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THE
i.
COMOMHOOL GEOGRAPHY:
AN
ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON
MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND POLITICAL
GEOGRAPHY.
BY
D. M. BARREN",
ACTIIOR OF A TREATISE ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, ETC. ETC.
Xj^LST REVISED ZEZDITIOZLST.
PHILADELPHIA:
COWPERTHWAIT & CO.
1869.
V
Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by CO WPERTHWAIT $ CO., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States
for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT.
*
arm's j^rbs of dkagraphui
TIIIS SERIES NOW COMPRISES THE FOLLOWING WORKS, VIZ.:—
WARREN'S PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY,
WARREN'S COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY,
WARREN'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
These three books form a complete geographical course, adapted to the various stages of progress of the differ-
ent classes of all grades of schools. In all the books of the series, the Maps and descriptive text are in the
same volume. The Maps and Engravings are of the very highest order of excellence.
The Primary Geography is designed for beginners. It contains a brief description of the different countries of
the earth, and is illustrated by nineteen colored Electrotyped Maps drawn expressly for the work, and by more
than fifty fine wood Engravings, all of which are from original designs.
The Common-School Geography is especially intended for the use of the Grammar-schools of our cities and
towns, and of the Common schools in the country districts. It contains a description of all the countries upon
the globe, and is illustrated by very superior Copper-plate Maps, and by many fine wood Engravings.
The Physical Geography is designed for advanced classes, and is well adapted to the use of Colleges, Acade-
mies, Seminaries, and High Schools. The work forms one royal quarto volume of 92 pages, and is illustrated by
many superior wood Engravings, and by twenty Electrotyped and Copper-plate Maps drawn expressly for the
work.
This Series of Geographies, in whole or in part, has been introduced into many of the best public and private
schools in all parts of the country — receiving the warm approval of those teachers who have made themselves
acquainted with their merits. Teachers and school-officers are respectfully requested to examine this series of
works, before determining on the text-books on the subject of Geography to be used in the schools under their
charge.
2
GIFT
f
Gun
PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.
The progress of geographical discovery, and the numerous changes, political and territorial, that are constantly
taking place, have again rendered necessary a revision of this work.
Advantage has been taken of this alteration of the text, to introduce into the book an entirely new series of
finely engraved Copper-plate Maps, in place of those hitherto contained in it. The division and general arrange-
ment of the Maps remain the same as before, although, wherever practicable, their scale has been somewhat en-
larged ; while a new, full-page Map of Great Britain and Ireland has been added.
The new Maps have been prepared under the direct supervision of Mr. James H. Young, whose long expe-
rience and well-earned reputation in this department are a sufficient guarantee of their accuracy as well as of their
artistic finish.
The addition of a greatly enlarged Pronouncing and Explanatory Vocabulary, and of two pages of Review*
Questions, will be found, it is believed, to be a valuable improvement.
The Treatise on Map-Drawing, by Mr. E. A. Apgar, State Superintendent of New Jersey, explains a new and
practical method of acquiring this important art
The following extract from the Preface to the first edition of the work will show its general plan and arrange-
ment : —
"The book consists of two parts. Part First contains lessons on the elementary principles of geographical science; Part
Second, a description of the different countries. The lessons of Part First are not arranged in the usual form of question and
answer. The principles are clearly stated in familiar language, and the lessons are followed by direct questions upon the text, and
suggestive questions testing the learner's understanding of it. Part Second is arranged in chapters, which correspond with the
maps. The description of a country is followed by a map of the same ; on the page opposite to which are suggestive questions
growing out of the text, and direct questions upon the map. The descriptions in Part Second follow a natural order. The posi-
tion of a country is first given, then its surface is described, and the effect of these circumstances upon the climate, productions, and
inhabitants stated. An account of the political divisions follows the description of the physical features, constant reference being
made to the general statement of principles in Part First. The arrangement of this part of the book in chapters will enable the
teacher to assign to his pupils such length of lessons as he chooses."
Acknowledgments are due to many Educators, in various parts of the country, for useful suggestions kindly
offered ; and especially to Mr. P. W. Bartlett, late Master of the Chapman School, Boston, whose extensive
geographical knowledge has contributed largely to the general accuracy of the work.
In its improved form, it is hoped that the Common School Geography may commend itself to the Educational
public, and continue to justify the generous support which has hitherto been extended to it.
Philadelphia, August, 18G6.
M779190
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
INTRODUCTORY.^
* MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Lesson Page
I.— FORM OF THE EARTH 5
II.— MOTIONS OF THE EARTH 6
III.— MOTIONS OF THE EARTH— (Continued) 6
IV.— DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES 7
V.— DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES— (Continued) 7
VI.— ZONES 8
VII.— DAYS AND NIGHTS 8
VIII.— MAPS AND GLOBES 9
IX.— QUESTIONS ON LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 9
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
X.— NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE LAND 10
XL— SURFACE OF THE LAND 10
XII.— NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE WATER 11
XIII.— LAKES AND RIVERS 11
XIV.— CLIMATE 12
XV.-^VEGETATION 12
XVI.— ANIMALS 13
XVII.— MAN 13
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
XVIII.— STATES OF SOCIETY 14
XIX.— STATES OF SOCIETY— (Continued) 14
XX.— GOVERNMENT 15
XXL— RELIGION 15
XXII.— BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY 16
XXIII.— BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY— (Continued) 16
XXIV.— BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY— (Continued) 17
XXV.— BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY— (Continued) 17
PART II.
DESCRIPTION OF COUNTRIES.
Chapter Pago
I.— THE HEMISPHERES 19
II— THE CONTINENTS 20
III.— NORTH AMERICA 22
IV— THE UNITED STATES 26
V— THE EASTERN, OR NEW ENGLAND STATES 30
VI.— THE MIDDLE STATES, MARYLAND, AND VIRGINIA 34
VII.— THE SOUTHERN STATES, ARKANSAS, AND TENNESSEE.... 38
VIII— THE WESTERN STATES 42
IX— TEXAS, CALIFORNIA, OREGON, AND THE TERRITORIES.... 46
X.— COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES 50
REVIEW QUESTIONS;.". 52
XL— THE BRITISH PROVINCES OF NORTH AMERICA 53
XII.— MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES 56
XIII.— SOUTH AMERICA 60
XIV.— EUROPE 66
XV.— GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 70
XVI.— WESTERN EUROPE 72
XVII.— CENTRAL EUROPE 76
XVIII.— ASIA 80
XIX.— AFRICA 86
XX.— OCEANICA 90
XXI.— COMMERCE OF THE WORLD 94
QUESTIONS FOR GENERAL REVIEW 96
A TREATISE ON MAP-DRAWING 97
PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY VOCABULARY 99
STATISTICAL TABLES 105
IZLSHDIEZS: TO TIKE MAPS.
Page
1. Eastern and Western Hemispheres 9
2. Western Hemisphere 18
3. Eastern Hemisphere 21
4. North America 24
5. The United States 28
6. The Eastern, or New England States 32
7. Middle States, Maryland, and Virginia 36
8. Southern States, Arkansas, and Tennessee 40
' 9. Western States 44
10. Texas, California, Oregon, and the Territories 48
11. Commercial Map op the United States 51
12. The British Provinces of North America 55
13. Mexico and Central America 58
14. The West Indies 58
16. South America ; C4
16. Route across the Isthmus of Panama 64
17. Europe <g8
w
Page
18. Great Britain and Ireland 71
19. The Shetland Islands "1
20. The Channel Islands 71
21. Western Europe 74
22. Denmark, Sleswick, Holstein, &c 74
23. Central Europe ■ 78
24. Asia 84
25. Syria 84
26. The Empire of Japan 84
27. Africa 88
28. Egypt 88
29. Liberia and Sierra Leone 88
30. Malaysia, Australasia, and Part of Polynesia 92
31. The Sandwich Islands 92
32. New Zealand 92
33. Commercial Map of the World 95
THE
COMMON-SCHOOL^VRQGRAPHY.
BROADWAY
BROADWAY
Street runs north and south ; Willow Street runs east and west. Now, if a
nger should ask you to direct him to TTuTCourt House (marked C. H.), all you
e to do is to say it is on the third street north of Willow Street, and on the fifth
et west of Ash. The stranger could find it at once, and thus you might direct
l to any part of the city.
where the State House is(S.); the Market (M.) ; the
PAET I.
IITTRODTJOTORY.
Geography is a description of the earth. The terra is derived from two Greek words, signifying "the earth," and "to describe."
Geography may be divided into three departments: — Mathematical, Physical, and Political Geography.
LESSON I.
■
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY.
">.
I. Mathematical Geography treats— first, of tin; form, size, ami
motions of the earth; second, of its division by circles ; third, of
s representation of its surface upon globes, map*, and charts!
II. Form of the Earth.— The earth is nearly round. It, is so
nearly round that it is called a Globe. ^-j8>^
The earth is not perfectly round, but, like an orange, is flattened on two of the
opposite sides ; not nearly so much, however, in proportion to its size, as an orange.
In any representation of the earth, such as an artificial globe, the difference
between its real form and that of a globe would be too small to be seen.
the
III. Mountains and valleys do not affect the form of the earth.
The highest mountain in the world is not so large, in proportion to
the size of the earth, as a grain of sand upon the surface of an
ordinary globe.
IV. The earth does not appear to us like a globe. When we
are upon the ocean, or upon an extensive plain, where there are no
mountains and valleys, it seems flat, like the top of a round table.
This is because we see so little of it at a time. To an ant, crawling over an
artificial globe, the surface probably appears perfectly level; but we see bo much
of the wooden globe at once, that we know its true shape.
So tall a man, standing in the centre of an extensive plain, sees only about three
miles around him, and is therefore in the condition of the little ant upon the
wooden globe. If he oould see as much of the earth at a time as he can of tho
wooden globe, it would appear to him to be what it really is, a great globe.
8
CO'MMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY.
V. Proofs that the Earth is round.— 1. The tops of the masts of a
ship coming into port are always seen before the hull. — 2. It has
often been circumnavigated, or sailed around. — 3. The shadow of
the earth when cast on the moon is always circular.
If the earth were flat, the masts of the ship, which are smaller than the hull,
would appear last.
PART I.
,. INTRODUCTORY. *
B "f
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Lesson Pago
I.— FORM OF THE EARTH 6
II.— MOTIONS OF THE EARTH C
III.— MOTIONS OF THE EARTH— (Continued) 6
IV.— DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES 7
V.— DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES— (Continued) 7
VI.— ZONES 8
VII.— DAYS AND NIGHTS 8
VIII.— MAPS AND GLOBES 9
IX.— QUESTIONS ON LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 9
mrtroTn * t riwAnn * -r»-r-"-"-
ILLUSTRATION OF ONE OF THE PROOFS THAT THE EARTH IS NEARLY ROUND.
The gradual appearance of the ship above the horizon (or line where the sea and
sky seem to meet), proves that the surface over which she is sailing is curved, —
as in the following representation:
A man, standing on the ground, sees the whole of the first ship, the masts of the
second, and the top of the main-mast of the third; the fourth is out of sight. As
the curve is found to be nearly trie same in all parts of the world, whether sailing
north or south, east or west, we conclude that the earth is shaped like a globe.
Questions. — What is Geography? — From what is the term derived ? — Into what
three departments is Geography divided ? — What is Mathematical Geography.?
What is the form of the earth? — Is it perfectly round? — Why are not artificial
globes flattened at the top and bottom, if such is the shape of our earth ? — If you
were to scatter a few grains of sand on a wooden globe, would it still appear
round? — Why then do not mountains affect the form of the earth? — What distance
can a tall man, on a level plain, see around him? — Is the plain on which he stands
perfectly level, or slightly curved? — Does it appear to him to be curved? — State
one of the proofs that the earth is round.
LESSON II.
MOTIONS OP THE EARTH.
I. The Earth has two motions : a daily revolution (or turning
around) upon its axis, and a yearly course around the sun.
The axis of any thing is that upon which it turns, or may turn. Thus, the axle-
tree is the axis of a wheel. Pass a wire through the centre of an orange, from the
stem to the opposite point, and then make the orange revolve on the wire : the wire
is the axis of the orange.
So the earth revolves upon its axis. Yet the axis of the earth is not a reality, it
is only an imaginary line, passing through the centre of the earth, between the two
opposite flattened sides. The ends of this line are called the poles of the earth.
One is called the North Pole ; the other, the South Pole.
The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of about
23 J degrees. This leaning of the axis of the earth, and its annual revolution,
cause the change of seasons, known as Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter.
II. The Daily Motion. — The earth is constantly revolving on its
axis from west to east, and this movement is called the rotation upon
its axis. It takes twenty-four hours, or one day, for each revolution.
It seems to us, however, as if the earth were stationary, and as if the sun, moon,
and stars were moving around towards the west. This delusion arises from the
fact that the motion of the earth is so steady and uniform that we do not perceive it.
III. Some parts of the earth, in its daily revolution, move at the
rate of more than a thousand miles an hour.
At the Poles there is little or no motion ; but, midway between the Poles, the
velocity is so great that if we could be lifted up far above the earth, and suspended
there, the mountains, seas, and islands below, would be rushing by with such
amazing rapidity, that we should not be able to distinguish one object from another.
But as we are now moving with them at the same rate, we do not perceive the
motion.
IV. The revolution of the earth upon its axis produces day and
night — every place upon its surface being, alternately, in sunlight
and in shade.
Questions. — How many motions has the earth? — What is an axis? — Has the
earth a real axis, like a wheel? — What are the Poles? — Are they real or imagi-
nary points? — How is the axis of the earth inclined? — What does this inclination
cause? — What is the daily motion of the earth? — How many hours does it take
for the earth to revolve upon its own axis? — Does it ever cease to revolve? — Why
does it seem to us that the earth is stationary, and that the sun moves around it
towards the west? — How many miles an hour do some parts of the earth move,
revolving upon its axis? — What parts are- they? — How are day and night
produced?
LESSON III.
MOTIONS OP THE EARTH.— Continued.
I. The daily revolution of the earth determines the points East,
"West, North, and South.
The earth is constantly turning round from west to east, towards the sun, pro-
ducing the effect of sunrise. The direction from which the sun appears to rise is
called East ; where it sets, West.
If you stand with your right arm extended towards the East, the West will be on
your left hand, the North will be before you, and the South behind you.
II. These directions are called the Points of the Compass.
The compass is an instrument which has a magnetic
needle attached to it This always points to the north,
or nearly to the north. The compass is used by sur-
veyors, and by mariners to tell the direction in which
their vessels are sailing. Beside the four principal
points, there are four other important ones: North-eaM,
North-west. South-east, and South-west. N. stands for
North. N. E. for North-east, N. W. for North-west, S. E.
for South-east, and S. W. for South-west.
III. Motion of the Earth around the Sun.— The earth moves
around the sun in a nearly circular path, called its orbit, in 365£
days, or one year. This is called the annual, or yearly motion.
DIVISION OF THE EABTH BY CIECLES.
Over this course, a length of upwards of 567 millions of miles, the earth moves
with a velocity of more than a thousand miles in a minute.
IV. The circumference of the earth is the distance around it.
The diameter is the distance in a straight line through its centre,
between any two opposite points on the surface,
V. The circumference and diameter vary in length, in different
parts of the globe.
Since the earth is flattened at the Poles, and expanded in the middle, it is plain
that its circumference and diameter are greater, midway between the Poles, than
anywhere else.
VI. The greatest circumference of the earth is about 25,000
miles, and the greatest diameter about 8000 miles. The diameter
of the earth, from Pole to Pole, is 26 miles less than midway
between the Poles.
Questions. — How is sunrise caused ? — Does the sun really rise ? — What is that
point called at which the sun appears to rise? — What are the other principal points
of the compass? — How long does it take the earth to make its annual revolution
around the sun? — Does it stop after having completed its yearly course? — What
is the form of the earth's orbit ? — How fast does the earth move around the sun ? —
Which is the more rapid; the motion of the earth around the sun, or its revolution
upon its own axis ? — What do you understand by the circumference of the earth ? —
By its diameter ? — Where is the circumference greatest ? — How long is the greatest
diameter ? — The shortest ?
LESSON IV.
DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES.
I. The surface of the globe is divided by imaginary circles.
They are the Equator, the Parallels of Latitude, the Meridians of
Longitude, and the Tropical and Polar Circles.
II. A Circle is a curved line every point of which is equally
distant from the centre.
Every circle is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees.
III. A Great Circle is one that divides the globe into two equal
parts, each of which is called a Hemisphere, — that is, half a sphere
br globe.
Each degree of a great circle is equal to CO geographical miles, or about 69J
English miles.
IV. A Small Circle divides the earth into two unequal parts..
The length of a degree of a small circle varies with the size of the circle.
V. The Equator is a great circle drawn round the globe half-way
between the Poles.
VI. Parallels of Latitude are small circles drawn round the globe
parallel to the Equator.
The parallels are represented on maps by lines running across them from cast to
west.
VII. The Horizon is the boundary-line of our circle of vision,
whore the earth and sky seem to meet.
VIII. The Zenith is the point in the heavens directly overhead.
IX. Latitude is distance from the Equator, either north or south.
It is measured on great circles; and hence the length of a degree of latitude is
nearly the same in all parts of the earth. Ninety of these degrees are north, and
ninety south, of the Equator. All places north of the Equator are said to be in
North Latitude: all south of it, in South Latitude. These degrees are numbered
on the sides ofmaps. The numbers increase from the Equator towards the Poles,
from 0 to 90°. If the numbers increase from the bottom towards the top of the
map. the section represented is in North Latitude; if from the top fcmvards the
bottom, the section is in South Latitude. ^
Suppose a city, with streets crossing each other at right angles, like the lines in
the annexed representation : —
Ash Street runs north and south ; Willow Street runs east and west. Now, if a
stranger should ask you to direct him to Tn"e~Court. House (marked C. H.), all you
have to do is to say it is on the third street north of Willow Street, and on the fifth
street west of Ash. The stranger could find it at once, and thus you might direct
him to any part of the city.
Tell me, in the same way, where the State House is(S.); the Market (M.); the
Public Library (L.) ; the City Hall (H.) ; the Savings Bank (B.). In what direction
is the State House from the Market? The Market from the Library ? The City
Hallf rom the State House? The Savings Bank from the City Hall? The Market
from the State House?
Thus, if you could draw a set of lines on the earth's surface, running east and
west, and another set running north and south, you could fix the position of places
without any difficulty, and ascertain their direction from each other. This is pre-
cisely what is done by the lines of latitude and longitude; although they are not
real, but imaginary lines.
Questions. — Name the circles which divide the surface of the globe. — What is a
Circle? — How is every Circle divided? — What is a Great Circle? — What is a
Hemisphere? — How long is a degree of a great circle? —What is a Small Circle? —
What is the Equator? — Define Parallels of Latitude. — What is the Horizon? —
What is the Zenith? — What is Latitude? — On what circles is it measured? — How
many degrees of North Latitude are there? — How many of South? — If a place is
said to be in ten degrees of North Latitude, on which side of the Equator is it? —
If you are told that .a place is in the thirty-third degree of South Latitude, how far,
and in what direction, is it from the Equator?
LESSON V.
DIVISION OF THE EARTH BY CIRCLES.
I. Meridians of Longitude are imaginary lines encircling the earth
from north to south, and passing through both Poles. The meri-
dian of any place is a line passing through that place from the
North to the South Pole.
The meridians are represented on maps by lines running across them from north
to south.
II. Longitude is distance from any given meridian, east or west.
It is measured on the Equator, or on parallels. The length of a
degree* on the Equator is nearly the same as that of a degree of
latitude. On the 20th parallel it is 65 miles ; on the 40th parallel
it is 53 miles; on the 60th parallel it is 82 J males; and on the
80th parallel it is 12 miles.
III. The meridian from which longitude is reckoned is called
the Eirst Meridian.
The Equator is the lino universally agreed upon from which to reckon latitude;
but no such line has been agreed upon by different countries from, which to
_.
8
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY.
compute longitude. The English reckon from the meridian of Greenwich, near
London ; the French, from that of Paris. In the United States we commonly adopt
the meridian of Greenwich; though longitude is often computed from that of Wash-
ington.
The meridian which passes through Greenwich is marked with a cipher (0).
There arc 180 degrees of East, and 180 degrees of West Longitude. All places cast
of the meridian of Greenwich are iu East Longitude ; all places west of it, in West
Longitude.
These degrees are numbered on the top and bottom of maps, or upon the Equator.
If the numbers increase from the left towards the right of the map, the section
represented is in East Longitude ; if from the right towards the left, it is in West
Longitude. On globes and maps, the meridians and parallels are generally cither
curved or slanting. In finding the direction, therefore, of one place from another,
you must follow the course of the line of longitude or latitude.
IV. Parallels of Latitude and Meridians of Longitude. — These
circles enable us to ascertain the position of places, and their dis-
tance and direction from each other.
V. Those who live on the same meridian have their noon or
midnight at the same moment. Those who live on the same par-
allel have an equal length of day and night.
Antipodes are those who live on exactly opposite sides of the
globe.
Questions. — What are meridians of longitude ? — What is the meridian of a place ?
— How are meridians marked on maps ? — What is longitude?, — On what is it mea-
sured?— How does the length of degrees of longitude vary? — What do you mean by
first meridian? — Do all nations reckon longitude from the same meridian ? — What
meridian is generally adopted in the United States? — How can you tell whether a
place is in East or West Longitude ?
How is the meridian of Greenwich marked on the map ? — Suppose you should
follow that meridian from the Equator to the South Pole : in what direction would
you go? — In following the s-ame meridian to the North Pole, in what direction
would you go? — Of what use are parallels and meridians? — What places have
noon at the same time? — What places have an equal length of day and night ?-
Define antipodes.—
LESSON VI,
ZONES.
I. The hottest part of the earth is in the vicinity of the Equator,
for the sun is more nearly overhead there, throughout the entire
year, than in any other part of the globe. Going from the Equator
to the Poles, the climate constantly grows colder. On account of
these differences in climate, the surface of the earth is divided into
five distinct zones or belts.
The Torrid Zone extends about 23J degrees of latitude on each side of the
Equator. The Frigid Zones extend around each Pole for nearly 23 \ degrees from it:
one is the North Frigid — the other the South Frigid Zone. The Temperate Zones
are between the Torrid and Frigid Zones: one is the North Temperate— the other,
the South Temperate Zone. The T«mperate Zones are each a little more than 43
degrees wide.
II. The Tropical Circles are those parallels of latitude which
mark the boundaries of the Torrid Zone. The northern is the
Tropic of Cancer : the southern, the Tropic of Capricorn. The
countries between these circles are called tropical countries. The
Polar Circles are those parallels of latitude which mark the boun-
daries of the Frigid Zones. The northern is the Arctic : the south-
era the Antarctic Circle.
III. The Seasons. — During the earth's annual course around the
sun, the seasons change, in the Temperate Zones, from winter to
spring, from spring to summer, from summer to autumn, and from
autumn to winter. The seasons in the Northern Hemisphere occur
at opposite periods to those in the Southern.
IV. The Frigid Zones have but two seasons — a long, cold
winter, and a short summer.
Winter and summer succeed each other so rapidly that spring and autumn are
hardly perceptible. While it is winter in the North Frigid, it is summer in the
South Frigid Zone.
V. The Torrid Zone has two seasons — the wet, and the dry.
It has no winter and summer, properly speaking. The dry season, in the northern
half of the Torrid Zone, continues from October to April. During this time it is the
wet season in the southern half. The wet season of the northern part continues from
April to October ; during this period it is the dry season in the southern portion.
VI. The Temperate Zones have four seasons — Spring, Summer,
Autumn, and Winter.
While it is spring in the North Temperate, it is autumn in the South Temperate
Zone ; and when it is summer in the North Temperate, it is winter in the South
Temperate Zone.
Questions. — Where do we find the hottest part of the earth ? — Why is the heat so
great in that vicinity ? — What change is observed in passing from the Equator to tho
Poles? — How many zones are there? — How many seasons have the Frigid Zones?
— How many the Temperate? — The Torrid? — When it is summer in the North
Frigid Zone, what season is it in the South Frigid ? — When it is winter in the North
Temperate Zone, what season is it in the South Temperate ? — When it is the dry sea-
son in the southern half of the Torrid Zone, what season is it in the northern half?
In what months is the dry season in the northern half of the Torrid Zone? — The
wet season? — What are the months of the wet season in the northern half? — In
the southern? — What Beason is it now in the North Temperate Zone? — In the
South Temperate?
LESSON VII.
DAYS AND NIGHTS.
I. The length of the days and nights is not the same in all parts
of the world.
II. In the Torrid Zone the days and nights are of nearly equal
length throughout the year — that is, about twelve hours each.
At the Equator they are each twelve hours long throughout the year. Leaving
the Equator, the length of the days and of the nights becomes unequal ; and this
inequality increases as we advance towards the Poles.
III. In the Temperate Zones they are of very unequal length —
the days in summer being more, and the nights less, than twelve
hours ; while in winter the days are shorter, and the nights longer,
than twelve hours.
This inequality increases towards the Polar Circles, which are the limits of the
Temperate Zones. At these circles the longest day is twenty-four hours — that is,
the sun does not set on that day.
IV. In the Frigid Zones, the days and nights are still more
unequal in length than in the Temperate.
At the Polar Circles the longest day is twenty-four hours, and its length increases
towards the Poles — the sun frequently being above or below the horizon for days and
weeks together. At the Poles, the days and nights are each six month*dong.
Questions. — Are the days or nights, at the Equator, ever more than twelve hours
long ? — Are they more than twelve hours long in any part of the world ? — When are
the days longest in the Temperate Zones: in summer, or in winter? — When are the
nights longest? — At what part of the Temperate Zones are the summer days long- I
est: near the Tropics, or the Polar Circles? — How long is the longest day at the J
Polar Circles? — Does the length of the days, in summer, increase or diminish from
the Polar Circles to the Poles? — How long is the day at the Poles? — The night? — 1
Is the Day, at the Poles, summer or winter ?
MAPS AND GLOBES.
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LESSON VIII.
MAPS, GLOBES, AND CHARTS.
r*
I. A Map is a representation of the whole or a part of the earth's
surface on a plane.
Maps exhibit the lines of latitude and longitude; the Equator; the tropical and
polar circles; and the position of continents, islands, oceans, mountains, rivers,
countries, and towns.
Maps enable us to see at once the form of the various bodies of land and water,
and their direction from each other. They assist us in comparing the sizes of
different countries, and in estimating the distance from one place to another.
II. North is towards the top of the map ; South is towards the
bottom ; East is towards the right hand ; and West is towards the
left hand.
III. The best representation of the whole earth is by an artificial
globe, which is a ball, on which are drawn the various objects, as
on a map. On a globe we see only one hemisphere at a time.
IV. If we should cut a globe into halves, and place them side
by side, with the curved sides toward us, we should have nearly the
same view of the earth's surface as that presented by a map of the
hemispheres — such as the one above.
V. The scale of a map is useful in computing the distances
between different places.
VI. A chart differs from a map in always having the meridians
and parallels drawn as straight lines.
For this reason they are chiefly used by navigators.
Questions. — What is a map? — What do maps exhibit? — What is the use of
maps? — Towards what part of the map is North? — South? — East? — West?
What is the best representation of the whole earth ? — What kind of a view of the
earth is presented by a map of the hemispheres? — Of what use is the scale of a
map? — Suppose on a map, the scale of which is 50 miles to the inch, two places are
three inches apart: what distance arc they from each other? — What is a Chart?
2
SOUTH fOLki S
LESSON IX.
QUESTIONS ON LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.
[Note. — These questions may be answered from the map at the top of the page.]
Is North America in North or South Latitude? — Why ? — Europe? — Why ? —
Australia? — Why? — In what latitude is the greater part of South America? — Is
any part of Asia in South Latitude? — Is any part of Africa in North Latitude? —
In South Latitude? — Is any part of South America in North Latitude?
In what longitude (from the meridian of Greenwich) is South America? — Aus-
tralia?— Asia? — North America? — Is any part of Africa in West Longitude? — In
what longitude is the greater part of Europe? — Why?
On a certain day, the ship "Flying Cloud" was in 20° of North Latitude: can
you tell me whether she was in the Atlantic, or in the Pacific Ocean ? — Suppose I
also say that she was in 140° of West Longitude: can you now tell me in what ocean
she was? — In what direction was she from North America? — From South America?
— How many degrees from the Equator? — From the South Pole? — The North
Pole?
The ship "Storm King" was lost in a hurricane in 20° South Latitude, and 80°
East Longitude: in what ocean was this vessel wrecked ? — In what direction from
Africa was this ship? — From Asia? — From Australia? — How far was it from the
Equator? — From the South Pole?
Suppose two ships are at the Equator — one in 180°, the other in 40°, of West
Longitude: how many degrees apart are they ? — How many miles ? — Suppose they
each sail directly north to 60° of North Latitude : are they any nearer to each other
than before? — How far north would they have to go, in order to meet?
QUESTIONS ON ZONES.
How many degrees on each side of the Equator does the Torrid Zone extend ? —
How many degrees wide, then, is the Torrid Zone? — How many degrees wide are
the Frigid Zones? — The Temperate Zones? — How many miles wide is each of
these zones, reckoning 70 miles to a degree ? — How many degrees from the Equator
are the Tropical Circles?
How many degrees from the Poles arc the Polar Circles? — Between what circles
is the Torrid Zone included ? — The North Temperate? — The South Temperate? —
At what latitude would a ship enter the North Temperate Zone, in sailing from the
Equator?
What, is the meaning of Torrid ? — Frigid? — Arctic? — Antarctic ? — Australia ?
[Questions of this kind, which will be found in many of the succeeding lessons, are
answered in the Pronouncing Vocabulary at the end of the book.]
10
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY.
LESSON X.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
I. Physical Geography treats of' the land and water into which
the earth's surface is divided ; of the atmosphere which surrounds
the earth ; and of the animals and plants which live upon it.
II. The surface of the earth consists of land and water, — about
one-fourth being land, and three-fourths water.
III. The land surface of the earth is divided into continents and
islands.
Various parts of these divisions receive different names, according to their size,
shape, or some other circumstance. Tho principal of them are peninsulas, capes,
and isthmuses.
Such divisions as continents, islands, and peninsulas are called natural, to distin-
guish them from divisions formed by man, such as States and Countries.
IV. A Continent is a great body of land, containing many
countries.
There are two continents — the Eastern and the Western. Australia is sometimes
considered a continent, but in this book it is classed among islands. A tract of
uninhabited land, south of Australia, first discovered in 1840, is known as the
Antarctic Continent. It is not however, strictly speaking, a continent.
V. An Island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water.
A number of islands, closely clustered together, form an Archipelago. This term
is also applied to a sea interspersed with islands. Islands differ from continents
only in size — both being surrounded by water.
VI. A Peninsnla is a body of land nearly surrounded by water.
Africa and South America are the largest peninsulas.
VII. A Cape is a point of land extending into the water.
VIII. An Isthmus is a narrow neck of land which connects two
larger bodies of land. The Isthmus of Panama connects North
and South America.
IX.
A Coast or Shore is the land bordering on the water.
Questions. — What is Physical Geography? — When you are learning about islands
are you studying Mathematical or Physical Geography? — In what division of
geography do you learn the movements of the earth? — Of what does the surface
of the earth consist? — How much greater portion of it is water than land? — What
is the difference between a continent and an island? — Why are such divisions as
continents and islands called natural divisions?
Should we call Australia a continent, if it were three or four times as large as it
really is? — What is an island? — An archipelago? — What is a peninsula? — A
cape? — An isthmus? — A coast?' — What do you mean by the coast of North
America? — Spell the following words: Physical, Archipelago, Peninsula, Isthmus,
Darien. — What is the meaning of Peninsula? — Capo? — Isthmus?
LESSON XI.
SURFACE OP THE LAND.
I. The land surface of the earth is diversified by plains, moun-
tains, hills, table-lands, and valleys. •
II. A Plain is a tract of land nearly level.
Some plains appear perfectly flat, while others have a rolling surface, like many
of our western prairies.
III. A Mountain is a tract of land which rises considerably above
the general surface.
IV. Elevations of less than two thousand feet, are usually called
hills.
The base of a mountain, or hill, is that upon which it rests. We reckon the
height of mountains not from the base, but from the level of the ocean ; which is
the same in all parts of the world, and therefore forms a fixed standard for com-
paring the heights of mountains.
Mountains are seldom found single, but are generally in groups or chains. A
mountain-chain is an irregular mass of elevated land, which is sometimes several
thousand miles long, and more than a hundred wide. A chain of mountains is also
called a ridge, or range. A number of chains, extending in the same general direc-
tion, constitute what is called a mountain-system.
MOUNTAIN SCENERY.
Mountains do not often rise abruptly from the level surface of a plain; tho
ground, for some distance around the base, is usually broken into hills.
V. A Volcano is a mountain which casts out fire, smoke, melted
lava, or other substances, from its interior.
It is supposed that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire, to which the volca-
noes serve as chimneys. There are more than four hundred volcanoes upon tho
globe.
VI. A Table-land, or Plateau, is an elevated plain, rising some-
what abruptly from the surrounding surface. Plateaus are gen-
erally crossed by mountain-chains.
VII. A Valley is a tract of country situated between mountains
or hills.
A valley may be a narrow space between the sides of mountains, or it may be a
broad and level plain, thousands of miles in extent.
VIII. A Desert is a tract of land which is nearly or wholly
barren.
A fertile spot in the midst of a desert is called an Oasis. Deserts are generally
composed of sand or gravel. They sometimes contain tracts of clay and of salt
marsh, and occasionally produce a scanty growth of coarse grass. They may be
either table-lands or plains.
Questions. — How is the land surface of the earth diversified? — What is a plain?
— Is there a plain in your neighborhood ? — What is the difference between a moun-
tain and a hill? — What is the base of a mountain? — Why is the height of moun-
tains reckoned from the level of the sea? — Are mountains commonly found single?
— Describe the formation of a mountain-chain. — Do mountains rise abruptly from
a level surface? — What is a volcano? — What is the use of volcanoes? — What is
the difference between a plateau and a plain? — By what are plateaus generally
crossed? — What is a valley? — Can a valley be a plain? — Are deserts always per-
fectly barren? — Of what are they composed? — Are they always low plains? —
What is an Oasis ? — Spell Plateau ; Volcano.
WATEE. — LAKES AND EIVEES,
11
LESSON XII.
WATER.
I. The waters of the earth consist of the ocean and its various
divisions; and of lakes and rivers.
II. The Ocean, or Sea, is that great body of salt water which
covers nearly three-fourths of the surface of the earth.
The Ocean is divided into five principal parts, which are also called oceans, — the
Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic.
III. Parts of the ocean near the land, or extending into it, are
sometimes called seas, gulfs, bays, sounds, harbors, straits, or chan-
nels.
IV. A Sea, Gulf, Bay, or Bight is a body of water nearly sur-
rounded by land; as the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico,
Hudson Bay, the Bight of Benin.
In a few cases, however, they are more open to the ocean; as the Arabian Sea,
the Bay of Bengal, and the Bay of Biscay. There is but little difference between a
sea, a gulf, and a bay ; though most bays are smaller than seas or gulfs.
V. A Sound is a passage of water so shallow that its depth may
be easily measured.
VI. A Harbor is a small inlet, so sheltered from the open sea as
to afford safety to vessels.
A harbor, in order to be good, must be nearly surrounded by land ; it should have
deep water, and be easy of entrance. Where the coast is low and sandy, the harbors
are not very good, for the water is shallow, and the entrance obstructed by sand-
bars. A sand-bar is a bank of sand, rising to within a few feet of the surface. If a
vessel draws so many feet of water (that is, sinks so many feet deep in floating) as
to strike against the sand-bar, she cannot enter the harbor.
VII. A Strait or Channel is a narrow passage connecting two large
bodies of water.
Questions, — Of what do the waters of the earth consist? — What is the ocean? —
What are its principal divisions ? — What arc those parts of the ocean called which
are near the land? — What is a sea, gulf, or bay ? — Is there much difference between
them? — What is a sound? — A harbor? — Can a harbor be good which has very
shallow water? — What danger would there be in having sunken rocks near the
entrance? — What disadvantage in having a sand-bar at the entrance?
If a vessel draws ten feet of water, can she cross a sand-bar which is within eight
feet of the surface? — What do you mean by saying that a vessel draws ten feet of
water? — Suppose a harbor is not well protected by the land, what danger would
there be to vessels lying within it? — What is a strait?
LESSON XIII.
LAKES AND R-IVERS.
I. A Lake is a body of water surrounded by land.
The greater number of lakes have rivers flowing into them, and from them.
Lakes which have no outlet are generally salt ; these are often called seas.
II. A River is a stream of fresh water which flows into the sea,
or into some other body of water.
A River System is a collection of rivers flowing into the same ocean, sea, bay,
gulf, or other large river.
*°° t^MOVTUS OF
Their
III. The Source of a river is the place where it rises. Its Mouth
is where it empties.
Rivers are usually formed of small
streams flowing from springs among the
mountains and hills. Some, however,
flow directly from lakes ; while others
have their source from the melting of
great masses of ice called Glaciers, which
cover the summits of many mountains.
Most great rivers flow into the sea by
several mouths. The space included be-
tween the two outside streams is called
a Delta, because it is shaped somewhat
like a letter of the Greek alphabet, A,
called delta. A very wide mouth, like
that of the Amazon, is called an Estuary,
Firth, Frith, or Fiord.
IV. Rivers generally rise among mountains or hills,
course depends upon the slope of the land.
The land generally slopes from the interior towards the sea. Where the moun-
tains are near the coast, the slope towards the sea is steep and abrupt; the rivers
on that side, therefore, are short, and rapid. If the mountains are far from the sea,
the slope is gradual ; the rivers then are long, and have a gentle current.
V. The Bed of a river is the channel within which its waters are
confined, and is bordered by its Banks.
The right and left banks are those on the right and left sides in going down the
stream — that is, from the source to the mouth. The Current of a river is the onward
flow of its waters towards the mouth.
When the bed slopes considerably, the river flows with great speed and violence,
forming a Rapid. If the descent is steep and sudden, a Water-fall is formed. A
small water-fall is a Cascade ; a great one is a Cataract. Where the river flows
through a level country, there are neither rapids nor water-falls.
VI. The Basin, or Valley, of a river, is the extent of country
which is drained by the river with all its tributaries.
If you draw a line on the map, passing through the source of a river, and of
every river and stream which flows into it, the line will form the boundary of its
Basin.
VII. A Water-shed is the elevated land which separates two
rivers, or series of rivers; one series flowing down one sjope, and
the other flowing down another slope in a different direction.
VIII. Rivers generally afford an easy means of reaching the
interior of a country.
When men begin to settle a new country, they generally select a place near a
river ; because they can more readily communicate with other settlements by way
of the river, than by travelling on land, where there are at first no roads. The
soil, too, is commonly more fertile. In this way, villages, towns, and cities spring
up on the banks of navigable rivers. Most of the great cities in the world are situ-
ated upon rivers.
A navigable river is one on which vessels can navigate, or sail. Rapids and falls
obstruct the navigation of a river, though a channel, or canal, is sometimes made
around them.
Questions. — What Is a lake? — Do rivers ever flow into lakes? — Do they ever
flow from them? — What lakes are generally salt? — What is a river? — What is
the source of a river? — What is its mouth? — What is the delta of a river? — What
is an estuary? — Where do rivers generally rise? — Upon what does their course
depend ?
What is the bed of a river? — In sailing towards the mouth, which bank is on
your right hand? — In sailing up a river, which bank is on your left hand? —
What produces a rapid? — A cataract? — Would there be any difficulty in sailing
up a rapid? — Why? — Which is most likely to have rapids and falls: a level or a
hilly country? — What is a river-basin? — How can you mark out the limits of a
river-basin? — What is a water-shed? — Why do men, in settling a new country,
select a place near a river? — Where are most of the great cities of the world situ-
ated?— What is a navigable river?
12
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY.
Tns frigid zones.
THE TEMPERATE ZONES.
THE TORRID ZONE.
LESSON XIV.
CLIMATE.
I. By the Climate of a country, we mean its degree of heat or
cold; moisture or dryness, healthfulness or unhealthfulness. The
Temperature of a place (that is, the degree of heat or cold) depends
principally upon its distance from the Equator.
There are numerous exceptions, however, to this general law; some places, more
remote from the Equator, being warmer than others which are nearer to it.
II. The Temperature of a place also depends upon its elevation
above the level of the sea, and its vicinity to the ocean.
The higher you ascend above the general surface, the colder the air becomes.
The effects of this are strikingly shown in tropical countries, where in ascending a
mountain only three or four miles high, you pass through as many changes of cli-
mate as in travelling from the Equator to the Poles. Even at the Equator, the sum-
mits of lofty mountains are perpetually covered with snow.
The more equal temperature of the ocean generally gives to places on or near the
coast, cooler summers and warmer winters than others in the same latitude in the
interior of a country.
III. In the Torrid Zone the heat is very great throughout the
year, for the wet and dry seasons have nearly the same tempera-
ture.
Snow and ice are unknown, except among the mountains. In the dry season,
little or no rain falls, and the sky is usually cloudless. In the wet season, copious
showers fall nearly every day, and violent thunder-storms are frequent.
IV. The Temperate Zones are characterized by a cold winter
and a hot summer ; though neither the heat nor cold is so excessive
as in other zones.
For several degrees from the Tropics, the climate is like that of the Torrid Zone,
and there is no strong contrast between the temperature of the summer and the
winter. Advancing towards the Polar Circles, the winters become very cold, and
the summers, though short, are yet very hot.
V. In the Frigid Zones, the cold is very severe. Near the Poles,
the ground is perpetually covered with snow and ice, which arc
only partially thawed in summer.
Great fields of ice, many miles in extent, float about in the Polar Seas; and huge
blocks of fresh-water ice, called ice-bergs (ice-mountains), render the navigation
extremely perilous.
•
Questions. — What is meant by climate? — What is temperature? — Upon what
does the temperature of a place chiefly depend ? — What else influences the climate
of a place? — If you were to go up in a balloon, would you find the air growing
colder, or warmer? — What is the climate of the Torrid Zone? — Where would you
find snow in this zone ? — What is the climate of the Temperate Zones? — Is it every-
where the same? — What parts are like the Torrid Zone? — Where are the winters
coldest in this zone: near the Polar or Tropical Circles? — What is the climate of
the Frigid Zone?
LESSON XV.
VEGETATION.
I. The vegetable productions of the earth vary with the climate.
The term vegetation, or vegetable productions, includes trees, flowers, fruits, grains,
grasses, and all other plants.
II. Vegetation is most luxuriant in tropical countries. The
excessive moisture and intense heat produce trees of enormous
size, flowers of the most brilliant colors, and climbing-plants in
great number and variety.
The most important tropical productions are yams, bananas, plantains, bread-
fruit, cassava (from which tapioca is made), sago, cocoa-nuts, and the cacao or
cocoa tree (from the seeds of the fruit of which chocolate and cocoa are prepared).
Many delicious fruits are also produced in the Torrid Zone — such as pine-apples,
oranges, lemons, and citrons.
Spices — such as pepper, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs — come from tropical
countries; and many kinds of beautiful wood, as mahogany and rosewood, grow
there in great abundance. The vegetation of the Torrid Zone continues green
i\
ANIMALS. — MAN
13
throughout the year; while, with some exceptions, the plants of other regions cast
their leaves in winter.
III. On leaving the Torrid Zone, tropical plants gradually dis-
appear. Instead of the palm and banana trees, we find the beech,
oak, maple, and pine. The Temperate Zones are the regions of
the grape-vine, the potato, and of various grains — such as wheat,
Indian corn, barley, oats, and rye. Hemp and flax thrive best in
these zones.
Many of the most important vegetable productions grow both in the Torrid and in
the warmer parts of the Temperate Zones. Among these are rice, cotton, coffee,
tobacco, and the sugar-cane. Tea is principally produced in the Temperate Zone.
IV. In the Frigid Zones, trees dwindle into mere shrubs ; and in
the regions of perpetual snow, no vegetation exists, except a few
minute plants that grow upon the surface of the snow.
V. In ascending from the base of mountains and table-lands, the
same changes in the character of vegetation are found. as in going
towards the Poles ; so that a tropical mountain, of great elevation,
possesses the climate and many of the productions of every zone.
Questions. — What does the term vegetation include? — Where is it most luxuri-
ant?— What trees grow in the Temperate Zones? — What kinds of grain? — What
is the vegetation of the Frigid Zones? — In which zone do yams, bananas, and plan-
tains grow? — Wheat, rye, oats, and barley? — Name some of the fruits of the Tor-
rid Zone. — What fruits are raised in your vicinity? — What spiceg grow in the Tor-
rid Zone? — From what plant is tapioca made? — Sugar? — From what plant are
chocolate and cocoa made? — Where does sago come from? — In what zones are
cotton, rice, and tobacco raised?
LESSON XVI
ANIMALS.
I. The character of the animals which inhabit the earth varies
with the climate and vegetation. .
II. In the Torrid Zone we find the largest, strongest, and most
ferocious land animals. A great variety of birds, and vast numbers
of dangerous reptiles and troublesome insects, are also found in this
zone. The birds, fishes, insects, serpents, and many of the wild
beasts, are adorned with the most brilliant and beautiful colors.
Among the most remarkable animals living within or near the Tropics, are the
elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe, camel, lion, tiger, jackal, leopard, and
hyena. These animals, however, are not found in the Western Continent. The
monkey is confined almost entirely to tropical regions. The boa constrictor and
crocodile are among the most formidable reptiles.
III. In the Temperate regions we find the buffalo, bear, deer,
wolf, fox, and wild-cat. Eeptiles and insects become fewer, smaller,
and less troublesome. ' The birds have not so gorgeous a plumage,
but they are more melodious.-
IV. In the Polar regions, the animals have a less brilliant color.
There are no reptiles, and but few insects.
The variety of animals is not so great in the Arctic regions as elsewhere, but the
number especially of birds and fishes is immense. The principal land animals are
reindeer, bears, wolves, foxes, sables, and ermine. Whales, seals, narwhals, wal-
ruses, and vast shoals of fishes, are found in the Polar Seas. Great flocks of ducks,
geese, and other birds, hover in countless numbers over the islands and along the
shores of these cold regions.
V. In ascending from the base of tropical mountains, we find the
same changes of animal life that are observed in passing from the
j Equator to the Poles.
I . VI. Most animals can exist only in the climate for which they
are by nature adapted. The reindeer and polar bear cannot endure
the warmth of the Temperate and Torrid Zones; nor could the lion
and tiger long survive the rigors of an Arctic winter.
On this account, a lofty chain of mountains forms an impassable barrier for tho
animals living on opposite sides; for in crossing the mountains, they would have to
enter a different climate from that in which they are formed to live.
Many of the most useful domestic animals, however, such as the ox, horse, sheep,
goat, hog, and dog, are found in almost every part of the world which is inhabited
by man.
Questions. — Where do we find the largest and fiercest animals? — The greatest
number of serpents and insects? — Mention the most remarkable animals of the
Torrid Zone. — Mention all the tropical animals that you have seen. — Which of the
tropical animals are not found in the Western Continent? — What arc the principal
animals of the Temperate Zones? — Name the principal animals of the Frigid Zones.
— Can the animals of one zone generally live in another? — Why does a chain of
high mountains usually form a barrier to animals on each side? — What useful ani-
mals can live in almost any part of the world?
LESSON
XVII.
MAN.
I. The Earth was made for Man; hence, he is found in every
country, and in every climate.
Men can adapt the warmth or lightness of their clothing to the climate in which
they live. They can also derive nourishment from various kinds of food. If it
were not so, they could not occupy, and have dominion over, the whole earth. f
In the Frigid Zone, where there is little or no vegetable food, men subsist almost
wholly on animals. In the Torrid Zone, they live almost entirely on vegetable food,
which is best suited to health in a hot climate. In the Temperate Zones, where
animal and vegetable food are both abundant, men partake of both.
II. The most intelligent and highly civilized nations live in the
Temperate Zones. The inhabitants of the Torrid Zone are languid
and indolent from the excessive heat; while in the barren regions'
near the Poles, men can only procure- the mere necessaries of life.
III. Mankind is divided into five varieties, or races, differing
from each other by certain characteristic features.
1. The Caucasian, or White race. — Most of the nations of Europe and America
belong to this race. The Caucasian race is superior to all others in intelligence,
energy, and courage.
2. The Mongolian, or Yellow race, is found chiefly in Asia. The Chinese and
Japanese belong to the Mongolian race.
3. The Ethiopian, or Black race, includes all the natives of Africa, except those
of the northern part ; the natives of Australia, and some of the neighboring islands,
and the negroes of America.
4. The Malay, or Brown race, inhabit most of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, the
Peninsula of Malacca (in Asia), and many of the adjacent islands.
5. The American, or Bed race, includes all the Indians of the Western Continent,
except the Esquimaux,. in the extreme north, who belong to the Mongolian race.
Questions. — Are men confined to any one country or climate? — Why are men
able to accommodate themselves to various degrees of heat and cold? Are they
confined to any one kind of food? — If they were, what would bo the effect? Upon
what kind of food do men live in the Frigid Zones? — Upon what do men live in the
Torrid Zone? — In the Temperate Zones? — In what zones do the most intelligent
nations live?
Into how many races is mankind divided? — Do they all look alike? — Which is the
most intelligent race? — Which are the most important, branches of this race?
Where is the Mongolian race chiefly found? — The Ethiopian? — The Malay? The
American? — -To what race do the Chinese and Japanese belong? — The American
Indians? — The Esquimaux? — Most of the Africans? — The Australians? — The
natives of the islands of the Pacific? — The natives of Malacca? — Most of the
European nations?
14
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY,
LESSON XVIII.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
I. Political Geography treats of the division of the world into
various countries or States ; and of the state of society, government,
religion, and occupation of the inhabitants.
II. States of Society. — The various nations and tribes of men
differ greatly in regard to knowledge and manner of living. For
this reason they are sometimes divided into four classes — the sav-
age, barbarous, half-civilized, and civilized.
III. Savages are the lowest and most degraded class. They do
not cultivate the soil, but live on roots and wild fruit, or by hunt-
ing and fishing. Some tribes are ignorant of the use of fire, and
eat their food raw. They have scarcely any regular laws, and no
large towns or cities.
The American Indians, many of the negro tribes of Africa, and all the native
tribes of Australia, are savages.
IV. In the barbarous state, men are somewhat more advanced
than in the savage. They keep many horses, cattle, and other
animals, with which they wander about from place to place, wher-
ever they can find pasturage. They generally live in tents, and
pay little attention to agriculture, but derive their support from
their flocks and herds, and from hunting and fishing.
The wandering tribes of Arabia and of Tartary belong to this class.
V. Savage and barbarous nations are almost always engaged in
war. They are addicted to plunder and robbery — are *cruel and
revengeful, and generally treat their women as inferior beings.
Questions. — What is Political Geography? — What department of Geography arc
you learning when you study the government of a country ? — Its plains, mountains,
and rivers? — When you are studying about Latitude and Longitude?
Are all nations of men equally intelligent and civilized? — Into what classes arc
they divided? — Which is the- lowest class? — Upon what do savages live? — Are
there farmers and mechanics among savage tribes? — Do savages have large towns
and cities ? — If a tribe is ignorant of the use of fire, how must they cat their food ? —
To what class do the American Indians belong ? — The negroes of Africa and Australia ?
Which is the more advanced: the savage or the barbarous state? — How do bar-
barous tribes support themselves? — Do they generally live in towns? — Why do
they lead a wandering life? — What examples of barbarous tribes can you mention?
Are savage and barbarous nations of a peaceful character? — How are women
treated by tlicni ?
LESSON XIX.
STATES OP SOCIETY.
I. Half-civilized nations carry on agriculture with considerable
skill. They build houses and ships — have books, and some degree
of learning — and are acquainted with many other useful arts ; but
they are jealous of strangers, and have very little communication
with foreign countries. For this reason they make but little
progress, and continue for centuries in the same condition.
Most of the half-civilized nations belong to the Mongolian race, and inhabit the
Eastern Continent. The Chinese, Japanese, Persians, Turks, and Hindoos, are
half-civilized.
II. Among civilized nations, agriculture, manufactures, and other
arts, reach their highest perfection. While the miserable savage
goes naked, or clothes himself with the skins of beasts, the civilized
man is supplied with the productions and luxuries of every country
and of every climate.
He can measure the size and distance of the heavenly bodies, which the savage
ignorantly worships as gods. Civilized nations rapidly advance in knowledge ; for
they maintain a constant communication with each other, and with the remotest
parts of the earth. They have colleges, churches, hospitals, schools, and many
other useful institutions.
Most of the civilized nations belong to the Caucasian race. Nearly all the
inhabitants of Europe, and their descendants in America and ether parts of the
world, belong to this class.
Questions. — What is the next state of society after the barbarous? — With what
arts are half-civilized nations acquainted? — Are these known by savage or bar-
barous tribes? — Why do half-civilized nations make but little progress? — What
are the chief nations of this class? — In what Btate of society are agriculture and
manufactures most advanced? — What striking points of difference exist between
the savage and the civilized man? — What advantages may a people derive from a
communication with foreign nations? — Do the half-civilized nations avail them-
selves of this advantage? — Do the civilized?
What savage tribes are there in America? — To which of the five races do they
belong? — Are there any civilized nations in America? — To what class of society do
most of the nations of Europe belong? — Suppose each nation were to cut off all
communication with other countries: would its progress be advanced, or retarded?
— Are there any nations which adopt this course? — To what race do most of tb
half-civilized nations belong? — To what the civilized?
V-
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GOVERNMENT. — EEL IG ION.
15
LESSON XX.
GOVERNMENT.
I. Government is that form of principles and laws by -which
ithe members of a society or nation are governed or controlled.
II. Those persons who execute the laws, or see that they are
obeyed, are called rulers, or governors.
Among savage and barbarous nations there are few established forms of law.
The lives and property of the people are generally at the disposal of the chief.
III. There are two principal forms of government, a Monarchy
and a Republic.
There are many other names of governments: as, the Patriarchal, which existed
in the early history of the Jews, and is now found among the tribes of American
Indians, and among some of the tribes of Arabs; and the Aristocracy and
Democracy of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
IV. A Monarchy is that form of government in which the
supreme authority is possessed by one person, called a monarch,
who holds his power for life.
Monarchs have different names. Thus, the monarch of an Empire is called an
Emperor, Czar, or Sultan; of a Kingdom, a King; of a Principality, a Prince; of
a Duchy, a Duke ; of an Electorate, an Elector. The monarch, when a woman, is
called a Queen, or Empress.
V. An Absolute Monarchy, or Despotism, is a government in
which the sovereign rules according to his own will, and has
almost uncontrolled power over the lives and property of his
subjects.
China, Persia, Morocco, and most of the half-civilized countries of the Eastern
Continent, are absolute monarchies.
VI. A Limited Monarchy is a government in which the power
of the sovereign is limited by law.
Great Britain is an example of a limited monarchy.
VII. A Republic is a government in which the exercise of the
sovereign power is lodged in representatives chosen by the people.
Most of the States and Countries of the Western Continent are Republics. The
United States forms the best example of a Republican government.
VIII. In the United States the power of the government is
divided into three departments, — the Legislative, the Executive,
and the Judicial.
The Legislative power makes the laws, and belongs to Congress. Congress is
composed of two branches, a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is
composed of two members from each State, chosen for six years. The House of
Representatives is composed of members from each State, chosen for two years, the
number of Representatives depending on the population.
The Executive power executes the laws, and is lodged in the President, who is
elected for four years by electors chosen by the people.
The Judicial power determines all questions of law and justice arising under the
Constitution and laws. It consists of a Supreme Court, and a number of Circuit
and District Courts /
IX. The character of a government depends, in a great degree, on
the intelligence of the people. Despotism can exist only among
the ignorant and barbarous. Civilized communities understand
their rights and require their rulers to observe and respect them.
Questions. — What is government? — Who arc rulers, or governors ? — Where do
you find few forms of law ? — What are the two principal forms of government? —
Where do you find examples of the Patriarchal government? — Of Aristocracy and
Democracy? — Define a Monarchy. — What is an Absolute Monarchy? — Give an
example. — What is a Limited Monarchy? — Give an example. — What is a Republic?
— Where are most of the Republics found ? — What are the three departments of the
United States Government? — What connection is there between the intelligence of
a people and their form of government?
LESSON XXT.
RELIGION.
Most, if not all, of the different varieties of the human race appear to have some
idea of a Supreme Being. Even the most savage tribes believe in a future state,
and in some invisible power of good or evil. These different ideas constitute the
various forms of religion which prevail in the world.
I. The principal forms of religion are the Christian, Jewish,
Mohammedan, and Pagan.
II. Christians believe in Jesus Christ as the Saviour of mankind,
and in the Old and New Testament as the Word of God.
The Christian religion is professed by the most enlightened nations of the earth.
The three great classes of its followers are Roman Catholics, Protestants, and
adherents of the Greek Church. The French, Spaniards, Italians, many of the
Germans, and the principal part of the inhabitants of Mexico and South America,
are Catholics. The inhabitants of the United States, Great Britain, and some
countries of Northern Europe, are chiefly Protestants. The Russians and Greeks
belong to the Greek Church.
III. Jews believe in the Old Testament as the Word of God.
They reject Christ and his Gospel, and expect a Messiah, or Saviour,
yet to come.
The Jews once inhabited the Holy Land. They are now scattered throughout
nearly all parts of the world.
IV. Mohammedans are followers of the false prophet Mohammed
who lived in Arabia about 600 years after Christ.
They believe in one God, and that Mohammed is his prophet. They consider
Moses and Christ as true prophets, but Mohammed as the greatest and last. The
Mohammedans are found in Turkey ,* Northern Africa, Arabia, Persia, and many
other parts of Asia.
V. Pagans believe in false gods, and worship many different
objects : as idols, beasts, and serpents.
The greater part of the inhabitants of Asia and Africa, nearly all of the native
tribes of the islands of the Pacific, together with the Indians of America, are
Pagans. Among some heathen tribes, as in Africa, India, and the Islands of the
Pacific Ocean, the horrid practice of human sacrifice is connected with their
religious worship.
VI. About one-half of the people upon the globe are Pagans ;
about one-third are Christians ; nearly one-sixth are Mohamme-
dans; and there are about four millions of Jews.
Christian nations are more powerful, and much more advanced in knowledge,
than any others. Their power also is continually increasing. They have colonies
in many Pagan countries. They send missionaries to the remotest parts of tho
earth. They establish schools, and other useful institutions ; and there is little
doubt that in the course of a few generations, the Christian religion will be spread
over the greater part of the earth.
Questions. — What are the principal forms of religion upon the globe? — What do
Christians believe? — How does their belief differ from that of the Jews? — Name
the three classes of Christians. — What is the character of Christian nations? —
Where do the Jews live? t
Who was Mohammed? — How long ago did he live? — Where are the Mohamme-
dans found? — What do they believe? — In what do Pagans believe? — What do
they worship? — What Pagan tribes inhabit America? — Is human sacrifice ever
practised with religious worship? — Where? — By whom?
Which are the most numerous: Pagans or Christians? — What is the estimated
number of Jews? — What part of the inhabitants of the globe are Mohammedans ?
-rsWhat nations are most powerful?
16
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY.
LESSON XXII. LESSON XXIII.
BRANCHES OP INDUSTRY.
I. Among civilized nations men are engaged in obtaining the
natural products of the land and water, in manufactures, and. in
commerce.
II. The natural products of the land and water are animal, vege-
table, and mineral. Every substance in the world belongs to one
of these classes.
III. Animal productions consist of land animals, either in a wild
or domestic state, and of fish.
In a thinly settled country, where wild animals are numerous, hunting is a
favorite occupation. In cold countries, many animals arc hunted for their furs,
which are very valuable.
IY. In countries where good pasturage is abundant, grazing —
or the feeding of cattle upon grass — and the raising of live-stock
are important occupations. The term live-stock includes cattle
(that is, oxen and cows), horses, sheep, goats, and some other
animals.
The various articles which are obtained from them are included among animal
productions, namely : hides, skins, horns, tallow, hair, wool, beef, and pork ; also,
milk, butter, cheese, and other products of the dairy.
Y. Pishing. — The products of the fisheries are of great value to
man. Oil and whale-bone are obtained from the whale ; seal-skin
and oil, from the seal ; and vast numbers of cod, salmon, mackerel,
herring, and other fish, are salted, or otherwise preserved, for food.
Questions. — How are the inhabitants of a civilized country generally employed?
— Of what three classes do natural productions consist? — Of what do animal
productions consist ?
What is a favorite occupation in a thinly-settled country? — Are there any wild
animals in the vicinity of the place in which you live? — Is the wolf a wild animal?
— Are dogs? — Let each scholar name a wild animal which he has seen.
What does live-stock mean? — To what class do the articles which are obtained
from these animals belong? — From what animals are hides obtained? — Horns?
Tallow ? — Wool ? — Beef ? — Pork ? — Milk, butter, and cheese ? — Oil ? — Whale-
bone ? — Seal-skin ?
BRANCHES OP INDUSTRY.— Continued.
I. Agriculture is the cultivation of the soil. The products
of agriculture, and of the forests, form the most important part of
vegetable productions.
In very warm countries agriculture is not conducted with much skill ; for the
fruits grow wild, in great abundance, and little care is required to procure food,
shelter, and clothing. Thus, it is said that three of the Bread-Fruit trees will
afford one person a constant supply of food.
On the other hand, in very cold countries, where the ground is covered with
snow the greater part of the year, the soil will not yield a sufficient support, and
the people must gain a subsistence by hunting and fishing.
II. A temperate climate is favorable to the highest skill in
agriculture. In such a climate, few useful plants grow without
cultivation ; yet, by cultivation, a great abundance may be pro-
duced. For the production of wheat, corn, and other grains com-
mon to the Temperate Zones, much labor is required, but such
labor is well rewarded.
III. Mining is the business of obtaining mineral productions
The place where they are obtained is called a mine. The place
from which building-stone is taken, is termed a quarry.
Mineral productions consist principally of jewels or precious stones; of precious
metals, such as gold, silver, and platinum; of useful metals, as iron, tin, load,
copper, zinc, and quicksilver; of various kinds of stone, such as marble, granite,
sandstone, limestone — useful for building purposes; of coal, salt, and many other
minerals, which are obtained beneath the surface of the earth.
Questions. — What are the most important vegetable productions? — What is
agriculture? — Why is not agriculture conducted with much skill in very warm
countries? — In very cold climates? — Why is a temperate climate favorable to
agricultural skill? — In what countries is agricultural skill unnecessary? — In what
countries is it unsuccessful? — In what is it both necessary and successful.
What is mining? — What is a mine? — What is a quarry? — Let each scholar
name some jewel or precious stone. — Name the principal precious metals. — The
useful metals. — The various kinds of stone. — What other useful minerals can you
mention? — Which are most necessary to our comfort and convenience: gold, silver,
and diamonds — or iron, lead, coal, and salt?
BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY,
17
LESSON XXIV.
BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY.— Continued.
I. Manufacturing is the art of adapting natural productions
to the uses of man.
Very fow productions are used in their natural state by men : they must undergo
some change to suit their necessity or pleasure. Even the savage, whose wants are
few and simple, pounds his corn into meal with, a heavy stone, and fashions his rude
war-hatchet and spear.
II. In civilized society many different articles are manufactured
from animal, vegetable, and mineral productions Such articles
are called manufactures. Thus, leather is made from the skins of
animals ; cloth from cotton, hemp, and flax ; agricultural and house-
hold implements from iron, copper, and tin.
It will thus be seen that there are two classes of productions : those which are in
a natural state, and those which are manufactured.
III. Among the most necessary manufactures are those which
are used for food, clothing, and shelter.
From grain, milk, and the sugar-cane, various kinds of food and drink are made —
some of them wholesome, others very injurious. Thus, grain is made not only into
flour and meal, but into ale, beer, whiskey, and other intoxicating drinks. From
the sugar-cane are manufactured not only sugar and molasses, but rum. Vast
quantities of wino are made from the grape.
Among the substances mo9t used for clothing are wool, cotton, leather, flax, and
hemp (from which linen is made), and silk. Silk is made from the web of the silk-
worm. The silk-worm is fed with the leaves of the mulberry tree, which grows
luxuriantly in Southern Europe, China, and India.
For building-purposes, wood, stone, clay (for bricks) and iron, are chiefly
employed. The principal material used in making glass is sand.
IV. The ingenious and costly machinery of our great manufac-
turing establishments requires wealth and a high state of civiliza-
tion. On that account we must not look for extensive manufactures
in a thinly settled country, or among an indolent people.
Questions. — What is manufacturing ? — Do men commonly use the productions of
the earth in a natural state? — Does the savage manufacture as great a variety of
articles as the civilized man ? — From what three classes of substances are manufac-
tures derived? — What two classes of productions are there? — What are the most
necessary manufactures? — Name some of the substances which are manufactured
for food. — From what are ale, beer, and whiskey made? — Wine? — Rum? — Flour?
— Butter and cheeso ? — Sugar and molasses? — Which of these articles are most
valuable ?
Name some of the substances manufactured for clothing ? — From what substance
are shoes principally made ? — Coats ? — Hats and caps ? — Bonnets ? — Stockings ? —
To which class — animal, vegetable, or mineral — does leather belong? — Wool?
Straw? — Cotton ? — Hemp and flax? — From what is linen made? — From what
silk? — On what is the silk-worm fed? — From what countries do we obtain silk?
Name the substances most used for building.
LESSON XXV.
BRANCHES OP INDUSTRY.— Continued.
I. Commerce is the exchange of goods. When a farmer raises
more grain than he wants, he sells the remainder (called the sur-
plus,) for something which he does not himself produce. This is
the case, too, with the miner, the manufacturer, the fisherman, and
§ery other producer.
Suppose the farmers of an extensive district raise an abundance of grain and live-
stock— they wish to sell tho surplus in order to procure other articles, such as
sugar, tea, coffee, furniture, and books. They cannot dispose of their grain and
live stock to each other, for each man raises more than he needs for his own use.
They cannot spare the time to carry their produce to a distant region: they there-
fore take it to some neighboring town.
The merchants of that town buy the produce thus furnished by the surrounding
country, and export it (send it away) to other places. They also import (bring in) a
variety of articles, of which the people stand in need.
II. Commercial Towns. — In a prosperous country there are many
large commercial towns in the interior and upon the coast, each
forming the centre of trade for the surrounding district.
A sea-coast town cannot have an extensive foreign commerce, unless the harbor
is deep enough to admit large ships — for the commerce with distant countries is
not often carried on in small vessels. The interior commercial towns are generally
situated upon some large river, or lake, which communicates with the coast. Where
these are wanting, a railroad sometimes supplies the deficiency.
III. Our own country, so well supplied with noble lakes, rivers,
and harbors, contains many great commercial cities which exhibit
the advantages of a fortunate position.
Thus, if we examine the map of the United States (p. 26), we shall find on the
chain of Great Lakes, Chicago, Milwaukie, Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, and Buffalo.
The wheat, corn, and other products of the Great West are forwarded through these
cities, along the lakes and by various railroads and canals, to the great Atlantic
cities — New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston.
These latter cities pay for the produce thus received by goods manufactured in
their vicinity, or by merchandise imported from foreign countries. In like manner,
New Orleans carries on a trade with St. Louis, Cincinnati, and other places in the
interior.
Questions. — What is commerce? — now do the farmer, miner, fisherman, and
manufacturer dispose of their surplus products ? — Name some of the articles which
the farmer Wants, in return for his own productions. — What do the merchants in a
commercial town do with the productions of the surrounding country? — What do
they import? — »A certain country has no iron mines, but manufactures a great
amount of cotton goods : which would the people be likely to export ? — To
import?
Do you generally find many commercial towns in a prosperous country? — Why
must a large commercial seaport have a deep harbor? — How are the commercial
towns of the interior connected with the coast? — Is our own country well supplied
with favorable sites for commercial towns? — Give an example of the way in which
commerce is carried on between cities on the coast, and those in the interior.
PAET II.
DESCRIPTIONS OF COUNTRIES.
CHAPTER I.
THE HEMISPHERES.
I. The entire surface of the globe is represented by the maps of
the two hemispheres : — the Eastern, and the Western.
The meridian of 20 degrees west from Greenwich is the line usually chosen for
the division of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, though any other meridian
would answer equally well.
This line was adopted because it was supposed to be the meridian of Ferro, one
of the Canary Islands. Ferro was the most western land known to the ancients;
the region beyond being to them one of doubt and darkness. This island is now
known to be a little east of 20°.
II. The Western Hemisphere comprises the Western Continent, a
small part of the Eastern Continent, a portion of the Antarctic Land,
and numerous islands ; besides a part of the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic,
and Antarctic Oceans. There is much more water than land in this
hemisphere.
III. The Eastern Hemisphere comprises the Eastern Continent
(except the north-eastern extremity), a portion of the Antarctic
Land, and numerous islands ; besides -the Indian Ocean, and a part
of the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. There is
also more water than land in this hemisphere.
IV. Except the Antarctic Land, and a few small islands far out
at sea, every tract of land now known is included within one of the
six Grand Divisions of Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South
America, and Oceanica.
Y. The globe may also be divided into a Northern and a Southern
Hemisphere; of which the former contains the greater proportion
of land — the latter, of water.
VI. In the Southern Hemisphere there are various tracts of land
lying within the Antarctic Ocean, which may be included in the
general name of Antarctic Land.
Until the year 1819, no land was known to exist south of the GOth degree of
South Latitude. Since that time, navigators have discovered numerous islands and
bodies of land, among which are the South Shetland Islands, Graham's Land, Vic-
toria Land, and Enderby's Land.
The most extensive tract yet known, in that part of the world, is called the Ant-
arctic Continent, situated about 2000 miles south of Australia. It was discovered
in 1840, by Captain Wilkes, of the American Navy. He sailed along the coast a
distance of 1700 miles east and west.
In 1841, Captain Ross, of the British Navy, explored a line of coast (Victoria
Land), extending southward to within 830 miles of the South Pole; being the near-
est approach yet made to that point. He discovered, in these frozen regions, an
active volcano, 12,400 feet high, which he named Mount Erebus. A little farther
east, he saw an extinct volcano, which he named Mount Terror.
All these regions are barren and desolate. The land is perpetually covered with
ice and snow, and the coasts are for the most part bordered by vast masses of ice.
There are no inhabitants, and but few land animals; and some tracts are wholly
destitute of vegetation. It has been ascertained thai the ice of the Antarctic regions
extends 10 degrees nearer the Equator than that of the Arctic.
Questions. — What proportion of the surface of the globe is represented by the map
of the Eastern Hemisphere ?• — By that of the Western ? — By both ? — What meridian
is usually chosen for the division of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres ? — Could
any other line be adopted? — Suppose some other meridian were used for this pur-
pose : would the map of each hemisphere contain the same portions of laud and
water as it does now ?
Suppose the meridian of 100° of West Longitude were selected for the dividing
line: in which hemisphere would South America be? — Why is the meridian of 20°
commonly adopted? — In which hemisphere is the Island of Ferro ? — Why?
What, bodies of land are included in the Western Hemisphere ? — What oceans lie
partly within this hemisphere ? — What bodies of land are included in the Eastern
Hemisphere? — What ocean is entirely within it ? — What other oceans are partly
within it? — What contains the greater proportion of land: the Northern, or the
Southern Hemisphere? — Which contains the more water?
What is included in the term Antarctic Land? — In what year did the discovery
of these regions commence ? — Where is Victoria Land? — The South Shetland Isles?
Graham's Land ? — What is the character of these regions? — Why are there no
inhabitants ? — In which region, the Arctic or Antarctic, does the ice extend farthest
towards the Equator ?
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
Which is the largest division of laud in the Western Hemisphere ? —What ocean
is north of this division? — What ocean is East? — West?
What is that portion of the Atlantic Ocean north of the Equator called ? — What
is the portion south called ? — What is that part of the Pacific Ocean north of the
Equator called? — What is the part south called ?
Through what strait would you sail, to go from the Pacific to the Arctic Ocean ? — ■
What narrow isthmus separates the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans? —
The Antarctic Ocean is south of the Antarctio Circle : what land is in this ocean ?
What sea and gulf lie between North and South America? — Of what ocean do
these bodies of water form a part?— What sea is north of the Aleutian Islands ? —
Of what ocean is it a part?- — Through what bay must Dr. Kane have sailed to
reach his farthest point north ?
A vessel is reported to have been wrecked in Latitude 40° North, and Longitude
30° West: in what ocean did it occur ? — Near what land?
A United States vessel of war is ordered to cruise among the islands situated
between Latitude 10° and 30° North, and Longitude G0° and 90° West ; whaUslands
are meant ?
A whaling-vessel is reported in Latitude 30° South, and Longitude 80° West: in
what pcean is this vessel? — Near what group of islands? — What main-land.
19
20
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY.
CHAPTER II.
THE CONTINENTS.
I. The most extensive bodies of land upon the surface of the
earth are the Eastern and the Western Continents.
II. The Eastern Continent, and the adjacent islands, form three
grand divisions : Europe, Asia, and Africa. _This continent is more
than twice as large as the Western.
III. The Western Continent, with the neighboring islands, forms
two grand divisions : North America and South America.
These are connected by the Isthmus of Panama.
The two continents approach nearest each other at Behring Strait, which, at the
narrowest part, is only 36 miles wide. A partial connection is established by the
Aleutian Islands, which extend from the Peninsula of Alaska, in North America, to
Kamtschatka, in Asia.
IV. Position. — The greatest extent of land in the two continents
is north of the Equator, and in the North Temperate Zone. Only
a small part is in the South Temperate, and none at all in the South
Frierid Zone.
O
V. Climate. — The position of the continents determines, in a
great measure, the climate of the five sections of which they are
composed.
The three northern sections (Asia, Europe, and North America) are principally
in the Temperate Zone, and extend beyond the Arctic Circle — forming almost a
connected line around the North Pole. They arc, therefore, colder than the two
southern sections (Africa and South America), which lie chiefly within the Tropics,
and are far removed from the Frigid Zone.
VI. Outline. — The outline of the two continents presents some
points of resemblance, and some of contrast.
1. The southern section of each continent is a peninsula, connected with the main
body by a narrow isthmus. Each of these peninsulas terminates in a pointed pro-
jection towards the Bouth.
2. An island, or group of islands, is found east of the southern part of each conti-
nent: as Madagascar, east of Africa; and the Falkland Islands, east of South
America.
3. The three northern sections are deeply indented by large seas and gulfs ;
while in the two southern, the coast is unbroken by any large arms of the ocean.
It is partly owing to this circumstance that South America and Africa have not been
more thoroughly explored by Europeans.
4. The greatest length of the Western Continent is from north-west to south-east;
while that of the Eastern is from northeast to south-west.
VII. Surface. — The Western Continent is traversed throughout
its entire length by a great mountain-system, which accompanies
the line of its western shores.
VIII. East of this great chain is a vast plain, stretching through-
out the entire length of the continent, interrupted only by the Gulf
of Mexico. The eastern limits of this plain are formed by inferior
mountain-systems.
IX. The Eastern Continent also contains an immense mountain-
system, traversing the greatest length of the main body (Asia and
Europe), from the Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean.
[Notk. — The mountain-systems of the two continents will be described in con-
nection with the Grand Divisions.]
Southward from this system extend a number of peninsulas : Farther India,
llindoostan, and Arabia, in Asia ; and Greece, Italy, and the Spanish Peninsula, in
Europe. These peninsulas are penetrated by mountain-chains — branches of the
principal system. s>
X. Northward from this great mountain band, a vast plain
extends to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. It stretches east and
west, from Behring Strait to the Atlantic Ocean — about one-third
the circumference of the globe.
Questions. — What are the most extensive bodies of land upon the surface of the
earth? — Which is the larger of the two? — Of what three sections does it consist? —
Of what two sections is the Western Continent composed ? — Where do the continents
approach nearest to each other? — What is the shortest distance between them? —
How is a partial connection established between them ?
On which side of the Equator is the greatest extent of land, in the two continents ?
— In what zone? — Which contains the greatest extent of their surface: the Torrid,
or the South Temperate Zone? — Does any part of these continents extend beyond
the Arctic Circle ? — The Antarctic ?
What determines the climate of the continents? — Why arc Asia, Europe, and
North America colder than Africa and South America?
Which sections of the continents are most deeply indented: the three northern, or
the two southern?— Why has the unbroken outline of South America and Africa, in
some measure, prevented Europeans from exploring them more thoroughly?
In what direction does the chief mountain-system of the Western Continent extend?
— What is the character of the surface cast of this system?
In what direction docs the principal mountain-system of the Eastern Continent
extend? — What grand divisions docs it cross? — Name the peninsulas which extend
southward from this central system? — By what mountain-chains are they pene-
trated?
In what direction does the great plain, north of this system, slope? — What is its
extent? — In what direction does the greatest length of this plain extend? — In what
direction does the greatest length of the plain in the Western Continent extend ?
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
Which is the largest division of land in the Eastern Hemisphere? — What ocean
is north of it? — What oceans are cast? — What ocean is west?
AVhich are the two northern divisions of the Eastern Continent? — Which division
is a great peninsula? — What isthmus connects it with the main land?
What great sea and bay arc south of Asia? — Of what ocean are they a part? —
Of what ocean arc the seas south and west of Europe a part ? — Name the four great
seas east of Asia.— Of what ocean are they a part?
Which is the largest island of (he Eastern Hemisphere ? — To what grand division
does it belong ? — Name two other islands belonging to the same grand division.
In what zone is the greater part of.Asia? — Is any part of Europe in the Torrid
Zone? — Is any part of Asia south of the Equator? — Is any part of Africa in the
South Temperate Zone? — In what zones is Australia?
To what grand division docs Madagascar belong? — The Japan Islands? — Bor-
neo?— Tasmania? — What extensive tract of land is south of Australia? — Is the
Antarctic Continent inhabited or uninhabited ?
A bottle containing the following paper was picked up at sea, in Latitude 10°
South, and Longitude 50° East: "Thrown overboard from the wreck of the ship
Valparaiso, in Latitude 80° South, and Longitude 110° East;" near what islands
and main-land was the bottle found ? — Where was it thrown overboard? — Across
what ocean had it drifted ?
A British cruiser captures a Portuguese brig engaged in the slave-trade, in Lati-
tude 10° South, and Longitude 10° East: in what ocean did this capture occur? —
Near what land ?
On what ocean would a vessel sail, to go by the nearest route from Africa to the
island of St. Helena ? — Across what ocean would a vessel sail, to go by the nearest
course from Madagascar to Australia ?
A vessel is captured by Malay pirates near the Equator, in Longitude 105° East:
between what two great islands was this? — Near which of the Grand Divisions of
the Eastern Continent ?
A vessel is wrecked in Latitude 40° North, and Longitude 150° East: in what
ocean is this? — The passengers and crew are saved, and escape to the nearest
land : what is it?
V T .1 It C T J C li r K .1 X
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22
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGBAPHY,
CHAPTER III.
NORTH AMERICA.
PHYSICAL FEATURES.
I. Outline. — North America is penetrated by many large gulfs
and bays. In this respect it differs from South America, which
has an unbroken coast-line.
II. Surface. — North America contains three mountain-systems:
the Eocky Mountain, California, and Alleghany Systems.
The Rocky Mountain System extends from the Isthmus of Panama to the Arctic
Ocean. As far north as Latitude 38°, the principal chain is called the Sierra
Madre; thence to the Arotic Ocean it is known as the Rocky Mountains.
The California System includes the chains which extend along the Pacific coast,
from the southern extremity of California into Russian America. The Sierra Nevada
and Cascade Mountains are the principal ranges.
The Alleghany Mountains extend along the Atlantic coast, from within two hun-
dred miles of the Gulf of Mexico to the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
III. The surface of North America is divided by the Eocky and
Alleghany Mountains into three distinct sections: the Atlantic
Slope, the Pacific Slope, and the Great Central Plain.
The Atlantic Slope includes the country lying between the Alleghany Mountains
and the Atlantic Ocean.
The Pacific Slope extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.
The Great Central Plain, lying between the Rocky and Alleghany Mountains,
extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. It is divided, about mid-
way, into a northern and a southern slope. The surface is so level that a man may
traverse its entire length without encountering an elevation of more than a few
hundred feet.
IV. Rivers and Lakes. — Each of these three sections is drained
by a system of lakes and rivers.
How does the outline of North America differ from that of South America ? — Name
the three mountain-systems. — Describe each of them. — Into what three sections is
the country divided? — Describe each of them.— Which has the largest rfrers ?
The rivers of the Great Central Plain, owing to the extent of that section, are
much the largest. They flow in various directions: those of the southern slope into
the Gulf of Mexico ; and those of the northern slope into the Arctic Ocean, Hudson's
Bay, or the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The rivers of the northern slope are connected with numerous chains of great
lakes, which are said to contain more than half the fresh water upon the surface
of the globe.
V. North America consists of the following divisions : the United
States, British America, Danish America, Eussian America, Mexico,
Central America, and the West Indies.
BRITISH, DANISH, AND RUSSIAN AMERICA.
VI. These three divisions comprise the whole country north of
the United States, and constitute one-half of North America.
VII. The Arctic Ocean washes the northern shores of this
immense territory.
The regions bordering upon the Arctic Ocean are among the most dreary and
desolate on the face of the earth. The shores are covered with eternal snows, and
the entire surface of the sea with large fields and huge masses of floating ice.
VIII. Notwithstanding the fearful dangers encountered in these
frozen regions, the Arctic Ocean has been perseveringly explored
for the last 300 years, with the hope of finding a passage from the
Atlantic to the Pacific.
The voyage to India and China, from Europe or the ports on our Atlantic coast, is
now made by way of Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope. The distance by way
of the Arctic Ocean is only half as great ; hence these repeated explorations.
That such a passage exists was proved by Capt. McClure, of the British Navy,
who in 1852 forced his way through it ; but so perilous and difficult is its navigation
that it can never be of any commercial value.
What are the Political Divisions of North America ? — Which of them border on the
Arctic Ocean? — Describe the Arctie regions. — Why has the Arctic Ocean been so
perseveringly explored? — What results have followed these explorations?
NOETH AMEEICA,
23
IX. Discoveries in the Arctic Ocean. — Most of the discoveries have
been made by British and American navigators, and many of the
places bear their names.
Grinnell Land was discovered in 1800, by the Expedition i*der command of Lieut.
De Haven, sent out in search of Sir John Franklin, and named in honor of Henry
Grinnell, Esq., of New York, whoso munificence fitted out the Expedition. Mount
Franklin was named in honor of Sir John Franklin.
In 1852, Dr. Kane, of the U. S. Navy, penetrated as far as 82° 30' North Latitude,
where he discovered on open Polar Sea, free from ice. Ho explored a tract of
country north of Greenland, to which he gave the name of Washington Land.
X. Climate. — It has been generally supposed that the climate of
nearly all British, Russian, and Danish America, was so severe that
the country must forever remain a desolate waste.
The Valley of the St. Lawrence, and a part of the Basin of tho Saskatchewan,
have usually been regarded as the only cultivable regions. It is now believed,
however, that a large portion of the country south-west of Hudson Bay (especially
the section west of the Rocky Mountains,) has a genial climate and fertile soil, and
that it is capable of sustaining a dense population.
XI. Vegetation. — There is scarcely any vegetation, in the north,
capable of supporting man. In the cultivable districts of the south,
wheat and other grains common to the Temperate Zones are raised.
An abundance of mosses, lichens, berries, willows, and shrubs, grow in the cold
districts of tho north, upon which the numerous birds and land-animals subsist.
In Greenland, a very small red plant grows upon the surface of the snow. When
first seen it was thought to be red snow, and is now generally called by that name.
XII. Animals. — These frozen regions of the north, though thinly
peopled, abound with animal life, both on land and in the sea.
Their chief value, indeed, to the European governments, by which
they are held, is in the trade in oil, whalebone, and skins, which
are thus supplied.
Within the Tropics, land-animals attain the greatest size; but the largest sea-
animals are found in or near the Polar waters. The Great Borqual (a species of
whale found in the Northern Atlantic,) is the largest of living animals, being some-
times from 80 to 100 feet long.
The lakes and seas abound with fish, and myriads of water-fowl hover upon the
coast. The principal amphibious animals are the seal and walrus. The walrus is a
ferocious creature, sometimes eighteen feet long, with tusks three feet in length.
The grizzly bear, the largest and most dangerous of the bear tribe, is found
among the Rocky Mountains, in the southern districts. The white, or Polar bear,
inhabits the northern coasts.
The buffalo, moose, elk, deer, and reindeer, are numerous ; and immense num-
bers of the smaller fur-bearing animals — as the fox, wolf, raccoon, otter, marten,
and beaver — are yearly taken by the trappers.
XIII. Inhabitants. — Except in Iceland and the British Provinces,
the inhabitants are chiefly Indians and Esquimaux. The few
Europeans are mostly government officers, or persons employed in
the fur-trade.
The Esquimaux inhabit the northern districts, near the coast. They belong to
the Mongolian race, and are of low stature and filthy appearance. They derive
their support principally from the sea.
They eat the flesh of the bear and reindeer, and clothe themselves with the skins.
The oil of the whale, seal, and walrus, affords them light during the long night of
winter; and they consume the blubber (or fat,) for food.
The Esquimaux frames his canoe with the bones of the whale, and covers it with
the skin of the seal. Instead of the reindeer, he harnesses a team of dogs to his
sledge, by which he is rapidly drawn over tho fields of ice and snow. The hardy
native does not hesitate to attack the formidable walrus and Polar bear, which are
encountered on the fields of ice.
By whom have most of the discoveries in the Arctic regions been made ? — Mention
some of tho results of American explorations. — What is the climate of these regions ?
— What is the character of the vegetation? — What kind of animals are numerous?
— Name somo of tho principal land-animals. — Why is this country valuable to Euro-
pean governments? — Who inhabit those regions? — Describe the Esquimaux.
BEITISH AMERICA.
XIY. This country comprises all of North America north of tho
United States, except Eussian America, Greenland, and Iceland.
Its different divisions are Rupert Land, or New Britain, British Columbia, Van-
couver Island, and the more thickly settled provinces in the southeast. (A descrip-
tion of the latter is given on page 54.)
Rupert Land comprises the greater part of British America. It was formerly
under the control of the Hudson Bay Company, who had the exclusive right to the
fisheries and trade of this vast region.
British Columbia is west of the Rocky Mountains. Gold is found in considerable
quantities on Fraser Rive"r. New Westminster is the capital.
Vancouver Island is very fertile, and contains a great abundance of coal.
Victoria is the principal settlement.
RUSSIAN AMERICA.
XV. This country was purchased by the Government of the
United States from Eussia in 1867. It has an area of 570,000,
square miles, or more than ten times that of the State of Illinois,
and has hitherto been but partially explored.
North of the Peninsula of Alaska the coast is low and marshy, but south of this
Peninsula it is bold and mountainous, often consisting of precipitous cliffs which
descend abruptly to tho sea. Groups of volcanic islands skirt this part of the coast,
and between them and the main land is a remarkable interior channel, safe for
steamboat navigation at all times.
Extensive forests of pine, cypress, spruce, poplar, and willow cover much of the
country. Deposits of valuable minerals exist in the mountain ranges.
An astonishing quantity of animal life is supported in tho forests, the streams,
and the island passages of the sea. The otter, beaver, mink, ermine, sable ; —
foxes, bears, wolves, and other fur-bearing animals, are found in great numbers.
Myriads of birds fill the woods in the summer season ; while the waters swarm with
cod, halibut, salmon, and many other varieties of fish.
About six thousand Russians and sixty thousand Indians and Esquimaux con-
stitute the inhabitants. — The latter nro filthy and degraded, and live in huts
wholly or partly under ground.
Sitka, on Baranoff Island, is the principal settlement.
DANISH AMERICA.
XVI. Danish America includes Greenland and Iceland. '
XVII. Greenland. — It is not yet known whether Greenland is an
island, or a projection from an Arctic continent not yet discovered.
Some writers suppose it to be a cluster of islands joined together
by ice.
The interior has never been explored, but the coast is high and rooky, and tho
more elevated portions are covered with perpetual snow and ice.
The Danish Governor resides at Lichtenfels on {he west coast. Tho Moravian
missionaries have also settlements on this coast and on the opposite coast of Labra-
dor, and have converted many of tho natives to Christianity.
XVIII. Iceland. — This island is of volcanic formation. Eanges
of high and rugged mountains border the coast, while the interior
is a dreary desert of volcanoes, ice-clad mountains, or fields of lava.
The most famous of tho volcanoes is Mount Ilecla. There are also boiling springs
which throw up water, steam, and even large stones to a great height.
The settlements are all near the coast. Reikiavik is the principal town.
The Icelanders are of European origin, and are generally well educated.
Notwithstanding its name, Iceland is not so cold a country as Greenland. It was
called Iceland by a Norwegian pirate, who, on his first visit, saw a bay filled with
ice which had floated there from Greenland.
Greenland was so named by an Icelandic chief, who, for somo crime, was obliged
to flee from his native land. To induce his countrymen to follow him to Greenland,
he falsely represented it as superior in fertility to Iceland.
What does British America comprise? — Name the different divisions. — Which of
them is the largest ? — What can you say of Russian America ? — Describe the coast.; —
Mention some of the animals found there. — By whom is it inhabited ? — What does Dan-
ish America include ? — Describe Greenland. — Where have the Moravian missionaries
settlements ? — Describe Iceland. — Which is the colder country, Iceland or Greenland ?
Si
Longitude West 20 from Washington
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA.
OUTLINE.
Which has the more irregular outline: North or South America? — By what
oceans is North America surrounded? — Which of these is on the north? — By what
strait is it connected with the Pacific? — Is there any communication with the
Atlantic ?
What land is east of Baffin Bay? — Is Greenland attached to the main-land of the
Continent? — In what direction does Greenland extend? — What cape at the southern
extremity? — In what direction is Iceland from that cape?
On the eastern coast of North America there are five great branches of the Atlan-
tic Ocean: which of these are called'gulfs? — Which one is called a sea? — Which
are called bays? — Do you perceive any reason why some of them should be called
bays, and others gulfs and seas? — Name the only large branch of the ocean on the
western coast.
By what strait is Baffin Bay entered from the Atlantic? — By what strait is Hud-
son Bay? — By what land is that bay surrounded? — By what island and peninsula
is the Gulf of St. Lawrence partly enclosed? — What cape at the south-eastern
extremity of Newfoundland? — At the south-western extremity of Nova Scotia?
By what two peninsulas is the Gulf of Mexico partly enclosed? — In what direc-
tion does the Peninsula of Yucatan extend? — By what group of islands is the
Caribbean Sea separated from the Atlantic? — What land separates it from the
Pacific?
What two peninsulas on the western coast, of North America? — In what direction
do they extend? — What cape at the southern extremity of California? — What chain
of islands extends from the Peninsula of Alaska to that of Kamtschatka? (See map
of the Western Hemisphere.) — Name the principal islands on the western coast of
British and Russian America. — To what country does Vancouver Island belong?
SURFACE.
What three mountain-systems are there in North America? — Do they follow the
general direction of the neighboring coast? — In what direction, then, does the
Rocky Mountain System extend? — The Alleghany System? — Which of the three
systems is the longest? — What mountain-system extends from the Isthmus of
Panama to the Arctic Ocean? — What name is given to the southern part of the
principal chain? — -To the northern part? — What system follows the coast, from
Cape St. Lucas to Russian America? — What two lofty peaks in Russian America
does it contain? — Between what two gulfs does the Alleghany System extend? —
In what range is Mount Brown?
LAKES AND RIVERS.
Into what three sections is North America divided by the mountain-systems? —
Which section is the most extensive? — Which, then, contains the largest rivers? —
From what mountains do the rivers of the Atlantic Slope flow? — In what general
direction ?
From what mountains do the largest rivers of the Pacific Slope flow ? — In what
general direction? — Why? — Into what ocean? — Which of them is in Russian
America? — Which flows into the Gulf of California? — Into the Gulf of Georgia?
Do the rivers of the Central Plain all flow in the same general direction ? — Why ?
— Where is this plain divided? — Towards what great gulf does the southern half
slope? — Name the principal river of this southern slope. — WThat other large river
flows between Mexico and the United States? — Into what gulf do these rivers flow?
Ocea
hat great river, in the northern half of the Central Plain, flows into the Arctic
cean ? — In what mountains does it rise? — What name does it bear in the upper
part of its course? — Name the three largest lakes with which it is connected. —
Does any part of this river rise on the west side of the Rocky Mountains ? — Is this
river frozen during any part of the year?
What is there on the map which would make you think that the land around
Hudson Bay slopes towards it? — What is meant by the "Basin of Hudson Bay"? —
What lake empties into Hudson Bay through Nelson River? — What great river
empties into that lake? — What great river and chain of lakes flows into the Gulf
of St. Lawrence?
The following rivers rise in the Rocky Mountains — name the waters into which
they flow: the Columbia, Fraser, Colorado, Mackenzie, Saskatchawan, Missouri,
Rio Grande. — Can you reach the Alleghany Mountains by following a tributary of
the Mississippi? — Can you also reach the Rocky Mountains by following some of
its tributaries ?
4
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION.
[These questions require a thorough understanding of the principles stated in
the lessons on Climate and Vegetation, page 12.]
On which side of the Equator does North America lie? — Does the climate, then,
become warmer or colder, as you go north? — In what zone is North America
situated? — In which zone is the greatest extent included? — Are the climate and
productions of North America, then, generally thoje of the Torrid or Temperate
Zone?
In what part of the country would you expect to find tropical productions? — In
advancing towards the north, would you find the vegetation becoming more or less
luxuriant? — In what regions would you expect to find the vegetation almost
entirely cease? — Where would you expect to find grain most extensively produced?
Are the summers generally hotter or colder in the interior of a country than on
the coast? — -Where are the winters usually more severe: upon the coast, or in the
interior? — Where, then, would you expect to find the hotter summer: on the
Atlantic coast, or upon the banks of the Mississippi River, in the same latitude ?
POLITICAL DIVISIONS.
What three divisions occupy the northern half of the country? — What great
country lies south of British America? — What one between the Pacific Ocean and
Gulf of Mexico? — Between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean?
What group of islands between North and South America ? — Name the two largest
political divisions of North America. — Which of these is the more valuable coun-
try?— Why? — What divisions are in the Torrid Zone? — Are all of the West India
Islands in the Torrid Zone ? — In what part of British America is British Columbia ?
— Labrador?
MISCELLANEOUS.
What proportion of North America is occupied by British, Danish, and Russian
America? — Why is this not, generally, a habitable region? — What parts are
capable of supporting a numerous population ?
What is the chief value of these countries to the governments by which they are
held ? — If there is not vegetation enough to support man, how do the animals live ?
— Name the principal land animals. — What animals are amphibious? — What is an
amphibious animal ?
Where is Reikiavik ? — Sitka? — Would you find any white people living in these
towns? — As the vegetation is scanty, upon what do they subsist? — Is Iceland in
the Frigid or North Temperate Zone? — Is any part of Greenland in the Temperate
Zone?
Which is the colder country: Iceland, or Greenland ? — How, then, came they to
receive such erroneous names? — Where is Lichtenfels? — Where are there any
Moravian settlements? — Where are the settlements in Greenland and Iceland: in
the interior, or on the coast? — Why? — What can you say of the animal life of
Russian America ?
Why have not the various bodies of land in the Arctic Ocean been more thor-
oughly explored? — For what purpose have most of the expeditions been sent
into these seas? — Has the Northwest passage ever been made? — Does such a
passage exist ?
Who discovered the open Polar Sea? — Where is Grinnell Land? — Why is it so
called? — What other ocean has a similar character to that of the Arctic ?
Who inhabit the northern coasts of North America? — How do they live? — Are
they of the same race as the Indians? — As the inhabitants of Iceland? — What
valuable articles do we obtain from these northern regions? — W:here is Nain ? —
Mount Hecla ? — Disco Island? — Washington Land? — Upernavik? — On what
island is Victoria?
What mountains would you cross, in going from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean,
on the 40th parallel of latitude ? — What lakes and bay, going from the Gulf of
Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, on the meridian of 10° West Longitude from Washing-
ton?— Following the same meridian south, what peninsula and country would you
cross? — What ocean would you reach? — Would you cross a level or mountainous
country, in going from the Gulf of Mexico to thje Arctic Ocean, on the meridian of
20° west from Washington ?
Bound each political division of North America. Sketch a map of North America,
locating the principal mountain-chains and rivers. — (See article on Map Drawing,
page 97.)
25
26
COMMON-SCnOOL GEOGRAPHY.
THE FALLS OF NIAGARA.
CHAPTER IV.
THE UNITED STATES.
PHYSICAL FEATURES.
I. The United States occupy the central part of North America,
and form about three-eighths of its extent. The country has a
fortunate position, being equally removed from the blighting cold
of the North, and the enfeebling heat of the Torrid Zone.
II. Surface. — The three great mountain-systems of North America
cross the United States from north to south.
III. The Alleghany system is almost wholly confined to the
United States, only a small portion of it extending into Canada.
This system extends from the north-eastern border to within 200
miles of the Gulf of Mexico.
It consists of several parallel ranges, known in the different States by various
local names. The average width of the system is about CO miles, and the average
elevation from 2000 to 3000 feet.
IV. The Rocky Mountain system stretches entirely across the
United States, at an average distance from the Pacific Ocean of
about 800 miles. North of Latitude 38°, the principal chain is
called the Rocky Mountains; south of it, the Sierra Madre.
V. The California system also extends entirely across the coun-
try, closely skirting the Pacific coast. The various chains, in the
United States, are the Coast Range, the Cascade Mountains, and
the Sierra Nevada.
Why may the United States be regarded as having a fortunate position? — Name
the three principal mountain-systems. — Describe each of them. — Which of them
are clothed with vegetation? — Which have peaks covered with snow? — Which,
then, are highest?
The Coast Range and the Alleghany Mountains are generally clothed with vege-
tation to their Bummits ; while the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, and
Cascade Range, are bald and inaccessible — many of the peaks being perpetually
covered with snow.
VI. The country is divided by the mountain-systems into three
principal sections : the Atlantic Slope, the Pacific Slope, and the
Central Plain.
VII. The Atlantic Slope embraces the Country which extends
from the Alleghany Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of
Mexico.
For about 100 or 150 miles from the base of the mountains, the land has a
general elevation of about 1000 feet, with a hilly and broken surface. Between
this upland country and the sea is the coast district, which is low and flat, rarely
rising more than 100 feet above the ocean.
From the Hudson River south, this lowland district has an average width of from i
30 to 150 miles. A considerable portion of it is sandy or marshy. North-east of
the Hudson River (in New England), the hilly country extends nearly or quite to
the ocean ; so that the flat district is an unimportant feature.
The rivers of the Atlantic Slope are usually navigable to the edge of the upland
country. This point, therefore, determines the position of many important cities
and towns.
VIII. The Pacific Slope embraces the country between the
Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.
The region between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade
Range, is, for the most part, a table-land, with an elevation of from 2500 to 5000
feet. It is generally barren; and is crossed by several mountain-chains, which
connect the Rocky Mountain and California Systems.
Fremont, or Great Basin, is a desolate tract, lying within these limits. Its water;
do not flow into the ocean.
Most of the country west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains is
exceedingly fertile, and is capable of sustaining a dense population.
Into what sections is the United States divided? —What part of the Atlantic
Slope is upland? — Lowland? — What point determines the position of man
important places?— Why? — What part of the Pacific Slope is fertile? — Whi
parts are barren?
I\
THE UNITED STATES.
27
IX. The Central Plain is a part of the Great Central Plain of
North America (page 22), and embraces the Mississippi Valley, the
Basin of the St. Lawrence, the small valley of the Eed River, of
the North and the Texas Slope.
The Mississippi Valley is, next to that of the Amazon, the largest river-basin in
the world. It is generally level, only rising into hills near the mountains, -which
form its limits. The soil is generally very rich.
The most important exception to the fertility of this region consists in a desert-
plateau along the base of the Rocky Mountains, stretching eastward to a distance
of 200 or 400 miles. It has an elevation of 2000 to 5000 feet-
Most of the States of Wisconsin and Illinois, and much of the country west of
the Mississippi River, consists of prairie land.
The term prairie is applied to the great treeless plains of our Western States.
The prairies are not, however, entirely destitute of timber, but are well wooded
near the banks of the streams. The land is generally fertile, and yields a natural
growth of heavy grass. The surface of the prairies is sometimes level and some-
times rolling.
The St. Lawrence Basin, and the valley of the Red River of the North, belong to
the northern slope of the Great Central Plain. The Red River valley is included in
the Saskatchawan Basin, and its waters flow into Hudson's Bay. The St. Lawrence
Basin is a well-wooded, fertile region, from 300 to 500 feet in elevation.
The Texas Slope includes the region between the Mississippi Valley and the
Rocky Mountains. It resembles the Mississippi Valley.
X. Lakes and Rivers. — Each of these divisions is drained by a
system of lakes and rivers, which will be described in connection
with the different States.
XI. Climate. — The climate is such as belongs to the middle and
southern parts of the North Temperate Zone.
In our Southern States the summer is very warm, and the winter mild. Farther
north, the contrast between the seasons is greater; the winters are very cold, and
the summers are not so warm as at the south.
XII. Vegetation. — The vegetable productions are such as are
common to the middle and southern parts of the North Temperate
Zone — including, therefore, many plants of a tropical character,
as well as those belonging to a temperate climate.
The various grains — wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, and barley — are raised in
all parts of the country. The northern and middle sections produce the greatest
quantity of wheat; while Indian corn grows best in the middle and southern districts.
The potato succeeds best in the Northern States. Its place is supplied at the
south by the Carolina or sweet potato. Tobacco is principally raised in the middle
sections, though it is also grown in several of the Northern States. Hemp and flax
thrive in the middle districts.
Most of the cotton used by mankind is raised in our Southern States. Rice
grows in great abundance at the south, in the marshy tracts along the coast. In
the extreme south, sugar is ono of the most important productions ; and oranges
are easily raised.
XIII. Inhabitants. — Tho white population is chiefly of English
descent ; but there is also a large proportion of Irish, •Germans, and
other natives of Europe.
Our population has increased more rapidly than that of any other country in the
world. In the Middle and Western States, especially, small villages rapidly grow
into large towns, and large towns into great cities.
The principal cause of this remarkable growth is the arrival of emigrants from
Europe, who seek in America that employment and liberty which are denied them
at home.
What does the Central Plain comprise? — Describe each section. — How does the
climate of the Southern States compare with that of the Northern ? — Name some of
the plants which grow in all sections of our country. — Where is tobacco raised ? —
Cotton ? — Sugar ? — Rice ? — Of what descent is the white population ? — What has
caused the remarkable growth of this country? — What are the political divisions
of the United States ?
POLITICAL DIVISIONS.
XIV. The United States consist of thirty-seven States, ten
Territories, the District of Columbia, and the extensive country
known as Russian America, recently purchased from Russia.
The States are divided into the Eastern, Middle, Southern, and Western.
XV. Government — The government of the United States is
republican, and a President is elected by the people every four
years.
XVI. Religion. — Unlike most European countries, the govern-
ment supports no particular form of religion. The greater part
of the inhabitants, however, are Protestants.
XVII. Education is more general in the United States than in
any other country. Colleges .and academies are numerous, and in
nearly all the States there is a system of free schools.
HISTORY.
XVIII. The first settlements in the New World were made prin-
cipally by the Spanish, French, and English.
The Spaniards occupied the greater part of South America, and the sections
bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. These countries (save Florida and Texas) are
still occupied by their descendants, who speak the Spanish language.
The French originally claimed and partly settled the Basin of the St. Lawrence
and the Valley of the Mississippi. But the only part of this vast territory now in
their possession is two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The early settlements of the English were almost wholly confined to the Atlantic
Slope, between Maine and Florida. Yet, by energy and intelligence, their descend-
ants have become possessed of the greater part of North America, and the countries
they have settled are the most flourishing on tho Western Continent.
XIX. In the year 1607, the first English settlement, or colony,
in America, was established at Jamestown, in Virginia. Other
colonies were settled from time to time, until, in the year 1733,
they amounted to thirteen in number.
It is fortunate for our country that the Spaniards (who discovered the New
World) first landed at the south — leaving the Atlantic coast of North America to
bo settled chiefly by the English. The Spaniards were cruel and avaricious: they
did not come to America to till the soil, and follow honest labor, but with extrava-
gant hopes of becoming suddenly rich from mines of gold and silver.
The people of the Spanish colonies, therefore, became idle, ignorant, and corrupt;
and their descendants retain that character to this day. But the English were an
industrious people, who loved liberty and humanity, and earned success by energetic
toil in the fields and on the sea.
XX. The English colonies remained firmly attached to the
mother country, until its tyranny induced them to rebel. This led
to the war of the Revolution.
The first battle was fought at Lexington, in 1775. The surrender of Lord
Cornwallis, in 1781, put an end to hostilities, which had lasted six years and a half.
On the 4th of July, 1776, the colonies declared themselves a separate nation. In
1783, the British Government acknowledged their independence.
XXI. At the close of the Revolutionary "War, the area of the
United States was about 800,000 square miles, and there were about
3,000,000 of inhabitants. Now (.1868), the area of the country
(including Russian America) is 3,500,000 square miles, and the
population exceeds 31,000,000.
Nor has the progress of the country, in other respects, been less marked than
its increase in extent and population ; and the great mass of the people of the
United States have hitherto been more prosperous and happy than those of any
other country upon the globe.
What is the form of government? — Of what religion are most of the inhabit-
ants?— Is education general? — By whom were the early settlements made in the
New World? — What sections were settled by the Spaniards? — French? — English? —
What difference was there in the character of the Spanish and English settlers ? —
When did the English colonies become independent? — What progress has the
country made since?
QUESTIONS ON THE MAR
Political Divisions of the United States.
EASTERN STATES.
WESTERN STATES.
Maine.
Ohio.
New Hampshire.
Indiana.
Vermont.
Illinois.
Massachusetts.
Kentucky.
Rhode Island.
Tennessee.
Connecticut.
Arkansas.
Missouri.
Michigan.
MIDDLE STATES.
Wisconsin.
New York.
Iowa.
Minnesota.
Pennsylvania.
California.
Oregon.
Kansas.
Nevada.
SOUTHERN STATES.
Nebraska.
Maryland.
Virginia.
West Virginia.
TERRITORIES.
North Carolina.
Washington. * £*"
South Carolina.
Idaho.
Georgia.
Montana^
Florida.
Dakota. - *
Alabama.
Utah, «
Mississippi.
Col era do.
Louisiana.
-Arizona.
Texas.
New Mexico.
District of Columbia.
Indian.
Wyoming
Position and Abba.
What country is situated upon the north of
the United States ? — Upon the south-west ?—
What ocean upon the east? — On the west?— -
What gulf on the south ? — What part of North
America does the United States occupy?
Outline.
In what general direction does the Atlantic
coast of the United States extend? — The Pacific
coast 1 — Where is Passamaquoddy Bay ? — Dela-
ware Bay ? — Chesapeake Bay ? — Albemarle
Sound?— What bay upon the Pacific coast? —
Which coast has the most numerous inlets : the
Atlantic, or the Pacific ?
Between what bodies of water is the Penin-
sula of Florida ? — Where is Cape Cod ? — Cape
Hatteras?— Cape Sable?— Cape Flattery?
SuKFACE.
By what three mountain-systems is the United
States crossed ? — Which of these systems com-
mences near the shores of the Gulf of St. Law
rence?
What mountain-system skirts the Pacific
coast? — Which chain of this system is nearest
the coast? — What chain in California lies east
of the Coast Mountains? — In what direction
does the Rocky Mountain System extend? —
What part of this system is called the Sierra
Madre ?— Where are the Wasatch Mountains ?
Into what three sections is the United States
divided by these mountain-systems?— What
part of the Atlantic Slope is generally level ?
What mountain-system forms the eastern
boundary of the Pacific Slope ?— Describe the
country between the Rocky Mountains and the
Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges. — The
country west of the two latter chains. — Between what mountains is
Fremont Basin situated ?
Between what mountains does the Central Plain of the United States
lie ?— What are the different divisions of this plain ?— What can you
say about the. site of the Mississippi Valley ? — What part of it is a
barren tract?— Describe the prairies. — What part of the Central Plain
is occupied by the St. Lawrence Basin and Valley of the Red River
of the North '—Where is the Texas Slope?
Rivers and Lakes.
In what mountains do most of the rivers of the Atlantic Slope rise''
— Into what ocean and gulf do they flow ? — In what direotion, and
into what gulf, does the Mississippi flow ? — In what mountains do
many of the tributaries of the Mississippi rise ?
In what direction, and into what lake, does the Red River of the
North flow ? — By what river are the Great Lakes drained ? — Into what
gulf, and in what direction, doi
Lakes, beginning with the mm
into what gulf, do the rivers of
Mississippi River rise ? — ThroO|
What river of the United Stt
— In what mountains does thii
into what body of water, does!
the general direction of the ril
iver flow '—Name the Great
■ly. — In what direction, and
ow ? — In what State does the
State does it flow ?
s into the Golf of California ?
ise? — In what direction, and
imbia River flow '-What is
e Pacific Slope '
Climate ahd Productiohs.
In what zone are the United States situated ?— Where are the sum
niers hotter, near the Gulf of Mexico, or near the Great Lakes ? — Name
die principal grains raised in the United States. — Where is most wheat
produced ? — Corn ?— Rice ? — Cotton ? — Tobacco ? — Sugar ?
Name in order, beginning with the most northerly, the thirteen States
bordering on the Atlantic Ocean. — The five on thegulf of Mexico. —The
two States and Territory on the Pacific. — Name the eight States border-
ing on the Great Lakes. — What State has the St. Lawrence River for a
part of its boundary ? — Of what State is the Rio Grande the south-
western boundary ? — What Territories border on British America !
What two on Mexico ? — Name the six States bordering on the east
em bank of the Mississippi River. — The five on the western bank. —
Between what parallels does the United States lie' -Between what
meridians ? — What is the Capital '
so
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER V.
THE EASTERN, OR NEW ENGLAND STATES.
I. New England is composed of six States : — Maine, New
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.
II. Coast. — North of Cape Cod, the coast is bold and rocky;
south of that peninsula, it is generally low and sandy.
III. Surface. — The Green Mountains, by which the western part
of New England is crossed, belong to the Alleghany System. The
general appearance of the country is hilly and picturesque.
The White Mountains, in New Hampshire, are an off-shoot from the Green Moun-
tain chain. Mount Washington, the highest of the group, is the loftiest peak, but
one, in the Alleghany System.
Another branch of this system crosses Maine in a north-easterly direction. It
consists of a ridge of highlands, of which Mount Katahdin and Mars Hill are the
principal elevations.
IV. The Lakes and Rivers belong to two systems — the Atlantic,
and St. Lawrence — which are separated by the Green Mountains.
The rivers of New England, like most of those which belong to the Atlantic Slope,
flow through a hilly country, and afford great water-power for manufactures. The
Penobscot, Kennebec, and Connecticut, are the only ones which are navigable to
any considerable distance.
V. New England, and especially Maine, abounds with lakes of
clear, bright water, which lie sheltered among the hills, giving life
and beauty to the landscape.
The largest lake entirely within the limits of New England is Moosehead Lake,
in Maine. It is navigable for steamboats. Lake Winnipiseogee, in New Hampshire,
is the most picturesque and beautiful.
VI. Productions. — Manufactures, commerce, the forests, and fish-
eries, form the principal sources of wealth in New England.
The agricultural products are not important, except for home consumption: they
consist chiefly of Indian corn, wheat; rye, oats, and tobacco. The only mineral
productions of much value are various kinds of building-stone.
The forests are most extensive in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The
latter State is the only one which is not much engaged in manufactures.
The fisheries employ more men in New England than in any other section of the
Union. Massachusetts and Maine are the only States which have an extensive
foreign commerce, though the others, except Vermont, have a coast trade with our
Atlantic sea-ports.
VII. Inhabitants. — The New Englanders are mostly of English
descent, and are noted for their enterprise and industry.
They arc a moral and religious people ; and, from the earliest settlement of the
country, have given great attention to the subject of education. Many of them
have emigrated to the Western States of the Union.
MAINE.
VIII. The coast of Maine is penetrated by numerous inlets, and
is lined with islands. Maine has a greater number of good harbors
than any other State in the Union.
IX. Productions. — The forests cover the interior of the State,
and form the principal source of its wealth.
Which are the New England States? — What is the character of the coast north of
Cape Cod ? — South ? — Describe the surface. — To what two systems do the lakes and
rivers belong ? — Which are the principal navigable rivers ? — Of what value are those
which are not navigable? — Which is the largest lake? — What form theprincipal sources
of wealth in New England? — Which of these are most important? — Of what descent
are most of the inhabitants? — For what are they noted? — Describe them.
In winter, great numbers of men are engaged in cutting down the trees, and
dragging them over the hard and deep snow to the rivers. In the spring, the
logs are floated down to the saw-mills,
where they are converted into timber,
boards, planks, shingles, and other kinds
of lumber.
Maine builds more ships, and exports
more lumber, than any other State in
the Union. The other exports are gran-
ite, marble, lime, ice, potatoes, and
fish.
X. The Towns are in the south-
ern part of the State ; the north
being still unsettled. Augusta
is the capital.
Portland, the largest city, has one of
the best harbors in the Union. Bangor
is the principal place for the shipment
of lumber. Bath, and many other towns on the coast, arc engaged in ship-building.
Great quantities of lime are exported from Rockland.
Lewiston, Saco, and Biddeford (on the opposite side of the river from Saco),
have extensive cotton factories. Waterville and Brunswick each contains a college.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
XL New Hampshire is often called the Granite State, on account
of the abundance of that mineral. From the magnificent scenery of
the White Mountains, it is also styled the Switzerland of America.
SHIP-BUILDING.
VIEW OF LAKE WINNIPISEOGEE.
XII. Productions. — The manufactures of cotton and wool form
the chief wealth of the State. Potatoes, cattle, wool, and the
products of the dairy are also important.
XIII. Towns. — Concord is the capital. The principal manufac-
turing towns are Manchester, Nashua, Dover, and Great Falls.
Portsmouth, on the Piscataqua River, is the only sea-port. Opposite the city, on
an island in the river, is a United States Navy Yard. Hanover contains Dartmouth
College.
VERMONT.
XIV. Vermont ("green mountain") derives its name from the
mountains which traverse the State, and which are clothed with
evergreen pines, firs, and hemlocks.
XV. Productions. — The people are principally engaged in farming
and grazing. The valleys have a rich soil ; and, upon the mountain-
What advantage does Maine derive from the character of its coast? — What forms
the principal sources of its wealth 7 — In what does Maine exceed any other State
in the Union? — What are the principal exports? — In what part of the State are
the towns? — Name the capital. — The other principal cities and towns. — What is
New Hampshire often called? — Why? — What are the principal productions? —
Name the capital. — The other important towns.— Which is the only sea-port?
THE EASTERN, OK NEW ENGLAND STATES.
81
Bides are pastured great numbers of cattle, torses, and sheep.
Live-stock, wool, and dairy products, are largely exported.
V"l_ ...» -..«"«* -V-A
A GRAZING SCENE.
The lumber-trade is valuable, and great quantities of maple-sugar are made
Vast bedj of the most beautiful marble are found in various parta of the State
XVI. Towns.— Montpelier is the capital. Burlington i3 the
largest town, and contains the University of Vermont.
Rutland and Middlebury have an extensive trade in marble. Middlebury and
Norwich each contains a college. Brattleboro is a noted summer resort. At Ben-
nington, the Green Mountain Boys defeated a detachment of Hessians from Bur-
goyne's army, in 1777.
MASSACHUSETTS.
XVII. Massachusetts borders on Massachusetts Bay : whence it
i3 often called the Bay State. It is one of the wealthiest and most
populous of the United States.
XVIII. Productions.— Massachusetts surpasses every other State
in the manufacture of boots and shoes, cotton and woollen goods,
and in the fisheries. These, with commerce, are the principal
sources of her wealth.
The commerce of the State is second only to that of New York. The exports
consist principally of manufactured goods, whale-oil, salt-fish, granite, and ice.
XIX. Towns.— Boston is the capital, and is the largest city in
New England. It
is exceeded only
by New York in
the extent of its
foreign commerce.
Salem is also a com-
mercial town. New
Bedford and Nantucket
are engaged in the
whale-fishery; Glouces-
ter, Marblehead, New-
burypcrt, and Barn-
stable, in the cod and
mackerel fisheries.
Lowell and Lawrence
are the principal seats
of the cotton and wool-
len manufactures.
Lynn 13 well known for tho manufacture of ladies' shoes. At Taunton, loco-
motives and steam-engines are made. Fall River has extensive iron-works.
Quiucy is well known for its granite. Worcester is growing rapidly, and is a
great railroad centre. It contains a State Lunatic Asylum, and numerous manu-
factories. Cambridge is tho seat of Harvard University. Springfield contains a
United States Arsenal.
From what docs Vermont derive its name? — In what are most of the people
engaged ? — Name the capital. — The other principal towns. — Why is Massachusetts
often called the Bay State? — In what does it surpass every other Stato? — What is
the commercial rank of Massachusetts? — What is said of Boston ?
FANEUIL HALL.
XX. Several of the towns in this State are celebrated in the
early history of our country. Plymouth is the place where the
Pilgrim Fathers landed in 1620; and the first battles of the
Revolution were fought at Concord, Lexington, and Charlestown.
BHODE ISLAND.
XXI. Rhode Island is the smallest of the United States. In
proportion to its size, it is the most populous State, except
Massachusetts.
XXII. Productions. — Cotton and woollen manufactures are the
most valuable productions.
The small streams are lined with
manufacturing villages, which, how-
ever, are not so large as those on the
Merrimac River.
XXIII. Towns. — Providence
and Newport are the capitals of
tho State.
Providence is tho largest city, and
has a considerable foreign commerce
and coast-trade. It contains Brown
University.
Newport is one of the finest watering-
places in the Union. Bristol is a com-
mercial town. Smithficld contains many
manufacturing villages. Woonsocket, a part of which is in this town, is the largest
of them.
CONNECTICUT.
XXIV. Owing to the sobriety and industry of the inhabitants,
this Stato is known as the " Land of Steady Habits." Its principal
wealth is derived from manufactures.
Connecticut is noted for the great variety of her manufactures — such as cotton
and woollen goods, farmers' and mechanics' tools, saddlery, coaches, paper, buttons,
combs, and clocks.
XXV. Towns. — New Haven and Hartford are the capitals of the
State.
A MANUFACTURING VILLAGE.
A VIEW OF YALE COLLEGE.
New Haven, tho " City of Elms," is a beautiful place, and tho scat of Yale College.
Hartford contains Trinity College, a Deaf and Dumb Asylum, and a Retreat for
tho Insane. Its manufactures are extensive, and large steamboats ascend the
Connecticut River to this point.
New London and Stonington send a considerable number of vessels to tho whale-
fishery. Norwich is beautifully situated at the head of the Thames River. Mid-
dletown contains tho Wesleyan University.
Name the most important places in Massachusetts. — Which of them are celebrated in
history, and for what ? — How does Rhode Island compare in size with the other States ?
— What are the most important productions ? — Name the capitals. — What are the prin-
cipal productions of Connecticut ? — Name tho capitals. — The other principal plaoca.
74
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UUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE NEW ENGLAND OR EASTERN STATES.
POSITION.
What British Frovince lies north of New England? — What Province east of
Maine? — What ocean washes the shores of these States? — What State and Prov-
ince arc upon the western borders ?
AREA.
[For the answers to the following questions, refer to the Statistical Tables, page
108.] — Which of the United Slates is nearly the same size as all of the Eas;ern
States? — Which is the smallest Slate in the Union? — The next in size? — Nome
the Eastern States in the order of their size, commencing with the largest. — Which
one is nearly equal in extent to the 'other five? — Which is the larger: Vermont or
New Hampshire?
OUTLINE.
What part of the coast of the Eastern States is rocky? — What part is low and
sandy? — Which State has the most numerous bays and inlets? — Which of these
bays lies between Maine and New Brunswick ? — What large bay receives the waters
of Penobscot River? — Upon what bay is Portland situated?
What two bays are cast of Massachusetts? — What bay is south of the eastern
part of Massachusetts ?— What islands south of the peninsula of Cape Cod? — What
cape on the norlh-eastcrn shore of Massachusetts ?
What bay within Rhode Island ? — What island south of the State ? — What is the
general character of the coast of Connecticut ? — What sound on the coast ? — What
island is south of Connecticut? — What Point at the eastern extremity of Long
Island ?
SURFACE.
What mountains cross the western part of the Eastern States ? — To what system
do they belong ? — What part of the boundary of New Hampshire do they form? —
Of Maine?
Where are the White Mountains ? — Name the highest peak. — Where is Mt. Katah-
,lin | _ Mars Hill ? — Mt. Monadnock ? — Wachusett ? — Holyoke ? — Tom ? — Saddle
Mountain ? — To what system do all these belong ?
To what Slope does most of New England belong ? — What is the character of it :
hilly, or level ? — Is the flat coast-district an important feature in New England, as
it is in the rest of the Atlantic Slope? — Why? — [See description of the Atlantic
Slope, in the chapter on the United States.]
LAKES AND RIVERS.
In what mountain-chain do most of the rivers of the New England States rise? —
To what system do most of the lakes and rivers belong? — How are the Atlantic
rivers separated from the St. Lawrence System ?
To what system does Lake Chaniplain belong? — By what river docs it flow into
the St. Lawrence? — Name the four rivers in Vermont which flow into Lake Cham-
plain. — To what system do they belong ?
To which system do all those lakes and rivers of the Eastern States belong, which
flow southward into the Atlantic Ocean ? — What river partly separates Maine from
New Brunswick ? — Maine from Canada? — Through what lake does the Penobscot
first flow? — Into what does the Aroostook River flow?
What river receives the waters of Grand Lake, and the Schoodic Lakes? — Into
what bay does the river flow ? — What lake does Kennebec River drain? — In what
State does the Androscoggin River rise? — What mountains turn its course eastward ?
In what mountains does the Saco River rise ? — What tributary does the Merrimac
receive from Lake Winnipiseogce? — Through what States does the Merrimac flow?
— For what is it chiefly valuable?
What river flows into the head of Narragansett Bay? — What three rivers flow
into Long Island Sound? — What lake forms the source of the Connecticut River? —
What States does that river separate, and through what ones does it flow?
Let each scholar describe some river in the Eastern States : stating the system to
which it belongs, what is its source, what lakes it receives, what States it separates
or crosses, in what direction, and into what waters it flows.
5
CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
[Refer to Climate and Vegetation, in the chapter on the United States.] — Describe
the climate of the Eastern States.— How does it differ from that of the Southern
States? — In what part of the New England States are the winters most severe: on
the coast, or in the interior? — In the three northern, or the three southern States?
Is the vegetation of New England of a temperate, or of a tropical character? —
What grains are raised there? — Is tobacco extensively grown? — Is cotton raised
there ? — Rice ? — The sugar-cane ? — Wheat ?
What form the principal sources of wealth in the Eastern States ? — Are the agri-
cultural products raised in sufficient quantities for exportation? — What kinds of
minerals arc found there ?
Which would be most likely to be engaged in the fisheries : Vermont, or the States
on the coast? — Why? — Which States have a foreign commerce, or coast-trade? —
Which are the manufacturing States? — Where are the forests most extensive?
Which State is most engaged in the lumber-trade, and in ship-building? — In
which State are farming and grazing the principal sources of wealth? — Which is
most engaged in manufacturing? — In commerce? — In the fisheries?
What are the principal sources of wealth in Maine? — New Hampshire? — Ver-
mont ? — Massachusetts ? — Rhode Island ? — Connecticut ?
TOWNS.
On what river is the capital of Maine ? — On what bay is the largest city? — On
what river is the principal place for the shipment of lumber? — Where is Bath ? —
Rockland ? — In what are the people of these places engaged ? — Where is Lewiston?
— Saco? — Biddeford? — What important business is done in these towns? — In what
part of Maine are most of the towns situated?
What is the capital of New Hampshire? — On what river is it situated? — On what
river is Portsmouth? — Dover and Great Falls? — What is the principal business of
the two latter towns? — What manufacturing towns in New Hampshire upon the
Merrimac River? — In what part of the State are the largest towns?
What is the capital of Vermont? — On what river is it situated? — What town
near the mouth of that river? — On what river are Rutland and Middlebury ? — What
trade is carried on in the two latter towns? — On what river are Brattleboro and
Norwich ? — What can you tell about Bennington ? — Where is it situated ?
What is the capital and largest city of Massachusetts? — Where is it situated? —
Which are the principal cities engaged in the whale-fishery ? — In the cod and mack-
erel fisheries? — In cotton and woollen manufactures? — Where is Lynn? — Taun-
ton?— Fall River?. — What is the leading business in each of these places? — In
what direction from Boston is Quincy? — Salem? — Cambridge? — Springfield? —
Worcester ? — Plymouth ? — Concord ? — Lexington ? — Charlestown ? — For what are
these places noted ?
Name the capitals of Rhode Island. — Which of them is at the head of Narragan-
sett Bay? — Which is a fashionable watering-place ? — Is it on an island, or on the
main-land ? — Wherje are Bristol and Smithfield ? — For what are they noted ?
Name the capitals of Connecticut ? — On what river is Hartford ? — Where is New
Haven situated ? — New London ? — Stonington ? — Norwich ? — Middletown ? — Which
of these places contain colleges ? —Which of them are on or near the coast?
MISCELLANEOUS.
What is the scale of the map of New England ? — Of what use is the scale of a map ?
— What is the distance across the State of Vermont, from its northern to its southern
boundary ? — What is the distance, in a direct line, from Portland to Boston ?
On what waters would you sail, to go from Hartford to New York? — From Provi-
dence to Boston? — From Bangor to Portland? — From Burlingtoiv-to Plattsburg?
If a boat were set adrift in the Connecticut River, in what direction, and into
what water would it float? — What two important rivers would you cross in going
from Boston to Albany?
Bound each of the New England States. — Name three important towns in each. —
Mention the principal rivers and mountains in each State. — Spell the name of each
State. — Spell Passamaquoddy. Nantucket. Narragansett. Montauk. Katalnlin.
Monadnock. Wachusett. Richelieu. Missisque. Lamoille. Chesuncook. Schoo-
dic. Kennebec. Androscoggin. Saco. Thames. Housatonic. Biddeford. Mont-
pclicr. Gloucester. Waterville. Winnipiseogce. — Give the meaning of the last name.
33
31
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER VI.
THE MIDDLE STATES; MARYLAND, VIRGINIA,
AND THE DISTRICT OP COLUMBIA.
I. The Middle States are New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
and Delaware. Maryland, Virginia, and "West Virginia, are South-
ern States. The District of Columbia was formerly a part of Mary-
land.
II. The agricultural and grazing products of this section are very
important, and it possesses great advantages for manufactures and
commerce.
The mines of coal and iron far exceed in value those of any other section. Manu-
facturing is promoted by the abundance of coal, and by the water-power of the rivers.
The commerce is immense. Numerous railroads and canals connect the Ohio
River and the Great Lakes with the Atlantic coast, and bring hither the products
of the Western States, which are exported through the great commercial cities of
New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore.
Commerce is also promoted by the Atlantic rivers, nearly all of which are navi-
gable ; and by Chesapeake and Delaware bays, which penetrate far into the interior.
. III. Surface. — This region is crossed by the Alleghany Mountain
System, which here attains its greatest breadth. The Catskill and
Adirondack mountains are parts of the system.
The name of Alleghany Mountains is applied not. only to the whole system, but
separately to one of the principal chains. The eastern chain is called the Blue
Ridge. Various local names are given to the other ranges.
IV. West of the mountains the surface is hilly, with the excep-
tion of some level tracts in New York. The country between the
mountains and the sea consists of two regions : a low and generally
sandy tract upon the coast, and a hilly district in the interior.
The boundary between the hilly and level country would be marked by a line
drawn from New York city, through Newark, Trenton, Baltimore, Washington,
Fredericksburg, Richmond, and Petersburg, to Weldon, in North Carolina ; for
these places are near the rapids or falls at the head of tide-water.
V. Lakes and Rivers. — These belong to three different systems :
the Atlantic, Mississippi, and St. Lawrence.
VI. Owing to the hilly nature of the country, the rivers and
lakes present many striking scenes of natural beauty.
The Hudson, Delaware, and Potomac rivers, force their way through narrow gorges
in the eastern ridge of the Alleghanies — the mountains sometimes rising perpen-
dicularly to the height of 1000 feet. The Highlands on the Hudson, the Delaware
Water-Gap, and the passage of the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, are thus produced.
The Great Lakes pour their immense volume of water over a precipice 165 feet
high, forming the unrivalled Cataract of Niagara. The Genesee River flows into
Lake Ontario, over a series of magnificent falls: one of them, at Rochester, having
a perpendicular descent of 97 feet. The Mohawk River and its tributaries have
several beautiful cascades, of which Trenton Falls are the most celebrated.
IfEW YORK.
VII. In wealth, population, and commercial importance, New
York holds the first rank in the Union, and is therefore called the
Empire State.
VIII. Productions. — The agricultural and grazing products, the
minerals and manufactures, of New York, are all very important ;
but commerce is the leading interest.
Which are the Middle States? — Do Maryland and Virginia belong to the Middle
or Southern States? — What are the chief resources of this section? — How is com-
merce promoted ? — Describe the surface. — To what systems do the lakes and rivers
belong? — Mention somo ef the scenes of natural beauty found here.
Salt is the most valuable mineral, and is found in greater quantities here than in
any other State. Iron and building-stone are abundant.
The manufactures of New
York now exceed in value
those of any other State. The
principal articles are cotton
and woollen gooils, and iron.
Great quantities of flour are
made.
IX. Towns. — Albany
is the capital. No other
State contains so many
large towns and cities.
The city of New York is
the largest on the Western
Continent, and is next to Lon-
don and Liverpool in commer-
cial importance. Brooklyn is,
next to New York, the largest
city in the State.
The other important cities
are situated on the lakes, or
on the great routes of travel
which centre towards the chief
city. Immense quantities of produce from the Western States and Canada are
received at Buffalo, Oswego, and Ogdcnsburg, and forwarded thence to the sea-
coast.
Rochester has the most extensive flonr-mills, and Syracuse the greatest salt-
works, in the country. West Point is well-known as the seat of the U. S. Military
Academy, and Saratoga as a fashionable watering-place.
X. There are many places in Now York which have been the
scenes of famous battles. Most of these are upon or near Laku
Cbamplain and the Hudson River.
PENNSYLVANIA.
XI. Pennsylvania, the " Keystone State," is one of the wealthiest
and most populous States in the Union.
CASCADE BRIDGE, ERIE RAILROAD.
PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD BRIDGE, ACROSS THE SUSQUEHANNA BIVEB.
XII. Productions. — Pennsylvania is principally a mining and
manufacturing State ; but it is also rich in grain and live-stock.
Large quantities of wheat, rye, and Indian corn are raised here
every year.
What rank does New York hold ? — What is the leading interest of this State ? —
Name the principal cities and towns. — -Which of them is most important ? — Is Penn-
sylvania a commercial or a mining and manufacturing State ? — What kinds of grain
are raised in this State ?
THE MIDDLE STATES.
35
The mines of iron and coal far surpass those of any other State. The anthracite
coal is found between the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers; the bituminous coal,
in the western part of the State. Petroleum or coal-oil abounds in the north-
western portion of the State.
Pennsylvania is the first State in the amount of iron manufactures. The other
loading manufactures arc cotton and woollen goods. Great quantities of flour are
cade.
XIII. Towns.— Ilarrisburg is the capital. Philadelphia is the
principal city.
Philadelphia is the greatest manufacturing city in the Union. It has an extensive
commerce, and is the principal port in the country for the export of coal.
Pittsburfh, surrounded by rich mines of coal and iron ore, is a great manufactur-
ing city; and, from its position at the head of the Ohio River, commands an exten-
sive inland commerce. The other places of most importance are Allegheny City,
Lancaster, and Reading.
NEW JERSEY.
XIV. Productions. — New Jersey is principally an agricultural
State, and supplies New York and Philadelphia with fruits and
garden vegetables.
The manufactures of cotton, wool,
leather, and India-rubber goods, are also
important. The productions of New Jer-
sey are principally sent to New York and
Philadelphia.
XV. Towns.— Trenton, the
capital, is celebrated for the cap-
ture of the Hessians, by Wash-
ington, in 177G.
Newark (the largest, city), Paterson,
New Brunswick, and Trenton, arc the
principal manufacturing places. Jersey
City is opposite to New York, and Cam-
den to Philadelphia. Princeton, the scat
of Princeton College, was the scene of a
victory gained by the Americans over
the British, during the Revolution.
CajJfc May, Long Branch, and Atlantic City, arc well-known resorts for sea-
bathing.
DELAWARE.
XVI. Delaware is, next to Ehode Island, the smallest State in
the Union. This is the only
,-fcx State, the whole of which is
included within the low district
of the Atlantic Slope. ^
XVII. Productions.— Wheat
and corn arc the principal pro-
ductions.
XVIII. Towns.— Dover is the
capital. Wilmington is the
largest city.
Many steamboats and ether vessels
are built at Wilmington; and in the
vicinity there are numerous flour, pow-
der, and paper mills.
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON.
DEEP CUT, CHESAPEAKE AND DELAWARE CANAL.
What is said of the mines of iron and coal? — Where is the anthracite and bitu-
minous coal found? — What are the leading manufactures? — Which is the principal
city? — What advantages of position has Pittsburgh? — What are the chief produc-
tions of New Jersey? — Name the large towns. — What is said of Delaware? —
Name the productions. — The towns.
MARYLAND.
XIX. Maryland is divided by Chesa-
peake Bay into two sections ; the portion
east of the bay is called the Eastern Shore.
XX. Productions. — Wheat, corn, and
tobacco, are the chief productions.
Iron and coal are abundant in the western dis-
tricts. The manufactures of iron, cotton, and
wool, arc important.
XXI. Towns. — Annapolis is the capi-
tal, and contains a Naval School.
Baltimore is a great commercial and
manufacturing city. Ship-building is :;31
an important branch of industry.
Cumberland is noted for its coal-trade. Fred-
erick City and Hagerstown are flourishing places. battle monskent, Baltimore.
DISTRICT OP' COLUMBIA.
XXII. The District of Columbia is under the immediate govern-
ment of Congress. It contains the cities of Washington and
Georgetown, the former of which is the capital of the United States.
VIRGINIA.
XXIII. Virginia was settled in 1607, and being the earliest of
the English Colonies, was styled the "Ancient Dominion."
XXIV. Productions.— Tobacco, wheat, and corn, are the most
important productions. Iron and coal are the principal minerals.
XXV. Towns. — Eichmond is the capital, and the principal commer-
cial city. It has numerous flour-mills, and many tobacco factories.
Norfolk has one of the best harbors on the Atlantic coast. Yorktown is famous
for the surrender of the British Army to Gen. Washington, in the year 1781. This
event put an end to the war. Mount Vernon was the residence of Washington.
WEST VIRGINIA.
XXVI. West Virginia was admitted into the Union as a State,
December 81st, 1862. It lies between the Alleghany Mountains
on the East, and the Ohio and Big Sandy rivers on the West, and
comprises about a third part of the old State of Virginia.
HARPER'S FERRY.
XXVII. Productions. — In climate, soil, and productions, it
resembles the States of Ohio and Kentucky. Coal, iron, and salt
abound. Petroleum exists in large quantities in the region
adjacent to the Ohio River.
XXVIII. Towns. — Wheeling, the capital, is situated on the left
bank of the Ohio Kiver, which is here crossed by a handsome
suspension bridge. Charleston, on the Great Kanawha Kiver, is
noted for its salt works. Parkersburg and Point Pleasant are
smaller towns. Harper's Ferry, at the junction of the Potomac
and Shenandoah rivers, is a well-known place.
By what Bay is Maryland divided? — What are the principal productions? —
Name the important towns. — What is said of the District of Columbia? — Why is
Virginia called the Ancient Dominion? — What are the most important productions?
Name the capital, and the largest towns. — Describe the situation of West Virginia? —
Name the large towns.
1 3
-==r
7!) Longitude Weal 78 Irani Greenwich 77
MAP 0¥ THE
DD1E STATES
WITH
LRYLAND&VIRGIN(A.
lli'iKtmi'i
> In. ..m
N"rwii'll./| «
, "^eSaUi UHariia WT,",I 4JF "'''J" %L,
IT ^»*^ ^<iif . K.niniTWB,*
B
1/ l^Pi
ingtoji
iVfuA ^Art^nlicjjf
n.iri/j/»|ft Inland.
.;...M:iv
y^CarK-Beuli<v,J-'i
,.:;i
38
>N
*
>37
5 Longitude West 4 from Washington 3
36
0 Longitude Kas1 1 from Washington 2
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE MIDDLE STATES.
FOSITIOH.
What country lies north of this section? — What three States and ocean upon the
east? — What State upon the south? — What two States on the west?
AREA.
Name the three largest of these States. — The three smallest. — Which is the
largest State in this section? — The smallest? — How many States of the size of
Massachusetts would Virginia make ? — How do New York and Pennsylvania compare
in area?
OUTLINE.
What ocean washes the shores of this section ? — What two bays indent the coast ?
— What, island is south of Long Island Sound ? — Where is Staten Island ? — Wliijt
two capes at the entrance of Delaware Bay? — Of Chesapeake Hay ? — What two
States have no sea-coa3t? — What States border upon the lakes?
SURFACE.
What mountain-system crosses this region? — In what direction does it extend?
— What part of New Jersey docs it cross? — What part of New York ? — In what
part of New York does it cross the Hudson River, and thence extend into New
England ?
Is the name of Alleghany Mountains applied to the whole system, or to a separate
range ? — What is the most eastern range called ? — Name the chains in Pennsylvania,
beginning at the cast. — In Virginia. — Name the chains in New Y'ork.
Describe the surface of this section, west of the mountains. — Between the moun-
tains and the sea. — Draw the boundary line between the hilly and the low country. —
Where is the Valley of Virginia.
LAKES AND RIVERS.
To what three systems do the lakes and rivers of this section belong ? — In what
mountains do most of the rivers rise ? — Why do the rivers present so many pictu-
resque scenes?
To what system does the Ohio, with its tributaries, belong? — What gulf do its
waters finally reach? — What two rivers unite to form the Ohio? — Describe the
course of the Alleghany River. — Of the Monongahela. — Name the tributaries of
the Ohio in West Virginia.
Into what gulf do the waters of the St. Lawrence and its tributaries flow ? — By
what river does Lake Erie flow into Lake Ontario? — Over what Falls ? — What can
you tell about this cataract?
What three rivers flow into Lake Ontario? — What is there interesting connected
with the Genesee River? — The Oswego River drains a chain of lakes: name the
three principal ones. — By what river does Lake Champlain flow into the St. Law-
rence?—Into what lake does Lake George flow? — What river flows into Lake
Champlain?
In what general direction do most of the rivers of the Atlantic System flow ? —
Through what mountains do many of them pass? — In what mountains does the
Hudson River rise? — In what direction docs it flow ? — What tributary docs it re-
ceive?— What States does the Hudson separate, in the lower part of its course?
Where are the Raritan and Passaic rivers ? — By what river is Pennsylvania sepa-
rated from New Jersey, and partially from New Y'ork? — In what State does it rise ?
Into what bay does it flow? — What tributaries does it receive in Pennsylvania?
What river empties into the head of Chesapeake Bay? — In what State does its
north branch rise? — The west branch? — What tributary does the Susquehanna
receive ?
Describe the Potomac River. — In what direction do its two largest branches
flow? — On which side of the Blue Ridge do tJie Y'ork and Rappahannock rise ? —
The James River? — What two rivers of Virginia flow through North Carolina into
Albemarle Sound ?
Where are the Falls of Niagara ? — At what city is one of the Falls of the Gen-
esee?— On what river are Trenton Falls ? — Where are the Highlands of the Hud-
son?— Where is the Delaware Water-Gap? — Harper's Ferry? — The Genesee and
Alleghany rivers rise very near each other : if a log were thrown into the Genesee,
into what gulf would it drift? — If into the Alleghany River?
What rivers of this section does Lake Ontario receive? — Delaware Bay 1 — Chesa-
peake Bay? — Let each scholar describe some river, in the manner proposed in the
questions on the New England States — mentioning, also, whatever scene of natural
beauty may be connected with it.
CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
Does New England, or this section, lie farther south? — Which, then, has the
warmer climate? — Which has the warmest climate: New Y'ork, or Virginia? — Why?
Where arc the winters colder: on the mountains, or low-lands ? — In the interior,
or near the coast? — Which State is in the same latitudes as New England ? — Which, '
then, has a climate most nearly resembling that of New England ?
Are the farming and grazing products more, or less, important in this section,
than in New England? — These States lie in the northern and middle parts of our
country, what, then, are the principal agricultural productions? — [Refer to Vege-
tation, in the chapter on the United States.]
How do these States compare with other sections in the amount of coal and iron
obtained? — Between what rivers is the anthracite coal region of Pennsylvania? —
In what part of the State is the bituminous coal region ? — Iu what part of Maryland
is the coal-field of that State ?
What are the principal productions of New Y'ork? — What is the leading interest?
— -What are the principal productions of Pennsylvania ? — Of New Jersey ? — Dela-
ware ? — Maryland ? — Virginia?
Which is the first commercial State in the Union ? — Why is New Y'ork called the
Empire State ? — Which is the first State in the Union in its mines of coal and iron ?
— In the amount of iron manufactures? — What State supplies New Y'ork and
Philadelphia with garden vegetables? — What minerals are found in West Virginia?
TOWNS.
What State contains the greatest number of large towns ? — Where is the capital
of New Y'ork? — The principal city? — -The next in size? — Where are the other
important cities of this State situated? — What can you say of the city of New
Y'ork? — To what do Buffalo, Oswego, and Ogdensburg owe their prosperity ? —
Where are tbey situated? — Where is Rochester? — Syracuse? — West Point? —
Saratoga ? — -For what are they noted ?
Where is the capital of Pennsylvania ?— The principal city ? —Pittsburgh ? —
Allegheny City? — Lancaster? — Reading? — What can you say of Philadelphia?
— What advantages has Pittsburgh from its position ?
Where is Trenton? — Newark? — Paterson? — New Brunswick? — Jersey City ?
— Camden? — Princeton? — Cape Island? — Atlantic City? — Which of these are
noted for battles in the Revolutionary War ? — Which of them are manufacturing
towns ?
Where is Dover ? — Wilmington ? — Annapolis? — Baltimore? — Georgetown ? —
Washington ? — Richmond ? — Norfolk ? — Wheeling ? — Charleston ? — Y'orktown 1 —
Mount Vernon ? — What can you say of each of these places?
MISCELLANEOUS.
From what city would you ship a cargo of coal to Boston? — Of tobacco? — At
what ports may a New England merchant purchase a cargo of grain? — Of flour?
Of iron manufactures ? — Why does he leave his own section to obtain these articles ?
What is the scale of this map? — What is the distance in a direct line of Rich-
mond from Philadelphia? — Of Wheeling from New York? — Of Syracuse from
Washington ? — To which of the three Atlantic cities of New Y'ork, Philadelphia,
and Baltimore, is Buffalo nearest, measuring the distance in a direct line 1
On which bank of the Delaware is Philadelphia: the right or left? — Is Wash-
ington on the right or left bank of the Potomac? — If you wished to go from
Washington to Mfc. Vernon, would you cross the river? — On which bank of the
river, then, is Mt. Vernon ?
On what waters would a vessel sail, to go from New Y'ork to Philadelphia? —
From Philadelphia to Richmond? — From Baltimore to Washington? — On what
river would you sail, to go from Pittsburgh to Wheeling? — What lake would you
cross, in going from Oswego to Toronto ?
Bound each State of this section — Name three important towns in each. — Give
the principal rivers and mountains in each State. — Spell Philadelphia. Pennsyl-
vania. Chesapeake. Catskill. Adirondack. Genesee. Annapolis. Monongahela.
Alleghany. Seneca. Shenandoah. Oneida. Passaic. Susquehanna. Schuylkill-
37
38
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER VII.
THE SOUTHERN STATES, ARKANSAS AND
TENNESSEE.
I. The section described in this chapter includes most of the
Southern States ; together with Arkansas and Tennessee, which are
Western States.
The Southern States are Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas.
Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia are described in connection with the Middle
States; and Texas, with the Territories.
II. The Coast is low, and, in general, is either sandy or marshy.
It is lined throughout with low and sandy islands, and contains
few good harbors.
III. Surface. — A part of this section belongs to the Atlantic
Slope ; the remainder, to the Mississippi Valley.
The surface of the Atlantic Slope in these States resembles that of the Middle
States. The boundary between the hilly and level country would be marked by aline
drawn from Weldon, through Fayetteville, Augusta, Columbus, Wctumpka, and Tus-
caloosa, to Aberdeen.
That part of this- section included within the Mississippi Valley is, in general,
very level. The only hilly regions of any importance are in Tennessee and Ala-
bama, near the base of the Alleghany Mountains.
IV. Rivers belong to two systems: the Atlantic, and the Mis-
sissippi. They afford extensive navigation for steamboats.
The Valley of the Mississippi is, next to that of the Amazon, the largest in the
world. The river rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, and, after a course of 2800
miles, flows into the Gulf of Mexico by several mouths. It is navigable to the Falls
of St. Anthony, a distance of 2200 miles.
In Louisiana, embankments, called levees, are built on both sides of the river, to
prevent the waters from overflowing the land. Yet the river sometimes breaks
through these defences, causing immense damage to the country.
V. Productions. — This is chiefly an agricultural region. Cotton
is the great staple production, and forms the principal article of
export.
The climate and soil of this section are particularly favorablo to the cultivation
of cotton. The value of the quantity exported in the year ending June 30th, 1860,
exceeded $190,000,000. Corn is raised in all the States. Rice is produced in the
marshy districts of the coast, especially in South Carolina and Georgia.
Tobacco is an important product in Tennessee and North Carolina ; and sugar, in
Louisiana. The extensive pine forests, in the sandy parts of the coast-district,
furnish lumber and naval stores ; the latter consist of turpentine, resin, tar, and
pitch, made from the sap of the trees.
The mineral wealth of this region is also very great. The coal-fields of North
Carolina and Alabama arc extensive, though as yet they are little worked. Copper
is abundant in North Carolina, iron in Tennessee and North Carolina, and consider-
able quantities of gold are found in North Carolina and Georgia.
VI. The Commerce of this section is very extensive, and is carried
on mainly through New Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, and Savannah.
VII. The Inhabitants are chiefly of English descent, except in
Louisiana, where there are many French, and in portions of Texas
which have been settled principally by Germans.
The negroes are much more numerous in this portion of the Union than in any
other, and perform most of the labor.
Which are the Southern States? — What States form the section described in this
chapter? — Describe the coast of this section. — The surface of that part of it be-
longing to the Atlantic Slope. — The Mississippi Valley. — To what two systems do
the lakes and rivers belong? — What is the principal production of this region? —
Name some of the other productions. — Through what cities is most of the foreign
commerce carried on? — Of what descent are the inhabitants? — By whom is tha
labor chiefly performed ?
STATE CAPITOL, AT RALEIGH.
NORTH CAROLINA.
VIII. Productions. — North Carolina derives her chief wealth from
her pine forests : lumber
and naval stores being
the principal exports.
Cotton, corn, tobacco, wheat,
and rice, are also important
productions.
IX. Towns. — Raleigh
is the capital. Wilming-
ton is the principal city.
Beaufort has the best
harbor in the State. Fay-
etteville, on Cape Fear River, is a flourishing place.
SOUTH CAROLINA.
X. South Carolina is, next to Maryland, the smallest of the
Southern States; but, in proportion to its
size, it is one of the most populous and
wealthy.
On account of the abundance of Palmetto trees growing
in this State, it is often called the Palmetto State.
XL Productions. — More rice is raised in
South Carolina than in any other State, and
the celebrated sea-island cotton is extensively
grown on the islands along the coast. These
articles, with lumber and naval stores, are the
principal exports.
XII. Towns. — Columbia is the capital;
Charleston, the largest city. More rice is ex-
ported from the latter city than from any
other in the union. Georgetown, Camden,
and Cheraw, are the other most important
places.
GEORGIA.
XIII. Georgia is second in population among the Southern States.
It was the last settled of
the thirteen original
States.
XIV. Productions. —
Georgia produces cotton
and corn largely, is sec-
ond in the amount of
rice, and first in sweet
potatoes.
The principal exports consist
of cotton, rice, lumber, and
naval stores.
XV. Towns. — Millcdgeville is the capital ; Savannah, the prin-
cipal city. Augusta, Columbus, and Macon, are next in importance.
From what does North Carolina derive her chief wealth ? — What are the princi-
pal exports? — Name the capital. — The other important places. — What is Soulh
Carolina often called ? — Why ? — What arc the principal productions ? — Name the
capital. — The largest city. — What rank does Georgia hold among the Southern
States in population? — What rank'in the production of rice? — Sweet potatoes?
— Name other productions. — What arc the principal exports? — Name the capital.
The other principal places.
THE PALMETTO TREE.
FACLS OF TOWALIGO.
THE SOUTHERN STATES.
FLORIDA.
XVI. Productions — Cotton, rice, sugar, lumber, and naval stores,
are the principal pro-
ductions. The live-oak
is of great value for
ship-building.
XVII. Towns— Tal-
lahassee is the capital.
Key West is the largest
town.
Key West is situated upon
nn island of coral formation,
south-west of the main-land.
It is the most southern town
in the United States, and has an excellent harbor.
Pensacola contains a United States Navy Yard. St. Augustine is the oldest town
in the Union.
A SCENE IN FLORIDA.
XVIII. Productions
y^i-ijA
ALABAMA.
Alabama is one of the leading cotton-grow-
ing States. Indian corn,
sweet potatoes, rice, and
lumber, are the other
principal productions.
XIX. Towns.— Mont-
gomery is the capital ;
Mobile is the largest
city. Tuscaloosa con-
tains the State Uni-
ADING WITH COTTON.
versity.
A COTTON FIELD.
Mobile is second only to New Orleans in the shipment of cotton. It exports not
only the productions of Alabama, but a large portion of those of Mississippi.
MISSISSIPPI.
XX. Productions.— Mississippi ranks first in cotton. Indian
corn, rice, and sweet potatoes, are the other principal productions.
The productions of this State arc chiefly forwarded for export to New Orleans
and Mobile.
LOUISIANA.
XXII. Louisiana was settled by the French, and purchased of
them by the United States in 1803.
The chief productions are sugar and cotton. Nearly all the sugar made from t le
sugar-cane in the United States is produced in Louisiana
A SUGAR PLANTATION.
XXIII. Towns. — Baton Rouge is the capital; New Orleans, the
largest city.
New Orleans is the greatest cotton-mart in the world, and exports not only the
productions of Louisiana, but of a considerable part of the Mississippi Valley.
The city is built upon a bend in the Mississippi River, and is therefore called the
Crescent City.
ARKANSAS.
XXIV. Productions. — The staple productions are Indian corn,
cotton, and live-stock.
XXV. Towns.— Little ^AflMttfll
Rock is the capital, and
the largest town in the
State.
The Hot Springs of Arkan-
sas are regarded as a great
natural curiosity. They are
about eighty in number, situ-
ated fifty miles southwest of
Little Rock, and are much
resorted to by invalids.
ING IN WOOD.
XXI. Towns. — Jackson is the capital. The other principal towns
are Natchez, Vicksburg, Aberdeen, Columbus, and Holly Springs.
What are the principal productions of Florida? — Name the capital. —The other
important towns. — What rank has Alabama as a cotton-growing State? — Name
the capital. — The largest city. —What of tho productions of Mississippi ? —Through
what cities are its productions chiefly exported? — Name the capital. — The other
important places.
TENNESSEE.
XXVI. The Cumberland Mountains and Tennessee River divide
the State into'East, Middle,
and West Tennessee. •
XXVII. Productions.— In-
dian corn, cotton, and to-
bacco, are tho leading pro-
ductions. The iron mines
arc also of great value.
XXVIII. Towns.— Nash-
ville, the largest city of Mid-
dle Tennessee, is the capital.
Memphis is on tho Mississippi River
St. Louis and New Orleans.
STATE CAPITOL, AT NASHVILLE.
It is the largest city on that river between
Knoxvillo is the principal town in East Tennessee.
By whom was Louisiana settled ? — What are the most important productions? —
Name the capital. — Why is New Orleans called the Crescent City? — What arc tho
Maple productions of Arkansas? — Name the capital. — What natural curiosity in
this State? — Name the three divisions of Tennessee. — The chief productions. ~-
The capital, and other towns.
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42
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER VIII.
THE WESTERN STATES.
I. The section described . in this chapter includes the States of
Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Missouri,
Iowa, and Minnesota.
The nine States above mentioned, with Arkansas, Tennessee, California, Oregon,
Kansas, Nevada, and Nebraska, comprise the Western States.
II. Surface. — This section belongs to the Central Plain of the
United States, and is generally level. The only mountains are a
branch of the Alleghany System, in Kentucky.
The greater part of Wisconsin and Illinois, and much of the country west of the
Mississippi River, consists of prairie land.
III. Lakes and Rivers. — The principal lakes and rivers are the
Mississippi River, and its numerous tributaries, and the Lakes of
the St. Lawrence Basin.
The Red River of the North, between Minnesota and Dakota, flows through a
chain of small lakes into Lake Winnipeg, in British America.
IV. Productions. — This is generally a farming and grazing
country. The mines are also very rich.
It is the great grain-district of the United States, and the larger part of the wheat
and corn exported from the country is raised here. Tobacco and hemp are impor-
tant products in Kentucky and Missouri. There are extensive tracts of timber-land
in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
Great numbers of cattle and swine are reared in this section, and beef and pork
are among the most important exports. •
The beds of coal are of immense extent, though not yet fully worked. The prin-
cipal building-stone is limestone. Iron is abundant in Missouri, Michigan, and
Ohio. The copper-mines on the shores of Lake Superior are of great value, and
nearly all the lead found in the United States comes from Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa,
and Missouri.
V. Inhabitants. — A large part of the population of this section is
composed of emigrants from the older States, and from Europe.
Of the latter, the Irish and Germans are the most numerous.
KENTUCKY.
VI. Kentucky was formerly a part of Virginia. It Avas the first
... me. ^sa48i,ij/.ritf«J.iii i Western State admitted into the
Wk Union-
This State presents a great variety of
objects of interest to tourists. Among
them is the Mammoth Cave, one of the
most remarkable caverns in the world.
It is said to have been explored a dis-
tance of ten miles from its mouth.
VII. Productions.— Kentucky is
second only to Virginia in the
production of tobacco. Large
quantities of Indian corn, wheat,
and oats, and also of hemp and
the mammoth cave. flax, are raised here. The coal
mines and salt springs are very valuable,
VIII. Towns. — Frankfort is the capital. Louisville is the largest
city, and the principal seat of commerce for the State.
Name the Western States. —Which of them are described in this chapter? — De-
scribe the surface. — To what systems do the lakes and rivers belong? — What are
the most important productions? — Name those (mentioned in the text) which are
exported. — Whence camo the inhabitants? — What remarkable curiosity in Ken-
tucky?— Name the productions.
The rapids in the Ohio, at Louisville, arc avoided by a canal two and a half miles
long, cut through the solid rock.
The other most important cities are Covington, Lexington, and Newport.
OHIO.
IX. Ohio is the most populous of the Western States, and ranks,
in this respect, as the third State in the Union.
X. Productions. — More wine is made in Ohio than in any other
State. It is also among the first in the production of wheat, corn,
and wool.
The grazing products are very important; and great numbers of horses, cattle,
and swine, are sent to the Atlantic States.
XL Towns. — Columbus is the capital. Cincinnati is the largest
city.
STATE CAPITOL, AT COLUMBUS.
Cincinnati (the Queen City) is the largest city west of the Alleghany Mountains.
It is very extensively engaged in commerce and manufactures. The quantity of
pork packed here is very large.
The other principal cities are situated on the great lakes, and on the Ohio River
(which forms the southern boundary of the State), or at the junction of the various
lines of railroads. Among these are Cleveland, Toledo, Sandusky, Dayton, Zanes-
villo, and Steubenvilles
INDIANA.
XII. Indiana is the smallest of the Western States, but is one
of the most fertile and enterprising.
XIII. Productions. — The principal of these are the various grains
and live-stock. In the
southern part of the
State there are exten-
sive beds of coal, and
considerable deposits of
iron ore. These mines,
however, are not yet ex-
tensively worked.
XIV. Towns. — Indian-
apolis, in the central part
of the State, is the capi-
tal.
The other principal places are New Albany, Evansville, and Madison, on the Ohio
River. Terre Haute and Lafayette, on the Wabash River ; Fort Wayne, on the Mau-
mee; and Richmond, in the eastern part of the State, are also important towns.
DEAF ANO DUMB ASYLUM, AT INDIANAPOLIS.
What is the capital? — The most important commercial city? — What rank does
Ohio hold in population ? — In the production of wine? — Of wheat, corn, and wool ?
— Name the capital. — Describe Cincinnati. — Name some of the other important
towns. — What is said about Indiana? — Name the most important productions. —
The capital, and other towns.
THE WESTERN STATES.
43
ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD DEPOT, CHICAGO.
ILLINOIS.
XV. Illinois is noted for the great rapidity of its growth. It
consists mainly of prairie-
land, and is one of the most
fertile States in the Union.
XYI. Productions. — Illi-
nois far surpasses every other
State in the production 6f
wheat and Indian corn.
Other grains are also exten-
sively raised. The chief min-
erals are lead and coaL
XVII. Towns. — Springfield is the capital. Chicago is the prin-
cipal city.
Chicago (the Garden City) is the greatest grain port in the world. Galena is
situated among the lead mines. Peoria, Quincy, and Alton, are among the other
most important places.
MICHIGAN.
XVII. Michigan consists of two peninsulas : a northern, and a
southern one.
XIX. Productions. — Wheat
and other grains, and lumber,
are the leading products of the
lower, or southern peninsula;
copper and iron, of the upper
one.
XX. Towns. — Lansing is the
capital. Detroit is the largest
city.
Detroit (the City of the Straits) is
finely situated for commerce, and is one
of the most important cities in the
West. Ann Arbor contains the State
MONTREAL RIVER FALLS.
University. The State Normal School Is located at Ypsilanti.
XXI. Wisconsin was
DALLES OF THE RIVER ST. CROIX.
WISCONSIN.
admitted into the Union, as a State,
in 1848.
XXII. Productions.— Wheat
and corn are the most valuable
agricultural products. Lumber
is abundant in the northern part
of the State. Lead is the chief
mineral.
XXIII. Towns.— Madison,
beautifully situated among a
group of small lakes, is the capi-
tal. Milwaukee is the most
important city.
Racine, Kenosha, and Janesville, are
also thriving towns.
Of what does Illinois mainly consist? — Name the chief productions. — The capi-
tal, and principal towns. — Of what does Michigan consist? — What are the pro-
ductions of the southern peninsula? — Of the northern one? — Name the capital. —
The other important places. — What are the productions of Wisconsin? — Name the
capital. — The chief towns.
MISSOURI.
XXIV. Missouri is the most populous State west of the Missis-
sippi River.
XXV. Productions. —
Wheat, corn, tobacco, and
hemp, are the most impor-
tant productions. The mines
of iron, lead, and coal, are
of immense value, though
not yet extensively worked.
XXVI. Towns. --Jeffer-
son City is the capital ; St.
Louis, the largest city.
St. Louis is the great centre of
trade for the Upper Mississippi and its tributaries. It is also the depot for the fur-
trade of the Rocky Mountains.
St. Joseph, Lexington, and Booneville, are important places.
IOWA.
XXVII. Iowa was admitted into the Union in 1845.
XXVIII. Productions. — Wheat and corn are the chief agricul-
tural productions. Lead and coal are the principal minerals.
PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS.
BRIDGE ACROSS THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER, AT ROCK ISLAND.
XXIX. Towns. — Des Moines is the capital. Dubuque is the
largest city in the mining district.
Burlington, Keokuk, Muscatine, Davenport, and Iowa City, are the other most
important places.
MINNESOTA.
XXX. By an Act of Congress, passed in 1857, Minnesota was
authorized to adopt a State Constitution.
XXXI. Productions. — Wheat, corn, and
potatoes, are the most important produc-
tions. Great quantities of lumber are cut
in Minnesota.
XXXII. Towns.— St. Paul is the capital,
and the largest city. It is nine miles be-
low the Falls of St. Anthony, the head of
navigation of the Mississippi River.
St. Anthony, Minneapolis, Stillwater, Winona, St
Peter's, and Hastings, aro the other most important
tOWnS. FALLS OF MINNEHAHA.
What are the leading productions of Missouri? — Name the capital. — The largest
city. — The other important towns. — When was Iowa admitted into the Union? —
What are ita principal productions ? — Name the capital, and the largest towns. —
What are the productions of Minnesota? — Name the capital, and other towns of
considerable size.
91 Longitude West 89 from Gr iwich 87
-^ r^r^'-^r 1 ; . f_- r —
SedJ,
a
MAP
STAT1TK 1KCU 093 TO ADKUKKK.
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QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF NINE OF THE WESTERN STATES.
POSITION.
Name the three northern States of this section. — The three eastern. — The two
southern. — The three western. — What country is north of this section? — What
three Slates are east of it! — What two States south?
Name the six States which border on the great lakes. — The four States bordering
on the Ohio River ? — What States border on the Mississippi ? — Of what two States
does the Missouri River form a part of the western boundary ?
AREA.
Name the largest State of this section. — The smallest. — Which States are larger
than New York? — Which are smaller than Pennsylvania! — How many States, of
the size of New Jersey, would Missouri make ?
SURFACE.
What is the general character of the surface of this region !-
mountain-range ? — Of what system is t!4s chain a part ?
-Where is the only
LAKES AND RIVERS.
To what two systems do the principal lakes and rivers belong? — In which of
these river-basins is the larger part of this section situated ? — Into what lakes do
the rivers of Michigan flow ? — In which basin, then, is Michigan situated: that of
the Mississippi, or of the St. Lawrence ? — Into what do all the rivers of Iowa and
Missouri flow ? — In what basin, then, are these States?
By what river does Lake Superior flow into Lake Huron ? — In what direction do
the waters of Lake Michigan flow? — Through what strait? — Does Lake Huron
flow in the same, or in an opposite direction, from Lake Michigan ? — Through what
waters would a vessel sail, in going from Lake Huron to Lake Erie ?
Name the lakes of which the following bays are a part: Green Bay. — Saginaw
Bay. — Keweenaw Bay. — Georgian Bay. — Grand Traverse Bay. — Thunder Bay. —
Through what river do the waters of the great lakes flow into the ocean ? — Name
three rivers of this section flowing into the great lakes, and the State in which each
is situated.
What is the general course of the Ohio River ? — Into what does it flow ? — Name
its four tributaries from the north. — Which of these forms a part of the boundary
between Indiana and Illinois? — Name the seven tributaries of the Ohio flowing
into it from the south. — Which of these forms a part of the boundary between Vir-
ginia and Kentucky ?
The Mississippi River has its source in Lake Itasca: where is this lake? — Which
is the principal tributary of the Mississippi in Minnesota ? — What tributary of the
Mississippi forms a part of the boundary between Minnesota and Wisconsin ? — Name
the rivers of Wisconsin flowing into the Mississippi. — Those of Iowa. — Of Illinois.
What is the general course of the Missouri River? — Across what State does it
.flow? — Into what river? — Name its principal branches in Missouri. — What river
on the western border of Minnesota flows into Lake Winnipeg?
CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
Does the climate of this section most nearly resemble that of the Eastern and
Middle States, or that of the Southern States ? — Which is the colder country : the
northern, or southern peninsula of Michigan? — Minnesotaor Missouri? — Wisconsin
or Kentucky!
What are the most important grains raised in this section? — In what States are
tobacco and hemp produced? — Where are the timber-lands? — For what purpose
arc the cattle and swine chiefly reared ?
What mines are found in this region? — Where is iron obtained? — Copper? —
Lead? — What can you say about the coal-beds? — What is the principal building-
stone? — Which State in this section raises the most tobacco! — Which holds the
first rank in the Union in the production of wine? — Of wheat and Indian corn?
What rank among the United States has Kentucky as a tobacco-growing State ? —
What do you understand by live-stock? — To what part of the Union are many
horses, cattle, and swine, sent from this section ?
TOWNS.
On what river is the capital of Kentucky ! — The largest city ! — What important
places are opposite Cincinuati ! — Where is Lexington t
On what river is the capital of Ohio ? — The largest city ? — What important places
are situated on the shores of Lake Erie ? — On what river is Dayton ? — Steubcn-
ville? — Zanesville?
Name the capital of Indiana. — The principal places situated on the Ohio River. —
Those on the Wabash. — The one on the Maumec. — Where is Richmond ?
Name the capital of Illinois. — On what lake is the largest city ? — Name the river
on which Peoria is situated. — Quincy. — Alton. — In what part of the State is Galena?
Name the capital of Michigan. — On what river is the largest city? — What can
you say about Ann Arbor ! — Ypsilanti ?
Where is the capital of Wisconsin ? — The largest city ? — On what lake are Racine
and Kenosha ? — On what river is Janesville ?
On what river is the capital of Missouri? — The largest city ? — The other prin-
cipal places mentioned in the text ?
What is the capital of Iowa? — Name the river on which each of the following
places is situated: Burlington. — Keokuk. — Muscatine. — Davenport. — Iowa City.
What is the capital of Minnesota? — On what rivir is it situated ? — Describe the
position of the other principal places mentioned in the text.
MISCELLANEOUS.
The following are the most important cities of this section; describe their situa-
tion, and tell what you know about them : Cincinnati. St. Louis. Chicago. Louis-
ville. Milwaukee. Cleveland. Detroit. — Let each scholar describe the position of
some town, and tell what he can about it.
A party in Cleveland chartered a steamboat to visit the Pictured Rocks of Lake
Superior: name the bodies of water through which they passed. — What is the route
of a person who goes by water from Chicago to the copper-region of Lake Superior?
— On what rivers will you sail, to go from Cincinnati to the Falls of St. Anthony?
A party in St. Louis wish to visit the Mammoth Cave : what route shall they take?
— What rivers will you ascend, to go from St. Louis to Council Bluffs ! — What lake
is very near Lake Travels ? — After a heavy rain, the country between these lakes
is often overflowed, so that boats can pass from one to the other ; thin an Indian
with his canoe might make the passage from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico:
name all the lakes and rivers he must navigate in the journey.
Which of the States in this section consists of two peninsulas ? — What bodies of
water enclose the lower one ? — The upper ? — In what part of this region are there
numerous small lakes ? — What part of this section is best adapted to the growth of
grain: the northern, or southern? — Where are the products of the forests most
valuable ?
Is this section principally an agricultural and grazing country, or a manufacturing
region ? — Is it probable, then, that most of the wool produced in Ohio is manufac-
tured into cloth there, or exported ? — Is it likely that cotton is largely imported
from the Southern States? — Where do the people of this section procure their
manufactured goods?
The water-shed between the St. Lawrence and Mississippi Basins is, in general, a
very slight elevation of ground, and there are houses so situated that the rain which
falls on one side of the roof is drained into the St. Lawrence, and that which fails
on the other is drained into the Mississippi : suppose a house to be so located
between the Fox River of Wisconsin, and Rock River, and follow the course of the
drops of rain which fall on each side of the roof, to the ocean.
What is the scale of this map ? — In what direction, and across what States, would
you travel, to go from Columbus to St. Louis ! — What is the distance, in a direct
line, between these places? — What is the distance from Cleveland to Chicago? —
From Chicago to Iowa City ? — From Iowa City to Council Bluffs !
Bound each of these States. — Name three important towns in each. — Mention the
principal rivers. — Spell the following words: — Kentucky Michigan. Milwaukee
Illinois. Keweenaw. Minnesota. Iowa. Keokuk. Chicago. Chippewa. Onton-
agon. Marquette. Dubuque. Galena. Kaskaskia. Wabash. Mackinaw. Wis-
consin.— Give the meaning of the following names: — Mississippi. Terre Haute.
Ohio. Fond du Lac. Missouri.
45
46
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY.
CHAPTER IX.
TEXAS, CALIFORNIA, OREGON, KANSAS, AND THE
ADJACENT STATES AND TERRITORIES.
I. The section described in this chapter includes the States of
Texas, California, Oregon, Kansas, Nevada, Nebraska, and the
Territories.
These States arc all 'Western States except Texas, which is a Southern State.
II. The Coast of this region lies partly upon the Pacific Ocean,
and partly upon the Gulf of Mexico.
The shores of the Pacific are bold and rocky, being skirted by the Coast Range
of the California Mountain System. The Bay of San Francisco, and the Strait of
Juan de Fuca, are the only large inlets upon thiB part of the Pacific coast.
The coast of the Gulf of Mexico is low and sandy, like that of the other Southern
States.
III. Surface. — This section belongs to two divisions: the Pacific
Slope, and the Central Plain.
[For a full description of the mountains and general surface, sec the article on
the United States. CI""-*-- IV., paragraphs IV., V., VIII., and IX.]
11 will be perceived by an examination of this chapter, that this section embraces
an extensive desert-plateau, from 2000 to 0000 feet high, which extends from the
Cnaeuue and Sierra Nevada Ranges, a distance of 200 to 400 miles cast of the Rocky
Mountains. This is the only barren tract of great extent in the United States.
IV. Lakes and Rivers. — These belong to four systems : the Pacific,
the Mississippi, the Texas, and the Utah Systems. Great Salt Lake,
in Utah, is the only lake of considerable size.
The rivers of the desert-plateau, owing to the small quantity of rain which falls
there, are generally very shallow.
V. Climate. — The Pacific coast, and the highlands of the interior,
have a different climate from that of any other part of the Union.
On the Pacific coast, the year is divided into a wet and a dry season, somewhat
lilce those of the Tropics. The wet season occurs during winter and spring, the dry
during summer and autumn. It is no uncommon occurrence, at places upon this
coast, for entire months to pass, in the dry season, without the fall of a drop of rain.
The summers are much cooler, and the winters warmer, upon the Pacific coast than
on the Atlantic.
The year is also divided into a wet and dry season on the desert-plateau. Very
little rain falls there during the entire year, but that which does fall is almost
wholly during the winter and spring.
VI. Productions. — This section, as yet, is thinly settled, and the
agricultural resources are but partially developed. They are, how-
ever, like those of the same latitudes in the other parts of the country.
The mineral wealth of this region is very great. The gold mines of California
arc immensely rich. Quicksilver and many other valuable minerals abound. Gold
is also found throughout the central portion of Colorado and Idaho. There are
valuable silver mines in Arizona and Nevada.
VII. Inhabitants. — The population is composed chiefly of emi-
grants from the other States, and from Europe.
There are many Mexicans in California and New Mexico, and a considerable
number of Chinese in California.
Most of the Indians within the United States inhabit this section. Some of them
are civilized, while others are still in a savage state. Several tribes maintain
blmost constant hostilities against the whites.
TEXAS.
VIII. Texas is the largest State in the Union. Only about one-
half of it is settled. The western part is occupied by Indians, and
supports large herds of wild horses and buffaloes.
Name the States described in this chapter. — Which of the States is a Southern
State? — Which are Western States? — Describe the coast of this section. — The
surface. — To what systems do the lakes and rivers belong? — How does the climate
differ from that of the Atlantic States? — Whnt can you say of the agricultural
resources? — Of the minerals ? — The inhabitants? — The Indians? — What part of
Texas is settled?
IX. Productions. — - Cotton, corn, sugar, tobacco, and rice, are th*
chief products. ^ Oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits, succeei
well.
CAMELS IN TEXAS.
Camels were at one time introduced into Texas for the purpose of traversing the
desert-plateau between this State and the Pacific Ocean.
X. Towns. — Austin is the capital. Galveston and Houston are
the most important towns.
Galveston is situated upon Galveston Island, and has the best harbor in the State.
Houston is the principal shipping-port for an extensive and very fertile section of
country.
San Antonio is the oldest town. It contains the Alamo fortress, so renowned in
the history of the State, where 150 Tcxans defended themselves for two weeks
against 4000 Mexicans.
CALIFORNIA.
XI. California is the largest State in the Union except Texas.
This State has great commercial advantages. It has nearly eight
hundred miles of coast, and many excellent harbors.
San Francisco Bay is one of the finest harbors in the world. Except the outlet
to the sea through the Golden Gate, a mile wide, it is entirely surrounded by land,
and is securely sheltered from storms. Its waters are deep enough for the largest
vessels, and its anchorage very firm. The climate in the vicinity of this bay and
that of the valleys west of the Coast Range, being tempered by the ocean breezos,
is remarkably uniform. At San Francisco the difference of temperature between
the average of the coldest month of the year and that of the warmest is only nine
degrees. The mountains and streams of California are rich in gold and silver ; and
emigrants in search of these precious metals hnve crowded to its shores from all
parts of the world. The wealth of the gold mines has contributed in a remarkable
degree to the prosperity of the United States. The quicksilver mines of New
Almaden, in Santa Clara county, are the richest in the world.
XII. Surface. — The surface of California consists of mountains
and valleys. The great valley of the Sacramento and San Joaquin,
500 miles long and from 50 to 100 miles wide, lies between the
Sierra Nevada and Coast Mountains. Most of the gold mines of
the State are in this valley, along the western base of the Sierra
Nevada.
This valley is very fertile, as are also many little valleys west of the Coast
Mountains formed by spurs extending from this range towards the ocean. The
What are the principal productions of Texas? — For what purpose are camels
used in this State? — Name the capital. — Describe the most important towns. —
How does California compare in size with other States? — What is said of its com-
mercial advantages? — What of San Francisco Bay? — Of the climate? — What can
you s:iy of the gold and silver? — Of the quicksilver mines? — Describe the surface
of California. — Where are most of the gold mines in the State?
THE WES TEEN TEEEITOEIES.
47
remaining surface of the State, with few exceptions, ia either rugged or sterile;
and that part comprised in the great interior basin and the Colorado Desert ia
almost destitute of vegetation. The Colorado Desert is below the level of the Gulf
of California, the waters of which probably once covered it.
XIII. The scenery of California is scarcely surpassed, for gran-
deur and variety, by that of any other part of the United States.
Yosemite Valley, a narrow gorge or rift in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in Mari-
posa county, surrounded by precipitous rocks from two thousand to four thousand
feet high, contains Yosemite Falls, one of the most magnificent cataracts in the
world, besides several smaller cascades of romantic beauty.
XIV. Productions. — The soil in the valleys west of the Sierra
Nevada yields great crops of wheat and barley. The vine and
olive flourish in the southern part of the State. Large quantities
of wine are made in Los Angeles and other counties.
V^^^I
VIEW OF THE QUICKSILVER MINES OF NEW ALMADEN.
Many of the forest trees are of gigantic size. The celebrated Grove in Calaveras
county contains trees one hundred feet in circumference and more than three hun-
dred feet high, and even larger trees have been found in Tulare county.
XV. Towns. — Sacramento, on the Sacramento Eiver, is the capi-
tal. It is finely situated for commerce, the river being navigable
to this point for vessels and steamers of large size at all seasons of
the year. »
San Francisco, on San Francisco Bay, is the great commercial mart of California,
and the most important city on the Pacific coast of America. Its growth has been
most extraordinary; and its commercial position is ao favorable, that it can hardly
fail to become one of the great cities of the globe.
Marysville, Nevada, and Stockton, are the other large towns in the interior of the
State; and Benicia, San Jos<5, Monterey, and San Diego, are smaller places upon or
near the coast. Los Angeles is noted for grapes.
XVI. The great lines of railroad now being constructed across
the country, connecting the shores of the Atlantic with those of the
Pacific Ocean will doubtless add greatly to the prosperity of Cali-
What portions of the State are aterile? — What ia said of* the scenery ?— De-
scribe Yosemite Valley. — Where are wheat and barley produced? — Name some
other productions. — What is said of the great trees? — Name the capital of Cali-
fornia.—What is said of it? — What is said of San Francisco? — Name some of
the large towns in the interior of the State.— Some of those upon or near the
sea-coast. — For what ia Los Angeles noted? — How will the new Pacific Railroads
affect California?
fornia, as well as of the other States and Territories through which
they pass.
OREGON.
XVII. — Oregon was admitted into the Union in 1859.
The aection west of the Cascade Mountains contains many fertile valleys. Most
of the white inhabitants live in this part of the State.
XVIII. Towns. — Salem is the capital. Portland is the largest
town.
KANSAS.
XIX. Kansas became the thirty-fourth State of the Union in
1861.
The soil in the eastern part of Kansas is exceedingly fertile, and this portion is
being populated rapidly by emigration from the other Statea.
■Topeka is the capital, and Leavenworth the
XX. Towns.
largest city.
NEVADA.
XXI. Nevada was formed from a portion of Utah i.n 1861. In
1864 it was admitted into the Union as the thirty-sixth State.
A large portion of Nevada ia a barren deaert, and its lakes are nearly all salt. It
is more abundant in silver than any other part of the Union. The mines extend
nearly to the eastern boundary of the State.
XXII. Towns. — Carson City is the capital. Virginia City and
Genoa are next in importance.
NEBRASKA.
XXIII. Nebraska became the thirty-seventh State in 1867.
In climate, soil, and productions, it resembles the adjoining State of Iowa.
XXIV. Towns. — Lincoln is the capital. Omaha, Plattesmouth
and Nebraska City are the principal towns.
THE "WESTERN TERRITORIES.
XXV. The Territories of the United States are ten in number,
viz. : Washington, Idaho, Montana, Dakota, Utah, Colorado, Ari-
zona, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Indian Territory.
XXVI. Washington. — This territory borders on the Pacific Ocean.
Nearly all the white inhabitants live west of the Cascade Mountains. The eastern
and central parts are inhabited by various tribes of Indiana.
XXVII. Towns. — Olympia is the capital. Steilacoom is one of
the most important places.
XXVIII. Idaho. — This territory, organized in 1863, extends
east of Oregon and Washington.
It is inhabited chiefly by Indians ; but the rich gold mines, recently discovered,
are attracting many white emigrants thither. Boise City is the capital.
XXIX. Montana. — ■ Montana was organized in 1864. It lies on
both sides of the Eocky Mountains, and abounds in gold.
XXX. Towns. — Virginia City is the capital.
XXXI. Dakota. — Dakota was organized in 1861, and is the
largest territory. It contains but few white inhabitants.
XXXII. Towns. — Yankton is the capital. Pembina is the oldest
town.
In what section of Oregon do most of the inhabitants live? — When did Kansas
become a State? — What can you say of the eastern part of Kansas? — Name the capi-
tal. — The largest city. — From a part of what territory was Nevada formed ? — Name
the capital. — What State does Nebraska resemble? — Give the number and names of
the Western Territories. — On what ocean does Washington Territory border? — By
what are many emigrants attracted to Idaho ? — What abounds in Montana? — Which
is the largest Territory?
SmiE/OF CALIFORNIA,
ENGRAVED TO ILLUSTRATE
STERMEDIAX E GEOGRAPH
Statutr- Miles fi9.2.to a Degree.
Scale 75 Miles to an inru.
State Capital
County Towns . _ 9
Common do. . o
Tin' Overland Mail Route from
S) Loulfl to Sun Francisco 2,765
1 1 1 1 1 1 ■> Mm- .
120 Longitude "West 11» from Greenwich 118
bmwn hvJETcuna
Entered -tu ivrdinp to Act of Conpress.in the year 1858, by U. (awpfrtttwati •* ''".in the Clerk's office ofthe.S)\smrt Court »t tin eastern district of !'• mtsybtama
&«kl^sM *x,nt£h <?" :<,./*>■>- Ac
THE WESTERN TERRITORIES.
*47
XXXIII. Utah. — Utah contains the Great Salt Lake, and the
principal portion of the Fremont or Great Basin, the most desolate
region in the United States.
This basin is about four thousand feet above the level of the sea, :ind its rivers
have no outlet to the ocean. They either empty into inland lakes or are swallowed
up in the sand.
The white inhabitants of Utah are mostly Mormons, a peculiar religious sect. The
Great Basin is inhabited by a degraded tribe of Indians, called "Diggers," who
subsist chiefly upon roots.
* SANTA FE TRAIN FORDINfi THE ARKANSAS RIVER.
Most of the manufactured articles used in New Mexico and Utah are brought
hither across the plains from the towns of Western Missouri. For protection
against the Indians, and to aid each other on the way, the traders usually travel
in companies, and form their wagons into what is called trains.
What does Utah contain ? — What can you say of the Great Basin ? — Who are the
white inhabitants? — By whom is the Great Basin inhabited? — Describe the method
of conveying manufactured articles to Utah and New Mexico. — Name the capital of
Utah. — The principal towns. — When was Colorado organized? — For what is it
famous ? — Name the capital and largest town. — When was Arizona made a separate
XXXIV. Towns. — Salt Lake City is the capital. Fillmore City
and Paragoona are smaller towns.
XXXV. Colorado. — This territory was organized in 1861, and
extends from Kansas to Utah.
It is famous for its gold, which was first discovered near Pike's Peak, and the
mining of which gives employment to most of the white inhabitants.
XXXVI. Towns. — Denver is the capital and largest town.
XXXVII. Arizona. — Arizona was formerly a part of New Mex-
ico, but was made a separate territory in 1863.
Valuable gold and silver mines abound in nearly all parts of the territory.
XXXVIII. Towns. — Prescott is the capital. Tucson and Tubac
are the chief towns.
XXXIX. New Mexico. — This territory is occupied chiefly by
Indians. The white inhabitants are Mexicans and Americans.
XL. Towns. — Santa Fe is the capital. Albuquerque and Socorro
are the places of next importance.
XLI. Wyoming was formed from a part of Dakota in 1868.
XLII. Towns. — Cheyenne is the principal town.
XLIII. Indian Territory. — This tract of country has been set
apart as a permanent home for various tribes of Indians, who were
either natives of the soil, or have been removed from the States
east of the Mississippi River.
Some of these tribes have made considerable advance in agriculture and the
useful arts, and have churches, school-houses, and mills.
XLIV. Towns. — Tahlequah, a Cherokee town, is the most im-
portant place in the territory.
territory? — What is said of its gold and silver mines?— Name the capital? — The
chief towns. — By whom is New Mexico chiefly inhabited? — What is the capital? —
When was Wyoming formed? — Name the principal town. — For whom has the
Indian Territory been set apart? — What is said of .some of these tribes? — Name
the most important town.
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF CALIFORNIA.
By what State is California bounded on the north ? — By what State and Territory
on the east? — By what country on the south? — What ocean on the west? — Where
is Humboldt Bay? — San Diego Bay? — Where are the Santa Barbara Islands? —
Where is Cape Mendocino ? — Where are the Farallone Islands ?
What is the area of California ? — How many States of the size of Virginia would
it make? — How many of the size of Massachusetts?
Name the two principal mountain-chains in California. — Which cf them is nearest
the coast ? — What great valley lies between these mountain-ranges ? — Where is Mount
Shasta? — Mount San Bernardino? — Mount San Gorgonio? — What is the character
of the surface west of the Coast Range ?
What river forms part of the boundary between California and Arizona ? — What
river flows into the Colorado at the extreme southern boundary of California ? —
What two rivers empty into the Bay of San Francisco? — In what general direction
does the Sacramento River flow? — The San Joaquin ? — Name some of the principal
tributaries of each of these rivers. — Into what bay does the river Salinas flow? —
Where is the Klamath River? — Where is Tulare Lake? — What rivers flow into
it ? — Name two lakes that arc situated partly in California and partly in Nevada. —
Where are the Yosemite Falls ?
Through how many degrees of latitude does California extend? — Is the cli-
mate more uniform upon the coast or in the interior? — Why? — What is the differ-
enca between the average temperature of the warmest and coldest months of the
year at San Francisco ?
What portions of California are the most fertile? — Where are gold and silver
principally found? — In what part of the State are large quantities of wine made?
Where is San Francisco? — On what river is Sacramento? — Marysville? —
Stockton? — On what bay is San Diego? — Monterey? — Where is Nevada? — Beui
cia? — San Jos<5? — Name all the waters on which you would sail to go from Sacra-
mento to San Diego. — From Stockton to Crescent City.
. Sketch a map of California, locating the principal mountain-ranges, the rivers
and towns. If you wished to forward a quantity of gold dust from California to
the Mint at Philadelphia, how would you send it; across the country by land, or
by sea ? — What are the principal obstacles to the transportation of merchandise
from New York to San Francisco by a direct land route? — By what triumph of
human skill and ingenuity are these obstacles about to be overcome ?
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE ENVIRONS OF SAN FRANCISCO AND
SACRAMENTO.
What is the direction of Sacramento from San Francisco? — What-is the distance
between these places by a direct line? — In what direction from San Francisco is
Stockton? — On what rivers would you sail, to go from Stockton to Sacramento?
Through what strait must vessels sail from the Pacific Ocean to enter the Bay of
San Francisco? — What reason do you perceive for the name given to this strait? —
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from San Francisco to Sacramento. — What mountain about midway between San
Francisco and Stockton?
Spell the following names: — California. — San Francisco. — Sacramento. — San
Joaquin. — Benicia. — Monterey. — San Diego. — Calaveras. — Yreka. — Klamath —
What is the meaning of Sierra Nevada?
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QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
4
Which cf the United States is most extensively engaged in manufactures? —
Which in commerce? — Between what degrees of latitude and longitude is the
United States situated? — Which State produces the most cotton? — Which one
has the greatest number of square miles? — Which one has the largest popula-
tion?— Which State produces the most sugar? — What States and Territories are
intersected by the 40th parallel? — What is the length of a degree of longitude?
WThat lands and waters on the map of the Western Hemisphere are intersected
by the meridian of Boston ? — Name the principal mountain-ranges of North
America, and the general direction of each. — Give the proofs that the earth is
round. — Name the great circles of the earth. — Give the latitude and longitude
of Boston. — Of London.— Where are the principal coal and iron mines in the
United States ?
Name some of the principal exports of the United States. — Some of the prin-
cipal imports. — What is the horizon ? — Name the circles which bound the zones.
— Can you go farther north than the North Pole ? — Why is the length of a degree
of longitude on the 40th parallel less than the length of a degree on the equator?
— What is the width of the North Temperate Zone in degrees? — In miles? — On
what circumstances does the climate of a place depend ?
Name some of the principal islands that lie near the Atlantic coast of North
America. — On what does the change of seasons depend ? — What proportion of
the earth's surface is covered with water t — Of how many States and Territories
docs the United States consist ?— What is the latitude of the North Pole ?— Of
the Tropic of Capricorn ? — Of the Equator ? — What rivers unite to form the Ohio,
and what city is at their junction ?
Where is the Bay of Fundy, and for .vhat is it remaiAmblc ':■ — What is the right
bank of a river ? — What is the distance in degrees between the Tropics and
Polar Circles? — In miles? — Of what States docs the Mississippi River form the
boundary? — What building-stones are exported from Massachusetts? — From
Connecticut? — Bound the Great Central Plain of North America. — Has the
northwest passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean ever been made ?
To what race do the Esquimaux belong? — How wide is Behring Strait? —
What were the area and population of the United States at the time of the Revo-
lutionary War ? — What are they now ? — Where in the United States is salt found ?
— Name some of the fashionable watering-places in the United States. — AVhat
State lies wholly between the upland country and the Atlantic Ocean ? — What
is the latitude of Charleston, South Carolina ?
What islands in the Atlantic in about the same latitude as Charleston ? — Which
of the Western States has the largest population? — What parallel bounds the
United States on the north, from the Lake of the Woods to the Pacific Ocean? —
What is the largest grain port in the world? — What lake in Central America? —
What lake in California? — Are despotic governments found among savage or
civilized people? — How many seasons arc there in California?
Name four branches of the Ohio. — AVhat are the latitude and longitude of New
Orleans? — What is the largest city west of the Rocky Mountains? — Name four
rivers which flow into Hudson Bay. — What is the largest lake that lies wholly
within the United States? — How many miles is it from the centre of the earth
to the surface ? — Name three branches of the Missouri River. — Two ships are,
at the equator, 20° apart, and sailing directly north at the same rate : on reach-
ing 10° north latitude, will i hey be more or fewer degrees apart? — More or fewer
miles? '
Into how many departments is Geography divided ? — Define each. — In what
direction docs the earth revolve on its axis? — Which is longer, the polar or the
equatorial diameter of the earth? — How many miles longer? — Where is British
Columbia? — What point on the earth has neither latitude nor longitude ? — What
is a plateau? — An oasis? — A watershed? — How do the animals of the Torrid
differ from those of the Temperate Zone ?
S2
What are the three departments of the government of the United States?
Name the principal rivers in Virginia. — Name the principal rivers of North
America flowing into the Pacific Ocean.— What are the four chief branches of
industry? — What is the second commercial city in the United States? — What is
the character of the harbors of the Southern States? — In travelling from the
mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, would you meet
any high elevations of land 1
In what direction is Quito, in South America, from Charleston, South Caro-
lina?— In what direction, then, is South America from North America? — Name
the principal commercial cities in the United States. — What is the difference
between domestic and foreign commerce? — Into what sections is North Amer-
ica divided by its mountain systems? — What is the latitude of Cape Sable
(Florida) ? — Does Iceland belong to the Eastern or the Western Hemisphere t
In what zone is it ? — Name the principal branches of Hudson Bay. — Of the
Gulf of Mexico. — Caribbean Sea. — Go by water from the largest city in Michigan
to the largest city in Illinois. — What point of North America approaches nearest
to Asia? — What point approaches nearest to Europe ? — What is the largest city
in the State of Missouri? — Which is farther west, Havana or Buffalo?
Where arc the settlements in Greenland ? — What rivers drain Texas on the
east ? — What island at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River ? — Name the three
largest cities in the Middle States.— In the Southern States.— In the Western
States. — What group of islands on the coast of California? — AVhere are the
Wind River Mountains? — What celebrated pass near these mountains? — What
points of resemblance do the outlines of the two continents present?
What active volcano near the South Pole? — What is an active volcano: —
Name the two largest cities on the Mississippi River. — On what river is the
capital of Kansas? — AVhat countries of the AVestern Continent does the Arctic
Circle cross? — AVhat group of islands connect the continent of America with
Asia? — AVhat is the largest city on the AA'cstern Continent? — How many meri-
dians are there ? — What is a first meridian i
What is the distance in a straight line from Lake of the AVoods to Galveston?
— From Cape Mendocino to the mouth of the Hudson River? — AVhat climate is
the most favorable for agriculture ? — Name the rivers flowing into Long Island
Sound. — AVhere is Southampton Island? — AA'hat peninsulas on the cast coast of
North America? — AVhat ones on the west coast ? — Tell where you find the follow-
ing mountain-peaks: Mitchell's Peak; Mount Baker ; Mount San Bernardino;
Mars Hill; Mount Brown. — Are icebergs formed on the land, or on the sea?
. Name five rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico cast of the mouth of the
Mississippi. — What parts of the earth move at the rate of a thousand miles an
hour ? — AVhat parts at the rate of a thousand miles a minute ? — Name the riven
flowing into Hudson Bay on the cast. — AVhat mountains on the east and west
bound the Great Interior Basin of the United States? — Name the rivers of the
United States flowing into Lake Erie. — Into Lake Ontario.
AVhat mineral is chiefly used for making glass? — What bodies of land do you
find near the South Pole ? — In what direction docs the great mountain system
of the Western Continent extend? — In what direction does that of the Eastern
Continent extend? — -AVhat town at the head of AVinncbago Lake? — At the head
of Lake>Superior ? — What are Geysers? — AVhat is the principal settlement of
the Russian Fur Company '
What separates A7ancouver Island from the mainland ? — AVhere are the Tor-
tugas Island? — Where is Gettysburg? — Chattanooga? — Fortress Monroe? —
Harper's Ferry? — Vicksburg? — Fort Sumter? — For what are these places
noted? — What is the chief staple of the States bordering on the Gulf of
Mexico? — What strait separates Florida from the West Indies? — How wide is
the equator? — AVhat are the most necessary manufactures? — On what waters
will you sail in going from the capital of Kansas to the capital of Nebraska?
THE BRITISH PROVINCES OF NORTH AMERICA.
53
CHAPTER XI.
THE BRITISH PROVINCES OP NORTH AMERICA.
I. The British Provinces are : — The Dominion of Canada (which
includes the Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, and
Nova Scotia), Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, and British
Columbia. All of these, with the exception of British Columbia,
which lies on the Pacific Ocean, are situated within or near the
Basin of the St. Lawrence.
II. Surface. — In surface, climate, and productions, these prov-
inces resemble the adjacent parts of our own country.
Thus, the south-western districts of Canada arc like the States on the opposite
shores of the lakes ; and New Brunswick and Nova Scotia resemble Maine.
III. The Alleghany Mountain-System extends into Canada, and
terminates in low hills on the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A chain of
hills, called the Wotchish Mountains, separates the Basin of the
St. Lawrence from that of Hudson Bay.
IV. Lakes and Rivers. — The River St. Lawrence drains the
waters of the five great lakes — Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie,
and Ontario. They are said to contain more than half the fresh
water upon the globe.
'~'-"';'S*l
. A VIEW AMONG THE THOUSAND ISLES
The Basin of the St. Lawrence is famous for the grandeur and beauty of its
natural scenery. Niagara Falls, the Thousand Isles and Rapids of the St. Lawrence,
the Falls of Montmorenci (near Quebec), and the grand scenery of the Saguenay
River, are the admiration of thousands of tourists.
The St. Lawrence and the Lakes form the great natural highway of the country.
By means of canals, they have been made navigable throughout their entire length.
In winter the water-communication is frozen up.
What are the names of the British Provinces? — Where are they situated ? — De-
scribe the surface of the country. — The mountain systems. — What lakes arc drained
by the St. Lawrence? — For what is the Basin of the St. Lawrence famous? — How
far is the river navigable for ships? — What are the obstacles to navigation above
Montreal? — How are they overcome ? — What obstacle is there to the winter navi-
gation of the St. Lawrence?
The river admits ships from the Gulf to Montreal. Between that point and Lake
Ontario there arc rapids. These are avoided, in ascending the river, by canals on
the left bank; but the downward passage, though perilous, is made by the river
itself. Lake Ontario is also connected with the Ottawa River by the Rideau Canal.
The Falls of Niagara are avoided by the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes
Erie and Ontario. The Falls in the River St. Mary (which flows from Lake Supe-
rior to Lake Huron) are the only other natural obstruction, and are passed in a
ship canal.
V. Climate. — The climate of the Provinces, though it has a. gen-
eral resemblance to that of the adjoining parts of the United States,
is subject to great extremes.
The summers are very hot, while the winters are long and exceedingly cold.
The interior has a dry and clear atmosphere, but the coast is often visited by thick
fogs. In those districts which border upon the sea or the great lakes, the winters
are much milder, and the heat of summer is less intense.
VI. Government, — The British Government appoints a Governor
for each of the provinces. Every province, however, elects its own
legislature, and is wisely permitted to be in a great measure inde-
pendent. The Governor of Canada is Governor-General of the
whole of British America.
THE DOMINION OP CANADA.
VII. The Dominion of Canada was formed in 1867 by the con-
federation of the provinces of Quebec (Canada East), Ontario (Can-
ada West), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
VIII. Quebec contains many descendants of the early French
settlers. They speak a corruption of the French language, and
maintain the politeness and gayety of their race ; but are averse to
improvement, and jealous of English rule.
Canada was once in possession of the French, who built Quebec, Montreal, and
other towns in the lower part of the province. In the years 1759 and 1760, it was
conquered by the British.
IX. Ontario has been settled chiefly since the American Revo-
lution. The inhabitants are principally of British origin, and
profess the Protestant religion ; while in Lower Canada, the ma-
jority of the people are Catholics.
X. Productions. — Besides immense-wealth in forests, Canada has
the same vegetable productions that belong to the neighboring
States of our own country: grain, hemp, flax, and potatoes.
Towards the mouth of the St. Lawrence the climate is too severe, and the land
too poor to admit of much cultivation ; but in the south-western districts the soil is
very rich, and produces great crops of wheat and other grains.
XL Towns. The principal towns of Quebec are Quebec and
Montreal; of Ontario, Toronto, Hamilton, Kingston, Ottawa,
and London.
Ottawa was selected as the capital of Canada some years ago, but the necessary
public buildings were not completed until 1867 It is now the residence of the
Governor-General, and the Canadian Parliament meets there.
Quebec consists of an upper and a lower town. The upper town is built upon a
bold promontory which rises abruptly from the river. It is.the only walled town
in America, and is one of the strongest fortresses in the world. The lower town
lies at the foot of this steep rock, and is the seat of commerce.
Montreal, the chief city of British America, is built upon the island of that name
in the River St. Lawrence. Toronto is the largest city in Ontario.
What is the climate of the Provinces? — Describe the Government. — Of what
docs the Dominion of Canada consist? — What is the character of the descendants
of the French settlers? — Where arc they found : in Quebec, or Ontario? — Who
settled Ontario? — Name some of the productions of Canada. — Which are (ha
principal towns? — Name the newly-selected capital. — Describe Quebec. — Where is
Montreal ?
54
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
XII. New Brunswick. — The people of New Brunswick, Nova
Scotia, and the other provinces bordering upon the Gulf, are exten-
sively engaged in the fisheries, which form one of their principal
sources of wealth.
XIII. New Brunswick is north-east of the United States. Its
shores are washed by the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Bay of
Fundy.
The Bay of Fundy is remarkable for having the highest tides in the world.
XIV. Towns. — Fredericton, the capital, is at the head of sloop
navigation on the River St. John, 80 miles from its mouth. The
city of St. John, however, at the mouth of the river, is the largest
in the province, and is the principal seat of commerce.
XV. Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island form together a single
province. The coast contains a great number of fine harbors, pro-
moting the extensive commerce and fisheries, which form the chief
business of the people.
XIV. Towns. — Halifax, the capital, has a magnificent harbor,
and is the principal British naval station in this part of the world.
The chief exports of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are lumber, fish, coal,
grindstones, gypsum (or plaster), grain, potatoes, and hay.
XVII. Prince Edward Island. — Like all the other regions in or
upon the Gulf, this province has valuable fisheries. Farming and
grazing, however, form the chief occupation of the people. Char-
lottetown is the capital.
XVIII. Newfoundland. — The Surface is generally rocky and
barren. The coast is bold, and indented by deep inlets, which
form many excellent harbors. St. John's is the capital, and the
only town of any note upon the island.
XIX. Climate. — The winters are very cold, but the summers are
hot. Dense fogs hang over the coast during a large part of the year.
XX. Productions. — The fisheries form almost the sole wealth of
Newfoundland. The exports are fish, oil, and seal-skin.
The fish are taken along the shores of the island, and upon shallow places in the
sea, called the Banks of Newfoundland. The Grand Bank, which lies farthest to
the eastward, is more than 600 miles long, and 250 broad.
XXI. The authority of the Governor of Newfoundland extends
over the adjoining coast of Labrador.
XXII. British Columbia. (See Map of North America.) — This is a
new province which lies between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky
Mountains. It is a rugged, uncultivated region, covered with
thick forests.
Fraser River is the principal stream, upon whose banks, and those of its tributa-
ries, gold abounds.
XXIII. Vancouver and Washington Islands are situated on the
coast, westward of this province.
XXIV. Towns. — New Westminster is the capital of British
Columbia. Victoria is the principal town on Vancouver Island.
FRENCH ISLANDS.
XXV. The small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, south of
Newfoundland, belong to Franca, and serve for fishing-stations.
These isjands, a part of Guiana (in South America), and a few small islands
among the West Indies, are all that remain to France of the immense territory
which she once possessed in America.
In what are many of the people of the Gulf provinces engaged? — Where is New
Brunswick? — For what is the Bay of Fundy remarkable? — What is the capital of
New Brunswick ? — Nova Scotia? — Newfoundland? — What are the chief exports
of these provinces? — What is the climate of Newfoundland? — What can you say
of British Columbia? — Where are Vancouver and Washington Islands? — Which are
the French Islands ? — Arc the present possessions of the French in America greater
or less than formerly ?
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56
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY.
CHAPTER XII.
MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST
INDIES.
I. These countries are included within Spanish America, or
that part of the American Continent which was first settled by the
Spaniards, and is still occupied by their descendants.
'[Note. The extent of Spanish America, and the character of the people, are
described in the History of the United States, page 27.]
II. The greater part of Spanish America lies within or near the
Torrid Zone. All that portion which borders upon the Pacific
contains mountains and table-lands, and therefore exhibits an ex-
traordinary variety of vegetable products. The mineral wealth,
particularly in gold and silver, is also very great.
Yet such is the indolence of the people, that agriculture is almost wholly
neglected, and the mines are imperfectly worked. The rearing of live-stock better
suits the idle habits of the people, and many horned cattle, horses, and mules, are
raised. The cattle are slaughtered principally for their hides, horns, and tallow.
III. The only portions of Spanish America now in possession of
the mother country are Cuba and Porto Rico. The other colonies
threw off the yoke in the first quarter of the present century, and
established themselves as independent republics.
Most of them, however, are wretchedly governed; one revolution following
another, in endless succession.
IV. Mexico, Central America, and the Isthmus of Panama, oc-
cupy the narrowest portion of the Western Continent, and afford
the most convenient route between our Atlantic coast and that of
the Pacific.
A new interest was awakened in these routes by the vast emigration to California,
caused by the discovery of gold.
There were three routes projected: one by the Isthmus of Tehuantcpec, in
Mexico ; another by the way of the river San Juan and Lake Nicaragua, in Central
America; the third and most important across the Isthmus of Fanama.
The latter has become the great channel of communication between the oceans
by means of the Panama Railroad, which was completed in 1855. (For Panama,
gee Map of South America.)
V. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants of Spanish America are whites,
blacks, Indians, and the mixed races. By far the greater part of
the population of Mexico and Central America belong to the In- ;
dian and mixed races.
MEXICO.
VI. Coast. — Upon the Gulf of Mexico (as we have seen in the
United States), the coast is flat and sandy, and therefore deficient in
good harbors. The shores of the Pacific, however, are more bold,
and abound with fine harbors, which admit ships of the largest
size.
VII. Surface. — The interior consists of table-lands, from 4000
to 9000 feet high. They rise abruptly from the Pacific coast, but
there is a considerable interval of low land between them and the
Gulf of Mexico.
From the Gulf, the table-lands are only accessible by two carriage-roads: ono by
Jalapa, from Vera Cruz; the other by Saltillo, from Matamoras and Monterey.
Both these routes were made the points of attack by the United States Army, in the
recent war between the two countries.
What do you understand by Spanish America? — Within what zone does it prin-
cipally lie? — What, then, is its climate? — What are some of the productions?
What part of Spanish America is still in possession of Spain? — What three routes
were projected from the Atlantic to the Pacific? — Which has become the great
channel of communication? — Who inhabit this country? — What is the character of
The Sierra Madre crosses the table-land from north to south, and forms a con-
tinuation of the Rocky Mountains. The highest mountains in Mexico are a line
of single peaks (many of them volcanoes), which cross the southern part of the
plateau from east to west.
VIII. Climate. — The rainy season continues from May till Octo-
ber; the dry season from October to May. Like all tropical coun-
tries which contain high and low lands, Mexico exhibits a great
variety of climate.
In ascending from the coast to the surface of the plateau, we find three regions
in succession: — the hot, swampy, and pestilential lowlands; the temperate regions,
which enjoy a healthful and delightful climate; and the cold, desolate plains above.
IX. Productions. — The vegetable productions vary with the cli-
mate— passing through gradual changes, from the lowlands to the
surface of the plateau.
Thus, Mexico possesses, in the same latitude, the vegetation of nil the zones.
The oak and pine are found here, as well as the mahogany, ebony, and palm.
Wheat and barley are produced in the cooler regions; and cotton, tobacco, the
sugar-cane, and many fruits and spices, in the plains and valleys below. Indian
corn grows both on the high -and low-lands.
Jhe Maguey plant furnishes an intoxicating drink, called pulque, of which the
Mexicans consume a great quantity. One plant often yields 1C0 gallons.
The mines of Mexico once yielded immense quantities of gold and silver, but
they are now less productive. Iron, copper, and other useful metals have since
been discovered, and are worked to a limited extent.
X. Towns. — Mexico, the capital, is situated upon a table-land,
7000 feet above the sea. The capture of this city by General Scott,
in 1847, was the closing event of the war with the United States.
VIEW OF THE CITY OF MEXICO.
[This view represents, in the foreground, one of the magnificent aqueducts which
supply the city with water. On the left of the centre is the Cathedral, and on the
right the two convents of San Augustine and San Francisco. In the distance are
represented the volcanoes of Popocatapetl ("Smoking-mountaia") and Iztaccihuatl
("White Lady") ]
Most of the towns in the interior are situated on the table-lands, where the
climate ia much moro healthful than on the swampy regions of the co^st. Gua-
naxuato and Zacatecas, on the highlands, are rich in mines of gold and silver.
Vera Cruz and Tampico arc the principal ports on the Gulf of Mexico ; Acapulco,
San Bias, Mazatlan, and Guaymas, are the principal ones on the Pacific coast.
the coast of the Gulf of Mexico? — Which is the principal mountain-chain of Mexico?
— Describe the climate of the country. — What are gome of the productions? — Are
they of moro than one climate? — What is pulque? — How does the present pro-
ductiveness of the mines compare with that of the past? — Describe the city of
Mexico. — Which are the principal mining towns? — Name the principal ports.
MEXICO, CENTKAL AMEEICA, AND THE WEST INDIES.
57
XI. Commerce. — Though Mexico is so rich in natu-
ral productions, every branch of industry is neglected.
Commerce is, therefore, very limited, and the exports
consist of the simplest productions : gold, silver, cattle,
hides, and cochineal.
The cochineal is an insect which feeds on a species of cactus.
When killed, and dried in the sun, it yields a brilliant crimson dye.
XII. History. — Fernando Cortcz, a Spanish adven-
turer, conquered the country in 1521.
He found there an extensive kingdom, with regular laws, and
with cities, temples, public roads, and many of the arts of civilized
life. After the conquest, the cruelty of the Spaniards drove the
Indians back into a state of barbarism.
In 1821, Mexico became independent of Spain, and established
first an empire, then a republican form of government. By the
war with the United States, which ceased in 1848, she lost Upper
California and New Mexico.
XIII. The Peninsulas of Yucatan and Old Califor-
nia are parts of Mexico but little known. The former
is noted for its ruins of ancient temples and cities.
Belize, or Balize, (a part of Yucatan,) belongs to the
British.
CENTRAL AMERICA.
XIV. Central America comprises the five States of Guatemala,
Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Eica. In surface,
climate, and productions, the country bears a general resemblance
to Mexico.
The height of the table-lands gradually decreases towards the Isthmus of Pana-
ma, where the surface is varied by a chain of low hills. Along the south-western
edge of the plateau is a line of volcanoes, which form a part of the great volcanic
chain on the Pacific coast of America.
XV. Towns. — The largest city in Central America is New Gua-
temala, the capital of the State of Guatemala.
Comayagua is the capital of Honduras ; San Salvador, of San Salvador ; Leon,
of Nicaragua ; and San Jose1, of Costa Rica.
WEST INDIES.
XVI. The "West India Islands form three divisions: the Greater
Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas.
The Greater Antilles consist of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. The
Lesser Antilles include the chain of islands which extend from Porto Rico to
South America. The Antilles are mountainous, and are supposed to be the remains
of a mountain-chain, which, at some remote period, connected North and South
America.
The Bahamas are low islands, of coral formation. Guanahani, one of the Ba-
hama Islands, was the first land, of the New World, discovered by Columbus.
XVII. The climate and productions of the "West Indies are
tropical.
The climate is generally healthful, except in the rainy season. The islands are
subject to terrific hurricanes. Sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, tobacco, mahogany,
spices, and tropical fruits, form the chief exports.
XVIII. Inhabitants. — The population of the West Indies con-
sists principally of whites, free negroes, and slaves.
What are the exports of Mexico? — What is cochineal? — Who first conquered
Mexico ? — When did it become independent? — For what is Yucatan noted? — Where
is Balize ? — To what country docs it belong? — Name the Political Divisions of
Central America. — Which is the largest city of Central America ? — Name the capital
of each of the States of Central America. — What divisions do the West Indies form?
RUINS OF CHICHEN, YUCATAN.
About one sixth of the inhabitants are white. The negroes were once all slaves,
but, except in Cuba and Porto Rico, they are now free. A considerable number
of Chinese, called Coolies, have been taken to some of the islands, to labor upon
the plantations.
XIX. Most of the West India Islands are in possession of Eu-
ropean nations.
Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain ; Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the
Lesser Antilles, to Great Britain; Hayti is independent; and the remaining islands
are owned by France, Denmark, Holland, Sweden, and Venezuela.
Cuba, the "Queen of the Antilles," is the richest of Spain's possessions. It is
about as large as the State of Kentucky, and nearly equal in area to all the rest
of the West Indies. The extensive foreign commerce of the island is chiefly
carried on through Havana and Matanzas.
Jamaica is a very beautiful and fertile island ; but, like the rest of the British
West Indies, the amount of her productions and commerce has of late years greatly
decreased. Kingston is the largest town.
XX. Hayti embraces two distinct States : the Eepublic of Dominica
and the Eepublic of Hayti.
The island once belonged to France and Spain. In 1791, the slaves in the
western, or French division, rose against their masters, and, after a bloody and
cruel war, succeeded in establishing themselves, first as an empire, then as an
independent republic.
In 1849, Soulouque (who was then President) proclaimed himself Emperor, with
the title of Faustin I. After a reign of ten years, Soulouque was deposed, and,
in 1859, a republican form of government was again adopted. In 1821, the eastern
division revolted from Spain, and formed a republican government.
Hayti is noted for its beautiful scenery and for the fertility of its soil, which is
capable of producing every variety of tropical vegetation.
XXI. The Bermuda Islands are situated in the Atlantic Ocean,
north of the West Indies. They belong to Great Britain.
There are about 400 of these islands. Most of them are so small and barren that
they have neither name nor inhabitants. [For location, see map of N. America.]
Which are the Greater Antilles ? — The Lesser Antilles ? — Are they level or moun-
tainous ? — Are the Bahama Islands high or low lands? — Name some of the pro-
ductions of the West Indies. — In which of the islands are there slaves ? — In whose
possession are most of the islands? — Which belong to Spain? — Great Britain? —
Which is independent ? — Where are the Bermuda Islands ? — To whom do they belong ?
I.<Mi;riliidr\W*l ,", l'roniW;
UUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES.
STATISTICAL.
Which of these divisions are parts of the mainland of North America? — Which
one consists entirely of islands? — How many States of the size of Missouri would
Mexico make? — What Southern State has about the same area as Hayti ? — Which
is the larger: Cuba, or Kentucky ? — Jamaica, or Connecticut?
MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.
OUTLINE.
Between what gulf and ocean is Mexico ? — What country bounds it on the north ?
What gulf indents its western coast? — Name the peninsula between this gulf and
the Pacific Ocean.— Between what two bays is the peninsula of Yucatan?
Between what sea and ocean is Central America? — What channel separates Yu-
catan from Cuba? — Where is the Mosquito Coast? — Between what two bodies of
water is the Isthmus of Tehuantepcc ? — Is it in Mexico or Central America ?
What cape at the southern extremity of the peninsula of California? — What one
on the eastern coast? — Where is Cape Gracios a Dios ? — Cape Roxo? — Cape Tetas?
— Cape Corrientes? — Which coast of these countries has the best harbors: the
Pacific, or that of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea ?
SURFACE.
Of what does the interior of Mexico and Central America consist? — What is the
general height of these table-lands? — Does the elevation increase, or diminish,
towards the Isthmus of Panama? — On which coast do the table-lands rise most
abruptly from the sea?
Near which coast is there most low land ? — By what carriage-roads is the Mexican
plateau accessible from the Gulf of Mexico ? — What use was made of these roads by
the United States army during the late war between the two countries?
What mountain-chain crosses the Mexican Plateau from north to south? Where is
the volcano of Popocatapctl ? — Jorullo ? — Where are the volcanoes of Central America ?
LAKES AND EIVEES.
What river partly separates Mexico from the United States ? — What large river
of the United States flows into the head of the Gulf of California ? —What large
lake in Central America ? — What river flows from it into the Caribbean Sea?
Name four rivers which flow down the western declivity of the Sierra Madre Moun-
tains.— Two that flow down the eastern dcclivitv. — What lake in Mexico near the
parallel of 20° ?
CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
In what zones is Mexico? — In what zone is Central America ? — Why do these
countries exhibit such a variety of climate and vegetation ?
In what part of these countries is the climate hot and unhealthful ? — What arc
the productions of the low lands? — Describe the climate of the more elevated
regions — Name the productions raised there.
Does Indian corn grow on the higli or low lands ? — Where do the fruits and spices
grow ? — Wheat and barley ? — The sugar-cane ? — What intoxicating drink is made
in Mexico? — What dye from the cochineal insect?
What precious metals are found in Mexico and Central America ? — How does the
present productiveness of the mines compare with that of the past? — What useful
minerals are found in Mexico ?
POLITICAL DIVISIONS AND TOWNS.
To what division do the peninsulas of California and Vucatan belong? — Name
the five States of Central America. — Which is the most northern of these States?
The most southern ? — The most eastern ?— Where is the Balize ? — To what country
does it belong ?
Why are the towns of the interior of Mexico more healthful than those upon the
coast?— What is the capital of Mexico? — Name the principal seaports upon the
Gulf of Mexico. — Why did the American army march through Jalapa on its way
from Vera Cruz to Mexico ?
Near the mouth of what river is Matamoras?— What town in the United States is
on the opposite bank of liic river? — Name some of the largest towns of the mining
districts. — Where is Tampico? — Which is farther north: Tampico, or Vera Cruz?
Name the principal ports on the Pacific coast. — Which two of them are situated
on the Gulf of California? — Where is the town of Balize? — Where is Greytown?
On what State of Central America is San Jose' the capital? — Comayagua? Leon?
— New Guatemala?
THE WEST INDIES.
Name the three divisions of the West India Islands. — Which are the Greater An-
tilles?— Where are the Lesser Antilles? — How do the Bahama Islands differ in
surface from the Antilles?
Name the bodies of water by which the West Indies arc surrounded. — Which group
extends farthest to the north? — To the east and south? — What island is farthest
west ? — Name the largest one of the West India Islands. — Which is next in size?
Which of the West India Islands is independent?— Which of them belong to
Spain? — To Great Britain? — To what European and South American countries do
the others belong ?
In what zone are most of these islands? — What, then, is the climate? — Is it
generally healthful? — What are the principal exports? — What proportion of the
inhabitants are whites? — In which of the islands are there slaves?
Which of the West Indies was first discovered by Columbus? — In what direction
is this island from Cuba? — Where is Havana? — Kingston? — Matanzas? — St. Do-
mingo?— St. John? — Port-au-Prince ? — Where are the Bermuda Islands? — To
what country do they belong?— What are the two divisions of the island of Hayti?
What passage between Cuba and Hayti? — What one between Hayti and Porto
Rico? — Name three of the Leeward Islands. — Name three of the Windward
Islands. — What does Florida Strait connect? — What docs it separate? — In what
direction from South America are the Greater Antilles ? — From the United States?
— What cape at the western extremity of Cuba? — What cape at its eastern ex-
tremity?— What large island south of the western part of Cuba? — What cape on
the eastern coast of Hayti? — What large town in eastern central Cuba?— Where is
Cienfuegos? — AuxCayes? — Cape Haytien ? — In what part of Cuba are the Copper
Mountains?
Cuba imports from the United States fish, butter, cheese, pork, lard, lumber,
machinery, Indian corn, ice, flour, &c. — Mention some of the articles the United
States receives in return.
MISCELLANEOUS.
What do you understand by Spanish America? — What parts of Spanish America
are now ittjjijjijjcssion of Spain? — When did their other colonies become free? ■
What is the preseittr.jcondition of those republics? — Which do you think the more
prosperous countries: those settled by the Spaniards, or by the English? — What
reasons can you assign for (his difference?
Name the islands, two peninsulas, and divisions of the mainland, which form the
principal boundaries of the Gulf of Mexico.— What bay forms the southern part
of this gulf?— Which division of the West Indies is north of the Caribbean Sea? —
Which is east? — What land bounds this sea on the south? — On the west?
Name some articles with which you would freight a vessel at Havana for New
York. — What would you ship from New York in return? — Between what islands
would you sail, to go by the windward passage from the Caribbean Sea into the
Atlantic Ocean?
Give the history of Mexico. — What can you say of Yucatan and California?
To which division of the West Indies does the first land discovered by Columbus
belong? — Is it a mountainous or a low island?
What two important cities of tho West Indies are very nearly on the Tropic of
Cancer ?
What three regions do you find in Mexico, in ascending from the coast to the sur-
face of the plateau? — Why are there so many varieties of vegetation in the same
latitude ? — What vegetable products grow in the cooler or upland region ? — What
in the valleys?
Which do you think is the healthier city, Vera Cruz, or Mexico? — Why ?-
the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific coast present the best harbors? — Why?
-Does
Bound Mexico; Central America. — Name the principal mountain-chains, rivers,
and towns. — Sketch a map of the West Indies.
59
tfi)
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPTIY.
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SILLERO AND TRAVELLER.
CHURCH OF THE JE8UIT8, AT CUZCO.
DESCENDING THE ANDES.
CHAPTER XIII.
SOUTH AMERICA.
PHYSICAL FEATURES.
I. Outline. — South America is a great peninsula, connected with
North America by the Isthmus of Panama. Unlike' North America,
the coast is indented by no large bays and gulfs.
This is one of the principal reasons why the interior is not better known to
Europeans, and more thickly settled by them.
II. Surface. — South America contains three principal mountain-
systems: the Andes, Parime, and Brazilian Mountains.
III. The Andes are a part of the great mountain-system of the
"Western Continent. They form one 'of the grandest mountain-
ranges in the world.
They commence in low hills on the Isthmus of Panama, and terminate in the island
of Cape Horn, which is a black and naked rock, rising 3500 feet from the sea. In
Patagonia, they rise abruptly from the shore ; but further north, they retreat to
the distance of 60 or 100 miles from the coast.
The Andes consist generally of parallel ranges of lofty mountains, with high
valleys and table-lands between them — the whole mass being from 30 to 400 miles
wide.
The region of the Andes is subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The
towns among the highlands and along the coast are, therefore, liable to be destroyed
by these convulsions of nature; and, indeed, many splendid cities have been laid
in ruins. This is true, also, of Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies.
The table-lands of the Andes are great plains far above the level of the sea, sur-
rounded by ramparts of snow-capped heights and smoking volcanoes. The Great
How does the coast of South America differ from that of North America? — What
effect has this had upon the settlement of the country by Europeans? — What are
the three mountain-systems? — Describe the Andes, — The Great Plateau of the
Andes,
Tlateau, in the centre of the system, is about a thousand miles long. It contains
Lake Titicaca, 12,800 feet above the sea, and supports some of the loftiest moun-
tains of the Andes.
The southern part of the Great Plateau is called Dexpoblado (" uninhabited ").
This is a desert plain, a large portion of which is covered with salt. The Plateaus
of Bogota, Quito, and Popayan, are from 7000 to 10,000 feet high.
IV. The Parime system comprises several parallel ranges, ex-
tending from east to west, between the Orinoco and Amazon
rivers. They have an average elevation of 3000 or 4000 feet.
V. The Brazilian Mountains (or Brazilian Andes) extend along
the south-east coast of Brazil for more than 2000 miles. Their
average elevation is about 3500 feet.
VI. The whole country east of the Andes, with the exception
of the Parime and Brazilian Mountains, is a vast plain. It is
generally so level, that in the rainy season, when the rivers over-
flow their banks, vast tracts of country are laid under water, pre-
senting the appearance of large inland seas.
VII. This great plain comprises the basins of the Orinoco, the
Amazon, and the La Plata.
The Llanos (Plains) of the Orinoco, at the close of the wet season, are covered
with rich grass ; but in the dry months, the lakes and pools are dried up, the
vegetation is withered, and the hot winds sweep clouds of dust over the parched
and desolate plain.
The Silvas, or "forest plains," cover the lower part of the valley of the Amazon,
and extend along the banks of that river for 1500 miles from its mouth. They are
copiously watered throughout the year.
The Pampas, or "treeless plains " of the La Plata, are covered with thistles and
coarse grass. South of the Pampas is the stony desert of Patagonia. This in-
cludes all the country east of the Andes, and south of the River Negro.
What does Dcspoblado mean ? — Describe the Parime system? — The Brazilian
Mountains? — What part of South America is a great plain? — Where are the
Llanos? — Silvas? — Pampas? — How do these plains differ?— What kind of coun-
try is south of the Pampas?
SOUTH AMERICA.
CI
VIII. Rivers and Lakes. — The three principal rivers of South
America are the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata.
Owing to the flatness of the country, the water-shed between these great rivers is
sometimes only a gentle rise in the ground, so slight as to be imperceptible to the
eye ; and, in the rainy season, the head-waters of the Amazon mingle with those of
the Orinoco and La Plata. .
The River Cassiquiare connects the Orinoco with the River Negro, a tributary of
the Amazon. It sometimes flows from the Orinoco into the River Negro, and some-
times in the opposite direction — as the water is high or low in the rivers which it
connects,
The Valley of the Amazon is the largest river-basin in the world ; it is two-
thirds as large as the United States. Some of the tributaries of this mighty stream
are longer than the largest rivers of Europe. The mouth of the Amazon is so wide,
that in crossing it you would be as oompletely out of sight of land, as if you were
sailing on the ocean.
The Rio de la Plata, next to the Amazon and Mississippi, drains the largest
extent of country of any river in America. Only one river of the Eastern Conti-
nent (the Obe) has a larger basin than the La Plata.
A recent exploration of several of its tributaries, by Lieutenant Page, of the U.
S. Navy, shows many of them to be navigable nearly to their sources, and the
country which they drain to be one of extraordinary productiveness.
Many other rivers of South America are of great importance, and admit an exten-
sive navigation : such as the Magdalena, the rivers of Guiana, and of Brazil.
IX. There are but few permanent lakes of large size in South
America. With the exception of Lake Titicaca and Lake Mara-
caybo, they are more like vast morasses than lakes.
Lake Titicaca is a saltish lake, about half as large as Lake Erie. Its waters do
not flow into the ocean. Lake Maracaybo is, more properly speaking, a bay, being
connected by a strait with the Caribbean Sea.
X. Climate. — South America lying principally within the Torrid
Zone, has, for the most part, a tropical climate.
In the low lands, within the Tropics, the heat is intense; but as we go southward,
or ascend the mountains, the climate gradually changes to that of the Temperate
Zone. In Patagonia, the cold becomes severe; and, in the Strait of Magellan, snow
falls almost every day.
XL Productions. — In no other country do we find more luxu-
riance, and a greater variety of vegetation, than in South
America.
The forests yield many kinds of rare and valuable wood : as the rosewood, mahog-
any, logwood, and caoutchouc tree (from the sap of which India-rubber is made).
Medicinal plants of great value are also found here: as sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha,
and the cinchona tree (from which Peruvian bark is obtained).
The forests cover a large portion of the country ; and are frequently so dense,
and so entangled by shrubs, twining-plants, and sharp-edged grasses, that an axe
is necessary to clear the way.
The immense herds of horses and cattle that roam over the great plains are among
the chief sources of wealth to the inhabitants. The slaughter of oxen, for their
hides, is the principal business in many parts of the country. Gold, silver, copper,
and diamonds, are found in abundance.
XII. Animals. — The beasts of prey, though numerous and for-
midable, are much inferior, in size, strength, and ferocity, to those
of Asia and Africa.
The jaguar-, or South American tiger, and the condor of the Andes, are among
the largest animals of South America. The vampire-bat is a singular creature,
which lives by sucking the blood of animals. The Llama is much used in the moun-
tain regions as a beast of burden.
No part of the world contains a greater number and variety of reptiles and insects
than are found in the low lands of South America. Huge alligators and water-
Which are the three principal rivers of South America? — Is the water-shed
between them high or low land ? — Into what does the Cassiquiare flow, when the
Orinoco is high and the Rio Negro low? — What is said of the Basin of the Ama-
zon?— The La Plata? — Are there any other rivers of importance in South
America? — Describe the lakes. — Is it, in general, a hot or cold country? — What
are some of the productions?
snakes swarm in the rivers and marshes of the tropical regions ; the boa-con-
strictor attains a monstrous size ; and many venomous snakes lie coiled under the
leaves.
Scorpions, centipedes, and spiders, in some sections, keep the traveller in con-
stant alarm; while the incessant stinging of flies, mosquitoes, and other insects,
renders life miserable, — indeed, some places are so infested with these plagues as
to be quite uninhabitable even by the Indians.
SOUTH AMERICAN SCENERY.
XIII. Inhabitants. — The population of South America consists
of whites, Indians, negroes, and mixed races.
The whites, who form but a small proportion of the population, are chiefly the
descendants of Spanish and Portuguese. They are, in general, an idle people, fond
of swinging in their hammocks, and smoking cigars. The negroes were brought
into the country for slaves : but most of them have been freed, except in Brazil.
The Indians of the settled States are an inoffensive people, and in some places
perform most of the labor of the country. In the interior, however, there are many
fierce and savage tribes.
XIV. History. — Columbus landed at the mouth of the Orinoco
Eiver, in 1498. The European nations soon took possession of the
country. Brazil was settled by the Portuguese ; Guiana, by the
Dutch and French ; and Spain claimed the rest.
In the first quarter of the present century, the Spanish colonies, after a long and
severe struggle, threw off the yoke of Spain, and established themselves as inde-
pendent republics. Brazil, in 1822, effected a peaceable separation from Portugal.
XV. Religion. — The people of South America are chiefly Roman
Catholics ; except in British and Dutch Guiana, where the Prot-
estant religion prevails.
POLITICAL DIVISION'S.
XVI. The countries embraced within the limits of South America
are nine Republics, namely : Venezuela, United States of Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, the Argentine Confederation, Uru-
guay, and Paraguay ; the Empire of Brazil ; the colonies of British,
Dutch, and French Guiana ; and the unsettled country of Patagonia.
Name some of the animals. — How do they compare with those of the tropical
regions of the Old World? — What is said of the reptiles and insects ? — What
classes does the population comprise? — What is the character of the whites? —
By whom was South America first settled ? — To what religion are the principal
part of the inhabitants attached ? — Name the Political Divisions of South
America.
62
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
VENEZUELA, UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA, ECUADOR,
PERU, BOLIVIA.
XVII. These States are much alike in the character of their sur-
face, climate, and productions. Each of them is divided into three
distinct regions : the narrow plain on the coast ; the mountains and
plateaus in the centre ; and the great plains which stretch from the
Andes into the interior.
The coast of Venezuela, Ecuador, and the United States of Colombia, is very wet ;
which fact, combined with the intense heat, makes the climate exceedingly unhealthy.
The coast of Bolivia and Peru is dry and barren, for the lofty mountains in these
States intercept the rain-clouds in their passage to the Pacific. The Bolivian coast,
indeed, is an absolute desert.
XVIII. The largest towns in this region are in the interior, and
are generally situated on the table-lands, where the climate is cool
and healthy.
Owing to the mountainous character of the country, communication between the
towns of the coast and of the interior is difficult, and commerce very limited. Travel-
ling among the mountains is often extremely difficult and dangerous.
There are scarcely any carriage-roads ; travellers and goods are carried by mules,
or on the backs of men. The traveller sits in a chair which is slung upon the back
of the Indian porter ; and in this manner they cross the most frightful chasms, upon
the slippery trunk of a tree, where a single false step would be fatal.
XIX. Venezuela. — The greater part of this State is included
within the Llanos, or plains of the Orinoco.
No white man has ever reached the source of this great river, which flows through
a wilderness of forests and plains. Upon the banks dwell a tribe of savages, who
partially subsist upon balls of clay. They are called the " dirt-eaters of the Orinoco."
La Guayra is the principal sea-port. Caraccas, the capital, is among the moun-
tains. Margarita, a small island of the West Indies, near the coast, belongs to Ven-
ezuela. Margarita (which means "a pearl") was once famous for its pearl-fisheries.
Which of the States resemble each other in surface, climate, and productions? —
Into what regions is each divided? — What is the character of the coast of Vene-
zuela, Ecuador, and the United States of Colombia ? —Bolivia and Peru ? — Where
are the principal towns situated ? — Where is Venezuela? — What kind of people
live on the banks of the Orinoco? — Name the principal sea-port of Venezuela? —
What is the capital?
XX. United States of Colombia— The Andes are divided, in this
Republic, into three chains. Down the valleys between them flow
the Magdalena and Cauca, the principal rivers of the country.
Cartagena is the principal sea-port. Aspinwall and Panama, on opposite shores
of the Isthmus of Panama, arc connected by a railroad. Bogota (the capital) and
Popayan are on lofty table-lands in the interior, several thousand feet above the
sea.
XXI. Ecuador is crossed by the Equator, and derives its name
from that circumstance. It contains Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, and
several more of the most famous volcanoes of the Andes.
Quito, the capital, is situated on an elevated plain, almost directly under the
Equator. Guayaquil, on the gulf of that name, is the principal Bea-port.
XXII. Pern, though now of little importance among nations, is
remarkable for its history.
At the time of the discovery of the New World, Peru, like Mexico, was inhabited
by Indians, who were considerably advanced in civilization. They were governed
by a race of princes, called Incas, whose empire extended along the Andes, from
the United States of Colombia to the southern boundary of Chili.
Pizarro, a bold Spanish adventurer, had heard of the wealth of Peru, and the
great abundanoe of its gold and silver. With a small band of fierce and brave fol-
lowers, he entered the country, took possession of the empire and treasure of the
Incas, and Peru thus became a part of the Spanish possessions.
The Chincha and Lobos Islands, which lie on the coast, belong to Peru. They
arc of great value for the immense quantity of guano found upon them. It is
exported to Europe and the United States, for manure.
Lima, the capital of Peru, is a large city, six miles from the coast, and is situated
in a fine river valley. Callao is the principal sea-port. Among the mountain towns
arc Cerro Pasco, famous for its silver mines; Cuzco, the capital of the ancient Peru-
vian monarchy ; Arequipa, and Huamanga.
XXIII. Bolivia was named in honor of General Bolivar, under
whose guidance the people threw off the yoke of Spain.
The Bolivian coast is a narrow strip of barren country, and contains no sea-port
of any importance. The foreign trade is carried on through Peru and La Plata ;
but communication is so difficult, that few of the products will pay the cost of trans-
portation to the coast.
Potosi stands on the side of a mountain of the same name, at the height of 13,350
feet above the level of the sea, and is said to be the highest city in the world. The
silver-mines of Potosi are estimated to have yielded the value of sixteen hundred
millions of dollars since their discovery ; but though they arc nearly as rich as ever,
they are not now worked, for want of proper enterprise.
Sucre, the capital, and La Paz, the largest town, are on the high table-lands of
the interior.
XXIV. The exports of this section of South America are made
principally from La Guayra and Cartagena on the Caribbean Sea,
and Guayaquil and Callao on the Pacific Ocean.
From La Guayra are shipped coffee, cotton, sugar, cacao, indigo, and hides; from
the other ports, gold and silver, hides, some tobacco, cotton, and Peruvian bark.
CHILI.
XXV. Chili lies wholly upon the western side of the Andes.
The greater part of the country is covered with hills, which branch
off from that great chain, and diminish in height as they approach
the coast.
The most fertile districts of Chili are in the southern half of the country.
Towards the north, the hills become more naked and barren, and finally merge
into the Desert of Atacama on the Bolivian coast.
Describe the United States of Colombia.— What is the capital ? — From what does
Ecuador derive its name?— What is the capital? — For what is Peru remarkable?
— Name the capital. — In honor of whom was Bolivia named? — Through what
countries does it carry on its foreign trade? — For what is Potosi noted ? — What
is the capital of Bolivia? — The largest town? — Where is Chili ? — What is the
character of the surface.
SOUTH AMERICA.
63
XXVI. One of the Juan Fernandez Islands, 400 miles from Chili,
is famous for having been the solitary residence of Alexander
Selkirk, a Scotch sailor. His life and adventures in this lonely spot
are supposed to have given rise to the story of Robinson Crusoe.
XXVII. The climate of Chili is temperate, and remarkably
healthy. The rains fall in the winter months, from June to Septem-
ber, and the country is soon covered with wild flowers and verdure.
XXVIII. The Chilians are more active and intelligent than the
other inhabitants of Spanish America, and are making considerable
advancement in their state of society.
The Araucanians are a bold and warlike tribe of savages, inhabiting a distinct
territory in the southern part of Chili. They are a noble race; and, by their
singular valor, have always maintained their independence of Spanish rule.
Santiago is the capital of Chili. Valparaiso is the principal sea-port, and the
most important city on the western coast of South America. Copper and other
metals are exported in considerable quantities from Copiapo and Tongoy. Wheat is
also an important article of export.
THE ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.
XXIX. The Argentine Confederation consists of a number of
States united under a government modelled after that of the United
States.
XXX. Buenos Ayres, the most important State of the Republic,
for a long time maintained an independent government, and was
frequently at war with the other States. It is now, however (1867),
again a member of the Confederation.
Buenos Ayres, the capital, is the largest city in the Basin of the La Plata, and
one of the most important commercial cities in South America. Parana is rapidly
increasing in population. Rosario, on the Parana River, has of late years become
a commercial mart of much importance. Mendoza is the oentre of trade between
Buenos Ayres and Chili.
URUGUAY.
XXXI. This republic has, from its position, and the fertility of
its soil, many natural advantages ; but the wars, which it has
been forced to carry on with Buenos Ayres, have checked the
commerce and industry of the country.
Since the navigation of the La Plata has been made free, however, it is probable
that commerce will increase. Montevideo is the capital, and the only town of
importance.
PARAGUAY.
XXXII. This country, situated far in the interior, has hitherto
had but little communication with foreigners. Assumption is the
capital.
Mai(, or Paraguay tea, is the dried leaf of an evergreen tree which grows in
great abundance in Paraguay. A beverage made from this tea is a favorite drink
in South American countries.
XXXIII. Uruguay and Paraguay were formerly members of the
Argentine Confederation. Paraguay was for many years governed
by the dictator, Dr. Francia, who obliged the people to be educated,
and to engage in some useful employment. It is only since his
death, in 1840, that the country has been opened to strangers.
The exports of the countries occupying the basin of the Bio de la Plata are
principally made from the cities of Buenos Ayres and Montevideo. They consist
mainly of hides, horns, bones, tallow, and wool.
For what is one of the Juan Fernandez Islands famous ? — What is the climate of
Chili? — Who are the Araucanians ? — Name the most important towns of Chili.
What can you say of the Argentine Confederation and Buenos Ayres? — What has
prevented the advancement of Uruguay? — Where is Paraguay? — What is Mate"?
Through what citios are tho products of the La Plata countries exported ?
BRAZIL.
XXXIV. The central and eastern regions of this immense empire
form a table-land of moderate elevation, crossed by hills, which in
general rise to only a trifling height above its level.
The low lands of the interior and on the coast are excessively moist and hot.
The table-lands and the provinces of the south have a milder and drier climate.
FAMILY CONVEYANCE IN BRAZIL.
Brazil is one of the richest countries in the world, in its natural productions.
Its commerce is very extensive. The gold mines are productive, and most of the
diamonds now in use come from Brazil.
Bio Janeiro, the capital, has one of the finest harbors in the world, and is a place
of great trade. Bahia, Pcrnambuco, Maranham, and Par&, are also large and im-
portant commercial cities. The towns in the interior are small, and of but little note.
The exports of Brazil are coffee, hides, sugar, rice, cotton, rosewood, caoutchouc
(or India-rubber), Peruvian bark, and many other articles. Caoutchouc and Peru-
vian bark are brought down the Amazon, and are principally shipped from Para.
The greatest quantity of cofFeo is sent from Rio Janeiro.
GUIANA.
XXXV. Guiana is a low and fertile region, with a climate and
productions wholly tropical. The heat is very great.
It is divided into British, Dutch, and French Guiana. Georgetown is the capital
of the British; Paramaribo, of the Dutch; and Cayenne, of the French portion.
The exports are sugar, rum, coffee, cocoa, indigo, and tropical fruits.
PATAGONIA.
XXXVI. Patagonia is a sterile country, inhabited only by native
tribes of Indians. The Patagonians are a tall and muscular people,
many of whom are more than six feet in height. They subsist
upon their herds of cattle, and by hunting.
Terra del Fuego is the most southern part of the inhabited world, and is peopled
by a race of miserable savages, who live chiefly by fishing.
The Falkland Islands, off Patagonia, belong to Great Britain. Great numbers of
wild cattle find pasturage there, and seals are hunted for their fur. A British
colony has been established, but the population is very small.
Describe the surface of Brazil. — Its climate. — Name some of its productions. —
What is the capital ? — What are the principal sea-ports ? — What are some of the
exports? — What kind of country is Guiana? — To what European nations does it
belong? — What are the exports? — Who inhabit Patagonia? — Where is Terra del
Fuego? — To what country do the Falkland Islands belong ? — Where are they ?
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA.
OUTLINE.
How does the outline of South America differ from that of North America? — Which
has the greatest number of large islands near the coast? — What ocean is east of South
America ? What ocean is west ? — What sea is north ? — Are the West India Islands in-
cluded in North or South America ? — By what country in South America is the island
of Margarita owned ? — By what strait is Terre del Fuego separated from Patagonia?
Where are the Falkland Islands ? — To what country do they belong ? — Where are
the islands of Juan Fernandez? — For what are they famous? — To what country
does the island of Chiloc belong? — Where are the Lobos and Chincha Islands? —
To what country do they belong ? — For what arc they valuable ?
What is the most northern cape of South America ? — Where is Cape Parina ? —
Cape St. Roquc? — Cape Horn?— What is Cape Horn?— What bay south of the
Isthmus of Panama? — What gulf on the coast of Ecuador?
SURFACE.
What three mountain-systems in South America? — Which of these skirts the
western coast ? — Through how many degrees of latitude does it extend? — What is
the character of this system on the Isthmus of Panama?
How far are the Andes from the Pacific coast ? — Do they generally consist of one
or of several chains? — What is the breadth of the system? — To what convulsions
of nature is the region of the Andes liable ? — What effect have these upon the towns ?
— What other parts of Spanish America are subject to the same disasters ?
How high is the loftiest summit of the Andes ? — In what country is it situated ? —
Where is Chimborazo ? — Sorata ? — Cotopaxi ? — Potosi ? — Which of these are vol-
canoes?— Is any mountain of North America as high as Aconcagua?
Where are the Brazilian Mountains ? — Between what rivers do the Parime Moun-
tains lie ? — What is the character of the surface of South America, cast of the Andes,
with the exception of these two systems ? — In what general direction does the land
slope ?
RIVERS AND LAKES.
Into what ocean do the principal rivers of South America flow ? — Why arc those
on the east side of the Andes the largest ? — Name the three principal rivers. — Why
do their head-waters sometimes mingle ? — In what season does this occur ?
Which is the largest river in South America ? — What is the area of its basin 1^-
Ilas any other river a larger basin ? — In what three mountain-systems do the waters
of this basin rise ? — Which of these systems is on the west ? — On the north ? — The
south-east ?
The Amazon is formed by the union of the Tunguragua and Ucayale: in what
mountains do they rise? — In what country ? — Over what kind of surface do they
flow? — What is the length of the Amazon '.' — What kind of surface is drained by
the Amazon, east of the Andes? — What island at the mouth of the Amazon ?
What is the largest tributary of the River Amazon on the north '! — How is it con-
nected with the Orinoco ? — Name the largest tributary on the south. — Which of the
southern tributaries discharges itself near the mouth of the Amazon? — Name the
two tributaries between the Tocantins and the Madeira.
Between what two mountain-chains is the Basin of the Orinoco situated ? — What
are the plains of the Orinoco called? — In what general direction does this river
flow? — Between what two mountain-systems is the La Plata Basin situated? —
Which of these partly separates it from the Basin of the Amazon ?
Which has the most numerous lakes: North or South America? — What is. the
general character of the South American lakes ? — In what countries is Lake Titicaca
situated? — How high is it located ? — Do its waters flow into the sea? — Where is
Lake Maracaybo ?
In what country is the Magdalena River? — What is its principal tributary? —
Name the bodies of water through which you would pass, sailing from the mouth
of the Cauca to that of the Madeira. — In what country is the Essequibo River? —
Into what does it flow ?
Down what rivers would you float from Lake Xarayes to reach the Ocean ? — In
what mountain-system do the Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay, and San Francisco rivers
rise ? — Why does the San Francisco flow in an opposite direction from the others? —
What river separates Patagonia from the Argentine Confederation ?
9
CLIMATE.
On which side of the Equator is the greater part of South America situated? —
Would you find the climate growing warmer or colder, in going southward from the
Equator? — In what zones is South America?
Which zone contains the greatest extent of South America? — What, then, is the
prevailing character of the climate: temperate or tropical? — Where will you find
(in the tropical portion of the country) a mild and temperate climate?
How many seasons are there in the tropioal region ? — In what months is the wet
season, in the northern half of the Torrid Zone? — In the southern half? — If you
should cross the Llanos of the Orinoco in July, would you find them clothed with
verdure, or parched with heat ?
What is the season, in Rio Janeiro, in July? — Is December one of the rainy or
dry months at that place ? — Do the seasons in the South Temperate Zone occur in
the same months as in the North Temperate ? (See lesson on Zones, page 8.) — What
is the season in Chili, then, in July and August? — In December and January?
POLITICAL DIVISIONS.
Name the countries bordering on the Pacific, beginning at the north. — Which of
these are in the Torrid Zone? — In the Temperate? — What unsettled territory at
the south ? — Name the four divisions on the northern coast. — Name all those on
the Atlantic coast between Guiana and Patagonia.
Which is the largest of the South American countries ? — Which has the smallest
extent of sea-coast ?— What is the character of that coast ? — Describe the climate
of the Peruvian coast. — Of the coast of Ecuador, United States of Colombia, and
Venezuela.
What is the government of Brazil? — To what country docs Guiana belong? —
What is the government of the other countries ? — From what European nation is the
white population of Brazil descended? — The whites of the Spanish republics? —
By whom is the interior of South America chiefly inhabited ?
What countries are partly included within the Basin of the La Plata? — In what
confederation were Uruguay and Paraguay once included? — Between what two
rivers is Paraguay situated ?
What was the extent of the empire of the Incas ? — Where is Araucania ? — Why
is it independent ? — Where is the Desert of Atacama ? — What kind of a country is
Patagonia? — Describe the Patagonians.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Why are many of the towns in South America situated among the mountains ? —
Why are the towns on the coast of Venezuela, United States of Colombia, and
Ecuador, unhealthy? — Why are the coasts of Peru and Bolivia so dry ?
Are the following towns on the coast, or among the mountains: La Guayra,
Bogota, Cayenne, Caraccas, Aspinwall, Panama, Popayan, Quito, Guayaquil, Cuzco,
Potosi, Callao, Lima, Valparaiso, Sucre, Arcquipa, Huamanga, Tongoy? — Let each
scholar describe the situation of one of these towns.
Ship a cargo of goods from Para to New York : what articles would be sent, and
across what ocean? — From Rio Janeiro to Baltimore? — From the Chincha and
Lobos Islands to Philadelphia ? — From Valparaiso to San Francisco ?
From what ports would tin and copper be exported? — Diamonds? — Gold? —
Hides? — Coffee? — Cocoa? — Rum? — Sugar and molasses? — Peruvian bark? —
From what country is Yerba Mat6 obtained ? — Where is it principally consumed ?
Bound each of the divisions of South America. — Sketch a map of South America,
locating the principal mountains and rivers, and the chief towns. — Spell the fol-
lowing words : — Quito. Cassiquiarc. Guiana. Maracaybo. Magellan. Venezuela.
Rio Janeiro. Uruguay. Paraguay. La Guayra. Caraccas. Chimborazo. Cotopaxi.
Guayaquil. Callao. Cuzco. Arcquipa. Huamanga. Araucania. Montevideo.
Bahia. Paramaribo. Cayenne. Falkland. Chiloe. Aconcagua. Tunguragua.
Ucayale. Madeira.
65
66
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGEAPEY.
BULL-JIGHT.
CHURCH Or NOTRE DAME, AT PABIS.
CONVENT OF 8T. BEENABD.
CHAPTER XIV.
EUROPE.
PHYSICAL FEATURES.
I. The outline of Europe is more irregular than that of any other
division of the earth. Large seas and gulfs penetrate far into the in-
terior, affording unequalled advantages for commercial intercourse.
II. Surface. — Europe is crossed from west to east by a great
mountain-system, which is continued, in Asia, to the Pacific Ocean.
The principal parts of this system, in Europe, are the Cantabrian Mountains, the
Pyrenees, the Cevennes, the Alps, the Balkan Mountains, and the Caucasus.
Southward from this great chain (both in Europe and Asia) extend a number of
peninsulas, each penetrated by a branch of the principal system. Thus, in Spain
we find the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada ; in Italy, the Apennines ; and in
Greece, the chain of Mount Pindus.
The Carpathians, and the mountains of Germany, are also branches of the central
chain. The only mountains of any importance, not connected with the principal
system, are those of the Scandinavian Peninsula, and the Ural Mountains.
III. Northward from this mountain-system extends a great plain,
which stretches from the Pacific to the Atlantic Oceans.
The European division of this great plain extends from the Ural Mountains to
the western shores of France. It includes Russia, Northern Germany, Denmark,
Holland, Belgium, and part of France. A large portion of this plain is remarkably
level, often extending many hundred miles with scarcely a rise in the ground.
In some cases the surface of this plain is lower than the level of the ocean. Thus,
the country around the Caspian Sea is many feet below the surface of the Mediter-
ranean ; and the coasts of Holland and Belgium are protected from the encroach-
ments of the waves by banks of earth, called dykes.
Describe the outline of Europe? — What ranges form its principal mountain-
system? — What chains extend from it to the south? — What other mountains in
Europe? — What is the character of the country north of this system? — Describe
the great northern plain.
IV. Lakes and Rivers. — Europe contains no such extensive plains
as are found in America. The rivers, therefore, are smaller than
those of the Western Continent.
The lakes consist of two groups : one of which is situated in the country around
the Baltic Sea — the other is in the valleys among the Alps.
Most, of the former flow into the Baltic Sea. Being in a level country (part of
the Great Plain), they are shallow, and of considerable extent. The Alpine lakes,
on the contrary, lying in high mountain valleys, are small and deep. They ar«
famous for their magnificent scenery.
V. The Climate of Europe exhibits the usual varieties of the
Temperate Zone — passing from the almost tropical character of
the southern shores, to the intense cold of the Arctic coast.
The shores of the Mediterranean, protected by mountain-chains from the cold
winds of the north, enjoy a delightful climate; though occasionally suffering from
the burning winds which sweep across the sea from the Desert of Sahara.
The climate of Eastern Europe is very different from that of the countries bor-
dering on the Atlantic Ocean. In Eastern Europe the winters are excessively cold,
even as far south as the Black Sea ; while the summers are very hot.
On the shores of the Atlantic,' however, the westerly winds and warm ocean-
current render the climate mild and moist. Thus, in England the grass is green
throughout the year ; while in Russia, in the same latitude, the country is buried
in snow in winter, and parched by fervent heat in summer.
VI. Productions. — Europe is rich in theaVarious productions of
the Temperate Zone, and is veil supplied with useful minerals.
On the shores of the Mediterranean, the olive (from which sweet oil is obtained),
the fig, lemon, and orange, are very abundant. The Bugar-cane is also cultivated.
The mulberry-tree (whose leaves feed the silk-worm) grows here luxuriantly.
Sillt, therefore, is one of the most important productions of Southern Europe.
Great quantities of wine are made in the southern and central districts; and
beet-root sugar is very extensively manufactured, especially in France.
Why are not the rivers of Europe as large as those of America ? — Where do you
find the shallow lakes? — Where the deep ones? — Why is one group shallow, and
the other deep? — What difference in climate is there between the various sections
of Europe ?
EUROPE.
67
The usual grains of the Temperate Zone are abundant, though Indian corn is not
so generally cultivated as in the United States. Rye, oats, barley, and potatoes are
raised even north of the Arctic Circle. Hemp and flax are important productions
in Eastern and Central Europe.
Gold and silver are found in limited quantities; but there is an abundance of
iron, lead, tin, zino, copper, coal, and salt.
VII. Religion. — Most of -the inhabitants of Europe profess the
Christian religion. The Turks,, and some of the tribes of Southern
Russia, are Mohammedans ; and, scattered throughout the country,
there are about two millions of Jews.
Tho people of Russia and Greece are principally adherents of the Greek Church.
The greater part of tho inhabitants of Southern Europe, Austria, Belgium, and
Ireland, and about one-half of the Germans, Prussians, and Swiss, are Roman
Catholics. Protestants are most numerous in Great Britain, Holland, and the other
countries of Northern Europe.
POLITICAL DIVISIONS.
VIII. Europe comprises forty-three States, of which four are
empires, and twelve are kingdoms. Among the smaller States are
four republics and three free cities.
Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, arc the most important
countries of Europe. These are called the five Great Powers.
IX. Europe may be divided into three sections : Northern and
Eastern Europe, Western Europe, and Central Europe. Northern
and Eastern Europe comprise Sweden and Norway, and Russia.
THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
X. Sweden and Norway occupy the Scandinavian Peninsula.
They form two distinct States, with separate governments, but are
united under one king.
XI. Surface. — The western part of Sweden, and nearly the whole
of Norway, are mountainous. The south-eastern part of Sweden is
a level plain, resembling that on the opposite shores of the Baltic Sea.
The mountains of the peninsula rise abruptly from tho Atlantic coast, but they
descend more gradually towards the east.
XII. Productions. — The chief wealth of the country is in its
mines of iron and copper, its forests, and its fisheries. The principal
exports are iron, lumber, and fish.
The greater part of the peninsula is too barren for cultivation, yet rye, oats, and
barley are raised in Norway, 1400 miles further north than on the opposite coast
of America. Great quantities of fish are caught off the shores of the Loffoden
Islands.
Towns. — Stockholm is the capital of Sweden, and the chief commercial city.
Christiana is the capital of Norway. Hammerfest is the most northern town of
Europe.
Islands. — The islands of Gothland and Oland, in the Baltic Sea, and St. Bartholo-
mew, one of the West Indies, belong to Sweden. The Faroe Islands, west of Norway,
belong to Denmark.
XIII. Lapland. — The country north of the Arctic Circle, between
the White Sea and Atlantic Ocean, is called Lapland. It belongs
to Russia, Sweden, and Norway.
The chief wealth of the Laplanders consists in their numerous herds of reindeer.
These supply them with food, clothing, and the means of travelling.
Name some of the important productions of Europe. — What different forms of
religion do the inhabitants profess ? — Name the five great European Powers. — Into
what three sections may Europe be divided ? — What are the countries of Northern and
Eastern Europe ? — Describe the surface of Sweden and Norway. — Name the principal
productions. — What is the capital of Sweden ? — Norway ? — What islands belong to
Sweden? — To what country do the Faroe Islands belong? — Where is Lapland?
RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
The Russian Empire is the largest in extent in the world. It
comprises fully one half of Europe, and more than a third of
Asia.
XV. European Russia is, for the most part, very level. The
only mountainous section is the region north of the Caucasus
Mountains.
XVI. Productions. — The principal wealth of Russia consists in
its forests, and in the products of agriculture and grazing. Iron,
gold, and platinum, are found in abundance in the Ural Mountains,
principally on the Asiatic side.
The forests cover two-fifths of the country. Great quantities of wheat are raised
in the central and south-western regions, and exported to Western Europe. Hemp,
flax, tallow, hides, leather, and timber, are also important articles of export.
XVII. Inhabitants. — The people are divided into four classes: —
1. the nobles; 2. the clergy; 3. the merchants; 4. the lately,
emancipated serfs. The government is an absolute monarchy.
On the outskirts of Russia there are many tribes belonging to the Mongolian
race: such as the Finns and Laplanders, the Semoides, and the Cossacks. Tho
Cossacks inhabit the Steppes, or treeless plains in the south-east, and are of great
service in the Russian army as light cavalry. The Circassians, a bold and hardy
people who long 'resisted the Russians, belong to the Caucasian race.
MONUMENT TO THE EMPEROR ALEXANDER I., AT ST. PETERSBURG.
XVIII. Towns. — St. Petersburg, the capital of the Russian
Empire, is situated at the mouth of the River Neva.
• Moscow, the ancient capital, was burnt by the inhabitants, to prevent its falling
into tho hands of Napoleon, during his invasion in 1812. Warsaw was the capital
of Poland. Sebastopol is famous for the siege which it sustained for a year, against
the English, French, Turkish, and Sardinian armies. It was finally taken.
The principal ports for foreign commerce are St. Petersburg, • Cronstadt, Riga,
Archangel, and Odessa. The principal centres of trade in the interior are Moscow
and Niznei Novgorod. At the latter place a great fair is held every year, which is
attended by many thousands of people, who come from different parts of Europo
and Asia to buy and sell goods.
Is there any other empire larger than the Russian? — Describe the surface of
European Russia. — Name the principal productions. — What are the principal
exports? — Into what classes are the people divided? — Name some of the tribes on
the outskirts belonging to the Mongolian race. — To what race do the Circassians
belong ? — What is the capital of Russia ? — Which are the principal ports for foreign
commerce? — Name the principal centres of the inland trade.
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70
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER XV.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
I. The British Islands comprise Great Britain, Ireland, and
many smaller adjacent islands.
The island of Great Britain includes England, Scotland, and Wales. The mon-
archy is styled "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." The entire
kingdom, with its colonies, constitutes the British Empire, which is generally called
Great Britain.
II. The sea-coast is very irregular, and abounds in fine harbors
and roadsteads.
III. Surface. — England and Ireland are generally level or undu-
lating. Scotland and Wales are rugged and mountainous.
The surface of Scotland is divided by the Grampian Mountains into the Uigh-
lnn da and Lowlands, — the Highlands lying north, and the Lowlands south, of the
mountains.
IV. Climate. — ; The climate is moist and mild. The winters even
of Scotland are rarely severe. The soil of England and Ireland,
by careful culture, has been rendered fertile and productive.
The moisture of the climate gives the fields a continually fresh and verdant ap-
pearance ; but it sometimes prevents the ripening of the crops. Ireland contains
over 3,000,000 acres of turf bog, from which peat, the chief article of fuel, is
obtained.
V. . Productions. — The chief wealth of Great Britain consists in
her commerce and manufactures, and in products of her mines.
Great Britain surpasses every other country in the world in the amount of her
manufactures ; of which the most important are those of cotton, wool, and iron.
V,
VI. Commerce. — In the extent and importance of her commerce,
Great Britain holds the first rank among nations. She imports from
other countries such materials as her own soil or mines do not fur-
nish, and, in return, sends her manufactured products to every
market in the world.
The trade with the United States exceeds that with any other nation, the amount
of exports to this country being nearly double that which she sends to any other.
Great Britain requires a large navy to protect her extensive commerce and dis-
tant colonies. She accordingly ranks among the first naval powers in the world.
She has also established lines of steam packets to all the principal ports of the world.
Minerals. — The tin mines of Cornwall have been famous from remote antiquity.
Rich mines of pit coal, copper, iron, and slate are found in Wales.
What do the British Islands comprise? — What is the British Empire? — Describe
the surface. — Climate and soil. — What are the chief productions ? — What can you
say of the commerce of Great Britain? — Of the navy? — Of the minerals?
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.
In what direction from the mainland of Europe are the British Isles? In what
direction from the United States? — What branches of the Atlantic separate them
from the mainland? — What sea between England and Ireland? — By what channel
may it be entered from the south? — From the north ?— What strait separates Eng-
land from France? — The island of Anglesea from Wales? — What docs the island
of Great Britain comprise ? — What groups of small islands near it ? — Where is the
Isle of Wight? — The Isle of Man?
Where are the Grampian Hills?— What is the portion of Scotland north of these
hills called? — South of them? — What hills separate England and Scotland?
Mount Snowdon (3571 ft. high) is the highest point of land in England and Wales:
where is it ? ,
Name three principal rivers flowing into the North Sea. — Which of them is most
important? — Where is the Severn? — The Mersey ? — The Solway ? The Clyde?
The Liffey ? — The Shannon ? — Name two of the Channel Islands.
Which is farther north, Great Britain or New England ? — Which of these coun-
tries has the milder winters? — Why ? — Which has the warmer summer, London or
St. Petersburg? — Why ? — How does Great Britain compare with other countries
in the amount of her manufactures? — What is commerce?
In the year 1865 Great Britain produced about 70,000,000 tons of coal, and about
4,200,000 tons of iron.
VII. Towns. — London, the capital of the British Empire, is the
largest city in the world, and the first in commercial importance.
It has a population, according to the census of 1865, of 3,015,000,
and covers an area of about one hundred and twenty-two square
miles. The city is situated on both banks of the Thames, which is
crossed by nine bridges.
Liverpool is the second city in population, and is the great port of the manufac-
turing districts. It is the city through which the most of the commerce with the
United States is carried on. Its fine docks on the river Mersey cover more than
four hundred acres. Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Chatham are the three principal
naval stations. Manchester is noted for its cotton manufactures — the most exten-
sive in the world ; Leeds and Bradford, for their manufactures of wool; Birming-
ham, for hardware ; Sheffield, for cutlery and plated ware. Edinburgh is the
metropolis of Scotland. Glasgow is the largest city, and the chief seat of commerce
and manufactures. Dundee and Aberdeen are noted for manufactures and ship-
building.
Dublin is the capital and largest city in Ireland. Belfast is the first commercial
city, and the seat of the linen manufacture. Cork is the third city in Ireland,
and has an extensive commerce. Limerick is noted for the manufacture of gloves,
lace, and fish-hooks. Galway is the principal seaport on the western coast.
Merthyr Tydvil, the largest town in Wales, is noted for its iron-works. Swansea
is the principal seat of the copper trade of Great Britain, and is much resorted to
for sea-bathing.
VIII. Great Britain has colonies in every quarter of the globe,
and unites under one sovereign a greater number of people than
are ruled by any other government.
The principal foreign possessions of Great Britain are as follows : —
In Europe,
Gibraltar, in Spain.
Malta and Gozo, in the Mediterra-
nean.
In Asia.
British India, including Ceylon,
Hindoostan, a part of Farther
India, and Singapore.
The island of Hong-Kong (China).
Aden (Arabia).
In Africa.
Sierra Leone, and other settlements
on the western coast.
Cape Colony and Natal, in South
Africa.
St. Helena and Ascension Islands.
Mauritius and Seychelle Islands.
Describe London. — Liverpool. — Name and describe the principal towns in
Scotland. — In Ireland. — In Wales. — Let each scholar name one of the foreign
colonies of Great Britain and say what he can about it.
Does Great Britain export or import cotton? — Broadcloth ? — Tea ? — Razors? —
With what country is she most extensively engaged in trade? — Which divisions
have a fertile soil ?
Where is peat found? — Is it a vegetable or mineral product? — Cornwall is the
southwestern county of England : what celebrated mines there?— What mines in
Wales? — Are minerals generally found in mountainous or level districts?
To what city in England would you go to buy cotton goods? — Hardware? —
Woollens? — Cutlery? — Which is the largest city in Scotland? — In Ireland? —
What town in England opposite Calais in France? — From Dover to Calais is twenty-
one miles: across what strait would you sail? — What is the most southwestern
point of the island of Great Britain? — What is the chief town in Wales? — What
channels separate Ireland from Great Britain? — What is the latitude of London?
— Longitude? — Where is Menai Strait? — What city has a population nearlyequal
to that of all New England ? — Where is Valentia Harbor? — What is the seat of
the linen manufacture in Ireland ? — Where is Cork? — What articles are manufac-
tured at Limerick ? — Which is farther west, Ireland or the Spanish Peninsula ? —
On what river is Dublin ? — Give the boundary, capital, and two other important towns,
of each division of the British Isles. Name, also, the principal rivers and mountains.
Sketch from memory, if you can, a map of each division, locating the chief towns,
mountains, and rivers.
In Oceanica.
Part of Borneo, and the island of
Labuan.
Australia.
Tasmania.
Norfolk Island.
New Zealand.
In America.
British America.
The Bermuda Islands.
Balize.
Jamaica, and other islands in the
West Indies.
British Guiana.
The Falkland Islands.
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72
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
THE CRYSTAL PALACE.
CHAPTER XVI.
WESTERN EUROPE.
I. Western' Europe comprises Denmark, Holland, Belgium,
France, Spain, and Portugal.
II. Surface. — With the exception of the Spanish Peninsula, these
countries are mostly included in the Great European Plain, and
have, therefore, a level surface.
III. Climate. — The climate of Western Europe is much more mild
and moist than that of the Atlantic coast of America in the same
latitudes. The winter is warmer, and the heat of summer less
intense.
This is owing chiefly to the influence of the Gulf Stream, a warm ocean-current
which issues from the Gulf of Mexico, and, crossing the Atlantic, bathes the west-
ern shores of Europe.
Thus, Copenhagen has a warmer winter than Washington, though the latter place
is about eleven, hundred miles farther south ; yet the summer of Denmark is much
cooler than that of Canada.
In the Spanish Peninsula, the summers are dry and hot, but the winters on the
table-lands are cold.
IV. Coast. — The coast-line is much indented, thus furnishing
excellent advantages for commerce.
V. The greater part of this section belongs to the Atlantic
declivity, and is drained by several large rivers, the principal of
which are the Rhine, the Scheldt, the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne,
the Douro, the Tagus, the Guadiana, and the Guadalquivir.
The rivers of France, Belgium, and Holland, are navigable the greater part of
their course. They are connected with each other by numerous canals. The
Languedoc Canal, more than one hundred and fifty miles long, joins the Garonne
River to the Mediterranean Sea, thus furnishing an inland passage from the Atlantic
to the Mediterranean.
VI. Productions. — Agriculture is the chief occupation of much
the larger portion of the inhabitants of these countries. The manu-
factures, those of Prance and Belgium especially, are of great value,
and celebrated for their delicacy and beauty. The commerce, both
foreign and domestic, is extensive.
What does Western Europe comprise? — Describe the surface. — How does
the climate compare with that of the Atlantic coast of the United States? —
What is the cause of this difference? — Give an example to illustrate this. —
Describe the coast-line. — Name the chief rivers which drain this section. —
Describe the Languedoc Canal. — What is said of agriculture? — Of manufactures?
Of commerce?
Spain and Portugal, though among the most
fertile countries of Europe, have, until within
a few years, given but little attention to com-
merce. Their agriculture and manufactures
are also comparatively unimportant.
VII. Minerals. — Western Europe
abounds in valuable minerals. Bel-
gium, next to England, furnishes more
coal than any other country in Eu-
rope. Over eight hundred iron-works
are in operation in France. The
quicksilver-mines of Almaden, in
Spain, are among the richest in the
world.
DENMARK.
VIII. This kingdom comprises the
peninsula of Jutland and several
islands near the entrance of the Baltic Sea.
The duchies of Sleswick, Ilolstein, and Lauenburg were formerly a part of Den-
mark; but in 1864 the armies of Austria and Prussia took forcible possession of
them; and in 1866 they were annexed to Prussia.
IX. The surface of the country is perfectly flat ; some portions
of the northern coast are below the level of the sea, from which
they are defended by dikes.
X. The climate is moist, and milder than that of the northern
German States. The soil is well fitted for cultivation, and affords
excellent pasturage.
XL The productions are chiefly agricultural. Raising live-stock,
grazing, and the dairy, are the chief occupations of the inhabitants.
XII. Towns. — Copenhagen is the capital, and one of the finest
cities in Northern Europe.
The foreign possessions are Danish America, the Faroe and Nicobar Islands, and
three small islands of the West Indies.
HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.
XIII. Surface. — These countries are included within the Great
European Plain. The coast is so low that, in many places, dikes
are necessary to prevent the land from being overflowed.
XIV. Productions. — Holland is a grazing country, and the
products of the dairy are largely exported. Belgium is an agri-
cultural and manufacturing country, and has extensive mines of
coal and iron.
Among the most celebratedAnanufactures of Belgium are the laces of Brussels
and Mechlin.
XV. Commerce. — The position of these countries, and their numer-
ous navigable rivers, give them remarkable facilities for commerce.
Internal communication is promoted by numerous canals. In Holland, especially,
the canals run through the streets of the towns, and form a complete network over
the country.
XVI. Inhabitants. — The Dutch are a very industrious people, and
are generally better educated than the inhabitants of any other
parts of Europe, except Prussia and some of the smaller German
States. The Belgians are not less industrious ; but education is
much neglected.
What minerals are found in Western Europe?— What does Denmark comprise? —
What is said of the duchies? — Describe the surface. — Climate.— Productions.—
What is the surface of Holland and Belgium ? —Which of them is a grazing country?
— Which agricultural?— What are manufactured in Belgium?— Of what use are
canals in Holland ? — What commercial advantages have these countries?— What is
the character of the Dutch? — Of the Belgians?
WESTERN EUROPE.
73
XVII. Towns. — The Hague is the capital of Ilolland ; Brussels,
of Belgium. Amsterdam, Antwerp, and Rotterdam, are the chief
commercial cities of the two countries.
VIEW OF THE TOWN HALL, ERUSSELS.
The foreign possessions of the Dutch are Java, the Spiee Islands, part of Sumatra,
Borneo, Celebes, and many other small islands in the East Indies; some parts of the
coast of Guinea, in Africa; and a part of Guiana, and some of the smaller West
India Islands, in America. Belgium has no foreign possessions.
PRANCE.
XVIII. France is one of the richest and most powerful empires
in the world. The position of the country and the fertility of its soil
give it great commercial and agricultural advantages.
XIX. Surface. — France is separated from Spain on the south by
the Pyrenees ; from Italy and Switzerland on the east by the Alps
and the Jura Mountains ; the Cdvennes, Auvergne, and Vosges Moun-
tains extend in nearly a continuous chain across the eastern central
portion of the country. The rest of the surface belongs to the
European Plain. In the southwest are the Landes, extensive plains
of shifting sands, which the inhabitants cross on stilts.
XX. Climate and Soil. — No country in Europe possesses a more
favorable climate than France, and no one surpasses it in the value
and variety of its vegetable products.
XXI. Productions. — Agriculture and manufactures are the prin-
cipal branches of industry. The olive, the mulberry-tree, and the
orange are cultivated in the provinces bordering on the Mediter-
ranean : grain, hemp, and flax are raised in the middle and northern
provinces.
What is the capital of Ilolland? — Of Belgium? — Name the principal commercial
cities. — What foreign possessions has Ilolland in Asia? — In Africa? — In America?
— What can you say of the position of France? — Describe the surface of France. —
The climate and soil. — What arc the chief branches of industry?
France exports more wine, brandy, and silk goods, than any other country. The \
French are noted for their manufactures of jewelry, gloves, toys, perfumery, and
other articles of finery, many of which are brought to the United States.
XXII. Inhabitants.— The French are distinguished for their
gayety, politeness, and love of military glory.
XXIII. Towns.— Paris, the capital of France, is the most splen-
did city in the world, and is the great centre of refinement and
civilization.
The French language is spoken by the upper classes of Europe, and the influence
of Paris is felt throughout the civilized world, in all that concerns taste and fashion.
Havre is the port of Paris. Marseilles and Bordeaux are the principal com-
mercial cities; most of the wine is exported from the latter city.
Versailles contains one of the most magnificent palaces in the world. Itouen is the
great seat of the cotton, and Lyons, of the silk manufactures.
The foreign possessions of France are Algeria, in Northern, and Senegal, in
Western Africa; the Island of Bourbon, and some smaller islands in the Indian
Ocean; Pondicherry, and a few other places in India; New Caledonia, Tahiti, and
the Marquesas Islands, in Occanica; and French Guiana, two small islands in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and a few other small islands of the
West Indies in America.
Corsica, on the coast of Italy, celebrated as the birthplace of Napoleon, also
belongs to France.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
XXIV. The Spanish Peninsula comprises the two kingdoms of
Spain and Portugal.
These countries were once very powerful, but their importance and the extent of
their possessions are now greatly reduced.
XXV. Surface. — The interior consists of mountains and table-
lands ; approaching the coast, the country is undulating and level.
XXVI. Productions. — The most important of these are the vine,
olive, mulberry, and orange. Immense flocks of sheep are raised on
the table-lands of the interior, and great quantities of wool are
exported.
XXVII. Inhabitants. — The Spanish and Portuguese are a re-
served, dignified, and indolent people. The lower classes are very
ignorant. Bull-fights are a favorite amusement, in Spain, for all
classes.
XXVIII. Towns. — Madrid is the capital of Spain; and Lisbon,
of Portugal.
Barcelona, Cadiz, and Malaga, are the most important commercial cities of Spain;
Lisbon and Oporto, of Portugal. We obtain sherry wine from Cadiz, port wine from
Oporto, and grapes and raisins from Malaga.
Gibraltar, in the south of Spain, the strongest fortress in the world, belongs to
Great Britain. Palos is the port from which Columbus sailed on his first voyage to
America.
XXIX. The foreign possessions of Spain are Cuba and Porto
Rico, in the West Indies ; a part of the Philippine, Ladrone, and Caro-
line Islands, in Oceanica ; and the Canary Islands, west of Africa.
The Balearic Islands, in the Mediterranean Sea, and Ccuta, a fortress in Africa,
on the Straits of Gibraltar, also belong to Spain.
The foreign possessions of Portugal are the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verd
Islands, west of Africa ; Angola and Benguela on the western, and Mozambique, on
the eastern coast of Africa ; Goa and Macao, in Asia ; and part of the island of
Timor, in Oceanica.
XXX. Andorra. — This little republic occupies a valley south of
the Pyrenees. The population is only 5000 or 6000, but the country
has been independent for more than a thousand years.
Describe the French. — Name the capital, and other principal cities. — What foreign
possessions has France ? — For what is Corsica noted ? — What countries occupy the
Spanish Peninsula ?— Describe the surface.— What arc the principal productions ?— De
scribe the inhabitants. — Name the capitals, and important towns. — Where is Andorra?
r
QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF WESTERN EUROPE.
POSITION.
Name the political divisions that compose this section. — What important divisions,
composed of islands, is still farther west? — What sea, strait, and channel separate
the British Isles from the mainland? — What ocean with its branches washes the
coast of Western Europe? — What sea south of France and east of Spain? — What
strait separates Europe from Africa? — What strait connects the Cattegat and the
Baltic Sea?— Where is the Bay of Biscay? — The English Channel ? — The Gulf of
Lyons ? — Which is the most northern division of Western Europe ? — What sea west
of it? — Name the branches of this sea on the east of it. — What is the northern part
of Denmark called? — Where arc the Balearic Islands? — To what country do they
belong? — Name two islands east of Denmark. — Where is Corsica ? — To what power
does it belong ? — For what is it celebrated ?
On what sea do Holland and Belgium border? — What countries form the eastern
boundary of this section? — Where is Cape Finisterre? — Cape St. Vincent ? — Cape
Ortegal? — Cape de la Hague? — The Skaw ? — What two capes at the entrance of
the Straits of Gibraltar? — Where is Cape Nao ? — Cape de Gata ?
SURFACE.
Three of the mountain-chains of this section are considered a part of the great
mountain-system of Europe : which of them is in Spain ? — Which is in France ? —
Which of them forms the boundary between France and Spain? — What part of
France is mountainous? — What mountains separate Fiance from Italy ? — France
from Switzerland ? — What part of Spain and Portugal consists of mountains and
table-lands ?
What countries of this section form a part of the Great European Plain? — What,
then, is the surface of Belgium and Holland? — Of the northern and western parts
of France? — Of Denmark? — Where are the Auvergne Mountains? — The Sierra
Nevada Mountains? — The Cevennes Mountains? — The Vosges Mountains?
RIVERS.
What river forms a part of the eastern boundary of Holland ? — What large river
of Central Europe flows through Holland : — What two rivers flow from Belgium
through Holland ? (The river Meuse, of France, assumes the name of Maese in
Belgium, and of Maas in Holland.) — Into what sea do all these rivers^Bow ?
The Seine, Loire, Gironde, and Rhone are the principal rivers of France: name
the body of water into which each flows.— The Ebro, Guadalquivir, Guadiana, Tagus,
and Douro are the principal rivers of the Spanish Peninsula: name the body of
water into which each of these rivers flows — Which of them have a part of their
course in Portugal? — What branch of the Rhine in France ? — Of the Rhone?
CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
How does the climate of Western Europe contrast with that of the opposite shores
of the Atlantic ? — What is the chief cause of this difference ? — What can you say
of the climate of the Spanish Peninsula ?
From what countries of Western Europe do we obtain the products of the vine?
— Of what country is wool an important export? — From what country are the
products of the dairy largely exported ? — In what countries are silk goods made ?
From what country do we obtain gloves, perfumery, jewelry, and other fancy
articles?
In which of these countries is coal found ? — Iron?— Which has rich mines of
quicksilver? — In what country is beet-root sugar made? — In what part of this
section are the olive and mulberry successfully grown? — Of what does France
export more than any other country ?
DENMARK.
Of what docs this kingdom consist? — What can you say of the Duchies of IIqI-
stcin and Lauenburg? — Name the foreign possessions of Denmark. — What are the
principal exports? — Describe Copenhagen. — What passage between the ialfipd of
Zealand and Sweden? — What bodies of water does it connect? — Where are the
Great Belt and the Little Belt? — What do they separate? — Name three small
islands at the entrance of the Baltic, belonging to Denmark. — On what island is
Elsinore? — What arc the exports of Denmark?
HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.
What is a dike? — Of what use are they to these countries? — What term is used
to signify the same thing in Louisiana? — How is internal communication promoted
in these countries ? — Would canals be as numerous if the surface were mountainous ?
Where is the capital of Holland? — Of Belgium? — Where is Amsterdam? — Ant-
werp?— Rotterdam? — What foreign possessions has Holland? — Where is the
Zuyder Zee? — Leydcn, Utrecht, and Groningen have famous universities: where
are these places? — Where is Liege? — Ghent? — Where is Waterloo? — Can you
tell for what it is famous ?
FRANCE.
In what do the agricultural and commercial advantages of France consist? — On
what river is the capital ? — On what sea is Marseilles ? — Where is Lyons ? — Rouen ?
— Bordeaux? — Havre? — From what city is most of the wine exported? — What
city is the great seat of the silk manufacture? — Of that of cotton goods? — Brest
and Toulon are important naval stations: where are they? — Cherbourg is famous
for its breakwater and fine docks: where is it? — In what direction from Paris is
Versailles? — For what is it famous? — The Landes arc plains of shifting sand:
where are they? — Let each scholar describe the situation of one of the colonies
of France.
THE SPANISH PENINSULA
Of what two kingdoms does this peninsula consist? — How does their present
importance compare with that of former times? — Where is the capital of Spain?
Of Portugal ? —Where is Barcelona? — Cadiz? — Oporto? — Malaga?
What can you say of Gibraltar? — To what power does it belong? — What fortress
of Spain in Africa, nearly opposite to Gibraltar? — Where is Palos? — From what
place in Spain is sherry wine exported? — Grapes and raisins? — From what place
in Portugal do we obtain port-wine? — On what river are Seville and Cordova?
Where is Barcelona? — Granada? — Where are sheep raised ?— What valuable mines
at Almaden? — Where is the republic of Andorra? — Let each scholar describe the
situation of one of the Spanish colonies.
MISCELLANEOUS.
On what waters would a vessel sail in going from Barcelona to Cherbourg?
From Paris to London ? — Describe the voyage in a sailing-vessel from Rotterdam
to Lisbon. — What mountains would you cross in travelling in a straight line from
Bordeaux to Turin? — From Saragossa to Toulouse?
Freight a vessel at Marseilles with the products of the south of France : what
articles would form her cargo? — On what bodies of water would this vessel sail to
go to Bremen? — To which of the two cities of France, Rouen or Lyons, would you
go to purchase silk goods? — Cotton goods?
Columbus sailed from Palos the 3d of August, 1492, on his first voyage of dis-
covery: across what ocean did he sail ? — On which of the West Indies did he first
land? — Was his course directly west? — What metal is extensively worked in
France? — Of what do the French make sugar? — Name all the mountain-chains
you would oross, proceeding in a direct line from Malaga to Madrid. — From
Madrid to the shores of the Bay of Biscay. — On what waters will a vessel sail in
going from Amsterdam to Lyons ?
Give the boundaries of each of the divisions of Western Europe, and the three
principal towns, rivers, and mountains in each division. — Sketch a map (from
memory, if you can) of the Spanish Peninsula, and locate the principal mountains,
rivers, and four of the chief towns. — In the same manner sketch a map of France.
75
76
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER XVII.
CENTRAL EUROPE.
I. Central Europe comprises Germany, Denmark, Prussia,
Austria, Switzerland, and the Italian and Turkish Peninsulas.
II. Surface. — Denmark, the northern part of Germany, the
greater portion of Prussia, and the province of Galicia (in Austria),
are parts of the Great European Plain.
The Great Plains of Hungary and Turkey are parts of the Basin of the Danube.
The Plain of Lombardy, in Northern Italy, is drained by the River Po. The
remainder of Central Europe is principally hilly or mountainous.
III. Rivers. — The most important rivers of this section are the
Danube and the Ehine. Next to the Volga, the Danube is the
largest river in Europe.
CITADEL OF EHRENBREITSTEIN- A FORTRESS OF PRUSSIA, ON THE RHINE.
The Rhine is famous for its grand and romantic scenery. Pleasant towns and
villages lie nestled at the foot of lofty hills and graceful slopes clothed with vines ;
while the castles of feudal times are seen frowning from precipices apparently
inaccessible.
IV. Climate. — The climate of Central Europe is not generally so
moist and warm as in the same latitudes of Western Europe.
V. Productions. — The agricultural productions vary with the
climate. Minerals are abundant in the mountainous regions. The
manufactures are more noted for variety than for the great amount
of any one particular kind.
In the north, grain is the chief production. The vine is extensively cultivated
in the central and southern regions, and the mulberry and olive are raised in the
south. Great harvests of wheat are also produced on the plains which form the
lower basin of the Danube.
Woollen, cotton, and linen goods, are among the most important manufactures.
Bohemia is celebrated for glass ware ; Switzerland, for watches and jewelry ; Italy,
for braided straw, of which hats and bonnets are made.
VI. The Commerce is conducted, on the north, through Bremen,
Altoria, Hamburg, and Dantzic; on the south, through Genoa,
Leghorn, Trieste, and Constantinople.
What does Central Europe comprise? — Describe the surface.— Which are the most
important rivers! — How does the climate of Central compare with that of Western
Europe ?
Name the chief productions of the different sections. — Through what cities is
the commerce conducted on the north? — On the south?
GERMANY.
VII. Germany comprises a part of Austria and Prussia, all of
Bavaria, Saxony, Baden, and Wirtemberg, a number of smaller
States, and three free cities.
In 1815 the various States of Germany united in a league, known as the Ger-
manic Confederation, for mutual defence, with Austria at the head ; but in the
war between Austria and Prussia in 186G Austrian influence was destroyed, and
Hanover and several smaller States were annexed to Prussia.
VIII. Inhabitants. — The Germans are, in general, a very indus-
trious and well-educated people. In Prussia, Saxony, and some
other States, every child above the age of six is obliged to attend
school.
IX. Towns. — Frankfort-on-the-Main, formerly a free city of
Germany and the capital of the Germanic Confederation, belongs
to Prussia. Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck, are free cities.
Many other towns in Germany and Central Europe arc of large size : some are
Doted for remarkable events in history, others for magnificent churches or palaces,
and others for their universities.
PRUSSIA.
X. Prussia ranks as a leading power of Europe. By its victo-
ries over Austria in 1866, its territory was increased by the addi-
tion of Hanover, Holsteiu, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and some other
divisions.
Prussia has a fortunate position. It lies chiefly in the basins of the Baltic and
North Seas, is drained by large rivers, has a central location, a long line of sea-
coast, and good harbors. East of the Weser the country is generally level, but
near the river Rhine it is mountainous and abounds in beautiful scenery.
XL Productions. — Nearly the whole of Prussia is under culti-
vation. Large crops of wheat, rye, barley, oats, tobacco, beet-
root, and linseed are produced.
XII. Inhabitants. — The Prussians are mostly Germans, and are
an intelligent and well-educated people, a person being rarely
found who cannot read and write. Every child in Prussia, above
the age of six years, is obliged by law to attend school.
XIII. Towns. — Berlin is the capital of Prussia; and, next to
Vienna, is the largest city of Central Europe.
Cologne is the most populous city of Prussia on the Rhine. Konigsberg, Dantzic,
and Stettin, are the chief sea-ports. Dantzic is one of the greatest grain-shipping
ports in Europe.
AUSTRIA.
XIV. Next to Russia, Austria has larger possessions in Europe
than any other country. It embraces one-third of Germany.
Venctia, formerly belonging to Austria, is now an Italian State.
XV. Inhabitants. — The people of Austria are of different races,
and speak many different languages. The Germans, Hungarians,
Italians, and Poles, are the most numerous. The only bond of
union in the government is the power of political rule.
XVI. Towns. — Vienna is the capital of Austria, and the largest
city in the empire.
XVII. Poland was formerly an important kingdom of Central
Europe, but the country suffered many reverses, and it is now
divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
What does Germany comprise? — Describe the inhabitants. — For what are many
of the towns noted ? — Which are the Free Cities? — What rank does Prussia hold?
— Name the productions. — Name the capital and chief cities. — What is said of
the size of Austria ? — Describe the inhabitants. — Between what nations was Poland
divided ?
CENTRAL EUROPE.
77
SWITZERLAND.
XVIII. Switzerland is a republic, consisting of twenty-two
States, or Cantons.
The scenery of Switzerland is on the grandest scale: beautiful lakes lie embosomed
among the mountains which tower above tho limits of perpetual snow; immense
glaciers glisten upon the mountain sides, and romantic valleys form the channels of
impetuous streams.
XIX. Inhabitants. — The Swiss are noted for their love of liberty,
and attachment to their native country.
Most of the population speak the German language. Italian is spoken in the
Cantons adjoining Italy, and French in those adjoining France.
XX. Towns. — Berne is the capital. Geneva is the principal
seat of the manufacture of watches and jewelry.
ITALY.
XXI. Italy is one of the most celebrated countries on the globe.
In ancient times it was the central part of tho Roman Empire, which
ruled all the known world.
Rome, the chief city, is the residence of the head of the Roman Catholic Church,
which has a greater number of members than any other Christian denomination.
XXII. Great changes have recently taken place in Italy, and,
after a protracted struggle with their rulers, the great body of the
people are at last united under a liberal and enlightened govern-
ment. The Political Divisions of Italy are now as follows, viz. :
The Kingdom of Italy. The Papal States, or States of the Church. The Repub-
lic of San Marino.
The kingdom of Italy comprises the former kingdoms of Sardinia, of Lombardy,
and of Naples and Sicily, the Grand-Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchies of Parma and
of Modena, Venetia, and a large portion of the Papal States. The islands of Sicily,
Sardinia, and Elba also form a part of this kingdom. The island of Corsica belongs
to France. Savoy, Nice, and Monaco, formerly a part of Sardinia, have been ceded
to France.
XXIII. Inhabitants. — The Italians have been for a long time
greatly oppressed by their rulers ; but their efforts to throw off
their yoke, and to obtain for themselves a national unity, have
finally been successful.
XXIA". Towns.— Italy contains many towns and cities which are
famous in history or in art ; almost every place is connected with
some remarkable event.
Florence is the capital of the kingdom of Italy. Naples is the largest city. Leg-
horn, Venice, Genoa, Naples, Palermo, and Messina are the principal commercial
cities. Most of the lir.cn rags used for making paper come from Italy and Southern
Europe, where the common people dress in linen.
THE TURKISH PENINSULA.
XXV. The Turkish Peninsula, and the adjacent islands, com-
prise European Turkey and Greece.
European and Asiatic Turkey constitute the Turkish or Ottoman Empire, tho
sovereign of which is called Sultan, or Grand Seignior. The government is styled
the Sublime Porte.
The Danubian Provinces of Servia and Rouir.ania arc nearly independent of the
Turkish government, and are ruled by princes elected by themselves, who are called
Hospodars. Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunis, in Africa, are nominally under the control
of the Sublime Porte.
The little territory of Montenegro, in the mountains near the western coast, is
under the government of a Bishop of the Greek Church, but is tributary to Turkey.
The island of Candia, in the Mediterranean Sea, belongs to Turkey.
Of what does Switzerland consist? — Describe the country and the inhabitants. —
What can you say of Italy? — What are the Political Divisions of Italy? — Describe
the inhabitants. — For what are many of the cities and towns famous? — Which are
the most important commercial places? — What docs the Turkish Peninsula comprise?
XXVI. Inhabitants.— The Turks are Mohammedans. They are
a grave and solemn people — ignorant, bigoted, and indolent.
The Turks, however, form but a portion of tho population of the country : many
of the inhabitants are Christians, who profess the religion of the Greek Church.
THE MOSQUE OF SULTAN MAHMOUD, AT CONSTANTINOPLE.
XXVII. Towns. — Constantinople, the capital of the empire, is
situated upon the Bosphorus, or Channel of Constantinople.
Constantinople is admirably situated for commerce, and exports the products not
only of European and Asiatic Turkey, but also of other parts of Western Asia.
GREECE.
XXVIII. Greece, in ancient times, was in advance of all other
nations in civilization and learning. In the fifteenth century it was
conquered by the Turks ; but the Greeks revolted in 1821, and the
country is now independent. The government is a limited monarchy.
Almost every part of the country is rendered interesting by some historical event,
or by the remains of ancient temples and other structures.
Most of the islands of the Archipelago belong to Greece; of these, Negropont is
the largest, but Syra is the most important.
XXIX. Inhabitants. — The modern Greeks are a handsome people,
but they are indolent and insincere. Education, of late years, has
received considerable attention.
XXX. Towns. — Athens is the capital, and most important city
of Greece. It ;\vas one of the most celebrated cities of ancient times,
and was the birthplace of many renowned philosophers and orators.
XXXI. The Ionian Republic, comprising seven islands, was for-
merly under the protection of Great Britain ; it was ceded to Greece
in 1863.
State the extent of the Turkish Empire. — What provinces are nearly independent
of the Turkish government ? — Describe the inhabitants. — How is Constantinople situ-
ated?— What, was Greece in ancient times? — Describe the modern Greeks. — What
docs the Ionian Republic comprise? — Under whose protection is this republic?
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(QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF CENTRAL EUROPE.
OUTLINE.
What sea north of this section? — What sea northwest of it? — What gulf on the
northern coast of Prussia? — What bay partly separates Mecklenburg from Prussia?
—Where is the island of Riigen ? — Heligoland ? — What small German State borders
on the North Sea?
What extensive country forms a part of the eastern boundary of this section? —
What great sea on the south ? — What three countries on the west? — What large sea
on the eastern coast of Turkey? — On what two straits and sea would you sail, from
the Black Sea to the Archipelago ?
What two countries constitute the Turkish Peninsula? — Name all the bodies of
water you would traverse, in sailing along its coasts. — Where are the Cyclades? —
The Ionian Islands ? — Candia ? — What part of Greece is called the Morea ? — Name
its southern cape. — What gulf north of the Morea?
Between what two seas is the Italian Peninsula? — Where is the Gulf of Taranto ?
— Of Genoa? — What strait between Sicily and Italy? — Between the islands of
Corsica and Sardinia? — Where are Malta and Gozo? — The Lipari Islands? —
Where is the island of Elba?
SURFACE.
What two mountain-ranges in this section form a part of the great central system
of Europe and Asia? — Which of them encloses, on three sides, the valley of the
River Po? — From what countries do they separate Italy? — What peninsula do the
Apennines traverse? — Are the islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, mountainous
or level ?
Along what sea do the Alps extend in a south-easterly direction ? — By what moun-
tains in Turkey are they continued? — In what direction ? — Near what strait do the
Balkan Mountains terminate? — What mountains extend through Greece, south from
this chain? — What is the general surface of the Turkish Peninsula: mountainous
or level ?
What mountains form a great part of the boundary of Hungary? — Where are the
Sudetic Mountains? — The Hartz Mountains? — The Black Forest Mountains? —
What province of Austria is surrounded by mountains?
What parts of this section are included within the Great Plain of Europe? —
Describe the general surface of the country north of the Carpathian Mountains and
the chains in the central part of Germany. — To what river-valley do the Plains of
Hungary and Turkey belong ? — The Plain of Lombardy ?
RIVERS AND LAKES.
Name the most important rivers of this section. — The Rhine, Weser, Elbe, Oder,
and Vistula, drain the northern slope of Central Europe: in what general direction
do they flow? — Which of them empty into the North Sea? — Into the Baltic Sea?
What great river of this section flows into the Black Sea? — Name some of the
countries principally drained by this river. — Which of its tributaries forms a part
of the boundary between Turkey and Russia?
What part of Italy is drained by the River Po? — Into what does this river flow ?
In the region of the Alps there arc numerous beautiful lakes : in what country are
those north of the Alps situated? — South?
CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.
How does the climate of this section differ from that of Western Europe ? — Where
is it warmest: north or south of the Alps and Balkan Mountains ? — Name the chief
vegetable production in the northern part of this section. — Where is the vine most
extensively raised? — The mulberry and olive?
What grain is raised in the lower basin of the Danube? — Name the principal
manufactures. — For what manufactures is Bohemia celebrated? — Switzerland?
Italy? — Whence do we obtain many of the linen rags from which paper is made?
Why are they so abundant in that country ?
GERMANY, PRUSSIA, AND AUSTRIA.
What does Germany comprise ? — Name the two most important divisions. — Which
of these borders upon the Baltic Sea? — Which upon the Adriatic? — In what part
of Germany, the northern, central, or southern, are the following divisions: the
Kingdom of Saxony? — Of Bavaria? — Of Wirtembcrg? — The Grand Duchy of
Baden ? — Which of the German States border upon the North Sea ? — Upon the Baltic ?
— Name the Free Cities. — What of Frankfort-on the Main? — Where is Hamburg?
Bremen ? — Lubeck ? — Dresden ? — Munich ? — Stuttgard ? — Leipsic ?
What can you say of the situation of Prussia ? — On what sea does the eastern
part border? — What important river flows across the western ? — Describe the sur-
face of Prussia. — Mention some of the principal agricultural products. — Name
some of the most important manufactures. — What can you say of the general intel-
ligence of the people? — To what is it chiefly owing? — What large rivers flow into
the Baltic Sea? — What one into the North Sea? — Where is the capital? — Where
is Breslau ? — Cologne ? — Konigsberg ? — Stettin ? — Dantzic ? — Hanover ? — Altona ?
What can you say about Dantzic?
What can you say of the size of Austria ? — In what part of the empire are
Hungary and Transylvania? — By what mountains are they partially surrounded?
— Where is Galicia? — Bohemia? — From what country do the rivers Danube and
Save separate Austria? — Where is the capital of Austria? — On what sea is Trieste?
On what river is Prague ? — Innspruck? — Pesth? — What division of Italy formerly
belonged to Austria ?
SWITZERLAND.
What is the form of government in Switzerland? — What languages are spoken in
that country ? — By what mountains is one-half of the surface occupied ? — Are they
in the northern or southern part of the country? — Where is the capital? — On what
lake is Geneva?
ITALY.
What is the principal division of Italy now called? — Of what former divisions is
it composed? — Where are the Papal States situated?-- What republic is there on
the Adriatic Sea? — Of what kingdom docs the island of Sardinia form a part? — To
what power does the island of Corsica belong? — What part of the former kingdom
of Sardinia has been ceded to France?
What is the chief city of Italy? — Of whom is it the residence? — What is the
capital of the kingdom of Italy? — Which is the largest city? — Name some of the
principal commercial cities.
Name those situated on the Mediterranean Sea. — The one on the Adriatic. — The
one on the Gulf of Genoa. — The two on the Island of Sicily. — On what river is
Florence ? — Rome ? — Turin ?
TURKEY.
What constitutes the Ottoman Empire? — Which are the Danubian Provinces of
Turkey? — Name the two north of the Danube. The one between the Balkan Moun-
tains and the Danube. — Where is the capital of the Turkish Empire ? — Adrianople ?
— Bucharest? — Jassy? — What large island of Turkey south of the Archipelago?
GREECE AND THE IONIAN ISLANDS.
What part of Greece forms the peninsula called the Morea? — To what country do
most of the islands of the Archipelago belong? — Which of these is the largest? —
Which is the most important? — Where is the capital of Greece? — Where are the
Ionian Islands? — What is their number? — To what kingdom do they belong?
MISCELLANEOUS.
To what ports in this section, those on the Baltic or Mediterranean Seas, would a
merchant go to purchase sweet-oil, silk, and fruit? — Freight a vessel with wine and
grain at Trieste for London: through what waters will she pass? — A party of
German wine-growers wish to emigrate to Ohio, and agree to meet at Hamburg :
describe their entire route thence to Cincinnati. — Where is the volcano of Mt.
Vesuvius? — Mt. Etna?
Bound Austria. — Italy. — Turkey. — Greece. — Spell Bavaria. Wirtemberg.
Bohemia. Altona. Adriatic. Zealand. Apennine. Bosphorus. Dardanelles. Moldavia.
Wallachia. Marmora. Vesuvius. Sicily. Trieste. Constantinople. Denmark. Frankfort
Copenhagen. Konigsberg. Dantzic. Cologne. Austria.
79
80
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGBAPHY.
3-
PROCESSION OP ELEPHANTS, INDIA.
PAGODA OF WHAMPOA, CHINA.
SCENE IN KAMTSCHATKA, SIBERIA.
CHAPTER XVII.
ASIA.
I. The outline of Asia is very irregular, though the seas, gulfs,
and bays, do not penetrate so far into the interior as in Europe.
II. The surface is crossed by a system of mountains and table-
lands, which form a continuation of the mountain-system of Europe.
The mountain-system of- Asia commences with the Taurus Mountains, and is
continued by the chains of the Elborz and Hindoo Koosh to the Bolor Mountains.
From this point it branches off into four great chains — the Himalaya, Kuen Lun,
Thian Shan, and Altai — which are among the grandest and most stupendous moun-
tains upon the globe.
Southward from this great chain (as in Europe,) extend a number of peninsulas,
each of which is penetrated by a branch of the principal system.
III. The table-lands of this system are the loftiest and most
extensive in the world. They may be divided into two classes :
those of Central, and those of Southern Asia.
The plateaus of Central Asia consist of Thibet, and/of the country between the
Kuen Lun and Thian Shan Mountains.
The plateaus of Southern Asia comprise the Deccan, which lies south of the
Vindhya Mountains, in Hindoostan ; the Plateau of Iran — including Persia, Afghan-
istan, and Beloochistan ; Arabia ; and the northern part of Asiatic Turkey.
How does the outline of Asia compare with that of Europe? — Give the names of
the mountain-chains which form a continuation of the great mountain-system of
Europe. — Describe the country south of this system. — Into what two classes may the
table-lands be divided ? — Name, the rtateaus of Central Asia. — Of Southern Asia.
IV. The Great Northern Plain of Asia, which forms a part of the
great plain of Europe and Asia, embraces Turkestan and Siberia.
The other low-lands are found along the sea-coast, or in the river-valleys.
V. Asia contains an immense belt of desert land, which extends
almost entirely across the country, from west to east.
Some of these deserts are of sand, and some of gravel, whilst others are com-
posed of salt or salt marsh. Rain seldom falls here.
VI. Rivers and Lakes. — The principal rivers may be divided into
three systems : 1. Those which flow into the Arctic Ocean ; 2. Those
which flow into the Pacific ; 3. Those which flow into the Indian
Ocean.
Besides these, there are many rivers flowing into salt lakes, whose waters do not
flow into the sea. The Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral arc lakes of this kind.
VII. Climate. — The climate of Asia may be described under
three divisions : that of Northern, Central, and Southern Asia.
The climate of Northern Asia (that is, the Arctic Slope) is characterized by
intense cold, with a short interval of great heat during summer.
Central Asia has the climate of the Temperate Zone It is subject to great
extremes of heat and cold, and, except near the shores of the Pacific, is remarkably
dry; for the Himalaya, Hindoo Koosh, and Elborz Mountains, intercept the warm
and moist winds of the Indian Ocean.
Southern Asia (that is, the region lying south of the southern mountain-chain)
has the climate of the Torrid Zone.
What countries constitute the Great Northern Plain of Asia? — Where do you find
the other low-lands? — What can you say of the desert land of Asia? — Into what
three systems may the rivers be divided? — What other rivers are there in Asia? —
Describe the climate of Northern Asia.— Of Central Asia. —Of Southern Asia.
/
ASIA.
81
VIII. Productions and Animals. — These will be described in con-
nection with the different political divisions. Their general charac-
ter may be learned by studying Lessons XV. and XVI., in Part I.
IX. Inhabitants,- V-The Asiatic nations belong to three different
races of mankind j the Mongolian, the Caucasian, and the Malay race.
The nations living/north of the southern mountain-chain, as well as the Turks,
Japanese, and the people of Farther India, belong to the Mongolian race.
To the Caucasian race belong the Georgians, Armenians, Arabs, Persians, Afghans,
and Hindoos, — occupying most of the country south of that chain.
The Malays inhabit the Peninsula of Malacca.
X. Religion. — The principal systems of religion in Asia are Mo-
hammedanism, and various forms of Pagan worship.
Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion in Turkey, Turkestan, Arabia, Persia,
Afghanistan, and Beloochistan ; Paganism, of the other parts of Asia.
ASIATIC TURKEY.
XL Turkey in Asia is a part of the Ottoman Empire. (See
page 77, paragraph XXV.)
From the part which it has acted in history, it is one of the most interesting
countries on the globe. It contains the ruins of many of the most powerful cities of
ancient times, and is full of places which are connected with important events.
XII. Syria (one of the provinces) includes Palestine, or the Holy
Land, in which most of the events recorded in Scripture took place.
XIII. Towns. — The principal commercial city is Smyrna, from
which are exported fruit, rags, and various other articles.
CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE, AT JERUSALEM.
Jerusalem is the holy city of the Jews, and, to the Christian, is one of the most
interesting places in the world.
ASIATIC RUSSIA.
XIV. Asiatic Russia comprises more than one-third of Asia.
The principal divisions are Siberia and Georgia.
The Russian Possessions in Asia have greatly increased in extent within the past
few years. The Kirghis country north of Turkestan, and the greater part of the
To what three races do tho inhabitants of Asia belong? — What are the principal
systems of religion? — Of what empire is Asiatic Turkey a part? — Which of its
provinces includes Palestine? — What can you say of Jerusalem ? — What are the
principal divisions of Asiatic Russia ? — What can you say of the increase in extent
of Asiatic Russia?
11
basin of the Amoor River (which was formerly a part of the Chinese Empire), are
recent annexations to the territory of Russia. The Alawtjaft and the Kurile Islands,
and the Island of Saghalien, also belong to Russia.
XV. Siberia occupies the entire northern part of Asia. From
the severity of the climate, the greater part of this immense region
is unfit for extensive settlement ; yet its mines of gold and silver,
and its fur-bearing animals, render it of great value to Russia.
XVI. Inhabitants. — About three-fourths of the population are
Russians. The remainder consists of native tribes.
Siberia has long been used by the government as a place of banishment for exiles
and criminals, and a large portion of the population consists of them and their
descendants.
XVII. Towns. — Tobolsk and Irkoutsk are the largest towns.
Kyachta, on the southern border of Siberia, and Maimatschin, just across the
line in Mongolia, are places where an immense inland trade is carried on between
China and Russia. The extent of this trade may ^estimated from the fact that
twelve millions of pounds of tea, which had been brought across the desert from
Pekin, were sold at Maimatschin in 1856.
Nicolaivsk and Alexandrovsk are the principal ports of the Amoor River country.
Petropaulosky is the largest town of the peninsula of Kamtschatka.
XVIII. Georgia is south of the Caucasus Mountains. Teflis is
the capital. The inhabitants are a vigorous and handsome race.
TURKESTAN.
XIX. Turkestan, or Independent Tartary, is divided into several
independent States, in each of which the ruler is styled the Khan.
XX. Inhabitants. — The population consists chiefly of tribes
belonging to the Mongolian race.
In the south, the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture; but the wandering
tribes, in the north and west, subsist by war and the chase, and their chief wealth
is in their immense numbers of camels, horses, sheep, and goats.
XXL Towns. — Bokhara, Khokan, and Khiva, are each the capital
df a State of the same name.
THE CHINESE EMPIRE.
XXII. The Chinese Empire includes China, Thibet, Corea, Mon-
golia, Mantchooria, Soongaria, and Little Bokhara.
. The four last named divisions are called Chinese Tartary. Thibet and Chinese
Tartary are thinly-peopled regions. The latter is occupied by pastoral tribes,
whose chiefs, in most cases, own only a nominal subjection to China.
Lassa is the capital of Thibet, and the residence of the Grand Lama. The Grand
Lama is worshipped as the Supreme Being. His followers believe that he never
dies, but that his soul passes into another body — that of some child, selected by
the priests.
Corea is a separate kingdom, under its own sovereign, but tributary to China.
XXIII. China is the most important and densely-settled portion
of the Chinese Empire.
So dense is the population in some districts, that great numbers of the inhab-
itants dwell constantly upon boats in the rivers, or on rafts in the lakes, which
they convert into gardens by covering them with earth.
The Chinese are a very industrious people, and, to improve their condition, great
numbers emigrate to other countries. Thus, they are very numerous in Farther
India, in the islands of Malaysia and Australasia, and considerable numbers of
them have even found their way to California. They are, however, deceitful and
very immoral, and exceedingly jealous of Europeans.
Describe Siberia. — Name the principal towns. —Where is Georgia ? — Name the
capital. — Of what does Turkestan consist? — In what are the inhabitants chiefly
engaged? — Name the divisions of the Chinese Empire. — Which of them constitute
Chinese Tartary ? — What can you say of the Grand Lama? — Of the population of
China? — The Chinese?
82
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGKAPHY.
XXIV. Productions. — The most important productions are rice,
tea, and silk.
Eioe is the chief article of food for the entire population. Tea and silk are the
principal exports.
XXV. Government. — The government is a despotic monarchy.
The emperor possesses unlimited power over all beneath him, and
claims the title of " Father of his people."
The officers of government are styled mandarins. The laws are severe ; for trifling
offences, punishment with the bamboo is inflicted, while serious crimes almost always
meet with death.
XXVI. Towns. — China contains many great cities, most of which,
however, are known to Europeans only by name. Pekin is the
capital, and is said to contain two millions of inhabitants.
Canton is better known to us than any other city of China, and is the chief seat
of the foreign trade. Shanghai, Ningpo, Fuchow, and Amoy, are the other most
important ports.
Until very recently, the five places named in the preceding paragraph were the
only sea-ports at which foreigners were permitted to trade. By late treaties,
however all of China is open to the intercourse of foreign nations.
Hainan and Formosa are Chinese islands. Hong Kong, an island lying south of
Canton, belongs to the British, to whom it was ceded in 1843. Macao belongs to the
Portuguese. It was granted to them 250 years ago, for assistance in clearing the
coast of pirates.
EMPIRE OP JAPAN.
XXVII. The Empire of Japan embraces the islands of Niphon,
Sikoke, Kiusiu, and Jesso, besides some of smaller size.
A JAPANESE JUNK.
All these islands are mountainous, and subject to frequent earthquakes. The Lew
Chew Islands also belong to Japan. Commodore Perry visited the latter in the
year 1853.
XXVIII. Productions. — The principal of these are rice, wheat,
barley, tea, tobacco, and camphor.
What are the most important productions of China? — What is the government? —
Name the capital. — The principal sea-ports. — To what power does Hong Kong
belong ? — Macao ? — Which are the principal islands of Japan ? — What other islands
also belong to Japan? — What are the chief productions? — What art derives its
name from this country ? — Name the capital of Japan. — The principal ports for
foreign trade.
The country appears to be rich also in minerals, — gold, silver, copper, and iron
being abundant. The art of japanning (or covering metals wi^h varnish) derives its
name from this empire.
XXIX. Towns. — Yeddo, a very populous city, *s the capital. Ha-
kodadi and Kanagawa are the principal ports f s i the foreign trade.
The Japanese were formerly very jealous of foreigners, ana the Government per-
mitted but little intercourse with other nations. The Unitec1 States, and several
European powers, have, however, recently effected treaties with Japan, by which
their citizens are permitted to visit the empire, and trade with the inhabitants.
INDIA.
XXX. India consists of two peninsulas : Hindoostan and Farther
India, or Indo-China.
Both peninsulas are remarkable for the fertility of the soil ; and yield, in great
abundance, the products of the tropical regions in which they are situated.
XXXI. Climate. — The climate of India is greatly influenced by
the monsoons, or periodical winds which prevail in the Indian Ocean.
These winds blow from the north-east for six months in the year, and from the
south-west during the remaining months. On the western coast, the south-west
monsoon brings the rainy season — and the north-east, the dry season. On the
eastern coast, on the contrary, the rains occur during the north-east monsoon, and
the dry season during the south-west.
XXXII. Productions. — The most important productions are rice
and cotton. Rice forms the principal food of the natives, and
almost their entire clothing is made from cotton.
The other chief exports are indigo, opium, silk, and various drugs, spices, and
perfumes.
XXXIII. Animals. — The most remarkable animals are the ele-
phant, rhinoceros, tiger, and the python (a huge serpent which
resembles the boa-constrictor of South America).
The Royal Bengal tiger is the largest, fiercest, and most beautiful of the tiger
species. Elephants are used in tiger-hunting, which is a favorite amusement in
India.
XXXIV. The Hindoos are divided into four castes, or classes,
according to their occupation : as the priest, soldier, merchant, or
laborer. The pariahs are the outcasts of these classes.
The son inherits the occupation of his father, from one generation to another.
The male members of one caste may legally marry into a caste below their own,
but not into one above. There is no distinction of caste in the countries of Farther
India, and in British India it is not so rigidly observed as formerly.
XXXV. British India. — Nearly the whole of Hindoostan
belongs, or is tributary, to Gvc*t 'Biita&al It was long subject to
the East India Company, but in 1858 their territories were trans-
ferred to the Crown.
The French and Portuguese have some small settlements upon the coast. Nepaul
and Bhotan, on the southern slope of the Himalaya Mountains, are independent
States. The firittsir, who rule this vast region, form but a small part of the
population. ^*vkAi\V
XXXVI. Towns. — Hindoostan contains some large and important
cities. Calcutta, the capital of British India, is a very large city,
and the seat ot an extensive trade.
Bombay and Madras are next in commercial importance. Benares is the seat of
Hindoo learning. Pondicherry is the capital of the French possessions, and Goa of
those belonging to Portugal. OmIRAAA"
Ceylon is a fine, fertile island, belonging to the VBnitirfi. The Laccadive and
Maldive Islands are of coral formation, and but thinly inhabited.
Name the two peninsulas of India. —What are the monsoons? — What effect have
they upon the climate? — Name the chief productions of India. — The exports.—
Some of the animals. — What distinctions exist among the Hindoos ? — What is
caste?— To what country does Hindoostan mostly belong?— Name the capital of
British India. —What places are next in commercial importance?— To what country
does Ceylon belong?
ASIA.
83
XXXVII. Farther India includes four native States : the King-
doms of Birmah and Siam, the Empire of Anam, and the interior
State of Laos.
There are also some Malay States in Malacca, and the British Possessions on the
western side of the Peninsula. The British Territories, in both Hiudoostan and
Farther India, are comprehended under the general name of British India, and are
under the control of the Governor-General, who resides at Calcutta.
XXXVIII. Towns. — Ava is the capital of Birmah; Bangkok,
of Siam ; and Hue, of Anam.
Ava was destroyed by an earthquake in 1839; but has since been rebuilt. Ama-
rapura and Monchobo have been successively capitals of Birmah.
THE GOLDEN PAGODA OF RANGOON.
Singapore, on an island of the same name, at the extremity of Malacca, is the
most important commercial city. It belongs to the British. Rangoon, famous for
its Golden Pagoda, is also a commercial city of considerable importance.
AFGHANISTAN AND BELOOCHISTAN.
XXXIX. The greater part of this region is mountainous and
barren, though there are many fertile valleys.
Both of these countries are in a very unsettled condition : divided into many
States, the extent of which is constantly changing. The inhabitants generally lead
a pastoral life, and are rude, turbulent, and warlike.
XL. Towns. — Cabul, Candahar, and Herat, in Afghanistan, and
Kelat, in Beloochistan, are each capitals of States of the same name.
PERSIA.
XLI. The table-land is dry and barren, and subject to great
extremes of heat and cold; but the mountain valleys, and other
well-watered tracts, are exceedingly fertile.
XLIL Productions. — The natural productions are fruits, grain,
rice, cotton, assafcetida, and the vine.
The people are very skilful in the making of various silk and cotton fabrics,
ehawls, leather, and perfumery.
XLIII. The government is a despotic monarchy. The sovereign
is called the Shah.
Which are the principal native States of Farther India ? — Where are the British
Possessions? — What general name is given to the British Possessions in India? —
Name the capital of Birmah. — Of Siam. — Of Anam. — Which is the chief commer-
cial city of Farther India? — Describe Afghanistan and Beloochistan. — The inhab-
itants.— Name the largest towns. — What can you say of Persia? — Of the produc-
tions?— Of the government?
The chiefs of the warlike mountain tribes, and other unsettled portions of the
population, are but little dependent on the royal authority.
XLIV. Towns. — Teheran is the capital. Ispahan is the most
populous city; and Bushire, the principal sea-port.
The British government, as the result of hostilities with Persia in 185G and 1857,
may be said to have the control of the Persian Gulf, having gained a station at
Bushire and several other places on the coast.
ARABIA.
XLV. The greater part of Arabia is a desert-plateau. The prin-
cipal fertile tracts are Oman and Yemen, and the mountain- valleys.
There, dates and other fruits, coffee, and various gums are produced. Pearls
are obtained in great numbers in the Persian Gulf.
The camel, which affords almost the only conveyance for goods and passengers
across the desert, is the most important animal in Arabia. The Arabian horses are
celebrated for their beauty and speed, and are regarded by their owners with the
greatest affection.
XLVI. Arabia has never been subject to one sovereign. The
people are divided into numerous independent tribes, each of which
is governed by its own chief, or Sheikh.
The most important of the native rulers are the Sultans of Muscat and Sana. The
dominions of the former include the easfern and southern part of the peninsula, por-
tions of the Persian Gulf coast, and some districts on the coast of Beloochistan.
THE HARBOR OF MUSCAT.
XLVII. Inhabitants. — The greater part of the population are
inhabitants of the desert, styled Bedouins, who look with contempt
upon the dwellers in the towns.
The Bedouins are a wandering people, devoting themselves to the care of their
camels, horses, goats, and sheep. They are generous and hospitable, but quarrel-
some, revengeful, and addicted to plunder.
XL VIII. Towns. — Muscat and Sana are the largest towns.
Mocha exports large quantities of coffee.
Mecca is regarded by the Mohammedans as a holy city, and is annually visited
by vast numbers of pilgrims. Medina is the burial-place of Mohammed. Aden
belongs to the ]
Name the capital of Persia. — The other important places. — What parts of Arabia
are fertile? — What are some of the productions? — Where are pearls obtained? —
Why is the camel so useful an animal? — What can you say of the government? —
Of the inhabitants? — The Bedouins? — Which is the largest town? — Name the
other important places, and state for what each is noted.
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86
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY.
CAMELOTARDS AND LION.
THE SPHINX.
ARABS AND CAMELS.
CHAPTER XVIII.
AFRICA.
I. Africa is the largest peninsula in the world. It is connected
with Asia by the Isthmus of Suez.
II. Outline. — The coast is not indented by deep gulfs and bays.
This is one of the principal reasons why the interior is so little
known.
Geographers possess much less knowledge of Africa than of any other Grand
Division of the earth. Large portions of its interior have never been visited by a
white man. Even the source of the Nile, a river which has been famous in history
since the time of Moses, has only been discovered very recently.
The insalubrity of the climate, and the savage character of the natives, are
additional obstacles to the exploration of Africa, and many intrepid travellers have
lost their lives in the attempt.
III. Surface. — The principal mountain-systems of Africa are the
Atlas Chain, the Mountains of the Moon, the Snow Mountains, the
Kong, Crystal and Cameroon Mountains.
The ranges of the eastern coast have been but little explored; they are known,
however, to stretch from the Highlands of Abyssinia to the southern extremity of
Africa. The Mountains of the Moon, once erroneously supposed to extend across
Central Africa from east to west, are a part of this system.
The only plateaus of which we have any reliable knowledge are those of Abys-
sinia, the Sahara, or Great Desert, and South Africa. The first embraces nearly
all of Abyssinia; the last, the section south of the Snow Mountains. The prin-
cipal plains are those of Egypt, Central and Southern Africa.
IV. Rivers. — The rivers flow into the Mediterranean Sea, the
Indian, and the Atlantic Oceans.
Describe the coast of Africa. — State some of the reasons why its interior is so
little known. — Describe the surface. — Into what, do the rivers flow? — What can
you say of the climate ? — What parts are said to be unhealthful ?
There are also many rivers of considerable size flowing into lakes, which are not,
probably, connected with the ocean.
V. Climate. — The greater part of Africa is in the Torrid Zone,
and, much of the country being desort-land, it is, as a whole, the
hottest and driest Grand Division of the globe.
The climate of the eastern and western coasts is very unhealthful. It is espe-
cially fatal to white men.
[The productions, animals, and inhabitants, will be described in connection with
the separate divisions.]
VI. Africa may be divided into Northern, Eastern, SoihBto,
"Western, and Central Africa.
NORTHERN AFRICA.
VII. Northern Africa comprises Barbary, the Sahara, or Great
Desert, and the Nile countries.
The principal food-plants in this region are dhourra, teff, and millet (kinds of
grain), and the date-palm tree. So numerous are these trees in the section south
of the Atlas Mountains, that the country is called Beled el Jerid (" Land of Dates").
Rice, wheat, and cotton, are raised in Egypt. Abyssinia is supposed to be the
native country of the coffee-plant.
The lion, elephant, rhinoceros, and camelopard, are found in this section, as also
throughout nearly all of Africa. The camel is the most useful animal. The ostrich
is the largest bird, and the crocodile the most formidable reptile.
Most of the inhabitants belong to the Caucasian race, and profess the Mohamme-
dan religion. There are, however, many negroes in the Nile countries.
VIII. Barbary embraces Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli.
Morocco is an independent empire. Algeria is a colony of France. Tunis and
Tripoli are nominally subject to Turkey.
Into what divisions may Africa be separated? — What does Northern Africa com-
prise?— What are the principal productions of this section ? — Name the animals. —
To what race do the inhabitants belong? — What are the different countries of
Barbary ?
AFEICA.
87
By means of caravans, tho inhabitants carry on an extensive trade with the negro
tribes, south of the Great Desert, and they export wool, goat-skins, leather, olive
oil, and various fruits.
Barca and Fezzan, one of the oases of the Great Desert, are provinces of Tripoli.
Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, Morocco, and Fez, are the chief cities of Barbary.
IX. The Sahara, or Great Desert, is a vast table-land, about four-
fifths the size of the United States, consisting chiefly of sandy and
stony tracts. It contains a few oases, or fertile spots, and can only
be crossed by the aid of camels.
The only inhabitants of this dreary region are a few wandering tribes, called
Tibboos and Tuaricks. Salt is found on the desert in large quantities.
X. The countries of the Nile are Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia.
XL Egypt is celebrated for its pyramids, and its ruins of ancient
cities and temples. It has been a country of unrivalled fertility,
from the earliest dawn of history.
XII. Nubia and Kordofan (which lies to the southwest of Nubia),
are subject to the Pasha of Egypt.
It rarely or never rains in Middle or Upper Egypt, and the land is watered by
the annual overflow of tho river Nile.
Alexandria is the chief sea-port of Egypt. Cairo, the capital, is the largest city
in Africa. Khartoom is the only city of any considerable size in Nubia.
XIII. Abyssinia consisted until lately of three separate States,
but they are now united under the government of the Negus or
Emperor Theodorus.
Gondar is the capital of Abyssinia.
Most of the people profess the Christian religion, but their faith is obscured by
many barbarous and superstitious ceremonies.
The Gallas or Ormas, a dark-brown race, inhabit the regions south of Abyssinia,
and were once the terror of the surrounding nations, but their habits are now more
peaceful. They cultivate the ground to a limited extent, and raise large herds of
cattle.
EASTERN AFRICA.
XIV. Eastern Africa includes the countries upon the coast, from
the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb to the Tropic of Capricorn.
The principal divisions are Zanguebar and Mozambique. The country north of
Zanguebar is occupied by a people Balled the Konmulies.
The Suahilies inhabit the coast districts. The people of the interior are pagan
Negroes. The towns on t he coagf of Zaniruebar are governed by the Sultan of Zan-
zibar. Zanzibar City is the seat of his government. Mozambique belongs to
Portugal.
SOUTHERN AFRICA.
XY. Southern Africa comprises Cape Colony, Natal, Caffraria,
the Trans Vaal Eepublic, Orange Eiver Free State, and the Zoolu,
Bechuana, Namaqua, and Damara countries.
Cape Colony and Natal are British colonies. Caffraria is in the possession of
independent tribes of Oaffirs, a variety of the negro race.
The Trans Vaal Republic and Orange River Free State are independent States,
inhabited by negro tribes and Dutch boors, or farmers, the latter being the ruling
class.
The Zoolu, Bechuana, Damara, and Namaqua countries are thinly inhabited by
rude, pastoral tribes, who go about from place to place, to feed their numerous herds
of cattle, which form their chief wealth.
XVI. Cape Colony is the most important division of Southern
Africa. About one-half of the inhabitants are Dutch and English.
Cape Town, the chief city, carries on an extensive trade with Great Britain and
other foreign countries. Wool is the principal article of export.
Name the chief cities of Barbary. — Describe the Sahara. — Which are the Nile
countries ? — For what is Egypt celebrated? — To what power are Nubia and Kor-
dofan subject ? —What can you say of Abyssinia ? — Of the Gallas ? —What are the
principal divisions of Eastern Africa? — To what power does Zanguebar belong ? —
Mozambique? — What does Southern Africa comprise? — Which divisions belong to
the British? — Describe the others.
WESTERN AFRICA.
XVII. Western Africa includes the countries upon the coast,
from the Great Desert to the Tropic of Capricorn. Senegambia
and Guinea are the principal divisions.
The British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese, have settlements on this coast. The
most important one is the British colony of Sierra Leone, which was founded in
1787 as a refuge for liberated slaves.
XVIII. Liberia is a negro republic, with a government modelled
after that of the United States.
Liberia was founded in 1821, by the American Colonization Society, as a place of
refuge for free blacks and liberated slaves from tb,e United States. It is regarded
as a most successful experiment for the civilization of Africa.
Monrovia is the capital and chief town. It is a place of considerable trade, con-
taining many schools and churches.
Ashantee, Dahomey, and Yoruba are the most important native kingdoms. The
army of Dahomey is composed chiefly of women.
CENTRAL AFRICA.
XIX. Central Africa comprises Soudan, Ethiopia, and the Eegion
of the Zambesi.
Soudan contains many small States, some of which are known to us only by
name. The whole region is a plain of great fertility, and embraces the basin of
Lake Tchad, and the greater part of that of the river Niger.
Dr. Barth and other recent travellers report Soudan to be well peopled by various
nations, one of whom, the Fellatas, have acquired an empire of 1400 miles in
extent since the commencement of the present century.
There are some cities and towns of considerable size in Soudan. Of these,
Sokoto, Kashna, Kano, Sego, and Wurno are perhaps the most important.
Ethiopia is still an almost unknown region, notwithstanding the numerous
attempts to explore it. In 1859, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria Nyanza were
discovered by Captains Burton and Speke, and in 1864 Lake Albert Nyanza by
Mr. Baker. The latter is now supposed to be the source of trf"ie river Nile.
The Region of the Zambesi has been recently explored by Dr. Livingstone. Lake
Nyassa was discovered by him in 1859. He reports the country to be a low and
fertile plain, which in the rainy season is in part covered with water.
The productions of Eastern, Western, and Central Africa, are such as belong to
the Torrid Zone. The natives collect some palm-oil, ivory, and gold dust, which
are exported from the towns on the coast, but the principal trade is the selling of
slaves — a traffic which most Christian nations have united in endeavoring to
suppress.
Savage and powerful animals, such as the lion, elephant, rhinoceros, hippopota-
mus, and the gorilla, a gigantic species of ape, abound in this portion of Africa.
The natives are found in various stages of barbarism. Nearly all of them belong
to the negro race. Those of Central Africa are considered somewhat superior to
the inhabitants of tho coast. They work skilfully in gold, iron, and leather, and
weave and dye substantial cotton fabrics.
AFRICAN ISLANDS.
XX. Madagascar is the -largest of the African Islands. It is a
mountainous country, and but little known. Part of the inhab-
itants belong to the Negro, and part to the Malay race.
Bourbon and Mauritius Islands are east of Madagascar. The former belongs to
France ; the latter, to England. The Almirante and Seychelle Islands are depen-
dencies of Mauritius. Socotra is under the dominion of the Sultan of Zanzibar.
The Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verd Islands belong to Portugal ; the Canaries,
to Spain. Fruit, sugar, coffee, cochineal, and salt are the chief exports.
St. Helena and Ascension are 4M£&* islands. The former is noted as having
been the place of exile of the Emperor Napoleon, who died there in 1821.
What are the principal divisions of Western Africa? — What European govern,
ments have settlements upon the coast? — What can you say of Liberia? — What
are the three divisions of Central Africa? — Describe Soudan. — In what region
have large lakes been discovered ? — Name some of the exports of these sections. —
The principal animals. — Describe the inhabitants. — Name the largest African
island.— The other principal islands.
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90
COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGBAPHY.
" RUNNING A MUCK.
BUINS OF TUE TEMPLE OF BOKO BODO, IN JAVA.
GOLD MINING IN AUSTRALIA.
CHAPTER XIX.
OCEANICA.
I. Oceanica consists entirely of islands ; and comprises the
three divisions of Malaysia, Australasia, and Polynesia.
,
MALAYSIA.
II. Malaysia includes a number of islands which lie to the south
east of Asia. This division is also known as the East Indian Archi-
pelago.
The principal islands are Borneo, Sumatra, and Java (which, with some smaller
ones, are embraced under the general name of the Sunda Isles), the Philippine,
Spice Islands, and Celebes.
III. Surface. — Most of these islands are mountainous, and many
of them contain numerous active volcanoes.
The Sunda Islands alone contain eighty volcanoes, and there are forty-three on
the single island of Java. Earthquakes are frequent.
IV. Climate. — Malaysia lies within the Torrid Zone. The cli-
mate, therefore, is very hot.
The low lands near the coast, owing to the excessive moisture and great heat, are
frequently very unhealthy. At an elevation of a few hundred feet, the climate
becomes more healthful ; and, by ascending still higher, we reach a delightful
region of perpetual spring.
V. Productions. — No part of the world is richer in its vegetable
productions than the islands of Malaysia. The minerals are also
valuable.
Nearly all the spices which we use — such as cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, and
pepper — are raised on these islands. Here also grow the bread-fruit tree, sago,
Of what does Oceanica consist? — What three divisions does it comprise? — What
does Malaysia include? — Which are the principal islands? — Describe the sur-
face.— What is said of the climate? — What are the principal productions of
Malaysia ?
— «
the cocoa-nut palm, bananas, and yams. Gutta-percha is the sap of a tree which
grows in the forests of Borneo, and of other islands in the Archipelago.
Rice is cultivated in most of the islands. Java exports great quantities of cofFeo
and sugar. Borneo furnishes gold and diamonds; and Banca, tin. From the
Philippine Islands we receive sugar, hemp, and tobacco.
VI. Animals. — Many of the animals of Malaysia are among the
largest and fiercest upon the earth.
The rhinoceros and tiger are found in Sumatra and Java ; the elephant in
Sumatra ; and the ourang-outang in Sumatra and Borneo. Reptiles and insects
are numerous in all the islands. In many of them, domestic animals — as hogs,
cattle, goats, and sheep — are abundant. The birds are noted for the beauty of
their plumage.
VII. Inhabitants. — The ruling people of the Archipelago are
Malays. They are much engaged in maritime pursuits, and many
of them are pirates.
The Malays consume a great deal of opium, and, under its influence, sometimes
burst into fits of furious madness. While in this condition, with their daggers in
their hands, they frequently rush at, any one they chance to meet, scroaming
"Amok! amok!" (kill! kill!): hence the expression, " running a muck."
In the interior of the larger islands are tribes of negroes, among the most degraded
creatures on the earth. Some of them are cannibals. There are also in the islands
numerous Chinese, and in the commercial towns a few Europeans.
VIII. The Dutch, Spanish, English, and Portuguese, have pos-
sessions in Malaysia.
Java, the Spice Islands, part of Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, and Timor, belong to
the Dutch. The Philippine Islands are in the possession of the Spanish. The
English occupy a part of Borneo, and all of the adjoining island of Labuan. A
part of Timor belongs to the Portuguese.
IX. Towns. — Batavia and Manilla are the most important cities
of Malaysia, and are the chief ports for the commerce of the
islands.
Name some of the animals. — Who are the ruling people? — What other races also
inhabit these islands? — What European nations have possession here? — Which
of the islands belong to the Dutch? — Spanish? — English? — Portuguese? — Name
the principal cities.
OCEANICA.
91
AUSTRALASIA.
X . Australasia is the largest division of Oceanica. It comprises
Australia, Papua, or New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand, New
Caledonia, and many other islands of less importance.
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Norfolk, and Chatham Islands, belong to Great
Britain; and New Caledonia, to France. The other islands are still in possession
of the native inhabitants. Australia, on account of its great size, is by many
geographers regarded as a continent.
AUSTRALIA.
XI. Surface. — Near the coast, almost the entire island seems to
be guarded by mountain-ranges. The central regions have never
been explored, but are supposed to consist of a low, barren plain.
The only river of much importance is the Murray.
The settled regions are the sections between the mountains and the coast, the
many valleys between the different mountain-ranges, and the slopes towards the
interior.
XII. Climate. — The northern part of the island is in the Torrid
Zone, and its climate is strictly tropical. The temperature of the
southern part is much like that of Southern Europe.
New South Wales is subject to excessive heat, caused by burning winds from the
sterile plains of the interior. The thermometer sometimes rises as high as 130° in
the shade. This section is also subject to long droughts, at irregular intervals,
which are often followed by torrents of rain, flooding the whole country.
XIII. Productions. — The most important of these are gold and
tIooI, both of which are largely exported.
Few fcod plants of any value have been found in Australia, although those of
other countries, in similar climates, are grown here successfully. The native trees
are nearly all evergreens.
The grass is of superior quality, and sustains numerous flocks of sheep, which
the early English settlers introduced in great numbers.
Gold was first discovered in 1851. Its product since that time has been greater
than that of all the rest of the world, except California.
XIV. Animals. — The largest native animal is the kangaroo. The
most singular one is the platypus, which has the body of an otter,
the bill of a duck, and lays eggs. Birds are numerous.
The domestic animals of Europe have been introduced into the island in great
numbers.
XV. Inhabitants. — The natives of Australia, and of most of the
islands in Australasia, are a degraded race of negroes, called
Papuans. The greater part of the inhabitants are Europeans and
their descendants.
XVI. Political Divisions. — The colonies are New South Wales,
Victoria, South Australia, West Australia, and Queensland.
New South Wales and Victoria are by far the most important divisions. The
gold-fields are in these colonies.
XVII. Towns. — Melbourne and Sydney are the most important
cities, and the principal commercial marts of the country. Adelaide
is the capital of South Australia, and Perth of West Australia.
XVIII. Tasmania, south of Australia, is a fine agricultural island,
inhabited solely by European colonists. The islands of New Zea-
land are mountainous, and have a climate much resembling that of
Great Britain. The native inhabitants belong to the Malay race.
Name the principal islands of Australasia. — Which of them belong to Great Britain?
—Which belong to France? — Describe the surface of Australia.— Its climate.— What
are the most important productions ? — Name someof the animals. — To what racedo the
native inhabitants belong? — What are the political divisions of Australia? Which are
the most Important cities? — What is said of Tasmania? — Describe New Zealand.
XIX. Little is known of Papua, and the other islands of Aus-
tralasia. There are no white settlements in any of them, except
New Caledonia.
They are for the most part mountainous, and undoubtedly contain many valuable
productions.
POLYNESIA.
XX. Polynesia includes the great number of islands which are
scattered throughout the wide expanse of the Pacific Ocean.
Though very numerous, and some of them of considerable size, these islands, as
compared with the great ocean, are as mere specks upon its surface.
XXI. The islands of Polynesia are mountainous, or low.
VIEW OF TAHITI.
The mountainous islands are principally of volcanic formation. The low islands
are the work of the coral insect. They arc very level, and have scarcely any
elevation above the surface of the ocean.
XXII. The most important groups are the Sandwich, Ladrone,
Caroline, Society, Marquesas, and Friendly Islands. Nearly all of
these are mountainous.
The Ladrone and Caroline Islands belong to Spain. The Marquesas group, and
Tahiti, (one of the Society Islands,) belong to France.
XXIII. Climate and Productions. — Nearly the whole of Polynesia
is in the Torrid Zone. Many tropical productions have been intro-
duced, and grow in great luxuriance.
The climate is much modified by the influence of the sea, and is, in general, like
that of perpetual spring. The bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, and plantain-trees, with
yams, are the most important native productions.
XXIV. Animals. — When first discovered, these islands contained
neither insects nor reptiles, and no animal larger than a hog. Many
of the domestic animals of Europe and America have, however,
been taken to Polynesia by vessels from those countries.
XXV. Inhabitants. — Most of the natives belong to the Malay race.
In some of the islands they are very savage ; in others, they are intelli-
gent and gentle. Many of them have been converted to Christianity,
under the influence of missionaries who have labored among them.
XXVI. Towns. — Honolulu, on Oahu, one of the Sandwich
Islands, is the only important town in Polynesia.
The native inhabitants of the islands of Oceanica are rapidly passing away before
the white man, and, like the Indians of North America, will doubtless at no distant
day become extinct.
What does Polynesia include? — Of what two kinds are the islands? — Of what
formation are the mountainous islands? — The low islands? — Which are the most
important groups? — In what zone is nearly the whole of Polynesia? — Name some
of the productions of these islands. — What is said of the animals ? — To what race
do the inhabitants belong? — What is the principal town of Polynesia?
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QUESTIONS FOR GENERAL REVIEW.
What seas, gulfs, and bays lie east and south of Asia ? — What are the prin-
cipal exports of Franco ?— Of Russia ? — What is the ditference in time between
Paris and New York ?— What is the latitude of Cape Horn ?— Of the Cape of
Good Hope? — Name the four largest rivers of Europe, and describe the Danube.
What does the Dominion of Canada comprise ? — Why are great cities usually
situated upon rivers!
Name the six largest cities in the United States. — In Europe. — Where are the
principal coal, iron, and gold mines in Europe? — How would you go by water
from Philadelphia to Vienna ? — What is a desert ? — Name some of the most
celebrated. — Give the latitude and longitude of the five most populous cities
in the world. — Trace the different routes used by travellers in going from Eng-
land to India.
Name the principal rivers that flow into the Pacific Ocean. — Name in order
the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. — Name the oceans in the
order of their size. — Name the islands in the Indian Ocean. — In what direction
will shadows be cast at noon, on the 23d of September, at Quito ? — At Chicago ?
— At Callao ? — At St. Helena ? — At Java ? — At Montevideo ? — Name several cities
on the globe that lie on, or near, the parallel of New Orleans.
What does the British Empire comprise ? — Which has the longer day on the
21st of June, Boston or London? — Why? — Name the principal islands in the
Mediterranean Sea. — Mention some of the principal deltas on the globe. —
Define a Great Circle. — Where is the Dead Sea? — Where is the Peak of Teneriffe?
— For what are the following places noted ? Lyons; Canton; Genoa; Malaga;
Mobile ; Jerusalem.
Name the three southern peninsulas of Europe. — Of Asia. — Docs the North
Pole incline towards the sun, or from it, on the 21st of June? — What is govern-
ment ? — What meridian divides the hemispheres ? — Name the highest mountain
on the globe; the largest fresh- water lake; the longest river. — When does the
rainy season occur in tropical countries north of the equator ? — Through what
waters, and over what countries and islands, does the Equator pass ?
How does a lofty mountain in the Torrid Zone illustrate the differences of
climate and vegetation? — To what race do the Moors belong? — Do you find
large manufacturing establishments in thickly-settled countries, or in those
thinly settled ? — Why? — What strait separates North America from Asia ? —
Vera Cruz and the city of Mexico have nearly the same latitude : which has the
milder climate ? — Why ?
Why are large commercial cities generally found on the sea-coast? — What is
the Gulf Stream ? — Name the five most powerful states of Europe. — What are
the principal branches of the Mediterranean Sea? — Describe the overland route
from London to Bombay. — Name four branches of the Amazon River. — Name
six remarkable volcanoes, and locate them. — What names are given to the great
mountain-system extending across the Eastern Hemisphere from Spain to the
China Sea?— Name three of the Sunda Islands.
What is the most important town in South Africa?— What is the source of
the Nile ?— What Taces inhabit Madagascar ?— What is the largest river of
Western Africa ?— Of Southern Africa ?— What is the latitude of the Azores ?—
Of the Sandwich Islands ?— When it is summer at Chicago, what is the season
at Valparaiso ?— Where do the Mongolians chiefly live ?— What is a degree ?—
From what countries do the paper-makers of the United States import the most
of their rags ?
What country produces the best tea ?— Tobacco?— Coffee ?— Where is Aleppo?
— Surat?— Astrakhan?— Ghent?— Where are the Atlas Mountains?— Where. is
Roumania ?— What are the two chief commercial towns of Australia?— What
peninsula in North America extends towards the north ?— What one in Europe ?
—Name the rivers that drain Siberia.— What is the capital of British India?— In
what countries does Mohammedanism prevail '
(96)
What country is tho most extensively engaged in manufacturing ? — What two
mountain-chains separate Asia from Europe ? — How does a chart differ from a
map ? — What is the most important town on the Philippine Islands ? — Is tho
Sahara a table-land, or a plaja ? — Name the largo rivers that drain China. —
Farther India. — Hindoostan. — Where i3 Lapland? — What 13 the latitude of
Cape Farewell?— Of St. Petersburg?
To what state of society do the Chinese belong? — What waters does tho
Isthmus of Suez separate? — What lands docs it connect? — Which grand divi-
sion of land stretches farthest towards the North Pole ? — Where is the Kwichpak
River? — Which ocean contains the more land? the Arctic, or the Antarctic? —
Name the Greater Antilles. — What three mountain-systems in South America!
— What connects the Persian Gulf with the Arabian Sea ?
Into what does tho Euphrates flow? — Mention two lakes in South America.
— Describe the river Nile. — Name the principal rivers flowing into the Black
Sea. — Into tho Baltic Sea. — Where are the Mountains of the Moon? — Tho Snow
Mountains ? — What is the latitude of the island of St. Helena ? — What city dic-
tates to the civilized world in matters of dross and fashion? — Define diameter.
— Locate Singapore; Smyrna; Para; Leipsic; Madras; Odessa.
Where is tho island of Malta ?— To what government does it belong ? — What
country on the south side of the Caucasus Mountains? — What isits capital? —
What do you mean by the Ottoman Empire? — From what islands are spices
chiefly imported? — Where is Batavia? — AVhat is the capital of Canada? — In
what portions of Europe is wheat abundantly produced ? — The olive and mul-
berry tree? — In what country is peat the chief article of fuel?
What grand division does the Arctic Circle cross ? — The Tropic of Cancer ?
The Tropic of Capricorn? — Name all the principal rivers on the western coast
of Europe, between the Strait of Gibraltar and the Strait of Dover. — Between
the Strait of Dover and Denmark. — What strait connects the Red Sea with the
Arabian Sea? — What two straits connect the Indian Ocean with the China
Sea? — Which grand division has the most extensive plateaus?
On what waters will a vessel sail in going from New York, round the Capo
of Good Hope, to Bombay, — thence to Canton, — thence to San Francisco, — and
thence, by way of Cape Horn, to New York again? — At what towns on the
borders of the Chinese Empire and Siberia do the Russians and Chinese carry
on an extensive trade? — What town in Russia is noted for its great fairs?
Mention the names of some distinguished travellers who have recently made
discoveries in Africa.
Which zone contains the most highly civilized nations? — What is the effect
of the climate of the Torrid Zone on its inhabitants ? — Which of the West Indies
belong to Spain? — Name two of them which belong to France. — Name one be-
longing to England. — Which division of South America has no towns? — How
many empires are there on the Western Continent? — What is the oldest-settled
town in New England? — In the United States?
The course of the Mississippi River is from north to south; the course of the
Amazon is from west to east: which river, do you think, is the most favorable
to trade and commerce? — Why? — Why are there no large rivers on the western
coast of South America? — Which is the largest empire in the world? — Which
one has the largest number of subjects? — Name the rivers flowing into the
Caspian Sea Into the Sea of Aral. — Where are the Cyclades?
What is the most southern point of Asia? — Of Europe? — Where is Virginia
City? — Carson City? — Golden City? — In what countries is the lion found? —
What is the only animal that can live in all parts of the globe ? — What three
rivers unite to form the Missouri? — What is the holy city of the Jews? — Of tho
Mohammedans? — On the 21st day of March, is the sun north or south of the
equator? — Give the latitude and longitude of Wheeling. — Of Lima. — Of Vienna.
TREATISE ON MAP-DRAWING.
BY E. A. APGAK.
No pupil in geography can properly be said to have become thoroughly ac-
quainted with the surface of the earth until he has a distinct and definite picture
of the whole, as represented by maps, indelibly impressed upon his mind. The
most ready and accurate method of thus transferring to the mind that which is
upon the printed page is by means of rightly-conducted exercises in map-
drawing. And the only true and reliable test that such an acquaintance with
the surface of the earth has been acquired by the pupil, is his ability to repro-
duce upon slate, paper, or blackboard, any portion of that surface, with only
his mental picture as a guide.
In map-drawing, the teacher is generally content if his pupils are able to
copy accurately. To do this, alone, is no test of any clear geographical know-
ledge. A pupil can be said to have a distinct mental picture only of that which
he can draw from memory.
The Disadvantages of using Parallels and Meridians in Drawing Maps. — Parallels
and meridians should never be used by a pupil in geography as helps for map-
drawing. They do not aid the student to draw from memory; they necessitate
the use of a copy even more than a blank page does ; they lead the attention to
the comparatively unimportant miuutia! of the contour of tho continent, while
I
1. The Triangulation.— First draw the vertical line AB, of any convenient
length ; bisect it at C ; bisect the upper half at D. From D draw the horizontal
line DE equal to one-half of AB, and trisect it. Draw DF equal to one-third of
DE. Connect the points as in the figure, and trisect the lines FA, AE, and EB.
The figure thus drawn gives what may be called the geometrical expression
of the continent, and serves as a basis for constructing the map. The angles
at A, E, B, and F determine the accurate position of four of the most important
points of the continent, and the sides give us the general direction of the coast-
line, while the trisecting points serve as guide-posts for making certain pro-
jections or indentations. The simplicity of the construction of this figure con-
sists in the fact that there are no angles to be measured, and that all distances
are determined by reference to the first line, or measuring unit AB. This line
may serve as a scale of miles for determining all distances upon the continent.
the general shape and prominent characteristic projections and indentations
are entirely overlooked. The relation between the coast-line of a continent
and a system of these lines involves too many particulars, and cannot be re
membered; and even if this relationship should be remembered, the lines them-
selves cannot be constructed by the pupil without the use of instruments, and
at a great loss of time.
The Advantages of using Triangulations in Drawing Maps. — The easiest and,
indeed, the only effectual way to draw from memory the map of a country, is
to observe, in the first place, what convenient geometrical figure will give, by
its lines and angles, the accurate position of tho greatest number of leading
points in the country. This geometrical figure, which can be easily remem-
bered, and readily drawn by the eye, then serves as a basis on which to construct
accurately from memory the general outlines of the proposed map. By the use
of such a figure the pupil is led at once to the consideration of the most general
laws of the form, after which the details will follow without difficulty.
To illustrate this method, an outline map of South America is here given,
with directions for constructing the preliminary triangulation and drawing the
coast-lino.
l'cna. of Paraguana
Ki[ltutor
C. J'aritwj
C. Frio
C. Pillar
2. The Coast-Line. — The coast-line of South America is quite simple, and
closely follows the sides of the triangulation. The point A, on the figure, co-
incides with the peninsula of Paraguana; E, with Cape St. Roque; B, with
Cape Pillar; and F, with Cape Parina. The trisecting points, 2, 4, 5, and 6,
determine respectively the positions of the Isthmus of Panama, the mouth of
the Amazon, Cape Frio, and the mouth of the La Plata.
In drawing either of the continents, the pupil should first be taught to con-
struct the triangulation accurately, upon which he afterwards may draw the
coast-line, first through the use of a copy, and then from memory. It is all-
important that the pupil should be able to draw the contour of a continent
readily and accurately before he attempts to represent any of the inland
features; for upon an imperfect drawing of the outline the details must
necessarily be imperfect.
98
TllEATISE ON MAP-DRAWING.
DIKECTIONS FOR DRAWING THE STATES.
For drawing the States no additional geometrical figures are necessary. All
that is required is that, in each State, some one line shall be taken which will
best serve as a measuring unit for determining the position of the greatest
number of prominent points in the complete boundary. To illustrate this, a
simple outline drawing of the four Middle States is here given. The measuring
unit in each State is the line extending from 1 to 2, and the order for drawing
the different boundary lines must follow the order of the numbers.
The following directions will give the relative measurements of the above
States.
NEW YOEK.
From 1 to 2, first line, 100 miles long.
From 2 to 3 = first line.
From 3 to 4 = first line.
From 3 to 5 = first line.
From 6 to 6 = twice first line (-|-)
From 6 to 7 = one-half of first line.
From 7 to 8 = one-half of first line.
From 1 to 9 = first line, nearly.
The distance from the southern boundary of the State to the southern shore
of Lake Ontario is equal to first line.
The eastern shore of the lake is midway between the Niagara River and the
eastern boundary of the State.
The southern straight boundary is in a direct line with the southern boundary
of Massachusetts. The northern boundary of Massachusetts is midway be-
tween 2 and 3.
NEW JEESET.
From 1 to 2, first line, 50 miles long.
From 1 to 3 = three times first line.
The great bend of the river at 4 is midway between 1 and 3
Points 1, 4, and 3 are connected by the Delaware River, in the shape of a W
turned thus, $.
The distance of the upper bend of the river from the vertical line is equal to
one-half of first line.
The distance of the lower bend from the vertical line is equal to three-fourths
of first line.
Draw the horizontal line from 4 to 5, and, by trisecting the distance from 2
to 5, the position of the bay in which Staten Island is situated is determined.
Points 5 and 3 are connected by the coast-line slightly curved.
PENNSYLVANIA.
From 1 to 2, first line, 225 miles long.
From 1 to 3 = one-half of the one-third of first line.
From 1 to 4 = one-half of the distance from 1 to 3.
From 3 to 5 = two-thirds of first line.
From 5 to 6 = northern boundary.
Points 2, 7, and 0 are connected by the Delaware Itiver, in the shape of a W
turned thus, ^ .
DELAWAEE.
From 1 to 2, first line, 100 miles long.
From 2 to 3 = one-half of first line, nearly.
When, by means of these simple directions, the outline of a State has been
accurately drawn, the principal difficulty to be encountered has been overcome,
and the art of representing the remaining features can be easily acquired.
It is very important that, in each State, the proper line should be chosen for
the measuring unit. To serve this purpose, it must be a common measure or a
common multiple of the other lines. Thus, in drawing the State of New York,
some might be led to select the northern boundary as the measuring unit; but
it will readily be seen how few distances this will give us as compared with
those obtained by taking the length of Lake Champlain.
In conducting exercises in map-drawing, the class should be practised, first,
in drawing upon the blackboard, under the immediate direction of the teacher;
second, in drawing upon slates, their work to be submitted to the teacher; and
third, in executing, at home, maps upon paper, to be presented to the criticism
of both the teacher and the class.
Either the teacher or one of the most skilful pupils should execute a well-
finished and accurate map upon the blackboard. From this drawing — which
is much to be preferred to any printed outline map — the class may recite their
lesson, and upon it each of the new features, as they are learned from day to
day, may be represented.
It will be well to accompany every lesson in map-drawing with more or less
practice in rapid sketching. Let one rapidly illustrate on the board the lesson
which has just been recited, and, to excite emulation for quick work, let this
exercise be timed. Pupils will, by practice, soon be able to draw a triangulation
in half a minute, a continent in from two to five minutes, a State in from half
a minute to two minutes, and a physical map in from eight to twelve minutes.
Concert recitation should frequently accompany rapid sketching.
It will also be found a valuable exercise to require the pupil, while he is
drawing a map, to briefly describe, in a lively manner, the features he is repre
senting upon the board ; his verbal explanations all the while keeping pace
with his illustrations by the chalk.
All directions and exercises in map-drawing should be such as to prepare the
pupil to draw rapidly, accurately, and without a copy.
As the object of studying maps is to obtain a knowledge of the divisions ol
the Earth's surface which they represent, and as this knowledge is most readily
acquired by means of intelligent instructions in map-drawing, as soon as the
pupil commences the study of maps he should begin to learn to draw them.
A further development of the method here explained will be found in War-
ren's Physical and Outline Charts, and in Apgars' Geographical Drawing-liook.
In the latter work an attempt is made to reduce map-drawing to a science,
while by the use of an original system of coloring and symbolic language the
physical features, the populations of cities, and the heights of mountain-ranges
and peaks are so represented to the eye as to leave the facts impressed upon
the mind.
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY.
ay represents the sound of a in fate; ah, thai, of a in far; aw, a in fall; ft, a in fat; 6, e in met; 83, i in eit; 6h, e in berth; T, i in pine; I, i in pin; o, 6w, o in no; 6, o iu not; oo, oo in good; n\v, ou
in our; G, uinpure; % u in tun; gh, g in get; fi, ni in onion; n, n in won't; (A,£Ainthen; th,fAinthin; u, prolonged sound of u in thus; b, almost like e in her; ii, French w and German w, a
aound intermediate between those of ee and oo; no, ng sounded through the nose.
Aalborg, oll>org.
Aar, ar.
Abaco, ahTjah-ko.
Abeokuta, alib-e-o-koo'tah.
Aberdeen, ab-er-deen'.
Aberystwith, ab-er-ist'with.
Ahiquiu, ah-be-ke-oo'.
Abomey, ab-o-niay'.
Abreojos, ah-bray-o'hoce.
Abrolhos, ah-brole'yoca.
Abydos, ah-bi'dos.
Abyssinia, ab-is-sin'e-ah. (" Mixed peo-
ple:" so named by the Arabs, as
showing that the people were not of
pure Arab blood.)
Acapulco, ah-kah-pool'ko.
Acaray, ah-kah-ri'.
Ac'comack.
Achcen, at-cheen'.
Achill, akll.
Aconcagua, ah-kon-kab'gwalu
Aden, ah'den, or ay'den.
Ailije, ad'e-je.
Adiroudack, ad-e-ron'dak.
Adour, ah-door7.
Adrianople, ad-re-an-o'p"l. ("City of
Adrian.")
Adriatic, ad-re-at'ik. (Named from
"Adria," formerly an important city
on the Gulf of Venice, now Adriatic.)
Afghanistan, ahf-gahn-is-tahn'. ("Af-
ghan land.")
Africa, af're-kah.
Agra, ah'grah.
Agulhas, ah-gool'yahs. (Cai>e Agul-
has, *'Cape Needles.")
Air, ah-eer7.
Aisne, ain.
Ai t-la-Chapelle, aiks-lah -shah-pel'.
Ajaccio, ah-yaht'eho.
Ajail, ;i)i-/l;.;l!h'.
Akaba, ah'kah-bah.
Akerman, ah'ker-mahn.
Alabama, al-a-bah'mah. ("ITero we
rest :" said to have been so named
by a peaceful tribe of Indians driven
thither.)
Alamo, al'a-mo. (A M poplar-tree.")
Aland, ah'lahnd.
Alapaba, ah-lap'a-haw.
Alaska, ah-lahsTtah.
Albany, awl'ba-ne.
Albemarle, al-be-marF.
Albuquerque, ahl-boo-ke'r'kay.
Alcoy, abl-ko'e.
Alderncy, awl'der-ne.
Alencon, ah-len'san.
Aleutian, ah-Ioo'shan. (From aUut, a
"hold rock.")
Alexandrowsk, ah-lex-ahn-drovak'.
Algeria, il-je're ah.
Algiers, ahl-jeerz'.
Alicante, al-e-kant'.
Alleghany, al-le-gay'ne.
Aller, ahl'ler. •
Allior, ali 1-1 1 --ay'.
Almadcn, ahl-mah-tfien'.
Almansa, ahl-mahn'sah.
Almcria, aht-may-re'ah.
Alnwick, an'nlk.
Altai, ahl-tl'.
Altnuiaha, awI-tah-mah-haV.
Alton, awl'tdn, or al'tun.
Altona, ahl'to-nah.
Altoona, al-too'nah.
Alvarado, ahl-vah-rah'do.
Amarapura, ah-uiah-rah-poo'rah.
Amazon, am'a-zuu. (Named by the In-
dians Amas'soua, '* boat-destroyer.")
A in boy 'na.
America, a-meVe-kah. (Named from
Americus Vespucius.)
Amherst, am'erst.
Amiens, ani'e-enz-
Amirante, am-c -rant'.
Amuo, ah-muo'.
Amoor, ah-moor'.
Amoskeag, a-nios'keg.
Amoy, ah-moy'.
Am'sterdam. (From A mstddam, " dam
[or dike] of tho Amstel.")
Anadir, ah-nah-deer'.
Anam, ah-nahm'.
Ancona, ahu-ko'nah.
Andaman'.
Andes, an'diz. (From a Peruvian word
signifying " copper.'*)
Andor'ra,
An'dover.
Andros, ahn'dros.
Androscoggin, au-dros-kog'ghin.
Andujar, ahu-dooliar.
Angara, ahng-gah-rah'.
Angers, an'jcrz.
Anglesea, ang'g'l-se,
Angola, ang-go'lah.
Angouleme, oSG-goo-lem'.
Anguilla, aug-gliiriah.
Annap'olis.
Antananarivo, ahn-tah-nah-nah-re-vo'.
Antarctic, ant-ark'tik. ("Opposite tho
Arctic.*')
Antcquera, ahn-tay-kay'rah.
Anticosti, an-te-kos'te,
Antigua, ahn-te'gah.
Antioquia, ahn-te-o-ke'ah,
Antilles, ahn-tcel'.
Antongil, ahn-ton-zhil'.
Ant'werp.
Apache, ah-pah'chay.
Apalachee, ap-ah-lah'che.
Apalachicola, ap-pah-lah-chc-kolah.
Aprnniuo, ap'en-ninc.
Arabia, a-ray'be-ah.
Araguay, ah-rah-gwl'.
Aral, ftr'al. (Sea of Aral, "sea of
islands.")
Aranjuez, ah-rahn-hwetb/.
Ararat, ar'a-rat.
Araucania, ah-raw-kay'ne-ah.
Archangel, ark-ain'jel.
Archipelago, ar-ke-pel'a-go.
Arctic, ark'tik. (Arctic, from arctoa, a
"bear," signifies northern, because
the constellation called the- Great
Bear lies towards the north pole:
hence Arctic Ocean and Arctic Circle
mean Northern Ocean, Ac; conse-
quently, Antarctic means Southern.)
Arequipa, ah-ray-ke'pah.
Argentiue, aKjen-teen.
Arizona, ar-e-zo'nah.
Arkansas.
Armagh, ar-mah'.
Aroostook, a-roos'took.
Ar'ras.
Ascension, as-sen'shun.
Ascutney, as-kut'ue.
Ashantee, ahsh-akn-te'.
Asia, ay's he-ah. (.Froui^lsia, a daughter
of Ocean us.)
As'pinwall.
A^sam, ahs-sahm'.
Assiniboin, us-siu'e-boyn.
Assouan, ahs-soo-ahn'.
Assumption, as-sum'shun.
A.strakban, ahs-trah-kahn'.
Atacama, ah-tah-kah'mah.
Atckafalaya, atck-a-fa-li'ah. (" Lost
water.")
Athabasca, ath-a-basltah.
Athens, ath'enz. (So called from Athene,
the goddess of wisdom.)
Atlan'tic. (So called from the Atlas
Mountains.)
At'las. (The Atlas Mountains were
named from Atlas, an ancient king
of Mauritania, who was skilled iu
astronomy, and was reputed to have
borne the world on his shoulders.)
Audi, 5sh.
Auckland, awk'land.
Augela, uw-jelah.
Augsburg, awgz'burg.
Aurillac, o-recl-yahk'.
Au Sable, o-sahb'l'.
Australasia, aws-tral-ay'she-ah.
("Southern Asia.")
Australia, aws-tray'le-ah. (" Southern
land.")
Austria, aws'treah. ("Eastern king-
dom." So named as being tho east-
ern part of the dominions of Charlfr-
magne.)
Auvergne, o-vairn"'.
Aux Cayes, o-kay'.
Auxerre, o-sair'.
Ava, ah'vah.
Avignon, ah-veen-y5Na'.
Avon, ay'von.
Axuin, ahk-soom'.
Azores, az'orz, or azn5rz'. (From Port,
erfor, a "hawk," a number of these
birds being found there.)
Az'ov.
Babelmandeb, bahb-el-mahn'deb.
("The gate of tears.")
Eadajos, bad-ah-hoce7.
Baden, bah'den.
Baeza, bah-ay'thah.
Baffin.
Bagdad, bahg-dahd'.
Bagur, bah-goor'.
Bahamas, bah-hay'maz.
Bahia, bah-e'ah.
Baikal, bi'kahl. ("Rich lake." It
abouuds in fish.)
Balearic, bal-e-ftr'ik. (From balrarr?,
"slingers." These islands produced
the best slingers in the world.)
Balize, ba-leez'. (This is a corruption
of Waliz, which the Spaniards coiled
this place on account of its being the
resort of a noted pirate named Wal-
lice.)
Balkan, bahl-kahn'.
Balkasb. bahl-kahsh'.
Balmoral, bal-mor'al.
Balsas, bahl'saha,
Baltic, hawl'tik.
Baltimore, bawl'te-moro.
Banca, bang^ah.
Banlf, bamf.
Bangkok, bang-kok'.
Bangor, bang'gor.
Baniuluka, bah-ne-ah-loo'kah.
Baracoa, bah-rah-ko'ah.
Barbadoes, bar-bay'doze.
Barbuda, bar-boo'dah.
Barcelona, bar-say-lo'nah.
Barfieur, bar-flur/.
Bari, bah're.
Basle, bahl, or bahz'l.
Bat;ibano, bah-tah-bah'no.
BataWa, bft-tay've-ali.
Katiscan, bah-toes-koNa'.
Baton Rouge, bat'un-roozh'. ^"Red
stick.")
Bavaria, ba-vay're-ah.
Baylen, bl-len'.
Bayona, bah-yo'nah.
Bayonne, bah-yon'.
Bayou la Fourche, bi'oo-lah-foorsh'.
Bayreuth, bi'ruth.
Beaufort (U. S.), hu'furt.
Beauharnois, bo-har-uay'.
Beaumaris, bo-may 'ris.
Beauvais, bo-vay'.
Bechuanas, bet-choo-ah'naz.
Bedouin, bed'oo-in.
Begharmi, bay-gar'me.
Behring, be'ring.
Beirut, bay'root.
Beja, bay'zhuh.
Beled-el-Jerid, bel-ed'el-je-reed'.
(" Land of dates.")
Belem, bay-leNa'.
Belfast'.
Belgium, bol'jo-nm.
Belleisle, bel-ile'. ("Beautiful island.")
Belmonte, bel-mon'tay.
Beloit, be-loit'.
Beloochistan, bel-oo-chis-tahn'.
("Country of the Beloochees.")
Bernini, bay-me'ne.
Benares, ben-ah'rSz.
Bengal, ben-gawl'.
Bonguela, ben-gaylah.
Benicia, be-nish'e-ah.
Benin, ben-een'.
Benisouef, ben-c-swef .
Benjarmassin, ben-y ar-mah s-sin'.
Ben MacDhui, ben mak-doo'e.
Ben Ne'vis.
Bergen (U.S.), ber'ghen.
Bergen (Norway), bftrg'en.
Berlin.
Bermudas, ber-moo'<laz. (Named after
Bermudez, their discoverer, 1522.)
Berne, bern.
Besan^on, b6h-zoNG-sONG'.
Biddeford, bid'de-furd.
Bigelow, bigHo.
Bilbao, bil-bah'o.
BiKmah.
Birmingham, bir'ming-am.
Bis'cay.
Bistineau, bis-te-no\
Blenheim, blen'im.
Blois, bloy, or blwah.
Boavista, ho-ah-vees'tah.
Bochnia, bok'ne-ah.
Bogota, bo-go-tah'.
Bohemia, bo-he'me-ah.
Bois6, bwah-zay'.
Bojador, bod-jah-dore7.
Bokhara, bo-kah'rah.
Bolivia, bo-liv'e-ah. (Named from
General Bolivar.)
Bologna, bo-lone'yah.
Bolor, lw-k*re'.
Bombay'. ("Good bay.")
Bonifacio, bo-ne-fah'cho.
Bonin, bo-ueen'.
Boonville, boou'vil.
Boothia, boo'the-ah.
Bordeaux, bor-do7.
Borgne, born.
Borneo, bor'ne-o.
BornTiolm.
Bosphorus, bos'fc-rQs. ("Ox-ford.")
Bothnia, both'ne-ah.
Bougainville, boo-gax-veel'.
Boulogne, boo-Ione'.
Bourbon, boor'btin.
Bourges, boorzh.
Bowdoinham, bo'tiin-ham.
Braganza, brah-gahn'zah.
Brahmaputra, brah-mah-poo'trah.
("Son of the Creator.")
Brattleboro, brat't'1-bQr-ruh.
Brazil, bra-zil'.
Brazos, brah'zos.
Breede, bray'dGh.
Brem'en.
Breslau, bres'law, or bres'lOw-
Bris'tol.
Britain, brit-t'n.
Brooklyn, brr.k'Iin.
Bruges, broo'jiz.
Briinn, breen.
Brusa, broo'sah.
Brus'sels.
Bucharest, boo-kah-reer/. ("City of
enjoyment.")
Buda, bu'dah.
Budweis, bord'wice.
Buena Esperanza, bway'nah es-pay-
rahn'zah.
Buen Ayre, bwen I'ray.
Buenos Ayres, bo'uos ay'riz. ("Good
air.")
Bug, bdog.
Bulgaria, bt«51-gay're-ah.
Bunker (bunglter) Hill.
Burgas, boor-gahs'.
Burgos, boor'goce.
Bushire, boo-sheer'.
Buttes, butes.
c.
Cabriel, kah-bre-el'.
Cabul, kah-bool'.
Caceres, kah'thay-^s.
Cachoeira, kah-sho-ay'e-rah.
Cadiz, kay'diz.
Caen, koNO.
Caernarvon, ker-nar'von.
Caffraria, kaf-fray're-ah. ("Country
of the Caffirs or Infidels,"— a name
given by the Arabs to all who did not
accept the Mohammedan religion.)
Cagliari, kahl'yah-re.
Cahawba, ka haw'bah.
Cahors, kah-or*.
Cairo fU.S.\ kny'ro.
Cairo(Egypt\kT'ro. ("Thevictorions.")
Calais ''Me.), kal'i«.
Calais 'France\ kftl'is, nr kah-lay'.
Calcasieu, kal'ka-shoo.
Calcutta, kal-kut'tah.
(99)
100
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY.
Caldera,'kahl-day'rah.
Cbagros, chah'grBs.
Copiapo. ko-pe-ah po/.
Duero, doo-ay'ro.
Foggia, fod'jah-
California, kal-e-for'ne-ah.
Chalons, shah-lo.vo'.
Coquimbo. ko-keem'bo.
Dulce, dool'say.
Foix, fwab.
Oallao, kahl-lah'o, or kahl-yah'o.
Cbainplain, sham- plain'.
Cordova, kor'do-vah.
Dumfries, dum-freeco'.
Fond du Lac, fond-doo-Iahk'. (" Bottom
Cambay, kahm-hay'.
Chaudeleur, shan-ilfih-loor
Corea, ko-re'ah.
Dnndalk, dun-dawk7.
©f the lake.")
Cambodia, kam-bo'de-ah.
Charente, shahroNt'.
Corfu, kor-foo', or kor'fu.
Dundee*.
Fontainebleau, fon-ten-blo/.
Cameroon, kam-er-roon .
Chariton, char'e-ttin.
Cor'inth.
Dunfermline, dum-forlin.
Formentera, for-men-tay'rah
Camcta, kah-may'tah.
Cbartres, shart'r.
Corrientes, kor-re-cn'tes. (A * current."
Dunkirk.
Formosa, for-mo'sah. (" Beautiful ")
Canipeche, kam-po'che.
Chaseomus, chahs-ko'nius.
There is a strong current in Mozam-
Durango, doo-rahng'go.
Fortalcza, for-tah-lay'zah.
Cana<la, kan'a-dah.
Chateaugay, shat-0-gay'.
bique Channel, off Cape Corrientes.)
Durazzo, doo-rabt'so.
Foveaux, fo-vo/.
Canandaigua, kan-an-day'gwah.
Chatham, chat 'am.
Corsica, kor'se-kah.
Dus'seldorf.
France, franss. (France derives its nam*
Canaries, ka-nay'reez.
Chattahoochee, chat-ta-hoo'che.
Corunna, ko-run'nah.
Dwina, dwl'nah, or dwe'aah.
from the Franks, — i.e. freemen, — a
Canav'eral.
Chaudierc, sho-de-air\
Corval'tis.
confederacy of varions German na-
Can'cer. (This name is given to one of
Chaumout, sho-muNO'.
Costa Rica, kos'tah re'kah. ("Rich
E.
tions, who overran Gaul in the 6ixth
the tropics. "Cancer" signifies "a
Chautauqua, sha-taw'kwah.
coast ")
E0>ro.
century.)
crab." As tbo crab moves in a back-
Chelmsford, chemz'fQrd.
Cot6 d'Or, kote-dore'.
Ecija, ay'the-hah.
Francois, froNQ-swah'.
ward direction, so the sun, when ho
Cheltenham, c belt' nam.
Cotopaxi, ko-to-pax'e.
Ecuador, ek-wab-dore' ("Equator." So
Frankfort, frank'furt
reaches this tropic, moves in a back-
Chemnitz, kem'mts.
Coudersport, kow'ders-pOrt.
named from its situation, being inter-
Fresnillo, fres-neel'yo.
ward direction, towards Capricorn.)
Cher, shair.
Covington kuv'ingtbn.
sected through its whole length by
Frigid, frij'Id. (From frigus, "cold."
Candahar, Jta bn-dah-har/.
Cheraw, che-raw7.
Coxsackie. koOk-sawTse.
the equinoctial line.)
This name is given to two of the
Can'dia
Cherbourg, sher'barg.
Cozumel, ko-zoo-mel'.
Edinburgh, ed'in-bur-rbh. (Name sup-
zones,—North and South Frigid.)
Canea, kah-ne'ah.
Chesapeake, ches'a-peek.
Cracow, kray'ko.
posed to be derived from Edwin, a
Frijol, fre-hol'.
Cantabrian, kan-tay'bre-an.
Chesuncook, che-sunTtook.
Creuse, kruz.
king of Northumberland.)
Fronteras, fron-tay'rahs.
Canton (U.S)
Chetunal, cbay-too-nubl'.
Croux, kruh.
Ed'isto.
Fuerteventura, fw6r/tay-vcn-too'rab.
Canton (China), kan-ton'.
Cheviot, chiv'e-ot.
Crimea, krim-e'ah.
Egina, e-ji'nah.
Fundy, fun'de.
Cape. (From hat. caput, & "head," or
Cheyenne, she-en'
Cronstadt,kron'staht. ("King's town.")
Egypt* e'jipt.
Funen, foo'nen.
" beginning.")
Chicago, she-kaw'go.
Cuba, ku'hah
Eider, I'der.
FQnfkirchcn, feenrk65r-ken.
Cape Breton, kape brit't'n.
Chichester, chitch'es-ter.
Cuenca, kwen'kah.
Ekaterinburg, ay-kah'tay-reen-boorg.
Cap'ricorn. ("Ooat'shorn." The name
Chihuahua, che-wah'wah.
Cumana, koo-mah-nah'.
Elba, clOjah.
G.
given to the southern tropic As
Chili, chil'lo.
Cura<joa, ku-ra-so'ah.
EI bo, elb.
Gaeta, gah-ay'tah.
goats delight in climbing, bo the sun,
Cbillicothe, chil-Ie-keth'o.
Cuyaba, koo-yab'bah.
Elborz'. (" Peaked mountains.")
Galapagos, gah-lah'pah-goce, or gal-la-
when he reaches this sign, or tropic,
Chiloe, che-lo-ay'.
Cuyahoga, kl-a-ho'gah.
Eleuthera, e-loo'the-rah.
pay'gus. (" Islands of land-turtles "j
turns round and ascends towards
Chiml>ora7.o, chiin-bo-rah'zo.
Cuzco, koosTto.
Elgin, el'ghin.
Galatz, gah'lahts.
Cancer. Both Cancer and Capricorn
China, chi'nah. (Chinese, Chon-koo,
Cycla<les, sik'lah-deez (Islands in the
El Paso, el pah'so.
Galena, ga-le'nah. ("Silver or lead
are signs of the zodiac.)
"centre of the world ")
Archipelago. From the Gr. kuklos,
Elsinore, el-se-nore'.
ore.")
Caqucta, kah-kay'tah.
Chincha, chin'chah.
a "circle." One group, particularly,
Emilia, ay-meel'yab.
Galicia, galish'e-ah.
Caraccas, kah-rah'kahs.
Chippewa, chip'pc- way, or cbip'pe-waw.
surrounds Delos as with a circle;
EngaCo, en-gahn'yo.
Gallego, gahl-yay'go.
Carbonaro, kar-bo-nah'ro.
Chiriqui, cho-re-ke'.
hence the name. The other islands
England, ing'gland.
Gallinas (S.A.), gahl-ye'nahs. (From
Carcassonne, kar-kahs-son'.
Chonos, cho'noce.
are called Sporadety " scattered.")
Euikale. en-e-kahlay.
gallLna, a " hen.")
Cardenas, karMay-nahs.
Chowan, cho-wawn'.
Cyprus, si'prQs.
Equator, e-kway'tor. (jEqua-terra.
Gallipcdi, gabl-Iip'o-le.
Car'diff.
Christiania, kris-te-ab'ne-ah
So called on account of its dividing
Galveston, gal'ves-tQn.
Caribbean, kar-rib-be'ao.
Cbuquibamba, choo-ke-bahm'bah.
D.
the earth into two equal parts, north
Galway, gawl'way.
Carlsruhe, kaiiu'roo.
Cibao. Bc-bah'ol
Dahlonega, dah-lon'c-gatk
and south. From this central line
Gambia, gabm'be-ab.
Carolina, kar-o-li'nah.
Cienfuepos, se-cn-fway'goce*
Dahomey, dah-ho'may.
latitude is reckoned.)
Gang«s, gan'jeez.
Carpathian, kar-pay'the-aD.
Cimarron, se-mar-rOwn'.
DakotA. dahko'tah
Erebus, 6r'e-bus.
Garonne, gah-ron'.
Carpeuta'ria.
Cincinnati, sin-sin-nat'te (Named from
Damara, dah-mah'rah.
Erfurth, 6r'f60rt.
Gasconade, gas-ko-naid'.
Carrara, kar-rah'rah.
Cincinnati^, tho Roman Dictator.)
Damascus, dah-mas'kus.
Erie, e're.
Gatun, gab-toon'.
Cartagena, kar-ta-je'nah. ("New Car-
Cindad Real, the-oo-dahd' ray-al
Damietta, dam-e-et'tah.
Erlau, er'luw.
Geelong, ghe-Iong'.
thage.")
Civita Vecchia, che'vo-tab vek ke-ah.
Dant'zic.
Escurial, es-koo-re-ahl'.
Genargentu, jay-nar-jen-too*
Carvoeiro, kar-vo-ay'e-ro.
Casale, kah-sah'lay.
Cas'co.
Cleveland, kleev'land.
Danube, dan'yoob.
Espiritu Santo, es-plr'e-too eahn'to.
Genesee, jen-o-se'.
Coanza, ko-an'zah.
Dardanelles, dar-da-nelz*.
Esquimaux, cs'ke-mo.
Geneseo, jen-«Nse'o.
Coatzacoalcos, ko-abt-Bab-ko-ahlTioce.
Darfur, dar-foor*.
Essequibo, es-seh-ke'bo.
Geneva, jeu-*-'vah.
Caspian, kas'pe-an.
Cassiquiare, kahs-sc-ko-ah'ray.
Castelion de la Plana, kahs-tel-yfiwn'
day lab plah'nah
Castelnau, kahs-tel-no'.
Cobbe, kobT>e.
Darien, day're-en.
Euphrates, yoo-fray'teez. ("To make
Genii, hay-ncel'.
Cobija, ko-bo'hah. /
Darmstadt, darm'staht.
glad." This river, like the Nile, an-
Genoa, jen'o-ah.
Coblentz.
Cockburn, ko'burn.
Debretzin, day-bret'sin.
Dec'can. (" The Boutb." Tt forms the
nually overflows its bankts, thereby
fertilizing the adjacent country.)
Georgia, jor'je-ab.
Geral, zhay-rabl'.
Coepang, koo-pahng'.
southern portion of tho peninsula of
Europe, yoo'rbp.
Germany, jer'mah-ne. (Lat. Germania
Castine, kas-teen'.
Coimbra, ko-eem'brah.
Hindostan.)
European, yoo-rc-po'an.
" Wehrman," i.e. " war-man," wai
Catahoula, kat-a-hoolah.
Colima, ko-le'mah.
Decierta, day-se-air'tab.
Eutaw, yoo'taw.
changed by the RomansintoGcrman:
Catania, kah-tah'uo-ah.
Cologne, ko-lown'. (From colonia, a
Delaware, del'a-wDr.
Evansville, iv'anz-vil.
hence the name of Germany.)
Catoche, kah-to'chay.
CatsTdll.
Cattaro, kaht'tah-ro.
Cattegut, kat'te-gat. (" Cat's gate.")
Cauca, kOwTtah.
" colony.")
Colorado, kol-o-rah'do. (" Colorerd")
Comayagua, ko-nu-ah'gwah.
Co'mo.
Delgado, dcl-gah'do.
Delhi, delle.
Denbigh, denlie.
Den'mark. (A "low country.")
Evora, ev'o-rah.
Evreux, ev-ruh'.
Eylau, HOW.
Ghauts, gawts. (Ghaut signifies >
" mountain-pass.")
Ghent, ghent.
Gibraltar, je-brawl'ter. (In the eighth
Comonur, ko-mo-noor'.
Derne, der'n6h.
century, Tarif, with an army of Sa
Caucasus, kaw'ka-sus. (" White moun-
tain.")
Cav'an.
Com'orin.
Desaguadero, d6s-ah-gwah-fAay'ro.
Falkirk, fawl-kirk'.
racens, landed here and built a castlf
Concepcion, kon-sep-se-Ow^'.
Concord, kongTturd.
Conecuh, ko-noTc&h.
D«s Moines, de-moin'.
Detroit, de-troit'. (A "strait.")
Falkland, fawk'land.
Falmouth, fal'inbth.
on the rock, which was called Gib-e?-
Tarif, — i.c. the Mountain of Taril,
Caxias, kah-ehe'ahs.
Diamantina, di>-ah-niabn-te'nah.
Falster, fabl'ster.
whence the present name.)
Caxim'bas.
Conesus, ko-ne'sus.
Diarbekir, de-ar-bay-keer7.
Farallones, ftih-rahl-yo'nfit-
Gila, he'Iah.
Caycos, kTTcoco.
Cayenne, ki-en'.
Cayman, kl-mahn'. ("Alligator.")
Cayos, kl'oce.
Congaree, kong-ga-re'.
Congo, kong'go.
Conhocton, kon-hok'tun.
Conneautville, kon-ne-awt'vil.
Dieppe, de-ep'.
Digne, deeii.
Dijon, de-zhONo'.
Dinaric, de-nar'ik.
Faribault, far-e-bo'.
Faro, fah'ro.
Faroe, fah'ro.
Fayetteville, fay'et-vil.
Gilolo,je-lo'lo.
Girardeau, je-rnr-do'.
Girgeh, jeer'jeh.
Gironde, je-rond'.
Cayuga, kay-yoo'gah.
C. di Leuca, de-lay'oo-kah.
Connecticut, kon-net'e-kut.
Constantinople, kon-stan-te-no-p'l
Dnieper, ne'per.
Dniester, neets'ter.
Dominica, dom-e-neTtah.
Fee'jee.
Fcrnandina, fer-nan-de'nah.
Ferrol, fer-role7.
Glasgow, glas'go.
Glogau, glo'gOw.
Gloucester, glos'ter.
Celano, chay-lah'no.
Celebes, sel'e-bes.
Centoce, sen-to'say.
(" City of Constantino.")
Constitucion, kon-ste-too-BC-Own'.
Continent, kon'te-nent. (From the
Dongola, dong'go-lah.
Dordogne, dor-down\
Dornoch, dor'nok.
Fezzan, fez-zahn'.
Finisterre, fin-is-tair'. (" Land's end.")
Fittre, fit'tray.
Glfickstadt, gleek'staht.
Goa, go'ah.
Gobi, gd'be.
Cepbalonia, sef-ah-lo'ne-ah.
Ceram, se-rabra'.
Coredo, sc-re'do.
Cerigo, cheVe-go.
Co t to, set.
Cottigne, chet-teer ''.*ay.
Ceuta, soo'tah.
Cevennes, say-vac .
Ceylon, selon, or ne-lown'
Latin word contineo, to "hold to-
gether, to comprise," Ac. This word,
Douro, doo'ro.
Dovrefield, do'vreh-fe-eld. (From dovre,
Fiume, fe-oo'may.
Flandreau, fian-dro'.
Godavery, go-dah'ver-©.
Goliad, go-le-ad'.
in Geography, signifies a vast extent
of land comprising several king-
a "village," and field, a "mountain-
ridge.")
Flensburg, flens'bOOrg.
Florence, fldVonss. (From Hora,
Gonaives, go-nive7.
Gon'dar.
doms or countries. Europe, Asia,
Africa, and America are continents.)
Con'toocook.
Draakberg, dralikTifirg.
Draguignan, drah-gbeen-yoso'.
Drave, drahv.
" goddess of flowers.")
Florida (U.S.), flor'e-dah. (Named from
the day [Easter Sunday] on which it
Go'sben.
Gotha, go'tah.
Gottenburg, got'en-burg.
Copenhagen, ko-pen-bay'gben. ("Buy-
ing or trading port,")
Dres'den.
1 Dubuque, doo-bOok'.
was discovered. Tho Spaniards call
that day " Puscua Florida.")
GUttingeu, get'ting-en.
Gouverneur, goov-er-noor/.
*
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY.
101
Gozo, got'zo.
the Hindoos." Hindoo also signifies
ese Niphon. Nip signifies "origin,"
u cultivable land," to distinguish it
Llanos, l'yah'noce. {Llanos, "plains."
Graciaa a Dios, grah'se-uhs ah de'oce.
"black," and start, "country," — i.c.
and jnm, u sun :" — i.e. " origin of tho
from Greenland.)
A term applied to the extensive
(" Thanks to God.")
Grampians, gram'pe-anz.
the "country of the blacks," the Hin-
sun,"— the east.)
Labium, lah-boo-ahn'.
plains of South America, — the samo
doos being darker than the Persians.
Jaroslav, yah-ro-slahv'.
Laccadive, lahk'ka-iliv.
as prairies in North America or
Granada, grah-nah'dah.
It may be derived from Indus, a
Jassy, yahs'se.
Lachlan, lak'lan.
steppes in Rnssia.)
Greece, grccss.
" river.")
Java, jah'vah.
La Crosse, lah-krosB/.
Llerena, l'yay-ray'nah.
Green 'land.
Hoang-Ho, ho-ahng-ho'. (" Yellow
Javary, hah-vah-re'.
Ladoga, lahd'o-gah.
Loaugo, lo-ang'go.
Greenwich (U.S.), grcen'ieh.
river.")
Jeeudana, joen-dah'nah.
Ladrone, lah-droue'. (Called also tho
Lobos, lo'boce.
Grecnwich (Eng.), grin'ij.
Hobartou, hob'er-tun.
Jeremie, zhay-ray-me'.
Mariana Islands. These were dis-
Loffo'den.
Grenada, greu-ay'dah, or grcn-ah'dah.
UoKlaud. (" Muddy or marshy land."
Jersey, jcr'ze.
covered in 1521, by Magellan, and
Logrofio, lo-grone'yo.
Grenoble, gren-obV.
Originally OUant. A large portion of
Jesso, yes'so.
called Las Mas de lot Ladronex, — t\e.
Loire, lwahr.
Grin'ucll.
Holland lies below the level of the
Jeypore, jl-poor'.
"the islands of the thieves." They
Lombardy, lom'bar-de. (Lombardy
Groningen, gron'ing-en.
sea: hence the name Netherlands.)
Jijiginsk, je-je-ghinsk\
were named also the Mariana Islands,
derives its namo from the Longobardi,
Grosswardein, groco-wahrMine.
Ilolstein, hol'stlno.
Jiloco, he-lo'ko.
in honor of the queen of Philip IV.
a people of German extraction, who
Guadalaviar, gwah-dah-lah-ve-ar'.
Holston, hole'stun.
Joannes, zho-ahn'nfia.
of Spain.)
established themselves here in tho
Guadalaxara, gwah-dah-lah-hah'rah.
Holyhead, hol'e-hed.
Joliet, jo'le-et.
La Fayette, laf-ay-yet'.
Bixth century.)
Guadalquivir, gaw-dal-kwiv'er. (The
Holyoke, hol'yoko.
Joliette, zhol-le-et'.
Lagos, lah'goce.
Lomond, lo'mhnd.
"great river.")
Honduras, hon-doo'rahs.
Jor'dan.
La Guayra, lah-gwl'rah.
London, lun'dun.
Guadalupe, gwah-dah-loo'pay.
Hongkong'. (" Sweet waters.")
Jorullo, ho-rool'yo.
Lahaina, lah-hl'nah.
Lorca, lorTtah.
Guadeloupe, gaw-deh-loop'.
Honolulu, hon-o-looloo.
Ju'an do Fu'ca.
Lahsa, lah'sah.
Lob Angeles, luce an'jch-lez.
Guadiana, gwah-de-ah'nah.
Hoogly, hoog'l©.
Ju'an Fcrnan'dez.
Lamoille, lah-moil'.
Los Roquos, loce ro'kfis.
Guanaliaui, gwah-uah-hah'nc.
Houghton, ho'tQn.
J uba, zhoo'bah.
Lamurek, lah-moo-rek'.
Louisiade, loo-e-ze-ahd'.
Guanaxuato, gwah-nah-hwah'to.
Houlton, hole'tun.
Jujuy, hoo-hwee'.
Lancaster, lank'a-ster.
Louisiana, loo-c-ze-ah'nah.
Guardafui, gwahr-dah-fwe'.
Housatonic, hoo-sa-ton'ik.
Juniata, joo-ne-ah'tah.
Landes, loNd.
Louisville, loo'is-vil.
Guardia, gwahr'de-ah.
HouBsa, hOw'sah.
Jura, joo'rah.
Langanaes, lahng'ah-ness.
Louvain, loo-vayn'.
Guatemala, gaw-to-mah'lah, or gwah-
Houston, hQ'stun.
Jurua, hoo-roo'ah, or zhoo-roo'ah.
Laon, hih-uN'/.
Lowell, lo'el.
tay-mah'lah.
Huallaga, wahl-yah'gah.
Jutay, boo-tl', or zhoo-tl'.
Laos, lah'oce.
Lubeck, looTjck.
Guaviare, gwah-vc-ah'ray.
Huamanga, wah-mahng'gah.
Jut'land.
La Paz, lah-pahs'.
Lucca, luk'kah.
Guayama, gwf-ah'mah.
Hue, hway, or hoo-ay'.
K.
Kngosima, kah-go-se'mah,
Kairwan, klr-wahn'.
Kalahari, kah-lah-hah're,
Kalamazoo, kal-a-ma-zoo'.
Kamtschatka, kahm-chaht'kah.
Kanawha, ka-naw'wah.
La Plata, lah plah'tah. ("Silver."
Lucerne, loo-sern'.
Guayaquil, gwi-ah-keel'.
Huesca, wes'kah.
Kio de la Plata, "river of silver.")
Lucknow, luk'nOw.
Guaymas, gwl'mahs.
Hungary, hung'ga-re. (Name derived
Lap'land. (" Country of tho Lapps.")
Luneburg, loo'nfih-burg.
Guernsey, gheru'ze.
Guiana, ghe-ah'nah.
Guinea, ghin'ne.
Guyandotte, ghi-an-dot'.
from tho "Htinni," or "Huns," who
took possession of this country to-
wards the close of the fourth century.)
Huron, hu'run.
Hyderabad, hi-der-ah-bahd'.
Laramie, lar'a-mo.
Laredo, hth-ray'do.
Larissa, lah-ris'sah. ("New town")
La Rochelle, lah ro-shel'.
Lassa, lahs'sah. (" Land of the divine
Lux'emburg.
Luzon, loo-zono'.
Lyons, li'hnz.
M.
H.
ITaarlem, har'lem.
i.
Kankakee, kan-kaw'ko.
Kansas, kan'zas. (" Smoky water.")
Kara kah'rah.
intelligence." Tho grand temple of
Buddha, with its gilded dome, is here;
Maas, mahs.
Macao, mah-kOw'.
Hadramaut, hah-drah-mOwt'.
Ibraila, o-brl'Iah.
Kaskaskia kas-kis'ke-ah.
also, the residenco of tho Grand
Macassar, mah-kahs'sar.
Hague, haig. (" Count's wood.")
Ice'land.
Katahdin, ka-tah'din.
Lama.)
Machias, mat*chi'as.
Hainan, hi-nahn'. (" South of tho
Idalio, i'da-ho.
Kazan, kah-zahu'.
Lat'itude. (From latitudo, "breadth."
Mackenzie, mak-ken'ze.
sea.")
Hakodadi, hah-ko-dah'do.
Ilheos, ecl-yay'oce.
Hi, e'le.
Kearsarge, keer'sarj.
Kelat, ke-laht'.
Tho ancients believed that the globe
was a fiat plain, and much longer
Mackinaw, mak'e-naw.
Macon (U.S.), may'kun.
Halifax, hal'e-fax.
Illimani, eel-ye-mah'ne.
Konia, ke'no-ah.
from east to west than from north to
Macquarrie, mak-kwOr'ro.
Halle, hal'16h.
Illinois, il-lin-oyz', or il-lin-oy'.
K e n ' h e bee.
south: consequently they called dis-
Madagascar, mad-a-gas'kar.
Ham'burg.
India, in'de-ah.
Kenosha, ken-o'shah.
tanco from north to south latitude,
Madawaska, mad-a-wos'kah.
Ilam'merfest.
Indiana, in-de-an'ah.
Kentucky, ken-tuk'e.
as they called distance from east
Madeira, mah-de'rah. (Madeira signi-
Han'oTer.
Indianapolis, in-de-a-nap'o-lla.
Keokuk, ko'o-kuk.
to west longitude, — from longitudo,
fies, in Portuguese/' timber." These
Harrisburg, har'ris-bnrg.
Indianola.
Kermadec, ker-mah-dek'.
" length.")
islands wcro so named on account
Hatch'ee.
Indighirka, in-de-ghlr'kah.
Keweena, ke-we'nah.
Lauenburg, lOw'cn-boorg.
of their magnificent forests. The Ma-
Hattcras, hat'er-ass.
Iuhambane, oen-ahm-bahn'.
Khartoom, kar-toom'.
Lausanne, lo-zahn'.
deira River flows through a densely-
Havana, ha-van'ah.
Innspruck, ins'prdok. (" Bridge of tho
Klungan, kin-gahn'.
Khiva, ke'vah.
Laybaeh, li'bahk.
wooded region.)
Haverhill, hay'ver-il.
Inn.")
Lazaro, lah'zah-ro.
Madeira (River), mah-day'rah.
Havre, hahv'r. (A "harbor," or
Inverness'.
Khokan, ko-kahn'.
Leavenworth, lev'en-wurth.
Madras, ma-drass'.
" haven.")
Ionian, i-o'ne-an.
Kiel, keel.
Lech, lek.
Madrid, mah-drid'.
Havre do Grace, hahv'r-deh-grahss'.
Iowa, i'o-wah.
Kiev, ke-ev'.
Lecomp'ton.
Maelstrom, mayl'strum. (A " mill-
(" Haven of grace.")
Iquique, e-ko'kay.
Kilimandjaro, kil-e-mahn-jah-ro'.
Leghorn, leg-horn'.
stream.")
Hawaii, hah-wi'e.
Iran, e-rahn'.
Killarney, kil-lar'nc.
Lch, lay.
Maesc, mah'seh.
Hayti, hay'te. (" Mountainous.")
Ireland, Ir'land.
Kingkitao, king-ke-tah'o.
Leicester, les'ter.
Maestricht, mahs'trikt.
Haytien, hay'te-en.
Irkoutsk, ir-kootak'.
Kiolen, ke-ti'len.
Leipsic, llp'sik.
Magadoxa, mng-ah-dox'ah.
Hebrides, heb'rid-cez.
Irrawaddy, Ir-rah-wod'de. (" Great
Kirghis, klr-ghocz'.
Kittan'uing.
Kiusiu, ke-oo-se-oo'.
Leiria, lay-re'ah.
Magdalena, mag-da-le'nah, or mabg-
Hecla, hek'lah.
river.")
Leith, lecth.
dah-lay'nah.
Hejaz, hed-jahz'.
Irtish, ir-tish'.
Lo Mans, leh-moNQ'.
Magellan, mah-jel'lan.
Helena, hel-e'nah.
Iser, e'zer.
Klagcnftirth, klah'ghen-foort.
Lena,le'nah. (A"sluggard :" sonamed
Maggiore, mahd-jo'ray. (Logo Maggiore,
Heligoland, hel'e-go-lahud. (" Holy
Isere, e-zair/.
Klausenburg, kl5w 'zeu-bdurg. (" Castle
of the defile.")
on account of its sluggish courso.)
" large lake.")
land.")
iBlay (Hebrides), ilay.
Lepanto, le-pan'to.
Maimatchin, nn-mah-choen'.
HeHas.
Isle, eel.
Kodiak, ko'de-ahk.
Lerida, lcVc-dah.
Main, mayn.
Hemisphere, hcm'is-feer. (From the
Isolette, o-so-let'.
Kolima, ko-le'mah.
Lcv'en.
Majorca, mah-jor'kah. (Majorca and
Qreek, signifying "half a sphere or
Ispahan, is-pa-hahn'.
Konieh, ko'ne-eh.
Lew Chew, loo-choo'.
Minorca were anciently named Gym-
globe," when it is supposed to be cut
Italy, it'a-le.
Koniggratz, ken'ig-grcts.
Liberia, li-bo're-ah. (From Lat. libera,
nastic. The epithet major, tho
through its centre in the plane of one
Itasca, I-tasTtah.
Kiinigsberg, ken'igz-berg. (" King's
" free.")
" greater," was given to one, while
of its greatest circles.)
Ithaca, ith'a-kah.
town.")
Kordofan, kor-do-fahn'.
Lichtenfcls, lik'ten-fels.
that of minor, tho " less," was applied
Henlo'pen.
Ivi;a, e-ve'sah.
Liege, leej,or lo-aizh'.
to the other.)
Herat, her-aht'.
Lttaccihuatl.ees-tahk-se-whahfl'. (Tho
Kouka, koo'kah.
Lievely, leevlo.
Malabar, mal-a-bar'.
Hereford, herVfQrd.
" white lady.")
Kuen-Lun, kwon-loon'.
Liim Fiord, lcem-fe-ord'.
Malacca, ma-lak'kah.
Hermaustadt, her'mahn-staht.
j.
Kurile, koo'ril. (Derived from kooroo
Lille, leel.
Malaga, mal'a-gah.
Hortbcrg, hert'berg.
miLsi, — i.e. tho "road of sea-weeds."
Lima, le'mah.
Malaysia, mah-lay'she-ah.
Hesse-Cassel, hess-kas'sel.
Jacmel, zhahk-mel'.
Kooroo signifies " sea-weed.")
Kurrachec, kur-rah-cho'.
Limoges, le-mOzh'.
Maldive, mal'dive. (" Thousand isles.")
II esse- Darmstadt, hess-darm'staht.
Jaen, hah-en'.
Lincoln, link'Qn.
Malta, mawl'tah.
Hesse-Homburg, hess-hoiu'burg.
Jalapa, hah-lah'pah. (Tho medicinal
Kwieh'pak.
Kyachta, ke-ahk'tah.
Linnhe, lin'uo.
Mamoro, mah-mo-ray'.
Hiawassee, hi-ah-wos'so.
herb jalap owes its name to this
Lipari, lip'ah-re.
Manaar, mah-nar'.
Hieres, he-air/.
town.)
Lippe, lip'pe-h.
Manhcim, man'hime.
Himalaya, him-ah-K'ah. ("Abode of
Jalon, hah-lone/.
L.
Lisbon, liz'bQn,
Manilla, ma-nil'lah.
snow.")
Jamaica, ja-may'kah.
Laaland, lah'lahnd.
Liv'erpool.
Manitoulinc, man-e-too-leen'.
Hin'doo-Koosh'.
Janina, yahn'ne-nah.
Labrador, lab-ra-doV. (Labrador signi-
LlandafT, lan-daff*.
Manitowoc, man-e-to-wok'.
IIiudoostan,hin-doo-«tan'. (In Persian,
Jan Maycn. yahn-ml'en.
fies a "husbandman," or "farmer."
Llano Estacado, 1'yah'no cs-tah-kah'do.
Mantchooria, maut-choo're-ah.
this term signifies tho "country of
Japan, jah-pan'. (Called by the Japan-
This land was called U:rra labrador,
(" Staked plaiu.")
Mantua, man'tu-ah.
102
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY.
Maracaybo, mah-rah-klTx).
Maracayu, mah-rah-ki-oo'.
Maramec, meVre-mak.
Maranham, mar-an-ham'.
Margarita, mar-gah-rc'tah. (A " pearl."
Pearls were formerly found in great
quantities on the coasts of this island.)
Marie Galante, mah-re' gab-lost'.
Marmora, mar'mo-rah. (" Marble."
One of the islands of this sea has
long been celebrated for its marble-
quarries.)
Marne, marn.
Marquesas, mar-kay'sahs.
Marquette, mar-ket'.
Marsala, mar-Bah'lah.
Marseilles, mar-say Iz'.
Martaban, mar-tab -ban'.
Martinique, mar-tin-eek'.
Maryland, may're-Iand.
Mascarenhas, mahs-kah-ren'yahs.
Massachusetts, mas-sa-choo'scts. (So
named after Massasoit, an Indian
chief.)
Masulipatam, mah-soo-le-pah-tahni'.
Matagorda, mat-a-gorMah.
Matamoras, mat-a-mo'ras.
Matunzas, mah-tan'zahs.
Matapan, mah-tah-pahn'.
Matsmai, mabts-ral'.
Mattapony, mat-ta-po'ne.
Mattawamkcag, mat-ta-wom'keg.
Mauch Chunk, mawk-chunk'.
Maui, mflw'e.
Maumee, maw-rac'.
Mauna Kea, muw'nuh kay'ah.
Mauritius, maw-rish'e-us.
Mayenne, mi-en'.
Mazatlan, mahz-at-Iahn'.
Mecca, mek'kah.
Mechlin, meklin.
Medina, me-de'nah. ("The City.")
Mediterranean, med-e-tor-ray'ne-an.
(" Midland.")
Meinam, may-e-nahm'. ("Mother of
waters.")
Mciningen, ual'ning-on.
Melbourne, mcl'burn.
Mom'el.
Mcmpbremagog, mem-fro-may'gog.
Mcnai, men'I.
Menan'.
Mende, moxd.
Menomonee, mc-nom'o-no.
Meqtiincz, mek'e-nez.
Merida, me^e-dan.
Mermenteau, mer-men-to'.
Merrimack, meVre-mak.
Merthyr Tydvil, mer'thir tid'vil.
Messina, raes-se'nah.
Mesurado, nies-oo-rah'do.
MetZ, Juris.
Meuse, muze.
Mexico, mex'e-ko.
Miaco, me-ah'ko. (" Capital residence.")
Miami, mi-ah'me.
Michigan, mish'e-gan.
Middlebourne, mid'd'1-burn.
Mil'an.
Milledgeville, mil'lej-vil.
Millinoket, mil-le-no'ket
Milt-in. milt-seen'.
Milwaukee, mil-waw'ke.
Minatitlan, niin-ah-tit-lahn'.
Mindanao, min-dah-nah'o.
Minbo, meen'yo.
Minneapolis, min-ne-ap'o-Jt*.
Minnesota, min-ne-so'tab.
Minni Wakan, min'iio waw-kahn'.
Minorca, inin-or'kah.
Mi not, me-not'.
Miqnclon, mik-gh-lon'.
MiramiclU, mlr-a-me-sho'.
Miraprovos, me-rah-pru'voce.
Mirim, me-reeNo'.
Mississippi, mis-«is-Bip'pe. (•* Father
of waters.")
Missisqne, mis-eisTiwe.
Missolonghi, mis-o-Iong'ghe.
Missouri, mis-soo're. (" Smoky water,"
or " mud river.")
Mistissiuny, mis-tis-6in'ne.
Mityleno, mit-c-lo'no.
Mobile, mo-beel'.
Mocambe, mo-kahm'bay.
Mocha, mo'kah.
Modena, mod'en-ah.
Mogadore, mog-ab-dore'.
Mohave, ruo-hayv'.
Mo'hawk.
MohileT, mo-he'Iev.
Moldau, niol'duw.
Molda'via.
Molokai, mo-lo-kl'.
Molucca, mo-luk'kah.
Moinbas, mom-bahs'.
Monaco, mon'ah-ko.
Monad'nock.
Monclova, mon-klo'vah.
Mondego, inon-day'go.
Mongolia, mon-go'le-ah.
Monongabela, mo-non-ga-hc/lah.
Monrovia, mon-ro've-ah.
Montana, mon-tah'nah.
Montauban, moNO-to-boNQ'.
Montauk, mon-tawk'.
Mont Blanc, moxa-bloira'. ("White
mountain.")
Monte Christo, mon'tay kris'to.
Montenegro, mon-tay-nay'gro. (" Black
mountain.")
Monterey, mon-tay-ray'. (" King's
mountain.")
Monteverde, mon-tay-v6r'day.
Montevideo, mon-to-vid'e-o. (" Mount
prospect.")
Montgomery, mont-gum'er-e.
Montmorenci, mont-mo-ren'se,
Montpelier, mont-peel'yer.
Montpellicr, mont-pel'le-er, or m5NQ-
pel-le-ay'.
Montreal, mon-tre-awl'. (" Royal
mount.")
Montserrat, mont-ser-raht'.
Moquegua, nio-kay'gwah.
Morant, mo-rant'.
Morava, mo-rah'vah.
Moroa, mo-ro'ah. (So called from the
word mo-re, a " mulberry-tree," from
the quantities of those trees it pro-
duces, or because its shape resembles
that of a mulberry-leaf.)
Moreau, mo-rC.
Morelia, mo-rayle-ah.
Morella, nio-rel'yah.
Morlaix, nior-lay'.
Morocco, mo-rok'ko. (" Farthest west.")
Morro Hcrmoso, mor'ro 6r-mo'so.
Moscow, mos'ko.
Moselle, mo-zel'.
Mossamedes, mos-sah-may'des.
Mo'sul.
Moulins, moo-laxo'.
Mourzouk, inoor-zook'.
Mozambique, mo-zam-boek',
Muhr, moor.
Mulahacen, moo-lah-ah-then'»
Mulas, moo 'labs.
Mtilhauscn, meel'hfiw-zen,
Munich, mu'nik.
Munkacz, inoon-kahtch'.
Minister, meen'ster.
Murcia, mur'she-ah.
Muscat, mus-kat'.
Muscatine, mus-ka-toen'.
Muske'gon.
Muskingum, mus-king'gum.
N. .
Nacogdoches, nak-o-do'chlz.
Nagasaki, nah-gah-sah'ke.
Namaqua, nah-inah'kwah.
Namur, nay'niur.
Nancv. uau'se.
Nankin, nan-kin'. ("Southern capital.")
Nanling7. ("Southern mountain-
chain.")
Nantes, nants.
Nantuck'et.
Nao, nc.Vo.
Naples, nay'p'lz. (" New city.")
Napoli (Groece), nah'po-le.
Narbonne, nar-bon'.
Narew, nah'rev.
Narragansett, nar-ra-gan'set.
Narraguagus, nar-ra-gway'gus.
Nashua, nash'yoo-ah.
Nashville, nash'viL
Nassau, nas'saw.
Natal, nah-tahl'. (So named by Vasco
da Gama, because he discovered this
coast on Christmas day [the day of
the Nativity].)
Natchez, natch'iz.
Natchitoches, natch-c-totch'iz ; often
pronounced nak-e-tush'.
Nauta, now'tiih.
Navarino, nah-vah-re'no.
Naxia, nahx-e'ah.
Nebraska, ne-bras'kah. (" Flat water.")
Neches, netch'iz,
Neck'ar.
Neembucu, n*yay-om-boo-koo/,
Negril, ne-gril'.
Negrilo, nay-grelo.
Negropont, nay'gro-pont
Neilgberry, ncel-gh&r're,
Neisse, ni'suh.
Nejed, ned'jed.
Neosho, no-o'sho.
Nepaul, ne-pawl'.
Nerbuddah, ner-bud'dah.
Nertschinsk, nSr-chinsk'.
Neufchatel, nush-ah-tel'.
Neuse, nuce.
Nevada, ne-vab'dah.
Nevers, nfih-vair'.
Newark, nu'ark.
Nowburyport, nu'ber-re-port
Newfoundland, nu'fund-land.
New Granada, nu grah-nah'dah.
New Orleans, nu or'le-unz.
New West'minster.
New Zealand, nu ze'land.
Ngami, n'gah'me.
Niagara, ni-ag'a-rah. (" Thunder of
waters.")
Nicaragua, nik-ah-rah'gwah,
Nice, neess.
Nic'obar.
Nicolaivsky, nik-o-Iive'ske.
Nicoya, ne-ko'yah.
Nicmen, ne'men.
Niger (ni'jer,) or Quor'ra, or Jol'iba.
(" The great dark river.")
Nile. (So named from Ittlus, King of
ThebcB.)
Niobrara, ni-o-bray'rah.
Niort, ne-or\
Nipe, ne'pay.
Niphon, nif-on'. (The " east")
Nisbnobatona, nish-nGh-ba-to'nah.
Nismes, neem.
Niznei Novgorod, nizb'ne nov-go-rod'.
Noirmoutier, nwahr-moo-te-ay'.
Norfolk, norTOk.
Noric, noVik.
• Nor' way.
Norwich (U.S.), nor'witch, or nor*ritch.
Norwich (Eng.), nor'ry.
Nourse, noorss.
Nova Scotia, no'vab sko'sbe-ah. (" New
Scotland.")
No'va Zem'bla. ("New land.")
Nubia, noo'be-ah.
Nueces, nway'ses.
Nuevitas, nway-ve'tabs.
Nunnivack, noon-ne-vahk'.
Nuremberg, noo'rem-borg.
Nyanza, n'yahn'zah.
Nyassi, n'yahs'se.
Oahu, wah'hoo.
Oases, o'ah-sez.
Oaxaca, wah-bah'kah.
OTms.
Obidos, o-be'doce.
Ocean, o'shuu. (Derived from Occanus,
a powerful deity of the sea, son of
Ccelus and Terra. lie is generally re-
presented as an old man, with a long
flowing beard, sitting on the waves
of the sea, with a pike in bis hand.)
Ocean ica, o-she-an'e-kah.
Ochotsk, o-kotsk'.
Ocmulgee, ok-mul'ghe.
Ocoa, o-ko'ah.
Oconee, ok-o'ne.
Odcnse, o'den-sSh.
O'der.
Odessa, o-des'sah.
Oeiras, o-ay'e-rahs.
Ogasima, o-gah-se'mah.
Ogeechee, o-ghe'ebe.
Ohi'o. (The " beautiful river.")
Okechobee, o-ke-cho'be.
Okefinokee, o-ke-fin-o'ke.
Okinagon, o-ke-nab'gon.
Ol'denburg.
Olean, o-le-an'.
Olenek, o-lay-nek'.
Olmutz, oKmuts.
Olot, o-lot'.
Olviopol, ol-ve-o'pol.
Olympus, o-lim'pus.
Omaha, o'ma-haw.
Omoa, o-mo'ah.
Onega, o-ne'gah.
Oneida, o-nl'dah.
Oneonta, on-e-on'tah.
Onondaga, on-on-daw'gah.
Ontario, on-tay're-o.
Ontonagon, on-ton-ah'gon.
Oporto, o-por'to. (The "port")
Oran, o-rahn'.
Orchilla, or-cheel'yah.
Oregon, Or'e-gon.
Oronse, o-ren'say.
Orihuela, o-re-waylah.
Orinoco, o-re-no'ko. (The "coiled ser-
pent")
Oristano, o-ris-tah'no.
Orizaba, o-re-sah'bah,
Orkneys, ork'neez.
Orleans, or'le-Gnz. (A corruption of
Aureliani, its ancient name.)
Or'mus.
Ortegal, or-tay-gahl'.
Osage, o-saij'.
Osceola, os-se-olah.
Osh'kosh.
Oskaloo'Ba.
Ossnna, os-soo'nah.
Oswegatchie, os-we-gatch'o.
Oswe'go.
Otranto, o-trahn'to.
Otse'go.
Ottawa, ot'ta-wah, or ot'ta-way.
Ourique, oo-re'kay.
Ouro Prcto, oo'ro pray'to,
Ouse, ooz.
Oviedo, o-ve-ay'Mo.
p.
Pacific Ocean. (This name was given
by Magellan, the first European who
traversed it, in consequence of the
mild weather he experienced while
navigating its surface.)
Padre, pah'dray.
Padua, pabd'yoo-ah.
Palawan, pah-lah-wahn'.
Palombang, pah-lem-bahng7.
Palermo. pah-IfiKmo.
Palestine, p&l'es-tlne. (Supposed to be
derived from Philistine, as the name
was commonly applied to the land
inhabited by the Israelites, including
the country of the Philistines.)
Palliser, pal'lia-er.
Palma, pahl'mah.
Palmyra, pal-mi'rah.
Palos, pah'loce.
Pamlico, pam'le-ko.
Pampas, pahm'pahs. ("Treeless
plains.")
Pampeluna, pabm-pay-loo'nah.
Pamunky, pa-mung'ke.
Panama, pahn-ah-mah'.
Pantellaria, pahn-tel-lah-re'ah.
Papua, pah'poo-ah. (The inhabitant*
received the name of papuas from
the Malays, in whose languago it
signifies " frizzled hair.".)
Para, pab-rah'.
Paragoona, par-a-goo'nah.
Paraguay, pab-rah-gwt'.
Parahyba, pab-rah- e'bah.
Paraiba, pab-rah-e'bah.
Paramaribo, par-a-mar'e-bo.
Paramatta, par-a-mat'tah.
Parana, pah-rah-nah'.
Paranagua, pah-rah-nab-gwab'.
Parime, pah-re'may.
Paris, par'is.
Parma, par'mah.
Parnahyba, par-nah-e'bah.
Parnaiba, par-nah-c'bah.
Parnas'sus.
Parras, par'rahs.
Pascagoula, pas-ka-goolah.
Passaic, pas-say'ik.
Passamaquoddy, pas-sa-ma-kwod'de.
Passaro, pahs'sah-ro.
Passau, paliB'suw.
Patagonia, pat-i-go'ne-ah. {Patagcn
means, in Spanish, "a man with
large feet." Magellan gave the in-
habitants of tins country the namo
ofPatagonians on account of the appa-
rent large size of their feet, which,
being wrapped in skins, seemed much
larger than they really were.)
Patapsco, pa-taps'ko.
Pat'erson.
Patras, pah-trahs'.
Patuxent, pa-tux'ent.
Pau, po..
Pawtuck'et.
Payta, (ll'tah.
Pecos, pay'koce.
Pedee, pe-de'.
Pegu, pe-goo'.
Peipus, pay'e-pooco.
Pekin, pe-kin'. (" Northern capital.'')
Pelew, pe-loo'.
Peling, pe-ling*. ("Northern moun-
tain-cbain.'')
Pembina, pem'be-nah.
Pemigewasset, pciu-c-je-wos'sQt
PeRas, pen'yahs.
Pend Oreilles, poNd-o-rail'.
Pennsylvania, pen-si l-vay'ne-ab.
(" Penn's woodland.")
Penob'scot.
Pensacola, pcn-sa-kolah.
Penzance, pen-zanss'.
Peoria, pe-o're-ah.
Pepin, pip'in.
Perdido, per-de'do.
Pere Marquette, pair mar-ket'.
Perigueux, pay-re-gt'b/.
Pernambuco, i)6r-nahm-boo'ko.
Perouse, pe-rooz'.
Perpignan, per-peen-yoxo'.
Persia, pcr'she-ab.
Peru, pe-roo'.
Perugia, pay-roo'jah.
Pescara, pes-kah'rah.
Pesth, pest.
Pe'tra.
Petropanlovsky, pay-tro-p6w-lov'ske.
Petrop'olis.
Petrovitcb, pay'tro-vitch.
PRONOUNCIxVG VOCABULARY.
103
Philadelphia, fil-a-dcl'fiwili. ("City of
Bailee, sahl-lay'.
Segura, aay-goo'rah.
Sorel, Bo-rol'.
brotherly love.")
R.
Salonica, sah-lo-ne'kah.
Seine, sayn, or sen.
Soria, so're-ah.
Philippine, fiTIip-pin.
Rabatt, rah-baht'.
Saltillo, sal-tillo.
Sena, say'nah.
Soudan, soo-dan'. (licled-es- Somlaji,
Philippopolis, fil-lip-pop'o-lis.
Racine, rah-seen'.
Saluda, sa-loo'dah.
Seneca, sen'e-kah.
"land of the blacks.")
Phoenix, fe'nix.
Radack, rah'dahk.
Salwen, sahl-wen'.
Senegal, sen-e-gawl'.
Southampton, sutA-amp'tuu.
Piacenza, pc-ah-chen'zah.
Ragusa, rah-goo'sah.
Salzburg, sahlts'boorg.
Senegambia, sen-o-gam'be-ah. (Named
Spa, spaw.
Piacina, pe-ah-se'nah.
Raleigh, rawle.
Samara, sah-mah-rah'.
from the two large rivers which flow
Spartel, spar-tel'.
Pichincha, pe-chin'chah.
Ralick, rah'lik.
Samarang, sah-mah -rating7.
through the country, — viz., the Sene-
Spezia, sped'ze-ah.
Picolata, pik-o-lay'tah.
Rangoon, rang-goon'.
Samarcand, sah-mar-kahnd'.
gal and the Gambia.)
Spitzbergen, spits-berg'en.
Piedmont, peed'mont. ("Foot of the
Rapidan, rap-id-an'.
Samos, say'mos.
Sennaar, Ben-nar/.
Spree, spray.
mountain.")
Rap pahan 'nock.
Sana, sah-nah'.
Senne, sen'nfih.
Squillace, skwil-lah'chay.
Pikomayo, pil-ko-mi'o.
Raritan, rarVt&n.
San Diego, sahn de-ay'go.
Seres, seVesT
Stanovoi, stah-no-voy'.
Pinalena, pe-nah-lay'nah.
Rat'isbon.
Sandomierz, sahn-do'me-airzh.
Sereth, Bay-ret'.
Sta. Maria, sahn'tah mah-re'ah.
Piqua, pik'wah, or pik'way.
Ravenna, rah-ven'nah.
Sandusky, san-dus'ke.
Sergipe del Rey, sSr-zhe'pay del ray.
St. Augustine, sent-aw-gus-teen\
Pisa, pe'zah.
Reading, red'ing.
Sandwich, sand'witch.
Servia, ser've-ah.
Staunton, stan'tun.
Piscataqua, pis-kat'a-kway.
Recife, ray-se'fay.
San Felipe, sahn fe-le'pay.
Sesheke, say-shay'kay.
St. Bias, sent-blahs'.
Piscataquis, pis-kat'a-kwis.
Refnaes, ref 'ness.
San Franc is'co.
Severo VoBtochnoi, say-vay'ro vos-tok'-
St. Croix, sent-kroy'.
Pisuerga, pe-sweVgah.
Reggio, red'jo.
Sangamon, snn'ga-mon.
noy.
St. Domingo, sent-do-ming'go.
Pittsburgh, pits'burg.
Reikiavik, ri'ke-ah-vik, (" Steam-
Sangar, salm-gar7.
Sevier, sev-eer'.
Steilacoom, sti-lah-koom'.
Plaquemine, plak-mecn'.
town.")
San Joaquin, sahn ho-ah-keen'.
Seville, sev'il, or se-vil'.
St. Elias, sent-e-li'as.
Plymouth, plim'&th.
Rendsburg, rends'boOrg.
San Jose, sahn ho-say'.
•Seychelle, say-sheel'.
St. Etienne, saift-ay-te-en'.
Podesti, po-des'te.
Rennes, ren.
San Juan, sahn hoo-ahn'.
Shanghai, shang-M'.
Stettin, stet-teen'.
Poitiers, poi-tecr//.
Requeiia, ray-kayn'yah.
San Juan Bautista, sahn hoo-ahn' bOw-
Shan'non.
Steubenville, stoo'ben-vil.
Poland. (" Flat land.")
Resen, ray'zen.
tees'tah.
Sheboy'gan.
St. Genevieve, sent-jen-c-vcev'.
Policastro, po-le-kahs'tro.
Reus, ray'ooce.
San Lucas, sahn looTiahs.
Sheffield, Bhef'feeld.
St. Helena, sent-hel-e'nah.
Polynesia, pol-e-ne'she-ah. (" Many
Rev'el.
San Luis do Potosi, Balm loo'is day
Shenandoah, shen-an-do'ah.
St. Heliers, sent-hel'yers.
* islands.")
Revillagigedo, ray-vecl'yah-he-hay'do.
po-to-se'.
Shilluks, shil-lookB'.
St. Lawrence, sent-law'renss.
Ponce, pon'say.
Rheims, reemz.
San Marino, sahn mah-rc'no.
Shiraz, she-rahz'.
St. Lazaro, sent-Iah'zah-ro.
Pondicherry, pon-de-shoVre.
Rhine, rine.
San Miguel, sahn me-ghel'.
Shrewsbury, shroze'ber-re, or ehrooz'-
St. Louis, sent-Ioo'is.
Pongo, pong'go.
Rhode Island, rodc-iland.
San Saba, sahn sah'bah.
ber-re.
St. Main, sent mahlo.
Pontchartrain, pon-shar-trayn'.
Rhodes, rOdz,
San Salvador, sahn sahl-vah-dore'.
Shuia, shoo'yah.
Stock'holm.
Pontiac, pon'te-ak.
Rhodope, rod'o-pe.
(" Holy Saviour.")
Shumla, shoom'lah.
Stolpemiinde, stol'p8h-meei,-deh.
Popayan, po-pi-ahn'.
Rhone, rone.
San Sebastian, sahn say-bahs-te-ahn'.
Siberia, si-be're-ah.
St. Pierre, saNQ pe-air7.
Popocatapetl, po-po-kah-tah-petT.
Ribe, re'bSh.
Santa Cruz, sahn'tah krooss. ("Holy
Sicily, sis'Bil-e.
St. Quentiu, saNG koNG-taNo'.
(^Smoking mountain,")
Richelieu, re-sh5-lu'.
cross.")
Sierra, se-er'rah. (Sierraliterally means
Strabane, stra-ban'.
Porongos, po-ron-goce'.
Rideau, re-do'.
Santa Fe, sahn'tah fay. (" Holy faith.")
a " saw," and is applied to a mountain-
Stralsund, Btrahl'edotit.
Portalegrc, por-tah-Iay'gray.
Riga, re'gah.
Santa Maura, sahn'tah niow'rah.
range, becauso at a distance it pre-
StrasTiurg.
Port au Prince, port-o-prinss'.
Rio del Norte, ro'o del nor'tay.
Santander, san-tan'der, or sahn-tahn-
sents a notched appearance like the
Strelitz, Btraylitz.
Port Mahon, port-ma-hown'.
(" River of the north.")
dair'.
teeth of a saw.)
Stromboli, strom'bo-Ie.
Porto Imperial, por'to ecm-pay-re-alil'.
Rio Grande, ro'o grahn'day. ("Great
Santarem, sahn-tah-rexo'.
Sierra Estrella, se-5r'rah es-trel'yah.
St. Ubes, aent-yoobz'.
Porto Itico, por/to re'ko. (" Rich har-
river.")
Santiago, sahn-te-ah'go. (" Saint
Sierra Leone, se-eVrah le-o'no. (" Lion
Stutt'gard.
bor.")
Rio Janeiro, rl'o ja-ne'ro. (Rio de
James.")
mountains.")
Suaken, swah'ken.
Porto Vecchio, por'to vek'ke-o. (" Old
Janeiro, "river of January." The
Santiago de Cuba, Bahn-te-ah'go day
Sierra Madre, se-er'rah mali'dray.
Suchil, soo-cheel'.
harbor.")
place having been discovered iu Janu-
koo'bah.
(" Mother mountains.")
Sucre, Boo'kray. (Formerly Chuqui-
Portsmouth, ports'muth.
ary, this name was given afterwards
Santorini, sahn-to-re'no.
Sierra Morena, se-Sr'rah mo-ray'oah.
saca, choo-ke-sah'kah .)
Portugal, port'yoo-gal.
both to the city and the river.)
Sao Felipe de Benguela, sgwng fay-le'-
(" Brown mountains.")
Sudetic, soo-det'ik.
Posen, po'zen.
Rioja, re-o'hah.
pay day ben-gay'lah.
Sien-a Nevada, se-er'rah nay-vah'dah.
Suez, soo'ez.
Potomac, po-to'mak.
Rio Negro, re'o nay'gro. (" Black
Saone, sone.
(" Snow mountains.")
Suir, shoor.
Potosi, po-to'se, or po-to-«e'.
river.")
Sao Joao, sOwNO zhiSwNG'.
Sihon, se-hon'.
Sumatra, soo-mah'trah.
Poughkecpsio, po-kip'se.
Roanoke, ro-an-oke'.
Sao Paulo, sCwno powlo.
Sikoke, se-koke'.
Sumbawa, soom-baw'wah.
Poultuey, polt'ne.
Rochelle, ro-shel'.
Saragossa, sah-rah-gos'sah.
Silan, se-lahn'.
Sumburgh, Bum'bur-ruh.
Powhatan, puw-a-tan'.
Rochester, rotch'es-ter.
Saranac, sar-a-nak'.
Silistria, sil-is'tre-ah.
Sunda, sun'dah.
Poyang, po yahng7.
Romagna, ro-mahn'yah.
Sarasu, sah-rah-soo'.
Simferopol, sim-fer-o'pol.
Surat, soo-raht'.
Praga, prah'gah.
Romania, ro-mah'ne-ah.
Saratoga, sar-a-to'gah.
Simoda, se-mo'dah.
Susquehanna, sus-kwe-han'nah.
Prague, praig.
Romanos, romah'noce.
Sarawak, sah-rah-wahk'.
Sinai, si'nay, or si'oay-i.
Sutlege, sut'lej.
Prairie du Chien, pray're doo-sheen'.
Rome. (Named from Romulus, its
Sardinia, sar-din'yah.
Sinaloa, sin-ah-lo'ah.
Suwanee, soo-waw'ne.
(" Dog meadow.")
founder.)
Saskatchawan, Bas-katch'a-w8n.
Singapore, sing-gah-pore'. ("City of
Swansea, swon'se.
Pregel, pray'ghel.
Roscom'mon.
(" Swift current.")
lions.")
Swatow, swah-tuV.
Pres'burg.
Rotterdam. (Name derived from a
Sassari, sahs'sah-ro.
Siout, se-oot'.
Swe'den.
Presidio del Norte, pray-se'de-o del
"dam of the Rotte," a little river
Saugerties, sawg'or-teez.
Sioux, soo.
Swit'zerland.
nor/tay.
which runs through the city.)
Saut de St. Marie, so dch sah\o mah-re'.
Sisal, se-sahl'.
Sydney, eid'ne.
Presque Isle, presk-ecl'. (A "penin-
Rouen, roo'en.
Saut St. Marie, boo sent may're.
Siwah, se'wah.
Syra, se'rah.
sula.")
Roxo, roTio.
Save, sahv.
Skager Rack, ekah-gher-rahk'.
Syracuse, elr'a-kuze.
Primero, pre-may'ro. (" First.")
Rugeri, re'ghen.
Saxony, sax'o-ne.
(" Crooked strait of Skagen.")
Syria, sir're-ah. (From the Greek svna,
Prip'et.
Ruska Poyana, rusTiah po-yah'nah.
Scandinavian, skan-de-nay've-an.
Skowhegan, sko-he'gan.
a contraction of Assuria,— i.«. the
Privas, pre-vahs'.
Russia, rush'yah.
Scheldt, skelt, or sheld.
Skyros, ske'ros.
land of Assur, the son of Shcm.)
Prussia, prush'yah.
Schemnitz, shein'nits.
Sles'wick.
Szamos, sOh-raosh'.
Puebla, pweb'lah. ("Town," or "vil-
s.
Schenectady, sken-ek'ta-de.
SH'go.
Szcgedin, seg'ed-in.
lage?")
Sabine, sah-been'.
Schoodic, Bkoo'dik.
Slout, sloot.
Pueblo, pweb'lo.
Sable, say'b'I.
Scliuyler, skiler.
Smolensk'.
T.
Puerto Principe, pwer'to preen'se-pay.
Saco, saw'ko.
Schuylkill, skoolTdl. (It is said that
Smyrna, smir'nah.
Tabasco, tah-bnhs'ko.
(" Prince's port," or "chief gate.")
Sacramento, sak-rah-men'to.
the first explorers of the Delawaro
Soconusco, Bo-ko-noos'ko.
Tabreez, tah-breez'.
Punjab'.
SadHo, 6ah-ddwxa'.
River passed the mouth of the Schuyl-
Socorro, so-kor'ro.
Tacazze, tah-kaht'say. (The " terrible •"
Punta Arenas, poon'tah ah-ray'nahs.
Saghalien, sah-gah-le'en.
kill without observing it: hence its
Socotra, sok'o-trah.
from its numerous cataracts.)
Pun'ssima, poo-rces'se-mah.
Saginaw, Bag'e-naw.
name, signifying "hidden creek.")
Sofala, so-fahlah. (Supposed to be the
Tafilelt, tah-fe-lelt'.
Purus, poo'rooce.
Sagua la Grande, sah'gwah lah grahn'-
Schwerin, shway-reen'.
"Ophir" of Scripture.)
Tagus, tay'gus.
Pyrenees, plr'eo-eez.
day.
Scio, she'o, or si'o.
Sokoto, Bok-o-to7.
Tahiti, tah-he'te.
Q.
Quebec, kwe-bok'. (The " narrows.")
Saguenay, sahg-e-nay7.
Scioto, si-o'to.
Somaulie, so-mawle.
Tahlequah, tahle-kwah.
Sahara, sa-hay'rah. (A * desert.")
Scituate, sit'yoo-ate.
Sombrcrete, som-bray-ray'tay.
Tai-yuen, ti-yoo*en'.
Saigon, sl-gOwn'.
Scotland.
Sombrero, som-bray'ro.
Talavera, tah-lah-vay'rah.
Queretaro, kay-ray-tah'ro.
Salado, sah-lah'do. (" Salt.")
Scutari, skoo'tah-re.
Somme, spm.
Talcahuana, tahl-kah-wah'nah.
Quesaltenango, kay-sahl-tay-nahn'go.
Salamanca, sah-lah-mahngTcah.
Searcy, scr'se.
Songari, son-gah're.
Talladega, tal-la-de'gah.
Quiloa, ke'lo-ah.
Salem.
Sebas'ticook.
Sonora, so-no'rah.
Tallahassee, tal-la-has'se.
Quimper, kaM-pair7.
Salford, sawl'fttrd.
Sebastopol, Beb-as-to'pol.
Sooloo, soo-Ick/.
Tallapoosa, tal-la-poo'sah.
Quincy, kwin'se.
8aIina(U.S.), eft-li'nah.
Secundo, eay-koon'do. (" Second.")
Soongaria, Boon-gay're-ah.
Tamatave, tah-mah-tah'vay.
Quinnobaug, kwin-ne-bawg'.
Salinas, sah-lo'nahs.
Segovia, se-go've-uh.
Sophia, so-fo'ah.
Tamaulipas, tah-muw-Ie'pahs,
Quito, ke'to.
Salisbury, sawlz'ber-re.
Segre, say'gray.
Sorata, so-rah'tah.
Tampico, tahm-pe'ko.
104
•
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY.
Tanaro, tah-nah'ro.
Timbuctoo, tlm-buk'too.
Tunguragua, toong-goo-rah'gwah.
Victoria, vik-tOTe-ah.
Winona, we-nc/nab.
Tanganyika, tahn-gahn-yeTcab.
Timor, te-more'.
Tunis, too'nis.
Vienna, ve-en'nah.
Winooski, we-noos'ko.
Tangier, tahn-jeer'.
Timorlaut, te-mor-lowt'.
Turin, too'rin.
Vienne, ve-en'.
Wiscon'sin.
Taos, tah'oce.
Tioga, ti-o'gah.
Turkestan, toor-kes-tahn'. ("Country
Vigo, ve'go.
Wit' ten berg.
Tapajos, tah-pah'zhoce*
Tippecanoe, tip-pe-ka-noo'.
of the Turks.")
Vilaine, ve-layn'.
Woolwich, wixil'ich, or w&6Tij.
Tarauto, tah'rahn-to.
Titicaca, te-te-kah'kah.
Turkey, tur'ko.
Villa del Fuerte, veel'yah del fwer'tay.
Woonsocket, wuon-sok'et.
Tarazona, tah-rah-tho'nah.
Tobago, to-bah'go.
Tuscaloosa, tus-ka-loo'sah.
Villa Real, vil'lah ray-abl'.
Worcester, woos'ter.
Tarbe*, tarb.
Tobiquo, to-beek'.
Tuscany, tus'ka-ne.
Villa Rica, vil'lah re'kah.
Wot'cbish.
Tarija, tah-re'hah.
Tobolsk, to-bolsk'.
Tuxpan, toos-pahn'.
Vindbya, vind'yah.
Wurtemberg, wur'tera-berg.
Tarnopol, tar-no'pol.
Tocantins, to-kahn-teens'.
Tyrol, tlr'rol.
Virgeues, veer-hay'ne*
Wyoming, wi-o'ming.
Tarragona, tar-rah-go'nah.
Toledo, to-Ie'do.
Virginia, vir-jin'e-ah. (So named in
Tartary, tar'tah-re.
Tolosa, to-lo'sah.
u.
honor of the maiden queen of Eng-
X.
Tasmania, taz-may'no-ah.
Tombigby. tom-big'be.
Uaupes, wOVpes.
land, Elizabeth.)
Xarayes, shah-ri'es.
Taudeny, tOw-day-ne'.
Tonawanda, ton-a-won'dah.
Ubeda, oo-bay'^/iab.
Visa, ve'sah.
Xcnia, zeen'e-ah.
Taunton, tan' tun.
Tongoy, ton-go'e.
TJcayale, oo-ki-ahlay.
Visou, ve'say-oo.
Xeres, hay-res'.
Taurus, taw'rus.
Tonquin, ton-keen'.
Uist, wist.
Vistula, vis'tu-lah.
Xingu, shing-goo'.
Tchad, cbabd.
Tooele, too-ele.
Ujein, oo-jane'.
Viterbo, ve-UJr'bo.
Xucar, hoo'kar.
Tcberkasi, ch8r-kah'se.
Topeka, to-peOtah.
Umbagog, um-bay'gog.
Viti Levu, ve'te lay'voo.
Tchernigov, cher'ne-gov.
Tormes, tor'mes.
Umea, oo'may-o.
Vitoria, ve-to're-ah.
Y.
Tchernowitz, cheVno-vitz.
Toronto, to-ron'to.
Umpqua, ump'kwah.
Volcano, vol-kay'no. (Namo derived
Yablonoi, yab-blo-noy'. (" Mountains
Tchin-tou, chin-too'.
Tor'rid. (Torrid, "hot," from torreo,
Ungava, ung-gah'vah.
from Vulcanut, " Vulcan," the god of
of apples.")
Tchoui, choo'e.
to "roast." This torm is applied to
Uniamesi, oo-ne-ah-may'se.
fire. According to the ancients, his
YadTsin.
Tchoulkova, chool-ko'vah.
one of tho zones, viz., that lying be-
Upernavik, oo'per-uah-vik.
forges wero under Mount Etna, as
YakoutBk, yah-kootsk'.
Teentsin, te-en-tseen'.
tween the tropics, on account of the
Up'sal.
well as under every other burning
Yang-tsc-Kiang, yahng-tse-kc-ahng'.
Teheran, teh-hcr-ahn'.
extreme heat which prevails here.)
Ural, yoo'ral.
mountain: hence the name.)
("Blue river." Called sometimes
Tehuantcpec, tay-wabn-tay-pok'.
Tortugas, tor-too'gaz. (So named from
Urbana, ur-ban'nab.
Volga, vol 'gab.
Ta Kiang, — £* "great river,'— the
Teify, tl've.
the quantity of tortoises seen there.
Ures, oo'rfis.
Vosgcs, v5zb.
largest river in China. It is called.
Temesvar, tem-esh-var/.
Tortuga means "tortoise.")
Uros, oo'roce.
poetically, the " Sou of tho sea.")
Teneriffe, ten-er-if.
Toulon, too-lo.VG'.
Uruguay, oo-roo-gwl'.
w.
Yaqui, yah-ko'.
Tennessee, ten-nes-so'.
Toulouse, too-looz'.
Ush'ant.
Waag, wabg.
Yarkand'. *
Tepeleni, tay-pay-lay'ae.
Tournay, toor-nay'.
Utah, yoo'taw.
Wabash, waw'bash.
Yarmouth, yar'muth.
Tepic, tay-peck'.
Tours, toor.
Utica, yoo'to-kah.
Wabashaw, waw'bash-shaw.
Yazoo, ya-zoo'.
Terceira, ter-say'e-rah. (" Tliird.")
Towanda, to-wfln'dah.
Utrecht, yoo'trekt.
Wabembe, wah-bem'bay.
Yed'o.
Terra del Fuego, ter'rah del fu-o'go.
Trafalgar, traf-al-gar'.
Utrera, oo-tray'rah.
Wachusett, waw-choo'set.
Yem'en.
('* Land of fire." This island was dis-
Transylvania, tran-sil-vay'ne-ah. (This
Waco, wayTto.
Yenisei, yen-e-say'o.
covered, in 1520, by Magellan, and so
name was given by the Hungarians;
V.
Waday, wah'dl.
Yeniseisk, yeu-e-Bay'isk.
named by him on account of tho
Transylvania signifying tho "country
Vaigatch, vi-gatch'.
Waimate, wi-mah'tay.
Yonne, yon.
number of fires bo saw along tho
beyond tho woods," — i".e. the exten-
Valdai, vahl'df.
Wales, wailz. (Derived from Gallia, the
Youcon, yoo-kOwn'.
coast, which bo supposed to be tho
sive woody mountains which sepa-
Valdivia,vahl-de've-ah. (" Rich valley.")
Welsh being considered a remnant of
Youghall, yohTiil.
eruptions of volcanoes.)
rate this provinco from Hungary.)
Valence, vah-luNSB'.
the ancient Oauls.)
Ypsilanti, ip-se-lan'te.
Terra Nova, ter'rah uo'vah. (" New
Trans Yaal, trahns-vahl'.
Valencia, vah-len'she-ah.
Wallachia, waw-lay'ke-ah.
Yucatan, yoo-kah-tahn'.
land.")
Trebizond, treb'e-zoud.
Valenciennes, vab-loNo-se-en'.
Walloostook, wfil-loo-stook'.
Yuma, yoo'mah.
Terre Haute, tSr-reh-hote'. ("High
Tremoli, trcm'o-lo.
Valladolid, val-la-do-lid'.
Walwisch, wuhl'vish.
Yuthia, yoot'he-ah.
land.")
Tren'ton,
Valparaiso, vahl-pah-ri'so. ("Valo of
WapBipin'econ.
Tetas, tay'tahs.
Tres Colunas, tr6s-ko-loo'nahs-
paradise.")
War'saw.
z.
Tete, tay'tay.
Tres Montes, tres-mon'tes.
Valverdo, val-ver'de.
Wartha, war'tah.
Zacatccas, sah-kah-tay'kahs.
Teulada, tay-oo-lah'dah.
Treves, treevz.
Vancouver, van-koo'ver.
Wasatch, wah-sateh'.
Zacatula, sah-kah-too'lah.
Tex'as.
Trieste, tro-est'.
Vannes, vahn.
Washington, wOsli'ing-tGn.
Zaizan, zi-zahu'.
Tex'el.
Trinidad, trin-e-dad'. (" Trinity.")
Vanua Levu, vah-noo'ah lay'voo.
Washita, wosh'c-taw.
Zambesi, zahm-bay'zo.
Thames, temz.
Tripoli, trip'o-le. ("Three cities."
Vaudreuil, vo-drul'.
Waukegan, waw-ko'gan.
Zamora, sah-mo'rah.
Thebes, theebz.
Three largo towns formerly occupied
Veile, vi'leh.
Waukesha, wnw'ke-shaw.
Zanguebar, zang-gay-bar'.
Tbeiss, tice.
tho site of tho present Tripoli.)
Venango, ve-nang'go.
Weimar, wi'mar.
Zante, zahn'te.
Thian-Sban, tc-abn-shahn'. ("Celestial
Tripollzza, tre-po-lit'sah.
Vendee, voso-day'.
Wcner, way'ner.
Zanzibar, zahn-zo-bar'.
mountains.")
Trop'ics. (Derived from the Greek
Yenetia, ven-e'sbe-ah.
Werchitz, wer'kits.
Zara, zah'rah.
Thibet, tib'et. (One of its native appella-
trepd, " to turn," because the Bun in
Venezuela, ven-ez-welah. (" Little
Wc'ser.
Zealand, ze'land. (" Sea-land.")
tions signifies tho "snowy region of
his annual course — the ecliptic —
Venice." So called by the Spaniards
Wetumpka, we-tumTiah.
Zhehol, zhay-bol'.
the north.")
turns wheu be reaches the signs of
because they found some Indian vil-
Weymouth, way'mutb.
Zone. (From tho Greek zone, a " girdle."
Thibodeaux, tib-o-do'.
Cancer and Capricorn. The term
lages built on piles in Lake Mara-
Wheel'ing.
In Geography wo understand zone to
Thorn, torn.
"tropical" is applied to every thing
caybo, reminding them of the modo
Wieliczka, vVay-litchTtah.
signify a division of tho earth : i.e.
Thur, tur.
produced indigenously within those
of building in Venice.)
Wiesbaden, weesTjah-den.
the earth is said to be divided into
Ti'ber. (This river was originally called
two circles, or, in other words, within
Venice, ven'iss.
Wight, wite.
five zones or portions, such as five
Albula, from tho clearness of its
the Torrid zone.)
Vera Cruz, vay'rah krooss. (The " true
Wilkesbarre, wilks'bar-ro.
equally sized belts or girdles would
waters, and afterwards Tiberis, from
Troyes, trwah.
cross.")
Willamette, wil-Iah'met.
completely encircle.)
Tiberinus, King of Alba, who was
Truxillo, troo-heel'yo.
Verd (Cape). ("Green" cape.)
Wil'mington.
Zufli, zoon-ye\
drowned there.)
Tsadda, t'sad'dah.
Vermcjo, ver-may'ho. (" Vermilion.")
Winneba'go.
Zurich, zoo'rik.
Tibesty, te-bes-to'.
Tuaricks, too-ah-reeks'.
Vermont'. (" Green mountains.")
Winnebigoshlsh, win-ne-be-go'shish.
Zutphen, zut'fen.
Tiburon, te-boc-rtSwn'.
Tuat, too-abt'.
Veronah, vay-ro'nah.
Win'nipeg.
Zuyder Zee, zl-der-ze'. (" South sea."
Ticino, to-che'no.
Tubac, too-babk'.
Versailles, Ver-saylz'.
Winnipegoos, win-ne-pe-goose'.
In contradistinction to the North
Ticonderoga, ti-kon-de-ro'gah.
Tucson, took-sone'.
Vesoul, veh-zool\
Winnipiseogee, win-ne-pe-sok'e.
Sea, with which it is connected.)
Tiete, te-ay'tay.
Tucuman, too-koo-mahn'.
Vesuvius, ve-soo've-us.
("Beautiful lake among the high-
Zwellendam, zwel-Ien-dabm'.
Tiflis, or Teflis.
Tula, too'lah.
Vevay, ve-vay'.
lands," or, " smile of the Great
Zwolle, zwollfth.
Ti'grij.
Tule, too'lay. (A "bulrush.")
Ylcks'burg.
Spirit.")
Zytomir, zbit-o-meer/.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL TABLES.
DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH.
Miles.
Polar Diameter » 7,899
Eqnatorial Diameter 7,925
Equatorial Circumference 24,899
SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
The area of the entiro surface of the globe is estimated at
nearly 200,000,000 square miles; of which, a little more than
£■0,000,000 miles are land, und somewhat less than 150,000,000
are water.
AREA OF THE LAND-SURFACE OF THE GLOBE.
Square Miles.
Eastern Continent - 31.000,000
Western Continent 13,750,000
Australia, Greenland, and other islands 5,250,000
Total 50,000,000
ASEAS OF THE PRINCIPAL ISLANDS.
AMERICA.
Square Miles.
Greenland 720,000
Newfoundland 60,000
Cuba 36,000
Iceland 40,000
Hayti 29,000
Vancouver Island 13,500
Jamaica. 5,500
EUROPE.
Great Britain 87,000
Ireland 32,000
Sicily 10,500
Sardinia 9,300
ASIA.
Niphon 109,000
Jesso 62,000
Seghalien 47,000
Kiusiu 28,300
Ceylon 25,000
Sikoke 21,200
Formosa 15,000
AFRICA.
Madagascar -... 225,000
OCEANICA.
Australia 3,120,000
Borneo 300,000
Papua, or Now Guinea 260,000
Sumatra 150,000
New Zealand 95,000
Celebes 70,000
Luzon 56.600
Java 50,000
Mindanao 35,000
Tasmania 28,000
Ilawaii 4,000
AREA OF THE WATER- SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
Square Miles.
Pacific Ocean 83,000,000
Atlantic Ocean 30,000,000
Indian Ocean 21,000,000
Antarctic Ocean 13,000,000
Arctic Ocean 3,000,000
Total 150,000,000
ESTIMATED AREAS OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL
LAKES.
Square Miles.
Caspian Sea 145,000
Sea of Aral 30,000
Lake Superior 31,500
Lake Michigan 23,150
Lake Huron 23,100
Lake Baikal _ 14,000
Great Slave Lake 11,800
Lake Erie - 7,800
Lako Ontario 6,900
Lake Winnipeg. 6,500
Lake Ladoga - 6,190
Lake Nicaragua 4,000
Lako Titfcaca 4,000
Great Salt Lako 1,873
HEIGHTS OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL MOUN-
TAIN-PEAKS OF THE GLOBE.
NORTH AMERICA.
Feet
Mount St. Elias, Russian America 17,860
Popocatepetl, Mexico 17,717
Mount Brown, Rocky Mountains 16,000
Sierra Nevada, California 15,500
Mount Hood, Oregon Territory. 14,000
Fremont's Peak, Hocky .Mountains 13,470
Long's Peak, Rocky Mountains 12,500
Pike's Peak, Itocky Mountains 12.000
Clingman's Peak, (highest land east of tho Mississippi) 6,940
Mount Mitchell, North Carolina 6,470
Mount Washington, White Mountains, New Hampshire 6,234
Mount Tahawus, or Marcy, New York 5,300
SOUTH AMERICA.
Feet.
Aconcagua, Chili 23,910
Chimborazo, Ecuador 21,420
Sorata, Bolivia 21,286
Itambe, Brazil 5,755
EUROPE.
Elliniz, (highest of the Caucasus Mountains,) Russia 17,776
Mont Blanc, (highest of the Alps,) 15.668
Mount Malailetta, (highest of the Pyrenees,) 11,436
Mount Scardus, (highest of tho Balkan Mount's,) Turkey 10,000
Konjnkofski-Kamen, Ural Mountains, Russia 5,397
Ben Nevis, (highest of the Grampian Mount's,) Scotland 4,368
Suowdon (highest mountain in Wales,) 3,571
ASIA.
Everest, Himalaya Mountains, (highest in the world,) 29,100
Kunchinginira, Himalaya Mountains 28,176
Dhawalaghiri, Himalaya Mountains 28,000
Hindoo Koosh, Cabul .' 20,000
Mount Ararat. Turkeyin Asia 17,216
Mount Lebanon, Syria, Jeb-el-Makmel 12,000
Mount Olympus, Turkoy in Asia 9,100
Mount Sinai, Arabia 7,497
AFRICA.
Mount Kilimandjaro 20,000
Mount Kenia 20,000
Abba Yared, Abyssinia 15,'JOO
Piton des Neiges, Islo of Bourbon 12,500
Peak of Teneriffe, Canary Islands 12,182
Mount Miltsin, .highest of the Atlas Mount's,) Morocco 11,400
Snow Mountains, Cape Colony 10,000
Peak of Pico, Azores 7,613
OCEANICA.
Mount Ophir, Sumatra 13.842
Semero Mountain, Island of Java 13,(00
Mount Orobena, Society Islands 8,500
Mount Kosciusko, New South Wales 6,500
Mount Humboldt, Tasmania 5,520
ELEVATIONS OF SEVERAL ACTIVE VOLCANOES
Feet.
Aconcagua, Chili 23,910
Gualateiri, Peru 22,000
Arequipa, Peru 20,320'
Cotopaxi, Ecuador 18,875
Tolima, Now Grenada 18,020
Popocatepetl, Mexico 17,717
Pichincha, Ecuador 15.924
St. Helens, United States 13,300
Manna Loa, Sandwich Islands ."... 13,120
Erebus, Antarctic Land 12,400
Etna, Sicily „ 10,874
Hecla, Iceland 5,110
Souffriere, Ouadaloupe (W. I.) 5,108
Morno Garou, St. Vincent's, West India Islands 5,007
Jorullo, Mexico 4,265
Vesuvius, Naples, Italy 3,948
LENGTHS OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS IN THE
WORLD.
NORTH AMERICA.
Miles.
Missouri, to its Junction with tho Mississippi „,„ 2,900
Missouri to the Bea, forming the longest river in the world 4,100
Mississippi proper 2,800
Mackenzie 2,500
St. Lawrence 2,200
Arkansas 2,000
Rio Grande 1,800
Kwichpak. 1,600
Saskatchawan and Nelson 1,000
Columhia l'200
Nebraska 1,200
Red River 1,'200
Colorado, in California 1,100
Yellow Stone 1,000
Ohio 950
Kansas 900
Tennessee „ 800
Frasor 750
Miles.
Red River of the North 700
Colorado, in Texas 650
Brazos 650
Wisconsin 600
Cumberland 605
Alabama 600
Wabash 650
Apalachicola and Chattahoochee 550
Susquehanna 500
Potomac 500
•Tames 600
Roanoke 509
Savannah .- 500
St. John, New Brunswick 450
Connecticut 450
Great Pedee .1 450
Trinity 450
Great Whale 400
Delaware 400
Altamaha 400
Sacramento 400
Penobscot 350
Hudson 350
Cape Fear 350
Pearl 350
Nueces 350
Sabino 360
Severn 300
Kennebec „ 300
SOUTH AMERICA.
Amazon 8,600
Rio do La Plata, (including the Parana,) 2,250
Madeira 2.000
Orinoco 1,500
St. Francisco 1,300
Tocantins and Araguay 1,100
Colorado 1,000
Rio Negro 1,000
Magilalena 900
Parnaiba „ 900
EUROPE.
Volga 2,000
Danube ],600
Don 1,000
Dnieper _ 1,000
Rbino 950
Dwina 700
Petchora 600
Elbe 600
Loire 600
Vistula 650
Tagus 650
Dniester 600
Guadiana 500
Oder 450
Douro 450
Rhone 450
Po 460
Seine 450
Mezene 400
Desna „ 400
Bog 400
Guadalquivir 400
Dunn S60
Niemen 350
Ebro 360
Dahl 300
Bug 300
Weser 300
Garonne 300
Thames 233
ASIA.
Yang-tso-Kiang 2,800
Lena t 2.(00
Obo 2,500
Hoang-Ho 2,500
Yenisei 2,300
A moor 2,200
Cambodia 2,000
Indus „ 1,700
Irrawaddy 1,700
Gangos 1,(00
Brahmaputra 1,500
Euphrates „ 1,4(0
Amoo, or Oxus 900
Salwen 900
Tigris 800
Nerbndah 800
Meinam 800
AFRICA.
Nilo 3,000
Niger, or Joliba „ 2,600
Zambesi . 1,800
Senegal 1,200
Orango 1,000
Gambia „ 700
OCEANICA.
Murray , 1.300
lOo
106
AREAS AND POPULATIONS OP THE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OF THE GLOBE.
NORTH AMERICA.
Greenland. .
( t . i >■■ -n la u
\ Iceland..
Danish America
llritish America .
United States, (including Russian
America).
Indians in the United States
Mexico
Central America
West Indies
Total .
SOUTH AMERICA.
Venezuela ,
United States of Colombia
Ecuador
Bolivia
Peru
Chili
Argentine Confederation and Buenos
Ayres ,
Uruguay
Paraguay
Brazil
{British
Hutch -
French
Patagonia and adjacent islands
Sq. Miles.
Total..
EUROPE.
Russia in Europe
Austria
Prance •—
Turk"y in Europe
Spain
Sweden 1
Norway)
Great Britain and Ireland
Prussia
Italy -
Portugal
Donnmrk
Greece
Switzerland
The Netherlands
Belgium
Bavaria
Wirtemberg
linden
Saxony
Mecklenburg
Ib^se-Darmstadt
Saxe-Altonburg
S i\''-Coburg-Gotha
Saxo-Meiuinjren
Si.v- Wei mar-Eisenach.
Oldenburg
Brunswick
Nassau
The Schwartzburg Principalities and
Waldeck
Anlult
ltrus.s-iJreitz and Renss-Schleitz
Lippe-Detmold and Lippe Schaumburg..
Lichtensteiu
Hamburg
Lubec
Bremen
720,000
40,000
2,S16,760
3,612,000
668,000
200,000
95,000
Population.
8,152,760
410,000
460,000
220,000
480,000
610,000
250,000
900,000
70.000
75,000
3,100,000
76,000
60,000
35,000
350,000
6,996,000
2,101,000
227,000
212,000
207,000
182,750
168,000
121,000
121,000
137,000
108,000
36,500
14,500
19,950
15,230
13,620
11,313
29,320
7,075
5,904
6,770
5,831
2,863
3,698
2.421
1,531
2,751
1,160
990
662
645
63
151
114
84
Total .
3,767,376
9,000
65.000
S,4S5,000
31,415,000
400,000
8,218.000
2,162,000
4,023,000
49,777,000
1,605,000
2.303,000
1,040,000
1,987.000
2,865,000
1,676,000
1,172,000
241,000
1,337,000
10,014,000
162,000
67.000
26,000
120,000
24,624,000
68,197.000
34,671,000
37,472,000
15,500,000
16,302,000
3,860,000
1,434,000
29,321.000
22,7<>9.000
24,150,000
3,988,000
],60S,000
1,332.000
2.534,000
3,700.000
4,895,000
4,807,009
1,721.000
1,435,1100
2,837,000
652,000
807,000
740,000
205,000
282,000
457,000
254,910
182,000
126,500
137,000
7,150
208,000
49,400
89,000
ASIA.
Turkey
Russia in Asia
Turkestan
Chinese Empire
Japan
llindoostan, (including Ceylon)..
Farther India
Afghanistan
Beloochistan
Persia
Arabia
Total..
AFRICA.
Barbary
Great Desert
Egypt (including Nubia and Kordofan)..
Abyssinia
Eastern Africa
Cape Colony and Natal
Other countries of Southern Africa
Western Africa
Soudan
Ethiopia
African Islands
Total..
Sq. Miles.
OCEANICA.
Australasia,
Australia ,.
Tasmania
New Zealand
Papua, and other islands,
Malaysia,
Borneo
Sumatra
Java
Philippine Islands
Celebes
Spice, and other islands ..
Polynesia.
Sandwich Islands
Other islands.
Total
662,000
6,750,000
640,000
4,700,000
i 156,000
1,250.000
920,000
350,000
150,000
470,000
1,200,000
15,420,000
658,000
2,600.000
600.000
280,000
600,000
128,000
200.000
890,000
1,700,000
3.000,000
230,000
10,786,000
3,120,000
28,000
95,000
350,000
300.000
150,000
50,000
120,000
70,000
70,000
6,000
144,000
4,503,000
Population.
16,000,000
8,329,000
6,600,000
477,000,000
35.000.000
187.668,000
42,000.000
6,000,000
1,600,000
9,000.000
8,000,000
754,997,000
15,208,000
300,000
5,125,000
3,000,000
3,000.000
385,279
100.000
17,000,000
11,200,000
3,000,000
5,100,000
63,418,279
1,400,000
90,000
100,000
600,000
3,000,000
4,000,000
9,530,781
3,815,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
74,000
370,000
25,979,781
RECAPITULATION- POPULATION OF THE WORLD.
North America-
South America...
Europe
Asia
Africa
Oceanica
Antarctic Lands..
286,818,9691
Total 49,732,521 1,205,615,382
Sq. Miles.
8,152,000
6,996.000
3,766,376
15,420,000
10,786,000
4,503,000
109,145
Population.
49.777,000
24,624,353
286,818,969
754.997,000
63,418,279
25,979,781
RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN DETAIL.
Rnssia in Europe.
Asiatic Russia
Total
Sq. Miles.
2.101.000
5,786,000
7,SS7,000
Population.
68,197,000
8,327,000
7,524,000
BRITISH EMPIRE IN DETAIL,
Grout Britnin and Ireland
Ionian Island*, Malta, Gibraltar, Ac
New Britain
British Columbia and Vancouver Island....
Canada
New Brunswick
Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island
Newfoundland and Prince Edward's >
Island j
British West Indies
Honduras
British Guiana
British India, Aden, and Hong Kong.
Cape Colony, Natal, and other African )
Possessions.., /
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Ac
Total
Sq. Miles.
Population.
119,000
1,192
2,154,500
200,000
210,000
27,037
18,800
29.307 109
354,797
158,000
89,000
507,000
252.000
330,000
42,200
203,495
12,583
13,500
76,000
1,200,000
1,091.000
25.639
155,000
187,745,000
136,000
953,000
3,600,000
1,211,000
7,210,812
222,382,130
WEST INDIA ISLANDS IN DETAIL,
., ., f Hiiyti
""y" { Dominica
Cuba
Porto Rico
Jamnica
Trinidad
Barbadoes
Grenada, Ac
St. Vincent
Tobago
St. Lucia
Antigua
Montserrnt
St. Christopher.
Virgin Islands
Dominica
Bahama Islands...
Guadeloupe, &c
Martinique
St. Martin's
Curacoa, Ac
St. Eustatius
Santa Cruz
St. Thomas
St. John's
St. Bartholomew's.
Margarita
Total
To whom belongs.
Independent.
Spain.
Great Britain.
France,
Holland and France
Denmark.
Swfden.
Venezuela.
Sq. Miles.
29,000
5,000
3,865
5,468
2,000
166
138
131
90
300
108
49
68
137
291
5,424
61S
322
32
275
190
105
43
42
25
' 540
Population.
800,000
200.000
1,396.000
330,000
377.433
84.438
152,727
31,900
31,755
15.450
27,141
35,408
7,053
20,741
6.053
25,065
27,519
139,055
137,465
6.560
31.835
1,903
22,862
12,561
1,715
9,000
15,000
54.424 3,946,629
NINE OF THE LARGEST PRODUCING STATES. OF SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT STAPLES OF THE UNITED STATES.
Corn in 1866.
Illinois
Indiana .
Ohio
Kentucky
Iowa
']>n!t"ssee
Missouri
lVinisvlvania..
New York
Bushels.
156,844,350
127,676.247
99,766,822
66,564,630
62,288.184
4fi,880.933
46,819,543
35,831,877
22,809.893
Wheat in 1866.
Illinois
Wisconsin
Iowa
Michigan
New York
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Indiana
Maryland
Bushels.
28,551.
20.307.
15,763:
14,740.
12,550,
10,519
10,208
9,114.
4,383
■l'.i!
920
323
039
,408
000
,864
563
70S
Oats in 1866.
Pennsylvania
New York
Illinois
Ohio
Wisconsin
Iowa
Virginia
Indiana
Michigan
Bushels.
54,954,
54,029.
30,054,
22,187.
17,174!
12,607.
10.245.
10,158;
8.293,
Hay iu 1866.
New York ....
Illinois
Pennsylvania
Ohio
Michigan
Iowa
Wisconsin
Indiana
Maine
Tons.
4,759.
2,340.
1,970.
1,963.
1,218,
1,161
1,151
1,088,
957
White Potatoes in 1866.
New York ....
Pennsylvania
Maine
Vermont
Illinois
Michigun
Ohio
New Jersey....
Wisconsin
BuBhels.
31,156,676
16,636.859
6,146,725
5,305,045
5,102,035
5.037,298
4,516,640
4,039,708
3,940,273
Tobacco in 1866.
Pounds.
Cotton in 1860.
Bales 400 lbs.
each.
Rice in 1860.
Pounds.
Wool in 1860.
Pounds.
Sugar in 1860.
Hhds. of
100 lbs.
114,480,5161
61,683,856
40,054,083
39,423.900
29,963,672|
26.693,815
17,516.981
12.952.2S5
9,824,384
1,195,609
997.978
722.218
701.840!
405,100
367,4S5,
353,413 i
227,4501
145,5141
119,100,528
62,507,652
7,593.976
6,455,017 1
657 ,293 j
499,559
223,209
30,616)
25,670,
10,648,101
9,454.473
4,752.523
4.062,858
2,975,544
2,681,922
2,509,443
2,477.563
2,466,264
297,816
Georgia
1,761
Tennessee
1,167
North Carolina
590
283
Ohio
244
Illinois „
198
108
38
POPULATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF. THE WORLD.
107
NORTH AMERICA.
UNITED STATES.
Eastern States. Popuiatioo.
Boston. Mass 177.4S1
Providence, R. 1 50,660
New Haven, Conn 39,263
Lowell. Mass. 36,827
Hartford, Conn 29,152
Portland, Me 20,312
Cambridge, Mass 26,060
RoxOurv. " '-o,l;l7
Charleatown, " 26,0*3
Worcester, " 24,960
New Bedford, " 22,300
Salem, " 22,252
M mchester, N. H 20,107
Lynn, Mass 19,033
L LW'l'ril ". MaS3 17,639
Bangor, Me 16,107
Taunton, Mass 15,370
SpringBold," 15,199
Norwich. Conn — 14,517
Fall River, " 14,025
Newburyport, Mass 13,400
Chelsea, Mm 13,395
Bridgeport. Conn 13,300
Smithfleld, R. I 13,290
North Providence, R. 1 11,818
Gloucester, Mass 10,904
Newport, R.I 10,508
New London, Conn 10,115
Nashua, N. II 10.100
Wutorbury, Conn 10,001
Middle States.
New York. N.Y 813,668
Philadelphia, Pa 565,531
Brooklyn, N. Y 220,064
Buffalo, " 81,131
Newark, N.J 71,911
Albany, N.Y 62,.:..8
Pittsburg, Pa 49,220
Rochester, N.Y 48,213
Troy, " 39,235
Jersey City, N. J 29,220
Allegheny, Pa 28,703
Syracuse, N. Y 28,199
Reading, Pa 23,102
Olios, N.Y 22,528
Wilmington, Del 21,258
Paterson, N. J 19,583
Lancaster, Pa. 17,603
IrsotOB, N. J 17.221
Oswego, N. Y 16,817
Kingston," 10,040
Newburg, " 15,198
Poughkeepsio, N.Y 14,720
Oamdan. N.J 14,358
Nowtou. N. Y 13,725
Lockport, " 13,523
Harrisburg, Pa 13,405
Hempstead, N. Y 12,375
Yonkers. " 11,818
Elizabeth, N.J 11.507
New Brunswick, N.J 11,255
Auburn. N. Y.. 11,000
Flushing, N.Y 10,189
Southern States,
Baltimore, Mil 212,419
New Orleans, La 108,472
Washington, D. C 61,118
Charleston, S. C 61,210
Richmond, Va. 37,910
Mobile. Ala 29,259
Savannah. Ga 22.20.!
Petersburg, Va 18,260
Norf.dk, " 14.00'J
Wheeling, " 14,183
Alexandria, •' 12,054
Augusta, Ga 12,193
Donaldsonville, La 11,481
Western States.
Cincinnati, O 161.041
St. Louis. Mo 151,730
Chicago. Ill 109,263
Louisville, Ky 69.740
Sin Francisco, Cal 66,605
Detroit, Mich 46,619
Milwairlde, Wis 45,254
Cleveland, 0 36.054
Memphis, Tenn 22,620
Dayton, O. ., 20,482
Indianapolis, Ind 18,612
Nashville, Tenn 16,988
Covington, Ky 16,471
Peoria, HI 14,046
Mill Creek, 0 13,844
Toledo, 0 13,763
Quincy, 111 13,718
Dubuque, Iowa 13,000
Sacramento City, Cal 13,788
New Albanv, Ind 12,647
Kvansvillo, " 11.4SG
Port Wayne. " 10,388
BRITISH AMERICA.
Montreal, C. E 90,323
Quebec, 0. K 51.100
Toronto, 0 W 44,821
Halifax. N.8 26.000
St. John, N. B 23,745
St. .Tehn's, Newfoundland 21,000
Hamilton, C. W 19.096
Ottawa 14,690
North America— Continued.
MEXICO, Population.
Mexico 205,000
La Puebla 71,000
(luadalaxara 63,000
Guanaxuato 49,000
Qucretaro 29,700
Merida, 40,000
Morelia 25,000
Zacatecas 25,000
Monterey 13,500
Vera Cruz 8,000
CENTRAL AMERICA,
New Guatiiuala, Quatimala .... 60,000
Leon, Nicaragua 35,000
San Jose, Costa Rica 30,000
Cojutepeque, San Salvador 15,000
Comayagua, Honduras 18,000
WEST INDIES.
Havana, Cuba 134,000
Puerto Principe 49,000
Matanzas 20,000
Kingston, Jamaica 35,000
St. John's, Porto Rico 20,000
Port au Prince, Hayti 20,000
St. Domingo 15.000
St. John's, P. R 15,000
Trinidad 15,000
SOUTH AMERICA.
VENEZUELA.
Caraccas mm 63,000
Valencia 20,000
Maracaybo.- 18,000
Barcelona - 15,000
Cumana 10,000
La Guayra 8,000
UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA
Bo-ota 40,000
Popayan 20,000
Carthagcna 20,000
Panama 20.000
Socorro 15,000
Aspinwall 7,000
PERU.
Lima 100,000
Cuzco 46,000
Aivquipa 35,000
Guamanga 26,000
Huanta 25,000
Pasco 12,000
Oallao 10,000
Cumana . 10,000
ECUADOR.
Quito 76,000
Guayaquil 25,000
Cueuca 20,000
BOLIVIA.
La Paz 76,000
Cochabamba 40,000
Potosi 24,000
Sucre 23,000
CHILI.
Santiago 80,000
Valparaiso 75,000
ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION,
Buenos Ayres 120,000
Cordova 25,000
Baa Juan 20,000
Corrieutes 16,000
URUGUAY.
Montevideo 46,000
PARAGUAY.
Assnmpcton 15,000
Coucepaiun 10,000
BRAZIL.
Rio Janeiro 296.000
IJ.ibia 175,000
Pernambuco 70,000
Maranham ... 30,000
Para 25,000
Sao Paulo 25,000
Villa Bello 20,000
Natal. 10,000
EUROPE.
NORWAY.
Christiana 39,000
Bergen 26,000
Droutheim 16,000
SWEDEN.
Stockholm 125,000
Goltcnburg 42,000
Malmo 23,000
NoukjBpping 20,000
RUSSIA,
St. Petersburg 188,000
Moscow 378.000
Warsaw 225,000
Odessa 120,000
Europe — Continued.
Population.
Saratov 84,000
Rign 75,000
Kiev 70,000
Wilna 60,000
Kazan 60,000
Berditchev... 52,000
Kharkov 60.000
Astrakhan.'. 45,000
Voronez 44,000
Sebnstopol 40.000
Novgorod 38,000
Tula 38,000
Orel 36,000
Kalonga 35,000
Cronstadt 30,000
Pultowa 30,000
ENGLAND.
London 3,015,000
Liverpool 476,000
Manchester 355,000
Birmingham 328,000
Leeds 224,000
Sheffield 186,000
Bristol 162,000
Salford 111,000
Newcastle 110,000
Bradford 106,000
Hull 99,000
Portsmouth 95,000
Preston 83,000
Sunderland 81,000
Brighton 78,000
Norwich 75,000
Nottingham 75,000
Oldham 73,000
Bolton 71,000
Leicester 68.000
Blackburn 63,000
Plymouth 63.000
Wolverhampton 61,000
Bath 55.000
Stockport 65,000
York 63,000
Devonport 51,000
Mcrtliyr Tydvil (Wales) _. 46,000
SCOTLAND.
Glasgow 424,000
Edinburgh 175,000
Duudeo 91,000
Aberdeen 74,000
Greenock 36,000
Paisley 33,000
IRELAND.
Dublin 318,000
Belfast „ 120,000
Cork 79,000
Limerick „ 45,000
Watcrford 27,000
Galway 25,000
Kilkenny 21,000
HOLLAND.
Amsterdam 251,000
Rotterdam 114,000
The Hague 86,000
Utrecht 58,000
Groningen 38,000
Lcyden „ 37,000
Haarlem 30,000
Arnhem 29,000
Leuwarden 25,000
BELGIUM.
Brussels 190,000
Ghent 123,000
Antwerp 121,000
Liege _ 105,000
Brogea 61,000
Louvain 33,000
Tournay 32,000
Tenters 30,ooo
FRANCE.
Paris 1,696,000
Lyons 319,000
Marseilles 261,000
Bordeaux 163,000
Lille 132,000
Toulouse 115,000
Nantes 114,000
Rouen 103,000
St. Etieune 95,000
Toulon 85,000
Strasburg 82,000
Havre 75,000
Brest 70,000
Amiens 60,000
Rheitns 56.000
Montpellier 52,000
SPAIN.
Madrid 476,000
Barcelona 252.000
Seville 152,000
Valencia 146.000
Malaga 113,000
Murcia 109,000
Grenada 101,000
Sarrogossa 82,000
Cadiz „ 72,000
Europe — Continued.
PORTUGAL, Population.
Lisbon 27i,000
Oporto 81,000
Braga 30,000
DENMARK.
Copenhagen 155,000
Odense 14,000
BAVARIA.
Munich 168.000
Nuremberg 70,00)
Augsburg 60,000
Wtlrzburg 41,000
Ratisbon 30,000
SAXONY.
Dresden 140,000
Leipsio 85,000
Chemnitz 65,000
WIRTEMBERG.
Stuttgard 69.000
Clm 23,000
BADEN.
Carlsruho 30,000
Manheim 27,000
Heidelberg 18,000
FREE CITIES.
Hamburg 230,000
Bremen 101,000
Lubeek 61,0o0
PRUSSIA.
Berlin 633,000
Breslau 163,000
Cologne 122,000
Kiinigsberg 102,000
Magdeburg 95,000
Dantzic 91,000
Frankford-on-the-Maiu 90,000
Hanover 80,000
Stettin 70,000
Aix-la-Chapolle 65,000
Elberfeld 6u,C03
Altona 53,000
Crefeld 51,000
Posen 61,000
Baruven 50,000
Halle 43,000
Mentz 43,000
DUsseldorf 42,000
Potsdam 42,000
Cassel 40,000
Frankfort-on-tho-Oder 40,000
Erfurth 40,000
Gbrlltz 80.000
Coblontz 29,000
Monster _ 28,000
Elbing 26,000
Dortmund 25,000
Stralsund 25,000
Brandenburg 24,000
AUSTRIA.
Vienna 679,000
Prague 143,000
Pesth 132,000
Lemberg 70,000
Trieste 66,000
Gratz .'. 63,000
Szegedin 63,000
Verona 59,000
DrUun _ 59,000
Buda 66,000
Theresienstadt 64,000
Presburg 44,000
Cracow 41,000
SWITZERLAND.
Geneva 42,000
Basle 37,000
Heme 29,000
Lausanne 21,000
Zurich „ 20,000
ITALY.
Naples 419,000
Rome 204,000
Turin 181,000
Milan 196,000
Palermo 16S.0O0
Genoa 128.000
Venice 118,000
Florence „ 114,000
Bologna 90,000
Leghorn 84.000
Catania 65,000
Messina 62,000
Padua 54,000
Parma 47,000
Brescia 40,000
Piacenza 39,000
Pisa 34,000
Bad 33,000
Modena 82,000
Poggia 32.000
Cremona 31,000
Pavia 29,000
Casrliari 28,000
Ferrara 28,003
Moilica 27,000
Europe — Continued-
GREECE. Population.
Athens 41 000
Corru 2:,.ono
Zante 20,000
Syra 19.000
Potras 18.000
Thebes 12,000
TURKEY.
Constantinople 1,075,000
Adrianople 140,000
Salonica 80,000
Bucharest 80,01 0
Serngevo 70.000
Qnllipoli 60.000
Jassv .'0.000
Phllippopolil 40,000
Bcntari 40,000
Kodosto 40,000
ASIA.
TURKEY,
Smyrna 1CO.000
Damascus 150,000
Aleppo 80,000
Bagdad co.ipo
llrusa 60.000
Bassorah 60.000
Diarbeker 60,000
Trobizond 00.000
Mosul 40.000
Jerusalem 20,000
RUSSIA,
Tifiis 40.000
Tobolsk 20.000
Tomsk 20,000
TURKESTAN.
Bokhara 90 000
Khokan 60,000
CHINESE EMPIRE.
Pekin 2.000.000
Canton .1,000.000
! Soo-chow 700,000
; Hang-chow 500.000
! Pull-Chow 600,000
i Amov 2:0.000
Shanghai 200,000
JAPAN.
Yeddo .2,000.000
Miaco 600,000
INDIA.
Calcutta 1,000.000
Bombay 817,000
Benares 400,000
Madras 100,000
Lucknow 300,000
Patna 280.000
Odcvpore 276,000
Delhi 200,000
Cashmere 200,000
FARTHER INDIA,
Araoan 250.000
Bangkok 100.000
Singapore 70.000
HuJ.... 60,000
AFGHANISTAN.
Candahar 90,000
Cabul 60.000
Herat 60,000
BELOOCHISTAN.
Kelat 12,000
PERSIA,
Meshid...
Teheran .
Tabreez .
Ispahan..
ARABIA.
Mecca...
Muscat .
Tunis
Morocco .
Fez
AFRICA.
BARBARY STATES.
EGYPT.
Cairo.
Alexandria.
OTHER CITIES OF AFRICA.
Aheokuto
Port Louis, Mauritius -
Cape Town «
Funchal, Madeira
OCEANICA.
Manilla
Batavia
Sydney, Australia
Melbourne
Samarang ..
Honolulu
100.000
80.000
80.000
60.000
60,000
60,000
130,000
100.000
80,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
26,000
25,000
25,000
140.000
140,000
100.000
100.000
60,000
6,000
108
AREAS AND CAPITALS OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1868. POPULATION AND EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS FROM THE CENSUS OF 1860.
STATES AND TERRITORIES.
Maine
Now Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts
Rhoda Island ■
Connecticut ,
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania ,
Delaware
Maryland ,
District of Columbia.
Virginia , ,
West Virginia ,
North Carolina
South Carolina ,
Georgia.
Florida ,
Alabama
Mississippi ,
Louisiana .....
Texas
Ohio
Indiana ,
Illinois ,
Kentucky
Tennessee ,
Arkansas
Missouri
Michigan
Wisconsin ,
Iowa „ i
Minnesota
California. .
Oregon
Kansas
Nevada
Nebraska
TERRITORIES.
Washington
Idaho. ..„
Montana.-
Dakota..
Utah
Colorado ftt. H
Arizona. .'
New Mexico
Indian Territory
Russian American Purchase ...
Wyoming.!.
Total
CAPITALS.
Augusta
Concord
Montpelier..
Boston
Providencoand Newport .
Hartford audi'
Albany
Trenton
Harrisburg .
Dover
Annapolis ...
Richmond
Wheeling
Raleigh
Columbia
Millodgfviilo. .;..: ". „« ,
Tallahassee ,
Montgomery.
Jackson
Baton Rouge
Austin
Columbus
Indianapolis ,
Springfield
Frttnkfort «. ,
Nashville
Little Rock
Jefferson City ,
Lansing ,
Madison
Des Moines
St. Paul
Sacramento
Salem
Topeka „.
Carson City
Omaha City
Olympia..
Boise City
Virginia City
Yankton. ....
Salt Lake .'.
Denver
Prescott...
Santa Fe
Tahlequah...
Sitka
Cheyenne
Areas.
Whites.
Free Colored.
Slaves.
Total.
Number attend-
iug School*
and Colleges.
Annual
Kxpeuditure
for Education.
Peraous over 20
years unable to
mad and writ..
Total number
of volumes in
public libraries.
35,000
9,280
10,212
7,800
626,952
325,579
314,389
1,221,464
170,668
451,520
3,831,730
646,699
2,849,266
90,589
616,918
60,764
712,495
334,916
631,100
291,388
691,588
77,748
526,431
353,901
357,629
421,294
2,302,838
1,339,000
1,704,323
919,517
826,782
324,191
1,063,509
742.314
774,710
673.844
173,596
361,353
62,337
106,579
6,812
28,759
11,138
1,327
494
709
9.602
3,952
8,627
49.005
25,318
56,849
19,829
83,942
11,131
66,064
1,978
30,463
9,914
3,500
932
2.690
773
18,647
355
36,664
11,428
7,628
10,684
7,300
144
3,572
6,799
1,171
1,104
259
4,086
128
625
46
67
30
628,279
320,073
315,098
1,231,066
174,620
460,147
3,880,735
672,035
2,906,115
112,216
687,049
75,080
1,246,462
349.856
992,622
' 703,708
1,057,286
140,425
964,201
791,305
708,002
604,215
2,339,502
1,350,428
1.711,915
1,155,084
1,109,801
435,450
1,182,012
749,113
776,881
674,948
173,865
365,439
52,465
107,206
6,857
28,841
11,168
189,210
82,934
79,565
249,293
31,568
89.936
805.550
119,216
609,961
18,672
79,f,75
9,726
154,963
$533,610
343,576
294,345
2,035,401
213,327
648,235
4,917,794
798,629
3,135,819
115,309
437,357
121.854
1,042,879
8,598
4,717
8,916
46,921
6,112
8,833
121,878
23,081
81,515
13,169
37,518
6,881
86,452
405,901
237,312
167,429
1,997,151
405,419
404,206
2,436.576
433,321
1,344,924
88,470
235,055
191,723
67,150
1,306
4,760
47,000
8,320
46,000
18
2,120
11,124
#0
38,352
23,000
1.79S
67,189
3.185
477,903
12,962
331,059
402,406
462,198
61,745
435,080
436.631
331,726
182,566
50,704
34,000
68,000
69,268
60,722
47,166
116,567
46,690
94,687
8,603
98,204
656,684
497,837
687,339
95,511
711,108
699,201
931,706
556,302
2,825,885
800,238
2,420,134
942,556
984,465
188,759
1,051,786
621,567
703,966
652,642
101,382
493,849
60,080
40,792
74,977
16,208
44,257
5,461
38,060
15,636
19,010
18,476
64,828
62.716
59,364
70,040
72,054
23,665
60,545
18.485
16,546
19,951
4,763
19,693
1,511
3,067
150
634
438
190.091
471,542
272,935
46.375
165,275
41,346
274,356
39,964
48,023
63,625
«05,666
338,091
405,121
182,059
163,022
42,726
203,488
188,604
184,709
167,608
24,150
25,916
10,816
13,332
110,604
86,538
790,668
467,062
33,809
65,410
37,680
45,600
52,198
65,350
66,451
225,483
275,719
111,115
114,931
148,012
245,228
23,221
1S4,884
260,686
150,559
53,924
55,045
83,531
33,649
188,981
95,274
5,300
9,735
81.318
112,090
2
75,995
69.994
15
3,296
1,088
12,219
23,976
10,742
11,325
143,770
149.797
2,576
40,214
34,231
270
7,944
77
323
104,500
113,916
30
46
29
40,273
34,277
32,738
5,476
68,991
677,390
82,924
85
83,009
1,466
7,944
9,449
32,785
3,611,849
26,975,575
487,996
3,953,760
31,414,719
5,634,374
$32,440,305,
1,186,311
12,829,849
In consequence of the abolition of slavery throughout the United States, the slaves in the above table should now be classed as Free Colored.
Tlio Indians of tho United States were not included in the Consus of 1860. Of these there are estimated to bo about 400,000; thus making the total population of the United States nearly 32,000,000.
AGRICULTURAL AND MANUFACTURING STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM THE CENSUS OF 1860.
STATES AND TERRITORIES.
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
MwfajBftflTlfffttrn
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Marvlaud
District of Columbia..
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
Alabama
Mississippi
Louisiana
Texas
Arkansas
Tennessee
Kentucky
Ohio
Michigan
Indiana
Illinois
Missouri
Iowa
Kansas .
Wisconsin
Minnesota
California
Oregon „.,
TERRITORIES.
Washington
Dakota
Nebraska
Nevada „..
New Mexico
Utah
Total..
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS.
Wheat,
bushels.
Corn,
bushels.
233,877
238,966
431,127
119,783
1,131
52,401
8,681,100
1,763,128
13,045,231
912,941
6,103,480
12,760
13,129,180
4,743,706'
1,285,631
2,544,913
2,808
1,222,487
579,452
29,283
1,464,273
955,298
5,409,863
7,394,811
14,532,570
8,313,185
15,219,120
24,159,500
4,227,586
8.433,205
168,527
15,812,625
2,195,812
5,946,619
822,408
92,609
945
72,268
446.075
382,697
1,546,071
1,414,628
1,463,020
2,157,063
458,912
2,059,835
20.061,048
9,723.336
28,196,821
3,892,337
13,444,922
80,840
38,360,704
30,078,564
15,065,606
30,776,293
2,824,538
32,761,194
29,563,735
16,205,856
16,521,593
17,758,665
50,748,266
64,043,633
70,637,140
12,152,110
69,641,591
115,296,779
72,892,157
41,116.994
5,678,834
7,565.290
2,987,570
524,857
74,566
4,792
20.296
1,846,785
710,605
' 93,861
830,451,707
Oats,
bushels.
2,988,939
1,329,233
3,630,267
1,980,075
244,453
1,522,218
35,175,134
4,539,132
27.387,147
1,046,910
3,959,298
29,548
10,186,720
2,781,860
936,974
1,231,817
46,899
682,179
221,285
89,377
985,889
475,268
2,267,814
4,677,029
15,409.234
4,036,980
6,317,831
15,220,029
:i,imi,st()
5,887,645
88,325
11,059,260
2,176,002
1,043,006
885,673
134,3.14
2,540
74,502
1,082
7,246
63,211
Cotton,
bales,
400 lbs.
12,727
145,514
353,413
701,840
63,322
997,978
1,195.699
722,218
405.100
307,485
227,450
4.092
100
1,133
272,643,185
5,198,077
Rice,
pounds.
1,120
8,225
7,593,976
119,100,628
52,507,652
223,209
499,559
657,293
6,455,01'
25,670
216
30,516
24,407
1,219
9,767
Tobacco,
pounds.
1,583
21,281
12,153
3,233,198
705
6,000,133
5,764,682
149,485
3,181,586
9,699
38,410,965
15,200
123,967,757
32,853,250
104,412
919,316
758,015
221,284
127,736
40,610
98,016
999,757
38,931,277
108,102,433
25,528,972
120,621
7,246,132
7,014,230!
25,080,196
312,919
16,978
87,595
3S.510
3,150
215
10
"b'soi
Sugar,
hhds. of
1000 lbs.
6,999
10
38
198
1,167
1,761
108
244
297,816
590
Wool,
pounds.
283
429,390,771 302,205
1,495,063
1,160,212
2,975,544
377,267
90,699
335,9S6
9,454,473
349,250
4,752,523
60,201
491,611
100
2,509,443
883,473
427.102
946,229
58,594
681,404
637,729
296,187
1,497,748
410,285
1,400,508
2,325,124
10,648,101
4,062,858
2,466,204
2,477.563
2,069,77
653,036
22,593
1,011,915
22,740
2,681.922
208,943
20,720
"3,312
479,245
75,638
Hay,
tons.
975,803
642,741
940,178
665,331
82,722
662.425
3,564,793
508,726
2,245,413
36.973
191,744
3,183
445,133
181,365
87,587
46,448
11,478
62,211
32,901
62,721
11,865
9.356
143,499
158,476
1,564,502
768,256
622,426
1,774,554
401,070
813,173
56,232
855,037
179,482
305,655
27,986
4,580
855
21.458
2.213
1,113
19,235
Irish
Potatoes,
bushels.
6,374,617
4,137,543
6,253,498
3,201,901
642,909
1,833,148
26,447,394
4,171,690
11,687,467
377,931
1,264,429
31,693
2,292,398
830,565
226,736
303,789
18,766
491,646
414,320
294,655
174,182
418,010
. 1,182,005
1,750,531
8,i'95,101
5,261,245
3,866,647
6,540,390
1,990,850
2,806,720
296,335
3,818,309
2,565,485
1,789,463
303.319
163,594
9,489
162.188
5,686
5,223
141,001
Sweet
Potatoes,
bushels.
1,425
161
623
616
946
2,710
7,629
1,034,832
103,187
142,213
236,740
5,666
1,960,817
6,140,039
4,115,688
6,508,541
1,129,759
6,439,917
4,663,873
2,060,981
1,846,612
1,666,540
2,604,672
1,057,557
304.445
38,492
299,516
306,164
336,102
61,362
9,965
2,396
792
214,307
335
IS
168
200
ISO
MANUFACTURING STATISTICS.
60,511.343! 19,083.896 111,148,8671 42,095,026!
Amount of capital
invested.
$22,000,000
26,900,000
9,500,000
133,000,000
23,300,000
45,720,000
175,449,206
40.000,000
189,000,000
5,360,000
51,800,000
2,660,000
26,640,000
8,310,000
6,610,000
11,160.000
6.675,000
8,260,000
8,740,000
7,110,000
8,850,000
1,040,000
17,270,000
20,000,000
58,000,000
24,000.000
18,875,000
27,700,000
20.500,000
7,500,000
1,063,000
16,580,000
2,400,000
23,682,693
1,293,000
1,296,700
""271,475
Value of raw
material used.
2,OS1.900
412,126
Value of
annual product.
$20,861,452
24,400,008
8,110,000
141,000,000
23,400,000
40,140,000
209,899,890
42,600,000
145,300,000
5,375,000
21,900,000
2,801,000
80,880,000
9,860,000
3,620,000
10,000,000
965,000
4,400,000
2,460,000
7,380,000
2,770,000
909,000
9,366,000
21,380,000
70,000.000
19000.000
27.360,000
33,800,000
24,000,000
8,500,000
669,269
17,250.000
2,060,000
I6,558,e36
1,452,000
505,000
"238,225
432.000
398,528
$36,075,498
46,500,000
16,000,000
266,000,000
47,600,000
83/100,000
S79,6J3.5C0
81,000,000
285,600,000
9,920,000
42,676,000
5,612,000
61,300,000
14,460,000
6,800,000
13,700,000
2,700.000
9,400,000
6,000,000
15,600,000
6,250,000
2,150,000
17,100.000
36,:i30,00O
125,000,000
35,200.000
43,260,000
66,750,000
43,500,000
14.900,000
2,800.000
28,500,000
3,100,000
59,500,000
3,138,000
1,405,000
"681,'942
1.1C5.000
s2.-;.ooo
$1,050,000,0001 $l,012,000,00o| $1,900,000,000
Owing to tho past disturbed condition of the nation, tho statistics of 1860 are continued in this table, as exhibiting a truer record of the resources of tho whole country, than those of a later period.
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