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THE COPP CLARK COMPANY,
9 Front St. West,

Ltd.,
TORONTO

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

COMMERCIAL

GEOGRAPHY

E. C. K. CONNER, M.A.

BRUNNER PROFESSOR OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE
AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL

ILonUoit

MACMILLAN AND CO.

AND NEW YORK
1894

PREFACE

A Preface which may usually be dispensed with in a
work of this character is needed in this particular case for
three reasons.

In the first place, I wish to acknowledge my indebted-
ness in compiling this little handbook to several important
works, but chiefly to the invaluable Uebersichte7i der Welt-
wirthschaft^ a record started by the late Professor F. X.
Von Neumann-Spallart, but now edited by Professor Franz
Von Juraschek. It should be in the hands of all teachers
dealing with the statistics of Commercial Geography. After
this Scherzer's Produkt und Consum has been of most
assistance to me.

In the second place, it is desirable to define the position
of such a book as the present. It does not profess any
originality. It is designed as a text-book to be used in
schools and classes, and to furnish an outline sketch which
may be filled in and elaborated by the teacher or lecturer.

In the third place, I would say a word as to the method
I have employed. It is one which I have tested by several

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

years' teaching, and one which seems, to me at least, to
impress itself upon students — perhaps by reason of its
likeness to the household life with which they come into
some contact. A great many statistics have been given
with the object of illustrating the comparative position which
the various countries occupy, and their relation to the
United Kingdom. It does not follow that they should be
learnt by rote. They will serve their purpose if they are
so studied as to give the student an approximate knowledge
of the importance of the different commodities, and of the
situation and functions of the different nations.

E. C. K. GONNER.

University College, Liverpool,
August 1894.

CONTENTS

PART I

PAGE

Commercial Geography and its Principles . i

CHAPTER I
Introductory ...... 3

CHAPTER II
Leading Physical and Political Influences . 5

A. Physical Influences ..... 5

B. Political Influences . . . . .11

CHAPTER III

The Necessary Conditions of Various In
dustrial and Commercial Developments

A. Agriculture .

B. Manufacture

C. Commerce .

19
20
22

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

PART II

PAGE

The Geography of the Chief Products and
Others ....••• 29

CHAPTER I
The Production of Food and Drink

Grains .

Wheat .

Rye

Barley .

Oats .

Maize .

Potatoes

Rice

Pulses .

Animal Products

Meat, etc.

Butter .

Cheese .

Eggs .

Fish .

Sugar .

Cofifee .

Tea

Cacao .

Salt

Farinaceous Foods

Fruits .

Spices .

Drugs, etc.

33
36
43
43
44
44
46
46
48
49
49
54
55
55
55
57
60
62
63
63
64
65
65
66

CONTENTS

PAGE

Miscellaneous

Wine .

. 67

Beer .

. 69

Spirits .

Tobacco

• 71

CHAPTER II

Textile Raw Materials and their Manufac-
ture

Cotton .

Wool .

Flax .

Hemp .

Jute

Silk

Other Fibres

CHAPTER III

Other Products (chiefly Mineral) and their
Manufacture . . . . . .86

Coal

Iron

Copper

Lead

Tin

Zinc

Other Minerals

Leather, etc.

Petroleum, etc.

86
90
93
94
95
95
96
96
98

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

Timber .

Gums .

Animal and Vegetable Oils

Chemicals

Stone and Clay .

Miscellaneous .

PART III

Countries, their Agriculture, Industries, and
Commerce . . . • • .107

United Kingdom

France .

Belgium

Holland

Germany

Austria- Hungary

Switzerland

Italy .

The Balkan Peninsula

Spain and Portugal

Norway, Sweden, and Denmark

Russia .

Canada and Newfoundland

United States

Mexico .

Central America

West Indies

South America

Turkey in Asia, etc.

Asiatic Russia

British India

Further India, etc,

CONTENTS xi

China .

PAGE

i86

Japan .
Algeria, etc.
Egypt .
South Africa

i88

189

190

192

Australia

195

Tasmania

199

New Zealand

199

Oceania

. 200

Table showing the
Countries

Money in use in the Principal Foreign

. 201

Index .

. 20.-?

PART I

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY AND ITS
PRINCIPLES

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

Geography is the study of the environments of man. It
has to observe, arrange, and describe the physical con-
ditions under which he lives, and to indicate the part which
they respectively play in determining the course of his
development and the nature of his occupations. In so
doing, the geographical student must take notice also of the
most prominent political influences which co-operate with
the foregoing in producing certain effects. A scientific
pursuit of geography involves the exercise of two main
faculties and entails on the student two functions. He
must observe or collect facts, and he must arrange them
when collected. This he must do in order that he may be
able (i) to describe the facts, both political and physical,
present in a particular country or part of the world, (2) to
indicate the relation between the various facts. Thus the
possession by South America of a great number of navig-
able rivers is an important fact. But such isolated facts
are not sufficient. We must consider and learn the im-
portance to a country of a large system of internal naviga-
tion.

Commercial Geography is not a separate branch of
geography. It is merely the consideration of geographical
facts, in so far as they subserve particular ends and bring
about particular developments. In studying it we confine
ourselves to a restricted view of general geography. We
no longer ask how certain facts affect man, but we ask how

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

they affect him in his manufactures, commerce, and
agriculture, or, to use the most general terms, as producer
and consumer. Such a study is of practical importance,
because it teaches —

a. The different industrial or commercial occupations of

different countries, districts, and towns.

b. The localities in which different goods (food, raw-

material or manufactures) are produced.

c. The relations uniting these, e.g. one country buying

from another, as England procures raw cotton
from the United States of America.

d. The conditions on which national success in the

various industrial or commercial occupationr
depends. Thus a knowledge of commercial
geography teaches the directions in which future
developments may take place.
In studying these various matters two subjects present
themselves at once for inquiry : —

(i) The ways in which his physical and political
surroundings affect man in his manufacturing,
commercial, and agricultural capacities, i.e. in-
dustrially or commercially.
(2) The respective conditions of success in the various
industrial branches.

CHAPTER II

LEADING PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES

Though it is not possible to enumerate all the varying
influences which affect man in his economic character, they
may be grouped under certain headings which will show
the nature of the effect which they are likely to produce.
And first of all, these so-called geographical influences
which surround and determine the course of the develop-
ment of the various nations must be broadly divided into —
A. Physical. B. Political.

A. PHYSICAL INFLUENCES.

The physical surroundings are capable of separation
into three groups, each requiring separate consideration,
(i) Natural Formations and Position.

(2) Natural Forces.

(3) Soil and Mineral Deposits.

(i) Natural Formations and Geographical Position.

— Among the conditions falling under the heading which
affect a country in its economic {i.e. industrial and
commercial) developments, two require notice.

a. Proxiuiity to the sea and possession of navigable
water-ways. — By its proximity to the sea a country is chiefly
affected in two ways.

i. In respect of its climate. In this connection other
influences have to be taken into account, as, for
instance, the effect of mountain ranges and the

6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

direction of the winds. These considerations
will be treated farther on (pp. 8, 9).
ii. With regard to its means of easy communication
with other countries and between the different
parts of its own coast. Navigable rivers and
other water-ways have similar effects.

In early and mediaeval times those countries
developed more quickly which had good water
frontage. Thus in ancient times civilisation
and trade advanced most rapidly in the
countries bordering on the Eastern Mediter-
ranean. In the Middle Ages the great trading
countries were the Italian cities, as Venice and
Genoa, and the Hanse towns, some of the
latter, as Liibeck, Stralsund, Rostock, lying on
the Baltic, others on large rivers.

Of early towns those which were not built
solely for purposes of defence were usually
situated on rivers. The river was both the
road and the railway of such towns, and to be
on the river meant to be in communication
with the outside world — Oxford, London,
Winchester, Frankfort, Cologne.

A good sea frontage or coast line is still of
immense importance to a country. Russia
complains of being shut off from the open
sea. Austria has one good outlet in Triest.
Germany, despite Hamburg and Bremen, is
much shut in. With regard to coast line
Europe has i mile of coast to every 190
square miles of area, having five times as high
a proportion as has Africa.
b. Mountain Ranges. — These are important in two
ways.

i. They affect climate in conjunction with winds,

etc. (pp. 8, 9).
ii. They may obstruct communication and locomotion.
At one time the Alps separated and protected
Italy from the other countries of Europe. The

I PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES 7

ranges dividing Thibet from India are still a
great barrier in the way of communication. In
South America the East has been divided from
the West by the Andes, which will soon be
pierced by the railway which is to connect
Buenos Ayres with Valparaiso through the
Uspallata Pass.

(2) Natural Forces, Winds and Climate.

a. Winds. — The course of the winds is important
because of both their more general effects and the influence
they exert on the climate of particular countries.

Winds are air currents from regions of higher to regions
of lower pressure. Their courses depend then on the
position of these, and largely in consequence on the
relations of temperature existing between (a) the regions
round the Equator and the Poles ; (b) the large land
masses and the sea. According to these causes they may
be divided into three classes, arising respectively out of (a)
differences of temperature at the Poles and the Equator ;
(b) the relations of land to sea ; (c) local and occasional
causes.

(a) The main and regular course of the winds arises
from the difference of temperature at the Poles and the
Equator, together with the rotatory action of the globe.
From the colder regions of the Poles constant currents are
maintained to the hotter Equator. The wind starts from
polar regions, where the earth's rotatory motion is slow,
and travels towards the Equator, where the rotatory motion
is swift. Hence the regular winds which would at starting be
direct north and south are given an easterly action as a result
of the rotation of the earth from west to east. As it whirls
round it comes as it were against the wind, and thus the great
air currents known as the north-east and south-east trade
winds are established. They blow north and south of
the Equator from about 30° to 9° N. and 30° to 3° S.,
between them being imposed the tropical belt of calms.
North and south of the trade winds the prevailing winds
are westerly. The high air currents from the Equator to

8 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

the Poles are somewhat dragged round by the rapid
turn of the earth, and as the speed at the Poles is much
less than at the Equator they move more rapidly than does
the globe in these parts, and are felt as westerly winds.

(b) Winds of the second class have been divided into
land and sea breezes and the monsoons. The former are of
importance with regard to the temperature and general
well-being of the coast part of the countries concerned ;
the latter with regard to locomotion, which at certain seasons
of the year they often obstruct. They are occasioned by
the circumstances consequent on the shifting of the region
of greatest heat from the north to the south of the Equator.
From spring to autumn the monsoon winds north of the
Equator coincide in direction with the trade winds, blowing
from the north-east, but south of the Equator they are north-
westerly ; during the winter months these conditions are
reversed, north of the Equator the monsoon winds being
south-west, while south of it they coincide with the trade
winds and blow from the south-east. The season of
change is a time during which tempests and thunderstorms
threaten the districts and seas lying in the neighbourhood
of the Equator.

The main importance of the winds displays itself —
{i) In connection with sea moisture, etc., as affecting

the temperature and climate.

(2) In the assistance lent to locomotion. A knowledge

of the probable direction of the winds at particular

times leads navigators to shape their courses so

as to avail themselves to the full of any aid they

may offer, and to avoid the perils and tempests

which are frequent in particular localities.

b. Climate. — The important characteristics of climate

are teinperature and moisture. Partaking as they do,

in varying degrees, of these two elements, the climates of

different countries exhibit the utmost variety. One country,

as North Brazil, may be, in climatic conditions, very hot

and very moist, another, as North Chili, and to a less

I PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES 9

extent South Australia, hot and dry, another cold and
dry, as Manitoba, and another chilly and damp, as is
England. The causes determining climate are many.
Those affecting it with regard to temperature are —
i. Distance from the Equator.

ii. Altitude. The higher a man goes the colder he
becomes. It has been reckoned that an eleva-
tion of 420 feet is equivalent to going 100 miles
nearer one of the Poles. Thus, according to
report, Antisana in Ecuador, just beneath the
Equator, has, owing to its great altitude of
13,000 feet above sea level, the same average
mean temperature as St. Petersburg, which lies
in 60° N. latitude, but on the sea level,
iii. Exposure to different winds and proximity to the
sea. Thus the north-western shores of both
great continents, the old world and the new
world, are warmer than the eastern, being
exposed to the south-west in place of easterly
winds. Again the centre of the old world is
farther from the sea and colder than the centre
of the new world.
With regard to moisture the leading causes of difference
are —

i. Exposure to winds blowing off the sea.
ii. Position with regard to mountain ranges which may
drain the winds of their moisture. The trade
winds passing over America are drained by the
Andes, whence flow the great rivers, ^.^. Amazon,
Orinoco, Rio Negro, etc. Similarly the strip
of land in India between the sea and the
Western Ghats is extremely well-watered.
The iiifliience of climate is felt in many ways. It is
important as —

i. Allowing labour to be more or less continuous.
Extremes of climate appear to have a bad effect
in not peraiitting regular labour throughout the
greater portion of the year. In this respect the
climates of North England and South Scotland

lo COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

are beneficial, as there are few days too cold or too
hot to allow of regular and hard labour. Hot
tropical climates are the most disadvantageous.

il Allowing or encouraging different productions.
Some products are much more sensitive to
climatic influences than others, as, for instance,
cotton, tobacco, vines, silk, sugar, rubber, etc.
Among the articles of chief importance which
have a wider range of growth are the chief
cereals, and the more important animals, as
sheep, cattle, etc., but even these are more
profitably cultivated in certain climates.

iii. Favouring certain manufactures. Thus the climate
of Lancashire is well suited for the cotton
manufacture, that of the southern portion of
France and of Italy for that of silks and velvets,
as in Lyons, Genoa, Milan.

iv. Affecting locomotion. In these countries which
suffer from rigorous winters, the ordinary modes
of locomotion may be temporarily suspended.
Railway routes and roads are rendered im-
passable by snowfalls and rivers {e.g. the St.
Lawrence) blocked with ice.

(3) Soil and Mineral distribution. — The character of
the soil determines in some instances the nature of the
products of the country, in others the degree of fertility in
which certain products can be grown. A rich soil will
yield a greater return in the case of wheat, i.e. a greater
number of bushels to the acre will be produced. This is
the effect of a difference of soil in the case of the more
general articles of cultivation. But in the case of other
and more special articles, as cotton, particular vines, etc.,
it may influence cultivation to such an extent as to practically
determine whether they should be cultivated at all. Despite
this it does not in general impose such rigid limits as does
climate. Wheat grows better on light clays or heavy loams
than on other soils, but it can be cultivated very generally,
though not so cheaply or with such favourable results.

r PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES ii

The rich soil of the Mississippi bottom and the black cotton
soil behind the Western Ghats in India are peculiarly
favourable for the production of cotton. On less suitable
soils the cotton crops are not good. Certain wines are the
production of certain vineyards, as for instance wine grown
on the decomposed granitic soil of the Constantia vineyard
at Cape Colony.

The possession of minerals affects the industrial power
of countries in two ways.

a. Certain minerals may be best described as the
necessary instruments of manufacture. Of these the two
chief are coal and iron, without their presence either by
home production or import a nation is cut off from
machinery, and can make but little progress in the ways
of modern industry.

b. Minerals provide also the raw material of certain
manufactures. Metals are the material of the hardware,
certain clays and sands of the pottery and glass industries,
while the possession of salt enables chemical manufactures
to be prosecuted with ease and profit. These in their turn
furnish other manufactures, as those of soap, paper, and
glass, with one of their necessary ingredients.

B. POLITICAL INFLUENCES.

These may be described as in part the consequence of
the physical conditions of the past, in part the result of the
action of mankind as displayed in history and in the
administrations of the present day. They may be treated
under the following headings : —

(i) Custom and Historical Usage. — The effect of
custom on the economic {i.e. commercial and industrial)
development of man cannot be over-rated. Long after
the motives or necessities which have given rise to
particular actions have ceased, those actions will continue
to be performed. They will be discontinued gradually ;
individuals will deal at certain shops, no better than
others, because they have been accustomed to deal there.

12 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

One nation will maintain its hold on the markets of another,
though it may have ceased to be the only, and perhaps
the main producer of the articles required. This is
particularly the case in commerce, which requires
considerable organisation for its due conduct. The
imperial tie connecting England with Australia and
other colonies led to an early development of trade
between the countries. They traded with England because
they were in constant communication. And now, though
the ways of communication have been greatly widened,
though lines of steamers are established between continental
countries and the leading British colonies, England continues
to absorb an exceedingly large proportion (about 47 to 48
per cent) of their trade. In a like manner the early
development of English commerce rendered it often
advantageous for many new trades to be conducted through,
or by means of that country. Many commodities are
brought to England to be sent on to other countries.
Imports into Sweden from India usually pass through
England, but even when they go direct, they are not paid
for directly. The Indian exporter looks for his money
from England, and the English agent gets his payment
from Sweden.

Again, the system of land tenure in a country largely
affects the nature of its agriculture ; sometimes assisting it
in particular directions, sometimes hampering it altogether.
The dairy farming and market gardening of Belgium are
largely due to the system of peasant proprietorship in that
country.

(2) Tariffs and Customs Duties. — These are of three
kinds. Import Duties on the one hand, on the other
Export Duties and Bouiiiies.

Import Duties are imposed to raise the price of the
articles on which they are levied, and which are being
imported into the country, and thus to benefit or protect
the home manufacturers who, relieved from foreign com-
petition, can charge a higher price for their goods. Thus
industries may be encouraged ; but the people who consume
their products must, at any rate temporarily, pay a higher

I PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES 13

price for what they require. Import duties will then
interfere with the trade carried on between nations. If
levied on raw material, they will raise the price of the
manufactured article. If levied on the main staples of the
food supply, they will increase the cost of living to the large
body of the people. A duty on American cotton or
Australian wool, levied at the ports of the United Kingdom,
would affect the price of the exports. In 1846 an
Act was passed in abolition of the Corn duties, up to then
levied on imports of corn into the United Kingdom. Since
then the average price of corn has been much lower.

Export Duties are duties levied on goods which are
sent out of the country for the supply of foreign nations.
At the present time they are rarely imposed. They may
be levied for the sake of revenue, when the country levying
has so great a monopoly of the article thus taxed, that the
countries who have hitherto taken their supplies from it
must continue to do so, or go without. At one time such
duties were imposed with the view of retaining in the
country certain supplies, considered necessary to its well-
being. Thus, in England, such a duty was imposed at one
time on the export of wool, in order that the home manu-
facturer might find a plentiful supply, at another on the
export of corn.

Boicnties differ from the preceding two forms of tariff
duties. They are premiums given, in some way or other,
either for the production of, or for the export of, goods pro-
duced in a country. Several foreign nations, and more
particularly Germany and France, give bounties to the
sugar manufacturers on the sugar they export.

With regard to customs duties of all kinds, it may be
said that, unless levied for revenue purposes only, and so
offset by similar duties imposed on home production, they
may lead to unforeseen and serious results. They may
sadly disorganise and disarrange the industries of a country.
In consequence, also, of the obstacles they imposed on
the free and beneficial exchange of commodities between
different countries, commercial treaties are proposed in
the interests of business to obviate their effects within

14 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

certain spheres. The whole German Empire forms one
commercial union (Zoll-verein), no duties being levied on
goods sent from one German state to another.

(3) Government and Political Constitution. — The
state of commerce and manufacture in a country cannot but
be largely and widely affected by the nature and strength
of its government. In two ways this dependence is
strongly marked. On the strength of the government rests
the security of the people, both as regards their own
security and the safety of their property. But, on the other
hand, their individual enterprise and energy, and to some
extent their skill, are bound up with the independence of
character, which some systems of administration do so
much to develop, others to suppress. A good government
is one that is both stable and free. The South American
Republics offer little or no stability, and in consequence
their trade is frequently convulsed by violent fluctuations.
The Argentine has great sources of wealth, but political
disorders, supplemented, it is true, by other causes, have
led to serious economic evils. On the other hand,
England and the United States may be taken as types
of the countries which have stimulated the energy of their
inhabitants by a system of free and liberal administration.
Their workmen are energetic and their masters enterprising.

(4) System of Locomotion, Transport, and Communi-
cation.— As some natural formations impede, and others
facilitate communication as regards persons and goods
between different and distant districts, the constructions of
human energy may enable people to overcome the one and
supplement the other. Railways and canals are as useful as,
often more useful than, rivers, but they are a great deal
more expensive, for while a country is dowered with the
latter, at the most having but to improve its natural wealth,
the former are the result of much toil and heavy expendi-
ture. But without means of communication and transit a
country will never reach a high position in the economic
scale.

(5) Financial Banking and Monetary Systems. —
Under the foregoing heading we considered the means of

I PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES 15

transport of persons and goods, under this we have to note
those of transport, as it were, of debts and payments.
When goods have been sent from one country to another,
or from one person to another, they have to be paid for
either in other goods or in money. As a rule they cannot be
paid for directly in goods or articles, since it rarely happens
that one party to the bargain both buys from and sells to
the other. Still less seldom is it that their transactions,
when thus reciprocal, are equal in value. A cotton manu-
facturer does not necessarily buy the things he and his
family require for their use from the same large shop-
keepers whom he supplies with calico. Now, one object
of a banking and financial system is to bring about an
indirect payment in goods, in other words, to economise
money and its use. If A sells to B, and buys, let us say,
to the same extent from C, D, E, the cheapest method
of payment is by transfer of the debt due from A to B,
to C, D, and E. The system of banking has been so
extended as to enable debts to cancel debts, and to save
people the trouble and expense of sending money about the
country.

Another important achievement of the financial organi-
sation of the country is the free circulation of capital.
Some people have saved capital and cannot use it, others
want it to use but have not got it. In order that the
capital may be put to its due use, the one class must come
into connection with the other. This they do through
intermediaries, as bankers, financiers, brokers, etc. The
banking system and the money market are organisations,
whereby capital passes by loan into the hands of those who
can use it, and who show their power by the payment of
interest either to those who have saved it, or to their
agents.

(6) Systems of Weights and Measures. — At one time
each country or state had a separate system of weights
and measures and money. But after the advantages which
one acknowledged system conferred on the inhabitants
dwelling in the same country were fully recognised, and
when these began to trade and trade frequently with

l6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

foreigners, a gradual disposition towards international
uniformity was manifested. In the matter of money an
absolute uniformity, even had it been possible, was by no
means so necessary as in the case of weights and measures.
Most countries, however, have adopted or recognised some
form of decimal currency. This is the case with all the
chief trading nations, with the exception of the United
Kingdom and her colonies.

In the case of weights and measures it has been possible
to adopt not only a system of decimal calculation, but the
same system. The Metric Systein of weights and measures,
as this is called, has now passed into most extensive use.
It has been computed that it is in compulsory use in
countries with a total population of 302 millions, that
it is recognised and used in part in other countries with
a total population of 395 millions, while in countries with
a population of 97 millions it is optional. Many of the
last two classes, however, make little or no use of the Metric
System. Among these is the United Kingdom. Her great
trading rivals use the Metric System^ and thus gain, as recent
accounts have shown, considerable advantage over her.
They compute their distances, their quantities, and their
measures in the same way, and consequently there is no
need of intricate calculation before the inhabitants of one
country understand the real meaning of the terms used by
those of another.

The Metric System may be described as follows : —
Its fundamental basis is the metre, the measure of length
which is a ten-millionth part of the distance from Pole to
the Equator. It is the unit of length, and, by computation,
of all weights and measures. A square of ten metres is
termed an are, and is the unit of surface measures. The
cube of the tenth part of a metre {i.e. a decimetre) is the
litre, the unit of capacity. The gramme, which is the
unit of weight, is the weight of such quantity of distilled
water at a temperature of 39-2° Fahr., as would fill the
cube of a hundredth part of a metre. Few terms besides
those of the chief units denoted above are in common
or frequent use. All such terms, moreover, are derived

I PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL INFLUENCES 17

from the unit by prefixes denoting multiplication and
division. Prefixes denoting multiples are derived from
Greek, and those denoting divisions from Latin.

Deca, 10 times . . . Deci, ^Vth part

Hecto, 100 ,, ... Centi, y^th ,,

Kilo, 1000 ,, ... Milli, TT^th „
Myrio, 10,000 ,,

The chief measures, with their English equivalents, are
given below.

Chief measures of length : —

Metre = 39-37 1 inches.
Kilometre =1093-633 yards.

Chief measures of surface : —

AreorSquareK .6 ds.

Decametre j ^

HectareorSq. 1 711 3acres.
Hectometre J ^' ^^

Chief measure of capacity : —

Litre = 1-761 pints.

Chief measures of weight : —

Gramme = 15-433 troy grains.
Kilogramme = 2-205 lbs.

CHAPTER III

THE NECESSARY CONDITIONS OF VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL
AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENTS

Nations may be classified according to the great branch
of industry which occupies the energy and time of the bulk
of the people, and on which they depend for their livelihood.
Broadly speaking, there are but three such branches —
manufacture, commerce, and agriculture. No nation, it is
true, is wholly manufacturing, or wholly commercial, and
few can be described even as wholly agricultural, but any
one of these three methods of employment may be pre-
eminently important in the case of a particular country.
Still more true is this if we turn from countries to districts
of countries. England is a manufacturing and commercial
country ; Liverpool is a commercial city ; Yorkshire a
manufacturing district. Agriculture is the chief occupation
of Hungary, of India, etc. ; Belgium is at once, but in
different districts, manufacturing, commercial, and agri-
cultural.

Success in each of these departments, though affected
by a complexity of causes of very varying importance,
depends in the main on the extent to which the country
in question possesses certain great sources of advantage.
These may be termed the conditions of its specific success.
They are, as a rule, few and simple, but vary, of course,
with the branch of occupation dominant in the country.
They must be treated separately.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 19

A. AGRICULTURE.

The chief conditions of successful agriculture are as
follows : —

(i) Suitable Climate. — The climate required depends
on the nature of the particular product which it is desired to
cultivate. As a rule, extremes of hot and cold, especially
if accompanied by much moisture, are unsuitable for the
main agricultural productions.

(2) Nature and Fertility of the Soil. — In respect of
its productive capacity the soil differs in two ways : —

i. It may be fine or not. In countries where there
is much rain, a fine porous soil is suitable for
products which do not require much water at
the roots, and which need warmth, e.g. the
Delta soils of Egypt and India,
ii. The constituents of the soil required for different
products are extremely various, in some
instances an abundance of special elements
being required, e.g. black cotton soil. This and
other constituent properties of the soil tend to
become exhausted, and then require replacement
by manures. These are of three kinds, possess-
ing respectively nitrates, phosphate, and potash.
In certain climates the land requires artificial watering

by irrigation, which, though costly, has certain advantages

over the supplies provided in other places by nature.

Such are, i. regularity and certainty ; ii. possession of

fertilising ingredients.

(3) Favourable Conditions of Land Tenure and
customs of land owning. — The true and potent effect of
land tenure on the agriculture of a country may be judged
from the beneficial results of such statutes as the Agri-
cultural Holdings Acts, which encouraged settlement on
the land, and invited its improvement by assuring the
farmer compensation for his unexhausted improvements.
In Belgium the system of small holdings and ownerships
has led to minute and careful cultivation on the part of the
peasant farmers.

20 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

B. MANUFACTURES.

The chief headings under which we may describe the
necessary conditions of a high degree of development in
manufacture are four : —

( 1 ) Climate allowing of continuous and regular labour. —
Despite the earlier growth in civilisation of the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean, it is not in these but in
the lands of northern Europe that manufactures have found
their home. Such manufactures as have become of im-
portance in Italy are to be found not in the south but in
the north, e.g. Milan.

(2) National Dexterity or fitness for particular labours.
— In those manufactures which require artistic taste in their
processes, this appears undeniable. Mosaic work, for
instance, is frequently, if not usually, done by Italian work-
men. But even in work where the labour required is less
dependent on the individual, or rather national, taste, the
skill which is requisite would seem to be more easily
obtained among the members of a country where those
or similar occupations have been followed for several genera-
tions. Intelligence and aptitude are largely the result of
inheritance.

(3) Possession of Coal. — As motive power other than
that offered by human or animal strength is required in
countries where manufacturing industries have passed out of
the early stages of growth, their future is closely bound up
with their possession of these in abundant and accessible
supplies. The force of the wind has been utilised in some
places to turn the corn-mills ; but the wind is uncertain and
irregular. Water power is of greater and more frequent
use. It was one of the advantages which gradually
attracted the woollen manufactures from their earlier
homes in the eastern and western counties to Yorkshire.
But since the discovery of steam power and the invention
of the steam engine, these forms of energy have been largely
superseded. The great requisite of manufacture is coal.

In the first place, we must range the countries in the
order of their coal production : —

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

1890
United Kingdom
United States of America

(000,

Tons.
000 omitted.)

182

141

Germany .
Austria- Hungary
France

88
27
26

Belgium .
Russia

20
6

New South Wales

Canada

Japan
India

2
2

Spain

Many countries, however, import coal, and one in
particular does a large export trade. The United Kingdom
sends 27 million tons of coal away, which is chiefly taken
by the following countries : — France (nearly 5 millions),
Germany and Holland (nearly 4 millions), Italy (3|-), Spain
(ij), Russia (il), Egypt (ij), Denmark (ij), Indfa (1).

(4) Proximity of Coal and Iron. — The industrial
importance of coal is greatly increased by the presence of
iron in the same district or in pretty close proximity.
Owing to the great weight of the two commodities, transport
is a difficulty and an expense out of proportion to the main
cost. But without iron, and abundance of iron, the manu-
factures of a country will remain backward. Coal is fuel,
but iron is machinery. In the process of manufacturing
production, coal and iron work in close and frequent
harmony. Coal is used in smelting the rough ore, and
in producing out of it machinery, which afterwards, in
conjunction with coal, will be employed in developing the
main manufactures of the countries. In addition, iron is
the raw material in the case of iron and steel products
other than machinery.

A reference to the table of the main coal localities in
the chief manufacturing countries shows us that in the
neighbourhood of many of them iron is found, sometimes
in small, sometimes in considerable quantities.

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

a. The following are the chief iron - producing
countries : —

Average 1 for years 1886-90. (oo.oS" o'iitted.)

United Kingdom 7,7

United States of America .... 7,0

Germany. . . . . . .4,1

France ....... 1,7

Belgium ....... 7,7

b. The actual importance to manufactures of the
possession of both coal and iron is seen in Germany,
where the three great manufacturing districts correspond
closely to the localities where such exist, viz. round
Elberfeld and Essen, Miihlhausen to Saarbriick, Chemnitz.
In Austria there are both coal and iron, but they are not in
the same neighbourhood.

The growth of any particular branch of manufacture will
depend, in addition to the foregoing general considerations,
on the advantages possessed by the country or district in
question, with regard to the particular raw materials or
other requisites needed in its operations. Thus salt is
required in, and forms, as it were, the base of a certain
group of products. Alkali and chemical works have
grown up near the sources of salt supply, as, for instance,
those of St. Helen's and Widnes near the salt of Cheshire ;
and in turn other industries requiring chemical constituents,
as glass and soap, have been founded near them. At
St. Helen's there are glass works, and in the districts of
Liverpool large soap works.

C. COMMERCE.

The commercial activity of a country, taken as a whole,
is usually consequent upon its high degree of development
in some other department. In the United States of
America the agricultural products grown so largely in the
Central and Western States are sent for exchange, sale,

1 Adapted from Uebersichten der Weltwirthschaft by Dr. Von
Juraschek.

I INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 23

and export to large towns, e.g. Chicago. In the United
Kingdom the large midland industrial district has a
commercial centre in Birmingham. But though some such
connection as this usually exists, giving rise often to
commerce in its earlier stages, some countries, and especially
some cities, assume a particular importance in the exchange
transactions of the world. Thus England is an important
commercial country in very many ways. Marseilles is an
important commercial city.

Yet while commercial activity or activity in exchanging
is necessarily consequent on having something to exchange,
the possession of commercial opportunities {i.e. outlets and
markets) will lead to a great development in the other
departments of occupation. No country will attain a high
position in majiufacture unless it has good opportunities of ex-
changitig its goods for those produced by other nations. On
what these opportunities depend a short account will show.

(i) Central Geographical Position. — Commerce means
exchange, and a country, or rather locality, to become a
place of exchange should be in a position where goods will
tend to come for such a purpose. No better illustration of
this is offered than by Singapore, which serves as an
emporium and a market between the Malay and China seas
on the one side, and British India with the more western
world on the other. Liverpool, again, is on the high road
of commerce, as it were, between England and the United
States. In many cases custom, habit, and other causes,
some of which are referred to below, modify the advantages
accruing from, or the disadvantages apparently consequent
on, the lack of a directly central position.

(2) Means of Locomotion — a. External. — In connec-
tion with the actual geographical position of a place or country,
the advantages of proximity to the sea require notice afresh.
Water carriage is so much the cheapest, and foreign com-
merce has become so important, that good seaports are
of the very highest economic value to a modern nation.
To be of service, these should not be too far distant from
those districts to which the goods imported or from which
the goods exported go. Much of the early commercial

24 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

importance of Italy rested on its excellent maritime position,
and there has been some increase in the business since the
opening of the Suez Canal threw it once more across the
great marine highway from the East to Europe. The
possession of an effective mercantile marine is needed to
enable a country to avail itself of the full advantages offered
by a long stretch of seashore, and by frequent and con-
venient ports and harbours. J

The importance attaching to immediate communication
with the sea, and with as much of the sea as possible, is
shown by the attempts to construct ship canals in different
portions of the world. The Suez Canal (officially opened
to traffic, 1869) connects the Mediterranean and the Red
Sea, and thus enables vessels trading between the East
and Europe to escape the long journey round the Cape of
Good Hope, a saving of about one-third in distance from
London to the ports in British India. The proportion of
total Canal as against total Cape voyages is about ten
to six. It has stimulated the trade between the leading
European nations and India, China, and Australia, the
greater portion of which now passes through it. But
nowhere have its results been more than in the great
seaports of Italy and Southern France, as Marseilles,
Genoa, Venice, Naples, and Brindisi. Other important
sea canals projected or commenced are from Bordeaux
to Narbonne, Liverpool to Manchester, from Kiel to below
Hamburg. Though the recent failure of M. de Lesseps'
attempt to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Panama has
thrown a shadow upon the different projects for connecting
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by means of a waterway
through Central America, it is highly probable that new
efforts will be made to achieve an end which involves so
enormous an economy of distance and so of time.

b. Internal. — The locomotion within a country
may be separately treated, according as it takes place
by means of roads, rivers, canals, and railways. Of
these it may be said that the first named, though in
historical order only rivalled by the river or natural water
way, are, so far as long distances are concerned, of but

I INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 25

little importance. Roads are the means of local traffic,
but not of long journeys. Rivers are still of immense
importance. As has already been said, water carriage is
superior in cheapness to land carriage, and where natural
waterways exist, as in the case of rivers, there is, in
addition, no cost incurred in construction. The river
system of South America is remarkable for its completeness.
Canals, which are a means either of supplying the place of
rivers or of supplementing them, have been largely con-
structed during the last century. In England they serve
both purposes, in some cases connecting important places,
e.g. Liverpool and Leeds Canal, in others running from one
river to another, e.g. the Oxford Canal, running from
the Thames to the Trent. A good instance of the latter
kind is the Canal du Midi in France, which connects the
waters of the Garonne with the Mediterranean. In Brazil
the navigation of the river Madeira, where the course of
the river is interrupted by rapids, is carried on by means of
a canal running from above to below the obstruction. But
still more important to locomotion and communication has
been the growth of railways in countries such as England,
Germany, and the eastern part of the United States. Any
of these may be treated as a type of a country resting its
industrial development on a railway system, even as Holland
may be said to depend on a canal system, and Brazil on a
river system.

Locomotion may also be treated of with regard to the
force of propulsion employed. There are human and animal
powers, the force of the wind and waters {i.e. currents of
rivers, steam, and electricity).

(3) Habit and Custom. — A trade once established will
not only endure after the immediate need at the time of its
initiation has vanished, but even attract more commerce
into the channel thus made.

(4) Banks and Markets. — As a rule the commercial
development of a country entails a corresponding growth
in banking and financial institutions. These, necessitated
at first by the ordinary transactions of business, become a
powerful aid to further development by reason of the

26 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

opportunities they provide for the advantageous distribu-
tion of capital among the various enterprises. These
institutions group themselves in or round some city, either
the metropolis, as London, Paris, Berlin, or some other
place which has grown into a financial centre, where the
banks as it were may bank, and where the lenders and
borrowers of capital come into contact in the Stock Exchange
or Bourse. Most large towns, as for instance Manchester
and Liverpool, Glasgow and Belfast, become little financial
centres in themselves, but even in cases such as these there
is a good residue of business to be transacted in London,
where what may be described as the final settlement takes
place.

In considering the foregoing, which have been termed
the chief departments of human activity, it may be asked if
there are any main differences evident answering to the
difference of occupation. In the first place, each main
division of employment tends to bring about a particular
distribution of the population. Agriculture is usually carried
on in districts which are not thickly peopled, though of
course the degree of density largely depends on the nature
of the chief commodity. A district growing and subsisting
on rice, as, for instance, the Ganges valley in India, is
capable of a much greater population per acre than are
the wheat counties of England. On the other hand, com-
merce requires for its purposes large and populous cities.
Manufactures are often plied in towns, or in the neighbour-
hood of towns, but often too they spread themselves out
through a wide district which is densely populated, but of
course by no means so densely as are the streets of large
cities. They are covered by numbers of small towns or
industrial villages. Such are, for instance, the districts
called the Potteries extended around Stoke and Newcastle
in Staffordshire, the Plauensche Grund in Saxony, the Black
Country around Wolverhampton.

In the second place, the density of population, granted
a knowledge of the main food-stuff produced and required,
affords some rough indication of the class to which a
particular country belongs. Agricultural countries and

I INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 27

districts are, as a rule, less densely peopled, though a
rice -eating country will always bear a heavier population
than one which is wheat - eating. The following table
affords some idea of the guidance thus furnished, as well
as of the caution required in drawing an inference in any
particular case. In the first column is given the number
of tons of coal consumed per head of the population (1890),
in the second the population per square mile : —

Tons of coal consumed

per

head

Density per

of the

population approximately.

square mile.

Belgium

2.6

510

United Kingdom

4.0

308

Germany

1.8

227

France

187

Austria

161

A country like the United States of America, which is
as yet but partly taken up, and the different districts of
which differ so much, cannot be taken into account. In it
the consumption of coal per head was 2.2 tons.

PART II

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CHIEF
PRODUCTS AND OTHERS

PART II

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CHIEF PRODUCTS
AND OTHERS

According to their conditions and needs the various
nations and peoples are occupied in the production of the
commodities required to satisfy their wants and those
of others. These may be treated of under separate
headings : —

(i) Food Stuffs.

(2) Textile Raw Materials and their manufacture.

(3) Manufacture.

This division does not pretend to any close scientific
precision, but it may be said to embody the popular sense
of the distinctions which may be drawn between the
different articles. As an individual can look through his
yearly bills and make up his accounts, so we can look
through the yearly bills of the various countries.

Firstly^ we must consider their food supply^ we must
see what it amounts to, and endeavour to discover the
sources from which it is derived, for each country, like an
individual, must either grow its own food supply, or buy it
fro?n some — not shop, but — country. Sometimes a country,
besides growing enough for itself, has a surplus to send
away to other countries, which may be described as its
customs.

Seco7idly, let us turn from food and drink to the question
of clothing a7id household articles. Even in the case of

32 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part ii

food, a nation is in one way unlike an individual in its
purchases, for, while the latter usually buys articles in an
advanced state of preparation, it buys them in very large
quantities and in a raw condition. But when we come
to clothing the distinction is much more marked. Some
buy raw material to manufacture for their own use and
that of others, while others buy manufactured articles.
In the same way some countries occupy themselves with
the production of raw materials, others with perfecting
these into their manufactured form. The manufactures
must be treated of separately. The most important articles
of clothing are those which are woven and spun ; outside
these there are many others. But these are so many and
so various that it will be most convenient to class them
together with the many other products required to supply
the multifarious needs of mankind.

CHAPTER I

THE PRODUCTION OF FOOD AND DRINK

In treating of these we shall find it necessary to devote
nearly all our attention to those which are the more important.
They may be classified as follows : —

i. Grains and Pulses. — Breadstuffs — Wheat — Rye —
Barley — Oats — Maize — Substitutes for Bread-
stuffs.
ii. Meats. — Meat (sheep and oxen) — Bacon, ham, and

pork — Dairy produce — Fish,
iii. Groceries. — Tea — Coffee — Sugar — Cocoa —

Southern fruits — Spices,
iv. Wine, etc. — Wine — Beer — Spirits.
V. Tobacco.

i. Grains and Pulses.
I. Breadstuffs.

To get some idea of the grain production of the
world, or rather of that part of the world about which we
can form any idea, we may start with an estimate of its
total value. Taking the years 1884 and 1887, a good
average grain harvest has been calculated as worth about
;^ 1, 1 00,000,000.

This total represents the year's harvest of all the cereals.
It may be divided between the chief and other grains
much as follows : —

Wheat ;^435, 000,000.

Maize ;^ 18 7, 000, 000.

34 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Oats ;^i67,ooo,ooo.

Rye ;^ 1 49, 000,000.

Barley ^^98,000,000.

Miscellaneous .... ;^30,ooo,ooo.

These figures are certainly very large. They show the
great value of this portion of the food supply — the immense
importance of one cereal, wheat, and the great prominence
of three others, maize, oats, and rye.

Now we must turn to the local distribution of these
totals, and glance at the different countries according to
their grain production. The important countries may be
ranged in their order of production ^ with regard to the
chief cereals : —

Wheat. — (European countries) France, Russia, Austria-
Hungary, Italy, Germany, Spain, United Kingdom,
Turkey. (Other countries) United States, British India,
Canada, Australia.

Rye. — Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France.

Barley. — Russia, Austria - Hungary, Germany, United
Kingdom, France, United States, Algiers.

Oats. — Russia, United States, Germany, France, United
Kingdom, Austria-Hungary, Canada, Sweden, Denmark.

Maize. — United States, Austria - Hungary, Italy,
Roumania.

When it is remembered that modern improvements in
locomotion and transport have brought these countries into
close communication, the importance to the world and to
each country of so widespread production of these articles
is apparent. When one country has too much, it can
dispose of its surplus to another. Thus the price is kept
fairly even, and, in the second place, the full pressure of a
famine in one locality is moderated by the supplies which
can be obtained from elsewhere. It rarely happens that bad
or good harvests are universal. On the contrary, a bad
harvest in one place is often contemporary with bountiful

1 Roughly adapted from Uebersichten der Weltwirthschaft, edited
by Dr. F. Von Juraschek, from which many of the following calcula-
tions, etc. , have been taken.

FOOD AND DRINK— GRAIN

production elsewhere. Thus there were bad harvests in
Europe in 1885, 1886, 1889, while in India there was an
excellent harvest in 1885, an average one in 1886, and a
bad wheat harvest in 1889. In the United States in 1885
the wheat harvest was bad but the maize good, in 1886
a fair harvest, and in 1889 a very good one. In Europe
there were excellent harvests in 1887, 1888; in India
that of 1887 was bad, and, so far as wheat was concerned,
moderate in 1888 ; in the United States there was a bad
maize harvest in 1887, and a bad wheat harvest in 1888.
The possibility of such compensation is greatly facilitated
by the differences of time at which the harvest takes place
in the various countries, owing to the great differences in
their climates.

The trade in grain between the various countries is
indeed very large, for the value of the amount thus trans-
ferred may be reckoned at about ;!{^ 140,000,000, thus
excelling any other branch of trade. Estimated in quantities
it amounts to some 750 or 800 million bushels. This is
composed much as follows : —

Wheat .

40 per cent

Rye .

10 „

Barley .

12 ,,

Oats

9 „

Maize

14 „

Meal

And other grains.

10 „

The export trade is important as affording an occupation
for those countries where the large stretches of unoccupied
lands and a favourable climate offer an opportunity for
growing more than is wanted at home, while the possibility
of large imports allows industrial and more densely peopled
nations to devote their energies to manufacture and
commerce, in place of having first of all to produce their
own breadstuffs. The more important countries may
be classified respectively as grain - importing and grain-
exporting countries.

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

PART

More important Countries importing Grain.

United Kingdom
France .
Germany
Belgium
Holland
Italy .

Excess of Imports over

Exports in 1888, in value

of millions of pounds

sterling.

about 51

„ 14

M 9

„ 8

,» 7

.. 6

Chief Exporting Countries.

United States of America
Russia ....
British India .
Austria- Hungary ,
Roumania

Excess of Exports over

Imports in 1888, in value

of millions of pounds

sterling.

about 24

M 39

,> IS

., 13

All the cereals referred to in the above tables are by no
means of the same importance ; and as the conditions of
their production differ very considerably, a short account
must be given of each.

Wheat. — This, the most important cereal so far as
countries in a high state of development and as the grain
trade are concerned, is grown throughout a wide climatic
range. It requires a warm summer, moisture in the spring,
but is not averse to fairly cold winters, especially if protected
by snow.

The time of its harvest depends^ of course, upon the
particular climate of the country, thus occurring in some
country at every season of the year, a fact of importance
inasmuch as it provides a continuous supply of wheat in the
markets of the importing countries. The dates of the chief
harvests are as follows : —

FOOD AND DRINK— GRAIN

January . . Australia, New Zealand, Chili, Argentine.

February . East Indies.

March . . East Indies.

April . . . Mexico, Egypt, Persia, Syria.

May . . . China, Japan, North Asia Minor, Algiers.

June . . . California, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, S. France.

July . . . France, S. Germany, Austria, S. Russia, United States.

August . . Germany, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, England,

part of Canada.
September . Norway, Sweden, Scotland, Russia, Canada.
October . . N. Russia.
November . S. Africa.
December . S. Australia.

The proportionate yield of wheat is by no means the
same in the different countries. In the great grain countries
it is lower than in those countries which are more thickly
populated, and which, so far as they produce grain at all,
produce it by a more intense cultivation and by more care-
ful tillage of the soil. This is shown by the following table,
where we see Great Britain and Denmark ranking very high,
far above the United States and South Australia. The
number of bushels yielded per acre is given.

Countries.

Bushels
per Acre.

Great Britain . .

Germany

France .

Russia .

Belgium .

Holland .

Denmark

Austria .

Hungary

20i

Countries.

Italy ....
India ....
United States .
New South Wales
New Zealand .
South Australia
Victoria . .
Manitoba . .
Ontario . .

Bushels
per Acre.

Hi
26

75
12
18
17

The chief wheat-consuming countries are the prominent
industrial nations, the countries of Southern Europe and
the North American and Australian countries. Thus the
yearly consumption of bushels of wheat per head has been
put at

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

United Kingdom .
France

Belgium and Holland

Italy .

Canada

5
6

Victoria

United States

4l (A great deal of maize is eaten. )

In Russia rye is the chief food of the people, a fact which
also accounts for the comparatively small consumption of
wheat in Germany (only 3 bushels per head), since the
north of Germany is not a wheat-eating district.

The total wheat harvest of the world in 1889 was
reckoned at 2040 million bushels, and in 1890 at about
the same. Putting aside France, which produces a very
large crop, but so far from exporting imports still more
wheat, the leading countries were the United States, Russia,
and British India. These three are by far the largest
sellers or exporters of wheat. They send the produce of
their harvest to the thickly-populated industrial countries of
Europe, and especially to the United Kingdom, which has
long ceased to grow enough for its own consumption. The
extent of the export trade of the three leading countries is
shown in the following table.

Comparative Statement of the Exports of Wheat
from the United States, Russia, and British India
during the Years 1882 to 1890 in round numbers
(approximate).

Year.

United States.

Russia.

India.

1881

186,300,000

36,500,000

13,800,000

1882

121,800,000

48,900,000

37,100,000

1883

147,800,000

76,300,000

26,400,000

1884

111,500,000

83,700,000

39,200,000

^^5

132,500,000

67,700,000

29,500,000

1886

94,500,000

91,700,000

39,300,000

1887

153,800,000

51,600,000

41,500,000

1888

119,600,000

77,900,000

25,200,000

1889

88,600,000

125,100,000

32,800,000

1890

109,400,000

102,400,000

26,700,000

II FOOD AND DRINK— WHEAT 39

Since the last of these years there has been, in one year at
least, a very considerable increase in the Indian exports,
which would seem to show that India sends more wheat to
Europe when the exports of the two other countries diminish
owing to bad harvests or other causes. The United States,
according to the table above, has been gradually diminish-
ing its exports, and some think that the time is rapidly
approaching when that country will cease to send much
wheat abroad owing to the rapid increase of its own popula-
tion and the lessening amount of new land available for
cultivation except under a much higher, and so less
remunerative, system of farming. On the other hand,
exports from Russia have been increasing. So far as the
United Kingdom is concerned these three countries are of
very great importance, since, taken together, they usually
furnish it with about three-quarters of the total quantity of
wheat that she imports.

United States of America. — The United States pro-
duce very large crops of wheat and maize. Their pro-
duction of wheat has to be great, since it must meet the
needs of both an increasing home demand and a large
export trade. Wheat growing and wheat export is a
leading business. It is a business for which they possess
exceptional advantages, of which the chief are — (i) large
and thinly-populated plains extending through the central
and western districts ; (2) a virgin and fertile soil ; (3)
intelligent use of implements and machinery. The
American farmer, untied by old custom and farming large
stretches of land, will procure and use the best mechanical
means for increasing his crops ; (4) vast organisation
for transport of the grain from the places of its growth to
the great collecting centres or markets, and again thence
to the ports from which it is sent to the countries acting as
customers.

Of recent years a great change has taken place with
regard to the districts where wheat is chiefly grown. In
the decade 1850-60, the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio,
New York, and Virginia were at the top of such, but
now the leading states are Minnesota, California, Dakota,

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

PART

Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, Kansas, Michigan, Iowa, and
Missouri. This marks the tendency of cultivation in
America to go westward, a tendency which affects maize
as well as wheat, the leading wheat states at different
dates being —

1880.

1886.

1889.

1892.

Illinois

Minnesota

Dakota

Indiana

Ohio

California

Ohio

Indiana

Dakota

Indiana

Michigan

California

Indiana

California

Minnesota

Iowa

Illinois

Minnesota

The place of the United States in the table given above
with reference to the production per acre (p. ;^7) shows
that the soil is cultivated lightly. The average for the
more western states is somewhat higher than that for the
whole country, for while this is about 12 bushels, these
produce an amount per acre ranging from 16 J to 19J
bushels.

The organisation for the transport of the wheat from
these inland districts to the ports has been greatly developed
of recent years. The Great Trunk Railway lines have been
extended and branch lines constructed to bring the grain
on to their course. In Kansas, between 1885 and 1888,
no less than 4525 miles of railroad were built, and great
progress has been made in Nebraska, Colorado, Montana,
and Dakota. Canals have been cut and waterways by river
deepened and extended so as to afford access to the line
of the great lakes. The wheat goes first to the great
collecting places, of which the principal are Chicago,
St. Louis, Toledo, Milwaukee, Peoria, Detroit, Duluth, the
great growth of these testifying to the importance of the
trade. Thence it is despatched according to the port from
which it may be shipped to Europe —

a. By the route of the great lakes and by the Erie
Canal and the Hudson River to New York, or some-
times it may be shipped direct from Duluth and
Chicago.

d. By rail to New York. This is the course taken by

II FOOD AND DRINK— WHEAT 41

a great proportion of the grain from Illinois, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska.

c. By the Mississippi, which, with its tributaries, has been
greatly improved, to New Orleans.

The wheat from the states on the west coast —
California, Oregon, Washington — while connected with the
east by five great lines, can send their produce most
cheaply to the ports on the west by the waterways of
the Joaquim, Sacramento, and Columbia. The exports of
wheat and flour from the Western or Pacific ports has
increased rapidly of recent years. They contribute some
18 per cent of the total wheat imports into the United
Kingdom.

The chief ports whence wheat is despatched are New
York, Baltimore, New Orleans, Philadelphia, Boston, and
ports on the Pacific Coast. By far the most important is New
York. From these ports the wheat and flour are despatched
to the countries buying from America, and chiefly to
Europe, the United Kingdom and France being much the
largest consumers of American wheat. The United
Kingdom, indeed, takes nearly 60 per cent of all the
breadstuff's sent out of America. She buys half of the
wheat and flour exported.

Russia. — The wheat supply of Russia is produced very
largely for export, for the average consumption is only 2
bushels per head. It was only when the rye harvest
failed to meet the needs of the home population that
wheat prohibited from export became an important element
in the fare of the people. The conditions of its production
differ very much from those which exist in the United
States. On the one hand labour is much cheaper; on the
other hand the cultivation of wheat is not undertaken with
such intelligence and with such determination to employ
the best machinery for the purpose. Farming in Russia is
largely controlled by the old customs of the land, and many
authorities do not hesitate to say that until there is a radical
change in the method under which land is held and
cultivated things will not improve, and Russian produce
will become more scarce in the markets of Europe. The

42 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

yield per acre is very low, amounting only to some 9
bushels, so that the large production depends solely upon
the great acre&ge of land in cultivation. The best wheat
districts are in the neighbourhood of the Don, and in the
governments of Kief, Bessarabia, and Cherson and Taurus.

Out of a total production of wheat reckoned (average
1883-87) at 230 million bushels, some 70 miUions are
exported. Of this nearly all is exported from the ports on
the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, and, indeed, most from
Odessa. Odessa lies in the neighbourhood of the best
wheat provinces, freights from it are low, and it possesses
the organisation needed for the conduct of the trade. The
most important customer for Russian wheat is Germany,
after which come France, the United Kingdom, and the
Netherlands.

Britisli India. — It is only during the last twenty-five
years, noticeably since 1873, when the India export duty on
wheat was taken off, that Indian wheat has been of any
importance in European markets. Until then nearly all
the wheat grown had been kept for home consumption.
With regard to the production of wheat for export to
Europe and for sale in competition with the United States
and Russia, India possesses certain very distinct advantages
and disadvantages. Among the latter must be placed its
greater distance from Europe, the high rent which is paid
for the land, and the want of rain from which certain
districts suffer. On the other hand, labour is exceedingly
abundant and, owing to a low standard of living, very cheap.
The Government has done a great deal to stimulate export
by the extension of the railway system and by making
canals, some for irrigation and some for carriage. Though
Indian wheat has made good its position, it has not been
sent in such great quantities as was at one time anticipated.
Before this takes place the means and organisation of
transport must be improved and the freights cheapened.

The total production is on the average (1883-87)
260 million bushels, though of more recent years this
amount has not often been reached. The average yield
per acre is about 9J bushels, the greatest production taking

II FOOD AND DRINK— RYE, ETC. 43

place in the North-West Provinces. After these come the
Central Provinces and Bombay. One great point of
contrast between the United States and India lies in the
very much greater population of the latter. While the
United States has only 63 millions to support, the soil of
India must find the means of sustenance for 290 millions.
Though rice and millets are important food for many, a con-
siderable quantity of wheat is consumed in certain parts of
the country. Of the three wheat ports Bombay does con-
siderably the greatest trade, exporting in the year 1891-92
more than 26 millions of bushels, while Kurachi, once less
important, is now more important than Calcutta, despatching
in the same year 19 to the 9 millions of the latter. The
total average quantity sent from the ports of India has been
reckoned at some 60 millions of bushels, of which more than
50 per cent comes to the United Kingdom. The two next
largest customers are France and Belgium.

Rye. — This is an important crop in the north of
Europe and Russia. It can be cultivated in a cooler
climate than that suited for wheat, unlike which it flourishes
on very poor soils. In Europe it grows as far north of the
Equator as 70°. The chief countries producing it are
Russia, where the peasantry depend upon the rye harvest
for their sustenance ; the north of Germany, where much
the same conditions prevail ; Sweden, Denmark, Holland,
and Finland, in all of which countries it far exceeds the
wheat crop. It is also grown to a considerable extent in
France, where it is about one-fifth of the wheat crop. In
the United Kingdom it is hardly grown at all.

With one exception it does not enter largely into the
export trade of any country. Russia, however, despatches
some 50 million bushels yearly (average 1886-89), niost of
which goes to Germany and Holland.

It is imported to a very small extent into the United
Kingdom.

Barley. — Like rye, this cereal has a very wide range of
cultivation. It can be grown farther north than wheat,
though it flourishes best in the soils well adapted for the
latter. It is chiefly used for malting and distilling purposes.

44 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

The United Kingdom and Germany both produce barley
in much the same quantities as wheat ; while in Austria,
Hungary, and Russia its crop is about two-thirds, in Spain
about one-half of that of the latter.

The United Kingdom, in addition to growing a large
quantity of barley, imports a good amount chiefly from
Russia, Turkey, Roumania, France, and Germany.

Oats. — Owing to its hardier nature, this crop can be
cultivated in countries and districts too cold for either wheat
or barley. Oats, however, refuse to yield profitable
harvests as the hotter regions are approached. So far as
Europe is concerned, oats are grown in the more northerly
and moister countries. In many countries the quantity
produced far exceeds that of wheat. This is particularly
the case in Russia, where oats are grown to nearly, but not
quite the same extent as rye ; in Germany, where the oat-crop
is about two and a half times that of wheat ; in the United
Kingdom, where, owing to its great cultivation in the
northern part of England, and in Ireland and Scotland, its
crop doubles that of the wheat ; in the Scandinavian
countries, where the disproportion between its growth and
that of wheat far exceeds that in the larger countries
already named. On the other hand, in France the crop
is less than that of wheat, while in Italy, Spain, and
Turkey it is extremely insignificant in comparison. Passing
from Europe, it is the most important crop in Canada, and
grown in the United States in greater quantities than
wheat.

The amount that enters into international trade is
about I GO million bushels, or perhaps a tenth of the total
production. It is imported largely by the United Kingdom,
chiefly from Russia, the United States, and Sweden.

Maize. — This is one of the important presents that
America has made to the Old World. It is a very pro-
ductive crop, but, owing to the nature of its requirements,
cannot be grown in many countries where the other cereals
are freely cultivated. It demands a long summer without
frost, abundant sunshine, and a sufficiency of moisture.
Thus it does not grow in the United Kingdom, Germany,

II FOOD AND DRINK— MAIZE 45

or the countries of Northern Europe. Of all European
countries, it grows best in the eastern districts of Austria-
Hungary, where it is nearly as important a crop as wheat
or oats, in Italy, in Roumania ; while Spain, Turkey,
Portugal, Servia, and Southern France cultivate it with
success. It is grown in the Argentine, and in the United
States it is pre-eminently the most important crop. There
it has shown the same tendency as wheat — to proceed
westward. It is chiefly grown in the following states —
Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Indiana ;
whereas in 1886 the leading states were lUinois, Indiana,
Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa. Of late years the pro-
duction of maize in the United States has increased despite
its variability.

Average of Years. Million Bushels.

1880-84 1,575

1888 1,987

1889 2,112

1893 1,619

Of this amount, so far as 1888 was concerned, it is reckoned
that the home consumption amounted to 29!- bushels a
head.

Maize enters more largely into commerce than any
grain, with the exception of wheat, which, however, it does
not approach in commercial importance. From the
different producing countries some 180 million bushels are
exported. Among these the United States is by far the
most important, other countries being Russia, Austria-
Hungary, Roumania, Argentine Republic.

The remaining grain foods are much less valuable than
the preceding. Among them are buckwheat^ which,
though not grown in the United Kingdom, is cultivated to a
considerable extent in Russia and France, both countries
exporting to England, and in the United States ; millet^
which in both its kinds forms an important product in
India, and enters into the consumption of the poorer
peasants in Italy.

46 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

2. Certain Substitutes for Bread Foods.

These are two in number — potatoes in the more
developed regions where grain foods are too expensive or
for other reasons not easily available, rice in the East.

Potatoes. — The potato, a plant which was probably
introduced into Northern Europe by way of Italy, did not
become a popular and important food till comparatively
recent times. At the present time there are at least two
countries, Ireland and North Germany, where for the
poorer classes it takes as important a place as grain foods.
It was cultivated in Ireland somewhat earlier than in
England, and the production in that country is very high
when contrasted with the number of the population. The
potato crop in some of the more important countries was in
1889—

Million Tons.

Germany 26

Russia 13I

Austria- Hungary \i\

France lO^

United States 5l

Great Britain 3^

Ireland 2|

Belgium . . . • 2|

Holland 2

Sweden ....... 2

These figures, which are given in round numbers, show the
very varying importance attached to this plant by the
different countries. Only three nations import potatoes to
any considerable extent, the United Kingdom, the United
States, and Switzerland. They derive their foreign supplies
chiefly from Germany, France, and Russia.

Rice. — Rice is grown under very particular conditions.
It requires two things — a very high summer temperature,
and fields which can be flooded at certain periods of its

II FOOD AND DRINK—RICE 47

growth. 1 It is grown chiefly on low lands near the sea,
river deltas offering particular advantages. Thus at one
time it was cultivated with great success in the swamps
of South Carolina, in Georgia and Louisiana, though the
importance of this district as a rice-producing country has
declined very greatly since the abolition of slavery and
since the rise into prominence of the south and south-eastern
countries of Asia, e.g. British India, with Burmah, China,
Indo-China, Siam, Japan, etc.

In these countries, which contain a large population, rice
is a very important food crop. At one time it was said that
it formed the food of one-half of the population of the
world, and though this is now regarded as an exaggeration,
the number depending upon it is variously estimated as
from 400 to 500 millions. These dwell in Japan, Indo-
China, and in certain parts of India and China. In these
two latter countries rice is the staple food of the most
densely-populated districts, as, for instance, the Ganges
valley, but by no means of the whole country. In British
India, for instance, a considerable quantity of wheat is con-
sumed. Outside this part of the world rice is grown in
Asia Minor, Egypt, Italy, and Spain.

In India the total produce amounts to some 330 million
hundredweights, which is very unequally derived from the
various districts. The amount of land under rice cultivation
in the more important of these is shown in the table below.
In order to exhibit the dense populations which exist in the
districts where rice is largely cultivated, the density of
population per square mile has been added. The two
columns taken together will also afford some indication of
the purport of the rice-growing, whether for home or local
consumption, or for exportation. Lower Burmah occupies
an almost unique position. It has a high production of
rice and a low population. It is from this province that
the greatest amount of Indian rice exports proceed, the
direct imports into the United Kingdom coming chiefly
from Lower Burmah and Bengal.

^ Upland rice or hill rice, which thrives on a drier soil, is produced
in comparatively small quantities.

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

Land under rice, 1890-91.

In thousand acres.

Density of population
per square mile.

Bengal

473

Madras

6,159

248

N.-W. Provinces
Oudh

4,771 \
2,797/

442

Central Provinces

4,005

127

Lower Burmah

4,398

Bombay

2,297

150

Upper Burmah

1,350

Assam

1,275

116

Punjab

692

187

3. Pulses.

Owing to their extremely nutritious characteristics,
leguminous vegetables hold an important position in the
diet of many nations. The varieties of most importance
are common peas and beans, lentils, chickpeas, and soya-
beans.

Peas are cultivated widely in the northern portion of
Europe and in the countries of North America (the United
States and Canada), whence the United Kingdom derives
about three-fourths of her entire import.

Beans are also grown in the north of Europe and
America, but some varieties flourish more richly in the
warmer zones. Of these the soya-bean is important. It
is grown and consumed most largely in China, Japan, and
Egypt, the latter country being very prominent in its exports
both of beans and lentils to the United Kingdom. Lentils
are grown in both northerly and southerly climates, with
particular advantage in India and Egypt. The chickpea
is a native of Southern Europe and the East.

II FOOD AND DRINK— MEAT, ETC. 49

ii. Meat and Cattle and Animal Products.

I. Meat and Cattle.

Recent times have seen a great change in the circum-
stances of the meat supply.^ On the one hand, a rapid
increase in the population has been accompanied by great
increase in the quantity of meat food consumed per head of
that population. On the other hand, the development of
industries and the growth of towns have prevented a
corresponding increase in the number of cattle, etc., kept
in the more thickly -populated countries, even when they
have not occasioned a positive decrease. The new organisa-
tion of the meat supply has become an urgent matter both
for the consumers, to whose interest it is that the inter-
national trade in cattle and meat should be rapidly
developed, and for the home farmer, who looks on foreign
competition with a natural anxiety. So far as Europe is
concerned, the increase in the number of the animals which
go to form the food supply has been far outstripped by the
increase in the number of those who are there to eat them.
This has taken place despite an actual increase in the former.
During the years 1852-57 the stock in European countries
was — of cattle 87 millions, of sheep 177 millions, of pigs 38
millions ; in the years 1865-85 there were, on an average —
cattle 94 millions, sheep 169 milHons, pigs 45 millions; while
the average from 1880-85 was — cattle 94 millions, sheep
180 millions, pigs 44 millions. The following table, however,
will show how greatly the number fell proportionately to the
population.

■^ Many of the following comparative statistics are drawn from the
Uebersichten, etc.

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

Population and Cattle, etc., in Europe
(most Countries in).

In the periods

Population
in millions.

Numbers per 1000 inhabitants.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Pigs.

1S65-74
1873-82
1878-85
1880-89

278
304
313
341

331

302
302
300

700
568

539
549

152
140
138
137

In some countries, as, for instance, the United Kingdom,
the last few years have seen a slight rise in the number of
cattle and sheep kept proportionate to the population.

The comparison between the numbers of the population
and of the cattle, etc., varies of course in the case of the
separate countries of Europe. The relation holding good of
recent years in some of the more important of these and
of the United States merits careful notice.

Per 1000 inhabitants.

Cattle.

Sheep.

Pigs.

United Kingdom

Germany

France

Belgium

Austria-Hungary

Denmark

United States

269

345
349
251

840

772
419

390

573
70s

lOI

201
152
117
208
361
820

The position of these two latter countries is very significant
in comparison with that held by the thickly -populated
industrial countries of Western Europe, e.g. United
Kingdom, Belgium, Germany, France. Nor are these
latter less given to a large individual consumption of
meat. By computing the quantity of meat consumed,
both that raised in the country and that brought from
abroad, in any one country, and dividing it by the number
of the population of that country, it is reckoned that the
amount consumed by the average individual is in

FOOD AND DRINK— MEAT, ETC. 51

The United Kingdom

124 \hs.

Belgium

. 77 lbs.

France

84,,

Holland .

• 77 ,,

Denmark .

79 >,

Austria-Hungary

• 48 „

Germany .

77 »

Italy .

. 24 „

Most nations consume a much greater amount of beef
than of mutton, Austria- Hungary being the only important
country in which this proportion is reversed.

From a comparison of this table with the one which
gives the number of live beasts proportionate to the
population in the various countries, it is obvious that some
of the countries have too many, others too few for their
own consumption. Consequently some nations will have
to buy meat and cattle from others.

A very large and valuable trade takes -place in cattle and
meats. Leaving out of count bacon, this is worth about
;^5 0,000,000. About half of this value consists in live
beasts, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, the other half being
meat, fresh, salted, or dried. In this trade a great many
countries take part, for even those which raise about as
much as they require send some kinds of their meat abroad
and import other meat which they want.

The chief importing 1 countries are —

The United Kingdom, with a net import £2^,00^, 000.
France ,, ,, ;i^2, 500,000.

The chief exporting countries are —

The United States, with a net export ;^22,ooo,ooo.
Germany ,, ,, ;i^3, 000,000.

Argentine and Uruguay ,, ,, ;^2,8oo,ooo.

Denmark ,, ,, ;^2,5oo,ooo.

The United Kingdom. — Above all countries the United
Kingdom depends upon foreign countries for its meat supply.
During the twenty-five years from 1865 to 1890, while its
population increased very largely, the number deriving their
living from rural pursuits decreased; the average consumption

^ Countries which import meat (live or dead) exceeding in
quantity what they export.

52 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

per head rose from loo lbs. to 124 lbs.; and the proportion
of foreign meat in this consumption rose from 7 per
cent to 33 per cent. In 1868, of the 100 lbs. which
each person may be supposed to have eaten, 93 lbs. were
raised at home and only 7 lbs. imported; while in 1890,
of the 124 lbs., 83 were raised at home and 41 imported.
The United Kingdom obtains its supplies from all parts of
the world — cattle from the United States and Canada ;
sheep and pigs from the same countries ; fresh beef from
the United States, Australasia, Argentine Republic, and
Canada ; salt beef from the United States, Canada,
Australasia ; fresh mutton from New Zealand, Australia,
United States, Argentine Republic, Canada ; various kinds
of preserved meat from Uruguay, Argentine, and Brazil :
salt pork from United States and Canada ; ham and bacon
from the United States and Canada.

France. — Though France is much more able to satisfy
the demand of her people for meat than is the United
Kingdom, it is compelled to resort to foreign nations for
a certain portion of it. Foreign imports of meat are to
some extent discouraged by the custom duties levied on
the frontier or at the ports of entry. The countries
from which France is supplied are chiefly continental,
though in many cases meat comes to it from across
the seas through another country. For instance, some
American meat comes through Belgium ; live stock comes
chiefly from Algiers and Germany ; fresh meat from
Germany and Austria ; salted meats either from or through
the above-named countries, and through Belgium.

The United States. — Besides providing for its own
increasing and improving population, the United States
has, during the last twenty years, entered on a vast trade
of cattle and meat exportation. For rearing live stock
there are many advantages. To them is devoted the
immense tract of country that includes the roUing grass
lands and plains, a territory about as large as Europe.
It includes Texas, the Indian Territory, and large parts of
Idaho, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico,
Colorado, Nevada, and some portions of California, Oregon,

n FOOD AND DRINK— MEAT, ETC. 53

and Washington. Other states in the West Central are
also largely given up to the business of rearing live stock.
Among the states standing highest in live stock are — Texas,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and
Nebraska. Taking sheep alone, we find also rich districts
towards the Pacific — California, New Mexico, Oregon,
Utah, Montana, etc. So great has been the activity of
some of these districts that, despite the increase in popula-
tion, the growth in the number of cattle has been even
greater, the proportion per 1000 inhabitants rising from
767 in 1850 to 840 in 1889. Sheep and pigs, when
measured by the same standard, have, however, diminished.
Even in them the United States still contrasts very
favourably with the countries of Europe.

Two other circumstances have largely influenced stock
farming, so far as it is concerned with an export trade —
the comparative low prices ruling in America, and the
remarkable development of locomotion and trade organisa-
tion. Low prices have enabled the farmers to compete
with their stock in foreign lands against the home farmers,
though during the more recent years prices have fallen
so much, owing to excessive competition in the United
States, that stock farming is no longer so profitable as it
once was, and many ranches have been deserted and lie
idle. On the other hand, the improvements in the trans-
port service are all to the benefit of the western cattle and
sheep states. From these states meat is forwarded to
the more crowded East. In this transit an important part
is played by Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha,
and Peoria, which serve as collecting places, whence stock
may be farther forwarded. If destined for foreign countries
they are shipped on board specially constructed vessels on
their arrival at the eastern ports. At the collecting places,
however, a great portion of the stock is slaughtered, and
then either forwarded in the refrigerating carriages or
salted and canned before being sent on. The latter
processes combine to form one of the great industries of
Chicago and St. Louis. In the former city the curing and
preparing of bacon, ham, and pork are carried on with a

54 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

perfection and to an extent unknown in Europe, about
4 million pigs being slaughtered and cured annually.

Argentine Republic and Uruguay. — Both these
countries have large herds of live stock, especially of
cattle and sheep. The latter, however, are an object of
attention chiefly on account of their wool. The number of
cattle and sheep per looo inhabitants is —

Argentine
Uruguay

Cattle.

Sheep.

5,789

17,581

13,576

37,426

In the last-named country the increase during recent
years has been very great. A large number of cattle in
each country are sent to the saladeros to be slaughtered
and for their meat to be prepared for export to foreign
lands. Among other forms which this preparation takes
may be mentioned that of meat extract, the Liebig
saladero being at Fray Bentos in Uruguay.

Of the meat exports from these countries, live cattle and
plain salted meat go chiefly to the other countries of South
and Central America. To Europe and especially to the
United Kingdom go the more finely-prepared meat, the
salted tongues and the supplies of fresh frozen meat. After
the United Kingdom rank France, Spain, and Belgium.

The exports of cattle and meat from Germany and
Denmark are chiefly sent to the neighbouring countries.

2. Some Animal Products.

Butter. — The consumption of butter in Europe has
largely increased during the present century owing to the
general improvements in the comfort in which people live.
In consequence of this increased demand the price has
risen so much that cheaper substitutes for it have been
sought, one of which, margarine^ has become an article of
great importance. By means of improvement both in the
processes of manufacture and in the rapidity of transport,
countries which do not produce sufficient butter for their
own needs are able to import it from abroad. Both the

II FOOD AND DRINK — BUTTER, ETC. 55

United Kingdom and Belgium import butter, the latter
to the value of ;^ 5 00, 000. But the imports into the
United Kingdom are far larger. In 1890 it imported
butter to the value of nearly ;^ 12,000,000, and margarine to
the value of over ;^3, 000,000. The chief countries which
produce butter for other countries are Denmark, France,
Holland, and Sweden, from each of which the United
Kingdom obtains a large quantity. The chief country
producing and exporting margarine is Holland.

Cheese. — The manufacture of cheese, like that of butter,
is common to most countries. But in this case, too, some
countries have to rely upon foreign production for part of
their supply. Both the United Kingdom and France,
though they produce a great quantity of cheese, are placed
in this position. Holland can provide them with a good
deal ; but in the case of the United Kingdom, the United
States and Canada are far more important. From these
two countries it obtains about four-fifths of its total import.
Of recent years Canada has devoted considerable attention
to the manufacture of cheese for foreign markets, its exports
in 1890 being three or four times as great as those of 1874.
Finer kinds of cheese are made in Switzerland and Italy.

Eggs. — A considerable trade is carried on in eggs,
large quantities of which are exported annually from France,
Holland, Belgium, Denmark, and Russia.

3. Fisheries.

To some countries fish, the "harvest of the sea," is
nearly as important as the yield of the fields. It affords a
main article of support to the maritime inhabitants of China,
and together with rice constitutes the food of the greater
portion of Japan, where it has been calculated that no fewer
than il millions of people are engaged in the fisheries.
In Norway the unfavourable conditions of climate and soil
have driven the people to seek their support from the sea,
whence they land fish both for their own use and for
export.

In some countries the value of the annual catch of fish

56 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

is very great. Thus the annual product of the United
Kingdom sea - fishers has been variously stated at
^10,000,000 or ;^ 1 3,000,000, while the sea fisheries
of the United States were estimated (1880) as yielding
over ;^8,ooo,ooo. But if the produce of the large lake
fisheries, of the rivers and of the oyster-beds, be included
in the account of the fisheries of the latter, the value may
be put, as it has been put by one observer, at no less than
;^2 2,000,000. The value of all the Canadian fisheries in
1890 nearly reached ;^4, 000,000. The fisheries of the
colony of Newfoundland may be reckoned as worth about
another million.

There are two great fishing districts in the world : the
one the North Sea ; the other the Western Atlantic
adjoining the coast of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Prince Edward Isle, Quebec, and the New
England States. While the fishing in the open sea is free to
every nation, treaties have been made to determine the
rights of inshore fishing in this latter district. The chief
fish caught in this large district are cod, mackerel, herring,
haddock, and hake. A large number of lobsters are also
taken near the shores.

The North Sea fisheries are shared amongst the fisher-
men from Scotland, England, Holland, and the Scandinavian
countries. Their total value has been estimated at
;^2 5,000,000. They comprise herring, cod, mackerel,
haddock, sole, whiting, etc. The chief fishing ports in
England are London, Grimsby, Hull, Lowestoft, and
Yarmouth ; and in Scotland, Wick, Peterhead, and
Lerwick. The herring fisheries of France and Holland
are also important.

The chief places where salmon fishing is largely carried
on are in Norway, and to a much greater extent British
Columbia and the American States bordering on the
Pacific. On the Columbia and Eraser rivers salmon is
caught, then " canned " and exported.

The oyster-beds of the United States are valuable not
only for home consumption, but for export. They lie
chiefly in the states of Maryland and those adjoining. In

II FOOD AND DRINK— SUGAR 57

England oysters are found near Whitstable, in France on
the coast of Brittany, in Belgium near Ostend, in Holland
near Texel, and off the island of Zeeland.

From the Mediterranean come the sardine (prepared
chiefly in France), the anchovy^ and the tunny. The
sardine is also caught on the west coast of France. The
pilchard is caught off the coast of Cornwall.

Less necessary Food Commodities —

The articles included in this category are chiefly those
which, though useful and pleasing, do not constitute the
essential sustenance of any body of people. The chief
commodities are sugar, coffee, tea, cocoa ; but besides these
there are a number of minor articles.

I. Sugar.

The increase in the use of sugar since 1875-79 has
been remarkable. With the exceptions of Belgium and Italy
every important European country consumed more sugar
annually on the average of the period 1885-89 than on
that of the earlier period. In the United Kingdom the
consumption per head has increased from 57 to 70 lbs. ;
in the United States from 35 to 53 ; in France from 18 to
22 ; and in Germany from 13 to nearly 16 lbs. Of course
a great deal of this use of sugar is indirect, as sugar is used
in the manufacture of so many articles, as jam, confectionery,
beer, etc.

There are two kinds of sugar — beetroot sugar and cane
sugar. Cane sugar was used in times of antiquity, and till
very recent years held a supremacy hardly interfered with
by the small amount of sugar produced from the beet.
But now beetroot sugar, as the following table shows, has
not only proved itself no mean rival, but become victorious
in the struggle for the first place.

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

PART

Yearly Production of Sugar in Tons.

1884-85.

1888.89.

1889-90.

Cane Sugar .
Beet Sugar .

2,400,000
2,500,000

2,200,000
2,700,000

2,300,000
3,600,000

Total . .

4,900,000

5,900,000

These estimates, though only approximate, represent very
fairly the change that has been taking place. The countries
producing beet sugar are very differently situated as to
geographical position and climate from those in which the
cane grows. The sugar-cane requires a moist soil and a
hot temperature, flourishing best in the tropical countries.
It was introduced into Southern Europe by the Arabs, and
thence transplanted to the West Indies, where its spread
was rapid. On the other hand, beetroot is grown in the
countries of Northern Europe in a temperate but not always
a clement climate.

The chief countries engaged in the production of beet
sugar are —

Germany, with a production of about l\ million tons.
France „ „ % „

Other large producers are Austria, Russia, and Belgium,
while Holland and other countries add to the production in
smaller amounts.

Germany. — The progress of the beet cultivation and of
the sugar industry has been very rapid during the last thirty
years, owing very largely to the measures of protection taken
by the Government. At the present time there are some 400
factories at work, half of which are situated in the Prussian
provinces of Saxony and Hanover and in Brunswick, where the
beetroot fields occupy large stretches of country. Magde-
burg is, as it were, the sugar capital of this district. Sugar
production takes place also in Silesia and Anhalt. Of the
sugar exported from Germany more than half goes to the

FOOD AND DRINK— SUGAR

United Kingdom, after which Holland, the United States,
and Sweden rank as good customers.

France. — France, though it entered on the production
of beet sugar before any other nation, has been compelled
to yield the first place to Germany. Of late years its
production has been uncertain. The chief sugar districts
are in the north, near Lille, Amiens, Rouen, and also near
Nantes, Orleans, and Bordeaux. Its exports go chiefly to
the United Kingdom, Portugal, Belgium, so far as raw
sugar is concerned. Refined sugar it sends to the United
Kingdom, Switzerland, Turkey, etc. France, however, now
imports more raw sugar than she exports. Her refineries,
especially so far as the better sorts of sugar are concerned,
are among the best in the world.

Atcstria-Hungary produces largely, chiefly in Moravia,
Hungary, Silesia, Lower Austria, and Galicia, and has an
export both of raw and refined sugar. It sends sugar into
Germany, to the United Kingdom, Italy, etc.

The chief countries producing cane sugar lie in two
different parts of the globe ; roughly speaking, divisible into
the East Indies and the West Indies. Of these the more
important are —

Tons.

Demerara

prouuciug o^UjUUU
115,000

Porto Rico

70,000

Java

310,000

Manila, etc.

,, 180,000

Mauritius

,, 125,000

Brazil .

,, 170,000

Louisiana

125,000

As may be seen, the countries in the West Indies and
America are considerably the more important. In addition
to the countries named, sugar is largely produced in Trini-
dad, Barbadoes, Jamaica, Antigua, Martinique, Guadeloupe,
Sandwich Islands, British India, Madura, Mexico, Egypt.
Much of the cane sugar is sent to the United States. This
occurs in the case of Cuba, Porto Rico, and even in the

6o COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

case of the British West Indies and the Sandwich Islands.
From Mauritius about nine-tenths of the total product goes
to Australasia and India ; from the Dutch East Indies the
sugar goes to the United States and over Singapore ; from
the Philippines chiefly to the former.

The most important importing countries are the
United Kingdom and the United States. The United
Kingdom imported (1892) in raw sugar 8 million cwts.
from the continent of Europe (beet), and over 7 million
cwts. of cane sugar from Java, British West Indies, British
India, Philippines, etc. She also imported over 10 million
cwts. of refined sugar, chiefly from Germany, France, and
Holland. Into the United States the import of raw sugar
(nearly all cane, and most from the West Indies) has risen
from 10 million cwts. in 1870 to 26 million cwts. in 1890.

The principal export countries are, in their order of
importance, /?r raw sugar — Cuba, Germany, Dutch East
Indies, British West Indies, Brazil, Philippine Islands,
Mauritius, Belgium, Sandwich Islands, Austria-Hungary ;
for refined sugar — Austria-Hungary, Germany, France. If
we take account of both, Germany stands out as the most
important.

Of late years some mills in the United States have
begun to produce sugar from sorghum^ an African com-
plant. The industry is likely to become very important.

2. Coffee.

The districts within which the coffee plant is cultivated
are determined, firstly, by its excessive dependence on
climate. It requires considerable warmth and moisture,
and so, speaking broadly, will not flourish outside the
tropics. It must be fairly sheltered from winds, and grows
best on a soil formed of decomposed vegetable matter.
The most desirable elevation is some 3000 feet above sea
level. Secondly, the fact that it is grown largely in view
of export to foreign markets restricts its cultivation to
localities conveniently or reasonably near to ports. Its use
in certain countries is very great. The annual consumption

II FOOD AND DRINK— COFFEE 6i

per head during the period 1885-89 was in Holland over
10 lbs. ; in Belgium it was 9 lbs. ; in the United States
8 lbs. ; in Norway 7 J lbs. ; on the other hand, in Germany,
during the same period, it was only 5 lbs. ; in France 3| lbs. ;
and in the United Kingdom not quite i lb. To all these
countries it has to come from the lands where it is grown.
The chief countries producing and exporting coffee are,
with their estimated quantities ^ —

Thousand cwts.

Brazil

exports

about 3,720

Java and Dutch East Indies

produce

„ 697

Venezuela

exports

„ 380

Guatemala

produces

„ 310

Hayti

exports

„ 260

In addition, coffee is grown in Porto Rico, British India
and Ceylon, San Salvador, Colombia, Mexico, Philippine
Islands, British West Indies, etc. The total production is
certainly not short of 8 million cwts. Small quantities are
produced in Arabia, etc.

Brazil is by far the most important country engaged in
the coffee trade. In addition to the large amount which it
exports, it raises a great deal for the home consumption.
The chief coffee states are Rio de Janeiro and San Paulo,
assisted to their position by climatic advantages and the
good railway communication which exists respectively with
the ports of Santos and Rio de Janeiro. The plantations
lie on the hills at some little distance from the sea. Next
to these states come Minas-Geraes, Ceara, Pemambuco,
Para, Bahia, and Rio Grande do Sul. Of late years the
principal extension of plantations has taken place in San
Paulo and Para. Brazil furnishes half the amount of coffee
sent to the markets of America and Europe, and as the
quantity consumed in the country itself is large, its yearly
harvest must be a very great one.

1 Statistics compiled in the Uebersichten.

62 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

3. Tea.

The United Kingdom makes up by its large consumption
of tea for its comparatively small use of coffee. Distributed
per head of the population this amounts to 5 lbs., a quantity
much exceeded in the Australian colonies with an annual
average of 7 J lbs. per head. Next to the United Kingdom
come Canada with 3| lbs., the United States with ij lbs.,
Holland with a little more than i lb., and Russia with a
consumption per head of ^ lb. The consumption of tea in
China itself, though unesti mated, is probably much greater
than that of any other country.

Tea is by no means so susceptible to cold as coffee,
and in consequence the range of its cultivation is much
greater. It demands an even and warm temperature, and
owing to its need of moisture and yet liability to damage
from excessive dampness at the roots, grows best on sloping
land with a system of natural drainage. It is owing to
this that the lower slopes of the Himalayas offer so fine a
field for its cultivation. Till comparatively recent years
the production was almost entirely a Chinese monopoly,
but now that country has found a powerful and rapidly
growing rival in British India, which, together with Ceylon,
threatens to outstrip it. In the case of tea sent to the
United Kingdom this has already occurred, in 1890 that
country receiving from British India and Ceylon 145
million lbs., and from China and Hong-Kong nearly 74
million lbs. The principal countries exporting tea in 1889
were —

Million lbs.
China with total export 257

British India ,, ,, 103

Japan ,, >» 62

Ceylon „ » 33

Java and Madura ,, >> 7

Of these countries the most rapidly increasing are British
India — where a great extension of cultivation has taken
place in Assam and Bengal — and Ceylon, where on many

II FOOD AND DRINK— TEA, ETC 63

plantations tea has of late years been substituted for
coffee. Of the export from China, Russia takes about 4 1 per
cent, the United Kingdom 29 percent, the United States 17
per cent, and Australasia about 6 per cent. In the case of
British India the proportions are very different, the United
Kingdom taking more than 95 per cent of the whole.

In China the chief production of tea takes place in
several provinces, of v/hich the principal is Fu-chien.

4. Cacao.

Cacao, or, as it is generally called, cocoa, is used as a
substitute for coffee or tea to some extent in other countries,
but to a very great extent in Spain and Portugal, and in
those countries of Central and Southern America which lie
near the Equator. It is in these latter that it is produced,
requiring as it does a very warm and very moist climate.
The chief countries producing it are Ecuador, Venezuela
(Caracas), Brazil (Amazonas), San Salvador, Trinidad,
Martinique. In Europe it is very largely used for the
manufacture of -chocolate, particularly in France, Switzer-
land, and England.

5. Salt.

Salt is one of the great auxiliary requisites of the human
race. It is needed as an article of consumption, especially
among people restricted to a vegetable diet ; it is required
in agriculture and for the support of live stock ; and it is
used in many manufactures, as, for instance, chemicals and
glass. A great quantity of salt is annually required in
the various processes of meat preservation, etc. Very
fortunately so universal a requirement is widely produced.
Its supply comes from various sources, from the seashore,
marshes, and inlets from the sea, by evaporation, from
salt mines, and from brine springs. In some form or other
nearly all countries have a good supply. This is particu-
larly the case in British India, where the salt for revenue
purposes has been made subject to Government monopoly,
and in China and Japan. In Europe the chief countries

64 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

producing salt in large amounts are the United Kingdom,
where the annual output exceeds on the average 2 million
tons, taking place chiefly in the counties of Cheshire and
Worcestershire ; Russia, with a yield of a little more than i
million tons, where the principal salt mines are in the Ural
and Astrachan. In Germany the production of salt is
somewhat widely spread, there being important salt mines
near Stassfurt and Erfurt in Saxony, near Stettin, and also
in Wiirtemberg. The total yield in Germany has been
reckoned at i million tons, a figure which it usually
exceeds. In France the yield amounts to only one-half of
the foregoing, the most important department being that of
Meurthe-Moselle. In Austria-Hungary, which, like France,
produces some half million tons, there are very important
mines in Galicia at Wieliczka, and at Marmaros and Maros
in Hungary. The united production of Spain and Portugal
is some three-quarters of a million tons. There are valuable
deposits in the Austrian and Bavarian Alps, in the Vosges,
and in the Pyrenees. The use of salt in the United
Kingdom is very large.

6. Miscellaneous Products.

Farinaceous Starch Foods. — Sago is obtained from
certain species of palms. The sago palm grows most
favourably in the hot swampy islands of the Malay
Archipelago, also in the Moluccas, New Guinea, Borneo,
and the Philippine Islands. From these places the sago,
which is the pith, is taken to Singapore, where it is prepared
in different ways for the European markets. It is mostly
sent to England and thence distributed over the continent.
Tapioca is produced from the roots of the mandioc or
cassava plant, which is largely cultivated in the West Indies,
whence the United Kingdom derives its chief supply. A
certain quantity is sent to Europe over Singapore ; and a
considerable cultivation, chiefly for home consumption, takes
place also in South America and some of the South Sea
Islands. Arrowroot is a native of tropical America and
the West Indies, among which latter Jamaica is important.

II FOOD AND DRINK— FRUITS, SPICES 65

Southern and other Fruits. — In addition to the better

known fruits, which grow so widely throughout the temperate
regions of Europe, there are certain fruits, chiefly known as
southern fruits, which form a valuable article in the trade
between different countries. Oranges and lemons come
to the markets of the northern European countries chiefly
from the European and other countries bordering the
Mediterranean. Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Sicily are
important producing lands. In the United States oranges
are produced in the greatest plenty in Florida. Currants
are the raisins of a very small grape, growing luxuriantly
in Greece and the Grecian Isles. They are dried, pressed
into casks, and exported. Raisins^ of which there are
several kinds, are chiefly produced in Asia Minor, in the
country round Smyrna (whence come the sultana raisins),
and the islands of Samos and Cos, in Spain (whence, in
addition to the more common kinds, the muscatels are
exported), and in Calabria in Italy. Figs are grown in
Southern Europe, and largely in Asia Minor and
Northern Africa. Large imports enter the United King-
dom from Turkey.

Spices and Condiments. — Of pepper there are two
important kinds — white and black pepper and cayenne
pepper. White and black pepper, the ordinary pepper, are
the product of the same plant, which is indigenous to the
hot districts of South-Eastern Asia, being cultivated mainly
in the Moluccas, Sumatra, the Malay Archipelago, and in
the Malabar Coast of British India. Most of the supply
sent to Europe is collected at and exported from Singapore.
Cayenne pepper is from an entirely different plant. It is
grown in the East and West Indies, in South America, Spain,
Southern France, and Hungary. Ginger^ which is largely
grown in its original home in South-Eastern Africa, was
early introduced into the West Indies. Jamaica ginger is
well known among the gingers imported into the United
Kingdom. Cinnamofi is best produced in Ceylon and other
south-eastern islands. Though its cultivation has been
extended to other places in the West Indies and South
America, the products of these countries are not so highly

66 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

valued. Nutmegs and cloves are obtained from the
Moluccas. Attempts have been made to extend their
cultivation, and in the case of cloves not without consider-
able success. Allspice is grown in the West Indies,
particularly in Jamaica. Vanilla in Mexico, West Indies,
and Central and South America. Aniseed, indigenous to
Egypt, is also cultivated in Southern Europe, Germany,
and East Indies, Mustard is very generally grown, as
also is saffron, the best saffron coming from Austria.

Medicinal Products. — Among these an important place
is held by opium, which, however, is more used in certain
of its forms as a pleasurable narcotic. Opium smoking is
a prevalent custom in certain parts of India and in China.
The opium poppy is a native of Persia and Asia Minor, and
the production of opium takes place in both these countries,
as well as in Egypt, Greece, Algiers, etc. But the two
most important countries producing opium are British
India and China. In the latter country it is prepared for
home use. British India produces a very large amount of
opium, chiefly for export to China. The annual export of
opium to China is about 120,000 cwts. In India opium is
chiefly grown in Bengal (near Patna), Malwa, Rajputana, and
to a limited extent in the Central Provinces and the Punjab.
The most valuable is Turkish opium. Quinine is one of
the preparations made from the bark of the cinchona,
which, in all its species, is indigenous to the eastern sides
of the Andes from a little N. to 20° S. During recent
years it has been introduced into other countries, as India
(where its cultivation has been attended with great success),
Java, Ceylon, Jamaica. The chief countries supplying the
European markets are Colombia and Ceylon. Strychnine
is produced from the seeds of the nux-vomica, which grows
in Ceylon and on the Coromandel Coast. Camphor comes
principally from the Island of Formosa.

Miscellaneous. — As vinegar is prepared from young
and poor wines by some fermentation, its production takes
place in the wine countries, and especially in France,
Germany, and Italy, all of which countries export consider-
able quantities. Ai) inferior vinegar is made from wood by

II FOOD AND DRINK— WINE 67

a particular mode of distillation. Onions are a considerable
import into the United Kingdom, which procures its
supplies from Egypt, Spain, and Holland. Lard (swine's
fat) is produced in most countries, but as an article of
export it is despatched chiefly from the United States.
Yeasty used in baking, is produced in the process of
brewing. It is also imported into the United Kingdom in
a dry form from Holland, France, and Germany.

iv. Wine, Beer, and Spirits.
I. Wine.

An average wine year is reckoned at a yield of over
2800 million gallons. Owing to the great differences in
quality it is impossible to calculate its value at all closely,
estimates varying from about ;^8o,ooo,ooo to ^160,000,000.
Even the lower of these two suffices to display the import-
ance of wine in connection with industry and trade.

There is a great difference in the consumption of wine
in the countries of Europe. If the total amount consumed
be divided among the population, the nations leading the
way with the highest individual consumption are Spain
(201 pints annually), Greece (191 pints), Bulgaria (182
pints), Portugal (166 pints), Italy (166 pints). Passing to
the more important nations, the consumption per head in
France is 165 pints, in Germany 8 pints, in Belgium 4 pints,
and in the United Kingdom 2 pints. The first three
countries mentioned, Spain, Greece, and Bulgaria, produce
a cheap and not highly valued wine and drink it.

The foremost wine-producing countries are —

Annual Wine Production of leading Countries.^
Average of period 1886-90.

Countries. Million Gallons.

Italy 677

Spain 655

France 605

^ Drawn from the Uebersichten, etc.

68 COMMERCIAL GEOGRArHY part

Countries. Million Gallons.

Austria-Hungary ...... 209

Portugal (1890) about ... .132

Russia ,, . . .52
Germany 50

The wines of all these countries, with the exception of
Russia, enter into trade.

France. — France, though inferior in quantity to both
Italy and Spain, stands first, if we look at the value of its
wines and their importance, in Europe. At one time
France produced a greater quantity of wine than any other
country, but of recent years, since 1880, its production
has diminished considerably owing to destruction wrought
by the phylloxera, and in a less degree by the mildew.
Vine-growing is widespread, extending through seventy-six
departments, of which the two most important, with
reference to quality of wine produced, are Herault and
Aude. The wine districts are three — the Bordeaux district,
the Burgundy district, the Champagne district. The
Bordeaux district produces the ordinary red wine, and
includes among its leading departments the two already
noted, and Gironde, Charente- Inferieure, Dordogne,
Charente. The chief departments in the Burgundy
district are Cote d'Or and Yonne ; in the Champagne
country, Marne, Haute Marne, and Meurthe.

France now imports a great deal more wine than it
exports, a state of things which will continue, because the
wine for export is of a better quality than that which is
produced or imported for home consumption. Some of the
wine imported, especially that from Spain, is imported for
mixing with the wine of Bordeaux. This country and
Algiers are the chief sources from which France imports
wine. It exports wine to all parts, especially to the United
Kingdom, Switzerland, Belgium, and Germany.

Italy. — The wines of Italy differ very much in both
character and quality. The more important districts for
the production are the southern, especially Sicily, Tuscany,
and Piedmont. Italy exports considerably more wine than
it imports.

II FOOD AND DRINK— BEER 69

Spain. — During late years the export of wine from Spain
has been increasing. Catalonia and Valencia are the
largest wine -producing districts, while in Andalusia some
well-famed wines are produced, as sherry and Malaga, most
of which are shipped to the English market.

In Austria- Hungary Hungary is celebrated for its
particular wines. Portugal sends to the United Kingdom
and other countries port wine from the district of the
Douro, and Madeira from the island of that name. The
wine production of Germany, though not large in amount,
is important because of the high value and quality of the
wines produced in certain districts. The most important of
these are situated by the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Neckar.

Of recent years wine from the United States
(California) and Australia has been imported into the
United Kingdom, and will, it is expected, increase in
quantity. Wine is also produced in Cape Colony,

2. Beer.

There are two countries which stand far before all
others in the amount of beer which they produce. Germany
and the United Kingdom brew very nearly the same
amount, the former country leading the way with an annual
product of about 11 60 million gallons, and the United
Kingdom following with about 1145 million. Beer is very
greatly drunk in both of these countries, though, judging by
the quantity consumed as compared with the population,
they are surpassed by Belgium and nearly approached by
Denmark.

Beer drunk per head
of the population.
Belgium ...... 309 pints

United Kingdom ..... 239 ,,

Germany ...... 184 ,,

Denmark ...... 178 ,,

In no other country does the proportionate amount of
beer consumed stand nearly as high. The more prominent
countries are the United States, Australia, and Switzerland.

70 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

In Gerjna7iy the beer industry is a very large one, having
its most important centre in Bavaria, where there are about
7000 breweries, and in certain districts of Prussia, noticeably
in the province of Saxony and near Posen. In the United
Kiyigdom the chief home of the beer industry is Burton-on-
Trent, where most of thelarge brewing finns have establish-
ments, and in Ireland (stout and porter). The chief
brewing districts in Belgium are in the provinces of
Brabant, Hennegau, East and West Flanders, and
Antwerp.

The production of beer makes its chief demand on
barley, which, in the form of malt, forms its principal
ingredient, sugar, and hops, which impart to it its slightly
bitter flavour.

3. Spirits.

In the production of spirits there are two processes :
firstly, the production of a fermented liquor ; and secondly,
the separation by distillation of the alcohol in the liquor.
For the manufacture of spirits such substances as the
following are required — grain substances, wheat, barley,
rye, etc., beetroot, potatoes, fruits, and other substances
containing sugar.

The production and consumption of spirits of some
kinds is spread very widely over the earth, the highest
consumption taking place in Russia, Scandinavia, and in
the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, West Prussia, and
Posen.

Brandy for export is chiefly produced in France, whence
the United Kingdom in 1890 imported nearly 3 million
(proof) gallons, and Germany.

Gin is largely manufactured and exported by Holland,
from which country the United Kingdom obtains nearly
her entire supply.

Rum is made from molasses and largely imported into
Europe from the countries where cane sugar is produced,
into the United Kingdom from British West Indies and
British Guiana.

The chief spirit produced in the United Kingdom is

II FOOD AND DRINK— TOBACCO 71

whisky^ which is made in Ireland and Scotland, principally
from barley malt, and which is an article of export as well
as of home consumption.

V. Tobacco.

Tobacco might be, and possibly is, grown to some extent
in nearly all the countries where it is consumed. As,
however, it could not be grown with the fruitful results
that attend its cultivation in countries where the danger
of uncertain frost is not so great, and where the climate
and temperature are most favourable, the area of its
effective cultivation is a little limited, though still remaining
very wide. The total tobacco harvest has been estimated
as amounting to about 1630 million lbs. Of this total
the United States produces about 30 per cent, and British
India about 22 per cent. Other very important countries
are — {a) outside Europe in respect of quantity, Asia Minor,
Dutch East Indies, Japan ; and in respect of quality or
kind of production, Cuba and the Philippine Islands.
{b) In Europe in respect of quantity, Austria - Hungary,
Russia, Germany, France. It is worthy of note that
Austria - Hungary and Russia follow immediately after
British India in the general list of the large producing
lands.

In the United States the cultivation of tobacco is so
widely spread that it takes place in no fewer than forty-two
states. Of these the two most important are Kentucky
and Virginia, after which follow North Carolina, Tennessee,
Pennsylvania, Ohio. The export from the United States
is very great, and amounts to some 250 million lbs. The
production in British Iiidia^ great though it is, is not very
important in international commerce, as the consumption
in the country absorbs it nearly all, some, however, being
sent to Australia. The quality of the tobacco is not very good.
In Cuba there is a great trade in cigars of a high quality,
termed Havanas from the place of their export. A great
quantity of cigars pass by the name of Havanas without
being the produce of the island of Cuba, often, indeed,

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

PART II

without even passing through the island,
are produced in the Philippine Islands.
Important and other countries with
sumption per head are —

Holland
Belgium
Switzerland .
Greece
Denmark
United States
Germany
France

The Manilla cigars
a high rate of con-

Per head,
about 7 lbs.
4i
4i
3l
3l
3i
Z\

In contrast with the above the consumption in the
United Kingdom is only about \\ lbs. per head. It derives
nearly four -fifths of its total supply from the United
States.

CHAPTER II

TEXTILE RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR MANUFACTURE

After the need of food is satisfied, there is no greater
and more universal want than that of clothing. Owing
to the necessity of protection against the climate and the
love of ornament, or for the sake of decency, clothing
is a requisite in almost every land — certainly in every
land where life has emerged from the earliest state of
primitive culture. In some of the more backward countries
the want, when felt, is supplied by the use of materials
furnished ready to hand by nature, such as fur, feathers,
etc. But this is not the custom in the more advanced
countries. In these raw material is manufactured into
cloth, etc. The raw material is textile raw material, and
its manufacture represents the earlier stages of the textile
spinning and weaving industries. The most important
branches of the textiles are cotton, wool, flax, jute, hemp,
silk.

I. Cotton.

Cotton is the soft down or fibre surrounding the seeds
of the cotton-plant as they lie in their capsule. After the
flower is shed the capsule bursts, giving opportunity for the
cotton to be plucked.

The cotton-plant, which is of several kinds, flourishes
best in warm climates and in a light warm soil. Owing
to its peculiar sensitiveness to frost, and to the length
of time during which it must be protected from such an

74 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

influence, its cultivation is generally confined to tropical
and sub-tropical regions. But within these limits it is and
can be grown over a wide area. It is said to be indigenous
in three continents of the world — in Asia, Africa, and
America ; and it has been introduced into the other two —
into the southern districts of Europe, — Italy, and Spain,
by the Arabs ; into Australia, Queensland, of more recent
times.

The importance of cotton is threefold. It is important
as supplying clothing and household requisites ; it is im-
portant as one of the great commercial products ; it is
important as maintaining a busy branch of industry.

The total production of cotton is great and increasing.
In 1890 the cotton yield of the world was about 6430
million lbs., while during the period 1880-84 the annual
average was some 4660 million lbs. Towards the total
production three countries, the United States, British India,
and Egypt, contribute some 86 per cent, that is more than
four-fifths. Of these the United States is by far the most
important. By reason of its enormous supply of about
4300 million lbs., and the large proportion of it exported,
it rules the cotton markets of the world. Before the Civil
War between the North and South its control was even
greater, as the exports to Europe from other countries were
of comparatively little account. India produces over 800
million and Egypt nearly 400 million lbs.

The quality of cotton is by no means uniform. It
differs according to its length of fibre, its strength, its
regularity, and its softness. In the trade it is classified
according to its place of origin and its quality. Sea-island
cotton, which comes from the coast of Georgia and South
Carolina, is the best, has the longest staple (or greatest
length of fibre), and commands the highest price. Indian
cotton has a shorter staple. Upland cotton, from the inland
districts of America, has a short staple. Egyptian is of a
high quality.

United States. — The cotton produced in the United
States is of two kinds — sea- island and upland. Of the
total amount — roughly reckoned at 4500 million lbs. in

COTTON 75

1892, in 1889 at 3400 million lbs. — the greatest amounts
are produced by the following states : Texas, Georgia,
Mississippi, Alabama, and South Carolina, which five states
possess two -thirds of the cotton plantations. Other im-
portant states are Arkansas, Louisiana, North Carolina,
Tennessee, Florida, Missouri, Virginia, Kentucky, and
Kansas. The chief districts of cotton production may be
described as two, that along the coast already alluded to,
and that in the Mississippi valley, where is the celebrated
rich cotton soil of America.

Of the cotton thus produced the United States retains
a good amount at home for the supply of its own industries,
which, as we shall see, are very important. Its export of
cotton, however, absorbs much the larger share, amount-
ing on an average to nearly three-fifths of the whole. Of
this by far the largest quantity goes to the United Kingdom,
which buys more than one-third of the entire cotton grown
in the United States. Cotton is also sent in large quantities
to Germany, France, and Belgium. The chief ports for the
despatch of American cotton are New Orleans, Galveston,
and New York.

British India. — The rise of India into the position of an
important cotton country took place during the Civil War
in America, when England, deprived of her usual supplies,
fell back on India, with the result of stimulating the exten-
sion of cultivation in that country and bringing about a
great increase in her exports. These, from amounting to
some 460,000 bales in 1858, rose during the sixties to
nearly 2 million bales. After the war was over India was
not able to maintain the position it had held during its
continuance. Since 1880, however, her exports have risen
again, and in 1890 Indian export of cotton amounted to
660 million lbs. Since then it has again shown a decline. Of
this 36 per cent goes to the United Kingdom, other countries
taking large amounts of Indian cotton being Italy, Belgium,
Austria-Hungary, France. India retains about one-fourth
of her cotton for home manufacture, etc.

The most important districts for cotton are the pre-
sidencies of Bombay and Berar, after which rank Madras,

76 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

the North -West Provinces, the Punjab, and the Central
Provinces. The plateau extending through Berar and into
Bombay is the great cotton district.

Bombay is the most important port for the despatch of
cotton.

Egypt. — The cotton produced in Egypt is of a very fine
quality, and highly valued in European markets, being used
for spinning a fine quality yarn. In quantity this country
still comes after India, though it has, unlike India, steadily
increased its exports since 1870. With occasional oscillation
they advanced, till in 1890 they amounted to about 380
million lbs. Taking the last few years, Egypt may be said to
be making rapid strides toward the second place as a cotton
exporting country. During 1891 and 1892 it sent much
more cotton to the United Kingdom than did India. The
cotton is exported from Alexandria.

Other countries producing cotton are Brazil, where it is
cultivated chiefly in the provinces of Pemambuco, Maranhao,
Piauhy and Ceara, Asia Minor, Persia, China, where the
cultivation is extending, Japan, Peru, Chili, Russia, in its
Asiatic possessions and in the southern districts in Europe,
West Africa, Australasia, South Africa, the West Indies,
and in Europe — Italy and Greece.

The greatest users of the cotton thus produced are the
United Kingdom and the United States. Taken together
these two countries consume in their manufactures on an
average a little more than half the cotton harvest of the
year. A comparison of the amounts employed with the
population shows the importance which the manufacture of
cotton holds in the respective countries. The consumption
then per head is, in the following countries (average of years
1886-90):—

United Kingdom .

. 42 lbs. Belgium

. 8 lbs.

United States

. 19 „ France

• 7 .,

Switzerland .

. 18 ,, Holland

• 5 M

Germany

9 ,, Russia
British India, nearly i lb.

•

• 3 „

In the position

of consumers of very

large

amounts 0;

COTTON

cotton the countries stand in the following order — the
United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Russia,
India, France ; other countries of importance being Austria-
Hungary, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Canada,
Sweden, and Holland. Some idea of the relative activities
of the leading nations may be formed from the statement
of the spindles and weaving looms respectively used in the
cotton manufacture.

Countries.
The United Kingdom
The United States .
Germany
France .
Russia .
British India .

Spindles.
44,500,000
15,500,000
5,500,000
4,900,000
3,600,000
3,300,000

Looms.

615,700

250,000

245,000

72,700

90,000

24,600

The United Kingdojn. — Far before other nations as the
United Kingdom stands in manufacture, there is no leading
branch in which her pre-eminence is so evident as in the
cotton industry. To the people of the country cotton is by
far the most important of the textile industries, while the
Kingdom as an exporting nation sends her finished and
half-manufactured products to all parts of the world. Raw
cotton comes into the country from the great producing
countries. It is manufactured in South-West Lancashire,
etc., and then, while some is retained for home use, the
rest is exported, to the value of ;!^7o,ooo,ooo. Some
half-million operatives are employed in the manufacture.

The United States. — The cotton industry of the United
States has been increasing with great rapidity during the
past twenty years, and the country now provides a very
large portion of the fabrics required for home use. As
yet, however, the imports of foreign cotton goods still out-
balance her exports. The chief centres of the manufac-
ture are Lowell, Baltimore, Patterson, and Philadelphia.
Over 200,000 workpeople are employed directly in this
industry.

Germany. — From Germany there are every year increas-
ing amounts of cotton manufacture sent abroad. Yarn,

78 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

however, she still imports. The industry has found its
chief development in Alsace, in the kingdom of Saxony,
and in Baden and Wiirtemberg.

France. — This country, like Germany, is able to export
some part of her manufactures. For a few years she was
detrimentally affected by the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, being
obliged to import yarn in very large quantities. But of
more recent years it has been recovering ground, and has
proved itself very apt in the production of one class of goods.

Russia. — In this country the industry is in by no means
so developed a condition. The imports of yarn are con-
siderable, and though the exports of fabrics have usually of
recent years exceeded the imports, the excess is very small.

Both on the Continent and in the United States the rate
of increase in manufacture of cotton has been greater, in both
Germany and the United States very much greater, than
in the United Kingdom. The increased production on
the Continent, however, has not deprived England of much
of the trade it did with them. It has deprived it of a
large portion of the trade it might have done with them,
if they had not so improved. In the case of the United
States the great advance of manufacture has deprived the
United Kingdom of a most valuable customer. The imports
of English goods into that country are smaller than they
were. In all probability they will decrease still more. From
neither of these quarters has the United Kingdom met with
nearly so serious a rivalry in backward markets as, so far
as China, Japan, and other eastern markets are concerned,
it has encountered from India. Indian yarn and goods,
especially the latter, are exported thither in increasing
quantities. In British India the extension of the manu-
facture of cotton dates from after the American Civil War.
When peace was restored the raw cotton produced in the
new plantations in India was no longer in so high a demand
in England, and its presence in India as a ready supply led
to the real foundation of the manufacturing industry, which
has developed with remarkable rapidity. India still con-
tinues to import finished goods, but there are signs that this
trade is beginning to decrease, while its export of yarns is

WOOL 79

far greater than the import. The chief development of
manufacture has taken place in the island of Bombay, in
the cotton-growing districts of Gujerat, and in the neighbour-
hood of Calcutta. The advantages possessed by British
India in the manufacture for its own needs and those of
neighbouring countries are very manifest.

2. Wool.

The history of the production and use of wool in manu-
facture records some striking changes. The keeping of
sheep for the sake of their wool, at one time a very im-
portant branch of the European agricultural industry, has
given place to their breeding for their flesh, while even that
is menaced by the increasing imports of American and
Australian meats. In most European countries the flocks
during recent years have either remained stationary or
decreased in number. Since 1884 the production of wool
has diminished so far as the more important countries
are concerned, with the exception of England, where in 1 890^
it had increased about 2 million lbs., and France, where the
yield of the same year exceeded that of 1882 by 51 million
lbs. In Italy there was a slight increase of between 4 and
5 million lbs.

On the other hand the growth of the woollen industries
has bjeen great.

Europe has been learning to import her wool from
countries where it can be produced at a much lower cost,
and these countries have been learning to prepare, clean,
and send their wool to European markets. Wool of course
can be produced in nearly every country, but it cannot be
produced everywhere at the same price. The chief countries
producing wool for Europe are Australia, the Argentine
Republic, Uruguay, Cape Colony. The United States
produces a large amount of wool, but so great are its
requirements that it has to import more.

The total annual production of wool in the world about

1 In 1892 there were in the United Kingdom z million more sheep
than in 1890,

8o COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

the present time is about 2100 million lbs., of which Europe
produces 800 million and the principal countries outside
Europe 1 300 million lbs. The leading itidustrial countries
produce —

Million lbs.
United Kingdom about 140

France . . ,,130

Germany .» 56

United States . . ,, 275

Russia ..... ,, 260

Very few important features of interest are presented by
the circumstances of this home supply. Far otherwise is
it when we turn to the great producing and exporting
countries. Their exports to Europe and North America in
1890 were —

1889. Million lbs.

Australasia 520

Argentine .... . 260

Uruguay ...... 48

Cape Colony ..... 64

Natal 26

There are thus three quarters from which the foreign wool
supply chiefly comes, viz. Australasia, La Plata, South
Africa.

Australasia. — This is by far the greatest wool-producing
quarter. Though at times the River Plate countries have
had nearly the same number of sheep, their yield of wool
has been invariably very far below the yield in Australia.
Sheep farming is a prominent occupation in all these
colonies, but the chief place in the production of wool has
been taken by New South Wales, New Zealand, and
Victoria. Of these New South Wales is by far the most
important, possessing as it does unrivalled stretches of land
fit for pasture, and admirable arrangements for facilitating
export to the United Kingdom. Nearly all the wool is sent
to England, but not all for the use of that country. England
serves as a distributing centre for the wool she receives,
exporting over 300 million lbs. of foreign and colonial

WOOL 8i

wools — principally to France, Germany, the United States,
Belgium, and Holland.

The River Plate. — The capacity of these countries for
the keeping of sheep and production of wool has been
greatly increased since the extension of the pastoral colonies
in the Argentine. The most important wool provinces in
this country are Buenos Ayres (much the most important),
Entre Rios, Santa Fe, Cordoba. The wool from the River
Plate takes an entirely different course when shipped than
does that from Australia. Very little of it, only some 3
per cent, goes to the United Kingdom. The chief places
of destination are the continental ports, Havre, Dunkirk,
Antwerp.

South Africa. — In the west of the Cape Colony there are
many districts suitable for sheep, but the greatest number
are pastured in the wide lands known as the Karoo. The
wool from the Cape has been growing in importance as an
export for some time, and promises to hold a prominent
place in future supplies. Most of it is sent to the United
Kingdom.

In the forefront of the nations engaged in the industrial
treatment of wool stand the United Kingdom, France, the
United States, and Germany, In the United Kingdom the
industry is one of very old standing. Since the middle of
last century the chief county over which it is spread has
been Yorkshire. Owing in part, no doubt, to the severe
competition which its goods meet with from the productions
of Germany in particular, and in part to their partial
exclusion from many other countries owing to heavy custom
duties, the exports from the United Kingdom have been
almost stationary during the last few years. In value they
still amount to about ^^2 2,000,000. It has been reckoned
that the number of operatives employed in the various
branches is 300,000. In Fra?tce the wool industry has
spread through the north of the country, centring round
Roubaix. But so far as recent years are concerned, neither
industrial activity nor export has increased. The case is
not the same with Germany. From that country the
exports, though irregular, show a distinct increase. In the

82 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

United States the increase in manufacture has been very
great, but so rapid has been the rise in demand and the
increase in population, that it has not been able to do more
than keep pace with these. Imports of woollen goods into
the United States are still very large, amounting in value to
over ;^7, 000,000 in 1893.

3. Flax, Hemp, and Jute.

These three textiles are important to the industries of
several nations.

Flax. — Flax has a very wide geographical range, and is
capable of cultivation in almost any country. At one time
it was cultivated to a considerable extent in England, but
now, so far as the United Kingdom is concerned, the growth
of flax and the manufacture of linen are chiefly confined to
Ireland. The only European countries which grow flax in
excess of the requirements of home manufacture are Russia^
Belgium, and Holland. Russia occupies the foremost place
as an exporting country, sending large quantities yearly
to the United Kingdom. Linen is manufactured in most
European countries, in most instances not acquiring
much importance as a commercial product. It still
remains an industry carried on in the homes of the
people in Austria- Hungary, parts of Germany, Holland,
and Belgium. In some parts of Austria, however, in the
neighbourhood of Rumburg especially, it is carried on in
factories. In France the linen industry is a very important
one, being carried on chiefly in the northern districts, and
producing a very high class of goods. In the north of
Ireland, near Belfast, linen is produced in very large quan-
tities and in almost every quality.

Hemp. — Like flax, hemp can be grown in most countries.
The two countries which produce it in the largest quantities
are Russia and Italy., both of which export it : Russia to
the extent of 145 million lbs., and Italy to that of nearly 90
million lbs. It is used for sail-cloth, sacking, and every
variety of cordage. Other countries where the production
is large are Hungary, France, Austria, Germany, the

II FLAX, HEMP, JUTE, SILK 83

United States, Egypt, Australasia. Manilla hemp, a
much finer product, must not be confused with the above ;
it is produced, as its name indicates, in the Philippine
Islands, and exported thence to Europe. It is used for
the manufacture of very fine rope, and for light fabrics or
curtains, etc.

/ute. — The use of jute has been well known in India for
a long time. From it are made coarse bags and sacking,
which are wanted for cheapness and not for durability.
Since its manufacture has spread to other countries, it has
been cultivated in India (chiefly in Northern and Eastern
Bengal) for the purpose of export as well as for home use.
In the jute industiy the United Kingdom stands foremost,
the chief places of manufacture being at or in the neigh-
bourhood of the ports where it is received from India, as
Dundee, Glasgow, Belfast, and London. The jute industry
is also carried on in the United States, Germany, France,
and Austria.

4. Silk.

The production of silk takes place in the area suitable
for the cultivation of the mulberry. Raw silk is conse-
quently produced in many places, but chiefly in two quarters
of the world, that is in China and Japan, and in Italy and
South France. The total silk yield for the year 1890 was
some ^5 million lbs., of which Europe altogether did not
produce fully a fifth.

Million lbs.
China . . . . . 24
Japan

India
Italy
France

Other countries engaged in production are : in Europe,
Austria, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Switzerland ; out of
Europe, Asiatic Russia, Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, Siam.
In China the chief district for the production of silk is the
northern portion of the province of Che-chiang. In the

84 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

interior the towns which serve as markets are Hutschan,
Kiahing and Nantsin, whence that part of the produce
intended for foreign export is sent to Shanghai. Canton
is another important silk port. In Italy the leading districts
of production are Lombardy, Venice, and Piedmont.

Of the produce of the East a large amount is sent to
Europe for use in its industries. The countries engaged
in these are France, which stands by itself in the first rank,
and then Germany, Italy, England, Switzerland. The
manufactures of France occupy the first place in Europe.
To the country itself they are of very great importance, and
are plied with the greatest diligence in Lyons and St.
Etienne, Marseilles being the great port of import for the
raw silk from the far East. In Gerinany a large trade is
done in the manufacture of silk goods and ribands, chiefly
in Rhenish Westphalia, as at Barmen, Krefeld, and in
Alsace-Lorraine. The silk industries of the United Kingdom
are not progressing favourably. If anything they show a
tendency to decline. Their most hopeful branch is the
production of mixed silk and woollen goods, and till recently
of plush. Italy maintains a large population in the neigh-
bourhood of Milan by silk industries, and the velvets of
Genoa are second only to those of Lyons. The value of
the silk goods imported into the United States during the
decade 1880-90 was double that of the fabrics produced at
home. The import of raw silk for use in its factories shows
a continual increase.

5. Other Textiles.

In addition to wool the hair of other animals is largely
employed for the production of cloths and fabrics of various
kinds. Among the more important are mohair, the hair of
the Angora goat, which is of great value. Till recent years
the import into the United Kingdom and other manu-
facturing countries came almost exclusively from Asia
Minor through the port of Smyrna. The Angora goat has,
however, been acclimatised in other countries, with the
result that there is now a considerable yield of mohair

OTHER FIBRES 8$

at the Cape, and in some of the states of the United States,
as Georgia. The hair of the Cashmir goat is procured
from Cashmir, Tibet, and the Himalayas. It is largely used
in the manufacture of the so-called Cashmir and Indian
shawls. The alpaca llama, which yields a product
extremely useful to British and other textile industries, is a
native of the Andes. Alpaca wool is largely exported to
Europe from Peru. Vicuna wool, the yield of another species
of llama, is brought from the same districts, but in much
smaller quantities. It is very fine in quality. Camel's hair^
now largely used in the United Kingdom and the United
States for the manufacture of cloth, shawls, coverings, etc.,
is exported chiefly from China.

Coir fibre ^ which is spun into yarn and then made into
mats, carpet coverings, ropes, etc., owes its position largely
to its great strength and power of resisting water. It
comes from the outer husk of the cocoa-nut. It is usually
spun into yarn in the places of its growth, and thence
exported to Europe. The chief places producing it are
India and China. Hennequin, a product of Yucatan in
Mexico, and of British Honduras, is a fibre considerably
stronger than jute, and useful for manufactures of the same
kind. Chi?ta grass, a fine fabric, is manufactured under
this name from a species of nettle which is chiefly culti-
vated in China and Japan. New Zealand flax, the name
given to the fibre of a plant indigenous to New Zealand,
which is grown in Australia, but capable of cultivation in
other countries and climates. It is extremely strong, and
would be very valuable in the manufacture of cordage were
it not for its brittle nature.

CHAPTER III

OTHER PRODUCTS (CHIEFLY MINERAL) AND THEIR
MANUFACTURE

I. Goal.

Some reference has already been made to the importance
of coal to all countries engaged in manufacture (pp. 20, 21).
Coal is of many varieties. True coal is of two principal
kinds, bituminous and anthracite. Of these the bituminous
is by far the more important. It contains a proportion of
carbon varying from 85 to 88 per cent, but combines with
these a considerable amount of gas, tar, and like substances,
burning with a bright flame and lighting with ease. It is
thus particularly suitable for gas-making, general industrial
purposes, and domestic consumption. Anthracite contains
more carbon, but less proportion of gaseous and tar pro-
ducts. Though difficult to light, it burns with intense
heat when once kindled. The former difficulty was at
one time an almost complete obstacle to its use, but
now, by means of the hot-air blast, it is utilised in several
directions, particularly in iron-smelting and produc-
tion. Lig7iite^ or brown coal, contains more moisture, is
not so hard in character, and possesses only some 70
per cent of carbon. It is of very much less use in industry
than are the other kinds.

Coal is used for many ■purposes. It is directly or
indirectly one of the means of heating and lighting, thus

COAL

entering largely into domestic use. It is employed for
purposes of locomotion both by sea and by land. And it
is used in the industries of all the advanced countries.

Its total production has rapidly increased, not only
during the present century, but even during the thirty years
extending from i860 to 1890. In i860 the total pro-
duction of the world was estimated at 133 million tons, an
amount far exceeded thirty years later by the respective
productions of two countries. In 1880 it amounted to
339 million tons, while in 1890 it reached 506 million
tons. In all countries of any importance there has been
during this period an increase in the amount of coal
produced.

The following is a table of the coal production of the
chief countries during the year 1890 (in round numbers) : —

Countries.
United Kingdom
Germany
Austria- Hungary
France .
Belgium .
Other European countries

Europe

United States ....
Other countries outside Europe

Outside Europe

Total of World

Million Tons.
182

88
27
26
20
7

350

141
15

"156

506

Since 1890 the coal output of the leading nations has
increased, and there is little doubt that some progress has
taken place in even the minor industrial countries. With
the exception of the six countries mentioned by name, the
production is, as we see, very small. Russia, New South
Wales, China, Canada, Japan, British India, and Spain
each produce more than one million tons annually.

The six leading countries in the production of coal are

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

PART

the six great industrial states of the world. How great
their progress has been may be judged from, firstly, the
vast increase in their coal production and consumption,
both before and since 1890 ; and secondly, the contemporary
progress in its economical use. This latter has taken place
more especially in the iron industry.

In addition to the steam power derived from coal, certain
countries have been able to avail themselves of other forces,
as water power, and in the case of the United States, natural
gas, which issues from the ground in abundant quantities in
the neighbourhood of Pittsburg. The natural gas used in
the United States has been reckoned equivalent to the
consumption of 14 million tons of coal. Other forces,
as electricity and tidal power, will no doubt be utilised in
time.

A more detailed list of the chief localities of coal pro-
duction : —

United Kingdom.

Million Tons

Durham

South Wales and

Monmouth

Lancashire .

Yorkshire

East Scotland

Staffordshire

West Scotland

(Lanark and Ayr) J

United States of America.

A very large portion of the total output is as yet raised
in Pennsylvania.

Pennsylvania, 1892
Illinois ,,

Ohio

88
16
12

COAL 89

Germany.

Westphalia
Ruhr valley
Saar valley ^
Silesia

(nr. Tarnovitz)
Saxony ....

Million Tons.

France.

Nord by Lille

Loire (St. Etienne)

Creuzot ....

8
4
I

Austria.

Erzgebirge (lignite)

Silesia

Bohemia, nr. Pilsen

5
I

Belgium.

Namur

Liege ^ • • • •

In the United Kingdom and most of those enumerated,
the production of coal may be taken as fairly representing
the capacities of the country with regard to it. Coal is
so precious and the countries so fully developed that large
fields of coal are not allowed to lie idly or but partly
worked. This is not the case in America, whereby the
richest coal deposits are hardly touched upon. The
Mississippi basin, which is comparatively little developed,
is one long bed of coal. The question as to the future
of the coal supply, not of England alone, but of the world,
is often discussed. Before the coal-fields of our own
country are in any way exhausted, some hundreds of years

90 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

must elapse, and several of the European countries are
in no worse plight than ourselves. There are, however,
certain countries which possess large stores of riches in
the form of this mineral as yet hardly touched upon.
They possess much, work little, and use hardly any coal.
In the future it is possible that they will become large
coal-exporting countries.

In the case of some countries, and particularly of
England, there is a considerable difference between the
coal produced and the coal consumed in the country.

The various uses to which the coal of the United
Kingdom is put in its consumption may be stated as
follows : — there is used in iron manufacture 1 7 per cent,
in general manufactures 23 per cent, in railway locomo-
tion nearly 4 per cent, in the manufacture of gas nearly
5 per cent, the rest being used for miscellaneous and
household purposes, and for export.

2. Iron.

After coal there is no mineral nearly so important to
the general well-being of the country as iron. This metal,
by its supply of the material used in building ships and con-
structing the railways, forms the basis, as it were, of the system
of locomotion and transport both external and internal. In
the second place, from it is made the machinery employed
in the numerous and important manufactures of the United
Kingdom and other countries ; while, lastly, a number of
iron and steel articles are used in the construction of
houses and for the purposes of everyday domestic life.
To some extent the condition of the iron industries of
a country is an index of the position it holds as an
industrially advanced country.

The total annual production of the world (average
of years 1886-90) of pig-iron is about 23 million tons,
and the countries engaged in the production may be
grouped in three classes — those which produced a great

IRON 91

Million tons.
United Kingdom .... nearly 7f

United States 7

Germany ....... 4

those which produce moderately : —

France 1^

Austria- Hungary .... over 5

Belgium ....... f

Russia i

Sweden nearly ^

Spain ....... J

and, lastly, countries producing little or none.

Spain, it should be noticed, exports a good deal of
unworked iron ore to other countries, chiefly to England
(South Wales). The country which has made by far the
most progress in the production of pig-iron is the United
States, where the rapidity with which industry is advancing
and the extension of the railway system increase the
demand for this metal. But though they will soon out-
strip the United Kingdom in production, the latter will
hold the first place in the consumption of iron per head of
the population for some time. The average yearly con-
sumption of pig-iron during period 1885-89 distributed
per head of the population was: in the United Kingdom, 402
lbs. ;' in Belgium, 339 lbs. ; and in the United States only
238 lbs.

The great importance of the ship-building and railway
industries is best seen in the cases of the United Kingdom
and the United States, the former country engaged in
constructing steel ships to an unrivalled extent, and pro-
ducing steel rails, etc., both for its own use and for the
countries of South and Central America and the British
Colonies, the latter extending its railway system with great
rapidity.

In the United Kingdom iron - smelting is principally
carried on near Middlesborough in the Cleveland district,
in South Wales near and round Merthyr Tydfil, at Barrow,
and in Staffordshire, and in West Scotland in the rich

92 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

coal-fields in Lanark and Ayr. In the United States
Pennsylvania is the great home of the iron - smelting
industry. Pittsburg is the great iron town. In Gerinany
iron -smelting is carried on most importantly in the Ruhr
valley.

One great disadvantage from which many countries have
suffered has been the distance of the iron-fields from the
coal mines. Both the United Kingdom and the United
States are very favourably situated in this respect. Other
countries, through their low state of industrial development,
are driven to rely for their iron goods, and especially for
the railway plant, on the supplies to be obtained from the
more forward lands.

The chief exporting country is the United Kingdo?n.
Its exports have varied considerably during the last few
years owing to the renewed efforts of the United States
to close its markets to our goods. In 1890 the value
of these iron exports was ;^3 1,000,000 ; of these, the great
mass goes to the British Colonies, India, Canada, and
Australia. In the case of railway plant and steel rails,
the Argentine and Brazil are very large purchasers from
England. Owing to its large foreign trade in iron and
steel goods, there is a large import of iron ore, of which
nearly all comes from Spain. It enters at the south Welsh
ports and at Newcastle and Glasgow, and is smelted with
'the coal from the neighbouring pits. Germany exports
an increasing amount of iron and steel goods, and imports
more pig-iron than it exports. France imports iron ore,
and is able to send abroad its surplus products both in
manufacture and pig-iron. The United States^ despite
its efforts to render itself independent of foreign supplies,
and notwithstanding the extent of its iron production and
manufacture, still continues to buy pig-iron and European
iron and steel goods. This is owing to the rapid growth
of its industries, and the necessity in which it stands of
still further railway extension. Belgium imports regularly
more iron ore and pig-iron than it exports. On the other
hand, its exports of iron goods are very considerable, falling
not far short of half a million tons in quantity. As a

COPPER 93

nation exporting iron and steel goods, Belgium ranks next
after the United Kingdom and Germany.

3. Other Metals used in Manufacture.

Copper. — The uses to which copper is put are various.
In consequence of its freedom from rust, it is used for
domestic utensils and for the sheathing of ships ; and in
consequence of its durability it is used in the com-
position of brass and gun -metal, etc. Copper ore exists
in a great many countries, but the chief supplies are
furnished by four — the United States, Spain, Chili, Ger-
many. In 1887 the total production of copper was about
224 thousand tons, of which the United States produced
78 thousand, Spain about 49 thousand. Chili 29 thousand,
and Germany 1 5 thousand ; while other countries con-
tributing noticeably to the supply were, Japan, Australia,
Cape of Good Hope, Russia, Venezuela, Italy. These
quantities refer to the amount of copper produced from
the ore and not to the weight of the copper ore itself.

In the United States copper ore is mined most plenti-
fully in Montana, round Lake Superior, and, thirdly, in
Arizona. The increase in the copper production of the
United States has been very great during recent years,
for in 1880 it was about one-third of the yield in 1887.

In. Spain by far the most profitable mines are those at
Rio Tinto, next to which come those of Murcia.

Until 1883 Chili v^diS the first copper-producing country,
but in that year it was outstripped by the United States,
while, owing to the progress made in Spain and to a
slight diminution in its own production, it has now fallen
behind that country. In Chili the leading copper districts
are Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Santiago, Arauco, Chiloe,
and Atacama.

Though the United Kingdom mines but little copper
itself, it is the most important country in the trade and
manufacture of copper. To it is sent annually, after a
slight preliminary treatment, copper from Spain, the Cape
of Good Hope, Chili, Venezuela, and even from the

94 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

United States. These coppers are imported at the Welsh
ports, Liverpool and Newcastle, and treated chiefly at
Swansea.

Lead. — Lead was known to the ancient world, being
largely used then, as now, for water - piping. Owing to
the great extension of gas and water connections and of other
kinds of piping, its use during recent years has increased
very rapidly. Chemical progress has provided the means
for its extraction, which was formerly an obstacle, since
its intimate intermixture with other metals, and especially
with silver, rendered this a process of considerable difficulty.
Silver had to be eliminated because of its higher
commercial value, other metals because of their inferiority.
In addition to its use by itself, lead is an ingredient in
the composition termed pewter, which consists of some five
parts tin to one of lead.

Though the United Kingdom is the most important
country engaged in the trade and final production of lead,
it is by no means the leading country in its production.
It now stands about fourth on the list. Its own produc-
tion takes place chiefly in South Wales (Cardigan and
Montgomery) and the counties of Northumberland, Durham,
and Cumberland.

The United States takes the lead in the production of
lead. In 1889 the yield was 190,000 tons, showing a very
large increase on its earlier production. The most important
states were Colorado, responsible for over one-third of the
entire yield, Utah, Idaho, Montana, and in the second rank
Missouri, Kansas, Illinois, and Wisconsin. Spain produces
lead in large quantities in the provinces of Mercia, Almeria,
and Jaen. A large portion of its lead is exported in ore
to France, Belgium, Germany, and England for smelting,
though of recent years there has been a considerable ex-
tension of lead works in the country. In Germany the
production of lead takes place most importantly in the
Rhine provinces, after which stand Hanover, Hesse, and
Silesia. Other countries of importance are France, Italy,
Belgium, Austria-Hungary, Mexico, Algiers, Chili, and New
South Wales.

TIN, ZINC 95

Tin. — The United Kingdom, famed of old for its pro-
duction of tin, is still the most important, indeed the only
important country in Europe for its production. It is also
the leading country engaged in the trade and manufacture
of this metal. The introduction and rapid increase in the
use of tin-plates has made the tin industry one of great and
increasing importance, and has been a large source of wealth
to England.

The production of tin in the United Kingdom takes place
in the mines of Cornwall, and to some extent in the neigh-
bouring parts of Devonshire. There are now important
sources of tin supply outside Europe. Tin is pro-
duced in very large and increasing quantities in the
Straits Settle7nents and their immediate neighbourhood.
The ore is collected at Singapore and thence shipped
chiefly in ingots and blocks to the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom also derives an important supply
from its Australian possessions, mainly from New South
JVa/es, though also from Q,uee7islaiid and Tasma7iia. A
large production of tin takes place in the Dutch East India
Islands, Banka and Billiton, whence the product is sent
to Rotterdam. Other countries contributing appreciably to
the world's supply of tin are Bolivia, Peru, the United
States.

Zinc. — The uses of this metal are very various. It is
used, in the composition of brass. It serves as a sub-
stitute for lead in several cases, and is used in many
important branches of industry, as the manufacture of
electrical apparatus and printing. Germa7ty is the most
important country so far as its production is concerned,
and from it large quantities are exported. In Germany it
is found most richly in the Rhenish provinces, Westphalia,
and Silesia. After Germany Belgium and the United States
are great producers, in the latter the states of New Jersey,
Missouri, Pennsylvania, Kansas, and Wisconsin being pre-
eminent. The zinc industry of the Ufiited Kingdom is so
extended that ore has to be imported from other countries,
and especially from Italy and Greece^ the home production
providing only one-half of the ore required. In addition to

96 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

the two countries last mentioned, the following produce
zinc — Austria (Carinthia), Sweden, and Spain.

Among other metals of considerable importance in manu-
facture are quicksilver^ which is chiefly supplied by three
countries. California has risen into the first position in
production, though it contributes comparatively little to the
European countries, which draw their chief supplies from
Spain (provinces of Mancha at the mines of Almaden),
which sometimes produces nearly as much as California,
and from Austria (Idria). Italy also has quicksilver
mines. The quicksilver of Peru and Mexico only suffices
for home use in the extraction of silver. Manganese^
needed in the manufacture of steel, is produced largely in
the Harz Mountains, parts of Russia, France, the United
States, the United Kingdom. Nickel^ used for several
purposes in the arts and industries, is procured largely from
Italy, Norway, Germany, and Austria-Hungary, while of late
years the production of the French colony of New Cale-
donia has risen to be of great importance in the market.
Platinwn is a very rare metal. Its chief place of produc-
tion is the Ural Mountain district of Russia. Bismuth is
produced mainly in the Erzgebirge (Germany), also in
France and Sweden. Anti?nony, an element in several
alloys, is produced in Australia, in both Austria and
Hungary, in Italy, and in France. Aluminium^ which is
prepared with considerable trouble, is produced chiefly in
two countries, the United States and France. Arsenic is
employed in the arts and manufactures, as well as for
medicinal purposes ; is largely manufactured in the United
Kingdom, and also in Germany.

4- Leather, Hides and Tanning: Furs.

The manufacture of leather is both an ancient and an
important industry. In the form of hides it served as one
of the first materials of clothing, and though great advances
have been made of recent years, and in the more developed
countries, in its preparations, many of the nations of anti-
quity made use of a leather of high quality. With regard

II LEATHER AND HIDES 97

to its importance it is sufficient to repeat the statement so
often made, that in the number of people employed in the
United Kingdom in its various branches it ranks next after
the cotton, woollen, and iron manufactures. Leather is used
for a great variety of purposes — boots and shoes, gloves,
saddlery, bookbinding, furniture coverings, boxes and bags,
articles of ornament.

The raw materials required in the manufacture of leather
may be divided into hides and tanning stuffs.

Hides are of many kinds, being the products of many
animals. By far the greater proportion are furnished by
the more common animals, as horses, cattle, sheep, goats,
pigs, most if not all of which are kept and bred for the sake
of other products besides their skins. Though all countries
have a considerable home supply of hides, there are some
which require much more than can be furnished them from
this source, and others which slaughter so many beasts that
they can export hides in large amounts, often indeed only
sending abroad their hides to be returned to them in the
form of manufactures. Of these latter countries the most
important are British India, Australia, United States, South
American countries. From British India the exports pro-
ceed chiefly from the Presidency of Bengal, and are very
large, a great portion going to the United Kingdom. Of
the Australian colonies the most important is Victoria, which
is followed at some distance by New South Wales and New
Zealand. Most of the Australian hides exported are already
tanned. The same is the case with the hides exported from
the United States ; but this country, while exporting hides
of certain kinds, imports a great quantity of leather, exceed-
ing in value its exports. From the Argentine Republic and
Uruguay there are large quantities of hides sent to the
countries of Europe, the supply from this quarter of the
world being further swelled by the products of South Brazil
(Rio Grande do Sul) and Paraguay.

The chief stuffs used in tanning the hides are the barks
of trees, which contain tannin, an astringent. In the pro-
cess the skins, scraped and cleansed, are placed in the tan-
pit in alternate layers with some of these substances, after

98 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

which the pit is filled with water. As the time required
is long, varying from two or three months upward, fresh
supplies of water and tanning material are necessary. The
United Kingdom derives a large supply of foreign tanning
substances from British India, Turkey, Greece, Italy, and
the Straits Settlements.

In the principal industrial countries the manufacture of
leather and its accessory industries hold a very important posi-
tion. France has an unrivalled supremacy in the manufacture
of glove leather and of gloves, the best leather for this purpose
being worked up at Annonay, Chambery, and Paris. In
this last city there takes place a large production of fancy
leather goods. In Germany fancy, patent, and coloured
leathers are produced in great quantities, the chief district
being Bavaria, and the leading town Munich. Despite its
own large leather industries the United Kingdom has, in
consequence of its increasing demand and consumption, to
import leather and leather goods from all quarters, mainly
from France, from and through Holland and Belgium, and,
in the case of leather both dressed and undressed, from the
United States. Within the country the boot and shoe trade
centres round Northampton and Bristol, this latter town
being the most important town for tanning and currying,
otherwise scattered throughout the whole country. English
saddlery and harness are very highly valued.

Furs. — Putting aside rabbit skins, which are exported
from several countries, but chiefly from the Australian
colonies, furs come mainly from two parts of the world :
from North America, British North America, and the
United States, and from Russia, from which countries
there are very large exports every year.

5. Miscellaneous Products and Manufactures.

Petroleum and other Mineral Oils. — Among the most
important of the means for lighting is petroleum. Together
with coal-gas and tallow it furnishes artificial light, while
coal, timber, and petroleum provide means of heating and
cooking. Petroleum is mainly found in two localities : in

PETROLEUM 99

the United States in Pennsylvania, and in the Caucasus
districts of Russia. From these countries the supply is
distributed over the world. In the United States the chief oil
district lies in the north-west of Pennsylvania, where boring
for oil has been carried out to a remarkable extent. From
the wells the oil is conveyed in pipes to the places where
it is refined, and thence by the same means to the oil
markets. There is a further production in California.
In Russia there are two districts rich in mineral oils, the
richer of which, Balakhany-Sabonutchi field, is in the
neighbourhood of Baku on the Caspian Sea. The opening
of the Transcaucasian Railway in 1883 first gave the
opportunity for the cheaper and rapid despatch of the
products of this field over the port of Batoum. There is
a much less important field near the port of Novorassisk on
the Black Sea. At present the supply of oil shipped to
other countries from Russia is about one-half of that which
is exported from the United States. From the latter
country petroleum is chiefly despatched from New York,
and to a lesser extent from Philadelphia, Boston, and
Baltimore, Germany taking nearly one-fourth of its exports,
principally by way of Bremen and Hamburg, after which
country rank the United Kingdom, British India, China
and Japan, Holland, France, Belgium. Russian petroleum
is sent chiefly to the United Kingdom, Austria-Hungary,
Turkey,' Egypt, British India. In addition to the two
great petroleum countries, supplies are produced in Galicia,
Italy, Germany, and Roumania, but these do not possess
much importance in the markets of the world. Paraffin
oil is extracted from mineral beds, as coal impregnated with
bitumen, in Scotland, in Belgium, France, etc. Asphalt^ a
very important bituminous substance, is found in Switzer-
land (in the Jura and Val Travers), Italy, Germany, and
outside Europe on the shores of the Dead Sea, in the West
Indies, and South America.

Timber and Wood. — Despite the great substitution of coal
for wood as fuel, and the vast use of iron, stone, and brick
in construction, the first-named particularly in ship-building,
the consumption of timber in Europe is very great. It has

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

been calculated that the annual value of the wood used, either
as fuel or in construction, amounts to ;!^ 190,000,000. In
the United States the wood bill is put at ;i^ 7 7,000,000.
With the exception of the United Kingdom, France, Spain,
and Portugal, most countries produce the chief part, if not
the whole of their supply of ordinary timber. To these
importing countries large quantities of timber are sent from
the forests of Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Austria-
Hungary, United States and Canada. The timber trade of
the last country is growing rapidly. The ornamental woods
come from an entirely different part of the world.
Mahogany is indigenous to the West Indies and to Central
(especially Mexico) and South America, wood of the best
quality being furnished from Hayti and Honduras. Teak
is exported chiefly from British India and Siam. Rose-
wood of different kinds comes chiefly from Brazil, but in
addition to this country Mexico and Siam contribute to the
general supply. In South and Central America there grow
many other ornamental woods which enter into commerce
in very varying degrees. >t

Resins, Gums, etc. ; Rubber. — This product, called
india-rubber, owing to the early source from which the
United Kingdom received its chief supply, has risen into
great prominence through its use in the industrial arts, as
waterproofing, etc. Its chief place of production is South
America (Brazil), and to some extent Central America,
where the juice flows freely from incisions in the stem of
the rubber- tree, and is caught in vessels affixed below.
Assam, however, and Madagascar contribute a supply of
rubber of a slightly different kind. Guttapercha., also the
production of a tree, is produced in the Malay Archipelago,
the chief exports going over Singapore. The waterproofing
and rubber industries are carried on most importantly in
the United States and Great Britain. Tar., from the pine
or fir-tree, is produced in those countries where this tree
grows in vast forests — Russia, Sweden and Norway, and the
United States being particularly important. Owing to the
large annual yield of these countries, they send tar to
countries where the demand is great and a home supply

II OILS 101

small or altogether lacking. The United Kingdom imports
largely. Turpe?itine^ likewise a product from a coniferous
tree, is produced in many countries, and chiefly exported by
the United States. Gum is largely used in industry for
stiffening fabrics, for giving consistence to colours, and for
other purposes. The two principal kinds are gum-arabic,
which is grown in and exported from Arabia and North
Africa, and gum-tragacanth, which comes chiefly from Asia
Minor over Smyrna. The lac used for making sealing-wax
is a product of insect life mainly produced in India, the
Straits Settlements, and Malay Archipelago.

Lard is the melted fat of swine, and is produced in
many countries, but exported mainly from the United States.

Tallow is animal fat of high value used in the manu-
facture of candles and soap. Like lard it is produced in
many, indeed in most countries. Australia, the United
States, and the Argentine Republic do an increasing trade
of export.

Important Animal and Vegetable Oils. — Animal oils
df high commercial value are chiefly obtained from the
Arctic whalers and sealers. Whale oil (spermaceti) is used
for several purposes, and chiefly for the manufacture of
candles. The United States and United Kingdom are the
countries chiefly engaged in whaling. Cod-liver oil used
medicinally i^ refined and exported from Newfoundland and
Norway: Vegetable oils^ with some exceptions, are chiefly
used for lubricating machinery, dressing leather, and in the
manufacture of soap. The best olive oil, which is used for
table purposes as salad oil, is produced in the south of
France and North Italy. Linseed, rape seed, cotton seed,
and sesame, all of which are plentifully supplied from
India, furnish a large portion of the vegetable oils. After
the oil has been crushed out, oil-cake used for feeding cattle
is made of the remnant. Castor oil is exported from India
and France. Palj7t oil is made from the kernels of the
palm. The extraction is carried on very largely in
Germany, Holland, and the United Kingdom, to which
countries the raw material is imported mainly from West
Africa.

102 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Chemical Industries, in many of which there is a large
use of salt, are highly developed in the leading industrial
countries, and chiefly in England, Germany, the United
States, and France. Their situation is largely determined
by proximity to coal and to the places or ports where the
other substances, as e.g. salt, needed in their processes are
made or imported. In their turn they provide substances
largely used in the production of other articles, as soda and
potash in the manufacture of soap and glass, bleaching
powder in that of paper. In the United Kingdom there
are large chemical industries in the neighbourhood of
Liverpool, Glasgow, and Newcastle. In Germany the
chief chemical districts are in Rhenish Prussia and Baden.
In France the main centres of these industries are Lyons,
Paris, Chauny, and Lille.

In the manufacture of soap several ingredients are re-
quired. On the one hand some oils or fats, on the other
certain chemical products, soda or potash. In certain cases
soap-works lie in the neighbourhood where chemicals are
produced, and in most instances near large industrial
centres.

Paper is made from many substances. Till recently the
chief material used in the modern production of paper was
rags. Now, however, esparto grass, mainly produced in
Spain, Algiers, Tripolis, etc., is employed for this purpose in
increasing quantities, while wood pulp, straw, etc., are also
used. The rags mostly used are woollen and cotton, Hnen
rags forming a much less important material. Paper made
from rags comprises nearly three -fifths of the entire pro-
duction. The countries using a high individual quantity of
paper are the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany,
and France, while the only countries which export paper to
a considerable extent are Germany and France.

Stone and Clay and their Uses. — Fortunately for the
well-being of civilised nations which depend so largely upon
the foregoing materials for the building of their houses and
the construction of works of utility and ornament, no country
of any importance is without a supply of some one or other
kind. The number of bricks made from clay and turned

II STONE AND CLAY 103

out yearly from the brick-fields is enormous. Dr. Scherzer
has reckoned the annual value of the stone and clay (largely
bricks) used in building in Germany, United Kingdom,
United States, and Austria, as reaching ^100,000,000.
In all these countries a great many thousands of labourers
are busied in the quarries and brick-fields, besides those
employed in the more immediate construction of houses,
etc. In the less common kinds of stone considerable trade
takes place. Marble is exported from Italy, importantly
from Carrara, and from the Pharos. Millstones are
supplied by Germany, Austria, and France. Slate is
quarried in many countries, noticeably in Wales, Germany,
France, and Belgium. Cefnent is largely manufactured in
the United Kingdom, Germany, and France.

In the manufacture of earthenware and porcelam many
kinds of clay are used. Of the fine kinds kaolin is found
in Cornwall and Devon in the United Kingdom. Fine
porcelain clay is found in the Limousin in France and in
Saxony, both these countries excelling in the production
of highly valued porcelain. The leading countries export-
ing earthenware and porcelain goods are, in their order,
the United Kingdom, Germany, and France, the exports
from other European countries being relatively unimportant.
Both China and Japan send porcelain (china) to Europe.

Glass requires in its manufacture earths containing
silica and a chemical agent. In the production of cheap
ordinary glass Belgium and Bohemia lead the way, both
sending large exports to the United Kingdom. In France
the glass manufacture holds a very high position, centring
in Paris and the northern departments. Venetian glass
from Italy is unrivalled in beauty. In the United Kingdom
the prominent glass industries are in the neighbourhood of
Birmingham and Liverpool : in Germany, in Silesia, West-
phalia, and Rhineland.

Other Products. — Cork^ the bark of the cork oak, has
attained its importance owing to its lightness and its power
of resisting water and damp. The cork oak flourishes in
the south of Europe, the chief countries taking part in the
general supply of cork being Spain and Portugal, Southern

I04 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

France, Algiers, and Italy. Since the employment of
machinery in cutting and preparing cork, a cork industry
has sprung up in Germany, the United Kingdom, and
France.

Dye-Stuffs. — These are of many kinds, some vegetable,
some animal, some mineral. Indigo^ a most valuable blue
dye, is extracted from the different species of a small shrub.
Its chief place of production is British India, but its cultiva-
tion is carried on also in Java, the Philippine Islands, West
Indies, and Honduras. Logwood comes mainly from the
West Indies and British Honduras. Madder, from the
root of which a red dye is extracted, is cultivated on this
account in the Netherlands, France, Asia Minor, Greece,
and Turkey. Woad (blue) is indigenous to the north-
western countries of Europe, its chief cultivation taking
place in Germany. Quercitron, which yields yellow, is the
crushed [inner bark of a tree indigenous in parts of the
United States (Pennsylvania, Carohnas, and Georgia).
Sumach, used also in dyeing, comes from Syria and
Palestine, and also from Italy, Spain, and Portugal.
Cochineal is a red colouring dye obtained from insects, and
is chiefly imported from the Canary Islands. Of chemical
dyes the most important are those produced from coal-
tar.

Feathers enter into commerce both as ornaments and
for domestic use. Among those which serve the former
purpose, ostrich feathers are by far the most important.
These come almost entirely from South Africa, where
ostrich-farming is an important pursuit. In much smaller
quantities they are exported from Tripoli, Egypt, the
Argentine Republic, and Algiers. Ostrich-farming has
been introduced into California A more important use
of feathers and down is for stuffing cushions, beds, etc.
The feathers used for this purpose are of many kinds, and
produced in most countries, supplies bemg exported from
China, Russia, and Austria-Hungary. Eider-down, which,
owing to its lightness, holds a high position, is chiefly
contributed by Iceland, and from other countries in extreme
northern latitudes.

II GRASSES, MANURES, BONES 105

Rushes^ straw^ cane, osiers, and grasses of different
descriptions are used for plaiting for different purposes.
So far as the manufacture of baskets and articles for
ordinary use are concerned, most countries have some
material from their own fields. In Germany and Holland
basket-making occupies a large number of people. In
these countries and Italy, France, Switzerland, and the
United Kingdom, the manufacture of straw hats is im-
portant. The grasses of China are particularly suited for
the manufacture of the so-called China matting which is
imported into Europe in increasing quantities. Panama
straw hats, peculiarly fine in quality, are exported from
Ecuador.

Bees-wax, used in the manufacture of soap and candles,
is produced in most countries and exported by many,
noticeably by Germany. The cainphor-vfood tree, from
which camphor is extracted, is grown very largely in the
island of Formosa, where exports proceed to Europe over
Hong-Kong, and also in Japan. Ivory, won from the
elephant, is an important export from East and West
Africa, and also from India. Amber is found in rich
abundance on the shores of the Baltic. Whalebone, one of
the several products of the whale fisheries, is prepared very
largely in France and Germany.

Manures, besides these in ordinary use, consist largely
of bones, guano, and mineral substances. The use of
crushed bones is great in most countries where high culture
leads to a demand for heavy manuring, there being, for
instance, an annual import into the United Kingdom.
Guano is not, like the foregoing, a product of all countries
where animals are. It consists of the hardened deposits
of birds' dung on the islands and promontories chiefly on the
coast of South America, and in the Australian archipelago.
Large exports are now sent to Europe from Chili and Peru,
and to some extent from South Africa. So hard do these
deposits become that they have to be worked as though
mineral. The leading chemical manures are phosphates
of lime, soda, and potash, etc.

The horns, hoofs, and bones of animals furnish much

io6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part ii

useful material for diflferent productions, bones being used
for making objects similar to those fashioned from ivory.
From bones and hoofs buttons, knife-handles, etc., are
manufactured. Whalebone is useful where a combination
of strength and elasticity is required.

PART III

COUNTRIES: THEIR AGRICULTURE,
INDUSTRIES, AND COMMERCE

THE UNITED KINGDOM

Of the circumstances affecting the industrial and commercial
position of countries there are some which bear particular
importance in the case of the United Kingdom.

First of all its condition with regard to the 7nore general
physical a?id political influences requires some atte?ttion

((/:pp. 5-17).

Important, i. physical, and ii. political influences likely
to affect the trade, industry, and occupations of the United
Kingdom.

i. Physical.

A. With regard to Natural Formations. — (i) Its
insular position in the sea is important. Not only is
sea defence more easy than the maintenance of a long-
landed frontier, but proximity to the sea brings it into
connection with an untaxed highway to the coasts and
ports, and so to the supplies of other countries. Small
though the United Kingdom is, it possesses some 1800
miles of coast so indented that it is said that there is no
part of Great Britain that is more than 50 miles from the
open coast or some inlet.

All along this coast-line, which is particularly uneven
and indented on the west, lie many and good seaports,
while down to it from the inland portions of the country
run many rivers and canals. On the east lies the North

no COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Sea or German Ocean, on the south the English Channel,
while the north and west are washed by the Atlantic
Ocean ; in the case of England and Wales, the west by the
Irish Sea. For the United Kingdom the sea is no barrier
or obstacle, it is rather a means of communication.

(2) Though the mountains are by no means important
by reason of height, no division of the United Kingdom is
a flat country. In England and Wales the great feature
of the mountain systems consists in the Pennine Range,
rightly described as the " backbone " of England. It
constitutes the central portion of the watershed. Farther
north lie the Cheviot and Cumbrian systems ; in Wales the
Cambrian, and in the south-west the Devonian. In the
middle of England is an elevated central plain bordered on
the south by the Thames, on the west by the Severn, on
the north by the Ouse, and on the east by the Trent. In
consequence of this formation the rivers of England may be
grouped under three headings. Those falling into the
North Sea, which are most of them important, and to some
extent navigable ; those entering the English Channel, of
little importance so far as navigation is concerned ; and
those flowing into the Irish Sea, these latter being of
varying length.

The mountain ranges of England and Wales do not
present any great obstacle to easy communication between
the main districts, though in another respect they have
largely influenced the condition of the country, namely, by
the effect which they, in conjunction with the sea and the
wind, produce upon climate.

In Scotland the principal mountain systems are the
Northern Highlands, the Grampians, and the Southern
Highlands. In Ireland the mountains are very scattered,
the most important lying in the south-west and in the west.
In the centre the country is rather flat.

B. So far as natural forces and climate are concerned,
the condition of the United Kingdom may be described as
generally fortunate. It lies between latitudes 50° and 60°
N., thus falling into the zone of temperate climate, which
is still further affected by the influence of the sea, which

Ill UNITED KINGDOM in

moderates the rigour of cold and tends to produce greater
equality throughout the year.

The westerly winds, which reach the shores after passing
over a long expanse of ocean, are an important feature.
They raise the temperature of the west above that of the
east, while in addition, being met by the high land and
mountains running through the centre of the country, they
are drained of their moisture. Thus the west is a moister
and rainier district than the east. So far as actual tem-
perature is concerned, the climate of the United Kingdom
is moderate ; it is, however, damp.

How, it may be asked, does this affect the industrial
well-being of the Kingdom ? On the one hand, the climate
is such that labour can be carried on continuously and with
regularity, there being few interruptions from excess of
heat or cold ; it is a good working climate. On the other
hand, its dampness and variability are not favourable to
the main branch of agriculture, while in addition the former
is an important element in certain manufactures. Thus
the moist climate is said to be peculiarly advantageous
for the cotton industry, that is the case in South -West
Lancashire, but unfavourable for that of silk.

C. Agriculture, etc. — Only a very small portion of
the soil of this country is such that it is noi available for
cultivation. In England the area under crops, grass, or in
fallow' and available for cultivation is put at three-quarters
of the whole ; in Wales at over one-half ; in Scotland,
where the mountains and wide moorlands absorb so much
space, at only one-fourth ; and in Ireland, despite the large
percentage of bog, at nearly three-quarters. Of course,
owing to climatic and other causes, much of this is and will
remain in fallow.

The chief grain districts lie in the eastern countries and
in the south-west of England and Scotland. It is in the
former that the chief production of wheat takes place.
Wheat is produced to the extent of 60 million bushels ;
barley to that of 77 million ; and oats, chiefly grown in
Scotland and Ireland, to that of 168 million. In Ireland
potatoes are largely grown as a main food.

112 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Pasture. — Of recent years more attention has been paid
to pasture than to arable cultivation. There has been an
increase in the number of both cattle and sheep. Dairy
farming is carried on very largely in Cheshire and Stafford-
shire, and in the south central counties, as Buckingham,
in the south of Ireland, and in Ayrshire. Sheep-
farming is carried on in Lincolnshire, in the high central
plain, Nottingham, Leicester, Northampton, Rutland, in
Yorkshire, and in the south of England.

In 1892 the live stock in the United Kingdom amounted
to —

Cattle .... 11,500,000
Sheep .... 33,600,000
Pigs .... 3,200,000

Horses .... 2,000,000

Minerals. — Of the United Kingdom one portion —
England, Wales, and the south of Scotland — is very rich
in minerals. This is more particularly the case with
regard to coal and iron, which by reason of their import-
ance in manufacture will require separate consideration
(pp. 114, 115). They are very plentiful. Of the other
minerals and metals the chief are : titi^ found in Devon and
Cornwall in very large quantities ; lead, which is much more
scattered throughout the country, chiefly produced in
Yorkshire and Northumberland, to some extent in the
Peak district, in Wales (Cardigan and Montgomery),
and in the Wicklow Mountains in Ireland ; copper is found,
but not in great quantities, in Devon and Cornwall ; slates
are quarried in North Wales, especially round Festiniog ;
granite, chiefly in Devonshire and Cornwall, and in
Scotland, in Aberdeenshire. Other building stones are
obtained from different parts of the country.

ii. PoliticaL

Of the chief political influences affecting the economic
(trading and industrial) development of the kingdom,
three are very important : —

III UNITED KINGDOM 113

(i) The security of life and property in England is
better established than in almost any other country. The
people are orderly, and the risk of damage or expropriation
comparatively slight. Owing to a fairly equitable system
of taxation, the pressure of the taxes, which are not light,
is comparatively little felt.

(2) England is a free trading country, no custom-house
duties being levied on goods entering her ports for the purpose
of artificially protecting her home industries. Of course
some customs duties there are, but when they exist the
corresponding production in England is also taxed by
means of what is termed an excise duty, as, for instance,
in the case of spirits and wines.

The customs tariff is a very simple one. Duties are
imposed on wine, beer, spirits, and certain preparations
containing spirit, as chloroform, etc. ; southern and pre-
served fruits ; tobacco, cigars, and snuff; tea, coffee,
chicory, and cocoa ; playing cards. The total value oif
goods imported and paying duty was, in 1890, a little over
^29,000,000.

(3) Greatly to its own disadvantage the United King-
dom has not adopted the metric system of weights and
measures, and in consequence imposes upon its traders and
the foreigners who trade with it the constant necessity of
transposition from one system into another. It also retains
a non-decimal system of money.

Secondly^ position of the United Kingdom with regard
to the specific conditions favouring the development of A.
Agriculture; B. Manufacture; C. Commerce {cf ^^. 18-27).

A. AGRICULTURE.

The main conditions on which agriculture depends are
three (p. 19), a favourable climate, a suitable soil, and an
equitable system of land tenure. With regard to the two
latter the United Kingdom does not stand at any great
disadvantage when compared with the great producing

114 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

countries. It has, moreover, a fairly intelligent class of
cultivators. But in the matter of climate it is very much
handicapped by the uncertainty of the weather and the
customary excess of moisture at some season of the year.

For its leading agricultural products and their localities,
see pp. Ill, 112.

B. MANUFACTURE.

a. In order to excel in general manufacture a country
must possess, as the United Kingdom indeed does, a climate
which permits of regular exertion during the greater part,
if not the whole of the year.

b. English workmen are peculiarly fitted to excel in
work which requires for its performance a combination of
general ability and strength. Though without the artistic
taste of some southern races, and less assisted than the
Germans, for instance, by a careful system of general and
technical education, they probably surpass the workmen of
these nations in the labours involved in manufactures.

At the same time the increasing need of technical skill
has made it abundantly evident that more attention must
be paid to this branch of education, as indeed to all
education, if English workmen are to keep the high reputa-
tion which their fathers won.

c. Possession of Coal. — Though so small a country the
United Kingdom is the chief coal producer of the world.
Its coal-fields have been mapped out into the following twelve
districts, given with their approximate production : —

1. Durham 17 million tons

(Chiefly in South Durham)

North Yorkshire — 3^ million tons iron ore

2. Yorkshire 23 million tons

(Chiefly East and West Riding) — a little iron
Lincolnshire — l million tons iron ore

3. South Wales 23 million tons

(Chiefly part of Glamorganshire and Carmarthen) — a little iron

III UNITED KINGDOM 115

4. Midland 21 million tons

(Chiefly in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire) — i million tons
iron ore

5. East Scotland 15I million tons

(Chiefly Lothians and Fife)

6. Newcastle 18 million tons

(Chiefly North Durham and Northumberland)
Cumberland — i^ million tons iron ore

7. Liverpool 14I million tons

(Chiefly West Lancashire)
Denbighshire — 2 million tons coal

8. Manchester 10^ million tons

(North and East Lancashire)

9. South-Western 1 1 million tons

(Chiefly Monmouth) — a little iron
Also Somerset, Gloucestershire, and remainder of Glamorgan.

10. South Staffordshire ..... 10 million tons

(South Stafford) — a little iron

11. West Scotland 12 million tons

(Chiefly Lanark and Ayr) — some iron ore

1 2. North Staffordshire 6 million tons

(Chiefly North Stafford) — i million tons iron ore
Also Shropshire and Cheshire.

In the above table, in which the chief localities also pro-
ducing iron ore are denoted by the figures in italics against
them, the distribution of the coal supply is shown. Of the
coal produced, amounting in 1892 to over 181 miUion tons,
some 30 millions are exported, going chiefly to France
(5 miUion tons), Italy, Germany, Sweden and Norway, and
in the second place to Spain, Egypt, Russia, Denmark, each
of which takes over i million tons, and other countries.

d. The Proximity of Iron and Coal. — From the table of
coal and iron production given above, it is clear that in
England and Scotland these two minerals, which in combina-
tion are so necessary to the prosperity of manufactures, are
found in comparative nearness. In all the cases where
there are large iron-fields there is abundance of coal near
at hand for the purpose of smelting and so forth. The

ii6 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

great centres of iron production are Middlesborough,
Merthyr Tydfil, the Black Country, and in Scotland,
Coatbridge and Hamilton.

That the United Kingdom is well fitted to succeed in
industrial work is shown by the foregoing considerations.
Its climate is satisfactory, its workmen capable, its stores
of coal most abundant, while, lastly, its iron-fields are in the
neighbourhood of coal. When we come to the table of the
goods it imports we shall see what its manufactures are,
and where its manufacturing districts are "situated with
relation to its coal-fields and its ports of import and
export.

C. COMMERCE.

a. The actual geographical position of the British Isles
is no doubt one great reason for the high commercial
position which they hold. Commerce comes over them
because it must pass by them. They occupy a central
position between North America and the most important
countries of Europe, and so far as long sea is concerned do
not lie outside the route between the north of Europe and
the East. This was still more the case before the opening
of the Suez Canal.

b. The maritime and accessible position of the United
Kingdom increases its opportunity for trading. It has a
good long stretch of coast land, and excellent means of
locomotion, both external and internal, external stretching
to foreign ports from its own good ports, and internal
bringing into connection the ports in the south and east
with those in the west, and the manufacturing districts with
the great commercial cities and the sea.

(i) With regard to navigation, in the first place it
possesses good seaports. It has twenty seaports with a
depth of 25 feet at high water. The following is a list of
its most important ports, ranged in importance according to
the tonnage of the shipping entering and clearing at them.
The amounts are given in millions of tons, and do not
include local and coasting traffic. (Approximate for 1 892) : —

UNITED KINGDOM

117

Million tons.

London . . . 14

Dover .

Liverpool

Leith .

Cardifif .

Grimsby

Newcastle .

Harwich

Hull .

Swansea

N. and S. Shields

Middlesborough

Glasgow

Bristol .

Newport

Hartlepool .

Southampton

Belfast .

Sunderland .

So far as the value of the goods imported and exported

is concerned (1892), the leading seaports are—

Total Imports. Total

Exports.

London . ;^i44,ooo,ooo ;^82,ooo,ooo

Liverpool

;^I09,000,000 ;^I03

000,000

London does the chief trade with the East, and in respect
of imports is the principal British seaport. On the other
hand Liverpool does the main American trade, and leads
the way in the exports of British produce and manufactures.

(2) The means of internal locomotion are equally
important with reference to the commercial well-being of
the country. At the present time locomotion takes place
by river, canal, and railway, supplemented, of course, for
local purposes by road transport. The United Kingdom
has rivers which are fairly navigable for small craft,
especially so far as rivers flowing into the North Sea are
concerned. Of these the most important are the Thames,
Severn, Mersey, Trent, and Yorkshire Ouse, which, together
with the canals, afford a means for the transport of goods of
low value and great bulk to and from the places of manufac-
ture. There are over 3000 miles of canal in England, of
which the most important are —

The Grand Junctioti Canal joining the Thames and
Trent.

The Oxford Canal joining the Thames and Trent.

The Leeds a?td Liverpool Canal between the Mersey and
Ouse.

ii8 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

The Bridgewater Canal between the Mersey and
Manchester.

The Grand Trunk Canal between the Mersey and Trent.

The Manchester Ship Canal.
In Scotland there are two very important canals : —

The Forth and Clyde Canal between the Forth and the
Clyde.

The Caledonian Canal connecting the Atlantic with
North Sea, passing through Inverness.

In Ireland both the Royal Canal and the Grand Canal
connect Dublin with the Shannon.

But since the great growth of railway communication the
transport of goods by both river and canal has sunk into
insignificance. The tonnage of those carried by the railways
is probably twenty times that of those sent by canal or river.

The railways provide the means of circulation for the
kingdom. Their course is somewhat hard to describe.
Unlike those of France, they do not exclusively find their
starting-point in the metropolis. The main lines of the
country are, however, those which connect London with the
manufacturing districts of the north. Like the Pennine
Range these are a backbone for the country. There are
three lines which run in this direction, diverging a little in
their courses — the London and North-Westem from London
to Liverpool (a line goes off to Birmingham and again
connects at Wolverhampton) ; the Midland from London
through Derby to Manchester, gathering up the traffic of
the Midland counties ; the Great Northern from London to
York. In another important direction the Great Western
and South-Westem bring London into connection with the
west, the former passing through Bristol, the latter through
Salisbury. But these western districts and the northern
districts are brought into immediate and direct communica-
tion by the so-called Severn Tunnel line from Manchester
and Liverpool to Bristol, and less directly by the Midland
line from Bristol to Birmingham. In this way a kind of
triangular communication is effected between the west, the
north, and the metropolis. This is the basis of the railway
system of the country. From each point of the triangle

in UNITED KINGDOM 119

lines run in many directions. The three north lines
proceed farther, running in the direction of Scotland ; the
Irish mail line goes off at Crewe to Holyhead. Right
across the north run the systems of the Lancashire and
Yorkshire, and Midland, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire. From
Bristol and from Swindon the Great Western throws out
its branch into South Wales, while out of London run
the continental lines, the Great Eastern lines into the
eastern counties, and many others.

Railway geography is important because it shows the
chief lines of communication and transport.

c. In several respects the commerce of the United
Kingdom has been powerfully assisted by custom already
established and the influences of political institutions.
Trade brings trade is a true maxim, and so the fact
that so much trade is already done between this country
and any foreign country has been a reason for the
merchants of that foreign country to ship all their goods
to English ports, even if their ultimate destination be farther.
In addition to this, the great tie existing between England
and its colonial dominions has been instrumental in its secur-
ing the largest share of their trade. It is more natural and
much easier for them, by reason of the communication
already existing, to send their goods to its ports than
elsewhere. Thus nearly all the Australian wool comes
to England, though more than one -third is re-exported
to supply the industries of the Continent.

Moreover, the United Kingdom has a well -organised
and very practical banking and financial system.

As may be seen from the above, the United Kingdom
has distinct advantages for commerce as well as for manu-
facture. In agriculture its climate seriously handicaps it,
though not precluding it from producing food on a large
scale compared with its area. But while it does not excel,
even if it equals other nations in this respect, it stands far
before most of them in the opportunities it possesses for
developing its trade and manufactures. Together with
mining these form the main occupation of its large and
dense population — a population which grows denser as we

I20 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

leave the rural or agricultural counties and approach those
parts where the great towns and industrial districts lie near
the coal-fields.

The standing of the United Kingdom in the world,
the nature of its manufactures, and its connection with
foreign lands, are well shown by the character of its trade.

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM IN
1892.

In value in millions of pounds sterling.

Exports total . . 291

Of British and Irish
produce and manu-
factures . . 227

Foreign and Colonial
produce . . 64

Imports total . . 424

Foods . . .187

Raw material and partly
raw material about 170

Unfinished manufac-
tures . . about 22

Manufactures , , 45

About this we notice —

(i) That there is a very large import trade indeed.

(2) That the imports consist to a large extent of food, and
of raw and partly manufactured material to be used in
the manufactures of the United Kingdom.

The manufactures imported amount to about 10 per cent
of the total.

(3) The United Kingdom does not produce its own
food supply. It buys a great part of it. It finds it
cheaper to manufacture goods and to give these in ex-
change for food than to employ itself in agriculture.

(4) The exports of British and Irish produce and manu-
facture comprise —

Principal and other manufactures . about ;^ 180, 000, 000.
Coal, etc. ;^20, 000,000.

Besides which are partly manufactured goods and food-
stuffs.

(5) The United Kingdom receives a large portion of
its imports (perhaps ;^7o,ooo,ooo) in payment for the

UNITED KINGDOM

great transport service which its mercantile fleet performs
for other nations.

The trade must now be further examined.

The foreign food supply. Frojn what countries does the
United Kingdom get its food?

Stated in round numbers the foreign food supply of the
United Kingdom was as follows in 1892 : —

(m=millions of pounds sterling.)
FOREIGN FOOD SUPPLY, 187 m. (1892).

Grains (wheat, etc.) S^J m.

Meats ....

Animals
Bacon, etc. .
Meat .
Fish .
Miscellaneous

Dairy Produce, etc. .

Butter (and margarine)
Cheese
' Eggs .

Condensed milk .

Vegetables and Fruit

Fruits .
Vegetables .

Groceries .

Tea .

Coffee and chicory

Cocoa .

Sugar .

Farinaceous foods

Miscellaneous

35 m.

9im.
II m.
\o\ m.

3 m.

I m.

Sim-
3im.
I m.

251m.

lojm.

» m.
2\ m.

40J m.

10 m.

4 ni.

I m.
20^ m.

4 m.

I in.

122 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Wine and Spirits 9j m.

Wines 6 m.

Spirits 2^ m.

Hops, etc I m.

Miscellaneous (lard, 2 m.) . . . . 4J m.
Tobacco 3j m-

Thus the weekly housekeeping bills of the country may
be put at a little over ;!^3, 500,000. Its supplies come from
many and distant lands.

Grains it buys chiefly from the United States, 28 m. ;
Russia, 5 m. ; Roumania, 3 J m. ; British India, 5 m. ; though
as a rule the Russian supply is at least twice as large, and
during the two years since 1890 the Argentine Republic
has been obtaining an increasing share of the custom.

Meats. — From the United States it imports animals,
7 J m. ; bacon and ham, 8 m. ; other meat, 5 m. In addition
it gets large supplies of animals from Canada, bacon from
Denmark, and meat from New Zealand.

Dairy Produce. — Butter from Denmark, 4| m. ; France,
3 m. Cheese from United States, 2 m.; Canada, 2 J m.
Eggs from France, i J m. Margarine from Holland, 2>\ n^-

Vegetables and Fruit. — Of southern fruits large supplies
come from Spain, 2 J m. ; and Greece, ij m. Vegetables
from France, \ m.

Groceries. — Tea mostly from British India and Ceylon,
7 J m. ; from China, 2 m. Coffee from Central America and
West Indies, i m.; from India and Ceylon, i m.; from
Brazil, \ m. Sugar from Germany, 9 J m. ; France, 2 m. ;
Holland, 2 m. ; Java, i J m.

Wine and Spirits. — Wine from France, 2 j m. ; Portugal,
ij m.; Spain, | m. Spirits from France, ij m.

Tobacco. — The United States sends 2J m.

Most of the necessary foods are also produced in the
United Kingdom. In the case of wheat, however, the
home production only amounts to about one -third of the
quantity imported, while of the other cereals she imports

Ill UNITED KINGDOM 123

a considerable portion of her home supply, as is also the case
with meats {cf. pp. 51, 52). Foreign meat is becoming more
and more important to the British consumer. Of all countries
the United States is the most important provision supplier to
the United Kingdom, as from her, to set aside other and
less needed articles, come large supplies of breadstuffs, and
of meats and animal produce.

From what countries does the United Kingdom get the
raw material for its manufactures f

RAW AND PARTLY MANUFACTURED MATERTAT. . 170 m.

(1892.)

Chief raw materials, etc., for manufacture

i29|m.

Cotton (raw, 38 m. ; yarn, J m.) .

SSjm.

Wool (raw, 27m.; yarn, 2 m.) .

29 m.

Flax, 2j m. ; linen yam, \ m. .

3lm.

Hemp

2| m.

Jute (raw, 4 m.)

4 m.

Silk (raw and thrown)

2 m.

Goat's Hair ....

I m.

Metals, unmanufactured .

20I m.

Timber

18 m.

Leather, 6J m. ; hides, 2 m. ; skins,

2|m

II m.

Miscellaneous raw material

. 40J m.

These raw materials are imported from foreign countries
and brought to certain convenient ports whence they are
conveyed to the places of manufacture. As a rule they come
to the nearest ports, for the manufacturing districts which
possess the greatest advantages are those which lie in
the neighbourhood of the ports convenient for the material
coming from the foreign sources of supply, and in close
proximity to coal-fields. When the goods are manufactured
they are either retained for home use or sent away to
foreign customers. For this latter purpose they have to be
shipped through exporting ports which are sometimes the
same as the ports through which the raw material passes.

124 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

What are the chief exports from the Utiited Kingdom f

1890. 1892.
EXPORTS OF BRITISH AND IRISH PRODUCE, 263 m. 227 m.

Cotton goods and yam . . . 74J m. 66 m.

1890

Goods ....

64 m.

Yarn ....

I2im.

Metals and metal manufactures .

58 m.

49 m.

Iron and steel in different

forms

3iim.

Other metals .

6 m.

Particular manufactures .

6 m.

Machinery

Him.

Woollen goods and yarn

25jm.

iQjm.

Manufactures .

20i m.

Yarn ....

5 m.

Linen goods and yam

6jm.

6 m.

Manufactures .

52 m.

Yarn ....

|m.

Chemicals and alkali .

5jm.

4f m.

Apparel, etc.

5 m.

4I m-

Leather and leather manufactures

4 m.

3jm.

Jute goods and yam .

3 m.

2\ m.

Silk goods, etc. .

i\ m.

2 m.

Coal, cinders, etc.

2o| m.

18 m.

Together with the main industries concerned in distribu-
tion (locomotion and transport) and those involved in the
preparation of the food produced by agriculture either in
this country or others, these groups represent the main
branches of employment in the country. They have
developed with the growth of the country. Agriculture
(pp. Ill, 112), and mining (pp. 112, 114, 115) have
already been treated of. It remains now to consider the
growth and locality of the great manufactures. Manufac-

Ill UNITED KINGDOM 125

tures fall into several groups, which, so far as possible, are
described in the following headings : —

Textile manufactures.
Iron and other metal manufactures.
Chemical, etc., manufactures.
Miscellaneous manufactures.

Textile Manufactures — Cotton. — This, now the most
important of manufactures in the United Kingdom, has
sprung into its present position during the past century or
so. Till the age of mechanical inventions the cotton
manufacture had been of comparative insignificance, and
till Whitney's new saw-gin permitted the use of American
cotton there was small prospect of improvement.

Since its early days Lancashire has been the main site
of the cotton industries, for which indeed it has many
advantages. Firstly, the climate of the west of England
possesses the humidity required in the processes of cotton
manufacture. Secondly, it possesses coal. Thirdly, the
great source of cotton imports into England and Scotland
is the United States of America and neighbourhood.
Liverpool means a saving of expense and trouble in
carriage, for to that port come more than seven-eighths of
the total raw cotton imports into the United Kingdom.
Liverpool owes its great importance to the large proportion
(nearly three-fourths) of the cotton derived from the United
States, the only other countries supplying us with any large
quantity being Egypt and British India, each sending as
a rule about one-tenth.

The chief seaports through which the cotton when
woven into calicoes and other goods is sent away, are
Liverpool, exporting over two-thirds of the total, i.e.
43 m., London (5|- m.), Glasgow (3|^ m.), Southampton
(3 m.), and Hull (4 m.) The cotton goods from the
United Kingdom go all over the world, especially to the
far distant parts of Africa, Asia, and to the Australian
colonies. Liverpool is the leading cotton market, and
Manchester the centre of the cotton industries.

126 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

The chief towns engaged in the manufacture of cotton
are —

a. Manchester, Blackburn, Oldham, Preston, Accrington,
Bolton, Bury, Rochdale — all in Lancashire. In close
connection with these are Stockport and Hyde.

b. In Scotland cotton mills are mostly in the neighbour-
hood of Glasgow.

c. Cotton, hosiery, and lace are produced at Nottingham
and Leicester.

Woollens. — The West Riding of Yorkshire holds nearly
as high an importance in the woollen industry as does
South-West Lancashire for cotton. In former times the
manufacture of wool found its home in Yorkshire, largely
owing to its proximity to the sheep pastures of Lincolnshire,
etc., and its numberless streams. Water power became of
great importance after the introduction of machinery, and
when its place was taken by steam the possession of a
plentiful coal supply secured the position of the West
Riding. Nearly three-quarters of the imported wool (some
entering England only to be transhipped for foreign
countries) comes from Australasia, the next important
countries, so far as the United Kingdom is concerned,
being the South African colonies and some way behind
British India. Most colonial wool is imported through
London, which is the great wool mart of the country, while
Leeds holds the position of Manchester with regard to
woollen goods, acting also as a wool market. The exports
of woollen manufactures of the kingdom, exceeding in value
;^20,ooo,ooo, go far and wide, large quantities finding their
way to the United States of America and the continent of
Europe. Nearly one-half of these goods pass through the
port of Liverpool, while the ports on the East coast, as Hull,
Goole, Grimsby, Harwich, and Folkestone, take with
London an active part in the export of the rest. Woollen
yarn is sent largely to Germany.

In Yorkshire woollen goods are produced at most of
the towns which have sprung up in the West Riding —
largely in Leeds, Bradford, Halifax, Huddersfield, Dews-
bury, Batley, Wakefield, and Heckmondwike. Rochdale

Ill UNITED KINGDOM 127

in Lancashire is celebrated for flannel, the production of
which has been established in Wales.

The cloth industry, which formerly flourished in the
west of England near Stroud, has now decayed very
much.

In Scotland cloth and woollen goods are made in
Lanarkshire and the neighbouring district, noticeably in
Dumfries and Galashiels and Paisley.

Carpets are produced at Kidderminster, Wilton, Halifax,
Kilmarnock ; while Leicester is the centre of the worsted
and woollen hosiery industries.

Linen. — The raw material required in the linen industry
is mainly, though not entirely, grown in the districts where
its manufacture is undertaken. Some, however, is im-
ported from Russia (value ;!^ 1,500,000), and a lesser
quantity from Belgium and elsewhere. This comes in
chiefly at the ports of Dundee, Leith, in Scotland, and
Belfast in Ireland. It is in the north of this latter country
that the chief home cultivation of flax and the main
manufacture of linen takes place. Belfast, with the district
surrounding, is the seat of this latter. Its one disadvantage,
for the climate is suitable, is the want of coal. In Scotland
linen manufacture is carried on in Dundee, Dunfermline,
and other places ; in England at Barnsley.

Jute, which comes almost exclusively from India, enters
to the extent of nearly two-thirds of the entire quantity at
Dundee and of one-third at London. Though both in the
form of yarn and piece goods its main export is from the
ports of London, Glasgow, and Liverpool, it undergoes the
process of manufacture chiefly in the neighbourhood of
Dundee, where it is imported. The United States is by
far the largest consumer of British jute goods and
yarn.

Silk, when imported in a raw condition, comes mainly
from China ; when partially prepared, largely from France.
Entering at London, it is thence distributed to the
scattered places where its manufacture is still undertaken.
Among these may be mentioned Macclesfield, Congleton,
Ilkeston ; for ribbons^ Coventry ; and for mixed goods and

128 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

plushy Bradford. The manufacture of plain silk goods in
England is not large.

Metal Industries — Iron and Steel. — In importance to
the country as an exporter, these industries come immedi-
ately after the textiles, though they differ from them in two
respects. In the first place, the raw metal is mostly
produced at home ; in the second place, the metal industries
are even more closely dependent upon the neighbourhood
of coal. Iron smelting is carried on in four principal
districts — in and about Middlesborough, where the great
Cleveland fields supply the ore ; in Barrow, in South Wales,
where a good deal of Spanish iron is dealt with ; in Lanark
and Ayr. The chief centre, however, of the iron goods
industries is Birmingham. The production of these in
some one or other form extends for miles round that town,
chiefly indeed in the direction of Wolverhampton, through
the so-called Black Country. In this district and in the
neighbouring country there are a large number of small
towns and industrial villages actively employed, as Walsall,
Dudley Port, West Bromwich, Wednesbury, Stourbridge,
where galvanised iron goods are produced, Redditch
(needles), Bromsgrove and Cradley Heath (chains and
nails), etc. Among the more important productions,
besides those mentioned, are wire, screws, bolts, tools,
steel pens, pins and needles, weapons, etc.

Machinery is also made at Birmingham, Wolverhampton,
but in addition at those places where the industries for
which it is wanted are carried on. Thus Manchester,
Glasgow, Bolton, Leicester, and London have very large
and important machine shops ; while agricultural machinery
is chiefly produced at Grantham, Bedford, and Lincoln.

Cutlery^ which is a great branch of the Birmingham
industry, is, however, produced in its highest excellence
at Sheffield. Sheffield turns out, also, a great many other
steel goods.

Shipbuildings now become so important, is carried on in
the yards on the Clyde, Mersey, and Tyne, and also in
Barrow and Belfast. In all these places it enjoys the
advantages of proximity to the iron and coal-fields.

Ill UNITED KINGDOM 129

Other Metal Manufactures, — Brass working is carried
on in the Birmingham district, as also in London, while
copper founding takes place chiefly in South Wales. The
so-called ti7i plates^ really iron plates coated with tin, which
have been one of the most valuable metal exports, are
made in South Wales.

The metal exports are sent to many lands, the most
important customers for the products of this branch of
industry being the United States and our colonies, after
which rank the leading continental countries. Machinery
goes in very large quantities to British India, Germany,
France, Russia, and to the Australasian colonies.

Chemicals. — The manufacture of chemicals has attained
very large proportions in the United Kingdom. In the
main it is carried on in three neighbourhoods, those of
Liverpool, Newcastle, and Glasgow. The alkali industries
near Liverpool lie somewhat to the south, being situated
chiefly at Widnes, St. Helen's, and in Cheshire. They
possess the great advantage of lying near or in the salt
district, as well as near an abundant supply of coal. As
some of the products of chemical manufacture are largely
employed in the production of other commodities, it is not
surprising to find some of these situated within a compara-
tively short distance, e.g. glass at St. Helen's, soap near
Liverpool and Glasgow, as well as on the Thames.

Earthenware and Glass. — Glass is manufactured mainly
at Birmingham and at St. Helen's, the works of which latter
town have developed to such an extent in late years that they
now turn out about half the total glass produced in the
kingdom. Earthenware and china are manufactured in
Staffordshire, near Stoke, in the district well known as the
Potteries.

Leather. — Of other industries perhaps the most im-
portant is that of leather. It has, of course, very many
branches, extending from the rudimentary stage of tanning
to the making of boots, shoes, and gloves. The raw material
for this industry is largely imported. Hides and u?idressed
leather come chiefly from British India and Australasia.
Dressed leather^ on the other hand, comes from continental

I30 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

countries, France, Holland, and Gennany. About one-half
of the imports pass through the port of London. Leeds
is perhaps the most important leather market, though the
manufacture is very much scattered throughout the country.
Thus boots and shoes are produced in many places, among
which Northampton, Leicester, and Bristol are important.
A considerable amount of saddlery and harness is made in
and near Birmingham, while gloves are produced at
Worcester amongst many places.

Commerce and Commercial Towns. ^ — The leading
commercial towns in the United Kingdom are Londo7t^
Liverpool^ Manchester^ Leeds, Birminghafn, and Glasgow.
Of these the two first are less connected with manufacture
than are the rest. London, indeed, is the great commercial
capital, not of this country alone, but of the world, and in
it centre the financial and other institutions which repre-
sent the business as apart from the manufacturing side of
trade.

The leading countries with which the United Kingdom
is engaged in trade are the United States, France,
Germany, though with the colonies and other foreign
countries its trade is also very large.

With the United States of America her trade is
about twice as large as with any other single country.
The imports from that land are much greater than the
exports to it. From it we obtain large quantities of
foodstuffs and also of raw materials, especially cotton and
copper, while to it we send metal goods, woollen and other
textiles, and less quantities of a great variety of commodities.

With France. — From it we receive wines and brandy,
silken and woollen goods, and many minor foodstuffs. To
it we send a large quantity of colonial wool, also woollen
goods, coals, and various minor manufactures.

With Germany. — One principal import from Germany
consists of foodstuffs, including a large quantity of beet
sugar, and to it we send wool and woollens, cotton and
cotton goods, and metals and machinery.

Ill FRANCE 131

FRANCE

France is bordered on some sides by the sea, on the
others by mountain ranges. But on the north-eastern
frontier, where Belgium and Germany touch, one of the
more highly-developed districts, there is no natural barrier.
So far as external communication is concerned, the long
sea-coast offers advantages which, great though they be,
would be greater if more ports were readily accessible.
On the other hand, the high mountain ranges in the
neighbourhood of Spain (Pyrenees), and Italy (Alps),
present difficulties which the railways entering those
countries from France have circumvented, rather than
overcome. Within the country itself the more important
ranges of mountains are the Cevennes, the mountains
of Auvergne, and the Vosges. The mountain system, of
which these are part, divides the two plains of France.
The greater plain sweeps round from the north to the west,
and thence to the south ; the lesser is the plain of the valley
of the Rhone. In the first there are three districts, which
differ in their characteristics, occupations, and productions,
viz., the north-east, a flat, level stretch of land with coal in
the Pas de Calais, and rising up into the highlands of
Champagne ; Normandy and the surrounding country ;
the wine country of Bordeaux.

With regard to political influences affecting its develop-
ment.— (i) France, though subject to frequent changes in
political government, is, so far as the ordinary civil adminis-
tration is concerned, orderly and undisturbed. It is not
too heavily taxed. (2) Its customs tariff is a protective
one, duties being charged on most articles imported with a
view both to revenue and the protection of home industries.
When compared with Germany and the United States of
America the customs duties are not high. (3) It has
adopted the metric system.

Position of France v/ith regard to the specific conditions
favouring, A. Agriculture. — It possesses in a high degree

132 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

the chief conditions on which agriculture depends, (i)
Owing to the custom of the country and the action of the
Napoleonic law of inheritance, the number of small
proprietors cultivating their own land is large. It is
reckoned at 4 millions. Many of the products, as vines,
are peculiarly suitable for the system of small cultivation
{petite culture), requiring care and assiduity. (2) The
soil is fertile and productive. (3) The climate is good
and diverse. In Normandy and the north generally it
favours the growth of the foodstuffs and fruits of the
temperate zone ; in the south-west it is much milder ; while
in the extreme south-east a very considerable average heat is
maintained. There is more rain in the west than the east.

France is in the main an agricultural country, with a
large number of small provincial towns serving as centres
for the agriculture of their districts, or as the place of
small incidental manufactures.

Of the cMef agricultural products, grain is grown
over a large area, but mainly in the north, the cereals most
cultivated being wheat and oats. The supply being
insufficient, France supplements its home production by
imports of wheat. One kind of grain, maize, is cultivated
mostly in the south, in the districts of Languedoc, Guienne,
etc. Beetroot, for the purpose of sugar extraction, is
cultivated in the north-east, principally in the depart-
ments of Aisne, Nord, Pas de Calais, Somme. Flax grows
in the north from Flanders, through Normandy to Brittany.
Hemp in the same regions. Pears, apples, and other
northern fruits and vegetables are grown in profusion in the
north, very largely in Normandy. In the south flourish
the olives (Rhone valley), the mulberry^ oranges and lemons,
figs, etc.

Wine, which is a product of very great importance, is
produced in three important districts, Champag7ie (depart-
ment of Marne), where the wine is mainly of an effervescent
character ; Burgundy (Cote d'Or, Rhone Saone), where the
vines are cultivated to the best advantage on the slopes of
the rising hills \ Bordeaux, largely in the department of the
Gironde.

Ill- FRANCE 133

The best cattle (total 13 millions) and horses are in
Normandy and in the north generally, where dairy farming
is carried on. The manufacture of cheese takes place also
in many other districts towards the east. Sheep farming is
of course a large occupation, though the yield of wool is
insufficient for the home demand. The best wool comes
from Normandy, and from the large districts of Champagne
and Burgundy. The total number of sheep (1891, 21
millions) has declined of recent years.

B. Mining and Conditions of Manufacture. — With
regard to manufacture, France stands in a peculiar position,
in some directions having great, in others but trifling
advantages.

a. Its clifnate is one which on the whole allows of
regular and continuous exertion. So far as the manu-
facture of silk is concerned, the climate of Lyons and the
southern district is very favourable.

b. The workmen are industriotcs, aitd possess in a high
degree skill and artistic taste, which qualities combined
enable them to rival and surpass English workmen in
particular branches of industry. On the other hand, they are
inferior to these in the general intelligence, resource, and
strength required in first-rate mechanics.

c. As France does not produce sufficient coal for her own
use, supplies to about the value of ^5,000,000 have to
be imported from foreign countries. Of these England
sends more than half ; Belgium is of next importance.

The ho7ne coal supplies come mainly from the following
districts : —

Northern coal-field, situated in the departments of
Pas de Calais and Nord. This is the largest and most
important.

Loire coal-field, in the department of Rhone and Loire.
The yield is good, and is of particular importance as being
situated near the manufacturing silk towns, especially St.
Etienne, where there are valuable collieries.

Alais coal-field, in the department of Card.

Saone and Loire coal-field, in the department of that
name. So far as the steel industry is concerned, this is

134 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

one of the most important, Creuzot, the great iron and
steel town, being one of its centres.

In addition, the production of coal in less amounts
takes place in the departments of Aveyron, Allier, Haute-
Loire, etc.

d. The production of iron and steel takes place partly
in the neighbourhood of certain of the above districts, but
partly also in the departments of Meurthe et Moselle, Maine,
etc., where it is chiefly dependent on supplies of foreign, chiefly
German, coal. As compared with England, France is heavily
handicapped by the distances which frequently separate
the iron and coal deposits. The most important develop-
ments have taken place in the neighbourhood of Creuzot
and St. Etienne^ where the two minerals are found in
proximity, and where a great industry has grown up.
Taken together, France has, in many localities, consider-
able opportunities for the development of manufacture,
but none nearly so great as those possessed in the
north and other districts of England. The people are
not so eminent as mechanics, and coal is comparatively
scarce.

C. Commerce. — a. The position of France is exceedingly
favourable to the growth of trade. On one side it lies
open to the commerce of Germany, the United Kingdom,
the Netherlands, etc., on another to the Atlantic, while
its access to the Mediterranean is most important —
particularly so since the opening of the Suez Canal.

b. On all these coasts it has good seaports. The more
important of these are — on the Mediterranean, Marseilles
and Cette ; on the Atlantic, Bordeaux, Rochelle, St. Nazaire
and Nantes ; on St. George's Channel, Dunkirk, Calais,
Boulogne, Dieppe, Havre, St. Malo. In addition there are
the naval ports of Brest, Cherbourg, Toulon, and Rochefort.
The most important seaports are —

Marseilles, importing silk, raw sugar, cotton, grain, etc.,
and exporting silk fabrics, wines, woollen goods, soap, etc.

Bordeaux, importing colonial produce, hides, etc., and
exporting wines, spirits, fruits, etc.

Dunkirk, importing coal, iron, nitrates, etc., and ex-

Ill FRANCE 135

porting wheat, wool, and also to other French ports,
coal.

Cette, doing a large coasting trade in the Mediterranean.
Havre, i?nporting cotton, wool, colonial goods, and
exporting cotton and woollen manufactures, laces, gloves,
leather, etc.

Nantes, importing coal, pig-iron, cotton, colonial goods,

etc., and exporting whedit^ refined sugar, prepared goods, etc.

The connection between the interior districts of the

country, both with themselves and these various ports, is

maintained by —

i. The Water System. — The more important of the
many navigable rivers which France contains
are the Seine, Loire, Charente, Garonne, Adour.
In all it has been calculated that there are some
4000 miles of navigable river waterway.
But the utility of the river system has been
vastly increased by the canals which, amongst
other advantages, connect the principal rivers.
Of these the most important are Canal du
Midi, joining the Garonne and the Mediter-
ranean ; Canal d^ Alsace^ between Rhine and
Rhone : the Rhine- Marne Ca?tal; Canal du
Bourgogne, connecting the systems of the Seine
and the Loire ; and the canal betweeft Nantes
and Brest.
ii. The Railways. — With few exceptions the main
railroads in France run between the various
districts and Paris, whence the lines radiate
out in all directions. Paris is the centre of
France, and occupies a position quite different
from that held by London in England, where
so much of the industrial activity has its home
in the north. From Paris there run —
The Northern Railway (Chemin de fer du Nord), through
Amiens into the north and north-eastern districts.

The Western Railway, having its main line to Havre, and
another line to Nantes, with a network in between these
two trunk lines.

136 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

The Orleans Railway^ having one long trunk line from
Paris to Orleans, Toulouse, etc. From Orleans lines
branch to Nantes and to Bordeaux.

The Eastern Railway^ having several lines running from
the capital to the German border.

The Lyons and Mediterranean Railway^ connecting Paris
with the silk district and Marseilles with an important branch
from Marseilles to Cette.

The Southern Railway is the one great exception to
the rule that the railway lines start from Paris. It
serves to connect the south - west and the south - east of
France, running from Bordeaux to Toulouse, Narbonne,
and Cette.

The imports and exports of France have varied very
much. In 1891 they were —

Imports ;^I9I, 000,000. Exports ;^i42,ooo,ooo.

Of the imports a smaller proportion consists of im-
portant foodstuffs than is the case in the United Kingdom.
The more prominent of these being —

Grain and flour. Fruit.

Coffee, etc. Wine.

With regard to these it is important to note that the
wine imported comes partly for home consumption and
partly as a raw material for admixture with certain French
wines and re-exportation. Wine is imported chiefly from
Spain. Italy also contributes a considerable amount.

Of the imports of raw material the most important
are —

Silk.

Wool.

Cotton.

nax.

Hides and skins.

Coal.

Of the exports the principal are —

Silk goods. Woollen goods.

Cotton goods. Leather and leather wares.

Refined sugar. Wines.

FRANCE 137

There is also a large production and export of various
goods, partly connected with the textile industries, partly of
a miscellaneous character.

LEADING INDUSTRIES.— Silk.— Raw silk is pro-
duced in France in the south-eastern departments, as Gard,
Vaucluse, Ardcche, Drome, etc., and, in addition, im-
ported from China, Japan, etc., and Italy, the imports
from Asiatic countries entering chiefly at the port of
Marseilles. In the south-eastern departments a large
number of people are employed in silk - throwing ; but the
more developed manufacture is centred in certain towns.
Lyojis is the great centre of the silk industry of France,
and of the silk trade not only of France, but of Europe.
Its silk goods and velvets bear the highest reputation.
Silk ribbons are produced at St. Etienne, and minor silk
fabrics at the places mentioned, and at Paris. The silk
goods of France are sent to all countries.

Woollens. — The sheep of Champagne yield good wool,
in addition to which large quantities come from the
Argentine through the ports of Havre and Dunkirk, and
from Australasia over England. The woollen manufacture
is chiefly in the north - east quarter of France, deriving
supplies of coal in the more northerly districts from the
great northern coal - field, in the more easterly districts
from the Saar valley. In the north the chief woollen towns
are Roubaix, Turcoing ; the worsted is carried on largely
at Rheims, while at Sedan, Elboeuf, Louviers, large
quantities of cloth are produced. Carpets are manufactured
largely at Paris, Beauvais, Roubaix.

Cotton. — The raw material is imported mainly from
the United States, entering at the western and north-western
ports, at which large quantities of coal also enter. The
chief town is Rouen, after which ranks Lille.

The linen industry is pHed chiefly in the north of
France, while for the jute manufacture Dunkirk is the
centre.

Metal Industries. — In addition to their industries
as centres of iron - smelting, St. Etienne, Creuzot, and
Lille take an important part in the production of heavy

138 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

iron goods. Lille does a large trade in small iron and
steel goods and machinery. Cutlery is best produced at
Langres, Nogent, Thiers, and Paris.

Leather industries are carried on at various places,
Annonay being the most important for tanning,etc., Paris and
Grenoble for gloves, Toulouse and Paris for boots and shoes.

The manufacture of sugar takes place chiefly in the
beetroot districts of the north, largely at Lille, Amiens,
Rouen.

Paris, at once the capital, commercial, and financial
centre of France, is also a manufacturing city of no little
importance. Its share in the leading manufactures has
been described, but to those must be added its large
production of fancy articles, both in leather, earthenware,
and metal, and its trimming and millinery trade.

The countries with which France carries on the largest
trade are the United Kingdom, Belgium, Germany, the
United States.

BELGIUM

Belgium, while the smallest country in Europe, is the most
densely populated and one of the most busily employed.
Much of its prosperity it owes to its situation, but much also
to the industry of its people. In each of the three great
departments of human occupation it has made considerable
progress, in two, indeed, holding a very high position.

In agriculture it owes but little to climate, which is
moist and temperate. Nor is its soil of any particular
fertility. As in France the number of peasant or small
cultivating proprietors is very large, and with untiring
industry they have cultivated the land with minute care, — •
corn, flax, potatoes, beetroot, being among their chief
products. The most important com crop is that of oats.
These are grown to the greatest advantage in the western
and southern provinces. Despite this, a large quantity of
grain is annually imported, to the value of ;^8, 000,000 or

Ill BELGIUM 139

;^9,ooo,ooo. The sheep are few, not amounting to one
million, being exceeded in number by cattle.

In manufacture it has great advantages, having a very
high yield of coal in comparison with its size. There are
two main coal-fields, by Namur and near Li^ge, both being
busily worked. In addition iron is found and smelted in
or near the same districts. The advantages, added to the
temperate climate and the industry of the inhabitants, have
combined to render Belgium, despite its smallness, one of
the most important manufacturing countries in Europe,
the manufacturing districts lying chiefly on the east and
south-east.

In commerce its position — standing as it were between
Germany, France, and England — has been of great import-
ance. Though its coast-line is very hmited (40-50 miles),
it has one great commercial port, Antwerp, one good fast
traffic port, Ostend, and others that are inferior and now
of less importance, as Ghent and Nieuport. Antwerp
has first-rate accommodation for shipping, and does a large
trade in the import of cotton, grain, coffee, timber, hides,
etc., and in the export of coal, iron, and other goods.
Besides this the internal communication is good, a matter
of great importance on account of the large trade both transit
and otherwise, passing over its land frontier. Both the
Meuse and the Scheldt are navigable ; the canal system is
well developed, and the length of railroad nearly 3000
miles. Of commercial towns the chief are Antwerp,
Brussels, Ostend, Ghent.

The exports from Belgium are, on an average, a little
under ;{^ 5 0,000, 000, and the imports a little over. Of
these some of the more important are —

Imports.

Exports.

Grain.

Coal and coke.

Animals and meat.

Linen and hemp manufactu:

Wool.

and yarn.

Flax and hemp.

Woollen yam manufactures.

Cotton.

Flax.

Hides.

Glass.

Wood.

Iron and machinery, etc.

I40 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Linen and hemp spinning and weaving are carried on
extensively in Belgium, a great demand being made both
for home and foreign flax. Linen is manufactured near
Courtrai and Ghent.

Woollen goods are produced (mainly pure Argentine
wool imported at Antwerp) in the neighbourhood of
Verviers.

Cotton is not so important in Belgium as in many other
countries. It chiefly centres round Ghent.

The metal industries are very highly developed in
most of their branches, the most important district being
that of Li^ge and Charleroi, where a plentiful supply of
coal lies ready to hand.

Of the chemical and allied industries several are very
large. Salt is found in several districts, and near Brussels
are very important chemical works. The glcLSs of Belgium
is of high reputation, particularly so in the case of plate
glass, etc. Paper is also a considerable export. Lace is
produced in several places, and notably in Mechlin.
Leather goods, beet sugar, and fancy articles are also
prominent manufactures.

The chief trade is carried on with France, the United
Kingdom, Holland, and Germany.

HOLLAND

The position of Holland has not been favourable for
anything save commerce. It is a land snatched, but
barely snatched, from the sea. Thus in every essential
sense, and to both its advantage and its disadvantage, it is a
marine country cut up in almost all directions by a network
of canals and navigable rivers.

Owing to its climate, severe and damp, and its soil,
which is not fertile, its agricultural development is not
widespread, despite the great industry of the people. One-
third of the land is capable of cultivation, another third is
in pasture, and the rest, with the exception of the space

HOLLAND 141

occupied by the towns, is of little or no value. The most
important crops are those of rye and oats, after which
ranks wheat ; and the most productive districts lie in the
north and west. Much grain is imported. Potatoes,
beetroot, and flax are also grown in considerable quantities.
Pastoral pursuits are more favourably situated, and though
Holland is small, it has, considering its size, a large number
of cattle (i^ millions), the source of much wealth in the
shape of butter and cheese. There are but few sheep.

So far as manufactures are concerned, Holland has no
home supplies of iron, and practically none of coal ; a very
little coal is found in Limburg. Though its imports of
coal are large, exceeding 4 million tons, they do not enable
it to maintain many manufactures. The state of these
appears from a consideration of the chief imports and
exports.

Leading Imports. Leading Exports.

Grain and flour. Butter and margarine.

Iron and iron wares. Sugar.

CoaL Flax.

Colonial goods. Paper manufactures.

Raw cotton and wool.

Some small amounts of cotton and woollen goods are
exported, but most of those produced are retained for
home' consumption. The sugar industry is, however,
important as a means of employment and support. Both
cane and beet sugar are refined in the Dutch factories,
which are mostly situated in North Brabant. In this, as
in other instances, as tobacco, Holland is largely engaged
in preparing for the market the productions of its colonies.
Earthenware is made in many places, notably at Delft.

In commerce Holland occupies a vastly different posi-
tion from that described above. There are many good
ports, of which two are of European importance.

Amsterdam^ lying on the Amstel, and importing much
colonial produce, as sugar, coffee, tobacco, is the trading
capital of the country. It is an important banking centre.

Rotterdam^ on the Meuse, is however the most import-

142 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

ant maritime city. Many railways converge there, and
the greater portion of the colonial trade enters the country
through it It imports grain, coals, ores, etc., and colonial
goods, as sugar, coffee, tobacco, rice, etc. It exports
manufactured goods, sugar, butter, etc.

Owing to its geographical position and its relation with
the East Indies, a most extensive transit trade takes place
through Holland. Many goods come from its colonies and
other places, as coffee, tobacco, Peruvian bark, etc., and
are distributed through Europe. Many goods pass through
Holland on their way between other countries. This
transit trade, as indeed the whole commerce, is greatly
facilitated by the admirable canal system and the railways.

GERMANY

Germany is a Federal Empire, consisting of twenty-five
states and the Reichsland (Alsace-Lorraine). Of the
states five — Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Baden, and Wiirtem-
berg — are important, the first named holding a predominant
position, both economic and constitutional.

The north of Germany, comprising the larger part of
Prussia and smaller states, of which Brunswick and the two
Mecklenbergs are the most important, forms part of the
great northern central plain of Europe, which extends
through Russia to the North Sea and the Channel. Its
climate is severe, owing to its exposure and the compara-
tively small extent to which it is affected in any but its
most westerly portion by the moderating influences of the
westerly sea winds. The south of Germany is considerably
warmer, a condition particularly noticeable in the south-west,
where the country is sheltered on the east by the ranges of
the Schwarzwald, on the west by the Vosges.

The boundaries of Germany are on the south-east
mountainous, the Bohemian mountains. Erz Gebirge and
Riesen Gebirge, and on the south they partake of the
general elevation of Switzerland. On the western side the

GERMANY 143

frontier is an artificial one. Within the country there are
small ranges and elevated tablelands, which have but small
climatic importance, save in their immediate localities.

The political conditions are favourable to advancement.
The country is orderly and law-abiding. In no other land
has a greater amount of care and intelligence been
bestowed upon industry and trade. The standard of
general education is high. The whole country, together
with the duchy of Luxemburg, now forms one Zoll Gebiet
(Custom Union), the customs duties being high and
essentially protective for home industries.

A. Agriculture. — The agricultural development of
Germany is very unequal. So far as soi'l is concerned the
southern states — Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden — have
considerable advantages. In these states the percentage
of really fertile land is large. But in Prussia, and particu-
larly in the eastern provinces of Prussia, the soil is poor
and would yield but little, except for the great industry and
science with which it has been cultivated. The climate of
the north, in conjunction with the soil, has led to the
cultivation in these parts of the more hardy cereals, rye
and oats, rather than wheat. Of the total area of Germany
about half is in active cultivation.

Of agricultural products ^r^zVz is of course the most
important. Oats and rye yield the two largest crops. The
former is chiefly cultivated in Rhenish Prussia, in the Prussian
provinces of Saxony, Silesia, and Hanover, and in the king-
doms of Bavaria and Saxony. Rye, which, in addition to
potatoes, is the great foodstuff of the people in the north and
in Bavaria, is grown chiefly in the Prussian provinces of
Brandenburg, East Prussia, Pomerania, Posen, and Hanover,
and also in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in Bavaria, and in the
kingdom of Saxony. Wheat, while cultivated, as indeed are
all the cereals, over a large area, is so to the largest extent
in Bavaria, and in Prussian Saxony, and the Rhineland.
Barley is grown largely in Bavaria. Potatoes are a most
important crop in Northern and North-Eastern Prussia.

Beetroot is grown mainly in the Prussian provinces of
Saxony, Silesia, and Hanover, and also in Brunswick and

144 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Anhalt, the district formed by these being the most
important for sugar production in Europe and elsewhere.
A very large number of the factories are in or near
Magdeburg, which is thus becoming the great sugar
manufacturing centre. Vi?ie cultivation takes place in the
valleys of the Rhine, Neckar, and Moselle.

With regard to live stock the countries richest in cattle
proportionately to their size are those in the south, Bavaria,
Saxony, Wiirtemberg, and Hesse. On the other hand the
chief sheep districts are in North Germany.

B. Mining and Conditions of Manufactures. —
Germany possesses in a very high degree the main
conditions needed for the development of manufacture.
a. The people are industrious, b. The climate allows of
continued and regular exertion, c. There are large stores
of coal and iron. Germany has been rapidly developing
its coal resources, and now produces some 73 million tons
of coal, and in addition some 20 million tons of lignite.
Of all European countries it stands next to England.
Coal production takes place mainly in the following dis-
tricts : in Rhenish Prussia (Ruhr valley), and Westphalia,
in Silesia, in and about Saarbriicken, in Saxony, d. Near
to these are the iron districts, iron being found in the
neighbourhood of the coal in Saxony and Silesia, and in
the valley of the Saar, also in Rhenish Prussia. In some
of these districts iron and steel production is carried on on
a very large scale. This is particularly the case in the
district of the Ruhr, where the most important metallic
industries are situated (see p. 148).

Other minerals. — Copper is produced to a considerable
extent in the Harz and Westphalia ; zinc in very great
quantities in Silesia, the Harz, and near Aachen : while lead
is found in the Harz, where there are silver mines. The
production of salt takes place in the Prussian provinces of
Saxony and Hanover, and in Thuringia and Wiirtemberg.

C. Commerce. — Independently of its own productions
and its own needs, Gemiany does not occupy a geographical
position fitted to give a large share in general trade. In
one respect it is at a great disadvantage, for despite coast-

GERMANY 145

line, which it possesses on the north and north-west, it has
but few ports which lie well open to foreign trade. Most
of its coast-line lies on the Baltic, and its ports there, in
addition to being removed from the great marine highways,
are often obstructed at the mouth. The chief seaports
are as follows —

Hamburg, on the Elbe, with an annual movement of
some 10 million tons, is one of the most important ports in
Europe, imports colonial produce, cotton, wool, coal,
manufactured goods, machinery, etc., and exports manu-
factured goods, salt, dairy produce, etc. Similar to
Hamburg is the small neighbouring port, Altona.

Bremen and Bremerhaven. These two ports, of which
the last named is by far the larger so far as shipping
entries and clearances are concerned, the former the most
important in commerce, lie on the Weser. The leading
imports are colonial goods, coal, iron, machinery, etc. The
exports^ woollen goods, linen, glass, rags, wheat, etc.

Kiel, both a commercial and a naval harbour, lies in the
Baltic, and does a trade of about three-quarters of a million
tons, importing coals, timber, and exporting grain and
timber.

Liibeck, another Baltic port doing about as much trade
as Kiel, imports and exports goods somewhat more varied
in character.

Stettin is the most active of all the Baltic ports, and
imports coals, iron, petroleum, colonial goods, agricultural
machinery, etc., and exports grain, flour, potatoes, timber, etc.
There are several other ports of fair importance in the
Baltic — Danzig, Konigsberg, Memel, Geistemiinde, and
Swinemiinde.

Internal communication is very thorough,
i. The roads in Germany are exceedingly well kept,
and in many districts, as, for instance, Baden, of
considerable importance for local commerce,
ii. There is good means of transport both by river
and canal. The more important navigable
rivers are the Elbe, Weser, Rhine, Oder,
Vistula, Pregel, Memel.
L

146 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

The water system is largely completed by the
canals which join the various rivers, and thus
extend a network of water communication over
the country. Among the most important are
the Friedrich- Wilhebns Canal (from the Spree
to the Oder), Finow Canal (from Havel to
Oder), Rhine -Mame Canal^ all these with
heavy traffic. In addition there are Bromberger
Canal (from Oder to Vistula), Plane n Canal,
Ludwig^s Canal.
iii. The total length of railroad in the country exceeds
25,000 miles. Most of the railways are
owned by the State. The principles governing
their development have been many. There
are, firstly, the international lines of com-
munication ; secondly, the lines connecting the
different states and chief towns ; and, lastly,
often coinciding with one or other of the
above, are the railways which open up and
meet the needs of the great industrial districts,
seaports, and centres of commerce. Thus the
districts with most highly-developed railway
communication lie between the seaports on the
North Sea (Hamburg and Bremen), Berlin,
and the three industrial districts in. Saxony,
Rhineland and Westphalia, and Alsace-
Lorraine. Foremost among them are the
Prussian provinces of Rhineland, Westphalia,
Saxony, Silesia, and the kingdom of Saxony,
Hesse, etc.

The Foreign Trade of Germany.

Imports during the last three years have been about

/205, 000,000.
Exports during the last three years have been about

;!^ 1 6 1, 000,000.
In 1 89 1 the total imports were ;^2o8,ooo,ooo, of

GERMANY

147

which some 36 per cent consisted of foodstuffs, 42 per
cent of raw material, and 22 per cent of manufactured
articles.

Of the exports, in 1891 amounting to ^158,000,000,
64 per cent were reckoned as manufactured.

Leading Imports.

Grain and flour.
Raw wool.
Raw cotton.
Coffee.
Raw silk.
Hides.

Leading Exports.

Sugar.

Woollen yarn and manufactures.

Cotton yarn and manufactures.

Coarse iron wares.

Silk manufactures.

These give us some clue to the development of the general
industries, though in the case of Germany it is particularly
necessary to remember that there is a large home industry
in many instances to meet home requirements.

LEADING INDUSTRIES.— Textile ; Woollens.— In
addition to the home supply a large quantity of wool is
imported from Australia and from South America. The
manufacture of woollen fabrics takes place mainly in Rhenish
Prussia (Aachen is important), in the kingdom of Saxony,
and in Silesia. Of the goods exported, after the home
industry is satisfied, the largest quantity is sent to Austria.

Cottons. — Two countries, United States of America
and British India, contribute four-fifths of the total supply.
There are some important cotton factories scattered through
the country, but the main industry centres in the great
manufacturing districts situated in close proximity to the
coal-fields. In the Rhenish province the cotton manu-
facture is most important, among the chief cotton towns
being Elberfeld and Barmen, Dusseldorf, Gladbach, and in
Westphalia Bielefeld. In Saxony the cotton factories are
mostly in the neighbourhood of Chemnitz. Miihlhausen
is a very busy cotton manufacturing town. The industry
is also pursued in Silesia. The cotton manufactures are
widely distributed, in this instance, too, Austria proving the
most important customer.

Silks. — Silk goods and mixed silk goods are largely

148 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

manufactured in the Rhenish district, where Krefeld is
particularly important for ribbons. Silk manufacture also
takes place in Elberfeld, etc. Silk goods are sent in
considerable quantities to the United Kingdom and the
United States of America.

Linens, etc. — The linen manufacture is much more
extensively diffused throughout the country.

METAL INDUSTRIES. — The mineral wealth of
Germany has already been described. Its richness and its
nearness to plentiful supplies of coal have led to an
extensive development of the more fundamental metal
industries. Iron and steel goods are produced in very
large quantities in both Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia.
In addition to Essen, where the celebrated Krupp works
are established, there are many important towns, as
Dortmund, Iserlohn, Hagen, Solingen, which rival the
Birmingham district in the variety of their goods. The
district is very similar, there being many little manu-
facturing towns and many manufacturing villages, where
such goods as nails, wire, hooks, bolts, etc., are produced.
Other important centres for iron and steel are the Silesian
towns, as Gorlitz, Lobau, etc., and Miihlhausen. Machinery
is produced in the industrial centres at Berlin, Chemnitz,
Magdeburg, Miihlhausen, Breslau.

Germany imports a good deal of iron from the United
Kingdom, but it sends thither more iron goods than it
receives. Large quantities of its iron products go to
Russia, Holland, Austria, and Switzerland.

Brewing is a great German industry. Though for local
purposes it takes place throughout the country, the more
important breweries are in Bavaria.

The commercial cities of Germany are numerous.
Berlin, in addition to being the capital, leading money
market, and commercial city, is the home of various
manufactures. Frankfurt on the Main is a celebrated
financial market, and Leipzig, Magdeburg, and Cologne
are all great commercial cities.

ThQ countries whose trade with Germany is most
important are, in the order of their importance, the United

Ill AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 149

Kingdom, Austria, Russia, the United States, Holland,
France, and Belgium.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Austria-Hungary is a Federal Empire consisting of
many various countries of different language, race, and cus-
tom, and in very different stages of development (Austria,
Hungary, Bohemia, Styria, Bosnia, and Herzegovina).

Its frontier is long, but almost exclusively a land
frontier, bordering on Germany, Russia, Roumania, Servia,
Italy, and Switzerland.

Since it is, on the whole, in a very undeveloped condition,
and since, as regards both commerce and manufacture, it
suffers under profound disadvantages, having but a poor
coast -line and not possessing coal and iron in near
proximity, its main reliance is upon its agriculture.

AGRICULTURE. — In this respect it has many advan-
tages. Its climate is suitable for the main crops, since, by
reason of the hot summers and the moderate and fairly
regular rainfall which prevails in most parts, the severity
of the winter is not injurious. The most important cereal
is wheat, which flourishes best in the large plains —
principally in Hungary and Bohemia. Hungarian flour
holds a very high position. Rye, which is the principal
breadstuff of the country, is grown very widely, as are also
oats and barley. Of other productions flax, one of the
most important, is produced in Bohemia and Moravia.
Vine-growing is carried on in many districts, but to
especial advantage in Hungary. Beetroot for the purpose
of sugar extraction is widely cultivated.

If the methods of cultivation were a little more modern,
and if greater skill were employed, the rich soil of Hungary
and other parts would, it is said, yield far more largely.

Cattle are kept in some numbers (about 13 millions),
and have been increasing of recent years. On the other

150 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

hand the number of sheep is almost stationary, by far the
larger portion being in Hungary. The country imports
wool from abroad to the value of some ^^2, 500,000.

COMMERCE. — Austria -Hungary suffers from a most
serious drawback with regard to its development, through
the want of any sea-coast beyond a narrow strip on the
Adriatic. It has, nevertheless, two ports of fair importance,
Trieste and Fimne. In addition its system of internal
communication is anything but well developed. Two rivers,
the Danube and Elbe, offer with their tributaries fair
opportunities of navigation, but the canal system has been
much neglected. Though railway communication has
been extended of recent years, the Empire possesses a
very insufficient amount for the development of its
resources.

Leading Imports. Leading Exports.

Raw cotton. Sugar.

Raw wool. Grain.

Coal. Wood.

MINING AND MANUFACTURES.— Of the promi-
nent minerals valuable in themselves and also as necessary
to a manufacturing country, Austria possesses a good iron-
field, but only an insufficient supply of true coal (lignite
is yielded in much larger quantities). Very unfortunately
the two important minerals are not found in proximity.
True coal is most freely yielded in Bohemia, near Pilsen,
and Silesia, whereas the richest iron deposits are in the
Alps and in Styria and Carinthia. In other minerals
Austria-Hungary possesses great sources of wealth, as yet
undeveloped ; gold and silver are produced, also lead, and
in Idria quicksilver. Salt is most abundant, particularly
in Galicia, in the salt mines of Wieliczka, and in Hungary
at Marmaros.

INDUSTRIES. — As might be expected, both from the
state of development and also from the deficiency in coal,
etc., these are not very forward. Cotton manufacture is
most highly developed in Austria and Bohemia, in the
latter country Reichenbach occupying a position of con-

Ill SWITZERLAND 151

siderable prominence. Woollen manufacture is carried on
chiefly in the north, and largely in the neighbourhood of
Briinn. Silk manufacture is growing in the Tyrol, while
the linen industry is spread widely over the country. The
metal industries are rising gradually, mainly in Austria
and Styria, while in Bohemia glass production, chiefly of
the more common kinds, has already attained importance
in foreign trade. Brewing is most important at Pilsen.

Of commercial centres the most important are Vienna,
Prag, and Briinn.

SWITZERLAND

Switzerland is entirely cut off from the sea, and being,
in addition, shut in by mountain frontiers, is dependent on
many sides upon suitably-developed passes for access to
other countries. This fact, together with the directions
given to the occupations of the people by its mountainous
character, and by its position as holiday resort for other
nations, has largely determined the course of its develop-
ment.

AGRICULTURE. — It is rather a pastoral than an
agricultural country, as only a comparatively small amount
of land is suitable for arable purposes. Much wheat is
imported. In strong contrast it possesses fine meadow
and grazing lands, on which are pastured its herds of
cattle. Butter and cheese are made from the milk.

COMMERCE. — Since the development of the railways
and the opening of the mountain passes, a large transit
trade passes through Switzerland. The leading com-
mercial towns are Bale, Zurich, and Geneva. Of the
passes the more important are the St. Gothard into Italy,
and the Mont Cenis into France. For internal communica-
tion the country relies almost entirely upon roads and
railways.

152 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Leading Imports. Leading Exports.

Grain. Silk goods.

Baw silk. Cotton goods.

Woollen goods. Watches.

Raw cotton. Cheese.
Metal goods and machinery.

MINING AND MANUFACTURES.— Switzerland pos-
sesses but poor and very insufficient amounts of both coal and
iron. For these it is driven to rely upon importation, but
as a partial set-off to its great poverty in coal it possesses
excellent and certain water power. Its workmen are
industrious and intelligent. The most important of its
industries are the cotton manufacture, which centres
mainly in Zurich, and is spread over the surrounding
district ; the silk industry has as its headquarters Bile,
though Zurich and its neighbourhood are also important.
In both these occupations a considerable number of people
are employed. Watch making and similar manufactures,
as the production of musical boxes, etc., is carried on in the
western districts, Geneva being the important centre.

Its chief trade takes place with Germany, France, the
United Kingdom, and Italy.

ITALY

The climate of Italy, though hot, is favourable to many
kinds of cultivation, the soil is not wanting in fertility, and
the inhabitants of the north are industrious. But owing to
certain disadvantages it does not hold a fortunate position
in agriculture, manufacture, or commerce. The difficulty
of growing certain important crops, an unfavourable land
system, the former disunion and the present financial
straits, are the chief reasons which prevent its develop-
ment.

AGRICULTURE. — In the north and north-east grain is
grown with success, though the yield of wheat at least has

ITALY 153

to be supplemented by large importations (reaching in value
^4,000,000 or ;^5, 000,000) ; but in a great portion of the
country the main agriculture consists in the careful cultiva-
tion, often in terraces, of small plots in which olives
and vines, etc., are grown. The live stock in the country
has remained fairly stationary of recent years, save as
regards cattle, which show a marked increase (now
5 millions). The mulberry is also largely cultivated,
especially in the north. Wine-growing is an industry fairly
distributed throughout the country, some of the more
valuable kinds being produced in the south.

MANUFACTURES. — Like several other southern
countries Italy is severely handicapped by its want of coal,
which it endeavours to make good by a large and continued
import from several sources, and particularly the United
Kingdom. (Total coal imports in 1891, ^4,000,000).
Certain minerals, such as iron, sulphur, etc., it has in
considerable quantity.

Leading Imports. Leading Exports.

Grain. Silk and silk goods.

Coal. Wine.

Raw cotton. Sulphur.

Raw wool.
Manufactures, etc.

The silk industry is by far the largest and most
important. The exports of silk and silk goods indeed
form nearly one-half of the total. It has its home in the
north, with a centre at Milan, where goods of various
descriptions are produced. The velvets of Genoa rank
closely after those of Lyons.

COMMERCE. — Italy has many advantages with respect
of trade. In foreign trade it has a good sea-coast line with
numerous ports, of which three, Genoa, Naples, and Venice,
are of very great importance — an importance which will
soon show itself when the country is in a sound condition.
Its railways, though at present unsatisfactory, would offer
good means of internal locomotion on each side of the
Apennines. Its advantages, so far as the Mediterranean

154 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

trade of Europe is concerned, were vastly increased by the
opening of tlie Suez Canal.

THE BALKAN PENINSULA

In the countries in the Balkan Peninsula advancement
has been prevented by the miserable political conditions
which prevailed both in Greece and in the countries subject
to Turkish rule. In these latter, while the peasantry were
systematically oppressed, no thorough or intelligent attempts
were made to develop the resources of the country by
such means as a proper system of communication, etc.
Hence, despite their fertility, they have made but little
progress.

Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria are now practically
free from the dominion of the Turk, though the last named
of the three is still nominally subject. In them all
agricultural and pastoral pursuits are the main and nearly
the entire occupation of the people. Owing to the fertility
of the soil and the genial climate, grain is produced in very
large quantities, and serves as a valuable export. This is
particularly the case with Roumania, which is becoming
one of the largest wheat-exporting countries in Europe.
Its total grain exports exceeded ;^6,ooo,ooo in value in
1891.

Pastoral pursuits are also important, large flocks of
sheep and cattle finding nourishment in the three countries.

Of 7nineral wealth there is supposed to be considerable
store, though as yet little has been done in the way of
working it or even of ascertaining its amount with pre-
cision.

The Danube furnishes an important means of com-
munication.

Turkey in Europe resembles in natural characteristics
the foregoing countries. It, too, exports grain, which is
produced on its singularly fertile soil. Its pastoral wealth

Ill SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 155

might be great. The system of communication is exceed-
ingly deficient.

Greece. — Till the acquisition of Thessaly, Greece had
but little soil fitted for agricultural products. Even now
its pastoral pursuits remain its chief occupation. It has,
however, valuable products in its currants and other
southern fruits. Its wine^ produced in large quantities, is
principally retained for home consumption.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

As a country Spain presents remarkable inequalities of
temperature ; and in consequence, partly of that, partly of
the differences of soil, of fertility. The most fertile
districts are those in Valencia and Catalonia, where,
however, as indeed nearly throughout Spain, agricultural
development depends on irrigation works. Of agricultural
products, wheat and barley are grown most favourably in
Leon and the two Castiles ; maize has a much wider range.
On the district bordering the Mediterranean there is a
large production of olives and southern fruits. But more
important than the foregoing is wine-growing, for which
the leading provinces are Barcelona, Saragossa, Cadiz,
Malaga. Of the wine produced the chief part is exported
to France for mixing with French wines. Of live stock
sheep are the m.ost valuable, but now less so than formerly.
The Mediiterraxi^din fisheries Site, principally of tunny, sardines,
and anchovies.

The mineral wealth of Spain is great. In its production
of copper, lead, and quicksilver, it excels other European
countries. The copper is mainly found in Huelva, where
are the Rio Tinto mines ; the lead in Murcia and Jaen ;
and the quicksilver in the mines of Almaden. The two
great minerals, iron and coal, exist, — iron in Murcia, and
coal largely in the provinces of Oviedo and Cordova. The
latter is but little worked, while the former is mostly sent

156 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

away as ore for smelting in South Wales or elsewhere.
This is often the case with the other metals. Despite the
possession of some coal and the imports from foreign
countries, mamifactures are but little advanced. When they
exist, as in the neighbourhood of Barcelona^ itself the
busiest port and commercial town, they are supported by
foreign coal. The cotton manufacture is the largest. Wine
and mineral ores are the two leading exports.

In Portugal the climate is more equable and temperate,
and agricultural products similar to those of Spain are cul-
tivated. The wine from the district of the Douro is the
most important. In mineral possessions it is much poorer
and they are but little worked.

NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK

Norway and Sweden differ considerably in their main
occupations. In Norway the sea fisheries are a main
means of employment, the other most important branch
being the timber production and industry. It produces
but little grain. Sweden is largely agricultural, and has
also a large timber industry. Both countries, despite all
disadvantages, have developed their commerce. Norway
has a most important mercantile fleet, while, owing to its
narrowness and the situation of its population in the coast
district, it requires but little means of internal navigation.
In the south of Sweden railways and canals are well
developed. The leading commercial cities and ports are
in Sweden, Stockholm aijd Gothenberg, in Norway,
Christiania. The chief exports from Norway are fish and
timber ; from Sweden, timber, butter, and oats.

Norway takes an active part in the cod and herring
fisheries in the North Sea. Its timber district is small and
somewhat inland. In Sweden agriculture and pastoral
pursuits are carried on almost altogether in the south.

III NORWAY, ETC., RUSSIA 157

where they occupy a large portion of the population. The
principal forests are in the north.

Both of the countries, but more particularly Norway,
import grain (in the case of Sweden, wheat and rye), and
manufactured goods and coal. Though they possess de-
posits of certain metals (Sweden, iron), they are poor in coal,
and this want, and climatic and other disadvantages, have
put an obstacle in the way of manufacturing development.

Denmark is principally an agricultural and cattle-
breeding country. In grain it produces on an average
sufficient crops for the home consumption. It imports,
however, a good deal of rye. Cattle-farming is its chief
wealth, furnishing it with its most valuable exports in
animals, meat, and butter. Its capital and main port is
Copenhagen, which, owing to its position, is of considerable
commercial importance. Its trade is carried on principally
with the United Kingdom and Germany.

RUSSIA

Russia can be described as one great plain stretching
away from the Ural Mountains to the European bound-
aries. On the other side of the mountains lie the Asiatic
possessions. Despite this comparative openness a very
large portion of Russian soil is entirely unfit for cultivation
by reason of its marshy and rocky nature. In addition a
great portion is covered by vast forests, which provide the
country with its stores of timber, and another large portion
consists of the Steppes, which skirt the Black and Caspian
Seas, and which, rich with grass in the spring, are burnt
up and arid in the summer. Only about one-fifth of the
total area is under cultivation. Russia possesses a good
many important rivers^ which would be more useful for
navigation were they not ice-bound during a large portion
of the winter. Among the more important are the Petchora
and Northern Dwina, the former flowing into the Arctic,

158 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

the latter into the White Sea ; the Volga and Ural Rivers
entering the Caspian ; the Don, Dnieper, and Dniester,
flowing, the first into the Sea of Azof, the two latter into the
Black Sea, and falling ultimately into the Baltic, the
Vistula, and, by St. Petersburg, the Neva.

Though mining and manufacture have some importance,
the main occupation of the country is agricultural.

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL WEALTH.— Rye,
which is the great food-stuff of the country, is cultivated
widely and to a very great extent, but wheat, grown principally
for export, finds its chief place of growth in the famed black
earth plain which sweeps from the Urals to the Carpathians.
This soil is so rich that in several parts cultivation has gone
on for many years without any use of manure. For cereals
the climate, with its long severe winters and its hot summers,
is not unfavourable. Where slightly less severe, as in the
southern district, where the black earth plain lies, it is
extremely advantageous. North Caucasus is a very
important wheat province. Unfortunately the methods of
cultivation continue to be somewhat primitive. Of other
products flax is grown in the north-west and the west,
hemp in the central districts, and beetroot for sugar pro-
duction in Little Russia. The climate of the Crimea and
the most southern districts is so warm and genial that vines
are cultivated with success. The chief timber districts are
in the north and east, and in Poland.

So far as numbers are concerned, Russia excels in its
live stock, having great quantities of cattle (especially on
the Steppes), and sheep. But in both cases they are
mostly of inferior quality. The best cattle are in the
Baltic provinces ; the best sheep in the south.

Fishing takes place on the rivers and on the greater
part of the coasts, but the most valuable fisheries are those
of the Caspian Sea and in the White Sea, and off the
Norwegian coast.

COMMERCE. — Russia has, as compared with many
other European countries, a fairly long coast-line, but not
one on the open sea. It has several good busy ports,
among which the following are prominent : — St. Petersburg

CANADA 159

and Riga, in the Baltic, both exporting hemp, tallow, grain,
flax, timber, etc. ; and in the south the great wheat port
Odessa, and Taganrog, which also exports grain and oil-
seeds, etc. Baku, on the Caspian, is largely devoted to
the export of petroleum. Mutual communication is carried
on by means of the rivers, which, when not bound by ice,
are busy with heavy traffic, as, for instance, timber, and
railways, which are best developed in the south-western
portion of the empire and between the Baltic provinces
and the great grain districts in the south. On its European
frontier its principal import is raw cotton, and its principal
exports are grain (worth about half its exports), flax, timber,
sugar, oil-seeds, hemp, petroleum.

MINING AND MANUFACTURES.— The mineral
wealth is great, and will probably be a source of great
future prosperity. In the central district of the Urals are
found most important metals, including gold; iron is also
there in abundance. The main production of coal takes
place in the district round Moscow, and in the Donetz
basin, where there are also iron-fields.

Manufactures, which are still somewhat primitive, take
place chiefly in the provinces of Moscow, St. Petersburg,
and Kieff. Among the more important are cotton and other
textile fabrics, and sugar refining.

AMERICA

DOMINION OF CANADA AND NEWFOUND-
LAND

The Dominion of Canada is an enormous territory,
comprising the whole of the northern half of North America,
with the exception of Alaska, which belongs to the United
States, and Newfoundland, with its dependency Labrador.
Its provinces are Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and

i6o COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

the North-West Territories. In consequence of its position
it has access to the sea on two dififerent sides. It may be
divided into several districts with different characteristics.
In the east are the eastern states, which are the most for-
ward and most developed ; among these must be included
the southern portions of Ontario and Quebec. From
thence to the Rocky Mountains extend the great central
plateaux of Canada, thickly wooded in many parts, and in
other parts offering rich open lands, left clear by Nature or
cleared by man, eminently suitable for wheat. The more
easterly of these, covering Manitoba and Assiniboine, are
particularly rich. As the Rocky Mountains are approached,
the land, which has a higher elevation, becomes suitable
rather for grazing than for arable cultivation. Between the
Rocky Mountains and the Pacific lies the rich, fertile, and
well-watered district of British Columbia.

AGRICULTURE and Natural Resources.— For wheat
growing Canada, and especially the central portion, is
well fitted. The richness of the soil has already been
spoken of. In addition, the climate, with a dry, cold
winter, a fairly regular rainfall, and a hot summer, is most
favourable. The principal provinces for wheat and other
grain crops are Ontario and Manitoba, but in Quebec, New
Brunswick, and elsewhere, a good quantity is produced.
The home consumption is high, and despite the fact that
about half the population are engaged in, or dependent upon
farming, the average net exports of grain are not very
large. The largest export is that of barley. Stock farm-
ing is rising into importance, both cattle and sheep being
exported in increasingly large quantities to the United
States and the United Kingdom. Another proof of their
growth is the large annual export of cheese and butter. In
the North- West Territories, particularly in Alberta, horse-
breeding promises to be of importance.

There are two great industries connected with the
natural resources of Canada which require particular men-
tion because of their importance and size.

Lumbering and the timber trade have been, and still
are, a source of much wealth. They prevail in all the pro-

Ill

CANADA

I6i

vinces, with the exception of Prince Edward Island and
the North-West Territories, but especially in Ontario, Quebec,
and British Columbia.

The sea fisheries are situated off the coasts of Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Quebec,
and, in the Pacific, British Columbia. In the Atlantic the
catch of cod, herring, mackerel, and haddock is very valu-
able, while from the rivers of British Columbia comes a
large yield of salmon. The river and fresh-water fisheries
are indeed very valuable.

COMMERCE. — The position of Canada gives it a
double sea-coast, a possession which has become of much
greater importance since the construction of the Grand
Trunk Railway, and more particularly of the Pacific Railway,
provided means of transit from sea to sea. Of seaports
the most active are — on the Atlantic, Halifax (Nova Scotia),
which exports fish, lumber, and coals ; Montreal and
Quebec on the St. Lawrence ; St. John in New Brunswick ;
on the Pacific, Victoria, in British Columbia, which imports
general merchandise, and exports fish, lumber, and coals.

As regards internal communication the water system
of Canada is very conspicuous ; the St. Lawrence., with
the great lakes., offers a line of communication for over
2 GOO miles, only one small portion of which is artificial.
The Richelieu and Lake Champlain system is also important.
Railway communication is good, the Canadian Pacific, unit-
ing the two coasts of the country with its long stretch of
line, is having important consequences in opening up new
districts. Next to it ranks the Grand Trmtk, which has its
lines in the east and south-east, and connects Canada with
the United States lines at Chicago and the Canada Southern.

By these various channels and outlets Canada carries on
a considerable trade.

Leading Imports.

Woollen goods.
Iron and steel goods.
Sugar.

Cotton goods.
Coal.

Leading Exports.

Timber.

Animal products.
Grain.

i62 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

MINING AND MANUFACTURES.— Nearly all the
coal at present produced comes from the provinces of Nova
Scotia (including Cape Breton) and British Columbia ; but
there are large fields unworked, and but imperfectly ex-
plored, in the North-West Territories. Iron is found mainly
in Nova Scotia, where it lies near the coal, and in Ontario.
Of other minerals, gold and petroleum are the most im-
portant.

Manufactures are still in a backward condition. Out-
side those which are concerned with the conversion of
wholly rough material into partially manufactured, as flour-
mills, saw-mills, etc., those which do exist are mainly in
Ontario and Quebec, where there are some cotton and
woollen. The leather industries have attained their largest
development in the city of Quebec.

The trade of Canada is done mainly with the United
States and the United Kingdom.

Newfoundland. — The trade and interests of this island,
which has as its dependency the barren Labrador, are very
closely assimilated to those of the Dominion of Canada.
The most important employment of its people are the
fishery and its attendant occupations.

THE UNITED STATES

The United States lies mainly between latitudes 30° to
45° north, and extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
On its eastern shores it has singularly g-ood co7ninunication
with the sea, for on the more easterly portion of its south
frontier it is bounded by the sea, the Gulf of Mexico, while
in the north-east the line of the great lakes (Ontario, Erie,
Huron, Michigan, Superior) offers free access to the ocean.
From the neighbourhood of the most western of these
lakes the Mississippi River runs in an almost due southerly
direction to the Gulf of Mexico. Owing to its breadth,
and the number and importance of its tributaries (on the

UNITED STATES 163

right bank, Missouri, Arkansas, Red River ; on the left,
Ohio), water communication in this part of the country is
good. In the east of the States the various ranges of the
Appalachian Mountains run almost parallel to the line of
the coast ; in the west, the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra
Nevada, etc. Between the Mississippi and the Rocky
Mountains is the great central and western plain. These
main natural features coincide very closely with the leading
divisions into which the various states may be grouped.
East of the Mississippi are the New England States (Con-
necticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island, Vermont), and the Middle States (Delaware, Mary-
land, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia)
in the north, and in the south the Southern States (Louis-
iana Hes chiefly to the west of the Mississippi) ; between
the Mississippi and the Rockies are the Wester?t States,
with which are included the states through which these
mountains run, while farther west come the five Pacific
States (Arizona, Nevada, California, Oregon, Washington).
These divisions are very important. The New England
and Middle States are chiefly manufacturing, mining, and
commercial ; the Southern States rear a fair quantity of
live stock, but are chiefly agricultural, having as their lead-
ing crops, not the principal cereals, but such products as
cotton, tobacco, etc. Those of the Western States, which
lie on the great plain, raise the great wheat and maize crops,
and pasture the largest numbers of live stock ; those in which
the mountains fall are important for their mines. The
Pacific States have rich mines, produce southern crops,
and also large crops of the leading cereals. They are very
rich.

From this short account it will be seen that the United
States have already reached a condition of high development
in many directions. Their immense extent affords them
a variety of climates, which far exceeds that possessed by
any other nation. And when it is remembered that the soil is
rich, and that they possess in addition great mineral resources,
and are peopled by an active and energetic population, their
future seems well assured. Alone among all countries do

i64 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

they at once manufacture goods, and export large quantities
of foodstuffs and raw material.

AGRICULTUHE, etc. — The advantages possessed by
the United States for agricultural development are great.
With a great variety of climate, allowing of a great variety
of productions, it has on the whole a climate temperate and
of such a nature as to allow of the successful cultivation
of the more valuable cereals and other great crops. The
winters are colder and the summers hotter than those
experienced in the United Kingdom. The average rainfall
is sufficient. The soil is good^ and the vast tracts of land
in the central and central western portion enable the culti-
vators to raise crops with comparatively light cultivation.
This is shown by the low yield to the acre (p. 37). The
general tendency of cultivation has been to proceed west-
ward (p. 40), and to resort to new and fresh lands. In the
south and west of the central district are the great cattle
plains. The com crops are raised partly for home con-
sumption and partly for export. In 1893 the leading wheat
states were Dakota, Ohio, Indiana, California, Minnesota,
and after these come Kansas, Michigan, Pennsylvania,
Missouri, and Illinois. Maize, the cereal which in the
United States bears the title of corn, is grown very exten-
sively and very successfully ; the states engaged in its pro-
duction being, in order of importance, Iowa, Illinois,
Missouri, Nebraska, and Kansas. Indiana and Ohio are
also very important. In 1893 the total value of the maize
crop was some ^120,000,000; that of the wheat crop
some ;^4o,ooo,ooo. Oats are also produced in large
quantities (in value about ;^3 7,000,000 sterling) ; barley
and rye to a much less extent. The hay harvest is of high
value, the states most prominent in its production being
Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and Minnesota. It is, however,
fairly evenly distributed throughout the entire country.
Potatoes are cultivated very largely, chiefly in the more
densely-peopled states, as, for instance, New York. Among
the other important crops are cotton and tobacco. Cotton
is produced most largely in Texas, Georgia, and Missis-
sippi, also in Alabama, Arkansas, and South Georgia ;

UNITED STATES

I6S

while most of the other Southern States contribute to the
annual yield to some extent. Of the total quantity pro-
duced, about 65 per cent is exported. In the culti-
vation of tobacco, Kentucky, Virginia, and North

• Carolina are by far the most important states, while next
to them come Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and
Ohio. Of other products sugar is grown chiefly in Louis-
iana, the vine in California, oranges and other southern

fruits in Florida, while flax and hemp are grown more in
the north. In both the east and the far west, by the
Pacific, are large forests, whence the country continues to
derive its valuable supply of timber.

Among live stock cattle and sheep are the most in
number and the greatest in value. The western states
stand first, for of the 53,000,000 cattle (oxen and cows),
35,000,000 are pastured on the great grassy plains which
lie between the Mississippi and the Rockies. Of the
45,000,000 sheep, 27,000,000 are in these states. For
oxen the principal states are Texas, Iowa, Kansas, Mis-
souri, Nebraska, New Mexico ; for sheep, California, Texas,
Ohio, New Mexico, Montana, Oregon. Great numbers of
swine (45,000,000) are kept in the United States, and
furnish it with one of its valuable exports. They exist in
considerable quantities in most of the southern and western
states, but to the greatest extent in Iowa, Missouri, Illinois,
Texas, ^nd Ohio. Chicago and St. Louis are the centres
of the bacon, ham, and pork industries.

The fisheries of the United States are of two kinds.
There is the fishing in the great lakes and in the rivers,
more especially those running into the Pacific (salmon
fisheries), which render a fair yearly yield, but which do
not compare in importance with the fishing off the banks
of Newfoundland. This resembles that which falls to the
share of the Canadians, though exceeding it in value.

MINING AND CONDITIONS OF MANUFAC-
TURE.— The mineral wealth of the United States is
enormous, though as yet comparatively little developed. It
is particularly rich in those minerals which form the basis of
a modem industrial country. Coal is worked mainly in

i66 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

two districts — in the Appalachian ranges, continuing into
Pennsylvania, and in the district lying at the head of the
Mississippi basin. It is, as yet, in the early stage of de-
velopment, though during recent years the advance made
has been prodigious, the coal output having more than
doubled in the last ten years. It now (1892) amounts to
160,000,000 tons. Of this amount 88,000,000 tons are
produced in Pennsylvania. This state has always held a
very high position. In several of the southern states, and
especially in Alabama, coal mining has increased enormously
during the last decade. The same has been the case in
West Virginia. In Illinois, Ohio, and Iowa a good deal of
coal is found. Coal is also found in Maryland, Nebraska,
Missouri, Tennessee. But the future prospects of coal
mining in the United States seem illimitable. Besides
whole districts of the Appalachian range, as yet imperfectly
worked, the coal-fields of the Rocky Mountains offer a
large supply. In Colorado mining is increasing most
rapidly. In addition to the force thus provided comes
that of the natural gas, found mainly in Western Pennsyl-
vania, round Pittsburg, in North-West Ohio, in Indiana, and
in Western New York. Petroleum furnishes another
great lighting power, the American petroleum fields being
among the richest of the world ; their only rivals
are in the Caspian district of Russia. In the United
States petroleum is raised principally in Pennsylvania and
New York. In Ohio the yield has been rapidly increasing
since 1885.

Iron is produced in many states, and in several places in
convenient proximity to the coal. Taking the principal
states in their order of importance, iron ore is mined chiefly
in Michigan, Alabama, Pennsylvania, New York, Minne-
sota, Wisconsin. But the 77iain smelting and production
of pig-iron \.2k.^s place in Pennsylvania, where 3,500,000
tons, or about one-half of the total pig-iron, is turned out.
The Lake Superior iron is brought to this state by water,
the principal iron ore ports being Esconaba and Ashland.
In both Alabama and Ohio iron smelting is carried on to
a considerable extent.

UNITED STATES

167

Other minerals are found in great quantities. Chief
among them are the following — copper (3, 500,000 tons),
in the production of which the United States ranks high
among the three copper countries of the world, is produced
chiefly in Michigan (nearly 2,500,000 tons), and also in
Montana and Arizona. Lead is found in the Rocky Moun-
tains, and also in the Mississippi valley, Colorado and
Missouri respectively leading the way. Zinc is found in
various places, largely in Illinois, Wisconsin, Kansas. Tin
is found to a considerable extent in South Dakota and
California, and also in Virginia and Wyoming. In the
production of quicksilver the United States occupies a
very high position, the Californian mines being the chief.
Among them is the New Almaden mine, the largest in the
world till the discovery of the one at Idria in Austria.

Gold is found to the greatest extent in California, and
also in Colorado, Nevada, Montana, Dakota, Idaho, while
for sil\ier the states of greatest importance are Colorado,
Montana, and Nevada.

Asphalt comes chiefly from California and Utah.
Building stone is contained in many places ; granite chiefly
on the east coast in New England. Brine pumping for
salt is carried on to the largest extent in Michigan, New
York, Ohio, and West Virginia.

When the energy, industry, and skill of the American
workmen are remembered, it is little wonder that with great
mineral wealth the United States has developed its manu-
factures so rapidly as has been the case.

COMMERCE. — On one coast the United States is
engaged in a busy trade with the countries of Europe and
Africa and some parts of Asia ; on the other side with
Australia and parts of Asia. Since the opening of the great
lines of communication the activity of its various ports has
been much increased. The coast-line, particularly on the
east, is good, and the ports numerous and busy. Of these
the principal are : on the Atlantic — New York, now the
most active port in the world, doing an immense general
export and import trade, exporting raw and partly raw
materials and food-stuffs ; Boston, exporting raw materials,

i68 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

woollen and cotton goods, etc. ; Philadelphia ; New Or-
leans, the great cotton exporting port ; Baltimore ; Galves-
ton ; Savannah ; Portland ; Mobile. On the Pacific — San
Francisco, exporting gold, silver, copper, wool, etc., and
importing manufactures, rice, etc.

The internal communication is carried on by means of
navigable rivers^ of which the Mississippi and its tributaries
are the most important, and canals greatly developed in the
neighbourhood of the great lakes, and railways. The
railway system is gigantic, the total length of lines in
operation being over 170,000. In the eastern states the
development is high, numerous lines forming a network of
communication. Of equal importance are the great trunk
lines which now cross the country from east to west.
These are now several in number, and offer means of
transport from most important districts by very different
routes. Chicago and St. Louis are important railway
centres for the Pacific traffic. ,

In one respect the com7nerce ot the United States has
been restricted by the action of the Government, which, in
order to protect certain home industries, has placed heavy
customs duties on the import of foreign manufactures. Of
recent years the tariff question has been made a party one,
with the result, it is true, of occasional modifications ; but it
may be questioned if the additional uncertainty thus brought
about has not of itself had serious effects. Still the wealth
of the country is so great and its productions so varied, that
interferences, which in other less favoured countries might
have most disastrous effects, do little more than check the
rate of its progress. They have, however, brought about
several crises.

Trade of the United States.

The trade of the country is great (1893) —

Imports ;^i 73,000,000.

Exports of home produce , - ;^ 166, 000, 000.

UNITED STATES

169

The principal countries with which it is carried on are
the United Kingdom, which takes about half the exports
from the United States, and contributes about one-fifth of
its imports, Germany, France, the countries of Southern and
Central America, and the West Indies.

Important Imports.

Sugar.

Coffee.

Silk and silk goods.

Wool and woollens.

Chemicals.

Cottons.

Iron goods.

Important Exports.

Bread stuffs.

Raw cotton.

Meat and dairy produce.

Timber.

Iron goods.

Manufacturing Industries. — A glance at the table of
imports and exports shows us that the United States, unlike
the United Kingdom, does not export manufactured goods
in large quantities, and, unlike countries which are mainly
manufacturing, does not rely upon foreign sources for such.
This is the case. The manufacturing industries are very
highly developed, but as yet the rapid increase of the
population keeps pace with their growth, and they are plied
mainly for the home consumption.

Cotton Industry. — The United States has its raw cotton
at home, and all that is necessary is to bring it into the
industrial district where there is coal. The chief home
of the cotton industries is in the eastern states, and
principally in Massachusetts round Lowell, which is often
called the American Manchester, and in New Hampshire
and Connecticut. Important cotton manufacturing towns
are, in Massachusetts, in addition to Lowell, Fall River,
Lawrence, New Bedford ; in New Hampshire, Manchester ;
in Maine, Beddeford ; and Philadelphia and New York.
Cotton manufacture is on the increase in the south and
especially in Georgia.

Woollen Industry. — The manufacture of woollens is
carried on principally in Massachusetts (Lawrence, Lowell),
Connecticut, Pennsylvania (Philadelphia), Rhode Island
(Providence), and in New York and Manchester. Carpets

I70 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

are largely produced in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and
New York States, while in the two latter hosiery is actively
carried on.

The silk industry is carried on in the cities of New York,
Philadelphia, and Hartford in Connecticut. Boots and
shoes in New York, Philadelphia, Haverhill, Brockton,
San Francisco, and Cincinnati.

Iron Industry. — The iron industry is carried on mainly
in Western Pennsylvania, where Pittsburg is the leading
iron town. The ore is partly raised in the neighbourhood,
partly brought from the rich fields by Lake Superior. In
Pittsburg and district there is a most abundant supply of
power. The coal-fields are very rich and the natural gas
supplements the coal. In Pittsburg metal industries are
carried on in nearly all their branches, small iron and steel
goods and machinery being alike turned out in great
quantities. Iron and steel goods are also produced in New
York, Paterson, Baltimore. Machinery, in addition to being
manufactured in several of the above cities, is also produced
in the industrial centres, as Lowell, Cincinnati, and agricul-
tural machinery largely in the western towns.

For chemicals the most important factories are in New
York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New Jersey.
The principal glass-works are in the Alleghany county of
Pennsylvania.

MEXICO

The large resources which Mexico possesses in its mines
and soils are but little developed owing to the backward
condition in which the country still is. Its differences of
climate are important as they serve to divide the country
into districts suitable for different products. The climate
grows hotter in the south, but the main differences in
temperature are the consequence of a difference in average
altitude. Taking both into account Mexico may be separated
into three districts — (i) The hot lands bordering the Gulf
of Mexico and lying low. In the south their nearness to

Ill

MEXICO

171

the equator increases their heat and renders them well fitted
for tropical and semi-tropical productions ; (2) the temperate
lands which lie much higher at a minimum elevation of 3000
feet ; (3) and still farther in the interior the cold lands,
reaching back to the high mountain ranges. There is a
fair distribution of rain, excessive at times in most parts
of the country save the north-west.

The agricultural wealth is great. In the hot lands
forest products (including wood and cacao) are yielded in
great abundance, and there are crops of rice^ indigo^ cotton^
and tobacco^ the last-named being best cultivated in the
vicinity of Vera Cruz. In the more temperate districts, and
particularly in the south, a good deal of attention is paid
to the cultivation of maize and also of wheat and barley.
Hennequen is an important cultivation in Yucatan. The
live stock are numerous, cattle being, however, the most
important, and finding their home in the northern part of
the country.

As to commerce Mexico occupies a most favourable
position ; but little more can be said. Its ports, of which
Vera Cruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacific, do
not do the business they well might, both in the export of
the home productions and in transit trade. It is hoped
that recent railway enterprise will produce great effect.
The trade, which certainly shows signs of increase, is carried
on to the extent of nearly two-thirds with the United States,
after which ranks the United Kingdom. Among its chief
exports fancy woods, silver, hennequen, etc., and its imports
textile goods, metal manufactures, and coal, etc.

Mining and Manufacture. — If properly worked its
mines would be a great source of wealth. Even now silver,
found chiefly in the district of San Luis Potosi, is one of its
main products. It has also large stores of copper. Of coal
there is very little. Owing to this want, and to the backward
condition of the country, manufactures in the European sense
can hardly be said to exist.

172 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES

With the exception of British Honduras, these are all
republics, Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua,
and Costa Rica.

In climate and conditions of production they resemble
the southern part of Mexico, for the low-lying land along
the coast is unhealthy and extremely fertile. Tropical
productions are yielded most richly, the most important
product being the coffee of Costa Rica, but of fancy and
dye-woods, rubber, sugar, and cacao there is a most
abundant supply.

The projected canal through Nicaragua, if successfully
carried to a conclusion, will no doubt do much to assist the
development of these countries out of their present backward
condition.

THE WEST INDIES

With the exception of Hayti, divided into two negro
republics, the West Indies are the colonial possessions of
the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Holland. Of these
the United Kingdom holds by far the most important place,
having as its possessions Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbadoes,
the Bahamas, and a great number of smaller islands.
Prominent among the colonies of Spain is Cuba.

The climate is tropical, though, being moderated by the
trade-winds and the constant exposure to the sea breezes,
it is in most cases healthy.

For a long time the one valuable product was the sugar-
cane, the cultivation of which afiforded occupation for the
inhabitants of nearly all the islands ; but now, owing to the
competition of European beetroot sugar, etc., to the want
of enterprise of the planters, and the indolence of the
emancipated negroes, it is by no means so great a source
of wealth as formerly. Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbadoes,
together with other of the islands, still produce large

Ill SOUTH AMERICA 173

quantities. Molasses and rum are also very profitable. In
addition there have been several attempts made to develop
coffee plantations, an enterprise which is yearly gaining
ground, while spices, arrowroot, forest products, add to the
natural wealth of these islands. Trinidad has large deposits
oi pitch.

The island of Cuba, with its capital Havana, holds an
almost unique position in the tobacco trade. It yields
some of the finest tobacco in the world, and so famous are
its cigars that the title of Havana is often usurped by
cigars which come from other quarters. In addition the
sugar-cane is widely cultivated in Cuba.

THE REPUBLICS OP SOUTH AMERICA

In the case of South America the position and con-
figuration of the country have notable results. It lies with
its two sides exposed to the trade-winds, and with a range
of mountains, at some places a double, at others even a
triple range, running along its base, with a narrow strip of
land between them and the sea. The winds, striking the
coast, and forced upward by the slight neighbouring hills,
sweep over the land till they meet the giant chains of the
Andes, which drain them of the moisture they bring from the
ocean. From the Andes stream the great rivers which are
so important to South America. On the other side of the
Andes is a plain without much rain, and in some places a
desert. In the extreme south is Patagonia.

The river system is the most extensive of any continent.
As very many of them are navigable their aid in the
development of the country is great. Falling into the
sea, in the north are the following : In Venezuela^ the
Orinoco (navigable for 1000 miles), which, with its
tributaries, on the right the Apaure, on the left bank the
Caura and others, provides the country with a regular
system of communication. In Brazil (a) the Amazon,
two-thirds of which lie in Brazil, and which, with its

174 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

tributaries, offers some 6000 miles of communication. Its
chief tributaries are, on the left the lea, Japure, Nigro,
Jamunda ; on the right bank the Purus, Madeira, Tapajoz,
and Xingu, these two latter being much impeded in their
course, {b) Araguara and Tocantins, both navigable, but
not of great use. {c) San Francisco running into the sea
at Penedo. Running south are, in Brazil, and flowing out
through the Argentine, the Paraguay, and Parana ; in
Uruguay and the Argentine, the Uruguay.

South America consists of thirteen countries^ of which
three — British, French, and Dutch Guiana — are colonies
belonging to European countries, and ten — Brazil, Uruguay,
Argentine, Paraguay, Chili, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador,
Colombia, Venezuela — are republics. In these latter, with
the exception of Brazil, the language of the country is
Spanish. In Brazil it is Portuguese.

The most important countries, or groups of countries,
are Brazil, the Argentine Republic and Uruguay, Chili,
Peru, and Venezuela.

BRAZIL is the largest and the leading country in South
America. Its main wealth lies in its 7iatural resources^
which are extremely rich. It has forest products in an
abundant degree, and offers also great advantages to the
cultivation of certain products. Its climate is varied, and
it is divided among the three zones, tropical, sub-tropical,
and temperate.

Agricultural products. — The chief productions of
Brazil are as follows : Coffee, the most conspicuous of all,
for Brazil supplies about one-half of the total production of
the world. It is grown in three districts, the most important
of which lies round Rio and San Paulo ; the other two
being the districts respectively of Bahia and Maranhao
with Ceara. Sugar is chiefly cultivated near the coast
from Bahia to Ceara, but also in the north of Rio. Cotton
production takes place in the provinces of Bahia and
Sergipe, in the province of Parana, and also in Minas
Geraes, where some manufacture takes place. Rubber
comes in large quantities from the valley of the Amazon in
the province of Para. Skins are exported from the grazing

ARGENTINE 175

lands of Rio Grande do Sul, where the German colonists
have reared large flocks of cattle. Tobacco from various
districts, but mainly from Bahia.

Commerce. — So far as its commerce is concerned
Brazil possesses some good ports^ the best of v^hich is the
fine harbour of Rio ; others, which are important, being
Santos, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Para. Its railway
developjnent is as yet slight. The railways are constructed
principally for two purposes : Firstly, as auxiliary to the
lines of river communication ; and, secondly, locally, as the
lines running into the country immediately surrounding
leading ports, as Rio, Santos, Bahia.

As yet the country is undeveloped, but the lack of good
and easily worked coal seems to preclude much industrial
development.

The main direction of its commerce before the dis-
turbances brought about by recent war was towards the
United Kingdom, France, and Germany.

THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC AND URUGUAY—
These two countries are very different from Brazil in the
nature of their leading occupations and productions.
Uruguay finds its main employment in pastoral pursuits.
These are prominent, too, in the Argentine, where, however,
agriculture is also highly developed. In the Argentine the
wheat and, maize crops are very important for home
consumption and export, both being most productively
cultivated in the provinces of Buenos Ayres and Santa Fd.
Cordoba, Tecuman, and Salta have attained a high position
in this respect. In Tecuman the cultivation of the sugar-
cane has been successfully undertaken. In its pastoral
pursuits sheep hold the first place, the Argentine possessing
more sheep than any country, save Australia (p. 196, etc.).
By far the largest number of its sheep are in the province
of Buenos Ayres. Of cattle there are many, their number
being placed at some 18,000,000. They are much reared
for the purpose of slaughter at the Saladeros, where their
meat and hides are salted. The trade in prepared meats
and meat extracts is becoming a large one. The Argentine
Republic has good harbours both in the rivers and the

176 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

estuary of the La Plata (the capital of Buenos Ayres) and
on the sea Bahia Blanca. Its communication by rail is
already good, and much care is taken for its further
improvement. Many of the manufactured goods in use,
and nearly the whole of its railway plant and machinery, is
imported from the United Kingdom, which has a great
deal of capital invested in the various Argentine under-
takings. In Uruguay pastoral occupations are all
important, and among them cattle farmi7tg (6,000,000
cattle) is most prominent, furnishing a great number of the
inhabitants with employment either connected with their
keeping or with the preparation of their products when
slaughtered. At Fray Bentos are the celebrated Liebig
works. The country is more undulating and better wooded
than is the Argentine. It possesses fair harbourage in
the neighbourhood of its capital Monte Video, which is the
centre of the railway system.

CHILI is a long slip of land nowhere broader than 160
miles. In the north is the celebrated desert of Atacama,
whence the nitrates are brought chiefly through the port of
Iquique. In the centre round Valparaiso, and especially to
its south, there is a fertile district where wheat is produced.
A large amount of copper is produced in this district (the
capital), and largely exported from Valparaiso, the capital
and leading seaport. Coal is also worked in the north.
Chili carries on a fairly large trade with European countries,
the United Kingdom being by far the most prominent.
Unlike most of the other South American states its main
wealth consists in the products of its mines. Its most
important exports are nitre, copper, wheat, tin, silver, and
wood. As a natural consequence its future prospects are
more equally divided between agriculture, mining, com-
merce, and manufacture than is the case in either Brazil or
the Argentine.

PERU is of less comparative importance than the fore-
going. Its agricultural resources are great, and from the
forests in the interior come various products, as rubber and
spices, etc. Of late years its sugar production has grown
considerably, and together with raw cotton forms an im-

VENEZUELA

177

portant part of its exports. Its mines ^ still very rich, are
little worked owing largely to their lack of accessibility
and the cost of transport.

BOLIVIA, in the neighbourhood of Peru, contains the
celebrated mines of Potosi. At present the country is very
poorly developed.

PARAGUAY in the interior between Bolivia, the
Argentine, and Brazil, is of no present importance, com-
munication with it is difficult, and as yet it remains crippled
from its disastrous war with Brazil.

ECUADOR AND COLOMBIA partake of like char-
acteristics. In both the mountain ranges of the Andes are
conspicuous features, and in both the cool and healthy
tablelands contrast with the hot and moist sea-coast plains.
They both yield large quantities of forest products which
enter conspicuously into their exports. In the mountain
regions there is, or is supposed to be, considerable mineral
wealthy but, as yet, little has been done towards its working.
Colombia has some additional importance from its most
northerly portion, the Isthi7ius of Panama, across which,
and in the neighbourhood of which, a fair amount of trade
takes place. Had the Panama Canal been carried to its
completion, it would have done a great deal towards the
development of the country. The chief exports from
Colombia: forest products, including timber and dye-
woods, Peruvian bark, cocoa and rubber, coffee and cotton.

VENEZUELA is the country of the basin of the Orinoco.
As such it possesses a highly navigable way for the
products of its rich agricultural and forest land. Like the
preceding countries it suffers from the supineness of its
people, though during recent years more progress has been
made. In the most northerly. district lie the Andes, where
there is much prospect of future mineral wealth, but this
northern zone is the one chiefly devoted to agricultural
products, amongst which coffee is very important. The
country round, mainly to the south of the Orinoco, is the
district where live stock is pastured, while in the extreme
south are the rich forests. In the east as mineral products
the gold of Callao and copper are valuable.

178 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

THE GUIANA COLONIES.— British Guiana, with

its capital Georgetown on the Demerara, is mainly important
for the cultivation of the su£-ar-ca.ne and the export of sugar.
Dutch Guiana yields sugar, cacao, and coffee, and has been
busy in developing its gold-fields. French Guiana is a
convict settlement and the most unfavourably situated of the
Guianas.

ASIA
TURKEY IN ASIA, ARABIA, PERSIA

So naturally fertile is the soil of ASIA MINOR, and so
favourable its climate for agriculture, that, despite the un-
fortunate condition in which it, in common with other
Turkish dominions, finds itself, the annual harvests are of
great value. Grain is grown widely, the cultivation of
barley being of particular importance, large quantities
entering into trade. Southern fruits are another important
product, and raisins from the Levant bear a high value.
Dye-stuffs^ as madder, valonia, etc., tobacco^ opiutn^ cottony
are all grown and all capable of much greater development.
Silk is largely produced. In other departments the country
is very backward ; its mineral wealth remains undeveloped,
and its manufactures have suffered an absolute decline.

The foreign trade is almost entirely in the hands of
foreigners, the principal port being Smyrna, lying on the
Gulf of Smyrna, and joined by railways with the interior.

AEABIA carries on a very small trade with the outside
world. Of its productions the most noteworthy is coffee,
which is, however, of small commercial importance. Only
a comparatively small portion of Arabia is fertile, large
districts in the interior being bare and affording little but
scanty pasturage.

PERSIA is becomingacountry of more importance, owing
to the reforms and changes in process of introduction.

Ill ASIATIC RUSSIA 179

There is a large yield of grain, fruits, rice, etc., and in
addition certain of the valuable products are carefully
cultivated. Opium is a rapidly growing export, and is sent
both to the United Kingdom and to China. Silk is a
valuable product.

ASIATIC RUSSIA

The Russian dominions comprise about one-third of Asia.
They may be treated of in three divisions : — Caucasus,
which lies partly in Europe, partly in Asia, Siberia, and
Central Asia. Each of these have their importance.

CAUCASUS. — In this large division there are sources of
great wealth and prosperity. The North Caucasus is a rich
agricultural district, the provinces of Kaubau and Stavropol
holding a high position for wheat growing. On the whole
it is a well-watered region. Its main wealth, however, lies
in its mineral possessions, — silver, lead, and other metals
being found in the ranges of the Caucasus. But more
important still is the production of petroleum, which takes
place in the trans -Caucasian districts lying between the
Black and the Caspian Seas. The output is increasing
rapidly {cf. p. 99). Tiflis, the capital of the district, lies in
good communication with the ports^ the Batoum-Tiflis-Baku
Railway passing through. This line has been of great
importance for the petroleum export, though in a short time
a great deal of the oil will be conveyed to Baku by a pipe.
Coal and salt are also found.

SIBERIA has districts of very different character. In the
north the bitter and unfriendly climate prevents cultivation,
whereas in the south there are all the conditions needed for
successful agriculture. The main products of the north are
timber and furs, and even these have not been successfully
developed owing to lack of good com^nunication. This want
will be very effectually remedied when the great Siberian
railway terminating in Vladivostok is completed. But the
greatest wealth, of Siberia lies in the mines. From the
Urals come gold and copper in large quantities. There are

i8o COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

most extensive deposits of iron and coal in the neighbourhood
of the Altai Mountains, and this district will, it is supposed,
prove one of the richest mining centres in the world.

The CENTRAL ASIATIC DOMINIONS are also of
high value. Here the main occupations are as yet pastoral
and agricultural, cotton, tobacco, and wine being produced
among other commodities, but Turkestan is said to possess
good coal and iron.

The Russian dominions are, save so far as the petroleum
of the Caucasus is concerned, rather important for their
promise of future wealth than for their present products.
At the present every effort is being made to stimulate their
industries and commerce. Railways are being extended,
roads made, etc.

BRITISH INDIA AND CEYLON

INDIA, which is in shape an irregular triangle extending
into the sea, is bounded on its base in the north by lofty
mountain ranges known most generally as the Himalayas,
though strictly speaking there are several different ranges
with distinctive names. This lofty barrier not only has
great climatic influences, but it affords the protection of a
mountain frontier pregnable only by means of certain and
few passes ; of these the most important are the Bolan and
the Khyber passes.

The country can be separated into several well-marked
divisions, each with distinctive characteristics in condition
and product. Thus in the north are the Himalayas with
their many mountain valleys. To the south of this
mountainous district lies the Plain of the Great Rivers,
well watered by the many streams and rivers which take
their rise in the mountains. The three great rivers of India
proper are the Indus, the Brahmapootra, and the Ganges.
In British Burmah is the Irrawadi. Both the Indus and
the Brahmapootra take their rise in the north side of the
mountains. The Brah7napootra flowing east and then south
passes through Assam and empties itself near the mouth of

Ill BRITISH INDIA AND CEYLON i8i

the Ganges. The Indus, flowing westward and then south,
is joined by the five rivers of the Punjab — Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi, Bias, and Sutlej — and flows into the Arabian Sea. The
Ganges, the great fertihser of the greater of the plains, has
many and important tributaries, while cities of great note
are situated on its banks, as Calcutta, Patna, Benares,
Allahabad. These rivers with their tributaries present an
extensive means of communication and transport. The
Indus is navigable for some 900 miles, and receives con-
siderable traffic from its tributaries. The Brahmapootra
bears the trade of East Bengal and Assam. The Ganges is
navigable in some degree as soon as it reaches the plains,
and by light steamer to Cawnpore. Of its tributaries the
Jumna, on which are Agra and Delhi, is the greatest. The
Plain of the Rivers is divisible into two, that of the Ganges
and that of the Indus. It is bounded on the south by the
Vindhya and Satpura Mountains.

The next division is the tableland of India. It again
falls into two plateaux, very closely connected in character-
istics and productions — the old kingdom of Malwa and the
Deccan. The Deccan is bounded on the north by the
ranges separating it from the Great Plain, in the east and
west respectively by the Eastern and Western Ghats, and
at the southernmost point by the Nilgiri Hills.

Between each range of the Ghats and the sea is a narrow
strip of coast-land.

Burmah consists of four main divisions, the plain of the
delta of the Irrawadi, and the valleys respectively of the
Irrawadi, Saluen, and the Mekong.

AG-RICULTURE is the great employment of the people
of British India. It has been estimated that about three-
quarters of the population are dependent directly upon the
cultivation, while in all probability nine-tenths are dependent
upon it more or less. The soil varies very greatly, but taking
into account the difference of soil required for the different
productions it may be said that it is on the whole rich and
fertile. It varies from the light sands of Scinde, the delta
swamps and the stony clays of the Punjab, to the black
cotton soil of the Deccan. The climate, however, in point

1 82 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

of moisture is by no means so propitious. The rains are
heavy but uncertain. The north-west monsoon blowing
across India deposits some of its moisture on the west side
of the Western Ghat, but sweeps in the main over the Great
Plain to the Himalayas. Thus the rainfall is most constant
and assured in Assam and Lower Burmah, in the deltas of
the Bay of Bengal. This irregularity and uncertainty in
the rainfall which was a cause of famine, would still occasion
disaster and be a great drawback to the welfare of the
country were it not for the system of irrigation. Here
Government action, by the construction of irrigation canals,
has supplemented native efforts. How necessary irrigation
is is shown by the large proportion of land under irrigation
to the total cultivated in certain districts, as for instance in
Scinde, and in the next degree in the North-West Provinces,
Punjab, and Madras. The main efforts of the people are
directed to the cultivation of the three great food-stuffs —
millets, rice, and wheat. Millets are on the whole the
staple food-stuflC of India, being grown in nearly every
province, but most largely in Bombay, Scinde, Mysore,
Madras. They are grown even in the good wheat provinces,
as the Central Provinces, the North-West Provinces, and
the Punjab. Bice, on the other hand, requiring as it does
very particular condition (much moisture), is a very local
crop, though where grown it is most important, and forms
the food of the surrounding population. Probably one-
third of the people are rice -eating. It is grown most
advantageously in the valley of the Ganges, where it
nourishes a dense population. In Bengal and Assam the
proportion of rice-eating people to the total population is
high. On the other hand rice is very little cultivated in
Bombay, Punjab, and North-West Provinces. It is
grown in Madras. Rice for export is chiefly produced in and
about the delta of the Irrawadi. Wheat as a rule grows in
the provinces or parts of provinces where rice does not.
Thus the provinces where it has assumed the greatest
importance as a crop are the North-West Provinces, Behar,
Punjab, Central Provinces, and West Bengal. It is a very im-
portant export. Of other agricultural productions the most

Ill BRITISH INDIA AND CEYLON 183

important are : cotton, grown on the black cotton soil of the
Deccan, in Behar, and in Madras in the district round
Bellary ; jute, the cultivation of which is mainly confined
to North and East Bengal ; indigo, chiefly grown in Behar,
North-East Madras, and Punjab ; opium, in the Ganges
valley round Patna and Benares, and in the old kingdom of
Malwa. Coffee is grown on the slopes of the Nilgiri Hills
and in Mysore, tea mainly in Assam. Oil-seeds are a large
product, mainly in Bengal. In Burmah there is a consider-
able production of rice, in addition to which forest products
(spices and gums, etc.) are valuable. In Ceylon the coffee
plantations are yielding to tea, the cultivation of which is
assuming comparatively large proportions. Teak is a valu-
able product in Burmah.

The live stock, though moderately numerous and yielding
an export in the form of hides, are usually of a poor quality.
Cattle are reared with results somewhat better than elsewhere
in North- West Provinces, Punjab, Oudh, Central Provinces,
Madras, and some parts of Bombay. Sheep are not a source
of great profit. The greatest number are in Madras.

COMMERCE. — The commerce of India is great. In
addition to its own trade, which is large, a certain amount
of transit trade passes through some of her ports, in par-
ticular through Calcutta, between Europe and the Straits
Settlements, Malay Archipelago, etc. Of her ports, the
chief 3,re — Bombay, importing coal, iron, textiles, etc., and
exporting wheat, oil-seeds, opium, etc. ; Calcutta, zjnporting
salt, coal, iron, textiles, etc., and exporting cotton, rice, dye-
stuffs, oil-seeds, etc. ; Kurachi, importing metals, etc., and
exporting salt, rice, hides, etc. Other ports are — Madras,
Chittagong, Coconada, Tuticorin.

Internal communication is to some extent provided
by rivers and canals so far as the Plain of the Rivers is
concerned. Some of the latter serve the twofold objects
of navigation and irrigation. The railways have been laid
down with the aim of extending trade, and of facilitating
military defence. A good example of this is offered by the
Bengal Najpur and Najpiir Bombay (Great Indian Penin-
sula) lines, which pass through a very rich wheat district,

i84 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

join the two chief commercial cities, and will be of great
military use. Other lines are the East Indian, from Cal-
cutta to Delhi, the Eastern Bengal, the Northern Bengal,
Madras line, communicating by its main line with the
Grand Indian Peninsula. These, however, are but a few
of the hues, for the activity of the State, together with
private enterprise, has stimulated a high development of
the means of communication.

The Trade of British India is very great. The foreign
trade by land has been reckoned at about ;^8,ooo,ooo in
value, of which a large portion is with Nepal. But it
sinks into insignificance by the side of the sea-borne trade,
which, reckoned in tens of rupees, is in value 170,000,000.

Leading Imports. Leading Exports.

Cotton goods. Grain and pnlse.

Metal and metal goods. Raw cotton.

Machinery and railway plant. Opium.

Oil-seeds.

Cotton goods and yarn.

Raw jute.

Tea.

MINING AND MANUFACTURES.— The coal produc-
tion of India takes place mainly in the district of Raniganj,
some little distance from Calcutta. The working of these
pits has been developed of recent years. In addition some
coal for railway purposes is raised in the Central Provinces.
Elsewhere coal, if worked at all, is worked on a very small
scale ; although it is estimated that the area of deposits in
India is large, it is impossible to speak with any amount of
assurance. Coal to the value of over ;^ 1,000,000 is im-
ported, for both Bombay and Madras have to be supplied
with English coal. Iron exists in large amounts and in
good quality, but its production is hindered by lack of coal,
or by the poor quality of the native coal where such can
be obtained. Of other metals, copper and lead are found
chiefly in the Himalayas, tin mainly in Burmah. Petro-
leum is also found in Burmah and in Assam. Salt is

Ill INDIA AND THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO 185

obtained both by evaporation and by mining in the won-
derful salt hills of the Punjab.

Despite the want of good fuel, one main branch of
manufacture has grown to considerable proportions. In
the neighbourhood of Bombay the large home yield of raw
cotton has been used for starting home manufactures
at first of yarn^ and latterly also of piece goods. These
are used for home consumption, and also exported to the
further east (as China), where British India is proving a
serious rival to the United Kingdom so far as yarns and
certain classes of goods are concerned.

Of the foreign trade of British India, more than one-half
is carried on with the United Kingdom ; the next most im-
portant country being China, with nearly one-eighth.

FURTHER INDIA AND THE MALAY
ARCHIPELAGO

Beyond Bumiah, now wholly an English possession, lie
several other countries. In the Indo-Chinese peninsula
there are Siam, Lower Siam running down the Malay
Peninsula, the French colony of Cochin China, and cer-
tain other states, some of which are in a position of de-
pendence upon France. The climate of these countries is
tropical, and their products those which might be expected
from countries lying in such a position and as yet in a back-
ward condition. Rice is produced very largely, furnishing
at once the staple food of the country and an important
export. Forest products, as teak, indigo, etc., are found in
considerable amounts and exported; in the case of Siam
chiefly from Bangkok, the capital, on the river Menam ;
in the case of Cochin-China, from Saigon.

Of much greater importance for commerce are The
Straits Settlements, belonging to the United Kingdom,
and situated on the western side and to the south of the
Malay Peninsula. Penang, Wellesley Province, and

i86 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

Malacca contribute certain products, as tapioca, but the
great importance lies in the commercial activity of Singa-
pore, which lies on an island of that name at the very south
of the peninsula. It is a busy emporium and port of
transit. It holds a central position between British India
and the far East, and goods passing from this latter quarter
to the former, or to Europe, pass through Singapore, form-
ing as it were a steady, endless stream. At Singapore are
collected for despatch the miscellaneous products of the
neighbouring regions and the Malay Archipelago.

The Malay Archipelago is the title given to the many
islands lying south-eastward of the Asiatic continent.
The more important of them are Borneo^ Sumatra, Celebes,
Java (all, with exception of part of Borneo, belonging to
Holland), the Philippines (Spanish), Moluccas (Dutch).
Part of Borneo is British. The Dutch East Indies pro-
duce large quantities of tropical articles for the European
markets. From Java, the most forward, comes coffee, of
great value, and sugar, this latter being especially important
in its trade with the United Kingdom. The islands of
Banca and Billiton, off the coast of Sumatra, export tin
from their rich mines. From the Moluccas come important
spices. In Borneo there is a good store of mineral pro-
ducts in addition to other sources of wealth. The Philip-
pines yield hemp, sugar, rice, coffee, and, in particular,
tobacco, exported mainly from Manilla.

CHINA

The empire of China, vast though its area and great
though its population (400,000,000), does not hold a com-
mercial or industrial position at all commensurate with its
size. This largely arises from the rigidness with which it
has resisted the habits and customs of other nations,
and from the fact that in most parts of the kingdom the
sole occupation is a backward agriculture.

CHINA 187

Agriculture is, indeed, the main employment. In the
more northerly districts wheat and millets are grown, but in
the south, where the population is densest, rice is the chief
crop and the staple food. It is grown for home consump-
tion and not for export. There are, however, two products
which have an importance for China in the markets of
other countries — silk and tea. Silk is produced widely, as
the range of the mulberry tree in China is wide ; but the
best comes from the provinces of Kuangtung and Che-
Chiang. Tea was once almost a monopoly product of
China, which even now, though deprived of certain mar-
kets by the competition of Indian tea, is the most im-
portant tea - producing country. The production of tea
takes place in the south-western provinces. Much of the
soil of China is rich and fertile, but none more so than the
great yellow-earth plain through which the Hoang-ho finds
its way to the sea.

In mining wealth China is rich, though as yet but little
has been done to develop its stores of coal^ believed to be
enormous, and of other minerals. The industries plied
are chiefly hand industries, and mostly of a distinctively
Eastern nature, including ivory carving, lacquer, and the
manufacture of earthenware (china) of a very delicate
kind.

For commerce China possesses the advantage of a
good system of internal water commujiication. Its four
great rivers — the Yang-tsi-kiang, Hoang-ho, Si-kiang, and
the Pei-ho — are all navigable, and by means of tributaries
and canals afford a means of transport, etc., throughout
the country. Foreign commerce, long discouraged, is now
carried on through the treaty ports, of which the chief are,
Shanghai, Canton, Foochow, Hankow, Amoy, Swatow,
Pakhoi.

Leading Imports. Leading Exports.

Cotton goods. Silk.

Opium. Tea.

Metal goods.

Of its trade, by far the largest amount is carried on

i88 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

with the United Kingdom and the British Colonies, espe-
cially India.

Hong-Kong, of much importance to the United King-
dom in its China trade, lies at the mouth of the Canton
River.

JAPAN

In striking contrast with China, Japan has been of
recent years singularly open to foreign influences. It has
aimed at reconstructing its life, both social and industrial,
on European models, and has introduced important changes
in very many directions. But the effect of these is, of
course, restricted to a limited area ; and the greater part
of the islands still remains dependent on agricultural pur-
suits. The climate is temperate and the natural features
varied.

In agriculture the most important crop is that of rice,
after which come rye, barley, and wheat. Both sugar and
tea are objects of careful cultivation, the latter forming a
valuable export. Cattle and horses are the principal live
stock. The fisheries off the coast yield a considerable
supply of food, and employ a great number of people.
Attempts have been and are being made to develop the
mining resources of the country. Coal is actively mined,
but as yet little progress has been made in the production
of iron. Owing to the possession of coal, and the new
enterprise in the country, branches of European industry
are being introduced, chief among them being the manu-
facture of cotton yarn. Silk and other textiles are also
produced.

The internal commerce is carried on by means of
roads and railways, which are being rapidly extended.
Most of the foreign trade passes through Yokohama, about
one-fourth being with the United Kingdom. The chief
imports are cotton goods, sugar, woollens, metals, and
the chief exports raw silk, silk goods, tea.

Ill ALGERIA, TUNIS, MOROCCO 189

AFRICA
ALGERIA, TUNIS, MOROOOO

On the south-west shores of the Mediterranean are
three states whose development, mainly agricultural, has
proved of some considerable value to the trade and industry
of the world.

ALGERIA, which is the most important of these, is the
most prominent of the dependencies belonging to France.
It is regarded rather as a detached province than as a colony.
The advantages it possesses consist in its beautiful climate
and its fertile soil. Despite these, it is only of recent years
that it has made much progress. At present it is chiefly
agricultural. Regular cultivation is, however, confined to
the tracts lying between the Greater Atlas and the sea, and
even in this district there is much desert and barren land.
In the neighbourhood of the Lesser Atlas, and in many
parts of the coast plain, large crops of wheat and barley
are raised, which form a large item in the exports into
France. Southern fruits, and especially the vine and the
olive, are cultivated with success. An important product
and export is esparto grass, which grows with very little
trouble, and is sent largely to England for the paper
industry. Flax and vines are valuable. The live stock is
large for the size of the country — sheep, which furnish very
good wool, being the most conspicuous.

As yet, mining is but little developed. The most
important mineral produced in any quantity is iron.
Owing to the position it holds in the neighbourhood of
France, and to its want of coal, it is not likely that manu-
factures will become of much importance.

The trade is carried on chiefly through Algiers, which
is a good port, and has the best railway communication

I90 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

with the interior of the country. The main commerce is
with France^ to which country go 7nore than four-fifths of
its exports, the chief articles being grain, wines, animals,
wool, etc. From France it receives about a like proportion
of its imports, most being in the shape of manufactured
goods. Its most important exports to the United Kingdom
are esparto and other paper-making fibres.

TUNIS is a French protectorate. Though not so highly
developed as the foregoing country it is naturally more
fertile, raising and exporting grain and olive oil. Like
Algeria it sends esparto grass to the United Kingdom.
The capital is Tunis, which is the principal commercial
centre, and is connected by railway with the port, Goletta.

MOROCCO. — The nature of the development of Morocco
is very similar to that of the two foregoing countries, the
leading exports being beans, barley, and wool. Though
there are supposed to be stores of minerals, mining has not
been developed, and manufactures, in the European sense of
the word, do not exist. Of the foreign trade, which is
mainly conducted through Tangier and Mogador, the
greater portion is with the United Kingdom.

EGYPT

Of all the countries in the north of Africa Egypt is the
one of the greatest importance. Since its administration
by English advisers its prosperity has greatly increased,
and though nominally a Turkish dependency', the pre-
dominant and active influence is English.

Agriculture is the great mainstay of the people, some
70 per cent of the total population being directly engaged
in it. But the district in which cultivation is possible is
but a small part of the whole area. To the statement that
Egypt has two features, the Desert and the Nile, it must
be added that it is only in the neighbourhood and by the
assistance of the latter that agriculture of any importance is

EGYPT

191

possible. The best agricultural districts are the Nile delta
in Lower Egypt, and the land close to the stream in Upper
Egypt. The importance of the Nile is twofold : firstly, it
gives the moisture which is needed, and which the land
derives not from rainfalls, but from the rising of the river,
which is due to the rains more than a thousand miles away ;
secondly, it brings fertilising ingredients which it mixes
with the light sandy soil over which it pours its flood. To
increase the agricultural cultivation of Egypt means to
improve and develop the irrigation of the country, to
make the water supply more continuous, and to prevent
great flooding, which would destroy certain of its crops, e.g.
cotton and sugar, as it occurs just at the season when these
would be in growth.

The crops which occupy most space are wheat and
maize, both of which are yielded abundantly. After these
come clover, cotton, beans, barley, etc. Rice is grown, as
also the sugar-cane, to a considerable extent. Cotton and
sugar are particularly favoured by the warm dry climate,
together with the artificial moisture which is supplied to
them according to their requirements. Cotton, grain, and
sugar are the most important products for the trade of the
country, raw cotton forming nearly three-fourths of the total
exports, i.e. about ^9,000,000 out of some ^14,500,000.
In addition the export of cotton seed bears a value of
about ;!{^i,5oo,ooo. The cotton and sugar harvests are in
October and November. With the improvements which
are being made, it is probable that the position which
Egypt holds in the cotton market will be considerably
improved. Tobacco may become an important product.

The internal trade of the country takes place partly by
means of the Nile, which at some seasons of the year offers
a very good navigable channel, and partly over the railways
which have been extended (about 1250 miles), and the
activity of which has increased greatly of recent years.
Most of the foreign trade passes through Alexandria,
which is a very busy port, exporting corn, cotton, wool, and
rice, and importing cotton and other textile goods, timber,
coal, and hardware. Of the trade by far the larger share

192 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

is carried on with the United Kingdom, which takes about
three-fourths of the exports, and contributes nearly two-fifths
of the imports.

There is no mining development in Egypt, and manu-
factures, with the exception of the few of local importance,
can hardly be said to exist.

The Suez Canal, which connects the Red Sea with the
Mediterranean, is a feature of great importance both in the
history of Egypt and in the growth of the Mediterranean
countries. Since its opening in 1869 there has been a
steady and latterly a rapid growth in the traffic. Nearly
four-fifths of the tonnage passing through the canal are
British. It has thus largely facilitated the commerce of
this country and of Europe with India, Australia, and in
general with the East. In addition it has conferred much
benefit on the countries bordering on the Mediterranean,
and led to an increase of the commerce entering the Italian
and French Mediterranean ports. Lastly, it has not been
without salutary results on the industry and commerce of
Egypt, which has thus been provided with a position on
one of the great highways of trade.

SOUTH AFRICA

The main, and by far the most important countries in
South Africa are those belonging to the United Kingdom.
In addition to these there are the two Dutch Republics of
the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, the undeveloped
territories belonging to Germany on the west, and to Portugal
on the east.

BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA

The British domains comprise the Cape Colony, much
the most valuable possession in South Africa, the colony of

Ill BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA 193

Natal, and the large territories of British Bechuanaland,
etc., which stretch far into the interior, and as yet yield
but little, though offering undoubted promise of future
development.

The CAPE COLONY and NATAL.— The land of these
colonies falls into three divisions : The coas^-/and sloping down
to the sea with a warm and often a moist climate ; in Natal
this part is almost tropical in its development. Beyond
comes the middle district^ with a much more exhilarating,
and, on the whole, a dry climate, gradually rising in height.
Lastly, the high inland district^ known in the case of the
Cape as the Karoo, where the air is excessively dry, and
the rainfall very scarce and intermittent. It is by far the
largest of the three divisions, and is of great pastoral
importance.

The agricultural development of the country varies with
the characteristics of the divisions just enumerated. In the
coast-lands, and in the lower midlands of the Cape Colony,
grain crops are raised and vines cultivated. The grain
production in Natal takes place chiefly in the midlands, for
there the climate of the coast-lands is much hotter, and the
soil being suitable, there is a fairly successful cultivation of
sugar, cotton, etc. Cereals are cultivated in the districts
spoken of with considerable success, large quantities of
wheat, barley, maize, oats, etc., being yielded. Fruit-trees
needing a southern climate flourish, and there is a good
yield of tobacco. Wine is a product of very considerable
value. Its production is conducted under the most
favourable conditions in the province of Constantia, and in
the districts near to it, and it is probable that in the future
wine-making will grow to be an important industry. In
1890 over 4,000,000 gallons were produced. The wines
are exported as yet to only a small extent. The staple oc-
cupation of the countries is not arable agriculture but sheep-
farming. The Karoo consists of dry plains, at times very
bare, but covered with rich grass after rain. In the Cape
Colony there are nearly 1 7,000,000 sheep which yield wool
of a very high quality. Natal possesses about 1,000,000
sheep. In addition there are a great quantity of Angora

194 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

and other hair-yielding goats, the number in the Cape
exceeding 5,000,000. Cattle and horses are pastured to a
less extent. A branch of live stock of importance is the
ostrich. Ostrich-farming at one time was one of the most
important industries. At the present it is far below sheep-
farming in value, the export of feathers having declined to
about ;^ 500,000.

Mining and Manufactures. — Coal is best worked in
Natal, in the district of Newcastle, whence it is brought
to Durban ; but there are good beds in various parts of
this colony, and the general output is rapidly increasing.
There is a small yield of coal at Cape Colony. Copper is
found in abundance in Namaqualand, and, owing to the
lack of fuel in the Cape Colony itself, is largely shipped to
South Wales for smelting. The diamond fields of Kim-
berley have attracted a large number of settlers, and the
diamonds enter largely into the exports. As yet manufac-
tures are in a backward condition, owing partly to a want
of convenient fuel, but more perhaps to the great profits
offered in other directions. Those which exist are chiefly
connected with the preparation of raw material, as tan-
neries, breweries, flour mills, etc.

Trade. — The trade of these colonies is increased by the
goods which pass through them to and from the Dutch
Republic and the British possessions in the interior. The
mining and pastoral industries of both the Orange Free
State and the Transvaal have had a stimulating influence ;
more important still have been the results of the gold
mining in the latter country near Johannesburg. The
internal ineans of communication till recently were very
poor, and even now they require much development before
transport can be reckoned even fairly easy and cheap.
The principal railways start from the coast from Cape Town,
Port Elizabeth, East London, and in the case of Natal, from
Durban. From Cape Town to the north (in connection
also with the lines from Port Elizabeth and East London),
runs the Northern line, extending through the Orange Free
State into the Transvaal. The foreign trade takes place
through the seaports already mentioned.

AUSTRALIA

X95

Leading Imports and Exports of Cape Colony and Natal.

Imports. Exports.

Textile fabrics. Diamonds.

Leather goods. Wool.

Iron and Machinery. Ostrich feathers.

Hides.

Goats' hair.

Of the trade, by far the largest amount is carried on with
the United Kingdom. In the case of the Cape the home
country nearly monopolises the wool, hair, and animal
exports.

AUSTRALASIA
AUSTRALIA

The Australian continent is a solid, somewhat unshapely
mass, with slightly indented coast-lines, having on the one
side the Indian, on the other — the east — the Pacific Ocean.
A particular feature of the east coast is the Great Barrier
Reef which for over looo miles runs parallel at some 50
miles distance from the coast. The main and best known
mountain ranges are situated in the south-east portion of the
continent, lying at some distance from the coast, and form-
ing a massive and irregular curve, which corresponds more
or less with its outline. In Victoria, the Grampians and
the Pyrenees run south to north : east to west is the Divid-
ing Range. The Australian Alps lie just within the borders
of New South Wales. This great mass of high land, with
its different ra?iges^ is the main watershed^ and facing as it
does to a certain extent the moisture-laden south-west trade
wind, performs a most important function. From it flow the
rivers. The land lying between it and the coast is on the

196 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

whole the best watered, and it is in this district that the
greatest progress has been as yet achieved. The rivers
are short and fairly rapid, though many of them are im-
portant and navigable. On the west and north-west the
land slopes gradually to the interior through long plains,
the most important of which are the Darling Downs. The
most important rivers of the whole continent, the Darling 2Ln6.
the Murray, flow through these plains, and finally joining,
find their way into the sea in South Australia, a little to
the east of Adelaide. These rivers are important both for
navigation and for irrigation, which is now beginning to be
systematically extended through the interior district of
Victoria. The real interior of the continent is very rain-
less, and offers but little opportunity for cultivation. That
takes place in those colonies, or in those parts of the
colonies which are, though not necessarily on the coast,
still far from the central regions.

NEW SOUTH WALES, the oldest and the wealthiest
of the Australian colonies, lies on the east, having Victoria
on its southern and Queensland on its northern frontier.
Its natural resources are very great.

Agriculture and Live Stock. — Till quite recently little
attention in this department was given to anything but
sheep-farming and the production of wool. The number
of sheep exceeds 50,000,000, and the yearly clip of wool
is very heavy. Owing to the climate and the care exercised,
it holds the best position in the market as regards quality.
More recently wheat-growing has been extended with great
success, for the rich soils of the valleys of the Murray,
Murrumbidgee, and Lachlan offer great advantages. The
one obstacle, which must be met by irrigation, is the want
of moisture. The country round the Hunter River is well
watered. The district of lUawarra is agriculturally rich.
Maize is widely cultivated. In the north of the colony
sugar is produced, and in the south, chiefly near Albany,
wine is most important ; their production can be largely
increased. In the Illawarra province and in the district
near the Hunter River dairy farming is being extended.

Commerce. — There are several fine harbours on the

Ill AUSTRALIA 197

coast of New South Wales. At present the most forward
seaports are Sydney, which, with its unsurpassed harbour,
does an enormous trade, its leading exports being wool,
tallow, and hides ; Newcastle, which is at the mouth of the
Hunter River, and exports coal and agricultural produce.
The internal communication by road and river is good, and
the railways run from Sydney in the three main directions ;
south to Albany, thus effecting communication with Vic-
toria, north via Newcastle to meet the Queensland lines,
and into the interior.

Mining and Manufacture. — To its agricultural wealth
and busy commerce New South Wales adds the possession
of the more important minerals and of gold. Coal is well
worked in the country lying inland from Newcastle (round
Maitland), and in the Illawarra district, while the deposits
of iron in this latter part are rich. It is also found else-
where. Copper and lead are also found' The main gold-
fields are round Bathurst, but their yield has declined
during recent years. Manufacture is as yet little developed,
owing to the comparative ease with which imports could
be procured from th€ United Kingdom. But it is extending.

The chief trade (about one-half) is done with the
United Kingdom, which practically receives all the Aus-
tralian wool.

VICTORIA, the smallest of all the five colonies, was
for some time the wealthiest, owing to its great discoveries
of gold, and the industries which it called into activity.
In agriculture and pastoral pursuits it occupies a high
position, though its production of wool is far under that of
New South Whales. It grows good wheat, in quantity more
than sufficient for the home consumption. Now that atten-
tion is being paid to irrigation, it seems probable that the
northern portion of the colony will become highly suit-
able for a variety of products.

In commercial importance Victoria ranks high, holding
a position only a little lower than that of New South Wales.
Its active ports are on Port Phillip Bay, where Geelong is situ-
ated, in addition to Williamstown and Port Melbourne, the
two outlets of the capital. Melbourne itself is accessible

198 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part

to vessels of small enough tonnage to come up the Yarra.
Railways are well developed, and radiate from the capital.

Gold has been its chief mining product, and is still one
of the chief staples of the colony. There are two prin-
cipal districts — Ballarat and Sandhurst. Manufactures are
still in their initiatory stage ; and, unfortunately for their
future, the country is poor in coal and iron.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA. — In addition to what may be
called South Australia proper, there is attached to this colony
the immense arid central and northern tracts through which
the great telegraph line passes. They contribute nothing to
the wealth of the colony, which, like that of all the other
colonies, consists largely of wool. South Australia, how-
ever, has two distinctive and valuable products. In
the plains of Adelaide wheat of an excellent quality is
raised, while the copper mines (the best are at Barra Barra
and Wallaroo) furnish a fairly important export. The colony
is but little developed save in its southern districts. Both
climate and soil are favourable to the growth of the vine,
and wine is likely to become one of its more profitable pro-
ducts. Port Adelaide is the leading seaport.

QUEENSLAND, lying as it does to the north-east,
comes partly within the Tropical Zone. It yields tropical
products, as sugar and maize. But more valuable than
these is the wool of the sheep pastured on the higher
plains of the interior, nowhere with greater success than on
the Darling Downs, and the gold found mainly in the
northern and central gold-fields. Other minerals, including
coal, though existing in considerable quantities, are as yet
but little worked, with the exception of copper. Brisbane
is the capital, and it and Rockhampton are the chief
seaports.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA, is the most backward of the
continental colonies. Of recent years there has been some
advance, owing, firstly, to the attempts to develop the agri-
culture ; and, secondly, to the discoveries of gold. It also
possesses large numbers of sheep.

Ill TASMANIA 199

TASMANIA

This is one of the oldest of the Australian colonies. It
is very unlike those on the main continent, possessing a far
more temperate climate, and presenting a more mountainous
and more variously and richly- wooded surface. Its agri-
culture is also more varied and more European in
character. Apart from sheep, which are very important
here as elsewhere, it yields large amounts of fruit, and
could, it has been reckoned, serve as a magnificent market
garden if there were only a large enough market with a
large enough demand. Tin and copper are produced in
the north-west and north-east of the island. Hobart and
Launceston are the principal ports.

NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand consists of two islands very different in
their main characteristics. The North Island is unusually
fertile in the north, while in the remainder of the island
land highly suitable for cultivation ox pasture is interspersed
among the luxuriant woodlands. Its climate is warm and
exhilarating, though in winter, more especially in the
extreme north, it is wet. The South Island is more
mountainous, having parallel with its west coast the mag-
nificent range of Southern Alps. Thence the land slopes
gradually down to the eastern shores. The winter is cold,
but the climate drier than in the North Island. Its
resources are very varied. Sheep are a great source of
wealth, providing it with exports of •wool and of frozen
mutton. In agriculture it excels. Its wheat is exceed-
ingly good, especially so in the North Island, where the
soil, rich with decomposed volcanic matter, gives a much
higher average yield than is the case in continental

200 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY part hi

Australia. It has a large production of fruit and vege-
tables. Lastly, it has great mining wealth, which is in the
process of development, near Dunedin in the south and
in the north of North Island. Coal is worked, and the
yield in the north is very good ; but about the extent of
most of its coal-fields little is known. Its chief towns are
Wellington, the capital, Auckland, and Dunedin, the two
latter being the most important commercial towns. Auck-
land is its large seaport ; the trade of Dunedin passes
through Port Chalmers.

OCEANIA

The numerous groups of islands lying in the Pacific Sea,
though of growing importance, enter as yet but little into
the commerce of the industrial trading world. Their chief
exports, which do not attain much value, consist as a rule
rather of their surplus products than of articles specially
produced for foreign markets. Among the more important
are sugar ^ fruits^ copra.

TABLE

Showing the Principal Money in use in important
Foreign Countries.

The value in exchange varies from many causes. The English
value given is the par value.

Country.

Foreign Money,

English
Par Value.

France

Franc ....
100 Centimes = I Franc.

9id.

Germany .

Mark ....
100 Pfennige=i Mark.

IS.

Belgium

Franc
100 Centimes = I Franc.

9ici.

Holland .

Florin or Guilder

100 Cents = I Florin.

IS. 8d.

Austria- Hungary

Gulden ....

100 Kreutzers = i Gulden

= 2 Krone.

IS. 8d.

Switzerland

The same as France.

Italy 1.

Lira

100 Centimes=i Lira.

9id.

Spain.

Peseta ....
100 Centimos=i Peseta.

9icl.

Portugal

Milreis ....
ioooReis=i Milreis.

4s. 5id.

Norway

Kronor .

100 6re=i Kronor.

IS. I^d.

Sweden

Riksdaler ....
100 Ore=i Riksdaler.

IS. I^d.

1 In Italy the use of paper i

noney has led to a depreciation of

the currency.

Instead of 25, between 27 and :

8 Lire are the usual exchange equiv

alent for J[,\.

202

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

Country.

Foreign Money.

English
Par Value.

Denmark .

The same as Norway.

Russia^

Silver Rouble .
100 Copecks = I Silver
Rouble.

3S. 2d.

Turkey

Piastre ....
40 Para = i Piastre.

2i<l.

Canada

Dollar ....
100 Cents=i Dollar.

4s. 2d.

United States .

Dollar ....
100 Cents = I Dollar.

4s. 2d.

British India 2 .

Rupee ....
16 Annas=i Rupee.

28.

China

100 Cash ....

7d.

Argentine ' .

Dollar (Peso Nacional)
100 Centesimi=i Dollar.

4s.

Brazil

Milreis ....
1000 Reis=i Milreis.

2S. 3d.

1 The paper rouble = 2s.

2 The fall in the value of silver as compared with that of gold has caused a
continual fall in the value of the rupee when exchanged into English money.
Its value, instead of being as., has sunk to below is. 2d. (August 1894).

3 In both these countries the existence of a large issue of inconvertible paper-
money renders the actual exchange equivalent in English money very variable,
and much less than the above quoted par value.

INDEX

Allspice, 66
alpaca, 85
aluminium, 96
amber, 105
anchovy, 57
aniseed, 66
antimony, 96
arrowroot, 64
arsenic, 96
asphalt, 99

Barley, 43

beans, 48

beer, 69, 70

bees-wax, 105

beetroot, 57-59 ; (France), 132 ;

(Germany), 143
bismuth, 96
bleaching powder, 102
brandy, 70
brewing, 148
bricks, 103
butter, 54

Cacao, 63

camel's hair, 85

camphor, 66, 105

castor oil, loi

cattle, 49-54

cement, 103

cheese, 55

chemicals (United Kingdom), 129

(Belgium), 140
chickpea, 48

China grass, 85

China matting, 105

cigars, 71

cinnamon, 65

cloves, 66

coal, 86-90; (United Kingdom),
114; (U.S.A.), 166

cochineal, 104

cod, 56

coffee, 60-61 ; (Brazil), 174

coir fibre, 85

copper, 93; (Spain), 155; (U.S.A.),
167 ; (ChiH), 176

cork, 103

cotton, 73-79; (U.S.A.), 164;
(India), 183 ; (Egypt), 191

cotton manufacture (United King-
dom), 125 - 126 ; (Germany),
147; (U.S.A.), 169

currants, 65

Earthenware, 103
^ggs, 55
eider-down, 104
esparto grass, 102

Feathers, 104

figs, 65

fisheries, 55-57

flax, 82 ; (New Zealand), 85

furs, 98

Gin, 70
ginger, 65

204

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY

glass, 103

grain (Canada), 160; (U.S.A.),

164
guano, 105
gutta-percha, 100

Haddock, 56

hemp, 82 ; (Manilla), 83

hennequin, 85

herring, 56

hides, 97

Indigo, 104

iron, 90-93 ; (United Kingdom),

115

iron manufacture (United King-
dom), 128 ; (Germany), 144 ;
(U.S.A.), 170

ivory, 105

Jute, 83

Kaolin, 103

Lac, ioi
lard, 67, ioi
lead, 94
leather, 98
lemons, 65
lentils, 48
lignite v. coal, 86
linen, 82
live stock, 49-54
logwood, 104

Mackerel, 56
madder, 104
mahogany, 100
maize, 44
manganese, 96
manures, 105
marble, 103
meat, 49-54
millstones, 103
mohair, 84
mustard, 66

Nickel, 96
nutmegs, 66

Oats, 44
oils, IOI
olive oil, IOI
onions, 67
opium, 66
oranges, 65
ostrich feathers, 104
oysters, 56

Palm oil, ioi

Panama straw hats, 105

paper, 102

paraffin, 99

peas, 48

pepper, 65

petroleum, 98-99 ; (Russia), 159 ;

(U.S.A.), 166
pilchards, 57
platinum, 96
porcelain, 103
potash, 102
potatoes, 46

Quercitron, 104
quicksilver, 96
quinine, 66

Raisins, 65

resins, loo-ioi

rice, 46-48 ; (India), 182 ; (Siam),

185
rosewood, 100
rubber, 100
rum, 70
rushes, 104
rye, 43
rye-bread (Germany), 143

Saffron, 66

sago, 64

salmon, 56

salt, 63

sardine, 57

sheep, 49-54 ; (Argentine), 175 ;

(Cape), 193; (Australia), 196-199
silk, 83 ; (China), 187
silk manufactures (France), 137 ;

(Switzerland), 152 ; (Italy), 153

INDEX

205

slate, 103

soap, 102

soda, 102

sole, 56

sorghum, 60

soya-beans, 48

spirits, 70

steel, 92

stone, 103

straw, 105

strychnine, 66

sugar, 57-60

sugar-cane (West Indies), 172

sumach, 104

Tallow, ioi
tannin, 97
tapioca, 64
tar, 100
tea, 62, 63 ;
teak, 100
timber, 100 .
(Canada), 161

(China), 187

(Norway), 156

tin, 95
tobacco, 71
tunny, 57
turpentine, 10 1

Vanilla, 66
Vicuna, 85
vinegar, 66

Whalebone, 105

wheat, 34-43

whisky, 71

whiting, 56

wine, 67-69 ; (France), 132-133 ;

(Spain), 155
woad, 104
wool V. sheep, 79-82
woollen manufactures (United

Kingdom), 126-127

Yeast, 67
Zinc, 95

Printed by R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh.

MACMILLAN'S ELEMENTARY COMMERCIAL CLASS BOOKS.

Edited by James Gow, Litt.D., Headmaster of the High School, Nottingham.
Globe 8vo.

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. By E. C. K. Conner, M.A., Professor

of Political Economy in University College, Liverpool.

THE HISTORY OF COMMERCE IN EUROPE. By H. de B. Gibbins,

M.A., Oxford University Prizeman in Political Economy, and Author of " The
Industrial History of England." With Maps. 3s. 6d.

SPEAKER.— ^' With this volume Dr. Gow's proposed series of Elementary
Commercial Class Books has made an excellent start."

TIMES.— ^ K useful and compendious introduction to the intelligent study of
commercial history."

NA TURE. — " His appreciation of the action of historical causes in the develop-
ment of commerce is excellent ; and for a general view of commercial progress his
manual will be of much service to students."

ATHENj'EUM. — "A really interesting sketch, accurate in its outlines, and not
loaded with details, exactly suited for use in schools along with such general histories
as Professor Freeman's or Green's."

COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. By S. Jackson, M.A., formerly

Post-Master of Merton College, Oxford ; lately Master in the Nottingham High
School ; Headmaster of Victoria College, Congleton. 3s. 6d.

SCHOOLMASTER. — "As a work of reference and a guide to commercial
arithmetic in its widest sense, we know of nothing that is its equal. All who aspire to
become proficient in the counting-house should get the book."

EDUCATIONAL NEIVS.—" No book on arithmetic, applied to practical com-
mercial transactions, at once so thorough-going, rational, compendious, full, informing,
and withal so interesting, has hitherto come under our observation."

JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.— " A CcLveiully written manual on a subject of
growing importance for middle-class schools."

THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF BOOK-KEEPING. By J. Thornton.

[In preparation.
COMMERCIAL LAW. By J. E. C. Munro, LL.M., formerly Professor
of Law in the Owens College, Manchester. 3s. 6d.

EDUCATIONAL NEIVS.— "The luminous lucidity of his stvie, the clear
logicality of his arrangement, and the completeness of his survey, within the limits
assigned to him, show that he is master of his subject, and mark his book as a successful
endeavour to make commercial education a living reality."

LAW JOURNAL. — "The book is clearly written and arranged, and in the space
of less than 200 pages combines an astonishing mass of information."

SA TURDA V REVIEW.— "Mr. Munro's selection has been judicious, and if the
students attending lectures on mercantile law become thoroughly familiar with all those
he sets before them, it will do them nothing but good."

MERCANTILE GUARDIAN.— '\A very full index is added, which completes
a most valuable addition to the commercial library."

INTRODUCTION TO COMMERCIAL GERMAN. By F. Coverley

Smi,th, B.A., Assistant Master in the High School, Nottingham, formerly
Scholar of Magdalene College, Cambridge. 3s. 6d.
L YCE UM. — " One of the most useful and practical of the many German grammars
which have been provided for the use of our schoolboys. ... It is a book which we can
heartily commend."

EDUCA TIONAL NEWS.—" For those who desire to teach or to learn German
for commercial purposes, we have as yet seen no book so simple, so fitly furnished, and
so rational in plan."

COMMERCIAL FRENCH. By James B. Payne, King's College School,

London. [/» preparation.

COMMERCIAL SPANISH. By Leon Delbos, M.A., Instructor,

H.M.S. Britannia. 3s. 6d.

MACMILLAN AND CO., LONDON.

MACMILLAN'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES.

Edited by Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, F.R.S.,

Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.

THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY. A Practical Hand-
book for the use of Teachers. By Sir A. Geikie, F.R.S. Globe
8vo. 2S.
TIMES. — "The book is written with Mr. Geikie 's well-known fluency and
eloquence, and will be read with profit and pleasure by any one."

AN ELEMENTARY CLASS-BOOK OF GENERAL GEO-
GRAPHY. By Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Librarian
of the Royal Geographical Society. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
3s. 6d.
JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.— "VfG can recommend it to teachers as a

valuable help."

GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE. By James Sime, M.A. With
Illustrations. Globe 8vo. 3s.
UNIVERSITY CORRESPONDENT.—" Mr. Sime's book is worthy of its
place in this admirable series. The whole treatment is fresh and suggestive."

GEOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH ISLES. By Sir
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S. Pot 8vo. is.

A THENMUM.—^'^ h. favourable specimen of what a book of this type should be.
It is surprising how large an amount of information and what variety of matter the
author has succeeded in crowding into 127 very small pages without rendering his
little book repellent."

AN ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH
COLONIES. By G. M. Dawson and A. Sutherland. Globe
8vo. 3s.

A THENMUM.—" Strikes us as being excellent."

AN ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA, BURMA,
AND CEYLON. By H. F. Blanford, F.R.S. With Illustra-
tions. Globe 8vo. 2s. 6d.
ACADEMY. — "The first portion of the book, treating of India generally, is a

model of clear exposition, and is made as interesting as the character of the subject

permits."

MAPS AND MAP DRAWING. By W. A. Elderton.
Pot 8vo. IS.

MORNING POST.—" A useful book to those students who have an elementary
knowledge of geometry, and the use of the more conunon mathematical instruments."

THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ATLAS. With 24 Maps^^
in Colours, specially designed to illustrate all Elementary Text-v
Books of Geography. By John Bartholomew, F.R.G.S. 4to. is.

GUARDIAN. — " The shilling Elementary School Atlas, which we have received
from Messrs. Macmillan and Co., is almost a model of judicious selection and
arrangement. "

MACMILLAN AND CO.. LONDON.

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