Commerce of the prairies : or, The journal of a Santa Fé trader, during eight expeditions across the great western prairies, and a residence of nearly nine years in northern Mexico

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COMMEECE OF THE PRAIRIES:

OR THK

DURINO V

EIGHT EXPEDITIONS ACROSS

THE GREAT WESTERN PRAIRIES,

AMD

A RESIDENCE OF NEARLY NINE YEARS

XM

NORTHERN MEXICO.

Jflinstrateb toitf) iXiaps axib ©n^rauxngs
BY JOSIAH GREGG.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

^ ''^yoL.;!!.,' .'"",'

F I F J H . 4-i>' I TJ 6 J^.^ :

PHILADELPHIA:
J. W. MOORE, 193 CHESTNUT STREET.

1855.

THE NEW YORK
PUBLIC LlE^nAHY

636155

ASTOR, LFfOX AND
TILD N FC " r-^ IC.MS.

R '^- L

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

CHAPTER I.

Page

A Return to Prairie Life — Abandonment of the regular
Route — The Start — A Suicide — Arrest of a Mulatto for
Debt — Cherokee ' Bankrupt Law' — Chuly, the Creek In-
dian— The Muster and the Introduction — An ' Olla Po-
drida' — Adventure of a ' Down-Easter' — Arrival of U.
S. Dragoons — Camp Holmes, and the Road — A Visit
from a Party of Comanches — Tabba-quena, a noted Chief
— His extraordinary Geographical Talent — Indians set out
for the * Capiian Grande,' and we through an unexplored
Region — Rejoined by Tabba-quena and his ' suite^ — Spring
Valley— The Buffalo Fever— The Chase — A Green-horn
Scamper — Prairie Fuel, .... 9

CHAPTER II.

Travelling out of our Latitude — The Buffalo-gnat — A Ki-
awa and Squaw — Indian crim. con. Affair — Extraordinary
Mark of confidence in the White Man — A Conflagration —
An Espy Shower — Region of Gypsum— Our^ Latitude —
A Lilliputian Forest— A Pa-rty oi" Ct^manuhes — A Visit
to a * Dog-To wn'_— Indian A2;chery—^Aj''''vaJ o^ Comanche
Warriors — A ' Big Talk' an,d,ifs Results — Speech of the
Capitan M<zi/<^r-^Proj^(:t ,of. 'or\ngin2„Comanche Chiefs to
Washington — Return' of Lieut! Pcvr'nian, and our March
resumed — Melanchely Il25ection,S; — Another Indian Visit
— Mexican Captive'^ — 'yoiUf'itary C?-p.tiv\'ty — A sprightly
Mexican Lad — Purchase of a Captive— Comanche Trade
and Etiquette — Indians least dangerous to such as trad^
with them, . , . , . , ^

ir CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

Page

Ponds and Buffalo Wallows — Valley of the Canadian, and
romantic Freaks of Nature — Formation of Ravines — Mel-
ancholy Adventure of a Party of Traders in 1832 — Fears
of our being lost — Arrival of a Party of Comaiicheros, and
their wonderful Stories — Their Peculiarities and Traffic
— Bitter Water, and the Salitre of New Mexico — Avant-
couriers for Santa Fe — Patent Fire-arms and their Vir-
tues— Ranchero Ideas of Distance, and their Mode of giv-
ing Directions — The Angostura, and erroneous Notions
of the Texans — A new Route revealed — Solitary Travel —
Supply of Provisions sent back — Arrival at Santa Fe —
Gov. Armijo, etc. — A ' Flare-up' with His Excellency, 47

CHAPTER IV.

Preparations for a Start to Chihuahua — Ineptness of. Mar-
ried Men for the Santa Fe Trade — Annoying Custom-
house Regulations — Mails in New Mexico — Insecurity of
Correspondence — Outfit and Departure — Derecho de Con-
sumo — Ruins of Valverde — ' Towns without Houses' —
La Jornado del Muerto — Laguna and Ojo del Muerto —
A Tradition of the Arrieros — Laborious Ferrying and
Cluagmires — Arrival at Paso del Norte — Amenity of the
Valley — Sierra Blanca and Los Organos — Face of the
Country — Seagrass — Medanos or Sand-hills — An acci-
dental River — Carrizal — Ojo Caliente — Laguna de En-
cinillas — Southern Haciendas — Arrival — Character of
the Route and Soil, . . . , .64

CHAPTER V.

Trip from Chihuahua to Aguascalientes, in 1835 — Southern
Trade and Ferias — Hacienda de la Zarca, and its innu-
merable Stock — Rio Nazas, and Lakes without outlet —
Perennial Cotton — Exactions for Water and Pasturage —
Village of Churfthpij-^-Cityof pu,rango-an.ct its Peculiari-
ties—Fruits, FcL'qui'j^e'tc.-^-Per.'^eOati.ojl :of: Scorpions —
Negroship in the asc^ndant-rP.obbers. and their modus
operandi — City of Agua^c-alienits-^-Bathing Scene — Haste
to return to the NortR-^MwricTan Mule-sshoeing — Difficul-
ties and Perplexities.^A FirieniJ i"n' J:i>ne:of need — Reach
Zacatecas — City AwjoiAhKufatlshp-^Hotl'ls unfashionable
— Locale, Fortifications, etc.. 'of 'the'Ci'ty of Zacatecas —
Siege by Santa Anna and his easy-won Victory — At Du-
.rango again — Civil Warfare among the 'Sovereigns'—

CONTENTS. V

Page

Hair-breadlh 'scapes — Troubles of the Road — Safe Ar-
rival at Chihuahua — Character of the Southern Country, 84

CHAPTER VI.

Visit to the Mining Town of Jesus-Maria — Critical Roads —
Character of the Town — Losing: Speculations — Mine of .
Santa Juliana — Curious mining: Operations — Different
Modes of working the Ore — The Crushing-mill, etc. —
Barras de Plata — Value of Bullion — The Silver Trade-
Return to Chihuahua — Resumption of the regular Nar-
rative—Curious Wholesales — Money Table — Redundancy
of Copper Coin — City of Chihuahua and its Peculiari-
ties— Ecclesiastical Architecture — Hidalgo and his Mon-
ument— Public Works, and their present Declension —
Fite in honor of Iturbide — Illiberality towards Americans
— Shopping Mania — Anti-Masonic Auto de Ft, . 105

CHAPTER VH.

Departure for Santa Fe — Straitened for Food — Summary
Effort to procure Beef— Seizure of one of our Party — Al-
tercation with a Rico — His pusillanimous Procedure —
Great Preparations in Chihuahua for our Arrest — Arri-
val of Mexican Troops — A polite Officer — Myself with
three of my Men summoned back to Chihuahua — Amia-
ble Conduct of Seflor Artalejo — Junta Departmental and
Discussion of my Affair — Writ of Habeas Corpus not in
vogue — The Matter adjusted and Passports granted — The
3Iorale — Impunity of savage Depredations — Final Start —
Company of Pasenos with their Fruits and Liquors — Ar-
rival-at Santa Fe . . . . .122

CHAPTER Vni.

Preparations for returning Home — Breaking out of the
Small-pox — The Start — Our Caravan — Manuel the Co-
manche— A new Route — The Prairie on Fire — -Danger
to be apprehended from these Conflagrations — A Coman-
che Buffalo-chase — A Skirmish with the Pawnees — An
intrepid Mexican — The Wounded — Value of a thick
Skull — Retreat of the Enemy and their Failure — A bleak
Northwester — Loss of our Sheep — The Llano Estacado
and Sources of Red River — The Canadian River — Cru-
elties upon Buffalo — Feats at ' Still Hunting' — Mr.Weth-
ered's Adventure — Once more on our own Soil — The
False Washita — Enter our former Trail — Character of
the Country over which we had travelled — Arrival at Van
1*

Vin CONTENTS.

Page
Painting, Tattooing, etc. — Indian Dandies — Manufac-
tures, and Dressing the Buflalo Rug — Indian Diet, Fast-
ing, etc. — Primitive Thomsonians — Their domestic Ani-
mals, the Dog and the Horse — Wampum — Their Chro-
nology, ...... 276

CHAPTER XV.

INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES.

Intermediate Tribes — Their Wigwams and their Hunting
Excursions — Dress and Cut of their Hair — The Pawnees
— The Osages — Their Roguery — Matrimonial Customs
— Accomplished Mourners — Their Superstitions — The
Indian Figure — The 'Pawnee Picts' — Wild Tribes —
Census — The Comanches — Their Range — Their Sobri-
ety— Their Chiefs, etc. — Female Chastity — Comanche
Marriage — Costumes — Horsemanship— Comanche War-
fare— Predatory Forays — Martial Ceremonies — Treat-
ment of Captives — Burial and Religious Rites, , 299

MAP OF THE INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO.

COMMERCE OF THE PRAIRIES.

CHAPTER I.

A Return to Prairie Life — Abandonment of the regular Route
— The Start — A Suicide — Arrest of a Mulatto for Debt —
Cherokee 'Bankrupt Law' — Chuly, the Creek Indian — The
Muster and the Litroduction — An ' Olla Podridu' — Adven-
ture of a 'Down-Easter' — Arrival of U. S. Dragoons — Camp
Holmes, and the Road — A Visit from a Part}' of Comanches
— Tabba-quena, a noted Chief — His extraordinary Geographi-
cal Talent — Indians set out for the 'Capitan Grande,' and we
through an Unexplored Region — Rejoined by Tabba-quena
and his 'suite' — Spring Valley — The Buffalo Fever — The
Chase — A Green-horn Scamper — Prairie Fuel.

An unconquerable propensity to return to
prairie life inclined me to embark in a fresh
enterprise. The blockade of the Mexican
ports by the French also offered strong in-
ducements for undertaking such an expedition
in the spring of 1839 ; for as Chihuahua is
supphed principally through the sea-ports, it
was now evident that the place must be suf-
fering from great scarcity of goods. Being
anxious to reach the market before the ports
of the Gulf were reopened, we deemed it
expedient to abandon the regular route from

10 START ON A NEW ROUTE.

Missouri for one wholly untried, from the bor-
ders of Arkansas, where the pasturage springs
up nearly a month earher. It is true, that
such an attempt to convey heavily laden
wagons through an unexplored region was
attended with considerable risk ; but as I was
familiar with the general character of the
plains contiguous to the north, I felt httle or
no apprehension of serious difficulties, except
from what might be occasioned by regions of
sandy soil. I have often been asked since,
why we did not steer dhectly for Chihuahua,
as our trade was chiefly destined for that
place, instead of taking the circuitous route
via Santa Fe. I answer, that we dreaded a
journey across the southern prairies on ac-
count of the reputed aridity of the country in
that direction, and I had no great desire to
venture directly into a southern port in the
present state of uncertainty as to the condi-
tions of entry.

Suitable arrangements having been made,
and a choice stock of about $25,000 worth of
goods shipped to Van Buren on the Arkansas
river, we started on the evening of the 21st
of April, but made very little progress for the
first eight days. While we were yet but ten
or fifteen miles from Van Buren, an incident
occurred which was attended Avith very mel-
ancholy results. A young man named Hays,
who had driven a wagon for me for several
months through the interior of Mexico, and
thence to the United States in 1838, ha\dng
heard that this expedition was projected,

MELANCHOLY INCIDENT. 11

was desirous of engaging again in the same
employ. I was equally desirous to secure
his services, as he was well-tried, arid had
proved himself an excellent fellow on those
perilous journeys. But soon after our outset,
and without any apparent reason, he ex-
pressed an inclination to abandon the trip.
I earnestly strove to dissuade him from his
purpose, and supposed I had succeeded.
What was my surprise, then, upon my return
after a few hours' absence in advance of the
company, to learn that he had secretly ab-
sconded! I was now led to reflect upon
some of his eccentricities, and bethought me
of several evident indications of slight men-
tal derangement. We were, however, but a
few miles from the settlements of the whites,
and in the midst of the civilized Cherokees,
where there was little or no danger of his suf-
fering; therefore, there seemed but little oc-
casion for serious uneasiness on his account.
As it was believed he had shaped his course
back to Van Buren, I immediately wrote to
our friends there, to have search made for
him. However, nothing could be found of
him till the next day, when his hat and coat
were discovered upon the bank of the Arkan-
sas, near Van Buren, which were the last
traces ever had of the unfortunate Hays!
Whether intentionally or accidentally, he was
evidently drowned.

On the 28th of April we crossed the Ar-
kansas river a few miles above the mouth of
the Canadian fork. We had only proceeded

12 CHEROKEE BANKRUPT LAW.

a short distance beyond, when a Chero-
kee shop-keeper came up to us with an at-
tachment for debt against a free mulatto,
whom we had engaged as teamster. The
poor fellow had no alternative but to return
with the importunate creditor, who commit-
ted him at once to the care of 'Judge Lynch'
for trial. We ascertained afterwards that he
had been sentenced to 'take the benefit of
the bankrupt law' after the manner of the
Cherokees of that neighborhood. This is
done by stripping and tying the \actim to a
tree ; when each creditor, with a good cow-
hide or hickory switch in his hand, scores the
amount of the bill due upon his bare back.
One stripe for every dollar due is the usual
process of 'whitewashing;' and as the appli-
cation of the lash is accompanied by all sorts
of quaint remarks, the exliibition affords no
small merriment to those present, with the
exception, no doubt, of the dehnquent him-
self After the ordeal is over, the creditors
declare themselves perfectly satisfied : nor
could they, as is said, ever be persuaded there-
after to receive one red cent of the amount
due, even if it were offered to them. As the
poor mulatto was also in our debt, and was
perhaps apprehensive that we might exact
payment in the same currency, he never
showed himself again.

On the 2d of May we crossed the North
Fork of the Canadian about a mile from its
confluence with the main stream. A little
westward of this there is a small village of

ECHU-ELEH-HADJO, THE CREEK. 13

Creek Indians, and a shop or two kept by
American traders. An Indian who had quar-
relled with his wife, came out and proposed
to join us, and, to our great surprise, carried
his proposal into execution. The next morn
ing his repentant consort came to our camp
and set up a most dismal weeping and howl
ing after her truant husband, who, notwith-
standing, was neither to be caught by tears
nor softened by entreaties, but persisted in his
determination to see foreign countries. His
name was Echu-eleh-hadjo (or Crazy-deer-
foot), but, for bre\dty's sake, we always called
him Chuly. He was industrious, and pos-
sessed many clever qualities, though some-
what disposed to commit excesses whenever
he could procure liquor, which fortunately did
not occur until our arrival at Santa Fe. He
proved to be a good and willing hand on the
way, but as he spoke no EngHsh, our com-
munication with him was somewhat trouble-
some. I may as well add here, that, while in
Santa Fe, he took another freak and joined a
volunteer corps, chiefly of Americans, organ-
ized under one James Kirker to fight the Na-
vajo and Apache Indians; the government
of Chihuahua having guarantied to them all
the spoils they should take. With these our
Creek found a few of his ' red brethren ' —
Shawnees and Delawares, who had wandered
thus far from the frontier of Missouri. After
this little army was disbanded, Chuly returned
home, as I have been informed, with a small

VOL. II. 2

14 THE DUTCH PEDDLER.

party who crossed the plains directly from
Chihuahua..

We had never considered ourselves as per-
fectly en cheinin till after crossing the Arkan-
sas river ; and as our httle party experienced
no further change, I may now be permitted
to introduce them collectively to the reader.
It consisted of thhty-four men, including my
brother John Gregg and myself These men
had all been hired by us except three, two of
■whom were Eastern-bred boys — a tailor and
a silversmith — good-natured, clever little fel-
lows, who had thought themselves at the
'jumping-off place' when they reached Van
Buren, but noAv seemed nothing loth to ex-
tend theh peregrinations a thousand miles or
so further, in the hope of ' doing ' the ' Span-
iards,' as the Mexicans are generally styled in
the West, out of a httle surplus of specie.
The other was a German peddler, who some-
what resembled the Dutchman's horse, " put
him as you vant, and he ish alvays tere;"
for he did nothing during the w^hole journey
but descant on the value of a chest of trum-
peries which he carried, and with Avhich he
calculated, as he expressed it, to " py a plenty
of te Shpanish tollar." The trip across the
Prairies cost these men absolut-ely nothing,
inasmuch as we furnished them with all the
necessaries for the journey, in consideration
of the additional strength they brought to our
company.

It is seldom that such a variety of ingredi-
ents are found mixed up in so small a com-

CALIBRE OF OUR PARTY. 15

pass. Here were the representatives of seven
distinct nations, each speaking his own na-
tive language, which produced at times a very
respectable jumble of discordant sounds.
There was one Frenchman whose volubility
of tongue and curious gesticulations, con-
trasted very strangely with the frigidity of
two phlegmatic wanderers from Germany ;
while the calm eccentricity of two Polish exiles,
the stoical look of two sons of the desert (the
Creek already spoken ofj and a Chickasaw),
and the pantomimic gestures of sundry loqua-
cious Mexicans, contributed in no small de-
gree to heighten the effects of the picture.
The Americans were mostly backwoodsmen,
who could handle the rifle far better than the
whip, but who nevertheless officiated as wag-
oners.

We had fourteen road- wagons, half drawn
by mules, the others by oxen (eight of each
to the team) ; besides a carriage and a Jersey
wagon. Then we had two swivels mounted
upon one pair of wheels ; but one of them
was attached to a movable truckle, so that,
upon stopping, it could be transferred to the
other side of the wagons. One of these was
1 long brass piece made to order, with a cali-
bre of but an inch and a quarter, yet of suffi
cient metal to throw a leaden ball to the dis
tance of a mile with surprising accuracy
The other was of iron, and a little larger.
Besides these, our party was well supplied
with small arms. The Americans mostly had
their rifles and a musket m addition, which

16 ARMS AND EQUIPMENTS.

they carried in their wagons, always well
charged with ball and buckshot. Then my
brother and myself were each provided with
one of Colt's repeating rifles, and a pair of
pistols of the same, so that we could, if neces-
sary, carry thirty-six ready-loaded shots apiece ;
which alone constituted a capacity of defence
rarely matched even on the Prairies.

Previous to our departure we had received
a promise from the war department of an es-
cort of U. S. Dragoons, as far as the borders
of the Mexican territory ; but, upon sending
an express to Gen. Arbuckle at Fort Gibson to
that effect, we were informed that in conse-
quence of some fresh troubles among the
Cherokees, it was doubtful whether the force
could be spared in time. This was certainly
no very agreeable news, inasmuch as the es-
cort would have been very serviceable in as-
sisting to search out a track over the unex-
plored wilderness we had to pass. It was
too late, however, to recede ; and so we re-
solved at all hazards to pursue our journey.

We had advanced beyond the furthest
^settlements of the Creeks and Seminoles,
and pitched our camp on a bright balmy even-
ing, in the border of a delightful prairie, when
some of the young men, attracted by the pros-
pect of game, shouldered their rifles and
wended their steps through the dense forest
which lay contiguous to our encampment.
Among those that went forth, there was one
of the ' down-easters' already mentioned, who
was much more famihar with tlie interior of

A BORDER ADVENTURE. 17

a city than of a wilderness forest. As the
shades of evening were beginning to descend
and all the hunters had returned except him,
several muskets and even our little field-
pieces were fired, but without effect. The
night passed away, and the morning dawned
upon the encampment, and still he was ab-
sent. The firing was then renewed ; but soon
after he was seen approaching, very sullen
and dejected. He came with a tale of peril-
ous adventures and 'hair-breadth 'scapes'
upon his lips, which somewhat abated the
storm of ridicule by which he was at first
assailed. It seemed that he had heard our
firing on the previous evening, but believed it
to proceed from a contrary direction — a very
common mistake with persons who have be-
come bewildered and lost. Thus deceived
and stimulated by the fear of Indians (from
a party of whom he supposed the firing to
proceed), he continued his pathless wander-
ings till dark, when, to render his situation
still more critical, he was attacked by a ' pain-
ter'— anglic£, panther — which he actually suc-
ceeded in beating off with the breech of his
gun, and then betook himself to the topmost
extremity of a tree, where, in order to avoid a
similar intrusion, he passed the remainder of
the night. From a pecuhar odor with which
the shattered gun was still redolent, however,
it was strongly suspected that the 'terrific
painter' was not many degrees removed, in

affinit}'-, from a polecat.

We had just reached the extreme edge of

2*

18 CAMP HOLMES.

the far-famed ' Cross Timbers,' when we were
gratified by the arrival of forty dragoons, un-
der the command of Lieut. Bowman, who
had orders to accompany us to the supposed
boundary of the United States. On the
same evening we had the pleasure of en-
camping together at a place known as Camp
Holmes, a wild romantic spot in latitude 35^
5', and but a mile north of the Canadian
river. Just at hand there was a beautiful
spring, Avhere, in 1835, Colonel Mason with a
force of XJ. S. troops, had a ' big talk' and still
bigger 'smoke' with a party of Comanche
and Witchita Indians. Upon the same site
Col. Chouteau had also caused to be erected
not long after, a little stockade fort, where a
considerable trade was subsequently carried
on with the Comanches and other tribes of
the southwestern prairies. The place had
now been abandoned, however, since the pre-
ceding winter.

From the Arkansas river to Chouteau's
Fort, our route presented an unbroken suc-
cession of grassy plains and fertile glades, in-
tersected here and there with woody belts and
numerous rivulets, most of which, however,
are generally dry except during the rainy sea-
son. As far as Camp Holmes, we had a pass-
able wagon road, which was opened upon the
occasion of the Indian treaty before alluded
to, and was afterwards kept open by the In-
dian traders. Yet, notwithstanding the road,
this stretch gave us more trouble — presented
more rugged passes, miry ravines and steep

TABBA-QUENA, THE COMANCHE CHIEF. x9

ascents — than all the rest of our journey put
together.

We had not been long at the Fort, before
we received a visit from a party of Coman-
ches, who having heard of our approach came
to greet us a welcome, on the supposition that
it was their friend Chouteau returning to the
fort with fresh supplies of merchandise. Great
was their grief when we informed them that
their favorite trader had died at Fort Gibson,
the previous winter. On visiting their wig-
wams and inquiring for their capitan^^ we
were introduced to a corpulent, squint-eyed
old fellow, who certainly had nothing in his
personal appearance indicative of rank or
dignity. This was Tabba-quena (or the Big
Eagle), a name familiar to all the Comanche
traders. As we had frequently heard that he
spoke Spanish fluently, we at once prepared
ourselves for a social chit-chat; but, on ac-
costing him in that tongue, and inquiring
whether he could talk Spanish, he merely re-
plied ^ Poquito,^ putting at the same time his
forefinger to his ear, to signify that he merely
understood a httle — which proved true to a
degree, for our communication was chiefly
by signs. We were now about to launch
upon an unknown region — our route lay
henceforth across that unexplored wilderness,
of which I have ah*eady spoken, without
either pilot or trail to guide us for nearly
500 miles. We had to depend entirely upon

* Most of the prairie Indians seem to have learned this Span-
ish woid, by which, when talking, with, the whites, al'. their
chiefs are designated.

20 OLD tab's geography.

our knowledge of the geographical position
of the country for which we were steering,
and the indications of a compass and sextant.
This was emphatically a pioneer trip ; such a
one also as had, perhaps, never before been
undertaken — to convey heavily laden v/agons
through a country almost wholly untrod by
civilized man, and of which we, at least, knew
nothing. We were therefore extremely anx-
ious to acquire any information our visitors
might be able to give us ; but Tabba-quena
being by no means experienced in wagon
tactics, could only make us understand, by-
gestures, mixed vAih. a little wretched Span-
ish, that the route up the Canadian presented
no obstacles according to his mode of travel-
hng. He appeared, however, very well ac-
quainted with the Avhole Mexican frontier,
from Santa Fe to Chihuahua, and even to the
Gulf, as well as with all the Prairies. During
the consultation he seemed occasionally to
ask the opinions of other chiefs who had hud-
dled around him. Finally, we handed him sf
sheet of paper and a pencil, signifying at the
same time a desire that he would draw us a
map of the Prairies. This he very promptly
executed ; and although the draft was some-
what rough, it bore, much to our astonish-
ment, quite a map-like appearance, with a far
more accurate dehneation of all the principal
rivers of the plains — the road from INIissouri
to Santa Fe, and the different Mexican settle-
ments, than is to be found in many of the en-
graved maps of those regions,

THE 'CAPITAN GRANDE.' 21

Tabba-quena's party consisted of about sixty
i^ersons, including several squaws and pa-
pooses, with a few Kiawa chiefs and warriors,
who, although of a tribe so entirely distinct,
are frequently found domiciled among the
Comanches. As we were about to break up
the camp they all started for Fort Gibson, for
the purpose, as they informed us, of paying a
visit to the ' Capitan Grande' — a Spanish
phrase used by many prairie tribes, and appli-
ed, in their confused notions of rank and
power, not only to the President of the United
States himself; but to the seat of the federal
government. These they are again apt to
confound with Fort Gibson and the com-
manding officer of that station.

On the 18th of May, we set out from Chou-
teau's fort. From this forward our wagons
were marched in two lines, and regularly
* formed' at every camp, so as to constitute a
fortification and a corral for the stock. This is
different from the * forming' of the large cara-
vans. The two front wagons are driven up,
side by side, with their ' tails' a little inclined
outward. About half of the rest are drawn
up in the same manner, but each stopped
with the fore-wheel a httle back of the hind-
wheel of the next ahead. The remainder are
similarly brought up, but inclined inward be-
hind, so as nearly to close again at the rear of
the pen ; leaving a gap through which to intro-
duce the stock. Thus the corral remains of an
ovate form. After the drivers become expert
the whole is performed in a very short time.

22 A SEMI-MUTE COLLOQUY.

On the following day we were again joined
by old Tabba-quena, and another Comanche
chief, with five or six warriors, and as many
squaws, including Tab's wife and infant son
As we were jogging along in the afternoon, 1
held quite a long conversation in our semi-
mute language with the squinting old cliief
He gave me to understand, as well as he could,
that his comrades^ had proceeded on their
journey to see the Capitan Grande, but that
he had concluded to return home for bet-
ter horses. He boasted in no measured terms
of his friendship for the Americans, and pro-
mised to exert his influence to prevent the
turbulent and unruly spirits of his nation from
molesting us. But he could not disguise his
fears in regard to the Pawnees and Osages,
who, he said, would be sure to run off with
our stock while we were asleep at night.
When I informed him that we kept a strict
night-watch, he said, " Estd buend' (that's
good), and allowed that our chances for safety
were not so bad after all.

These friendly Indians encamped with us
that night, and on the following morning the
old chief informed us that some of his party
had a few " mulas para sivap" (mules to trade ;
for having learned the word swap of some
American traders, he very ingeniously tacked
it at the tail of his little stock of Spanish).
A barter for fiYe mules was immediately con-

* Some of these (principally ICiawas, as I afterwards learned),
reached Fort Gibson, and received a handsome reward of govern-
ment presents for their visit.

SPRING VALLEY. 23

eluded upon, much to our advantage, as our
teams were rather in a weak condition. Old
Tab and his party then left us to join his band,
which, he said, was located on the Faux
Ouachitta river, and we never saw aught of
them naore.

After leaving the Fort we generally kept on
the ridge between the Canadian and the
North Fork, crossing sometimes the tributary
brooks of the one and sometimes those of
the others. Having travelled in this manner
for about eighty miles, we entered one of the
most charming prairie vales that I have ever
beheld, and which in the plenitude of our en-
thusiasm, we named ' Spring Valley,' on ac-
count of the numerous spring-fed rills and
gurgling rivulets that greeted the sight in
every direction ; in whose hmpid pools
swarms of trout and perch were carelessly
playing. Much of the country, indeed, over
which we had passed was somewhat of a
similar character — yet nowhere quite so beau-
tiful. I must premise, however, that west-
ward of this, it is only the valleys immediately
bordering the streams that are at all fit for
cultivation : the high plains are too dry and
sandy. But here the soil was dark and mel-
low, and the rich vegetation with which it was
clothed plainly indicated its fertility. ' Spring
Valley' gently inclines towards the North
Fork, which was at the distance of about Rve
miles from our present route. It was some-
where along the border of this enchanting
vale that a Uttle picket fort was erected in

24 *THE BUFFALO FEVER.

1822, by an unfortunate trader named Mc-
Knight, .who was afterwards betrayed and
murdered by the faithless Comanches. The
iandscape is beautifully variegated with stripes
and fringes of timber: wliile the little herds of
buffalo that were scattered about in fantastic
groups imparted a degree of life and pictur-
esqueness to the scene, which it was truly de-
hghtful to contemplate.

It was three days previous that we had first
met with these ' prairie cattle.' I have often
heard backwoodsmen speak of the ' buck
ague,' but commend me to the ' buffalo fever'
of the Prairies for novelty and amusement
Very few of our party had ever seen a buffalo
before in its wild state ; therefore at the first
sight of these noble animals the excitement
surpassed anything I had ever witnessed be-
fore. Some of our dragoons, in their eager-
ness for sport, had managed to frighten away
a small herd that were quietly feeding at some
distance, before our ' still hunters,' who had
crawled towards them, had been able to get
within rifle-shot of them. No sooner were
the movements of our mounted men perceiv-
ed, than the whole extent of country, as far
as the eye could reach, became perfectly ani-
mate with living objects, fleeing and scamper-
ing m every direction. From the surrounding
valleys sprang up numerous herds of these
animals which had hitherto been unobserved,
many of which, in their indiscriminate flight,
passed so near the wagons, that the drivers,
carried away by the contagious excitement of

A GREENHORN SCAMPER. 25

the moment, would leave the teams and keep
rip a running lire after them. I had the good
fortune to witness the exploits of one of our
Northern greenhorns, who, mounted upon a
sluggish mule, and without any kind of wea-
pon, anmsed himself by chasing every buHaio
that came scudding along, as if he expected
tc capture him by laying hold of his tail.
Plying spur and whip, he would gallop after
one division till he was left far behind : and
then turn to another and another, with the
same earnestness of purpose, until they had
all passed out of sight He finally came
back disheartened and sullen, with his head
hanging down like one conscious qf having
done something supremely ridiculous; but
still cursing his lazy mule, which, he said,
might have caught the buffalo, if it had had a
mind to.

The next day the buffalo being still more
numerous, the chase was renewed with greater
zest. Li the midst of the general hurly-burly
wliich ensued, three persons on foot were
perceived afar off^ chasing one herd of buffalo
and then another, until they completely dis-
appeared. These were two of .our cooks,
the one armed vvith a pistol, the other with a
musket, accompanied by Chuly (the Creek),
who was happily provided with a rifle. We
travelled several miles without hearing or see-
ing anything of them. At last, when we had
almost given them up for lost, Frank, the
French cook, came trudging in, and his rue-
ful countenance was no bad index of the

VOL. If, 3

26 THE cooks' adventures.

doleful tale he had to relate. Although he
had been chasing and shooting all day, he had,
as he expressed it, "'no killet one," till eventu-
ally he happened to stumble upon a Avounded
calf, which he boldly attacked; but as ill luck
would have it, the youngster took it into his
head to give him battle. " Foutre de varment !
he butt me down," exclaimed the exasperated
Frenchman, — " Sacre ! me plentee scart; but
me kill him for aU." Chuly and the other
cook came in soon after, in equally deject-
ed spirits ; for, in addition to his ill luck in
hunting, the latter had been lost. The Indian
had perhaps killed buffalo with his rifle, but
he was in no humor to be communicative in
his language of signs ; so nothing was ever
known of his adventures. One thing seemed
pretty certain, that they were all cured of the
^buffalo fever.'

On the night after the first buffalo scamper,
we encamped upon a woodless ravine, and
were obliged to resort to ' buffalo chips' (dry
ordure) for fuel. It is amusing to witness the
bustle which generally takes place in collect-
ing this offal. In dry weather it is an excel-
lent substitute for wood, than which it even
makes a hotter fire ; but when moistened by
rain, the smouldering pile will smoke for hours
before it condescends to burn, if it does at all.
The buffalo meat which the hunter roasts or
broils upon this fire, he accounts more savory
than the steaks dressed by the most dehcate
cooks in civihzed life.

CHAPTER II.

Travelling out of our Latitude— The Buffalo-gnat — A Kiawa
and Squaw — Indian crim con. Affair — Extraordinary Mark
of Confidence in the White Man— A Conflagration — An Espy
Shower — Region of Gypsum — Our Latitude — A Lilliputian
Forest— A Party of Comanches — A Visit to a ' Dog Town' —
Indian Archery — Arrival of Comanche Warriors — A ' Big
Talk,' and its Results — Speech of the CapUan Mayor — Pro-
ject of bringing Comanche Chiefs to Washington — Return of
Lieut. Bowman, and our March resumed — Melancholy Re-
flections— Another Indian Visit — Mexican Captives — Volun-
tary Captivity — A sprightly Mexican Lad — Purchase of a
Captive — Comanche Trade and Etiquette — Indians least dan-
gerous to such as trade with them.

As it now appeared that we had been forced
at least two points north of the course we
had originally intended to steer, by the north-
ern bearing of the Canadian, we made an
effort to cross a ridge of timber to the south,
which, after considerable labor, proved suc-
cessful. Here we found a multitude of gra-
velly, bright-flowing streams, with rich bot-
toms, lined all along with stately white oak,
black-walnut, mulberry, and other similar
growths, that yielded us excellent materials
for wagon repairs, of which the route from
Missouri, after passing Council Grove, is ab«
solutely in want.

28 A KIAWA 'LOVE SCRAPE.'

Although we found the buffalo extremely
scarce westward of Spring Valley, yet there
was no lack of game ; for every nook and
glade swarmed with deer and wild turkeys,
partridges and grouse. We had also occasion
to become acquainted with another species
of prairie-tenant whose visits generally pro-
duced impressions that were anything but
agreeable. I allude to a small black insect
generally known to prairie travellers as the

* buffalo-gnat' It not only attacks the face
and hands, but even contrives to insinuate it-
self under the clothing, upon the breast and
arms, and other covered parts. Here it fastens
Itself and luxuriates, until completely satisfied.
Its bite is so poisonous as to give the face, neck,
and hands, or any other part of the person up-
on which its affectionate caresses have been
bestowed, the appearance of a pustulated va-
rioloid. The bufialo-gnat is in fact a much
more annoying insect than the mosquito, and
also much more frequently met with on the
prairie streams.

We now continued our Une of march be-
tween the Canadian and the timbered ridge
with very little difficulty. Having stopped to

* noon ' in a bordering valley, we were quite
surprised by the appearance of an Indian
with no other protection than his squaw.
From what we could gather by their signs,
they had been the victims of a ' love scrape.'
The fellow, whom I found to be a Kiawa,
had, according to his own account, stolen the
wife of another, and then fled to the thickets,

A PRAIRIE CONFLAGRATION. 29

where he purposed to lead a lonely life, in
hopes of escaping the vengeance of his in-
censed predecessor. From this, it would ap-
pear that affairs of gallantry are not evils ex-
clusively confined to civihzation. Plausible,
however, as the Indian's story seemed to be,
we had strong suspicions that others of his
band were not far off; and that he, with his
' better half,' had only been skulking about in
hopes of exercising their 'acquisitiveness' at
our expense ; when, on finding themselves
discovered, they deemed it the best pohcy
fearlessly to approach us. This singular visit
afforded a specimen of that confidence with
which civilization inspires even the most un-
tatored savages. They remained with us, in
the utmost nonchalance, till the following
morning.

Shortly after the arrival of the visitors, we
were terribly alarmed at a sudden prairie con-
flagration. The old grass of the valley in
which we were encamped had not been
burned off, and one of our cooks having un-
wittingly kindled a fire in the midst of it, it
spread at once with wonderful rapidity; and
a brisk wind springing up at the time, the
flames were carried over the valley, in spite
of every effort we could make to check them.
Fortunately for us, the fire had broken out to
the leeward of our wagons, and therefore oc-
casioned us no damage ; but the accident it-
self was a forcible illustration of the danger
that might be incurred by pitching a camp in
the midst of dry grass, and the advantages
3*

30 REGION OF GYFSUM.

that might be taken by hostile savages in
such a locahty.

After the fire had raged with great violence
for a few hours, a cloud suddenly obscured
the horizon, which was almost immediately
followed by a refreshing shower of rain : a
phenomenon often witnessed upon the Prai-
ries after an extensive conflagration; and
affording a practical exemplification of Pro-
fessor Espy's celebrated theory of artificial
showers.

We now continued our journey without
further trouble, except tiiat of being still forced
out of our proper latitude by the northern
bearing of the Canadian. On the 30th of
May, however, we succeeded in 'doubling'
the spur of the Great North Bend. Upon as-
cending the dividing ridge again, which at
this point was entirely destitute of timber, a
' prairie expanse ' once more gree'ted our view.
This and the following day, our route lay
through a region that abounded in gypsum,
from the finest quality down to ordinary plas-
ter. On the night of the 31st we encamped
on a tributary of the North Fork, which Ave
called Gypsum creek, in consequence of its
being surrounded with vast quantities of that
substance.

Being compelled to keep a reckoning of
our latitude, by which our travel was partly
governed, and the sun being now too high at
noon for the use of the artificial horizon, we
had to be guided entirely by observations of
the meridian altitude of the moon, planets, or

A LILLIPUTIAN FOREST. 31

fixed stars. At Gypsum creek our latitude
was 36° 10' — being the utmost northing we
had made. As we were now about thirty
miles north of the parallel of Santa Fe, we
had to steer, henceforth, a few degrees south
of west in order to bring up on our direct
course.

The following night we encamped in a re-
gion covered with sandy hillocks, Avhere there
was not a drop of water to be found : in fact,
an immense sand-plain was now opening
before us, somewhat variegated in appear-
ance, being entirely barren of vegetation in
some places, while others were completely
covered with an extraordinarily diminutive
growth which has been called shin-oak, and
a curious plum-bush of equally dwarfish sta-
ture. These singular-looking plants (undis-
tinguishable at a distance from the grass of
the prairies) were heavily laden with acorns
and plums, which, when ripe, are of consi-
derable size, although the trunks of either
were seldom thicker than oat-straws, and fre-
quently not a foot high. We also met with
the same in many other places on the Prai-
ries.

Still the most indispensable requisite, wa-
ter, was nowhere to be found, and symptoms
of alarm were beginning to spread far and
wide among us. When we had last seen the
Canadian and the North Fork, they appeared
to separate in their course almost at right
angles, therefore it was impossible to tell at
what distance we were from either. At last

32 PRAIRIE ANIMALS.

my brother and myself, who had been scour-
ing the plains during the morning without
success, hnally perceived a deep hollow lead-
ing in the direction of the Canadian, Avliere
we found a fine pool of water, and our wa-
gons *made port' again before mid-day; thus
quieting all alarm.

Although we had encountered but very
few buffalo since we left Spring Valley, they
now began to make their appearance again,
though not in very large droves ; together
with the deer and the fleet antelope, ^4iich
latter struck me as beinsr much more tame in
this wild section of the Prairies than I had
seen it elsewhere. The graceful and majes-
tic mustang would also now and then sweep
across the naked country, or come curvetting
and capering in the vicinity of our little cara-
van, just as the humor prompted him. But
what attracted our attention most were the
little dog settlements, or, as they are more
technically called, ' dog towns,' so often allud-
ed to by prairie travellers. As we were pass-
ing through their 'streets,' multitudes of the
diminutive inhabitants were to be seen among
the numerous little hillocks which marked
their dwellings, where they frisked about, or
sat perched at their doors, yelping defiance,
to our great anmsement — heedless of the dan-
ger that often awaited them from the rifles of
our party ; for they had perhaps never seen
such deadly weapons before.

On the 5th of June, we found ourselves
once more travelling on a firm rolhng prauie,

INDIANS DESCRIED. 33

about the region, as we supposed,^ of the
boundary between the United States and
Mexico ; when Lieut. Bowman, in pursuance
of his instructions, began to talk seriously of
returning. While the wagons were stopped
at noon, a small party of us, including a few
dragoons, advanced some miles ahead to take
a survey of the route. We had just ascended
the highest point of a ridge to get a prospect
of the country beyond, when we descried a
lierd of buffalo in motion and two or three
horsemen in hot pursuit. '' Mexican Cibole-
ros!"we all exclaimed at once ; for we sup-
posed we might now be within the range of
the buffalo hunters of New Mexico. Clap-
ping spurs to our horses, we set off towards
them at full speed. As we might have ex-
pected, our precipitate approach frightened
them away and we soon lost sight of them
altogether. On reaching the spot where they
had last been seen, we found a horse and two
mules saddled, all tied to the carcass of a
slain buffalo which was partly skinned. We
made diligent search in some copses of small
growth, and among the adjacent ravines, but
could discover no further traces of the fugi-
tives. The Indian rigging of the animals,
however, satisfied us that they were not Mex-
icans.

We were just about giving up the pursuit,
when a solitary Indian horseman was espied
upon a ridge about a mile from us. My

* From subsequent observations, this point appears to have been
Bome miles west of the 100th degree of longitiide.

34 COMANCHE INTERVIEW.

brother and myself set out towards him, but
on seeing us approach, he began to manifest
some fear, and tlierefore my brother advanced
alone. As soon as he was near enough he
cried out " Amigo ! " to which the Indian re-
pUed ^^Comantz!^^ and giving liimself a thump
upon tlie breast, he made a graceful circuit,
and came up at full speed, presenting his
hand in token of friendship. Nothing, how-
ever, could induce him to return to his ani-
mals with us, Avhere the rest of our party had
remained. He evidently feared treachery and
foul play. Therefore we retraced our steps to
the wagons, leaving the Indian's property just
as we had found it, which, we subsequently
discovered, was taken away after our de-
parture.

In the afternoon of the same day, five more
Indians (including a squaw), made their ap*
pearance, and having been induced by friend-
ly tokens to approach us, they spent the night
at our encampment. The next morning, we
expressed a desire, by signs, to be conducted
to the nearest point on our route where good
pasturage and water might be found. A
sprightly young chief, armed only with his
bow and arrows, at once undertook the task,
while his comrades still travelled along in our
company. AVe had not progressed far before
we found ourselves in the very midst of ano-
ther large ' dog-town.'

The task of describing the social and do-
mestic habits of these eccentric little brutes,
has been so graphically and amusingly exe-

THE PRAIRIE DOGS. 35

cuted by the racy and popular pen of G.
Wilkins Kendall, that any attempt by me
would be idle ; and I feel that the most agree-
able service I can do my readers is to borrow
a paragraph from his alluring " Narrative,"
describing a scene presented by one of these
prairie commonwealths.

" In their habits they are clannish, social,
and extremely convivial, never hving alone
like other animals, but, on the contrary, al-
ways found in villages or large settlements.
They are a wild, frolicsome, madcap set of
fellows when undisturbed, vineasy and ever
on the move, and appear to take especial de-
light in chattering away the time, and visiting
from hole to hole to gossip and talk over each
other's affairs — at least so their actions would

indicate On several occasions I crept

close to their villages, without being observed,
to watch their movements. Directly in the
centre of one of them I particularly noticed a
very large dog, sitting in front of the door or
entrance to his burrow, and by his own actions
and those of his neighbors it really seemed as
though he was the president, mayor, or chief —
at all events, he was the 'big dog' of the place.
For at least an hour I secretly watched the ope-
rations in this community. During that time
the large dog I have mentioned received at
least a dozen visits from his fellow-dogs, which
would stop and chat with him a few moments,
and then run off to their domicils. All this
while he never left his post for a moment, and
[ thought I could discover a gravity in his de-

36 INDIAN ARCHERY.

portment not discernible in those by which
he was surrounded. Far is it from me to say
that the visits he received were upon busi-
ness, or had anytliing to do with the local
government of the village ; but it certainly
appeared so. If any animal has a system of
laws regulating the body politic, it is certainly
the prairie dog."

As we sat on our horses, looking at these
'village transactions,' our Comanche guide
drew an arrow for the purpose of cutting
short the career of a little citizen that sat
yelping most doggedly in the mouth of his
hole, forty or fifty paces distant. The animal
was almost entirely concealed behind the hil-
lock which encompassed the entrance of bis
apartment, so that the dart could not reach it
in a direct line ; but the Indian had resort to
a manoeuvre which caused the arrow to de-
scend with a curve, and in an instant it quiv-
ered in the body of the poor little quadruped.
The slayer only smiled at his feat, while we
v/ere perfectly astounded. There is nothing
strange in the rifleman's being able to hit his
mark with his fine-sighted barrel; but the ac-
curacy with which these savages learn to
shoot their feathered missiles, with such
random aim, is almost incomprehensible. I
had at the same time drawn one of Colt's re-
peating pistols, with a view of paying a simi-
lar compliment to another dog ; when, find-
ing that it excited the curiosity of the chief;
I fired a few shots in quick succession, as an
explanation of its virtues. He seemed to

CAMP COMANCHE, 37

comprehend the secret instantly, and, drawing
his bow once more, he discharged a number
of arrows with the same rapidity, as a palpa-
ble intimation that he could shoot as fast with
his instrument as we could with our patent
lire-arms. This was not merely a vain show:
there was more of reality than of romance in
his demonstration.

Shortly after this we reached a fresh brook,
a tributary of the North fork, which wound
its silent course in the midst of a picturesque
valley, surrounded by romantic hills and crag-
gy knobs. Here we pitched our camp : when
three of our visitors left us for the purpose of
going to bring all the ' capitanes' of their
tribe, who were said to be encamped at no
great distance from us.

Our encampment, which we designated as
* Camp Comanche,' was only five or six miles
from the North Fork, while, to the southward,
the main Canadian was but a little more dis-
tant.

After waiting anxiously for the arrival of
the Comanche chiefs, until our patience was
well nigh exhausted, I ascended a high knoll
just behind our camp, in company with the
younger of the two chiefs who had remained
with us, to see if anything could be discover-
ed. By and by, the Comanche pointed anx-
iously towards the northwest, where he espied
a party of his people, though at such a great
distance, that it was some time before I could
discern them. With what acuteness of
vision are these savages endowed! Accus-

VOL. ir. 4

38 ARRIVAL OF COMANCHES.

tomed to the open plains, and like the eagle
to look out for their prey at immense distan-
ces, their optical perception is scarcely ex
celled by that of the king of birds.

The party, having approached still nearer,
assembled upon an eminence as if for the
purpose of reconnoitring ; but our chief upon
the knoll hoisting his blanket, which seemed
to say, ' come ahead,' they advanced slowly
and deliberately — very unlike the customary
mode of approach among all the prairie tribes.

The party consisted of about sixty warriors,
at the head of whom rode an Indian of small
stature and agreeable countenance, verging
on the age of fifty. He wore the usual Co-
manche dress, but instead of moccasins, he
had on a pair of long white cotton hose,
while upon his bare head waved a tall red
plume, — a mark of distinction which pro-
claimed him at once the capitan rnayor, or
principal chief We addressed them in Span-
ish, inquiring if they had brought an inter-
preter, when a lank-jawed, gram-looking sav-
age announced his readiness to officiate in
that capacity. " Sabes hablar en JEspahol,
amigo?'' (can you talk Spanish, friend?) I
inquired. " aSV" (yes), he gruffly repUed.
*' Where are your people ?" " Encamped just
above on yonder creek." " How many of you
are there ?" " Oh, a great many — nearly all
the Comanche nation ; for we are en junta to
go and fight the Pawnees." " Well, can you
tell us how far it is to Santa Fe ?"— But the
surly savage cut short my inquiries by observ-

THE *BICr TALK.' 39

ing — " AM platicaremos despues^^ — " AVe will
talk about that hereafter."

We then showed them a spot a few rods
from us, where they might encamp so as not
to intermix their animals with ours; after
which all the capitanes were invited to our
camp to hold a ' big talk.' In a very short
time we had ten chiefs seated in a circle with-
in our tent, when the pipe, the Indian token
of peace, was produced : but, doubting per-
haps the sincerity of our professions, they at
first refused to smoke. The interpreter, how-
ever, remarked as an excuse for their conduct,
that it was not their custom to smoke until
they had received some presents : but a few^
Mexican cigarritos being produced, most of
them took a whiff, as if under the impression
that to smoke cigars was no pledge of friend-
ship.

Lieut. Bowman now desired us to broach
the subject of peace and amity betwixt the
Comanches and our people, and to invite
them to visit the ' Capitan Grande' at Wash-
ington, and enter into a perpetual treaty to
that effect ; but they would not then converse
on the subject. In fact, the interpreter in-
quired, " Are we not at war ? — how can we
go to see the Capitan Grande ?" We knew
they held themselves at war with Mexico and
Texas, and probably had mistaken us for Tex-
ans, which had no doubt caused the interpre-
ter to speak so emphatically of their immense
numbers. Upon this we explained to them
that the United States was a distinct govern-

40 SPEECH OF THE GREAT CHIEF.

ment and at peace with the Comanches. As
an earnest of our friendly disposition, we then
produced some scarlet cloth, with a small
quantity of vermilion, tobacco, beads, etc.,
which being distributed among them, they
very soon settled down into a state of placid-
ness and contentment. Indeed, it will be
found, that, with wild Indians, presents are
always the corner-stone of friendship. " We
are rejoiced," at last said the elder chief with
a ceremonious air, " our hearts are glad that
you have arrived among us: it makes our
eyes laugh to see Americans walk in our
land. We will notify our old and young men
— our boys and our maidens — our women
and children, — that they may come to trade
with you. We hope you will speak well of
us to your people, that more of them may
hunt the way to our country, for we like to
trade with the white man." This was de-
livered in Comanche, but translated into
Spanish by the interpreter, who, although a
full Indian, had lived several years among the
Mexicans and spoke that language tolerably
well. Our 'big talk' lasted several hours, after
which the Indians retired to sleep. The next
morning, after renewing their protestations of
friendship, they took their departure, the prin-
cipal chief saying, " Tell the Capitan Grande
that when he pleases to call us we are all ready
to go to see him."

The project of bringing some of the chiefs
of these wild prairie tribes to Washington
city, has been entertained, but never yet car-

RETURN OF THE DRAGOONS. 41

ried into effect. The few who have penetrat-
ed as far as Fort Gibson, or perhaps to a fron
tier village, have probably left with more un
favorable impressions than they had before.
Believing the former to be our great Capital,
and the most insignificant among the latter,
our largest cities, they have naturally come to
the conclusion that they surpass us in num-
bers and power, if not in wealth and grandeur.
I have no doubt that the chiefs of the Co-
manches and other prairie tribes, if rightly
managed, might be induced to visit our verita-
ble ' Capitan Grande,' and our large cities,
which would doubtless have a far better effect
than all the treaties of peace that could be
concluded with them for an age to come.
They would then ' see with their own eyes
and hear with their own ears' the magnifi-
cence and power of the whites, which would
inspire them at once with respect and fear.

This was on the 7th of June. About noon,
Lieut. Bowman and his command finally took
leave of us, and at the same time we resumed
our forward march. This separation was
truly painful : not so much on account of the
loss we were about to experience, in regard to
the protection afforded us by the troops (which,
to say the truth, was more needed now than
it had ever been before), as for the necessity
of parting with a friend, who had endeared
himself to us all by his affable deportment,
his social manners and accommodating dis-
position. Ah! little did we think then that
we should never see that gallant officer more !
4*

42 REFLECTIONS MORE COMANCHES.

So young, so robust, and so healthy, little did
we suspect that the sound of that voice which
shouted so vigorously in responding to our
parting salute in the desert, would never greet
our ears again ! But such Avas Fate's decree !
Although he arrived safely at Fort Gibson, in
a few short weeks he fell a victim to disease.

There were perhaps a few timid hearts
that longed to return with the dragoons, and
ever and anon a wistful glance would be cast
back at the recedino^ fii'ures in the distance.
The idea of a handful of thirty-four men
having to travel without guide or protection
through a dreary wilderness, peopled by thou-
sands of savages who were just as hkely to be
hostile as friendly, was certainly very little
calculated to produce agreeable impressions.
Much to the credit of our men, however, the
escort was no sooner out of sight than the
timorous regained confidence, and all seemed
bound together by stronger ties than before.
All we feared were ambuscades or surprise ;
to guard against which, it was only necessary
to redouble our vigilance.

On the following day, while we were en-
joying our noon's rest upon a ravine of the
Canadian, several parties of Indians, amount-
ing altogether to about three hundred souls,
including Avomen and children, made their ap-
pearance. They belonged to the same band
of Comanches with whom we had had so
agreeable an intercourse, and had brought
several mules in the expectation of driving a
trade with us. The squaws and papooses

FEMALE CAPTIVES. 43

were so anxious to gratify their curiosity, and
so very soon began to ^ive such striking mani-
festations of their pilfering propensities, that
at the request of the chiefs, we carried some
goods at a httle distance, where a trade was
opened, in hopes of attracting their attention.
One woman, I observed, still Hngered among
the wagons, who, from certain peculiarities of
features, struck me very forcibly as not being
an Indian. In accordance with this impres-
sion I addressed her in Spanish, and was soon
confirmed in all my suspicions. She was
from the neighborhood of Matamoros, and
had been married to a Comanche since her
captivity. She did not entertain the least de-
sire of returning to her own people.

Similar instances of voluntary captivity
have frequently occurred. Dr. Sibley, in a
communication to the War Department, in
1805, relates an affecting case, which shows
how a sensitive female will often prefer re-
maining with her mastery, rather than encoun-
ter the horrible ordeal of ill-natured remarks to
which she would inevitably be exposed on be-
ing restored to civilized hfe. The Comanches,
some twenty years previous, having kid-
napped the daughter of the Governor- Gene-
ral of Chihuahua, the latter transmitted f 1000
to a trader to procure her ransom. This was
soon effected, but to the astonishment of all
concerned, the unfortunate girl refused to
leave the Indians. She sent word to her fa-
ther, that they had disfigured her by tattoo-
ing; that she was married and perhaps en-

44 A SPKIGHTLY LAD.

ceinte ; and that she would be moie unhappy
by returning to her father under these circum-
stances tlian by remaining where she was.

My attention was » next attracted by a
sprightly lad, ten or twelve years old, whose
nationality could scarcely be detected under
his Indian guise. But, though quite ' Indian-
ized,' he was exceedingly polite. I inquired
of him in Spanish, " Are you not a Mexican?"
"Yes, sir, — I once was." "What is your
name ?" " Bernardino Saenz, sir, at your
service." " When and where were you tak-
en ?" " About four years ago, at the Hacienda
de las Animas, near Parral." " Shan't we buy
you and take you to your people ? — we are
going thither." At tliis he hesitated a little,
and then answered in an affecting tone, "A^o,
senor ; ya soy demasiado hruto jJctJ'a vivir entre
los Cristianos'^ (O, no, sir; I am now too
much of a brute to live among Christians) ;
adding that his owner was not there, and that
he knew the Indian i^ whose charge he came
would not sell him.

The Hacienda de las Animas is in the de-
partment of Chihuahua, some fifteen miles
from the city of Parral, a much larger place
^han Santa Fe. Notwithstanding this, about
three hundred Comanches made a bold in-
road into the very heart of the settlements —
laid waste the unfortunate hacienda, kilhng
and capturing a considerable number — and re-
mained several days in the neighborhood,
committing all sorts of outrages. This occur-
red in 1835, I happened to be in Chihuahua

BUYING A CAPTIVE, ETC. 45

it the time, and very well remember the bus-
de and consternation that prevailed. A thou-
sand volunteers were raised, commanded by
the governor himself, who 'hotly pursued' the
enemy during their tardy retreat ; but return-
ed with the usual report — "iVb les pudimos al-
canzar,'' — we could not overtake them.

Out of half a dozen Mexican captives that
happened to be with our new visitors, we only
met with one who manifested the slightest in-
clination to abandon Indian hfe. This was a
stupid boy about fifteen years of age, who had
probably been roughly treated on account of
his laziness. We very soon struck a bargain
with his owner, paying about the price of a
mule for the little outcast, whom I sent to his
family as soon as we reached Chihuahua.
Notwithstanding the inherent stupidity of my
prot^gd^ I found him abundantly grateful —
much to his credit be it spoken — for the little
service I had been able to render him.

We succeeded in purchasing several mules
which cost us between ten and twenty dollars
worth of goods apiece. In Comanche trade
the main trouble consists in fixing the price
of the first animal. This being settled by the
chiefs, it often happens that mule after mule
is led up and the price received without fur-
ther cavil. Each owner usually wants a
general assortment ; therefore the price must
consist of several items, as a blanket, a look-
ing-glass, an awl, a flint, a little tobacco, Ver-
million, beads, etc.

Our trade with the new batch of Co-

46 INDIAN TRADE.

manches being over, they now began to
depart as they had come, in small parties,
without bidding us adieu, or even informing
us of their intention, it being the usual mode
of taking leave among Indians, to depart
sans ceremonie^ and as silently as possible.

The Santa Fe caravans have generally
avoided every manner of trade with the wild
Indians, for fear of being treacherously dealt
with during* the familiar intercourse which
necessarily ensues. This I am convinced is
an erroneous impression ; for I have always
found, that savages are much less hostile to
those with whom they trade, than to any
other people. They are emphatically fond of
traffic, and, being anxious to encourage the
whites to come among them, instead of com-
mitting depredations upon those with whom
they trade, they are generally ready to defend
them against every enemy.

CHAPTER III.

Ponds and Buffalo Wallows — Valley of the Canadian, and ro-
mantic Freaks of Nature — Melancholy Adventure of a Party
of Traders in 1832 — Fears of being lost — Arrival of a Party
of Comancheros, and their wonderful Stories — Their Peculiari-
ties and Traffic — Bitter Water, and the Salitrc of New Mexi-
co— Avant-couriers for Santa Fe — Patent Fire-arms and their
Virtues — Ranchero Ideas of Distance, and their Mode of giv-
ing Directions — The Angostura, and erroneous Notions of the
Texans — A new Route revealed — Solitary Travel — Supply
of Provisions sent back — Arrival at Santa Fe — Gov. ArmijOj
etc. — A * Flare-up' with His Excellency.

The Comanches having all disappeared, we
resumed our march/and soon emerged into
an open plain or mesa which was one of the
most monotonous I had ever seen, there be-
ing not a break, not a hill nor valley, nor
even a shrub to obstruct the view. The only
thing which served to turn us from a direct
course pursued by the compass, was the in-
numerable ponds which bespeckled the plain,
and which kept us at least well supplied with
water. Many of these ponds seem to have
grown out of 'buffalo wallows,' — a term used
on the Prairies to designate a sink made by
the buffalo's pawing the earth for the purpose
of obtaining a smooth dusty surface to roll
upon.

48 A PICTURESQUE VALLEY.

After three or four days of weary travel
over this level plain, the picturesque valley of
the Canadian burst once more upon our view,
presenting one of the most magnificent sights
I had ever beheld. Here rose a perpendicu-
lar cliff, in all the majesty and sublimity of its
desolation ; — there another sprang forward as
in the very act of losing its balance and about
to precipitate itself upon the vale below; — a
little further on, a pillar with crevices and cor-
nices so curiously formed as easily to be mis-
taken for the work of art ; while a thousand
other objects grotesquely and fantastically
arranged, and all shaded in the sky-bound
perspective by the blue ridge-like brow of
the mesa far beyond the Canadian, consti-
tuted a kind of chaotic space where nature
seemed to have indulged in her wildest ca-
prices. Such was the confusion of ground-
swells and eccentric cavities, that it was alto-
gether impossible to determine whereabouts
the channel of the Canadian wound its way
among them.

It would seem that these mesas might once
have extended up to the margin of the stream,
leaving a canon or chasm through which the
river flowed, as is still the case in some other
places. But the basis of the plain not hav-
ing been sufficiently firm to resist the action
of the waters, these have washed and cut the
bordering cejas or brows into all the shapes
they now present. The buffalo and other
animals have no doubt assisted in these trans-
mutations. Their deep-worn paths over the

FORMATION OF RAVINES. 49

brows of the plains, form channels for the de-
scending rains; which are soon washed into
the size of ravines — and even considerable
creeks. The beds of these continue to be
worn down until veins of lasting water are
opened, and constant-flowing streams thus
established. Numerous were the embryo
rivulets which might be observed forming in
this way along the borders of those streams.
The frequent isolated benches and mounds,
whose tabular summits are on a level with
the adjacent plains, and appear entirely of a
similar formation, indicate that the interme-
diate earth has been washed away, or remov-
ed by some other process of nature — all seem-
ing to give plausibility to our theory.

It was somewhere in this vicinity that a
small party of Americans experienced a ter-
rible calamity in the winter of 1832-3, on
their way home ; and as the incident had the
tendency to call into play the most prominent
features of the Indian character, I will digress
so far here as to relate the facts.

The party consisted of twelve men, chiefly
citizens of Missouri. Their baggage and
about ten thousand dollars in specie were
packed upon mules. They took the route of
the Canadian river, fearing to venture on the
northern prairies at that season of the year.
Having left Santa Fe in December, they had
proceeded without accident thus far, when a
large body of Comanches and Kiawas were
seen advancing towards them. Being well
acquainted with the treacherous and pusillani-

VOL. II. 6

50 HORRID DISASTERS OF

mous disposition of those races, the traders
prepared at once for defence ; but the savages
having made a halt at some distance, began
to approach one by one, or in small parties,
making a great show of friendship all the
while, until most of them had collected on
the spot. Finding themselves surrounded in
every direction, the travellers now began to
move on, in hopes of getting rid of the in-
truders : but the latter were equally ready for
the start; and, mounting their horses, kept jog-
ging on in the same direction. The first act
of hostihty perpetrated by the Indians proved
fatal to one of the American traders named
Pratt, who was shot dead while attempting to
secure two mules which had become sepa-
rated from the rest. Upon this, the compa-
nions of the slain man immediately dismount-
ed and commenced a fire upon the Indians,
wliich was warmly returned, whereby an-
other man of the name of Mitchell was killed.
By this time the traders had taken off their
packs and piled them around for protection ;
and now falling to work with their hands,
they very soon scratched out a trench deep
enough to protect them from the shot of the
enemy. The latter made several desperate
charges, but they seemed too careful of their
own personal safety, notwithstanding the
enormous superiority of their numbers, to ven-
ture too near the rifles of the Americans. In
a few hours all the animals of the traders were
either killed or wounded, but no personal
damage was done to the remaining ten men,

A. PARTY OF AMERICANS. 51

with the exception of a wound in the thigh
received by one, which was not at the time
considered dangerous.

During the siege, the Americans were in
great danger of perishing from thirst, as the
Indians had complete command of all the
water within reach. Starvation was not so
much to be dreaded; because, in case of neces-
sity, they could live on the flesh of their slain
animals, some of which lay stretched close
around them. After being pent up for thirty-
six hours in this horrible hole, during which
time they had seldom ventured to raise their
heads above the surface without being shot
at, they resolved to make a bold sortie in the
night, as any death was preferable to the fate
which awaited them there. As there was not
an animal left that was at all in a condition
to travel, the proprietors of the money gave
permission to all to take and appropriate to
themselves whatever amount each man could
safely undertake to carry. Li this way a few
hundred dollars were started with, of which,
however, but little ever reached the United
States. The remainder was buried deep in
the sand, in hopes that it might escape the
cupidity of the savages ; but to very little pur-
pose, for they were afterwards seen by some
Mexican traders making a great display of
specie, which was without doubt taken from
this unfortunate cache.

■ With every prospect of being discovered,
overtaken, and butchered, but resolved to sell
their lives as dearly as possible, they at last

52 THEIR SUFFEEINGS AND LOSS.

emerged from their hiding-place, and moved
on silently and slowly until they found them-
selves beyond the purlieus of the Indian
camps. Often did they look back in the di-
rection where from three to ^ve hundred sav-
ages were supposed to watch their move-
ments, but, much to their astonishment, no
one appeared to be in pursuit. The Indians,
beheving no doubt that the property of the
traders would come into their hands, and hav-
ing no amateur predilection for taking scalps
at the risk of losing their own, appeared will-
ing enough to let the spoliated adventurers
depart without further molestation.

The destitute travellers having run them-
selves short of provisions, and being no longer
able to kill game for want of materials to
load their rifles with, they were very soon re-
duced to tne necessity of sustaining life upon
roots, and the tender bark of trees. After
travelling for several days in this desperate
condition, with lacerated feet, and utter pros-
tration of mind and body, they began to disa-
gree among themselves about the route to be
pursued, and eventually separated into two
distinct parties. Five of these unhappy men
steered a westward course, and after a suc-
cession of sufferings and privations which
almost surpassed belief, they reached the set-
tlements of the Creek Indians, near the Ar-
kansas river, where they were treated with
great kindness and hospitality. The other
five wandered about in the greatest state of
distress and bewilderment, and only two

OUR OWN TROUBLES. 53

finally succeeded in getting out of the mazes
of the wilderness. Among those who were
abandoned to their fate, and left to perish thus
miserably, was a Mr. Schenck, the same indi-
vidual who had been shot in the thigh ; a gen-
tleman of talent and excellent family connec-
tions, who was a brother, as I am informed,
of the Hon. Mr. Schenck, at present a mem-
ber of Congress from Ohio.

But let us resume our journey. We had
for some days, while travelhng along the
course of the Canadian, been in anxious ex-
pectation of reacliing a point from whence
there was a cart-road to Santa Fe, made by
the Ciboleros; but being constantly baffled
and disappointed in this hope, serious appre-
hensions began to be entertained by some of
the party that we might after all be utterly
lost. In this emergency, one of our Mexi-
cans Avho pretended to be a great deal wiser
than the rest, insisted that we were pursuing
a wrong direction, and that every day's march
only took us further from Santa Ee. There ap-
peared to be so much plausibility in his asser-
tion, as he professed a perfect knowledge of
all the country around, that many of our men
were almost ready to mutiny, — to take the
command from the hands of my brother and
myself and lead us southward in search of
the Colorado, into the fearful Llano Estacado,
where we would probably have perished. But
our observations of the latitude, which we
took very frequently, as well as the course we
were pursuing, completely contradicted the

5*

54 THE COMANCHEROS.

Mexican wiseacre. A few days afterwards
we were overtaken by a party of Comanche'
ros, or Mexican Comanche traders, when we
had the satisfaction of learning that we were
in the right track.

These men had been trading with the band
of Comanches we had lately met, and learn-
ing from them that we had passed on, they had
hastened to overtake us, so as to obtain our
protection against the savages, Avho, after sell-
ing their animals to the Mexicans, very fre-
quently take forcible possession of them
again, before the purchasers have been able to
reach their homes. These parties of Coman-
cheros are usually composed of the indigent
and rude classes of the frontier villages, who
collect together, several times a year, and
launch upon the plains with a few trinkets
and trumperies of all kinds, and perhaps a
bag of bread and may-be another of pinokj
which they barter away to the savages for
horses and mules. The entire stock of an
individual trader very seldom exceeds the
value of twenty dollars, with which he is con-
tent to wander about for several months, and
glad to return home with a mule or two, as the
proceeds of his traffic.

These Mexican traders had much to tell us
about the Comanches : saying, that they were
four or five thousand in number, with per-
haps a thousand warriors, and that the fiery
young men had once determined to follow
and attack us ; but that the cliiefs and sages
had deterred them, by stating that oui; can-

* nitr6-muriatic' water. 65

nons could kill to the distance of many miles,
and shoot through hills and rocks and destroy
everything that happened to be within their
range. The main object of our visitors, how-
ever, seemed to be to raise themselves into
importance by exaggerating the perils we had
escaped from. That they had considered
themselves in great jeopardy, there could be
no doubt whatever, for, in their anxiety to
overtake us, they came very near kilhng their
animals.

It was a war-party of this band of Co-
manches that paid the -flying visit'. to Bent's
Fort on the Arkansas river, to which Mr.
Farnham alludes in his trip to Oregon. A
band of the same Indians also fell in with
the caravan from Missouri, with whom they
were for a while upon the verge of hostihties.

The next day we passed the afternoon upon
a ravine where we found abundance of water,
but to our great surprise our animals refused
to drink. Upon tasting the water, we found
it exceedingly nauseous and bitter; far more
repugnant to some palates than a solution of
Epsom salts. It is true that the water had
been a little impregnated with the same loath-
some substance for several days ; but we had
never found it so bad before. The salinous
compound which imparts this savor, is found
in great abundance in the vicinity of the table-
plain streams of New Mexico, and is known
to the natives by the name of salitre,^ We

* Literally saltpetre ; but the salitre of New Mexico is a com-
pound of several other salts beside nitre.

56 DEPART FOR SANTA FE.

bad the good fortune to find in the valley, a
few sinks filled by recent rains, so that actu-
ally we experienced no great inconvenience
from the want of fresh water. As far as our
own personal necessities were concerned, we
were abundantly supplied ; it being an un-
failing rule with us to carry in each wagon a
five-gallon keg always filled with water, in
order to guard against those frightful contin-
gencies whicii so frequently occur on the Prai-
ries. In truth upon leaving one watering
place, we never knew where we Avould find
the next.

On the 20th of June we pitched our camp
upon the north bank of the Canadian or Colo-
rado, in latitude 35^^ 24' according to a meri-
dian altitude of Saturn. On the following
day, I left the caravan, accompanied by three
Comancheros, and proceeded at a more rapid
pace towards Santa Fe. This was rather a
hazardous journey, inasmuch as Ave were still
within the range of the Pawnee and Co-
manche war-parties, and my companions
were men in whom I could not repose the
slightest confidence, except for piloting ; be-
ing fully convinced that in case of meeting
with an enemy, they would either forsake or
deliver me up, just as it might seem most con-
ducive to their own interest and safety. All
I had to depend upon were my fire-arms,
which could hardly fail to produce an impres-
sion in my favor ; for, thanks to Mr. Colt's in-
vention, I carried thirty-six charges ready-
loaded, which I could easily fire at the rate of

DISTANCES AND DIRECTIONS, 57

a dozen per minute. I do not believe that
any band of those timorous savages of the
western prairies would venture to approach
even a single man, under such circumstances.
if, according to an old story of the frontier, an
Lidian supposed that a white man fired both
with his tomahawk and scalping knife, to ac-
count for the execution done by a brace of
pistols, thirty-six shots discharged in quick
succession would certainly overawe them as
being the effect of some great medicine.

As we jogged merrily along, I often en-
deavored to while away the time by cate-
chising my three companions in relation to
the topography of the wild region we were
traversing; but I soon found, that, like the
Indians, these ignorant rancheros have no
ideas of distances, except as compared with
time or with some other distance. They will
tell you that you may arrive at a given place
by the time the sun reaches a certain point :
otherwise, whether it be but half a mile or
half a day's ride to the place inquired for,
they are as apt to apply estci cerquita (it is
close by), or estd lejos (it is far off), to the one
as to the other, just as the impression happens
to strike them, when compared with some
other point more or less distant. This often
proves a source of great annoyance to foreign
travellers, as I had an opportunity of experi-
encing before my arrival. In giving direc-
tions, these people — in fact, the lower classes
of Mexicans generally — are also in the habit
of using very odd gesticulations, altogether

6S THE ANGOSTURA OR NARROWS.

peculiar to themselves. Instead of pointing
with their hands and fingers, they generally
employ the mouth, which is done by thrust-
ing out the lips in the direction of the spot,
or object, which the inquirer wishes to find
out — accompanied by aqui or alii estd. This
habit of substituting labial gestures for the
usual mode of indicating, has grown from
the use of the sarape^ which keeps their hands
and arms perpetually confined.

From the place where we left the wagons,
till we reached the Angostura, or narrows (a
distance of 60 miles), we had followed a plain
cart-road, which seemed everywhere passable
for wagons. Here, however, we found the
point of a table plain projecting abruptly
against the river, so as to render it impossible
for wagons to pass without great risk. The
huge masses of solid rock, which occur in this
place, and the rugged clifts or brows of the
table lands which rise above them, appear to
have been mistaken by a detachment of the
Texan Santa Fe expedition, for spurs of the
Rocky Mountains; an error which was ra-
tional enough, as they not unfrequently tower
to the height of two thousand feet above the
valley, and are often as rocky and rough as
the rudest heaps of trap-rock can make them.
By ascending the main summit of these craggy
promontories, however, the eastern ridge of the
veritable Rocky Mountains may be seen, still
very far off in the western horizon, with a
wide-spread and apparently level table plain,
intervening and extending in every direction,

* SOLITARY AND ALONE.* 59

as far as the eye can reach ; for even the deep-
cut chasms of the intersectmg rivers are rarely
risible except one be upon their very brink.

Upon expressing my fears that our wagons
would not be able to pass the Angostura in
safety, my comrades informed me that there
was an excellent route, of which no previous
mention had been made, passing near the
CeiTo de Tucumcari, a round mound plainly
nsible to the southward. After several vain
efforts to induce some of the party to carry a
note back to my brother, and to pilot the cara-
v^an through the Tucumcari route, one of
them, known as Tio Baca, finally proposed to
undertake the errand for a bounty of ten dol-
lars, besides high wages till they should reach
die frontier. His conditions being accepted,
he set out after breakfast, not, however, with-
out previously recommending liimself to the
Virgin Guadalupe, and all the saints in the
calendar, and desiring us to remember him
m our prayers. Notwithstanding his fears,
however, he arrived in perfect safety, and 1
had the satisfaction of learning afterward that
my brother found the new route everything
he could have desired.

I continued my journey westward with my
two remaining companions; but, owing to
their being provided with a relay of horses,
they very soon left me to make the balance of
the travel alone — though • yet in a region
haunted by hostile savages. On the follow-
ing day, about the hour of twelve, as I was
pursuing a horse-path along the course of the

60 **ESTA CERQUITA."

Rio Pecos, near the frontier settlements, I mcC
with a shepherd, of whom I anxiously inquir-
ed the distance to San Miguel. " O, it is just
there," responded the man of sheep. "Don't
you see that point of mesa yonder ? It is just
beyond that." This welcome information
cheered me greatly ; for, owing to the extraor-
dinary transparency of the atmosphere, it
appeared to me that the distance could not
exceed two or three miles. ''Estd cerquita,'^
exclaimed the shepherd as I rode off; '' ahora
estd V. alia'' — "it is close by; you will soon
be there "

I set off at as lively a pace as my jaded
steed could carry me, confident of taking
dinner in San Mguel. Every ridge I turned
I thought must be the last, and thus I jogged
on, hoping and anticipating my future com-
forts till the shades of evening began to ap-
pear ; when I descended into the valley of the
Pecos, which, although narrow, is exceedingly
fertile and beautifully lined with verdant fields,
among which stood a great variety of mud
cabins. About eight o'clock, I called at one
of these cottages and again inquired the dis-
tance to San Miguel ; when a swarthy-looking
ranchero once more saluted mine ears with
^^ Estd cerquita; ahora estd V. alld^ Although
the distance was designated in precisely the
same words used by the shepherd eight hours
before, I had the .consolation at least of be-
lieving that I was something nearer. After
spurring on for a couple of miles over a rug-
ged road, I at last reached the long-sought
village.

ARRIVAL AT SANTA FE. 61

The next day, I hired a Mexican to carry-
so nie flour back to meet the wagons ; for our
party was by this time running short of pro-
visions. In fact, we should long before have
been in danger of starvation, had it not been
for our oxen ; for we had not seen a buffalo
€ince the day we first met with the Coman-
ches. Some of our cattle being in good
plight, and able, as we were, to spare a few
from our teams, we made beef of them when
urged by necessity : an extra advantage in ox-
teams on these perilous expeditions.

On the 25th of June I arrived safely at
Santa Fe, — but again rode back to meet the
wagons, which did not reach the capital till
the 4th of July. We did not encounter a
very favorable reception from ' his majesty,'
Gov. Armijo. He had just estabhshed his
arbitrary impost of $500 per wagon, wliich
bore rather heavily upon us ; for we had an
overstock of coarse articles which we had
merely brought along for the purpose of in-
creasing the strength of our company, by add-
ing to the number of our wagons.

But these little troubles in a business
way, were entirely drowned in the joyful
sensations arising from our safe arrival, after so
long and so perilous an expedition. Con-
sidering the character and our ignorance of
the country over which we had travelled, we
had been exceedingly successful. Instances
are certainly rare of heavily-laden wagons'
having been conducted, without a guide,
through an unexplored desert; and yet we

VOL. II. 6

62 AT WAR WITH THE GOVERNOIl,

performed the trip without any important ac-
cident— without encomitering any very diffi-
cult passes — without sufFermg for food or for
water.

We had hoped that at least a few days of
rest and quiet recreation might have been al-
lowed us after our arrival ; for relaxation was
sorely needed at the end of so long a journey
and its concomitant privations : but it was
ordered otherwise. We had scarcely quarter-
ed ourselves within the town before a grand
'flare-up' took place between Gov. Armijo and
the foreigners^ in Santa Fe, which, for a Kttle
while, bid fair to result in. open hostihties. It
originated in the following circumstances.

In the winter of 1837-8, a worthy young
American, named Daley, was murdered at the
Gold IVIines, by a couple of villains, solely for
plunder. The assassins were arrested, when
they confessed their guilt; but, in a short time,
they were permitted to run at large again, in
idolation of every principle of justice or hu-
manity. About this time they were once
more apprehended, however, by the interposi-
tion of foreigners : and, at the solicitation of
the friends of the deceased, a memorial from
the Americans in Santa Fe was presented to
Armijo, representing the injustice of permitting
the murderers of their countrymen to go un-
punished ; and praying that the culprits might

* Among the New Mexicans, the terms foreigner and American
are synonymous : indeed, the few citizens of other nations to be
found there identify themselves with those of the United States.
All foreigners are known there as Americanos ; but south of Chi
huahua they are indiscriminately called Los Ligleses, the English.

BUT NO BLOOD SHED. 63

be dealt with according to law. But the
governor affected to consider the affair as a
conspiracy; and, collecting his ragamuffin
militia, attempted to intimidate the petition-
ers. The foreigners were now constrained to
look to their defence, as they saw that no
justice was to be expected. Had Armijo per-
sisted, serious consequences might have en-
sued ; but seeing the ' conspirators' firm, he
sent an apology, affecting to have misconstru-
ed their motives, and promising that the laws
should be duly executed upon the murderers.
Besides the incentives of justice and hu-
manity, foreigners felt a deep interest in the
execution of this promise. But a few years
previous, another person had been assassinat-
ed and robbed at the same place ; yet the
authorities having taken no interest in the
matter, the felons were never discovered : and
now, should these assassins escape the merited
forfeit of their atrocious crime, it was evident
there would be no future security for our lives
and property. But the governor's due execu-
tion of the laws consisted in retaining them a
year or two in nominal imprisonment, when
they were agam set at liberty. Besides these,
other foreigners have been murdered in New
Mexico with equal impunity : — all which con-
trasts very strikingly with the manner our
courts of justice have since dealt with those
who killed Chavez, in 1843, on the Santa Fe
road.

CHAPTER IV.

Preparations for a Start to Chihuahua — Ineptness of Married
Men for the Santa Fe Trade — The Chihuahua Trade — An-
noying Custom-house Regulations — Mails in New Mexico —
Insecurity of Correspondence — Outfii and Departure — Derecho
de Cousunw — Ruins of Valverde — ' Towns without Houses' —
La Jornada del Muerto — Laguna and Ojo del Muerto — A
Tradition of the Arrieros — Laborious Ferrying and Q.uag-
niires — Arrival at Paso del Norte — Amenity of the Valley —
Sierra Blanca and Los Organos — Face of the Country — Sea-
grass — An accidental River — Laguna de Encinillas — South-
ern Haciendas — Arrival — Character of the Route and Soil.

After passing the custom-house ordeal,
and exchanging some of our merchandise for
' Eagle Dollars' — an operation which occupied
us several weeks, I prepared to set out fot
the Chihuahua market, whither a portion of
our stock had heen designed. Upon this ex-
pedition I was obliged to depart without my
brother, who was laboring under the ' home
fever,' and anxious to return to his family.
" He that hath wife and children," says Lord
Bacon, " hath given hostages to fortune ; for
they are impediments to great enterprises,
either of virtue or mischief" Men under such
bonds are peculiarly unfitted for the chequered
life of a Santa Fe trader. The domestic hearth.

THE CHIHUAHUA TRADE. 65

with all its sacred and most endearing recol-
lections, is sure to haunt them in the hour of
trial, and almost every step of their journey
is apt to be attended by melancholy reflec-
tions of home and domestic dependencies.

Before starting on this new journey I deem
it proper to make a few observations relative
to the general character of the Chihuahua
Trade. I have aheady remarked, that much
surprise has frequently been expressed by
those who are unacquainted with all the bear-
ings of the case, tliat the Missouri traders
should take the circuitous route to Santa Fe,
instead of steering direct for Chihuahua, inas-
much as the greatest portion of their goods is
destined for the latter city. But as Chihuahua
never had any port of entry for foreign goods
till the last six or eight years, the market of
that department had to be supplied in a great
measure from Santa Fe. By opening the
ports of El Paso and Presidio del Norte, the
commercial interest was so little affected, that
when Santa Anna's decree for closing them
again was issued, the loss was scarcely felt
at all.

The mode of transmitting merchandise
from the ports to the interior, is very different
from what it is in the United States. It is not
enough to have to pass the tedious ordeal of
custom-houses on the frontier, and we have not
only to submit to a supervision and repay-
ment of duty on arriving at our point of desti-
nation, but our cargo is subject to scrutiny at
every town we have to pass through on our

60 CLEARANCE PAPERS.

journey. Nor would it be advisable to foi-
sake the main route in order to avoid this ty-
rannical system of vexation; because, according
to the laws of the country, every cargamento
which is found out of the regular track (ex-
cept in cases of unavoidable necessity), is sub-
ject to confiscation, although accompanied
by the necessary custom-house documents.

There are also other risks and contingen-
cies very little dreamed of in the philosophy
of the inexperienced trader. Before setting
out, the entire bill of merchandise has to be
translated into Spanish; when, duplicates of
the translation being presented to the custom-
house, one is retained, while the other, ac-
companied by the giiia (a sort of clearance
or mercantile passport), is carried along with
the cargo by the conductor. The trader can
have three points of destination named in his
guia, to either of which he may direct his
course, but to no others : while in the draw-
ing up of the factura, or invoice, the greatest
care is requisite, as the slightest mistake,
even an accidental sUp of the pen, might, ac-
cording to the terms of the law, subject the
goods to confiscation.^

The guia is not only required on leaving
the ports for the interior, but is indispensable
to the safe conveyance of goods from one de-
partment of the repubhc to another : nay, the

* In confirmation of this, it is only necessary to quote the fol-
lowing from the Pauta de Comisos, Cap. II., Art. 22 : " Ni las
guias, ni las facturas, ni los pases, en todos los casos de que trata
este decreto, han de contener enmendadura, raspadura, ni entreren-!
glonadura alguna" — and this under penalty of confiscation

INTERNAL CUSTOM-HOUSES. 67

simple transfer of properly from town to town,
and from village to village, in the same de^
partment, is attended by precisely the same
proportion of risk, and requires the same punc-
tihous accuracy in the accompanying docu-
ments. Even the produce and manufactures
of the country are equally subject to these
embarrassing regulations. New Mexico has
no internal custom-houses, and is therefore
exempt from this rigorous provision ; but from
Chihuahua south every village has its reve-
nue officers ; so that the same stock of mer-
chandise sometimes pays the internal duty at
least half-a-dozen times before the sale is com-
pleted.

Now, to procure this same guia, which is
the cause of so much difficulty and anxiety
in the end, is no small affair. Before the au-
thorities condescend to draw a single line on
paper, the merchant must produce an en-
dorser for the tornaguia, which is a certificate
from the custom-house to which the cargo
goes directed, showing that the goods have
been legally entered there. A failure in the
return of this docupient within a prescribed
Hmit of time, subjects the endorser to a forfeit-
ure equal to the amount of the impost. Much
inconvenience and not a little risk are also oc-
casioned on this score by the irregularity — I
may say, insecurity of the mails.

Speaking of mails, I beg leave to observe,
that there are no conveniences of this kind
in New Mexico, except on the route from
Santa Fe to Chihuahua, and these are very

63 NEW MEXICAN MAILS.

irregular and uncertain. Before the Indians
had obtained such complete possession of the
highways through the wilderness, the mails be-
tween these two cities were carried semi-
monthly; but now they are much less fre-
quent, being mere expresses, in fact, dispatch-
ed only when an occasion offers. There are
other causes, however, besides the dread of
marauding savages, which render the trans-
portation of the mails in New Mexico very
insecure : I mean the dishonesty of those
employed in superintending them. Persons
known to be inimical to the post-master, or
to the 'powers that be,' and wishing to for-
ward any communication to the South, most
generally either wait for a private convey-
ance, or send their letters to a post-office (the
only one besides that of Santa Fe in all New
Mexico) some eighty miles on the way ; thus
avoiding an overhauling at the capital. More-
over, as the post-rider often carries the key of
the mail-bag (for want of a supply at the dif-
ferent offices), he not unfrequently permits
whomsoever will pay him a triffing douceur,
to examine the correspondence. I was once
witness to a case of this kind in the Jornada
del Muerto, where the entire mail was tum-
bled out upon the grass, that an individual
might search for letters, for which luxury he
was charged by the accommodating carrier
the moderate price of one dollar.

The derecho de consumo (the internal or con-
sumption duty) is an impost averaging nearly
twenty per cent, on the United States cost of

CONSUMPTION DUTY. 69

the bill. It supplies the place of a direct tax
for the support of the departmental govern-
ment, and is decidedly the most troublesome,
if not the most oppressive revenue system
that ever was devised for internal purposes.
It operates at once as a drawback upon the
conmiercial prosperity of the country, and as
a potent incentive to fraudulent practices.
The country people especially have resort to
every species of clandestine intercourse, to
escape this galling burden ; for, every article
of consumption they carry to market, whether
fish, flesh or fowl, as well as fruit and vege-
tables, is taxed more or less; while another
impost is levied upon the goods they pur-
chase with the proceeds of their sales. This
system, so beautifully entangled with corrup-
tions, is supported on the ground that it su-
persedes direct taxation, which, in itself, is
an evil that the 'free and independent' peo-
ple of Mexico would never submit to. Be-
sides the petty annoyances incidental upon
the laxity of custom-house regulations, no one
can travel through the country without a
passport, which, to free-born Americans, is a
truly insupportable nuisance.

Having at last gone through with all the
vexatious preparations necessary for our jour-
ney, on the 22d of August we started for Chi-
huahua. I fitted out myself but six wagons
for this market, yet joining in company with
several other traders, our little caravan again
amounted to fourteen wagons, with about
forty men. Though our route lay through

70 ROAD ACCOMMODATIONS.

the interior of Northern Mexico, yet, on ac-
count of the hostile savages which infest most
of the country through which we had to pass,
it was necessary to unite in caravans of re-
spectable strength, and to spare few of those
precautions for safety which are required on
the Prairies.

The road we travelled passes down through
the settlements of New Mexico for the first
hundred and thirty miles, on the east side of
the Rio del Norte. Nevertheless, as there
was not an inn of any kind to be found upon
the whole route, we were constrained to put
up with very primitive accommodations. Be-
ing furnished from the outset, therefore, with
blankets and buffalo rugs for bedding, we
were prepared to bivouac, even in the sub-
urbs of the villages, in the open air ; for in this
dry and salubrious atmosphere it is seldom
that travellers go to the trouble of pitching
tents.^ When travelling alone, however, or
with but a comrade or two, I have always ex-
perienced a great deal of hospitahty from the
rancheros and villageois of the country. What-
ever sins these ignorant people may have to
answer for, we must accord to them at least
two glowing virtues — gratitude and hospitahty.
I have suffered like others, however, from
one very disagreeable custom which prevails

* How scant soever our outfit of ' camp comforts ' might appear,
our Mexican muleteers were much more sparely supplied. The
exposure endured by this hardy race is really surprising. Even in
the coldest winter weather, they rarely carry more than one blan-
ket apiece — the sarape, which serves as a cloak during the day,
and at rvight is their only • bed and bedding.'

RUINS OF VALVERDE. 71

among them. Instead of fixing a price for
the services they bestow upon travellers, they
are apt to answer, " Lo que guste,^^ or " Lo que
le de la ganaJ^ (whatever you please, or have a
mind to give), expecting, of course, that the
liberal foreigner will give more than their
consciences would permit them to exact.

In about ten days' drive we passed the
southernmost settlements of New Mexico, and
twenty or thirty miles further down the river
we came to the ruins of Valverde. This vil-
lage was founded about twenty years ago, in
oiie of the most fertile valleys of the Rio del
Norte. It increased rapidly in population, un-
til it was invaded by the Navajoes, when the
inhabitants were obliged to abandon the place
after considerable loss, and it has never since
been repeopled. The bottoms of the valley,
many of which are of rich alluvial loam, have
lain fallow ever since, and will perhaps con-
tinue to be neglected until the genius of civi-
lization shall have spread its beneficent influ-
ences over the land. This soil is the more
valuable for cultivation on account of the fa-
cilities for irrigation which the river affords;
as it too frequently happens that the best lands
of the settlements remain unfruitful for want
of water.

Our next camping place deserving of men-
tion was Fray Cristobal, which, like many
others on the route, is neither town nor vil-
lage, but a simple isolated point on the river-
bank — a mere parage, or camping-ground.
We had already passed San Pascual, El Con-

72 * TOWNS WITHOUT HOUSES.'

tadero, and many others, and we could hear
Aleman, Robledo, and a dozen such spoken of
on the way, leading the stranger to imagine
that the route was hned with flourishing vil-
lages. The arriero will tell one to hasten —
"we must reach San Diego before sleeping."
"We spur on perhaps with redoubled vigor, in
hopes to rest at a town ; but lo ! upon arriv-
ing, we find only a mere watering-place, with-
out open ground enough to graze the cahalla-
da. Thus every point along these wilderness
highways used as a camping-site, has received
a distinctive name, well known to every mu
leteer who travels them. Many of these pa-
rages, without the slightest vestige of human
improvement, figure upon most of the current
maps of the day as towns and villages. Yet
there is not a single settlement (except of very
recent establishment) from those before men-
tioned to the vicinity of El Paso, a distance
of near two hundred miles.

We arrived at Fray Cristobal in the even-
ing, but this being the threshold of the fa-
mous Jornada del Muerto, we deemed it pru-
dent to let our animals rest here until the
following afternoon. The road over which
we had hitherto been travelling, though it
sometimes traverses upland ridges and undu-
lating sections, runs generally near the border
of the river, and for the most part in its im-
mediate valley : but here it leaves the river
and passes for nearly eighty miles over a
table-plain to the eastward of a small ledge
of mountains, whose western base is hugged

DEAD man's lake AND SPRING. 73

by the circuitous channel of the Rio del Norte.
The craggy cliffs which project from these
mountains render the eastern bank of the
river altogether impassable. As the direct
route over the plain is entirely destitute of
water, we took the precaution to fill all our
kegs at Fray Cristobal, and late in the after-
noon we finally set out. We generally find
a great advantage in travelling through these
arid tracts of land in the freshness of the even-
ing, as the mules sufier less from thirst, and
move on in better spirits — particularly in the
season of warm weather.

Early the next morning we found ourselves
at the Laguna del Muerto, or ' Dead Man's
Lake,' where there was not even a vestige of
water. This lake is but a sink in the plain of
a few rods in diameter, and only filled with
water during the rainy season. The marshes,
which are said by some historians to be in
this vicinity, are nowhere to be found : no-
thing but the firmest and driest table land is
to be seen in every direction. To procure
water for our thirsty animals, it is often ne-
cessary to make a halt here, and drive them
to the Ojo del Muerto (Dead Man's Spring),
^ye or six miles to the westward, in the very
heart of the mountain ridge that lay between
us and the river. This region is one of the
favorite resorts of the Apaches, where many
a poor arriero has met with an untimely end.
The route which leads to the spring winds for
two or three miles down a narrow canon or
gorge, overhung on either side by abrupt pre-

VOL. II. 7

74 LA JORNADA DEL MUERTO.

cipices, while the various clefts and crags,
which project their gloomy brows over the
abyss below, seem to invite the murderous
savage to deeds of horror and blood

There is a tradition among the arrieros from
which it would appear that the only road
known in ancient time about the region of
the Jornada, wound its circuitous course on
the western side of the river. To save dis-
tance, an intrepid traveller undertook to tra-
verse this desolate tract of land in one day,
but having perished in the attempt, it has ever
after borne the name o^ La Jornada delMuerto,
'the Dead Man's Journey,' or, more strictly,
' the Day's Journey of the Dead Man.' One
thing appears very certain, that this dangerous
pass has cost the life of many travellers in
days of yore ; and when we at last reached
Robledo, a camping-site upon the river, where
we found abundance of wood and water, we
felt truly grateful that the arid Jornada had
not been productive of more serious conse-
quences to our party. We now found our-
selves within the department of Chihuahua,
as the boundary betwixt it and New Mexico
passes not far north of Robeldo.

We were still some sixty miles above Paso
del Norte, but the balance of the road now
led down the river valley or over the low bor-
dering hills. During our journey between
this and El Paso we passed the ruins of seve-
ral settlements, which had formerly been the
seat of opulence and prosperity, but which
have since been abandoned in consequence

LACK OF FERRIES. 75

of the marauding incursions of the Apa-
ches.

On the 12th of September we reached the
usual ford of the Rio del Norte, six miles
above El Paso ; but the river being somewhat
flashed we found it impossible to cross over
with our wagons. The reader will no doubt
be surprised to learn that there is not a single
ferry on this ' Great River of the North' till
we approach the mouth. But how do people
cross it? Why, during three-fourths of the
year it is everywhere fordable, and when the
freshet season comes on, each has 4o remain
on his own side or swim, for canoes even are
very rare. But as we could neither swim our
wagons and merchandise, nor very comforta-
bly wait for the falhng of the waters, our only
alternative was to unload the vehicles, and
ferry the goods over in a little ' dug-ouf about
thirty feet long and two feet wide, of which
we were fortunate enough to obtain possession.

We succeeded in finding a place shallow
enough to haul our empty wagons across:
but for this good fortune we should have been
under the necessity of taking them to pieces
(as I had before done), and of ferrying them
on the 'small craft' before mentioned. Half
of a wagon may thus be crossed at a time,
by carefully balancing it upon the f.anoe, yet
there is of course no little danger of capsiz-
ing during the passage.

This river even when fordable often occa-
sions a great deal of trouble, being, hke the
Arkansas, embarrassed with many quicksanf*

76 EL PASO DEL NORTE.

mires. In some places, if a wagon is permit-
ted to stop in the river but for a moment, it
sinks to the very body. Instances have oc-
curred where it became necessary, not only to
drag out the mules by the ears and to carry
out the loading package by package, but to
haul out the wagon piece by piece — wheel
by wheel.

On the 14th we made our entrance into
the town of El Paso del Norte, "^ which is the
northernmost settlement in the department
of Chihuahua. Here our cargo had to be ex-
amined by a istern, surly officer, who, it was
feared, would lay an embargo on our goods
upon the slightest appearance of irregularity
in our papers ; but notwithstanding our gloomy
forebodings, we passed the ordeal without any
difficulty.

The valley of El Paso is supposed to con-
tain a population of about four thousand in-
habitants, scattered over the western bottom
of the Rio del Norte to the length of ten or twelve
miles. These settlements are so thickly in-
terspersed with vineyards, orchards, and corn-
fields, as to present more the appearance of a
series of plantations than of a town : in fact,
only a small portion at the head of the valley,
where the plaza publica and parochial church
are located, would seem to merit this title,

* This place is often known among Americans as ' The Pass.^
It has been suggested in another place, that it took its name from
the passing thither of the refugees from the massacre of 1680;
yet many persons very rationally derive it from the passing of the
river {el paso del Rio del Norte) between two points of mountain*
which project against it from each side, just above the town.

CHARACTER OF THE ROUTE. 77

Two or three miles above the plaza there is a
dam of stone and brush across the river, the
purpose of which is to turn the current into a
dike or canal, wMch conveys nearly half the
water of the stream, during a low stage,
through this well cultivated valley, for the ir-
rigation of the soil. Here we were regaled
with the finest fruits of the season : the grapes
especially were of the most exquisite flavor.
From these the inhabitants manufacture, a
very pleasant wine, somewhat resembling Ma-
laga. A species of aguardiente (brandy) is
also distilled from the same fruit, which, al-
though weak, is of very agreeable flavor.
These liquors are known among Americans
as ' Pass wine ' and ' Pass whiskey,' and consti-
tute a profitable article of trade, supplying the
markets of Chihuahua and New Mexico,^

As I have said before, the road ftom Santa
Fe to El Paso leads partly along the margin
of the Rio del Norte, or across the bordering
hills and plains ; but the sierra which sepa-
rates the waters of this river and those of the
Rio Pecos was always visible on our left. In
some places it is cut up into detached ridges,
one of which is known as Sierra Blanca, in
consequence of its summit's being covered
with snow till late in the spring, and having all

* There is very little wine or legitimate aguardiente manufac-
tured in New Mexico. There was not a distillery, indeed, in all
the province until established by Americans some fifteen or twenty
years ago. Since that period, considerable quantities of whiskey
have been made there, particularly in the vicinity of Taos, — dis-
tilled mainly from wheat, as this is the cheapest grain the country
affords.

78 MOUNTAINS AND GROWTHS.

the appearance of a glittering white cloud
There is another still more picturesque ridge
further south, called Los Organos, presenting
an immense cliff of basaltic pillars, which
bear some resemblance to the pipes of an
ormn, whence the mountain derived its name.
Both these sierras are famous as bemg the
strongholds of the much-dreaded Apaches.

The mountains from El Paso northward
are mostly clothed with pine, cedar, and a
dwarfish species of oak. The valleys are
timbered with cottonwood, and occasionally
with mezquite, which, however, is rarely found
higher up than the lower settlements of New
Mexico. In the immediate vicinity of EI
Paso there is another small growth called tor-
nillo (or screw-wood), so denominated from a
spiral pericarp, which, though different in
shape, resembles that of the mezquite in fla-
vor. The plains and highlands generally are
of a prairie character, and do not differ mate-
rially from those of all Northern Mexico, which
are almost everywhere completely void of
timber.

One of the most useful plants to the people
of El Paso is the lechuguilla, which abounds
on the hills and mountain sides of that vicini-
ty, as well as in many other places from thence
southward. Its blades, which resemble those
of the palmilla, being mashed, scraped and
washed, afford very strong fibres hke the com-
mon Manilla sea-grass, and equally serviceable
for the manufacture of ropes, and other pur-
po.ses.

A MYSTERIOUS RIVER. 79

After leaving El Paso, our road branched
off at an angle of about two points to the
westward of the river, the city of Cliihuahua
being situated nearly a hundred miles to the
west of it. At the distance of about thirty
miles we reached Los Medanos, a stupendous
ledge of sand-hills, across which the road
passes for about six miles. As teams are
never able to haul the loaded wagons over
this region of loose sand, we engaged an atajo
of mules at El Paso, upon which to convey
our goods across. These Medanos consist of
huge hillocks and ridges of pure sand, in
many places without a vestige of vegetation.
Through the lowest gaps between the hills, the
road winds its way.

What renders this portion of the route still
more unpleasant and fatiguing, is the great
scarcity of water. All that is to be found on the
road for the distance of more than sixty miles
after leaving El Paso, consists in two fetid
springs or pools, whose water is only rendered
toleralble by necessity. A little further on, how-
ever, we very unexpectedly encountered, this
time, quite a superabundance of this neces-
sary element. Just as we passed Lake Patos,
we were struck with astonishment at finding
the road ahead of us literally overflowed by
an immense body of water, with a brisk cur-
rent, as if some great river had suddenly been
conjured into existence by the aid of super-
natural arts. A considerable time elapsed
before we could unravel the mystery. At last
we discovered that a freshet had lately occur-

80 A DELIGHTFUL BATH.

red in the streams that fed Lake Patos, and
caused it to overflow its banks, which ac-
counted for this unwelcome visitation. We
had to flounder through the mud and water
for several hours, before we succeeded in get-
ting across.

The following day we reached the acequia
below Carrizal, a small village with only three
or four hundred inhabitants, but somewhat
remarkable as being the site o^ Si presidio (fort),
at which is stationed a company of troops to
protect the country against the ravages of the
Apaches, who, notwithstanding, continue to
lay waste the ranches in the vicinity, and to de-
predate at will within the very sight of the fort.

About twelve miles south of Carrizal there
is one of the most charming warm springs
called Ojo CaUente, where we arrived the next
day. It forms a basin some thirty feet long
by about half that width, and jast deep and
warm enough for a most delightful bath at all
seasons of the year. Were this spring (whose
outlet forms a bold little rivulet) anywhere
within the United States, it would doubtless
soon be converted into a place of fashionable
resort. There appears to be a somewhat cu-
rious phenomenon connected with this spring.
It proceeds, no doubt, from the little river of
Carmen which passes within half a mile, and
finally discharges itself into the small lake of
Patos before mentioned. During the dry sea-
son, this stream disappears in the sand some
miles above the spring ; and what medium it
traverses in its subterranean passage to impart

LAGUNA DE ENCINILLAS. 81

to it SO high a temperature, before breaking
out in this fountain, would afford to the geolo-
gist an interesting subject of inquiry.

After fording tlie Rio Carmen, which, though
usually without a drop of water in its chan-
nel, we now found a very turbulent stream, we
did not meet with any object particularly wor-
thy of remark, until we reached the Lagiina
de Encinillas. This lake is ten or twelve
miles long by two or three in width, and seems
to have no outlet even during the greatest
freshets, though fed by several small constant-
flowins: streams from the surroundinor moun-
tains. The water of this lake during the dry sea-
son is so strongly impregnated with nauseous
and bitter salts, as to render it wholly unpala-
table to man and beast. The most predomi-
nant of these noxious substances is a species
of alkali, known there by the title of teques-
quite. It is often seen oozing out from the
surface of marshy grounds, about the table
plains of all Northern Mexico, forming a gray-
ish crust, and is extensively used in the manu-
facture of soap, and sometimes by the bakers
even for raising bread. Here we had another
evidence of the alarming eifects of the recent
flood, the road for several miles along the
margin of the lake being completely inun-
dated. It was, however, in the city of Chi-
huahua itself that the disastrous consequences
of the freshet were most severely felt. Some
inferior houses of adobe were so much soak-
ed by the rains, that they tumbled to the
ground, occasioning the loss of several hves.

82 SOUTHERN HACIENDAS.

The valley of Encinillas is very extensive
and fertile, and is the locale of one of those
princely estates which are so abundant fur-
ther south, and known by the name of Ha-
ciendas. It abounds in excellent pasturage,
and in cattle of all descriptions. In former
times, before the Apaches had so completely
devastated the country, the herds which graz-
ed in this beautiful valley presented much
the appearance of the buffalo of the plains,
being almost as wild and generally of dark
color. Many of the proprietors of these
princely haciendas pride themselves in main-
taining a uniformity in the color of their cat-
tle : thus some are found stocked with black,
others red, others white — or whatsoever shade
the owner may have taken a fancy to.

As we drew near to Chihuahua, our party
had more the appearance of a funeral pro-
cession than of a band of adventurers, about
to enter into the full fruition of ' dancing
hopes,' and the reahzation of ' golden dreams.*
Every one was uneasy as to what might be
the treatment of the revenue officers. For
my own part, I had not quite forgotten sundry
annoyances and trials of temper I had been
made to experience in the season of 1837, on
a similar occasion. Much to our surprise, how-
ever, as well as delight, we were handled with
a degree of leniency by the custom-house
deities, on our arrival, that was almost in-
comprehensible. But the charm which ope-
rated in our favor, when understood, was very
simple. A caravan had left Chihuahua direct

ARRIVAL AT CHIHUAHUA. 83

for the United States the spring pi evious, and
was daily expected back. The officers of the
custom-house were aheady compromised by
certain cogent arguments to receive the pro-
prietors of this caravan with strildng marks
of favor, and the Selior Adininistrador de Ren-
tas, Zuloaga himself, was expecting an ancheta
of goods. Tlierefore, had they treated us with
their wonted severity, the contrast would have
been altogether too glaring.

We arrived at Chihuahua on the first of
October, after a trip of forty days, with Avagons
much more heavily laden than when we start-
ed from the United States. The whole dis-
tance from Santa Fe to Chihuahua is about
550 ni es, — being reckoned 320 to Paso del
Norte, and 230 from thence to Chihuahua.
The road from El Paso south is mostly firm
and beautiful, with the exception of the sand-
hills before spoken of; and is only rendered
disagreeable by the scarcity and occasional ill-
savor of the water. The route winds over
an elevated plain among numerous detached
ridges of low mountains — spurs, as it were, of
the main Cordilleras, which lie at a considera-
ble distance to the westward. Most of these
extensive intermediate plains, though in many
places of fertile looking soil, must remain
wholly unavailable for agricultural purpose?,
on account of their natural aridity and a total
lack of wa^er for irrisration.

CHAPTER V.

Trip from Chihuahua to Aguascalientes, in 1835 — Southcra
Trade and Ferias — Hacienda de la Zarca, and its innumera-
ble Stock — Rio Nazas, and Lakes without outlet — Perennial
Cotton — Exactions for Water and Pasturage — "Village of
Churches — City of Durango and its Peculiarities — Persecu-
tion of Scorpions — Negroship in the ascendant — Robbers and
their modtcs operandi — City of Aguascalientes — Bathing Scene
— Haste to return to the North— Mexican Mule-shoeing — Dif-
ficulties and Perplexities — A Friend in time of need — Reach
Zacatecas — City Accommodations — Hotels unfashionable —
Locale, Fortifications, etc. of the City of Zacatecas — Siege b)
Santa Anna and his easy-won Victory — At Durango again-*
Civil AVarfare among the ' Sovereigns' — Hair-breadth 'scape?-
— Troubles of the Road — Safe Arrival at Chihuahua— Charac-
ter of the Southern Country.

The patient reader who may have accom-
panied me thus far, without murmuring at
the dryness of some of the details, will per-
haps pardon me for presenting here a brief
account of a trip which I made to Aguasca-
lieMes, in the interior of Northern Mexico, in
the year 1835, and which the arrangement I
have adopted has prevented me from intro-
ducing before, in its chronological order.

The trade to the South constitutes a very
important branch of the commerce of the
country, in which foreigners, as well as nu

TRIP TO THE SOUTH. 85

lives, are constantly embarking-. It is custom-
ary for most of those who maintain mercan-
tile establishments in Chihuahna, to procure
assortments of Mexican fabrics from the man-
ufactories of Leon, Ao^uascalientes, and other
places of the same character in the more
southern districts of the republic. At certain
seasons of the year, there are held regular
ferias^ at which the people assemble in great
numbers, as well of sellers as of purchasers.
There are some eight or ten of these annual
fairs held in the republic, each of which
usually lasts a Aveek or more. It was about
as much, however, from a desire to behold the
sunny districts of the South, as for commer-
cial purposes, that I undertook this expedi-
tion in 1835 ; and as my engagements have
not permitted me to revisit this section since,
the few notes of interest I was then able to
collect, seem to come more appropriately in
this part of my work than in any other place
that I could readily select.

I set out from Chihuahua on the 26th of
February, 1835. My party consisted of four
men (including myself) and two empty wa-
gons—not a very .formidable escort to protect
our persons as well as specie and bullion (the
only transmissible currency of the country)
against the bands of robbers which at all times
infest that portion of our route that lay south
of Durango. From Chihuahua to that city
the road was rendered still more perilous by
the constant hostilities of the Indians. On
the 7th of March, however, we arrived, with-

VOL. II. 8

86 LA ZARCA AND RIO NAZAS.

out accident, at the town of Cerro Gordo, the
northernmost settlement in the department
of Durango ; and the following day we reach-
ed La Zarca, which is the principal village of
one of the most extensive haciendas in the
North. So immense is the amount of cattle
on this estate, that, as it was rumored, the pro-
prietor once ofiered to sell the whole haci-
enda, stock, etc., for the consideration alone
of fifty cents for each head of cattle found on
the estate ; but that no person has ever yet
been able or wilhng to muster sufficient capi-
tal to take up the offer. It is very likely, how-
ever, that if such a proposition was ever made,
the proprietor intended to include all his stock
of rats and mice, reptiles and insects — in short,
every genus of ' small cattle' on his premises.
This estate covers a territory of perhaps a
hundred miles in length, which comprises
several flourishing villages.

In two days more, we reached Rio Nazas,
a beautiful httle river that empties itself into
Lake Cayman. ^ Rio Nazas has been cele-
brated for the growth of cotton, which, owing
to the mildness of the climate, is sometimes
planted fresh only every three or four years.
The hght frosts of winter seldom destroy more
than the upper portion of the stalk, so that

* The numerous little lakes throughout the interior of Mexico,
without outlet, yet into which rivers are continually flowing, pre-
sent a phenomenon which seems quite singular to the inhabitants
of our humid climates. But the wastage in the sand, and still
greater by evaporation in those elevated dry regions, is such that
there are no important rises in the lakes except during unusual
freshets.

CITY OF DURANGO. 87

the root is almost perennial. About twenty-
five miles further, we stopped at the mining
village of La Noria, where we were obliged to
purchase water for our mules — a novel ex-
pense to the American traveller, but scarcely
to be complained of, inasmuch as the water
had to be drawn from wells with a great deal
of labor. It is not unusual, also, for the pro-
prietors of haciendas to demand remuneration
for the pasturage on the open plains, consum-
ed by the animals of travellers — a species of
exaction which one never hears of farther
north.

Our next stopping-place was Cuencame,
which may well be called the Village of
Churches: for, although possessing a very
small population, there are ^ye or six edi-
fices of this description. As I had business
to transact at Durango, which is situated
forty or fifty miles westward of the main
Southern road, I now pursued a direct
route for that city, where I arrived on the
16th of March.

Durango is one of the handsomest cities
in the North, with a population of about
20,000. It is situated in a level plain, sur-
rounded in every direction by low moun-
tains. It presents two or three handsome
squares, with many fine edifices and some
really splendid churches. The town is sup-
plied with water for irrigating the gardens,
and for many other ordinary purposes, by
several open aqueducts, which lead through
the Greets, from a large spring, a mile or

88. TROPICAL FRUITS AND PULQUE.

two distant ; but as these are kept filthy by
the ofFal that is thrown into them, the in-
habitants who are able to buy it, procure
most of their water for drinking and culina-
ry purposes, from the aguadores, who pack it,
on asses, usually in large jars, from the spring.
This is the first Northern city in which
there is to be found any evidence of that va-
riety of tropical fruits, for which Southern
Mexico is so justly famed. Although it was
rather out of season, yet the market actually
teemed with all that is most rich and exqui-
site in this kind of produce. The ^Aagiiei/y
from which is extracted the popular beverage
called pulque, ^ is not only cultivated exten-
sively in the fields, but grows wild every
where upon the plains. This being the
height of the pulque season, a hundred shan-
ties might be seen loaded with jugs and gob-
lets filled with this favorite hquor, from its
sweetest unfermented state to the grade of
* hard cider ;' while the incessant cries of
*' Pulque ! pulque dulce ! pulque bueno !"
added to the shrill and discordant notes of
the fruit venders, created a confusion of

* Also, from the Pulque is distilled a spiritous liquor called mez-
cal. The maguey (Agave Americana) is besides much used for
hedging. It here performs the double purpose of a cheap and sub-
stantial fence, and of being equally valuable ior pulque. When no
longer serviceable in these capacities, the pulpy stalk is converted,
by roasting, into a pleasant item of food, while the fibrous blades,
being suitably dressed, are still more useful. They are manufac-
tured into ropes, bags, etc., which resemble those made of the com-
mon sea-grass, though the fibres are finer. There is one species
(which does not produce pulq le, however), whose fibres, known
in that country a.s pita, are nearly as fine as dressed hemp, and are
generally used for sewing shoes, saddlery, and simitdi purposes

ANTI-SCORPION SOCIETY. 89

sounds amidst which it was impossible ta
hear oneself talk.

Durango is also celebrated as being the
head-quarters, as it were, of the whole scor-
pion family. During the spring, especially,
so much are the houses infested by these poi-
sonous insects, that many people are obliged
to have resort to a kind of mosquito-bar, in
order to keep them out of their beds at night.
As an expedient to deliver the city from this
terrible pest, a society has actually been form-
ed, which pays a reward of a cuartilla (three
cents) for every alacran (or scorpion) that is
brought to them. Stimulated by the desire
of gain, the idle boys of the city are always
on the look-out : so that, in the course of a
year, immense numbers of this public enemy
are captured and slaughtered. The body of
this insect is of the bulk and cast of a medium
spider, with a jointed tail one to two inches
long, at the end of which is a sting whose
wounds are so poisonous as often to prove fa-
tal to children, and are very painful to adults.

The most extraordinary pecuUarity of tl*se
scorpions is, that they are far less dangerous
in the North than in the South, which in some
manner accounts for the story told Capt. Pike,
that even those of Durango lose most of their
venom as soon as they are removed a few
miles from the city.

Although we were exceedingly well arm-
ed, yet so many fearful stories of robberies
said to be committed, almost daily, on the
Southern roads, reached my ears, that before
s*

9f^ DON JORGE, THE NEGRO.

iea,'ng Durango, I resolved to add to my
wefipons of defence' one of those peculiarly
terrible dogs which are sometimes to be found
m this country, and which are very servicea-
ble to travellers situated as I was. Having
made my wishes known to a free negro from
the United States, named George, he recom-
mended me to a custom-house officer, and a
very particular friend of his, as being pos-
sessed of the very article I was in search of
I accordingly called at the house of that func-
tionary, in company with my sable informant,
and we were ushered into a handsome parlor,
where two or three Avell- dressed senoritas
sat discussing some of the fruitful topics of
the day. One of them — the officer s wife, as
it appeared, and a very comely dame she
was — rose immediately, and, with a great deal
of ceremonious deference, saluted SeTior Don
Jorse, invitin": him at the same time to a
seat, while I was left to remain perfectly un-
noticed in my standing position. George ap-
peared considerably embarrassed, for he had
no^uite forgotten the customs and manners
of his native country, and was even yet in the
habit of treating Americans not only with re-
spect but with humility. He therefore de-
chned the tendered distinction, and remarked
that ^el seTior'' had only come to purchase their
dog. . Upon this, the lad)^ pointed to a kennel
in a corner, when the very first glimpse of
the ferocious animal convinced me that he
was precisely the sort of a customer I wanted
for a companion. Having therefore paid

HIS POPULARITY. 91

down six dollars, the stipulated sum of pur-
chase, I bowed myself out of the presence of
the ladies, not a little impressed with my own
insignificance, in the eyes of these fair donas,
contrasted with the grandeur of my sable
companion. But the popularity of negroes in
Northern Mexico has ceased to be a matter
of surprise to the traveller.

With regard to Don Jorge, if I was sur-
prised at the marks of attention paid him by
a white lady, I had cause to be nmch moie
astonished shortly after. As the sooty don
was lounging about my wagons, a clever-
visaged youth approached and placed in his
hands a satin stock, with the compliments of
his sister (the officer's wife), hoping that he
would accept that trifle, wrought by her own
hand, as a token of her particular regard!
But, notwithstanding these marks of distinc-
tion (to apply no harsher epithet), George was
exceedingly anxious to engage in my em-
ploy, in whatsoever capacity I might choose
to take him ; for he had discovered that
such honors were far from affording him a
livelihood : yet I did not then need his ser-
vices, and have never heard of him since.

On the 2 2d we left Durango, and after a
few days' march found ourselves once more
in the camino real that led from Chihuahua to
Zacatecas. All the frightful stories I had
heard about robbers now began to flash upon
my memory, which made me regard every
man I encountered on the road with a very
suspicious eye. As all travellers go armed, it

92 BANDIT COMPANIES.

is impossible to distinguish them from bandit-
ti ;^ so that the unsuspecting traveller is very
frequently set upon by the very man he had
been consorting with in apparent good-fellow-
ship, and either murdered on the spot, or
dragged from his horse with the lazo, and
plundered of all that is valuable about him.

I have heard it asserted that there is a regular
bandit trade organized throughout the country,
in which some of the principal officers of state
(and particularly of the judicial corps) are not
unfrequently engaged. A capital is made up
by shares, as for any other enterprise, bandits
are fitted out and instructed where to operate,
and at stated periods of the year a regular
dividend is paid to the stockholders. The
impunity which these ' gentlemen of the or-
der' almost everywhere enjoy in the country,
is therefore not to be marvelled at. In Du-
rango, during my sojourn there, a well dress-
ed caballero was frequently in the habit of
entering our meson, whom mine host soon
pointed out to me as a notorious brigand.
" Beware of him," said the honest publican ;
"he is prying into your affairs" — and so it
turned out; for my muleteer informed me
that the fellow had been trying to pump from
him all the particulars in regard to our condi-
tion and destination. Yet this worthy was
not only suffered to prowl about unmolested

* Travellers on these public highways not only go ' armed to the
teeth,' but always carry their weapons exposed. Even my wagon-
ers carried their guns and pistols swung upon the pommels of their
saddles. At night, as we generally camped out, they were laid un-
der our heads, or close by our sides.

aguascalie:ntes. 93

by the authorities, but appeared to be on fa-
niihar terms with many of the principal dig-
nitaries of the city. Notwithstanding all our
appreliensions, however, we arrived at our
place of destination without even the novelty
of an incident to swell our budget of gossip.

The city of Aguascalientes is beautifully
situated in a level plain, and would appear
to contain about twenty thousand inhabitants,
who are principally engaged in the manufac-
ture of rehozos and other textures mostly of
cotton. As soon as I found myself sufficiently
at leisure, I visited the famous warm spring
[ojo caliente) in the suburbs, from which the
city derives its euphonious name. I followed
up the acequia that led from the spring — a
ditch four or five feet wide, through which
flowed a stream three or four feet in depth.
The water was precisely of that agreeable
temperature to afford the luxury of a good
bath, which I had hoped to enjoy ; but every
few paces I found men, women, and children,
submerged in the acequia ; and when I arriv-
ed at the basin, it was so choked up with
girls and full-grown women, who were pad-
dling about with all the nonchalance of a
gang of ducks, that I was forced to relinquish
my long-promised treat.

It had been originally my intention to con
tinue on to Leon, another manufacturing town
some seventy or eighty miles from Aguas-
calientes ; but, hearing that Santa Anna had
just arrived there with a large army, on his
way to Zacatecas to quell an insurrection, T

94 MEXICAN MULE-SHOEING.

felt very little curiosity to extend my rambles
fm'tlier. Having, therefore, made all my pur
chases in the shortest possible time, in a few
days I was again in readiness to start for the
North.

That my mules might be hi condition for
the hard travel before me, it was necessary to
have them shod : a precaution, however, which
is seldom used in the north of Mexico, either
with mules or horses. Owing a little to the
pecuhar breed, but more stiJl no doubt to the
dryness of the climate, Mexican animals have
unusually hard hoofs. Many will travel for
weeks, and even months, over the firm^ and
often rocky roads of the interior (the pack-
mules carrying their huge loads), without any
protection whatever to the feet, save that
which nature has provided. But most of
mine being a little tender-footed, I engaged
Mexican herreros to fit them out in their own
peculiar style. Like almost everything else
of their manufacturing, their mule-shoes are
of a rather primitive model — broad thin plates,
tacked on with large club-headed nails. But
the expertness of the shoers compensated in
some degree for the defects of the herraduras.
It made but little odds how wild and vicious
the mule — an assistant would draw up his
foot in an instant, and soon place him Jiors de
combat; and then fixing a nail, the shoer

• Some of these table-plain highways, though of but a dry
sandy and clayey soil, are as firm as a brick pavement. In some
places, for miles, I have remarked that the nail-heads of my shod
animals would hardly leave any visible impression

AN IMPRESSMENT.

9>

would drive it to the head at a single strcko,
standing usually at full arm's length, while
the assistant held the foot. Thus in less than
half the time I had ever witnessed th^e execu-
tion of a similar job before, they had ct. .
pletely shod more than twenty of the most
unruly brutes — without once resorting to the
expedient so usual in such cases, of throwing
the animals upon the ground.

Just as the process of shoeing my mules
had been completed, a person who proved to
be a public officer entered the corral, and
pointing to the mules, A^ery politely informed
me that they were wajited by the government
to transport troops to Zacatecas. " They will
be called for to-morrow afternoon," he conti-
nued ; " let them not be removed !" I had of
course to bow acquiescence to this impera-
tive edict, well knowing that all remonstrance
would be vain ; yet fully determined to be a
considerable distance on the road northward
before that 'morrow' should be very far ad-
vanced.

But a new difficulty now presented itself.
I mu st procure a gitia or passport for my car-
go of merchandise, with a responsible endorser,
—an additional imposition I was wholly un-
prepared for, as I was then ignorant of any law
to that effect being in force, and had not a sin-
gle acquaintance in the city. I was utterly
at a loss what to do : under any other circum-
stances I might have left the amount of the
(terecho de consumo in deposit, as others have
been obliged to do on similar occasions; but

96 AN OBLIGING CLERK

unfortunately I had laid out the last dollar of
my available means.

As I left the custom-house brooding over
these perplexities, one of the principal clerks
of the establishment slipped a piece of paper
into my hand containing the following laconic
notice: — ^' Aguurdeme afuerd^ (wait for me
without); — an injunction I passively obeyed,
although I had not the least idea of its pur-
port. The clerk was soon with me, and re-
marked, " You are a stranger in the city, and
igrnorant of our severe revenue laws : meet
me in an hour from this at my lodgings, and
we will devise some remedy for your difficul-
ties." It may be well supposed that I did not
fail to be punctual. I met the obliging officer
in his room with a handful of blank custom-
house liases. It should be understood that a
jpase only differs from a guia in requiring no en-
dorser, but the former can only be extended for
amounts of goods not exceeding fifty dollars.
Taking my bill, he very soon filled me up a
ipase for every package, directing each to a
different point in the North. " Now," observ-
ed my amiable friend, " if you are disposed to
do a little smuggling, these will secure your
safety, if you avoid the principal cities, till you
reach the borders of Chihuahua : if not, you
may have a friend on the v/a^v^ Avho will en-
dorse your guiar I preferred the latter alter-
native. I had formed an acquaintance with
a worthy German merchant in Durango, who,
I felt convinced, would generously lend hiy
signature to the required document.

A PRECIPITATE EXIT. 97

As the revenue officers of Northern Mexico
are not celebrated foi liberaUty and disintegi'est-
cdness, I took it for granted that my friend of
the custom-house was actuated by selfish mo-
tives, and therefore proftered him a remunera-
tion for the trouble he had taken on my
account ; but to my surprise, he positively
refused accepting anything, observing that he
held it the duty of every honest man to assist
his fellow creatures in case of difficulty. It
is truly a pleasant task to bear record of such
instances of disinterestedness, in the midst of
so many contaminating influences.

While speaking of guias, I may as well re-
mark that they are also frequently required for
specie and always for bullion. This is often
very annoying to the traveller, not only be-
cause it is sometimes inconvenient to find an
endorser, but because the robbers are thus en-
abled to obtain precise and timely information
of the funds and route of every traveller ; for
they generally have their agents in all the prin-
cipal cities, who are apt to collude with some
of the custom-house clerks, and thus procure
regular reports of the departures, with the
amounts of valuables conveyed.

I was not long in taking leave of Aguascal
ientes, and heard nothing more of the impress-
ment of my mules. It was not my good for-
tune, however, to remain for any length of
time out of trouble. Being anxious to take
the city of Zacatecas in my route without
jeoparding my goods, I took passage by the
dilifrencia, while my wagons continued on in

VOL. II 9

98

the camino real or main road. On my a?
rival at Zacatecas, I very soon discovered thai
by leaving ' my bed and board' behind with
the wagons, I had doomed myself to no small
inconvenience and privation. It Avas with
the greatest difficulty I could obtain a place to
lie upon, and clean victuals with which to al-
lay my hunger. I could get a room, it is true,
even for a real per day, in one of those great
barn-hke mesones which are to be met witb in
all these cities, but not one of them was at all
furnished. There is sometimes, in a comer,
a raised platform of mud, much resembling a
common blacksmith's hearth, which is to sup-
ply the place of a bedstead, upon which the
traveller may spread his blankets, if he hap-
pen to have any. On this occasion I. suc-
ceeded in borrowing one or two of the stage-
driver who was a Yankee, and so made out
* pretty comfortably' in the sleeping way.
These mesones are equally ill-prepared to fur-
nish food for the traveller, unless he is willing
to put up with a dish of frijoles and chile gui-
sado with tortillas, all served up in the most
filthy manner. I therefore sought out a pub-
lic fonda kept by an Italian, where I procured
an excellent supper. Fondas, however, are
mere restauraiits, and consequently without
accommodations for lodging.

Strange as the fact may appear, one may tra-
vel fifteen hundred miles, and perhaps more,
on the main public highway through Northern
Mexico, without finding a single tavern with
general accommodations. This, however, may

CITY OF ZACATECAS. 99

be accounted for, by taking into consideration
the peculiar mode of travelling of the country,
which renders resorts of this kind almost un-
necessary. Airier OS with their cUajos of pack-
mules always camp out, being provided with
their cooks and stock of provisions, which
they carry with them. Ordinary travellers
generally unite in little caravans, for security
against robbers and marauders ; and no ca-
ballero ever stirs abroad without a train of
servants, and a pack-mule to carry his canti-
nas (a pair of large wallets or leathern boxes),
filled with provisions, on the top of which is
lashed a huge machine containing a mattrass
and all the other ' fixings' for bed furniture.
Thus equipped, the caballero snaps his fingers
at all the hotels garnis of the universe, and is
perfectly independent in every movement.

The city of Zacatecas, as my readers are
doubtless aware, is celebrated for its mining
interests. Like all other Mexican towns of
the same class, it originated in small, insignifi-
cant settlements on the hillsides, in the im-
mediate vicinity of the mines, until it gradu-
ally grew up to be a large and wealthy city,
with a population of some 30,000 inhabitants.
Its locale is a deep ravine formed among rag-
ged mountain ridges ; and as the houses are
mostly built in rows, overtopping one another,
along the hillsides, some portions of the city
present all the appearance of a vast amphithea-
tre. Many of the streets are handsomely
paved, and two of the squares are finely or-
namented with curiously carved jets-d'eaa

Gafiifi

100 ITS FORTIFICATIONS, ETC.

which are supplied with water raised by mule
power, from wells among the adjacent hills.
From these the city is cliiefly furnished with
water.

I have already mentioned, that General
Santa Anna was at this time marching against
Zacatecas with a large force. It may be re-
membered that after the General's accession
to the supreme authority of Mexico (upon
the establishment of Centralismo), he deemed
it expedient to issue a decree abolishing the
state mihtia, known as Civicos, as being dan-
gerous to the liberties of the dictador. Ta^l-

catecas, so far from obeying this despotic man-
date, publicly called on the Ci vices to defend
their rights, and Santa Anna was now de-
scending upon them with an army double
that which the city could raise, to enforce their
obedience. The Zacatecanos, however, were
not idle. The militia was pouring in from
the surrounding villages, and a degree of en-
thusiasm prevailed throughout the city, which
seemed to be the presage of a successful de-
fence. In fact, the city itself, besides being
from its location almost impregnable, was
completely protected by artificial fortifications.
The only accessible point was by the main
road, which led from the south immediately up
the narrow valley of the ravine. Across this
a strong wall had been erected some years be-
fore, and the road passed through a large gate,
commanded by a bastion upon the hillside
above, whence a hundred men well supplied
with arms and ammunition, might easily cut

SIEGE iXD CAPTURE. lOl

off thousands upon thousands, as fast as they
advanced. The city was therefore deemed
impregnable, and being supphed with provi-
sions for a lengthy siege, the patriots were in
high spirits. A foreign engineer or two had
been engaged to superintend the fortifications.
Santa Anna reached Zacatecas a few days
after my departure. As he had no idea of
testing the doubtful mettle of his army, by an
attempt to storm the place, which presented so
formidable an appearance, he very quietly
squatted himself down at the village of Guada-
lupe, three miles below. From this point he
commenced his operations by throwing ' mis-
siles' into the city — not of lead, or cast-iron, or
any such cruel agents of warfare, but homhs of
paper ^ which fell among the besieged, and burst
with gentle overtures to their commanding
officers. This novel ' artillery' of the dictator
produced a perfectly electric effect ; for the
valor of the commandant of the Clvicos rose
to such a pitch, that he at once marched his
forces out of the fortifications, to attack the be-
siegers in the open field — face to face, as true
bravery required. But on the very first onset,
this vahant officer, by some mysterious agency
wliich could not be accounted for, was sud-
denly seized with a strange panic, and. with
all his forces, made a precipitate retreat, flee-
ing helter-skelter, as if all the engines of de-
struction that were ev^r invented, had been
brought to bear upon them ; when the victori-
ous army of Santa Anna marched into the
city without further opposition,

9*

102 RETURN TO DURANGO.

This affair is a pretty just sample of mosi
of the successful battles of this 'great general.
The treacherous collusion of the principal
Zacatecas officers was so apparent, that they
deemed it prudent to fly the city for safety,
lest the wrath of their incensed fellow-citizens
should explode upon them. Meanwhile the
soldiery amused themselves by sacking the
city, and by perpetrating every species oFout-
rage that their mercenary and licentious ap-
petites could devise. Their savage propensities
were particularly exercised against the few
foreigners that were found in the place.

Meanwhile I was journeying very leisurely
towards Durango, where I arrived on the 21st
of April. As the main wagon road to the
north does not pass through that city, it was
most convenient and still more prudent for
me to leave my Avagons at a distance : their
entrance would have occasioned the confisca-
tion of my goods, for the want of the 'neces-
sary documents,' as already alluded to. But
I now procured a guia without further diffi-
culty ; which was indeed a principal object
of my present visit to that city.

Before leaving Durango I witnessed one of
those civil broils which are so common in
Mexico. I was not even aware that any dif-
ficulty had been brewing, till I was waked on
the morning of the 25th by a report of fire-
arrns. Stepping out to ascertain what was
the matter, I perceived the azotea of the paro-
chial church occupied by armed men, who
seemed to be employed in amusing them-

A PETTY CIVIL WAR. 103

selves by discharging their guns at random
upon the people in the streets. These bravoSj
as I was afterwards informed, belonged to the
bishop's party, or that of the Escoceses, which
was openly at war with the hberahsts, anti-
hierarchists, or Yorkinos, and were resorting
to this summary mode of proceeding, in order
to bring about a change of affairs ; for at this
time the Uberal party had the ascendency in
the civil government of Durango.

Being somewhat curious to have a nearer
view of what was going on, I walked down
past the church, towards a crowd which was
assembled in a plaza beyond. This move-
ment on my part was rather inconsiderate :
for foreigners were in extremely bad odor
witli the belhgerents ; nor had I mingled with
the multitude many minutes, before a sober-
looking citizen plucked me by the sleeve, and
advised me, if I valued my two ears, and did
not wish to have my career of usefulness cut
short prematurely, to stay within doors. Of
course I needed no further persuasion, and
returned at once to my lodgings, where I
made immediate preparations for a speedy
departure. As I was proceeding through the
streets soon afterward, with a cargo of goods,
I received, just after leaving the custom-house,
a very warm salutation from the belligerents,
which made the dust start from almost under
my very feet. The cargadores who were car-
rying my packages were no doubt as much
frightened as myself They supposed the
reason of their shooting at us to be be-

104 SAFE AT CHIHUAHUA AGAIN.

cause they imagined we were carrying off
the parque (ammunition) of the government,
which was deposited in the building we had
just left.

We were soon under way, and very little
regret did I feel when I fairly lost sight of the
city of scorpions. But I was not yet wholly
beyond the pale of difficulties. Owing to the
fame of the Indian hostilities in the North, it
was almost impossible to procure the ser\ices
of Mexican muleteers for the expedition. One
I engaged, took the first convenient opportu-
nity to escape at night, carrying away a gwn
with which I had armed him ; yet I felt grate-
ful that he did not also take a nmle, as he had
the whole cahallada under his exclusive charge :
and soon after, a Mexican wagoner was fright-
ened back by the reports of savages.

After a succession of such difficulties, and
still greater risks from the Indians that infested
the route, I was of course delighted when I
reached Chihuahua, on the 14th of May, in
perfect safety.^

* The distance from Chihuahua to Durango is about fire hun-
dred miles, and from thence to Aguascalientes it is nearly three
hundred — upon the route we travelled, which was very circuitous.
All the intermediate country resembles, in its physical features,
that lying immediately north of Chihuahua, which has already
been described.

CHAPTER VI.

Visit to the Mining Town of Jesus-Maria — Critical Roads —
Losing Speculations — Mine of Santa Juliana — Curious mining
Operations — Different Modes of working the Ore — The Crush-
ing-mill, etc. — Barras de Plata — Value of Bullion — The Silver
Trade — Return to Chihuahua — Resumption of the regular
Narrative — Carious Wholesales — Money Table — Reduridancy
of Copper Coin — City of Chihuahua and its Peculiarities-
Ecclesiastical Architecture — Hidalgo and his Monument —
Public Works, and their present Declension — F'ele in honor
of Iturbide — Illiberality towards Americans — Shopping Mania
— Anti-Masonic Auto de Fe.

Before resuming my regular narrative, I
trust the reader will pardon me for introduc-
ing here a brief account of an excursion which
I made in the fall of the year 1835, to the
mining town of Jesus-Maria, one of the most
important mineral districts in the department
of Chihuahua, situated about a hundred and
fifty miles west of the city, in the very heart
of the great Cordilleras.

I had long been desirous of visiting some
of the mining establishments of Mexico, and
seeing a favorable opportunity of embarking
in a profitable enterprise, I set out from Chi-
huahua on the loth of October. My party
consisted of but one American comrade, with

106 TRIP TO JESUS-MARIA.

a Mexican muleteer — and three or four muieb
freighted with specie to be employed in the
silver trade : a rather scanty convoy for a route
subject to the inroads both of savages and
robbers. For transportation, we generally
pack our specie in sacks made of raw beef-
hide, which shrinks upon drying, and thus
presses the contents so closely as to prevent
friction. A pair of these packages, usually
containing between one and two thousand
dollars each, constitutes an ordinary mule-load
on the mountain routes.

The road in this direction leads through the
roughest mountain passes; and, in some
places, it winds so close along the borders of
precipices, that by a single misstep an animal
might be precipitated several hundred feet.
Mules, however, are very sure-footed ; and
will often clamber along the most craggy
chffs with nearly as much security as the
goat. I was shown the projecting edge of a
rock over which the road had formerly passed.
This shelf was perhaps thirty feet in length
by only two or three in width. The road
which leads into the town of Jesus- Maria from
the west side of the mountain is also ex-
tremely perilous and steep, and seems almost
to overhang the houses beloAV. Heavily laden
mules have sometimes slipped off the track,
and tumbled headlong into the town. This
place is even more pent up between ridges
than Zacatecas : the valley is narrower and
the mountains much higher ; while, as is the
case with that remarkable city, the houses are

MINING OPERATIONS. 107

sometimes built in successive tiers, one above
another; the azoteas of the lower ones forming
the yard of those above.

The first mine I visited consisted of an im-
mense horizontal shaft cut several hundred feet
into a hill-side, a short distance below the town
of Jesus-Maria, upon which the proprietors had
already sunk, in the brief space of one year,
the enormous sum of one hundred and twenty
thousand dollars ! Such is often the fate of
the speculative miner, whose vocation is closely
allied to gaming, and equally precarious.

The most important mine of Jesus-Maria at
this time was one called Santa Juliana, which
had been the means of alternately making and
sinking several splendid fortunes. This mine
had then reached a depth of between eight
and nine hundred feet, and the operations
were still tending downwards. The materi-
als were drawn up by mule power appHed to
a windlass: but as the rope attached to it
only extended half way down, another wind-
lass had been erected at the distance of about
four hundred feet from the mouth of the cav-
ern, which was also worked by mules, and
drew the ores, etc., from the bottom. On one
occasion, as I was standing near the aperture
of this great pit watching the ascent of the
windlass-rope, expecting every moment the
appearance of the large leathern bucket which
they employ for drawing up the minerals as
well as the rubbish and water^ from the bot-

* Water has Sometimes accumulated so rapidly in this mine as to
stop operations for weeks together.

lOS

A MINING SCENE.

torn, what should greet my vision but a mule,
puffing and writhing, firmly bound to a huge
board constructed for the purpose, and looking
about as demure upon the whole as a sheep un-
der the shears. On being untied, the emanci-
pated brute suddenly sprang to his feet, and.
looked around him at the bright scenes of the
upper world with as much astonishment as Rip
Van Winkle may be supposed to have felt
after waking up from his twenty years' sleep.
The ore wliich is obtained from these mines,
if sufficiently rich to justify the operation, is
transferred to the smelting furnaces, where
the pure metal is melted down and extracted
from fhe virgin fossil. If on the contrary, the
ore is deemed of inferior quality, it is then
submitted to the process of amalgamation.

PROCESS OF AMALGAMATION. 109

The moUendas, or crushing-mills {arrastres, as
called at some mines), employed for the pur-
pose of grinding the ores, are somewhat sin-
gular machines. A circular (or rather annu-
lar) cistern of some twenty or thirty feet in di-
ameter is dug in the earth, and the sides as well
as the bottom are lined with hewn stone of
the hardest quahty. Transversely through an
upright post which turns upon its axis in the
centre of the plan, passes a shaft of wood, at
each end of which are attached by cords one
or two grinding- stones with smooth flat sur-
faces, which are dragged (by mules fastened
to the extremities of the shaft) slowly around
upon the bottom of the cistern, into which the
ore is thrown after being pounded into small
pieces. It is here ground, with the addition
of water, into an impalpable, mortar, by the
constant friction of the dragging stones against
the sides and bottom of the cistern. A suita-
ble quantity of quicksilver is perfectly mixed
with the mortar ; to which are added differ-
ent mineral salts, and other chemical sub-
stances, to facilitate the amalgamation. The
compound is then piled up in small heaps,
and not disturbed again until this process is
supposed to be complete, when it is transfer-
red to the washing-machine. Those I have
observed are very simple, consisting of a kind
of stone tub, into which a stream of water is
made to flow constantly, so as to carry off all the
lighter matter, which is kept stirred up by an
upright studded with pegs, that revolves in the
centre, while the amalgamated metals sink

VOL. II. 10

110 BARRAS DE TLATA.

to the bottom. Most of the quicksilvei is chen
pressed out, and the silver submitted to a
burning process, by which the remaining por-
tion of mercury is expelled.

The silver which is taken from the furnace,
generally contains an intermixture of gold,
averaging from ten to thirty per cent; but
what is extracted by amalgamation is mostly
separated in the washing. While in a liquid
state, the gold, from its greater specific gravity,
mostly settles to the bottom : yet it usually re-
tains a considerable alloy of silver. The com-
pound is distinguished by the name of oroche.
The main portion of the silver generally retains
too httle gold to make it worth sepaidting.

Every species of silver is moulded into
harras or ingots, weighing from fifty to eighty
pounds each, and usually worth between one
and two thousand dollars. These ara assay-
ed by an authorized agent of the government,
and stamped with their weight and character,
which enables the holder to calculate their
value by a very simple rule. When the bul-
hon is thus stamped, it constitutes a species
of currency, which is much safer for remit-
tances than coin. In case of robbery, the
harras are easily identified, provided the rob-
bers have not had time to mould them into
some other form. For this reason, people of
wealth frequently lay up their funds in ingots;
and the cellars of some of the ricos of the
South, are often found teeming with large
quantities of them, presenting the appearance
of a winter's supply of firewood.

THE SILVER TRADE. Ill

As the charge for parting the gold and sil-
ver at the Mexican mints, is generally from
one to two dollars, and coinage about fifty-
cents, per pound, this assayed bullion yields a
profit upon its current value of nearly ten per
cent at the United States Mint ; but, if unas-
sayed, it generally produces an advance of
about double that amount upon the usual cost
at the mines. The exportation of bullion,
however, is prohibited, except by special li-
cense from the general government. Still a
large quantity is exported in this way, and
considerable amounts smuggled out through
some of the ports.

A constant and often profitable business in
the ^ silver trade' is carried on at these mines.
As the miners rarely fail being in need of
ready money, they are generally obliged to
sell their bullion for coin, and that often at a
great sacrifice, so as to procure available
means to prosecute their mining operations.
To profit by this trade, as is already mention-
ed, was a principal object of my present visit.
Having concluded my business transactions,
and partially gratified my curiosity, I returned
to Chihuahua, where I arrived, November 24,
1835, without being molested either by rob-
bers or Indians, though the route is some-
times infested by both of these classes of in-
dependent gentry.

But, as it is now high time I should put an
end to this digression, I will once more re-
sume my narrative, where it was interrupted
at my arrival in Chihuahua, on the first of
October. 1839.

112 CUSTOMS OF THE TRADEKS.

It is usual for each trader, upon his arrival
in that city, to engage a store-room, and to
open and exhibit his goods, as well for the
purpose of disposing of them at wholesale as
retail. His most profitable custom is that of
the petty countrj^ ^merchants from the sur-
rounding villages. Some traders, it is true,
continue in the retail business for a season oi
more, yet the greater portion are transient
dealers, selling off at wholesale as soon as a
fair bargain is offered.

The usual mode of selling by the lot in
Chihuahua is somewhat singular. All such
cottons as calicoes and other prints, bleached,
brown and blue domestics both plain and
twilled, stripes, checks, etc., are rated at two or
three reales^ per vara, without the least refer-
ence to quality or cost, and the ' general as-
sortmenf at 60 to 1 00 per cent, upon the bills
of cost, according to the demand. The va-
rage is usually estimated by adding eight per
cent, to the yardage, but the vara being thir-
ty-three inches (nearly), the actual difference
is more than nine. In these sales, cloths —

* The Mexican money table is as follo'vvs : 12 granos make 2
real ; 8 reales, 1 peso, or dollar. These are the divisions used in
computation, but instead of granos, the copper coins of Chihuahua
and many other places, are the claco or jola {I real) and the cicar-
iilla (i real). The silver coins are the medio (6i cents), the real
(121 cents), the peseta (2 reales), the tosion or half dollar, and the
peso or dollar. The gold coins are the doblon or onza (doubloon),
"with the same subdivisions as the silver dollar, which are also
of the same weight. The par value of the doubloon is sixteen
dollars ; but, as there is no kind of paper currency, gold, as the
most convenient remittance, usually commands a high premium —
sometimes so high, indeed, that the doubloon is- valued in the
North at fiom eighteen to twenty dollars.

CURIOUS WHOLESALES. 113

indeed all measurable goods, except ribands
and the like, sometimes enter at the varage
rate. I have heard of some still more curious
contracts in these measurement sales, particu-
larly in Santa Fe, during the early periods of
the American trade. Everything was some-
times rated by the vara — not only all textures,
but even hats, cutlery, trinkets, and so on !
In such cases, very singular disputes would
frequently arise as to the mode of measuring
some particular articles : for instance, whe-
ther pieces of riband should be measured in
bulk, or unrolled, and yard by yard ; looking-
glasses, cross or lengthwise ; pocket-knives,
shut or open ; writing-paper, ii\ the ream, in
the quire, or by the single sheet ; and then,
whether the longer or shorter way of the pa-
per ; and so of many others.

Before the end of October, 1839, I had an
opportunity of selling out my stock of goods
to a couple of English merchants, which re-
lieved me from the delays, to say nothing of
the inconveniences attending a retail trade :
such, for, instance, as the accunmlation of
copper coin, which forms almost the exclusive
currency in petty dealings. Some thousands
of dollars' worth are frequently accumulated
upon the hands of the merchant in this way,
and as the copper of one department is v/orth-
less in another, except for its intrinsic value,
which is seldom more than ten per cent, of
the nominal value, the holders are subjected
to a great deal of trouble and annoyance.

With regard to the city, there i.^ but little to

10*

114 CITY OF CHIHUAHUA.

be said that is either very new or unasuall)
interesting. When compared with Sc^nt^a Fe
and all the towns of the North, Chihuahua
might indeed be pronounced a magnihcent
place ; but, compared with the nobler cities
of tierra afuera, it sinks into insignificance.
According to Capt. Pike, the city of '''Chihua-
hua was founded in 1691. The ground-plan
is much more regular than that of Santa Fe,
while a much greater degree of elegance and
classic taste has been exhibited in the style of
the architecture of many buildings ; for though
the bodies be of adobe, all the best houses are
cornered Avith hewn stone, and the doors and
windows are framed in the same. The streets,
however, remain nearly in the same state as
Nature formed them, with the exception of a
few roughly-paved side-walks. Althoiigh situ-
ated about a hundred miles east of the main
chain of the Mexican Cordilleras, Chihuahua
is surrounded on every side by detached
ridges of mountains^ but none of them of any
great magnitude.- The elevation of the city
above the ocean is between four and five
thousand feet; its latitude is 28' 86'; and its
entire population numbers about ten thousand
souls.

The most splendid edifice in Chihuahua is
the principal church, which is said to equal
in architectural grandeur anything of the sort
in the republic. The steeples, of which there
is one at each front corner, rise over a hun-
dred feet above the azotea. They ai-e com-
posed of very fancifully-carved columns; and

A SPLENDID CHURCH. 115

in appropriate niches of the frontispiece, which
is also an elaborate piece of sculpture, are to
be seen a number of statues, as large as life,
the whole forming a complete representation
of Christ and the twelve Apostles. This
church was built about a century ago, by-
contributions levied upon the mines (particu-
larly those of Santa Eulalia, fifteen or twenty
miles from the city), which paid over a per
centage on all the metal extracted therefrom ;
a medio, I beheve, being levied upon each
marco of eight ounces. In this way, about a
million of dollars was raised and expended in
some thirty years, the time employed in the
construction of the building. It is a curious
fact, however, that, notwithstanding the enor-
mous sums of money expended in outward
embellishments, there is not a church from
thence southward, perhaps, where the interior
arrangements bear such striking marks of
poverty and neglect. IfJ however, we are not
dazzled by the sight of those costly decora-
tions for which the churches of Southern Mex-
ico are so much celebrated, we have the satis-
faction of knowing that the turrets are well
provided with bells, a fact of which every
person who visits Chihuahua very soon ob-
tains auricular demonstration. One, in par-
ticular, is so large and sonorous that it has
frequently been heard, so I am informed, at
the distance of twenty-five miles.

A little below the Plaza Mayor stands the
ruins (as they may be called) of San Francis-
co— the mere skeleton of another great church

116 A STRANGE STATE PRISON.

of hewn-stone, which was commenced by the
Jesuits previous to their expulsion in 1767,
but never finished. By the outUnes stiil trace-
able amid the desolation which reigns around,
it would appear that the plan of this edifice
was conceived in a spirit of still greater mag-
nificence than the Parroquia which I have
been describing. The abounding architectu-
ral treasures that are mouldering and ready
to tumble to the ground, bear sufficient evi-
dence that the mhid which had directed its
progress was at once bold, vigorous and com-
prehensive.

This dilapidated building has since been
converted into a sort of state prison, particu-
larly for the incarceration of distinguished
prisoners. It was here that the principals of
the famous Texan Santa Fe Expedition were^
confined, when they passed through the place,
on their way to the city of Mexico. This edi-
fice has also acquired considerable celebrity
as having received within its gloomy embra-
ces several of the most distinguished patriots,
who were taken prisoners during the first
infant struggles for Mexican independence.
Among these was the illustrious ecclesiastic,
Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who made
the first declaration at the village of Dolores,
September 16, 1810. He was taken prisoner
in March, 1811, some time after his total de-
feat at Guadalaxara; and being brought to
Chihuahua, he was shot on the 30th of July
following, in a little square back of the prison,
where a plain white monument of hewn stone

THE AQUEDUCT. 117

has been erected to his memory. It consists
of an octagon base of about twenty-five feet
in diameter, upon which rises a square, un-
ornamented pyramid to the height of about
tJiirty feet. The monument indeed is not an
unapt emblem of the purity and simphcity of
the curate's character.

Among the few remarkable objects which
attract the attention of the traveller is a row
of columns supporting a large number of stu-
pendous arches which may be seen from the
heights, long before approaching the city from
the north. This is an aqueduct of considera-
ble magnitude which conveys water from the
httle river of Chihuahua, to an eminence
above the town, whence it is passed through
a succession of pipes to the main public
square, where it empties itself into a large
stone cistern ; and by this method the city is
supphed with water. This and other public
works to be met with in Chihuahua, and in
the southern cities, are glorious remnants of
the prosperous times of the Spanish empire.
No improvements on so exalted a scale have
ever been made under the republican govern-
ment. In fact, everything in this benighted
country now seems to be on the decline, and
the plain honest citizen of the old school is
not unfrequently heard giving vent to his feel-
ings by ejaculating " / Ojald por los dias fellces
del Reij ! " — Oh, for the happy days of the
King' In short, there can be no doubt, thnt
the common people enjoyed more ease —
more protection against the

118 PRODUCTIVE SCORIA.

security in their rights and property — more
liberty, in truth, under the Spanish dynasty
than at present.

No better evidence can be found of the ex-
tensive operations which have been carried
on in this the greatest mining distiict of North-
ern Mexico, than in the httle mountains of
scoria which are found in the suburbs of the
city. A great number of poor laborers make
a regular business of hammering to pieces
these metallic excrescences, from which they
collect silver enough to buy their daily bread.
An opinion has often been expressed by per-
sons well acquainted with the subject, that a
fair business might be done by working tliis
same scoria over again. There are still in
operation several furnaces in the city, where
silver ores extracted from the mines of the
surrounding mountains are smelted. There is
also a rough mint in Chihuahua (as there is
indeed in all the mining departments), yet
most of its silver and all of its gold have been
coined in the cities further south.

When I arrived at Chihuahua, in 1839, a
great fete had just come off for the double
purpose of celebrating the anniversary of the
Emperor Iturbide's birth day (Sept. 27, 1783),
and that of his triumphal entrance into the
city of Mexico in 1821. It will be remem-
bered, that, after Mexico had been struggling
for independence several years, General Itur-
bide, who had remained a faithful officer of
the crown, and an active agent in persecuting
the champions of Mexican hberty, finding

THE EMPEROR ITURBIDE. 119

himseUJ about the close of 1820, at the head of
a large division of the royal army sent against
the patriot Guerrero, suddenly turned over
his whole force to the support of the repubU
can cause, and finally succeeded in destroying
the last vestige of Spanish authority in Mexi-
co. Eow he was afterwards crowned empe-
ror, and subsequently dethroned, outlawed by
a public decree and eventually executed, is all
matter of history. Bat it is not generally
known, I beUeve, that this unfortunate soldier
has since received the honors of the Father of
the Rcpubhc, a dignity to which he was pro-
bably as much entitled as any one else — ab-
surd though the adoption of such a hero as
the ' champion of liberty,' may appear to ' re-
publicans of the Jefferson school.' A grande
fete d^hilarite takes place annually, in honor
of his political canonization, which ' comes
off' at the date already mentioned. To this
great ball, however, no Americans were invited,
with the exception of a Mexicanized denizen
or two, whose invitation tickets informed the
honored party that the price of admission to
this famous feast, — a ball given by the gover-
nor and other magnates of ^he land, in honor
of the hero of independence, — was twenty-
five dollars.

Balls or reunions of this kind, however,
Beem i.ot as frequent in Chihuahua as in New
Mexico: and to those we hear ofj claiming the
title of 'fashionable,' Americans are very rarely
invited. There is, in fact, but little social in-
tercourse between foreigners and the natives,

120 SHOPPING MANIA.

except in a business way, or with a certain
class of- the former, at the gambUng-table.
This want of hospitable feehngs is one of the
worst traits in the character of the Chihua-
huefios, and when placed in contrast Avith
the kind and courteous treatment those who
visit the United States invariably experience
from the lawgivers of fashion among us, their
illiberality will appear a hundred fold more
ungracious. These exclusive laws are the
more severely felt in Chihuahua, because
in that city there are no cafes, nor reading
rootns, nor in short any favorite public resorts,
except of a gambling character, at which gen-
tlemen can meet to lounge or amuse them-
selves.

Besides the cock-pit, the gaming-table, and
the Alameda, which is the popular promenade
for the wealthy and the indolent, one of the
most favorite pastimes of the females gene-
rally is shopping ; and the most fashionable
time for this is by candle-light, after they have
partaken of their chocolate and their cigarritos.
The streets and shops are literally filled from
dusk till nine or ten o'clock ; and many a time
have I seen the Counter of a store actually
lined till a late hour, with the fairest and most
fashionable senoritas of the city. On such oc-
casions it is not a little painful as well a«
troublesome to be compelled to keep a strict
eye to the rights of property, not that the deal-
ers are all dishonest, but because there never
fail to be some present who are painfully
afflicted with the self-appropriating mania,

AN AUTO DE FE. 121

even among the fairest-looking senoritas.
This, with other purposes no less culpable,
has no doubt tended to establish the custom
of night-shopping.

It may already be generally known per-
haps, that the predominant party, in Mexico,
(and particularly in the North), is decidedly
anti-masonic. During my stay in Chihuahua
I had an opportunity to test their antipathy for
that mysterious brotherhood. This was evinc-
ed in the seizure of a dozen or two cotton
handkerchiefs, which, unknown to myself,
happened to bear the stamp of the ' masonic
carpet' These obnoxious articles having at-
tracted the .attention of some lynx-eyed friar,
one day, mucTi to my consternation, my store
was suddenly invaded by the alcalde and
some ecclesiastics. The handkerchiefs were
seized without ceremony, and by an auto de fe^
condemned to be'pubhcly burned.

VOL. ir. I A

CHAPTER VII.

Departure for Santa Fe — Straitened for Food — Summary Effort
to procure Beef — Seizure of one of our Party — Altercation
with a Rico — His pusillanimous Procedure — Great Prepa-
rations in Chihuahua for our Arrest — Arrival of Mexican
Troops — A polite Officer — Myself with three of my Men sum-
moned back to Chihuahua — Amiable Conduct of Senor Arta-
lejo — Junta Departmental and Discussion 6f my Affair — Writ
of Habeas Corpus not in vogue — The Matter adjusted and
Passport granted — The Morale — Impunity of savage Depreda-
tors— Final Start — Company of Pasenos with their Fruits and
Liquors — Arrival at Santa Fe.

•

Having closed all my affairs in Chihuahua,
and completed my preparations for departing,
I took my leave of that city for the North, on
the 31st of October, 1839. I was accompa-
nied by a caravan consisting of twenty-two
wagons (all of which save one belonged to
me), and forty odd men, armed to the teeth,
and prepared for any emergency we might be
destined to encounter : a precaution altogether
necessary, in view of the hordes of hostile sav-
ages which at aU times infested the route be-
fore us.

We also set out provided with an ample
stock of bread and other necessaries ; for, from
the suburbs of ChihualiUa to the village of

STRAIT FOR FOOD. 123

Carrizal, a distance of nearly a hundred and
fifty miles, there are no settlements on the
route, from whence to procure supplies. To
furnish the party with meat, I engaged twenty
sheep, to be delivered a few miles on the way,
which were to be driven along for our daily
consumption. But the contractor having fail-
ed, we found ourselves entering the wilderness
without a morsel of meat. The second day
our men began to murmur — it was surely
'dry hving' upon mere bread and coffee: in
fact, by the time we entered the ' territory' of
the Hacienda de Encinillas, spoken of in an-
other chapter, they were clearly suffering from
hunger. I was therefore under the necessity
of sending three Mexican muleteers of our
party to hzo a beef from a herd which was
grazing at some distance from where we had
pitched our camp ; being one of those buffalo-
like droves which run so nearly wild upon
this extensive domain. It had been custom-
ary, from time immemorial, for travellers when
they happened to be distressed for meat, to
supply their wants out of the wild cattle which
nominally belonged to this hacienda, reserv-
ing to themselves the privilege of paying a
reasonable price afterwards to the proprietor
for the damage committed. I must say,
however, that, although I had travelled over
the same road nine times, I had never before
resorted to this summary mode of procuring
food ; nor should I, on the present occasion,
have deviated from my regular practice, though
thus partially authorized by a custom of the

124 AN ALTERCATION

country, but for the strait in which we found
ourselves, and the fact that I was confident I
should meet either with a mayordomo or some
of the vaqueros, to whom I could pay the value
of the beef, before passing beyond the pur-
Heus of the hacienda, upon the lands of which
we had yet to travel for sixty or eighty miles.
The muleteers had just commenced giving
chase to the cattle, when we perceived several
horsemen emerge from behind a contiguous
eminence, and pursue them at full speed.
Believing the assailants to be Indians, and
seeing them shoot at one of the men, chase
another, and seize the third, bearing him otf
prisoner, several of us prepared to hasten to
the rescue, when the other two men came
running in and informed us that the aggress-
ors were Mexican vaqueros. We followed
them, notwithstanding, to the village of Tor-
reon, five or six miles to the westward, where
we found a crowd of people already collect-
ed around our poor friend, who was trembhng
from head to foot, as though he had really
fallen into the hands of savages. I immedi-
ately inquired for the mayordomo, when I was
informed that the proprietor himselfj Don An-
gel Trias, was present. Accordingly I ad-
dressed myself to su setioria, setting forth the
innocence of my servant, and declaring my-
self solely responsible for whatever crime had
been committed. Trias, however, was im-
movable in his determination to send the boy
back to Chihuahua to be tried for robbery, and
all further expostulation only drew down the

WITH A RICO. 125

grossest and coarsest insults upon myselfj as
well as my country, of which he professed no
inconsiderable knowledge.^

The altercation was at first conducted solely
in Spanish ; but the princely senor growing
weary of hearing so many unpalatable truths
told of himself in the vernacular of his own
humble and astounded menials, he stepped
out from among the crowd, and addressed me
in English, — a language in which he had ac-
quired some proficiency in the course of his
travels. The change of language by no means
altered his views, nor abated his pertinacity.
At last, finding there was nothing to be gain-
ed by this war of words, I ordered the boy to
mount his horse and rejoin the wagons. " Be-
ware of the consequences !" vociferated the
enraged Trias. " Well, let them come," I re-
plied ; " here we are." But we were suffered
to depart in peace with the prisoner.

That the reader may be able to form some
idea of the pusillanimity of this lordly ha-
ciendero, it is only necessary to add, that when
the altercation took place we were inside of
the fortifications, from which our egress might
easily have been prevented by simply closing
the outer gate. We were surrounded by the
whole population of the village, besides a

* Trias, while yet a youth, was dispatched by his adopted fathei
to take the tour of Europe and the United States. He was fur-
nished for ' pocket money' (as I have been told) with nearly a hun
dred barras de plata, each worth a thousand dollars or upwards
This money he easily got rid of during his travels, but retainer
most of his innate bigotry and se.f -importance : and, with hi»
knowledge of the superiority of the jeople among whom he jour
neyed, grew his hatred for foreigners.

1.26 BREWING DIFFICULTIES.

small detachment of regular troops, whose
commandant took a very active part in the
controversy, and fought most valiantly with
his tongue. But the valor of the illustrious
Sehor Don Angel knew a much safer course
than to vent itself where there was even a re-
mote chance of personal risk. His influence
could not fail to enlist the public in his be-
half, and he thought no doubt that his battles
might just as well be fought by the officers
of justice as by himself

Yet ignorant of his designs, and supposing
the matter would end at this, we continued
our march the next day, and by the time night
approached we were full twenty miles from
the seat of our late troubles. While at break-
fast on the following morning we were greatly
surprised by the appearance of two American
gentlemen direct from Chihuahua, who had
ridden thus far purposely to apprise us of
what was brewing in the city to our detriment.
It appeared that Trias had sent an express
to the governor accusing me of rescuing a
culprit from the hands of justice by force of
arms, and that great preparations were accord-
ingly being made to overtake and carry me back.
That the reader may be able to understand
the full extent and enormity of my offence,
he has only to be informed that the proprietor
of an hacienda is at once governor, justice of
the peace, and everything besides which he
has a mind to fancy himself — a perfect despot
within the limits of his little dominion. It
was, therefore, through contempt for Ms ' ex-

ARRIVAL OF AN ARMY. 127

cellency' that I had insulted the majesty of
the laws!

Having expressed my sentiments of grati-
tude to my worthy countrymen for the pains
they had taken on my account, we again pur-
sued our journey, determined to abide the
worst. This happened on the 3d of Novem-
ber : on the 5th we encamped near the Ojo
Caliente, a hundred and thirty miles from
Chihuahua. About eleven o'clock at night,
a large body of men were seen approaching.
They very soon passed us, and quietly en-
camped at a distance of several hundred
yards. They were over a hundred in number.

Nothing further occurred till next morning,
when, just as I had risen from my pallet, a
soldier approached and inquired if I was up.
In a few minutes he returned with a mes-
sage from El SeTior Capitan to know if he
could see me. Having answered in the af-
firmative, a very courteous and agreeable per-
sonage soon made his appearance, who, after
bowing and scraping until I began to be seri-
ously afraid that his body would break in two,
finally opened his mission by handing me a
packet of letters, one of which contained an
order from the Governor for my immediate
presence in Chihuahua, together with the
three muleteers whom I had sent after the
cattle ; warning me, at the same time, not to
give cause, by my resistance, for any other
measure, which might be unpleasant to my
person. The next document was from Seiior
Trias himself, in which he expressed his re«

128 MR. SITTTOiV.

gret at having carried the matter to such an
extreme, and ended with the usual offer of
his services to facihtate an adjustment.
Those, however, which most influenced my
course, were from Don Jose Artalejo (Juez de
Hacienda, Judge of the Customs, of Chihua-
hua), who offered to become responsible for
a favorable issue if I would peaceably return ;
and another from a Mr. Sutton, with whom I
had formerly been connected in business.
The manly and upright deportment of this
gentleman had inspired me with the greatest
confidence, and therefore caused nie to re-
spect his opinions. But, besides my obliga-
tion to submit to a mandate from the govern-
ment, however arbitrary and oppressive, an-
other strong motive which induced me to
return, in obedience to the Governor's order,
was a latent misgiving lest any hostile move-
inent on my part, no matter with what justice
or necessity, might jeopardize the interests if
not the hves of many of my countrymen in
Chihuahua.

With regard to ourselves and our imme-
diate safety, w^e w^ould have found but very
little difficulty in fighting our way out of the
country. We were all well-armed, and many
appeared even anxious to have a brush with
the besiegers. However, I informed the cap-
tain that I was wiUing to return to Chihua-
nua, with the three ' criminals,' provided we
were permitted to go armed and free, as I
was not aware of having committed any
crime to justify an arrest. He rejoined that

RETURN TO CHIHU IHUA. 129

this was precisely in accordance with his
orders, and pohtely tendered me an escort of
five or six soldiers, who should be placed
under my command, to strengthen us against
the Indians, that were known to infest our
route. Thanking him for his favor, I at once
started for Chihuahua, leaving the wagons to
continue slowly on the journey, and the amia-
ble captain with his band of valientes to re-
trace their steps at leisure towards the capital.
Late on the evening of the third day, I
reached the city, and put up at the American
Fonda, where I was fortunate enough to meet
with my friend Artalejo, who at once proposed
that we should proceed forthwith to the Gov-
ernor's house. When we found ourselves in
the presence of his excellency, my valued
friend began by remarking that I had returned
according to orders, and that he would an-
swer for me with his person and property; and
then, without even waiting for a reply, he turn-
ed to me and expressed a hope that I would
^make his house my residence while I remain-
ed in the city. I coald not, of course, de-
cline so friendly an invitation, particularly as
I thought it probable that, being virtually my
bail, he might prefer to have me near his per-,
son. But, as soon as we reached the street,
he very promptly removed that suspicion
from my mind. "I invite you to my house,"
said he, "as a friend, and not as a prisoner. If
you have any business to transact, do not hold
yourself under the least restraint. To-morrow
I will see the affair satisfactorily settled."

130 DON JOSE ARTALEJO.

The Junta Departamental, or State Council,
of which Seuor Artaiejo was an influential
member, was convened the following day.
Meanwhile, every American I met with ex-
pressed a great deal of surprise to see me at
liberty, as, from the excitement which had
existed m the city, they expected I would
have been lodged in the safest calabozo. I
was advised not to venture much into the
streets, as the rabble were very much incensed
against me ; but, although I afterwards wan-
dered about pretty freely, no one oftered to
molest me ; in fact, I must do the ' sovereigns
of the city' the justice to say, that I was never
more politely treated than during this occa-
sion. Others suggested that, as Trias was one
of the most wealthy and influential citizens
of Chihuahua, I had better try to pave my
way out of the diflaculty with plata, as I could
stand no chance in law against him. To this,
however, I strenuously objected. I felt con-
vinced that I had been ordered back to Chi-
huahua mainly for purposes of extortion, and
I was determined that the ojiciales should be
disappointed. I had unbounded confidence
in the friendship and integrity of Don Jose
Artaiejo, who was quite an exception to the
general character of his countrymen. He
was liberal, enlightened and honorable, and I
shall ever remember with gratitude the warm
interest he took in my affair, when he could
have had no other motive for befriending me
except what might spring from the conscious-
ness of having performed a generous action.

A COMPROMISE. 131

At first, when the subject of my hberation
was discussed in the Junta Departainental,
the symptoms were rather squally, as some
bigoted and unruly members of the Council
seemed determined to have me punished,
c^ right or wrong. After a long and tedious de-
bate, however, my friend brought me the draft
of a petition which he desired me to copy
and sign, and upon the presentation of which
to the Governor, it had been agreed I should
be released. This step, I was informed, had
been resolved upon, because, after mature de-
liberation, the Council came to the conclusion
that the proceedings against me had been ex-
tremely arbitrary and illegal, and that, if I
should hereafter prosecute the Department, I
might recover heavy damages. The whole-
some lesson which had so lately been taught
the Mexicans by France, was perhaps the
cause of the fears of the Chihuahua authori-
ties. A clause was therefore inserted in the
petition, wherein I was made to renounce all
intention on my part of ever troubling the
Department on the subject, and became my-
self a supphant to have the affair considered
as concluded.

This petition I would never have consented
to sign, had I not been aware of the arbitrary
power which was exercised over me. Im-
prisonment, in itself, was of but little conse-
quence ; but the total destruction of my pro-
perty, which might have been the result of
further detention, was an evil which I deemed
it necessary to ward off, even at a great sacri-

182 TERMINATION OF

fice oi' feeling. Moreover, being in duress,
no forced concession would, of course, be
obligatory upon me after I resumed niy
Liberty. Again, I felt no very great inclina-
tion to sue for redress where there was so
little prospect of procuring anything. I might
certainly have represented the matter to the
Mexican government, and even have obtained
perhaps the acknowledgment of my claims
against Chihuahua for damages ; but the pay-
ment would have been extremely doubtful.
As to our own Government, I had too much
experience to rely for a moment upon her in-
terposition.

During the progress of these transactions, I
strove to ascertain the character of the charges
made against me ; but in vain. All I knew
was, that I had offended a rico, and had been
summoned back to Chihuahua at his instance;
yet whether for ' high treason,' for an attempt
at robbery, or for contempt to his seTwria, I
knew not. It is not unusual, however, in that
* land of liberty,' for a person to be arrrested
and even confined for weeks without know-
ing the cause. The writ of Habeas Corpus
appears unknown in the judicial tribunals of
Northern Mexico.

Upon the receipt of my petition, the Gov-
ernor immediately issued the following de-
cree, which I translate for the benefit of the
reader, as being not a bad specimen of Mexi-
can grand eloquence :

*' In consideration of the memorial which you have this
day directed to the Superior Government, His Excellency,

MY DIFFICULTIES. 133

the Governo'-, has been pleased to issue the foil dwing de-
cree :

" ' That, as Don Angel Trias has withdrawn his prosecu-
tion, so far as relates to his personal interests, the Govern-
ment, using the equity with which it ought to look upon
faults -committed without a deliberate intention to infringe
the laws, which appears presumable in the present case,
owing to the memorialist's ignorance of them, the grace
which he solicits is granted lo him ; and, in consequence,
he is at liberty to retire when he chooses : to which end,
and that he may not be interrupted by the authorities, a
copy of this decree will be transmitted to him.'

" In virtue of the above, 1 inclose the said decree to you,
for the purposes intended.

" God and Liberty. Chihuahua, Nov. 9, 1839.

" Amado de la Vega, Sec.

" To Don Josiah Gregg."

Thus terminated this 'momentous' affair.
The moral of it may be summed up in a few
words. A citizen of the United States who,
under the faith of treaties, is engaged in his
business, may be seized and harassed by the
arbitrary authorities of Chihuahua with per-
fect impunity, because experience has proved
that the American Government winks at al-
most every individual outrage, as utterly un-
worthy of its serious consideration. At the
same time, the Indians may enter, as they
frequently do, the suburbs of the city, — rob,
plunder, and destroy life, without a single sol-
dier being raised, or an effort made to bring
the savage malefactors within the pale of jus-
tice. But a few days before the occasion of
my difficulty at Torreon, the Apaches had
killed a ranchero or two in the immediate
neighborhood of the same village ; and after-

VOL. II. 12

134 UNDER WAY AGAIN.

wards, at the very time such a bustle was be-
ing made in Chihuahua to raise troops for
my ' special benefit,' the Indians entered the
corn-fields in the suburbs of the city, and kill-
ed several labradores who were at work in
them. In neither of these cases, however,
were there any troops at command to pursue
and chastise the depredators — though a whole
army was in readiness to persecute our party.
The truth is, they felt much less reluctance to
pursue a band of civil traders, who, they were
well aware, could not assume a hostile atti-
tude, than to be caught in the wake of a
band of savages, who would as little respect
their lives as their laws and their property.

Early on the morning of the 10th, I once
more, and for the last time, and with anything
but regret, took my leave of Chihuahua, with
my companions in trouble. Towards the af-
ternoon we met my old friend the captain,
with his valiant followers, whom I found as
full of urbanity as ever — so much so, indeed,
that he never even asked to see my passport.

On the evening of the next day, now in the
heart of the savage haunts, we were not a lit-
tle alarmed by the appearance of a large body
of horsemen in the distance. They turned
out, however, to be Pasenos, or citizens of the
Paso del Norte. They were on their way to
Chihuahua with a number of pack-mules
laden with apples, pears, grapes, wine, and
aguardiente — proceeds of their productive or-
chards and vineyards. It is from El Paso that
Chihuahua is chiefly supplied with fruits and

ARRIVAL AT SANTA vL 135

liquors, which are transported on mules or in
carretas. The fruits, as well fresh as in a
dried state, are thus carried to the distant mar-
kets. The grapps, carefully dried in the shade,
make excellent pasas or raisins, of which large
quantities are annually prepared for market
by the people of that delightful town of vine-
yards and orchards, who, to take them alto-
gether, are more sober and industrious than
those of any other part of Mexico I have visit-
ed ; and are happily less infested by the ex-
tremes of wealth and poverty.

On the 13th, I overtook my wagons a few
miles south of El Paso, whence our journey
was continued, without any additional casu-
alty, and on the 6th of December we reached
Santa Fe, in fine health and sjnrits.

CHAPTER^VIIx.

Preparations for returning Home — Breaking out cf the Small-
pox— The Start — Our Caravan — Manuel the Comanche — A
New Route — The Prairie on fire — Danger to be apprehended
from these Conflagrations — A Comanche Buffalo-chase — A
Skirmish with the Pawnees — An intrepid Mexican — The
Wounded — Value of a thick Skull — Retreat of the Enemy and
their Failure — A bleak Northwester — Loss of our Sheep — The
Llano Estacado and Sources of Red River — The Canadian
River— Cruelties upon Buffalo — Feats at 'Still-hunting' — Mr.
Wethered's Adventure — Once more on our own Soil — The
False Washita — Enter our former Trail — Character of the
Country over which we had travelled — Arrival at Van Buren
— The two Routes to Santa Fe — Some Advantages of that
from Arkansas — Restlessness of Prairie Travellers in civiliz-
ed life, and Propensity for returning to the Wild Deserts.

About the beginning of February, 1840,
and just as I was making preparations to re-
turn to the United States, the small-pox broke
out among my men, in a manner which at first
occasioned at least as much astonishment as
alarm. One of them, who had been vaccina-
ted, having travelled in a district where the*
small-pox prevailed, complained of a httle
fever, which was followed by sUght eruptions,
but so unhke true variolous pustules, that 1
treated the matter very Kghtly ; not even sus-
pecting a varioloid. These shght symptoms

HOMEWARD BOUND. 137

having passed off, nothing more was thought
of it until eight or ten days after, when every
unvaccinated member of our company was at-
tacked by that fell disease, which soon began
to manifest very malignant features. There
were no fatal cases, however ; yet much ap-
prehension was felt, lest the disease should
break out again on the route ; but, to our
great joy, we escaped this second scourge.

A party that left Santa Fe for Missouri soon
afterward, was much more unfortunate. On
the way, several of their men were attacked
by the small-pox : some of them died, and,
others retaining the infection till they ap-
proached the Missouri frontier, they were com-
pelled to undergo a ' quarantine' in the bor-
dering prairie, before they were permitted to
enter the settlements.

On the 25th of February we set out from
Santa Fe ; but owing to some delays, we did
not leave San Miguel till the 1st of March. As
the pasturage was yet insufficient for our ani-
mals, we here provided ourselves with over six
hundred bushels of corn, to feed them on the
way. This time our caravan consisted of
twenty-eight wagons, two small cannons, and
forty-seven men, including sixteen Mexicans
and a Comanche Indian who acted in the
capacity of guide.^ Two gentlemen of Bal-

* Manuel el Comanche was a full Indian, born and bred upon
the great prairies. Long after having arrived at the state of man-
hood, he accompanied some Mexican Comancheros to the frontier
village of San Miguel, where he fell in love with a Mexican girl —
married her — and has hved in that place, a sober, ' civilized' citizen
for the last ten or twelve years — endowed with much more gooa-
12*

138 PRAIRIE ON FIRE.

timore, Messrs. S. Wethered and 3. H. Ware,
had joined our caravan with one wagon and
three men, making up the aggregate above-
mentioned. We had also a caballada of more
than two hundred mules, with nearly three
hundred sheep and goats. The sheep were
brought along partially to supply us with meat
in case of emergency : the surplusage, how-
ever, could not fail to command a fair price in
the United States.

Instead of following the trail of the year
before, I determined to seek a nearer and bet-
ter route down the south side of the Canadian
river, under the guidance of the Comanche ;
by which movement, we had again to travel
a distance of four hundred miles over an en-
tirely new country. We had just passed the
Laguna Colorada, where, the following year, a
division of Texan volunteers, under General
McLeod, surrendered to Col. Archuleta, when
our fire was carelessly permitted to communi-
cate with the prairie grass. As there was a
head- wind blowing at the time, we very soon
got out of reach of the conflagration : but the
next day, the wind having changed, the fire
was again perceived in our rear approaching
us at a very brisk pace. The terror which
these prairie conflagrations are calculated to
inspire, when the grass is tall and dry, as was
the case in the present instance, has often

ness of heart and intec^rity of purpose than a majority of his Mex-
ican neighbors. He had learned to speak Spanish quite intelligibly,
and was therefore an excellent Comanche interpreter : and being
familiar with every part of the prairies, he was very serviceable as
a guide.

oONSEQUENCES TO BE FEARED. 139

beeii described, and though the perils of these
disasters are not unfrequently exaggerated,
they are sometimes sufficient to daunt the
stoutest heart. Mr. Kendall relates a fright-
ful incident of this kind which occurred to
the Texan Santa Fe Expedition ; and all
those who have crossed the Prairies have had
more or less experience as to the danger
which occasionally threatens the caravans
from these sweeping visitations. The worst
evil to be apprehended with those bound for
Santa Fe is from the explosion of gunpow-
der, as a keg or two of twenty-five pounds
each, is usually to be found in every wagon.
When we saw the fire gaining so rapidly upon
us, we had to use the whip very unsparingly ;
and it was only when the lurid flames were
actually rolling upon the heels of our teams,
that we succeeded in reaching a spot of short-
grass prairie, where there was no further dan-
ger to be apprehended.

The headway of the conflagration was soon
after checked by a small stream which tra-
versed our. route; and we had only emerged
fairly from its smoke, on the following day
(the 9th), when our Comanche guide returned
hastily from his accustomed post in advance,
and informed us that he had espied three buf-
faloes, not far off. They were the first we had
met with, and, being heartily anxious for a
change from the dried beef with which we
were provided, I directed the Comanche, who
was by far our surest hunter, to prepare at once
for the chasse. He said he preferred to hunt on

140 A BUFFALO CHASE.

horseback and with his bow and arrow ; and
beUeving my riding-horse tlie fleetest in com-
pany (which, by the by, was bat a common
pony, and thin in flesh withal), I dismounted
and gave him the bridle, with many charges
to treat him kindly, as we still had a long
journey before us. " Don't attempt to kill
but one — that will serve us for the present !"
I exclaimed, as he galloped off The Co-
manche was among the largest of his tribe —
bony and muscular — weighing about two
hundred pounds: but once at his favorite
sport, he very quickly forgot my injunction, as
weU as the weakness of my little pony. He
soon brought down two of his game, — and
shyly remarked to those who followed in his
wake, that, had he not feared a scolding from
me, he would not have permitted the third to
escape.

On the evening of the 10th our camp was
pitched in the neighborhood of a ravine in the
prairie, and as the night was dark and dreary,
the watch tried to comfort themselves by
building a rousing fire, around which they
presently drew, and commenced 'spinning
long yarns' about Mexican fandangoes, and
black-eyed damsels. All of a sudden the still-
ness of the night was interrupted by a loud
report of fire-arms, and a shower of bullets
came whizzing by the ears of the heedless
sentinels. Fortunately, however, no one was
injured ; which must be looked upon as a
very extraordinary circumstance, when we
consider what a fair mark our men, thus hud-

ATTACIC^D BY THE PAWNEES. 141

died round a blazing fire, presented to the
rifles of the Indians. The savage yells, which
resounded from every part of the ravine, bore
very satisfactory testimony that this w^as no
false alarm ; and the ' Paw^nee v^histle' which
was heard in every quarter, at once impressed
us with the idea of its being a band of that
famous prairie banditti.

Every man sprang from his pallet with
rifle in hand ; for, upon the Prairies, we always
sleep with our arms by our sides or under our
heads. Our Comanche seemed at first very
much at a loss what to do. At last, thinking
it might possibly be a band of his own nation,
he began a most boisterous harangue in his
vernacular tongue, which he continued for
several minutes ; when finding that the ene-
my took no notice of him, and having become
convinced also, from an occasional Pawnee
word tvhich he was able to make out, that he
had been wasting breath with the mortal foes
of his race, he suddenly ceased all expostu-
lations, and blazed away with his rifle, with a
degree of earnestness which was truly edify-
ing, as if convinced that that was the best he
could do for us.

It was now evident that the Indians had
taken possession of the entire ravine, the
nearest points of which were not Mtj yards
from our wagons : a warning to prairie tra-
vellers to encamp at a greater distance from
whatsoever might afford shelter for an enemy.
The banks of the gully were low, but still they
formed a very good breastwork, behind which

142 A DARING MEXICAN.

the enemy lay ensconced, discharging volleys
of balls upon our wagons, among which we
were scattered. At one time we thought of
making an attempt to rout them from their
fortified position ; but being ignorant of their
number, and unable to distinguish any object
through the dismal darkness which hung all
around, we had to remain content with firing
at random from behind our wagons, aiming at
the flash of their guns, or in the direction
whence any noise appeared to emanate. In-
deed their yelling was almost continuous,
breaking out every now and then in the most
hideous screams and vociferous chattering,
which were calculated to appa] such timorous
persons as we may have had in our caravan.
All their screeching and whooping, however,
had no effect — ^they could not make our ani-
mals break from the enclosure of the wagons,
in which they were fortunately shut up ;
which was no doubt their principal object for
attacking us.

I cannot forbear recording a most daring
feat performed by a Mexican muleteer, named
Antonio Chavez, during the hottest of the first
onset. Seeing the danger of my two favorite
riding horses, which were tethered outside
within a few paces of the savages, he rushed
out and brought safely in the most valuable of
the two, though fusil-balls were showering
around him all the while. The other horse
broke his halter and made his escape.

Although sundry scores of shots had been
fired at our people, we had only two men

DUTCH IS WOUNDED. 143

wounded. One, a Mexican, was but slightly
injured in the hand, but the wound of the
other, who was an Itahan, bore a more seri-
ous aspect, and deserves especial mention.
He was a short, corpulent fellow, and had
been nicknamed 'Dutch' — a loquacious,
chicken-hearted faineant, and withal in the
daily habit of gorging himself to such an
enormous extent, that every alternate night
he was on the sick list. Oh this memorable
occasion, Dutch had 'foundered' again, and
the usual prescription of a double dose of Ep-
som salts had been his supper potion. The
skirmish had continued for about an hour,
and although a frightful groaning had been
heard in Dutch's wagon for some time, no
one paid any attention to it, as it was gene-
rally supposed to be from the effects of his
dose. At length, however, some one cried
out, *' Dutch is wounded !" I immediately
went to see him, and found him writhing and
twisting himself as if in great pain, crying all
the time that he was shot. " Shot ! — where ?"
I inquired. " Ah ! in the head, sir ?" " Pshaw!
Dutch, none of that; you've only bumped
your head in trying to hide yourself" Upon
lighting a match, however, I found that a ball
had passed through the middle of bis hat, and
that, to my consternation, the top of his head
was bathed in blood. It turned out, upon
subsequent examination, that the ball had
glanced upon the skull, inflicting a serious-
looking wound, and so deep that an inch of
sound skin separated the holes at which the

144 RETREAT OF THE ENEMY.

bullet had entered and passed out. Notwith-
standing I at first apprehended a fracture of
the scull, it very soon healed, and Dutch was
'up and about' again in the course of a week.

Although teachers not unfrequently have
cause to deplore the thickness of their pupils'
skulls, Dutch had every reason to congratu-
late himself upon possessing such a treasure,
as it had evidently preserved him from a more
serious catastrophe. It appeared he had taken
shelter in his Avagon at the commencement
of the attack, without reflecting that the boards
and sheets were not ball-proof: and as In-
dians, especially in the night, are apt to shoot
too high, he was in a much more dangerous
situation than if upon the ground.

The enemy continued the attack for nearly
three hours, when they finally retired, so as
to make good their retreat before daylight.
As it rained and snowed from that time till
nine in the morning, their ' sign' was almost
entirely obliterated, and we were unable to
discover whether they had received any in-
jury or not. It was evidently a foot party,
which we looked upon as another proof of
their being Pawnees ; for these famous ma-
rauders are well known to go forth on
their expeditions of plunder without horses,
although they seldom 5.ul to return well
mounted.

Their shot had riddled our wagons conside-
rably : in one we counted no less than eight
bullet-holes. We had the gratification to be-
heve, however, that they did not get a single

A BLEAK NORTHWESTER. 145

one of our animals : the horse which broke
away at the first onset, doubtless made his
escape; and a mule which was too badly
wounded to travel, was dispatched by the
muleteers, lest it should fall into the hands of
the savages, or into the mouths of the wolves;
and they deemed it more humane to leave it
to be eaten dead than alive. We also expe-
rienced considerable damage in our stock of
sheep, a number of them having been de-
voured by wolves. They had been scatter-
ed at the beginning of the attack; and, in
their anxiety to fly from the scene of action,
had jumped, as it were, into the very jaws of
their ravenous enemies.

On the 12th of March, we ascended upon
the celebrated Llano Estacado^ and continued
along its borders for a few days. The second
night upon this dreary plain, we experienced
one of the strongest and bleakest ' northwest-
ers' that ever swept across those prairies;
during which, our flock of sheep and goats,
being left unattended, fled over the plain, in
search of some shelter, it was supposed, from
the furious element. Their disappearance
was not observed for some time, and the
night being too dark to discern anything, we
were obliged to defer going in pursuit of them
till the following morning. After a fruitless
and laborious search, during which the effects
of the mirage proved a constant source of an-
noyance and disappointment, we were finally
obliged to relinquish the pursuit, and return
to the caravan without finding one of them

VOL. II. 13

146 SOURCES OF RED RIVER-

These severe winds are very prevaU>iil
upon the great western prairies, though they
are seldom quite so inclement. At some sea-
sons, they are about as regular and unceasing
as the * trade winds' of the ocean. It will
often blow a gale for days, and even weeks
together, without slacking for a moment,
except occasionally at night. It is for this
reason, as well as on account of the reiins,
that percussion guns are preferable upon
the Prairies, particularly for those who un-
derstand their use. The winds are frequently
so severe as to sweep away both sparks and
priming from a flint lock, and thus render
it wholly ineffective.

The folloAving day we continued our
march down the border of the Llano Estaca-
do. Knowing that our Comanche guide was
about as familiar with all those great plains
as a landlord with his premises, I began to
question him, as we travelled along, concern-
ing the different streams which pierced them
to the southward. Pointing m that direction,
he said there passed a water-course, at the
distance of a hard day's ride, which he desig-
nated as a Canada or valley, in which there
was always water to be found at occasional
places, bat that none flowed in its channel
except during the rainy season. This cauada
he described as having its origin in the Llano
Estacado some fifty or sixty miles east of Eio
Pecos, and about the same distance south of
the route we came, and that its direction was
a little south of east, passing to the southward

CAXADIAX RIVER. 147

of the northern portion of the Witchita moun-
tains, known to Mexican Ciboieros and Co-
rn ancheros as Sierra Jmnanes. It was, there-
fore, evident that this was the principal north-
ern branch of Red River. The False Washita,
or Rio Negro^ as the Mexicans call it, has its
rise, as he assured me, between the Canadian
and tliis cafiada, at no great distance to the
southeastward of where we were then tra-
velhng.

On the 15th, our Comanche guide, being
fearful lest we should find no water upon the
plain, advised us to pursue a more northward-
ly course, so that, after a hard day's ride, we
again descended the ceja or brow of the Llano
Estacado, into the undulating lands which
border the Canadian ; and, on the following
day, we found ourselves upon the southern
bank of that stream.

Although, but a few days' travel above
where we now were, the Canadian runs pent
up in a narrow channel, scarcely four rods
across, we here found it spread out to the
width of from three to six hundred yards, and
so full of sand-bars (only interspersed with
narrow rills) as to present the appearance of
a mere sandy valley instead of the bed of a
river. In foct, during the driest seasons, the
water wholly disappears in many places.
Captain Boone, of the U. S. Dragoons, being
upon an exploring expedition in the summer
of 1843, came to the Canadian about the re-
gion of our western boundary, where he found
the channel perfectly dry. Notwithstanding

148 A DRY PJVER.

it presents the face of one of the greatest
rivers of the west during freshets, yet even
then it would not be navigable on account of
its rapidity and shallowness. It would ap-
pear almost incredible to those unacquainted
with the prairie streams, that a river of about
1500 miles in length, and whose head weard
a cap of perennial snow (having its source in
the Rocky Mountains), should scarcely be
navigable, for even the smallest craft, over
hfty miles above its mouth.

We pursued our course down the same side
of the river for several days, during which
time we crossed a multitude of little streams
which flowed into the Canadian from the ad-
joining plains, while others presented nothing
but dry beds of sand. One of these .was so
remarkable, on account of its peculiarity and
size, that we named it ' Dry River.' The bed
was at least 200 yards wide, yet without a
vestige of water ; notwithstanding, our guide
assured us that it was a brisk-flowing stream
some leagues- above : and from the drift- w^ood
along its borders, it was evident that, even
here, it nnist be a considerable river during
freshets.

While travelling down the course of the
Canadian, we sometimes found the buftalo
very abundant. On one occasion, two or
three hunters, Avho were a little in advance
of the caravan, perceiving a herd quietly
grazing in an open glade, they ' crawled upon'
them after the manner of the 'still hunters.'
Their first shot havinof brought down a fine

TILL iirx-i-iA<;

149

fat cow, they slipped up behind her, and, rest-
ing their guns over her body, shot two or
three others, without occasioning any serious
disturbance or surprise to tlieir companions;
for, extraordinary as it may appear, if the buf-
falo neither see nor smell the hunter, they
will pay but little attention to the crack of
guns, or to the mortality which is being dealt
among them.

The slaughter of these animals is frequently
carried to an excess, which shows the de-
pravity of the human heart in very bold relief
Such is the excitement that generally pre vails
at the sight of these fat denizens of the prai-
ries, that very few hunters appear able to re-
frain from shooting as long as the game re-
mains within reach of their rifles ; nor can
they ever permit a fair shot to escape them.
Whether the mere pleasure of taking hfe i^
]3*

150 AN ADVEXTrPtE

the incentive of these brutal excesses, I will
not pretend to decide ; but one thing is very
certain, that the buffalo killed yearly on these
prairies far exceeds the wants of the travel-
ler, or what might be looked upon as the
exigencies of rational sport. ^

But in making these observations, I regret
that I cannot give to my precepts the force of
my oAvn example : I have not always been
able wholly to withstand the cruel temptation.
Not lonsr after the incident above alluded to,
as I was pioneering alone, accordmg to my
usual practice, at a distance of a mile or two
ahead of the wagons, in search of the best
route, I perceived in a glade, a few rods in
front of me, several protuberances, which at
first occasioned me no little fright, for I took
them, as they loomed dimly through the tall
grass, for the tops of Indian lodges. But I
soon discovered the}^ were the huge humps
of a herd of buffalo, which were quietly
grazing.

I immediately alighted, and approached un-
observed to within forty or fifty yards of the
unsuspecting animals. Being armed with one
of Cochran's nine-chambered rifles, I took
aim at one that stood broad-side, and ' blazed
away.' The buffalo threw up their heads and
looked about, but seeing nothing (for I re-
mained concealed in the grass), they again

* The same barbarous propensity is observable in regard to wild
horses. Most persons appear unable to restrain this wanton in-
clination to take life, when a mustang approaches within rifle-shot.
Many a stately steed thus falls a victim to the cruelty of maii.

WITH BUFFALO. 151

went on grazing as though nothing had hap-
pened. The truth is, the one I had shot Avas
perhaps but httle hurt ; for, as generally hap-
pens with the inexperienced hunter — and
often with those who know better, the first
excitement aUowing no time for reflection —
I no doubt aimed too high, so as to lodge the
ball in the hump. A buflalo's heart hes ex-
ceedingly low, so that to strike it the shot
should enter not over one-fourth of the depth
of the body above the lower edge of the
breast bone.

The brutes were no sooner quiet, than I
took another and more deliberate aim at my
former victim, which resulted as before. But
believing him now mortally wounded, I next
fired in quick succession at four others of the
gang. It occurred to me, by this time, that I
had better save my remaining three shots ; for
it was possible enough for my firing to attract
the attention of strolling savages, who might
take advantage of my empty gun to make a
sortie upon me — yet there stood my buffalo,
some of them still quietly feeding.

As T walked out from my concealment, a
party of our own men came galloping up
from the wagons, considerably alarmed. They
had heard the six shots, and, not recollecting
my repeating rifle, supposed 1 had been at-
tacked by Indians, and therefore came to my
relief IJpon their approach the buffalo all
fled, except three which appeared badly
wounded — one indeed soon fell and expir-
ed. The other two would doubtless have fol-

152 WETHERED S HUNT.

lowed the example of the first, had not a
hunter, anxious to dispatch them more speedi-
ly, approached too near; when, regaining
strength from the excitement, they fled before
Inm, and entirely escaped, though he pursued
them for a considerable distance.

A few days after this occurrence, Mr. Weth-
ered returned to the camp one evening with
seven buffalo tongues (the hunter's usual tro-
phy) swung to his saddle. He said that, in
the morning, one of the hunters had ungene-
rously objected to sharing a buffalo with him ;
whereupon Mr. W. set out, vowing he would
kill buftalo for himself, and 'no thanks to
any one.' He had not been out long when he
spied a herd of only seven bulls, quietly feed-
ing near a ravine ; and shpping up behind the
banks, he shot down one and then another,
until they all lay before him ; and their seven
tongues he brought in to bear testimony of
his skill.

Not long after crossing Dry River, we as-
cended the high grounds, and soon found our-
selves upon the high ridge which divides the
waters of the Canadian and False Washita,
whose 'breaks' could be traced descending
from the Llano Estacado far to the southwest.

By an observation of an eclipse of one of
Jupiter's satellites, on the night of the 25th of
March, in latitude 35^ 51' 30", I found that
we were very near the 100th degree of longi-
tude west from Greenwich. On the follow-
ing day, therefore, we celebrated our entrance
into the United States territorv. Those who

JOYFUL OCCASIONS. 153

have never been beyond the purUeus of the
land of their nativity, can form but a poor con-
ception of the joy which the wanderer in dis-
tant chmes experiences on treading once' more
upon his own native soil ! Although we were
yet far from the abodes of civilization, and
further still from home, nevertheless the heart
within us thrilled with exhilarating sensations;
for we were again in our own territory, breath-
ed our own free atmosphere, and were fairly
out of reach of the arbitrary power which we
had left behind us.

As we continued our route upon this nar-
row dividing ridge, we could not help remark-
ing how nearly these streams approach each
other : in one place they seemed scarcely five
miles apart. On this account our Comanche
guide, as well as several Mexicans of our
pai-ty, who had some acquaintance with these
prairies, gave it as their opinion that the Wa-
shita or Hio Negro was in fact a branch of
the Canadian; for its confluence with Red
River was beyond the bounds of their peregri-
nations.

As the forest of Cross Timbers was now
beginning to be seen in the distance, and fear-
ing we might be troubled to find a pass way
through this brushy region, south of the Ca-
nadian, we forded this river on the 29th, with-
out the slightest trouble, and very soon en-
tered our former trail, a little west of Spring
Valley. This gave a ncAV and joyful im-
pulse to our spirits ; for we had been travel-
ling over twenty days without even a trail,

154 THE CANADIAN COUNTRY.

and through a region of which we knew ab-
sohitely nothing, except from what we could
gather from our Comanche pilot. This trail,
which our wagons had made the previous
summer, was still visible, and henceforth there
was an end to all misgivings.

If we take a retrospective view of the coun-
try over which we travelled, we shall find but
httle that can ever present attractions to the
agriculturist. Most of the low valleys of the
Canadian, for a distance of Rve hundred miles,
are either too sandy or too marshy for cultiva-
tion ; and the upland prairies are, in many
places, but little else than sand-hills. In some
parts, it is true, they are firm and fertile, but
wholly destitute of timber, with the exception
of a diminutive branch of the Cross Timbers,
which occupies a portion of the ridge betAvixt
the Canadian and the North Fork. The Ca-
nadian river itself is still more bare of timber
than the upper Arkansas. In its whole course
through the plains, there is but little except
Cottonwood, and that very scantily scattered
along its banks — in some places, for leagues
together, not a stick is to be seen. Except it
be near the Mountains, where the valleys are
more fertile, it is only the little narrow bottoms
which skirt many of its tributary rivulets that
indicate any amenity. Some of these are
rich and beautiful in the extreme, timbered
with walnut, mulberry, oak, elm, hackberry,
and occasionally cedar about the blufis.

We now continued our journey without
encountering any further casualty, except in

COMPARISON OF ROUTES. 155

crossing the Arkansas river, where we lost
several mules by drowning; and on the 22d
of April we made our entrance into Van Bu-
ren. This trip was much more tedious and
protracted than I had contemplated — owing,
in the first part of the journey, to the incle-
mency of the season, and a want of pasturage
for our animals ; and, towards the conclusion,
to the frequent rains, which kept the route in
a miserable condition.

Concerning this expedition, I have only one
or two more remarks to offer. As regards the
two different routes to Santa Fe, although
Missouri, for various reasons which it is need-
less to explain here, can doubtless retain the
monopoly of the Santa Fe trade, the route
from Arkansas possesses many advantages.
Besides its being some days' travel shorter,^
it is less intersected with large streams ; there
are fewer sandy stretches, and a greater variety
of wood-skirted brooks, affording throughout
the journey very agreeable camping-places.
Also, as the grass springs up nearly a month
earlier than in Upper Missouri, caravans could
start much sooner, and the proprietors would
have double the time to conduct their mer-
cantile transactions. Moreover, the return
companies would find better pasturage on
their way back, and reach their homes before
the season of frost had far advanced. Again,
such as should desire to engage in the 'stock

* The latitude of Independence, Mo., is 39° 8', while that of Van
Buren is 35° 26',— within a few miles of the parallel of Santa Fe :
and being on about the same meridian as Independence, the dis-
tance, of course, is considerably shorter.

156 PROPENSITY FOR

trade' would at once bring their mules and
horses into a more congenial climate — one
more m accordance with that of their nativity;
for the rigorous winters of Missouri often prove
fatal to the unacclimated Mexican animals.

This was my last trip across the Plains,
though I made an excursion, during the fol-
lowing summer, among the Comanche Indi-
ans, and other wild tribes, living in the heart
of the Prairies, but returned without crossing
to Mexico. The observations made during
this trip will be found incorporated in the no-
tices, which are to follow, of the Prairies and
their inhabitants.

Since that time I have striven in vain to
reconcile myself to the even tenor of civilized
life in the United States ; and have sought in
its amusements and its society a substitute
for those high excitements which have attach-
ed me so strongly to Prairie life. Yet I am
almost ashamed to confess that scarcely a
day passes without my experiencing a pang
of regret that I am not now roving at large
upon those western plains. Nor do I find my
taste peculiar ; for I have hardly known a man,
who has ever become famihar with the kind
of life which I have led for so many years,
that has not relinquished it with regret.

There is more than one way of explaining
this apparent incongruity. In the first place
— the wild, unsettled and independent life of
the Prairie trader, makes perfect freedom from
nearly every kind of social dependence an
absolute necessity of his behig. He is in

PRAIRIE LIFE. 157

daily, nay, hourly exposure of his Ufe and pro-
perty, and in the habit of relying upon his
own arm and his own gun both for protec-
tion and support. Is he wronged ? No court
or jury is called to adjudicate upon his dis-
putes or his abuses, save his own conscience ;
and no powers are invoked to redress them,
save those with which the God of Nature hag
endowed him. He knows no government —
no laws, save those of his own creation and
adoption. He lives in no society which
he must look up to or propitiate. The ex-
change of ^his untrammelled condition — this
sovereign independence, for a life in civiliza-
tion, where both his physical and moral free-
dom are invaded at every turn, by the com-
plicated machinery of social institutions, is
certainly likely to commend itself to but few,
— not even to all those who have been edu-
cated to find their enjoyments in the arts and
elegancies peculiar to civilized society ; — as is
evinced by the frequent instances of men of
letters, of refinement and of wealth, volunta-
rily abandoning society for a life upon the
Prairies, or iii the still more savage moun-
tain wilds.

A ' tour on the Prairies' is certainly a dan-
gerous experiment for him who would live a
quiet contented life at home among his friends
and relatives : not so dangerous to life or
health, as prejudicial to his domestic habits.
Those who have lived pent up in our large
cities, know but little of the broad, unem-
barrassed freedom of the Great Western Prai-

voL. :i, 14

158 REFLECTIONS.

ries. Viewing them from a snug iire-side,
they seem crowded with dangers, with labors
and with sufferings; but once upon them,
and these appear to vanish — they are soon
forgotten.

There is another consideration, which, with
most men of the Prairies, operates seriously
against their reconcihation to the habits of
civihzed life. Though they be endowed natu-
rally with the organs of taste and refinement,
and though once famihar with the ways and
practices of civilized communities, yet a long
absence from such society genoirally oblite-
rates from their minds most of those common
laws of social intercourse, which are so neces-
sary to the man of the world. The awkward-
ness and the gaucheries which ignorance of
their details so often involves, are very trying
to all men of sensitive temperaments. Con-
sequently, multitudes rush back to the Prairies,
merely to escape those criticisms and that
ridicule, which they know not how to disarm.

It will hardly be a matter of surprise then,
when I add, that this passion for Prairie life,
how paradoxical soever it may seem, will be
very apt to lead me upon the Plains again, to
spread my bed with the mustang and the
buffalo, under the broad canopy of heaven, —
there to seek to maintain undisturbed my
confidence in men, by fraternizing with the
little prairie dogs and Avild colts, and the still
wilder Indians — the unconquered Sahceam of
the Great American Deserts.

CHAPTER IX.

CONCLUSION OF THE SANTA FE TRADE.

Decline of Prices — Statistical Table — Chihuahua Trade — Its
Extent — Different Ports through which Goods are introduced
to that Market — Expedition between Chihuahua and Arkan-
sas— The more recent Incidents of the Santa Fe Caravans —
Adventures of 1843 — Robbery and Murder of Chavez — Expe-
dition from Texas — Defeat of Gen. Armijo's Van-guard —
His precipitate Retreat — Texan Grievances — Unfortunate Re-
sults of Indiscriminate Revenge — Want of Discipline among
the Texans — Disarmed by Capt, Cook — Return of the Escort
of U. S. Dragoons, and of the Texans — Demands of the Mex-
ican Government — Closing of the Santa Fe Trade.

Before proceeding to the graver matters to
be presented in the succeeding chapters, a
few words to those who are curious about the
history of the Santa Fe trade intervening be-
tween the conclusion of my personal narra-
tive and the closing of the trade by the Mexi-
can government, in 1843, may not be amiss.

The Santa Fe trade, though more or less
fluctuating from its origin, continued to pre-
sent an average increase and growth down to
the year 1831. During the same period, the
prices of goods continued to go down in even
a more rapid ratio. Since 1831, the rates of

160

STATISTICAL TABLE.

sales have continued steadily to fall, to the
latest period of the trade, although there has
been no average increase in the number of
adventurers, or amount of merchandise.^

* Some general statistics of the Santa Fe Trade may prove not
wholly without interest to the mercantile reader. With this view, I
have prepared the following table of the probable amounts of mer-
chandise invested in the Santa Fe Trade, from 1822 to 1843 inclu-
sive, and about the portion of the same transferred to the Southern
markets (chiefly Chihuahua) during the same period ; together
with the approximate number of wagons, men and proprietors en-
gaged each year :

Years

Aint. Md.-e.
15,000

Wgs.

Men.

Pro's.

T'n to Ch'a.

Remarks.

1822

70

60

Pack-animals only used.

1823

12,000

50

30

do. do»

1824

35,000

26

100

80

3,000

do. and wagons

1825

65,000

37

130

90

5,000

do. do.

1826

90,000

60

100

70

7,000

Wagons only henceforth.

1827

85,000

55

90

50

8,000

1828

150,000

100

200

80

20,000

:? men killed, being the first

1829

60,000

30

50

20

5,000

1st U. S. Es.— 1 trader killed

1830

120,000

70

140

60

20,000

First oxen used by traders.

1831

250,000

130

320

80

80,000

Two men kUled.

1832

140,000

70

150

40

50,000

J Party defeated on Canadian

3833

180,000

105

185

60

80,000

< 2 men killed, 3 perished.

1834

150,000

80

160

50

70,000

2d U. S. Escort.

1835

140,000

75

140

40

70,000

1836

130,000

70

135

35

60,000

1837

150,000

80

160

3.5

80,000

1838

90,000

50

100

20

40,000

1839

250,000

130

250

40

100,000

Arkansas Expedition.

1840

50,000

30

60

5

10,000

Chihuahua Exf)edition.

1841

150,000

60

100

12*

80,000

Texan Santa Fe ExpediUon.

1842

160,000

70

120

15

90,000

1843

450,000

230

350

30

300,000

3d U.S. Es.— Ports closed.

The foregoing table is not given as perfectly accurate, yet it is be-
lieved to be about as nearly so as any that could be made out at the
present day. The column marked " Pro's." (Proprietors), though
even less precise than the other statistics, presents, I think, about
the proportion oi the whole number engaged each year who were
owners. At first, as will be seen, almost every individual of
each caravan was a proprietor, while of late 'the capital has been

WHOLESALE PRICES. 161

From 1831 to the present date, prices have
scarcely averaged, for medium calicoes, thir-
ty-seven cents, and for plain domestic cottons
thirty-one cents per yard. Taking assortments
round, 100 per cent, upon United States costs
were generally considered excellent sales:
many stocks have been sold at a much lower
rate. The average prices of Chihuahua are
equally lo^v, yet a brisker demand has ren-
dered this the most agreeable and profitable
branch of the trade.

held by comparatively lew hands. In 1843, the greater portion of
the traders were New Mexicans, several of whom, during the three
years previous, had embarked in this trade, of which they bid fair
to secure a monopoly.

The amount of merchandise transported to Santa Fe each year, is
set down at its probable cost in the Eastern cities of the United
States. Besides freights and insurance to Independence, there has
been an annual investment, averaging nearly twenty-five per
cent, upon the cost of the stocks, in wagons, teams, provisions,
hire of hands, &c., for transportation across^ the Prairies. A large
portion of this remaining unconsumed, however, the ultimate loss
on the outfit has not been more than half of the above amount. In-
stead of purchasing outfit, some traders prefer employing freighters,
a number of whom are usually to be found on the frontier of Mis-
souri, ready to transport goods to Santa Fe, at ten to twelve cents
per pound. From thence to Chihuahua the price of freights is
six to eight cents — upon mules, or in wagons.

The average gross returns of the tradere has rarely exceeded fifty
per cent, upon the cost of their merchandise, leaving a net profit of
between twenty and forty per cent. ; though their profits have not
unfrequently been under ten per cent. : in fact, as has before been
mentioned, their adventures have sometimes been losing specula-
tions, (o)

(n) Those who are familiar wiih Mr, Maypr's very intere;»tmg work
on Meiico. will observe that a portion of the preceding table corres-
ponds substantially with one presented on page 318 of that work.
In justice to myself, I feel compelled to state, that, in 1841, I pub-
lished, in the Galveston " Daily Advertiser," a table of the Santa
Fe trade from 1831 to 1840 inclusive, of which that of Mr. Mayer
embraces an exact copy. I have since made additions, and correct-
ed it to some extent, but still the correspondence is such as seemed
tc require of me this explanation.
14*

162 CHIHUAHUA TRADE.

The first attempt to introduce American
goods into the more southern markets of
Mexico from Santa Fe, was made in the year
1824. The amounts were very small, how-
ever, till towards the year 1831. For a few
of the first years, the traders were in the habit
of conveying small lots to Sonora and Cali-
fornia ; but this branch of the trade has, I
believe, latterly ceased altogether. Yet the
amounts transferred to Chihuahua have gen-
erally increased; so that for the last few
years, that trade has consumed very nearly
half of the entire imj)orts by the IMissouri
Caravans.

The entire consumption of foreign goods
in the department of Chihuahua, has been
estimated by intelligent Mexican merchants,
at from two to three millions annually ; the
first cost of which might be set down at nearly
one half Of this amount the Santa Fe trade,
as will be seen from the accompanying table,
has not furnished a tenth part ; the balance
being introduced through other ports, viz. :
Matamoros, whence Chihuahua has received
nearly half its supplies — -Vera Cruz via the
city of Mexico, whence considerable amounts
have been brought to this department — Tarn-
pico on the Gulf of Mexico, and Mazatlan on
the Pacific, via Durango, whence the imports
have been of some importance — while nearly
all the west of the department, and especially
the heavy consumption of the mining town
of Jesus-Maria, receives most of its supplies
from the port of Guai/inas on the Gulf of

CHIHUAHUA EXPEDITION. 163

California ; whence, indeed, several stocks of
goods have been introduced as far as the city
of Chihuahua itself In 1840, a large amount
of merchandise was transported directly from
the Ked River frontier of Arkansas to Chihua-
hua ; but no other expedition has ever been
made in that direction.^

* With a view to encourage adventurers, the government of
Chihuahua agreed to reduce the impost duties to a very low rate,
in favor of a pioneer enterprise ; and to furnish an escort of
dragoons for the protection of the traders.

The expedition was undertaken chiefly by Mexicans ; hut one
American merchant, Dr. H. Connelly, having invested capital in it.
I obtained from this intelligent gentleman a very interesting sketch
of the adventures of this pioneer, party, which 1 regret that my plan
will not permit me to present in detail.

The adventurers set out from Chihuahua on the 3d of April,
1839, amidst the benisons of the citizens, and with the confident hope
of transferring the valuable trade of the North to their city. The
caravan (including fifty dragoons), consisted of over a hundred
men, yet only about half a dozen of the number were proprie-
tors. Though they had but seven wagons, they brought about
seven hundred mules, and two or three hundred thousand dollars in
specie and bullion, for the purposes of their adventure.

They took the Presidio del Norte in their route, and then pro-
ceeding northwestwardly, finally arrived at Fort Towson after a
protracted journey of three months; but without meeting with any
hostile savages, or encountering any serious casualty, except getting
bewildered, after crossing Red River, which they mistook for the
Brazos. This caused them to shape their course thence nearly
north, in search of the former stream, until they reached the Cana-
dian river, where they met with some Delaware Indians, of whom
they obtained the first correct information of their whereabouts ;
and by whom they were piloted safely to Fort Towson.

It had been the intention of these adventurers to return to Chi-
huahua the ensuing fall ; but from various accidents and de-
lays, they were unable to get ready until the season had too far ad-
vanced ; which, with an incessant series of rains that followed, pre-
vented them from travelling till the ensuing spring. Learning that
the Texans were friendly disposed towards them, they now turned
their course through the midst of the northern settlements of that
republic. Of the kind treatment they experienced during their tran-
sit. Dr. Connelly speaks in the following terms : " I have never
been more hospitably treated, or had more efficient assistance, than

164 BRITISH GOODS.

By far the greatest porfion of the introduc'
tions through the sea-ports just alluded to,
have been made by British merchants. It is
cliiefly the preference given to American man-
ufactures, which has enabled the merchandise
of the Santa Fe adventurers to compete in
the Southern markets, with goods introduced
through the sea-ports, which have had the

was given by the citizens of Red River. All seemed to vie with
each other in rendering us every aid in their power ; and our Mexi-
can friends, notwithstanding the hostile attitude in which the two
countries stood towards each other, were treated with a kindness
which they still recollect with the warmest feelings of gratitude."
This forms a very notable contrast with the treatment which the
Texan traders, who afterwards visited Santa Fe, received at the
hands of the JNlexicans.

The caravan now consisted of sixty or seventy wagons laden
with merchandise, and about two hundred and twenty-five men, in-
cluding their escort of Mexican dragoons. They passed the
Texan border early in April, and expected to intersect their former
track beyond the Cross Timbers, but that trail having been partially
obliterated, they crossed it unobserved, and were several days lost
on the waters of the Brazos river. Having turned their course
south for a few days, however, they fortunately discovered their old
route at a branch of the Colorado.

After this they continued their journey without further casualty ;
for notwithstanding they met with a large body of Comanches, they
passed them amicably, and soon reached the Rio Pecos. Though
very narrow, this stream was too deep to be forded, and they were
compelled to resort to an expedient characteristic of the Prairies-
There being not a stick of timber anywhere to be found, of which
to make even a raft, they buoyed up a wagon-body by binding seve-
ral empty water-kegs to the bottom, which served them the purpose
of a ferry-boat.

When they reached Presidio del Norte again, they learned that
Gov. Irigoyen, with whom they had celebrated the contract for a
diminution of their duties, had died during their absence. A new
corps of officers being in power, they were now threatened with a
charge of full tarift' duties. After a delay of forty-fiA^e days at the
Presidio, however, they made a compromise, and entered Chihuahua
on the 27th of August, 1840.

The delays and accumulated expenses of this expedition caused
it to result so disastrously to the interests of all who were engaged
in it, that no other enterprise of the kind has since been undertakeo

THE DRAWBACK. 165

benefit of the draw-back. In this last respect
our traders have labored under a very unjust
burden.

It is difficult to conceive any equitable rea-
son why merchants conveying their goods
across the Prairies in wagons, should not be
as much entitled to the protection of the
Government, as those who transport them in
vessels across the ocean. This assistance
(with the reopening of the ports) might enable
our merchants to monopolize the rich trade of
Chihuahua ; and they would obtain a share of
that of the still richer departments of Durango
and Zacatecas, as well as some portion of the
Sonora and California trade. Then rating
that of Chihuahua at two milhons, half that
of Durango at the same, and a million from
Zacatecas, Sonora, etc., it would ascend to the
clever amount of some five milhons of dollars
per annum.

In point of revenue, the Santa Fe trade has
been of but little importance to the govern-
ment of Mexico. Though the amount of du-
ties collected annually at this port has usual-
ly been fifty to eighty thousand dollars, yet
nearly one-half has been embezzled by the
officers of the customs, leaving an average
net revenue of perhaps less than forty thou-
sand dollars per annum.

It is not an unimportant fact to be known,
that, since the year 1831, few or none of the
difficulties and dangers which once environed
the Santa^Fe adventurer have been encoun-
tered. No traders have been killed by the

166 RECENT INCIDENTS.

savages on the regular route, and but few ani-
mals stolen from the caravans. On the whole,
the rates of insurance upon adventures in this
trade should hardly be as high as upon marme
adventures between New York and Liverpool.
While I declare, however, the serious dangers
and troubles to have. been in general so shght,
I ought not to suppress at least an outline of
the difficulties that occurred on the Prairies
in 1843, which were attended with very seri-
ous consequences.

It had been reported in Santa Fe as early
as November, 1842, that a party of Texans
were upon the Prairies, prepared to attack
any Mexican traders who should cross the
Plains the succeeding spring; and as some
Americans were accused of being spies, and
in collusion with the Texans, many were or-
dered to Santa Fe for examination, occasion-
ing a deal of trouble to several innocent per-
sons. Than this, however, but little further
attention was paid to the report, many behev-
ing it but another of those rumors of Texan
invasion which had so often spread useless
consternation through the country.

So little apprehension appeared to exist,
that, in February, 1843, Don Antonio Jose
Chavez, of New Mexico, left Santa Fe for Li-
dependence, with but ^ve servants, two wa-
gons, and fifty-five mules. He had with him
some ten or twelve thousand dollars in specie
and gold bullion, besides a small lot of furs.
As the month of March was exti-emely incle-
ment, the little party suffered inconceivably

PARTY OF M DANIEL. 1Q7

from cold and privations. Most of them were
frost-bitten, and all their animals, except five,
perished from the extreme severity of the sea-
son ; on which account Chavez was compelled
to leave one of his wagons upon the Prairies.
He had worried along, however, with his re-
maining wagon and valuables, till about the
tenth of April, when he found himself near
the Little Arkansas ; at least a hundred miles
within the territory of the United States. He
ivas there met by fifteen men from the border
of Missouri, professing to be Texan troops,
under the command of one John M'Daniel.
This party had been collected, for the most
part, on the frontier, by their leader, who was
recently from Texas, from which government
he professed to hold a captain's commission.
They started no doubt with the intention of
joining one Col. Warfield (also said to hold a
Texan commission), who had been upon the
Plains near the Mountains, with a small party,
for several months — with the avowed inten-
tion of attacking the Mexican traders.

Upon meeting Chavez, however, the party
of M'Daniel at once determined to make sure
of the prize he was possessed of, rather than
take their chances of a. similar booty beyond
the U. S. boundary. The unfortunate Mexi-
can was therefore taken a few miles south of
the road, and his baggage rifled. Seven of
the party then left for the settlements with
their share of the booty, amounting to some
four or five hundred dollars apiece ; making
the journey on foot, as their horses had taken

168 MURDER OF CHAVEZ.

a stampede and escaped. The remaining
eight, soon after the departure of their com-
rades, determined to put Chavez to death, —
for what cause it would seem difficult to con-
jecture, as he had been, for two days, their
unresisting prisoner. Lots were accordingly
cast to determine which four of the party
should be the cruel executioners ; and their
wretched victim was taken off a few rods and
shot down in cold blood. After his murder a
considerable amount of gold was found about
his person, and in his trunk. The body of
the unfortunate man, together with his wagon
and baggage, was thrown into a neighboring
ravine ; and a few of the lost animals of the
marauders having been found, their booty was
packed upon them and borne away to the
frontier of Missouri.

Great exertions had been made to intercept
this lawless band at the outset ; but they es-
caped the vigilance even of a detachment of
dragoons that had followed them over a hun-
dred miles. Yet the honest citizens of the
border were too much on the alert to permit
them to return to the interior with impunity.
However, five of the whole number (includ-
ing three of the party that killed the man)
effected their escape, but the other ten were
arrested, committed, and sent to St. Louis for
trial before the United States Court. It ap-
pears that those who were engaged in the
kilUng of Chavez have since been convicted
of murder; and the others, who were only
concerned in the robbery, were found guilty

TEXAN EXPEDITION. 169

of larceny, and sentenced to Rne and impri-
sonment.

About the first of May of the same year, a
company of a hundred and seventy-five men,
under one Col. Snively, was organized in the
north of Texas, and set out from the settle-
ments for the Santa Fe trace. It was at first
reported that they contemplated a descent up-
on Santa Fe ; but their force was evidently
too weak to attempt an invasion at that crisis.
Their prime object, therefore, seems to have
been to attack and make reprisals upon the
Mexicans engaged in the Santa Fe trade, who
were expected to cross the Prairies during the
months of May and June.

After the arrival of the Texans upon the
Arkansas, they were joined by Col. Warfield
with a few followers. This officer, with about
twenty men, had some time previously at-
tacked the village of Mora, on the Mexican
frontier, killing five men (as was reported)
and driving off a number of horses. They
were afterwards followed by a party of Mexi-
cans, however, Avho stampeded and carried
away, not only their own horses, but those of
the Texans. Being left afoot, the latter burned
their saddles, and walked to Bent's Fort, where
they were disbanded ; whence Warfield pass-
ed to Snively's camp, as before mentioned.

The Texans now advanced along the Santa
Fe road, beyond the sand hills south of the
Arkansas, when they discovered that a party
of Mexicans had passed towards the river.
They soon came upon them, and a skirmish

VOL. n. 15

170 RIGHT OF REPRISAL.

ensuing, eighteen Mexicans were killed, and
as many wounded, five of whom afterwards
died. The Texans suffered no injury, though
the Mexicans were a hundred in number.
The rest were all taken prisoners except two,
who escaped and bore the news to Gen. Ar-
mijo, encamped with a large force at the Cold
Spring, 140 miles beyond. As soon as the
General received notice of the defeat of his
vanguard, he broke up his camp most preci-
pitately, and retreated to Santa Fe. A gen-
tleman of the caravan which passed shortly
afterward, informed me that spurs, lareats and
other scraps of equipage, were found scattered
in every direction about Armijo's camp — left
by his troops in the hurly-burly of their preci-
pitate retreat.

Keeping beyond the territory of the United
States, the right of the Texans to harass the
commerce of Mexicans will hardly be denied,
as they were at open war : yet another con-
sideration, it would seem, should have re-
strained them from aggressions in that quar-
ter. They could not have been ignorant that
but a portion of the traders were Mexicans —
that many American citizens were connected
in the same caravans. The Texans assert, it
is true, that the hves and property of Ameri-
cans were to be respected, provided they aban-
doned the Mexicans. But did they reflect
upon the baseness of the terms they were
imposing ? What American, worthy of the
name, to save his own interests, or even his
life, could deliver up his travelhng compa-

TEXAN GRIEVANCES. 171

nions to be sacrificed ? Then, after having
abandoned the Mexicans, or betrayed them to
their enemy — for such an act would have
been accounted treachery — where would they
have gone ? They could not then have con-
tinued on into Mexico ; ahd to have returned
to the United States with their merchandise,
would have been the ruin of most of them.

The inhuman outrages suffered by those
who were captured in New Mexico in 1841,
among whom were many of the present
party, have been pleaded in justification of
this second Texan expedition. When we
take their grievances into consideration, we
must admit that they palliate, and indeed jus-
tify almost any species of revenge consistent
with the laws of Nature and of nations : yet
whether, under the existing circumstances,
this invasion of the Prairies was proper or
otherwise, I will leave for others to determine,
as there seems to be a difference of opinion
on the subject. The following considerations,
however, will go to demonstrate the unpro-
pitious consequences which are apt to result
from a system of indiscriminate revenge.

The unfortunate Chavez (whose murder, I
suppose, was perpetrated under pretext of the
cruelties suffered by the Texans, in the name
of whom the party of M'Daniel was organ
ized) was of the most wealthy and influential
family of New Mexico, and one that was any-
thing but friendly to the ruUng governor,
Gen. Armijo. Don Mariano Chavez, a brother
to the deceased, is a gentleman of very amia-

172 UNFORTUNATE RESULTS

ble character, such as is rarely to be met with
in that unfortunate land. It is asserted that
he furnished a considerable quantity of pro-
visions, blankets, etc., to Col. Cooke's division
of Texan prisoners. Seiiora Chavez (the wife
of Don Mariano), as is told, crossed the river
from the village of Padillas, the place of their
residence, and administered comforts to the
unfortunate band of Texans. Though the
murder of young Chavez was evidently not
sanctioned by the Texans generally, it will,
notwithstanding, have greatly embittered this
powerful family against them — a family
whose liberal principles could not otherwise
have been very unfavorable to Texas.^

The attack upon the village of Mora, though
of less important results, was nevertheless an
unpropitiatory movement. The inhabitants
of that place are generally very simple and
innocent rancheros and hunters, and, being
separated by the snowy mountains from the
principal settlements of New Mexico, their
hearts seem ever to have been incHned to the
Texans. In fact, the village having been
founded by some American denizens, the
Mexican inhabitants appear in some degree
to have imitated their character.

The defeat of Armijo's vanguard was at-
tended by still more disasti'ous consequences,
both to the American and Texan interest.
That division was composed of the militia of

* This family is very distinct from one Manuel Chavez (who,
though Gov. Armijo's nephew, is a very low character), a principal
agent in the treacheries practised upon the Texan Santa Fe Expe-
dition.

OF THE EXPEDITION. 173

the North — from about Taos — many of them
Taos Pueblos. These people had not only-
remained embittered against Gov. Armijo
since the revolution of 1837, but had always
been notably in favor of Texas. So loth were
they to fight the Texans, that, as I have been
assured, the governor found it necessary to
bind a number of them upon their horses, to
prevent their escape, till he got them fairly
upon the Prairies. And yet the poor fellows
were compelled to suffer the vengeance which
was due to their guilty general !

When the news of their defeat reached
Taos, the friends and relatives of the slain —
the whole population indeed, were incensed
beyond measure ; and two or three naturaliz-
ed foreigners who were supposed to favor the
cause of Texas, and who were in good stand-
ing before, were now compelled to flee for
their lives ; leaving their houses and property
a prey to the incensed rabble. Such appears
to have been the reaction of public sentiment
resulting from the catastrophe upon the Prai-
ries !

Had the Texans proceeded differently —
had . they induced the Mexicans to surrender
without battle, which they might no doubt
easily have accomplished, they could have
secured their services, without question, as
guides to Gen. Armijo's camp, and that un-
mitigated tyrant might himself have fallen
into their hands.. The difficulty of maintain-
ing order among the Texans was perhaps the
cause of many of their unfortunate proceed-

15*

174 CAPTAIN COOK.

ings. And no information of the caravan
having been obtained, a detachment of seventy
or eighty men left, to return to Texas.

Tiie traders arrived soon after, escorted by
about two hundred U. S. Dragoons under the
command of Capt. Cook. Col. Snively with
a hundred men being then encamped on the
south side of the Arkansas river, some ten to
■fifteen miles below the point called the ' Ca-
ches,' he crossed the river and met Capt.
Cook, who soon made known his intention
of disarming him and his companions, — an
intention which he at once proceeded to
put into execution. A portion of the Tex-
ans, however, deceived the American cap-
tain in this wise. Having concealed their
own rifles, wiiich were mostly Colt's repeat-
ers, they dehvered to Capt. Cook tlie worth-
less fusils they had taken from the Mexicans ;
so that, when they were afterwards released,
they still had their own valuable arms ; of
which, however, so far as the caravan in ques-
tion was concerned, they appear to have had
no opportunity of avaiUng themselves.

These facts are mentioned merely as they
are said to have occurred; Capt. Cook, has
been much abused by the Texans, and accused
of having violated a friendly flag — of having
taken Col. Snively prisoner wliile on a friend-
ly visit. This is denied by Capt. Cook, and
by other persons who were in company at the
time. But apart from the means employed
by the American commander (the propriety
or impropriety of which I shall not attempt

MEXICAN DEMANDS. 175

to discuss), the act was evidently the salva-
tion of the Santa Fe caravan, of which a con-
siderable portion were Americans. Had he
left the Texans with their arms, he would doubt-
less have been accused by the traders of es-
corting them to the threshold of danger, and
then delivering them over to certain destruc-
tion, when he had it in his power to secure
their safety.

Capt. Cook with his command soon after
returned to the United States,^ and with him
some forty of the disarmed Texans, many of
whom have been represented as gentlemen
worthy of a better destiny. A large portion
of the Texans steered directly home from the
Arkansas river ; while from sixty to seventy
men, who elected Warfield their commander,
were organized for the pursuit and capture of
the caravan, which had akeady passed on
some days in advance towards Santa Fe.
They pursued in the wake of the traders, it is
said, as far as the Point of Rocks (twenty
miles east of the crossing of the Colorado or
Canadian), but made no attempt upon them
— whence they returned direct to Texas.
Thus terminated the ' Second Texan Santa
Fe Expedition,' as it has been styled; and

• As U. S. troops cannot go beyond our boundary, which, on
this route is the Arkansas river, these escorts afford but Httle pro-
tection to the caravans. Such an extensive, uninhabitable waste as
the great prairies are, ought certainly to be under maritime regu-
lations. Some international arrangements should be made between
the United States and Texas or Mexico (accordingly as the proprie-
torship of the region beyond our boundary may be settled), where-
by the armies of either might indiscriminately range upon this
desert, as ships of war upon the ocean.

176 CLOSING OF THE PORTS.

though not so disastrous as the first, it turned
out nearly as unprofitable.

Although this expedition was composed
wholly of Texans, or persons not claiming to
be citizens of the United States, and organized
entirely in Texas — and, notwithstanding the
active measures adopted by the United States
government to defend the caravans, as well of
Mexicans as of Americans, against their ene-
my— Sehor Bocanegra, Mexican Minister of
Foreign Relations, made a formal demand
upon the United States (as Avill be remember-
ed), for damages resulting from this invasion.
In a rejoijider to Gen. Thompson (alluding to
Snively's company), he says, that " Independ-
ence, in Missouri, was the starting point of
these men." The preceding narrative will
show the error under which the honorable
secretary labored.

A portion of the party who killed Chavez
was from the frontier of Missouri ; but witness
the active exertions on the border to bring
these depredators to justice — and then let the
contrast be noted betwixt this affair and the
impunity with which robberies are every
day committed throughout Mexico, where
well-known highwaymen often run at large,
unmolested either by the citizens or by the
authorities. What would Sehor Bocanegra
say if every other government were to de-
mand indemnity for all the robberies com-
mitted upon their citizens in Mexico ?

But the most unfortunate circumstance at-
tending this invasion of the Prairies — unfortu-

FUTURE PROSPECTS. 177

nate at least to the United States and to New
Mexico — ^was the closing of the jNorthern
ports to foreign commerce, which was doubt-
less, to a great degree, a consequence of the
before-mentioned expedition, and which of
course terminated the Santa Fe Trade, at
least for the present.^

I am of the impression, however, that httle
apprehension need be entertained, that this
decree of Gen. Santa Anna will be permitted
much longer to continue,! unless our peaceful
relations with Mexico should be disturbed ;
an event, under any circumstances, seriously
to be deprecated. With the continuation of
peace between us, the Mexicans will certainly
be compelled to open their northern frontier
ports, to avoid a revolution in New Mexico,
with which they are continually threatened
while this embargo continues. Should the
obnoxious decree be repealed, the Santa Fe
Trade will doubtless be prosecuted again with
renewed vigor and enterprise.

• The following is the substance of Santa Anna's decree, dated
at his Palace of Tacubaya, August 7, 1843 :

"Article 1st. The frontier cuslom-houses of Taos, in the depart-
ment of New Mexico, Paso del jVorte and Presidio del Norte in that
of Chihuahua, are entirely closed to all commerce.

"Art. 2d. This decree shall take eflfect within forty-five days
after its publication in the capital of the Republic."

It should be understood that the only port in New Mexico for
the introduction of foreign goods was nominally Taos, though the
cutsom-house was at Santa Fe, where all the entrances were made.

t These northern ports have since oeen reopened by decree of
March 31 , 1844 ; and about ninety wagons, with perhaps $200,000
cost of goods, (and occupying 150 to 200 men), crossed the plains to
Santa Fe, during the following summer and fall.

CHAPTER X.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE PRAIRIES.

Extent of the Prairies — Mountains — Mesas or Table-lands — El
Llano Estacado — Canones — Their Annoyance to the early Car-
avans— Immense Gullies — Coal ^Slines and other geological
Products — Gypsum — Metallic Minerals — Salines — Capt.
Boone's Exploration — ' Salt Plain ' and ' Salt Rock ' — Mr.
Sibley's Visit — Saline Exudations — Unhabitableness of the
high Prairies — Excellent Pasturage — Rich border Country
sufficient for two States — Northern Texas — Rivers of the
Prairies — Their Unfitness for Navigation — Timber — Cross
Timbers — Encroachments of the Tim.ber upon the Prairies —
Fruits and Flowers — Salubrity of Climate.

While I have endeavored in the preceding
pages to give the reader some general idea of
life upon the Prairies, I feel that I have wholly
failed thus far to convey any adequate notions
of their natural history. I propose in the fol-
lowing pages to repair this deficiency as far
as I am able, and to present a rapid sketch of
the vastness of those mighty territories; of
their physical geography ; and of the life, as
•well vegetable as animal, which they sustain.
It is to be regretted that this ample field for
observation should have received so little of
the consideration of scientific men ; for there

GREAT WESTERN PRAIRIES. 179

is scarcely a province in the whole wide range
of Nature's unexplored domains, which is so
worthy of study, and yet has been so little
studied by the natural philosopher.

If we look at the Great Western Prairies,
independently of the political powers to which
portions of them respectively belong, we shall
find them occupying the whole of that exten-
sive territory lying between the spurs of the
Rocky Mountains on the north, and the rivers
of Texas on the south — a distance of some
seven or eight hundred miles in one direction ;
and from the frontiers of Missouri and Arkan-
sas on the east to the eastern branches of the
southern Rocky Mountains on the west —
about six hundred miles in the transverse di-
rection : the whole comprising an area of
about 400,000 square miles, some 30,000 of
which are within the original limits of Texas,
and 70,000 in those of New Mexico (if we
extend them east to the United States bound-
ary), leaving about 300,000 in the territory of
the United States.

This vast territory is not interrupted by
any important mountainous elevations, ex-
cept along the borders of the great western
sierras, and by some low, craggy ridges about
the Arkansas frontier — skirts of the Ozark
mountains. There is, it is true, high on the
dividing ridge between Red River and the
False Washita, a range of hills, the south-
western portion of which expends about to
the 100th degree of longitude west from
Greenwich; that is, to the United States

180 MOUNTAINS AND MESAS.

boundary line. These are generally called
the Witchita mountains, but sometimes Tow-
yash by hunters, perhaps from toyavist, the
Comanche word for mountain. I inquired
once of a Comanche Indian how his nation
designated this range of mountains, which
was then in sight of us. He answered, " To-
yavistP " But this simply means a mountain,"
I replied. " How do you distinguish this from
any other mountain ?" " There are no other
mountains in the Comanche territor}^," he re-
joined— " none till we go east to your coun-
try, or south to Texas, or west to the land of
the Mexican."

With these exceptions, there are scarcely
any elevations throughout these immense
plains which should be dignified by the title
of mountains. Those seen by the Texan
Santa Fe Expedition about the sources of Red
River, were without doubt the cejas or brows
of the elevated table plains with which the
Prairies abound, and which, when viewed from
the plain below, often assume the appearance
of formidable mountains ; but once upon their
summit, the spectator sqes another vast plain
before him.

These tahle lands, or mesas, as the Mexicans
term them, of which there are many thou-
sands of square miles lying between the fron-
tier of the United States and the Rocky
Mountains, are level plains, elevated a consi-
derable distani^e above the surrounding coun-
try, and may be Ukened to the famous steppes
of Asia. They are cut up with numerous

EL LLANO ESTACADO. 181

streams, the largest of which are generally
bordered for several miles back by hilly up-
lands, which are for the most part sandy, dry
and barren.

The most rotable of the great plateaux of
the Prairies is that known to Mexicans ?i^ El
Llano Estacado, which is bounded on the
north by the Canadian river — extends east
about to the United States boundary, includ-
ing the heads of the False Washita and other
branches of Red River — and spreads south-
ward to the sources of Trinity, Brazos and
Colorado rivers, and westward to Rio Pecos,
It is quite an elevated and generally a level
plain, without important hills or ridges, unless
we distinguish as such the craggy breaks of
the streams which border and pierce it. It
embraces an area of about 30,000 square
miles, most of which is without water during
three -fourths of the year ; while a large pro-
portion of its few perennial streams are too
brackish to drink of

I have been assured by Mexican hunters
and Indians, that, from Santa Fe southeast-
ward, there is but one route upon which this
plain can be safely traversed during the dry
season ; and even some of the watering-places
on this are at intervals of fifty to eighty miles,
and hard to find. Hence the Mexican traders
and hunters, that they might not lose their
way and perish from thirst, once staked out
this route across the plain, it is said ; whence
it has received the name of El Llano Estaca-
do, or the Staked Plain*

VOL. II. 16

182 IMMENSE CANONES.

In some places the brows of these mesas
approach the very borders of the streams.
When this occurs on both sides, it leaves deep
chasms or ravines between, called by the
Mexicans canones, and which abound in the
vicinity of the mountains. The Canadian
river flows through one of the most remarka-
ble of these canones for a distance of more
than fifty miles — extending from the road of
the Missouri caravans downward — through-
out the whole extent of which the gorge is
utterly impassable for wagons, and almost so
for animals.

Intersecting the direct route from Missouri,
this canon was a source of great annoyance
to some of the pioneers in the Santa Fe trade.
In 1825, a caravan with a number of wa-
gons reached it about Rve miles below the
present ford. The party was carelessly mov-
ing along, without suspecting even a ravine
at hand, as the bordering plains were exceed-
ingly level, and the opposite margins of equal
height, when suddenly they found themselves
upon the very brink of an immense precipice,
several hundred yards deep, and almost per-
pendicular on both sides of the river. At the
bottom of those cliffs, there was, as is usually
the case, a very narrow but fertile valley,
through which the river wound its way, some-
times touching the one bluff and sometimes
the other.

Ignorant of a ford so near above, the cara-
van turned down towards the crossing of the
former ti'aders. "We travelled fifty miles,"

ANNOYING CHASMS. 183

says Mr. Stanley, who was of the caravan,
" the whole of which distance the river is
bound in by cliffs sev^al hundred feet high,
in many places nearly perpendicular. We at
length came to the termination of the table
land ; but what a scene presented itself! The
valley below could only be reached by de-
scending a frightful cliff of from 1200 to 1500
feet, and more or less precipitous. After a
search of several hours, a practicable way was
found ; and, with the greatest fatigue and
exertion, by locking wheels, holding on w4th
ropes, and literally lifting the wagons down
in places, we finally succeeded in reaching

the bottom How did the Canadian

and other streams in New Mexico sink them-
selves to such immense depths in the solid
rock? It seems impossible that the water
should have worn away the rock while as
hard as in its present state. What a field of
speculation for the geologist, in the proposi-
tions— Were the chasms made for the streams,
or did the streams make the chasms ? Are
they not of volcanic origin ?"

Nor are the flat prairies always free from
this kind of annoyance to travellers. They
are not unfrequently intersected by diminutive
chasms or water-cuts, which, though some-
times hardly a rod in width, are often from
fifty to a hundred feet deep. These little
caiiones are washed out by the rains, in their
descent to the bordering streams, which is
soon effected after an opening is once made
through the surface ; for though the clayey

184 GEOLOGICAL ITEMS.

foundation is exceedingly firm and hard while
dry, it seems the most soluble of earths, and
melts almost as rapidly as snow under the
action of water. The tenacious turf of the
' buffalo grass,' however, retains the marginal
surface, so that the sides are usually perpen-
dicular— indeed, often shelving inward at the
base, and therefore utterly impassable. I have
come unsuspectingly upon the verge of such
a chasm ; and though, to a stranger, the ap-
pearance would indicate the very head of the
ravine, I would sometimes be conipelled to
follow its meandering course for miles with-
out being able to double its ' breaks.' These
I have more especially observed high on the
borders of the Canadian.

The geological constitution of the Prairies
is exceedingly diversified. Along the eastern
border, especially towards the north, there is
an abundance of limestone, interspersed with
sandstone, slate, and many extensive beds of
bituminous coat. The coal is particularly
abundant in some of the regions bordering the
Neosho river ; where there are also said to be
a few singular bituminous or ' tar springs,' as
they are sometimes called by the hunters.
There are also many other mineral, and par-
ticularly sulphur springs, to be met with.

Further westward, the sandstone prevails ;
but some of the table plains are based upon
strata of a sort of friable calcareous rock,
which has been denominated ' rotten hme-
stone :' yet along the borders of the moun-
tains the base of the plains seems generally

PLASTER OF PARIS. 185

to be of trap and greenstone. From the wa-
ters of Red River to the southwest corner of
Missouri, throughout the range of the Ozark
mountains, granite, hniestone, flint and sand-
stone prevail. But much of the middle por-
tion of the Prairies is without any apparent
rocky foundation — we sometimes travel for
days in succession without seeing even as
much as a pebble.

On passing towards Santa Fe in 1839, and
returning in 1840, I observed an immense
range of plaster of Paris, both north and south
of the Canadian river, and between thirty and
fifty miles east of the United States western
boundary. The whole country seemed based
upon this fossil, and cUffs and huge masses
of it were seen in every direction. It ranges
from the coarsest compact sulphate of lime or
ordinary plaster, to the most transparent gyp-
sum or selenite, of which last there is a great
abundance. By authentic accounts from
other travellers, this range of gypsum extends,
in a direction nearly north, almost to the Ar-
kansas river.

Of metallic minerals, iron, lead, and per-
haps copper, are found on the borders of the
Prairies ; and it is asserted that several speci-
mens of silver ores have been met with on
our frontier, as well as about the Witchita and
the Rocky Mountains. Gold has also been
found, no doubt, in different places ; yet it is
questionable whether it has anywhere been
discovered in sufficient abundance to render it
worth the seeking. Some trappers have repprt-

16*

186 THE GRAND SALINE.

ed an extensive gold region about the sources
of the Platte river ; yet, although recent search
has been made, it has not been discovered.

The most valuable perhaps, and the most
abundant mineral production of the Prairies
is Salt. In the Choctaw country, on the wa-
ters of Red River, there are two salt-works in
operation; and in the Cherokee nation salt
springs are numerous, three or four of which
are now worked on .a small scale ; yet a suf-
ficient quantity of salt might easily be pro-
duced to supply even the adjoining States.
The Grand Saline, about forty miles above
Fort Gibson, near the Neosho river, was con-
sidered a curiosity of its kind, before its natu-
ral beauties were effaced by ' improvements.'
In the border of a little valley, a number of
small salt springs break out, around the ori-
fice of each of which was formed, in the shape
of a pot, a kind of calcareous saline concre-
tion. None of the springs are very bold, but
the water is strong, and sufficiently abundant
for extensive works.

There have been several Salines, or mines
(if we may so term them) of pure salt, discov-
ered in different parts of the Prairies. The
most northern I have heard of, is fifty or sixty
miles west of the Missouri river, and thirty
or forty south of the Platte, near a tributary
called the Saline ; where the Otoes and other
Indians procure salt. It is described as re-
sembling the Salinas of New Mexico, and the
quantity of salt as inexhaustible. South of the
i^jkansas river and a degree or two further

CAPTAIx\ BOOXE. 187

westward, there are several of these saUnes,
which are perhaps still more extensive.

I have been favored with some extracts
from the journal of Capt. Nathan Boone^ of
the United States' Dragoons, who made an
exploring tour through those desolate regions
during the summer of 1843. In his journey,
between the Canadian and Upper Arkansas,
he found efflorescent salt in many places, as
well as a superabundance of strongly impreg-
nated salt-water ; but, besides these, he visited
two considerable sahnes.

Of the first, which he calls the ' Salt Plain,'
he remarks, that "the approach was very gra-
tifying, and from the appearance one might
expect to find salt in a solid mass, for the
whole extent of the plain, of several feet in
thickness." This is situated in tlie forks of
the Salt Fork of the Arkansas. The plain is
described as being level as a floor, and evi-
dently sometimes overflowed by the streams
which border it. Yet the extent of salt, it
would seem, did not realize Capt. Boone's
anticipations, as he remarks that it was cover-
ed " with the slightest possible film of crys-
tallized salt on the surface, enough to make
it white." But he explored only a small por-
tion of the plain, which was very extensive. ,

However, the most wonderful saline is the
great Salt Rock, which he found further to the

* Capt. Boone is a son of the late Col. Daniel Boone, the cele-
brated pioneer of the West. Being of practical habits, and of ex-
tensive experience upon those deserts, much weight is due to his
observations.

18S THE SALT nOCK.

south westward, on the main Red Fork. " The
whole cove on the right of the two forks of
the river," says Capt. Boone, " appears to be
one immense salt spring of water so much
concentrated, that, as soon as it reaches the
point of breaking forth, it begins depositing
its salt. Tn this Avay a large crust, or rock is
formed all over the bottom for perhaps 160
acres. Digging through the sand for a few
inches anywhere in this space, we could find
the solid salt, so hard that there was no means
in our power of getting up a block of it. We
broke our mattock in the attempt. In many
places, through this rock-salt crust the water

boiled up as clear as crystal but so

salt that our hands, after being immersed in
it and suffered to dry, became as white as
snow. Thrusting the arm down into these
holes, they appeared to be walled Avith salt as
far down as one could reach. The cliffs which
overhang this place are composed of red clay
and gypsum, and capped with a stratum of

the latter We found this salt a httle

bitter from the impurities it contained, proba-
bly Epsom salts principally." As it is over-
hung with sulphate of lime, and perhaps also
based upon the same, might not this * salt-
rock' be heavily impregnated with this mine-
ral, occasioning its excessive hardness ? Capt.
Boone also speaks of gypsum in various other
places, both north and south of this, during
his travel.

Mr. Sibley (then of Fort Osage), who was
quite familiar with the western prairies, visit-

FURTHER ACCOUNTS. 189

ed a saline, over thirty years ago, which
would seem to be the ' Salt Plain' first men-
tioned by Capt Boone. The former, it is true,
found the salt much more abundant than as
described by the latter ; but this may be ow-
ing to Capt. Boone's not having penetrated as
far as the point alluded to by Mr. Sibley, —
whose description is in the following lan-
guage :^

" The Grand Sahne is situated about 280
miles southwest of Fort Osage, between two
forks of a small branch of the Arkansas, one
of which washes its southern extremity, and
the other, the principal one, runs nearly paral-
lel, within a mile of its opposite side. It is a
hard level plain of reddish colored sand, and
of an irregular or mixed figure. Its greatest
length is from northwest to southeast, and its
circumference about thirty miles. From the
appearance of the driftwood that is scattered
over, it would seem the whole plain is at
times inundated by the overflowing of the
streams that pass near it. This plain is en-
tirely covered in dry hot weather, from two to
six inches deep, with a crust of beautiful clean
white salt, of a quality rather superior to the
imported blown salt. It bears a striking re-
semblance to a field of brilliant snow after a
rain, with a fight crust on its top."

This is, in extent and appearance, nearly as
described by several hunters and Indian trad-
ers with whom I have conversed. Col. Lo-
gan, a worthy former agent of the Creek Indi-

* Brackenbridge's Voyage up the Missouri River, p. 205.

190 OTHER SALINES.

ans, visited no doubt the same, not far from
the same period ; and he describes it in a simi-
lar manner — only representing the depth of
the salt as greater. Everywhere that he dug
through the stratum of earth about the margin,
at the depth of a few inches he came to a
rock of solid salt ^ which induced him to believe
that the whole country thereabouts was based
upon a stratum of ' rock salt.' This was of a
reddish cast, partaking of the color of the sur-
face of the surrounding country. Mr. Sibley
remarks that "the distance to a navigable
branch of Arkansas is about eighty miles" —
referring perhaps to the Red Fork ; though the
sahne is no doubt at a still less distance from
the main stream.

With such inexhaustible mines of salt with-
in two or three days' journey of the Arkansas
river, and again within the same distance of
the Missouri, which would cost no further la-
bor than the digging it up and the transport-
ing of it to boats for freighting it down those
streams, it seems strange that they should lie
idle, while we are receiving much of our sup-
phes of this indispensable commodity from
abroad.

Besides the salines already mentioned, there
is one high on the Canadian river, some two
hundred miles east of Santa Fe. Also, it
is said, there are some to be found on the wa-
ters of Red River ; and numerous others are
no doubt scattered throughout the same re-
gions, which have never been discovered.

Many of the low valleys of all the western

SALINOUS EXUDATIONS. 191

streams (Red Hiver as well as Arkansas and
its branches), are impregnated with salinous
qualities, and, during wet weather, ooze saltish
exudations, which effloresce in a thin scum.
This is sometimes pure salt, but more fre-
quently compounded of different salts — not
only of the muriate, but of the sulphate of
soda, and perhaps magnesia ; often strongly
tinctured with nitre. Some of the waters of
these sections (particularly when stagnant) are
so saturated with this compound during dry
weather, that they are insupportable even for
brutes — much to the consternation of a for-
lorn traveller. In these saline flats nothing
grows but hard wiry grass, which a famished
beast will scarcely eat.

It is from these exudations, as well as from
the salines or salt plains before mentioned,
that our western waters, especially from Ar-
kansas to Red River, acquire their brackish-
ness during the low seasons ; and not from
the mountains, as some have presumed. Such
as issue from thence are there as pure, fresh
and crystalline as snov/-fed rills and icy foun-
tains can make them.

It will now readily be inferred that the
Great Prairies from Re4 River to the western
sources of the Missouri, are, as has before
been intimated, chiefly uninhabitable — not so
much for want of wood (though the plains
are altogether naked), as of soil and of water ;
for though some of the plains appear of suffi-
ciently fertile soil, they are mostly of a sterile
character, and all too dry to be cultivated.

192 PRAIRIE PASTURE.

These great steppes seem only fitted for the
haunts of the mustang, the buffalo, the ante-
lope, and their migratory lord, the prairie In-
dian. Unless with the progressive influence
of time, some favorable mutation should be
wrought in nature's operations, to revive the
plains and upland prairies, the occasional fer-
tile valleys are too isolated and remote to be-
come the abodes of civilized man.

Like the table plains of Northern Mexico,
these high prairies could at present only be
made available for grazing purposes, and that
in the vicinity of the water-courses. The
grass with which they are mostly clothed, is of
a superior quality. The celebrated ' buffalo
grass' is of two kinds, both of which are species
of the grama of New Mexico, and equally nu-
tritious at all seasons. It is the same, I be-
lieve, that is called 'mezquite grass' in Texas,
from the mezquite tree which grows there in
the same dry regions with it. Of this unequal-
led pasturage the great western prairies afford
a sufficiency to graze cattle for the supply of
all the United States. It is particularly adapt-
ed to sheep-raising, as is shown by example
of the same species in New Mexico.

But from the gener^ sterility and unhabita-
bleness of the Prairies is excepted, as will be
understood, that portion, already alluded to,
which borders our western frontier. The up-
lands from the Arkansas boundary to the
Cross Timbers, are everywhere beautifully in-
terspersed with isolated prairies and glades,
many of which are fertile, though some are

COUNTRY FOR TWO NEW STATES. 193

too flat, and consequently inclined to be
marshy. The valleys of the streams are
principally of a rich loam, rather subject to
inundations, but mostly tillable. The tim-
bered uplands are mostly of fair quality, except
on the broken ridges and mountainous sections
before referred to. Some of the uplands, how-
ever, known usually as 'post-oak flats,' hke
the marshy prairies, seem to be based upon
quick-sand. The soil is of a dead unproduc-
tive character, and covered with small lumps
or mounds of various sizes, and of irregular
shapes.

The country lying west of Missouri, which
includes the sources of the Neosho, the Verdi-
gris, the Marais-des-Cygnes and other branches
of the Osage, and the lower sections of the
Kansas river, vies with any portion of the
Far AVest in the amenity of its upland prai-
ries— in the richness of its alluvial bottoms — in
the beauty and freshness of its purling rills and
rivulets — and in the salubrity of its atmo-
sphere.

We have here then, along the whole border,
a strip of country, averaging at least two hun-
dred miles wide by five hundred long — and
even more if we extend it up the Missouri
river — affording territory for two States, respec-
table in size, and though more scant in timber,
yet more fertile, in general, than the two con-
terminous States of Missouri and Arkansas.
But most of this delightful region has been
ceded to the different tribes of the Frontier
Indians.

VOL. II. 17

194 A BEAUTIFUL REGION.

Concerning that portion of the Prairies
which Ues south of Red River, in Northern
Texas, I learn from some interesting memo-
randa, pohtely furnished me by Dr. Henry
Connelly, one of the principals of the pioneer
expedition from Chihuahua to Arkansas, of
which I have already spoken, that, besides
some beautiful lands among the Cross Tim-
bers, there is a great deal of delightful coun-
try still further west, of a part of which that
gentleman holds the following language : —
" Between the Brazos and Red River, there is
surely the most beautiful and picturesque re-
gion I have ever beheld.' I saw some of the
finest timber, generally oak — not that scrubby
oak which characterizes so much of the Tex-
an territory — but large black and bur-oak;
such as would answer all the purposes for
which the largest timber is useful. Between
those two rivers, no doubt there is destined to
be one of the most dense and prosperous settle-
ments. The fertihty of the soil is not exceed-
ed by any I have seen ; and, from the high
and undulating character of the country, there
can be no doubt of its being very healthy."

To the westward of Rio Brazos, and south
of some sandy and saline regions which bor-
der the upper portions of this stream, the same
enterprising traveller represents many of the
valleys as rich and beautiful, and the uplands
as being in many places sparsely timbered
with mezquite trees. This is particularly the
case on the sources of the Colorado, Avhere
the country is deUghtfully watered. But im-

RIVERS OF THE PRAIRIES. 195

mediately north of this sets in that immense
desert region of the Llano Estacado.

The chief natural disadvantage to which
the Great Western Prairies are exposed, con-
sists in the absence of navigable streams.
Throughout the whole vast territory which
I have been attempting to describe, there is
not a single river, except the Mssouri, which
is navigable during the whole season. The
remaining streams, in their course through the
plains, are and must continue to be, for all pur-
poses of commerce, comparatively useless.

The chief of these rivers are the Missouri,
the Arkansas, and Red R-iver, with their nu-
merous tributaries. The principal western
branches of the Missouri are the Yellow Stone,
the Platte and the Kansas. Small 'flats' and
'buffalo boats' have passed down the two
former for a considerable distance, during
high water ; but they are never navigable to
any extent by steamboats.

The Arkansas river penetrates far into the
Rocky Mountains, its ramifications, interlock-
ing with some of the waters of the Missouri,
Columbia, San Buenaventura, Colorado of
the West, and Rio del Norte. The channel
of this stream, in its course through the
Prairies, is very wide and shallow, with banks
in many places hardly five feet above low
water. It will probably measure nearly 2000
miles in length, from its source to the frontier of
Arkansas. It is called Rio Napeste by the Mexi-
cans; but among the early French voyagers
it acquired the name of Arkansas^ or rather

196 ARKANSAS AND RED RIVER.

Akansa,^ from a tribe of the Dahcotah or Osage
stock, who hved near its mouth. This river
has numerous tributaries, some of which are
of great length, yet there is not one that is at
all navigable, except the Neosho from the
north, which has been descended by small
boats for at least a hundred miles.

Red River is much shorter and narrower
from the frontier westward than the Arkansas,
bearing but little over half the volume of water.
Even in its serpentine course it can hardly ex-
ceed 1200 miles from the Arkansas boundary
to its source. This river rises in the table
plains of the Llano Estacado, and has not, as
I have been assured by traders and hunters,
any mountainous elevations about its source
of any consequence ; although we are conti-
nually hearing the inhabitants of its lower
borders speak of the " June freshets produced
by the melting of the snow in the mountains."

The upper portions of this river, and em-
phatically from the mouth of the False Wa-
sliita (or Faux Ouachitta) upward, present
little or no facilities for navigation ; being fre-
quently spread out over sand-bars to the width
of several hundred yards. A very credible
Indian trader, who had been on lied River

* A stranger would be led to suppose we were without a system
of orthography, from the fact of our so generally adopting the
French spelling of Indian names, whereby all sight is soon lost of
the original. The French first corrupt them, and we, by adapting
our pronunciation to their orthography, at once transform them into
new names. Thus ' polite usage ' has converted into Arkan'sas the
plural of the primitive Arkanm or Arkonsah ; though an approxi-
mate, Ar'kansaiL', is still the current ' vulgar' pronunciation. Osas;e
and a great many others have suffered similar metamorphoses.

THE CIMARRON. 197

some two hundred miles above the False Wa-
shita, informed me, that, while in some places
he found it not over fifty yards wide, in others
it was at least five hundred. This and most
other prairie streams have commonly very
low banks with remarkably shallow channels,
which, during droughts, sometimes go dry in
their transit through the sandy plains.^

It would be neither interesting nor profita-
ble to present to my readers a detailed ac-
count of all the tributaries of the three princi-
pal rivers already mentioned. They may be

* Of all -the rivers of this character, the Cimarron, being on the
route from Missouri to Santa Fe, has become the most famous.
Its water disappears in the sand and reappears again, in so many
places, that some travellers have contended that it ' ebbs and flows'
periodically. This is doubtless owing to the fact, that the little cur-
rent which may flow above the sand in the night, or in cloudy
weather, is kept dried up, in an unshaded channel, during the hot
sunny days. But in some places the sand is so porous that the
water never flows above it, except during freshets.

I was once greatly surprised upon encountering one of these
sandy sections of the river after a tremendous rain-storm. Our
caravan was encamped at the ' J,ower Cimarron Spring :' and, a
little after night-fall, a dismal, murky cloud was seen gathering in
the western horizon., which very soon came lowering upon us, dri-
ven by a hurricane, and bringing with it one of those tremendous
bursts of thunder and hghtning, and rain, which render the storms
of the Prairies, hke those of the tropics, so terrible. Hail-stones,
as large as turkeys' eggs, and torrents of rain soon drenched the
whole country ; and so rapidly were the banks of the river over-
flowed, that the most active exertions were requisite to prevent the
mules that were ' staked' in the valley from drowning. Next morn-
ing, after crossing the neck of abend, we were, at the distance of
about three miles, upon the river-bank again; when, to our aston-
ishment, the wetted sand, and an occasional pool, fast being ab-
sorbed, were the only vestiges of the recent flood — no water was
flowing there !

In these sandy stretches of the Cimarron, and other similar ' dry
streams,' travellers procure water by excavating basins in the chan-
nel, a few feet deep, into which the water is filtrated from the satu-
rated sand.

17* »

193 VARIETIES OF TIMBER.

found for the most part laid down, with their
bearings and relative magnitudes, upon the
map which accompanies this work. It is only
necessary to say in addition, that none of
them can ever be availed of to any considera-
ble extent for purposes of navigation.

With regard to the productions of the soil of
these regions, the reader will probably have
formed, in the main, a tolerably correct idea
already ; nevertheless a few further specifica-
tions may not be altogether unacceptable.

The timber of that portion of the United
States territory which is included between
the Arkansas frontier and the Cross Timbers,
throughout the highlands, is mostly oak of
various kinds, of which black-jack and post-
oak predominate, as these, and especially the
former, seem only capable of withstanding
the conflagrations to which they are exposed,
and therefore abound along the prairie bor-
ders. The black-jack presents a blacken-
ed, scrubby appearance, with harsh rugged
branches — partly on account of being so often
scorched and crisped by the prairie fires.
About the streams we find an intermixture
of elm, hackberry, paccan (or pecan), ash,
walnut, mulberry, cherry, persimmon, cotton-
wood, sycamore, birch, etc., with varieties of
hickory, gum, dogwood, and tlie like. All of
the foregoing, except paccan, gum and dog-
wood, are also found west of Missouri, where,
although the uplands are ahiiost wholly prai-
rie, the richest growths predominate in the
valleys.

THE bois-d'arc. 199

In many of the rich bottoms from the Ca-
nadian to Red River, for a distance of one or
two hundred miles west of the frontier, is
found the celebrated bois-d'arc (literally, bow-
ivood), usually corrupted in pronunciation to
bowdark. It was so named by the French on
account of its peculiar fitness for boivs. This
tree is sometimes found with a trunk two
or three feet in diameter, but, being much
branched, it is rarely over forty or fifty feet
high. The leaves are large, and it bears a
fruit a httle resembling the orange in general
appearance, though rougher and larger, being
four or five inches in diameter ; but it is not
used for food. The wood is of a beautiful light
orange color, and, though coarse, is suscep-
tible of polish. It is one of the hardest, firm-
est and most durable of timbers, and is much
used by wagon-makers and millwrights, as
well as by the wild Indians, who make bows
of the younger growths.

On the Arkansas and especially its southern
tributaries as far west as the Verdigris, and up
those of Red River nearly to the False Washi-
ta, the bottoms are mostly covered with cane.
And scattered over all the south to about the
same distance westwar)^, the sassafras abounds,
which grows here in every kind of soil and
locahty.

The celebrated Cross Timbers, of which fre-
quent mention has been made, extend from the
Brazos, or perhaps from the Colorado of Texas,
across the sources of Trinity, traversing Red
River above the False Washita, and thence

200 THE CROSS TIMBERS.

west of north, to the Eed Fork of Arkan-
sas, if not farther. It is a rough hilly range
of country, and, though not mountainous, may
perhaps be considered a prolongation of that
chain of low mountains which pass to the
northward of Bexar and Austin city in Texas.

The Cross Timbers vary in width from hve
to thirty miles, and entirely cut off the com-
munication betwixt the interior prairies and
those of the great plains. They may be con-
sidered as the ' fringe' of the great prairies,
being a continuous brushy strip, composed
of various kinds of undergrowth ; such as
black-jacks, post-oaks, and in some places
hickory, elm, etc., intermixed with a very di-
minutive dwarf oak, called by the hunters
* shin-oak.' Most of the timber appears to be
kept small by the continual inroads of the
' burning prairies ;' for, being killed almost an-
nually, it is constantly replaced by scions of
undergrowth ; so that it becomes more and
more dense every reproduction. In some
places, however, the oaks are of considerable
size, and able to withstand the conflagrations.
The underwood is so matted in many places
with grape-vines, green-briars, etc., as to form
almost impenetrable ' roughs,' which serve as
hiding-places for wild beasts, as well as wild
Indians ; and would, in savage warfare, prove
almost as formidable as the hammocks of
Florida

South of the Canadian, a branch of these
Cross Timbers projects oft' westward, extend-
ing across this stream, and up its course for 100

NAKED STREAMS. 201

miles or so, from whence, it inclines north-
west beyond the North Fork, and ultimately
ceases, no doubt, in the great sandy plains in
that direction.

The region of the Cross Timbers is gene-
rally well-watered ; and is interspersed with
romantic and fertile tracts. The bottoms of
the tributaries of Red River, even for some
distance west of the Cross Timbers (perhaps
almost to the U. S. boundary), are mostly
very fertile, and timbered with narrow stripes
of elm, hackberry, walnut, hickory, mulberry,
bur-oak and other rich growths.

But further north, and west of the Cross
Timbers, even the streams are nearly naked.
The Cimarron river for more than a hun-
dred miles is absolutely without timber ; and
the Arkansas, for so large a stream, is remarka-
bly scant. The southern border, being pro-
tected from the prairie fires by a chain of
sand-hills, which extends for two hundred
miles along it, is not so bare as the northern
bank; though even here it is only skirted
with occasional sparsely set groves of cotton-
wood in the nooks and bends. It is upon the
abundance of islands which intersperse its
channel, that the greatest quantity of timber
(though purely cottonwood) is to be found ;
yet withal, there are stretches of miles with-
out a tree in view. The banks of the Ca-
nadian are equally naked ; and, having fewer
islands, the river appears still more barren.
In fact, there is scarce anything else but cot-
tonwood, and that very sparsely scattered

202 INCREASE OF TIMBER.

along the streams, throughout most of the
far-western prairies.

It is unquestionably the prairie conflagra-
tions that keep down the woody growth upon
most of the western uplands. The occasional
skirts and fringes which have escaped their
rage, have been protected by the streams they
border. Yet may not the time come when
these vast plains will be covered with tim-
ber? It would seem that the prairie region,
long after the discovery of America, extended
to the very banks of the IVIississippi. Father
Marquette, in a voyage down this river, in
1673, after passing below the mouth of the
Ohio, remarks : — " The banks of the river be-
gan to be covered with high trees, which hin-
dered us from obser\dng the country as we
had done all along ; but Ave judged from the
bellowing of the oxen [buffalo] that the mea-
dows are very near." — Indeed, there are parts
of the southwest now thickly set with trees
of good size, that, within the remembrance
of the oldest inhabitants, were as naked as
the prairie plains ; and the appearance of
the timber in many other sections indi-
cates that it has grown up within less than
a century. In fact, we are noAv witnessing
the encroachment of the timber upon the
prairies, wherever the devastating conflagra-
tions have ceased their ravages.

The high plains seem too dry and lifeless
to produce timber ; yet might not the vicis-
situdes of nature operate a change likewise
upon the seasons ? Why may we not sup-

PRAIRIE FRUITS. 203

pose that the genial influences of civiJiza-
tion — that extensive cultivation of the earth-
might contribute to the mult iph cation of
showers, as it certainly does of fountains ? Or
that the shady groves, as they advance upon
the prairies, may have some effect upon the
seasons ? At least, many old settlers main-
tain that the droughts are becoming less op-
pressive in the West. The people of New
Mexico also assure us that the rains have
much increased of latter years, a phenomenon
which the vulgar superstitiously attribute to
the arrival of the Missouri traders. Then may
we not hope that these sterile regions might
yet be thus revived and fertihzed, and their
surface covered one day by flourishing settle-
ments to the Rocky Mountains ?

With regard to fruits, the Prairies are of
course not very plentifully supplied. West
of the border, however, for nearly two hundred
miles, they are covered, in many places, with
the wild strawberry ; and the groves lining the
streams frequently abound in grapes, plums,
persimmons, mulberries, paccans, hackberries,
and other ' sylvan luxuries.' The high prai-
ries beyond, however, are very bare of fruits.
The prickly pear may be found over most of
the dry plains ; but this is neither very palata-
ble nor wholesome, though often eaten by
travellers for want of other fruits. Upon the
branches of the Canadian, North Fork, and
Cimarron, there are, in places, considerable
quantities of excellent plums, grapes, choke-
cherries, goosebemes, and currants — of the

204 PRAIRIE FLOWERS.

latter there are three kinds, black, red, and
white. About the ravines and marshy grounds
(particularly towards the east) there are differ-
ent kinds of small onions, with which the
traveller may season liis fresh meats. On the
plains, also, I have met with a species resem-
bhng garhc in flavor.

But the flowers are among the most inte-
resting products of the frontier prairies. These
gay meadows wear their most fanciful piebald
robes from the earhest spring till divested of
them by the hoary frosts of autunm. When
again winter has fled, but before the grassy
green appears, or other vegetation has ven-
tured to peep above the earth, they are be-
speckled in many places with a species of
erythronium^ a pretty lilaceous little flower,
which springs from the ground aheady deve-
loped, between a pair of lanceolate leaves,
and is soon after in full bloom. But the flo-
riferous region only extends about two hun-
dred miles beyond the border: the high plains
are nearly as destitute of flowers as they are
of fruits.

The climate of most parts of the Prairies is
no doubt healthy m the extreme ; for a purer
atmosphere is hardly to be found. But the
cold rains of the 'wet season,' and the colder
snows of winter, with the annoying winds
that prevail at nearly all times, often render it
very unpleasant. It can hardly be said, it is
true, that the Prairies have their regular 'dry
and rainy seasons;' yet the summers are often
so droughty, that, unless some change shouhl

THE CLIMATE. 205

be effected in nature's functions, cultivators
would generally find it necessary, no doubt,
to resort to irrigation. That portion, however,
which is conterminous with our western bor-
der, and to the distance of nearly two hundred
miles \vestward, in every respect resembles
the adjacent States of Missouri and Arkansas
in climate. The south is a little disposed to
chills and fevers; but the northern portion
is as healthy as the most salubrious uplands
of Missouri.

VOL. 11. 18

CHAPTER XI.

ANIMALS OF THE PRAIRIES.

The Mustang or Wild Horse — Capturing him by ' Creasing,'
and with the Lazo — Horse-flesh — The Buffalo — Its Ap-
pearance — Excellence of its Meat — General Utility to the
Indian and Traveller — Prospect of its Extinction — Hunt-
ing the Buffalo with Bow and Arrows, the Lance, etc. — ' Still-
hunting ' — The Buffalo ferocious only when wounded — Butch-
ering, etc. — The Gray Wolf — Its Modes of killing Buffalo
— Their great Numbers — A 'Wolf-scrape' — The Prairie
Wolf, or ' Jackal of the Prairies ' — Elk, Deer and Bear — The
Antelope — The Bighorn — The Prairie Dog — Owls and Rat-
tlesnakes— The Horned Frog — Fowls — Bees, etc.

The zoology of the Prairies has probably
attracted more attention than any other fea-
ture of their natural history. This has not
arisen altogether from the peculiar interest the
animals of the Prairies possess ; but they con-
stitute so considerable a portion of the society
of the traveller who journeys among them,
that they get to hold somewhat the same
place in his estimation that his fellow-crea-
tures would occupy if he were in civilization.
Indeed, the animals are par eminence the com-
munities of the Prairies.

By far the most noble of these, and there-

THE MUSTANG. 207

fore the best entitled to precedence in the
brief notice I am able to present of the ani-
mals of those regions, is the mustang^ or wild
horse of the Prairies. As he is descended
from the stock introduced into America by
the first Spanish colonists, he has no doubt a
partial mixture of Arabian blood. Being of
domestic origin, he is found of various colors,
and sometimes of a beautiful piebald.

It is a singular fact in the economy of na-
ture, that all wild animals of the same species
should have one uniform color (with only
occasional but uniform differences between
males and females) ; while that of the domes-
tic animals, whether quadruped or fowl, is
more or less diversified.

The beauty of the mustang is proverbial.
One in particular has been celebrated by
hunters, of which marvellous stories are told.
He has been represented as a medium-sized
stalhon of perfect symmetry, milk-white, save
a pair of black ears — a natural 'pacer,' and
so fleet, it has been said, as to leave far be-
hind every horse that had been tried in pur-
suit of him, without breaking his ' pace.' But
I infer that this story is somewhat mythical,
from the difficulty which ovi^ finds in fixing
the abiding place of its equine hero. He is
famiharly known, by common report, all over
the great Prairies. The trapper celebrates
him in the vicinity of the northern Bocky

* Mustang would most naturally seem a corruption of the Span-
ish adjective mostrenco (without owner), but the Mexicans call
wild horses mestefias, a synonyme in one of its senses with
mostrenco.

208 BEAUTY OF THE MUSTANG.

Mountains ; the hunter, on the Arkansas, or
in the midst of the Plains ; while others have
him pacing at the rate of half a mile a minute
on the borders of Texas. It is hardly a mat-
ter of surprise, then, that a creature of such
an ubiquitary existence should never have
been caught.

The wild horses are generally well-formed,
with trim and clean limbs ; still their elegance
has been much exaggerated by travellers, be-
cause they have seen them at large, abandon-
ed to their wild and natural gaiety. Then, it
is true, they appear superb indeed ; but when
caught and tamed, they generally dwindle
down to ordinary ponies. Large droves are
very frequently seen upon the Prairies, some-
times of hundreds together, gamboUing and
curvetting within a short distance of the cara-
vans. It is sometimes difficult to keep them
from dashing among the loose stock of the
traveller, which would be exceedingly dan-
gerous; for, once together, they are hard to
separate again, particularly if the number of
mustangs is nmch the greatest. It is a sin-
gular fact, that the gentlest wagon-horse (even
though quite fagged with travel), once among
a drove of mustangs, will often acquire in a
few hours all the intractable wildness of his
untamed companions.

The mustang is sometimes taken by the
cruel expedient of ' creasing,' which consists
in shooting him through the upper crease of the
neck, above the cervical vertebrae ; when, the
ball cutting a principal nerve, he falls as sud-

MODES OF TAKING HIM. 209

denly as if shot in the brain, and remains
senseless for a few minutes, during wliich he
is secured with a rope. He soon recovers
from the shock, however, and springs to his
feet, but finds himself deprived of his liberty
He is easily tamed after this, and the wound
heals without leaving any physical injury.
But 'creasing' is so nice an operation that
many are killed in the attempt. If the ball
pass a little too low, it fractures a vertebra
and kills the poor brute instantly.

But the most usual mode, among the Mexi-
cans and Indians, of taking the mesteha (as
the former call these animals), is with the
lazo. They pursue them on fleet horses, and
great numbers are thus noosed and tamed.
The mustang has been taken in Texas in
considerable numbers by preparing a strong
pen at some passway or crossing of a river,
into which they are frightened and caught.

Upon the plains, I once succeeded in sepa-
rating a gay-looking stallion from his herd of
7nest€has, upon which he immediately joined
our caballada, and was directly lazoed by a
Mexican. As he curvetted at the end of the
rope, or would stop and gaze majestically at
his subjecters, his symmetrical proportions
attracted the attention of all; and our best
jockeys at once valued him at five hundred
dollars. But it appeared that he had before
been tamed, for he soon submitted to the
saddle, and in a few days dwindled down to
scarce a twenty-dollar hackney.

Prairie travellers have often been reduced

IS*

210 THE BUFFALO.

to the necessity of eating the flesh of the mus-
tang; and, when young and tender, it has
been accounted savory enough ; but, when
of full age, it is said to be exceedingly rancid,
particularly when fat. They are sometimes
hunted by Mexicans for then* oil, which is
used by the curriers.

The buffalo, though making no pretensions
to the elegance and symmetry of the mus-
tang, is by far the most important animal of
the Prairies to the traveller. It is sufficiently
well known that these animals bear but little
resemblance to the buffalo of India; but that
they are a species of bison, or hos AmericanuSy
according to naturalists. They are called
Cibolos by the Mexicans ; and it would cer-
tainly have prevented ambiguity, had they
been distinguished by some other name than
buffalo with us.

Their dusky black color becomes much
paler during the season of long hair.^ The
phenomenon of a white buffalo has frequently
been remarked upon the Prairies ; but as the
white skin is said to have been used in the
mystic ceremonies of many of the northern
tribes of Indians, this probably created such a
demand for them, that they have become
nearly extinct. Their unusual color has com-
monly been considered a lusus naturcB, yet it
is probable that they stand in about the same
relation to the black or brown buffalo that
black sheep do to white ones. The horns of

• The bulls usually shed in the spring, from the shoulders back,
Vut not in front, which imparts to them quite a lion-like appearance.

GENERAL CHARACTER. 211

the buffalo are short and black, and almost
concealed under the frightfully shaggy front-
lets of long woolly hair that crown the fore-
heads of the bulls ; which, with the goat-Uke
beard, and ill-shapen hump, form the chief
distinction between them and the domestic
cattle : in fact, they are so nearly of the same
species that they will breed together ; though
the offspring, like the mule, is said to be un-
fruitful. Between the males and females
there is still a greater disproportion in size
than among the domestic cattle. A buffalo
cow is about as heavy as a common ox, while
a large fat bull will weigh perhaps double as
much.

These are very gregarious animals. At
some seasons, however, the cows rather in-
cline to keep to themselves ; at other times
they are mostly seen in the centre of the
gang, while the bulls are scattered around,
frequently to a considerable distance, evident-
ly guarding tlie cows and calves. And on
the outskirts of the buffalo range, we are apt
to meet with small gangs of bulls alone, a day
or two's travel distant, as though performing
the office of 'piquet guards' for the main
herds.

The flesh of the buffalo is, I think, as fine
as any meat I ever tasted : the old hunter will
not admit that there is anything equal to it.
Much of its apparent savoriness, however,
results perhaps from our sharpened 'prairie
appetites,' and our being usually upon salt
provisions awhile before obtaining it The

212 BUFFALO BEEF.

flesh is of coarser texture than beef, more
juicy, and tiie fat and lean better distributed.
This meat is also very easy of digestion,^
possessing even aperient qualities. The cir-
cumstance that bulls of all ages, if fat, make
good beef, is a further proof of the superiority
of buffalo meat. These are generally selected
for consumption in the winter and early
spring, when the cows, unless barren, are apt
to be poor ; but during most of the year, the
latter are the fattest and tenderest meat. Of
these, the udder is held as hardly second to
the tongue in delicacy. But what the tail of
the beaver is to the trapper, the tongue of the
buffalo is to the hunter. Next to this are the
'marrow-bones,' the fender-loins, and the
hump-ribs. Instead of a gristly substance, as
sometimes stated, the hump is produced by
a convex tier of vertical ribs, which project
from the spine, forming a gradual curve over
the shoulders : those of the middle being
sometimes nearly two feet in length. The
' veal' is 'rarely good, being generally poor,
owing to the scanty supply of milk which
their dams afford, and to their running so
much from hunters and wolves.

This animal furnishes almost the exclusive
food of the prairie Indians, as well as cover-
ing for their wigwams and most of their
clothing ; also their bedding, ropes, bags for
their meat, &c. ; sinews for bow-strings, for
sewing moccasins, leggins, and the like ; be-

* It has often been remarked by travellers, that however much
buifalo meat one may eat, no inconvenience is ever suffered from it

DECREASE OF THE BUFFALO. 213

sides sustenance for the numerous travellers
and trappers who range upon their grazing
regions. Were they only killed for food, how-
ever, their natural increase would perhaps re-
plenish the loss : yet the continual and wan-
ton slaughter of them hy travellers and hunt-
ers, and the still greater havoc made among
them by the Indians, not only for meat, but
often for the skins and tongues alone (for
which they find a ready market among their
traders), are fast reducing their numbers, and
must ultimately effect their total annihilation
from the continent. It is believed that the
annual ' export' of buffalo rugs^ from the Prai-
ries and bordering ' buffalo range,- is about a
hundred thousand : and the number killed
wantonly, or exclusively for meat, is no doubt
still greater, as the skins are fit to dress scarcely
half the year. The vast extent of the prairies
upon which they now pasture is no argument
against the prospect of their total extinction,
when we take into consideration the extent pf
country from which they have already disap-
peared ; for it is well known, that, within the
recollection of our oldest pioneers, they were
nearly as abundant east of the Mississippi as
they now are upon the western prairies ; and
from history we learn, that they once rangei
to the Atlantic coast. Even within thirt}
years, they were abundant over much of the
present States of Missouri and Arkansas ; yet
they are now rarely seen within two hundred
miles of the frontier. Indeed, upon the high

* Oflen, but it would seem improperly, called ' buffalo robes.*

214 THE BUFFALO CHASE

plains they have very sensibly decreased
within the last ten years. Nevertheless, the
number of buffalo upon the Prairies is still
immense. But, as they incUne to migrate
en masse from place to place, it sometimes
happens, that, for several days' travel together,
not a single one is to be met with ; but, in
other places, many thousands are often seen
at one view.

The Indians, as well as Mexicans, hunt the
buffalo mostly with the bow and arrows. Foi
this purpose they train their fleetest horses to
run close beside him ; and,, when near enough,
with almost unerring aim, they pierce him
with their arrows, usually behind the short
ribs, ranging forward, which soon disables and
brings him to the ground. AVhen an arroAV
has been ill-directed, or does not enter deep
enough, and even sometimes when it has
penetrated a vital part, but is needed to use
again, the hunter sometimes rides up and
draws it out while the animal is yet running.
An athletic Lidian will not unfrequently
discharge his darts with such force, that I
have seen them (30 inches long) wholly bu-
ried in the body of a buffalo: and I have been
assured by hunters that the arrows, missing
the bones, have been known to pass entirely
through the huge carcass and fall upon the
ground.

The dexterity acquired by these wild hunt-
ers in shooting tlie buffalo, is very surprising.
*On.one occasion, upon the prairies, a party of
Witchita Indians were encamped near us; and

WITH BOW AND ARROWS. 215

a drove of buffalo passing in the vicinity, I
requested a chief to take my horse and kill
one ' upon the shares.' He delighted in the
sport: so, gathering his arrows, he mounted
the pony, which was slow, and withal very
lean, and giving chase, in a few minutes he
had two buffaloes lying- upon the plain, and
two others went off so badly wounded, that,
with a little exertion, they might have been
secured.

But the dexterity of tlie Comanches in the
buffalo chase is perhaps superior to that of
any other tribe. The Mexican Ciboleros, Iioav-
ever, are scarcely if at all inferior to the In-
dians in this sport. I once went on a hunt-
ing expedition with a Cibolero, who carried
no arms except his bow and arrows and a
butcher's knife. Espying a herd of buffalo,
he put spurs to his horse, and, though I fol-
lowed as fast as a nmle I rode could trudge,
when I came up with him, after a chase
of two or three miles, he had the buffalo
partly skinned! This was rather unusual
dispatch, to be sure, for the animal oftener
lingers awhile after receiving the fatal dart.

In the chase, the experienced hunter sin-
gles out the fattest buffalo as his victim, and
having given him a mortal wound, he in like
manner selects another, and so on, till the
plain is sometimes literally strewed with
carcasses.

It seems that Capt. Bonneville marvelled
greatly that some Indians, during his peregri-
nations in the Rocky Mountains, should have

216 CHASE WITH THE LANCE, ETC.

killed buffalo " without guns or arrows, and
with only an old spear ;" and he was no doubt
mistaken in supposing " that they had chased
the herds of buffalo at full speed, until they
tired them down, when they easily dispatch-
ed them with the spear :" for both Indians
and Mexicans often chase with a long-han-
dled spear or lance, which, if the horse be
well trained, is still a more expeditious mode
of killing them than with the bow and arrow.
An expert lancer will enter a drove, and draw-
ing up alongside, will pierce buffalo after
buffalo until several are brought down.

In default of bow or lance, they chase with
the fusil, but seldom so successfully as with
the former weapons. The Americans gene-
rally prefer 'running' with the horseman's
pistol ; yet the Indian is apt to kill double as
many with his arrows or lance.

In all these modes of hunting, the buffalo
is sometimes dangerous; for, becoming en-
raged from his wounds, he will often make
desperate lunges at his pursuer ; and, if the
horse be not well trained, he may be himself
disembowelled, leaving his rider at the mercy
of the buffalo, as has happened on some occa-
sions. But if the steed understand his busi-
ness, he will dodge the animal with the ex-
pertness of a fencer.

Buffalo calves (but not full-grown buffalo)
are often taken with the lazo by Mexicans and
Indians ; yet, being separated from their dams
and the droves during chases, these simple lit-
tle creatures not unfrequently take up with

* STILL-HUNTING.' 217

the riding animals of the hunters, and follow
them to the camp as tamely as though they
were their dams. If provided with domestic
cows, they may be raised without much dif-
ficulty.

Some of the northern Indians, particularly
the Assinaboins, are said to practise still a
distinct mode of taking the buffalo. A staunch
pound is erected at some convenient point,
and, after a course of mystic rites by their
medicine-men, they start upon the enterprise.
A gang of buffalo is frightened towards the
pen, while an Indian, covered with one of
their woolly skins, runs at a distance ahead.
Being seen by the animals, they mistake him
for one of their kind, and follow him into the
pen. Once secured in the enclosure, they
leisurely dispatch them with their arrows, as
they are said to believe it would offend the
Great Spirit and render future hunts unpro-
pitious to use fire arms in kilhng their impri-
soned game.

However, of all other modes, our back-
woodsmen prefer 'still-hunting' — that is,
stealing upon their game afoot with the rifle.
Buffalo are much more easily approached
than deer. When the hunter perceives a herd
at rest, or quietly feeding, he crawls upon
them behind a bank, a shrub, or a tuft of
grass, with the greatest facility, provided he
' has the wind of them,' as hunters say — that
is, if the wind blows from the buffalo ; but if
the reverse, he will find it impossible to ap-
proach them, however securely he may have

VOL II. 19

218 GREAT SLAUGHTER.

concealed himself from their sight. In fact,
their scent being acute, they seem to depend
more upon it than their sight ; for if a gang
of buifalo be frightened, from any quarter
■whatever, they are apt to shape their course
against the wind, that they may scent an
enemy in their way.

If the hunter succeed* in ' bringing down'
his first shot, he may frequently kiU several
out of the same herd ; for, should the game
neither see nor smell him, they may hear the
rifle-cracks, and witness their companions fall
one after another, without heeding, except to
raise their heads, and perhaps start a little at
each report. They would seem to fancy that
the fallen are only lying down to rest, and
they are loth to leave them. On* one occa-
sion, upon the Cimarron river, I saw some
ten or a dozen buffaloes lying upon a few
acres of ground, all of which had been shot
from the same herd by a couple of our hunt-
ers. Had not the gang been frightened by
the approaching caravan, perhaps a dozen
more of them might have fallen.

A dextrous hunter will sometimes ' crawl
upon' a gang of buffalo, on a perfectly level
plain. As their sight is at best not acute, and
is always more or less obscured by the shaggy
hair of their foreheads, they will hardly ob-
serve an approaching enemy when they are
feeding, unless the wind bears them the scent.
The hunter is, therefore, careful to ' have the
wind' of them, and craAvls slowly and closely
upon the ground, until within gun-shot. If

TENACITY FOR LIFE. 219

he bring down the first, the others will per-
haps retire a little, when he may sometimes
approach beliind the fallen buffalo, and shoot
several others.

• The tenacity of these animals for life is often
very extraordinary. .When one receives even
a mortal shot, he frequently appears not hurt
— he seems to disdain to flinch — but will curl
his tail and step about as though he neither
felt nor feared anything ! If left undisturbed,
however, he begins to stagger, and in a few
moments expires : but if provoked, he might
run for miles before he would fall. I have
seen a party of hunters around a wounded
and enraged bnll, fire, at a few paces distance,
a dozen or two shots, aimed at his very heart,
without their seeming to have any effect till
his anger cooled, when in an instant he would
he hfeless upon the ground. In such cases,
the inexperienced hunter often aims to shoot
them in the brain, but without success. Owing
not only to the thickness of the scull, but to
the matted wool upon it, I have never wit-
nessed an instance of a rifle-ball's penetrating
to the brain of a buftalo bull.

The ' still-hunter' must needs be upon his
guard ; for the wounded buffalo is prone to
make battle, upon the too near approach of
his enemy. With a little presence of mind,
however, his attacks are easily shunned. If
he make a hinge, the pedestrian hunter has
only to wheel abruptly to one side ; for the
animal is apt to pass on in a direct line. I
have never heard of a serious accident of the

220 MORE FRIGHTFUL THAN FEROCIOUS.

kind ; yet some frightful though amusing in
cidents have occurred in such cases.

The buffalo never attacks, however, except
when wounded. Even the largest droves
(the opinion of some travellers to the contrary
notwithstanding), though in the wildest ca-
reer, are easily turned from their course by a
single man who may intercept their way. I
have crouched in the tall grass in the dhect
route of a frighted gang, Avhen, firing at them
on their near approach, they would spread in
consternation to either side. Still their ad-
vance is somewhat frightful — their thunder-
ing rumble over the dry plain — their lion-
like fronts and dangling beards — their open
mouths and hanging tongues — as they come
on, puffing hke a locomotive engine at every
bound, does at first make the blood settle a
little heavy about the heart.

The gait of these animals is a clumsy gal-
lop, and any common pony can overtake them
in the chase ; though, as the hunter would
express it, they 'lumber' over the ground
rather deceivingly. The cows are usually
much faster than the bulls. It has been the
remark of travellers that the buffalo jumps
tip from the ground differently from any
other animal. The horse rises upon his
fore feet first, and the cow upon her hind
feet, but the buffalo seems to spring up on
them all at once.

American hunters, as well as Indians, to
butcher the buffalo, generally turn it upon
the belly, and commence on the back. The

THE GRAY WOLF. 221

hump ribs, tender-loins, and a few other choice
bits being appropriated, the remainder is com-
monly left for the wolves. The skin is chief-
ly used for buffalo rugs, but for which it is
only preserved by the Indians during fall and
winter (and then rarely but from the cows
and bullocks), when the hair is long and
woolly. I have never seen the buffalo hide
tanned, but it seems too porous and spongy
to make substantial leather. Were it valua-
ble, thousands of hides might be saved that
are annually left to the wolves upon the
Prairies.

Although the buffalo is the largest, he has
by no means the control among the prairie
animals : the sceptre of authority has been
lodged with the large gray ivolf. Though
but little larger than the wolf of the United
States, he is much more ferocious. The same
species abound throughout the north of Mex-
ico, where they often kill horses, mules and
cattle of all sizes ; and on the Prairies they
make considerable havoc among the buffalo.

Many curious tales are told of the wiles and
expedients practised by these animals to se-
cure their prey. Some assert that they col-
lect in companies, and chase a buffalo by
turns, till he is fatigued, when they join and
soon dispatch him : others, that, as the buffalo
runs with the tongue hanging out, they snap
at it in the chase till it is torn off which pre-
venting him from eating, he is reduced by
starvation, and soon overpowered : others,
that, while running, they gnaw and lacerate

19*

222 GENERAL CHARACTER.

the legs and ham-strings till they disable him,
and then he is killed by the gang. Be this
as it may, certain it is that they overcome
many of the largest bufialoes, employing per-
haps different means of subduing them, and
among these is doubtless the last mentioned,
for I have myself seen them with the muscles
of the thighs cruelly mangled — a consequence
no doubt of some of these attacks. Calves
are constantly falling victims to the rapacity
of these wolves ; yet, when herds of buffalo
are together, they defend their offspring with
great bravery.

Though the color of this wolf is generally
a dirty gray, it is sometimes met with nearly
white. I am of opinion, however, that the
diversity of color originates chiefly from the
different ages of the hair, and the age and con-
ditiori of the animal itself The few white
wolves I have seen, have been lean, long-
haired, and apparently very old. There are
immense numbers of them upon the Prairies.
Droves are frequently >o be seen following in
the wake of caravans, hunting companies,
and itinerant Indian bands, for weeks together
— not, like the jackal, so much to^disinter the
dead (though this they sometimes do), as to
feast upon the abandoned carcasses of the
buffalo which are so often wantonly killed
and wasted. Unless in these cases, they are
rarely seen, except in the neighborhood of
buffalo ; therefore, when the hungry traveller
meets with wolves, he feels some assurance
that supplies of his favorite game are at hand.

A * WOLF SCRAPE.' 223

I have never known these animals, rapa-
cious as they are, extend their attacks to man,
thougii they probably would, if very hungry
and a favorable opportunity presented itself
I shall not soon forget an adventure with one
of them, many years ago, on the frontier of
Missouri. Riding near the prairie border, I
perceived one of the largest and fiercest of
the gray species, which had just descended
from the west, and seemed famished to des-
peration. I at once prepared for a chase ; and,
being without arms, I caught up a cudgel,
when I betook me valiantly to the charge,
much stronger, as I soon discovered, in my
cause than in my equipment. The wolf was
in no humor to flee, however, but boldly met
me full halfway. I was soon disarmed, for
my club broke upon the animal's head. He
then ' laid to' my horse's legs, which, not re-
lishing the conflict, gave a plunge and sent
me whirling over his head, and made his es-
cape, leaving me and the wolf at close quar-
ters. I was no sooner upon my feet than my
antagonist renewed the charge ; but, being
without weapon, or any means of awakening
an emotion of terror, save through his imagi-
nation, I took off* my large black hat, and
using it for a shield, began to thrust it towards
his gaping jaws. My ruse had the desired
effect ; for, after springing at me a few times,
he wheeled about and trotted off'several paces,
and stopped to gaze at me. Being apprehen-
sive that he might change his mind and return
to the attack, and conscious that, under the

224 ^JACKAL OF THE PRAIRIES.'

compromise, I had the best of the bargain,

I very resolutely took to my heels, glad

of the opportunity of making a drawn game,
though I had myself given the challenge.

There is a small species called the prairie
wolf on the frontier, and coyote^ by the Mexi-
cans, which is also found in immense num-
bers on the Plains. It is rather smaller than
an ordinary dog, nearly the color of the com-
mon gray wolf, and though as rapacious as
the larger kind, it seems too cowardly to at-
tack stout game. It therefore hves upon the
remains of buffalo killed by hunters and by
the large wolves, added to such small game
as hares, prairie dogs, etc., and even reptiles
and insects. It will lie for hours beside a
' dog-hole,' watching for the appearance of
the little animal, which no sooner peeps out
than the enemy pounces upon it.

The coyote has been denominated the
* jackal of the Prairies ;' indeed, some have
reckoned it really a species of that animal,
yet it would seem improperly, as this creature

* Canis latrans, a distinction to which its noisiness emphatically
entitles it. Clavigero says of this animal : " El coyot/, 6 coyote,
como dicen los Espafioles, es una fiera semejante al lobo en la vo-
racidad, a la zorra en la astucia, al pcrro en la forma, y en otras
propiedades al adive, 6 chacal ; por lo que algunos escritores Me-
gicanos lo ban numerado entre varias de aquellas especias ; pero es
indudable que se diferencia de todas ellas," etc. — Hist. Ant. de Meg.
Tom. I. p. 40.

A similar propensity is observable among us to refer nearly ail
American animals to European species, whereas but very few that
are legitimately indigenous to this continent, agree in every particu-
lar with those of the Old World. It would surely have contributed
to the copiousness and euphony of the language, as well as to per-
spicuity in the distinction of species, had we, like the Mexicans,
retained the Indian names of our indigenous animals.

ELK, DEER, AND BEAR. 225

partakes much less of the nature of the jackal
than of the common wolf Still, however
noisy the former may be, he cannot exceed
the prairie wolf Like ventriloquists, a pair
of these will represent a dozen distinct voices
in such quick succession — will bark, chatter,
yelp, whine, and howl in such variety of note,
that one would fancy a scpre of them at hand.
This, added to the long and doleful bugle-note
of the large wolf, which often accompanies it,
sometimes makes a night upon the Prairies
perfectly hideous. — Some hunters assert that
the coyote and the dog will breed toge-
ther. Be this as it may, certain it is that the
Indian dogs have a wonderfully wolfish ap-
pearance.

The elk as well as the deer is found some-
what abundant upon the Arkansas river, as
high as the Santa Fe road, but from thence
westward they are both very scarce ; for these
animals do not resort to the high prairie plains.
Further south, however, in the prairies border-
ing the brushy tributaries of the Canadian
and Red River, deer are exceedingly plenty —
herds of hundreds are sometimes seen toge-
ther ; but in these southern regions there are
but few elks.

About the thickety streams above-mention-
ed, as well as among the Cross Timbers,,the
black hear is very common, living chiefly upon
acorns and other fruits. The grape vines and
the branches of .the scrubby oaks, and plum-
bushes, are in some places so torn and broken
by the bear in pursuit of fruits, that a stranger

226 THE ANTELOPE.

would conclude a violent hurricane had pass-
ed among them.

That species of gazelle known as the an-
telope is very numerous upon the high plains.
This beautiful animal, though reckoned a link
between the deer and goat, is certainly much
nearest the latter. It is about the size and
somewhat of the figure of a large goat. Its
horns also resemble those of the latter, being
likewise persistent ; but they are more erect,
and have a short prong projecting in front.
The ground of this animal's color a little re-
sembles that of the common deer, but it is
variegated with a whitish section or two on
each side.

The antelope is most remarkable for its
fleetness : not bounding like the deer, but
skimming over the ground as though upon
skates. The fastest horse will rarely overtake
them. I once witnessed an effort to catch
one that had a hind-leg broken, but it far out-
stripped our fleetest 'buffalo-horse.' It is, there-
fore, too swift to be hunted in the chase. I have
seen dogs run after this animal, but they
would soon stop and turn about, apparently
much ashamed of being left so far behind.

The flesh of the antelope is, like that of the
goat, rather coarse, and but little esteemed :
consequently, no great efforts are made to
take them. Being as wild as fleet, the hunt-
ing of them is very difficult, except they be
entrapped by their curiosity. Meeting a stran-
ger, they seem loth to leave him until they
have fully found him out. They will often

THE BIGHOKN. 227

take a circuit around the object of their curi-
osity, usually approaching nearer and nearer,
until within rifle-shot — frequently stopping to
gaze. Also, they are often decoyed with a
scarlet coat, or a red handkerchief attached to
the tip of a ramrod, which will sometimes
allure them within reach of the hunter's aim.
But this interesting animal, like the buffalo, is
now very rarely seen within less than 200
miles of the frontier : though early voyagers
tell us that it once frequented as far east as
the Mississippi.

The bighorn [carnero cimarron, as called
by Mexicans, and sometimes known to trap-
pers as the mountain sheep), so abundant in
most of the Rocky Mountain chain, is found
in the spurs and table-plain cliffs about the
sources of the Cimarron river (whence this
stream acquired its name), as well as in the
highland gorges, and other parts of those
mountain borders. Its flesh is said to be ex-
cellent, and is preferred by many hunters to
venison. It is larger than a common sheep,
and covered with brownish hair instead of
wool — darker than the deer, but whitish on
the belly. It is most remarkable for its huge
spiral horns, resembling in shape and curva-
ture those of the sheep, but sometimes over
three feet long, and four to six inches in
diameter at the base.^

* Mr. Irving furnishes the following dimensions of a male of
this species : " From the nose to the base of the tail, five feet ;
length of the tail, four inches ; girth of the body, four feet ; height,
three feet eight inches," &c. — Rocky Mts., Vol. I., p. 48.

223 THE PRAIRIE DOG.

The bighorn is quite celebrated for its agi-
hty, and its habit of secluding itself among the
most inaccessible mountain crags. It seems
to delight in perching and capering upon the
very verge of the most frightful precipices and
overhanging cliffs, and in skipping from rock
to rock, regardless of the yawning chasms,
hundreds of feet in depth, which intervene.
In fact, when pursued, it does not hesitate, as
I have been assured, to leap from a cliff into
a valley a hundred or more feet below, where,
lighting upon its huge horns, it springs to its
feet uninjured ; for the neck is so thick and
strong as to support the greatest shock the
animal's weight can bring upon it. Being
exceedingly timorous, it rarely descends to
the valleys, but feeds and sleeps about such
craggy fastnesses as are inaccessible to the
wolves and other animals of prey. This ani-
mal seems greatly to resemble the moufflon
of Buffon, in color, figure and horns, but the
chamois in habits.

But of all the prairie animals, by far the
most curious, and by no means the least cele-
brated, is the little prairie dog. This singular
quadruped is but little larger than a common
squirrel, its body being nearly a foot long,
Avith a tail of three or four inches. The color
ranges from brown to a dirty yellow. The
flesh, though often eaten by travellers, is not
esteemed savory. It was denominated the
' barking squirrel,' the ' prairie ground-squir-
rel,' etc., by early explorers, with much more
apparent propriety than the present estabhsh-

ITS CHARACTER. 229

ed name. Its yelp, which resembles that
of the little toy-dog, seems its only canine
attribute. It rather appears to occupy a mid-
dle ground betwixt the rabbit and squirrel —
like the former in feeding and burrowing —
like the latter in frisking, flirting, sitting erect,
and somewhat so in its barking.

The prairie dog has been reckoned by some
naturalists a species of the marmot (arctomys
ludoviciana) ; yet it seems to possess scarce any
other quality in common with this animal ex-
cept that of burrowing. Some have supposed,
it is true, that like the marmot, they lie torpid
during the cold season ; and it is observed in
* Long's Expedition,' that, " as they pass the
winter in a lethargic state, they lay up no pro^
visions," &c. : but this is no doubt erroneous ;
for I have the concurrent testimony of several
persons, who have been upon the Prairies in
winter, that, like rabbits and squirrels, they is-
sue from their holes every soft day ; and there-
fore lay up no doubt a hoard of ' hay' (as there
is rarely anything else to be found in the
vicinity of their towns) for winter's use.

A collection of their burrows has been
termed by travellers a ' dog town,' which com-
prises from a dozen or so, to some thousands
in the same vicinity ; often covering an area of
several square miles. They generally locate
upon firm dry plains, coated Avith fine short
grass, upon which they feed ; for they are no
doubt exclusively herbivorous. But even
when tall coarse grass surrounds, they seem
commonly to destroy this within their 'streets,'

VOL. II. 20

230 THE 'dog town

which are nearly always found ' paved' with
a fine species suited to their palates. They
must' need but little water, if any at all, as
their 'towns' are often, indeed generally, found
in the midst of the most arid plains — unless
we suppose they dig down to subterranean
fountains. At least they evidently burrow re-
markably deep. Attempts either to dig or
drown them out of their holes have generally
proved unsuccessful.

Approaching a ' village,' the httle dogs may
be observed frisking about the 'streets' —
passing from dwelhng to dwelhng appa-
rently on visits — sometimes a few clustered
together as though in council — here feed-
ing upon the tender herbage — there cleansing
their 'houses,' or brushmg the little hillock
about the door — yet all quiet. Upon seeing
a stranger, however, each streaks it to its
home, but is apt to stop at the entrance, and
spread the general alarm by a succession of
shrill yelps, usually sitting erect. Yet at the
report of a gun or the too near approach of
the visitor, they dart down and are seen no
more till the cause of alarm seems to have dis-
appeared.

Two other animals appear to live in com-
nmnion with the prairie dogs — the rattle-snake
and a small owl;^ but both are no doubt in-
truders, resorting to these burrows for shelter,
and to feed, it is presumed, upon the ' pups'
of the inmates.

* This has been called the Coquimbo owl. Its note, whether
natural or imitative, much resembles that of the prairie dog.

V, rl \

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Fft^H\l'i i "?ri' I iiiiiii!iii!i!i!ii"iia

THE HORNED FROG. 231

Rattle-snakes are exceedingly abundant
upon these plains : scores of them are some-
times killed in the course of a day's travel ;
yet they seem remarkably harmless, for I have
never witnessed an instance of a man's being
bitten, though they have been known to crawl
even into the beds of travellers.^ Mules are
sometimes bitten by them, yet very rarely,
though they must daily walk over considera-
ble numbers.

The horned frog, as modern travellers have
christened it, or horned lizard,! as those of
earlier times more rationally called it, is the
miost famed and curious reptile of the plains.
Like the prairie dog, it is only found in the
dry regions, often many miles from water.
It no doubt lives nearly, if not wholly, without
drink. Its food probably consists chiefly of
ants and other insects ; though many Mexi-
cans will have it, that the camaleon (as they
call it) vive del aire — lives upon the air. It
has been kept several months without par-
taking of a particle of aliment. I once took
a pair of them upon the far- western plains,
which I shut up in a box and carried to one
of the eastern cities, where they were kept
for several months before they died, — without
having taken food or water, though repeatedly
offered them.

* Though I never saw it tried, it has been said that snakes will
not crawl over a hair-rope stretched upon the ground, and that
consequently these form good barriers to keep these reptiles out of
a bed.

t Orbicular lizard, as it has been technically denominated. It
would seem a species of chameleon, having apparently some,
though very little, variability of color.

232 BIRDS OF THE FRAIRIES.

The whole length of the horned frog is
from two to five inches — body flatted horizon-
tally, oval-shaped, and between one and two
inches wide in the middle. The back is
beautifully variegated, with white and brown,
and sometimes a yellowish purple. The
belly is whitish and covered with brown
specks. It acquired its name from a pair of
short horns projecting from the top of the
head — with other smaller horny protube-
rances upon the head and body. It has a
short tail, which gives it a lizard-like appear-
ance. It is a very inoffensive creature, and
may be handled with perfect impunity, not-
Avithstanding its uncouth appearance, and
sometimes vicious demonstrations.

As birds mostly incline to the timbered re-
gions, there is but a scant variety to be met
with upon the plains. About the Cross Tim-
bers and indeed on all the brushy creeks, espe-
cially to the southward, are quantities of wild
turkeys, which are frequently seen ranging in
large flocks in the bordering prairies. That
species of American grouse, known* west as
the prairie-hen, is very abundant on the fron-
tier, and is quite destructive, in autumn, to
the prairie corn-fields. This fowl is rarely
seen over two hundred miles beyond the bor-
der. Partridges are found about as far west ;
but their number is quite limited anywhere be-
yond the precincts of the settlements. About
the streams there are different species of geese
and ducks, as well as both sand-hill and white
cranes : also flocks of a species of plover and

THE HONEY-BEE. 233

curlew. Add to these numbers of hawks and
ravens, and we have most of the fowls of the
Prairies. Flocks of the latter follow in the
wake of caravans with even greater constancy
than wolves.

The hee^ among Western pioneers, is the
proverbial precursor of the Anglo-American
population : in fact, the aborigines of the
frontier have generally corroborated the no-
tion; for they used to say, they knew the
whites were not far behind, when bees ap-
peared among them. This partial coinci-
dence, I suppose, is the result of their emi-
gration westward being at nearly an even
pace with that of the settlers. As yet no
honey-bees seem to have been discovered as
far westward as any part of the Rocky Moun-
tains. They are scattered, however, to the
distance of two or three hundred miles west
of the Mssouri and Arkansas frontier, where
there is timber affording them suitable habita-
tions. On the Santa Fe route but few have
been found beyond the Council Grove.

20*

CHAPTER XII.

ABORIGINES OF AMERICA.

Indian Cosmogony — Traditions of Origin — Identity of Religious
Notions — Adoration of the Sun — Shawnee Faith — Anecdote
of Tecumseh — Legendary Traditions — Missionaries, and Suc-
cess of the Catholics — The Indian's Heaven — Burial Cus-
toms— Ancient Accounts — Depositing the Dead on Scaffolds — •
Superstition and Witchcraft — Indian Philosophy — Polygamy
and other Matrimonial Affairs — Abhorrence of Incest — Dif-

■ ference in Character — Indian Hospitality — Traits of the An-
cient Asiatics — Names — Relationship of Different Tribes —
Dreadful Decrease of the Indians,

It will hardly be expected from a work
making so little pretension as this to scientific
accuracy and completeness, that the remarks
which my plan necessarily leads me to make,
concerning the aborigines of western America,
should be either critical or comprehensive.
Neither can I feel that it is a topic which I
am at hberty wholly to disregard. The op-
portunities which I have enjoyed for obtain-
ing a knowledge of the character and habits
of the western Indians have been such, that I
trust that a brief account of them may prove
in some measure new, and not altogether un^
interesting to a portion of my readers. Im-
pressed with this belief, I propose, in the few

INDIAN COSMOGONY. 235

following pages, to record such facts as shall
seem to be most novel, and to coT*roborate,
in my humble measure, occasional others
which have before been related. With this
view, I shall proceed to notice, in the present
chapter, such leading characteristics of the
aborigines generally, as shall seem most note-
worthy ; and then, in those that follow, ask the
reader's attention to many peculiarities which
make the most conspicuous differences be-
tween them.

No aboriginal nation or people has ever yet
been discovered, to my knowledge, which has
not professed to have a mysterious ancestry
of a mythical character. It is interesting to
mark the analogies and the differences be-
tween their various systems. Although among
some tribes who have lived much in commu-
nication with the whites, their cosmogony has
been confounded very much with the Mosaic
or Scripture account, so that it is now often
difficult to distinguish clearly the aboriginal
from the imported, yet all the Americo-Indian
tribes have more or less preserved their tra-
ditions on this subject. The old full-blood
Choctaws, for instance, relate that the first of
their tribe issued from a cave in Nunnewaya
or Bending Mountain, in the ' Old Nation,'
east of the Mssissippi ; yet this tradition has
but httle currency among the young men and
mixed-bloods of the tribe. The minute ac-
count of this supposed origin cannot now be
readily procured ; yet some idea may be
formed of it from a kindred tradition among

236 MANDAN TRADITION.

the Mandans which has been preserved to us
by Lewis'and Clark, and is thus related :

" The whole nation resided in one large
village under ground near a subterraneous
Jake : a grape vine extended its roots down
to their habitation and gave them a view of
the hght : some of the most adventurous
climbed up the vine, and were delighted with
the sight of the earth, which they found cov-
ered with buffalo, and rich with every kind of
fruits : returning with the grapes they had
gathered, their countrymen were so pleased
with the taste of them that their whole nation
resolved to leave their dull residence for the
charms of the upper regions ; men, women
and children ascended by means of the vine ;
but when about half the nation had reached
the surface of the earth, a corpulent woman
who was clambering up the vine broke it with
her weight, and closed upon herself and the
rest of the nation, the light of the sun."

Besides the Mandans it seems that other
neighboring tribes had somewhat analogous
notions of their origin. An early explorer re-
lates that the Osages believed that their fore-
fathers grew from a snail, which, having be-
come a man, married the daughter of a
beaver, whence sprang the present race.

The resemblance of the American Indians
to each other, however, is not more conspicu-
ous in anything than in their reUgious opi-
nions. They seem to have no well-defined
creeds : yet there are very few but profess a
faith in some sort of First Cause — a Great

RELIGIOUS NOTIONS. 237

Spirit, a Master of Life, who rules the desti-
nies of the world. Though the different na-
tions have not always typified their deity by
the same objects, yet by far the greater num-
ber seem to have fixed upon the sun as the
fit object of their adoration. " Next to Vira-
chocJia, or their supreme God," says Father
Acosta, speaking of the Indians of Peru,
" that which most commonly they have and
do adore amongst the Infidells is the Sunne."
Many of the Mexican tribes^ professed the
same faith, and particularly those of New
Mexico, as has already been mentioned.
This seems also the most current among the
Comanches and other wild tribes of the Prai-
ries : and the Ghoctaws and several other
nations of the frontier appear at least to have
held the sun in great veneration.

But of all the Indian tribes, none appear to
have ascribed to the ' fountain of light' more
of the proper attributes of deity than the
Shawnees. They argue, with some plausi-
bility, that the sun animates everything —
therefore, he is clearly the Master of Life, or
the Great Spirit; and that everything is pro-
duced originally from the bosom of the earth
— therefore, she i« the mother of creation.
The following anecdote! (as told to me by a
gentleman of integrity), which transpired upon

* Clavlgero asserts of the Indians of Mexico, that their first hea-
ven (that of the warriors, &c.) they called " la cam del sol" (the
house of the sun), which luminary they worshipped every morn-
ing at sunrise.

t I have since met with the same, in suhstance, related by Mr.
Schoolcraft.

238 TECUMSEH SHAWNEE BELIEFS.

the occasion of an interview of Tecumseh
with Gen. Harrison, is as iUustrative of the re-
Ugious opinions of the Shawnees, as it is cha-
racteristic of the hauteur and independent
spirit of that celebrated Shawnee chief The
General, having called Tecumseh for a ' talk,'
desired him. to take a seat, saying, " Come
here, Tecumseh, and sit by your father."
" You my father ?" replied the chief, with a
stern air — " No ! yonder sun is my father
(pointing towards it), and the earth is my
mother ; so I will rest on her bosom" — and
immediately seated himself upon the ground,
according to Indian custom.

But though the Shawnees consider the sun
the type, if not the essence, of the Great Spi-
rit, many also believe in an evil genius, who
makes all sorts of bad things, to counterba-
lance those made by the Good Spirit. For
instance, when the latter made a sheep, a
rose, wholesome herbs, etc., the bad spirit
matched them with a wolf, a thorn, poison-
ous plants, and the like. They also appear to
think there is a kind of purgatory in which
the spirits of the wicked may be cleansed be-
fore entering into their elysium.

The worship of all the aborigines seems to
consist chiefly in feasting -and dancing. A
worthy missionary among the Shawnees re-
lated to me the following legendary tradition,
as explanatory of their ideas of another world,
and the institution of their worship, which
may serve as a fair sample of the traditions
of many other tribes.

SHAWNEE LEGEND. 239

In days of yore (say the Shawnees) there
lived a pious brother and an affectionate sis-
ter, who Avere inordinately attached to each
other. It came to pass that the sister sickened
and died, and was carried to the world of
spirits. The good brother was inconsolable,
and for a while refused to eat or drink, or to
partake of any kind of nourishment : he wish-
ed to follow his beloved sister. At length he
resolved to set out in search of her; so he
commenced his pilgrimage toward the set-
ting sun. ■ Steadily pursuing the same course
for days and moons together, he at last came
to where the sky and earth meet; and finding
an opening, he ascended into the upper re-
gions. He now turned his course towards the
rising sun, which he continued, above the sky,
till he came to the abode of .his grandfather —
which seems but another name for one of the
good spirits. This sage, knowing his errand,
gave him 'medicine' to transform him into a
spirit, that he might pass through the celestial
courts. He also gave him instructions how
to proceed, and where he would find his sis-
ter. He said she would be at a dance ; and
when she rose to join in the amusement, he
must seize and ensconce her in the hollow
of a reed with which he was furnished, and
cover the orifice with the end of his finger.

After an arduous peregrination through the
land of spirits, the brother found and secured
his sister as directed. He returned with his
charge to the habitation of his grandfather,
who gave another 'medicine' to transform

240 SHAWNEE LEGEND.

them both into material beings again, that
they might revisit their brothers on earth.
The sage also explained to them the myste-
ries of heaven and the sacred rites of worship,
that they might instruct their tribe therein.
When about to start back, the venerable spi-
rit told them that the route by which the bro-
ther had come was very circuitous — there was
a much nearer way ; and opening a trap-door
through the sky, they beheld their native town
just below them. So the good brother and
sister descended ; and returnmg home, a great
feast was celebrated, accompanied by a so-
lemn dance — in accordance with the grand-
father's instructions. Thus originated, as they
say, the sacred dances and other religious
ceremonies now in practice.

As they believe the Indian heaven sepa-
rate, and essentially different and distinct from
that of the whites, and as they do not wish
their people divided, this has often occasioned
a serious opposition to the labors of the mis-
sionaries.^ For the purpose of thwarting the

* The Shawnees have four missionary establishments among
them, viz. a Methodist, Baptist, Moravian, and Quaker. There
are also missionaries of different sects among most of the tribes of
the border, the labors of whom have been attended with some de-
gree of success. There is, I believe, but one Catholic Mission upon
the frontier, which is among the Potawatomies, about a thousand
of whom have embraced this faith. The Cathohcs, however, ap-
pear to have succeeded better than most other denominations, in
their missionary efforts. It is so in Mexico, so in Canada, and ap-
pears so everywhere else that they have undertaken the Christian-
ization of the heathen. I would not be understood to attribute this
to any intrinsic superiority of their religion, but to the peculiarities
of its forms and ceremonies. The pageantry of their worship, the
"oalpable representation of the divine mysteries by the introduction

ANTI-CHRISTIAN VISION. 241

measures of these, a noted anti-christian sage
'played off,' a few years ago, the foUowmg
* vision.' Being very ill (as they relate), this
sage, to all appearance, died, and became stiff
and cold, except a spot upon his breast, which
still retained the heat of life. In this state he
remained a day or more, when he again
breathed and returned among the living : and
calhng his friends about him, he related the
scenes he had witnessed. He had ascended
to the Indian's heaven, he said, Avhich he de-
scribed as usual: a fine country, abounding
in all sorts of game, and everything an Indian
could desire. There he met with his grand-
father, who said to him, " It is meet, my son,
that thou return to the earth, and warn thy
brothers against the dangers that aAvait them.
Tell them to beware of the rehgion of the
white man: that every Indian who embraces
it is obliged to take the road to the white
man's heaven ; and yet no red* man is per-
mitted to enter there, but will have to wander
about forever without a resting-place."

The identity of the notions which the dif-
ferent tribes have conceived of a future exist-
ence, and the character of the ' world of spi-
rits,' seems still more general. They fancy

«ff images, better accords with their pristine idolatry, than a more
spiritual faith. Catholics, indeed, have had the sagacity to permit
the Indians (at least in some countries) to interweave many of
their own heathen ceremonies with the sacred Christian rites, form-
ing a singular meUe of Romish and pagan worship, which is espe-
cially the case in Mexico. Also, the less rigid Catholic creed and
customs do not debar them from their wonted favorite amusements,
not to say vices. It is therefore that whole tribes sometimes simul-
taneously embrace this imposing creed.

VOL. II. 21

242 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY.

heaven but another material world, superioi,
it is true, yet resembling this — a kind of
elysian vale, or paradise — a ' happy hunting-
ground,' abounding in game and all their com-
forts of life, which may be procured without
labor. This elysium they generally seem to
locate ' upon the sky,' which they fancy a
material solid vault. It appears impossible
for them, in their pristine barbarism, to con-
ceive of a spiritual existence, or of a world
differing materially from that which they see
around them.

Father Hennepin (writing about 1680) re-
lates, that the northern Indians inquired about
the manner of living in heaven, and remarks :
"When I made answer that they live there
without eating or drinking, 'We will not go
thither,' said they, ' because we must not eat ;'
and v/lien I have added that there would be
no occasion for food there, they clapt their
hands to then mouths, as a sign of admira-
tion, and said, ' Thou art a great liar ! — is there
anything can live without eating ?^ "

Similar opinions, among many different
tribes, I have heard declared in direct terms ;
yet, did we want further testimony, some of
their burial customs and funeral rites Avould
seem to indicate their ideas of the future state.
The Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Kansas,
an\i kindred tribes, besides many others, or
perhaps most others of the frontier, have been
accustomed to inter the most valuable pro-
perty of the deceased and many necessaries
with them. " Their whole property was bu-

PETER MARTYR. 243

ried with them,"^ says an intelligent Chero-
kee, in some' manuscript notes concerning his
ancestors, I have in my possession : and I
have been assured by credible natives, that,
within their recollection, they have seen, at
these burials, provisions, salt, and other ne-
cessaries, interred with the dead for their
long journey.

There are very few of the prairie Indians
but practise something of this kind: many
kill the favorite hunting-horses, and deposite
the arms, etc., of the deceased, for his use in
the chase, when he arrives at the 'happy hunt-
ing ground.' We are also informed by Capt.
Bonneville, and other travellers, that this is
practised by some, if not all, of the natives
beyond the Rocky Mountains. The same
is told of the Navajoes, Apaches, and
other uncatholicized tribes of the north of
Mexico.

Peter Martyr, a learned and celebrated pro-
testant divine, who wrote his " Decades of
the Newe Worlde" towards the middle of the
sixteenth century, observes that, "in many
places of the firme lande, when any of the
kynges dye, all his householde servauntes, a«
well women as men which have continually
served hym, kyl themselves, beleavynge, as
they are taught by the devyl Tuyra, that they
which kyll themselves when the kynge dyeth,
go with hym to heaven and serve hym in the
same place and office as they dyd before on

* Adair, who resided forty years with the southern Indians, pie-
vious to 1775, speaks of the same among them all.

244 INDIAN BELIEFS.

the earth whyle he lyved.^ And that all that
refuse so to doo, Avhen after they dye by theyr
naturall death or otherwyse, theyr soules to
dye with theyr bodyes, and to bee dissolved
into ayer and become nothynge as do the
soules of hogges, bjTdes or fysshes, or other
brute beastes."t In corroboration of a simi-
lar custom among the natives along the Mis-
sissippi, in 1542, Herrera relates, that, after the
death of Fernando de Soto, and his party had
set out westward, they were joined by a
youth, who stated that he had fled to escape
being buried with his lord who had died;
which was the practice in that country. Tra-
vellers from the upper lakes to the Mississippi
speak of similar customs, at an early day,
among the tribes of that quarter.

It would appear that they believe every-
thing, both animate and inanimate — beasts,
arms, ornaments, etc. — to possess immortal
attributes, subject to resurrection in the world
of spirits. However, did not their motives
seem so well defined by the direct allusions
to their notions of futurity, we might suppose,
as is frequently urged, that the burying of
property, slaves, etc., with the deceased, was
only intended as a mark of respect ; which,
indeed, is hardly more irrational than the cus-

* Also Clavigero speaks of similar beliefs and practices among
the Mexican Indians, particularly in the obsequies oi the kings;
and adds — " El numero de victimas correspondia a la grandeza del
funeral, y, segun algunos autores, llegaban a veces a doscientas."

t Edition of 1555, translated from "the Latin, fol. 181. — In aji-
other place, the same author also says they buried coin, etc., with
the dead, for their use in the world to come.

MODES OF BURIAL. 245

torn of interring costly garniture and append-
ages with the dead among us.

Some of the modes of burial adopted by
the American aborigines are different, I be-
Ueve, from those of any other people. Though,
as among civihzed nations, even the wildest
tribes sometimes inter in ordinary graves, yet
they frequently deposit their dead, in a sitting
and even in a standing posture, in pits, caves,
and hollow trees ; and occasionally, they lay
the corpse out upon scaffolds suspended from
the branches of trees, or resting upon them
where they will admit of it, so as to be out of
reach of the wolves and other beasts.

I was once, with a little caravan, travelling
up the course of the Arkansas river, when, a
thunder-storm coming up suddenly, and night
drawing near, we turned the wagons, as soon
as we could, to the river-bank, to encamp.
The bustle of ungearing and securing the
teams before they should be frightened by
the tempest, was hardly over, when we dis-
covered a platform suspended above our
heads, upon the branches of a cottonwood,
which, upon examination, was found to con-
tain an Indian corpse, from whose bones the
putrid flesh had not yet separated !

This mode of disposing of the dead would
seem once to have been quite extensive; for,
as well as upon the western prairies, it for-
merly prevailed among the Potawatomies of
the north, and the Choctaws of the south, at
least while on their expeditions. In this case,
if practicable, they would leave a band of

21*

246 SUPERSTITION AND WITCHCRAFT.

aged men, known as 'bone-pickers,' to clean
the bones, when the flesh decayed, and carry
them to their village for interment.

Barbarians are generally superstitious to an
extreme, believing in hobgoblins, witchcraft,
legerdemain and all sorts of mummeries.^
Like many grandmothers in backAvoods life,
they deUght in recounting the extraordinary
apparitions, transmigrations, sorceries, etc.,
which they pretend to have witnessed. No-
thing seems too absurd for their belief Among
many other cases of similar cast, an intelli-
gent PotaAvatomie once assured me that he
had witnessed the death of one of his na-
tion, who had received a stab in his side
Avith a knife (probably in some illicit adven-
ture) ; and it being unknown to his friends
how the wound had been inflicted, it was cur-
rently reported and believed, that from their

* The Indians often so imposed upon the credulous ancients as
to make them believe they had direct communication with Satan.
The learned divine, Peter Martyr, has a whole chapter " Of the
familiaritie which certeyne of the Indians have with the devyll,
and howe they receave answere of hym of thynges to coome :" and
very seriously and philosophically concludes, that, " the devyll
beynge so auncient an Astronomer, knowethe the tymes of thynges,
and seeth howe they are naturally directed :" to which he appends
numerous instances of the evil spirit's revelations of the " tymes of
thynges to coome" to his ministers, the magi. And even as late as
1721, Father Charlevoix gravely says, an instance he relates, and
many others that he " knows, which are equally certain, prove
that the Devil is sometimes concerned in the magic of the Savages."
The Choctaws, and perhaps some others, used to punish witchcraft
with all the rigor of our own ancestors, patting poor creatures tc
death upon the slightest proof of their tampering with the black
art: but this barbarity is now prohibited by their more civilized
laws. Yet the more barbarous tribes still have their conjurers and
medicine-men, who deal in auguries and mystic ceremonies ; which,
with their dances, constitute the greater part of their worship.

MATRIMONIAL CUSTOMS. 247

present home on the frontier of Missouri, he
had visited the ' Old Nation' in Michigan,
poisoned an enemy there, received the fatal
stab, and returned and died, all in one day.

If you tell an Indian that such things are
absurd and impossible, he is apt to answer,
" It may be so with the white man, but how
do you know it to be impossible with the In-
dian ? You tell us many strange things which
happened to your fathers — we don't contra-
dict them, though we believe such things
never could have happened to the red man."
Or, they will reply, perhaps, as they did to
Father Hennepin in a similar case : " Fie,
thou knowest not what thou sayest ; thou
may'st know what has passed in thy own
Country, for thy Ancestors have told thee of
them ; but thou canst not know what has
passed in ours before the Spirits (that is to say
the Europeans) came hither."

In their matrimonial customs there is also
a similarity among most of the American
savages. Polygamy seems once to have been
universal ; and I believe still is so among the
uncivilized tribes. Every man takes as many
wives as he can obtain, or is able to support.
The squaws, however, the more willingly
consent to this multiplicity, as it affords ad-
ditional helpmates in their labors. Polygamy
among these savages would appear, indeed,
not altogether an unwise provision. At least
it seems palliated with such a belligerent peo-
ple, who lose so many males in tlieir continual
wars, leaving a great surplus of females ; and

248 PROHIBITED DEGREES.

where the duties of the latter are so numerous
and so severe.

The custom of buying wives, or at least
making large presents to their parents, has al-
ways been very general ; and still exists, not
only among the more savage, but even Avith
many of the partially civilized nations. Yet,
notv/ithstanding their depravity in other re-
spects, there is one thing truly remarkable in
their marriages. All modern observers seem
to agree with the ancient authors, that they
universally abhor incestuous connections.
Among the Creeks, even the marrying of
cousins was punished by cutting off the ears.
The Cherokees (according to some manu-
script notes which I have of an intelligent
member of the tribe) were prohibited from
manying in their own clans (i. e. kindred)
under penalty of death ; and their clans them-
selves were their executioners. But although
the Indians thus so strictly prohibit marriage
within the degrees of consanguinity, it is not so
with those of affinity among many tribes.
The Otoes, Kansas, and others of the same
stock, will not only marry several sisters, but
their deceased brothers' wives ; in fact, this
last seems considered a duty, so that the
orphan children of the brother may not be
without a protector.^

While the aboriMcs of the New World

* Clavigero remarks c)f the Indians of Mexico, " Estaba severa-

mante prohibido . , todo enlace matrimonial, entre parientes

en primer grado de consanguinidad, 6 de afinidad, excepto entre
eunados."

INDIAN HOSPITALITY. 249

have been not6d above almost every other
unciviHzed nation in history, for their vindic-
tiveness and cruelty towards their enemies,
there are, in these attributes, wide differences
apparent among them. The Indians along
the Pacific coast, as well as in most of Mexico,
were always more mild and peaceable than
those of the United States. Hence it is, in
fact, that the Spaniards did not meet with that
formidable resistance to their conquests which
they encountered among the fiery tribes of
Florida, or that relentless and desperate hos-
tility which the Anglo-Americans experienced
in the first settlement of most parts of the
United States.

But in the common trait of hospitality to
strangers all the western tribes are alike dis-
tinguished. The traveller who is thrown upon
their charity, is almost universally received
and treated with the greatest kindness ; and,
though they might pilfer him to the skin, and
even place his person in jeopardy, if he show
want of confidence in them, and endeavor to
conceal his efiects, yet his property is gene-
rally secure when under their charge : they
appear to consider a breach of confidence one '
of the greatest crimes.

Among the wild tribes, as well as among
most of the unadulterated border Indians, to
set something to eat before a friend, and even
a stranger, immediately upon his arrival at a
lodge or a cabin, is deemed not only an act of
hospitality but of necessary etiquette ; and a
refusal to partake is looked upon as an un-

250 SYSTEM OF CHIEFS.

friendly token — an insult, in fact, to the fami-
ly. Travellers are often severely taxed to pre-
serve the good feeling of their hosts in this
particular, especially among the prairie Indi-
ans. One at all fastidious in matters of diet,
would find it hard to relish food from a greasy
horn-spoon which every urchin had been
using ; and then to ladle it out of a pot which
had been common for all the papooses and
pups of the premises : or to partake from
a slice rolled up in a musty skin, or a dir-
tier blanket. And yet an apology even of
having already dined half-a-dozen times would
scarcely palliate the insult of a refusal. Though
one visit fifty lodges in the course of a day,
he must taste tlie food of every one.

The Indian system of chiefs, which still
prevails, and is nearly the same everywhere,
except with the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chicka-
saws, and the Creeks to a degree, seems to
bear a strong resemblance to that of the pa-
triarchs of old ; which, with their clans so
analogous to those of our forefathers, perhaps
affords as strong a proof as any other of their
Asiatic origin.^ To this might be added their

* The orip;in of the American Indians has been discussed by too
many ab!e writers for me to enter into it here : nor will I at-
tempt to show the general traits of similarity that are to be observed
in their various languages : yet it may interest an occasional reader,
to be m formed of the relations of consanguinity which subsist be-
tween many of the difterent Indian tribes. They may be arranged
principally under the following heads: 1. The Dahcotah stock,
which is by far the most extensive of those indigenous west of the
Mississippi. It embraces the Arkansas (of which the Quapaws
are now the only remnant), the Osages, Kansas or Kaws, lowas,
Winnebagoes, Otoes, ]Missouries, Omahas, Poncas, and the various
bands of the Sioiix : aU of whom speak a language still traceable

I

INDIAN NAMES. 251

mode of naming; for the Indians universally
apply names significant of acts, qualities,
beasts, birds, etc., to their offspring, — a prac-
tice which seems to have prevailed generally
among the ancient Asiatics.^ Surnames
have only been adopted by educated families

to the same origin, though some of them have been separated for
several centuries. I call these indigenous to the West, because
most of them have been so from the period of the earliest explor-
ers on the Mississippi; yet the tradition among them is that they
came from about the northern lakes ; which appears corroborated
by the fact, that the language of the Naudowessies, Assiniboins,
and perhaps others in that quarter, shows them to be of the same
family. — 2. The different bands of the Comanches and Shoshonies
or Snakes, constitute another extensive stock, speaking one lan-
guage.— 3. The Blackfeet, Gros Ventres or Minnatarees, Crows
and Arrapahoes, speak dialects of another. — 4. The Pawnees and
Rickaras of the north, and the Wacoes, Witchitas, Towockanoes,
Towyash and Keechyes, of Red River, are of the same origin.
The Chayennes, originally from near Lake Winnipeg, and the Kia-
was (or Caiguas, according to Mexican orthography), appear imal-
lied to any of the foregoing nations — 5. Of those from the north
and east, the Algonquin stock appears most extensive, — embracing
the Potawatomies, Ottawas, Chippewas, Knisteneaux, Crees, Sacs
and Foxes ; with whom the Delawares have also been classed,
though their language would now appear very distinct. — 6. The
Wyandots, Senecas, and others of the Six Nations, are of the Hu-
ron or Iroquois. — 7. The Shawnees and Kickapoos are of one
stock. — 8. The Kaskaskias, Piorias, Piankeshaws and Weaws, are
descendants of the Miamies. — 9. The Choctaws and Chickasaws are
nearly the same people. — 10. The Creeks and Seminoles — though
old authors speak of the Creeks as being akin to the Choctaws,
yet there is now but little relationship to be traced in their lan-
guage ; while that of the Cherokees appears entirely sm" generis.

* The tribes often take the names of the seceding chiefs who
originate them, or are called from some circumstance attending their
separation ; but frequently they assume a name from an important
word in their languages : thus Choctaw and Chickasaw are said to
have been the names of chiefs ; Seminole (or Seminoleh) and Ptoria
imply runaways or seceders ; while Illinois, in the language of
that ancient tribe, and Lunnapde, by which the Delawares distin-
guish themselves, signify 7nan. This last is perhaps most com-
mon ; for, as each nation holds itself superior to all others, its
members call themselves wen, in contradistinction to boys or squaws,
as they are wont to denominate their enemies.

252 DECREASE OF THE INDIAN.

and mixed-bloods of the border nations, and
are generally taken from their missionaries or
some favorite friends ; except they inherit sur-
names from parents of white extraction.

That the Indians of America are decreas-
ing in numbers is very well known, but many
are dwindling away, perhaps, at a more rapid
pace than is generally suspected. The num-
ber of the Osages,.it is confidently beheved,
has diminished fifty per cent, within the last
ten years : the once powerful tribe of Missou-
ries is now reduced to a mere remnant; while
the Mandans, as a nation, have become en-
tirely extinct : and others have shared or bid
fair soon to share the same fate. This has re-
sulted partially from the ravages of the small-
pox and other diseases, yet as much no doubt
from the baneful effects of intoxicating liquors.
On tliis account, their diminution has gene-
rally been less in proportion as they are more
remote from the whites. But the ' red man '
has suffered from his intercourse with the
whites not in this respect alone. The incen-
tives to luxury and avarice continually pre-
sented by them, have had a very pernicious
influence. Formerly the savages were con-
tented with the indispensables of life — gene-
rally sober, just and charitable ; but now they
will sacrifice their comfort — risk their lives,
and commit the most atrocious outrages, to
gratify their vanity and lusts — to bedeck them
selves with gewgaws and finery.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE FRONTIER INDIANS.

Catjses of Removal West — Annuities, etc. — Dissatisfaction of
the Indians — Their Melioration b)'- the Change — Superiority
of their present Location — Lands granted to them — Improve-
ments, Agriculture, etc. — Their Slaves — Manufactures — Style
of Living, Dress, etc. — Literary Opportunities and Improve-
ments— Choctaw Academy — Harpies and Frauds — Games —
Systems of Government — Polygamy — Ancient Laws and Cus-
toms— Intemperance — Preventive Measures — A Choctaw
Enactment — Marriage and Funeral Customs of the Choctaws
— The Creeks — Their Summary Executions — Mourning —
Indian Titles — The Northern Tribes — Census of the Frontier
Nations.

For the purpose of a somewhat more dis-
criminating notice of the Indian tribes beyond
our western border — for it is to those I intend
my remarks, in these pages, to be strictly con-
fined— I will distinguish them, according to
the prevaihng classification of the West, as
* Frontier' or 'Border Indians,' which title in-
cludes those occupying that district lying west
of and immediately adjoining Arkansas and
Missouri, and known as the Indian Territory;
and the ' Wild Tribes' or ' Prairie Indians,'
by which are meant those who are found west
of the others, and who range those immense

VOL. II. 22

254 REMOVAL WEST.

plains from the borders of the Indian Terri-
tory to the Rocky Mountains. Of these I will
speak in their order.

The most important of the frontier tribes,
as is well known, are the Cherokees, Choc-
taws and Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles,
Shawnees, Delawares, etc. It is equally well
known that most of these tribes were removed
from within the States, not less because of
the vicious propensities which they contracted
and the imposition to which they were con-
tinually exposed, than on account of the diffi-
culty of maintaining peaceful relations be-
tween them and our own citizens, while
they remained in their midst. Their situa-
tion within the States certainly presented
quite an anomaly in government — independ-
ent powers within the hmits of others claim-
ing sovereign jurisdiction.

A mistaken philanthropy — mistaken for
want of a full knowledge of all the bearings
of the subject — among some people, has oc-
casioned much censure upon this branch of
the policy of our government. But were we
to take into consideration the treatment of
other nations towards the aborigines of Ame-
rica, that of the United States, when placed
in contrast, would certainly present a very
benevolent aspect. They have always been
removed by their own consent, obtained
through their chiefs and councils ; and have
not only been given equal amounts of land,
west of the border, but have generally been
removed and furnished a year's subsistence

EFFECTS OF ANNUITIES. 255

at the expense of the government, and re-
ceived valuable equivalents beside, in uten-
sils and other necessaries, and in regular
annuities. These are sums, generally in
money, annually paid, for a series of years,
to the several tribes, proportioned usually to
the size of the tribe and the amount of ter-
ritory acquired from it. This institution of
annuities, however, though intended as the
most charitable, has doubtless been the most
injurious branch of the policy of the United
States towards the Indians. Being thus af-
forded the means of living without much
labor, they have neglected manufactures, and
even agriculture, to a considerable degree,
and many of them have acquired confirmed
habits of indolence and dissipation ; and
now that their annuities are growing short,
they are being left destitute, without the
energy, the industry, or the means where-
with to procure a livelihood.

But, notwithstanding the constant efforts
of the general government to make them
comfortable, and the immense sums of mo-
ney which have been paid them, and their
being located in regions far better suited to
their wants and their habits of life than those
they abandoned, many of them appear greatly
dissatisfied with the change and with the
goveniment ; which seems painfully demon-
strative of that perverse, restless disposition,
which appears ever to have characterized the
conduct of half-civilized nations.

One ostensible reason for their unwilling-

256 INDIAN MIGRATIONS.

ness to remove, has been a reluctance to
abandon their native homes and the ' graves
of their fathers/ Many fabulous legends are
told of the attachment of the Indian to his
native soil, yet but few who are acquainted
with their habitudes, will place much stress
on this. Their own traditions, as well as ex-
perience, have shown, that, when left to them-
selves, they incline to migrate; of which the
Azteques of Mexico, and the Osages, with
others of our border, afford striking examples :
in fact, there is scarcely a tribe on the fron-
tier which has not its traditions of migrations
at some period. The Shawnees say their fore-
fathers emigrated from the south to the regions
north of the Ohio — ^the Creeks, as well as
many of the Choctaws, that they were origin-
ally from west of the IVIississippi — ^besides
many other cases.

But, with regard to this passage of our
country's history, I will merely say, in addi-
tion, that, so far as I am able to judge, the
condition of the ' red man' has been very ma-
terially bettered by the change. The lands
they at present occupy are, for the most part,
of a more fertile character than those which
they have left. The climate is equally, or per-
haps more healthy, in general; notwithstand-
ing the dreadful mortality which afflicted many
of them shortly after their removal — a calamity
which was attributable, primarily, to the change
of climate, as well as to the charige of habits
which their new dwelling-places involved ;
and secondarily, to the too abundant use of

INDIAN LANDS. 257

spirituous liquors, with which they were fre-
quently provided by both native and white
peddlers and traders, before any measures, effi-
cient enough to check the evil, were taken
either by themselves or by the general gov-
ernment. But, although the latter cause still
prevails to some degree, I have little doubt
that the average mortality among the frontier
tribes, at present, is less than it was before
their removal.

To each tribe has generally been granted a
greater number of acres, with definite metes
and boundaries, than had been ceded by them
east of the Mississippi. It is deemed unne-
cessary, however, to swell this brief notice
with a statement of the several amounts of
laud given to each tribe, and their localities,
as these may be seen with sufficient accuracy
and definiteness by consulting the map which
accompanies this work.

The lands of each tribe are the property of
the Indian commonwealth ; and, therefore,
even among the most civilized of them, the
settler has a title only in his improvement,
which he holds by occupancy, and can sell
at pleasure. To prevent collisions in improve-
ments, the first occupant is entitled to a cer-
tain distance in every direction. Among the
Cherokees, no one can build within a quarter
of a mile of the house or field of another : so,
to extend their possessions, the more wealthy
sometimes make several isolated improve-
ments, scattered in diflTerent directions, within
hall' a mile of each other.

22*

258 INDIAN AGRICULTURE

The game in the interspersed forests having
now become scarce, and that of the western
prairies being too remote, the frontier Indians
have generally turned their attention to agri-
culture, and to the raising of stock ; and most
of them have large numbers of horses, cattle,
and hogs.

Some of these Indians, particularly of the
southern nations, have very extensive farms :
but the mass of their population extend their
culture no further than they seem compelled
by necessity. The traveller, passing through
the Cherokee Nation, is struck with the con-
trast between an occasional stately dwelling,
with an extensive farm attached, and the mise-
rable hovels of the indigent, sometimes not
ten feet square, with a little patch of corn,
scarce large enough for a family garden. In
fact, among all the tribes who have no slaves,
what Httle there is of cultivation, is mostly
the work of the women. Scattered through
the country, one continually encounters dilapi-
dated huts with trifling improvements, which
have been abandoned by the owners for some
fancy they may have taken to some other lo-
cation at a distance, better adapted, as they
think, to the promotion of their comfort, and
upon which they may hve with less labor.

Most of the labor among the wealthier
classes of Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws,
Creeks and Seminoles,is done by negro slaves ;
for they have all adopted substantially the
Southern system of slavery. Some individu-
9,1s of these nations own over fifty slaves each:

AND MANUFACTURES. 259

but they are the only slaveholders of the fron-
tier tribes, except very few among th^ Shaw-
nees.

With some tribes, and particularly among
the lower classes of the Creeks, they are in-
clined to settle in ' towns,' as they are called,
— making large fields, which are cultivated in
common, and the produce proportionally dis-
tributed. But these 'towns' are rather settle-
ments than villages, being but sparse clusters
of huts without any regularity. Lideed, there
is not, I beheve, a regularly laid out town in
all the Indian country, nor a place that could
even merit the name of a village ; except
Doaksville near Fort Towson, and perhaps
Park Hill in the Cherokee Nation.

Besides agriculture, most of the frontier
tribes attend a little to manufactures, though
with no greater energy. The women have
generally learned to spin, weave and sew, at
which they occupy themselves, occasionally,
during recess from the labors of the field.
But very few of the men acquire mechanical
arts or follow trades of any kind : their car-
penter, wheelwright and smith work is done
by a few mechanics provided the several tribes
in accordance with treaty stipulations. To
each tribe is furnished in particular one or
more blacksmiths from the United States.

These frontier Indians for the most part
five in cabins of logs, hke those of our back-
woods settlers; and many of them are un dis-
tinguishable, except in color, language, and to
some degree in costume, from the poorer

260 INDIAN COSTUMES.

classes of their white neighbors. Even in
dress and language the more civiUzed are fast
conforming to the latter. In many families,
especially of the Cherokees, the English tongue
only is spoken ; and great numbers of these,
as well as of the Choctaws and Chickasaws,
dress according to the American fashions : but
the ruder portions of even these, the most en-
Hghtened nations, as is also the case with
nearly all of the northern tribes, wear the
hunting-shirt, sometimes of buckskin, but now
more commonly of calico, cotton plaid or lin-
sey. Instead of using hats, they wreathe
about their heads a fancy-colored shawl or
handkerchief Neither do the women of these
classes wear bonnets, but leave their heads
exposed, or protected only with a shawl, some-
what after the manner of the Mexican fe-
males ; to the lower classes of whom, indeed,
the mixed-bloods of these Indians bear a strong
resemblance. Their most usual dress is a
short petticoat of cotton goods, or as frequently
with the tribes of the north, of coarse red or
blue broad-cloth.

The literary opportunities afforded to the
border tribes are so important in their conse-
quences as to deserve some notice. To each
tribe has been granted, by the United States,
a school fund, generally somewhat propor-
tioned to the extent of the tribe. The Chero-
kees and Choctaws seem to have availed
themselves of this provision to the greatest
advantage. These funds are for the most part
invested in American stocks, and the proceeds

CHOCTAW ACADEMY. 261

appropriated to educational uses, establishing
schools, etc.^ The tuition is, I beheve, in every
case, free to the Indians ; and yet it is painful
to know that comparatively few of the com-
mon classes will send their children.

The most extensive literary institution
which has ever been in operation, for the
benefit of the ' red man,' was the ' Choctaw
Academy,' estabUshed in Kentucky, and sup-
ported by a common fund of several different
tribes. It was not as successful, however, as
was anticipated by its projectors ; and is now
being transferred and merged into an acade-
my near Fort Towson, in the Choctaw country,
wholly supported out of the Choctaw fund.
This Academy proved very unsatisfactory to
many of the tribes concerned. They said,
with apparent justice, that their boys, educated
there, forgot all their customs, their language,
their relatives, their national attachments ; and,
in exchange, often acquired indolent and ef-
feminate, if not vicious habits ; and were ren-

* Their schools are mostly conducted in English, yet among
some tribes they are often taught in their native languages. As
in other respects, the Cherokees have made the greatest advance-
ment in a literary point. Their singular system of characttsrs
representing syllables, invented by an illiterate native, is no
doubt known to most of my readers. In these characters, a con-
siderable number of books have been printed in their vernacular
tongue. Many Cherokees, however, as well as Choctaws, have
received good English educations. In the language of the latter
also a great number of books have been published, but in which
the common letter is used. A few books have also been printed
in the languages of the Creeks, Wyandots, Potawatomies and Ot-
tawas, Shawnees, Delawares, and some in the different dialects of
Osage, Kansas, Otoes, etc. There is now a printing-office in ope-
ration at Park Hill, in the Cherokee Nation, and another among
tlie Shawnees at the Baptist Mission.

262 HARPIES AND FRAUDS.

dered unfit to live among their people, or to
earn a maintenance by labor. There seems
but httle doubt that the funds of each tribe
might be employed to a much better advan-
tage in their own country. The influence of
the institutions would there be more likely to
extend to all classes; and by gradual, the
only practicable means, a change might be
wrought upon the nation.

It is one of the calamities incident to the
state of ignorance in which most of these poor
Indians remain, and their close, indeed politi-
cal connection with the more civilized people
of the United States, that they are continually
preyed upon by the unprincipled harpies who
are ever prowling through their country, ready
to seize every opportunity of deceiving and de-
frauding them out of their money or effects.^

* By no means the least considerable of the frauds practised
upon the frontier Indians, have been by contractors and govern-
ment agents. The character of these impositions may be inferred
from the following instance, as it is told, and very generally be-
lieved, upon the southwestern frontier.

It had been pretty well known, that some of those who had
been in the habit of contracting to furnish with subsistence several
of the southern tribes, in tho year 1838 et seq., had been imposing
most grossly upon the Indians as well as the Government, in the
way of 'short rations' and other delinquencies, which resulted in
the gain of a very large sum to the parties concerned. About the
close of their operations, one of the employes, who was rather more
cunning than the principals, took it into his head, on account of
some ill-treatment he had suffered, to make an expose of their
transactions. He happened to hold a letter of instructions (which
were of course of a confidential character), wherein were set forth
the processes by which these frauds were to be practised. And to
turn the affair to his particular profit, he threatened the parties with
a complete exposure, unless a satisfactory gratification should in-
terpose. A compromise being indispensable to the welfare of 'all
whom it concerned,' a negotiation was soon set on foot : but the
• noisy customer' was not silenced, until he was paid ^13 500 in

GAMES AND DANCING. 263

The most depraving agencies employed to
this end are the ministration -of intoxicating
drinks, and gaming, of both which the Indians
are passionately fond, and by which they are
frequently robbed of their money as soon al-
most as received.

Apart from the usual games at cards, dice,
etc., the Indians of the border l>ave some pecu-
liar games of their own, as well at cards as other-
wise. Among these the most celebrated is
the ' Ball Play', which resembles, in some re-
spects, the old-fashioned game of handy. The
wagers are usually laid upon beating the ma-
jority of a given number, a dozen or more of
these games; and large amounts in horses,
blankets, and other goods, and even money,
are frequently staked upon the result.

Besides the ball play, dancing is a most fa-
vorite amusement of these tribes, indeed of
all the frontier as well as prairie Indians.
They formerly had many kinds of dances, —
the green-corn dance, the medicine, the eagle,
the scalp and the war dances. But these are
now only practised by the ruder portions of
the border nations and the less improved
tribes ; among whom may still be witnessed
frequently their genuine aboriginal frolics.

The green-corn dance generally lasts seve-

cash ; whereupon he delivered up the obnoxious ' papers,' and
agreed to abscond. Some notice of the facts of this case are said
to have been brought to the knowledge of the Govermnent ; and
how it has escaped an investigation — and, more especially, how
it escaped the attention of the Superintendent of that immediate
district, have been matters of great surprise to those who had a
knowledge of the particulars.

264 GREEN-CORN DANCE.

ral days, commencing when the new crop be-
gins to ripen. A large arbor of green branches
is usually prepared, and numerous parties of
both sexes dance in a body to their native
songs and rude instrumental music, accom-
panied by their monotonous "heh! heh! heh!"
with a chorus of yells at intervals ; and their
movements are attended with the most com-
ical gesticulations. Having passed through
a course of ' purification ' by drinking a decoc-
tion of certain stimulant herbs, prepared by
their medicine-men, and put out all the fires,
they strike fire anew by rubbing sticks together;
and a quantity of corn, pulse and other fruits
of the season, being cooked with the ' new
fire,' the dance is closed with a general feast.
Each family, as it is said, then takes a supply
from the 'new breed' of fire. A more inter-
esting and salutary influence of this custom,
which is said to prevail among some tribes at
this festival, is the cancelling or composing
of all old difficulties and disputes.

The most advanced of these border nations,
the Cherokees and the united tribes of the
Choctaws and Chickasaws, have adopted sys-
tems of government, which are based upon
the constitutions of our States. The Cherokee
being the most complete, some account of it
may not be out of place in this connection.

A council or convention of the wise men
of the nation was convened on the first of July,
1839, who framed a constitution, of which the
following are the general features, it being
somewhat similar to one previously adopted in

CHEROKEE CONSTITUTION. 265

the 'Old Nation.' The three powers, legisla-
tive, executive and judicial, are distinguished
and estabhshed. The legislative consists of
a National Committee and Council. The
former is composed of two and the latter of
three members from each of the eight or ten
districts into which the nation was to be di-
vided— elected for two years by the people.
They convene annually on the first Monday
in October, and each house elects a pre-
siding officer out of its own body. Bills are
introduced, discussed and passed according to
parliamentary usage.

The executive, called Principal Chief, and
an assistant chief, are elected for four years
by the people. The executive has the usual
veto and pardoning power. He is assisted by
an ' Executive Council' of five, and the com-
mon cabinet of secretaries. The judiciary
consists of a Supreme and Circuit Court, and
the ordinary justices of the peace. Trial by
jury is secured ; and the common law of Eng-
land appears to have been generally adopted.
ReUgious toleration is guarantied, but no per-
son can hold a civil office who denies the ex-
istence of a God, and a future state of rewards
and punishments.

According to laws subsequently enacted by
the same council, the punishment for murder
is death ; and for an attempt to kill, a fine
correspondent to the damage, for the benefit
of the injured party: for rape, a hundred
lashes — but for infanticide, only twenty-five
to fift}^ I AVhipping seems the punishment

VOL. n. 23

266 POLYGAMYj ETC.

for all inferior crimes; which is the same
with the Choctaws and Creeks, among whom
the executioners are called the 'light-horse,'
a kind of police-guard, also formerly in use by
the Cherokees, but now their place is supplied
by a common sheriff and posse.

As is to be inferred from their institutions,
the Cherokees stand first among the 'red men'
in refinement, though in industry, morality,
and sobriety, they are no doubt excelled by the
Choctaws and Chickasaws, who are reckoned
the most quiet and Christian-like Indians of
the border.

No laws have yet been passed to enforce
the payment of debts, except by the Chero-
kees ; and these found it necessary to suspend
their operation for two years. Even, the most
improved have not prohibited polygamy by
any law ; though, from the example of the
whites and of the more civilized among
them, as well as the exertions of the mission-
aries, it is . growing out of repute with most
of the border nations. It is still occasionally
practised, however ; and the ruder classes
among them all, I believe, sometimes still
take any number of wives, and divorce them
at pleasure. But the more enhghtened are
married by preachers, or authorized civil
officers.

With the united nation of Choctaws and
Chickasaws, the executive power is vested
in four chiefs, called in Choctaw mingoesy
who are selected one from each of the
districts into which the country is divided,

ANCIENT LAWS. 267

and of which the Chickasaw tribe constitutes
one. These chiefs are vested with the usual
veto and pardoning powers, and are elected for
four years. Most of their other constitutional
provisions resemble those of the Cherokees.
The Choctaws, as well as the Creeks, punish
the crime of murder with death by shooting,
which is generally executed immediately after
trial, by the ' Ught-horse.'

It has become evident, however, that writ-
ten laws and courts of justice, judges and
juries, are still rather in advance of the state
of civilization of the ruder classes, even among
these most enlightened tribes. It has been
found very difficult to bring them under their
subordination. They have had, notwithstand-
ing, a salutary effect in many cases, and espe-
cially with regard to murder. Among most
of these nations (as well as the wild tribes),
it was formerly the custom to leave the pun-
ishment of homicide to the relatives of the
murdered. With the Choctaws and Chero-
kees, in particular, the entire clan or family
of the murderer were held responsible for the
crime ; and though the real offender might
escape, the bereaved family had a right to
kill any one of his nearest relatives that could
be found, up to the most remote kindred.
There seemed no exceptions for accidental
homicide, or killing in self-defence: the Mo-
saic precept of ' life for life' must be fulfilled,
unless satisfactorily commuted. This savage
custom had at least one salutary effect, how-
ever : the relatives themselves, instead of as-

268 DYING BY PROXY.

sisting the escape, as so often occurs in civil-
ized life, were generally the first to apprehend
and bring the fugitive criminal to justice.

But among the Choctaws, at least, any one
might take the place of the murderer, and in
the death of the substitute the law was satis-
fied, and the true criminal remained exempt.
An intelhgent and creditable Choctaw related
to me an affecting incident, for the truth of
which he vouched. An Indian had remained
responsible for the appearance, on a certain
day, of his brother, who had killed a man.
When the day arrived, the murderer exhibited
some reluctance to fulfil the pledge, when
the other said to him : " My brother, you are
no brave — you are afraid to die — stay here
and take care of my family — I will die in
your place:" whereupon he immediately at-
tended the appomted spot, and was executed
accordingly.

The highest honor known among them, in
fact, being that of a ' great brave,' it reflected
the greatest credit to meet death boldly. In-
stead of being visited by his tribe with infamy
for the crime he had committed, it rather
tended to make his name illustrious, if he
met the consequences without fear or flinch-
ing : whereas, any effort to avoid death was
attributed to cowardice. It would have been
esteemed quite as ignominious for the mur-
derer to flee the estabUshed forfeit of his life,
as for a ' gentleman' under the ' civilized code
of honor,' to back out from a duel.

But among most of the frontier, as also the

INTEMPERANCE. 269

wild tribes, a commutation, though not honor-
able to the perpetrator, was and still is per-
mitted, except by the Cherokees and Choc-
taws. Any recompense which would satisfy
the bereft family, released the murderer from
further penalty.

There is scarcely any temptation which the
Indian tribes have to encounter so frequently,
and so seriously fatal to their social improve-
ment, as intemperance. Of this they are con-
scious themselves, and most of them have
adopted measures for prohibiting the intro-
duction of ardent spirits among them, and for
checking the propensity to use them, with
various degrees of success. Among the Choc-
taws, a law was passed upon this subject,
which, though not entirely, was measurably
successful ; and the spirit which effected its
passage was worthy of the 'most exalted state
of civilization.

It seems that the tribe had generally be-
come sensible of the pernicious influences of
strong drinks upon their prosperity and hap-
piness, and had attempted various plans for
its suppression, without success. At last, it
was determined by the chiefs, captains, and
head men, to strike a blow which should
reach the very root of the evil at once. A
council was called, and many and long were
the speeches which Were made, and much
enthusiasm was created against the monster
' Whiskey,' and all his brood of compound
enormities. Still every one seemed loth to
move his arrest and execution. Finally, a

23*

270 CHOCTAW LEGISLATION

captain of more than ordinary temerity arose,
and offered a resolution that each and every
individual who should thenceforward dare to
introduce any of the liquid curses into their
country, should be punished with a hundred
lashes on his bare back, and the liquor be
poured out. This was passed, after some
slight changes, by acclamation : but, with . a
due sense of the injustice of ex-post-facto re-
strictions, all those who had liquors on hand
were permitted to sell them. The council
adjourned ; but the members soon began to
canvass among each other the pernicious
consequences which might result from the
protracted use of the whiskey already in the
shops, and therefore concluded the quicker it
was drank up, the more promptly would the
evil be over : so, falhng to, in less than two
hours Bacchus never mustered a drunkei
troop than were these same temperance
legislators. The consequences of their de-
termination were of lasting importance to
them. The law, with some slight improve-
ments, has ever since been rigorously en-
forced.

Among most of the Indian tribes the daugh-
ter has very little to do with the selection of
her husband. The parents usually require to
be satisfied first, and their permission being
secured the daughter never presumes to offei
any important resistance. There is a post-
nuptial custom peculiar to the full-blood In-
dians of the Choctaws, which deserves particu-
lar notice. For years, and perhaps for life,

CONNUBIAL CUSTOMS. 271

after the marriage of her daughter, the mother
is forbidden to look upon her son-in-law.
Though they converse together, he must be
hidden from her by a wall, a tent, a curtain, or,
when nothing else offers, by covering the eyes.
During their emigration, it is said these poor su-
perstitious matrons were put to infinite trouble
so as not to infract this custom. While tra-
velling, or in camp often without tents, the
mother-in-law was afraid to raise her head or
open her eyes, lest they should meet the in-
terdicted object.

It is another peculiarity, which they have in
common with some of the more northern tribes,
that the Choctaw wife, of the 'old school,' can
never call her husband by name. But if they
have offspring — she calls him " my son's fa-
ther ;" or, more commonly using the child's
name, when, if Ok-le-no-wa, for instance, she
calls the husband " Ok-le-no-wa's father." And
yet another oddity regarding names : the igno-
rant Choctaw seems to have a superstitious
aversion to telling his own name : indeed it
appears impossible to get it from him, unless
he have an acquaintance present, whom he
will request to tell it for him.

In burials, the civilized Choctaws follow the
customs of the whites, but the ruder classes
still preserve their aboriginal usages. Accord-
ing to these, a painted pole with a flag is stuck
up at the grave, which usually remains three
months. During this period they have regular
mourning exercises every morning and even-
ing; and are always prompt to avail themselves,

272 SUMMARY EXECUTIONS.

at any other hour of the day, of the assistance
of any friend who may visit them to help
them to weep. At the end of the prescribed
term, the friends of the bereft family attend a
feast at their house, and, after dancing all
night, the next morning visit the grave and
pull down the pole ; which is called ' the pole-
pulling.' After this all mourning ceases, and
the family is permitted to join in the usual
amusements and festivities of the tribe, which
was not allowable before.

Though the Creeks^ are generally a very
industrious people, raising an abundance of
corn and vegetables, yet they are quite behind
their neighbors, of whom I have been speak-
ing, as well politically as in a social and lite-
rary view. Their executive consists of two
principal chiefs, and their legislature or coun-
cil of about forty minor chiefs or captains,
who are also, ex officio, justices of the peace.
They have no trial by jury, and their judicial
proceedings are exceedingly summary — fre-
quently without witnesses ; for the warriors
are generally too proud to deny a charge, lest
it be construed into cowardice. Executions
sometimes take place within an hour after the
commencement of trial. Murder, rape and a
third conviction of stealing are punished Avith
death, usually by shooting ; but, in case of
homicide, if claimed by the relatives of the

* These Indians call themselves Muscogee or Muscohgeh. They
acquired the name of Creeks, by the whites, from the great number
of small streams that intersect the country which they formerly in-
habited— being first called, " Indians of the country of creeks."

CREEK OBSEQUIES. 273

deceased, the criminal is executed with the
same kind of weapon, or, if possible, the
very same, with which he committed the
miurder.

Most inferior crimes, as has been mention-
ed, are punished by whipping : for the first
offence of steahng, fifty lashes ; for the second,
a hundred and ears cropped. Adultery is
punished by cutting off both the nose and
ears of the adulteress; but the husband has a
right to say if the law shall be executed : in
fact, he is generally the executioner, and that
often without trial. Notwithstanding the se-
verity of these laws, they are for the most part
rigorously enforced ; though a commutation
satisfactory to the aggrieved is still permitted
to release the offender. 'Their laws, in cases
of accidental homicide,, are still more barba-
rously rigid than those of the other nations.

The obsequies of the Creeks are peculiar
in this, — that at the moment an Indian ex-
pires, a gun is discharged. Their graves are
generally under the floors of their dwellings,
and a husband's is apt to be under the bed of
his widow. The fate of the unfortunate re-
lict is miserable enough in any country, but
among the Creeks her doom is barbarously
rigorous. She remains in strict mourning for
four years,^ with dishevelled hair and with-

* This custom seems to have descended from antiquity. Adair,
prior to 1775, writes, that " The Muscohge widows are obliged to
live a chaste single life for the space of four years ; and the Chik-
kasah women, for the term of three, at the risk of the law of adul-
tery being executed against the recusants." But I have not heard
this custom spoken of among the Chickasaws at the present day.

274 TITLES AND INHERITANCE.

out combing, — unless the relatives of the de-
ceased interfere ; whereby it is sometimes
put an end to in a few months, provided the
sincerity of her grief be evident and her con-
duct meritorious. In their mourning, how-
ever, they do not weep and cry with such
clamorous vehemence as the Choctaws and
others. But the Shawnees and Delawares
are still more celebrated for quiet mourning.
As warlike nations, they appear to disdain to
mourn and wail aloud, as is the practice among
the greater portion of the savage tribes.

Though these people have no family names,
they generally take a kind of honorary title or
sobriquet, as is also the case with the wild
tribes, upon the occurrence of any important
incident, or the performance of a meritorious
feat. — A singular mode of inheritance prevails
among the Cherokees, the Creeks, and perhaps
others. Though the women in other respects
are mostly held as very inferior beings, the
clans are all reckoned by them : the children
pertain to the mother, and the estates descend
through the female branch of the family.
They say it is easy enough to verify the mo-
thers of famihes, but it is difficult to identify
the fathers.

The remaining tribes, inhabiting the more
northern frontier, as well as the Seminoles
who are located among the Creeks, possess
so few distinct or striking characteristics, and,
indeed, are mostly so few in number, that a
particular notice of them seems hardly to be
required. Suffice it to say, that all of them,

INDIAN POPULATION. 275

as I believe, still retain their ancient systems
of arbitrary chiefs and councils of sages and
braves, nearly in their primitive state ; and
that the greater portion of them Uve in log
huts, and cultivate the soil to a considerable
extent. Though the Shawnees, Delaw^ares,
and Kickapoos, are among the most agricul-
tural of the northern Indians, yet a few of these
spend the greater portion of their time on the
Prairies in hunting and in trading with the
wild tribes.^

* No complete census has been taken of the frontier Indians since
their removal ; but the aggregate population of those settled west
of the border, exclusive of the Osages, Kansas, and others of the
north (who are more appropriately ranked among the Prairie In-
dians), is 76,664, according to the Report of the Commissioner of
Indian Affairs for the year 1844. Of these there are reckoned of
Cherokees, 25,911 ; Choctaws, 12,410 ; Chickasaws,4,ni ; Creeks,
2t,594; Seminoles, or Florida Indians, 3,136; Senecas from San-
dusky, 125 ; Senecas and Shawnees, 211 ; Quapaws, 400 ; Wyan-
dots, 585 ; Potawatomies, Chippewas and Ottawas, located on the
waters of the Osage, 2,028 ; Kaskaskias and Piorias, 150 ; Pianke-
shaws, 98; Weaws, 176; Shawnees, 887; Delawares, 1,059;
Stockbridges, Munsees, &c., 278; Kickapoos, 505; In addition to
these, there still remain east of the Mississippi, of Cherokees,
1,000; Choctaws, 7,000, (but which are now, January, 1845, in
progress of emigration) ; Chickasaws, 20 ; Creeks, 744 ; Potawd-
tomies, &c., 92; Weaws, 30; besides some entire remnant tribes.

Many ot the foregoing amounts, nowever, have been standing
numbers in the tables of the reports of the Indian Department, ever
since the removal of these tribes, and as it is known that most of
them have been on the decline, the above aggregate is no doubt ex-
cessive. For instance, instead of 25,911, as given in the report for
the Cherokees, their very intelligent agent. Governor Butler, reckon-
ed them, in 1842, at only about 18,000: the Creeks in place of
24,594, have, in like manner, been set down at about 20,000; and
in the ' Choctaw Almanac' for 1843, I find the population of that
nation rated at 12,690, instead of 15,177, as stated in the Commis-
sioner's report for the same year.

CHAPTER XIV.

INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES.

System of Chiefs— Mode of Warfare — War-Council— The
Scalp-dance — The Calumet or Pipe of Peace — Treaties —
Public News-criers — Arms of the Indians — Bow and Arrows,
etc. — Hunting — Dancing — Language of Signs — Telegraphs —
Wigwams or Lodges — Pack-dogs — Costumes — Painting, Tat-
tooing, etc. — Indian Dandies — Manufactures, and Dressing the
Buffalo Rug — Indian Diet, Feasting etc. — Primitive Thomso-
nians — Their domestic Animals, the Dog and the Horse — •
Wampum — Their Chronology.

Those savage hordes which may be consi-
dered as the Prairie Indians proper, have made
Uttle or no perceptible progress in civihzation.
They mostly live by plunder and the chase:
a few eke out a subsistence by agricuUure.
They consist of various distinct tribes, but
among whom there is a greater diversity of
language than of habitudes. I would not
have it understood, however, that all the cus-
toms of ev^er.y band are entirely similar: it is
this assumption, together with the practice
of setting doAvn as standing customs what
they have observed on some particular occa-
sions, that has frequently created such a dis-
crepancy between the accounts of transient
travellers.

INDIAN CHIEFS. 277

There is scarcely a prairie tribe, however
Umited in numbers, but is subdivided into
petty bands, each under the immediate con-
trol of its own chief! Their systems of gov-
ernment are frequently compounded of the
patriarchal and military. The most influen-
tial heads of families exercise a petty rule,
Avhich often extends beyond their own house-
hold to a circle of adherents. Several of
these clans, bound by the ties of consanguinity
or friendship, are apt to come under the con-
trol, by common consent, of some more influ-
ential chief, who may have gained celebrity
in their wars; but a regular hereditary de^
scent seems rarely established. These petty
bands seldom, unite under one general leader,
except for the common defence, when threat-
ened with danger. Occasionally there springs
up a master spirit — a great brave and a great
sage, who is able to unite his whole tribe, in
which he is generally aided by a sufficient
knack at sorcerous tricks to give him the
character of a great ' medicine-man.'

War seems to be the element of the prairie
Indians, notwithstanding but few possess
much intrinsic bravery. They are, in fact,
the most cowardly savages east of the Rocky
Mountains, bearing but little similitude in this
respect to the aborigines of the interior of the
United States. They rarely attack an enemy
except with a decided advantage ; for the
prospect of losing even a single warrior will
often deter them from undertaking the most
flattering adventure. It is true that, in addi-

voL. II. 24

278 WAR-COUNCIL.

tion to their timidity, they are restrained by
the fact that the loss of a man often casts a
gloom upon the most brilhant victory, and
throws a whole clan into mourning. On this
account they generally attack by surprise, and
in the night, when all are presumed to be
asleep ; having care, if against a formidable
enemy, that it be long enough before the
morning dawn to allow them to retire beyond
reach of pursuit before dayhght. When the
moon rises at a late hour, just before she ap-
pears, is a favorite time ; for then they will
have a gleam of light by which to collect and
drive off the prize of stock which they may
be able to frighten away. These prowling
parties around a camp sometimes employ a
species of signals in imitation of wolves, owls
and other nocturnal animals, by which they
communicate with each other — mimicking
so to the life as not to give alarm to unsus-
pecting travellers.

War is seldom concluded upon, or even a
campaign undertaken, without a general coun-
cil, in which all the chiefs and most distin-
guished braves and sages assemble. After all
are seated in a circle, the pipe is passed around
until their brains are sufficiently soothed to
enable them to consult the Great Spirit, and
take freely into advisement the important
matters under consideration. Tnerefore the
tobacco smoke is usually blown upwards, as
a propitiatory incense to the invoked spirits
or genii who dwell ' upon the sky.' In this
operation the smoke is generally inhaled into

SCALP -DANCE.

279

the lungs, and discharged in murky streams
from the olfactories. If a council be prepara-
tory to a campaign, the warriors sometimes
catch the tobacco smoke in the hand, anoint-
ing their bodies with it; which they fancy
renders them, if not invulnerable, at least far
more secure from the darts of their enemies.

Although in their warfare they employ every
wile and stratagem, and faithless subterfuge,
to deceive their enemies, and in battle are re-
lentless and cruel in the extreme, yet they
seldom resort to those horrid punishments
and tortures upon their prisoners which were
wont to be inflicted by the savages of the in-
terior of the United States, during their early
wars with the whites. The practice of burn-
ing their captives alive, said to have prevailed
many years ago among some prairie tribes,
seems now to have grown quite out of use.

Upon returning from a campaign after a
defeat, the village resounds for many days with
the lamentations, the shrieks and waiUngs of
the women and children ; in which, not only
the bereft famiUes, but all the relatives and
most of the friends of the deceased join. If,
on the contrary, the warriors have been suc-
cessful, and bring home scalps of their ene-
mies, all join in their most famous festival, the
scalp-dance. In this fete the savage trophies
are usually elevated upon a pole in the centi*e
of the dance ; or perhaps the brave captors
retain them in their hands, tossing and swing-
ing them about their heads ; at the same time
vehemently apostrophizing these ghastly re-

280 PIPE OF PEACE.

presentatives of their enemies, with the most
taunting and insulting bravadoes; brandingthe
nation with cowardice and effeminacy ; daring
them to come forward and revenge the blood
of their slain ; then concluding with scoffs
and exulting yells at the dastardly silence of
their enemies, whom they represent as afraid
to whisper a note of vengeance against their
superiors and masters, the triumphing con-
querors. After the warriors have become fa-
tigued, the squaws and children generally
continue the barbarous festivity ; in the midst
of which some vainglorious brave will rise
perhaps, and repeat the apostrophic fanfaro-
nades, representing that the very squaws and
papooses hold them in cowering submission,
and that henceforth these only will be sent to
subdue them ; their warriors being reserved
for more noble enemies. These brutal rites
and rodomontades being concluded, the scalps
are handed to their owners, who cure and
paint them for future war-dances and other
kindred ceremonies.

When a tribe wishes to celebrate a treaty
of peace with an enemy, a number of
their warriors, as ambassadors, or perhaps a
whole band, move to the neighborhood, and
send the calumet or pipe of peace, which sup-
plies the place of the* flag of truce among
civilized nations:^ though, when the embassy

* This seems to have been of ancient and general use among the
savages of North America. " I must speak here of the Calumet"
remarks Father Marquette, •' the most mysterious thing in the
world. The sceptres of our kings are not so much respected ; for
the savages have such a deference for this pipe, that one may call

THE PEACE SMOKE. 281

is to the whites, a flag usually accompanies,
as they have learned that this is our token of
peace. The overture being accepted, the
chiefs and principals of each band meet in
council, sometimes in a wigwam, if there be
a suitable one, else in the open air, taking
their seats, as usual, upon their haunches in a
circle proportioned to the number. If there
be presents — and these are an indispensable
earnest of friendship from the whites — the
essence, the seal of the treaty, without which
negotiation is vain — these are laid in the cen-
tre. A personage in the capacity of an orderly
sergeant then lights the calumet, which he
hands to a principal chief, who, before smok-
ing, usually points the stem towards the four
cardinal points, and towards the heavens and
the earth — then takes a certain number of
whiffs (generally about three), and passing it
to the next, who draws an equal number of
whiffs, it thus continues around the circle, in
the direction of the sun, each sending fumid

it the god of peace and war, and the arbiter of life and death. One,
with this calumet, may venture amongst his enemies, and in the
hottest engagement they lay down their arms before this sacred
pipe." The deference is perhaps not so great al the present day,
though the ' pipe of peace' is still very much respected. Even the
ashes from the calumet seem to be held sacred ; for, usually after
smoking, the pipe is emptied in some corner of the lodge specially
allotted for the purpose. But as they have generally learned that
smoking is not practised by the whites on these occasions, it is now
not commonly held important for us to smoke with them ; but pre-
sents are expected instead. Anciently, however, they were more
strict; for, in another place, the same author (in 1673) relates: —
" As soon as we sat down, they presented us, according to custom,
their calumet, which one must needs accept, for else he should be
lookt upon as an enemy, or a meer brute ; however, it is not neces-
«ary to smoak, and provided one puts it to his mouth, it is enough."
24*'

282 PUBLIC NEWS-CrJERS.

currents upward from the nozzle. It seems
looked upon as sacrilege for a person to pass
before the pipe while the chiefs are smoking ;
and the heedless or impudent are sometimes
severely punished for the act. The ' big talk'
follows, and the presents are distributed by a
chief who exercises the office of commissary.
But in the petty, truces among each other,
presents are scarcely expected, except they
be claimed by the more powerful party as a
matter of tribute.

Travellers and hunters are generally obliged
to hold a treaty or 'big talk' with every band
of prairie Indians they may encounter, if they
wish to maintain friendly relations with them.
Treaties haA'-e also been held, at different pe-
riods, with most of the wild tribes, by agents
of the U. S. Government, yet for the most part
with but very little effect — they generally for-
get or disregard them by the time the presents
they may have received are consumed.

These treaties, as well as other council de-
liberations, are generally promulgated by a
sort of public crier, who proclaims the stipu-
lations and resolutions from lodge to lodge ;
and the event is preserved in the memory of
the sages to future generations. Among some
of the tribes their memory is assisted by the
famous 'wampum belt,' which is a list or belt
made of wampum beads, so interwoven ia
hieroglyphic figures as to form a record of im-
portant events. Others preserve the same by
hieroglyphic paintings on their buffalo rugs,
and the like.

THE BOW AND ARROW. 283

The arms of the wild Indians are chiefly
the bow and arrows, with the use of which
they become remarkably expert. A dextrous
savage will lay a wager, at short shots, against
many riflemen. Indeed, there is hardly any
more effective weapon than the bow and ar-
row in the hands of an expert archer. While
the musketeer will load and fire once, the
bowman will discharge a dozen arrows, and
that, at distances under fifty yards, with an
accuracy nearly equal to the rifle. In a charge,
they are eminently serviceable ; for the In-
dian seems to discharge his arrows with about
as much certainty when running at full speed
as when standing.

The usual length . of the Indian bow is
about three feet, though it is sometimes as
much as four. It is generally made of elastic
wood, yet elk's horn is occasionally used.
Those of the latter are made of two of the
longest and straightest shafts, which, being
sha\^ed down to the necessary proportions,
are united by lapping their ends together and
binding them firmly with sinew. Bows have
also been made, in the same manner, of a pair
of buffalo ribs ; but as well these as those of
elk-horn, are rather items of curiosity than of
service : at least, they are not equal to bows
of the bois-d'arc tree. Even the backs of the
wooden bows are often lined the whole length
with a broad strip of sinew, and the whole
wrapped with shreds of the same. The ar-
rows are generally about thirty inches long,
and pointed with iron, though the primitive

284 WAR EQUIPAGE.

flint points are still met with among some of
the wildest tribes.

Besides these, the lance or spear, the nse
of which they may have learned from the
Mexicans, is an effective weapon in the charge
as well as the chase. Many are also provided
with the Northwestern fusil, and some have
rifles. Very few, however, have acquired the
dexterity of our frontier Indians with this
deadly weapon. But no Indian deems his
equipage complete without a ' scalping-knife ;'
yet among the western prairie Indians the
tomahaWk is but little known. These em-
ploy, in its stead, the war-club or ' war-
hawk,' which are bludgeons with an encased
stone for a head in the former, and with a
transverse blade or spike in its place in the
latter. Many are provided with shields of
raw buffalo or elk skin, upon which are fre-
quently painted some rude hieroglyphical de-
vices representing the enemies they have
slain, as well as any other notable exploits of
which they can boast. Such as are without
these have their titles to renown recorded
commonly upon the handles of their hatchets,
their war-clubs, or perhaps tattooed upon their
breasts or arms.

Besides war, hunting seems the only credit-
able employment in Avhich a warrior can en-
gage. Every other labor, is put upon the
squaws ; and even when a party of hun-
ters set out, they generally provide themselves
with enough of these ' menials' to take charge
of the meat : the Indian only deigns to shoot

HUNTING AND DANCING. 285

down the game; the squaws not only have it
to cure and pack, but to skin and dress.

Except such tribes as are expert with the
rifle, very few of the prairie Indians hunt
other game than the buffalo: not, as some
have presumed, because they deem all small
game too ignoble for them, but because the
former is at once easiest taken, and affords the
most bounteous supply of food. The antelope
is too wild and fleet for their mode of hunt-
ing, and is only occasionally taken by strata-
gem; while the deer, as difficult to take in
the chase, is less easily entrapped. But,
mounted upon their trained steeds, and with
the arrow or lance, they are not to be excelled
in the chase. A few of them, let loose among
a herd of buffalo, will soon have the plain
strewed with their carcasses.

Among the amusements of the Indians
generally, dancing is perhaps the most favor-
ite. Besides a war accompaniment, it is prac-
tised as a recreation, and often connected
with their worship. Their social frolics, in
which the squaws are commonly permitted
to join, are conducted with less ferocity of
manner than their war dances ; though even
these are accompanied with the wildest and
most comical gesticulations, and songs full at
once of mirth and obscenity. In these, as
well as in the war and scalp dances, a sort of
little drum and a shrill squeaking pipe are
their common instruments of music.

As so many tongues, entirely different, are
spoken by the prairie Indians, a ' language of

286 INDIAN TELEGRAPHS.

signs' has become the general medium of
communication between the different nations.
This system of signs has been brought to such
perfection among them, that the most intri-
cate correspondence seems to be intelHgibly
conducted by such as have acquired a profi-
ciency in this ' dumb language.'

Their systems of telegraphs are very pecu-
Har, and though they might seem impractica-
ble at first, yet so thoroughly are they under-
stood by the savages, that it is availed of fre-
quently to immense advantage. The most
remarkable is by raising smokes, by v^hich
many important facts are communicated to a
considerable distance — and made intelligible
by the manner, size, number or repetition of
the smokes, which are commonly raised by
firing spots of dry grass. When traveUing,
they will also pile heaps of stones upon
mounds or conspicuous points, so arranged
as to be understood by their passing com-
rades ; and sometimes they set up the bleach-
ed buffalo heads, which are everywhere scat-
tered over those plains, to indicate the direc-
tion of their march, and many other facts
which may be communicated by those simple
signs.

Almost every tribe has some peculiarity in
the construction of their lodges or wigwams,
in the manner of arranging their camps, and
in the different items of dress, by any or all
which peculiarities the experienced traveller
is able to recognize the tribe of their owner.
If a moccasin, or other article of apparel be

WIGWAMS OR LODGES. 287

found, he at once designates the nation to
which it belongs — even a track is often suf-
ficient to identify them.^ Also by the ' sign/
and especially the remains of fires, he deter-
mines the interval elapsed since their depart-
ure, with remarkable accuracy.

The lodges are composed of a frame of
small poles or rods, covered usually with buf-
falo skins, which receive but httle further pre-
paration than the currying off of the hair.
Some give their lodges a round wagon-top
shape, as those of the Osages, which com-
monly consist of a frame of bent rods, re-
sembling wagon-bows, and covered with skins,
the bark of trees, or, as is generally the case
in their villages, with grass and earth. Again,
some dispose the poles in two parallel lines^
and incline them against a ridge-pole, which
gives the wigwam the shape of a house-roof:
others, planting small rods in a circle, so twine
the points together as to resemble, in some
degree, when covered, a rounded hay-mow:
but by far the most general style, among the
wild tribes, of constructing their wigwams, is
by planting the lodge-poles so as to enclose a
circular area of from ten to twenty feet in
diameter (the size depending upon the num-
ber of the family) ; and the tops being brought
together, it forms a conical frame, which
is closely covered with skins, except an
aperture in the apex for the escape of the

* As many tribes make their moccasins of different shapes —
some with hooked toes, others hroad — some with the seam on the
bottom, etc., there is always a palpable difference in the tracks.

288 USEFUL DOGS.

smoke. This is the style of the Comanches
and most other tribes of the great plains.
The doors of the lodges being closed with a
skin, they are kept very comfortable in wintei
with but little fire. This is kindled in the
centre, and the smoke is discharged so freely
through the hole in the vertex of the apart-
ment, that the interior is but little infected by
it.

These lodges are always pitched or set up
by the squaws, and with such expedition, that,
upon the stopping of an itinerant band, a town
springs up in a desert valley in a few minutes,
as if by enchantment. The lodge-poles are
often neatly prepared, and carried along from
camp to camp. In conveying them, one end
frequently drags on the ground ; whereby the
trail is known to be that of a band with fami-
lies, as war parties never carry lodge-poles.
The Chayennes, Sioux and some other north-
ern tribes, often employ dogs for carrying and
dragging- their lodge covers and poles ; indeed
for conveying most of their light baggage :
but, for ordinary travelling purposes and pack-
ing their more weighty baggage, they use
horses. So few navigable waters traverse the
Prairies, that none of the Indians of the. high
plains have learned the use of canoes or wa-
ter-craft of any kind.

There is some variety in the dress in vogue
among the different tribes; though they all use
moccasins, leggins, flap or breech-clout, and,
when not in active pursuits, they generally
wrap their bodies in buffalo rugs, blankets or

INDIAN costume: 289

mantles of strouding, according to their wealth
or opportunities. Some of the northern tribes
display considerable ingenuity and taste in
the manufacture of moccasins. But this is
the work of the women, who often embroider
them with beads and colored porcupine quills,
in a most beautiful manner. The leggin is
a buckskin or cloth covering for the leg and
thigh, as of the pantaloon. A superfluous Ust
is usually left outside the seam, which, if of
skin, is shtted into long tassels, or if of cloth,
the wide border remains entire, to dangle and
flap upon the exterior of the legs. A strip of
strouding (that is, coarse broad-cloth) about a
foot in width and a yard or more long, con-
stitutes the most usual flap ; which being
passed betwixt the legs, the ends are secured
under the belt around the waist, whence the
leggins are suspended. As the flap is some-
times near two yards long, a surplusage of
half a yard or more at each end is sometimes
left danohns^ doivn before and behind.

The Indians use no head-dress, but support
the bleakest rains and hottest suns of those
bare plains with naked heads. Nevertheless,
their coarse black hair seems ' fertilized' by
exposure ; for they rarely become gray till an
exceeding old age ; and I do not recollect to
have ever seen a bald Indian. Their eye-
sight also, they retain in extraordinary vigor,
notwithstanding the want of protection even
of the eye-lashes and brows (which are pluck-
ed out), and in spite of the constant use of
apparently deleterious paints around the edges

VOL, II. 25

290 PAINTING AND TATTOOING.

of the lids. Though using no regular head-
dress, they sometimes wear, as a temporary
ornament, a fantastic cap of skins ; and it is
not unusual to see a brave with the entire
shaggy frontlet of a buffalo, horns and all,
set upon his head — which, with his painted
face, imparts a diabohcal ferocity to his as-
pect.

The Indians of the Plains, almost without
exception, wear long hair, which dangles in
clotted tresses over the shoulders — besmeared
with gum, grease and paints, and ornamented
with feathers and trinkets. But most of those
intermediate tribes nearer our border, trim
their hair in a peculiar manner.

Vermillion seems almost indispensable to
the Indian's toilet ; but in default of this they
paint with colored earths. When going to
war, they bedaub their bodies with something
black — mud, charcoal or gunpowder, wliich
gives them a frightful appearance. But ' orna-
mental' painting is much more gay and fanci-
ful. The face, and sometimes arms and
breast are oddly striped and chequered, in-
terspersed with shades of yellow and white
clay, as well as occasional black, though the
latter is chiefly appropriated to war. Especial
pains are taken to tip the eyehds most gaily
with Vermillion.

Besides painting, most of the tribes tattoo —
some sparingly, while others make their faces,
breasts, and particularly their arms, perfectly
piebald. This seems practised to some ex-
tent by all the savages from the Atlantic

THE Indian's toilet. 291

to the Pacific. Figures are pierced in the
skin with any sharp pointed instrument —
often the keen prickles of the cactus — and
pulverized charcoal or gunpowder, or some-
times the coloring juice of a plant, is rubbed
into the fresh punctures, wliich leaves a last-
ing stain.

The most usual female dress is of the style
worn by the Comanche squaws, which is de-
scribed in speaking of that nation. With re-
spect to dress and other ornaments, however,
the order of the civilized world is reversed
among the Indians. The ' fair sex' paint less
than the men — use fewer ornaments generally,
and particularly, wear no pendants in the
ears. While a savage beauty pays but lit-
tle attention to her person, * a ' brave' will
spend as much time at his toilet as a French
belle, in the adjustment of his ornaments —
his paint, trinkets, beads and other gewgaws.
A. mirror is his idol : no warrior is equipped
without this indispensable toilet companion,
which he very frequently consults. He usu-
ally takes it from its original case, and sets it
in a large fancifully carved frame of wood,
which is always carried about him. He is
also rarely without his tweezers, whether of a
fold of tin, of hardened wood, or of spirally
twisted wire, with which he carefully eradi-
cates, not only his beard, eye-lashes and brows,
but every villous particle from his body, as
fast as it appears ; for everything of the kind
is considered as extremely unbecoming a
warrior. It is on this account that Indians

292 GEWGAWS AND TRINKETS.

have frequently been represented as naturally
beardless.

All Indians are passionately fond of beads,
trinkets and gewgaws of every kind. The
men often cut up the rim of the ears in a
frightful manner to admit their pendants of
beads, plate, shells, etc. ; and even strips of
lead are sometimes twined around the separat-
ed rim, by the weight of which the detached
portion of the ear is frequently s wagged down
some inches. It is not unusual to see near half
a pound even of beads and 'jewelry' swung
to each ear ; and among some tribes, also a
large quantity to the nose. The hair is like-
wise garnished with the same, and the neck
with strings of beads, bear's claws, and the
hke; while the arms are profusely ornamented
with bracelets of wire or plated metal. The
* braves' are those who commonly deck them-
selves with the most gaudy trappings, and
would usually be taken by a stranger for the
chiefs of the band, who, on the other hand,
are often apparelled in the most ordinary
manner.

The squaws are, in every sense of the word,
the slaves of the men. They are called upon
to perform every toilsome service — to carry
wood and make fires — to skin and dress the
meat and prepare the food — to herd, drive uj).
saddle and unsaddle their lords' horses — to
pitch and strike the lodges — to pack up the
baggage, and often indeed to carry heavy
loads during travel — in short, everything else
pretty much but fight and hunt, which the

DRESSING THE BUFFALO RUG. 293

Indian boasts of^ as being his peculiar, if not
his sole vocations.

What little of manufacturing is done among
the Indians is also the work of the women.
They prepare the different articles of apparel.
In embroidering moccasins and their leath-
ern petticoats, etc., their greatest skill, parti-
cularly among the northern tribes, is exhibit-
ed. But the most extensive article of their
manufacture is the huffcdo 7'ug, which they not
only prepare for their own use, but which
constitutes the largest item of their traffic with
the Indian traders. These are dressed and
cured exclusively by the squaws.

To dress a buffalo rug, the first step is to
* flesh' the skin, or neatly scrape from the inner
surface every carneous particle. This is gene-
!ally done with an instrument of bone, cut
something in the shape of a small adz, with
X serrate edge. For this operation the skin
is sometimes suspended in a frame upon the
branch of a tree, or a fork of the lodge —
though more commonly, perhaps, stretched
with pegs upon the smooth ground, with the
flesh-side up. After it dries, the spongy sur-
face of the skin is neatly curried off with an-
other adz-shaped bone or handle of wood,
with a flat bit of iron transversely set for the
blade, which is edged after the manner of a
currier's instrument. The surface is then be-
smeared with brains (which the Canadians
call inettre a la cervelle), and rolled up with the
flesh-side in, in which condition it is left for
two or three days. The brains of the same

25»

294 THE BUFFALO RUG, ETC.

animals are generally used; those of a buflalo
being more than sufficient to dress his own
hide. The pores of the skin being fully pene-
trated by the brains, it is again wetted, and
softened by continual working and rubbing
till it dries. To facilitate this last operation, it
is sometimes stretched in a frame and sus-
pended before a fire, when the inner surface
is scraped with the serrated adz before men-
tioned, and finished off by assiduous rubbing
with a pumice-stone, if that article can be
had ; if not, by passing the skin by small sec-
tions rapidly back and forth over a slack cord.

Buffalo rugs are often observed with a
seam in the middle. This is caused by cut-
ting them in two, partly for convenience in
dressing them, and partly to take out the hol-
low occasioned by the hump, particularly of
the bulls. The hump of the cow being less,
their skins generally bear dressing without
being cut. The hide is frequently spht in
two, however, in skinning the animal, the In-
dians preferring to commence on the back.

The buffalo skin is often dressed without
the wool. To this end the hide is soaked in
water till the hair is loosened, Avhen it is 'cur-
ried' and 'brained,' and softened as above.
Of these dressed buffalo skins (known among
Mexicans as anta hlancd) is made a considera-
ble portion of the Indian clothing for both
sexes — even the petticoats of the females;
though these prefer buckskin when they can
procure it.

The chief aUment of the Prairie Indians is

I

I^;DIAN DIET. 295

tlesh, though in default of this they often sus-
tain themselves for weeks together«upon roots,
herbs and fruits. The buffalo are the com-
mon herds of these savages, affording them
'food, raiment and shelter.' It seems there
were anciently occasional cannibal tribes^ in
those regions, but not a vestige of cannibal-
ism, as I believe, now remains ; except such
an inhuman appetite may be ascribed to some
of the more savage warriors, who, as I have
heard, in the delirium of exultant victory,
have been known to devour the hearts of their
bravest victims, at once to satiate their blood-
thirsty propensities, and to appropriate to'
themselves, as they fancy, the valor of the
slain enemy.

However, they make food of nearly every
animal of their country, and often of insects
and even the filthiest vermin. By some
tribes, grasshoppers, locusts and the like are
collected and dried for future use. Among
nearly all the northern tribes, the flesh of the
dogt is considered as the greatest delicacy ; so
much so, indeed, that when a favorite visitor is
expected to dine, they are sure to have served
up for him the choicest pieces from some one
of the many fat whelps which pertain to every
lodge. In this way travellers have often been

* A diminutive tribe on the Texas border, called Tonkewas,
made food of human flesh within the present century, and, it may-
be, of late years, though I have not heard it mentioned.

t Dogs seem always to have been a favorite article of food
among the aborigines of different parts. Father Marquette, in his
voyage down the Mississippi in 1673, remarks of an Indian feast,
•' The third service was a huge Dog, whom they killed on pur-
\?ose," &c.

296 SAVAGE FEASTING.

constrained to eat Indian dog-meat, and which,
prejudice apart, is by no means an unsavory
viand; but the flesh of the wolf, and even
the American dog, is generally said to be ill-
fiavored and sometimes insupportable. The
polecat is also a favorite food among the In-
dians ; and though the celebrated Irving, dur-
ing a " Tour on the Prairies," seems to claim
a deal of credit for having "plumped into tlie
river" a dressed polecat, whereby he prevent-
ed an Osage from " disgracing" their fire by
the cooking of it, yet all travellers who have
jtasted the flesh of this animal have pro-
nounced it fine, and of exquisite rehsh. " The
flesh of the skunk," observes Dr. James, in
his account of Maj. Long's Expedition, " we
sometimes had dressed for dinner, and found
it remarkably rich and delicate food."

These wld tribes are without other kitchen
utensils than an occasional kettle. They
sometimes broil their meats, but often eat
them raw. A savage will feast upon the
warm carcass of the buflalo ; selecting bits
of the tenderloin, liver, etc., and it is not un-
common to see him use the gall as sauce !
Feasting is one of their favorite enjoyments ;
though their ability to endure hunger almost
exceeds belief. They will fast a week and
yet retain their strength and vigor : but then
when they do procure food again, it seems as
if they never would be satiated.

The Indians of the Prairies have become
acquainted with the medical virtues of many
of their indigenous plants, which are often

MEDICAL PRACTICE. 297

used in connection with the vapor sweat, and
cold bath : wherefore we may consider them
as the primitive Thomsonians. After a pro-
fuse sweating, assisted by decoctions of sudo-
rific herbs, in a tight lodge filled with vapor
by pouring water over heated stones, and
while still dripping, they will leap into a pool
of cold water, and afterwards wrap them-
selves in a buffalo rug. This course has
proved successful in some diseases, and ex-
traordinary cures have thus been performed :
but in other cases, and especially in the
small-pox, it has been attended with hor-
rible fatality. They frequently let blood for
disease, which is oftenest performed with the
keen edge of a flint : and though they some-
times open a vein, they more commonly make
their incisions indiscriminately. They have
great faith in their ' medicine men,' who pre-
tend to cure the sick with conjurations and
charms ; and the Comanches and many
others often keep up an irksome, monotonous
singing over the diseased person, to frighten
away the evil spirit which is supposed to tor-
ment him : all of which, from its efifect upon
the imagination, often tends, no doubt, to
hasten recovery.

These Indians keep no domestic animals,
except horses, mules, and dogs. With the
latter every lodge is abundantly supplied ; yet,
as has already been shown, they are more
nseful appendages than the annoying packs
which so often infest the country cabins, and
frequently the villages, in the United States.

298 THE WAMPUM.

Horses, however, constitute the chief wealth
of the prairie Indian. These are the incen-
tives to most of their predatory excursions.
The tribes of the north in particular, as well
as the white trappers, frequently maintain their
horses, during winter, l^pon the tender bark
of the sweet cotton wood, the populus angulata
of the Mississippi valley.

The western savages know nothing of the
value of money. The wampum bead, it is
true, among a few tribes, somewhat resembles
a currency: for, being generally esteemed, it ac-
quires a value in proportion to size, and some-
times passes from hand to hand, in exchange
for necessaries. The legitimate wampum
is only of shells, and was of aboriginal manu-
facture ; being small long tubes with an ovate
surface, or sometimes simply cylindrical ; and
handsomely polished: but imitations of glass
or porcelain seem now the most common.
The color is generally white, though some-
times blue or striped.

These Indians have no knowledge of the
divisions of time, except by palpable distinc-
tions ; as days, moons and years ; which last
they commonly represent as so many springs,
or falls of the leaves, or as often by winters, that
is, frosts or snows. Distances are represented
by days' journey, which are oftener designat-
ed by camps or ' sleeps.' When a day's jour-
ney is spoken of in general terms, it is meant
that of a band in regular travel, which rarely
exceeds twenty miles.

CHAPTER XV.

INDIANS OF THE PRAIRIES.

Intermediate Tribes — Their Wigwams and their Hunting Ex-
cursions— Dress and Cut of their Hair — The Pawnees — The
Osages — Their Roguery — Matrimonial Customs — Accom-
plished Mourners — Their Superstitions — The Indian Stature —
The 'Pawnee Picts' — Wild Tribes — Census — The Coman-
ches — Their Range — Their Sobriety — Their Chiefs, etc. — •
Female Chastity — Comanche Marriage — Costumes — Horse-
manship— Comanche Warfare — Predatory Forays — Martial
Ceremonies — Treatment of Captives — Burial and Religious
Rites.

The tribes inhabiting near the borders of
the frontier Indians differ from those that
range the far-western prairies in several traits
of general character. The former have their
fixed villages, and, for the most part, combine
the pursuits of agriculture and the chase.
They form, indeed, a sort of intermediate
class between the frontier and the wild tribes,
resembling the one or the other in all import-
ant particulars. I will merely notice in this
place a few of the characteristics by which
the more conspicuous of these tribes are dis-
tinguished.

Their village wigwams differ from the
lodges of the wilder tribes, in their being

300 THE PAWNEES.

much more substantial, and usually covered
with grass and earth instead of skins. The
Indians commonly remain in their villages
during the inclement portion of the winter;
yet most of them spend the early spring upon
the Prairies in buffalo-hunting; as well as such
portions of the summer and autumn as are
not occupied in the cultivation and gathering
of their crops, which they secure in caches till
their return.

In dress they differ but little from the wilder
tribes, except that, having more communica-
tion with the Avhites, they make greater use
of our fabrics — blankets, coarse cloths, cali-
coes and the like. Their most striking pe-
culiarity consists in the cut of their hair.
Most of them, instead, hke the Indians of the
Plains, of wearing the hair long, trim and ar-
range it in the most fantastic style. In the
care bestowed upon this part of their toilet,
they cannot be excelled by the most soigneux
of civihzed dandies. They shave a large por-
tion of the head, but leave a fanciful lock
upon the crown as a scalp-crest (an indispen-
sable trophy for the enemy), which is in gene-
ral gorgeously bedecked with painted feathers
and gewgaws.

The Pawnees, who now have their princi-
pal village on the Loup Fork of the Platte
river, are perhaps the most famous of these
tribes. Small bands of their war-parties roam
on foot through every portion of the Prairies,
often to the Mexican frontier, though they
generally contrive to return well mounted.

THE OSAGES. 301

When upon these expeditions, they may pro-
perly enough be considered the Ishmaehtes
of the Prairies — their hands are against every
man, and every man's hand is against them.
They will skulk about in the vicinity of a
prize of mules or horses for several days un-
suspected, till a favorable opportunity offers
to pounce upon them.

This nation is divided into four principal
bands, the Grand Pawnees (or Grand Pans^
as called by the Canadians), the Republics,
the Mahas or Loups, and the Tapage or Noisy
Pawnees. Their relatives, the Rickaras, are
now considered a distinct tribe.

The Osages are at present the most import-
ant western branch of the Dahcotah stock,
after the Sioux. There are two bands of
them, the Big and Little Osages. Though the
Pawnees stand most prominent as prairie
marauders, these are unsurpassed in simple
rogueries. Expertness at stealing appears in-
deed to constitute a part of their faith, and an
all-important branch of education, in which
degrees are conferred in true 'academic order;'
for I have been assured, that, in their coun-
cils, the claims of the candidates to the honors
of rogueship are duly considered, and to the
most proficient is awarded an honorary badge
— the right to wear a fancy feather stuck
athwart his scalp-crest.

The habitudes of the Osages do not appear
to have undergone any material change, not-
withstanding the exertions of the government
and the missionaries to civilize and to cliris-

voL. II 26

302 OSAGE MARRIAGE.

tianize them. Some of their matrimonial
customs are very curious and rather pecu-
liar. The eldest daughter seems not only
* heiress apparent,' but, when married, be-
comes absolute owner of the entire property
and household of her parents — family and all.
While single, however, she has no authority,
but is herself held as a piece of merchanta-
ble property, estimated somewhat as in civi-
Hzed life, in proportion to her ' charms,' and
to the value of her ' hereditaments.' She is
therefore kept under the strictest watch by her
parents, that she may not diminish her worth
by any improper conduct.

When some warrior ' beau' has taken a
fancy to the heiress and wishes to possess her
and her estate of sisters, dogs, rugs and house-
hold, he takes his finest horses, (and if she be
a ' belle' he need not attempt it unless he
have some of the noblest), and tying them at
her lodge door departs without saying a word ;
leaving them, like a slow-match, silently to
effect his purpose. After the 'pretender' has
disappeared, the matron of the premises and
her lord inspect the valuables, the ' demure
damsel' barely venturing a sly peep through
some crevice of the wigwam. If the offer be
found unworthy, the horses are sent back to
the owner as silently as they came, or may-
be with some apology, provided he be a war-
rior whom they are afraid of offending. But
if accepted, the father takes instead some of
his own horses and ties them at the door of
the proposer, as a token of admission. If the

TAKING THE WHOLE FAMILY. o03

parties be without horses some other valuables
are employed in lieu. After this the marriage
is solemnized with a joyous fete, and their
primitive ceremonies.

But now the son-in-law is fully indemni-
fied for his heavy ' disbursement' in the pur-
chase of his bride ; for he at once becomes
possessor of the entire wealth of his father-in-
law — master of the family-lodge and all the
household : if there be a dozen younger
daughters, they are all his de droit — his wives
or slaves as we may choose to consider them :
in fact, the ' heiress' herself seems in the same
predicament, and the wife among them all
who may have the tact to gain the husband's
affections, generally becomes mistress of the
' harem.' From the refuse of this estate of
'■ fair ones' the indigent warriors and inferior
Indians who are not able to purchase an 'heir-
ess' are apt to supply themselves with wives
upon a cheaper scale.^

The Osages bury their dead according to
the usual Indian mode ; and, though it seems
always to have been the custom among most

* The custom of taking all the sisters of a family is also said to
be common among the Kansas, Omahas and other kindred tribes ;
indeed it appears to have prevailed from the earliest ages among all
the Dahcotah family as well as many Algon quins and most other
tribes about the great Lakes. Mons. La Salle, in his trip from these
to the Mississippi in 1673, remarks of the savages of those regions:
" They marry several Wives, and commonly all Sisters, if they
can, thinking they agree better in their Family." Hennepin, Char-
levoix and others speak of the same custom. Murray also men
tions something of the kind aiTwng the Pawnees. Forbes alludes
to the same in California. But I am uninformed, whether, in these
several instances, the husband's right was only de facto, of de jure
as among the Osages, to all the younger sisters.

304 OSAGE MOURNERS.

savage nations, to keep up a chorus of hideous
cries and yells for a long while after the death
of a relative, yet the Osages are by far the
most accomplished mourners of them all. Be-
ing once encamped near a party of them, I
was wakened at the dawn of day by the most
doleful, piteous, heart-rending howls and la-
mentations. The apparently distressed mourn-
er would cry with a protracted expiration till
completely out of breath. For some instants
he seemed to be in the very last agonies :
then he would recover breath with a smother-
ed, gurgling inspiration : and thus he con-
tinued for several minutes, giving vent to
n^ery variety of hideous and terrific sounds,
jooking around, I perceived the weeper stand-
ing with his face towards the faint gleam
which flitted from the still obscured sun.
This was perhaps his idol ; else he was standing
thus because his deceased relation lay in that
direction. A full ' choir' of these mourners
(which is always joined by the howls and
yelps of their myriads of dogs), imparts the
most frightful horror to a wilderness camp.

It is considered among these as well as
other ' crying' tribes, quite a merit to be a
graceful weeper : it becomes even a profitable
vocation to those whose eyes and lungs are
most capacious of such things. If you tell
an Osage that you have lost a kinsman or
friend for whom you wish him to mourn, he
will undertake the service for a trifling re-
ward— and acquit himself with more 'credit'
— more to the spirit than the best tragic

WACOES, WITCHITAS, ETC. 305

actor. He will mimic every exterior indica-
tion of grief and tlie most heart-felt wailing,
till the tears trickle in torrents down his cheeks.

The Osages seem generally to worship a
good and evil spirit, and to believe in the
most usual Indian paradise. No people can
have more implicit faith in witchcraft and all
kinds of sorcery and superstitions — such as
holding converse with deceased friends or
relations — appointing a time to die, etc. :
and instances are related of their fancying
themselves thus called to the world of spirits,
which would so powerfully affect the imagina-
tion as to cause them to pine away, and some-
times die even to the appointed day.

Owing partially, no doubt, to the burden-
some life they lead, the squaws of all the
tribes are, for the most part, much more in-
clined to corpulency than the men. They
are generally chubby and ill-favored, while the
males are usually tall, erect, well-turned and
active. For their proverbial straightness, how-
ever, the Osages are perhaps more famous
than any of the other prairie Indians.

The Wacoes, Witchitas and their kindred
tribes on Red River, are, for the most part, a
very indigent race. They are chiefly remark-
able for their profuse tattooing, whereby they
have sometimes acquired the title of ' Pawnee
Picts:' the females particularly make a per-
fect calico of the whole under-jaw, breast and
arms, and the mammae are fancifully orna-
mented with rings and rays. The tattoo, in
fact, seems to constitute the chief female or»

26^

S06 THE WILD TRIBES.

nament of these tribes ; for their only gown
consists of about a yard and a half of strouding,
or else a small dressed skin, suspended from the
waist, and constituting a sort of primitive petti-
coat. The upper portion of the body remains
uncovered, except by a blanket or small skin,
thrown loosely over the shoulders. The men
are often without any other vesture than the
flap, and sometimes a buffalo rug or blanket.
As the remaining tribes of this intermedi-
ate class present few or no distinctive charac-
teristics, we will pass at once to the considera-
tion of the ivild tribes proper of the Great
Western Prairies.^ These neither cultivate
the soil nor live in fixed villages, but lead a
roving life in pursuit of plunder and game,
and without ever submitting themselves to
that repose — to those fixed habits, which must
always precede any progress in civilization.
Bat as the Comanches are the only tribe of
these 'wandering Arabs' of the Plains which

* The population of the intermediate tiibes, according to the Report
of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, for 1844 is as follows : Paw-
nees, 12,500 souls (though some experienced traders rate them
at only about 5,000); Rickaras, 1,200; Chippewas, Potawato-
mies and Ottawas of the North, 2,298 ; Sacs and Foxes, 2,762;
Winnebagoes, 2,183; lowas, 470; Poncas, 777; Omahas, 1,301;
Otoes and Missouries, 931; Kansas, 1,700; Osages, 4,102;— be-
eides of Caddoes and Inyes about 500 ; Wacoes, Witchitas, Towock-
anoes, Towyashes and Keechyes, 1,000; who maintain themselves
chiefly in Northern Texas. The wild tribes proper of the Prairies,
are, the Comanches, consisting of about 10,000 souls; Kiawas,
2,000; Apaches, 100; Arrapahoes, 2,000 ; Chayennes, 2,000 ; be-
sides many others to the north and westward, who rarely descend
within the regions to the notice of which these pages are confined.
As these tribes would doubtless average at least three-fifths females,
they could hardly turn out one-fifth of their numbers in warriors,
though this is the usual rule of estimating them by men of Indian
experience.

THE COMANCHES. 307

present any distinguishing features of inter-
est— any prominent points of national char-
acter— the remarks that follow will be devoted
almost exclusively to them.

The relationship of the Comanches to the
Snakes or Shoshonies, shows them to have de-
scended from the north : in fact, it is but half
a century since their range was from the Ar-
kansas river northward ; but at present this
stream is their ultima Thule. Yet they even
now acknowledge no boundaries, but call
themselves the lords of the entire Prairies-
all others are but ' tenants at will.' They lead
a wandering sort of life, betaking themselves
whithersoever the seasons or the habits of
the buffalo, their chief object of pursuit, may
lead them. Although during summer they
are not unfrequently found as far north as
the Arkansas river, their winters they usually
pass about the head branches of the Brazos
and Colorado rivers of Texas.

In their domestic habits, these Indians, for
the most part, resemble the other wild tribes;
yet in some respects they differ materially.
One of the most interesting traits of differ-
ence is to be found in their distaste for ardent
spirits : but few of them can be induced to
taste a drop of intoxicating liquors; tlius form-
ing an exception, I believe, to the entire race
of the * red man,' who appears to have a con-
stitutional appetite for strong drinks. The
frontier as well as the prairie tribes — the Mexi-
can as well as the Mountain Indians — all are
equally slaves to their use.

308 COMANCHE CHIEFS.

The Comanches are divided into numerous
petty bands, each under the control of its own
particular chief. When a chief becomes old
and care-worn, he exercises but the * civil au-
thority' of his clan; while his son, if deemed
worthy, otherwise some distinguished brave,
assumes, by 'common consent,' the functions
of war-chief As is the case with all barba-
rous tribes, their chiefs assume every judicial
and executive authority. Complaints are
made to them and sentence summarily pro-
nounced, and often as summarily executed.
For most offences, the chief, if he considers
his authority sufficiently well established,
freely uses the rod upon his subjects. He
rarely attempts this, however, upon noted
warriors or ' braves,' whose influence and re-
sentment he may have reason to fear. The
punishment of murder among these, as among
most of the savage nations, devolves upon
the bereaved relatives, who are free to pursue
and punish the perpetrators according to their
own liking, which is seldom short of death.
But the offended party, if disposed to com-
promise, has also the privilege of accepting a
commutation and releasing the murderer.

The husband seems to have complete
power over the destinies of his wife and
children. For adultery, his punishment is
most usually to cut off the nose or ears,^ or

* This custom was perhaps once quite extensive. It prevails
among the Creeks to the present day, and was anciently practised
hy other southern nations : and •' Among the Miamis," says Father
Charlevoix, " the Husband has a right to cut off his wife's nose
if she runs away from him."

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 309

both; and he may even take the life of his
unfaithful wife with impunity. The squaw
who has been mutilated for such a cause, is
ipso facto divorced, and, it is said, for ever pre-
cluded from marrying again. The conse-
quence is, that she becomes a confirmed har- .
lot in the tribe. Owing in part, no doubt, to
such severity in their customs, the Comanche
squaws have ever been noted for their chastity.
This may result also, in some degree, from the
circumstance, that the Comanche husbands,
fathers and brothers, seldom or never subject
their wives, daughters and sisters, to that de-
basing traffic practised among so many of the
northern nations.

Like the other wild tribes, the Comanche?
tolerate polygamy, the chiefs and braves some-
times taking as many as eight or ten wives at a
time. Three is considered the usual number,
however, for 'subjects' or common warriors,
and nine for the chiefs. Their marriage cere-
monies vary in different bands ; but the fol-
lowing has been represented as the most
usual. Unlike most other tribes, the consent
of the maiden has to be obtained. This done,
the lover, from apparent delicacy, goes not
to the father of his intended, but, in accord-
ance with a custom which prevails among
some other tribes, communicates his desire to
an uncle or other aged relative, who enters into
the marriage contract. The parties, however,
are not yet fully betrothed ; but, as a test of
the submission of the bride to the service of
her proposed lord, the latter ties his riding-

310 COMANCHE DRESS.

horse at her lodge door. If she turn him
loose, she has resolved finally to reject him ;
but if she lead him to the caballada, it is an
unequivocal agreement to take the charge of
his horses and other property ; and the mar-
riage is soon concluded. The ' uncle ' now
communicates the engagement to the chiefj
who causes the ' bans ' to be published, that
no other wooer may interfere. As the horse
is with them the type of every important in-
terest, the bridegroom next proceeds to kill
the least valuable one that he is possessed of;
and, taking out the heart, hangs it at the door
of his betrothed, who takes and roasts it, and
then dividing it into two parts, each eats a
half, which perfects the bond of wedlock.
The heart of the buffalo or other animal may
perhaps be substituted, if the bridegroom has
not a superabundance of horses. Should the
circumstances of the parties admit of it, the
marriage is usually celebrated with feasting
and dances ; though, in general, the Coman-
ches are less fond of dancing than most other
Indians.

The Comanche dress consists of the usual
leggins, moccasins, flap and blanket or robe.
Many wear in addition a kind of leathern
jerkin, or tight jacket closed before. Their
moccasins differ from those of other tribes, by
having a lengthy tassel of leathern fringes
attached to the heels, which trail the ground
as they walk. Instead of this fringe, the tas-
sel sometimes consists of the tail of a polecat
or some other animal. When he can pro-

FEMALE COSTUMES. - 311

cure it, the young warrior is wont to wear a
mantle and leggins of strouding. Both of
these articles, according to the 'latest fashions,'
should be one-half red, the other blue. The
bi-colored mantle, as well as the blanket or
buffalo rug, is carelessly thrown over the
shoulders, and must be long enough to drag
the ground ; for they seem to have an instinct
for the 'regal grandeur of a sweeping gown.'

Though all the far-western Indians wear
their hair long, the Comanche seems to take
most pride in the voluminousness of his
'tresses,' and the length of his queue^ which is
sometimes eked out with buffalo or other hair,
till its tip reaches the ground, and is bedaubed
with gum, grease and paint, and decorated
with beads and other gewgaws. We are not
to think that foppery and coxcombry are gene-
rated exclusively in civilized hfe. I am sure
I never saw a vainer creature than a Coman-
che brave in full costume, of dress, trinkets
and paint. He steps as if he disdained the
very ground upon which he walks.

The dress of -the Comanche squaw is usu-
ally a kind of loose gown or tunic of leather,
or cotton if it can be procured, which hangs
from the shoulders and is bound around the
waist with a girdle; thus presenting a resem-
blance in its appearance to our ordinary fe-
male costume. They wear moccasins, to
which short leggins are attached, and which
constitute a sort of leathern hose. They are
not permitted to wear long hair : that 'manly'
prerogative would be degraded by such an

312 AN EQUESTRIAN RACE.

association. It is therefore kept docked so
scarcely to reach the shoulders.

A style of dress similar to that of the Co-
manche females, is worn by those of most of
the erratic tribes. The squaws of the north
usually embroider their leathern frocks in a
fanciful manner with colored porcupine quills
and beads, and bedeck the borders with rat-
tling shells, tags, hawk-bells, and the hke.
Such as have the fortune to marry Canadian
or American trappers, are those who usually
dress most gaily.

The prairie Indians generally are an eques-
trian race ; yet in horsemanship the Coman-
ches stand decidedly pre-eminent; and can
only be equalled by the Northern Mexicans,
and perhaps the Arabs. Like the latter, they
dote upon their steeds : one had as well under-
take to purchase a Comanche's child as his
favorite riding-horse. They have a pecuUar
mark for their animals : every one which has
pertained to them may always be recognized
by a sht in the tip of each ear ; a practice ap-
parently universal among all their tribe.

In their warhke expeditions they avail them-
selves of their equestrian skill with wonder-
ful success. As they always fight on horse-
back, they depend chiefly upon the charge, at
which they use their arrows and javelins^
with wonderful efficacy. On such occasions
a Comanche will often throw himself upon

• The Comanches employ usually short-handled javelins or
lances, declaring, like the Spartan mother, that cowEirds only need
k)ng weapons.

PREDATORY FORAYS. 313

the opposite side of his charger, so as to be
protected from the darts of the enemy ; and,
while chnging there, he will discharge his ar-
rows with extraordinary dexterity from un-
derneath his horse's neck. Different from the
* prowling' tribes, they seldom attack at night,
or in timbered or rough regions; for they
would then be unabje to manoeuvre their
coursers to advantage.

Although not meriting the title of brave In-
dians, they are held by the Mexicans as the
most valiant of their border : but when they
come in contact with Americans or any of
our frontier tribes, they generally appear timid
and c^ardly. Their predatory forays are
therefore directed mostly westward. They
make continual inroads upon the whole east-
ern frontier of Mexico, from Chihuahua to ij^e
coast ; driving off immense numbers of horses
and mules, and killing the citizens they may
encounter, or making them prisoners — parti-
cularly the females and boys. Of the latter
they make slaves, to perform such menial ser-
vice as usually pertains to the squaws, parti-
cularly the herding of the stock. It is per-
haps this alleviation of their labor by slaves,
that has contributed to elevate the Comanche
women above those of many of the northern
tribjes. Of their female captives they often
make wives ; a fate which has befallen some
of those taken from Texas.

Strange as it may appear, their captives
frequently become attached to their masters
and to the savage life, and with difficulty are

VOL. ir. 27

314 COMANCHE TRAFFIC.

induced to leave them after a few years' cap-
tivity. In fact, these prisoners, it is said, in
time often turn out to be the most formidable
savages. Combining the subtlety of the Mexi-
can with the barbarity of the Indian, they
sometimes pilot into their native frontier and
instigate horrid outrages. The department
of Chihuahua has been the greatest sufferer
from their inroads.

But, though at continual war with the
south of the republic, for many years the Co-
manches have cultivated peace with the New
Mexicans — not only because the poverty of
the country offers fewer inducements for their
inroads, but because it is desirable, '^s with
the interior Mexican tribes, to retain some
friendly point with which to keep an amica-
bly intercourse and traffic. Parties of them
have therefore sometimes entered the settle-
ments of New Mexico for trading purposes ;
while every season numerous bands of New
Mexicans, known as Comancheros, supplied
with arms, ammunitions, trinkets, provisions
and other necessaries, launch upon the Prai-
ries to barter for mules, and the different fruits
of their ravages upon the South.

This powerful nation, combined with the
petty southern tribes, has also waged an al-
most unceasing warfare upon Texas, ever
since her independence. War-parties have
frequently penetrated to the very heart of the
settlements, perpetrating murderous outrages,
and bearing away into captivity numerous
women and children. They have entered

EQUESTRIAN EXERCISES. 315

the city of Austin, then the seat of govern-
ment, in open day ; and, at other times, have
been known to descend to the very sea-
coast, committing many frightful depredations.
" On the 8th of August, 1840," writes a friend
who resided at LinnviUe, on Matagorda Bay,
"several hundred Comanches came down
from the mountains, and charged upon us
without the least notice. They burned and
made a perfect destruction of the village and
everything pertaining to it"

Besides continual hostilities with Mexico
and Texas, the Comanches are at war with
most of the Indians of the Mexican interior,
as also with the tribes of the more northern
prairies — and particularly the Arrapahoes
and Chayennes, with whom they have many
bloody rencounters. But they generally re-
main on friendly terms with the petty tribes
of the south, whom, indeed, they seem to hold
as their vassals.

As these Indians always go to war on horse-
back, several days are often spent previous to
a campaign in equestrian exercises and cere-
monies, which seem partly to supply the place
of the war-dance of other tribes ; though they
sometimes join in preparatory dances also. It
is not an unusual custom, when a campaign
is in agitation, for a band of about twenty Co-
manche maidens to chant, for three nights in
succession, the victories of their ancestors,
the valor of their brothers and cotemporaries,
and the individual prowess of all such young
warriors as they consider should engage in

316 COMANCHE SCALP-DANCE.

the contemplated enterprise : and all those
designated by the serenading band are held as
drafted for the campaign. Fired by the enco-
miums and excitations of the 'fair cantatrices'
they fly at once to the standard of their favor-
ite chief: and the ceremony is concluded by
a war-dance.

Upon their return from a successful expe-
dition, the 'war-worn corps' halts on some
elevation at a distance from the village, and a
herald is sent forward to announce their arri-
val. Thereupon, one of their most respectable
and aged matrons issues forth to receive them,
carrying with her a very long-handled lance
kept for the purpose. On the top of this the
victorious Indians fasten all the scalps they
may have taken, so arranged that each shall
be conspicuous. The matron squaw then
approaches the wigwams, holding her scalp-
garnished lance high in the air, and chanting
some favorite war-legend. She is soon joined
by other squaws and Indian lasses, who dance
around as the procession moves through the
entire circuit of the village. If the victory has
been brilliant, the dancing and feasting are
apt to be kept up for several days, all parties
joining in the general jubilee.

If the conquerors bring any prisoners with
them, these have to encounter the scourg-
ings and insults of the squaws and children.
Each seems entitled to a blow, a kick, a
pinch, a bite, or whatever simple punishment
they may choose to inflict upon the unfortu-
nate captives. This done, they are delivered

FUNERAL PRACTICES. 317

over to the captors as slaves, and put to the
service and drudgery of the camp.

After their first entrance it seems rare for
them to treat their captives with much cruelty:
though an instance was related to me by some
Mexican prisoners, of a very barbarous mas-
sacre which they witnessed during their cap-
tivity. Two white men, supposed to be
Texans, were tied to a stake, and a number
of their marksmen, retiring to a distance and
using the naked bodies of their victims as tar-
gets, began wantonly to fire at them, and con-
tinued their horrid sport, until some fatal balls
put an end to their sufferings ! The capture
of these had probably been attended with
some aggravating circumstances, which in-
duced the savages to resort to this cruel
method of satiating their revenge.

If a campaign has been unsuccessful, the
warriors separate upon their return, and drop
into the village one by one. Nothing is now
heard for several days, but the waiiings and
bowlings of the bereft relatives and friends.
They will also scarify their arms and legs, and
subject themselves to other carnal mortifica-
tions of the most powerful character. On
these occasions their previous captives, and
particularly such as may belong to the nation
of their victorious enemy, are sure to be
roughly treated, and sometimes massacred by
the enraged relatives of the slain.

When a Comanche dies, a similar course
of mourning is practised ; and he is usually
wrapped in his best blankets or robes, and in-

27*

318 RELIGIOUS NOTIONS.

terred with most of his 'jewelry' and other
articles of esteem ; accompanying which, it
is said, an awl and some moccasin leather
is generally added, as a provision, it would
appear, for his use during his long journey to
the ' happy hunting ground' beyond the grave.
They also kill the favorite horses of the de-
ceased, which are often buried by his side,
doubtless with the same object.

The religious notions of the Comanches
resemble, in most particulars, those of the
other prairie tribes ; yet they appear to have
an occasional peculiarity. Some say the dry
buffalo head or cranium is their idol. True it is
that they show it great reverence, and use it in
many of their mystic ceremonies. The Paw-
nees also hold these buffalo heads, with which
the plains are strewed, in great reverence;
and usually for many leagues around, these
sculls are set up facing towards their villages,
in the belief that the herds of buffalo will thus
be conducted by them into their neighbor-
hood. Of the Comanches the sun is no doubt
the principal deity. When preparing for a
campaign, it is said they do not fail to place
their arms betimes every morning^ on the east
side of their lodges, that they may receive the
blessing of the fountain of light at his first
appearance. This indeed seems the usual
time for offering their devotions to the sun, of
many tribes of the American aborigines.

THE END.