(and we are not constrained to deny this), still they were in such a state
of spiritual declension, that they must after all have been truly wretched,
not being able fully to enjoy either their wealth or their religion. Hence
6 ralalnwQog and 6 iXesti'og. For the rest; nua-fog x. r. X.,\)Qvc\% with-
out the article, seem to admit of a less intensive sense, and to denote
what is still compatible with having some principle of piety, although it
was then destitute of any present active and efficient development. It
may be, that this view of the case requires too nice distinctions ; yet
one can hardly imagine that all the church at Laodicea were hypocrites,
see V. 19, which seems to forbid such a supposition. If they were not,
then the three latter adjectives should be Uiken in a comparative or mo-
dified sense. The omission of the article comports well with this.
/Iroi/Oi,', spiritually jooor, in the way of antithesis to the preceding
nhn'csui'i ; see the like antithesis in 2: 9. Sentiment : ' Whatever
worldly possessions thou mayest have, or however abundant they are,
thou art poor in respect to spiritual gifts and graces.' — TvcpXog, blind in
a spiritual respect, i. e. not discerning thy duty, nor the true nature and
excelleuce of spiritual acquisitions. — rvfivog, naked, i. e. destitute of
102 CHURCH AT LAODICEA : ChAP. III. 18 — 20.
the goodly vesture of a truly Christian spirit, and therefore exposed by
thy condition to the contemptuous gaze of the world, to whom thy incon-
sistent conduct must be manifest.
(18) I counsel tliee to procure of me gold tried by fire, that thou mayest be rich ;
and white garments, that thou mayest put them on and the shame of thy naked-
ness may not appear ; and eye-salve to anoint thine eyes, that thou mayest see.
y^yoQUGai to procure or ohtain ; for the word does not always have
the specific meaning of buying a thing by paying a price for it ; see Is.
55: 1, where "he that hath no money" is invited " to huy [i. e. procure
sustenance] without money and without price." The graces bestowed
by the Great Head of the church are not hought by an equivalent price,
but are obtained nara x^'^Qi^-
rifiTZVQcofAivoi' = r;^i^, expurgated by Jire, Is. 1: 25. Mai. 3: 2, 3,
comp. 1 Pet. 1: 7. The meaning is : ' I counsel thee to procure of me
the true and unadulterated riches, i. e. spiritual gifts and graces, so that
thou mayest be rich in the true sense of the word.' — l^dna X(-vy.u, see
on V. 4 above. It is not the Vestments that wealth can procure, which
they need, but that tohite linen which is the righteousness of the saints,
Rev. 19: 8. — rv[iv6ztjt6g gov here of course is to be taken in the spirit-
ual sense.
KoXXovQiov, eye-salve, a medicament (Wt. construed) for sore or dis-
eased eyes. Here it is the eyes of their spiritual 'understanding which
are meant ; although the imagery is taken from the physical eye. — The
Saviour hei-e proposes a remedy for all their faults, in the gifts and the
graces which he bestows. He is the source of all spiritual good to the
believer. In and through him are all the blessings bestowed which the
Christian needs.
(19) Whomsoever! love, I reprove and chasten; be zealous, therefore, and
repent.
This implies, of course, that they were still in some degree the ob-
jects of his love, as children; comp. Heb. 12: 6 — 8. Pro v. 3: 11, 12.
— Eav for uv, (see Winer § 43. 6 in Note), which makes cpilw (Subj.)
to express a supposition or condition. — I reprove and chasten or disci-
pline. This is ap[)ropriate here, because he had just uttered words
of sharp rebuke and admonition. — Zijlaaov is directly opposed to their
state of frigidity and indifference ; q. d. rouse up to energetic Christian
action and development. — Mezuvotjoov, i. e. they must I'epent of the
misconduct which he had been reproving. Comp. Gal. 4: 18.
(20) Behold I stand at the door and knock ; if any one will hearken to my
voice, and open the door, I will come in to him and will sup with him, and he
with me.
"Earijxa used in the Pres. tense ; N. Test. Gramm. § 136. 3. c.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SEVEN EPISTLES. 103
^at. I have talrn my station. Tlio imngery here employed is that of
the^'>«wiQUr as goinpr rouiul ainonj; the dwellinjis of the Laodicean
churches, and paying a visit to each, and hoUHng friendly intercourse
with the inmates. — Kqoi'm for xotztco ; sometimes so in the Attic Greek,
but not very common; see Lob. ad Phryn. p. 177.
Eup Tiif uy.ov(st] T//!,' (jpcoiv/i,' fiov refers to a custom of the person who
knocked, to speak and let it be known by his voice who he was ; eomp.
Acts 12: 13, 14. Cant. 5: 2. — Jtinvi'iabi, sup. Supper w;is the sociid
and the principal meal of the ancients ; comp. Gen. 19: 1 — 3. 18: 1 — 8.
Here the addition of xui «t)rOb fier' ifiov shows, that the Redeemer
would treat the penitent and obedient members of this backslidden
church with the greatest condescension and kindness. The whole is
an image or symbol of a feast (so to speak) in the future world. Comp.
Luke 14: 15. 22: IG— 18. Mark 14: 25. Rev. 19:9. Matt. 22: 2,3.
See a kindred idea, but in a mo*'e intensive form, in Rev. 3: 21.
(21) He that conqticretli — to liim will 1 give to sit with me on my throne,
even as I overcame, and am seated with my Father on hii throne.
In 2: 7 we have tw vr/.(avti . . . avzfp, but here 6 vumv, i. e. the Nora,
absolute. Cases of the Hke nature in the 0. Testament Scriptures are
numerous. They are not unfrequent in the New ; see on v. 5 above.
— As to the language and sentiment, see under 1: 6, whei'e nearly
all the cases of this nature are adduced and presented to the view of
the reader. To he seated on the Redeemer's throne, is to reign with him,
Gvi(^ufii).ii'(jai usT avTOv ; an idea,vas maybe seen by consulting the
commentaiy on chap. 1: 6, whiclj/is frequent in the O. Testament and
in the New. ^o say the leastj it presents to our view a most vivid and
striking image of tTie"1unire exaltation and glory of the saints. The
enthronization of the Redeemer here spoken of, is that which was
awarded to him on account of his having achieved the mediatorial work.
In c»»r nature he then became enthroned and exalted; PhiL 2:5 — 11.
Heb. 1: 3. 8: 1. The like to this,, i. e. so far as our nature and con-
dition render us capable of being elevated and glorified, will be granted
to all who prove to be final victors in the contest with the world, the
flesh, and the devil.
General Remarks on the Seven Epistles.
At the close of the preceding particular examination of these Epistles,
it may be not inapi>o3ite to make a few suggestions in the way of re-
capitulation or summary criticism.
Nothing can be plainer, than that they are the result of a specific
design and plan of execution. The manner in which they all commence
104 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SEVEN EPISTLES.
and close ; the triplicity of their contents (see Voh I. § 7. p. 132) ; the
intimate connection which they have with the vision which precedes
them, and with the visions that follow (see § 25, p. 434), thus demon-
strating the iinity of the whole book; the fact that they are all so nearly
of the same length, which shows a special regard on the part of the
writer to a regular plan and to the nature of the book in which they
were to appear — all these things are obvious to the attentive reader. It
is quite plain, too, that all of these epistles exhibit incont^tible marks
of having been written at a time when the churches addressed were in
a state of persecution and of peril, (see § 13. p. 222 seq.). Hence the
appositeness of the succeeding parts of the book to such a state of
things. As to the matter of the epistles, it has been taxed with an un-
usual degree of severity. It is clear, indeed, that no part of the N.
Testament exhibits higher demands of holiness and faith than this.
The standard of Christian morals and fidelity is exceedingly elevated
and unbending. But is it not equally clear, that a spirit of tender re-
gard to the weaknesses of human nature is manifested throughout?
The speaker, or writer, is much more prone to commend and encourage,
than to censure or reprove. Where he finds occasion to do both, his
commendations occupy the first place; see Rev. 2: 2 seq. 2: 13 seq. 2:
19 seq. 3: 8 seq. Never does he forget to hold out the prospect of glo-
rious reward to the faithful and obedient, and thus he encourages those
who were ready to waver. His rebukes are indeed awful ; but let it
be remembered that the heresy of Balaam, which infected (as it would
seem) three of the churches (2: 6, 14, 20), deserved stern rebuke. So
did the stupid and listless state of the church at Laodicea, specially at
such a time as that. In a word, the whole shape of the composition
demonstrates that the mind which dictated it was in a high and intense
state of feeling. This portion of the work belongs to a book, the body
of which is conkssGAXyjpoetical, and does itself naturally partake, in a
high degree, of the nature oTsuch a book.
I cannot help feeling, that when all these considerations are taken into
view, that a comparison of these epistles with the calm and hortatory
epistles of John, written on another and different occasion, and in later
life, should be made with all due allowances for the respective circum-
stances of each. Conclusions have been drawn from such a comparison,
adverse to the apostolic origin of the apocalyptic epistles. But when all
the circumstances of the two cases so diverse are well weighed, is not
the conclusion broader than the premises will support ?
It lies on the very face of these epistles, that a great variety of char-
acter and circumstances, in many respects, is brought to view. The
natural consequence is, a rich harvest of practical instruction to the
churches of every age. AYell may we say, with Paul on another oeca-
PRINCIPAL VISIONS OF THE APOCALYPSE. 105
sion : " These things happened unto them for ensamples ; and tliey are
written for our admonition, on whom the ends of the world have come."
The question has been raised and agitated, whether John sent a copy
of his work to each of the churches addressed. Some have supposed
not only that this \v:is the case, but tliat the epistolary part was omitted
in each case, with the exception of that epistle which belonged to each
pai'ticular church addressed. But the manner in which these epistles
are all connected with preceding and following parts of the book and
with each other, seems to forbid this supposition. As to the number of
copies which John wrote out for the churches, we have no means of de-
ciding ; nor is it of any moment. The work is evidently encyclical, in
its very nature ; and a copy sent to the church at Ephesus, would be-
yond all doubt ensure the circulation of the book. It is quite possible,
perhaps even prolmble, that John occupied some of the lonely hours of
his exile, in writing out several copies.
^.i^^.i6s;
PRINCIPAL VISIONS OF THE APOCALYPSE : IV. 1— XXII. 5.
General Remarks.
We come now to the Principal Visions, which occupy nearly all of the re-
maining part of the book, in which the future prospects of the Christian church
are disclosed, and its prosperity and the overthrow of its enemies developed.
Plain is it, at first view, tiiat a disclosure like this would serve to clieer and ani-
mate the persecuted and des|)onding churciies, and contribute much to their j)cr-
severance in the Christian faith. Equally plain is it also, that the same disclo-
sures are adapted to accom])lish a similar end, in every age of the church until
her last and final triumph. No book, it may well be said, is better adapted to be
a Vadc Merum for the heralds of the cross, in foreign and heatlien lands and
amidst trials and discouragements, than the book before us.
I have named the subsequent part of this work the principal Virions, in the way
of distinction from the vision in the first three chapters or introductory part. ]
do not, like Ewald, De Wettc, and others, regard the second part of the book as
constituting but one continuous vision, merely distinguisiicd by some shifting of
the scenes. We may easily see, in fact, that the scene is very nmch changed,
(comp. as examples, 4: 1, 2 and 12: 18; also 14: 1 with 15: 1 ; and these with
17: 3. Id: 1) ; so that we must at all events assume, that there were a number of
distinct and different, although subordinate, visions. Sometimes the transition
from one to the other is noted, as in 4: 1. 7: 1. 18: 1. 10: ], by fitrd ravra; some-
times the transition is made by the indication of a new station or sphere of vision,
as in 12: 18. 17: 3; and again by the mere conjunctive yet transitive particle
y.ru (which is used like the ^ in '^r\'\ of the Hebrews), with the concurrent cit-
cumstancos which are related, as iii 10: 1. 12: 1. 14: 1. 15: 1. 20: II. There is,
undoubtedly, a general unity nj design, viz. the triumph and final glory of the
church, and the disappointment, defeat, and punishment of all its enemies. But
VOL. IL 14
106 theophant: Chap. IV. »
the subordinate parts of this are distinctly marked by the nature of the contents
of the book, if not by the artificial divisions of the writer. It seems to lie upon
the face of the work, that there are three great catastrophes in it (see § 7 of Vol. ].),
to which all of the subordinate and intermediate parts are to be referred ; and that
the whole is crowned by a view of the complete accomplishment of all that was
intended in bringing about these catastrophes, and which had been promised to
the faithful servants of God. The first part, if we comprehend the general intro-
duction to the principal visions, extends from chap. 4: ] to the end of chap. xi.
The second part from chap. 12: 1 to the end of chap. xix. The third part is con-
tained in chap. 20: 1 — 10; to which is appended the final results and the future
glory of the church, 20: 11 — 21: 5. These catastrophes are distinctly marked by
their diverse matter, and by the termination of each with the overthrow of perse-
cuting and formidable adversaries. As to the Exodium as we may name it, chap.
20: 11 — 22: 5, it exhibits the crowning part of the whole — the realization of all
that had been predicted and promised — so that here the general unity of the piece
shines forth conspicuously. The close of the book, 22: 6 seq., is merely matter
pertaining to John and his relation to his readers — the valedictory of one, who had
been long and earnestly addressing them on topics of a most interesting nature.
For a full account of the economy of the book, see Vol. 1. § 10.
CHAPTER rV^
Theophany, or Exordium to the principal Visions.
The Apocalyptist has, in respect to his exordium or introduction to the princi-
pal Visions, followed the example of Isaiah and Ezekiel. The thenphanies in Is.
VI, where the prophet is consecrated to his office or inaugurated as a seer, and in
Ezek. I, bear so strong a resemblance to the one before us, that it is impossible
to mistake the similitude. As to the leading elements, however, in the theophany
recorded by John, they are not mere imitations. The manner of them is such as
to show that the writer thought for himself, although the elements of thought, or
rather o? costume., were drawn from the ancient Scriptures. Their contents had
in fact become a prominent part of the very elements of his own thoughts. Yet,
while all this is plain and undeniable, it would be difficult to show that he has in
any case merely copied them, or directly intended to produce nothing more than
a mere imitation.
In regard to the object of the tlicophany before us it seems proper to remark, that
the scene is deeply impressive, and is well adapted to produce a reverent and so-
lemn attention in the mind of the reader. Such is certainly the effect upon the
mind of any one, who reads Is. VI. and Ezek. 1. in an intelligent manner. There
is also a manifest propriety in the theophany, as it has respect to the preparation
of John's mind for his important work. A vision of God, in his awful and glo-
rious majesty, must silence every unholy or forbidden desire, and every light or
wandering imagination, and fix the attention with the deepest interest on the
things disclosed in the sequel. Such a preparation, then, is evidently congruous
with the nature of the case and the object to be accomplished.
It is altogether a subordinate question, whether anything strictly ocular, in this
case, was exhibited. It seems more probable, that being fV 7rj'6i'^«r<^ whatever
was seen was seen with the eye of the mind, i. e. in prophetic ecstasy. If Paul
coujd not tell whether he was in or out of the body, in a similar case (2 Cor. 12:
^.^•«.
THEOPHANY: ChAP. IV. lOt
2), it does not seem altojrether congruous to assume mere literal and ocular vi-
sion in these cases. The scenes are too high and holy and spiritual to be witness-
ed with the mere fleshly eye. The spirit only seems capable of beholding them,
in their true attitudes.
There is another view of this case, however, which seems to be adopted by
most of the recent German writers on the Apocalypse. This is, that the whole
representation is simply the production of the author's imagination ; and they
compare this with tiie factitious visions, which poets, and some other writers of
fancy, so often introduce into their compositions.
If now we should say, tiiat tiie substance of chap. IV. may be comprehended in
the following statement, viz., that the mind of the Apocalyplist was deeply im-
pressed with a pervading sense of God's power and glory ; that by being brought
into such a state it was prepared for the prophetic disclosures which follow ; and
that the writer has merely undertaken to designate these simj)le trutiis, by the
employment of symbols and of figurative poetic language ; this would not, per-
haps, detract much from the essential meaning of the communications in the
Apocalypse. Assuming merely this, we might say that the imagination and fancy
of the writer were in active and vigorous e.xercise, when selecting and employing
the imagery contained in chap. IV. The appeal might even be made to Ps. xviii.
and Is. xiv. for striking examples of a similar method of composition, where the
costume appears to be supplied by the imagination of the writer. To my own
mind, however, the whole matter in the present case, notwithstanding the differ-
ent view of it just suggested, appears in a diiferent light. In chap. 4: 2 the wri-
ter says : 6v&tojg iytvofir^v tv ■jivivuari, and then goes on to relate his ecstatic
vision. Guided by this, 1 cannot doubt that we are to regard the sequel, as in-
tended by the writer to be considered as having passed before the eye of his mind,
while rapt into prophetic vision. Why should not the writer, in the present case,
be considered as his own best interpreter .' 1 know there are those who disdain
the idea of inspiration ; but 1 do not and cannot think with them.
The substance of this introdactonj vision may be designated in a few words.
Heaven is opened, and God is seen enthroned in radiant splendour. Around his
throne are gathered the elders of the church, and the presence-angels. Light-
ning and thunder, as on Sinai of old, announce the awful presence of the God-
head. Before the throne is a pellucid pavement, like chrystal. The throne is
supported by four living creatures, filled with ej'es, (in order to denote their watch-
fulness and perspicacity), and each one has a face symbolic of some leading class
of created beings. They are furnished with wings, in order that they may be
presented as " swift to do the will of God." These living creatures pay contin-
ual homage to the Godhead, whose throne they support. The elders who sur-
round the throne echo their lofty strains, and adore and praise the Maker of hea-
ven and earth.
Such is the iheophany of chap. IV. ; more expanded than that of Is. VI. but still
exhibiting some of its distinctive characteristics ; less expanded than that of
Ezek. I, but still proffering many traits of resemblance. The author has evident-
ly combined the leading features of both ; while the material furnished by them
receives its peculiar shape, afliT all, from his own plastic hand, as we shall see
in the sequel. The continued theophany in chap. v. will be separately considered
in its appropriate place.
Kd^
108 THEOPHANT : ChAP. IV. 1.
(1) After these things I looked, and behold ! a door opened in heaven; and the
first voice which I had heard, as of a trumpet speaking with me, said : Come up
hither, and I will show thee what must take place hereafter.
Mf-Tu ravza, i. e. after the things related in the preceding vision ;
which of course shows the intimate connection belAveen the two, and
that the preceding vision had already been described. Bbto long after
the fii-st vision the second commenced, the writer does not say. Nor
does he, at the close of chap, iii, mention the cessation of the first vi-
sion, nor the departure of the Saviour. Still, the nature of the transi-
tion before us plainly indicates this cessation and departure ; yea, even
more, for in v. 3 we are expressly told that the writer again became en-
tranced, ev&iwg iyf-v6p]v iv 7ivtv}iazi, which plainly indicates that his
former trance had passed away, and that some interval of time, (we can-
not tell how much), had elapsed.
El8or, I looked, more lit. / perceived ; ^.tTtm more appropriately
means to look. Yet the sense here seems evidently to require an ex-
pression, which indicates the action of looking in order to perceive.
The demands of our English idiom, therefore, are better answered by
the verb looked. — QvQa urecpyfispt], a door opened. The Hebrews re-
garded the >"'p'i , i. e. the visible expanse of the heavens, as a solid and
extended ceiling or arch over the earth. The rain, according to their
popular idiom, comes down through the windoivs, i. e. apertures, of
heaven ; and God, who dwells above this expanse, can of course be
seen only by the opening of the heavens. So in Ezek. 1: 1, " The
heavens were opened, and I saw visions of God." On this passage our
author doubtless had his eye. John speaks of d^vqa dvscpyiit'vt], which
is only a varied mode of expressing the same idea that is designated by
diiferent phraseology in Ezekiel. Comp. Matt. 3: 16. Luke 3: 21.
Acts 7: 56. 10: 11, all in accordance with Ezekiel. Comp. also, Ascens.
Is. 6: 6. 10: 24 seq.
The voice which he heard seems plainly to be that of the Redeemer,
speaking from the heavenly world, comp. the sequel ; he does not now ap-
pear on earth, as in the first vision, 1: 10 seq. — // qjoxpij i] nQazij iiv ijxov-
aa, i. e. the accents or tone of the voice, on this occasion, were so like
those in the former vision, that John at once recognized them as pro-
ceeding from the same person. The reader should note here, how in-
timately and necessarily this sacred vision is connected with the first, by
allusions of such a nature. For ag odlniyyog ■/.. r. A., see on 1: 10. —
Aiycav, where we should expect Xtyovaa agreeing with qsavri. The
construction is certainly not according to the usual laws of syntax.
Still, Itywv is not in fact to be taken as strictly agreeing with cpavi'i.
The matter stands thus : " Lo ! a door opened in heaven, and [lo !J the
first voice which, etc." — Xiyav said = ^v Xt'ycop, (for so the participle
1:*
THEOPHANY : Chap. IV. 2. 3. lO0r
is often constructed in the Apocalypse), and this refers to the person
who uttered the voice, the consti'uctiou depending on an assumed mc-
ton}Tny ; but see N. Test. Gramm. § 128. 5. b, which shows, that even
in case we as>unic a union witli cpat/j, the Hke is found in the cUi^sics.
Or we may explain it, (as Ewald does), by supposing h'yoor to be used
as equivalent to the Hebrew 'i"2X^ , which of course has no gender.
The Sept. sometimes translate this by Xt'ycov, e. g. Gen. 15: 1.
Jird^a fo^f, comp. 11: 12. The ascension or going up of course has
relation to the apparent elevation of the heavens above us. — Ava^a is
the usual apocopate form of Aor. 2 (formed after the model of verbs in
-p), for avuj^ifOi, from dva^atvo). — ^Side, hither, a. demonstrative adverb,
belonging to later Greek usage, and to the poets. The writer does not
intimate iu what way he was borne to the upper regions. Paul says :
UQna'i'ivra t(o^ 7(>i'tov ovquvov, 2 Cor. 12: 1, 2. In Rev. 17: 3, John
says : dnijvtyxs fie [o «}7iP.0i,'] i/V sQrjuov. Ezekiel speaks of being
taken up by the Spirit, 3: 12 ; and even of being carried by a lock of
his hair, 8: 3. The writer in the present case has omitted everything
of this nature ; seemingly because he was so absorbed in his main theme,
that such circumstances were to his feelings compai-atively less impor-
tant. If the reader will compare the like ascensions as related in the
book of Enoch, he will perceive a gi'eat difference between the taste and
genius of the two writers, quite to the disadvantage of the latter ; see
Enoch 14: 9—24. 39: 3. 70: 1—6. 86: 2. In the first two cii^es here,
the winds elevate the seer, (imagery drawn probably from the whirl-
wind which elevated Elijah) ; in the two latter, the hand of some su-
pernatural being lifts him up.
t
(2) And immediately I was in the spirit ; and behold ! a throne was set in
heaven, and on the throne was One sitting.
'Ev nvEVfian, see on 1: 10. — QQovog txeno, not that the seer beheld
the placing or stationing of a tin-one which had been recently brought
there, but the idea is, that he saw it as already fixed or established. —
On this throne was Ka&r^ntvog, q. d. the unnameable, indescribable
Godhead; comp. Rev. 20: 11. "Reticetur nomen ob reverentiam."
There can in this case be no doubt who is meant ; and the manner of
expression certainly fills the mind with mysterious awe. Comp. Dan.
7: 9. In Enoch 14: 21 seq. is a passage much like the present one
with its sequel ; yet the advantage as to taste in composition, is quite on
the side of John.
(3) And he who sat was in appearance like to a jasper stone and a sardian ;
and there was a rainbow round about the throne, in appearance like to an em-
erald.
'0 xa&/iftevos, here the repetition of the word demands the ai'ticle.
110 THEOPHANY: Chap. IV. 4.
— 'Ogdaei, the Dat. signifying in regard to appearance ; showing that
the writer was acquainted with the classical idiom in respect to the use
of the Dative. — 'Idanidt, to the jasper, a precious stone of various col-
ours, purple, cerulaean, green, etc. Here, no doubt, the red or purple is
intended, in order to designate the resplendence of the divine Majesty.
— So also aaQdicf), means a precious stone of Mood-red or carnation hue.
Both images together denote the powerful splendour which beamed from
him who sat upon the tlu'one. Ezekiel (1: 26, 27) compares him who
sat on the throne to ^^dn , i. e. polished brass, and also to fire. The
images in John are more select, and withal more splendid.
The iQig or rainbow around the throne is an exquisite conception.
Such was the splendour of the throne that the eye could not bear it. It
is softened by this beautiful veil cast over the scene. — ^uaQaydivoj, em-
erald, is of a gi-een hue. The Ms is compared to it hei-e, because the
modified and mild colour of green apparently predominates in the rain-
bow, and delights the eye of every beholder. Ezekiel (1: 28) presents
the like imagery ; but he presents it less distinctly and definitely than
here. John exhibits the Iqig again in Rev. 10: 1, as surrounding the
radiant head of an angel. — "O^oiog as agreeing with [//] l()ig here has
stumbled the critics. Ewald (p. 46) proposes to translate thus : " Iris
circa thronum, similis [est] thronus smaragdo ;" unnaturally, to say
the least. Much easier is another solution. The Attics more usually
employed adjectives ending in -tog -(jtog -eiog -ulog, as adjectives of only
two endings. "Oiioiog then may, by good usage, be feminine here ; and
then all difficulty vanishes ; N. Test. Gramm. § 32. 1. c.
(4) And round about the throne were four and twenty thrqpes, and on these
thrones four and twenty elders sitting, clothed in white garments, and crowns of
gold upon their heads.
The arrangement of the scenery before the mental eye of the prophet,
is to be regarded thus : The throne of God is in the midst of the circle
of a great assembly ; the presence-angels stand immediately on either
hand and before him who is on the throne ; although they are not men-
tioned until afterwards in v. 5. Next beyond these, in the circle, are
the twenty-four thrones of the elders. Why thrones ? Because, they
are kings and priests to God, and will reign forever and ever ; see 1: 6,
and the references there given, and especially Rev. 3: 21. Throne
means a magnificent or regal seat. The emphatic meaning of the whole
verse should be noted. Presence-angels stand in the attitude of minis-
tering servants, Rev. 8: 2 ; the redeemed sit on thrones in the presence
of God. For a like sentiment, comp. 1 Cor. 6: 2, 3.
But why twenty-four ? Some say : Because there are twelve tribes
of Israel, and twelve apostles ; and so here are representatives both for
the ancient and for the Christian church, corresponding to each of the
theophant: Chap. IV. 5. Ill
tribes of Israel. But the Cliristian church, so far as it comes from the
Gentile world, is not made up of twelve nations or tribes. A more pro-
bable reason is, that the priests were di\ ided by David into twenty-tbur
classes, (1 Chron. 24: 3 — 19, comp. Luke 1: 5, f| itpijfifQi'a^^ Jij^tu),
each of which had a head ; and these presided over all the services of
the temple. So, in the worship of the heavenly temple above, Chris-
tians, who are " made priests unto God," take the lead in the services
there, and approach near to the divine presence. The form of the re-
presentation is borrowed from the course and manner of worship in the
earthly temple. Comp., as to the twenty-four divisions of the priests,
the twenty-five men in the temple, Ezek. 8: IG and 11: 1, i. e. this in-
cludes the high priest and the twenty-four heads of the orders of the
priesthood. In Ezekiel they are introduced as leading the profane wor-
ship which they practised. Ilnea^vTSQOi, in our text, is a name of dig-
nity = c^iiT" , and expressive of the orderly precedence which these
leaders of heavenly worship enjoyed.
nneaSvTtQOvg, xa&ijiiivovg, 7xeQi^t^hj[it'iovg, and aregxirovg, all in
the Ace. case, where we should of course expect the Nom., as &q6voi in
the leading clause stands in the Nominative. But this change of case in
participles, which make separate clauses in a sentence, and thus form a
kind of independent sentence, is frequent in the Apocalypse, and not by
any means unknown to the classic writers ; see Winer de Soloecismis
etc. Apoc, p. 150, Exeget. Studien, Heft I, who gives examples of the
like from the classics. Also Liicke Einl. § 27. 4, and N. Test. Gramm.
§ 172. 3. Here, the regimen of the Ace, as seems quite probable, is to
be made out from an implied eldov, comp. v. 1. The order of the con-
ceptions is : i8ov -^Qovog . . . S^qovoi . . . -aui ddov TTQsa^vztQOvg x. t. X.
TltQi^epjlutvovg fv, so with the preposition in 3: 5 ; elsewhere fre-
quently, even in the Apocalypse, with the direct Ace, as is common in
Greek ; see Rev. 7: 9, 13. 10: 1. 11: 3, al. Either method of construc-
tion was open to the writer. — 'ifiaziotg Xe.vy.oig, see on 3: 4 above. —
2^Ti:(fuvovg YQ^fJovg, because they were kinys and priests, and sat en-
throned.
(5) .\nd from the throne go forth lightning and voices of thunder; and seven
lamps of fire were burning before the throne, which are the seven spirits of God.
The reader will easily recall the phenomena of mount Sinai, when
God descended upon it. As there so here, lightning and thunder are
the ensigns of his presence and awful majesty. Comp. also the theoplia-
ny in Ezek. 1: 13, 24. — (hoovai xul §qovxuI, lit. voices even thunders ;
which of course means what I have expressed in the version. The im-
agery is awfully sublime and terrific. The throne, and He who sat up-
on it, are of such excessive brightness that a rainbow is needed to shield
112 theophant: Chap. IV. 6, 7.
the eye which beholds them. From this radiance lightnings are shot
forth, and thunders, as Ezekiel says, " like the noise of the mighty wa-
ters." The i^resent tense (IxnoQevortai) in an ^ewsu'e sense, designat-
ing what is often done.
'ETird XafiTzudsg . . . nvEVfiara zov dsov, i. e. seven resplendent glo-
rious beings, all radiant like burning torches or lamps, stood waiting
before the throne, to receive the commands of him who sat upon it ; see
on 3: 1, where this subject is fully discussed ; also Comm. on 1: 4, with
the Excursus on the Angelology of the Scriptures. Comp. also Ezek.
1: 13.
(6) And before the throne, as it were a sea of glass like to chrystal ; and in the
midst of the throne, and round about the throne were four living creatures filled
with eyes before and behind.
(7) And the first living creature was like to a lion ; and the second living crea-
ture like to an ox ; and the third living creature had a face like a man ; and the
fourth living creature was like to a flying eagle.
Having described the throne, him who sat upon it, the presence-angels
in waiting before it, and the worshippers on their thrones around it, the
writer next proceeds to describe the pavement on which the whole
stood. It was like a sea of glass ; i. e. it was resplendent and pellucid,
and (as he adds) like to chrystal. The pavements, or as we say, floors.,
of palaces and elegant houses of the East, are constructed with expen-
sive and splendid materials. Here the idea is, that the pavements or
floors are all of precious and diaphanous stones, appearing to him
who should walk upon them peUucid, like the waters of the ocean. . In
the Coran (Sur. 27: 44), Belkis (the Sabaean queen who is said to vis-
it Solomon) is represented as supposing the pavement, on which she
walks in the audience-hall, to be a sea. Down to the present hour, the
tesselated pavements in the parlours of the Arabs at Cairo, are construct-
ed with great art and expense in a similar way ; as Mr. Lane has shown
in his excellent book on the Modern Egyptians. Comp. the chrystal
firmament in Ezek, 1: 22, which, of course constitutes the 'pavement of
the throne above it; see Ezek. 1: 22, 26, and especially Ex. 24: 10.
So in the Rabbins ; e. g. Pirqe Elieser : " Locus in quo thronus stat,
sunt septem nubes gloriae." As to the epithet valivt], glassy, transpa-
rent, see examples even ad satietatem of the like nature from the clas-
sics, applied to water and to the sea, in Wetstein in loc. — for excess in
such quotations is a fault to which he is not a little prone.
^Ev fisaqy here is not to be understood as if the ^(u« occupied a place
within the throne itself; for there God was seated. It is easily explain-
ed by a reference to the converse of it, viz. xvxho tov &q6vov ; so that
iv nt'ocp TOV d^Qovov (= '2'^p,^) plainly means (as we should express it)
under the throne. The whole imagery is to be conceived of thus : The
1
theophant: Chap. IV. G, 7. Hd
throne on which the divine Majesty is seated, rests upon four living
oroatures, who form its animated and moving basis. Instead of being
hke the tlirone of (.'arthly liinjrs, i. e. restiiiir upon inanimate and lifeless
substances, its sup|)ort is constituted of living, moving, rational erea-
tiires, ever watchful, and ever ready to move, as Ezekicd says, like " a
Hash of lightning," Ezek. 1: 14. These living creatures are represent-
ed as endowed with forms which are symbolical and highly significant ;
as we shall see in the sequel. They are full of eyes, i. e. they are ever
wakeful and watchful, looking every way, seeing everything, and ready
to move in any direction. They are, taken as a whole in respect to their
ultimate design, symbolic of the all-pervading power, providence, and
government of God who uses them as his instruments. IVie first has the
appearance of a lion ; and the lion is the king of wild beasts, and an im-
age borrowed from him is indicative of power, strength, sway. The
second is like to an ox ; and this is the most valuable of tame beasts,
and the image of patient and useful labour. 77i(? third has the face of a
man ; and this is indicative of reason or intelligence. The fourth is like
to an eagle ; and this indicates velocity and far-sighted and penetrating
vision. The special meaning of these symbols is not to be applied im-
mediately or directly to the attributes of God himself, but to be regard-
ed as primarily indicative of powers possessed b}'' the ^(Hu. Yet these
4cja, thus constituted, are themselves symbolic of the attributes of the God-
head. These living beai'ers of the Almighty's throne, as the author I'ep-
resents the matter, serve him with great power, with patient obedience,
with quickness of intelligence and reason, and with a rapidity and per-
spicacity which may indeed be compared to that of the eagle, but of which
this king of birds is after all only a faint image. The same may in
truth be said of all the other symbols ; but then, imperfect as they are,
they are the best which the natural woi'ld could atlord, and are therefore
chosen by the author with good reason. The ultimate meaning is :
God is everywhere present, and executes his purposes by an agency
powerful, wise, unremitted, and speedy whenever speed is required.
Add to all this, that each is furnished with six wings (v. 8), i. e. three
pair of wings (see Is. 6: 2) ; plainly to heighten the idea that they exe-
cute the divine commands with the gi'eatest possible speed. These be-
ings, moreover, endowed with such amazing powers, are employed with-
out cessation in adoring and praising God, and seem to take the lead in
the worship of heaven, as being nearest of all to the divine Majesty, i. e.
supporters of his throne.
After this general view, we may nowjiescend to the examination of
particulars. — Zdu, correspon^Tiigln sense to the r.Tn of Ezekiel (1: 5
seq.), i. e. hving, animated, moving beings. — rtfiovza . . . oTzia&ev i
VOL. II. 15
114 theophany: Chap. IV. 6, 7.
the reason of this has been already stated above. Comp. the attempts
among the heathen to designate perpetual watchfulness and power to
see in all directions, in the fable of Argus. — "EfiTTQOO&sv means the front
part or faces of the living creatures, which stood out fi'om the side or y
bottom of the throne that rested upon their bodies ; i. e. their heads were
not under the throne, but merely their bodies. "OniaOHv therefore means
the bodies or hinder parts which were under the throne, and not promi-
nent extra thromim. In Ezek. 1: 18 and 10: 12, every part of this an-
imated basis of the throne, i. e. every part of the living creatures, their
hands, their wings, and even wheels underneath them, are all represent-
ed as hiiing Jilled with eyes. Thia._luxui'iant ina^gination is modified in
the pi'esent case ; indeed the apparatus of'fhe wheels is wholly omitted,
and eyes are here given, as it would seem, only to the head and body of
the ^c5« ; a disposition of tlie imagery more congruous with our usual f,
modes of conception than that of Ezekiel. ^
To "Q^nv TO TTQOJZov ofioiov Xtovn — like to a lion. As to the face
only, or as to that and the whole body ? The writer tells us specially,
respecting the third ^cJor, that it had the face of a man, i. e. that the
face only resembled that of a man ; for the body must stand under thftjP^pt^
throne as one of its supports, which would be incongruous with the "
shape of a human body. The lion, the ox, and the eagle, however, we
may easily conceive of as having their bodies under the throne, whilei
their heads appeared as prominent on the outside of it, and not covered
by it. The fact that the face of the third (^mov was human, does not
oblige us to imagine a human body also ; for it is evident from the cir-
cumstances in which the (^aov is placed, that such a body would be un-
fit for the object in view. Consequently we are obliged to assign some
other form to the body than that of a man. But what this other form
should be, the writer has not told us. May we not then, on the whole,
suppose that the authoi', by his similitudes, has designed in each and all
the cases only to characterize the face of each ^oior, and that the bodies
of all are alike, being one common form adapted to support the throne
on a level and equally ? The author indeed has not told us what this
common form of the body was ; but as he has represented it as iv ^leacp
zov {fQovov, i. e. under the throne, a body like that of the lion, or the
ox, would seem to be the most appro})riate for the support of that throne.
The representation in Ezekiel is different in this respect, each ^aov
having four faces, and a body like that of a man ; Ezek. 1: 5, 10. In
the sequel, a comparison of the two representations will be made with
more particularity.
Mooxq} does not mean calf here, as our English version has it, but
bos juvencus, a-^auug bullock, vigorous and alert; and the nature of the
imagery demands this last signification. So in the Septuagint (looxog
THEOPHANY : ClIAP. IV. 8. llA
for ^5S oftentimes, and fu'tay^og for'irj, "iB , and i;^2 , very often ; see
Tronmi. Coni'ord. — Jltno TzeTOfiiroj, ajlying eagle. If one should ask :
Why the epithet iiging ? What eagles do not fly ? The answer is,
L that such epithets an', coiumon everywhere, jis adding to the intensity
of the descri[)tion. No bird exhibits a flight so powerful and rai)id as
the eagle, and this characteristic is designated here by the epithet nero-
fie'vou All birds have wings ; yet the Scriptures often speak of winged
fowl. Is it an objection to the phrase radiant light, that all light is
necessarily radiant, and therefore the epithet is superfluous ? Intensity.,
__ in such avses, is marked by phraseology of this nature.
(S) And the four liviriij ctt-atures, each one of them having respectively six
wings, around and within are filled with eyes, and thoy have no rest, daj' and
night saying, Holy! holy I hily ! Lord God Almighty, who is and was and is
to come !
Ev y.a&' IV marks severally, or particularizes. — "Ej^nv, Part. Noni. ab-
solute here, with ir for its subject, N. Test. Gramm. § 97. 2. § 172. 5.
J/iii (adverb) denotes distributioa to each ; see Lex. — Tlztovyag ti, six
tcings, i. e. three pair of wings ; comp. Is. 6: 2. — KvxXo&tv . . . ogiO^wP.-
2W f'Wi', aroundy i. e. on the external part which appeared prominent with-
^ -out the throne, and witln'?i, i. e. on their bodies which were under the
,e throne, were they filled with eyes. According to the reading of the
xt in Knapp, Hahn, and Lachmann, we have yt'fjovatv, where the^e-
ceptus reads yijiovza (Part.) referring to the ttaa. The support of the
other reading (ytuovaiv) might entitle it, perhaps, to a place ; although
there is no necessity for adopting it, because the participle, in this book,
frequently supplies the place of a verb. It is no serious objection to
the assertion here, that the same idea has already been brought to view
in V. 6. The repetition of an idea, in order to give intensity to it, is too
frequent in this book and elsewdicre to need explanation or defence.
Besides, it should be noted that here it is said, that they are fidl of
eyes xvxXoi^ev x«J t aco € ev, an expression differing from that in v. 6,
and more explicit. * But why should we suppose them to have eyes
f (Twflf r, i. e. on their bodies under the throne ? The answer seems to
be, merely to complete the symbol of entire watchfulness and [)erfection
of sight in every possible direction. Inasmuch as y.vy.).6&S9there evi-
dently means the outer part of the living creatures which was prominent
around the throne, and tacoO^ev the inner part under the throne, and
both are filled with eyes, there was no direction in which it was possible
to move, that was not provided for by the powers of sight ascribed to
the ^aa.
IIow to dispose of the six wings, (I mean as to the mode in which
we may conceive of them), seems less obvious. In Is. 6: 2 and Ez<,'k.
1: 5, it is plain that the living creatures arc conceived of as having hu-
^ss^
116 theophant: Chap. IV. 8.
man bodies. In Isaiah, one pair of wings covers the face, in order to
designate reverential awe ; one pair covers the waist, for the purposes
of decorum ; and one is employed in flying. In Ezekiel we have only
four wings (1: G) ; one pair of these covers the waist, 1: 11, and the
other is employed in flying, 1: 24. John differs from both in one im-
portant respect, viz. the bodies, as represented by him, are under the
throne (v. 6), while the anterior part stands out from the throne. We
have seen that the i^ojov, to which is asci'ibed the face of a man, cannot
be supposed, in such circumstances, to have the body of a man, because
this could not be extended sG(x>&tv within or underneath the throne.
But where shall jve place the wings ? The writer has not told us. Nor
has he disclosed! ^lis view of jthe use to which each of the three pair of
wings was to be put. T5ut inasmuch as the bodies are not human, it is
evident that the wings of the waist are not needed for the sake of deco-
rum. Shall we say then, that one pair is used for covering the face,
(as in Isaiah and Ezekiel), while two pair ai'e employed in flying, thus
increasing the velocity ; or shall Ave say, that the shoulders and each
pair of feet are conceived of as having wings attached to them ? The
Greeks and Romans represented the messengers of their gods as having
wings on their feet ; does the prophet here intend that we should form
a similar conception ? I know not how these questions can be settled.
The only importance that can be attached to them is, to make out the
congruity of the wi'iter's representation ; and it is a matter of some mo-
ment to make out this, if it can be done. In either of the ways sug-
gested, it may be done ; and plainly Ave have, and can have, no other
basis than the general congruity of the representation on Avhich we can
build. The main object is plain. Swift to do his will explains the
leading idea attached to the symbol of the wings, Avhatever view may be
taken of the manner in Avhich they are conceived of.
T'llfiovGiv and 'i^ovoiv, it should be noted, are both of the Pres. tense.
If this were a description of mere actions or events, there Avould be noth-
ing peculiar here ; for often, and by almost all Avriters, is the Pres. em-
ployed for the Praet., Avhen it designates action. But here quality or
attribute is described ; and in such cases the Pres. is less frequent ; but
still, Avhere permanent attributes are described, it is in place. The
third pers. plur. of these verbs is the pluralis rationalis, common every-
where in Greek. — 'HfAiQag y.al vvxzog, the Gen. of time. This is the
Hebrew mode of expression for designating the idea of continually, inces-
santly.— yliyovzEg, masc, and is used as a concord ad sensum, the i^oJa,
as to the actions now attributed to them, being introduced as rational
beings.
"Ayiog X. r. h This zQiadyiov evidently comes from Is. 6: 3, tJiij^
uiii;^ dn;^ ; as does also the sequel. The idea in this case is best ex-
THEOPhant: Cuap. IV. 8. 117
pressed by the Latin : Venerande, vcnerande, venerande, Dotnine, Deus
omnipotens ! It is not God simply as pure or free from sin, wliieh is
meant, but God as worthy of the adoration and praise of all intelligent
beings. So -'"ij^ usually means, when applied to God ; and so ayiog,
often in the New Testament.
0 Oeog is added, by John, to the expression in Isaiah, where stands
nixss n-n"' simjjly. John hjvs thus as it were undesignedly given a key
to the Hebrew expression just quoted; which has perplexed the
grammarians, because T\'r\'^ does not take after itself a construct state.
The phraseology of John shows, that in his mind^the meaning of the
Hebrew phrase just repeated is the same as that of nisa:: ^T^^^.. •^j'^? 5
for he has given a translation of this, inasmuch as navzo^QazaQ Aq-
signates substantially the meaning which is conveyed by nixaa. — As to
0 i^v X. T. h, see on the same phrase in 1: 4. It is merely another form
of exhibiting the most sublime appellation of the Godhead.*
* In this verse the imagery is similar in the main, as we may perceive, to that
in Is. 6: 1 — 3. Yet some things taken from Ezeltiel are joined with it. Like
Isaiah (6: 2), John attributes six wings to each lojoj' ; but he does not, like him,
appropriate two pair for purposes of decency, and only one for flight. Ezekiel
(1: d, 2'^) gives only tine pair of wings to his cherubim, one of which covered the
waist (J: 11). The discrepancy in John is sufficient to show, that while he drew
the material from other sources, in the present case, still he formed and fashioned
it after his own model. The whole of the symbolical representation is designedly
such, as to make a deep impression of rapidity of movement to any part of the
universe ; and thus it obviously designates the uhiqtiitij of the Godhead. God,
seated on his throne, is present everywhere in a moment of time ; or, as Ezekiel
most significantly expresses it : " The living creatures ran and returned, as the
appearance of a flash of lightning;" 1: 14.
Whether anything important, and how much, can be educed from the thrice re-
peated ayio? here, has been and is still disputed. Other passages where mere in-
tensity of feeling is expressed in this way, may easily be adduced ; e. g. Jer. "22:
29. 7: 4. Ezek. 21: 27. 2 Sam. 18: 33. Is the text before us of the same tenor .'
Is it like to ter quutcrque bcatus? If it be not, yet the other cases to which ref-
erence has been made are so characteristic of Hebrew idiom, that it would be
difficult to make out a philological argument for anything more in the present
case than intensity. The worship of Father, Son, and Spirit, in heaven, is what
1 sincerely believe in. Tiie book of Revelation, in particular, is full of declara-
tions that the Saviour is worshipped there. But whether we can rest a theolog-
ical argument for a Trinity in the Godhead, on the passage before us, is a diifer-
ent question. I should not be disposed to risk so important a truth, by placing it
upon a basis that must be somewhat unstable, or at least somewhat uncertain.
A few other suggestions, at the close of this description of the loj«, may not
be improper. We have seen that Jolin difil>rs, in his picture, from both his mod-
els ; and that the 'iota here are in some respects quite different beings from those
in Isaiah and Ezekiel, although in many respects resembling them. This is good
evidence, as has been remarked, that the writer is no mere copyist — no slavish
imitator. It is evidence also of another thing:, which some may regard as more
doubtful. It shows that these nvr^ or caiis and Cw« ire not designed to be
11^ THEOPHANY : ChAP. IV. 9," 10.
(9, iO) And so often as the living creatures give glory, and honour, and thanks-
giving to liiin who sittcth on the throne, to him who liveth for ever and ever, the
four and twenty elders fall down beibre him who sitteth on the throne, and wor-
ship him who liveth forever and ever, and cast down their crowns before his
throne, saying :
The use of the Futures here, dcoaovGi . . . ntaovvzai . . . nQOoxw^-
covGi . . . §alovGi, has perplexed the grammarians. Ewald (Comm.)
regarded as actual and veritable living beings, endowed with a particular form,
and constituting a real genus or order of rational beings by themselves. Ezekiel
gives to each/owr faces, while he makes their bodies upright and human ; and he
also gives them but one foot. John gives to the four the faces respectively which
belong to one in Ezekiel, and only one face to each ; he places their bodies be-
neath the throne and heads without ; and he says nothing of their feet. Ezekiel
attributes /oj<r wings to them, John six, and Isaiah six. Ezekiel occupies much
of his description with the^apparatus of the wheels that touch the earth, and move
in harmony with the cherubim. Of all this John has nothing, and Isaiah noth-
ing. Indeed the Seraphim of Isaiah do not support the throne, but stand around
it, and seem to be quite different beings from the cherubim. John then has
mingled views from both prophets with his own ; and he has thus made out a de-
scription different from either, which preserves a medium between the two. But
if Ezekiel's cherubim are to be regarded as veritable beings, like angels, then how
could their natures alter so much between his time and that ol' John .' To ask
this question is sufficient to show, that cherubim or ni-^n and toja are merely
symbols or symbolic beings, not an actual order of angels ; they are the creatures
of lofty and ardent imagination, struggling for imagery to express its conceptions,
and not veritable existences like men or angels.
If the reader is still embarrassed with the idea, that they are represented as
leading in the adorations of the heavenly host, and therefore must be really living
and rational creatures, he needs but to recollect, that the heavens, the earth, seas,
mountains, hills, forests, vapour, rain, snow, hail, etc., are all represented in the
Scriptures as ■praising God, and that prosopopcia is common throughout the
Bible. Once supposing the cherubim or toja to be animated beings, it is altogether
congruous to suppose, as in the case before us, that they take the lead m the wor-
ship of heaven ; for they are nearest of all to God, and must naturally be sup-
posed to see most of his glory. If doubts still remain, let the reader trace for
himself the representations throughout of the cherubim in Ezek. i. and x, and
tiien compare them with those of John. The t'.VTi of the former are most clearly
the same as the ima of the latter. If now real, historical (fWKtUe-pferjree is) exis-
tences are designated by each, how have they become so changed between the
time of Ezekiel and that of John .' The necessary result of this question seems
to be that they must be merely symbolic beings, modified by the conceptions of
different writers, as in the case before us. This admitted, we can account for the
fact that cherubim were carved in the most holy place, Ex. 37: 6—9. 25; 17 — 20.
1 Kings 6: 23 — 29. 2 Chron. 5: 7, 8 ; also on the walls of the temple, 1 Kings 6:
29. 2 Chron. 3: 10 — 13. These were not surely images of actual beings; for
among a people always inclined to idolatry, they mijfht thus have easily become
objects of worship; but they were symbolical representations designed to teach the
ubiquity, omniscience, omnipotence, and ever icatchful providence, of the Godhead.
As supporters of the throne on which the Majesty of heaven is seated, they ap-
^^A
theopiiany: Chat. IV. 9, 10. 119
understands these Futures as used according to the Hebrew idiom, i. e.
so as to denote what is often repeated ; here, liowever, as I'ehiting to
what has been often done. Winer (Granini. § 41: G) refers the Fut.
to the designation of what is represented as frequently done in the sub-
sequent course of the vision. Liicke, on the other linnd, regards it as
a designation of a general proposition, so as to mark lohdt is often and
customarily done in heaven. This last opinion seems i)lainly to be the
true one. One needs only to refer to the Hebrew, in order to find the
prototype. Thus in Hebrew the Fut. is often employed in a manner
like to that of the present tense, and also very often used in general
propositions ; Ileb. Cirainni. § 004. e. Gesen, Ileb. Lehrgeb. § 200. 4.
h. Ewald Gramm. § 473. 2. c. This is exactly the nature of the
Futures in the present case. Tliey mark customary action ; comp. the
same idiom in Luke 1: 37. Koni. 3: 30, and elsewhere. This usage is
also classical ; but it seems specially to belong to the Hebrew-(ireek ;
see abundance of classical examples in Kiihner, § 440. 2.
/Joidlxai Ttfiiiv y.al ev/UQiariur, where the^^n^^ea; division #n particu-
lars should be noted. Such passages as Is. G: 3, cin,? 'w'n;5 "^'"i""!^ > ^^^y
have aided in confirming such a usage. But the number three pervades
the whole Apocalypse ; see Vol. I. § 7. — Tip i^cavzi x. t. A. ='in Vx,
only the expression is here made more intensive by adding sfV rovg
ai(ava<i tdiv uimvcop. — fltaovvzat represents the attitude of entire pros-
trotion, common in all acts of high adoration. — IlQia^vr^Qni, see on v.
4 above. — [lQoa-/.vvi]Govai designates the homage paid to God by the
act of prostration. — ^alovai . . . rov {^qovov, an expression which des-
ignates the disclaiming of all honour or homage as due to themselves,
and an acknowledgment that all which they have and are is the gift of
God. Of course it is a striking expression of deep hmnility, and of the
highest reverence.
pear in Ps. 18: 10 (11) ; where in the expression : " He rode upon a clierub," the
word chtrub is used generically ; a method of employing hinguage too frequent
to need an}' vindication. Mark the congruity of imagery here. John gives thera
si.\ wings fur flight. Ezekiel represents ihem as moving like a flash of lightning ;
tlie Psalmist says : " He rode upon a cherub, and did fly ; yea, he did fly ujjon the
winLTs of the wind ;" i. e. with great velocity. All is in perfect congruity, when
the passages are viewed in this light. So in 1 Sam. 4: 4, C"25-rn 2'i-i% sitlivg
entkroncd ahore\he Cherubim.
Once we find 'the same class of beings employed as the guards of paradise, from
which our first parents had been e.xpelled. Gen. 3: 24. Tiieir vigilance, designa-
ted b\' their being filled icilU eyes, would seeni to indicate a nature appropriate to
guardiansiiip. Whether the writer of this passage adopts merely the popular no-
tion of tiie cherubim here, as a basis fir representation, it would be diflicnlt to
say. Elsewhere we find them connected only with the throne of the Godhead,
or the place of his immediate presence ; and this is plainly their appropriate sphere.
120 s'^MHl THEOPHANY : Chap. IV. 11.
(11) Thou art worthy, O Lord, to receive glory and honour and power; for
thou hast created all things, and by thy will they came into existence and were
created. '
The .tripler rijv do^av '/.at rriv rtfiTjv xa/ r^f dvvafiiv again occurs as
before ; but here with the article, either because of the repetition of the
ideas, or rather, because the idea of such glory and honour and power
as are appropriate to God, is meant ; which is expressed by the glory,
etc. The meaning is, that these belong exclusively to the Creator of
the world. — z/ta ro 'OsXriiia oov, by thy will ; for that 8id with the Ace.
is not unfrequently employed in such an instrumental sense, may be
seen in Rob. Lex. 8id, IT. Winer's Gramm. § 53. c. Kuhner's Gramm.
§ 605 II. h. In such cases the sense parallelizes with that of 8id before
the Genitive. — ^Haav (instead of the vulgate dai), a better reading,
and better supported than the common one. The words refer to the
original rise of visible creation. — 'Exn'a&ijaav merely explains and ren-
ders more intensive the affirmation. — In the use of kxriaag here, we
have an example of the Aorist used for the Perfect, i. e. used to
designate completed action in time past; see N. Test. Gramm. § 136.
5. 3. But this is common everywhere.
The reader may find similar ascriptions of a striking character in
Enoch 9: 3, 4. 39: 9—12. 60: 9—16. Ascens. Is. 7: 15. 8: 17, 18
(Trinity). 10: 1 — 6. Glory to God as the Creator of all things, is fre-
quent in the Scriptures ; see Ps. 148: 5. 104: 2. 33: 8, 9 al.
Thus concludes this magnificent exordium to the principal Visions of
the book. Chap. v. is intimately connected with it, but it is rather to
be regarded as a special proem to chap, vi — xi, than as a proem to the
book at large. The impressive nature of the scene presented in chap,
iv, cannot but strike the mind of every intelligent reader. The holy
Seer was duly prepared, by such an august vision, for the disclosures
which follow ; and the mind of the reader can hardly fail to be prepar-
ed, also, to look for them with deep interest. It cannot escape even
the most unobserving, how greatly this whole scene resembles the in-
augural theophanies in Is. vi. and Ezek. i. The writer now forthwith
rapit in medias res. But the preparation for his development is pecu-
liar, and therefore needs some general statement in the way of expla-
nation.
t
THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 1. 121
CHAPTER V.
21ie sealed hook.
Previous to the disclosures about to be made, a book appears in tlie hand of
Him who sits upon tlie liirone, sealed witii seven seals, so that no one can inspect
its contents. The oounsi-ls of heaven wliicli arc as yet secret, are evidently sym-
bolized by this sealed book. No one is found in heaven or on earth, who can
open and read the book. The seer is deeply affected because of this ; but he is
encouraged by one of the twenty-four elders to e.xpect, that the Messiah will dis-
close its contents. As a Lamb tiiat had been slain the Messiah makes his appear-
ance, with indications at the same time, by the symbol of horns and eyes, of his
omnipotence and omniscience. He advances to the throne, and takes the book
from the hand of him who sat upon it, as the signal that he is about to open it
and disclose its contents. The twenty-four elders surrounding the throne now
prostrate themselves before him, and offer unto him ascriptions of praise and
thanksgiving. With these the angels and the living creatures unite in a hymn of
praise ; which is finally echoed and re-echoed from the most distant parts of the
universe.
The reason wh}' a l/ool; is chosen for the symbol in this cnse, will be veixappar-
ent to a careful reader of the Hebrew Scriptures. In respect to the book of life, see
the remarks on Rev. 3: 5. This book has a limited signification, and is employed
only in respect to the state of individuals, whose weal or woe, life or death, depends
on what is recorded therein. But in the present case, the book before us contains
a record of the secret counsels of God, i^ e. hitherto secrel, in regard to the
Christian church and its enemies. Texls which make use of the like imagery
may be found in Mai. 3: 16. Ps. 139: IG, and probably Deut. 32: 34.
The seven seals put upon this book, show that its contents were not designed
to be read by any, except by him who had authority and power to break the seals.
So in Dan. S: 26. 12: 4, 'J, the prophet seals up what is to be disclosed only at a
future time. In Is. 8: 16^ the prediction which had just been written and uttered,
is required to be " bound up and sealed," that no change may be made in it.
But in the case before us the seiiJs have a different import, being designed to ex-
clude perusal. The general idea is, that none but the Messiah, v m> tv rc^ y.oX-
■:ti\) tov rrarrjde, is capable of revealing the secret counsels of God. He knows
them all, and therefore is able to disclose them.
The extent and special design of this sealed volume or book begin their devel-
opment wiili chap. vi. ; and there, consequently, will be the most proper place for
y the di.scussion of the subjects ajjpropriate to them. For the general outline of the
plan of the book, the reader is referred to the Introduction, Vol. 1. § 10.
(I) And I saw, upon the right hand of him who Was sitting on the throne, a
book written within and upon the back, scaled with seven seals.
Kai — transitions, such as is here made, and indeed even the most
striking ones, from one scene to another, are for the most part marked in
thi:^ Vx)ok merely by x«/; sec 12: 1. 1-2: 18. 14: 1. 15: I. 17: 1. 10: 11.
20: 1. 20: 11. 21: 1. 22: 6. A natural solution of this is found by
comparing it with the Hebrew idiom, (as I have before suggested),
VOL. H. 16
■HE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 1.
where still greater transitions are made by 1 , viz., the passing from one
book to another ; and even independent books sometimes commence
with 1; see Ex. 1: 1. Lev. 1: 1. Num. 1: 1. Josh. 1: 1. Judg. 1: I. 1
Sam.'l:'!. 2 Sam. 1: 1. 1 Kings 1: 1. 2 Kings 1: 1. Ezek. 1: 1. Ruth
1: 1. Esth. 1: 1. Ezra 1: 1. 2 Clu-on. 1: 1. The assertion of even i-e-
ccnt grammarians and lexicograf^hers, that the particle 1 always and
0- necessarily iirf^lies preceding matter with which it is connected, is thus
, sliown to be groundless. In such cases as the above, ^ (= x«() must
' '^., merely influence the meaning of the verb connected with it, or at most
'^ convey a sense like to that of our peculiar transitive particle now, and
sometimes like to that of the particle the7i. So in the Apocalypse, y.ai
then ; and so, indeed, oftentimes in parts of historic narration in the
N. Testament ; but in the Apocalypse the transitions marked by •/.ca
are unusually great. Yet, after all, they do not equal those of the He-
brew 1 ; as the above examples fully demonstrate.
'Eni, on, upon, not properly in, althougli our idiom expresses the idea
in this way. It might be rendered at or near, were it not that v. 7
shows the book to have been on or in the hand, and not simply at or
near hy the right hand. — Bipuov, in form is a diminutive of ^ip.og^
yet not generally used in a diminutive sense in the N. Testament. The
diminutive is ^q^luot'diov, Rev. 10: 9. The form of the ^I'pJov, certain-
ly tlieusual form, was that of a manuscript-roll ; see Luke 4: 17, where
the Saviour is spoken of as dvamv^ug to [if^Xfov, unrolling the book,
viz. the volume of Isaiah the prophet. Ewald objects to the idea of
a scroll or 7vll here, and maintains that there were seven separate lihelli
rolled in succession around a piece of wood in the centre, the first of
which was the longest, and the rest successively shorter ; so that the
seals on the margin of the outside leaf might be seen by John. But
what significance then has 'laai&tv and oTtia&f.v ? Besides, there would
then be seven ^I'^Xia instead of one. ^^lainly the model is to be found
in Ezek. 2: 9, 10, where the prophets spealcs of " a roll of a book . . .
written within and without," i. e. on both sides of the Ms., as was usual
when there Avas a great press of matter ; see Pliny, De Veterum Opis-
tographis, Epist. III. 5. If the writing on the backside was discontin-
ued but a short distance from the outer extreme end of the parchment,
all the writing upon the Ms. would of course be covered or concealed,
when it was rolled up.
KuT sacpQuyiaia'rov •/.. r. X. Sealed toith seven seals of course means
completely, entirely, or perfectly sealed up. But here it also means
somewhat more. The seals are disposed of in such a way, that they
are successively broken, and different parts of the ^t^Jov disclosed in
succession. Eichhorn speaks of the seven seals as all put upon the
outer edge of the Ms. when i-oUed up. But how then could any part of
THE SEALED BOOK : ClTAV. V. 2, .'5. 12.'^
the roll bo read, until the wliole were broken? To make all pnrl?; ol"
the description confrnioiir:, wv must suppose the roll to have a .seal ujion
the extreme end that was last rolled up, which woidd of course prevent
its Vtein^ unrolled. When the first seal was broken, the Ms. coidd he
unrolled, until one came to a second seal ; and so in successioa' of the
rest. Now if these seals were put on so as to be visible at the ends of
the roll, (which niiirht be easily <loiie by some small label attached to
each seal indicative of its place), then John could have seen tljp seven '
seals, if the end of the roll was toward him, i. e. he could have at least
seen what indicated their presence. But how can all the demands of
this representation be answered, either by the supposition of Eichhorn
or of Ewald ? If, however, we suppose the seals to be put sriccessiveh/
upon the margin of the book or fCjwH, as it wa^.rolled up, each opening
would extend only so far as the o^tt seal, where the unrolling would be
arrested ; and the presence of these seals might in some way have been
indicated to a beholder, as has already been suggested.
*
(2) And I saw a inijlitv angol, proclaiinitiir with a loud voice : Who is worthy
to open llio book, and to loose the seals thereol?
'Jrij^vnnt', "menira epitheton ornans," says Eichhorn. But how it is
ornans, in the present instance, I w^ not, unless there is something
apposite in it to the nature of the case. Homer rejn-esents his heralds I
as powerful, robust men, in order consistently to attribute to them deep- '
toned and powerful voices. . Is not this the design of the epithet tcF/i'poV
here ? The writer immediately subjoins : x7]f)vC)(jovra iv rpavrj (AeyuXii.
The adjective ftfyu).)j, when applied to voice, must of course mean loud.
T(V uhog •/.. T. }.. The quotation of the words is direct, (as usual
elsewhere), and the whole phrase forms the requisite complement to the
participle miovaaovza. — Jlhog in the sense of suitable, tcell adapted to,
or more jirobably with the meaning, of sufficient ranh or diynity, i. e.
who by his rank or attributes deserves the honour of opening this book
of divine decrees? — Ka) Xvaai x. t. L is added for the sake of specifi-
cation. Seven seals had been mentionc^d. Some special guard is im-
plied, therefore, against the reading of this book. It could not be fully
read, unless they were all successively broken ; and to this the expres-
sion before us refers.
(3) And noione in hi^avcn, nor on earth, nor under the earth, was able to open
the book, or to inspect it.
Heaven, earm^nd the i^nder-ioorld, by the common ^sus loquendi of
the Hebrews, denote the universe ; q. d. * no being in^TtlC" universe
could be found, who was able to open the book, and survey its contents.'
Of course the meaning is, that no one could be found among created
being?, who was competent to perform this task. — J^voi is inserted after
124 THE SEALED book: ChAP. V. 4, 5.
ovQavco here in several critical editions, but omitted by Hahn. The
idea of" heaven among the Hebrews was, that it is the region immedi-
ately above the apparent welliin or sky. Later Hebrew usage made
seven heavens ; indeed, the Ascension of Isaiah, (cotemporary with the
Apocalypse), makes seven ; but I find no traces of this in the O. or N.
Testament. — 'Tnoy.dzm r/jg yrjg, see the popu_lar.idea of the subterra-
nean region fully developed in Is. xiv. The blX'^ of the Hebrews,
and the ^/idi]g of the Greeks, both designate the under-world in its
usual sense, as employed in popular language.
Jivol'iat. refers to breaking the seals of the book ; pjnmv to the in-
spection of its contents. BXstzco is not confined merely to the ocular
,' sense, but occasionally is employed to designate the mental one of see-
• ing or considering. So Soph. Oed. Tyr. v. 740. The first two ex-
amples of ov8t' here are the proper sequences or the previous negative
in ovdei'g implied before iv rep' ovQctrq)-, the ovds before ^Imaiv is de-
pendent also upon the first ovda'g in the verse ; see N. Test. Gramm.
§ 183. 1.
(4) And I wept much, because no one was found worthy to open the book, nor
to inspect it.
IlolXd neut. plur. used advei'bially, as often. Jt'§iog in the same
sense as above.
(5) Then one of the elders saith to me : Weep not ; behold ! the J'on of the
tribe of Judah, the offspring of David, hath prevailed to open the.booK and the
seals thereof. ■
Eig = inx , vphich. is sometimes used, in the later Hebrew, as being
equivalent to Tig, i. e. one, some one, a certain one ; see Ges. Lex. — ■
AtyH the Present of narration, i. e. the historical Present. — 'EvtxTjcrev
has an intensive meaning here. It does not merely signify, that the
Messiah was able to open the book, but that he had acquired this power
by a victorious struggle. Comp. a similar sentiment in Phil. 2: 6 — 10.
By such a struggle with trials and sorrows, he had opened or prepared
the w'ay for the highest honour to be bestowed upon him, i, e. he had
won by his victories the honour and the right to open the sealed book.
0 )Ja)p, the emblem of heros fortissimus, inasmuch as the lion is the
king of beasts, in consequence of his strength and invincible courage ;
comp. Jer. 4: 7. The lion of God is an epithet among the Arabians,
for an invincible hero. — '£>c zijg (pvXrjg 'lovda, because Christ sprung
from the tribe of Judah (Heb. 7: 14) ; and with reference, also, to the
declaration of the dying Jacob respecting Judah, Gen. 49: 9, where lion
is used in a sense like to that which it has in the verse before us. That
Xmv is the subject of ivixrjae, is proof that it has the meaning just as-
signed to it. — H Qi^a Aavi8, not root of David, but a rpot-shoot from the
THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 6. 125
trunk or stem of David ; comp. "^"d"^ r^ica "lan , a root-shoot or sprout
from (he trunk of Jesse, Is. 11: 1, to which the Clause before us nndoubt-\
edly refers. How familiar the Old Testament Scriptures were to the \
author of the Apocalypse, must be evident to every attentive reader. 1
Here a plain reference to two distinct texts widely separated, is com-
prised in a very narrow compjtss. See the like image respecting the
Messiah, in 4 Ezra 12: 31, 32.
(6) Antl 1 saw bi"t\vt>oii the tlimnc and llio four living creatures, and between
tlip elders, a Lamb slandinir, as it were slain, liaving seven heads and seven eyes,
which are the seven spirits of God Chat are sent into all the eartii.
Lit. iv ^t'lt^ means in the middle [space]. Rainly the writer means to
say, in the space between the throne of God, borne up by the four ^w«, and
the twenty-four elders who sat in a semi-circular form around it; a
most appropriate station for the jwrformance of what the sequel discloses.
' The repetition of iv fitatii is a Hebrew idiom. The Hebrews in such a
case often say: "pai . . . "j-ia; see G^en. 1: 7. Lev. 27: 12.
^fnriof, properly a diminutive, agnellus, from «(»/;»', Gen. unvog ;
yet, like ^i^h'op above, not employed in a sense actually diminutive.
It designates, as it were, a tender lamb, a young innocent lamb, in its
primary sense ; and so is used by John, and applied to the Saviour,
about thirty times in the Apocalypse ; and, therefore, is to be regarded \
as a favourite appellation, indicative of two things, viz. perfect inno- I
cence, and pi'opitiatory sacrifice or victim. Comp. the source of this in I
the exclamation oTTolm the Baptist, John 1: 29, " Behold the Lamb of
God, who taketh away the sins of the world !" It would seem proba-
I ble, that John the evangelist was present, when this Avas said ; see John
I 1: 35, 3G. It is true the word duvog is here used ; but this makes no
■^gnrecialtle ilifference. The Septuagint uses both uqviov and unvo^ for
the Hebrew ii'33; and the evangelist himself employs doviov in 21: 15.
So in Testamentum XIL Patriarcharum (Fabric.) I. p. 724, 725, 730,
U[nb^ &fnv is used for the Messiah. In 1 Pet. 1: 19. Acts. 8: 32, it is
used in reference to the passage in Is. 53: 7. Otherwise, the use of it |
in the New Testament is appropriate and peculiar to John.
' £ig iaq^uyHtvov, as slain, i. e. wearing the marks, or bearing tlie ap-
pearance, of having been slain ; where the propitiatory design in the
employment of the appellation lamb exhibits itself; comp. oig iaq^ayfis-
vov, in 13: 3, as to the meaning of (og here. In what way this appear-
ance of having been slain developed itself, whether in the apparent
marks of wounds, or of blood, the writer does not say ; nor is it impor-
tant that he should. Enough, in a description which is altogether sym-
holicy that he gives the leading traits, without stopping to note the pDuP^
ticular manner in which tIiGy-wCT6 developed.
126 THE SEALED BOOK: ChAP. V. 6. « VTS?^
'Enra xtQara, seven horns, the horn being the common emblem of
power in the Hebrew Scriptures; see Ps. 112: 9. 75: 10. 89: 17. 148:
14. 132: 17. Comp. also Dan. 7: 7, 8, 20, 24. 8: 3, 8, 9, 20, 21 ; and
see also Rev. 13: 1. That the number seven here means complete, seems
obvious, both from the nature of the case, and also of the number. But
that in itself the expression, seve7i horns, would denote omnipotence, seems
not to be correct, inasmuch as the beast in Rev. 13: 1 has even a still
greater number of horns ; and so of some of the examples cited above
from the book of Daniel. The other attributes ascribed to the Lamb
do indeed make him Lord of all ; but the expression itself of seven horns
must be regarded as simply designating the idea of great power. This
also stands connected and harmonizes well with Xfcov and Ivi'xijae above.
With the measure of power designated by seven horns, he might well be
compared to a lion, and iviyjjae. be reasonably expected of him.
'OqiOulfiovg stzzu of course means acute and wide-reaching vision.
— Ol dot . . . rr/v ytjv. Is the meaning, that these seven eyes are indi-
cative of his own attributes ? Or are they symbols of that power which
he possesses, of sending abroad over all the earth the seven spirits be-
fore his throne, in order that they may inspect and oversee the aifairs of
his kingdom ? Thei'e is some difficulty in the present case ; because
the seven horns seem plainly to denote the Messiah's attribute of '^
mighty power. Yet in Rev. 3: 1, it seems to be ^ually plain, that the "
seven spirits are the seve7i presence-angels ; for thei'&-th«^Redeemer is
said i/^Hv, to have or hold them at his disposal, in the same manner as
he has at his disposal the seven stars, i. e. the angels of the churches.
Indeed, in all the instances brought under review, in the remarks made
on 3: 1, the case is the same, if we except the present one, which is at
least somewhat doubtful. In order, however, that congruity of repre-
sentation should be preserved, we seem to be co^i^strained here to regard
the seven eyes as symbols of the all-pervading survey or perspicacity of
the Saviour himself; especially as we are obliged here to acknowledge
a reference to Zech. 3: 9 and 4: 10, where the seven eyes, engraved up-
on the corner-stone of the new temple, are plainly symbolic pf '' the eyes
of Jehovah which run to and fro through the wholeeafth," i. e. God is
6 7tot.v6iizijg, omnituens. ^^hiinj^' 'tu aTTEaraXiitva sig ndaav riji) ytjv,
is a translation of the phrase in Zech. 4: 10, "inxn-bzia Ci"i^::vr'2 tr^li,
these run to and fro through the ivhole earth. With this passage before
us, which in Zech. is so plain, Ave cannot well withhold our assent to
the proposition, that the writer here means to designate Christ as o
nuvoJiT^g or amnituens ; comp. Rev. 2: 18.*
* As to the metlwd in which John disposed of the seven horns and seven eyes,
i. e. in what manner or how they were inserted; whether each eye was at the
THE SEALED book: Chap. V. 7. 127
(7) And he came and took the book from tho right liand of him who sat upon
the throne.
Simple aiul majestic, without any pomp of words, or any effort to de-
corate the scone. — ED.i;rfe, Perf. joined with an Aor. (ij^^fyt) ; as often
in narration, N. Test. Granim. § 13G. 3. But here the Perf. has sim-
ply an aoristic sense, which is very unusual ; see Gramm. § 13G. 3. b.
jN^ote,
But how- could a Lamh take the book ? Was it only the head^ in this
case, which bore the resemblances to a lamb designated in the sixth
verse, the rest of the person remaining simply human? This would
seem to destroy at least the congruity of the image, and to make some-
thing monstrous, like Centaurs, etc. AVas the appearance of a lamb,
then, exchanged for the simple human form, when he advanced to take
the book "^ This would at least appear more probable than the other
supposition ; yet of this the writer has given us no express intimation.*
ti
root of eaeh horn, and in what order the horns stood in relation to each otljer; of
all this the author himself has said nothing;, and to indulge in conjecture with
confidence would be worse than useless. «s»S^iul»otic representations of this na-
ture do indeed demand some congruilij and /ipjiropriatenrss ; but then, as the wri-
ter goes designedly into the region of imagination for images to express his
thoughts, we must not limit him to the mere realities of our natural world, nor
pronounce all that to be incongruous, which does not agree with those realities in
all its parts. The vtiriJiCHm we ma}' well admit; the »non5^;■osu/« would be an-
other question. If one is disposed to conjecture, he may suppose double horns in
the coufmnn place upon the sides of the head, and three in the centre ; and so of
the eyes. But it v;ould be useless to make conjectures of this nature, as the sig-
nificanc}' of the symbols is not in any degree affected by them.
* Nearly every commentary that I have seen keeps a guarded silence in rela-
tion to the a|)parcnt difficulty here. It does not even seem as if most inlerprcteis
had once entertained the thought that there was any difficulty. Herder, Ewald,
and Vitringa are the only critics whom 1 have found ^doing so much as to notice
it. Of tiiese the former says : " We sec the images are syinbals ; and we must not
unreasonably dwell upon individual traits, nor inquire (for example) : How did
the Lamb stand ? How did he take the book .' Where were his eyes .' The im-
ages of the Revelation have a »Hcaw/"/7ff; and in the connection of that meaning
must we follow them ;" Maran Atha, p 54. Ewald says : " Non quaerimus [de
loco oculorum], imaginum delineationem e.xactam et congruam non esse scrutan-
dam reputantcs;" p. 14') Comm. The spirit of this remark he means doubtless
to apply also to llie case before us. Vitringarcommences his remarks with an ob-
servation true enough : " Sicco pede pn^si/rt praeteriunt hie Interpretcs difficul-
tatem." He then goes on to compare the present case with that of the lmo. in
chap, iv, which, as he avers, had eaeii n human tiotiij, while only the lirad and feet re-
sembled the respective animals to which they are compared. But in this he is
surely mistaken ; for their bodies are represented as he]ngvnder the throne ; which
could not be said of iiutnan bodies, as it would imply a prostrate condition. Be-
sides, how are the/our feet of the lion and the ox to be joined to the human body ?
128 THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 8.
(8) And when he took the book, the four living creatures and the twenty-four
elders fell down before the Lamb, each having harps and golden bowls filled with
incense, which are the prayers of the saints.
■*^ The acts of adoration and praise here mentioned are commenced by
those who are nearest to the throne of God, viz., by the four living crea-
And in the present case, how are the four feet of a lavib to be given to him whose
body WHS human? This makes an impossible image. Vitringa has evidently
confounded the representation of Ezekiel with that of John. In Ezekiel the wri-
ter attributes to the living creatures liands, 1: 8, and an upright foot (v. 7), like to
that of a bullock, so that it could easily turn in every direction ; and in such a
case, beyond a doubt the body is conceived of as upright and human. According-
ly, we find the living creatures standing under the divine throne, which rests up-
on their heads, Ezek. 1: 22, 26. Here nothing is unnatural, save the extraordina-
ry mixed forms both in the head and feet. But in John (Rev. iv.), the bodies are
placed under the throne; and of course neither human feet nor human bodies can
be supposed by the writer. In the case before us, we cannot unite the feet of a
lamb to a human body. We must therefore suppose merely the head to bear a re-
semblance to the Lamb ; or else we must suppose the whole form to be like one,
and that arms were attached to the sides or breast, (like the wings and hands in
Ezekiel's vision) ; or else make the supposition, that the form was changed, and
a human form resumed, when the Saviour advanced to take the book and open it.
It is not a sufficient justification of the first of these suppositions, that there is a
mingling of different forms, both in Ezek. i.and Rev. iv, in the constitution of the
living creatures ; for these are plainly beings of merely a symbolic nature, and xl
TTCtQaSo^ov may be reasonably allowed. But there would be something repulsive
to tastej in such a mixture of forms here, where the symbol represents the glori-
ous Redeemer. — Nor is the second supposition, (one which Vitringa also makes),
adapted to reconcile our feelings much better than the first. Here is still qu.od.dam
monstroswn. Arms attached to a /«r?j6, are at least a very unusual appendage;
and we cannot but feel, that there is something unnatural and excessive in ima-
gery of such a nature.
Shall we suppose then, that the Lamb took the book in his mouth, or with his
feet P This would be a degradation of the whole representation : for it is so much
against the order of nature, that we cannot help being revolted at it. Shall we
suppose then, that the form under which the Saviour first appears in the august
assembly of heaven, to the mental vision of John, was changed when he advanced
to take the book ? This relieves the incongruity of the matter, which strikes us
when viewed in any other light ; and the only difficulty here is, that the Seer has
himself given no express notice of such a change. But does not what he says
imply it? It would really seem to be so, to say the least. But Ewtild suggests,
that tlie Saviour bears this same image of a lamb, in all his subsequent develop-
ments, until he marches forth as a conqueror, at the head of his great army, Rev.
19: 11. The only ground, however, of this opinion is, that the epithet aoviov is
so frequently given to him in the Apocalypse. An obvious reason, in the case
before us, for his appearance as a lamb, is given in v. 9, Thou wast slain, and hast
redeemed us to God by thy blood, etc. But surely when Christ appears at the head
of his great army, Rev. 14: 1, although he is called uqvIov, it would not seem to
be very appropriate to suppose that the Apocalyptist saw him, on that occasion,
in the /orm of a lamb. In most of the other cases where Christ is called /awt&,
THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 8. 129
tures, who bear up the throne ; then continued by the twenty-four el-
ders, who stand near the throne. — "Exovteg fxaazoi,', each one having^
where the phu-al Part, agrees with the singular t-Miatng (as often else- ^
where), because in its nature this word is generic. vSo in lleb. iiiiN;, a
each one, more usually has the plural joined wTtTi it. — But is it the ^daci
who have harps, etc., or tlie twenty-four elders ? The latter, in the pre-
sent cai^e, as t]yn{)ar,a^ ///<«* in v. 9, seems clearly and necessarily to in-
dicate. 'Eyoiifg, therefore, is to be api)lied only to the neai'est Nomi-
native or subject.
<Uiu}.ag, bowls or goblets, having more breadth than dci)th ; to which
species of vessel our word vial, as now employed, does not at all cor-
i"es{X)nd. Evidently a vessel with a broad mouth or ojiening is desig-
nated ; tor the incense is to be burned in it for the sake of diffusing over
the place the sweet odour which it would yield. — Al tlaiv al TTQCotv^ai
roiv uyt'av, i. e. which incense symbolizes the prayers of the saints that
ascend up before God.
The object of the harps (comp. 14: 2. 15: 2) is evidently to accompOi-
ny and aid the song of praise. What was symbolized by the incense in
there is a simple reference to tlie name uot't'oi', as applied witliso iriuch significan-
cy in chap. v.
After all, we cannot drtermine the case before us with certainty. To my own
mind, the change of form, so that it would be appropriate to the actions related in
the sequel, seems to be most congruous, and to be attended with the least difficulty,
I mean, of course, with the h'asltesthelicaL difficulty ; for as to the main senti-
ment, it would not be changed by either mode of representation ; so that one migiit
be tempted to put the consideration of it aside, and adopt the words and sentiments
of Herder and Ewald. But ^[Jler^all, it is not pleasant for the reader to retreat
from the contemplation of this picture, with the feeling that there is something of
the monstrous, or of tlie unnatural, or of the impossible, ov at least of the incongru-
ous, in it. It makes us less willing to listen to the writer, and gives us less con-
tideuce in his taste and judgment. On this account, 1 have endeavoured to e'x-
amine the subject somewIiaT liiinutcly, and not to pass it sicca pcde, a.s Vitringa
says most have done. That there is a very impressive symbol comprised in the
idea of a slain /amt, every reader must instinctively feel, when he reads v. 9.
Indeed, I know not how else, (looking back to the Jewish passover-lamb), the
writer could have chosen a symbol adapted to make so deep an impression. Siiall
we now throw all this away, or condemn it as in bad taste, merely because the au»
thor, in the overpowering vision of such a scene, has not stopped to describe mi-
nute particulars, which would enable us to make out more rhetorical congruityin
liis exhibition.' I think this would not be candid criticism. VVliat hinders
us, where all is vision and sijiiibol, from supposing such changes in forms profl'er-
ed to vision, as the nature of the case respectively demands .' If we may do so
witiiout any violence or impropriety, (and why may we not.') then may we sup-
pose, tliat when a book is represented as being laken and read, this is and must of
course be done by an appropriate human form, and not by that of a lamb, at least
of a lamb as understood to mean (in respect even to form) what the liltrul sense
of this word conveys.
VOL. II. 17
130 THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 8.
the temple of old, seems to be plainly brought to view here. As the
perfume yielded by incense, when burned, diiiuses a sweet odour over
all the place where it is offered, and ascends upward towards heaven ;
so prayer, when directed to God, ascends upwards, and when sincerely
offered is well-pleasing to Him to whom it is directed. So Ps. 141: 2,
" Let my prayer come before thee as incense" The passage before
us is the only one, where the redeemed themselves in heaven ai'e repre-
sented as offering the incense which is the symbol of the prayers
of the saints. And here, it would seem that the incense is not to be regard-
ed as a symbol of the prayers oflPered by the saints on earth ; as some
have maintained. Ewald understands it as a symbol of the prayers of the
offerers themselves; just as the harps are a symbol of the praises of those
who employed them. So Yitringa. And as to aylav, it may, without
any difficulty, be as well applied to saints in heaven as on earth ; it is
even more appropriate to them.
In Rev. 8: 3, 4, is a passage which represents an angel as having a
golden censer filled with incense, and as offering up this before God
" with the prayers of all the saints." This, as I apprehend, has plainly
a different meaning, in some respects, from the clause now before us, in-
asmuch as it represents him as an intercedinf] angel, presenting, in be-
half of the persecuted church on earth, their supplications before God.
4^t all events, the idea oi ckngel-intercessors, in the sense now stated, was
a common one among the Jews, at the time when the Apocalypse was
written. For the full exhibition and proof of this, I must refer the rea-
der to Exc. I. under the head Good Angels, No. 6.
Li the present case, then, as the harps are an emblem of the praise
which those who employed them offered to God, so the howls filled with
incense are an emblem of the prayers which were offered up to God in
behalf of his church and kingdom, in the temple above. On earth the
priests in the temple always took the lead in worship ; the people at a
distance from the most holy place followed on, in obedience to the sig-
nal which was given them. The offering of incense was a signal for
prayer; see Luke 1: 10, which is direct to this point. So in the pres-
ent case. The L,wa and the elders begin the adoration ; the angels at a
greater distance echo it, vs. 11, 12 ; all the distant parts of the universe
(or perhaps the angels who preside over them), re-echo it, v. 13 ; so
that there is one general, or rather universal, chorus on this occasion —
a chorus of all inteUigent and holy beings.
Such being the simple and (^^may add) magnificent view of the wri-
ter, it seems to be unnecessary here to be solicitous about minute de-
tails ; such as, ' How could they play on harps, which I'equire the use of
hoth hands, while in one hand they held the bowls of incense ? How
could they play on harps, burn incense, sing, and pray, all at the same
w
THE SKALF.1> BOOK : ClIAP. V. 9, 10. 1^
time ?' We might answor, imlocd, thiit the writer does not allinn, nor
even intimate tliis. Thi y could, at all events, sing and play at one time ;
as the worshipi)orj; in the temple did on earth. They could offer pray-
ers and burn inconse at another ; a.s was done in the temple on earth.
And this is all the writer means, and all Avhich he expects his readers to
understand. But after all, it is no very difficult thing to suppose all these
to be done at one and the same time. The incense-bowls are placed,
when ignited, on tlie altar of incense; the harps accompany the hymns,
and the hymns are themselves (as hymns often are) in part supplica-
tions to God, as well as praise. As the redeemed in heaven are kings
and priests to God, the offering of incense is surely an appropriate duty.
The writer, therefore, has offended neither against good taste, nor the
Ijnvsofcongruity ; but, on the contrary, he has given us a truly magnifi-
cent picture of what he means to describe.
If any one is still disposed to ask : Whether prayer in heaven is an
appropriate exercise ? The answer is easy. He may be ix'ferred to
Kev. fi: 10. Why should the blessed before the throne of glory, cease
to feel as deep, yea even a deeper, interest than formerly in the prosperi-
ty of the church ?
(0, 10) And they sing a new song, saying: Thou art worthy to take the book,
and to open the seals thereof; for thou wast slain and hast redeemed us to God
by thy blood, out of every tribe and tongue and people and nation, and hast made
them kings and priests to our God, and they shall reign over the earth.
^iiSovaiv, they sinfj, Prcs. for the Aor. of narration, or the historic
Present. — ia8r,v y.uin'/r, a new song ; not with Schleusner and olTTei's,
an excellent song. All the songs of heaven we may well suppose to be
excellent. But a new song is such an one as a new occasion of praise
and thanksgiving calls forth; comp. Ps. 33: 3. 40: 3. 96: 1. 98: 1. 144:
9. 149: 1. Is. 42: 10. Thou art worthy to take the hook, etc., shows the
gi'ound of the neioness of the song. It wtis appropriate to a neio occa-
sion. Whatever may be done by imperfect worshippers on earth, in
heaven, it would seem, their worship is not uniform in matter or man-
ner. New occasions call forth new songs, and doubtless 7iew supplica-
tions also.
"On i(T(fdyr^g, from g^kogo} (old root G(fdyay), in the 2 Aor. passive.
Comp. as to the sense of the word, (6g iaqiayfisvov in v. 6: The refer-
ence is to the paschal lamb, which was slain at the feast of the passover,
and its blood sprinkled on the door posts, that the destroying angel
might pass by, Ex. xii ; comp. 1 Cor. 5: 7. As the sacrifice of the
first paschal lamb procured redemption or deliverance from the plague
which smote and destroyed the Egyptians, so did the sacrifice of the
Lamb of God jirocure eternal redemption for his people, or " take
away the sins of the world." — ^yo()ui^(o, to buy, purchase, means also to
132 THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 9, 10.
ransom or redeem, because, for example, slaves were ransomed from J|^
bondage, and the condemned from execution, by the payment of a
price which was accepted in lieu of their bondage or punishment. So
here ; the slaves of sin and Satan, those who lay under the sentence of
the divine law and were condemned to the second death, were bought
off or redeemed by the blood of Christ, in order that they should be the
freed-men of the Lord, 1 Cor. 7: 22, 23. Comp. also 1 Cor. 6: 20.
2 Pet. 2: 1. Rev. 14: 3, 4. The metaphor is easy and obvious. It is
fully developed in 1 Pet. 1: 18, 19, " Ye know that ye were not re-
deemed with corruptible things, as silver and gold, . . . but Avith the
precious blood of Christ, as of a lamb without blemish or without spot."
T(p ■O'Hp, Dat. commodi, as the gi'ammarians say, i. e. bought /or Mm, .
on his account, that he might possess us as his freed-men and obedient \
children. — 'Er roj ai(iari gov, by thy blood ; not, then, simply because ',
he had instructed them, or been the light of the world ; not merely be-
cause he had set them a perfect example, and urged them to walk in
his steps ; not merely because he had sealed the truths which he had
taught, by a martyr's death ; all these might indeed belong to the
of action in which, as the Redeemer of our race, the Lord Jesus
move. They did belong to it ; and they are delightful truths, and of
deep interest. But there is a truth Avhich ranks still higher ; and this
is, that Christ was our passover-sacrijice ; our propitiatory offering ;
and thus, that " Lamb of God which taketh away the sins of the world."
It is not merely the light which he diffused, nor his example, nor his
martyrdom as a faithful witness — but his Blood which redeems our
lost race from their bondage and their perishing state, and makes them
free and " alive to God." Let the reader carefully compare with the
sentiment here, Matt. 26:28. 20:28. John 10: 11. Eph. 1: 7. Acts
20: 28. Col. 1: 14. Heb. 9: 11—14. 1 Pet. 1: 18, 19. Gal. 3: 13.
1 John 1: 7. Is. 53: 5 — 10 ; which, however, are only a few of the nu-
merous texts of the like import. If there be any such thing as a cen-
tral point to Christianity considered as a religion distinct from all oth-
ers, it seems to be the doctrine here brought to view by our text. No
wonder that it should call forth the rapturous praise and adoration of all
the heavenly world, when the Lord of glory presented himself in a form
which was an emblem of the atoning sacrifice which he had made, and
made as the Redeemer of our perishing race !
fbvlt] means tribe, i. e. a .^comparatively small division or class of
people associated together; e.^'g^-^e tribes of Israel. — rXooaoa, lit.
tongue, dialect, i. e. the peculiar dialect of a small part of a numerous
people ; and so it marks a division or national distinction here rising
somewhat above that designated by (fvl^. This usage is of Hebrew
origin ; Is. 66: 18. Dan. 3: 4, 7. 4: 1. 7: 14. — yiaog, populus, spoken
THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V, 9, 10. 18S
of a multitude en masse, who are associated together as a nation, an
army, etc., in distinction from Sijfiog, the people as freemen assembled in
the forum, etc. Here it designates a larger mass of people than is sig-
nified by the preceding words. — "Exfrog, tlie people in a still wider ex-
tent, a large nation. In Ilebrev^^ nr usually means the Hebrew nation^
and "^'J or C"^"5 the Gentile nations. The four words conjoined here p^
designate nations of every kind, from the smallest to the greatest; and
^f course imply that redemption has been extended to Gentile as well
a> Jl^w. " '
K(ti fTToiijGag y. t. X., see on 1: G. — Kal ^aaiXemovatv im rFjg yije.
Who shall reign ? Answer : The redeemed of every tribe, etc. How
shall they reign ? The answer is not given here ; but it is implied in
Rev. 11: 17. 20: -i— G. Comp. 2: 26, 27. 3: 21. 1 Cor. 6: 2, 3. Matt.
19: 28. Is it a visible reign on earth, i. e. a reign of those who them-
selves dwell on the earth ; or is it a participation in the glories and ex-
altation of the Redeemer, when his kingdom shall become universal?
Probably the latter ; see on Rev. 20: 4 — 6.
One difficulty still remains. In v. 9 we have r^yoQaaag . . . ri(idg, us,
first pers. plural ; in v. 10 we have (according to the corrected text),
xai iTToiijaug avznvg, them, third pers. 2)lural : and so again, ^aailfvaov-
air, third pers. plural. The ^dgate text reads /)(<«* for avrnvg, and
^aailti'Ofitv for ^aa(levaovoiv,\^m& preserving the first pers. plural
throughout. But the weight of authority seems to be against this ; and
it is rejected in th6 late critical editions. Thus constituted, there ap-
pears to be a serious discrepancy between v. 9 and v. 10, scarcely con-
sistent with the supposition that the same speakers utter both. Ewald,
being unable to solve the difficulty, proposes to expunge the imag of v.
9, and to read : iiyonaaag . . . ix naaiig qvUjg x. r. X., i. e. thou haAt .
redeemed . . . [some] of every tribe, etc. This is not an impossible
sense ; for ix (like "("3 of the Hebrews) is frequently used in such a way
in the N. Testament, see Lex. ix, 3. h. But still, as there is no au-
thority thus to change the text, it is better to choose some other method,
if we may do so, of solving the difficulty. The ijiidg of v. 9 evidently
includes all Christians, at least all in heaven ; for the twenty-four
elders, and only they, could not surely belong to every tribe and tongue.
If the text then, as it now stands, be correct, we must suppose that the
first person plural is dropped at the end of v. 9, and that avrovg in v.
10 is referred by the speakers to qv/Sjg, y).(aaar,g, x. t. ).. ; i. e. thou
hast made every tribe, etc., to be kings and priests. Of course the
meaning must be limited to such as were, or were to be, actually re-
deemed ; we must not apply it numerically to every individual of each
tribe. The sentiment then is, that Cliristians of all nations shall yet
reign on the earth or over the earth ; a sentiment like to that in other
passages referred to above.
134 THE SEALED BOOK: ChAP. V. 11, 12. *,
There is still another method of solving the ditRculties of the amend-
ed text, which I have not found in any of the commentaries. It is that
of responsive praise. In Ps. xxiv. there is a plain example of the like
composition ; so also in Is. 6: 1 — 3. If now in the present case we sup-
pose the first clause in v. 9 — " Thou art worthy to take the book, and
to open the seals thereof" — to be sung by both the ;ca« and the elders ;
then the following clause, to the end of v. 9, by the elders alone ; then
V. 10 by the 'Q(au again as a response ; in this way all difficulty vanishes.
I do not aver that such was the intention of the writer ; but surely there
is nothing improbable in it, either from the nature of the case, or when
compared with other examples. Besides ; in v. 11, there is an^ho of
the praise begun ; and in v. 13 this is •reechoed again by a still greater
multitude. There is no^ritical heresy, 'tliej:*jfore, in such a view of the
case; although I have noSerious -difficulty with the preceding solution.
(11) And I looke^f-ftnd I heard the voice of many angels round about the
throne, and of the living creatures, and of the elders ; and their number was ten
thousand times ten thousand, and thousands of thousands;
Kv/J.o} Tov ■d-Qovov. Plainly the intention of the writer is, that we
should regard the great multitude of angels, as standing around the throne
in a circle external to that of the twenty-four elders ; who are also said
to sit round the throne, 4: 4. The redeemed, then, who are comprehend-
ed with the twenty-four elders, (for these are the leaders or representa-
tives of the redeemed), stand next to the presence-angels ; and the many
angels are ranged beyond these, i. e. in the outer circle. Can any mj-
co/i^na^y be objected to this view of the writer? I think not. "Are
they [the angels] not ministering spirits, sent forth to minister to the
heirs of salvation ? Heb. 1: 14. " Know ye not that we shall judge an-
gels ?" 1 Cor. 6: 3. For angels no redeeming blood has been shed,
Heb. 2: IG, 17. Why then may we not rationally suppose that the re-
deemed will enjoy a high preeminence, since they have been ransomed
at such an infinite expense ?
As to the number of the angels here, it is plainly taken from Dan. 7:
10, " Thousand thousands ministered to him, and ten thousand times
ten thousand stood before him." But in our text, the order of the num-
bers" is reversed. It is plain enough that these numbers are thus re-
peated, in order to designate the idea of countless number, or at least of
an exceedingly great one. The general chorus that follows, is contained
in the next verse. " ~-~ ' '
(12) Saying with a loud voice : Worthy is the Lamb that was slain, to receive
power, and riches, and wisdom, and might, and honour, and glory, and blessing.
Aiyrtvti.q agrees with o dQC&f/og a noun of multitude, or with i/vQid-
dsg and )(^iXiddEg by a constructio ad sensum as to gender. — Aa^tlv ti]v
THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 12. I8f
dvruiiiv X. r. X. Ts the meaning, that he is worthy of having all these
virtues and gifts bestotced upon him ? Or is it, that he is worthy of be-
ing praised as possessing them, or worthy of having them ascribed to
him by all intelligent and rational beings ? Doubtless the latter ; for
already did he possess the attributes named. As possessing them, he is
the object of adoration and i)raise. — W.ovzov means, that the abundance
of all tilings is in his possession and at his disposal. — /1vpu(aiv here de-
signates his official power or authority. — 2^ocpiav, his power to discern
the best ends, an<l to choose the best means in order to accomplish them.
— Jayvp, his ability to accomplish all which he nndertakes. — Tiftijv '/.at
dol^ay xai tvloyiav are not qualities or attributes of the Messiah, but
stand connected more properly with Xa^aiv in its ordinary sense. The
meaning is, that Christ is woilhy to receive honour, and glory or praise,
and blessing, as ascribed to him and protlered to him by his creatures.
The offering of such an ascription to the Redeemer, (the particulars
of which constitute the perfect number seven), is an expression of the
highest adoration which language can designate. Well does Ewald say :
" Angelorum . . . conclamatio, augustam et vere dicinani Messiae tanti
numinis majestatem pi'aeconiis justis prosequens." And again : " In
doxologia (v. 12), Messias divinarum virtutum et laudum decore dig-
nissimus pracdicatur." Eichhorn, in reference to the passage before us,
says : '* Excurrit in laudes Messiae, divisam cum Deo majestatem et
imperium habentis."* ^^ — -'^ ^
* Eichhorn, and also his follower and imitator, Heinrichs, both attribute the
number seven here, i. e. the seven predicates which belong to the Lamb, to the
Jewish Cabbala respecting the Sephiroth. I cannot admit this as probable; (1)
Because there is no proof whatever, and indeed no probability, that^the Qabba^^
lists are of as ancient origin as the Christian era. {2) Even if they were, the
doctrine of the Sephiroth does not well apply here. They were ten in number;
and although it is alleged, that these were subdivided into seven and three, yet
this classification does not subserve our present mirpose.^ Tiie superior Sephiroth
were the eternal, the crown, and r'J^rn or n;'2 i. eTTTtTlffa; the inferior were vii<flitf
majcstij, etc. Eichhorn says that God was praised in two ways, either by a tiiid
or a hcptadc of attributes being ascribed to him. By a triad ; e. g. " Thine is the
kingdom, and power, and glory," Matt. C: 13, [if this be not genuine, it is at least
ancienf^ ; and so (he might have added), in Is. G: 3, " Holy, holy, holy ;" Rev. 4:
11, " Glory, and honour, and power;" Rev. 4: 8, " Holy, holy, holy ; Lord, God,
Almighty ; which was, and is, and is to come," (where we have three times
threejj^ Rev. 4: 9, " Glory, honour, and thanksgiving." By a heptade ; e. g. Rev.
7: 12, where we have the same doxology as in the text before us, with the excep-
tion that the order of tiio words dilftrs, and tiial 7T?.ovtos in the text before us is
omitted there, and tvynfjiarta substituted in its place. So, again, in 1 Ciiron. 2!):
11, 12, it is said that even a drrude. is found, corresponding to the whole number
of the Sephiroth, and siii)divided into seven and three. But whoi vir will care-
fully examine that passage, will find no decade, nor even lieptade, but merely ir-
regular OTQvcfOt, first of five simple members, then of three composite ones, then
^
k
136 THE SEALED BOOK : ChAP. V. 13.
(13) And every creature which is in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth,
and those which are in the sea, even all which are in them, heard I saying: To
Him who sitteth on the throne, and to the Lamb, be blessing and honour, and
glory and power, for ever and ever.
Kjiafid, lit. created things ; but nouns in -jwa are very common in the
N. Testament, and not unfrequently resemble, in meaning, those formed
in -Gig. The neuter gender is sometimes used to designate persons or
agents; e. g. in John 17: 2, 21. 2 Thess. 2: 6. 1 Cor. 1: 27, 28. Heb.
7: 7. 1 John 5: 4 al. ; see N. Test, Gramm. § 95. 3. Here, ]3lamlj,x
intelligent agents are designated; for this the nature of the case de-
mands.
'Em Tijg "O-aldoayg, on or in the sea ? The answer depends on the
meaning of xTiafxa. If this word here designates angels, who pre-
side over the elements, (e. g. in the text — i n \ t/jg ytjg . . . in i rTJg
d-aluaarjg), then on or over is the proper translation. We might so
render the particle im here, in both cases ; but it must be with some
doubt, whether we should be in the right. In Eisenmenger's Juden-
thum Entdeckt. I. p. 805 seq. and II. p. 374 seq., the reader may find
the Jewish notions respecting angels, as sent into all the different parts
three of a mixed nature, and then two couplets, the one simple and the other
composite. All this supposed evidence ^then of Cabbalism for centuries before
the Apocalypse was written, appears to be^withoutTilny real support, and belongs
only to the conceptions of those who make such allegations as we have now ex-
amined.
But supposing Cabbalism to have existed at the time when the Apocalypse was
written, yet there is internal evidence in the case before us, that the writer has
not made his -agpeal to it. Instead of selecting exclusively either the superior
Sephiroth (three), or the inferior (seven), he has taken some of both. Thus his
ao(pi'a belongs to the superior order of Sephiroth. All of Eichhorn's imagination,
then, that John chose the seven inferior Sephiroth, as appropriate to a &iug Ssv-
ze^oe, appears to be ungrounded ; for he has made no such choice. And even if
he had, what proof of a ^tug Su'vtQog could result from such a doxology, in the
present case, when the same doxology (one word only excepted) is ascribed ry
&iM in Rev. 7: ]2? not to speak of the passage in 1 Chron. 2'J: 11, 12, which ex-
hibits for substance the same particular predicates. Could John, as a oiMulizing
Jew, have thus confounded superior and inferior Sei)hiroth, and thus made a mix-
ture revolting to the feelings of all Cabbalists .' This, to say the least, seems to be
very improbable. Indeed the very face of the matter voUches for the fact, that
John had no concern with Cabbalism, in the passage before us. It proves just
the contrary of what it is adduced to prove, by Eichhorn and Heinrichs. As to
Ewald, he holds his peace here.
What have we here then .-' A doxologv, in which ail heaven unite, framed so
as to be made the most significant possible by comprising the number seven, and .
applied directly to the Lamb, in the same manner as the same doxology is applied |
to God in llev. 7: 12. What else could the sacred writer expect, but that equal \
glory and honour should be paid to both, by his readers .' If not, he has done the |
utmost in his power to lead them into a mistake.
¥.
THE SEALED BOOK: ChAP. V. 13. 18T
of the world, to preside over nations, individuals, elements, productions
of the earth, etc. For earlier and better evidence of (his notion among
the Jews, the reader may consult the Exc. (I.) connected with Rev.
1: 4, under the head of Good Angels, Nos. 3. 5. Assuming such a
basis, the meaning will be : ' All the angels, in every part of the uni-
verse, commissioned to preside over all its various elements — ^land and
sea and under-world — heard I saying,' etc. That rational beings are \
meant the \\riter shows, by quitting the neuter gender — xTiaiia . . . a
. . . Ttt — and adojiting the masculine, viz. navrag . . . )Jyovrag, a con- '
structio ad sensum. Tiie sense of the whole would then be of the
following^enor,-: ' The four living creatures and the elders lead the
choir ; the angels in heaven encircling them echo the song ; the angels
in all parts of the universe — in earth and sea and under-world — on
their missions of love and duty, reecho it back to the throne of God.'
A sublime and truly awful scene !
If jiow any one is not satisfied with this view, (one to which Ewald
gives Tiis'assent), then he can explain xziGf^a in a poetic manner ; as
when the Psalmist calls on the floods to clap their hands, and fire, hail,
snow, vapour, and stormy wind, etc., to praise the Lord ; or as when
Isaiah calls on the heavens to listen, and the earth to give eai". The J
whole creation echo back the song to the throne of Grod, the song of jfi
praise, whose notes loud and deep reach its utmost bounds. Poetically
understood, there is no important objection to be made to this ; and
many will give this the preference. I am rather inclined, however, to
the preceding Qgege.sig^.from the view^s which I am persuaded were en-
tertained by the Jews of that period respecting angels, and which are
countenanced (not to say confirmed) by the Scriptures ; as may be seen
in the Excursus above named.
In which ever of these ways we interpret the passage, there is no
room for an interpretation which makes it designate a numerical and
literal all. The meaning here must be, either that of guardian angels
in all parts of the universe, or the poetic one of the universe as a whole,
without making or intending to make individual distinctions which are
here uncalled for. In either case, human beings in general are not
specified at all, even if we suppose them, in the latter case, to be includ-
ed. If any one is disposed to press the literal and rigid sense of the
word all, then how can he exclude the material objects of the creation ?
And why should it be pressed here, except for sectarian purposes, any
more than when the Evangelists say, that " all Juded and all the region
round about Jordan, went to John and were baptized by him ?" 3fatt.
3: 0, G. Mark 1: 5. Does this all include the sick, tlie aged, every fe-
male, all children, and- all unbelievers too in religion? And so of a
multitude of texts everywhere to be found in the Bible. Plainly the
VOL. II. 18
138 INTRODUCTION TO ClIAr. VI XI.
all in the text before us must mean -lA^f-o?/ who were able and disposed
to praise God and the Lamb, and who united in the song of praise.
His enemies were not disposed to unite in it.
Tu h' avToig, i. e. 7« [/.tighuto] iv avroig, is a general expression
designed to repeat and comprise all the preceding particulars which had
been named. — Ei'loyla y.ai 7 tin], and 8o^a vau y.ndzog, are plainly two
couplets here, forming two orr/oi in a kind of poetic measure ; differing
in their fo)-m, but not in their meaning, from the preceding heptade (v.
12) and triads (4: 9, 11) of praise; and it seems probable that the
writer purposely made them to differ, for the sake of variety. Here,
moreover, God and the Lamb are joined in the saTue doxology. What
could the writer mean, if, after all, the Lamb is merely a created being ?
(14) And the four living*ieatures said : Amen ! and the [iwenty-four] elders
fell down and worshipped f Him who liveth for ever and ever.]
As the act of adoration commenced with the t,bia and the elders, so
it concludes with them ; i. e. they give the last and final response. The
t,wa add their solemn assent to all which had been ascribed to the Lamb.
— aiii[v, i. e. Veritas, certum est. So the Jewish congi'egation at the
close of religious services, Deut. 27: 15 seq. Neh. 5: 13. So Chris-
tians, 1 Cor. 14: 16.
The words included in brackets are omitted in the majority of the
most important Codicgsw They are not necessary to the sense, which
remains substantially the same, whether they are inserted or omitted.
If any one should feel that the verb ^Qoaey-vrr^aav demands some com-
pleynent after it, an examination of the word in the Lexicon will show
him that it is frequently employed in the absolute sense, i. e. without
any complement. It may be so here. Thus has the wi'iter prepared
the mind of his readers for the expectation of something highly intei'-
e^ng, which is to be -developed when the sealed book shall be opened.
The next chapter presents us with the commencement of the disclosure.
Y^^^^v^uM^jy-
FIRST CATASTROPHE, OR OVERTHROW OF THE JEWISH PER-
SECUTING POWER: CHAP. VI— XI.
That a work of destruction is to be pei-formed, is manifest from the na-
ture of the symbols presented as the seals are successively opened. That
vengeance is called for and is due, is made clearly manifest, so soon as
the dread array for an attack is exhibited; which exhibition is made with
the breaking of the four first seals. The duty assigned to the hosts that
are marshalled, is made prominent to our view by the supplication of the
martyrs in 6: 9 — 11. As yet, however, the writer has not explicitly dis-
closed who are the victims of divine justice, but only characterized them
INTRODUCTION TO Chap. VI — XL 139
as llie enemios and iH-rscciitors of the cliurch ; altlioupli it is not diflicult
for one well acM[ii;iintt'(l wiili all the bcariiiirs of iiis lanfiiuifrr, to coiijccturo
whom ho lias in view, lie continues to liold his readers a little perhaps in
suspense until lie nearly reaehes the close of the first catastrophe ; although
chap. vii. contains some indications not to he easily mistaken. But in
chap. 11: 1, '^, and 8, he seems (juite clearly to intimate what enemies and
persecutors of tiie church are to he cut oti' and destroyed. Undoubtedly
he has added interest to his jiroduction, hy thus snspcndinfr, for a time, the
anxious curiosity of the reader. But no well-jxrounded doubt can be en-
tertained, at last, whose subjuiration and destruction are in fact predicted
by the series of syndmis employed in chap, vi — xi. Tliose who are ex-
empted from destruction in consequence of the seal of safety put upon
their foreheads by tlie jruardian aiifrel, are of the twelve tribes of Israel, chap,
vii. The necessary im|»lication is, that the rest of these tribes who arc not
sealed, are exposed to the doom which is threatened. So in chap. xi. John
is commanded to measure the inner temple for preservation, while all the
rest of it is devoted to ruin ; i. c. the essence of the ancient religion is to be
presencd, and is incorporated with Christianity, w-hile all that was merely
exterior and ritual is abolished. The Gentiles are to tread down the holy
city and temi)le forty-two months, 11: 2. Here, as often in the prophets,
the metropolis seems plainly to be put for the country at large. In this
metropolis, the two witnesses appear, 11: 3; and here they are slain, and
" their corpses cast out into the streets of the great city, which is spirit-
unlly called Sodom and Egypt, where our Lord was crucifiei)," 11: 8.
This identifies in such a manner as to dissipate all reasonable grounds of
doubt.
The only passage in cha]). vi — xi, which seems to make against this
view, is in Rev. i): 20, 21. I concede that the most easy and natural inter-
pretation of this, would be to apply it to heathen idolaters. But that this is
not a necessary mode of interpretation, and that the context forbids such
an ap|)lication, I shall attempt to show, in commenting U])on the passage.
^ When I say, that the destruction of .leriisalem and the wasting of Judea
^are events predicted by this portion of the Apocaly])se, I do not mean to
be imderstood, that Rev. vi — xi. contains merely a civil histonj of the Jew-
ish war. Nothing, in my apprehension, can be fartlier from a correct mode
of interpretation, than a mere liistorical and literal aj)pIication of any of
the syudiolic i)art of the Ajiocalypse. The projihetic portion is all symbolical
picture ; but not such a picture as to constitute a regular histoiy of wars
and calamities. In its very nature most of it is generic, and not individual
and sjtecific. While, therefore, the plan of the work is built on the assutnp-
tion, that the Jewish persecuting j)ower is to be hinnbled and destroyed ;
and while it even assumes, that in order to the accomplishment of this,
Judea shall be actually desolated ; yet [)articular and specific facts, as they
actually took place iu the atta<"k by the Romans, are scarcely in any in-
stance to be recognized ; and wheii they are so, it is not for the sake of
making out a mere histoiy of the Jewish war, but in order to complete the
synnnetry of the writer's symliolical picture.
For interpreters, conversant with the prophetic writings, and with what
has been done for the iiiter|)n'tation of them since the jiublication of bish-
op Lowth's great work on Hebrew })oetry, no defence of such a position is
or can be needed, for it would be superfluous. But as this work may fall
140 INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. "VI — XI.
into the hands of readers who have not been thoroughly discijdined by the
exegetical study of the Hebrew jnophets, and wlio liave always been ac-
customed to find tlie particulars of a civil history in the Apocalypse, it may
be necessary liere to proffer somewhat specifically the reasons why we
should adopt a different method of interpretation.
I shall nr)t rejjeat, on this occasion, what has already been said, Vol. I.
§9 and § 12, on the olyect and design of the Apocalypse, but merely refer
the reader, for the leading and fundamental principles of exegesis, to the
discussions there exhibited. I cannot regard anything as moie certain, in
respect to the object of the Apocalypse, than that its principal design was
to hold up to view a picture, which would indicate the certain and univer-
sal triumph of Christianitj' over all opposers ; but not in the way of minute
and circumstantial histoiy, either civil or ecclesiastical. On this last ground,
we never could attain to any satisfactory certainty in our interpretation. No
particulars of the great contest are so given, that they can be identified with
actual occurrences in this war or in that, in this battle or in that. Of bat-
tles that have been actually fought, there are indeed some things in the
Apocalypse that might be deemed in a good measure characteristic. But
then these same things are characteristics applicable in common to all bat-
tles, because in their very' nature they are generic. And this constitutes a
good reason, why they will not admit exclusively of any mere individual
and specific ayjjjlication. The real thing symbolized, is the humiliation and
prostration of the persecuting jjower in question. Now as nations are
usually deprived of their power and humbled by means of war and by be-
coming subject to conquest, John has employed symbols drawn from in-
vading armies, and presented a most fearful array of them. As moreover
the peculiar judgments of heaven also concur oftentimes in the work of
humiliation and i)rostration, John has added these to the appalling instru-
ments of destruction. Such are the simple elements of Rev. vi — xi, and
such the design of exhibiting them.
If the reader has any serious doidjt of the correctness of this principle, I
must entreat him to cast his eye over Vol. I. § 2, where the tenor of all the
leading prophecies of the Old Testament and the New respecting the church
is summarily exhibited. When he has deliberately done this, let him ask the
question : Is there any analogy to be found in all this series of prophecy,
to that which is claimed by many as to the manner and meaning of the
Apocalypse ? Is there any minute and succinct history, in any of them, of
individual and specific civil events which are to take place in the distant
future ? The cliurch of the primitive age, or of any other, had no special
interest, as Christians, to know what these specific civil events would be.
All that pertains to moral and religious comfort, encouragement, hope, and
even admonition, is comprised in the disclosures made respecting the ulti-
mately certain prosi)erity and final triumph of Christianity. Are we then
to assume, that the Apocalypse has entirely departed, in its predictions re-
specting the church, from the tenor of all the other jirophecies of the like
nature ? Nothing short of absolute necessity should iiuluce us to do this ;
and such a necessity, I am fully persuaded, does not exist.
But as the point now before us is altogether fundamental in respect to the
interpretation of the Apocalypse, and as doubts here have occasioned, and
still produce, a great portion of the differences of opinion that exist re-
specting this book, I feel constrained to enter still further than I have yet
INTRODUCTION TO CuAP. VI — XI. I4t
done into a discussion of this matter, and to solicit the attention of the rea-
der to some praclicnl views of inter|)retinir tiie syinbohc jiortions of Scrip-
ture, and to some facts wliich respect the liistorico-civil method of interpre-
tation, wiiicii have not been brouirlit into view in the first vohmie of this
work. The importance of the subject is so great, and the necessity of set-
tling on some principles to jruide us so urgent before we proceed any fur-
ther in our exegesis, that I would hope no other apology is needed for in-
troducing a discussion into a Connnentary, which might seem more appro-
priate to a book on Ilcrmcncutics.
I have stated, that in my apprehension the humiliation and prostration of
the Jewish persectdinir enemies of the ehurch is the main triitli aimed at in Rev.
vi — xi. But my view of the apocalyptic representation is siich, that if those
enemies had been huml)led and suinlued by any other nation than that of
the Romans, or by a series of judgments and misfortunes altogether of a
different tenor iVom those which actually took place, 1 should regard the
prophecy of .John as having been just as certainly and truly and fully ac-
complished as it now is. If this be a correct view of the case, then of
course we are not to seek for a specif c apidication of the predictions of John.
The various portions of his symbolic picture are all consentaneous with
each other. They make out a congridty in his representations ; and this is
what the interpreter is to look for, rather than for any specific and indivi-
dual aj)plication to particular facts, either of this portion of the prophecy,
or of that, to particular events of the JewMsh war.
If further explanation or vmdication of the principles of exegesis that I
adopt is necessary, it is easy to make it. To do this effectually, I must refer
to similar examples of interpreting the Scriptures, of which an abundance
might easily be produced. I will confine myself, however, to two or three.
The 18th Psalm (vs. 4 — ^20) affords an example altogether appropriate to
my purpose. David, near the close of his life (comp. 2 Sam. xxii.), imder-
tfikes to compose a hymn, which shall exhibit a grateful acknowletlgment of
all the kindnesses which he has received at the hand of the Lord ; specially
a grateftd acknowledgment of the protection afforded liim in times of im-
minent danger and distress, when ])owerful enemies pressed upon him.
He tells us in the inscription to the Psalm, that it was coiuposed when
" God had delivered him from the hand of all liis enemies, and from the
hand of Saul."
In what manner, now, does David execute his task ? He represents him-
self as surrounded with the sorrows of death, and the floods of ungodly
men; the snares of death are already cast around him, and he seems to be
the certain victim of his blood-thirsty enemies. In this condition he sends
up his cry to heaven. Jehovah hears it, and comes forth from his holy
temple, and advances to the aid of his servant. The earth shakes to its
foundations at his approach ; flames of fire, lightnings, and thunder, issue
from the place of his presence. He moves on in awful majesty, enthroned
in the midst of dark and portentous clouds; on the cherubim (who support
his chariot) does he fly swift as the winds. He arrives at the i)lace of con-
flict. Lightning and thunder and hail become the executioners of liis ven-
geance. The mountains are shaken at his presence, and the channels of
tlie great deep are laid bare down to the foundations of the earth. The
enemy are dispersed and overthrown, and David not merely escapes,
but comes off conqueror.
142 INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. VI — XI.
Such is the simple, sublime, and most expressive representation of the
royal bard. The meaning of all this, i. e. the simple truth or fact which
lies at the basis of tlie whole, is, (to use his own words), that " God deliver-
ed him from his strong enemies, and from them who hated him and were
too strong for him," In other words : ' God interposed, in the day of Da-
vid's calamity and danger, and delivered him from his enemies by his kuid
care and guarflian power.'
All this now might have been said in one sentence, so far as it respects
the main and simple truth aimed at in the whole of David's symbolical re-
presentation ; just as the doctrine tauglit by the parable of the prodigal son
may be expressed in a single verse; or tlie substantial truths of the book of
Job might be comprised in three or four sentences. But if David had con-
tented himself with merely saying, in the 18th Psalm, tiiat 'God often in-
terposed in his behalf, and delivered him when he was in great danger,' he
would have uttered a simple prosaic truth — the very same truth which he
has now adorned and illustrated by his poetry — but he would thus have
composed no hjmn ; and he would have made but a comparatively faint im-
pression on the minds of his readers. Wiio of all the readers of tlie Bible
does not thank him for the delightful Psalm which he composed on this
occasion ? And who is not gratitied with the manner of the composition ?
The nature of his representation, I may add, we readily perceive. By a
symbolic picture he has taught us some important and cheering truths. He
has thus contrived to make a much deeper impression on the minds of his
readers, than he could possible have made by any merely prosaic declara-
tions. Nor is there any jjlausible ground for mistake here. No intelligent
reader of this Psalm can for a moment suppose, that any part of this repre-
sentation is to be liieralli) interpreted. Such an interpretation would pre-
sent imi)0ssibilities. What David means to have us understand is, that so
signal and jjeculiar had been tlie deliverances and escapes which Heaven
had vouchsafed to him, that he might well represent his case to be like that
which would be presented by an interposition of the Godhead such as he
here descriiies. In other words, his own deliverances may be compared to
that which is represented b}' such a picture as he draws.
This case is so plain, that there can be no reasonable dispute here. Let
us see, then, what instruction can be drawn from it.
Here is one picture; ajjparently one transaction, o?ie occasion, and hut one,
in the 18th Psalm. Yet the author tells us, that it was composed in com-
memoration of a// his deliverances and all his escapes from danger. We
will suppose then, that one of the literally historic interpreters of tlie Apoc-
alypse is desired to give us an exjiosition of the 18lh Psalm, and to do this
by the application of the same exegetical principles which he applies to the
Apocalypse. How can this be accomiilished ? Many scores of battles Da-
vid fought; whicli of them now is portrayed in the 18th Psalm? Which
of them all has the exclusive right to such a preference as that of being the
only one there represented ? It is easy to see, that a choice in this case is
impossible. Any one of all the dangerous battles which David fouglit, and
in which he conquered, may be symbolized by the 18th Psalm ; and so, of
course, they may all be symbolized by it; or (which is equally true), <^?/ are
in fact ALL symbolized by it. No expositor has a right to select any one from
the rest, and say that the 18th Psalm means only that one. The represen-
tation of David is essentially g-ene?-ic ; it virtually comprises all particulai-s,
TXTTionrcTiox to Cn.vr. VI — XT. 143
whilp at tliP same tinio it oxliihitt^ iiotliin<rwliicli would distiiipnisli one from
another. Tliis would in tiu't be nothing less than to mar the i^f7icri'c nature
of the representation.
Will any one 8ay now, that, because minute and pnrficitlar facts are not
designated in this representation, therefore it has no matter of fact for its
bjisis ? Nothing could he further from truth, than such an allirmation. In-
stead of saying that I'salm It^th has lio basis in fact, because it does not
specially symbolize particular facts or individual occurrences, truth must
say, that t'or the very reason the representation is ij-cHmc, it of course is the
mo/<t sisrnijlcant of all. To make it symbolize only this particular fact or that,
in the life of David, would be to take away a great part of its i)resent sig-
nificancy, and tlierelbrc to degrade it.
The case of the Apocalypse, I may now say, is substantially before us.
Here is a symbolic pictiu'e of the humiliation and oveitbrow of the then
persecuting Jewish jjower, presented us in Rev. vi — xi. Here, as in the
18th Psalm, is a sceneric idea to be set forth, and dee])ly impressed upon the
readers of the Revelation. John has drawn this picture with a master-hand.
But now, at^er such a lapse of time, Avlien tlie circumstances which then
urged him to do this have been obscured by intervening ages, some specta-
tor of this pictm-e, we will suppose, rises up and says, that all of it is to be
inter|)reted oidy by a reference to this or that si>ecific or individual event.
This is a degradation of the symbolic picture of John, to which it ought
not to be subjected ; it must not be, iniless taste and propri(;ty are to be
laid aside, and we are to form a judgment, not only without their aid, but
against their fundamental princi|)les. A minute historic, interpretation of
the Apocalypse, in the sense now ^oken of, would deprive the book of
more than three quarters of all its nieaning. It is no more to be tolerated
here, than in the IStli Psalm.
It would be easy further to illustrate and confirm the principle thus advo-
cated, by a reference to Isaiah xiii. xiv. and also Is. 21: 1 — 10. The de-
struction of Babylon was decreed, and is there announced. But nearly
everything is in the most generic terms. In Is. xiii. xiv, the Medes are in-
deed once named ; but besides this, we could not, independent of subse-
quent history, even conjecture by w horn the destruction is to be accomjjlisli-
ed. " Distant nations," " consecrated warriors," are summoned to do the
work of destruction ; it is speedih/ to be done (13: 22); the king of Babylon
is to be slain in an assaidt by night, and to lie unburied ; he will go down
into Sheol, and there all the mighty dead will rise up and insult him with
the most bitter rejjroaches. The city is to be swept with the besom of de-
struction. Here, with the exce])tion of what has particular reference to an
individual king, the last monarch of Babylon, (which from the very nature
of tlie case is necessarily ijarticular), all is s;eneric. When ; how ; by what
particidar battles, sieges, and stratagems; the mistress of the world is to be
luimbled and destroyed — is not said. The prophet contents himself with
merely a generic representation.
Even with rcs|)ect to the last monarch of the Babylonish empire, how
much is there which is merely symbolical ? The whole of the striking de-
scription of his descent into Sheol, and of the scenes which i)ass there
(chap, xiv.), must be imderstood of cotirse oidy in a gen«'ric way. The
amount of the meaning is, that the last monarch of that enij)ire will be
144 INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. VI — XI.
slain in tlie sacking of the city, will lie undistinguished among the slain,
and go down to his grave with reproaches and bitter contempt.
So in the vivid picture presented by Is. xxi. Here, indeed, the neigh-
bouring and most formidable enemies of Babylon are named, viz. Media,
and Persia. But all else is symbol of the most generic kind. The seer is
filled with deep distress at the vision which is here disclosed to his view.
The city of Babylon, (itself not named, at first, but called, " the desert of the
sea," i. e. of the great river Euphrates), is plunged into the deepest revelry
by night; the proj^liet is conunissioned to set a watchman on its walls, in
order that he should proclaim what he may see. In a little time he des-
cries chariots and horsemen swiftly advancing. No sooner do they come,
than all is theirs ; and the watchman has only to proclaim tliat " Baby-
lon is fallen, is fallen."
What have we now in this picture ? We have the prophetic annuncia-
tion, that Babylon would fall suddenlj', unexpectedly, and so as to rise no
more; and this, by the hands of tlie Medes and Persians. Beyond this
the symbols do not reach. Probably more than this of particulars was not
disclosed to the mind of the seer.
Let us return again to the Apocalypse. At first the enemy to be de-
stroyed by the fearful host that are assembled, is not named. We advance
some way in the description, before we begin to see whither the view of
the Apocalyptist is directed. When danger becomes so pressing, tliat' it
would seem as if none could escape destruction, then all the raging ele-
ments are hushed to peace, and God, in mercy to the disciples of his be-
loved Son, directs that his seal should be put i]pon their foreheads, so that
they may be passed by when the destroying angel completes his work.
And who are they that are thus sealed'^ They are of the twelve tribes of
Israel. And who then are they, against whom the dread array in readi-
ness is commissioned ? Of course they are the same people, fi-om whom
the 144,000 have been selected.
All seems now to be in readiness for consummation. Only the seventh
and last seal remains to be broken, and then the tragedy is apparently to
be completed. Accordingly, Avhen that seal is broken, all heaven stand
silent (8: ] ) with fearful expectation. But judgment is the strange work
of God, and he is long-suffering and of great compassion toward his once
beloved people. The catastrophe is still deferred ; for the seventh seal is
divided into seven parts, i. e. seven different stages of accomplishment,
designated by the symbols of seven trumpets. The first four of these, like
the first four seals, indicate principally the preparatory work of destruction.
The first and second of the last three make fearful jirogi-ess in the work
itself, and the final trumpet brings all to its consummation, chap, ix — xi.
Near the close of the whole representation, i. e. in chap, xi., (just as in Isaiah
xxi.), we are distinctly advertised on whom the judgments of heaven are
descending — viz., on that " great city w hich is spiritually called Sodom and
Egypt, ivhere their Lord ivas crucified,^'' 11: 8.
Now in what important respect does all this differ from the prophecies in
Isaiah, or from the 18th Psalm ? In none except as to the manner of the
representation. Li the Revelation, the machineiy (if I may so speak) is
much more complicated. Or I may characterize it in a different inanner
still, by saying that the wi-iter has with great skill delayed the catastrophe.
INTRODUCTION TO CuAP. VI — XL 145
and given us several episodes for this purpose, wliich contain matter of
tlu-illing interest. Such are tlie scenes in chap. vii. Such is the tlivisinii of
the scvoUh seal into another period of seven parts, distiuiifuished hy llic
trumpets. The locusts and the '^00,000,000 horsemen from the East, in
ciiap. ix., are not episodes, for they make direct advances toward the com-
pletion of the main work. Chap. x. again is episode. Near as the work
seems to be to its completion, yet it is not brought to a close without a re-
newed and most solemn declaration on the |)art of heaven, that delay shall
be no longer than A\lien the seventh and last trumpet shall sound; 10: 1 — 7.
Here too, at this point of time, the prophet receives a new commission.
The book with seven seals has been opened, and its contents exhibited.
The tinal stroke only remains, for entire comi)letion. A new book, and a
new commission respecting other enemies of the church, are now sunnna-
rily presented to view; 10: t? — 11. But no further explanation is here made.
The reader is thus advertised, that when the catastrophe but just before
hiin shall be past, other scenes of the like nature are to be expected. All
this we may name episode ; but it is ej)isode of a very interesting character.
All contributes to delay the caUistrophe ; but this delay exhibits, in a
sti-iking light, the long suffering of God toward his jjcople.
In chap. vi. the writer has presented us with a view of the martyrs in
heaven, at the foot of the altar there, making supplication that God would
interpose in behalf of his jjcrsecuted servants. A favourable response is
given to their request; but they are told, that they must wait a while longer,
until others of their brethren shall also have been slain, in like manner as
they had been. The effect of such a supplication upon an army ready for
the onset of battle, such as chap. G: 1 — 8 exhibits, is easy to be perceived.
In chap. .\i. we have a sketch of the fulfilment of what is j)redicted in chap,
vi. respecting other martyrs. In chap. xi. two distinguished witnesses, (two
are the competent number for testimony), i. e. leaders or pieachers of Chris-
tianity, are represented as declaring their testimony to the true religion ; as
being endowed with miraculous power, like the prophets Elijah and Moses;
and finally, as becoming the victims of popular fury, because of their fidel-
ity. Here then is the finishing stroke of prei)aration. It was not Christians
only from the ranks of undistinguished men, who were persecuted and de-
stroyed, but the most eminent servants of God, those who had given proof
of their divine mission by the exertion of miraculous powers, were also de-
stroyed. Heaven's vengeance, then, can sleep no longer. The delay until
other martyrs shoidd be added to the number of those who were already
in heaven (tJ: 11), has taken j)lace and is now at an end. The cup of in-
dignation is full, for wickedness has come to its consummation. The
seventh angel therefore sounds, and all is finished. The writer ])resents us
with the songs of victor}' (11: 15 — 18), and with the consequences of it
(11: HI); and also with the ensigns of final destruction (11: 19); but — he is
a Jew, and how can he dwell on the destruction of his beloved city and
temple, with a minuteness of representation ? He turned from the scene
with wee|)ing as a sympathizing Jew, but also, as a Christian, min^ding
tears of joy therewith, because Christianity is freed from a diieful and em-
bittered enemy.
That there is a real cata.stroi)he at the end of chap, xi., I camiot doubt,
after weighing long and often the reasons alleged against it, by Bleek, De
VOL. II. 19
146 INTRODUCTION TO ClIAP. VI — XL
Wette, Schott, Ewald, Liicke, and others. It seems to me that the marks
ofitarcpkiin and unequivocal. But I must remit the reader to the dis-
cussion of this subject connected with the commentaiy on ]1: 15 — 19, and
to the remarks made in the Introduction to this Commentary, Vol. I. p.
180 scq.
If tills view be correct as to its leading features, then does the Apoca-
lypse, at least this part of it, differ not essentially from the 18th Psalm,
nor from Is. xiii. xiv. and xxi, except as to length and episodes. These are
peculiar to the writer of the Apocalypse, and show, that with all his refer-
ences to the O. Testament, and his continual reliance upon it, he is no
mere imitator, no copyist. The very nature of his plan required delay, 6:
11. He has shown why this requisition was made ; and how the implied
pledge was redeemed, which had been given to the martyrs. But his
episodes are scarcely of less interest than his main story ; and while they
make the reader anxious how and when he is to airive at the catastrophe,
they repay the suspension of his curiosity m one respect, by scenes of ex-
citing interest in another.
It is thus that I find a simple unity (of a generic nature indeed), in this
first catastrophe, i. e. in Rev. vi — xi. ; as simple as that in Ps. xviii, or in
Is. xiii. xiv, or Is. xxi. Every part advances steadily toward the consum-
mation. As all the seals of the book ai-e opened, of course all its contents
are submitted to inspection. The number seven twice repeated, in the
seals and in the trumpets; the oath of the angel (10: 6, 7); the accom-
plishment of the prediction, that more martyrs must be slain, before the
consummation, with the account of their persecution and death (6: 11 and
11: 3 — 13); all these combine to show, that the first catastrophe is complete,
and that the great mysteiy of God, contained in the sealed book, is made
known to his servants, by the disclosures in chap, vi — xi.
Thus understood, our general course of interpretation is plain. We are
not constrained to turn over the pages of Josephus, in order to find speci-
fic events, which may be regarded as a fulfilment of this or that passage in
the Apocalypse. If no history by Josephus was in existence, the triumphal
arch of Titus at Rome would tell the story, that Rev. vi — xi. has been
fulfilled.
Equally would it have been fulfilled, as I have already remarked, had the
Jewish persecuting power been crushed in any other way, or by any other
means. Of course, if this be true, it was and is the general truth which
John has given us, and not a minute pragmatic history of the war, like that
of Josephus.
One more remark seems obvious, and is not without its importance.
Rev. vi — xi. seems to be, as it were, a kind of commentary on the words
of our Saviour in Matt. xxiv. John heard those words. The impression
could never have been erased. He has indeed given the subject a new
form ; yet his allusions to the words of his Master cannot well be mistaken,
by any careful and intelligent reader.
If, hoM^ever, after all these explanations and statements of hermeneuti-
cal principles, any one should still feel himself to be at a loss definitely and
plainly to comprehend my meaning, I must beg the liberty to place before
him some striking examples of the method of interpretation against which
I am contending. In my apprehension they will not only answer the pur-
INTRODUCTION TO CuAP. VI — XL 147
j>ose of complete explaiintion, but present a cogent argunieut against tlie
inetlioc) of exegesis now in ipu'stion.
I shall select for examples writers who are no enthusiasts, and who
occupy no ordinary rank among tlio critical interpreters of the N. Testa-
ment To bring examples taken ti-om the many interpreters, who have
endeavoured to explain the Apocalypse merely by the dextrous use of the
faculty ot' giiessinir, would be to little or no purpose. I select, therefore, in
the tirst place, a critic of no less note than J. J. Wetstein, in order to illus-
trate how lar the jtrinciple of making out a syllabus of civil history from
the Apocalyi>se has been carried, by nien of distinguished talents and
ac(|uisitions.
Wetstein lays down the position, that the first pait of the Apocalypse
has respect to Judca anil the Jews; the second, to the Romau empire. He
then proceeds thus :
"The book written within, and upon the back, and sealed with seven
seals (5: 1), is the book of divorcement sent to the .lewish nation from God.
(a) The victor hoi-semaii, crowned, and armed with a bow (0: 1), is Artaba-
nus, king of the Parthians, who smote the Jews in Babylon with great
slaughter. (6) The retl horse (v. 4) means the assassins and robbers of
Judea, in the times of Felix and Festus, presidents of the province.
(c) The black horse (v. G) means the famine under Claudius, {d) The pale
horse (v. 8), the pestilence which followed famine and pillage, (e) The
souls of the martyrs (v. 9), Christians in Judea who were persecuted, and
were about to be vindicated. (/) The earth(juake (v. 12), commotion in
Judea preparatory to rebellion. The servants of God sealed in their fore-
heads out of every tribe (7: 3), Christians under the guardian care of God,
who are admonished by prophets, that they should early Avithdraw from
the tempest approaching, (g) Silence for half an hour (8: ]), a brief I'cspite
conceded to the ejitreaties of king Agrippa.
" Next follows the rebellion itself, [of the Jews], (a) The trees burned
(v. 7) means the country places, and villages, and unfortified towns of
Judea, which were first affected with the evils of sedition. (6) A great
burning mountain cast into the sea, and staining it with blood ; and (c) A
flaming star falling upon the rivers and making the waters bitter (vs. 8 —
11), mean the slaughter of the Jews at Cesarea and Scythopolis. (d) The
obscuration of the sun, moon, and stars (v. 12), anarchy in the Jewish com-
monwealth, (e) Locusts stinging men like scorpions (9: 3), the expedition
of Cestius Gallus, Praefect of Syria. (/) The army with particoloured
armour (vs. 16, 17), Vespasian's forces in Judea.
"The death of Nero and of Galba took place at this time, and civil war
followed this, (10: 7, 11. 11: 15). The two prophetic witnesses, or the two
olive-trees and two candlesticks, (11: 3, 4), mean prophets in the church
predicting the destruction of the temple and Jewish commonwealth. The
death of the prophets (v. 7), means their flight, and that of the church at
Jerusalem, to Pella in Arabia. The return of the prophets to lift; after
three days and a half (v. II), means prophecies beginning to be fulfilled, at
a time when it was thought they never would be fulfilled, nor the doctrine
of Christ j)revail in Judea and throughout the world. ... A tenth part of
the city falling, the siime hour, and 7000 men slain (v. 13), Jerusalem oc-
cupied by the Idumeans, and many priests and nobles, together with tJje
148 INTRODUCTION TO ClIAP. VI — XL
high-priest Ananiis, massacred by the Zealots." Wetst. Nov. Test. II. p»
889 seq.
Having thus carried us through the first great catastrophe, (yet without
noting the destruction of the city of Jerusalem), Wetstein proceeds in the
same style with the civil history of Rome, included, as he sup])oses, in
chap, xii — xix. ; and in this he of course finds everywhere individual em-
perors, battles, sieges, plagues, commotions, etc. Finally the grand con-
summation (chap, xix.) is, that Vespasian and all his family become extinct,
and so great Babylon is fallen. Can one now refrain from asking: Ti xov~
TO, il fit) TM niivTu iluiToiKT&ai; There arises an almost instinctive percep-
tion of degradation, wlien one looks on such a portrait.
Let us now listen to Herder, who has adopted many of the general out-
lines of Wetstein, but has filled out his picture in a different way, and with
much more life and animation, not to say probability. In his Maran Atha,
(one of the most delightful books which he ever wrote), he has given us
the following clue.
' The conqueror with the bow (Rev. 6: 2) is Aretas, the Arabian king,
who overthrew Herod with great slaughter. The red horse (6: 4) means the
dissensions, commotions, bloodshed, assassinations, and murders, among the
Jews in various countries and regions. The black horse (6: 5) was the
famine in the time of Claudius; upon which (6: 8) followed the pale horse,
i. e. pestilence and death. " Wretched Judea !" he exclaims, " thus opens
the book of thy destinies ! From the four sides of the throne of thy God,
[referring to the voices of the four living creatures], the cry respecting thee
is heard : Come and see ! On all sides is wretchedness." The fifth seal
(5: 9 seq.) presents the cry of the Christian martyrs amidst these scenes of
confusion and blood. The earthquake, etc., which follows, designates the
consternation of the Jewish people. The sealing of the servants of God
(7: 1 seq.) is the escape of Christians to Pella. The first four trumpets (8:
1 seq.) are signals of tumults, massacres, contests, etc., internal and exter-
nal, under Florus, and the zealot Eleazer. The locusts (9: 1 seq.) are the
robbers and assassins during the five months in which Vespasian traversed
Judea ; and Menahem, the son of Judah the Galilaean, (Jos. Bell. Jud. 11.
17), is the key to the bottomless pit (9: 1). The horsemen from the Euplirates
(9: 13 seq.) are the Roman legions which Titus led from the East. The
wasting and treading down of the city and temple (11: 2) are the zealots
and the Idumeans in the city, who fill all places with blood. The two wit-
nesses (11: 3 seq.) are the high priests, Ananus and Jesus. The seventh
and last trumpet is only the signal of triunqih to the church. The consum-
mation or final overthrow of Jerusalem is put off", bj' Herder, to another
part of the book ;' Maran Atha, pp. G4 seq.
How different this is from the picture of Wetstein, eveiy intelligent rea-
der will at once perceive. Yet the general outlines, and the principles of
interpretation, are the same in both. But Herder's vivid imagination guides
him in selecting all that is thrilling and terrific, from the boundless field in
which he and Wetstein both took an unrestrained liberty to range.
Justice requires some notice here of the celebrated English interpreter,
Joseph Mede; whose little work on the Apocalypse, (Clavis Apocalyptica),
seems to have been the pole-star, in the main, of the English interpreters
of this book.
INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. VI — XL 149
In a direction qiiito (iifttM-ont indeed docs he move. The seven senls are,
witli him, a stillafnts of Roman hi.itnn/. ' The wliite horse is the Roman em-
pire, peaceful, tlourishinfr, li-ared by foreifrn nations, after the Jewish war
was completed liy Ves|>asian. The red horse is the same empire under
Trajan and Mark Aureliaii. The black horse witii the balance, means the
severe justice of both the Severi, and also of Scptimins, and Alexander.
Tlie i)ale horse, is fiunine, j)e8tilence, and many other evils, about the time
of Decius, Gallus, and Valerian. The souls under tlie altar, demanding,' ven-
geance, means the ])ersecution of Diocletian. The heavens rolled tojiether
and lemoved, on the o|)cninj,' of the sixth seal, means the changes which
took place under Coiistantine, when I'agani^m was compelled to yield to
Christianity. The seven trumjjets exjjlain the complex import of the seventh
seal, and portray the judgments by which God had determined to chastise
and overturn the Roman empire, after the time of Constantine, i. e. the ir-
ruption of the barbarians,' etc.
Such are the outlines of Mode's exposition of the first half of the Apoca-
lypse. It is no part of my intention particularly to examine them, either at
large or in detail. Whoever desires to see a fatal overthrow of the whole
scheme, may consult Vitringa in Apoc. pp. 230 seq.
But has the masterly critic, last named, substituted an interi)retation
more probalile and ratioual than that which be has demolished ? We must
consent to liear him, before we reply.
' The w bite horse and the conqueror upon him signify the peaceful and
flourishing state of the church, from the reign of Nerva to that of Decius,
through 150 years ; ]). 249. The red horse means the persecutions after
the middle of the third century; p. 255. The black horse denotes the
church, tVom the time of Constantine to the ninth century, torn with fac-
tions and heresies, and often depressed by public calamities; p. 261. The
pale horse denotes the ravages of the Sai'acens and Turks; p. 2()7. The
fifth seal designates the sufferings of the Albigenses, Bohemian Brethren,
and martyrs of the Reformed Clnn-ch; p. 275. The sixth seal signifies
either the destruction of the Jewish conunonwealth ; or the changes which
took ])lace under Constantine; or the connnotions in Europe at the time of
the Reformation ; but it is better to apply it to the destruction of Antichrist ;
p. 291 seq. Rev. 7: 1 seq. denotes the prosperity and gloiy of the church,
and God's care for its welfare, after the destruction of Antichrist; and so
the last part of this chapter is a description of the millennial day; ]i. 318.
The silence in heaven lor half an hour, after the loosing of the seventh
seal, denotes the long continued (?) prosperous, peaceftil, and hap[»y st;ite
of the church; p. 326. And finally ; he separates the seven trumpets entirely
from the seventh seal, and represents them as relating to the externnl stjite
of the church on earth while under the influence of the Ronum empire ;
but especially as relating to the evils threatened to that empire, both in its
pagan and apostate Christian state;' pp. 327, 32i).
Neither of the preceding schemes of exjdanation appears to me at all
comparable with this, (although this is from the hand of such a master),
either in respect to extravagance or inconsistency. Wetstein and Herder
preserve at least a kind of consistency, and have some regard tf) the unitj/
of John's design. Mede has been consistent in his efforts to make out the
whole book to be but a syllabus of Roman civil history. But Vitringa has
ranged through all times, all places, all nations, from Diocletian down to
150 INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. VI — XL
the final consummation. In the verj' same cliapter (vi.), we have the history
of the church from Nerva down to the Millennium ; and in Rev. 6: 12 — 17,
we have, if not the destruction of the Jewish Commonwealth and of the
pagan power under Constantine, with the overturns made by Luther and
his compeers, yet certainly the overthrow of Antichrist, and the happy
state of things in the Millennium. All this, before the seventh seal is bro-
ken ; and then, when it is broken, a half hour's silence is itself another pic-
ture of the Millennium. Last of all, the seven trumpets, (most palpably
mere subdivisions of the seventh seal and growing out of it,) are entirely
separated from it, and unitedly converted into a syllabus of Roman civil
history, ancient and modern. If tliis be not deducere aliquid ex aliquo, it
would be difficult to produce an example of such a process.
I might add to these instances of speculative exegesis, that of Bossuet, the
distinguished Prelate of Meaux; who finds the great catastrophe of the
Apocalypse, in the conquest of heathen Rome by Alaric, king of the Goths.
I have selected only a few examples, taken from the works of highly dis-
tinguished and gifted men, — men who thought for themselves, and were no
mere satellites of larger planets. The reader, therefore, can now judge for
himself, whether I have with good reason cautioned Ijim against minute his-
torical exegesis, and protested against converting the Epopee of the Apoca-
lypse, into a syllabus of Jewish, Roman, or even ecclesiastical history.
The nature of the production will no more bear it, than Ps. xviii, or Is.
xiv, or Is. xxi, or Ezek. xxxix, will bear it. Besides, if Wetstein's ox^/f^cc
is a correct one, then Herder's is not ; if either of these be true, tlien must
the scheme of Mede be visionary ; and if either of those three be well
grounded, then of course the claims of Viti'inga are altogether unsupported.
Indeed the same thing might be said in respect to some scores of other in-
terpretations, brought before the world with equal confidence on the part of
their authors, and with as little or even less ground for making any fair
claim to confidence on our part.
But to examine all of these diflJerent hypotheses in detail, or even to
biing them here to the view of the reader, would be a useless task ; for in
most of them imagination, and fancy, and unlimited conjecture, and dreamy
resemblances, are substituted for the patient study of the pro]}hetic Scrip-
tures, and for reasoning founded on the nature of symbol and allegory and
metaphor as enjployed by prophets and sacred poets. When all other
books of Scripture have a ivhy and a wherefore; when all of them can be
demonstrably shown to have arisen from the wants of the church, and the
exigencies of the times, and to have been ada[)ted to these in such a man-
ner as to be practically useful — why should the Apocalypse alone be ex-
empted from the like conditions? If this book had its origin in the distress-
es and dangers of persecution, and was designed to cheer the constant and
faithful servants of God with bright prospects of the future, and to incul-
cate lessons of patience upon them — and all this lies upon the very face of
the book — then it must be true, that to intelligent readers of that period
Avhen it was written, it was intelligible ; else it could inculcate no lessons of
patience, nor inspire any cheering hopes, amid the distresses of the times.
IIow now could either of these great ends be accomplished in any tolera-
ble manner, by a mere syllabus of Jewish or of Roman civil history ?
A better era in the criticism of the Apocalypse, than the one from which
I have selected some leading and eminent specimens, we may hope is now
FIRST SEAL : ClIAP. VI. 1. 161
dawninp. Day-liglit will come nt Inst, in spite of cloiuls and storms wliich
may liavc long continued to retard it. The sober rules of criticism, being
founded in the vi'ry nature of rational beings, must sooner or later make
their voice to be iieard. It may be drowned and lost for a while, amid
clamour and violence, liut these are temporary storms. Truth is eternal.
Opinionum comiitentu ddd dus. The churcli may hope, that at some future
day, if nor at present, the Apocalypse, will stand before it in unclouded
beauty and jxlory.
1 will only add here, that if we overlook all the palpable demonstrations
of desitrn, of unity, and of concinnity in the Apocalyjjsc, and make it a
book of disconnected J'rasrments, we only show that we do not well under-
stand the leading elements of this composition. In such a case we are
liable to make (i'm///(nis-,.or else jJo//iJrJg-, out of the book, just according to
the leader or the scheme under whom or which we hap])en to enlist. In
such a condition we must fairly abandon all hope of real symmetiy, con-
gi-uity of representation, or unity of ])urpose, in the Apocalypse ; and when
these are all abandoned, how can the book be wortliy of our labours or
even of our notice ?
FIRST FOUR SEALS : CHAP. VI. 1—8.
[After the introductory remarks made above, we may now advance to the
opening scene. The first four seals indicate the assembling and preparing of an
awful array, commissioned against tlie enemies of the cliurch. Wlio can stand
before it? A mighty conqueror, bedecked with the emblems of victory, leads on
the hosts of destruction. Tliese hosts, armed with deadly weapons, follow him.
Then, in the train, comes famine, commissioned against the enemy ; and in the
rear of famine, march Death and Hades, the allied tyrants of the under-world ;
while the ravenous beasts of the earth, waiting to devour the corpses of the slain
close this terrific procession. Such is the first scene, which the text now before
us presents to view.]
(1) And I looked, when the Lamb opened one of the seven seals, and I heard
one of the four living creatures saying, like a voice of thunder : Come.
Miav is rendered by some, the first, like inx , which in Hebrew is
used both as a cardinal and an ordinal number (Heb. Gramni. § 39 G) ;
or it may possibly be regarded in the light of the Greek in such a con-
nection as tig, allog, tntroq, etc. But the want of the article here is a
decisive reason against this rendering. The nature of the case, howev-
er, makes it impossible for the reader to mistake the meaning.
MUcv ix and hog ix, instead of the simple Gen. in regimen ; an id-
iom very common in the N. Testament, and not uncommon, at lea.'^t the
like of it, in the classics. The source from which the individujd thing
mentioned is derived, or the class to which it belongs, is marked more
specifically by ix. See Rob. Lex. ex. 3. h., and Winer's N. Test.
Gramm. § 5.5. 1. c. See hke cla.ssic usage in Kijhn. XL § 599. 3. o.
TeaactQoiv i^wmv are here represented, and also elsewhere as rational
152 FIRST SEAL : Chap. VI. 2.
beings. The office which they are said to perform, seems to render
such a view necessary in order to preserve congruity. On this occasion
one of the Hving creatures is represented as addressing John, in order
to render the whole scene peculiarly solemn and impressive. — 'i2g (po3vi^
Nom. for which some copies have q)0}vy, and .some cfavr^g, in order to
make an appropriate case for the prefixing of hy or with. But the con-
struction with the Nom. cpcov/j imitates the Hebrew, whex'e 3 (= cog)
prefixed to a noun forms a separate and as it were independent clause,
which has its own appropriate construction, either expressed or under-
stood. So here, and often in the Apocalypse. The subordinate sen-
tence filled put would be : cog cfcorrj QQovrijg li'ysi. A somewhat differ-
ent construction, and one more conformed to the usual Greek idiom,
may be found in Rev. 2: 18. 9: 8. But generally in the Apocalypse,
the construction with cog is, in such turns of expression, like that above.
"Eq^ov y.cd i'de. So the vulgate text ; and with good probability. So
some of the critical editions ; but I have followed Hahn, as usual, in my
version. For an illustration of this, Eichhorn refers to Ezekiel 8: 9 ;
which, however, is quite of a different tenor from the expression here.
No other explanation is needed than to say, that it is the language of
special invitation to consider attentively what is about to be developed.
"Eq-/iov is language naturally addressed to one at a distance, whose near-
er presence and particular inspection are requested. Whether John,
after this address, is to be conceived of in the present case as actu-
ally advancing from his previous station, is of no moment. His spe-
cial attention is solemnly urged.
(2) And I looked, and behold a white horse, and he who sat upon him held a
bow; and to him a crown was given, and he went forth as a conqueror, and that
he might conquer.
To understand the nature of the imagery or symbol of horses, here
and in the sequel, the reader must compare Zech. 6: 1 seq., where he
will find the prototype. There, the four horses and chariots are sent
forth into all the earth, in order to survey and make report of the condi-
tion of the nations. The colours there, moreover, are red, black, white,
and spotted, (vs. 2, 3). Here the respective horses, whose various colours
are symbolic, (in Zech. perhaps the colours are merely of an ornamen-
tal nature, or for the sake of distinction), are placed at the head of each
constituent part of the army which is summoned. This is in accordance
with the usual style of forming battle-array. — "innog Xevxog, an emblem
of victory, and appropriate to a conqueror. Leaders of armies frequent-
ly rode on horses of this colour ; Sil. Ital. IV. 218. Herod. IX. 62.
Servius ad Aen. 537, Oandore nivali, hoc ad victoriae omen pertinet.
Particularly did victors use them in a triumphal procession ; Sen. De
Ira, III. 21. Virg. Aen. III. 537, comp. Apoc. 19: 11.
SECOND SEAL : Chap. VI. 3, 4. 153
2iTf cfavoii in this case means a tritimphal crotv7i, i. e. the diadem of
victory ; and so, in conjunction with the precedin^r images, denotes vic-
tory or conquest. The rotov was a common emblem of a victorious war-
rior, among the ancients ; particularly among nations where the bow
was much employed, e. g. among the Parthians, as is manifest by their
coins.
Thus equipped, this leader of the van goes forth vrAuiv, i. e. bearing
the insignia of a conqueror, not here in the sense of victoriis assuetus,
as some render it, A'lxcjy here expresses the condition, state, or ap-
pearance of the individual upon the white horse, as expressed in the
version above. The next clause gives the object of his going forth, viz.
ira fixijui;, that he might conquer, i. e. subdue the enemy against whom
he is commissioned, but who are not yet named. "E'/^oav, had, part, for
a verb, see Vol. I. § 15, p. 242 seq.
Are we to regard the opening of the seal as disclosing to the eye of
John a picture of the kind just represented, drawn upon the pages of
the book ? Or does he, when the first seal is broken, hear the contents
read, or read them himself? Nothing is said which decides for the latter.
Ai"e the written contents, then, presented to the eye of John by symbols
which have the same significancy as the written pages of the book ?
The latter seems to be the case, for the symbols are described, e. g. the
white horse, the red horse, etc. Pictures drawn on the pages of the book
and inspected by John, can hardly be supposed ; because there ai'e parts
of the vision where this would be impossible. It is more congi'uous,
therefore, to suppose that the eye of John beholds the symbols, on the
arena of the heavenly w^orld, of what the book contains. In this way,
the Apocalyptist is taught what the sealed book contains, rather than by
reading it, or by inspecting pictorial representations drawn upon its
pages. It should also be noted here, that the conqueror in this case is
not the Lamb himself, as in 19: 11, but the Generalissimo (so to speak)
of the invading army. The Lamb evidently remains in his antecedent
position, in order to break the remainder of the seals.
(3) And when he had opened the second seal, 1 heard the second living crea-
ture say : Come !
"Eq/ov xai pJne is the vulgate text here. But the weight of Mss.
is against the last two words ; and the Syriac version of the Apocalypse
also omits them. They are not necessary to the sense.
(4) And another horse that was red went forth ; and to him who sat upon it —
to him it was given to take away peace from tlie land, and that [men] should slay
each other; and a great sword was given to him.
The red horse is a symbol of blood to be shed. — yivroi, referring to
r<p xu&eftt'vo), and inserted for the sake of emphasis or perspicuity ;
Gramm. § 121 — i. Note 4. — Ja^eTv, to take away; so lufi^uroo and the
VOL. II. 20
154 THIRD seal: Chap. VI. 5, 6.
Heb. k'^3 not unfrequently mean ; Matt. 5: 40. Rev. 3: 11. Dan. 1: 16.
Ezek. 29: 19. Mic. 2: 2. Besides, it is strengthened here by the ta
which follows. — EiQtjvt]v, quiet, peaceful, secure condition here, in oppo-
sition to one of danger and blood-shed. — rijg, like the Heb. y^i^', is
more or less extensive, as the nature of the context demands. Here,
not the whole earth, but the land of Palestine is specially denoted.
Kul Ivu x. z. X. Here is an instance of the oratio variata ; see N.
Test. Gramm. § 196. The construction commences with ido&ij avT(^
Xa^Eiv, and then, in the second member, goes on with [^ido&t] avzo)^
Iva dXh'jlovg aqu^cooi, i. e. [he was commissioned to cause] that the in-
habitants of the land should embroil themselves in civil war and mutual
slaughter. Similar variations of construction are common in the New
Testament, and also in the classics. — ])'Iu)[^aiQa [AeydXi], lit. a large
slaughter-knife ; but often it is put for any sharp-edged weapon used in
battle, as a seymitar, sword, cutlass, etc. All these are unequivocal
symbols of slaughter, i. e. of war. In other words they signify that by
war or slaughter the power of the adversary is to be weakened.
(5) And when lie opened the third seal, 1 heard the third living creature say :
Come ! And I looked, and behold a black horse, and he who sal upon it had a
pair of balances in his hand.
"innog utlag, a black horse. The choice of an appropriate colour here
was more difficult than in any of the other cases. Indeed a colour strict-
ly appropriate for the designation of famine, could not well be found.
But black is the colour indicative of distress, misfortune, or mourning,
in general ; consequently it comes as near to appropriate significancy
here as the nature of the case will admit. — "E)[0}v as in v. 2, i. e. em-
ployed as a verb. Zvyov properly means the yoke or beam (as we say)
of a balance or pair of scales. The later Greeks called the whole ap-
paratus, ^vyoGzu&fiog.
The object symbolized by the black horse and the balance, is too in-
definite in itself not to need some explanation ; for otherwise various
interpretations, with almost equal probability, might be put upon the
expressions. The sequel gives us the clue.
(6) And 1 heard a voice in the midst of the four living creatures saying : A
measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny ; and the
oil and wine thou must not injure.
It is not the voice of one of the living creatures, which is now heard ;
but a voice Iv [itacp avzwv. This of course appears to mean, the voice
of him who sat upon the throne which was borne up by the ^aJ«.
Xolvi^, an Attic name of a species of dry measure = ^ of a Roman
modius, and nearly equal to one quart of our English measure. It was
the ordinary daily allowance for the sustenance of a man ; Odyss. XIX.
THIRD seal: Chap. \^. 6. 155
27, 28. Athen. III. 20. Herod. VII. 231. Xen. Anab. I. 5, 0 ; see an
abundance of examples in Wetstein, in lot*. Tiie dearness of the price
of grain, according to this statement, is easily seen. A penny (di,vdQioi>)
was the usual price of a day's labour, Matt. 20: 2, i). A x^^"'^ was the
48th part of an Attic medimnus of grain, and the ordinary price of this
was fire or six denarii, Of course, the usual price of a x^'^'''^ ^^ wheat
was only about i of a denarius ; so that the price becomes advanced, in
the present case, to eight times the usual cost. As the statement of the
text now is, a man could earn only his own [tersonal subsistence by his
labours ; and consequently his family are left unprovided tor.
KniOFj^', barley, as it would seem by this, bore only one-third of the
price of wheat. It was raised in gi'eater plenty than wheat, and was
regarded as being much inferior to it.
To fhtior . . . ftij rt^fx//(Tf(S', a difficult, if not as yet an inexplicable
clause. Eichhorn indeed adopts a very easy method of interpretation :
" Positio mere ornans." Yet I scarcely know a writer leas addicted to
positiones mere ornantes, than John in the Apocalypse. lie remarks,
however, that * a scarcity of oil and wine would contribute nothing to-
ward creating a famine ;' a position not less strange than the other. Is
not olive oil (which is doubtless here meant), one of the most nutritious
of substances ? And would wine contribute nothing to the sustenance
and comfort of those who were undergoing starvation ? Ewald says,
that the loss of the substantial articles of food would only be aggravated
by the presence of luxuries ; and so this, he thinks, is " apte dictum,"
in order that the picture of distress may be heightened. This at best is
but a small emendation of the positio mere ornans of Eichhorn. Vi-
tringa thinks that the caution (f//) ddixt'jotjg) is addressed, not to him who
sits upon the black horse, but to those who were inclined to be prodigal
of luxuries, or careless as to the destruction of the crops of wine and
oil ; a construction which, if the text will bear it, would clearly make
out a meaning quite congruous with the context. Some other commen-
tators also, with views substantially the same as his, have regarded [iri
(id t •/.)]() ijg X. T. X., as a caution to take the best possible care of the oil
and the wine, because they were about to be much needed. This gives
a like congruous sense. — That the second pers. singular only is employ-
ed, in the address, is no serious objection to this, because any collective
body of men may be addressed in this way, as they often are in the
prophets. The energ}' of expression is heightened, by thus individual-
izing.
"What seems strange is, that the mass of interpreters " sicco pede earn
sententiam praetereunt," just as though no explanation were needed.
Some indeed have expressed the apprehension that the word ddixZ/arji;
(to act unjustly) is not applicable to oil and wine ; but the classic pas-
156 FOURTH SEAL : Chap. VI. 7, 8.
sages cited by Wetstein in loc. show that this verb is not unfrequently
used in the sense of (Hunrstv, i. e. to injure. Amid this variety of
opinion, we may still regard the command not to injure the oil and the
wine, (in form a litotes), as intended to show the need there will be of
these substances in order to support life ; so great will be the scarcity of
bread. In substance this is Vitringa's view of the matter. In other
words : ' Instead of being able to support life with the ordinary element
of bread, that which was before regarded merely as a luxury, will now
become a necessary of life.' Yet it must be acknowledged, that the pic-
ture, even when viewed in this light, does not seem, at first, to be one of
very high colouring, i. e extreme famine does not seem to be denoted by
it ; for apparently, only the necessaries for daily sustenance are supposed
to be very scarce and excessively dear. Oil and wine might be laid up
and preserved for a considerable length of time ; so that even when the
crops of grain should fail, through drought or other causes, and thus be-
come exceedingly scarce, the oil and wine might still be resorted to.
That they would be mtich needed, however, seems to be plainly implied
in the direction : nij dStxtjorj^'. Why not hurt them ? Plainly because
life will depend on them. I do not see any way, at present, in which a
more appropriate explanation can be given.*
(7, 8) And when he opened the fourth seal, I heard the fourth living creature
say: Come ! And I looked, and behold a pale horse, and the name of him who sat
upon it was Death, and Hades followed after him. And there was given him power
over a fourth part of the land, to slay with the sword and with famine and with
pestilence, and by the wild beasts of the earth.
"innoq ;f Aco^o?, pcde horse ; lit. ^(koiQog means a colour like that of a
young shoot of vegetation, i. e. a palish green. Evidently a hue in-
clining to the cadaverous is here meant ; as the sequel shows. — 'Endvoj
avTov = l^br . In vs. 2, 4, 5, we have m avrov, which is in confor-
mity with the more usual Greek idiom. — The construction of this and
* A curious suggestion respecting this passage is made by the venerable Bede,
as quoted by Calovius (Bib. Illust.) ; which is, that *■ oil is for the sacrament of
unction, and wine for the Lord's supper, and therefore they were not to be injured.'
But was not bread also an element of the Lord's supper ! If so, why should not
this too be spared.' — There is another suggestion, which at least may have an
equal claim to our consideration, viz. that oil and wine were commonly used for
the cure of wounds (Luke 10: 34) ; and the leader or angel-overseer who was to
superintend the faviine, is directed to spare such elements as would be needed in
order to aid those who would be wounded by the angel of the second seal. A
sufficient objection to this is, that an alleviation of suffering is thus provided for;
which seems to be contrary to the general tenor and design of the picture. Still,
if viewed simply as declaring the need there would be of oil and wine, it might
not be destitute of significancy, although such a mode of expressing this idea is
too fanciful to be admitted.
FOURTH SEAL : Chap. VI. 7, 8. 157
the next clause i:^ not in acconlance with the most rigid rules of syntax ;
but still, it is not very unusual. The Greek runs thus ; As to him
who sat upon him — his name was Death ; i. e. the Nom. absolute intro-
duces the sentence. This, as we have already seen, is very frequent in
Hebrew and in its kindred languages, and common in all parts of the N.
Testament, see N. Test. Gramm. § 97. 3, and comp. § 121. 4. Note 4.
"Ovo(.ia avTQ), i. e. tiv avrcp =« orofia avzov. — o duvatog, with the ar-
ticle ; see N. Test. Gramm. § 89. 7. Qdvarog simply would not an-
swer the demand of the sense here ; for the name was not d^dvarog
(death in general), but o d^dvazog, death by way of eminence, " the
king of terrors" himself.
0 ^(drjg est magna umbrarum caterva, says Ileinrichs ; and he, after
Eichhorn, appeals to Ps. 18: 4, 5, (.5, G). 49: 15. Job 38: 17. Better
surely would be Is. 1 4: 9. That adi^g has reference to the world of the
dead, lit. the invisible world, the under-world, like bisd , there can of
course be no doubt. But since, in the present ca.se, personification is
intended by the writer, the question necessarily comes up : Whether he
means the umbrae here, i. e. the shades or ghosts of the dead, inhabit-
ing the under-world ; or whether he intends to designate that part of
the under-world who were associated with o Qdvarog, its supposed king,
in the government of it, and who were (so to speak) the servants or
coadjutors of the king of terrors, and therefore were imaginary beings
of the same class or kind mth him, and not merely the ghosts of depart-
ed men in general. That the associates (so to name them) of Qdvarog are
meant, seems probable from Rev. 20: 13, where it is said, that " Death
and Hades gave up the dead which were in them," i. e. the dead held
by them, were raised to hfe. How could Hades, i. e. (according to
Heinrichs and others) the departed spirits or umbrae of men, be said
to give up the dead which were in it ? In other words : How could the
dead themselves give up the dead ? Is it not plain, then, that the co-
adjutors of Death, or the Proceres of the under-world, are here desig-
nated by Hades ? If so, then all becomes plain and easy in Rev. 20:
13. The representation amounts to this, viz. that those who hold and
wield the dominion of the under-world, will give up their subjects (i. e.
departed or dead men), and yield to the power of him " whose voice
can burst the prison-house of death," and " who has the keys of Hades
and of Death," i. e. of the region over which they reign. So in the
passage before us ; it is not the umbrae of departed men, which appear
in order to destroy others, (see the sequel of the verse), but tlie king
of the under-world and his coadjutors who unite their efforts in order to
people their domain. In accordance with this, Sheol is represented (in
Is. 14: 9) as stirring up all its umbrae to advance and meet and insult
the king of Babylon, who has just arrived among them. That Hades
15S FOURTH SEAL : ChAP. VI. 8.
and Sheol may sometimes mean umbrae, I would not at all deny ; but
in passages such as I have now cited, we are obliged to seek another
shade of meaning, in case we would preserve any good degree of con-
gruity.
'H-Aolov&Ei fiET avtov. The Gen. after duolov&e'co, with fistd before
it, (instead of the Dat. after the verb), is frequent in the best classics ;
see Lobeck ad Phryn. p. 353 seq. — To itraQtov, the fourth part, i. e.
a considerable part, and certainly a large portion to be destroyed by
only inceptive war, famine, and pestilence. We are to call to mind
here that this is only uqxi] (odi'vcov, as our Saviour speaks, in Matt. 24:
8. A more usual designation, in like cases, is to rQt'rov,one third part ;
see Rev. 8: 7, 8, 9, 10, 12. 9: 15 al. Traces of the number four, used
in a somewhat similar sense, may be seen in the phrases : " Visiting the
iniquities of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth gen-
eration ;" " in the fourth year the fruit shall be holy ;" the four king-
doms, in the book of Daniel ; the four chariots in Zechariah ; the four
nT'ri in Ezekiel i, and the four ^wa in Rev. iv, etc. In the passage
before us, the evident design of the writer is, to select a smaller
number than the usual one third, because the war is as yet only in its in-
cipient stages.
The commission of Death is, that he should employ the agency of
those who preceded him, as well as his own, in destroying the enemy.
He is directed to slay by the sword (see the second seal), by famine
(see the third seal), and also d-avdtq), i. e. by the pestilence. The He-
brew word "i3'n , pestilence, is rendered -&dvaTog more than thirty times
by the Septuagint ; and xn'ra in Chaldee and in Syriac is often employ-
ed in such a sense. The nature of the case requires such a meaning
here, for clearly one of the instruments to be employed by 6 d^dvarog is
here designated. QdvaTog may therefore be rendered deadly disease or
pestilence ; which is an appropriate instrument of o (ydvarog.
'Tno TMv d^riQiwv rijg yijg, wild beasts, following in the train of a deso-
lating army, destroy the wounded, and seize on the defenceless inhab-
itants who are left. This last characteristic, joined by the other three,
may be found in Ezek. 14: 21. The junction of sword, famine and
pestilence, is common in the prophets; e. g. Jer. 14: 12. 21: 7. 24: 10.
44: 13. Ezek. 6: 11, 12. 5: 12 al. That famine would succeed the
ravages of a conquering army, it is very natural to suppose. That pes-
tilence should follow in the train of slaughter and corrupted dead bodies,
is likewise altogether natural. The ravages of wild beasts are a matter
of course, on such an occasion, in countries where they are to be found.
Thus Homer, at the very beginning of his Iliad, presents us with a sim-
ilar representation. See also 2 Kings 17: 26. Ezek. 14: 21. Thus all
these scourges are here united in one fearful train, led on by him who
MARTTKS' SUPPLICATION : ChAP. VI. 9 — 11. 159
is crowned as victor upon the white horse, which is at once the emblem
and the earnest ot" the victories to be Jichieved.
I
In wljat nianiRT tlie four lirst seals have been expounded by some distinguished
interpreters, tlie reader has already had op|)orluiiily to see, in the introductory
remarks to this ciiapter. Let him now compare the whole picture, thus far, with
the declarations of the Saviour as exhibited in Matt. ^4: (J — ti. How can any
one well refrain from regarding the representation of John here, as a commen-
tary upon his Master's words? And if they are so, then the object in view is
neither dithcult nor obscure. The wliole scene as represented in heaven before
the eye of the seer, is a symbol of what is to take place on earth, when Christ
comes " to avvnge his elect, who cry unto him day and night." The dread array,
which appears in heaven to John, is not indeed to be regarded as individually and
in re vera (so to speak) employed in the destruction of the enemies of Christian-
ity ; but this array constitutes the symbols of instruments which would be em-
ployed for the destruction of the enemies of the church. We are not to inquire
and seek, as Wetstein, Herder, and others have done, after specific and individual
events supposed to be designated by each symbol itself, and by every attitude and
action of the symbolic agents ; for to identify and verify these would be out of
question. We are merely and simply to deduce from the whole, that war with
its usual accompaniments, i. e. famine and plague and ravenous beasts, will be
commissioned to lay waste the power of the persecutors. It is not a battle in
this place or in that, during this year or that, but it is all the battles and all the
means of destruction, which are here designated. Such is the picture which the
Saviour himself has drawn, in Matt. xxiv. ; and such is the imitation and expan-
sion of it in Rev. vi.
MARTi^RS' SUPPLICATION : CHAP. VI. 9—11.
Nothing is more common than for the leaders of armies, on the eve of a great
battle, to present before the soldiers some soul-stirring view of the wrongs which
they and their country have suflered from the enemy, and to urge them on by a
keen sense of injury, as well as by a regard to justice and safely, to put forth
all their energies in the approaching contest. A well adapted address of such a
nature, at the very onset of battle, has often achieved an unexpected victory.
Every one who has read the history of England's achievments in war will re-
member, that the greatest naval victory ever gained by that nation, was aided, if
not ensured, by the signal hoisted upon the admiral's flag-ship when moving into
the line of battle: Engla.vd expects every man to do his duty. In a few
hours, the enemy were no more. The burst of enthusiasm created by such an
ajipeal may be felt, but never can be adequately described.
Not unlike to this appears to be the scene before us. The awful arra}-, sym-
bols of the work of destruction about to be accomplished, have been summoned,
have taken their places, and formed the ranks of the army. Before marching
into the battle their ardour is now to be excited. In accordance with the impor-
tant design of rousing up powerful sympathies on such an occasion, the persecu-
ted and slaughtered martyrs are presented, lying covered with blood at the foot
of the altar where they have been sacrificed, and crying aloud to the God of jus-
tice to take cognizance of tlieir wronnfs and vindicate their cause. Who can
wonder that heaven and earth are moved at the cry, and that he who sits en-
160 FIFTH SEAL : ChAP. VI. 9, 10.
throned above manifests in a conspicuous manner and by terrible signs, that their
complaint is heard, and tiiat their request will in due time be surely granted? vs.
y— 11.
Such I take to be the nature of the scene before us; and it would be difficult
to find any adequate parallel of it, in all the scenes which Epopee presents.
When viewed in this simple light, the thrilling interest which it gives to the
whole exhibition, is not to be mistaken. Nor should it be said, that there is any
incono-ruity here. Bleeding souls at the foot of the altar, as symbols in vision,
are no incongruity. The Lamb as it icere slain, in Rev. 5: 6, is no incongruity.
In vision everything assumes form and shape, as if it were material. To the
umbrae of deceased men, all the ancients, Hebrews as well as Gentiles, assigned
a visible shape. Even spirit itself was regarded by the ancients, as consisting of
the most subtile and attenuated substance, not unlike to air. Of course, if re-
garded in this light, there is no incongruity in the picture of the Apocalyptist.
It is enough for its vindication to say, that all is symbol. It teaches, and is de-
signed to teach, no philosophy about the nature of the soul's substance ; and no
deduction can be made from it, such as Tertullian makes (De Anima), in favour
of a material soul. It is an instructive vision; and it would be as apposite to un-
dertake a demonstration that the trees and brambles can talk, from the fable of
Jotham (Judg. 9: 8 seq.), as it would to undertake the proof of the material nature
of the soul from the representation before us. It would also be as proper to
charge Jotham with incongruity, as to bring such an accusation against John.
(9, 10) And when he opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls
of those who had been slain, on account of the word of God, and on account of
the testimony which they held fast. And they cried with a loud voice, saying :
How long, O Lord holy and true, dost thou not judge, nor avenge our blood on
those who dwell in the land !
'Tnoxdrco rov &vGiaarriQiov, i. e. at the foot or lower part of the altar,
where the victim was laid whose blood had been shed. The reader
must of course perceive, that God is here presented as being in his
upper or heavenly temple, (the same is very common in the O. Testa-
ment), and there is also the altar in question, like to that in the temple
at Jerusalem; comp. Heb. 8: 5. — ^^'vyag rav n. r. X. shows, of course,
that the psychology of John did not admit the extinction of the soul by
the death of the body. The bleeding victims here presented, are those
which had been sacrificed on the altar of their religion. They had
been slain dia rov Xdyov rov &eov, on account of God's holy word, i. e.
because of the doctrines which it taught and which they received and
maintained ; but specifically on account of the fxaQrvQiav tJv ely^ov, the
testimony [of Jestis^ which they field fast. For a full account of this
phraseology, see Comm. above on Rev. 1: 2. The passage before us
is so plain and indubitable, that it necessarily casts light on 1: 2. The
only difi'erence between them is, that in 1: 2, ifiQrvQijae rov Xoyov . . .
ri]V fiaQzvQt'av I. X. designates a teacher of Christianity, whereas, in the
case before us, we have nixov rov Xoyov . . . ryv (xuQrvQi'av, who held
fast the word, etc. By this last phrase private Christians may be de-
FIFTH seal: Chap. VI. 10. 161
signaled ; and in the present case such appear to be designedly in-
cluded.
El^ov, held fast ; see Rob. Lex. sy^m, d. a. This is a frequent sense
of the word. The form is Imperf. which suits the meaning here.
That the martyrs were once merely in possession of the word, etc.,
would not have occasioned their death; it was their steadfast adher-
ence to it, which caused them to be sacrificed on the altar of religion.
(v. 10) yifyovrt'i, i. e. li'vpfftJ Xf'yovteg, concord ad sensum, the souls
in this case being those of the martyrs. — O StanoTtjg x. r. 1, Nom. used
for the Voc. ; as often in N. Testament, and in the classics ; Gramm.
§ 97. 3. The term S^anoiiig is not frequent in the Greek Scriptures,
nvQiog being much the more common appellation, when the idea of
Lord or blaster is to be designated. In Luke 2: 29 and Acts 4: 24,
however, it may be found in the same sense as here. It designates God
as supreme Governor and Master of all, and as having the power and
the right to vindicate his oppressed servants. — "Ayiog, holy ; in this
case hating sin, i. e. of purer eyes than to look on the iniquity of per-
secutors with inditierence. — JiXr^&ivog, true to his promises, worthy of
credit when he stands pledged to punish persecutors.
Ov -AQiviig, dost thou not judge, or dost thou forbear judging, i. e. dost
thou forbear to bring to trial, or to condemn the enemies of the church.
The verb itself is generic, and therefore may signify to acquit or to
condemn, pro exigentia loci. Here it might be interpreted thus : How
long dost thou not vindicate, viz. the righteous. The difference of
meaning in the whole phrase, in this case, would not be important.
But on the whole I prefer the other meaning, viz., that of bringing to
trial or condemning. — 'Exdixeig . . . utzo, so in Luke 18: 3. In Rev.
19: 2, with in. In all these cases there is a conformity to the Hebrew
•j-Q 0)53 , '(O ttinn ; see Ges. on these words, u^tto makes the persons on
whom vengeance is to be taken more specific, or at least it gives more
intensity to the designation of them. The thing to be avenged (aifia)
is in the Accusative.
Kazoiy.ovvTCJv im t^g yijg, exactly corresponding to the well known
Hebrew y^.^i^ '^suJT' , the meaning of which may be general or particu-
lar, just as the context requires. The Hebrews, who in prose used
only one word ()''^s) for earth, country, region, etc., never found any
difiiculty in this, because the context of course hmits or expands it, just
as the case may require. Ewald here takes it in an expanded sense ;
but this seems to be " travelling out of the record." The sequel shows,
that the Jewish enemies of the church are here concerned. The blood,
then, which had been shed by Jews, and particularly in Palestine, is
now to be avenged ; for the sequel shows, that the supplication of the
martyrs found acceptance and would be answered.
VOL. n. 21
162 FIFTH seal: Cuap. VL 11.
(11) And a white robe was given to each of them, and it was said to them,
that they must wait yet a while, until their fellow servants and their brethren
should be completed, who must be slain, even as they [had been].
'Exuarcp, to each one, emphatic, showing that the gift of the white
robe was bestowed on every individual. — 2^zoXij Xevyj], see on 3: 5. The
singular, aroh], is here used in a distributive sense. — 'Ennt'&i], Avith
short penult ; see Buttm. § 95, Note 4, and under eiTTHv in the Cat. of
Irreg. verbs. — JlvanavGavzui, Aor. I. Subj. Middle ; the context shows
that lonff continued waiting is not designed, so that the Aor. may be
here employed. Lachmann reads : uvunavaovrm. — "Ewg TihjQOjdcoai
is in several Codices read tcog TiXriQCoaovzai, i. e. yoovov avzav, for so
those who introduced this reading must have understood the passage. I
prefer the reading nX^mdcooi, Aor. I. Pass. Subj. ; and to this may be
given either of the two following meanings, viz. (a) Until their martyr-
ed brethren shoidd complete the number destined on the part of heaven
to fall in this manner, see Rob. Lex. nXijooco, d, y; or (b) n).i]Q03{}(0(}i
may be used in a like sense with rslsioai, to consummate or complete, i. e.
to advance to the highest state of happiness, reward, perfection, or glory ;
comp. ti-'Xeioi and ntnXijQconivot, as nearly synonymous in Col. 4: 12. As
a parallel with the first meaning. Matt. 23: 32 may be consulted ; for
there nhiQwaazf. means to complete that which was yet wanting, in order
to raise iniquity to such a height as Avould bring down immediate pun-
ishment. So here, to be completed would seem to mean, that the num-
ber of martyrdoms requisite to bring down final excision must first be
completed, before the pending catastrophe could take place. This is
the more easy and obvious sense, and is not without parallels ; comp.
TzXi^Qco/xa in Rom. 11: 12, and TZETzhjocoy.i'vat in Rom. 15: 19. Let the
reader note the bearing which this has on the time when the Apocalypse
was written. The persecution that was raging, was yet unfinished.
Oi Gvv8ovXoi refers to those yet to become martyrs, as being fellow-
servants of Christ with those already martyred. — Ol ddslffoi, the Chris-
tian title of endearment. — Of [xt'XXovreg anoxztrv£6&ai, who were speedily
to be slain, fisXlovreg marking the Fut. proximate. — ^^TioxTivveod^ai,
Inf. Pres. for anonzdveo&ai ; the form in the text seems to be Aeolic,
for the Aeolians changed u into £ before a liquid {X, /*, *', q), and then
doubled the liquid as a compensation. See Winer's Gramm. § 15, un-
der UTlOHTEiVa.
The answer in this case is made sufficiently plain, by the bestow-
ment of the robes of honour ; comp. Gen. 41: 42. 45: 22. Esth. 6: 8, 9.
Is. 3: 7. Zech. 3: 5. By implication, also, is the request considered as
being granted in the sequel ; for this declares merely that some delay is
necessary, before their wishes can be fully accomplished, and of course
thus intimates that they are to be accomplished.
SIXTH seal: Chap. VI. 12. 168
This circumstance of delay we should regard with poi-ticular atteii'
tion ; for it explains the ground of various episodes (if we may so name
them), which are seemingly introduced in order to delay the final com-
pletion of the first catastrophe. The writer, by such a plan, has pre-
pared the way for the admission of interesting matter, indirectly con-
nected with his main design and yet consistent with the general plan
which he had in view. Considerations of this nature have hitherto
been scarcely regarded by most interpreters of the Apocalypse ; as
every one will see who is conversant with the commentaines on this
book.
SYMBOLS OF DESTRUCTION : CHAP. VI. 12—17.
The rest of chap, vi, viz. vs. 12 — 17, symbolizes the terrific events which are
to follow. On the opening of the si.xth seal the sun and the moon are darkened ;
the stars fall from heaven ; the heavens themselves are rolled away by a mighty
wind (comp. 7: 1) ; and all the people of the land to be smitten, are filled with
terror and amazement, and fly to the rocks and mountains for refuge from the
dreaded invasion which is about to be made. Such are the phenomena immedi-
ately after the opening of the sixth seal ; but this is not all which is to be dis-
closed by this opening. Subsequent events will be noticed in their proper
places.
(12) And I looked, when he opened the sixth seal, and there was a great earth-
quake, and the sun became black as sack-clolh of hair, and the whole moon be-
came like blood ;
Nothing is more frequent in the Scripture than the indication of great
changes, especially great calamities, by a description of earthquakes,
and tempests, and eclipse of the heavenly luminaries, or the mention of
their bloody asi)ect occasioned by a murky atmosphere. To obtain a
full view of this usage, the reader must carefully consult Joel 2: 10. 2:
30, 31 (in Hebrew 3: 3, 4). 3: 15. Is. 13: 10. 24: 23. Ezek. 32: 7, 8.
Is. 34: 4. Amos 8: 9. Is. 59: 9, 10. Jer. 15: 9. Is. 60: 20. Comp. Matt.
24: 29. Mark 13: 24, 25. Luke 21: 25. Acts 2: 19, 20. In this last
passage, and in Joel from which this is cited, there seems to be merely
an indication of great and extraordinary changes ; but in all the other
passages of the like tenor, the careful reader will perceive at once that
calamitous events are indicated. Every one,, who knows what disasters
the ancients connected with the appearance of eclipses and of changes
in the heavenly bodies, will easily perceive how forcible such language
must be, when employed to designate occurrences yet future. An at-
tentive consideration of the passages referred to will show, moreover,
that calamities of every kind, such as are actually brought about by lo-
custs, war, pestilence, famine, etc., are symbolized by such imagery as
the text presents. Consequently, unless the context obliges us to a dif-
164 SIXTH seal: Chap. VI. 13.
ferent exegesis, (which is not the case here), we may give to such figu-
rative language a generic sense. If the reader wishes for examples of
specific interpretation in the present case, he may go back to those of
Wetstcin, Herder, Mede, and Vitringa, which have been already pro-
duced in the introduction to this chapter.
2:eia[i6g fisyag, a great earthquake ; so in Matt. 24: 7, in describing
the calamities which precede the destruction of Jerusalem, the Saviour
mentions, along with wars and famine and pestilence, earthquakes also —
Koi aeiGixol v.a.rk Tonovg. So in Luke 21: 11. All phenomena of such
a nature were anciently regarded with great terror, as being the evi-
dences that God was angry and was about to punish.
'O r(kioq tyhsro fxiXug, so represented, either because the idea of to-
tal eclipse was before the mind of the writer, or else the obscuration of
the sun by reason of the smoke and gloomy vapour which usually suc-
ceed an earthquake. — 2^eX^vt] . . . cog aifia, which is the colour that
usually succeeds an eclipse ; or here again, the image may be that of
the moon reddened by the dark brown vapour which succeeds the quak-
ing of the earth. In both cases, explain it which way you will, the
general import is the same. In all ancient ages and countries, the ob-
scuration of the heavenly bodies filled every one with terror, and was
regarded as betokening evil to be near.
(13) And the stars of heaven fell to tlie earth, as a fig-tree casts down her un-
timely figs, when shaken by a violent wind;
Ol acrfQeg . . . ttjv yijv. The verb msauv here, according to Winer,
is Aor. II. third pers. plur., Alexandrine dialect, which often declines
Aor. II. like Aor. I. ; see his Gramm. § 13. 1. But the later Greek
made an Aor I. in msaa; see Kiihner, § 176. 1. Note 1. The image
is probable that of the so-called falling stars or meteors, the cause of
which was inexplicable to the ancients, and so was looked upon with
terror. Pliny speaks of it in his account of the eruption of Vesuvius,
Epist. VI. 20. See also Lucan, V. 562. Serv. ad Virg. Georg. I. 36.5.
The idea seems to be, that the quaking of the earth also moves the
heavens ; see Joel 2: 10, where these are united. The passage of the
O. Testament immediately before the mind of the writer appears to be
that in Is. 34: 4, " All the host of heaven shall be dissolved, and the
heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll, and their host shall fall
down ;" or perhaps the declaration of the Saviour, as recorded in Matt.
24: 29, where the same imagery is employed. The ancients regarded
the stars as fixed in the heavens, which last were looked upon as a solid
expanse, S"'!?'!. When shaken, some of the stars were loosed ; and fall'
ing stars were so named, because they were supposed to have been
loosened from the firmament, and so to fall upon the earth. It matters
SIXTH SEAL : Chap. VL 14, 15. 165
not whether tliesc phenomena were rightly or wrongly explained by
them, in a philosophical point of view. The popular iisus loqueiidi in
relation to all such subjects, is everywhere adopted by the sacred wri-
ters ; for they do not undertake to teach the natural sciences.
'S2g Gvxtj ^uXXei, etc., i. e. the heavens, being shaken by the grecU
eartkqrtake, let fall the stars, as a fig-tree drops its untimely fruit when
shaken, etc. — X)Xvt0^ov^, means such fruit as gi'ows on the fig-tree in the
winter, seldom matures, and easily falls off in the spring of the year.
(14) And the heaven was removed, as a scroll which is rolled up; and every
mountain and island were moved from their places.
The Hebrews, as has been hinted already, conceived of the heavens
as a solid expanse, stretched over the earth like a curtain or tent ; Ps.
104: 2. Is. 40: 22. 44: 24. Jer. 10: 12. Hence, as scrolls were an ex-
panded piece of parchment, and were rolled up for laying aside, so the
removal of the heaven in this case is designated in the like way. A
vehement tempest of wind is of course to be supposed here ; for this is
made quite plain by chap. vii. 1. By this tornado, the expanse above
is to be regarded as swept away.
ndv oQog . . . ixiv/jO-tjffav. Such are the consequences of the great
earthquake, which frequently produces the like effects, sinking some
tracts and elevating others ; comp. Ps. 18: 7, 15. The imagery, as be-
fore remarked, may be found in Is. 34: 4 ; comp. Rev. 16: 20. Amidst
such terrific phenomena as these, we cannot wonder at the sequel :
(15) And the kings of the land, and the nobles, and the captains of thousands,
and the rich, and the powerful, and every servant and freeman, hid themselves
in the caves and rocks of the mountains.
Ewald, who is disposed to extend the meaning of chap. vi. to Gen-
tile persecutors as well as Jewish ones, acknowledges that here is a
special reference to the peculiarities of Palestine, as to its rocks and
caves which afford places of shelter for fugitives. Compare for illus-
tration. Judges 6: 2. 1 Sam. 22: 1. Is. 2: 10, 19, 21. Amos. 9: 3. Still,
this is not exclusively a characteristic of Palestine ; and I should rely on
chap. vii. with much more confidence, as a proof that the Jev^s are the
objects now before the writer's mind, than on a circumstance like that
just mentioned. The writer doubtless had in his view the passage in
Is. 2: 19, 21.
Oi ^uaiXtig trig yijg. Strictly speaking, Agrippa was the last native
king of Palestine, in the appropriate sense of that word ; and he died
some years before the Apocalypse was written. Still, others exercised
regal power ; and Palestine had recently been divided into tetrarchieSy
Luke 3: 1. Hence l^uaiXklg, plur., is used as a comprehensive word, in
order to designate the various governors or viceroys who then ruled over
166 SIXTH SEAL : Chap. VI. 16.
the country of Judea. Its use here is poetic, and it is not to be taken
as in a mere civil history. That kirigs are first mentioned on the hst of
persecutors, is natural, if we consider either their rank, or the influence
which they must have as persecutors. In the same manner do we find
them introduced and severely denounced in the book of Enoch, 48:
7—11.
Meytazaveg xai )^iliaQXOi designates civil and military Praefects or
ofl[icers of high rank. Thus in Mark 6: 21, " Herod made a feast to his
IxeytaTCiVEi; and xiliaQ]^oi." These are mentioned next to kings, because
they stand next to them in point of rank, XiliaQxOi; is not always
confined in its signification to designate merely the captain of a thou-
sand, as the name etymologically imports, but is sometimes employed,
as in our text, for the designation of a military officer of the higher rank
without respect to the numbers whom he may control. — -nXoixjioi, those
who abound in wealth ; i'axvQoi, men of power or influence in other re-*
spects. In a military description it would mean, men powerfid in war,
heroes ; but being here coupled with ttXovgwi, it must be modified and
so have a different sense assigned to it.
riug dovXog y.ui eXiv&eQog, (so is the text in Hahn), is designed as a
comprehensive expression, i. e. to include all of every rank and station ;
comp. 1 Cor. 12: 13. Gal. 3: 28. Ephes. 6: 8. Rev. 13: 16. 19: 18.
"ExQVXpav . , . 7(ov oQtojy. The manner of expression in eig ra. ani]-
Xaia strikes us, at first, as being unusual ; for we should naturally expect
iv Toig anijlaloig. But here, as often elsewhere in the N. Testament,
and in the classics, some verb significant of coming to, or entering into,
is implied before the verb which is expressed ; see N. Test. Gramm. §
113. Note 2. h.; and comp. Matt. 2: 23, £4' nohv. 13: 9. Luke 11: 7.
John 9: 7. Acts 7: 4. 8: 39, 40, al. saepe. See Rob. Lex. slg, No. 4.
(16) And they say to the mountains and to the rocks : Fall on us, and hide us
from the face of" Him who sitteth upon the throne, and from the wrath of the
Lamb !
AtyovGi, Pi'es. tense, although preceded in the same sentence by the
Praeter ; and so, often in the New Testament and in other Greek ; see
N. Test. Gramm. § 136. 1. b. Note, and Winer, § 41. 2. b, where a great
number of examples from the N. Testament and the Classics is exhib-
ited.
The particular expression here, nsasre x. r. X. may be found for sub-
stance in Hosea 10: 8. Here, and in our text, the sentiment is : ' Let
us perish by a death the nature of which we understand, rather than by
the awful death which is threatened, the agonies of which we do not
know.' In like manner Pliny represents some of the fugitives from the
fiery shower of Vesuvius, as praying for death, that they might escape
srxTH Seal : Chap. VI. 17. 167
tlie ijrnoous (lolii£fe of the mountain : " Erant qui metu mortis mortem
prt'cari'ntur ;" Ep. G. 20. The wisli expressed in the text may be nor-
ther iUustrated, by a reference to the very common case of suicide in
prisons, when j^orsons are under sentence of death, or expect it with cer-
tainty. Tlioy thus escape a more horrible death, and in their apprehen-
sion a more disfrraceful one, by an exit which is less appalling. So in
the case before us ; death is certain, when the Lamb is angry and
pursues his enemies with judgments. But death by the crushing
power of the rocks and mountains, is less ten*ible than that which
threatens them, and which is to be inflicted by the power of the
Lamb. In a word ; anxiety and distress are so great, that any change
whatever would seem to promise something better. After all, however,
we need not nicely weigh words uttered, like these, in a state of the
highest terror and agony. We might well compare thein, perhaps, with
the words of Peter, in a transfjort of mind very different indeed from
that here described, but still in a state of great excitement, Luke 5: 8.
Matt. 17: 4. That John seems to have taken the expression here from
the declaration of the Saviour recorded in Luke 23: 30, (which again
may be referred to Hosea 10: 8), in regard to a subject like that now
before us, one can scarcely fail to see and acknowledge.
It should be noted here, also, that those who thus deprecate the wrath
of the Lamb, speak as if they knew from whom these judgments came.
They are conscious that he inflicts them. Could this be well said of
heathen Gentiles, who had no knowledge of the Saviour ? I mean to
ask : How could it be said with the appearance of verisimilitude ?
" He who sitteth on the throne, and the Lamb," are distinguished
here agreeably to the preceding representations in chap. iv. v. The po-
sition of the Lamb there described appears to be still maintained ; and
so it continues to be, until the seals are all unloosed.
Jino TTQoocoTiov X. r. X. They could bear death from the crushing
power of the rocks and mountains, better than they could bear the look
of their righteous Judge and offended Lord.
(17) For the great day of liis wrath is come, and who is able to stand?
7/ ^eyuhj, great in distinction from other days, when ordinary chas-
tisements or judgments befel them. This is the day of consummation.
— 2^TUiyiji'ui, to stand Jinn or fast, i. e. to endure or abide. Conip. Ps.
1: 5. 76: 7. 130: 3. 147: 17. Nuhum. 1: G, where Tcy is used in the
like sense ; and so the Perf. and Aorists of tcrr////t in the N. Testament,
see Lex. K in this case a reference was made by the mind of the
writer to the 0. Testament, it seems to have been to Nah. 1: G.
168 SERVANTS or GOD SEALED : ChAP. VH.
SEALING OF THE SERVANTS OF GOD : CHAP. VH.
In such a state of things, while the whole material universe is in commotion
and seems to be on the verge of ruin, there is danger that the righteous and the
wicked may be involved in one common destruction. What is to be done.' The
Saviour has promised safety to his disciples amid the ruin of their country ; ex-
cepting that persecution would be permitted to rage in a greater or less degree,
until that ruin was accomplished ; Matt. 24: 22, 31. Mark 13: 27. Luke 21: 28.
That promise must be fulfilled. The time of destruction is now near. The fear-
ful commotion of the elements and of all nature is plainly indicative of this. The
destroying angels have their commission, and they are beginning to execute it.
But that the elect (Matt. 24: 22) may be exempted from the common lot of the
wicked, some sign or token must be exhibited, which, like the blood of the pas-
chal lamb upon the door-posts of the Hebrews in Egypt, will be an indication of
the will of heaven, that "the destroyer " should pass by and leave them unharm-
ed. In order that this may be accomplished, the tempest which was shaking the
heavens and the earth, is hushed to peace. An angel, bearing the seal or stamp
of the living God, descends to impress his sacred name upon the followers of the
Lamb, and thus mark them as his property. Out of every tribe these followers
are selected. One common safety belongs to all. The gospel, which had been
preached to all, admits all equally to avail themselves of its privileges. They re-
ceive therefore a mark of safety ; and then the countless host of the redeemed in
heaven, with palm-branches of victory in their hands, the emblems of the church's
triumph, unite in praising God, with all the angels, and elders, and living crea-
tures. One universal symphony fills the heavenly world. Among this countless
host, stand conspicuous, in robes of white, the martyrs who have sealed their tes
timony by their own blood. The glory to which they are destined is brought dis-
tinctly into view, in order that persecuted and suffering Christians, then ' endur-
ing the cross,' might, 'on account of the joy set before them, despise the shame,'
and attain at last to the same blessedness.
Such are the contents of chap. vii. It is doubtless to be considered in the
light of an episode; but still it contributes much to the beauty and interest of the
principal piece. The most rigid critic could not have any desire to dispense
with it.
(1) And after these things I saw four angels standing at the four corners of
the land, holding in the four winds of the land, that the wind might not blow
upon the land, nor upon the sea, nor upon any tree.
The Hebrews designated hat four points of the compass, north, south,
east, and west. The wind from these four quarters is designated, be-
cause thus all winds are comprehended. This manner of designation,
moreover, may have reference also to the frequent changing and shift-
ing of the wind in violent tornados. So in Jer. 49: 36. Dan. 7: 2,
four winds are designated in the same way as here, viz., as comprising
all winds ; and the like elsewhere. Angels are here mentioned as
commissioned to guide and manage these elements. That this is a Ub-
liccd idea, the reader may see by recurring to Exc. I. Good Angels,
SEnVANTS OF GOD SEALED : ChAI'. VII. 2. 169
Nos. 4. ;■). It would seem that the same angels had raised the tornado,
(implied in the preceding chapter), who are now to restrain it. To
this tornado, also, we must attribute the fearful coramotion described in
the preceding context, vs. 12 — 14.*
The four corners of the earth is an expression which has its basis in
the Hebrew view of things, viz. that the earth was an extended plain.
The four corners correspond with the four points of the Hebrews and
therefore designate all the places where it was necessary for the angels
to take their station, in order to have complete control over the winds. —
KofCTOvvTa'a', hoUUiig, controlliiif/, i. e. in the present case, holding in,
restraining.
I\Iij nvt'ij . . . 7TUV dt'ylinnr, i. e. that it might everywhei*e and univer-
sally be calm, so that not even the leaves of the trees would be shaken.
This last circumstance, therefore, viz. im nuv Strdoov, is not insignifi-
cant. It marks the intensity, i. e. the high degree, of the quietude.
We should express substantially the same idea by saying : It was so
still, that there was not a ripple upon the water — and not a leaf of the
trees moved.
(2) And I saw another angel ascending from the rising of tlie sun, having the
seal of tlie living God ; and he cried with a loud voice to the four angels to wlioin
it was given to hurt the land and the sea ;
^;t6 dvazoXijg rjXiov, i. e. from the east. Why the east ? " Quod
* No one, indeed, can well estimate the nature of this representation, who is
unacquainted with the common opinions of the ancient Hebrews, respecting the
operation and power of the winds. In the book of Enoch, we have views of a
similar nature quite fully developed. The winds are kept in store houses, Enoch
18: 1, comp. the same sentiment in Ps. 135: 7. Jer. 10: 13. 51: 16, and see also
Prov. 30: 4. In Enoch 18: 4 — 6 it is said : " 1 beheld the winds occupying the ex-
alted sky ;. arising between licaven and earth, and constituting the pillars of hea-
ven. I saw the winds which turn the sky, which cause the orb of the sun and
all the stars to set ; and over the earth I saw the winds which support the clouds."
He then adds : " 1 saw the path of the angels," i. e. (as I understand him) of those
who managed these winds. So again in 71: 7 and 72: 2, the wind is mentioned
as occasioning the motion of the heavenly bodies, e. g. the chariot of the sun.
In chap. Ixxv. and Ix.wi, the author e.\patiates at large on the influence of winds
upon all the phenomena of nature, in heaven and on earth, such as drought, cold,
heat, hail, snow, dew, blight, health, pestilence, etc. In chap. 14: 0, 10, he re-
presents the winds as carrying him alofl to heaven, etc. In these and the like
passages, in accordance with the views of the times, the winds are presented as
the most powerful and universal agent in nature; even as sustaining the heavens,
and moving the planets through them. No wonder, then, that John here pre-
sents us with the terrific effects of the tornado, raised by angels who are commis-
sioned to execute the work of destruction. It matters not whether we consider
these angels as the ordinary guardian angels of the winds, (then we might natu-
rally expect Tovt flyyd?Mve}, or whether they now act merely by special commis-
■ion. The consequences of their interposition are the same.
VOL. n. 22
170 SERVANTS OP GOD SEALED : ChAP. VIL 3.
oriens locus coeli est dignissimus," says Eichhorn ; and Ewald to the
same purpose, only that he adds : " It is the special dweUing-place of
the Godhead." Yet in Ezek. 1: 4, the theophany is exhibited in the
north. Job 37: 22 refers perhaps to the dweUing-place of God in the
north : " Splendour comes from the north." Greece, Persia, Babylon
(Is. 14: 13), and Hindoostan, all place the residence of the divinity on
some lofty mountain in the north, such as the Thessalian Olympus, Al
Bordj, Meru, etc. Nor do I recollect any passage in the O. Testament,
which refers to the east as the peculiar dwelling-place of God. Still,
the book of Enoch, 24: 2, 8, represents the east as the paradise of God,
and as the place where the Lord of glory dwells and will judge the
world ; and so long as heaven is conceived of as a locality, (and so the
HebrcAvs did conceive and speak of it), the east, from which the sun,
moon, and all the stars apparently proceed, might very naturally be se-
lected as the dwelling-place of divine Majesty, although, in more an-
cient times, the north (as it would seem) had been selected. It is not
necessary, however, to find the dwelling-place of the Most High in the
region where the angel makes his appearance, or (in other words) to
suppose they both are in one and the same place. Enough that, like the
rising sun which comes forth in all its splendour from the east, the an-
gel with the seal in his hand comes forth in like splendour, to perform
the grateful task assigned to him.
2^cpQuyida, i. e. a seal or stamp, on which is doubtless supposed to be
engraved the name of Jehovah, which must be impressed upon the fore-
heads (v. 3) of the servants of God, so that they would at once be re-
cognized as his, and thus be secure against all harm ; see and comp. on
2: 17. — Oig ido&i] avroig, seemingly a pure Hebraism = nnb )m ''>'^,'^_,
but the like is found even in good classics ; see N. Test. Gramm. § 121.
4. Note 4. It is a mode of expression not unfrequent in this book. —
u^dtxijaai, to injure, hurt, do harm to ; comp. 6: 6. — Tqv y^jv >iai ztjv
S^ukaaaav, the usual division which comprehends the whole world, or
the whole of any country, and it is here designed to be a generic and
comprehensive expression.
(3) Saying : Hurt not tlie earth, nor the sea, nor the trees, until we shall have
sealed the servants of God upon their foreheads.
Before proceeding to the actual w^ork of destruction, for which all had
seemed to be ready, the executioners of divine justice, i. e. the destroy-
ing angels, are required to suspend their work, until the servants of God
can be rendered secure. The earth, sea, and trees, are all mentioned
here, in conformity with the division made in v. 1, where the meaning
is rendered much more intense by the addition of ra dt'vdQa. And so
here ; not even a leaf is to be injured by the winds, until the servants
of God shall be rendered secure.
SERVANTS OP OOD SEALED : ChaP. VII. 4. 171
*Em Tcor fitTcoTiojr uvtiop. Tliis is no tloul)t after tlic model in Ezek.
9: 4, 5, where un ariLjel is eoinmissioiieil to go tlu-ougU the eity of Je-
rusalem, and mark upon the forehead all who should be exemj)ted from
the approachinjr slaughter. In Ex. 12: 7, the Israelites ai-e directed to
mark their door-posts with the blootl of the pasehal lamb, so that the
destroying angel might i>a<s them by in his midnight work of excision.
In liev. 2: 17, we fin<l that the diadem which "kings and priests unto
God" are to wear, as the reward of victory, has a frontispiece on which
is inscribed the name of Jehovah. But this crown is not given until
the ptX)bation of each one is closed ; and therefore, in the present case,
the name is not placed upon a mitre but on the forehead, where it will
be most distinctly visible. Nor is it placed there simply in the way of
reward^ as in 2: 17, but for the puqwses of safety.*
(4) And I heard the number of those who were sealed ; one hundred and forty
and four thousand were sealed, from every tribe of the children of Israel.
That the number in this case is symbolical^ and not to be literally
taken, seems scarcely necessary to remark. The twelve tribes of course
give the occasion for selecting the number ttcelve ; and this is often re-
peated in other places ; comp. Rev. 21: 12, twelve gates, twelve angels,
twelve names of tribes; 21: 16, twelve thousand furlongs; 21: 17, the
wall is twelve times twelve cubits high, i. e. li-i cubits ; 21: 21, the
twelve gates are twelve pearls ; comp. in Ezek. 48: 30 — 34. Compare
with these the twelve fountains in EUm, Ex. 15: 27 ; the twelve pillars
around the altar, Ex. 24: 4 ; twelves cakes of shew bread. Lev. 24: 5 ;
twelve gems in the breast-plate of the high-priest, Ex. 28: 10 ; twelve
stones set up on the banks of the Jordan, Joshua 4: 3 ; offerings by
twelves, Num. 7: 3, 87. 29: 17. Ezra 8: 35 ; vessels for the temple,
• The Romans marked their soldiers in the hand, and their slaves in the fore-
head; Veget, de Re inilit. II. .5. Aetius, 8. 12. Hesych. sub ioT^tdva; and in
Is. 3: 21, "S , a brand, is mentioned as a mark of servile disgrace. Yet here the
design of a mark is evidently diflbrent. It unquestionably refers to some custom,
well known to the writer and his original circle of readers, of branding tlie name
of the king, or of the god whom they served, upon the foreheads of subjects or
worshippers ; answering, at the same time, the purposes of honour and defence,
and designating the expression of devotedness. The mark set upon Cain, Gen.
4: 1.^, so far as it served the purpose of defending his life, might be compared
with the present case. So Herod. II. 113 speaks of the worshippers of a certam
god as having his name branded on them; and such was the custom among the
ancient Hindoos, Asial, Res. VII. p. 2dl seq. In like manner, the worsliippers
of the beast, in the sequel, arc represented as bearing his mark, 13: ](j— If . 14:
9, 11. 16: 2. 10: 20. 20: 4. Comp. 3 Mace. 2: 29. I do not apprehend, however,
that in our text any particular reference is made to this custom among idolatrous
nations, but merely to the passage in Ezek. 9: 4, where the murk is both symbol
and pledge of exemption from slaughter.
r
172 SERVANTS OF GOD SEALED : ChAP. VII. 5 8.
Num. 7: 84 — 8G ; twelve prefects over Israel, 1 Kings 4: 7 ; twelve
lions near the royal throne, 1 Kings 10: 20 ; twelve oxen supporting the
brazen laver, 1 Kings 7: 25 ; the altar twelve cubits long and twelve
broad, Ezek. 43: 16, etc. See Exc. II. at the end. A thousand is the
frequent and familiar number for designating many, and oftentimes it
stands for an indefinite number ; Ps. DO: 4. 2 Pet. 3: 8. Rev. 20: 2, 3.
Dan. 7: 10. Rev. 5: 11, comp. Heb. 12: 22. That there were exactly
the number 12,000 of each tribe, who were Christians at this period, I
suppose will hardly be contended for by any sober interpreter. Some
of the tribes seem to have been extinct ; at least one of them (Dan) is
omitted in the sequel. Of the descendants of the ten tribes, there were
certainly but a small number in Judea, at this period. The 144,000,
then, designates a goodly number, we may say a large mimher, of
Clii'istians from among the Jews. If, however, the reader has any dif-
ficulty on the score of making out so many Jewish Christians, he may
consult Acts 6: 7. 12: 24. 19: 20. Very considerable progress, accord-
ing to these passages, we must suppose the gospel to have made among
the Jews, when the Apocalypse was Avritten.
Ewald labours here, in order to establish his view of this part of the
Apocalypse, viz. that it extends to and comprises all Chiistians in every
part of the earth, to show that all Christians then bore the title of Jews,
because it was among the Jews, and by Jews, that the Gospel was
first propagated. But his arguments, built merely upon hypothetical
propositions, are far from being satisfactory. How is it possible, after
attentively reading the epistles to the Romans, Galatians, and Hebrews,
to suppose that all Christians were regarded as Jews, in the days of the
apostles ? Besides ; what could induce the writer in the present case,
to make this enumeration so particular and specific as he has done, if
he did not intend to show, that Christians in the land of Judea only, at
all events principally, were intended to be included here ? The dan-
gers of other Christians, in other lauds, are brought to view in another
part of the book, i. e. in chap, xii— xix.
(5 — 8) Of the tribe of Reuben twelve thousand, etc.
The manner and order of enumeration here demand some special ex-
planation, (a) The order is not that of hir-th ; for the order of birth
in Gen. xxix. xxx. is thus : Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naph-
tali, Gad, Asher. Issachai", Zebulun, Joseph, and Benjamin. Li the
blessing of Jacob, Gen. xlix. this order is changed, and runs thus :
Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachai', Dan, Gad, Asher,
Naphtah, Joseph, and Benjamin. In the blessing of Moses, Deut.
xxxiii, a different order still is observed : Reuben, Judah, Levi, Ben-
jamin, Joseph, Zebulun, Issachar, Gad, Dan, Naphtali, Asher j in
SERVANTS OF aon SEALED : Chap. VII. 5 — 8. 178
wliich list, moroovcr, Simeon is omitted. So apain, in Ezek. xlviii.
there are two enumerations of the twelve tribes, both in an order differ-
ent from each other, and from the preceding arrangements : viz. in
31 — 34, where I^evi is reckoned as one, and Joseph as only one;
while in vs. 1^27, which have respect to the division of the country,
Levi (who had no heritage in land) is omitted, and at the same time
Ephraim and Mana^sch are counted as two tribes.
{b) This last mode of reckoning points us to a peculiarity which has
reference to the division of country ; for in this, one tribe, viz. that of
Levi, is of course to be omitted. Thus, in Num. xiii, Levi is omitted ;
and Ephraim and Joseph (i. e. Manasseh) are reckoned as two tribes,
so as to complete the number twelve. Here also, in v. 11, the writer
expressly states, that he means by Joseph to designate the tribe of
Manasseh, because (v. 8) he had before mentioned Ephraim : " Of the
tribe of Joseph, namely of the tribe of Manasseh." This last circum-
stance has an important bearing on the explanation of the passage in
the ^Vpocalypse now before us ; for in Rev. 7: 6 Manasseh is mentioned,
w hile in v. 8 Joseph is also named. By Joseph, then must doubtless be
here meant Ephraim ; for this is a parallel case with that in Num. 13:
11. So in Num. i, in twice reckoning the tribes, Levi is omitted,
and Ephraim and Manasseh are inserted. So also in Josh. xvi. xvii,
Ephraim and Manasseh are reckoned as txvo distinct tribes ; Josh. 14:
4 expressly declares this. In the prolonged account of the original
division of Canaan, in Joshua xiii — xix, Levi is of course omitted, be-
cause he had no heritage; see 13: 15, 24, 29 (comp. 17: 1, 2). 15: 1.
IG: 5. 18: 11. 19: 1, 10, 17, 24, 32, 40, where Manasseh and Ephraim
are again counted as two tribes. For the reason of the omission of
Levi, see Josh. 14: 3, 4, and 18: 7.
(c) We perceive an obvious reason for the omission of Levi, in the
preceding accounts of the apportionment of the country. But there
are other cases in the O. Testament, of a similar nature in regiu'd to
the method of reckoning, i. e. the omission of some tribes, which are
not dependent on this principle. E. g. Deut. xxxiii. omits Simeon, in
the blessing of Moses. So in 1 Chron. 4: 1, 24. 5: 1, 11, 23 (comp. 7:
14). G: 1. 7: 1, G, 13, 20, 30. 8: 1, the sons of Benjamin are twice
reckoned ; Ephraim and Manasseh are both counted ; and the tribes of
Zebulun and Dan are both omitted; although in 1 Chron. 21: 2, the
whole twelve are inserted. Such are the facts before us. It remains
now to apply them to the solution of the difficulty in the text.
In the cases mentioned under (c), we find, first, that Simeon is
omitted in the blessing of Moses ; and, secondly, that in the second
enumeration in Clu-onicles both Zebulun and Dan are omitted, while
Ephraim and Manasseh are counted as two tribes, and Benjamin is
174 SERVANTS OF GOD SEALED : ChAP. VII, 5 — 8.
twice inserted. In (h), we find Levi purposely omitted, in the accounts
of the division of the country, while Ephraim and Manasseh are count-
ed as two tribes. Consequently we see, that the tivelve tribes are dif-
ferently reckoned, at different periods, and according to the different
objects in view. There are no two cases in the whole Bible, where
the order and number of the names are both the same.
The like liberty now, has the author of the Apocalypse taken in the
case before us. Dan is omitted, and Ephraim and Manasseh are in-
serted as constituting two tribes. It is true, that Ephraim is not named
expressly, but is called Joseph (v. 8). Yet there is nothing strange in
this, for in Num. 13: 8, 11, Ephraim is named and Manasseh is called
Joseph ; which is exactly parallel with the present case of the same
nature ; and therefore no more illustration of this seeming peculiarity is
needed.*
* The different hypotheses that have been invented for solution of the diffi-
culty before us, are hardly worth examining or even naming, after these views
have been given from the O. Testament. Grotius thinks that the tribe of Dan is
omitted, because it was nearly extinct, when the Apocalypse was written. If
such were the fact, then the omission on tliis ground may indeed be deemed
probable. Proof of the fact, however, is wanting, excepting we gather it from
the later imprecations of the Rabbins against the tribe of Dan, as having taken
the lead in idolatry; see Heinrichs Comm. II. p. 2.31. Hartwig, in his .'ipologie
der Jipocalypse, Th. II. p. 237 seq., supposes JAN to have arisen from Mu4N,
and this to have been put by abridgment for MavaaaTj ; and yet Andreas, Origen,
and even Irenaeus, found the reading Mavaaatj, and speak of the difficulty aris-
ing from it; so that such a conjecture is underserving of serious notice. Eich-
horn, Heinrichs, and others, are inclined to maintain, that the omission was be-
cause of the early apostacy of Dan to idolatry, Judg. xviii. and 1 Kings 12: 2!), 30.
But what shall we say of the still earlier idolatry recorded in Ex. xxxii. ; and of
the repeated and long continued examples of it among all the tribes, as recorded
in the books of Judge.?, Kings, and Chronicles.' Eichhorn, after Bengel, has also
suggested another solution, viz., that the word Manasseh (Rev. 7: 6) is used in a
symbolical and enigmatical manner; for rs: means <o /or^ei, and n'i3.>3 would
therefore signify' oldiriscendus, i. e. he whu ought to he forgotten or passed by, viz.
Dan, either because of his idolatry, or because of the fewness of his number. Yet
TrnjiZ , Part. Piel, cannot mean ohlivisr.endus, but facicns oblivisci, or iradtns
oblivioni ; so that we offend against the laws of grammar by such an exegesis ;
and not only so, but to single out one name in such a catalogue, (a name too in
itself of proper significance), and make it enigmatical, while all the rest of the
names are considered merely as proper names, is doing a violence to the plain
principles of interpretation which is inadmissible. Last of all, the ancient inter-
pretation of Andreas, which has been followed by many, may be mentioned ;
which is, that the tribe of Dan is omitted, ok f| avT?j? Ti^ofitvov rov 'AvTi'/Qta-
Tov, i. e. because .Antichrist is to spring from it; see in Heinrichs, ut sup. p 232.
Whence this is to be proved ; or, even if it were true, how this could exclude the
Danites of John's day from a place on the list of the tribes then living; are ques-
tions that need no discussion.
SERVANTS OF GOD SEALED : ChAP. VII. 9. 175
The simple conclusion is, that the author followed the customary
mode of reckon in ij the tribes, prevalent at the time when he wrote.
That such a usus loqHeutU was prevsilent, seems to be plain from two
facts ; the one, that John would not have adopted a mode of reckoning
repugnant to the feelings and usages of his contemporaries, for nothing
was to be gained by so doing ; the other, that we have an abundance
of examples of a like method of reckoning in the 0. Testament. No-
thing strange could be thought of this, when John adopted it ; at least,
such seems to be the case, from a view of the facts that have been pre-
sented.
(9) After these things 1 looked, and behold I a great multitude which no man
could number, of every nation, and [all] tribes, and people, and tongues, stand-
ing before the throne and before the Lamb, clothed with white robes, and palm-
branches in their hands.
The form i]8vritT0, with /; for augment, is Attic and usual, N. Test.
Gramm. § 54. 3. Note 1. — "Ov doiiy^Fjaai aviov, like the Hebrew idi-
om, e. g. "n:"?!? l53!i'< xb t^'X; but see on v. 2 above. — Kai cfvXcov •/.. r. X.
in the plural, and therefore the plural of nag must be mentally supplied
before each. The actual repetition of the adjective is unnecessary, and
would here be ungrateful to the reader. — 'Eazwrtg the usual form, (in-
stead of eGTtjXbJTtg), arising from syncope and contraction, Kiihn. § 235.
3 and Anm. 6 ; used in the sense of the Pres. tense, Gramm. § 136.
Note 2. c. — Ilirni^^p.r^in'rovi;, coming from a verb which governs two
Accusatives (Gramm. § 104.) ; here the Part, is in the Pass, voice, and
it retains the latter of the Accusatives, Gramm. § 105. As to the Ace.
case of the Participle itself, (we should of course expect the Nom., like
taraJTeg), it must be solved by supposing the preceding tldov to lie still
in the writer's mind ; comp. the like idiom as to the Ace. case, in 4: 2 —
4. 13: 1—3. 14: 14 al., see Vol. I. § 15. p. 235 seq.
" The great multitude tvhich no man could number" is contrasted with
the 144,000 just mentioned as a specific number. — "E&vovg, qv).wi; Xa-
for, and yXaoaoh', (comp. on 5: 9), are designed to comprehend all na-
tions, or to designate unlimited universality ; they are not to be taken
in an individually specific sense, i. e. in one which is numerically accu-
rate. AVhat the writer means is, that great multitudes, gathered from
Gentile nations which were spread far and wide as well as from Jews,
appeared on this occasion before the throne. Nothing can be more nat-
ural. Christianity was everywhere suffering persecution at this time,
both from Pagans and .Jews. AVhen therefore the angel seals the ser-
vants of God in their foreheads, thus giving them a safeguard an<l a
passport, all the m:u-tyrs in heaven sympathize with this aff'ecting trans-
action, and unite in the expression of their joy and thanksgiving. One
spirit actuates them all. They see their brethren in Judea to be the
176 SERVANTS OF GOD SEALED : ChAP. VII. 10, 11.
first who were made secure from the persecuting power ; for their suf-
ferings had preceded those of others, and had also been jnuch the most
protracted. God is now thanked and praised for this interposition of his
great raercj. From whatever quarter the martyrs come, by whomsoever
their blood was shed, the same splendid robes are given them, and they
carry palm-branches in their hands, (so did the victors in the athletic con-
tests of Greece and Rome), as the emblem of their having overcome the
world, and continued steadfast even to the end. By mentioning the great
number here concerned in this act of thanksgiving and praise, the writer
enhances the intei'est and importance of the scene, and discloses the sym-
pathy which the saints in heaven have with the prosperity of the church
on earth. Another object also is answered. In 6: 6 — 11 it is said, that
the number of martyrs must be still more augmented, before the consum-
mation of punishment will arrive. Here we see that the number has been
augmenting; more of this augmentation is also disclosed in the sequel.
(10) And they cry with a loud voice, saying : Salvation to our God who silteth
on the throne, and to the Lamb.
'^mrtiQiu, deliverance, viz. from the dangers then impending. It has
reference here, to the sealing of the servants of God in their foreheads,
and of course to the safety that was thus assured to them. The dan-
gers were so great, that nothing but the special favour and protection of
God could save the righteous from being destroyed. Comp. in 19: 1 a
similar sentiment, after escape from the destruction of Babylon. — Qaoi
xcu uQvloi, whei'e, as in nearly all other cases, the same action, or at least
a conjoint action, is ascribed to God and the Lamb, viz. the deliverance
of the righteous from the power of their enemies.
The sympathy of all the martyrs in heaven with what the church in
Judea is doing and suffering, is so perfectly natural that no explanation
is needed. Nor does the sentiment that is subjoined require much ex-
planation, when it represents all the heavenly world as participating in
the sympathies and hopes of those who are sealed, and in thanksgiving
to God who has laid a foundation for these hopes. So the context.
(11) And all the angels stood around the throne and the elders and the four
living creatures, and they fell upon their faces before the throne, and worshipjcd
God';
'EaTi]-Aeoar, third pers. plur. of Pluperf. from lozii^i. The more usual
form of the tense ending in third plur. is — saav instead of the normal
— 8iauv. As the Perf. here has the sense of the Pi-esent, (KiJhn. § 203,
5), so the Pluperf. has the meaning of the Imperf. ; see on the form,
Kiihn. § 175. 5. — KvxXo) rov &q6vov y.ul rav noeo^vziQcov x. r. I. makes
it sufficiently plain in the Greek, that the angels are here represented
as standing in the oicter circle of all these ; while the English version,
SERVANTS OF GOD SEALED: ClIAP. VII. 12 — 14. 177
not to leave the point dubious, supplies the preposition ahout^ before the
words ciders and linii;/ credfures. The martyrs are doubtless to be re-
garded as here Jissoeiated with the elders ; for so v. 9 clearly shows,
which represents them as standing eimthov rov {}{>()i'ov y.(U ivianiov zov
aQviov. 1 have before called the attention of the reader to the fact,
that to the redeemed in heaven is given pi-ecedence of rank before the
ministering angels in general, comp. 1 Cor. G: 3.
* (12) Saying: Anion! Blessinir, and glor}', and wisdom, and thanksgiving, and
honour, and power, and inijrht, be unto our God forever and ever!
Tiie same doxology for substance occurs, as we have seen, in 5: 12 ;
see the notes there. But the order of the words is difterent here ; and
ttXovtov there is exchanged here for evj^aQiaria, i. e. thanksgiving.
There the ascription is to the Lamb, here it is to our God. The same praise
is of course rendered to both. In respect to the universalifi/ of those who
render it, the passage in i>: 11 is the most emphatic and all-com[)rising.
(13) Then one of the ciders accosted me, saying: Tliese, who are clothed with
white robes — who are they ? And whence did they come ?
Kai', in this book, stands at the head of all manner of transitions.
Here the transition is so great, that the7i is more appropriate than and
in English. — Jin^y.ni&tj . . . h'ycov fioi = "i-N^ ^ij^' , which is frequent
in Hebrew. The verb n:i' often means to commence an address, Ges.
. Lex. M3r No. 2 ; and the same is true with respect to dnoxQivo^ai in
the N. Testament. This is evidently the meaning here. — Ei^' Ix . . .
see on this idiom in 6: 1.
The object of the questions here, on the part of the author, is to
bring more distinctly into view the character and state of the martyrs in
heaven. The writer seems to have had in his mind the passage in
Zech. 4: 4, 5 ; which will be easily understood by a comparison. But
here, the manner of the question — as it proceeds fx'om one of the elders
— is more striking and peculiar.
(14) And 1 said to him: My lord, thbu knowest. And he said to me : These
are tliey who come out of great tribulation, and have washed their robes and
cleansed tliem in the blood of the Lamb.
KvQts fiov, my lord; in our English version, Sir. Rightly as to
sense ; for such is our usual mode of address. But the Hebrew mode
was "^:~ix = xv(>it' /lov. Mg sir, our idiom does not permit. 3fg lord is
merely a respectful mode of address, in the mouth of a Hebrew ; al-
though it might be used in a sense higher than simply this ; but then
the Hebrews said "^nx, and not "'Six.
2lv ol8(Cf', i. e. I am unable to answer the question, but thou canst
easily answer it. The modesty and respect of the seer, in this case,
are rendered very palpable. — T/^s i>At'i/'icoi,' [Atyuhj';, the great ajjliction,
VOL. II. 23
178 SERVANTS OF GOD SEALED : ChAP. VII. 15, 16.
i. e. persecution even unto death. — "Enlvvav, have ^cashed, refers to the
white robes Avith which they were clothed. — 'Eluvxavuv, lit. have made
loMte ; but this primary meaning is incongruous here. To malce xohite
by washing in hlood is an inconsistent expression. Of course the se-
condary sense of the verb, viz. to cleanse, to petrify, (from the well
known rite of cleansing things by blood under the ancient ritual), is the
only proper meaning to be assigned to Iktvxavav here. The meaning
is, that the Lamb has redeemed them by his blood, and thus conferred
on them the honour of being clothed in white. On the use of the Aor.
in these two cases, instead of the Perf. (which might have been used),
see N. Test. Gramm. § 136. 5. 3, and comp. § 136. 3. Note 2.
(15) Because of tliis they are before the throne of God, and serve him day and
niglit in his temple; and he who sitteth upon the throne will spread his tent over
them.
The redeemed are made Hnffs and priests to God, 1: 6. Hence, like
the priests of old, they serve him in his temple day and night, i, e. with-
out cessation. — ^yjjvcaaEi. fV avzovg, English version, shall dwell among
them. But this would be in avzolg. The Ace. here with ml must de-
note one of two things, viz. either, (a) That the glory of God, the
Shechinah, nilT;' 'tis? 5 should rest on them or over them, as over the ark
of the covenant, and over the tabernacle of old; see Ex. 40: 34 seq.
Num-. 9: 15 — 23; or (5) That he will erect his tent over them, i. e.
receive them into intimate connection and union with him, and afford
them his protection. That o-Ar^voat may mean to furnish with a tent,
etc., is plain from the nature of the verb ; for verbs of this class often
have a like meaning ; e. g. arhcpavoa, to furnish loith a croion, TTzegoco,
to furnish with wings, etc. Either of the above meanings is good ; but,
on the whole, I prefer the latter; comp. Is. 4: 5, 6. Ps. 27: 5. 121: 5,
6. Is. 49: 10.
(16) They shall hunger no more, neither shall they thirst any more, neither
shall the sun fall upon them, nor any scorching heat.
Ov . . . in and ovds . . . en, no more or never . . . 7iever, is a mode of
negation so often repeated in the Apocalypse (comp. 18: 22, 23), that
it is somewhat peculiar to this book, in respect to frequency, although it
is in itself good Greek ; see Luke 20: 40. Matt. 5: 13. John 14: 30.
Gal. 4: 7. Heb. 8: 12. Buttm. § 149. voc. sn.
'0 ijhog here designates what we call the st7'oke of the sun, i. e. an
excessive solar heat which creates a raging thirst and fever. — IJuv y.uv-
fia is generic and includes all kinds of heat, that of the night as well as
that of the day. The original idea, however, in Is. 49: 10, which seems
to be here alluded to, is a little different ; " No sun nor n'n'j shall smite
them" The word 2'ii^ means mirage, i. e. that appearance of water,
SERVANTS OF GOD SEALED: ClIAP. VII. 17. 179
wliich is occasioned by licat that, makes the vapour exhale from the
samlv desert, and whicli often misleads and destroys the unwary travel-
ler by its deeei)tive appearance. Whether the writer intended to ex-
press this by xai'ita here, may possibly be doubtful. I have followed
the most simple meaning of the Greek, in the explanation above ; but
83 the Septuaginf, in Is. 49: 10, have rendered 3n":J by xavcjoiv = the
Sirocco, there cannot be much objection to the idea, that John may
have intended to express the same meaning by x«y//«. It is at least
very descriptive, and sulficiently appropriate.
(17) For tlie Lamb who is in the midst of tlio throne sliall lead tlicm, and he
will guide them to fountains of livinij water, and God will wipe away every tear
from their eyes.
Jlvii nioor is a phrase of some difliculty. Passow gives to avd with
the Ace, the same meaning that tr has with the Dat. ; e. g. dia azoiia =
iv 6t6^iuti ; and there are many cases where this may be correct. But
in the case before us, there may be doubt whether such a sense is ad-
missible. The Lamb is still standing between the thro7ie and the elders ;
of course he was now, while the speaker w^as contemplating him, not
seated on the throne. In Mark 7: 31, we have did fii-'aov toji' oqi'mv
/Jtxanolecog, i. e. over against the limits of Decapolis ; for Decapolis
was on the east side of the lake of Galilee, and the journey of Jesus
from the coasts of Tyre and Sidon to the sea of Galilee (as here assert-
ed), could not possibly be through the mi(i^t of the coasts of Decapolis,
as our English version has it. ^ylrd iit'aov here may have a meaning
different from the tp f/saoj in Rev. 4: 6. 5: 6 ; for in the passage before
us, it may mean the same as ivwmov zov d-novov, except that it implies
a station opposite or over against the middle of the throne, i. e. directly
in front of it. If however the writer be regarded as here declaring, not
what the station of the Lamb was at that moment, but what station be-
longed of right to him, then we may translate : in the midst, as I have
done in the version above.
IIoiiiavH, here not to feed, for the imagery is not simply that of a
ehepherd feeding his flock, although it is borrowed from that source.
The last part of the verse shows that another sense of noifiavH is re-
quired here, viz. that of leading, guiding, as a shepherd docs his flock,
or as a conductor leads a caravan through the desert where the mirage
is. This is shown by the next clause, which signifies as much as to say :
* He will not suffer them to. be misled and deceived by the a'l'J or xai}fitt,
so as to perish with thirst, but will safely guide them to fountains of
living water.' — ^0)/]^ is used as an adjective qualifying n'/^j'rts vdurMv,
and as such is jjlaced between the preposition and the principal noun.
'E^uhiifjei 6 Oeo^,' x. r. X. shows, that the metaphor of a shepherd and
190 THE TRUMPETS : Chap. VIII. 1.
his jiock is not intended to be continued here. To wijye away tears i»
an action appropriately having i*eference to human beings as such. The
meaning of the expression is obvious : ' God will assuage every sorrow,
and alleviate every suffering. Complete protection and defence, with
the supply of every want and a removal of every woe — shall be afford-
ed to alf faithful followers of the Lamb.'
THE TRUMPETS: CHAP. VIII. Seq.
[The servants of God being now secure against impending destruction, all
things appear to be in readiness for the execution of justice upon the persecutors
of the church. One seal, and one only, remains yet to be broken, of the volume
in which their destiny is inscribed; and it seems as if this must introduce the con-
summation. It is evident that such is represented to be the impression on the
great multitude who encircle the throne of God. They stand in silent and awful
expectation of the sequel which must take place, when that seal is broken. But
the Lord is 'slow to anger and of great m^Icy, not willing that any should perish,
but that all should repent and be saved.' 'Judgment is his strange work ;' and
delay does not prove that any uncertainty attends the final event. Besides ; it
had already been declared (6: 11), that some delaxj would take place, until more
martyrdoms should be accomplished. Here then the writer introduces various
circumstances by which this is .^ptly brought about. The breaking of the last
seal, instead of presenting a single symbol of a single event, is followed by a new
series of events which is^isparted into seven gradations or stages of accomplish-
y-^ ment; and these are presented" as becoming gradually more and moreannoying
and destructive to the enemies of the church. Trumpets, the usual^emblems of
jwar and Jjloodshed, are chosen as emblems of the series of judgments now to be
inflicted. Tlie first four trumpets affect the earth, the sea, the rivers with the
springs, and the heavens. The remaining three indicate judgments that fall more
immediately upon men.
The present chapter comprises the first four trumpets ; and the evils which
they introduce occur in the order already named. But before any of the trum-
pets are sounded, symbols are presented in heaven of the judgments about to take
place. The supplication of the saints for the relief of the church comes up be-
fore God, along with the incense which is presented before his throne ; and the
answer that will be made to these supplications is symbolized by the action of an
angel, who casts fire down upon the earth, which calls forth thunder, lightning,
and earthquake, all indicative of future destruction to the enemies of the church.
Such is the picture before us, and such the plan of the writer by which gradual
approach is made to the final catastrophe. Placed in this simple light, there is
nothing here which does not become intelligible and significant. Indeed the gen-
eral design is sufficiently plain to any intelligent reader, who considers well the
great outlines of the author's plan.]
(1) And when he opened the seventh seal, there was silence in heaven about
half an hour.
The reason of this attitude of the CoeUcolae has been stated above.
THE TRt'MrF.Ts: Chap. VIII. 2, 3. 181
But (o make this silence — which is merely the expression of deep
and tearful sympathy with the expected sequel — a fulfilment of all
which the breakinpj of the seventh seal indicates, and then to separate
the seven trumpt^ts from this seal entirely, as Vitringa and others have
done, seems to be wholly overlooking the nature of the writer's plan-
But to go even farther still, and make silence, in such circumstances, to
indicate milloininl rest and peace, seems quite to exceed the bounds of
credibility. Yet Vitringa (pp. 319 seq.) has done this ; and Beda and
others have supposed this silence to indicate the rest of the church after
the destruction of Antichrist, (Vitringa ut supra, p. 32G). How can
the silence of half an hour appro[triately indicate the long rest of the
Millennium ? ^'itringa answers this question by remarking, that ' half
an hour seemed to John a very long time, when waiting for a catastro-
phe.' But even if there were any good ground for such a remark, a
method of exegesis which breaks up or confuses the regularity of plan
and development in the writer's Epopee, is wholly inadmissible.
(2) And I saw the seven angels who stand before God ; and seven trumpets
were given to them.
The writer does not say merely seven angels, but rovg tnTu ayyit-
Xovg, THE seven angels. The reader is referred to Rev. 1: 4, with the
notes and Excursus, for the illustration of this passage. The seven
presence -angels are doubtless denoted here. Whether this number was
borrowed, as has been affirmed, from the seven coimsellors of the Per-
sian king, i^iiji, 1^, or from other sources, it matters not ; comp.
Tobit 12: 15. It is at all events an ancient mode of designating the
number ; and that it was familiar to the minds of the ancient Jews, ap-
pears from the passage in Tobit to which reference is made.
Seven trumpets, because the sounding of the trumpet is the usual sig-
nal of battle and of slaughter. » By whom these trumpets were given to
the angels, is not said. Nor is it at all necessary to particulanze in
such cases, in a composition like the present. Of coui*ser-they were
given by the direction of Him who sat^upon the throne.
(3) And another angel came and stood by the altar, having a golden censer ;
and there was given him much incense, that he should place it, with the prayers
of all the saints, upon the golden altar that was before the throne.
'Ear ((.(ytj, placed himself, used like the middle voice; Buttm. § 136.
— yli^arbizov, lit. frankincense, the same as Xt^avog, and named from
mount Lebanon, where the tree grows which produces the gum. Here,
however, the word plainly means the pan or small vessel in which the
incense was placed and burned, i. e. a censer. The usual appropriate
name for such a vessel was h^avazQig ; see in Phryn. sub verlw, ed.
Lobeck. — J(aGri, put ov place, YikQ '{n ; and thus often in the N. Tes-
tament.
182 THK TRUMPETS : CnAP. VIII. 4, 5.
The nature of the representation supposes a temple in heaven, like
that on earth, in which God dwells, and where he is worshipped, as in
his earthly temple, by offering incense before him. — Tulg nooawj^arg
rtav ayibiv tzuptcov presents some difficulty, at first. But in Rev. 5: 8,
the twenty-four elders are represented as " each having golden bowls
filled with incense, which are the prayers of the saints," i. e. plainly,
which symbolize the prayers of the saints. Thus is it with the angel
here. The incense is the symbol of prayers which ascend to God and
find acceptance. So Ps. 141: 2, " Let my prayer be set forth before
thee as incense." The sweet savour of the incense is indicative of its
being grateful or acceptable ; see Gen. 8: 21. At the temple, the mul-
titude of worshippers wei'e accustomed to pray, while incense was burn-
ed ; Luke 1: 10. The Dat. rcdg 7ZQoaev)[aig x. t. X, I regard as a Dat.
indicating the manner or the circumstances in which the incense is pre-
sented. It is accompanied by the prayers of the saints. It goes up
befoi'e God, bearing along Avith it on its fragrant clouds (so to speak)
the prayers of persecuted Christians. It is the angel-intercessor who
presents these ; see Exc. I. Good Angels, No. 6. No sei'ious difficulty
exists, when the passage is viewed in this light.
Ewald understands the Dat. nQoaevj^uTg to be here a Dativus commodL
This would vary the shade of the meaning, but not the substance. As
he paraphrases it the sentiment would run thus : ' Much incense is
placed on the altar, to aid the" prayers of all the saints, i. e. to render
them more acceptable to God.' On the whole I prefer the other inter-
pretation as agreeing best with Rev. 5: 8. The Exc. named above will
show the reader how common the idea of angel-intercessors Avas among
the Jews, who were supposed by them to present the prayers of the
pious to God.
(4) And the smoke of the incense, with the prayers of the saints, went up from
the hand of the angel before God.
The angel is supposed to take his stand by the altar of incense, and
to set down his censer upon it, but still to keep hold of the vessel with
his hand, while the fire, which is put to the contents of the censer,
sends up volumes of sweet vapour or smoke from the hand of the angel
thus continuing his hold upon the censer.
Having completed the symbol of the intercession, the author now
proceeds to exhibit another symbol, indicative of the consequences
which would follow.
(5) And the angel took the censer and filled it from the fire of the altar, and he
cast [the fire] upon the earth ; and there were loud thunders, and liglitnings, and
earthquake.
ED.>j(fev used as Aorist ; see, on this use, the remarks under 5: 7.
FIRST TRUMPET : ClIAP. VITT. G, 7. 183
The model of this symbol is in Ezek. 10: 2 seq. ; where, however, the
fire is taken from between the eherubim under the throne, and scattered
over the city of Jerusalem, as an emblem of its destruction. So here ;
the fire from the altar, cast down upon the earth, of course indicates
that the land on which it falls is to be consumed or destroyed. The
additional symbols of thunder, lightning, and earthquake, leave no
room for doubt as to the meaning of this symbolical ti'ansaction. The
prayers of the saints are accej)ted ; consequently the power of persecu-
tors is about to come to an end. — qooval y.ai ^qovzui, see on 4: 5.
(6) And the seven angels, wlio had the seven trumpets, made themselves ready
that they might sound [them].
Hzoinuaav iaviov'i, i. e. assumed the attitude of readiness, to blow
the trumpet. — "ira aaXniabaai = acO.niXt.iv ; sec Gramm. § 1G2. 3.
Note 2. The Aor. form here used belongs to the later Greek; old
Aor. Subj. aa'kni'y'^w.
After the indications thus given, as to what the will of Heaven was
in respect to persecutors, no further delay was to be expected. All is
now ready for the commencement of final action.
(7) And the first [angel] sounded, and tliere was hail and fire mingled with
blood, and they were cast upon the earth ; and the third part of the earth was
burned up, and the third part of the trees was burned up, and all the green grass
was burned up.
The passage of the O. Testament which closely resembles this, is in
Ex. 9: 22—25, comp. Ps. 78: 47, 48. In Ex. 9: 24 it is said, that
" fire was mingled with the hail." But here "the hail and fire are
mingled with blood." By hlood we must naturally understand, in this
case, a shower of coloured rain, i. e. rain of rubedinous aspect ; an oc-
cuiTence which is known sometimes to take place, and which, like fall-
ing stars, eclipses, etc., was viewed with terror by the ancients, because
it was supposed to be indicative of blood to be shed. The neut. plur.
fieftiyfit'va follows (as often in such cases) the gender of the nearest
noun, nvn; the sing, number could not be used here, because the parti-
ciple refers both to yd).u^(c and nvn. — E^Xi'j&ij, i. e. the mixture, iinfny-
in'vu, was cast upon the earth ; or t^hl&ij may be connected in syntax
with the nearest of the two nouns, nvQ ; as is often the case, even when
tiie verb relates to two or more subjects, while, in respect to form or
number, it conforms only to the last of the two.
7o tqi'tov . . . y.aTf:y.(a;, evidently a dcfini^ quantity for a conjsidera-
t>le one. Tlie use of this number (a third) is very frequent in the
.^ocalypse ; see in vs. 8 — 12, also 9: 15^ 18. VH 4r~"jiul such a usage
is not new. The model is in Ezek. 5: 2, 12. So in Zccli. 13: 8, 9.
The same usage is common in the Kabbinrc writingi. The herbs and
184 SECOND AND THIRD TRUMPET : ChAP. VIII. 8 — 11.
trees are here mentioned as being destroyed by the hail and fire, just as
in Ex. 9: 25.
(8) And the second angel sounded, and as it were a great mountain burning
with fire was cast into the sea; and a third part of the sea became blood.
The image here is that of a volcanic mountain cast into the ocean, by
which the waters are discoloured, or turned red. The original of this
picture in the main is in Ex. 7: 20 — 25. But the image of the hurning
mountain is new, and approjpriate to John.
(9) And a third part of the creatures in tiie sea, which have life, perished ; and
a tJiird part of the ships were destroyed.
Comp. Ex. 7: 21 for the first part of this verse. — Ta vfovra here is
the neuter plural Nom. agreeing with v.rio\x.arav Gen. plural. Such a
construction in Si jjcirticijnal clause is quite common ; see Gramm. § 72. 1.
To TQizov Twv nlomv diecpOuQijaav. Here the third pers. plur. of
the verb is employed, because tqizov is a generic noun. This imagery
is peculiar to John, and is not found in Ex. 7: 20 — 25. — A third part is
designated, in this case, with the same meaning as before. The whole
symbol imports, that destruction awaits the persecutors of the church,
on the sea as well as on the land.
(10) And the third angel sounded, and there fell from heaven a great star,
burning like a lamp ; and it fell upon a third part of the rivers, and upon the
fountains of the waters.
The image of falling stars we have already found, in 6: 13. These
were apparently smaller bodies than the burning mountain, and so might
fall into rivers and fountains. That the writer had a comet here in
view, as Eichhorn and Heinrichs suppose, does not seem to be proba-
ble. The image is taken from the blazing meteors, which often appear
in the atmosphere, and which do actually fall upon the earth. But the
mischief which the star occasions, in this case, is an idea that is purely
poetic.
(11) And the name of the star is called Wornuoood ; and a third part of the wa-
ters become wormwood, and many men died by reason of the waters, because
they were bitter.
The poisonous quality ascribed to the star-in this case, seems to re-
sult from a designed analogy to the effects of the second trumpet, where
the waters are turned to blood. Here the quality of the waters into
which the star falls, becomes such as is found at times in the desert and
mo|asses, of which unwary and thirsty travellers sometimes drink so as
to bring on dangerous diseases. How one star could affect so m^iy
rivers and fountains, it would hardly belong even to the rhetorician to
inquire ; for in such a poetic representation as this, a liberty of ,,su9h a
MtHiT^tGgy
FOURTH TRUMPET : Chap. VIII. 12. 185
nature is notliing stran<Tc. Evidently the author supposes the star to
have fallen upon the sources of springs and rivers.
'0 difmOos' is anomalous in respect to gender, for in common Greek
usage it hfi'inhiiiw. But as the herb uiNvC^oi; is not here meant, but a
^<ar, it is probable tliat the change of gender is a matter of design.
Moreover it is not very common to put the article before the noun which
follows a verb of naming ; but still, this usage is sometimes followed
even in the classics, as well as in this book ; see Gramm. § 89. 7. The
Hebrew word n:?3 (Prov. 5: 4) is rendered dxihv&iov by Atpiila; and
the poisonous elVects of this herb may be seen by comi)aring Jer. 9: 15.
23: 15. Lam. 3: 15, 19. Deut. 29: 18. Heb. 12: 15. See also in Ex.
15: 23, where the waters of Marah (bitterness) are represented as not
being drinkable. Of the poisonous quality of the uxl'ivQo^ here named,
there can be no doubt ; that is, no doubt can be entertained, that the
author viewed the subject in this light.
The destruction of men commences with this third trumpet ; but only
in a moderate degree. Only one third part of the rivers and fountains
are poisoned by the star ; and only noXXni twp uvO^qcottoov, who drank
of these, are destroyed, i. e. as we say, ?7iany persons, a considerable
number, perished.
(12) And the fourth angel sounded, and a third part of the sun, and a third
part of the moon, and a third part of the stars, was smitten, in order that a third
part of them might be darkened, and the day might not shine as to a third part
thereof, and the night likewise.
The original of this picture may be found in Ex. 10: 21 — 23. But
here are special characteristics which belong to the author only. A
third part of all the luminaries being eclipsed, a gloomy and ominous
light would of course be diffused over the earth, which would fill the in-
habitants with consternation ; as eclipses always did in former times,
whether partial or total. The idea is not, that one third i)art of the
time or length of the day, etc., was totally dark — but that the lumina-
ries by day and night were shorn of one third part of their usual splen-
dour ; although, at first view, the latter part of the verse would seem to
intimate the former meaning,
7/ ijitiQa ... TO TQirov avT^^', i. e. as to a third part of its accustom-
ed light. To TQt'zop avrfjg is epexegetical, and is to be considered as in
the Ace. abs. adverbial. — Kui ij vv^ oftoicog, i. e. nai ij vv^ [fi^ q)atvr] to
rnlznv avi^fq] ofwi'wi;, the phrase being brachylogical or elliptic. The
meaning is, that the moon and stars, which give light by night, were
deprived of one third part of it, in like manner as the sun, so that the
night had but two thirds of its usual light.
Thus are completed the four preparatory symbols, which annoy and
terrify men, rather than destroy them to any great extent. But the
VOL. II. ^ 24
186 FIRST WOE-TRTJMPET : ChAP. IX. 1 — 12.
execution of divine justice is now to commence, witli deeper tones of in-
dignation and scourges more highly lifted up. Yet before this is done,
a herald, flying through mid-air, makes a solemn proclamation to the
world of that which is about to take place.
(13) And I looked, and 1 lieard an eagle, flying in mid-air, saying with a loud
voice : Woe ! woe ! woe ! to those who dwell in the land, by reason of the remain-
ing sounds of the trumpet of the three angels who are yet to sound.
'Evog, used as a pronoun indefinite ; see on eig under 5: 5. — J4e70v,
an eagle. But does this mean merely the bird itself? Or does the au-
thor intend to signify, that an angel, moving as swiftly as an eagle,
flies, or with wings like an eagle's, passes, through the air? The lat-
ter, I doubt not ; for the writer immediately says : )JyovTog Cfsavij ^f.yu-
Irj -A. T. X. This would be incongruous, in case we consider dstov as a
mere bird. In Is. 21: 8, the watchman cries out n.''"ix, i. e. as a lion,
for it is the Ace. of manner, quasi lion-ivise. Here the angel, furnished
Avith eagle-tvings, (the swiftest and most powerful of all wings), moves
through mid-air solemnly to proclaim the approaching catastrophe, so
as to inspire terror, and give warning to all. — MsoovQuv/jfiazt, usually
the meridian, but here plainly the mid-air. OvQctvog, like Ci';''?'^ , fre-
quently means the air, i. e. the space between the sky and the earth.
Borne aloft, then, midway between earth and sky, this heavenly mes-
senger proclaims to the world the approaching doom of persecutors.
FIRST WOE-TRUMPET : CHAP. IX. 1—12.
[The three remaining trumpets are usually designated by the name of the xcoe-
truvipets, in reference to the proclamation of woes, as mentioned in 8: 13. The
nature oi' the first woe may be explained in a few words.
In the eastern world, over most of the countries of hither Asia, the appearance
of locusts in great numbers was witli good reason dreaded as a great calamity.
Drought, famine, and pestilence, were the usual accompaniments. Drought
favoured the multiplication and progress of the locusts ; famine was the neces-
sary consequence of their destroying all vegetation ; and pestilence was bred by
the destruction (sooner or later) of unnumbered multitudes of these rapacious and
fetid animals. A most vivid and glowing, as well as sublime, description of an
invasion by locusts, is given by Joel in chap. ii. His excited imagination views
them as advancing like a mighty overwhelming army, covering every part of the
land, thrusting themselves into every habitation, and spreading destruction on
every side. Their noise is like that of chariots upon the mountain tops; all faces
turn pale ; the earth quakes before them ; the sun and moon are darkened ; the
stars withdraw their light; the Almighty God marches at the head of this his
countless host, clothed with terror; the great and terrible day of his judgment is
come. The garden of Eden is before this army as they advance, an4 behind
them a desolate wilderness.
•
i
FIRST woE-TRijrrET : Crap. IX. 1 — 12. * 161
Many traits of tliis vivid picture by Joi-l^nro transferred to the description now
before us. Yet lliere is nolliing timt borders on mere imitation in our nulhor.
Besides a reffiird to the representation of Joel, it is manifest that Joiin's mind is
also affected by a view of the nintii plajjue of Egypt, i. e. the plague of the locusts,
as exhibited in Kx. 10: 12 — !'>. But there, as well as in the prophet Joel, the
locusts are presented in their appropriate and natural character, viz., as consum-
ers or destroyers of the vegetable productions of the earth. But this is not their
office in tlie Apocalypse. The writer had already (6: 5 — 7) introduced /rtwJKc as
one of the judgments which is connected with the breaking of the tliird seal.
His present object is, to designate the punishment more immediately inflicted
upon the persons of men.
In accordance with this design, the locusts are not commissioned against the
trees and herbage (!): 4), but to injure those " who have not the seal of God upon
their foreheads." For the accomplishment of this end, they are furnished with
teeth like those of a lion (v. f^), and with a sting in their tails like that of a
scorpion (v. 10). In this respect, therefore, thej* are peculiar to our author, and
entirely a conception of his own ; although many traits of the picture resemble
those found in the descriptions of locusts exhibited by other writers. Yet, lest
the final catastrophe should be hastened faster than the plan of the writer admits,
the wounds which they inflict are not mortal, (for how then should any escape
with life?) but only painful in the extreme, occasioning agony like that which a
scorpion inflicts when he strikes a man, v. 5.
To make the description more terrific, these new and unheard of armies of lo-
custs are not the offspring of those which are produced in the natural course of
thincs, but Ihey come from the principal source and seat of all that is evil and
abominable and dreadful — from the botlomless pit or uhijss, where Satan and evil
spirits reign. That horrid place is fraught with all that can hurt or destroy men;
and when once it is unlocked, there issues from it, in one form or another, monstra
iri^rntia, mulrftra, to plague and to lay waste the earth. In the present case,
ApoUyon himself, i. e. "'.t^S or tlic Drstroyrr, leads on and directs the hosts of
tormentors, commissioned against the enemies of the church. Their commission,
however, is but for a short time. As common locusts perform their work of de-
struction in about five months, and then die off or remove, so, in order that some
general analogy maybe presented, the author limits the time of the locusts, which
issue from the abyss, to the same period. The number of months need not be lite-
rally understood ; it should be taken in a symbolical sense ; and as meaning but
a comparatively short period. The shape of the sentiment seems to be plainly
thus : ' As the natural locusts commit their ravages only for five months, so tlie
ravages of these symbolical ones will be only for a short period.'
One other remark is proper. As the author has here plainly gone out of the
world of nature into that of imagination, in order to obtain materials wherewith
he may draw hi.s picture, so we are not to tax him with incongruities or monstros-
ities, because he does not confine himself within the bounds of natural verisimili-
tude. Beings purely imaginary in some respects he means to present; beings
endowed with powers unknown in the natural world his imagination forms; and
to compare tlie progeny thus ushered into symbolical existence with simple and
mere natural objects, would be most evidently to do him injustice. That he
should make his own picture consistent with itself, and even preserve natural ve-
risimilitude where he can do so without marring his own particular design, is all
that we can reasonably demand of him in a case of this nature. And this demand
he has met and satisfied.
188 FIRST WOE-TUUMPET : ChAP. IX. 1.
Allowing, now, that the general view here taken of the plague of the locusts is
correct, it follows that all attempts historically to apply this part of the Apoca-
lypse to the Zealots in Judea, as Eichhorn, Heinrichs, and some others have
done, are quite out of place. They appeal to the history of the Sicarii in Jose-
phus. Bell. Jud. II. 17. IV. 7. V. 2, in confirmation of their views. But one cir-
cumstance alone is enough to remove all probability from their interpretation ;
which is, that the locusts are not commissioned to kilt, but only to plague men.
Did not that band of Assassins, the Zealots, /iill men as well as plague thein .''
Was not death the usual consequence of provoking their enmity .' Besides, who
could expect, after all which has of late been done to cast light on the general na-
ture of the apocalyptic symbols, to find such writers as Eichhorn, Herder, and
Heinrichs, making such a specific and individual historical application of it .-*
The case before us is one which is specially fitted, to show the incongruity of such
a method of exegesis.]
(1) And the fifth angel sounded, and I saw a star fallen from heaven to the
earth ; and there was given to him the key of the bottomless pit.
To call an angel a star, is not new, nor without precedent ; although
we find the like appellation, when given to rational beings, commonly
in th§ plural number, or at least used as a noun of multitude. In Job
38: 7, the angels are called the morning stars ; and often in the O. Tes-
tament, the phrase host of heaven, 'c'^'cxtn X3:i, means the angels, as in
1 K 22: 19. 2 Chron. 18: 18. Ps. 148: 2. Josh. 5: 14 ; and often it al-
so means the stars. Is. 34: 4. 40: 26. 45: 12. Jer. 33: 22. These pas-
sages show, that these two very different classes of beings were still oc-
casionally designated by the same name. Not improbably this origi-
nated in part from the supposition, that the stars had their appropriate
guardian-angels, so that the same name might, as in many similar cases,
stand for both. So the matter seems to be considered and treated in the
book of Enoch ; which in 18: 16, says : " The stars which roll over fire,
are those which transgressed the commandment of God . . . for they
came not in their proper season." The like also in chap. 21: 3 — 6. 85:
1 — 87: 5. 89: 32, 33. All these passages, taken as a whole, make the
usage in question quite clear. By a figure similar to this in Rev. 4: 5,
the presence-angels are called burning lamps ; and in Is. 6: 2, the fi'^S'nia
probably have their name from ri'na , ardere, and so cS'^'i^ means arden-
tes or lucentes. In all these cases one simple idea lies at the basis, viz.,
that of splendour, resplendence. But the epithet stars is the noblest and
most significant of all.
That star means angel, in the text before us, is sufiiciently plain from
the sequel : The hey of the bottomless pit was given to him ; surely not
to a literal star, for this would be such an incongruity as cannot well be
imagined, and certainly not to be charged upon John, so long as any
other i:ational exegesis is practicable.
KXeig, keg, the ensign of power in cases like that in Rev. 3: 7 ; but
here, a kind of literal sense is appropriate. The abyss is regarded as
FIRST WOE-TRUMPET : ChAP. IX. 2. 189
locked up, in order to prevent its contents from emerging and destroy-
ing the eartli. Its mouth is here jsupposed to be narrow, like that of a
well or cistern ; and then it is also closed by a curb and door (after the
same similitude), to which a lock making it secure is attached. The
angel who descends as the minister of divine justice, is commissioned to
unlock or open the mouth of the great abyss, in order that the ensuing
plague might come forth, and overspread the land. Like images in re-
spect to the condition of Sheol may be found in Ps. 30: 10 (9). Is. 14:
15. Is. 5: 14, and in Enoch 54: 12. As to the doors or gates of the
under-world, comp, Ps. 9: 13. Is. 38: 10. Matt. 16: 18. Rev. 20:
1—3.
Tov qnt'uTo^, pit, well, is sufficiently explained by what has already
been said respecting the entrance to the great abyss or under-world,
which was supposed to be narrow, and to terminate, at the entrance into
the upper-world, by a door or gates. — T/y^* d(iva6ov, i. e. rij^ d^vcraov
^cor)«s", for the word d^ivaaog is an adjective in itself. However, it is
here and elsewhere employed as a noun. It means bottomless, ovjwith-
oiit bottom, i. e. that which is so deep that it cannot be sounded or mea-
sured, extending downwards indefinitely into the bosom of the earth.
From this dreary region, the place to which evil spirits are sometimes
sent, when they are confined and subjected to any special punishment,
(Rev. 20: 1—3. Luke 8: 31. 2 Pet. 2: 4), the plague of the locusts is-
sues. And certainly all this is very appropriate to the writer's purpose.
The dread of such a plague, issuing from such a place, must naturally be
supposed to be very great.
(2) And he opened the bottomless pit; and there went up a smoke from the
pit, like the smoke of a great furnace, and the sun was darkened, and the air, by
the smoke of the pit.
Kanvog uri\St]. The^pular ideas of Hades or the great Abyss were
perhaps formed from, or aTTeast produced by, well known facts respect-
ing volcanoes, which throw up an immense mass of fire from the bowels
of the earth ; for such facts must have been well known all around the
Mediterranean, Avhere was an Etna and a Vesuvius, and in more ancient
times, not improbably many smaller volcanoes. It does not contradict
this idea, that the under-world was also conceived of as being a place of
extreme darkness ; e. g. Job 10: 21, 22, where this is stated with great
force; Ps. 88: 12. So fitmeus Acheron, in Val. Flacc. 4. 595. Sheol
was conceived of as being immense in its extent, and having, like many
caves in the earth into which men can enter, various sinuosities and
apartments branching off, into which the fires in another and different
place could not throw. their gleams. Besides, here was confined tlie dark
conglomerated smoke that issued from the fire, and which would con-
tribute much to augment the general gloom; comp. Rev. 14: 11, " The
190 FIRST WOE-TRUMPET : Chap. IX. 3, 4.
smoke of their torments ascendeth up forever and ever," i. e. the smoke
which torments them, or which arises from their tormenting fire, is al-
ways ascending, or is never discontinued. But in this under- world, the
condition of all was not supposed to be the same. In some respects, in-
deed, there was not even a resemblance. In a world so immense, there
was naturally supposed to be room for a great diversity of situation.
That part of the under-world, however, where Satan and his coadjutors
dwelt, or at least where they were occasionally confined, was a mixture
of darkness and smoke and fires that were in a measure occult for want
of access to the air ; and consequently the idea of the u^vooog in which
Satan dwelt, is one fraught with terror and disgust.
I have dwelt more particularly on the explanation of this, because
Bochart (Hieroz. II. p. 495) explains the smoke in this case, by a refer-
ence to the fires which the husbandmen kindle in order to destroy the
locusts ; and Eichhorn, by a reference to the clouds of locusts so dense
and large, that they cut off the light of the sun, like the thickest smoke
in the atmosphere. Both explanations seem to me quite inept ; they
are in fact incongruous with the representation of the author.
That the sun and air were darkened, is a natural consequence of such
a volume of smoke as is here described.
(3) And from the smoke issued forth locusts upon the earth, and power was
given to them, as the scorpions of the earth have power.
Here the locusts are presented, not as causing the smoke or darkness,
as Eichhorn supposes, but as issuing from the smoke. Having dwelt in
it while in the abyss, they come forth along Avith it from the mouth of
the pit ; a spectacle truly of horror, and more especially so, as they are
not locusts of the ordinary kind, which have little or no power to harm
men, but are armed with stings like those of scoi'pions ; for this is meant
by saying, that they have power like that of scorpions, comp. vs. 4, 5. It
is indeed true, that locusts often appear in the oriental regions, in such
numbers as to darken the air, and cut off the light of the sun ; comp.
Ex. 10: 15. Joel 2: 2, 10 ; yet such is not the nature of the representa-
tion here.
Ol ay.OQnioi t//s yri^, land-scorpions, so named here, in distinction
from the so-called sea-scorpions, described by Bochart, Hieroz. II. p. 635.
(4) And it was said to them, that they should not hurt the grass of the earth,
nor any green herb, nor any tree, but the men who have not the seal of God upon
their foreheads.
Common locusts destroy every kind of vegetation ; and with this their
power of active injury ceases. Grass, trees, and every species of plant,
fall before them, i. e. they are stripped of every leaf and bud, and often
even decorticated. But these locusts from the bottomless pit, k yivog
IF
FIRST WOE-TRUMPET : ChAP. IX. 5, 6. 191
veov xai nuQado^oi; are designeolWiccomplish an object wholly differ-
ent. Passing by the natural productions of the earth, their appropriate
food, human beings become the objects of their attack.
jU'ter ft fii, the verb ddixijacoat must be mentally supplied — thei/
should not hurt the grass, tic, but [should injure] men, etc. This idiom
in respect to «i fit} is quite common in the N. Testament ; e. g. in Luke
4: 26, ti fdj [fVi/Tt'j/cjri^/;] ei\' ^^donTTTa', 4: 27, ti fUj [fx«i>«(»tr7v>/;] Ati-
ftuv. John 17: 12, ti iti; [rt;TwP.f:zo] o vi6i» T//i,' «;ra)/.£t'«s,'. And so often-
times al. loc.
(')) And it was given to tlicni, tJiat they should not kill them, but that they
should be tormented five months ; and their torment was like the torment of a
scorpion when he striketh a man.
In what way this injury was to be inflicted, is not here said ; but it
may be found in v. 10 below — f^ovG(v ovqu's oiioiag gxoqtti'oi^. Even
the wounds of scorpions are not usually fatal, unless they are neglected ;
but the poison is so acrid, that it occasions great agony. Like to this
are the images of the hornet, the bee, and the wasp, in the O. "Jtesta-
ment; e. g. Deut. 7: 20. Ex. 23: 28. Joshua 24: 12. Dent. 1: 44. Ps.
118: 12. Nor is the scorpion, as the symbol of atrocious and merciless
men, a new image ; see Ezek. 2: 6 ; comp. Bochart, Hieroz. IL pp.
632 — 645. — Uaiaii, may strike, in reference to the vehement thrust of
the scorpion's tail, when it inserts its sting.
J>7/]rrts" Jiivre. The usual time of locusts is from May to September
inclusively = five months. Here the natural traits of the locusts' his-
tory are preserved. The meaning must be, a short period. As to the
designation of jive months, rather than of any other small number, it is
enough to say, that it is a period which is doubtless chosen in reference
to the usual period of the locusts' depredations.
(6) In those days men shall seek death, and shall not find it, yea they shall
long to die, but death shall flee from them.
As to the fact, that distress or agony may be such, that death will be
earnestly desired, it is a matter of almost every day's experience ;
comp. Jer. 8: 3, and Job 7: 10. 10: 1. Kev. 6: 16, 17. This verse sets
forth the Saaunonog in a very vivid manner, and shows how exceed-
ingly intense it was.
The use of the Fut. tense in this verse, is rather striking. Why
does the writer here go into the future, when he represents all as pass-
ing under his own eye while in vision or ecstasy ? One reason may be,
the length of the period which here intervenes between the commence-
ment and completion of this woe, i. e. five months. It is certain however,
that there are in this book, as is common everywhere in Hebrew poetry,
changes of tense without any other apparent ground than for the sake
192 FIRST WOE-TRUMPET : ChAP. IX. 7.
of variety. They may be the result of a natural inclination to the
Hebrew usage ; comp. Rev. chap, xviii, where the different classes of
mournefs over the same event, viz. the fall of Babylon, make use of the
Fut. tense, v. 9 ; of the Pres. tense, v. 11 ; and of the Praeterite, v.
17 ; and the like of this may be found elsewhere. But in the present
case, what is now described is, future to what has just been described;
and besides this, what would be often done, on a condition mentioned, is
here set forth. The Fut. is in place. — fl^ev^Ezai, Fut. Midd. used as a
Fut. Active ; and this is the case in regard to a large part of the more
usual irregular verbs, such as £(/«', Xufi^dvco, ytyvojaxoj, ■&vij6y.(j3, yjuQO),
'&avixd(^(x), yehi03, and many others ; N. Test. Gramm. § 60. 5. Note.
In xal ini&v^., aai may be I'endered as intensive, for such is the senti-
ment ; the last Kai means and yet or but.
(7) And the forms of the locusts were like to horses ready for war ; and on
their heads, as it were crowns like to gold ; and their faces like the faces of men.
'Ofioia^ara, like the Hebrew ron'i in Ezek. 1: 16, 26, stands here
in the sense of formae, species, and denotes a, form or likeness which is
to be compared with some other form in order fully to perceive its true
nature. As to the resemblance of the locusts in itself considered, there
might easily be made out several traits. The galloping motion of the
locust is one; the rictus capitis is another; the rapid movement is an-
other ; the noise made in eating their food is another ; see Bochart,
Hieroz. II. p. 474 seq. Oedmann, Samml. zur Naturkunde, Fascic.
II. pp. 76 — 149. Volney, Voyage en Syrie, I. p. 277. Joel has pre-
sented the same image and comparison, in 2: 4. In each of the three
clauses in this verse, the verb of existence is implied.
Croivns like to gold probably means the horns (antlers, feelers) of the
locust, tipped with yellow, i. e. with a golden colour ; and these are
in all probability here called crowns, to show that they are emblems
of victorious and irresistible march. See their march fully described in
Joel 2: 7 — 9. Eichhorn and Heinrichs find helmets in these golden
crowns. But the explanation just given is adopted by Ewald, and it
seems most natural and congruous. In Rev. 13: 1, the crowns are rep-
resented as on the ends of the ten horns. So probably here.
TlQoobina dv\}Q(6nav must of course be limited to some particular
features only. The formation and prominence of the eyes and of the
forehead have resemblance to those of men. I apprehend the meaning
of the writer to be, that they wore the aspect, in their eyes and faces,
of truculent and ruthless soldiers in battle.
FIRST WOE-TRUMPET : ChAP. IX. 8, 9. 19t
(8) And they had hair like the hair of women, and their teeth were like those
of lions.
There are ft grBat many species of locusts, and some of them are
hairy. So Jer. 51: 27, "i-O ph^ , the locust bristling with hair. Eich-
hornsays: " Coma deest in veris locustis ;" in which, as the passaj^e
just quoted shows, he was much mistaken. Of course John would
here choose that species of locust for comparison, which was of the
most atrocious aspect. — il^ tqix^'» yvyuixcov, refers of course to the
abundance., not to the quality, of their hair.
'i:l'i).s6vTKiv VfCtav fiods its model in Joel 1: C, where the same com-
parison is repeated twice. The meaning is, that the teeth are such as
are adapted to bite and wound in a very effectual manner ; for such
are the teeth of a lion.
(K) And they had breast-plates like iron breast-plates; and the noise of their
wings was like the noise of many chariots of horses rushing into battle.
The breasts-plafes are to be refeiTed here to the hard and firm cuticle
on the fore-part of the locust, which serves as a shield while it moves
among the thorny and furzy vegetation ; armavit natura cutem, Clau-
dian, 83. 2, 3. — The noise of the locusts when they move, is spoken of
by almost all travellers. Joel has magnificently described it, 2: 4, 5.
<I>(ovt] aQudzcov . . . Fig TTolefWv. The succession of Genitives here
somewhat embarrasses the reader. We may render aQimrcov innoiv, by
horse-chariots ; for these are distinguished from chariots drawn by
mules, or other beasts of burden ; and whether we take unfxdrcov or
innav as an adjective, matters not as to the substance of the sense ;
for horse-chariots and chariots of horses, i. e. drawn by horses, are the
same. Ewald thinks ijincov spurious, because he finds difficulty in
making out an appropriate sense from it. It does not seem to me,
however, to labour viader any serious difficulty. There is still another
way of construing the sentence : Like the noise of chariots, while many
horses rush into the battle ; thus making the last clause a Gen. absolute.
But the use of the Gen. absolute in this book, is scarcely to be found ;
and if adopted here, would not give any very tolerable sense. There
might be horses rushing to battle without any chariots, i. e. cavalry such
as is usual. The real idea of the author is not obscure ; and it is given,
as it seems to rae, in the translation above.
Locusts, while they are young, fly but short distances at a time, like
our grass-hoppers ; but when fully grown, they will sustain a flight of
some considerable distance. Their wings make a shrill tinkling noise ;
and since the air is sometimes filled with these animals so thickly that day
is turned into night, (which is really the case), the descriptions in Johq
and in Joel appear very appropriate and striking.
VOL. II. 25
194 FIRST woe-trumpet: Chap. IX. 10 — 12.
(10) And they have tails like scorpions ; and stings were in their tails ; and
they had power to hurt men five months.
Here, in the last part of this particular description of the locusts, is
developed the secret of their power to injure men, already adverted to
but not described in v. 5 above. In this particular they differ from
natural locusts, and disclose their origin from the bottomless pit. The
writer does not tell us, on what they are supposed to feed ; for as they
are the progeny of the Abyss, they do not need the food of natural
locusts. This verse is a resumption of the action of the piece as de-
veloped in V. 5, which had been suspended a while for the sake of de-
scribing the extraordinary nature of these locusts. The reader will
note the historic Pres. in syovGtv, and then the change into I'jv. See
Gramm. § 136. 1. b. Note. As to five months, see on v. 5.
(11) And they have over them a king, the angel of the bottomless pit; his
name in Hebrew is JJbaddon, and in Greek he hath the name JpoUyon.
I'he angel of the bottomless pit would seem here to mean Sammael,
i. e. the chief of the evil angels. Abaddon lit. destruction ; but here it
means the destroyer, (abstract being put for concrete), which in this case
is an appropriate name. In Greek, Apollyon corresponds and is equiv-
alent. Abaddon is also a name sometimes given to Sheol ; e. g. in
Prov. 15: 11. Job. 26: 6. The Hebrews seem to have denoted by it
the lowest recesses of the pit or great abyss ; and so the Rabbins em-
ployed the word. In Joel, the Almighty God himself leads on his
great army (2: 11) ; but here the king of the abyss is the appointed
head. The work is so appropriate to an evil angel, as well as the
place from which the army comes, that a nvevfxa dxd&aQzov seems
most probably to be here designated as the leader, rather than any one
of the good angels.
(12) The first woe is past; behold ! there come j'et two woes hereafter.
Lit. the one woe, etc. ; but our idiom does not well admit such a ver-
sion here. As to the speaker in this verse, the words are those of the
seer, and not of the angel, and are designed to give distinct notice of
the progress of the catastrophe towards completion. Ovai an inde-
clinable interjection, here employed as a noun sing, feminine, as the
article shows. — "Eg^ovrai, are coining, and so (often) the Pres. is used
in a Fut. sense; see Gramm. § 136. 1. c.
SECOND woe-trumpet: Chap. IX. 13 — XL 19. 195
SECOND WOE-TRUMPET: CHAP. IX. 13— XI. 19.
[The sixth trumpet, or second icoe-trumpet, is introductory of several important
occurrences. That wliich immediately concerns tiie progress of the catastrophe
is first related. Tliis is, the irruption of an overwhelming army of horsemen, un-
der the guidance of evil demons, whose appropriate work is destruction. Not
only are the riders engaged in the work of destroying, but the horses themselves
are of such an extraordinary nature, that they breathe out slaughter on every
side. Fire and brimstone and smoke issue from their mouth ; and like the lo-
custs, they are formed with tails which annoy with deadly violence.
This is the most remote of all the symbols which the author has employed, from
the real objects of the natural world. Indeed, the taste of the occidental world
can with difficulty accommodate itself to the relish of such imagery ; so distant is
it from the bounds of natural probability. Yet we know well that the oricntnl
world deliffhts in imagery of this nature ; as the fictions of Persia, Arabia, and
Hindustan, respecting good and evil Genii, abundantly testify. In making up
our aesthetical judgment, then, respecting such a scene as that now before us,
we must transport ourselves into tlie eastern world, and judge from the feelings,
views, and taste there predominant. There is not elsewhere, in all the Scrip-
tures, anything in the way of symbol which borders so near upon what we usually
deem excessive and unnatural, (except perhaps a part of Ezek. i.), as the army of
horsemen from the Euphrates. Even the number savours of hyperbole; for it is
no less than '2UU,0()(),000. Such a state of the case, then, puts it out of all ques-
tion whether we arc to find here the mere prototypes of what is to be literally
verified, or actually to take place as a matter of fact. A simple statement of what
is actuall}' said bv the author, renders all argument unnecessary to show, that we
can rationally suppose nothing more than mere symbol of overw-holming force to
be presented here.
' But why is this army brought from the region of the Euphrates? It was the
Roman power, which was to lay waste the land of Judea, and which indeed was
already attacking it when the Apocalypse was written. Why then does not the
writer bring his army of horsemen from the West, and not from the East .''
For two reasons, 1 would reply, he omits doing this ; at least, so the case pre-
sents itself to my mind. (1) The principal enemies and oppressors of the Jews,
from time immemorial, had ever been from the east. Assyria, Babylon, and Sy-
ria, had all overrun and laid waste Judea, and carried away great multitudes of
captives. The east, moreover, abounded \n cavalry; and this kind of troops were
always the most harassing and destructive in overrunning a country. For this
reason we may suppose the author to lay the scene of assembling his army of
horsemen in the east. (2) It was to be calculated upon, and was matter of actual
occurrence, that when Judea was attacked by the Romans, the latter would draw
their supplies of troops from the neighbouring oriental countries under their sway.
Thus Titus, when left by Vespasian to complete the conquest of Judea, drew
troops from Syria and from the Euphrates; Jos. Bell. Jud. V. 1. 5, 6. It will be
remembered, that at this time the dominion of the Romans extended to the Eu-
phrates.
Ewald supposes the Parthians to be meant by the horsemen, in this case ; and
that the object attacked waa the heathen of Rome and elsewhere. But this con-
196 SECOND WOE-TRUMPET : Chap. IX. 13 — XL 19.
founds the first catastrophe with the second ; and it would represent the writer as
stopping short, when on the very finale of his first catastrophe, and changing en-
tirely the whole scene of action, without giving any notice to the reader. There
is something so improbable in all this, that it needs very cogent reasons to render
it credible. There is, indeed, one circumstance here, which seems to plead for
such a construction. This is the continued idolatry of those who survive the at-
tack of the horsemen ; which seems to be exhibited in v. 20. But as a literal sense
of tiiis passage does not seem to be necessary ; and since the admission of Gen-
tiles as the victims of the invading army, would make such entire confusion in
the author's plan, I cannot persuade myself that Ewald has given a correct view
of the general design of the passage. Something more will be said in relation to
this subject, in the commentary which follows.
The account of the horsemen being concluded, the writer next introduces two
episodes, before he advances to the consummation of the catastrophe. The first
is in chap, x, where an angel appears, and makes proclamation in the most solemn
manner of the speedily approaching consummation. The great importance of the
event about to take place, seems to be tlie occasion of such an interposition on
the part of the angel. At the same time, another purpose is answered by it,
John was now brought near the end of his vision, in respect to the book of seven
seals. These seals had not only been all broken, but the seven parts or succes-
sive series, into which the last seal is divided, are now completed, with the ex-
ception of only the final one. The first vision or catastrophe, therefore, must of
course be very near its close. But still, the work of the seer is not completed.
Other visions besides this are to be presented ; other disclosures are to be made.
As he has seen depicted, in lively representations, the impending fate of persecu-
ting Judea, so he must also see that of the per.secuting heathen nations. Accord-
ingly the angel who proclaims the completion of the first catastrophe, gives to
John a book in which is inscribed the destinies of the heathen, or the progress
and consummation of the second catastrophe. With this book he receives the in-
telligence also, that lie must prophesy still farther " respecting people and nations
and tongues and many kings," 10: 11. This corresponds so well with chap, xii —
xix, that 1 do not see any good reason to doubt, that the words just repeated have
respect to the contents of those chapters.
The seer having been thus prepared still to continue his work after the first
part of his prophetic task shall have been finished, nothing would seem to be
wanting now, but the finishing or catastrophe itself. Yet, how can the once be-
loved people of God be destroyed ! How can God's dwelling-place at Jerusalem
be laid waste, and made the reproach of a scoffing world ! As in chap. vii. we
have an account of the manner in which Christians themselves are secured from
impending ruin, so here the security is extended to all that is truly spiritual and
valuable in the ancient worship. The externals of the temple are to be cast down
to the ground and trodden under foot by the heathen ; but the holy place, and the
true spiritual worshippers therein, are to be preserved. Chap. 11: 1, 2.
And now what remains but the last trumpet .-' But still, before it sounds, new-
ly committed and more aggravated crimes are brought to view, in order that all
may see the long-suffering of God and the perfect justice of his proceedings.
Christian witnesses, clothed with miraculous power, appear in the devoted city
There they exercise their office, for a short time. There they are finally slain, and
exposed to open and repeated insult. Theii death, however, only gives ultimate
triumph to their cause. This is represented by the symbol of the two witnesses
rising from the dead and ascending to heaven. A great earthquake succeeds this
SECOND woe-trumpet: Chap. IX. 13, 14. 197
event, by which a tenth part of tlie city is destroyed. The enemies of the church
are constrained by terror to confess the hand of God in tliese events, But the
earthquake appears to be principally an appropriate signal of what is to follow,
under the sounding of the seventh and last trumpet.
Such are the contents of the second woe-trumpet. The delay, which was ad-
verted to in chap, (i: IJ, we have found, on various occasions, to be provided for
by the writer. This last delay seems, indeed, to be the longest of all. It is natu-
ral that it should be so. The Jituil stroke is one that requires in all respects en-
tire and anjple preparation. The offers of pardon, made during the ministry of
the two witnesses, is to be brought into this account; for it is thus that the mind
is favourably impressed with the long sulfering of God. It is thus too, when jus-
tice at last arrives, that we are prepared to be fully satisfied with its demands and
its penalties.]
(13, 14) And the sixth angel sounded, and I heard a voice from the four horns
of the golden altar, which is before God, saying to the sixth angel who had the
trumpet: Loose the four angels who are bound by the great river Euphrates.
Mi'av here = t4'> or equivalent to our English indefinite article a or
an ; see on e'tg under 5: 5.
'Ex z<av teoadfiwv xeQUTOiv, where ix must be equivalent to dno ; for
the Hebrew '("a corresponds to both. The writer does not mean to say,
that the voice went forth out of the horns of the altar, i, e. that the horns
themselves spake, but that the voice came from the direction of the
altar to him ; or (if we must insist on in) from the midst of the horns,
which of course would be in the midst of the altar. In this case, how-
ever, if we only suppose the throne of God to stand behind the altar,
(as in the temple), then the voice, being spoken from the throne, would
come to John as if it were from the altar. I see no objection how-
ever to supposing, that the angel of the altar here speaks, as the herald
of the throne. — KeQuraiv (see Ex. 27: 2. Amos 3: 14) means the prom-
inences, in the way of ornament, placed upon the four corners of the
altar; and which," IVraTmdhTdes says, were of the form of turrets or
pyramids, as they were constructed in the Jewish temple. Hence the
name horns ; comp. Is. 5: 1.
To) r/.rfo dyytho, i. e. the sixth angel, who sounded the trumpet, is
himself commissioned to execute the threatening which it indicated.
'O e/ojv, see on o fiUQTvg under 1: 5, as Nom. case. — Avaov zovg . . .
EvcfQur-Q. That these are evil angels or demons, seems probable from
the circumstances. The air, the abyss, and the desert, are the localities
of evil spirits, i. e. they were popularly and familiarly spoken of in this
manner among the Jews ; see Exc. I. Evil Spirits, No. 5. * That the
desert is one of the places thus a.ssigned, is plain from Is. 13: 21. 34:
14. Rev. 18: 2. Tobit 8: 3. Baruch 4: 35. Enoch 10: 6, 7, and very
plainly from Matt. 12: 43 ; see Exc. ut supra, No. 5. b. That four
angels are here mentioned, must be referred to the same reason as that
which led to indicate /owr angels as holding in the winds, Rev. 7: 1, viz.,
198 SECOND WOE-TRUMPET : ChAP. IX. 15.
it is because the four quarters of the earth, the four winds, etc., are
usually spoken of as comprehending every quarter. So here, the army
to be raised is conceived of as consisting of four parts, and these will
have four commanders (so to speak) coming from every quarter of the
desert region whence the troops are to proceed. — As to deSsiisvovg, this
is a familiar idea in the Scriptures, in respect to evil angels who are in
a state of special durance or restraint ; comp. 2 Pet. 2: 4. Jude v. 6.
Rev. 20: 2 — 7. In the book of Enoch this is very common ; e. g.
Enoch 10: 15—17. 14: 4. 18: 16. 21: 1—6. 53: 1—6. 54: 6—8. 68:
39. 87: 3 — 5. Comp. 4 Ezra, in Fabricius, Cod. Apoc. V. Test. 11.
pp. 237 — 240. Undoubtedly the word hound, used in respect to spirits,
is to be tropically understood. It means, of course, under restraint ;
for when evil spirits are sent to the desert, or to the abyss, they are sub-
jected in this way to special restraint ; at least the object of the phrase-
ology is to designate such an idea. — T^ TtotdiJ-cp rep ^sydlci) is equiva-
lent to the usual expression in Hebrew ^Tian ^nsn , which sometimes is
accompanied with n'la , the Euphrates, as here.
But why the region of the Euphrates ? In addition to what has
been already said above, it may be here remarked, that in Is. 21: 1, the
prophet speaks of the burden, i. e. commination or sentence, of the des-
ert of the sea, i. e. of the Babylonish region, sea being used for the
Euphrates, as it is often elsewhere for any large river. In the vicinity
of the Euphrates, and westward of it, are vast deserts of sand, and
(near the river) of morasses. From this oriental region then, fraught
in ancient times with plagues to Judea, is to come this new and unheard
of host, who are to trample down and destroy. Horsemen are the ap-
propriate and most destructive troops of the East.
(15) And the four angels were loosed, who are prepared for the hour and day
and month and year, that they may slay a third part of men.
The writer does not say : ^roi^aa^u'roi iv wga x. r. X. but dg tijv
aqav, etc., i. e. for the particular year, month, day, and hour, destined
by God for the great catastrophe which is to follow. The first mode of
expression would indicate, that they were prepared for any hour, day,
etc. ; but the latter, i. e. the one in our text, can bear only the sense
which I have given it. It matters not whether the meaning of any
hour, day, etc. be in itself a truth, (as it doubtless is) ; it is enough to
say, that Ijiis is not what the writer here meant to affirm ; at any rate,
it is not what he has said. The phraseology would seem also to inti-
mate, that the executioners of divine justice in this case, (for evil spirits
are compelled to perform such a task, comp. 1 Cor. 5: 5. 1 Tim. 1: 20),
were confined in a place where they were kept ready and at hand (jitoi-
liaofiivoi), to lead on the army of invasion.
♦ SECOND woe-teumpet: Chap. IX. IG, 17. 199
(1{>) And ll>e numbor of tlic armies of liorscinen was two myriads of myriads
[20,000 X 10,000 — '200,000,000] ; 1 lieard tlie number thereof
2:7Qaz£VfiuTb}r in the plural because of the immensity of the multi-
tuilo. — J/rrTiAov, neut. adj. used as a noun, cavalrij ; although it is re-
miU'kable that the writer says nothing further of the horsemen, except-
ing that he describes a part of their armour, v. 17. The number of
horsemen mentioned here equals one fourth part at least of the human
race then existing in the whole world, and probably even more than
this. Of course all literal exposition of the passage is out of question.
I heard (he number thereof, should be read as in parentheses. The
meaning seems of course to be, that he was told what the number was ;
roiint them he could not. The expression before us gives emphasis to
the preceding and almost incredible declaration. Some angel-interpre-
ter in this case, we must suppose to have told him the number.
(17) And thus 1 saw the liorses in v'ision, and those who sat upon them liaving
breast-plates fiery and dark-red and j-ellow ; and the head.s of the horses were
like the heads of lions, and from tlieir mouths issued fire and smoke and brim-
stone.
This sentence is somewhat difficult, by reason of the ovrag. On
the whole, I cannot but refer it to what precedes ; and then the mean-
ing of course is, that John saw the army to be such an immense multi-
tude, as he had mentioned, and so conditioned also as to their leaders.
Here he separates the horses from their riders ; and when he names
the latter, he connects with the designation a description of the armour
which they wore. A more particular description of the horses is given
in a separate clause, which begins grammatically de novo as to its con-
struction, but in sense is connected with the preceding clause in the be-
ginning of the verse.
One may, however, understand ovzcog here as designating not the
manner of seeing, but the manner, i. e. the appearance or form of the
horses and of their riders. Ovzcog would then mean, in this condition,
in such a state, etc., viz. in the one that is described in the succeeding con-
text ; and such is not an unusual meaning of the word ovzcog, comp.
Matt. 1: 18. 2: 5. John 21: 1. Heb. 4: 4. But the first construction is
perhaps more simple. — 'Ev ry ondou is an express intimation, amidst
the nan-ation of cfccivofisva vtu nut TzaQccdo^a, that these are to be re-
garded merely as objects or symbols seen in an ecstatic state, or in pro-
phetic vision — not as realities of the natural world.
Ih'Qivovg means o( njiery hue, i. e. the paler and more glaring red. —
' Tuxip&ivovg means deep dark red, verging towarcf black. — Qmodsig (a
form of the later Greek) is from {^eiov, sulphur, and would seem to mean
of a sulphureous hue. The breast-plates, then, were particoloured; a
circumstance not uixfrequent among more uncultivated nations ; who of-
200 SECOND WOE-TRUMPET : ChAP. IX. 18, 19. "
ten adorn their persons, as well as their armour, in a similar way. The
object here seems to be, to make the armour more glaring and terrific.
'Sig xeqjulal Itovtwv, evidently because they are intended to appear
as terrific as possible. Under the preceding trumpet, we find a new and
singulai- office assigned to the locusts, and they are armed, therefore,
with new powers, vs. 5, 10. So here ; the horses are formed so as to
fill all with consternation who behold them. — Kai ix rcov ozojidTcov . . .
d^eiov. The heathen poets often speak of horses breathing out^re and
smoke, (Virg. Georg. 11. 140. III. 85. Ovid. Met. VII. 104) ; but here
is a new image superadded, viz., that of sulphureous exhalation. The
idea seems to be, that sulphur burning within them produces material
that mixes with their breath, which then, in the form of smoke or va-
pour, is thrown from the mouth, and, like the fumes of sulphur, destroys
life. The reader will not object to this, that it is an incongruity in na-
ture ; for the writer himself has just told him, that all is nothing more
than the symbols of a vision. As the horses themselves are nuQU q)voiv,
so their attributes may also be of the like tenor, and they are here repre-
sented in fact as being TtUQa cpvaiv.
(18) By these three plagues were slain a third part of men, by the fire and the
smoke and the brimstone which issued from their mouths.
The form aneyauv&riaav is not Attic, but of the later Greek. Its
normal theme must be uruvco, Lex. xteivoo.
Here the horses themselves are represented as performing the princi-
pal part of the work of destruction. It would seem as if the riders only
guided them, and were armed only to inspire terror. — 'E:i rov nvQog x.
r. 1, is merely specification, in order to make the preceding clause quite
plain. — Tov ixnoQevofis'vov agrees with the last of the preceding nouns
in form, i. e. in number and gender, while in meaning it extends to all
three ; a construction not unfrequent in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew.
(19) For the power of the horses is in their mouths, and also in their tails; for
their tails are like to serpents, having heads, and with them they do harm.
'// yiiQ i^ovoia a. z. h repeats again, in still another form, the idea
that these extraordinary horses, unlike to all others, inflicted deadly
wounds by their mouths. The idea is presented here in the shape of
cause or grotmd of what precedes. But here another trait also, which
is new and still more strange, is added. Not only do they breathe out
igneous sulphur, but they have, like the amphisbaena or two-headed
serpent, a head on either extremity ; and with both of the heads do they
inflict injury. It is said of the amphisbaena, that its tail resembles a
head, and with this it throws out poison ; Plin. Hist. Nat. VIII. 35. Lu-
can. IX. 179. Hesych. sub. verbo. See the citations in Wetstein.
"Exovaai y.e(faXdg must relate, as the gender now is, to the preceding
SECOND WOE-TRUMPET : CuAP. IX. 20. 201
ovQni\ and not to oq^faiv which is masculine. The meaning is, that the
ovnnt assumed the form of lieads, as is the case in respect to the ain])hia-
baena ; and AS'ith these heads they a.ssauUed the enemy, or those attack-
ed by them ; whether with poisonous breath, or by the biting of the
teeth, is not said. Monstra horrenda we may well name them ; and
these «are just what the writer meant to exhibit. The punishment to
be intlicted was dreadfid, beci\usc guilt was greatly aggravated. Of
course the instruments of punishment, we may well suppose, must be of
an extraordinary nature. The Turcomans and other Orientals train
their horses to assault with the hinder part, as well as with the front,
see Vol. I. § 10. p. 183.
(20) And the rest ot men, who were not slain by these plagues, repented not
of the works of their hands, that they might not worship demons, and idols of
gold, and silver, and brass, and stone, and wood, which can neither see, nor hear,
nor walk.
Ewald considers this as decisive in respect to those who are the objects
of attack by the horsemen. He says ' that they can be no other than
heathen, the actual worshippers of false gods and of idols.' And if it be
absolutely necessary to interpret this in a literal way, it must be con-
ceded that his position is unavoidable. But in every case of this nature,
it is certainly proper to take into view the context, and the evident gen-
eral object of the writer. In chap. vii. we find that those who are to be
exempted from destruction are all of the twelve tribes of Israel. Then
again in chap. xi. we find that the temple, as to its exterior, is to be
trodden under foot by the Gentiles. Moreover the two witnesses, who
appear near the close of the catastrophe, perform their oifice in the great
city where our Lord was crucified. Then " a tenth part of this city
falls by an earthquake." Nor is there anything, save the verse before
us, in chap, vi — xi, which indicates that the heathen are here designated
as the objects of punishment. It is the second catastrophe, (chap, xii —
xix.), which presents them as the subjects of divine displeasure.
Unless then we mingle all things in confusion, as it respects the plan
of the writer, we cannot admit that the heathen, as such, are here pre-
sented to our view. It is sufficiently known to the critical reader, that
■•a , and o^ia , commonly employed in the O. Testament to designate
the heathen, are also often employed to designate such Jeivs as acted in
a heathenish manner; e. g. in Is. 1: 4. 9: 2. 26: 2. 49: 7. Gen. 35: 11.
12: 2. P.S. 33: 12. Nor are sve destitute of like usage in other cases of
a similar nature, even in prosaic moral exhortation ; e. g. Col. 3: 5,
" covetousness which is idolatry ;" Eph. 5: 5, " covetous man, who is
an idolater;" 1 Sam. 15: 23, " Stubbornness is as iniquity and idolatry
. . . rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft." In Zech. 13: 2 is a prediction,
that in the Messianic day " the names of idols shall be cut off' from the
VOL. II. 26
202 SECOND WOE-TRUMPET : ChAP. IX. 20.
land, and no more remembered ; dnd the prophets and the unclean spirits
shall pass out of the land." In the Test, of the twelve Patriarchs,
(Judae, c. 23) we find the following declaration : "Much sadness do I have,
my son, because of the wantonness and jugglery, and idolatry which ye
do toward the palace [temple ? Greek dg to ^aailnov'], following ven-
triloquists, and auguries of demoniacal deceit. Your daughters ye make
public singers, and you mingle in the abominations of the Gentiles, etc."
Now if this prediction came from a Jew of Palestine, which seems quite
probable, and if it be contempoi'ary, or nearly so, with the Apocalypse,
(of which there is no good reason to doubt), does not this afford proof, that
there did exist heathen practices, and a heathen party, among the Jews
of that period ? In tlie time of Antiochus Epiphanes, it is well known,
there was a considerable party of this character ; and under Herod, the-
atres, and public games, and other heathen customs, had become very
frequent in Judea. The Sicarii of Galilee and the Zealots of Jerusalem
were surely men of as base and desperate a character as could be found
in the world ; and amid the confluence of Idumeans and desperadoes, at
that time, were there not many, professedly Jews indeed, who were hea-
then in their practices ?
But be this as it may, it is enough, in order to defend the meaning
which I would assign to pur text, to show that language of the like na-
ture is elsewhere employed, when literal idolatry is not meant. Under
the ancient dispensation, the crying sin of the Jews, and the one against
which more comminations are uttered than against any other offence,
was that of idolatry. To say then of those who survived the attacks
of the horsemen, that they did not repent, but were still idolaters, would
be kindred to what Isaiah (1: 10) says, when he calls the rulers of the
Jews Sodomites, and addresses the nation with the opprobrious epithet,
people of Gomorrah. It will not be contended, that the prophet here
means to tax them specifically with the crime of sodomy ; he designs to
say merely, that they were excessively wicked. So in the case before
us ; the remnant (of loinoi) wei'e of a character like that of the ancient
idolaters. More than this does not seem to be necessary to satisfy the
demands of exegesis ; more than this the context does not allow us to
assume, unless indeed we have reason to suppose it to be a matter of
fact, that among the exceedingly wicked Jews of that period, there were
many who actually fell into the practices of the heathen, and engaged
in idol-worship. But as this is a somewhat doubtful matter, I should
content myself with the other interpretation.
Ol loinoi means those left after one third part had been destroyed by
the horsemen. — Ov fiEreroijauv ix a. r. X. so with iy. after this verb, in
Rev. 9: 21 (see Comm.) 16: 11. In Acts 8: 22 with utto following the
verb. Elsewhere the verb is used in the absolute way. Do not the
THE OPEN BOOK : Chap. X. 203
phrases before us come from the Ilohrew '"3 ^2r sib? — "I'nyojv zcor yei-
Qcof ai'TMt', i. e. works wliich they had done, another Iliibrew idiom,
/land being the symbol of accomi)lishment. — Jaifwna was the name
given by the Jews, in the way of contempt, to the heathen gods ; comp.
1 Cor. 10: 20, 21. — Xiwau /.. x. I. specifies the various materials out of
which ditierent idols, I'or various purposes, were made. — ■'!// o'via '^Anuv
. . . TTtntnuTth', specifications of their qualities designed to render i)romi-
nent the contempt in which the idols ought to be held ; specifications,
moreover, drawn from the O. Testament, comp. Ps. 115: 4 — 7. 135:
15 — 18. Jer. 10: 3 — 5. Is. 44: 9 — 20. But the particular passage, of
which the latter pact of v. 20 is only a citation, may be found in Dan.
5:23.
('21) And they repented not of their murders, nor of their sorceries, nor of their
fornication, nor of their thefts.
It will not be contended that all these crimes were not rife in Judea,
at the time when the Apocalypse was written, i. e. during the invsision
of Palestine. Above all, (^ovoi and xltfiftazu filled the whole country.
That the qsuQuaxeiai were frequent, and an object of great abomination
to the pious, is plain from Rev. 18: 23. 21: 8. 22: 15. See also in the
O. Testament, Ex. 22: 18. Lev. 19: 26. Mic. 5: 12. Is. 2: 6. If the
reader Avishes to trace more distinctly the history of these times, in re-
spect to the vices that were common, he may consult Josephus, Bell.
Jud. IV. 9, 10. V. 9, 4. VI. 2, 1 and 2.~yir3, 3. Comp. Tac. V. 12.
There is something peculiar in the repetition of ov [itrnvotjauv in v.
20, and again in v. 21. Is it the design of the writer, that v. 21 should
be regarded as an epexegesis of v. 20 ? It has somewhat of this as-
pect ; but the case i3 not sufficiently plain to justify us in positively as-
suming this ground. That the Jews of the period immediately preced-
ing the destruction of Jerusalem were wicked and impious almost be-
yond example — and that such wickedness and impiety are characterized
by V. 20th, seems to be a sufficient solution of the language employed,
without resorting to the supposition of Ewald. '^j ^j , "^ o, , ( K A
THE OPEN BOOK: CHAP. X.
That the seer now occupies a new station, (hitherto he had been in heaven),
Bcems manifest from vs. 1, 10. After the angel has descended he speaks with
John, V. 9, and John Ukes the little book from his hand, and is again addressed
by the angel. Now inasmuch as the angel was standing upon the margin of the
sea and the land (v. 2), the necessary implication is, that John was standing near
him. Consequently there must have been a change of position on the part of
John, previous to this colloquy between the angel and him.
Such is the case, moreover, in other parts of this book. In one case indeed,
204 THE OPEN BOOK : Chap. X. 1.
12: 18, we have an express indication of a change of station; and so again in 17;
3. But in general the reader is left to draw his own conclusion, with regard to
this, from the nature of the vision and the circumstances with which it is attend-
ed. Whether the scenes described in the first part of chap. xi. imply a new vi-"
sion, different from the present one, will be discussed when we come to the in-
terpretation of that chapter.
The impression made on my own mind by chap. x. is, that the design of it is
to show in an impressive manner that the vision respecting tlie book with seven
seals (chap, v.) is now just at its close, that nothing more remains but the sound-
ing of the seventh and last trumpet, and that this shall speedily take place, on-
XiTi x&o'i'os i'orat, v. 6. With this seems also to be joined another object, viz. to
introduce this final catastrophe with all the solemnity and demonstration of its
importance, which the nature of the case seemed to require. The destruction of
the temple and city of God, and also the destruction of the Jewish nation, were
events such as cannot often happen, and when they do, it is intended that they
shall make a deep impression.
The new commission which John receives (v. 11), seems to be a circumstance
which obviously contributes to show, that his former vision of the sealed book
was now at its close or completed, and that he needed new directions for the fur-
ther discharge of prophetic duty. The contents of the book are not sealed. He
devours them, i. e. he reads them with avidity, in order that he may know what
they contained ; and then he is told, that "he must prophesy again respecting
many nations and people and tongues and kings." Thus, when the last or
seventh trumpet shall have sounded, his task will still proceed ; while the scene
is entirely changed in respect to those whose destiny is predicted.
(1) And I saw another mighty angel descending from heaven, clothed with a
cloud, and a rainbow was on his head, and his visage was as the sun, and his feet
like pillars of brass.
JlXXov, another, i. e. different from the angels who had the trumpets,
and which the writer had before mentioned. — Ig^vqov, " epitheton mere
ornans," says Eichhorn again. The mere I would strike out. That it
adds to the splendour of the scene, and makes it more august and strik-
ing, to present in this case one of the Qiniaa (io^^vqoi) of the heavenly
host, who will doubt ? And principally for this purpose the epithet
seems to be given. — FleQi^E^XrjiA.S'POP verpeXtjv, often said for substance
of God and the Saviour, when they are presented in the attitude of mo-
tion; see Ps. 18: 11. 104: 3. Is. 19: 1. Ezek. 1: 4. Matt. 24: 30. Rev.
1: 7. So here, the descent of the angel is with great majesty ; he is
borne along as it were by a bright cloud. Ewald represents the cloud as
designed only to veil his splendour. But I think he has mistaken the
design of the imagery; comp. Ps. 18: 11.
'iQig STzl rijg xscpaX^g avrov, comp. Ezek. 1: 28. Rev. 4: 3. The
splendour and beauty of his crown or diadem is designated by this
striking image. In Rev. 12: 1, the woman clothed with the sun, has a
diadem of twelve stars. The different colours of the rainbow here
seem to be indicative of the different coloured gems which were ap-
THE OPEN BOOK : Chai\ X. 2. 205
parently in the diadem of tho angel. — nQoatanov o)** i\}.iog, comp. Rev.
1: 16. Jiulg. 5: 31. Acts 2(): lo. The meaning is, that his visage was
exceedingly glorious or resplendent. — lloSt^' tog ffzvXoi ttvqO's', i. e. shin-
ing, glowing with brightness ; comp. in Ezek. 1: 4, 7, 27. 8: 2. Rev.
1: 15.
(2) And he hold in his hand a litllo book opened ; and he placed his right foot
upon the sea, but his left upon tiie land.
The reader will note the difference here between ^i^luQi'dinv, a di-
minutive, and ^i^Xinv in 5: 1. Not that anything important seems to
be attached to the different sizes of the books, in this case, but the dif-
ferent appellations seem to be employed principally to designate a dif-
ference in the contents of the respective books. Ewald confidently
asserts that this little book was no other than a repetition in brief of
what was in the sealed book of chap. v. 1 ; Comm. p. 189. But is it
not unnatural to suppose, that after the contents of that volume had
been already exposed, even to the very last page, that a repetition of it
should now be here made, at the close ? This would seem to be an
incongruous contrivance, to say the least. And why is the devouring
of this book, i. e. the thorough and eager perusal of it, accompanied
with a command to prophesy respecting many nations and kings ? v.
11. Surely if there be any analogy between this book and the preced-
ing one, its contents must have respect to the future, not to the past.
That this future begins where the other book ends, seems altogether a
natural and obvious supposition ; for why should the past be again re-
peated ?*
* Eichhorn represents the little book as containing only what the angel says in
vs. 6, 7 ; which he supposes to be read by the angel from tlie little book; Comm.
in loc. Heinrichs represents the little book either as being the same as the ^i^Xiov
in 5: 1, or else a summary of its contents. Vitringa supposes the little book to
contain only the calamities that were to befal the cliurcli under the si.xtli trumpet.
So, for substance, does Bengel also decide. Mede, on the contrary, separates
the second book entirely from the first; and with good reason, as it seems to
me; but when he makes out from it a syllabus of Roman civil and political his-
tory, I cannot assent to this.
In the midst then of such singular diversity of opinion, (which in itself indi-
cates the dilhculty of the passage), how is an inquirer to satisfy his own mind.''
I would say : From the nature of the case presented, and from anatogij. Tiie
nature of the case surely indicates new matter to be disclosed. John devours the
book, (a phrase which is common among us to designate reading a book with
great avidity and interest), and the contents are partly sweet and partly bitt<>r,
i. e. what it contains is good news to tlie people of God, and denunciation and
commination to the wicked. Tlius furnished with new knowledge he is bidden
to continue his prophetic declarations, which are no longer to be confined to the
Jewish people, but to have respect to vianij nations and kings. VVIiat can be
made out from all thia, but a further commission to prophesy, and the furnishing
206 THE OPEN BOOK : Chap. X. 2.
His right foot on the sea, but his left foot on the land, in order to sym-
bolize his control over both. He is about to declare the solemn deter-
mination of God to execute, even to consummation, his awful judgments ;
and a symbolic action declarative of his universal control and power,
is altogether appropriate. The passages quoted for illustration by
Eichhorn and Heinrichs here, II. IV. 443. Eneid. IV. 177. Sap. 18:
16. Giddim fol. 68. 2, are altogether inapposite.
of John with the means of so doing? And then as to analogy ; if this book be
compared with that in 5: 1, we must suppose the object is of a similar nature.
How can we believe, 1 ask again, that it is a mere abridgment of what has been
already revealed by the book mentioned, in 5: 1, when there is in fact no repeti-
tion in the Apocalypse of the same things? Why should we decide against
analog'y and probability, in order to make out so incongruous a phenomenon?
T cannot bring myself to believe, that the writer had a plan no better digested
than these suppositions would indicate. I must therefore abide by the views al-
ready disclosed, until 1 can see some better reasons brought forward in support
of other and different views.
I do not aver that there are no difficulties in the case. ' Why is this a ^i^ka-
ciSiov, and the former one a ^t^h'ov? On the ground which 1 have taken, are the
contents of the second book, so much less copious than those of the first, as to
require such a distinction in names?' Perhaps one might say, in answer to these
questions, that the first ^i^kiov seems to be a book of pictures, i. e. of visible sym-
bolic representations, and therefore a larger size was necessary. The second
book contains, like Ezekiel's (2: 10), matter in words, which needs to occupy no
great space. Or one might say, that the whole is merely for the sake of variety,
just as the manner of the visions themselves is varied.
There is still another difficulty. ' Why does not this new commission /o//ow
the seventh trumpet, instead of preceding it?' So indeed it might, if the exhibi-
tion of another angel and a new occasion of his appearing, had been within the
plan of the writer. But now, the same angel who calls heaven to witness that
time shall be no longer in respect to the completion of the first great catastrophe,
is also charged to fiirnish the Apocalyptist with a new commission, and to assure
him that his duties will not terminate with the full disclosure of the seven-sealed
book.
' But why is this book unsealed, and the first sealed.'' Is not the disclosure, in
either case, such as can proceed only from him who reveals secret things to men ?'
It is; but then something is due to a proper regard for variety of representation.
Nor is this all. That book, which contains the destiny of God's once beloved
people, so long affianced to him, may well be introduced with greater solemnity
and more exhibition of mystery, than what concerns the pagan persecutors of the
church, whose doom would be less a matter of wonder and astonishment to any
who knew their character.
These remarks may perhaps not satisfy the reader. But I must ask of him, be-
fore he decides against the views that have been expressed, to investigate the other
theories that have been mentioned, and see whether difficulties greater still do
not encompass them. These theories appear so incongruous to my own mind,
that I cannot give my assent to them. 1 must believe, that the tcriter of the Apoc-
alypse has a continuovs and consistent plan throughout his work; and that there is
a harmony among all its parts of such a nature, as to show a uniform progress in
the execution of his design.
THE OPEN BOOK : ChAP. X. 3, 4. 207
(3) And Im rrird willi a loud voice, as a lion roaretli ; and wlipn ho cried, tlic
seven tliun(iers uttered their voices.
\)te txnaie — what he said, is not here related. It would seem, there-
fore, to have been a loud note of woe, some interjection uttered which
would serve to call attention, and at the same tiitie be indicative of the
judgments which were to follow, — Mvy.uKa is frenerally used to designate
the hnchig of the ox ; i^nvyaax^ai, for the roaring of the lion. Still, in
Theoc. XXVI. 20 we find [n'y.tj[ta Xsai'trji; ; so that John does not vio-
late even classical Greek usage in this case. Perhaps the original of
this image is to be found in Is. 21: 8, n;;ix x^p'';: .
y^i STtTa [inovTui, THE seven tltnnders, not simply seven thunders.
This is to be regarded in a light similar to that of the seven angels,
THE seven spirits, and many other sevens in the Apocalypse. Ewald
supposes, that the thunders of the seven heavens are meant here. Of
the fact that the Jews of the first century were often wont to reckon
seven heavens, there can be no good room to doubt ; see Ascens. Is.
chap. vii. viii, where this is fully exhibited. See also Fabr. Cod.
Pseud. V. Test. Test. Levi, c. 2. Tom. I. p. 544, and Eisenmcng.
Entd. Judenthum, I. p. 400. But no trace of tliis \z to be found in the
Apocalypse, or in the 0. or N. Testament. This exi)]aniition, then,
seems to be improbable. We may well acquiesce, therefore, in the
easy and natural exegesis, which makes the seven thunders to mean the
very loud thunder which is the index of an origin from heaven. It
utters something more sublime and awful than conmion thunder.
(4) And when the seven tliundcrs uttered [tlieir voices], I was about to write ;
but I heard a voice from heaven saying: Seal up tliat which the seven thunders
have uttered, and write it not.
I have included tug qiavug tuvrwv, their voices, in brackets, because
the genuineness of these words is doubtful. The sense will be the same
witiiout tliem ; although the tenor of the style in the Apocalypse would
seem to speak in their favour. — "EnalXov yQaqmiv denotes that the au-
thor was in the act of preparation to write down what was said or utter-
ed ; and this shows, by the way, that the supposition made by most of
the recent critics, viz. that the apocalyptic visions were rvritten dotcn at
£phesus a consideraljle time after the visions took place, has no good
foundation. The intimation here plainly is, that John was employed in
writing during the intervals of his visions.
'hbn[r i/. rov ovquvov, i. e. it was not the command of the angel
who had appealed in the vision, but proceeded immediately from God
himself. — 2^(pQuyiaov a i}.uh,aav •/.. r. X, i. e. keep secret, close up Irom
the view of men, wliat the thunders have uttered. That the word isjigti-
ratively employed here is plain ; for John had not yet written down
208 THE OPEN BOOK : Chap. X. 4.
what was uttered, and therefore could not seal up any instrument or
scroll which contained the words now spoken. The meaning of course
must be, that John was not to disclose the words just uttered, but to keep
them secret, as a writing which is sealed is kept secret. Comp. 5: 1,
which presents to us a book with seven seals, and of course these seals
prevented any one fi'om inspecting its contents ; also Rev. 22: 10, where
John is directed not to seal up the Apocalypse, because its fulfilment was
speedily to commence. Dan. 8: 26. 9: 24. 12: 4, quoted by Eichhorn
and Heinrichs, are inapposite here, for they have a different sense.*
* But what was it, or could it be, which the seven thunders uttered on this oc-
casion ? Vitringa (p. 42D seq;) makes a singular answer to this question. He
says that the seven Crusades are meant by " the seven thunders ; and as to the
command to pass in silence what was uttered, he says (of the crusades) : " Nee
dignae erant quae prolixius exponerentur." 1 mention this only to remind the
reader what extravagances have sometimes been manifested in the interpretation
of the Apocalypse, even by some of the most distinguished commentators and di-
vines, when they go into minute historical applications.
In general it seems to be agreed among recent commentators, that, from the
nature of the circumstances and the nature of the signal itself, we must draw the
conclusion, that what was declared in the voice of thunder, was ominous of the
catastrophe near at hand. This is altogether appropriate. On an errand like to
that of making such a declaration, the angel himself came ; as is clear from vs.
6,7. And if we examine 11: 15 — 19 we shall see, that, with the exception of
the triumphal song and a disclosure of a few symbols of destruction (v. 19), the
writer has himself passed over the catastrophe in silence. Has this no designed
connection with the verse before us .' Critics in general do not seem to have
looked at the subject in this point of view ; I cannot but feel, however, that what
the thunders here declared, and which John is forbidden to speak of, is there sup-
pressed. This seems better to solve the mystery of comparative silence in chap.
11: 15 — 19, than all tlie other reasons that have, with so much discrepancy and
variety of opinion, been brought forward.
' Bat why keep silence f Entire silence, as I apprehend, is neither commanded
nor observed ; for what does the angel say in vs. 6, 7, and John in 11: 15 — 19.'
Yet in neither case is there any circumstantial and direct narration of the final
catastrophe. If any one feels this to be a defect in the plan of the writer ; or if
he concludes from this (as several recent critics have done) that the writer intends
to develope no catastrophe here ; 1 would appeal to the reason and nature of the
case. Suppose a father called upon to give some account of the death of a prod-
igal child, who had perished amid the most aggravated crimes; would he be like-
ly to enter into a circumstantial detail of all the horrors and agonies that imme-
diately preceded and accompanied the death of that child .' Would he — could he
— do anything more than distinctly bring to view the closing scene in general
terms, v^'hile he suppressed the particulars, as being beyond his powers of descrip-
tion, and because it was altogether inappropriate for him to dwell upon them .'
Every one must feel the force of such an appeal. And why then can he not
allow the same sympathy to have its place in the breast of John, or even a higher
and more sacred one, in respect to the beloved people, city, and temple of God ?
The guilt of that people he has indeed faithfully and fully portrayed ; for this
was a duty to God and the church. Divine justice must be vindicated. But to
THE OPEN BOOK : Chap. X. 5 — 7. 209
(5, 6> And tlie anijol wIkuii f saw standinsf on tlio si'ii nml on tho land, liflod
up his riijlit hand to heaven, and swarc by hiui who livcth forevrr and over, who
croatod the licaven and the tliin<rs whioli arc in it, and tho eartli and tho lhin<rs
whicli an* in it, and tlic sea and llie things whicli arc in it, that dolay shiiU he no
longer.
Almost the exact model of this may be found in Dan. 12: 7; with
the exception, that there both hands arc lifted up, here ojdy the rujht
hand, llowevei-, in Gen. 14: 22. Deut. 32: 40. Ezek. 20: f), G, men-
tion is made of only one hand, which almost of coui'se would be the
right one. — 'A'/s tov ovQarov, i. e. toward the place where God dwells.
— Zcovzt X. T. ).. recounts some of the most striking attributes of the
Godhead, such as his eternity, and his supreme creative power ; thus
increasing the solemnity of the occasion and the oath. — Heaven, earth,
and sea, is a triplex division of the universe, which is very common in
the Scriptures.
Xqojo^ ovy.iTi tazai, lit. time shall be no more, i. e. there shall be no
more delay, or no longer respite shall be given, to the persecutors of
the church, when the last trumpet shall sound. So the sequel :
(7) But in the days of the sound of the seventh angel, when he shall blow tho
trumpet, then is the mystery of God completed, as he hath announced to his ser-
vants the prophets.
Ka) InXtG&ti, one of those cases where the Praeter is said, by the
older grammarians, to be put for the Future. But there is no need of
such an enallage. The angel means to say, that immediately on the
sounding of the seventh trumpet, the mystery of the seven-sealed book
is brought to a close, all is fully completed. Had he used the Future
here, it would have left open an indefinite time for completion, con-
trary to his plain intention. In fact the Greeks, like the Hebrews,
employed a Praeterite sometimes to denote future actions which were
dwell with minuteness on their doom, their fearful end — why may he not be
spared the ditficult, the almost impossible task ? Enough tliat the consummation
is distinctly declared by the angel, 10: G, 7, and that in 1 1: 13 — 1!) the triumph of
the redeemed is heard, because the church of God is delivered from the hands of
its enemies and persecutors. What the seven thunders most probably declared
fully to John, he is restrained from writing down, or rather, he is indulged with
the privilege of not writing it down, allhougii a sense of duty and fidelity liad
led at first to prepare for such a task.
The study of the Aponalypse will lead an attentive observer to see and feel,
that the proprieties resulting from our sympathies, and the congruities of repre-
sentation, arc very apparent in it, and should not be overlooked in the interpreta-
tion of it. [s there not a plain indication here, in respect to suppressing what the
seven thunders uttered, that the particulars of the final caiaslrophe were not to
be /« /y disclosed ? Pity toward the weaknesses of men, and kind regard to the
feelings of the apostle, spared him the agonizing task.
VOL. II. 27
210 THE OPEN BOOK : ChAP. X. 7.
regarded as certain. So in Eurip. Medea, 78, analofisad^ ticQ, £i
aivAov TTQoaoi'aofiev veov naXuioi, i. e. we have been undone, in case we
shall {^dd a new evil to the old one. Plat. Repub. V. p. 462. See other
examples of the like nature in Kiihner's Gr. Gramm. § 443. 2, from
Homer, Plat, and Demosth. — Mvazi'iinm means the secret designs of
God in respect to the enemies of his church, which only the prophets,
i. e. inspii'ed men in the Christian church, had been commissioned to
make known.*
EvtjyjtXios, act. voice, and the only instance of this nature in the N.
Testament. Usually this verb has the Midd. form, and governs the
Ace. of the thing and Dat. of the person. But often, where the thing
is omitted, the perso?i is put in the Ace. ; e. g. Luke 3: 18. Acts 8: 25.
14: 21. 16: 10. Here the construction is like the Hebrew T|b:3ti-rx Ti;2 ,
2 Sam. 18: 19 al. In translating sv/jyytlioE rovg x. z. X, we are obliged
to make a Dat. after the verb, in conformity with our usual English
idiom. In Greek this was unnecessary, although it might have been
so expressed.
* How, in the face of such a declaration as tliis, De Wette, Schott, Ewald, and
LOcke, can still represent the sealed book as not brought to a close in chap, xi,
and how they can find no catustrophe there, 1 am unable to see, specially when I
compare with the sequel such a declaration as we find here. How language can
make it stronger or more certain, that the first great scene of the drama closes
here, it would be difficult to tell. The angel does not even say nXiaO'ijaeTat,
which might leave a sequel of somewhat indefinite length, but he expresses the
absolute and immediate close of the whole in the strongest manner possible, by
the Aor. iTslta&7j- Nor is tlie nature of the case less explicit than the language.
It is evident, that when tlie seventh and last seat was broken, all the heavenly
world expected immediate consummation, and looked on in fearful silence, 8: ].
But when the last seal is divided into seven parts (seven trumpets), in order that
the long-suffering of God might be exhibited, and time be protracted so that the
number of martyrs should be completed, 6: 11, (for in this way a gradual accom-
plishment is provided for) ; if, 1 say, after all this the time of the catastrophe is
still further protracted, would not the writer have given us some express intima-
tion of it.' But of this no notice whatever is given. Exactly the reverse is con-
tained in the passage before us. The second subordinate seven (trumpets), grow-
ing out of the seventh seal, admit of no subdivision. At least, this would be so
contrary to the evident nature of the case, and lo the usual meaning of complete-
ness indicated by seven, that nothing but an explicit declaration of the Author
himself should satisfy us of any further extension of the contents of the sealed
book. Scarcely anything respecting the plan of the book seems to me more
plain and certain than this; and I find it difiicult to imagine how the subject can
be viewed in a different light, even after attentively considering what the authors
above named have written respecting it. That chap. xi. brings to view an inter-
val, between the appearance of the angel here and the sounding of the seventh
trumpet, is indeed sufficiently plain. But what the angel says, in the passage
before us, does not interfere at all with this. His declaration is, that when the
seventh trumpet shall sound, there shall be no more delay, arsXeo&t] fivaz^Qiov.
THE orEX book: Chap. X. 8, 9. 211
(8) And the voice which I hnd heard from heaven, again spake with me and
eaid : Go, take the little open book in the hand of" the anjrel, who is standing
upon the sea and upon the lanii.
7fxot;(T«, Aor. I. in the IMuperf. sense here as to time when, but
aoristicasto continuance ; N. Testament Gramm. § 136. 5.3. — .^uXov-
ca . . . kt'yovffa. Part, used as verb in the Praeter, //>• beiupj implied ;
as often in tliis book. Respecting the contents of the little book prof-
fered by the anj»el ; see the remarks on v. 2 above. Almost an exact
prototype is in Ezek. 3: 1 — 3, where the prophet eats the roll presented
to him.
(9) And I went to the angel, speaking to him to give me the little book. And
he saith to me : Take it and eat it up; and it shall make thy stomach bitter, but
in thy mouth it shall be sweet as honey.
It is to be remembered that all is mere supposed and symbolic action
here, and not a real transaction. Comp. the case of the girdle in Jer.
13: 1 — 7 ; the case of Ezekiel's lying on one side 390 days, and on the
other 40 days, and eating bread baked with dung, Ezek. 4: 4 — 17 ;
comp. also Hos. i. ii. The same may also be said of many other cases.
Surely it is not necessary to suppose anything more in the case before
us, than mere symbol. To devour a hook is figurative language, like
propinare, imbibere, devorare, deglutire, etc., employed by the Latins in
order to designate mental action and eager acquisition by the mind.
So Jeremiah also speaks of '■'■eating the words of the Lord," 15: 16.
In 4 Ezra 14: 38 — 40, the like idea is conveyed by the image of drink-
ing from a cup of water which was of a fiery colour, and which filled
the heart of the seer with pain, but sharpened his raeraorji and increas-
ed his wisdom. So here, the contents of the book will be sweet to the
taste, but bitter to the stomach of the seer ; i. e. what he learns from the
book is matter both of joy and grief; of joy, because of the good tidings
respecting the faithful disciples of Christ ; of grjef because of the evils
which were to come upon many who would persevere in their wicked-
ness. To the same purpose, and comprising the same expressions, is
the passage in Ezek. 3: 1 — 3.
Why then should not our interpretation follow the path here marked out.' Is it
because we have no circumstantial, account of the final fall of the metropolis .'
Investigating by this rule, where shall we find a catastrophe at all in the Look .'
In chap. 16: 17 — 21, there is very little more of particularity, than in 11: 15 — 19.
Nearly the same circumstances occur in both; and how consummation can be
plainly found in the first passages, just alluded to, and denied in the second, I do
not see. I must therefore interpret the words of the author, by taking a position
on a different ground.
212 THE OPEN BOOK : ChAP. X. 10, 11.
(10) And I took the little book from the liand of tlic angel, and ate it up, and
it was in my mouth sweet as honey, and wiien I had eaten it my stomach was
made bitter.
"EqjuyoVj is the Aor. II. of an obsolete root, cpayco ; for the Pres. and
several other tenses, ia&i'co or tdco and their derivates are employed.
Kart'rpayov and tqjuyov are plainly employed here substantially in the
same sense. If there be a difference, it may be expressed perhaps in
English by ate up or devoured and ate.
(11) Then he sailh to me : Thou must prophesy respecting many people and
nations and tongues and kings.
I have referred nolloig, at the close of the verse, to all four of the
nouns which precede it, because I deem this to have been the intention
of the writer. But in the version, our English idiom demands a position
of the adjective different from that in the Greek, and I have according-
ly given to it the position required.*
* Ewald, in order to make out his theory respecting the little book, (see on v.
2 above), says, that we must separate v. 11 from vs. 8 — 10. But no good reason
for so doing is apparent to me ; nor does the nature of the case, as 1 apprehend
the matter, permit such a divulsion. The conference of the angel with John ends
with chap. x. A new scene begins with chap, xi, an episode not unlike to that
in chap, vii, before the breaking of the seventh seal, where a consummation was
naturally to be expected. There the servants of God are sealed in their foreheads,
and thus secured against impending evils. Here, where the last and finishing
part of the crisis is near at hand, the temple of God, i. e. the holy place with the
essential parts of worship, the residence of the Divinity, is meted out for the like
purpose of safety. All that is external and merely ritual is devoted to destruc-
tion. The Jewish dispensation, as to its exterior, has now come to its final close,
and a new and more purely spiritual religion is to take its place.
How can all this, now, cohere and unite with the vision, in which the angel
presents the little book.' Even Ewald does not plead for this in his note here;
yet in his remarks on chap. 10: 1 (p. 187) he strenuou.sly defends the unity of 10:
1 — 11: 13. If the reader feels any difficulty about a transition here (in 11: 1 seq.)
to anotlier vision, because yiai simply is employed as the index of it, he needs only
to be reminded, that such transitions are common throughout the whole book.
He is referred, for a full disclosure of this, to the notes on 5: 1.
As to the speaker in the verse before us, he is doubtless the angel who held the
little book in his hand. But as to the speaker in 11: 1 {?Jyojv), I take him to be
quite a different person from the angel, although his name is not given. But in
order to discover who he is, we may ask: Who are my two witnesses in v. 3.'
Ewald himself being judge (pp. 194, 200), they are the v/itnesses of Christ. It is
Christ then who speaks here, and who commissions John to measure off the holy
part of the temple for preservation. And if this is true, (and surely it must be
either Christ or God), then is there a new vision here, and the angel of chap. x.
is no longer the special agent in chap. xi. Should the reader feel any difficulty
in regard to the introduction of a nezo agent without naming him, the perusal of
the book through will satisfy him, that, as in the case of the Hebrew iks, N"!p''l,
etc., the subject of the verb is often left to be supplied by the reader, so in respect
THE TEiMPLK : Chap. XI. 1 , 2. 218
'Em XaoT^ x. r. X. our vci-sion renders : " Before many people, etc."
But althoii;j:I» tni \s capable of such a sense, we can hardly sujjpose the
angel to have ilirected John to write or to utter the Apocalypse in pres-
ence of many people, etc. Plainly the contents of the book, in the se-
quel, have respect to many people. With this agt-ees the natural mean-
ing of ini, in such a connection as that in which it here stands.
THE TEMPLE: CHAP. XI. 1,2.
[The first two verses of tliis chapter have occasioned much troul)le to
conuncnlators ; and the variety of oj)inion respecting them is so great, that
even to give a tolerably full account of it would occupy many pages. I shall
briefly state my own api)reiicnsions respecting the passage, and then glance
at some of the other interpretations wliicli arc entitled to particular notice.
No commentator that I have been able to consult, seems to have made
the com[)arison between the present passage and Rev. vii. Previous to
this last passage, as has been noted above, six seals had been mentioned as
already opened, and the opening of the seventh and last was now expected.
But before this was iiroken, the servaiUs of God were to be impressed upon
tlieir foreheads by his seal, which tlius became the eml»lem of protection
and safety in respect to impending evils. Unexpectedly to the spectators,
the seventh seal is disparted, so that a gradual accomplishment of the woes
wiiich it threatens is to take place. (I say unexpededh/, because 8: 1 shows
tliat the final catastrojjhe was expected forthwith). This gradation is marked
by the seven truuipets. Six of these have now been sounded ; and there
remains, at the point of time where we now are, only one to close the
scene. And here comes in another interpositinn, viz. tliat in respect to sav-
ing a part of the temple, like to that in chap. vii. with res))ect to saving
Christians from impending evils. Christians, indeed, have already been
made secure, in the case now before us. But the close of the Jewish or
Mosaic institutions is near at hand. Shall all which pertained to these now
go to ruin ? Or is there not something, that constitutes the essential unity
of religion under both dispensations, wiiich is worthy of preservation, and
•which therefore must be preserved? If the ground tjiken by the author of
the Epistle to the Hebrews is correct, (which we may well believe), tlien
the basis of Judaism and Christianity is the same.
Besides ; how can we consider the representation before us as anything
more than mere symhol7 Is it to be once imagined, that John actually ex-
pected the Gentiles, who would tread down the holy city and the exterior
part of the tem[)le [jr,v avlijv tjjv e^w&iv), to spare the interior part of the
temple and the worshippers there ? This w^ould be to suppose him wholly
ignorant of the manner in which war was conducted, at the time when he
lived. Moreover, as to matter of fact, the reverse of what is implied by such
a supposition actually took place. The temple — the very Sanctum itself^ —
to the agent or speaker in the Apocalypse, we are oflen obliged to resort to the
context in order to discover who he is; e. g. Rev. 22: 12 al. The A/jwv in 11: 1
is sufBciently explained by the fta^rvai fiov in v. 3. If these views are correct,
we cannot hesitate to connect 10: 11 with 10: 8 — 10.
214 THE TEMPLE : Chap. XL 1, 2.
was the great slaughter house, at the time of the Roman invasion ; and all
the sacred building was destroyed together, at one and the same period.
Neither fact nor probability, therefore, plead for a literal inter])retation in
this case. And besides this, wliat shall we say o^ measuring the worshippers
(v. ]) in a literal sense, in order that they might be preserved?
For these reasons the whole transaction is to be regarded merely as a sym-
bolical matter. Yet sijmbul must of course signify something; and what is that
something in the present case ? So far as I can understand the meaning
of the symbolic transaction before us, its design seems plainly to be this,
viz. to prefigure the preservation of all which was fundamental and essential in
the ancient religion, notwithstanding the destruction of all that was external,
in respect to tlie temple, the city, and the ancient people of God. It is as
much as to say: Amid the ruin of the Jews as a nation, while the holy
city is reduced to ashes, and all the sacred ritual of worship forever closed,
there are some imperishable things which will survive the work of de-
struction, and over which the invading hostile nations have no power. Is
not the preservation of the Sanctum of the temple an appropriate and signi-
ficant emblem of this ?
The greater part of the commentators have passed over this paragraph
sicco pede, witliout even seeming to feel that there was any difficulty in the
case. A few liave given some hints; specimens of which I will now lay
before the reader. Zegerus : ' The temple means the church ; the altar,
Christ; or the temple and altar mean Christ, who with his two-fold nature
is the temple of God and the altar of the church. TTie porch ivilhout means
heretics and pseudo-Christians. To cast them out is to excommunicate
them.' See Crit. Sac. Londinenses on Rev. xi.
Vitringa: 'The interior temple means true Christians; the exterior, false
Christians, heretics, etc. ; the altar means Christ; measuring the temple and
worshippers is scrutinizing the character of Christians real or professed ;
the casting out of the outer court is excommunicating false professors ; the
heathen who are to tread down the temple and city, are Christians in name
only, (and therefore called heathen), who are to form an external church and
have dominion over it, suppressing at the same time the true worshippers
of God, until at last God shall exclude them from even the external pale of
his church.' Comm. in loc.
Heinr-ichs (in Comm.) thinks that John, like Ezekiel (chap, xl — xlviii.),
designed to give a sketch of a literally new temple, more holy and perfect,
which would be erected under the new dispensation, in which only the
Sanctum of the old one would be preserved. Comm. in loc.
Ewald thinks that John designed to represent tlie most holy and precious
part of the temple, as actually to be saved from the ravages of the invad-
ing enemy ; and that he has said this out of compassion to Jewish prejudi-
ces still cleaving to the ininds of Hebrew Christians, as well as to those of
proper Jews. He says, that the author means to include both pious Jews
and Christians among the ivorshippers mentioned in v. 1. Whether John
believed that such would be the fiict, viz., that the Sanctum of the temple
would be spared, or whether he only made such a representation in order
to conciliate Jewish sympathies, Ewald does not say ; but the manner of
his representation would seem to indicate the former opinion, viz. that the
writer really hoped and expected the Sanctum would be spared.
Bleek gives a different and perhaps in some respects more probable
mm
THE TEMPLE I CuAP. XL 1, 2. 215
view of the onso. Ho tliiiiks that Joliii siipposod tlin city anil temple would
be invaded and tnxlden down for torty-two months hy the heatiien; init
tiiat he" expected the sanctuary wouhl he spared, and jjiven up to Christians
during that period, because they are " priests unto God," and would have
access therefore to the holy places in the temple, where priests oidy were
allowed to come. Thus he makes out a kind of literal and at the same
time ligurative meaning ; with much ingenuity indeed, but still, as I appre-
hend, in a maimer foreign to the true design of the Apocalyptist. lileek
supposes that John had not the least expectation of anything more than a
mere Icmporan/ invasion and subjection of the city; and he represents
John as indicating plainly that the city would ultimately be spared.
The interpretations of Zegenis and Vitringa are a striking speciinen of
the aliijuid ex aliquo in the exegesis of the Apocalypse ; a specimen, how-
ever, tiie like of which may be found in multitudes of writers. The iuter-
pretations of Ileiin-ichs, Ewald, and lileek, all stand on the ground, that the
writer of the book before us was not only ignorant of the future, but that he
designed nothing more than to ex[)ress his hopes, and give vent to his re-
maining Jewish sympathies for the literal temple and its ritual. lint viewed
in their pro[)er light, even these hopes seem to me to be quite destitute of
probability. The writer of the Apocaly|)se, whether insi)ired or not, well
knew the embittered nature of the contest betwee;i the Romans and the
Jews. As well did he know, also, the vehemence of the Jewish supersti-
tions, and of coiu'se that they would be likely, in the natiual course of
things, to occasion the destruction of the temi)le and worship which ap-
peared to he the central |)oint of these superstitions, and through them of
insurrections among the Jews and opposition to the authority of the Ro-
mans. How could he then, with any good ground of ho[)e, expect the
temple to be spared? Or how could he suppose that Christians, already
the objects of embittered persecution by Nero, would be permitted to re-
tain possession of the Sanctum (according to Ewald and Bleek) ; or to re-
build another structure there more magnificent than the former one ? (ac-
cording to Heimichs). In whatever light this matter is viewed, the inter-
pretations before us look improbable, even when contemplated from the
position in which these critics would fain place us.
But if John (whether apostle or not) was really what he declares himself
to be, i. e. tV nvtvpajL when he wrote this book or had these visions, then
of course do the ex[)Ositions of the last named writers, and all others that
arc like them, fall entirely to the ground. Fads contradict the declara-
tions of John, in case they are expounded as the writers named bid us to ex-
pound them. It comes at last then to the simple question, whether being h
nviVfjiuri affords any security against erroneous and uulbundcd expectations .''
These critics would doubtless answer this question at once in the negative ;
I am as fully persuaded, that an affirmative answer is the proper one.
In a word ; w hy should we, with these interpreters, adopt an exegesis
which is half literal and half figurative ? Why should we adojit one which
on its veiT face would show that the author of the Apocalypse was merely
a j)rejurliced Jew, and besides this, but a very poor sort of augurer as to
the future ? Why should we adopt one, which contradicts facts that ac-
tually took place ? Or why should we eo spirilualize, with the older wi it-
ers, a^ to make out aliquid ex aliquo ? I may even ask with some empha-
sis : Why should we do any part of this, when there is an easy and nat-
216 THE TEMPLE : Chap. XL 1.
ural interpretation, in harmony with the whole tenor of the book, which
gives a plain and iutcHigible sense, and one fraught with appropriate mean-
ing?
Eichhorn, previous to the productions of Bleek, Heinrichs, and Ewald,
had ah-eady set an example of interpretation here, which Lange folloAved,
and which others would have done well to follow ; and although his book
is not always wanting in exegesis which is improbable and incongruous,
yet here he has hap])ily hit upon a proper medium between two extremes.
For substance his views are such as I have given above, and which seem
to me altogether preferable to those of most succeeding commentators.]
(1) And there was given to me a reed like to a staff, saying : Rise and measure
the temple of God, and the altar, and those who worship therein.
Kulfifiog is a generic word, and sometimes means, as here, a light
oneasuring-rod, sometimes a staff for the hand, and sometimes a pen.
The use of the y.uXa^og depends on the size. In Ezek. 40: 3, such a
reed is called nix:!! nsp a reed of measurement ; and the passage there
is the model, in some respects, of the one before us. — Of^oiog ^«(35q},
like to a staff or sceptre, i. e. like to it in regard to size, and therefore
convenient for handling. Or we may construe the clause in another
way. In Heb. '^^4. , which usually means staff, rod, also means measu-
ring rod or pole, Ps. 74: 2. Jer, 10: 16. 51: 19, in these cases = meas-
ured or meted portion. The Sept. in more than twenty -five instances trans-
late this word by qadSog ; and in like manner do they translate the first
two instances just mentioned. We may therefore interpret thus : A
reed was given me like to a measuring-rod, i. e. like to it in respect to
length, size, etc.
Atyow — but who is the speaker ? The vulgate text has supplied the
agent, by inserting : y.ai 6 ayytlog elGr)'jy.£i. But this clause is justly
rejected, as wanting sufficient support from Mss. It is moreover evident-
ly against the tenor of the sequel, for v. 3 (huqtvoiv fiov) shows that
God or Christ must have been the speaker in this case. The addition
in the vulgate text seems to be a gloss introduced from Zech. 3: 5, lat-
ter clause. Evidently the speaker, in this verse, is the person who gave
John the measuring-rod. But as the passive voice (ido&tj) is here used,
the agent in this case is not designated. This must be supplied, there-
fore, from the context, and v. 3 enables us to supply the proper Nomi-
native. The interpretation which makes 'AuXuixog itself the speaker, is
not worth notice, except as a fact which exhibits the possibility of any
and every extravagance in interpretation. See further in the remarks
at tlie close of the preceding chaptei*.
"EyeiQcu, rise, = c^p or iT:^p so common in the Psalms. It does not
imply merely rising up from a sitting or reclining posture, but rousing
ujj to action from a state of inaction ; and so it is like the Latin age^
agedum, etc. — MhQtjffov . . . zov ^eov, offers no difficulty as to the
THETEjrPLE: Chap. XL 2. 217
simple meaning of the words, but merely as to the design or object of
the action. In Ezek. 40: 3 seq., the angel who has the measuring-rod
uses it in the way of metiirg out the |)ro|)orlions of a neio temple to be
erected. In Zech. 2: 1 seq., the angel with a mcasunng-line employs
it for the like purpose in respect to the city of Jerusalem. But in Lam.
2: 8. 2 Kings 21: 13. Is. 34: 11. Araos 7:8, 9, a/meand/)/«mWtweare
employed as symbols of destruction ; and these are altogctlun' analogous
to the cjise before us. As a part is to be preserved, and a part to be
destroyed, so the former has boundaries assigned to it, beyond which
destruction cannot be extended. — QixjtciGTtjQiov means the altar, either
for burnt offerings or for incense ; for the word is employed in respect
to both, although it is more appropriate to the former meaning, so far as
etymology is concerned. But here doubtless it means the altar of in-
cense, which stood near the most holy place.
Kui roi'b TiQoaxvrovvTag if avzco, (sc. fv tw vcko). But how could
the seer measure the worshippers with a nuhtuog ? He could not, in a
literal sense. I understand the passage, therefore, as exhibiting a zeug-
ma, I. e. a v'erb is connected with two nouns, while it has a sense appro-
priate only to one. So in Luke 1: 64, awcijjf i>?/ to OToitn . . . xul ij
yP.aj(7fT«; 1 Cor. 3: 2, ydXa vfictg moTiaa, ov ^Qoifta. Comp. 1 Tim. 4:
3, and Homer's otiov x«/ oizop idovrs-;, Gramm. § 192. In the present
case we have only to supply some appropriate verb to be connected with
7iQO(jy.i>vovt'Tag, such as ).6yt(Tui, take an account of; or we may simply
transfer the generic sense of ^itTQi^aov so as to be connected with this noun,
and the meaning will be good, viz., mete out, apportion off, quasi —
' draw a line of circumvallation around the inner temple and the wor-
shippers in spirit and in truth who are there ; for such shall be protected
amid the general ruin.' — That Iv uvtco means i^i the temple, seems suffi-
ciently plain from the nature of the case. Agreement of a pronoun
with a more remote antecedent, is by no means an unusual phenomenon
in the sacred writings ; Gramm. § 124. 4. Note. 3.
(2) But the porch without tlie temple cast out, and measure it not, for it is
given up to llie Gentiles; and they shall tread the holy city under foot forty and
two months.
TtjV avXijV rijv e^a&ev. That the temple was divided in the manner
here indicated, is plain from Ezek. 40: 17, 19, where we have "i^n^
I'S'^san and ■'Jiii'^nn '^•Jtrin , i. e. the inner court and the outer court. The
Sanctum Sanctorum, and the vaog or apartment for incense and sacri-
fices, constituted the inner court, which only the priests could frequent ;
the remaining or front part of the building constituted another court,
where worshippers of the common order assembled; and still farther
out was the court of the Gentiles, i. e. a space where foreigners might
VOL. II. 28
218 THE TEMPLE : Chap. XL 2.
worship. In the present case, the worshippers in the inner court are of
course priests ; and Christians, it should be remembered here, are kings
and priests to God, and to them the inmost recesses of the temple of
God are opened ; comp. Rev. 11: 19, also Heb. 9: 8 and 10: 19, 20.
Matt. 27: 51.
"E-A^uXt a^co is to be taken in a qualified or secondary sense here,
(for the literal meaning would make no good sense), i. e. it means here
to reject, despise, neglect; comp. Luke 6: 22. Kal fiij avTtjv ^EZQ/jarjg
explains the meaning of the preceding clause. As he did not include
the exterior court in his measurement for preservation, so he gave it up
of course to destruction.
To?g tOvhGi, to the heathen or Gentiles. That the Romans are meant
in this case, seems to be very obvious, if we suppose the Apocalypse to
have been written during the latter part of Nero's reign, when the Jew-
ish troubles had actually begun. The meaning plainly is, that by the
decree of Heaven the exterior temple was to be given up to the Gen-
tiles.— rioXiv dyiav, holy city, a familiar name, of Jerusalem, comp. Neh.
11: 1, 18. Is. 48: 2. Matt. 4: 5. 27: 53 ; a name which it still preserves.
This seems plainly to identify the special object which is to be destroy-
ed ; and from the impending ruin, the true spiritual worship and wor-
shippers of God are to be preserved.
TlaTtjOovoi, shall tread down, trample upon, which of course implies
thorough subjection and treating with great indignity. Ewald construes
it as designating only profanation by the presence of the heathen. But
surely 'lEQovaaXij^ tatui nazovi^tvij vno i&vcov, in Luke 21: 24, in con-
nection with the context, means something more than profaning. In-
deed, how can we compare the expression here with that in Luke, with-
out being necessitated to suppose, that the object of both passages is pre-
cisely the same ? And if so, nothing can be more certain, than that the
destruction of the city and temple of Jerusalem is threatened, and not
merely profanation by the presence of heathen.
I^orty and two months. Is this period to be regarded as literal, or as
merely a figurative mode of designating a short period, by a reference to a
well known period of time in the book of Daniel, 7: 25. 12: 7? The
same question occurs in regard to the next verse, and some other pas-
sages in the sequel. After all the investigation which I have been able
to make, I feel compelled to believe that the writer refers to a literal
and definite period, although not so exact that a single day, or even a
few days, of variation from it would interfere with the object he has in
view. It is certain that the invasion of the Romans lasted just about the
length of the period named, until Jerusalem was taken. And although
the city itself was not besieged so long, yet the metropolis, in this case,
as in innumerable others in both Testaments, appears to stand for the
THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap, XL 3. 219
countrv of Jiidea, During the invasion of Judea by the "Romans, the
faithful testimony of tlie persecuted witnesses for Christianity is con-
tinued, while at last they are slain. The patience of God in deferring
80 long the destruction of the persecutors, is displayed by this ; and es-
pecially his mercy in continuing to warn and reprove them. This is a
natural, simple, and easy method of interpretation, to say the least, and
one which, although it is not ditlicult to raise objections against it, I feel
constrained to adopt.
In order to siive repetition I must refer the reader, for the discussion
of the whole subject in relation to times designated by the Apocalypse,
to Excursus V. at the end of this volume ; and for a more ample discus-
sion, to my little work entitled Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy.
(3) And 1 will give to my two witnesses, and they shall prophesy a thousand
two hundred and sixty days, cinthed in sack-cloth.
But who are these two witnesses ? A question that has been the oc-
casion, perhaps, of more conjecture and more unlimited speculation than
almost any other which the Apocalypse has originated. Some notice of
the efforts which interpreters have made to answer it, seems to be neces-
sary in a case like the present ; and particularly so, inasmuch as the
subject is not without real difficulties even when viewed in its most sim-
ple light. If this notice sliould answer no other purpose than a warning
against groundless and boundless conjecture, and a caution against ad-
mitting anything which will destroy the connection and congruity of the
author's representations, yet this of itself would be a sufficient apology
for introducing iu
Inquiry respecting the Two Witnesses.
In pui-suing the object of this Inquiry, I shall first introduce in the brief-
est manner possible, those opinions respecting the two witnesses which are
plainly nothing jjut mere conjectures, and therefore not entitled to any seri-
ous examination. I shall then subjoin some other views to which particu-
lar importance has been recently attached, and which therefore need some
discussion.
I. Conjectures in respect to the Two Witnesses.
(a) They are the O. and N. Testament; so Melchior, Alfelman, and re-
cently Croly. [b) They mean aU preachers instructed by the Law and the
Gospel ; so Pannonius and Thomas Aquinas, (c) Christ and John the Bap-
tist; rijertinus. id) Pope Sylvester and Mena, who wrote against the F^u-
tychians ; Lyranus and Ederus. (e) Francis and Dominic, the respective
beads of two orders of monks; quoted in Cornelius a I^jtide. (/) The
great wisdom and sanctity of the ])rimitive preachers; Alcassar. ip) John
Huss and Luther ; so Horzoff. Others ; John Huss and Jerome of Prague,
(fc) The Waldenses and Albigenses ; and the Apocalyptist names two, be-
220 THE TWO witnesses: Chap. XL 3.
cause of the Law and the Gospel, and also with respect to such pairs in sa-
cred history as Moses and Aaron, Elijali and EHsha, Joshna and Zerubba-
bel; lie had also his eye iijion John Hiiss and Jerome of Prague; Vitringa.
Andrew Fuller also supposes the two witnesses are the Waldenses and Al-
bigenses ; Lect. on Apoc. in loc. (i) The Jewish and Gentile Christians in
Aelia, (the new name of the city built on the ruins of Jerusalem by Adrian),
who preached to Jews and Gentiles the necessity of reformation ; Grotius,
and after him Hammond.
This syllal)us comprises only a part of the interpretations given to the
verse before us. The intelligent reader, who is in any tolerable measure
acquainted with the criticism of the present day, needs no forma! refutation
of such interpretations. Almost all are wholly inappropriate, in that they
have respect not to the period of the invasion of Palestine by the Romans,
but to one a long time afterwards. One of them (c) even falls upon a
period antecedent to the death of Christ. The whole of them, with some
slight exception in the cases (6) and (/), are entirely incongruous and ir-
relevant.
II. Other views which have a better claim to be examined.
(1) The two witnesses are the two high-priests, Anavus and Jesxis ; who
nobly withstood the Zealots in Jerusalem, and were massacred by them,
Jos. Bell. Jud. IV. 3. 13 — 6. 1. So Herder and Eichhorn; and after the
latter, his humble imitator, F. A. L. Matthaei, and others.
The reason for i-ejecting this opinion, which was made current for a
time through the eloquence and ability of Herder and Eichhorn, are brief,
and in my apprehension entirely conclusive, {n) These two high-priests
were zealous Jews and the enemies of Christianity. How then could the
Saviour say of them: Mt ivitnessesf v. 3. And how could he be called
THEIR Lord7 V. 8. If what Bleek (Zeitschrift von Schleiermacher, etc.,
Heft IL p. 269), Hanlein (Theol. Journal von H. and Ammon, IIL p. 380),
and Lange (Comm. in Apoc. 11: 10, 11) say, were true, viz. that Ananus
was an active persecutor of Christians, and occasioned the death of James
the Lord's brother, then the case would be more glaring still, and all
attempts to reconcile their character with the description in Rev. 11: 3 — 13
must be vain. But in respect to this particular jjoint, these writers seem to
have erred. There was indeed an Ananus, a Ijigh-priest, Avho occasioned
the death of James ; but he was slain by the Sicarii in A. D. 66; Jos. Antiq.
XX. 9. 1 and Bell. Jud. II. 17. 9. But the Ananus and Jesus who with-
stood the Sicarii, and were massacred by them and the Idumaeans, were
other and different persons, and were assassinated in A. D. 67; Jos. Bell.
Jud. IV. 3. 13 — 5. 2, Still, that Ananus and Jesus were zealous Jews, and
opposed to Christianity, no one can doubt who reads their history, {b) How
can these two high-priests be said to prophesy during the 1260 days of the
invasion, when in fact they were destroyed during the very first year of it,
viz. during A. D. 67 ? (c) What mean their resurrection and ascension to
heaven ? (d) In what sense could the Apocalyptist say, that these two
high-priests possessed miraculous powers, like those of Moses and Elijah ?
vs. 5, 6. (e) The spontaneous impression of every reader is, that the two
witnesses, whoever they might be, were the friends of Christ and the
Christian cause, and that they were endowed with the miraculotis powers
THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XI. 3. 221
of the primitive tmrliers ot' Cliristianity ; hut liow can these prechcntes
belong to tlic deoiiled fHemi'e^ of Christ — tlie persecuting Jews of lliat time?
Anil how can we assign to them a trinmph in tlieir resurrection anil ascen-
sion, wliicii is ilenietl even to the early martyrs? Comj). 5: "J — 11. Finally;
in reflecting upon this exegesis once quite popular, we caimot help the
feeling of sur})rise, that it could ever have heen brought forward and
patronized by such men as Herder and Eichliorn. Its day, I trust, has
past ; but have succeeding times offered us something better in its stead ?
(2) Recent commentators of distinguished note in Germany liave revived
in part the ancient exegesis of Rev. 11: .3 — "13, which maintained that
Moses and Elijah, or Enoch and Elijah, are the two witnesses spoken of in
the passjige betbre us.
So Bleek (in loc. cit. supra), and so Evvald in his recent Commentary.
The ground of this interpretation is, that the Jews of ancient times, and
also the early Christians, expected that Christ would make his appearance
to vindicate the rights of his kingdom, preceded by the proj)hets above
named, or at least by two of them. Elijah was considered as undoubtedly
one of the two, because 3Ial. 4: 5 was regarded as having expressly named
him ; and in respect to the other, there was a division of opinion, the
Jews in general beUeving the other pro|)het to be Moses, while some of
them held to Enoch. The position of Hleek and Ewalil of course is, that
the writer of the Apocalypse partook of these alleged ancient views; that
he expected that Clirist would speedily come in i)ersor. to destroy or sub-
due all his enemies, and would then commence bis new and glorious
terrestrial reign ; and also that his heralds would be Elijah and some other
distinguished ancient prophet. These heralds would indeed be slain by
opposing enemies ; but they would be raised triumphantly from the dead,
and then the victories of the Messiah would become conspicuous and uni-
versal.
Of course, all apprehension that the writer of the Apocalypse was in-
spired, or had any correct knowledge of the future, is abandoned by such
a position ; and indeed nothing is more manifest, than that both JJIeek and
Ewald, (and others also who agree with their views), do not hesitate at all
to believe, and do virtually maintain, that John was in no important respect
any more eidightened as to ihe future, than other Jewish Christians of the
times in which he lived.
To contest the point of John's inspircilion with those who adopt such an
exegesis, would be a task inapprojuiate to a book of Commentary. But I
may be permitted, I would hope, to suggest some doubts in respect to the
propriety of the interpretation before us, on grounds simply of a historical
and critical nature.
Heinrichs (on Rev. 11: 3) says: "That Moses and Elijah would return
from heaven to earth, and be the precursors of the Messiah, consluns erat
Judaeorum opinio.'^ To this opinion Bleek (|». !270 ut sup.) plainly inclines;
while Ewald seems undecided whether Moses and Elijah, or Enoch and
Elijah, were the specific witnesses in question.
But what is the pnwf of lh\s constans opinio'} In 3Ial. 4: 5 it is said, that
' Elijah the prophet will come, before the great day of the Lord.' That tlie
Jews of ancient times gave a literal interpretation to this |)assage, seems to
be quite clear from Matt. 17: 10 — 12. Mark *J: 11 — 13, " Why say the scribea
that Elijah must first come ?" But equally clear is it, also, from these pas-
222 THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XL 3.
sages and from Matt. 11: 14, that the Saviour explicitly declares Jolsn the
Baptist to have been the Elijah meant by the profihet Malachi. Comp.
Luke 1: 17, wliich gives the ground of this interpretation, viz. 'he (John)
had the s])irit and energj' of Elijah.'
How, now, I may be permitted to ask, after declarations so explicit as
these, can we be persuaded, that the primitive Christians still continued to
believe in another and a litercd coming of Elijah ? That John the apostle
was familiar with the views of Christians, will not, I trust, be questioned.
What ground then is there, to induce us to believe that John expected a
literal coming of Elijah ? And what is there in the Scriptures, which is a
good ground for supposing that another prophet was then expected to come
with him ? Perhaps it may be said here, that John 1: 21 furnishes some
ground for supposing that such an opinion was current among the Scribes
and Pharisees. But still, if o TtQOCfijjrjg in that passage should be so con-
strued, this exposition would not seem to be favoured by most of the early
Jewish testimony.
Pesiqta Rab. fol. G2. col. 1, speaks of only Elijah. Jalkuth Shimoni, fol.
53. col. 3, gives the same view : " Elijah will come three days before the
Messiah ;" quoted in Eisenmeng. Entdeckt. Jud. II. p. 696. So the Tal-
mud, Tract. Shabbath, fol. 1 18. col. 1 ; Rabbi Bechai, Shulchan Arba, fol. 5.
col. 4 ; Jalkuth Shimoni in Mai. fol. 88. col. 4 ; each and all repeat the
same sentiment, Eisenm. ut supra p. 712. Emek Hammelekh repeatedly
declares the same thing; quoted in Eisenm. II. 714, 715. Nothing is said
in all these of any more precursors than Elijah, or of any other one but he.
But there is still more ancient evidence than any of this. In Sirach 48:
1 — 9, is a eulogy of Elijah ; after which the writer says, that 'he will ap-
pear to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children,' etc. [as in Mai. 4: 5,
6], and then adds : " Blessed are those who shall see him," viz. at the time
of the Messiah; vs. 10, 11.
All these opinions are plainly founded on a literal interpretation of Mai.
4: 5, and probably have respect to Christ's frst coming. In accordance
with these, but as referring to Christ's second coming, we find the opinions
of Jerome on Matt. 17: 12. Aug. De Civ. Dei, XX. 29. Theodoret, Epit.
div. Decret. c. 23, quoted in Suicer Thes. I. p. 393. Justin, Dial, cum Tryph.
p. 226. Lactantius, Instt. Lib. VII. All of these Christian fathers appear to
believe in the reappearance of Elijah, before Christ's second coming to de-
stroy Antichrist.
We have here then, as yet, but one xcitness named ; and all that is said
respecting him, is evidently founded on the literal sense of Mai. 4: 5. The
difference of opinion, in the cases above cited, respects not the number of
the witnesses, nor yet the person who will appear, viz. Elijah, but only the
point whether \\\e first or second coming is the one to which Malachi refers.
Thus far, then, all seems to make nothing for the ground assumed by
Bleek, Heinrichs, and Ewald. Still they have some apparent ground to
build upon. Debarim Rabba, § 3. fol. 255. 2, and Tanchuma, fol. 42. 1,
speak of Moses and Elijah as forerunners of the Messiah; quoted in
Schoettgen, Hor. Heb. in Matt. 17: 3, also in Vol. II. de Messia, p. 544. So
Targ. Hierosol. in Ex. x — xii, quoted in Eisenmeng. Entd. Jud. II. j). 698.
Hilarius Pictaviensis (on Matt. 17: 3) expresses the same opinion ; quoted
in Corrodi, Geschichte des Cliiliasmus, II. p. 438. But this is a small foun-
dation to build upon, in order to support the opinion in question ; and even
THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XI. 3. 223
if it prove anytliing, it is far enough from proving tliat this opinion was ex-
tant in the time of Jolin.
I may remark ht-rt', that so far as the text in tlie Apocalypse is concern-
ed, there is a j)al|»ahle alliisirm to tlie miraculous powers of Moses and Elijah,
in Roy. 11: l». That Joiiu had his mind upon these prophets, is a j)oini al-
together clear. Ihit whetlur he merely horrows his dra])ery from that
source, or wiielher he helieved and designed to teach their veritahlc reap-
pearance as precursors of the Messiah, are questions not at all decided hy
an alhision to them. Tliose who helieve in John's inspiration, or even in
his correct views of relii'ious truth, will not he easily persuaded to helieve,
that he has taught the actual reappearance of tiie ancient prophets. There
is nothing in the text, at least as 1 read and miderstand it, which should in-
duce them to believe this.
Somewhat more support in some respects has the opinion, that Enoch
and Elijah were to he the precursurs of the Messiah, 1 tind no satistiictory
evidence of this, indeed, in Jewish productions ; hut the Christian lathers
show, in their writings, that such an opinion was early and somewhat
widely spread among the Christian churches, in respect to the second com-
ing of Christ, i. e. his coming to destroy Antichrist. Antichrist they found
in the beast, who was to come from the bottondess pit and slay the two
witnesses, as described in Rev. 11: 7. The ground of their reasoning was,
that Enoch and Elijah, having been translated without tasting of death,
would return at the second coming of Christ, and be slain by Antichrist;
and so, at last, they would undergo the conunon lot of all men. The rea-
son for coupling tliese two prophets together, seems to have been the simi-
larity of their history, and especially the similarity of their exit from the
»world.
The reader may find the subject so represented in Evang. Nicodemi,
Fabr. Cod. Apoc. N. Test., j). 291. So in Tertullian, de Anima, § 50 ; An-
dreas, Comin. in Apoc. 11: 3, where he expressly says; "By the two wit-
nesses most of our teachers have understood Enoch and Elijah," etc. To
the same purpose Arethas testifies, in his Comm. on Rev. 11: 3. He even
asserts the opinion to be a concorditer affirmatur. So, in res|>ect to the par-
ticular pro|)hets who were to appear, Damascetnis, Orth. F'id. IV. c. 29, in
Suicer's Thes. I. p. 392. Hippolytus, de Antichristo, § 43. p. 20, ed. Fabricii.
Dorotheus Tyrius, in Eiblioth. Mas. Patrum, 111. p. 420. Ambrosius, in
Apoc. 11: 3. Ephrem, in Paraen. de Antichristo. The appeal sometimes
made to Iren. Cont. Haeres. IV. 10. V. 5. edit. Massuet, is not at all decisive.
In respect now to all this testimony from the fathers, it may he truly
said, that it does not reach the demands of the case before us. Nothing is
more evident, than that the views of these fathers grew out of early specu-
lations among Christians respecting Antichrist and the Millennium, con-
nected with difficulties concerning the place to which Elijah and Enoch
had been transported. These prophets, according to the views of that lime,
had not been in Hades nt all; and so the ancient fathers thought that they
could not be raised from the dead; they must therefore, as it seemed to
them, return to life and undergo a real death ; after which, they might be
introduced into the heaven of the redeemed. So, as we may concede,
thought and reasoned some of the Christian fathers ; hut among the Jews,
we find no evidence in regard to such an opinion. We have no evidence
that it existed at all in the days of John ; unless indeed some one may al-
224 THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XI. 3.
lege, that the passage in Evang. Nicodemi (quoted above) renders it in a
measure probable. Yet we cannot attribute much weight to this produc-
tion, because of its fabulous nature and late origin.
That the Christian fathers, even, were far from being as united in opinion
as Andreas and Arethas intimate, is evident enough, not only from what
lias been already quoted and referred to, but also from the fact, that Enoch,
Elijah, and John the Evangelist, are united by some, as the precursors of
the Messiah at his second coming. Thus Methodius, as quoted in Suicer
Thes. I. p. 393. So too Hippolytus (nothus), in App. ad Opp. Hippol. p. 14.
§ 21. edit. Fabr. Also Ephraem of Antioch (fl. 526), cited in Photius' Bib.
Cod. 225, and quoted in Corrodi, Gesch. Chil. II. p. 439. Barradius (quo-
ted in Cal. Bib. Illust. in Apoc. 11: 3, p. 1821) refers to Theophylact, Are-
thas, Hippolytus, Damascenus, and others, as maintaining this opinion. If
so, some of them must have had veiy different views at different times ;
for the quotations made above of opinions entertained by some of them,
would seem to prove something quite different from this.
As a still further variation of opinion, may be mentioned the views of
Victorinus Pictavionensis, the earliest commentator we have on the Apoca-
lypse. This writer (in Apoc. 11: 3, Bib. Max. Patrum. III. p. 418), says:
' Many suppose that Elijah and Elisha, or Elijah and Muses, are the two
witnesses ; but Jeremiah is to be joined with Elijah, because no mention
is made in Scripture of his death, and because it was predicted that " he
must be a prophet to many nations," and in order that he should fulfil this
prediction (which was not done during his former life), he must rise fi'om
the dead, be a precursor of the Messiah, and preach to many nations ; even
as John says. Rev. 11: 3 — 13.'
With facts such as these before us, now, we may well ask : Where is the
constans Judaeorum opinio, about Moses and Elijah, or Enoch and Elijah ?
Or where is to be fovuid any unity or consistency even among the Chris-
tian fathers themselves .^ We have, (1) Elijah. (2) Moses and Elijah. (3)
Enoch and Elijah. (4) Enoch, Elijah, and John the Evangelist (see John
21: 22). (5) Elijah and Jeremiah. The first is an old opinion, founded on
a literal interpretation of Mai. 4: 5, (which was expressly corrected by Jesus
himself, 3Iatt. II: 14); the second is an opinion supported by a few Rab-
binic writers, who for the most part lived centuries after the time of our
author ; for the third, no Jewish authors, and no early Christian ones bear
witness ; for the fourth and fifth, there is not testimony enough even to
render them worthy of being canvassed. Where then, we may ask again,
is the vetits, and where the constans opinio Judaeorum ?
Setting aside now, for the moment, the question of John's inspiration,
and supposing (what Ewald, Hicke, Schott and others assert) that the au-
thor of the Apocalypse was not John the apostle, but some disciple or
friend of John at Ephesus, is there any considerable probability, that the
representation of the two witnesses in Rev. 11: 3 — 13 is founded on the
fable, that Moses and Elijah, or Enoch and Elijah, were to be precursoi-s
of the Messiah, at his second coming in order to destroy Antichrist? I am
willing that this question should be decided by impartial critics, even on
the ground now taken, if they choose it. After the Saviour himself had
dissipated the illusion aljout the literal coming of Elijah (Matt. 11: 14), I
cannot well see how John the apostle, or any such friend of his as could
write the Apocalypse, could indulge the reverie which Bleek, Ewald,
THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XI. 3. 225
many of the ancient futliers, and specially the Romish doctors of later ages,
ascribe to him. Bollariiiiiie, the great Romish cliampioii, even goes so far,
indeed, at< to asoiil»<' lunsij to any one, who denies the |);itiistical opinion
in respect to this subject. By tliis he means, the opinion that I'liocli and
Elijali win likrdlli/ come, and he put to deatii by Anticinist. But Beilar-
mine makes too nnich haste, in this case, even for tradition itself.
We have seen tiiat nolliing is actually more wavering and discrepant
tlian the patristical opinions in relation to this matter. Tlie very nature of
the case also siiows, that such opinions can have no good foundation.
Equally destitute of any valid siipjjort, too, is the opinion that Antichrist
is found in Rev. 11: 7; unless, indeed, a most ffcneric meaning be given to
this appellation. We are remitted, tiierefore, atler all our wanderings into
these by-paths — arter our pursuit of mere conjectincs and guesses, our ex-
amination of the claims made for Jewisii higli j)riests and for prophets ex-
pected to rise from the dead — to a further elfort in order to elicit tiom the
text and context some consistent meaning, wiiich will comport with tlie
idea, that the writer of the Apocalypse was neither an idle dreamer, nor an
enthusiastic visionary. It may l)e shown to be probable, that the author
was not regardless either of congruity in the plan of his work, or of real
and apposite meaning in the imagery which he introduces.
What then is apposite ') And what does the nature of the case admit or
rc(pfn'e 7
In Rev. G: 11 the martyrs supplicating for retribution upon the enemies
and persecutors of the church are told, that thty must wait for a while, un-
til the number of martyrs becomes augmented, and the iniquitij of their persecu-
tors coims to its full completion. Against the judgments of heaven wiiich
are to overtake the latter, Christians in general are secured by the seal of
God impressed upon their foreheads, ch. vii. Here, in ch. xi. which brings
us to the close of the first cadistrophe, we have a picture of the renewed
and bitter efforts of the enemies of the church to destroy it, even at the
period when destruction was impending over themselves. In this way the
reader is prepared to acquiesce in the doom which awaits them, on the
sounding of the seventh and last trumpet.
Nor is this all. The long suffering of God is thus displayed towards his
once beloved people. They are exhorted to repentance while destruction
is impending, in order that they may escape. Prophets furnished with mi-
raculous powers, like those of Moses and Elijah, so as to give full proof of
their divine mission, are sent to them. But tliey will not hear. When the
time fixed by heaven for their probation is past, tliose prophets are given
up to the persecuting fury of their enemies, and they fall a sacrifice. Yet
the cause which they advocated is not rendered hopeless by this. It is not
even weakened ; for the martyrs are raised from the dead, and ascend in
triumph to heaven. In other words : " The blood of the martyrs is the seed
of the church ;" for the church becomes victorious by the deadly assaults
made upon it. The enemies of religion may indeed bring upon themselves
swift destruction, by their malignity; they do so; but the church will rise
and trium|)li, and enjoy continued divine [trotection and favour, amid all
the trials to which it can be sui)jected.
That liltrally two, and only two, witnesses were to appear in these times
of peculiar wickedness; that they were to be literalbf raised from tlie dead,
and to ascend to heaven, etc. ; we need not strive to disprove, in connnent-
voL. II, 29
226 THE TWO AviTNESSES : Chap. XL 3.
ing on such a book as the Apocalypse. In all cases great allowance is of
course to be made ibr symbol and costume. Still, it is also a matter of
course that there shoidd be some/«d5 at the basis; and here these facts
are, that God would raise up faithful and Avell endowed preachers among
the .Tews, at the period when the nation were ready to perish ; that those
preachers would be persecuted and destroyed ; and after all, that the
Christian cause would still be triumjthant. If we go beyond this in literal
interpretation, we are at once merged into abysses from which there is no
escape; for how could all "the inhabitants of the earth" literally obtain the
news of the death of the witnesses in three and a half days, and send pres-
ents to each other, and come to Jerusalem and exult over their dead bodies,
within the same period of time? vs. 9, 10. But enough — for it is impossi-
ble to make ont a literal exegesis on any ground whatever, except that of
absolute absurdity.
One question remains, on the ground now assumed. Why tivo witnes-
ses.^ Because, in the first place, two are a competent number to establish
any matter ; see Dent. 17: 6. 19: 15. Num. 35: 30. John 5: 30—33. Matt.
18: 16. But I would not say, that this is all which need be supposed in the
present case; for the mission of the seventy disciples in pairs, Luke 10: 1 ;
the appearance of cons{)icuous prophets and personages for the manage-
ment of the Jewish political and ecclesiastical affairs and for their reforma-
tion, (such for example as Moses and Aaron, Elijali and Elisha, Zerubbabel
and Joshua), seenjs plainly to jjoint to a basis on which we can build in
part the explanation of the number two in this case. The meaning is, that
a competent nund)er of divinely commissioned and faithful Christian Avitnes-
ses, endowed with miraculous jjowers, sliould bear testimony against the
corrupt Jews, during the last days of their Commonwealth, respecting their
sins ; that they should proclaim the truths of the Gospel ; and that the
Jews, by destroying them, would bring upon themselves an aggravated and
an awful doom. All beyond this is mere costume or symbol ; and this, em-
ployed in like manner as we find symbols employed in every other part of
the Apocalypse.
But an earnest inquirer may perhaps be disposed to go still further in his
inquiries, and ask : 'How much of all that is now supposed to be predicted
here, actually liapi)ened during the invasion of Judea by the Romans .^'
This question, however, we have not the adequate means of fully an-
swering simply by historical documents. Josephus is not the historian of
Christians. He touches indeed, in a short paragraph, upon John the Bap-
tist, on James tlie brother of Jesus, and perhaps upon the history of Jesus
himself; but he was too much involved in Jewish prejudices and civil con-
cerns, to inquire after matters of Christian history. Tacitus of course gives
us nothing but political and civil history. He is brief, full of fiction and
pi'ejudice in respect to the opinions of the Jews, but graphic as to some
events of the Jewish war. The N. Testament history of the church does
not cover the ground under examination. Early ecclesiastical histories,
such as that of Hegesipi)us and others, have perished. But still, we have
an authority of the most decisive nature remaining. It is the Saviour him-
self, who, in his prophecy respecting the destruction of Jerusalem, has
plainly foretold the persecution of Christians, at the period in question ;
see Matt. 24: 9—13. Mark 13: 9—13. Luke 21: 12—16. Perfectly re-
concilable with the fulfilment of this prediction we may suppose it to be,
TIIF. TWO WITNESSES : ClIAP. XI. 3. 227
lliat, acoordiiis: to tlio testimony of tlie ancici)t.s, tlie great l)nfly of Cliris-
tiaiis ileil hoyond tlic Jordan to Pella, when Palestine was invailed l»y tlio
Rotnan.^. Tliat Jndea eoidd suceessfidly resist the Roman power, no con-
siderate person wonid Iteheve. Hence tlie flijrht of Christians, in accor-
dance with the Avarninirs of the Savionr. But still, the case can hardly be
imagined, where all wmild hv. ahle to make jjood their escn])e. The sick,
the aired, paupers, persons of a hesitatinjf or doiihtiiifr tin-n of mind, must,
or at least would, (lelay, or ffive npan elfort to tl}'. Tiien, among the laith-
ful and zealous teachers of Christianity in Palestine, there must have been
those who chose to remain, and preach rejjcntance and faith to their i)erish-
ing countrymen. These I regard as being synd)oIized by the two witnesses
in 11:3. That they are endowed with miraculous powers, is surely no
matter of just otience to the Christian critic, considering the period in
which they lived. It is by the i)resentation of their lofly character and en-
dowments, and their subsequent martyrdom, that the Apocalyptist has so
exceedingly heightened the picture of Jewish guilt. One cannot find it in
his heart to deny, that the time for sounding the last woe-truini)ct had at
length I'tilly come.
At all events, it is clear that the Zealots and other Jews did not lose
their disjiosition to persecute at this })eriod. And well may we suppose
that Christians, when they urged the declarations of the Saviour as to the
impending fate of Jerusalem, would I)e taken oti'by the Zealots, on grounds
of i)ohtical jealousy, if not on other grounds ; for all w ho manifested a
sense of a])proaching danger, or made an effort to restore peace, were de-
stroyed by the Zealots. But to destroy the Christian religion, or even to
arrest its final trimnphs, was not in t^ie power of the Jews or of the Ro-
mans. Truth achieved its victories tiien ; it was destined to achieve still
greater triumphs.
Wetstein, who has not unfreqiiently been represented as of the same
ojiinion in respect to the two witnesses as Herder and Eichhorn (see p. 2*^0
above), has in fact given a very different view. He says (p. 890 of Vol. II.),
that the two witnesses " were prophets in the church, j)re(licting the de-
struction of the temple and the Jewish commonwealth." Danbuz (Comm.
on Apoc), and Lownian (on the Rev.), exi)re.ss an ojjinion sub.stantially of
the same tenor with that which I have endeavored to defend, although they
enter into little or no discussion respecting the merits of the case. Zege-
rus seems to have had some views of the like nature.
The verbal criticism of the passage before us may now be resumed,
z/w'rfco needs a direct complement. What is to be given ? The an-
swer might be nQorfijnluv, i. e. the gift of prophecy, or the power of
prophesying^ as this word means in 1 Cor. 12: 10, 13: 2, 8. 14: 22 ; for
such a sup[)lement might be naturally implied, in accordance with the
clause that follows. Or we may solve the form of expression here (viz.
the Fut. immediately after dojaw) by the Hebrew idiom, which not un-
frecjuently connect.s a verb with '{r: , when the latter makes that verb
a part of its complement ; e. g. Ezek. 37: 26, '^n"<3'nnT n'^nrjii , comp.
Jer. 9: 1. Ps. bb: 6, which however have only an indirect bearing on
228 THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XI. 4.
this case. So after daoa and ttoieT, the particle 'iva with a Subj. verb
is employed in the like way as the Fut. here ; comp. Rev. 3: 9. 13: 12,
16. — nQocfijTtvaovaiv is not limited to predicting, but often means, in
the N. Testament as well as the Old, any and every kind of preaching
by special divine aid.
Twelve hundred and sixty days. There have not been wanting
critics who have interpreted these as having respect to a period either
preceding or following the forty-two months of the preceding verse.
So Lactantius Instt. VII. 17, Andreas (Comm.), Hippolytus (Comm.
on Dan. 9: 27, edit. Fabi'ic. p. 272), and others, who place the coming
of the witnesses before the coming of Antichrist to tread down the holy
city. But it is so evident (since both periods named are of the same
length) that the writer regards them as contemporaneous, that any
effort to establish this position would seem to be unnecessary. The
meaning therefore is, that during the time in which the Gentiles are
engaged in laying waste the holy land and city, the witnesses will per-
form their duty, and will become martyrs near the close of this period.
As to the period itself, see on v. 2 above, and also Exc. V. on the
Times designated in the Apocalypse.
neQi^£^Xt][j.svoi adxxovg, the usual emblem of moui'ning and distress ;
but sometimes a designation of the projjhetic costume, see Matt. 3: 4.
Is. 20: 2. Zech. 13: 4. Probably the meaning here is the latter one.
Still, if there be united with this meaning the emblem of a mournful
state of the country and nation, the description is the more significant.
The participle in this clause, which is in the Norn., accords with the
implied Nom. to TrQoqifjtevaovaiv.
(4) These are the two olive-trees, and the two lamps, which stand before the
Lord of the earth.
Does not the writer plainly show here that he had no such intention
as literally to designate the prophets Moses and Elijah, or Enoch and
Elijah ? These are {ovznl eiaiv) means, these correspond to, or these are
represe?ited by, the two olive trees and the two lights, etc., i. e. those
mentioned in Zech. iv. There the prophet sees a golden lamp with
seven branches (vs. 1, 2), and two olive trees standing by it, emptying
their oil into it by ducts from the tree to the lamp (vs. 11 — 13). These
the angel-interpreter declares to be symbols of the two anointed ones
[Joshua and Zerubbabel], who stand before the Lord of the whole earth
(v. 14). In like manner, as to our text; the two witnesses whose
office it is to build up the kingdom of Christ and establish it on a firm
foundation, may be aptly compared, as Joshua and Zerubbabel the
founders of the renewed Jewish Commonwealth were, to the two olive-
trees perpetually fresh and vigorous, and the lights which their oil con-
THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XL 5. 229
tiniially fed. In Zechariah, indeed, we have but one lamp with seven
branches or lights ; but here the author has mentioned (wo lamps only,
and not any branches. This variation, however, is of no real moment
as to the signifieancy of the passage ; but still it shows the freedom
which the autlior of the Apocalypse used in respect to his sources,
never confining himself to an exact repetition or imitation of them.
The meaning of the whole seems plainly to be, that as Joshua and
Zerubbabel were employed in building up and establishing the ancient
temple and church, so, under the new dispensation, faithful leaders and
teachers are enn>loyed in building up the new and spiritual common-
wealth of Christianity. The nature of the comparison here is a good
reason, moreover, why the author should designate but two witnesses ^
rather than any other number. The two olive trees, and the two Jew-
ish leaders, of course demand a corresponding tivo under the new dis-
pensation.
yii ivwmov . . . iazMteg. So Mill, Knapp, Grfesbach, Lachmann,
Matthaei, Vater, Tittmann, and Hahn. But AYetstein has earMcjui, und
7 1 '»
Ewald approves this reading. In favour of sazMTeg are A. C. and
some twenty Codices. Those critics who decide in favour of the genu-
ineness of a reading, because it is internally improbable, or inconsistent
with the laws of grammar, will of course be disposed to adopt the
anomalous ccl . . . eazcoreg, i. e. a fern, article and a masc. participle.
But I know of no like instance, in respect to the article, in the Apoca-
lypse, or in the N. Testament ; although there are cases where a gen-
der of nouns different from the more usual one is employed, but which
still may be common gender by popular usage. I do not think the au-
thority adequate, in this case, to sanction so improliable a reading as
a'l . . . taztaztg. Yet if it be admitted, it is capable of explanation.
In its gender «t conforms to its antecedents iXatai and Xv^viai, while
the Part, iazwreg is a constructio ad sensum, because the witnesses
(masc.) are designated by it. Comp. Xen. Mem. II. 2. 3, «/ nolag
. . . Xf'yofTsg. Aristid. I. p. 2G7 — noXecov, ■Aalovvroiv ri (og avrovg.
Many other cases of the like nature, even in the Classics, any good
Greek grammar will supply. As to the meaning of the whole clause,
it is evidently intended to designate the honourable station of the wit-
nesses, and the office (of which they discharge the duties) as being of
divine appointment. In other words ; being represented as standing
hefore the Lord, they are of course presented to us as the ministers of
the divine will, admitted to the special presence, care, and coniidence
of the Saviour.
(5) And if any one will do them harm, fire issucth out of their mouth, and de-
voureth their enemies; yea, if any one will do them harm, in like manner he
muBt be destroyed.
230 THE TWO witnesses: Chap. XL 6.
EiTig . . . &eXei, Text. Recept. O-tXri ; both readings have been taxed
with being bad Greek, in a hypothetical sentence of the natuie here
presented, because the Opt. with £t, it is said, is the usual form for ex-
pressions of this nature. But this is the fact only when a case is merely
supposed, or conjectured ; on the contrary, when the speaker designs to
state a thing which he believes will certainly happen, he uses the Indie,
with fit; see Gramm. § 157. 1, and Winer, § 42. b. 2. a.
rivQ I'AnoQkVETai -A. r. A, i. e. they are furnished with a power of
resisting and destroying their enemies, like to that which Elijah posses-
sed, comp. 2 Kings 1: 10 — 14. Luke 9: 54. But here there is a shade
of difference, as usual, in our author. Elijah commanded the fire to
descend fro77i heaven ; the witnesses breathe it from their own mouth.
But is this to be understood literally of fire actually breathed out, or
tropically of words which like a burning fire would wither and consume ?
In 4 Ezra 13: 4, 10, 27 (ut spiritum et ignem), the same image is em-
ployed in a kind of half literal and half figurative manner, so that it
is diflScult to discern exactly what the meaning of the writer is. In
Enoch 61: 4 it is said: " The word of his mouth [of the elect One]
shall destroy all the sinners ;" probably by rebuke or condemnation.
In E-cv. 1: 16 a sivord is said to issue from the mouth of the Saviour,
as a symbol of destruction to enemies. The passage before us might
be interpreted in reference to severe and indignant rebuke by the two
prophets or witnesses; but if we compare Rev. 9: 17, 18,, it seems
more probable, that the author had before his mind the image of flam-
ing fire breathed forth so as to destroy ; comp. Ps. 18: 8 (9). This
seems to be rather confirmed by the verb xazeGd^t'ei, wholly consumes or
destroys. The Pres. tense here represents the whole scene as passing
before the mental vision of the prophet.
This sentiment the author virtually repeats in the sequel of the verse,
so as to render it the more intensive. I have rendered xat in accor-
dance with this design, in the version. — Ovrco, i. e. in this very man-
ner, viz. with destruction by fire, must every one who harms them be
cut off. — Jci, must, i. e. such is the appointment of heaven, and it will
take place.
(6) The same have power to shut up the heaven, that the rain shall not fall
during the days of their prophecy ; and they have power over the waters, to turn
them into blood, and to smite the earth by every kind of plague, so often as they
may desire.
KXeXaai rov ovQavov refers to the ancient opinion, that the rain was
kept in reservoirs above, and descended through apertures in the firma-
ment; Gen. 1: 7. 7: 11. 8: 2. 2 K. 7: 2. To shut or close up the hea-
ven, is of course to stop or restrain the rain from descending, and thus to
THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XL 7. 231
bring on drought or famine; comp. James 5: 17. 1 K. 17: 1. Sirach,
48: 2, 3. In other words : Tlie two witnesses were to be furnished with
miraculous powers, like to those of Elijah.
Nor do the miraculous powers of Elijah alone afford full scope for
comparison. The two witnesses are even to be endowed as Moses him-
self was, the great head of the ancient dispensation. — '/'^iovaiav i'j^ovoip
fTTi . . . i»V aiiia, i. e. they can smite the streams and turn them into blood,
as Moses did the Nile of old, Ex. 7: 17 seq. Comp. Rev. 8: 8 above. —
2.'TQtq:eiv avra ti\' ai^ta is an epexegetical clause, inserted in order to
explain tiovaiav tni tmv vSutmv. These two references to Moses and
Elijah show plainly, that if a literal sense must be given to the pas-
sage, they are the persons whom the writer has in mind.
Hutd'iai . . . 7T).i;yfi, to smite is to be tropically understood, and means
to chastise, to punish. — '/•> nd<7rj nlijyii, viz. with every kind of plague,
even such as Moses iiiflicted on the Egyptians. And all this — oad/.ig
idr OtXijacoat, so often as they may choose. The idv in this case stands
for dv and merely gives a generic conditionality to the clause ; see Rob.
Lex. fdv, No. 4. This particular use of idv for ui\ belongs to the later
Greek. As employed liere, it requires the Subj. mode after it.
(7) And wlicncvor tlioy shall liave finislu'd their testimony, the beast which as-
cendeth from the bottomless pit will make war with them, and overcome them
and slay them.
It is the Saviour who is speaking (see v. 3, nov) ; and in the preced-
ing description of the two witnesses, the Pres. tense is employed. The
transition here to a future conditional (Aor. Subj.) is of course in its
proper place, when an event yet to come is spoken of. So through the
verse — rtXiacoai., and then the Fut. noiyoH . . . viy.)]aH . . . uTzo'/.tevai.
This state of things being introduced, the writer then resumes the Pres.
tense again in the narration, intermixed with futures, v. 9, 10. Changes
of such a nature are frequent in this book, and indeed in all parts of the
N. Testament. When the Aor. Subj. (as here nltacaai) is preceded
by oTur it designates the Fut. exactum ; and so I have translated it.
See KiJhner's Gramm. § 807. 2. Comp. Mark 8: 38. John 4: 2.3.
7'o {>i,oiov . . . u^ii'dcjnv. But who or what is this beast? That the
answer to this question wjxs easy, and well known to the readers of John's
day, seems to be intimated, of course, by the article to prefixed. But
the question has been very variously answered, in later times.* For
* The ancient commentators, Victorinus, Andreas, and Arethas, all declare
fur .intichrist. But wlio Antichrist is, or will be, they have not told us. Tliose
Chri.'Jlian fathers in general seem to have declared for Jhiliclirist liere, who be-
lieved that Enoch and Elijah, or Moses and Elijah, were to be recalled from the
other world, and to precede the coming of Christ in order to destroy A nticlirist.
In later times, moat interpreters have passed by this clause of v. 7 in silence ; aa
232 THE TWO WITNESSES : ChAp. XL 7.
myself, I must conclude, and this for reasons which are given below
in the Note, that the meaning of our text is simply this: 'Satan,
is quite too common with respect to the difficult passages of the Apocalypse. Ze-
gerus says, that &rjQiov is the devil or antichrist. Grotius and Hammond represent
it as meaning the famous impostor Barchochab, in the time of Adrian, who perse-
cuted Christians. Eichhorn says, that d^jgiov is generic, and is put for &riQia ;
and also that &7]Qia means the locusts mentioned in chap. 9: 2 seq. Heinrichs
says, that it means the leader of tlie locusts, viz. Apollyon, 9: 11. Lange thinks
it means tiie dragon ; see Rev. 13: 2 seq.
That Antichrist (in a o-e«er«c sense) is designated by ■9'7/(i<W, is true enough ;
for plainly the beast is hostile to Christians. But as to any specific individuality
in this case, unless Satan himself or the dragon be meant, it would be difficult in-
deed to make out a probability. When John introduces o S^dxojv in 12: 3, 4 seq.
13: 2, 4. 16: 13, 20. 20: 2, he takes it for granted that his readers will know who
is meant, either in consequence of the predicates assigned to him, or else in con-
sequence of the appellation as being applied by common usage to Satan, the old
serpent who beguiled Eve, 2 Cor. 11: 3. So here, ro ■O'tjqiov is said to ascend from
the abyss ; and who is it that dwells in the abyss, and is an enemy to Christians,
and can come forth from that place to oppose them .' Who but Satan or the Dra-
gon ? Ewald says, it means Nero., who was looked upon as Antichrist. But the
Romish monster or beast, who persecutes the church, comes up from the sea (ch.
13: 1), not from the bottomless pit. Ewald, however, in order to avoid the force
of this, says that cinP often means the sea, and is also frequently rendered a3vG-
aog, in the Septuagint; and that here the word a^vaaog may mean the same as
■d'dlaaaa in Rev. 13: 1, i. e. Oicus or ViiW is meant in both, and so also in 17; 8.
So much indeed is true, viz., that in 17: 8 the /?07/),ts/t beast is represented as com-
ine; f§ d^vaaov; and such might be the sentiment here, if the reader had been at
all prepared to refer d'tjQiov to a Romish persecuting power. But no such prepa-
ration has been made here; whereas in respect to 17: 8 the preparation is amply
made, beginning with 13: 1 and continuing down to 17: 8, so that the reader may
easily understand who is meant. But here to d'tj^ioy tn rt^g djivoaov comes upon
us unexpectedly ; since nothing has yet been said of the Romans as persecutors
of Christians. The beast who is to slay the witnesses, develops himself and exer-
cises his power in Jerusalem or the holy city. This is the city which is to be trod-
den under foot, whose inhabitants are warned by the two witnesses, and who have
become enraged by reason of the rebukes of these witnesses. How comes Nero,
already making war against this city, to be represented as being in the midst of
it, and there joining as an associate with his bitter enemies the Jews, in slaying
the witnesses who had opposed the latter.'' There is too much of incongruity in
such an interpretation. Is it not more easy and natural to suppose that Satan is
here meant, wjiose influence on the persecutors in the holy city is just the same
as that of the dragon {== &7]Qiov here), in chap. 13: 2 seq, upon the heathen persecu-
tors of Christianity.' There certainly is no necessity for supposing that ■d'i]QiOV
means the same identical monster here as in chap. xiii. xvii, i. e. the Romish per-
secuting power ; for neither the origin nor the attributes of the two beasts are the
same. Merely because the beast in 11: 7 is said to ascend from the abyss, and the
[Romish] beast in 17: 8 is represented as coming from the same place, we must not
conclude that both beasts are the same, or are symbols of one and the same thing or
person. The locusts and Abaddon who leads them on (chap, ix.) both come from
the pit; yet surely they are not one and the same. Besides, in Rev. 17: 8, the as-
THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XL 7. 233
who comes from the bottomless pit, will stir up the enmity of those who
hate and fear the witnesses, and urge them on to yiersecution and to
blood.' It need not be proved, that a beast is a familiar symbol for any
noxious, powerful, and dangerous enemy.
A'/x/;(Tff avTov^ x. r. X. What is done by Satan's agency, is attribu-
ted to him ; as is often the case throughout the Scriptures, in similar
cases.
But how comes it that these witnesses, furnished as they are with
miraculous powers to defend themselves, are overcome by the beast in
this case, and finally perish? This question might be partly answered
by asking another : How came Paul, and Peter, and other apostles,
who were protected and kept in perfect safety for a time, at last to fall
before the power of persecution ? How came Jesus, who could pray to
his Father, and he would send him twelve legions of angels (Matt. 26:
53), still to sutler himself to be apprehended and crucified? Because,
I answer, it was known and believed by them, when the time tor their
death respectively came, that such was the will of God ; and therefore
cent from the pit designates not the origin of the beast (see in vs. 3, 7), but only
the place from which lie rises, after he has been destroyed, (v. 8, ■^y, yaiovx iart).
For his place of origin, see 13: J. All evil, or instruments of evil, occasioned or
controlled by Satan, may be aptly represented in a poetic way as coming from the
(ihijss, and they are sometimes so represented. The Saviour even says of the ma-
lignant Jews: "Ye are from benealli, I am from above;" and in connection with
this he says: "Ye are of your father, the devil," John 8: 23, 44. There is then
no good reason to say, that, because the beast (Rev. 17: 8) comes, i. e. returns to
life, from the abyss, and symbolizes (allowing this interpretation) the Human jYe-
ro, therefore the beast in the text before us is the same. The predicates of both
must be such, that we can with propriety and congruity suppose them to be the
same agent, in order to justify such an interpretation. But we have seen that
such is 710/ the case, in the present instance. And in fact, even if some of the at-
tributes symbolically described were the same in both cases, it would not prove a
sameness of the agents; for the beast or dragon in Apoc. 12: 3, with seven heads
and ten horns, is an entirely different beast from that in 13: 3, which has the
same number of heads and horns. The question rests mainly then, not on the
sameness of place from which they both may come, and not even on the sameness
of some of the symbolic attributes, but on the fact, whether the same agent in both
cases? would be the appropriate one. Now what I aver is, that the agency of Ne-
ro, in the present case and under the present circumstances, would be manifestly
incongruous and inappropriate. It is the inhabitants of the city where our Lord
7cas crucified, who are enraged against the witnesses ; it is they, stimulated by Sa-
tan (not by Nero), who slay the witnesses, and exult over their dead bodies. I
may ask acain : How could Nero and his most embittered enemies the Jews, co-
operate, and this even in Jerusalem, against the witnesses in question.- Nero at
home did indeed persecute Christians, because he hated them as Jews ; but as to
cooperating in Jerusalem with his most bitter enemies— this appears too incimgru-
ous to be supposed. Of course we are forced upon the qu( stion : Is there no
more probable interpretation than tliis.'
VOL. II. 30
234 THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XI. 8.
they did not and would not seek for deliverance from death. Or we
may even suppose, that the miraculous power which the witnesses once
liad possessed, ceased when the work appointed for them by Heaven
was done, and they were then called to seal their testimony by their
own blood. Such must have been the case, in regard to the apostles
and others.
(8) And tliPir corpses shall be in the street of the great city, which is spirit-
ually named Sodom and Egypt; where their Lord also was crucified.
77tco/x« is the reading which recent critics prefer, rather than the
vulgate TtTMnaTa. It is of little importance, in the present case ; for
TiTaua, when joined with avtar (as here), must of course be (/enencaZ/y
understood ; and accordingly I have rendered it as plural. The older
Greek used nzoofia in connection with a Gen., e. g. TTzwfia dv&Qwncov,
Tzrafia or/.cov, lit. the ruins or ivrech of men, of houses, etc. But later
Greek Avriters employ it as in our text ; see Lobeck ad Phryn. p. 375.
The mention of the corpses here, as lying unburied in the streets, (for
such of course is the implication), is very significant of the contempt and
hatred with which the witnesses would be treated ; for the Jews, above
all people, were specially solicitous to bury their dead, see Gen. 23: 4,
and comp. 2 Sam. 21: 9—13. Ecc. 6: 3. Is. 14: 18—20. 22: 16. 53: 9.
Kalnltui, 7rvevfiazr/.ai; x. t. )., i. e. the literal name is not given in
this discourse, but such an one as describes its condition and character
in a spiritual or moral sense. What the character of Sodom was, see
in Gen. xviii. xix, comp. 2 Pet. 2: 6. What that of Egypt was, in re-
spect to God's chosen people, is fully developed in Ex. i — xv. Isaiah
of old had compared Jerusalem to Sodom, 1: 9, 10 ; and so did Jere-
miah, 23: 14, and Ezekiel in 16: 46—49. In Ezek. 23: 8, Israel is al-
,so represented as adopting the customs, i. e. vices, of Egypt. Peculiarly
appropriate are these names here ; for Sodom persecuted righteous Lot,
and Egypt oppressed the Israelites ; and the Lord displayed his right-
eous judgments against both, as he was now about to do in respect to
Jerusalem. In describing Jerusalem then nvev^aziy.ojg, i. e. as to its
moral or religious character, the significant names above mentioned are
emijloyed with graphic efiect. But lest there should be any doubt left
in the reader's mind, it is added: otiov y.ai 6 -AVQiog avzav iazavQco&tj.
This of course identifies. Avrav, i. e. the Lord of the prophets or
witnesses, instead of i]iioyv, our, as the vulgate text has it. Undoubt-
edly the emended text is preferable ; because the object here is, to make
a comparison between the persecution and death of the witnesses and
that of the Saviour.
THE TWO -WITNESSES : Chap. XT. 9. 28^
(9) And thf people and tribes and tongues and nitions look upon tlieir corpses,
Uiree days and a half; and they will not permit their corpses to be laid iu a
sepulchre.
BXtTTOvaiVy Pres. tense. Here the writer relapses into the historical
Present, as in vs. 4 — G ; i. e. he represents the thing as taking place
before his eyes. Tliis is exchanged again ("or the Fut. uqt'iaovai, in the
latter part of the verse, vliieh Fut. is designed to indicate the continued
or repeated denial of burial rites ; for the repetition of an action, i. e.
continued action of the same kind, is often indicated by the Fut., Kiih-
ner's Gramm. § 44. 6. 2. Here such a Fut. is altogether in place, be-
cause burial is peseveringly refused, even down to the period when the
witnesses are raised from the dead. Such changes of tense, however,
are oftener found fault with, by some critics, than investigated. But
surely the writer of the Apocalypse does not stand justly chargeable
with any impropriety here.
'Ey. rwv 7.awv, etc., comp. the Hebrew *,": , some of, a part of, which
is often employed as a noun ; or ex may be equivalent to oi ix, although
I prefer the former meaning, ina.smuch as it does not comprehend the
tvhole, like the latter. I have translated, however, without reference to
the mode of expression by means of the ex. The meaning plainly must
be, not that all nations were actually assembled in the city, in order to
insult the corpses of the dead, but that in a great city like Jerusalem,
many foreigners of different nations were present, (as is usual in such
places), and the unburied witnesses were openly exposed to the gaze of
all, however polluted and impious they might be. It is a circumstance
which greatly heightens the indignity done to the dead, that they should
be exposed to the gaze of polluted foreigners.
Three days and a half, (like 3^ years = 42 months = 1260 days),
amounting to half of the sacred number seven. This doubtless is one
reason for choosing here the period of 34. But the reason why days in
this case are chosen, seems plainly to be, because the dead bodies could
not remain beyond such a length of time, without putrefaction and dis-
solution. The Saviour remained in his grave but three days, i. e. one
whole day and a portion of two others. But here, since vs. 1 — 3 of
this chapter mention a period of three and a half, so it is consonant
with the context to continue the same number of three and a half in the
text before us. If, as many interpreters assume in explaining the
Apocalypse, every day is equal to a year, how then is it, we may well
ask, that dead corpses could lie there, in such a cUmate, for three and a
half years, and not be entirely consumed ? — But we need not contend
any more with such exegesis.
Ovu dcfr^Govai, Who will not permit ? Evidently the people or in-
236 THE TWO witnesses: Chap. XL 10, 11.
habitants of the city. Here ra m(6[xa7a (plur.) is employed, which of
course makes it plain that the preceding nri^fia is used generically.
Were one disposed to look for specific facts here, he might easily
find correspondent ones in history. The foreign Jews and the Idu-
means rushed into the city during the investment of it by the Romans ;
and here, one might say, are the nations and tribes who come to gaze
on the martyrs. But I am so far from believing that this would be a
proper method of interpretation, that I regard even the specification of
the holy city itself, in this chapter, as only a symbolical method of de-
signating what was to come upon the persecuting Jews as a people.
Jerusalem here, as in numberless cases in the O. Testame»t, is the
representative of the whole land, or of the whole nation. The picture
is more striking and animated, in consequence of its being made speci-
fic in the representation.
(10) And those who dwell in the land rejoice over them and make themselves
merry, and they will send presents to each other, because these two prophets tor-
mented those who dwell in the land.
Xai'govaiv, historical Pres. again ; evq^guivoptai, the same. — J7?fi-
ipovGi, Fut. employed as above ; see on v. 9. In this way variety of
manner is introduced.
KaTOixovvzsg im tijg yijg must plainly mean, the inhabitants of the
country and city. On another occasion (Rev. 6: 10), Ewald, to make
out his view of the writer's plan, asserts that this expression is generic.
But what have all the inhabitants of the world to do with this event ?
How could they all come to look on the corpses and insult them, or
have sent mutual presents during only three and a half days ? And, in
reference to the last part of the verse, how could all the inhabitants of
the earth have been tormented by the two witnesses, during only 1260
days ? Ewald passes these matters with a — haud anxie quaerendum I
/JcxiQa TTi'iJ-i^iovoiv uXXfjloig, a very usual custom everywhere, on oc-
casions of uncommon joy and festivity; see Neh. 8: 10 — 12. Esther
9: 19 — 23. — 'E^aouvioav, comp. vs. 5, 6 above. Or it may mean, not
the infliction of miraculous judgments, but severity of rebuke for sin.
The former, however, is the most appropriate, and therefore the most
probable.
It is thus that the enemies of Christ and his faithful witnesses exult
over the supposed downfall and extinction of their reprovers. But ' the
triumphing of the wicked is short.'
(11) Then, after three days and a half, the spirit of life from God entered into
them, and they stood upon their feet; and great fear fell upon those who beheld
them.
nvev[ia ^coTJg in -d^eov, i. e. the spirit of life which God, the author of
THE TWO witnesses: Chap. XL 12. 287
life, imparts ; so in Gen. 2: 7. Job 33: 4, " The spirit of God hath
made me, the breath of the Almighty hath given me life." — KlaiflQtv
iv uvToi>,', i- e. entered inio [and dwelt] in the.m ; for so we find iv em-
ployed, even among the claiisic writers, where the idea of going to or
entering a place, etc., is conjoined with the idea of remaining or acting
there; see Rob. Lex. iv. No. 4, and N. Test. Gramm. § 113. Note 2.
"EaiTiaav in) tov^' nodag avrdir, taken from Ezek. 37: 10 ; where
alBO the breath of life from God is spoken of in the same manner as
here. To stand upon their feet means to rise from the recumbent pos-
ture of the dead, and exhibit the phenomena of life and action. — (I^o^og
fie'yag x. t. ).. is certainly a very natural circumstance ; for such terror
was to be expected in consequence of such a miraculous resurrection.
Fear falling upon is a usual Hebrew idiom ; and the phrase is very ex-
pressive, for it represents fear as coming suddenly, unexpectedly, and
unavoidably.
Here the Aorist is employed in the verbs throughout the verse ; ex-
actly in the manner of the Hebrew prophets, who so often represent
that which is to come as already having taken place, either because it
has passed before them in vision (which is the case here), or because in
this way they can indicate the certainty of the events predicted. But
this method of employing a Praeterite tense, viz. in order to designate
the certainty of the Future, is not peculiar to the Hebrews alone ; the
Greeks often practised the same thing, and for the same reason ; see
Kijhner's Greek Gramm. § 443. 2, where are many examples ; see also
§ 15, p. 241 of Vol. I. <I>6iio>; may be taken here in the sense of
amazement ; or it may be construed as meaning terror, i. e. feai* lest the
witnesses should again torment them. — The Part, {^tanovvreg is here
employed as an Imperf. ; see Gramm. § 173. 2. 1 Pet. 1: 11. Acts
7: 26 al. saepe. Such cases are by no means unusual.
This resurrection from the dead is the more appropriate here, inas-
much as the witnesses had, like their Lord and Master, been slain at
Jerusalem. He rose from the dead after three days ; they in like man-
ner rise, and in nearly the same time.
(12) And they heard a loud voice from heaven, saying to them : Come up
hither ! And they ascended to heaven in a cloud, and their enemies beheld them.
"Hy.ovaav, some Codices read ijxovaa ; which with Ewald I deem pre-
ferable, as it varies the narrative, and makes it more graphic and lively.
As John sees and hears all that is done and said, so IjxovGa might well
be here employed. — 'Ev tij veq)t').rj, in a cloud ; so the Saviour ascended,
Acts 1: 9 ; and so probably Elijah, 2 Kings 2: 11.
One question remains. Are these actual and literal facts, viz. not
only the death of two witnesses, but their exposure in the streets of the
238 THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XL 13.
holy city, and their resurrection and ascension ? I cannot hesitate to
answer, that the whole scene is here mere symbol, passing in vision be-
fore the eye of the seer ; comp. Ezek. xxxvii. The meaning, how-
ever, which plainly lies at the basis, is, that Christians, and specially
faithful Christian teachers, would be persecuted during the invasion of
Judea and the investment of its capital ; that some would be put to
death ; that the enemies of Christianity would exult in the belief that
they had extinguished this hated religion ; that, in the meantime, " the
blood of the martyrs would become the seed of the church ;" that the
cause of Christ would gain ground and triumph over all opposition ;
that his faithful servants will be admitted " to glory and honor and im-
mortality," as the high reward of their fidelity and zeal ; and finally,
that the enemies of Christianity would be made to see all this, and be
filled with amazement and consternation.
(13) And in that same hour was a great earthquake, and a tenth part of the
city fell, and there were destroyed by the earthquake seven thousand men ; and
the rest became terrified, and gave glory to the God of heaven.
^Eidfiog ^i'yag, see a like earthquake after the death of Christ, ac-
companied by the resurrection of many saints, Matt. 27: 50 — 54 ; and
again, when Jesus rose from the dead, Matt. 28: 2. The idea seems to
be, that the tombs are thrown open by such a commotion of the earth.
— 'OvofiaTa ttv&QMTzmv, see, on the use of ovona in such cases, the note
on Rev. 3: 4. It is specially employed in cases where an enumeration,
as from a catalogue of enrolment, is implied.
As to the tenth part of the city, see on the number ten, under Rev. 2:
10. It means a comparatively small part. — Seven thousand men invol-
ved in this destruction, comports with the usage of this book as to the
number seven ; and also with the probable proportion of the inhabi-
tants involved in a destruction of the tenth part of the city. Comp. also
2 Kings 24: 16. So much however of the divine judgments as had
thus far been inflicted, is to be regarded, rather in the light of a pledge
for the full accomphshmeiit of the threatenings that had been uttered,
than as the accomplishment itself. The seventh and last trumpet has
not yet been sounded. The consummation, therefore, cannot have yet
arrived.
Plain as this seems to my own mind, yet some distinguished recent
interpreters have laboured to support a very different view of the sub-
ject. Ewald finds, in the passage before us, evidence that the author
means to spare his beloved holy city, and to represent it as saved from
impending ruin by penitence and reformation. So also Bleek (ut sup.
p. 272), and De Wette (Einleit., Apoc), represent the Jews as saved
hy penitence, and appeal to v. 13 here in support of this opinion. Of
THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XL 13. 289
course they rcgai'd the remainder of this chapter as announcing no ca-
tastrophe ; and thoy lind one only in chap, xii — xix, the matter of
which is soineliow connected, according to them, with the sounding of
the last woe-trumpet. It becomes necessary, then, to examine well
here, whether the words : o'l Xoinol sftq)o^oi iyt'vovTO x. r. X. do in them-
selves fairly imply what these critics gather from them.
That the words in themselves are capable of a good sense, i. e. that
4tey might well be employed to designate true repentance and conver-
sion, is not to be denied ; for Rev, 14: 7 (comp. IG: 9) will show this.
But that they do of necessiti/ imply anything more than a temporary
impression made by divine judgments, is plainly an erroneous assump-
tion. The N. Testament is full of the like idiom, when speaking of
men according to the external development made at a particular time,
when they are deeply impressed by divine judgments, wonderful mira- •
cles, or powerful preaching. So Jesus was dnia'Consvo^ by all in the
synagogue at Nazareth, and yet the same individuals who applauded
him, soon led him forth to cast him down a precipice ; see Luke 4: 15
seq. So the whole multitude of Jews who had seen his miracles, on
another occasion, are said " to have been filled with fear, and to have
glorified God," Luke 5: 2G. The same thing foi* substance may be
found in Luke 17: 12—18. 23: 47. 18: 43. Matt. 9: 8. 15: 31. Acts
4: 21, So Felix trembled at the preaching of Paul, Acts 24: 25.
Herod heai'd John gladijj and did many things in consequence of it,
Mark 6: 20. The stony ground hearers received the xvord with joy ^ yet
they soon became offended, Matt. 13: 20, 21. Many of the Jews believ-
ed on Jesus, who nevertheless soon forsook him, John 2: 23 — 25. 8: 30
seq. Many became disciples, who soon left him, John G: GO — ^d. Si-
mon Magus himself believed, Acts 8: 13. Ps. 106: 12, " Then they [the
rebellious Jews] believed his words, they sang his praise." Li all these
and many more texts of the like kind, it is easy to perceive, that the
sacred writers have merely said what appeared to be matter of fact from
profession, or from temporary outward demeanour. AVe must consult
the context, i. e. the history of such cases, in order to know whether the
glory, or belief, ov fear, or discipleship, in question is genuine and per-
manent, or only temporary and apparent.
The nature of the case before us shows, that only a temporary fear
and praising of God is connected with the present instance. For what
says the very next verse? The third tcoe is yet to come. But how so,
if it is averted by real penitence and reformation ? And besides this,
it is obvious to remark, that the nature of the writer's plan forbids us to
adopt the interpretation of Ewald and others. That plan is not yet
consummated ; and nothing seems to be plainer, than that consumma-
tion is to be expected ; yea that it is directly and plainly declared in
240 THE TWO WITNESSES : Chap. XL 14, 15.
V. 14. Indeed, when we view the whole case, either in the light of the
general plan of the work, or in that of N. Testament philological usage,
we may well say, that the cases are rare, at the present day, where an
exegesis appears more arbitrary than in the present instance ; I mean
the exegesis adopted here and defended by Bleek, De Wette, and
Ewald.
(14) The second woe hath passed; behold! the third woe coineth quickly.
But on whom is this to fall, if the views of Ewald be adopted? The
consummation is of course arrested, if he has rightly interpreted v. 13.
Not so, however, does the author himself seem to view the subject. He
appears to consider all which had taken place only as a prelude or
pledge of what was yet to come.
(15) And the seventh angel sounded, and there were loud voices in heaven,
saying : The kingdom of this world has become [the kingdom] of our Lord and
of his Christ, and he will reign forever and ever.
The vulgate text has Xt'yovaat, and lyhovro a'l ^aaiXmu, both evi-
dently attempts at emendation, and inferior to the corrected text in point
of authority. Some critics are offended at )JyovTes (masc), since the
subject is plur.jTem., cpcovai. But this is no uncommon case; for the
constructio ad sensum is employed, Gramm. § 128. 5. h. The persons
who utter the voice are regarded as speaking ; hence IJyovzsg. See
the remarks on ai . . . iazareg in v. 4 above, with the references. In
the other case, ^aoiXulai rov xoa^ov was regarded as the more correct
expression, because it accords better with the usual custom of regarding
and speaking of these kingdoms as many. But here the view of the
writer was not correctly apprehended. The kingdoms of the world are
many, considered in themselves ; but in reference to the sway of Satan,
there is only 07ie kingdom — ruled over by "the god of this world."
That dominion which he once had, is now transferred to another Lord,
and thus the kingdom is spoken of as one or in the singular. In respect
to the scriptural view of Satan's dominion over the unbelieving world,
see 2 Cor. 4: 4. John 14: 30. Eph. 6: 12. Col. 1: 13. Rev. 12: 17.
20:8.
The kingdom of this ivorldhas become [the kingdom] of our Lord and
of his Christ. That ^aotXsia may be mentally supplied before the se-
cond clause in the Gen., is plain ; but this is not necessary, since yivo-
(xai may govern the Gen. here. The appellation Lord, applied to God
the Father, is after the manner of the Septuagint, which translates n^lT;'
by y.vQiog. The distinction here made by Lord and Christ, is the same
as appears in Ps. ii, to which Psalm the expressions here evidently re-
fer.— BaoiXevaei, i. e. xvQiog ^aailevasi ; but still, xvQiog avv zcp Xqig-
zco avrov.
CATASTROPHE : CuAP. XL 1 G, 17. 241
The usago of this book, in respect to the praises and thanksgivings
of the heavenly liost, should be duly considered, in order to obtain a
proper view of ptissages like the present. It is only when some great
and deeply interesting event is about to take place, or has taken place,
that such passages are introduced. Thus in chap. 5: 8 seq., when the
Lamb was about to open the book with seven seals ; in 7: 9 seq., when
the servants of God have been sealed in their foreheads and rendered
safe ; then, in the pjissage before us, at the consummation of the first
act in the august drama. So in the second part of the drama; 12: 10
seq., on account of the victory over Satan; 14: 2 seq., in prospect of
the victory of the Lamb with his redeemed ; 15: 2 seq., when prepara-
tion has been made to execute his judgments upon the enemies of the
church ; 18: 20 seq., a triumphal song over fallen spiritual Babylon.
The only ditficulty in the case before us is, how far the expression
^aaiXst'u X. T. X. is to be considered as extending. The proi)er answer
to this question is : So far as the nature of the case will admit. One
powerful and bitter enemy of Christianity is now, or is speedily to be,
put down. The judgments of heaven, which had been so gradually
proceeding, and seemingly so slow, are immediately to be consummated.
The triumph of Christianity over opposing and embittered Judaism, is
to be completed. " Their place and nation are now to be taken away."
The progress of the gospel can no longer be stayed by them. It is not
necessary to suppose that all this has been already done, as soon as the
seventh trumpet sounds, i. e. that all the world has been at once con-
verted. A confident anticipation here, that the Gospel will now have
free course and be glorified, is sufficient for the purposes of the writer.
Such an anticipation he ascribes to the heavenly world. How much
the writer means to present as having already been actually done, ap-
pears in the sequel, vs. 17, 18 ; where we may more appropriately con-
sider it.
The Apocalyptist does not tell us from whom the triumphal song in
this verse proceeds. But as he specifically names the twenty-four el-
ders in the next verse, analogy with 4: 8 seq. and 5: 8 seq. would lead
us to ascribe the first shout of triumph to the four living creatures, as
standing nearest the throne and taking the lead in the worship of
heaven.
(16, 17) And the twenty-four elders who sat before God on tlieir thrones, fell
upon their faces, and worshipped God, saying: We give thanks to thee, Lord
God Almighty, who art and wast, that thou hast resumed thy great power and
shown thyself as king.
Respecting the twenty-four elders, see on chap. 4: 4 seq. — "Ensaav,
Aor. II. third plur., of the Alexandrine form, or Aor. I. of the later
Greek. It denotes the attitude of profound adoration. — Kv(Jt£, 6 d^tog
31
242 CATASTROPHE : Chap. XL 18.
0 navzoy.QataQ = mx3S np^ "^^hN. — 0 wv xal 6 ijv gives intensity to
the description. — Etlr^cpag, hast assumed and dost still hold thy domin-
ion, an appropriate sense of the Perfect; Gramm. §136. Note 2. 6»
— 'E^uolXtvaag, hast become king, or shown thyself as king, or acted as
king. The Aor. designates action in past time ; but here it is scarcely
distinguishable in meaning from the Perf., for it implies that the office
of king has been resumed and still remains ; although this last shade of
meaning may not, perhaps, have been before the mind of the writer ;
Gramm. § 136. 3. Note. Such a usage is not uncommon among the
classics ; see Kiihner's Gramm. § 441. 6. § 444. The Aor. is often
employed with the Perf. or Pluperf. when completion is the prominent
idea, rather than continuance ; or when continuance is sufficiently im-
plied by the context. lb.
(18) The nations indeed were enraged, and thine indignation came ; and the
time of the dead, that they should be vindicated, and a reward be given to thy
servants, the prophets and the saints, even to those who fear thy name, small and
great; and to destroy those who have destroyed the land.
Here Ewald appeals to t&vvi as meaning Gentiles, i. e. heathen in
distinction from Jews. But this will by no means hold with certainty.
It is not unfrequent to call the Israelites ^'iJ and c^'ti , sometimes in a
good, mostly in a bad sense ; for they are called heathen (as among us),
when they act like heathen. See and comp. in both respects, Gen.
35: 11. 12: 2. Ps. 33: 12. Is. 1: 4. 9: 2. 26: 2. 49: 7. Ps. 2: 1, sinn
C'la applies, as the contest shows, principally to rebellious Jews.
What then could be more appropriate here, than to call the persecutors
of Christians ii9-i7/. — 'iiQyia&tjaav refers particularly to the exaspera-
tion that led to the slaying of the witnesses, or in general to the rage
manifested in destroying Christians. — Hl&sv tj oQpj oov, i. e. ' When
thou hadst suffered them to manifest their rage for the appointed time,
then thine oum indignant retribution followed. The sounding of the
last trumpet has completed thy work.'
'0 y.atnbg xwv vv/.Qav, i. 'e. the time in which they will be avenged or
vindicated ; the time in which the supplication of the martyrs (6: 9 — 11)
that was accepted, is answered. So the Inf. xQi^/jvca, added for the
sake of explanation, clearly shows. Heinrichs has pronounced this
Inf. an asperior structura ; many of nearly the same nature, however,
may be found, both active and passive, by examining Winer's N. Test.
Gramm. § 45. 3. If it were necessary to supply an object before the
Inf. here, avzovg might of course be mentally supplied ; but the exam-
ples in Winer show, that the Inf. is often used for explanation, without
any express reference to an object. The article tov before y.Qi&Pjvai
and dohai would render the passage more facile to the common reader.
But still, it is unnecessary.
# catastrophe: Chap. XL 19. 243
Kgi'io), like ::E"J, is generic, and signifies either to acquit or to con-
demn, {tojudfje includes both), as the context requires. Here the dead^
\. e. the martyrs, are to be vindicated. So the Hebrew CB'J, Is. 1: 17.
Ps. 10: 18. h: 1. 1 Sam. 24: 16. 2 Sam. 18: 19, 31. Ps. 43: 1. So
XQnm in Heb. 10: 30 et al.
Joi'vai stands comiected with y.aiQi')'; mentally supi>lied : ' The time
has now come, to ffive the reward, etc.,' i. e. to bestow the promised re-
ward.— JovXoig is generic, compi-ehending all who serve God truly.
Iliiocfi'jai^' y.ui «j'/'o/s,-, prophets such as the witnesses are, and saints of
distinguished piety and character. — Toi^ q'O^iovfii'voi^', like dovloii;, com-
prehends again all Christians ; while [ii-aqoi^- xk) {ityuXoi^' are specific,
and include all the classes who can come within the meaning of the
promise.
/Jiacp{}eTnui . . . yFjv, viz. xaiQog Siaqj&si'nni. x. t. ).. — In the first
place x(jt&I^rat h generic; for vindicating the dead will include the re-
ward of the righteous and the punishment of the wicked. Next come
the specifications, viz. first, the reward of martyrs and saints of every
class ; and then, the destruction of persecutors. In this way all is
plain, natural, and etisy.
Ewald, instead of interpreting this verse as having relation to the
conclusion of the first catastrophe, (which indeed he does not admit),
regards it as " Praeludium ad omnes visiones sequentes, i. e. as the pre-
lude or sum of contents to chap. 12: 1 — 22: 5. Nothing, as it seems to
me, can more effectually disturb and confuse the simplicity of the
writer's plan, than such a view of it.
(10) And the temple of God was opened in heaven, and the ark of his cove-
nant appeared in his temple; and there were lightnings, and voices of thunder,
and earthquake, and large hail.
"We must call to mind that all here is symbol. The temple of God
on earth was a pattern of the heavenly one, as conceived of by the
Jews ; Heb. 8: 1 — 5. In this temple, the ark of the covenant was de-
posited in the most holy place, and none but the high-priest, once in a
year on the great day of atonement, was permitted to see or approach
it. When the Saviour expired, the veil that concealed the most holy
place was rent, IMatt. 27: 51, thus indicating the end of the ancient dis-
pensation. Here is another symbol expressing still more significantly,
that Judaism is now at its close. No longer is the ritual of the temple
to be kept up. Even the most holy place is thrown open to the eyes
of all. God is now to be approached by every spiritual worshi{)per for
himself in the name of the great High-Priest, the minister of the sanc-
tuary above, Heb. 8: 2. 9: 8.
Such I conceive to be the simple meaning of this passage. Yet
244 CATASTROPHE : Chap. XI. 19. •
Ewald refers it to the ark of the covenant which the Jews supposed
Jeremiah to have carried away, (when the temple was about to be
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar), and secreted on Mount Sinai, or in
some unknown place. On the appearance and triumph of the Messiah,
this ark, they supposed, would be restored, and remain forever in the
new temple that was to be built. See this fable at large in the remarks
above, on 2: 17. But how this exegesis can be admissible I do not see;
for why does the writer employ mcp&t] here, if the restoration or bring-
ing back merely of the ark of the covenant is meant ? It is a very
inappropriate word, to say the least. Plainly it stands directly con-
nected with the 7]voipj of the preceding clause, and the meaning is, that
in consequence of the most holy place being now opened, the ark there
deposited makes its appearance. If Jeremiah did carry away the ark
of the covenant, (a thing in itself utterly incredible), it was that of the
temple on earth, not of that in heaven. Why should we suppose, that
the author of such a book as the Apocalypse believed in fables so putid
as these ? That they were in circulation when he lived, I would not
deny, because 2 Mace. 2: 4-— 7 seems to indicate this ; but I do not
find in the Apocalypse any satisfactory evidences that the writer of it
believed in such things. 'Hvoijij, Aor. 2. pass, irreg. formed as if the
01 in the old root (dvoiyco) were immutable and could not be shoi'tened.
The remainder of the verse indicates more directly still the work of
destruction which followed the blast of the seventh trumpet. The
lightning and thunder alone might be nothing more than the ensigns of
God's awful presence and majesty ; as in 4: 5. Even when earthquake
is added, there may still be no more than a symbol of ajyproaching de-
struction, as in 8: 5. But when hail is joined with them, this is the
sign that the work is completed ; see and comp. 16: 18 — 21. This last
symbol may be boiTowed from the plague of hail, Ex. 9: 23 — 25 ; but
more probably it was taken from Joshua 10: 11. Here then are all the
indications of catastrophe which are found in 16: 18 — 21, excepting that
the writer has not announced the actual destruction itself so plainly and
fully here as there. But he has given the triumphal song which it
called forth ; comp. Ps. xviii. and Is. xiv., which are of the like tenor
with this, particularly if we compare them with v. 18 here. Is it not
natural to suppose, moreover, that what the seven thunders uttered, (but
which John was forbidden to relate, 10: 3, 4), is here also passed over
in silence ? Such a view affords an easy and obvious solution of that
passage. But, independently of the declaration in 16: 17 (jsyovE), i\\\
else here is of the same tenor as there, and here are all the insignia of
catastrophe which are to be found there. Why should we allow catas-
trophe then in one case, and deny it in the other ? And specially may
we ask this question, when the very nature of the trichotomy and of the
INTRODUCTION TO CHAP. XII — XIX. ill
heptades employed by the writer ; the express declaration of the angel
in 10: 5 — 7 ; and the annunciation of the last woe in 11: 14; all de-
mand a consummation here of the first catastrophe. I cannot think any
point in the plan of the Apocalypse to be, on the whole, clearer than
this. And with such a view of the subject, I am unable to coincide
with Bleek, Ewald, and others, in their opinion respecting this matter.
In some way unaccountable to me, they suppose the writer to put off
the catastrophe until the close of the next gi'cat division of the Apoc-
alypse.
SECOND CATASTROPHE, OR DESTRUCTION OF THE ROMAN PER-
SECUTING POWER: CHAP. XII— XiX.
The Jewish power in Palestine, which had hitherto made such formida-
ble resistance to the progress of Christianity and persecuted unto death so
many of its professed disciples, 1ms now been crushed. The Romans
come, and " take away l)oth their place and their nation."
The Jewish power, moreover, it should be here called to mind, had from
the first appearance of Christianity, been opposed to its development. It
had not, indeed, been always in a state of actual and vigorous warfare
against it. But so often as particular circumstances occurred, which called
forth its hostile energies, it had not ceased to exert them. Nor should it
escape our consideration here, that this power had its seat in the same re-
gion where Christianity originated. Of course it could act upon it more
effectually and perniciously than any other opposing enemy, during its
eai'liest development. Until very near the commencement of the Jewish
war, it was not only the principal and the oldest, but the most bitter enemy
of the Christian church.
From these circumstances we may derive a satisfactoiy reason, why
John commences his work with the overthrow of the Jewish persecuting
power ; for this was first in order, and until quite recently, it had been first
in point of making dangerous opposition. But not long before the lime
when the Jewish war broke out, Rome was set on fire by Nero, and a bit-
ter and bloody persecution of the Christians under his dominion was soon
commenced, in order that he might throw upon them the odium of that
transaction. Tiiis was carried on with such fury and crueltj, that Chris-
tians abroad, particularly in the great cities where the Romish magistracy
exercised the most effectual sway, had everything to fear from it. Rome
was now the mistress of the world. Every place was filled with her sol-
diery, and trembled before her rebuke. How could a small and feeble band
of Christian discii)les, resist a power so universally acknowledged and felt ?
The dangers and vexations of Christians, moreover, were greatly in-
creased, by the awakened and strenuous opposition of the idolatrous priest-
hood among the heathen. Already had many of their temples begun to be
forsaken, their own character as idol-priests to fall into disrepute, and their
influence to be abridged. Could they stand by as idle spectators, uncon-
cerned with events like these .' It is not to be supposed. Hence not only
246 INTRODUCTION TO ChaP. XII — XIX.
the beast or persecuting civil power, but the false prophet or persecuting
reHgious jjower, was fully bent upon the destruction of Chrisrianity.
I am aware, that it has been made a question : Whether the persecution
under Nero extended beyond the city and neighborhood of Rome ? But
this question I have already discussed ; Vol. I. § 13. p. 222 seq. I will
merely remark here, that the heathen abroad, for many years after Chris-
tianity began to spread, confounded Jews and Christians together, without
making any distinction between them. Hence, when the Jewish war
commenced, (as it did shortly after Nero had begun his persecution), and
was carried on with such unexani])led fury and bitterness on the part of
the Jews, it was a matter of course, that Christians eveiywhere would be
susjjected and treated with severity, on the ground that they were suppos-
ed to be Jews. If now we add to this, their proselyting spirit, and their
contempt of idolatry and of Gentile rites and superstitions, and also their
success in winning disciples — how can it be otherwise, than that Christians
would be everywhere more or less persecuted, during the Jewish war?
Indeed, the internal state of the Apocalypse (chap, xiii — xix.) is enough
to settle this question with every reader, who believes that John would not
appeal to mere imaginary things instead of real facts, or to sufferings merely
anticipated or feared, and not to those which were actually endured. But
for the more complete investigation of this subject — the extent of Nero's
persecution, I refer the reader to the Introduction, § 13.
In the midst of war raging within the bounds of Palestine, and the Ne-
ronic persecution of Christians (often as Jews) in the capital and provinces
of the Roman empire, the Apocalypse was written. Hence the deep im-
press it bears, from beginning to end, of the state of the times. The
churches addressed in the commencement of the book, are plainly address-
ed as being in a suffering and persecuted state. The first part of the pro-
phetic vision, as we have already seen, bears the most paljjable marks of
the same state of things in Judea. The second part, to which we are now
coming, is still more deeply coloured with the same tints. Even the third
and last catastrophe (chap, xx.) bears the like impression ; for Gog and
Magog, with all their hosts, invade the camp of the saints in order to de-
stroy them. But of the distant future the writer gives only the briefest pos-
sible sketch, all particulars being of course excluded.
Under such a monster as Nero, armed with the power of universal em-
pire. Christians had no doubt everything that was fearful to expect, when
his active persecution of them began. No wonder that they were faint-
hearted, and needed encouragement and consolation. John was fully
aware of this. He had already, in his own person, experienced the fury of
the oppressor. But, while in exile from his beloved churches, the visions
of God pour in consolation upon his soul. The veil of futurity is lifted
up, and he sees the beast and false prophet, after all their fury and cruelty,
at last subdued, trampled down, and utterly defeated in their malignant pur-
poses. Christianity rises from its apparent fall, and triumphs over all the
opposition of earth and hell. The great battle of God Almighty at last
wholly decides the issue of the contest ; and the lake of fire and the bot-
tomless pit are the prisons, to which the prostrated enemies are sent.
Such is the principal outline of the second catastrophe. It follows the
same general course as the first. But in its nature it is climactic, i. e. the
danger to the church is greater than before ; the persecution is more ex-
INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. XII — XIX. 247
tensive ; the stroiiirtli of the opposition is inoro appalliiiij; for wlicre cnn a
refufre be foiiiui from tlie l)looil-sli('il(liiifr liaixl of tlie luasttM- of tlie world,
iirjred on hy Satan and seconded by all the priesthood of idolatry ? No
wonder, then, that the writer enters upon this second i)art, with api)arently
more than ordinary excitement. This lofty tlif;ht, however, lie sustains
throiijrhont, luitil the sonj; of victory begins, when he relaxes into a state
of calmer and more quiet teelinfr, as exhibited in chap, xviii. The main
contest is now over; tlie greatest danger is pa.st; and therefore he is
no longer agitated with sncli deep concern as to the consequences of the
combat
From this general survey of the circumstances of the writer and liis
times, and of the great object which he had in view, let us now proceed to
a more particular examination of his plan, and of the manner in which he
has executed it Already have the outlines of this plan been presented in
the Introduction ^ 10. p. 184 seq. At present, however, a somewhat differ-
ent and more mimite account of it seems expedient, in order to aid the
interpretation.
The events which John is about to describe, arc similar in their general
nature to those which he has already described. Victory over the ene-
mies and persecutors of the church, is his theme. But in what way can
he best exhibit the subject .^ To repeat simply what he has already said,
would incur the danger of becoming tiresome and repulsive to the reader.
To devise a plan entirely discrepant, would be apt to make an impression
on the reader's mind, that the events described are entirely discrepant.
Thus situated he chooses, (what every considerate reader will fully sanc-
tion), a medium between these two extremes. The outlines of his plan
are in many respects like those exhibited in the plan of the fir.'st catastrophe.
Some of the detail also bears a considerable resend>lance to what has gone
before. But such, after all, is the diversity both in a general and particular
respect, that no one will be tempted to comj)lain of sameness or repetition.
The general features of resemblance are, that here as in the first part,
everything is brought before the reader in the forn) of sijmbol. From be-
ginning to end symbol is continuous and unremitting. Here, also, the pro-
gress of executing the divine displeasure is a gradual one, and the extent
of symbols is measured, as before, by the number seven. The seven vials
have a manifest and somewhat close resemblance to the seven trumpets of
the first catastrophe. The symbols anticipative and significant of victory
are fre(|uent here, as they also are in the preceding part of the book ; but
still they are more fully develo|)ed here than in that part. Thus chap,
xiv. and chap. xv. are almost wholly made uj) of them. Triumi)hal songs
are here introduced at the clo.se of partial catastrophes, and specially after
the fall of the great metropolis (18: 20 — V.): 7), as is also the usage in the
])receding jiart of the book. Literruptions of the ])rogress of events are
also admitted here; but the)' arc, on the whole, somewhat fewer than before.
Such is cha|>. xvii., the object of which is, to give an ex[)lanation of the
my.stcrious symbols which the writer had emplojed ; in resjiect to inler-
rupliojis, comp. with chM[) xvii. xviii. chap. vii. and x., (or among these may
be reckoned, in some jioints of view, the lament (chap, xviii.) over tiie
ruined metiojiolis, before the final destruction of the whole empire as ex-
hibited in chap. xix. The general tenor of the whole is also like to that of
the first catastrophe, in respect to its representations being grounded upon
248 INTRODUCTION TO Chap. XTI — XIX.
those of the O. Testament prophets, with regard to costume. The same
general style, tone, and manner of conception, reign throughout the whole
of the second part of the book, as are exhibited in the preceding part.
Never was a sameness of authorship more fully and certainly developed
by internal evidence.
But the DIVERSITIES, at the same time, in the management of the plan,
are many and very considerable. The theophany of chap. iv. is not re-
peated. No sealed book is here presented. The elders and living creatures
mostly disappear from the scene ; while angelic interposition, however, re-
mains essentially the same. The plan commences by taking a regressive
step, into the history of the past. New agents of opposition are introdu-
ced. Satan, who appears but for a moment (11: 7) under the first catastro-
phe, here acts a most conspicuous part, and appears to be at the height of
his efforts and of his power. The beast from the sea and from the land —
symbols like those in the book of Daniel — are the symbols of civil and re-
ligious domination which is opposed to the kingdom of Christ. The Re-
deemer makes his appearance, more than once, in person (Chap. xiv. xix.),
either with those whom he has saved as symbols of further salvation, or
with his elect warriors in order to enter upon the mighty contest. The
metropolis is first assaulted and reduced to a ruinous condition ; and when
its utter desolation is about to be completed, on one hand, the triumphal
song over its fall is heard, and on the other the wailings of those whose
hopes and interests were centered in it. Finally the remoter provinces
and distant parts of the empire, joining all theu* forces to avenge their
ruined metropolis, are overthrown. Then follows the punishment of the
beast and false prophet with their followers, the confinement of Satan for
a thousand years, and the general triumph and peace of the church.
In making disclosures such as these, the writer had a veiy difficult and
delicate task to perform. When he spake of the ruin of Judea, there was
nothing to make him timid and cautious. That power was in the progress
of being destroyed, at the vei-y time when he wrote his book. But not so
the Roman power. It was still at the height of its strength. The Romish
magistracy, everywhere on the alert to detect and punish sedition or con-
tumacy, would look with a jealous and malignant eye on any prediction of
its fall, and specially on any apparent or suspected calumny of its rulers.
What else could John do, hi such circumstances, than what he has done ?
How could he venture upon anything more than a symbolic representation
of the character, state, and future fall of the heathen persecuting power,
which might be read and understood by Christians conversant with the O.
Testament, but would be an enigma to a mere heathen reader ? Had he
spoken plainer, slander and seditious purposes would have been readily
imputed to liim, and likewise to all who possessed and appi'oved of his
book ; had he spoken less plain, even his Christian readers would have
been unable to enter fully into his meaning. He has chosen the middle
path. It was his imperious duty to speak to Christians for their comfort
and encouragement. The times demanded it, and fidelity to the cause of
Christianity could not dispense with it. But he must speak guardedly, i. e.
so that " the wise would understand, but none of the wicked would under-
stand," Dan, 12: 10. Has he not done so ? One might almost take it for
granted, that a heathen of his day, miacquainted with the Jewish Scriptures,
would regard his book as only the developments of enthusiasm and reve-
tJTTRODUCTION TO ChAP. XII. 249
rie, and would lay it aside, perhaps, with mere pity for the metital haliiici-
uation of the autlior. The writer of the Apocalypse has hardly escaped
from siich a charge, on the part of many who regard themselves as enli-rht-
ened Christians. At the same time I am ftdly persuaded, that a well-read
Christian of that period could enter into the desiarn of the author, and un-
derstand most, if not all, which he was expected to understand hy the
writer of the book.
Such are the great outlines and soine of the particular features of the
second catastrophe, as ap])rehended by my own mind. In the general bear-
ing of the picture, most of the recent commentators concur ; its ndation,
however, to the preceding i>art of the book, and some of its particulais in
themselves considered, are viewed by a portion of critics in a ditferent
light. Controversy is not my object If the reader finds evidences in the
further developments of the Apocalypse, that the plan which I have sug-
gested is subsumtially correct, he will need no other refutation of different
views.
THE WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN: CHAP. XU.
It hardly need be said, that chap. xii. has given rise to nn almost endless varie-
ty of expositions. If it is viewed (and so it sometimes has been) merely as an iso-
lated piece, I know not what an interpreter can do except merely to guess at its
meaning. Viewed however as an introduction to the second catastrophe, it may
Be reorarded with very different feelings ; and in this ligiit 1 cannot hesitate to
view it. How it can be connected with the first catastrophe, and yet any concin-
nity be preserved, I am not aware.
The first question which presents itself, is : Whether the writer has here taken
a regressive step, i. e. whether, instead of describing what is yet future, he goes
back to a brief sketch of the past, in order the better to enter afterwards upon the
declaration of the future. An attentive examination of the whole chapter will
lead, as it seems to me, to a full persuasion that he has taken such a step. Tliat
some leading facts in respect to the Saviour's entrance into the world and exit
from it, are glanced at in vs. 1 — (J of chap, xii, appears to be plain. How can the
reader help calling to mind the birth of Christ, and the massacre at Bethlehem
by Herod ; the character of him who was "to rule over the nations," as disclosed
in Ps. ii. ; the temptation of Christ by Satan ; the ascension of the Redeemer to
heaven, after hn had risen from the dead ; and finally the persecution of the chuich
after his death, with the protection vouchsafed to them on the part of Heaven .'
That Satan is here presented as following the risen and ascended Redeemer to
the heavenly regions with the design of annoying him, must strike every well-
informed mind, as a lively symbol of the malignity and bitterness with which the
enemy of God and man pursued Jesus and his disciples, at all times and on all
occasions. It is a representation of the like nature with that in the book of Job
(chap. i. ii.), where Satan makes his appearance among the sons of (Jod, as an ac-
.cuser of the pious. To say that Satan could have nothing to hope for from such
an attempt, would be saying little to the purpose. Had he any more ground
of hope, when he engaged in tempting Christ, or in leading on Judas and his
band of conspirators to bring about the death of Jesus? The malignity of Satan
VOL. II. 32
250 INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. XII.
often leads hiin to overleap the bounds of sagacious prudence, and to undertake
desperate enterprises.
But after all, we need not be careful or solicitous about proving a literal attempt
of the nature described in vs. 7 seq. Enough that here is symbol, and that this
symbol is very expressive of the malignity of Satan and his coadjutors. Nothing
i;i too bold or desperate for him to undertake ; and when foiled in one attempt, he
is not dissuaded irorn making another. So the chapter before us represents him,
and in this way it admirably depicts his true character.
A second question, which naturally follows, is : What end could the writer
have in view by taking a regressive step, as he seems here to have done .''
Several purposes seem to be accomplished by it, would be my answer to such
an inquiry. A distinction — a marked distinction — is thus made between the first
and second parts of the Epopee. Chap. xii. constitutes a proem to the second
part, in like manner as chap. iv. v. are a proem to the first. The machinery of
the second part is purposely designed by the author, as has already been stated, to
be different in many respects from that of the first. Satan and his principal coad-
jutors, viz, the heathen emperors and priests, are here the leaders of the opposition
to tiie kingdom and reign of the Redeetnor. In order that the malice and efforts
of the grand adversary may be fully displayed, the writer goes back, and begins
with the Saviour's birth, and the cUbrts of Satan to destroy him, at that period ;
and then he touches upon his ascension to heaven, and the subsequent persecution
of Christians through Satanic influence. The protection of the church in Judea,
and the flight of Christians to Pella, (probably alluded to in the description of the
woman's flight to the wilderness, vs. 14 seq.), served only to exasperate Satan
more and more. When he has accomplished his utmost in Judea, and after all
sees Christianity still gaining ground in spite of persecution ; when, moreover,
he perceives that the persecuting Jewish power is about to be finally humbled and
prostrated ; then he turns with burning malice to other parts of the world, in order
to stir tip persecutions there against the " seed of the woman." How he succeed-
ed in his subsequent efforts, the sequel of the Apocalypse is designed to show.
If we should insist that the whole plan and execution of John's Apocalypse
must be strictly chronological, and exhibit a regular sequency like a book of an-
nals, some difficulty might be made here by a reader disposed to take exception at
any appearance of anachronism. H Nero began the persecution of Christians in
November, A. D. 66. An attack was made on Jerusalem, at the same period ;
but the Jewish war did not really commence, until early in the spring of A. D.
67. Jerusalem was taken and destroyed in August, A. D. 70. How, it may be
asked, could John represent Satan as applying himself to stir up persecution
among the heathen after he was foiled in Judea by the destruction of the persecut-
ing power there, when Nero actually began it before the Jewish vvar commenced .'
But this question assumes what John does not assert. -John represents Satan
as making war against the rest of the woman's seed, after he was foiled in his at-
tempts to destroy "the man-child who should rule the nations with an iron-scep-
tre," and the woman who bare him. In other words; Satan did iiis utmost to de-
stroy Christ and his chuich in Judea, before he commenced stirring up active per-
secution abroad. But his efforts in Judea were all in vain. The church increased
and strengthened under persecution. The Roman power was threatening Pales-
tine with its legions of soldiers, even before Nero began his persecution at Rome,
which would naturally abate, in some measure, hostile movements against Chris-
tians among the Jews. What John says, implies no more than that Satan, being
disappointed as to his efforts in Judea, began to stir up persecution against Chris-
tians in foreign countries. Now this accords with matter of fact. The Romish
INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. XII. 251
power did n >t porseciitc initil the time of Nrro. Tlio only diOiculty Hint reinaiiis
is, that if we interpret vs. 6, 14, ns having respect to the fi^ltt of Chrinlinns to
Pellii, there is the appearance of nnarluonism, because iNero began persecution be-
fore the Higlittook place. But in an Epopee like the Apocalypse we are surely
not bound to the rig.d rules of a book of attnals. And even if this be insisted on
in the present case, it seems quite plain, that as Jews and Christians were con-
founded in the Roman provinces, the fiercest part of the Neronian persecution
would take place, only after the Jews had become the civil enemies cf the Ro-
mans, and of course sometime after the war against Palestine had commenced.
In the meantime, before Nero's death in June A. D. (j-i, it is highly probable that
the flight to Pclla of large numbers of Christians had taken place; for this was
some eighteen months after the war had been raging. This flight would enrage
Satan, and induce him to make more strenuous ctTorts to stir up the heathen per-
secution.
My limits do not permit iurlher discussion here. 1 must remit the reader to the
Appendix to Vol. 1., where the allegationof a/mc/z/OTi/sm in respect to the writer's
plan as represented by me, is more fully discussed.
It is thus that the rage and malice of the great adversary at a preceding period
are portrayed, in order that we should be prepared to look with the deeper inter-
est on the time to come, and see what he undertakes to accomplish. Forthwith,
after these views of Satan and his efforts in antecedent times, the writer presents
us with his coadjutors and servants, i. e. the Pagan imperial power at the head of
the world, and an idolatrous priesthood, both combined and determined to root
out the religion of Christ, "i --sv . i> ^ > v ■-;.;■ s,^ '/ . J I'-rf ,j «*■<«• *■* ' - ' d '^ <■' ►" ''
If no other purposes were answered by, the rerrrrssive step which the author
has taken, than those already noticed, these would be amply sufltcient to defend
his method. But wc may cast our eye still farther on, beyond the limits to which
we have now come. When the Apocalypse was written, Christians were under
a bitter and blood}' persecution from the Roman power, stirred up and set on by
Satan the enemy of all good. Would it not then answer the purpose of encour-
agement, to bring in a striking manner before the minds of those who were thus
persecuted, what had already happened to their Lord and Master himself.' Him
also, even from his birth to liis death, Satan had assailed. His death was brought
about by Satanic persecution. But lo ! he triumphs. He ascends to heaven be-
yond the reach of Satan and his instruments. The church also, from the bosom
of which the Saviour came forth when he "became in all things like to his breth-
ren," had been persecuted. Many Christians, moreover, had fallen by persecu-
tion ; but the church continued to rise the more. Many had fled to the wilder-
ness; but there God had provided for them. Terrible then as the attacks of Sa-
tan were, through the instruments which he employed, yet at last they would be
of no avail to stop the progress of Christianity. As the Saviour and the church
had triumphed, so would the same cause continue to triumph, while all its ene-
mies bnd persecutors would be finally destroyed.
Wlio now, in the light which such a consideration presents, can pronounce the
chapter before us to be an irrelevant or useless episode, or regard it as an inven-
tion of the writer designed principally to entertain the reader.' Far higher and
nobler ends than these the author had in view But still, I would not wholly ex-
clude subordinate designs from his purpose. While he doubtless designed that
the symbolic representation before us should interest his readers, he also intend-
ed that it should serve to distinguish a break in his discourse, just where lie wish-
ed to make one, viz. at the close of the first and the beginning of the second ca-
252 WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN : ChAP. XII. 1, 2.
tastrophe. Can any one reasonably complain that both a moral and a rhetorical
purpose is subserved at the same time ?
One question still remains : Who or what is represented by the woman so
splendidly apparelled ? Not ancient Judaism as such, as Eichhorn seems to maui-
tain. Not the virgin Mary, simply and personally considered ; for what is said in
vs. 14 seq. appears to comprise too much to be applied to any single personage
who is merely humao. it must then be the church ; the church not simply as
Jewish, but in a more generic and theocratic sense — the people of God. From the
churcii, Jesus sprang xard auQxa. From the Christian church, considered as
Christian, he could not spring ; for this took its rise only after the time of his pub-
lic ministry. But from the bosom of the people of God the Saviour came. This
church, Judaical indeed (at the time of his birth) in respect to rites and forms,
but to become Christian after he had exercised his ministry in the midst of it,
might well be represented here by the woman which is described in chap. xii.
To a Jew this would not appear at all unusual, but altogether appropriate. The
daughter of Zion is a common personification of the church in the O. Testament;
and in the writings of Paul, the same image is exhibited by the phrase : Jerusalem^
lohick is the mother of vs all, i. e. of all Christians, Gal. 4: JJ6. The main point
before us is, the illustration of that church, ancient or later, under the image of a
woman. If the Canticles are to have a spiritual sense given to them, it is plain
enough of course how familiar such an idea was to the Jews. Whether the wo-
man thus exhibited as a symbol be represented as bride or mother, depends of
course on the nature of tlie case and the relations and exigencies of any particu-
lar passage. In the case before us, to present the church as the mother of the
human nature of the Saviour, is altogether appropriate, and is necessary also to
the design of the writer. In another view of the subject, i. e. in respect to Christ's
higher nature, such an image would be incongruous and even absurd. But to
say, that from the bosom of the church Jesus as to his human nature sprang, is
both congruous and scriptural.
Such is the view which I feel constrained to take of the chapter before us.
Premising such a plan, we may now, vyithout any serious difficulty, proceed to
explain the particulars of the twelfth chapter.
(1 , 2) And a great wonder appeared in heaven ; a woman clothed with the sun,
and the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars ; and be-
ing with child she cried out with anguish and travailing pains.
XtjiiEiov, like the Hebrew nix, often means something extraordinary,
something miraculous, ostentum. The meaning is here augmented by
fisya, which has the sense, in such a connection, of something extraordi-
nary or adapted to excite wonder. It can qualify ar^fieiov here in no
other tolerable sense. — OvQav(p, the air? or is the heaven above, i. e.
the welkin, meant ? Inasmuch as the sun, moon, and stars, are repre-
sented as adorning the woman, it would seem most congruous to sup-
pose that the highest region of the air is meant. There too the assault
of Satan, " the prince of the power of the air," i. e. of the aerial host or
evil spirits, takes place ; and in this way the whole is more easily and
naturally explained. See Exc. I. No. II. 5. c.
nsQi^e^XrjLisvTj rov ^Xiov, i. e. surrounded with a glorious splendour
WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN : ChAP. XII. 3. 253
like that of the sun. Comp. Rev. 1: 16. 10. 1. Cant. 6: 10. This last
passage was probably before the writer's mind. — IT (reX/jvij . . . uvrijg,
another addition to the splendour of her appearance ; and aptly is it
thrown in, for the moon serves to iUuminate the lower part of the per-
son, while the binghter hght of tlie sun surrounds the superior part. —
'Enl T»]tf xe(fa/.i]>; . . . dwdfxa. Eiehhorn appeals to Gen. 37: 9 to
illustrate this ; but there only eleven stars are mentioned. Plainly the
reference is to the twelve tribes, as in Rev. vii. The church is adorned
with the splendour of these twelve stars, i. e. with these twelve lumina-
ries distinguished among and above the other nations of the earth. The
stars here are so many gems or sparkling diamonds in the crown or
tiara worn by the woman. In like manner Isaiah speaks of the glory
of Lebanon, and of the glory of the Gentiles, as contributing to adorn the
Messianic church.
'Ey yaaxQi t^ovaa, i. e. k')[ov<sa t^t^Qvop or Ttxfov iv yacsTQi. It is
nsual, however, to employ only the first or elliptical form, for the sake
of breviloquence. — 'i28ii-ovo(c, used frequently for the pains of travail. — •
Baaai%ofiti'ij, Mid. voice, agonizing herself. — ■Tey.etv, the Inf. of pur-
pose or object ; agonizing herself in order thai, or so that, she may bring
forth her child.
(3) And another wonder appeared in heaven ; for lo ! a great red dragon, hav-
ing seven heads and ten horns, and upon his heads seven crowns.
Satan is here represented under the image of a dragon, see v. 9.
Dragons were supposed to be huge serpents of the desert (anacondas ?) ;
see Bochart, Hieroz. II. pp. 428 — 440. The name ocfig or dodxcov
seems to have been given to Satan by the Jews, in refei-ence to his
temptation of Eve in the form of a serpent; comp. 2 Cor. 11: 3. Rev.
20: 2. — TIvoQog, fiery, i. e. red, an epithet expressive of his terrible ap-
pearance, and of his fierce and cruel nature ; he was " a murderer from
the beginning," John 8: 44. Comp. Rev. G: 4. 17: 3, as to the colour,
which is plainly indicative of cruelty and murder. — The x«/ before
l8ov I have translated /o?-. It plainly marks the apodosis here, and the
apodosis illustrates the preceding assertion.
'Enta -/.erpahcg x. T. )., horns are the emblems of power; and ten
horns augments this idea, and designates Satan as possessed of great
and formidable power. The number of heads is limited to seven ; which
is the usual symbolic number in this book, for anything complete or
ample. The heathen poets employ expressions of the like nature, in
order to magnify the powers of noxious creatures. Thus Cerberus
usually has thrc^ heads assigned to him; but Hesiod (Theog. 312) as-
signs him fifty, and Horace (Ode II. 13, 34) one hundred. So the
Hydra of the lake Lerna, killed by Hercules, had fifty heads, ( Virg. En.
254 WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN : ChAP. XII. 4.
VI. 576) ; and in Kiddusliim, fol. 29. 2, Rabbi Achae is said to have
seen a demon like a dragon with seven heads. More difficult is the ex-
planation of the position of the horns. Were they double on the three
interior heads ; or was there two on the middle head, and on each of the
exterior ones, while the other heads had one each ? We cannot deter-
mine this question ; nor is it of any moment. That emblems like these,
of mere poiver, may be assigned to beings of very diverse and opposite
qualities in other respects, is plain enough from the fact, that seven horns
are given to the Lamb, in Rev. 5: 6, and then again, seven heads and
ten horns to the beast which is Satan's prime minister, Rev. 13: 1. The
image of horns, as belonging to a serpent, seems to take its origin from
the cerastes. Whether the crowns are intended here to be merely em-
blems of the regal power of Satan, as " the prince of the power of the
air ;" or whether the idea of a crown in this case is derived from sup-
posed yellow or golden tinges on the top of each head, and is employed
principally in the way of ornament, i. e. in order to make the descrip-
tion more full and striking, it would be difficult to decide. Nothing im-
portant depends on either mode of explanation.
(4) And his tail drew along a third part of the stars of heaven, and cast them
dov/n to the earth. And the dragon stood before the woman who was about to
bring forth, that when she should bring forth, lie might devour her child.
The reader will recollect, that the dragon in this case is represented
as being h roj ovquvo), i. e. in the upper region of the air, so that his
tail may be supposed to interfere with and sweep down the stars, which,
as viewed by the ancients, were all set in the visible expanse or welkin.
The object of the writer here is merely to render intensive the descrip-
tion, which is designed to set forth the great power of Satan. So Dan-
iel (8: 10), in describing the horn w^hich symbolized Antiochus Epipha-
nes, represents it as " casting down some of the stars of heaven, and
trampling upon them." Probably, however, Daniel means by stars the
Magnates of the Jewish hierarchy. But then the nature of the symbol
is like that before us. Ewald thinks that the author, in the case before
us, has reference to such views as heathen traditions present, in respect
to serpents which are said to have attempted to devour Cadmus, Her-
cules, and Nero, in their cradles. But nothing more seems to be ne-
cessary than a reference to Dan. 8: 10, in order to explain the ground
of introducing such a symbol. A dragon which could sweep away the
stars and cast them down (see on Rev. 6: 12), must be a formidable
enemy.
As to the mixture of the Present (avQEi) and Praeter tenses (t^aXev),
see Gramm. § 136. l.b. Note. I have rendered ovqu, drew (past tense),
because the sentence appears better in English when formed in this
way.
WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN : ChAP. XII. 5 — 7. 255
That llie author iutcMnlod lo ilesigiiate the solicitude with which Satan
watched over the birfii of the Saviour, in order that he might devise
some phin for his destruction, seems plain. Compare the history, in
Matt, ii, of Herod's attempt to destroy the infant Jesus. It is, however,
only a single glance which the author casts at these events, for he hastens
to the sequel ; which, however, is presented with the same degree of
brevity and conciseness.
(o) And slie broiii|;lit forth a man-child, who should rule iill the nations with
an iron sceptre ; and her child was caught up to Gr)d and to his throne.
Tlov anQera = the Ileb. "i:j '3, Jer. 20: 15, — "O^,' {xslXei Ttoifidniv y..
T. X, i. e. who would speedily rule, etc. To rule all nations with an iron
sceptre marks two things ; first the universality of his reign, and second-
ly the strength or irresistible power of it. An iron sceptre is one which
can neither be broken nor resisted. The reference here is so plain to
Ps. 2: 9, that no doubt can well be raised, as to the personage who is
meant in the present case. The Messiah is plainly the child to which
the writer refers.
'IlQ.7Cio&/i ■ • • ^QOfoi' avTov. At a single glance the writer surveys
the whole life, death, and ascension to heaven of the Saviour, leaving
us to fill up the outlines of the sketch with the history of his trials and
of his persecutions by Satan. The end of all was, a complete triumph
and glorification. Nor was the Child simply taken up to God. He
was seated with him on his throne (Rev. 3: 21), being thus made avv-
-^Qorog with him. There he is of course secure against all the aggressions
of Satan.
(6) And the woman fled into the desert, where she hath a place prepared by
God, that thsy might there nourish her one thousand two hundred and sixty
days.
Here the writer very briefly anticipatt^d that which he has said more
at large, in vs. 14 seq. As he had just briefly sketched the history of
the Son, he here touches, and merely touches, on that of the mother, and
then forthwith resumes his description of the immediate efforts of Satan,
consequent upon the rapture of the Son- — '\)nov . . . iy.ei, exactly as the
Heb. cr . . . "!"i;x. 7.,'x«r of course is pleonasm, so far as the necessities
of language are concerned. — T(Jtq;030tr, 3d pers. plui'. with an indefinite
Nom., here employed (as often elsewhere) for the passive voice. As to
the time, see above on 11: 2, corap. also v. 14 below.
The se7itiment of this verse will be considered in the sequel, when we
come to resume the same subject in remarks upon vs. 14 seq.
(7) And there was war in heaven ; Michael and his angels fought with the
dragon, and the dragon fought and his angels.
All the attempts to explain the recently adopted reading here, xov
256 WOMAK CLOTHED WITH THE SUN : ChAP. XII. 7.
TioXefi^aai ixetu (instead of the vulgate inoliiiricav Hard), seem to have
been hitherto in a measure unsatisfactory. Yet this reading is abun-
dantly supported by the Codices. Ewald explains it by a reference to
the Heb. Inf. with a b prefixed, which not unfrequently has the sense
of a finite mode and tense ; see his Heb. Gramm. § 339. 1. first edit.
Heinrichs chooses [7/(T«j'] tov TioXefirjcyai, i. e. intenti erant in pugnam,
as he translates it. Liicke : [^lytvovro] rov TToXE^ijcrai. Each of these
follows the idiom of the Hebrew, which has variety here. Winer ex-
presses his dissatisfaction with all the attempts hitherto made to explain
this anomaly ; § 45. 4. 6. I cannot well doubt, that if the reading rov
ftolefiijaai be correct, (and so it seems to be according to the Codices),
that the proper solution is to be found in the kindred use of the Heb.
Infinitive. Cases of Uke structure with and without the ^ before the
Inf., with and without n;^n to be before the Inf., and with and without a
definite subject, are famihar to the Heb. grammarian ; see Introd. § 15.
3. e, for further development. The verse begins with a xal iyivsro, and
it is easy to supply iyt'vovzo before rov TToXe^iJGai, if the reader pleases.
This would be true Hebraism. One other way perhaps is possible,
Avhich I have not seen suggested. In v. 1, the woman is introduced by
wcfd-i] ; in v. 3, the dragon is introduced in the same way. What if
(JO(pi>// should be implied here, on the introduction of a third party ? The
kindred idov and eidov are frequently implied in this book, in cases where
they are needed for regimen and are not expressed; see 4: 2 — 4. 7:9. 13:
1 — 3. 14: 14, al. However, I prefer the other method of solution; but
there would be nothing very strange or foreign from usages of brevilo-
quence in this.
A task seemingly more difficult remains ; at least, more difficult for
those who are not familiar with the angelology of the Scriptures. Why
is this contest between good and evil angels represented as carried on
Iv rep ovQav(p ? And what is here meant by ovqavo) ?
That the Jews were accustomed to conceive and to speak of evil spi-
rits as inhabiting the air, may be seen by referring to Exc. I. Evil An-
gels, 5. c. Comp. Ephes. 2: 2. 6: 12. Test. Benj. c. 3. p. 729 in Fabr.
Ascens. Is. 7: 9 — 13, where the prophet Isaiah, in his rapture to hea-
ven, sees Samael [Satan] and his powers violently contending in the
upper regions of the atmosphere. In the present case, our author repre-
sents Satan and his angels in the same way. The Man- Child is caught
up to God ; Satan endeavours to follow him, in order to repeat his as-
saults ; and then Michael and his angels contend against him, and he is
overcome, and thrust down upon the earth. Michael is the guardian-
angel of God's people or the church ; see Exc. I. Good Angels, No. 3.
All is plain and easy, when the angelology of the Hebrews is once well
understood. John represents the subject here, according to the usual
WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN : ChAP. XII. 8, 9. 257
popular modos of conception. In what way could he make his symbols
so intelligible ?
(8) Yet he did not prevail, neither was a place found for him any longer in
heaven.
Kal = yet in cases like this ; comp. Heb. ).—7(rj^va£v, 3d pers. sing.,
accords with 6 Sndxcor, with whom are of course included his followers.
The reading laxvoav appears to be merely a correction of grammarians.
— Ovx aTjfi'CTfi' is a litotes. The meaning is : He ivas overcome. — [)v8s
tonog . . . Tftj ovQav(p, i. e. he was thrust down, on this occasion, upon
the earth ; see v. 9. The object of the writer is to disclose the idea,
that Satan, instead of succeeding in his attempt, was even removed fur-
ther from the possibility of accomplishing it than ever. "Ezi need not
be extended indefinitely, but may be regarded as pertaining to the at-
tempt in question.
(9) And the great dragon was cast down, the old serpent who is called the de-
vil, even Satan who deceiveth the whole world, was cast down to the earth, and
his angels were cast down with him.
If the reader has any difficulty concerning the various representations
of the Scriptures in regard to the place of evil angels, which now presents
them as in Tartainis, 2 Pet. 2: 4; then as in the desert, Matt. 12: 43,
(comp. Tobit 8: 3). Is. 13: 21. 34: 14. Rev. 18: 2; and again as in the
air, Eph. 2: 2. G: 12 ; he may perhaps find a solution of this in Exc. 1.
Mvil Angels. Confinement in Tartarus or the Abyss, before the final
judgment, was not constant and invariable, but temporary. In the pre-
sent case, the reader is not to conceive of the earth, down to which Sa-
tan and his host were cast, as their proper and lasting place of abode,
but only as the place to which they fell when Avorsted in the contest.
But men who dwell on the earth are thenceforth to be specially annoyed
by them, since their contest with the Power above, the Child caught up
unto God, has come to a close. It is for the sake of bringing this dis-
tinctly before the reader's mind, that the writer has adopted this mode
of representation. The sentiment is : Whenever they are brought into
proximity with men, malignant spirits will forthwith assay to do them
injury.
0 ogxb* 0 uQXouog is epexcgetical of 8()uy.(>iv, and the epithet uQxaiog
doubtless refers to the serpent who in ancient times tempted Eve ; comp.
2 Cor. 1 1: 3. — 0 xaXovfAtvog did^oXog, i. e. he who by way of eminence
is called the accuser, the traducer ; see v. 10. — 0 aararug, i. e. even he
or the same who is also named the adversary, "s:: . One might naturally
expect the article before aatuvug to be omitted here ; but the writer
uses the word as an epithet, and has treated it as if it were a Greek
epithet instead of a Hebrew one, because it was well understood.
VOL. II. 33
258 'WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN : ChAP. XII. 10.
0 Tilavcov X. r. X. see the illustrations of this in Exc. I. JSvil Angels,
No. 4. — 'E^Xi'^d-)] f 4" Ttjv yijv, here i^X/j-O-r] is repeated in order to resume
and carry out the construction of the sentence, which had been suspend-
ed to make way for the epithets.
(]()) And I heard a loud voice in heaven, saying : Now is the salvation and
power and kingdom of our God, and the dominion of his Christ; For the accuser
of our brethren has been cast down, he who accused them before God, day and
night.
ZaniQia, salvation, i. e. deliverance from the power of Satan, who
had assaulted the child that was caught up to God, and had now been
foiled in his last attempt. — /Ivvaiag xai ^aaiXsia, the power and Jcing-
dom of God, has respect to his moral VQign. Now is secured, by the
ca'sting down of Satan, that supremacy which God is to exercise
through the Messiah ; and of course the i^ovaia of Christ as Messiah,
is at the same time made secure. The words of the voice in heaven
ai'e to be regarded mainly as anticipative of victory in respect to the
future, grounded on a reminiscence of victory with regard to the past.
'0 'Aar7]ya)Q is a further explanation of o did^olog in v. 9. In the
light of such an accuser did the ancient Jews regard Satan ; see Job
i. ii. Zech. 3: 1, 2. 1 Chron. 21: 1. Here the crime of the accuser is
augmented by the charge, that he exercises his malignity rmiqag y,cd
vvATog = 'rh'^h) ail, i. e. incessantly, without intermission. The writer
has here chosen a Hebrew mode of expressing his idea. As to the
fo7-m of the word xazfiyaQ, it is plainly an abridgment of xuTi'jyoQog
(the usual word), like diuxaiv from duMovog. The Rabbins have the
same form, viz., niJi-Jl?. See Buxt. Lex. Chald. on this word.
^deXcpm' ijiAcov, our brethren. This implies, that the speakers on
this occasion are some of the redeemed, probably the twenty -four elders.
— KartjyoQOJV avrcov, accusing them, viz. our brethren.
If the reader has any difficulty as to the manner in which Satan does
this, he may be referred to Job. i. ii. for the Hebrew mode of concep-
tion. Doubtless the manner here is merely Jewish costume, i. e. a pe-
culiar Jewish mode of presenting the idea, that Satan maligns and ac-
cuses or slanders the pious, in order that he may in some way do them
an injury. The book of Job represents him as appearing in heaven,
among the sons of God, in order to prosecute his evil design. John
does not expressly say this ; yet Ivamov rov ■&i-ov seems of course to
imply it. But doubtless the modus of representation, which is Jewish,
is to be attributed to the peculiar machinery of the piece ; and at least
the idea of diabolic malignity is thus strikingly presented to the mind.
WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN: ChAP. XII. 11. 259
(11) And thov overc.anu* him by the blood of the Lamb, and by the word of
their testimony ; and they loved not their life, even unto death.
AvTo) f)7x/;(T«r, viz. they the martyrs, who are now in heaven ; for
the latter part of the verse shows, that their death had already taken
place. — Jia to «/'«« . . . hk toj' Xoyor^ hj the blood . . . bi/ the word.
This seems to be the j^lain and even necessary sense of did here with
the Accusative ; and if so, then it marks the same relation, in such a
position, as when it stands before the Genitive. That dm with the
Accusative does, not unfrequently, mark the means by which anything
is accomplished, is certain ; see Winer's Gramm. § 53. c, and also
Ki'ihner's Gramm. § 605. II. 3. 6, where are examples from the clas-
sics. So John 6: 57, x«yw ^oj 8id rov TtaztQu; comp. Rev. 4: 11.
Winer indeed denies that did is employed in such a sense in Rev. 12:
11 (ubi sup.) ; but he does not give us any better view of the subject
in the room of this. I cannot well avoid the conclusion here, that diu
in the present case stands before nouns in the Accusative which desig-
nate the means by which the victory was obtained. The sense is alto-
gether appropriate for Christian martyrs.
The blood of the Lamb cleanses from all sin ; and so the wiles of Sa-
tan to ensnare and ruin souls, are defeated by it. The word of their
testimony, i. e. the word which they have testified when moved by his
Spirit, is " a lamp to the feet and a light to the path." It was by the
word of truth that they were begotten again, and became sons of God ;
it is this word which instructs them as to duty, and warns them as to
the wiles of Satan. Comp. Rev: 1: 2, 5, 6. 5: 9, 12. 7: 14. It is then
the atoning blood of Christ, and the power of his truth as applied to
the heai'ts of men by the Spirit whom Christ sends, that Christians are
enabled to triumph over the wiles and malice of Satan, even when he
succeeds in causing them to be persecuted unto death.
Oi'x t]ydntjciav . . . {^avdrov, they did not love their temporal or pres-
ent life, so a-s to prefer it to suffering for the cause of Christ. They
consented even to die, rather than relinquish their profession and their
fidehty. In other words : ' So httle did they value their present life,
that they preferred death to apostasy.' ^I'v^)} often means natural life.
»So in Matt. 10:^39i„" He that findeth his life shall lose it ; and he that
loseth his life for my sake, shall find it ;" i. e. he that preserves his
natural life by apostatizing from me, shall lose his life in another sense,
i. e. his future happiness ; but he that loseth his natural life on my ac-
count, shall find another life, shall attain to the blessedness of the world
to come. See Luke 17: 33. John 12: 25, where the same sentiment is
repeated. These passages make the one before us very clear, viz.
< They renounced the love of life, even to such an extent as to undergo
death itself.'
260 WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN: ChAP. XIL 12, 13.
The general import of the triumphal song is, that notwithstanding all
the efforts of Satan to destroy the Saviour and his disciples, the cause
of truth had triumphed ; for even the martyrs who had fallen in the
contest, had still achieved a glorious victory. This prepares us for
the expressions of triumph in the sequel.
(12) Because of this, rejoice ye heavens, and ye who dwell therein ! Wo to
the earth and sea ! For the devil hath come down to you, having great indigna-
tion, knowing that his time is short.
The inhabitants of the heavenly world are called upon to rejoice,
because of the victories achieved by the Messiah and his faithful follow-
ers. Oi ayjjvovPzEi,; comp. 7: 15. 13: 6. 21: 3. — Oval x. r. X, is not to
be construed as wishing woe, but as predicting it, on account of the
disappointment and rage of Satan. — Fij Tiai '0-uXuGorj, i. e. the earth and
the sea coasts with the islands, comprising all the habitable part of the
world = or/.ovfievtj. — Kart'^t] in sense kindred to i^X^&Tj in vs. 9, 13 ;
but xatf^)] marks merely the fact of descent, not the manner of it by
force, like f^lt'jd-^.
Eidmg on oXiyov aaiQov s^ei. The meaning is, that from the defeat
which h^has just experienced, Satan augurs his future subjugation ;
and he augurs that it will soon come, because the Messianic reign has
now fairly commenced. Comp. v. 14. 10: 6. 11: 15 — 18. 13: 5. Most
of these passages refer, indeed, to the triumph of the church over the
persecuting Jewish power. But it is apposite here to refer to them ;
for Satan, in this sketch of regressive action, is represented as specially
concerned with the church in Judea, where Christianity had its origin.
(13) And when the dragon saw that he was cast down to the earth, he perse-
cuted the woman who bore the man-child.
Here is resumed what was simply touched upon in v. 6 above. The
sketch in this passage brings us down to the period, when the Romish
persecution commenced. In the connection in which this stands, viz.
as consequent on the ascension and glorification of the Saviour, it seems
obvious, that the church is here personified by the woman who now be-
comes the object of Satan's rage. How well this agrees with facts,
need not be insisted on, inasmuch as every reader of the N. Testament
is familiar with these facts. Withal, nothing can be more natural, than
that Satan, when disappointed in his persecution of the Saviour, should
turn his rage upon his disciples. The church, which as to its external
form was Jewish at the birth of the Saviour, has now, after his ascen-
sion, adopted the form of Christianity.
WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THK SUN: ChAP. XII. 14. 261
(14) And two wings of the great eagle wore given to the woman, tliat she
miglit fly to tile desert — to her place, (where she is nourished for a time and
times and half a time), from the face of the serpent.
/Ivo nztnvytg rov dsrov tov fisydXov, not the two icings of the great
eagle, but tico wings of, etc., i. e. two wings like those of the great eagle ;
see "Winer, § 18. 2. This moans that they were strong, expansive, and
of course adapted to rapid flight. The article before dezov is indispen-
sable for the special purpose of the writer, who means to designate the
idea of the strongest and most rapid wings. As to the image itself, the
prototype is in Ex. 19: 4, where God says of Israel, whom he had
brought out of Egypt into the wilderness : " I bare you on eagles'
•wings, and brought you unto myself," i. e. to a place where they might
be devoted to his service. So David fled to the toilderness for safety,
1 Sam. 23: 14, 15. So Elijah fled to the wilderness for a refuge from
the persecution of Jezebel, 1 Kings 19: 4 seq. These and the like
cases make plain the object of the writer in the passage before us. The
simple idea divested of trope is, that the church found a refuge which
'GTod had provided for her.
£/V tov Tonov avTtj^', i. e. to a place which God had appointed or
provided for her. — "Onov ZQtqttca ixeT, see on onov . . . ixei under v.
6 above. — TQtq:ezat indicates, by its having no agent expressed, that it
is God who provides the requisite nourishment or support for her.
There is doubtless an allusion in this to the manner in which Elijah
was fed by the ravens, 1 Kings 17: 3 — 6.
Is it not plain, that in this whole representation the writer has ex-
pressed, although in a different form, what is said by the Saviour in
Matt. 24: 1 G seq. ? So plain does this seem to my own mind, that I
cannot well entertain any serious doubt respecting it.
KitiQOv xat xaiQoi/g xal ^ixtav xaiQOV, exactly the ""n" SSB^i 'p3'n> "i^"
of Dan. 7: 25, and its equivalent in Dan. 12: 7. It is the same also ivs
the 42 months and 1260 days, in Rev. 11: 2, 3. In 11: 2, 3, moreover,
and in the sequel, is given a graphic view of the persecution of the
church in Judea, during the time of its invasion by the Romans. As
the writer is now dwelling upon the past, it cannot well be doubted that
he alludes here to the same period of time. Nor is there any real in-
consistency between the two representations. In chap. xi. it is the toit-
nesses, i. e. the teachers of Christianity, who are persecuted and slain.
The mass of Christians, in the raeantinie, might have been, and facts
show that they were, withdrawing to the wilderness beyond the Jordan.
It has always been the aim of persecutors of the church, to destroy dis-
tinguished teachers first of all. So in the case under consideration.
While Satan was raging against the church, the great body of Chris-
tians fled from the country, according to the command of the Saviour,
262 WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN : ChAP. XII. 15.
in Matt. 24: 14 seq. Some faithful teachers remained, as it would seem,
and persevered in their work. These became martyrs; the rest " were
nourished by God in the wilderness, whither they had fled." In re-
spect to the time, times and half a time, I remit the reader to what is
said on 11: 2, 3, and to the references there given.
When the whole is viewed in this light, it seems to be altogether con-
gruous, and entirely accordant with the purpose of the writer. In re-
gard to the multiplied conjectures on the subject of the times here men-
tioned, it is enough to say, that the prototype in Dan. 7: 25. 12: 7,
plainly refers to the desolations caused by Antiochus Epiphanes ; and
since these lasted only 3 J- years, so the time here specified must be
about the same period, or at any rate a moderate period of time. Ac-
cordingly, it was a matter of fact, that the Jewish war actually contin-
ued but a little longer than this period. Why should we reject, then,
an interpretation which seems so plainly to be grounded on facts and on
the nature of the case ?
^710 TTQOocoTTOv Tov 6q)S(ag is to be joined with ninpca x. t. )., fiec
into the toilderness . . . from the face, i. e. from the presence, of the
serpent.
(15) And the serpent cast from his mouth, after the woman, water like a river,
that he might cause her to be carried away by the flood.
The imagery here is peculiar. Some serpents are said to eject from
their mouths poisonous bile, when they are enraged, in order to annoy
their enemy ; but the image of vomiting forth Si flood of water is unique,
and invented, as it would seem, for the occasion. Or is it taken from
the spouting forth of large masses of water by some of the sea-monsters ?
The flight of the woman on wings such as the great eagle possesses, is
conceived of as being more rapid than the pursuit of the serpent or
dragon ; who, perceiving that he cannot overtake her, spouts forth a
flood, in the hope that it may reach and arrest her. As the writer has,
in this whole representation, travelled out of the bounds of nature into
those of imagination, (and in the like way with respect to the locusts
and the army of horsemen from the Euphrates, chap, ix.), so we need
not take offence at the imagery which he employs. The woman and
the dragon in the higher atmosphere ; the battle in the same region be-
tween Michael with his hosts and the dragon with his ; these, and seve-
ral other things, are praeternatural. And so here. Quoddam immane,
prodigiosum, is admissible in the case of Satan, and we are prepared to
expect it^ accordingly we find it in the text before us.
noTayocpoQTjtov, a rare word in the classics, but a very expressive
one. Immersed in the flood and borne away hy it, is the compound idea
which it conveys ; and its import is not even limited to this, for the ad-
junct idea of destruction or drowning is of course attached to it.
WOMAN CLOTHED WITH THE SUN: ChAP. XII. 16, 17. 263
(16) And tlie oartli helped tlie woman; yea, tlie earth opened its mouth, and
drank up the flood which the dragon cast forth from his mouth.
As the danger in this case had become urgent by an extraordinary
and unlooked tor manifestation of the power of the dragon, so the reme-
dy mus:t be a speedy and adequate one on the part of him who gave
wings to the fugitive and persecuted woman, and had provided a place
for her. A deep chasm is suddenly made in the ground over which the
flood was passing, and it is swallowed ui> and becomes harmless. Chasms
in the earth are not in themselves considered a novel thing, being often
made by earthquakes. But the time and manner in which they are
made in the present case, are of course to be looked upon as extraordi-
nary. The meaning of the whole seems plainly to be, that in circum-
stances of most threatening danger, God interposed in behalf of the
church, and saved it from destruction. Nor is it improbable, that John
liad in his mind some extraordinary machinations of the persecuting
Jews, about the time when the witnesses were giving their testimony,
which was signally and unexpectedly defeated, as to the great body of
Christians. Nor is it incongruous to suppose, that the civil and mili-
tary power of the Romans, bearing dovv^n with great force upon the
Jews at this period, and obliging them to seek their own personal safety,
instead of pursuing schemes of vengeance upon Christians, is symbolized
here by the earth's helping the woman. At least, all is easy and natural
wlien interpreted in this way.
(17) And the dragon was enraged at the woman, and went away to make war
with the remainder of lier seed, who keep the commandments of God, and hold
fast the testimony of Jesus.
In the preceding context we have seen, that when the dragon under-
took to pursue the ascending Saviour and was thwarted, he turned his
rage against his followers, viz. the church in Judea. In the present
case he is thwarted again, and therefore turns his rage, as before, against
the Christians in foreign countries, hoping still for success abroad in his
warfare against them. All seems to be easy and natural when thus ex-
plained. Those whom he had just been persecuting in Judea, were the
seed of the icoman, but not all of her seed. Hence the other Christians
are called tw^ Xoitioji' tov GniQiiarog avztjis'. Figurative language like
the present is very common in the O. Testament. Zion, the daughter
of Zion, etc., is everywhere in the prophets represented as the mother
of the Jewish church, and as having many children ; comp. Is. 60: 4.
6G: 10—13. oh 1. 49: 22. Gal. 4: 26, 27. See also Gab 3: 7. Rom.
4: 16, 17. All anxious discu.ssion here, however, whether Toiv loinav
means simply Jewish or Gentile Christians, may be superseded as un-
important. The simple facts are, that Christians had been for some
264 INTRODUCTION TO Chap. XIII.
thirty years persecuted in Judea, and that afterwards a new persecution
of them elsewhere broke out under Nero, through the influence of Sa-
tan ; and to this the writer appears plainly to allude in the text before
us.
TijQovvTcov rag ivroXdg characterizes true Christians ; see on Rev. 1: 3.
'Eiovrav rtjv fiaQTVQiav designates the firmness and steadfastness of
martyrs. It was usual for heathen tribunals first to call on Christians,
when apprehended, to renounce their Christianity, and denounce the
Saviour. Those who refused to do so, were said i^HV rrjp fiaQtVQt'av
'JijGov, i. e. to hold fast the testwiony of Jesus, or to abide faithful to the
doctrines which they had professed. Such were the persons whom the
dragon determined to persecute.
The germ of the second catastrophe appears to lie in this closing de-
claration. It is that persecution which the dragon now determines to
excite, which the writer is going to develop. Jerusalem and Palestine
are no longer the theatre of his vision. He transfers us to the city of
Eome, the metropolis of the whole empire. There the Caesars swayed
the sceptre of the world ; and bloody persecution, commenced in that
city, would bid fair to exterminate the Christian religion. No wonder,
then, that we find the dragon intent upon exciting such a persecution,
and endeavouring to unite both the civil and religious powers of the
heathen world against the disciples of Christ.
INTRODUCTION TO CHAP. XIH.
Such is the preparation for, or proem to, the second great catastrophe
which the Apocalypse discloses to our view. We have already seen what
discrepancy, and yet how much of concord, there is between both the plan
and the execution of the first and second catastrophes of this august dra-
ma. The writer has exhibited in a reinarkable way his power of inven-
tion, in making the plan of these acts so replete with variety, while he
still preserves all that is necessary to a general imity and a regular devel-
opment of the whole design. Persecutions by the Jews had been carried
on so long, that they were everywhere known, and needed not to be par-
ticularly described. Hence the writer introduces them (chap, vi.) as being
familiar to the mind of his readers ; and he follows the subject thus intro-
duced, until he brings it to a close. But at the time when the author wrote,
Jewish persecutions were not the only persecutions that existed. Nero
had recently kindled the fires which were consuming the church ; and this
he did with such unrelenting fuiy, that it seemed to be necessary to assign
some special cause which should be adequate to account for such an atro-
city. With great skill has the writer managed this part of his plan. He
has scarcely alluded to Satan in developing the first catastrophe. Once or
twice only does he introduce him, viz., in connection with the death of the
INTRODUCTION TO ChAP. XIIL 2(8^
two witnppsos, 11: 7, and perhaps as the leader of the loriists, P: 11. We
cannot well snpposis however, thiit the writer refrained lioni introchieing
Satanic airency into the first act, (if 1 may so speak), i)ecanse he did not be-
lieve it had any ])hiee in the i)erseeutions by the Jews. The Savionr had
often accused them of heinir instiirated by the devil, John 8: 87, .'W, 44.
liUke 22: 'VX If we ask, then, why the author of the Apocalypse did not
introduce Satanic ajjency into the first part of his jilan, we may answer
that he i>nrpospIy reserved the introduction of this lor the second jmrt,
either on account of variety, or for the sake of climax, or perhaps for both
these reasons. The plot thickens as we jjo on, and becomes more intense-
ly interestinjr, in projmrtion as more actors are introduced and tlie battle-
ground becomes a wider lield.
The book of Daniel (chap, vii — ix.) is particularly the model of the sec-
ond i>art, in regard to the nature of the imajrcry em])loyed. In Daniel,
wild beasts of great jiowcr and ferocity are introduced as the symbols of
kingdoms distingiiished by their aggressive military forces. So here, the
beast which rises out of the sea (13: 1), is a symbol of the Roman iinpe-
rial and ]>er.-?ecuting power; the beast which rises oiit of the earth (13: 11),
is an emiilem of the domination and persecution of the pagan j)riesthood
or religious power; and these two united, with Satan at their head, use all
their efforts to crush the chui-ch, wherever and whenever they can attack it.
Such are the formidable enemies with which Christianity has to con-
tend. The manner in which the writer presents the controversy, or, in
other words, the economy of the book in regard to the second great con-
test and catastrophe, as well as the nature of the imagery employed, have
already been set before the reader in Vol. I. § 10, p. 185 seq., and need
not to be repeated here. It is proper however to say, that the commentary
in the sequel is based upon the economy as there developed ; and in order
that it should be understood fully, some good degree of Ijuniliaritj- with
that economy is quite necessary.
One point of the highest iniportance, as it respects the plan and design
of this second part of the Epopee before U3, is the question: fFhfther pagan
or Christian Rome is the great object in view. Which of these is the power-
ful and dangerous enemy to be overcome ? This is, and has long been,
the great arena or battle-ground of interpreters. My views in respect to this
have already for substance been given in the Introduction, § 0, § 10, and par-
ticularly in § 12, § 13. I do not wish to repeat here what has there been
said, in a variety of ways, and in relation to different objects. I will merely
say, that as my main design is not a polemic one, I shall not enter at length
into a discussion, the object of which would be to bring into view every
minute particidar. Only in the most summarj' manner do I design to lay
before the reader here, in the first place, a Ijrief sketch of the history of
opinions among interpreters ancient and modern, in regard to what is sym-
bolized by the beast which rises from the sea, and acts so conspicuous a
part in the second portion of the Apocalypse. As everything in respect to
the interpretations of the second i)art of the Apocalypse depends on set-
tling tliis (lucstion, it becomes a matter of interest to know wiiirt others
have thought and said in respect to it. In the second place, I shall, in the
like summary manner, state my leading reasons for the views of interpreta-
tion which I feel compelled to adopt. The reader will then be in posses-
sion of material for making up his own judgineni upon this matter.
VOL. II. 34
266 INTRODUCTION TO Chap. XIII.
Our liislnrk sketch must occupy but a moderate space. Purposely I touch
only upon some of its leading features.
Victoriiuis Pctavionensis (f 303), if we may trust to the Commentary still
extant under his name, (Bib. Max. Vol. III. p. 414 seq.), confounds the sev-
en trumpets of the first catastroplie with the seven vials of the second,
(probably because of their similarity), and makes all relate to Jlntichrist, of
whom he seenjs, for the most part, to form but a very indefinite and un-
certain idea. " Whatever," says he, " is briefly said in respect to trumpets,
is here fully said in respect to the vials. The order we are not to regard ;
for when the Holy Spirit sometimes hastens on to the end of time, he then
goes back again to preceding periods, and supplies what is wanting. Order
is not to be required in the Apocalypse, but intelligence," p. 419. D. Still
he takes BahjUm to mean Rome with its seven hills ; and in connection
with this, he appears, in commenting on Rev. xvii, to regard Nero as Anti-
christ. 'But Nero,' (so he supposes, according to the popular tradition of
the day), ' will be raised from the dead, appear again at Rome, persecute
the church once more, and finally be destroyed by the Messiah, coming in
his glory and being accompanied by the prophet Elijah.' Hints of opinions
not unlike to these, are also found in Hippolytus De Antichristo, and in
many of the ancient Christian fathers ; as we shall elsewhere see.
Andreas, bishop of Cesai'ea in Cappadocia, (fl. ad fin. Cent. V.), also re-
garded the beast which comes up from the sea as a symbol of Antichrist ;
and in the same way, as he testifies (Comm. 13: 1 and 13: 11), was it re-
garded by Methodius, Hi])polytus, and other ancient Avriters. Andreas sup-
poses the dragon to mean Satan ; and the beast from the land, with two
horns, to mean the false prophet who was to accompany Antichrist. The
Babylon of chap, xiv — x\'i, as he once suggests (on Rev. 16: 19), is Jeru-
salem. But in his Comm. on Rev. xvii — xix, ahit in omnia alia. The beast
in 17: 8, as he avers, is the devil; but in 17: 11 he is Antichrist. Babylon
is now Jerusalem ; then Babylon proper in the East ; and, at another time,
a general symbol of all persecutmg cities. Nothing can exceed the con-
fusion of his views, inasmuch as there is — according to him — an utter des-
titution of anything like a regular plan in the composition of the Apoca-
lypse.
Arethas, a successor of Andreas in his bishopric, (fl. init. Cent. VL), fol-
lows mostly in the steps of his predecessor. The beast from the sea is
Antichrist ; that from the land is his precursor (Comm. on chap, xiii.) ;
Babylon now means the whole corrupt world, (on 14: 8); then it may be
the literal Babylon with a secondary symbolical meaning, (ib) ; or finally,
(Comm. on 16: 19), Constantinople! The seven heads (on 17: 9, 10) are
seven monarchies, Ninive, Babylon, etc. The confusion of thought and in-
terpretation is, in the main, of the same general character with that of An-
dreas.
Such are the specimens of very ancient interpretation, in respect to that
poi'tion of the Apocalypse which is before us. I may now briefly advert to
some specimens of modern exegesis in regard to this difficult part of the
Revelation.
Vitringa says, that the interpreters of his day, and those who had for
some length of time preceded them, might be divided into two great clas-
ses, viz. those who maintained that heathen Rome is meant, and those who
asserted ih.sX papal antichristian Rome ia the object of the prophecy ; Comm.
INTRODUCTION TO CHAP. XIII. St!7
p. 570 seq. For healhfti Rome were Alcassar and (with some pecnlinri-
ti»\«) Bossuet, |p!i(liiijr Roman Catholic iiifer[irct»^rs, who iiavo bi'cii followod
by most of tln^ Romanists ; and with these, in refrard to tlie main point,
GrotiiKs and some other of tiie older and distinjinished Protestant connnen-
tiitors have agreed. Ihit Paraens, Mede, Vitrinjra himself, Rengd, and afh^r
these the great body of ])rotest"Uit interpreters, speeially in England, have
found principally symbols of the papal antichristian Rome, in the second
part of the Revelation. Thus this jjart of the book has l>een, for a long time,
the arena of animated contest between the ])apal and jirotestant parties.
Great diversities, indeed, as to the special application of various passages in
Rev. xii — xix, have existed among individuals of both parties who fought
under the same common standard ; but a somewhat general line of separa-
tion has been drawn between the Protestants and the Romanists, by the
application of chap, xiii — xix, on the part of Protestants, to modern papal
Rome, and by the Romanists, to ancient hrathen Rome.
At present, I will further remark only, that most of the coirimentators,
both Catholics and Protestants, taking it for granted that Jolm wrote the
Apocalyjise in tlie time of Domitian, have found of course the facts, (sup-
posed to correspond to the predictions which are comprised in the second
part of his work), in the history of Rome, either civil or ecclesiastical, sub-
sequent to the time of Domitimi, according to the theory which they em-
braced.
Thus much for the historic view. I come, secondly, to the leading gene-
ral reasons for believing that pagan and persecuting Rome is the main enemy
originally aimed at by the second part of the Apocalypse. In giving these
I must be brief. I trust mainly to the developments made in the commen-
taPk- on chap, xiii — xix, for the vindication of my exegesis, and the satis-
faction of the reader.
(1) The apparent object and tenur of the hook plainly point us to this. Pre-
sent evils, present persecutions and dangei-s, called forth the book. It must
be appropriate to the exigencies which called it forth. Cliaj). vi — xi, as we
have seen, arc plainly of this tenor. Why may we not exjtect analogy to
this in the second part of John's work ? What reason can be given, wliy
John, living in the midst of the Neronic persecution, and writing a hook
wiiose main object was to comfort and encourage the persecuted, should
have disregarded all the present wants and woes of the chinch, and looked
forward only to distant future ages, and expended liis strength upon en-
deavours to gratify curiosity by hfting up the veil whicli then hid them from
the view of the church ? I will not go so far as to aver, that no good could
be expected from this ; but we may safely conclude, that as the then present
exigencies and distresses called forth the first part of his book, so they also
did the second. I do not apprehend, that any portion of prophecy in the
Old Testament or the New can be found, where the mere gratification of
curiosity to prj' into the distant future, is the direct or principal object of
the writer. Somethintr that pertains to encouragement or admonition, is
always the object of the prophets. They were preachers, not mere sooth-
sayers or diviners. In a word, Cliristians ready to despond, or tempted to
apostatize, were to be quickened and confirmed and comforted ; ^\ by then
should John pass l>y all the horrors of their pressing calamities, and merely
tell what would happen to the church more than a thousand years after
they were dead .' The questioD, put in this shape, can hardly fail of a uni-
268 INTRODUCTION TO Chap. XIII.
form answer on the ])art of every considerate mind, which is unembarrassed
by previous views in favour of some particular system of interpretation.
But I will not repeat what has elsewhere been said. I merely refer,
once more, to § 9, § 12, § 13, of the Litroduction, for more ample discus-
sion.
(2) To regard the second portion of the .Apocalypse as descriptive of the pa^
])al hierarchy, in its primary and original design, would he against the general
tenor of prophecy in the Old Testament and the JVew in respect to distant
future ages.
All prophecies of this nature are elsewhei'e merely generic. Let the
reader go back to §2 of the Introduction, and peruse the sketch of the Mes-
sianic kingdom there developed. Let him peruse all the predictions of the
distant future conversion of tlie Jews and Gentiles. Let him read Rev. xx.
and onward, respecting the distant future of the church. All — all — is
generic only. Why then should we depart from this analogy, and suppose
a circumstantial history of the papacy to be comprised in Rev. xiii — xix. ?
Above all, why should we suppose this, when such a history is apparently
inapposite to the writer's design, and could not answer the main end which
he is striving to accomplish ?
(3) The characteristics of the beast and false prophet are such as constrain
us to apply them to heathen and idolatrous worship, and not to degene-
rate Christianity. Let the reader attentively consider Rev. 13: 5, 6, 12 — 17.
If the beast from the sea means the pope, then who is the false prophet or
second beast which comes from the land ? Is it not plain, that the first is
a civU power, and the second a religious one ? But when was the civil
power of the pope ever such as is here attributed to the beast from the
sea ? It can only be made such constructively ; and then, only after a long
series of popes had risen up and disappeared. But in the Apocalypse of
John, the whole extent of the power of the fii'st beast exists antecedently to
the appearance of the second beast. It is only by a forced construction,
therefore, that we can make out popeiy to be idolatry in the shape devel-
oped in Rev. xiii. Idolatry, in a qualified sense, I cannot doubt that a part
of it indeed is. But the characters before us are no half-way idolaters. I
know of no stronger description of idol- worship, of lying miracles in sup-
port of it, or of blasphemous assumptions and exhibitions such as the Ro-
man emperors and priests made, than are here given of the beast and false
prophet. To apply all these merely to popery, is at least a strained con-
struction of the text, and must almost with certainty leave doubts in ihe
minds o^ an unprejudiced and impartial inquirer.
(4) The explanations given by the aidhor himself in chap, xvii, seems to settle
this question almost beyond the reach of any loell-grounded dotibts. It cannot
be denied, that the object of the writer, in this chapter, is to lead his read-
ers to a knowledge of what is designated by the beast which rises out of
the sea. The meaning indicated by the symbol of the second beast, he
seems to consider as being too obvious to need explanation. In fact it is
definitely explained when this beast is named false prophet, Rev. 16: 13.
19: 20. 20: 10.
In chap. 17: 9, 10, he tells us that the seven heads of the beast symbolize
seven kings. 'Of these ^ve have already fallen ; one now reigns, and the
seventh which is to come, will reign but a short time.' Now how could
five popes have already fallen at Rome, and the sixth be near the close of
INTRODUCTION TO Chap. XIII. 269
bis time at the period wlien Jolin wrote, i. e. about A. D. G8? The efforts
of \'itriiit,'u hikI otliers to apply this to tlie live forms of Roman govern-
niuiit, viz. Kinjrs, CotiHuls, Decemviri, military Tribunes, anil Dictators,
which had fallen before the time of John (Comm. p. 771 seq.), are altogether
unsiitisfactory. In fact, no tolerable solution of the words remain, if wo
apply them to popes. Nothing but absolute violence can make such an
application.
E(iually unsatisfactory is the application of the ten horns to the papal
establishment, Everytiiing degenerates, in this way, into mere fancy and
conjecture. Nothing but the uibutary, dependent, and subordinate pro-
vinces of the Roman empire, when at the height of its strength, and en-
gaged in persecution, will answer in a tolerable manner to the language
employed in Rev. 17: V-i — 17.
Are not, then, the circumstances of the times, the general tenor of
prophecy, the characteristics of the beast and false prophet, and the ex-
planations ilirectly made by the writer of his own meaning, a sufficient
clue to the interpretation ? If they are not, it would be difficult to say,
what the writer could have done which would be sufficient for such a
purpose.
Finally, what other probal)le account, now, can be given of the length of
the second part of the Apocalypse, unless it be, that present evils, or such
as were at least very near at hand, were thrusting themselves upon the
writer's view in such a manner that he must needs dwell upon them ? Had
Poperj', as such, been the immediate object of his revelations, we might
well expect he would have touched upon it with the same brevity that he
has upon the Milleimium, and the invasion by Gog and Magog. That he
has not done so, is evidence that he had present and urgent evils more
immediately in view.
These are my leading reasons for rejecting such a theory of exegesis, in
respect to chap, xiii — xix, as has been followed by the mass of Protestant
interpreters. I fully believe that popery is a gross corruption of Christiani-
ty, and that it will tall before the light of truth and reason ; yet I do not
think it to be the direct and original object in view by the writer of Rev.
xiii — xix. But still, I apprehend that this, .ind all else that opposes Chris-
tianity, is viriitally comprised in the Aj)ocalypse. I do not think it was the
definite purpose of the Apocalypiist that his book should be considered,
in respect to its general tenor and meaning, as limited merely and only
to the objects or occurrences which called it forth. The maxim: Ex uno
disce omnia, is one which I should, in a qualified way, apply here with un-
hesitating confidence. The same Saviour, who has done so much for his
church, and jjromised so much to it in ancient times, will not surely forsake
it in later ones. What he did in the early centuries, will find a nXriQiuaig
in later ones. So often as enemies of its best interests and persecutors
rise up, be they who they may, they will sliare the fate of those who have
gone before them. The gates of hell will not — cannot — prevail against the
church. The doom of all per-secutors is inscribed on the face of the Apoca-
lypse. The triumph of the church is written in characters equally legible.
" Let him that readeth, understand." There is no time, no age, no heresy,
no defection, no superstition, no malignant design, no active persecution,
from Papist.s, Protestiints, infidels, heathen, or others, either ojien or con-
cealed, which is injurious to Christianity, but its doom (indirectly indeed
270 ECONOMY OF Chap. XIII.
but certainly) is predicted and sealed in the Apocalypse. I consider the
predictions here, in a certain sense as a model or prototype of all that is to
befall the church, and that the issue and final end of all that opposes or ,
injures true Christianity, may be found here. The book is indeed a lucid
tjommentary on the sublime sentiment of Paul : Ml things shall work togeth-
er/or good, to those who love God.
In the same way Ave interpret the precepts and doctrines contained in
the N. Testament. They were originally called forth by particular exigen-
cies ; but when once presented before the world, they are of efficacy for
all times, and for all circumstances of the like character. What Paul said
to the Corinthian Christians, for example, belongs to the church in all
ages and places, so far as circumstances are the same. Of this great prin-
ciple we make no serious question. And if so, why should it not be as
readily admitted in respect to the Apocalypse ? Is it not as important, that
God should protect his church at one time, as at another ? The motives
which would lead him to do it in early ages, must lead him always to do
it. Above all must this appear to be certain, when we look at the prom-
ises with which the Scriptures are filled, respecting the ultimate extent and
glory of the church.
Li such a sense, then, as that disclosed above, is every enemy to the
church, whether Protestant, Papist, heathen, or infidel, spoken of in the
Apocalypse. Bvit this should have, and can have, no influence in the ex-
planation of what was its first original and immediate meaning and design.
My object, as an interpreter of the book, is principally to come at this.
When this is once fairly understood, deductions from it of a practical na-
ture, and of such a kind as I have now hinted, are easy and obvious, and
may be made by every pious and well disciplined mind.
ECONOMY OF CHAP. XIII.
The great enemy of the church, who had persecuted it from the first, who had
excited Herod to the infant-massacre at Bethlehem, had tempted the Saviour in
the wilderness, had moved Judas Iscariot to betray him, and the Jews with Pon-
tius Pilate and the Roman soldiers to crucify him, who had excited fierce and
long continued persecutions in Judea, and after all had failed to crush the rising
empire of the Prince of peace, has now been introduced upon the stage of future
action, bitterly enraged by his repeated disappointments, and determined to begin
anew, and in another quarter, his efforts to crush and to destroy. A more formi-
dable contest, therefore, is to be expected, and the object of the chapter before us
is to present a view of the allies with whom Satan forms a league in order to
carry into execution his mischievous design.
&y striking symbols, indicative of might, of cruelty, of impiety, of craftiness
and grievous oppression, the civil and sacerdotal powers of the Roman empire,
united against Christianity by a deadly hostility, are presented to our view. The
first irreat adversary, who has already been brought upon the stage of action, is
spiritual and invisible. He is " the prince of the power of the air." His con-
federates, however, are of terrestrial origin, and live and act in a visible manner
among men. And inasmuch as the Roman empire comprised almost the whole
ECONOMY OP Chap. XIII. 271
of the known world, wlien the Apocalypse was written, to represent its leading
civil and sacerdntal power as loajjued with Satan against Christianity, is to dis-
close a most terrific arra}' against tlic yet feeble and infant church of Christ.
The writer spares nothing wliich may set forth the fearful power, and bitter-
ness, and craft, and cruelty, of the adversaries to be encountered. The ciril
power of Rome is a monster emerging from the sea, with seven heads and ten
horns. Mis frontlet e.vhibits a name whicli is blasphemous. His body is like
that of a panther ; his feet like those of a bear ; his mouth resembles that of a
lion. The dragon or Satan gives him all his power, and he claims divine attri-
butes, and exacts religious homage. Christians, who refuse this liomnge, are per-
secuted by him with relentless fury. None but the truly faithful can abide a per-
secution so fierce ; but they, whose names are written in the book of life, refuse
to pay him religious homa<re.
Additional force, therefore, seems to be needed for the accomj)lishment of Sa-
tan's designs. The emperor of Rome, who was the commander in chief of all its
forces, might indeed crush all active or visible opposition to his impious purposes.
But a more extensive cooperation was needed, to root out the new religion, which
was secretly and silently growing up, and bidding fair to flourish. The super-
stitious prejudices of the heathen at large must be roused up and excited to vigi-
lant action, in order that not only the military and executive powers of Rome,
but Uie energy of all its private citizens, might be combined against the religion
of Christ.
Accordingly, in a vision, a second beast is brought before us. That he may be
distinguished from the first, he rises up out of the land (v. 11), unfurnished with
the symbols of great force and compulsive power, having horns only like those of
a lamb, but speaking like a dragon, i. e. with cunning and craftiness. His aim is
to cooperate with the designs of the first beast or civil power, in order to accom-
plisfi the intention to make that beast the object of idolatrous worship. By lying
wonders and pretended miracles he operates on tlie minds of the mass of the
people, so that the}* may unite in this worship ; and whoever refuses to do this, is
deprived of the common rights of citizens.
Thus is presented to the mind of the reader a most formidable combination
against Christianity. The fearful question instinctively arises : How can it escape
from enemies so powerful, subtle, and malignant as these.'
No one who attentively peruses the Apocalypse, can fail to remark here, how
much of the climactic there is in this second act of the groat drama, [n the
first, persecution is introduced (chap. vi. \ii.), without any explicit designation of
the source from which it comes. It is only in the sequel that we are plainly
taught this, by the designations of those who are to be punished on account of it.
But here, the source of persecution is amply indicated ; not indeed in respect to
the allies of Satan in a 5^ef/!^c manner, at first, but in a ircneric way. It is a
michty and seemingly irresistible civil power, in combination with a sacerdotal
one which operates in a different way, that is presented. Hints or obscure inti-
mations are indeed intermingled with this description, by which an intelligent
reader, conversant with the manner of the O. Testament Scriptures, might easily
conjecture who was meant. But a fuller explanation is reserved for a subsequent
part of the book.
It may not be inapposite to remark, before we proceed to the interpretation of
words, that here, as in all other like rases — e. g. in the parables of tiie N. Testa-
ment, in the theophanies of the O. Testament, and particularly in the books of
Daniel, Ezekiel, and Zechariah — we are not to seek for important significancy in
fH THE FIRST BEAST : ChAP. XII. 18. XIII. 1.
every minute trait and individual circumstance which is presented to view. In
every finely wrousjlit picture, a great deal is inserted for the sake of verisimili-
tude, and to give tlie appearance of congruity and finish to the whole, which is
not to be anxiously tortured into a symbol of some important action or occurrence.
It is impossible to interpret parabolic and symbolic representations, in a reasona-
ble manner, without adhering to a principle so just and obvious. And such being
the case, we are not to push our inquiries anxiously into the minutiae, in the
chapter before us, but to rest satisfied when we have attained to the leading traits
and principal design of the author's representation.
THE FIRST BEAST: CHAP. XH. 18— XHI. 11.
(XII. 18) And 1 stood upon the sand [shore] of the sea.
In the twelfth chapter, the scene of action is the upper regions of the
atmosphere, proximate to the middle heaven or welkin apparently ex-
panded above us. Of course we must suppose the writer to have occu-
pied a station, during the vision there related, which was appropriate to
the purpose of inspection. In chap. 4: 1, he is represented as elevated
to the heavenly world, in order that he may see what is going on there.
In like manner, as he is now to see objects terrestrial, and actions done
among men, he takes his station on ea7ih. But why on the sand or
shore of the sea ? Plainly because the beast, which symbolizes the Ro-
man persecuting power, rises up out of the sea. The station, then, of
the seer is altogether appropriate.
'Eazd&rj, lit. I was stationed, (for EGTtjGcinrjv would mean I placed my-
self), upon the sand, etc. The form of expression seems to refer to the
action of the Spirit upon the prophet, to whom the disclosure is to be
made ; comp. Ezek. 3: 14. 8: 3. He was stationed, i. e. in vision, where
the disclosure would be most convenient. — It is obvious that the division
of chapters is wholly inappropriate here ; for this verse belongs to chap.
xiii.
(1) And I saw a beast rising out of the sea, having ten horns and seven heads,
and upon the horns ten crowns, and on his heads names of blasphemy.
The word &t]Qiov, strictly considered, is a diminutive from '&iJQ ; but in
the N. Testament, and even in classical writers, it is often employed in
the same sense as -d-tJQ. Particularly is it usual in the Apocalypse, as
we have before seen, to divest words in -I'ov of their diminutive sense,
e. g. §i^XiOV, book, etc. ; Gramm. § 86. c. 3. Note. Oi]q or ^v^qiov ap-
propriately means wild beast ; and in the passage before us it might
well be rendered monster, for the sequel shows that this '&tjQtov is such.
The custom of representing fierce, cruel, and powerful states, kingdoms
or empires, by the symbol of wild beasts, was current among the He-
brews long before the time of John. Of the case before us, Dan. 7: 2 seq.
is evidently the model. But while this may be truly said, yet there is no
THE FIRST BEAST : ChAP. XIII. 1. 278
slavish imitation. In Dan. 7: 2 seq., the lion, the bear, the panther, and
a fourth animal, to which a name is not given, are (he symbols of four
successive monai'chies or dynasties. In Dan. 8: 3 seq., the ram and the
he-goat are also symbols employed in the same way. In like manner
in 4 Ezra 11: 1, an eagle with twelve wings and three heads is repre-
sented as coming out of the sea ; which is a symbol of the Roman em-
pire. But in the Apocalypse we have only one monster, the symbol of
the Romish heathen and persecuting power, who unites in himself seve-
ral of the distinctive traits of the beasts named in Daniel ; see v. 2. Of
course, this falls in exactly with the design of John, whose object here
was, to symbolize the power and the cruelty of that empire, or of that
emperor who was then persecuting the church.
But why from the sea ? Here the model is followed ; for so is the
representation in Dan. 7: 2 seq. But there, fierce winds agitate the
ocean, and in liigh commotion it throws upon the land the monsters
successively named. Why Daniel should choose this mode of repre-
senting their origin, can be accounted for in no other way so rationally
as by the supposition, that the sea was regarded by the ancients as the
appropriate place for the origin of huge and tei'rible monsters, such as
leviathan, the "Sri , etc. In the case before us, there seems to be a fur-
ther reason for selecting the sea as the genetic element of the monster.
Italy appears to rise out of the sea, like an island, and is in fact a kind
of peninsula. Another purpose still the writer appears to have had in
his mind. Satan comes from the abyss, or perhaps from the upper re-
gion of the air ; the second beast (v. 11) comes from the laiid ; and of
course relative concinnity here demanded the sea as the place of origin.
In this way the whole earth (sea and land) is pointed out as in combina-
tion against Christians ; while the jormce of the poioer of the air does all
he can to augment their violence.
Having ten horns. A well known emblem of jjower is a horn, in all
parts of the Scriptui'es. "We might naturally suppose, at first, that ten
horns must mean merely great or excessive power. And such a mean-
ing this symbol has in Rev. 12: 3, where the dragon, i. e. Satan, is said
also to have seven heads and ten horns. So in Rev. 5: 6, to the Lamb
is ascribed seven horns and seven eyes, i. e. supreme povi'er and omnis-
cience. But in the book of Daniel, (7: 7, 20, 24), the ten horns assign-
ed to the fourth beast are the symbols of so many kings (v. 24). In like
manner here they are the symbols of kings, (see Rev. 17: 12) ; but of
secondary and subordinate ones, such as were the kings tributary or al-
lied to the Roman empire : olzivEg ^a(ide.i'uv ovmo sXu§ov, dlX ilovGiav
0) b ^aaiXtl^i fiiuv binuv Xufi^uvovai, 17: 12.
The seven heads are, it seems, emjjloyed in a twofold sense ; i. e. they
symbolize either the seven hills on which Rome was built, (j. d. the seat
VOL. II. 35
2?l THE FIRST BEAST : ChAP. XIII. 1.
of the beast, or else the seven emperors which had been reigning and
would reign over the Roman empire ; see Rev. 17: 9, 10. In Rev. 12:
3, the seven heads of Satan mean only his controlling power as the god
of this world. But in the present case, the explicit interpretation in 17:
9, 10, prevents our giving to the symbol merely such an interpretation.
The diadems or crowns upon the ten horns seem designed to mark
the regal'State of the subordinate kings ; comp. Rev. 17: 12, 18, where
both their regal-state and also their subordination are explicitly de-
clared.
And on his heads the names of blasphemy. Some Codices read ovofia
(sing.) here, which Ewald prefers ; but the idea of the author seems to
be that each head bore a frontlet, on which was inscribed a title, i. e. an
honorary name for the emperors, that was blasphemous, q. d. a name
which derogated from the honour and glory of the true God.
The source of the imagery here is probably to be sought for in the
custom of persons, who held distinguished offices, having some engraved
name, significant of office, rank, or duty, upon the frontlets of their mi-
tres or diadems. In the Apocalypse the promise is repeatedly made,
that faithful Christians shall be made kings and priests to God ; and in
Rev. 2: 17 is a promise that they shall have a diadem on which shall
be engraved the ovo(Aa uqcovtjtov of Jehovah and the Redeemer, i. e.
they shall be furnished with a diadem such as kings and priests are
wont to wear. If such a custom cannot be shown to have existed among
the Roman emperors, it is at least certain that their statues had in-
scriptions on them, which gave appellations to the emperors that belong
only to God.*
* An acquaintance with Roman history, will enable any one to understand why
the writer speaks of the inscriptions on the heads of the beast as blasphemous.
The fact that divine honours were paid to the Roman emperors, and specially af-
ter their death, is amply vouched for by history. Thus a temple and divine
honours were decreed to Julius Caesar, by the Triumviri, Dio, 47. 18 (p. 337,
edit. Leunclav.) ; which were confirmed by Augustus, Dio, 51. 20 (p. 459).
Augustus himself permitted temples to be erected to Roma (as a goddess), and to
his father, at Ephesus and Nice ; to other Asiatic provinces he permitted the
erection of temples to himself, in which divine honours were to be rendered him
by the Romans who sojourned there. This was afterwards done, in honour of
reigning emperors, not only in Grecian Asia, but in all the foreign provinces of
the Roman empire. In Rome and Italy proper temples were not in early times
permitted to be erected to emperors ; but all divine honours were paid them, par-
ticularly after their death ; Dio, ed. Leunclavii, p. 458. We find Virgil naming
and woishipping Augustus as a god; Ec. I. 6 — 8. In the like way Horace, Ep.
II. 1. 16; also Ovid, Fast. 1. 13. At Rome, after the death of Augustus, the
senate decreed him a temple ; and the like was done in many of the foreign pro-
vinces ; Dio, p. 600. Caligula, in spite of usage to the contrary, ordered a tem-
ple to be bijjjt for himself at Rome, and sacred rites to be performed to him as to
THE FIRST BEAST : ChAP. XIII. 2. 275
(2) And the beast which I saw was like to a panther, and his feet as a bear's, and
his mouth as a lion's mouth. And the dragon gave to him his power, and his
throne, and great authority.
All the ferocious and powerful beasts which Daniel (7: 3 seq.) has
sxjtccessivdy brought upon the scene of action, as the representatives of
a god J Dio, p. 643. Of the adulation and worship oiFered by senators and people
to Nero, and accepted, the following is a fair specimen. Nero is returning from
abroad, and he enters the oil}- in a triumphal chariot, because he had been con-
queror in the public games of Greece. Dio relates the words of tiie universal
shout with which he was received: " Victories Olympic ! Victories Pythian !
Thou august, august ! To Nero, the Hercules ! To Nero, the Apollo i The only
conqueror in the games of the Circus! Eh «rr' aioifOi, i. e. the eternal One!
Thou august, august ! Sacred voice ! Happy those who hear thee 1" Dio him-
self apologizes for relating such words, lest they may be deemed a disgrace to his
history ; p. 724. See also the like view of Nero's claims and honours, in As-
cens. Is. ch. iv. Introd. p. 42.
It may not be improper to add, that on the leading standards of the Roman ar-
my, the likeness (f/xwV) of the reigning emperor was painted; and lliat the Ro-
man soldiery were taught to regard this as the symbol of their tutelary god, who
was present with them and would aid and protect them; see Modestius, De rei
niilit. Vocab. Thus Suetonius (Tib. 48) speaks of Tiberius as rewarding some
Syrian legions, because they had not displayed the image of his rival, Sejanus,on
their standards, and had not worshijtped it, (non coluissent). .^rtabanus, king of
tlie Parthians, who had been inimical to Tiberius, became reconciled to Caligula,
and passing the Euphrates adored (adoravit) the Roman standards bearing the
image of the Caesars; Suet. Calig. 14. When Pontius Pilate undertook to hoist
the standard of Tiberius in the city of Jerusalem, knowing the obligation that
would follow to pay homage to it, the Jews one and all remonstrated and offered
their necks to the swords of his soldiers rather than submit to the erection of the
standard ; Joseph. Bell. Jud. II. 9. 2, 3. In Antiq XVIIl. 8. 8, !>, Josephus men-
tions the claims of Caligula to divine honours among the Jews. He also states
the claims of the same emperor, at Rome, to divine honours there ; lb. XIX. 1. 1.
Even so late as the time of Constantine, his panegyrist Eumenius could venture
to say of him: Ubique vim vestrae divinitatis esse, ubi vultus vestri, ubi signa
coluntur; Panegyr. Const. 15. Under the comparatively mild and humane Tra-
jan, we find Plmy, one of his Praefects, who felt himself obliged to condemn
Christians under the then e.\isting laws of Rome, writing to the emperor an ac-
count of the manner in which he ascertained that an accused person was not a
Christian but a heathen. It was simply to ' compel him to call on the gods ; then
to offer frankincense and a libation of wine to the image of Trajan, accompanied
by supplications; and lastly to utter maledictions against Christ;' Plinii Epist. 96.
Lib. X. In other words; a true heathen was ready to do all this, and did do it,
and none but a Christian would refuse to do it. We cannot well sui)pose that the
conditions of escape from the heathen tribunals were milder than these, in the
days of the monster Nero.
I need only to remark here, that from the character of the people at Ephesus,
it is highly probable that the persecution of Christians and deification of Roman
emperors were both urged on to great excess, in the time of John. The Kphesians
as we have seen above, were among the first of all the provincial citizens in ask-
276 THE FIRST BEAST : Chap. XIIL 2.
different empires, John has here combined in one monster. There is
much of siguificancy in this. The Roman empire combined in itself all
the elements of the terrible and the oppressive, which had existed in the
aggregate in the other great empires that preceded it ; its extension too
was equal to them all united. Hence the propriety of the composite
symbol which unites the symbols of other empires in that of Rome, and
thus makes the complex unity of the latter a most significant index of
power, and cruelty, and extent of imperial dominion.
RaQdulsi does not mean, as in our English version, leopard, but a much
more powerful and ravenous beast, viz. the panther ; which latter is the
rival, and nearly the equal, of the lion. — ''^qxov is a milder Alexandrine
form of the common ccqatov. The strength of the bear, as to his feet
and claws, is a characteristic too well known to need explanation. — 2!to-
fia Xtovzog designates a mouth of great capacity, or rather, one which
has a large extent of opening, rictus magnus. In this idea is also to be
included the formidable teeth which the lion's mouth exhibits. The
three animals, thus combined by the writer, symbolize swiftness and fe-
rocity in springing upon the prey, tenacity in holding it and dragging it
away, and a ravenous appetite for devouring, with extraordinary pow-
ers adapted to satisfy it ; like to what the Hebrews express by their
h-^^-q -ps*) sxtu'i ti'ib n-^-ix .
Endowed with powers and a ferocity such as are implied by the de-
scription before us, no wonder that Satan, so discerning as to the most suc-
cessful methods of doing mischief, should regard this beast as a ready
and most efficient and hearty ally. Without scruple or delay he makes
him his vicegerent among men, for the purpose of destroying Christian-
ity. He gives to him, says John, his power, and his throne, and great
authority. /Ivvcifjiiv means strength, rohur, ability to accomplish any-
thing.— QQOvog means regal power, i. e. civil and military dominion or
magistracy. — 'E'S,ovalav iityultjv refers to widely extended authority.
Satan is elsewhere called the god of this world, 2 Cor. 4: 4. His i'S,ov-
Gia, therefore, is in a sense universal ; and so the authority of the beast,
his vicegerent, becomes universal. What the writer means to say, is, that
the power and dominion and authority of the beast were widely extend-
ed, like those of Satan. The intensity of the expression is manifest at
ing leave of Augustus to build temples to [the goddess] Roma and to the emperor's
father. How they regarded the' worship of Diana, Luke has told us in Acts xix.
It is more than probable, that in John's time, out of opposition to Christians and
to court the favour of the Roman emperor, they carried even to the furthest ex-
treme all the blasphemous claims of Nero, and demanded, as Pliny afterwards did,
that Christians should utter execrations against Jesus Christ. With emphasis in
his own mind John could doubtless well speak, to his fellow Christians and fellow-
sufferers, of the ovofJMza ^?Ma^7ifiias on the heads of the beast.
THE FIRST BEASt : CHAP. XIII. 8. JfT
fii*st sipjht. and needs no elucidation. And the writer needs no apolo^
for introducinji such an incarnate demon as Nero, as one who was an
agent " after S.itan's own heart," and might readily be trusted as his
vicegerent to carry on the war against Christianity.
(3) And [I saw] one of his heads as stricken unto death ; and his deadly wound
was healed. And the wliole land wondered after the heast.
The corrected text omits tidov at the beginning of the verse. It is
easy to supply it mentally, from the preceding context, and most proba-
bly it was so supplied by the writer himself; in which case the Ace. fii-
av is readily accounted for. But without resorting to this, the use of the
Ace. absolute may easily be defended by reference to the classics ; see
Gramm. § 115. 4, and Kuhner, § 566. § 670.
What the writer aims at, in this verse, is a matter of more serious
diificulty than the form of his language. In Rev. 17: 10, the seven heads
are interpreted as meaning seven kings. The beast itself then is, when
distinguished from them, the imperial or supreme authority, i. e. the ge-
nus, of which kings are representative and successive individualities. A
part of the time, however, e. g. in chap, xvii, John employs d^r^niov to
designate the individual emperor, in whose hands the imperial power
then was. But there is nothing strange in this. Imperial power was
successive, and was held by different individuals. Qijot'ov may therefore
be a generic symbol, when brought into contrast with its individual parts,
as here ; but when the writer employs this symbol without any contrast,
it may designate an individual who at any time possessed and wielded
the imperial power ; just as our English word Majesty or Excellency
may have a generic or a specific and individual sense, according to the
exigency of any passage.
One of the heads of the beast, then, is one of the seven kings or em-
perors of Rome; see 17: 10, 11. Which of these is characterized by
the verse before us ?
Bertholdt, who maintains (as I have done) that the Apocalypse was
written near the close of Nero's reign, has an ingenious conjecture in
regard to the passage before us. He begins the series of seven empe-
rors with Julius Caesar, and refers ^(av to him as the first head. In
justification of his version, he refers us to Rev. 9: 12 and John 20: 19.
The whole verse he explains by saying : " Julius Caesar founded the
monarchy ; by his death it appeared to be destroyed ; yet this did not
happen, but after a while, to the astonishment of the whole world, Au-
gustus reestablished it." Thus the wound was healed. Berth. Einleit.
IV. p. 1886.
The ingenuity of the solution must be admitted. The validity of
the argument for it, however, is very questionable. (1) Mia, in such
278 THE FIRST BEAST : ChAP. XIII. 4.
a sense as Bertholdt claims, must naturally have the article ; and so it
has in both the passages to which he appeals. The instance in 1 Cor.
16: 2 {}iaxa niav) is no real exception, for this clause has a distributive
meaning, viz. on each first day. But in Rev. 13: 3, ^lav has no article,
and therefore cannot mean the jirst but only one of. (2) The head, as
represented by the Apocalyptist, is tag iaq)ayiJ,£V)]v, i. e. seemingly but
not actually killed. The context shows that the beast survives the
wound. But Julius Caesar did not survive his wounds ; nor was he
ever reported or believed to have done so. Different in some respects
was the case of Nero. He did not indeed survive the wounds inflicted
by the partizans of Galba ; but, as we shall see, it was not only predict-
ed but generally believed that he would survive, and would regain his
former jiower. Whether, and in what manner, this may be applied to
the text before us, will be a particular subject of examination in an
Excursics (III.). But (3) It is conclusive against Bertholdt's opinion,
that the beast now in question was a fierce persecutor of the Christian
church ; whereas Julius Caesar pei'ished about a century before perse-
cution began.
For further discussion of the question : Who was the one head, that
was apparently slain and yet seemed to he afterwards healed ? I must
remit the reader, as intimated above, to Excursus III. near the close of
this volume.
The whole land or earth means, of course, the great body of the Ro-
man empire. — 'Exf^av^acav onlam lov ■O'tjQiov is plainly a constriictio
pregnans, i. e. wondered at [and followed] after the beast. In like man-
ner Ewald says, the Hebrews express themselves ; but I do not find his
11'ntiX iin^P) . The design of the writer is, to show the general extent
of the divine honours paid to Nero, i. e. to the beast ; for it is plain, that
the beast is here taken in a specific or individual sense, i. e. for the then
reigning persecutoi'.
(4) And they worshipped the dragon, because he gave authority to the beast ;
and they worshipped the beast, saying : Who is like to the beast ? And who can
make war with him ?
And they loor shipped the dragon. " The things which the Gentiles
sacrifice," says Paul (1 Cor. 10: 20), " they sacrifice to demons, and not
to God." The heathen, who numbered Nero with the gods and paid
him divine honours, at the same time worshipped the gods who (in
their view) bestowed such rank and authority upon him, and they
offered thanksgiving for the honour thus done to him. This John names
(and rightly) the worshijyping of Satan. But that with this they joined
the worship of the beast, is explicitly stated in the sequel. — Who is like
to the beast ? The Hebrew sacred writers often make a like challenge,
in behalf of the honour and supremacy of the true God ; see Is. 40: 18,
THE FIRST BEAST : Chap. XIIL 5. 279
25. 46: 5, and comp. Ps. 35: 10. 113: 5. Of course John means to
represent the worshippers of the beast here, as claiming the highest di-
vine attributes and honours for the object of their worship. — Who can
wage war with him, is a challenge designed to vindicate his omnipo-
tence ; i. e. it is iis much as to say that he is irresistible. — Ilohf/siv
fiETa is a Hebrew mode of expression = DS.Dn^J . The classics usually
employ the Dative simply.
(5) And there was given to him a mouth speaking great things and blasphe-
mies; and power was given to him to do [his own will] forty and two months.
A description of Nero almost copied from that of Antiochus Epipha-
nes in the book of Daniel. Thus the mouth speaking great things, i. e.
glorying, boasting, speaking haughtily of himself and contemptuously
of others, as Antiochus did, Dan. 7: 8, 20. So too of blasphemies ;
comp. Dan. 7: 25. These things need no further illu.stration, as being
characteristic of Nero. — So likewise the noiijnut here without a com-
plement expressed, has an exact parallel in Dan. 8: 12, 24, viz. nbS;
which, however, finds a full and satisfactory explanation in Dan. 11:
36, "iS"': n"r?i. So in our text, either to d^thjfiu uvroij is implied
after noiijaut, or else we must supply Tzolsfior from v. 7.
Forty and two months. As the description of the beast already given
is a close copy in many particulars of that described in Dan. 7: 25 seq.
8: 9 seq. 9: 21 seq. and 12: 7 seq., so also it is in respect to the time
during which he was to lay waste the heiitage of God. In Dan. 7: 25,
the duration of the persecution is said to be a time and times and the
dividing of time, i. e. three and a half years = forty-two months =
1260 days. Accordingly we find, in point of fact, that the time during
which Antiochus profaned the temple and madly persecuted all pious
Jews was, almost to a week or even a day, the measure here designa-
ted. So again, in Rev. 11: 2, the time during which the Romans are
to tread down the holy city, (in this case the capital is, as usual in the
Jewish Scriptures, the representative of the country), is said to be
forty-two months = three and a half years. The active invasion of
Judea continued almost exactly this length of time, being at the most
only a few days more ; so few that they need not, and would not, enter
into a symbolical computation of time. The two witnesses in Apoc.
11: 3, prophesy during the same period ; and finally the woman who
fled into the wilderness, (the church in exile), is nurtured and sustained
during the same period. How much reason there was for the writer to
assign the same period of hmitation for Nero's persecutions, we shall
soon see. The persecution of Nero began in the middle of Novem-
ber, A. D. 64 ; Mosh. Comm. de Reb. Chr., § 64. De Vignoles, Dis-
sert, de causa et initio. Persecut. Neron., in Masson's Hist. Critique,
280 THE PiEST BEAST : Chap. XIII. 6.
VIII. p. 74 seq. It ended with the death of Nero, which took place on
the 9th of June, A. D. G8 ; for Galba was proclaimed emperor on the
9th of June in the same year, and Nero was assassinated on the same
day. Here then we have the three and a half years almost as exactly
as in the case of Antiochus Epiphanes. It is not improbable, that Gal-
ba was on his march from Spain when the Apocalypse was written, so
that the time of deliverance for the church was very near, when the
annunciation in the verse before us was made.* See more ample dis-
cussion in Exc. V.
(6) And he opened his mouth for blasphemy against God— to blaspheme his
name, and his tabernacle, and those who dwell in heaven.
That is, he blasphemed God, his dwelling place, and all in heaven
who surrounded it. — Eig ^Xaacprjixiav = eig z6 ^Xaoqjt^fiiJGui. — IlQog tov
'&e6v, lit. in respect to God, or towards God, nqog denoting the direction
* ' But has the Apocalyptist no other persecution in view, excepting that of
Nero ?' 1 doubt not he has, in the seqael. But that which is most pressing and
urgent, is that which first attracts his notice, and of which he first speaks. As
the beast is sometimes generic and sometimes specific, so persecution may some-
times be adverted to in a generic way, and sometimes in a specific one. Here
the beast is that beast which received the deadly wound and was healed, and
which persecutes for three and a half years. All this is necessarily specific. The
writer himself has pointed out this, by naming (v. 3) one of the heads as receiv-
ing the wound, and then in the sequel speaking of the beast as having received
the wounds, v. 3, ^ TcXTj'/ij tov &avdTov avrov- — V. ly, ov . . . rj TiXriyTj tov d'a-
vdrov a VT 0 v- — V. 14, tm Q'rjQiot o f'yjt r/Jv TiXr^y^v. The leading object of the
writer of the Apocalypse is, beyond all reasonable doubt, to console Christians
with the idea of the speedy termination of the persecution then raging. But
while doing this, he not unfrequently casts his piercing eye into futurity, and sees
the beast in various ways still waging war with the saints. By analogy he con-
cludes, that the same end awaits all heathen persecutors, as awaits the present
beast. In other words : God will vindicate liis church, and will make it trium-
phant.
In a word; what is predicted here of the fall of the beast and his coadjutors
then warring against the church, may be regarded in the same light as the pre-
cepts and doctrines which were called forth from the apostles by particular exigen-
cies in the churches. Primarily they applied to those exigencies ; but then they
are capable of the like application down to the end of the world; for manentc
ratione wanet ipsa lex. So in prophecy ; if it belongs to the church of God that
it should be permanent, if esto perpctua is truly inscribed upon its front, and all
opposition must at last be useless and be frustrated, then does the picture drawn
by John of the downfall of the Roman beast, whether then raging, or allerwards
to rage, apply for substance to all future enemies, be they whom they may. I do
not mean to say, that they are specifically, but only virtually, comprised in the
Apocalypse ; but I do believe, that their doom is foreshadowed by what John has
said respecting the enemies and persecutors of Christianity. This is giving his
work an ample range — an exalted significancy — instead of converting it into a
mere syllabus of civil or ecclesiastical history.
THE PIKST BEAST : ChA.P. XIII. 7. 281
of the blsxsphemy. Our Eiijrlish idiom is better preserved, by the ver-
sion which 1 have given above.
To blosp/ieme his name. This was done by assuming the name and
attributes of the true God. Nero was not only called Dtvus, but, as we
have seen in Dio above, iK-ruiittcd himself to be publicly huzza'd as
eii dri aUorng, the only Ktental One. And when he permitted temples
to be built for himself, as a god, he of course blasphemed the dwelling-
place or antivi'j of the only living and true God. To equalize a crea-
ture with the Creator, or his dwelling-place with the eternal temple, is
to blaspheme God and his dwoUiiig-place.
Those dweUing in heaven means the coelites or inhaliitants of the
heavenly world, who are here conceived of as axijvovvzi:^', pitching their
tents, i. e. dwelling, around the tent or tabernacle, ^fixrt , of the Most
High. Whether the blasphemy here attributed to the beast means
words uttered against the coelites, or the degrading of them by repre-
senting his own idolatrous worshippers as occupying their rank and
place, it might be somewhat difficult to determine. The manner of the
blasphemy in the two preceding cases would seem most to favour this
latter construction. The blasphemy seems to be that which is actedy
rather than spoken. Yet both may be included.
(7) And it was given liiin to make war witli the saints, and to overcome them ;
and power was given him over every tribe and people and tongue and nation.
It u-as given him, i. e. he was allowed or permitted. Still this does
not exhaust the meaning of the expression. The writer intends to
intimate, that under a superintending Providence, and for ends which
in their result would be important, the beast was allowed to persecute
the church. — To make war with the saitits and to overcome them, i. e. not
only to persecute them but to overcome and destroy them ; for destruc-
tion was of course a sequel of relentless war and victory. — uyicov, saints,
a frequent designation of Christians in the N. Testament, derived from
their lieing consecrated to God, and their consequent obligation to live
in a holy manner.
And power was given him, repeated here in order to make a distinct
impression of the power which was given to the beast. — Over every
tribe and people and tongue and nation, i. e. over the whole world.
This need not be literally understood ; for it is a catachresis designed to
express a very wide extent of dominion. For the distinction between
the different words here employed, when closely defined, see Comm. on
chap. V. 9. Ewald understands the clause here as designating Ohris-
<jan5 of all nations. This is a possible sense; but the other exegesis
which makes the clause to be indicative of the extent of the beast's
dominion, and therefore of his mighty power to cnish, seems preferable.
VOL. n. 36
282 THE FIRST BEAST : Chap. XIIL 8 — 10.
The like phraseology, (taken from the book of Daniel, 3: 4. 4: 1. 6:
25), is frequent in the Apocalypse; see 5: 9. 10:11. 11:9. 14:6.
17: 15.
(8) And all who dwell on the earth will worship him, whose names are not
written, from the foundation of the world, .in the life-book of the Lamb which
was slain.
The first part of the verse designates the wide extent of the idolatrous
worship of the beast. All comply with the requisition to join in it,
except true-hearted Christians, the elect of God. — To ovoncc is used
here generically, and is of the like force with ra ovoiiara. — Book of life,
see on 3: 5. This book is the Lamb's, because his followers are desig-
nated therein. — In the version, I have joined the last clause with yi-
yQantai Iv ito ^(p.Un, because it seems to be connected with it in sense.
Of the saints it is often said, that they were chosen before the foundation
of the world; comp, Eph. 1: 4 — 13, and other like places. In accord-
ance with this, their names are here said to be written in the book of
life, at the same period. It is the writer's object here to characterize
the saints Avho refuse to worship the beast ; consequently we should
attach the final clause of the verse to the preceding verb yiyqamai.
I will not say, with Ewald, that if the clause be applied to la(^ay[nivov,
" inepta loqui faceres vatem ;" for there could be no great difficulty in
explaining the assertion thus interpreted as meaning, that God from the
beginning of the world had purposed and determined that the Lamb
should be slain ; and what was thus determined by omnipotence and
omniscience, might be spoken of by John as done ; for the like is very
common in the prophetic writings. But the exegesis that I have
adopted, gives more point to the writer's intention here.
(9, 10) If any one hath an ear to hear, let him hear. If any one leadeth away
into exile, he shall go away into exile ; if any one slayeth with the sword, he
must be slain with the sword. i
The solemn warning here to listen attentively, (see on 2: 7), refers
to what follows, rather than to that which precedes. Hence the ninth
and tenth verses should be connected together ; as they are in the ver-
sion.— Literally ai'j^^aXcoaiav avvdyei means leads or conducts away an
assemblage of exiles = riiiba ^\^^ • But as there is an evident parono-
masia in avvdyei and vndyei, I have imitated this in the version, with-
out departing materially from the sense of the original. — There is in
the whole passage a most palpable allusion to Nero ; and it has more
life and energy, when we suppose him to be still living. The writer
foretells what must inevitably be the doom of such a tyrant. In fact,
Nero exiled himself from Rome, and intended to make his escape into
distant countries ; but he was arrested in his retreat, and fell by his
THE SECOND BEAST: ChaP. XIII. 11 — 18. 283
own sword or by tliat of his assailants. Further confirmation of the
view here given, may be derived from tlic next verse.
(11) Hero is tlio |i!itioncc niul llio faith of the saints.
That is, there is room or demand here for both patience and faith ;
patience, under the persecuting hand of the tyi-ant ; faitli, to beheve
what is here promised in respect to his approaching doom. In 14: 12,
the same sentiment is repeated, with the same meaning substantially as
here. Ewald and others, who suppose Nero to have been already dead
when this book was written, are obliged to refer vs. 9 — 11 to something
that icill happen at a more distant future period. But the whole is
plainly more graphic and expressive, when understood as above ex-
plained.
THE SECOND BEAST: CHAP. XHI. 11—18.
We come now to the second beast, which constitutes the third and last member
of the Trio that are combined against the church. While the enmity of this
beast against Christianity is like to that of the first and second adversar}', yet the
developments of that enmity are plainly represented as being quite difi'erent in
many respects from tlioso of the preceding enemies. This third power, moreover,
acts wholly in subordination to tlie second, and merely as an accessory or adjunct
ally. Bv flattery, deceit, fraud, supposititious miracles, affectation of much zeal
for the honour of religion, and the like, he endeavours to persuade, and if not to
compel, all men to pay their religious homage to the first beast, whose power was
80 great and whose anger so terrible.
That the Apocalyptist means here not merely to designate another individual,
or rather, another class of individuals, different in most of their prominent attri-
butes from those symbolized by the first beast, cannot be reasonably doubted. In
what the difference mainly consists, is clearly intimated by the a|)|)ellation which
he gives to the second beast, v\z. fiilse prophet, in Rev. Iti: 13. 11': :20. 20: 11.
It is the I1E.\THF.V, IDor.ATROUS PRIESTHOOD, AND THEIR COADJUTORS, wllom
the author intends to characterize, by the paragraph now before us.
The disciples of Jesus wrought true miracles; the followers of the beast must
imitate them in order to establish their claims. Hence by magical arts, slight of
hand, and various devices, many and even wonderful miracles are represented as
apparently wrought. Even one of the striking demonstrations of authority or a
commission from above, the causing of fire to descend from heaven, is professedly
and apparently accomplished by them. To compete with the true prophets of
God before or in the view of the multitude, this seemed to be quite necessary ;
comp. 2 Kings 1: 10, 12. 1 Kings 18: 36—3!). Luke 9: 54.
The author represents men as per.«uaded, by such exhibitions, to pay homage
to the beast. They erect statues in honour of him as a god. These are even
made to exhibit tokens of animation, to move and speak, in further confirmation
of their claims to homage. This being accomplished, and with success, the
crafly and malignant priesthood venture upon another and more extreme mea-
sure, in order to compel worship from the reluctant. On pain of being prohibited
from purchasing the necessaries of life, and from making sale of any possessions
with a view to sustenance or gain, all men are required to do homage to the idol
284 THE SECOND BEAST : ChAP. XIII. 11.
that has been set up. And that it may be known who are the willing and obe-
dient worshippers of the beast, the mark of belonging to him is to be impressed
on all ; and he who has not this mark, is deprived of his civil rights and of the
power to i)rocure even the necessary means of life.
Whotlier John had reference in the paragraph before us, to some conspicuous
and leading false prophet, who had been acting in the manner described in Asia
Minor, it would be difficult to decide. It seems probable, however, that his aim
was somewhat more general. He characterizes what was often, and in many
places, done by the heathen prophets and priests ; although it seems quite proba-
ble that the picture is drawn from the proceedings of heathen priests and prophets
in the neiglibourhood of those whom he addresses. Of all tlie places in the Ro-
man empire, Ephesus and its neighbourhood seem to have been the most devoted
to the rites and superstitions of heathenism ; see Acts 19: 19, 24 — 34. They, as
we have already seen above, were among the foremost in erecting temples and
statues in honour of tlieir Roman masters.
That in the fiercest ebullitions of a heathen spirit and of enmity to Christianity,
some characteristic symbol of belonging to the worshippers of Nero may have
been demanded of all, and impressed on the hand; and that something of the na-
ture of that which is described in Rev. 13: 17, 18, may have been actually im-
pressed ; is by no means improbable, when we consider the custom of the ancients
in regard to this matter, and the attachment of tlie multitude to mysteriously sig-
nificant symbols. The affectation of mystery was almost a thing of course, in
sucJi a case. But it may be doubtful whether the identical number-letters (x^?)
was the impression or cautery actually made ; because the designation of this by
John, in such a case, would seem to be too direct, and thus serve to aggravate the
fury already existing against the Christian cause. It is enough that there was
some symbol of such a nature impressed on the hands of heathen worshippers.
The arithmetical number which John mystically expresses, is plainly designed
principally to give a hint to his readers, who is meant by the beast which all
were required to worship.
That at that period there were, in many countries, a great abundance of con-
jurors, magicians, and false prophets, and pretended workers of miracles, there
can be no doubt. The story of Simon Magus, Acts 8: 9 seq. ; of Elymas or Bar
Jesus, Acts 13: 6 seq.; the declaration of the Saviour in Matt. 24: 24; the num-
ber of magical books mentioned in Acts 19: 19; the description given by Jose-
phus of such characters in Antiq. XX. 8. 6. Bell. Jud. II. 13. 5; and the fre-
quent descriptions in Tacitus, Suetonius, Dio, and other historians, of supersti-
tions and of the worship of Roman emperors ; all combine to illustrate and con-
firm the view, here given by John, of the efforts and intentions of the heathen
priesthood.
(11) And I saw another beast ascending from the land, and he had two horns
like a lamb, and he spake as a dragon.
'Ea rijg yiqq^from the land, for so it should be translated here, in con-
tradistinction from ly. Trjg 'OaXuGGTjg in v. 1 above. None of the terres-
trial animals, at least none that were known to the ancients, could com-
pare in point of magnitude with the monsters of the deep. For this
reason, i. e. because the author meant that the second beast should be
regarded as greatly inferior to the first in respect to power, and also for
the sake of variety in the composition, the second beast is represented
THK SECOND BEAST : Chap. XITI. 1 2. 285
as coming: out of the land. Ewald suggests, that not improbably John
had reference liere to the false prophets in Asia Minor, ratlier than
those beyond the sea ; and therefore he mentions «x r^tf y//?. That
John drew his picture from the character and demeanor of such, cannot
well be doubted ; for in thi^ way his words would be much more intelli-
gible and impressive to his readers. — He had two horns like to a lamh ;
the gi-ammatical construction is peculiar, for onoia is used as an adjective
agreeing with HfQura, and oftom aQvio) = oiioia xsQuaiv aQvlov. This
mode of expression is styled hreviloquence, rather than ellipsis ; see Wi-
ner's Gramm. § 06. III. g, where may be found examples of the same
nature, from Homer, Xenophon, and other part.s of the N. Testament.
Two horns, and not ten like the first beast, because his power is much
less. — Hoi-ns like a lamb, and not those of a ram or of a he-goat (as in
Daniel), or of some other fierce and powerful animal, e. g. the wild bull.
Still, that horns are assigned to him, shows that some power is ascribed
to him.
He spaie as a dragon or an old serpent ; i. e. he spake subtilely,
craftily, deceitfully. Satan is called the dragon, because of his crafti-
ness, guile, and fatal poison. Comp. Gen. 3: 1. 49: 17. 2 Cor. 11: 3.
"What the second beast lacked in respect to power and authority, he
made up by wiles and corrupting influence. All these are employed in
favour of the first beast. So the next verse :
(12) And all the power of the first beast he exerciseth before him ; jnd he
maketh the earth, and those who dwell therein, to worship the first beast, whose
deadly wound was healed.
The design is to show, that the first beast, having full confidence in
the intentions and efforts of the second, delegates to the second, as exi-
gencies may require, such authority as will be supreme, and adequate
to carry his purposes into execution. This is plainly intimated in the
clause ivconiov avzov, i. e. under his inspection or supervision, or per-
haps it may mean, as his forerunner, as one who goes before him and
prepares the way for him. But the former is the more probable sense.
— The earth and those who dwell therein is a kind of pleonastic expres-
sion, after the manner of the Hebrews, designed to give emphasis or
fulness to the idea of universality here ; omnes omnino per terram, we
might render it by paraphrase.
Haiti . . . iva nQOG-Avvi'iacooi, a common mode of construction in the
N. Testament Greek, specially in the Apocalypse, and not unfre-
quent in the classics ; N. Test. Gramm. § 1 G2. 3. JNote 2. It stands for
noifl . . . TTQooxvrtiv, etc. By bringing the subject of the second verb
twice into view, it seems to have been designed to put an emphasis upon
it; noiti Tijv yrjv . . . tva [avrjy] nqoan. etc. — Whose deadly wound was
286 THE SECOND BEAST : ChAP. XIII. 12.
healed; see on v. 3 above. Here the object of the second beast's efforts
is designated, viz. to bring men to the worship of the first beast, i. e. to
gross idolatry — to the worship of a man as God.
(13) And he vvorketh great miracles, so that he even maketh fire to descend
from the heaven to the earth in the sight of men.
It is hardly necessary to suggest here, that the author does not mean
to state it as a, fact, in his own opinion, that the false prophets actually
wrought miracles ; but that they pretended to do so, and gave out that
they did so, and exhibited many surprising feats which made the popu-
lace believe that they actually did so. So Luke says of Simon Magus
(Acts 8: 13), that he believed ; John says, that '■'■many [Jews] helieved
in Jesus name " (2: 23), in whom, as the next verse tells us, he had no
confidence ; Mark says, that Herod " heard John the Baptist ^rZac^Zy and
did many things," (6: 20) ; the Saviour says of the stony-ground hearers
(Matt. 13: 20), that they, "hear the word, and anon with joy receive
it ;" and the like is found in all parts of the Bible. It is the pretence of
miracles — the claims that the false prophets make — which John here
characterizes. And as to such pretences, the world is full of them down
to the present moment. Every day things are performed by sleight-of-
hand men, and professors of magic, and ventriloquists, and the like charac-
ters, which, among the ignorant, could easily be passed off for miracles of
the highest kind. The historians of Greece and Rome give us an abun-
dance of narrations touching events of such a nature. So far back as
the days of Moses, it was found necessary to inflict capital punishment
on impostors of this character ; see Deut. 13: 1 — 5. Egypt was filled
with them, Exod. 7: 8 — 13. Babylon was full of them, and also Phi-
listia; Is. 2: 6. So was Ephesus and its neighborhood; Acts 19: 18,
19. Nothing could be more common, than magical arts and the perfor-
mance of feats which would astonish and confound the populace. Hence
not only ar^fisla, miracles, (for so we must translate here, because it is
something done, performed), but iiEydXa, great miracles, i. e. great in
the view of those who witnessed the performances of the conjurors.
Lane, in his account of Modern Egypt, has related some things of this
sort, which even now, with all the light of science beaming upon us, fill
us with surprise ; Vol. I. chap. XII. Exactly in accordance with the
account which John here gives of the miracle-pretenders, is the history
of Simon, Acts 9: 8 seq., where it is related, that the people of Samaria
called him // 8vva(iig rov {^eov ij h? y dlrj.
"iva 7ZVQ noffj x. r. L It can hardly be contended here, that iva is
telle ; for what would be the sense in saying, that they do great mira-
cles in order that they may make fire to come down, etc. ? Plainly iva
here is equivalent to mars, i. e. they not only do great miracles, but
THE SECOND BEAST: ChAP. XIIT. 14. S8f
even go so far us to call down fire from heaven. If any other sense is
possible, yet, to say the lea^st, it is not probable. It seems plain, that
j»'« ecbatic, which Tittinann has laboured with so much ability to illus-
trate and to prove, must be allowed here. As to the facts adverted to,
it needs only to be remai-ked, that Elijah commanded fire from heaven,
2 Kings 1: 10, 12 ; comp. also 1 Kings 18: 36 — 39. Heathen prophets,
who had any acquaintance with the O. Testament Scriptures, would
naturally wish to appear as equals, as well as rivals, of the Hebrew
prophets, in order to seduce Jews or Christians. If they could make
fire to descend from the air, and devour those who denied their claims,
it was adapted to strike all with terror. In what particular way they
accomplished this, we do not know Avith certainty. But any one who
has read the story of the holy fire at the church of the Sepulchre in Je-
rusalem, will be at no loss to imagine, that the acconiplishment of such
a thing, in the view of the populace, was not very ditRcult. A mod-
erate skill in pyrotechnics could perform such a feat. — That ovquvov
means the air, in this case, as well as in many others, scarcely needs to
be noted. — 'Evconiov tmv dvxyQwnoiv means, in the view or sight of men,
exposed to their gaze. What were the materials employed, we are un-
able now to say ; but plain enough it is, that the whole affair was not at
all beyond the reach of moderate skill in pyrotechny.
(14) And lie deceiveth tliose wlio dwell on the earth, by the miracles which
are given him to work before the beast, saying to those who dwell upon the earth,
that they must make an image for the beast, which had the wound of the sword
and revived.
The deceiving or causing to err is here ascribed to the force of the
pretended miracles. These the false prophet is permitted to perform,
in subserviency to the civil power or first beast— fVcJn'/ or avzov, \. e.
under his inspection or supervision. The first beast keeps his eye on
the second, to see that all things are done for the accomplishment of his
own particular ends. By the suasory power of miracles, the populace
are prepared for the ulterior designs of the false prophet and his su-
perior. The prophet tells the people, that there can be no longer any
doubt as to the claims of the first beast to divine honours ; that under
him, and by bis guidance and aid, he has \vi'ought miracles ; and the
claim to a statue {tr/.Kiv), and to divine homage, can no longer be I'e-
fused. The wonderful character of the beast, viz. that he received a
deadly wound and recovered — goes to establish the claims thus made.
Nor is it material for the purpose of the second beast, that the first
should have already been actually stricken, and apparently or according
to vulgar belief had recovered. Any story of such a nature could not
long be believed among the more intelligent at Ephesus, who must
288 THE SECOND BEAST : Chap. XIII. 15.
speedily know whether Nero was again seated upon the throne or not,
after the accession of Galba to imperial dignity. Enough, that these
things had been predicted of Nero, and were extensively believed.
More extensive, we may well suppose, would this behef be before his
death, than after it. After it, facts would go to diminish the credit of
the report. Nero, then, as the extraordinary person of whom such
things had been predicted — this same Nero, the monster of the world,
rightly demanded, as the priesthood averred, and was justly entitled to,
divine honours and a statue in the temples among the other gods.
The miracles ivJiich ivere given him to perform means, such pretended
miracles as a superintending Providence permitted or allowed the hea-
then conjurors and magicians to perform. What the writer intends to
intimate is, that all this, mischievous and pernicious as it was, still did
not happen without the notice or control of a Providence which governs
the world, and holds in subjection even the enemies of the church ; for
they too are in the hands of God, and are at his disposal.
(15) And it was given him to impart vital spirit to the image of the beast, t?iat
the image of the beast might both speak, and cause tJiat so many as would not
worship the image of the beast, should be slain.
'Edo&i] avTCp is repeated here for the sake of emphasis. The writer
means that his readers should acknowledge the supreme control of the
only living and true God, over evil as well as good beings. — TTvsv^a,
here plainly, as often elsewhere (see Eob. Lex.), means vital spirit or
animation. In other words : the false prophets so contrived the statues
of Nero, that the appearance of animation could be given to them, i. e.
they could move the lips, and appear to speak. In all this there was
but little difficulty. It was necessary only that the lips should be ren-
dered a little moveable by some delicate and ingenious machinery within
the statue, all of which was set in motion by some person in conceal-
ment. Easier still was it to supply the voice ; as nothing but a conceal-
ed tube was necessary, through which some person behind the wall or
curtain back of the statue, or beneath or above it, could say all that was
requisite. While the lips of the statue were moving, and the voice
actually came from its mouth, how could the stupid votary think other-
wise than that it was animated'^ And besides all such contrivances,
nothing was easier than to procure ventriloquists, who could speak for
the statues, without its being in the power of the ordinary worshippers
to detect the imposture.
And cause that so many as would not loorship the image of the beast,
shoidd he slain. The manner in which this stands connected with the
preceding clause, seems to indicate plainly, that from the mouth of the
image such commands were given respecting those who refused homage,
THB SECOND BEAST : Chap. XTII. 16 — 18. 289
as would of course subject them to excision. Not only enticement, false-
hood, and wiles were employed in order to gain adherents to the worship
of the beast, but severity, in case of repeated refusal, was enjoined through
the device of making the image to vindicate its own claims. — As to the
formula, 7ioii]aij . . . ha x. t. A, see under v. 12.
(IG) .\iid ho makotli all, small and great, both the rich and tho poor, both frec-
mrn and slaves, to put a mark upon their right hand, or upon their foreheads;
That is, he makes all men of every age, class, and station, to become
worshippers of the beast, and to bear the token of being so, by having
his name, or letters mystically expressing his name, impressed on their
righ^ hand, or upon their foreheads. Servants and soldiers were usually
marked in this way ; and here the servants or worshippers of the new
god were enjoined to wear the token of their subjection to him ; see on
7: 3. — "iva dcoatv uvtoT^,', etc., a substitute for the Inf. mode, or else the
3d pers. plur. is used for the passive voice = that a mark might he put
upon them, etc.; Gramm. § 174. Note 2.
(17) So that no one might be able to buy or sell, except he who hath the mark,
the name of the beast, or the number of his name.
In Other words : So that no one can enjoy the privileges of a citizen,
or have any intercourse with the world either in the way of transacting
business or of procuring the necessities of life, unless he still produces
the voucher on the hand or forehead, which will entitle him to such pri-
vileges. This idol- worship becomes compulsory on pain of death. — Or
tlie number of his name, is explained by the verse that follows. It means
such letters as, when numerically reckoned, will amount to 666, and at
the same time express the name, or surname, or title, of the person or
character symbolized by the beast.
(16) Here is wisdom ; let him who hath understanding compute the number of
the beast; for it is a man's number, and its amount is 666.
As to ooqtu, see in the Excursus (III.) connected with 13: 3 above.
The writer means to intimate that sagacity is requisite in order success-
fully to make out the number in question. It is only he who has vovv,
intelligence, who can properly perform this task. Yet it needs no superna-
tural skill. The number to be made out, is to be made out by the or-
dinary use of letters for numbers, such a use of them as is every day
practised by men in respect to other matters ; for such seems to be the
meaning of uQi&fiog dv&Qotnov iati. The number is to be computed
more humano, not more angelico or y.axa xoonov ovquviov. For a discus-
sion respecting the meaning of the number designated, see Exc. IV.
VOL. II. 37
^1.
290 SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : Chap. XIv".
SYMBOLS OF VICTORY: CHAP. XIV.
[The combination of three such powerful enemies against Christianity, was in
itself of fearful import. The world was at their command; while a few Chris-
tians apparently defenceless and helpless, were scattered here and there in the
midst of their raging enemies. What could be reasonably expected but their ex-
tinction ?
To animate the courage, however, of this noble little band, the writer arrests the
progress of action in the great drama (if I may so speak), in order to hold out the
symbols of ultimate, and certain victory. The chapter before us is entirely occu-
pied with these. In conformity with a usage frequently observable in this book,
the symbols are repealed, although with variation in the manner. There is, how-
ever, a striking uniformity in some leading features of the writer's plan, in these
cases. First, the Lamb appears on Mount Zion, surrounded by the 144,000 who
had been sealed with his name, and saved from the desolations of the church's ene-
mies in Palestine. The whole scene has reference not to the heavenly but to the
earthly Zion, in the present case ; see vs. 2 seq., which represent the song of vic-
tory as coming down from heaven, and the 144,000 as listening to it on earth.
These are not presented to the eye of the seer, as forces to be employed against
the beast and his coadjutors, as many have supposed, but only as trophies of vic-
tory already achieved, and therefore symbols of new victories still to be gained.
The contending forces are presented in chap. 19: 14. The simple meaning is,
that what has already been done, will again be performed ; i. e. redemption hav-
ing been applied to the 144,000, it may be applied to others in like circumstances.
And what symbol conld be more significant than the one here chosen.'
It is no serious objection here, that the appearance of the 144,000 on the earth-
Iv mount Zion, is seemingly premature. It is true, indeed, that Jerusalem was
not taken by the Romans, until something more than two years after the time
when the Apocalypse was most probably written. This would, as 1 should readily
concede, be an objection to the plan of the writer, in case the station there of the
redeemed host of Hebrews were a simple historical matter of fact. But of course
it is here a matter of mere vision; and as such it becomes exceedingly significant.
It is as much as to say to John, and through him to the churches, that Christian
Hebrews, faithful to the cause of Christ, would yet stand triumphant on their Zion,
the sacred metropolis of God's newly chosen people. It is the same thing as to
proclaim, that the Zion now occupied by the enemies and persecutors of the church
is to be cleansed from all that is polluted and all that is hostile, and be prepared
for a place of safe resort to all who love the Christian cause and remain faithful
to it. All that is indicated by the vision, is spoken of, as is commonly the case
in the prophetic writings, as something which has already taken place and is
therefore a matter not to be doubted. On such a ground, there is no anachron-
ism in the plan of the writer.
Moreover, that the 144,000 appear on mount Zion, has a special significancy.
The metropolis of Judea has been the place where Christianity was most furious-
ly assailed ; theie the witnesses were slain; and from that place Christians had
been driven with hostile violence. Now they have, i. e. are to have, peaceful pos-
session of it, and to hear and learn the song of triumph, while their enemies are
no more. So (for this of course is the indication) will it be in respect to other
JptBOi-s OF VICTORY : Chap. XIV. 1. 291
«
Christians, who are now contending witli the beast and his coadjutors. How
dear faithful Christians are to God, is shown by vs. 3, 4, inasmuch as the new
songr is sunjf on Iheir account, and none but they can learn it. This iif.io song
doubtless moans the song of victory and of praise for the redemption, achieved by
a Saviour's power and by his blood. The sentiment is, that such, and such only,
as had been or would be saved like those on mount Zion, could fully participate m
the peculiar joys conseciuent upim a deliverance of this nature. Thus niilch for
the first symbol of safety and victory.
The second consists of a triple.x series o^ prochimalions, by liiroc angels in suc-
cession. The first proclaims the ultimate and certain spread of the gospel through-
out the world, notwithstanding the present almost hopeless state of things, and
warns Christians against yielding to the demands or threats of tiie beast; vs. G, 7.
The second proclaims the absolute and certain fall of mystical Babylon; v. 8.
The third proclaims the awful punishment, which awaits the followers of the
beast and all who comply with his demands, vs. 9—11 ; to which is added the
promise of a glorious reward to Christians who persevere. Thus ends the second
series of synibols.
The third symbol is constituted by a triplex series of act ions. The Son of Man
appears, throned on a bright cloud, and with a sharp instrument in liis hand. An
angel from the temple of God above comes forth, and beseeches him to cut down
the harvest which is ripe, i. e the enemies of the church whose wickedness is
consummated. A second angel from the temple above also appears, armed with an
instrument of excision ready for action. A third angel from the altar in heaven,
who presides over the element of fire (the emblem of destruction), urges the
second angel to thrust in his sharp instrument, and cut off the grapes which are
ready for the harvest. This is done, and they are cast into the wine-press, and
blood flows out to a great distance, reaching to the bridles of the horses.
Nothing can be plainer, than that the certain destruction of the beast and his
worshippers is most significantly symbolized by all this. The repetition of symbols,
in three distinct series, is adapted to make a deep impression. The specific va-
riety in the second and third series is striking and agreeable to the reader ; while
the uniformity as to general arrangement is quite exact. Christ appears through-
out at the head of all ; and where angels appear, in each case there are three in
succession. Plainly this arrangement could not have been a matter of mere acci-
dent, but of design. That the number three is employed in a similar way, in all
parts of the book, needs, after all that has been said, no further illustration. The
significancy of it in cases like the present, is beyond reasonable question.]
(1) And I looked, and behold the Lamb standing on mount Zion, and v/ith him
the 144,000, having his name and the name of his Father written upon their fore-
heads.
By comparing 7: 3 seq. with this, the reader will perceive at once
that the same class of persons there mentioned are here introduced.
But what is written upon their foreheads, is not there mentioned. Comp.
3: 12, where not only the name of God, but also of the new Jerusalem,
is inscribed upon the conrjuering martyrs. Here the followers of the
Lamb are appropriately described as having his name impressed upon
them. — "E/ovaut, fem. plural, because it accords with j^ihuS^','. — Ewald
supposes the heavenly Zion to be meant in the present instance ; to me,
the sequel and the nature of the case make it appear quite differently.
292 SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : Chap. XIV. 2, 3.
Certainly the earthly Zion is here the most significant, and best adapted
to what follows. Besides, it cannot be supposed that the 144,000 were
yet all deceased. Their appearance is merely in vision, and for a sym-
bolical purpose ; not to show that they have passed to another world.
(2) .And I lieard a voice from heaven, as the voice of many waters, and as the
voice of loud thunder; and the voice which I heard [was] as of harpers playing
with their harps.
This shows that the station of John was now on earth, where also he
sees the Lamb on mount Zion. It necessarily indicates a change of
place from that designated in 12: 18 ; or it may be resolved by the con-
sideration, that the Apocalyptist sees simply in prophetic ecstasy. — ■
Lihe the voice of many waters, i. e. like the roaring of the waves of the
sea. The comparison with loud thunder adds to the majesty of the
scene. — Yet this was not mere shouting, or merely a tumultuous cry.
It was like to the sweetness of symphonious harps. As to w? mB-uqcq'
8mi>, we must mentally supply the elliptical words thus, [r/r] (og [(jpcaj'/}].
Ki&UQfodMv designates those who accompany the harp with the voice.
— 'Ev may be rendered here in a sense that it often has, viz. with or by
means of. The idea of the original is, that the players united both voice
and instruments.
(3) And tiiey sing a new song before the throne, and before the four living
creatures and the elders ; and no one could learn tiie song, e.xcept the 144,000
who had been redeemed from the earth.
A new song here, as elsewhere, indicates a new subject or theme to
which the song relates. In the present case, this seems to be a cele-
bration of the victory and redemption of the 144,000 ; but as no one
except these could learn it, the writer (who heard only the sound of the
music but not the words) does not tell us what it was. — before the throne,
etc., i. e. in presence of the sacred Majesty of heaven, whose throne was
supported by the four living creatures, and encircled by the elders ; see
chap. iv. — And no one could learn the song, i. e. no one who had not
been thus redeemed, could enter fully into the feelings and sympathies
of those who had. The wicked world cannot participate in the peculiar
joys of the redeemed. And here, to the view of the prophet, the 144,000
are doubtless presented in vision as being what they would be, when they
should have accomplished their probation, and as enjoying the presence
of their Redeemer. But this need not imply that every one of them
was actually deceased ; for this is vision, symbol, not history. — Redeemed
or brought off from the earth, i. e. from the vices and calamities of
worldly men. Of course they no more belong to the world, but are
separated and distinguished from it; comp. John 15: 19. 17: 9, 14.
That yrig here stands for tlie world of men is plain, because in v. 4 it is
exchanged for av&Q(O7i0iv.
SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : ChAP. XIV. 4. 298
(4) Thesp arp thoy who have not di-filod thomselvos with women, for they are
virgins ; these are they who have followed the Lamb whithersoever he might go ;
tliese have been redeemed from men— first fruits to God and the Lamb.
Is the first clause to be untlerstood literally or ftguratively? If lite-
rally, then only one single virtue is here predicated of the redeemed in
question, viz. that of chastity. But would not this be a singular eulogy,
specially where the context says nothing of impurity, which is the op-
posite, and therefore there is nothing here to make it emphatic ? I can-
not help believing, therefore, that the purify in question here, is that
which is so often the theme of eulogy in the O. Testament, and the
want of which is so often the theme of condemnation ; I mean, that the
writer has an eye upon compliance with demands like those of the
beast and false prophet, to practise idolatry and to believe in polytheism.
To go a whoring after other gods, is an idea too common in the O. Tes-
tament, and too familiar, to need explanation. The 144,000, it is de-
clared, have not so done — they are redeemed from the earth, and from
men, and so they are of course to remain uncontaminated. The reader
needs only to compare v. 8 below, to be satisfied that such must here be
the meaning. — riaQ&t'voi yuQ daiv,for they are virgins ; the masc. form,
as well as the fern., belongs to the later Greek, and to the Christian
fathers ; see Suidas, and Suicer Thes. So the later Hebrew and Sy-
riac formed b^ra, as well as n^W3; comp. 2 Cor. 11: 2.*
Not only have they kept themselves unspotted from the world, but they
have been devoted followers of the Lamb, they have accompanied him
* Neander (Apost. Kirche, IL p. 481) suggests difficulties and contradictions here
in the writer of the Apocalypse, the force of which I do not feel. He says, that
in 7: 4, the writer presents the 144,000 as the sum of believing Jcics ; that in 7: !)
a countless host of Christians of all nations are said to stand before the throne of
God, and yet here again (chap, xiv.) the 144,000 are selected as Christians of a
peculiar and superior order, and this because in particular they had lived in a
state of celibacy. This he calls a Widcrsprnch, which has not yet been solved. —
But what other solution does it need, than to study the plan of the writer .' Per-
secution rages in Palestine ; but Christians are there delivered from it when it
becomes most bitter and dangerous, and the whole heavenly world rejoice in this ;
7: 4, 9, etc. Here, in chap, xiv, those who had been thus rescued, are again
presented to the eye of the prophet in vision, but merely as sijmhols of the deli-
verance that would speedily be extended to those persecuted by the beast. This
is the amount of what John has said; and what is the contradiction in all this?
As to the monkish idea of celibacy, as lieiirhtening the perfection of the redeemed
in the view of the Apocalyptist, it is at least a stranger to the N. Testament ; see
Heb. i:i: 4. 1 Cor. 7: 2S. 1 Tim. 3: 2. 5: 14. Tit. 1: 6. I am aware that the Es-
senes were tinctured with some notions of this kind; but where is the evidence
that early apostolic Christianity adopted them .' Besides, how can we well doubt
that no^&iPOt is here to be understood in the tropical or moral sense.' The de-
filement avoided is the iroftvita to which great Babylon invites, as described in v.
8; which seems so plain as hardly to admit of doubt.
294 SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : Chap. XIV. 5.
whithersoever he might had them, i. e. they have rushed into danger
when duty called, and they have resisted all the allurements of the
world to separate them from him. Unquestionably a ready and cheer-
ful martyr-spirit in them is the basis of this eulogy. — These have been
redeemed from among men, means the same as being redeemed from the
earth, in v. 3. — First fruits to God and the Lamb = r."* ^xn , i. e. an of-
fering peculiarly acceptable to God; comp. James 1: 18. The writer
doubtless I'cfers to the 144,000 as being among the earliest Christians,
inasmuch as they belonged to Palestine where the gospel was first spread.
It is not necessary, however, that the literal meaning should be pressed,
viz. that which respects precedence in point of time ; for it is evident
that the acceptableness of the offering is the principal idea. As to the
grammatical construction, unuQ'/Jj is in apposition with ovzoi.
(5) And in their mouth was found no falsehood, for they are blameless.
The falsehood here referred to is doubtless that of dissimulation or
hypocrisy in matters of religion. The writer means to say, that they
were truly what they professed to be, viz. the friends and servants of
Christ. True to his cause they had remained, for their life had not be-
lied their professions. — uficofioi yuQ eini. gives the finishing stroke to the
whole. They have lived without any just cause of reproach ; but par-
ticularly as to the matter of defection from the Christian cause. In like
manner those kings who never inclined to idolatry, among the ancient
Jews, were said to be perfect, i. e. anaixoi in regard to their highest al-
legiance.
(6) And I saw another angel flying in mid-air, having the everlasting gospel to
preach among those who dwell on the earth, even among every nation and tribe
and tongue and people.
Another angel must of course here mean a different one from some one
or more implied or expressed in the preceding context. None are ex-
pressly mentioned, however, unless we go back to chap. xii. But the
song from heaven (vs. 2, 3) appears to be sung, at least in part, by the
angelic host. To this probably uXXog uyysXog refers, viz. an angel, dif-
ferent from those engaged in the heavenly choir. — In mid-air, the ap-
propriate place for flying, and also for being heard by the seer. In Is.
6: 2 seq. the Seraphim are furnished with wings, because they are swift
to do the will of God ; so here, and throughout the Apocalypse.
The everlasting gospel, not the hook of the gospels as some suppose;
nor yet, as others maintain, merely the joyful message that the beast is
about to be destroyed, (for how could this be called ditoviov ?) but
charged with the eternal truths of the gospel, and to see that they are
universally proclaimed. This simple meaning too, is the most apposite.
THE SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : Chap. XIV. 7, 8. 295
What is it which the beast and liis adherents are leagued to accomplish ?
The answer is : To stop the progress of the gospel. What docs this
symbol of the angel, (having the gospel in charge and commissioned to
see that it is proclaimed to all), teach in respect to the great contest al-
ready introduced ? It teaches, in a most vivid manner, the complete
success of evangelization, notwithstanding the powers of earth and hell
are opposed. It shows, in a forcible way, the certain triumph of the
Christian cause. — As to the Ace. rov^ x«i>////h'oi's' after fvayytXiaai, (if
we adopt this simply, as some critics do, omitting fW before it), this is
not uncommon in the N. Testament ; see Luke 3: 18. Acts 8: 25, 40.
14: 21. 16: 10. In Rev. 10: 7, the active voice (as here) is found ;
but in the older Greek this is uncommon, the Middle Voice being much
more usual. But John supplies inl before tov<; •/.aior/.ovvza'i, and I
have translated accordingly.
Kai tTzt nuv tiyvO'i . . . ).(t.6v. The most natural construction here is
to repeat mentally the verb svayyEXiaai, and to render im throughout,
among. The clause is a repetition of the preceding sentiment in ano-
ther form, in order to give intensity to it.
(7) Saj'ing with a loud voice : Fear God, and give glory to him, for tiie hour
of his judgment has come ; and worship him, who made the heaven and the earth
and tlie sea and the fountains of water.
The sense is antithetic here. Fear the true God and give glory to
him as the Maker of all things ; fear not the beast, ascribe no glory to
him, honour him not as the maker of heaven and earth. — Give glory to
him [God], because the hour of his judgment has come, i. e. to him as-
cribe honour, glory, and* praise, for he vindicates the persecuted and op-
pressed, and will judge and punish their oppressors. He who made
heaven, earth, the sea, and fountains of water, (comp. 8: 7 — 12), must
be the Creator of all things, the only true God, and therefore he is wor-
thy of all adoration and praise.
(8) And another second angel followed, saying : Babylon the great is FAr.i.-
EN — IS FALLEN ; for of the inflammatory wine of her fornication hath she made ail
nations to drink.
/JtvTEQO'i distinguishes the liXlog ayytlog here from that in v. G. —
tjxolovOi^ne implies, of course, that this second angel, like the preceding
one (v. 6), flew through the mid-air, where his message could be deliv-
ered with the greatest effect. — Bu^vXwv, not literal but figurative, i. e.
Rome. By a very ea.^y trope, however, this exchange of signification
is made. Babylon of old was the enemy of God's people, and persecuted
and destroyed them. Babylon was then the metropolis of a most ex-
tensive empire, and itself an exceedingly great city. It was idolatrous
and was noted for impiety ; as the book of Daniel fully shows. On all
296 THE SYMBOLS OF VICTORY: ChAP. XIX. 8.
these accounts it might well represent Rome, specially Rome in Nero's
day ; and particularly so, when the writer of the Apocalyse, as we have
already seen on several occasions, designed to speak of Rome in a some-
what concealed, rather than in an open manner. — MeydX?] is a title strik-
ingly applicable either to the real or the mystical Babylon. — "Ensas, m-
eae, jjredicts with certainty the destiny which awaited the city, and of
course, the dominion connected with it. Such is everywhere, and very
often, the manner of the Hebrew prophets, when speaking of events yet
to come. Here the very words of Is. 21: 9, respecting ancient Babylon,
are quoted. Comp. also Jer. 50: 2. 51: 8. In chap. 17: 18, the devel-
opment of what is meant by Babylon is made with sufficient plainness.
It would be difficult to imagine how the writer could have chosen lan-
guage more fraught with meaning than he has in the whole of this de-
scription.— But the reader need not suppose, ihaX fallen, fallen, while it
denotes absolute certainty, at the same time denotes complete and in-
stantaneous excision. The pi'edictions respecting ancient Babylon were
fulfilled only in the lapse of several centuries ; but they were at last fully
accomplished. And so of the tropical Babylon. The Apocalypse itself
gives sufficient intimation of a gradual fulfilment; comp. Rev. 16: 19 —
21 with 18: 4—8, 20—24 and 19: 11—21.
Of the inflammatory wine of her fornications hath she made all nations
to drink. As usual with the Hebrews, the city is here symbolized by a
female; see 17: 18, where this is plainly declared. This female is a
heathen, practising idol-rites, and therefore, in the language of the He-
brews, committing fornication. Here she is represented as attracting
lovers by the usual arts. She proffers to them heating, i. e. inebriating
wine, for the purpose of exciting passion and leading to uncleanness. —
Ov^wiJ does not here mean, as many suppose, wrath, indignation, for this
would be directly opposed to the accomplishment of her design to allure
wooers. It signifies heat, inflammation = ii^n . So, moreover, the
original root of the word, d^va, would lead us to interpret it, for this is
connected with the idea of flaming up, blazing iip, mounting up, etc. ;
and hence, d^voa to sacrifice, i. e. to burn on an altar the victim ; see
Passow's Lex. ^voa. Hence olvog &viiov wine of inflammation, i. e.
inflammatory or inebriating wine. This is altogether in point, in the
present connection. — Tiiq TiOQVUiag avttjg, a Gen. of qualification here,
designed to show the object or purpose of the inflammatory wine. The
meaning of the whole phrase is, that she gives such intoxicating wine
as is adapted to lead those Avhom she allures to commit fornication. Of
course, as fornication is hei-e tropically employed to designate heathen
and idolatrous rites and abominations, the general meaning is, that Rome
employed all her arts, devices, excitements, and allurements, to bring all
nations to the worship of the beast and his image — i. e. to pay divine
SYMBOLS OP victory: Chap. XIV. 9, 10. Wt
honours to the reigning prince as well as to other gods. On account of
her activity in this wickedness, punishment is decreed ; and this is here
announced. Compare this verse with v. 4 above, and all seems to be
plain in respect to that disputed verse.
(9) And another tiiird angel followed them, saying with a loud voice : If any-
one worship the beast and his image, and receive a nii^rk upon his forehead or up-
on his hand ;
As was natural for the writer, he here follows the designation of the
enticements, with a denunciation against all who are allured by them
from the path of duty and fidelity to God. — 7%e beast and his image,
i. e. if any one pay divine honours to the impious king directly or indi-
rectly, either to his person or to his representative or statue. — Mark up-
on his forehead, or upon his hand ; see on 7: 3. 'Eni before the Gen.
in the first case, and before the Ace. in the second, without any assigna-
ble difference in respect to meaning. So, in some cases, in the Clas-
sics.
(10) The same shall drink of the wine of God's wrath, poured out undiluted
in the cup of his indignation, and he shall be tormented with fire and brimstone
before the holy angels and before the Lamb.
Kal avtog, the very same, nai adverbial and intensive. — Tlierat, Fut.
Midd. from ni'va, in a neuter sense, employed as the act. voice. 77/Va)
belongs to the very few verbs liquid, which form a Fut. without a and
without the contraction -ovfiai, i. e. without a regular form of Fut. I.
or n., and which are declined Uke a Pres. tense ; see Kiihner, § 174.
2. — 'Ex, partitive, some of. — Ovfjov as before, but of course ^\^ith a re-
ference somewhat discrepant, inasmuch as punishment is here concerned,
and not enticement to sin. We must go to the 0. Testament for the
full explanation. There God is often said to give the C2ip of inflamma-
tion or indignation to nations whom he is about to destroy ; e. g. Is.
51: 17. Lam. 4: 21. Jer. 25: 15, 16. 49: 12. 51: 7. Ezek. 23: 31—34.
Job 21: 20. Ps. 75: 8. Persons intoxicated are unable to destroy or
even resist those who assail them ; so that to represent them as intoxi-
cated in the way of punishment, is to represent them as devoted to ir-
remedial destruction. Or we may present the matter in another light.
Criminals about to suffer, were often through compassion of execution-
ers or bystanders presented with a stupefying potion, which would di-
minish their sensibility to pain, but which of course was the index or
precursor of certain death. Thus in Mark 15: 23, it is recorded that
Jesus refused to drink " the wine mingled with myrrh," which was prof-
fered him when he was about to be nailed to the cross. The holy Sa-
viour would not abate any portion of his agonies, by the use of an intox-
VOL. II. 38
298 SYMBOLS OP VICTORY : Chap. XIV. 10.
icating drink. But in whichever of these two ways the expression in our
text is accounted for, the meaning remains substantially the same — for
the drinking of such an intoxicating cup is the prelude to certain death.
— KsitEQacjfit'vov has here a secondary sense, viz. poured out, propmated.
It denotes the act of pouring into the cup from which the condemned
person is to drink, and thus has for its basis the original sense of the
word '/ceQcivvvfii, to viingle. From the same word, with a privative,
comes dnQdrrjg = dxeQurrjg, unmingled, i. e. undiluted. There is a
kind of paronomasia in the expression, as if we should say, mingled
unmingled, where mingled would designate the preparation of the
wine, and laimingled the state of the wine, viz. that it was undiluted.
The universal custom among the ancients who were temperate, of di-
luting wine in order to drink it, is here tacitly referred to ; for in the
present case no such preparation is to be made, but the wine is admin-
istered in its full strength. Of course, intoxication and consequent de-
struction are the sequel.
The cup of his indignation means the cup which his indignation pre-
sents to offenders, or the cup which is the symbol of his indignation, or
which accompanies the full development of his indignation. In this
second case, {J^vixov is used in the sense of heat as developed by anger ;
as the nature of the case clearly shows. Such an antanaclasis is very
common in the Scriptures. The contrast between the inflammatory
wine of fornication, enticing to forbidden pleasure, and the intoxicating
wine of a cup which is given to prepare for certain death, is sufficient-
ly plain to every discerning reader.
Tormented with fire and brimstone is imagery bon'owed originally
from the destruction of Sodom and Gomon-ah, Gen. 19: 24. Mention
of the punishment of the wicked by raining fire and brimstone upon
them, occurs Ps. 11: 6. Is. 30: 33. Job 18: 15; elsewhere it is used
only in the Apoc, 14: 10. 19: 20. 21: 8. Unquenchable fire and the
worm that dieth not, are frequently joined in a like sense, at least for a
like purpose; e. g. Is. 66: 24. Mark 9: 44 — 48. So in the Apocrypha,
Sir. 7: 17. Judith 16: 17. At other times only the element of J?re is
named ; e. g. Matt. 5: 12. 13: 42. 18: 9. 25: 41. 2 Pet. 3: 7. Jude 7.
Rev. 20: 14. The book of Enoch abounds in the same imagery ; e. g.
10: 9, 16. 53: 1—6. 89: 33—37. 99: 5, 7. 103: 5. 105: 21 seq. In 66:
6 — 14 the alternations of fire and extreme cold are mentioned, for the
same purpose. The addition of brimstone to the imagery renders it ex-
ceedingly intense ; for this not only makes the fire to rage with the
greatest vehemence, but is noisome to the smell and suffocating to the
breath. In connection with such imagery, it is easy to see how the
ancients looked upon Tartarus or Gehenna as being in the under-world.
The volcanic effluvia perpetually issuing from the earth, were demon-
ST»iB0L8 OF victory: Chap. XFV. 11 — 13. 299
slrative that fires were continually burning beneath. Among them the
p»:)pular usii^ loquendi placeil the abodes ot" the wicked.
Before the holy angels and before the Lamb must refer the punishment
in question to the future world. Ewald refers this to the simple pres-
ence or looking on of the Lamb and his followers ; but the idiom seems
to demand more. Rev. 13: 12, 14 shows, that concurrence, approba-
tion, or that inspection which sees to the execution of any matter or
thing, is intended. Exactly so in Is. 8: 4. That the blessed in heaven
have cognizance of the wicked and their sufferings, seems to be plainly
disclosed in Luke 16: 23 — 20. And the consciousness on the part of
malignant persecutors in the world of woe, that those whom they had
pursued unto death were looking down on their torments, from a state
of inconceivable happiness above, would doubtless be a circumstance of
great aggravation. But something more than this is intended by the
text ; as has been already declared.
(1 1) And the smoke of their torment ascentleth up forever and ever, and they
have no rest, day and niglit, who worship the beast and his image, and if an\' one
receive the mark of his name.
The perpetuity of hell-torments is explicitly asserted. — Dry and night
is a Hebraism meaning contimudly, without intermission, inasmuch as
these include the whole of time. The last clause in the verse begins a
new construction, which is left unfinished, as the mind of the reader
will easily supply what is omitted, viz. If any one receive, etc., he shall
be tormented., etc., as in the preceding clauses.
(12) Here is the patience of the saints, who keep the commandments of God
and the faith of Jesus.
The meaning is either thus : Here then, in the dreadful punishment
of the wicked, every Christian may see of what avail his patience and
obedient spirit and faith in Christ are ; dr, Here is a disclosure respect-
ing the wicked, which is adapted to encourage a patient endurance of
the evils of persecution, and a constancy in obedience to the divine
commands and to the Christian faith. Ewald adopts the first method ;
I prefer the latter. As to the Norn, case, ol rtjQovvreg, see on Rev. 1:
5, and N. Test- Gramm. § 97. 5. It is not at all uncommon, that an
emphatic participle assumes the Nom., let the noun designating the
agent be in whatever case it may.
(13) And I heard a voice from heaven, saying : Write; Blessed are llie dead,
who die in the Lord, from henceforth ; Yea, saith the Spirit, so that tiiey may
rest from their toils ; their works, moreover, do follows them.
In the preceding context, the third angel had been speaking, and
proclaiming the threatened punishment of the worshippers of the beast.
300 SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : Chap. XIV. 13.
Here very naturally an antithetic theme is introduced, viz. the reward
of the faithful. Accordingly the proclamation of this is also made, for
the encouragement of Christians ; but it is made by a new solemnity.
A voice from heaven, viz. the voice of God, or of the Saviour, pro-
claims the blessedness of the martyrs, and of all the faithful.
Write, i. e. commit to writing what I am about to say ; a direction
which falls in well with the supposition that has been already made
(p. 207 above), that the Apocalypse was written in connection with
the visions themselves. — Blessed are the dead; but who among all the
dead are entitled to the happiness here promised ? Those who die in
the Lord, i. e. those who are by faith united to Christ, and die in that
state of union to him. Doubtless the writer here had his mind specially
upon martyrs.
AnuQri. has given much trouble to critics. Eichhorn renders the
phrase : Qui ad hoc usque tempus mortui sunt, against the plain sense
of dndqri. Vitringa : Ah hoc inde tempore pie defuncti quiescent, thus
joining dnaQti with Iva dnavacovzai, and construing the latter as
though it were a simple Fut., instead of a Subj. with Iva. But the in-
tervention of vai, (which for emphasis sake stands at the heginning of a
sentence or clause), precludes this from being done in a direct way.
That there is a reference in dnaQXi to the then existing state of things
under the reign of the beast, seems to be plain. Violence and cruelty
and slaughter were seen on every side. In circumstances such as these,
the voice from heaven proclaims, that dnaQti, i. e. from this time forth,
until the beast shall cease to persecute or be destroyed, blessed, i. e.
peculiarly blessed or happy are they, who, dying in the Lord and for
his cause, escape the troubles and miseries of life, and obtain eternal
rest from all their toils. In other words : To depart and be with Christ
is far better than to remain in Ufe, specially under circumstances such
as were then present. Nor is this all the reward ; the works which
they have done in and for the cause of Christ, follow them, and are
crowned with a glorious reward. Thus understood, there is of course a
plain intimation of two things, viz., that persecution was then raging,
and that it would still continue to do so for some time. On this ac-
count the 'Spirit proffers consolation. Let not sufferers be faint-hearted.
Although deliverance of the church is not to be immediate, still, those
who must yet be called to suffer, may well congi'atulate themselves ;
they leave a world of sorrow to enter upon a glorious reward. In this
case, we may virtually connect ha dvanavacovrai with ol dTzo&vrjoxovrfS
dnaQTi, mentally repeated, i. e. Christians may die indeed hereafter, or
still continue to die a violent death ; but, dying in the Lord, they die
so that they may enter upon their everlasting rest. Such are the pros-
pects of the faithful followers of the Lamb, compared with those of the
worshippers of the beast and his image.
SYMBOLS OF VICTORY: Chap. XIV. 14, 15. 301
The solemn vai of the Spirit here gives an intensity to the declara-
tion respecting the pious dead. The writer probably refers to the
Spirit that spake within himself, he being iv nvevfiazi, 1: 10.— Mct'
avTCov, i. e. their works follow along with them to the other world.
(14) Ami 1 looked, and behold a white cloud, and on the cloud One sitting like
to a son of man, having on his head a golden crown, and in his hand a sharp
sickle.
yftvy/j, white, means, as is usual in this book, bright, splendid, daz-
ding ; see on 2: 17. — Ka&ijftfvov, one sitting, without the article, as it
should be, because the defuiitcness is not yet shown ; comp. 4: 2, where
the same expression occurs in the same way. — Like a son of man, i. e.
having a human form ; comp. the Messianic development in Dan. 7:
13, where the same expression is used. This similitude is not wont to
be aflirmed of angels although they not unfrequently assume the human
form; in Gen 18: 2 such a form is implied. — The sitting upon a cloud
agrees well with what is said of Christ when he comes to punish his
enemies ; comp. 1: 7, on which passage the writer here probably had
his eye, as well as on that in Dan. 7: 13. Vitringa supposes that an
angel is here meant ; but plainly this is against the general analogy of
the series of symbols here, and against the spirit also of what is predi-
cated of the y.u&tj[ievov. — The golden crown upon his head betokens
his dignity. The sharp sickle, his preparedness to execute vengeance
upon the enemies of his church.
(15) And another angel came fortii from the temple, crying willi a loud voice
to him who sat upon the cloud; Thrust in thy sickle and reap; for the time to
harvest is come, for tiie harvest of the earth is dry.
JiXXog, i. e. different from the angels before mentioned in the pre-
ceding series. — From the temple, i. e. from the temple or immediate
presence of God above, and thus bearing the mandates or commission
from heaven. If any difficulty arises in the mind of the reader, on the
ground that such a command is directed to the Messiah, let him con-
sult John 10: 18. 12: 49. 14: 31, and the numerous texts cited in the
Comm. on Rev. 1: 1, and his difficulties must all vanish. Christ as
Redeemer is subordinate ; he is vice-gerent, not supreme king.
The imagery of a harvest fully ripe, and about to be cut down, is
not novel. Joel 3: 13 exhibits the same. The ripeness of the harvest
refers to the consummation of the wickedness of persecutors, so that the
time for punishment must not be deferred. — Tr^g ytjg is to be taken
here in its wider sense, inasmuch as the dominion of the beast was very-
extensive.
302 SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : Chap. XIV. 16 — 19.
(16) And he who was sitting upon the cloud thrust in his sickle upon the
the earth, and the earth was reaped.
No sooner is the command given, than it is executed. — "E^akev marks
the action of thrusting in the sickle ; inl rtjv yijv, the extent of the reap-
ing, i. e. over the earth. One is constrained here to notice the resistless
energy with which the action is consummated. No sooner does he, who
had the sharp sickle, thrust it in, than i&BQiad-rj rj yij. What is here
be^un is consummated in the sequel. The additional symbols denote
not only the certainty of the excision, but the entire thoroughness of it.
(17) And another angel came forth out of the temple which is in heaven, he
also having a sharp pruning-knife.
Observe that in this series of symbols, the writer omits the davtEQos
and TQirog inserted in the preceding series. — From the temple, i. e. hav-
ing his immediate commission from God. — jQSTzavov means either a
sickle, a scythe, or a. pruning-hooh by which vines were trimmed and the
clusters of grapes cut off when they were ripe. The difference in the
two cases presented in vs. 15, 17, demands a different version of the
same word.
(18) And another angel came forth from the altar, having power over the fire,
and he called with a loud voice to him who had the sharp pruning-knife, saying :
Thrust in thy sharp pruning-knife, and gather in the clusters of the vineyard of
the earth; for the grapes thereof are ripe.
From the altar is more specific, and thus gives a somewhat different po-
sition from that of the preceding angels, or at least a variety in the mode
of expression. — Having power over the fire, i. e. presiding over that
element, or at least specially over the fire on the heavenly altar. That
ano-els were regarded as presiding over the elements, is shown in Exc. I. ;
which see. Here the appearance of this particular angel is altogether
appropriate. Fire is the usual emblem of destruction. The angel who
has power over it, is here commissioned to give commandment for the
excision of the enemies of God. — Tqiyrjaov from ZQvyrj, ripe fruit, dried
fruit, etc., so that tQvyrjaov means to gather in or harvest such fruit. —
"Hy-iiaaav, lit. attained their height, and so primarily the word has respect
to plants, etc., which attain their full growth upwards. But here it is fig-
uratively applied to grapes ; just as we might say of ripe clusters, they
have reached their acme, i. e. their highest point of maturity. — The plural
ai 6zaq)vXai refers to the collective mass of them ; although the singidar
might be employed in a generic sense.
(19) And the angel thrust his pruning-knife into the earth, and harvested the
vineyard-fruit of the earth, and he cast it into the great wine-press of the wrath of
God.
Eig tijv yijv generically expresses the object on or toward which the
SYMBOLS OP viCTOBT : Chap. XIV. 20. sot
action of the SQtnavov was directed. — Tov fif'yav is here associated with
Tijv Xrjvof (tern.) ; but Xtivo^' is both masc. and feminine. The most easy
solution is to fill out the last phrase thus : tov fit'yav Xr^vov ; which was
plainly at the writer's option, and probably in his mind. — "A^irnXov here
of course designates the fruits of the vineyard, for they only are cut oif
or gathered and cjist into the wine-press. — Tov Ov^iov rov O-iov may be
translated, of an angiy God ; for the first of two nouns thus connected,
not unfrequcntly is employed as an adjective to qualify the other. An-
ger has reference here to the infliction of punishment, q. d. cast the
grapes into the torcular Dei punientis. From the grapes thus cast into
the press the juice is to be expressed, which is the symbol of blood to
be shed ; a natural symbol, on account of the colour of the juice, as well
as iht pressure necessary to obtain it.
(20) And the wine-press was trodden witliout the city, and there came forth
blood from the wine-press up to the bridles of tlie horses, at tlie distance of a thou-
sand and two hundred furlongs.
Grapes in the press were usually trodden by the feet of men ; see Is.
63: 2, 3. Lam. 1: 15. Of course the press, for convenience' sake, was
set up in the vineyard where the grapes grew, comp. Is. 5: 2 ; so that
t^co&£v noXecoi' means m the country ot field. Here then the great bat-
tle is supposed to be fought, in order to win the city, i. e. the city of the
beast. — A^i^a, blood, so that the natural congruity of the imagery (juice,
wine), is here dropped, and the thing signified by the juice of the grape
is expressed, viz. blood. Up to the bridles of the horses, i. e. of the
horses employed in attacking those who defend the city. Ano here de-
signates the distance from the city ; a use of the word which is frequent.
— Twelve hundred furlongs =150 miles, Ewald and some others sup-
pose to have reference to the whole extent of Palestine. But what has
Palestine to do with the present battle ? The measure comes as near the
breadth of Italy as it does to the length of Palestine ; and why may we
not suppose the former to be meant here, so that all will in this way be
congruous ? The literal meaning no experienced interpreter will de-
mand, in a case like this ; so that to a great distance, or to a wide extent,
is all that can be well supposed to be meant. The reason for choosing
the number 1200 may probably be found in the usually computed breadth
of Italy.
Sentiment : The enemy shall be overthrown with dreadful slaughter.
304 THE SEVEN VIALS : Chap. XV. 1.
THE SEVEN VIALS: CHAP. XV.
[The pledges and tokens of divine retribution being thus given, the execution
of it is speedily to begin. The writer, when he saw the aijfiitov that follows,
must be supposed to have had his place, in vision, in the heavenly world, (comp.
4: 1), although he does not expressly mention this. Yet that which he declares
himself to have seen, of course implies all this. Seven angels are commissioned
to go and inflict upon the beast and his coadjutors the seven last plagues, so-call-
ed because the icrath of God is accomplished by them, v. 1. No sooner is this com-
mand given, than the glorious host of martyrs around the throne of God, whose
blood had been shed by the beast, sing the song of anticipative triumph, and
praise the justice of God as about to be displayed in the overthrow of the beast.
The temple in heaven is then opened, and the seven angels, charged with the
execution of divine justice, go forth from it in splendid apparel. One of the four
living creatures which support the throne of God, gives each of them a vial or
cruse filled with material to execute the wrath of God. The temple is imme-
diately filled with smoke, arising from the fire which burns fiercely around the
Almighty, as the emblem of his anger (comp. Ps. 18: 8), and also of his power to
destroy. By reason of this, no one is able to enter into the temple ; and, of course,
no one is permitted to intercede for those who are about to be punished. Punish-
ment, therefore, is certain and inevitable.]
(1) And I saw another sign in heaven, great and marvellous, seven angels hav-
ing the seven last plagues, because by them the wrath of God is accomplished.
2^t]fiEtov, an extraordinary symbol, as the writer himself has declared.
— In heaven, i. e. the scene lay in the upper world. — Seven angels, not
the seven as in 8: 2, and therefore not the presence-angels of God. —
Having seven plagues which are the last, for so the Greek seems to run,
inasmuch as nXrjyag has no article. The reason of the article here may
be, that saxcitag is like to an ordinal, which regularly demands the ar-
ticle ; it is also emphatic. Ewald, who denies a catastrophe in chap, xi,
says that last here means merely what completes the series already be-
gun in chap. vi. viii. ix. But if we give to the word last such a mean-
ing here, another difficulty rises up, which he does not seem to have
foreseen. In the general march of the drama, the overthrow now be-
fore us is not the last. There is still another in the case of Gog and
Magog, chap. xx. Besides, the writer here gives his own reason for
saying tag iaxarag ; which is, that the wrath of God, ireXta&t], lit. has
been accomplished by them, (Aor. for Fut., in order to denote certainty,
Gramm. § 136. 3. d). In other words, although the beast had been
often smitten, and in various ways, now a consummation of his punish-
ment is to take place. As to srsXsad^ij, see the reference above, and
comp. the use of the same word in the same tense and manner, in Rev.
10:7.
THE SEVEN VIALS : Chap. XV. 2, 3. 305
As to the commission of angels here to execute the work of punish-
ment, see in Exc. I. on the otlices of Angels ; also comp. 8: 2, where the
seven presence-angel s ai*e commissioned to sound the woe-trumpeta.
The Redeemer himself ai>pears at length, in order to close the terrific
conflict, 11): 11 seq. But he here hegins, and afterwards carries on, the
contest by means o'l ministering spirits ; comp. Ileb. 1: 14.
Having the seven last plagues must, here and in v. G, mean ' having a
commission to inflict them ;' for the vials of the wrath of God, which the
augels are to pour out, are given to them at a subsequent period, see in
V. 7.
(2) And r saw as it were a sea of glass mingled with fire— and those who came off
conquerors from the beast, and from liis image, and from the number of his name,
standing upon the sea of glass, having harps of God.
A sea of glass, i. e. a sea that was clear, pellucid, splendid. In 4: 6,
this sea is said to be like chrystid ; see the note there for full explanation.
That which is here called sea, is the pavement of the court above, (sea
in the sense of an extended level surface), in the midst of which the
throne of God stands. — Mingled with fire, i. e. the tcsselated pavement
was composed in part, as it appeared on the present occasion, of stones
having a red oy fiery colour, as well as with those which were pellucid;
which is indicative probably of the divine indignation that was about to
burn against the persecutors of the church; for in Ex. 24: 10. Ezek. 1:
22, and also in Rev. 4: G, no mention is made of the red colour. Fire
is spoken of as intermingled, on the present occasion, because in this way
it presents a s}Tnbol that Heaven is angry, i. e. is about to punish.
A^rAwvzag v/. tou -O^r^Qiov xai . . . avzov, an elliptical expression, no
doubt. Our English idiom comes very near to the sense : Come off
conquerors from the beast, etc., and this idiom is very common. The
Greek viyMvzag seems to be here a kind of constructio praegnans, for
the idea of acol^ofievoi is implied, and aa^. ix would be a regular con-
struction.— The expression, y/'OOT the beast, naturally refers to the tyrant
in person ; from his image, to the statues of him in the temples. — Stand-
ing on the sea of glass, i. e. stationed around the throne of glory, which
stood in the midst of that sea or smooth and level pavement. — Having
or holding harps of God, i. e. such harps as are employed in praising
God. These are speedily employed, in the present case.
(3) And tliey sing the song of Moses tlie servant of God, and the song of the
Lamb, saying : Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty ; just
and true are thy ways, O King of nations !
"Aidovai, historic Pres. for the Praeter. — The song of Moses most nat-
urally relates to the triumphal song recorded in Ex. xv, sung after
the dehverance of the Hebrews from the Egyptians ; i. e. the martyrs
VOL. n. 89
306 THE SEVEN VIALS : Chap. XV. 4, 5.
in heaven sung a song of anticipative triumph, holding it for certain that
all Avhich had been signified by symbols would be carried into execution.
— And the song of the Lamb, i. e. the song which is sung to the Lamb,
as the Captain of Salvation who is certain to triumph. Ewald chooses
another way : ' The song which Moses and the Lamb had just sung in
heaven, in view of triumph.' But where is the Lamb thus associated
in worship with any created being? Such an interpretation revolts
against the spirit of the Apocalypse.
Great and marvellous are thy works, i. e. thou hast done, and wilt do,
things that require omnipotence in order to perform them, and so they
are great ; marvellous of course they must be, in the case supposed. —
Lord God Almighty = n'lxns i|ibx ninii , so frequent in the O. Testa-
ment.— Just and true are thy loays, i. e. thy ways or dealings with the
enemies of the church are in accordance with justice. They are true,
i. e. they are in accordance with thy promises, and show that thou hast
spoken nothing but truth, as it respects the protection of the church, or
the destruction of its enemies. — King of nations! So the emended text
— better than the text, recept., which reads ayiwv ; for here the vicAv
before the writer's mind has respect to nations at large.
(4) Who shall not fear thee, O Lord, and glorify thy name ? For thou alone
art holy. Truly all nations shall come and worship before thee, because thy
righteous judgments have been made manifest.
(Do^7]&rj seems here rather to indicate /ear than reverence, because it
is coupled with considerations that respect punishment. — Glorify thy
name, i. e. give glory to thee on account of what thou hast done. — L^or
thou alone art holy, where OGiog seems = w'i'i;^ , i. e. an object of rev-
erence.— "On, surely all nations, etc. That "^S in Hebrew, at the be-
ginning of a clause or sentence, sometimes has virtually such a mean-
ing, is well known. It is a constructio praegnans = "'^ ^"^.i^"} • This
idiom, if admitted here, makes the connection and meaning of on sim-
ple and plain. But if the reader chooses another way, he may come to
the same sense by a Xtyco on or an ol8a on. There is still another
way ; i. e. on may be regarded here as standing before a second reason
for fearing God. The first reason is that he is ay tog ; the second, that
he is the object of worship or feai* for all nations, because of his righteous
judgments that have been manifested, ^ixaicofiara designates the exhi-
bitions of punitive justice here, or at least, the decree that it shall be ex-
ecuted.
(5) And after this 1 beheld, and the temple of the tabernacle of testimony in
heaven was opened.
The triumphal song being finished, forthwith the action of the piece
proceeds. The temple, not the whole vaog, but only that part which be-
THE SEVEN VIALS : ClIAP. XV. 6 — 8. 307
longs to the tabernacle of testimony, viz. where the testimony of God,
i. e. his covenant uiul his couimanthncnts, is kept; of course the Sanc-
tum Sanctorum. Why opened? In order that his glory may be seen,
and the revelation which he is about to make of himself may strike all
with wonder. — The expression in heaven shows, that the temple above is
here meant.
(G) And there went forth the seven angels, wlio had the seven last plagues,
from the temple, clothed with pure, splendid linen, and girt about the breasts
with golden girdles.
Mark here the intensity of the description. Angels who are per-
mitted, like the high priests of old, to enter the most Holy Place, are
commissioned to the work now to be done ; for it is from the vao^' of
the testimony that they come. Their vestments are like to those of the
priests ; comp. Ex. 28: 27, 29. Lev. 16: 4. As to the girdles, comp.
Ex. 28: 39, 40. The Ace. after both the participles here is a usual con-
struction ; Gramm. § 104. 2. a. The splendour of the array is mani-
fest.
(7) And one of the four living creatures gave to the seven angels seven golden
vials, filled with the wrath of" God who liveth forever and ever.
The living creatures support the throne of God (4: 6), and are
therefore nearest to him. Not only are the messengers of wrath sent
from the holy of holies, but the vials of indignation come from the
throne itself, or rather, from him who sits upon it. — Golden vials, like
the golden vessels in the temple below\ — Filled with the wrath of God,
filled with something which is emblematic of his wrath, and which is to
be poured out upon the beast and lus followers. The imagery seems to
be kindred to that of the inflammatory cup, given to intoxicate before
destruction ; see on Rev. 14: 10. In the sequel, these vials appear to
be employed both as symbols and as means of punishment. — Of God
who liveth forever and ever, i. e. of the eternal and unchangeable God.
The attribute here ascribed to God renders the colouring intense.
(8) And the temple was filled with smoke, by reason of the glory of God and
by reason of his power ; and no one could enter into tiie temple, until the seven
jilagues of the seven angels were accomplished.
Glory of God here means the exceeding brightness or splendour sup-
posed to be about him, when he appears in the midst of fire, as on
Sinai of old. So he is represented here ; and so the Epistle to the
Hebrews : '* Our God is a consuming fire," Heb. 12: 29. The mean-
ing is, that he is so to the wicked. On the like ground is he here pre-
sented as surrounded by fire excessively bright. From this issues the
smoke mentioned, as also on Sinai, comp. Ps. 18: 8. Two purposes
seem to be answered by this imagery ; the first is, that the smoke ex-
308 THE SEVEN VIALS : Chap. XVL
eluded all intercessors from the house or temple ; comp. 2 Chron. 5- 13,
14. In other words, no remission is to be shown in the exhibition of
vindictive justice upon the beast. The second is, that inasmuch as the
veiling of himself in clouds of darkness is often predicated of God,
(see Ex. 19: 18 seq. Ps. 18: 8, seq. Is. 6: 4, etc.) so we may regard the
mysterious majesty of the Godhead as symbolized by imagery such as
that before us. The plagues, also, must be all completed, before the
Vindicator of his church will relinquish the attitude thus, described ; for
no one can enter the temple to intercede a)(^qi TeXea&ooai, i. e. until they
are completed.
THE SEVEN VIALS: CHAP. XVL
[AH is now ready to begin the attack. Vengeance no longer sleeps. The
seven angels are bidden to go and pour out the vials of wrath upon the kingdom
of the beast. The succession of plagues inflicted by them greatly resemble those
under the trumpets, in chap. viii. There, the earth, the sea, the rivers and foun-
tains of waters, and then the heavens above, are smitten. Here, men on tlie
earth, then the sea, the rivers and fountains of water, and the heavens, are smit-
ten. There is of course some variation in the manner of describing all this ; but
there are also many traits of mutual resemblance. — The three woe-trumpets
(chap. ix. seq.) are indicative of great torments to men by the locusts ; of im-
mense slaughter by horsemen ; and finally of thunder, lightning, tempest, and
earthquake, which destroy the metropolis. Here the fifth vial affects the throne
of the beast, i.e. his capital ; the sixth brings in an overwhelming foreign enemy ;
the seventh is poured upon the air, the residence of the dragon; and then thun-
der, etc., as before, conclude the first onset upon the capital of the beast. The
similarity of plan in the two cases it is impossible to overlook ; and yet the diver-
sity in the execution is very considerable, so much so that the author cannot be
justly accused of copying from himself.
The similarity in question makes much against the supposition of Ewald, that
there is no catastrophe related in chap xi. If the whole were one piece, and
everything related to one and the same enemy of the church, is it probable that
John would have indulged in so much similarity here ? At least, to my own
mind this seems to be highly improbable. But when different enemies are invol-
ved in like destruction, and for the same cause, i. e. persecution, it is not to be
wondered at, that the writer has drawn their respective pictures with some traits
that are common to both.
Some of the dissimilitudes, however, between the two pictures seem to demand
more particular notice and consideration than has usually been given to them.
In the first catastrophe there are tico series of sevens, viz. the se\en seals, and the
seven trumpets ; thelast growing out of the protracted execution of the judgments
symbolized by the seventh seal. In the second catastrophe, there is only one se-
ries of seven, viz. that of seven vials. In the first catastrophe, amidst all the pre-
parations for destruction, and amidst the judgments inflicted, there is no actual
destruction of humaa life until we come to the third trumpet, which renders bit-
ter and poisonous the rivers and fountains, in consequence of which many die,
8: 11. The fourth and fifth trumpets again are symbols of annoyances only ; the
sixth recommences the work of destruction, by horsemen (9: 15), and by earth-
THE SEVEN VIAL8 : ChAP. XVI. 809
quake (11: 15). The seventh nnd last destroys those who have laid loaste the land,
11: 18. In the second catastrophe, all is a succession of annoyances. But under
tlie si.xth vial, the beast and all his coadjutors are gatiiercd into an immense army,
and brought to Armajreddon, that in due time they may be attacked and slaugli-
tered there, Ki: i:? — Hi, coinp. 1'.): ID— 21. The seventh vial occasions thunder,
lightning, tempest, hail, and earthquake, by which great Babylon and all her
tributary cities are reduced to a ^linous state, and the final triumph of the antag-
onist-power is anticipated with certainty. It is the acme of victory, but not the
completing of subjugation and destruction. This last work goes gradualhj on,
until it is finished at last by the " King of kings and Lord of lords" himself, at
the head of his victorious army, !!•: 11 — ~1.
Thus has the author of the book answered the demand of aesthetics for variety
in his composition. But he has accomplished, at the same time, a much more
important work. He has given a sketch which corresponds, with a good degree
of exactness, to the state of facts. The persecuting power of the unbelieving
Jews ceased in the main with the destruction of Jerusalem. Hence the tempest
and earthquake which lay that place in ruins, are the/M«/e of the first catastrophe.
But not so with the second. The death of Nero was indeed the destruction of the
beast, for the time being, and it made a temporary end of persecution. But the
beast still came up again from the pit ; the contest was renewed, and, with many
remissions, continued down to the time of Constantine. Rome, as heathen, then
finally ceased to persecute. The beast was finally slain.
In accordance with these historical facts, we must not fail to notice how faith-
fully drawn the picture before us is. The seventh vial paralyzes the power of
the beast, 1. e. persecution is arrested when Nero dies. But great Babylon is not
yet extinct, although in a ruinous state. The empire is wide, and the shaking of
the capital and the chief cities does not destroy the whole. Hence the subsequent
proclamation in chap, xviii. o^ final extinction, and the picture of the mourners,
when this shall take place. It is only in the course of time (which is not limited),
when the Redeemer himself shall come at the head of his victorious army, that
the final extinction of the power of the beast takes place. And all this, we should
not fail to note, is in accordance with the fate of ancient Babylon. Her ruin was
foretold in Is. xiii. xiv. It is there predicted, that " her time is near to come, and
that her days shall not be prolonged," 13: 2'<J. Yet it was at least seven centuries,
before this was fully and entirely accomplished. But the main work, the capture
of the city, was speedily done. Her fall commenced with this capture, and she
continued to fall until at last she reached the bottom of the gulf of destruction.
So with spiritual Babylon. The pledge, the symbol, or rather the commence-
ment itself, of the final fall of the beast, began with the death of Nero, and the
consequent cessation of persecution. Christianity, then in but an infant state,
soon attained too much manhood and strength to be vanquished. Often was it
attacked and greatly annoyed ; but " the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the
church." The gates of hell could not prevail against it.
Whoever now, instead of looking abroad and suffering his imagination to wan-
der to the ends of the earth for correspondencies, will simply examine the interior
of this book, the concinnity of its plan, its obvious and evident adaptedness to the
state of things then existing, its resemblances to the ancient prophecies, and
above all the object of the writer ; whoever, 1 say, will take the latter course, will
find more regularity and continuity of design and structure in the Apocalypse,
than in any other book of the Bible. How can it be, that the ohjccl of the writer
should lie so conspicuously on the very face of his book throughout, and yet this
310 FIRST AND SECOND VIALS : ChAP. XVL 1 — 3.
object have been so often overlooked or mistaken ? His design is to administer
consolation to the persecuted church. But how could this be accomplished by
merely presenting a syllabus of civil history, or a view of the heresies in the
church that would spring up in future ages? Was this matter of co7isolation ?
And what moral purposes could a syllabus of the civil and heretical history of fu-
ture periods subserve ? But when we view the author as opening before the op-
pressed disciples of his master, the certain prospects of deliverance for the church,
yea of ultimate and universal triumph throughout the world ; and what is still more ,
when we view him as withdrawing the veil which separates eternity from our
view, and disclosing to our astonished and dazzled vision the glories of the New
Jerusalem, the final abode of the faithful, and the preeminence of martyrs there ;
— the congruity, the beauty, the adaptedness to then existing circumstances, the
overpowering persuasiveness and moral excitement of such a picture, are enough
to force us to consider it as coming from a hand that was guided by more than
human skill, and which has executed what has never been surpassed or even ri-
valled.]
(1) And I heard a loud voice from the temple, saying to the seven angels :
Go, and pour out the seven vials of the wrath of God upon the earth.
From the temple, i. e. from God, or the Messiah, who dwells in the
temple above. This is not the only passage where the ovofia acfwvijtov
is omitted; comp. 6: 6. 9: 13. 16: 17. 18: 4. 19: 5. No doubt the sub-
limity of the description is augmented in this way. — 'E-A)^i'aze, Imp. Aor.
for the verb x^co makes an irreg. Fut. ;(£ft), and Aor. I. ex^a, Kiih. § 137.
(2) And the first went, and poured out his vial upon the earth, and there was a
grievous and annoying ulcer upon men who had the mark of the beast, and who
worshipped his image.
For the nature of the ulcer here mentioned, comp. Deut. 28: 27, 35.
The whole of this first plague corresponds with that described in Ex.
9: 8 — 11, as inflicted upon the Egyptians. Thus the punishment com-
mences with loathsome disease.
(3) And the second [angel] poured out his vial into the sea, and it became like
the blood of a dead man, and every living creature in the sea died.
Here is the same image for substance, as is presented in Rev. 8: 8
and Ex. 7: 20 — 25. But the means by which the change to blood is
wrought, are quite diverse from those in 8: 8. Yet the effect is the
same ; and so in Ex. 7: 21. — y^iiicc cog vexqov, either very bloody, like a
mangled corpse, or else, coloured as it were with the dark and almost
black blood of a dead man. — ^Pevxy Cf^'/fe' == ^'^^^ ^P.h Gen. 1: 20, 30,
living creature, for every soul of life must of course mean everything
which possessed life. — The annoyance which this would occasion to men
is obvious. A literal fulfilment is not to be sought after. Sentiment of
verses 2 and 3 : ' The enemies of the church shall be annoyed on the
land and on the sea, i. e. everywhere.'
THIRD AND FOURTH VIALS : ChAP. XVI. 4 — 8. 311
(4) And the third [angel] poured out his vial upon the rivers and fountains of
water, and they became blood.
In 8: 10, 11, a star or comet is said to fall upon the third part of the
rivers and foiiii(ains, and they become bitter and poisonous. Here the
imagery is varied. All the waters that are drinkable become blood;
which, as the sequel shows, is designed to be the punishment of perse-
cutors who must drink it, and the symbol of their guilt and doom. —
EytvtTo, i. e. ra vSutcc fytyeio.
(5,6) And I lieard the an<T(>l of the waters saying: Righteous art thoUj wlio
art and wast ; holy [art tliou] because thou hast thus judged! For the blood of
saints and prophets have they shed, and blood liast thou given them to drink.
They deserve it !
So I divide the clauses in the first part of the verse, for so the sense
appears to demand. To join them thus : T/ioii art and loast holy, seems
incongruous, and fails in the proper apportioinnent of the clauses. — The
angel of the icaters \s Y>\vim\y i\\Q angel who presides over the element
of water; see Exc. 1. 1. 5. — Jinaiog,jiist, viz. in the way of retribution.
— '0 av xaJ 6 i]v = ifin"^ , the self-existent God. — "Oaiog here as hating
sin, adverse to all impurity. — "Ey.Qtvag, lit. hast condemned, but here in
the secondary sense 2iun{shed or executed judgment. — nQO<j)t]zdjv means
here the distinguished inspired teachers of Christianity ; comp. 1 Cor.
14: 3 seq. It should be noted also, that the angel who presides over the
rivers and fountains of water, and keeps them pure and wholesome, does
not complain, in this case, that they have been disturbed, but fully re-
cognizes the justice of God in thus rewarding those who have loved to
shed blood.
(7) And 1 heard the altar saying : Yea, Lord God Almighty, faithful and just
are thy judgments !
Angel of the altar must of course be implied here by the word -O^vaia-
GtrfQiov, or him of the altar, which would amount to the same thing.
See Exc. 1. ut supra. — '^Xtj&ivai, true, i. e. in accordance with threat-
enings to the wicked and promises to the righteous, therefore faithful,
exhibiting good faith. — The angel of the altar is here introduced as con-
firming the declarations of the angel of the waters ; and inasmuch as tlie
altar stands in the temple above, in the immediate presence of the God-
head, so confirmation from such a source shows at once that all is ap-
proved by the Court of Heaven. Comp. a like confirmation in 5: 14.
(8) And the fourth [angel] poured out his vial upon the sun, and it was given
to him to scorch men with vehement heat.
The seven angels are regarded as retaining their station in the upper
region. Of course the sun can easily be reached from this station. The
312 FIFTH AND SIXTH VIALS : Chap. XVL 9 — 12.
sun, thus smitten, sends out the fiercest and most scorching rays, which
the author names 7ivQ,Jire, inasmuch as the word navfiu would not suf-
fice for the intensity demanded. The Sirocco, the stroke of the sun, the
mirage, all serve to aid us in conceiving of the nature of the plague thus
inflicted. In chap. 8: 7, a rain of hail and Jlre and blood burns up a
third part of all the productions of the earth; while in 8: 12 the fourth
angel sounds his trumpet, and one third part of the heavenly luminaries
are darkened. Here then is quite a variation of the imagery. — But
what is the effect of this grievous judgment ?
(9) And men were sorely scorched, and they blasphemed the name of the God
who hath power over these plagues, and repented not so as to give glory to him.
'Enavjiazla&tjaav . . . ^avfia fisya, belongs to a class of expressions,
where the act. voice governs two Accusatives, Gramm. § 104. 1. a ;
and the passive retains the latter, lb. § 105, see Kijhner, § 558, a, a. —
/Jovvai avzc^ do^ar, so as to give = cocTe dovvat etc. ; for the Inf. mode
may express either design or sequence. However great their griefs or
sufferings were, they did not bring them to such an attitude of mind as
made them submissive, nor inspire them with filial awe ; comp. 9: 20,
21, and apparently the converse of this in 11: 13. But see the Comm.
there.
(10, 11) And the fifth [angel] poured out his vial upon the throne of the beast,
and his kingdom was darkened, and men gnawed their tongues by reason of pain ;
and they blasphemed the God of heaven because of their pains and their ulcers,
and repented not of their works.
The throne of the beast does not here mean merely the emperor's chair
of state, but the metropolis, i. e. the place where the throne was, the cen-
tral point of the empire. Darkness overspreads this, which is the em-
blem of doom arid terror. From the metropolis this spreads out over all
parts of the empire. Men are so grieved and tormented by it, (comp. the
darkness of Egypt which could be felt, Ex. 10: 21 — 23), that they
gnawed their tongues through pain, i. e. vexation ; a most significant
expression of the writhings of anguish. — As before (v. 9), they blaspheme
God ix, on account of, by reason of, their anguish, etc. "With the dis-
tress occasioned by the darkness, is here also associated the ulcerations
under which they still laboured ; see v. 2 above. — Kal ov ixsravorjaav
in T. SQ. avTwv, an elliptical expression, or at any rate a constructio praeg-
nans ; They repented not [and turned not] from their works ; see on 9:
20, where the same formula occurs.
(12) And the sixth angel poured out his vial upon the great river Euphrates,
and the water thereof was dried up, so that the way for kings from the rising of
the sun mightbe prepared.
The circumstance of drying up the Euphrates, so as to give the kings
SIXTH VIAL : Chap. XVI. 13, 14. 313
of the East an easy passajje through it, has its basis, no doubt, in the
dividing of the waters of the Red Sea, that the children of Israel might
pass through. See expressions of the same tenor in Is. 11: 15, where
the Nih^ is spoken of as diri'ded, in order to become passable for the re-
turning Jews. But why the ki>if/s of the East ? Plainly because Par-
thia and her allies were then the only powers that could {)retend to rival
the Romans in the strife of war. The Parthians often drove back, and
at last confined, the Romans to the western bank of the Euphrates, re-
taining the dominion of Middle Asia for themselves. The Apocalyptist,
therefore, here threatens war upon the Roman empire, by the only pow-
er which then could make it with any prospect of success. Even to the
western parts of Asia had the Parthians sometimes urged their invasion
and conquests. It is not necessary to suppose a literal prediction and
fiiltilment here. Enough that the symbol employed is exceedingly sig-
nificant. The Roman empire must be attacked, divided, weakened, by
enemies ; and this is most significantly expressed here, by adverting to
the only enemies which, when this book was written, were able to make
any impression uiwn that empire.
Ewald and others suppose, that John had in view here the hariolation
which predicted, that Nero should flee to the East, and there rouse up
and unite many kingdoms, and then come and invade Italy and burn
Rome. Possibly this may be so ; but it is not necessary to suppose all
this. Enough that John employs imagery, or a symbol, which was very
significant ; and that he does this for the reasons already given. There
can be no doubt, indeed, that such an expectation about Nero was dif-
fused extensively in the East ; as the passages from the Sibylline Ora-
cles (see in first part of Exc. III.) and other writings abundantly show.
But John is here predicting a reality, something which will take place,
not merely, as in some other cases, saying something concerning Nero
which might serve to make him known to his readers. He does not in-
deed describe such a reality, as his words would designate if literally un-
derstood, but one in the sense above stated.
Filled with apprehension at the approach of this formidable enemy,
the beast summons all his energies to prepare for combat. His coadju-
tors, also, are roused up by him to make earnest efforts in order to
accomplish the same end. So the sequel :
(13, 14) And I saw, from the mouth of the dragon and fiom the mouth of the
beast and from the mouth of the false prophet, three unclean spirits, like frogs,
(for they are spirits of demons working miracles), which go forth to the kings of
the whole world, to gather them together to the battle of that great day of God
Almighty.
Here a new symbol is introduced, by the exigency of the occasion.
The beast, Satan, and the false prophet, breathe forth evil demons from
VOL. II. 40
314 THE SEVEN VIALS : Chap. XVI. 14.
their mouths, who go out and enter into the kings that were subject to
the Roman power, possess them, and influence them to unite with the
beast in one great effort to meet and crush the coming enemy. These
Spirits are compared to frogs, because this animal was detested as
unclean and annoying. Perhaps the noise and bluster which they
make were in the mind of the writer, as an object of comparison with
the boasting and noisy pretences of the heathen hierophants.
For they are the spirits of demons working miracles, i. e. the unclean
spirits sent forth are in reality of demoniacal disposition, being such as
work false or pretended miracles in order to deceive men. Of course
they are substantially of the same character as the second beast, whose
chief efforts seem to be made in the way of false miracles ; see 13: 13
— 15. And the work assigned to these demoniacal agents is altogether
congruous. In what way could men in general be so effectually mis-
led, and held fast to their heathen superstitions, as by showing them
that the gods whom they worshipped could bestow miraculous powers ?
By so doing, they seemed to give convincing evidence of their reality
and their supremacy. When the Christian appealed to the miracles
wrought in his church, the heathen would say : ' We stand upon gi'ound
equally tenable. Our gods everywhere display their efficiency.' Con-
sequently there was no one thing which demoniacal influence could
accomplish, that was more injurious to the interests of Christianity, or
more delusive to the heathen, than the so-called miracles of the heathen
priests and prophets. Nothing, moreover, would serve more effectually
to keep up the spirit of persecution and bitterness against Christianity,
than the apparent miracles of the heathen hierophants ; and conse-
quently we might expect, that the influence of demons, who were of
such a character as the text describes, would be directed to unite all
the heathen with the beast, in his attempts to destroy the Christian
church.* ,
* In Eisenmeng'er, Jud. Entd. II. p. 406, is a passage respecting an evil spirit,
(from tlie book Manse, c. 43), which speaks of his appearing to Rabbi Channina
in the shape of a. frog ; and in Artemidorus, Oneirocrit. II. 15, frogs are repre-
sented as the symbols of evil spirits. John is not singular, then, in the choice of
a symbol liere. The idea of demoniacal possession was very familiar to tlie Jews ;
as is apparent everywhere from the Gospels. So the a ixTroQu'srat denotes, first,
the procttding forth from the mouths of the dragon, beast, and false prophet ; then,
secondly, tlie entrance into or upon (tni) the confederate kings, etc. By false
miracles, and by their influence on these kings, they persuade them to unite with
the beast in his war upon the church; comp. 17; 12 — 15,17. Ewald, on the
contrary, represents the kings and the beast as united here to attack Rome ; com-
paring chap. 17: 16, and at the same time referring to the hariolation, that Nero,
after his banishment, would return from the East, associated with many kings,
and would overthrow and burn the city of Rome. But the tenor of the context
here, also v. 16, and chap. 19: 19, eeem to speak plainly against such an inter-
THE SEVEN VIALS : Chap. XVI. 15. 315
The day of Je/iotnh, n"!T> D""', is everywhere in the O. Testament a
name for a dot/ ofet'ii, and mostly one of sore punishment. See the
great day of the Lord in Zeph. 1: 14 — 18, and comp. Ezek. 13: 5. Joel
1: 15. 2; 11. Is. 1.'3: 6 et al. The Apocalyptist has added to O^tov the
attributive naPToy.Q('(rono>;, in order to increase the intensity of his rep-
resentation, and to show tlie absolute certainty of victory over the ene-
mies of the churcli.
When the author joins fxei'pt^g with tjfAtQag, he means of course to
render the latter word emphatic and distinctive. So the same phrase-
ology is employed in Matt. 7: 22. 2G: 29. Acts. 2: 18. 2 Thes. 1: 10,
where it refers to the day of Christ's coming. So here, reference must
be made to a day, i. c. a time, well understood by Christians, when
Christ would appear in vindication of his disciples, and to the terror
and confusion of his enemies.
It should also be noticed here, that oixovftt'vtjg oXr^g = the Roman
empire, (comp. Acts 17: 6. 24: 5. Jos. Antiq. XII. 3. 1. Herodian, V.
2. 5), is placed in opposition to the dno dvaroXcov in v. 12 ; which
makes still more decidedly against the exegesis of Ewald. The mean-
ing is not, that the demoniacal spirits collect the army for the purpose
of its being punished, but for the purposes of giving battle to opposed
or hostile forces, viz. those from the East. The battle however must,
under the control of an irresistible Providence, be one in which the
power of Almighty God will be displayed in punishing his enemies ;
although this is very different from what these enemies intend or ex-
pect.
(15) Behold I come as a thief. Blessed is he who watcheth, and keepeth his
garments, that he may not walk naked, and men see liis shame.
An interjectional clause, which* should be read as parenthetic, for it
does not divert the general current of the discourse. The practical
bearing of the writer's mind here develops itself. Having announced
the certain coming of the Messiah to destroy this great army of the
beasts, he distinctly warns Christians here, that he will come cog xXs'tz-
t7]g, i. e. silent, sudden, unexpected ; see, on this expression, under 3:
3. He means to say : Let Christians be on the watch, and live con-
tinually in a state of readiness to receive their Lord and Master, at his
coming, in a proper manner. He wills that no one, because he has
promised deliverance, should remit for a moment his entire vigilance.
prclalion. Tlie alarm of the beast on seeing the hostile demonstrations from
beyond the Euphrates, accounts for his efforts to concentrate all his forces. Be-
sides ; the battle of the srrcat day of God JilmiirlUij, can mean only a battle in which
the punishment of the dragon, beast, and false prophet, and of all their coadjutors,
will be inflicted.
316 SEVENTH vial: Chap. XVI. 16, 17.
He who is guilty of such remission, will be like to the man, who, tiot
expecting the thief, lays his garments aside and gives himself to sleep.
In the mean time the thief comes, and takes them away, and then he is
obliged to go forth naked, and thus to be exposed in that state to the
gaze of men. So will it be with the unfaithful and heedless disciple.
When his Lord shall come, and summon him to service in the great
contest, he will have no armour for the day of battle, nor any costume
which will fit him to stand in the ranks of tried and faithful and vigilant
soldiers.
(16) And they gathered them together at the place, which is called in Hebrew,
Armageddon.
The verb avvriyayev, in the sing, number, corresponds to ixnoQeverai
in V. 14, and both agree (as usual) with the neut. plur. nvevimza.
This is evidently the right construction here ; for it is first said of the
evil spirits, that they went forth to gather together, etc., and then, that they
did gather together, etc. — ^vrovg means of course the (tributary) kings of
the whole empire, v. 14. — The place, Armageddon, is ominous of the
result of the battle. The meaning is, the mount of Megiddo, Tnw ifi .
Megiddo was a village in the hilly country near to mount Tabor. Thei'e
Deborah and Barak destroyed Sisera and his host, Judg. 5: 19 ; there
king Josiah was slain by the invader from Egypt, 2 K. 23: 29, 30.
2 Chron. 35: 22. But what the author particularly had his eye upon,
was probably the passage in Zech. 12: 11, which speaks of a future and
a great mourning over the slain in the valley of Megiddo. Into a val-
ley ominous of overthrow and slaughter, then, the unclean spirits, un-
der the special guidance of a superintending Providence (comp. 17: 17),
conduct the assembled forces of the beast and his allies ; and there in
due time they come to a final end (see 19: 19 seq.), by the interposition
of an almighty Conqueror.
In the mean time, the metropolis, and all the great cities of the con-
federate kings, receive, at the pouring out of the seventh vial, a deadly
blow. And thus is the way prepared for the destruction of the beast,
i. e. for the final conquest of all the pagan powers.
(17) And the seventh [angel] poured out his vial upon the air, and there went
forth a loud voice from the temple [of heaven], from the throne, saying : It is done.
Upon the air. The first view which one takes of this expression,
would rather incline him to suppose that the dominions of the prince of
the power of the air is here invaded ; see Exc. I. II. c. But the sequel
does not appear definitely to recognize this. It seems more probable,
that we are to regard the air in this case as the element, by which
is to be engendered the dreadful storm that follows, which is to over-
SEVENTH VIAL : Chap. XVI. 18 — 20. 317
throw the principal cities of the beast and his confederates. The aj)pro-
priateness of this, when viewed in such a liglit, cannot well be denied.—
From the temple wouhl leave undecided whether the voice was that of God,
or of an angel in his presence ; but ilno rov {^qovov decides this point, and
is a clause in apposition designedly for the purpose of explanation. It
decides that God himself is the speaker. — Ftyovf., a Perf. tense, in order
to denote the full certainty of the destruction threatened, i. e. it is as though
it had been already contemplated. Such a use of the Perfect even the
classic writers make.
(18) And there wpre lightninirs, ntid loud thunders ; and there wag a great
earthquake, such as never was tVom the time when men were upon the earth,
such an earthquake, so great.
fhwiai KM ^Qovrai', Hendiadys, for thundering noises ; see on 4: 5.
The thunder of course follows the lightning. — The great earthquake seems
here to be the rocking of the earth by reason of the thunder.— ^^qp' ov,
i. e. UTio iQovnv ov. — Men icere itpon the earth, i. e. from the time when
men were first created. — Ti]XrAovtog, such in an emphatic sense. — Ovzoj
ft^'yag, so great, adding to the emphasis, and pointing out the particular
in which this earthquake differed from all others. The whole phrase is
plainly designed to convey an idea of intensity. ■
(19) And the great city was severed into three parts, and the cities of the na-
tions fell ; and Babylon the great was remembered before God, tliat he should
give to her the cup of Uie wine of his fierce indignation.
'Eyi'mo . . . c<V tqiu nfQq, became three parts, the number three being
used, as everywhere in this book, in a symbolical way. The meaning
is, that the city was severed and broken in pieces, so that the whole was
reduced to a ruinous state. But perhaps the meaning is, that chasms
in the earth divided the parts of the city ; comp. v. 20.^ The cities of the
nations fell, i. e. the capital cities of the confederate kings, the allies of
the beast (v. 14, and 17: 13, 14, 17), were also reduced to a ruinous
state ; for eneaov here is nearly equivalent to iytvero . . . tig zQia fiSQij
in the preceding clause, as to its generic meaning. — /Jovvai, elliptically
for avTOP dovrai or caozi: avtov dovvui, or simply as the Inf. of explica-
tion. Brachylogy of course may supersede the smaller words, which
are implied. — The cup of his fierce indignation, see on 14: 10, where is
the like phrase. Meaning : Gk>d remembered the crimes of Babylon,
so as to bring awful and exemplary punishment upon her.
(20) And every island fled, and the mountains were found no more.
The same circumstances are mentioned in Rev. 6: 12 — 14, as being
the sequel of the great earthquake there mentioned. An effect not un-
common of severe earthquakes is, to sink islands and mountains. To
318 ECONOMY OF Chap. XVII.
this the writer adverts ; while, at the same time, the circumstances are
to be here regarded as serving principally the purpose of heightening
the description of the scene. See on 6: 12 — 14.
(21) And great hail, as of a talent's weight, fell from heaven upon men ; and
men blasphemed the God of heaven because of the plague of the hail, for the
plague was exceedingly great.
Takavtiaia, weighing a talent, or equal in weight to a talent. The
Attic talent was about 57 lbs. troy weight; the Jewish talent about 114
lbs. troy. Understood in either way, the horrors of such a storm are
inconceivably great. The blasphemy that followed, from the worship-
pers of the beast who were still impenitent, is a natural circumstance.
— The imagery of the hail here is not novel ; see 11: 19. Ex. 9: 22 —
26. Ps. 78: 47. 105: 32. Josh. 10: 11 al.
In the effects of the storm here described, which came from the air
on which the vial was poured out, it is easy to see the pledge of what
is predicted by ytyove. The work of destruction is not indeed com-
pleted ; but it is begun in such a way that the pagan nations must be
greatly disheartened, and the followers of the Lamb encouraged.
ECONOMY OF CHAP. XVII.
[The careful reader, who is looking out for all the developments of an
author's plan, when he reads his work, will find here matter of comparison
with the closing part of the Jirst catastrophe. There, tlie last or seventh
seal is subdivided into seven portions, each of which is marked by the suc-
cessive sound of so many trumpets. For variety's sake, or for some other
reason to which the author of the Apocalypse has not adverted, he has
omitted any exact correspondence between the second and the first catas-
tro]ihe, in tliis respect. We have, in the second catastrophe, only one se-
ries of seven, viz. of the vials. But still we have, as a sequel to the last
vial, a succession of events which occupy no inconsiderable portion of the
book. Thus 16: 18 — 21, and chap, xviii. and xix, are occupied with dis-
closing the sequel of the outpouring of the last vial. In respect to delay,
then, there is some correspondence worthy of note between the completing
of the first catastrophe and that of the second. In the first, much delay
follows the breaking of the seventh seal, before destruction is completed ;
in the second, the case_is the same, but it is not marked, as in the first, by
a new series of sevens.
Let the reader mark well, moreover, the episodes in chap. x. xi. 1 — 14,
which delay the final action, in order to render it the more interesting. So
here ; chap. xvii. is wholly occupied with an explanatory vision, designed
for the purpose of making the reader understand whose destruction it is
which is going on. Then comes another advance in the development of
the main action, in 18: 1 — 7. Then follows a second episode, containing
ECONOMY OP Chap. XVII. 319
the lament over tlie fall of Babylon ; all of which is^atter of interest, and
is also relevant and confrnious, althon^h it does not nmke advances toward
the tinai ratastroplie. In lt<; *^1 seq. we have another solemn assurance of
xlw final liill of Bain ion ; just as before, in respect to the fall of si)iritual
Soddm, a repeated assurance is piven in 10: 5 — 7. In ID: 1 — 10 we hear
the antici|mtive shout of victory amontr the hosts of heaven, just as in 11:
1.1 — n^Yand then conies the fuial catastrophe, with its sublime and awful
accompaniments, as in II: 11>, bui with more particularity and more demon-
strations of jiower. This accords well witii tiie natine of the case. The
first catastiophe respecttil a little province only of the Roman empire; the
second has respect to niida i] olxovuinj — ti> the preat o7i/ ii'hich holdeth domin-
ion over the kings of the earth, 17: 18. Can we rationally doul)t, with .such tiicts
as these before us, that the writer intended his readers should rcirard him
as settins^ before their minds two distinct and successive catastro|)hes?
If critics would examine more minutely the ])\au of this book, and the
execution of that plan; the relative bearings of one part on another, and
the similarity which is still apparent amid all its variety ; if they would then
advert to the tricholotni/ which extends not only to its general arrangement,
but to almost all its minuter portions; I do not well see how they could
adopt the opinion, that there is but ojic catastrophe. Spiritual Sodom, great
Babylon, and Gog and 3Iagog, exhibit a trichotomy as distinct as represen-
tation can make it. See § 7 in Vol. I.
As to the manner in which the contents of this chapter harmonize with
the general plan of the work, and as to what the general design of it is with
respect to the reader, enough has been already said above. I have only to
suggest here, that a new scene, i. e. a new place of vision and symbols in
most respects new are here introduced, for the sake of designating the ob-
jects which the writer designs to explain, and at the same time of distin-
guishing this episode from the general tenor of the context. Some of the
symbols adopted for explanation, would in themselves be quite as difficult
for us to understand as those of which they are designed to be an explana-
tion ; so that if we were left merely with them, one might feel that the ex-
planation was perhaps darker than the text. But the angel-interpreter, who
accompanies John throughout this vision, has expressly undertaken an ex-
planation of the symbols. Yet even this is such, that most readers of the
present day probably find no more obscure chapter in all the Apocalypse
I than the seventeentli, which is inserted exj)ressly for the pm-|)ose of expla-
nation. Yet this simple fact, viz., that it was written for such a purpose,
ought to lead us to suspect, that the difficulty lies more in ourselves than
in the writer. Were we placed in the circumstances of the first readers of
the Apocalypse, will any one doubt that we might be able to understand
the writer? He wrote, not oidy in order that he might be read, hut also
that he. might be understood. Why then should we suppose, that a mind
like his would not accomplish its design ? I must believe that it did. Yet
the difficulties under which the writer laboured, and which have frequent-
ly been adverted to in the preceding Jiages, were very great. He could not
speak ojienly, [)lainly, and fidly, without bringing himself, and all his read-
ers, under tiie cognizance of the watchful Roman governor. What he could
consistently do to make his meaning plain, he has done. And yet, living
at such a distance as we do from the sphere of action in w hich the writer
320 EXPLANATORY VISION : Chap. XVII. 1, 2.
moved, and unacquainted as we are with many minute circumstances of
the times, it may be difficult now, and perhaps impossible, to obtain full
satisfaction in respect to some parts of the author's vision. Certain it is,
that if we neglect the history of the times when the Apocalypse was writ-
ten, and in particular the history of Nero and the Neronic persecutiorf, we
can do nothing more than merely guess at the meaning of some parts of
chap. xvii. On the other hand, if we are willing that history should aid us
in unfolding the meaning of dark phrases; if we take into view the special
object of the chapter before us, viz. the purpose of explanation, and not the
advancement of the main action of the drama ; if we allow a reference to
popular belief merely for the purpose and in the way of explanation, (and
not of prediction) ; then most of the darkness that seems to rest on chap,
xvii. will be dissipated, and the whole become a continuous, consistent, and
really explanatory vision. The course now indicated is that which I feel
bound to pursue ; and if the reader does not assent to all that I may pro-
pose, he knows at least that he has the liberty of thinking and of judging
for himself]
(1) And there came one of the seven angels, who had the seven vials, and
spake with me, saying: Come, 1 will show thee the condemnation of the great
whore, who sitteth over many waters.
Inasmuch as these seven angels had been commissioned with the
work of destruction, they must of course have well understood the pur-
pose and object of their operations. Appropriately is one of them com-
missioned to perform the task of explanation to John. Ei>; = tig here ;
and so elsewhere, i. e. a certain one. — 'Ex renders the following Gen.
more specific. — Ju^a, I will show, \iz. by signs or symbols; for the
word is particularly' adapted to signify this. — Trig fifydlrjg as the epithet
of the harlot, because she is mistress of an almost boundless dominion,
and possesses great wealth, splendour, and power, and by all this is dis-
tinguished from harlots in general ; or iAEydXi]g may be sarcastic here,
in reference to ^a^vloiv ij fAeyuXtj. — Over many waters is explained, in
V. 15, as meaning over many nations. The multitude and the bound-
less extent of the ocean-waters probably gave rise to this metaphor or
symbol. Certain it is, that the Jewish Rabbies frequently employ it ;
see "Wetst. on v. 15, and Eisenm. Judenthum, I. p. 771.
(2) With whom the kings of the earth have committed fornication, and they
who inhabit the earth have become drunk by the wine of her fornication.
See the remarks on 14: 8, where the like phraseology occurs. Sen-
4inient : * Rome, wholly given to idolatry and to worshipping the beasit,
has allured and seduced all its tributary nations to do the same.' So
Babylon, Ninive, Tyre, etc., are represented as harlots by the 0. Tes-
tament prophets ; Nah. 3: 4. Is. 23: 17. In Jer. 51: 7 is the prototype
of the verse before us.
^
EXPLANATORY VISION: Chap. XVII. 3, 4. 321
(3) And he brought me smri^aljj into a desert ; and I saw a woman sitting
upon a scarlet bonst, full ofthe names of l>las[>lieniv, havinjT seven heads and
ten horns.
EU' idfiioy, into a desert, appropriate to symbolize the future condi-
tion of tlie beast,-^7w' nrevfian, mentally, spirituaUy ; couip. h t/j ond-
GH in 9: 17, and iv nnvfiuti in 1: 10. The writer means to say, that
he was mentaUi/, but not cor[)oreally, brought into a desert. — rvvatxu
etc., ahogether in the manner of the O. Testament proi)hets, who every-
where personify jri-eat cities by women ; see v. 18. — Scarlet beast, be-
cause red or scarlet is a symbol of its bloody disposition. — Full of blaS'
phemous names, corap. 13: 1, where the same beast is described in the
same way. The blasphemous names are doubtless to be regarded as
inscribed on the frontlets of each head, corap. 13: 1 ; they are blasphe-
mous, because they ascribe to man that which belongs only to God. —
Having sei-en heads and ten honis identifies this beast with that describ-
ed in 13: 1 seq. See on the words there.
(4) And the woman was clothed in purple and scarlet, and adorned with gold
and precious stones and pearls, holding a golden cup in her hands, filled with
abominations, even the impurities of her fornication;
Purple and scarlet were the chosen colours for display and magnifi-
cence of dress ; comp. Ezek. 28: 13. Is. 47: 1, 2, 8. Such display is
appropriate to the character named. The colour moreover is symbolic,
as explained above. — TloQq: vQavv and noxxivov are both adjectives, agree-
ing with 7TtQifi).i;ua implied. — Ks/Qvaoifii\>i, lit. inaurata, gilt, but as
we express it, adorned. — Holding a golden cup in her hand is appro-
priate ; for she makes the nations to drink. — Full of abominations, i. e.
filled with an intoxicating draught that leads to the commission of many
abominations. — The construction yt'fioy ^idiXvyfidroir, xai rd «x«v>«ora,
first a Gen. and then an Ace. after yi'^ior, is singular. The first inquiry
naturally seems to be, whether we may not read f/ovaa noz/'joior . . .
xa) rd di(d&aQTa, making the latter dependent on e)[ovGa. But this
seems to give ajess tolerable sense ; although "VVolfijjs adopts it. Ewald
assigns the latter consTruction to the class of Hebraisms ; for in Hebrew
vih^ (= yt'fwf) governs the Ace. ; so that we have here both a genuine
Greek and Hebrew construction. To avoid this, some copies read
dxa&dQTtjTo^ {Gren.) ; but Wolfius says that no such Greek word can
be found. y/xa9aQGiu is the word employed to express the idea in
question. If dxd&uQTU be made to refer to some attractive ornaments
or symbols adapted to rouse the sensual passions, we may then, with
AVolfius, join it to rj^ovau ; or we may regard it as in apposition with
TtoxijOiov, and exegetical of its meaning, as I have done in the version. .
VOL. II. 41
322 EXPLANATORY VISION : Chap. XVII. 5, 6.
(5) And upon her forehead was a name jjnysteriously written : Babylon the
Great ; (the mother of iiarlots, and of the abominations of the earth).
The inscription of names on the forehead is a frequently recurring
idea, in this book; see 2: 17. 7: 1—5. 14: 1 ; also 19: 12. 13: 1. 17: 3.
So in respect to the woman, i. e. Rome, in the present case. But here,
this is rather to lead the reader to consider who the woman is, than for
any other purpose. — Mystery our English version has translated and
pointed as though it were a part of the inscription itself on the forehead.
This however seems to me very doubtful. Why not translate, a name
written mysteriously, i. e. x«r« fivazi^Qiov, Ace. adverbial ? And what is
the mysteriously written name ? It is Babylon, etc. Now as Babylon
is not the proper name of the city intended, so the name is mysteriously
employed, and requires some investigation to find out its true sense.
But if the word [xvatijoiov be taken as a part of the inscription itself,
then still the writer, by affixing such an epithet, designs to give his
readers notice, that the name inscribed is not the real and proper name.
The last clause, the mother of harlots, etc., I have pointed in such a
way as to indicate, that it is an exclamation of the author, and not a
part of the inscription. Is it probable, that Babylon would thus openly
and shamelessly wear a frontlet proclaiming such a character ? Her
pride and vain-glory would forbid it. But the title, Babylon the Great,
she might well be supposed to assume ; and nothing was more natural
than for the author to subjoin, by way of comparison and for the sake
of illustrating the mystery: "The mother of harlots, i. e. the chief or
leader of all harlots, and of the abominations of the earth !"
(6) And I saw the woman drunk with the blood of the saints, and with the
blood of the martyrs of Jesus; and seeing her I wondered much.
The phraseology is derived from the barbarous custom, (still extant
among many pagan nations), of drinking the blood of enemies slain in
the way of revenge. Here then the fury of the persecutors is depicted
in a most graphic manner. Blood is drunk by them even to intoxica-
tion, i. e. copiously, in great quantities. The effect of drinking blood is
said to be, to exasperate and to intoxicate with passion and a desire of
vengeance. But the copiousness of the draught, and so the extent and
bitterness of persecution, is particularly marked by the expression here.
— 'And I wondered much, the verb and conjugate noun expressing, as
usual, intensity of action. — The repetition of £x zov aliiazog, and so of
like circumstances, is specially characteristic of this book, and is a trait
of Hebraism; comp. 16: 13.
EXPLANATORY VISION : Chap. XVII. 7, 8. 328
(7) And till' nnifol said to nif : Why dost Ihoii wonder .' I will toll thoe tlie
mystery of tlio woman, and of the beast wfiieli beareth her, which Imth seven
heads and ten horns.
Twill tell thee, etc. The symbols groffereillo the view of John, were
not in themselves indications sutTicientl}' explicit of what was meant.
But they afforded a basis fur explanation ; and on this basis the angel-
interpreter builds his erlaircissement. The model of this part of the
machinery of the Apocalypse, (if I may be allowed the expression), is
found in Zechariah, Daniel, and Ezekiel. — /liatl i&aviiaaag, lit. wki/
hast thou marvelled, referring rather to what had been done, than to
what was now doing. The Pres. tense might have been used ; but the
Aor. is more cpurteous here. — Twill tell thee the mystery, i. e. I will ex-
plain to thee that which now seems so mysterious or dark, and which
has excited so much wonder. Comp. 7: 13, 14, for the like occurrence.
(8) The beast which thou sawest, was, and is not, and will come up from the
abyss, and go to destruction ; and those who dwell on the earth will wonder,
whose names are not written in the book of life from the foundation of the world,
when they see the beast, that he was, and is not, and will make his a|)pearance.
The beast (not the woman) is first characterized, as being, after all,
the most important particular of the symbols. Plainly here the reign-
ing emperor is characterized, so that beast, although in itself a generic
appellation marking the imperial poioer of Rome, may, like our words
Majesty, Excellency, Honour, Worship, etc., be employed at any time
in a specific sense. So it plainly is employed here, because the object
here is to explain who and what is meant by the beast in the former
visions. It would be needless to repeat here what has been already
said under chap. 13: 3, and will be s^'in Exc. III. The well known
hariolation respecting Nero, thaWie' would be assassinated, and disap-
peJtr liji:-* while, and then make his appearance again to the confusion
of all his enemies, solves the apparent enigma before us. What the
angel says, seems to be equivalent to this : * The beast means the Ro-
man emperors, specifically Nero, of whom the report si)read throughout
the empire is, that he will revive, after being apparently slain, and will
come as it were from the abyss or Hades ; but he will still perish, and
that speedily. The beast symbolizes him of whom it is said, that all
the world will wonder at and worship him, when they see him thus re-
turned, as they suppose, from the under-world— that is, all whose names
have not been inscribed in the book of life before the world was made.'
In respect to the tenses here employed — Ijv, ova ean, fif'Xhi uvaiiai-
vttr — prophetic style pays little regard indeed to the chronological order
of events. The beast of a past time, of a present one, or of a future
time, might be spoken of equally well, (as every one must know who
324 EXPLANATORY VISION : Chaf. XVIL 8.
has critically read the Hebrew prophets), in the manner exhibited by
our text. Nothing important can be made out of this, either for or
against the fact, that Nero was living or dead when the Apocalypse was
written.
And they shall wonder, etc. Here the special cause of wonder seems
to be, that tlie beast has as it were risen from the dead. But is this a
part of what the angel, or John, predicts as a matter which will be ac'
tual fact? That wonder, or superstitious reverence for Nero, was
greatly augmented by the story of the soothsayers respecting his future
fate and fortune, there can be no good reason to doubt. But what has
already been said, more than once, should be recalled to mind here, viz.
that the object of this chapter is explanation. The grand problem to
be solved is : "Who is meant by the beast ? The solution offered is :
* He is meant, of whom it has long been reported, that he will speedily
disappear, and then reappear and be the object of general wonder.' I
will not say, that immediately after Nero's death, what is here said
might not have been uttered by John ; but plainly it is more appropriate
and probable, if uttered during his life ; because his death must speedily
give the intelhgent public information of a satisfactory kind, that the
vaticination concerning the tyrant was not true. In this case, there
would bB less temptation to refer to the oracular declaration ; for the
story told by it would soon become distrusted by many. But indepen-
dently of all this, the Apocalypse throughout purports to be written in-
gruenti persecutione ; how then could it be written after the death of
Nero f At all events, the writing must have been executed so speedily
after his death, that time had not been given to circulate the news
of it.
Whose names are not written, etc. ; see the explanation, in remarks
on chap. 13: 8. — BXetiovzcov to ■&tjQiov x. t. ).. The construction is
unusual, at least not very common. The Gen. absolute (as the Gen.
here may be) is usually employed, when a clause is inserted the sub-
ject of which is diverse from that of the main sentence. But here the
subject of the Gen. ^lenortoiv and of the verb {^^uvfidoovrai are the
same. This construction, however unusual, is still admissible ; and it
is found among the very best Greek writers ; see Gramm. § 172. 2. I
have rendered [iXenovTOJv as containing the adsignification of time, viz.
when; see Gramm. § 169. 3.
Kai nuQearai in many Codd. reads naimq iotiv, i. e. although he is,
or is alive. The meaning of the whole phrase would then be : The
beast was, and is not, i. e. has disappeared, although he is, viz. is still ex-
tant. There is no special objection to such a meaning ; but naqsatai
is better established, and is admitted by Griesbach, Knapp, Lachmann,
and Hahn. Moreover nuqaatai is only an exchange of phraseology
EXPLAKATORT VISION : Chap. XVII. 9, 10. 325
for the preceding ^itXXei avu^aivnv ex ri}<i dj^vaaov, and as such is in
itself altogether more probable than xainto iaxtv.
(11) Here is a nu-aning which coiii|)risc'tli wibdoiii. Tlie seven heads are seven
mountains on wliich the woiiiiin &HWlh.
An unseemly division of the sense is made here, by means of the
verse, vHwk should end with ancflav. I understand wSe as referring to
what precedes. Tiie writer or speaker means to say, that in what he
has said about the beast, there is something which demands special sa-
gacity in order to explain it. In other words ; it is not to be taken as
a prophetic declaration on the part of the speaker, after the ordinary
manner of symbols in the vision, but as having a peculiar meaning in
reference to the wide spread oracular declarations with regard to the
beast or Nero. Specification, then, and not prediction, is the main ob-
ject here.
If any one objects to this, we may ask Avhy John could not as well
appeal in such a way to popular opinion, as the Saviour does to the
casting out of demons by the sons of the Pharisees, or to the roaming ot
evil spirits tlirough desert places ? An argumentum ex concessis is not
forbidden, in some cases ; particularly when, as here, it is employed
only for illustration. But see in Exe. III.
The seven heads are seven mountains (or hills) on which the woman
sits. This is one mode of coming at the dilucidation of the visions.
Septicollis Roma was famous tTie-world over, and no room is left here
for mistake about the place. The woman, i. e. the city (v. 18), sits on
these, i. e. Rome is built on seven hills. The beast with seven heads
bears the woman ; and the seven heads being taken (as they are here) as
emblems of hills, and the woman as the symbol of the great city, all is
plain.
(10) And there are seven kings. Five have fallen ; one is ; the other has not
yet come, and when he comes he will remain but a little time.
The main object of the interpreter is to explain what or who is meant
by the beast. He does not dwell, therefore, on the city and the hills,
but hastens to the kings. The seven heads are seven kings. Buoilevi,;
as an ap{>ellation for a Roman emperor, was usual among the Greeks.
— Fire are fallen, i. e. Julius Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula,
Claudius. Nero is the sixth ; Galba succeeded, who reigned only seven
months. Or if we begin with Augustus, then Galba is the sixth ; and
Otho, who succeeded him, reigned but three months.
But why only seven kings ? First because the number seven is the
reigning symbolic number of the book ; then, secondly, because this
covers the ground which the writer means specially to occupy, viz., it
326 EXPLANATORY VISION : Chap. XVII. 11.
goes down to the period when the persecution then raging would cease.
All this is congruous too with the seven heads of the beast.
The manner of the declaration here seems to decide, beyond all rea-
sonable appeal, against a later period than about A. D. 67 or 68, for
the composition of the Apocalypse.
(11) And tlie beast which was, and is not, he is also an eighth, and is of the
seven, and gocth to destruction.
It seems quite evident here, that if we compare nai avrog oydoog
sari with the fi^'lksi, uva^cuvEiv iy. r^g u^vaaov and also the xai TTciQearcu
of V. 8, we shall see at once that hoi oydoog iaii is equivalent to the
other two phrases, diflFering only in the mode of expression. The beast
that now personifies the imperial power, is the one of whom it has been
said, that he was and is not. And not only so, but also that he will
reappear, i. e. he will make another member besides the Heptade
just named, although in fact he is one of this Heptade, fx tcov stitu.
tGzi. All the attempts by the older commentators at explaining this
passage, at least all which I have examined, (and they are many), are
either so fanciful, or so incongruous, that it is impossible (for me at
least) to find any solid satisfaction in them, or anything to meet the
demands of exegesis. Must it not be, that these words were under-
stood when they were first published ? Or, at any rate, that they were
meant to be understood ? If so, how was this possible, except on such
grounds as history furnishes ? How was it possible in the nature of
things, that mere fanciful resemblances of something to happen in fu-
ture ages, should be rightly made out in such a case by the mass of
readers ? But if we adopt the explanation made out by appeal to his-
torical grounds, then all is plain and easy. We can see at once, how
the beast (Nero) could be one of the seven, and yet an eighth. For
the reason that o, person is meant, the speaker says aviog and not avzo.
But v/hy an eighth, rather than a ninth or tenth ? Simply because,
if Nero were expected to reappear at all, it would naturally be supposed
to happen during, or immediately after, the reign of his successor. Such
a tyrant as Nero would not patiently endure exile or seclusion for a
long time. Thus the angel, if interpreted in this way, is not made to
give a. '■ dilucidation which, is much more obscure than the original.'
Heinrichs, who supposes Satan to be the beast here, says of v. 8 seq. :
Infit explicatio, quae tamen, ut passim alibi, ad dissipandas tenebras
parum apta videbitur. The ovx iazi he makes to refer to Satan's being
cast into the abyss before the Millennium, and his reappearance is to
take place at the close of that period. To represent Satan as influencing
or presiding over all the Romish heathen emperors, would be scriptural
enough ; but where is the precedent for representing him as one of the
EXPLANATORY VISION : Chap. XVII. 12 — 14. 327
seven emperors? Ileinrichs tries to avoid this absurdity by saying, that
ix zbif tTira fan only meims, that Satan is ol" tlie same cast or character
with them. But where, in all the Bible, is the devil likened to men ;
althoujih men are sometimes, indeed, likened to " their father the devil ?"
Such views as these of our text could scarcely fail of exciting complaints
of obscurity, like to those which Heinrichs utters.
Other interpretations of the passage before us may be found in abun-
dance. But as I can never abandon a historical mode of explanation
in order to take up with a conjectural or merely imaginary one, I shall
not adduce them here. The reader who desires to see them, may easily
find them in abundance, in any of the more copious commentaries.
(12) And the ten horns which thou sawest, are ten kings who have not yet re-
ceived kingly power, but with the aid of the beast they receive authority as kings
for one hour.
In Dan. 7: 24 the ten horns of the beast, there described, symbolize
ten successive kings ; here plainly they designate ten contemporaneous
ones. That subordinate and tributary kings are here meant, is plain
from the nature of the declarations. They have not at any time re-
ceived ^uGi/.ti'ap, kingship, i. e. complete royal authority. They receive
authority only fti'uv wnav ; and even this they receive ne.ru zov Oi^niov,
i. e. with the aid, concurrence, or cooperation of the beast ; for lidzd of-
ten marks such a relation, Winer's Gramm. § 51. h. If this of itself
be not sufficient evidence, yet such evidence may be found in v, 13.
"What the speaker means to say is, that the tributary kings of the Ro-
man empire, in compliance with the desire of the beast on whom they
are dependent for their authority, unite with him in persecuting the
church. So the following verse :
(13) These have one mind, and their power and authority they give to the
beast.
That is, these are united in one and the same purpose, viz. to exer-
cise what power and authority they have in subserviency to the beast,
thus aiding him to accomplish his designs. — Jidoaatv, third pers. plur.
of Pres. tense, being the Attic form, instead of the /coivij form didovai.
Kiihner, § 200. a. Very clearly does this show, that persecution, when
the Apocalypse was written, was extended to the provinces and subor-
dinate kingdoms of the Roman empire.
(14) The same shall make war with the Lamb, and the lAmb shall overcome
tliem, for he is Lord of lords and King of kings, and they who are with him are
called and elect and faithful.
Two reasons why the Lamb must prove victorious ; first, he is King
of kings and Lord of lords, and secondly, he is accompanied by forces
of his own choice, selected from the mass and not enlisted by chance or
328 EXPLANATORY VISION : Chap. XVII. 15, 16.
taken by lot, and true and faithful to their great leader. Although
each of the adjectives employed here is often expressive of Christian
character and condition, yet in the present case the reference is of the
military cast, in relation to the war just mentioned. Who these troops
are, may be seen in Rev. 19: 14.
(15) And he saith unto me : The waters which thou sawest, where the whore
sltteth, are people and multitudes, and nations and tongues.
That is, the waters are the symbol of multitudinous people, (Xaoi xac
oxkoi I take to be a Hendiadys), and of nations with different tongues
or languages. In other words, they designate many and widely scat-
tered nations. — Elm', are, the usual word throughout the N. Testament,
in such cases, and employed in the sense of means, symbolizes, designates.
(IG) And as to the ten horns which thou sawest, and the beast, these same
shall hate the whore, and make her desolate and naked, and they shall devour
her flesh, and burn her with fire.
KsQura and &t]Qi'ov are the Nom. absolute ; and, although they are of
the neuter gender, yet the demonstrative pronoun which follows, ovtoi,
is masc. because persons are meant. Ewald interprets this verse as hav-
ing respect to the predicted return of Nero from the East, after his exile
thither, and his union with confederate kings of that region, in order to
invade Italy, and destroy its capital where he was assassinated. Possi-
bly the language may have assumed its present form, from that circum-
stance. But here there is not so much of explanation on the part of
John, as o{ prediction. The sentiment seems to be, that tyrants like
Nero, and persecutors such as his confederates, would occasion wasting
and desolation to Rome, even like to that already inflicted by Nero, who
had set Rome on fire and consumed a large portion of it. In a descrip-
tion so highly figurative as the one before us, nothing more seems to be
necessarily meant. The next verse intimates, that when God shall have
accomplished his purposes, in respect to the persecutions of the church,
then his time of retribution to its enemies will follow. — 'HQ>i{icofit'v)jP . . .
xal yv[iv^v, the one applying to the idea of city, the other to that of its
representative, the woman. The eating of the jiesh, and burning up with
jire, are images of such thorough destruction as was not uncommon in
wars where bitter animosity reigned. At all events, heathen and perse-
cuting Rome is to be utterly destroyed. The tributary kings, always
hating her, did contribute not a little to her final downfall, and often oc-
casioned her bloody and long continued wars. But after all, there would
not perhaps be much to object to Ewald's exegesis here, provided it
should be regarded merely in the light of a dilucidation. The senti-
ment would then run thus : ' To sum up all ; as to the ten kings and the
beast, these are they respecting whom the report is spread, that they will
EXPLANATORT VISION : Chap. XVIl. 17, 18. 829
come from the East, and will attack and destroy Rome.' But I give
the preference to the preceding method of explanation. '
(17) For God liath put it into tlioir hearts to do his will, and to do one will and
give their kinjidoin to the boast, until the words of God shall he acconiplislnd.
f^dcoy.fy f(V, pxt in(o, for 5/5co//f in the N. Testament often imitates
the Ileb. "i":, which not unfrcqucntly means to put, place, set, etc. The
meaning of the verse is, that while the ten kings and the beast have a
unity of purpose, (fa'av yi>o}[it^v), as to persecuting the church, and while
the ten kings voluntarily yield themselves to the wishes of the beast in
order to accomplish this, yet God is only executing his own ultimate de-
signs. * He will make the wrath of man to praise him, and the remain-
der will he restrain.' The church must indeed be cast into the burning
fiery furnace ; but it will not be destroyed. It will come out, at last,
as gold purified from the tire. — Until the icords of God shall be accom-
plished, namely, what he has said or decreed respecting the persecution
of his church. The intimation of course is, that the power of the enemy
cannot go beyond this; i. e. when that mark is reached, divine retribu-
tion will begin. Possibly the icords of God to be fidfilled may here
mean, the promises of deliverance made to the church. The other me-
thod of exposition, however, reaches the same goal, although by a dif-
ferent path.
(18) And tiie woman whom thou sawest, is the great city which hath dominion
over the kinj^s of the eartli.
This is so graphic and specific, that no room is left for doubt as to
who is meant. — yi^e great city is spoken of by way of eminence, Bct^v-
Iwv ii fxiydXtj. Yet this is not all ; the great city which hath dominion
over the kings of the earth, i.e. the ten or confederate kings, named in
the preceding context. The number ten, Vil.?. yearly all the numbers in
this book, is to be regarded as symbolical. Whether there were more
or less than this number of dependent kings, when the Apocalypse was
written, matters not to the purposes of the writer or speaker. The num-
ber evi<Iently alludes to Dan. 7: 24, where ^e« kings are mentioned, who,
in various respects were to have dominion over and oppress the Jews.
So in the present case ; ten kings, with the beast, will unite in perse-
cuting the church, and in efforts to destroy it. But they can proceed
no further than the plan of an all-wise and overruling Providence per-
mits.
Thus ends the episode and the explanation. The scene is immedi-
ately shifted in the sequel, and the main action of the piece speedily
moves on.
VOL. ir. 42
530 FALL OF BABYLON : ChAP. XVIII. 1, 2.
FALL OF BABYLON: CHAP. XVffl.
[Before any attack was made upon the kingdom of the beast, an angel proclaimed
the fill! of great Babylon, 14: 8. This, however, was only in general terms. But
now the seventh vial has been poured out, and the city has been shaken to its
very foundation, and thus a ruinous state of things had already commenced ; 16: 17
— 21. Final and utter extinction, however, still remains to be achieved. Accord-
ingl}' an angel next appears, and not only renews the proclamation of the fall of
Babylon, but describes this in such terms as necessarily to imply its vtler ruin ;
78: 1 — 3. A voice from heaven therefore warns all the people of God to come
out from the city, and threatens ample retribution to her ; 13: 4 — 8. The lament
over her final fall is next described ; first, on the part of the kings associated with
her (vs. 9, 10); secondly, of the merchants who trafficked in her (vs. 11 — 16) ;
and lastly, of all the seamen employed in her commerce (vs. 17 — 19). Finally,
heaven is called upon to rejoice over her fall (v. 20) ; and an angel takes up a
great millstone and casts it into the sea, as an emblem of her final and irretrieva-
ble ruih, accompanying this transaction, at the same time, with threats which in-
dicate the same (vs. 21 — 24). As to the striking trichotomij of this chapter, the
reader is remitted to V'ol. 1. § 7.]
(1) And after these things I saw another angel descending from heaven, hav-
ing great authority, and the earth was illuminated by his splendour.
Another angel, i. e. one different from the angel interpreter, who had
accompanied John, during the vision, for the sake of making explana-
tion.— Having great power or authority simply designates the rank or or-
der of the angel here, viz. that he was one of the higher order. — By his
splendour, which is a secondary sense of the word bohi as it is also of
the equivalent Heb. libr ; comp. Luke 2: 9. Ex. 24: 16. This acces-
sory idea adds to the magnificence of the scene, and to the dignity of the
personage who is actor.
(2) And he cried with a loud voice, saying : Babylon the great is fallen
— IS FALLEN ! And it has become an abode of demons, and the prison-house of
every unclean spirit, and the cage of every unclean and hateful fowl.
Demons were regarded by the Jews as inhabiting waste and desolate
places ; see Exc. I. II. b. To say then that Babylon had become the
abode of demons, is to say in the strongest manner, that it had become
a scene of entire ruin. — A prison-house of every unclean spirit is a touch
from the jDopular pneumatology. In Is. 13: 21, 22 is a picture which is
the prototype of that before us. There the t"^"!"!?!:: , forest-devils, dance
among the ruins of the ancient Babylon ; and in Is. 34: 14, 15, the like
things are said of the desolate cities of Idumea. In the latter case,
not only the T'^"^^ , but also the r,''bib , i. e. the sprite or hobgoblin of the
forest, is represented as finding its place of abode amid the ruins. So
FALL OF BABYLON : ChAP. XVIII. 3, 4. 99$
in the text before us ; not only the demons proper, but all the lower and
baser sprites, tlic anmille (sit veiiiul) of the cleinon-worlil, tiiul a qv).a-
hi] in ruined Babylon. This hist word, <^v).uy.ij, lit. place of kecpiuy^ de-
notes more tiran abode. It is, as I have translated it, equivalent to pri-
son-house ; so that by constraint, and in the way of punishment, these
detestable beings are cooped up there. — And the cage of every unclean
and hateful fowl ; the prototype of this is in several passages of Isaiah
just cited above. There, according to this prophet, the cormorant and
the screech-owl and vulture find their place amid the ruins of cities.
So here, the object of the writer cannot well be misunderstood. It is
to paint, in the most graphical manner, a scene of entire desolation, fre-
quented only by horrid and detestable creatures. <I'v).uxt]., which is ge-
neric, I have here translated cage, because this is appropriate.
(3) Because she hath made all nations to drink of the ifl^ammatory wine of
her fornication : and the kings of the earth have committed fornication with her,
and llie merchants of the earth have become rich by llie abundance of her lux-
ury.
Injiamrnatory \cine, etc., see on 14: 8. — The merchants have become
rich by the abundance of her luxury ; dvrufieoJi, like the Ileb. m ,
means, in a few cases, much in respect to quantity, i. e. abundance.
See Lex. — ^zni^rovg, luxury, revel. The meaning is, that the merchants
had enriched themselves by the abundance of things pertaining to luxu-
rious enjoyment, which the Babylonians had purchased of them. The
design is to characterize the excess of Babylonish luxury. Sentiment :
* Babylon has corru[)ted and led to idolatry the nations of the eSflh, and
has indulged to great excess in every kind of luxury.'
(4) And 1 heard another voice from heaven, saying : Come out of her, my peo-
ple, that ye may not partake of her sins, and that ye may not receive any of her
plagues.
Modelled after the ancient prophets; see the like warning in Is. 48:
29.' Jer. 50: 8. 51:6,9,45. So Lot is warned, in Gen. xix. The
idea is, that Babylon, whose ruin has already commenced, cannot be re-
paired or rebuilt. It must suffer final and irretrievable ruin. The peo-
ple of God, therefore, are exhorted to forsake it. If is the Saviour who
calls to them — for he says : My people. — Partake of her sins means,
share in the punishment due to her sins ; for auuQXia means not only
sin, but also the fruits of sin, i. e. punishment. So the Heb. T'^.'^n and
•(•r . The next clause, which warns against receiving her nXr^yoiv, shows
that this is the proper ^exegesis,:^-But the aggravation of her guilt is not
to be passed without further notice.
332 FALL OF BABYLON : Chap. XVIII. 5 — 8.
(5) For her sins have reached to heaven, and God halh called to mind hef
wrongs.
'Ey.oXXf'j&tj(rav, lit. have been joined to, or adhere to. The idea is better
expressed in English by the secondary sense of the verb which I have
adopted, viz. reached to. The prototype is Jer. 51: 9. — God hath re-
membe7-ed her xorongs, i. e. the wrongs which she has done to his people.
This remembrance implies of course a due and proper notice of the sins
in question, i. e. God remembers so as to punish. The idea of sin reach-
ing to heaven is not to be taken merely as designating a large mass of
sin, but that sin cries to heaven, like Abel's blood, for vengeance ; see
Gen. 4: 10. 18: 20. This figure of speech is a great favourite with the
author of the book of Enoch; see 8: 9. 9: 2, 4, 10—12. 47: 1, 2. 96:
2, 4. 60: 9, 12—16.
(6) Render to her as she lias rendered [to others] ; yea, give fully double to her
according to her works ; in the cup which she has mingled, mingle double for her.
The original exemplar is in Is. 40: 2. 61: 7; but there it is applied
to reward. Comp. Job 42: 12, where all his former possessions are
doubled. The intensify of dmlaoatB diTiXu I have expressed in the
version.- — The cup which is to be mingled for her is to be doubled, viz.
by tlie strength of the inflammatory substances put into it, or by the
quantity poured in. The cup here is, as often before, the emblem of
punishment.— (ji fxtQuns is a case of attraction, perhaps the only certain
one in the whole book. But this is not strange. Matthew has none ;
]\Iark| but one. — But to whom are the M'ords of this command addressed ?
To angels, would be the answer I should make ; because, throughout
the book, angels are the executioners of divine justice. The helpless
and fugitive Christians, who just before are addressed, cannot well be
supposed to be here charged with the execution of the present order.
(7) In such measure as she hath boasted herself and indulged in revelling, in
the same measure repay her with torment and mourning ; lor she i^aith in her
heart : I sit as queen, 1 am no widow, nor shall I see any cause of mourning.
The Idoiaae savtijv seems to be exemplified in her saying: I sit as
queen, i. e. sit firmly established as queen, y.uOtj^ai = '■'!^'^"-,1 or na'^i .
— Xi'jQa, lit. bereaved, is usually applied to a widow, i. e. a woman Avho
has lost her husband. But it is not of necessity limited to this ; and
here it probably points to a bereavement of children. The city is the
mother, the inhabitants her children. So the sentiment is : ' I shall
never become depopulated, and therefore shall not be called to mourn I'
(8) Because of this, in one day shall her plagues come, death and mourning
and famine ; and she shall be burned up in the fire ; for mighty is the Lord God,
who hath judged her.
Jia tovro, i. e. on account of her pride, her luxury, and her boast-
FALL OF BABYLON : Chap. XVIII. 9, 10. 333
ing. — In one day, i. c. suddenly and unexpectedly ; for all these evils
are not wont to come sinuiltaneously, and when the threat is uttered
that they shall so come, it implies that they will come unexpectedly. —
Deatli, i. e. the loss of inhabitants in various ways ; mourning, i. e.
bewailing on account of the numerous dead ; famine, the usual accom-
paniment of a siege by a foreign enemy. — She shall be consumed hy Jire ;
for mighty is the Lord God who has passed sentence upon her, i. e. the
power of hira who has condemned her admits of no control and cannot
be resisted ; therefore, he who has condemned will execute his sentence.
The consuming by fire was usual in ancient times, when a fortified city
was captured. Here the expression presents the emblem of thorough
destruction.
After this total destruction comes the LAJfEXT over her fall :
(!») And the kings of the eirth shall weep and mourn on account of her, who
committed fornication with her and revelled, when they shall see the smoke of
her burning ;
The confederate and tributary kings of the Roman empire are doubt-
Jess meant here, who were more usually creatures of the imperial gov-
ernment, and connected with it by many ties. — Committed fornication,
i. e. became idolaters, or acceded to her idolatries. — Revelled, indulged
(with her) in every kind of rioting and extravagance.
(10) Standing afar off for fear of her torment, they will say; Alas! alas! the
great city Babylon, the iniirhty city ! For in one hour thy doom has come.
!E(TTJ^x(>ris' and ).r/ovz£^i may be taken as in apposition with the
Nom. to '/."/.avGovai and non'ovTca ; or we may mentally combine the
Fut. of Eiul with one or both of these participles and employ them as
verbs) (which is common in the Apocalypse). In the translation above,
I have rendered one of them as a verb ; and this makes the sense more
simple and perspicuous. — The burning of the city is so dreadful, that
near approach cannot be made ; hence, ano fiuy.Q6xyfi> sGT^y.orEg. —
Torment the destruction by fire may well be culled. — Ovai, ovut, an
interjection of the plur. form ; there is also a singular form, viz. ova ;
so the Latin, vah, vae ! Our English word alas is the best version here ;
for woe designates imprecation, which is not apposite here. — Babylon,
the mighty city, is a repetition of the name with some variation, a repe-
tition for the sake of intensity. — Min cjqu, i. e. suddenly and unex-
pectedly. Thy doom has come, i. e. the judgment passed upon thee is
immediately executed.*
* A peculiar circumstance in these lamentations dnarvrrt rrrtT"^"'*"^"' Tnhh-
is, that the favourite <rk/(o/c/m// of the author leads him to repeat oicu' avail ri
itokts ^ fuyakrjf at the end of each lament, see vs. 10, 16, I'J ; as also the fii'f wftf
334 FALL OF BABYLON : Chap. XVIII. 11, 12.
(11) And the merchants of the earth weep and mourn over her; because no
one any longer purchases their merchandize.
The merchants appear to be more concerned for the fate of Babylon
than the kings ; for they were more profited by her commerce and
luxury, than any other class of people. This trait of the lamentation,
however, can hardly be made to correspond to anything in the actual
history of the destruction of pagan and antichristian Rome, as a spirit-
ual adversary. The merchants, literally considered, were not more
inclined to paganism than other classes of people. It must therefore
be put to the account oi ^oii^imiSty \n description, that this particular
trait is introduced ; I mean a concinnity which carries through the
account of the destruction of great Babylon, consistently with the natu-
ral consequences of destroying a literal city. In other words, the con-
gruity of the description belongs more to the symbol than to the thing
designed to be signified. But it must be remembered, that in so doing
the writer has heightened the beauty and force of his description ; and
this is a sufficient reason for his indulgijig in a particular recital of the
leading objects of luxury and of commerce. — FofAOV, lading, lit. fulness,
as it comes from yifico, to be full. The secondary meaning is given in
the version.
(12) The merchandize of gold and silver, and of precious stone and pearl, and
of fine linen and purple, and of silk and scarlet; and all citron- wood and every
ivory vessel, and all furniture of most costly wood, and brass, and iron, and
marble.
That ancient Babylon was full of these things, and of others named
in the sequel, there can be no doubt. As little doubt can remain, that
Rome, in the first century of the Christian era, was equally full of
them. — Ztiqi'aov, silk, was imported anciently from the East, probably
from China ; from which the name also was derived ; see Klaproth and
Abel Remusat in Journal Asiat. II. p. 243 seq. For the value put
upon it, see Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 17. 20. — Qvivov, adj. from ^va, citron-
tree. The wood was highly prized for elegant furniture. — !E^vlov . . .
oxevog, etc., in the Ace, being in apposition with yo^ov above, and
making here an oratio variata, when compared with the Genitives
before.
characterizing the sudden and unexpected coming of final destruction. Besides
this, there is another trait of the style which deserves remark. This is, that in
the first lament, the verbs introducing the narration of it stand in the Fut. tense ;
in the second, in the Present ; in the third, in the Praeterite. It is thus that the
author shows, amid all the excitement which the subject must have created while
he was writing, that he is not inattentive to the call of aesthetics, as to variety in
modes of expression. »—<—__ -
FALL OF BABYLON : ChAP. X^^II. 13, 14. 335
(in) And rinnainon and frn^rant spier, nnd inccnsp and ointniont and frankin-
cense, and wine and oil, and fine flour nnd wheat, and cattle and sheep ; and of
horses and of mule-cliariots, and of eroonis ; and also slaves.
2^£fu'$aXig means the best and finest kind ofjlour. — "inTton and the
other Gren. which follow, depend on yoftov implied. — Pedav means a
chariot drawn by mules ; an article imported from Gaul into Rome,
(Caes. Boll. Gall. I. ">1), and ailopted there as one of the luxuries. —
J^oifiatH, lit. bodies ; but the later Greeks made use of this word in a
l^achylogical way, viz. for acofuua 3ov).a or ut)^fici).oiTa, so that when
usetHtiwte it serves to indicate slaves. Vice versa, the noun was often
omitted, and the adjectives employed to indicate the same idea. But
here, as the subsequent phrase also indicates slaves, I have, in order to
avoid tautology, rendered it grooms, in connection (as it in fact is) with
inncor and Qtdbir, i. e. it designates here a particular species of slaves
employed in taking care of these. — Kui ii'i'/«s drihjoincor = cnx -Z}
in Ezek. 27: 13. which plainly means slaves or human persons. The
Hebrew 'tzi often designates the idea oi' person or self. The Ace. here
is in apposition with yo^iov above. The designation of slave is ge-
neric ; and so I have translated it in the version above.
(14) And the fruit of thy soul's desire hath gone from thee, and all that is
splendid and glittering hath perished out of thee ; and tliou shall no more find
them.
'OTicana literally means the latter part of summer, i. e. the harvest
time for fruits ; so that under this general appellation seems to be com-
prised all manner of provision or sustinence brought into the great city.
— yltnand and lunnnd characterize all kinds of furniture and clothing,
which were gilt or plated or embroidered, and therefore were bright and
splendid. The address here, in the second person, to the great city,
has been a stumbling-block to many. Beza, Mark, Launaeus, Vitrin-
ga, Ewald, and others are perplexed by it ; and the latter doubts its
genuineness. But what is more usual than similar apostrophes in the
Hebrew prophets ? The ground of it is excitement in the mind of the
writer, whose feelings lead him directly to address the haughty tyrant
Avho is laid low ; just as the inhabitants of the under-world do, when the
king of Babylon descends to them, Is. 14: 10 seq. Comp. Is. 47: 1 —
3, and many other passages of the like tenor. The amount of it is,
that the description, instead of moving on in the third person, and thus
addressing the reader, assumes the second and directs its language to
her, i. e. to Babylon, who was about to be reduced to the desolation
here described. It is a species of composition which belongs to the sar-
qastic, and it greatly heightens the energy of the discourse.
336 PALL OF BATLON : Chap. XVni. 15—19.
(15) And the tfindere of these things, who have become rich by her, shall
stand afar off, for fear of her torment, weeping and mourning ;
Tovrav refers to the articles of traffic enumerated in the preceding
context. The distant position for fear of participating in the torment,
is the same here as in the case of the kings, v. 10 above.
(16) Saying: Alas! alas! The great city which clothed herself with fine
linen and purple and scarlet, and adorned herself with gold and precious stones
and pearls ! For in one hour ricj]fi6 so great have been utterly laid waste.
The articles of clothing here mentioned are among the number
already recounted as articles of traffic, in the preceding context. Here
the most prominent are selected. — It is evident, that the whole recital
of the various articles of splendour and luxury, is introduced here mainly
for the purpose of adorning the picture and making it the more mag-
nificent. Correspondences to each of these articles, in the spiritual
meaning of the whole passage, will hardly be sought for by any one,
excepting by hira who is ignorant of the true nature and design of trop-
ical and symbolical language.
(17, 18) And every pilot, and every coaster, and sailors, and whoever .ply the
sea, stood afar off, and when they beheld the smoke of her burning cried out,
saying : What is like to the great city ?
Kv^FQt'ijTtjg, helmsman, he who guides or conducts a vessel ; here it
probably means the person whom we name captain. — O em lonov nXi-
(ov, lit. he who sails to place, i. e. he who sails from one place to another
along the coast, and does not go out to sea ; and thus the expression
designates the secondary class of sailors, or rather of sea-captains. —
Nuvzai, sailors, in the common sense of the word, the crews of ships.
— Whoever ply the sea, is a generic expression embracing all classes of
sailors, whether in war-ships, merchantmen, or fishing vessels, etc. —
"Earriaav y.ai 'ixnat,ov, the Praeterite, as is usual in the Hebrew proph-
ets ; see remarks in a Note under the Comm. on v. 10 above. — Tig ofxoia,
what [city] is like, etc. Evidently noXig is the adjunct to ztg, and as
we have no distinctive fem. interrogative, we must, according to our
idiom, translate by what, i. e. what city ; for if we translate by who
(which designates person) the comparison would be incongruous.
(19) And they cast dust upon their heads, and weeping and mourning cried
out, saying : Alas I alas ! The great city in which all became rich who possessed
ships in the sea, by reason of her magnificence ! for in one hour hath she become
desolate.
Cast diist'vpon their heads; such was the usual custom in ancient
times, in token of aflliction and commiseration ; comp. Job 2: 12. —
By reason of her magnificence or splendour^ an epexegetical clause
FALL OF BABYLON : "ChAP. XVIIT. 20. 887
designed to disclose more fully the meaning of iv rj inXovrr^anv. The
writer means to designate the splendour and magnificence of buildings,
furniture, dress, eciuipage, etc., which made a great demand for articles
imported by sea from foreign countries.
(2')) Exult over her, tliou heaven, and ye saint3 and apostles and prophets !
for God has condemned your condemnation by lier.
A strong antithesis, ^ndeed, to the preceding lamentation and wailing.
In that commiseration, the friends of God and the church can have no
commimity of feeling. On the contrary, they have every reason to re-
joice, that the church is freed from her most bitter and powerful enemy.
If it be objected, that this exultation is contrary to the spirit of Chris-
tian love and compassion ; the answer is, that neither God himself, nor
any who bear his image, have any pleasure in the death of the sinner
in itself considered. It is indeed altogether opposed to the spirit of be-
nevolence, to indulge a thirst of vengeance, according to the present
meaning given by us to that word. But it is not inconsistent witli.imi-
Vfirsal benevolence in its true and highest sense, to execute justice
where there is refusal to repent, and the offer of mercy is treated with
scorn. It is proper to rejoice, yea to exult, in tht; deliverance of the
good from the oppression of the evil ; to rejoice that the pm-poses of
divine mercy are not thwarted, but are to be fully accomplished in the
salvation of the righteous. An appeal, in proof of this, may be made
to every man's spontaneous feelings in a land of light and liberty. He
is glad when the midnight assassin is detected and brought to justice.
He is glad that honest and peaceable citizens are rendered secure in
their persons and estates ; and all this without any vindictive feelings
toward the criminal who has perilled them, and who meets at last with
his due reward. In a sense like to this, we may well suppose the in-
habitants of heaven are called upon to rejoice at the fall of Babylon.
Thou heaven, i. e. ye inhabitants of the heavenly world, as the next
clause shows. — Saints here means the mass of common Christians, who
had suffered by persecution. — Apostles means, in the N. Testament, not f)
the twelve only, but other very distinguished leaders and teachers ; Acts ,
14: 4, 14. liom. 16: 7. 1 Cor. 12: 28. 2 Cor. 8: 23. However, as some
of the twelve apostles had suffered* martyrdom when the Apocalypse
was written, (James certainly, and not improbably Peter and Paul),
there is no serious objection to imderstanding the word apostles here
in the more limited sense. — IlQoqiJTai designates all distinguished teach-
ers ; see 1 Cor. 14: 1 — 5. — "Ey.Qiv£ ... to hqI^u vfioiv, a paronomasia,
which is imitated in the version. The meaning is, that God pitnished
(the secondary sense of mnvco) Babylon, on account of the condemna-
tion or punishment which Christians had received c'l avzfis,frotn Aer,
VOL, II. 43
338 RENE-\YED SENTENCE : ChAP. XVIII. 21.
i. e. from great Babylon ; f^ denotes the source whence the condem-
nation of Christians had come.
Thus ends the Lament, or second part of the chapter before us. It is
pro])er, tlierefoie, in tliis jjlace, to advert for a moment to the prototype or
exemplar of this in the Old Testament. It strikes one at first as somewhat
strange, inasmuch as neitl)er ancient Babylon nor Rome was ever remarkable
in any considerable degree for maritime trade, that so much prominence
should here l)e given to the class of men "who ply the sea," as mourners
over the fall of the great citj^ Babylon and Rome were both at some dis-
tance from the sea, and could neither of them be called sea-port towns in
any .tolerable sense of the word. But it should be remembered, however,
that both of them were at no great distance from seaports ; both were on
rivers navigable by small crafl and lighters ; and both carried on the im-
portation of foreign luxuries to such an extent as rendered necessary the
employment of much shipping. Still, in Is. xiii. xiv, and in Jer. 1. li, no-
thing of consequence is said about the viaritivie concerns of ancient Babylon.
The prototype of John, in regard to vs. 11 — ^20, must theiefore be looked for
in Ezek. xxvii. xxviii. There, indeed, it may be found ; and in it is exhibi-
ted a more than usual similarity to the apocalyptic passage now before us.
The luxuriating description of Tyre, with its commerce and its wares and
its ships, has no parallel in the Old Testament, and none in the New, ex-
cepting the })assage under consideration. In applying so much of the mar-
itimt to Rome, the Apocalyptist has shown, that he does not expect his
readers to make out a literal meaning from his language, but to regard the
whole as designed merely to set forth the greatness and variety of the
wealth and luxury and voluptuousness of the persecuting city, and in con-
nection with this, her arrogance and insolence. It is indeed a vivid picture ;
and if the writer has dwelt longer upon the maritime part, and made it
more prominent than we might expect, (for we should, a priori, hardly ex-
pect the trading seamen to be distinguished from the merchants), we must
attribute this to the freedom of his glowing imagination, and to the evident
design he had of being understood as describing, in a graphic way, the great-
ness and extent of luxury and extravagance.
THE RENEWED SENTENCE AGAINST BABYLON :
CHAP. XVIIl : 21—24.
The third or last part of the subordinate trichotomy now follows. It
consists of a repetition of the sentence threatening utter destruction ; and
so it is an intense confirmation of it, first by symbol, and then by direct
words.
(21) And a mighty angel took up a stone, like a great millstone, and cast it into
the sea, saying : Thus shall Babylon, the great city, be cast down with violence,
and shall be found no more.
Eig = Tt'g, as elsewhere ; so ^nx in the 0. Testament. — ^la'/i'Qog,
powerful in a kind of physical sense here ; which is appropriate to the
sequel. — Mvkov [isyav is not to be compared with millstpnes among us,
RENEWED SENTENCE : Chap. XVIII. 22, 23. 339
but with those which were contained in the hand-mills of the ancients.
— 'E^aXfv, i. e. with rti'ror im[)lied. The action o( casting doivn is here
designated. — 'OQftt'juuTt, irith violence or impetus, alluding to the impe-
tus with which the angel had cast the great stone into the sea. — Shall
be found no more, is a necessary sequel of the image followed out ; for
a stone cast into the deep sea can no more be found. The sentiment is
not, that Babylon shall be literally sunk in the ocean, but that, as a
stone sunk in the ocean will never be seen again, so Babylon will fall
to rise no more. The prototype of this symbol may be found in Jer.
51: 63, 64.
(2*2) And the voice of harpers and singers and pipers and trumpeters shall no
more be heard in tJiee, and artificers of every kind shall be found in tliee no
more, and the noise of the millstone shall be heard in thee no more;
Ki&uQ(t)8(av means those who play on the harp and accompany it
with singing. — Movaiamv, musicians in general, but here, as distin-
guished from the others named, singers. — AvXr^Tm', Jluters, pipers. —
Only the leading and favourite kinds of music are here mentioned, and
a^s representatives of all the rest. — r/«s,' 7i;fr<V7^s* TTda/;^; it/vr,^, lit. every
artijicer of every art ; but I have expressed the sense in the version,
more conformably to our English idiom. Such artificers are probably
meant, as were employed in fabricating articles of luxury. — 'I'covij /w-
).nv, lit, the voice of the millstone ; for the Greek did not distinguish,
with the same accuracy of language as the English, voice from noise^
the former being an articulate, the latter an inarticulate, sound.
Thus much for a vivid picture of the pleasures and employments of
the great city by day ; now comes a hke description of its state by night.
(23) And the light of the candle shall no more shine in thee, and the voice of
the bridegroom and of the bride shall be heard in thee no more ; for thy mer-
chants were the nobles of the earth ; for by thy sorcery all the nations were led
astray.
Avyvov is here to be taken generically, as indicating every kind of
light kindled io order to dissipate the darkness of evening. — The voice
of the bridegroomaftd uf the bt'tde^uQ. the merry voice of those who
walk in a wedding procession through the streets ; as anciently was,
and still is, the custom of the East, comp. Matt. 25: 6, 7. — Thy mer-
chants were the nobles of the earth, i. e. thy merchants (such was thine
excessive indulgence in luxury) became noblemen, q. d. very wealthy
and distinguished for splendour of living. — For by thy sorcery, q^uQfxa-
xeirc, pharmacy, lit medicine. The meaning here is, portions given in
the way of enchantment or for charming, as the older English has it.
This, like the inflammatory cup so often mentioned, is of course not to
be hterally taken, but tropically. The effect of the chiu-m was to lead
340 FINAL VICTORY : Chap. XIX.
astray, i. e^ lead into polytlieism and idolatry. — The two last clauses
are separate and coordinate reasons for the ruin that had just been pre-
dicted. I have translated and pointed them accordingly. The proto-
type of vs. 22, 23, may be found in Jer. 25: 10. 7: 34. 16: 9. 33: 10,
11. Ezek. 26: 13. Amos 6: 5—7. Is. 24: 8—10; comp. 1 Mace. 1: 45.
That a most vivid picture is here given of the employments, luxury,
amusements, and splendour of the great city, will be readily conceded.
But it is an offence against the taste of some, that ov . . . in is so often
repeated. Yet they should call to mind, that here is the final denun-
ciation of all that still remains of the gi'eat city, and that the seven times
repetition of ot; . . . Hzi is in conformity with the use of the number
seven in this book, as often adverted to before. On other ground, it
might be somewhat difficult to solve the aesthetical problem presented
here. ^ --
(24) And in her has been found the blood of prophets and saints, even of all
who are slain on the earth.
To render the sentiment and connection more plain, vs. 23, 24, should
be united. Kai at the beginning of v. 24 introduces a third ground or
reason of the destruction, and the ozi of the preceding clause is implied
before it.
FINAL VICTORY: CHAP. XIX.
[The time now draws near for the final termination of the conflict. The irrevoc-
able doom has been pronounced. But before the final consummation, the episode
(so usual in this book) of praise, thanksgiving, and anticipated completion of vic-
tory, comes in, with a delay (grateful in itself to the reader) of the main action.
Comp. 5: 8 seq. 7: 9 seq. 11: 15 seq. It is by episodes of this nature, adapted to
cheer the spirits of the suffering Christians, that the writer brings about the morae
or delays in the main action of his piece. How much more relevant these epi-
sodes are to the main object, than those frequently to be met with in Epopees, the
reader can easily judge.
In the present episode, tricliotomij, as usual, is plainly discernible. In the first
division, all the inhabitants of the heavenly world are represented as uniting in a
song of triumph and of thanksgiving, on account of the righteous judgments of
God which are about to be inflicted ; vs. 1 — 4. In the second, a voice from the
throne in heaven speaks, and requires of all his servants everywhere renewed
praise, which accordingly is shouted ; vs. 5 — 8. In the third, the glorious pros-
pect for suftisring martyrs is disclosed. They will be guests at the marriage sup-
per of the Lamb ; the church is indeed the Lamb's Bride ; and the exaltation of
the Messiah is vividly sketched in the declaration of the angel-interpreter, at whose
feet John in a state of astonishment falls. Jesus, the angel declares, is the object
of worship by him ; and therefore he (the angel) cannot claim the worship of his
fellow servants, who, like him, are merely instruments in making known the pro-
phecies respecting the triumph of redeeming grace, vs. 9, 10.]
SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : Chap. XIX. 1 — 5. 841
(1) Aflor those Uiincrs, 1 heard as it were a loud voice of a great multitude in
heaven, sayinyr : Halloluia ! the salvation, and glory, and power of our God !
CfrecU multitude, i. e. the united hosts of heaven, as the sequel shows.
— AfyovTMV, phir. in reference to the noun of multitude, oylnv. — Halle'
hn'a, i. e. praise Jehovah = n-iiiVsn . — T/ie salvation and glory and
power, triplex again ; xu) tj TifO], of the vulgate text, is ejected. Sal-
vation means deliverance of the churcli from its enemies. — /lo^a seems
here to designate the divine attribute of majesty. — /Ivvam^;, power, has
reference to God's omnipotence, as exerted in the overthrow of the ene-
mies of the church. The sentence is brachylogical. The meaning is,
that deliverance from enemies, and majesty, and might, are to be as-
cribed to God, and he is to be praised on account of them. The article
before the nouns points to the specific deliverance, etc., indicated by the
preceding context.
(2) For true and righteous are his judgments; because he hath punished the
great whore, who corrupted the earth by her fornication; and he hath aveno-ed
the blood of his servants [shed] by her hand.
True, u).rj&iva(, means faithful to promises. — /li'xaiai, just in the
way of retribution. — Corrupted the earth here refers to the wide-spread
moral corruption which Rome had occasioned, by her heathenish worship.
— He hath avenged, i. e. God hath avenged. — By her hand is brachy-
logical ; for the meaning is, hlood shed by her hand, ix marking the
cause or instrument, as often elsewhere.
(3) And again they said : Halleluia ! And her smoke riseth up forever and
ever.
The original imagery is taken from the destruction of Sodom and
Gomorrha. As they had already become a perpetual desolation, so
should spiritual Babylon be. The same is indicated by the prediction
in 14: 11, comp. 18: 9. — Jiva^aivH, Pres. tense, indicates action con-
tinuing and to be continued.
(4) And the four and twenty elders, and the four living creatures, fell down
and worshipped God wiio siltelii on tlie throne, saying: Amen ! Halleluia!
The writer means to say, that not only the inhabitants of the heavenly
world in general, but even the most exalted among them, united in
praise and thanksgiving on account of the execution of God's justice on
persecuting Babylon ; comp. 5: 14. 7: 11. Thus we have the Halle-
luia thrice repeated, and confirmed by the solemn Amen. In addition
to this, all is confirmed by a voice from the throne of God.
(5) And a voice came from the throne, saying: Praise our God, ye his ser-
vants, and ye who fear him small and great !
That this is the voice of the Messiah, sitting upon the throne, is clear
342 sTivmoLS of victory : Chap. XIX. 6, 7.
from the phrase : Praise our God. There is nothing singular in this ;
comp. John 20: 17, " I ascend to my Father and your Father, to my
God and your God." See also Heb. 2: 11 seq. and Rev. 18: 4. — Ye
who fear him, etc., merely expands and renders prominent the idea of
dovXoi. Thus does the great Captain of salvation assent to and confirm
the rejoicing of his followers. Encouraged and stimulated by this, they
break out into a renewed expression of joy and praise :
(6) And I heard as it were the voice of a great multitude, and as the voice of
many waters, and as the voice of miglity thunder, saying : Halleluia ! for the
Lord our God, the Ahnighty, has become king.
The difference between saying ^y.ovaa cog (pcovtjv, and t'jxovffu cfoaviiv,
etc., is slight, but yet perceptible. The first formula does not make di-
rect affirmation respecting the multitude or great numbers who shout,
but merely implies such a multitude, because the noise is like that of a
mighty host ; the second formula would directly assert that there was a
great multitude. The basis of the expression is, the noise made by the
shout of a mighty and victorious army. — Noise of many waters, i. e. of
the waves of the sea, in a tempest, rolling upon the shore. — Loud or
mighty thunder is another familiar and sublime comparison. The triplex
repetition of this imagery is for the purposes of intensity, like the triplex
Halleluia in the preceding context. Thus the repetition of the Halle-
luia, after the approbation from the throne, becomes greatly augmented ;
as was perfectly natural. — -E^uGtlEvas, has become or acted as king, i. e.
universal king, his enemies being subdued ; or we may translate it, as
is usual, has reigned, where the Aor. is employed in order to denote the
certainty of his complete and universal reign, Gramm. § 136. 5. d.
(7) Let us rejoice, and be glad, and give glory to him ; for the marriage of the
Lamb hath come, and his Wife hath prepared herself
The joy, then, is not so much over the fallen enemy, as over the
prospects and privileges of the church, which are now rendered bright
and cheering. The boldness of the imagery here is striking ; yet it is
nothing new. Everywhere in the prophets of the O. Testament, God
is often represented as the husband of Israel or Judah ; an image de-
rived from two sources, first, from the fact that a nation is usually per-
sonified under the image of a female, and secondly, that the connection
between husband and wife is the dearest and most sacred of all ; Gen.
2: 24. The wife is, by her very relation to her husband, bound to
faithfulness, purity, obedience, and affection ; the husband is to protect,
provide for, and cherish the wife. Hence the frequency of this imagery
in the 0. Testament; e. g. Is. 50: 1. 54: 5. Jer. 3: 14. Is. 62: 5. Hos.
2: 19, 20. The whole of Canticles exhibits this idea greatly enlarged
and as it were individualized, if it is to be understood in a spiritual
SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : CuAP. XIX. 8, 9. 343
sense. It is frequent also in the N. Testament; e. g. 2 Cor, 11: 2.
Y.[)h. 5: 22 — 32. Kev. 21: 2, et al. Undoubtedly we may call such
imagery oriental ; for the poems of Ilaliz among the Persians, and
many of the religious poems of the Arabians, assume the same imagery,
in order to express the ardour and purity of aifection which is due to
Grod. If any reader is offended at this, it is but the part of candour to
suggest, that the liible was written in the East, and /or the East as well
as the West ; and surely in oriental countries no one would think at
taking offence on the ground of tropical language derived from such a
source. — Besides, Rome has already been repeatedly introduced as a
harlot, in a gaudy and meretricious di-ess ; the church therefore is in-
troduced here, on the contrary, as a chaste virgin betrothed to Christ.
The antithesis between the two is thus made striking. — Ilioiftaaev iuv-
Ttjv, hath adorned herself for the nuptials ; as the sequel shows.
(8) And it wns given her, that she should put on fine linen, splendid and pure ;
(for the fine linen signifies the righteousness of the saints).
The bridal garment here mentioned, considered in a literal respect,
is such as was wont to be worn at nuptials. But the writer explicitly
tells us, that all literal and carnal explanation is to be forborne. The
fine linen, as he declares, is only a symbol of the righteousness of the
saints. In Greek the word righteousness is plural, dixaiconura, for the
sake of intensity. This plainly does not designate the good deeds and
virtuous actions, simply or principally, of the saints ; for it is something
given to them. Paul presents us with a solution : " That I may be
found in Him, not having mine own righteousness which is of the law,
but that which is by faith in Christ, the righteousness of God by faith,"
Phil. 3: 9. So then, ' clothed in the righteousness of Christ,' saints are
to be affianced to him when their highest spiritual union with him shall
be completed. All that is here said, is said for the sake of pointing out
the reward wliich awaits Christians in the world to come. So the
sequel shows :
(9) And he saith to me : Write; Blessed are they who are bidden to the mar-
riage-supper of the Lamb I He also saith to me : These are the true words of
God.
See a similar pjissage in 3: 20, in respect to Christ's supping tciih
the believer. There seems, at first sight, to be a departure here from
the imagery of the preceding verse. There the whole church are rep-
resented as the bride, and Christ as the Husband. Here the blessed-
ness is mentioned of those who are guests invited to the wedding-feast.
I know not well bow to solve this, except by the consideration, that
the speaker here regards the consummation of the marriage, i. e. the
highest spiritual union with Christ in the heavenly world, after martyr-
344 SYMBOLS OF VICTORY : Chap, XIX. 10.
dom, as constituting the basis of his imagery in v. 8 ; while in v. 9, he
pronounces a blessing on those, who, having been called of God, are now
in their probationary state, preparing for a final union with Christ.
Understood in this way, the speaker declares that blessings of the high-
est kind await martyrs in the heavenly world ; also, that they who have
merely begun their course, and who are invited to final happiness, are,
amid all their trials, to be counted as greatly blessed.
The earnestness with which the author speaks, is designated by the
declaration, these words of God are true. — The Nom. case or subject
of XsyH is not mentioned by John. But there can scarcely be a doubt,
that the angel-interpreter, who seems everywhere to accompany him, is
meant to be considered as the subject. So v. 10 leads us of necessity
to explain the matter here.
The idea of a feast, as an image of the happiness of heaven, was a
familiar one with the Jews ; see and comp. Luke 14: 15. 16: 23, Laza-
rus reclining with Abraham at the table. Luke 22: 16. Mark 14: 25.
Rev. 22: 1, 2. The imagery here can scarcely be misunderstood by an
intelligent and sober mind.
(10) And I fell at his feet to worship him ; then he saith to me : See thou do
it not; 1 am thy fellow servant, and of thy brethren who hold the testimony of
Jesus ; worship God : (for the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy).
John, enraptured with what he had just seen and heard, seems
almost to have lost, in amazement and ecstasy, a consciousness of what
he was doing. His first emotions lead him to fall at the feet of the
angel-interpreter as an act of homage, doubtless believing that the Lord
Jesus himself was veiled in the form of the angel. But while he was
proceeding to do so, the angel arrests him with admonitions, that he
himself is nothing more than a ministerial servant, and therefoi'e cannot
be a proper object of homage.
Fell down, etc., the usual external act of homage, either to God or
man. In western countries, kneeling is the act of homage ; in the
eastern, prostration of the whole person on the ground, with the face in
the dust, was the usual token of civil or spiritual reverence. That John
was about to pay the latter, seems probable from the check which the
angel gave him. — "OQa fii'j, brachylogy, i. e. it plainly stands for oqa [i^
TZQOOy.vvijorjg. Our own idiom, without repeating the main verb, is, by
the aid of the helping verb do, more explicit than the Greek ; e. g. ' See
thou do it not.' — ^vvdovXog gov is very expressive here, q. d. Jam a
servant as ivell as thou, and therefore cannot receive homage. — Tcov
ddsXqjwv has for its preceding and governing noun fivpdovXog implied.
The sum of the two clauses is : ' I am a fellow-servant of John and of
all who testify for Christ.' Those who hold the testimony of Jesus, must
FINAL contest: Chap. XIX. 11. 345
here have reference to teachers or prophets, i. e. to tliose who in pome
way or other heUl and proohiimed the p^ospel. The angel means to say,
that he was engaged in the same business as John himself, and acted
(like him) in a subordinate capacity. How comes it that Jesus, if
merely human, never checked any of his worshippers in this way?
For the tesfimom/ of Jesus is the S2)irit of prophecy, is a clause that
has been a kind of crux mterjjretion. Storr : Quicquid Jesus in hoc
oraculo exposuit, e spiritu prophetico manavit. Ewald : Nam professio
Jesu est spiritus propheticus, i. e. si quis fidem ejus conslanter tuetur,
is eo ipso spiritimi habet propheticiuii. Neither to the purpose of the
speaker, which is, to proffer a reason why the angel considers himself
as nothing more than a fellow-servant. And what is that reason ?
Plainly it is this, viz. that John and his other fellow-witnesses for Jesus,
being in possession of the testimony respecting him, were partakers of
the spirit of prophecy, because the testimony respecting Jesus, in its
full extent, must embrace many things yet future, and which could be
known only in a prophetic way. Now inasmuch as the angel-inter-
preter came merely to aid John in the business of prediction or proph-
ecy, he belongs to the same general class of ministerial agents as John
himself. In other words : John and his coadjutor are both sent on the
same errand, are engaged in the same business, and are partakers of the
same prophetic spirit. The one, therefore, cannot worship the other.
For substance, Yitringa and Heinrichs defend the like exegesis. I do
not see that the passage fairly admits of any other.
FINAL CONTEST: CHAP. XLX. 11—21.
[The shout of anticipated victory being thus raised, and the glorious rewards
ofniarlyrdom being reassured, all is read}- for the final catastrophe. This the
remaining part of the chapter discloses. The usual trichotomy again develops
itself in this. (1) The appearance of the great Captain of Salvation, with his
hosts around him, from the heavenly world ; vs. 11 — IG. (2) The proclamation
made to the ravenous beasts and birds to come and glut themselves with the
slaughtered ; vs. 17, 18. (3) The final overthrow and excision of the beast, the
false prophet, and their army ; vs. 19 — 21].
(11) And 1 saw heaven opened, and behold I a white horse, and he who sat
upon him was called Faithful and True; and he judgeth and maketh war with
justice.
Heaven is here represented as being opened, for the inspection of the
seer, and because the armies of heaven (v. 14) are to advance to the
contest, issuing from the heavenly world. — Aiidlo ! a tchite horse, the
emblem at once of the majesty of the rider, and of the victory to be
achieved ; see on 6: 2. — The personage designated as Leader, is not
VOL. II. 44
346 FINAL CONTEST : Chap. XIX. 12, 13.
here designated by his proper name (Jesus, Messiah), but by epithets
which are expressive of the quahties which he manifests, particularly
in his present undertaking. Faithful, viz. to all the promises which he
has made to his followers. True, viz. to keep and execute both prom-
ises and threatenings. And he judgeth and inaketh war with justice, i. e.
he is not more true and faithful to his friends and followers, than he is
just toward his enemies. He does not come forth in hostile array
against them to cut them off, without good and sufficient reason ground-
ed in the principles of justice and equity ; for they have shed the blood
of saints and martyrs without cause, and they deserve the punishment
to be inflicted. — The construction begun with a participle {yu/Xoviuvoii),
and continued by a verb (xqi'vu etc.), is not unusual ; see Gramm. §
195. 3 ; (i'or particle in the Gramra. rand participle).
(12) And his pyes were like aflame of fire, and on his head were many diadems;
he liad a name inscribed, which no one knew but himself.
Fi/es as aflame of fire, i. e. emitting flashes of splendour; see on 1:
14. — Many diadems, because he is King of kings and Lord of lords, v.
IG. The beast (13: 1) is represented as having ten diadems; here the
number is not limited but is noXld, because his superiority over all oth-
ers is to be indicated. — ''E^itnv, i. e. ifV t'/Mv, lie had, see on 1: 16. — Name
inscribed, i. e. inscribed on the frontlet of his diadem ; see on 2: 17. —
Wliich no one hieiv hut himself i. e. the secret incommunicable name of
tiini (or perhaps yloyog), a name the full meaning of which is known
only to God and his ovv&QOvog, the Messiah ; see on 2: 17. In this lat-
ter passage (2: 17), the name is said to be known only to him who wears
it, i. e. all other men are excluded from a knowledge of its meaning ;
just as the high priest alone could pronounce the name on his mitre.
But the wearing of such a diadem is the privilege of saints in glory, not
of saints in the present world. In the state of gloi'y it will be fully reveal-
ed to them what this name means. But in the case before us, the name
in question belongs to the imperial diadem only ; and of course he who
wears such a diadem fully knows its proper meaning. Now as only the
Messiah can wear this diadem, in the peculiar sense here meant, he only
knows its full import. Is he not placed here on an equality with the
Father ? At all events, he is represented as fully his Vicegerent.
(13) And he was clothed in a garment dyed with blood; and his name was call-
ed : The Word of God.
The prototype o? garment dipped or dyed in Mood, is in Is. 63: 1 — 3,
where the great Deliverer comes up from Edom, his garments being
stained with the blood of enemies. So here, the red garment, (for this
I take to be the real meaning of the expression), is a symbol of the
slaughter which was to ensue.^.^/s name is called = his name is. — The;
FINAL CONTEST: ClIAl*. XIX. 14, 15. 847
"Word of God, a namp found elsewhere in the N. Testament only in
the writings of the apostle John. The proof arising from this, that John
the apostle must have written the Apocalypse, is not absolutely certain ;
for some of John's friends or readers may have adopted his phraseology.
But still, the kind of appeal which the writer has here made to this new
and peculiar appellation of the Messiah, seems at least to be quite Jo-
hannean.
As to the original reason for giving such an appellation to the Messi-
ah ; after all that has been written on this subject, it might seem pre-
sumptuous in me, to express an opinion in a single sentence, which is
all that my present limits allow. Speech is the development of one's
mind, wish, intention, command, etc. ; and so it is a disclosure of the
internal self. In respect to God, " he speaks and it is done ; he commands
and it stands tas;t." By the word of the Lord were the heavens made."
Now inasmuch as Christ was '' the brightness of the Father's glory, and
the express image of his substance," " God manifest in the flesh," so he
is the most direct, full, and immediate development of the Godhead to
man ; God speeds to us in and by him. Through him he speaks out as
it were himself. So then, as Christ was the most immediate and distin-
guished manifestation of God to men, the most honoured means of com-
munication, and because he was also the agent in creating the world,
whicii is in like manner ascribed to the word of God, he received from
John the name of yl(r/o<,\ or the great executor and communicator of the
will of God. The context iu John 1: 1 — 18, shows that the predomi-
nating ideas respecting Logos were such, in the writer's mind, as I have
now developed. To defend the sentiment of these hints, would be for- >
eign to my present business. The proper place for this is in a Comm.
or in a monogram, upon John 1: 1.
(14) And the armies of heaven followed him upon white horses, clothed with
white pure linen.
Upon white horses, the emblems of victory; see on v. 11. They are
represented as being upon horses, because troops of this kind held quite
the highest rank, and exhibited the greatest etficieticy, in ancient times.
New modes of warfare among us have somewhat altered the relations of
cavalry to footmen. — Clothed in white pure linen, the emblem of admis-
sion to the hajjpiness of the blessed ; comp. 3: 5. This description seems
to compri.<e saints or the redeemed in the army of the Redeemer, (comp.
Rev. 3: 3. 2: 26, 27) ; but it does not exclude angels.
(!.")) And out of his mouth issuetli a sharp sword, that he may smile the nations
Ihemwith -, and he shall rule them with a rod of iron ; and ho frcatlcth the wine-
press of the tierce anger of almiirhty God.
Sword of his mottih ; see on 1: 16. 2: 12. The image seems to be,
348 FINAL contest: Chap. XIX. 16, 17.
that the threats which he utters, assume an ensiform appearance as they
issue from his mouth ; of course they are striking symbols of excision. — ■
Ta k&vri here means the heathen nations contending against Christ. —
Eule tvith a rod of iron means to rule with a sway which is irresistible,
and which threatens entire destruction to all opposers. The prototype
is in Ps. 2: 9. — Treadeth the wine-press of the fierce wrath of almighty
God ; see the original image in Is. 63: 1 — 3. On the nature of the im-
agery, see remarks on 14: 19, 20. Wine-press of fierce wrath symbol-
izes the idea, that the enemies of God are to be trodden down like
grapes in the wine-press, and that their blood shall flow as freely as the
juice of the gi-ape which is expressed by treading.
(16) And he hath upon his vesture, even upon his thigh, a name inscribed :
King of kings and Lord of lords.
Inscriptions on the outer garments of distinguished individuals were
not unusual in ancient times, and they were made with large and re-
splendent letters ; see Hei-od. II. 106. Cic. Verr. IV. 23. Le Moyne
ad Jer. 23: 6. Miinter Diss, ad Apoc. 17: 5. p. 2. Ewald, p. 292.— "0*--
OfJia, adopted by Griesbach and followed by Knapp and Halin, instead
of the vulgate to ovojia, is an alteration plainly for the worse. The ar-
ticle is appropriate ; and the wi'iter of this book shows no particular de-
ficiency in his knowledge of the article. — King of hings, i. e. Supreme
King and Lord. The appropriateness of the titles here is manifest, in-
asmuch as his contest is with the kings of the earth. The inscription
on his vesture means, that ' He is and must Le universal king.' —
It seems that the prophet saw, in vision, the great Leader of the army
as sitting upon the white horse (v. 11), in which position the name on
his thigh would be specially conspicuous.
Complete and final victory is now expected with so much certainty,
that the whole army of the enemy are seen in anticipation as lying dead
upon the field of battle, and the ravenous birds are summoned to devour
their carcasses. This summons constitutes the second part of the tri-
chotomy, in the closing scene.
(17) And 1 saw an angel *standing in the sun, and he cried with a loud voice,
saying to all the fowls that fly in mid-air : Come, gather yourselves together to
the great feast of God.
The imagery here employed respecting the birds of prey, is very com-
mon among the Greeks and in the Heb. Scriptures. The first para-
graph of the IHad presents it ; and it may be found in Is. 18: 6. 56: 9.
Jer. 7: 33. 12: 9. 1 Sam. 17: 46, and particularly and at great length
in Ezek. 39: 4 — 20, which is doubtless the model of the passage before
us. The personification of the birds here, (Avho are addressed as intel-
ligent beings), is too commoa in poetry to need explanation. — Jelnvov,
FINAL CONTEST : Chap. XIX. 18—20. 349
lit. supper, but as it was the principal meal in the East, it often means
feast, conviviiiDi. — Great feost of God, great by reason of the number
of victims slain. — Of God, because Grod has ordained it, and makes pro-
vision ibr it.
(1?) Tliat ye iiiny devour flesh of kings, and flesh of rulers of thousands,
and flesh of the mighty, and flesh of horses and of those who sit upon them, and
flesh of all freemen and of slaves, both small and great.
See the like method of enumeratii^g all classes of men, in 6: 15. 13:
16. — The plur. GaQxag is not without significancy here, inasmuch as it
points to a large aggregate. The kin/^s are those confederate with the
beast; comp. 17: 12 — 18. Chiliarchs are the military leaders in the
army ; iaxvQoSv comprises the robust soldiery. — "innar, etc., means the
cavalry. — Freemen and slaves comprise the tout ensemble of the army,
i. e. the soldiers (including their officers) and all the menials of the
camp. — Small and great, i. e. of all ages and conditions. — As the Ace.
here follows (fuyrje, it denotes, as I have rendered it, to devour, i. e. to
eat up, as we express it. The Gen. (gcHqxcov) would denote only that
some portion was to be eaten. The article is omitted before ouQxag,
because the writer does not intend to be minutely specific. — That the
vultures and other birds of prey, which usually attend the steps of ar-
mies in the East, are here meant, there can be no doubt. But the
principal design of the imagery, after all, is to portray, in vivid colours,
the disgraceful death of the followers of the beast. To lie unburied,
and thus become the prey of ravenous birds or beasts, was regarded by
the ancients with peculiar horror.
The consummation is now ushered in ; for all is ready. Vs. 19 — 21
constitute the third part of the trichotomy.
(19) And I saw the beast, and the kings of the earth, and their assembled ar-
mies, make war with him who sat upon tlie liorse, and with his army.
The assembling of the army has already been given, in 16: 13 — 16.
Make war here means to engage in battle. The army encircling the
victorious Leader is here presented to our view. But they act, after
all, only a secondary part. The great Captain of Salvation is compe-
tent alone to achieve the victory.
(20) And the beast was seized; and with him the false prophet who wrought
miracles before him, by which he led astray those who received the mark of the
beast and who worshipped his image; alive were they both cast into tfie lake of
fire that burnetii with brimstone.
In respect to ipfvdoTiQorpijztjg and ivooniov avrov, see on 13: 11, 12.
The first step is to remove the leaders of the adverse army. The way
in which they were taken, is not disclosed. To dwell on particulars
consists not with the brevity here demanded. One might suppose, that
350 FINAL CONTEST : Chap. XIX. 21.
the prophet regarded them as having, champion-like, each proffered a
contest with the " King of kings," and that thus they were apprehended.
The beast and false prophet had been united in deceiving the nations
and pei'secuting the church. Their doom is therefore the same. Both
are cast al^ve into the lake of fire, i. e. Gehenna; — a touch of the pen-
cil with a design to make the colouring intense. The aggravated and
dreadful suffering which would result from being cast into the fiery pool
in such a state, i. e. alive, is too intense for description. The burning
of dead bodies, inflicts no pain ; the bui-ning of living ones implies pain
indesci-ibable. The idea of the writer moreover is, that they are to re-
main in the condition to v.'hich they are doomed, i. e. they are still to
remain living — a fearful doom indeed; comp. Num. 16: 32 — 54. Is. 5:
14. The substantial meaning is, that the leaders in the persecution of
Christians will be subjected to a speedy and dreadful punishment.
As to the expression y.aiontvr^v iv zrp &£im, see on 14: 10.
(21) And the rest were slain by the sword of him who sat upon the horse,
which issued from his mouth ; and all the fowls were satiated with their flesh.
The array at large then is distinguished from their leaders, in respect
to punishment. They are not cast alive into the pit. They are slain
by the sword ; not by the literal 'sword, however, for it is that which
issues from the mouth of the great Leader, viz. his simple word of ex-
cision. This suffices to destroy the whole army in an instant. A mag-
nificent description, indeed, of his power ! No other effort or contest is
needed. — The corpses fallen upon the field of battle are left to be de-
voured. There is none to bury them. — 'EioQTdo&ijaav literally means
to feed on herbs ; but this specific meaning not unfrequently goes into a
generic one, as in our text, and then it designates the idea of being /«<%
fed, of being satiated. The implication here of course is, that the army
also go down to Hades ; but not alive, like the beast and false prbphet.
The substantial meaning is, that condign punishment overtakes them, but
not so dreadful as that of their leaders.
'Ex, hy, tvith, common in such a sense, and used for the sake of point-
ing out with distinctness the sources from which the action denoted in
the verb springs.
Thus ends the second part of this great drama ; unless, indeed, we
include what pertains to the punishment of the dragon, 20: 1 — 3. But
we may regard this paragraph, perhaps, as constituting a kind of transi-
tion to a view of the subsequent condition of the church, which follows
the second great overthrow of her enemies. In this case, we may con-
sider chap. XX — xxii. 5, as comprising the third part of the subordinate
trichotomy which is evidently made in the body of the work, or the
main topic of the book.
REMATIKS ON ChAP. XIII — XIX. 351
Hemorls on the ''Hp^}ltcatton of Chap, xiii — xix.
It is propor now to look hack, anil inqiiii'e wliether the anther designed
that chap, xiii — xix, slionld he n><,'ardcd as apphcahle only to Nero, and its
fulHiinent as entirely acroni|)lislied hy the death of Nero?
Tlmt Nero is mainly characterized in xiii. xvi. xvii, \vc cannot well
doubt. But in chap, xiii, wiien the beast out of the sea is first i)resented,
he has seven heads, i\\n\ each of these is itself a king or-eniperor, 17: 10.
Of course, tlie beast, ^e?jmfa//i/rwjj,<?iV/frp//, represents many kings, not mere-
ly one. Yet as the reigning emperor, for tiie time being, is the actual man-
ifestation of the l)east, or tiie actual development of it, so the word bcnst is
applied, in the chapters named, maiidyto Nero then jjersecuting the church.
Insensibly almost, at least so it is to the reader, this specilic meaning ap-
pears to be dropped, and the more generic one to be employed again in
chap, xviii. seq. Cliap. xvi. seems plainly to indicate the lirst great overthrow
of the power of persecution. The grcdl citij and the cities of the iiatiovs are
cloven by an earthquake and reduced to a ruinous state. Indeed such is
the catastropiie here, that were nothing else said in tiie sequel, we should
be ready to conclude, that this overthrow ends the dominion and sway of the
beast. That Nero's fall was in the eye of the Apocalyptist here, 1 can hard-
ly doubt. But this was not the eml of the church's persecutions; although
a respite of some twenty years or more was now given. Further ))ersecu-
tions were to arise ; and so, a continued war with the beast, and a still fur-
ther destruction of great Babylon, are br(»ughtin the sequel to oiu* view.
If this, or something of this nature, be not the writer's design, why should
he have made the second catastroj)he to differ so much from the first ?
There, the earthquake, hail, thunder, etc., designate ihe fnale of the over-
throw. Not so here, liut only the commencement of it.
That all the future historical facts respecting the persecution of the church
lay open in detail before the mind of the seer, I find no satisfactory evi-
dence. Nor does it seem to me probable. When we look back to the vis-
ions of Isaiah and other Hebrew j)roi)hets, we find thein nearly always,
when concerned \\ itii distant future events, to assume a generic, and not a
specific form. So here. As soon as the writer dismisses the case of Nero
from his consideration, he deals no longer with anytiiing but generic rep-
resentations. Persecutions will revive. The war will be still waged. At last
the great Captain of Salvation will come forth, in all his ])ower, and make
an end of tiie long jn-otracted war. Then, and not till then, will the mil-
lennial day of glory dawn upon the church.
To look now for specific individual facts in the history of the church,
which are to correspond with the respective traits of this symbolical picture,
would be the same thing, as to look for the specific events in the life of Da-
vid, which correspond with P.s. 16: 7 — 10; or to busy one's self with search-
ing for such events to correspond with the pictures drawn in Is. xiii. xiv.
xxi. xl — Ixvi ; or by Zachariah in chap i — vi. Or, to present the matter in
a somewhat different attitude, the same as to look for them in the phrases :
"The Lord turnetli the earth upside down — The moon shall be confounded,
and the sun ashamed — The stars of heaven fell unto the earth," and the
352 REMARKS ON Chap. XIII — XIX.
like. Common sense is ever wont to give the true meaning to such lan-
guage, when particular favourite theories are out of the question ; why not
apply the same rule of interpretation to the Apocalypse ?
In order to designate the final and certain overthrow of heathenism, as
opposed to Christianity, the writer has chosen to represent the whole mat-
ter by the symbol of a great contest between the two parties. On the one
side are arranged Satan, the civil power, and the heathen priesthood, with
all their confederates ; on the other is the great Head of the church, the
angels, and the people of God. During the contest, the capitals of all hea-
then kings, i. e. of the beast and his confederates, are assaulted and reduced
to a falling state ; in its further progress, they sink to final ruin ; and last of
all comes the great battle between the main body of the assembled forces
on both sides, which ends in the total destruction of the enemy. Nothing
is more natural, now, than such a picture. But why should we be led to
suppose, that a picture of this kind is designed to be a history in detail of
great events predicted ? Where else is this so, if we except, perhaps, the
eleventh chapter of Daniel ? — a specimen of prophecy by the way, which,
as all must admit, is entirely sui generis. But there symbol is not employed.
It belongs to the nature of the symbolic representation before us, that it
should have a progress and a final completion. And so it must be true of
persecutions, that they will have their progress and their completion. But
that they will terminate in a literal battle, for which all the heatlien nations
are assembled in one place, it is, in my apprehension, no part of the writer's
design to signify. The great battle is an indispensable condition of the
aesthetical perfection of the writer's composition and plan ; and this belongs
specially to his aesthetics. Let me not be misunderstood. I do not mean
to say, that nothing historical is signified by this. I doubt not that the
great truth taught is, that final, complete, and certain victory over heathen-
ism will be achieved. But the manner of this battle and victoiy is, as I ap-
prehend, no part of the writer's object. Whatever of this there seems to be,
belongs merelj' to the finish of his composition and of his plan of symbol-
izing. To look for a specific and literal battle, as a fulfilment of chap.
xix, would be like looking for individual facts in history as the fulfilment of
the symbols indicated in chap, xiv, or in 18: 21 — 24, and in 19: 1 — 10.
When will a tnatter so plain as this, become well understood and be fully
believed ? Then, I would answer, and only then, when men will cease
from forming theories about prophecy a priori ; from guessing, instead of
philologizing ; and from wandering into the regions of symbol and meta-
phor, without any pole-star or compass to guide their steps. The Apoca-
lypse may be and will be well understood, when men have ceased to treat
it as a syllabus of civil and ecclesiastical histoiy.
As to the time when all will be accomplished which is symbolized in
chap, xiii — xix, I must refer the reader to Exc. V. which treats of the sub-
ject of time, as designated in this book. The fall of the beast at the end of
a time mentioned in 13: .5, I cannot doubt, is to be referred to Nero and his
persecution ; and it harmonizes almost to a week with the actual time dur-
ing which Nero persecuted the church. Other limitation than this I do not
see anywhere, in this second catastrophe. "The times and the seasons
the Father has kept within his own power." Why should we believe, then,
that John has been so prodigal in designating them in the Apocalypse, as
many suppose .''
THIRD CATASTROPHE : Chap. XX. 1 — XXII. 5. 858
Whenever tht* cluirch volunteer as a body to serve in the army of their
glorious Leader, tlicn will tlie day of antrrnilionnial victor}- be near at hand.
There are sijjns that such a day is approaciiiny. The Lord hasten it in liis
time !
THIRD CATASTHOPHi:. AND SEQUEL: CHAP. XX. 1— XXII. 5.
[Having arrived at the end of the second catastrophe, we come now to the contem-
plation of the third and last. During this period the prosperity of the church is
not onl}' to be great, but for a long time without any considerable check or oppo-
sition. The era commences with the detiironement of Satan, the binding of him,
and the casting of him into the great Abyss, the abode of demons or evil spirits
when imprisoned ; see Exc. I. II. 5. a. There he remains during one thousand
years of the churcii's prosperity, which are to follow ; 20: I — 3. All active oppo-
sition being thus removed, the era of the church's triumph of course is ushered in.
Christ and the glorified martyrs reign undisturbed a thousaTItl years ; 20: 4 — 7.
Then follows, upon the liberation of Satan, a new attempt to overthrow the
church. Gog and Magog — the old enemies of the people of God (Ezek. xx.wiii.
xxxix.), roused up by Satan, advance to the holy land and citj', in order to de-
stroy it. They come in numbers like to the sand of the sea. It is not said of
them, nor intimated, that they arc apostates from the profession of the Christian
faith. Evidentl}- the writer introduces them and speaks of them as ncrer having
professed to Itr the friends of Christ. The glorious day of the ciiurch, then, had
not yet dispelled all the darkness of the earth. Some distant, obscure, savage
nations remain, as the enemies of the gospel. The very names which are given
to them import thus much. But their efforts are all vain. Fire comes down from
heaven and devours them. The contest is not as in formercases a protracted one.
All the events of it, and its exilus, are related in only two verses. Their leader,
Satan, is now taken and cast into the lake of fire, from which there is no escape,
for it is no mere temporary prison like the abyss. And thus ends the third and
last great contest ; 20: 8—10.
In connection with this event the writer has disclosed the final consummation of
the happiness of the church in a state of glory. The general judgment takes place.
The righteous and the wicked are assigned to their final abodes. Tlie awful con-
dition of the wicked is portrayed in glowing colours ; 20: 11 — 15. On the other
hand, the final abode of the righteous is copiously described, and in a most vivid
manner; 21: 1 — 22:5. Then follows the epilogue; which concludes the book.
In respect to the connection which has oOen been supposed to exist between the
overthrow of Gog and Magog and the end of the world with the general judg-
ment, some remarks seem to be necessary. To argue that the end of the world
will be immediately after this overthrow, would be quite unsafe. Whoever is con-
versant with the Hebrew prophets, must know that nothing is more common with
them than to overlook all time that intervenes between events, and merely to de-
scribe the events themselves. Thus in cases too numerous to be particularized,
the coming of the Messiah is connected (so far as continuity of discourse is con-
cerned) immediately with the taking place of events, which happened centuries
before his death. Thus Is. iii. threatens severe punishment to the oppressive and
luxurious Jews of that day ; while the sequel says : " In that day," (viz. when
VOL. II. 45
r.'J
354 THIR1> CATASTROPHE : ChAP. XX. 1 — XXII, 5.
this punislinicMit shall be inflicted), "shall the Branch of the Lord be beautiful
and glorious, etc.," and then spreads out into a striking Messianic piediction.
With the punishment of ancient Judah and Israel (chap. vii. viii), is immediately
united one ol' the most graphic propliecies concerning the Messiali in all the O.
Testament; Is. ix. 1 — 7. With a prediction of the invasion of the king of As-
syria (chap. .X ), and its termination, is united anotlier most notable Messianic
prophecy, chap. xi. Wiih the overthrow of idumaea (chap, xx.xiv.), is united a
prophecy of .Messianic time, xxxv. In the last part of the book, chap, xl — Ixvi,
the transition from the return out of the Babylonish exile, to the time of the Mes-
siah, is ti/ he found almost everywhere, and often in such a shape as if the one
event stood immediately connected with the other. Ezekiel (ch. xxxvii.) unites
the return from Babylon witli the Messianic d ly. In the book of Daniel, the four
great monarchies, viz. the Babylonish, the Persian, that of Alexander, and that of
his successors in the vicinity of Palestine, are connected immediately with the
comino- of the Messiah, even by the expression: " /n the days of these kings,
shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom, etc." Dan. ii. The same thing is re-
peated in chap. vii. and again in chap. ix. The same is the case in other proph-
ets ; but these examples are sufficient.
As no one now can justly argue, that the Messianic period was immediately to fol-
low the happenThg of events, with the description of which a Messianic prediction
stands intimately connected, so no one can justly conclude, that the end of the
world is in point of time immediately connected with the destruction of Gog and
Mao-o'j-. It would be contrary to the general plan of the book and to the nature
of things. The writer's plan is most evidently -cymacf/c. This is natural to the
human mind, and finds its correspondencies deeply rooted in the human breast.
The Millennium is a peaceful and an almost universal reign of Christianity. Yet
Goo- and Magog are out of its domains, being " in the ends of the earth." After
the final victory over them, what is there any more to oppose the church .'' Sa-
tan is thrust into the lake of fire, whence there is no return. The hostile nations
are no more. Why then should not the triumph of the church be universal .' It
seems to follow of course ; and it is consonant with the climactic nature of the
composition as a whole, or rather, it is demanded by this.
But why has not the writer dwelt on this last period ? The answer to this
question may be found in the peculiar brevity which he prescribes to himself in
this last part of the great drama. The events of a thousand years ; the invasion
by Gog and Magog, with their defeat; the ultimate confinement and punish-
ment of Satan ; and lastly the general judgment; are all crowded into the space
o? twelve verses. This shows that the very distant future is designed to be merely
glanced at by the writer. So it is with the Hebrew prophets. But here, there is a
special reason for brevity. The main object of writing the book isalready accom-
plished, for substance. Christians have been consoled by assurances, that all the
enemies with whom the church was then conflicting, would surely be overthrown.
To complete an epic plan, which involves a climactic progression of events, and
to gratify the taste and feelings, the last part of the book is added. It seems to
be added mainly for this purpose. Mere touches and glances are all which it ex-
hibits, or which were intended to be exhibited. The eye of hope is directed for-
ward and sees the thousand years of uninterrupted prosperity ; then the sudden
destruction of a new and final enemy ; and all the rest is left to joyful anticipation.
When all clouds are swept from the face of the sky, why should not the sun shine
forth in all his glory .'
I pannot therefore doubt, that the setting sun of the church on earth, is to be in
BINDING OF SATAN: ChAP. XX. 1, 2. 855
a heaven of unclouded splendour. Peaceful and triumphant will be her latest aire.
The number of tlie redeemed will be nufrriiented beyond all compulation ; and
the promise made from the beginninir, that "the Seed of tiie woman siiould bruise
the Serpents licad, " will be fulfilled in all its extent and with ^ divine plenitude
of meaning. Is there not in every breast a kind of necessary anticipation, tha'.
such will be the triumphs of redeeming love and mercy .'
^ That the writer should enlarge so ninch as he has done, in the two last chap-
ters, in the description of the New Jerusalem and the final and glorified state of
the church, falls entirely within his generil plan. He set out to cheer despond-
ing Christians, and anin>ate all of them in the great contest that was going on, to
fidelity, fortitude, and perseverance. How.' By assurances of certain victory
here, and of eternal crowns of glor^' hereafter. Often, in the course of the
work, he opens heaven lo the eye of faith, and makes it to see the glories there
enjoyed. Often he repeats the most solemn assurances of future happiness. Why
should he not close with a description of this, which would cause every heart lo beat
higii with hope and joy, and fill the soul with such thrilling anticipations as
would make the faithtul followers of Christ regardless of persecution and distress .'
He might well do this; he has done it, and in a most effectual tnanner. No
£den can present any more than a faint resemblance of the picture which he has
drawn. The understanding and pious reader closes the book with admiration,
with wonder, with delight, with lofty anticipations of the future, and with undaun-
ted resolution to follow on in the steps of those, who through faith and patience
have inherited the promises and entered into everlasting rest.] '^
(1) And 1 saw an angel descending from heaven, having the key of the Abyss,
and a great chain upon his hand.
The effort.s and influence of Satan are henceforth, for a long time,
to be at an end. He is to be confined where he can no more cooperate
with the followers of the beast, until the church shall have enjoyed her
long and peaceful sabbath. — 77ie key of the Abyss, see on 1: 18. 9: 1,
where the same image of a gate or door to the under-world is presented.
The safe keeping of this is indicated, by the fact that an atigel has
charge of the key. — A great chain on his hand, the ini here seeming to
imply, that its magnitude was such that it could not be grasped, but lay
upon the extended hand. — Great because of the strength of him who was
to be bound. — As to the abyss as a place of confinement and punishment,
see Exc. I. Part II. 5. a.
{2) And he laid hold of the dragon, the old serpent, who is the devil and Sa-
tan, and bound him a thousand years.
The old serpent, in reference to the serpent who deceived Eve at the
beginning, or else a mere paraphrase of dQa/.ovza. The latter, per-
haps, is the more probable explanation here. — Who is the devil and Sa-
tan, i. e. who is the same being as he who is called the devil, etc. In
Greek, the article is omitted before both the names here, as it may be
before proper nam(\<, and also after verbs of naming ; Granim. § 80.
7. In our idiom, the article is necessary before aitribulive appellations,
356 RESURRECTION OF THE MARTRTS : ChAP. XX. 4 — 6.
and must be omitted before proper names for the most part. — /1id^o).o?f
the accuser, viz. of the saints ; Job 1: 2. Satan = 1^0, adversary, the
Hebrew name which corresponds somewhat nearly to the Greek diu^o-
Xog. — XiXia hij, Ace. of time how longr ~^^e great question whether
this is to be taken literaUy or symboUccdly, is one that must be settled
by the analogy of the book, in regard to specified periods. We have
seen, that the famous period of three and a half years = forty-two
months = 1260 days, is to be understood, in all probability, in its lit-
eral sense, not indeed with rigid arithmetical exactness, but as desig-
nating a period of moderate extent. Here, then, assuming a similar
usage in respect to numbers, we may suppose that the thousand years
are to be taken in their ordinary sense, or at least for a very long pe-
riod. The latter idea is sufficient ; and the general tone of the book
might justify such a mode interpretation. The nature of the case also
is such, that we may well suppose a very long period of rest would be
assigned to the church. Some have made each day here the represen-
tative of a year, and have thus made out the Millennium to be a period
of 360,000 years, or 365,000, as others reckon. See, on the subject
of time here and elsewhere in the Apocalypse, Exc. V.
(3) And he cast him into the ab3'ss, and locked it up, and put a seal upon it,
that he might not any longer lead astray the nations, until the thousand years
shall have been completed ; after these he must be loosed for a little time.
The ancient custom of making sure that the prison door has not been
opened, by putting a seal upon the lock, is made plain by Dan. 6: 17
and Matt. 27: 66. — 'EoqQuyiaev tnuvw expresses the impressing of the
seal itnon the lock of the door, not because it fastened the door or gate
of itseir, but because it prevented intrusion or any secret opening of it,
without its becoming known. So Hebrew ^5 15 C , Job 12: 14. — /4fX
avTi'jv indicates, that by divine permission or arrangement Satan
would be loosed again, aftci' the thousand years had expired. From the
whole representation, here and elsewhere, it is plain that the Abyss is
not the place of fined punishment, but only of temporary restraint or
chastisement. The lake of fire is the place of final torment, from which
there is no escape ; see 14: 1^. ll. 19: 20. 20: 10, 14. Hades or the
Abyss is at last to be cast into this lake, or merged ia-ii,^_being added
to it, 20: 14, i. e. the place of temporary punishment is to be destroyed,
and only the eternal prison is to remain. •
RESURRECTION OF T"E MARTYRS : CHAP. XX. 4—6.
[Satan being thus etfectually restrained, the era of the church's prosperity is
ushered in. The faithful martyrs, constant even to death, who had never con-
taminated themselves by yielding to the demands of the beast, are now to be re-
RESURRECTION OF THE MARTYRS : ChAP. XX. 4. 367
Btored to life, and advanced to an exalted state of reward in heaven. "With
Christ they there live, and with him they are there seated on throneo, having,
by special divine favour, anticipated the final resurrection and exaltation. Tliis
is \he first resurrection, and seems to compreliend only those who are entitled to
peculiar rewards. The second resurrection differs from it, in the circumstance
that it will be treneraJ, and will take place only after the world shall end. See
on vs. 4 — G what is said in Exc. VI ; where various questions are discussed re-
specting the Millennium.]
(4) And I saw thrones, and thoy sat upon them, and judgment was given to
them ; and [I saw] the souls of those beheaded on account of the testimony of
Jesus and because of the word of God, and who did not worship the beast, nor
his image, and did not receive his mark upon the forehead and upon their hand;
and they revived, and reigned with Christ a thousand years.
Thrones are of course emblems of exalted station and dignity ; for
those who sit upon them must be kings, or like kings, i. e. they occupy
an exalted rank or a high and dignified station. — A?id they sat upon
them ; "Who ? Angels, says Ewald, " for," adds he, " wrongly do some
suppose that Christians sit upon thera as judges." Yet if he means
angels, we might well ask : In what part of the Scriptures are the angels
in general represented as performing the office of judging in heaven ?
" Are they not all mini'stenng spirits ?" Besides, do we not know that
Christians " shall judge angels ?" 1 Cor. 6: 3. Is it not a plain and ob-
vious truth, that " if we suffiir with Christ, we shall also reign with
hira?" 2 Tim. 2: 12. Is it not promised to those who overcome in the
Christian contest, that " they shall sit down with the Redeemer upon
his throne?" Rev. 3: 21. Ewald assumes, that the office o( Judging, in
its limited and special sense, is here described. But is this certain ?
In Hebrew, the book of Judges (c^ifsiu) is a history of Jewish rulers ;
and nothing is more frequent than such a use of the words to judge and
a judge, as designates the duty and office of superior or supreme ruler.
Exactly in point seems to be Matt. 19: 28, where the Saviour tells the
apostles, that " they shall sit on twelve x^qovov^, -/.Qtvovzei the twelve
tribes of Israel," i. e. they shall be entitled to superiority over all their
brethren of the Hebrew nation. And so in 1 Cor. 6: 3, xnivoiJ[t£v is
employed. The word xoiftu in the clause before us, which in the N.
Testament is often equivalent to the Hebrew a2r"3 , does not with cer-
tainty designate the appropriate office o( judging, as we employ this
word, but may be interpreted as applying to the supervision or making
of statutes, ordinances, arrangements, etc., by those who are in a su-
perior station. If it be so interpreted here, then xQi^a ido&tj avzoig
will mean for substance the same thing as ((iaaiXevaav in the latter part
of the verse, the former being generic, while the latter takes a specific
form of expression. This seems to many to be the most easy and nat-
ural construction of these parts of the verse.
358 RESURRECTION OP THE MARTTRS : ChAP. XX. 4.
But there is another construction which is possible, and perhaps even
probable. Is not such a judgment here represented as being passed by
others upon the martyrs, in connection with which they are raised from
the dead and rewarded with the highest honours ? In this case all is
in good analogy with the last judgment. The order of the transactions
in this case, we may suppose, is not absolutely determined by the words
of the text, but only the facts of the case. Thus thrones, judges, sen-
tence, are connected in the first clause ; and martyrs, resurrection, and
exaltation, in the last. The natural order of facts would be, the plac-
ing of the thrones, the seating of the judges, the resurrection, the sen-
tence, the glorification. But we may say, that as the writer has com-
bined all these in a single sentence, so he has grouped together things
related, and not narrated events after the strict order of succession. The
only difficulty that attends the mode of interpretation now proposed, is,
that the third pers. plur. ixd&iaav is employed, as also 'AQifia id6&)]
avroTg. But this difficulty is not perhaps an insuperable one; for
nothing scarcely is more common in the 0. Testament and in the New,
and above all in the Chaldee of the book of Daniel, than to employ the
third pers. plur. for the passive voice, thus making a kind of impersonal
verb of it ; Gramm. § 174. Note 2. In such a case, whether the judge
Avas one or many, it would make no difference with the form, i. e. the
number, of the verb. The simple meaning of ey.d&taav Iri uvrovg, y.ai
y.Qtfia idoi})] avzoh', Avould be : ' A tribunal was erected, and power of
passing sentence was given.' Sentence on whom ? Tag xl'v^ug, etc.,
would be the answer, the Ace. being purposely employed to denote the
object.
But there remains one difficulty after all. This is the '/CQi'na iSo&rj
aviolg. God and Christ must be included among the judges, or rather,
must be regarded as the only supreme ones ; and who could commit
judgment to them? But as in Rev. 1: 4 the seven spirits before the
throne are joined with the Father and Son (see Comm. in loc), and as
in 1 Tim. 5: 21 Paul unites God and Jesus Christ and the elect angels,
may it not be that the writer here speaks in like manner of a heavenly
Consessus, on this occasion, which, as it would include the presence^
angels, might lead him to adopt the phraseology in question ? An at-
tentive comparison of Rev. 1: 4 and 1 Tim. o: 21, would seem to ren-
der such a construction not improbable, at any rate not impossible.
The cooperation of angels, in some important sense, on great occasions,
is a doctrine not foreign to the Bible. We should compare not only
Rev. 1: 4 and 1 Tim. 5: 21, as mentioned above, but also Acts 7: 53.
Gal. 3: 19. Heb. 2: 2, where an important agency in giving the
Law is expressly assigned to angels. If we admit the construction now
before us, it frees us at least from one difficulty, viz., that which results
RESURRECTION OF THE MARTYRS : ChAP. XX. 4. 359
ftt>m the writer's telling us, that he saw thrones, and those who occupied
thera, before the restoration of the martyrs to life. If now it be the
martyrs thfmselves who occupy the tliroiies from which xo/|M« is dis-
pensed, then it would seem naturiU that the verb e^ijaav should precede
the statement of this. But since the writer has not made it to precede,
does he not mean, that judgment is dispensed by others, and not by the
mm-tyrs themselves, namely, that judgment which decrees to the mar-
tyi*s resurrection and a thousand years' reign with Christ? Whether
now this judgment actually is passed by God himself, by the Redeemer,
or by either or both of these with the heavenly Consessus, the writer
does not perhaps expressly say ; yet the plural number of the verb, and
specially the y.oi[(a id6{}i; avroi^', looks rather as if the presence-
angels, (for others cannot well be supposed), belonged to the implied
Consessus. At least tins must be admitted, in case we adopt the exe-
gesis now in question. — rhTzsXexKTfiuav designates decapitation by
means of the TTikfxV';, i. e. axe, because this was a common mode of
ignominious execution among the Romans. But plainly it was not the
writer's intention to confine the rewards of martyrs merely to those who
suffered death in this particular way ; for this specific and ignominious
method of ])unishment is designated merely as the symbol of any and
every kind of martyrdom. — On account of the testimony of Jesus, i. e.
because of the testimony concerning Jesus. As the expression now is,
it may include those who preached Christian doctrine, and also those
who believed and obeyed it. The second phrase, on account of the
word of God, is of somewhat wider extent than the preceding one. It
embraces all the docti*ines of true I'eligion. — Kul oiziveg, etc. Is this a
mere relative pronoun, with reference to rag \pv)(^dg ? Or does it de-
signate an additional class of Christians, who had suffered in various
ways on account of their fidelity, but had not been made actual martyrs ?
The latter .gxegcsis is perhaps allowable ; and since it is so, some deem
it better to interpret the text in this way, because thus it would seem to
comport more obviously with the nature of the case presented. In de-
fence of this they allege, that surely it is not those only, who were
actually beheaded with the axe, that were entitled to the rewards of
martyrdom. The implication of the text is, in their view, that those
who had refused all deference to the beast, must also, as well as mar-
tyrs, experience much annoyance in consequence of such refusal. The
Nom. case here, oirireg, serves, as they interpret it, to distinguish this
second class from the preceding; but comp. in Rev. 1: o, o fiaQTvg 6
matog. See more in Exc. VI.
Murk on the forehead and on the hand ; see on Rev. 13: IG. — Kai i^tj-
oav, they revived, came to life, i. e. returned to a life like the former one,
viz. a union of soul and body. So does the word signify in Rev. 1: 8.
360 RESURRECTION OF THE MARTYRS : ChAP. XX. 4.
13: 14, and in many other passages cited in the remarks on Rev. 1: 8.
Any other .fixegesis here would seem to be incongruous ; for the writer
does not mean to say that the souls of martyrs were dead before this pe-
riod, and now would come to life, after he has, throughout the whole
book, represented them as already being in heaven and praising God
and the Redeemer there. Nor can he mean here, that now they beffin
to be happy, (which is a tropical sense of ^aro) ; for happy they had long
been, because " the dead who die in the Lord are blessed anaQri." Still
less can he mean that they become immortal now, or live forever ; for
they were immortal from the first moment of their existence. There
M'ould seem to remain, therefore, only one meaning which can be con-
sistently given to £^//(T«f, viz. that they (the martyrs who renounced the
beast) are now restored to life, viz. such life as implies the vivification
of the body. Not to a union of the soul with a gross material body
indeed, but with such an one as saints will in general have at the final
resurrection — a spiritual body, 1 Cor. 1.5: 44. In no other way can
this resurrection be ranked as correlate with the second resurrection
named in the sequel ; for in naming this ih&Jirst resurrection (v. 5), John
has developed such a correlation. How can the mere hestowment ofhap'
piness be all that the writer intends here by ttj^aav, since all saints live,
in this sense, from the moment when the body dies ; yea, from the time
when they are regenerated ? If mere advancement to a higher grade of
happiness be meant by 'it,tjouv, then may we ask : Will not all saints be
made happier by the augmented prosperity of the church on earth ? What
then is peculiar to martyrs ? It is quite plain, indeed, that neither
regeneration, nor happiness in heaven after the death of the body, can
be placed by the side of the last resurrection as a correlative in the
way of contrast. In the phrases j^rs^ resurrection, and second or last,
a discrepance in regard to time is implied, while in other respects the
things compared appear to be essentially the same. Any great change
from a degraded and wretched condition, temporal or spiritual, may in-
deed be figuratively called a resurrection, a restoration to life, i. e. to
happiness ; but it would be out of question to name it a first resurrec-
tion. This implies of necessity a comparison with a second, in which
the first must be like the second in kind, but must precede it in the order
of time. So in 1 Cor. 15: 23. 1 Thess. 4: 16, Paul in giving an account
of the general resurrection, declares that "the dead in Christ shall rise
first," i. e. before the wicked, who will also be raised. And thus it seems
to be here, when John compares the two resurrections of saints ; the
words j^r*; and secojid mark the respective periods of time. For a fur-
ther consideration of this exegesis, and also of objections and difficulties
in respect to it, I must refer again to Exc. VI.
Until the thousand years shall have been completed. But what ensues,
RESURRECTION OP THE MARTYRS : ChAP. XX. 4. 361
after this ? A dethronement, an essential change of state, rank, or con-
dition? This is not of necessity implied. Slioiild one say : * God will
reign as long as the world continues,' this would not imply of necessity
that he will reign no longer. It merely aflfirms the certainty of his reign
during all (hat period ; which is the simple object of the speaker. Yet
in most instances of such declarations, a r/ia/tf/e of some kind is indicated
after the terminal period named. So here. After the thousand years, Sa-
tiin will reappear, and Gog and ]\Iagogwill come up and invade the territo-
ry of the saints. The undisturbed dominion and prosperity of the church,
which the enthroned martyrs had seen and rejoiced in during the Mil-
lennium, is now once more interrupted. And so their reign becomes
relatively changed. Their joy receives as it were a check. But to
suppose an implication here that they are to be dethroned and reduced
to their former state, is not necessary. No such implication is intended ;
at least, such a degradation seems incompatible with the views of the
author. The description of their continued and uninterrupted reign, is
one of the indications of the continued prosperity of the church during
the long period mentioned. Viewed in this light, we can find no good
reason to urge the meaning of the words employed, beyond the natural
and ^asy sense which they afford.
As to The notion of a descent to the earth by Christ and the martyrs,
and their visible reign here, there is not a word in the text, nor even an
imi>lication ; at least I can find none. What a gross conception it would
be, to mingle celestial and terrestrial beings in one common mass ! The
glorified Saviour, and the glorified martyrs, mingling with material and
perishable beings, and becoming subject again to the laws of matter ! If
it be said, that the earth is itself to be changed entirely, at the beginning
of the millennium, and to be fitted by this change for the abode of such
glorious beings raised from the dead ; where then, I ask, are Gog and
Magog to live during this period, and nurture their hosts "like the sands
of the sea for multitude ?" And other men — are they still mortal be-
ings, or not? If they are, then a material world, however Eden-like, is
their place of residence ; for flesh and blood can inhabit no world of a
different character. How then are the glorious Savioiir and the glori-
fied martyrs literally to mingle and commune with matt^rial and fleshly
and perishable beings ? The thing is imi)0ssible, because it is against
the fundamental law of our spiritual nature. If it were not impossible,
moreover, still it is utterly improbable, on any ground, that the triumph
and exaltation of the matyrs are to consist in their being sent back to
the earth, in order to resume a terrestrial existence, suiTouiidcd with suf-
ferings and sorrows. Besides all this, there is not a word from the
Apocalyptist, as yet, respecting the so much talked of renoration of the
earth. It is only at the period of the general judgment, that this reno-
VOL. TT. 40
3G2 RESURRECTION OF THE MARTYRS : ChAP. XX. 5, 6.
vation takes place ; Rev. 21: 1 seq. The material vforlds pass away
when this judgment comes ; but not before. It follows then, that the
idea o^ spiritual beings, as descending from the heavenly world to this,
and spending a thousand years in a material world whose organization
is not substantially changed, can have no foundation but in the phanta-
sy of the brain. It is as incongruous as to say, that God has material
eyes, hands, and other organs of sense. See further in Exc. VI.
. (o) And the rest of dead revived not, until the thousand _years were com-
pleted. This is the first resurrection.
Who are the rest of the dead? This question has been anticipated in
the remarks made upon the preceding verse. The phrase seems natu-
rally to include all who had not suffered martyrdom or persecution from the
beast, i. e. had not suffered with patience and fortitude. Not that merely
those who suffered by the Romish beast are included among the martyrs
here ; for, from the nature of the case, all who had been persecuted or
slain on account of true relifjion, at any time or in any place, provided
they had borne their trials and sorrows in a becoming manner, would
seem to be included in the first resurrection.
Until the thousand years shall have bee^i completed. Is the general
resurrection to follow immediately upon the completion of this chiliad of
years ? This is not a necessary implication ; see remarks on the same
phrase above, under v. 3. Besides, from the Avriter's own showing, the
end of the world is not contemporaneous with the end of the thousand
years ; for Gog and Magog invade the holy land after this, v. 7 — 8. All
which the phrase above declares, is, that neither before, nor during any
part of the thousand years, would the resurrection of the rest of the dead
take place.
First resurrection, so called in distinction from the second. Of course
it is one which precedes it in respect to time ; it is not necessary that
the two resurrections should differ in other respects. Indeed, the ob-
vious implication here is, that they do not substantially differ ; for what
else can the ol 5« Xoinot rwv vsxqcov ov x s^ijg av mean, except that
the rest of men must wait until the second resurrection, before they
would be raised up in like manner as those had been who were partak-
ers of the first resurrection ? But the subject has been already dis-
cussed, in the remarks on v. 4. "^-
(6) Blessed and holy is he who hath a part in the first resurrection ! Over
such the second death hath no power, but they shall be priests of God and of
Christ, and shall reign with him a thousand j'ears.
Blessed and holy must be emphatic here, for they can hardly bear the
simple and ordinary meaning. All samts of every age are blessed and
RESURRECTION OF THE MARTYRS : ClIAP. XX. 7, 8. 363
holy in reality and to a certain extent, let them live or die where or
when they may. The phrase in our text, therefore, must be employed
in an emphatic sense, in a si'nse which drew the writer's special atten-
tion, and which he intended should also be specially noted by the reader.
Moreover, all this is not only compatible with the interpretation of the
preceding verses, but helps to coniii-m it. The resurrection of the, body
is everywhere held out, in the N. Testament, as the condition and pre-
cursor of a higher degree of perfection and happiness to the saints.
So here ; the first resurrection brings those who are partakers of it,
sooner than others, to the perfection of their nature. Ewald explains
ayiog here, by ItQ^t^ in the sequel, i. e. these, like priests, shall be
henceforth consecrated to the service of God. But why should we thus
separate ayin^ from huauqio'^ ? The interpretation given above seems
more probable.
Ocer such, or these, the second death hath no power ; i. e. they are se-
cure against all possible future evil. The preceding clause exhibits
their actual condition or positive state of happiness ; the present clause,
their freedom from all danger that their condition will be changed. The
second death, according to v. 14, is the being cast into the lake of fire.
— Priests of God and Christ, see on Rev. 1: G. Here it means : They
shall be near to Christ, and most honorably employed in his service ;
the sequel shows, that they shall be advanced to the highest honours,
i. e. shall, like kings, be enthroned ; comp. Rev. 3: 21.
(7, 8) And when the thousand years shall have expired, Satan shall be loosed
from his prison, and he shall go forth to lead astray the nations who are in the
four corners of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather them together for war,
whose number is as the sand of the sea. •
Here then are nations accessible to the wiles of Satan, nations who
live beyond the boundaries of the great empire which has so long been
under the peaceful reign of the Messiah. They live, as we express it
in common parlance, out of the world, i. e. out of the great civilized and
christianized world, or in the four comers of the earth. Of course the
earth is here, as throughout the Scriptures, conceived of as an extended
plain, the four comers of which are the most remote from the centre ;
and the centre, moreover, is regarded as the holy city. Their number
too is great, like the sand of the sea. Not an intimation is given that
they become apostates from a former profession of Christianity, or that
Christianity had ever spread among them. Every thing in the descrip-
tion wears the appearance of a meaning the reverse of this. Satan
does not deceive the elect, in this case, but leads astray those who had
never been converted to the Christian faith. That this is so, appears
from the face of the narrative ; for how comes it that Satan finds no
364 GOG AND MAGOG : Chap. XX. 7, 8.
access to men any-where, except in the four corners of the earth ? Had
those living there been Christians, Hke the rest of men, what reason can
be given why they should, all at once and in such immense numbers,
be seduced from their Christian allegiance, while no inroads are^ny-
where else made upon the domains of Christianity ? I see no way in
which this question can be satisfactorily answered.
Inquiry respecting Gog and Magog.
Why does John name this third and last formidable and persecuting power, Gog
mirf Magog? To answer this question we must go back to tlie prophecy of
Ezekiel, which is the prototype of the author in the present case. In Eze-
kiel 37: 1 — 14, the prophet gives us a most graphic description of the appa-
rently desperate state of tlie Jewish nation in their exile, under the image
of an immense valley full of dry bones. These he sees in a vision to be-
come reanimated, and learns from this, that Israel will again be restored,
and will live and flourish, vs. 11 — 14. He then predicts a union of the ten
and of the two tribes in one nation; and, finally, the coming of the Messiah
and his reign over them; vs 15 — ^28. At some future period, for so the
vision represents it, Gog of the land of Magog and his confederates come
up against the holy land and people ; but they are slaughtered with im-
mense destruction, and Israel is troubled no more; chap, xxxviii. xxxix.
Then follows the flourishing state of the land, the rebuilding of a magnifi-
cent temple and city, and a new and perpetual apportionment of the holy
land ; chap, xl — xlviii. Nothing can be plainer, than that the Apocalyptist
had all this picture in his eye, when he wrote the verses before us ; and, in
my apprehension, he has rightly understood and explained the main pur-
port of Ezek. xxxvii — xlvii\"-which certainly tallies, in all its leading fea-
tures, with the description now under examination.
With these views respecting the idtiniate period of the world agree the
representations in Zech. xiv; also Joel 3: 9 — 21; and perhaps Dan. 12: 1
— 3. At all events, no satisfactory account of the real meaning of these
passages of Scripture, which has its basis on other ground, has yet been
given.
Thus John, under imagery borrowed from Ezekiel, describes the tliird
and last great effort of the enemies of the church to destroy her. That
the names of these enemies will literally be Gog and Magog, and that they
are literally to come from the four corners of the earth, and besiege the lit-
eral Jerusalem, no one versed in the language of the prophecy will attempt
to contend. Enough that the names of old enemies are employed to desig-
nate new ones, as yet without a name. Enough that they come from the
bosom of the unconverted heathen, and that they oppose and persecute
Christians wherever they meet them. These are the things signified ; all
the rest is costume.
Something more needs to be said, however, in order to give the reader a
fuller view of Gog and Magog, so that he may know what impression the
mention of these names by John would naturally make upon his readers.
In Gen. 10: 2, Magog is mentioned as a son of Japhet. Elsewhere the word
is found only in Ezekiel, xxxviii. xxxix. ; in which passage it means a land
GOG AND MAGOG : CuAP. XX. 7, 8.
Or countrt/, (38: 2), of wliich Gog is the prinre. With it are aesocinted Me-
slmch and Tubal ; wiiirh pives us a chie to the locaUty of Magog ; I'or those
two countries lie between the Euxine and C'asi)ian Seas, or at the southeast
exti-emity of the I'uxine Sea ; Uosenni. Jtib. Geog. I. p. 240. Ges. Lex.
Magog was (loul)tless in tlie neighborhood of these countries, yet, still fur-
ther north, and probably among the Caucasian mountains. The peojjle of
that region, it seems, wt;re a terror to michlle Asia, in the same manner as
the Scythians were to the (Jreeks*and Komaiis. Hence they have often
been named the Sn/thians of the East. They have preserved their original
character down to the present hour ; as is evident from their recent long
continued contests with the Russians.
Intercourse with such distant and savage nations was scarcely possible
in ancient times ; and hence, from their numbers and strength, they were
regarded ^^ith great fear and horror ; just as the Scythians were looked
upon by the Greeks and Romans, and as the Tartars are regarded by the
oriental nations. Of this there is most abiuidant evidence. The Ara-
bian writers are fidl of the mention of Yajoiij and Majoxij (as they pronounce
the names, making gsott); see Asiatisches Magazin by Klaproth, 1802,
Vol. I. p. 138 seij., who has made a large collection of passages where Gog
and Magog are named. We can trace this opinion, viz., that Gog and Ma-
gog were the eastern Scythians, and lived in the regions of the Caucasus and
around the Caspian Sea, to a remote period among both Christiana and
Arabians. Jerome (in loc. in Ezech.) says of Magog, that it means " Scy-
thiati nations, fierce and innumerable, who live beyond the Caucasus and
the Lake Maeotis, and near the Caspian Sea, and spread out even on\vard
to India." Theodoret also says of Gog and Magog, that " they are Scythian
nations." Asseman, in his liiblioth. Orientalis, Tom. III. P. II. Ki, 17, 'iO,
has given excerpts from old Syriac authors, which appeal to Gog and Ma-
gog as inhabiting the same region that Jerome mentions. This is still I'ur-
ther confirmed by a Syriac jjoem on Alexander the Great, written by a Ja-
cobite Christian, in the measure common to that sect, and published from
a Codex at Paris, by G. Knos in his Syriac Chrestomathy, 1807. Jacob Bar-
«lai, the lather and leader of the Jacobites, flourished in the latter half of
the sixth century, so that the poem in rpicstion cannot be earlier than this
period. But it seems to have been written either at this i)eriod or near it,
for the Syriac is altogether of the antique cast. Mar Yohannan, the Nestorian
bisliop, lately in this countrj', to whom I showed this jiroduction, avers
that there can be no question of the anti«iuity of the piece, if we may judge
from the dialect which it exhibits. In this remarkable production — remark-
able for its curious matter — the writer assumes the position, that Alexander
the Great built a wall, or rather extended a gate, between a pass in the
northern (Caucasus) ridge of mountains, so as to i)revent an irruption of
Gog and Magog from that quarter. He gives a circumsUintial description
of the process of constructing this huge gate or wall, which was covered
with iron and copper, so that it could not be cut through, pp. 86 — 8S>. An
angel is next rejiresented as commissioning Alexander to carr>- on his con-
ques-ts overall Egypt and Asia, initil he should come to the river Kalat [In-
dus?] where he should stop, p. [)l. In pj). 94 — 105, the author represents
Gog and Magog, who hail been hitherto l)arred out by the great iron gate,
as assembling in such midtitudes as to cover the earth with tlu'ir forces. God
hitnself now interposes, oi)ens the gate, and lets in ui)0u tlic countries of tlic
366 GOG AND MAGOG : Chap. XX. 7, 8.
southern region the countless hosts of Gog. " In the seven thousandth"
[year] " says the author," Ui wliich the heavens and the earth sliall be destroy-
ed, [i. e. near the end of the work!], there shall come forth armies and hosts
from their countries, [viz. the countries of Gog and Magog], tliey shall
come, armies and hosts from their countries ; they shall come, thousands
and marshalled ranks and assemblages without number ; they shall rise up
behind the gate and shout ; their cry shall be louder than the wind or the
crashing thunder, that the Lord, our Lord, may open to us the gate, that we
may go forth over the earth. At that time, the mountains ami earth and
men therein shall tremble, because of that voice [uttered] in anger and in-
dignation and impetuosity. Among the marshalled ranks shall go forth a
cry at that time ; and the voice of the Lord shall cast down the lofty gate,"
p. 94 seq. After this, the poet describes them as marching over the earth,
and making it desolate in all quarters : " They will come forth, filling the
earth with their concouises, with sword, and exile, and battles, and blood,
and many murders; when the anger of the Lord shall wax hot against
the wicked, he will send upon the eai-th those of Gog and the house of
Magog," p. 97, In subsequent pages, (103, 104, 105), the author again
brings to view the horrible slaughter which will be made by them, until the
earth becomes entirely desolate.
Such is the curious /tU)9^o§ of the Syriac poet ; and almost in exact accor-
dance witji this account, is that which Mohammed has given in the Coran.
It is hardly probable that he had seen the Jacobite poem, or that the author
of that poem had seen the Coran ; both, therefore, naist have drawn from
one common source, viz. tradition. In Sura xviii. 94, Mohammed repre-
sents a northern barbarous people as addressing' Alexander the Great, (wiiom
he calls Two-horned), and complaining tliat Gog and Magog lay waste their
country. The king then aids them in building up a high and strong wall,
which he makes solid with melted ii-on and brass. By this Gog and Magog
are excluded from their predatory excursion toward tlie South, until the
last period of the world. Then the Lord will throw down the wall, and
give free access to the barbarian hordes. When they have done their work
of destruction, they, with all other infidels, shall be turned into Gehenna;
see Koran, ed. Marac. II. p. 424 seq. Li Sm-a XXI. 95 seq. Mohammed
again speaks of the cities which he and his followers had destroyed, and
says of them, that they shall not be renewed, " until an opening is made
for Gog and Magog, who shall come with haste from all the lofty moun-
tains," i, e. the Caucasian ridge. In other words, the cities shall never be
rebuilt ; for Gog and Magog are, according to the Coran, to come only at
the end of time.
The striking agreement of these passages from Mohammed with the Ja-
cobitic poem, in all the important features, is apjjarent at first view ; and it
betrays, beyond all doubt, a common source whence both writers drew.
The story must therefore have been an ancient one, which had obtained so
wide a currency. The building by Alexander of such a wall, or any wall,
between the Caspian and Euxine seas, to fence out the Caucasian hordes, is
a matter of which history knows, or at any rate says, nothing. But that
his successors, in the monarchy of the East, ei-ected a structure there for
defence against the northern hosts, seems to be altogether probable. That
some early king in this region did so, is quite certain ; for the wall is now
standing, for the most part, and is still called the wall of Gog and Magog.
GOO AND MAGOG : Chap. XX. 7, 8. 867
Peter the Great, of Russia, took possession of the region between the Eux-
ino and r!is|)ian Seas about \77'2; and at that period, S. G, Enielin was
sent out thitlii'r, on a tour of examination, by the Russian government.
In his Travels, |)ublisIiod at Petersburg in 1774, he lias given an aceount of
the wall in (|uestion which leaves no room to doubt in regard to it. From
Derbendon the Caspian Sea, the head-quartersof the Russian milit;xry guard
in that country, Emelin directed his course westward, toward the Euxine,
and lie soon met with some ruins of the wall above-mentioned, and after-
wards with the wall itself lor large distances completely in a state of pres-
ervation, then a wall half ruined, etc.; while square and |iyramidal towers
along the wall were found, at hailing and signal distances. Two of these
lie mounted upon; and from their tops he could desciy the snowy ridges
of the Caucasus. The whole wen; so constructed, that intelligence could
be conveyed from any distance, ih a few minutes, to the citadel at Derbend,
whence troops could be immediatley sent out. According to the universal
tradition of the inhabitants, this ivall of Gofr and Mngog extends from the
Caspian to the Euxine or Black Sea. All credible traces of the builder are
lost, so that no doubt can remain that it must be very ancient, and not im-
probably it was built by some of Alexander's successors in the East ;
whence it was easy for tradition to make out the story which the Jacobite
poet and Mohammed have told. The passage from Emelin (Vol. III. p. 12) is
cited at length in Rosenmueller's Bib. Geog. I. p. 244.
Ker Porter, the celebrated English traveller, visited Derbend in 1819,
where the story was told him respecting the wall in question ; but accident
prevented his going to see it ; Travels, II. p. 520.
The reader, who wishes for more in respect to this subject, may consult
Reinegg's Bescreibung des Caucasus, I. p. 120. Ritter's Erdkunde. Th. II.
p. 834 seq. Bayers de Muro Caiicaseo, in the Petersburg Comm. Acad.
Scient Vol. I. and in his Opuscula, p. 94. See also Hartmann's Aufklarun-
gen iiber Asien, I. p. IGO seq., Ilerbelot, Orient. Biblioth., article Yagiovge
et Mctgiouo^t (Gog and Magog), llase's Entdeckungen, etc. I. p. 1-3 seq.
See in particular, Rosenm. Bib. Geog. I. p. 240 seq. and Comm. in Ezech.
38: 2.
It should be noted, before we dismiss this topic, that tlie use made of
Gog and Magog, in the Apocalypse, is somewhat different from that in
Ezekiel xxxviii. xxxix. In the prophet, Gog is considered as the prince of
the land of Magog, who also holds in subjection Meshech and Tubal; but
in the Apocalyjise, Gog and Magog both arc nations, or at least countries
which are the representatives of nations. In the same light as John, the
Arabians, Syrians, aiid other nations have regarded them. At any rate, the
departure from Ezekiel in this respect, while it is quite uninqiortant as to
the principal meaning of the passage, is yet of such a character as to show
that John thought and acted for himself.
The jiassages both in Ezekiel and John, which have respect to Gog and
M.igog, are not, it would seem, to be considered merely as miflhic. We
have abundant and undoubted evidence, that in ancient times there were
actual Caucasian hordes distinguished by the names in question, and that
they were a formidable reality. But that Ezekiel, in his j»ropliecy, meant
to l>e understood as predicting the invasion of Palestine by Gog and Magog
in the literal sense, is hardly credible. He uses these names to designate
368 GOG AND MAGOG : Chap. XX. 9.
distant and savage nations ; and in the same way John employs them.
Just in the same manner we now employ the word barbarians.
I cannot doubt, after long and often I'epeated investigation, that Ezekiel
has the same general aim in view as John, and designs briefly to disclose
the distant future of the church, in the latter part of her Messianic days.
Considered in this way, the two writers cast great light upon each other.
That both should employ these names in a tropical way, is no more strange
than that we sliould employ the words Scythian, Tartar, Indian, etc., in the
same manner. Understood in tliis way, there is no special difficulty attend-
ing the exegesis of either author ; while the literal sense involves us in
meshes from which our feet cannot be extricated. Nothing could be more
natural than for Ezekiel, who lived in Mesopotamia, to speak of Gog and
Magog, since they were the formidable enemies of all that region ; and that
John, writing on the same subject should retain the same names, was equally
natural.
(9) And they went up over the breadth of the land, and surrounded the camp
of the saints and the beloved city; and fire came down from God out of heaven,
and devoured them.
The basis of this representation, considered in a literal respect, is the
land of Palestine and the holy city. Approaching the latter fi'om any
quarter of the earth, is, in the idiom of the Scripture?, called going up,
nb" , ava^alva. — Breadth of the land appears to mean the lohole extent
of it ; see the same expression in Hab. 1: 6. — Encircling or suri-oimd-
ing the camjy of the saints and the beloved city implies that the number
of the hostile forces is exceedingly great, cog i] afifAog r/jg 'O^aXdaar^g.
Whether the camp is here supposed to be within or without the walls of
the city, is not said ; but probably it is without. In either case, the
great number of the enemy and their hostile intentions are clearly in-
dicated. Literally we cannot well suppose the passage was designed to
be taken, any more than that mount Zion is to be literally understood
in Heb. 12: 22, and the like in other passages. Sentiment: The last
mighty struggle against Christianity will be made by many barbai'ous
nations, who will put forth most strenuous efforts to destroy it, and will
actually bring it into great danger.
Fire came down out of heaven, etc. In this third catastrophe there is
no express mention of two opposing armies, but naQiifi^o7Jiv tcSv dyicov
naturally impUes this. The issue of a formal contest, however, is not
waited for. Divine interposition performs the work. As the enemies
of Elijah, in ancient times, were devoured by fire from heaven, so the
congregated hosts of Gog and Magog are to be destroyed. The war,
which had been fierce and seemingly successful on the side of the ene-
my, (inasmuch as they have come to the investiture of the capital city),
is brought to a speedy and final termination. — 'Eh denotes the source or
place from which ; dno stands before the moving cause or agent. —
GOG AND MAGOG : ChAP. XX. 10. 8€9
Kari(fayEv, intensive, to eat up, devour, so that it denotes utter excision.
This Aor. II. has no forms correspondent. The Pres. is f(Ti>/a), the
real root is qny or fffy. See a similar destruction of the wicked and of
enemies, in Gen. xix. Ps. 11: G. Is. 29: G. Ezek. 39: 6. 38: 22, and
comp. in Apoc. 8: 7. 11: 5. 13: 13.
The nse of the Praeter tense in this verse, while the Fut. is employ-
ed in V. 8, has nothing peculiar in it, when the prophetic style is taken
into consideration. The use of the I'raetcr increases the assertion of
certainty. ~~
(10) And tiie dovil, who led tliciii astray, was cast into tlio lake of fire and
brnnstone, where are also tlie heast and the false prophet; and they shall be tor-
mented day and night, forever and ever.
The Part. nXavaiv has here the sense of the Imperf. ; see Gramra.
§ 173. 2. In 19: 20 it is related of the beast and false prophet, that they
were cast into the lake of jire ; but Satan, who had cooperated with
them, was confined in the gx'eat abyss, 20: 1 — 3. Here, as the final
catastrophe is completed, Satan is disposed of in the same way, and
thus he is united again with his former associates. The imagery is the
most terrific which the whole compass of nature can afi:ord — a lake of
fire burning with brimstone. The intensity of the fiame, the suftbcating
nature of the fumes, and also the revolting odour which issues from the
sulphur, all conspire to render this an image of unparalleled horror. —
Day and night, i. e. without cessation or unintermittingly ; forever and
ever, L e. without end.
Sucnis~4lie trvvful doom of all who oppose the gospel. Tlie writer
does not say here, what becomes of Gog and Magog ; but the implica-
tion of course is, that, like Judas, they yo to their own place. This is
not at present the lake of fire ; for we see in v. 15 below, that the
wicked in general are not cast into that lake, until after the resurrection
and the judgment-day. They go into an apartment of Hades, if I may
so speak, i. e. a portion of the under-world or world of the dead, which
is reserved for the wicked. This is the place of " outer darkness, where
is weeping and wailing and gnashing of teeth." Hades and its king,
'&dvaT04, as appears by v. 14 below, are to be cast into the lake of fire,
after the judgment-day, i. e. they are to be utterly destroyed. The
place for disembodied spirits will be of no further use, after the resur-
rection of the body and its re-union with the soul. Death will then have
completed his work, and will therefore be no more. But inasmuch as
such a condition of the wicked, alter death, was viewed and believed by
his readers to be a matter of course, John deemed it unnecessary here
particularly to describe it. But the special and final punishment of
Satan he has made prominent to our view,
VOL. II. 47
370 GENEEAL JUDGMENT: ChAP. XX. 11.
If any reader is disposed to raise difficulties here, on the ground that
the beast and false prophet are sentenced to the final hell, or lake of
fire, before the judgment-day, he should call to mind, that he is reading
_^etry. The characters are symbolic, generic, not specific individuali-
ties. To represent them as cast into the lake of fire, is to show that a
fearful and most aggravated doom awaits all who are symbolized by
them. As to the machinery of poetry, it would plainly be unjust to
exact the precision of prose, in the modes of representation and ex-
pression. So with the rich man, in the parable of Lazarus ; the fire in
which he is tortured figuratively expresses the severity of his punish-
ment.
GENERAL JUDGMENT: CHAP. XX. 11—15.
[The opposition of all enemies being thus effectually put down, it follows of
course that the church will afterwards enjoy undisturbed tranquillity and pros-
perity. But on this the writer does not dwell. Still, the fact that he does not,
makes nothing against the supposition of a long intervening period between the
destruction of Gog and Magog and the general judgment. Tliis subject has
been already discussed in the remarks which precede chap, xx.; to which 1 must
refer the reader. It should be remembered, that one leading topic of the book is
the subjugation of the enemies of the church; and that topic is now completed.
The writer passes on immediately, therefore, to the final and glorious reward of
the righteous, when the probation of all the redeemed is to be completed, and the
august drama is brought to its final close.
But before the final rewards can be distributed, a general judgment is to be
instituted, at which all that have been concerned with the Redeemer's kingdom,
either as friends or enemies, are to be present, and to receive their final sentence.
The remainder of the chapter is occupied with describing this scene.]
(11) And I saw a great white throne, and him who sat upon it, from whose
face the heaven and the earth fled away, and no place was found for them.
The 'Aai with which this transition begins, is usual throughout the
Apocalypse, whatever may be the distance of time which intervenes be-
tween the things related, or the dissimilarity of the things themselves.
Nothing can be deduced from the use of it, to prove an immediate conse-
cution in point of time. See on y.ui, in Comm. on 5: 1. — Aevnov, splen-
did, as usual elsewhere in this book. The original source of the image
seems to be the white heat of metallic substances melted in an intense fire.
— Tov na&rifievov designates the Redeemer here ; as the analogy of Chris-
tian doctrine and Rev. 21: 5 — 8 clearly shows. So Ewald. — The flee-
ing away of heaven and earth is a poetic portraiture of the effects of the
divine presence. Even the natural creation shrinks back with awe and
seeks to hide itself; comp. Ps. 18: 7, 15. 77: 16 — 19. 114: 3 — 5. See
the like in Enoch 50: 3, 4. 51: 10. There too the Messiah is repre-
GENEHAL JUDGMENT : ClIAP. XX. 12, 13. 8TE
seated as the Judge ; 60: 8 — 11. Gl: 1 — 0. To seek for a literal sense
in such a passage, would be quite a superfluous undertaking.
(12) And 1 saw tho dead, small and great, standinir before the throne ; and the
books were opened ; and another book was ojieiiod, wliich is the book of lil'e ; and
the dead were judijed by the things which were written in the books, according
to their works.
Small and great, i. c. all of every class and station. The expression
refers to ratik, not to age. — Standing before the throne, i. e. gathered
around it as the tribunal from which their doom is to be received. — And
the books were opened, i. e. the books in which were recorded all the ac-
tions (external and internal) of men. The imagery is drawn from the
records of accusations made against such as are impeached before human
courts of justice. The plural is employed very naturally, considering
how voluminous such records must be. — And another book tvas opened^
viz. the Lamb's book of life, in which the names of all his followers are
recorded ; see on 3: 5, also Rev. 21: 27. Col. 4: 3. — And the dead were
judged by the things written in the books ; what portion of the dead ? Or
are all included ? ^JJaturally the latter must be the meaning here, in
connection with ^xgovi; xal fieydkov^' above, i. e. men of all ranks. All,
therefore, must be condemned by these books, i. e. so far as the books
are concerned ; for in them the sins of all are recorded. But, on the
other hand, some good deeds of the righteous are also recorded in the
*' other book;" and for these there is a sure promise of reward. Still,
some other title than even a balance of good works, (if that indeed
should be in their favour), must they have. They must, through grace
and the atoning blood of the Lamb, be forgiven ; and if they have been
forgiven, and their names are recorded in the Lamb's book of life, then
they will not only be acquitted as it respects the charges recorded against
them, but rewarded for their good works, imperfect as they are.
Moreover there is an implication here, that different degrees of pun-
ishment and of reward will be the consequence of final judgment. The
sentence will be xara tu sQycc uvzoiv, which necessarily implies this.
That all of the human race will make their appearance before the
tribunal of the judgment-day, if not taught here, seems to be taught in
the next verse.
(13) And the sea gave up the dead which were in it; and Deatli and Hades
gave up the dead which were in them ; and they were judged, every one, ac-
cording to their works.
In other words : Not only those who have been buried beneath the
earth, in the proper domains of Death and Hades, but all who have
perished and are buried in the ocean, will be raised to life. Here Death
and Hades are plainly personified, and represented as governing the
372 GENERAIv JUDGMENT : CeUP. XX. 14.
under-world. Accordingly it is they, Avho give up the dead under tlieir
domain. See on Rev. G: 8, where the same personification is palpable.
Death is king, and Hades (so to speak) his prime minister, or at least
his agents or ministers, the word being used as a noun of multitude. —
And they icere judged, every one, according to their works ; t'xaarog in-
dividualizes, and is emphatic hei'e, i. e. the writer means to say em-
phatically, that no one will escape the final trial. "Exuatog, as a nomen
midtitudinis, often takes a plural verb, as here.
(14) And Death and Hades were cast into the lake of fire; this is the second
death, the lake of fire.
If Death and Hades as personified are here meant, (which seems
plainly to be the case), then, considered as 2}ersons, they may consistently
be represented as being cast into the lake of fire. Personification be-
ing admitted, there is no violation of propriety in such a representation.
But from the very fact that Death and Hades are mere symbolic and
not real personages, it follows, that a literal punishment of them is out
of question. Of course, therefore, the only intelligible meaning must
be, that Death and Hades are now destroyed, i. e. they are to be no
more. None ever come from or out of the lake of fire, for this is the
second death. That such a view of the subject is altogether appropriate
to the context, is quite clear. The new woi-ld or creation (21: 1 seq.)
is to be immutable and eternal. There will be no more pain, nor any
death. Of course, therefore, after the creation of the new world, the
power of Death and Hades is to cease, and their influence will be for-
ever abolished. Their work is then done or completed, when the gene-
ral judgment comes. Mortality is at an end ; immortality follows. To
inflict the second death, does not fall or come within the province or
commission of d^uvatog and a8i]g ; consequently these tyrants must now
become extinct, or die so as to live and act no more. •
^ By repeating the sentiment, this is the second death, the lake of fire,
\ the writer means to say, that the death to which &avazog and a8rig are
i now brought, is one from which there is no resurrection. It is final.
If any one should say, that heing cast into the lake of fire necessarily
denotes continued torment, and therefore it mast have such a meaning
here, the answer is easy, and has already for substance been given.
Death and Hades are merely symbolical personifications, and such are
of course incapable of actual torment. Destruction of their power, then,
is the necessary meaning here. But if any one chooses rather to un-
derstand Hades of place, viz., the grave or under-world, — then the
meaning would be, that this place, with its king or ruler o ^dvarog, now
becomes incorporated with the great lake of fire, and so will henceforth
be a part of the place of endless torment. But the former meaning is
more facile, and therefore preferable.
THE NEW JERUSALEM : ChAP. XXI. 1. 873
A second death differs from the first in the fact, that it is not a separa-
tion of soul and hody, but a state of continued agony like to that which
the first di-ath intliots, like it in intensit;/, but not in kind.
Thus, it will be seen, efiectual provision is made for the eternal bless-
edness of the righteous. " Death is swallowed up in victory." '' The
last enemy, i. e. death, is now destroyed ;" 1 Cor. 15: 23, 54. In this
respect John and Paul completely harmonize.
(15) And if any one was not found written in the book of life, lie was cast into
the lake of fire.
The writer speaks here in the past tense, the scene having already
passed in vision before him. The declaration reminds us strongly of
our Saviour's words : '' All those whom thou hast given me have I
kept." The names enrolled in the book of grace are not to be blotted
out. Others have sinned, and have not repented, and therefore are not
forgiven. Their names do not appear on the records of pardon. The
law must therefore take its course. They are cast into the lake of fire.
This, being the second death, is followed by no resurrection. Inasmuch
as death, in its first meaning and with its original power, is now no more,
there is no way of relief after a death entirely different in its nature.
The sufferings of those who undergo the second death, cannot be alle-
viated by expiring ; for there is no expiring. Pardon, moreover, is
now too late. Besides, inasmuch as their names are not written in the
Lamb's book of life, how shall they become the subjects of pardon ?
And what is more than all, the great work of atonement and reconcil-
iation is now at an end ; Christ gives up his mediatorial kingdom,
• having no more official duties (if we may so speak) to perform ; and
how are they to be ransomed without an acting Mediator ? See 1 Cor.
15: 24—28.
Thus is sealed the eternal doom of the dragon, beast, false prophet,
and all their followers ; yea, and of all who resemble theni in the tem-
per of their hearts or the action of their lives. Nothing now remains
but to exhibit the glorious reward of the righteous, in the eternal world,
as contrasted with the awful punishment of the wicked.
THE NEW JERUSALEM: CHAP. XXI. 1.
(1) And 1 saw a new lieaven and a new earth ; for the first heaven and the
first earth had passed away, and there is no more sea.
Such is the picture, which Peter also draws, of the events that fol-
low the dissolution of the present material worlds, 2 Pet. 3: 7 — 13.
The original of both is in Is. G5: 17. 66: 22. This new heaven and new
earth are not, as it appears, to be constructed by fiuing up and vamping
374 THE NEW JERUSALEM : ClIAP. XXI. 2, 3.
ing anew the old and worn out systems. The first heavens and earth
pass away ; " They pass away with a great noise, and the elements are
melted with fervent heat ;" 2 Pet. 3: 10. Accordingly, the- new Jerusa-
lem, the future abode of the blessed, is represented in the sequel as
coming down from God, and of course as not being of this material crea-
tion. This is sufficient to show what estimate is to be put upon the
dreams of men, who urge us to believe that the present material earth
is itself to be renovated, and become the personal abode of Christ and
the martyrs, during the millennial period. Not a word is said of such
a renovation, until after the general judgment.
(2) And the holy city, the new Jerusalem, I saw descending out of heaven
from God, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband.
This is " the Jerusalem which is above," spoken of by Paul, Gal.
4: 26 ; this, " the mount Zion, the city of the living God, the heavenly
Jerusalem," Heb. 12: 22. Comp. Rev. 3: 12. All glorious is the city,
too, for such must be whatever comes from God out of heaven. Splen-
did is its attire, i. e. its construction and materials, for it is like the
splendid dress of a bride adorned for her husband. The author alludes
here to the comparison of the church to a wife. Rev. 19: 7, 8. Nor is
the congruity of the representation more striking in a rhetorical, than in
a physiological respect. When the resurrection of the body takes place,
there will be a new state of being. " Flesh and blood cannot inherit
the kingdom of God" (1 Cor. 15: 50) ; therefore, when the body is raised
and united once more to the soul, it will be " a spiritual body," 1 Con
15: 44. The natural consequence is, that a new world is necessary for
its abode. The Paradise in which pious souls had hitherto been, was '
a place of happiness fitted for them when separated from their respec-
tive bodies. But now a new state of being commences. It is not alto-
gether and merely spiritual, for the body is again united with the soul ;
it is not a material state, for the body by its resurrection has become
a spiritual body. This new state of being demands of course a new
world for its appropriate development. In conformity with this plain
principle of physiology, (if I may so speak), a new world is pro-
vided ; not (as before said) from the ruins of the old material heavens
and earth vamped up anew, not of this visible creation, but a netv Jeru-
salem from God and out of heaven. The nature of the case fully jus-
tifies the representations of the writer. It is not the mere fiction of a
poetic imagination, but there is a corresponding reality.
(3) And I heard a lo«d voice from heaven, saying : Behold, the tabernacle of
God is with men, and he will dwell with them, and they shall be his people, and
God himself shall be with them — their God.
The voice from heaven gives definite infox-mation to the seer respect-
THB NEW JERUSALEM : ChAP. XXI. 4 — 5. 375
ing the vision before hira. — The tabernacle of God refers to the place in
which (if (he expression may he allowed) God personally dwells ; e. g.
as in the temple and tabernacle of old. This tent or tabernacle is in
the midst of the dwellings of the saints, i. e. he dwells with them. The
idea is, that they pitch their tents around his. He is of course, as of
old, their King and Lord, and consequently they are his people. He
will continue to remain with them, i. e. he will never withdraw him-
self, as he had done more than once from the Jewish Sanctuary. —
Their God comprehends all that he can be to them, and do for them,
as God.
For illustration of tahemacling amony them, comp. Ex. 40: 38. Ezek.
37: 28. 43: 7 — 9. How frequent the promise is of being their God, and
of making them his people, and how pregnant with meaning, may be
seen by comparing Lev. 26: 11, 12. Jer. 24: 7, 31. Zech. 8: 8. Ezech.
37: 27, 28. 11:20, etc.
(4) And God will wipe away every tear from their e^'es ; and death shall be
no more ; neither mourning, nor oulcry, nor grievance, shall be any more ; for
former things are passed away. I
The idea is not, that God will so compassionate sufferers in the new
and heavenly city, as to wipe away their tears, but that he will consti-
tute such a state of things, that no more tears shall be shed ; as the
sequel plainly shows. Comp. Is. 25: 8. — Tliere shall be no more death ;
comp. 20: 6, 14, 15. Death himself perishes at the general judgment;
of course his sway can no more be exercised. — Tltv&og, mourning, be-
cause of death. — KQuvyi], outcry, viz. because of violence and oppres-
sion ; comp. n;7ra in Ex. 3: 7, 9. Is. 5: 6. 19: 20. Ps. 9: 13.— /7oVo?
means every and any kind o^ grievance, or source of misery. Into the
new world these things can never enter. They clave to the old world,
as long as it lasted ; but the new one demands a state of things corres-
pondent to its own nature. — Former things are passed away, i. e. not
only these and all such evils themselves, but everything which could
occasion them.
(5) And he who was sitting upon the throne said: Behold, I make all things
new ! And he said to me : Write ; for these words are faithful and true.
He who sits upon the throne here, I take to be the Messiah, beyond
all reasonable doubt. So Ewald. The sequel will disclose this. — Words
faithful and true ; comp. 19: 9, and what is there said. — The command
to write, shows that at any rate a part of the Apocalypse was written,
while the visions were passing. At all events such is the natural con-
struction of the words employed.
He who sitteth enthroned as the Judge of all, now solemnly declares,
376 THE NEW JERUSALEM : ChAP. XXI. 6 — 8.
that all his promises to the saints, as to their future reward, may be
relied upon with entire confidence. The making of all things new,
means entirely changing the old state of things, in which death, mourn-
ing, sin, and sorrow, so much prevailed. Comp. Is. 43: 19. Jer. 31: 22.
(6, 7) And he said to me : It is done. I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning
and the end. I will give to' him who thirsteth of the water of life freely; he who
overcometh, shall possess these things, and I will be his God, and lie shall be my
son.
JTijove, if is done, i. e. all which has been decreed respecting the
punishment of the impious and the glorious reward of the righteous, is
carried into execution. An enduring heaven and hell are now consti-
tuted. The great plan of redeeming grace is accomplished. Comp. 16:
17, where the destruction of spiritual Babylon is decreed by a ysyove. —
That he who sits on the throne here names himself Alpha and Omega,
necessarily reminds us of Rev. 1: 8, where the same appellations are
applied to God ; and also of Rev. 2: 8, where nQmzog and 'ioxazog (of
the same import) are beyond all doubt applied to Christ. It is no
proof, then, that it is not Christ who is here represented as sitting upon
the throne, because such appellations are here given. Besides, the
promises are such here as Christ was wont to make ; comp. John 4:
14. 6: 35, comp. vs. 58. See also Is. 55: 1. John 7: 37. Rev. 22: 17.
He who sits enthroned, is the First and the Last, i. e. " Jesus Clirist is
the same yesterday, to-day, and forever ;" consequently his promises
may be relied on, for they will be fully carried into execution. — For
the further development of the idea conveyed by the phrase the water
of life, see 22: 1 seq. Like the oriental thrones, which have a foun-
tain of cool water springing up near by, so the throne on which the
Redeemer sits, is regarded as furnished with a like fountain of water ;
and from this his friends and followers, who are admitted to his presence,
drink. — /ionQsap, gratuitously. They have not woii this privilege by
merit ; it is bestowed by grace. — KXrjQovoii/jaei, lit. inherit, but seconda-
rily (as often in Hebrew) possess. — / will be his God, etc., the repeti-
tion (see V. 3) denotes intensity of expression. It should be noted also,
that Christ here says, that he will be the God of the blessed in heaven.
(8) But to tlie fearful and unhelievinor, to those who have made themselves
abominable, even murderers, and whoremongers, and sorcerers, and idolaters,
and all liars — their part shall be in the lake tliat burnetii with fire and brimstone ;
which is the second death.
Oratio variata, i. e. the structure of the sentence is not completed
according to the tenor of its commencement. All that is necessary,
however, in order to make it plain, is to insert mentally [ov-a saoftai
d^eog, dXXa^ 7o [it'^oii, a, t. X.
THE NEW JERUSALEM : Chap. XXI. 9. 377 '
First of all the speaker excludes from the abode of the blessed such
as apostatize from the Christian faith. The fearful means timid
Christians, wlio, moved by persecution, leave the ranks of believers and
go over to those of the dmaTOi, i. e. to such as place no confidence in
the promises or the threatenings of the gospel. — 'E^ideXvyiaroit; I have
rendered as a Part. Mid. voice, having an intransitive reflexive sense,
but still as an active and not a passive word. It seems to be the genus.,
of which all the classes that follow are the species. So Ewald. — fVaQ-
^axoi.,' has an intensity of meaning, which we of the present day can
scarcely realize. The Mosaic law denounces its severest penalties
against those engaged in the arts of sorcerers, for the reason that these
arts were connected with the rites of idolaters. So here, cpaQfiaxoii
includes all those who took any part in the magic rites of the heathen.
Accordingly, in its train we find sidoiXoXdzQUig, i. e. the worshippers
of idols, ^'(vdt'at, from \l<ev8tji;, refers to theya^«e doctrines of idolaters.
All this classification is appropriate to the times and circumstances of
the writer. The first two classes named are those which point out
apostates ; the rest designate the leading vices of those who persecute
the church. They were murderers, i. e. they destroyed Christians ;
they were whoremongers^ i. e. the worship of their gods demanded or
permitted pollution. They were given to magic rites, in order to carry
on their impostures and to control the belief of the common people.
They served idols, instead of the Maker of heaven and earth. So the
liars ai'e those who invented and propagated false doctrines among the
heathen. — If any one should imagine, that these are the only classes of
sinners, who will, at the day of judgment, be sentenced to the lake of
fire, he would commit a great and fatal mistake. Here only such of-
fenders are named, as the author and the church of his time were spe-
cially concerned with.
(9) And there came one of the seven .ingels, who had the seven viala filled
with the seven last ])lagues, and he spake witii me, saying : Come, 1 will show
thee the bride, the Lamb's wife.
In V. 1, John is represented as seeing the new Jerusalem in its de-
scent from heaven. Here he is led by the angel-interpreter to con-
template the glories of it, after it has obtained a fixed position. That
one of the seven angels charged with overthrowing great Babylon, is
here commissioned to disclose the new and splendid city built for the
persecuted church, is quite appropriate. — The bride, the Lamb's wife, is
here evidently applied to the cify which comes from God. J3ut, like
Jerusalem and Zion of old, which are, times without number, named as
comprehending the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so here, the new Jerusa-
lem is the palace of the bride ; and to be shown the new city, is to be
VOL. 11. 48
378 THE NEW JERUSALEM : ChAP. XXI. 10, 11.
shown a part of what was attached to and necessarily connected with
the bride. Exactly in the same way as here, is the angel-interpreter
introduced in chap. 17: 1 seq., and the same manner of address is here
presented.
(10, 11) And he brought me, in the spirit, to a mountain great and high, and
showed me tlie holy city, Jerusalem, descending out of heaven from God, having
the glory of God — her luminary is like to a most precious stone, like a jasper-
stone which is clear as chrystal.
Throughout the whole description of the new Jerusalem, there is a
striking resemblance to that of the new city in Ezek. xl — xlviii. The
mind of the writer must have been most deeply imbued with that de-
scription of the prophet. Yet he is not so close an imitator as justly to
expose himself to the appellation of a servile copyist. While every-
thing in Ezekiel is perfectly before his mind, he ranges the field of
vision for liimself, and retains, modifies, omits, or creates anew, entirely
at his pleasure. Hence, while Ezekiel, after his usual copious manner,
occupies nine chapters with his description of a new Jerusalem, and a
new temple with its services, John occupies only twenty-three verses,
into which he has compressed all that is splendid and striking, while, at
the same time, some portion of it is entirely original.
Exactly as in Ezek. 40: 2, so here, the angel-interpreter brings the
seer in prophetic vision to the top of a lofty mountain, in order that he
might have entire command of the prospect. In Ezekiel, the city is re-
presented as lying toioard the south from the mountain ; which has
greatly perplexed commentators, because they have assumed Zion as
the mountain on which the prophet stood. But this is manifestly erro-
neous ; for Zion is itself the south-western extremity of Jerusalem. The
station then must be (if a definite place must needs be assigned) on the
mount of Olives, which is N. N. East from the great mass of the city of
Jerusalem ; or if we assume a point still further north, in the same ridge,
then is the whole city in a southern direction from that point ; see in
Robinson's Map of Jerusalem. But in the passage before us, the direc-
tion of the city from the mountain is not mentioned, and therefore no
special objection on this ground will lie against supposing mount Zion
to be meant ; particularly so, if we take into view the prediction of Is.
2: 2, that " in the last days the mountain of the Lord's house should be
established over the top of the mountains, and exalted above the hills."
Still, I do not feel any need of resorting to this, as interpreters have
generally done, because the prophecy of Isaiah respects the Messianic
period, and not the end of the world. Besides, I deem nothing more to
be necessary here, than to regard the seer as transported, merely for the
convenience and extent of vision, to the top of some lofty mountain. It
is not necessary that we should regard the new Jerusalem as in all re-
THE NEW JERUSALEM *. ChAP. XXI. 12, 13. 379
epects corresponding in its localities to the old, although much of the
imagery employed to describe it is borrowed from the ancient city. —
Holy cittjy etc ; see on v. 2 above.
Having the ylortj of God, i. e. such splendour as surrounds the pres-
ence of God = r^^"^";| ^^2^ , which the Rabbins also call nrsd , Shcchi-
nah^ because it marks the place of God's inhabitation ; see Ex. 40: 37
—39. Num. 9: 15—23. Zech. 2: 8. comp. Is. 24: 23. This glory, i. e.
splendour, is a " light inaccessible and full of radiance." Paul repre-
sents its reflection, at the time of his conversion, as being " brighter than
the sun " itself, Acts 2G: 13. This view of the splendour that surrounds
the place of God's inhabitation, prepares us for the sequel, in which it
is represented, that it becomes the luminary of the new city, sending
forth a radiance which cuts off all need of the sun and moon, and en-
tirely supersedes them ; which moreover is not, like to them, liable to
eclipse and changes oi light.
O qcoartjo avzij^, her luminary, not her light or splendour. fhojarrjQ
is the Nom. to };v implied, and is a resumption of the idea comprised in
So^ap -^Eov. When the writer asserts that the holy city was furnished
with, or possessed, the glory of God, he means also to convey the idea,
that this abiding splendour becomes itself the luminary of the place.
Assuming this, he calls it in the clause before us 6 cfiaazi'iQ, and then
compares it to a most precious stone, which is luminous and diaphanous.
The stone named is a jasper, pellucid and resplendent like chrystal.
As there are many kinds of jasper, this chrystallizing one is selected for
its beauty, splendour, and diaphanous nature.
(12) Having a wall great and high; having twelve gates, (and at these gates
twelve angels), and names inscribed which are those of the twelve tribes oi' the
children of Israel.
"Exovffu, in the Nom., although its noun is in the Ace. (nohv), in
V. 10. Such a construction, which is an emphatic one, is frequent in
this book ; see on 6 ^lUQzvg in 1: 5 ; or it may be simply the participle
used in the place of a verb. — Great ayid high, as may be seen in v. 17
below. — Twelve gaies, corresponding to the twelve tribes; so in Ezek.
48: 31 seq. Over these twelve angels are placed as guards, i. e. they
are " ministering spirits " to the new Jerusalem, as well as to the old.
The names of the gates are taken from the twelve tribes, i. e. they are
inscribed after the names of all the tribes of the spiritual Israel. So in
Ezek. 48: 31 seq. The large number of the gates, in this case, denotes
that free and ample access to the city is given.
(13) On the east three gates, and on the north three gates, and on the south
three gates, and on the west three gates.
The same in Ezek. 48: 31 seq. ; but there, the order is thus : North,
380 THE NEW JERUSALEM : ChAP. XXI. 14.
east, south, west. But in the Apocalypse, John begins with the leading
quarter of the heavens, i. e. the East. As the city is square, v. 16, so
the same number of gates is assigned to each quarter.
(14) And the wall of the city hath twelve foundation-stones, and on them the
names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb.
It is not certain here, whether the writer means twelve rows of stones
in the foundation or basis of the wall. In v. 19 seq., each of these i^e-
liiXioi is described as being of one of the precious stones ; but still this
minute description is not such as to enable us to decide, whether merely
corner-stones are meant, or rows of stones in the whole foundation.
The splendour of the whole is magnified, by supposing the latter to be
meant. If, on the other hand, we suppose, with Ewald, that only cor-
ner-stones are meant, or some stones between the different gates, by way
of ornament in the wall, then a kind of chequered finery seems to be the
result. The whole superstructure of the wall of the city is jasper, v. 18 ;
the material of which the city is built and paved, is pure gold, vs. 18,
21 ; the twelve gates are twelve pearls, v. 21. From analogy, then, it
is more congruous to conclude, that ^enthoi here means the rows of
stones in the foundation part of the wall ; a magnificent structure indeed !
On these twelve foundation-courses of stone, are inscribed the names
of the twelve apostles of the Lamb ; so that all who approach the city
may discern who are the honoured among its founders. Thus in 1 Tim.
3: 16, the church is called the pillar jind ground of the truth, and in Gal.
2: 6, James and Cephas and John are called pillars by Paul. So in
Eph. 2: 20, the church is represented as " huilt upon the foundation of
the apostles and prophets, .Jesus Christ himself being the chief-comer
stone." What is thus symbolically taught, is, that the apostles were
the first, leading, and most important instruments in building up the
church of Christ and erecting his spiritual temple. Nor need we con-
clude from this, as some have done, that the apostles were all deceased
when this book was written, and so, that John the apostle could not have
written this book. We need not so judge, for the time when this new
city is formed, is after the end of the world. Ewald, however, draws
another argument from this passage against the Johannean origin of the
book, viz. that it would be incompatible with modesty for the apostle
John thus to speak of himself; and so, some other person must have
wi'itten the book. But must we regard Paul as relinquishing the rules
of decency and modesty, when he speaks of himself as about to receive
a crown of glory, which the Lord the righteous Judge will give him ?
And is John the apostle to be taxed with want of decorum, when he
speaks of himself as the disciple whom Jesus loved f If not, then why
might not John here claim the rank which his Lord and Master had
THE NEW JERUSALEM: ChAP. XXI. 15, 16. 381
assigned him, viz. that of being among the founders of the Christian
church, and being received and regarded as such ?
(15) And he who spoke with me liad a golden measuring-rod, that he might
measure the city, and the gates thereof, and Uie wall thereof.
The simple object of measurement, in this case, is to adjust in a con-
gruous manner all the proportions of the structures, or rather to show
that they lire so adjusted. So in Ezek. 40: 3 — o. 42: 16. Zech. 2: 1, 2.
The measuring-ix»d is of gold, which is suited to the personage who uses
it, and to the nature of the occasion. It is also apparent, that with the
main design of this symbol, as above stated, there is a subordinate one,
which is, to ascertain the measurements so as to disclose them to the
seer.
(16) And the city was square, and the lengtli of it was as much as the breadth
of it. And he measured tlie city with his rod, unto twelve thousand furlongs;
the length and the breadth and the height were equal.
The word TSTQccyooros alone would characterize any four-sided figure ;
hence the sequel is added, in order to show that a square strictly consi-
dered is meant. — 'Ett) GTudiov^' dc6dr,(a ;f/P./«fico^' Ewald solves, by sepa-
rating fn) GTudtoV'; (which he translates ore? stadia or e stadiorum men-
sura) from the context, and then joining Scodexa j^iXiudcoy with the pre-
ceding nohv. But im' with the Ace. stands here, as often in other cases,
before the quantity of measure, and the Gen. dcoSs/.a yihadav only de-
signates the amount of the stadia, thus taking the place of a numeral ad-
jective. This is a more simple and easy method of solution.
That the height is equal to the length and breadth, is a peculiar cir-
cumstance, differing from the ordinary ideas of architectural proportion.
Inasmuch as eight furlongs make a [Roman] mile, so the city must be
reckoned as 375 miles square ; and of course, the height of it must be
the same. But how is this to be regarded ? Is the whole city one great
building, one temple ? Not a temple, as v, 22 expressly assures us ;
not one solid mass of building, inasmuch as it has streets (v. 21), and a
river and trees on its banks, etc., 22: 1 seq. "We are compelled there-
fore to suppose, that in the mind of the seer it was regarded as contain-
ing mansions all of which were of one height, and which, from the lofti-
ness of this height, were fitted to hold almost countless myriads of in-
habitants. The question as to convenience or inconvenience of dwell-
ing at such a height from the streets and the river, of course is not to be
taken into consideration, in such a picture as this ; besides that we must
consider the circumstance, that spiritual boditfs are given to all who
dwell there. Everjnhing shows, however, that all //^<*ra/ exegesis in such
a case as the present, excepting merely so far as to get a proper idea of
the grandeur and the congruity of the imagery, is entirely out of ques-
382 THE NEW JERUSALEM : ChAP. XXI. 17, 18.
tion. Considered as one vast pile of buildings, the fact that the height
is equal to the length or breadth, would be nothing monstrous in archi-
tecture. A house as high as it is long or broad, would surely be nothing
very singular in the form of a building. But such a limitation — 375 miles
square — seems small indeed to contain all the redeemed, if that be true
which has been predicted from the beginning, viz. that " the Seed of the
woman shall bruise the Serpent's head." Yet we are relieved from any
painful doubts here, by calling to mind that all is symbol ; and moreover,
that subsequent parts of the description bring to view country as well as
city.
(17) And he measured its wall, one hundred and forty and four cubits, [accord-
ino- to] the measure of a man, which is that of the angel.
In chap. 7: 4, the number sealed in their foreheads so as to be saved
from impending ruin, is 144,000. The thousand is here omitted, but
the other number is retained. A wall 144,000 cubits high would be a
monstrosity ; particularly in the present case, where no attacks from en-
emies are to be guarded against ; for the gates are kept continually open
V. 25, and all enemies are in the lake of fire. The wall therefore seems
to be introduced, in this case, rather for the purpose of completing the
idea of a city, and making out a congruity in all its parts. One hundred
and forty-four cubits =216 feet; which is less than the height of the
walls of ancient Babylon, if we are to believe the reports of historians.
That the writer adds ^tzQOv uv&qojtzov, i. e. \jiUTa (xirgov, etc.], is
not an unnatural circumstance. It is an angel who makes the measure-
ment ; and lest we might think it was a larger, or (at any rate) a differ-
ent measure from that in ordinary use (av&Qanov), the writer expressly
guards us against such an error. The latter clause filled out would run
thus : 0 iariv fitzQOv dyysXov.
(18) And the superstructure of its wall was jasper ; and the city was pure gold
like to pure glass.
By referring to v. 14 we see, that the foundation of the city- wall con-
sisted of twelve rows of precious stones ; of course it is only the super-
structure which can here be spoken of. 'Evdoiirjaig properly means, that
which is huilt within anything, e. g. a mole in the midst of a harbour,
as in Josephus Antiq. XV. 9. Here the nature of the case, however,
decides for superstructure. According to this description, compared with
V. 19, the bottom row of foundation stones was jasper ; then follow
eleven other courses of different precious stones ; upon all these is placed
the ivdofitjaig, which is of entire jasper ; which is of a green transparent
colour, streaked with red veins. Such a conception is not wanting in
magnificence.
TUE NE\7 JERUSALEM: Chap. XXI. 19, 20. 38S
As to the city itself, the material of it is pure gold; not the common
gold, but jioM peUuoid, diaphanous, Hkc glass ; which adds much to the
splendour of its appearaiK-e.
Next follows a minute description of the twelve courses of stone in
the foundation of the wall. The precious stones are here particularized
which constitute this basis. Of course we find among thera, those which
were most valued in the time when John wrote.
(10) And Uie foundations of tlie wall of the city were adorned with every kind
of precious stone ; the first fonnd;ition-stone was jasper, the second sapphire, the
third chalcedony, the fourth emerald.
The word adorned may raise a doubt here, whether the writer means
to say, that into the various courses of the foundation ornamental pre-
cious stones were only here and there inserted. But taking the whole
description together, I do not apprehend this to have been his meaning.
Jasper, as we have seen above, is usually a stone of green transparent
colour, with red veins. But there are many varieties. — Sapphire is of
a beautiful azure or sky-blue colour, almost as transparent and glittering
as a diamond. — Chalcedony seems to be a species of the agate, or more
probably the onyx. The onyx of the ancients was probably of a bluish
white, and semipellucid. — The emerald was of a vivid green, and next
to the ruby in hardness. ^
(20) The fifth sardonyx, the sixth sardius, the seventh chrysolithc, the eighth
beryl, the ninth topaz, the tenth chrysopras, the eleventh hyacinth, the twelfth
amethyst.
Sardonyx is a mixture of chalcedony and cornelian, which last is of a
flesh colour. — Sardius is probably the cornelian ; sometimes, however,
the red is quite vivid. — Chrysolithe, as its name imports, is of a yellow or
gold-colour and is pellucid. From this was probably taken the concep-
tion of the pellucid gold, which constitutes the material of the city. —
Beryl is of a sea-green colour. — The tojmz of the present day seems to be
reckoned as yellow ; but that of the ancients appears to have been pale
green, Plin. 38. 8. Bellermann, Urim et Thummira, p. 37. — Chrysopras
of a pale yellow and greenish colour, like a scallion ; sometimes it is
classed at the present day, under topaz. — Hyacinth of a deep red or vio-
let colour. — Amethyst, a gem of great hardness and brilliancy, of a violet
colour, and usually found in India.
In looking over these various classes we find the first four to be of a
green or bluish cast ; the fifth and sixth, of a red or scarlet ; the seventh,
yellow; the eighth, ninth, and tenth, of different shades of the lighter
green ; the eleventh and twelfth of a scarlet or splendid red. There is
classiJicatio7i, therefore, in this arrangement ; a mixture not dissimilar to
the an'angment in the rainbow, with the exception that it is more com-
384 THE NEW JERUSALEM : ClIAP. XXL 21, 22.
plex. The splendour of such a foundation or basis of the wall, admits of
no question. As to the order of the arrangement of colours, it is difl&cult
to say what rule is followed ; and mere mental conception about proprie-
ty of order, is hardly adequate to guide us. Whether this arrangement
is in conformity with some ornamental aiTangements of the day, which
were regarded as beautiful, we cannot positively affirm, yet in itself this is
highly probable. At all events, the precious stones here named were the
same, beyond any reasonable doubt, which are mentioned as set into the
breast-plate of the Jewish high-priest, Exod. 28: 17—20. 39: 10—13.
On these stones in the breast-plate, moreover, were engraved the names
of the twelve tribes of Israel, Ex. 28: 21. 39: 14; just as the names of
the twelve apostles are here said to be engraved on the precious stones
in the foundation, v. 14. It was not then a mere arbitrary choice of the
writer among many precious stones, in the present case. Still one thing
is quite plain, viz., that beyond a doubt the most precious of all stones
were selected for the breast-plate of the high-priest, and so the same are
here chosen in order to portray the splendour of the wall around the
new Jerusalem. The entire familiarity of the writer with all parts of the
O. Testament is everywhere manifest. The whole passage respect-
ing the precious stones, differs from Ezek. xlviii, which does not ex-
hibit any such view.
(21) And the twelve gates were twelve pearls, each one of the gales was of one
pearl ; and the street of the city was pure gold, like transparent glass.
The structure of the gates makes an agreeable variety in the appear-
ance. The pearl is quite a different material from the other precious
stones which are named, and still it is very splendid, and is often classed
with gems. One solid pearl of the size here required, would not, like
small pearls, be frail and brittle. Moreover, the gates of this city are
not intended to stand against assault. Ornament is all which was need-
ful to be consulted by the writer, or considered by the reader.
nXuTETa, in the sing, here, is doubtless to be generically taken as des-
ignating any or all of broad transition-Avays in the city. It designates
all the space not occupied with the buildings. The material with which
it is paved, is the same as that which is employed in the construction of
the mansions, viz. diaphanous gold.
(22) And I saw no temple therein ; for the Lord God almighty is the temple
thereof, and the Lamb.
But in Rev. 3: 12. 7: 15, the righteous are spoken of as dwelling in
the temple of the heavenly world. How can this be made to harmonize
with the passage before us ? The solution of the difficulty is easy.
There the language is figurative and the idea is generic. Its meaning
THE NEW JERUSALEM : Chap. XXI. 23, 24. .385
is, that they shall dwell in the divine presence, and behold the glory of
God. The langimjrc is borrowed from the aneient order of things, when
God manifested himself only in the most holy plnee of the t»ui)i)Ie.
From this view of the matter it results that only the simple and generic
idea of dwelling in the divine presence is intended to be conveyed in
those passages. But here the description becomes specific, and we must
understand the writer as denying that there will be any temple in the
new Jerusalem. This is a striking point of dilFerence between the new
and old city. And why no temple ? Because, according to 22: 4, his
servants shall see his face, i. e. there shall be no veil between him and
them, no inner sanctuai-y which can be approached but once in a year.
Moreover all sacritices for sin and all oblations will have ceased for-
ever ; and therefore the service of heaven no more needs a temple like
that at Jerusalem, than spin'Ucal Christianity needs such an one. As
all are kings and priests xinto God, all have the same right of access to
his presence. And inasmuch as God and the Lamb are everywhere
present in their glory, so every place is to the worshipper, what the
temple was of old to him who frequented it. Since this is the case, it
may be m'cII and significantly said, that God and the Lamh are the tem-
ple thereof.
(23) And the city hath no need of the sun or of the moon, that they may shine
in it, for the glory of God illuminates it, and the Lamb is the light thereof.
See on v. 11, where the nature of the illumination in question is set
forth. The idea is, that God and the Lamb being everywhere and
always present in the new Jerusalem, and being always sui-rounded with
" light that is full of glory," the radiance of this light far exceeds that
of sun and moon, and makes perpetual day (v. 25). Even in this case,
we must supix)se the radiance somewhat attempered, (so to speak), in
order that the inhabitants of heaven may endure it. Thus Ezekiel,
1: 28, sees the throne of divine Majesty surrounded by the iris or rain-
bow, in order to make the vision of it endurable.
(24) And the nations shall walk by tlie light thereof, and tiie kings of the
earth shall bring their splendour and honour into it.
Here the conception of the Apocalyptist is modelled by the repre-
sentations of the 0. Testament, specially in the latter part of Isaiah, re-
specting the universal subjection of the nations to the metropolis of the
church, in the Messianic period. The light which beams within the
city perpetually, sheds its radiance to distant countries. The new world
is conceived of, therefore, after the similitude of the old, i. c. as having
a great metropolis, and all lands being in subjection to it. This meets
the ditficulty that some might feel, in respect to the apparently confined
VOL. II. 49
386 THE NEW JERUSALEM : Chap. XXL 25 — 27.
limits of the New City. — (I>cor6^ avTrjg, viz. of the city. — The kings of
the earth, i. e. the representatives of foreign and distant nations, so to
speak. — TtiV do^av uvtojv, their splendid presents or offerings. — Kai
Ttjv Ti[iijv is doubted by Lachraann and Knapp, but admitted by Hahn ;
and so I have included it in the translation. The meaning of it is,
things deemed honorary or honorable by them. Thus all do cheerful
homage to " the city of the great king." Comp. Is. 49: 23. 60: 10.
The nature of this representation is enough to show that all is to be
considered as merely tropical. The idea which lies at the basis of all,
is, that the new world in which righteousness dwells, will be splendid
beyond conception, and that all who dwell in it will be of one heart and
one mind, as to the offerings of homage and of gratitude which they
bring to the Majesty that sits enthroned in its metropolis.
(23) And the gates tliereof shall not be shut by day ; for no night shall be there.
The yuQ here, in the second clause, cannot well be explained without
adverting to the original Hebrew in Is. 60: 11, whence this passage is
taken. It runs thus : " Thy gates shall stand open continually, T^^tn ;
day and night they shall not be closed." In this parallelism, day and
night, in connection with the negative particle xb , mean the same as
never. This phraseology John has abridged, and instead of not . . .
day and night he says 7iot . . . days = never. In this way the word
^fit'oag must be regarded as in the Ace. plural, (which I doubt not it is),
and then we have, in the first clause, the simple idea : Its gates shall
never be shut. Why ? Because (yaQ) there is no night there ; conse-
quently there will be no need of shutting the gates to guard against sur-
prise. If iifxtQag be taken as the Gen. sing. = during the day, then no
good account can be given of the yaq. Still, I have not ventured to
alter the usual translation.
(26) And they shall bring the glory and honour of the nations into it.
That is, not only shall kings bring their splendid presents and gifts
of honour to the New City, but all the nations under their care shall do
the same. Rulers and subjects shall be of one mind in regard to the
homage which they pay, and the presents which they make.
(27) And there shall not enter into it anything unclean, or that committeth
abomination or falsehood ; but — they who are written in the Lamb's book of life.
The new city shall not, like Jerusalem of old, be open to clean and
unclean, to the evilly minded and to faithful citizens ; all that is un-
clean, base, polluting, abominable, all who mislead and deceive men by
false doctrine and feigned revelations, shall be excluded. The language
is borrowed from the ancient ritual, but the moral or spiritual meaning
THE KE-w JERUSALEM : Chap. XXII. 1, 2. 887
is sufficiently obvious. — Ei fiij, a plain case of the meaning but, viz.
htU (here shall enter. Comp. ei ftij in Luke 4: 26, 27 al. — Book of life,
see on 20: 12, and places there quoted. Sentiment: The new world,
created tor the final abode of the righteous, will exclude all who are not
of this character.
CHAPTER XXn.
(1) And he showed me a river of the water of life, pure as chrystal, issuing
from the throne of (Jod and tlie Lamb."
In Gen. 2: 10 seq. Ave have a description of a river in Eden, for the
sake of watering the garden. But the writer had in his mind the pas-
sage in Ezek. 47: 1 — 12, where a stream issues from under the new
temple, and disparts in various directions. So here, a river issues from
the throne of God and the Lamb, in the new^ city. The whole is mo-
delled after the oriental manner of building palaces, near or in which a
fount of water or Jet d'eau is indispensable, for the sake of coolness and
refreshment. The implication is, of course, that they who drink of these
waters of life are immortal, i. e. will never die. See the same image in
7: 16, 17, with the remarks. — 'Ex roij O^qopov, out from under the throne,
is plainly the meaning.
It is worthy of note how constantly the writer joins God and the
Lamb together in all these representations. The same elevation to the
throne, the same majesty, the same honour and worship, are plainly at-
tributed to both.
(2) Between the street thereof and the river, on the one side and on the other,
was the tree of life, producing twelve fruit-harvests, each montii yielding its
fruit-harvest ; and the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations.
I have rendered iv fie(J(^, between, as in 5: 6. It is like the Hebrew
yz'\ . . . I"'? . The writer conceives here of the river as running through
the whole city ; then of streets parallel to it on each side ; and then, on
the banks of the river, between the water and the street, the whole
stream is lined on each side with two rows of the tree of life. The
l^vXov i^atjg is generic, and means something equivalent to our word
grove. — Producing twelve fruit-harvests, not (as our version) twelve man-
ff^f of fruits. In order to afford an abundant supply for all the inhabi-
* What could have induced the author of the division of the N. Testament into
chapters, to disjoin the next five verses which follow, it is difficult to see. They
belong inseparably to the preceding description. A new chapter should have be-
gun with 22: 6, which commences the epilogue to the book. But it is useless to
complain of these unskilful separations now. The Scriptures liave so long been
printed and quoted in their present form, that the mistake cannot well be retrieved.
ijMS^X
388 THE NEW JERUSALEM : Chap. XXII. 3 — 5.
tants, it bears twelve crops in a year, instead of one. We may also
suppose that the trees are lofty, in proportion to the buildings. The
succeeding clause, each month yielding its fruit-harvest, shows that the
interpretation given is correct. It is the abundance of the harvests,
not the variety of the fruit, which the writer aims to describe. In like
manner the author of the book of Enoch describes Paradise, 24: 1 — 11.
31: i_5. 48: 1. 60: 15. So too in 4 Ezra 2: 12. 8: 52, 53.
Nor is it the fruit only which is of use to the inhabitants of the new
world. Even the leaves of the trees are sanitary to the nations. la
other words ; the distant nations may derive healing and life-preserving
virtue from the leaves of the trees, carried abroad and distributed among
them; see in 21: 24 — 26, where nations living at a distance are inclu-
ded in the new world. — Almost word for word with this representation
is Ezek. 47: 12, excepting that the idea of nations abroad is not intro-
duced. The gospel gives more enlarged views of privileges.
(3) And ho curse shall be there ; and the throne of God and the Lamb shall
be therein, and his servants shall do homage to him.
No curse shall be there, may be found in Zech. 14: 11, which not im-
probably describes Jerusalem in the millennial day. The meaning is,
that nothing which annoys, or in any way destroys or injures any ob-
ject, undertaking, or person, shall be admitted into the new world. It
is contrasted with the present world, on which a curse rests ; Gen. 3: 17.
— The throne, etc. shcdl be in it, i. e. shall remain, abide, be permanently
in it. Before this throne, the servants of God shall render their homage
and engage in the service of the heavenly world. The meaning is,
that they shall do this without any hindrance or embarrassment.
(4) And they shall see his face, and his name shall be on their foreheads.
To see his face is to be admitted to his immediate presence ; an hon-
our seldom granted to private individuals by earthly sovereigns. The
like view is given of heavenly privilege, in Ps. 17: 15. — As to the name
on their foreheads, see on 2: 17. 7: 1 — 8. 14: 1.
(5) And there shall be no night there, neither shall they have need of a candle,
nor of the light of the sun; for the J^ord God shall shed light upon them, and
they shall reign forever and ever.
No night shall be there is a repetition of the idea in 21: 23, 25, for the
sake of intensity. — (DcotieT, Fut. Attic, is to be found in some of the
critical editions, instead of qxazioH, as in Hahn. To shed light is the
meaning here ; or to cause light, fcr the causative is not an unfrequent
meaning of Greek verbs, see Kiihner, § 390. 3. — l^o reign forever and
ever is to be placed in a condition immutably elevated and glorious ; see
the passages quoted under chap. 1: 6.
EPILOGUE : Chap. XXII. 6—21. 869
EPILOGUE: CHAP. XXIL 6—21.
[Thus ends the description of the final abode of the faithful servants of the Re-
deemer. Tiie drama of the Apocalypse, if 1 may figuratively so name it, ends
only with the final consummation of the work of redemption. The ultimate, the
eternal triumph and happiness of the church are in this way fully developed. All
who belong to it arc brought to a state which is inconceivably glorious, and which
admits of no change for the worse.
The writer now hastens to the final close of his work. The epilogue is brief, but
pertinent and impressive. The angel-guide and interpreter reassures the seer,
that all which has been disclosed is certain ; and he repeats what was said in the
prologue to the book respecting its design to unveil the future to the servants of
God, and to disclo.se the blessedness of those who keep in mind what has been
revealed. John, filled with reverence and aslonishincnt, falls again at the feet of
the angel to do him homage ; but he is warned by the angel that he himself is on-
ly a fellow-servant of God, and a fellow-labourer with the prophets who disclose
the divine will. The angel, moreover, warns him not to seal up the book, as if it
were to be reserved for a distant period, before which the fulfilment of what is
disclosed should not commence. On the contrary : The time is near, i. e. the time
when the series of events commences. This command, it may be remarked, im-
plies the truth of what has before been said, viz., that the book was written du-
ring the disclosures, and not afterwards.
Inasmuch as the lime of fulfilment is near, the righteous are exhorted to perse-
vere, although the wicked may still continue to oppress and injure them. The
Redeemer will speedily come to deliver them, and heiwill bring his reward with
him — his recompense both to the just and to the unjust. The obedient shall be
admitted into the heavenlj' city and eat of the tree of life ; but all the wicked and
idolaters and persecutors shall be excluded.
Jesus himself is then introduced as closing the scene. lie declares that he has
sent his angel to make the dM^sures which the book contains ; and that he is
the promised Messiah of tli^^^^festament, the Offspring of David and the Light
of the world. To his promise that ke will come quictdy, the Spirit which speaks in
his prophets, and the '^^^ i« e. the church, respond and say : Come ! All more-
over, who read or heat'Wi'^words of the book, are exhorted to unite in the expres-
sion of the same ardent desire.
The writer closes the whole, by warning all men against adding to, or detract-
ing from, the book which he has written. Adequate punishment will follow the
commission of such an offence.
He who vouches for the truth of all that has been written, he it is who says :
" Yea, I come quicklj'," i e. to execute my threalenings, and fulfil all my promises.
That this may speedily take place, the writer adds his own most fervent supplica-
tion : " Even 80, come Lord Jesus !" The usual form of benediction, found in the
epistles of Paul, concludes the whole.]
(6) And he said to me : These words are faithful and true ; and the Lord God
of the spirits of the prophets hath sent his angel, to show unto his servants what
must speedily come to pass.
The angel-inteqjreter, since the prophetic disclosures are now at an
end, reassures the seer of the visions by these words, that all which
390 EPILOGUE : Chap. XXII. 7, 8.
had been shown him or revealed to him, was in accordance with fideli-
ty to the promises of God made to his church, and was what could be
fully relied upon as matter of certainty. — Lord God of the spirits of the
prophets is the Lord who directs and enhghtens the minds of the
prophets, among whom the author of the book is included. That same
Lord has sent his angel (see Rev. 1: 1) in order to show what will
speedily come to pass, and thus encourage and console suffering Chris-
tians.
(7) Behold 1 come quickly ! Blessed is he who keepeth in mind the words of
the prophecy of this book.
I come quickly, i. e. be not impatient. Deliverance is at hand. This
does not imply that all which is predicted in the book would immediate-
ly take place, but still it implies that the leading part of what was pre-
dicted would speedily come to pass, or at least so much as would liber-
ate the persecuted church. In fact, the destruction of Jerusalem and
the death of Nero were both very near at hand. The frequency of the
assurance now before us, shows with what earnestness it was made.
Thus we find it in 2: 16. 3: 11, and here, in the epilogue, in vs. 7, 12,
20. — Tt]QoJv here, as in 1: 3, may mean to keep or preserve in remem-
brance, i. e. carefully to store up in the raiad ; or it may signify to
observe or obey. But as the book is mainly prediction, and not precept,
the former sense of the word is more apposite. The blessedness to be
enjoyed on account of keeping in mind the prophecies of the book, is
obviously that which would arise from the promises and encouragements
which are contained in the book.
It will not escape the notice of the reader, that the words / come
quickly, although seemingly repeated by the angel, are in reality only a
part of Christ's message to the seer, and are beyond all question to be
understood as the words of the Redeemer himself.
(8) And I John, am he who heard and saw these things; and when T had
heard and seen, I fell at the feet of the angel who showed me these things in
order to worship him.
The first clause has an implied verb, i. e. elfiL The participles here
have the sense of the Imperf, as often elsewhere, Gramm. § 173. 2. —
Saw these things, because most of the disclosures were made by symbols^
which were seen with the prophetic eye. In the sequel, the angel is
spoken of as dsrAvvovtog, showing, i. e. presenting to the vision of the
seer. Some of the ancients join this clause with the preceding, and
understand the whole as asserting, (1) The blessedness of 6 xtiqwv.
(2) That of 0 anovav, i. e. of John. But the clause which follows
renders this inadmissible.
Fell at his feet, etc. See 19: 10 with remarks, where the like scene
epilogue: Chap. XXII. 9 — 11. 891
occurs. It doubtless presents the Apocalyptist as filled with holy
wonder and rapture, to such a degree that he hardly appears to have
been distinctly conscious of what he was doing. In the present instance,
he seems to have entertained some suspicion, perhaps, that it was Christ
himself who made his appearance in the form of an angel. The dec-
laration : 'EQ)^ofiai taxv, might easily give rise to such a conjecture on
his part.
(9) And he saith to me: See thou do it not; I am a fellow-servant of thee
and of thy brethren the prophets, and of those who kt'cp in mind the words of
this book; worship God.
See on 19: 10. The angel here declares, that he is only one of the
servants of Grod, in common with prophets and true Ciiristians, and
therefore is not entitled to the religious homage which is proffered.
Grod is the only and proper object of such homage.
(10) And he saith to me : Seal not up the words of the prophecy of this book;
for the time is near.
Seal not up the words, etc. To seal up means to secure and pre-
serve entire for future use. So did Isaiah with one of his prophecies,
8: 1 — 16, comp. 30: 8, and Hab. 2: 2, 3. So Daniel sealed up his
vision, because it respected a distant future time, 8: 26. 12: 4, 9. See a
similar process of laying aside, in 4 Ezra, 12: 37, 38. 14: 26. But in
the case before us, as the close of the verse admonishes us, the time, i. e.
the time of fulfilment, iS near at hand, and therefore the book is not to
be sealed up, because it will be put to immediate use. Not that all in
the book (which extends down to the judgment day) is to be immediate-
ly fulfilled, but that the fulfilment of a substantial part of the long series
of events predicted i - .•speedily to commence ; as in truth it did. How
entirely they overlook the plan and object of this book, who date the
fulfilment of cliap. vi. seq. several centuries later than the book, or at a
remote period, is sufficiently manifest.
(11) Let him who acteth unjustly, act unjustly still, and let him who is defiled
defile himself still; yet let the righteous still do righteously, and he that is holy
be still holy.
The sentiment seems plainly to be this : Be it that persecutors and
vile men shall continue without remission, for a while longer, their
oppressive and debasing practices, yet let not the righteous be shaken
in his constancy, nor the holy man cease in any measure from the pur-
suit of sanctification. The reason, which is given in the next verse, is,
that the oppression of the wicked will speedily cease, and their abomi-
nations receive a due reward. It is an earnest exhortation to perse-
verance, accompanied, in the context, by adequate encouragement. —
^
392 EPILOGUE : Chap. XXH. 12—14.
The reader will readily notice the strong antithesis there is between
ddixMv ddixtjaaro and dinaiog dixaioGvvtjv noujadtco, also between
QvnuQog QVTZUQSV&t'irco and dyiog uyiaad-tjzoi.
(12, 13) Behold I come quickly, and my reward is with me, to give to every
man as his work shall be. 1 am Alpha and Omega, the first and the last, the
beginning and the end.
Here comes out fully the reason, why the righteous are encouraged
to persevere in their course. Their reward is speedy and certain. So,
on the other hand, the punishment of the wicked is certain ; for to every
one there will be recompense according to the nature of his work. He
who promises this is immutable and eternal, i. e. he who promises is
Jesus Christ who is " the same yesterday, to-day, and forever." That
the same predicates are applied to the living God, and can belong only
to such a Being, is clear from Is. 41: 4. 43: 10. 44: 6. 48: 12. Comp.
Rev. 21: 6. As to the form of the promise : I co7?ie quickly, etc., comp.
Is. 40: 10. 62: 11, where the same is found.
It is evident here, from the nature of the case, that the speaker is Je-
sus, although he is not named before v. 16. Yet it is clear beyond all
question, that the angel-interpreter is not the speaker in his own name.
He had just solemnly disclaimed any right to the homage of John, on the
very ground that he was a mere creature and a fellow-servant with oth-
er worshippers of God. To suppose, then, that he here claims to him-
self the incommunicable attributes of self-existence and eternity absolute,
would be preposterous. Accordingly, all recent interpreters of note be-
gin the address of the Messiah here ; even Eichhorn, Heinrichs, and
Ewald do the same. Besides, whoever has made himself acquainted
with the idiom of this book, must know that the introduction of a speak-
er without naming him, is a frequent usage of the writer. If any one
insists, that it is the angel who still speaks, there is no serious objection
to this, provided that we regard him as merely repeating the words of
the Messiah.
(14) Blessed are they who do his commandments, that they may have a right
to the tree of life, and may enter through the gates into the city.
That is, the obedient shall have a place in the heavenly city, and be
made happy there by free access (i^ovaia) to the tree of life. — Avtov
'after ivroXdg, as spoken by Christ, would seem most naturally to refer
to God. — "Jva iorai, i. e. iva with the Fut. Indie. ; comp, John 17: 2.
This is not common, yet it is not without precedent, inasmuch as the
Fut. Indie, not unfrequently takes the place of the Subj. mode ; see in
Winer's Gramra. § 42. b. 1. — Enter in, roig nvloiaiv, hy means of the
gates, i. e. free access will be given to them, or the gates are open to
them at all times.
EPILOGUE : Chap. XXH. 15 — 17.
(IT)) Without are doirs, and porron-rs, and fornicators, and murderers, and idol-
Aters, and everj' one wlio lovoth and inaketli a lie.
See on 21: 8, where these appellations are explained with the excep-
tion of dogs. This animal was unclean, and therefore odious to the
Jews ; corap. Deut. 23: 18. Hence persons of a vile and injurious cha-
racter were called dogs, Phil. 3: 2. Perhaps the writer here means cy-
naedi. At all events it is plain here, that the leading characteristics of
the heathen persecutors ai'e mentioned ; certainly it is not intended to
be said, that no other classes of wicked persons than those here named,
will be shut out from the heavenly city. But a place in heaven has just
been promised to the obedient and persevering Christian, and now ex-
clusion from it is threatened to their enemies and persecutors. — Loving
and doing falsehood here refers to the false doctrines of idolaters, " who
exchanged the true God for a false one," Rom. 1: 25.
(!()) I, Jesus, have sent mine angel to testify unto you ihese tilings on account
of the churches. I am the root-shoot and the offspring of David, the bright and
morning star.
Here the speaker names himself, so that all doubt is of course re-
moved. Sending the angel is mentioned also in llev. 1: 1. — On account
of the churches ; Ewald says, m ^/ie seveti churches. But I apprehend
ini does not mean in, when found in such a connection. It is a more
important meaning, also, when we suppose it to indicate for the sake of,
on account of, a meaning by no means unfrequent ; see Lex, — Boot'
shoot, QtXct, not root, as our version has it. The meaning which I have
given it is clear, if we refer to Is. 11: 1, " There shall go forth a rod
from the trunk of Jesse, and a shoot shall spring up from his roots."
What the speaker designs to say is, that he is the true Messianic proge-
ny of David, foretold in the ancient Scriptures.
The bright and morning star, \. e. a king all resplendent and glorious
like to the morning star. Comp. 2 Sam. 21: 17. Is. 14: 2. Num. 24:
5, 17. Dan. 12: 3. It is the splendour and beauty of the morning star,
which makes it here an object of comparison with the splendour of. the
king of Zion. It is not simply its light, or its being the harbinger of
dajfj viewed as furnishing an image of Christ as the Light, i. e. the
Teacher, of the world, which is here meant ; for in this respect he is the
Sun of righteousness, not the morning star.
(17) And the Spirit and (he bride say : Come ! And let him that hearetli say :
Come ! And let hiia tint is athirsl come ; whosoever will, lei hirii take the water
of life freely.
That is, the Spirit which animates and guides the prophets, and the
Bride, i. e. the church, who is anxiously hoping for the coming of Christ,
VOL. II. 50
1
394 EPILOGUE : Chap. XXII. 18, 19.
unite in the fervent wish expressed bj "Eq^^ov ! — Let him that heareth
say : Come ! i. e. let all to whom the words of this book are read, unite
in the same ardent wish and prayer. — Let him that is athirst, come f
Let him who strongly desires the " waters of life which flow from the
throne of God and the Lamb" (22: 1. 21: 6), come and drink of them
freely. In other words : The gospel invites all to believe, and to par-
take of its precious blessings.
(18) I testify to every one who heareth the words of the prophecy of this book :
If any one shall add to these things, God will add to him the plagues which are
described in this book.
Having completed his work, the author now proceeds to guard against
corruption of it, either by addition or subtraction. Earnest he must
have been, in order to make so solemn a prohibition and threaten so
dreadful a penalty as his words disclose. The practice of tampering with
books of such a nature, would seem to have been somewhat frequent in
the region where the Apocalypse was published. Otherwise, there
would be something not perfectly natural, in the severity of the interdict
before us.
Adding to the book means the insertion of new matter. The parono-
masia in mi^i'iaH . . . in' avrov, shall lay upon hi7n, is very plain in the
original. I have imitated it in the version.
(19) And if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this proph-
ecy, God shall take away his part of the tree of life and of the holy city, which
are described in this book.
Here the fault which is the opposite of addition is brought to view,
viz., that of removing or exscinding any part or portion of the book.
This is to be followed by a corresponding punishment, viz., a loss of all
that portion of good which is assigned by the book of life. Here the
paronomasia, again, is manifest as before.
The idea which many entertain, that this verse, at the close of our
volume of the Scriptures, extends to the whole of the Old Testament
and of the New, is sufficiently refuted by the fact, that when the Apoca-
lypse was written, no united whole of the N. Testament Scriptures had
been made. It was not until the second half of the second century, that
this appears to have been done. The author therefore could have had
no reference to it. And although it be true, that any designed falsifica-.,^
tion of the 0. Testament, or of the New, must be highly criminal in
the sight of God, yet this general truth is not what the author aims to
express here. He means to prohibit, in the most solemn manner, all
tampering with his own work.
EPILOGUE : Chap. XXII. 20, 21. 89A
(liO) fie who bcarcth tosliinony to these things saith: Yea, I come quickly !
Amen ! Come, Lord Jesus !
'0 fiuQTvnojp is Christ. Thus Christ often speaks of the Father as
ftttQTviHor respecting him, i. e. as vouching for the reality and divine au-
thenticity of his mission. So here ; the Saviour himself vouches ior the
truth of what John has disclosed. He makes the appeal, also, for con-
firmation of this, to his speedy coming ; for by this all might know whe-
ther John had spoken the truth.
To this solemn promise of a speedy advent, John subjoins his fervent
wish that it might take place ; Amen I i. e. let it be verified. Come,
Lord Jesus ! Let the promise of thy speedy advent be fulfilled, so that
all shall acknowledge the truths for which thou hast vouched, and all shall
behold thy church triumphant, and thy glory filling the whole earth 1
(21) The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with all the saints !
This is the usual form of benediction in the epistles of the N. Testa-
ment. It contains a wish or prayer on the part of him who utters it,
that the favour of Christ, in all respects, may be bestowed on those in
whose behalf the prayer is made. Here it has special reference, as we
may well suppose, to the blessings disclosed and promised in the book
before us.
r
3
EXCURSUS I.
Angelology of the Scriptures*
Rev. I. 1. Kai ia^fiavev dnoarEiXas dia zov dyyiXov avzov tq)
dovkcp avTOV 'loidn'^. — v. 4. . . . dno rear i nr d nvtvfidTcov.
No book in the Old Testament or the New so often introduces the
agency of angels as the Apocalypse. They constitute, if I may be al-
lowed to speak in the language of rhetoricians, the principal machinery
of this great moral Epopee. Angels are the companions and interpre-
ters of the seer, throughout his visions. Their interposition is announ-
ced in the inscription to the book, and declared again near its close, 22:
16. They are everywhere brought forward to our view, either as the
executioners of divine justice, or as fulfilling the will of God and the
Redeemer by becoming instruments in protecting the church, and mak-
ing it victorious over all its enemies and persecutors.
Has the writer now, in all this, conformed to the spirit of his times
and to the usage of the Scriptures ? Or has he invented for himself a
machinery which is novel, and which has no parallel in other produc-
tions of the period in which he wrote ? In other words : Is all this the
mere offspring of his own vivid and fruitful imagination ; or is it the re-
sult of introducing agencies familiar and in general well understood at
the time when he wrote, but modified in a degree, by his own concep-
tions and by the manner of representation appropriate or peculiar to him-
self, as to many of the nicer and more distinctive traits ?
These questions may be easily answered, by a proper survey of the
angelology of the Scriptures, and of other early productions. And in-
asmuch as the structure of the Apocalypse, and (with respect to many
passages) the right interpretation of it, depends on a correct view of
" The substance of this Excursus has already been printed in a somewhat en-
larged form, in Vol. I. of the Bibliotheca Sacra; but as many who may read llie
CommcnUry on Ihe Apocalypse will not probably have access to it as there ex-
hibited ; and as I have often referred to it in my remarks on many passages in
the Apocalypse ; I have deemed it necessary to reprint it here, but in a form
somewhat abridged.
S98 SCRIPTUKAL ANGELOLOGT : ExC. I.
ancient angelology, it seems important here, for the aid of the reader, to
place before him a sketch of this subject.
In regard to the real existence of angels, good and evil, it is not ne-
cessary for me to enter into any discussion. The consideration of this
topic is appropriate to the province of doctrinal theology. I may there-
fore dismiss it with but two or three suggestions.
It is plainly beyond the province of human reason, unenlightened by
revelation, to determineybr or against the real existence of angels good
or evil. They do not develope themselves to our senses. They are
not the immediate objects of our proper cognisance. Their existence is
not a necessary one, like that of the Maker of heaven and earth. Con-
sequently we can know nothing which is absolutely certain respecting
them, except it is revealed to us.
Plainly our reason cannot decide against their real existence ; for all
our sources of argument in defence of such a position, must be com-
prised in analogy and must depend on it ; and in an analogy to that
which is the proper object of our cognisance. But if we go from man
downward toward the lower species of living creatures, we find a con-
tinued gradation of being, even down to the lowest. Should we apply
this analogy in the other direction, and go upwards toward the great
Supreme, what forbids the supposition that there are intermediate be-
ings between us and Him ? If reason simply can decide anything, the
presumption would seem to be, that angelic, or at any rate superior and
intermediate, beings between us and the Godhead do exist.
At all events, so the Bible seems most clearly to teach us. For the
sake of perspicuity, I shall arrange the biblical doctrine, in respect to
this subject, under distinct heads which will aid us in the proper con-
ception of it.
I. Good Angels.
(1) They are very numerous. *' Thousand thousands ministered unto
him ; ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him," Dan. 7: 10.
The like in Ps. 68: 17. 2 K. 6: 16, 17. "An innumerable company
angels," Heb. 12: 22. Matt. 26: 53. Jude v. 14. Rev. 5: 11.
(2) Angels accompany the divine Majesty and the Saviour, and take
rt in all the peculiarly glorious displays which they make, either in the
ay of mercy or of judgment, (a) At the giving of the Law, on mount
ai ; Heb. 2: 2. Acts 7: 53. Gal. 3: 19. Deut. 33: 2. Ps. 68: 17.
h) They accompany the Saviour, when Jerusalem is destroyed by his
power ; Matt. 24: 30, 31. (c) At the final judgment ; Matt. 13: 39—
41. 25: 31. 1 Thess. 4: 16. 2 Thess. 1: 7—9.
(3) Angels are the guardians of individuals and of nations, (a) Of
the Lord Jesus Christ, from his conception till his death j Luke 1: 11 —
SCRIPTURAL ANGELOLOGY : ExC. I.
20. 2G— 38. Matt. 1: 20, 21. 2: 13, 19, 20. 4: 11. (This gimrrlianahip
is reconrnized in INratt. 4: 0). John 1: ol. Ltike 22: 4.'5. Matt. 28: 2 — 7.
Mark IG: 0—7. Acts 1: 10, 11. (b) Of iiulividiials ; Matt. 18:10,
" Their angels [viz. the angels of infants] do always behold the face
of my Father who is in heaven," i. e. to little children a special guar-
dianship of presence-angels or archangels is assigned. Here the phntse
do a/icat/s bc/iold f/ie face, etc., is of the same import as the phrase i^/o7-e
his throne, so often introduced in the Apocalypse. So lieb. 1: 14. Ps.
34: 7. Acts 12: 7—15. Gen. 32: 1, 2. 2 Kings G: 17. (c) Of nations
and kingdoms; Ex. 14: 19. 23: 20. 33: 2. Num. 20: IG. Josh. 5: 13.
Is. 63: 9. Dan. 10: 5 — 13, 20, 21, where the angel, who was one of the
guardians of the Jews, represents himself as struggling with the prince
of Persia, in order that he might obtain the liberation of the Jews
(v. 13). He promises also to renew the contest (v. 20), and indicates
his success by declaring that " the prince of Greece will come," i. e. to
overthrow the Persian empire. Here also Michael in particular is de-
signated as the prince oi the Jews ; and in Dan, 12: 1, he is represented "
as * the great pnnce who standeth for the people of God.' So in Jude
(v. 9), Michael is represented as ' contending with Satan about the
body of Moses,' and of course as being the defender of God's chosen
people. In Rev. 12: 7, Michael and his angels are represented as con-
tending with the devil and his angels, who are in pursuit of the child
[Jesus], " who is caught up to the throne of God." So again in Dan.
11: 1, the guardian angel of the Jews stands by and strengthens tlie
king of Persia, in his kind intentions with respect to the Jews. In
Zech. 1: 8 — 14 the guardian angel of the Jews is developed, as active
and efficient in providing for their welfare and safety. Again, in Zech.
3: 1, 2, the angel of the Lord, i. e. the guardian angel of the Jews, re-
bukes Satan for his malignant intention toward Joshua the high-priest.
And while Michael is thus employed in defending the Lord's people,
Gabriel seems to be the angel-interpreter or messenger sent to make dis-
. closures to men, respecting nations or individuals. Thus in Dan. 8:
16 seq. 9: 21 seq. Luke 1: 19—26. So in Job 33: 23, 'ph-^_ Tixb-?', an
angel, an interceder, a part of whose business it is to show to men the
divine uprightness. vSee also the case of the guardian angel of God's
people, who rebuked Ixdaam, Num. 22: 22 — 35,
From all this it is fully apparent, that not only the Jews, but other
nations have their guardian angels ; that not only the Saviour, and the
saints, but little children even, had or have their eruardian angels. Acts
12: 7 — 15 develops the manner in which this subject was viewed by the •,■ .*-
Jews in common life, in a very vivid manner,
(4) Angels are emploi/ed as special ministers for executing divine jus-
tice. Many of the passages already referred to under the last head,-
400 SCRIPTUBAL ANGELOLOGT : ExC. I.
fully exhibit the correctness of this position. Besides these, one may
examine Gen. 19: 1 — 23, comp. with Gen. 18: 1, 2. Ex. 12: 23, where
nTi'::^:! probably designates the angel-destroyer. Josh. 5: 13, 14. 2
Sam. 24: 16, 17. 2 Kings 19: 35. Acts 12: 23. Rev. vii— xi, the seven
angels are provided with the seven trumpets, which are the signals of
destruction. Rev. xvi, the seven angels pour out the seven vials
which are full of divine wrath.
(5) The different elements seem to he watched over and governed, hy
angels assigned to the execution of snchan office. Thus in Rev. 7: 1, 2,
the four angels over the four winds are addressed. Rev. 14: 18, " An-
other angel came out fi-om the altar, who had power over the fire," i. e.
who presided over the fire of the altar. Rev. 16: 7, "And I heard the
altar saying ;" i. e. the angel who presides over the altar, and probably
the same which is mentioned in the preceding passage. Rev. 16: 5,
" I heard the angel of the waters say." It seems probable that the
passage Ps. 104: 4 and Heb. 1: 7, "Who maketh his angels the winds,
and his ministers a flame of fire," i. e. lightning, is to be explained in
reference to the views of the Jews as connected with the subject of
guardian angels over the elements. Rev. 19: 17, "the angel standing
in the sun," may not unnaturally be explained of the angel who pre-
sides over the orb of day.
(6) Angels were regarded as intercessors for men. The passage
already cited, Job 33: 23, y^h-q T\^'q , the angel, the interceder, shows in
what light some of the angels were regarded. So in Zech. 1: 12, 13,
the intercession of the guardian-angel of the Jews is recorded. In Rev.
8: 3, an angel takes his station by the altar in heaven, having a golden
censer, and with this he presents " much incense . . . with the prayers of
all the saints, upon the golden altar which was before the throne." (A
case of somewhat different nature is that of the twenty-four elders in
Rev. 5: 8). Other Jewish productions of the first century develop the
same views, in relation to this subject ; e. g. in the Book of Enoch, 9:
3, the archangels are thus addressed, in behalf of those who were op-
pressed by the giants before the flood : '* And now to you, O ye holy
ones of heaven, the souls of men complain, saying : Obtain justice for
v<ftis with the Most High. Then they said to the Lord : Thou art Lord
of lords, etc. ;" after which follows a long intercession. So in Enoch,
47: 2, the holy ones assemble, i. e. the archangels, " and with united
voice petition, etc., . . . the Lord of spirits on account of the blood of
the righteous which has been shed;" and at the same time they 'ask
that the prayers of the righteous may not be intermitted before the
Lord of spirits ;' which compares well with Rev. 8: 3. In Enoch 97:
4, the prayers of the righteous are said to rise up in remembrance, and
to " be deposited in testimony before the angels." In Enoch 40: 6, the
SCRIPTURAL ANGELOLOGT : ExC. I. 40k
presence-angel, Gabriel, is represented as " petitioning and praying for
those who <l\vell on earth and supplicate the Lord of spirits."
In like manner the Testament of the XII. Patriarchs represents this
subject. In Test. Levi c. 3, the ^vinter is describing the seven heavens.
" In the fifth are the angels of the presence of God, who minister and
make propitiatory offerings to the Lord for all the sins of ignorance com-
mitted by the righteous. They offer to the Lord sweet incense, a ra-
tional and bloodless olfering." In Test. Levi c o is another passage,
which represents the angel that accompanies Levi into the heavenly
world, as being requested by Levi to give his name, so that in the day
of tribulation he might call upon him. He answers thus : " I am the
angel who intercedes for pardon in respect to the nations of Israel, that
they may not be wholly cut off, etc." So in Tobit 12: 12, 15, Raphael
speaks of himself as offering before God the prayer of Tobit and Sarah
his wife ; and again, as being " one of the seven holy angels who pre-
sent the prayers of the saints before the IMost High."
These passages from contemporary Christian writings show that John
is not singular in his views respecting angels, when he presents one of
them (in Rev. 8: 3) as offering up incense before God, accompanied by
the pi-ayers of the saints. The incense is a symbol of the acceptable
nature of such intercession.
Such is the outline of the scriptural doctrine in respect to good angels^
as employed by God in the government of the world, the protection of
his church, and the infliction of punishment upon the wicked. Let U3
now consider the case,
II. Of Evil Angels.
(1) These are numerous. Matt. 25: 41, " The devil and his angels."
Matt. 12: 26, where Satan is represented as orAy primus inter pares, in
respect to demons, daifAovia. IMark 5: 9, " For we are many ;" spoken,
however, in a somewhat limited sense. The principal evidence lies in
the fact, that the Scriptures represent men everywhere, in- all parts of
the world, as tempted and misled by evil spirits. If this is true, they
must be numerous.
(2) They tvere originally good, hut sinned, and fell from their first
estate. Jude v. 6, " The angels who kept not their original state (rr^v
iavTtav OQyJt^), but forsaking their proper habitation, he [the Lord]
hath kept by eternal chains in a dark place, unto the judgment of the
great day." 2 Peter 2: 4, " If God spared not the angels who sinned,
but cast them down to hell, etc." The fact, that all which God origi-
nally created was good, and also his own spotless and benevolent na«
ture, serve to confirm this view of the subject.
(3) Among the evil angels, one is more distinctly marked and made
VOL. IL 51
402 " SCRIPTURAL ANGELOLOGY : ExC. I.
very prominent in the Scriptures. In the O. Testament be is called,
(a) Satan ("o'^an), the adversary ; e. g. JoB 1: 6 — 12. 2: 1 — 7. 1 Chron.
21: 1. Zeeh. ^: 1, 2. In the N. Testament ; Matt. 12: 26. Mark 4: 15.
Luke 22: 3. Acts 5: 3. Rom. 16: 20, and often elsewhere, specially in
the Apocalypse, {b) The tempter ; in accordance with which he is very
frequently set forth as enticing or tempting men to sin ; e. g. Matt. 4:
1—11. 13: 19. Luke 22: 3, 53. Acts 5: 3. 1 Cor. 7: 5. 1 Thess. 3: 5. 2
Cor. 11: 3. Rev. 12: 9. 20:2,8,10. (c) The destroyer, anollvmv,
•p^^JJ ; Rev. 9: 11. (d) The devil, 6 l^td^oXog, i. e. the accuser, the ca-
lumniator. This designation is too frequent to need any references.
All these names imply bad character, and malignant influence upon men.
Even before the N. Testament was written, the name destroyer, as ap-
plied to Satan, was current among the Jews ; e. g. Tobit 3: 8, where
Asmodaeus, = "^"i-'^JX (from Tq'q to destroy), is the name of the demon
who afflicts the house of Raguel. The most usual name in the early
Rabbinic writings, is Samael, hiC3'q , the angel of death, the destroyer
= dTToXXvoiv. So the Targums, the Zohar, Rabboth, etc. ; and so in the
Ascension of Isaiah, written during the first century, ch. 1: 8, 11 al.
(See Dr. Laurence's remarks on this, p. 162 seq.) The etymology of
bxBD seems to be obscure ; for xaa means to blind, with which, how-
ever, one might compare 2 Cor. 4: 4. More probable is the derivation
from N520 , venenum, and bs< , mighty, sc. mighty in destruction. In Job
i. ii, in Zech. iii, and in Rev. 12: 10, the peculiar traits of character
which gave occasion to the name o did^oXog, the calumniator, are promi-
nently developed.
(4) The extent of Satan's poxoer in the world, united with tJiat of
other malignant spirits, is frequently represented as being very great. In
2 Coi'. 4: 4, he is called the god of this world, in reference to his pre-
dominating influence. In John 12: 31, the prince of this world ; so in
John 14: 30. In Eph. 6: 12, Satan and his associates are called aQxd?,
iiovoiag, 7.oanoy.QmoQag, td Tzvsvfinziy.d zijg novrjQiag ; in Col. 1: 13,
i^ovoia Tov oxorovg. Comp. also Rev. 12: 17. 20: 8. Still, this exten-
sive influence is the result of corruption in men, rather than of any irre-
sistible power in Satan himself: inasmuch as we are expressly com-
manded to resist him, and are told that in such a case he will flee from
us, James 4: 7. 1 Pet. 5: 8, 9. Eph. 4: 27.
(5) Place of evil spirits, before the general judgment. This is vari-
ously represented in the N. Testament, and needs a careful scrutiny.
The usual notions on this subject are indistinct, and need to be re-
modelled.
(a) The Abyss. The word d^vaoog means without bottom, or un-
fathomable. The idea of the Hebrews respecting it was that of a deep
dark pit or chasm in the earth, which was, or might be, closed up, and
SCRIPTURAL ANGELOLOGY : EXC. I. , 403
where darkness perpetually reigned. Ilence Jude*(v. G) : '' angels . . .
kept in perpetual oliains vno i^ocfor, tinder or beneath darkness," i. e. in
the ileoi) and dark abyss. So also 2 Pet. 2: 4, " Casting them into Tar-
tarus, in chains of darkness," i. e. casting them bound into a deep and
dark place.- With this corresponds the word abyss, so often employed
in connection with Satan ; e. g. Luke 8: 31, the demon beseeches Jesus
not to order him away into the abyss ; which would be a special punish-
ment for his ortence. Matt. 8: 29, " tormenting us before the time," i. e.
before the judgment of the great day, seems to refer to the same kind
of punishment as the preceding pa^ssage. In Rev. 9: 11, Abaddon or
ApoUyon is called tiie angel of the abyss. In Kev. 9: l,this abyss is
represented as usually closed and locked up. In I^v. 17: 8, the beast,
who is the coadjutor of Satan, is represented as emerging from the
abyss. In Rev. 20: 1 — 3, Satan is said to be cast into the abyss, locked
up there, aind confined for a thousand years. This in y. 9, is called his
i^vXaxt]. But,
{b) The Scriptures also speak of other places in which evijl spirits
are compelled to dwell, in the way of punishment. These are the de-
serts. Is. 13: 21 represents Babylon as about to be so entirely desert-
ed as to become the abode of C'^-i'^rr , forest-devils, i. e. demons who
dwell in deserts. In Is. 34: 14, Iduniea is threatened with a desolation
so complete, that the ^"^^b and the T^'^'o , male and female forest demou
(according to the popular belief) should dwell therein. In exact accord-
ance with tliis. Rev. 18: 2 threatens the spiritual Babylon with becom-
ing xutoixijt/jqiov daijtovo})'. So in Matt, 12:43, "the unclean spirit
[when expelled] widks tinough dvvdQojv roTzoiv, dry or desert places,
seeking rest and finding none," i. e. such a spirit, when cast out, is obliged
to wander for a while in banishment from places inhabited by men, and
is not permitted to exert his usual infiuence over them. When the.
Evangelist, therefore, lays the scene of our Saviour's temptation in the
desert or wilderness (Alatt. iv.), the representation is altogether appro-
priate.— In like manner, as in Matt, 12: 43, the book of Tobit (8: 3)
represents Asmodaeus, when cast out by Raphael, as fleeing " st\' ta
dvojTUTa of Egypt," i. e. into the deserts of that region, which are wild
and dreary. So too in Baruch 4: 35, [the desolate city] " shall be in-
habited by demons, for a long time." The book of Enoch, 10: 6, 7, ex-
hibits the same view : " The Lord said to Raphael, Bind Azazel [one
of the leading apostate angels] hand and foot ; cast him into 'darkness ;
and, opening the desert in Dudael, cast him in there." Nothing can be
plainer than the fact, that such an opinion existed anciently among the
Jews, even so far back as the days of Isaiah, or at any rate so far back
as the time when Is. xiii. and xxxiv. were written.
(c) The air. In Eph. 2: 2, Satan is named un-^oiv zij^ i^ovaia^ zov
404 . SCRIPTURAL ANGELOLOGt : ExC. I.
dfQog, the prince of the aerial host, i. e. of the host which inhabits the
air. On this text Oecumenius observes : ' He is called the prince of the
power of the air, because an aerial nature dwells in him ; he cannot abide
in heaven, for he is evil, nor on earth, for he is not human.' So in Eph.
6: 12 : " Our struggle ... is with principalities, with powers, with the
rulers of this benighted world, with evil spirits in the aerial regions, iv roig
inovQavioig ;" for that InovQavioig may have such a meaning, is plain
enough from'the signification of tr^^^ and ovQavog, both of which fre-
quently mean the airy region ; and that it must have such a meaning
here, is plain enough from the consideration, that Paul cannot repre-
sent the Chi'istian struggle as being with good angels who dwell in
heaven.
So in other nearly contemporary works ; e. g. the Ascension of Isaiah,
7: 9 — 13, the prophet, as he is ascending to heaven, sees Samael [Sa-
tan] and his powers violently contending, below the firmament, with
each other. Again in 10: 29, the prince of this world is represented
as dwelling " in the region of the firmament," i. e. iv roig movQavioig,
the upper regions of the air. In Test. Benj. c. 3 (p. 729, Fabricius,
Cod. Apoc. I.) it is said : " He who fears God and loves his neighbour,
cannot be stricken vno rov dsQtov nvtvuarog, rov BeXiaQ," i. e. by the
spirit of the air, Belial.
• In like manner Philo Judaeus : " Those, whom other philosophers
call dm'fiovag, Moses is wont to name dyyilovg ; for they ai'e xpvxou
yard rov diqa 7T£r6[A.8vai," de Gigant. p. 266, ed. Mangey. Even the
heathen entertained similar views in respect to the locality of incorpo-
real beings. Diogenes Laertius (de Pythag. VII. 1. 32) says of that
philosopher, that he maintained, " that all the air is full of Wv/^af, and
that he supposed these to be demons and . heroes." Plutarch (Quest.
Rom. p. 274. ed. Francof.) says, that " the upper and lower air is fiUed
with gods and demons."
How such views came to prevail among the Jews, seems not to be a
very difiicult. question. Spirits, rnnil, ;zj'«j;jM«7a, have the same des-
ignation as the air or atmosphere ; and this, because they were regard-
ed as consisting of aerial or tenuous and impalpable substance, like the
air. Hence the air was regarded as a congenial element. But there
was also another reason which had some weight. In heaven apostate
spirits could not live, because they were wicked ; in the abyss beneath
or the bottomless pit they could not always be, inasmuch as they could
not then entice and corrupt men ; on the surface of the earth they could
not abide, because that is the abode of material human beings ; and
therefore the aerial region was the only place left which seemed ap-
propriate to them. Here, consequently, the common and popular demon-
ology located them j and the Apocalyptist, and other N. Testament
SCRIPTURAL ANGELOLOGY : ExC. I. 408
writers, have adverted to them in a popuhir way ; just as Isaiah has
done in ch. xiii. and xxxiv. How much of all this is costume, and how
much simple reality, is another question, on which something will he
said in the sequel.
(b) Etnl spirits are sometimes employed as the executioners of divine
Justice, or as iiiflirtinfj chastisement. Thus as related in Job i. ii, Satan
is permitted to aftlict that patriarch. In 1 Kings 22: 21 — 23, the spirit
who ofl'ers to deceive Ahah, is perhaps an evil spirit. In the Gospels
numerous cases of demoniacal influence in producing disease and occa-
sioning many evils, everywhere present themselves to our notice.
These are declared by the Saviour to be under the guidance of Satan,
and his cooperation with them is explicitly developed. Matt. 12: 24 —
28. Prominent is the idea of Satan's agency even in salutary chastise-
ment, 1 Cor. 5: 5 ; although, like the king of Assyria and Nebuchad-
nezzar when they invaded Judea, he may not wish, or even expect, to
fulfil the designs of heaven. The same sentiment is also found in 1
Tim. 1: 20. That Satan should be intent with great zeal upon promot-
ing the persecution of good men, might be expected fi'om his temper
and chai'acter ; and such is often represented as being the case, e. g.
Eev. 2: 13. In Rev. 13: 2 seq. the dragon is represented as giving
power to the beast, and as exciting him to persecute the church and to
inflict all manner of evil upon Christians. So in the Gospels ; Satan
stirs up Judas to betray the Saviour, and " the powers of darkness have
their hour," i. e. their season of success, when they rouse up the Jews
and Romans to put him to death.
Such are the brief outlines of scriptural angelology. It may be
proper, now, before this sketch is concluded, to notice some apparent
difliculties that attend a part of it.
' How,' it is asked, ' can evil spirits be in the ahyss, or in the desert.,
or in the air, and at the same time be busily engaged in tempting and
injuring men ?' The answer to this question is less difficult, perhaps,
than the inquirer may seem to imagine. Their confinement in the
ahyss is not constant or perpetual, but temporary. So Luke 8: 31,
Rev. 20: 1 — 3, and other passages also, clearly indicate. The same is
true of exile to desert places; Matt. 12: 43 — 45. As to the air ; this
seems to be the appropriate element (so to speak) of evil spirits, i. e.
the place where they more usually reside, and thus have an ojjportunity
of assailing men and doing them mischief. If it is the arrangement of
Providence, in order to try men, that evil spirits should be permitted to
tempt and to injure them, (and clearly do the Scriptures show that it
is), then those spirits must be resident or existent somewhere, so that
they can accomplish this. The Hebrews thought and spoke of them as
inhabiting the air, because this was most consonant, according to their
•
40© SCRIPTURAL ANGELOLOGY : ExC. I.
view, with their pneumatic nature. That now and then, when some
peculiar act of malignity is committed on their part, thej are sent to
the abyss, or to the desert, and thus removed from opportunity to assail
men, is nothing strange — nothing contrary to the analogy of divine
judgments, which often chastise and sometimes punish wicked men,
even in the present world. To assume that all these declarations of
the Scriptures, which are apparently plain and direct, have no founda-
tion in point of fact or reality, is to assume that which no man can
prove. There is no improbability in the scriptural views of this sub-
ject, when it is once conceded that evil angels exist, and are engaged
in doing mischief.
' But is not all this mere costume ? Is anything more meant, than
that the evil passions of men and the destructive powers of the natural
world are personified ?'
In the reality of evil spirits I am, and must be, a full believer. Cos-
tume some of the modes of representation may be, and probably are. Is
it not costume, when God is spoken of as having hands, arms, eyes,
mouth, feet, heart ; as being the subject of anger, jealousy, revenge, re-
pentance, hatred, etc. ; as using bow, and arrows, and quiver, and sword,
and buckler ; as having wings and feathers, and the like ? Undoubt-
edly it is ; but at the basis of all this, there is reality. God is a living
and active agent, possessed of all the affections belonging to a perfect,
inteUigent, rational, and moral being, and ready and able to punish the
wicked and protect and reward the righteous. Such are the substantial
facts that lie beneath the biblical costume. And why not reason in the
same way respecting evil spirits ? They exist ; they are active in do-
ing evil to men ; they are permitted to assail and tempt them. Why
not, as well as that men should in other ways be tempted to do evil ?
The power of evil spirits, moreover, is resistible by men ; as resistible
as other temptations, James 4: 7. 1 Pet. 5: 8. Eph. 4: 27. And who
is able to say, that they are not occasionally restrained from the exer-
cise of this power, in the way of temporary punishment, and thus made
to feel that there is a Power above which abhors their wickedness ?
The manner of representing this may be costume. The Hebrews con-
ceived of their punishment, by supposing them to be sent to the abyss,
or to the desert ; but, so long as they had access to men, they were con-
ceived of as living in the air, inasmuch as they could not live in hea-
ven, nor (like men) on earth, nor be in the abyss or the desert, which
would keep them away from men. Where else could they be, then,
but in the air f Where, I mean, according to the Hebrew modes of
conception.
And how, I may in my turn ask, can we read the Scriptures, and
perceive that all the objects of the invisible world are represented to us
SCRIPTURAL ANGELOLOGY : ExC. I.
in the costume which is worn by objects of sense ; God himself as pos-
sessed of huninn jiarts and jiassions ; heaven as a pleasure-garden, a
splendid city, and its enjoyments as feasts ; hell as a lake of fire, or an
abyss, a prison, a place of utter darkness ; the sun as rising and setting
at the beginning and close of his march through the heavens, and so of
the moon and stars ; the rain as treasured up in the region above the
solid welkin, from wlience it descends through windows or apertures ;
the earth as standing upon the great abyss of waters beneath, and as
being an extended plain ; the apparent heavens as a solid arch extended
over it, and resting at the edges of the earth on pillars which support
that arch, — how, I say, can we observe all tliis, and much more of the
same kind in the Bible, and yet falter, and hesitate, and deny, when
the agency of evil spirits, and the places of their usual abode, or of their
punishment, are presented in costume such as has been disclosed above?
Is it objected, that the N. Testament writers have adopted tlie popular
vsus loquendi respecting evil spirits ? Have they not done the same, as
to God, and heaven, and hell, and earth and sea and all which inhabit
them ? They have ; and such objections, therefore, are both irrelevant
and insignificiint. When the Hebrews speak of evil spirits as in the
abyss, in the desert, or in the air, we are to understand, that in the two
former cases they meant to convey the idea of a temporary exile and
restraint of evil spirits, (the abyss and the desert being probably ex-
pressive of different gradations of punishment and restraint), while in
the latter, they speak of them as in circumstances which give them lib-
erty of access to us. The rest, if it is insisted on, may be regarded as
costume, and nothing more ; although it would be impossible to prove
that there is not in reality something more. But analogy with the modes
of s[)eaking in respect to God, and heaven, and hell, is enough to con-
firm and justify all that I have now said. AVe need not the conjectures
of the rationalist here, to render the Scriptures both intelligible and
reasonable, with regard to the doctrine of evil spirits.
The views which have been given may also serve to show, how little
those representations, in sermons or elsewhere, are to be regarded, which
in fact attribute omnipresence and omniscience to evil spirits, and make
the devil in reality as much a rival of the true God, as the Parsees
made Ahriman the rival of Oromasd. All this, and all that approaches
to it, is not only M?iscriptural, but crn^t'scriptural.
My object in giving so extended a view of this subject, is not merely
to aid in the illustration of Ilev. 1: 4. It has reference to the whole
book of the Apocalypse, and to all the angelology, or the machinery (to
speak technically) of angels, as there introduced, both the good and the
bad- As their agency is everywhere interwoven with tlie very struc-
ture of the book, so it would be in vain for any one to suppose that he
408 SCRIPTUKAL ANGELOLOGY : ExC. I.
can interpret the book, unless he forms an intimate acquaintance with
Jewish angelology. There is frequent occasion in commenting on the
Apocalypse, to recur to what is here said ; and in this way I have aim-
ed to be brief, in respect to many passages which would otherwise claim
protracted exegesis, i. e. if they could not be referred to some such ex-
hibitions as have been made in the present Excursus.
One reflection, at the close, naturally forces itself upon the mind.
How can John be found fault with, as he has not unfrequently been,
for introducing angels so often into his work, and employing them so
much in the accomplishment of what he predicts will take place ? Is
not this entirely consonant with the manner of Daniel, and of Zecha-
riah ? These later prophets he has, I will not say imitated, but follow-
ed as a general model in the composition of his woi'k ; and this for the
obvious reason, that they were more adapted to the taste of the later
Hebrews and to that of his own times. Has he gone beyond the boun-
daries which Jewish feeling and usage, in respect to speaking of angels,
permitted ? I trust not. His imagination is indeed more powerful and
vivid than that of Daniel or Zechariah ; he sometimes ranges with more
freedom in the world of pure imagination, (as in ch. ix.) ; but there is
not a single distinctive and prominent trait of his angelology, which may
not be found in other parts of Scripture, or at least in other contempo-
rary works by Hebrews. What just ground can there be, then, for the
accusation of excessive imagination and fictitious machinery? Some
fiction, indeed, belongs to the very nature of elevated poetry. But has
John more of it than is presented in Ps. xviii, or Is. xiv, or Ezek. i. ?
Such an objection, then, is one of the last which should be made, to an
Epopee like the Apocalypse.
Is angelic interposition unworthy of the Godhead ? "What then are the
laws of nature, and all the intermediate agencies by which the Maker of
heaven and earth carries on his designs and accomplishes his purposes ?
On the other hand ; I can conceive of no more magnificent and enno-
bling view of the Creator and Lord of all things, than that which re-
gards him as delighting to multiply, even to an almost boundless extent,
beings made in his own image, and therefore rational and moral and im-
mortal like himself. How different from representing him as the Master
of a magnificent puppet-show, all of which he manages by merely pull-
ing the wires with his own hands ! To make him the only real agent
in the universe, and all else as mere passive recipients of his influence,
is to take from him the glory that results from the creation of number-
less beings in his own image — beings which reflect the brightness of
their great Original. It is this intelligent and rational creation, in which
John lives, moves, thinks, and speaks. The universe, as viewed by him,
is filled with ministers swift to do Jehovah's will. They stand befoi'e
SYMBOLICAL USB OF NUMBERS : ExC. II. 4B9^
his throne ; they preside over nations ; they guide the sun in his sign-
ing course ; the moon and stars send forth i-adiance at their bidding ;
the very elements ai'e watched over by them ; even infants are commit-
ted to the guidance of presence-angels ; and " the angel of the Lord en-
campeth round about all that fear him." Such is the universe, which
the God who is and was and is to come has created and governs ; .and
amid the contemplation of productions and lUTangements such as these,
John wrote the glowing pages of the Apocalypse.
EXCURSUS 11.
On the Syniholical Use q/* Numbers in the Apocalypse.
Rev. I. 4. Xagig vftTv xai EtQtjvt] ano 6 av xai 6 tjv kcu 6 iQ^o^Bvog '
xai ano tmv tTtza TivEVfiurcov a iariv ircoTziov rov x^qovov avzov.
The probability that the seven presence-angels who stand before the
throne of God, ready and " swift to do his will," are here designated by
the writer, I assume, in the present case, as already made out in the
exegesis of this verse. But whether this meaning is rightly made out
or not, the object of our present inquiry will be substantially the same.
For if the phrase seven sjnrits is here nothing more than a periphrastic
expression, designed merely to signify Deus natard perfectissimd, as
some maintain ; or if, as others suppose, it means the Holy Spirit, whose
perfect nature is designated by the expression seven spirits ; the ques-
tion still occurs : How comes the number seven to be employed in such
a sense ? VThy, throughout the book before us, is it adopted as a lead-
ing characteristic of so many developments which the Apocalypse ex-
hibits?
It will be conceded, I presume, by every considerate reader, that the
writer of the Revelation meant, and expected, to be understood by his
readers. It follows of course, then, that there was something in the usus
loquendi of the day, and in the minds of his readers, which led him to
believe that such a famiUar use of the number seven, as he exhibits, was
neither unintelligible to the mass of his readers, nor specially liable to
be misunderstood.
It is agi"eed by all interpreters, so far as I know, that the number in
question is not, for the most part, to be literally understood, throughout
the Apocalypse. Yet few writers, indeed scarcely any, have underta-
VOL. ir. 52
410 SYMBOLICAL USE OP NUMBERS : ExC. 11.
ken to explain the real ground of its figurative or tropical meaning.
Many content themselves by merely telling us, that seven is a round num-
ber, or a perfect number, or a sacred number ; and therefore it was em-
ployed as such by John, in the Apocalypse. Inquiry into the reason why
this number came to be so regarded, some of these interpreters denounce
as insignificant or superfluous ; at all events they consider it as a mere
hair-splitting business, which will end in nothing but disappointment,
and therefore is not worth the trouble which it will cost.
Believing, for myself, that a number so extensively employed as this
is by the sacred writers, and used so often in a tropical or figui'ative
sense, has claims to our serious attention and inquiries, I shall venture,
on the present occasion, to pursue these inquiries ; and they may lead
us, as I apprehend, into some paths, which perhaps we have hithei'to
not often frequented.
We may venture to ask, in the first place : How much light is cast on
this subject, when we are told that the number in question is sacred, or
round, or perfect .^ That it is sacred, can mean neither more nor less,
than that it is employed for religious purposes, or in making communi-
cations respecting sacred things. But the question, why it is so employ-
ed, rather than most other numbers, remains wholly unanswered by
such a declaration.
And when we are told that it is a round number, we feel at liberty to
ask : In what sense is it any more round, than fourteen, or twenty, or
thirty ? Or, (if we should select numbers that are not so evidently com-
posite in a peculiar way, in order to make the comparison), why is it
any more round than six, or eight, or nine ? And when we find three,
four, ten, and twelve, often employed in the like way with seven, that
is, as round numbers, (to adopt the usual mode of expression), we are
naturally led to inquire, how or why such a significancy was attached
to them, rather than to six, eight, nine, eleven, fourteen, twenty, or any
other numbers.
Such an explanation, then, or rather such an attempt at explanation,
can give an inquiring mind no solid satisfaction. There, is something
in this sacred tisus loquendi, that appears to lie deeper than these super-
ficial attempts at explanation have penetrated. Even the allegation that
seven is a perfect number, goes but little further than those allegations
already examined. For what is meant by a perfect number ? All
composite numbers are of course made up of units ; and why seven units
are more perfect than six or eight, is a question that few have even at-
tempted to answer. In one sense every number is perfect in itself, i. e.
it answers exactly and fully the end for which it is designed, so long as
it is employed in its hteral and obvious sense. But when seven is used
in such a manner as to designate perfection, (for this fact is here
SYMBOLICAL USB OF NUMBERS : ExC. II. 4fft
admitted), we may still bo allowed to ask : Why should seven be so era-
ployed, nuher than sir, or ei(//if, or any other number? And when this
question is asked, we find ourselves to be just where we were when we
oommenced our journey, and that all oiu* excursions have been made
only in a eirele that has brought us baek to the {)oint from which we
started.
Can anything be done to give our steps a new direction, in order tlxat
we may make some advance toward a stationary point, which we may in-
dulge a hope of reaching ? I will not affirm it to be certain that there can ;
but since the recent publication of Dr. K. C. W. F. Bahr of Eichstett
on the Spnbols of the Mosaical Institutions, there seems to be a better
prospect of making some actual advances in relation to this subject. To
this writer I must pay the tribute of acknowledgment, that I have
been much aided by his researches, in regard to many of the /ac<s which
will be stated in the sequel ; with the general theory of the book I have
no present concern.
It has often been suggested, in respect to the number seven, that it
obviously derives its symbolical use from the institution of tveeks, or the
sabbatical division originally made when the work of creation was fin-
ished. Vitringa mentions this (Comm. in Apoc. p. 44) as not an im-
probable suggestion ; but on the whole, he considers the symbolical, or
(as he calls it) mysterious use of seven, as being too extensive and vari-
ous to be accounted for merely in this way. To the same opinion I am
rather inclined. Some reasons for it may be briefly stated.
There is nothing in the etymology of the word VZ'C , seven, which leads
to the idea of fulness or completion as its meaning. Indeed, so far as one
can at present see, the word itself, like most numerals in other languages,
is an original ox\G. Accordingly Gesenius, in his lexicon, derives the verb
52\y from the numeral "2'j , and thus classes it among the denominative
verbs. It is a curious and interesting circumstance respecting this verb,
that (as used in Niphal) it means only to sioear, or take an oath, i. e. as
we may naturally explain it, to make an appeal to seven, in solemn con-
firmation of anything, or, in other words (if I may be allowed to use
them), to become besevened. What it is to appeal to seven, seems to be
explained in Gen. 21: 28 seq. When the strife between the people of
Abraham and Abiinelek was composed, the former took seven lambs and
set them by themselves ; and when asked by Abimelek what he meant
by so doing, Abraham answered, that he designed to present them to
Abimelek " as a witness " for his rights in respect to a well about which
their servants had been contending ; and that well he named Beer-
sheba, i. e. the well of the oath or of seven, " because there they sware both
of them" (v. 31). When oaths were made, then, it would seem that
this transaction was, at least at times, preceded by some exhibition of
412 SYMBOLICAL USE OP NUMBERS : ExC. 11.
the number seven, and that appealing to seven was the end of strife be-
tween contending parties.
But why seve7i ? One might say, perhaps, that in such a case it sym-
bolizes completion, i. e. the ending of strife. But I apprehend that the
meaning lies deeper than this, and that seven in such a case was indica-
tive of a religious and most solemn obligation ; not because God was
believed to consist of seven spirits, but for other reasons connected with
rehgious obligation, which will be developed in the sequel.
To say that seven means completion, on the ground that it comes from
SaiU, saturatus est, as Parkhurst does in his lexicon, thus making no
distinction between 'S'yd and S>n>U ; or to betake one's self to the Arabic
«A^ ,which means the same as the Heb. SJ^b to saturate, as Simonis and
Eichhom do ; what is this but to assume that the Hebrews made no
practical distinction between Sin and Shin, and so to cut the knot in-
stead of untying it?
But apart from etymologies, I have simply to remark, that the idea of
completion, i. e. of having brought a thing to its close, (as was the case in
respect to the seventh day at the time of the original creation), cannot be
attached, without much modification, to a great part of the instances in
which seven is symbolically employed. An idea kindred to this seems,
indeed, to enter into most of the passages where seven is so used. A
competent number ; a sufficient one, (which sometimes means a large
number, and sometimes designates the idea of several or of many) ; a
number complete for the pui-pose designed, or to accomplish an object
which presents itself before the mind of the writer ; a number which
may stand as it were in the place of a representative for all other num-
bers ; in a word, a number, which, when the writer designs to employ a
kind of definite form of expression, (and it is a matter of course to do so
whenever numbers are employed by a speaker or writer), yet does not
intend, on his part, to afiix to this definite form any further meaning than
that of a number sufficient or competent for any particular object or de-
sign in view — such a number, I would say, is seven. But when even
this is said, it does not explain many instances of seven that occur in
rehgious usage, as to times, seasons, sacred structures and utensils, of-
ferings, prayers, and other things of the Uke nature. Seven, as pertain-
ing to religious things, usages, or persons, oftentimes plainly has a sym-
boUcal sense, which would be very imperfectly unfolded, by saying that
the number is round, ov perfect, or sacred. Other numbers too are round
and perfect; yea sacrec? also. There remains, then, some peculiarity
of seven to be developed, at which we have not yet arrived.
If then we abandon the ground, that the original division of time into
weeks, and the institution of the sabbath on the seventh day, will ac-
SYJroOLIC USE OF THREE : EXC. II. #19
count for the symbolical meaning of the number seven, we must resort
to some other considerations, in order to make the requisite ilhistration.
Are they to be found? Can we in any way satisfy ourselves, ho^v or
why all the ancient world came to attach so much sacredness and sig-
nilicancy to the number seven ?
A somewhat extensive investigation of this subject has brought me
to the persuasion, that seven derives its principal symbolical significancy,
from its being the sum or result of uniting the equally significant and
sacred numbers, three and /bwr. In order to explain my meaning, I
must of course give some account of these numbers as employed in a
symbohcal way. I do this the more readily, since many examples oc-
cur in the Scriptures, and very many in the book before us, of such a
use of three v^nA four, particularly of three. When we have satisfied
ourselves as to these, we shall then be prepared to examine the symbol-
ical use of the number seven.
(1) Symbolical use of the nunibcr three.
Over all the Eastern "World are to be found the most indubitable
traces of an originid monotheism. The conception of this divine unity,
however, has received peculiar modifications among heathen nations.
I will state some of them, as briefly as the nature of the case will admit.
A self-existent, uncreated, eternal Being, the original Source of all
creatures, and all worlds, and of all the gods who made and govern
them, lies at the basis of all the ancient oriental theosophy. In the
Hindoo system, this uncreated and eternal Being is named Para-Brah-
tna, i. e. the original Great or mighty Owe ; (Brahma means the great
or mighty one, like the Hebrew T^SX , the mighty One of Israel). Among
the ancient Persians and Medes, his name Avas Zervane Akerene, i. e.
Uncreated Time or the Infinite One, as appears often in the Zend
Avesta ; the Egy|)tians called him Athou or Athyr, i. e ancient darkness
or the concealed ground of all things ; the Chinese called him Tao, i. e.
the Three-one. According to these systems, this original Source of all
things, considered as undeveloped, and as existing in and by himself,
had as yet no proper personality. He was the to tv of the Greek phi-
losophers, or the i] fiovd^', i. e. the abstract principle of Unity, but not
one in the concrete sense, and as distinguished from two or more taken
in a concrete sense. In order, however, that a development of this
original Source of all things might be made, a no&og (desire) was as-
cribed to him, the tendency of which was toward development. By
the refinement or subtilty of the Pythagorean and Platonic philoso-
phers, the original Being was represented by i^ fwvui, i. e. abstract qual-
ity of one or unity ; and sometimes by uQi-i^fio^ iu its abstract sense, and
414 sYaiBOLic USE OF THREE : Exc. 11.
regarded as the parent or source of all numbers. The distinguished
Sjnesius of Cyrene (fl. 410), a heathen philosopher and poet of great rep-
utation, says of God: Moras d uovadmv, Aqi^nog aQi&^mv, (Hymn.
3). Athenagoras of Athens (fl. c. 177), one of the Christian fathers,
and of the new Platonic School, in his Apology (p. 49 edit. Bech.), says
of God: Moras iatir 6 ^«o?; and Macrobius (Somn. Scip. 1. 6) says :
Unitas dicitur ; ipse non numerus, sed fons et origo numerorum. Haec
monas, initium finisque omnium ... ad summum refertur Deum.
I have dwelt on this statement with some particularity, because here
seems to be the germ of all symbolical representation by numbers.
Consider for a moment the nature of the case before us. The original
Source of all being, considered as yet undeveloped, and therefore as yet
possessing no distinct personality, is represented or symbolized by unity,
the parent of all numbers, the proper and exclusive source (if I may so
speak) of all the numerical creation. And this representation is made
by ^ fiords, the mere quality of unity, or (to use Platonic language) the
idea of unity, and not by hs, one in the concrete, as distinguished from
two or more regarded in the same light. — If now an inteUigible repre-
sentation of the Godhead must be made to us through the medium of
language, (which I need not stop to prove) ; and if language possesses
no powers of literally describing the Godhead, that are adequate to such
a purpose, (and this is equally plain) ; then what else can be done, but
to employ language in a tropical, metaphorical, or symbolical way, in
order to designate, in some more impressive manner, that which no
words literally employed can express ? And as i] fiorug, used in the
Greek sense, is the source and parent of all numbers, and yet not itself
07ie in a concrete sense, (I might say, if I may be indulged in an un-
usual latitude of expression, is the principle of one or unity, and not
the person of one) ; and moreover, as the original Source of all things,
while undeveloped, was regarded as not yet having assumed personality
or separate and distinctive personal existence ; what better or more sig-
nificant emblem of the original Godhead could the orientals choose, than
the Moras already named ? The propriety, I might say the vivid force,
of such a symbol, can hardly be overlooked by any mind which is capa-
ble of duly appreciating the necessities to which we are often driven, for
want of power to express by language what the mind has already con-
ceived in itself.
Thus far we seem to be travelling in a plain road. Our next stage
is somewhat more arduous and difficult. Still, the same principles kept
in view, which have already been developed, will enable us to make the
journey without any great perplexity.
God, the original Source of all things, has developed himself. The
creation, rational and irrational, exists. In the developments which the
SYMBOLIC USE OF THREE : ExC. IT. 415
Grodhead lias made, his personality, so to speak, has become perceptible
to the rational beings whom he has created. And it is a fact, astonish-
ing at first view, but not more astonishing. than true, that nearly all the
leading nations of antiquity, with whose theosophy we are accpiainted,
have represented his development as threefold or tripartite. In other
words ; the doctrine of a Trinity, in some form or other, seems to lie at
the basis of all the ancient and celebrated systems of religion. God de-
veloped or disclosed, is rej)resented as God in a threefold relation to his
creatures.
So it is in the Hindoo system of theology. From Para-Brahma, the
original Source,, proceed, when he developes himself, Brahma the
Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, .Shiva the Destroyer and Reneicer.
These are the three forms, or persons, in which Para-Brahma appears ;
and it is in these only that worship is paid to the original divine Being,
who is considered as developing himself equally in all. — Their essence
is one. One supreme God in three persons, imperfectly but substan-
tially represented, seems to be the doctrine of the Hindoos. See Balu',
p. 145.
The Budhists, who constitute a numerous sect in eastern India and
beyond, have also their trinity in like manner. Thus Buddhas, Dhar-
mas, and Sangghas, the revealer, the revealed, and the hosts who obey
the revelation, constitute the leading objects of worship by the Budhists.
Among the Chinese, the celebrated Tao-Tsee says, that " Tao [the
original Godhead] is by his nature one ; but the first has produced a
second ; the second a third ; and these three have created all things.
... In vain (it goes on to say) may your senses inquire concerning all
three ; your reason only can affirm anything respecting them ; and this
will tell you that these are only one." (Biihr, p. 147.) The so called
Chaldee Oracles, which, witli some foreign admixtures, seem to com-
prise many genuine remains of Chaldaism, contain a remarkable pas-
sage : " Unity has produced a second which dwells with it, and shines in
intellectual light ; from this proceeds a third, Avhich shines through the
whole world." (Orac. Ciiald. o. 1.) The Phenician theology assigns
to the universe a triplex principium, Jupiter [the heavens], the Earth,
and Love which unites the two. So Pherecydes states the matter ;
but Sanchoniathon, who deserves more credit, states, that ' out of Chaos
the First Born emerged, and with him the trinity, Ulomus, Olusoros,
and Eliun, or light, fire, and flame.' Bahr, p. 148.
The Rabbinical and Cabbalistic Trinity is too well known to need
anything more than a bare reference to it. Out of the Endless Being
(Cl"0 "fS , like the Zervane Akerene) proceed, when he developes him-
self, the three highest Sephiroth, viz. "irs crown, n^^" wisdom, and
416 SYMBOLIC USE OP THREE : ExC. 11.
nsia intelligence. The seven inferior Sephiroth serve to mark other
attributes or develojjments of the Godhead.
Parsism, or the theosophy of Zoroaster, appears at first sight to be
Dualism. Ororaasd and Ahriman, the good and the evil divinities,
seem to occupy the fore-ground, and almost to close up our view of every-
thing divine in the back-ground. Yet when the whole system is strict-
ly scanned, it would seem, that out of Zervane Akerene, or the Un-
created Time, proceeded Oromasd, Ahriman (originally good), and
Mithra who stands between the two, (Bahr. p. 148). Or, omitting
Mithra as inferior, we have a trinity of the others.
The Egyptian theosophy represents, as proceeding from Athor or
original night, Kneph (Amun), Pthas, and Osiris ; which are symbol-
ized in the natural world by light, fire, and the sun ; and in the ideal
world, by omnipotence, wisdom, and goodness.
The Orphic theosophy, which lies at the basis of all the Grecian
theogony, and which was confessedly derived from the East, makes a
trinity of gods, differently named by different persons and places, to
stand at the head. And so with the gods of Samothrace, viz. Axieros,
Axiokersa, and Axiokersos, who spring from the ro Iluv, the great All.
The ancient European northern hordes, who came from Asiatic regions,
had a similar theosophy. The old Prussians called their trinity, Per-
kunos, Pikollos, and Potrimpos ; the ancient Swedes worshipped
Odin, Thor, and Friggo. The old Pomeranians called their god
Triglav, i. e. three headed ; the Scandinavians worshipped Othin, Vile,
and Ve ; the old Irish, Kriosan, Biosena, and Siva. And the like
phenomena have been found among the Indians of South America, the
West Indies, and other places. (Bahr p. 150.)
These are striking facts. What is there in the number three, which
gave occasion to employ it so often and to such a wide extent, among
the most ancient nations, in order to designate the developments of the
Godhead ?
Bahr supposes that three is thus selected, because three is the first
number which constitutes a full concrete unity. The number one con-
stitutes simple unity ; two has been widely and usually regarded as the
index of division, separation, severalty, antithesis. But the number
three, having a beginning, middle, and end, and being indivisible, (frac-
tions are left out of the question in such reckonings), it represents a
perfect composite unity. Bahr produces passages from ancient Greek
authors to show, that they reasoned in this manner respecting the num-
ber three ; but I apprehend there is something too speculative and arti-
ficial in this view, to render it probable that it was generally regarded
as furnishing a reason for adopting three as a symbol of the Godhead.
SYMBOLIC USE OP THREE : ExC. II. 4^
May we not come to a more satisfactory view of the subject in an-
other way ? In forminc; an idea of the Godlicad, the human mind must
ti-ansfor the views it has of things within the circle of its knowledfre
and perception, to the Divinity himself, and then abstract from them
whatever there is of the finite and imperfect in them. So the Scrip-
tures themselves everywhere employ anthropopathic expressions, and
describe the Godhead l)y applying to it names of attributes that desig-
nate the parts, passions, and conceptions of men. Like to this is the
use of ideas borrowed from human views of some leading and strikino'
features in the universe ; which latter was regarded by the ancient
world as impressed, in some important respects, with images or rather
symbols of its Creator. Thus the universe as a whole has three parts,
the upper, the middle, and the under worlds ; I speak, of course, ac-
cording to the views of iuicient times, in which the Hebrews also shared.
A like division is heaven, earth, and sea. So sun, moon, and stars.
Time, a striking image in some respects of the Infinite One, is divided
into present, past, and future. So, morning, noon, and evening. Time
and space, in all our limited conceptions of them, have beginning, mid-
dle, and end. " The universe and all things," says Aristotle in accord-
ance with the Pythagoreans, " are limited by the number three." So
of pei'sons, first, second, and third. (Bahr p. 142.) How easy, now,
and natural even, (we may add), to make three tlie symbol of the all-
perfect and infinite One, who {s, and was, and is to come !
In accordance with this we find three most extensively employed, in
the heathen world, as significant of whatever is divine, creative, or pro-
ductive. As in numbers it forms the first complete composite unity,
which is indivisible, so in forms and figures that are purely mathemati-
cal and ideal, it bears a most conspicuous part. The triangle is the
basis of almost all geometrical forms, and is itself unresolvable into any
other. Accordingly the Hindoos make it the symbol of the gods who
are most worshipped by them. A triangle with its point upwards, is
tlie symbol of Sliiva ; with the point downwards, of Vishnu. The
image of Shiva has three eyes, one being in tiie middle of the fore-
head ; and he bears a triangle as his insigne. The world, which they
consider in some respects as the image of God, the Hindoos divide into
upper, middle, and lower ; man, whom they regard as a kind of fuxoo-
■Oeog, is divided into body, soul, and spirit ; just as among the Hebrews,
1 Thess. 5: 23. Himalaya, the mount of the gods, has three summits ;
the holy fire is threefold ; and there ai'e three modes of knowledge.
Of Hke signification is the triangle among the Chinese, and the prin-
cipal province of the heavenly world, Petchcli, they repn,-sent as trian-
gular. A tripod they call spirit, from its symbolical eigniUcation.
VOL. II. 63
418 SYMBOLIC USE OF THREE : ExC. IL
The book Seeki says : " Formerly the emperor offered soler. ly every
three years to the Spirit of threeness and oaeness." (Bahr, p. '-!.)
The Babylonish ritual required prayer and kneeling three t iS, each
day, before the supreme divinity. The temple of Bekis conta • .d three
collossal images, dedicated to the divinity. Parsism assigned riangle
to Mithras, their mediator god, as his insigne.
Among the Greeks and Romans this number is conspicuous, in re-
spect to things pertaining to sacred rites that have relation to the God-
head. " These three threads," says Virgil, " diversified by three differ-
ent colours, I bind around ; three times I carry the effigy around these
altars ; the god dehghts in this uneven number :" Eel. 8: 73. On this
Servius the ancient commentator remarks : " The triplex perfect num-
ber that [the Romans] assigned to the supreme God, from whom is the
beginning, middle, and end." He adds : " The power of all th.^, gods is
exhibited by a threefold sign ; Jove has fulrmn trijidum, Nepi'me a tri-
dent, Pluto a canis triceps ; Apollo is also Sol et Liber. All t'.iings are
contained in this triplex division, the destinies, the fitries, etc." (Serv.
in loc.)
Plutarch (de Isid. c. 46) says : rj 8s nQEiZTOiv 'auI &ei6z£Qa (pvaig i'/C
TQiMP ton. Plato (de Leg. IV. 716) says: "God, according to the
ancient saying, contains the beginning, the end, and the middle, of all
things."
The Mosaic religion differs, in one important respect, widel;, from all
the heathen systems brought to view. An impersonal God it knows
not. An original, eternal, impersonal cause of all things, is never even
hinted at. ISfor is the doctrine of the Trinity, as such, explicitly reveal-
ed in the O. Testament. Monotheism is most strenuously inculcated,
and everything which would lead directly to tritheism, or polytheism,
(into which aU the heathen systems early degenerated), is most scrupu-
lously, and (as it would seem) purposely avoided, in order to guai'd
against the lapse of the Hebrews into the religion of the heathen. But
still, there is after all an occult reference to a plurality in the Godhead.
De Wette himseff (Bib. Dogmatik, § 112) acknowledges, that there is a
threefold idea of the Godhead in the O. Testament, as Supreme Gov-
ernor, as God revealed, and as the Spirit who operates in all thii gs. For
a plurality of nature, one has often appealed to the plural form of 'he noun
n'^nbx , and to such expressions as Let us make man, Let us go doicn,
Become like one of us ; but this appeal is of a nature too indefinite and
uncertam to support the allegation. Much more to the purpose is the
threefold blessing, which Moses and Aaron were commanded to pro-
nounce over the congregation of Israel : " Jehovah bless thee, and keep
thee ; Jehovah make his face to shine upon thee, and be gracious to
thee ; Jehovah lift his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace !"
SYMBOLIC USE OF THREE : ExC. ll 419
Num. 6*'>X4 — 26. This, in v. 27, is called, < puttinn; the name of Jeho-
vah upc i I'hc cliildren of Israel.' How well this corrcfsponds with 2 Cor.
13: 14, 'll 'Che grace of our J^ord Je:-u.s Christ, and tlie love of Cod, and
tlie conV*>*^ion of the Holy Spirit be with you," needs scarcely to be
mention '«•* Nor can we help calling to mind also the formula of bap-
tism into ;he name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Obvious too
is the moaning of Ti'^i^v '^''^"'i^ ^''^"'i; '" I*^- ^' '^? '"""^^ ^^^^ trisagion in
Rev. 4:8, accompanied with tlie most significant designation of the Eter-
nal, 0 cai', o /;!', xrtJ o foj^ojievof;.
With this corresponds well the three times a day, that Daniel was ac-
customed to pray (G: 10) ; and the morning, noon, and night, at which
the Psalmist lifted up his voice, Ps. 55: 17. Even the Rabbins have
set this in connection with the divine nature. " Morning prayei^s," says
Rabbi Samuel Ben David, " signify that God existed before the world
was ; pr'iyer at noon, that he now exists ; prayer at evening, that he
•will exist." (In Schoettgeu. Hor. Heb. p. 1084.) But besides these,
three times in a year must all Israel go up to worship God at Jerusalem,
Ex. 23: 14, 17. 34: 23. Dent. 16: IG. The third day is designated as
a speciid and peculiar one, in respect to various solemnities or religious
usages, Ex. 10: 11 — 16. Num. 19: 12, 19; and this hmitation of time
in a great variety of cases, is found in the Scriptures, e. g. 1 Sam. 20: 19.
Gen. 42: 17. Ex. 10: 22. Josh. 2: 16, 22. Judg. 14: 14. 2 Kings 2: 17.
Jonah Ci 3. Matt. 27: 40. These are only a few of the cases. The
proverbial use of three is well known ; e. g. Ecc. 4: 12. Sirach 25: 1, 2.
A more generic use maybe found in 2 Sam. 24: 12. Ezek. 21: 14. Judg.
16: 15. 1 Kings 17: 21. Acts 10: 16, and in a multitude of hke cases.
The. extensive use of three by the Rabbins and Cabbalists, is also
well known. The three upper Sephiroth in the Godhead they refer to
the trisagion in Is. 6: 3. The world, considered as the symbol or image
of Grod, they divide into three, JBeriah, Jezirah, and Asiah ; and man,
as a fACAQO&to^' they divide into 'CBS , nn , and n-s'^ja .
Enough, I trust, has now been said to show, why three is deemed to
be a sacred number ; in other words, why it is employed in designating
symbolically the Godhead itself, or whatever stands in immediate con-
nection ivith it, in the way of worship, ceremonies, rites, holy seasons,
etc. T .at this number should thus be deemed highly significant, and
therefor'^ be often transferred to other things where intensity or com-
pleteness was to be designated, ceases to be strange or unaccountable,
•with such facts as these before us.
It would appear now, from the view which has thus been taken, that
the doctrine of a Trinity in the Godhead Ues much deeper than the
New Platonic philosophy, to which so many have been accustomed to
refer it. An original impression of the character in question plainly
420 sYJiBOLic USE OF FOUR : Exc. 11.
overspread all the ancient oriental world ; and whence could this come,
but from earlier tradition, which flowed from a revealed and patriarchal
religion ? That many philosophistic and superstitious conceits have
been mixed with it, in pi'ocess of time, proves nothing against the gene-
ral fact as stated. And this being admitted, we cease to think it strange,
that such distinction and significancy have been given in the Scriptures,
to the number three. The oriental idiom in general was in accordance,
in this respect, with the Jewish idiom ; and the Jewish idiom was in
accordance with facts, which, although not fully disclosed by Moses,
(for no man, as John says in his Gospel, at any time in ancient days
knew God), yet were fully revealed by " the only Begotten, who dwell-
eth in the bosom of the Father," and who therefore knows all the mys-
teries of the Godhead.
To all which has now been said of the use of the number three should
be added, of course, the rhetorical employment of it in dividing and sub-
dividing some distinguished portions of the Scriptures. The book of
Job, for example, and the Apocalypse exhibit trichotomy in all their
parts, down to even the minutest subdivisions. In such cases it has an
intense rhetorical significancy, which probably arose at first from the
other significancy already pointed out. But it would be only repetition
to dwell on this part of the subject here. The reader will find it fully
exhibited in the introduction to the Commentary, Vol. I. p. 135 seq.
He will permit me to solicit him to examine what is there exhibited,
before he makes up his mind as to the significancy of the number three.
He cannot well doubt, after such an examination, that we may unhesi-
tatingly assume the special significancy of this number in many parts of
the sacred writings.
(2) Symbolical use of the number four.
We have seen, that three came to be symbolical of the divine nature,
because some leading objects of mental conception in the human mind,
which approximate nearest to the designation of that which is infinite^
or that which is generic and productive, are viewed in a threefold light,
or present a ternary form. For example, time present, past, and fu-
ture ; heaven, earth, and Hades ; in mathematical science the triangle,
itself unresolvable into other forms, and yet the parent of most forms ;
and in anthropology, body, soul, and spirit. If images of the Godhead
can in any safe and significant measure be borrowed from the material
or intellectual world, the objects designated most obviously afford them.
We come now to the relation which number may bear, as a symboli-
cal designation, to the world or universe as a production of creative
power, i. e. of the Godhead. Here, of course, we might expect to find
a number employed which is different from three ; and such is in fact
the case.
STItfBOLlC USE OF FOUR : Exc. 11. 421
Bahr slates the matter thus : ^Four, considered in its arithmetical
relation to three, obviously proceeds from three, and necessarily includes
three in itself. If three, then, designates the true, the highest, and the
most perfect Being, four must designate that which proceeds from him,
or is dependent on him. If three designates God, four must conse-
quently designate the world, or the universe.' (p. 155.)
I do not see the conclusiveness of this reasoning ; for I do not see
how three produces four, rather than two and two, or one four times re-
peated. There is somewhat of the Pythagorean philosophy in this
speculation, which is too tenuous to commend itself to a mind that seeks
only the intelligible and the obviously probable.
A better reason, as it seems to me, can easily be given, for the al-
leged signification of forir. The created universe, according to general
opinion among the ancients, resolves itself into four elements, fire, air,
earth, and water. Four are the regions of the earth, viz. east, west,
north, and south. In four different ways is the extension of all bodies
conceived of; for they have length, breadth, height, and depth. Into
four parts is circling time divided, morning, noon, evening, and midnight.
Four are the seasons, winter, spring, summer, and autumn. Four are
the marked variations of the lunar phases. Four are the ages of man,
infancy, youth, manhood, and old age.
Such are the obvious and prominent arrangements of created things.
If we go from these to the world of abstract science, i. e. the intellectual
world, there we find the square a highly important ground-form in
geometrical relations. Order, rule, regularity, may therefore be ob-
viously designated by four, when symbolically employed. The cube,
which consists of fours throughout, is evidently a very significant image.
In accordance with these simple principles we find a multitude of
facts, in the eastern world. Thus the Oupnekhat, a book of high au-
thority among the Hindoos, says : " There are four ways of production,
from the egg, from the womb, by creation, and from the seed as of
plants." (Bahr, p. 157.) The trii)lex images of the gods, i. e. a junc-
tion of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, have four arms, designating crea^
tive power and energy. Brahma is formed with four arms, and some-
times four heads ; and so most of the Hindoo gods are represented with
four arms. The Ramayana, a sacred poem, gives to the world four
bearers; and so assigns to it four quai-ters or parts. The mystical
square of the Hindoos, which is used as an amulet, is designed to re-
present the world. It contains three rows of squares, (a union of three
and four), joined together and marked with unit numbers, so that, if
read in any direction, the sum of them is fifteen. The form is thus :
422
SYMBOLIC USE OF FOUR : ExC. II.
6
7
2
1
5
9
8
3
4
The number five thus occupies the middle station, and designates the
soul of the world ; the other numbers designate the world ; the even ones
the earthly elements, the uneven ones the heavenly elements. Man, as
an image of the world, a real ^f^Qoxocj^og, is drawn by the Hindoos up-
on this magic square, with his hands and feet extended to the four corners.
The lotus-jiower, which has four leaves, is the most favourite of all the
symbols, taken from the productions of nature, in Hindoo theosophy.
The word Aoum, the loyog nQoqjOQixog, or creative word of the Hin-
doos, has four letters which are a symbol of the world which this word
created. The world-period is by them divided into four parts, viz.
4000, 3000, etc. During these Brahma reveals himself four times.
Four great classes or castes of men ai'e made by the Hindoos, each of
which proceeds from different parts of Brahma. The Hindoo armies
were divided into four parts ; and the like division was made in all sub-
ordinate distinctions of their troops. Buddha, or reason personified, in
which the Godhead reveals itself, holds a square in its hands, and wears
one on its breast ; so that four is the symbol of revelation, as well as of
creation. The fourth day of the week is consecrated to Mercury, the
guardian of the planets. The holy book or revelation, the Veda, is di-
vided into four parts ; and these are called the four words of the four
mouths. In pictures, the 011a, or palm-leaf prepared for writing, ap-
pears adorned with four stars. The Brahmin, in sacred meditation, sits
upon a square form.
Among the Egyptians, the symbolic use of four seems to be not less
striking. After the three supreme divinities, follow four pairs, personi-
fications of the powers by which the world exists and is regulated, viz.,
fire and water, heaven and earth, sun and moon, day and night. The
sistrum, an instrument of sacred music, had four bars or chords, which
were struck in order to regulate time ; symbols, of course, of order and
regulation. The Greeks tell us that these sounds also symbolized the
four elements ; Uke the four tones in the Hindoo word Aoum. Four
castes of men were designated in ancient Egypt. Hermes, the Logos
of the Egyptians, the inventor of all the sciences and of language and
writing, was called TeTqdymvog by the Greeks, in imitation of the Egyp-
SYMBOLIC USE OF FOUR : Exc. IT. 423
tian dcsifjnation of him. His statue was a simple cubiform stone or pil-
lar. The sacred books of Hermes were divided into four parts ; like
the Vedas of the Hindoos.
The Pythagorean school paid such a regard to the number four, that
they even invented a new name for it, and called it rj rtTQa-^rvg; and
it was deemed to be significant of the world, Koanog, i. e. order, beauty,
arrangement. The statues of the gods of Greece, in most ancient times,
were square, i. e. cubitbrm pillars. At Phai'ac in Acliaia was a cubi-
form image of Hermes, and around it thirty square stones, each inscri-
bed with the name of a god. At Megalopolis in Ai'cadia were statues
of five of the Greek deities, which were squai'e ; at Athens was a simi-
hu- statue of Venus.
The ancient Arabians worshipped cubiform statues ; and amulets of
this form were common. Cybele, the Phrygian mother of the gods,
was represented in this way ; and the Arabian black stone, Hagiar Al
Assoud, was of the same form. The Pythagoreans not only designated
Hermes (Logos) by a square, but represented human souls in the same
way ; and their highest oath was made by four.
The Chinese made four ways of origination, like those of the Hin-
doos. "With them a square is the figure of the universe, or of heaven
and earth in particulai*. The universe they divide into four parts, as-
sign a guardian genius to each, who is also lord of one of the four ele-
ments. The celestial empire is symbolized by two squares, a kind of
pluralis excellentiae. Offerings are made to the four seasons, on four
mountains, lying in four different quarters. Offerings are made to the
heavens on a round hill, but to the quadriform earth, in a square place.
Among the Sabaeans and Chaldeans, a square was the symbol of the
sun, as the light of lights in which Godhead is revealed. Their as-
trology made four cardinal points, and built upon their significancy in
this science. The Persians, Ethiopians, and others, represented the
chariot of the sun as having four horses ; which, however, may have
been simply indicative of speed. The Zend Avesta makes four quar-
ters of the world, and four protecting Genii. Four stars of heaven are
the homes of Ormusd ; men were divided into four classes among the
Persians ; the Magi wore four knots in their sacred tiara. Down to
the present hour, the Parsees consider the cube as the perfect image of
the world.
The Paradise of the Hindoos is placed on the lofty mountain Meru ;
it is arched by four mountains, with four gigantic trees on their tops ;
and there are four rivulets of silver water at the foot. Brahma's palace
on ^Sloru has tour doors, out of which stream four rivers, that flow toward
the tour (juarters of the world ; all of which reminds one of the four
rivers assigned to paradise in the book of Genesis.
424 SYMBOLIC USE OF FOUR : EXC. 11.
The paradise of the Thibetans is, in like manner, on the mountain-
peak, Rivou ; it is square, and consists of four elements ; at the foot of
the mountain are four stones with the forms of four animal heads, and
also four rivers issue from the mountain. The Chinese paradise is on
mount Kouantun (heavenly mountain), is watered by a golden river,
which divides itself into four branches that refresh and animate all things.
The Persian paradise is mount Albordj, the place of Ormusd's throne,
formed in four periods. Four rivers water this paradise, and these are
the waters of salvation.
From this view of the symbolical use o^ four among heathen nations,
let us turn our inquiries to the Hehreio usage. And here we find many
traces of the like usage. To the earth and the heavens are assigned
four quarters or points ; Ezek. 7: 2. Zech. 1: 18—21. Rev. 7: 1. 20: 8.
The heavens are divided into four great constellations ; Job 9: 9. 38: 31,
32. And that in these cases we are to give a symbolical sense to the
word four rather than a Hteral one, would seem to be clear from the
fact, that the Hebrews do not appear to have viewed the earth as an
actual square ; " He [Jehovah] sitteth upon the circle of the earth,"
says Isaiah in chap. 40: 22. In Deut. 22: 12, the Jews are required to
make fringes upon ilnefour quarters of their mantles ; and with such a
garment, it would seem, from the custom of their synagogues, they clo-
thed themselves when they made supplication. In Ezekiel's vision of
the throne of God (chap, i.), there are four living creatures who support
the throne of God ; each one has four faces, four wings, and four hands ;
the throne is a square, it has four wheels ; the living creatures move on
four sides. In Rev. iv. we find the same imagery substantially repeat-
ed ; four living creatures, with four different faces, support the throne
of divine Majesty, as in the vision of Ezekiel. The first four seals,
which are broken by the Lamb of God (Rev. vi.), denote preparatory
action ; and the first four trumpets that follow the breaking of the se-
venth seal, are of the like character, and affect the earth, the sea, the
streams of water, and the heavenly bodies ; Rev. viii.
In the book of Enoch, the four ends of heaven are often mentioned ;
and the treasures of the four winds are there laid up. (See Hoffmann
on Book of Enoch, chap. 18: 1. 55: 4). The Rabbins have a tradition,
that the square stone, which formed the lid of the ark in the second tem-
ple, was formed as the first created material thing, and that all the world
was, as it were, supported by and modeled after this foundation. The
Cabbalists make four worlds to emanate from the original Scfurce of all
things, viz. Aziluth, Beriah, Jezirah, and Asiah. Even the word nirr^
they call the name of four, or tlie name of four letters, TetQayQai^^aTov ;
which, because it is peculiarly significant and holy, they also name DlU
ujtis:an, the separate Name, i. e. one given to no other being, and one
SYMBOLIC USE OP SEVEN : ExC. II. 4S(^
to be pronounced by none but tho high priest when he went into the
inner snnctmin% Ono cannot refrain from calling to mind here tho like
mysterious use of the Hindoo Aoum, which could be named only by the
consecrated. So among the Chaldeans and Sabaeans, the name Jao
was pronounced only in the inner sanctuary.
Is it possible, now, to consider all this accord in the use o? four, as
a thing merely accidental? This will not be said, I apprehend, by any
considerate man, well versed in the knowledge of ancient symbols.
And if it is not accidental but symbolical, and as such is highly signifi-
cant, then why should we reject so important an aid in the interpreta-
tion of some parts of the Bible, specially of the theophanies in Eze-
kiel and in John's Apocalypse?
We are now prepared to resume our inquiry, respecting the meaning
of the number sevefi, so often employed in the Revelation, and in other
parts of the Scriptures.
(3) Symbolical use of the number Sevev.
If we have come to a satisfactory conclusion respecting the symboli-
cal use of the numbers three and four, we may, without much ditficulty,
arrive at a conclusion perhaps equally satisfactory, respecting the num-
ber seven.
If three is the symbol of the Godhead in its developments, and in its
relations to the creation ; and /bz«- is the symbol of the creation rational
and irrational, but specially of the former ; then a union of these two
significant numbers might naturally enough be symbolic of a union be-
tween God and his creatures, i. e. it would naturally enough designate
the connection between God and the world. From this relation or con-
nection springs all that is named religion, or worship ; and with this
worship stands connected all that belongs to the solid and lasting happi-
ness of intelligent beings. It is not strange, then, that seven, which,
when generically considered, is symbolic of union between the Creator
and his creatures, should designate many leading particulars which ar-
range themselves under such a genus. Hence, when we find it era-
ployed as a symbol more frequently than any other number in prescrip-
tions respecting religious worship, rites, and ordinances ; most frequent
of all in regard to revelations or communications which God has made
to man ; or in regai'd to the results of these, i. e. the peace and happi-
ness of man ; there seems to be nothing unnatural or unaccountable in
such a use. And inasmuch as the union of God and man involves of
course the idea of man's most perfect state, it is natural enough that
seven should easily go over to the designation of that which is perfect,
or be considered as the perfect number by way of eminence.
There are some natural grounds, moreover, for such views respecting
VOL. IL 54
42G SYMBOLIC USE OF SEVEN : EXC. 11.
this number. There are sevens in the world of nature, which, to the
mind of the ancients, were striking and significant. For example, the
well known and famihar appellation of the world in Greek, is v-oa^iog ;
which means, in its primitive sense, ornament, arrangement, order ac-
cording to fixed laws, a harmony in all the parts of anything, and the
like. The Pythagoreans found in the seven musical tones a striking
emblem of this harmony ; especially as viewed in connection with the
seven planets, the only ones known to them. All these, as is well
known, move in perfect order and preserve an entire harmony. Hence
they imagined a resemblance between them and the seven musical tones,
which, taken together, make up the circle of harmony in music. Hence
Pan, the personification of the Universe, was represented as having a
flute of seven reeds, emitting seven different notes when breathed upon
by its owner ; and his music-moving breath was compared to the ig-
neous aether, which the ancients regarded as diffused through the uni-
verse, and occasioning all the revolutions of the planets in what might
be named a musical order. From this came, in an obvious way, the
idea of the music of the spheres. The God who created the universe,
created it, as the anthropomorphitic heathen supposed, so as to regale
* himself with the music which it was continually sending forth, while the
evolutions of the planets were performed. The latter, of course, were
considered as performing in their movements a X'^Q^^ ^^ circling dance,
which usually accompanied music.
In Egypt, the priests offered praise to Hermes, the author of order,
rule, and law, by playing on a lute of seven tones ; which tones were
supposed to resemble the harmony of the spheres. In the same coun-
try, seven inferior divinities were supposed to follow on after the first
three, representing the seven original powers. Pan, who connected
and united all these, was reckoned an eighth. In like manner the Cab-
balists suppose that seven inferior Sephiroth follow on, in order, after
the three leading or supreme vSephiroth. Among the Greeks, Apollos'
lyre, with seven strings, seems to be a symbol of the like nature, i. e.
it betokens the harmony of the universe. Apollo himself, therefore,
was named E^l^ofiayt'vtjg, and the seventh day (^Sunday) was consecra-
ted to him. On account of these coincidences of the several planets
and the seven tones of music, the Pythagoreans named seven the tone,
because within its limits all the gradations of tone were included.
In Hindostan, where man was considered in the light of a fiixQaxoa-
jxag, as well as a fxiy.QO&eog, he was regarded as an image of the great
seven stringed lyre ; and the Hindoos reckoned his members in such a
way as to make seven of them.
The seven days of the week, (a division which runs nearly the world
over), shows how extensively a seven-fold division of time existed in the
SYMBOLIC USE OP SEVEN : ExC. II. 427
ancient world. Yet the Hebrew Sabbath had probably a different rise,
and obviously look its designation from the time when God ceased [rn'j]
to create.
The idea of harmony, union, and consequently of peace and of ii per-
fect state, obviously coiuu'cts itself with the ancient views of paradise.
The Hindoos place around their paradise on mount INIeru, seven penin-
suhis, and around these seven setu:. Abbordj, the paradise-mountain of
the Perians, has seven Keshwars, or girdles of the earth, corresjiondiug
to the seven climates of the Arabians. Around the paradisiacal moun-
tain ridge Ilimavata, of the Thibetans, stand seven mountains, sur-
rounded by seven sejis. Herodotus represents Egypt, in his day, as
making seven different castes or divisions of men. China, before the
time of the emperor Shi-Hoang, was divided into seven provinces. The
Persian empire was divided into seven satrapies ; Ormusd had sev-
en archangels around him in the court of heaven, called Amshaspands ;
and Ahriman created seven evil archangels to correspond and to cope
with these.
It would be easy to carry this representation much further ; as Aulus
Gellius has showfi us in his Nodes Atticae, (Lib. IH. 10), by an ex-
tract from Varro ; and Philo, also, in his treatise De Opif. Mundi, p. 20
— 29. Leg. Allegor. p. 42 seq. One has only to read the book of
Enoch, a production con tern poi-ary, or nearly so, with the Apocalypse, iu
order to see "what a favorite number seven was at that time in respect
to objects and matters of a spiritual nature. Thus in ch. viii. seven
leading evil angels are presented to us. Seven stars, i. e. seven angels
who direct or guide them, are destined to punishment for irregularity in
their course, 18: 14. Seven mountains in the entrances of the north are
replete with pure nard, odoriferous trees, cinnamon, and papyrus, 31: 1 ;
seven high mountains are the store-houses of frost, 76: 5 ; seven great
rivers on earth are the source of all other rivers, 76: 6, 7 ; seven great isl-
ands are in the inland seas, and seven in the great ocean, 70: 8 ; and sev-
en mountains of seven splendid precious stones form the ground-plat of pa-
radise, 24: 1 seq. At all this we cease to wonder, when we consider how
extensively the number seven was employed by the Hebrews, even fi-om
tlie earliest period of their history.
The bible is so full of this number, that all I can aim at doing will be
only to make a selection of examples.
It is proper to mark, in the way of introduction to this scriptural view
of seven, that no reference, of which I am aware, can be found in the
Scriptures to the seven planets, which unquestional^ly gave occasion,
among the heathen nations, to an extensive use of the number seven.
It is rather a matter of surprise, that the Hebrews, who came from the
midst of an astronomical nation, the Chaldees, and so afterwards from
428 ' SYMBOLIC USE OF SEVEN : ExC. II.
the midst of the Egyptians, should not have exhibited either Chaldde or
Egyptian views in regard to the heptenary number of the planets. We
must suppose, then, that the use of seven among them, in the sense be-
fore stated, originated in a different way from its similar use among the
heathen.
In considering seven as a sign of union or of a covenant state, we will
begin with the sign of the covenant made with Abraham. After a lapse
of seven days, circumcision, one of the tokens of the covenant, was to
be performed. Gen. 17: 12. Another token was the Sabbath, recurring
every seventh day, Ex. 31: 12 — 17. The sabbath-breaker was to be
punished with death as a breaker of the covenant, Ex. 35: 2. Other
holy-seasons besides the sabbath, were regulated by sevens. Seven
days was the passover-feast to be kept. Num. 28: 24, 25. Ex. 34: 18.
On the seventh month was to be held a holy convocation of the people,
at the feast of trumpets, Num. 29: 1. The feast of Pentecost com-
menced after the completion of seven weeks from the time of the wave-
offering of the first fruits. Lev. 23: 15. Deut. 16: 9. After seven times
seven years, the time of jubilee was appointed, Lev. 25: 8. The blood of
the propitiatory-offering for sin against the covenant of God, was to be
sprinkled seven times before the Lord, Lev. 4: 6, 17. 16: 14, 15. Sev-
en lambs, without blemish, were to be offered at the feast of Pentecost,
Lev. 23: 18. Seven days was uncleanness to continue, which resulted
from touching a dead body, and then purification could be completed,
Num. 19: 11, 12. Mourning and fasting for the dead continued seven
days, 1 Sam. 31: 13. 1 Chron. 10: 12. Gen. 50: 10. The leprous man
when cured and about to be cleansed, was sprinkled seven times with
blood, and seven times with oil, and staid out of his tent for seven days.
Lev. 14: 7, 8, 16, 27. His house was also to be sprinkled seven times
with blood and water, Lev. 14: 51. Naaman the Syrian leper, was di-
rected to plunge seven times into the river Jordan, that he might be
cleansed, 2 K. 5: 10. The mother, after the birth of a man-child, was
reckoned unclean seven days ; after the birth of a female, twice seven
days, Lev. 12: 2, 5. Ceremonial uncleanness from several special causes
in respect to men, lasted seven days, Lev. 15': 13, 24. In all these and
the like cases, we are to refer the number seven to the acceptable day of
purification, to the acceptable time for a reunion to God, and not to the
matter of uncleanness.
Even the altar itself was, when built, to be purified by a process of
seven days' offerings, Ex. 29: 37. Aaron and his sons, when conse-
crated to their office, were not to go out of the tabernacle in seven days,
Lev. 8: 33.
Among foreign nations, also, do we find the religious use of seven.
The Hindoos have seven purgatories ; and the Persian seven Mithra-
SYMBOLIC USE OF SEVEN ! EXC. II. 439
gates are merely so many ways of access to diflferent stages of progres-
sion for the soul, which correspond to these. The Pythagoreans made
wandering through the seven planets a process of purification to the soul.
Other cases yet to be mentioned, in which seven was employed, have
perhaps a less dotinitc relation to the union or covenant between God
and man. 8till, tiiey serve to illustrate the high precedence to which
this sacred number (as we may now call it with a perceptible and intel-
ligible meaning) had attained, in the ancient world.
The seventh year a Hebrew servant was to go out free, Ex. 21: 2.
Jacob served seven years in order to obtain Rachel for a wife ; and seven
other years for a second wife, Gen. 2'J: 18, 30. Wedding feasts con-
tinued seven days, Judg. 14: 17. Solomon continued the building of
the temple seven years, 1 K. G: 38. Seven priests, with seven trum-
pets, compassed Jericho seven times, during seven days, and on the
seventh went round it seven times, Josh. 6: 4 — 15. Hannah, in her
song of praise for the birth of Samuel, says : " The barren hath borne
seven," 1 Sam. 2: 5. Jeremiah says, respecting the desolations at Je-
rusalem by reason of the siege : " vShe that hath borne seven, languish-
eth," Jer. 15: 9. Peter asks the Saviour, whether he ought to forgive
seven times, and receives for answer, that he should forgive seventy
times seven, Matt. 18: 21, 22. Cain was to be avenged seven-fold if
any one slew him, and Laraech seventy times seven, Gen. 4: 15, 24,
God threatens his people, in case of disobedience, that he will chastise
them seven times, Lev. 26: 28 ; and again, that they shall go out before
their enemies one way, and flee seven ways, Deut. 28: 7, 25. The
Kile remained putrid for seven days after Moses had smitten it, Ex. 7:
'2o. David, after numbering his people, was offered a seven years'
famine as an alternative of punishment, 2 Sara. 24: 12, 13. Before
Pharaoh, in his dream, stood seven well-favoured and seven lean kine.
Gen. 41: 1 seq. ; also seven full ears of corn and seven blasted ones;
and these betokened seven years of [)lenty and seven of famine. Noah
took with him into the ark seven pairs of clean animals ; and after seven
days the flood commenced, Gen. 7: 2 — 4. Silver purified seven times
is perfectly pure, Ps. 12: 6. Balaam required Balak to build seven
altars, and provide seven oxen and seven rams. Num. 23: 1. Samson
was to be bound with seven green withs, in order to cripple his strength ;
also seven locks of his hair were to be woven into a web, and seven
locks afterwards were to be shorn, Judg. 16: 7, 13, 19. The ark was
with the Philistines seven months, 1 Sam. 6: 1. Seven sons of Saul
were given up to the Gibeonites to be slain, 2 Sam. 21: 9. Hezekiah
offered seven bullocks, seven rams, seven lambs, and seven he-goats, to
celebrate the cleansing of the temple, 2 Chron. 29: 21. In seven trou-
bles, says Job, no evil shall touch thee, Job 5: 19. Seven things are
430 SYMBOLIC USE OF SEVEN : ExC. 11.
an abomination to the Lord, says the author of the book of Proverbs,
6: 16 ; and again, Wisdom hath hewn out her seven pillars, 9: 1 ; and
once more, The dissembler hath seven abominations in his heart, 26:
25. Give a portion to seven, says the Preacher, Ecc. 11: 2. Seven
women, says Isaiah, shall take hold of one man, after a day of great ca-
lamity and destruction, Is. 4: 1. The Lord shall smite the Egyptian
sea into seven streams, so as to make it passable, as was the Red Sea in
the time of the exodus, Is. 11: 15. The light of the sun shall be seven-
fold, as the light of seven days. Is. 30: 26. Seven months shall be oc-
cupied in burying Gog and Magog, Ezek. 39: 12. Their weapons shall
be burned for seven years, Ezek. 39: 9. The gate of the outward courts
of the new temple shall be entered by seven steps, Ezek. 40: 22 ; the
breadth of the door was to be seven cubits, Ezek. 41: 3. Seven weeks
is one of the divisions of time which Daniel makes, that have respect to
the coming of the Messiah, Dan. 9: 25. Seven shepherds, says Micah,
shall be raised up against the Assyrian, Mic. 5: 5. On the foundation-
stone of the new temple were to be engraved seven eyes, symbols of the
all-seeing God, Zech. 3: 9. 4: 10. The lamp which Zechariah saw in
vision, had seven lights, and seven conductors of oil, Zech. 4: 2. Seven-
fold is the enemy of God to be rewarded, Ps. 79: 12. The thief, when
discovered is to restore seven-fold, Prov. 6: 31. The sluggard is wiser
in his own conceit, than seven men who can render a reason, Prov. 26:
16. A just man falleth seven times and riseth, Prov. 24: 16. Seven
times in a day do I praise thee, Ps. 119: 164. Nebuchadnezzar's fur-
nace was heated seven times more than usual, to destroy the three Jew-
ish confessors, Dan. 3: 19. Seven times were to pass over this king,
while in his beastly madness, 4: 16. Seven years is a period more of-
ten referred to than can be here brought into the account.
These are only a part of the Old Testament use of the number seven.
Let us now examine the New.
Seven baskets full of fragments, Mark 8: 8. Out of Mary Magdalene
were cast seven devils, Luke 8: 2. The unclean spirit, when cast out,
goes and takes with himself seven other spirits, Luke 11: 26.
Let us come, last of all, to the Apocalypse ; and we may now look
through it without any surprise that a number so significant as seven,
is to be found in every pai't of this symbolic book. Here accordingly
we find seven churches of Asia addressed ; seven spirits before the
throne of God ; seven golden candlesticks ; seven stars ; seven eyes
which are the seven spirits of God ; the seven horns and eyes of the
Lamb ; seven thunders uttering their voices ; a book with seven seals ;
a dragon with seven heads, and seven crowns ; seven angels who sound
the seven trumpets ; seven other angels who pour out the seven vials of
divine indignation ; seven heads of the beast representing the seven
SYMBOLIC USE OF SEVEN : ExC. II. 481
mountains on wliieh Rome stood ; and seven kings of Romo who com-
plete the oiri'le of the writer's enumeration.
In order further to show the usage of that day in regard to seven, I
may also reraai'k, that the book of the Ascension of Isaiah, and the
Testament of the tirelre Patriarchs, both productions of the first century,
represent the number of heavens as biiing seven, and often employ this
same number elsewhere in the like way with the sacred writers.
Is there, then, after we return from a survey like this, anything
strange, unnatural, or even Cabbalistic, in the use of seven in the
Apocalypse ? Cabbalistic it cannot be, although this has often been as-
serted ; for there is no evidence to show that Cabbalism existed so early
as this period. Strange it would not seem to be, for a Jew thus to em-
ploy seven, when the O. Testament was daily in his hands. This is
not, indeed, the only number that John eni{)Ioys in a symbolical sense.
But still, it is employed with great frequency in a symbolical manner ;
and so it is in the ancient Jevv'ish Scriptures.
Jf numbers were to be at all employed, in forming the i)lan and mak-
ing the developments of the book before us, is it not very obvious, that
three and seven, of all numbers, were the most appropriate ? Of three,
in the trichotomy of the book, I have already spoken. As to seven, the
feasts, the fasts, the ordinances of worship, the victims for sacrifice, the
sprinkling of blood, the seasons for propitiation, for consecration to God,
for renewal of a broken covenant, for procuring pardon and peace ; in a
word, almost all that was outward and symbolical and typical ; was in
some way regulated by seven, under the Jewish dispensation. When
therefore a Jew, full of reverence for this sacred number, and feeling in
his inmost soul the intense significancy of it, came to the high and holy
work of opening to the church a view of the New Dispensation down to
the end of the world ; could he convey to Christians of his own age or
nation more vivid ideas than would be suggested by still employing, in
all appropriate cases, the number seven in a symbolical sense ? This
question is not to be decided by occidental customs and usages, or by
occidental taste. The simple question is : Whether a Hebrew, writing
for Hebrews, and for others of similar taste and habits in many respects ;
at all events, writing for habitual readers of the O. Testament who
lived in the East ; is not only to be allowed the usus loquendi of his day
and nation, but even to be applauded for choosing such a course ? Can
any one, who takes the whole circle of facts into view, deny for a mo-
ment, that the Apocalypse would be read with more delight and interest
by the contemporaries of John, for the very reason, that in respect to
the symbolical use of sacred numbers, it was coiilbnncd to their custom
and their taste ?
432 SYMBOLIC USE OF TWELVE : EXC. II.
We will now return, for a moment, to the text which stands at the
head of these discussions.
Does seven spirits before the throne of God mean definitely and liter-
ally that number ; or is the phrase to be taken in the sense in which
seven is so often employed, i. e. in the sense of a complete, adequate, or
perfect number of ministeiing servants, in attendance on the awful Ma-
jesty of heaven and earth ? I should incline to the latter opinion, prin-
cipally for two reasons. The first is, that throughout the book, the num-
ber seven is nearly everywhere employed in a symbolical way ; and
analogy M'ould naturally lead us to suppose that such is the case here ;
the second is, that inasmuch as angels are finite spirits, and are neither
omniscient, nor omnipotent, one can hardly suppose the affairs of a bound-
less, (one might almost say) infinite universe to be committed to so
small a number. The book of Daniel, which assigns the guardianship
of particular nations to angels of the highest I'ank, would seem to render
it necessary for us to suppose that more than the literal number of seven
are employed in this way. And when we add to this, that the guardian-
ship of little children is assigned by the Saviour to presence-angels, we
seem as it were necessitated to suppose, that seven is employed in our
text and elsewhere, in relation to archangels, merely in a symbolic way.
Still, we know so little of the power of angels, and of the subordinate
agencies among them by which duties in trust may be discharged, that
it would not become us to make positive assertions in relation to a mat-
ter, which can be fully understood only when we obtain access to that
most holy place which lies behind the vail.
(4) Symbolical use of the number twelve.
This number, being beyond the limits of those which are named units,
must of course be regarded as a composite number. As seven is made
up of four and three added together, so twelve is made up of four multi-
plied by three. The symbolical significancy of this number in the
Scriptures does not depend, at least so it seems to me, merely on the
fact that there were twelve sons of Israel, and twelve tribes named after
them. There are other facts in respect to the use of twelve, wliich serve
to show, that its significancy in a tropical way depended on some of the
arrangements of the natural world.
From the most ancient times, the division of the Zodiac into twelve
constellations, which circumscribe the annual course of the sun, appears
to have been made. Corresponding with these divisions of space, we
might well expect to find the divisions of time, i. e. into twelve months.
In accordance with this, are some of the divisions made by heathen na-
tions, which deserve our notice. The Chinese emperor, Yao, placed
STMBOLIC USE OF TWELVE : ExC. II. 483
twelve Mandai'ins over his kingdom. The vVrablans, descended from
Ishmael and Abraham, were divided into twelve tribes, Gen. 17: 20.
25:10; and even at Mohammed's time, the Saracens with the Naba-
theans were divided into twelve tribes. In old Persia, the palace of the
king was surrounded by four courts, over which twelve officers presided.
Diodorus Sic. (I. GO) say?, that 'the most ancient Egyptians were di-
vided into twelve dynasties.' The Greeks were very partial to this
number. Twelve confederacies were formed by the lonians on the
coast of Coria. There were twelve associations of the Achaeans in Pe-
loponnesus. Twelve towns were founded by Cecrops in Attica. The
Areopagus, in more ancient times, consisted of twelve members. Twelve
elders were appointed by the Phaeacians as counsellors for the king. In
Italy we find the Etruscans ai-ranging their magistrates by twelves.
The twelve tables of the Romans are well known. In ancient Germany
there were twelve priests of Odin. Plato divides his ideal Republic
into twelve parts ; and its metropolis again in the same way. See Bahr
Symbolik, I. p. 201 seq. with authorities cited.
In the Scriptures, we might naturally expect to find the number twelve
often introduced, on account of the twelve tribes of Israel. Tlius in
Ex. 15: 27, twelve fountains of water at Elim ; Ex. 24: 4, twelve pil-
lars around the altar ; Lev. 24: 5, twelve cakes of show-bread ; Ex. 28:
10, 21, twelve gems in the breast-plate of the high-priest; Num. 7: 3,
87. 29: 17, offerings of different kinds by twelves ; Num. 7: 84 — 87,
various vessels to be made for the temple by twelves; Num. 13: 3 seq.
twelve spies to the land of Canaan ; Josh. 4: 3, twelve stones from the
Jordan carried by twelve men, and thrown into a monumental heap ;
1 K. 4: 7, 26, twelve praefects of Solomon's household, and twelve thou-
sand horsemen ; 1 K. 7: 25, twelve brazen oxen supporting the laver of
the temple ; 1 K. 10: 20, twelve brazen lions near the throne ; Ezek.
43: 1 6, the altar twelve cubits long and broad ; not to mention many oth-
er twelves. In the New Testament, the twelve apostles take the lead.
In the Apocalypse we have twelve thousand in each of the twelve tribes
who are sealed in the forehead as the servants of God, Rev. 7: 4 seq.
In Rev. 21: 12 seq., we have an account of the new Jerusalem, with
twelve gates (comp. Ezek. 48: 31 seq.), and twelve angels to keep them,
and the names of the twelve tribes are written on them ; there are also-
twelve rows of stones in the foundation of the walls on which the names
of the twelve apostles are inscribed. Besides all this, the city measures
twelve thousand furlongs, and its wall is twelve times twelve cubits
high.
Most of these twelves, it will be easily perceived, have a rciference to
the twelve tribes of Israel. Yet in some of the cases it would be ditfi-
cult to trace this historical relation. When the inheritance of the land
VOL. n. 55
434 THE worNDED BEAST : Exc. IIL
of Canaan is divided, the tribe of Levi is excluded from a share, and
then the tribe of Joseph is subdivided in order to complete the number
twelve. So in Rev. vii, while the tribe of Dan is omitted, the number
twelve is made up in hke manner. In the same chapter, the number
144,000 must of course be used symbolically, as no one will contend that
just 12,000 were saved out of each tribe.
That the number twelve is not so frequently employed symbolically
in the Scriptures, as the other numbers already mentioned, is plain.
But that it occasionally partakes of the like significancy with them, one
cannot well question, when he takes into view the heathen and the sa-
cred use of it.
EXCURSUS III.
Rev. Xni. 3. Kat niav ix rdiv y.eq)aXcjv avrov cog ia(fayfiivriv aig
d^dvazov, -Aoc t] nXr/yrj rov d^avdrov avrov i&eQaTzev&t].
Rev. XVII. 8. To &riQiov o ddsi;, ^v, xai ovx sari, xai utXXfi ava-
^aiveiv ix TTJg u^vaaov xai sig dnoiXuav vndyeiv ... to &t]Qiov rjv, xai
ovx tazt, xai naQeatai. (9, 10) Ai mzd xtCfaXai . . . ^aailslg stztu
siaiv. 01 Titvze tTzeaav, o eig iaziv, dXlog ovnco i]X&£, xai ozav kX&rj,
oXt'yov avzov dei finvai. (11) Kal to &ijqi'ov o tjv, xai ovx sari, xai
avzog 6y8o6g iazi, xai ix rav inzd iazi, xai eig aTKokuav vnayzi.
I have joined these passages together, because in all probability they
ought to be connected. They have been regai'ded as intimately con-
nected by most of the recent commentators on the Apocalypse ; and the
very nature of chap. xvii. shows that this is proper.
It is now generally agreed also, by the same interpreters, that Rev.
13: 3 and 17: 9, 10 relate to the emperors upon the throne of Rome.
They are indeed named kings (^aai).Hg) by John ; but this was a custo-
mary name given by Greek writers to the Roman chiefs ; although dva^
and fiovuQxtjg are sometimes employed. The importance of a right un-
derstanding of the passages before us, in respect to the interpretation of
chap, xiii — xix, and also in regard to fixing the date of the whole book,
must be evident at once to every intelligent reader.
I. An important question arises in regard to the personage symboliz-
ed by the one head, which is seemingly slain but afterwards recovers.
In the Comm. on 13: 3, I have briefly assigned reasons, why we cannot
suppose Julius Caesar to be meant. The question now comes up for
THE -VTOtJNDED BEAST : ExC. IIL 435
discussion, as there proposed, whether we can, with any good degree of
probability, fix upon Nero as the individual here meawt to be described.
To examine the boundless conjectures that hai^e been resorted to, for
the sake of explaining the text before us, would occupy quite too much
room here, and would in no way serve for the edification of the reiider.
Can it be rationally supposed, that the author did not intend to be un-
derstood by intelligent readers of his own time ? And if he did, how
could he expect to be understood, in case the interpretation of liis writ-
ing depended merely on some fanciful conceit or invention of ingenuity ?
He could not ; and therefore we may take it for granted, that his appar-
ently enigmatical expressions found an easy solution among well-informed
readers, by reason of their knowledge either of certain facts, or of modes
of representation then usual, or of popular belief at the time whei\ the
Apocalypse was written. Guided by these simple principles, then, let
us resort to the opinions and views of the day, respecting the imperial
tyrant who was then laying waste the heritage of God.
In the various histories of Nero's reign, by Tacitus, Suetonius, Dio,
and others, we may find circumstances related which seem to cast light
on 13: 3, and of course on chap. 17: 8 — 11. If so, they are well worthy
of consideration.
The leading passage is in Suetonius : " It was formerly (olim) pre-
dicted by fortune-tellers (a mathematicis, astrologers) to Nero, that he
would at some time be reduced to a state of destitution. Hence that
famous adage of his : to rt'p'iop ndaa yaia TQtcpEi. On account of this
[prediction], forsooth, he expected an apology would more readily be
made for him, because he cultivated the music of the harp, an art grate-
ful to him as a prince, and one that would be necessary for him as a
private person. Some [astrologers], however, promised him the do-
minion of the East ; some, particularly the kingdom of Jerusalem ; ma-
ny, the restoration of all his former fortune ;" Suet. Nero, 40. Here
seem plainly to be the elements of a report respecting Nero, which was
spread wide and broad through the empire. It was modified into many
different shapes, either by accidental circumstances, or by the hopes and
fears of men who hated the tyrant.
It should be noted, that Suetonius states this prediction of the sooth-
sayers to have taken place earli/ in the reign of Nero, olim. There was
time then to spread it all around the provinces, long before Nero's death ;
and as the great mass of people was wishing for his destruction, or at
least that he might be driven from the throne, nothing can be more pro-
bable, than that the populace were acquainted with the prediction, that
Nero would be deprived of his imperial office.
How extensive this report was, and what radical hold it took of the
feelings of the populace, and even of Christians, may be easily learned
436 THE WOUNDED JBEAST : ExC. IIL
from numerous sources, both heathen and Christian. Not only so, but
the expectation of Nero's reviviscence was cherished by some, and fear-
ed by others, even for some centuries after his assassination. Duly to
support the exegesis that I feel constrained to give of the text before
us, it will be necessary to adduce some satisfactory evidence of the state-
ments just made, and present it to the reader's mind.
vSuetonius notes, at the close of his account of Nero (c. 57), that not-
withstanding the general joy at the tyrant's death, " there were some,
who for a long time adorned his tomb with spring and summer flowers.
Moreover, at one time they would set up imagines praetextatas of him
in the Rostrum ; at another they would proclaim edicts, as if he were
living and would shortly return, to the sore misfortune of his enemies."
Thus much for the state of the thing at Rome ; all of which is most evi-
dently connected with the prediction of the soothsayers. Let us see
how the matter was, even in the extremest bounds of the Roman em-
pire. Suetonius (ubi sup.) proceeds : " Moreover Vologeses, king of
the Parthians, ambassadors being sent to the Senate for the sake of
renewing an alliance, earnestly besought that the memory of Nero
might be cherished. Finally, twenty years after this, when I was a
youth, there arose a person of uncertain origin, who boasted that he
was Nero ; and so attractive was his name among the Parthians, that
he was aided by them with much zeal, and finally was given up with
great reluctance." The expectation, therefore, that Nero was to reap-
pear, and renew his former fortune, was plainly cherished by this most
distant and barbarous people. This account is the more to be relied
on, inasmuch as Suetonius was himself contemporary with the occur-
rence which he relates.
Tacitus has given us several hints respecting the same phenomena
to which Suetonius has adverted. Thus (Hist. II. 8) he says : " About
the same time [A. U. C. 823 = A. D. 71], Achaia and Asia were
terrified without any good reason (falso), as if Nero were coming ;
reports being various respecting his death, and many on this account
imagining and believing that he was still alive." It should be observed
here, that the very region in which John lived (Asia), is here desig-
nated by Tacitus as one that was filled with alarm at the apprehended
reappearance of Nero. This was three years after his death ; and it
therefore shows, how strongly the fear, that what the soothsayers had
predicted respecting Nero would come to pass, had taken hold of the
public mind, and how extensively rumors of such a nature concerning
him had been spread and believed.
Again (Hist. I. 2) he says : " The Parthians were near to engaging
in war, through the deception of a pretended Nero." The same thing,
as we have already seen, is said by Suetonius (c. 57), with more ample
explanation.
THE WOUNDED BEAST : ExC. III. 437
Dio Clirysostom (Orat. de Pulchritud. p. 371) says: " Those around
him [Nero] loft him as it were to destroy himself; for even to the
present time this is not certain. . . . Even now all still desire him to
live, and tnost even suppose that he is alive." Dio was a contempora-
ry of Vespasian, and the above words were doubtless written not long
after Nero's death. We see in them evidence, that in the provinces
abroad the public opinion was divided, a part supposing Nero to be
dead and yet wishing him alive, but most supposing that " his deadly
wound was healed," i. .e. that he had, after all, survived the attacks of
his assassins.
Dio Cassius (edit. Lcuncl. p. 732) relates, that ' in the time of Otho,
who succeeded Galba, a person made his appearance at Rome, [his
ftame he does not mention], who gave himself out for Nero, but was
speedily taken and executed.'
In the time of Titus (A. D. 79) a Pseudo-Nero made his appearance
in Asia ]\Iinor, and gained a party there ; afterward he went to the
Euphrates, and there greatly enlarged this party ; and finally he resort-
ed to the king of the Parthians, who received him with favour, and
made arrangements to attack the Romans ; Zonaras, Vit. Tit. p.
578. C.
We have already seen, as related by Suetonius, that, some ten years
later than this, another Pseudo-Nei'O appeared among the Parthians.
Within this small number of years, then, we have two phenomena of
this kind in Parthia, and two in Asia Minor ; the latter two, in A. D.
71 and 79. These, in addition to the like phenomena at Rome show
that a deep persuasion in respect to Nero's reappearance must have
existed in the minds of the community at large, in order that it could
be possible for impostors to play such a part with so much success.
Thus much for the general opinion and feelings of the heathen world
respecting Nero. It lies upon the face of the matter, that there was a
wide-spread and a kind of undefined hope or fear, (according to the
political feelings of individuals), that Nero, after his reported and ap-
parent death, would reappear to the terror and confusion of his enemies.
Nor was this feeling confined to the heathen subjects of the empire.
Christians far and near participated in it more or less. The evidences
of this are ample ; and for our present purpose some of them must be
produced.
In the Sibylline Oracles (edit. Gallaeus), that farrago of soothsay-
ers honest and dishonest, that collect of streams from sources widely
separated by space and time, we find most abundant recognition of the
phenomena already disclosed. Thus in Lib. IV. p. 520 seq. the vatici-
nator says : " Then a gi-eat king, as a fugitive from Italy, concealed,
perfidious, will fly beyond the river Euphrates, when he shall perpe-
THE WOUNDED BEAST : ExC. III.
trate the horrid crime of matricide, and do many other evils, confiding
in his power. Many, moreover, around the temple of Rome shall
moisten the earth with blood, when he has fled beyond his native
land. . . . Then the strife of excited war shall invade the AVest, and
the great Fugitive of Rome, bearing aloft his spear, passing the Euphra-
tes with many thousands of men, etc." How exactly this accords
with the tenor of the vaticination recorded by Suetonius, (Nero, 40),
as cited above, scarcely needs to be remarked. This portion of the Sib.
Oracles, appears to have been written by a Christian, about A. D. 80 ;
see Bleek in the Theol. Zeitschrift, etc., of Schleiermacher, De Wette,
and Liicke, Heft I. p. 244 seq.
Again, Lib. V. p. 547, another writer says : *' He who shall obtain
the mark of fifty, [i. e. whose name begins with N = 50, viz. Nero],
will be lord ; a horrid serpent breathing out grievous war ; who will de-
stroy the outstretched arms of her who bore him ... he shall be secret-
ly destroyed. Then shall he return, making himself equal to a god.
But he [God] will demonstrate that he is not one." This was written
probably about A. D. 120, under Adrian ; but the time assumed in the
description is of course near the commencement of the reign of Nero ;
see Bleek in Zeitschrift, H. H. p. 172 seq. Here the same view is
given as before, with only a slight variation in the manner of the state-
ment. Nero's apparent death and reviviscence is the subject of both.
In the same book, p. 560, is a very long passage respecting Nero, of
■which I shall exhibit only a part : " Then he shall lay waste the whole
land ... he who is barbarous, powerful, greatly to be dreaded, madly
raving, tossing about thy dead upon the shore in great multitudes. All
Asia, falling upon the ground, shall weep. . . . He who has won over the
Persians, shall make war upon Egypt, killing every man. ... He shall
fly from the West with light steps, wasting the whole land, and making
it desolate." In the sequel Nero is represented as invading " the city
of the blessed" [Jerusalem], and perishing there by the hands of an all
powerful king [Messiah] ; after which the world is to come to an end.
The idea, that Nero was the man of sin mentioned by Paul, and the
jiniicAmf spoken of so often in the epistles of John, prevailed exten-
sively, and for a long time, in the early church. The writer of the
Oracle just quoted was plainly of the same opinion. The reference to
Nero's oriental dominion is plain and explicit here. The age of the
author was probably that of Adrian, i. e. about A. D. 117 — 135. See
Bleek, ut sup. Heft 11. p. 177.
Another passage more graphic still may be found in Lib. V. p. 573
seq. I give only a small part of it : " The great king of great Rome
... a man making himself equal to God, whom (as they say) Jupiter
or worshipful Juno produced, . . . this fearful and shameless king will
THE WOUNDED BEAST : EXC. III. 489
flee from Babylon [Rome], whom all mortals abhor, specially all good
men, for he hsu? destroy I'd multitudes, and laid hands on hef who bore
him. . . . He will repair to the kings of the Medes and Persians, the
first object of his love. . . . The great city [Jerusalem] and the right-
eous people have they destroyed. But when the great star shall shine,
after the fourth year, [when Nero shall reappear as a comet, after his four
years persecution against Christians and Jews have closed], which will
destroy all the land . . . this gi'eat star will burn up the wide ocean, and
Babylon [Rome] itself, ... by means of which many faithful and pious
Hebrews have perished, and also the true temple. . . . Thou [Rome]
shalt remain altogether desolate, thou shalt perish forever." Comp. Rev.
17: 16, where Nero, in conjunction with provincial kings, is represented
as laying waste Rome itself. The writer of this portion of Lib. V. of
the Oracles (vs. 115 — 178), can hardly be supposed, however, to have
seen the Apocalypse ; for the vaticination before us was probably writ-
ten soon after the destruction of Jerusalem, since it expresses the most
bitter feelings against Rome as the author of it. The writer was pro-
bably a Jew. As to the very early composition of the piece, Bleek
(ubi sup. p. 179 seq.) fully asserts it.
In Lib. V. p. 592 seq., Corinth is addressed, and with others, is
threatened with destruction and slaughter by ' the king who clandestine-
ly makes his escape, [Nero who escapes from his assassins], and who
has devoured the flesh of his parents [slain his mother] ; " for God
alone hath given him to do such things as no one of all former kings
has done." Comp. Rev. 17: 17. This was probably written not long
after the destruction of Jerusalem, and by a Jew. Bleek p. 181 seq.
Lib. V. p. 619 seq., composed soon after Nero's death, presents the
following passage : " The matricide shall come from the ends of the
earth, inconsiderate, devising bitter reproaches, who will lay waste
every land, and obtain dominion over all. . . . He will destroy that land
without delay, by means of which he perished, [destroy Rome which as-
sailed him] ; he will destroy multitudes of men and great kings ; he will
burn up all, as in times past he did when in another condition," [i. e«
he will burn Rome a second time]. Most probably this was written by
a Jew ; and there are some striking resemblances in it to Rev. 17: 11,
16, 17, which the careful reader can scarcely overlook.
In Lib. VIH. p. 714 seq. is another passage, representing Nero as
coming from Asia, with the indignation of a destroyer. Black blood
follows the steps of the great monster {Or'jQ). " The dog has produced a
lion which will devour the flock," [Nero's assassins have turned him from
a dog into a lion, i. e. they have infuriated him by reason of their as-
sault]. " But his sceptre shall be taken away, and he shall go down to
Hades." Comp. Rev. 17: 8, 11, /*«Utt ava^aivEiv «x r^tf d^vaaov, xal
440 THE ■WOUNDED BEAST : ExC. HI.
elg anooXuKV vndyeiv. The vaticination above quoted was probably
written in 'the time of M. Aurelius, about A. D. 170 — 180, and it fol-
lows in the track of all the preceding passages, which assume the re-
turn of Nero from the East, and his devastations of Rome in conjunc-
tion with allied kings.
Other passages of the like tenor, the reader may find in Lib. VIII.
p. 688 seq. ; and again in Lib. VIII. p. 693 seq. lb. p. 715 seq. I
have indeed quoted but a small part of what is said of Nero. The pe-
rusal of the whole must be left to the reader, and it will overwhelm him
with conviction, that there was spread far and wide abroad, for a long
time after Nero's death, but specially for the first fifteen or twenty
years, an anxious fear and even trembling expectation of Nero's reap-
pearance, who would then pervade his former dominions like an incar-
nate demon, and from motives of revenge lay them waste with fire and
sword.
How widely diffused and deeply rooted in the minds of the great com-
munity such a fear or expectation respecting Nero was, is manifest
enough from its permanence among the churches, even centuries after
the death of Nero. Thus in the brief Commentary of Victorinus Peta-
vionensis (f 303), he expressly names Nero as the beast who received
the deadly wound, and was to be raised up again to be the scourge of
the Jews; in Biblioth. Max. IIL p. 420. D.
Lactantius (fl. 320) in his treatise De Morte Persecutorum, c. 2, re-
jects the sentiment that Nero would be raised up again, but distinctly
recognizes the existence of such a view even in his time : " Cast down
from the lofty eminence of his empire, and rolled from its height, the
impotent tyrant [Nero] of a sudden disappeared, so that no place of bu-
rial in the land appeared for so evil a beast. Thence some silly per-
sons suppose him to have been conveyed away and kept alive ; accord-
ing to the words of the Sibyl, that the matricide exile should come from
the extremities [of the empire], so that he who was first in persecution,
should also be the last persecutor, and should precede the coming of
Antichrist ... in the same manner they think Nero will come . . . the
precursor and forerunner of the devil, coming to lay waste the earth and
destroy the human race."
Down to so late a period as the close of the third century we find
clear traces of the opinion still widely diffused in the church, that Nero
was yet to return. Thus Sulpicius Severus, the ecclesiastical historian
of that period. Hist. Sac. II. 28 : " Nero ... the basest of all men and
even of monsters, was well worthy of being the first persecutor ; I know
not whether he may be the last, since it is the current opinion of many,
that he is yet to come as Antichrist." Again in II. 29 : " It is uncer-
tain whether he [Nero] destroyed himself. . . . Whence it is believed,
THE WOUNDED BEAST : ExC. Ill, 441
that although he may have pierced himself with a sword, yet he was
saved by tlie cure of his wound ; in accordance witli that wliich is writ-
ten [Rev. 13: o] : And liis deadly wound was healed. At the close of
the age [gospel-age], he is to be sent again, that he may exercise the
mystery of iniquity."
In Dial. II. c. 14, where the same writer celebrates the virtues of
IVIartinus as a most eminent saint, Sulpicius states, that he inquired of
him respecting the end of the ivorld. Martiuus replied, that " Nero
and Antichrist must first come ; that Nero would reign in the West
over ten subjugated kings, and that persecution would be carried on by
him in order that the idols of the heathen might be worshipped."
Finally, in his work De Civit. Dei, XX. 19, Augustine says: "What
means the declaration, that the mystery of iniquity already works ? . . .
Some suppose this to be spoken of the Roman emperor, and therefore
Paul did not speak in plain words, because he would not incur the
charge of adumny for having spoken evil of the Roman emperor ; al-
though he always expected, that what he had said would be understood
as applying to Nero, whose doings already appeared like to those of
Antichrist. Hence it was that some suspected, tliat he icoidd rise from
(he dead as Antichrist. Others supposed he was not actually slain, but
had only withdrawn himself, that he might seem to be dead, and that he
was concealed, while living in the vigour of his age and when he was
supposed to be extinct, untd in his time he would be revealed [2 Thess.
2: 6], and restored to his kingdom. But this so great presumption is
very wonderful to me," etc.
Past all doubt, then, many of the early churches, far and near, be-
lieved or feared a reappearance of Nero, in the same character which
he exhibited in early life. Whence did they derive this belief or fear ?
Either from the vaticination of the astrologers, as recorded by Suetonius
and repeated by others, or else through the medium of the text before
us. / do NOT say, that John meant to convey the impression., that Nero
tcould actually revive, and reappear on the stage of action ; for this I do
not believe. But thus much I am compelled to believe, from the general
if not universal impression of the times, viz., that John here recognizes,
and intends that others should recognize, Nero, by pointing to an indi-
vidual respecting whom repoi^ts were everywhere current, such as have
been exhibited above. The fullest and most ample recognition of these
reports is in the Sibylline Oracles. There we have them from the time
when Nero died, down to the time of M. Aurelius, about A. D. 170 —
180. Most of them seem, also, to be wholly independent of the A[)oca-
lypse ; indeed several of them are by Jewish writers ; for Jews, as well
as Christians, were persecuted by Nero, and were highly exjisperated
against him on account of his attack upon Palestine. All this, in con-
VOL. II. 56
442 THE WOUNDED BEAST : ExC. III.
junction with the fact stated by Suetonius, viz., that in the early part of
Nero's Hfe {olim), the soothsayers had predicted his degradation and
subsequent restoration, shows how much ground there was for the wri-
ter of the Apocalypse to behave, that his intimations respecting Nero
would be well understood by intelhgent readers. To name the Roman em-
peror and tyrant directly, in the way of reproach, would have been con-
strued by the magistracy at once as libellous or as an act of treason ; to
describe him so that o t^mv vovv might penetrate the aocpia veiled under
the writer's diction, (Rev. 13: 18), was the part of prudence and of duty
united.
There are some circumstances tending much to confirm the view of
the subject which has now been taken, and which I have not seen dis-
tinctly noted by any of the commentators. These are the somewhat
veiled, but still sufficiently plain, inteUigible, and oft repeated cautions
of the writer of the Apocalypse, that the reader should well weigh his
words, and not give them an interpretation such as a superficial reading
might suggest. Thus after having introduced the beast from the sea,
and mentioned the wound of one of his heads, his restoration, and his
persecution of the church, he stops short at once and suggests the admo-
nition : El Tig ix^i ovg, q.^ovadrco, i. e. let him diligently and cautiously
attend to what has been said ; 13: 9. To make plainer the hint already
given, as to the person meant, he adds : " If any one sends away into
exUe, he shall go away into exile ; if any one kills with the sword, he
shall be slain with the sword," v. 10. That is, Nero, who banishes and
kills, shall himself go into exile and be slain. Yfith great force he adds :
' Here is need of patience and faith on the part of all saints ;' i. e. these
graces are needed in circumstances such as the present.
Again ; after the introduction of the second beast, and the exhibition
of what was done by him to further the impious claims of the first beast,
he again suggests, in relation to the first beast : " Here is aocpia ; let
him who hath intelhgence reckon the number of the beast," i. e. see
what nan^e will result from combining letters whose numerical value
equals 666 ; see 13: 18. Plainly the writer means to say, that a hasty
or superficial perusal of his work will not truly develope his veiled mean-
ing. There is oo^pia in it, and vovg is needed in order to discover it.
More exphcitly still does the writer show, in chap, xvii, that he must
be cautiously read and interpreted. After twice mentioning the beast
that was, and is not, and will ascend from the abyss (v. 8), he immedi-
ately adds : Here is a meaning which comprises wisdom, or Here an un-
derstanding [is needed] which possesses sagacity. Interpreted in either
way the meaning of the passage is, that in order to understand what or
who the beast is, which was, and is not, and will reappear, some special
sagacity and care are needed.
THE WOUNDED BEAST : ExC. III. 443
May we not take it for granted, moreover, that the writer expect*
those parts of his book, respecting whicli he has given a caution so often
repeated, not to be- interpreted merely by the letter, or according to the
first appearance of the words, but by a most considerate attention to the
actual state of things ? Interpreted in the ordinary way, we might make
out from our text the meaning, that Nero had already been wounded
and had recovered, and was persecuting the church with fury after his
recovery. But who can for a moment suppose, that John directly in-
tended to say a thing here, which every sensible and well informed per-
son at Ephesus of course could and would contradict ? P^or surely the
reality of the whole atiair must be placed in the liglitof day, at that city
(Ephesus) which was the Komish metropoUs of Asia IMinor. But inas-
much as his language might seem to import so nmch, he guards the
reader against understandhig it merely according to its iirst appeiu-anc©.
Special intelligence and aisdom are needed to develope its true import.
Why it was thus veiled and guarded, has been already explained. And
now all that appears to be requisite is, to suppose that John, in order to
avoid using Is'ero's proper name, resorted to a kind of periphrasis, foun-
ded on the vaticination not only recorded by Suetonius, but known (as
it would seem) throughout the Roman empire. The reader would of
course inquire : Who is symbolized by the beast from the sea ."* The
answer of John, as the text now stands, seems to be : ' He concerning
whom it was said, that he should be assaulted and wounded, and yet
should recover from the wound, and resume his odious and tyrannical
supremacy ? That John says he saw the wound, etc., in his vision, does
not alter the nature of the case at all, when we once consider the use of
symbols ; and specially when we once suppose, (which seems to be quite
plain), that all which John here says of this nature, is evidently design-
ed merely to make the disclosure in an indirect way respecting the per-
son of the reigning tyrant. John presents what every sensible man
might recognize as belonging to a description of Nero, both in chap,
xiii. and xvii, the latter chapter being ex professo only of an exegetical
nature. The improbability that John himself supposed or believed that
Isero would reappear after his death, seems to me not to need any de-
monstration. Even if we should suppose that his inspiration might be
doubted, yet a man as enlightened a^ John cannot well be imagined to
have credited such a figment. Why may he not then be regarded as
inti-oducing such a description, only and merely to accomplish the design
of indirectly disclosing who was symbolized by the beast 'i
When the Saviour speaks of ' unclean spirits being cast out by the
children of the Pharisees ' (JMatt. 12: 27) ; and when he speaks again of
* unclean spirits as walking through dry or desert places seeking rest and
finding none' (MatU 12: 43) ; did he not bring before the minds of Ins
444 THE WOUKDED BEAST : EXC. III.
hearers the popular view of this subject merely, and not his own ? And
might not John, in the case before us, and for a wise and prudent end,
appeal to the popular belief, or fear, or representation respecting Nero,
merely for the sake of avoiding the open proclamation of his name, and
yet with the expectation that he might be rightly understood ?
There is a further, and seemingly more imperious reason for such a
method of interpretation as has been proposed. This is, that all the oth-
er solutions which have been attempted of several passages in chaps, xiii.
xvii, are utterly unsupported by any philological basis, usus loquendi,
or historical facts appropriate to the time in which the Apocalypse was
written. But on the ground now assumed, all these texts become quite
intelligible and appropriate. E. g. 13: 3, the apparently fatal wound of
the beast and his recovery are no longer in the dark ; Rev. 17: 8, 11,
the beast which was, and is not, and will ascend from the abyss or make
his appearance (naQsarai), is plain when placed in the light of popular
belief which was grounded on the vaticination of the astrologers as re-
lated by Suetonius ; and the most mysterious passage of all : Jle is the
eighth, and is of the seven, and goeth to destruction, becomes quite plain.
Nero, one of the first seven emperors symbolized by the seven heads of
the beast (v. 10), reappears as an eighth, although he belonged to the
seven, and thus a kind of double enumeration is applied to him. But
all this lies in day-hght, when the common fear or beHef respecting his
reappearance is assumed as the basis of explanation. On any other
gi'ound yet produced, this verse seems quite inexplicable. At all events,
nothing more than mere conjecture has been applied to it ; it seems as if
nothing else could be applied, in case tliis historical illustration is re-
jected.
Why then should we hesitate to admit an explanation so easy, and so
satisfactory, and grounded in the history of the times, as has been most
amply developed ? An explanation, too, which harmonizes altogether
with the cautious reserve of John, as to direct disclosui'e respecting the
Roman emperor ; and also with the object of his book, which was to
console persecuted Chi-istians with the hope of speedy relief. The only
objection, which seems to have much weight in it, is, that the language
appears to intimate, that John himself believed the common reports re-
specting Nero. But does not the language of the Saviour, as quoted
above, also seem to indicate that he admitted the Jewish traditional
doctrine respecting casting out demons, and the wandering of evil spirits
in deserts ? Yet who can believe that his mind admitted the truth of
such accounts respecting demons ? So in the case before us ; John ap-
peals to the popular belief, merely in order to designate who is symbo-
lized by the beast ; but every time he has done so, he has put the read-
er upon his guard, by warning him not to apply his words merely in the
THE SIXTH KING : Exc. III. 445
usual manner in which the rest of his book is interpreted. Why, I ask,
has he sugg<'?ted these repeated cautions here, and not elsewhere in the
whole Apocalypse ? I know ot" no other satisfactory answer to this,
than the one which has already been given. John expected his readers
to make cautious and diligent search for the meaning of words, which
otherwise might appear ambiguous, or be misunderstood.
II. Another important question arises out of a part of Rev. 17: 10,
Oi mvjE (Tieaav, i. e. five Roman emperors had fallen, when the writer
was composing the Apocalypse. W/iere then shall we commence the
reckoning ? With Julius Caesar, or with Augustus ?
Most of the recent interpreters of distinction have decided in favour
of commencing with Augustus. Two reasons may be assigned for their
80 doing ; the one, that they are seemingly supported in this mode of
reckoning by some distinguished Roman historians ; the other, that such
a mode of reckoning best agrees with what they regard as the more
easy and natural mode of interpreting the passages which stand at the
head of this Excursus.
But as the authors method of reckoning is not dependent oa any
recent modes of interpretation, the main and simple question seems to
be : Whether there is adequate support to be found, in ancient historians
or chronographers, for the method of reckoning which begins with Av-
GUSTUS ?
LiJcke has best presented the strength of the argument in favour of
this method ; Einleit. pp. 250 seq. Let us first examine his authori-
ties ; we may then examine the testimony of those authors, whose mode
of reckoning commences with Julius Caesai'.
Lticke first appeals to Tacitus (Annal. I. 1), who says : " Lepidi
atque Antonii arma in Augustum cessere ; qui cuncta, discordiis civili-
bus fessa, nomine Principis sub imperium accepit." But here Tacitus
alludes evidently to two things : the first, that Julius Caesar, although
for some years the sole and actual Head of the Roman Empire, yet
repeatedly refused the title of king or prince, which Augustus accepted ;
the second, that an established and uninterrupted order of kings or
princes began with Augustus. From the death of Julius Caesai' to the
establishment of Augustus on the throne, some twelve years intervened,
during which the struggles for popular liberty and the contests between
contending factions were carried on. Nothing more than that the un-
interrupted series of monarchs followed these commotions and began with
Augustus, is here declared by Tacitus ; for nothing can be more cer-
tain, than that Julius Caesar was generally regarded by the Romans
as autocrat, king, prince, or emperor. He was not only so-called, but
was in fact what he was said by the popular voice to be. Tacitus does
not say here that Augustus ^rsi received the name of Prince.
446 THE SIXTH KING : Exc. III.
Again, Liicke appeals to Tacitus, Hist. I. 1 : " Postquam bellatura
apud Actium, atque omnem potentiam ad unum conferri pacis interfuit,
magna ilia ingenia," etc. But here exactly the same state of things is
referred to as in Annal. I. 1, namely, the twelve years of civil commo-
tion which had preceded, and the pennanent estabUshment of the Ro-
man monarchy in the person of Augustus.
So with the other authorities to which Liicke appeals. Aurelius
Victor (fl. 350), in his JItst. Ahbrev. de Gaesaribus, c. I. 1, says : " An-
no 722 etiam mos Roraae incessit uni prorsus pariendi." Here the
word mos refers us again to the establishment of uninterrupted monarchy.
So again, more explicitly, in Victor's Epitome, c. I. 1 : " Anno 722, ab
exactis regibus 480, mos Romae repetitus uni prorsus pariendi, pro rege
Imperatori, vel sanctiori nomine Augusto, appellato." Here the mos
repetitus, and the permanent names of Imperator and Augustus, ai"e
plainly the objects which guide the writer's reckoning.
Sextus Rufus (cap. 2), to whom Liicke has also appealed, but has
not quoted, I have not been able to procure ; but an author so late, and
so little known, cannot avail much in a case like the present.
John Malalas, a chronographer of Cent. IX. (see 0pp. edit. Bonn.
1831, p. 49 Proleg.), is also counted by Liicke as reckoning Augustus
to be the first emperor or king. The passage runs thus : 'Eyi'vero ^aa-
iXsvg 'Pwfiut'cov TZQMZog y.ai (xovog vMi oQyioqjavTr/g, a avrog &(iiozarog
Avyovarog (p. 225) ; which is thus translated : Idem divinissimus Au-
gustus, Romanorum imperator et Monarcha primus, Sacrorumque An-
tistes erat. Here (lovog (sole) is rendered monarcha ; which seems to
be the meaning, for ^aailevg is impHed. The Chronicon Paschale (p.
364 ed. Bonn.) quotes one Sosibius (omitted by Liicke) as saying :
TZQmzog iytvETo ^aaiXsvg 'Pcofiatcov fiov(tQp]g o Avyovarog ; which ac-
cords, as to the main point, with Malalas. How much Malalas may be
reckoned on as to accuracy, may be estimated, when we find him rep-
resenting Nero as dying in his 69th year, in consequence of poison
administered (as it would seem) by Grecian priests ! p. 258. Nero
died, as Dion Cassius says, at the age of thirty years and nine months ;
Lib. 63, ad fin.
Once more ; the tivelfth book of the Sibylline Oracles, (recently
brought to light by Angelo Mai in his Scriptt. Vet. nova CoUectio, III.
Pars 3, p. 202 seq.), is said by Liicke to begin the series with Augus-
tus. The book is not within my reach ; but as it was written, (accord-
ing to Liicke, Einl. p. 123), so late as about A. D. 222, and contradicts
the earlier mode of reckoning in Orac. Sib. Lib. V. (p. 545. edit.
Opsop.), which begins with Julius Caesar, we cannot lay much stress
upon it. Books HI. IV. V. of these Oracles were extant at least as
early as A. D. 150 ; so that the testimony in book V. is much more
weighty than that in Lib. XII.
THE SIXTH KING : Exc. EQ. 447
The sum of all the evidence produced then is, that Tacitus speaks
twice of sole rejjency its conferred on Augustus after the tumuUs and
civil wars which followed the death of JuUus Caesar, and as commenc-
ing iti? permanency with him. To the same purpose, and more evi-
dently still in the same way, does Aurelius Victor speak, about the mid-
dle of tlie fourth eentury. For the rest, Sextus Rufus, IVlalalas, and
the twelfth book of the Sibylline Oracles, CJin have but little weight in
deciding the question : What, in the time of John, was the Jewish mode
of reckoning the Roman emi)eroi-s ? For it will be admitted, I may pre-
sume, from the deep Hebrew colouring which everywhere pervades the
Apocalypse, that the author siwke, with regard to this subject, in the usual
manner of the Hebrews of his day. We now come to a second inquiry :
(2) Was the method of reckoniny hy commencing tcith Julius Cae-
sar, common among both Romans and Jews ?
Certainly it was among the Romans whenever they spoke of the sub-
ject generically, and not in reference (like Tacitus and Victor) to a pe-
riod when uninterrupted monarchy began. Thus the celebrated work
of Suetonius on the Twelve Caesars, (he flourished but a few years after
the Apocalypse was written), begins with Julius Caesar as the first.
The history of Dion Cassius begins in the same way, and observes the
same order. So also other contemporary writings, which are of Christian
origin. E. g. Orac. Sibyllina, V. 12 (p. 545 edit. Ops.) says, in refer-
ence to Julius Caesar : "Eorai (ivai TiQCOTiarog, 6V Tig dt'/.a dig xoovrpco-
asi rQUfifiKCTog dgyo^i'vov, i. e. ' he shall be the Jirst king, the com-
mencing letter of whose name [A! in Kcuaag^ shall amount to twice
ten ;' X = 20.
In 4 Ezra 12: 15 the writer says : " Nam secundus incipiet regnare,
et ipse tenebit [regnum] amplius tempus prac duodecim," i. e. ' the
second shall begin to reign, and he shall hold [dominion] a longer time
than any of the twelve,' viz. than any of the twelve Caesars. Augus-
tus reigned forty-four years, about one-third part of the whole period of
the twelve. Liicke says that the meaning of this passage is disputed.
It may be so ; but, as it seems to me, without any good reason. The
context respects the Roman empire ; and Augustus is here plainly call-
ed secundus. This fourth book of Ezra (as we have seen, Vol. I. p.
85), was written soon after the death of Domitian, the last of the Cae-
sars. Ha<l not this been so, the author would have probably reckoned
more than twelve kings. He stops now with the twelfth.
The most decisive of all is the testimony of Josephus, in regard to
Jewish as well as Roman custom. As he w^rote his works for both Ro-
mans and Jews, there is no probability that he would adopt a mode of
reckoning different from that which was common to both. Had there
been any marked difference between the two in the mode of reckoning,
448 THE SIXTH KING : Exc. III.
it would have been natural for him to note it. This he has not done,
but he says simply : TeXevrrt KalaaQ, 8 evrsQog [xev Pafxaicov avro-
KQU7(x)Q ysvofievog, ' Caesar [Augustus] died, being the second emperor
of the Romans.' Immediately after: Ti^tQiog NtQwv . . . tq izog ov-
rog avTonQarmQ, ' Tiberius, the third emperor ;' Antiq. XVIII. c. 2. § 2.
Again in XVIII. c. 6. § 10, Fuiog ds i]v avroxQazaQ z sr agr og,
' Caius [Caligula] was the fourth emperor.' Once more in XIX. c. 1.
§ 11, he speaks of [.lulius] Caesar, as "the Jirst who transferred the
power of the people to himself." Could the Jews naturally have adopt-
ed any other method of reckoning the Roman emperors, than that which
they had received from the Romans who governed them ? And spe-
cially, would Josephus, writing as he did under the auspices of the Ro-
mans and for them, have adopted a mode of reckoning different from the
customary one ?
The Chronicon Paschale or Fasti Siculi, the first part of which ap-
pears to have been composed about the middle of the fourth century,
says : 'lovXiog KalaaQ tiqmi: og 'Pcojxaioov . . . ^ovuQpjg (p. 353 edit.
Bonn.). Again: 'Pcofiaicov d evzeQog i^aailsvasv Kalaaq 2e^aa-
rog Avyovarog, p. 360.
Georgius Syncellus (f 800), in his Qhronography, says : Avyovarog
KQaTijaag fierce P. I. Kcdaaoa zijg Pmpiaimv uQX^g ; and shortly after,
Ti^iQtov . . .Pmnat'ojv zqizov drsdei^fv \^Avyovazog^ avzoy>QuzoQa,
pp. 602, 603, edit. Bonn. So in p. 574 : Ptoiialxov fi6vaQ)^og P. I. KaX-
auQ hrj f, i. e. ' Julius Caesar was monarch five years.' Again : 'lov-
hog tz?j £ fiovuQp'iaag x. z. X, ibid.
Nicephorus Patriarcha (t 824) in his Compend of Chronography
(p. 746, edit. Bonn.), says : Msra Avyovazov, Pcofiaicov z q iz o g i^aai-
Xevos Ti^f'Qiog. The same author (p. 745) says : nQwzog ifiovaQ-
Xr^os Pwfiaicov P. I. Kaloao, i. e. 'Julius Caesar was the^rs^ monarch
of the Romans.'
Josephus and 4 Ezra, then, seem to be quite decisive as to the usual
Jeioish mode of reckoning; and certainly Suetonius and Dio leave no room
for doubt, as to the usual mode of reckoning among the Romans, at or
near the close of the first century, when special circumstances did not call
for another and relative mode, such as we find in Tacitus. And the
Chronicon Paschale, vSyncellus, and Nicephorus, show plainly that the
mode of Suetonius was general and long continued. That a different
mode is possible, and even that it was sometimes practised when par-
ticular circumstances demanded it, I would admit ; but, with such an
exception, the usual and general method is plain and fairly incontro-
vertible. Of course I feel obliged to adopt the opinion, that Nero is
reckoned in the Apocalypse as the sixth emperor ; and consequently,
that he was limng when Rev. 17: 9, 10 was written.
THE SIXTH KINO : ExC. III. A4^
In respect to the exepjesis of the Apocalypse, consequences of a
somewhat serious nature are dependent on this question. For exam-
ple, throughoiU the whole book nothing is plainer, than that perseciUion
was going on, in an active, urgent, and threatening manner, when the
book was tcritten. The palpable dcsij?n of the writer is, to guard Chris-
tians, who were in such a state and exposed to the temptations resulting
from it, against defection and apostasy, and to administer such consola-
tion as they stood peculiarly in need of, in the midst of so many and
such aggravated sufferings. If there is any one thing, in regard to the
design of the Apocalypse, which is plain and incontrovertible, this is
the one. And such being the fact, we are obliged to accede to the same
mode of reckoning Boman emperors, which is exhibited by Suetonius,
Dion Cassius, and Josephus, (not to mention later WTiters), and of
course to suppose that Nero must be reckoned as the sixth king, the
0 fig fffTi'p in Rev. 17: 10 ; for all antiquity are agi-eed, that the persecu-
tion of Christians ceased on the death of Nero. Historians have indeed
told us of no law pavSsed during Nero's reign, which led to the active
and general persecution of Christians ; nor of the repeal of any statute
after his death, which caused the persecution to cease. The matter, in
these respects, is left in some obscurity. But if the reader will consult
Vol. I. § 13, p. 222 seq., he will find a special examination of this topic.
It is easy to see, that Nero, as the Executive of the Roman empire,
could persecute Christians, if he chose to do so, under the guise of in-
sisting upon the rights of the old religio licifa ; or he could attack them
as alleged conspirators against the welfare of the State. There is not
much probability that there was any law enjoining persecution, which
was sanctioned by the Senate ; and hence we hear of no repeal of any
such law after Nero's death. AVhat he did as the Executive, was left
undone by his successor ; and persecution immediately ceased every-
where, for, as Tacitus testifies, it had become odious to the mass of the
people.
How and why the persecution of Christians became general in the
Roman empire, during the time of Nero, has already been discussed in
Vol. I. § 13 as above quoted, and these topics need not be repeated here.
1 cannot but feel, that the evidence on this point is such, when all its
various particulars are brought together and compared, as ought to sat-
isfy the candid and inquiring mind ; and that we may say, with Ewald,
in respect to it : " Quo jure dubitemus, non apparet."
I have now laid before the reader my reasons for believing that Nero
was the sixth king adverted to in Rev. 17: 10; first from the general
usage, (certainly so among the Jews, and mostly so elsewhere), of be-
ginning to reckon with Julius Ceasar ; and secondly, from the circum-
stance that persecution was then raging when the Apocalypse was writ-
VOL. II. 57
450 THE SIXTH KING : Exc. III.
ten, as the book everywhere shows. I feel bound, however, to notice
some objections raised against this view of the subject, which have not
yet been considered.
These are drawn from some expressions in the Apocalypse itself,
which are of such a nature, that they have been urged against the po-
sition that Nero is the sixth king, and was living when John wrote Rev.
17: 10. The beast, which in chap, xiii, and even in a pai't of chap,
xvii, appears to be a generic symbol, i. e. the symbol of a succession of
pagan kings or emperors, is occasionally individualized in chap, xvii,
and made the symbol merely of the then reigning emperor ; corap. 17:
8, 11. Of this latter kind of beast, a symbol of the great persecutor
of the church, it is said in Rev. 17: 8, jyy, y.ai oyx 'iati. Again in v. 9,
liv, 'Ma ovx tan, Hui naQtazai; Avhich is repeated again in v. 11, with
the addition, that " he shall be an eighth [king]." These passages, it
has been and will be said, assume the fact that Nero was already dead.
But I do not understand them so. They assume, it is true, the death of
Nero ; but they assume it on the same ground that the great body of pro-
phecy in the O. Testament assumes the existence of occurrences disclos-
ed or predicted. Every critical reader knows well, that the Hebrew pro-
phets, everywhere and with great frequency, employ even the Praeterite
tense, when predicting /M^wre occurrences. The i-eason is, that this de-
signates the certainty of those occurrences. We need only to read the
Apocalypse, in order to be satisfied, that a similar method of prediction
is followed in it. For example, let the reader consult chap. 14: 8, and
many other passages of the same tenor, where he will see future occur-
rences described as things which had already happened. So in the
case before us. What was certain in the writer's mind, and what was
speedily to take place, is indicated as already brought to pass, tjv, xal
ovx ion. How can any one, who understands well the nature of the
Present tense, as being often employed to express what is future and
certain, be persuaded that any argument can be raised out of these
forms of expression, to prove that Nero was already dead ? See N. Test.
Gramm. § 136. 1. c.
That the writer of the Apocalypse refers to the provinces and to
their prefects or secondary kings as joining with the beast, i. e. with
Nero, in his persecution, and as aiding him to carry it on until the di-
vine purposes are accomplished, seems to my mind to be plainly dis-
closed in Rev. 17: 11 — 18. The hatred of the imperial city on the
part of the tributary kings, i. e. their political hatred on the ground of
their subjection, and specially the malignity of the beast itself, toward
the-great city, (for they are said to burn it with Jire), seem to be dis-
closed in Rev. 17: 16 ; and the manner of the expression appears to
make a tacit reference to Nero's burning of Rome, and thus to disclose
THE SIXTU KING : ExC. III. 451
•who the beast is that has been brought to the seer's view. But a mere
hint is all which can be jrivcn here, in regard to these ])articiil;irs.
One cinunistanee alluded to in chap. 13: 10, appears particularly to
indicate that Nero was still living when the Apocalypse was written.
In the midst of the description of the blasphemies of the beast, and of
his '- making war upon the saints," the writer breaks out by calling up-
on his tellow Christians to mark well what he is going to say : Ki rig
t^fi ois", (cxoi'dccTco (v. 9). He then predicts, most graphically, the de-
struction of Nero, i. e. the beast : " If any one sendeth away into exile,
he goeth away into exile ; if any one slayeth with the sword, he must
be slain with the sword ;" i. e. Nero, who sends me and other Christians
into exile, shall himself become an exile ; Nero, who destroys with the
sword, shall be destroyed with the same. How exactly this was ful-
filled, every one knows who is acquainted with the manner of Nero's
death. I am aware, indeed, that this passage would not lose its mean-
ing, in case we should suppose that Nero's exile and death had already
taken place. But then we should be met with another insuperable dif-
ficulty, which is, that the actual persecution, (going on vigorously when
the Apocalypse was written, as the whole tenor of the book demon-
strates), would be altogether incongruous with the supposition in ques-
tion. We know that persecxiiion ceased immediately on the death of
Nero. It had already become odious to the Roman people ; and Gal-
ba, on his accession to the throne, would naturally wish to undo what
Nero had been doing against the popular will. At first the mass of the
Roman people do not seem to have remonstrated against the persecution
of Christians ; but sympathy with their sufferings, as well as hatred of
Nero, brought them back to the natural feelings of humanity ; see Tac.
Annal. XV. 44.
The internal state of the Apocalypse, then, conspires with the modes
of reckoning by historians as developed above, in establishing the posi-
tion, that Nero was the sixth king or emperor referred to in Rev. 17:
10. This fact being admitted, the time when the Apocalypse was writ-
ten seems to be almost definitely determined. But besides this circum-
stance, which is not unimportant, another highly important consequence
follows, viz., that the book should be explained in accordance with such
a view of historical facts. Indeed, on any other ground the difticulty of
interpretation is insuperable. The present and active urgency of perse-
cution is everywhere a part of the substratum of the Apocalypse ; and if
the composition of the book be put off" to the time of Galba, this ground
vanishes. As to referring the book to the time of Domitian, I take it
for granted that this is now out of question.
One who is strongly bent upon defending the opinion that Nero waa
dead when the book was written, might indeed aver that Joha wrote it
452 THE NUMBER OF THE BEAST : ExC. IV.
before the news of the tyrant's death had reached him, and before per-
secution in the provinces had ceased. This, it must be conceded, was
possible ; but is it probable ? How rapidly the news of Nero's death —
a consummation devoutly wished by the whole empire — was spread
abroad from Rome, may be judged of by the following circumstances.
Galba commenced his reign on the 9th of June, and the prefect at
Alexandria in Egypt, on the 6th of the following July, issued an edict
there acknowledging Galba as emperor ; see Rhein. Musaeum f iir Phi-
lol. etc., von Niebuhr und Brandis, Baud II. p. 68. Liicke, Einleit. p.
253. Considering the respective distance of Alexandria and Ephesus
from Rome, and the comparative importance of the latter, we may well
assume, that the news of Nero's death reached Ephesus in less than half
the interval of time just specified. Christians would convey it forthwith
to the exile at Patmos ; and they could accomplish such a convey-
ance in a few hours. While, then, the supposition that we are now ex-
amining is neither absurd nor impossible, it is, on the whole, quite im-
probable ; particularly so, if the writer of the Apocalypse be regarded
as inspired, and thus as possessing an adequate knowledge of the things
which he had undertaken to describe. The tenor of his book, as has al-
ready been repeatedly said, shows that he wrote ingruenti persecutione.
If the statements wliich have now been made are rendered probable,
and still more if they are even well supported, then some preparation of
no small importance is made for the more intelligible interpretation of
the book before us.
EXCURSUS IV.
On the iiiimber of the beast, as mentioned in Rev. 13: 18.
It is certainly a matter of some interest to know how this passage was
understood in the early ages of Christianity ; and it so happens, that our
curiosity, in this particular case, can in some measure be gratified. Ire-
naeus (Lib. V. c. 29, 30, contra Haereses) has given us at some length
his views respecting it. I subjoin a brief account of them.
In chap, xix, he mentions 666 as being, in his opinion, the proper
reading of the number. The reason which he appears to assign
for this, is singular enough. It was in the 600tli year of Noah that
the flood destroyed the earth, on account of the peculiar wickedness of
its inhabitants. Afterwards, in aid of idolatry, Nebuchadnezzar set
up a golden image on the plain of Dura, which was sixty cubits high and
THF NUMBER OF THE BEAST : ExC. IV. 4M
six cubits broad. Put these three numbers together, and wc have 666 ;
a representation or symbol of the extreme, and :i.s it were, aggravated
wickedness ot" Antichrist, whose name is concealed in the mysterious
666 ; for in him is all the wickedness of the antediluvians (destroyed in
the 600th year of Noah) conjoined with all the wickedness of idolatry
under Nebuchadnezzar, the most potent and impious of all idolaters.
Moreover, he says that witnesses personally acquainted with John, tes-
tify in favour of this reading. •
For these reasons this father thinks it a duty to adhere to the read-
ing 066, which (he also says) was found in the older and more accurate
Codices of his time, instead of admitting another reading, viz. 616, which
he allows was followed by some. To the reasons already named, more-
over, he now (c. 30) adds others. " There are in 666," says he, " as
many tens as' hundreds, and as many hundreds as units ;" i. e. there are
six hundreds, six tens in sixty, and six units in six ;* showing, as he goes
on to intimate, by this uniform adherence to six, that the apostasy which
is to come under Antichrist, will be a repetition of that which took place
before the flood, in middle ages, and in after times.
Having thus made his defence of the reading 666, he now goes on to
say (c. 30), that he had much rather maintain the fulfilment of the pro-
phecy, than mention the name which is indicated by 666. One reason
he gives for this, is, that there are many names which indicate 666 ; and
since this is the case, how can we help seeing, that some uncertainty
must attend our effoi'ts at conjecture ? He then pi'oceeds to mention
several names ; (1) ETANQAZ, respecting which he ventures no
remarks, and which, of course, must have been destitute of any proba-
bility, as the matter appeared to his mind. (2) yiATElXO^L, which
he thinks quite probable, inasmuch as this is the name of the latest em-
pire, [i. e. the Roman]. But (3) He thinks that of all the names cur-
rent among Christians of his time, TELTAK pi-ofters the fairest claims
for admission. His principal reasons are, that this name itself has six
letters ; that it has two syllables both consisting of three letters ; that
the name too is old, and is not in common use. Besides, it belonged to
one of the giants who assaulted the gods ; and may therefore well char-
acterize Antichrist when he shall come.
Still Irenaeus says, that he shall not venture on determining absolute-
ly what name is meant, inasmuch as John would himself have disclosed
it, had he wished it to be made public at that time. After this he pro-
ceeds to describe the reign of Antichi'ist when he shall come, and says
other things respecting the millennial reign of Christ and the saints,
which are not apposite to our present purpose.
To this small collection of names by Irenaeus, may be now added
others that were occasionally introduced by other ancient writers. Thus
454 THE NUMBER OF THE BEAST : ExC. IV.
Primasius conjectures the Greek word APNOTME (as he writes it),
i. e. thou hast denied me; Arethas (Comm. in Rev. 13: 18) suggests
Jafitt'zig, also o viy^rt]?, with xaxog odrjyos, dh]&tjg p.aBeQog, ndlai
^daxavog, dfivog ddixog ; Ticonius (as cited by Primasius) has dvTSfiog ;
and Rupertus has revatjQiaog, i. e. Genseric, a king of the Vandals and
the great scourge of Italy.
The learned Feuardentius, one of the leading editors of Irenaeus, in
his note on the subject before ufe, says, that he ventures to add the con-
jecture of a learned and most acute judge, meaning J. Offhusius in his
Dial. Dubitant. This conjecture is, (to use his own words), that " the
manifold and horrid schism introduced by Luther, will appear to all such
as have revolved the subject altd mente, to answer in all its characteris-
tics to the apostle's description of the beast in the Apocalypse. The
primary name of Luther, [i. e. Martiniis Lauterus, as he states it],
makes out the number of the beast, being reckoned according to the
laws of the Greek alphabet;" and therefore the learned author sees no
good reason, why this number may not be applied to the so called Re-
former.
In the sequel, however, this editor does the justice to other renowned
men of his church to mention, that they have conjectured the word Ma-
ometis, or Moamitis (as Euthymius, Zonaras, and Cedrenus write it),
i. e. Mohammed, the name intended by the apostle ; for the numerical
value of its letters = 666.
But to come down to some later attempts to make out the number
and name in question ; Wetstein thinks that 616 is the more probable
reading of our text, and he finds the name of Titus, the Roman empe-
ror, designated by it ; which, however, he is compelled to write Tuta,
in order to make out the requisite computation.
Herder, who makes everything in the Apocalypse to point to the
destruction of the Jews, finds the name that corresponds to 666 in Si-
mon Gorionides, whose crimes are I'elated by Josephus, Bell. Jud. VI.
VII. To accomplish this he prefixes the initial of Rabbi ("i) to his pro-
per name thus "{^"'O'd ^ ; which makes up the desired number.
Grotius and some others refer the number to Ulpius Ti-ajan, the em-
peror, a persecutor, as they represent him, of Christians ; but in order
to make this out, they are obliged to write the name in Greek, Ovkniog,
i. e. Ulpiust ; which is but a sorry method of accomplishing the end in
view.
Others have conjectured 'y^noozdrrig, [Julian the apostate] ; others
^ej'eStxrd?, [pope Benedict IX.] ; Bossuet makes it DIoCLes alJgUs-
tUs, i. e. Diocletian. Lewis XIV, who persecuted the Huguenots,
was called by many Protestants LUDoVICUs, because out of this name
they made 666.
THE NUMBER OF THE BEAST : ExC. IV. 455
So late as 1815, a book was publi^lied in Germany, in which the
writer proposed to bring Napoleon Bonaparte within the meaning of
66(), whose name he writes A « liovovartaQTf., or yiazHivo^, or Kui — q
[^Kataao] Ilicnicsidi ; or (if we may go to the Hebrew language for a
solution) it may be expressed thus : biJDiis, the Corsican.
Joim Albert Bengel, the renowned critical editor of the N. Testament,
and in high repute both for piety and learning, refers 666 to the num-
ber of i/ears during which the beast was to exercise his power, and not
to any name significant ol" person or dynasty.
In 1813, Gensler published a work in German, called 27ie Apocalyp-
tic Secret in Rev. 13: 18 revealed, in which, following in the steps of
Bengel, he endeavors to show, that 666 refers to some era named after
some celebrated man or men, uni&ftOi; (IvO^qcotiov iariv. Accordingly
he adopts tlie aera Seleitcidamm, i. e. conmiencing with the reign of
Seleucus, one of Alexander's generals who reigned over Syria, which
era was extensively used in hither Asia. This commenced 311 B. C,
to which if you add 355 so as to make up the number G66, you will
come to the year in wliich .Julian the Apostate was proclaimed emperor,
who might well be called the Beast and Ardichrist by John, and the
Wicked One by Paul.
Sed — mamim de tabula. Enough of these idle conjectures, of which
one might almost say : Pudet has nugas. The inventor, so far as I
have been able to discover, of the exegesis which refers 666 to the time
or era of the beast, was pope Innocent III, who, in an address to all
Christendom exciting them to another crusade, adduces the considera-
tion, that the close of the 666 years assigned to the beast, i. e. to the
Mahommedan power, was near, and therefore there was scarcely room
for a doubt, that God was about to free the Holy Land from the domi-
nion of the Turks. Bengel, however, applied the era made out from
666 in his own way ; and while he expresses his surprise that others
had not liit upon it, he consoles himself with the pious reflection, that
flesh and blood do not attain to knowledge so wonderful, and it is only
to the sovereign mercy of the Father of Lights, that so unworthy a ser-
vant as he, should be made partaker of such wisdom, hidden from ages
and generations. The only thing, he says, that makes him doubt in the
least about his views of the Apocalypse, is, that they had been given to
one so unworthy as himself.
As to the era itself, all that need be now said, is, that according to
Bengel's confident reckoning, in view of this, A. D. 1810 was to be the
end of the forty-two months of the beast. In 1832 the dragon from
the abyss was to begin his reign ; within a few days after this the beast
with seven heads and ten horns was also to commence his ; and in 1836,
the bea.st was to be overcome and destroyed. " Should this year pass
456 THE NUMBER OP THE BEAST : ExC. IV.
away," says he, " without some remarkable changes taking plane, then
there must be some radical fault in my system, and one must carefully
investigate where it lurks." (As quoted by Lucke, p. 552). But alas
for Bengel's toil ! The present generation have seen that the changes
have not taken place, which were predicted by him.
Let us turn from this historical view, to the inquiry : Whether any-
thing satisfactory can be done to illustrate the number in question, and
show its congruity with the design of the writer ?
The Greek word ylartivog = Latinus of the Romans, seems, at first
view, to offer a probable solution. The appositeness of it cannot well
be called in question. Whether the adjective in this case is to find its
complement in y.aog = populus, or in avroxQaToiQ = imperator, it
matters not as to the main design of the writer. Indeed, it might suit
the very delicate task he had to perform, if this should not manifestly
appear on the face of his writing. He expects it (for so he says) to be
interpreted by aoqx'a, and that he only who has vovv will be able rightly
to interpret it. He could not openly name the emperor in this case ;
for thjs would have been construed by the magistracy as treasonable.
He did not wish to expose the Christians, who read his work and re-
garded it with reverence and felt a deep interest in it, to the charge of
abetting the slander (as it would be named) of the Roman magistracy.
They must needs be subject to the powers that then were. Still, as a
prophet commissioned by the great Head of the church, John had a
work to perform, from which he could not shrink. Christians must in
some way be made to understand who was meant by the symbols which
the writer employed ; else the object of the book itself would be frus-
trated. How could the writer then, we may ask, select a better way
than that which he has chosen ? While he probably was understood by
the moi-e inteUigent part of his original readers, it can hardly be sup-
posed that a Roman magistrate, who was a heathen, would be likely to
take offence from the mysterious manner in which Rev. 13: 18 is ex-
pressed. He would be more disposed to scoff at it.
As to the form of the Greek word ^areivog, viz. that ei is employed
for the Latin long I, it is a sufficient vindication of it to cite Za^Hvog,
fhavGTUVog, Havleivog, Avtaivetvog, ArsiXiog, Mezetliog, TlanHQiog,
OveiBiog (Vibius), etc. Or we may refer to the custom of the more an-
cient Latin, as in Plautus, of writing / by ei ; e. g. solitei, Diveis, cap-
tivei, preimus, Lateina, etc. And when Heinrichs objects to this
(Comm. Exc. p. 246), that Plutarch and other late Greek writers do
not employ £*. but only i in such cases ; this proves nothing against the
method in question, for the less usual method of orthography would natu-
rally be that, which best comported with the writer's design of partial
concealment.
THE NUMBER OP THE BEAST : ExC. IV. 457
Thus much for the word AaxEivoi;, on the ground that the numeral
letters in our text, viz. jrig, are the correct reading, i. e. that 666 was
the number meant by the writer. But we have seen, that some ancient
copies in the time of Irenaeus read ;f<g, i. e. 616. Some of the reasons
whirh Irenaeus gives for rejecting this, are, in part at least, of quite a
fanciful nature, and not such as sliould influence our minds in settling
the question about the true meaning. But when, among other things,
he avers that the older and more accurate Codices read 666, we are at
least bound to consider his testimony as of im})ortance, in relation to the
criticism of the text. Still, the number 616 would seem to be in itself
a good and apposite reading. The Hebrew words an itD^;? , Caesar of
Rome, as suggested by Ewald, make 616 ; and that the partial conceal-
ment obWously designed by John becomes more effectual, on the suppo-
sition that he referred to a Hebrew mode of reckoning, and to Hebrew
words or letters as indicative of his meaning here, seems to be quite
plain.
C^uite recently, however, Prof. Benary of Berlin has proposed a more
ingenious, and to my mind more satisfactory, solution of the nodus in
question, than any with which I have before met. He regards it as
nearly certain, that the letters indicative of the number, in question must
be Hebrew letters ; although he does not seem to have given a satisfac-
tory reason. The very design, however, of partial concealmeyit seems
to be, as I have ali'eady hinted, a good reason for the adoption of this
method by John. A heathen Greek or Roman would not be likely to
divine the writer's meaning, in case the latter designed to make the ap-
peal to Hebrew letters or words ; while there were everywhei'e Jewish
Christians in the churches who could easily unravel it.
Benary remarks, that in the Talmud and other Rabbinical writings
the name of Nero, in the form of "lOp "(iis often occurs. Tiiis amounts
numerically to the number of the beast ; q. d. 50-|-200-|-6-|-o0, and
100-f-60-|-200, added together equal 666. Nor is this all. There was
another method of writing and pronouncing the name of Nero, approach-
ing nearer to the Roman method. This was "iDp iis , Nero Caesar, which
amounts numerically to just 616, and thus gives us a good ground of the
diverse reading which Irenaeus found in some Codices. This is surely
a remarkable coincidence. The same name, pronounced after the Greek
and Hebrew analogy, equals numerically the sum of 666 ; but spoken
in the Latin way, (which is also consonant with the Hebrew apocopate
form of 'p — viz. i — ), it amounts to 616, which is the rival reading.
Nothing can be more natural and easy, then, than to account in this
way for both of the readings in the Codices. The discrepant modes of
sounding Nero's name, whether fully in Hebrew, or in an abridged way,
gave rise to the different designations of the corresponding numbers.
VOL. II. 58
458 THE NUMBER OF THE BEAST : ExC. IV.
A solution of the various readings, which is so natural and obvious, one
is strongly tempted to believe, must have its foundation in truth and
reality.
The main objection to Jarttvog is, that it is not sufficiently specific.
There is hardly room to doubt, that the writer, notwithstanding the veil
he has thrown over his annunciation, means to be specific in this pas-
sage. If so, the designation in question would come somewhat short of
his purpose. To the solution offered by Ewald this objection does not
apply. The then reigning Caesar would be specially intended. But
against Ewald's solution, which makes the number 616 necessary, there
lies the testimony of Irenaeus, viz. that all the older and better Codices
read 666, The solution of Benary removes both objections, and at the
same time accounts for the variety in the ancient readings. Is it not,
therefore, a highly probable one ?
One question remains of some interest : How came John to adopt so
mystical a method of designating who was meant by the beast ; or, if
adopted, how could he rationally expect that it would be rightly un-
derstood ?
Why John chose to avoid speaking out directly and plainly the name
of the Roman emperor, has already been considered ; and as to the
question now before us, it is easily solved, by a reference to the custom
of the times when John wrote ; a custom continued for a long period
after his death. This we may see in the account given of the contents
of the Sibylline Oracles, Vol. I. p. 104. There the reader will find
ample evidence of a usage like that of John in the text before us, some-
times even in cases where concealment was unnecessary. To the exhi-
bition of the subject there, I must refer the inquirer, in order to save
repetition. He will see that John, in the case before us, has done
nothing that was unusual, nothing which might not have been expected,
in a case of such difficulty and hazard. Can there be any good reason
to doubt who was meant by him ? At least, did he not expect his more
intelligent readers to understand his meaning ?
As to the solution of the mystical number by a resort to the Gematria
of the Hebrews, which has sometimes been attempted, I must, with
Ewald, wholly dissent. The tenor of the whole thing is different from
that of Gematria.* Nor do I doubt, that this and other like conceits
* That the reader may compare the Gematria with Rev. 13- 18, I will here
produce a specimen, which is also referred to by Ewald. In Gen. 49: 10, Sliiloh
shall come, riV"i" sn^ , the numerical value of the sum of the letters = 3-')8 ; the
same is also the numerical value of rr^'i");, the Messiah; ergo the Messiah is meant
by nV""iJ N2"' ! Very different is the manner of John. I will only add, that tiie
curious reader will find some peculiar lusus anivii in the use of letters signifying
numbers, in Artemidorus' Oneirocrit. 1, 12. 3, 54. 4, 26.
DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : Exc. V. 460
in the Cabbala of the Rabbins were of later origin than the Apocalypse.
There is no need of resort to such a source for explanation ; for any
of the more probable sources ah-eady indicated, are more to be reUed
upon, and answer much better purposes.
EXCURSUS V.
On the designations of Time in the Apocalypse.
No discussions respecting anything which pertains to the Apocalypse
have been so animated, or excited so much attention in the English and
American churches, as those which respect the several periods designa-
ted in this book. A great portion of later commentators on the Revela-
tion, who belong to these churches, have first made out a historical
sketch of the events, political and ecclesiastical, which they suppose to
be foretold, and then applied themselves, with an interest which has
often been intense, to searching after the means of deciding when those
periods of time begin. After accomplishing this, the remainder of their
task is of course easy. To find the end of the respective periods costs
no trouble, in their way of performing this task, excepting a simple
arithmetical calculation ; for sis to the length of the periods themselves,
they determine it by the very summary process of making a day to be
the representative of a year.
In the English world, this mode of reckoning, in respect to the Apoca-
lypse, became current principally in consequence of the publication of
the Claris Apocalyptica of Joseph Mede, in the first quarter of the
seventeenth century. Counting upon the command given lo the prophet
Ezekiel (Ezek: 4: 4 — 6), to reckon each day on which he lay upon his
left or his right side, as the symbol or representative of one year's pun-
ishment to be inflicted upon the houses of Israel and Judah ; appealing
also to Dan. 9: 24, where seventy weeks seem to be reckoned as meaning
weeks of years = 490 years ; Mede and most of his followers seem
scarcely to have pursued the inquiry, whether the same principle of
reckoning could be justly applied to the Apocalypse. They have taken
it for granted, at least most expounders in our churches have done so,
that the principle of counting a day for a year is too plain to need special
confirmation, or to admit of any reasonable contradiction. My present
object, therefore, is to examine, first of all, the justice of such a claim,
in as brief a manner as the nature of the case will permit. If it can
460 DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : ExC. V.
be shown, that there is no good ground for admitting such a method of
reckoning in the Apocalypse, then we shall at least have made some
advances towai-d attaining to a well-grounded interpretation ; inasmuch
as one of the main obstacles to it will have been removed. "When so
much is done, we must then understand and interpret the designations
of time in their usual and literal sense, or else (in case this cannot be
done) consider the numbers employed as having merely a symbolic
import, i. e. as intended to designate various but indefinite portions of
time, larger or smaller according to the nature of the case and of the
numbers employed.
I may remark, first of all, that I know not why one solitary case, viz.
that in Ezek. iv, or at most only two, if we reckon Dan. 9: 24 among
this class, should be appealed to with so much confidence, as establish-
ing a rule for the interpretation of all prophecy where time is specified.
In Gen. 6: 3, God announces, in the way of prediction, that the days of
men shall be 120 years, before the flood comes upon them. The rule
in question, i. e. one day for a year, would make a respite for the ante-
diluvians of 43,200 years ; so that their disregard to Noah's threats of
a flood would be no very strange matter. So in Gen. 7: 4, God declares
that, after seven days, he will cause it to rain upon the earth forty days
and forty nights. Did any one ever dream of making this the same as
saying, that after seven years it shall begin to rain, and shall continue
to do so for forty successive years ? In Gen. 15: 13 it is predicted, that
Abraham's posterity shall be bondsmen in Egypt, 400 years. Does
this then mean 144,000 years ? Gen. 41: 1 seq. predicts seven years of
plenty and seven of famine to Egypt; can this mean 2520 years of
each? In Num. 14: 33 it is declared, that Israel shall wander in the
wilderness forty years, before they reach the promised land ; and are
these wanderings to last 14,400 years ? Or does not actual history
settle the question what forty years in this case mean ? So in Ezek.
29: 11, 12, there is a threat of forty years' wasting to the Egyptians ;
in Jonah 3: 4 it is declared, that Nineveh shall be overthi'own in
forty days ; in Is. 7:8 it is said, that Ephraim shall be broken with-
in threescore and five years; in Is. 16: 14, that the glory of Moab
shall be contemned within three years ; in Jer. 25: 11. 29: 10, that the
Jews shall be exiles in the land of Babylon for seventy years ; and
did any one ever think, in these respective cases, of any other than the
literal and obvious sense of the words which designate the respective
periods ? Many other instances of the like nature, from various parts
of the Scriptures, might easily be added ; but these surely are sufficient
to show what common usage is, with respect to the declarations of the
prophets. If any one doubts still, then let him interpret Dan. 4: 32 in
accordance with the principle of a day for a year. According to this,
DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : ExC. V. 461
Nebuchadnezzar muiit have been mad and eat grass 2520 years — disci-
pline enough to humble a king even as insolent as he.
But are there no exceptions to this common usapje in prophetic de-
clarations ? There ouj^ht to be many, and to be very plain ones, in or-
der to justify us in making one day to stiind for a year, in the designa-
tions of time in the Apocalypse. Yet I venture to assert, that not a
single example of a similar method of interpretation can be found, which
in any important respect will serve as a justification of such an exegesis.
The usual reference to Ezek. iv. as a ground of justification, is surely
wide of the mark. There the prophet is commanded to lie on his left
side 390 days, in order to bear the iniquity of the house of Israel, i. e.
in order to present a symbol of the punishment which they shall re-
ceive, and of the lengtli of time during which it shall be administered ;
for, it is expressly said to him ; *' I have appointed to thee each day for
a year." In like manner he was to lie upon his right side forty days,
so as to s\Tnbolize the punishment of Judah for forty years ; Ezek. 4:
4 — 6. It matters not for our present purpose, whether these symbolic
actions were things to be actually performed by the prophet, or whether
they are only represented as being done, (for in either case they would
answer the same end for substance) ; what we are now concerned with,
is only the designation of time. Nothing can be plainer, than that days
are here made the representatives of years from the necessity of the
case ; for how could the prophet lie upon his left side 390 years ? Then,
in the next place, the fact that days are to be symbols of years, is ex-
pressly stated at the outset ; and plainly it is so stated, because other-
wise it would not enter into the mind of either prophet or people, that
days could be regarded as the representatives of years.
Another case, bearing some resemblance to this, is also appealed to
in the way of justifying the interpretation now under examination. It
is presented in Num. xiv. Moses sent spies to the land of Canaan,
who were absent forty days, and then returned and made a bad report
of the land. The consequence was discontent and rebellion in the
camp of Israel. "With this God was displeased, and he declared that
the Israelites should wander forty years in the desert, each year cor-
responding to one of the forty days in question ; Num. 14: 33, 34. In
this case then, just as in the preceding, there is an express mention and
appointment, that days should correspond with years ; so that the case
is open to no mistake and no misunderstanding. But let us suppose
that God had simjjly said, that the Israelites should wander in the wil-
derness (or forty days, and said nothing more ; would any one have ever
conjectured that forty years were meant ? Surely not ; and yet this last
case is the only one tiiat can be compared with the designations of time,
in general, in the prophetic books of the Scriptures.
462 DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : EXC. V.
By any circumstances, now, like to those in the case of Ezekiel and
of the spies, the predictions in the Apocalypse are wholly unattended.
Not an intimation is once even hinted, that such a rule of reckoning
time is to be applied. How can we then be justified in applying such
a rule, when no necessity of the case, and no analogy, illustrates or de-
fends such an application ?
But Ave shall doubtless be reminded of an analogous case in Dan.
9: 24, (to which alone Mede appeals), where, it is alleged, seventy weeks
certainly mean seventy weeks of years, i. e. 490 years. But here again
a critical examination will lead us to see that the appeal is not well
grounded. The original word here is not ni^ad weeks, but d'l^aTlJ
sevens, or (to adopt the Greek jdiom) heptades. The passage of coui'se
runs thus : " Seventy heptades are determined for thy people," etc.
Heptades of what ? The natural and indeed necessary answer is : Hep-
tades of years ; for the context tells us, that Daniel had just been med-
itating on the question, whether the seventy years' exile of the Jews
was now at an end ; and the angel, who now makes further disclosures
to him, tells him that seventy heptades are still further designated for the
people of Israel, in which various important events are to be accom-
plished. That the word years would of course be naturally and readily
supplied after heptades, in such a case, is clearly established by the fact,
that the common mode of reckoning time is by years ; and moreover by
the fact, that where the writer of the book of Daniel does not mean that
years shall be understood, he feels himself obliged actually to supply
another and an appropriate word, so as to prevent any mistake. Thus
in Daniel 10: 2, 3, we find the words Di":;d ndbd twice employed,
where the writer intends to designate three sevens of days, and the con-
sequence is that he in each case inserts the word D'^'c^ {days) after the
word sevens or heptades. In no other way could he guard against the
mistake of being understood to mean heptades of years.
The amount now of all this is, that a writer in Hebrew might say, and
did say, seventy sevens, in respect to time, and be understood obviously to
mean, that seventy times seven, i. e. 490, years were of course intended
to be designated. But how widely diverse is all this from saying three
years and six months, Sindi being understood as meaning 1260 years!
There is no palpable analogy between the two cases. Of course, any
reference to Dan. 9: 24, is wholly foreign to the matter of justifying the
exegesis which is now under consideration.
Nothing daunted however by the failure of these cases, many appeal,
with unwavering confidence, to other instances in Daniel, where a peri-
od equal to three years and six months is repeatedly named by the wri-
ter ; which period they interpret as meaning 1260 years. These pas-
sages are in Dan. 7: 25. 12: 7 ; but in both cases the expression of the
DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : ExC. V. 408
original is, time, times, and half [t'\me], in Chaldee '"nr (7: 25), in Heb.
*iri^ (12: 7). Each of these words means a set, dejinite, designated
time ; and of course the only natural exegesis of them is gi'ounded on
the supposition, that a year is that definite time which is intended by the
words respectively. 8o far all is plain.
But then, the interpretation which makes out these desiguations of
three and a half years to mean 1260 years — is that equally plain ? Far
enough from this. In 7: 25, it seems to me beyond all reasonable ques-
tion, that Antiochus P^piphanes is designated as the person into whose
hands the temple and all its appurtenances are to fall, and who will car-
ry on a most bitter and bloody persecution against the Jews as a nation,
but particularly against all of them who are devoted to the peculiar du-
ties of their religion. Facts show that this prediction, as understood in
the usual sense of the words, was in all respects verified. In the year
168 A. C, in the month of May, Antiochus, on his way to make an at-
tack upon Egypt, detached ApoUonius, one of his military officers,
with 22,000 men, to subdue and plunder Jerusalem. This was accom-
plished. A horrible slaughter was made of the men, and the women and
children were made captives, and multitudes of them sold as slaves. The
Jews were soon compelled to eat swine's flesh, and to sacrifice to idols.
In December of that same year, the temple was profaned by introducing
the statue of Jupiter Olympius, and on the 25th of that month, sacrifices
were made to this idol upon the altar of God. Just three years after
this, i. e. in 165 A. C. Dec. 25th, the temple was expurgated by Judas
Maccabaeus, and the worship of Jehovah restored. Thus three years
and six months, if not to a day, yet very nearly so, marked the period
of desolations in the holy city and temple, as predicted by Daniel.*
Now as it seems quite plain, that Antiochus Epiphanes is described
in Dan. 7: 25, and of course that the time, and times and the dividing
[half] of time is applied to the period of the desolations in Jerusalem
occasioned by him, by what process of interpretation shall we make out
1260 years of aggression upon the holy city and temple by one man?
Methusaleh himself comes far short of living through such a period.
This one consideration seems to make an end of the question, whether
days stand for years in Dan. 7: 25.
That Dan. 12: 7, designating the same period, refers to the same per-
* In accordance with this is the declaratfon of Josephus, Prooein. ad Bell. Jud.
§ 7. Bell. Jud. 1. 1. § I. In Antiq. XII. 7. § 6, however, he names lliree years
as llie period of the desolation. But this evidently refers to the sjiecial dishonour
done to the temple by the heathen sacrifices there, and it accords exactly with
fact in respect to these. The reader m<iy consult Usher's .'inntifs, A. C. 168 el
seq. ; also Froelich, .Innalcs Reauin. Syriae, under Antiochus Epiph. Comp.
Jalin's Heb. Commonwealth on the same period, and also Prideaux's Connection,
Vol. III.
464 DESIGNATIONS OP TIME : ExC. V.
son and the same events, there can, as it seems to ray mind, be no good
reason for doubt on the part of any one who thoroughly compares Dan.
11: 21 — 45 with chap. 12: 1 — 7. Of course it is impossible, that 1260
years should be made out as the period designated here. How can it
be applied to limit the desolations made by one man, viz. the Syrian
tyrant ?
I am aware of the attempt to escape from this, by finding a vnovoia
in these passages, and making them secretly descriptive of antichrist
under the Christian dispensation. But without appealing to the incon-
gruity of a double sense of these passages, it is enough to remark, that
all which is predicated of the tyrant, in Dan. 7: 24 — 26. 8: 9 — 12, 23 —
25. [Probably 9: 26, 27?]. 11: 21—45. 12: 7, was to take place before
the introduction of the Messiah's reign. How then could it apply to
some distant centuries after this reign had commenced ? How, more-
over, can a time, tiines, and half a time, mean literally tkree years and
six months, as surely it does in respect to Antiochus, and yet at the
same time mean 1260 years when applied to antichrist ? No justifica-
tion, then, can be made out for interpreting the Apocalypse as designa-
ting the period of 1260 years when it speaks of three years and six
months, from the fact that the like period is designated in the book of
Daniel.
Nor do the other periods here designated afibrd any justification to
the interpretations given of the periods in the Apocalypse. In Dan. 8:
13, 14, a period of 2300 days is mentioned, as the limit to which the
desolations in Judaea shall come. Judas Maccabaeus restored the tem-
ple worship, Dec. 25, A. C. 165. Now if we count back for six years,
four months, and twenty days = 2300 days, (counting thirty days to a
month and twelve months to a year, which is plainly the prophetic usage),
we shall of course find 171 A. C, and some time in that year during
the month of August, to be the terminus a quo of the 2300 days. In
that very year the temple was plundered, through the urgency of Anti-
ochus for the tribute promised to him by the high-priest, Menelaus. It
was moreover profaned, in such a way as to occasion an insurrection
among the Jews, who slew the deputy of the high-priest and all concern-
ed in the sacrilege. From that time, there were frequent aggressions
made upon the temple and holy city, particularly for the last 3^ years
of Antiochus' reign, until final victory perched upon the standard of Ju-
das Maccabaeus, in Dec. 165 A. C.
Now as Dan. 8: 9 — 13 (comp. 8: 22 — 25), makes it plain that Anti-
ochus is the person to whom the 2300 days stand related, so it is certain
(as before) that these cannot mean 2300 years. How could Antiochus
in person oppress the Jews for two thousand and three hundred years f
Events in the life and reign of Antiochus make it quite unnecessary, as
DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : ExC. V. 405
it would seem, to look after any other than a literal intoq)retation of the
days which are specified in Dan. 8: 14.
Should any one at^k, why the time in Dan. 7: 25 and 12: 7 is limited
to o.^ years, and in 8: 11 extended to six years and 140 days, oni' an-
swer may be found in the fact, that the latter term is apparently dcsij^n-
ed to comprehend the whole period, from the time when the first serious
attack was made upon the worship and the rights of the Jews, through
the direct aggression of Antiochus Epii)hanes ; but the 3i years desig-
nate the period during which he held the absolute and exclusive control
of the temple and of the holy city, and committed every kind of cruelty
and abomination. Before this, the vexations were only occasional ; but
still they were exceedingly obnoxious to the feelings of the pious Jews.
In Dan. 12: 11 is another designation of time, which at first view
seems incomi)atible with the limitation already noted in Dan. 7: 25 and
12: 7. The latter, in both passages, is 3^ years ; but the former is 1290
days, i. e. just thirty days more than the other two designations. How
can this be accounted for? The events to which the 1290 days stand
related, are evidently the same for substance as those to which the l2G0
days stand related ; for Dan. 12: 11 plainly shows this.
The answer to this question is, as I apprehend, to be found in the
fact, that 3i years is a number equalling the one half of seveii, the sa-
cred number, and that this is a convenient designation of a moderate
length of time, whether the designation is quite exact, or falls a little
short of exactness, or exceeds it in a small measure. In this simple
light we may regard the 1260 days in Dan. 7: 25. 12: 7 ; while the
1290 days, in Dan. 12: 11, gives an exact period to a day, in which the
events there described took place. It were easy to illustrate the mode
of reckoning by 3^, by references to extensive usage of this nature.
Thus the drought in the time of Elijah is said to he during three years
and six months, James 5: 17, although no period is named in the O.
Testament. Thus the Rabbins in respect to other events : " Nabuzar-
adan was sent to lay waste Jeinisalem 3 J years," Eccha IV. 12. " Ves-
pasian besieged Jerusalem three years and six months," Eccha, I. 5.
" Hadrian besieged Bither 3i years," Eccha R. II. 2. " Nebuchadnez-
zar and Vespasian will be punished in Gehenna three years and six
months," Eccha I. 12. Nothing is plainer, now, than that this period
is used here in the general way above described, without pretensions to
exactness in regard to a day. The 1290 days, however, in Dan. 12: 11,
appear to be designed for the purpose of exactness. And so far as we
can make out the doings of Antiochus from history, this corresponds
well with them. In the year 169 A. C. Antiochus made war upon the
Egyptians. Tliis war was not finished. He withdicw his troops to
winter quarters in Syria, and in the Spring of the year 1G8 renewed his
VOL. II. 59
466 DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : ExC. V.
attack. Now if we count back three years and seven moTiths = 1290
days, from the time when Judas Maccabaeus purified the temple and
renewed the sacrifices, (i. e. from Dec. 25, A. C. 165), we shall find
that the month of May in A. C. 1 68 would be the time when ApoUo-
nius took possession of Jerusalem and committed shocking cruelties
there. As it appears that this diversion of ApoUonius, with a detach-
ment of troops, was made when Antiochus was on his way to renew his
attack upon Egypt, and as this was of course in the Spring of the year,
all seems to be plain and harmonious.
One period more remains in the book of Daniel, viz. the 1335 days
in Dan. 12: 12. But I apprehend this passage is not very difficult of
explanation. We have seen that on the 25th of Dec. A. C. 165, Judas
Maccabaeus cleansed the temple and renewed its service. Very early
in the year following, Antiochus marched beyond the Euphrates, and
coming to Persepolis he undertook to rifle the temple there of its trea-
sures. But the inhabitants rose en masse and drove him from the city
with disgrace. Thence he fled to Ecbatana ; and there the news came
to him of Judas' great victory in Palestine and the restoration of tem-
ple worship. Uttering the most horrid blasphemies and imprecations,
he set out immediately on his return to Syria, that he might prepare to
annihilate the Jewish nation. On his way he fell sick, and died, proba-
bly of cholera, at Tabas in the mountainous region to the northward.
All this was early in the Spring of 164 A. C. Now if we add to Dec.
25th A. C. 165, the time of 75 days (which is the excess of the 1335
days over the 1260), we shall find ourselves to have arrived near the
middle of March A. C. 164.
How perfectly now all these designations of time tally with4iistoric
facts, may be seen at a single glance. " Blessed," says the angel, " is
he that waiteth and cometh to the 1335 days !" That is : 'Blessed is
he who liveth to see the day, when the tyrant and oppressor of God's
people, who has profaned the sanctuary, blasphemed the God of Israel,
and shed the blood of priests and saints, shall be removed beyond the
grasp of persecuting power, and sacred liberty and law shall resume
their sway over the promised land !' AU is so natural and easy here,
that one can scarcely help acceding to an interpretation of this nature,
when it is once proposed.
Where then, in the book of Daniel, can we find any. analogon for the
justification of the 1260 years' exegesis in the Apocalypse ? I cannot
find it ; and I must think that those who do find it, interpret it into the
projyJict, instead of deducing it exegetically out of him. We seek in
vain to establish by the Old Testament a precedent for making a day
the representative of a year. Ezek. iv. and Num. xiv. are the only cases
where this is done ; and there, as we have already seen, the reasons for
DESIGNATIONS OP TIME : ExC. V. 467
80 doing are perfectly apparent ; and there, too, we are expressly ad-
monished how the reckoning is to be made. Does not this amount to a
decUu'ation, that unless we had been so informed, we should of course
reckon time a.^ it is elsewhere reckoned ? And inasmuch as in other
cases no notice of such a kind is given, what can we do consistently, ex-
cept to reckon in the manner which is usual throughout the Scriptures?
Come we now to the Ai^ocalypse, the direct and immediate object
of our inquiry. I shall select only those designations of time here, which
are made by the use of numbers. On some of these I need not dwell ;
for all will concede that the use of numbers in some of the cases must
be of a tropical or symbolical nature.
In Rev. 2: 10 it is said to the church at Smyrna, that "the devil
would cast some of them into prison, that they might be tried and afflict-
ed, for ten days." That a short and really undefined period of time is
meant here, hardly any have questioned. Such or the like use of ten
the reader may find in 1 Sam. 25: 38. Neh. 5: 18. Jer. 42: 7. Dan. 1:
12, 14. Acts 25: 6 al. The mind naturally prefers some definite pe-
riod of time, as being more emphatic ; and .so ten days stands for a short,
but really indeliuite, period. So the Latins, when they wished to ex-
press an indefinite number of times during which anything happened or
would happen, said sexcenties, i. e. six hundred times. But in the Ci\se
before us much narrower limits are designated.
In Rev. 3: 10, hour of trial plainly means season of trial ; for the
word oiQci is very commonly employed in this way, by the New Testa-
ment writers. Of course the very nature of the expression leaves the
period of time here undefined.
In regard to the Jive months, Rev. 9: 10, during which the locusts
have power to inflict wounds upon men like those of scorpions, it seems
obvious, that the usual period, viz. from May until near the close of
September, in which the natural locusts commit ravages, is here chosen
in order to carry on the similitude. That a moderate, but actually un-
defined period of time is here intended, would seem to be plain. If,
with those who reckon a day for a year, we should here count upon 150
years as the period of duration, we must be at an utter loss to find any-
thing in history that corresponds with any good degree of probability to
such a period. If we count only five literal months, we are still in-
volved in the like difficulty. Hence the tropical or symbolical use of
the expression, fivtt months, seems to be most probable and facile. And
such appears to be the more usual opinion of commentators.
The designations of time, however, which are to be found in chap,
xi — xiii, are those about which controversy has arisen, and, with the
exception of the inillcnnial period, are the only ones to which any spe-
cial interest is attached. These need, therefore, an attentive examina-
tion.
468 DESIGNATIONS OP TIME : Exc. V.
In Rev. 11: 2 it is predicted, that the holy city and the temple (outer
court) shall be given to the Gentiles, and that they shall tread it under
foot forty-two months. That Jerusalem is here meant, seems to be be-
yond any fair question, inasmuch as v. 8 specifies it as the city where
our Lord was crucified. But the epithet holy city of itself determines
the question beyond appeal. Now here the same period is designated,
as in respect to the ravages of Antiochus Epiphanes, in Dan. 7: 25.
12: 7. And as we have seen, in the latter case, that not 1260 but 1290
(Dan. 12: 11) is probably the exact period of time, while the three and
a half years is used in the way of a more general expression, as being
the one half of seven, so hei-e we may understand the expression forty-
two months in the like manner. As a matter of fact, Cestius Gallus
laid siege to Jerusalem, in the month of Oct. A. D. 66 ; but he contin-
ued it only a short time, Joseph. Bell. Jud. II. 19. It was not until the
spring of the following year, that Vespasian, sent by Nero to subdue
Palestine, commenced hostile action in that country. There can scarcely
be a doubt, therefore, that the period in question is designed to mark
the time during which the conquest of Palestine and of the holy city
was going on. On the 10th of August A. D. 70, Jerusalem was taken
and destroyed by Titus. How well, now, this period compares with
that when ravages were committed by Antiochus, scarcely needs to be
noted here.
During the period while these events are going on, i. e. during 1260
days. Rev. 11: 3, the two witnesses prophesy in sackcloth, and finally
suffer martyrdom. That the two events, viz. the invasion and destruc-
tion of the holy city and the testimony of the witnesses are cotempora-
neous, is plain from the fact, that they are not only conjoined in the de-
scription, but that both iimnediately precede the fall of Jerusalem ; as
chap. xi. fully shows. Matt. 24: 9 — 13 also shows, that the pei'secution
of Christians would be active at this period. We seek then for no oth-
er limitation of the time here, than the same which has already been
pointed out in the preceding verse, i. e. in Rev. 11: 2.
Let it be noted here, also, in the way of illustrating the number 3^^
that the corpses of the two witnesses, after they are slain, are said to lie
in the street, exposed to public gaze, for three days and a half, Rev. 11:
9, 11. What now, if we should insist on interpreting this as meaning
3 J years ? It would bring out an absurdity ; for a single month, in the
climate of Palestine, would, in one way or another, destx'oy any dead
body, not to speak of its being devoured. Three days and a half, in such
a case, can therefore only mean a short period, i. e. one within which
the dead bodies should not be dissolved or consumed ; and the reason
for choosing this number is plainly to be found in the context, where 3^
years are so often designated.
DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : ExC. V. 4W
In chap. xii. there is a new and different application of the same num-
ber. The woman adorned vnth the sun and stars (the representative
of the churcli). after tlie ascension and glorification of her Son (the
Messiah), 12: 5, is compelled to flee to the wilderness, and dwe.ll there
1260 dai/s. There she is nourished for a time and times and half a
time, 12: 14, until the period of destruction is overpast. What now is
this, but a symbol of Christians who retreated to Pella in the wilderness-
country, when the invasion of Judea commenced, and of their being pro-
tected there until the indignation was overpassed? This synchronizes,
therefore, with the period already named and defined above. I see no
good reason to doubt, that it comprehends or refers to the same pe-
riod.
It was thus the church in general escaped from the desolations of war
and persecution. But Satan, enraged at this, is represented as making
his attack in other quarters, upon " the remnant of the seed of woman,"
i. e. upon Christians in various parts of the Roman empire, 11: 17.
The beast which rises out of the sea, i. e. the imperial power of liome,
is represented by John as " making war with the saints for forty-two
months," Rev. 13: 5, 7. The persecution by Nero began about the mid-
dle or the latter part of Nov. A. D. 64, at Rome. It ended with the
death of Nero, which was on the 9th of June, A. D. 68, for on that day
Galba entered Rome and was proclaimed emperor. Here again is Si-
years or 1260 days with sufficient exactness ; for the precise time of
forty-two months expires about the middle or end of May, and Nero
died in the first part of June ; see Comm. on Rev. 13: 5, and also the
remarks on 13: 3.
Viith facts such as these before us, how can we doubt what interpre-
tation ought to be put upon the times thus designated in these respective
p{i5sages ? Had these facts been duly examined, and all party-bias been
relinquished when men came to the study of the Apocalypse, it would
seem impossible that any of the more current speculations concerning
these periods could ever have originated. It is a sound rule of inter-
pretation, that the plain and obvious meaning of a passage is to be fol-
lowed whenever it will make a good and apposite sense, and not give an
impossible, absurd, or unmeaning sense. And in the ctxses before us,
the plain and obvious sense of the periods named is the only one which
accords at all with the context. It is impossible that we should renounce
the plain and obvious meaning, then, without a fundamental violation of
the principles of exegesis. Had the writer designed to put days for
years, he must without fail have given us information of it. He could
not expect to be read and understood, in any other manner than in a nat-
ural and easy one. The periods designated moan, therefore, what they
plainly seem to mean ; and it is an unwarrantable proceeding, when any
$
470 DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : ExC. V.
other interpretation is given to them. In particular, I am not able to
see how the terminus a quo, can be ascertained, provided we fix upon
1260 years as the length of the period meant to be designated, and then
insist upon it that popery is symbolized by the beast described in the
Apocalypse. The transactions and occurrences of A. D. G03, or 615, so
far as these have regard to the Romish church, are not of a distinctive
and important nature enough to mark Avith certainty the terminus a quo.
Every one who is in a good degree familiar with the history of the
third, fourth, and fifth centuries of the church, knows that popery took
its rise from small beginnings, and that its growth was very slow and
gradual ; so that any one definite and specific period can hardly be fixed
upon for any occurrence which made it substantially what it is. In-
deed, it did not reach its full height until the Council of Trent was
held, and its creed and policy established by it. Even admitting, then,
that chap. xiii. seq. has relation to the Romish church, how can we es-
tablish, with any tolerable degree of certainty, an exact time for the be-
ginning of the terminus a quo ? The end of such a period it would in-
deed be easy to determine, could we once find out its proper beguming.
But there is one advantage which the patrons of such an interpretation
have hitherto enjoyed, and which has shielded them in some measure
from criticism. This is, that the terminus ad quern, or end of the peri-
od, has hitherto, for the most part, been proposed by them as a period
^'C'^ future. We are bid to wait until that future ai'rives, and then we
may see who is in the right respecting the beast of the Apocalypse. John
Albert Bengel, indeed, the most learned, pious, and perhaps consistent
of all this class of interpreters, fixed, as we know, upon A. D. 1836 as
the year of the grand catastrophes disclosed in the second part of the
Revelation. He entertained not even the shadow of a doubt that he was
in the right ; nay, he verily believed, that his interpretation was given
to him by the special grace of God and the peculiar illumination of the
Holy Spirit. Yet that year has passed away, without any important
changes in the aspects of the world or of the church. And so have oth-
er periods fixed upon with the like or even greater confidence, already
passed by, without affording us any signs that the great period of 1260
years is at an end.
Most of the hariolations, now rife in this country and in E urope,
elude the grasp of criticism by going into iho, future for a t^jjiiKBAS- ct,d
quem ; for who can positively contradict a declaration, that such or such
an occurrence, which is a possible thing, will happen at such or such a
definite future period ? England and America swarm with books of
this class, all founded on the assumption, that Apoc. xiii. seq., respects
papal, and not pagan, Rome. This is not the place to examine in de-
tail such a method of interpretation. I must remit the reader to the
DESIGNATIONS OP TIME : ExC. V. 471
Commentary, and particularly to the statements of the contents of the
Apocalypse, prefixed to various sections of the book, and to Vol. I.
§ 27. I would merely remark here, that chap, xvii, the design of
which is to show who is meant by the beast, etc., gives us not a single
intimation that would of itself lead us to think of Christian instead of
Pagan Rome. It is a beast which was the7i existing, then devastating
the church and threatening to destroy it, that is obviously set forth in
Ilev. xiii. seq. But if this be not enough to show the unfounded nature
of the papal exegesis, i. e. of the exegesis which regards the beast iu
Rev. xiii. and xvii. as the symbol of the pope and popery, let one other
circumstance be brought into view. In Rev. 17: 10, the seven heads of
the bea.st are said to symbolize seven kings ; the angel-interpreter then
adds: ^^ Five of these are fallen ; one is ; the other has not yet come,
and when he shall have come, he will continue but a short time." Now
who in all the world can make out, that o( popery, which arose near the
close of the sixth century, it could be said in A. D. G8, {hut five popes
had already fallen, one was then reigning, and the seventh when he
should appear would continue but a little time ! ! What a tissue of
downright anachronisms, absurdities, and monstrosities in exegesis, does
this favorite papal application of Rev. xiii. and xvii. lead to and involve !
How can any considerate, consistent, and candid interpreter shut his
eyes against all this, for the sake of carrying out his favorite argument
against the papacy ? With regard to the question : In what sense is the
papacy {Predicted or denounced in the Apocalypse ? I have more than
once expressed my views, in the preceding pages ; see above p. 267
seq. I need not repeat again what has already been said. But the
supposition that John designed originally and clearly to symbolize papal
Rome by the beast from the sea, is one of the most chimerical of all the
chimeras that party exegesis has exhibited.
We come next to the period of a thousand years, designated in Rev.
20: 4 seq. Is this to be literally understood, or must we make out of
it, as many have done, a period of 300,000 years ? Or may it be taken
in a generic way, as the designation of a very long period ?
Analogy would perhaps decide in favour of the literal construction.
Yet the word thousand is so often employed in a general way, for a
long or very long period, that one might be justified, perhaps, in doubt-
ing here the absolutely literal construction. A few examples from the
Scriptures will suffice to illustrate my position ; e. g. " The Lord . . .
make you a thousand times as many as you are. — God who keepelh
covenant to a thousand generations. — How should one chase a thousand.
— The word he commanded to a thousand generations. — He cannot an-
swer him one of a thousand. — If there be an interpreter, one of a
thousand. — The cattle on a thousand hills are mine. — A day in thy
472 DESIGNATIONS OF TIME : ExC. V.
courts is better than a thousand. — A thousand shall fall at thy side.
— Though he live a thousand years twice told. — One man among a
thousand have I found. — Wliere were a thousand vines, at a thousand
silverlings. — One thousand shall flee at the rebuke of one. — A little one
shall become a thousand. — The city that went out by a thousand. — One
day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one
day."
In view of such and so numerous examples of the word thousand in-
definitely employed, some doubt may naturally arise in the mind of an
interpreter, whether this same word is, or is not, so employed in the
passage before us. With absolute certainty the question cannot be de-
termined^ by us. That the period of the church's pi'osperity will be at
^least 1000~ years, seems to be certain. That the time may not be long-
er than such an exact period, can hardly be made out by any exegeti-
cal process. Analogy, as to the use of the word thousand, would plead
in favour of this ; but the definite or nearly definite periods elsewhere
designated in the Apocalypse, as we have already seen, would plead in
favour of the simple literal interpretation.
As to the period of 300,000 yeai's, i. e. counting each day of the
thousand years for a year, I had almost said that I hope it is correctly
made out. Yet I know of nothing which will justify this method of
reckoning. If the writer had designed to be understood in this manner,
would he not have given us at least some intimation of it ?
I am aware of the disappointment which some will feel, in view of
such results as have been stated ; for some evidently have favourite
schemes of interpretation, by which they make out from the Apocalypse
the destiny of the Romish church, and of the Mohammedan power, and
it may be, of other enemies of the true church. It would be super-
fluous for me to repeat here what I have elsewhere said in relation to
this mode of interpretation. It is impossible, with such views as I en-
tertain, to regard the Apocalypse as a syllabus of civil and ecclesiasti-
cal history. It was written for the consolation of Christians under a
raging persecution, and its main design is to disclose relief from the
evils which then pressed upon the church. The distant future is indeed
recognized in it. Yet how brief is the recognition ! The futui"e events
of long periods, and events too of inexpressible intei'est, are all crowded
into the compass of one short chapter (ch. xx.) ; thus showing that the
pressure of the times then passing was the main object which the
writer had in view. Of course, if this position be correct, all the cal-
culations about the beginning and ending of the 1260 years, and the
exact time of the commencement of the 1000 years, are without any
solid basis, and are not entitled to our credence.
Are these views, now, conti'ary to the spirit and tenor of the N. Tes-
DESIGNATIONS OP THIK : ExC. V. 473
tament ? Does that bid us to expect, that definite periods of events in
the distant future will be revealed to us? The Saviour did not tell his
anxious disciples, who inquired with eager curiosity : When shall these
things be ? either the day or the hour when Jerusalem should be des-
troyed. Nay he went so far as to declare, that neither man, nor angel,
no, not even the Son himself, knew that day; Mark 13: 4, 32. Even
after his resurrection, and just before the ascension of Jesus, when his
followers renewed the anxious inquiry : " Lord, wilt thou at this time
restore the kingdom to Israel?" his reply wjis : "It is not for you
TO KNOW THK TIMKS, Oil TIIIC SEASONS, WHICH THE FaTIIEU HATH
PUT IN HIS OWN POWER." Acts. 1: 6, 7.
One is often constrained to ask, when he reads or hears the confident
calculations of many, in resi)ect to the time of restoring the kingdom :
What ? Has the Saviour's solemn and jiarting declaration been re-
voked? Is it true, after all, that we may know the exact year, if not
the very month or day, when the kingdom of God shall come in full
power? Did John indee<l obtain more knowledge of this than Jesus
himself was Avilling to communicate, and more than he judged it proper
for his disciples to know ? We would not deny, that definite periods
have at times been assigned to the existence of temporal and temporary
evils. In the Apocalypse itself, spiritual Sodom and mystical Babylon
are limited to a definite period, as to the persecutions which they would
carry on against the church, and were carrying on when the Apocalypse
was written. But this is a case wholly unlike to that which is presented,
when it is asked : At what definite period will the millennium begin ?
That the Father has kept this in his oxon power, I doubt not. How
then can we listen to those hariolations which assure us, that this period
is well ascertained at present, and that too by men who are altogether
uninspired ? How many confident vaticinations of this nature have
already been wrecked ! How many and bitter disappointments are
others yet to experience, who put their confidence in them I Enough
for us to know, that the Lord is not slack concerning his promise, and
that he who shall come, loill come, and will not tarry. Even so ; Come,
Lord Jesus, come quickly !
VOL. II. 60
474 MILLENNIUM : Exc VL
EXCURSUS VI.
Rev. XX. 3. Kai f^aXev avtov eig tjjv a^vaaov, nai sxIsigb xai ioqiQa-
yiaf.v mdvco uvrov, iva fir] Tilavyorj hi. za l&vt], u^Qi rsXeo&y ra xlha
£T7] ■ xul fiEtu ravra 8h avtov Xv&r^vai fii-AQOv y^QOVov.
Every one must see, that one of the most important words in the in-
vestigation of this passage is tXijoav. We may briefly recapitulate the
-illustration of it, in this place. It cannot mean simply to live; for to
construe it thus, would be to deny the life of the soul after the death of
the body. When' the Saviour gives promise to the penitent thief, that
he should, that day on which he expired, be with him in Paradise ;
when the same Saviour appealed to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, as
being alive, and thus disproved the doctrine of the Sadducees; and when
Paul says, that ' to be absent from the body is to be present with the
Lord,' it cannot be consistent with the doctrines of Christianity to sup-
pose that our spirits die with our bodies. Above all, the writer of the
Apocalypse himself, as is remarked in the Commentary, assumes a
position adverse to this, when he presents, as he does oftentimes and
everywhere in his book, the spirits of the just as uniting in the worship
and in the halleluias of heaven. In the very passage before us, the
seer beheld the \liev)[dg of the martyrs apparently in heaven ; and in
conjunction with this he sees the approaching dvd^oiaig, (if I may coin
an expressive word for the occasion), — drd^axjii; of their bodies, and
beholds, in prospect, their continued reign after this dvd!^(aGig, for a
1000 yeai's. "E^i]Gav, therefore, cannot mean merely to recover a
psychological existence which was lost. It cannot mean to live spirit-
ually, i. e. in opposition to being dead in trespasses and sins ; for all the
saints and martyrs possess such a life from the time when they are
first regenerated or sanctified. It cannot mean to become immortal ; for
from the first moment of their existence as rational beings, they and all
the rest of the human race were immortal. It cannot mean merely,
that, at the time when the Millennium commences, they begin to be
happy, i. e. to enjoy life ; for those who die in the Lord are blessed
unaQti, i. e. immediately or without delay. Whatever sLtjaav means
here, it must from the nature of the case be something different from
that which can be predicted of the rest of men (or Xoinoi), whether
these are Christians of the lower rank, or the wicked in general, or both.
It must import, moreover, a striking change in their antecedent condi-
tion ; for less than this the language cannot imply, without stripping it
iflLLENNIUM : Exc. VI. 478
of all sppcml sijinifioanoy. Happy, in a high degree, they were before
the ISIillennium ; and therefore (^ij<yar can mean here nothing less than
a great augmentation of happiness, provided the word refers merely to
tlie suhjeet of happiness. But is there not good reason to believe that
it cannot well be made to refer merely to this ? We must admit, it is
true, that the prosperity of the church is a subject of joy to all the
redeemed in heaven, inasmuch as we know that angels rejoice over
even one sinner who is brought to repentance here on earth. And
that there will be a general joy and a great augmentation of liappiness
among the redeemed in heaven, on account of the millenniiil state of the
church, is an idea that we cannot well refrain from entertaining, whether
it is specially developed in the Scriptures or not. Is it probable, then,
that f^iiCiuv here means merely such an augmentation of liappiness ?
How are the martyrs to be peculiarly distinguished from other Chris-
tians, if such be the meaning ? Their exalted piety may indeed give
them a more lively joy than that which is felt by others ; but this
merely, if there be nothing more, would not correspond well to the
greatness of the change from tlieir antecedent condition, which seems
to be plainly indicated by the whole passage before us.
If tlien, as it would seem, we must reject all these meanings, how can
we well avoid coming to the conclusion, that t^ijauv here must mean
reviving ov rising from the dead'?- The use of f«a» elsewhere in the
Apocalypse shows very plainly, that it may mean revived, lived again,
in reference to the body which had been dead. Thus the Saviour
speaks of himself, in Rev. 2: 8, as being he who had been dead, xa?.
e ^r, 6 e, and had revived, lived again, after the death of the body. Thus
too it is said of the beast (Rev. 13: 14), which had the deadly wound of
the sword, that e^rjne, it revived. Thus in our context also it is said:
" The rest of the dead lived not, ovx e^tjcav." Surely the writer does
not mean that Christians of lower rank, or the wicked, have no exist-
ence at all after the death of the body.
The point of antithesis which seems to decide the whole case, is, as
is remarked in the Commentary, the distinction between the first resur-
rection and the second. It apjiears to be a distinction of order or suc-
cession, but not of kind. There is indeed one other particular of differ-
ence or contrast, viz. the second resurrection will be general, universal,
comprising both the righteous and the wicked, while the first will com-
prehend, as the writer's language seems to intimate, only saints and
martyrs who have been specially faithful unto death. This distinction
the writer has made prominent. He expressly assures us, that the other
dead would not be raised when the 1000 years should commence, but
only at the end of the world when all will be raised. The express con-
trast here made between the partial and the general resurrection, and
476 MILLENNIUM : Exc. VI.
the manner in which this contrast is presented, show that the design is
not to compare a spiritual with a physical resurrection, but to contrast
the partial extent of the latter at the beginning of the Millennium, with
its general or universal extent at the end of the world.
Putting now all these considerations together, I do not see how we
can, Qii the ground jofljesegesis, fairly avoid the conclusion, that John
has taught, in the passage before us, that there will he a resurrection of
the martyr-saints, at the commencement of the period after Satan shall
have been shut up in the dungeon of the great abyss.
A thousand difficulties, as I am well aware, will start up at once in
the minds of many, and we shall be thrust at on every side with urgent
questions, earnestly asked, and asked moreover with confident anticipa-
tion that they cannot be answered. It becomes necessary, in order to
satisfy (if it can be done) the mind of the anxious and candid inquirer,
to take some special notice of the most urgent difficulties, which are of
such a nature as has been intimated.
(1) Vitringa's principal objection to such an interpretation as I have
given above, is drawn from the alleged fact, that the word of God re-
veals one, and but one, resurrection, both of the just and the unjust.
This he takes so much for granted, that he does not even go into any
disquisition respecting the subject, (p. 861). This has also been taken
for granted by many others ; some of whom have argued against the
Johannean origin of the Apocalypse, because of this singular doctrine of
a first resurrection; and others have affirmed, as Vitringa also does,
that we are by no means to admit such a doctrine, on the doubtful ground
or meaning of a single passage.
Doubtful, however, philologically considei'ed, I think we cannot well
name it. I have already given reasons why we seem to be constrained
to admit the sense of a bodily resurrection, like to the last and final one.
The exigencies of the passage are apparently such as absolutely to demand
this ; at least a great portion of recent commentators have judged them
to be such. Indeed, if this be not a position in the interpretation of
Scripture which is fully and fairly made out by philology, I should con-
fess myself at a loss to designate one which is, from among the many
difficult passages of the Scriptures.
Were it as Vitringa states the matter, i. e. doubtful whether philology
can maintain the position which I have taken, then I freely grant, that
the reasoning of this author, viz. that we are not to introduce a doctrine
into Christian theology which depends on the doubtful construction of
any one text of Scripture, and seems to be discrepant from the general
tenor of the Bible, would be quite conclusive. But in the case before
us, I cannot admit any serious doubt, either on the ground of general
philology, or of the usus loquendi of the Apocalypse. Moreover, it is
MILLENNIUM : Exc. VI. 477
not at all certfiin, at least to my mind, that the doctrine of a first, as
well as a second, resurrection is not elsewhere alluded to in the Scrip-
tures.
But I will now suppose, merely for the sake of argument, that it is
not. Does it then follow, that we are not to admit it from tlie passage
before us ?
Why should it, in case this passage is plain, and fairly incontroverti-
ble, as to its meaning pliilologically investigated ? That it is so, I am
on the whole constrained to believe. Vitringa himself does not elsewhere
reason in such a way as he does here, in respect to other passages of
the New Testament. He does not call in question the doctrine, that
the mediatorial kingdom of Christ will be given up, " when the end
Cometh;" nor does he doubt that Christ, i. e. " the Son himself, will be
subject to Him who put all things under him, that God may be all in
all" (1 Cor. 15: 24—^28), because these doctrines are taught but once
in the Scriptures. He does not call in question the doctrine that
"saints shall judge the world, and judge angels," because no scriptural
■writer, except Paul, has presented this doctrine in such a shape. He
does not call in question the resurrection of the body, under such modi-
fications as Paul has taught, in 1 Cor. xv, although no other part of the
Bible presents us with these. Yet these are doctrines of high and sa-
cred import, not lightly to be received, and certainly not to be rejected
lightly. Why then, if the meaning of the text before us is clear, should
we reject the doctrine of a first resurrection, even if no other scriptural
writer has expressly taught it ? There is nothing more improbable in
this resurrection, as considere<l in and by itself, than thei'e is in the
second resurrection. The difficulties are the same in all important re-
spects ; and these difficulties all depend on speculative views which limit
the power of God, or prescribe the order of his kingdom in heaven ; or
on difficulties arising from speculations resi)ecting the nature and pro-
perties of matter, or concerning personal identity, or existence in a
spiritual world, or other like things. If there be anything of this kind,
which may be arrayed in opposition to a first resurrection, so it may in
opposition to a second. These objections, then, plainly prove too much ;
of course, they can prove nothing to the present purpose.
But I liave another suggestion to make here, which must contribute
to present the subject in an attitude very different from that in which
Vitringa presents it. It seems to me, that the passage before us is not
the only one in the Scriptures which teaches or intimates, that there
will be a. first and a seconc^ resurrection. I need not discuss this subject
again here. I refer the reader to Phil. 3: 8 — 11. Luke 14: 14. Is. 26:
19. 1 Cor. 15: 23, 24. 1 Thess. 4: 16. In particular does Paul seem,
by his anoQXV • • • *''£"'« • • • £?7«, in 1 Cor. 15: 23, 24, to have advert-
478 MILLENNIUM : Exc. VL
ed to a first and second resurrection. See De Wette in loc. On the
subject of such resurrections, see Vol. I. § 10. p. 176 seq. of this work,
and the Comm. on Rev. 20: 4, 5.
(2) It is objected to a first resurrection, that it is accompanied with
no judgment, and therefore is wholly unlike the second in this respect.
How, it is asked, can we suppose the saints and martyrs to enter upon
an exalted state of glorification, before they have been brought to trial
and to judgment ?
The answer seems not to be difiicult. Is it not a doctrine of the
Scriptures, that the saints, immediately after death, do pass to a state of
glory ? It is ; and yet there is no yewera^ judgment connected with this.
By calculation as to the number of deaths which now take place in the
world, it is certain that at least one person dies about every second of
time. Such being the fact, a formal trial, understanding the word viore
humano., of each individual before the bar of God, is out of the question.
The decisions of Omniscience need no protracted time for examination.
Each spirit takes the place, of course, to which its character necessarily
assigns it ; and all this, as we must suppose, without any general or
even any particular and formal judgment, after the manner of human
tribunals.
This being admitted, why should it be objected to a j'zrs^ resurrection,
that it is accompanied with no formal judgment ? The great Lord of
the church surely knows the character of all his servants just as well
without any such trial, as with one. The first resurrection is represen-
ted in the Apocalypse as a blessedness of a peculiar nature, and the saints
and martyrs, who have been faithful unto death, are admitted to the
privilege of enjoying it. " Blessed and holy is he, who hath a part in
the first resui*rection ; over such the second death hath no power, but
they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall reign with him a
thousand years," Rev. 20: 6. These saints, then, it would seem, are to
anticipate the final judgment day, and enter on that higher state of hap-
piness which results from the union of the soul with the body, when it
is raised from the dead and made like to Christ's glorious body — enter
on it long before the world comes to an end. In other words : Peculiar
sufferings and fidelity are entitled to, and will receive, peculiar rewards.
That these, however, with all other intelligent, rational, accountable
beings, will appear among the congregated host at the final judgment, is
still not to be doubted. But their state will not be changed by that
judgment. It will be only to justify the ways of God in the view of aU
the rational beings, who have been formed by his power, and made ac-
countable to the moral laws of his kingdom.
I have said thus much, on the ground of conceding to the objector
what he alleges, in respect to bestowing reward without any trial or
MILLENNIUM : EXC. VI. 4781
judfjment. But if the render will now consult the Commentary on the
passage, he will tind some good reason, (at least it appears so to me),
to doubt whether the martyrs are admitted to their state of exaltation
without any trial or judgment. The tribunals, as we are told, are set,
and the judges are seated upon them ; and as to the martyrs, a decision
seems to he implied, that a resurrection and an exalted station shall be
assigned to them ; and all this actually takes place. This seems to be
comprised within the meaning of the text, when it is carefully investiga-
ted. Of course, if this be the case, the objection has no scriptural basis
on the ground alleged.
If it be objected, that ' the writer seems to represent the judgment
here as preceding the resurrection, and so iis not to be analogous to the
final judgment ;' the answer \^ obvious. The writer classes things to-
gether which are predicated of the same subjects, and does not relate
them merely in the order of sequency. And even if this be denied, the
circumstance that the judgment precedes the resurrection, is altogether
unimportant as to the main object of the representation. There is still
a judgment, before the higher reward is bestowed.
(3) ' Must we then go back to the old doctrine of Papias, Irenaeus,
Tertullian, Nepos the Egyptian bishop with his friend Coracion, Lac-
tantius, and other visionaries of ancient and modern times, and interpret
all the prophecies in relation to the INIillenniiim literally? Must we
maintain that a thousand years of carnal feasting and luxury are set be-
fore the church, during which the King of Zion will literally descend to
the earth, and reign in glory upon the holy mountain at Jerusalem, and
all nations go up and worship there, and all sin and suffering and sorrow
cease, and the earth be converted into another Eden, substantially like
that from which Adam was expelled ? '
Such, with regret I acknowledge it, have been the phantasies of ma-
ny lively imaginations, even of not a few persons otherwise grave and
sober, buoyed uj) by dreamy hopes respecting the future. From the
records of even the most early times we have evidence, that such enthu-
siastic visions were indulged. But of all this I find nothing in the text
before us. Not a word of Christ's descent to the earth, at the beginning
of the Millennium. Nothing of the hteral assembling of the Jews in
Palestine ; nothing of the Messiah's temporal reign on earth ; nothing of
the ovei-flowing abundance of worldly peace and plenty. We find, indeed,
most lively images of the like nature in Isaiah, and in other prophets ; but
how can we doubt that this imagery has a tropical meaning, when we
are told, for example, that " the wolf shall dwell with the lamb, the leop-
ard he down with the kid, and the calf and the young lion and the fat-
ling together ; and the little child shall lead them ; the lion shall eat
straw like the ox, and the sucking child shall play on the hole of the
480 MILLENNIUM : Exc VI.
asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice's den ?"
Is. 11: 6 — 8. Does any rational man indeed expect, that beasts of prey
and poisonous serpents will undergo an entire change of nature in the
Millennium, and that there will be no more sin nor suffering nor sorrow
during that period ? This is to ask : Whether he expects that the pro-
bation and the imperfections of man in the present world are entirely to
cease, so that there shall then be no need of a Christian ministry, nor
of the preaching of the Gospel ? Is the depraved disposition of men to
exist no more, when this happy period arrives, and is there to be no fur-
ther need of the sanctifying influences of the Holy Spirit, and of repen-
tance and reformation ? Idle, yea, woi'se than idle, are all the fancy-
dreams about such a world in expectancy as this. They have done
great mischief in the church, even at s^ early period ; nor have they
ceased to do it still ; but of all these phantasies the author of the Apoc-
alypse is quite guiltless.
Where were the thrones which John saw ? Plainly where the sotils
were who were to be judged. And where is that ? In chap. 6: 9 we
are told where it is. It is in heaven. The souls of the martyrs are
there represented as at the foot of the altar, in the temple of God in hea-
ven. And where, throughout the Apocalypse, are the souls of depart-
ed saints supposed to be ? Surely with God and Chi'ist in heaven.
But here, in the passage before us, no change of place where the souls
of martyrs are, is intimated. The writer tells us, that they are to reign
with Christ for a thousand years. But Christ is not represented as hav-
ing changed or transferred his place of abode. Occasionally he is rep-
resented as making his appearance at the head of the armies of almighty
God, as a resistless conqueror. But his abode is in heaven, upon the
throne. In heaven, then, ixEta rov XQiatov, are martyrs and saints
to live and reign, during the millennial period. There indeed their
,spirits were, before this period commenced ; but now a new state or con-
dition is brought to view. It is a union of their spirits with their bodies
raised from the dead. In this advanced state of happiness, they are to
be enthroned with Christ, i. e. they are to be where he dwells, and
where, as the Scriptures often teach us, he will continue to dwell, until
he shall make his descent at the final judgment-day. (See 1 Thess. 4:
16. 2 Thess. 1: 7. Acts 1: 11. 3: 21, which last text many apply to the
Millennium, but to this exegesis I cannot accede). Why then should
our author be taxed with the dreams and phantasies of ancient or mo-
dern Millenarians in the literal sense, who make a worldly and sensual
kingdom, and bend all things in the Scriptures to the support of such a
scheme ? There appears to be no solid ground for this ; certainly none
expressed in our text. Martyrs are to be kings and priests, not of
Christ only, during the millennial period, but of God also. Is God then
MILLENNIUM : Exc. VT. 481
to be personuUy and visibly resident on earth, and are tliey to serve him
in tiiis condition, as the priests of old served in the tal)ernacle and tem-
ple of the Hebrews? This question, at least, needs no diseussion.
Why then should the other ? Will you say : ' Because Christ and the
saints who are raised from the dead have bodies, therefore theymust
have a local earthly habitation? If so, then I would remind you, that
the dead are raised "incorruptible," this "mortal puts on immortality,"
the body "is raised in glory," it " is raised in power," it " is raised a
spinfiial body." How then can a material world be fitted for its abode ?
How, in the nature of things, can the f/lorijied saints physically associ-
ate with those who have never yet undergone the change of death and
a resurrection ? In a word : How can earth become heaven, and saints
once there glorified be honoured and made more happy by a descent
to a world of sin and sorrow, or at all events to a world in which corpo-
real and material beings dwell ? tor such it will always be, so long as it
is a world of probation ; and such a world it must be even during the
Millennium. But John is responsible for none of these phantasies.
The view which he gives, presents nothing improbable ; certainly noth-
ing impossible, or incongruous with the nature of things, as elsewhere
represented in the Scriptures. But,
(4) I shall doubtless be asked : What can the reign for a thousand
years with Christ mean ? Can it be, that after this period the saints
and martyrs will cease to live and reign, as kings and priests ? If this
reign has respect only to their heavenly state, must not this mode of
presenting the subject imply, that after the period in question (the thou-
sand years), there will be a diminution of their happiness and glory ?
At first view, the difficulty thus suggested seems to be specious.
Further consideration however, may clearly diminish, if not entirely re-
move it. The reign in question, as here presented, is most evidently
a relative one. It stands related here to the state or condition of the
church on earth. When Christ has overcome the beast and false pro-
phet, his kingdom will be extended over most of the earth, and of
course be very widely extended. As God, indeed, or the divine Logos,
he lives and reigns over all forever and ever. But as Mediator, his pe-
culiar reign is coextensive with his dominion as connected with the
church. So long as he suffers the powers of darkness to exercise their
dominion, his power or dominion as Mediator is not fully developed.
But when this development shall be made, in the millennial day, then
the saints are to rejoice in it, and to participate with him in the joy and
glory arising from it. And such is their triumph and joy, as presented
in the passage before us. It is a relative reign ; it is their participa-
tion in the Redeemer's triumphs ; for he is the Head, and they are
VOL. II. 61
482 MILLENNIUM ; Exc. VI.
*' members of his body." When that dominion is again invaded by the
congregated hosts of Gog and Magog, urged on by Satan once more
loosed from his prison, then it is, that this relative and (as we may say)
temporal dominion is again thwarted, and brought into a new state of
trial and danger. It seems, as it wei'e, to suffer an interruption. Be-
yond the period when the new enemy is to be subdued and destroyed,
the Apocalyptist has not made particular disclosures. But the implica-
tion of course is, that when the enemies of the church's peace and pros-
perity are destroyed, then the peace and prosperity of the church will
return and be reestablished. The reign of the saints and martyrs, then,
will be I'esumed, and will continue until the end of all things. It will
go on after the consummation of all things; for they will be "kings and
priests of our God forever and ever." Yet the object of the passage
before us is not to disclose this last view of the subject ; for all the re-
deemed will participate in these final honours. It is merely to disclose
to Christians the great truth, that the martyrs, or the faithful who will
have lived before the millennial period, will enjoy the peculiar privilege
of ajii'st resurrection as a reward of their fidelity, and will be advanced
to an elevated state of glory at the commencement of that period.
That this elevated state will end, at the close of that period, except in
the modified manner already stated, there is no reason to suppose.
The dominion of Christ as Mediator is to be given up, (so Paul tells
us), at the consummation of all things ; for after that, there is nothing
more to be done by him in the official capacity of a Mediator. But
Christ's glorified human nature is not to be annihilated, nor his moral
dominion over the Redeemed to cease, so long as heaven and happiness
endure.
So in the case before us ; because the apostle tells us, that the mar-
tyrs begin their glorious triumph with the millennial period, it does not
follow that it is to end with that period. It is only its relative condition
which is to be changed, when a new enemy comes in upon the church.
But still, the Jinal triumph of the church is certain ; and the reign of
J the saints, as kings and priests of God, is to be forever and ever.
r"' -Cl^ius have I discussed the most important questions, which are raised
^ by way of "objection to the interpretation wliich has been given to the
■r* passage before us. I might stop here, and leave to the reader of the
'~^, book other and minor difficulties, which not unnaturally arise in the
minds of some I'especting the subject before us. But it may not be
amiss, in order to satisfy the minds of some who are perplexed with
the passage under examination, to consider a few other questions which
may be raised.
It is asked : ' Whether all true Christians, and indeed all truly pious
MILLENNIUM : Exc. VI. 488
men of every ajrc, who lived before the coinmenoement of the Millen-
nium, will be raised fmm the dead at that period, or whether the A^k)-
calyptist aHiriiis this only of Cltristian martyrsl
To this 1 answer briefly, (hat those " who are beheaded for the testi-
mony of Jesus," are clearly placed in high relief, by the writer of the
Apocalypse ; but possibly he does not limit the promises merely to
these. He may mean to include all who have not received the mark of
the beast, nor done him homage, i. e. all who amid sufferings have been
faithful and true to the doctrines and duties of a divine religion, in times
of jjressurej We cannot well doubt that he has specially in view the
persecuted Christians of his day ; but still, may he not be regarded as
designating two classes of persons? Can he mean to be understood as
confining his views only to literal and actual martyrs ? And if faithful
Christians in general are described by his language, then what forbids,
that all of these before the Millennium, who have cherished the same
spirit as the actual martyrs, served the same God, and possessed the
same sympathies in respect to the prosperity and welfare of the church,
should be included in the promises which he here holds out ?
The answer to these questions is not very easy, and cannot, as it seems
to my mind, be made out with entire certiiinty from the text. The nat-
ural impression from reading the text plainly is, that martyrs who have
been steadfast during persecution by the beast and false prophet, and
maintained in the midst of sufferings their integrity throughout, will be
partakers of the first resurrection. But then, what enlightened interpre-
ter will not concede, that the particular representations and symbols ex-
hibited in the Apocalypse, are designed to teach and establish general
truths ? Is it not true, that " Christ will reign, until all enemies shall
be put under his feet," all of whatever kind, whether they are pagan
Rome or any other pagan country, whether Islamism or false Christian-
ity ? I believe this to be assuredly true ; and that the principles estab-
lished by the Apocalypse are intended to cover this whole ground, not-
withstanding the symbols and representations are specific and particular.
In accordance then with such a principle I shall doubtless be asked :
' Why may we not hope, that all the faithful martyrs and confessors of
every age, previous to the Millennium, will participate in the glories and
honours of that blessed day ?'
The answer, as it seems to me, must on the whole be, that some shades
of doubt remain here. Is there not a distinction made by John, between
those who have perilled their lives and suffered for their steadfast ad-
herence to religion, and those who have been distinguished neither by
active piety nor by suffering ? — Who will venture to answer with con-
fident assurance, that there is not ? The special object, in view of
which the Apocalypse was written, seems to point us to the class of
484 MILLENNIUM : Exc. VI.
martyrs and faithful confessors, as being the only ones intended to be
included by the writer. In times of distressing and bloody persecution
Was the book written. Christians were to be consoled, and fortified so
as to meet the shock. What now was the natural course for the writer
to take ? Was it not to hold out high and peculiar rewards to those
who endured to the end ? It is difficult not to think this probable.
And what is the peculiar reward of unshaken constancy and fidelity ?
A part in the first resurrection. This is the natural and obvious solu-
tion of the case. But what then of other pious men of every age, who
have borne no conspicuous part in martyrdom or suffering, and made no
peculiar attainments in piety ? Are they to wait the common lot of
other Christians, who may live after the Millennium has commenced,
and be raised up only at the last day ? I do not feel that this question
can be answered with entire confidence. On the one hand, to affirm
that all the pious, who have lived before the Millennium, will be raised
up at the beginning of that period, would seem to aboHsh all distinction
between faithful confessors, who are martyi's, and other Christians who
hold an inferior place ; and thus to remove special excitement to stead-
fast adherence to Christianity amid sufferings and death. On the other
hand, however, it will be said, that we seem, by the distinction in ques-
tion, to mingle the pious of humbler degi'ee with the wicked, who are a
portion, if not all, of the ol Xoittoi rojv ve-AQav that have no part in the
first resurrection. We are reduced then to a kind of strait here, be-
tween these two considerations ; nor does there appear to be anything
so entirely explicit in our text, as completely to relieve us from this
strait. Enough, since we know assuredly, that faithful saints and mar-
tyrs, in times of persecution and deep distress, have a glorious reward
placed before them, of which they will not be deprived. The fearful
and timid and wavering and cold and slothful Christian — why should
he be encouraged by the same prospect and the same promises, which
are placed before martyrs and faitliful confessors .'' Even if the abound-
ing and wonderful mercy of God should, in the end, give him part in
the first resurrection, it does not seem to be meet, nor consistent with
proper excitement to elevated piety, to hold out the same promises and
encouragement to the timid and doubting and slothful Christian, as to
the faithful and active and diligent one, who counts not his life dear in
the cause of Christ, yea, who counts all things but loss, for the excel-
lency of the knowledge of Ciirist Jesus his Lord.
And does not Paul himself seem to say, that although he might pos-
sibly be a Christian, and attain to final happiness, yet he should lose a
part in the j^rs^ resurrection, if he should become slothful and remiss?
He tells us that he had suffered the loss of all things, and counted them
but dung . . . that he might know Christ and the power of his resurrec-
MILLENNIUM : EXC. VI. 4M
tion . . . ifbif any means he might attain to the rcsurrcrtioti of the dead ;
Phil. 3: 8 — 11. Did Paul, tlicn, consider it a matter of doul)t wlu-ther
he should have a part in the final re^mrivction ? This same aposlh^,
who has so expressly taught us the resuiTcctioii of all, both of the right-
eous and of the wicked — did he doubt whether he could attain to this
same resurrection ? Surely not. Consequently his declaration, then
and only then, seems to possess a full and energetic meaning, when we
view him as declaring, that a high and holy and vigorous contest with
the powers of darkness must be carried on, in order to obtain a part in
the Jirst resurrection. So interpreted, the meaning of the pa>*sage
stands out in bold relief.
All this seems rather to guide us to the conclusion, that a distinction
will be made among the pious themselves, at the Jirst resurrection.
This is only carrying out the princii)le, that those who possess five
talents and improve them diligently, will be made rulers over five cities ;
and those who have two, over only two cities. In other words :
" Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord ; yea, saith the S[>irit, for
they rest from their labours, and their works do follow them." An em-
phatic meaning can, on this ground, be naturally assigned to this pas-
sage. Yet I do not, and dare not, confidently affirm in a case like this,
where all is future, and from its very nature is involved in some obscuri-
ty as seen by our feeble vision. One thing is certain — Just and true
are the ways of him who is King of Saints.
It may be asked, moreover : 'In what manner will this first resur-
rection take place ? With outward and visible demonstrations ; or only
by a secret and unobservable exertion of divine power?'
In regard to this it may be said, first, that there is nothing in the text
of our author which would go to show, that there will be any extraordi-
nary outward and visible demonstration made by the Saviour and at-
tending angels, at the period in question. Difi'erent is the passage, in
its tenor, from that in 1 Thess. 4: 16, where the apostle says, that "the
Lord himself shall descend from heaven, with a loud shout, and with the
voice of an archangel, and with the truuip of God," i. e. with the sound
of the trumpet of God, as on Sinai of old. This declaration of Faul
plainly has respect to i\\G.jinal resurrection, when " those who are alive
shall be caught up in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air, and so be
ever with the Lord." But nothing of this kind, in either of these re-
spects, is said in the passage betbre us. May we not conclude, then,
that John did not mean to designate a resurrection apparent to all the
dwellers on earth, or apparent to the fleshly eye, but one which, altiiough
not outwai-dly seen by men, and unattended with any pomp or outward
and visible tokens, will in reality take place, in order tliat martyrs and
faithful saints may as it were anticipate their final state of glory, and
486 MILLENNIUM : Exc. VI.
enjoy the triumphs of the church, in the splendour and excellence with
which redeeming love will invest them ?
It becomes us not to be over confident in any interpretation of a pas-
sage which has respect to future occurrences of a high and mysterious
nature. But so far as the laws of interpretation lead us we may go,
with a humble but steadfast confidence, that the Saviour has, at all
events, promised great and glorious things to saints and martyrs, when
the kingdom of the beast and false prophet shall be brought to desola-
tion, and the kingdoms of this world become the domain of our Lord
and of his Christ.
In taking leave of the subject of the first resurrection, I would merely
suggest a few of the leading thoughts that must guide us, as it seems to
me, in making up our final opinion. (1) It is clear that the usus lo'
quendi of the New Testament sanctions the assigning to it,)jaav the
meaning of revived, lived again after death. (2) At the end of v. 4 it
is distinguished from f^aoiksvouv x. t. h The living is one thing, the
reigning is another. If now we give to t^tjoav the tropical sense of
reigning with Christ, or of being advanced to an exalted state of glorifi-
cation, then the two expressions would be tautological ; which appears
to be inadmissible here. For, (3) The writer immediately contrasts
the state of the glorified martyrs with that of the rest of the dead, v. 5.
He says of the latter, that thei/ did not live, i. e. in the sense in which
the martyrs did. Now if of Xoinot Toiv i>ty.Q0Jv includes other saints who
are not martyrs, or the wicked, or both, it would be difficult to make
out any tolerable meaning, unless \we understand iL,qauv as importing a
real resurrection. As to happiness, (if we understand s^rjaav simply to
designate this), other saints surely. do partake of it. And as to the
wicked, it would be needless to assert here, that they were not happy
during the thousand years. In fact, (4) The only tropical meaning
that can be assigned to 'i'Qtjaav here, which will bear examination at all,
is that of exaltation to a high degree of glory and happiness. There is
no certain analogy for this shade of meaning in respect to ^da, elsewhere
in the New Testament. I do not deny the possibility of employing the
word in this way, nor even the probability, in case other circumstances
accorded. But here the contrast stands in the way. The martyrs
i^r]aciv at the beginning of the thousand years ; the rest of dead ovx
s^ijoav until those years were completed. Is not the implication here,
of necessity, that at some period after this completion the rest of the
dead aho lived? The contrast relates only to the period in question.
Beyond that is a second resurrection, in which the rest of the dead will
live. If this includes all the rest of the dead, then, living cannot mean
advanced to a high degree of glory and happiness, for all the dead will
never attain to this. If the rest of the dead means only other saints
MILLENNIUM : Exc. VI. 487
who are not martyrs, the ditBculty would indeed be diminished, for all
will be "kings and priests unto God," after the <2;en(!ral resurrection.
Is this then the meaninj]; of tlie writer? And does he mean only to
contrast one class of saints here with another ? It is a possible sense,
I would concede; but is it probable that he so limits the comparison?
There is, I freely confess, so much that is difficult here, that I do not
advance ray main [wsitions with full and entire confidence. I have ven-
tured upon the path that I have trodden, merely as led by philology,
and, as I would hope, in the way of a modest and humble inquirer. I
have freely suggested the difficulties which philology throws in the way
of the tropical meaning often assigned to i'^ijnuy here. If they are not
insuperable, they are at least very great. My own mind at lejist is so
much influenced by them, that I do not see my way clear to adopt the
tropical meaning. I must incline to the other, although with no little
diffidence. I can readily cherish respect for those who may differ from
me on the points before us ; and at all events, they are at liberty to
foi'm and maintain their own opinions.
One other question in respect to our subject, and we must then dis-
miss it : How EXTENSIVE does the passage before us intimate that the
millennial reign will be ?
To answer this question, we must look at the plan of the book under
examination. Here all is progressive, climactic. First, the Jewish per-
secuting power is subdued, and Palestine is rescued from its grasp.
Then follows the subjugation of the Roman empire, in all its extent over
what was called the known world. But still, even this does not actual-
ly embrace the whole earth. Beyond the boundaries of this empire,
and in regions unknown to the ancients, were numerous hordes of bar-
barous nations, by the Greeks and Romans called Scj/thia7is ; by the
people of 31iddle and Western Asia named Gog and Magog. These
plainly are not included in the second great triumph of the church ; for
after the 1000 years, when Satan is again let loose, he betakes himself
to these, and leads them up, in numbers like the sand of the sea, against
the camp and city of the saints. Whence could such an army come, if
the whole world without exception were already Christians t No de-
fection or apostasy from Christianity is intimated by John. Satan goes
among the far-distant heathen, and excites them once more to war against
the saints, Rev. 20: 7 — 9. So the ancient pro[)liets also predict ; as
one may see by a careful study and examination of Ezek. '61: 1 — 39:
24. Joel 8: 1 — 21. Zeeh. xiii. xiv. Then comes universal peace and
safety to the church. Its setting sun will be in unclouded glory.
How exactly, too, does all this coiTespond to God's dealings with bis
church in times past I More than 2000 years pass away before a cove-
nant people are selected ; 500 more before a written revelation com-
488 millennium:; Exc. VI.
mences ; more than 4000, from the beginning of the world before it is
completed ; and after 1800 years more, only a small part of the earth is
yet christianized. How many more will pass before such a portion of
the earth is reclaimed from heathenism and error, as will correspond to
the extent of the Roman empire as presented in the Apocalypse, is more
than we can tell. " The times and seasons hath the Father kept in his
own power." But this we know ; " The Lord is not slack concerning
his promise, as some men count slackness ; a 1000 years are with him
as one day, and one day as a 1000 years." — "Yet he that shall come,
will come and will not tarry." " Amen ! Even so ; come. Lord Jesus,
come quickly !"
In the Apocalypse, now, analogies to these periods are carried out.
All is gradual, progressive, climactic. The final consummation is the
new heavens and the new earth, where all is holiness and peace and
happiness. God and Christ will dwell with the redeemed ; they shall
hunger no more, and thirst no more. There shall be no more pain,
nor sorrow, nor death, nor sin. Tiie Lord Avill be their everlasting
light, and God their glory. Is not this enough ? Can we ask for more
to animate our hopes, to cheer us in our sufferings, to sustain us under
our sorrows ? " Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor hath it entered
into the heart to conceive, of the things which God hath prepared for
those who love him."
Finally, it will be perceived, that while, with nearly all of the recent
interpreters of the Apocalypse who possess distinguished exegetical tal-
ent, I admit sl first resurrection, I am far removed from the ancient or
the modern enthusiastic interpreters, who find in our text a tempoi-al and
visible reign of Christ on earth, in the midst of a church militant and
triumphant mingled together in one and the same terrestrial abode. To
recount the phantasies of these would be a wearisome, and in many re-
spects an unprofitable task. I must content myself with merely trans-
lating a single passage from Irenaeus, which will show how early some
visionary and extravagant opinions, in relation to a temporal and terres-
trial reign, gained a footing even in the primitive church.
In the latter part of Irenaeus' fifth book Contra Haereses, he comes to
the topic in question. Here he labours, at great length, to show that
nearly all the promises of the Old and New Testaments have respect to
such a terrestrial reign. In the midst of his arguments, he appeals to
what certain presbyters or ancients had related, who, as he says, had
seen the apostle John. From him had they heard, as he avers, that
Christ himself when speaking of the days of his earthly and visible
reign, said to his apostles : " The days will come, in which vines will
grow, each having ten thousand branches ; and on each branch there
will be 10,000 twigs, and on each twig 10,000 clusters of grapes ; and
MILLENNIUM : Exc. VI. 489
in each cluster 10.000 jrrapcs; and each grape, when expressed, will
yield twenty-five /<f rp/;rrt( of wine, [i. e. about 209 gallons]. And when
any one of the saints shall take hold of a cluster of grapes, another
[cluster] will cry out : I am a better cluster, take me, and on my ac-
count give thanks to the Lord." (Iron. Cont. Haer. Lib. V. c. 33.)
When this calculation is reduced to a simple result, it makes one grape,
vine to produce wine to the amount of 180,000 billions of gallons.
Thus far the alleged words of Christ to his disciples. Now follows
another passage taken by Irenaeus from a work of Papias (fl. A. D.
100), entitled ytoyiwv y.V(>tax(ov 'E^ijy/jaei','. It runs thus : " In like
manner a grain of wheat will produce 10,000 heads ; and each head will
have 10,000 grains ; and each gi*ain will yield ten pounds of clear fine
flour ; and other fruits will yield seeds and herbage in the same propor-
tion. And all the animals which subsist on the productions of the earth,
will be peaceful and harmonious, and obedient to man with the most
entire subjection." (lb.)
Irenaeus then adds, that he has taken these things from the work of
Papias already named, and subjoins the remark of Papias at the close :
" These things are credible to those who have a believing spirit."
Such then were the dreams of enthusiastic minds even at, and soon
after, the very close of the apostolic age ; dreams ridiculed by Origen
himself, by Eusebius, by Dionysius of Alexandria, Jerome, Augustine,
and many others ; but still, dreams which gained credit with such as
could not elevate their minds above the sensible objects around them.
When was it, or will it be, properly understood, that Clirist's kingdom
is not of this world — " is not meat and drink, but righteousness and
peace and joy in the Holy Ghost ?" In comparison with these, all
earthly pleasures and glories sink into utter insignificance.
To recite such interpretations and phantasies, is to refute them. Yet
recent developments in England, Germany, and our own country, exhi-
bit phantasies not less airy than these. It behooves us, then, to gird
up our loins, and be sober, hoping, praying, and laboring for the coming
and establishment of a kingdom which, as the apostle says, shall never
be shaken, (Heb. 12: 28), and which, in its consummation, will be
adorned with all the glories that the presence of God and the Redeemer
can impart.
[Whoever wishes to pursue the history of the development of Chiliasmf
L e. a belief in the thousand years' reign of Christ and the saints on earth,
can easily find the means of accomplishing this end. He n)ay begin with
the Epistle of Barnabas, cap. 1.5, in Cotel. Pat. Apostol. p. 4.'). Al\er thia
come Hermas Pastor, Vis. 1., Cot. P. A. p. 76, which will give him some-
hints. Irenaeus, conL Haeres. V. c. 3S}— 36, presents an ample opening.
VOL. II. 62
490 MILLENNIUM : Exc. VL
A passage in Justin Martyr, Dial, cum Tryphone, p. 306 seq. ed. Colon.,
should not be overlooked ; which, though in some respects obscure and
much controverted, will give im[)ortant hints as to the shape of general
opinion at that time. A somewhat graphic passage may be found in Ter-
tullian, Advers. Marcionem, III. 24, where he tells us of a full development
made by himself in his book De Spe Fidelium (now lost). Distinct recogni-
tions of Chiliasm at an early period, may be found in Euseb. III. 28 and
39. VII. 24, et al. By far the most copious and eloquent account, however,
o{ chiliastic views in ancient times, may be found in Lactantius, Instt. VII.
§ 14 seq., and Epit. c. 71 seq. An instructive exposition of the ancient his-
tory of Chiliasm, by W. Muenscher, may be found in Henke's Mag. fiir
Rehg. philosophic, Exegese, etc. VI. p. 239 seq. Beyond all comparison
the fullest, richest, and most complete development of Chiliasm is made in
Corrodi's Geschichte des Chiliasmus, Vol. I^ — -IV. small 8vo. ; a book replete
with learning, specially of a Talmudic and Rabbinic kind, and with the
exhibition of keen critical acumen and powers of sarcasm not often to be
met with. But withal, he is bitterly prejudiced against the Apocalypse,
and appears to have written his work in order to destroy the credit of it.
He is altogether uncandid in examining and weighing the historical testi-
mony respecting it, and has greatly misconceived of the object and aim of
the book. But his work is a spacious Repositorium of everything that has
been said, or dreamed, about the Millennium ; and one finds in it a com-
plete historical apparatus. Corrodi brings the histoiy of the principal en-
thusiasts, in respect to the Millennium, down to the latter part of the last
century. Few books are written with equal vivacity, or with equal keen-
ness of discernment and of satire. He who knows how to separate the
good from the bad, may derive much from the work, which is rai'e and
valuable.]
APPENDIX.
[I was desirous, when characterizing Herder's work on the Aj)ocalypse
(Vol. I. p. 471), to give the reader some specimens of his mode of defending
and ilhistrating this book ; but a fear that I should transgress the bounds
prescribed to the present volumes, deterred me from doing so. Having
now completed the printing, and finding some little space which may be al-
lowed me, I embrace the opportimity to lay before our religious public a
specimen of the manner in which Herder, in liis celebrated work called
Maran Atha (the Lord will come), deals with the Apocalypse, and witii its
opposers. The work of Herder has become rather scarce in Germany ; and
in our country it can be but very little known, except among some classes
of the German population. In his time, Herder performed an important
service with respect to the book in question. He arrested the current which
Oeder and Semler and Corrodi had set in motion so strongly against the
Apocalypse. The peculiarities of his style are adapted to excite attention,
and create a lively interest in what he says. I will not call him the Tacitus
of the Germans ; for he has an imagination so luxuriant, fancy so boundless,
and vivacity so sparkling, that I cannot well liken him to Tacitus. But in
brevity and sententiousness, and in the apothegmatic form of his sentences,
and the pregnant sense of his words, he has much resemblance to Tacitus.
It is impossible for me to give my readers an exact picture of Herder's
manner. In the first place, our language lacks the power and energy and
variety of the German. In the second. Herder is so peculiarly idiomatic,
that any one might as well ask him to translate Sluikspeare into German, as
to demand of me to give the exact image of Htrdtr in English. Still some-
thing may he done, and something to our present purpose. Such of my
readers as are not ac(|uainted with the German style and manner, among
their more popular and lively writers, will he glad to see a specimen of
what Herder wrote some sixty years ago, in order to vindicate and explain
his favourite book.
At the close of his Commentar}', he addresses himself to the task in ques-
tion, and occupies more than 100 pages in the ])erformancc of it. P'rom the
first ])art of his Appendix I have selected the specimens of his composition
which now follow.]
Thus far we have gone through with the imagery of the book, in or-
der first of all to show that it is intelligible, and to elicit it^ meaning
from itself, and from the writings of the prophets, together with the
492 HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE.
testimony of Christ and of history. This was our first and principal
task. There has heretofore been a general prejudice against the book
as being unintelligible. It is assumed that the key to the book is lost,
and consequently that its explanation must necessarily rest on mere con-
ceit and arbitrary assumption. These views must be met and opposed
by fact and argument, before anything further is said.
To me it seems, that they may be fully contradicted. The images
which the book employs, speak, as all images do which are rationally
employed, i. e. they have a meaning. Is a metaphor, an allegory, a coin,
a statue, yea a whole system of mythology, intelligible by virtue of im-
agery in poems, speeches, philosophy, works of art, as soon as it is found
to have a meaning, and do we then consider ourselves as in possession
of data sufficient to make out its intelligibility ; is this true in respect to
the Greeks and Romans, and is it admitted without contradiction and
adopted ; then why not apply the same intelligible language of imagery
to the Hebrew prophets ? These had all one spirit, one object ; one
builds on another, one explains another, and as gold have they all been
preserved. No imagery has remained more pure, or been more tho-
roughly proved, than this. No imagery, moreover, is so thoroughly in-
corporated with the genius of the people, their writings, and their lan-
guage. The Hebrew poetry is as it were all symbol, imagery, holy and
lofty diction. Even the prose writers must needs speak in a tropical
way, because their language demands it ; still more must teachers and
prophets do this. No language loves and affords imagery like this. In
one is a fiery glance, in another a breath full of the spirit of the Lord.
So speaks the Old and New Testament ; so speaks the book before us,
which is the sum of both.
It is a mere old wives' tale, that a special key belongs to it, or that it
has been lost. Who writes a book without a key ? Who writes such
an one for seven churches ? Did John append a key to the book when
he sent it ? How did it look ? Who has seen it ? And where was it
lost ? In the sea at Patmos, or in the Meander ? John writes a book
for others, for many ; a book on whose contents he was so intent, that
he heaps curse upon curse on him who curtails it, and proffers blessing
upon blessing to him who reads, hears, and obeys it. And still this
book is said to be an unintelligible enigma, an unmeaning sometliing
which is fast sealed up, which no one but its author can understand,
and which perhaps he himself did not understand. Can anything be
more incongruous ? And if it were intelligible to the Christians of that
day, why not to us, who have in like manner the writings of the Old
Testament, and what is still more, the written testimony of Jesus, and
of the history to which the book adverts. They lived in times of dis-
HERDER OK THE AP0CALTP8E. 498
tress ; they must needs wait for the fulfilracnt of prediction : they could
not therefore inspect tlie contents of the book in any other way than
through the mists which hang about the future. We Hve 1700 years
after them, in the most luminous period of history. Is the book fblfilled,
(for itself declares that it must soon, speedifi/, s/iortli/ be fullillcd), then
must history give us some opening to it. Was it fulfilled in the circle
of John, in Judea, or in Christendom ? Very good ; the history of either
is not involved in darkness. Respecting the events of Judea we have
eye-witnesses and historians, so accurate and impartial as can rarely be
found in respect to other events. Christianity, moreover, is not wanting
as to histories. In brief, if this book was fulfilled, it was fulfilled in a
clearer manner than any prophecy of the Old Testament, uttered in
times incomparably more obscure. And what kind of a prophecy must
that be, which, after its fulfilment has been clearly set forth, is still un-
intelligible ?
This book is not of such a nature ; and I scarcely know how any one
could have ever deemed it to be so. I ask no one to believe me, but to
believe himself, and to see with his own eyes. Of what avail is it, to
make efforts to render current the meaning of a symbol by the credit of
an ai'biti'ary explanation ? Many have done this ; but time will still
come, and with her impartial hand brush away all the artificial colour-
ing of an explanation, which one had palmed upon himself and his con-
temporaries. Only the gold of truth is imperishable. This only, in
the interpretation of this book, can give certainty and harmony ; this is
superior to all pai'ty-spirit. So long as one employs an unnatural mode
of interpreting a book of symbols, so long he will explain it in a capri-
cious, ai-bitrary, narrow, and ungrounded manner. No harmony of oi)in-
ions can be expected in this way ; for the paths of error, of conceit, of
party-feeUng, and of illusion, ai-e without number. Each one chooses
his own because it is his ; and then he usually defends it against all oth-
ers, and not seldom against liimself. It is error only that blinds him ;
it is dai'kness which undies him severe and sensitive. The light of truth,
if it is pure and is admitted, appears altogether beautiful, clear, and
peaceful, for all and to all. A straight line is the shortest, and can be
but one ; of the crooked and broken lines there is a number beyond all
computation, from every quarter and in every direction.
Whenever I give myself to the guidance of sound judgment — to the
best and eternal testimony of tinth, it renders me very quiet as to the in-
trinsic value of my interpretation. It has significancy, and operates by
itself, like the symbols which it explains. Here and there I fuid myself
in op[)osition to some great and good interpreters, such as Grolius, Wet-
stein, Abauzit, and Harenberg ; but only now and then, for one or two
494 HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE.
steps. Mostly I let them go their own way, and go forward on mine
alone. May the reader go with me ; or rather, may he follow himself
and the sound and simple dictates of truth. Where this speaks to him
may he take my word ; where not, let him amend and correct my er-
rors. My leading principle has been, to regard no symbol in an arbitra-
ry manner, and to make it mean nothing which it does not plainly mean,
like every allegory, statue, and coin. I know of no mystical and typi-
cal word (according to the perverted meaning of this expression) in aU
the book ; and yet, the whole book is in a sound sense typical and mys-
tical. I will not spend a moment in begging for the assent and appro-
bation of others. My explanation must speak for itself, as the book
does.
That which has demanded much reflection, is the manner in which
I should present and analyze the symbols. Nothing is more difficult
than this. An image must speak for itself, if it have any meaning. In
all its lineaments it must be consentaneous, and at once present itself —
at least an image in the spirit of the East. Here moreover it is said :
" Jehovah speaks, and it is done ; he commands, and it stands fast."
His measure is brevity, his operation the twinkling of an eye. How
now, if the interpreter will expound, and bring forward one by one, and
dismember, and cut in pieces ? In the Apocalypse everything is in
rapid motion ; everything hastens and urges on toward the goal ; it is a
messenger of the swift-coming Lord, of lightning, of the judge. At one
time the image is that of the sharp sword of the breath ; at another, the
snow-white locks on the head of the conqueror ; here a fiery look of
Jehovah, there the rushing of his approaching feet, a cry, a breath, a
voice of the Spirit. How shall I present these ? How analyze and ex-
plain them ? In the whole book is rapidity, presence, arrival, a seal to
be broken, the sound of flying trumpets, signs and messengers and
visions passing through the air, which hasten on, and almost present
themselves at one and the same time. Were it possible that the four
living creatures should cry out together, and the four seals be broken
in rapid succession, and the four first trumpets root up the elements all
at once, and could I put all these visions together, so that seven
churches should flame up around one Son of man, so that the Lamb on
the loftiest heights of the blessed should appear at the same time with
the beast from the pit of destruction below, and great Babylon impress
itself at once on the mind, as harlot, as town, as beast, and as monster
— all this, and unspeakably more — were it possible, and possible for me,
then might I count upon one entire impression of the meaning and ex-
planation of this i[30ok. But it is beyond my reach. The meaning
soars on wings, bull words can merely creep. There stands the synabol,
HERDER ON TIIE APOCALTPSE. 495
and lives, and breathes ; but the words must separate and divide it, and
in ways so various, that perhaps the image as a whole is perceptible
only to connoisseurs. I have laboured against such a consetiuence ; I
have made things follow in rapid succession, put symbols together again
which I must needs divide, given a hint, a reference here and there to "
the testimony of Christ, tlicn to the saying of a prophet. Rabbinical
usages and idioms of language I have left out, because I have taken
them for granted, and perhaps at some other time may publish an ap-
propriate lexicon of the imagery in respect to its sources and its idiom,
with a history of the interpretations and the influence of this book.
Enough at present, that there was not time for all this. In the sequen-
cy — in the entirety of the images, everything is comprised, yea, every-
thing which can give light to the interpreter or reader, which keeps him
in the right path, and hurries him to the last impression of the book.
To this chain I felt it necessary to betake myself. I hastened to do it,
and forced my way through the important consequences of the coming
of the Lord. Here I stood ashamed. Have I been able to present a
single symbol as it there stands ? To explain a single image, as it
waves between heaven and earth ? Have I been able to handle the
holy chain, which in a sevenfold manner winds and turns, and is every-
where Alpha and Omega, the beginning and end of the coming Lord
of the world ? I have done what I could ; may the reader do still more!
Let him float on the rushing stream of look and of thought, where
tongue and pen cannot follow. Let him bring together and arrange
and consider ; I will come to his aid with a few ideas.
[Herder next proceeds to imfold the various arrangements of tlio book,
as made in reference to the number seven. Overlooking the far more fun-
damental use of the number three, tliroughoutthe book, he refers all its arti-
ficial arrangements to the heptade. It would be of little interest to the reader
to translate this part of his remarks. I pass by it, tlierefore, and go on to
exhibit what he says about other qualities of the book, p. 250 seq.]
This septuples arrangement helps the book to a wonderful uni'fi/.
There is but one voice in it, through all its epistles, seals, trumpets,
signs, and plagues, viz. The Loud is coming. There is but one stamp
on all its phenomena and wonders : " Alpha and Omega, beginning and
end, is God the Lord, who is and was and is to come, the Lord of all."
So declares John ; he puts his seal upon it ; and through all the images
and signs of the book, everything by itself, and agreeably to the words
of Christ and of the prophets, naturally points to this. The Lord said
Icome ; and he did come. The last of the ancient prophets exclaimed :
" Who will abide the day of his coming ? He will sit and assay and
496 HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE.
purify the silver," etc. And see ! He sits, and assays, and purifies the
sons of Levi, as gold and silver. It is the first sign of his coming, that
he 'punishes and is a swift witness against sorcerers and adulterers and
the unclean. His own, however, at the same time, he distinguishes in a
notable manner. Agreeably to this purification, the first vision relates
to the symbol of his ever and inwardly near presence and coming. The
closed book is opened. The broken seals are forebodings, signs, of
his coming — mere significant signs. How often have the prophets
said : The day of the Lord cometh, bloody, fearful, terrible ! His four
plagues are his four horses before his chariot. His coming delays, until
blood-guiltiness has reached its height. When he does come, however,
heaven and earth flee away at his presence. The forebodings are ful-
filled. The trumpets sound. Heaven and earth are dashed in pieces.
Not merely city-walls fall, but pieces of the firmament, hailstones from
God, mountains, clefts. Blow ye the trumpets. The Lord comes.
Before him move along blood and fire and smoke. The sun becomes
darkness, the moon blood, before the terrible day of the Lord comes.
Locusts march before him ; before him prance the horses and their ri-
ders. He approaches. The last witnesses make their appearance.
See ! I will send them the prophet Elijah, before the great and terrible
day of the Lord comes. He comes. Shouts of victory echo from the
heavenly world. On earth, the abominations and monsters of cunning
and malignity must be removed. Angels shout the fall of Babylon, the
destruction of misleaders, that there may be rest. The sickle cuts down
the harvest. The vine blossoms for a vintage, for a gladsome harvest.
Lift up your eyes, the field is already white for the harvest. The last
and final plagues come ; the day of the Lord is glowing like an oven,
and all traitors are straw. The Euphrates is dry ; the slaughter-offer-
ings are collected ; he comes as an avenger, he comes as judge. The
The judgment is held. The righteous awake like morning stars ; and
after them the whole host. Babylon is fallen ; Jerusalem shines in
splendour. The dragon sinks down to the pit ; the Lord is King.
Thus it is that there is in everything but one voice, one subject.
"What the symbols do not say, that is said by intervening calls and voices
and choirs. Before eveiy heptade appears a messenger, who reminds
us of the beginning, and points us to the end. The rings are clasped
together, and lose not their hold, even to the last. The choir of heaven
exchanges with the Spirit on earth. This intercedes, calls out, warns,
consoles. It preserves, through all the distressing visions, the forebod-
ing of a better future. The name of the Holy One is on the book and
on his elect. The city of God, the Lamb, the heavenly priesthood,
wave before their eyes as their final portion and inheritance.
HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE. 497
Who ynW give me strength to match this wonderful simplicity with
the loftiness, the variegated forms, the power, and the rapidity of these
symbols ? Under the influence of many a one among them, the soul
succumbs. They stand as between heaven and earth. They comprise
eternity within the circle of a small glance of time. He is and was
AND IS TO COME, TUK Almioiity ! His epistles at the commencement
of the book, are sparks of his fiery glance, how and when he is felt in
the secret recesses of the heart, in the glowing monuments o^ie I'emem-
brance of him. His breath is a two-edged sword, wliiclij^^B judge of
the thoughts, divides soul and body, marrow and bone.
Thy book, O thou Counsellor, thou invisible One, is closed, often to
our apprehension closed with seven seals. "When may we forebode thy
presence ? When shall we mark well, that our destiny waves in thy
hand ? When seals like these are broken, and thy horsemen go forth,
and the living creatures under thy throne cry out : Cojne and see, on
the corpse-field of the dying who utter the death-rattle, over the ruins
of a royal city, in the streets of famine and the houses of wasting mala-
dies, even the contemner of God shudders at the presence of the aven-
ger, of the judge, and forebodes a sealed book of his destiny. Ancient
of days, so dost thou hide thyself ! By wonderful signs of the times,
do we find some traces of thy government which is past finding out.
What have they done, that innocent flock, which dies by the sword of
the warrior, by the teeth of hunger and of wild beasts ? Like lambs
for the slaughter they lie there, that the sleeping world may see the
footsteps of thy goings. With the swift and noble Conqueror, with his
wreath of honoui', the book begins ; it ends with death and the regions
of hell. And yet how few there are, who in such phenomena behold
thy coming, and hear the tranquil blood of murdered innocence crying
for vengeance and imploring redemption !
The great events of war are to the seer only the sound of trumpets
for warning ; great leaders are only falling stars ; the most renowned
armies of the world are a host of hissing serpents and amphisbaenas.
The central point of worldly revolutions, the strife of good and evil, is
to him like a contest in the air, when fiery red and dark black clouds
contend with sun, moon, and every kind of cheering and gladsome light.
God is the father of light, and light must therefore continue to be
light.
All the power and cunning of the world, whatever crowns they may
wear, with whatever names of celebrity they may be adorned, whatever
homage they may demand, whatever arts they may promote, if it strive
with God and the Lamb, it is to him Belial, a monster, a beast from the
pit, the abomination of sin, Mid the child of destruction. The dragon
VOL. IL 63
498 HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE.
is its father, and the abyss its destiny. Babylon falls ; and what a world
of riches and of profit and of pleasure and of fine arts, falls with it !
All lamentations over it are vain ; while those who keep the word of
Grod and adhere to the truth of Jesus, with a noble simplicity like to
that of him who is the essence and star of the book, rise and shine for-
ever.
(3) The book of Revelation, even if one does not understand
the first aj^most immediate history of its explanation, is A book for
all heah^and all tidies.
It contains^ie essence of Christianity and of worldly history. It has,
through all its changes and circumstances affected by time, the same
stamp upon it: The Lord is nigh; his kingdom copies !
How many a prophet have we in the O. Testament, whose immediate
historical circumstances respecting many a passage we do not under-
stand ; and still these passages, which contain divine wisdom, doctrine,
and consolation, are manna for all hearts and for all times. Must not
this be the case also with that book, which is the compend of nearly all
the prophets and apostles ? It is a book of instruction and comfort for
all the churches among whom Christ walks, even when the uneducated
do not understand the learned explanation of it.
In respect to the epistles, (without assigning any mystical periods to
them), I have already shown this. The rest of the book is of the like
tenor. The belief that Christ who died now lives, that Christ who lived
in retirement now reigns, that Christ once in a state of humiliation now
moves amid the splendours of God's glory — this belief, can it be strength-
ened in any way better than by the first appearance of the risen and
glorious Saviour ? His visage is like the sun ; his breath, omnipotence ;
the keys of death and hell are his ; he wills and it is done. What are
ten days of trouble in comparison with an eternal reward ? What are
the thirty years of his humihation compared with his eternal exaltation ?
Therefore : Be thou faithful unto death. The crown of life awaits
thee.
Thou livest in a time of oppression ; the book of destiny sealed up
hangs suspended over thee and thy people. Weep not ; the Lion of the
tribe of Judah has overcome. The book is in his hand. He fulfils and
will fulfil it.
Fearful seals ai'e broken over thee. Thou hearest in the rustling of
time's slow foot horrible forebodings. Heaven and earth threaten ; and
most of all the increasing iniquity of men ; war ravages, pestilence, fa-
mine kills ; noble men die, good men perish with sighing ; the land
trembles, its pillars are shaken : Fear not, the Lord is thy God, and his
name is on thee. When thou passest through the waters, he will be with
HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE. 499
thee, so that the floods sliall not. drown thee ; when thou goest thron"h
the lire, thou sluUt not be burned, nor the Hanie kindle upon thoc. Tlie
number of thine, like the covenant of the living, is deposited in his bo-
som and sealed.
The la^t forebodings come ; a stillness pregnant with death, an ex-
pectation of all things. The trumpets are given. Mij God, remember
me for good! the incense offering of prayer in silence exclaims. The
silent answer of God is : "I have graven thee upon mine hancTs." For
sorcerers, murderers, idolaters, whoremongers, (who alas ! ail the expe-
rience of the world shows, do not amend their lives), are reserved the
plagues. They are tormented for a long period by them. But in the
midst of these plagues appeal's the angel of peace, with the rain-bow
about his head, and he swears the oath of the ancient covenant : Let the
mountains and hills sink and vanish ; the promise of God fails not.
The rainbow comes forth behind the flood, like a boundary of the throne
of grace, more beautiful than ever. On account of the elect, these days
are shortened. Short is the way through the sea of trouble ; eternal
the peace which follows ; the palms and crowns will never fade. ^f
The temple of God is given up; but it is only the outward and pn^
faned court of the Gentiles ; the true temple of God, with all who wor-"
ship in it, is reserved for a more beautiful building.
The last two witnesses appear. How does God honour them ! How
nobly does he invest them, living and dying, with ornaments and re-
wards ! Who is there, when he reads this passage, that does not desire
a death like theii-s ? Lamps before the Lord, olive-trees before the God
of their country, Moses and Elijah in respect to reward!
Heaven opens ; the temple of God, the ark of the covenant is seen ;
on earth it cannot yet appear. Phantoms of cunning and power rise
up. Do not waver. The voices of heaven sing: It is done ; and it
will be done on earth. As here so always, the good is born in -the great
kingdom of the Father of all. The mother is persecuted ; the child is
made safe, for God is his father. To the earthly mother is api)ointed
her place, the desert of trouble ; behind her rushes without luu-m the
stream of persecution ; but the earth helps the afflicted, and swallows
up the fruitless stream. Even in the wilderness of banishment, compas-
sion is extended to her for a time and times aud half a time Man in-
deed beholds for the present thy beauty, thou noble sun-and-star-begirt;
but thy Son is, what he ever will be, eternal king, the heir of the wortd.
His appropriate destiny awaits the subdued dragou — by the patience of
the Lamb and the courage of the Lion he is wounded unto death.
Still, in his name phantoms of tyranny and cunning rise up, horrible
phenomena ! The earth trembles under the foot of the beast, nations
500 HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE.
and armies commit ravages upon religion, laws, God, and freedom, and
tread them down with the feet of bears. They roar against God and
his tabernacle, and everything moans out and whines : ' Who is like to
him ? "Who can malce war with him ?' The mass permit themselves to
be marked, and lose conscience and soul, and go like beasts of slaughter
into the manacles of slavery.
His, also, is that other beast, the dragon in sheep's clothing, the
smooth, lying, political prophet. Miracles are at his command. Fire
from heaven, and all the arts of men are at hand ; and all this, that an
image may be made for the beast, and everything bear the mark and
number of his name, become idolaters, slaves, and a slaughter-herd.
Exult, ye monsters, in your short and fruitless reign, your hellish crafti-
ness and hellish power here below ; on yonder height stands the Lamb,
and around him his elect host, in a very different elevation and with very
different wisdom.
What symbols of consolation and instruction are the harvest and the
vintage, the song of heaven before the last plagues, and finally the ter-
tle lamentation and death-song over prostrate and sinking Babylon.
a stone it goes down, and all voices in it become dumb, and all its
lovers howl and cry out. So when the Spirit speaks, the splendour of
all vanishes ; quickly does all the whoredom and luxury and oppression
of the world disappear, for the fashion of this world passeth away.
^Melted into air, into thin air,
And, like the baseless fabric of this vision,
The cloud-capp'd towers, the gorgeous palaces.
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea all which it inherits, shall dissolve,
And, like this insubstantial pageant faded.
Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff
As dreams are made of
God's word alone remains constant. Ti'uth, faithfulness, justice
march along crowned, upon white horses. The goodness of the witnes-
ses of Jesus, sown in stillness, now comes forth. They move on like
morning-stars from the bosom of night, and shine with the splendour of
heaven. Your blood, so long trodden under feet, and which cried out
unheard, is now an ornament of your vesture. Your work, the noblest
deeds in the world, comes forth and blossoms, like the sunken Atlantis.
The earth awakes ; the deeds of men come to the light ; the evil is ban-
ished, the eternal aim of all your wishes, the city of God and the bride
appears. How many souls have comforted themselves with the spirit of
these symbols ! How many hearts has the proclamation quickened :
' Let him that is athirst come, and whosoever will, let him take the wa-
HERDER ON THE APOCALTPSE. 501
ter of life freely !" Your bursting; oycs havo seen the city of God, and
without symbols your i>archcd tongue has been revived. They fell
asleep and passed on thither. See there ! The dwelling of God is with
men. God himself is with them, and he is their God and thoy are his
people. Blessed are tlie dead who die in the Lord ! Tliey rest from
their labours and their works do follow them. God will wipe away
all tears from their eyes. Distress and mourning are no more. For-
mer things have passed away.
In general it seems to me a dishonour and a folly to mock at and de-
spise a saying, perhaps one of the noblest, most tender, most powerful
touches of truth, because it is found in the decried Apocalypse. See f
the Lord comes, and his reward is toith him, to give to every one accord'
ing to his tvorJcs. Is not that declaration an eternal truth of God ? Does
it not speak this as strongly and tenderly as it can be spoken ? Does
not Isaiah say the same ? Has any good and honourable heathen ever
doubted it ? And what is there now which is contemptible and ridicu-
lous, when the Apocalypse employs it as a seal in this place ? Would
it not he unjust and dishonourable, should any one so manage with.|,he
writing of a heathen or a heretic, and represent the roses as not betng
roses, because they grow among thorns ? And with respect to this book,
which has lived more than a thousand years, and sufficiently proved its
influence on the hearts of men^-one ought to spare the like of this.
Let each one estimate it as he will, yet let him concede the good which
belongs to it. That surely is divine, whoever wrote the book, or for
■whatever purpose it was written. Your productions, ye despisers, will
they ever have the influence and the long life of this ? Where there is
an influence, there must be a ground for influence. Where a book,
through thousands of years, stirs up the heart and awakens the soul, and
leaves neither friend nor foe indifferent, and scarcely has a lukewarm
friend or enemy, in such a book there must be something substantial,
whatever any one may say. One does not contend alwut nothing. A
mere nothing one forgets. In respect to what is worthy of note in this
book, time has already judged ; and it is folly to attempt to put down
by conceit, what has supported itself so long by reality.
(4) 'But why has this book so many- enemies, at all times, and be-
yond all others ? Enemies, too, to whom the most obtuse wit, the most
silly conceit, which they would despise in respect to any other thing in
every other mouth, is agi'eeable, if it will only be injurious to this
book ?'
The retisons of this may easily be conjectured. Tlioy lie in the na-
ture of the thing. It carries, like everything else, its destiny along with
itself. First, the book consists of symbols ; and philosophers cannot
502 HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE.
endure symbols. The truth must exhibit itself pure, naked, abstract,
in a philosophical way ; for it has long shown itself in that way. No
question then is asked : where ? when ? wherefore ? whereto ? by whom
was this book written symbolically ? None, whether it should not have
been so written. But — should it not have been written by a philoso-
pher for philosophers ? No question is asked, whether the symbols are
pregnant with meaning, true, clear, efficient, intelligible, or whether
there is in the whole book nothing but symbols. It is enough, that there
are symbols. We can make nothing out of symbols. At the best, they
are mere descriptions of the truth, and we wish for demonstrations. De-
ductions, theorems, syllogisms we love. Truth which needs none of the
senses to aid it, (although it is full of sense, and one attains to it only
by sense), is what we wish. Experience, effort, objects of sense, sym-
bols, are beneath us, as the clouds beneath the clear light of the sun. —
I only add, that all this is no mere mockery.
Secondly, nature herself attempers different minds in various ways.
She gives to one more of the power of abstraction, to another more of
the power of synthesis ; seldom are both found in company. In our
academical education, there are unspeakably more teachers of that than
of this. One is formed more for abstraction, than for inspection ; more
for analysis than for pure comprehension, experience, and action. Hence,
in a little time, the powers of intuition, being neglected, are altogether
lost. Let one of the learned, now, who has grown grey over abstraction,
take up the Apocalypse. What can he see in it ? Symbols he does
not see, but merely colours. That has no meaning to him, which has
the clearest meaning to another, yea one which is seen at the very first
view. Does he, then, because he is learned, begin to discourse and ex-
plain ? What else can be make of the book but nonsense ? He ana-
lyzes, and cuts to pieces, and daubs with colours ; but he has neither
eye, nor proper station for view, nor any idea of the design of the work.
He pours out then whatever is in his brain — stale church and heretic-
history, or lying, feeble, narrow-minded political history. Here now is
a beautiful model which others imitate. The more cautious point to
his example, and say : If so great a man erred, who must not err ?
Who would give himself up to a book which has I'obbed even a learned
man of his senses. " The great Newton made his Apocalypse, because
there was an Apocalypse." So ? One might rather say : The great New-
ton made his Apocalypse, because he was the great Newton. He did
not come to it, as he should do, without prejudice, without system. He
came as a reckoner, a chronologer. It must be an appendix to Daniel,
that his system might be complete. He was, therefore, no unsophisti-
cated reader of the book. A woman, a child, a man within the circle
HERDER ON THE APOCAI.TPSE. 608
of his own senses, can often exhibit more tact in the position of symbols,
bettor hit upon their meaning, than tlie greatest among the lejirnetl,
whose brains are tilled with other things. In respect to all images and
symbols from common life, this is conceded. "Why not then in respect
to the symbol of symbols — the Apocalypse ? It has ana is a world by
itself. He who lacks sensibility and point in vision, walks in darkness,
and gropes round after colours. Even to the reading of a book which
is intelligibly read, feeling, leisure, and proper station for view, is
necessary. "Whoever disdains to see as a child, or as an impartial and
feeling man to let the book speak for itself, he is no I'cader of this book,
nor of its meaning. Full of his systems, of his learning, of prejudices,
and polemic hypotheses, let him indeed read anything in it, but let
him not venture to condemn. Still less should he measure the power in'
others of understanding symbols, by his own. To the dumb one does
not speak. The painter does not perform his work for the blind.
Thirdly ; very often, even among interpreters, has the heart misled
the understanding, and implanted the hatred or the love of this book.
For the most part, people of feeling, as has been shown, not those of
dry abstraction-faculties (these despise the book and let it alone), are
the ones who apply themselves to this book. Often they pour out what
is in their hearts ; they paint it with the blood and sap of their life.
This happened, that reached the mark. They have found their time,
and the very best time, too, which they ever thought of. Every image
is in itself true, (although perhaps there is not a syllable in the book of
all this), and is made very prominent; on the nicer touches of the book
it appears still stronger. They raise up a party. One man of warm
heart and of great talent, a Savonarola, a Joachim, a Petersen, a Ben-
gel, etc., would have made a party even without the Revelation. It
■was nothing more than the vehicle of their favourite ideas, an object of
their wonder and of their homage. One believed, because it came from
them ; what one could not support, was rendered current by the name
of the interpreter. One read with folded hands. All this now was
winning sport to the enemies of the book, and to party-feeling. They
hated with the more coolness what one praised so warmly and of-
ten without foresight. Now then the book has nothing good or intelli-
gible in it, because they did not understand it, and found in it a false
good. — Such is the history of the book through all ages. Montanist
enthusiasts, Cerinthian dreamers, raised up a Caius, who, to contradict
them, cast away the guiltless book, which teaches neither Montanisra
nor Cerinthism. Shameless triflers with the business of interpretation
roused up a searching Dionysius, who timidly said : " I do not under-
stand it, although it may be a good book." When one for centuries had
found a symbol of antichrist in heathen Rome, and Eusebius had lived
604 HERDER ON THE APOCALYPSE.
to see a Christian Rome which still was not the heavenly Jerusalem^ it
was natural for him to be cold, and to find beyond a doubt the heavenly
Jerusalem in the city which Constantine built.
So has it been, even down to the latest times. The history of the
book, of partiality for it and hatred against it, is very natural. But is
folly because of this to hang upon it, or upon the testimony of particu-
lar men, as if these things were decisive. See ! here is a better way.
Let the ragged garments lie which are stripped off, and look at the per-
son, see the book itself. Hate it not before hand, and thou wilt rightly
understand it, and then thou wilt certainly learn to love it.
END.
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DATE DUE
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