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COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
THE MATERIALS OF COMMERCE
FOR THE PHILIPPINES
By HUGO H. MILLER
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COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
THE MATERIALS OF COMMERCE FOR
THE PHILIPPINES
BY
HUGO H. MILLER
Division of Industrial Information, Bureau of Education
■
\ • 5 • • »
1U3506
MANILA
BUREAU OF PRINTING
1911
' •• ." ,«-••
INTRODUCTION.
In a recent readjustment of the high-school course of study effected by this Office, a two-year course
has been introduced into the last half of the high-school curriculum embodying a half year of physical
geography, a half year of commercial geography, and a year of economic conditions in the Philippines.
The material of instruction in all of these subjects is made to apply very definitely to local condi-
tions in these Islands. The course is logical in its sequence. A study of climate, topography, and other
physical features leads normally to a consideration of the products of the country which depend largely
upon them. Then follows a discussion of the industrial conditions, and the three phases of the one
subject are viewed from the standpoint of and consideration of the material well-being of the people
of the Philippines.
The necessity for a special text on this subject, having as its basis the conditions which obtain
in this particular field, is evident. Standard American and European texts in commercial geography
might, of course, be used here, but the interpretation of the principles and theories announced and their
adaptation to local conditions would involve so large an expenditure of time and effort on the part of
the teachers that it seems almost essential that a special Philippine text be provided.
The author of this book, Mr. Hugo H. Miller, of the division of industrial information of the Bureau
of Education, has drawn upon all available sources of material, and the result as realized in this text
is one of the most valuable publications issued by this Bureau.
Frank R. White,
Director of Education.
3
239145
PREFACE.
This text-book is the outcome of five years' teaching of commercial geography as prescribed for the
course in commerce in the Philippine School of Commerce. It is written for the Philippines.
The study of commerce can never be confined to one country only. It must always consider the
trade of the world in general. The attempt has therefore been made to explain the commercial
importance of a product in the world's trade, to define its place in Philippine domestic commerce, and
to describe the modifications to which its production has been subjected here. The work has required
considerable research in order to bring out the points of importance under each subject and to harmonize
conflicting authorities.
As I have been able to investigate thoroughly only a few of the industries found in the Philippines,
the publications which have been issued by the various Bureaus of the Government have been of great
aid to me. References to these have been placed in footnotes in the text so that the publications may be
obtained and consulted by persons desiring additional information. I have also obtained considerable
data from the students of the School of Commerce, knowledge of a geographically wide character,
since the students are drawn from all parts of the Islands.
The data for the maps and the information on Philippine distribution of products have been
compiled from provincial industrial maps submitted by division superintendents to the Director of
Education and from the Industrial Schedules, Bureau of Education, Manila, 1910, one of which was
made out for each town in the Islands. Statistics for the percentage graphs on Philippine products were
obtained from the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila.
The commercial geographies and works on the materials of commerce which have been found of
particular value are the following :
Watt, Sir George, The Commercial Products of India, published by John Murray, London, 1908.
Freeman, W. G., and Chandler, S. E., The World's Commercial Products, published by Ginn & Co., Boston, 1908.
'Bartholomew, J. G., Atlas of the World's Commerce, published by George Newnes, Ltd., London.
TooTHAKER, CHARLES B., Commercial Raw Materials, published by the Philadelphia Museums, 1905.
Gannett, Henry; Garrison, Carl L.; and Houston, Edwin J.; Commercial Geography, published by the American
Book Company.
Trotter, Spencer, The Geography of Commerce, published by the Macmillan Company, New York, 1906.
Redway, Jacques W., Commercial Geography, published by Charles Scribners Sons, New York, 1909.
Chisholm, George G., Handbook of Commercial Geography, published by Longmans, Green & Company, London, 1908.
The United States Consular Reports, Washington, D. C, the Agricultural Review, Manila, and the reports of the
different Philippine Bureaus were also consulted.
The book had the benefit of review in the manuscript by the following members of various Govern-
ment Bureaus, each an authority on a particular subject: Messrs. H. T. Edwards, 0. W. Barrett, F. C.
Gearhart, Frank Edwards, and P. J. Wester, of the Bureau of Agriculture; H. D. Gibbs, Elmer D.
Merrill, Charles S. Banks, Alvin Scale, Warren D. Smith, and Robert B. Williams, of the Bureau of
Science; H. N. Whitford, of the Bureau of Forestry. Without their cooperation it would not have
been possible to publish the data as authoritative.
I am also indebted to Mr. Emerson B. Christie and Mr. Charles Derbyshire for reading the
manuscript.
Cross references have been embodied in the text and an index to subjects and to native, English,
and botanical names has been appended with the idea of making the book serve both the purposes of a
text-book and a book of reference. Native names were obtained from the botanical specimens submitted
to the Bureau of Education from each province and from discussions on museum specimens held in
successive classes of the School of Commerce.
4
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER. PAGES.
I. Grains and Fodders — Wheat, Rice, Corn, Other cereals; Fodders 9-20
II. Vegetables and Fruits — Legumes, Tubers, Other vegetables; Tropical and subtropical fruits, Fruits of the tem-
perate zones, Philippine trade in fruits 21-26
III. Starches. Sugar, and Alcohol — Processes and uses; Tubers, Cereals, Palm starches; Beet sugar. Cane sugar,
Refined sugar. The sugar trade, Palm sugars, Other sugars; Alcoholic beverages, Industrial alcohol, Phil-
ippine alcohols; Vinegar 27-39
IV. Beverage Crops, Spices, Narcotics, and Drugs — Coffee, Tea, Cacao; Spices; Tobacco, Other narcotics; Drugs
and medicines 40-49
V. Domestic Animals and Products Obtained from Them — Work animals; Meat; Kinds of domestic animals; Meat
and animal trade; Tanning materials. Varieties of leather; Some by-products of the meat and leather
industries; Dairy products; The poultry industry 50-56
VI. Products of the Sea — Fish, Uses, Kinds; Philippine fish products; Philippine trade in fish; Sponges; Seaweed;
The pearl oyster; Tortoise shell 57-62
VII. Oils, Fats, and Waxes — Differences and kinds; Volatile oils, Fixed oils, Animal oils and fats, Vegetable oils
and fats. Mineral oils; Wax; Food uses. Principal technical uses 63-72
VIII. Fibers and Dyes — Classification of fibers: Vegetable fibers. Cleaning; Principal commercial vegetable fibers.
Bast fibers, Structural fibers (Abaca, Agave fibers), Surface fibers (Cotton, Other surface fibers) ; Animal
fibers. Wool, Silk; The process of weaving cloth; Cotton textiles, Linen textiles. Woolen textiles. Silk tex-
tiles, Abaca, banana, and pineapple cloths; Cordage, Manufacture and uses. Kinds of cordage fibers;
Brushes and brooms; Hats, mats, and matting; Paper; Dyes 73 96
IX. Forest Products — Types of forests. Forests of the temperate regions. Coniferous forests, Deciduous forests;
Tropical forests as seen in the Philippines, Evergreen forests, Swamp forests. Mossy forests; Lumbering
methods, Kinds of lumber; Fuel; Rattan and bamboo; Gums and resins; Rubber; Gutta-per€ha ; Products
of the chase 97 105
X. Minerals — Fuels; Iron and steel; Copper; Gold; Silver; Lead; Tin; Zinc; Other metals; Clays and pottery;
Building and road materials; Commercial fertilizers; Other nonmetallic minerals 106-115
5
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Making macaroni, Manila
Sorghum (courtesy of the Bureau of Agriculture)
Cowpea; velvet bean
A field of tare
Avocados (courtesy of the Bureau of Agriculture)....
Making pilon sugar (courtesy of the Bureau of
Science)
Nipa swamp (courtesy of the Bureau of Agriculture)
Coffee _
Cigarette machines
Cattle
Philippine milk venders
A fish pond
PAOE. PAaS.
10 A copra kiln of brick 66
18 An oil gusher 70
21 Abaca (courtesy of the Bureau of Agriculture) 76
22 Silk moths, worms, and cocoons 80
25 Interior of a cotton mill 82
Fishtail palm 88
31 The buri palm 89
36 Felling a tree (courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry) .. 98
40 Steam sawmill (courtesy of the Bureau of Forestry) .. 99
45 Panning for gold (courtesy of the Bureau of Science) 110
50 Brick _ 112
55 A salt spring (courtesy of the Bureau of Science).. 114
58
Relative average annual production of wheat
Relative average annual production of rice
Philippine production of rice, by provinces, 1910
Relative average annual production of com in prin-
cipal countries
Philippine production of corn, by provinces, 1910
Relative average annual production of sugar
Relative average annual imports of sugar
Philippine production of sugar, by provinces, 1910....
Relative average annual production of coffee
Relative average annual production of cacao
Relative average annual production of tobacco
GRAPHS.
10 Philippine production of tobacco, by provinces, 1910.... 48
11 Relative average annual exports of meat and cattle 51
14 Shipments of copra, 1910 66
Philippine production of copra, by provinces, 1910 69
17 Relative average annual production of cotton 78
17 Relative average annual production of raw silk 79
30 Relative average annual imports of raw silk 84
34 Relative average annual production of chief cordage
34 fibers 86
41 Production of rubber, 1910 103
42 Relative average annual production of coal 106
46 Relative average annual production of steel 108
MAPS.
Philippine rice regions (colored)
Sugar trade (colored)
Philippine sugar regions _
Philippine distribution of nipa swamps ...
Philippine tobacco regions
Philippine stock regions
Sponge and pearl fisheries
Philippine distribution of the coconut palm..
Philippine abacd regions
15
33
35
37
47
52
61
68
75
Silk „ 85
Cordage fibers (colored) 87
Philippine distribution of the buri palm 90
Philippine forest regions (courtesy of the Bureau of
Forestry) 100
Rubber regions 104
Coal and iron _ 107
Mineral map of the Philippines 109
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
This text is not intended as a basis for exercises in memorizing. Its object is rather (1) to present
data whereby the student may compare conditions in the Philippines with world industrial conditions
and (2) to stimulate and guide him to original investigation of local products and industrial problems.
It is for these purposes that the suggestions under "Helps and home work" have been appended to each
chapter. They are not intended to be exhaustive. Neither is it necessary that all the questions be
answered nor that all the suggestions be followed in every locality. Those which are of local import
should be assigned to the students, their compositions and reports read before the class, and the maps
displayed on the wall for discussion.
Specimens give tone to instruction in the materials of commerce. If it is not possible to form a
permanent miiseum (suggestions for which are appended to each chapter), as many of the specimens
as possible should be obtained and passed from hand to hand during their discussions in the class, even
if they be thrown away later.
Scientific and native names are mentioned for reference purposes.
Suggestions, criticisms, and additional information will be gladly received by the author with a
view to make future editions, if necessary, of greater value.
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS.
B.
Bicol.
Cag.
Used in the Cagayan Valley,
E.
English.
F.
Filipino.
Iban.
Ibanag.
Ig.
Igorot.
11..
Ilocano.
M.
Moro.
Pamp.
Pampanga.
Pang.
Pangasinan.
Sp.
Spanish.
T.
Tagalog.
Vis.
Visayan.
CKOSS REFERENCES ARE TO PARAGRAPHS.
Chapter I.
GRAINS AND FODDERS.
CEREALS.
1. General Discussion. — The grasses are the most important source of food both to man and to
herbivorous animals. It is only a certain few which have been selected and improved through the
ages that are now cultivated an^ that are of economic importance. Of these, by far the most useful are
the cereals, as those grasses are called which yield the grains ' as their fruits. Grains differ, not only
from each other but also in their varieties, in the proportions of starch, gluten, and oil which compose
them. For instance, rice consists almost entirely of starch, wheat has more gluten, and corn more oil.
Some corns contain larger quantities of starch than others which are especially useful because of the
amount of oil they yield; soft wheats are more starchy than the hard wheats which are rich in gluten.
The composition of cereals and the ease with which they are digested are important in connection with
their food value and uses.
2. Culture. — The cereals are the chief crops of the world. Peoples differ greatly in the methods
used in planting and cultivating them. The most primitive tribes punch holes in the ground with sticks
into which the seeds are dropped and covered over with soil by the feet. The most advanced method of
stick cultivation is that followed by the Igorots who turn the soil by means of sticks and work it into
mud with their feet. A more effective way is by means of such implements as hoes, mattocks, and spades
with which the soil is dug up and turned. The most advanced method of cultivation is by means of the
plow, and this implement also differs in form and efficiency with various peoples. In the Philippines and
Far East in general, a crooked limb of a tree, pointed at one end, and sometimes shod with iron, is used.
In more advanced countries iron or chilled-steel plows are employed, the smaller ones turning single fur-
rows and being drawn by horses, oxen, and other animals, the larger being pulled by steam and turning
a dozen or more furrows at one time. Other agricultural implements such as harrows differ in the same
way. . Usually the grain is sown by scattering it broadcast over the plowed field, but in the most
advanced countries machinery has been adopted even for the sowing of the seeds.
3. Harvesting. — Grain may be reaped by hand — that is, by cutting the stalks with a sickle and tying
them into bundles — but a machine known as a reaper and binder does this work automatically. Thresh-
ing the grain is the process of removing it from the head. This can be done by pounding it with a stick
or a flail, an implement properly consisting of a long pole on the end of which a stick revolves. The pole
being swung down, the stick hits the heads flat and knocks out the grain ; in this process the straw is less
injured than in most others. Threshing can also be accomplished by treading with the feet or driving
animals over the heads. Threshers are machines which separate the grain from the head and straw. In
certain regions of the world where large fields are cultivated, combined harvesters cut off the heads,
thresh out the grain, and leave it on the fields in sacks. Large fields are necessary for the profitable use
of agricultural machinery. Certain grains must be still further treated by having the husk removed
before they are fit for human consumption. This process will be explained in detail for rice.
KINDS OF UKAINS.
WHEAT.
4. Uses. — Wheat (Triticum sativum) is a cereal of the temperate regions little grown within the
tropics, nor beyond 60° latitude. The raising of wheat is prehistoric and many varieties have resulted
from centuries of cultivation. In the United States and Canada it is usually cultivated, reaped, threshed,
' In Great Britain the expression "corn" includes all grains. The word "cereal" is also applied to grains.
U
10
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
loaded and unloaded in bulk, entirely by machinery. In other places less or no machinery is used and
the grain is packed in sacks. Its principal use is for making flour, an industry that is carried on to-day
in large flour mills. The wheat is
torn and ground so that the outer
covering forms into flakes called bran
and the oil germs break into small
pieces called middlings. Bran and
middling are then separated by sieves
and silk cloth (253) (bolting cloth)
from the starch and gluten that forms
flour. Bran and middlings are used
as food for live stock; flour is for
human consumption, usually in the
form of bread. Wheat straw^ is used
to feed and bed horses and for making
paper, hats (273), baskets, and many
other articles. It is stronger than
any other cereal straw. Wheat is
also used to produce alcohol and
alcoholic beverages (25; 79).
5. Bread. — Breads are of two
kinds, leavened and unleavened, the
former being made with yeast or
baking powder, which form gas in
the dough and cause it to rise. Unleavened breads are not raised. Macaroni is made from hard wheat
flour (1) containing much gluten, by forming the dough into tubes or strips for drying, and is not only
the common food of Italy but is also used to greater or less extent throughout the
world. The large proportion of gluten in wheat flour is very important on account of
its adhesive properties, which permit the making of bread and
macaroni, and because of its nutritive value. The starch (57)
itself can be separated from the other constituents of wheat,
and is of considerable importance in trade.
6. Trade. — The chief importing countries of
wheat are the United Kingdom, Italy, Switzerland,
Holland, Sweden, Brazil, Spain, Cape Colony, Por-
tugal, Denmark, and Greece. In the Orient all
countries, except India, import wheat and flour
from the United States and Australasia, but
Manchuria and Siberia are now commencing
to grow a surplus, and it is thought that they
MAKING MACARONI, MANILA.
United
States
Russia
Algeria
France
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Bul-
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Japan
Bel-
gium
rJ5
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF WHEAT.
(After Bartholomew.)
will soon be large exporters. Considerable wheat is grown in China and some in Japan and Korea,
in all of which countries wheat bread is of increasing importance in the diet of the people. The
GRAINS AND FODDERS
\ii
Philippines import flour from the United States and Austraha, bread from these two countries
and Great Britain, and macaroni ' (5) from China and Europe. The use of bread is growing in the
Philippines and bakeries are now found in most towns. It is generally eaten at breakfast and in the
afternoon. The countries with a wheat surplus are the United States, Russia, Argentina, India,
Australasia, Canada, Egypt, Hungary, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Chile. From these localities wheat
rather than flour is exported, since wheat is usually milled in the country where the flour is consumed.
RICE.^
7. The Plant. — Rice * {Oryza sativa) is a grass supposed to have originated in southeastern Asia
whence its cultivation has spread to the warm parts of the world. It is the chief food of about one-half
of the human race, but it does not enter very largely into commerce in comparison with wheat since
most of it is consumed where is raised. It is a tropical and subtropical grain, and is the staple food of
countries in these regions, particularly the countries of the Orient. In wheat-eating countries rice is used
as a vegetable. Rice is produced generally along the coasts and rivers of regions having a wet climate
and within 40° of the equator. It is raised in southeastern Asia, from India to Korea and Japan ; in the
East Indies, New Guinea, northern Australia, Madagascar, Portuguese East Africa, the valleys of the
Niger, Kongo, and Nile; in north Africa, southern Europe, southern United States, the West Indies,
Mexico, Central America, the north and upper east coasts of South America, the valley of the Plata,
northern Argentina, and the islands of the tropics. Besides the wheat consuming-countries (particularly
of Europe and America) , some of the countries in which rice is the staple article of diet are also
importers, such as China, Japan, Ceylon, Philippine Islands, Java, and the Straits Settlements. The
principal exporters of rice are Burma, French Indo-China, Siam, Korea, and Formosa.
China
British India
Java
Japan
Siam
Indo-
China
U. S. A
Italy 4
S(jaiii
Otliersl
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF RICE.
(After Bartholomew.)
8. Cultivation. — There are several methods of cultivating rice. Upland rice, which does not require
irrigation, is cultivated in kaingin (partial clearings in the forest) by punching holes in the ground into
which seed is dropped (2). This system is used in sparsely settled parts of the Philippines and other
countries where land is not valuable. The simplest method of field cultivation is that in which the seed
is broadcasted. It is used extensively in the cultivation of upland rice (varieties which do not require
irrigation), and where it is employed for lowland varieties the seed is often first sprouted. While this
method requires much less labor than the seed-bed system it has been found that 16 per cent more seed
is required and the crop is 20 per cent smaller than in the latter. The cultivation of rice in seed beds
and transplanting it to the fields is practiced in all Oriental countries where human labor is cheap. This
system is advantageous in that it requires but little outlay for machinery, and permits the use of small
plats of ground which can be used year after year. It is followed in the Philippines not only in the low-
lands but also by the mountain people in their terraces. Less seed is needed in this method, probably the
largest crops are obtained by it, and more crops are possible in a year than in other systems since the
plants spend the first part of their growth in seed beds and are already growing while the fields are being
prepared. It is stated that by this method five crops a year are sometimes raised in Burma. On the
'Fideos (Sp.), mike (T.), misua (T.), are forms of macaroni both imported and produced locally.
^ Civico-Education Lecture, Bureau of Education, Manila, Sec. I, No. 5.
•Palai (F.), humai (Vis.).
12 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
plains of Texas and Louisiana the seed is drilled into the ground by machines. After planting, water is
turned into the fields and the subsequent treatment is essentially the same as in the ordinary small-field
cultivation. About the time of flowering, the water is drawn ofi" and the ground becomes dry and hard
enough to permit harvesting by combined harvesters, which cut and thresh the grain at once. As
explained before, such machinery can be profitably used on only very large fields (3) . The southeastern
regions of the United States supply considerable rice for the domestic demand and also export rice to the
West Indies.
9. Threshing. — The crop raised on small fields is threshed in several ways. A man can tread out up to
40 kilos of paddy (unhusked rice)"* in an hour. Three carabaos with a driver can tread out from 45 to
70 kilos of paddy in an hour. Though it is a slow method, striking the bunches of straw with the grain
attached over a log or a piece of bamboo is a process considerably followed in the Philippines. Where the
straw is to be used the grain is separated by flail, and in Japan, where rice straw is such an important
article in the household and in manufacturing (11), the heads are run through narrow, comb-like instru-
ments which remove the grain but leave the straw unbent and in straight bundles. The paddy can also
be removed by running the heads through rollers and by threshing machines. A small machine will thresh
from 500 to 950 kilos of paddy in an hour.
10. Husking and Cleaning. — When grown and used locally, rice is usually stored either in the head or
else as paddy, since it is supposed to keep better in this condition, and is husked as needed by pounding in
a mortar with a pestle or wooden mallet. Where the product is to be exported it should be hulled on
account of the space taken by the husk. Several mechanical adaptations of the mortar and pestle for
splitting the husk by gravity are used. In Japan and India, a half pestle is fastened to one end of a beam
arranged in a frame and. weighted by a stone on the pestle's end. By stepping on and off of the other end
of the beam a man causes the pestle to rise and fall into a heap of rice. When water power is at hand
water mills are used throughout the East, the wheel turning a long shaft, flanges on which raise and drop
iron-shod poles into mortars. The ordinary revolving hand mill is also found throughout the Orient.
In India rice is sometimes parboiled and dried after which the husk is more easily removed.
The grain being separated from the husk is winnowed by throwing it up into the air and letting
the wind carry off the lighter parts. Steam rice mills, using husks for fuel, hull rice quicker and more
cheaply than any of the above methods. Husked rice is from 50 to 65 per cent of the paddy in bulk,
and from 65 to 75 per cent of the paddy in weight.
Rice thus produced is uncleaned rice and is covered more or less with bran." It is therefore further
cleaned by the same process as in husking except that in rice mills special machinery is adapted to it.
Lately it has been fairly well demonstrated that the eating of uncleaned rice is a preventive of beriberi
since it contains certain necessary quantities of phosphorus. In Europe and America rice is polished
by machinery in which the grains are rubbed against soft sheepskin, a process which makes the rice
whiter and more brilliant in appearance but very much less nourishing.
11. Uses. — Rice is a very good food since it is easily digested.' It is composed almost entirely
of starch and will not, therefore, properly support human life when eaten alone. In rice-consuming
countries fish, beans and other vegetables, which supply the proteids, fats, and other substances lacking
in rice, are used with it. Other uses of the rice plant may be determined from the chart (see page
opposite) (57; 77, 78, 81, 82; 309; 353; 273; 13; 27).
12. Philippine Rice Industry. — In the Philippine highlands the kaingin system is followed and where
terraces are formed, as in the Igorot country, the soil is turned with sticks. The system of small irrigated
fields * (179) is followed in the lowlands and plows and harrows are used the soil being worked up
into a. mud by the feet. Much progress is possible either in improving the wooden and bamboo agri-
cultural implements now in use or adapting those made of iron and steel. In planting, the seed-bed
system (8) is followed almost entirely. Irrigation in a small way is extensively developed, though the
water supply for it usually depends upon the rain. The Government is now planning large irrigation
' Palai is the term universally used in the Philippines. ' The term "paddy" is applied to the rice field in the Phil-
'Darak (T.). ippines and the term "palai" to the unhusked rice,
'Boiled rice is called morisqueta (Sp.), kanon (Vis.), kanen which in English-speaking countries is called paddy.
(T.),nasi (Pamp.), inapoy (II.). Sotanghon (T.) and
bihon (T.) are macaroni-like products reported to be
made from rice. '
if^o
H^
tcri
GRAINS AND FODDERS
13
systems which will make the country watered by them independent of the rain, and will bring into culti-
vation large areas not now farmed.
The Philippine rice crop is cut by hand and tied in bunches " and often stored in this condition.
Sometimes the heads ^" are cut short and stored. Though a few threshers (9) are used, paddy is usually
separated by pounding and treading either with the feet or by carabao. For home use the paddy is
usually kept in large baskets made of sawali. In husking (10) the mortar and pestle, water mills, hand
mills, and steam mills are used, the latter being often owned by large landowners who clean their own
crop as well as the paddy of others, charging a stated price for the work, keeping a part of the cleaned
rice, or buying the paddy outright. For commercial purposes rice is packed in imported jute bags "
(218) and in bags made of buri or pandan ^^ (277). Maguey sacks (266) are also sometimes used for
this purpose. In countries such as China and Japan, rice is packed in bags made of the rice straw.
Feed for. cattle and horses.
Roasted rice.''
Kice
Plant.
Head.
Cleaned rice Human food.
Broken rice " Chicken and cattle feed. Starch.'^
Bran .•... Food for pigs and other animals.
Husk Fertilizer. Fuel.
Alcohol and alcoholic beverages. Malt.
Straw.
Philippines.
In other countries.
Feed.
Bedding for animals.
As fuel in finishing pottery.
Packing.
Hats and straw braid.
Rain coats.
Sandals.
Rope.
Thatching material.
Mats and matting.
Paper.
Bags.
Three crops of rice are occasionally produced in the Philippines where irrigation is carried on or
where there is a continuous rainfall throughout the year. Such intense cultivation, however, is very rare.
In a great many places two crops are raised, but for the most part the land is required to produce but
one crop and remains idle during the rest of the year, or is occasionally planted with any one of the
short time crops. Where but one crop is raised rice is usually planted in the typhoon season; i. e.,
during the third quarter of the year.
The yield per hectare " varies very greatly. It may be as low as 5 cavans or as high as 100. The
average for the Philippines is about 25 to 40 cavans per hectare. It is only in very favorable localities, as
in the Candaba swamp in Pampanga and on very fertile and well-cultivated fields of sedimentary soil, that
large crops are produced.
There are hundreds of varieties of rice (probably nearly 1,000) , the result of cultivation, recog-
nized by growers and differing in the size of the grain, color, length of time required to reach
maturity, and in minor qualities. Two large classes are recognized in planting, namely, upland and
" Manojos (Sp.).
'"Pompon (T.).
"Saco (Sp.).
" Bayong (F.), bayon (Sp.), banyot (Vis.).
" Roasted rice known as pinipig or pilipig is made from
young unhusked glutinous rice in the milk. It is
soaked and roasted, then pounded to remove the husk,
by which process the rice is flattened.
"Binlid (T.).
'^ Rice powder is not made from rice but is talcum powder —
talc finely powdered.
" Since about one cavan of paddy is usually planted ta the
hectare the yield per hectare is practically the same as
the yield per cavan planted.
14
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
lowland rices (8). The glutinous rices" and the common rices ^' are two other headings under which
all rices may be placed. There are a few varieties of rices which are recognized in trade, such as
the black rice '* and binuhangin, a rice with a peculiarly pleasant taste and odor. Commercial grades
of rices differ, first, according to color, freedom from foreign matter, and the number of broken grains;
secondly, as to the locality in which they are grown. In the Philippines there are three grades of rice.
No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, which are recognized, and a fourth grade might be added for the broken rice
known as binlid. Localities are also recognized as: Tarlac No. 1, Saigon No. 2. The great rice
exporting region of the Philippines is in the central plain of Luzon. Ilocos Norte exports to the Cagayan
Valley, and Surigao to Bohol and Cebu, but in general it may be stated that other exporting localities,
as those around Laguna de Bay and around Lake Bato, supply the surrounding country only. The graph
gives the chief producing provinces as reported by the Bureau of Agriculture. Large areas of public
lands suitable for rice production and much private rice land remain uncultivated. Therefore the
Philippines do not produce enough rice for home consumption, rice from French Indo-China, through
the port of Saigon, being one of the chief imports. The causes of the Philippine rice import are also
found in the lack of farm animals (the result of rinderpest) , the lack of irrigation systems, and in the
production of export crops such as sugar, tobacco, copra, and hemp. Indeed, it may be noticed from
the map that the importing districts (with the exception of the central Luzon plain) are those which
furnish the staple exports of the Philippines (71, 116, 193, 220). Examples are Tayabas, the Bicol
Peninsula, and the upper Cagayan Valley. Other importing regions are those, such as Cebu, where
little rice is cultivated Jbecause of unfavorable soil conditions, and which use corn or camotes as their
chief food.
_!£_
JL.
JT.
^
1
Pangasinan
N. Ecija
Tarla
Bula-
caii
Pani-
panga
Capiz
Others
PHILIPPINE PRODUCTION OF RICE, BY PROVINCES, 1910— PERCENTAGE.
(Bureau of Agriculture.)
13. Oriental Trade. — The Philippines being in the market as an importer of rice, the consideration of
Oriental countries having a rice surplus is important. They are Burma, French Indo-China, Siam,
Korea, and Formosa. China imports rice from Siam and Cochin China ; Japan exports superior rice to
Europe and the United States, but imports a much lower grade for home consumption, especially from
Korea and Formosa. In the same way Java imports inferior rice from Cochin China, Siam, and Burma,
and exports superior rice to the Netherlands,' whence it is distributed throughout Europe. India
proper sends a little rice to Europe and also to Mauritius, Mozambique, South Africa, Brazil, and
Australia, but imports large quantities from Burma. Burma is the largest rice exporter of the world and
sends away two-thirds of its great crop, one-half to Europe and the rest to Japan, India, Straits Settle-
ments, Java, and other countries in the East. Siam exports cheap rice. French Indo-China, from which
the Philippines draws most of its import, exports rice throughout the Orient and to France.
CORN.-"
14. The Plant. — Corn (Zea mays) is of American origin. It has from 500 to 800 standard varieties,
the result of selection, and of various conditions in which it has been grown. There are several dif-
ferent colors as white, yellow, red, purple, and the like. Varieties differ also as to the number of rows
of seeds there are on the cob and the shape of the seed. Sweet corn contains considerable sugar and
is used as a vegetable, being often canned. Pop corn is a variety that pops very well on being
heated and is used with butter and in making candy. Corn easily responds to selection in cultivation,
and consequently the varieties contain varying amounts of starch, oil, and gluten, according to which
constituent has been most desired by the grower (1). In the tropics three or more crops of early varieties
of com can be cultivated ; other varieties are adapted to the short summers of Alaska and Canada ; some
" Malagkit
■• Makan.
" Pirurutong (T.), pirurupuit (Pamp.).
' In England and her colonies it is known as maize. It is
also sometimes called Indian com and in the Philip-
pines is known as maiz (Sp.).
GRAINS AND FODDERS
15
IB* lU'
LEGtND
U
Formosa
tagr Mfc'
EXPORT. HI /
RAISE EMOUGH !■ ^
IMPORT CD . 1?
'Division or inousTRiAL mroBM*TiOfi
BUREAU OF EDUCATIOn
\
0
-!••
(/
n.
PHILIPPINE RICE REGIONS.
16
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
require six months to mature ; mountain varieties have been grovs^n at elevations of 3,000 meters in the
Himalayas. On account of its adaptability corn has a wider range of growth than most cereals, and is
cultivated extensively except in a few regions, as North Africa, having a very dry climate.
15. Trade. — The United States produces most of the world's corn crop, the product being consumed
to fatten cattle and hogs for meat, though other important uses are for human food and to produce starch
and alcohol. Argentina is also a leading corn producer, one which may become more important than the
United States in the industry. These two countries export most of the corn which enters extensive com-
merce. It is small in quantity in comparison with wheat, though the corn crop of the United States alone
is four times the amount of its wheat crop. Corn is the staple food of a large part of the population of
Mexico and Central America, where it is eaten in the form of thin baked cakes called "tortillas." In
Europe the principal corn-growing countries are the Balkan States, Hungary, Italy, Spain, and southern
France. It is particularly important in Italy as a food. It is grown throughout the East, but is not of
great commercial importance, although it enters largely into the diet of the people.
Fodder.
^Ear..
Corn
Plant.
J Pork.
"iBeef.
Human food.
Seed.
rCom meal..../^^^'^-
[Human food.
Poultry.
Hominy.^1
Pop corn."
Whisky and alcohol.
Starch [Human food.
[Manufacturing.
[Oil.
\Oil cake.
Germs...
Bran.
Gluten. Cattle feed.
Cob.
Husk.
Stalk.
Fodder.
Fertilizer.
Leaves.
J Fuel.
\Tobacco pipes.
[Brooms.
'I Fodder.
Cattle and poultry food.
Paper.
Fertilizer.
16. The Ear. — An ear of corn consists of a core, called the cob, on which the grains are arranged in
rows and which is surrounded by the husk. The unhusked ears may be hung up and dried and so kept
or the corn may be shelled — i. e., stripped off of the cob — either by hand, by flails, or by machinery.
Since corn mildews easily it keeps best in the husk, which is the usual way of storing it in the Philip-
pines.
17. Uses. — Com differs from most of the cereals in that it can be eaten before it is ripe (green com),
and for local use much of it is consumed in this manner. Corn is more nutritious that most other cereals.
Binatog (T.).
-Compitis (T.), kinirog (Jl).
GRAINS AND FODDERS
17
It has a very thick indigestible outer covering, but when that is eliminated the corn becomes an easily
assimilated food. This is usually done by treating the grain with lime to either soften or remove the
outer covering. If it is entirely removed the product is called hominy."" Ground com is called corn meal.
In the Philippines it is produced in a rough stone mill consisting of one rock revolving on top of another,
a contrivance used in many parts of the world. Corn meal may be eaten as a porridge or may be added
to rice and other c(^real foodstuffs, but, since it has no binding properties, it is usual to add wheat or rye
flour to it in order to make bread. The corn germs contain much oil (200). Com starch (56) is the
most important of cereal starches, useful both for food and for industrial purposes, as in the manu-
facture of cotton cloth and to starch clothing. In its production the oil germs are separated and the
oil pressed out. Corn oil is valuable both for food and industrial purposes. On account of its great
nutritive value, corn is used throughout the world to fatten animals (26) and is of particular importance
in the swine (129) and cattle (127) producing countries, such as the United States and Argentina, The
uses of the com plant can be determined from the chart (see page opposite) (79; 82; 75).
United States
Austria-
Hungary
Argen-
tina
India
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF CORN IN PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES.
(After Bartholomew.)
18. Philippine Corn Regions. — Corn is the second most important cereal produced in the Philippines.
While it is raised generally, in only a few regions does it become the leading food crop and the chief
food. Such districts are (1) the islands of Cebu, part of Negros, Bohol, and other regions with a
soil resulting from decomposing coralline limestone, and unsuited to rice and having a low rainfall, (2)
certain mountainous regions, as Abra, and (3) the tobacco region of the Cagayan Valley (116). It is
possible to obtain as high as three crops of com in the Philippines, and in all districts where corn is
the chief food at least two crops are raised. Corn is planted in no particular month ; in fact, in some
districts corn is reaped every month in the year, though in the Cagayan Valley, where two crops are
raised, the largest one is planted just after the tobacco is harvested. As with rice the yield varies
greatly. In the Philippines corn is eaten as a porridge, mixed with rice, or roasted on the cob. It is
fed to some extent to poultry, hogs, and stock, and is used as a source of alcohol.
so
_L.
so
_1_
It
so
_L_
eo
_L_
ao
I
_J
Cebu
Occidental
Negros
Panga-
sinan
'A
Caga-
yan
Leyte
Bohol
= 2:
z -■
Others
PHILIPPINE PRODUCTION OF CORN, BY PROVINCES, 1910 — PERCENTAGE.
(Bureau of Agriculture.)
OTHER CEREALS.
19. Rye. — Rye (Secale cereale) grows farther north than wheat, flourishing in the northern countries
of Europe and North America, especially in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Scandinavian
Peninsula where it is the food of one-third of the people in the form of black bread. Rye is also fed to
stock and is made into whisky (79) . It does not enter commerce to any great extent.
20. Barley. — Barley {Hordeum spp.) is the most northern in growth of all cereals and has a wide
range of cultivation in the temperate regions. It is little consumed as food and is principally used as
fodder (25, 26) and to produce malt (78) from which liquors such as beer are made. In the East rice
is made into malt. The Philippines import some barley malt from Germany.
'Binatog (T.).
103506
18
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
21. Oats. — Oats (Avena sativa) grow in very nearly the same regions as wheat. The grain is used
for feeding stock (25, 26) and to some extent for human food, and enters little into commerce. The
Philippines import some oats from the United States and Australia as food for horses which have been
imported from those countries.
22. Millets. — A number of grains are comprised under the common term millet. Of these the
two most important are produced in the Philippines. Sorghum ^* (Andi'opogon sorghum) also known
as Guinea corn, Kafir corn, great
millet, and dhurra, is widely dis-
tributed over the world. It should
not be confused with Guinea grass
(24) which has been introduced
into the Philippines as a fodder.
There are numerous varieties of
sorghum which may be roughly
divided into two classes, namely,
those producing grains suitable
for food and those yielding sugar
(75), which is often expressed
from their stalks. One variety
yields fruit stalks which, when the
grain is removed, are made into
brooms and brushes known here as
American brooms (268). Sorghum
is very largely used for human
food in India, Africa, and China
where it is also employed to a
great extent as a fodder for
cattle (26).
Probably the most important
cultivated millet is the Italian
millet ^° (Setaria italica) . It is
grown throughout temperate
Europe, India, China, Japan,
Northern Africa, United States,
and Canada. In America it is
raised almost exclusively for forage
(26), and in the other regions,
particularly in the East, it is used
for human food. It is also some-
times used as a bird-seed. In the
Philippines this millet seems well
known only in the Visayan Islands
and Mindanao. Its preparation
here consists either of parching
the grain or reducing it to a meal
which is cooked with rice or by
SORGHUM. itself. The millets are not particu-
larly important as Philippine crops
23. Job's Tears.^* — The grass (Coix lachryma-jobi) is a native of Japan and India, and is also pro-
duce(f throughout the tropics. The seeds of the soft-shelled variety are used for food in the poorer dis-
tricts of the world and the hard-shelled seeds are strung into necklaces and curtains. The latter is
'the chief use in the Philippines. In Misamis the former variety is made into an alcoholic beverage (81).
"Batad (T.), (B.).
"Dawa (Misamis), Mangoso (Cebu), gatom (Albay).
"Aglay (Misamis), tigbikay (B.), adiay (B.), bintikay
(B.), burobayoko (B.), pintaka (B.), dumao (Cebu),
panas (Cebu), tigby (T.), abukay (II.), balantakan
(Pamp.), poyas (Occ. Neg.).
GRAINS AND FODDERS 19
FODDERS.
24. Green Fodders. — Green fodders are the freshly cut stalks of grasses. They are used the world
over but are of special importance in the Philippines, for little else is fed the native horses, carabaos, and
cattle. Zacate, or grass, is grown around most towns, is cut and bundled, and brought to the market for
sale ; the industry is sometimes a large one. A new green fodder known as Guinea grass (Panicum max-
imum) , a variety of millet not to be confused with Guinea corn, has lately been introduced into the
Philippines. Originating in Africa, this plant is now grown throughout the tropics. It requires a sandy
soil and plenty of fresh water and yields immense crops of fodder, in India the crop being cut as often
as eight times in a year.
25. Hay. — Hay consists of the dried unthreshed stalks of certain cereals, such as oats (21), barley (20)
and wheat (4). Alfalfa or lucern (Medicago sativa) , clover (Trifolium spp.), and timothy (Phleum
pratense) are also cultivated for hay. The plants are mowed down, dried, piled, cured, and baled,
in which form they may have a considerable local commerce. Hay is of particular importance where,
on account of cold or other climatic conditions, the growth of vegetation is stopped over a considerable
period.
26. Minor Fodders. — Besides the above, certain other crops are grown as fodders. These include
certain beans (29) (as the coviT)eas), peas (28), peanuts (192), millets (22), and manioc (54). Some of
these are poisonous to stock under certain conditions. Sorghum (22) when young is sometimes poison-
ous and manioc is little used in the Philippines (54), since the methods of eliminating the poison (hydro-
cyanic acid) in the tubers is not well understood." The grains, of which oats (21), barley (20), and
com (17) are the most important, are also fed to stock (17). Paddy (9) is often fed in the Philip-
pines. Certain oil cakes (202), the waste remaining after oil is expressed from the crushed material, are
excellent feeds.
27. Prepared Fodder. — Prepared fodders are made by mixing several fodders, chopped or otherwise
reduced to a form easily eaten by stock. From Australia the Philippines import a considerable amount
of prepared fodder in bales for imported stock. An excellent one of local product consists of cowpea
(29), cassava roots (54), and coconut oil-cake (193) suitably treated and combined.
2S
HELPS AND HOME WORK.
1. Can wheat be grown in the Philippines? Why? ■
2. From what country does the flour come which is used in your locality? How much flour was imported into the Phil-
ippines last year? (Consult the latest Report of the Insular Collector of Customs.)
3. On map show the wheat exporting and the wheat importing countries, being sure to include the Orient.
4. On a map show the rice producing sections of the world, using all the information given in the paragraphs on rice.
5. On a map of the world show the regions which export and which import rice. Map the Oriental rice trade.
6. Write a composition on the cultivation of rice in the locality.
7. Write a composition on the methods followed in threshing ajjd cleaning rice in your community.
8. Is there water power in your community which is or could be used for cleaning rice?
9. If possible investigate the making of macaroni and similar products from rice and flour, and write a composition
on the subject.
10. Why can bread not be made of rice?
11. What materials are used in the Philippines for thatching?
12. Why is rice straw not extensively manufactured into useful articles such as sandals, rope, bags, etc., in the Philip-
pines as in Japan?
13. Why is rice planted during the typhoon season?
14. Why do the Philippines import rice? Compare the value of rice imported to the value of the other things you may
know. How much do the Philippine Islands spend on schools?
15. How many kilos of rice did the Philippines import last year? How many kilos of rice are in a cavan? How many
cavans of rice did the Philippines import?
16. The civilized population of the Philippines is about 7,500,000. How many gantas of rice were imported for each
civilized inhabitant of the Philippines? Allowing an average consumption of one chupa a day per inhabitant, how
many days would the imported rice last the whole civilized population of the Philippines? What is the value
per inhabitant of the rice imported? What is the rate of taxation in the Philippines per inhabitant?
" Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. Ill, No. 2, Sec. A. =' Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. Ill, No. 2, Sec. A.
20 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
17. How is rice sold in your district — ^by the cavan, pico, pound, kilo, liter, or in some other way? Compare these
different measures. How many pounds of rice are in a cavan, in a ganta, in a pico, in li picos? How
many kilos? How many chupas are there in a pound? How many kilos? There are 75 liters of rice in a cavan.
How many in a ganta? In a pico of rice? How many pounds of rice in a liter? How many kilos? Find the
capacity of different sacks in which rice is sold.
18. Determine the grades and present prices of rice and corn in your locality.
19. Is rice or com imported into your town? If so, why and from what towns? Is rice or com exported from your
town? If so, to what towns?
20. What is the yield of rice, corn, and millet per hectare in your locality? In other localities of which you know?
21. What is the principal food of your town — corn, rice, camote, or some other cereal or vegetable?
22. Write a composition on the uses of the com plant in the Philippines.
23. Color a map of the Philippines to show the provinces —
(o) Which consume rice principally.
(6) Which consume corn principally.
24. Examine com, rice, and millet grains under a microscope to determine their formation.
25. What fodders are used in your locality?
MUSEUM SFECIMENS.
Wheat. Flour. Wheat bran. Wheat straw. Chinese macaroni and rice products. Italian macaroni. Hulled rice.
Polished rice. Darak. Rice starch. Binlid. Rice husk. Rice straw. Straw sandals. Straw rope. Varieties of Phil-
ippine rices. Imported rices. Commercial grades of rice. Com on the cob. Husked corn. Corn starch. Corn meal.
Pop com. Sweet corn. Rye. Barley. Malt. Oats. Millets. Rice sacks of different sizes and materials. Philippine
fodders. Guinea grass. Imported fodders.
Chapter II.
VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.
VEGETABLES.
liEGUMSS.
28. Peas. — Peas (Pisum arvense, sativum) are of numerous varieties and are very important
as food for men and domestic animals (26) . The seeds of certain kinds of peas ' enter commerce
fresh, canned or dried. The pod of a variety known as the sugar pea can be eaten when young and
this is the one grown around Manila.
29. Beans. — Many kinds of beans are used for food and fodder (26) . Green gram ^ (Phaseolus
radiatus) is very important throughout the
East as a food supplementary to rice and
has long been valued as a preventative of
beriberi. In some places in the Philippines
green gram is raised in quantity and ex-
ported, as for instance from Ilocos Norte
to Cagayan, and it is used as human food
throughout the Islands. Lima beans '
{Phaseolus lunatus), cowpeas (26)^ (Vigna
sinensis) , and hyacinth bean ^ (Dolichos lab-
lab) are other important beans widely grown
in the Philippines and entering local com-
merce. The green pods of certain varieties
not grown in the Philippines, as the wax
and string beans, are important as human
food and are often canned," but the dried
matured seeds contain most of the nutriment
which makes beans one of the best of human
foods and an important commercial product.
The Philippines import dried beans and peas
from China and Spain.
The soya bean (194) is one of the most important food products of the Orient. The beans are
imported into the Philippines and are used here to make into the bean curd cakes ' so extensively
manufactured by Chinese.
COWPEA.
VELVET BEAN.
' Chicharo.
'Mongos (T., Sp.), balatong (T., II.).
'Patani (T., Vis., II.), sebachi (Batangas).
'Balatong (Vis.),kibal (Batangas), sitae (T.), utong (II.),
payap (Cavite), antak (B.).
' Parda (Il.),batao (T)., maravilla (Cavite), buwai (Cebu).
' Animal and vegetable matter is kept from decaying in
the following ways: (A) Cold Storage. — In this system
meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables are chilled or frozen
and the ripening and decaying processes arrested.
Cold-storage plants and refrigerator steamers and cars
are built to keep the frozen products and transport
them. (B) Sterilization is the process of killing all
bacteria in the animal or vegetable substance by heat
and then placing the materials in air-tight receptacles.
Since these are usually of tin, the process is referred
to as tinning or canning. The cans are filled with the
fruits, vegetables, or meat which it is desired to pre-
serve and heated to the boiling point. A small hole
is left in the can to allow gas and air to escape and
this hole is soldered up after the required temperature
has been obtained and cooking has continued long
enough. Properly canned material will keep many
years. (C) Evaporation. — By the process of driving
out nearly all the water either through drying in the
sun or by artificial heat, products are obtained which
will keep a considerable length of time. They are said
to have been evaporated, desiccated or dried. (D)
Pickling. — In this process the materials are preserved
in vinegar or a brine made of salt or sugar dissolved
in water. Sometimes pickled fish or meat is smoked,
a process which helps to preserve the material and also
imparts to it a peculiar taste.
'Tokwa (T.).
21
22
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
TUBERS.
30. Potato. — One of the most important vegetables in the world is the potato (Solanum tuberosum) .
In the temperate zones it is a staple article of diet and is not only important as a food but is also
used to produce starch (53) and alcohol (80). The potato does not grow well in the Philippines. It
is produced to a limited extent in mountainous regions as in Benguet and in Nueva Vizcaya, hut it is
reported that the size of the tubers rapidly deteriorates unless imported seed is used. The Philippines
import potatoes principally from Japan. The sweet potato (Batatas edulis) or camote is a tuber grown
in all tropical regions and many countries of the temperate zones. It is eaten throughout the Philippines,
being the staple food in mountainous parts of the Archipelago, as in certain districts of the Mountain
Province, and in wind-swept areas, as the Batanes Islands. Varieties of the sweet potato differ in
the amount of sugar contained, those of the Philippines having a low sugar content.
31. Yams. — There are many species of Dioscorea, most of which grow within the tropics. In the
Philippines D. alata^ is the species most cultivated. The food value of yams lies in the starch they
contain.
32. Taro. — Taro" (Colocasia antiquorum) is the root from which "poi," one of the chief foods of
the natives in the Hawaiian Islands, is made.
In the Philippines both the root and leaves
are eaten and the plant is especially culti-
vated in the mountains.
OTHER VEGETABIjES.
33. Among other important vegetables
may be mentioned the onion "' {Allium
cepa), which is of commercial importance
when dried. The Philippines import dried
onions mostly from Japan. Tomatoes
(Lycopersicum esculentum) do not keep long
when fresh but are extensively canned and
made into sauces. Young bamboo shoots
(311) are very important as a vegetable in
Japan, China, and India, but are little used
in the Philippines and are seldom seen in
the markets. Many other vegetables are
eaten in the Philippines of which the white
squash '1 (Lagenaria vulgaria), the egg-
plant'^ {Solanum melongena), and the
There are large imports of canned vegetables,
A FIELD OF TARO.
cucumber " {Cucumis sativus) are the most important,
principally from the United States and Spain.
FRUITS.
tropicaij and subtropicai. fruits.
34. Bananas." — Bananas {Musa spp.) grow as far as 40° from the equator but seldom mature fruit
where the temperature falls below the freezing point. The banana is an herb, the stem of which is
composed of the sheaths of the leaves, and bears the bunch of fruit. The fruit is of high nutritive value
on account of its starch and sugar content. There are many varieties of bananas varying in size, color,
and flavor and as to whether they are best fitted for eating raw or for cooking. Commercial bananas
are those which can be eaten raw and will stand transportation well. They are shipped in great
quantities to the United States from Cuba, Jamaica, and Central America, and are grown in the
Canary Islands for export to Europe. The western coast of the United States is also supplied from
■Ubi (F.).
•Gabi (F.), aba (II.).
"Lasona (II.), sibuyas (T., Vis., Pamp.).
"Upo (T., B.), kalubay (Vis.), tabuiigao (II.).
"Talong (T., Vis.), tarong (II.).
■"Kabul (Vis.), pipino (T., II.).
"Platano (Sp.), saging (T., Vis.), saba (II.), are local
generic names for the banana.
VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
23
the Havi^aiian Islands. Banana flour is an article of commerce in Africa, Mexico, Central America, and
Ecuador, and is sometimes made in the Philippines by drying bananas and pounding them. Throughout
the Far East bananas enter little into commerce, being of but local importance. They are shipped from
Formosa to Japan. In the Philippines bananas are widely grow^n but do not enter into extensive
commerce since they are shipped to neighboring towns only. Manila is supplied from surrounding
districts, such as Calumpit in Bulacan and many towns of Laguna and Batangas.^^
Table Showing the Uses and Qualities of Certain Philippine Bananas.
Cooking Bananas.
Eating Bananas (according to taste).
Vinegar.
First class.
Second class.
Third class.
Sabft (T.).
Sab-a (Occ. N.).
DIppig (11.).
Tundok (T.).
Tindok (Occ. N.).
San Juan (11.).
Saguinggamundo (Ooc. N.).
Hinarnibal (Laguna).
Reyne (Rlzal).
Lakatan (T., 11.).
Lakatan morado (T.).
Manumbaga (Gee. N.).
Bungulan (T.).
Tukol (11.).
Balangon (VI.).
Daliring sefiora (T.).
Glamai sefiora (T.).
Tudlo sangdalaga (Oee. N.).
Gloria (Sp.).
Azucar (11.).
Temate (T.).
Latundan (T.).
Katunggan (Rizal).
Banangar (11.).
Retandan (Occ. N.).
Veinte-kohol (Bulacan).
Matabia (Occ. N.).
Sabil.
San Juan.
Butuhan. (T.).
Lisohan (Occ. N.).
Blayang (11.).
Sinampal (Batangas).
Mngay (Bulacan).
Pinagbilinan (Bulacan).
Dadanuguen (11.).
Butuhan.
The saba is a light yellow, short, flat-sided banana. There are many varieties as to size. The
petiole fiber composes much of the sinamay of Bohol and Cebu and some of Capiz (256, 258).
Tundok is a yellow, large banana, the largest one grown in the Philippines.
Saguinggamundo is a sweet banana used in Occidental Negros for cooking and eating.
Hinarnibal is a very sweet light yellow banana which may perhaps be classified as lakatan.
Lakatan is a fair sized banana with a light yellow skin and a firm yellow meat having a sweet
taste. With foreigners it has a large demand.
Lakatan morado resembles lakatan except that it has a reddish skin.
Bungulan is a good sized banana with a green skin and a soft, almost white meat. It is also very
popular with foreigners.
Daliring sefiora is a small yellow banana with sweet, firm meat. On account of its size, as its
name indicates, it is compared to a lady's finger.
Gloria is a fair sized thick, flat-sided banana with a yellow skin darker than saba and not as short.
Veinte-kohol is a very small yellow banana smaller than daliring sefiora. It is light colored and
as sweet as lakatan.
Matabia is a light colored banana not as sweet as lakatan.
Butuhan is a green banana full of seeds and is used for vinegar production. Its leaves are strong
and are commercially important as wrapping material.
Sinampal is a small yellow banana.
Table Showing the Keeping Qualities of Certain Philippine Bananas.
Over 3 weeks.
2 to 3 weeks.
Under 2 weeks.
Tundok.
Lakatan.
Bungulan.
Sabft.
Latundan.
Gloria.
Morado.
Butuhan.
Galamai-sefiora.
Veinte-kohol.
Matabia.
Sinampal.
The leaves of certain species are tough and are important as wrapping material, a use of dried
banana leaves in general in the Philippines. The banana stalk is cut off and fed to hogs, and from
' Students in the Philippine School of Commerce, Manila,
have classified the most important bananas of the
Philippines as shown in the tables belonging to this
paragraph.
24 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
the petioles of several species fiber is obtained for weaving cloth (256, 268). From the dried petioles
mats for baling tobacco are made.
35. Pineapple."' — The pineapple {Ananassa sativa) is a very important fruit of the tropics and
subtropics. For shipping to distant points pineapples are, like bananas, picked before they are ripe.
Europe is supplied from the Azores, the United States from the West Indies, Florida and to some
extent from Hawaii. In the East, Singapore and Borneo pineapples are known as the best, large
numbers being canned annually in Singapore. The commerce in canned pineapples which come in the
form of slices, cubes, or crushed pieces is very important. In the Philippines the pineapple plant is
cultivated both for its fruit and fiber (257, 260). The domestic market is not well supplied with fresh
pineapples, so tinned fruit is also imported. The Province of Bataan is noted for its pineapples, and
they do well in Abra and several other localities (79).
36. Oranges. — Oranges (Citrus aurantium) enter extensively into commerce. There are many
varieties differing in color, flavor, size, and prevalence of seed. Oranges grown in the tropics do not
color up as they do in the cooler subtropics and are inclined to be green in color. Florida, California,
Spain, Italy and other Mediterranean countries, the West Indies, South America, and China, are the
principal producers, and the first three are the principal exporters. By careful picking and packing
the fruit can be shipped great distances. Oranges are grown in most provinces in the Philippines, but
it is only in the Tanauan district of Batangas and on Cuyo Island that they are of considerable
commercial importance. In such regions as Nueva Vizcaya and Nueva Ecija, they are raised for local
consumption only. There are two kinds of oranges of particular value in the Philippines, the
dalanhita ■■ (naranjita) or loose-skinned orange, and the dalandan or kahel (cagel), which is the
more juicy and firm skinned variety and resembles the Florida orange. Oranges are usually sent to
market from the Batangas district packed in bamboo baskets (311) with Manila as the principal
market. The oranges all ripen at practically the same time and hence the market season is short.
Tangerines are also imported from China and oranges from California (182).
37. Lemons '* and Limes.'* — Lemons {Citrus medica) and limes (Citrus medica var. acida) are
grown in about the same districts as are oranges. Lemons come chiefly from southern Italy, Spain,
and California. These fruits enter commerce either fresh or in the form of lime juice and extract
of lemon, the expressed juices of the fruit. There are several varieties of both these fruits found in
the Philippines, and many localities are suited to their cultivation. At present lemons are imported
(182).
38. The Pomelo or Shaddock.'^ — This fruit (Citus decumana) grows throughout the tropics and to
some extent in the Philippines. The Philippine pomelo is, however, inclined to be unpleasantly bitter
in taste and not very juicy, and quantities of the sweet and juicy Chinese pomelo are imported yearly.
39. The Chico. — The chico or sapodilla (Achras sapota) is a fruit indigenous to the American
tropics and has been introduced into the Philippines. The fruit is found in all markets here. From
the sap (312) of the tree is obtained gum chicle which is the base of chewing gum. It is not extracted
in the Philippines.
40. Guavas. — Guavas (Psidium guayava) are particularly used for making jelly in which form
they enter commerce. Guava jelly is made in the Philippines and used very largely, and the fruit is
also important in the fresh state.
41. The Mangosteen. — The mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) is considered to be one of the finest
flavored of all tropical fruits and grows only near the equator. It enters commerce, especially from
Singapore, throughout the East. The fruit does not ship well and therefore can not be sent a great
distance. Some are imported from Singapore and Saigon into the Philippines and the tree grows in
the southernmost islands.
42. The Santol. — The santol (Sandoricum indicum), a fruit eaten fresh or preserved in the
Philippines, resembles the mangosteen in form and interior but the latter fruit has a dark red
covering and a very white meat, while the santol is of a yellowish color. ^
43. Mangos =" (Mangifera indica) . — There are many varieties of mangos varying as to shape and
"Pifia (Sp.), (T.), cidra (Sp.), limon (Sp.), are names applied to
" While commonly so called in the Philippines, this is not local varieties of lemons and limes.
a true orange but a tangerine (Citrus nobilis). " Lukban (T.), suha (T.), kabugao (Vis.).
"Dayap (T.), dalayap (Vis., II.), kalamanse (T.), buyag "Manga (F.).
VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
25
flavor, the better of which are rated among the finest fruits in the tropics, the poorer kinds being
almost inedible. This fruit is grown throughout the tropics but has thus far been exported to the
United States and Europe only to a very limited extent. In India the green fruits are made into
preserves, pickles, and chutney. The green mangos preserved in salt brine are a commercial product
in the Philippines. The Philippines grow great quantities of these fruits but the local demand for
them is so great that only when there
is a year of very large production are
any exported to China. The Philippine
mangos are considered to be among
the best in the world. The fruit ripens
in various parts of the Islands at dif-
ferent times, and may be received in
the Manila markets as early as January.
This fruit is so valuable out of season
that in certain districts smudges are
kept around the trees at night for a
period of a month or more in order to
force the trees into bearing and thus
obtain the high prices of an early
market.
44. The Avocado. — This fruit {Persea
gratissima) , also known as the alligator
pear, is highly esteemed in all parts of
the tropics where it is grown. It has
been introduced into the Philippines
but does not appear in the markets.
45. The Tamarind. — The tamarind "'
{Tamarindus indica) is a fruit used in
the Philippines, either fresh or pre-
served when ripe, and when green as a
spice in cooking. In Italy a paste is
made from the tamarind which is an
article of commerce.
46. The Papaya.2= — The papaya {Ca-
rica papaya) is a fruit which enters local
commerce in the Philippines both when
green and when ripe. The green fruit,
particularly when preserved, is pre-
ferred by Filipinos, the ripe fruit by
foreigners. There are many types in
the Philippines. The "native" type is
small, full of seeds, and with little meat.
Those grown from the Singapore or
Dapitan seed are large and narrow.
The Hawaiian seeds produce large and
more rounded fruit. Both the latter
have much thicker meat and a much
better flavor than have the "native" papayas. In Mexico and Spain the juice which exudes from the green
fruit when it is punctured, is caught in porcelain dishes, evaporated and refined, being known in
commerce as papaine, a vegetable pepsin which aids digestion.
47. The Lanzone. — The lanzone (Lansium domesticum) is a fruit growing in grape-like clusters on
the branches and trunks of a small tree. The fruit is a favorite with Filipinos and Chinese, though
"Tamarindo (Sp.), sampalok (T.), sambag (Vis.), salamagui (II.).
"Pawpaw (E.).
AVOCADOS.
26 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
other foreigners do not appreciate it. In parts of Batangas and Laguna it is grown quite extensively
and exported to Manila.
48. Other Philippine Fruits. — Among other fruits of importance in the Philippines are the jak
fruit ^•■' (Artocarpus integrifolia) , breadfruit " (Artocarpiis incisa) , custard apples, (Anona reticulata "
and A. squamosa-"), melons, including the water melon, the cashew and the pomegranate" (Punica
granatum). These fruits grow more or less wild. The market for carefully grown tropical fruits is
very large both in the Philippines and on the China coast but is very poorly supplied.
FRUITS OF THE TEMPERATE ZONES.
49. The fruits chiefly grown in the temperate zones are apples (77), peaches, plums, apricots and
grapes (77). Apples appear in commerce in a fresh state on account of their keeping qualities. All
these fruits are canned or dried. When dried, certain kinds of plums grown principally in France and
California are called prunes. Raisins are made by drying certain varieties of grapes (77) that come
from the Mediterranean region and California. Figs are raised around the Mediterranean, especially
in Asia Minor, where they are dried for export. They are not grown in the Philippines.
PHILIPPINE TRADE IN FRUIT.
50. While the Philippines export almost no fruit, they import fresh, dried, and canned fruit from
China, United States, Spain, and Australia. Dried fruits are kept in sacks and wooden boxes in
temperate regions, but are usually packed in air-tight tin boxes for export to the tropics on account
of the excessive moisture and insects which might destroy them. There is some little domestic
commerce in fruit, as that from Batangas, Laguna, Cavite, Rizal, Bulacan, and Bataan to Manila and
from I locos Norte to the Cagayan Valley.
HELPS AW HOME WORK.
1. Why do vegetables enter little into commerce in comparison with grains?
2. Write a composition on the tubers you know. On beans. On vegetables in general which you know.
3. Write a composition on Philippine bananas.
4. Which of the bananas noted in the text are adapted to foreign commerce? To domestic commerce? Why?
5. Give the prices of each class of bananas in as many markets as you know.
6. Discuss the different species of bananas collected, as to size, color, flavor, and use.
7. Write a composition on the pineapple.
8. Write a composition on oranges.
9. Write a composition on Philippine lemons and limes.
10. Write a composition on guavas and the manufacture of guava jelly.
11. Write a composition on the mango.
12. Write a composition on the tamarind. . ''
13. Write a composition on the papaya.
14. Write a composition on other Philippine fruits which you know.
15. Make lists of Philippine fruits (o) which will last three weeks or over, (6) from two to three weeks, (c) one week
or less. Which fruits are, therefore, suitable for foreign commerce? Domestic commerce? Local commerce?
16. Make a list of fruits (a) which can be eaten raw; (6) which can be preserved; (c) which are used as spices;
(d) which have other uses.
17. Make lists of fruits imported into and exported from your town.
18. Make a list of fruits which could be exported from your town.
19. Make a list of foreign fruits, either fresh, dried, or canned, which you have seen in the Philippines.
20. Make a list of the above fruits which could be produced here.
21. From the latest report of the Insular Collector of Customs determine the amount of exports and imports of the
products mentioned in this chapter and the percentage of each to the total export and import.
MUSEUM.
All Philippine vegetables and fruits and their varieties fresh and preserved. Potatoes. Dried imported and domestic
onions. Pickles. Dried beans. Figs. Fresh dried and canned apples, peaches, apricots. Raisins. Jams and jellies.
"Lanka (T., Vis., II.), nanka (T.), anangka (II.). ''Anonas (F.).
"Rimas (T.), antipolo (Negros), kolo (Cebu), agob '' Atis (F.).
(Albay), pakak (II.). "Granada (Sp.).
Chapter III.
. STARCHES, SUGAR, AND ALCOHOL.
STARCHES.'
PROCESSES AND USES.
51. Processes of Obtaining. — Starches are obtained from certain tubers, cereals, and palms. The
process consists of grinding or grating or otherwise reducing the cleansed material to a mass from
which the starch may be separated from the fiber. A supply of pure, clean water is necessary for
the process. The mass is formed and agitated in clear water which, laden with the starch, is separated
through a sieve from the fiber and conducted to a settling vessel in which the starch sinks to the bottom.
The water is then drawn off and the starch removed and dried, either by the air or artificially, care
being taken to see that it is not dried too quickly. If impurities are present the starch can be agitated
in water and, when it again settles, the foreign matter can be drawn off. The process varies slightly
according to the material, and where starch is produced in large quantities machinery is used. Cereals
are soaked in water or treated with chemicals to soften their covering before being ground. The waste
product is fed to live stock or is converted into alcohol. Another method of separating starch is by
drying, pounding, and partially removing the fiber. A third way is to rot the material in pits in
order to break down the fiber, but the starch so obtained is discolored and of no great commercial value.
52. Uses. — Starches may be divided into food and industrial according to their chief uses ; for while
all of them can be used both for food and in manufacturing, each one possesses qualities which especially
fit it for either one or the other purpose. The chief industrial use of starches is to size cotton yarn
(244) in the manufacture of cloth and in laundering clothing (242) . By treating it chemically at elevated
temperature glucose, a sugar and substitute for sucrose (cane or beet sugar), is obtained; by another
process dextrine, a substitute for gum (312), is made. For food purposes starches are usually prepared
in the form of a white powder often incorrectly called flour. Certain kinds of starches (54; 59) are made
into flakes or pellets by dropping them on to hot iron plates. In this form they are easily digested.
KINDS OF STARCHES.
FIBERS.
53. Potato. — The potato (30) is the chief source of industrial starch and is one of the cheapest.
The tubers are washed and grated and the starch separated in factories. There drying machinery of
large capacity is used. Potato starch is made chiefly in Germany.
54. Manioc. — Manioc or cassava starch, sometimes also known as tapioca starch, is obtained from
the root of the manioc plant ^ {Manihot utilissima) , and is the staple diet of a large part of the population
of South America. There are two species of manioc known as the "bitter cassava" and the "sweet
cassava." The bitter variety contains a considerable amount of poison (hydrocyanic acid), but is
grown more than the other since it yields more roots and the poison is easily removed by pressing and
washing out the juice or by heat. The Philippine varieties of the plant contain considerable quantities
of the acid. A meal is prepared from the roots by washing, peeling, and grating or pounding them,
pressing the pulp to remove most of the poisonous juice (108), sifting to eliminate the coarse fiber and
drying the resultant meal slowly over a fire, constantly stirring it. The heat removes all of the
remaining poison. If sweet cassava is used it is not necessary to press out the juice. From the grated,
pressed mass the starch is obtained by washing it out with water and sieving it several times. It is
dried in the sun and makes an excellent industrial as well as a food product. As a food, however,
' Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. Ill, No. 2, Sec. A.
' Kamoteng-kahoy (F.), kamoteng moro (Cag.), kamoting china (II.).
27
28 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
it enters commerce principally in the form of tapioca, which consists of pellets or flakes made by
heating bits of manioc dough on hot iron plates at about 100° C. This is a very easily digested
form of starch, since by the action of the heat the starch becomes what is known as "soluble." The
starch itself, or tapioca flour, is also used as a size for cotton. Cassava products come principally
from Brazil, the Straits Settlements, and Java, and are gathered and reshipped by the Netherlands.
The United States is a large importer of manioc products both for food and industrial purposes. In
the Philippines manioc is the staple crop in the islands between Zamboanga and Borneo. In other
parts it enters the diet of the people little, either as a vegetable or as a starch, though the root is
sometimes cut into chips, dried and pounded, forming a sort of meal from which the coarsest fiber
is removed. Several manioc plantations have been established in the southern islands and the product
is used locally and exported (26; 80).
55. Arrowroots. — Arrowroot starch is produced throughout the tropics from various roots. The
Bermuda or West Indian arrowroot is prepared in Bermuda and St. Vincent from Maranta arun-
dinacea.^ The starch known as tous-le-mois is obtained from Canna edulis. Madagascar arrowroot,
Polynesian arrowroot or tacca originates from Tacca pinnatifida.* Great care must be taken in the
preparation of first-grade arrowroot. The tubers are thoroughly washed and pared and are pounded,
crushed, or grated. The starch is removed and cleaned by washing with water and sieving several
times, is carefully dried, and then packed in air-tight receptacles. Much attention is given to keep
all the implements and machinery clean and to protect the starch from the introduction of dirt, dust,
and other impurities during the processes. The starch is used almost entirely for human food.
Arrowroots are produced generally in the Philippines, Maranta ai-undinacea being probably of
widest use. Tacca is also well distributed. Formerly it was sent to Manila in considerable quantities
from the Ilocano provinces, but at present it is of but little importance even there.
CEREALS.
56. Com Starch. — The most important of the cereal starches is corn (17) starch. It is largely
produced in the United States where the better varieties are used for food and the lower qualities
extensively employed in the arts, particularly for sizing cotton (244; 200).
57. Other Cereal Starches. — Wheat starch (5) is also very important and is used in sizing and in
the process of dyeing textiles. Rice starch (11) is an excellent laundry starch and although it is
supposed to be of value as a face powder, the so-called rice powder so extensively used is talc soap-
stone, finely powdered. In the Philippines rice starch is made in households and used in laundry work.
PALM STARCHES, s »
68. Many palms contain starch in their trunks. Certain palms fruit but once in their lifetime,
then die. Upon reaching their full growth, these palms store up large quantities of starch.
59. Sago. — The sago palm {Metroxylon rumphii) belongs in this class. The inside is removed and
the starch is easily extracted by pounding it in water, sieving and settling. Sago starch is cheap,
since the palms are obtained in a wild state and on account of the ease with which it is extracted.
It enters commerce as either sago flour or pearl sago, the latter being made by the same processes as
tapioca and being used as a food. The former is employed for industrial purposes as well as for
food. The sago palm grows in Borneo (especially in Sarawak), the Dutch East Indies, the West
Indies, and Oceania. There is a large stand of the palm around Butuan Bay in Mindanao.
60. Buri Starch. — The buri palm (275) also bears fruit but once in its lifetime, but it is not known
that advantage is taken in the Philippines of the particularly large amount of starch stored in its
trunk at this time. Buri starch is an important diet of the people in various parts of the Islands where
there are large stands of the palm, as in the lower Tayabas Peninsula and on Marinduque. The
interior of the plant may be either dried and then pounded and sieved in order to remove the fiber,
or the starch may be separated by water. In Cebu, where the starch is used in certain districts when
the corn crop fails, the dry pounded starch is allowed to settle in slightly stirred water. In this way
the irritating foreign substances are washed away by being held in suspension and drawn off with the
water, and an excellent starch results. A sago is also sometimes made of buri starch.
•Araro (F.). 'Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Sec. A, Vol. VI, Nos. 2
•Panarien (II.), kanobong (Vis.?), tayobong (Vis.?). and 3.
" Circular 12, Supplement 1, Bureau of Education, Manila,
1911. " ■
STARCHES, SUGAR, AND ALCOHOL
29
61. Sugar Palm Starch. — The sugar palm' (Arenga saccharifera) continues to bring forth flower
spathes during a considerable period of its life. The starch is known as Java sago in parts of the East.
On the Island of Mindoro, where it is extensively used by both the wild and the Christian peoples, it
is called yuro, a name applied to starches in general in other parts of the Philippines, and ip the
Visayas it is known as ambolong. In Mindoro the separation of the starch is carried on as follows :
The fibrous interior is chopped into small pieces and worked in water to separate the starch from the
fiber. The liquid which is now milky in appearance due to starch in suspension, is strained through
sinamay and conducted through bamboo tubes into settling vessels. The water is drawn off and the
starch dried (72; 269; 77; 82; 267; 270).
'Leaf.
The
Sugar
Palm.
Thatching.
Sheaths for sandals.
Leaves jMidrib for rough brooms.
t Blade for smudge for mosquitoes.
Fruit.
Fruit-stalk.
Tuba
Firewood.
Beverage.
Fermented drink.
Vinegar.
-Sugar.
Green fruit boiled with sugar
Ripe fruit
Yunot Matted fiber.
Trunk.
Wood jFlooring.
I Canes.
Troughs.
Water pipes.
Smudge.
Protection from robbers of fish ponds since the crushed
fruit placed along the banks irritates the feet.
Thatching.
Rain coats.
Cabonegro or ejti fiber.... -T^^^^,"
LBrushes.
.Starch.
Root for smudge.
rStarch (Java sago; yuro),
LWaste for hog food.
SUGAR.
62. While many roots, grass stalks, trees, and palm saps contain more or less sugar, it is only in a
few of them that it is found in such a degree and so sparingly mixed with other bodies as to allow of
its profitable extraction. The two largest sources of sugar are sugar beets and sugar cane. The maple
tree, a certain variety of sorghum, and the saps of certain palms yield sugar in commercial quantities
but they are of minor importance.
BEET SUGAR.
63. The Plant. — Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris) grow in temperate regions especially in Europe and in
the United States. Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Russia, Belgium, and Holland are the largest
producers and exporters of the sugar. The sugar beet is a whitish root resembling in a way the white
radish of the Philippines but many times as large.
64. The Processes. — The extraction of sugar from beets requires a large and very expensive plant
and consequently in all beet districts the farmers sell their crops to a sugar mill. The beets are plowed
up, taken to the factory, washed and sliced by machinery, and are then put in a series of tanks called
'Kaong (T.), irok (Mindoro), hibiok (Vis.), hidiok (B., Vis.), igok (Vis.).
30
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
a diffusion battery where the juice is extracted by means of hot water. In this way a larger percentage
of sugar is extracted from the beets than by pressing them through rollers as is done with sugar cane.
The liquid obtained from the diffusion batteries is treated with lime and then with carbon dioxide, fil-
tered to remove impurities (142), and run into vacuum pans where it is reduced to a thick sirup.
Vacuum pans are large kettles from which the air has been partly removed causing the pressure in them
to be reduced and the sirup to boil at a very low temperature. They reduce the possibility of burning
the sugar, a thing which often happens in the open-pan system. The sirup so obtained is run through
animal charcoal or bleached by sulphur fumes to remove the color, after which it is again heated in
vacuum pans until a concentration is reached at which the sugar crystallizes on cooling. The mass is
then removed, cooled, again crystallized, and the molasses separated by centrifugal machinery. The crys-
tallized sugar thus obtained is beet sugar (sucrose) .
CANE SUGAR.
65. The World. — Sugar cane (Saccharum officinale) grows in the tropics and subtropics in the same
localities as does rice. A mean annual temperature of about 80° F. with but little range and 60 inches of
rainfall, or proper irrigation, is best suited for its cultivation. In the
subtropical regions the cane contains considerably less sugar than in
warmer climates. Though Java and Cuba export the most cane sugar
in the world, Louisiana, Hawaii, Brazil, Central
America, Mauritius, Porto Rico, Mexico, and the
Philippines are important. The competition
of beet sugar has revolutionized the method
of producing sugar from cane; the improve-
ment of beets by cultivation and selection
and their consequent increase of sugar
content, and the improvement in methods of
extraction has increased the amount of sugar
secured from beets and decreased the
cost of producing it. To meet this
competition the cultivation of
India
GeiTTiany
C8
a
3
II!
3
.3
9)
CO
3
-^
CO
-a
<v
c
OS
■-5
a
(75
3)
3
o
sugar cane and the methods
of producing sugar from
it have had to be
improved.
CQ
a
be
e
3
2
u
o
o
o
A.
Others
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF SUGAR.
(After Hartlioloniew. )
66. Philippine Methods. — As the Philippines still afford examples of antiquated methods the systems in
vogue here will be explained.'
Machinery has not been adapted to the cultivation of sugar cane to the same extent that it has in
the cultivation of other crops. On modern plantations steel plows and harrows are used. In Negros,
and in fact throughout the Islands, the ordinary native wooden plow is employed in connection with
bamboo harrow. In planting, the tops of the cane are thrust into the ground or into a hole made
by a pointed stick and the crop is cultivated by plowing under the weeds and protecting the roots
against the rain until the leaves become dense enough to form a protection. The average period of
growth is under one year in Negros. Fertilizers are seldom employed and consequently, from necessity,
the long used land is allowed to lie fallow for from one to three years. The richness of the juice
and its purity, and the amount of juice obtained from the cane depend upon the variety of cane
grown, on the soil, climatic conditions, and cultivation. The native cane ordinarily grown in Negros is
' Walker, The Sugar Industry in the Island of Negros, Bureau of Science, Manila, 1910,
STARCHES, SUGAR, AND ALCOHOL
31
equal to that of almost any other sugar producing country in the world, its sucrose content averaging
above 16 per cent. On rich land, especially land receiving yearly deposits of silt, the shoots, or ratoons,
are allowed to sprout from the older roots for as many as eight crops, instead of new cane being planted.
Time and expense are saved by not replanting, but each successive ratoon crop has a smaller sugar
content.
The cane is cut with bolos and transported to the mills over light tramways, the rails of which are
easily removed from place to place and cars of which are run by bullocks, carabaos, or by men. Often
it is carried in carts pulled by carabaos. In Negros most sugar mills are run by steam generated by
burning dried bagasse, as the stalks from which the juice has been expressed are called. A few mills
are run by water power and a few small ones by animal power. The steam mills treat from 50 to 60
metric tons of sugar cane per day, the cane passing between three rollers which press out the juice.
On the average 75 per cent of the sugar content of the cane is obtained, 25 per cent remaining in the
bagasse. The average amount of juice extracted is 64.5 per cent on the weight of the cane.
In order to remove impurities and crystallize the sugar by evaporating the water, the juice is
boiled in open kettles. The juice flows from the mill into a large kettle from which two rows of
smaller ones extend. It is heated and then dipped into the next two smaller receptacles where it is
further heated and sometimes a
certain amount of lime added. It is
then ladled into still smaller kettles
where boiling takes place and the
impurities, coagulated by the lime,
rise to the surface as scum and are
skimmed off. The juice is now
poured into fourth and smaller kettles
where it is further boiled and limed
to concentrate and purify it. When
it is decided that the greatest possible
purity has been reached by this
method, the sugar is ladled into the
two smallest kettles where it is boiled
until the mass reaches a consistency
to properly crystallize, whereupon it
is taken out and poured into wooden
trays. Crystallization is produced by
stirring the mass with a spade.
Considerable sugar is lost in the scum,
from spilling the juice as it is ladled, making pilon sugar.
and by being caramelized or even burned through overheating. It is estimated that in all the processes
(including milling) a total of 44 per cent of the sucrose in the cane is lost and that the yield of
sugar per weight of cane amounts to 8.2 per cent.
The purity of the sugar depends on the purity of the juice obtained from the cane, the degree to
which the juice is purified in the process of boiling it and the care with which the final operation of
boiling is carried on, particularly as to whether the sugar is burned or not. Negros sugar is classified
in Iloilo as (a) "superior" 1, 2, 3, or "assorted," (b) "wet" or (c) "current." The two lowest grades
constitute only about 15 per cent of the whole output. In the world's market, sugars are graded by the
polarization standard in which 99.6° is commercial refined sugar. At present the polarization of the
average superior grades of Negros sugar (that is "assorted") is 84°. "Current" has a polarization
minimum of 70°. The average of all Negros sugar is 82°. Ninety-six degree sugar is the product of
modern mills. Negros sugar is packed in bayons of one-half pico (31.625 kilograms) each, no attempt
being made to remove the molasses. It is shipped to Iloilo on small sailing vessels, which are able to
ascend the rivers along the coast of Negros. In Iloilo it is assorted and exported.
In central Luzon conditions are perhaps even more primitive. The percentage of steam mills is
much less, and many animal-power mills are used, some of them equipped with wooden rollers. Stone
mills are employed in a few localities and, where the cane is pressed in very small quantity, a crusher,
consisting of a log weighted with stones and swinging in the grooves of wooden horses, crushes the
32
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
cane. One line of open kettles is used, and the sugar, not being boiled as dry as in Negros, conse-
quently contains considerable more water. It is packed in pilons (353), earthen vessels tapering to
the bottom through a hole in which the molasses gradually escape. The pilons are allowed to drain
several months, and the resultant sugar is equivalent to the "muscovado" of the West Indies and the
"brown sugar" of Europe and the United States. This system allows partial refining of the sugar
in a crude way and the molasses obtained, having a high sugar content, is a valuable by-product. The
Negros method of producing sugar is now being followed to a greater extent in Luzon.
In the Ilocos Provinces the sugar is put into earthen water jars " having no hole at the bottom.
A depression is often made in the center of the sugar from which the molasses is dipped out as it
accumulates (81; 83).
67. Kodem methods. — In modern methods of cane-sugar production the tendency is toward large
plantations and irrigation. Cultivation is usually done by machinery and where fertilizers are not
used, rotation systems have been worked out and are followed. While no machinery has as yet been
successful in cutting the stalks, transportation facilities to the mill have been greatly improved and all
parts of the haciendas are tapped by steam railroads pulling self-dumping cars. Sometimes canals are
cut through the plantations and barges carry the cane to the mill. Automatic feeders take the cane
Sugar
Cane.
Human food.
Human food.
#-
^Raw sugar
Refined sugar.
Molasses.
Caramel.
-Alcohol.
stalk
Juice
Molasses
-
Animal food.
Human food.
Bagasse.
Animal food.
Sirup.
Alcohol and be^
Blacking.
.Binder in briquetting.
i^erages (rum, bassi).
Leaves ,
Todder.
Fertilizer.
Fuel.
from the cars and feed it to the crusher. It has been calculated that a fairly good modern mill
consisting of nine rollers with a preliminary crusher, will obtain at least 92 per cent of the sucrose in
Negros cane as against 75 per cent gotten by the three-roller mill as now used." Boiling is carried
on in vacuum pans similar to those used in the beet-sugar industry. Less sugar is lost by being
"inverted" because a lower temperature is maintained and caramelization does not take place. Less
fuel is required, the pans being heated by copper coils through which steam circulates. The sugar is
separated from the molasses by centrifugal separators in a few moments and is dried. The product
so obtained is of very much higher grade than any produced in the Philippines, polarizing at about 96°
as against 82° for the average of Negros sugar. It has been estimated that in all the processes of a
modern mill working with Negros sugar about 15 per cent of the total sugar content would be lost as
against 44 per cent under present conditions, and that a yield of 12.5 per cent sugar on the weight of-
the cane would be obtained as against 8.2 per cent by present methods. Where, as in the Philippines,
individual haciendas are not large enough to supply a sufficient quantity of cane to keep a modern sugar
mill busy, sugar centrals are established in which the cane of the surrounding country is treated.
Such centrals either buy the cane or keep a certain portion of the product, and may be either owned by
outside capital or be put up by the landowners who are interested. One great advantage of such a
system is that the farmers have the burden of manufacturing the sugar removed from their shoulders
and are able to give entire attention to the cultivation of the crop.
" Burnay (II.), tapayan (T.), tatiao (Vis.), tinaja (Sp.).
' This is equivalent to 78.5 per cent of the weight of the cane as juice, as against 65.5 for the present methods.
STARCHES, SUGAR, AND ALCOHOL
33
68. Molasses. — The molasses from "muscovado" sugar contains much sucrose and is used as human
food and in distilling rum (78). The molasses from the centrifugal machines does not contain a great
percentage of sugar and is used for distilling industrial alcohol for fuel, and in making briquets.
REFINED SUGAR.
69. Raw sugar from any source is refined by dissolving it in water, removing the impurities and
bleaching it, crystallizing, separating it from the molasses by centrifugal machines, granulating and
grinding it. The resultant product is known as granulated sugar, and is white in color and dry.
There is no difference between refined beet and refined cane sugar. Refined sugar comes packed in
wooden barrels, or in light cotton bags within gunny sacks. Beet sugar is usually refined in the
factories in which it is produced but very little cane sugar is refined where it is grown, most of it
being sent to the United States, the United Kingdom, and other countries where it is to be used and
where it is refined. The trade in raw sugar is the most important part of commerce in sugar. Refined
sugar may appear in its granulated form, and can be made into cubes before it is dried, or may be
reduced to powdered sugar.
THE SUGAR TRADE.
70. World. — America uses cane sugar for the most part, while beet sugar is the principal kind
consumed in Europe. The United Kingdom is a very large importer, and Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
and the southern European countries in general, import more or less. In the East, Java produces and
exports most of the sugar, but the Philippine Islands are also important. Though sugar cane is raised
in Queensland and beets in Victoria, Australia imports. Although great quantities of cane are grown
103506 3
34
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
there, India imports on account of its immense domestic consumption. Sugar cane is raised in southern
China but raw sugar is imported, especially via Hongkong and Shanghai where there are refineries
which reexport a small amount of refined sugar besides supplying local demand. Japan imports sugar
from Formosa. French Indo China is an exporter of cane sugar.
71. Philippine Trade. — Philippine sugar is graded according to its quality and the locality producing
or exporting it — thus, Iloilo "superior" 1, 2, 3, or assorted,
"humedo" (wet) and "corriente" (current), Taal or Ilocos.
The relative importance of sugar provinces can be determined
from the graph. The domestic trade in sugar is also important.
A small amount of refined sugar is produced in the Islands
and considerable is imported. The usual form in
which sugar is consumed in central Luzon is that
of small cubes of pilon sugar. In the Visa-
yas the better grades of export sugar are
consumed, and some pilon sugar is also made
for this purpose, certain towns often
United States
Uiiited Kingdom
a
a
a.
.2
eft
C8
-3
making pilon sugar especially for
local trade. In the
Ilocos Provinces,
sugar sirup is
considerably
used. Pilon
w
01
Por-
tugal
Nor
New
Zea
land
■s
o
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS OF SUGAR.
(After Bartholomew.)
sugar is partially refined by the old European method of claying. Wet clay is placed over the pilon
and water is poured on the layer. It percolates through the clay and sugar, removing many impurities
and thus "washing" the sugar, which in the course of time finally becomes dry. Banana leaves are
sometimes used instead of clay. Another important form of sugar eaten locally in the Philippines is the
true "panocha," which is made by pouring the dry, cooked, crystallized mass into a piece of a coconut
shell where it hardens. A sugar cake of caramel (made by heating sugar to a temperature of
220° C.) known as "caramelo" is widely used and is made locally in nearly all towns. It is sometimes
flavored with lemon, often the white of egg is added to it and it is occasionally adulterated with flour.
It is considered in a sense a refined sugar and is used for sweetening and also as a candy. ■ Certain
grades, such as "Pampanga" caramelo, enter inter-provincial commerce (79).
The high-water mark in the Philippine sugar industry was caused by the opening of the Suez Canal
and the consequent shortening of the route to Europe. When the competition of beet sugar reduced
the price, the production of Philippine sugar declined greatly, and although the industry is now
increasing in importance the output is far below what it was from 1880 to 1890. The free entry of
Philippine sugar into the United States has given an impetus to the production of sugar and increased
the export considerably. Most of the better grades now enter the United States, and the "wet" and
"current" grades are shipped to China.
__ 1 1 1 L
Occidental Negros
Batangas
1
Iloilo
Tarlac
1
n.
Sur,
a
a
n
c
<
o
a.
B
Ph
z
I I
Others
PHILIPPINE PRODUCTION OF SUGAR, BY PROVINCES, 1910 — PERCENTAGE.
(Bureau of Agriculture.)
PALM SUGARS." "
72. General. — The juices of ^f^alms concerning which we have data, contain about 15 per cent
of sugar. As yet, however, no ^rge commercial production of sugar from them has ever succeeded.
" Circular 12, Supplement 1, Bureau of Education, Manila,
1911.
" Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Sec. A, Vol. VI, Nos. 2
and 3.
STARCHES, SUGAR, AND ALCOHOL
35
Probably a little palm sugar is exported from certain tropical countries and the raw palm sugar,
called jaggery in India and pakaskas in the Philippines, is made for a considerable local trade. In
obtaining the sap either the ilower spathe is cut, as in the case of the nipa and the coconut, or the head
of the palm is tapped as with the buri. Unless is is preserved with lime the juice must be quickly boiled
down into sugar, since fermentation into alcohol rapidly takes place. In Java the sugar palm (61) is
extensively used for this purpose but in the Philippines its product is hardly known. Still less is the
fishtail palm (269), used extensively
in Ceylon, employed in the Philip-
pines for sugar production. In India,
particularly in Madras, coconut (193)
sugar is an important product, but
in the Philippines it is not made.
Date palms are sometimes used for
sugar production.
73. Philippine Palm Sugars. — In the
Philippines palm sugars are chieflj'^
made from the buri (275) and are of
commercial importance in the regions
around Dagupan and in lower Taya-
bas, where the buri palm is found
in abundance. Pakaskas is usually
packed in little boxes made of buri
leaf. Nipa (82) sugar though pro-
duced extensively in the nipa regions
is of less importance. Experiments
tend to show, however, that with a
modem mill the nipa regions can be
made to yield large quantities of
sugar, of very high purity and at a
very low cost. Such an industry may
become as important in the Philip-
pines as the production of alcohol
from nipa now is. The buri palm
dies when it has yielded its sap. If
the yield of sap can be regulated the
production of sugar from the buri
may also be of importance in regions
where large stands of the palm occur
close together.
OTHER SUGARS.
74. Maple Sugar. — Maple sugar is
produced in the northeastern part of
the United States and in Canada from
the sap of the maple tree. It is
never refined, for its high value comes
from the peculiar flavor of the raw
sugar. It is also made into sirup. Philippine sugar regions.
75. Sorghum and Corn. — Varieties of sorghum (22) and of corn produce sugars from their stalks.
These are usually consumed in the form of sirup (52) ,
ALCOHOL.
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES.
76. Alcoholic beverages are made by fermenting materials containing either starch or sugar.
Where starch is used it must be first changed to sugar either by chemical treatment or by other methods.
36
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
Fermentation is caused by small organisms which float in the air and settle on the material. They
are sometimes prepared and added. One ferment is yeast, which is used in making beer. A ferment
made from boiled rice is common in the Islands.
77. Fermented Juices. — Wine is made by fermenting the juice of the grape (49). Wines differ
according to the kind of grape from which they are made, the soil on which the grape grows, the
process employed, and their age. They contain from 8 to 15 per cent alcohol. France is the greatest
producer of wines and imports those of other countries to be mixed with h6r own or to be reexported
as French wine. Other important producing regions are: Italy, Spain, Austria-Hungary, Portugal,
Germany, and California. The Philippines import chiefly from Spain, France, and the United States.
Another important expressed juice is that of the apple (49), called cider, which is of some impor-
tance in temperate regions. The juice of a species of Agave (224) is consumed in Mexico and known as
pulque. Numerous rice wines, usually made by fermenting boiled rice (11), such as the sake of Japan
and the tapuy of the Igorots, are drunk in the East.
The palm wines known as tubas in the Philippines and toddies in India are important in the
tropics. They are the fermented saps of palms such
as the nipa (82), coconut (193), buri (275), and
sugar palms (61), and in certain regions of the
world are of great commercial importance. Since
they rapidly ferment and then change to vinegar
they are consumed only when very fresh. Tuba con-
tains about 15 per cent sugar which, if well fer-
mented, will change to about 7 per cent alcohol.
78. Malt Liquors. — Malt is made by allowing wet
grain to sprout on the floor of a dark room and
drying it. The malt is ground and boiled in water
and the resulting liquid fermented. Barley (20) is
the chief grain used to produce malt though rice
(11) is employed for this purpose in the tropics.
Beer is the principal malted liquor and obtains its
peculiarly bitter flavor from the addition of hops, the
fruit of a vine the best of which comes from Bo-
hemia. Beer contains about 4 per cent alcohol.
The Philippines import beer and there is a brewery
in Manila.
79. Distilled Beverages. — Alcohol has a lower boil-
ing point than water. In the process of distillation
the alcohol is vaporized by heating the fermented
material in a closed receptacle. The vapors are al-
lowed to pass into another receptacle where the al-
cohol is condensed into a liquid. Distilled beverages
are also called distilled liquors or spirits and are obtained from various fermented grains and juices.
They are called whisky, brandy, and the like according to the material from which they are obtained. In
the Philippines the term "wine" is sometimes, and improperly, used in reference to distilled liquors.
Whisky is produced from grain (4; 15; 19), brandy (cognac) from wine (77) ; rum is distilled from
sugar-cane juice (66) or molasses (68) and is often flavored with pineapple (35). Some liquors acquire
their flavor by being distilled over berries or seeds such as gin " which is distilled over juniper berries,
and anisado, in the distillation of which aniseed (106) is used. Distilled liquors are often adulterated,
caramel (71) and other substances being added to give flavor and diflferent dyes for color. Such liquors
are also often imitated. For instance, gin and anisado are made by mixing sugar and the essence of
juniper berries or aniseed with alcohol instead of distilling the alcohol over the berries or seeds. An
alcoholic beverage containing sugar is said to be sweet and one which contains little or no sugar is
said to be dry. Few distilled liquors contain more than 50 per cent alcohol. The Philippines import
whisky, brandy, gin, and other distilled beverages.
NIPA SWAMP.
"Ginebra (Sp.).
STARCHES, SUGAR, AND ALCOHOL
37
Industrial alcohol is used in the arts to dissolve (315) resins
INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL.
80. Industrial alcohol may be obtained not only from materials containing starch and sugar but
also from wood. The cheapest extensive sources of industrial alcohol are the potato (30) and manioc
(54), and it is beHeved that the nipa palm (82) used in the Philippines ranks with these as to the
cost of the alcohol produced from it.
(such as shellac), for fuel in alcohol
engines, stoves, and lamps, and in
countless processes of manufacture.
Since all alcoholic beverages are heav-
ily taxed, industrial alcohol is usually
denatured by having something added
which unfits it for drinking either
on account of the taste or the smell
which is imparted. Such denatured
alcohol is not taxed and consequently
can be furnished cheaply for in-
dustrial purposes. In the Philippines
methyl, or wood alcohol, which is
poisonous, and pyridine, which is
produced from coal tar (327) or bone
oil, are used to denature alcohol.
Chemically pure alcohol is very dif-
ficult and expensive to produce since
in the process of distillation consider-
able water and other impurities go
over with the alcohol. The process
of redistillation in order to produce
purer alcohol is called rectifying.^^
PHILIPPINE ALCOHOLS.
81. Miscellaneous. — In the Ilocos
Provinces a beverage is made from
sugar-cane juice (66) to which samak
{Macaranga tanarius) leaves and
bark, a vegetable ferment, are added.
There are two kinds of bassi, that
which is allowed to ferment in large
jars buried in the ground underneath
the houses, and the distilled beverage.
Among many of the wild tribes in the
Philippines a wine is made from
boiled rice or other cereal such as
Job's tears (23). In this process the
cereal is cooked and has added to it
a prepared ferment, the mass being
kept in a jar until a fermented liquid
is formed.
'* The percentage of alcohol in a liquid may be determined
either by weight or volume. In proof spirits one-half
of the volume is alcohol. The purity of alcohol is
often reckoned in the percentage of proof spirit. Thus,
if a liquor is 85 per cent proof it contains one-half of
85 per cent or 42 J per cent alcohol. The amount of
alcohol in a liquid can be determined by placing a
PHILIPPINE DISTRIBUTION OF NIPA SWAMPS.
hydrometer in it, the degree or percentage of alcohol
being registered on the scale. The Guy Lussac hydrom-
eter, in which 100° marks absolute alcohol at 15°
C, is most used to determine percentages of alcohol.
Another system used in the Philippines is the Cartier
system in which 44° indicates pure alcohol and 0°
indicates that no alcohol is present.
38
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
82. Tub4." '" — The chief local sources of beverages and alcohols, however, are the tubas of various
palms. While the buri (275) and sugar-palm (61) tubas are consumed, those of the nipa {Nipa fruc-
ticans) and coconut palms are the most important. Immense quantities of the tuba of the coconut palm
(193) are drunk in the coconut regions of southern Luzon and the Visayan Islands the number of
trees devoted to tuba gathering being very large (193). The juice will not keep very long and its
gathering in bamboo tubes and transportation in cans or earthen pots about the immediate neighborhood
give employm^t to many men. It is usually colored with the bark of a mangrove '' {Ceriops tagal)
(298). In a few districts such as Mahayhay, Laguna, and Albay, coconut tuba is distilled. While a
considerable quantity of nipa is consumed as a fermented beverage, its chief use is for the distillation of
alcohol. Nine-tenths of the alcohol produced in the Philippines originates from the nipa palm. The
Provinces of Bulacan, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Capiz, Cagayan, Surigao, Samar, and Tayabas have
particularly large nipales, which occur on the deltas of rivers within reach of tide water (298), and
the first three provinces produce the most bino or alak (arak) as it is known in the Philippines (73; 77;
80; 270; 300). Rice, corn, molasses, and sugar cane are also used in the Philippines for distilling,
Young leaves to surround cooked rice.
Shingles for house building.
Hats.
Leaflets Mats and bags.
Pails for dipping water.
Coarse baskets.
Nipa
Palm.
Leaf-
Brooms.
Midribs Tying rice bundles.
Sewing nipa shingles.
TFuel.
.Stalk ] Floating logs.
[Material for sewing shingles.
Fruit.
jFood.
[Sweetmeats.
Tuba.
Drink (fresh).
Sugar.
- Fermented drink.
Alcohol.
Vinegar.
molasses often being added to tuba. Formerly many small and crude stills in which a large quantity
of alcohol was lost were operated in the Philippines. At present the industry is centralized under Gov-
ernment supervision '* in larger distilleries where distillation is carried on more scientifically. Much of
the low grade alcohol is sent to Manila where it is rectified and some of it made into imitation liquors
the most popular of which are anisette, anisado, gin, vino de coco, and vino de nipa. They are exten-
sively used in the Philippines and are very important in commerce, being found in the tiendas of all
towns, and entering extensively into barter for abaca (222) and other products. They vary from 10
to 55 per cent in alcoholic content. Though industrial alcohol can be produced as cheaply from nipa
tuba as from any other product, as yet but little denatured alcohol is used in the Philippines (83).
VINEGAR.
83. If fermentation is allowed to continue after the sugar has been changed to alcohol, acetic
acid is formed and the liquid becomes vinegar. The best vinegar is that made from apple cider (79) .
"Circular 12, Supplement 1, Bureau of Education, Manila, " Tangal (T.). Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Sec. A,
1911. Vol. VI, No. 1, p. 52.
" Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Sec. A, Vol. VI. Nos. 2 " Annual Report of the Collector of Internal Revenue, Ma-
and 8. nila.
STARCHES, SUGAR, AND ALCOHOL 39
In the Philippines sugar juice (66) and the various palm juices (82) are employed and vinegar has
considerable local importance.
HELPS AND HOME WORK.
1. Crush a washed and peeled manioc root and separate the starch by mixing it with water, straining through a piece
of sinamay to get rid of fiber, and allowing the water to remain quiet and the starch to settle.
2. Write a composition on Philippine starch plants.
3. Write compositions on how starch is made (o) from rice. (6) From other materials of which you know.
4. Make some tapioca or sago.
5. Extract a palm starch.
6. What starches are used in your locality and for what purposes?
7. Why does water boil at a lower temperature on a mountain than in the lowlands? (The same reason holds for the
lowering of the boiling point in a vacuum).
8. Why can beet sugar compete with cane sugar?
9. How is sugar packed in your locality? How many picos of sugar are there in a pilon? A bayon? A burnay? How
many sizes of pilons are there? Put these measures into kilos.
10. Is sugar imported into your town? If so, from what towns?
11. Is sugar produced or exported from your town?
12. Write a composition on the sugar industry of your locality.
13. Write a composition on caramelo making.
14. Find the grades of raw sugar and the price of each grade in your locality. (Consult the newspaper and sugar
merchants.)
15. Write a composition on the sugar palm.
16. Indicate the wine-producing countries on a map of the world.
17. Mix water and alcohol together in such proportion (e. g., 3 of water to 1 of alcohol) that a lighted match applied
to a piece of cotton soaked in the mixture will be extinguished. Put a quantity of this mixture in a small closed
receptacle and boil it, allowing the vapors to pass over into another closed receptacle connected with it. The
condensed liquid thus formed in the second receptacle will burn. If possible distill alcohol from fermented tubd
or sugar-cane juice.
18. Which has the lower boiling point, alcohol or water?
19. Why is Bulacan a large alcohol producer?
20. How many liters of tuba will a nipa palm give in a year? A coconut palm? A burl palm? How many liters
of tuba are necessary to obtain one liter of alcohol?
21. How much alcohol is there in anisado?
22. Is alcohol distilled in your locality?
23. Why is bassi put in closed jars and buried underground?
24. Are alcohol and alcoholic beverages imported into your town?
25. How long does it take tuba to ferment in the Philippines?
26. Make a list of the uses of industrial alcohol.
27. Make a list of the materials in your town which could be used to make alcohol.
28. Write a composition on different alcoholic beverages, the raw materials, the manufacture, their sale and prices.
29. Write a composition about vinegar.
30. Could vinegar be formed if the juice were kept in a closed vessel? Why?
museum:.
Corn starch. Rice starch. White potato. Camote. Manioc root. Manioc starch. Tapioca. Sago flour. Pearl
sago. Arrowroot. Arrowroot starch. Starch from sugar palm, buri, etc. Varieties of Philippine sugar-cane juice in
different stages of boiling. Grades of raw sugar. Bagasse. Crystallized sugar. Powdered sugar. Loaf sugar. Mo-
lasses. Sirup. Bayons. Pilones of different sizes. Burnay. Animal charcoal. Tubas. Alcohol. Nipa palm. Malt.
Hops. Samak leaves, berries, and bark. Vinegars.
Chapter IV.
BEVERAGE CROPS, SPICES, NARCOTICS, AND DRUGS.
BEVERAGE CROPS.
84. Just as alcoholic beverages owe their consumption to the effect of the alcohol in them on the
human system, so beverage crops contain a stimulant principle for vi'hich they are drunk.
COFFEE.
85. The Berry. — The coffee plant requires a great
deal of heat and is found only in the tropics, being
best raised in tropical highlands. There are several
cultivated species of the coffee but the Arabian
(Coffea arabica) yields most of the coffee of com-
merce. Liberian coffee (C. liberica), Kongo coffee
(C. robusta) and Sierra Leone coffee {C. steno-
phylla) are of sturdier growth but not so widely
cultivated. The coffee is a shrub the ordinary fruit
or berry of which contains two seeds or beans.
Some berries growing on the same plant contain but
one bean, round in form and called "pearl" or "snail"
coffee, which, since they are considered to be of better
quality, are sorted out from the flattened beans.
The ripe berries, red in color, are stripped from
the twigs or shaken to the ground, have the skin
and a part of the pulp surrounding the beans re-
moved (usually by machinery) and are then soaked
in water and fermented, so that the pulp may be
more easily removed and to improve the aroma.
They are washed clean, and spread on a hard floor or
large trays to dry in the sun. Artificial dryers are
now also employed especially where the sun's heat
can not be relied upon. The two skins covering the
beans, a thick outer or parchment skin and a thin
flaky inner one, called the silver skin, are removed
by machinery and the beans graded and sacked. Frequently the beans are not hulled however, since
coffee carries best in the parchment. The quality of coffee depends on the kind and condition of the
fruit, the care exercised in fermenting and drying the beans, and on the length of time allowed for
storage since coffee improves with age. The flavor and aroma of coffee is brought out by roasting.
Since this is usually done in the locality where it is to be consumed, coffee enters foreign commerce
unroasted.
86. Xinds. — The most famous brands are the Mocha, which came originally from Arabia and received
its name from the town through which the greater part of it was shipped ; Java, which came from the
East Indies; and Rio, which comes from Brazil largely through Rio de Janeiro. Coffees coming from
other countries are now also called by these names. Besides being graded according to the locality of
production, coffee beans are also sorted as to color, size, shape, and age. They are usually packed in
gunny or sisal sacks.
40
COFFEE.
BEVERAGE CROPS, SPICES, NARCOTICS, AND DRUGS
41
87. Trade. — The history of coffee affords an extreme example of the vicissitudes through which
many tropical agricultural industries have passed. Originally most of the commercial supply came
from Arabia ; then the West Indies and later Java became the leader. From the year 1880 the industry
in the East was ruined by the attacks of a minute fungus, Hemileia vastratrix. In Ceylon it practically
destroyed the coffee industry which at that time was of as great monetary importance as the abaca
industry now is in the Philippines.
For a number of years Brazil has produced about 75 per cent of the world's coffee; most of the
remainder is obtained from Central America, South-American countries within the tropics, the Dutch
East Indies, West Indies, Mexico, India, southwest Arabia, and the coasts of the Gulf of Guinea.
The countries affected by the fungus have been attempting to overcome it by the cultivation of
trees sturdier than the Arabian. The Liberian gave great promise but the aroma of the coffee is not
very highly appreciated and it is now of little commercial importance. The Congo and Sierra Leone
and certain hybrid coffees give greater promise of becoming successful substitutes for the Arabian.
The greatest importers of coffee are the United States, Germany, France, Austria-Hungary,
Holland, Belgium, and countries of the temperate zone in
general. With the exception of the United Kingdom, Russia,
and Spain coffee is the principal beverage in Europe. It is
also the most used beverage in the United States and in the
countries where it is produced.
88. Philippine Coffee. — The Philippines at one time produced
enough coffee to have a surplus for exportation, most of
it originating in the highlands of Cavite and Batangas.
But the plants were attacked by the pest, and not
enough is now produced for home consumption.
Coffee is imported from Java direct or through
Singapore. The variety cultivated in the
Philippines is the Arabian. The Mountain
Province, Nueva Vizcaya, and parts of the
Moro Province, as Cotabato and Bukidnon,
export and, except for the
blight, are adapted to its
Brazil
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03
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o
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o
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J3
3!
Africa
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COFFEE.
(After Bartholomew.)
cultivation. While the dry method of curing is employed to some extent the beans are more often
pulped with the aid of water. Most of the product is left in the parchment skin.^ Cavite and Batangas
still produce some coffee. There are many other Philippine highland regions suited to its cultivation.
The industry has been introduced into several of these and is reported as expanding in many of the
localities where it is even now of export importance.
89. Coffee Substitute and Adulterants. — Coffee sometimes enters commerce roasted and ground, but
as it rapidly loses its aroma in this condition it is necessary to pack it in air-tight tins. Ground coffee
is often adulterated with chicory {Cichorium intybus), a root grown in parts of Europe, dried, roasted,
and ground so that it lookes very much like coffee, though lacking in its properties. It is sometimes
molded into the shape of the beans and mixed with the whole coffee. Substitutes for coffee can be made
by roasting various cereals but they have neither the taste of coffee nor its properties, lacking in caffeine.
They are used, however, by persons with whom real coffee does not agree, and therefore enter commerce
to some extent.
' A cavan of parchment coffee will usually give half that amount of hulled coffee.
42
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
TEA.
90. Preparation. — Tea consists of the dried leaves of a tropical and subtropical shrub ( Thea sinensis) .
The best comes from the bud and the youngest leaves. If the leaves are picked and withered, rolled
by hand or machinery, allowed to shghtly ferment and then dried, black tea is produced. If after
rolling they are not allowed to ferment but are carefully dried, as in pans over a charcoal fire with
little exposure to the air, green tea is produced. Teas are graded according to their color, the place in
which they are grown, the process of curing, and the age of the leaves used. Tea is packed in wooden
boxes lined with lead or zinc and in retail trade appears in small tins and packages surrounded by foil.
Brick tea is made by pressing powdered tea into flat cakes; the factories are in Hangkow, China, and
the bricks are consumed in Russia and Siberia.
91. Trade. — China formerly furnished nearly all the tea used in the world, but now its exports are
decreasing as northern India, Ceylon, Japan, and Formosa are producing great quantities. Tea is also
grown in Java and Sumatra and all southeastern Asia. The principal importing countries are Great
Britain, Russia, United States, Australasia, Holland, and Canada. It is the chief beverage in Great
Britain, Australasia, Canada, South Africa, Russia, Siberia, and in the principal countries where it is
produced. Most of the Philippine import comes from China. Tea can be grown in most tropical and
subtropical countries but, requiring cheap labor and skill in its preparation, is therefore limited to the
densely populated Orient.
92. Mate. — Mate or Paraguay tea is produced from the leaves of a shrub (Ilex pamguayenses)
semicultivated in Paraguay, northern Argentina, and southern Brazil. There is considerable commerce
in it in South America where it is drunk as a tea, and it is the chief beverage in Paraguay, Uruguay,
Argentina, and southern Brazil. While it is drunk by millions of persons yet the commerce is small since
it is used in the regions in which it is produced.
CACAO.
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03
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o
03
93. The Beans. — The cacao plant grows only in tropical regions at moderate altitudes.
There are many varieties most of them belonging to the species Theo-
broma cacao. The pods are cut off when ripe and are sometimes heaped
in a dry place for several days, but are usually opened immediately.
The "beans" or "nibs," from 25 to 40 in number, are taken
out by hand. In some places the pulp around them .is
-a
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w. ma
Gold
Coast
Ceylon
Cubfti
Porto Rico
Haiti ISurinam I Jamaica lb. Bi.inA.
Others
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF CACAO.
(After Bartholomew.)
removed and the beans simply dried in the sun, a process which produces an inferior product which
is liable to mold. In most countries they are fermented in large boxes or bins for several days to
improve their aroma and taste. During the process the beans are shoveled over from one to several
times, according to the temperature of the atmosphere, the kind of cacao, and the size of the
receptacle. The beans are then sometimes washed but are usually dried in their own juice either on
trays or on cement floors. The trays may be on wheels or they may be stationary with a roof which
can be quickly rolled over them in case of rain. Artificial drying machines are now used in some
countries having long rainy seasons. Drying and sweating are sometimes alternated. In some places
the cured beans are sprinkled with pulverized red clay and are then rubbed between the hands or more
frequently "danced" with the feet. The clay coating cracks off with the outer skin in the drying ovens
of chocolate factories. Great care must be exercised in the fermenting and drying processes.
94. Manufacture. — In the factories the cacao beans are roasted (a process which produces a further
flavor), crushed, and the shells are winnowed out. The pieces of beans remaining are called roasted
nibs. If the nibs be ground to fine paste and, while warm, molded into cakes, bitter chocolate is
produced. If sugar, and sometimes vanilla (105), be added, sweet chocolate is the result. Bitter
chocolate is used in making confectionery. Pure chocolate contains about 50 per cent oil. In order
to make it easier to mix with milk or water, up to two-thirds of the oil (201) is extracted by heating
and pressing the powdered nibs, or the chocolate is treated with chemicals. The material is then
BEVERAGE CROPS, SPICES, NARCOTICS, AND DRUGS 43
reduced to a fine and dry powder called cocoa or cocoa powder and enters commerce packed in tins.
The ground hulls or shells of the beans are sometimes used as a cheap substitute for cocoa, and cacao
products are often adulterated with flour or starch and ground up nuts of various kinds are sometimes
added. On account of the high percentage of fat and starch which it contains the nutritive value of
cacao is great.
95. Trade. — Brazil, St. Thomas (Portuguese Africa), Ecuador, and Trinidad are the principal
exporters of cacao beans, but they are also sent from Venezuela, Central American States, the West
Indies, and German and English West Africa. In the East, the Dutch East Indies and Ceylon are
fairly large exporters of cacao beans. Europe and the United States are the principal importers.
Chocolate is the chief beverage of Spain. Holland and Switzerland occupy first place as exporters of
chocolate and cocoa,
96. Philippine Cacao Industry. — While the cacao tree grows well in many localities of the Philippines,
not enough beans are produced to supply local demand and the deficiency must be supplied from other
countries. Abra, Cavite, Batangas, Albay, Iloilo, Misamis, and a few other provinces send small
amounts to Manila, Cebu, and Iloilo, or produce enough for local use. There are chocolate factories
in Manila and chocolate is made in a small way in tiendas throughout the Islands. In the latter it is
worked up by hand into the form of small balls or cakes, which usually contain considerable sugar
and ground nuts (192; 195). There is quite a retail trade in cacao beans since many families grind
them at home and mix the powder with sugar, and spices, such as cinnamon (98). This home
manufacture is often done by men whose business it is to go from house to house making chocolate.
In the Philippines cacao beans are occasionally fermented by being wrapped in green leaves and then
dried in the sun, but more often they are thrown into jars of water and allowed to remain a few days,
after which they are taken out, washed in fresh water, and dried in the sun. Sometimes the pulp is
removed by stirring the beans in rice husks. Chocolate is the principal beverage in the Philippines.
SPICES.
97. Peppers. — Pepper - is the dried seed of a climbing plant (Piper nigrum) . It is extensively
exported from the Straits Settlements, where it is most widely grown, from the Dutch East Indies,
Burma, Siam, and India. Black pepper is made by grinding the whole dried green berry; in making
white pepper the ripe fruits are washed, the pulp and skin thus being removed, and the berries dried
and ground. The pepper plant is found in the Philippines. Cayenne, or red pepper, => is produced
from the dried pods of several Capsicum species by grinding them. They are grown generally
throughout tropical and subtropical regions and grow wild in the Philippines. The plant Capsicum
frutescens is cultivated here for its leaves which are also used as a spice.
98. Cinnamon. — Cinnamon * is the dried bark from the shoots of several Cinnamomum species, large
trees indigenous to the tropical Orient. The best or quill bark, is obtained from the young shoots
while the larger pieces are known as chips. The finest true cinnamon comes from C. zeylanicum in
Ceylon but it is also produced and exported from other tropical countries of Asia. Cassia bark, which
is cheaper than true cinnamon, is exported from south China, northern India, and other places.
Varieties of cinnamon grow in the Philippines. Their bark is used here to considerable extent and
also the leaves which are known as "laurel," but should not be confused with the real "laurel" leaves
as bought at the Chinese stores. The Cinnamomum mindanaense, a species very close to C. zeylanicum
and yielding a bark like the cinnamon of commerce, is fairly common in parts of Mindanao, as in the
hills behind Davao. Essential oils used in perfumery and medicine, and as flavors are obtained in
Europe and America from the leaves, bark, and roots of cinnamon trees (182).
99. Nutmeg. — Nutmegs = are the dried kernel of a small fruit {Myristica fragrans) groviTi
particularly in the Dutch East Indies, though the tree is also cultivated in other equatorial regions.
The red outer covering of the seed is called mace when dried. Nutmegs can be grown in the
southernmost islands of the Philippines.
100. Ginger. — Ginger * (Zingiber officinale) is extensively grown in and exported from Bengal,
Jamaica, and other West Indies and Africa. It grows widely in the Philippines but the roots have
' Pimienta (Sp.), pamienta (T., II.). * Canela.
'Chillies (E.), siling labuyo (T.), silit sairo (II.), larang ' Anis cahoy (T.), anis moscada (T., Pamp., II.).
pacite (Tayabas), laring anis (Pamp.), siling kulikot ' Luya (T., B.), laya (II., Pamp., B.), \\xy& (Vis.).
(Cebu), siling polipog (Negros).
44 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
only a small local trade. Coated ginger is made by drying the green roots in the sun, after they have
been placed in boiling water a few minutes; uncoated ginger is washed and peeled before being dried,
is bleached in the sun, and sometimes covered with lime. From China, ginger is exported preserved in
sugar. Ginger is used in medicines and as a flavor, for which purposes it appears as a powder or an
extract (182).
101. Turmeric. — Turmeric ' {Curcuma longa) grows in southeastern Asia. The young roots are the
principal ingredient of curry powder, the older ones being used in dyeing (287). It grows more or
less wild in the Philippines and is used to color foods and cottons.
102. Cloves. — Cloves * are the dried flowerbuds of a tree (Caryophyllus aromaticus) grown in
Zanzibar, on the east coast of Africa, and also in the East and West Indies.
103. Allspice. — Allspice is the dried unripened berry of a semi-cultivated tree {Eugenia pimenta)
and is exported from Jamaica.
104. Mustard. — Mustard » seeds come from species of plants {Sinapis) grown in many parts of the
world and are black, yellow, brown, red, or white in color. They constitute a most important spice,
which enters retail commerce ground, mixed with other spices, and packed in cans.
105. Vanilla. — Vanilla is a flavoring extract obtained from pods or beans, the fruits of climbing
orchids {Vanilla spp.). It is particularly produced in southern Mexico, and also in Reunion, Mauritius,
and Tahiti. The fruits or pods which are carefully cured by drying in the sun and fermenting in
blankets, enter commerce either as the cured bean or an extract made from them by the use of weak
alcohol. The extract is obtained artificially from coal tar and from cloves. Vanilla is used as a flavor
in candies, cakes, ice cream, chocolate, and like foods, while the cheaper kinds are used to flavor chewing
tobacco.
106. Aniseed. — Aniseed, the fruit of the anise herb {Pimpinella anisum) is used to flavor medicines,
foods, and beverages (79). The best comes from Spain. The so-called "anis" of the Philippines is
not the true aniseed but is fennel {Fceniculum vulgare). Star anise '" is the dried fruit of a species
of magnolia {Illicium avisatum) and is imported from China into the Philippines. It is, in error,
often stated to be the fruit of the cinnamon tree (182).
107. Soy. — Soy is made by boiling soya beans, then adding salt and allowing them to ferment.
Exported from China and Japan, it is used in Europe and the United States as the basis of sauces for
fish, meats, and soups (194).
108. Cassareep. — In the West Indies and South America the juice squeezed from the grated manioc
(54) in preparing starch from it, is boiled down to a thick consistency and is then no longer poisonous.
It is called cassareep and is a basis for sauces.
109. Garlic. — Garlic " {Allium sativum) is a very important seasoning herb throughout the world
but particularly in southern Europe. It is extensively grown in the Philippines.
NARCOTICS.
TOBACCO.
110. The Plant. — Tobacco consists of the cured leaves of species of Nicotiana, cultivated in the
temperate and tropical regions. The young plants are first propagated in seed beds from which they
are set out into the fields. They must be cultivated, and the suckers and usually the flower buds are
removed in order to improve the quality of the tobacco. The plants are frequently attacked by insects
and fungi which give considerable trouble to growers. The leaves ripen at difl"erent times, the lower
ones first, and consequently there are two methods of harvesting. One consists of gathering the whole
stalk when the middle leaves have become ripe. For the best tobacco the leaves are picked a few at a
time as they mature.
111. Drying. — The curing of tobacco has for its purpose not only the drying of the leaves but also
their fermentation, and great care must be exercised during these processes since the quality and the
value of the tobacco largely depend upon them. Tobacco is now seldom dried in the open air. The
stalks or the leaves tied together are strung on or tied to sticks, so that they may be easily handled and
'Luyang dilao (T.), dilao (F.), kunig (II.), kalawag " Mostaza (Sp.).
(Vis., B.), ange (Pamp.). ■" Sanki (F.).
■Clavcs de comer (Sp.). " Bawang (T., II., Vis.).
BEVERAGE CROPS, SPICES, NARCOTICS, AND DRUGS
45
placed in sheds protected from the rain and wind by movable sides. Sometimes fires or heated air are
used to finish the curing process. The dried leaves are made into bundles called hands varying as to
the number of leaves.
112. Fermentation. — Fermentation of the leaves, which is the next process, is usually carried on by
dealers who purchase the tobacco from the growers. In this process the nicotine, which is the narcotic
principle of tobacco, is not affected, for fermentation simply increases the aroma and taste. Of the
several methods employed, the most used one is the bulk system in which the leaves are made into
large heaps in specially constructed rooms, and allowed to ferment, great care being taken not to let the
temperature rise too high in the pile. In order to avoid this rise the pile is taken down and remade
several times, a process which also allows all the leaves to ferment alike since the outside leaves of the
original pile are placed in the inside of the succeeding one. The whole process of fermentation may
take several months, after which the tobacco is packed and pressed into bales, barrels or boxes, and
sent to the factories. Often fermentation is carried on in the factory itself. The quality of tobacco
also depends upon its age since, as with many other fermented products, it becomes mellower with time.
113. Manufacture. — Considerable tobacco is used where it is produced in the form of leaf tobacco
but most of it is first manufactured into one of the several prepared forms. In the factories the bales are
opened and the leaves pulled apart.
The hands are then usually again dam-
pened and the tobacco fermented a
second time. The midribs are re-
moved and the tobacco sorted into
grades. In the manufacture of plug
tobacco the leaves are dampened and
usually licorice, molasses, and flavors,
such as vanilla, are added, after which
it is pressed into forms. Such to-
bacco is used for chewing and, when
unflavored, for pipes. Pipe or smok-
ing tobacco is pressed into cakes
and then shredded by machinery.
Cigars are composed of two parts, a
filler of broken leaves covered by a
wrapper made of a single leaf. The
filler gives taste and aroma to the
cigar, the wrapper gives it a good
appearance. While machinery is used
in their production the most and best
cigars are made by hand. Cigarettes
are sometimes rolled by the smoker from finely cut tobacco but most of them are now manufactured by
machines which wrap and fasten the paper around the tobacco and often pack the cigarettes into boxes
or packages. The finest cigarettes are still made and packed by hand. Snuff is produced from the
waste in the manufacture of different tobacco products by flavoring, perfuming, drying and powdering
it. It was formerly much more used than it is to-day. Tobacco manufacture is now usually carried on in
big factories where large production permits the use of machinery and extensive division of labor.
114. Kinds. — Commercial tobaccos are divided into classes according to their fitness for use as
smoking, chewing, cigarrette, wrapper, or filler tobacco. The tobacco of each class is divided into
grades as to flavor and aroma and the size, color, texture, strength, elasticity, and condition of the leaf;
differences which arise from the variety of the plant cultivated, from soil and climatic conditions,
cultivation, curing, and fermentation. The position of the individual leaf on the stalk and many other
minor considerations are also taken into account. The tobacco of a given district, and often the tobacco
from a small piece of land, can be divided therefore into many classes and grades, a work which is
usually done by the buyers of the tobacco who are expert in judging the grade and fitness of the leaf for
different purposes. Grading is also accomplished in factories.
The best tobaccos for filler come from Cuba, Porto Rico, parts of the United States, Java, and the
Philippines, and must have a good flavor and aroma and burn evenly and well. The best wrappers are
CIGARETTE MACHINES.
46
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
the large, thin, elastic leaves with fine veins and of light color and little taste. The "Sumatra leaves,"
now grown in the Dutch East Indies, Borneo, and the United States, are considered the best for this
purpose and bring a very high price. "Connecticut wrappers" are also important. Pipe and cigarette
tobacco must cut up easily and possess a good flavor, the cigarette tobacco being much milder than
the smoking and coming principally from Turkey and Virginia. In particular pipe tobaccos are
blended ; that is, different qualities of tobacco are mixed together to suit the peculiar tastes of smokers.
Chewing tobaccos must be rich in flavor, must be able to absorb the flavoring liquid with which they
are treated, and must possess considerable toughness.
115. Trade. — The largest importers of tobacco are Germany, United Kingdom, western Europe in
general, Japan, and Australasia, which import and manufacture leaf tobacco, and continental Asia
which imports manufactured tobacco. United States imports the finer grades of Sumatra wrappers,
the filler tobaccos of Havana, the Turkish cigarette tobaccos, and a considerable number of highest
grade cigars and cigarettes. In some countries of the world manufactured forms of tobacco are either
highly taxed, as in the United States, or their production is a monopoly of the government as in France
and Japan. Certain forms of tobacco are usually preferred by each country- Thus Russia, China,
Korea, and the Philippines smoke more cigarettes than any other form of tobacco: Europe and the
United States use large quantities of cigars; smoking tobacco is used in the United States, Europe,
Japan, and China.
The chief exporters of tobacco
are the United States, Cuba, the East
Indies, Brazil, Turkey, Porto Rico, and
Mexico. The chief tobacco markets
are Louisville in Kentucky, New
York, Baltimore, Richmond
in Virginia, Havana,
Manila, Bremen,
Hamburg, Rotter-
dam, and
Amsterdam,
United States
India
Cuba
Russia
a
W
o
D
P
o
bc
a
3
Others
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO.
(After Bartholomew.)
of which the European centers are distributers of imported leaf. Tobacco is usually named after the
point of export or the region of its cultivation, as, for instance, Havana, Java, Sumatra, Virginia,
Connecticut, or Manila tobacco.
116. Philippine Tobacco. — The chief region of tobacco production in the Philippines is the Cagayan
Valley, especially the Province of Isabela. The Ilocos Provinces and Pangasinan also raise tobacco,
and in the Visayas the Islands of Cebu, Negros, and Panay are the principal producers, but all raise a
product inferior to the Cagayan tobacco. While the above are the important provinces, tobacco is also
produced in nearly all parts of the Islands but enters very little into commerce. It is thought that
other regions, such as the Agusan Valley, may prove to have excellent tobacco soils. La Union, and
the other Ilocano provinces to a less degree, trade considerably with the Igorots, and some of the small
factories throughout the Islands consume local tobacco as well as that procured from Manila. Con-
siderable very inferior tobacco is exported to Europe from the Visayas. But the largest trade is the
shipment of tobacco to Manila and its manufacture there into cigars and cigarettes, for distribution
throughout the islands, and into a small quantity of smoking tobacco.
The Cagayan Valley being the most important tobacco producing region a consideration of the
industry in that locality is important." ^^ The effect of various soil and climatic conditions there is
" An unpublished report in the fQes of the Bureau of
Education Manila, submitted by Mr. Boltos Brewer.
" Bulletin 16, Bureau of Agriculture, Manila.
BEVERAGE CROPS, SPICES, NARCOTICS, AND DRUGS
47
evident. In the northern part of the valley little tobacco is grown and that of an inferior quality, but
with distance up the river the quality gradually improves until in the southern part of Isabela Province
the best quality of the leaf is grown. This may be explained from the fact that the lower part of
the valley, lying in proximity to the ocean, receives the sea breeze from which young plants absorb a
certain amount of chlorine and are injured as to burning qualities, flavor, and aroma. Since Isabela
Province lies farther in the interior
surrounded by mountains which ex-
clude the sea air, the flavor and the
aroma of the tobacco is not impaired.
During the rainy season (from
October to December) the soil becomes
thoroughly saturated and a large
amount of rich sediment is deposited
by the flooded river over the lower
flood plain. In this way each year a
practically new soil is formed. The
result is that the lowlands along the
river, although they have been under
constant cultivation, are as rich in
plant food to-day as they were a
hundred years ago. The soils of these
lower flood plains are of two distinct
classes ; one a light, sandy soil and the
other a clay containing a trace of sand
of which the former is adapted to the
production of a leaf suitable for wrap-
per and the latter to the production
of leaf, some of which is used for
wrappers but is better suited for filler.
The higher flood plains are composed
of a dark, heavy soil and produce a
thick, heavy leaf good for fillers only.
Owing to the annual enrichment of the
land and the large amount of sand
mixed with it, which renders it easy
to till, the lower flood plains are
cultivated year after year. The higher
flood plains receive the deposit of al-
luvial matter only in exceptional years,
and owing to the shallow plowing of
the ground the plants soon exhaust the
available food material so that after
two or three crops of tobacco have
been harvested the land is abandoned
and another plot of ground is selected
for the next year's crop. The poorest
tobacco is grown on this class of soil
but if it were properly plowed and then given frequent cultivation a small amount of rainfall would
be sufficient to produce a fine tobacco. With modern methods, therefore, there remains a great area of
land in the Cagayan Valley suitable for tobacco (18).
The seed-bed system is used, but transplanting and cultivation is so haphazard that considerable
part of the crop is lost and the quality is much reduced. The system of picking the individual leaf is
followed but about two-thirds of the tobacco grown is gathered entirely too green or too ripe. From
two to three pickings are generally made from a plant during the season. The leaves are improperly
handled and are liable to be bruised. They are placed in the sun, in which condition the tobacco does
PHILIPPINE TOBACCO REGIONS.
48 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
not cure but is simply dried or cooked, and are frequently rained upon and so darkened in color.
While a few rude drying sheds are built in the Cagayan Valley most of the tobacco, after it is dried, is
hung under the floor of the house or under the eaves and, having been thoroughly dried is taken down,
allowed to absorb considerable water, and is sold to companies arid individuals, Chinese and Filipino
buyers (34) . The tobacco is bought either in the pile to be later classified, or is first classified and then
sold by grades. The leaf is usually graded into four classes according to flavor, size of the leaves,
color, fineness of texture and veins, and the condition of the leaf as to punctures and breaks. The
first two grades are the most important.
Of the leaf tobacco produced in the Philippines, about 40 per cent is exported and about 50 per
cent manufactured, the remainder being used locally for other purposes, most of it in the making of
cigars and cigarettes by the smokers. Of the tobacco consumed in the Philippines about eight-ninths
is made up into the form of cigarettes and most of the remainder used for the manufacture of cigars,
the production of chewing tobacco and pipe tobacco being very small. Most of the manufactured
leaf exported takes the form of cigars. While Philippine leaf tobacco to the amount of 1,300,000 pounds
is admitted into the United States free of duty very little leaf is sent to the United States, most of it
being shipped to European countries which demand cheap tobacco. Philippine cigars to the amount of
150,000,000 can be admitted free of duty to the United States yearly — 87,281,000 cigars were so
admitted in the year 1910, but this export has since fallen ofi" to a fraction of that number. It is
probable that if care be taken to build up a good trade, the export of Philippine cigars to the United
States will be very large. China, Straits Settlements, Spain, Australia, England and other European
countries, and India are also takers of Philippine cigars, China being the most important next to
the United States.
10 ZO 30 ^,0 50
Isabela
Cebu
Cagayan
Ji.
La Union
Pan<ra-
Oc.
Nes
Olhprs
PHILIPPINE PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO, BY PROVINCES, 1910— PERCENTAGE.
(Bureau of Agriculture.)
OTHER NARCOTICS.
117. Opium. — Opium is the coagulated juice of a poppy pod (Papaver somniferum) principally
produced in India but also in southeastern Asia, in Persia, and in Asia Minor. The chief consumer
is China. Opium is taken by swallowing or smoking it, as its habitual use sooner or later causes
death, adverse laws against its importation and consumption have been passed by nearly all nations
with the result that its use is decreasing. It is also an ingredient of medicines as morphine, laudanum,
and paregoric.
118. Cocaine. — Cocaine is obtained from the leaves of the coca shrub (Erythroxylum coca) of
South America and is used in medicine and surgery to deaden pain or, like opium, as a narcotic.
119. Buyo. — Buyo is the Philippine name for a combination of the areca nut" (Areca catechu),
the betle leaf " {Piper betle) and lime, which is used throughout the tropical Orient. The areca nut
grows in warm moist localities. In parts of India large plantations are found and the consumption of
the nut is so extensive that the domestic commerce is of considerable importance. There is also an ex-
port and import trade, the import coming mostly from Ceylon. In Europe the nuts are employed to pro-
duce medicines. In the Philippines groves of areca are also found but, like most fruit and nuts
intended for local consumption, the cultivation of the palm is usually haphazard and a few are seen
here and there for use in the immediate vicinity or by the members of the household. Piper betle is
grown in the same climatic conditions as is the areca palm- In the Philippines this plant is consider-
ably produced in gardens in certain localities as in Pasay, Rizal, which principally supplies the
Manila market and Libmanan, Ambos Camarines, which largely supplies the Bicol provinces.
• DRUGS AND MEDICINES.
120. Drugs are the raw products from which medicines are obtained. Only those of especial
importance to the Philippines are here considered.
"Bunga (T.), Boa (II.). "Buyo (F.), ikmo (F.), gawer (II.).
BEVERAGE CROPS, SPICES, NARCOTICS, AND DRUGS 49
121. ftuinine. — Quinine is a powder obtained from the Cinchona or Peruvian bark and is used in
treating malarial diseases. The trees grow wild in the Andes, especially in Peru and Bolivia, but
most of the bark is cultivated in Java, India, and Ceylon whence it is shipped to Germany in particular,
where tae quinine powder is produced.
122. Sarsaparilla. — Sarsaparilla roots come from species of Smilax and are particularly exported
from the West Indies and Central America. Their principal use is in the flavoring of aerated waters
and medicines.
123. Camphor. — Camphor is a solid substance obtained by distilling the leaves, bark, and wood of the
camphor trees which grow principally in Formosa (Cinnamomum camphora) , China, and Japan {Cam-
phora officinalis.) Camphor is used in medicine, in making celluloid, and to drive away insects, espe-
cially from clothing. The wood is used for clothing chests, but most of the so-called camphor-wood
chests in the Philippines are made of native woods impregnated with camphor. Naphthalene is a
product obtained from coal tar (327) and is used as an insecticide in place of camphor.
124. St. Ignatius Bean. — The Saint Ignatius fruit '« (Strichnos ignatii) is found wild in the Phil-
ippines and is cultivated in Cochin China. The round red fruits yield a number of irregularly shaped
seeds and these are known as the Saint Ignatius beans. The strychnine they contain is extracted in
Europe. They are worn as charms in China. Samar and Leyte are the sources of the beans in the
Philippines.
HELPS AXD HOME WORK.
1. From a model draw a coffee berry showing part of the two beans and some of the pulp surrounding them.
2. From a model draw a coffee bean showing part of the bean itself and parts of the two skins surrounding it.
3. Write a composition on coffee cultivation. On preparing coffee berries.
4. On a map of the world show the coffee producing countries.
5. What is foil?
6. Write a composition on cacao cultivation, one on the preparation of the beans and one on making chocolate
from the beans, as practiced in the Philippines.
7. Draw a map showing the principal producing countries of (a) tea, (6) cacao, (c) mate.
8. On a map of the world show the countries where the chief beverage is (a) coffee, (6) tea, (c) cacao, (d) mate.
9. Make a list of all the substances used in the Philippines as spices or flavors.
10. Write a composition on Philippine spices.
11. Color a map to show the principal localities for the production of each spice mentioned in the text.
12. Draw a map showing the principal countries (1) exporting and importing tobacco, (2) exporting tobacco, (3) import-
ing tobacco, (4) the chief tobacco markets.
13. Write a composition on the production and the marketing of Philippine tobacco.
14. From the latest report of the Collector of Internal Revenue determine the production of tobacco in the Philippines
and the amount and percentage exported and manufactured. Determine the relative importance of the various
manufactures.
15. Take a cigar to pieces and notice how it is made. A cigarette.
16. What is the chief form in which tobacco is used in the Philippines?
17. What is the shipping point for Cagayan Valley tobacco?
18. Does your district import or export coffee?
19. Does your district import or export cacao? Chocolate?
20. Does your district import or export tobacco? Are cigars or cigarettes made? Are any imported?
21. From the latest report of the Insular Collector of Customs determine the amount of import and export of each
article mentioned in the chapter and the percentage of it to the whole import or export.
MUSEUM.
Coffee twig and berries. Parchment coffee. Coffee beans of different varieties, including Philippine specimens.
Roasted coffee. Ground coffee. Chicory. Green tea. Black tea. Tea packages. Cacao pods. Cacao beans. Cacao.
Forms of chocolate. Pepper seeds. Black pepper. White pepper. Varieties of pepper pods. Red pepper. Stick cin-
namon. Philippine cinnamon. Ground cinnamon. Nutmegs. Mace. Ginger root. Candied or Chinese ginger. Pow-
dered ginger. Turmeric. Curry powder. Anise. Fennel. Star anise. Mustard seeds. Ground mustard. Cloves.
Vanilla. Minor local Philippine spices. Varieties of Philippine tobacco. Wrapper leaf. Filler leaf. Cigars. Cigar
boxes. Cigarettes and packages. Smoking tobacco. Plug tobacco. Quinine. Camphor. Moth balls (naphthalene).
Celluloid. Ingredients of buyo. St. Ig^natius fruit and beans.
"Igasud (Samar).
103508 i ""
Chapter V.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PRODUCTS OBTAINED
FROM THEM.
WORK ANIMALS.
125. Animals used in transportation and in tilling the soil differ in various countries. The horse
and the ox are the most important, though in some regions other animals are more used, as in
the tropical Orient where the water buffalo is the chief draft animal, and in India and Ceylon where
the elephant is employed. The agricultural prosperity of a country largely depends upon the help
which the people have from animals. In countries where they are scarce, either agriculture is very
backward or the inhabitants are compelled to work very hard. Japan has very few work animals and
as a consequence transportation and
tilling of the soil is done ahnost en-
tirely by human beings. The Phil-
ippines lack animals on account of
the rinderpest and other diseases,
and as a result agriculture languishes
in some places. Into such deficient
countries animals are imported, but
it may be stated that, in general,
work animals are produced in the
countries in which they are used.
Some parts of the world are particu-
larly favorable for raising animal-?
and are famous for certain breeds.
MEAT.
126. Meat is sometimes trans-
ported on the hoof (that is, the live
animals are transported), but since
they lose weight rapidly on the
journey, animals are more commonly
killed in slaughterhouses or in packing houses of the great meat-producing sections of the world, and the
meat shipped in cold storage or in a preserved condition. These packing houses are sometimes very
large, and besides preparing and preserving the meat also produce scores of products from the fat,
skins, hair, blood, bones, horns, and other parts of the animals. Meats are shipped in a chilled or frozen
state, and are pickled, smoked, canned, and dried (29). Meat dried in the sun is called "jerked meat."
KINDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
127. Cattle. — Cattle (Bos) are raised in largest numbers in the United States, Russia, India, Aus-
tralia, and Argentina, where there are vast tracts over which they graze. They are often fattened on
com, especially in the United States (17). The United States, Argentina, and Australia are the prin-
cipal exporters of cattle products. The meat of cattle is called beef, and that of young calves, veal.
Beef enters commerce usually in a fresh state chilled or frozen, and is pickled and canned to con-
siderable extent. Beef fat is called tallow (186; 135; 144).
60
CATTLE.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM THEM
51
128. Buffaloes. — Buffaloes are not of such wide distribution as cattle nor does their meat enter
commerce. The Asiatic or water buffalo * (Bubalus buffelus) is the common work animal of south-
eastern Asia and of the East Indies. In the Philippines agricultural prosperity largely depends on
this animal, though cattle are yearly becoming of greater importance.
129. Swine. — Swine (Sus scrofa) are raised over the whole civilized world. As a great world
industry, hog breeding is most important in the corn region (17) of Central United States. Hogs are
seldom led or driven over long distances as they are in the Philippines, since they lose too much weight.
Where facilities exist they are shipped to the packing centers on trains. The meat is called pork
and is more important preserved than fresh. The hind quarters, pickled and smoked, are called hams,
while the sides treated in the same way are known as bacon. Sometimes the shoulders are also
pickled and smoked. Different parts of the pig are pickled and barreled, and called salt pork. Pork
is also used in making sausages, which consist of ground-up meats mixed with spices and stuffed into
cleaned intestines, called sausage casings. The fat is the source of lard (185). Pork and other
swine products are not used by Mohammedans, such as the Moros (135; 271).
130. Sheep. — Sheep (Ovis aries) are raised and exported for food, especially in Australasia and
Argentina. The flesh is called mutton, that of very young sheep is called lamb, and both usually enter
commerce in a fresh state. Sheep are the source of mutton tallow
(186). The most important product of sheep is wool (134, 135).
131. Horses. — The horse (Equus caballus) is a very import-
ant work animal in most countries. Long breeding
has produced numerous types for various purposes,
as heavy draft, farm, carriage, and cavalry horses.
The Philippine horse is rather small and is
used almost entirely for passenger
transportation and hauling light loads.
Horse meat is used by certain classes
in Europe as a substitute for
beef, and, while it is some-
times sold as beef, particularly
Uaited States
a
be
a)
a
JO
S
a
be
a
<
13
a
CO
s
Austra-
lia
Uru-
guay
France
Italy
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL EXPORT OF MEAT AND CATTLE.
(After Hartholoniew. )
canned, most governments restrict its sale to special shops where nothing but horse meat is vended (135).
132. Goats. — Goats {Capra hirciis) are chiefly raised in mountainous countries, as in Switzerland.
They are used in some countries as beasts of burden; the meat is eaten in certain localities, and the
milk is considered excellent. Goats also yield a tallow. The young are called kids (132; 144).
MEAT AND ANIMAL TRADE.
133. World Trade. — Europe, especially Great Britain, is the largest importer of meats, the fresh
meat on the hoof and in cold storage coming mostly from the United States, Argentina, and Austra-
lasia, and the preserved meats from the United States. In the East, Australasia is the largest exporter
of meat and China and Indo-China export cattle on the hoof. The largest packing-house cities in the
world are Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis, and Omaha in the United States, Buenos Aires in Argentina,
and Sydney in New South Wales, Australia.
134. Philippine Trade. — The Philippines are deficient in animals and must import, Australia, French
Indo-China, and China being the countries from which the animals are drawn. Some of these animals
are intended for work but the majority are killed for meat. Besides, quantities of frozen beef are im-
ported yearly from Australia and much other fresh and preserved meat is brought in, especially hog
products from China. Previous to the rinderpest, cattle and carabaos were very important in Philip-
■Carabao (F.).
52
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
~l r-
IF
pine domestic commerce, being raised in large numbers in certain regions such as Masbate. At present
the industry is found in isolated districts such as parts of the Mountain Province, Mindoro, Antique,
Bohol, and Palawan, and particularly in small islands where the rinderpest is not likely to be intro-
duced, as the Batanes, Dalupiri Island, Lubang Island (near the entrance to Manila Bay) , and Cuyo.
There is a considerable trade in cattle from La Union northward and from the mountains in the west-
ern part of Pangasinan as far south as
Manila. Horses are sent from Batan-
gas, Cebu, Catanduanes, Masbate, and
some from the Ilocos Provinces, La-
guna, Mindoro and Jolo. Other prov-
inces having land suitable for grazing
are Antique, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan,
northern Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, Ca-
gayan, and Mindoro. Swine are raised
in a haphazard way throughout the Is-
lands and are found as scavengers in
most tovras. In some districts, as the
Carcar-Barili region of Cebu and parts
of Laguna and Batangas, they are
raised for trade.
LEATHER.
135. Skins and Hides. — Leather
consists of the tanned skins of animals,
especially cattle (127), horses (131),
sheep (130), hogs (129), and goats
(132). The skins from full grown
large animals are called hides, and
those of young and small animals, as
calves, colts, sheep, hogs and goats, are
knovsTi as skins. "Green hides" are
those freshly taken from the animals
and when salted or dried are exported
chiefly to the United States and Great
Britain. Raw hides come principally
from South America, Australia, Russia,
India, and the Dutch East Indies, and
goat skins are exported mostly from
northern Africa and India.
TANNING MATERIALS.2
136. The purpose of tanning is to
make a chemical change in the fiber
of hides or skins in order to prevent
ordinary decay and to make the leather
pliable instead of stiff, as hides are
when simply dried. There are many
materials containing a quantity of tannin. The most important are the barks. The chief barks are
the oak of Europe and America, the hemlock which is found in Canada and the United States, and the
mangrove barks (298) growing in the tropics and exported from East Africa. Camanchile (Pithecolo-
bium dulce) bark is used in the Philippines for tanning the better and lighter sorts of leather while
mangrove barks produce an inferior reddish product. Certain woods are used for tanning, for example
the oak, chestnut, quebracho, gambler, and catechu, the most important being the quebracho of South
America and the catechu which grows in India and Ceylon.
Ill_l
PHILIPPINE STOCK REGIONS.
Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Sec. A, Vol. VI, No. 1.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS> AND PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM THEM 53
These woods and barks are used to obtain extracts, of which quebracho and chestnut extracts are
very extensively employed. Since the tanning materials of the north temperate regions are being
rapidly exhausted, it has become necessary to import part of the supplies. Extracts are of less bulk
than the barks and woods from which they are obtained, and it is therefore usual to extract the tanning
matter from those products in which the proportion of tannin to the bulk is not great enough to warrant
their transportation. As an extract the tannin occupies less bulk and so pays less freight. The man-
grove barks of East Africa contain 35 to 40 per cent tannin, and can be exported as bark. Those of
the Malayan region contain only 25 to 30 per cent and are therefore used to produce an extract known
as cutch. Pieces of bark are cooked down in boiling water, or dried and ground bark is treated with
hot water on the diffusion principle, until the extract has the thickness of tar, when it is poured into
molds and allowed to solidify. The cutch from mangrove produces a dark red, somewhat thick grained
leather when used alone, but when treated chemically or used in combination with other tannins a
better (yellow) colored product is obtained. There are factories for the manufacturing of cutch in
Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, but, while there are vast growths of mangrove swamps in Mindanao, Min-
doro, Palawan, Tayabas, and the Sulu Archipelago, there is as yet no cutch factory here and the barks
are used only in the local tanning industry. Cutch is taxed upon entering the United States and there-
fore Philippine cutch would have the advantage of free entry there. Of the Philippine mangroves
those which would yield a sufficient supply of bark for cutch manufacture are Rhizophora mucronata."
R. conjugata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza,* B. eriopetala ^ and Ceriops tagaU Certain tanning materials
such as the wattle barks (species of acacia) and dividivi seeds are cultivated. Sumac leaves are grown
in Mediterranean countries for tanning fancy and soft leathers. Crome is a chemical of mineral
origin used in tanning. Most tanning materials contain from 10 to 50 per cent of tannin, and the best
leathers are obtained with those which contain but little coloring matter.
VARIETIES OF LEATHER.
137. Tanning Process. — In the tanneries the skins, after being washed to remove salt and dirt, are
soaked in limewater to loosen the hair, which is then removed by scraping (207). Fleshy matter
adhering to the skin is also cut away. The hides are placed in vats containing the tanning solution and
are moved about in it from time to time, and from weaker to stronger solutions, for from several
weeks to over a year according to the thickness and the kind of hide. Thick hides are often split in
two. When taken out of the tanning vats the hides are hung up and dried slowly after being washed
and oiled, and are then placed under heavy rollers, which polish them on the hair side. Nearly all
leather is finished by having tallow (186), olive (189), castor (197), or fish oil (187) rubbed and
polished into it (148). Leather is also dyed various colors.
138. Kinds. — Most leather for the soles of shoes is made from hides of cattle, the best being tanned
with oak. Goatskins are tanned soft for the upper part of women's and children's shoes and calf
skins are used for the upper part of heavy shoes. Leather tanned with crome is often used for this
purpose. Lamb skins, kid and goat skins, and rat skins are used for gloves, while those of the kan-
garoo, alligator, snakes, and many other animals are made into fancy leather for hand bags, purses,
belts, and other small articles. Horse hides are used to make leather for shoes, gloves, saddles, and
razor strops. Raw hide is the skin of the animal dried and cleaned and softened by oil. It is used
as lacings and ropes, and, though strong, rots easily. Chamois was originally made from chamois
skin, but now it is produced from goat and sheep skins. The curing is effected by impregnating the
skin with fish oil (187) ; the leather is used for such purposes as cleaning jewelry and as soft linings
to purses. Patent or enameled leathers are made by coating them with black varnish at a con-
siderable heat, the leather being then polished. Morocco leather is made from goat or sheep skins
colored, and stamped on one side. Russian leather has the odor of Russian birch oil in it. These
last three leathers are made into purses and such articles, and book bindings. Patent leather is
used in shoes. Pigskin is noted for its toughness and is especially used in making leggings, heavy
gloves, and the like. It is nearly impervious to water. Heavy leather is also used in making harness
and belts for turning machinery. The United States, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, and France
are the chief producers of leather. The United States is the greatest producer of shoes and shoe
leathers, while France produces the best fine leathers.
•Bakawan (T.). ' Pototan (F.) pitutan (F.). ' Tangal (T.).
54 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
139. Imitation leather. — Imitation leather is made by covering strong cloth with drying oil (183)
and gum (312), drying and stamping it. It can be substituted for leather in almost everything except
shoes and gloves. Paper is sometimes colored and stamped in imitation of leather.
140. Philippine Production and Trade. — Considerable leather is tanned in the Philippines but it is
of poor quality, the chief reason probably being that the art is not understood." Nevertheless it is no
small factor in the leather trade of the Islands, for it is made up into the bulk of the footwear not
imported or produced by the shoe factory in Manila. Leather and leather products (mostly shoes)
are imported, principally from the United States and Spain. Shoes are made in Manila and other
towns in the Islands and the making of chinelas having a leather sole and a cloth toe is an industry
carried on in many places. In some towns shoes with wooden soles, and leather or imitation leather
toes are also made.
SOME BY-PRODUCTS OF THE MEAT AND LEATHER INDUSTRIES.
141. Glue. — Glue is obtained from different parts of animals, the best coming from scraps cut from
the hides and skins, sometimes in the butcher shops and slaughtering houses, but more often in the
tanneries and packing houses. These scraps are thoroughly washed and thrown into large kettles
where the glue is boiled out and drawn off into pans in which it cools and hardens. It is then cut
into thin pieces by means of wires and laid upon nets to dry. The large bones of animals are softened
in sulphuric acid and the glue obtained by boiling it out. Excellent glue is manufactured from
the waste of dressing fish for drying or canning. Glue is used in bookbinding, scenery making, furni-
ture making, and such industries. Gelatin is a fine kind of glue. It is made from the hoofs of cattle
and from calf hides, and is used in photography, confectionery, ice creams and general cookery. It is
also used as a size and in the Philippines is important in blocking and stiffening hats. Seaweed
gelatin is used for the same purposes (172).
142. Bones. — Bone black is made by heating cleaned bones away from the air, in the same man-
ner in which charcoal is produced (109), until they change to carbon. They are then ground, and are
used as filter material in the refining of oil (142), sugar (64) and other substances. Bones are used
in making buttons, combs, handles, and such articles, and the waste of this manufacture is made into
bone black or fertilizer. Bones are articles of foreign commerce (141).
143. Horns. — Horns are softened and rolled out into slabs. From these buttons are stamped. They
are also made into combs. Horn is browned by burning it on the outside to imitate tortoise shell
(174). Horns are also utilized for many minor purposes, particularly knife handles. Deer horns are
used for the handles of large knives such as carving knives.
DAIRY PRODUCTS.
144. Milk. — Milk is obtained from animals, such as the goat (132), the sheep, and horse; by far
the most important is cow's milk (127). Most cities of the world have dairies near them which fur-
nish fresh milk to the inhabitants. In some parts of the world goats are driven through the streets
and milked at the house door. The milk of cattle is usually marketed in cans or bottles. Milk rapidly
obtains many germs from the air. When it is heated so as to destroy them it is called sterilized milk,
and it is known as Pasteurized milk when it is heated, but not so hot that all of the germs are killed.
Since so few cattle are produced in the Philippines, considerable sterilized milk is imported in cans.
In parts of the Islands carabao milk is of commercial importance.
Milk consists of four principal parts, the water, which is about 87 per cent of the whole, the sugar,
the fat, and the casein. When milk is boiled to evaporate some of the water, it is called condensed
milk. Usually sugar to the amount of about 36 per cent of the boiled-down milk is added. The United
States, Great Britain, Switzerland, Holland, and France produce condensed milk in greatest quantity.
The Philippines import from the first three countries.
' The hides are not soaked in an acid solution before which it can absorb large quantities of tannin. After
being placed in the tanning vats. In the Philippines being removed from the tan vats the hides should be
such an acid solution could be made from fermented slowly dried in the dark. Here they are dried in the
rice husks or waste sugar in water. This solution direct sunlight, a process ruinous to good leather,
causes the hide to swell and puts it in a condition in
DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM THEM
55
145. Butter. — If milk is allowed to stand, the fat, being lighter, rises to the top and is called cream.
It is removed to be used in cooking and to be made into butter. The remaining milk is called skimmed
milk and is fed to pigs and calves. In creameries, as the factories are called where butter is made,
the cream is separated from the fresh milk by machinery and it is not necessary to let the milk
stand. Butter is made in churns. The cream is poured into them and agitated with paddles so that
the globules of fat are broken. The fat rises to the top forming a mass which, when it is rid of some
of the water it contains, is known as butter. It is usually seasoned with salt. Most butter is con-
sumed near the locality in which it is produced, but quantities enter commerce in cold storage and it
is also canned especially for use in the tropics. The countries of northern Europe, North America,
and Australia are the chief consumers of butter and it is exported from Denmark, Russia, France,
Holland, Sweden, Switzerland, and Canada principally. The Philippines produce no butter and import
it from Australia in cold storage and from Denmark
in cans. Siberia is also an important dairying
country (184).
146. Cheese. — When allowed to stand several
hours, milk coagulates, but this process may be has-
tened by the addition of certain coagulating agents
as rennet or vinegar. A soil mass called the curd
separates from the water, is removed, pressed to
force out considerable of the remaining water, and
is stored away to ferment. It is then called cheese.
Cheeses diifer (a) in the material used, which may
be skimmed milk, or milk with more cream added ;
(6) according to the animal from which the milk
comes, as cow's milk or goat's milk; (c) according
to the length of time the cheese is fermented.
Some cheeses are fermented a year. Usually the
commercial names of cheeses are taken from the
towns or localities where they are principally made.
The United States, Russia, and Germany are large
producers of butter and cheese and Canada, Holland,
France, Denmark, and Switzerland are also large
exporters. The Philippines import considerable
cheese, and fresh carabao cheese is an articles of
commerce in some provinces, notably Laguna.
THE POULTRY INDUSTRY.
147. Poultry. — The chief kinds of poultry are
chickens, turkeys, geese, and ducks. Of these the
most important and the most common are chickens. Near large cities poultry farms are located, which
supply fowls and eggs and keep thousands of chickens in specially constructed buildings and yards. On
such farms the eggs are hatched by artilicial heat in machines called incubators. For local consump-
tion poultry is usually exported alive, but where fowls are to be carried a long distance they are killed and
placed in cold storage. Poultry is also canned or potted to some extent.
148. Eggs. — The eggs of chickens, ducks, and wild sea birds are important in commerce. Chickens'
eggs are the most important. Since they last but a short time (five days is usually the maximum),
they are preserved in order to keep or ship them. The preservation of eggs "may be accomplished
by cold storage, by keeping them in salt brine or lime water, or by coating them with a substance
such as paraffin (205) or soluble glass (silicate of soda) which closes the pores of the shells and
keeps out the air. In the last process the eggs are dipped into a solution of silicate of soda in water,
removed and allowed to dry. The eggs become impervious to both air and water. Not all markets
demand fresh eggs. In the Philippines salt eggs are made by wrapping them in salted clay to preserve
them and impart a flavor, and balot is made in certain districts by partially hatching eggs in warmed
rice-husks and then boiling them. Duck eggs are usually used for these purposes. Eggs are used
i^H^^fiK^
PHILIPPINE MILK VENDERS.
56 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
in the industries as well as for human food. The whites are employed in bookbinding, sugar refining,
making wine, and in photography and, in the Philippines, in the manufacture of caramel. The yolks
are used in finishing leather (137). Eggs enter considerably into both foreign and domestic com-
merce. In some places the eggs of wild sea birds are gathered in considerable numbers.
149. Philippine Poultry Industry. — The poultry industry is not very important in the Philippines.
In a few places considerable numbers of ducks are kept on duck farms and there are still fewer chicken
farms as such. Most of the eggs and fowls of Philippine production are gathered from house to house.
The most important districts for their export are in Batangas, Rizal, Laguna, Bataan, and Cebu.
Chickens are important as food in the Islands and it is probable that the large number raised for
eating partially accounts for the lack of eggs here. Large quantities of eggs are imported yearly into
the Philippines from China. Edible birds' nests, gathered in Palawan, are exported to China.
HELPS AND HOME WORK.
1. What animals are used in the Philippines for transportation and agricultural purposes?
2. Make a list of the animals used in the Philippines for meat.
3. Why is the carabao a good agricultural animal for the Philippines?
4. Write a composition on the products of the pig.
5. Why are Philippine horses not used in tilling the soil?
6. What animals are raised in your locality? Which are sent out? Which are brought in?
7. If possible write a composition on a local tanning industry.
8. What is done with the skins and hides produced in your locality?
9. Could hides and skins be sent from your locality?
10. What tanning materials are found in your locality?
11. Could your locality export tanning materials?
12. Cut a piece of Philippine leather in two and compare the cross-section with that of an imported piece.
13. Make a list of the uses of leather as known to you.
14. On a map show the chief leather-producing countries.
15. What are the local uses of carabao horns?
16. Why is the dairying industry of little importance in the Philippines?
17. Write a composition on cheese making.
18. Write a composition on the production of poultry in the Philippines.
19. Write a composition on the methods of preserving eggs used in the Philippines.
20. Why are chickens of such importance as meat in the Philippines?
21. From the latest report of the Collector of Customs determine the amount of the export and import of each product
noted in the chapter and the percentage of each to the whole export or import.
MUSEUM.
Preserved meats. Dried hides. Raw hides. Varieties of leather. Philippine leather. Tanbarks, woods, leaves,
extracts and other tanning materials. Imitation leather. Glue. Gelatin. Bone, horn, and their products. Carabao
horns and products. Milk. Sterilized milk. Condensed milk. Milk products. Eggs.
Chapter VI.
PRODUCTS OF THE SEA.
FISH.
USES.
150. Fish intended for human consumption enter local commerce unpreserved up to a few hours
after being caught, the period of time varying with climatic conditions and the kind of fish. In
markets near salt water, tank boats hold fish alive in boxes through which the water circulates freely.
Fish are kept in several ways. They are transported in cold storage, salted and dried, pickled, smoked,
sterilized in cans, or preserved in oil (29). Since fish lend themselves to peculiar methods of preserva-
tion, each process will be explained for a certain species.
KINDS,"
151. Herrings. — Herrings are caught in nearly all parts of the world but mostly in the North Sea,
especially along the shores of the United Kingdom.^ There are many kinds of herring in the Philip-
pines, all of rather small size, but caught in great numbers, especially in May and June, in corrals and
nets. The most common species are tunsoy {Harengula moluccensis) , tamban {H. longiceps) , and bills
(H. gibbosa). When smoked and dried, these fish are called tinapa (165). They are also pickled or
eaten fresh.
152. Sardines. — The sardine, usually considered a species of herring, is the general name applied to
various fishes, such as the Spanish sardine, California sardine, the Indian sardine, and the Japanese
sardine. The best of all is the French sardine. Canned in oil, sardines are sent over the whole civil-
ized world.^ In the Philippines Sardinella clupeaides is known in Tagalog as tulis or tulisan and the
young of all species of herring are called siliiiasi. They compare favorably for canning purposes with
the best of the numerous varieties of sardines substituted for the French sardine. Peanuts and sesame,
from which oil can be obtained cheaply, grow in the Philippines, but as yet no canning has been at-
tempted. In local use sardines are consumed fresh or are dried and made into tinapa (165) and
bagoong (164).
153. Salmon. — Salmon are large species of fish caught in or near rivers flowing into the North
Pacific Ocean in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon where they come to spawn. The
rivers are often so crowded that thousands of tons of fish are caught. They are canned in large
factories and are shipped in immense quantities all over the world. They are also caught off the coasts
' Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. Ill, No. 6, Sec. A.
' Herrings are cured in four ways. For pickled, or white
cured herring, they are beheaded and the viscera re-
moved; they are washed clean and barreled in layers
with salt between each layer. Bloaters consist of the
whole fish lightly salted and smoked and keep for a few
days only. Kippered herring are made by splitting and
cleaning the fish, immersing them in brine, and smoking
them lightly. They last but a short time and enter
local commerce only, unless canned. Red herring are
salted up to forty-eight hours in a strong brine and
are then smoked up to three weeks in a smoke produced
from hardwood sawdust. They are packed in barrels
or, if intended for the tropics, in tin cans. Pickled
herring and red herring have a world-wide commerce.
' In the canneries the head and refuse parts are removed
and the fish left in salt brine up to an hour; they are
washed in salt water and are hung, tail up, on wire
baskets where they are allowed to dry for an hour or
so in the sun. The baskets are then dipped into boiling
olive (189), peanut (192), or sesame oil (191) for about
two minutes until the contents are cooked, after which
they are removed and placed so that the oil may drain
away from the fish. The sardines are then packed in
tin cans with oil, tomato sauce, or mustard (104).
Sometimes spices, such as cloves (102) or laurel leaves,
are also added. The tins are of different sizes and are
intended to hold different numbers of fish. They are
filled, and, the bottoms having been soldered on, are
placed in large vessels of boiling water for a couple of
hours to complete the cooking of the fish, to soften the
bones, to kill the bacteria and disclose leaks. The cans,
after being placed in sawdust, which absorbs the oil
remaining on the outside, are labeled and exported.
67
58
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
of Norway, Japan, and Siberia. Salmon are sometimes smoked, but, sterilized in cans, are one of the
most important and the cheapest preserved fish of commerce. The red-colored product is most in
demand, but does not always have the best flavor. The Philippines import considerable canned salmon.
154. The Cod. — The cod (Gadus morrhua) is a cold-water fish caught in greatest numbers on the
Grand Banks and along the coasts of Norway. Codfish are usually taken with trawls and most of the
catch is salted and dried. On board the ship the heads are cut off", the fish cleaned, split open, the
backbone removed, washed in water and salted in barrels, the livers being saved to make oil (187).
When the boat reaches land, the fish are spread in the sun and dried. Most of the product is sent to
the West Indies, southern European countries, and tropical America, but it is used the world over.
155. The Anchovies. — The anchovies are small fish caught in great quantities along the European
coasts. The catch is preserved by pickling, by preserving in oil, and in cans, and the fish are also
made into a sauce called anchovy paste. In the Philippines there are several species, but the smallest
variety (Anchovia commersoniana) , called dilis * in Tagalog, is found in great numbers and should
furnish the raw material for a remunerative industry. Besides being eaten fresh they are pickled and
dried or made into bagoong (164).
156. The Mullets. — There are many species of mullets in the Philippines, but that known locally as
the banak " (Mugil cephalus)
in Tagalog, is the most
abundant. They must be
very fresh to be palatable
and are then very good food-
fishes. They are captured
throughout the year, some
species being found in lakes
connected with the sea by
fresh-water rivers. About
the Gulf of Lingayen they
are cultivated in ponds. The
mullet is a good fish for
drying, though it is seldom
dried here.
157. The Silversides.— The
silversides " are rather small
fishes found during all sea-
sons on Philippine fishing
banks, the most common
variety being Atherina tem-
mincki. They are suitable
for making fish sauces, pick-
ling with spices, and drying. The young are called whitebait. They are used fresh and dried in the
Philippines and are made into bagoong (164).
158. The Mackerels. — The mackerel family is a very numerous one and its species are found on all
the fishing banks of the world. They are excellent food fishes. The true Spanish mackerel ' (Scom-
heromorus commersoni) is considered one of the finest fish (160) in the Islands, bringing a very high
price, and is caught off' shore with hook and line or in nets. The chub mackerel ' {Scomber microle-
pidotus) and the Japanese mackerel " (Scomber japonicus) are small species, also of great importance
and are often caught inshore in nets or corrals. They are consumed fresh and dried, or are made into
tinapa (165).
159. The Milkfishes. — The milkfishes '" {Chanos chanos) are found on all Philippine fishing banks
and are one of the most important commercial fishes. They are consumed fresh and dried and are
A FISH POND.
' Monamon (II.), balingon (Vis.). Another species is A.
dussumieri known as dumpilas in Tagalog.
'Balanak (Vis.), maramara (II.), lumitog (Cavite).
'Guno (T., Vis.), ti-i (II.), pescado del rey (Sp.).
' Tanguigui (T., Vis., II.) .
' Alumahan (T.), cavallos (II.), bangudlong (Vis.).
' Hasa-hasa (T.), aguma-an (Vis.), matgan (II.), guma-a
(Cavite), kabayas (Cavite), kalapato (Tayabas), bulao
(Occ. Negros).
'Bangos (T., Pamp.), bangros (Vis.).
PRODUCTS OF THE SEA 59
made into tinapa. In the Manila markets they are particularly important on account of being raised
in the fish ponds of neighboring towns, which can supply fresh milkfish when it is too stormy for fish-
ing boats to venture out. The young fish " are caught along the shores of Batangas, Bataan, Zam-
bales, Mindoro, Marinduque, and the Gulf of Lingayen and placed in large earthen jars in which they
are transported to the ponds, where they are allowed to reach marketable size. The ponds are
situated upon estuaries, the water from which is permitted to enter and flow through the different
compartments in which the various sized fish are kept. The food of the fish is an alga identified as
Oedogonium and is usually cultivated in the ponds. Malabon, Rizal, is the most important fish-pond
district, but the industry is also of importance in Bulacan, about the Gulf of Lingayen, and in several
other localities. '2
160. Other Philippine Fishes. — The mudfish " (Ophiocephalus striatus) is a brackish and fresh water
fish found in paddy fields and pools. It can live out of water for some time, and is therefore sold
alive in the markets. It is a very important fish though little used by foreigners.
Of the snappers, several varieties, such as bacbaan {Lutianus dodecacanthus) and aclis {Lutianus
gembra) , are caught in Philippine waters. They are quite large and are captured with hook and line
or in corrals.
Pompanos " (Carangidas) are caught throughout the waters of the Philippines, usually in corrals,
and are an excellent food fish.
Of the species of sea bass found in the Philippines one, known as lapo-lapo in Tagalog ^"^ (Epine-
phelus merra) ranks with the Spanish mackerel (158) as a food fish, and is especially popular with
foreigners. It is usually caught in deep waters with hook and line.
Aside from the above-mentioned fishes, numerous others of varying utility for food are taken on
all Philippine fishing banks.
161. Oysters. — The most important shellfish is the oyster '" {Ostraea spp.) which is obtained in
many parts of the world, but particularly on the east coast of the United States. When produced in
large quantities oysters are cultivated in beds situated in the moderately warm sheltered water of
coves or estuaries. Oysters can be transported long distances in cold storage and they are well adapted
to canning. Baltimore, Maryland, is one of the principal oyster markets of the world. In the Phil-
ippines edible oysters are cultivated in Cavite and Bulacan to some extent, but oysters are as yet of
little commercial importance. The shells are a leading lime-producing material (357). The pearl
oyster (172), which is found in the Sulu Sea, and which is one source of mother-of-pearl, is not the
edible oyster of commerce.
162. Shrimps. — Shrimps '" are shellfish found in many localities, and enter local commerce fresh and
foreign commerce canned or dried. Shrimps are usually grown here in the milkfish ponds.
163. Trepang. — Trepang '* are kinds of sea slugs (Holothurias) gathered in the waters of the East
Indies, the Pacific Islands, Australia, and Japan, dried and exported to China or to countries where
there is a large Chmese population. There are two ways of preparing trepang. The slugs may be
split open, boiled, and dried, or they may be placed whole in large kettles of cold water, brought to a
boil, pierced several times with a sharp stick, boiled again with mint, and then dried in smoke such
as that made by putting mint on a charcoal fire. Trepang is captured in Philippine waters, especially
toward the south, and either consumed by the Chinese population here or sent to China. The product
is used in making soup.
PHILIPPINE FISH PRODUCTS.
164. Bagoong. — Bagoong '" is a product made from any small fish or shellfish by adding salt thereto.
The mass is thoroughly mixed with the hands, is partially fermented, and often ground to a paste. It
is sent throughout the Philippines from the fish-producing regions, packed in earthen jars, bottles, oil
cans, or sections of bamboo, and is a staple article of domestic commerce, being of special importance
in the interior where fresh fish can not be obtained. Bagoong is often colored red and spices are
"Kawag-kawag (T.). " Garopa (Vis.).
"For a further description of the fish-pond industry see " Talaba (T.), tirem (II.), sise (Vis.).
Bulletin 28, Bureau of Education, Manila. " Hipon (T.), pasayan (Vis., II.), lagdao (II.).
" Dalag (T.), (II.), halwan (Vis.). "Balatan (T.), balat (Vis.), beche de mer (E., French).
"Names applied to species are talakitok (T.), lison (Occ. "Bagoong (T.), guinamus (Vis.).
Neg.), kubal-kubal, ballangoan.
60 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
also occasionally added. Patis is a fish sauce of local importance, made from bagoong by extracting
the liquor through pressure, and boiling it until all the impurities can be skimmed from the surface.
It is occasionally flavored with such things as orange leaves.
165. Tinapi,. — Tinapa is a very popular form of preserved fish in the Philippines. For this pur-
pose many of the smaller species of fishes are used, but the most important ones are members of the
herring family and milkfish. In the preparation of tinapa very fresh fish are used. They are placed
in tanks containing salt brine for a couple of hours and are then taken out, cleaned, and put into
baskets, about five layers to a basket. The fish are cooked by immersing the baskets in boiling water
for about five minutes and are placed in a single layer in other baskets for several hours, allowing
the water to drain away and evaporate, so that the fish become dry. The baskets are then placed
over a series of open ovens containing burning sawdust. The fish are left for at least an hour in the
confined smoke, becoming a reddish brown. Tinapa keeps from two to three weeks.
166. Other Products. — Besides these two methods of preserving them, fish are dried in the sun, or
are salted and then dried. Tinapa, bagoong, and dried fish are articles of large import into inland tovsms.
PHILIPPINE TRADE IN FISH.
167. Although great quantities of fish are caught in the Philippines the import of fish into the
Islands is quite large. Fresh fish come from Australia, preserved fish from the United States, Spain,
and China and consist of canned salmon, sardines, oysters and other shellfish, and dried, smoked, and
pickled fish, especially cod and herring. The Philippines export fish products to the British and Dutch
Indies and to China.
SPONGES.
168. Preparation. — ^^Sponges are the skeletons of certain very small animals which grow upon rocks
at the bottom of the sea. They are obtained by diving or by dredging. When brought to land they
are placed in their natural position on clean rocks or boards so as not to become dirty, and the sun
kills the animal matter. This is accomplished in from two to three days. They are then thrown into
large wooden receptacles through which the water flows and are immersed in the sea for from five to
six days, being squeezed out several times. They are washed out in clean salt water and put in the sun
in their natural position to dry, after which, the water having been thoroughly evaporated, the sponges
are baled or sacked and are ready for the wholesale markets. Most sponges are bleached to a light
yellow color before entering retail trade. The best sponges are obtained in largest quantities along the
shores of the Mediterranean and the West Indies. Sponges differ in strength, durability, fineness of the
fiber, and softness. Many sponges are not commercial, being hard and brittle.
169. Philippine Sponges.^" — In the Philippines sponges are found around Siasi, Sitanki, Tawi-tawi,
Samar, Masbate, Cebii, and several other islands, but few are taken. The most valuable sponge found in
the Philippines is called in commerce sheep's wool sponge, and is very strong and elastic. It is used
as a bath sponge. Another sponge of like qualities has been called the Philippine zimocca sponge. The
Philippine reef sponge is not very durable, but is very soft and is found in great quantities in shallow
waters. Grass sponges belong to the inferior class, but their number is very large in the Philippines
where the local varieties vary from the soft silk sponge, which is good for bathing infants, to the Sulu
Sea bath sponge, which is coarse and tough and can be used as a bath sponge, horse sponge, for washing
carriages, and such purposes. Beside the uses mentioned above, sponges are also employed in dampen-
ing textiles, in surgery, as wash rags, and in making pottery.
170. Vegetable Sponge. — A substitute for sponges is found in the cleaned fibrous fruits of vegetable
sponges^' {Luff a spp.). They are exported from Japan, and though grown extensively in the Philip-
pines are but little utilized except for the making of hats (275) and as a vegetable. Vegetable
sponges when cut open and placed on strips of cloth are used for flesh brushes.
SEAWEED.
171. There are many kinds of seaweeds, and some of them are of considerable commercial impor-
tance, varieties being used as food, others for fertilizer, and some in industrial processes. The pre-
"Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. IV, No. 1, Sec. A. " Patola (T.), tabongas ( Pang. ) , kabatiti (II.), tabubok (T.).
PRODUCTS OF THE SEA
61
paration of seaweeds is particularly a large industry in Japan. As a food they are generally used to
make jellies and as substitutes for animal gelatin, though sometimes pickled or cooked in the natural
state. One species known as seaweed gelatin ^^ is extensively imported as food into the Philippines in a
prepared condition, though it grows abundantly here. In processes of manufacture in other countries
it is used to stiffen silk, clarify wines and beers, and as glue (141). As fertilizers seaweeds are often
added directly to the land.
THE PEARL OYSTER.
172. Mother-of-pearl. — Mother-of-pearl oyster shells are obtained off the coasts of Ceylon, Persia,
the Sulu Archipelago, Molukkas, and north west Australia, particularly in the three latter places.
It is exported chiefly through Singapore. Mother-of-pearl is made into buttons and used for the
manufacture of knife handles and ornamental articles. Mother-of-pearl of inferior grade is also ob-
tained from many other shells found both in fresh and salt waters. In the Philippines ^^ pearl-oyster
and other mother-of-pearl shells are secured. Practically the entire region from Sibutu Passage to Ba-
silan Straits and around the southern shore of Mindanao is a continuous potential pearling bank and
SPONGE AND PEARL FISHERIES.
pearl shells in considerable numbers are found in Taiion Strait, between Cebu and Negros Islands, in
the vicinity of Guimaras, and along the west and north coasts of Samar. Shell has also been reported
from Palawan and Cagayan Sulu, and it is probable that as the Island waters become better known
many new pearling banks will be found. There are two varieties of pearl oysters in the Philippines
of considerable commercial importance, of which the gold-lipped pearl-shell is chiefly sought. The black-
lipped shell is much smaller and is but little in demand, selling for about one-fourth the price of the
other variety. Almost all the fishing is carried on by the use of diving armor in water of from 15 to 20
fathoms and in shallow waters naked Moro divers obtain them or they are brought to the surface by
primitive rake dredges.^* Zamboanga and Jolo are the centers of the trade. There is a button factory
in Manila which supplies the local demand for mother-of-pearl buttons. Most of the catch is exported.
173. Peaxls. — The best pearls are found in pearl oysters. The chief fisheries are off the coasts of
Ceylon, Persia, Sulu Archipelago, Molukkas, and northwest Australia, and the pearls are exported for
the most part via Singapore. Many pearls are obtained in the pearl-shell fisheries of the Philippines, the
largest coming from the gold-lipped pearl shell." Some of the most beautiful pearls ever discovered have
come from the Sulu fishery. In Japan an inferior pearl is produced artificially by inserting beads, upon
which the secretion forming the pearl is to be deposited, into the shells of cultivated oysters.
' Gulaman (T.), guraman (II.).
' Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. V, No. 2, Sec. D.
" Another important Philippine shell is the kapes or window
shell so extensively used for windows instead of glass.
" Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. V, No. 2, Sec. D.
62 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
TORTOISE SHELL.
174. Tortoise shell consists of brown colored plates from the backs of certain turtles and is the best
material for combs. In the Philippines such turtles are found on Lankil Island near Zamboanga and
off the Balabac coast, Palawan, and some shell is exported to Singapore. Tortoise shell is often imitated
in celluloid or horn (143).
HELPS AND HOME WORK.
1. Make a list of fish caught in your locality and give the uses of each.
2. Write a composition on methods of catching fish.
3. Write compositions on the production of bagoong, tinapa, and other forms of preserved fish.
4. What forms of preserved fish other than those now made could be produced in the Philippines?
5. Write a composition on the uses of seaweed.
6. From the latest report of the Collector of Customs determine the Philippine import and export of sea products
and the percentage of each to the total export or import.
MUSEUM.
Philippine fish and fish products. Shellfish and products. Trepang. Sponges. Vegetable sponge. Seaweeds.
Mother-of-pearl shells and products.
Chapter VII.
OILS, FATS, AND WAXES.
OILS AND FATS.
DIFFERENCES AND KINDS.
175. Difference between Oils and Fats. — With the exception of volatile oils, the difference between fats
and oils in any given locality is little, being for the most part that fats are solid and oils are liquid at
ordinary temperature. "Ordinary temperatures" are of such wide range that even this popular distinc-
tion is of little practical value.
176. Kinds as to Use. — Fats and oils are either edible or industrial according to their chief use. The
former are employed in cooking and on the table, and in making imitation butter and lard, the latter
principally in making soap, candles, salves, paint, printing ink, in dressing leather, and in other
industries.
VOLATILE OILS.
177. Extraction. — Oils are either fixed or volatile. Volatile or essential oils are those which rapidly
and completely evaporate on contact with the air and are usually distilled with water or steam from the
leaves, flowers, and other parts of plants. The oil passes over with the vapor, and, when the steam
condenses, floats on top of the water. It can then be easily separated. Essential oils are also obtained
by pressure in certain cases, by soaking the flowers in warm fat or oil, by having an air current blow
through the blossoms onto fat, or by the use of solvents, such as light petroleum distillates (203).
Essential oils are used for perfumes and flavoring extracts or essences.
178. Ylang-ylang.' — Ylang-ylang (Canangium odoratum) oil is an essential oil distilled (177) from the
flowers of a tree growing in the Philippines and other countries of southeastern Asia. There is quite
an important domestic commerce here in gathering the flowers and selling them to the distillers. Num-
bers of trees are grown in the provinces around Manila, where the best oil is produced, and in
many other parts of the Islands, particularly in Camarines, Mindoro, Albay, and Bohol. There are no
stills in Bohol, but an oil is distilled in the other provinces and finds its way to Manila. On account of
the competition of other countries, particularly of Reunion, the local industry is not as remunerative
as formerly. France is the largest taker of the oil.
179. Vetiver. — Vetiver ^ {Andropogon zizanioides) is a grass of which the roots are much used in the
Philippines for their pleasant odor and to drive away moths. The roots are produced throughout the
tropics in the East, and are exported from India and Reunion to Europe where the essential oil is
distilled and used in perfumery. The roots are made into fans and baskets, and in India, into mats
which, during the hot season, are hung in the doorways and kept wet to cool the air. In the Philip-
pines roots are placed with clothes for the purpose of keeping away insects; they are also made into
fans. The grass is cultivated on rice dykes (12). An uncultivated variety does not yield odorous
roots.
180. Champaca.^ — The essential oil obtained from the yellow champaka (Michelia champaca) is at
present very much in demand by perfumers, the small supply coming mostly from Java. As yet few
blossoms are produced in the Philippines, but the industry is a growing one and a considerable number
of trees have been planted.
' Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. Ill, No. 2, Sec. A.
' Khuskhus (India), anias (Pamp.), anis-de-moro (Abra), mora (Vis.),amora (Cebii).
' Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. V, No. 4, Sec. A.
63
64 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
181. Turpentine. — Spirits or oil of turpentine is the most important of the volatile oils and is
obtained from the resin of species of the pine tree (305). The resin is procured by tapping the
tree and is called crude turpentine. Oil of turpentine, or spirits of turpentine (usually simply called
turpentine), is obtained by distilling (177) with steam. The residue after distillation is drawn off
and solidified, and is called rosin (314). Spirits of turpentine are used for dissolving resins, in making
varnishes, and for thinning paint so that it can be more easily spread. It is also used in medicine. It is
possible that the pine tree of Benguet (293) (Pinus insularis) can be commercially utilized for the
purpose of obtaining turpentine.
182. Other Essential Oils. — There are many other essential oils which are very important, particu-
larly those obtained from various flowers of the temperate regions. The essential oils of oranges (36),
lemons (37) and other fruits, ginger (100), cinnamon (98), anis (106) and other spices, berries, and
seeds are used for flavoring food.
FIXED OILS.
183. Drying and Nondrying Oils. — Fixed oils are divided into drying and nondrying oils. The non-
drying oils are edible, the drying oils are nonedible. Drying oils are those which dry up and harden
when exposed to air thus forming a kind of varnish; nondrying oils do not harden but become thick,
sticky, and rancid upon exposure to the air. The most important drying oil is linseed or flaxseed
oil, though fish oils, poppy-seed oil, and hemp oil also have this property to a lesser degree. Castor
oil is a very slow drying oil. The Philippine candlenut oil yields an excellent drying oil. Drying oils
are used to make paints, varnishes, and printing inks, and their peculiar properties are usually in-
creased by adding a "drier" (such as litharge) and heating (139). The nondiying oils are used as
food and to make soap, candles, and many other products. Marseille, France, is the largest importer
of oil seeds and nuts, and the largest producer of vegetable oils.
ANIMAL, OILS AND PATS.
184. Butter. — As already explained (145), butter is made from cream by churning it until the fat
separates from the milk and forms a solid mass. Substitutes for butter, as oleomargarine, butterine,
and such manufactured substances, are made from edible oils (176). By mixing with them fats that
have a high melting point, such as beef fat (186), or by freezing them and expressing considerable of
the fluid parts, a substance solid at ordinary temperatures results. They are churned with milk to give
them a flavor and are often colored with annatto or coal-tar dyes. The Philippines import imitation
butter from China and Europe.
185. Lard. — Lard is the fat of hogs (129) and has a very low melting point in comparison with other
animal fats. The best lard is obtained from the back of the animal and is called leaf lard. Lard is
obtained by rendering — that is, by heating the pieces of animal fat until the lard melts — after which
it is strained from the tissues. In factories the heating is usually done by steam, but in a small way
it may be rendered directly over a fire. Lard is packed in tins or barrels and enters extensively into
commerce, constituting a very large part of the meat-packing industry. Substitutes * for lard are made
from vegetable oils, especially cotton-seed oil (190), by mixing with them beef fat or other fats having
a high melting point. An oil produced from lard is used in making oleomargarine; it is called lard
oil, and is also used as an illuminant and for lubricating purposes. The poorer grades of lard, which
come from the refuse parts of an animal, are utilized in making soap. The Philippines import lard
mostly from China.
186. Tallow. — Tallow is the fat of sheep (130) and cattle (127). Mutton tallow is used in leather
(137), candles, and soap. Beef tallow is chiefly consumed as a food, and because of its high melting
point is mixed with oils to make oleomargarine (184). It is also utilized in the arts.
187. Fish Oils. — Fish oils are used in dressing leather (137, 138), as illuminants in miners' lamps,
in lubricating machinery, making paint, soap, and candles, and in tempering steel. Formerly they were
of much more importance than now, for other oils have taken their place, principally kerosene (203) as
* Substitutes for butter and lard are not poor foods. Many for sale under such names as "Palmin" and "Palmoa"
people believe vegetable substitutes for lard are better (193), and are considered of high food value, besides
than lard itself. In Europe, especially in Germany, being cheaper than the animal products,
vegetable substitutes for butter and lard are offered
OILS, FATS, AND WAXES 65
an illuminant and paraffin (205) in making candles. They are obtained from whales, seals, cod (154),
and members of the herring family, the most important being the menhaden. The oil rendered from
cod livers is used as a medicine.
VEGETABIjE OlliS AND FATS.
188. Extraction. — Vegetable oils are obtained by crushing the seeds of various plants, and then
extracting the oil in presses. That produced by the first pressing of the cold, crushed seeds is con-
sidered the best. If the mass is then broken up, heated, and more oil is pressed out, it is second
grade, and further pressings yield still lower grade products. The crushed seeds are heated so that
the oil in them may become more fluid and therefore easier to extract. The material remaining after
the oil has been obtained is called "cake," and is used as a cattle feed and as fertilizer. In factories
powerful machinery is used so that nearly all the oil is expressed from the seeds, but in many local-
ities the oil is extracted by very crude presses, which leave much of it in the cake. Among other
methods employed for obtaining oil from the crushed seeds in a small way is that of boiling them in
water, squeezing or pressing them, and boiling the resultant emultion until the oil rises to the surface
or until all the water has been evaporated. This is the process generally used in the Philippines both
in the household and in small commercial establishments. It is known as the "hot wet" process.
Another method of obtaining oil for industrial purposes is to dissolve it out of the crushed seeds by
means of such volatile solvents as ether or naphtha (203; 142).
189. Olive Oil. — The olive tree (Olea europea) grows in southern Europe, northern Africa, Asia
Minor, and California. Green olives are pickled and exported, while the ripe olives, which are black
in color and difficult to transport, are pickled to a less extent. Olive oil, the most important product,
is expressed from the ripe fruit, the greatest amount being contained in the meat. The fruit and
oil are exported from Italy, Spain, Tunis, Greece, Portugal, France, and California, the best coming
from Italy and France. Olive oil is the most expensive of the important food oils. Its chief use is
directly as a food. Sardines (152) and other fish are also canned in it. Cotton-seed, peanut, and
sesame oils are used as substitutes and adulterants for olive oil. The poorer grades of the oil, which
are obtained by great pressure and treatment with hot water, are made into soap and lubricating
oils (137). France, United States, and all countries not producing it, import olive oil. The Philip-
pines receive the greater part of their olive and olive-oil imports from Spain.
190. Cotton Oil. — Cotton-seed (229) oil is a by-product of the cotton industry and is obtained by
pressing the hulled and crushed cotton seeds. The seeds are produced in the United States, India,
and Egypt, and with the oil enter largely into commerce, being exported to Europe, especially to the
United Kingdom. An immense quantity of this oil is annually used in the United States as an
adulterant and subsitute for olive oil, and in the making of imitation butter (184) and lard (185),
soap, candles, and lubricating oil (209). The oil cake and seeds themselves are excellent cattle feed.
Kapok (232) oil is obtained in Holland from seeds exported from Java and is used for many of the
purposes for which cotton oil is employed.
191. Sesame Oil. — Sesame ° (Sesamum indicum) is produced throughout the East, whence both the
oil and the seeds are exported. Two kinds of seeds are important, the white and the black. The
seeds are very rich in oil which is used to adulterate olive oil, as a substitute for it (152), and for
making butter (184), soaps, and perfumes. The best sesame is exported from Turkey (where both
the oil and the seeds are much used as a food in the form of sweetmeats) but the amount is not as
great as that exported from India. Marseille is the largest importer, and considerable quantities are
taken by European countries. It is cultivated a little in the Philippines, particularly in the Ilocos
Provinces and occasionally some is exported to China.
192. Peanut Oil. — Peanuts « (Arachis hypogaea) are produced all over the world, but principally
in northwestern Africa, India, South America, and in the East and West Indies. Marseille is the
chief importer and takes the nuts either as kernels or in the shell. In the factories the latter are
husked and the kernel cleaned by winnowing, in which processes most of the red skins are removed.
The nuts are reduced to a paste and pressed, different grades of oil resulting according to the amount
of heat applied. The oil is filtered, and is used to adulterate olive oil, as a substitute for it in pack-
ing sardines (152) and other fish, and in making imitation butter (184), while the poorer grades are
' Gingelly (E.),linga (T., II.), langa (Cag.), lunga (Bukidnon), anjonjoli (Sp.).
•Mani (T.) ; ground nuts (E.).
103506 5
66
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
made into soap and lubricating oil (209). The oil is an inferior illuminant. The cake is an excel-
lent cattle feed. The nuts are also roasted and eaten as a relish, particularly in the United States,
and are used to adulterate chocolate (96). The United States both raises and imports the nuts. The
whole plant or just the leaves and stems make excellent fodder (26). Oil is not obtained from the
peanut in the Philippines but the other uses are understood. Here it is grown to no great degree in
any one locality, but as more interest is now being taken in the crop, exportation
may result. There are numerous varieties
noted in the world and the Philippines also
Manila (rhitippini.t')
118,493 T.
Singapore Si Penang
lOi.GlO T.
.lava
100,578 T.
have several varieties.
Ceylon
30,713 T.
Macassar
30.880 T.
Sangir,
Menado &
Gorontalo
27,298 T.
Malabar
24,146 T.
SHIPMENTS OF COPRA, 1910.
Not indudinE South Sea, Zanzibar, and other countries of production for which statistics are not available. Total 460,197 tons.
(From statistics by L. M. Fischel & Co., London.)
193. Coconut Oil.' * — Coconut trees (Cocos nucifera) grow in the tropics along the coasts, especially
in Ceylon, India, French Indo-China, East Indies, Pacific Islands, tropical America, the West Indies,
and Africa. Some oil is exported, the best coming from the Malabar coast of India and from Ceylon,
but, on account of the cost of the barrels necessary for transporting it and the leakage which often
results, it is not usual to export the oil. Instead, the meat is dried, forming what is called copra and
making a very easy and cheap material to handle, since no oil is lost, no barrels are needed, and the
oil cake or "poonac" remaining after the copra has been pressed is an important cattle feed. How-
ever, unless the copra is carefully made from ripe nuts and well dried, the oil is likely to be inferior.
There are two ways to dry copra,
namely, in the sun and in kilns by
artificial heat. The husks are re-
moved by striking the nuts on a sharp
iron points stuck in the ground (233).
The nuts are then split open and the
halves placed in the sun until the meat
can be removed after which it is
further dried in the sun until cured.
In the kiln-drying method, which is
used in regions lacking sufficient sun-
shine, the halved nuts are placed on
an open bamboo floor over a pit to
which the smoke and heat of burning
husks are conducted from another pit.
This dries the meat. The smoke
prevents the growth of fungi to a
certain extent, but seriously injures
the quality of the copra since more
or less creosote is always present in
the products which may be made
from the oil. Machinery has been
adapted to the husking of the nuts and also to the drying of the copra. Copra is usually put into
old sacks for export. Coconuts with the husk removed are also exported in large numbers from
tropical America to the temperate regions where they are eaten fresh or dried or used to make oil.
The grated dried meat, known as shredded or desiccated coconut, is used in making sweetmeats.
' Farmers Bulletin 17, Bureau of Agriculture, Manila.
' Worcester, Coconut growing in the Philippine Islands, Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington, D. C, 1911.
A COPRA KILN OF BRICK.
OILS, FATS, AND WAXES
67
In the tropics the oil is pressed from the meat in crude presses which leave much of it in the cake,
and is used as a food, an illuminant, and as an ointment, especially for the hair. In the temperate
regions powerful presses are employed and the oil is used in making soap (for which it is well
adapted), and candles. It is also refined by removing the odor and color, and used for making sub-
stitutes for butter (184) and lard (185). It is the most suitable of all oils for these purposes because
of its high melting point (in the cool season in the Philippines coconut oil becomes solid) and its
close resemblance to butter in its composition. These products are given such names as "palmin" and
"butterine" or are labeled butter or imitation butter, in which form a considerable amount of the oil
finds its way back to the tropics. Coconut oil is also used to make salves and lotions of various kinds.
The uses of the palm may be seen from the chart (27; 72; 77; 82; 270).
'Cooking.
Butter.
Soap.
Lard.
Illuminant.
Salves and lotions.
Ointment.
Copra.
fFruit.
The
Coconut
Palm.
Kernel.
Coconut oil.
.Oil cake.
Milk.
Shell.
Husk Coir fiber.
fFor cattle feed.
\Fertilizer.
Food i^aw-
IDesiccated coconut.
[Beverage.
\Vinegar.
Household articles (kitchen utensils).
Carved articles (curios) .
Buttons.
Combs.
Polished bowls.
Charcoal.
Calking material.
Ropes.
Carpets, mats and matting.
Brushes, etc.
Trunk Wood (porcupine wood) for cabinetwork and canes, for
construction, for firewood.
fFor thatching, plaiting, mat making. Midribs for baskets
Leaves -i and brooms.
[Young leaves. (Food.)
Sirup.
Palm sugar.
Flower spathe .... Juice.
fFermented drink (toddy; tuba).
-Tuba j Distilled (arrack; bino; alak).
^^Vinegar.
In the Philippines the chief coconut regions are in Pangasinan, the region around Laguna de Bay,
Tayabas, Mindoro, and the coastal strips of nearly all the Visayan islands and Mindanao. There are
thousands of hectares of land in these regions suitable for the palm. During the last few years
there has been a large planting of palms. The chief product is copra in the export of which the
Philippines exceed any other country. Most of the Philippine copra is sent to France, some to Spain,
and the rest to Germany, Singapore, and the United States. In the Visayas generally, the copra is
68
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
RJ
Formosai2J
DISTRIBUTION
O^ THE
COCONUT PALM
sun dried. In Luzon it is smoked in kilns. When properly sun dried without being rained upon
and away from dust and dirt, a better product is obtained than by smoking the meat. The latter
process produces copra which gives a colored oil, and which is unevenly cured so that some pieces
are scorched and others are half
dried and liable to mold aboard ship.
In the Philippines, too much of the
copra is produced from unripe nuts,
both because the owners of small
groups of trees do not wait until the
nuts ripen and because in the system
of cutting them off the trees, by
means of curved knives on long poles,
many unripe nuts are taken. In
parts of India and Cuba the nuts are
allowed to drop to the ground.
Because of improper curing,
considerable dirt, smoke-scorched
material and fungous growths are
present in Philippine copra, which
fact, in connection with the low oil
content (the result of picking unripe
nuts), causes the Philippine product
to bring the lowest price of all copra
on the market. In parts of the Vi-
sayas a very excellent product is made
by carefully drying the meat of the
ripe nuts in the sun, then washing
it in salt water and further drying the
copra. It is probable that the salt
prevents fungous growths. It has
been proposed to make copra here by
drying it on iron plates using the
husk and shell as fuel but keeping the
smoke away from the coconut meat.
Such a contrivance would produce a
white, clean, thoroughly dried copra
of good keeping qualities, if properly
used, and would fill the want of a
small apparatus for the numerous
small holdings where machinery can
not be installed.
The local trade in coconuts is
also of importance for they are sold
as a food product in all markets.
The husks are employed in the Phil-
ippines as fuel and as brushes, very
little coir being extracted. From the
Laguna de Bay region, a considerable
number of nuts are shipped to Manila
both to be made into copra and to
be sold whole. They are sometimes
sent down on the Pasig and the Pagsanjan Rivers in rafts, but such a system is somewhat dangerous
as was illustrated in the typhoon of 1908 which broke up several coconut rafts on the Pagsanjan River
and scattered, it is estimated, from 100,000 to 200,000 nuts over Laguna de Bay.
In the Philippines coconut oil is used more than any other. Some little is expressed in crude
PHILIPPINE DISTRIBUTION OF THE COCONUT FALM.
OILS, FATS, AND WAXES
69
presses, but most of it is obtained in small "factories" and in the households by the "hot wet" system.
Such factories are found in towns, and also in localities where, on account of the lack of good trans-
portation, it is cheaper to extract and export the oil than the copra.
A most important product of coconut palms here is tuba (82) which is used as a fermented
beverage, to distill alcohol, for vinegar, and to produce sugar. The amount of tuba taken from the
coconut trees depends largely upon the price of copra, for the higher the price of copra the less tuba
is produced. Nearly all the other uses of the palm noted in the chart are known in the Philippines.
194. Bean Oil. — The soya bean (Glycine hispida) is grown extensively in China and Japan. It is
used for food (29) and from it is extracted soya-bean oil. The process is so crude that a large part
of the oil is left in the cake. This is sent from the Chinese Empire to European countries, partic-
ularly Great Britain, where much of the remaining oil is procured and the residue used for fodder.
Soya beans are a large article of export from the Empire. The oil is cheaper than cotton-seed oil
and can be used as a substitute for it (107).
195. Cashew Oil. — The cashew " nut (Anacardium occidentale) yields two oils. From the outer
part of the nut is produced a very powerful blistering oil useful in preserving carved wood and books
against white ants (304), while the kernel, after being roasted and pressed, yields a very fine edible
oil. These nuts are grown in the Philippines, their chief industrial use being as an adulterant in
chocolate (96). In other countries, as India, the nuts are of considerable commercial importance,
being eaten when roasted, and made into confectionery with sugar.
196. Palm Oil. — African palm oil is produced from the fruit kernel of a palm (Elais guinensis)
growing principally on the northwestern coast of Africa. The meat of the nut also yields a vegetable
fat. Since it is easily extracted the oil is cheap and is either exported to or produced in England
and Germany, where it is used in making soap and lubricating (209) oil. The palm grows well. in
the Philippines but is not of commercial importance.
O to ZO do
1 1 1
*o
so
eo
70
so
90 IOC
1
Tayabas
Laguna
Cebu
Moro
Leyte
Bohol
Capiz
Sorso-
gon
is
c s
a
O
u
a
B
00
Z
o
5
Others
PHILIPPINE PRODUCTION OF COPRA, BY PROVINCES, 1910— PERCENTAGE.
(Bureau of Agriculture.)
197. Castor Oil. — Castor '■" (Ricinus communis) is groviTi in nearly all tropical and subtropical coun-
tries, but the seeds and oil are chiefly exported from India. The oil is used as a medicine, for lubricat-
ing (209), in making soap, and for minor purposes, such as in the manufacture of celluloid, oilcloth,
artificial leather (139) and a mordant for dyeing (282). It is also used in dressing leather (197) and
as an illuminant. There are several kinds of seeds of which the smallest variety yields the medicinal oil.
The leaves are used in Assam for feeding silkworms. The plant grows wild in the Philippines but is
little used here.
198. Linseed Oil. — Linseed oil is produced from the seeds of the flax plant when grown for the pur-
pose, for when grown for the fiber (216) the plant does not produce good oil seeds. Flax seed is chiefly
produced in Russia, India, Argentina, and the United States, the first three being exporters. It is the
best of all drying oils (183), used extensively in making paints, varnishes, and printing inks, and when
mixed with sulphur can be utilized for many purposes for which rubber (319) is employed. It is sent
to Europe and the United Kingdom and is imported into the Philippines chiefly from the latter country.
Boiled linseed oil is an important commercial form of the oil and is made by heating it with a drier (as
litharge) which makes it harden more quickly.
199. Candlenut Oil. — Candlenut '' oil is obtained from the fruit seeds of trees (Aleurites moluc-
cana '^ and A. trisperma '^) grown throughout the islands of the Pacific, the Malay Peninsula, and
parts of the East Indies. It dries about as rapidly as linseed oil (198) and is in demand for varnish
and paint making. There is considerable domestic commerce in this article in the Philippines. The
seeds are shipped chiefly from the Laguna de Bay and the Gulf of Davao regions to Manila and Zam-
boanga, where the oil is extracted or they are sent to Singapore whence they reach Europe and the
•Casoy (T., Vis., II.).
'" Tangantangan (F.).
"Lumbang (T.).
"Lumbang bate (T.), biao (M.).
" Lumbang banucalad.
70
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
United States. In Mindanao the nuts are decorticated by boiling them in water until the shells crack.
On Luzon the shell is cracked with a hammer or by placing the nut in a sling and hitting it on a
rock. The oil is expressed on a commercial scale, though crudely, in Manila, and is sometimes shipped
in preference to the nuts from those producing regions from which transportation is expensive. The
oil is used locally as an illuminant, for painting bancas and, with lime, to calk vessels. It is also
used in the manufacture of paint. The oil cake is in large demand as a fertilizer.
200. Com Oil. — Corn oil is pressed from the germs of the corn separated during the process of starch
making (56), and is used for soap making, lubricating, burning, and as a substitute for linseed oil.
201. Cacao Butter. — Cacao Butter, which is the fat produced in making cocoa from the beans (94),
is valuable on account of not easily becoming rancid, and is therefore used in medicine and for making
salves, pomades, and finest toilet soaps. It is often adulterated with coconut and palm oils.
202. Oil Cakes. — The oil cakes of different seeds and nuts may be used either for stock feed (26) or
as fertilizer. Linseed cake is especially valuable for cows, copra cake for work oxen and horses and for
fattening swine, white sesame for sheep, and black
sesame, white sesame, cotton, castor, and candlenut
cakes for fertilizer. Soya bean cake is a large ex-
port from China both to Europe and to Japan where
it is an important fertilizer and fodder. The export
of oil cakes, especially of copra, from India and
Ceylon to Europe and Australia is very large.
MINERAL OILS.
203. Petroleum is a dark brown, thick mineral
oil obtained from wells drilled into sandstone, lime-
stone, and shales. The crude oil is used as fuel
(329) for steam boilers where coal is not abundant.
Petroleum is refined by distillation. The first oils
obtained are very volatile and are used to dissolve
gums and oils (177, 188). With more heat, illum-
inating oils (189) are obtained, such as gasoline and
kerosene,' ^ which are also used as fuel in small but
powerful engines like those of motor boats and
automobiles. The heavy oils are then obtained and
form the most important of all lubricating oils.
There are many by-products. The United States and
Russia are the chief producers of petroleum and the
United States is the greatest exporter of kerosene,
which has practically displaced all other illuminating
oils. In the East kerosene is also supplied from
Burma and Sumatra. The Philippines import kero-
sene mostly from the United States and some from
the Dutch East Indies. It is carried to nearly all parts of the Islands but has not entirely displaced the
native illuminants, such as lumbang oil (199). Considerable lubricating oil is also imported. Petroleum
has been discovered on the Tayabas Peninsula and in Cebu, but so far no producing wells have been sunk.
WAXES.
204. Beeswax; Vegetable Wax. — Beeswax is produced in Europe and America by the domestic bee and
is gathered in East Africa and the Far East from wild-bee hives. Vegetable wax comes from Japan and
Brazil. In China an insect secretes wax on a tree. This wax is used in China and some is exported.
Wax candles are now used only for religious worship, domestic candles being made from paraffin prin-
cipally and to a small extent from tallow, whale, and vegetable oils. Beeswax is gathered and traded by
the wild tribes in the Philippines, is made into candles and is also exported to Singapore. Waxes are
used for many purposes other than making candles, such as for molds in making jewelry and in
sewing leather.
"Coal oil (E.); petroleo (F.) ; gas (F.).
AN OIL GUSHER.
OILS, FATS, AND WAXES 71
205. Paraffin. — Paraffin is a mineral wax obtained from petroleum (203), and by distillation from
certain shales. Nearly all candles are made from it, except the wax candles used in religious worship,
but while it has nearly displaced tallow, vegetable and whale (187) oils in candle making, these sub-
stances are often mixed with it. Paraffin and other waxes are imported into the Philippines, principally
from the United States, and Japan (148).
USES OF OILS, FATS, AND WAXES.
FOOD USES.
206. Fats and oils are used directly for food as olive oil and butter, and are employed in cooking,
as coconut oil, olive oil, and lard. Olive oil is most used in France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, butter in
the United States, United Kingdom and Germany, in the last of which it is also extensively used for
cooking. Lard is consumed in all countries, but especially in the United States. Coconut oil is eaten in
countries where it is produced. Other countries such as China, Japan, Russia, and India consume many
kinds of oils either imported or local. As has already been explained (189), many other edible oils enter
into the adulteration of olive oil and are substituted for it, and in the same way vegetable oils and lard
oil are mixed with beef tallow so that the compound may be solid at ordinary temperatures and be used
for butter (184) or lard (185). In the Philippines lard and coconut oil are consumed to the exclusion of
almost all others.
PRINCIPAL TECHNICAL USES.
207. Soap. — Soap can be made from any fixed oil or fat. Old methods are still used where soap is
not produced in large quantities. By heating the material and adding a weak solution of alkali such
as caustic soda or caustic potash, the glycerin separates from the soap thus formed. Salt being added,
the soap rises to the top and leaves the salt brine and glycerin at the bottom. The soap is then drawn
off, the excess glycerin and alkali extracted from it, and the soap colored and scented, if necessary.
Modern methods as carried on in large factories have greatly improved these processes. Scouring soaps
used for rough cleaning have sand and pumice stone added. Besides the fats and oils already men-
tioned, the refuse from many industries is used for making soap. The scrapings of hides (137) in the
leather industry, the refuse of lard rendering (185), inferior grades of oil from the last pressing (188),
oil "foots" (i. e., the substance forming at the bottom when the oil is allowed to settle), the waste of
slaughterhouses (126), are all soap-making materials. In many countries the grease refuse of the
kitchen is collected by people, who make it a business, and is used for cheap soaps. Olive oil (189) is the
best for toilet soap while coconut oil (193) is also considered very good. Quantities of soap are im-
ported into the Philippines and considerable soft soap is made by the use of ashes. In the larger towns
hard soaps are manufactured on a commercial scale, the oil used being usually coconut oil.
208. Candles. — Candles can be made in three different ways. The best wax candles are formed by
pouring the molten wax over wicks and then polishing the candles by rolling them between marble slabs.
The manufacture of wax candles being of importance in the Philippines on account of the demand for
them in religious worship, is carried on in many towns. Wax candles are an important article of domestic
commerce and are made of beeswax and vegetable wax, the cheaper ones having paraffin added. Dipped
candles are made by dipping twisted wicks suspended from a rod into the molten substance. After
each dipping the substance is allowed to cool and solidify until the candles are large enough. Most
domestic candles are now molded, the best being made from spermaceti with a small portion of wax
added. Spermaceti is a solid substance obtained from the oil in the head-cavity of the sperm whale
(187). Stearin candles are made from fats and fixed oils, but when oils are used the glycerin must first
be eliminated. The largest number and the cheapest candles are now made from paraffin, which is
soft and of a low melting point, so the candles made of it wholly or in part are soft and liable to
melt and run instead of burning evenly. The Philippines import domestic candles and there is a candle
factory in Manila.
209. Lubricating Oils. — Most lubricating oils are now products of petroleum, though vegetable and
fish oils are also used. Often nondrying oils are made thicker and better adapted as lubricants by
passing air through them when heated. Fish oils, especially seal oil, make the finest lubricants and
are used on very delicate machinery.
72 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
HELPS AND HOME WORK.
1. Name some Philippine flowers that have a strong agreeable odor.
2. Write compositions on ylang-ylang, vetiver, and champaca.
3. Make a list of Philippine volatile oils; edible oils; drying oils.
4. Locate Marseille.
5. Could the Philippines produce enough lard for domestic consumption? Does your locality impjrt lard?
6. What fish oils could be produced in the Philippines?
7. Write a composition on the methods used here for producing oil.
8. Spread some coconut oil on a piece of glass and some linseed oil on another. Note which one dries.
9. On a map of the world indicate the olive-producing regions.
10. Write a composition on sesame.
11. Write a composition on the cultivation and uses of the peanut.
12. On a map of the world, show the coconut-producing regions.
13. Write a composition on the coconut palm. One on copra production.
14. Where is the Malabar coast in India?
15. What are the uses of coconut oil in the Philippines?
16. Write a composition on the cashew.
17. Write a composition on the candlenut.
18. Write a composition on minor Philippine oil-producing plants.
19. How are oil cakes used in the Philippines?
20. Write a composition comparing kerosene with other oils as illuminants.
21. Write a composition on soap making in the Philippines.
22. Write a composition on candle making in the Philippines.
23. Burn a pure wax candle, one made of wax and paraffin, a stearin or tallow candle, and a paraffin candle and note
which is the most satisfactory.
24. Make a list in order of importance of the oils, fats, and waxes used: (a) On the table for food; (6) for cook-
ing; (c) for making imitation butter; (d) for making imitation lard; (e) for soap making; (/) for candle
making; (gr) for making lubricating oils; (h) for salves; (t) in medicine; {)) for leather dressing; (A;) as
illuminants; (I) in making paints and varnishes.
25. Which of the following articles are imported and which are exported by your district? Ylang-ylang flowers
and oil, raiz-de-moras, champaca, coconuts and their oil, copra, sesame, peanuts, kerosene, soap, candles, lubricat-
ing oils.
26. From the latest report of the Collector of Customs determine the amount of import and export of each one of
the products noted in the chapter and the percentage of each to the whole import or export.
MUSEUM.
Ylang-ylang flowers and oil. Vetiver roots. Champaca flowers. Turpentine. Fish oils. Lard. Tallow. Green
olives. Ripe olives. Olive oil. Cotton seed. Cotton-seed oil. Coconut. Copra. Grades of coconuts oil. Shredded
coconut. Varieties of peanuts. Sesame. Sesame oil. Castor pods and seeds. Castor oil. Cashew fruit and seed.
Linseed oil. Lumbang fruit, seed, and grades of oil. Lumbang oil and lime. Cacao butter. Oil cakes. Petroleum.
Kerosene. Lubricating oil. Wax. Soaps. Glycerin. Common domestic candles. Wax candles. Minor Philippine
oils and oil seeds, such as tuba, etc.
Chapter VIII. .
FIBERS AND DYES.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS.
210. Structural. — Fibers may be classified according to their source into vegetable, animal, and
mineral fibers (362). The chief vegetable fibers are either (a) bast fibers, which are obtained from
the inner fibrous bark of dicotyledonous plants, such as flax and jute; (6) structural fibers, which are
obtained from the structural system of the stalks, leaf stems, leaves, or other parts of monocotyledonous
plants, such as abaca and maguey; (c) surface fibers, which are the down or hair surrounding the seed
or seed envelopes, such as cotton and kapok; (d) straws which consist of the dried stalks of grasses,
rushes, and sedges, as wheat straw, and the strips cut from leaves, as buri straw, and layers, as bamboo
straw. The chief animal fibers are (a) wools, such as sheep's wool; (6) hairs, such as horse's and
goat's hair; and (c) spun fibers, such as silk.
211. Economic. — The classification of fibers according to their chief use is, however, of much greater
commercial importance. Such a division is (a) textile fibers, those used for spinning and weaving into
cloth; (b) cordage fibers, or those used for making cord, twine, rope, and cables; (c) broom and brush
fibers; (d) plaiting and rough weaving fibers, as those used for making hats, mats, thatch, baskets, etc.;
(e) stuffing materials; (/) paper materials. It must be remembered, however, that while the chief
use of each fiber is in the manufacture of a certain class of articles its minor uses may include many
others. For instance abaca is mostly consumed for rope but is also made into textiles, hats, and paper.
VEGETABLE FIBERS.
CLEANING.
212. Retting. — Bast and structural fibers (210) may be separated by retting. In this operation,
bundles of leaves, stalks, or other parts of plants are placed in water, either in stagnant fresh water as for
jute, in slowly running fresh water as for flax, or in salt water as for maguey, and allowed to rot so
that everything but the fiber becomes decayed and softened. Care must be taken that retting does not
last too long, else the fiber itself will be affected. In many plants the woody stuff, pulp, or other mate-
rial can then be washed from the fiber in fresh water ; in other plants, such as flax and ramie, in which
a large amount of gummy material is present, the process must be continued by means of scutching
and the mass dried, beaten, scraped, and finally combed in order to remove the impurities and leave
the cleaned fiber. Often chemicals are used.
213. Stripping. — Some structural fibers, such as maguey and abaca can be obtained by stripping. In
this process, carried on either by hand or by machinery, the pulp and weaker fibers are scraped by
knives from the strong fibers contained in the leaf.
214. Ginning. — Where the fiber to be obtained consists of vegetable hairs attached to seeds, it is
necessary to tear the fibers away. This process is done with a gin and is exemplified in preparing
cotton. Where the fiber is not attached to. the seeds as with kapok, the process is much simpler. The
seeds can usually be eliminated by stirring the mass in baskets until they sink to the bottom. The seeds
may also be picked from the fiber by hand.
215. Other Methods. — Certain straws are obtained by cutting leaves and like material, as buri, sabu-
tan, and bamboo, into strips or are prepared by drying and curing the stalks of grasses sedges and
rushes. Where the fibers are contained in a bundle, as the buntal fiber of the buri petiole, they may
be obtained by pounding the stalk or, if strong enough, by pulling them out.
73
74 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL VEGETABLE FIBERS.
BAST FIBERS.
216. Flax. — Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is a plant of the temperate regions and yields two commer-
cial products, the seeds, from which oil is extracted, and the fiber, from which linen textiles are made.
Plants grown for the seed (198) are useless for fiber and the immature seeds of the plants grown for
fiber yield but little oil. The chief characteristics of flax fiber are its length, strength, fineness, and its
color which is naturally brown but can easily be bleached a good white. The fiber is somewhat expen-
sive, chiefly on account of the diflSculty of obtaining it. The stalks are usually retted (212) in slow run-
ning fresh water, are dried and scutched. The fiber is then combed to remove the shorter fibers known
as tow. While the greatest amount of flax comes from Russia and some from Germany and Ireland,
the best is produced in Belgium. The place of linen in the world's commerce has been largely taken by
cotton, a cheaper though less durable fiber (249).
217. Ramie. — Ramie ^ is a fiber extracted from the stalks of two closely related plants {Boehmeria
nivea and a variety) grown in south eastern Asia. On account of the presence of considerable gluti-
nous substance (212) the fiber is very difficult to obtain, even more difficult than flax. It is exported
from China and India as a product of the old methods of cleaning, but of late machinery has been
adapted to its extraction, so that it is now being cultivated in many other countries and is becoming
a more important fiber than formerly. The fiber is usually exported in the form of "ribbons" and
is degummed by secret chemical processes in the factories. It is at present made into cloths some
of which are like silk (264) and some of which resemble linen (249). Canton linen or grass cloth,
in white, natural brown, and blue shades, is considerably imported into the Philippines from China,
and the cloth is often embroidered. Ramie is also used for knitted underwear, lace, plush, curtains,
and is a strong rope (266) and fish-line fiber, resisting water very well. The fiber is not produced in
the Philippines.
218. Jute. — Jute - is produced almost entirely in Bengal, India, from the stalks of two plants,
Corchoi-us capsularis and C. olitorius. The fiber's are separated by retting (212), usually in stag-
nant water, for from three days to a month and by beating the stalk with a mallet and washing away
the adhering particles. Drying in the sun completes the process. The fiber is very long, of a light
brown color of different shades, and while fairly strong, loses its strength when it becomes wet. It
is easily spun into coarse yarn. In Europe, America, and India it is made into heavy cloths, such as
burlap used for packing raw cotton and the like, and in making gunny cloth and gunny sacks, which
are used for packing grains (12), coffee, and similar articles (277). On account of being very lustrous
jute is mixed with silk and it is also made into cheap carpets, curtains, and into rope (266). Jute
is found wild in the Philippines and made into rope but is not a commercial fiber.
219. Hemp. — Hemp (Cannabis sativa) is a plant very much like flax except that it is taller, reach-
ing a height of 4 meters. The fiber is obtained from the stalk usually by machinery. Hemp is chiefly
used for making rope twine and coarse cloths. The best hemp is produced in Italy but Russia pro-
duces the most. It is manufactured principally in Europe and the United States. Its place has been
taken to a great extent by Manila hemp, sisal hemp. New Zealand hemp, and other rope fibers pro-
duced from widely different plants and in widely different regions, but called "hemp" on account of
their having been substituted for real hemp as rope materials (265).
STRUCTURAL/ FIBERS.
ABACA.»
220. The Plant. — Abaca fiber, known in the trade as Manila hemp or Manila, is produced from a
species of banana (Musa textilis) practically growing only in the Philippines. Roughly speaking,
the production of abaca is of greatest importance on the eastern and southeastern, or Pacific, side of
the Philippines below Laguna de Bay. This circumstance results from two causes: First, because
the eastern side of the Philippines has a more or less equal distribution of rainfall throughout the
'China grass, Canton linen (E.). It is found in the Ba- ° Pasao (T.).
tanes Islands, the native name being "hasu." (See Phil. "Farmers' Bulletin No. 12 (revised edition), Bureau of
Journal of Science, Manila, Sec. C, Vol. VI, No. 1, p. 4.) Agriculture, Manila.
FIBERS AND DYES
75
year and consequently no dry season, and secondly the districts are either entirely below the typhoon
belt or are seldom visited by typhoons which are destructive to abaca. The dry season, however, can
be overcome by irrigation, which is practiced in places not subject to heavy winds. Abaca is especially
cultivated in southern Luzon, Leyte, Samar, Negros, and other parts of the Visayan Islands and in
Davao and other regions of Mindanao. The Provinces of Albay, Leyte, Sorsogon, Samar, Camarines
and Cebu and Mindanao are the most important in the order given. Except in Luzon most of the
producing districts, especially Minda-
nao, Leyte, Samar, and Mindoro, have
large areas of uncultivated land suit-
able for abaca growing. There are
many different, closely related varie-
ties of abaca, some of which are supe-
rior in the abundance and quality of
the fiber and the ease with which it
is extracted. Abaca plants may be
produced either from parts of the root
stocks, from the seeds of the fruit or
from suckers, but the latter is the
usual method of propagation, and in
newly planted districts the suckers
may have a very considerable com-
merce.
22L Stripping. — The stalks, of
which there may be from ten to twenty
in one "hill," are cut just before the
flower bud begins to appear. Flower-
ing may occur on two or three stalks at
the same time. Abaca is at present
cleaned by hand, by a method (213)
which costs much labor and which has
been used in the Philippines for many
generations. The stalk consists of a
small fleshy stem surrounded by from
16 to 25 overlapping petioles varying
from 21 to 5^ meters in height. The
sheath is composed of three distinct,
though not well-defined, layers. ^ The
outside layer contains the most and
the strongest fiber. The middle layer
consists of a row of cavities separated
by longitudinal and transverse walls
of which the former contain a few
white fibers. The third layer is a mass
of fiberless, useless tissue. Fibrous
strips from 1 to 3 inches wide are
stripped from the outside layer and,
when a quantity has been collected, is
pulled underneath a large bolo press-
ing down on a piece of wood, a process
which removes the pulp, and leaves the clean abaca fiber. The product is then dried over lines. The
process requires considerable skill and strength and strippers become expert in it. Abaca waste from
the foregoing two processes, contains about 30 per cent of the fiber in the outside layer and is a good paper
material (278). The quality of abaca largely depends upon the knife used, that obtained by a smooth-
edged knife being best and that produced by a serrated edge being discolored from the adhering pulp.
Of late several machines have been patented to clean abaca fiber, some of which are already working,
PHILIPPINE ABACA REGIONS.
76
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
and others are being perfected. On account of the large increased area planted to abaca, it has been
difficult to obtain a sufficient number of strippers, hence stripping machines will be of great importance
in extending its production.
222. Trade. — Abaca fiber is produced on large plantations, or in small patches owned or rented by
the cultivator of the soil. The product from the former goes usually more directly to the exporters
than fiber from the small producers, which is either gathered up by agents, who go into the country,
or is brought to the towns by the producers and given in trade (82). Sooner or later, practically all
the abaca in the Philippines finds its way to Manila or Cebu and is sent by the large exporting firms
to the United States, Great Britain, and
other countries. Some of the finer fiber
remains in the districts where it is
produced to be made into abaca cloths
(256) and small rope, and some of it is
consumed in the rope factories in and
near Manila. Softness, color, and
strength are the qualities usually con-
sidered in grading the fiber, and the
degree of these qualities is affected by
soil and climatic conditions, by the
variety cultivated, and by the position of
the sheath in the stalk, as well as through
extracting, drying, and handling. From
the outside sheaths toward the inner
ones the fiber increases in softness and
whiteness, but decreases in strength.
Of the 17 grades of abaca known in the
foreign markets the lowest 5 result from
imperfect extracting and handling of
the fiber. The exporters grade the
fiber (which usually comes from the
provinces done up in long rolls or crude
bales) and rebale it into bales of 2 piculs
(126.5 kilograms) pressed tightly so as
to take up the least room in the ship,
and covered with buri mats (277). Be-
sides Manila and Cebu a little abaca is
also sent away from Jolo, Zamboanga,
and Davao.
223. Uses. — Abaca is especially val-
uable for rope making (262), since it is
longer than most rope fibers (good
quality being from 3 to 4 meters long) ,
is very durable and pliable, resists the
action of water, and has a high tensile
strength especially in comparison to its
weight. Ropes of all kinds are made
from it, but it is particularly suitable for rope intended to bear heavy strains and for use on board
ship (265). It is also made into textiles, hammocks, and footwear in the Philippines.
AGAVE FIBERS.*
224. The Plants. — Maguey and sisal are names applied to the fiber of many different species and
varieties of Agave distributed all over the tropical world. The fibers produced in different countries
and from different plants have slightly varying qualities. The species A. cantula yields the fiber
which is known as Manila aloe or Philippine maguey and was probably introduced into the Philip-
* Farmers Bulletin No. 13, Bureau of Agriculture, Manila.
ABACA.
FIBERS AND DYES 77
pines from Mexico. Formerly production in the Philippines was confined to this species, but within
the last few years the sisal plant (A. rigida sisalana) has been introduced from the Hawaiian Islands
and is now also well established in Cagayan, Ilocos, La Union, Pangasinan, Zambales, Batangas, Cebu,
Negros, Bohol, and several other provinces. This species lacks the thorns common to Philippine
varieties and yields a coarser fiber. The most important exporter of sisal is Yucatan, in Mexico,
where the henequin plant (A. rigida elongata) is grown, but the sisal plants have been brought to
many other regions of late years and are now cultivated in most countries possessing tropical climates.
One of the peculiarities of Agave is that it will grow in poor soil where most other agricultural
products fail and particularly in limestone soils as those found in Cebu, Mactan, Negros, Siquijor,
and Bohol.
225. The Fibers. — In most countries the fiber is cleaned (213) by machines (raspadores) and dried
in the sun. While machine-cleaned maguey has been produced in the Philippines it is now largely
obtained here by retting (212) the leaves in salt or brackish water or by maceration. In the first
method the leaves are cut into strips or crushed, and are then placed in salt water from six to eight days
the bundles being turned over several times so as to cause uniform decomposition. The putrified
matter is easily removed from maguey by squeezing and washing the fiber in clean water, after which it
is dried. In the maceration method the leaves are crushed and allowed to rot without soaking until the
fiber can be separated, but the product so obtained is both weakened and discolored. Machine-cleaned
fiber is, of course, better than the retted and, provided there is a constant supply of leaves results in
higher profits. In Mexico some fiber is still cleaned by scraping the pulp away with a large dull knife
and this method is used to a small extent in the Philippines when fiber for sinamay (258) is required.
The Philippine export of maguey is increasing.
226. Uses. — Agave fibers rank next to the best qualities of abaca as rope fibers (262) and are some-
times mixed with it. They are stiff, less strong and much shorter than abaca, ranging from 1 to 1^
meters, and cannot withstand the action of salt water. Their chief use is in the making of binder twine
and small rope (265). The United States is the chief consumer since it uses so much binder twine in
harvesting its grain and hay crops. Sisal is also made into grain sacks (12) and used in the production
of carpets, matting (276), and hammocks. The thicker, larger, and more elastic fibers are used for
making brushes (269) . The increased production and use of agave fibers has undoubtedly partly caused
the fall in price of the lower grades of abaca (222) . In those districts of -the Philippines where abaca is
not grown, maguey takes its place for local uses (77).
SURFACE FIBERS. -
COTTON.
227. The Plant. — Cotton ° textiles are used by all peoples outside of the frigid zone. The plant
(Gossypium) requires warmth, moisture, and a long season, and thrives best near the sea. Hence it
is tropical and subtropical, but is mostly grown in subtropical regions. The fibers consist of hairs
attached to the seeds of the cotton fruit called the boll, which when ripe splits open so that white tufts
of cotton protrude. The cotton fiber with the seeds attached is usually picked from the bolls by hand,
though lately a machine has been invented for the purpose.
228. Fiber. — A cotton staple is a tuft of cotton selected from the mass. Grades of cotton differ in
the length of the fiber, uniformity of the staple, silkiness, fineness, strength, color, and cleanliness.
These qualities vary from different species of the plant, the place and manner of cultivation, and the
method of picking the cotton from the boll and cleaning it from the seeds. Sea-island cotton grows
along the coasts and islands of southeastern United States and little is produced. The staple is about 2
inches in length, fine and silky. It is used to produce thread and lace and the finest cotton textiles.
Egyptian cotton averages about an inch and a half in length, and is used for thread and underwear.
Some Egyptian cotton is brown in color. Ordinary Peruvian cotton is also brown in color, is as much as
an inch and a quarter in length and is used to make underwear and to mix with wool. Some Peruvian
cotton is also of longer staple. The great bulk of cotton produced in the world is the upland cotton of
the United States which is about an inch in length, varying in other qualities according to the locality
in which it is produced. It is made into cloths. Indian cotton has a rather short staple and is often
very harsh.
'Algodon (Sp.), kapas (II.), gapas (Vis.).
78
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
229. Ginning. — The cotton having been picked from the boll must be separated from the seeds to
which, in most varieties, it is tightly fastened. Formerly this was done by hand, now it is accomplished
by machines called gins which may vary from simple wooden affairs, as found in the Philippines, of
small capacity and worked by hand, to very large machines used in the great cotton growing districts
of the world, machines which are able to gin wagonloads of cotton at a time. There are two general
types of gins, the roller type which separates the fiber from the seeds by pulling it between rollers
and the saw gin which separates the fiber by pulling it from the seeds by means of revolving sawteeth
(190).
230. Baling. — As the cotton is ginned it is blown into the baling presses where many layers of fiber
are pressed one on top of another until a bale has been made. Bales are covered with jute bagging and
are held together by steel bands. They vary from 200 to 500 pounds in weight. The purpose of baling
is to make the cotton take less space in carriage (and therefore pay less freight) and to permit it being
handled more easily. It must be well dried when baled else it will become matted, discolored, and
mildewed.
231. Production. — The United States produces about three-fourths of the world's cotton crop. The
European cotton manufacturing countries have encouraged cotton cultivation in their tropical and sub-
tropical colonies in the hope of becoming less
dependent on the United States for their supplies
of raw cotton (243-248).
OTHER SURFACE FIBERS.
United States
India
Egypt
O
232. Kapok." —
Kapok ' {Ceiba pen-
tandra) consists of
the surface fibers
surrounding the
seeds in the pod or
fruit of a tree. The
fruit is either picked
.§5
M
Persia
Japan
Mexico
Brazil
Others
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COTTON.
(After Bartholomew.)
up from the ground where it has fallen or is knocked down from the trees. The fiber is easily separated
from the seeds since they are not attached, as are cotton seeds, but lie loosely embedded in it. A gin
may be used, the seeds may be picked out by hand, may be flailed out on a bamboo table, or may be
separated from the fiber in a basket by being stirred with bamboo sticks. In the latter process, the seeds
sink to the bottom since they are heavier than the fiber and fall out through the holes. The fiber is
then dried, pressed into bales (though not too tightly) and exported. The best grade of kapok is that
cleaned by hand, the basket and machine cleaned usually containing much more seed (190).
The fiber differs from cotton in that it cannot be spun since it is too short, straight, and brittle.
Its most valuable characteristic is its elasticity which prevents it becoming matted and makes it a very
good stuffing and upholstering material. Hence, it is used to stuff cushions, pillows, chairs, and the like.
Since it is more buoyant than cork it is made into life belts. The seeds yield an oil having about the
same uses as cotton-seed oil.
The kapok industry is of recent growth but large quantities are now being shipped from India and
from Java, fiber from the latter country being considered the best. In the Philippines the tree has been
cultivated but little. It grows wild and is sometimes planted in fence rows or for telegraph poles, as in
•Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, Popular Bulletin No. 2. ' Bulak (T.), kapas sanglay (Il.),doldol (Vis.), kayo (B.).
FIBERS AND DYES
79
Cebu and Bohol. The fiber is used for stuffing pillows, and, when a commercial article, is usually either
not cleaned at all or very poorly cleaned. The domestic supply is enough for the demand and the domestic
commerce is little, scarcely ever being inter-provincial. A considerable amount of the cleaned fiber is
exported from Dumaguete, Occidental Negros, where it is gathered from Negros and other islands.
233. Coir. — Coir fiber is a by-product of copra obtained from the husk of the coconut (193). It
is exported from Ceylon and Singapore and the coconuts are also sent to Europe and the fiber is worked
up there. Coir is produced by retting the husks in brackish water, after which they are crushed either
by machinery or by hand, and the fiber extracted. It is also obtained by steaming the husks and crushing
them. Coir fibers vary in length, coarseness, stiffness, straightness, and color (the lighter colors being
preferred) , and are divided into "mat", or long fibers (276) , "brush and broom" fibers (269) which are
shorter and stiffer, and "upholstry" fibers which are those capable of being curled. In the Philippines
coconut husks are but little used except as fuel (226) .
ANIMAL, FIBERS.
PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL FIBERS.
WOOL.
234. Fiber. — Wool is an animal fiber, the most valuable product of the sheep (130). It is clipped
from the live animal once a year. The difference between wool and hair is that hair is hard, crisp,
straight, and does not felt, while wool is soft curly and felts readily. The cause of felting is that the
fibers of wool have minute projections which cause the fibers to stick together (272) . Wools are graded
according to the length of staple, their fineness, and softness. Different varieties of sheep furnish
different grades of wool, the finest coming from the Merino sheep. Wools differ also according to the
localities in which the sheep are raised and the food which they have eaten. Australia, Argentina,
Russia, United States, Great Britain, and South Africa are large producers of wool (250-251).
235. Other Wools. — Among other animals yielding wools are the angora goat, from which mohair is
obtained, the alpaca, from which alpaca is gotten, and the camel whose wool is made into blankets and
other articles.
SILK.«
236. The Silkworm. — The silk of commerce is obtained from several species of silkworms, although
one species {Bombyx mori) , which is kept in captivity
and fed upon the leaves of the mulberry, is the most im-
portant. The silkworms, or
caterpillars, are hatched from
eggs which have been laid on
China
Japaa
Italy
OS o
II
St
Balkan
Turkey
In
Europe
S°al"
Aus.
Hun.
suiss.
India
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF RAW SILK.
(After Bartholomew.)
paper kept for the purpose. Those silkworms which hatch out on the same day are placed together on a
tray covered with mulberry leaves. They continue eating except when molting, which occurs four times in
their larval stage of thirty days, or less. During this time the silkworms must be changed from tray to
tray and furnished with plenty of mulberry leaves, great care being taken to keep everything very clean
and to protect them from their various enemies and from sunlight and rain. When ready to spin their
cocoons, the silkworms are transferred to baskets containing straw or dried twigs to which they can
fasten the outer threads of the cocoon. The cocoons having been spun, a certain number of the largest
and best formed ones are selected for the production of females. Half as many small, but well-formed
cocoons are taken and from these will come the males, to be used for fertilizing the females in order that
they may produce eggs which will hatch.
" Banks, a Manual of Philippine Silk Culture, Bureau of Science, Manila, 1911.
80
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
The moths emerge within twelve days and their eggs are all laid within the following two days.
The moths should then be killed and buried or burned in order to prevent disease. If this life history —
the laying of the egg, its hatching into a caterpillar, the spinning of the cocoon, the change into the moth
and the laying of eggs again — occurs once a year, the variety is known as "monovoltine." Such
varieties are usually raised in the temperate regions as in Japan and China. If many generations are
produced in a year the variety is said to be "multivoltine." This usually occurs in warmer, tropical
regions such as in India. In the Philippines an average of nine generations per annum were raised
during a four years' experiment in silk culture. Other species of silkworms, such as the eri which lives
on the castor plant and the tussah which yields the pongee silk of China, India and Japan, are both wild
and cultivated.
237. Reeling and Carding. — The cocoons which are selected for the purpose of obtaining silk must first
"be "choked" in order to kill the insects within them. This is done by heating them at a temperature
not above 100° C. in an oven, or by steam. The object of killing the pupa is to prevent the moth from
emerging from the cocoon and thus spoiling the fiber for reeling. Only cocoons of mulberry silkworms
are choked. Those of the eri and tussah must be left till the moths have emerged and must then be
boiled, carded, and spun as is cotton
(243) or wool (250). The choked
cocoons may be reeled by the producer
in the household or may be sold to
dealers who, in turn, dispose of them
to hand reelers or to central factories.
Silk production and reeling is usually
carried on in countries where wages
are low since it requires many work-
ers, though the labor connected with
it is very light. The cocoons are
surrounded by a light bunch of
tangled fibers called "floss." This
may be removed before the cocoons
are soaked in hot water, heated al-
most to the boiling point. The object
of putting the cocoons in hot water
is of soften the gum binding the fibers
together.
Each cocoon consists of an un-
broken thread. The silk floss being
SILK MOTHS, WORMS, AND COCOONS. removed, the operator of the reeling
machine beats a number of cocoons with a small, stiff" broom until the fiber ends become fastened
to it and each cocoon hangs down from a single thread. This manipulation requires considerable
dexterity. The operator then selects the threads of from five to twenty cocoons and runs them together
into a single strand. They adhere on account of the gum fastening them. It would be impossible to
reel one cocoon separately since the thread would not stand the strain of being pulled from the cocoon and
on the reel. The larger the number of threads joined together, the coarser the strand of raw silk. The
strand is drawn from the cocoons, bobbing up and down in the hot water, over and on to a reel which
revolves and winds it into a skein or hank. As a fiber ends the operator fastens on another cocoon
Only about 12 per cent of a cocoon is reelable, the inner portion being, like the floss, used for making
spun silk. The raw silk is reeled either in households where the power is supplied by the foot or hand, or
in large mills operated by steam machinery. Care must be taken to see that the water in which the
cocoons are placed, is neither too hot nor too cold and that the number of threads composing the strand
is kept the same. The fiber is removed from the reel and made into a peculiar skein or hank for export
(253, 268). The pierced cocoons and the waste of reeling are carded and made into spun silk in the
same manner as the eri cocoons are treated.
238. Trade. — The largest exporters of raw silk are China, Japan, and India, and it is also produced
in southern Europe. The United States, France, and other European countries are the largest importers.
The greatest part of the supply for the United States comes from Japan.
FIBERS AND DYES 81
239. Silk in the Philippines. — The mulberry plant was introduced into the Philippines over three
hundred years ago and has now become acclimated in all parts of the Islands. Scientific experiments
have demonstrated that the silkworm can be successfully raised in the Philippines. On account of
the consumption of raw silk in the manufacture of jusi and of the fact that raw silk would enter
the United States duty free from the Philippines, silk culture may become an important industry
here. In Japan the industry is one of most importance in the households, and in many parts of the
country women and children are engaged in raising silkworms and often reeling the silk, just as in
the Philippines they are occupied in weaving hats or cloths in their homes. The eri silkworm in
the Philippines produces a silk which would find ready local acceptance as a substitute in the weaving
of cloths into which cotton now enters. It would be used by many of the non-Christian as well as
the Christian peoples in the making of necessary articles of clothing.
THE CHIEF PRODUCTS OF FIBERS.
TEXTILES.
THE PROCESS OF WEAVING CLOTH.
240. The Yam. — In the weaving of cloth it is necessary to have an unbroken yam. The process
by which it is formed varies according to the fiber which is used, (a) Where the fiber is short and
fine like cotton or flax, the thread is made by drawing out and twisting the fibers into strands, several
of which are again twisted into an unbroken yam. (6) Where the fibers are long and unbroken like
raw silk, they are "thrown" — ^that is, several are twisted together, (c) Where the fibers are fairly
long and strong, and too thick to be twisted together, the fiber ends may be tied to make a continuous
yam, as in pineapple fiber and abaca, (d) Where the fiber is long and unbroken and strong enough,
such as certain grades of raw silk used to make jusi, it is, without further manipulation, ready to
be woven.
241. The loom. — In weaving, the threads which run the length of the loom are known as the warp.
The cross threads or filler, which are known as the weft or woof threads, are thrown between the
warp threads by means of a boat-like instrument called a shuttle. It holds a bobbin from which the
thread unwinds. In weaving designs into the cloth, many devices are used which can not be here
explained. While considerable cloth is still made on hand looms, particularly in the Orient, the product
is of no great importance in comparison with that made by machinery.
242. Size. — Any foreign substance added to the cloth is known as a size. Cloths may be sized
either in the thread or yam or after it has been woven. Starch (52) is the usual size for cotton
cloths. It gives them weight and sometimes a gloss. If too much size is added the process may
become a deception, for when the cloth is washed it loses much of its weight and body (244). Silk
is sometimes sized with gum (312).
KINDS.
COTTON TEXTILES.
243. Spinning. — Cotton (227) products should be manufactured in air either naturally or artifi-
cially moist and warm. Cotton fibers are easily spun since they have a peculiar spiral twist which
causes them to cling together, a property of the fiber which greatly cheapens cotton textiles. In
cotton-spinning mills the bales are opened and the fibers are cleaned and carded so that they lie
parallel. The resulting slivers are then drawn and twisted into strands and these in turn are
pulled and twisted into yarn. The number of strands going into the yam varies according to the
thickness of the yarn required. The yarn is then made into bundles called hanks and, when starched,
is ready to be woven into cloth. Cotton thread is made in the same manner as is yarn except that
only the longest varieties of cotton are used, and that it is usually wound on spools. If the thread
is intended for sewing it is spun very tightly and hard; if for embroidery work it is spun very
loosely. Yarns and threads, if dyed, are usually colored after they are spun, by drawing them through
the dyeing fluid. The spinning of yarn is usually carried on in establishments separate from the
weaving mills, the weavers buying their yam. In foreign trade cotton yams are an important item.
Thus India imports yam to be woven in her mills and China imports large quantities to be woven
into cloth as a household industry. The waste of cotton mills is used in making cheap carpets, lamp
wicks, twine, wadding, and the like.
103506 6
82
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
244. Weaving. — Cotton cloths are woven now-a-days on looms of such perfection that thousands of
yards of cloth can be turned out in one day with only one person watching the operation. On account
of the cheapness of the products, machine-made cottons have therefore almost entirely supplanted
cottons made on hand looms.
Cotton cloths differ —
A. In the yams used ; that is, according to the fineness of the yam, the hardness to which it has
been twisted and kind of fiber used in its manufacture.
B. According to the fineness and the peculiarity of weaving ; that is, whether the yarns are woven
close together or loosely, and whether they are woven simply over and under each other, or in irregular
weaves. Cotton cloths vary in thickness from heavy canvas, to gauze-like fabrics. In classifying
cloth it is usual to find the weight of a given square measure of the cloth (such as the weight of 100
square meters), and the number of threads to a given surface (such as in 6 square millimeters).
C. As to the methods of dyeing. If it is colored at all, cotton cloth may be made from dyed
yarn, may be dyed after it is woven, or may have a design printed upon one surface.
D. As to the amount of size (242) used. Cotton yarn and cloths are sized with starch (52, 56)
and the poorest cloths have such large quantities of size that they may lose half of their weight upon wash-
ing. Such cheap cottons are chiefly
worn in China. Dextrine and gum
arabic are also used to size cottons.
245. Kinds of Cloths. — Cotton
cloths are of numerous kinds and
names. Only the most important ones
are here indicated. Muslin is a plain,
inexpensive cotton cloth used for
underwear, sheeting, and the like.
Lawns, pearlines, and batistes are
finer fabrics used for dress material
and embroidery. Gingham is a cotton
cloth made from dyed yarns in
patterns of checks, plaids, or stripes
and is used as a dress material.
Calico, prints, percales, are cheap
cotton cloths with a design printed on
one side and are used principally for
women's dresses. Drill is a stout
twilled cotton cloth much used in the
tropics for men's outer clothing, the
twilled effect being obtained by pass-
Duck is a cloth somewhat heavier than
Canvas is a very heavy, strong, and
Cotton fiber is also made into many
INTERIOR OF A COTTON MILL.
ing the welf thread over one and under two or more warp threads
drill and is not twilled. It has about the same uses as drill,
closely woven cloth used for sails, awnings, tents, and the like,
other articles, such as string, rope (266), and nets.
246. Mercerized Cotton.^ — Mercerized cotton " is produced by immersing the yarn or cloth in a solu-
tion of caustic soda, the fiber acquiring strength and a silky gloss. It is used for fine textiles, to
adulterate silk, and in embroidery.
247. Trade. — The largest manufacturers and exporters of cotton goods are England, New England,
the Carolinas and Georgia, Germany, India, and Japan. With the exception of the United States and
India, these manufactures import all their raw cotton. The United States also imports some Egyptian
cotton. The principal trade in manufactures of cotton is from the temperate manufacturing countries
to the tropics where cotton cloths are almost the only textiles worn.
In the Orient, cotton fiber is produced in large quantities in India and in China. Japan is the
principal importer of fiber, of which the most comes from the United States and India. Both India
and Japan manufacture cloth, but India also imports large quantities of cotton goods from England.
China imports cotton yam (especially from Japan), to be woven as a household industry, and great
•Sedalina (Sp., F.).
FIBERS AND DYES 83
amounts of cloth from Great Britain, the United States, and Japan. All other countries of the East
are also importers of cotton goods since they use them almost exclusively but do not manufacture them.
248. Philippine Production and Trade. — The chief import of the Philippines is cotton products. The
largest part comes from the United Kingdom and the United States the rest from Japan, Spain, and
other European countries. Cotton fiber is produced in small quantities in several places in the Philip-
pines, especially in the Ilocos Provinces, but the product is not enough to spin the yam required for
use here and so yarn is imported (258). The weaving of cotton cloth on household looms is carried
on in many localities and is an inter-provincial industry in the Ilocos Provinces, Iloilo, Antique, and
Batangas. The largest production, however, is in the Ilocos Provinces where cotton cloth, towels,
blankets, nets, and many other articles are produced. There is a fair trade carried on with the Igorots
in coarse blankets and "gee strings" and with the upper Cagayan Valley in cloths, and heavier and
better made blankets. The production of hand embroidery on fine imported cotton for export to the
United States is a large household industry in Paranaque, Rizal.
- LINEN TEXTILES.
249. Textiles from linen (216) are among the first of historical knowledge, and to-day are con-
sidered to be among the finest and strongest of cloths. The manufacture of linen, however, has
become of relatively small importance because of the increased production of cotton textiles which
are made much cheaper and have taken the place of linen. Linen cloths and manufactures such as
tablecloths, napkins, shirt bosoms, collars, cuffs, and handkerchiefs are produced in the continent of
Europe, in England, and in the United States. The finest laces are made in Belgium and Ireland.
Lawns, drills, ducks, and cambric, a fine white linen for handkerchiefs, are also made of flax (266).
WOOLEN TEXTILES.
250. Spinning. — In factories the wool (234) is scoured with soap and water to remove grease and
other impurities and is then carbonized with acid to eliminate remaining vegetable matter. If the
wool is to be made into woolens it is carded; that is, the fibers are tangled together in all directions
by machinery to form the yarn. If it is to be made into worsted it is combed so that the fibers lie
parallel and is then twisted fairly tightly into yarn.
251. Kinds of Cloths. — Textiles made of wool are not so varied as are cotton cloths and are used
principally in the temperate zones. Woolens are rough, heavy cloths made from carded yarns loosely
twisted. Worsteds are heavy smoother cloths woven from combed yarns more tightly twisted. Serges
are twilled. These fabrics are used for outer clothing. Flannel is a woolen cloth made of very
loosely twisted yarn and is used for underwear, shirts, and to some extent for outer clothing. Felt
(234) is a heavy woolen textile made by rolling or beating the wool fibers into a matted condition
with the aid of heat. It is used for rugs, hats, insoles of shoes, and for other purposes. Wool can
also be knitted into underwear. It is made into blankets and carpets. The cheaper woolen fabrics
are woven with a mixture of shoddy, which is made by tearing apart old woolen goods, or are adul-
terated with cotton. Europe and the United States are the largest producers of woolen textiles.
SILK TEXTILES.
252. Raw and Thrown Silk. — Raw silks (236) are of various tints and colors according to the color
of the cocoon from which they were obtained. These colors in most cases, are removed by scouring
the hanks with soap and water — a process which also frees the silk from the gummy material. Reeled
silk is not spun into yarn like cotton or flax. Instead the long fibers are "thrown;" that is, twisted
into a yarn. The warp thread used in silk weaving is rather tightly twisted and strong. The weft
is so losely twisted that the fibers lie almost parallel and give to many silk textiles their very brilliant
finish.
253. Jusi. — Certain fabrics are made of raw silk (237) itself. Bolting cloth is a very fine raw silk
textile used in sifting flour in flour mills (4). In the Philippines a considerable amount of raw silk
is imported and woven on household looms into a fabric known as jusi. Jusies generally contain
yarns of colored mercerized cotton or thrown silk which make the pattern in them. They are a very
fine dress material and are made particularly on the household looms of Iloilo, Batangas, and Malabon,
the finest coming from Iloilo. Sinamay is also made from raw silk in the Philippines (258) .
84
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
254. Silk Fabrics. — Various fabrics are made from thrown silk : Silk is woven in the regular manner.
Satin is a very brilliant silk textile in which the weft is made to cover the warp entirely. Plush and
velvet are made so that the woof is woven through the warp and over copper wires. When the weaving
is finished the copper wires are removed and the loops in the woof are cut, producing a thick, soft
and dull lustrous cloth. Silk from tussah and eri cocoons and from the waste of reeling are spun
and woven like cotton into cloths such as pongee silk. France, the United States, Japan, and China
are large manufacturers of silk.
255. Philippine Silks. — Besides raw silk for jusi manufacture the Philippines import thrown silk.
There is a small household production of silk, and silk and cotton cloths, handkerchiefs, aprons (tapiz) ,
skirts (patadiong of the Visayas), and such articles. Baliuag in Bulacan produces a considerable
amount of silk, and silk and cotton cloths and handkerchiefs, and the looms of the Ilocos Provinces
and of Iloilo are also important in this industry.
France.
United States
Italy
Germany
Switzerland
1 >^
3 3
<a5
Spain
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS OF RAW SILK.
(After Bartholomew.)
ABACA, BANANA, AND PINEAPPLE CLOTHS.
256. Tied Abaca and Banana Fiber. — The finest grades of abaca (220) fiber are used in the Philip-
pines for the production of several different cloths (258, 259), the fiber often being produced espe-
cially for the purpose. In preparing the fiber for weaving it is combed with the fingers, pounded to
make it softer and more pliable, classified, and the ends tied together to make one continuous thread
called tied or knotted abaca.^" Great deftness is shown by the workers in tying the knots and cutting
off the fiber ends so that the joining of the fibers can not be seen in the cloths. In this process up to
five baskets are used to hold the different qualities of yarn, each fiber being classified as it is pulled
from the combed bundle, tied, and laid in a round, thin bundle in the correct basket. The "nest," as
the bunch of tied fibers is called, is then covered with fine gravel so that the fibers will not become
tangled, and is made into hanks or reeled onto bobbins ready to be woven into cloth. There is a large
and growing export of tied abaca from Batangas, Cavite, Capiz, Iloilo, Surigao, and other provinces
to Europe where it is made into braids for hats (273) and there is a considerable commerce in it in
the Islands. Much of it is woven into cloth by the producers. The fiber obtained from the stalks
of the "saba" and other bananas (34) are used in Bohol, Cebu, Panay, and other districts for the
purpose of making cloths of rather soft quality, and often of considerable luster, some not of great
durability, others of good wearing quality resembling jusi in appearance. The processes of extraction
and preparation is much the same as that for abaca (221).
257. Pineapple Fiber. — Pineapple fiber is prepared from the leaves of the plant (35). The leaves
are scraped on a stone under a piece of broken pottery and other smoother scrapers such as bamboo
and shells, and the fiber thus obtained is washed in water and dried in the sun. The fibers are then
separated from each other and from the remaining pulp by drawing them between the finger nails.
There are two classes of pineapple fiber, the finest being produced from the under part of the leaf,
the coarser from the upper part. The fibers obtained are tied together, nested and reeled as is abaca.
Pineapple fiber is also used in India, the Malay Peninsula, Formosa, and China for rope and cloth
and may be extracted by machinery. Probably it has its greatest commercial value in the Philippines
(258, 260) .
258. Sinamay. — Sinamay is a stiff, coarse open textile made on the household looms in the Philip-
pines of abaca (256), pineapple fiber (257), banana fiber (256), raw silk (237), or maguey (225),
'" Ginatang (Misamis), dinogtong or sinogtong (Batangas), quilots (commercial).
FIBERS AND DYES
85
usually mixed with colored cotton yarns (248). Abaca sinamay from Albay, Iloilo, Capiz, Batangas,
and Cavite is the most important. The stiffest and coarsest abaca sinamay in its natural straw color,
is used for lining and stiffening in place of buckram and is important in export trade, especially from
Batangas. The finer qualities are made into camisas de Chino, and camisas, and panuelos in the
native costumes of the Philippines. Most of the Bohol sinamay is woven from the fiber of the saba
banana (34, 256) and is finer and more brilliant but not as durable as abaca. Sinamay is patterned
in stripes or plaids produced either by dyed abaca fiber, mercerized cotton yarn, or silk. Sometimes
a flower or other pattern is woven in, as in Calivo sinamay (made of pineapple fiber in Capiz Prov-
ince) and in the Iloilo sinamay (woven of pineapple fiber and raw silk) . In the maguey provinces a
very small quantity of coarse sinamay is produced from that fiber. Malabon sinamay is made of raw
silk in Rizal Province. Sinamay is woven in many places in the Philippines, the most noted being
Iloilo, Capiz, Bohol, Albay, Batangas, Rizal, and Cavite Provinces from which it has a large domestic
trade. It is also produced in many other places for household or local use. There is a growing
import of machine-made sinamay woven of cotton.
259. Pinolpog. — Pinolpog (pinokpok) is a closely woven, soft fabric made of abaca (256) heavily
beaten after weaving. It is produced particularly in Daraga, Albay, the town of Legaspi being the
SILK.
point of export. It is sometimes made of pure abaca in the natural color, and then has somewhat
the appearance of Canton linen (217), but usually colored cotton yarns are woven into the cloths to
produce stripes and plaids of various colors. The particular use of pinolpog is in the making of
skirts for Filipina costumes, but the pure abaca cloth and certain colored varieties suited to foreign
taste, are well liked in foreign countries though at present little produced.
260. Piiia. — Pina cloth is produced from the beaten pina fiber (257) and is the most beautiful and
expensive, and one of the most durable cloths produced on the household looms of the Philippines. It
varies in grade, the cheapest being a combination of jusi and piiia fibers. Piiia is particularly an em-
broidery material and is made into ladies' handkerchiefs and dresses and into doilies and the like. A
considerable amount of embroidery, especially from Paranaque, Rizal, is produced for export to the
United States. Piiia cloth is made in largest quantities on the looms of Capiz and Iloilo Provinces.
The durability of piiia when properly washed is not well understood outside the Philippines. In Europe
and America goods are scrubbed, a method ruinous to piiia which should never be more than lightly
pounded. Foreign demand is therefore limited. This could be rectified however if the cloth were
produced in large enough quantity to warrant handling by wholesale merchants and advertising as to
its qualities.
86
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
261. Trade. — Sinamay, pinolpog, and pifia are bought from the weavers and sent, through brokers,
to large dealers, export houses, and tiendas in Manila, Iloilo, Cebu, and other towns in the Islands.
They are often sold on the street by peddlers.
CORDAGE.
MANUFACTURE AND USES.
262. Properties of Cordage Fibers. — The properties which make a fiber more or less suitable for cordage
are (a) its length (for if too short it can not be twisted into large heavy rope) ; (6) its tensile
strength (i. e., the weight which the fiber will hold without breaking) ; (c) its suppleness (i. e., how
easily the rope made from it will bend) ; (d) its lasting qualities (i. e., how long the rope will keep
from rotting or wearing away under certain conditions, particularly under the influence of fresh or
salt water and also whether it becomes stiff when wet) ; (e) its weight.
263. Processes. — Cordage is made by first arranging the fibers so that they lie parallel. They are
then twisted in ropewalks into small strands which in turn are twisted into the rope. Often oil is
sprinkled over the fibers to make them smoother and more workable.
264. Uses.— Cordage may vary in size from twine used to tie up bundles and tightly twisted fish
lines of much strength in comparison to their diameter, to great cables several inches in diameter and
able to lift many tons without breaking. The chief uses of cordage are in the rigging of ships, for
binder twine on machines which reap wheat and other cereals (3), for
lifting heavy weights, for transmitting power in place of leather belting,
for tents and hammocks, for wrapping twine in retail stores, and for
fishing lines and nets.
Russian Hemp
Abaka
Mexican
Sisal
Italian-
Hemp
Hungarian
Hemp
Hemp
from all
other sources
New Zealand
Hemp
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF CHIEF CORDAGE FIBERS, BY WEIGHT.
(After Bartholomew.)
KINDS OF CORDAGE FIBERS.
265. Chief Cordage Fibers. — The chief cordage fiber was formerly the true hemp (219) . Many other
fibers have now taken its place and in a general way are also classed as hemp, though they are usually
distinguished from real hemp by having their place of origin prefixed; the most important is abaca
(220), called Manila hemp, whose qualities make it the best of all cordage materials. The agave
fibers (224) are next in importance. Other cordage fibers are Mauritius hemp (Furcraea gigantea) and
New Zealand hemp (Phormium tenax) , both of which are structural fibers (210) .
266. Minor Cordage Fibers. — Coir (233) ropes are one of the minor products of coir fiber and are
principally noted for their property of resisting the action of salt water. Coir ropes are not made to any
extent in the Philippines but it is reported that in the southern islands they are imported from Sandakan
for use on fishing boats, nets, and the like. Jute (218) is made into rope and twine of lower grades pos-
sessing no great strength and rotting easily in water. Ramie (217) cordage is very strong and resists
the action of water. Cotton (245) ropes are quite strong and are very pliable but are never made very
large and are rather expensive. Cotton is also extensively spun into wrapping twine. Linen (216)
is made into twine of very good quality. Bowstring hemp is obtained from numerous species of
Sansevieria in many parts of the world. S. zeylanica " is distributed fairly well over the Philippines
but is of little conmiercial importance.
267. Philippine Minor Rope Fibers. — The sugar palm (61) produces a black, horsehair-like fiber from
the sheaths found at the base of the leaves. Its local name is cabonegro." In Mindoro, Capiz, Taya-
Tigre (F.), pakarohay (Iban.), culebra (Sp.), tigui (II.),
sinawa (N. Ecija), lengua de tigre (F.).
' Ejii, gomuta (Ceylon), yunot (Mindoro), lanot (Bohol),
guinit (Bohol), gonot (Antique).
FIBERS AND DYES
87
bas, Cavite, and other provinces these matted bunches of fiber are removed and sold in shocks for
roofing and make a thatch which soon becomes fireproof. In the Philippines the fiber is made into
small ropes which stand dragging over the ground and the effect of either salt or fresh water with little
or no wear. Hence, cabonegro ropes are used to stake horses and carabaos. They are also used to tie
beams of houses together in place of rattan, and if bamboo is to be put under ground the fiber is often
put around the base to keep the pole from rotting. It is reported that the fiber is in considerable demand
in China for calking boats. In the Philippines it is of little importance, the fiber and rope being sent
from a few regions in small quantity. The sheath fiber of the fishtail palm (269) is also important in
rope making. Besides abaca (220), maguey (224), jute (218) and cabonegro a number of other
fibers are made into rope in the Philippines, but they are not of great commercial importance. Bamboo
(311) is often split and twisted into rope. From the buri palm (275) both the young leaves and the
buntal fiber of the leaf stem are twisted into ropes. Numerous basts of trees and shrubs are also used
for the purpose. There are many "natural ropes" found in Philippine forests, rattan (310) being the
most important. The dried stems of balangot (Cyperus malaccensis) are used as twine in the tiendas
throughout the Islands. Ropes are made in two ways in the Philippines: Factories beside supply-
ing local needs also export some cordage and there is a widely scattered production of small ropes made
of abaca, maguey, cabonegro, and minor rope fibers. Such ropes are made by hand in small ropewalks
as household industries, and the product is sold through tiendas to satisfy local demand.
BRUSHES AND BROOMS.
268. Grasses. — ^Brushes and brooms are made of vegetable, animal, and mineral fiber. Among the
grasses used the most important is the variety of sorghum known as broom com (22). The panicles
88
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
are particularly long and stiff and the dried stalks tied to a long wooden handle make what is known
in the Philippines as the imported "American broom." Shorter millets are made into small whisk
brooms for cleaning clothes. The species of millet grown in the Philippines would be more or less
suitable for broom making. The broom usually used in the Philippines for cleaning the floors of houses
is a very fine soft one, formed from the panicles of species of grasses. The common one is Phragmitis
vulgaris '^ a swamp grass found at low altitudes. The other is Thysnolaena maxima " which grows in
dry slopes especially on the highlands, and from which a much better broom is made. The production
of brooms from the panicles by removing the seeds and stalks and binding them together on a handle of
bamboo bound with grass stalks, is a household industry in several places, as for instance in Bataan
Province. The brooms, flat and wide and very soft, most suitable for hardwood floors, are sold about
the streets and in the stores of all towns. On account of their graceful shape a few are exported as
articles for wall ornament.
269. Structural and Other Fibers. — Among the
fibers which are used for brushes, the kittul fiber
obtained from the leaf sheath of the fishtail palm "
(Gary Ota spp.) of Ceylon is very important. The
long wiry fibers are used, mixed with bristles or
alone, to make hair brushes, clothes brushes, horse
brushes, and the like. They are often soaked in
linseed oil and then made into long-handled pliable
brushes. There are several varieties of this palm
in the Philippines, probably suitable for fiber produc-
tion (72; 267). The sheath fibers of the sugar palm
(61) are also good brush material. The shorter and
stiff"er coir fibers (233) are used for making coarse
brooms and brushes. Bamboo (311) is sometimes
reduced to rather wide straws used in making coarse
brushes, and, when dyed, often mixed with other
fibers in broom making. Certain species of maguey
(226) produce a thick elastic and polished fiber very
useful for making brushes. The buntal (275) fiber
extracted from the petiole of the buri palm is suit-
able for whisk brooms.
270. Midribs. — In the Philippines, the midribs of
certain palm leaves such as buri (275), sugar palm
(61), coconut (193) and nipa (82) are employed to a
very large extent in making brooms. This is a regular
industry in certain towns. The midribs are dried and
fastened into bundles by wrapping rattan tightly
around the thick upper end. Sometimes a wooden
handle is inserted. These brooms are especially used in rough cleaning, in streets, stables, and the like.
271. Animal Fibers. — Numerous animal hairs are used to produce brushes. The chief among these
are known as bristles and are the stiff coarse hairs of swine (129). Swine with good bristles usually
produce poor pork. Bristles are made into hair, clothes, varnish, and paint brushes. The hair of
certain camels and of the Siberian squirrel are made into camel's-hair brushes for fine artist's work.
The Philippine hog and wild boar should yield good bristles and in the fine woods of the Philippines
(306), including ebony, camagon, and narra, there is excellent material for brush backs. Bristle
brushes are now made in Ilocos Sur as a household industry.
HATS, MATS, AND MATTING.
272. Felt Hats. — The felting properties of wool have already been discussed (234, 251). The best
felt hats are made of fur which is a very fine and short wool. The inferior kinds are made of fur and
"Tambo (T., B.), tantanabung (II.), taguissi (Iban.). " Pugahan (T., B.), anifung (Iban.), marakulibangbang
"Bugubin (Negrito in Pamp.), buibui (II.), tagadew (H-), patikan (Vis.), hagol (B.).
(Bontok).
FISHTAIL PALM.
FIBERS AND DYES
89
wool and the lowest qualities entirely of wool. Fur for hats is obtained from rabbits, hares, the muskrat,
and other small animals. It is particularly exported from Australasia. The making of felt hats
requires special machinery on which the fur or wool is felted and shaped by means of heat and pressure.
Cotton is also used in making the cheapest felts.
273. Straw Hats. — Various straws can be woven into braids or plaits. The best straw however, is
that of wheat (4) sown thickly and gathered before the grain is ripe. Italy is famous for its production.
Straw plaits are made as a household industry in Japan, China, Switzerland, and other countries for
export, the Philippine Islands importing some to manufacture straw hats in Manila. In making the hats
the narrow braids are sewn together by machinery. In Switzerland and France straws are made from
Manila hemp (256), silk, horsehair, ramie, and other fibers by passing them through gelatin, subject-
ing them to great pressure, and then cutting into straws suitable for weaving. These are woven into
braids for hat making. Manila hemp itself is also plaited into braids known as "tagal" and extensively
used in making fine hats.
274. Panama Hats. — Panama hats are made from the midrib or strips of the young leaves of the
"jipijapa" palm (Carludovica palmata) growing in the low, swampy lands of Ecuador, Venezuela, and
Columbia. There is a considerable export trade in the fiber. The hats are produced as a household
industry just as are the hats of the
Philippines. Panama hats are light,
durable, and of good quality. Many
other parts of the world are now ex-
porting "panama" hats some of which
are made of other materials. Among
such countries may be mentioned,
Java, Foi-mosa, and Japan. In the
Loochoo Islands pandan raffia is used
for the purpose. The sabutan (725)
of the Philippines is a substitute for
panama. The Philippines import a
small number of panama hats.
275. Philippine Hats.'" — There are
in the Philippines two general classes
of hats. The salakots are stiff, light
hats used as helmets against heat and
rain. They are made in nearly every
town of the Philippines but are of
very little commercial importance.
Blocked hats are those which are made
over a form and which may, by the '''^^ ^iJf" palm.
aid of size and heat, be shaped into any style desired. The production of these hats in the Philippines as
household industries is extensive and the preparation of the straw used in their weaving and its
exportation to the centers of hat manufacture, occupy the time of many persons. Comparatively few
of the finest hats are produced and they are not of great commercial importance ; the medium grade
articles are woven in larger quantities and the chief export grades are of the lowest quality.
The most important hat produced in the Philippines is the bamboo (311) or Baliuag hat made par-
ticularly in the towns of Baliuag and Pulilan in the Province of Bulacan It is exported in large quantities.
Buri straw is obtained from the unopened leaf of the buri plam " {Corypha data) . The straw is done
up into rolls and is exported from numerous towns such as Arayat in Pampanga, and the towns of the
lower Tayabas Peninsula. The straw is woven into many useful articles, such as hats, sleeping mats
(petates), bayons, and fancy articles. The production of hats is carried on in several towns in the
Philippines either from imported straw or straw produced locally. The most important are Apalit and
Arayat, Pampanga Province, and Mauban in Tayabas Province. These hats have a very wide use
throughout the Philippines, and enter extensively into local commerce, being used by all classes as a
protection. They are exported in very large numbers.
"Bulletin 33, Bureau of Education, Manila; Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. VI, No. 2, Sec. C.
"Buri (F.), bull (T.), silag (II.), ebus (Pamp.).
90
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
li
»()-
rf-
^
Formosajji:
I2f
DISTRIBUTION
OF
BURI PALM.
teCENO.
^B MA/tr.
C23 /-f w.
C] MOItl Of UNINHABITCD
— i^
Calasiao hats are produced from the midrib of the unopened buri palm leaf. They are woven in a
small way in Pototan and neighboring towns in Iloilo, and to a larger extent in Calasiao, Pangasinan.
Calasiao hats have considerable commerce in the Philippines, since the fiber bleaches well and the hats
made from it are very stylish looking,
resembling at a distance the panama.
The best fiber produced from the
buri palm is the buntal, obtained from
the mature petiole in the towns of Taya-
bas and Sariaya in Tayabas Province.
The bundles of fiber are sent chiefly to
Lucban, Tayabas Province, and are
there woven into hats. There is a
great demand for buntal, Lucban or
Bangkok hats and a large export, par-
ticularly to the United States. (60 ; 73 ;
77; 82; 268; 269; 270; 276; also p. 91.)
The sabutan hat is made from a
species of pandan (Pandanus sabotan)
growing especially around Laguna de
Bay. Mavitac, Laguna, is the chief
producer. There is a large domestic
trade in these hats. Pandan hats are
produced from several other species
of pandans and are coarse and cheap.
The tikug ^* (Fimbristylis utilis) hat is
produced in considerable quantity in
Samar and Bohol and is used in the
Visayas (276). Rattan (310) and nito
(Lygodium) hats are produced in
much the same way as the Calasiao
hats, but are of no great commercial
importance (170).
In the towns of their production,
Philippine hats are usually bought up
by hat brokers, who send them in large
lots to the exporting firms in Manila
or to the hat stores there. Sometimes
several families weave hats and send
them by one of their number to Ma-
nila. In the town of Baliuag there are
market days when the makers and
brokers gather to sell and buy the
products. France and the United
States are the largest takers of Phil-
ippine hats.
276. Matting. — Matting is the name
applied to long strips of floor covering
made of straw with a warp usually of
cotton. The most important matting
PHILIPPINE DISTRIBUTION OF THE BURI PALM. comes from Japan and is made from
sedges, probably cultivated. Matting is exported from Japan and China throughout the world and espe-
cially to the United States. In the Philippines, tikug grass (275) and buri raffia (275) is beginning to be
used in making matting as in Leyte and Bohol, though the product as yet consists only of short pieces. By
f
"Anahiwan (Ag^usan), sudsud (Bukidnon).
FIBERS AND DYES
91
dyeing the straw, patterns can be made in the matting,
woven into doormats and coir matting for floors.
Coir fiber (233) is spun into yarn and then
BURI PALM USES.
Rope.
Raffia.
'Unopened leaf.
The
Biiri
Palm.
Blades.
Buri straw.
Midrib.
Opened leaf.
Leaf..
Stem.
Cloth, mats.
Fancy articles.
String.
Buri hats.
Mats.
Bayones.
Baskets.
Fancy articles.
Baskets.
Calasiao or Pototan hats.
Rope.
Roofing and walls of houses.
Covering for tobacco bales.
■■- Fans, etc.
Midribs for brooms.
.Midribs for baskets.
[Buntal straw for hats and brooms.
"iRope.
Tuba.
Fruit..
Trunk.
Fermented drink (tuba) .
Vinegar.
Alcohol.
Palm sugar.
("Young fruit for sweetmeats.
■ I Old kernel /Rosary beads.
^ l-Buttons.
fStarch.
J Bark for soles of sandals.
[Wood for fences.
277. Mats. — Mats are short pieces of floor covering. Mats are very important in the Philippines
since the petate or sleeping mat is so generally used. Petates are principally made from buri, pandan,
sabutan, and tikug straws (275). The buri mats are made throughout the Philippines but the most
famous are those produced on the Island of Romblon and by the Moros. Pandan mats are produced in
Majayjay, Laguna Province, Dao, Antique Province, and several other localities. Tanay, Rizal Province
is noted for its sabutan mats; tikug mats come principally from Bohol and Samar.'"
PAPER.20
278. Fibers. — In theory any plant will furnish material for paper since all plants contain fibrous
tissue. In practice, however, there are only a few plants and fibers which are used for the purpose.
The most important paper materials are soft woods, such as spruce (305) of the United States, Canada,
and Norway. Kupang {Parkia timoriana), a soft wood growing in the Philippines, is suitable for
" While a large number of gunny sacks (218) are used in
the Philippines, the bayons are the most important
containers. They are made either of buri or pandan
straws, and are especially important as containers for
sugar for the export trade, and of domestic rice. Ba-
yons are made in numerous towns throughout the
Islands. Buri mats, in which abaca (222) is baled,
are a large export from the lower Tayabas Peninsula.
" Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. V, No. 4, Sec. A.
92 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
paper. Textile and cordage fibers are more or less suited for paper, but since they are more valuable in
the production of other articles only the wastes are employed in paper factories. Rags are also made
into paper, the best being produced from linen. Old rope, such as Manila rope, jute rope, and the like,
make excellent paper material and the refuse of fiber production and manufacture, such as the butts
of jute (218) and the waste of abaca (221) are suitable for the purpose. Wastes also come from the
mills where vegetable fibers are manufactured into cloths. Certain grasses and cereals are used, such
as esparto (Stipa tenacissima) , a grass produced in northern Africa and in Spain, and the straw left
after grains are threshed. The cogon grass {Imperata spp.) of the Philippines may make a good paper
material and experiments in several countries indicate that bamboo (311) produces an excellent grade
of paper.
279. Manufacture. — The process of making paper consists of beating or grinding the material into
fiber with water, or boiling it with such chemicals as caustic soda. The pulp thus obtained may be
bleached white or dyed to any color desired and when dried and pressed is an important article of com-
merce from the producing countries, as Canada and the United States, to manufacturing countries as
Great Britain. The wet pulp is fed upon a moving belt of wire cloth and forms a soft sheet which is
pressed between felt rollers and afterward through hot steel rollers, in order to dry it and make the
surface smooth. The paper is then made into rolls or into bundles of sheets. Paper made in the above
manner will not take writing ink — ^that is, the ink will spread instead of leaving a line — and can only
be used for newspapers or as paper upon which writing is to be done with pencil. In order that the
paper shall take ink, it is usually sized by adding such materials as kaolin (354) and resin (312). If the
paper must be very smooth, as that used for printing fine pictures, the surface may be coated with clay
and glue under great pressure. Such is, in general, the method of manufacturing paper.
280. Kinds. — Blotting paper has no size added to it and is not run through heavy rollers, hence it
will readily absorb ink. Newspaper is the most important paper produced. It is made ffom wood pulp
and is not sized, though it is rolled under heavy pressure. Linen paper was originally made from linen
rags and refuse, but so-called linen paper is now also made from better grades of wood pulp and used
for writing paper. Manila paper was formerly produced from old abaca rope, but is now made of either
wood pulp alone, or wood pulp and abaca or jute pulp. Among the many other kinds of paper should be
mentioned cardboard, wall paper, tissue paper, and parchment paper. The Philippines import paper of
all kinds.
DYES.'V
281. Kinds. — Dyes are either vegetable, mineral, or animal. Of the vegetable dyes some are
produced from the stems, leaves, flowers, and seeds of plants, others from the roots, others from the
bark, many from woods, and some from saps of trees. While the raw materials from which dyes are
obtained enter commerce considerably, vegetable dyes are usually handled in the form of extracts, made
by treating the raw material with boiling water and evaporating the solution until a solid is obtained,
282. Mordants. — Many dyes will not leave a permanent color on textiles, particularly on certain
textiles. This peculiarity can often be overcome by "fixing" or fastening the dye to the fiber with the
use of a mordant. Many materials are used for the purpose. A mordant will not fix all dyes to every
fiber, but a particular one is often required for each dye and each fiber. Among the more important
mordants may be mentioned gums (312), starch, Turkey-red oil (which is produced from castor oil
(197) ), alum, borax, tannin (136), and particularly the compounds (salts) of certain minerals.
283. Indigo. — Indigo -- is a blue dye obtained from the leaves and stems of certain species of plants "=*
(Indigo f era spp.) grown in the tropics. It is produced chiefly in Bengal, Ceylon, Java, and Central
America. Bundles of the freshly cut indigo plants are placed in a tank containing pure water and are
allowed to steep up to twenty hours. The dye matter is thus dissolved in the water which is drawn off
into a lower tank. Here the light green liquid is agitated until, by the action of the air, the dye turns
a blue color and settles to the bottom. The water is then drawn ofi", the mud-indigo taken out, dried in
bags, and placed in trays for further drying in the sun. It must not dry too quickly, else the indigo
obtained will powder very easily. There are other methods of obtaining the indigo, varying in detail
from the one as described above. Machinery can also be used in its production. The dye usually enters
commerce in the form of cubes of about 3 inches. Indigo used to be of extensive importance as a dye,
=^'Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. V, No. 6, Sec. A. == Anil (Sp.), (F.), tagum (B.), (Vis.), tayum (T.), (II.).
"Tina (II.).
FIBERS AND DYES 93
but the artificial indigo made from coal-tar products has largely taken its place. Indigo is produced in
the Philippines, from two species (/. tinctoria and /. suffruticosa) particularly in the Ilocos Provinces
where it is used to dye cotton. Though formerly sent away in considerable quantities from that region
it does not now figure as a Philippine export.
284. Safflower. — Safflower dye -* is obtained from the flower of a plant {Carthamus tinctorius)
cultivated in India and other countries. The florets are picked, rubbed between the hands, and washed
by having pure water poured through them to eliminate a useless yellow dye. They are then dried
and usually pressed into cakes. Safflower is cultivated and sold to a small extent in the Philippines.
285. Madder. — Madder is a powder made from the dried roots of plants {Rubia spp.) grown in
Europe and Asia. It furnishes several colors but particularly a red one for cottons. Its use has also
decreased on account of coal-tar dyes.
286. Anatto. — Anatto is a dye obtained from a waxy material covering the seeds of a plant -'* (Bixa
orellana) grown in tropical America and Asia. The fruit capsules contain thirty or forty seeds which
are removed when the capsules split open, are dried thoroughly in the sun, and packed in barrels for ship-
ment. Sometimes the dye is prepared by boiling the seeds in water until the coating is removed.
After several days, the seeds are separated by straining and the liquid is allowed to ferment until the
dye settles to the bottom. The sediment is dried in much the same way as is indigo and is either
made into soft rolls or hard cakes, usually wrapped in banana leaves. The best way to export anatto,
however, seems to be in the form of dried seeds. Anatto is offered for sale in all Philippine markets
and is sometimes gathered by Chinese for export.
287. Turmeric. — Turmeric belongs to the ginger family and grows in all tropical countries. In
India the older roots, or those stored for a long time, yield the dye and the younger ones are used
for spice (101). The roots are boiled with or without water and dried in the sun. If they are in-
tended for use as dye they are boiled again and while still wet are formed into paste which in turn is
reduced to a liquid to make the dye* extract. Though cheap yellow dye is still obtained from turmeric,
its place has been largely taken by aniline dyes. It is still used, however, to dye cotton, wood, food,
paper, varnish, and also wool. It is also employed as is indigo, in compound colors. In the Philip-
pines the principal use of turmeric is to color foodstuffs and to dye cottons.
288. Logwood. — One of the most important dye woods is logwood {Hsematoxylon campechianum)
which is produced in Central America and the West Indies. It comes to the market in the form of
logs and an extract is made by reducing it to chips and boiling it in water. While it is a useless dye
alone, it becomes a very important one when mordants are used, the color depending upon the mordant
which is employed. Black and shades of blue, gray, and violet are obtained from logwood.
289. Brazil Wood. — Brazil wood is the heart wood of trees {CseseUpinia spp.) obtained from South
America and furnishes shades of red and violet. Sappan =" (Csssalpinia sappan), sometimes also called
bakam wood, may be classed with Brazil wood. Before the advent of coal-tar dyes it was a much
more important export from the East than it now is. In the Philippines sappan grows semiwild and
is chiefly produced on the Island of Guimaras near Iloilo. The dye can also be obtained from the
pods and the bark. It is shipped to China from the Philippines and it is here also used to dye mats,
and cloths made on household looms.
290. Cochineal. — The most important animal dye is that obtained from the dried female cochineal
insects {Coccus cacti) in tropical countries, especially Central America.
291. Dyes from Coal-tar Products. — The most important dyes, including the aniline dyes, are those
obtained from coal-tar products. Coal tar is a by-product in the production of coke (327). These
dyes have a wide range of color and are not only substitutes for nearly every vegetable and animal dye
but also include colors not before used. They are cheap and are easily fixed to fibers. They are im-
ported and used in the Philippines and have almost entirely displayed the native vegetable dyes.
=*Katsumba (T.), azafran (Sp.). "Achiote (Sp.), achuete (F.). " Sapang (T., II.), sibukao (Vis.).
94 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
HELPS AND HOME WORK.
1. Burn a human hair. It will curl up into a black ash and give an unpleasant odor. Burn an abaca or other vege-
table fiber. It will leave a white fiber of its own shape and give off a "woody" smell. Burn a silk fiber, wool,
goat hair and textiles made from them, and note how differently they burn from cotton, magruey, pina, and jusi
cloths.
2. Make a list of the vegetable fibers you know according to their source.
3. Which of the methods of cleaning vegetable fibers are used in your locality?
4. Obtain the fibers from a maguey leaf or other leaf or stem by retting.
5. Clean a maguey or bowstring hemp leaf, or banana or hemp petiole between a knife and a piece of wood.
6. Clean the fiber of a cotton and a kapok boll from the seeds by hand.
7. Cut a pandan or buri leaf into strips.
8. If it is possible to obtain an abaca stalk, strip the fiber as outlined in the text, otherwise try a banana (saba)
petiole.
9. Write a composition on abaca cultivation.
10. Write a composition on the uses of abaca fiber.
11. Is abaca grown in your locality? Is abaca fiber exported from your district? Could abaci be grown and exported?
12. Write a composition on maguey cultivation.
13. Write a composition on retting maguey. On cleaning maguey by machinery.
14. Compare the varieties of cotton found in the locality as to length of fiber and other qualities as outlined in the text.
15. If the school possesses a wooden gin, gin some cotton, otherwise clean the cotton from the seeds by hand.
16. Does the kapok tree grow in your district? For what is the fiber used? How is it cleaned? Is it exported or im-
ported?
17. Write a composition on the production of coir fiber.
18. Observe the difference between wool and hair under the microscope.
19. Several caterpillars in the Philippines produce nonreelable cocoons. Procure some of these cocoons and compare
them with silkworm cocoons.
20. Write a composition on the possibilities of silk culture in the Philippines.
21. Examine the fibers of cotton, kapok, ramie, abaca, piiia, jusi, silk, and wool with the naked eye and under a
microscope and note their differences.
22. Look up IJie words weft, warp, selvage in the dictionary and explain these terms by picking a piece of cloth to pieces.
23. How are knitted goods made?
24. With what is sinamay sized?
25. Clean and comb cotton fibers and spin them into a rough thread as described in the text. (If possible get a
spinning wheel and spin cotton thread before the class.)
26. Examine different numbers of cotton thread and see how they are made.
27. Examine and compare cotton thread and embroidery cotton.
28. Pick different cotton cloths to pieces and notice how they are woven.
29. Select a yarn from a piece of cloth and untwist it into separate strands. Notice how many strands each yarn has.
30. Select one strand and untwist and pull it so that the fibers will separate from each other.
31. Notice varying lengths of staple. Do the same to a piece of thread.
32. Does your locality raise cotton? Could your locality raise cotton?
33. Does your locality import or export cotton goods?
34. Make a list of the different manufactures of cotton used in your locality.
35. Why do the Philippines import so much cotton cloth? Why is the cotton cloth of the Ilocos Provinces preferred
to imported cloth? Why can machine-made cloth be sold cheaper than cloth woven on hand looms?
36. Find the meaning of "carded" in the dictionary.
37. Make a list of the manufactures of wool used in your locality.
38. What percentage of the cottons imported by the Philippines is the woolen cloth imported?
39. Why do the Philippines import so few woolen textiles?
40. Are jusi cloths made in your district?
41. Is jusi imported or exported by your district?
42. Which is the most durable, jusi, pina, or sinamay?
43. Tear apart a piece of jusi and determine, by untwisting, careful examination, and burning, which threads are raw
silk and which cotton, thrown silk, or other fiber.
44. Tear apart a piece of silk cloth and note the different manner in which the weft and warp threads are thrown.
Compare them with jusi fiber.
45. Untwist embroidery silk and note how it has been made.
46. Pick a piece of satin to pieces and note how it is made.
47. By pulling apart a piece of plush or velvet, determine how it was made.
48. Are fabrics made of thrown silk imported by your locality?
49. Does your locality weave silk into cloth either alone or in combination with other fibers?
50. Make a list of the manufactures of silk fiber used in your locality.
51. Make a list of the uses of sinamay.
52. Make a list of the uses of pinolpog.
53. Are cloths made of abaca fiber produced in your locality? Could they be produced?
FIBERS AND DYES 95
54. Are cloths made of abaca fiber exported or imported by your locality?
55. Make a list of the uses of pina.
56. Trace the journey of sinamay, jusi, and pina from the producer to the consumer, noting the persons through
whose hands the cloths pass.
57. Are cloths made of pineapple fiber produced in your locality? Could they be produced?
58. Are cloths made of pineapple fiber exported or imported by your locality?
59. Make a list of the fibers used for rope making in the Philippines and discuss the properties of each.
60. Make a list of the uses of rope in the Philippines.
61. Write a composition on the uses of cabonegro.
62. Does the sugar palm grow in your district?
63. Write a composition on rope making in the Philippines.
64. Is rope made in your locality?
65. Does your locality import or export rope?
66. Write a composition on making brooms of tambo.
67. Write a composition on making brooms from midribs.
68. Write a composition on kapok.
69. Are brushes or brooms made in your district? What fibers are used? Are any brooms imported into your district?
Of what are they made?
70. Write a composition on the making of any Philippine hat with which you may be familiar.
71. Write a composition on the buri palm.
72. Examine the different kinds of Philippine hats carefully and note how they differ.
73. What kind of hat is most used in your locality?
74. Are hats made in your locality? What materials are used? Which is the best? Are any hats exported?
75. What kinds of hats are imported by your locality?
76. Does your locality produce any of the hat materials? Does it export them? Does it import any hat-making
materials? Could it produce and export any of them?
77. Which hats could your locality produce? Which Philippine hat do you consider the best for (a) durability, (6)
color, and (c) style, in proportion to its price?
78. Pick to pieces a piece of matting and note how it was made.
79. Why is coir matting not made and used in the Philippines?
80. Does your locality produce petates? Could your locality produce petates?
81. Are petates exported or imported by your locality?
82. Apply a line of ink to blotting paper, newspaper, and writing paper and note what happens in each case.
83. Pick cardboard to pieces and note how it is made.
84. Does your locality import paper?
85. Make a list of the dyes produced in your locality.
86. Make a list of the dyes used in your locality.
87. Write a composition on any dyes which may be produced in your locality.
88. Write a composition on dyeing.
89. What dyes does your locality import?
90. Does your locality export dyes?
91. By consulting the latest annual report of the Insular Collector of Customs, determine the amount of import of each
fiber and dye and its products mentioned in the text, determining the percentage of the import to the whole
import. In the same way determine the amount of exports and the percentage of each to the whole export.
MVSEVM.
A flax plant. Linen fiber. Linen cloths. Ramie fiber. Different shades of Canton linen and other manufactures
of ramie. Varieties of pasao. Jute and bagging. Burlap. Hemp. Hemp rope. Abaca plant. A bolo arranged to
strip abaca. Abaca fiber. Abaca rope. Species of agave. Retteed and machine-cleaned maguey. Maguey rope. A
branch of cotton with several opened and unopened bolls. Unginned cotton. Ginned cotton. Varieties of cotton fiber.
A gin. Cotton yarns. Cotton threads. Cotton cloths of all kinds including both those imported and those made in
the Philippines. Kapok pod. Kapok pods opened to show fiber and seeds. Cleaned kapok fiber. Kapok seeds. A
piece of sheep's hide with the wool on it. Raw Merino wool and other wools. Scoured wool. Carbonized wool. Combed
wool. Woolen textiles of all kinds. Mohair. Alpaca. Camel's hair. Non-commercial silk cocoon from the Philippines.
Specimens to illustrate the life history of the silkworm. Commercial silk cocoons. Choked commercial silk cocoon with
the floss adhering. A cocoon from which the moth has escaped. Raw silk of different kinds. Spun silk. Jusi from
different towns and of different grades and patterns. Silk cloths of all kinds. Philippine raw silk. Ilocos spinning
wheel. A loom. Starch. Kaolin. Heavily sized cotton cloth. Abaca fiber. Combed abaca fiber. • Nested abaca. Reeled
abaca. A pineapple plant or dried pineapple leaf. Tools for preparing pina fiber. Specimens to illustrate the stages
in the cleaning of pifia fiber. Classes of piiia fiber. Nested piiia fiber. Sinamay of different grades. Grades and
varieties of pinolpog. Grades of pina. Coir rope. A shock of cabonegro. Cabonegro fiber. Cabonegro rope.
Jute rope. Cotton rope and twine. Linen twine. Bamboo rope. Buri rope. Buntal rope. Bast ropes. Balangot.
Millets. American broom. Tambo. Tambo broom. Cabonegro brush. Bamboo brush. Maguey (sea grass) brush.
Buntal brush. Brooms from midribs. Bristle brush. Artists' brush. Steel brush. Straw. Straw braids. Straw
96 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
hats. Fur. Felt hat. Panama hat. Salakots of different shapes and materials. Specimens to illustrate the produc-
tion of bamboo straw. A single unfinished bamboo hat. Double bamboo hat. Bleached bamboo hat. Blocked bamboo
hat. Unopened buri leaf. Unbleached straw and a roll of buri straw. A bale of buri straw. A bundle of buri midribs.
Calasiao straw. Unfinished Calasiao hat. Double Calasiao hat. Calasiao hats of different grades. Bleached Calasiao
hat. Blocked Calasiao hat. Calasiao imitation straw hat. Buri-palm leaf-stalk, with thorns removed, and pounded at
one end in preparation of removing the fiber. A bundle of unassorted buntal fibers. Buntal hats of different grades.
Bleached buntal hat of lower grade. Blocked buntal hat. Sabutan plant. Sabutan comb. Sabutan straw and hats of
different grades. Pandan straw. Pandan hat. Tikug. Tikug hats. Rattan. Rattan straw. Rattan hat. Nito. Nito
hat. Sinamay hats. Japanese matting. Tikug matting. Coconut split in two. Coconut husk. Coir fiber. Coir matting.
Petates from different towns and made of different straws. Bayons made of different fibers and of different sizes.
Kupang. Rags and old ropes suitable for paper making. Jute butts. Cogon. Paper pulp. Unsized paper. Sized
paper. Coated paper. Newspaper. Writing paper. Blotting paper. Manila paper. Indigo plants. A bottle of
indigo liquid as it comes from the fermenting tank. A bottle containing settled indigo fluid. A cake of indigo. Madder.
Annatto pods, seeds and a cake of dye. Turmeric roots and dye. Logwood. Sappan wood. Cochineal. Aniline dyes
("Chino," Diamond dyes, or Maypole soap dyes).
Chapter IX.
FOREST PRODUCTS.'^
TYPES OF FORESTS.
292. On account of different climatic and soil conditions there are several world types of forests.
FORESTS OF THE TEMPERATE REGIONS.
CONIFEROUS FORESTS.
293. Coniferous forests include the cedars, pines, spruces, firs, and other trees which bear cones
and have needle-like leaves. They are able to exist in comparatively dry localities, and are for the
most part found in the northern regions of the world. They furnish by far the greatest supplies of
timber for general construction purposes, and may be considered the most important of all world
forests. They are also found in certain tropical highlands. In the Philippines, pine forests occur
at an altitude of 900 to 1,500 meters in the plateau regions of northern and central Luzon, sections
which have a distinctly dry season. Pine forests in these regions are very open, the trees often
occurring in groups (181).
DECIDUOUS FORESTS.
294. Deciduous forests are made up of trees whose leaves are shed yearly and include such types as
the oaks, maples, and walnuts, of which oaks are the most important. These forests are found in North
America and in Europe.
TROPICAL FORESTS AS THEY OCCUR IN THE PHILIPPINES.
EVERGREEN FORESTS.
295. The tropical evergreen forests of the Philippines are found from immediately behind the
beach zone to approximately 800 meters up the slopes of mountains. These forests may be divided
into two classes, viz, second growth and virgin.
296. Second-growth Forests. — The second-growth forests occupy about 16| per cent of the area of the
Philippines and are due mainly to kaingin. When the kaingin is abandoned and the space is kept
burned off, all forest growth is killed and grass land results. Such grass land occupies 40 per cent
of the area of the Philippines. But if the grass is not burned off the wood species again gain a hold,
and a second-growth forest is the result; one which, in its advanced stages, is very difficult to penetrate
on account of the tangles of climbing bamboo and vines which compose the undergrowth.
297. The Virgin Forests. — Virgin forests are those which have not been disturbed by man and cover
33|^ per cent of the area of the Philippines. They furnish the main supply of commercial timber.
Although not so open as are the conferous forests yet the undergrowth in them is not dense enough
to hinder logging operations. They contain a great many different kinds of trees, but can be roughly
divided into two classes, the dipterocarp and molave. The dipterocarp types cover 75 per cent of the
virgin forest area and yield most of the general construction timber such as lauans and apitongs.
Because of their extent and the amount of commercial timber which they contain, they are the most
important of the Philippine forests. The molave type is found where the underlying rock is limestone
rather than volcanic in nature, and is also more or less mixed with the dipterocarp types. The most
valuable Philippine woods, such as those used for furniture and durable construction, are obtained
from this type.
' Bulletin No. 10, Bureau of Forestry, Manila. ' Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. IV, No. 4, Sec. C.
103506 7 97
98
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
SWAMP FORESTS.
298. Along the shores of the Philippines, especially on the deltas of rivers, the swamp forests
occur, composed, for the most part, of trees falling under the group named "mangrove" (82; 136; 308;
309) . In many places a distinct zone of nipa palm (82) is present near the upper limits of this type.
Mangrove swamps yield firewood and tanbarks ; the nipa swamps produce alcohol and nipa thatch.
MOSSY FORESTS.
On the very highest peaks in the Philippines are found the mossy forests, which consist of
dwarf trees (including oaks) covered with
moss and plants such as orchids. Rattans
.' -1;
■■\
5 S . •
-■ ^ ^0-
1
'■■^'^la
• .; " ■fit-
• ^^'-^eIj
and other
common.
climbers, and ferns are also
LUMBER.
LUMBERING METHODS.
300. logging. — The most important pro-
duct of the forest is lumber. The methods by
which the trees are felled and the logs trans-
ported and sawed into boards vary in dif-
ferent localities and according to the kinds
of trees taken. There are two methods of
felling trees. The trees may be chopped
down with small sharp axes or cut through
by crosscut saws worked by two or more men.
The branches of the felled trees are removed
and, with certain kinds, the bark. The logs
may be allowed to season for a considerable
period and are then cut up into sections for
transportation to the sawmill. If they are
to be carried a great distance the sections
are squared so as to remove at once the bark
and the waste which would result from saw-
ing. Where the sawmill is close at hand the
logs are sometimes borne from the forest by
men. A more usual method, however, con-
sists of hitching animals (oxen or carabaos)
to the logs and pulling them down to a main
road where several are placed into line and
pulled to the sawmill. This is the method
always used in forests where the useful trees
are scattered, as in the molave type of the
Philippines. In such forests the trees are
too far apart to warrant the establishment
FELLING A TREE. of expenslve steam logging, which requires a
large and continuous output to result in a lowering of the cost of operation. In modem operations, as
carried on in large forests, steam power is used. Donkey engines pull the logs down to the main road.
There long lines of logs are attached to the end of a cable and are dragged to the mill pond by a
donkey engine. Sometimes steam railroads carry the logs. When sawmills are situated on rivers the
logs are often floated to the mill. This can not be done with certain woods which are heavier than
water, unless they are buoyed. The stalks of the nipa palm (82) and bamboo (311) are sometimes
used to float them. Where logs are to be carried a considerable distance by water they are lashed into
rafts. Those of the Columbia River often contain thousands of logs.
301. Sawing. — The primitive method of whipsawing lumber by hand is very seldom employed now-
adays. Nearly all lumber is sawed in steam sawmills. The logs are thrown into ponds upon reaching
FOREST PRODUCTS
99
the mill and, as they are required, are pulled up an incline on to a moving platform. As the platform
moves forward it carries the log past a revolving band or circular saw which cuts off a slab of lumber
of the desired width. On the platform moving back the log is automatically pushed over the required
distance so that another slab can be cut off when the log is again moved up against the saw. Gang
saws cut many slabs at once.
302. Planing and Trinuning. — Commercial forms of lumber are of certain standard sizes as regards
width, thickness, and length. The trimming of the wood into the commercial sizes and the smoothing
or planing of the surface is usually
carried on in the cities in which the
lumber is to be used (308>. Such mills
are called planing mills and have in con-
nection with them a lumberyard where
the lumber is stored so that it will be-
come well seasoned. In order to thor-
oughly dry woods which are difficult of
seasoning, or in order to hurry the
process, drying kilns are sometimes
employed in which artificial heat is used.
303. Philippine Methods. — The lum-
ber business in the Philippines is at
present a small one considering the
available area of forests. As yet not
enough lumber is produced for local
needs, and a large amount of general
construction materials such as pine and
redwood must be imported. It is esti-
mated that the forests of the Philippines
could yield, with proper management,
two billion board feet annually without
being damaged, but such an output will
not be reached for many years to come.
The proper management of forests con-
sists in supervising the cutting of timber
so that the young trees are not felled,
of reforestation (or the planting of new
trees to take the place of those re-
moved) and in the preservation of
certain forest tracts as reserves. The
object of this is twofold; a continuous
supply of timber is provided for post-
erity and rainfall and floods are reg-
ulated. In the Philippines it has thus far
been necessary only to specify the size
of trees which are allowed to be felled
and in certain cases to select them.
Reserves have been founded for experi- steam sawmill.
mental purposes and a large amount of work along the lines of investigating the various kinds of
lumber here and determining their uses has been done.
The largest part of the lumber produced in the Philippines is logged and sawed by small operators.
Their methods are very crude. Narrow-bladed axes are generally used and the sections of the logs
carried to the tide water, sometimes by men, but more often by a number of carabaos hitched tandem
fashion. In the large towns the logs are usually received squared and are cut by whipsaws into
boards. This kind of lumber is seldom trimmed into commercial sizes but is of varying widths, thick-
ness, and lengths. There is less waste in this method than in sawing by machinery, but much more
time is taken. There are several large companies in the Philippines which use modem methods of
100
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
logging and sawing. Such companies require the control of large areas of workable forest land and
must have large capital for their operations.
KINDS OF LUMBER.
304. Properties of Lumber. — Woods differ from each other in their weight, hardness, strength, re-
sistance to strain, odor, color, and
^f
COMMERCIAL FOREST.
Pint REGION .
UMtxPLORED COMMERCIAL rOREST
durability for certain purposes. The
enemies of wood are fungal and bac-
terial growths, termites or "white
ants" (known locally as anay) (195),
and beetles on land, and the teredo, a
boring mollusk, in water.
305. General Construction Timbers. —
The general construction timbers are
those used for house building, tempo-
rary structures, and numerous other
general purposes. The most impor-
tant are the firs, spruces (278), pines
(181), hemlock, and redwood of tem-
perate regions. Russia, Scandinavia,
Canada, and the United States are the
largest producers and exporters of
timber. In the Philippines the great
bulk of the general construction timbers
are divided into three classes known as
the lauans, the apitongs, and yacals,
all coming from the dipterocarp type
forest. The lauans include as the most
important trees, white lauan {Pen-
tacme contorta), almon (Shorea fur-
furacea), mayapis (S. squamata), red
lauan (Shorea sp.), and tanguile (S.
polysperma) . These woods range from
soft to moderately hard, from light to
moderately heavy, and as far as their
working qualities are concerned, may
be classed with the pines. They are
readily attacked by fungi and white
ants though not so much as certain
imported woods such as Oregon pine.
They are especially adapted for light
construction work such as house con-
struction (flooring, doors, partitions,
and interior finish), cheap furniture,
shipbuilding, boxes, and temporary
construction. The trees that furnish
PHILIPPINE FOREST REGIONS. timbers of the apitong group are
apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) , hagachak (D. affinis), panao (Z). vernicifiuus) , and guijo (Shorea
quiso) . They are moderately heavy and range in hardness from moderately hard to hard. They are
especially adapted for heavier construction where contact with the ground is not necessary and are
used for house construction (including rafters, doors, and posts) , for shipbuilding, ordinary furniture, and
bridge timbers. Guijo is also used for the wheels of vehicles, telegraph poles, agricultural implements,
vats, and barrels. The chief trees yielding the yacals are yacal (Hopea plagata) , guisokguisok (Hopea
sp.) and mangachapuy (H. acuminata). These are very durable timbers, hard and heavy and com-
paratively free from the attacks of white ants and fungi. They are used for general construction work
i-^
BORNEO
.,...'•■■ .(^■•^
" . ... 1 1 1
..':•.•:
FOREST PRODUCTS
101
where contact with the ground is necessary, such as railroad ties, paving blocks, and house posts and
are also employed for bridge timbers, in various parts of ships, and in the construction of houses.
306. Fine Woods. — The fine woods come mostly from the tropics, are usually hard and durable,
have a beautiful grain and take a good polish. They are important in furniture making, cabinet-
making, and interior finish of houses. The most important is mahogany. The original mahogany
(Swietenia mahogoni) is obtained from Central America and the West Indies, but there are woods
from many other parts of the world which are also classed as mahogany. The oak is the most
generally used fine wood of the temperate regions; black walnut is also important. Satinwood from
the East and West Indies and rosewood from Brazil, are very expensive woods. Maple is obtained
from many species well distributed in the temperate zones. Ebony {Diospyros spp.) is obtained from
the tropics and is found in small quantities in the Philippines.
Of the Philippine woods the narra (Pterocarpus indicus), which is known in foreign conamerce
as padouk, tindalo (Pahudia rhomboidea), ipil (Intsia acuminata), acle {Alhizzia acle), and banuyo
(Wallaceodendron celebicum) may be included in this class and all are excellent woods for fine furni-
ture, cabinetmaking, and inside finish. Camagon {Diospyrus discolor) is, like ebony, a heartwood
from brown to black in color, but is found in no great quantities. The tree is cultivated for its fruit,
the mabolo.
307. Special Timbers. — Next to fine furniture and cabinet woods the tropics are noted for their hard
durable timbers. The most important of these is teak (Tectona grandis) which grows in southeastern
Asia both wild and cultivated, and is very important in shipbuilding. There are growths of this tree in
Mindanao and Sulu. Philippine durable timbers include molave {Vitex parviflora), ipil, and yacal.
The molave is the most important and is used wherever durability and strength are required as for
house posts, timbers, paving blocks, salt-water piling, and parts of ships. Calantas {Toona calantas),
an important Philippine member of the true mahogany family, is an admirable furniture wood and is
much sought after for cigar boxes in place of the West Indian cedar (Cedrela odorata) . The best
Philippine woods for salt-water piling are dungon {Tarrietia sylvatica), aranga (Homalium sp.), betis
(lUipe betis), and liusin (Parinarium griffithianum) . For rollers, pulleys, bowling balls, and other
purposes, heavy durable woods are necessary. Lignum-vitse {Guijacum officinale) has been the most
used for this purpose but the supply has lately been greatly diminished. Mancono ^ {Xanthostemon
verdugonianus) is the hardest and heaviest of Philippine woods and is probably an excellent substitute
for lignum-vitse. It occurs in quantity only in northeastern Mindoro and adjacent islands. Among
other uses for which certain woods are especially adapted are railroad ties, mining timbers, paving
blocks, match making, canes, boxes, tool handles, wooden shoes, telegraph and telephone poles, and
musical instruments.
MINOR FOREST PRODUCTS.
FUELS.
• 308. Firewood. — Considerable firewood is obtained from the waste in manufacturing lumber, partic-
ularly from the outside slabs which are cut from logs in squaring them and from pieces left over when
boards are reduced to commercial sizes (302). Many trees unsuited for lumber production, either on
account of some properties of the wood or because of the size of the tree, are felled for firewood. More
wood is annually used in the Philippines * for fuel than for lumber and though the second-growth forests
are utilized, most of it is obtained from the mangrove swamps (298) which cover about 2 per cent of the
forest area of the Islands. ' Mangrove firewoods are among the best in the world, being rated even higher
than the oak which is the best general firewood of the temperate regions. Firewood is sold in the
Philippines under the names of rajas and lenas. The former are from 60 to 150 centimeters in length
and from 7 to 15 centimeters in diameter. Lenas are of smaller dimensions.
309. Charcoal. — Charcoal is nearly pure carbon and is obtained from wood by heating it away from
the air. In the Philippines this is often done in a crude way by throwing rice husks over the pile of
wood in order to exclude the air. In commercial " methods the wood is made into piles, about 2 meters
in diameter by 3 meters in height, and covered with a layer of clay which is kept moistened during the
burning, sufficient vents being left to provide draft for combustion. In the Japanese method (which
' Bulletin No. 9, Bureau of Forestry, Manila.
* Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. IV, No. 1, Sec. A.
' Bulletin No. 2, Bureau of Forestry, Manila.
102
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
produces better results) the wood is stacked in permanent kilns built into a well-drained hillside. In
either case a fire is started which is so regulated that the carbon is not consumed and remains, after the
fire is extinguished, in the form of charcoal. The industry in the Philippines is not a large one and does
not entirely supply the demand. Small quantities are annually imported. The chief woods employed
are mangroves (298) and those from trees of second-growth forests (296; 331).
RATTAN AND BAMBOO.
310. Rattan. — Rattan ° is a product of the East Indies and is obtained from climbing vines. It owes
its value to its strength, flexibility, and uniform size. In the East it is in enormous demand for baskets,
ropes (267) , furniture, canes, and general utility purposes, and it is imported into the temperate regions
to "cane" the bottoms of chairs and to be made into furniture, baskets, and many other articles. In
preparing rattan the leaves and outer skin are cleaned off by pulling the stem through a notch in a
tree or board. The rattan is then cut into lengths and tied into bundles for sale. In this form it is used
for making furniture, canes, and the like. The smooth bark or outer portion is split off by machinery
into long slender strips and is used throughout the world in caning chairs, and in the East for tying in
place of nailing. The peeled inner portion is used for stiff brushes and in basketry. Singapore is the
distributing place for rattan and it is from that port that most of it is shipped to Europe and America.
In the Philippines the best qualities of rattan are found in the dipterocarp and mossy forests. The
hill peoples are the principle collectors and bring the rattan down to the lowlands for trade. It finds its
way to the market either round or split and is used for tying bales of hemp, sugar, tobacco, and other
agricultural products, and in house construction for tying rafters and beams. The better grades are
used in furniture making (particularly in Bulacan, Rizal, and the Bicol provinces) and in making hats
(275). The best qualities come from the Island of Palawan and go to the Singapore market. The
Provinces of Ambos Camarines, Sorsogon, and Occidental Negros produce the largest amount of rattan,
but it is probable that the Moro Province and Mindoro contain greater supplies than any other. Split
rattan of the best quality is imported from Singapore.'
311. Bamboo. — Bamboo * the tallest plant of the grass family is found in tropical countries but is
most common in Japan, China, India, and the East Indies. It is used in house building and for all sorts
of construction purposes, for making furniture, agricultural implements, canes, fishing rods, household
utensils, and in innumerable articles. Bamboo occurs both wild and cultivated.
In the Philippines wild construction bamboo in commercial quantities is confined to regions with a
pronounced dry season. Introduced species are found in all parts of the Islands and with the indigenous
forms play an important part in the domestic and economic life of the people. They are used for house
construction, as posts, beams, rafters, floors (and in point of fact for almost every part of dwellings),
fencing, rafts, fish traps, bridges, parts of vehicles, outriggers for small boats, handles for tools and
weapons, bows and arrows, musical instruments, and picture frames. The layers and straws produced
from bamboo by tearing it into strips are made into hats (275) and baskets (36) . Certain bamboos are
twisted into rope (267). A very important commercial article in the Philippines is sawali, a coarse
weave of bamboo layers used for partitions and the sides of houses. Different species and varieties of
bamboo'^ are adapted to certain uses (33; 269; 278; 300).
'Bejuco (Sp.), uwai (T., II., Vis.), yantok (T.).
' Some 50 species of Philippine plants yield rattan. The
uses peculiar to each have not as yet been worked out.
It is probable that Calamus mollis, known as uwai
(in the specific sense of the word) throughout the
Islands, is one of the most important rattans. It is
used in making baskets; the outer portion is split into
straw for making sun hats and blocked hats (275).
Daemonorops gaudichaudii known as parasan, gata-
san, palasan, labnig, samulig, and tikol is a large
rattan used in making Vienna and other chairs, for
basketry and for tying purposes.
•Cana (Sp.), kawayan (F.).
' The most widely distributed bamboo in the Philippines
is Bamhusa hlumeana, which is generally known as
lunas (Cebu), sinambag (Cebu), and sometimes as
kawayan, cana espinosa, or spiny bamboo. It is also
sometimes known as real bamboo or kawayan totoo.
It is used in the construction of houses and furniture
and in the making of baskets ranging from strong
baskets for packing fruit and vegetables to those for
winnowing paddy. The young shoots of this variety
are employed for the manufacture of the straw from
which the bamboo or Baliuag hat is woven.
One of the best bamboos for sawali is Schizosta-
chyum mucronatum known in Tagalog as buho. It is
also used to make containers for raw sugar.
Bukawe is an undetermined bamboo used in Tagalog
provinces for making rice sieves, sun hats, and to tie up
rice bundles in the harvest. (Continued on p. 103.)
FOREST PRODUCTS
103
GUMS AND RESINS.
312. Differences and Uses. — In the exact sense of the word and difference between gums and resins is
that gums are soluble in water and insoluble in spirits, while resins are insoluble in water and more or
less soluble in spirits. But in commerce these terms are so little followed in the names applied to the saps
of trees that it is of little use to note them. True gums are made into mucilage and are used in stiffening
silk (242) , in calico printing, confectionery, printing ink, and medicine (52) . True resins are made into
varnishes, printing ink, medicines, and are used as incense (279; 39).
313. Gum Arabic. — Gum arable is obtained from several small trees belonging to the acacia family
and is exported from Africa and India ; it is the most important of the gums.
314. Bosin. — Rosin is the residue from distilling turpentine (181) and is used in making soap,
varnishes, and to size paper. It is also employed in sealing wax, on violin bows, in calking ships, and
as an adulterant of oils, varnishes, and resins.
315. Varnish Resins. — The best varnish resins are the remains of ancient trees and are mined from
the ground in fossil form. Those obtained from the ground some distance from the trees are of less
utility, and those taken from the living trees are of the lowest quality. The most important of these
resins is the one obtained from East Africa. Kauri gum is mined in New Zealand in very large
quantities. In the Philippines the resin known as almaciga, produced by Agathis alba, is exported for
making varnishes. Most of this resin comes from the Moro Provinces and is obtained from the trunks
of trees or from the ground at the base of the trunk. Lac is a resin secreted on trees by insects. It is
used as a size and forms shellac varnish when prepared and dissolved in alcohol (80). Lac is exported
from India.
316. Other Philippine Resins. — Manila elemi is a resin obtained from the pili tree {Canarium
luzonicum), growing both wild and cultivated, particularly in Tayabas and the Bicol Provinces. The
resin is locally known as brea and is obtained from incisions made in the bark. Locally it is used for
torches and for calking boats, and there is some foreign demand for the resin in medicines, in making
printing ink, and varnishes. This tree also yields the pili nuts which are of some local commercial
importance. Certain of the dipterocarps (297) yield resins which are used locally in torches, for calking
boats, etc. The principle one is balao.
RUBBER.'" "
Jl_
±
40
_L_
_r
JL
!L.
Brazil Para Beceipts
West Africa
East
Indies
Oilier Sources
PRODUCTION OF RUBBER, 1910 — PERCENTAGE.
(From the Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and Federated Malay States, Vol. IX, No. 5.)
317. Processes. — Rubber, India rubber or caoutchouc, is obtained from the milky juice or latex of
various plants found in the tropics. The trees are tapped by making incisions in the bark and the juice
is usually collected in small cups as it flows out. It consists essentially of globules of rubber floating in
the sap. The globules must be coagulated and for this purpose several processes are used. Sometimes
the latex is poured onto a stick and dried over a smoky fire, in another process it is allowed to dry on the
trees oiijs- coagulated by adding various substances such as acetic acid, alcohol, salt, or alum. Usually
Bambusa vulgaris is a common bamboo throughout
the East and in the Philippines is known as kiling (T.),
Chinese bamboo. It is not as strong as some of the
other species, but is sometimes used for chairs, and
temporary latticework for shade.
Schizostachyum hallieri, known as anos in Tagalog
and bagakay in Cebu, is not particularly strong. It is
used for bobbins of shuttles and is made into chairs,
cushions, hats, etc. The bamboo is of small diameter
but the internodes are longer than in others, often
more than one meter.
Schizostachyum acutiflorum, known as bikal (Pamp.) ,
is fairly well distributed over Luzon and produces a
fiber well suited for weaving into hats and baskets and
for making rope. It is a substitute for rattan in tying
nipa thatch, rice bundles, etc. Also called hindi (B.).
In the Ilocos Provinces a species of bamboo known as
puser has general use and is made into fans, baskets,
traps, sieves, furniture, and houses. The roots are
used for handles of fans and other small articles.
Several species of bamboo are called Chinese bam-
boo, but the true Chinese bamboo which is especially
adapted to furniture making is not cultivated in the
Philippines.
" Bulletin No. 3, Bureau of Forestry, Manila.
" Worcester, Rubber-growing Industry of the Philippine
Islands. Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington,
D. C, 1911.
104
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
the rubber is dried by rolling and other means after it has been coagulated. In a crude state it contains
dirt, bark, and the like, and in the factory must be cleaned by softening, grinding, and washing.
318. Kinds. — Commercial rubbers are distinguished by names usually denoting the place of origin.
Para rubber is obtained from wild trees (Hevea) . This is still the chief source of rubber, but within
comparatively recent years Hevea hrasiliensis has been introduced into many other countries and
cultivated so that now Para rubber is also exported from Ceylon, India, the Malay Peninsula, the Dutch
East Indies, Australia, and tropical America. The cultivation of rubber is a growing industry, and one
which at the present time pays large profits. Central American rubber is obtained from Castilloa
elastica. Formerly nearly all the rubber was gotten from wild trees but it is also now cultivated.
Assam or East India rubber is a product of Fieus elastica and is also cultivated. Lagos silk rubber is
obtained from a tree found wild only in tropical Africa. Ceara or Manicoba rubber is produced from
Manihot glaziovii, a native of Brazil, and is also cultivated. The rubber is not considered as valuable
as Para. Rubber is also procured from many other plants, among them numerous vines.
319. Uses. — When combined with a small percentage of sulphur in the presence of heat, rubber
RUBBER REGIONS.
becomes vulcanized, is -less soluble, and will stand more heat and cold without becoming sticky or
brittle. Rubber is colored in order to produce red and black products. When sulphur is added up to
25 per cent, ebonite or vulcanite is made, a substance hard and like horn. Rubber is used for innumer-
able purposes some of which are waterproof cloths, shoes, stoppers, stamps, brushes, electrical supplies,
combs, surgical instruments. At present there is a rapidly increasing demand for all its products and
particularly for tires of automobiles and carriages (198).
320. Kubber in the Philippines. — In the Philippines rubber is obtained from wild vines in the Moro
Province, but it is not known whether these occur in sufficient quantities to warrant a systematic
attempt to exploit them on a large scale. It has been demonstrated beyond a doubt that the soil and
climate here are favorable for the cultivation of rubber in the regions below the typhoon belt or in
sheltered spots. The trees are easily broken in high winds and do not well endure droughts. A few
plantations, such as that on Basilan, have already been started, the Para and Central American trees
being the favorite seedlings.
GUTTA-PERCHA.
321. General. — Gutta-percha is a plant product similar to rubber, but its uses are very different. It
is obtained from a number of trees in the East Indies and the Malay Peninsula. Singapore is the
principal port of shipment. It is used as insulator for electrical wires and submarine cables and is
employed where exposure to moisture, dampness, cold, and acids is necessary.
FOREST PRODUCTS 105
322. Philippine Trade. — In the Philippines gutta-percha is the product of certain species of Palaquim,
found in Mindanao and adjacent islands. It is gathered by the wild tribes, principally in the Cotabato
Valley, and is crudely refined in Jolo and other ports for export to the Singapore market. The trees are
.usually cut down for the purpose of obtaining the gutta-percha.
PRODUCTS OP THE CHASE.
323. Furs. — Furs are a particularly important product of the Arctic and most northern temperate
regions. Furs such as ermine, sable, mink, seal, and others are very expensive. In the tropics few
skins are of value for their fur or hair. Monkey skins are sometimes important. In the Philippines
the skin of the flying lemur {Galeopithecus paradoxus) is tanned and exported, in such quantities as
can be obtained, from Bohol, the Island of Panay, and several other localities in the southern islands,
including the Sulu Archipelago.
324. Ivory. — Ivory is obtained from the tusks and teeth of certain animals, especially the elephant.
It is shipped principally from the Kongo region and also from southeastern Asia, and is mined along the
coasts of northern Asia from remains of animals. It takes a very fine polish and is used for billiard balls,
piano keys, and, in the East, for the making of ornamental carved objects.
HELPS AND HOME WORK.
1. Note the types of forests in your locality.
2. Write a composition on kaingin.
3. Figure out the cultivated area of the Philippines.
4. Write a composition on the lumber industry as you know it.
5. Why are large forest areas and large capital necessary for lumbering operations with machinery?
6. Make a list of the woods you know and give their qualities and uses.
7. Write a composition on charcoal.
8. Make a list of the varieties of rattan you know and give their uses.
9. Make a similar list of bamboos.
10. From the latest report of the Insular Collector of Customs determine the export and import of each one of the
articles mentioned in the chapter and the percentage of each to the total export or import.
MVSEVM.
Philippine and imported woods. Firewoods. Charcoal. Philippine rattans and their products. Bamboos and their
products. Gum arable. Rosin. Almaciga. Varnish. Lac. Shellac. Pili brea. Pili nuts. Balao resin. Rubbers.
Gutta-percha. Skin of flying lemur.
Chapter X.
MINERALS.'
MINING.
325. Ores. — Minerals are generally divided into two classes, metallic minerals (such as gold, iron, and
copper) , and nonmetallic minerals (such as coal, petroleum, sulphur, and the like) . Metals generally
occur in combination with other substances. Such a mixture is called an ore when the metal occurs in
paying quantities, and requires further treatment after it has been taken out of the ground before the
metal can be extracted. When the metal particles occur in a native state, but mixed with other
substances, the metal is said to occur free in the ore. When the metal is in chemical combination with
other elements it is said to occur in a combined state.
'
b
ja
t/J
>^
0
^
United Kingdom
United States
8
c
a
1-
be
c
Ss
O
Germany
^
a
a.
t-
w
a
p
<
«
12;
a
w
C3
s
1
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COAL.
(After Bartholomew.)
326. Methods of Mining. — Minerals are taken from the earth in various ways, the three commonest
methods being underground mining, placer or surface mining, and quarrying. Underground mining
is carried on by tunnels driven in from a hill-side or by shafts sunk into the ground and connecting with
tunnels. Sometimes in a large mine there are several miles of underground workings. Surface or
placer mining is carried on where the mineral to be obtained is found mixed with loose material such as
sand or gravel, from which it may be easily separated. Quarrying can only be done when large deposits
of the mineral, such as building stone, are present on the surface.
FUELS.
327. Coal. — Coal and iron are the most important minerals in the world. The value of coal varies
according to the fixed carbon it contains. Lignite is the form having the least amount of carbon of any
useful coal. Bituminous coal contains much more carbon while anthracite is often within 5 per cent of
being pure. Coke is made from bituminous coal, as charcoal is made from wood, by heating coal away
106
' The Mineral Resources of the Philippine Islands, Bureau of Science, Manila.
MINERALS
107
from the air in coke ovens. Since not all coal will coke, it can be divided into two classes, coking and
noncoking coal. Coke is used in smelting iron (331) and copper ores (336). The by-products of the coking
process, coming principally from the tar produced, are very important, and include the aniline dyes, car-
bolic acid, medicines, flavors, and many other things (80, 123). The United States, United Kingdom, and
Germany are the principal producers of coal (the United Kingdom being the principal exporter. In
the East, Japan, Australia, and Borneo are the chief countries of its production and export. All industrial
countries must have large supplies of cheap coal, for it is the fuel of first importance for generating
steam to run machinery, in the manufacture of metals, and for furnishing heat generally.
328. Philippine Coal. — Bituminous coal is found in nearly every island of the Philippine Archipelago
and much of it, while not as good as that which is imported from Australia (as it takes more to furnish
the same amount of heat) is better than a large part of the Japanese coal which is sent to Manila.
Since the transportation charges are less it can be sold cheaper than Japanese coal. The only mines in
the Philippines which have produced coal lately are on Batan Island in Albay Province and on Cebii
Island. Many of the interisland steamers operating along the southeast coast of Luzon are now using
Philippine coal.
COAL AND IRON.
329. Petroleum. — Petroleum (203) is also an important fuel. Crude petroleum is used to generate
steam for running machinery and is of great importance in California and other regions where coal is
lacking. The refined products are also important as fuels, but to a less extent. Natural gas, very
useful as a fuel and an illuminant, is often found near or in petroleum fields.
IRON AND STEEL.
330. Kinds of Iron Ore. — Iron is by far the most important of all metals and its total value is greater
than that of any other. Iron rarely occurs free in an ore. Combined with oxygen it forms the two
most important ores, which are known as magnetite and hematite, the former a heavy black mineral easy
to recognize because it is magnetic, the latter a bluish black shining mineral which when rubbed on a
piece of porcelain leaves a red streak. Sometimes hematite is red in color. Another ore is called
limonite but is not so important. A mineral containing iron is pyrite which is a combination of iron and
sulphur, and is valueless except for use in making sulphuric acid or when containing small amounts of
gold. Iron is a very common metal forming over 4 per cent of the earth's crust, but it can only be mined
where large amounts of nearly pure magnetite, hematite, or limonite are found. Where iron ore is
located near deposits of limestone and coal, ores of less purity can be utilized (331) than where the iron
ore must be carried a great distance to be smelted. Pure magnetite contains 72 per cent of iron, but
where conditions are very favorable ore containing less than 40 per cent is sometimes mined.
108
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
331. Smelting of Iron Ore. — Iron ore is smelted in blast furnaces in connection with layers of coke
(327) and limestone. Blasts of heated air are forced into the furnace, the coke burns and the molten
iron separates and sinks to the bottom. The remaining material combines with the limestone and forms
slag on top of the molten iron. They are then each drawn off separately and the iron is run into molds
where it is cooled and formed into pigs of cast iron which enter commerce to a wide extent. Charcoal
(309) used to be the only fuel employed to smelt iron. It is still used in parts of Sweden and Russia
and produces iron of very good quality.
332. Steel. — Pig iron sometimes contains impurities such as sulphur and phosphorus and there is
always too much carbon in it. Consequently it breaks easily. The excess carbon is removed by burning
it out in various ways, but the Bessemer process is the cheapest and most used. Molten iron from the
blast furnace or from melted pigs is run into a converter and air is then forced through and burns out
the carbon while the lining of the converter, which contains lime, absorbs the impurities. After most
of the carbon and impurities have been thus removed the result is steel, a material which does not break
like iron and can be hammered and pulled, the best steel being very flexible. Steel is used in structures
United States
Germany
United
Kingdom
a
1
•
ea
to
a
X
=0
Russia
'3:
OU't^r^
3.
Italy
Spain
RELATIVE AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF STEEL.
(After Bartholomew.)
for frames of large buildings and bridges, for building ships, and for rails, machinery, implements, and
tools.
333. Trade. — The prosperity of all industrial countries depends upon the output of coal and iron.
The principal countries producing steel are the United States, Germany, Great Britain, France, and
Belgium, the United Kingdom also importing ore from Spain and Sweden. The finest steel is made in
Germany and Great Britain. In the Far East, Japan is the largest producer, and great deposits of ore
occur in China. Japan takes part of the ore and pig iron exported from the latter country. In India
the iron deposits are not much worked on account of poor coal and lack of limestone.
334. Philippine Iron Deposits. — The only iron mines in the Philippines are found in the Angat region
of Bulacan, though iron-ore deposits occur in other parts of the Islands. The ore of Angat is very pure
and is smelted by charcoal (331, 309) and used in making plowshares which have quite a demand locally
and in Manila. A good supply of coking coal is needed to make this region a larger producer of iron.
The iron and steel goods imported by the Philippines consist of pig bar and sheet iron, bar and sheet steel,
wire, nails, hardware, tools, cutlery, and machinery. England, the United States, and Germany are the
chief countries of origin.
MINERALS
109
COPPER.
335. Ores. — Copper ores occur in greater variety than ores of any other metal. Copper sometimes
occurs free in the ore but in the more common ones is combined with oxygen, carbon dioxid, or sulphur.
When combined with oxygen it
forms a red mineral called
cuprite. With carbon dioxid
and water it forms two ores,
one of a bright blue color called
azurite, the other a bright
green mineral called malachite.
The ores of copper containing
sulphur are, however, more
important. Of these the com-
monest is chalchopyrite or
copper pyrite which looks like
brass. Other copper and sul-
phur compounds are metallic
in appearance and are black,
bluish, or gray in color.
336. Smelting. — After cop-
per ore is mined it is crushed
and concentrated. Concentra-
tion consists of separating the
heavy particles containing the
copper mineral from lighter
valueless substances. This is
accomplished in various ways
but generally by an arrange-
ment by which a stream of
water carries away the latter
leaving behind the heavier cop-
per minerals. The concentrated
ore is then smelted. The smelt-
ing of copper ore is similar in
principle to that of iron ore
(331) though the process is more
complicated. Generally the
smelters are located at points
where the conditions of trans-
portation are favorable and
where there is an abundant sup-
ply of limestone and coal (327).
337. Uses of Copper. — Cop-
per is a good conductor of
electricity and is used for wire
and electric appliances. It is
also used to cover ships' bottoms
and the roofs of buildings and
for coinage. It is employed in
producing green dyes. It is the
chief metal used in making
alloys. With zinc it forms mineral map of the Philippines.
brass ; bronze is composed of copper, zinc, and tin ; German silver consists of copper, nickel, and zinc.
338. Trade. — The principal producers of copper are the United States, Spain, and Chile. The United
Kingdom is one of the chief manufacturers. Japan is a large exporter. Copper is also found in Australia.
110
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
339. Philippine Copper Deposits. — Copper has not been recently produced in the Philippines though
copper ores are found in many parts of the Islands. The Mancayan copper mines in Lepanto are the
most famous. Many manufactures of copper are imported from Great Britain and other countries.
GOLD.
340. Ores. — Gold is generally found in veins of quartz where it occurs both free and in the combined
state. It is generally associated with iron minerals, so that quartz which has a rusty look is more likely
to contain gold than pure white quartz. Where gold occurs free, it is so minutely scattered through the
rock that it is only very seldom that it can be seen with the eye. Where gold is in the combined form,
it occurs in pyrite or in other minerals or combined with the rare element tellurium, when it is known as
a telluride.
After the ore is mined it is generally crushed with water in a stamp mill, and then run over plates
covered with mercury. (348). The mercury combines with the free gold and forms amalgam, which
is afterwards heated to drive off the mercury and the gold is obtained. Where gold is in the com-
bined form it is necessary to separate the crushed ore from the lighter partides by concentration in
the same method as is used with
copper ores (336). The concentrates
are then treated by various methods
to obtain the gold, the commonest
being known as the cyanide, chlorina-
tion, and smelting processes. In the
two former, chemicals dissolve out the
gold.
341. Gold Sands. — Where a stream
cuts across a vein containing free
gold, particles of gold are washed
down and deposited in different parts
of the stream bed. Such a deposit is
known as a placer deposit (from the
Spanish word for pleasure because it
is more easily worked than any other) ,
and the gold is obtained from the
sand by means of sluicing or dredg-
ing. Sluicing consists of forcing a
stream of water to flow through a
series of boxes called a sluice, con-
taining cross pieces called riffles.
Gravel and sand are washed down the sluice and the lighter materials carried off while the heavy
gold sinks to the bottom and is caught in the riffles. Often the gravel is washed down from the banks
into the sluice by a powerful stream of water from a hose. This is known as the hydraulic method.
In dredging the gravel is dug up from the river banks or botton by a boat fitted with a chain of
buckets, and is then dumped out into long sloping tables provided with riffles, along which the gravel
is washed. The lighter materials are washed away and the gold caught in the riffles. Small quantities
of gold are obtained by washing the gravel of placer deposits in a pan, a process called panning.
Considerable gold is obtained in the Philippines in this latter way, a conical wooden pan, called in
Spanish batea and in the Camarines faberik, being used. In the Camarines, and also in other parts
of the Islands, gold is obtained in the following manner: At low tide the women wade out into the
water and with coconut shells dip up enough sand to fill the faberik about half full. Then water is
added and the faberik turned with a circular motion until the lighter minerals are carried away. This
washing is continued until only some heavy black sand and particles of gold are left in the faberik.
This is carefully washed out into a coconut shell and later spread out and dried on a black cloth and
the particles of gold picked out from the black sand. The women in the Camarines are very skillful
in the use of the faberik. The natives also use a crude bamboo dredge called a balsa for getting gold
sand from the deeper parts of the river. In Surigao and Misamis natives obtain gold by means of
crude sluicing methods.
PANNING FOR GOLD.
MINERALS ' 111
342. Production. — Western United States, Alaska, Australia, and South Africa produce 75 per cent
of the world's gold. Gold is principally used in coinage and in jewelry. It is alloyed with silver and
copper to harden it. Pure gold is said to be 24 carats fine, therefore 18-carat gold contains 18 parts
of gold and 6 parts of alloy, 14-carat gold 14 parts of gold and 10 of alloy, etc.
343. Philippine Gold Production. — Gold is the most important metal at present produced in the Phil-
ippines. It is found in small quantities in nearly all provinces but especially in Benguet, Masbate,
and Ambos Camarines where it is mined. Sluicing is carried on in Nueva Ecija, Misamis, and Surigao.
SILVER.
344. All gold when mined contains some silver which is separated from it in the refining process.
The amount varies greatly in different places, some of the Benguet gold being as much as one-third
silver while that of the placer deposits of Paracale has less than 5 per cent. Silver is often contained
in lead ore and is separated by smelting. It also occurs free scattered through veins, and is found
in different minerals in combination with sulphur, arsenic, antimony, and chlorine. It is alloyed with
copper for use in coinage and is also largely used in jewelry. The United States and Mexico are the
largest producers of silver. It is found free in Suyoc in the Mountain Province, and with lead ore in
Marinduque, Masbate, and Cebu. However, the only production of silver in the Philippines is in con-
nection with gold.
LEAD.
345. The principal ore of lead is galena, a compound of lead and sulphur. This is a bright shining
mineral but so soft that it can be cut easily with a knife. Most galena contains silver and therefore
lead is usually a by-product of silver smelting. It is principally produced in the United States, Spain,
and Germany. Lead is soft and bends without breaking. It is made into pipes, bullets, and white
paint, and is used in electrical appliances. With antimony it makes type metal, used in printing.
With tin it makes solder.
TIN.
346. Tin occurs in nature usually combined with oxygen in a mineral called cassiterite. This is
a heavy brown or black mineral, so hard that it can not be scratched with a knife. Cassiterite occurs
both in veins and in placer (341) deposits. When mined, it must be crushed and concentrated and
is then smelted like iron ore. Where found in placer deposits it is mined in the same way as is gold.
Tin is found chiefly in the Federated Malay States, the Straits Settlements, the Dutch Islands of
Banca and Billeton, and in Bolivia and Australia. It is chiefly used to cover sheets of iron to keep
them from rusting. This is called tinplate and is principally used in making tin cans. Tin is also
largely used in various alloys, such as brass and in making tin foil.
ZINC.
347. The principal ore of zinc is a brown resinous-looking mineral called zinc blend. This is a
compound of zinc and sulphur and is generally found associated with other ores, most commonly with
galena. Zincite, zinc oxide, from New Jersey is also important. Zinc is mined in the United States
and several countries of Europe. It is principally used to cover sheets of iron to keep them from
rusting. Such iron is called galvanized iron. When run through machinery which makes ridges in
them, they are called corrugated iron sheets and are used as roofing in house construction. Zinc is
also used in alloys and for making paints.
OTHER METALS.
348. Mercury. — Mercury is distilled from an ore called cinnabar found principally in Spain and
California. A compound of mercury and another metal is called an amalgam. There are many different
amalgams which are used for filling teeth, silvering the backs of mirrors, and for other purposes.
Mercury is also employed in gold mining (340) , barometers, and in many other ways.
349. Aluminum. — ^Aluminum is a very light metal, a good conductor of heat and electricity, obtained
from a clay called bauxite. It is used where lightness rather than strength is required. It is being
utilized more and more in cooking utensils, combs, and many other useful articles, in the construction
of air ships, and as an alloy.
112
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
It is used principally in
Some platinum has been
350. Platinum. — Platinum is a heavy metal, higher that gold in value,
the chemical arts and is mined in the Ural Mountains and in Colombia,
found in Philippine placers.
351. Manganese. — Manganese ore is a compound of manganese and oxygen and sometimes looks
like iron ore. It may readily be distinguished, however, by the fact that it leaves a black streak on
porcelain and is much softer than iron ore, sometimes so soft that it produces a sooty mark on the
fingers. Manganese is used as an alloy in steel to toughen it, in the manufacture of alloys with other
metals, and in making various chemicals, medicines, and paints. Manganese ore is mined in Ilocos
Norte and there is also a deposit in Masbate.
CLAYS AND POTTERY.^
352. Pigment Clays. — Pigment clays are those containing enough chemical compounds of minerals
to give them color. The most important are the ochers, which contain chemical compounds of iron,
and sienna, which contains manganese. Pigment clays when ground up with linseed oil and mixed
with turpentine, make paints. They can also be prepared by chemical processes. Pigment clays of
various colors are found in several parts of the Philippines. Excellent grades of red and yellow ocher
occur in Ilocos Norte.
353. Common Pottery. — Common clays,
reddish or brownish in color, are used to
produce bricks, tiles, and common pottery.
In the Phihppines, pottery is made in
almost every province. Where clay is at
hand and water or other cheap transpor-
tation is available, pottery is made for
shipment to neighboring towns. The
pottery produced takes the form of cook-
ing stoves and pots for carrying water
and for cooking, some of them being
provided with lids. Sugar pilons (66)
are important in some provinces. The
clay used is generally alluvial. It is
mixed with water, stirred or worked over
to take out all sticks and pebbles, and is
tramped with bare feet to make it plastic.
Most of the clays shrink considerably in
the air and to overcome this as much as
one-third of fine river sand is some-
times mixed with the prepared material. The pots are turned on a small wooden wheel, revolved by
hand, and resting by a foot on a second piece of wood. After the pots are formed they are allowed
to dry until the clay is leathery, when they are given a second shaping by holding a smooth stone on
the inside and beating them with a wooden paddle, a process which renders the clay more dense and
serves to overcome the tendency to crack while air drying. Frequently air-dried pots are washed
with pigment clay (usually ocher) in order to give them a uniform color when burned. The air-dried
pots are then piled on a layer of bamboo sticks or rice straw, covered with more fuel, and burned in
the open, the burning"being completed in about twenty minutes. Bricks and tiles are not now produced
in large quantity in the Philippines since concrete has taken their place. Some fire brick are imported.
354. Glazed Pottery. — In general, it may be stated that clays are fitted for making pottery in propor-
tion to the ease with which they can be molded and shaped when wet, and their change to a hard
smooth condition when they are fired. Sometimes two clays which are not good for pottery when
used alone, are well adapted when mixed in certain proportions, as for instance, the best and strongest
pottery from Philippine materials has been obtained by using ten parts of Los Banos clay and two
parts of "silica" from Laoag, Ilocos Norte, and a very strong ware is made by mixing ten parts of Los
Bafios clay and four parts of Batangas clay. The finest pottery, known as porcelain, is produced from
' Phil. Journal of Science, Manila, Vol. V, No. 2, Sec. A.
BRICK.
MINERALS 113
kaolin, the purest of all the clays, mixed with other substances (279). The manufacture of high-grade
pottery is consequently limited to localities where kaolin is found.
Several methods are used in glazing pottery. A "salt glaze" is given to common pottery by
throwing wet salt into the fire when the articles are burned. Most glazes, however, are made by
dipping burned pottery into a glazing material, which usually consists of a compound of some metal,
and then burning it again at a high temperature. Glazes make pottery water-tight, present a shiny
surface, and, if desired, are colored in order to give a color to the product. The design may be painted
or stamped on the ware either before the glaze is applied or after it. In the latter case the pottery
must be burned a third time.
In order to produce the best pottery a high heat is required, for which purpose kilns must be
built. There are a few such kilns in the Philippines, and it is in them that the large water jars
(tinajas), which are also used to carry tubas and oils, are made. These water jars are semivitrified
and consequently hold liquids. Another important kind of pottery is the pilon which is extensively
made in the sugar-producing regions. There is a large field for the production of pottery in the Philip-
pines since even the crudest glazed pottery is now imported. Kaolin (improperly called yeso) and
clays approaching it are found in several localities and some have been tested and found suitable for
pottery making.
BUILDING AND ROAD MATERIAL.
355. Building Stones.^ — The most important building stones are granite, sandstone, limestone (331;
336; 357; 358), and marble. Marble is also used for monuments, gravestones, and the like. Limestone
is found in many sections of the Philippines, granite in several localities, and a variety of marble on
Romblon Island. Limestone, however, is more important as road material than in building houses, and
granite is also used on roads in the form of paving blocks. Fine building stone and road stone, if it
is scarce or has to be brought a considerable distance, may command a good price in a large city, as in
the case of Manila. A very common building material in the Philippines is the water-laid volcanic tuff
known as "dhobe" stone throughout the provinces and as "Guadalupe stone" in Manila. It is not strong
and walls made of it must be thick, but as it is soft, being easily cut with a bolo, is cheaply quarried.
It hardens slightly on exposure to the air. Its cost, where water transportation is available, is low.
356. Sand and Gravel. — Sand consists of very finely divided particles of rock usually containing a
large amount of quartz; gravel is much coarser. Different varieties of sand have various uses, such
as in making glass and in pottery. As building materials sand and gravel are important. They are
employed in road building, in making concrete when used with cement, and mortar when used with
lime. In large cities the cost of sand and gravel may be very high if there is not a good supply near at
hand, as for instance at Manila where the supplies of sand and gravel are obtained by dredging in the
Pasig River.
357. Lime. — Lime is obtained by burning limestone or shells (161). It is usually mixed with sand
to make mortar and is also used in tanning, sugar refining, and many other processes of manufacture,
and as a disinfectant. In the Philippines it is important as an ingredient of buyo (119). On account
of its bulk and the wide distribution of limestone it does not enter into extensive commerce. In the
Philippines lime is made locally both from marine shells and limestone in many provinces and it usually
enters commerce slaked (i. e., moistened with water) and packed in gunny sacks. In other coun-
tries it is often packed in wooden barrels. Lime is important here in the sugar industry (66). Most
of that used in Negros is imported from Guimaras.
358. Cement. — Cement is made by burning limestone with certain clays, and differs from lime in
that it will harden under water. It is manufactured in many parts of the world. It is usually mixed
with sand and rock to make concrete for buildings, bridges, sidewalks, and the like. Many reinforced
concrete structures are now being built in the Philippines made of steel rods surrounded by concrete.
This form of construction is well suited to a warm country subject to earthquakes and the ravages of
white ants. In the East considerable cement is exported from Hongkong from which place the Philip-
pines are supplied. No cement is as yet produced in the Philippines though the materials for making
it (limestone and shale) are present in great quantities where coal is found, notably in Cebu and Batan.
A large plant involving the outlay of considerable capital is necessary for the manufacture of cement.
103506 8
114
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
359. Gypsum. — Gypsum is a mineral which forms plaster of Paris, used in making casts and
finishing mortars. Small quantities have been reported from Batangas.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
360. There are many mineral fertilizers, which are valuable as they contain nitrogen, potash, or
phosphoric acid. The chief source of nitrogen is nitrate of soda which is produced in great quantities
in the desert of Atacama, Chile. This fertilizer is often mixed with phosphate of lime, mined prin-
cipally in the southeastern part of the United States and in Belgium. On Christmas Island, south of
Java, there are deposits of rock phosphate. The slag obtained from smelting iron (331) also contains
much phosphate of lime. Guano is procured from the islands off Chile and Cape Colony, the West
Indies, and some Pacific islands, and is also procured, as in the Philippines, in a small way from caves
inhabited by bats. Bat guano however is of little value when water has leached out most of the desired
chemicals. Gypsum is also sometimes used as a fertilizer. Mineral fertilizers are often mixed with
substances prepared from dead animals, the refuse of slaughterhouses (126), fish (151, 152, 187), oil
cakes (202), and the like, before being applied to the soil (142, 171).
OTHER NONMETALLIC MINERALS.
361. Glass Sands. — Glass is made
by melting sand and alkali and caus-
ing them to combine by the action of
heat. It is blown or molded into
bottles, globes, and many other ar-
ticles. Window glass is either plate
or sheet glass. The former is very
strong and thick and comes on the
market in large pieces. It is prin-
cipally used for the show windows of
stores and in making fine mirrors.
Sheet glass is thinner, comes in
smaller pieces, and is used for window
panes, covering pictures, and the like.
Glass is produced in many countries,
but Belgium, France, and the United
States make the most and best. A.
good glass sand has been discovered
in the Paracale mining district of
A SALT SPRING. Ambos Camarines.
362. Asbestos. — Asbestos is a fibrous mineral which can be woven into cloth. Since it will not bum,
it is used in fireproofing, making fireproof paints, covering boilers, and for theater curtains. Besides
these it has many other uses. It is principally exported from Canada and Italy. There are unde-
veloped deposits of asbestos of inferior grade in Ilocos Norte.
363. Salt. — Salt is obtained by evaporating sea water either in the sun or over a fire, or from deposits
of rock salt. From the latter the mineral is often mined but sometimes pits are dug into the deposit
and the salt is obtained by pumping in water to dissolve it, and then evaporating the water. Salt is
refined by again dissolving it in water and boiling the liquid until the salt crystallizes. If this is done
quickly, the salt will be fine, if it is carried on slowly it will be coarse. Refined salt is principally
used for food, coarse salt chiefly in the arts, as curing hides, preserving meats, making soap, glass,
and the like. All countries produce salt and it does not enter much into commerce on account of its
bulk. Table salt is exported to some extent. Coarse salt, much discolored from impurities, is evaporated
along the coasts of the Philippines from sea water both by the heat of the sun and by boiling, and salt
is produced from mineral springs in Bontoc and Nueva Vizcaya. Not enough is made for the entire
local consumption and refined table salt is imported. Salt lands overflowed by the tide, such as those
around Manila Bay, often have a high value and the trade in salt from the coasts inland is considerable.
364. Mineral Waters. — Mineral waters are those which come from the ground containing certain
MINERALS 115
minerals, and are valued for their medicinal properties. They are found in various countries where
they enter domestic commerce, while some of the best are exported. Of Philippine mineral waters those
of Sibul, Bulacan Province, and Los Banos in Laguna Province are the most important; water from
the latter is bottled and sent throughout the Islands.
365. Sulphur. — Sulphur occurs in volcanic districts usually mixed with clay or as quite pure incrus-
tations around solfataras. Its principal uses are in the making of gunpowder, in the manufacturing of
rubber, to make sulphuric acid, and as a bleaching agent. It is exported principally from the United
States and Sicily. In the Philippines there are deposits in Lejrte, Mindanao, and the islands north
of Luzon.
366. Graphite. — Graphite is a form of carbon not easily melted. It is found in Ceylon, Austria
Hungary, and the United States, and principally used in the manufacture of lead pencils and cruci-
bles and as a lubricant.
367. Precious Stones. — The diamond is the principal precious stone. South Africa produces almost
the whole supply with some coming from Brazil and India. They are, however, mostly cut in Europe
especially in Amsterdam. Rubies, red in color, are found in India, Ceylon, and Siam and when pure
are more valuable than diamonds. Emeralds are green in color and come from Venezuela, Columbia,
and Australia. Sapphires are blue, the finest coming from Burma and Brazil. Opals are varied colored
gems, very fine specimens of which come from Australia. There are many other precious stones but
their commercial importance is not great.
HELPS A.yD HOME WORK.
1. Why are minerals usually found near or in mountains?
2. What is the chief fuel of your locality?
Is it better or poorer than coal and why?
3. What is the meaning of "magnetic"?
4. On a map of the world indicate the principal countries producing iron and steel. How do these countries rank as
world powers? Have they large coal supplies? '
5. What three things must be close together in order to produce iron cheaply?
6. Strike a piece of cast iron a heavy blow; do the same to a piece of steel. What is the difference in the results?
7. Make a list of all the uses to which iron and steel are put in your locality.
8. Locate Angat.
9. On a map of the world indicate the chief copper-producing countries.
10. Make a list of the uses to which copper is put in your locality.
11. Locate Mancayan.
12. On a map of the world indicate the chief gold-producing regions. *
13. Locate and name the Philippine gold-producing regions.
14. Locate Suyoc.
15. Make a list of the uses to which galvanized iron is put in your locality.
16. If the tin be scraped from the outside of a tin can, what will happen?
17. Name some tools, utensils, and machines which it- is desirable to have made of a light but strong metal.
18. Determine the clays found in your locality and the uses to which they are or could be put.
19. Is pottery made in, imported into, or exported from your locality?
20. If possible write a composition on a pottery industry.
21. Determine the materials used in your locality for building roads and their origin.
22. If possible write a composition on the lime-burning industry.
23. Does your locality export or import salt?
24. If possible write a composition on salt making.
25. By consulting the latest copy of the Mineral Resources of the Philippines, determine the production of the various
minerals in the Philippines.
26. From the latest report of the Insular Collector of Customs determine the amount of import of each mineral and its
products, and the percentage each amount is of the whole import of the Philippines.
MUSEVM.
Coals. Philippine coals. Petroleum. Iron ores. Pig iron. Steel. Copper ores. Copper. Brass. Bronze.
German silver. Gold ores and sands. Silver ores. Lead ores. Lead and its manufactures. Tin ores. Tin. Tin plate.
Zinc ores. Zinc and its manufactures. Cinnabar. Mercury. Bauxite. Aluminum. Platinum. Manganese ore.
Manganese. Pigment clays. Common clays. Kaolin. Common, glazed, and fine pottery of Philippine and foreign
origin. Building stones. Sands and gravels. Limes. Cement. Gypsum. Mineral fertilizers. Asbestos. Glass sand.
Glass of various kinds. Grades of salt. Sulphur. Graphite.
INDEX.
The phonetic spelling of native names has been followed. In general it may be stated that c and qu may be found
under k,
b is preferred to v
i is preferred to y
i is preferred to e
h is preferred to j
h is preferred to g before e and i when having the sound of h.
r is preferred to 1
u is preferred to o
w is preferred to u
Vowels have their continental values in pronunciation.
Aba = taro.
Abaca 220-223, 219, 226, 265, 267, 273,
277, 278, 280.
Textiles 256, 258, 259, 222.
Waste 221.
Abukay= Job's tears.
Acacia 136, 313.
Achiote = anatto.
Achras sapota=chico.
Achuete = anatto.
Acle 306.
Aclis 160.
Adlay=Job's tears.
Agathis alba = almaciga.
Agave 224-226, 77, 265.
Aglay = Job's tears.
Agob = breadfruit.
Aguma-an= Japanese mackerel.
Alak 82.
Albizzia acle = acle.
Alcohol 76-82, 4, 11, 15, 18, 30, 51.
Beverages 76-79, 23, 4.
Industrial 80.
Aleurites moluccana = candlenut.
Aleurites trisperma = candlenut.
Alfalfa 25.
Alga 159.
Algodon = cotton .
Alligator 138.
Alligator pear = avocado.
Allium cepa= onion.
Allium sativum = garlic.
Allspice 103.
Almaciga 315.
Almon 305.
Aloe 224.
Alpaca 235.
Alumahan = chub mackerel.
Aluminum 349.
Ambolong= sugar-palm starch.
Amora = vetiver.
116
NUMBERS REFER TO PARAGRAPHS.
Anacardium occidentale = cashew.
Ananassa sativa=: pineapple.
Anangka=jak fruit.
Anatto 184, 286.
Anay= termites.
Anchovia commersoniana = dilis.
Anchovia dussumieri=dumpilas.
. Anchovies 155.
Andropogon sorghum = sorghum.
Andropogon zizanioides= vetiver.
Anias= vetiver.
Anifung= fishtail palm.
Aniline 291, 327.
Animal fibers 234-239.
Anis=aniseed.
Anisado 79, 82.
Anis cahoy = nutmeg.
Anis-de-moro = vetiver.
Anise = aniseed.
Aniseed 79, 106, 182.
Anisette 82.
Anis moscada=; nutmeg.
Angora goat 235.
Anj onjoli = sesame.
Anona reticulata =anonas.
Anonas 48.
Anonas squamosa =atis.
Anos 311.
Antak = cowpea.
Antipolo =breadf ruit.
Afige = turmeric.
Aiiil=: indigo.
Apitongs 305.
Apple 49, 77, 82.
Apricots 49.
Arabian coffee 85.
Arachis hypogaea= peanut.
Arak = alak.
Aranga 307.
Areca 119.
Areca catechu = areca.
Arenga saccharifera=: sugar palm.
Arrowroot 55.
Artocarpus incisa=breadfruit.
Artocarpus integrifolia=jak fruit.
Atherina temmincki 157.
Atis 48.
Asbestos 362.
Avocado 44.
Avena sativa = oats.
Azaf ran = safflower.
Azucar= gloria.
Azurite 335.
B
Bacbaan 160.
Bacon 129.
Bgakay=anos.
Bagoong 164, 152, 155.
Bagasse 66.
Bakam wood = sappan.
Bakawan 136.
Balanak = banak.
Balangon = bungulan.
Balangot 267.
Balantakan = Job's tears.
Balao 316.
Balat=trepang.
Balatan = trepang.
Balatong = green gram.
Balatong — cowpea.
Balingon = dilis.
Ballangoan = pampano.
Balot 148.
Bamboo 311, 36, 61, 66, 82, 164, 232,
257, 267, 268, 269, 278, 296,
300.
Hat 275, 311.
Shoots 33.
Bambusa blumeana=kawayan totoo.
Bambusa vulgaris=kiling.
Banak 156.
Bananas 34, 220.
Fiber 256, 258, 34.
Flour 34.
INDEX
117
Banangar = latundan.
Banuyo 306.
Bangos = milkfish.
Bangros=milkfish.
Bangudlong=chub mackerel.
Barley 20, 25, 26, 78, 81.
Bast fibers 216-219, 212, 267.
Batad = sorghum.
Batao = hyacinth bean.
Batatas edulis = sweet potato.
Batist 245.
Buxite 349.
Bawang 109.
Bayon 277, 275.
Beans 29, 11, 26.
Oil 194.
Beche de mere = trepang.
Beef 17, 127, 134, 184.
Beer 78.
Beeswax 204.
Beet sugar 63-64.
Bejuco = rattan.
Beriberi 10.
Betel leaf 119.
Betis 307.
Beta vulgaris = sugar beet.
Beverage crops 84-96.
Beverages:
Alcoholic 76-79.
Distilled 79.
Fermented 78.
Biao = candlenut.
Bihon 11.
Bikal 311.
Bills 151.
Binatog = hominy.
Binder twine 226.
Binlid=broken rice.
Bino = alak.
Binuhangin 12.
Bintikay=Job's tears.
Birdseed 22.
Birds' nests 149.
Bixa orellana = anatto.
Black walnut 306.
Blayang=butuhan.
Blende 347.
Boa = areca.
Boehmeria nivea = ramie.
Bolting cloth 4, 253.
Bombyx mori 236.
Bone 142, 141.
Black 142.
Oil 80.
Borax 282.
Bos = cattle.
Bowstring hemp 266.
Braid 256, 273.
Bran. (See Wheat; Rice.)
Brandy 79.
Brass 346, 337.
Brazil wood 289.
Brea 316.
Bread 17, 19. (See also Wheat
bread.)
Breadfruit 48.
Brick 353.
Bristles 270.
Broom 268-271, 17, 22, 233.
Corn 268.
Brown sugar 66, 68.
Bronze 337.
Bruguiera eriopetala = pototan.
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza = pototan.
Brushes 268-271, 22, 226, 233, 310.
Bubalus buffelus = buffalo.
Buffaloes 128, 167.
Bugubin 268.
Buho 311.
Buibui 268.
Bukawe 311.
Bulak = kapok.
Bulao= Japanese mackerel.
Buli=buri.
Bunga=areca.
Bungulan 34.
Buntal 275, 267, 269.
Burnay = water jar.
Buri 275, 73, 77, 82, 267, 270.
Bags 12.
Mats 222.
Raffia 276.
Starch 60.
Straw 275, 277.
Burlap 218.
Burobayoko= Job's tears.
Butter 145, 184, 190, 191, 192, 193,
206.
Buwai = hyacinth bean.
Buyag 37.
Buyo=betel, 119, 357.
c
Cabonegro 267.
Cacao 93-96, 201.
Butter 201, 94.
Caesalpinia = Brazil wood.
Caesalpinia sappan = sappan.
Cagel = dalandan.
Calamus mollis=uwai.
Calantas 307.
Calasiao 275.
Calfskins 138.
Calico 245, 312.
Calves 127, 145.
Camanchile 136.
Cambric 249.
Camel 235, 270.
Camisa 258.
Camisa de Chino 258.
Camote = sweet potato.
Camphor 123.
Camphora officinalis 123.
Caiia= bamboo.
Caiia espinosa = kawayan totoo.
Canangium odoratum=ylang-ylang.
Canarium luzonicum = pili.
Candlenut 199, 202, 203.
Candles 208.
Caiiela = cinnamon.
Cane sugar 65-75.
Cannabis sativa = hemp.
Canna edulis 55.
Canning 29.
Canton linen = ramie.
Canvas 245.
Caoutchouc = rubber.
Capra hircus = goat.
Capsicum =cayenne.
Capsicum furtescens 97.
Carabao = water buffalo.
Carangidal = pompanos.
Caramel 71, 79, 148.
Caramelo = caramel.
Carica papayas papaya.
Carludovica palmata=jipijapa.
Carpets 223, 226, 251.
Carthamus tinctorius = safflower.
Caryophyllus aromaticus=cloves.
Caryota = fishtail palm.
Cashew 195, 48.
Casoy = cashew.
Cast iron = pig iron.
Castilloa 320, 318.
Castor 197, 202, 236.
Oil 137, 282.
Cassareep 108.
Cassia bark 98.
Cassiterite 346.
'Catechu 136.
Cattle 127, 15, 17, 22, 135, 138, 144,
146, 186, 190, 192.
Cavallos = chub mackerel.
Cayenne pepper 97.
Ceara 318.
Cedar 293, 307.
Cedrela odorata = West Indian cedar.
Ceiba pentandra= kapok.
Cement 358.
Cereals = grains.
Ceriops tagal = tangal.
Chalchopyrite 335.
Chamois 138.
Champaca 180.
Chanos chanos=milkfish.
Charcoal 309, 331, 64.
Cheese 146.
Chestnut 136.
Chewing g^um 39.
Chicharo 28.
Chico 39.
Chicory 89.
Chickens 147-148, 149.
Chillies = cayenne.
China grass = ramie.
Chinelas 140.
Chocolate 94, 192, 195.
Chrome 136.
Chub mackerel 158.
Chutney 43.
Cichorium intybus = chicory.
Cider 83, 77.
Cidra 37.
Cinchon a = quinine.
Cinnamon 98, 96, 182.
118
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
Cinnamomum = cinnamon.
Cinnamomum camphora 123.
Citrus aurantium=: orange.
Citrus decumana=pomelo.
Citrus medica=lenion.
Citrus medica var. acida=:lime.
Citrus nobilis=dalanhita.
Clays 352-354, 279, 358.
Clover 25.
Cloves 102, 152.
Clavos de comer = cloves.
Coal 327-328, 330, 333.
Coal oil = kerosene.
Coal tar 327, 80, 105.
Coca 118.
Cocaine 118.
Coccus cacti = cochineal.
Cochineal 290.
Cocoa 94, 201.
Coconut 193, 72, 77, 82, 269.
Fiber 233, 266, 269, 276.
Oil 193, 66, 201, 202, 206, 207.
Oil cake 27.
Cocos nucifera= Coconut.
Cod 154, 167, 187.
Liver oil 154.
Coffea arabica= Arabian coffee.
Coffea liberica=Liberian coffee.
Coffea robusta= Congo coffee.
Coffea stenophylla=: Sierra Leone
coffee.
Coffee 85-89, 218.
Fungus 87.
Cognac = brandy.
Cogon 278.
Coir = coconut fiber.
Coix lachryma jobi= Job's tears.
Coke 327, 291, 331, 334.
Colocasia antiquorum=taro.
Combined harvesters 3.
Compitis=pop corn.
Congo coffee 85.
Coniferous forests 293.
Copper 335-339.
Copra 193, 12.
Corchorus=jute.
Cordage 262-267, 278.
Com 14-18, 1, 12, 26, 75, 82, 127.
Cob 16.
Meal 17.
Oil 200, 17.
Starch 56, 17.
Corrugated iron 347.
Corypha elata=:buri.
Cassava=manioc.
Cotton 227-231, 17, 52, 101, 202, 216,
218, 239, 242, 249, 253, 258, 259.
Oil 190, 186, 189, 194.
Rope 266.
Seed 229.
Textiles 243.
Cowpea 29, 26.
Cream 145.
Culebra= bowstring hemp.
Curcuma longa= turmeric.
Cucumber 33.
Cucumis sativus= cucumber.
Curry powder 101.
Curtains 23.
Custard apples 48.
Cutch 136.
Cyperus malaccensis=balangot.
D
Dadanuguen = sinampal.
Daemonorops gaudichaudii = parasan.
Dairy products 144-146.
Dalag=mudfish.
Dalandan 36.
Dalanhita 36.
Dalayap 37.
Daliring setiora 34.
Darak=rice bran.
Dawa= Italian millet.
Dayap 37.
Deciduous forests 294.
Dextrine 52, 244.
Dhobe stone 355.
Dhurra = sorghum.
Diamond 367.
Dioscorea = yams.
Dioscorea alata=ubi.
Dilao = turmeric.
Dilis 155.
Dinogtong=tied abaka.
Diospyros = ebony.
Diospyrus discolor =kamagon.
Dippig=saba.
Dipterocarp 297, 305, 310.
Resins 316.
Dipterocarpus afRnis=hogachak.
Dipterocarpus grandiflorus = apitong.
Dipterocarpus vernicifluus=panao.
Doldol= kapok.
Dolichos lablab= hyacinth bean.
Drill 245, 249.
Drugs 120-124.
Drying oils 139, 183, 198.
Duck 245, 249, 147, 148, 149.
Dumao= Job's tears.
Dumpilas 155.
Dungon 307.
Dyes 281-291, 79.
Ebonite 319.
Ebony 306.
Ebus=buri.
Eggplant 33.
Eggs 148, 71, 147, 149.
Eju= sugar-palm fiber.
Elaeis guinensis=oil palm.
Embroidery 245, 246, 248, 260.
Emerald 367.
Epinephelus merra=lapo-lapo.
Equus caballus= Horse.
Eri 236, 239, 254.
Ermine 323.
Erythroxylum coca=coca.
Esparto 278.
Essential oils = volatile oils.
Ether 188.
Eugenia pimenta=allspice.
Evergreen forests 295-297.
Fats 175-203.
Felt 251, 234, 272.
Fennel 106.
Ferments 76, 81.
Fertilizers 360, 11, 17, 142, 171, 199,
202.
Fibers 210-280.
Ficus elastica 318.
Fideos=macaroni.
Figs 49.
Fimbristylis utilis=tikug.
Fir 293, 305.
Firewood 308, 298.
Fish 150-167, 11, 360.
Glue 141.
Line 217.
Oils 187, 137, 209.
Fishtail palm 269, 72, 267.
Fixed oils 183-202.
Flannel 251.
Flax 216, 278, 280, 266.
Seed oil 198, 269, 199.
Textiles 249.
Flour 52, 94. (See also Wheat flour;
Banana flour.)
Flying lemur 323.
Fodders 24-27, 17, 20, 22, 29, 51, 192,
202.
Green 24.
Fceniculum vulgare= fennel.
Forage =f odder.
Forest products 292-334.
Fruits 34-50.
Fuels 308-309, 17, 203, 233.
Fur 272, 323.
Furcraea gigantea= Mauritius hemp.
G
Gabi=taro.
Gadus morrhua=cod.
Galamai senora= daliring seiiora.
Galena 345, 347.
Galeopithesus paradoxus = flying le-
mur.
Galvanized iron 347.
Gambler 136.
Gapas= cotton.
Garcinia mangostana=mangosteen.
Garlic 109.
Gas 329.
Gasoline 203.
Gatasan = parasan.
Gatom= Italian millet.
Gawed= betel.
Geese 147.
Gee strings 248.
Gelatin 141, 273.
German silver 337.
INDEX
119
Gin 79, 82.
Ginatang=tied abacd.
Ginebra 79.
Ginger 100, 182.
Gingelly = sesame.
Gingham 245.
Ginning 214.
Gins 229, 232.
Glass 361.
Gloria 34.
Glucose 52.
Glue 141, 171, 279.
Glycerine 207.
Glycine hispida=soya bean.
Goat 132, 135, 146.
Skins 138.
Gold 340-343, 330, 344, 348,
Gonot = cabonegro.
Gossypium = cotton.
Grains 1-23, 79, 218, 226, 278.
Gram, green 29.
Granada= pomegranate.
Granite 355.
Grapes 49, 77.
Graphite 366.
Great millet=sorghum.
Green corn -16.
Green gram 29.
Ground nut = peanut.
Guadalupe stone 355.
Guano 360.
Guavas 40.
Guijacum officinales lignum vits.
Guijo 305.
Guinamus — bagoong.
Guinea corn = sorghum.
Guinea grass 24, 22.
Guinit = cabonegro.
Guisokguisok 305.
Gulaman = seaweed gelatin.
Gums 312-313, 282, 52, 139, 203, 242.
Guma-a=Japanese mackerel.
Gum arable 313.
Gum chicle 39.
Gunny 218, 277.
Guno = silver sides.
Guraman= seaweed gelatin.
Gutta-percha 321-322.
Gypsum 359, 360.
H
Hsematoxylon campechianum=log-
wood.
Halawan =mudflsh.
Hagachak 305.
Hagol= fishtail palm.
Ham 129.
Hammocks 223, 226.
Harengula gibbosa 151.
Harengula longiceps=tamban.
Harengula moluccensis = tunsoy.
Hasa-hasa= Japanese mackerel.
Hasu=: ramie.
Hats 272-275, 4, 11, 170, 251, 256, 310,
311.
Size 141.
Hay 25, 226.
Hematite 330.
Hemileia vastratrix 87.
Hemlock 136, 305.
Hemp 219, 12, 265.
Henequin 224.
Herrings 151, 152, 165, 187.
Hevea=para.
Hibiok= sugar palm.
Hides 135, 137, 141.
Hidiok=: sugar palm.
Hinarnibal 34.
Hindi = Bikal.
Hipon= shrimp.
Hogs = swine.
Holothuriae = trepang.
Hamalium sp.=aranga.
Hominy 17.
Hopea acuminata=mangachapuy.
Hopea plagata=yacal.
Hopea sp. = guisokguisok.
Hops 78.
Hordeum spp.= barley.
Horse 131, 125, 134, 135, 144, 202,
267.
Hair 278.
Hide 138.
Horns 143, 174.
Hyacinth bean 29.
I
Igasud= Ignatius bean.
Ignatius bean 124.
Igok= sugar palm.
Ikmo=betel.
Ilang-ilang = Ylang-ylang.
Ilex paraguayenses=:mate.
Illicium avisatum=star anis.
lUipe betis=betis.
Imperata = cogon.
Inapoy=boiled rice.
Indigo 283.
Indigof era = indigo.
Industrial alcohol 80.
Intsia acuminata =ipil.
Ipil 306, 307.
Irok= sugar palm.
Iron 330-334.
Italian millet 22.
Ivory 324.
J
Jaggery = palm sugar.
Jak fruit 48.
Japanese mackerel 158.
Java sago = sugar-palm starch.
Jipijapa palm 274.
Job's tears 23, 81.
Juniper berries 79.
Jusi 253, 4.
Jute 218, 230, 266, 267, 277, 278, 280,
12.
K
Kabatiti= vegetable sponge.
Kabayan= Japanese mackerel.
Kabuyao = pomelo.
Kabul = cucumber.
Kafir corn = sorghum.
Kahel=dalandan.
Kaingin 8, 296.
Kalamanse 37.
Kalapato= Japanese mackerel.
Kalawag = turmeric.
Kalibo 258.
Kalubay= white squash.
Kamayan 306.
Kamoteng-kahoy = manioc.
Kamoteng moro= manioc.
Kamoting China=manioc.
Kanen= boiled rice.
Kangaroo 138.
Kanobang = tacca.
Kan6n=boiled rice.
Kaolin 354, 279.
Kaong= sugar palm.
Kapas= cotton.
Kapas sanglay= kapok.
Kapes= window shell.
Kapok 232.
Oil 190, 232.
Katsumba = safflower.
Katunggan = latundan.
Kauri gum 315.
Kawag-kawag 159.
Kawagan =bamboo.
Kawayan totoo 311.
Kaya=kapok.
Kerosene 187 203.
Khuskhus = vetiver.
Kibal=cowpea.
Kid 132.
Kiling 311.
Kinirog=pop corn.
Kittul 269.
Knotted abaca = tied abaca.
Kolo' =breadf ruit.
Kubal-kubal = pampano.
Kuning = turmeric.
Kupand 278.
L
Labnig=parasan.
Lac 315.
Lace 217, 249.
Lagdao 162.
Lagos 318.
Lakatan 34.
Lakatan morado 34.
Lamb 130.
Skins 138.
Langa= sesame.
Lanka = jak fruit.
Lanot = cabonegro.
Lansium domesticum=lanzone.
Lanzone 47.
Lapo-lapo 160.
Larang anis = cayenne.
120
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
Larang pacite= cayenne.
Lard 185, 190, 193, 206, 207.
Lasona=onion.
Latundan 34.
Lauan 305.
Laudanum 117.
Laurel' 98, 152.
Lawn 245, 249.
Laya = ginger.
Lead 345, 344.
Leather 135-140, 148, 187, 197, 204,
207.
Legenaria vulgaria = white squash.
Lemons 37, 71, 182.
Lemur, flying 323.
Lenas 308.
Lengua de tigre = bowstring hemp.
Liberian coffee 85.
Lignum vita 307.
Lima beans 29.
Lime 357, 16, 64, 66, 72, 119, 137, 148,
161, 199.
Limes 37.
Limestone 330, 331, 334, 355, 358.
Limon 37.
Limonite 330.
Linen := flax.
Linga= sesame.
Linseed oil = flaxseed oil.
Linum usitatissimum = flax.
Liquors 79.
Lisohan = butuhan.
Lison = pampano.
Linsin 307.
Logwood 288.
Loochoo hats 274.
Loom 241.
Lubricants 209.
Lucern = alfalfa.
Lufra = vegetable sponge.
Lukban = pomelo.
Lumbang = candlenut.
Lumber 300-307.
Lumitog = banak.
Lunas=kiling.
Lunga = sesame.
Lutianus dodecacanthus = bacbaan.
Lutianus gembra = actis.
Luya = ginger.
Luyang dilao= turmeric.
Lycopersicum esculentum = tomato.
Lyodium = nito.
M
Mabolo 306.
Macaranga tanarius = samak.
Macaroni 5, 6.
Mace 99.
Mackerels 158.
Madder 285.
Magnetite 330.
Maguey 224-226, 12, 258, 267, 269.
Mahogany 306.
Maiz=corn.
Maize = corn.
Makan = common rice.
Malachite 335.
Malagkit = glutinous rice.
Malt 78, 11, 20.
Liquors 78.
Manamon = dilis.
Mancono 307.
Mangachapuy 305.
Manganese 351.
Mangifera indica=:mango.
Mango 43.
Mangoso = Italian millet.
Mangosteen 41.
Mangrove 298, 82, 308, 309.
Barks 136.
Mani=peanut.
Manicoba=ceara.
Manihot glaziovii = ceara rubber.
Manihot utilissima=manioc.
Manila = abaca.
Manila elemi = pili brea.
Manila hemp = abaca.
Manioc 54, 26, 80, 108.
Manumbaga = lakatan morado.
Maple 294, 306.
Sugar 74.
Marakulibangbang = fishtail palm.
Maramara = banak.
Maranta arundinacea 55.
Maravina = hyacinth bean.
Marble 355.
Matabia 34.
Mate 92.
Matgan= Japanese mackerel.
Mats 277, 233, 11, 34.
Matting 276, 226, 11.
Mauritius hemp 265.
Mayapis 305.
Meat 126-134, 15, 207.
Medicago sativa = alfalfa.
Medicines 120-124.
Menhaden 187.
Mercerized cotton 246, 253.
Mercury 348.
Methyl = wood alcohol.
Metroxylon rumpii = sago.
Michelia champaca = champaca.
Middlings 4.
Mike = Macaroni.
Milk 144, 184.
Milkfishes 159.
Millets 22, 26, 268.
Mineral oils 203.
Mineral waters 364.
Mink 323.
Misua=macaroni.
Mohair 235.
Mongos=green gram.
Monojos 12.
Molasses 68, 66, 79, 82, 113.
Molave 297, 307.
Mora=:vetiver.
Mordants 282.
Morisqueta = boiled rice.
Morphine 117.
Mossy forests 299, 310.
Mostaza = mustard.
Mother of pearl 172.
Mudfish 160.
Mugay = sinampal.
Mugil cephalus= banak.
Mulberry 236, 239.
Mullets 156.
Musa spp. = bananas.
Musa textiles = abaca.
Muscovado = brown sugar.
Muslin 245.
Mustard 104.
Mutton 130.
Myristica fragrans= nutmeg.
N
Nanka=jak fruit.
Naphtha 188.
Naphthaline 327.
Naranjita = dalanhita.
Narra 306.
Nasi=boiled rice.
Necklaces 23.
New Zealand hemp 265, 219.
Nicotiana = tobacco.
Nipa 82, 73, 77, 80, 269, 298, 300.
Nipa fructicans=nipa.
Nito 275.
Nitrate of soda 360.
Nutmeg 99.
o
Oak 136, 294, 299, 306, 308.
Oats 21, 25, 26.
Ocher 352.
Oedogonium 159.
Oil 175-203, 142, 152.
Cakes 202, 26, 360.
Foots 207.
Oil palm 196.
Oleomargarine 184.
Olive 189, 190.
Oil 137, 152, 191, 192, 206, 207.
Onion 33.
Opal 367.
Ophiocephalus striatus = mudfish.
Opium 117.
Oranges 36, 182.
Ores 325.
Oryza sativa = rice.
0 straea = oyster.
Ovis aries = sheep.
Oyster 161, 167.
Oyster, pearl 172.
Paddy = rice field.
Paddy = rice unhusked.
Padouk= narra.
Pahudia rhomboidea=tindalo.
Pakak = breadfruit.
Pakarohay=: bowstring hemp.
Pakaskas=:palm sugar.
Palai = rice, unhusked.
Palaquim 322.
INDEX
121
Palasan = parasan.
Palmin 193.
Palm juices 82, 83, 193.
Palm oil 196, 201.
Palm starches 58-61.
Palm sugars 72-73.
Palm wines 77.
Pamienta =: pepper.
Panama hats 274.
Panao 305.
Panarien = tacca.
Panas= Job's tears.
Pandan 12, 274, 275, 277.
Pangee 236.
Panocha 71.
Panuelo 258.
Papaine 46.
Papaver somniferum= opium.
Papaya 46.
Paper 278-280, 4, 11, 17, 139, 221.
Para 318, 320.
Paraffin 205, 148, 187, 208.
Parasan 310.
Parda= hyacinth bean.
Paregoric 117.
Parinarium griffithianum=:liusin.
Parkia timoriana=kupang.
Pasao=jute.
Pasayan — shrimp.
Patadiong 255.
Patani=rlima bean.
Patikan= fishtail palm.
Patis 164.
Patola= vegetable sponge.
Pawpaw = papaya.
Pay ap = cowpea.
Peaches 49.
Peanut 192, 189, 152, 26.
Pearline 245.
Pearl oyster 172-173, 161.
Pearl 173.
Peas, 28, 26.
Pentacme contorta= white lauan.
Pepper 97.
Percales = calico.
Persea gratissima= avocado.
Peruvian bark = quinine.
Pescado del rey= silver sides.
Petate 276.
Petroleo = kerosene.
Petroleum 203, 177, 329.
Phaseolus lunatus=lima bean.
Phaseolus radiatus= green gram.
Phleum pratense= timothy.
Phormium tenax=New Zealand hemp.
Phosphate of lime 360.
Phragmitis vulgaris =tamb6.
Pickling 29.
Pig iron 332.
Pigment clays 352.
Pig = swine.
Pigskin 138.
Pili 316.
Pilipig=pinipig.
Pilon 66, 353.
Pimienta = pepper.
Pimpinella anisum = aniseed.
Pina = pineapple.
Pina 261, 260.
Pinagbilinan = sinampal.
Pine 181, 293, 305, 314.
Pineapple 35, 79.
Fiber 257, 35, 258, 260.
Pinipig 11.
Pinolpog 261, 259.
Pintaka= Job's tears.
Pinus insularis 181.
Piper betle= betel leaf.
Piper nigrum = pepper.
Pipino = cucumber.
Pirurupuit=black rice.
Pirurutong=black rice.
Pisum arvense = pea.
Pisum sativum = pea.
Pithecolobium dulce = camanchile.
Pitutan = pototan .
Plaster of Paris 359.
Platano = banana.
Platinum 350.
Plums 49.
Plush 217, 254.
Poi 32.
Pomegranate 48.
Pomelo 38.
Pompanos 160.
Pompon 12.
Pongee 254.
Poonac 193.
Pop corn 14, 17.
Pork 17, 129.
Potato 30, 53, 80.
Pototan 136.
Pottery 352-354.
Poultry 147, 17, 18.
Poyas= Job's tears.
Precious stones 367.
Prints = calico.
Proof spirits 80.
Prune 49.
Psidium guayava = guava.
Pterocarpus indicus=:narra.
Pugahan= fishtail palm.
Pulque 77.
Punica granatum= pomegranate.
Puser 311.
Pyridine 80.
Pyrite copper.
Pyrite, iron 330.
Q
Quebracho 136.
Quilots=tied abaca.
Quinine 121.
R
Raisins 49.
Ramie 217, 259, 266, 273.
Raspador 225.
Ratoon 66.
Rat skins 138.
Rattan 310, 267, 275, 299.
Raw hide 138.
Raw silk 252, 253.
Red lauan 305.
Red peppers cayenne.
Redwood 305.
Refined sugar 69.
Resins 312-316, 80, 181, 279.
Retandan = latundan.
Retting 212.
Reyne = hinarnibal.
Rhizophora mucronata = bakawan.
Rice 7-13, 17, 18, 20, 22, 26, 29, 76, 78,
81, 82, 179, 277, 311.
Black 12.
Bran 10.
Broken 11, 12.
Common 12.
Field 12.
Glutinous 12.
Husk 10, 96, 140, 309.
Lowland 8, 12.
Mills 10, 12.
Powder 11.
Starch 57, 11.
Straw 9, 12.
Terraces 8, 12.
Upland 8, 12.
Wines 77.
Ricinus communis = castor.
Rimas = breadfruit.
Rinderpest 12, 125, 134.
Rajas 308.
Rope 262-267, 11, 217, 218, 219, 223,
226, 245, 310.
Rosewood 306.
Rosin 181, 314.
Rubber 317-321, 198.
Rubia 285.
Ruley 367.
Rye 19, 17.
s
Sabarrbanana, 34, 256, 258.
Sable 323.
Sabutan 275, 274, 277.
Saccharum officinale = sugar cane.
Safflower 284.
Saging = banana.
Sago 59, 61.
Saguinggamundo 34.
Sake 77.
Salakot 275.
Salamagui = tamarind.
Salmon 153, 167.
Salt 363.
Samak 81.
Sambag = tamarind.
Sampalok = tamarind.
Samulig = parasan.
Sand 356.
Sandoricum indicum = santol.
Sandstone 355.
San Juan 34.
Sanki = star anis.
Sansevieria 266.
Santol 42.
Sapang = sappan.
122
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
Sapodilla = chico.
Sapphire 367.
Sappan 289.
Sardine 152, 167, 192.
Sardinella clupeaides=tulis.
Sarsaparilla 122.
Satin 254.
Satinwood 306.
Sausage 129.
Sawali 311, 12.
Schizostachyum acutiflorum=bikal.
Schizostachyum hallieri=anos.
Schizostachyum mucronatum=buho.
Scomber japonicus=Japanese mack-
erel.
Scomber microlepidotus=chub mack-
erel.
Scomberomorus commersoni = Spanish
mackerel.
Sea bass 160.
Sea birds 148.
Seal 187, 323, 209.
Seaweed 171.
Gelatin 171, 141.
Sebachi=:lima bean.
Secale cereale=rye.
Sedalina=mercerized cotton.
Serge 251.
Sesame 191, 189, 202, 152.
Sesamum indicum = sesame.
Setaria italica= Italian millet.
Shaddock = pomelo.
Sheep 130, 135, 144, 186, 234, 10.
Shellac 315, 80.
Shoddy 251.
Shorea furfuracea=almon.
Shorea polysperma=tanguile.
Shorea quiso = guijo.
Shorea sp.=red lauan.
Shorea squamata=mayapis.
Shrimps 162.
Shuttle 241.
Sibukao = sappan.
Sibuyas = onion.
Sienna 352.
Sierra Leon coffee 85.
Silag=:buri.
Siling kulikat=cayenne.
Siling labuyo= cayenne.
Siling polipog= cayenne.
Silit sairo= cayenne.
Silk 236-239, 171, 217,"218, 242, 246,
252-255, 258, 273.
Silver 344.
Silversides 157.
Sinamay 258, 34, 61, 226, 253, 261.
Sinambag 311.
Sinampal 34.
Sinapis=mustard.
Sinawa=bowstring hemp.
Sinogtong=tied abaci.
Sisal 224-226, 86, 219.
Sitao=cowpea.
Size 242, 141, 344.
Skins 135, 141.
Slag 331, 360.
Smilax 122.
Snakes 138.
Snappers 160.
Soap 207.
Soap stone = talc.
Solanum melongena= eggplant.
Solanum tuberosum =potato.
Soluble glass 148.
Soluble starch 54.
Sorghum 22, 26, 75, 268.
Sotanghon 11.
Soy 107.
Soya bean 194, 29, 107, 202.
Spanish mackerel 158.
Spermaceti 208.
Spices 97-109.
Spiny bamboo =ka way an totoo.
Spirits 79.
Sponges 168-170.
Spruce 278, 293, 305.
Star anis 106.
Starches 51-61, 15, 30, 31, 76, 94, 242,
244.
Steel 330-334, 187, 351.
St. Ignatius bean = Ignatius bean.
Stipa tenacissima=esparta.
Stock 24-27, 18, 19, 21, 202.
Straw 278, 273. (See also Wheat;
Rice.)
Strichnos ignatii= Ignatius bean.
String beans 29.
Stripping 213.
Structural fibers 220-226, 212, 213.
Sucrose =: beet and cane sugar.
Sugar 62-75, 12, 22, 30, 52, 76, 77, 94,
140, 142, 148, 277, 353.
Beet 63-64.
Cane 65-75, 79, 81, 82, 83.
Central 67,
Corn 75.
Maple 74.
Refined 69.
Sorghum 75.
Trade 70-71.
Sugar palm 61, 72, 77, 82, 267, 269.
Fiber 61.
Starch 61.
Suha= pomelo.
Sulphur 365, 64, 198, 319, 330.
Sulphuric acid 141.
Sumac 136.
Surface fibers 227-233.
Sus scrofa= swine.
Swamp forests 298.
Sweet com 14.
Sweet potato 30, 12.
Swietenia mahogoni= mahogany.
Swine 129, 15, 17, 18, 34, 134, 135, 145,
185, 202, 270.
Tabongas= vegetable sponge.
Tabubok= vegetable sponge.
Tabungao= white squash.
Tacca 55.
Tacca pinnatifida=tacca.
Tagadew 268.
Tagal 273.
Taguissi = tambo.
Tagum= indigo.
Talakitok = pampano.
Talc 11, 57.
Tallow 186, 127, 130, 132, 137, 184,
206.
Talong=; eggplant.
Tamarind 45.
Tamarindo = tamarind.
Tamarindus indica=tamarind.
Tamban 151.
Tambo 268.
Tangal 82, 136.
Tangantangan =: castor.
Tanguigui = Spanish mackerel.
Tanguile 305.
Tanning materials 136.
Tantanabung=tamb6.
Tapayan=: water jar.
Tapioca 54.
Tapiz 255.
Tapuy 77.
Taro 32.
Tarongr: eggplant.
Tarrietia sylvatica=dungon.
Tayobong = tacca.
Tayum= indigo.
Tea 90-92.
Teak 307.
Tectonia grandis=teak.
Telluride 340.
Teredo 304.
Termites 304, 195.
Ternate = gloria.
Textiles 240-261.
Thatch 11, 267.
Thea sinensis = tea.
Theobroma cacao = cacao.
Thrown silk 252.
Thysnolaena maxima 268.
Tied abaca 256.
Tigbikay= Job's tears.
Tigby= Job's tears.
Tigre= bowstring hemp.
Tigui=bowstring hemp.
Ti-i = silversides.
Tikol=parasan.
Tikug 275, 276, 277.
Timothy 25.
Tin 346.
Tiiia 283.
Tinaja=water jar.
Tinapa 165, 152, 151, 159.
Tindalo 306.
Tindok=Tundok.
Tinning 29.
Tobacco 110-116, 12, 18, 34.
Toddies =palm wines.
Tokwa 29.
Tomato 33, 152.
Toona calantas 307.
INDEX
123
Tortillas 15.
Tortoise 174, 143.
Tous-le-mois 55.
Tow 216.
Trepang 163.
Tref olium = clover.
Triticum sativum = wheat.
Tubas = palm wines.
Tudlo sangdalaga=daliring sefiora.
Tukol = bung:ulan.
Tulis 152.
Tulisan=tulis.
Tundok 34.
Tunsoy 151.
Turkeys 147.
Turmeric 101, 287.
Turpentine 181, 314.
Turtle 174.
Tussah 236, 254.
Twine 267.
u
Ubi 31.
Upo= white squash.
Utong = CO wpea.
Uwai= rattan.
Uwai 310.
V
Vacuum pans 64.
Vanilla 94, 105, 113.
Varnish resins 315, 198.
Veal 127.
Vegetables 28-33.
Vegetable fibers 212-233.
Vegetable sponge 170.
Vegetable wax 204.
Velvet 254.
Veinte-kohol 34.
Vetiver 179.
Vigna sinensis =cowpea.
Vinegar 146, 34, 83.
Vino=alak.
Vino de nipa 82.
Vitex parviflora=molave.
Volatile oils 177-182, 98.
Vulcanite 319.
w
Wallaceodendron celebicum = banuyo.
Water buffalo 128, 12, 134.
Water jar 66, 354.
Wattle barke 136.
Wax 204-205, 208.
West Indian cedar 307.
Whale 187, 208.
Wheat 4-6, 15, 17, 25, 273.
Bread 5, 6.
Bran 4.
Flour 4, 6.
Middlings 4.
Starch 57.
Straw 4.
Whisky 17, 19, 79.
White ants=termites.
White lauan 305.
White squash 33.
Window shell 172.
Wine 77, 79, 148, 171.
Wood alcohol 80.
Woof = weft.
Wool 234-235, 130, 228, 272, 250-251.
Worsted 250, 251.
X
Xanthostemon verdugonianus=man-
cono.
Y
Yacal 305, 307, 305.
Yams 31.
Yantok = rattan.
Yarn 240.
Yeast 5, 76.
Yezo 354.
Ylang-ylang 178.
Yunot = cabonegro.
Yur6= sugar palm starch.
Zacate 24.
Zea mays = corn.
Zinc 347.
Zincite 347.
Zingiber officinale = ginger.
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