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I 


THE,  EMPIRE 
REVIEW:, 


EDITED   BY 


C.    KINLOCH    COOKE 


VOLUME    VI. 


n' 


LONDON 

MACMILLAN    AND    CO.,    LIMITED 
1904 


DA 
\o 

C55 


LONDON  :    MINTW)  BT  WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS,  LIMITED, 
DBK*  8TKSKT,  STAMIOKD  STRErT,  S.E.,  AND  OKIAT  WINDMILL  STREET,  W. 


CONTENDS. 


PAGE 

THE  INFLUENCE  OP  HER  CHILDREN  ON  THE  (MOTHER- 
COUNTRY.  By  C.  A.  M.  FBNNBLL 1 

MR.    SEDDON    AND    MR.    CHAMBERLAIN.      By    HILDA    KBANB 

(Auckland,  New  Zealand)  ..         U          ..          *.;  :       ••          ••          ••         9 

THE  VISIT  OF  M.  LOUBET  AND  ITS  RESULTS.     By  CHARLES 

LYON.    (Paris)          ..         ..     *',»*;>  -  *.,.?*'  ••"•*>      ..     >••'•'* -.''•-     ..       13 

AMONG  THE  LEPERS  IN  NORTHERN  NIGERIA.  WITH  MAPS. 
By  T.  J.  TONKIN  (Medical  Officer  Hausa  Association's  Central  Sudan 
Expedition)  ..  ..  '' ..  ..  ...  16,177 

THE    HAIR    SEALS    OF    THE    NORTH    ATLANTIC.     By   JUDGE 

PEOWSB  (St.  John's,  Newfoundland)      T  .,,!.. •-.-*.,•         ..          ..          ..       27 

A  HINDOO  EDUCATIONAL  BROTHERHOOD.    By  CORNELIA  SORABJI      33 

SUSAN  PENNICUICK:   A  STORY  OF  COUNTRY  LIFE  IN  VICTORIA.    By 

MARY  GAUNT  ..     V  ,.       J  .Vf  >Jr£.'        ..  37,  202,  325,  439,  547,  652 

INDIAN  AND  COLONIAL  INVESTMENTS.    By  TRUSTEE      53,  215,  342, 

448,  563,  666 

OFFICIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  ALLIED  COLONIAL  UNIVER- 
SITIES CONFERENCE,  including  Speeches  by  THE  RIGHT  HON. 
JAMES  BRYCE,  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  SIR  WILLIAM  HUGGINS,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S., 
O.M.,  President  of  the  Royal  Sooiety,  The  REV.  F.  H.  CHASE,  D.D., 
MR.  W.  PETERSON,  C.M.G.,  LL.D.,  The  RIGHT  HON.  LORD  KELVIN, 
G.C.V.O.,  F.R.S.,  O.M.,  SIR  HENRY  ROSCOE,  F.R.S.,  MR.  R.  A. 
REEVE,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  J.  A.  EWING,  F.R.S.,  The  HON.  SIR  JOHN 
BUCHANAN,  SIR  OLIVER  LODGE,  D.Sc.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Sir  ARTHUR 
RUCKER,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.,  The  RIGHT  HON.  LORD  STRATHCONA 
AND  MOUNT  ROYAL,  Qr.C.M.G.,  MR.  T.  HERBERT  WARREN,  M.A., 
MR.  RICHARD  THRELFALL,  F.R.S.,  SIR  GILBERT  PARKER,  D.C.L.,  M.P., 
REV.  J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  D.D.,  MR.  ALFRED  HOPKINSON,  K.C.,  LL.D., 
MR.  JOHN  WATSON,  B.A.,  Ph.D.,  SIR  W.  RAMSAY,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S., 
MR.  DEAN  BAMFORD,  LL.D.,  SIR  DYCE  DUCKWORTH,  M.D.,  LL.D., 
The  REV.  J.  P.  WHITNEY,  D.C.L.,  MR.  F.  B.  JEVONS,  D.Litt., 
MR.  THOMAS  HARRISON,  LL.D.,  The  RIGHT  HON.  R.  B.  HALDANE, 

K.C.,  M.P.    *, •.•••.-•-*;,      ..      :.; 71 

SPEECH  OF  THE  PRIME  MINISTER  AT  THE  ALLIED  COLONIAL 
UNIVERSITIES  DINNER,  AND  SUMMARY  OF  THE  OTHER 
SPEECHES  ..  ..  ..  121 


iv  Contents 

PAGE 
THE  FREE  TRADE  FAITH.    By  C.  DB  THIERRY  ..     129 

ECONOMICAL  NEEDS  OF  CANADA.     By  the  HON.  MAUD  PAUNCE- 

FOTE 145 

THE  DEPRESSION  IN  AGRICULTURE.    By  W.  DALZIBL  MACKENZIE    152 
THE  ROADS  OF  EMPIRE.    A  POEM.    By  WILL  H.  OGULVIE  ..     159 

WORKMEN'S  INSURANCE  AND   NATIONAL  PROSPERITY.    By 

ALFRED  HILLIEE,  M.D 161 

A  VOYAGE  TO  AUSTRALIA  IN  1800.    By  F.  G.  AFLALO     ..         ..     169 

THE    INDIAN   VILLAGE    MONEY-LENDER.     By  the  REV.  ERIC 

LEWIS,  B.A 188 

ABOUT  DOMINICA.    By  H.  A.  ALFORD  NICHOLLS        193 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR. 

SIDE-LIGHTS  ON  MR.  SEDDON'S  LABOUR  POLICY.  By  HILDA  KEANE 
(Auckland,  New  Zealand)  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  228 

PRESENT  AND  FUTURE  PROSPERITY  OF  CANADA.  By  CHARLES  E.  T. 
STUART-LINTON 233 

IF  RUSSIA  INVADES  INDIA.    By  COLONEL  A.  F.  P.  HARCOURT        ..     285 

AN  IMPERIAL  COUNCIL  FOR  THE  EMPIRE.  By  CHARLES  E.  T.  STUART- 
LINTON  460 

SIDELIGHTS  ON  FRENCH  SOCIAL  LIFE.    By  CHARLES  LYON  (Paris)..     462 

OXFORD'S  DUTY  TO  THE  EMPIRE.  By  N.  DE  L.  DAVIS  (Jesus  College, 
Oxford) 678 

PEOPOSED  SEQUEL  TO  THE  RHODES  SCHOLARSHIPS.  By  ISOLATED 
BRITON  (Sydney,  New  South  Wales)  ..  ..  681 

SOME  ADVANTAGES  OF  PREFERENTIAL  TARIFFS. 

(i)     INCREASED  EXPORTS  AND  HIGHER  WAGES.    By  ALBERT  SWINDLE- 
HURST  241 

(ii)    COMMERCIAL  PROSPERITY  IN  IRELAND.    By  F.  ST.  JOHN  MORROW    250 
(iii)  EFFECT   ON   CANADA.     By   the    HON.  SIR    CHARLES    HIBBERT 
TUPPER,  K.C.,  K.C.M.G.  (Member  of  the  Canadian  House  of 
Commons,  formerly  Minister  of  Marine  and  Fisheries,  and 
late  Minister  of  Justice  for  Canada)        ..          ..          ..          ..     258 

HIGHLAND  SOLDIERS  OF  THE  INDIAN  BORDER.    By  D.  M'L.    263 

THE  ANTMMPERIAL  POLICY  OF  AUSTRALIA.    By  JAMES  REID 

(New  South  Wales) ..          ..     273 

IRISH  UNIVERSITIES  AND  THE  ALLIED  COLONIAL  UNIVER- 
SITIES CONFERENCE.  By  PROFESSOR  F.  S.  BOAS,  M.A.,  F.R.U.I. 
(Professor  of  History  and  English  Literature,  Queen's  College, 
Belfast)  .. ->t  277 

CIVIL  OFFICIALS  IN  NORTHERN  NIGERIA.    By  G.  D.  HAZZLE- 

281 

THE  CHINESE  SERVANT  AT  HOME  AND  ABROAD.    By  DOUGLAS 

KNOCKER        289 

A  COLONIAL  VIEW  OF  CAMBRIDGE.    By  S.  B.  KITCHIN  (KMerley)    302 

THE  PEARLING  GROUNDS  OF  AUSTRALIA.    By  ALEXANDER  MAC. 

DONALD  310 


Contents  v 

PAGE 

TRINIDAD:    ITS   PEOPLE   AND   RESOURCES.     By  AN  ENGLISH 

VISITOR          319 

MR.   MORLEY'S    'LIFE   OF    GLADSTONE.'     By  the  RIGHT  HON. 

LOED  WELBY,  G.C.B.  (late  Permanent  Secretary  of  the  Treasury)    ..     353 

WHY  ASIATIC  LABOUR  IS  NECESSARY  FOR  THE  RAND.    THE 

FACTS  AND  FIGURES.    By  C.  KINLOCH  COOKE  ..         ..         ..         ..     361 

THE  POLICY  OF  LAISSEZ-FAIRE.    By  E.  A.  BRAYLBY  HODGRTTS      370 
THE  RHODES  SCHOLARSHIPS.    By  SOUTH  AFRICAN  ..         ..376 

LIFE  IN  NEW  ZEALAND  AS  IT  IS.    BY  CONSTANCE  A.  BARNICOAT      384 

THE  INTERNATIONALISATION  OF  MARKETABLE  SECURITIES. 

By  EDWARD  E.  GELLENDER          397 

CANCER  IN  IRELAND  :  AN  ECONOMIC  QUESTION.  By  BRIGADE- 
SURGEON  LIEUT. -COLONEL  WILLIAM  HILL-CLIMO,  M.D.  (Army  Medical 
Staff ,  retired)  '.'..-.-•  *..  ,\  410 

IMPERIAL  LITERATURE. 

(i)  MY  COLONIAL  SERVICE.  By  SIR  G.  WILLIAM  DES  VOEUX, 
G.C.M.G.  Reviewed  by  SIR  HUBERT  E.  H.  JERNINGHAM, 
K.C.M.G ..  ..  417 

(ii)  SIR  WILFRID  LAURIER  AND  THE  LIBERAL  PARTY.  By  J.  S. 

WILLISON.  Reviewed  by  J.  G.  COLMER,  C.M.G.  ..  ..  418 

THE  RANI  OF  KHARIGUHR.    By  L.     ..,    ....         ....         ..     421 

THE  WHITE   CHEETAH.     A  STORY  OF  THE  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 

By  BEATRICE  HERON-MAXWELL    ..         ..        ...         ..         ..         ..     427 

BRITISH  EMIGRATION :  AN  APPEAL  TO  ENGLAND.  By  the 
late  HON.  DAVID  MILLS,  K.C.  (formerly  Minister  of  Justice  for  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  and  afterwards  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court)  434 

INDIA    AND    PREFERENTIAL    TARIFFS.      By    SIR    CHARLES    A. 

ELLIOTT,  K.C.S.I.,  LL.D.  (late  Lieut-Governor  of  Bengal)    ..         ..465 

IMPERIAL  FISCAL  UNION:   TREND  OF  COLONIAL  OPINION. 

By  THE  EDITOR       ..         ,.         ..        ,».         ...•         ..         ..        474,588 

MALARIA  IN  INDIA  AND  THE  COLONIES.  By  MAJOR  RONALD 
Ross,  F.R.C.S.,  F.R.S.,  C.B.  (Professor  of  Tropical  Medicine, 
University  of  Liverpool)  ..  .»  .  ..  ..  ..  .,  ..  487 

THE  HUMOURS  OF  ANTIPODEAN  POLITICS.    By  0.  T.  J.  ALPERS    498 

THE  PRESENT  POSITION  OF  ZIONISM.    By  ALBERT  M.  HYAMSON 

(Hon.  Secretary  Union  of  Jewish  Literary  Societies)  . .          . .          . .     503 

HOW  TO  INCREASE  BRITAIN'S  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTION. 

By  THEOBALD  DOUGLAS      ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         ..     512 

THE  STORY  OF  CANADA'S  POSTS.  By  J.  G.  HENDY  (Curator  of 
the  Record  Room,  G.P.O.,  London). 

(ii)    GEORGE  HERIOT,  1800-1816          516 

(iii)  DANIEL  SUTHERLAND,  1816-1827 645 

SCOTLAND  AT  THE  SOUTH  POLE.    By  ELLA  M.  HART-BENNETT       525 

THEIR  EXCELLENCIES.    By  C.  DE  THIERRY    .,         .„         ..         ..     530 

b 


vi  Contents 

PAGE 

FRANCE  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND:  THE  STOEY  AND  A  SOLUTION. 
By  D.  W.  PROWSE  (Retired  Judge,  Central  District  Court  of  New- 
foundland)    ..  586 

FISCAL  ILLUSIONS.    By  ERNEST  FOXWELL ..577 

FEDERATION  AND  THE  NAVY.    By  LIEUT.  L.  H.  HOEDEEN,  R.N.  601 

ANAND  PAL:  THE  DACOIT.    By  COLONEL  G.  H.  TEEVOE,  C.S.I...  611 

THE  WONDERS  OF  MAORILAND.    By  E.  I.  MASSY. 

(i)     STORY  OF  THE  TAEAWERA  ERUPTION,  TOLD  BY  SOPHIA,  THE  OLD 

NATIVE  GUIDE          622 

(ii)    VISIT  TO  THE  GEEAT  WAIMANGU  GEYSER  ..         ..         ..         ..  627 

(iii)  MAOEI  CHAEACTEEISTICS         630 

EARLY  DAYS  IN  BOMBAY.    By  EUSTACE  J.  KITTS 683 

THE  SMITHS.    By  CONSTANCE  PROWSE 640 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

"Far  as  the  breeze  can  bear,  the  billows  foam, 
Survey  our  empire,  and  behold  our  home." — Byron. 

VOL.  VI.  AUGUST,  1903.  No.  31. 

THE    INFLUENCE    OF   HER   CHILDREN    ON 
THE    MOTHER    COUNTRY 

OUR  flourishing  colonies  must  be  a  source  of  honest  satisfac- 
tion to  most  Britons  who  think  about  such  matters.  If  a  mental 
chemist  could  analyse  this  particular  frame  of  mind,  he  would  be 
almost  certain  to  detect  at  least  a  trace  of  the  feeling  that  the 
various  Britons  beyond  sea  owe  their  merits  in  the  main  to 
qualities  of  physique  and  temperament  engendered  and  fostered 
in  the  old  country.  Such  a  sentiment  embodies  a  sufficient 
element  of  truth  to  be  accepted,  at  any  rate  provisionally,  with 
more  or  less  reservation.  My  only  reason  for  noticing  it  is  that 
it  seems  to  account  partly  for  the  general  neglect  of  the  considera- 
tion how  and  to  what  extent  speakers  of  English  outside  the  home 
islands  are  affecting  the  habits  and  character  of  the  dwellers  in 
the  ancestral  home,  what  in  fact  has  been  the  influence  of  the 
children  on  the  parent  state.  Similarly,  -we  hear  a  great  deal 
about  the  influence  of  teachers  and  respectable  parents  on 
children,  but  very  little — except  that  some  teachers  get  their 
tempers  ruined  by  their  pupils — about  the  influence  of  children 
on  educators  and  parents.  Yet  upon  reflection  the  existence  of 
this  reciprocal  and  less  obvious  influence  cannot  be  denied. 

Even  those  who,  either  because  they  comprehend  the  general 
principle  of  the  universal  reciprocity  of  influence,  or  for  some 
other  reason,  admit  that  Great  Britain  must  be  influenced 
mentally  and  morally  by  her  dependencies  and  colonies,  and  who 
could  cite  some  particular  instances  of  this  reverse  process  have 
seldom  or  never  taken  a  general  survey  of  the  subject.  Its 

VOL.  VI.— No.  31.  B 


2  The  Empire  Review 

importance  at  the  present  day  may  be  exemplified  easily.  Im- 
provements in  diet  and  clothing  must  act  beneficially  on  brain 
and  nerves,  and  by  implication  on  character.  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  and  our  ex-colonies,  have  brought  good  mutton 
and  beef  within  the  reach  of  vast  numbers  who  could  not  afford 
much  fresh  British  meat  other  than  pork  or  "pieces,"  and  have 
contributed  to  the  fall  in  prices,  which  has  rendered  warm 
clothing  more  widely  accessible.  This  increase  in  the  regular 
consumption  of  meat  is  of  course  demoralising  according  to 
persons  addicted  to  vegetarian  diet,  but  elevating  and  civilising 
according  to  the  majority  of  authorities ;  it  manifestly  makes  either 
for  or  against  that  enhancement  of  the  national  intelligence 
from  which  so  much  in  the  future  is  expected.  For  tea,  the 
great  rival  to  alcohol,  we  are  now,  owing  to  the  collapse  of  the 
China  trade,  dependent  on  India,  the  Straits  Settlements,  and 
Ceylon.  Consequently  these  outlying  regions  are  helping  to  check 
unwholesome  abuse  of  alcoholic  stimulants  in  the  British  Isles. 
But  such  indirect  or  remote  consequences  of  commercial  inter- 
course are  not  necessarily  connected  with  our  own  colonies,  and 
it  is  so  easy  to  draw  plain  inferences  from  trade  statistics  that  it 
would  be  uninteresting  to  multiply  them.  I  therefore  purpose  to 
draw  attention  more  especially  to  the  direct  results  of  non-com- 
mercial relations  with  our  distant  kinsfolk.  These  results  are 
either  general  effects  due  to  the  gradual  and  unobtrusive  absorp- 
tion of  imported  ideas,  or  particular  effects  due  to  manifest 
imitation  of  outlandish  habits  and  fashions.  I  do  not  presume  to 
do  more  than  hazard  a  cursory  and  tentative  survey  of  the  general 
effects. 

There  cannot  be  many  families  in  Great  Britain  at  the  present 
date  who  have  not  either  relatives  or  friends  in  at  least  one  of  our 
various  appendages,  or  in  the  United  States.  Consequently  an 
appreciable  percentage  of  the  population  has  its  interest  attracted 
to  distant  regions,  unfamiliar  conditions  of  life,  and  novel  ideas 
much  more  forcibly  than  it  would  be  to  merely  foreign  lands  and 
communities.  Such  a  widening  of  the  intellectual  horizon  is 
eminently  calculated  to  counteract  any  limitations  imposed  by 
insularity  and  so  conduces  to  the  expansion  of  the  average  intelli- 
gence; it  encourages  breadth  of  view  and  evokes  a  spirit  of 
toleration ;  it  weakens  the  bonds  of  attachment  to  conventional 
prejudices  which  we  are  usually  credited  with  fostering  to  an 
unreasonable  degree ;  it  is  on  the  whole,  though  perhaps  not 
invariably,  salutary  in  operation. 

Social  movements  are  controlled  by  the  incidents  of  the  cease- 
less struggle  between  the  supreme  dualistic  powers,  the  Ormuzd 
of  progress,  who  aims  at  the  apparent  welfare  of  the  many,  and 
the  Ahnman  of  reaction,  who  professes  to  promote  the  interests 


Influence  of  her  Children  on  the  Mother  Country      3 

of  the  few.  Through  the  fluctuations  of  the  contest,  which  pro- 
ceeds with  serene  indifference  to  the  political  parties  utilised  by 
both  combatants  upon  occasion  indiscriminately,  in  spite  of 
repeated  reverses,  Ormuzd  has  secured  the  balance  of  advantage. 
It  may  be  assumed  as  an  article  of  optimistic  faith,  that  the 
nation,  in  spite  of  halts,  retreats,  and  detours,  is  making  a  sub- 
stantial advance  in  the  right  direction  ;  though  it  might  be  rash 
to  assert  that  any  particular  change  in  the  old  order  will  in  the 
end  prove  to  be  really  as  well  as  apparently  beneficial.  It  is 
permissible  to  doubt  whether  counsels  of  perfection  would  have 
recommended  the  production  of  torpedoes,  financial  trusts, 
realistic  novels,  multi-millionaires,  patent  remedies,  or  emanci- 
pated women.  It  is  equally  permissible  to  feel  confident  that  in 
the  development  of  our  transmarine  dominions  Ormuzd  has 
secured  a  balance  of  permanent  advantage,  entailing  real  progress 
and  enlightenment  for  the  nation  at  large  and  for  the  whole  world. 
Therefore  nothing  can  be  more  natural  than  that  to  the  home 
field  of  conflict  Ormuzd  should  draw  valuable  reinforcements  from 
beyond  sea. 

The  mere  fact  of  having  our  attention  drawn  to  roomy  areas, 
where  a  willing  and  competent  worker  is  sure  of  good  pay, 
inspires  those  who  are  in  danger  of  being  crowded  out  of  em- 
ployment by  the  congestion  of  the  home  population  with  self- 
reliance  and  independence,  and  perhaps  with  that  wholesome 
discontent  which,  where  it  has  led  to  success,  is  called  ambition. 
Some  dispositions,  on  the  other  hand,  though  not  healthily  stimu- 
lated, find  an  anodyne  in  the  dreamy  consciousness  that  better 
things  may  be  their  portion  if  they  only  make  up  their  minds  to 
emigrate — a  more  comfortable  mood  than  despondency  or  apathetic 
resignation.  In  the  middle  and  upper  classes  many  heads  of 
families  are  relieved  from  a  serious  burden  of  anxiety  by  the 
openings  offered  in  distant  settlements  to  sons  whose  energies 
do  not  find  sufficient  scope  in  the  sedentary  employment  pre- 
scribe^ for  them  at  home,  which,  moreover,  is  often  difficult  or 
impossible  to  obtain.  The  number  of  university  graduates  who 
apply  for  every  vacant  mastership  and  clerkship  with  a  salary 
of  £80  a  year  is  appalling,  and  if  all  who  failed  to  get  such 
positions  were  obliged  to  stay  in  this  country,  much  demoralisa- 
tion would  ensue,  which  is  now  avoided.  Numbers  of  excellent 
youths  who  at  home  would  be  in  danger  of  being  classified  as 
"flannelled  fools"  or  "muddied  oafs"  have  their  characters 
saved  from  degradation  by  the  prospect  of  congenial  occupation 
and  useful  unprofessional  careers  in  lands  where  there  is  full 
scope  for  energy,  endurance,  and  physical  strength.  An  athlete 
with  plenty  of  intelligence  and  common-sense,  but  a  strong  dis- 
taste for  writing  and  serious  reading  is  quite  out  of  place  in  a 

B  2 


4  The  Empire  Review 

crowded  country,  but  for  our  outlying  dominions  constitutes  "  our 
best,"  which  the  Prince  of  Wales  has  asked  us  to  send  out. 

One  of  the  most  useful  importations  is  the  sense  that  any 
kind  of  unprofessional  employment  is,  unless  manifestly  menial, 
as  honourable  as  any  other  kind,  that  the  stockwhip,  spade, 
engine-gear,  pickaxe,  or  any  implement  of  toil,  is  as  dignified, 
if  used  correctly  and  with  a  will,  as  pen  or  weapon  of  war,  and 
that  a  well-educated  labourer  can  hold  his  own  in  society  with 
professional  men  and  individuals  exempt  from  the  need  of  earning. 
There  is  a  set-off,  however,  in  the  exaltation  of  wealth  in  prefer- 
ence to  intellect  as  a  national  ideal,  to  which  our  brothers  over- 
sea have  contributed ;  but  this  drawback  has  been  discounted  by 
our  established  worship  of  rank  and  social  position,  and  is  in  all 
probability  only  a  transient  phase.  The  agreeable  characteristic 
of  general  friendliness  and  the  habit  of  genial  and  easy  hospitality 
which  flourish  so  luxuriantly  in  colonial  regions  have  made 
some  impression  on  the  reserve  and  exclusiveness  which  the 
Englishman  of  any  claim  to  social  position  is  inclined  to  main- 
tain, but  the  same  good-fellowship  generally  remains  latent 
in  its  native  soil,  awaiting  transportation  into  a  more  invigorating 
environment.  It  will  eventually  be  found  to  conform  to  a  "  law  " 
to  be  demonstrated  by  some  future  expert  in  sociology,  that  it 
varies  inversely  as  the  density  of  population.  Obsolete  traits  of 
unsophisticated  Britain,  which  have  been  preserved  in  North 
America  and  revived  in  other  far-off  districts  appropriated  by  the 
ubiquitous  Anglo-Saxon,  are  now  seeking  for  readmission  to  their 
original  haunts.  In  fact,  our  kinsmen  beyond  sea  would  help  us 
"to  rise  on  stepping-stones  of  our  dead  selves  to  higher  things." 

Be  it  for  good  or  for  bad,  the  emancipation  of  youth  is  in  our 
midst,  and  seems  likely  to  abide  with  us,  and  at  the  risk  of  falling 
into  the  fallacy  post  hoc,  ergo  propter  hoc  I  venture  to  suggest 
that  if  the  colonies  and  the  United  States  have  not  originated 
this  new  order  of  things,  they  have  at  any  rate  assisted  in  its 
establishment.  The  same  may  be  said  with  respect  to^  the 
impaired  prerogatives  and  threatened  abolition  of  chaperonage. 
In  theory,  of  course,  the  substitution  of  "moral  influence"  for 
formal  restrictions,  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  possible  reforms,  but 
when  it  comes  to  putting  this  ideally  elevating  principle  into 
practice,  many  persons  are  agitated  by  the  apprehension  that 
the  supply  of  really  high-grade  moral  influence,  complete  with 
all  improvements  and  guaranteed  to  be  of  the  finest  quality, 
does  not,  and  will  not,  meet  the  increased  demand.  Let  us 
trust  that  if  the  novel  system  prove  disastrous  we  may  invent 
or  import  methods  of  multiplying  the  output  of  so  essential 
a  commodity.  Even  if  space  allowed  of  my  discussing  the  effects 
of  this  momentous  change,  such  a  speculation*  would  lie  outside 


Influence  of  her  Children  on  the  Mother  Country      5 

the  purpose  of  this  article,  which  is  simply  to  attribute  to  a 
definite  set  of  causes  certain  modern  developments  to  which 
attention  is  invited  without  expressing  any  opinion  on  contro- 
versial topics. 

Some  of  the  particular  instances  of  manifest  imitation  of 
Americans  or  Colonials  or  residents  in  our  dependencies  and 
protected  regions  can  be  enumerated  with  more  ease  and  con- 
fidence than  can  examples  of  the  gradual  and  unconspicuous 
infiltration  of  ideas  which  have  not  been  formulated  and  explicitly 
propounded.  To  give  the  first  place  to  creeds,  in  return  for  the 
excursions  of  the  Salvation  Army  and  other  missionary  efforts 
India  has  sent  us  some  at  least  of  the  elements  of  Mdme. 
Blavatsky's  theosophy,  while  the  United  States  have  contributed 
Mrs.  Eddy's  propaganda,  for  which  Mark  Twain  predicts  a 
brilliant  future.  Personal  influence  of  writers  or  speakers  who 
have  not  advocated  notoriously  distinctive  doctrines  does  not 
come  within  the  scope  of  a  cursory  and  tentative  survey  of  the 
more  metaphysical  aspects  of  the  subject. 

Passing  to  the  accessories  of  solemn  ceremonies,  I  may  remind 
my  readers  that  the  "  wedding  present "  craze  has  been  attributed 
to  the  initiative  of  wealthy  Americans  and  Australians.  It  is, 
however,  to  be  feared  that  this  particular  development  of  vulgar 
display,  which  is  kept  alive  and  growing  by  the  exhibition  of 
presents  and  by  the  description  of  all  or  some  in  newspapers,  has 
been  born  and  bred  at  home,  and  has  been  invigorated  only  to 
a  slight  degree  by  external  encouragement.  The  evil  could  be 
extinguished  promptly  if,  on  behalf  of  one  or  two  brides  in  whom 
the  British  public  professes  to  be  interested,  either  "  No  presents  " 
were  publicly  announced,  ;or  "  Only  real  property  and  cheques 
acceptable."  But  the  powers  which  dominate  the  vagaries  of 
fashion  find  pleasure  or  advantage  in  the  tasteless  perversion 
of  a  good  old  custom  which  loses  all  grace  in  the  glare  of 
publicity  and  extravagance. 

The  same  spirit  which  promotes  ostentatious  lavishness  has 
given  admission  to  that  terrible  offspring  of  trans- Atlantic  jour- 
nalism the  "  Interviewer."  No  prominent  person  need  submit  to 
be  interviewed  unless  he  or  she  likes,  and  if  travesties  of  people's 
lives  as  viewed  by  themselves  on  a  particular  occasion  appear  in 
journals  it  must  be  because  they  are  either  foolishly  goodnatured 
or  fond  of  attracting  public  attention.  The  "Interview"  is  a  bold- 
faced substitute  for  the  surreptitious  collection  of  back-stair 
gossip  which  has  been  going  on  for  centuries ;  the  new  method 
has  the  advantage  in  point  of  rapidity  and  as  regards  accurate 
representation  of  isolated  and  generally  unimportant  facts,  but  to 
get  trustworthy  impressions  it  is  very  likely  safer  to  absorb  the 
artless  prattle  of  the  servants'  hall  than  to  take  down  the  selected 


6  The  Empire  Review 

autobiography  of  study  or  boudoir.  In  short  it  is  very  uncertain 
if  in  point  of  general  accuracy  the  adoption  of  this  fresh  detail  of 
American  reporting  be  any  improvement  on  the'  old  system  of 
subterraneous  inquiry.  If  the  " interview"  tends  to  increase  the 
popularity  of  utterly  useless  information  and  to  encourage  habits 
of  idle  and  impertinent  curiosity  about  the  private  affairs  of 
celebrities,  it  must  be  reckoned  as  a  positive  evil,  tending  to 
lower  the  national  morals  and  intelligence.  These  bad  habits 
have  of  course  prevailed  to  a  lamentable  extent  for  centuries,  but 
they  have  been  aggravated  and  popularised  recently  by  the  exten- 
sion of  systems  of  education  which  have  been  deteriorating  more 
and  more  for  a  number  of  years,  and  by  the  enormous  expansion 
of  journalistic  enterprise,  as  to  which  we  appear  to  be  following 
the  lead  of  the  United  States.  In  condemning  present  methods 
of  education  at  schools  and  colleges,  I  am  only  reporting  the 
verdict  of  teachers  entitled  to  pronounce  judgment  with  authority. 
It  does  not  follow  necessarily  that  our  educational  authorities  are 
blameworthy.  For  extended  experience  may  eventually  discover 
that  the  conditions  under  which  they  must  work  if  they  wish  to 
have  any  pupils  to  teach  are  such  as  to  make  their  best  efforts  to 
combat  adverse  conditions  ineffectual. 

If  President  Eoosevelt  be  correct  in  implying  that  the  officers 
of  the  British  army  impair  their  efficiency  by  playing  too  much 
polo,  the  British  raj  in  India  must  be  held  responsible  for 
having  supplied  the  temptation.  It  has  also  given  our  mounted 
troops  the  exercise  of  tent-pegging.  From  Canada  we  have 
received  a  popular  style  of  canoe  and  the  toboggan,  not  to 
mention  lacrosse,  which  excellent  game  is  hardly  naturalised, 
though  many  matches  have  been  played  over  here.  The 
example  of  Canadians,  too,  has  improved  our  skating,  especially 
that  of  women,  notwithstanding  the  very  limited  opportunities  for 
practice.  In  the  peculiarly  English  game  of  cricket  we  have  been 
learning  how  to  improve  our  play  and  how  to  bear  being  beaten  by 
the  Australians ;  while  American  universities  have  proposed  a  higher 
standard  of  athletic  efficiency  than  that  attained  by  home  com- 
petition. In  the  construction  of  sailing  vessels  of  no  use  except 
to  win  races  under  certain  prescribed  conditions  British  designers 
have  been  surpassed  by  American.  America  is  exporting  methods 
of  training  and  riding  and  also  jockeys  into  English  racing-stables, 
but  not  the  least  important  contribution  from  beyond  seas  to  the 
pastimes  of  the  beau  monde  is  Australia's  starting-gate  for  horse- 
races. 

It  is  certainly  due  to  the  tuition  of  our  brethren  who  live,  or 
have  lived,  in  climes  where  hot  weather  is  more  than  a  rare  and 
fleeting  incident  that  we  are  now  able  to  avoid  sunstroke  when 
a  heat  wave  surges  over  the  British  Isles  by  wearing  broad- 


Influence  of  her  Children  on  the  Mother  Country      7 

brimmed  hats  of  felt  or  straw,  sola  topees,  and  puggarees,  that 
paijamas  are  superseding  the  uncompromising  night-gear  of  our 
fathers,  and  that  under  exceptionally  torrid  conditions  the 
decorous  House  of  Commons  has  shuddered  at  the  prodigy  of  a 
cummerbund  in  place  of  a  decent  legislative  waistcoat.  India 
has  dressed  our  soldiers  in  khaki  and  putties  and  adorned  many 
of  our  women  with  bangles. 

Many  dishes  and  relishes  testify  to  our  intimate  connection 
with  the  land  of  pagoda  and  bungalow,  such  as  curry,  kedgeree, 
bummelo,  chutney ;  while  punch  and  toddy  were  adopted  by  our 
ancestors  in  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  latter  beverage  was 
spirit  distilled  from  palm-juice  ;  the  dinner  "  gong  "  is  from  the 
Malay  Settlements,  and  an  after-dinner  "  cheroot "  from  India  or 
the  Philippine  Islands.  A  sufficient  counterpoise  to  this  enumera- 
tion of  frivolities  is  obtained  by  noticing  the  promise  of  our  study 
of  Oriental  languages,  the  poems  inspired  by  India  of  Sir  Edwin 
Arnold,  and  the  fact  that  our  best  authority  on  higher  Greek 
grammar  is  Professor  W.  W.  Goodwin  of  Harvard  University, 
while  the  best  complete  dictionaries  of  our  language  are  the 
"  Century,"  edited  by  that  great  Oriental  scholar  and  comparative 
philologist,  Professor  W.  D.  Whitney  of  Yale  College,  and 
the  latest  edition,  recently  issued,  of  "  Webster." 

Our  friends  over  sundry  waters  are  helping  us  to  do  what  we 
seem  to  be  thoroughly  capable  of  doing  for  ourselves  without  any 
encouragement  or  aid,  namely,  to  spoil  our  noble  vocabulary  by 
the  incorporation  of  slang  and  superfluous  words  of  alien  origin. 
Mr.  Grant  Allen  expected  the  readers  of  a  novel,  which  deals  only 
with  Europeans  and  Americans,  to  understand  the  Anglo-Indian 
"poojah"  and  "ghee."  Stay-at-homes,  who  never  even  had  a  share 
in  a  gold  mine,  talk  of  things  "petering  out"  or  "panning  out 
well,"  and  they  get  down  to  the  "  hard  pan  "  or  the  "  bed  rock." 
If  a  new  word  is  wanted  to  express  a  new  object  or  idea,  it  may 
as  well  be  an  adapted  foreign  word  as  an  English  compound  or 
derivative ;  e.g.  "  banana  "  is  as  good  as  or  better  than  "  finger- 
fruit,"  and  "punch,"  "curry,"  "putties,"  "paijamas,"  are  un- 
objectionable; but  the  Hindoo  "loot"  is  quite  superfluous,  as 
are  also  "pucka"  and  "kutcha"  and  the  hybrid  " gymkhana," 
and  again  "sundowner,"  "  vanoose,"  "boss,"  "hustle"  (  =  hurry), 
"  guess  "  or  "  calculate  "  (  =  think) — to  cite  a  few  instances  out  of 
an  enormous  number  of  colloquialisms  which  are  seeking  admis- 
sion into  the  literary  vocabulary.  Our  cosmopolitan  position 
must,  of  course,  be  represented  in  our  speech,  but  we  ought  to 
be  careful  not  to  accept  new  words  as  alternatives  for  old  words 
without  cogent  reasons,  as  it  is  the  inevitable  tendency  of  all 
modern  civilised  vocabularies  to  expand  so  fast  as  to  become 
unmanageable  ;  and,  in  consequence,  to  impair  intellectual  power 


8  The  Empire  Review 

by  imposing  too  severe  a  strain  upon  the  memory.  In  no 
language  is  it  proved  so  thoroughly  as  in  English  that  confu- 
sion is  not  caused  by  one  set  of  sounds  having  several  distinct 
meanings,  so  that  it  is  obviously  more  economical  to  accept 
fresh  meanings  for  old  words  than  to  accumulate  several  words 
with  the  same  meaning.  There  is  not  the  slightest  danger  of 
our  means  of  expression  becoming  inadequate  to  our  needs,  but 
there  is  grave  danger  that  they  may  outrun  our  powers  of  com- 
prehension and  control.  We  must  not  then  admit  into  our 
serious  English  at  any  rate  words  and  phrases  sent  over  by  our 
kinsmen  with  indiscriminating  welcome  such  as  we  offer  to 
foreign  paupers. 

An  excellent  example  of  excluding  undesirable  immigrants  is 
set  by  the  United  States  and  our  Colonies.  From  them  too 
useful  lessons  may  be  taken  by  our  manufacturers  and  capitalists, 
most  of  whom  are  prone  to  discourage  inventive  enterprise  and 
to  run  in  old  grooves  without  regard  to  changing  conditions,  and 
by  our  workmen,  who  have  to  learn  that  well-paid  labour  must 
be  made  reasonably  cheap  to  employers  by  strenuousness  and 
efficiency.  Those  singularly  modest  persons  who  are  so  keenly 
conscious  of  their  own  littleness  as  to  draw  the  unwarranted 
inference  that  their  country  must  be  little,  would  do  well  to 
borrow  a  tincture  of  patriotism  from  our  Colonies  even  at 
the  risk  of  acquiring  therewith  an  undeserved  measure  of 
self-respect. 

C.  A.  M.  FENNELL. 


Mr.  Seddon  and  Mr,  Chamberlain 


MR.    SEDDON   AND    MR.   CHAMBERLAIN 

ME.  SEDDON  has  zeal,  enthusiasm  and  original  opinion.  He 
gives  it  you  there  and  then  without  time  for  reflection.  If  he 
deferred  his  opinion  until  he  had  digested  the  matter,  reduced  it 
to  the  smallest  compass,  compared  it  with  other  men's  digests, 
and  chosen  the  most  accurate  wording  for  it,  you  might  think 
him  a  cautious  speaker,  but  you  would  have  lost  the  outspoken 
originality,  the  fearlessness  of  criticism,  the  great  master  grasp, 
at  a  moment's  notice,  of  the  situation.  You  would  have  lost,  too, 
the  natural  strain  of  emotion,  which  is  a  necessary  part  of  the 
Premier's  opinion  of  things. 

A  cablegram  announces  to  us  Mr.  Chamberlain's  new  fiscal 
suggestions.  At  once  the  Premier  is  ready  with  an  opinion. 
Unhesitatingly,  unflinchingly,  he  sounds  the  Imperial  note. 
He  is  at  once  interviewed.  A  fortnight  ago  he  delivered  a  pre- 
sessional  address  to  his  constituents.  Naturally  the  question  of 
preferential  tariff  was  referred  to  ;  and  boldly,  Mr.  Seddon  said  all 
that  he  had  to  say  on  the  subject.  Through  it  all  the  dominant 
note  was  support  of  everything  that  could  further  consolidation 
of  the  Empire.  He  cannot  help — such  is  his  nature — reviewing 
the  situation  throughout.  He  must  consider  the  possibility  of  a 
scheme  so  dear  to  his  heart  not  being  carried  into  effect.  He 
considers  that  possibility,  stating  at  the  same  time  his  regret  at 
such  a  current  of  events,  and  at  once  his  critics  in  the  old 
country  take  advantage  of  the  occasion.  They  forget  the  ninety- 
nine  per  cent,  of  splendid  sentiment,  and  shriek  at  him  for  a 
blusterer.  Of  course  this  treatment  is  a  capital  advertisement  for 
Mr.  Seddon  and  his  colony,  and  if  his  opinion  were  not  regarded 
as  of  importance,  much  less  notice  would  be  taken  of  his  utter- 
ances. It  is  doubtful  whether  any  Colonial  premier  ever  attained 
to  such  celebrity,  and  most  of  it  has  been  done  through  the 
publication  of  and  comment  upon  a  few  stray  sentences  in  a 
speech  on  a  matter  of  ordinary  discussion. 

I  will  quote  from  the  speech  by  which  Mr.  Seddon  has  made 


10  The  Empire  Review 

his  latest  coup.  He  begins  by  protesting  against  Britain's 
remaining  inactive  while  others  are  profiting  by  that  inactivity. 
He  quotes  the  advance  made  by  America,  £647,000,000,  against 
a  corresponding  increase  of  £67,000,000  in  Britain.  He  passes 
on  to  the  threat  recently  made  that  the  domination  of  the 
Pacific  must  go  from  the  Union  Jack  to  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 
Considering  this  with  President  Eoosevelt's  statement,  he  argues 
that  a  commercial  nomination  is  meant,  and  defiantly  says  that 
for  that  supremacy  there  shall  be  a  fight.  "Why,"  he  asks, 
"should  Britain  and  Ireland  be  recruiting-grounds  for  outside 
countries  ? "  If  men  must  emigrate,  open  British  colonies  to 
them !  But  if  England  will  only  stir  herself  to  meet  altered 
conditions,  there  is  no  need  for  them,  as  operatives,  to  leave 
her  shores.  There  is  any  amount  of  work  which  England 
can  do  for  her  oversea  population.  We  want  locomotives  here. 
We  cannot  get  our  orders  completed  by  Britain  in  under  two 
years'  time.  Then  we  have  reluctantly  to  go  to  the  American. 

But  the  capitalists  who  go  to  America  or  to  Germany  merely  for 
cheapness  are  selfish.  They  are  threatening  ruin  to  the  Empire. 
If  they  persist  in  this  policy  there  will  be  no  need  for  English 
fleets  to  guard  us.  What  are  we  doing  when  we  trade  upon 
terms  advantageous  to  foreigners  but  providing  them  with  the 
means  of  raising  armies  and  navies  hostile  to  our  people?  No 
foreign  article  goes  to  Great  Britain  but  what  she  could  herself 
manufacture.  All  she  needs  outside  of  herself  is  a  food  supply ; 
and  this  her  colonies  can  produce.  The  New  Zealander  who 
does  not  by  preference  take  British  manufactures  is  helping  the 
foreigner  against  his  own  country.  Let  the  Colonies  support 
English  trade  and  England  will  come  to  them  for  her  food.  This 
will  mean  a  vast  increase  in  the  population  and  development  of 
those  Colonies.  It  is  not  a  question — and  this  is  the  sentence  that 
with  more  justice  to  Mr.  Seddon  should  have  been  emphasised — 
it  is  "  not  a  question  of  free  trade  against  protection,  but  of 
patriotism,  country,  constitution,  flag  " 

Then  he  proposes  a  remedy  for  the  existing  state  of  things. 
This  is  to  either  impose  an  increase  of  ten  per  cent,  upon  foreign 
goods  not  manufactured  by  British,  and  not  carried  in  British 
ships,  or  to  make  a  rebate  of  ten  per  cent,  upon  the  latter, 
leaving  the  others  as  they  are.  Local  industries  may  suffer  at 
first ;  but  New  Zealand  is  essentially  a  land  of  natural  resources 
rather  than  of  manufacture.  If  she  can  feed  the  manufacturing 
British,  that  is  her  work.  If  England  does  not  adopt  preferential 
trade— and  this  alternative  is  anything  but  liked  by  Premier 
Seddon,  but  it  must  be  thought  of— why  then  the  colonies  must 
use  their  own  energy  to  develop  inter-British  trade,  and  if  that 


Mr.  Seddon  and  Mr.  Chamberlain  11 

be  impossible,  they  have  no  resource  but  to  buy  in  cheap  markets 
which  take  their  produce.     Three  courses  are  open  :  — 

(1)  To  maintain  the  present  policy  of  drift ; 

(2)  To  make  overtures,   and  to  ask  the  Mother-country  to 

assist  the  colonies,  who,  in  turn,  would  assist  her; 

(3)  To  make  arrangements  as   between  Britain  and  Canada 

giving  the  power  of  reciprocating  with  other  British 
colonies. 

If  Britain  scouts  these  overtures  from  the  colonies,  scoffs 
at  their  suggestions,  then  reciprocity  with  alien  nations  must 
naturally  come  as  a  last  resource.  This  last  statement  of  Mr. 
Seddon's  is  the  one  which  has  been  made  so  much  of.  But, 
taken  with  the  context  of  the  speech,  what  is  it  but  an  ordinary 
inference  ?  Alone  it  might  be  regarded  as  a  threat,  but  in  con- 
junction with  the  Premier's  strongly  emphasised  advice  to  put 
selfishness  aside,  and  do  our  best  to  aid  the  Empire,  it  is  merely 
the  consideration  of  a  remotely  possible — and  to  no  one  more  than 
Mr.  Seddon  more  remote — contingency.  He  does  not  assume 
that  England  will  scout  his  colony's  offer  to  work  wholeheartedly 
in  support  of  an  Empire  tariff,  he  only  tries  to  judge  the  probable 
outcome  of  each  colony  being  left  to  do  for  herself  the  best  she 
can.  Surely  there  is  nothing  in  this  to  excite  the  indignation  so 
freely  expressed.  "  Sentiment  first  and  self  next "  is  the  motto 
of  our  Premier  with  regard  to  all  affairs  tending  to  union  of  the 
Mother-country  and  her  colonies. 

Amongst  New  Zealanders,  the  consensus  of  opinion  is  with 
the  Premier.  The  rebate  of  ten  per  cent,  duty  on  British  goods 
is  more  popular  than  a  suggested  increase  on  foreign  articles.  In 
some  matters  we  should  be  losers,  in  kerosene,  musical  instru- 
ments, agricultural  implements.  Goods  like  the  last  two  would 
in  time  be  manufactured  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  Empire, 
but  a  natural  product  like  kerosene  is  not  to  be  forced.  Tobacco 
we  may  learn  to  grow  for  ourselves,  and  glass-ware  we  have  the 
means  of  making,  for  we  have  vast  tracts  of  the  finest  glass  sand. 
But  our  chief  attention  would  turn  towards  the  increased  produc- 
tion of  foodstuffs.  So  that,  though  the  cost  of  some  imported 
articles  would  be  increased,  we  should  gain  immensely  in  time 
by  the  cheapening  of  living  generally.  We  can  judge  of  results 
by  the  position  in  Canada.  She  makes  preferential  trade  pay. 
Why  not  we  ?  America's  exports  to  us  total  £1,400,000 ;  while 
our  exports  to  that  country  annually  decrease.  She  receives 
the  little  wool  which  she  must  have  with  heavy  imposition. 
The  continental  countries,  again,  take  our  wool  and  pay  us  well 
for  it  because  they  need  it,  not  because  they  have  any  regard  for 


12  The  Empire  Review 

us.  If  we  tax  them  they  must  still  take  our  wool,  until  they 
can  get  it  elsewhere,  or  until  Britain  can  use  the  whole  of  it. 
At  present,  because  England  has  no  preferential  tariff,  the  Argen- 
tine meat  fights  us,  in  too  close  competition,  in  the  London 
market.  Argentine  butter  can  be  poured  into  Britain  in  vast 
quantities.  With  no  preference,  we  have  no  chance  against 
such  a  colossal  country.  Siberia,  too,  is  preparing  the  way  for 
the  same  fight  against  us.  What  is  the  portent,  too,  of  the 
immense  importation  into  Kussia  of  shiploads  of  agricultural 
implements  ?  Merely  that,  in  our  distance,  we  shall  be  beaten 
out  of  the  home  markets  unless  Britain  supports  us  by  a  pre- 
ferential Imperial  tariff. 

It  is  not  our  place  to  discuss  the  relations  of  Britain  to  her 
foreign  traders.  But  we  can  see  that  as  she  is  such  a  giant 
buyer  of  their  goods  she  must  do  much  before  they  lose  her 
custom.  The  question  of  details  is  being  carefully  considered  by 
able  British  thinkers  who  know,  as  we  do  not,  the  state  of 
their  foreign  commerce.  It  is  sufficient  for  us  to  do  all  we  can 
in  support  of  a  scheme  that  will  further  our  own  interests  and — 
a  matter  of  vastly  greater  importance — which  will  bind  home 
and  colonies  into  an  organised  Empire,  too  strong  to  be  broken, 
which  will  keep  the  Britisher  a  race  to  himself,  sturdy  and  self- 
supporting.  Mr.  Chamberlain  may  look  most  confidently  to 
New  Zealand  and  her  Premier  to  aid  him  to  the  utmost  of 
her  power. 

HILDA  KEANE. 

AUCKLAND,  June. 


The  Visit  of  M.  Loubet  and  its  Results          13 


THE  VISIT  OF  M.  LOUBET  AND  ITS 
RESULTS 

THAT  the  President  of  the  French  Republic  has  achieved  a 
signal  success,  and  that  his  fellow-countrymen  are  greatly  pleased 
at  the  result  of  the  visit  to  London,  will  be  readily  admitted  ;  but 
what  lies  beneath  and  from  whence  came  the  impulsion  it  is  not 
so  easy  to  divine.  One  advantage  which  the  French  Government 
has  gained  perhaps  deserves  notice,  and  that  is  M.  Loubet  has 
immensely  strengthened  his  position  with  the  French  electorate. 
Perhaps  the  best  way  is  to  accept  the  accomplished  fact  to  which 
M.  Loubet  has  given  expression  in  the  significant  words,  "  England 
the  friend  of  France." 

It  is  evident  that  the  movement  has  been  sufficiently  strong  to 
silence  for  a  moment  the  hostility  of  French  journalistic  cranks  ; 
and  the  prevailing  French  feeling  is  perhaps  best  expressed  by 
the  Temps,  which  is  not  a  government  organ  but  estimates  fairly 
enough  the  depth  of  the  current.  It  says  : — 

The  voyage  to  England  of  the  President  of  the  Republic  has  finished  as  it 
commenced  in  an  atmosphere  of  smiling  gaiety  and  of  natural  cordiality.  The 
impressions  of  the  first  days  have  been  accentuated  by  those  of  the  following 
ones.  King,  Queen,  royal  family,  and  the  English  people  have  spontaneously 
tried  to  give  the  representative  of  France  the  warmest,  the  most  cordial,  and 
the  most  affectionate  greeting.  The  intention  was  appreciated  in  France  as  it 
deserved  to  be,  and  now  one  can  say  that  the  result  has  been  accomplished. 
The  Franco -English  understanding  is  an  accomplished  fact.  France  and  Great 
Britain  can  without  restraint  treat  one  another  as  friendly  nations. 

Without  touching  on  colonial  questions  it  is  sufficient  to 
remember  that  the  commercial  relations  of  the  two  nations  are 
most  important.  French  exports  to  England,  according  to  recent 
returns,  amounted  to  1,277,000,000  francs,  and  French  imports 
from  England  amounted  to  582,000,000.  From  a  French  point 
of  view  the  commercial  situation  is  a  very  good  one  for  France, 
if  not  quite  so  satisfactory  to  England.  A  readjustment  in  favour 
of  England  would  be  no  bad  test  of  French  sincerity.  For  the 
moment,  however,  both  nations  have  relegated  their  material 
interests  to  the  second  place  and  have  given  way  to  an  amount 


14  The  Empire  Review 

of  enthusiasm  which  it  is  difficult  to  explain,  and  seem  delighted 
at  the  thought  that  England  and  France  are  friends.  It  is  not 
so  long  ago  that  French  opinion,  as  voiced  in  the  French  press, 
was  rather  adverse  to  England,  and  one  may  well  ask  whence 
comes  this  sudden  change.  There  is  no  explanation  of  the  fact 
unless  it  be  that  the  French  press  does  not  always  give  a  true 
interpretation  of  French  opinion. 

Perhaps  a  little  consideration  of  the  feelings  that  animate 
the  bulk  of  the  French  electorate,  that  is  to  say,  the  masses 
on  which  the  French  Eepublic  is  built,  may  help  towards  a 
solution.  The  rural  masses  are  eminently  pacific,  and  they 
may  think  that  friendship  with  England  is  a  sure  guarantee 
for  the  continuance  of  peace.  Moreover,  in  the  domain  of 
aspirations  the  marked  hostility  of  Germany  towards  England 
could  not  have  escaped  attention,  hence  the  feeling  may 
have  germinated  that  in  the  future  this  Anglo-German  hostility 
might  prove  an  advantage  to  France.  But  whatever  be  the 
causes  of  this  Anglo-French  movement,  it  is  evidently  for  the 
moment  at  least  very  popular.  And  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
future  will  realise  the  smiling  promises  of  the  present,  and  that 
the  new  entente  cordiale  may  long  continue  for  the  mutual 
advantage  of  England  and  France. 

President  Loubet  has  said  that  the  two  countries  are  nations 
amies.  He  must  have  had  some  ground  for  this  statement.  It 
may  be  that  the  son  of  a  small  farmer  is  more  in  touch  with 
French  rural  opinion  than  Paris  statesmen  and  diplomatists.  At 
any  rate  he  must  know  the  feelings  of  the  rural  masses  from 
which  he  has  sprung,  and  he  must  have  satisfied  himself  that 
these  masses  wish  for  peace  and  cordial  relations  with  Great 
Britain,  and  that  the  words  nations  amies  are  no  empty  sound 
but  a  fact  to  be  realised  on  which  French  policy  in  the  future 
may  be  safely  built. 

A  few  words  on  this  subject  may  lead  to  a  grasp  of  the  situa- 
tion as  far  as  the  rural  masses  are  concerned,  and  perhaps  assist 
British   statesmen   to   avoid    compromise   with   French   colonial 
politicians,  and  the  more  recent  ventilation  of  arbitration  fads. 
The  cultivators   of   the   soil,  who   are  mostly  small  proprietors 
holding  two  and  three  acres  of  land,  care  nothing  about  colonial 
enterprise,  and  would  neither  emigrate  themselves  nor  allow  their 
children  to  do  so  if  they  could  avoid  it.     They  are  all  eminently 
conservative,  and  wish  for  nothing  better  than  to  remain  undis- 
turbed  on  their  own  properties.      They  looked  askance  at  the 
Kepublic  for  many  years  owing  to  the  wild  talk  of  the  Socialist 
wing  of  the  Eepublic,  which  was  believed   to   be  a  menace  to 
property  owners.     They  have  now  become  the  firmest  supporters 
of  the  Kepublic,  because  it  has  lasted  longer  than  any  other  form 


The  Visit  of  M.  Loubct  and  its  Results  15 

of  government,  because  it  makes  for  peace,  and  cannot,  like  any 
other  regime,  involve  the  country  in  foreign  wars  for  the  sake  of 
prestige.  The  Russian  alliance  gave  the  French  masses  a  certain 
sense  of  security  against  the  rhodomontade  of  German  professors 
and  bureaucrats,  and  the  English  understanding  pleases  because 
it  is  a  move  in  the  same  direction,  and  confers  tangible  advantages. 
While  the  understanding  lasts,  the  maritime  frontier,  both  at 
home  and  abroad,  is  perfectly  secure,  and  the  British  Navy  may 
be  said  to  guard  French  coasts  as  well  as  our  own.  Hence  the 
British  understanding  cannot  be  other  than  popular  with  the 
French  masses — the  backbone  of  the  Republic . 

It  may  be  asked,  How  have  the  masses  suddenly  solved  a 
problem  which  seemed  apparently  beyond  their  mental  reach? 
The  answer  is  that  it  had  been  already  solved,  and  had  laid 
dormant  for  years  until  President  Loubet,  the  son  of  cultivators, 
gave  it  expression,  and  adroitly  used  it  for  a  practical  purpose — 
the  strengthening  of  the  Eepublic  and  of  France.  The  move- 
ment will  grow  because  it  is  founded  on  a  solid  basis  which  even 
the  vagaries  of  so-called  French  colonial  politicians,  and  the  fads 
of  the  arbitrationists,  cannot  injure.  France,  for  the  moment,  is 
tired  of  high-flown  rhetoric,  and  has  no  sympathy  with  the  efforts 
of  candidates  for  place  and  power  whose  only  thought  is  self- 
advancement  at  the  expense  of  the  national  purse,  already  drained 
for  colonial  interests  for  the  benefit  of  speculators,  that  is  to  say, 
holders  of  concessions. 

CHAELES  LYON. 

PAEIS. 


16  The  Empire  Review 


AMONG   THE   LEPERS   IN   NORTHERN 
NIGERIA 

I. 

THERE  is  abundance  of  evidence  that  races  take  empires  to 
themselves  on  much  the  same  terms  as  a  man  takes  to  himself  a 
wife.  Cholera  and  Mahdism  in  Egypt,  strong-minded  Mollahs 
in  Somaliland,  plague,  famine,  and  hillmen  in  India,  moral  and 
intellectual  damage  and  its  results  in  South  Africa,  are  reminders 
that  if  there  is  a  better  there  is  also  a  worser  side  to  the  contract. 
But  many  of  us  contend  that  the  worser  side  is  not  without  its 
salutary  influence.  By  the  contrast  it  affords  we  more  fully 
appreciate  the  better.  In  times  of  adversity  the  weak  places  in 
our  harness  are  made  evident,  and,  in  the  effort  to  overcome 
national  difficulties,  the  national  constitution  is  invigorated.  It 
was  not  Thermopylae  but  Cannae  that  was  the  disaster. 

In  the  particular  realm  that  the  region  dealt  with  in  this 
paper  falls,  the  difficulties  of  empire  are  more  than  usually 
evident;  and  it  is  probable  that  nowhere  are  they  being  more 
thoroughly  subdued.  Commercial  gentlemen,  chiefly  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Liverpool,  have  forced  their  wares  upon  the 
markets  of  West  Africa  in  spite  of  all  kinds  of  difficulties  and 
dangers.  Military  operations,  with  which  the  names  of  Wolseley, 
Scott,  and  Lugard  are  associated,  have  reduced  to  sanity  bloody- 
minded  and  autocratic  potentates,  and  now  the  genius  of  Major 
Koss  is  forging  fetters  for  that  last  and  greatest  of  the  terrors  of 
the  land,  malarial  fever.  In  West  Africa,  at  least,  we  certainly 
react  in  a  vigorous  way  under  difficulty,  and  it  is  fortunate  that 
we  do,  because,  even  when  general  savagery,  slavery,  and  malaria 
are  overcome,  there  still  remain  other  dominant  disabilities  to  be 
dealt  with,  and  the  name  of  one  of  them  is  leprosy. 

With  the  exception  of  the  accomplishment  of  the  particular 
end  with  a  view  to  which  the  Hausa  Association  was  formed 
and  its  expedition  despatched,  one  of  the  most  interesting  results 
of  its  work  was  the  establishment  of  the  fact  that  there  existed 
in  the  Sudanese  portion  of  West  Africa  a  leper-field  of  great 
extent.  The  relatively  dense  leper  population  that  we  saw  on 
every  aide  of  us  could  be  no  chance  focus,  no  isolated  nest  of 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria  17 

the  disease.  One  felt  that  we  were  on  the  brink  of  a  great 
leper-field,  and  as  soon  as  we  had  time  to  consider  the  question 
we  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  circumstances  of  the  case 
imposed  it  upon  us  as  a  duty  to  devote  what  time  we  could  spare 
to  its  investigation.  As  medical  officer,  this  duty  naturally  fell 
to  me. 

I  started  work  among  the  lepers  by  inviting  them  to  come 
to  me  for  treatment,  and  when  they  came  I  did  all  I  could 
for  their  comfort,  so  that  each  in  turn  might  serve  as  an 
encouragement  to  others.  My  main  object  was  to  gain  in- 
formation, but,  in  addition,  I  attended  to  their  more  pressing 
ailments,  relieved  them  of  pain  when  I  could,  and  gave  them 
small  doles  from  the  funds  of  the  Expedition  when,  next  to 
leprosy,  poverty  seemed  to  be  their  most  urgent  ill.  In  this 
way  I  induced  large  numbers  of  lepers  to  come  to  me.  Day  by 
day  for  months  I  have  seen  our  entrance  porches  crowded  with 
lepers,  and,  as  I  tried  to  alleviate  their  sufferings,  I  listened  to 
their  stories,  stories  that  dropped  naturally  and  easily  from  their 
lips,  and,  having  found  out  where  they  lived,  visited  them  in 
their  homes,  or  in  the  leper  communities,  as  the  case  might  be, 
and  tested  the  accuracy  of  their  statements  by  questioning  and 
examining  their  relations  and  friends. 

We  covered  something  like  fifteen  hundred  miles  of  the 
leper- stricken  country.  Browned  by  the  sun,  and  yellowed  by 
disease,  wearing  native  dress,  and  having  adopted  the  short  chin 
beard  and  shaven  head  of  the  Arab,  I  looked  the  picture  of  the 
Barbary  trader,  and,  as  I  lived  among  the  people,  am  able  to 
speak  their  language  with  fluency,  and  am  acquainted  with  their 
modes  of  thought  and  habits  of  expression,  I  was  able  to  arrive 
at  much  more  accurate  results  than  if  I  had  been  less  fortun- 
ately situated.  Thanks  to  these  advantages  I  was  able,  during 
the  twelve  months  I  was  in  the  Sudan,  to  personally  examine 
many  hundreds  of  lepers.  Out  of  these,  in  two  hundred  and 
twenty  especially  accessible  cases,  I  obtained  exhaustive  particulars 
with  regard  to  most  of  the  usual  points  of  interest ;  and  as  many 
of  these  cases  were  examined  several  times,  and  as  I  saw  their 
friends  and  relations  wherever  possible,  and  took  in  each  instance 
special  precautions  to  guard  against  mistakes,  I  think  I  may 
reasonably  hope  that  much  of  the  information  I  obtained  was 
correct. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  desirable  before  proceeding  further  to  define 
the  term  "  Sudan."  Our  Imperial  losses  and  gains  in  the  country 
immediately  around  Khartoum  have  tended  to  concentrate  national 
attention  on  that  particular  scrap  of  country  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  is  probable  that  many  people  are  ignorant  that  any  more 
Sudan  than  that  of  the  South  of  Egypt  exists.  But  only  a  portion 

VOL.  VI.— No.  31.  c 


18  The  Empire  Review 

of  the  Sudan  is  affected  by  the  Government  of  his  Highness  the 
Khedive.  The  Sudan  proper  is  an  immense  reach  of  country 
stretching  across  the  continent  of  Africa  at  its  very  widest  part. 
A  glance  at  any  modern  atlas  will  show  that  the  seaboard  of  the 
Atlantic  is  only  a  few  days'  journey  from  the  western  end  of  the 
Sudan,  its  boundary  on  the  east  being  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  ;  on 
the  northern  edge  from  Egypt  to  the  mountains  of  Senegambia  it 
coincides  with  the  southern  fringe  of  the  Sahara ;  while  to  the 
south  its  limit  may  be  taken  at  a  line  down  from  Freetown, 
Sierra  Leone,  to  the  outfall  into  the  Nile  of  the  Bahar  Eggazal. 
It  is  in  the  centre  of  this  great  geographical  region,  and  to  the 
west  of  the  centre,  that  the  leper-field  lies. 

To  accurately  define  the  whereabouts  of  a  locality  in  a  con- 
tinent but  little  known,  even  when  that  locality  is  a  large  one, 
is  a  somewhat   difficult   task,  but   the   sketch-map  on  opposite 
page  will,  I  hope,  help  matters.     The  centre  of  the  Sudanese 
leper-field  may  be  taken  at  a  point  somewhere  about  12°  N.  lati- 
tude and  10°  E.  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich.     To  the  north- 
ward of  this  point,  as  far  as  the  southern   edge  of  the   great 
Sahara  Desert,  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  is   strongly   sus- 
tained, as  also  it  is  east  and  west.     To  the  south,  however, 
towards  the  side  from  which  the  Hausa  Association's  Expedi- 
tion entered  the    country,   the   degree   of    prevalence   tends   to 
decrease,  till,  when  one  reaches  the  banks  of  the  Biver  Binue, 
say  three  hundred  miles  south  of  the  assumed  centre-point,  it  is 
of  infrequent  occurrence ;  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
the  highlands  north  of  the  German  colony  of  the  Cameroons,  and 
on  the  crest  of  the  Congo-Lake  Chad  watershed,  rare.    In  general 
shape,  if  one  can  speak  of  such  a  thing  as  having  shape,  the 
Sudanese  leper-field  strikes  me  as  being  roughly  rectangular.     I 
would  describe  it  as  a  belt,  say  five  hundred  miles  wide,  with  a 
strongly  thickened  northern  edge  lying  along  the  sharp  point  of 
demarcation  that  exists  between  the  well-watered  lands  of  the 
Sudan  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  arid  Sahara  on  the  other,  and  a 
thin  frayed  southern  edge.   A  belt  that  comes  out  of  the  eastward, 
probably  from  beyond  Darfur,  embraces   Lake  Chad,  stretches 
across  our  Northern  Nigeria,  holds  its  own  over  and  beyond  the 
waters  of  the  Middle  Niger,  and  does  not  lose  its  density  till  it 
approaches  the  upper  waters  of  that  river,  far  away  to  the  south- 
west of  the  plains  of  Timbuctoo.      This  belt  is  probably  at 
its  densest  as  it  crosses  the   British   dependency  of  Northern 
Nigeria. 

Of  course,  in  dealing  with  an  area  of  such  great  extent,  the 
efforts  of  one  man,  even  though  he  did  travel  more  than  a 
thousand  miles  within  its  borders,  can  hardly  be  expected  to  be 
productive  of  anything  more  in  the  way  of  delimitation  than  a 


c  2 


20  -  The  Empire  Review 

general  result.  But  from  personal  observation,  filled  out  by  the 
fruits  of  questioning  and  requestioning  individual  after  individual 
among  the  many  intelligent  travelled  natives  I  met,  I  feel  I  am 
able  to  make  fairly  definite  relative  statements  with  regard  to 
half  a  million  square  miles  of  it,  the  particular  half  million  that 
lie  east  and  west  between  the  western  shores  of  Lake  Chad  and 
the  waters  of  the  Middle  Niger,  and  north  and  south  between 
the  fringes  of  the  Sahara  and  the  hinterland  of  the  Oil  Kivers. 
This  piece  of  country  is  roughly  coincident  with  that  area, 
the  administration  of  which  has  been  recently  taken  over  by  the 
Government  from  the  hands  of  the  Eoyal  Niger  Company ;  its 
subjugation  is  now  being  actively  pressed  forward  by  General 
Lugard,  and  on  that  account  it  is  naturally  of  some  interest.  It 
comprises  all  types  of  country,  from  the  semi-solid  marshes  of 
the  Niger  delta  to  the  bare  burning  uplands  of  the  Sahara.  It  is 
inhabited  by  many  races  that  differ  widely  among  themselves. 
The  most  advanced  of  these  races  have  national  constitutions 
modelled  on  the  same  lines  as  those  with  which  the  Book  of 
Kings  has  made  us  familiar.  They  live  in  walled  cities,  wear 
loose  flowing  robes,  hold  property  in  slaves,  and  have,  in  part  at 
least,  adopted  Mahomedanism.  At  the  other  end  of  the  scale 
are  hordes  of  mere  savages,  naked  and  cannibal,  races  whose 
vocabularies  average  about  four  hundred  words  apiece,  and  whose 
national  dietaries  include  such  revolting  oddments  as  vultures 
and  carrion. 

In  the  absence  of  any  means  of  ascertaining  the  population  of 
the  various  districts  and  towns  through  which  we  passed  in  the 
course  of  our  journey,  and  the  number  of  lepers  inhabiting  each, 
I  had  of  course,  in  pursuing  my  investigations,  to  rely  for  ideas 
of  prevalence,  general  or  relative,  mainly  upon  impressions.  In 
some  directions,  however,  these  were  of  so  decided  a  character  as 
to  be  unmistakable.  They  were,  for  example,  unmistakable 
when  they  had  to  do  with  the  vastness  of  the  leper  population  of 
the  country.  The  extent  of  the  leper  population  is  beyond  doubt 
very  considerable.  Northern  Nigeria  is  occupied  by  the  disease 
as  by  a  standing  army.  Everywhere,  and  on  all  sides,  the 
familiar  uniform  is  met.  The  large  towns  are  heavily  garrisoned, 
the  smaller  have  detachments  and  companies  proportionate  to 
their  size.  During  the  latter  part  of  my  journey  I  do  not 
remember  touching  at  any  village  so  small  that  it  had  not  some 
lepers.  In  some  parts  I  found  settlements  of  large  size,  apparently 
almost  entirely  populated  by  them.  In  the  large  towns  they  may 
be  seen  in  every  street  and  square  ;  in  some  they  sit  in  rows  and 
companies,  in  others,  and  near  the  borders  of  the  market  places 
and  the  open  spaces  by  the  gates,  they  collect  in  gangs  and  troops. 

Kano,  the  principal  commercial  centre  of  Northern  Nigeria,  is  a 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria  21 

veritable  hive  of  lepers.  In  that  city,  of  the  size  and  importance 
of  which  something  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  it  is 
protected  by  fifteen  miles  of  earthworks,  has  fourteen  gates,  and 
a  daily  market,  on  which  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  people 
may  be  sometimes  seen  at  once,  hundreds  of  lepers  live  together  in 
various  houses  or  collection  of  houses.  There  are  several  of  these 
colonies  in  Kano.  In  them,  young  and  old,  male  and  female,  the 
well-nigh  healthy  and  the  fearfully  diseased,  the  vigorous  and  the 
dying  promiscuously  herd.  With  regard  to  the  surroundings  of 
such  communities,  insanitary,  as  a  descriptive  term,  is  feebleness 
itself.  The  apathy  that  gradually  creeps  over  the  leper  as  the 
disease  closes  in  its  grip  upon  him,  makes  the  inhabitants  of  these 
places  less  careful  than  even  the  average  native  about  personal 
cleanliness  and  the  cleanliness  of  their  dwellings.  The  result 
is  easily  evident.  In  the  dark  tomb-like  huts,  which  the  heat 
and  glare  from  the  sun  and  the  persistent  impertinence  of  the 
fly  tribe  render  necessary  in  these  parts  of  the  Sudan,  the  smell 
emanating  from  the  neglected  ulcers  of  scores  of  leprous  occupants 
hangs  like  an  oily  foetid  fog  upon  the  air.  Inside  and  outside, 
foodstuffs  and  sundry  other  matters  in  decaying  conditions,  are 
allowed  to  accumulate.  The  usual  etiquette  of  the  Hausa  house- 
hold is  suspended,  and  it  is  among  such  surroundings  as  these 
that  the  lepers  live  ;  the  younger  ones,  as  yet  scarcely  appreciating 
the  extent  of  their  ill,  laughing  and  playing  among  themselves, 
those  older  in  years  and  more  advanced  in  disease,  with  hoarse 
cracked  voices,  screaming  their  conversation  the  one  to  the  other, 
the  maimed  or  decrepit — too  feeble  to  talk — sitting  with  their 
backs  against  some  friendly  wall,  limply  blinking  their  red  eyes 
at  the  blinding  sunlight,  and  here  and  there  one — nearing  the  end 
of  the  journey — lying  prone  in  a  corner,  unnoticed  and  unknowing, 
a  heap  of  corruption  and  rags. 

The  prevalence  of  leprosy,  in  the  Northern  Nigerian  part  of 
the  Sudanese  field  at  least,  has  reacted  on  the  people  in  the  usual 
way.  The  disease  is  so  common  that  in  spite  of  the  repulsive 
appearance  of  the  sufferers,  the  general  public  of  the  country  have 
got  used  to  it,  regarding  it  as  one  of  the  stable  things  of  the 
world,  and  the  chance  of  catching  it  as  one  of  the  ills  to  which 
flesh  is  inevitably  heir.  They  do  nothing  to  limit  that  chance. 
Lepers  are  permitted  to  mingle  freely  with  the  healthy  population, 
engage  in  business,  and  marry  when  they  can.  When  they  live 
in  communities  it  is  not  because  they  are  forced  to  do  so,  but 
because  community  of  interest  acting  through  long  years  has 
drawn  them  together.  Lepers  are  not  subject  to  any  municipal 
or  social  disabilities  on  account  of  their  disease.  I  have  frequently 
seen  them  tailoring,  selling  second-hand  clothes,  and  presiding  at 
provision  stalls.  Nor  did  I  notice  any  repugnance  on  the  part  of 


22  The  Empire  Review 

the  people  to  the  idea  of  having  their  national  food— which  is 
thick  and  porridge-like—served  out  by  a  pair  of  scaly,  mutilated, 
and  often  ulcerated  hands.  Time  and  custom  have  hardened 
them  to  it.  The  native  of  Northern  Nigeria  regards  a  man  whose 
limbs  have  been  reduced  to  a  mere  fraction  of  their  normal  pro- 
portions, and  whose  skin  is  broken,  seamed  and  puckered  by 
leprosy,  in  much  the  same  light  as  we  should  regard  a  person 
with  a  club  foot  or  a  wooden  leg;  and  the  idea  of  walking 
twenty  yards  further  for  the  privilege  of  buying  a  meal  from  a 
healthy  salesman  or  woman,  would,  if  it  were  ever  suggested  to 
the  native  mind,  be  derided  as  unnecessary  and  foolish.  This  is 
the  state  of  things  in  Northern  Nigeria,  and  I  have  every  reason 
to  believe  it  is  only  a  slightly  accentuated  example  of  the  con- 
ditions obtaining  elsewhere  in  the  Central  Sudan. 

The  first  feature  that  struck  me  with  regard  to  the  distribution 
of  leprosy,  relative  to  the  principal  physical  and  social  conditions  of 
the  country,  was  the  steadily  progressive  increase  in  the  amount 
of  the  disease  which  was  observable  as  we  proceeded  from  the  coast 
and  the  river  northwards.  All  along  the  West  Coast  of  Africa— 
the  actual  sea-coast  itself— from  Sierra  Leone  to  Old  Calabar, 
native  leprosy,  by  which  phrase  I  mean  leprosy  raised  on  the  soil, 
is  rare.  Most  of  the  cases  are  immigrant.  On  the  lower  waters 
of  the  Niger — that  is,  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  to  the  point 
of  its  confluence  with  the  Binue — its  occurrence  is  less  rare,  and 
tends  to  increase  in  frequency  as  the  latitude  of  the  confluence 
is  reached.  At  almost  any  point  on  the  Eiver  Binue,  however, 
leprosy  may  be  met  with,  and  so  it  would  appear  that  I  am  only 
calling  attention  to  what  is  part  of  a  general  plan,  when  I  say 
that  northward  from  the  River  Binue  it  presents  itself  with  ever- 
increasing  frequency  till,  somewhere  about  10°  N.  latitude,  the 
most  stricken  areas  are  reached.  Beyond  this  limit  the  malady 
may  be  broadly  said  to  hold  its  own  as  far  as  the  southern  fringes 
of  the  great  Sahara  Desert,  but  there  it  disappears  abruptly,  and 
in  none  of  the  desert  towns  or  oases  in  which  I  could  get  reliable 
information,  is  there  any  considerable  number  of  native-born 
lepers. 

These  results  give  the  same  impression  I  tried  to  convey 
before  when  I  spoke  of  the  field  as  a  belt,  with  a  thick  selvedge 
on  the  north  and  a  frayed  edge  to  the  south.  An  impression  of 
a  leper  population,  dense  to  an  extreme  degree  on  the  north  and 
along  the  centre,  but  diminishing  bit  by  bit  as  the  lands  alongside 
of  and  beyond  the  River  Binue  are  reached  and  crossed.  In  other 
words,  the  leper-field  begins  just  behind  the  coastline  of  West 
Africa,  becomes  thicker  and  still  more  thickly  populated  as  we 
move  northward,  and,  finally,  at  the  borders  of  the  Desert,  where 
its  density  is  at  the  highest  degree,  stops  abruptly.  This  abrupt 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria  23 

breaking  off  of  the  leper-field  at  the  edge  of  the  Sahara  might  at 
first  sight  be  attributed  to  the  dryness  of  the  climate,  which 
might  reasonably  be  supposed  to  be  inimical  to  the  further 
advance  of  the  disease,  and  in  this  particular  instance  it  is 
possible  that  the  dryness  has  some  influence  in  that  direction, 
but  the  principle  does  not  hold  good  elsewhere  in  the  Sudan. 

Of  course  the  climate  of  the  Sahara  is  dry,  very  much  drier  than 
that  of  the  province  and  town  of  Kano,  the  districts  credited  with 
the  densest  leper  population  in  the  Western  half  of  the  Sudan, 
and,  as  I  have  just  said,  it  is  possible  that  the  dryer  air  of  the 
former  region  has  a  retarding  influence  on  the  spread  of  a  disease 
that  riots  in  the  latter,  but  then  the  climate  of  Kano  in  its  turn 
is  much  drier  than  that  of  Bida  on  the  Niger,  or  Kuka  on  Lake 
Chad,  and  yet  it  is  generally  stated  that  there  are  more  lepers  at 
Kano  than  at  both  the  other  places  put  together.  Again,  all 
along  the  valley  of  the  Lower  Niger  and  the  Binue,  where  the 
air  is  humid  to  an  extreme  degree  and  the  vegetation,  during  the 
rains,  luxuriant  to  rankness,  leprosy  is  but  scantily  represented, 
whereas  on  the  dry  mountain  uplands  round  Yakuba,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Zaria,  on  the  hot  plains  of  Kano  and  Katagum, 
which  are  at  times  dry  to  aridity,  it  may  be  almost  said  to  rage. 

With  the  exception  of  the  western  shores  of  Lake  Chad, 
which,  being  studded  with  several  towns  of  large  size  and  import- 
ance, may  be  reasonably  suspected  of  getting  more  than  their 
share  by  immigration,  it  is  clear  that,  in  the  Sudan,  the  areas  of 
greatest  prevalence  are  those  that  are  furthest  removed  from  the 
courses  of  the  great  rivers  and  the  shores  of  the  lake  ;  and  as  the 
climate  becomes  drier  proceeding  inwards  from  these  water 
systems  towards  the  centre  of  the  area  under  consideration, 
those  that  are  in  possession  of  the  driest  climates.  That  this 
dryness  of  climate  has  anything  to  do  with  the  spread  of  the 
disease  is  an  inference  I  do  not  wish  to  draw. 

With  regard  to  the  comparative  rates  of  mortality  in  the 
various  districts  and  towns  of  the  area  I  have  been  dealing  with, 
I  am  unable  to  make  any  definite  statements,  neither  am  I  in  a 
position  to  say  if  any  of  the  diseases  that  occasionally  ravage  the 
country  affect  any  part  of  it  more  than  others.  It  is  the  general 
opinion  of  the  country  that  the  provinces  of  Kano  and  Kuka  are 
very  unhealthy,  and  it  is  in  them  that  leprosy  is  most  prevalent. 
The  prevalence  is,  however,  probably  only  partly  due  to  the  un- 
healthiness  of  the  provinces.  There  are  many  other  circumstances 
to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  provinces  of  Kano  and  Kuka 
are  further  advanced  and  more  highly  civilised  than  any  by  which 
they  are  surrounded,  and  as  it  is  with  vast  populations  frequently 
the  case  that  the  higher  the  grade  of  development  attained  the 
harder  is  the  struggle  for  the  poor,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the 


24  The  Empire  Review 

unenviable  reputation  which  attaches  to  them  with  regard  to  a 
disease,  that  is  emphatically  a  disease  of  the  poorer  classes, 
may  be,  to  some  extent  at  least,  part  of  the  penalty  of  their 
greatness. 

Leprosy  in  the  Sudan  does  not  differ  materially  from 
leprosy  occurring  in  any  other  locality,  but  some  of  the  in- 
dividual circumstances  attending  the  course  of  the  disease  in 
the  region  under  consideration  are  possibly  worthy  of  record. 
It  is  first  perhaps  desirable  to  say  a  word  or  two  about  the 
disease  in  general.  Leprosy  is  caused  by  the  action  upon 
the  tissues  of  the  human  body,  the  skin  usually  to  commence 
with,  of  a  vegetable  parasite  This  vegetable  parasite  occurs  in 
the  form  of  tiny  rods.  The  rods  are  of  microscopic  size,  about 
five  times  as  long  as  they  are  broad,  and  of  such  a  length  that  if 
five  thousand  of  them  were  placed  end  to  end  they  would  make  a 
line  just  about  one  inch  in  length.  This  parasite  is  known  as  the 
leprosy  bacillus.  As  to  the  proximal  source  of  the  bacilli,  by 
which  is  meant  the  source  of  the  particular  collection  of  bacilli, 
that  in  each  instance  start  in  a  fresh  case  of  the  disease,  opinions 
are  divided.  The  opinion  of  the  majority  who  have  had  the 
opportunity  of  studying  the  disease  is  in  favour  of  the  view  that 
the  parasite  lives  and  multiplies  in  the  tissues  of  persons  affected 
by  the  disease  and  that  these  persons  go  about  passing  it  on  more 
or  less  directly  to  others.  This  is  of  course  the  same  thing  as 
saying  that  the  disease  is  contagious.  But  though  there  is  very 
little  doubt  that  this  view  is  the  correct  one,  it  is  not  yet  con- 
sidered to  be  established  as  a  fact. 

Sufferers  from  leprosy  multiply  very  slowly,  and  the  disease 
apparently  exercises  very  careful  choice  in  the  selection  of  its 
victims.  A  hundred  people  may  be  exposed  to  infection,  under 
what  would  seem  to  be  conditions  actually  putting  a  premium  on 
ite  achievement,  without  any  but  the  very  smallest  percentage 
affording  evidence  of  its  having  taken  place.  At  first  sight  this 
might  appear  to  be  contradictory  to  the  idea  of  contagion,  but  as 
a  matter  of  fact  it  is  not.  Certain  influences,  leading  to  the 
establishment  of  a  condition  known  as  the  predisposition,  come 
into  play  at  this  point.  These  influences  prepare  the  man  for  the 
disease  just  as  plough  and  harrow  prepare  the  soil  for  the  seed. 
Wheat  grows  in  the  earth,  but  wheat  will  not  grow  if  it  be 
merely  scattered  on  a  hard  beaten  surface,  no  matter  how  thickly 
it  may  be  scattered.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  if  the  soil  be 
prepared  by  the  usual  methods  a  crop  proportionate  to  the  quality 
of  the  ground  and  other  concomitant  circumstances,  is  an  almost 
mathematical  result.  It  is  the  same  with  leprosy.  The  leper,  in 
the  opinion  of  many,  is  a  kind  of  sower  who  goes  about  scattering 
the  seeds  of  his  disease.  Such  of  the  seeds  as  fall  on  the  hard 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria  25 

beaten  ground  of  a  healthy  constitution  are,  at  any  rate  for  the 
time,  harmless.  Others,  however,  fall  on  ground  prepared  by  the 
plough  and  harrow  of  adversity,  and  in  these  instances,  as  a  rule, 
a  crop  of  disease  results.  I  will  try  to  show  how  this  occurs  in 
the  Central  Sudan.  I  will  take  an  imaginary  case,  a  man  of 
the  middle  classes,  and  use  him  to  illustrate  a  usual  chain  of 
circumstances. 

But  before  I  begin  on  him,  I  should  say,  that  for  leprosy  to 
exist  as  a  standing  disease  among  any  given  race,  it  is  probably 
necessary  that  some  of  the  conditions  under  which  that  race  live 
should  be  faulty.  Whatever  these  general  faulty  conditions  may  be 
it  is  not  likely  that  they  are  quite  powerful  enough  by  themselves 
to  render  a  man  of  ordinary  strength  .liable  to  infection  by  the 
disease.  But  they  do  not  need  very  much  help,  however,  and  on 
the  supervention  of,  in  some  cases,  even  slight  further  adversity, 
individual  men  are  rendered  liable.  Infection  of  course  may  not 
be  at  hand,  but  should  opportunity  present  it  is  probable  that  the 
person  so  unfortunately  influenced  will  succumb.  Later  on  I  will 
explain  this  matter  more  clearly ;  for  the  moment  we  will  return 
to  our  example. 

We  will  suppose  our  middle-class  man  to  be  a  member  of  a 
race  that  labours  under  some  such  general  faulty  condition  as  I 
have  just  suggested.  It  will  be  suitable  to  regard  him  as  a 
Hausa,  and  as  a  resident  in  Kano,  a  town  which  is  a  hot-bed  of 
leprosy.  He  is  a  young  man  trying  to  make  his  way  in  the 
world.  For  purposes  of  trade  he  occupies  a  sitting  in  a  shed  in 
the  market  which,  in  common  with  several  other  men,  the  owner 
of  the  shed  among  the  number,  he  uses  as  an  office.  The  owner 
is  a  man  well  advanced  in  years.  He  is  a  leper.  As  he  is  the 
proprietor  of  so  valuable  a  piece  of  property  as  a  shed  in  Kano 
market  he  will  be  a  well-to-do  man,  and  being  well-to-do,  he  will 
doubtless  dress  nicely.  To  do  this  he  will  frequently  have  to  buy 
new  robes.  The  necessity  of  buying  new  robes  is  due  to  a  some- 
what uncleanly  custom  of  the  country.  It  is  most  unusual  for  a 
Hausa  to  wash  his  clothes  or  to  have  them  washed.  Wealthy 
men  buy  their  clothes,  which  are  made  of  cotton  textiles,  new, 
and  when  they  are  dirty  they  sell  them  to  less  fortunate  people 
than  themselves — people  who  cannot  afford  to  be  so  particular 
about  their  things — and  buy  others.  Or  they  give  them  away — 
it  is  considered  an  honour  to  be  in  this  way  the  recipient  of  a 
king's  raiment.  However  they  may  obtain  them  the  people  who 
get  these  second-hand  garments  wear  them  as  long  as  they  think 
proper,  and  then  when  they  feel  they  can  afford  it,  or  when  the 
clothes  are  too  dirty  for  a  person  in  that  particular  class  of  life  to 
wear  any  longer,  they  pass  them  on  to  some  one  lower  in  the 
social  scale. 


26  The  Empire  Review 

In  this  way  a  regular  circulation  of  clothes  is  established. 
The  rich  sell  or  give  to  the  middle  classes,  the  middle  classes 
to  the  poorer,  and  the  poor  beg,  borrow,  steal,  sell  or  lend  among 
themselves.  A  single  robe  may  thus  have,  during  its  life  as  a 
robe,  from  five  to  fifty  or  more  different  owners.  As  long  as 
half-a-dozen  shreds  of  it  continue  to  cling  to  the  neck-band,  so 
long  does  it  continue  to  do  duty.  It  follows  in  the  course  of  its 
existence  a  kind  of  sartorial  gravitation,  falling  layer  by  layer 
through  the  various  strata  of  society,  till  from  gracing,  it  may 
be,  in  its  crisp  new  early  days,  the  shoulders  of  a  prince,  it 
may  come  at  last  in  its  threadbareness  to  be  the  only  covering 
of  the  poor  man's  slave,  or  its  tattered  remnants  may  be  found 
to  be  lending  themselves  conveniently  to  the  exhibition  of  the 
alms-earning  ulcers  of  the  wayside  beggar.  It  may  have  had 
during  its  career  as  a  robe  many  experiences.  It  may  have  swept 
in  the  sunshine  of  favour  through  the  halls  of  kings'  palaces,  or  it 
may  have  served  in  a  dungeon  to  polish  the  shackles  of  its  wearer. 
Girded  up  tightly  round  the  waist  of  its  owner,  it  may  have 
passed  through  the  turmoil  of  battle,  have  been  slashed  by  steel 
or  pierced  by  lead.  It  may  have  been  used  as  a  wedding 
garment,  or  it  may  have  served  to  swathe  a  corpse.  It  may  have 
been  rent  in  sorrow,  or  given  away  in  time  of  rejoicing,  but 
among  all  these  changeful  vicissitudes,  there  is  one  thing  that 
will  not  have  happened  to  it,  at  least  in  any  but  the  most 
exceptional  instances,  it  will  never  have  been  washed.  And  that 
is  where  the  peculiar  danger  of  the  custom  comes  in. 

T.  J.  TONKIN 

(Medical  Officer  Hausa  Association's 
Central  Sudan  Expedition). 


(To  be  continued.) 


The  Hair  Seals  of  the  North  Atlantic  27 


THE   HAIR   SEALS   OF   THE 
NORTH   ATLANTIC 

THE  hair  seal  of  the  North  Atlantic  has  not  yet  risen  to  the 
high  political  position  of  his  congener  the  fur  seal.  So  far  he 
has  not  caused  an  international  complication,  or  been  sat  upon 
by  high  commissioners,  but  he  is  dear  to  the  heart  of  the 
naturalist,  and  his  empire  is  as  widespread  as  American  industrial 
enterprise  or  the  British  dominion.  One  species  range  all  over 
the  British  Isles  and  Europe.  The  Eussian  hunts  for  the  pinna- 
poids  in  the  Caspian  and  on  the  White  Sea ;  Danes,  Norwegians, 
and  Scotch  whalers  pursue  the  Phoca  Greenlandica  over  the 
Arctic.  His  chief  haunt,  however,  is  the  North  Atlantic  and 
the  fishery  in  Newfoundland,  the  Labrador,  and  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  exceeds  in  importance  all  the  rest  of  the  world  put 
together. 

When  John  Cabot,  with  his  West  of  England  sailors,  dis- 
covered North  America  in  1497,  they  brought  back  the  most 
marvellous  stories  about  the  new  western  land.  Tales  about 
great  soles  (halibut)  a  yard  long,  dipping  up  the  fishes  in  baskets 
(the  caplin),  of  great  flocks  of  red  and  white  partridge  (the  willow 
grouse),  of  strange  huge  animals  they  called  sea-cows,  with  great 
tusks  (the  walrus),  seals,  huge  white  bears  not  only  in  number 
innumerable,  but  quite  tame  and  utterly  without  fear  of  man. 
At  another  period  these  travellers'  tales  would  have  seemed 
incredulous,  but  in  "  the  spacious  days  of  great  Elizabeth,"  to 
the  generation  that  had  discovered  two  new  worlds  in  Asia  and 
America,  this  stirring  account  of  wonderful  new  beasts  and  birds 
and  fishes  was  fully  believed,  and  every  word  of  it  was  literally 
true.  Around  the  shores  of  Newfoundland  to-day  men  and 
women  may  be  seen  in  June,  the  time  of  the  "  caplin  school " 
(when  Cabot  made  the  land)  gathering  up  the  beautiful  little 
fish  with  small  hand-nets.  Every  season  they  are  cast  on  the 
shore  in  countless  millions.  We  have  contemporary  accounts 
of  the  great  herds  of  seals  and  walrus  and  of  the  numbers  of 
white  bears. 

The  explanation  of  this  story  is  not  far  to  seek.     All  these 


28  The  Empire  Review 

animals  are  now  found  only  in  the  far-off  Arctic  region.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  both  their  winter  and  summer  home  was  around 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland.  As 
late  as  1776  we  find  Sir  Hugh  Palliser,  the  Governor  of  New- 
foundland, complaining  to  Governor  Bernard  of  Massachusetts, 
of  the  reckless  New  Englanders  killing  the  breeding  walrus  on 
the  Magdalens  Islands,  then  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Newfound- 
land. The  first  result,  and  for  nearly  a  century  the  only  result, 
of  the  discovery  of  North  America  was  an  immense  fishery 
carried  on  by  European  sailors,  English,  Portuguese,  French  and 
Spanish  Basques.  Fish  was  gold  in  these  old  days.  It  combined 
a  great  barter  trade  as  well  as  a  fishery,  the  free  exchange  of  the 
wines  and  fruits  of  Spain,  the  linen,  silks  and  velvets  of  France, 
for  West  of  England  cloth,  Sheffield  cutlery  and  Bridport  cordage. 
It  built  up  Devonshire,  then  the  great  maritime  centre  of 
England.  Kaleigh  declared  that  misfortune  to  the  Newfound- 
land fleet  would  be  the  greatest  calamity  that  could  befall  England. 
The  English,  the  French  and  the  Portuguese  seemed  to  have 
confined  themselves  to  cod-fishery. 

It  is  only  when  the  Spanish  Basques  appear  on  the  scene, 
about  1540,  that  the  great  North  Atlantic  seal  and  whale  fishery 
began.  These  wonderful  sailors  of  the  Middle  Ages,  known  to 
the  English  as  Biscayans,  Guipuscoans  and  as  Basques,  were 
whale-killers  and  codfishers.  Centuries  before  the  discovery  of 
America  they  made  a  treaty  with  Edward  III.  in  1351  about  the 
right  of  fishing  on  the  English  coast.  Until  the  fatal  year  of  the 
Armada  there  were  from  thirty  to  fifty  of  their  vessels  pursuing 
the  whale,  seals  and  walrus  around  the  shores  of  Newfoundland 
and  the  Gulf.  Port  aux  Basques,  the  terminus  of  the  Newfound- 
land Eailway,  is  a  perpetual  reminder  of  these  daring  old  Spaniards. 
The  codfishers  left  in  August  and  September,  but  for  the  Biscayans 
the  best  of  the  season  was  the  late  fall.  One  year,  1577,  several 
of  their  ships  were  caught  in  the  ice  during  December,  and  we 
are  told  the  piteous  story  of  540  men  being  frozen  to  death. 

None  of  the  perils  of  this  dangerous  trade  seem  to  have 
frightened  these  intrepid  old  mariners.  Year  by  year  they 
gathered  in  the  harvest  of  the  sea  in  the  far-off  western  land,  and 
with  the  product  of  successive  whaling,  fishing  and  sealing  they 
built  up  the  grand  old  houses  which  are  to-day  the  admiration 
of  travellers  amidst  the  green  hills  and  lovely  valleys  of  Alava, 
Viscaya,  and  Guipuscoa,  the  fairest  scenes  in  northern  Spain. 
The  whales,  seals  and  codfish  in  their  coats  of  arms  show  the 
foundation  of  their  fortunes.  When  England  first  went  into  the 
whale  fishery,  Basques  had  to  be  shipped  to  harpoon  the  whales. 
The  word  harpoon  is  from  the  Basque  arpoi  and  "  harpionari " 
a  harpooner.  One  of  the  saddest  stories  in  history  is  the  destruc- 


The  Hair  Seals  of  the  North  Atlantic  29 

tion  of  these  fine  free  people  by  Spanish  oppression  and  mis- 
government.  We  have  no  extant  pictures  of  this  early  seal  and 
whale  fishery  from  either  English  or  Spanish  sources,  but  the 
Dutch,  the  great  seamen  and  rivals  of  England,  have  left  us 
quaint  representation  of  this  old  trade. 

The  story  of  the  American  whale  and  seal  fishery  on  the 
North  Atlantic  has  often  been  told  how  it  began  to  be  carried  on, 
first  from  the  shore  with  the  assistance  of  Indians,  and  finally 
developed  into  an  immense  trade  employing  thousands  of  hardy 
New  Englanders,  and  the  source  of  immense  wealth.  The  history 
of  the  present  North  Atlantic  seal  fishery,  or  the  capture  of  the 
hair  seal,  can  be  told  very  accurately.  It  is  prosecuted  now 
mainly  by  specially  equipped  wooden  steamers  from  Newfound- 
land, Norway,  and  Scotland.  The  modern  business  is  about  a 
century  old.  The  Newfoundland  settlers  from  the  earliest  times 
carried  on  a  net  seal  fishery ;  men  from  the  shore  went  off  on 
the  ice  and  killed  the  seals,  and  often  used  large  fishing  boats  to 
assist  them  in  their  capture. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
that  regular  fleets  of  vessels  were  fitted  out  each  spring  to 
capture  the  seals.  Like  the  migration  of  birds,  and  the  move- 
ments of  fishes,  the  life  of  the  hair  seal,  its  birth,  habits,  and 
migration  is  one  of  the  most  marvellous  of  nature's  stories. 
Before  the  white  man  came  to  America  with  his  murderous 
weapons  the  seal  made  his  summer  home  in  the  Gulf  and  around 
Newfoundland;  to-day  he  has  been  driven  from  his  summer 
haunts  to  the  extreme  northern  Labrador  and  the  Arctic.  In 
the  late  fall  he  comes  south  and  remains  for  some  time  fishing 
about  the  grand  Banks.  Early  in  the  year  he  leaves  the  open 
water  for  the  icefields  of  the  extreme  north  of  Newfoundland  and 
the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  With  the  calm  weather  that  usually 
comes  in  January  immense  icefields  are  formed  on  the  ocean 
around  the  islands  and  deep  indentations  of  the  land.  Field  ice 
of  this  character  becomes  anchored  and  firmly  fastened  to  the 
shore.  It  is  known  as  the  whelping  ice,  and  here  in  the  end  of 
February  or  first  of  March  the  young  seals  are  born. 

Beautiful  little  white-coated  beings  with  plaintive  eyes  and 
almost  a  child-like  cry.  The  mothers,  to  supply  them  with  milk, 
wander  away  twenty  and  thirty  miles  in  search  of  food,  but  each 
anxious  parent  pops  up  through  the  blow-hole  alongside  of  her 
young,  though  the  iceflow  covers  hundreds  of  miles  and  there  are 
thousands  and  thousands  of  young  crying  for  their  parents. 
Observation  of  over  a  century  show  us  that  the  seals  never  vary 
in  their  habits  ;  they  constantly  select  the  same  spot  for  whelping. 
A  most  experienced  sealing  skipper  tells  me  that  in  fifty  years 
the  breeding  ground  has  always  lain  between  Belle  Isle  in  the 


30  The  Empire  Review 

Straits  and  the  Groais  Islands,  never  further  south,  and  always 
the  same  distance  from  ten  to  fifty  miles  off  the  land.  Invariable 
also  is  the  relative  position  of  the  harp  (Phoca  greenlandica)  and 
the  hoods  or  bladder-nose  sea,\(Cystophora  cristata). 

There  are  at  least  five  varieties  of  seals  on  the  North  Atlantic, 
the  most  common  and  most  valuable  commercially  is  the  harp 
seal,  next  in  importance  is  the  hood  or  bladder-nosed.  The  great 
Greenland  seal,  known  in  Newfoundland  as  the  square  fipper, 
sometimes  ten  to  twelve  feet  long,  is  comparatively  rare.  The 
ringed  seal  or  floe  rat  of  the  Greenlanders  is  also  common.  The 
most  beautiful  of  all  the  family,  the  common  seal,  phoca  vitulina, 
is  found  all  round  the  English  and  Scotch  coasts,  and  is  numerous 
especially  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland.  In  Newfoundland  he  is 
known  as  the  bay  seal ;  commercially  valueless  except  for  his 
skin.  Like  all  the  family  he  is  remarkably  intelligent  and  very 
hard  to  kill  or  capture  in  the  water.  There  are  great  numbers  of 
them  in  the  Newfoundland  rivers,  remaining  there  all  the  summer 
and  descending  to  the  sea  in  the  autumn.  They  are  very  destruc- 
tive to  salmon,  especially  to  the  breeding  fish  descending  the  rivers 
after  spawning.  Locally  seals  are  known  in  Newfoundland  as 
"  swoils,"  and  the  seal  fishery  season  is  always  spoken  of  as  the 
spring. 

Young  seals  grow  with  marvellous  rapidity;  when  born  his 
usual  weight  is  about  five  pounds,  in  three  to  four  weeks  they 
increase  to  forty  or  fifty  pounds,  and  beneath  their  skin  is  a 
beautiful  coat  of  white  fat  from  three  to  four  inches  thick.  The 
young  ones  remain  on  the  ice,  fed  by  the  careful  mother,  for 
about  five  or  six  weeks,  and  at  this  period  the  fat,  especially  of  the 
harp,  is  in  the  very  best  condition  for  commercial  purposes.  This 
is  also  the  best  time  for  killing ;  the  young  are  caught  on  the  ice, 
despatched  by  a  blow  on  the  nose  from  the  gaff;  the  hunter  then 
proceeds  with  his  sharp  knife  to  separate  the  skin  and  the  fat 
from  the  carcase.  These  pelts  are  laced  together  with  a  rope, 
and  are  locally  known  as  a  tow. 

When  once  the  seals  are  found  the  hunters  scatter  in  all 
directions  over  the  floe,  sometimes  going  seven,  eight,  and  ten 
miles  from  the  ship.  The  look-out  from  the  barrel  always  keeps 
an  eye  on  them,  and  the  steamer  is  forced  through  the  ice  in  the 
direction  of  the  outlying  parties  to  pick  them  out.  Sometimes 
the  seals  are  found  in  great  quantities  a  very  long  way  off,  then 
the  men  instead  of  hauling  them  bring  them  on  to  a  firm  pinnacle 
of  ice,  heap  them  together,  and  place  the  ship's  flag  over  them. 
This  is  known  as  panning.  The  ice  is  in  constant  motion, 
influenced  by  wind  and  tide ;  often  their  panned  seals  are  lost,  or 
picked  up  by  some  other  unscrupulous  sealer,  and  much  litigation 
and  very  tall  lying  arises  in  consequence. 


The  Hair  Seals  of  the  North  Atlantic  31 

I  was  engaged  in  one  case  where  the  plaintiff  claimed  that 
their  seals  marked  B.S.T. — "  Brilliant  Star,  Tobias,"  the  surname 
of  the  master — were  stolen  by  and  found  so  marked  in  their 
possession.  The  defendant's  name  was  Slocum,  and  he  and  all 
his  crew  swore  that  they  had  marked  their  pelts  lona,  Slocum 
Brothers;  thus,  I.g.g;.,  the  B  made  by  illiterate  men,  and  if  you 
turn  the  letters  upside  down  you  will  see  that  they  come  very 
near  alike.  It  was  highly  ingenious,  but  somehow  the  jury  did 
not  believe  my  clients,  though  they  were,  as  the  Irishmen  say, 
"  all  on  the  wan  word,  and  swore  like  a  corporal's  guard  "  ;  we  lost 
the  case.  No  one  can  come  near  the  Newfoundlander  as  a  seal 
hunter;  when  the  Dundee  steamers  first  prosecuted  the  fishery 
from  Newfoundland  with  native  crews  they  were  horrified  to 
watch  the  colonials  going  from  pan  to  pan  over  the  loose  ice. 
From  their  earliest  youth  the  Terra  Novian  practices  this  game, 
known  locally  as  "  copying,"  until  he  becomes  an  adept.  When 
one  thinks  of  all  the  perils  of  this  dangerous  business,  the  shifting 
ice,  the  terrible  blizzards  and  snowstorms  that  spring  up  suddenly 
in  this  northern  region,  it  is  a  marvel  that  so  few  fatal  accidents 
occur.  Every  now  and  then,  however,  comes  a  terrible  tragedy, 
sometimes  parties  get  separated  from  the  ship  in  a  blizzard.  A 
few  years  ago  more  than  one-third  of  a  large  party  were  thus 
caught,  and  perished  in  the  bitter  rigours  of  the  Arctic  night. 

There  is  a  considerable  difference  of  opinion  amongst  experts 
as  to  the  extent  of  the  herds  of  seal.  Many  contend  that  the 
patches  found  every  year  by  the  Newfoundlanders  off  the  north- 
east coast  and  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  are  the  only  ones  of 
any  consequence.  To  my  mind  this  seems  unreasonable,  as 
the  young  in  these  gatherings  are  nearly  all  killed.  If  it  were  so 
the  sealing  business  would  soon  peter  out.  Yet  every  season 
they  are  still  reported  as  almost  innumerable.  These  facts  seem 
to  point  out  that  there  are  other  large  herds  of  seals  never  seen. 
Many  intelligent  observers  are  of  opinion  that  there  is  a  northern 
patch  off  the  coast  of  Labrador  that  is  hardly  ever  encountered. 
I  believe  they  extend  over  to  Greenland,  as  between  the  two 
countries  the  whole  sea  in  winter  is  frozen.  The  adventurous 
voyage  of  part  of  the  crew  of  the  American  Arctic  exploration 
ship  Polaris  has  given  colour  to  this  view. 

Of  all  the  extraordinaiy  escapes  from  the  dangers  of  Arctic 
navigation,  this  marvellous  voyage  of  twelve  hundred  miles  on 
the  ice-floe  is  well-nigh  incredible.  The  ship  was  in  danger  of 
being  crushed,  so  as  a  precaution  certain  stores  were  placed  on 
a  pan  of  ice ;  suddenly,  almost  without  warning,  the  floe  parted 
from  the  steamer,  one  portion  of  the  crew  were  carried  off  whilst 
the  remainder  stayed  on  the  vessel  and  were  afterwards  rescued 
by  a  whaler.  The  unfortunate  individuals  thus  cast  adrift  con- 


32  The  Empire  Review 

slated  of  Captain  Tyson,  Fred  Myers,  scientist,  seven  other  white 
men,  three  Eskimo  women,  a  girl,  two  small  boys,  *and  a  baby 
born  on  the  ice-floe  during  the  drift  south,  and  three  Eskimo 
men.  After  they  parted  from  the  ship  snowstorms,  gales  of  wind, 
and  other  dangers  were  encountered ;  once  or  twice  the  floe  parted 
and  they  had  to  remove  to  a  larger  one ;  but  all  the  voyage  they 
steadily  drifted  south,  borne  along  by  the  Labrador  current. 
Provisions  ran  short ;  the  Eskimos,  however,  kept  them  supplied 
with  seals  (showing  a  northern  patch)  during  the  whole  dangerous 
trip.  Without  their  aid  the  white  men  would  have  inevitably 
perished.  The  craft  and  skill  of  the  poor  savages  kept  all  safe. 
The  strangest  part  of  the  whole  story  is  that  the  women  and 
young  children  lived,  and  that  an  infant  was  actually  born  and 
survived.  Off  the  coast  of  Labrador  the  party  were  picked  up  by 
the  sealing  steamer  Tigress  and  brought  into  St.  John's.  Such  a 
story  as  this  in  one  of  Jules  Verne's  books  would  have  appeared 
wholly  and  absolutely  incredible. 

There  are  a  few  regulations  to  protect  this  industry.  The 
vessels  are  not  allowed  to  leave  port  before  the  10th  March,  or 
to  begin  killing  before  the  12th  or  to  take  seals  after  the  last  of 
April.  Sometimes  the  whole  catch  is  made  in  a  week,  and  ships 
have  returned  within  that  time  with  as  many  as  42,000  seals, 
worth  from  $2*50  to  $3  a-piece.  The  gains  are  enormous, 
but  so  are  the  risks.  Every  decade  or  so  comes  a  season  of 
failure.  One  year  more  than  half  the  vessels  were  crushed  in 
the  ice,  and  hardly  one  was  loaded.  Prior  to  the  sixties  the 
whole  business  was  carried  on  by  small  wooden  ships ;  but  when 
once  steam  was  introduced  the  sailing  fleet  soon  became  a  thing 
of  the  past ;  about  twenty  schooners  still  prosecute  the  fishery 
from  Channel  and  other  south-western  ports. 

I  should  add  to  this  brief  account  some  more  factsy  In  a 
good  year  in  the  old  times  500,000  and  600,000  seals  were  taken, 
and  it  is  amusing  to  read  some  of  the  old  merchants'  letters  in 
1816.  One  of  them  complains  of  the  introduction  of  gas  and  the 
terrible  danger  to  the  oil  trade ;  "it  is  bad  now,  but  it  is  going 
to  be  worse  by  the  introduction  of  this  stinking  coal  gas,"  he 
says.  A  good  year  at  the  present  day  runs  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  320,000.  Modern  methods  have  been  applied  to  the  extraction 
of  the  oil.  It  is  now  cut  up  by  machinery,  refined,  and  purified 
in  a  few  days,  where  formerly  months  were  required.  The  fur 
of  the  young  seals  is  dyed  and  dressed  like  the  fur  seal  largely 
used  for  cloaks  and  capes.  All  the  skins  make  splendid  leather. 

D.  W.  PEOWSE. 

ST.  JOHN'S,  NEWFOUNDLAND. 


A  Hindoo  Educational  Brotherhood  33 


A   HINDOO    EDUCATIONAL   BROTHERHOOD 

IN  these  days  of  university  settlements,  the  simple  story  of  a 
settlement  founded  by  a  small  band  of  Indian  graduates  in  the 
Eastern  quarter  of  the  Empire,  may  not  be  without  interest  in 
the  West,  so  I  tell  it. 

In  the  year  1880,  a  Hindoo  named  Vishnu  Krishna  Chip- 
lonkar,  having  himself  but  just  graduated  from  one  of  the 
Government  colleges  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,  conceived  the 
idea,  of  sharing  his  advantages  with  others — with  those,  in  fact, 
of  his  countrymen  who  were  practically  outside  the  radius  of 
existing  institutions.  Private — i.e.,  non-State — agency  and  edu- 
cation :  the  experiment  had  been  tried  before,  and  where  it  had 
failed  Chiplonkar  had  the  sense  to  see  that  the  failure  was  due  in 
part  to  the  expectation  of  an  income.  That  mistake,  at  least,  he 
could  avoid. 

He  inspired  two  of  his  friends,  young  men  likewise,  with  his 
educational  ambitions,  and  on  January  2nd  the  new  English 
school  was  started  in  the  city  of  Poona,  the  capital  of  the 
Maratha  country.  The  first  day  there  were  19  names  on  the 
registers ;  at  the  end  of  a  year  there  were  336 ;  in  1901  there 
were  about  900.  Of  all  castes  and  classes  were  the  pupils,  for 
where  was  the  value  of  an  enlightenment  that  made  reservations  ! 

Self-sacrifice  does  sometimes  in  this  world  prove  infectious. 
Other  young  men  joined  Chiplonkar's  standard,  and  when  there 
were  five  on  the  staff — "  we  must  enlarge  our  responsibilities," 
was  their  feeling.  A  school  was  at  best  a  half-way  house.  The 
new  scheme  was  to  start  a  college  in  connection  with  the  school, 
the  graduates  from  which  might,  in  course  of  time,  themselves 
carry  forth  the  good  seed  "  into  the  remotest  parts  of  the  Deccan, 
thus  covering,  if  possible,  the  whole  country  with  a  network  of 
private  schools,  under  the  direction  and  control  of  a  central 
organisation."  The  project  was  difficult,  but  in  ten  years  it  was 
an  accomplished  fact,  and  a  fact  with  a  permanent  home  and 
council  of  its  own — guarantee  of  continuity. 

The  University  of  Bombay  is  an  examining,  not  a  teaching, 
body ;  but  it  controls  and  "  recognises "  the  various  colleges  in 
VOL.  VI.— No.  31.  D 


34  The  Empire  Review 

Bombay  and  all  over  the  Presidency.  Without  such  recognition, 
no  college  might  present  candidates  for  university  examina- 
tions, or  contend  for  university  prizes.  To  the  college  started 
by  these  young  men,  the  university  kindly  gave  progressive  re- 
cognition. Most  exceeding  cautious  was  it.  How  did  it  know 
whether  the  venture  would  prosper!  So,  in  1884,  Fergusson 
College  (named  after  the  then  governor),  was  granted  provisional 
recognition  for  three  years,  and  leave  to  present  candidates  for 
the  first  entrance  examination  only.  From  time  to  time  further 
recognition  was  accorded,  as  the  university  saw  that  not  only 
were  the  founders  in  earnest,  but  they  did  work  of  which  the 
university  was  proud. 

By  1895,  it  was  recognised  fully  as  an  Arts  college,  affiliated 
to  the  University  of  Bombay. 

The  brick-and-mortar  history  of  the  venture  is  not  less  in- 
teresting. Government  gave  the  site,  the  Indian  princes,  and,  in 
particular,  the  Maharajah  of  Kolapoor  and  the  chiefs  of  the 
southern  Maratha  country,  have  given  the  rest.  Outside  the  din 
of  the  city  and  on  the  wind-swept  common  at  the  foot  of  a 
temple-crowned  hill,  it  rises,  this  handsome  and  spacious  building 
—monument  to  the  "settlement"  work  of  a  handful  of  Indian 
university  students.  When  last  I  saw  it  there  were  libraries  and 
laboratories  and  airy  lecture  rooms ;  gardens  and  tennis  courts 
and  cricket  grounds ;  quarters  for  professors  and  for  one  hundred 
residential  students — quarters  divided  with  their  several  kitchen 
arrangements  so  as  not  to  hurt  caste  prejudices,  though  men  of 
every  oaste  sat  side  by  side  in  the  lecture  rooms.  I  believe  the 
next  addition  is  to  be  an  observatory  on  the  hill-top.  From  the 
library  windows  one  looks  back  upon  the  city  of  the  Peishwar, 
with  its  beautiful  blue  hills  and  its  cone-shaped  temples,  with  its 
pilgrim  flags  and  the  closely-packed  blur  of  houses — mud-built 
hut  or  wood-carved  mansion  ;  and  then  one  turns  indoors  to  the 
rows  of  bookshelves— Kant  and  Comte  and  Mill  and  Sidgwick, 
Shakespeare  and  Ben  Jonson,  Todhunter  and  Colenso— Western 
diet  for  Eastern  constitutions,  but  none  so  unwholesome,  since  it 
reared  the  Brotherhood. 

The  faults  of  the  English  educational  institutions  of  India  are 
many,  and  the  incapacities  and  failings  of  the  Indian  student, 
perhaps,  many  more  still ;  but  as  long  as  we  can  show  one  such 
result  as  Fergusson  College,  surely  there  is  hope. 

Nor  has  zeal  out-run  thoroughness  and  excellence  of  work. 
Seven  times  through  these  ten  years  of  which  I  have  been 
writing,  Fergusson  College  has  taken  the  university  prizes  for 
Sanskrit  Scholarship  and  twice  for  English  Literature,  while  its 
number  of  first-classes  has  been  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  so 
young  an  institution  in  India.  Later  still,  E.  P.  Paranjpe,  a 


A  Hindoo  Educational  Brotherhood  35 

product  of  this  college,  who  went  on  to  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  was  in  June,  1899,  bracketed  Senior  Wrangler — a 
proof  of  competency  which  made  glad  the  hearts  of  all  who  are 
interested  in  India. 

They  realise  that  no  government,  whatever  its  resources,  can  cope  single- 
handed  with  the  problem  of  public  education,  and  they  are  persuaded  that  in 
the  present  circumstances  of  their  country  they  cannot  serve  it  better  than  by 
supplementing  the  efforts  of  government  in  the  matter  of  bringing  higher  and 
secondary  education  within  easy  reach  of  the  public. 

So  says  the  council  in  one  of  its  reports.  And  it  is  this  fact 
which  gives  the  movement  a  political  aspect  and  value.  So  long 
ago  as  1892,  Lord  Harris,  then  Governor  of  Bombay,  dwelt  on 
this  point : — 

I  consider  that  this  society  illustrates  the  principle  of  self-help,  and  in  doing 
so  that  it  is  proving  the  possibility  of  the  hopes  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  of 
the  East  India  Company  and  of  the  Government  of  India  since  that  time,  and 
of  the  Education  Commission.  For  it  is  perfectly  clear  to  any  who  will  read 
the  dispatch  of  1854,  or  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  study  the  report  of  the 
Education  Commission,  that  during  all  the  time  that  has  elapsed  between  the 
two,  the  Government  of  India  have  looked  forward  to  the  time  when  many  of 
the  existing  government  institutions,  especially  those  of  the  higher  order,  may 
be  safely  closed  or  transferred  to  the  management  of  local  bodies  under  the 
control  of,  and  aided  by  the  State. 

But,  finally,  there  is  another  and,  perhaps,  a  truer  measure  of 
the  real  value  and  worth  of  this  little  experiment.  It  is  the  self- 
sacrifice  which  gave  rise  to  the  movement,  and  which  keeps 
continuous  the  flow  of  workers.  The  personal  history  of  these 
ten  years  includes  a  death-roll,  "  in  Time's  eternal  bead-roll, 
worthy  to  be  fyled."  Six  young  men  have  given  their  lives  in 
the  service  of  their  ideals — six,  including  the  founder;  and  all 
these,  alas  !  have  died  of  over- work. 

They  bound  themselves  to  "  life-membership,"  and  they  asked 
remission  of  no  part  of  their  bond.  This  application  of  that  term 
will  doubtless  seem  a  little  odd,  so  accustomed  are  we  to  apply  it 
to  a  benefit,  not  to  a  benefaction.  "  Life-membership  "  to  the 
Brotherhood  means  the  obligation  to  work  for  the  Brotherhood 
and  its  educational  aims  for  a  period  of  at  least  twenty  years, 
without  receiving  any  salary,  save  the  minimum  wage  necessary 
for  bare  existence.  Some  of  those  who  have  thus  bound  them- 
selves have  renounced  lucrative  office  under  government.  All  are 
alike  actuated  by  the  spirit  of  self-denial,  self-sacrifice,  courage 
and  disinterestedness  which  has  so  often  in  divers  ways  proved 
our  salvation  in  India. 

I  am  told  that  Mr.  Paranjpe,  the  Senior  Wrangler,  had 
promised  to  join  the  Brotherhood  upon  his  return  from  England  ; 
that  when  the  news  of  his  success  arrived  at  his  old  college,  the 

D  2 


36  The  Empire  Review 

council  telegraphed  a  release  from  his  promise,  feeling  that  he 
had  a  right  to  rate  his  scholarship  as  he  would.  He  would  not 
be  released,  however,  and  gladly  serves  his  country  under  the 
terms  of  the  bond,  made  before  he  realised  his  own  mental 
powers. 

That  the  Brotherhood  may  grow  and  prosper,  and  repeat 
itself  in  other  parts  of  India,  will,  I  am  sure,  be  the  wish  of 
all  who  are  interested  in  the  complex  question  of  Eastern  self- 
government. 

CORNELIA   SORABJI. 


Susan  Pennicuick  37 


SUSAN   PENNICUICK 

A   STORY   OF   COUNTRY   LIFE   IN   VICTORIA 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

A  DAY  IN   BALLAEAT. 

"AuNT,"  said  Sue  next  morning  at  breakfast,  "here  is 
summer  upon  us  and  we  have  never  given  a  thought  to  our 
summer  clothes.  It  is  getting  quite  hot." 

"Yes,  my  dear,"  said  her  aunt,  frowning  down  Ann  when  she 
attempted  to  put  in  a  word,  "  I  did  think  about  them.  I  ordered 
two  rolls  of  print  from  town  last  week,  and  there's  any  amount 
of  calico  in  the  store.  The  children  want  new  dresses,  poor 
things,  but  really,  I'm  so  busy,  I  don't  know  which  way  to  turn. 
I  must  try  and  get  a  sewing-girl  out  from  Ballarat." 

"  Oh,  auntie,"  said  Sue,  "  if  you'll  trust  me  I'll  make  the 
girls'  new  frocks." 

"  Well,  my  dear,  you?re  very  good  and  you  really  do  work 
much  better  than  Ann  or  Lily." 

Ann  looked  vexed,  but  Lily  laughed  good-humouredly.  The 
world  was  going  well  with  Lily.  The  manager  at  Titura,  James 
Wilson,  a  man  after  Mr.  Grant's  own  heart,  had  come  courting 
his  buxom  daughter,  his  affections  had  been  reciprocated  and 
everything  had  been  comfortably  settled  the  week  before,  and 
Lily,  therefore,  happy  in  herself,  heard  with  equanimity  her 
mother  praise  her  cousin. 

"  That's  true,"  she  said,  "  I  always  hated  sticking  in  the  house 
sewing." 

"  What  does  James  Wilson  say  to  that  ?  "  asked  her  mother, 
archly.  "  He'll  like  a  wife  who  can  do  his  sewing  for  him." 

"  He'll  like  a  wife  like  Lily,  I  expect,"  put  in  Sue.  "We'll 
have  to  begin  on  your  trousseau  soon,  Lily,  I  suppose.  I  really 
do  flatter  myself  I  can  make  pretty  underclothing." 

"A  true  Christian  like  James  Wilson,"  said  Ann  severely, 


38  The  Empire  Review 

"  will  think  little  about  the  outward  adornment  of  his  wife.     It's 
the  inward  and  spiritual  grace  that  he  looks  to." 

"  I  don't  suppose  James  Wilson  would  like  his  wife  to  go  to 
him  empty-handed,  Ann,  any  more  than  any  other  man,"  said 
her  mother  sharply,  "  but,  Sue,  I  shan't  bother  you  with  Lily's 
things.  I'll  be  very  glad,  though,  if  you'll  make  the  little  girls 
some  dresses,  and  Mrs.  Desmond  will  help,  won't  you,  Mrs. 
Desmond?  The  children  can  have  a  holiday  till  they're  done, 
that  '11  save  a  world  of  bother." 

"  An'  make  me  a  pwetty  dwess,"  said  Vera,  "  a  pwincess's 
dwess  so  Ned  '11  like  it." 

"  Yes,"  said  Sue,  rushing  in  before  Ann  who  had  a  reproof  on 
her  lips,  "  we  will  make  you  a  very  pretty  dress." 

"  Well,  they're  only  two  sorts  of  print,  pink  with  white  spots 
and  white  with  pink,"  said  Mrs.  Grant  calmly,  "  it  doesn't  allow 
of  much  variety." 

"  It  sounds  pretty,  though,"  said  Sue,  who  was  always  willing 
to  be  pleased,  while  Ann  tossed  her  head  as  if  in  disgust  that  her 
mother  should  take  interest  in  such  trivial  matters,  and  drawing 
a  note-book  from  her  pocket  began  adding  up  the  marks  her 
Sunday-school  class  had  gained  the  day  before. 

Mrs.  Grant  began  a  mental  calculation  under  her  breath. 
"  Let  me  see — two — four — six.  No,  I  was  afraid  so,  there 
won't  be  enough  to  go  round.  Polly,  she's  growing  so  fast,  and 
so  is  Etta,  and  there's  Vera  as  well.  No,  there  certainly  won't 
be  enough.  We  must  go  into  Ballarat  for  some  more.  And 
baby  must  be  short-coated  soon,  the  dear." 

Sue  felt  a  warm  glow  of  affection  for  her  aunt  when  she  spoke 
kindly  of  the  baby,  but  Ann  looked  cross.  She  was  intensely 
jealous  of  Sue,  why,  she  could  hardly  have  told  herself.  She 
certainly  would  never  have  acknowledged  that  it  was  because 
Dr.  Finlayson  seemed  to  like  talking  to  her  when  he  was  at 
Larwidgee;  probably  she  hardly  realised  the  fact.  It  only 
vaguely  disturbed  her. 

"  No  horses  can  be  spared  to  drive  to  Gaffer's  Flat  this  week/' 
said  Ann.  "  We  have  other  and  more  important  things  to  think 
about  than  the  mere  outward  adorning  of  our  persons." 

Sue's  face  fell.  She  felt  angry  with  herself  often  that  the 
trivial  matters  of  this  life  were  of  such  importance  to  her.  But 
sometimes  she  was  seized  with  an  intense  desire  to  change  her 
surroundings,  to  kill  thought  if  she  possibly  could,  to  remember 
that  at  least  she  was  still  young  and  the  world  was  before  her, 
to  forget  that  she  had  spoiled  her  life  on  the  threshold.  And 
to-day  this  feeling  was  strong  upon  her.  She  could  think  of 
nothing  but  her  intense  desire  for  Boger's  presence,  and  when 
she  looked  in  her  baby's  face  the  desire  only  grew  stronger. 


Susan  Pennicuick  39 

It  would  be  a  relief  to  go  into  Ballarat,  to  Ballarat  where  she 
knew  no  one,  just  for  the  day,  and  here  was  Ann  throwing 
obstacles  in  the  way  out  of  pure  contrariness. 

Luckily,  Mrs.  Grant,  as  she  very  often  did,  went  in  direct 
opposition  to  her  eldest  daughter. 

"Nonsense,  Ann,"  she  said,  "there  are  plenty  of  horses,  I 
suppose,  if  I  want  them.  You  and  I,  Sue,  will  go  into  Ballarat 
to-morrow.  I  think  we'll  take  baby,  too,  if  you  don't  mind 
looking  after  her.  The  girls  here  have  no  heads.  We'll  stop  the 
night  at  Mrs.  Young's  and  they  can  send  into  Gaffer's  Flat  for 
us  on  Wednesday.  It's  many  a  long  day  since  we  had  a  little 
spree." 

Sue  could  have  hugged  her  aunt.  Only  to  her  was  the  kindli- 
ness of  the  arrangement  apparent,  and  yet  Mrs.  Grant  was  good- 
naturedly  making  it  appear  as  if  all  the  pleasure  was  on  her  side. 
It  was,  too,  to  a  great  extent.  Sue  might  look  forward  to  the 
change,  the  freedom  from  all  restraint,  but  once  they  had  started 
it  was  apparent  that  Mrs.  Grant  also  enjoyed  her  freedom. 

"Ah,  my  dear,"  she  said,  as  they  stood  looking  in  at  the 
summer  display  of  prints  and  muslins  and  light  silks  in  Snow 
and  Koom's  window.  "  I  used  to  like  pretty  things  once  myself, 
maybe  it  was  wrong,  but  I  did.  Lily  and  Ann,  they  don't,  but 
you  do,  and — and — well,  I  don't  want  to  be  unkind,"  she  finished 
up  looking  at  the  baby  in  Sue's  arms,  and  though  the  words  were 
harsh  the  tones  were  kindness  itself,  and  Sue  felt  as  if  she  were 
nearer  her  aunt  than  to  any  living  thing  in  the  world.  In  truth, 
somehow  she  could  not  always  mourn  and  sometimes  hope  spoke 
to  her  loudly.  The  very  reaction  from  the  misery  of  Sunday 
sent  her  spirits  up  ;  she  was  alone  here  with  her  aunt,  the  only 
member  of  her  family  she  was  at  all  in  sympathy  with,  and  she 
felt  that  the  world  could  not  always  be  black  to  her.  Things 
must  improve.  They  must,  she  could  hardly  tell  how,  but  they 
must.  The  very  day  spoke  to  her  of  hope. 

It  was  full  of  the  glory  of  early  summer,  the  elms  and  oaks 
and  plane  trees  in  the  wide  streets  were  all  in  full  leaf,  their  vivid 
green  contrasting  with  the  bright  blue  sky  and  white  quartz 
roads,  and  away  in  the  distance  the  blue  hills  marked  clearly  the 
horizon.  Such  a  pretty  town  it  was.  Sue  had  only  seen  it  once 
before  in  the  depth  of  winter  when  the  rain  was  coming  down 
in  torrents  and  she  herself  had  felt  sad  and  miserable,  but  to-day 
she  looked  at  it  with  different  eyes.  Her  life  couldn't  be  all  sad, 
things  must  look  up,  health  and  strength  were  hers  and  the  keen 
joy  of  just  living  was  taking  possession  of  her.  Life  must  be 
better  in  the  future,  it  must  hold  something  good  for  her  and  her 
child  and  the  man  she  loved,  though  it  looked  such  a  tangled 
skein  now.  The  bright  sunshine  and  the  pure  air  said  that  to  be 


40  The  Empire  Review 

just  alive  was  good,  and  surely  God  would  not  wholly  curse  a 
life  he  had  placed  in  such  a  beautiful  world. 

Even  on  stern  Mrs.  Grant  the  beauty  of  the  day  had  some 
influence,  and  she  looked  with  an  interested  eye  on  the  displays 
of  millinery  in  the  shop  windows  and  entered  with  interest  into 
the  purchase  of  muslin  and  lace  for  baby's  short-coating.  Then 
Sue  shyly  pointed  out  to  her  a  bow  of  ribbon  and  lace  which  she 
thought  would  be  becoming  and  the  elder  woman  looked  at  it  a 
moment  as  if  she  might  be  tempted  to  buy,  then  she  pushed  it 
aside  quite  roughly.  "  It's  a  carnal  vanity,  my  dear,  just  a  carnal 
vanity.  What  do  I  want  to  wear  anything  on  my  head  for  when 
the  Lord  has  given  me  ample  provision  of  hair.  It  is  a  very  long 
while  since  I  looked  at  pink  ribbons,  though  father  used  to  say 
that  pink  was  just  the  colour  of  my  cheeks,  in  the  old  days,  but 
there,  as  I  said  before,  it's  a  carnal  vanity  to  which  I  do  not  feel 
justified  in  giving  way.  Come  now,  my  dear,  and  have  some  tea. 
There's  a  shop  in  Lydiard  Street  where  we  get  it  very  good. 
I  always  encourage  Mrs.  Dash  wood,  too,  because  she  has  strongly 
resisted  the  temptation  to  get  a  license  and  sell  intoxicating 
liquors.  You  must  be  tired,  give  me  baby  for  a  bit.  I'll  carry 
her." 

The  shop  of  Mrs.  Grant's  choice  was  a  confectioner's  with 
a  room  behind  round  which  were  ranged  small  round  marble- 
topped  tables.  It  was  rather  empty,  and  the  two  women  went 
behind  a  little  curtain  into  Mrs.  Dash  wood's  own  sanctum  where 
they  could  see  and  hear  all  that  was  going  on  without  being  seen, 
and  Mrs.  Grant  ordered  the  tea. 

Sue  was  glad  of  the  rest  and  looked  round  with  interest.  At 
the  table  opposite,  on  the  other  side  of  the  thin  net  curtain,  sat 
a  smart-looking  woman  in  a  short,  black  silk  Eton  jacket  over 
a  white  silk  blouse  with  a  very  dainty  tulle  bow  at  the  throat. 
Her  toque  was  the  very  latest  thing  and  became  her  beautifully, 
and  with  every  movement  she  wafted  a  delicate  scent  to  Sue's 
nostrils,  perhaps  her  lips  were  a  little  too  pounting  and  red,  and 
possibly  there  was  just  a  shade  too  much  red  and  white  in  her 
face,  but  to  an  observer  who  was  not  critical  she  made  up  a  very 
fascinating  personality.  Mrs.  Grant,  busily  fussing  over  a  very 
uncompromising  account  book  and  a  pencil  that  would  not  mark, 
pointed  her  out  to  Sue. 

"  A  woman  given  over  to  the  wiles  of  this  world,"  she  said 
lowering  her  voice  so  that  she  should  not  hear  and  using  the 
phraseology  of  the  Hallejuiah  Station,  "  a  regular  bad  lot,"  she 
added  in  ordinary  colloquial  English ;  "  God  forgive  me  if  I  do 
her  an  injustice." 

But  Susan  did  not  need  her  to  be  pointed  out.  She  had 
seen  her  at  once.  She  was  the  woman  who  had  supplanted 


Susan  Pennicuick  41 

her,  the  woman  who  was  Koger  Marsden's  wife,  and  the  bright 
day  grew  dark  at  once,  and  in  her  life  it  seemed  as  if  there  could 
be  no  room  for  hope.  Tea  and  cakes  were  brought  to  them  and 
tea  and  cakes  were  brought  to  the  woman  the  other  side  of  the 
curtain,  but  Sue  could  not  enjoy  hers,  she  could  think  of  nothing 
but  that  woman's  presence.  Mrs.  Grant  did  not  notice.  She 
was  deep  in  calculation  and  was  making  out  a  list  of  all  the 
money  she  needed  to  spend,  and  Sue  sipped  her  tea  and  watched 
through  the  curtain  with  a  sinking  heart  the  woman  who  had 
ruined  her  life  without  in  the  least  bettering  her  own  position, 
had  simply  of  malice  aforethought  ruined  her  life,  hers  and 
Eoger's  and  that  of  the  child  upon  her  knee. 

"  Sue,"  said  her  aunt  suddenly,  "  you  sit  here  a  little  and  rest. 
I've  just  thought  I  want  to  see  Cleghorn  about  those  girls  for 
the  rescue  home,  and  I  can't  very  well  take  you.  You  sit  here 
and  drink  your  tea.  I  won't  be  gone  more  than  twenty  minutes," 
and  she  rose  up  and  left  the  shop  and  Sue  was  thankful  for  her 
absence. 

She  let  her  tea  grow  cold,  and  watched  the  woman  the  other 
side  of  the  curtain.  The  shop  emptied  but  she  sat  on.  She  did 
not  drink  her  tea  either.  She  sat  and  tapped  the  table  impatiently 
with  her  purse  as  if  she  were  waiting  for  someone.  She  got  up 
once  and  looked  out  into  the  street,  and  then  returned  to  her 
seat,  and  Sue  read  her  face  correctly  when  she  decided  the  person 
she  was  expecting  had  come.  She  heard  footsteps  in  the  shop, 
and  then  she  grew  cold  all  over  as  Eoger  Marsden  himself  came 
in  and  stood  so  close  beside  her  she  could  have  put  out  her  hand 
and  touched  him  through  the  shrouding  curtain,  had  she  been  so 
minded. 

This  woman  was  his  wife  in  the  eye  of  the  law.  Had  he 
decided  to  make  the  best  of  it  and  take  her  to  live  with  him  ? 

It  did  not  look  like  it.  Sue  saw  his  face  was  set  and  cold. 
She  would  have  hated  the  man  who  looked  at  her  that  way. 

"  My  darling,"  said  his  wife,  rising  and  holding  out  her  hands, 
but  Marsden  drew  back  coldly. 

"You  have  sent  for  me,"  he  said,  and  his  voice  was  cutting. 
"  What  do  you  want  ?  I  only  have  five  minutes  to  spare." 

"Oh,  Eoger,  my  husband,"  sobbed  his  wife,  drawing  out  a 
scented  pocket-handkerchief  and  putting  it  to  her  eyes. 

"  Eeally,  madam,"  said  the  cool,  cutting  voice,  "I  must 
request  you  to  control  yourself.  I  must  remind  you  that  this  is  a 
public  place,"  and  he  looked  round  the  shop  uneasily,  though  the 
only  person  visible  was  the  girl  behind  the  counter. 

"Who's  fault  is  it  it  is  a  public  place?"  with  a  long-drawn 
sob.  "  Your  own  wife,  and  you  will  only  meet  her  in  a  tea 
room."  She  lowered  her  voice  a  little  so  that  the  girl  the  other 


42  The  Empire  Review 

side  of  the  shop  might  not  hear,  but  every  word  was  distinctly 
audible  to  Sue. 

"  I  deny  you  are  my  wife.     What  do  you  want  ?  " 

"Koger,  Koger,  darling,  I  want  your  love." 

Marsden  picked  up  his  hat  and  turned  towards  the  door,  and 
Sue  suddenly  felt  as  if  the  world  were  not  all  blank. 

"Mr.  Marsden,"  the  woman's  voice  was  pleading,  "you 
promised  me  five  minutes." 

He  paused.  Then  came  back.  "  Well,  what  is  it  ?  You  are 
wasting  them." 

"  Is  not  this  a  very  miserable  way  of  living  for  both  of  us  ?  " 

"Very  miserable,"  he  assented.  "There  is  only  one  thing 
that  could  be  worse." 

"  And  what  is  that  ?  "  eagerly. 

"It  would  be  worse  if  I  lived  with  you." 

"You  are  cruel,  cruel,"  she  moaned. 

"  You  have  brought  it  on  yourself.  Again  I  must  remind  you 
this  is  a  public  place,  and  more  than  likely  there  are  listeners. 
We  may  be  interrupted  any  moment." 

"  Koger,  what  do  you  hope  for  living  like  this  ?  " 

"  God  knows,"  and  the  note  of  weariness  in  his  voice  made 
Sue's  heart  ache. 

"  Come  to  me  and  make  the  best  of  it,"  she  stretched  out  a 
hand  and  laid  it  on  his  arm. 

He  shook  it  off.  Sue,  playing  the  eavesdropper  behind  the  net 
curtain,  felt  glad  with  a  great  gladness.  She  wondered  at  herself 
that  she  could  be  so  pleased  at  another  woman's  humiliation. 

"  Three  minutes  are  gone.     What  do  you  want  ?  " 

:<  You  surely  can't  be  thinking  of  Susan  Pennicuick  still." 

"  You  will  kindly  leave  Susan  Pennicuick  out  of  the  discus- 
sion," he  said  coldly. 

"  There  are  people,  you  know,  who  are  kind  enough  to  say 
you  ruined  her,"  went  on  the  woman  angrily,  "  but  I  don't 
believe  that  myself.  Her  love  for  you  was  merely  a  passing  fancy. 
I  suppose  you  know  she  is  going  to  marry  a  doctor  who  comes 
a  great  deal  to  her  aunt's,  so  if  it  is  Susan  Pennicuick  who  stands 
between  us " 

Again  he  picked  up  his  hat. 

"  It  is  not  Sue  Pennicuick.  If  there  were  not  another  woman 
in  the  world  I  would  not  live  with  you.  Now,  madam,  what  do 
you  want  ?  There  is  only  a  minute  left." 

"  Eoger,  Koger,  you  used  to  be  so  different." 

"  I  was  a  young  fool.  You  yourself  taught  me  the  error  of 
my  ways." 

"Is  there  nothing  I  can  do?  Oh,  oh,  oh."  She  wrung  her 
hands  together.  "  Koger,  at  least  you  will  give  me  a  little  more 


Susan  Pennicuick  43 

money.  Where  is  the  use  of  hoarding  your  money  for  a  girl 
who  is  certainly  going  to  marry  another  man." 

"D n  you,"  he  said,  turning  away. 

"  Eoger,  have  some  pity.  I  can't  sleep  at  night  without 
opiates ;  the  doctor  has  ordered  me  change  and  stimulants — all 
these  things  cost  money." 

"I  don't  want  you  to  live,"  said  Eoger  coldly.  "I  shan't 
give  you  a  penny  more.  If  you  want  more  you  must  earn  it." 

"  I — I — in  my  weak  state  of  health — Roger — Eoger,"  her 
voice  rose  in  a  shrill  scream,  and  Marsden  turned  away  to  be  met 
at  the  shop  door  by  Mrs.  Grant,  who  stopped  dead. 

"  Eoger  Marsden,  what  are  you  doing  here  ?  " 

Sue  saw  it  all.  Evidently  her  aunt  thought  he  had  watched 
her  out  of  the  way  and  gone  to  join  the  woman  he  loved.  She 
had  never  seen  his  wife. 

"  That  is  what  I  am  asking  myself,  Mrs.  Grant,"  he  said 
courteously,  and  the  voice  was  that  of  a  different  man  to  that  of 
the  one  who  had  spoken  a  moment  before.  "I  promised  this 
lady  five  minutes  of  my  society  and  she  has  had  it,  not  much  to 
her  satisfaction,  I  fear." 

"Then  you  didn't  — then  you  didn't "  Mrs.  Grant 

hesitated.  She  was  beginning  to  think  he  might  not  even  know 
Sue  was  there,  and  it  would  be  foolish  of  her  to  betray  the  fact. 
"  Who  is  this  ?  "  she  asked  suddenly. 

"  This,  unfortunately,  is  the  woman  the  law  says  is  my  wife." 

"  Oh,"  Mrs.  Grant  took  a  long  sniff  as  if  a  very  unpleasant 
smell  were  under  her  nose,  "  I  thought  she  was  a  brazen  hussy." 

"Eeally,  Eoger,"  sobbed  his  wife  genuinely  miserable  and 
angry,  "  you  might  at  least  defend  me.  What  have  I  done,  what- 
ever have  I  done  except  love  you  to  my  own  destruction  ?  " 

And  Eoger's  face  was  cold  as  ice.  He  held  out  his  hand  to 
Mrs.  Grant,  who  took  it  with  a  sudden  air  of  sympathy  which 
must  have  been  most  galling  to  the  woman  at  the  table,  and  then 
he  turned  and  left  the  shop. 

Mrs.  Grant  rejoined  her  niece,  and  drew  her  away  from  the 
curtain. 

"  You  saw  them  ?  "  she  asked. 

"  Yes,"  said  Sue  in  a  subdued  voice.  She  hardly  knew  whether 
to  be  glad  or  sorry,  and  only  knew  she  was  bitterly  ashamed. 

".To  think  that  he  should  have  been  such  an  ass  as  to  be 
taken  in  by  a  hussy  like  that.  Ah,  well,  poor  boy,  poor  boy,  but 
it's  you  that  pay,"  and  she  looked  again  through  the  curtain. 

But  Eoger's  wife  felt  now  that  unsympathetic  eyes  were  upon 
her,  and  hastily  gathering  up  her  belongings  paid  her  bill  and 
went  out  into  the  street  again. 

Mrs.  Grant  turned  to  Sue. 


44  The  Empire  Review 

"  Have  you  finished  your  tea  ?  " 

"Yes." 

"You're  not  to  grieve,  now.  It  won't  make  it  any  better 
crying  over  it.  And  after  all,  Susan— it  may  be  a  carnal  thing  to 
say,  and  giving  in  to  the  weakness  of  the  flesh— but  you're  a 
happier  woman  than  she  is,  though  you  are  unwed  and  have  a 
baby  in  your  arms.  Cleghorn  wasn't  in.  Come  along  now  and 
let  us  get  that  shopping  over." 

And  Sue,  wiping  the  tears  from  her  eyes,  felt  that  her  aunt 
was  right.  But  somehow  the  shopping  had  lost  its  charm.  A 
new  train  of  thoughts  had  been  opened  up,  and  Sue  could  think 
of  nothing  but  Koger's  miserable  face  and  the  cold  stern  words  in 
which  he  had  told  his  wife  he  wished  she  was  dead. 

Luckily  Mrs.  Grant  entered  into  it  with  great  zest  again  and 
kept  at  it  till  twelve  o'clock  next  day,  when  they  started  for 
home. 

Willie  met  them  at  Gaffer's  Flat  as  he  had  done  five  months 
ago.  He  drove  the  same  old  buggy,  caked  in  its  winter  coat  of 
mud,  the  same  ungroomed,  unkempt  pair  of  horses,  and  Willie 
himself  was  as  rough  and  uncouth  as  ever;  but  Sue  looked  at 
things  with  different  eyes  now.  After  all  she  had  something  to 
be  thankful  for.  Hard  as  her  lot  was  it  was  a  bed  of  roses  com- 
pared to  that  of  the  woman  she  had  watched  through  the  curtain 
yesterday. 

Willie  greeted  his  mother  and  cousin  with  a  grin  of  welcome 
and  declared  he  was  glad  they  were  back,  for  the  house  wasn't  the 
same  without  them. 

"  Now,  mother,"  he  said,  when  his  mother  remonstrated  with 
him  for  speaking  so  plainly,  "  you  know  you  do  get  a  bit  tired  of 
all  the  psalm-singing  yourself  sometimes  for  all  you  stick  to  it  so, 
and  Yera  got  into  hot  water  yesterday  for  saying  you  were  going 
to  bring  her  a  dress  for  a  princess." 

"  Poor  little  Vera,"  said  Mrs.  Grant.  "  I'm  afraid  the  child 
has  a  great  desire  for  the  things  of  this  world." 

"  We  bought  her  a  blue  cashmere,"  said  Sue,  "  I  hope  she'll 
think  that  good  enough." 

"  Hooray  !     I'm  glad  you  did  if  it  was  only  to  spite  Ann." 

"  Willie  you  mustn't  be  so  disagreeable  to  Ann.  A  family 
should  live  together  in  unity." 

"  Ann  had  better  let  me  alone  then.  James  Wilson  and  Lily 
and  she  got  on  to  me  last  night.  I  missed  you  two,  I  can 
tell  you." 

"  Poor  old  boy,"  said  Sue,  patting  him  on  the  shoulder. 

At  the  door  the  children  all  rushed  out  to  meet  them, 
tumbling  over  each  other  and  clamouring  to  know  what  they 
had  bought. 


Susan  Pennicuick  45 

"  Let  them  come  into  my  room  while  we  undo  the  things," 
suggested  Sue. 

"  They're  better  outside,"  said  Mrs.  Grant. 
Probably  they  were.  The  sun  was  bright  and  the  garden  was 
a  blaze  of  flowers,  and  the  air  was  full  of  the  scent  of  roses  and 
wallflowers  and  honeysuckle,  but  Sue  sympathised  with  the 
feminine  instinct  that  loved  fine  clothes,  and  probably  their 
mother  sympathised  too,  though  she  tried  to  crush  the  feeling 
down  as  unworthy  of  professing  Christians.  Anyhow  she  let 
the  little  girls  undo  the  parcels,  and  Sue  laid  her  baby  on  the  bed, 
and  watched  them. 

Eosy  and  Etta  were  deeply  interested,  but  Vera  dragged  a 
chair  to  the  chest  of  drawers  and  as  usual  surveyed  her  small  self 
in  the  glass,  carrying  on  an  imaginary  conversation  with  much 
satisfaction. 

"  How  do  you  do,  Vewabella  ?  " 

"  Quite  well,  thank  you,"  she  answered  for  herself,  then 
she  looked  round  as  Sue  held  up  to  her  a  piece  of  pale  blue 
cashmere. 

"Here's  your  new  dress,  Vera." 

"  Mum  an'  Sue  is  dood,"  she  said  to  the  figure  in  the  glass, 
"  They's  buyed  me  a  dwess,  a  pwincess's  dwess.  I  does  love  'em, 
an'  Ned'll  say  nie's  pwitty." 

"  Just  hark  to  that  child  with  her  nonsense,"  said  Mrs.  Grant. 
"  I  must  put  a  stop  to  it." 

"  No,  no,"  pleaded  Sue  in  an  undertone.  "  She's  not  doing 
any  harm.  Let  us  see  what  she'll  say  next." 

"  I  saw  Ned  yesterday,"  went  on  the  little  girl,  unheeding  the 
listeners.  "  He's  telled  me  he'd  like  to  get  mawwied  soon." 

Sue  and  her  aunt  looked  at  each  other.  Who  was  this  boy 
thinking  of  marrying  ? 

"But  he  says  I'm  too  little  yet,  Vewabella,"  she  added 
pathetically,  "  he'll  have  to  mawwy  somebody  else  till  I'se  growed 
up.  Mum,"  she  added,  turning  round,  "  who'll  Ned  mawwy  ? 
You?" 

"  Me,  child  ?  I  was  married  ages  ago.  Come  down  and  don't 
be  silly  any  more.  There,  look  at  the  pretty  dress  we've  brought 
you." 

Vera  came  and  sat  on  the  bed  resignedly  and  pursued  her 
inquiries  further. 

"  Will  he  mawwy  you,  Sue  ?  " 
"  No,  dear,  certainly  not." 

"  Then  it's  Polly.     Mum,  will  he  mawwy  Polly  ?  " 
"  That  he  will  not,"  said  Mrs.  Grant  with  conviction. 
"But  I  fink,"  said  Vera,  with  childish  gravity,  "he  means  to 
mawwy  Polly." 


46  The  Empire  Review 

"Does    he  indeed?    We'll    have    something   to    say   about 

that." 

But  Vera  was  in  an  inquiring  mood  to-day,  and  having  settled 
Ned's  future  to  her  satisfaction,  leaned  over  the  baby. 

"  Sue,"  she  said,  "  Dod  knows  evewyfing,  doesn't  he  ?  " 

"  Yes,  dear,"  thoughtfully. 

"  Did  he  make  baby  ?" 

"Yes,  dear,"  and  Sue  flushed  as  she  wondered  if  her  aunt 
would  endorse  that. 

"  Then  what  did  he  make  her  for  when  he  must  ha'  knowed 
she'd  be  naughty  an'  have  to  go  to  hell? " 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

WHAT   IS  THE   GOOD   OF   IT  ALL? 

THE  following  Saturday  Willie  found  Sue  by  herself  and 
handed  her  a  note. 

"  From  Marsden.     He  asked  me  to  give  it  to  you." 

Sue  looked  at  it  and  saw  it  was  worn  at  the  edges  as  if  it  had 
been  in  Willie's  pocket  a  day  or  two. 

"  You've  had  this  in  your  pocket  ever  so  long,"  she  said 
sharply. 

"  Of  course,"  he  answered.  "  You  never  give  a  chap  a  chance 
to  speak  to  you  alone." 

"You  might  easily  have  brought  me  a  trifle  from  Mullin's 
Hill." 

"  I  daresay.  And  have  father  and  mother  and  Ann  wanting 
to  know  what  I  was  doing  there.  You  know  as  well  as  possible 
I  have  to  sneak  out  of  my  bedroom  window  when  they  think  I'm 
in  bed." 

"  That's  rather— rather " 

"  Now,  Sue,  don't  you  begin  preachee,  preachee.  I  guess  you 
wouldn't  like  me  to  tell  mother  you  met  Marsden  by  the  planta- 
tion the  other  day.  Oh,  I  saw  you,  my  lady.  But  don't  you  tell 
on  me  and  I  won't  tell  on  you." 

Sue  flushed  uncomfortably.  It  certainly  was  not  a  comfort- 
able thought  that  Willie  had  been  watching  her  interview  with 
Koger  Marsden. 

"  I  guess,"  said  Willie,  thoughtfully,  "  he  was  pretty  bad  when 
he  kissed  the  baby." 

Sue's  face  grew  distressed,  and  Willie  put  his  arm  round  her 
with  rough  kindness. 

"  Look  here,  old  girl,  don't  you  fret.  I  ain't  agoin'  to  split  on 
you.  You  meet  Marsden  as  often  as  you  like.  If  the  gov.  wasn't 
such  an  arrant  old  donkey  he  could  come  here  and  I  shouldn't 


Susan  Pennicuick  47 

have  to  sneak  over  to  Mullin's  Hill  whenever  I  wanted  a  pipe  of 
tobacco  or  a  glass  of  beer." 

True  enough,  Sue  thought,  but  however  big  a  donkey 
Mr.  Grant  was  it  could  not  affect  her  relations  with  Eoger 
Marsden. 

His  letter  was  very  brief,  and  bore  no  address  and  no 
signature. 

"  For  pity's  sake,"  he  wrote,  "  meet  me  by  the  lake  again  next 
Sunday.  I'll  come  along  on  the  chance." 

Sue  was  endeavouring  to  reduce  the  untidy  dining-room  to 
something  like  order,  and  she  stood  in  the  window  a  moment, 
looking  out  into  the  sunny  garden  with  a  curious  ache  at  her 
heart.  What  was  the  good  of  seeing  him  again?  It  only  left 
her  with  an  intense  weary  longing,  only  once  again  the  fight  had 
to  begin  for  peace  and  resignation. 

"  Well,  am  I  to  tell  him  you'll  come,"  said  Willie,  putting  his 
arm  round  her  waist  again. 
She  started  and  flushed. 
"  How  do  you  know?  " 

"  How  do  I  know  he  wants  to  meet  you  somewhere  ?  That's 
what  a  man  mostly  writes  to  a  pretty  girl  for.  And  I  guess 
you're  like  other  pretty  girls,  though  you  are  so  sober  and  lug 
that  baby  with  you  everywhere,  eh,  Sue.  Take  my  advice  and 
leave  the  baby  behind  next  time,  Sue.  Or,  I  say,  why  don't  you 
take  up  with  the  doctor  ?  He's  regularly  gone  on  you." 

"  Willie !  "  said  Sue,  and  "  Willie  !  "  echoed  a  sterner  voice, 
and  Sue  looking  hastily  round  saw  her  aunt  looking  at  her  angrily 
and  suspiciously. 

"  Go  to  your  work,  Willie,"  she  ordered.  "  I  can't  have  you 
loitering  about  the  house  in  the  morning,"  and  as  she  spoke  it 
suddenly  struck  Sue  her  aunt  was  angry  with  her,  that  she 
regarded  her  as  a  dangerous  woman. 

"  Oh,  aunt,"  she  said  helplessly.  It  seemed  so  ridiculous 
to  think  she  would  harm  Willie,  that  she  could,  even  if  she 
would. 

"  Now,  Susan,  understand  this,"  said  her  aunt  sharply.  "  I 
won't  have  any  flirting  with  the  men  about  the  place.  Willie's 

young " 

"  Aunt,  I  won't,  I  wouldn't — I  mean  I  couldn't." 
"  Susan,  you'll  look  straitly  to  your  ways  while  you're  in  this 
house.     Now  just  tidy  that  mantelpiece.     An  un wedded  woman 
with  a  child  in  her  arms  must  look  very  carefully  to  her  ways. 
Do  you  understand  ?  " 

"Yes,  aunt,"  said  Sue  dutifully,  but  there  and  then  all  hesita- 
tion on  her  part  vanished.  She  would  meet  Eoger  Marsden  on 
Sunday.  When  she  tried  to  lead  a  life  of  dull  routine  her  aunt 


48  The  Empire  Review 

misjudged  her,  therefore  she  would  take  the  good  that  came  in 
her  way  and  be  thankful.  At  least  Eoger  loved  her,  and  he  was 
a  breath  from  the  outside  world. 

And  Sunday  was  bright  and  clear,  and  in  the  afternoon  Sue 
wandered  down  to  the  lakeside  just  as  she  had  done  the  week 
before,  but  to-day  the  children  elected  to  come  with  her,  and  her 
own  conscience  would  not  allow  her  to  send  them  away  The 
shearing  was  over  now,  the  shed  and  the  shearers'  hut  were  silent 
and  deserted,  and  so  the  children  sat  round  her  on  the  ground 
and  tormented  her  for  a  story. 

"  I  can't  really,  children,  I  can't,"  and  her  ears  were  straining 
themselves  to  catch  a  horse's  hoof -beats.  If  he  did  come  would 
he  dare  speak  to  her  with  all  these  children  round  her  ?  She  felt 
in  a  defiant  mood  when  she  recollected  that  her  aunt  had  accused 
her  of  flirting  with  Willie.  Why  shouldn't  she  speak  to  Eoger? 
Why  should  she  cut  her  life  off  from  all  that  was  delightful,  why 
lead  the  life  of  a  nun  when  all  the  glad  spring-time  told  her  there 
was  a  wider,  happier  future  for  her  if  she  would  but  take  it? 
What  was  right  and  what  was  wrong  ?  She  felt  she  could  hardly 
say,  only  to-day  every  nerve  within  her  protested  against  the 
restraint  of  the  life  on  the  Hallejuiah  Station.  And  while  she 
was  in  this  rebellious  mood  she  heard  the  hoof-beats  muffled  in 
the  grass  and  Eoger  Marsden  dismounted  beside  her. 

He  put  his  hand  in  his  pocket  and  produced  a  bag  of 
sweets. 

"  Lollies  for  you,  children,"  he  said.  Then  he  looked  at  Sue. 
"  I  thought  they  might  be  handy." 

"  Don't  tell  mother  then,"  said  Eosy.  "  She  don't  let  us  have 
lollies." 

"  I  shan't  tell,"  said  Marsden.  "  Eun  away,  children,  I  want 
to  speak  to  your  cousin." 

"  You  don't  want  us  to  tell  mother  that  either,  I  suppose," 
said  Ted,  lingering. 

"  I'm  supremely  indifferent  as  to  that.  Eun  away  now,"  said 
Marsden. 

"But — but  you  must  consider  me,"  said  Sue  with  trembling 
lips,  for  it  is  one  thing  to  dare  a  thing  and  quite  another  to  find 
yourself  taken  at  your  word." 

He  took  her  hand  and  pressed  it  between  his  own. 

"  Dear  little  Lovely,  sweet  little  Lovely.  Did  you — I  mean, 
did  you  hear — were  you  — 

"  Do  you  mean  did  I  hear  you  talking  to  that  woman  on 
Monday?  "  asked  Sue.  "  I  listened,"  she  added.  "  I  was  behind 
the  curtain  and  I  listened.  It  was  mean,  but  I  am  glad." 

Closer  he  held  her  hand. 

"  And  I  am  glad.     Now  you  understand  better  than  I  could 


Susan  Pcnnicuick  49 

tell  you  the  terms  we  are  on,  that  we  have  always  been  on. 
Lovely,  won't  you  come  to  me  ?  " 

"  Koger,"  her  voice  was  a  pitiful  cry,  but  somehow  he  felt  she 
was  not  so  far  away.  She  was  nearer  yielding  than  ever  she  had 
been  before. 

"  My  own  little  Lovely." 

"  Sue,  Sue,"  and  the  children  came  racing  back  and  flung 
themselves  down  on  the  grass  beside  her,  "  you  said  you'd  tell  us 
a  story." 

"  Not  now,  dears,"  said  Sue,  composing  her  face,  "  don't  you 
see  I'm  talking?  " 

"  But  you  said  by-and-by  when  we  asked  you  before,"  said 
Ted,  with  due  gravity,  "  you  said  you  would,  and  people  who  tell 
lies  go  to  hell." 

"  But  Sue  won't  go  to  hell,"  said  Vera,  standing  up  behind 
her  and  putting  a  pair  of  loving  little  arms  round  her  neck,  "  she's 
dood  and  pwetty,  and  has  goldie  hair  like  a  pwincess.  Tell  us  a 
'tory  please,  Susy,  an'  we'll  be  so  dood,"  and  she  laid  a  soft  little 
kiss  on  the  girl's  round  cheek. 

"I  suppose  I  must,"  said  Sue,  with  a  sigh,  "  and  then  you'll 
go  and  play  by  the  lake  again.  What's  it  to  be  about  ?  " 

"It's  Sunday,"  suggested  Kosy,  demurely. 

"  Wolves  and  bears  and  Indians,"  said  Ted. 

"  About  a  fairy  pwincess  an'  the  wolf  that's  in  the  wood- 
house,"  suggested  Vera. 

"Get  out,"  said  Ted,  "  how  you  do  skite,  Vera.  There  isn't 
a  wolf  in  the  woodhouse." 

"  Yes  there  is.  I  seed  him  myself.  He  showed  his  teef  an' 
glared  his  eyes,  an'  he'll  bite  bad  boys  like  you,  but  he  won't 
touch  me." 

"  Shut  up,"  said  Ted,  in  scorn.  "  Go  on,  Sue.  Kosy  thinks 
it  ought  to  be  out  of  the  Bible ;  only  tell  us  lots — not  like  the 
Bible  and  Sunday  school-books,  you  know." 

And  she  told  them  the  story  of  Jacob  and  Esau ;  and  the  old 
Jewish  heroes  somehow  took  on  a  fresh  interest  when  presented 
to  the  audience  as  Arab  sheiks  in  flowing  robes  with  a  background 
of  glowing  desert  and  bright  blue  sky,  "just  like  this,"  pointing 
up  to  the  deep  blue  above  them. 

"And  now,  for  Heaven's  sake,  children,  run  and  play,"  said 
Marsden,  as  he  watched  the  shadows  grow  longer  and  realised 
the  afternoon  was  slipping  away.  The  long  slender  shadows  of 
the  gum  trees  were  creeping  on  to  the  margin  of  the  lake,  and 
the  evening  was  coming  on. 

The  children  drew  off  reluctantly,  out  of  sight  they  would  not 
go,  and  he  sank  his  voice  as  he  felt  that,  in  all  probability,  they 
were  barely  out  of  earshot. 

VOL.  VI.— No.  31.  E 


50  The  Empire  Review 

"Darling,  I  can't  stand  this  life  any  longer." 
Sue  smoothed  the  frock  of  the  baby  on  her  lap. 
"  Do  you  think  it  is  a  bed  of  roses  for  me  ?  "  she  asked,  a  little 
tired  droop  at  the  corners  of  her  mouth. 

" Lovely,  is  it  worth  it?  Listen.  My  job  here's  nearly  done. 
Perhaps  I  won't  get  the  chance  to  see  you  again.  I've  bought 
a  little  farm  in  the  Heytesbury  Forest,  and  I'm  going  to  settle 
there.  I've  got  a  job  on  the  coast  railway  they're  making,  and  I 
think  I  can  work  the  two.  Sue,  do  you  know  why  I've  bought 
the  farm?" 

"  No,"  said  Sue,  hesitating. 

"  Because  I  want  to  have  some  home  for  you  to  come  to 
when  you  can't  stand  this  life  any  longer.  It  is  an  impossible 
thing  you  are  trying  to  do.  Lovely,  don't  you  see  it  for  your- 
self ?  If  you  had  been  an  ordinary  woman  and  given  up  the 
child,  I  should  have  known  it  was  hopeless,  but  since  you 

didn't " 

"  Oh,  I  want  to  do  right.  I  want  to  do  right.  I  don't  want 
you  to  despise  me,"  wailed  Sue. 

"  Despise  you — despise  you  !  My  God,  there  is  no  woman  I 
honour  more.  I  won't  ask  you  to  come,  Lovely,"  he  said,  and  his 
voice  was  full  of  tenderness,  "  but  I  want  you  to  know  it's  there 
if  ever  you  want  a  refuge,  a  home  and  such  love  as  I  can  give 
you,  and  I  can  do  to  smooth  your  way.  Here  they  think  you  a 

saint ;  but  still " 

"Don't  be  at  all  sure  of  that,"  said  Sue,  with  a  laugh  that 
turned  into  a  sob.  "  They  don't  regard  me  as  a  saint  by  any 
means.  Most  distinctly  last  night  uncle  prayed  that  the  Lord 
would  see  fit  to  soften  the  heart  of  this  hardened  sinner  that  is 
amongst  us ;  and  he  signified  that  he  had  prayed  so  often  in  vain 
that  he  was  only  going  to  give  the  Lord  this  one  more  chance. 
I  think  he  must  have  meant  me,  and  so  did  Willie,  for  he  pinched 
my  arm  till  it  was  black  and  blue." 

"  Don't,  Lovely,  don't,"  said  Roger.  "  One  more  reason  you 
should  come  to  me,  my  darling.  I  shan't  let  you  regret  it." 

The  sun  was  sinking  low  now,  his  long  level  beams  came 
piercing  between  the  slender  tree  trunks.  The  gum  trees  in  the 
plantation  cast  long  lean  shadows  on  the  grass,  and  the  sunbeams 
glanced  from  the  still  glassy  lake  and  brought  out  lines  of  gold  in 
her  brown  hair  and  a  bright  colour  into  her  fair  face.  Such  a 
sweet  young  mother  she  looked,  such  a  sweet  girl  for  a  man  to 
call  wife,  and  she  was  so  far  away.  Yet  had  he  but  known  she 
was  nearer  yielding  than  she  had  been  any  time  since  the  fatal 
day  when  he  had  told  her  of  his  marriage.  The  thought  of  the 
little  farm  bought  for  her  alone  brought  a  glow  of  comfort  to  her 
heart. 


Susan  Pcnnicuick  51 

"  Koger,"  she  said,  fervently,  "  I  love  you.  You  don't  know 
how  I  love  you." 

"I  want  you  to "  he  began  tenderly,  when  Ted  dashed 

through  the  trees. 

"  Oh,  I  say,  Sue,  do  come  in,"  he  began,  breathlessly.  "  The 
old  tuft  and  Willie  are  going  it  hammer  and  tongs,  and  mother's 
crying  like  anything.  Oh,  I  say,  it  is  a  lark  !  The  old  man 
caught  Bill  with  a  pipe  in  his  mouth,  and  the  fat  is  in  the  fire, 
I  can  tell  you." 

"  Come  with  me  now — at  once,"  urged  Marsden. 

"  No,  I'll  come,  Ted.    Poor  old  aunt.    She'll  be  so  miserable." 

"  You  won't  forget  the  little  farm  that  is  yours  ?  " 

"  No,  no.  Eoger,  I  love  you.  You  don't  know  how  I  love 
you,"  she  repeated,  under  her  breath.  Then  Ted  caught  her  by 
the  arm,  and  she  turned  and  went  through  the  plantation  with 
him,  though  she  hardly  knew  how  her  presence  was  expected  to 
mend  matters. 

On  the  verandah  stood  her  aunt  and  uncle  confronting  Willie, 
who  was  ruefully  regarding  a  broken  pipe,  while  various  members 
of  the  Grant  family  peeped  through  windows  and  out  of  doors, 
and  evidently  listened  with  interest.  The  old  gentleman  was 
scratching  his  head,  as  he  always  did  when  angry  or  perplexed, 
Willie  looked  flushed,  and  his  mother,  strong-minded  Mrs.  Grant, 
was  on  the  verge  of  tears. 

"What  do  you  mean  by  it,  sir?"  Mr.  Grant  was  asking  as 
Sue  came  up.  "A  wicked,  vile  habit,  that  you  know  I  had 
forbidden.  It  is  the  first  that  counts.  I  suppose  we  may  find 
you  drinking — dram -drinking  next.  I  have  always  known  you 
were  stiff-necked,  William,"  he  said,  "  but  I  did  not  know  you 
were  in  outer  darkness." 

Willie  put  up  his  hand  and  felt  his  neck  tenderly,  and  Mrs. 
Grant  looked  more  distressed  than  ever. 

"  Oh,  uncle,"  said  Sue,  protesting,  "  you  know  there  are  so 
many  people  who  do  not  think  smoking  or  even  a  glass  of  whiskey 
a  crime." 

"And  you  at  least,  Susan,"  he  retorted,  solemnly,  "ought  to 
have  learned  that  there  is  only  one  strait  and  narrow  gate,  and 
few  there  be  that  find  it." 

Ann  put  her  head  out  of  the  dining-room  window. 

"  The  way  of  the  transgressors  is  hard,"  she  remarked, 
sepulchrally  and  a  propos  of  nothing  at  all. 

"  Indeed,  Ann,  you  are  right,"  said  her  father,  approvingly ; 
and  Sue  found  that,  in  spite  of  her  own  misery,  she  was  obliged 
to  bite  her  lips  to  keep  back  the  laughter. 

Mrs.  Grant  looked  at  her  eldest  son  and  tried  to  find  excuses 
for  him.  * 

£  2 


52  The  Empire  Review 

"Father,"  she  said,  "I  have  heard  it  said  smoking  is  good 
for  the  digestion.  Perhaps  Willie  thought— 

"  What  shall  it  profit  a  man  if  he  gain  the  whole  world — if  he 
gain  the  whole  world,  and  lose  his  own  soul?  "  quoted  Mr.  Grant, 
unctuously.  "  I'm  surprised  at  you  listening  to  the  wiles  of  the 
evil  one,  mother." 

"  I  smoked  because  I  liked  it,"  said  Willie,  sullenly.  "  Every 
other  fellow  of  my  age  does  it,  and  a  good  many  other  things 
besides,"  he  added,  defiantly. 

Mr.  Grant  ground  the  offending  pipe  under  his  heel. 

"  We  have  sinned  somewhere,"  he  said,  solemnly.  "Go  to 
your  room,  William.  You  can  go  without  your  tea  to-night,  and 
afterwards  we'll  make  it  the  subject  of  earnest  prayer,"  and  he 
went  into  his  own  little  den  which  he  called  an  office. 

That  night  Mrs.  Grant  caught  Sue  piling  up  a  plate  with 
buttered  scones  and  cold  beef,  and  looked  suspiciously  at  her. 

"  It's  so  bad  for  a  growing  boy  to  go  without  his  tea,  aunt," 
she  hesitated.  "  Will  you  take  it,  or  shall  I  ?  I  don't  like  to 
send  one  of  the  servants,  and  I  felt  Ann  was  safe  out  of  the  way 
talking  to  you." 

Mrs.  Grant  hesitated  a  moment.  Then  she  took  the  plate  out 
of  Sue's  hand. 

"  I  don't  know  whether  it's  right,  I'm  sure,"  she  said.  "  Give 
it  to  me  and  you  go  and  talk  to  Ann. 

And  as  Sue  put  her  baby  to  bed  that  night  she  thought 
thankfully  of  the  farm  that  was  waiting  for  her  in  the  Heytesbury 
Forest. 

MAEY  GAUNT. 


(To  be  continued.) 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


53 


INDIAN   AND    COLONIAL   INVESTMENTS* 

As  I  anticipated  last  month,  an  easy  tone  has  prevailed 
in  the  money  market.  Recourse  was,  as  usual,  made  to  the 
Bank  of  England  for  assistance  over  the  end  of  the  half-year, 
but  the  market  appears  now  to  have  shaken  itself  entirely  free 
from  the  control  of  the  Bank,  under  which  it  has  so  long 
remained,  and  the  recent  instalment  on  the  Transvaal  loan  was 
provided  from  market  resources  without  any  borrowing.  The 
only  quarter  whence  a  continuance  of  the  present  easy  conditions 
may  possibly  be  interrupted  is  the  United  States,  the  late  heavy 
fall  in  Wall  Street  securities  giving  rise  to  considerable  anxiety 
as  to  the  stability  of  American  credit.  Everyone  hopes,  of  course, 
and  many  confidently,  that  the  crisis  will  be  surmounted  without 
a  breakdown,  but  should  a  panic  unfortunately  occur,  it  would 
inevitably  cause  disturbance  in  our  money  and  stock  markets. 

The  easy  monetary  conditions  are  favourable,  or  should  be 
favourable  to  high-class  securities.  There  is  at  this  moment, 
however,  a  supreme  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  public  to 
the  attractions  offered  by  the  present  low  range  of  prices,  and 
though  consols  are  certainly  a  little  better  than  at  this  time  last 
month,  there  is  not  the  pronounced  improvement  that  might  have 
been  expected. 

INDIAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present  Amount. 

When 
Redeem- 
able. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

INDIA. 

£ 

8*%  Stock  (*)      .     .     . 

63,040,302 

1931 

108J 

*h 

Quarterly. 

3   %      „      (t)      ... 
2J  %      „    Inscribed  (t) 

48,635,384 
11,892,207 

1948 
1926 

98| 
84* 

ii 

3|  %  Eupee  Paper    .     . 

Rx.  5,843,690 

.  . 

65 

3f* 

Various  dates. 

3|  %      ii          M    1854-5 

Rx.  11,  517,  620 

- 

65* 

34* 

30  June—  31  Deo, 

3   £      „          „    1896-7 

Rx.  1,316,930 

1916 

58 

3** 

30  June—  30  Deo. 

(t)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


*  Rupee  taken  at  1«.  4d. 


*  The  tabular  matter  in  this  article  will  appear  month  by  month,  the  figures 
being  corrected  to  date.  Stocks  eligible  for  Trustee  investments  are  so  designated.— ED. 


54 


The  Empire  Review 


Indian  Government  stocks  are  firm,  but  the  increase  in  price 
is  hardly  more  than  would  represent  the  amount  of  the  month's 
accrued  interest.  The  Indian  Exchequer  is  in  a  satisfactory 
condition,  but  some  comment  has  been  made  on  the  suggestion 
that  a  portion  of  the  cost  of  garrisoning  South  Africa  should  be 
imposed  upon  India,  because  the  troops  there  would  be  more 
readily  available  for  the  defence  of  India  if  required.  Meanwhile, 
Lord  Curzon  has  protested  against  the  extra  charge  on  India 
arising  from  the  increased  pay  of  the  troops — an  increase  which, 
he  asserts,  was  not  due  to  the  needs  of  India. 


INDIAN   RAILWAYS   AND   BANKS. 


Title. 

Subscribed. 

Last 
year's 
dividend. 

Share 
or 

Stock. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

Assam—  Bengal,  L.,  guaranteed  3  %    . 
Bengal  and  North-Western  (Limited) 
Bengal  Central  (L)  g.  3}  %  +  Jth  profits 
Bengal  Dooars  L                       ... 

1,500,000 
2,750,000 
500.000 
150,000 
250,000 
3,000,000 
7,550,300 
2,000,000 

800,000 

2,502,733 

4,047,267 
1,435,650 
5,000,000 
2,701,450 
2,575,000 
2,250,000 
8,757,670 
999,960 
500,000 
2,000,000 
1,112,900 
.200,000 
379,580 
425,000 
1,000,000 
3,500,000 
1,195,600 
966,000 
500,000 
800,000 
550,000 

Number  of 
Shares. 

40,000 
40,000 

3 

5 
5 
5 

4 

J* 

4| 

4 

5 

I1 

4 
3| 
4 
5 
4f 

4 
5 

I 

5 

4 

4 

? 

5 

10 
10 

100 
100 
5 
100 
10 
100 
100 
100 

100 

100 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

20 
12i 

93 

125£ 

101}x 
10 
103* 
159£ 
106* 

114J 

122 

132 
138 
96* 
125 
108 

114} 
123 
94} 
145 
92 
136 
114 
104 
109 
97 
97 
84x 
105 

42} 

28 

? 

5 

I1 

33 
3j 
3| 

N 

*J 

3i 

3i 
35 
3i 
3i 

8! 

a 

i 

i! 

53] 
4; 
3 
4 
3 
& 

<M 

±< 
4, 

I 
1 

f 

1 

7* 
1 

i 
1 

1 
I 

t* 
r7* 

Bengal  Nagpur  (L),  gtd.  4%+  Jth  profits 
Bombay,  Bar.  &  0.  India,  gtd.,  5  %     . 
Burma  Guar.  2}  %  and  propn.  of  profits 
Delhi  Umballa  Kalka,  L.,  guar.  3J  %  +  j 
net  earnings                       .     .     .     •  / 

East  Indian  "  A,"  ann.  cap.  g.  4%  +  &  \ 
BUT  profits  (t)                •      .                .  / 

Do.  do,  class  "  D,"  repayable  1953  (t)  . 
Do.  4}  %  perpet.  deb.  stock  (t)  .     .     . 
Do.  new  3  %  deb.  red.  (t)  
Great  Indian  Peninsula  4%  deb.  Stock  (t) 
Do.  3%  Gua.  and  ^  surp.  profits  1925  (t) 
Indian  Mid.  L.  gua.  4%  &  J  surp.  profits(J) 
Madras,  guaranteed  5  %  by  India  (t)    . 
Do.  do.  4f  %  (t)      
Do.  do.  4j  %  (t)      

Nizam's  State  Rail.  Gtd.  5  %  stock      . 
Do.  3}  %  red.  mort.  debs.     .... 
Rohilkund  and  Kumaon,  Limited.     . 
South  Behar  Limited 

South  Indian  4}  %  per.  deb.  stock,  gtd. 
Do.  capital  stock 

Sthn.  Mahratta,  L.,  3$  %  &  J  of  profits 
Do.  4  7  deb.  stock      .           .     . 

Southern  Punjab,  Limited  .... 
Do.  3}  %  deb.  stock  red  
West  of  India  Portuguese,  guar.  L. 
Do.  5  %  debenture  stock 

BAKES. 

Chartered  Bank  of  India,  Australia,  \ 
and  China    j 

National  Bank  of  India 

(t)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 
*  The  yield  given  makes  no  allowance  for  extinction  of  capital. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


55 


Indian  railways  have  exhibited  some  firmness,  though,  as 
before  stated  here,  the  group  does  not  attract  the  attention  it 
deserves  from  investors.  Nothing  further  has  transpired  with 
regard  to  the  question  of  the  Bombay  Baroda  and  Central  India 
and  the  Madras  Kailways,  but  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
negotiations  are  taking  a  favourable  course,  as  the  stocks  of  both 
companies  are  quoted  somewhat  higher. 


CANADIAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re-  i     p,^ 

definable.    : 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

4%  Inter-"!)  Guaran- 
colonial/  !    teed  by 
4%    „        [     Great 

1,500,000 
1,500,000 

1908 
1910 

102 
104 

3| 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4%    „        J   Britain. 

1,700,000  !       1913           106 

Mi 

4  %  1874-8  Bonds.     . 
4%      „       Ins.  Stock 

4,099,700V     1904o+  :'/  101J 
7,900,300/1     iyu4     r    \  lOlf 

8|     } 
32 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

4  %  Reduced  Bonds    . 
4  %        „      Ins.  Stock 

2,209,  821V       191Q       /  104 
4,233,815/       iyiU       \  104x 

31     \ 
3|     / 

1  Jan.—]  July. 

3$  %  1884  Ins.  Stock  . 
4  %  1885  Ins.  Stock  . 
3  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

4,605,000     1909-34*       102x 
3,499,900     1910-35*       104x 
10,101,321  i       1938      i     102x 

9 

3§ 

2if 

1  June—  1  Deo. 
}l  Jan.—  1  July. 

2*%      ..              ..     W 

2,000,000  j       1947 

90 

*l 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

PROVINCIAL. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

3  %  Inscribed  Stock   . 

1,324,760         1941 

89 

H 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

MANITOBA. 

5  %  Debentures     . 
5  %  Sterling  Bonds    . 

346,700  !       1910 
308,000         1923 

105 
114 

tA 

Jl  Jan.—  1  July. 

4%       „        Debs.     . 

205,000 

1928 

103 

3ti 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

NOVA  SCOTIA. 

3%  Stock  .... 

164,000 

1949 

92 

3^ 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

QUEBEC. 

5  %  Bonds  . 

1,199,100 

1904-6 

101J 

4| 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3  %  Inscribed  .     .     . 

1,890,949 

1937 

90 

3i 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

MUNICIPAL. 

Hamilton  (City  of)  4  % 
Montreal    3    %    Deb.\ 
Stock      .     .     . 

482,800 
1,440,000 

1934 
permanent 

103 

90 

3$ 
3| 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 
1  May—  1  Nov. 

Do.  4%  Cons.    „ 

1,821,917 

1932 

107 

3f 

Ottawa  6  %  Bonds 

92,400 

1904 

102 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Quebec  4%  Debs.  . 
Do.  8|  %  Con.  Stock 

385,000 
351,797 

1923 
drawings 

102 
96 

3J 

[l  Jan.—  1  July. 

Toronto  5  %  Con.  Debs. 

136,700 

1919-20 

109 

4; 

Do.  4  %  Stg.  Bonds 
Do.  4  %  Local  Impt. 

300,910 
412,544 

1922-28f       101 
1913           100 

O*  5 

4" 

>1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  3}%  Bonds     . 

1,059,844 

1929             98 

3| 

Vancouver  4  %  Bonds 

121,200 

1931           102 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Do.  4%  40-year  Bonds 

117,200 

1932           102 

3^8 

7  Feb.—  7  Aug. 

Winnipeg  5  %  Debs.  . 

138,000 

1914 

106 

*A 

30  Apr.—  31  Oct. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

(t)  Eligible  fov  Trustee  investments. 


56 


The  Empire  Review 


CANADIAN   RAILWAYS,   BANKS   AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid  up 
per 
Share. 

Price. 

Yield 

RAILWAYS. 

* 

Canadian  Pacific  Shares 

$84.500,000 

5 

$100 

124 

*& 

Do.  4  %  Preference  .     . 

£6,678,082 

4 

100 

105 

3£g 

Do.  5  %  Stg.  1st  Mtg.  Bd.  1915 

£7,191,500 

5 

100 

110 

Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock 

£13,518,956 

4 

100 

111* 

3^<f 

Grand  Trunk  Ordinary. 

£22,475,985 

nil 

Stock 

19 

nil 

Do.  5  %  1st  Preference  . 

£3,420,000 

5 

ii 

112* 

*/• 

Do.  5  %  2nd       „      .     . 

£2,530,000 

5 

ii 

98£ 

4i 

Do.  4  %  3rd       „      .     . 

£7,168,055 

1 

50 

2 

Do.  4  %  Guaranteed 

£5,219,794 

4 

ii 

103 

3$ 

Do.  5  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock 

£4,270,375 

5 

100 

135J 

SH 

Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock 

£10,393,966 

4 

100 

108 

m 

BAKES  AND  COMPANIES. 

Bank  of  Montreal    .... 

60,000 

10 

$200 

498 

4 

Bank  of  British  North  America 

20,000 

6 

50 

71 

tt 

Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce  . 

$8,000,000 

7 

$-50 

16 

4 

Canada  Company     .... 

8,319 

60s. 

1 

36i 

Hudson's  Bay     

100,000 

22s.  6d. 

11* 

36 

Trust  and  Loan  of  Canada.     . 

50,000 

7 

5 

4| 

Do.  new    

25,000 

7 

3 

2j 

9  " 

British  Columbia  ElectriclOrd. 

£210,000 

4 

Stock 

70$ 

511 

Railway  /Pref  . 

£200,000 

5 

Stock 

94 

5"j* 

Tff 

*  £2  capital  repaid  July  1903. 


NEWFOUNDLAND   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

3$  %  Sterling  Bonds 

2,178,800 

1941-7-8 

92 

3* 

3  %  Sterling 
4  %  Inscribed      „ 

325,000 
320,000 

1947 
1913-38* 

79 
103 

4 
3f 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4%        „        Stock 

509,342 

1935 

107 

Si 

4  %  Cons.  Ins. 

200,000 

1936 

107 

3*1 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

Scarcely  a  ripple  has  been  noticeable  in  the  market  for 
Canadian  Government  stocks,  the  discussions  with  regard  to 
the  German  and  the  Imperial  tariffs  being  regarded  as  having 
no  bearing  on  the  credit  of  the  Dominion,  which  is  safe  in  any 
case.  The  disturbance  in  the  American  market  has  prevented 
any  active  dealings  in  Canadian  railway  stocks.  It  is  significant, 
however,  that  these  have  not  followed  American  railroads  down- 
ward. Canadian  Pacific  shares  are  actually  higher  than  a  month 
ago,  and  Grand  Trunks  have  not  lost  ground  to  any  appreciable 
extent.  North  American  banks  and  miscellaneous  shares  are 
fairly  steady,  Hudson's  Bay  after  payment  of  the  £2  return  of 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


57 


capital  and  22s.  per  cent,  dividend,  being  quoted  at  ^936  as  com- 
pared with  40  J  a  month  ago. 

Business  in  Australian  Government  securities  has  been  on 
the  most  limited  scale  during  the  month,  and  the  depression 
ruling  in  other  quarters  has  been  fully  shared  by  this  department. 
In  existing  conditions,  quotations  are  easily  influenced,  but  the 
movements  which  have  occurred,  though  mostly  in  a  downward 
direction,  are  slight,  and  carry  no  special  significance.  With 
the  holiday  season  now  in  full  swing  no  immediate  improvement 
can  be  expected,  but  assuming  the  continuance  of  ease  in  the 
money  market,  the  autumn  should  witness  a  revival  of  activity. 


AUSTRALIAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

NEW  SOUTH  WADES. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 
8J%      »             »    (0 
3%        „             „    It) 

9,686,300 
16,600,000 
12,500,000 

1933 
1924 
1935 

109 
101 
91 

a& 

3 

1  Jan.  —  1  July, 
jl  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

VICTORIA. 

4J%  Bonds      .     .     . 
4  %  Inscribed,  1882-3 
4%         „         1885(0 
3io%       „         1889(0 

3%         ,"         (4  '.     '. 

5,000,000 
5,421,800 
6,000,000 
6,000,000 
2,107,000 
5,559,343 

1904 
1908-13J 
1920 
1921-61 
1911-26* 
1929-49f 

101 
101J 
105 
99 
101 
90 

if' 

3$ 

| 

*& 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 
1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 

QUEENSLAND. 

4  %  Bonds  .... 
4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 
8»%      „             „    (t) 
3%        „             „    W 

10,267,400 
7,939,000 
8,616,034 
4,274,213 

1913-15f 
1924 
1921-30f 
1922-47  t 

101 
106 
99 
92 

3£ 

1 

1  Jan.  —  1  July, 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

4  %  Bonds  . 
4  °/ 
4  %  Inscribed  Stock  ! 
8*%      „             „    (t) 
3%        „             „    (t\ 
3  /o        ii             ii    (£) 

6,586,700 
1,365,300 
6,222,900 
2,517,800 
839,500 
2,760,100 

1907-16t 
1916 
1916-36* 
1939 
1916-26J 
After  1916J 

100* 

101 
103* 
102 
92 
92 

3| 

3 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 
ll  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

1  Jan.  —  1  July, 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA. 

4%  Inscribed  . 
8J%      „          (ft  -     . 
3%        „           4  .     . 
3%         „           (*)        ;.. 

1,876,000 
2,380,000 
3,750,000 
2,500,000 

1911-31* 
1920-35* 
1915-35J 
1927  J 

104 
100 
90 
90 

Q3 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
|l-  May—  1  Nov. 
15  Jan.—  15  July. 

TASMANIA. 

3J  %  Inscbd.  Stock  (*) 
4%                     „     (0 

37.                        /i) 

3,456,500 
1,000,000 
450,000 

1920-40* 
1920-40* 
1920-40* 

102 
107 
93 

i* 

s 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

°TS 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 


t  No  allowance  tor  redemption. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


58 


The  Empire  Review 


AUSTRALIAN   MUNICIPAL  AND   OTHER   BONDS. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Melbourne  &  Met.  Bd.\ 
of  Works  4%  Debs.  / 

1,000,000 

1921 

102 

3J 

1  Apl.—  1  Oct. 

Do.  City  4%  Debs.      . 

850,000       1915-22* 

101 

4 

Do.    Harbour    Trust\ 
Conors.  5%  Bds.       ./ 

500,000         1908-9 

102J 

*T7« 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  4%Bds.     .     .     . 

1,250,000       1918-21* 

101 

3*1 

Melbourne        Trams'! 
Trust  4*%  Debs.    ./ 

1,650,000       1914-16* 

105 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

S.Melbourne  4*%  Debs. 

128,700           1919 

101 

4JL 

I 

Sydney  4%  Debs.  .     . 

640,000 

1912-13 

101 

3& 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  4%  Debs.  .     .     . 

300,000 

1919 

101 

8tf 

1 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

AUSTRALIAN  RAILWAYS,   BANKS   AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

Emu  Bay  and  Mount  Bisohoff  .     .     . 
Do.  4J%  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .... 

12,000 
£130,900 

g 

5 
100 

3} 
97J 

Mid.  of  Western  Australia  6  %  Debs.  . 

£670,000 

nil 

100 

32J 

Do.  4  %  Deb.  Bonds,  Guaranteed  .     . 

£500,000 

4 

100 

101 

3ii 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Bank  of  Australasia  .... 

40,000 

11 

40 

84 

6* 

Bank  of  New  South  Wales  .... 

100,000 

10 

20 

40 

5 

Union  Bank  of  Australia  £75    .     .     . 

60,000 

8 

25 

40 

5 

Do.  4  %  Inscribed  Stock  Deposits  .     . 

£750,000 

4 

100 

99x 

4.  i 

Australian  Mort.  Land  &  Finance  £25 

80,000 

nil 

5 

If 

nu 

Do.  4  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock    .... 

£1,900,000 

4 

100 

97| 

41 

Dalgety  &  Co.  £20     .     . 

154  000 

5 

64 

Do.  4$  %  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .     .     . 

£620,000 

4I 

100 

110$ 

45& 

Do.  4%            „                                .     . 

£1,643,210 

4 

100 

100 

41 

Goldsbrough  Mort  &  Co.  4  %  A  Deb.^ 
Stock  Reduced  / 

£1,234,350 

4 

100 

65* 

» 

Do.  B  Income  Reduced  

£740,610 

4 

100 

OKI 

in 

Australian  Agricultural  £25      .     .     . 

20,000 

£2f 

59$ 

* 

H 

South  Australian  

14,200 

11* 

20 

46 

5 

Trust  &  Agency  of  Australasia  .     ,     . 

42,479 

nil* 

1 

Do.  5  %  Cum.  Pref.   .     .     . 

87,600 

5"" 

10 

Ql 

si 

Met.  of  Melb.  Gas  5  %  Debs.  1908-12. 

£560',000 

5 

100 

°2 

105 

c)« 

4| 

Do.  4$  %  Debs.  1918-22-24  .... 

£250,000 

4 

100 

103 

Australian  Banks  continue  to  make  good  profits,  and.  the 
shares  of  the  leading  institutions  keep  remarkably  firm.  The 
Union  Bank  of  Australia  for  example,  in  its  report  for  the 
half-year  to  28th  February,  shows  a  net  profit  of  £113,650 
which  compares  with  £96,714  in  the  corresponding  period  last 
year.  £60,000  is  to  be  distributed  in  dividend  at  the  same  rate 
as  for  four  previous  half-years,  namely,  eight  per  cent.,  while 
£50,000  is  placed  to  reserve  fund,  raising  it  to  the  old  figure 
of  £1,000,000,  at  which  it  stood  prior  to  1897.  The  Bank  of 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


59 


New  South  Wales  has  also  had  a  successful  half-year.  The  full 
report  to  31st  March,  now  to  hand,  exhibits  net  profits  amounting 
to  dG115,793.  The  allocations  are  the  same  as  a  year  ago,  being 
£100, 000  for  dividend  at  the  usual  rate  of  ten  per  cent,  and 
£15,000  transferred  to  reserve  fund,  while  the  balance  carried 
forward  to  next  half-year  shows  an  increase  of  nearly  £4000. 

But  notwithstanding  the  improved  pastoral  and  agricultural 
outlook,  land  and  mortgage  companies  securities  remain  very 
depressed  and,  in  the  light  of  past  history,  no  early  restoration 
of  confidence  can  be  anticipated  in  this  department. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Commonwealth  revenue  returns  for 
the  past  year  supply  an  excellent  answer  to  the  recent  pessimistic 

NEW  ZEALAND   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable.   1 

Price.       Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

5  %  Bonds  .... 
5%  Consolidated  Bonds 
4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t)  , 
3§  /o       )>            it      (') 
3  %        „            „      (t)  \ 

266,300 
236,400 
29,150,302 
6,161,167 
5,134,005 

| 
1914 
1908 
1929 
1940 
1945 

108x     !     4£ 
101       !     4£f 
109       1     8£ 
104           3A 

92       !     3fg 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 
Quarterly. 
1  May—  1  Nov. 
1  Jan.—  1  July. 
1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

(<)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


NEW   ZEALAND   MUNICIPAL   AND   OTHER   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 

Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Auokland  5%  Deb. 

200,000 

1934-S» 

HI* 

*§ 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Do.Hbr.Bd.5%Debs. 

150,000 

1917 

107 

3b 

10  April—  10  Oct. 

Bank  of  New  Zealand\ 
4%  Qua.  Stookf     ./ 

£2,000,000 

— 

99* 

*& 

Apr.—  Oct. 

Christchurch  6%  Drain- 
age Loan 

|    200,000 

1926 

126J 

*A 

30  June—  31  Deo. 

Dunedin  5%  Cons.      . 

312,200 

1908 

103 

*A 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Lyttleton  Hbr.  Bd.  6% 

200,000 

1929 

126£ 

*& 

) 

Napier    Hbr.  Bd.  5%\ 
Debs  / 

300,000 

1920 

106 

«i 

Jl  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  5%  Debs.  .     .     . 

200,000 

1928 

104 

4| 

j 

National  Bank  of  N.Z.\ 
£7£  Shares  £2£  paid/ 

100,000 

div.  10  % 

4* 

*A 

Jan.  —  July. 

New  Plymouth  Hbr.\ 
Bd.  6%  Debs.     .     ./ 

200,000 

1909 

104J 

B* 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Oamaru  5%  Bds.  .     . 

173,800 

1920 

91 

H 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Otago  Hbr.  Cons.  Bds.\ 

5%      / 

417,500 

1934 

106 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Wellington  6%  Impts.  \ 
Loan  / 

100,000 

drawings 

121J 

*18 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  6%  Waterworks   . 

130,000 

H 

126£ 

4f 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  4i%Debs..     .     . 

165,000 

1933 

104 

*$ 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Westport  Hbr.  4%  Debs. 

150,000 

1925 

104 

3il 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
arlier. 
t  Guaranteed  by  New  Zealand  Government. 


60 


The  Empire  Review 


reports  concerning  Australian  finance.  The  figures  show  an 
income  of  £9,681,000  from  customs  and  excise,  and  £2,445,000 
from  the  Post  Office,  making  a  total  of  £12,126,000.  In  spite  of 
depression  and  drought  the  customs  and  excise  receipts  exceeded 
the  treasurer's  estimate  by  no  less  than  £645,000,  and  the  total 
revenue  is  much  beyond  the  original  Federal  Budget  estimate  for 
a  normal  year.  The  other  side  of  the  account  is  equally  satis- 
factory, expenditure  at  £3,584,000  showing  a  reduction  of  nearly 
£300,000  on  the  estimated  figures,  and  a  still  larger  reduction 
compared  with  the  previous  year's  outgoings. 

These  results  indicate  efficient  management  of  the  Common- 
wealth finances,  and  moreover  amply  justify  the  course  adopted 
by  the  House  of  Eepresentatives  last  year  in  refusing  to  sanction 
a  loan  issue  on  the  ground  that  the  funds  required  should,  and 
could,  be  provided  out  of  surplus  revenue.  The  amount  returned 
to  the  various  States  is  put  down  at  £8,200,000  and,  though  this 
largely  exceeds  their  statutory  proportion,  the  Federal  Treasurer 
will  apparently  still  have  a  balance  of  some  £342,000  available 
for  public  works. 

The  situation  in  South  Africa  has  undergone  very  little 
change,  the  labour  problem  not  having  advanced  towards  a 
solution,  and  mining  shares  have  been  dull  and  depressed,  a 
condition  which  naturally  affects  other  markets  connected  with 
South  Africa.  Government  stocks,  however,  remain  steady  as 
the  financial  position,  so  far  as  they  are  concerned,  is  quite 
satisfactory.  All  the  three  Colonies,  the  Cape,  Natal,  and  the 
Transvaal  have  produced  their  Budgets,  and  each  has  been  able 
to  show  a  surplus  for  the  past  year,  and  to  estimate  for  a  small 
excess  of  revenue  over  expenditure  in  the  coming  year.  Natal 


SOUTH   AFRICAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield.       Interest  Payable. 

CAPE  COLONY. 

£ 

j 

4$  %  Bonds      . 
4  %  1883  Inscribed 

970,900 
3,733,195 

dwgs. 
1923 

104 

108' 

4|         15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
3/s       1  June—  1  Deo. 

4  %  1886 
8i  %  1886       „ 

9,997,566 
8,215,080 

1916-36* 
1929-49* 

105 
101 

3j         15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
3T^       1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3  %  1886        „ 

7,448,367 

1933-43* 

91 

3£         1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

NATAL. 

.             j 

4J  %  Bonds,  1876  . 
4  %  Inscribed  .     .     . 

758,700 
3,026,444 

1919 
1937 

109 
115 

3£g       16  Mar.—  16  Sep. 
3|       i  Apr.  —  Oct. 

3^  %        ,,                    , 

3,714,917 

1939 

103 

3|         1  June—  1  Deo, 

A)               It                     • 

6,000,000 

1929-49* 

93 

3/ff       1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


61 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  RAILWAYS,  BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 
Mashonaland  5  °/  Debs  

£2,500,000 

5 

100 

102 

4ig 

Northern  Railway  of  the   S.  African! 
Rep.  4  %  Bonds  / 

£1,500,000 

nil 

100 

94* 

nil 

Pretoria-Pietersburg  4  %  Debs.  Red.   . 
Rhodesia   Rlys.  5  %  1st  Mort.    Debs.\ 
guar.  by  B.S.A.  Co.  till  1915.     .     ./ 
Royal  Trans-African  5  %  Debs.  Red.    . 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Robinson  South  African  Banking  . 
African  Banking  Corporation  £10  shares 
Bank  of  Africa  £18f  . 

£1,005,400 
£2,000,000 
£1,814,877 

1,500,000 
80,000 
120,000 

4 
5 
5 

I* 

12 

100 
100 
100 

1 

5 
6J 

100 

106 
85^ 

1* 
5| 

13i 

4 
4| 
5| 

5 

44! 

Standard  Bank  of  S.  Africa  £100    .     . 
Ohlsson's  Cape  Breweries     .... 
South  African  Breweries      .... 
British  South  Africa  (Chartered)    .     . 
Do.  5  %  Debs.  Red  

50,000 
30,000 
750,000 
4,568,392 
£1,250,000 

17 
52 
30 
nil 
5 

25 
5 
1 
1 
100 

83* 
27 

107 

4 
n 
n 

nil 
4| 

Natal  Land  and  Colonization    . 
Cape  Town  &  District  Gas  Light  &  Coke 
Kimberley  Waterworks  £10.     .     .     . 
South  African  Supply  and  Cold\  Or-d. 
Storage  /  Pref  . 

34,033 
10,000 
45,000 
300,000 
150,000 

15 
10 
5 
£4 
7 

10 
10 
7 
1 
1 

17 
15 
5 

8*1 
6« 

proposes  to  come  to  London  for  a  loan  of  ;£2,000,000  during  the 
year,  but  her  advisers  would  do  well  to  wait  for  a  time  before 
attempting  to  float  it.  The  Colony  has  borrowed  freely  in  the 
last  year  or  two,  and  has  a  heavy  debt  in  proportion  to  its 
white  population.  Its  position  is,  however,  exceptional,  as  the 
expenditure  is  mostly  on  extremely  remunerative  railways,  and 
on  other  revenue-yielding  properties,  so  that  the  greater  portion 
of  the  debt  may  be  regarded  as  merely  invested  in  income- 
producing  properties.  The  report  of  the  Customs  Union  Conven- 
tion arranged  at  Bloemfontein  has  been  published,  giving  details 
of  the  preference  to  be  accorded  to  British  goods.  South  Africa 
is  not  altogether  unanimous  with  regard  even  to  this  preference, 
much  less  with  regard  to  Mr.  Chamberlain's  more  extended 
proposals.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  Convention  will  be 
adopted  by  all  the  three  Colonies.  South  African  bank  shares 
are  hardly  so  strong,  as  there  are  now  no  bonuses  to  be  expected 
for  some  time,  in  the  shape  of  new  issues  of  shares  at  less  than 
market  prices.  The  two  brewery  companies,  Ohlsson's  Cape 
Breweries  and  the  South  African  Breweries,  have  issued  their 
accounts,  and  both  show  increased  prosperity,  and  the  companies 
are  distributing  large  dividends.  The  shares  have  consequently 
increased  in  market- value. 

There   are  no   changes  in  Crown  Colony  stocks  other  than 


62 


The  Empire  Review 


CROWN   COLONY   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When 
Redeemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Barbadoes  3£%  ins.    . 

375,000 

1925-42f 

101 

1  Mar.—  1  Sep. 

Brit.  Guiana  3%  ins.  . 

250,000 

1923-45* 

90x 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Ceylon  4%  ins.  .     .     . 

1,076,100 

1934 

112x 

15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3%  ins  

2,450,000 

1940 

96 

1  May  —  1  Nov. 

Hong-Kong  3$%  ins  (t) 
Jamaica  4%  ins.    .     . 
Do.3£%ins.     .     .     . 

341,800 
1,098,907 
1,449,800 

1918-43* 
1934 
1919-49* 

102 
106x 
100 

8* 

I 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 
24  Jan.—  24  July. 

Mauritius    3%  guar.) 
Great  Britain  (t)     .  } 

600,000 

1940 

98* 

3^» 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  4%  ins  

482,390 

1937 

110 

g 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Trinidad  4%  ins.  (t)    . 

422,593 

1917-42* 

104 

15  Mar.—  15  Sep. 

Do.  3%  ins.  (t)  .     .     . 
Hong-Kong  &  Shang-1 
hai  Bank  Shares     .  / 

600,000 
80,000 

1926-44f 
Div.  £3J 

91 
64 

5* 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 
Feb.—  Aug. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  shorter  period.  t  Yield  calculated  on  longer  period. 

(t)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

those  due  to  the  deduction  of  the  interest  payments.  The  shares 
of  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation  have 
advanced  a  point.  The  dividend  is  announced  at  the  same  rate 
as  before,  305.  a  share  for  the  half-year.  A  sum  of  $500,000  is 
added  to  the  reserve  fund,  bringing  it  up  to  $16,000,000. 


July  2Wfc,  1903. 


TEUSTEE, 


Letter  to  the  Editor  63 


LETTER   TO   THE   EDITOR 

ON   NOMENCLATURE. 

To  the  Editor  of  THE  EMPIBE  EEVIEW. 

OF  the  many  curious  and  abstruse  studies  which  have  en- 
grossed the  attention  of  thinkers  as  science  has  progressed,  none 
is  more  fascinating  than  that  of  nomenclature.  It  opens  up  an 
almost  illimitable  field  for  research,  and  possesses  a  not  incon- 
siderable degree  of  historical  importance. 

Without  taxing  too  severely  time  and  brain,  much  that  is  of 
lasting  interest  may  be  learned  from  a  comparatively  superficial 
investigation  of  name-lore.  The  origin  of  some  place-names  is 
sufficiently  obvious  ;  whilst  in  other  cases  the  primitive  meaning 
of  the  word  is  almost  impossible  to  unravel,  so  mutilated  by  the 
pronunciation  of  successive  generations  has  it  become.  Very 
charmingly  romantic,  and  full  of  poetic  sentiment,  are  the  old 
Irish,  the  Gaelic,  and  the  Welsh  names  :  many  of  them  admit  of 
delightful  translations,  even  into  the  crudity  of  modern  English. 
The  Celtic  is  wonderfully  preserved  in  many  an  obscure  place  in 
Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland ;  sometimes  from  a  chieftain,  a 
battle,  a  noteworthy  incident,  often  from  a  local  peculiarity,  do 
the  towns,  villages  and  hamlets  take  their  names. 

An  attribute  added  to  the  patronymic,  such  as  Colin  the  brave, 
Dougal  the  red,  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  ancient  Gaelic 
personal  nomenclature.  "  Bock  of  the  night "  and  "  hill  wrapt 
in  mists  "  are  typical  Celtic  examples ;  always  the  very  essence 
of  appropriateness  and  that  simplicity  of  expression  which  is  true 
poetry.  It  is  of  course  unpreventable  that  there  must  be  a  certain 
amount  of  conjecture  in  deciphering  meanings  from  ancient  names. 
Musical  sounds,  it  may  be  noted,  are  as  inseparable  from  some 
languages  as  harsh,  metallic  ones  from  others. 

There  is  also  family,  personal,  and  tribal  nomenclature.  The 
earliest  bestowal  of  names  was  undoubtedly  almost  universally 
totemistic — a  system  existent  now  amongst  such  widely  diversified 
races  as  the  North  American  Indians,  the  hillmen  of  parts  of  Asia, 
the  Australian  aborigines,  and  many  African  tribes.  "Hiawatha" 


64  The  Empire  Review 

teems  with  the  quaint  nomenclature  of  Dacotah  and  Ojibway, 
Sioux  and  Iroquois.  It  is  especially  in  surnames  that  signs  of 
ancestral  occupations,  crafts,  and  characteristics,  are  discernible. 
Spelling  is  a  matter  of  very  little  account  in  heraldry — but  as 
family  names  distinctly  belong  to  that  most  interesting  study, 
they  hardly  come  under  the  broad  headline  adopted  for  the 
purposes  of  this  article.  Personal  or  "  Christian "  names  are 
nowadays  bestowed  chiefly  from  reasons  of  family  association, 
to  propitiate  wealthy  godparents  (sic)  or  from  individual  prefer- 
ence :  but  in  ancient  times  they  possessed  deep  significance,  and 
since  some  were  accounted  fortunate,  others  ill-omened,  the 
bestowal  was  a  matter  for  most  serious  consideration. 

To  later  days  belongs  the  custom  of  adding  the  prefix  "  of  " 
(von  or  de)  "  such  and  such  a  place,"  in  an  exclusive  grade  of 
society,  as  a  mark  of  land-ownership  and  an  assertion  of  a  certain 
degree  of  nobility.  The  oldest  names  are  scientifically  recognised 
as  those  which  indicated  the  tribe  or  group,  which  was  formed 
in  the  earliest  stage  of  the  social  progress  of  humanity — when 
one  such  tribe,  banded  together  from  a  sense  of  relationship,  or 
for  convenience,  adopted  a  name,  it  frequently  gave  to  the  lesser 
bands  dwelling  in  the  vicinity  contemptuous  or  opprobrious 
names,  its  own  being  significant  of  domination.  Early  English 
names  are  chiefly  remarkable  as  echoing  the  spirit  of  those  rude 
warlike  times.  Saintly  names  became  very  popular  after  the 
introduction  of  Norman  and  Teutonic  elements.  Later  came 
such  nicknames  as  Green,  Short,  and  Brown,  whilst  Wilson, 
Thomson,  and  the  like  are  easily  deduced.  One  cannot  stroll 
past  a  row  of  modern  villas  without  a  feeling  of  amused  wonder 
at  the  varied  causes  and  motives  which  have  resulted  in 
"Plantagenet  House,"  "Fern  Cottage,"  "Prince  Albert  Villa," 
"  Mafeking,"  "  Sirdar,"  and  "  Barry  "  Villas,  even  "  Shottery  " 
and  "  Falstaff  Lodge."  In  such  an  incongruous  collection  one 
may  observe  such  strangely  diversified  influences  as  ambition, 
locality,  association,  literature,  loyalty,  and  history ! 

By  nomenclature  we  can  mark  the  fusion  of  races — the  super- 
sedure  of  old  English  names  by  Norman  ones,  is  an  instance.  It 
has  assisted  in  the  discovery  of  many  an  interesting  episode 
belonging  to  a  recondite  chapter  in  the  dim  depth  of  the  histbry 
of  the  past;  and  every  link  which  aids  those  who  delight  to 
illuminate  the  abyss  over  which  old  time  has  cast  so  impenetrable 
a  veil,  is  of  the  utmost  value. 

N.  M.  PHILLIPS. 


OFFICIAL     REPORT 


OF    THE 


ALLIED  COLONIAL 
UNIVERSITIES  CONFERENCE 


HELD   AT 


BURLINGTON    HOUSE 

(By  kind  permission  of  the  President  of  the  Royal  Society), 

©n  3ul\>  9,  1903, 


AND 


THE   SPEECH   OF  THE  PRIME   MINISTER 

WHO   PRESIDED   AT   THE   DINNER   ON   JULY    IO, 

WITH    A    BRIEF    SUMMARY    OF    THE    SPEECHES 
WHICH    FOLLOWED. 


CONTENTS. 


83 


PAGE 

COMMITTEES.— Conference— Dinner— General    .  66 

List  of  Delegates 68 

Resolutions  passed 69 

Letter  of  inquiry 70 

Speeches  at  Morning  Session. 
The  RT.  HON.   JAMES  BRYCE,  P.C.,   M.P., 

F.R.S.  (Chairman) 71 

SIR  WILLIAM  HUGGINS,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  O.M. 

(President  of  the  Royal  Society)   ....      77 
The  REV.  F.  H.  CHASE,  D.D.  (Vice-Chaucellor 

of  Cambridge  University) 78 

Mr.   W.   PETERSON,   C.M.G.,    LL.D.   (Vice- 

Chancellor  of  McGill  University)  ....      80 
The  RT.  HON.  LORD  KELVIN,  P.C.,  G.C.V.O., 

F.R.S.,  O.M.  (Glasgow  University)     .     .     . 
SIR  HENRY  ROSOOE,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

(London  University) 84 

Mr.  R.  A.  REEVE,  B.A.,  M.D.,  LL.D.  (Toronto 

University) 86 

Mr.  J.  A.  EWING,  F.R.S.  (Director  of  Naval 

Education,  Admiralty) 87 

The  HON.  SIR  JOHN  BUCHANAN  (Vice-Chan- 
cellor of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  University)     89 
SIR  OLIVER  LODGE,   LL.D.,   D.Sc.,  F.R.S., 

Principal  of  Birmingham  University)     .     .      91 
SIR  ARTHUR  RUCKER,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 

(Principal  of  University  of.  London)  ...      94 

Speeches  at  Afternoon  Session. 

The  RT.  HON.  LORD  STRATHCONA  AND  MOUNT 
ROYAL,  P.C.,  LL.D.,  G.C.M.G.  (Chairman), 
Chancellor  of  McGill  University  ....  96 

Mr.  T.  HERBERT  WARREN,  M.A.  (Pro-Vice- 
Chancellor  of  Oxford  University) ....  97 

VOL.  VI.— No.  31. 


PAGE 

Mr.  RICHARD  THRELFALL,  F.R.S.  (Sydney 
University,  N.S.W.) 101 

SIR  GILBERT  PARKER,  D.C.L.,  M.P.  (Chair- 
man), Trinity  University,  Toronto  ...  103 

REV.  J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  D.D.  (Trinity  College, 
Dublin) 104 

Mr.  ALFRED  HOPKINSON,  K.C.,  LL.D.  (Vice- 
Chancellor  of  Victoria,  University,  Man- 
chester)   107 

Mr.  JOHN  WATSON,  M.A.,  Ph.D.  (Queen's 
University,  Kingston,  Ontario)  ....  109 

SIR  W.  RAMSAY,  K.C.B.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 
(University  of  London) Ill 

Mr.  DEAN  BAMFORD,  LL.D.  (University  of 
New  Zealand) 112 

SIR  DYCE  DUCKWORTH,  M.D.,  LL.D.  (Edin- 
burgh University) 113 

The  REV.  J.  P.  WHITNEY,  D.C.L.(Chancellor 
of  Bishop's  College,  Lennoxville,  Quebec)  .  114 

Mr.  F.  B.  JEVONS,  D.  Litt.  (Durham  University)  115 

Mr.  THOMAS  HARRISON,  M.A.,  LL.D.  (Chan- 
cellor of  New  Brunswick  University)  .  .  116 

The  RT.  HON.  R.  B.  HALDANE,  K.C.,  M.P.    .    117 


Speeches  at  Dinner. 

The  PRIME  MINISTER 121 

The  HON.  SIR  JOHN  BUCHANAN 125 

Mr.  THRELFALL,  F.R.S 125 

SIR  GILBERT  PARKER,  D.C.L.,  M.P 126 

The  REV.  H.  MONTAGU  BUTLER,  D.D.  (Master 

of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge)     ....  126 

The  REV.  J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  D.D 127 

Mr.  T.  CHASE-CASGRAIN,  K.C.,  M.P.  (Laval 

University,  Canada) 128 


66 


Official  Report  of  the 


CONFERENCE  COMMITTEE. 

The  RT.  HON.  R.  B.  HALDANE,  P.C.,  LL.D.,  M.P. 
J  SIR  MICHAEL  FOSTER,  K.C.B.,  D.C.L.,  D.Sc.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  M.P. 

SIR  GILBERT  PARKER,  D.C.L.,  M.P. 

SIR  OLIVER  LODGE,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.,  Principal  of  the  University  of  Birmingham. 
-SIR  ARTHUR  RUCKER,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.,  Principal  of  the  University  of  London. 

T.  HERBERT  WARREN,  Esq.,  M.A.,  Pro-Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford  and  President  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 

C.  KINLOCH  COOKE,  Esq.,  B.A.,  LL.M.  (Hon.  Secretary). 


DINNER    COMMITTEE. 

Chairman:  SIR  GILBERT  PARKER,  D.C.L.,  M.P.,  Trinity  University,  Toronto. 

Vice-Ckairman:  The  HON.  SIR  JOHN  COCKBURN,  M.D.,  K.C.M.G.,  Adelaide  University,  South  Australia. 

Hon.  Treasurer:  J.  M.  COCHRANE,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Trinity  University,  Toronto. 

Hon.  Secretary:  C.  KlNLOCH  COOKE,  Esq.,  B.A.,  LL.M.,  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 

Assistant  Hon.  Secretary:  E.  N.  FERE,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Trinity  University,  Toronto. 

DONALD  AMOUR,  Esq.,  M.B.,  M.A.,  Toronto  University;  L.  C.  R.  AMOTT,  Esq.,  Mus.  Doc.,  Trinity 
University,  Toronto;  D.  M.  BUCHANAN,  Esq.,  B.A.,  University  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  W.  GEOFFREY 
DUFFIELD,  Esq.,  B.Sc.,  Adelaide  University,  South  Australia ;  ALFRED  HILLIER,  Esq.,  B.A.,  M.D.,  University 
of  the  Cap«  of  Good  Hope;  MATTHEW  A.  HUNTER,  Esq.,  M.A.,  University  of  '  News  Zealand ;  PROFESSOR 
HERBERT  A.  STRONG,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Melbourne  University,  Australia;  J.  BOVELL  JOHNSON,  Esq.,  M.D., 
McGill  University,  Montreal ;  H.  B.  MARRIOTT  WATSON,  Esq.,  B.A.,  University  of  New  Zealand  ; 
J.  ALEXANDER  WATT,  Esq.,  M.A.,  B.Sc.,  University  of  Sydney,  New  South  Wales. 


GENERAL   COMMITTEE. 


Governors-General  and  late  Governors- 
General. 

2^,  His  GRACE  THE  DUKE  OF  ARGYLL,  K.T.,  G.C.M.G., 
G.C.  V.O.,  late  Governor-General  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada. 

10+  THE  RT.  HON.  THE  MARQUESS  OF  LINLITHGOW,  K.T., 
P.C.,  G.C.M.G.,  G.C.V.O.,  late  Governor-General 
of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia. 

THE  RT.  HON.  THE  EARL  OF  ABERDEEN,  P.C., 
G.C.M.G.,  late  Governor-General  of  the  Dom- 
inion of  Canada. 

THE  RT.  HON.  THE  EARL  OF  MINTO,  P.C.,  G.C.M.G., 
Governor-General  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

XTHB  RT.  HON  THE  LORD  TENNYSON,  K.C.M.G., 
Governor-General  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia. 


Governors  and  late  Governors. 

THE  RT.  HON.  THE  EARL  OF  ONSLOW,  P.C.,  G.C.M.G. 
late  Governor  of  New  Zealand. 

THB  RT.  HON.  THE  EARL  OF  GLASGOW,  G.C.M.G., 
late  Governor  of  New  Zealand. 

THE  RT.  HON.  THE  EARL  OF  BANFURLY,  G.C.M.G., 
Governor  of  New  Zealand. 

THE  RT.  HON.  THE  LORD  BRASSEY,  K.C.B.,  late 
Governor  of  Victoria. 

THE  RT.  HON.  THE  LORD  LAMINGTON,  G.C.M.G  ,  late 
Governor  of  Queensland. 

FIELD-MARSHAL    SIR    HENRY    NORMAN,     G.C.B., 
G.C.M.G.,  C.S.I.,  late  Governor  of  Queensland. 

SIR  ARTHUR  E.  HAVELOCK,  G.C.M.G.,   G.C.I.E , 
G.C.8.I.,  Governor  of  Tasmania. 


VICE-ADMIRAL  SIR  F.  G.  BEDFORD,  G.C.B.,  Governor     , 
of  Western  Australia. 

VICE-ADMIRAL    SIR    HARRY    RAWSON,    K.C.B., 
Governor  of  New  South  Wales. 

COL.    SIR    GEORGE    SYDENHAM    CLARKE,    R.E., 
K.C.M.G.,  F.R.S.,  Governor  of  Victoria.  % 

COL.    SIR    HENRY   MCCALLUM,    R.E.,   K.C.M.G., 
Governor  of  Natal. 

SIR  CAVENDISH  BOYLE,  K.C.M.G.,  Governor  of  New- 
foundland. 

Lieut. -Governors. 

THE  KT.  HON.  SIR  SAMUEL  J.  WAY,  BART.,  P.C., 

K.C.,  D.C.L.,  Lieut. -Governor  of  South  Australia,        > 
and  Chancellor  of  Adelaide  University. 

THE  RT.  HON.  SIR  S.  W.  GRIFFITH,  P.C.,  G.C.M.G., 
Lieut. -Governor  of  Queensland. 

THE  HON.  SIR  FREDERICK  DARLEY,  G.C.M.G.,  LL.D., 
Lieut. -Governor  of  New  South  Wales. 

THE  HON.  SIR  JOHN  MADDEN,  K.C.M.G.,  LL.D., 
Lieut. -Governor  of  Victoria. 

THE  HON.  SIR  Louis  A.  JETTE,  K.C.M.G.,  LL.D., 
Lieut. -Governor  of  Quebec. 

THE  HON.  SIR  D.  H.  MCMILLAN,  K.C.M.G.,  Lieut.  - 
Governor  of  Manitoba. 

SIR   HENRI  G.  JOLY  DE  LOTBINIERE,  K.C.M.G., 
Lieut. -Governor  of  British  Columbia. 

THE  HON.   W.  MORTIMER   CLARK,  K.C.,   Lieut.-      \ 
Governor  of  Ontario. 

THE  HON.  J.  B.  SNOWBALL,  Lieut. -Governor  of  New 
Brunswick. 

THE  HON.  A.  E.  FORGET,  Lieut. -Governor  of  the 
North- West  Territories. 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference 


67 


General  Officers  commanding  Colonial 
Troops. 

GEN.  THE  RT.  HON.  THE  EARL  OF  DUNDONALD, 
C.B.,  C.V.O.,  General  Officer  commanding  the 
Canadian  Militia. 

GEN.  THE  HON.  SIR  N.  G.  LTTTLETON,  K.C.B., 
K.C.M.G.,  Commander-in -Chief  of  the  South 
African  Forces. 

Colonial  Prime  Ministers  and  late  Prime 
Ministers. 

THE  RT.  HON.  SIR  EDMUND  BARTON,  P.C.  K.U., 
G.C.M.G.,  Prime  Minister  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia. 

THE  RT.  HON.  RICHARD  J.  SEDDON,  Prime  Minister 
of  New  Zealand. 

THE  RT.  HON.  SIR.  J.  GORDON  SPRIGG,  P.C.,  D.C.L., 
G.C.M.G.,  Prime  Minister  of  the  Cape  Colony. 

LIEUT. -COL.  THE  RT.  HON.  SIR  ALBERT  HIME,  P.C., 
K.C.M.G.,  LL.D.,  Prime  Minister  of  Natal. 

THE  RT.  HON.  SIR  ROBERT  BOND,  P.C.,  K.C.M.G., 
Prime  Minister  of  Newfoundland. 

THE  HON.  SIR  ROBERT  G.  W.  HERBERT,  G.C.B., 
D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Chancellor  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George,  and  late  Prime  Minister 
of  Queensland. 

THE  HON  SIR  CHARLES  TUPPER,  BART.,  G.C.M.G., 
LL.D.,  late  Prime  Minister  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada. 

THE  HON.  SIR  N.  ELLIOTT  LEWIS,  K.C.M.G.,  Prime 
Minister  of  Tasmania. 

THE  HON.  J.  G.  JENKINS,  Prime  Minister  of  South 
Australia. 

THE  HON.  G.  H.  MURRAY,  K.C.,  Prime  Minister  of 
Nova  Scotia. 

THE  HON.  ROBERT  PHILP,  Prime  Minister  of 
Queensland. 

THE  HON.  G.  W.  Ross,  LL.D.,  Prime  Minister  of 
Ontario. 


High  Commissioner  and  Agents-General. 

THE  RT.  HON.  THE  LORD  STRATHCONA  AND  MOUNT 
ROYAL,  P.C.,  LL.D.,  G.C.M.G.,  High  Com- 
missioner for  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and 
Chancellor  of  McGill  University. 

THE  HON.  SIR  HORACE  TOZER,  K.C.M.G.,  Agent- 
General  for  Queensland. 

SIR  WALTER  PEACE,  K.C.M.G.,  Agent-General  for 
Natal. 

THE  HON.  HENRY  COPELAND,  Agent-General  for 
New  South  Wales. 

THE  HON.  ALFRED  DOBSON,  K.C.,  Acting  Agent- 
General  for  Victoria  and  Agent-General  for  Tas- 
mania. 

THE  HON.  H.  B.  LEFROY,  Agent-General  for  Western 
Australia. 

THE  HON.  W.  P.  REEVES,  Agent-General  for  New 
Zealand. 

T.  E.  FULLER,  ESQ.,  C.M.G.,  Agent-General  for  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

THE  HON.  CHARLES  A.  DUFF  MILLER,  Agent-General 
for  New  Brunswick. 

THE  HON.  J.  H.  TURNER,  Agent-General  for  British 
Columbia. 

H.  ALLERDALE  GRAINGER,  ESQ.,  Agent-General  for 
South  Australia. 

JOHN  HOWARD,  ESQ.,  Agent-General  for  Nova 
Scotia. 

HARRISON  WATSON,  ESQ.,  Agent-General  for  Prince 
Edward  Island. 


Colonial  Ministers  and  Superintendents  of 
Education.* 

THE  HON.  K,  HARCOURT,  LL.D.,  K.C.,  Minister  of 
Education,  Ontario. 

THOS.  MUIR,  ESQ.,  C.M.G.,  LL.D.,  Superintendent- 
General  of  Education,  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

ALEX  ANDERSON,  ESQ.,  LL.D.,  Superintendent  of 
Education,  Prince  Edward  Island. 

J.  MASTERS,  ESQ.,  Director  of  Education,  Tasmania. 

ROBERT  RUSSBLL,  ESQ.,  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion, Natal. 

Chancellors  of  Colonial  Universities.* 

THE  HON  SIR  H.  N.  MACLAURIN,  K.C.M.G.,  Chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Sydney,  N.S.W. 

SIR  SANDFORD  FLEMING,  K.C.M.G.,  LL.D.,  Chan 
cellor  of  Queen's  University,  Kingston. 

THE  HON.  SIR  W.  R.  MEREDITH,  K.C.,  LL.D., 
Chancellor  of  Toronto  University. 

THE  REV.  O.  C.  S.  WALLACE,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Chancellor 
of  McMaster  University,  Toronto. 

C.  ROBINSON,  ESQ.,  K.C.,  D.C.L.,  Chancellor  of 
Trinity  University,  Toronto. 

Vice-Chancellors,  Provosts,  Presidents,  and 
Hectors  of  Colonial  Universities. 

SIR  HENRY  J.  WRIXON,  K.C.M.G.,  Vice-Chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Melbourne. 

THE  HON.  SIR  JOHN  BUCHANAN,  Vice -Chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

THE  HON.  MR.  JUSTICE  ARCHIBALD  H.  SIMPSON, 
M.A.,  Vice-Chancellor  of  Sydney,  New  South 
Wales. 

THE  HON.  Mr.  JUSTICE  JOSEPH  DUBUC,  D.C.L., 
Vice-Chancellor  of  the  Manitoba  University. 

THE  HON.  CHARLES  Moss,  K.C.,  LL.D.,  Vice- 
Chancellor  of  Toronto  University. 

W.  PETERSON,  ESQ.,  LL.D.,  C.M.G.,  Vice-Chancellor 
of  McGill  University,  Montreal. 

WILLIAM  BARLOW,  ESQ.,  LL.D.,  Vice-Chancellor  of 
the  University  of  Tasmania. 

THE  REV.  T.  C.  STREET  MACKLEM,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
Vice-Chancellor  and  Provost  of  Trinity  Uni- 
versity, Toronto. 

W.  H.  MOORHOUSE,  ESQ.,  Vice-Chancellor  of  Western 
University,  London,  Ontario. 

THE  REV.  J.  P.  WHITNBY,  D.C.L.,  Vice-Chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Bishop's  College,  Lennox- 
ville,  Quebec. 

N.  C.  JAMES,  ESQ.,  Ph.D.,  Provost  of  Western  Uni- 
versity, London,  Ontario. 

THE  REV.  THOS.  TROTTER,  D.D.,  President,  Acadia 
University,  Woolfville,  Nova  Scotia. 

THE  RBV.  C.  E.  WILLETS,  D.C.L.,  President  of  the 
University  of  King's  College,  Windsor,  N.S. 

DAVID  ALLISON,  ESQ.,  LL.D.,  President  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Mount  Allison  College,  Sackville,  New 
Brunswick. 

J.  R.  INCH,  ESQ.,  LL.D.,  President  of  the  University 
of  New  Brunswick,  and  Chief  Superintendent  of 
Education,  New  Brunswick. 

JAMES  LOUDON,  ESQ.,  LL.D.,  President  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Toronto. 

THE  REV.  J.  E.  EMERY,  LL.D.,  Rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Ottawa. 

MGR.  0.  F.  MATHIEU,  Rector  of  Laval  University, 

Quebec. 
THE  REV.  D.  M.  GORDON,  D.D.,  Principal  of  Queen's 

University,  Kingston. 


V 
N 


*  In  addition  to  the  names  already  given  under  other  heads. 


F   2 


68 


Official  Report  of  the 


LIST  OF   DELEGATES, 

Specially  appointed  by  the  Governing  Bodies  of  Degree-Conferring  Universities 
throughout  the  Empire,  to  attend  the  Conference. 


I.  UNIVERSITIES  OF  ENGLAND  AND 

WALES. 

Oxford. 

D.  B.  MONBO,  Esq.,  M.A.  LL.D.  (Pro- 
vost of  Oriel  and  Vice-Chancellor). 

T.  HEBBEBT  WABBEN,  Esq.  (President 
of  Magdalen  College  and  Pro-Vice- 
Chancellor). 

Cambridge. 

The  Rev.  F.  H.  CHASE,  D.D.  (President 
of  Queens'  College  and  Vice-Chan- 
cellor). 

A.  E.  SHIPLEY,  Esq.,  B.A.,  (Fellow  of 
Christ's  College). 

London. 
SIB  HENBY  D.  ROSCOE,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 

F.R.S. 

SIB  EDWABD  H.  BUSK,  M.A.,  LL.B. 
The  Hon.  W.  PEMBEB  REEVES. 
SIB  WILLIAM  RAMSAY,  K.C.B.,  LL.D., 

D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 
SIB  ABTHUB    RiiCKEB,    LL.D.,  D.Sc., 

F.R.S.  (Principal). 

Durham. 

F.  B.  JEVONS,  Esq.,  D.Litt.  (Sub- 
Warden). 

Victoria. 

ALFBED  HOPKINSON,  Esq.,  K.C.,  LL.D. 
(Principal  of  Owens  College,  Man- 
chester). 

N.  BODINGTON,  Esq.,  D.Litt.  (Principal 
of  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds). 

A.  W.  W.  DALE,  Esq.,  M.A.  (Principal 
of  University  College,  Liverpool). 

Birmingham. 

SIB  OLIVEB  LODGE,  D.Sc.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.  (Principal). 

Wales. 

The  Hon.  GEOBGE  T.  KENYON,  M.P. 
Dr.  R.  D.  ROBEBTS,  M.A.,  D.Sc.  (Junior 
Deputy  Chancellor). 

II.  UNIVERSITIES  OF  SCOTLAND. 
St.  Andrews. 

WILLIAM  BABBIE  Dow,  Esq.,  M.D. 
Glasgow. 

The  Rt.  Hon.  the  LOBD  KELVIN,  P.C., 
G.C.V.O.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  O.M. 

Aberdeen. 

The  Rt.  Hon.  C.  T.  RITCHIE,  P.O.,  M.P. 
(Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and 
Rector  of  the  University). 


SIB  PATBICK  MANSON,  K.C.M.G.,  M.D., 

LL.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  F.R.S. 
Professor  FiNLAY,M.D.,LL.D.,F.R.S.E. 

Edinburgh. 
SIB  DYCE  DUCKWOBTH,  M.D.,  LL.D. 

III.  UNIVERSITIES   OF  IRELAND. 

Diiblin  (and  Trinity  College). 

The  Rev.  J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  D.D.,  D.C.L. 

(Senior  Fellow  and  Registrar). 
ANTHONI  TBAILL,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  M.D. 

Royal,  of  Ireland. 
Queen's  College,  Belfast. 

Professor  F.  S.  BOAS,  M.A.,  F.R.U.I. 
Queen's  College,  Cork. 
SIB     ROWLAND      BLENNEBHASSETT, 
BABT. 

IV,  CANADIAN  UNIVERSITIES. 

McGill. 
The  Rt.  Hon.  the  LOBD  STBATHCONA, 

P.C.,   G.C.M.G.,  LL.D.    (Chancellor 

and    High     Commissioner     for    the 

Dominion  of  Canada). 
W.    PETEBSON,    Esq.,   C.M.G.,    LL.D. 

(Vice-Chancellor  and  Principal). 
HENBY  P.  BOVEY,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  (Dean 

of  the  Faculty  of  Applied  Science). 
D.  E.  RUTHEBFOBD,  Esq.,  M.A.,  D.Sc., 

F.R.S.  (Macdonald  Prof,  of  Physics). 

Toronto. 

Professor  I.  H.  CAMEBON. 
Professor  A.  MCPHEDBAN. 
Professor    R.   A.    REEVE,   B.A.,   M.D., 
LL.D. 

Victoria,  Toronto  (affiliated  to  Toronto 

University). 
The    Hon.    CLIFFOBD   SIFTON,  K.C., 

M.A.,  M.D. 

Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N.S. 
Professor    J.    G.    MACGBEGOB,    M.A., 

D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 
The  Rev.  L.  H.  JOBDAN,  D.D. 

Laval. 

THOMAS  CHASE-CASGBAIN,  Esq.,  LL.D., 
M.P. 

Trinity,  Toronto. 
CHBISTOPHEB    ROBINSON,    Esq.,    K.C., 

LL.D.  (Chancellor). 
SIB  GILBEBT  PABKEB,  D.C.L. ,  M.P. 
J.  TBAVEBS  LEWIS,  D.C.L. 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference 


69 


McMaster,  Toronto. 

The  Bev.  O.  C.  S.  WALLACE,  D.D., 
LL.D.  (Chancellor). 

Ottawa. 

The  Kev.  J.  E.  EMERY,  LL.D.  (Presi- 
dent). 

Bishop's  College,  Lennoxville. 

The  Rev.  J.  P.  WHITNEY,  D.O.L.  (Chan- 
cellor). 

Manitoba. 

The  Rev.  WILLIAM  PATRICK,  D.D. 
(Member  of  Council  and  Principal  of 
the  Affiliated  Colleges). 

King's  College,  Windsor,  N.  S. 

Lieut.-General  J.  WIMBURN  LAURIE, 
C.B.,  M.P. 

Acadia. 

LEWIS  HUNT,  Esq.,  M.D. 
Queen's. 

JOHN  WATSON,  Esq.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.  (Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy). 

The  Rev.  Professor  S.  McCoMB,  M.A., 
D.D. 

New  Brunswick. 

THOMAS  HARRISON,  Esq.,  M.A.,  LL.D. 
(Chancellor). 


Western. 

A.  W.  GREENUP,  Esq.,  D.D.  (Principal 
of  St.  John's  Hall,  Highbury,  N.). 

V.  AUSTRALIAN  UNIVERSITIES. 
Sydney. 

T.  T.  GURNEY,  M.A.  (late  Professor  of 

Mathematics). 
R.  THRELFALL,   Esq.,  M.A.,  M.I.E.E., 

A.M.I.C.E.,  P.C.S. 
Professor  W.  SCOTT,  M.A. 

Adelaide. 

Professor  HORACE  LAMB,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 
Professor  T.  H.  BEARE,  B.A.,  B.Sc. 
The  Rev.  Dr.  PATON. 

Tasmania. 

W.  JETHROW  BROWN,  LL.D.,  Litt.D. 
(Professor  of  Comparative  Law  in  the 
University  College  of  Wales). 

VI.  NEW  ZEALAND  UNIVERSITY. 
H.  DEAN  BAMPORD,  Esq.,  LL.D. 

VII.  THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE  UNI- 
VERSITY. 

The  Hon.  SIR  JOHN  BUCHANAN  (Vice- 

Chancellor). 

The  Rev.  DR.  CAMERON. 
ROBERT  RUSSELL,   ESQ.,   I.S.O.   (Late 

Superintendent    of     Education     for 

Natal). 


RESOLUTIONS  PASSED  AT  THE  CONFERENCE. 

(1)  That  in  the  opinion  of  this  Conference  it  is  desirable  that  such  relations 
should  be  established  between  the  principal  teaching  Universities  of  the  Empire 
as  will  secure  that  special  or  local  advantages  for  study,  and  in  particular  for 
post-graduate  study  and  research,  be  made  as  accessible  as  possible  to  students 
from  all  parts  of  the  King's  Dominions. 

(2)  That  a  Council,  consisting   in  part  of  representatives  of  British  and 
Colonial  Universities,  be  appointed  to   promote  the  objects  set  out   in  the 
previous  Resolution.     And  that  the  following  persons  be  appointed  a  Committee 
for  the  constitution  of  the  Council :  the  Rt.  Hon.  the  Lord  Kelvin,  G.C.V.O., 
F.R.S.,  O.M. ;  the  Rt.  Hon.  the  Lord  Strathcona  and  Mount  Royal,  G.C.M.G. 
(Chancellor  of  McGill  University  and  High  Commissioner  for  the  Dominion  of 
Canada)  ;  the  Rt.  Hon.  James  Bryce,  M.P.,  F.R.S. ;  the  Rt.  Hon.  R.  B.  Hal- 
dane,  K.C.,  M.P. ;  Sir  William  Huggins,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  O.M.  (President  of 
the  Royal  Society)  ;  Sir  Michael  Foster,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  M.P. ;  the  Rev.  F.  H. 
Chase,  D.D.  (President  of  Queens'  College,  and  Vice-chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Cambridge)  ;  Mr.  T.  Herbert  Warren,  M.A.  (President  of  Magdalen  College, 
and   Pro-Vice-Chancellor  of   the  University  of  Oxford)  ;   Sir  Arthur  Riicker, 
LL.D.,   D.Sc.,  F.R.S.   (Principal  of   the   University  of   London)  ;    Sir  Oliver 
Lodge,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.  (Principal  of  the  University  of  Birmingham)  ;  the 
Rev.  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  D.D.  (Senior  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin)  ;  the  Hon. 
W.  P.  Reeves  ;  and  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  D.C.L.,  M.P. 


70  Official  Report  of  the 


LETTER    OF    INQUIRY 

Sent  to  tiie  Universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  London,  Durham,  Victoria,  Wales, 
Birmingham,  St.  Andrews,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin 
(Trinity  College). 

3,  MOUNT  STREET,  GROSVENOR  SQUARE,  W., 

May  30^,  1903. 
DEAR  SIR, 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  proceedings  at  the  Allied  Colonial  Universities 
Conference,  to  be  held  at  Burlington  House,  on  the  9th  of  July,  I  shall  be 
very  much  obliged  if  you  can  assist  me  with  information  upon  the  following 
points  : — 

(a)  Whether,  and  if  so  in  what  way,  the  conditions  under  which  degrees 

are  given  by  the  University  of  • are  modified  in  the  case  of  persons  who 

have  studied  in  or  taken  the  degrees  of  Colonial  Universities. 

(Z>)  Does  the  University  of  afford  any  special  facilities  for  post- 
graduate study  (in  particular  with  regard  to  Applied  Science)  to  the 
graduates  of  Colonial  Universities  ?  Does  the  University  reward  special 
post-graduate  students  by  bestowing  upon  them  degrees,  and  on  what 
conditions  as  to  residence  or  tests  of  fitness  are  such  degrees  bestowed  ? 

(c)  Does  the  University  of  • •  possess  any  special  endowments  for 

the  encouragement  of  Colonial  students  ;  or  are  Colonial  students  habitually 
aided  by  any  endowments  not  under  the  control  of  the  University  ? 

(d)  What  is  the  average  number  of  Colonial  students  studying  in  the 
University  of ? 

I  need  hardly  add  that  the  above  questions  are  only  given  as  types  of  the 
kind  of  information  desired,  and  I  should  be  glad  if  you  would  be  kind  enough 
to  state  any  other  facts  you  may  think  material.  Similar  questions  are  being 

sent  to  the  Universities  of ,  and  it  is  intended  either  to  print  the  replies 

or  a  summary  of  them  for  use  at  the  Conference.  Much  time  will  thus  be  saved 
which  would  otherwise  be  spent  in  explanations  as  to  the  existing  relations 
between  the  Universities  of  the  Empire. 

If  these  points  are  clearly  defined,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  consider  in 
what  directions  they  could  be  extended  and  strengthened. 

I  am,  dear  Sir, 

Yours  very  faithfully, 

C.   KlNLOCH   COOKE, 

Hon.  Sec.  of  the  Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference. 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  71 


OFFICIAL   REPORT 

OF   THE 

ALLIED  COLONIAL  UNIVERSITIES  CONFERENCE. 


flDorning  Session, 

THE  ET.  HON.  JAMES  BEYCE,  P.O.,  M.P.,  F.E.S., 

IN  THE  CHAIR. 
The  CHAIRMAN  : — 

My  first  duty  to-day  is  to  extend,  on  behalf  of  the  British  universities, 
a  very  cordial  welcome  to  our  friends,  the  representatives  of  the  colonial 
universities,  who  have  come  together  to  meet  us  in  this  Conference. 
Nearly  all  the  colonial  universities  and  all  the  British  universities 
are  represented  here  to-day,  and  they  are  represented  by  men  who  are 
eminently  qualified  both  by  their  official  position  and  by  their  personal 
qualities  to  represent  those  universities  and  the  interests  of  science  and 
learning  with  which  they  are  bound  up.  And  we  are  also  favoured  with 
the  presence  of  several  distinguished  men,  not  delegates,  who  have  con- 
sented to  take  part  in  the  proceedings,  and  to  give  us  the  benefit  of  their 
advice.  We  may  also  congratulate  ourselves  upon  the  fact  that  we  meet 
here  to-day  in  rooms  lent  to  us  for  the  purpose  by  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  illustrious  of  all  the  learned  bodies  of  Europe,  and  it  is  a  good  omen 
for  our  meeting  that  it  should  be  held  under  the  aegis  and  auspices  of  the 
Eoyal  Society. 

Much  time  and  thought  have  been  devoted  to  the  summoning  and  to 
the  organisation  of  this  Conference,  and  although  it  would  be  impossible 
for  me  to  pay  the  deserved  tribute  to  all  of  those  who  have  given  us  their 
time  and  the  fruits  of  their  thought,  I  ought  not  to  allow  the  occasion  to 
pass  without  saying  how  much  we  are  indebted  in  particular  to  the  efforts 
made  by  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  who  has  brought  to  the  work  of  convoking 
and  organising  this  Conference  a  tact,  a  zeal,  an  energy,  and  a  public 
spirit  which  deserves  from  us,  and  which,  I  hope,  will  receive  wherever 
the  proceedings  of  this  Conference  become  known,  cordial  and  enduring 
recognition. 

This  is  the  first  Conference  of  the  kind  that  has  ever  been  held.  It  is 
an  unique  occasion,  and  I  hope  I  am  not  going  too  far  in  saying  that  it  is 
a  great  occasion.  Such  a  gathering  of  those  who  represent  many  seats  of 
learning  which  serve  populations  scattered  far  apart  over  the  world, 


72  Official  Report  of  the 

populations  that  are  growing  fast  and  developing  themselves  in  various 
directions,  suggests  many  thoughts.  It  widens  the  horizon  of  our  view. 
It  makes  us  turn  our  eyes  backwards  over  the  past  of  our  own  race  and 
also  turn  them  forward  into  the  future.  Twice,  and  twice  only,  in  the 
history  of  mankind  has  a  nation  been  called  upon  to  spread  its  civilisation 
over  a  large  part  of  the  world  beyond  its  own  borders  ;  to  spread,  that  is 
to  say,  its  language,  its  ideas,  its  letters,  its  art  and  its  science,  among  races 
formerly  remote  and  backward.  And  this  has  happened  partly  by  a 
diffusion  of  a  language  and  partly  by  the  expansion  of  a  race. 

In  the  seventh  century  before  Christ,  and  the  centuries  that  followed, 
the  Greeks  carried  over  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  their  language, 
their  letters,  their  art,  and  such  science  as  then  existed  ;  and  Rome,  when 
she  took  up  the  work  as  a  conquering  and  ruling  Power,  became  the 
diffuser  of  Greek  civilisation  through  all  the  countries  which  came  beneath 
her  sway.  A  like  function,  equally  noble  in  its  character,  and  even  more 
extended  in  its  scope,  has  been  reserved  by  Providence  for  the  British 
people  in  the  modern  world.  I  do  not  disparage — this  would  be  the  last 
place  in  which  one  ought  even  to  seem  to  disparage — the  enormous  services 
that  have  been  rendered  to  civilisation  by  the  other  great  nations.  We 
are  all  the  debtors  of  Italy  for  what  she  did  for  letters  and  art  in  the 
fourteenth  and  the  fifteenth  centuries  ;  we  are  all  the  debtors  of  Spain  for 
what  she  did  in  the  way  of  discovery  in  the  sixteenth ;  we  are  all  the 
debtors,  in  later  times  of  France  and  of  Germany,  and  without  what  has 
been  contributed  to  the  common  stock  by  these  nations,  our  own  letters 
and  our  own  science  could  not  be  what  they  are.  But  to  no  one  of  these 
great  races  has  it  been  given  in  the  same  measure  as  to  ourselves  to  be  at 
once  a  source  of  ideas  and  of  knowledge,  and  also,  at  the  same  time,  a 
diffuser  and  propagator  of  civilisation. 

We  have  covered  North  America  with  a  vast  population,  whose  institu- 
tions are  essentially  the  same  as  our  own,  whose  literature  is  a  part  of  our 
literature,  whose  ideas  are  fundamentally  the  ideas  of  the  old  country.  We 
are  spreading  our  language,  and  all  the  knowledge  of  which  our  language 
is  the  vehicle,  among  the  countless  races  of  India,  refining  their  customs 
and  implanting  among  them  ideals  of  justice  and  good  administration,  of 
order  and  of  progress  which  were  heretofore  foreign  to  the  East.  And  in 
our  self-governing  colonies  we  have  planted  on  many  shores,  shoots  of  the 
ancient  British  stock,  which  are  springing  up  into  a  vigorous  life  in  those 
distant  lands,  and  which  promise,  one  day,  to  rival  their  venerable  mother. 
That  which  the  Greeks  did  in  those  remote  centuries  for  the  Mediterranean 
coasts,  Britain  is  now  doing  for  the  coasts  of  distant  oceans,  and  the  lands 
which  the  waves  of  those  oceans  wash.  There  is  no  likelihood — so  far  as 
we  can  see — that  in  the  future  of  mankind  such  a  process  will  ever  be 
carried  through  for  a  third  time.  The  thing,  so  far  as  our  eye  can  pierce 
the  dim  prospect,  seems  to  be  done  now,  once  for  all,  and  we  may  feel  a 
legitimate  pride  in  the  fact  that  the  British  race  has  been  chosen  to  be  the 
instrument  of  the  diffusion  of  science  and  learning  in  distant  lands.  So, 
also,  ought  we  to  feel  a  sense  of  responsibility  and  a  desire  to  make  this 
mission  a  mission  of  enlightenment  and  peace.  It  ought  to  be  in  no  spirit 
of  arrogance,  but  rather  in  a  spirit  sobered  by  the  grandeur  of  the  task,  a 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  73 

spirit  earnestly  bent  on  turning  to  the  best  account  the  unexampled  oppor- 
tunities which  have  come  to  us  that  we  should  devote  ourselves  to  the 
consolidation  of  the  British  people  and  the  British  power  in  all  the 
countries  over  which  our  flag  flies. 

Among  the  most  powerful  agencies  by  which  civilisation  is  diffused 
and  advanced  universities  take  their  place.  A  university  is  a  group  of 
men  organised  for  the  promotion  of  teaching,  of  study  and  of  research  ;  a 
group  which  is  more  effective  because  it  is  an  organised  community,  a 
corporate  body;  and  wherever  we  have  gone  it  has  been  a  part  of  our 
British  policy  to  establish  universities.  We  now  wish  to  correlate  these 
wide  scattered  seats  of  learning  and  to  combine  their  efforts.  We  are 
met  to  consider  what  we  can  do  to  enable  the  universities  of  the  British 
world  to  help  one  another,  and  to  develop  their  functional  activities 
partly  by  combination  and  partly,  where  there  is  room  for  that  method,  by 
specialisation  also.  That  is  the  object  which  brings  us  here  to-day  from 
so  many  distant  spots,  and  I  propose  to  offer  to  you  a  few  observations, 
few,  because  I  do  not  desire  to  trench  on  the  resolutions  assigned  to  subse- 
quent speakers,  on  the  question  of  what  can  be  done  here  by  our  British 
universities,  and  of  what  can  also  be  done  abroad  by  the  colonial  univer- 
sities, to  bring  about  that  combination  of  effort  and  that  specialisation  of 
which  I  have  spoken. 

First  let  me  observe  that  the  colonial  universities  are  still  compara- 
tively young,  and  many  of  them  insufficiently  equipped.  The  British 
Colonies  have  been  hitherto  chiefly  occupied  with  the  material  development 
of  their  natural  resources  and  with  building  up  the  fabrics  of  their  govern- 
ment and  their  administration.  They  have  not  yet  had  time  to  organise 
in  the  way  in  which  we  here  in  Europe  have  been  striving  to  organise  a 
system  of  instruction  in  the  various  branches  of  science  and  learning  ever 
since  the  twelfth  century,  and,  therefore,  one  of  the  functions  which  an 
organisation  such  as  that  which  it  is  now  proposed  to  create  may  accom- 
plish is  to  help  the  colonial  universities  to  raise  their  own  standards  of 
teaching  and  to  supply  them  with  larger  endowments  and  better  appliances 
for  enabling  them  to  discharge  their  functions. 

We  have  not  in  England  the  funds — in  fact  England  is  one  of  the 
countries  in  which  it  is  hardest  to  obtain  money  for  the  purposes  of 
learning  and  science — we  have  not  here  funds  which  we  could  send  to 
the  colonies  to  be  there  expended  upon  that  purpose.  But  all  that  can  be 
done  by  encouragement,  by  sympathy,  by  pointing  out  to  those  who  have 
funds  at  their  disposal,  whether  public  or  private,  in  the  colonies,  how 
valuable  will  be  the  result  which  this  investment  of  money  can  secure — all 
that  we  ought  to  try  to  do.  And  I  think  that  the  creation  of  an  organisa- 
tion under  which  the  universities  of  the  British  world  could  associate 
themselves  for  certain  forms  of  joint  action,  would  help  the  colonial 
universities  to  raise  their  standards  and  to  secure  a  more  complete 
equipment.  May  I  add  that  this  would  be  a  benefit  not  only  to  the 
universities  in  the  colonies,  but  also  to  the  colonies  themselves,  considered 
as  great  self-governing  communities  ?  In  this  respect  I  may  appeal  to 
the  experience  of  the  United  States. 

The  universities  in  the  United  States  have  developed  so  rapidly  and  so 


74  Official  Report  of  the 

fruitfully  within  the  last  forty  years  as  to  have  completely  changed  the 
intellectual  face  of  that  country.  More  has  been  done  within  the  last 
forty  years  to  give  them  importance  in  the  life  of  that  country  and  to 
provide  them  with  enormous  funds  wherewith  to  pursue  their  aims  than 
had  been  done  in  the  whole  previous  history  of  America ;  and  now, 
anyone  who  knows  the  United  States  will  bear  me  out  in  saying  that  the 
universities  play  in  the  public  life  of  the  United  States  a  most  powerful 
and  a  most  beneficial  part.  Their  influence  is  valuable  in  many  directions, 
not  valuable  only  in  the  spheres  of  learning  and  science  but  valuable  also 
in  the  sphere  of  social  progress,  valuable  in  the  spheres  of  administration 
and  political  controversy.  We  must  hope  that  in  the  British  colonies 
universities  will  discharge  the  same  functions.  I  am  persuaded  that  they 
will ;  but  the  sooner  that  they  are  put  in  a  position  to  discharge  the  duty 
that  lies  on  them,  and  the  more  completely  they  can  discharge  it,  the 
more  rapidly  will  the  life  of  these  colonies  advance  and  the  more  healthy 
will  that  life  be. 

One  of  the  modes  in  which  the  combined  action  of  the  universities 
may  do  good  is  this,  that  we  may  arrange  better  schemes  for  the  inter- 
change of  students  between  colonial  universities  there  and  universities 
here.  We  may  give  fuller  facilities  for  the  entrance  of  students  from 
those  universities  into  our  universities  on  favourable  terms  and  at  the 
proper  stage  of  their  education.  Already  we  have  a  considerable  inter- 
change of  professors.  It  has,  so  far,  chiefly  taken  the  form  of  the  colonies 
drawing  professors  from  the  mother-country,  but  it  sometimes  also  takes 
the  form,  and  I  believe  it  will  more  and  more  take  the  form,  of  our  going 
to  the  colonies  to  look  for  eminent  men  there  who  have  proved  their 
capacities  and  who  are  fit  to  adorn  our  own  seats  of  learning. 

A  very  remarkable  step  was  taken  towards  the  interchange  of  students 
by  the  magnificent  endowment  which  we  owe  to  Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes.  Those 
scholarships,  which  in  a  wise  and  large  spirit  were  made  to  include  students 
from  the  United  States  as  well  as  from  countries  beneath  the  British 
Crown,  have  already  begun  to  render  and  will  no  doubt  render  still  greater 
service  in  drawing  together  students  from  remote  parts  of  the  English- 
speaking  world,  and  making  them  feel  thoroughly  at  home  in  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  And  I  believe  that  the  object  in  view  will  be  best  attained — 
this  is  indeed  one  of  the  subjects  which  we  might  profitably  discuss  to-day 
—by  bringing  those  students  not  straight  from  school,  but  when  they 
have  already  obtained  part  of  their  course  at  colonial  universities,  and  are 
therefore  better  fitted  to  follow  out  their  studies  here. 

It  is  impossible  in  that  respect  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  post- 
graduate courses,  a  side  of  university  work  which  is  still  imperfectly 
developed  among  us  here  in  Britain,  and  which,  I  hope,  will  receive 
further  and  further  development  in  years  to  come.  For  the  last  twenty 
years,  ever  since  I  had  occasion  to  know  how  many  American  students 
were  flocking  to  German  universities,  to  obtain  there  the  advanced  teaching 
which  Oxford  and  Cambridge  did  not  provide,  I  have  been  endeavouring 
to  call  the  attention  of  my  own  university  to  this  branch  of  its  work.  If 
we  in  this  Conference  can  do  anything  to  induce  the  British  universities 
to  go  much  further  than  they  have  yet  done  in  the  way  of  making  pro- 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  75 

vision  for  post-graduate  courses,  and  for  carrying  special  students  to  the 
highest  point  to  which  we  can  carry  them,  we  shall  render  a  considerable 
service  both  to  ourselves  and  to  the  universities. 

There  are  many  things  which  colonial  students  can  obtain  better  here 
than  they  can  obtain  them  in  the  colonies.  Our  equipments  are  more 
complete,  our  funds  are  larger,  and  we  have  a  longer  experience  behind  us. 
So  far  as  respects  most  scientific  studies  and  most  of  the  studies  that 
belong  to  what  is  called  "  the  sphere  of  the  humanities,"  we  can  provide  a 
completer  course  and  a  larger  and  more  completely  organised  faculty  than 
can  be  provided  in  the  majority  of  colonial  universities.  But  there  are 
also  some  subjects  which  may  be  pursued  better  in  the  colonies  than  in 
any  British  university.  For  instance,  take  the  case  of  mining,  and  the 
case  of  forestry,  two  branches  of  applied  science  which  may  very  possibly 
receive  a  completer  development  in  the  colonies,  where  forests  are  larger 
and  where  forestal  administration  are  more  needed,  and  where  also  metal- 
liferous mines  are  worked  on  a  greater  scale  than  can  be  done  in  this 
country.  It  will  happen  more  and  more,  as  time  goes  on,  that  certain 
branches  of  applied  science  will  prove  capable  of  being  dealt  with  more 
advantageously  there  than  here  ;  and  therefore  it  must  nowise  be  assumed 
that  it  is  only  we  who  can  give,  and  that  the  colonies  have  only  to  receive. 

The  benefits  of  combination  will  be  reciprocal.  Britain  will  have 
something  to  receive  as  well  as  to  give  in  the  development  of  these  special 
subjects.  We  must  of  course  assign,  when  we  think  of  specialisation,  a  very 
important  place  to  the  development  of  the  practical  applications  of  physical 
science.  Nothing  has  marked  the  time  in  which  we  live  more  than  the 
daily  growing  importance  of  these  applications  of  science.  Whatever  our 
own  particular  tastes  and  pursuits  may  be,  we  must  recognise  the  need 
each  nation  has  to  keep  abreast  in  its  productive  capacity  of  the  other 
nations.  It  is  vital  both  for  us  and  for  the  colonies  that  we  should  lay  a 
scientific  foundation  for  every  branch  of  industry,  and  that  there  should 
be  none  of  the  practical  arts  which  is  not  rooted  in  scientific  enquiry, 
rooted  in  theory  and  in  research.  The  more  the  practical  schools  of 
applied  science  can  be  connected  with  the  universities,  the  better  it  will  be 
both  for  the  universities  and  for  applied  science.  The  application  of 
science  to  the  arts — and  under  the  term  science  I  include  the  operations 
of  commerce  and  the  doctrines  of  economics,  which  are  branches  of 
scientific  enquiry  just  as  truly  as  the  various  departments  of  physics  and 
biology — the  application  of  science  to  the  arts  of  life,  not  only  dignifies 
the  various  arts  of  life  by  connecting  them  with  theoretical  study,  but 
also  gives  them  the  surest  ground  of  progress  and  the  most  fertile  germs  of  _ 
advancement.  There  has  never  been  a  time  in  which  invention — invention 
applied  to  the  arts  of  life — has  so  largely  rested  upon  theoretical  science 
and  can  so  materially  profit  by  theoretical  knowledge  as  is  the  case  to-day. 

To  work  out  both  here  and  in  the  colonies  the  ideas,  and  to  give  effect 
to  the  hopes,  which  have  brought  us  together  to-day,  we  need  and  I  hope 
we  shall  receive  practical  suggestions.  I  invite  those  suggestions  from  all 
present.  To  collect  and  consider  such  suggestions  will  be  one  of  the 
functions  which  will  devolve  upon  that  Imperial  Council  of  Universities 
which  it  is  proposed  that  this  Conference  should  create.  A  resolution  will 


76  Official  Report  of  the 

be  proposed  to  you  in  the  afternoon  asking  you  to  appoint  a  committee  to 
choose  a  council  for  this  purpose;  and  when  that  council  has  been 
appointed  it  will  be  its  duty  to  endeavour  to  arrange  how  students  can  be 
interchanged  and  how  the  universities  of  the  British  world  can  be  made 
to  play  into  and  render  help  to  one  another. 

Before  I  close  let  me  mention  very  briefly  a  few  of  the  benefits  which 
may  be  expected  from  that  combination  and  specialisation  of  the  efforts  of 
British  and  Colonial  universities  which  it  is  desired  to  secure.  Although 
the  development  of  scientific  knowledge  and  its  application  to  industry 
may  be  the  most  urgent  need  of  the  present  time  for  us  as  an  industrial 
and  commercial  people,  and  similarly  for  the  colonies  as  industrial  and 
commercial  communities,  other  subjects  also  need  to  be  worked  out  at  and 
by  universities,  and  their  joint  action,  together  with  the  intermingling  of 
young  men  from  the  colonies  with  young  men  brought  up  here,  ought  to 
be  of  the  greatest  possible  value  to  all  the  branches  of  the  British  people. 

This  action,  this  intermingling,  will  help  to  give  to  the  colonies  and  to 
ourselves  a  real  knowledge  of  the  work  that  is  being  done  by  both,  a 
matter  most  important  in  view  of  the  maintenance  of  the  political  as  well 
as  the  social  and  moral  connection  between  themselves  and  Britain.  We 
lost  the  American  Colonies,  gentlemen,  because  we  did  not  understand 
them.  And  an  interchange  of  students  and  teachers  between  colonial 
universities  and  our  own  will  help  us  as,  perhaps,  scarcely  anything  else 
could  do  to  follow  the  movements  of  public  opinion  in  those  regions,  and 
to  create  what  I  may  call  a  common  public  opinion  of  the  British  people, 
a  public  opinion  which  will  occupy  itself  with  questions  that  are  common 
to  us  all.  It  will  also  enable  us  better  to  profit  by  the  experience  of  those 
young  and  bold  communities.  The  problems  which  the  colonies  have  to 
deal  with — economic  problems,  administrative  problems,  and  social  problems 
— are  very  largely  the  same  as  the  problems  which  occupy  our  own  thoughts. 

We  have  much  to  learn  by  studying  what  has  been  done  in  Australia,  for 
instance,  or  in  Canada,  towards  the  solution  of  those  problems,  and  we 
cannot  study  them  properly,  we  cannot  understand  what  the  ebb  and  flow 
of  public  opinion  is,  we  cannot  appraise  the  value  of  the  experience  which 
the  colonies  are  acquiring,  unless  we  understand  their  social  condition, 
unless  we  follow  the  tides  and  currents  of  their  public  opinion.  We  have 
already,  we  shall  have  in  the  future,  an  immense  deal  to  gain  by  recording 
and  weighing  the  experience  which  they  have  obtained  in  their  efforts  to 
grapple  with  the  new  questions  which  democratic  industrialism  has  to  face. 

In  the  United  States  the  universities  represent  the  organization  of  the 
best  and  most  enlightened  public  opinion,  and  they  do  a  great  deal  to  keep 
the  political  machinery  of  the  United  States — which,  in  some  respects, 
leaves  a  great  deal  to  be  desired — from  retarding  the  progress  of  that 
country,  as  it  certainly  would  do  if  this  enlightened  public  opinion,  of 
which  the  universities  are  so  largely  the  organ,  were  not  there  to  check 
the  mischief  and  to  elevate  the  purposes  of  the  people.  That  that  which 
a  great  university  does  as  the  organ  of  the  intellectual  life  of  the  nation  in 
each  community  may,  to  some  extent,  be  done  by  a  combination  of  uni- 
versities for  the  united  national  life  of  the  whole  British  world.  The 
universities  may  thus  be  led  to  feel  themselves  parts  of  one  great  whole, 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  77 

and  may  all  the  more  effectively  bend  their  united  energies  to  the 
advancement  of  knowledge  and  to  the  discovery  of  truth. 

May  I  add  that  in  this  method  of  drawing  the  colonies  and  the  mother- 
country  together — or  shall  I  rather  call  it  a  drawing  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  British  people  together  ?  because  I  sympathise  with  what  was  said 
by  an  eminent  Canadian,  that  the  term  colonies  hardly  worthily  represents 
the  position  which  these  great  communities  have  attained  for  themselves — 
in  this  method  of  drawing  them  together  there  is  no  possibility  of  con- 
troversy, there  is  no  opening  for  suspicion.  It  is  a  method  founded  upon 
freedom  and  upon  equality.  There  is  no  idea  present  to  the  mind  of  any 
one  of  us  of  attempting  in  any  way  to  circumscribe  or  to  override  the 
independence  of  each  university.  All  that  we  desire  is  to  make  suggestions 
for  the  rendering  of  reciprocal  help  in  order  that  all  the  universities  of  the 
British  world  shall  be  established  upon  the  same  footing.  We  are  the 
older,  and  the  richer,  so  that  at  present  we  are  able  to  do  more,  but  the 
difference  will  steadily  diminish  and  in  every  successive  generation  we 
shall  have  more  to  learn  and  they  will  have  more  to  teach. 

To-day  we  are  only  at  the  initial  stage  considering  what  we  can  do  for 
a  common  object,  but  we  are  encouraged  by  the  feeling  that  nothing  but 
good  can  result  from  our  efforts.  We  have  two  aims,  and  those  two  aims 
are  closely  bound  together.  One  aim  is  to  develop  the  intellectual  and 
moral  forces  of  all  the  branches  of  our  race  wherever  they  dwell,  and 
therewith  also  to  promote  learning,  science  and  the  arts  by  and  through 
which  science  is  applied  to  the  purposes  of  life.  The  other  aim  is  to 
strengthen  the  unity  of  the  British  people  dispersed  throughout  the  world  : 
and  the  deepest  and  most  permanent  source  of  unity  is  to  be  found  in 
those  elements  in  which  the  essence  of  national  life  dwells,  identity  of 
thought  and  feeling,  a  like  attachment  to  those  glorious  traditions  which 
link  us  to  the  past,  a  like  devotion  to  those  ideals  which  we  have  to  pursue 
in  the  future. 

Before  I  call  upon  the  mover  of  the  first  resolution,  it  would,  I  think, 
be  agreeable  to  you  that  an  opportunity,  which  I  believe  he  desires  should 
be  afforded  to  the  illustrious  man  of  science  who  presides  over  the  Royal 
Society  to  address  to  you  a  few  words  of  welcome. 

SIB  WILLIAM  HUGGINS,  K.G.B.,  F.R.S.,  O.M.  (President  of  the  Royal 

Society)  : — 

I  rise  with  very  great  pleasure  to  express  on  behalf  of  the  Royal 
Society  our  high  appreciation  and  our  sympathy  with  the  great  objects  of 
this  Conference.  I  need  not  say  that  the  object  for  which  the  Royal 
Society  was  founded  two  centuries  and  a  half  ago,  and  the  object  which 
the  Royal  Society  has  kept  before  it  during  the  whole  of  that  time, 
namely,  the  promoting  of  natural  knowledge,  is  closely  connected  with  the 
methods  of  academical  education.  I  would  only  add  one  word  that  it 
appears  to  me — and  I  believe  it  also  is  the  view  of  the  Royal  Society — 
to  be  of  extreme  importance  that  original  research  in  some  form  or 
other  should  become  a  condition  for  receiving  the  higher  academic 

;rees. 

I  am  sorry  that  it  is  not  possible  for  me  to  be  present  during  this 


78  Official  Report  of  the 

Conference,  as  I  have  fco  preside  at  a  meeting  of  the  Council  of  the  Royal 
Society,  but  I  again  desire  to  express  our  warmest  welcome. 

The  CHAIRMAN  :— 

While  there  is  no  desire  to  limit  or  circumscribe  discussion  in  any  way, 
so  large  a  number  of  gentlemen  have  expressed  a  wish  to  speak  and  the 
mover  and  seconder  of  the  resolution  have  to  develop  their  ideas  at 
length,  that  it  is  hoped  everyone  who  speaks  will  endeavour  so  to  compress 
his  remarks  as  to  give  the  fullest  opportunity  to  our  colonial  visitors  to 
state  from  their  knowledge  of  their  own  conditions  what  it  is  they  think 
we  can  do  to  help  them.  Subject  to  that  suggestion,  I  need  hardly  say 
that  no  one  is  asked  to  forbear  saying  what  he  has  to  say,  but  we  hope 
that  an  opportunity  will  be  given  to  as  many  persons  as  possible  to  express 
their  views. 

I  will  now  ask  the  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge  to 
move  the  first  resolution. 

That  in  the  opinion  of  this  Conference  it  is  desirable  that  such  relations 
should  be  established  between  the  principal  teaching  universities  of  the  empire 
as  will  secure  that  special  or  local  advantages  for  study,  and  in  particular  for 
post-graduate  study  and  research,  be  made  as  accessible  as  possible  to  students 
from  all  parts  of  the  King's  dominions. 

The  REV.  F.  H.  CHASE,  D.D.  (President  of  Queens'  College  and  Vice- 
Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge)  : — 

I  feel  that  it  is  a  signal  honour  to  be  allowed  to  move  the  first 
resolution  on  this  occasion.  Yet  I  am  bold  to  say  that  there  is  a  certain 
fitness  in  one  who,  for  the  moment,  represents  one  of  the  older  universities 
having  this  position  assigned  to  him.  "We,  at  any  rate,  have  a  priority  in 
time.  We  have,  not  always  without  reproach,  but  still,  I  trust,  on  the 
whole  worthily  and  well,  borne  the  burden  and  heat  of  the  centuries. 

When  I  use  a  familiar  and  time-honoured  figure  and  speak  of  those 
universities,  the  representatives  of  which  are  gathered  together  in  this 
room,  as  sisters,  I  am  using  a  metaphor  which,  I  believe,  expresses  a  real 
and  important  fact.  These  universities  are  already  closely  connected.  We 
have  not  to  create  an  affinity  between  them.  It  is  the  business  of  this 
Conference  to  recognize  their  affinity  and  to  make  it  effective  for  practical 
purposes.  And  yet  I  think  that  the  metaphor  of  sisterhood  gives  only 
partial  expression  to  one  important  stimulus  to  action.  Universities,  if  in 
the  first  place  they  are  the  servants  of  learning  and  science,  in  the  second 
place — if  it  is  indeed  the  second  place — are  the  servants  of  a  society 
infinitely  greater  than  themselves,  the  Empire.  And  their  capacity  to 
render  that  two-fold  service  will  be  greatly  enlarged  and  strengthened,  if 
we  finally  abandon  a  policy  of  isolation  and  enter  upon  a  well-considered 
and  deliberate  policy  of  mutual  recognition  and  co-operation. 

I  venture  to  think  that  there  is  one  condition  of  that  mutual  recogni- 
tion and  co-operation  which  is  so  important  that  I  must  say  a  word  about 
it.  We  must  carefully  avoid  any  idea  of  unifying  our  universities  and 
reducing  them  to  one  type.  We  must  recognize  that  universities 
have  developed  in  the  past,  and  that  they  must  develop  in  the  future, 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  79 

according  to  their  inherited  traditions,  traditions  which  will  be  modified 
in  the  light  of  experience — modified  indeed,  but  never  abandoned  or 
destroyed.  There  are  many  types  of  universities.  And  the  type  of  a 
university  is  largely  determined  by  its  previous  history  and  by  its  environ- 
ment. One  university  will  specially  give  itself  to  the  study  of  pure 
science ;  another  to  the  various  applications  of  science ;  another  will 
emphasize  the  study  of  economic  problems  as  bearing  upon  business  and 
commerce  ;  another  will  lay  stress  upon  literary  studies  both  as  an  end  in 
themselves  and  also  as  an  influence  permeating  and  leavening  other 
studies.  I  think  I  may  say  that  in  Cambridge  all  these  studies  are 
adequately  represented,  not  only  the  older  scientific  and  literary  studies. 
We  now  have  an  increasing  engineering  school ;  and  one  of  the  events  in 
the  history  of  the  past  year  has  been  the  establishment  of  a  Tripos  to 
encourage  the  study  of  economics  and  the  related  branches  of  political 
science.  All  these  studies  are  represented  in  Cambridge  ;  and  yet  I  venture 
to  say  that  we  have  a  character  of  our  own  which  is  discernible,  but  which 
I  will  leave  it  to  those  present  more  closely  to  define.  The  first  condition 
then  of  efficient  co-operation  is  the  recognition  of  differences  of  type. 

I  have  the  honour  at  Cambridge  to  belong  to  a  College  which  was 
founded  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  on  the  eve  of  the  Renais- 
sance. Some  sixty  years  later  the  great  Dutch  scholar,  Erasmus,  lived  and 
worked  for  four  years  within  the  walls  of  Queens'  College.  A  little  later 
an  alumnus  of  the  Society,  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  who  became  a  great 
politician  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  Civil  Law  in  the  University,  went  to  Padua  to  prepare  himself 
for  his  new  work.  These  facts  are  concrete  examples  of  a  great  principle. 
The  foundations  of  the  new  learning  in  the  sixteenth  century  were  laid  in 
the  co-operation  and  mutual  recognition  of  European  universities. 

It  may  be  that  future  generations  will  regard  the  time  now  present  as 
a  second  Eenaissance  ;  certainly  it  is  a  time  remarkable  for  rapid  educa- 
tional progress.  And  we  are  returning  to  the  old  principle  of  recognition 
and  co-operation.  But  the  co-operation  at  which  we  now  aim  appears  to 
me  both  a  narrower  and  a  broader  co-operation  than  that  which  effected 
such  great  results  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  broader,  because  we 
have  many  more  subjects,  many  more  types  of  universities,  to  deal  with 
than  were  possible  in  those  older  days.  It  is  a  narrower  co-operation,  and, 
therefore,  we  trust,  more  real,  and  destined  to  be  more  fruitful  of 
practical  consequences ;  for  it  is  not  cosmopolitan  but  national  and 
imperial.  It  will  not  depend,  as  did  that  older  co-operation,  upon  the 
vicissitudes  of  precarious  foreign  relations.  It  rather  springs  out  of  and 
is  cemented  by  the  strong  emotion  of  patriotism.  It  is  based  on  the  sure 
and  abiding  foundation  of  unity  of  race,  unity  of  language,  unity  of 
character,  and,  I  will  venture  to  add,  speaking  broadly,  as,  I  believe, 
Sir  John  Seeley  would  have  added,  unity  of  religious  ideals. 

This  policy  is  no  new  thing  ;  at  least  it  is  not  a  new  thing  with  us  at 
Cambridge.  Cambridge  has  been  brought  into  close  connection  with 
education  in  the  colonies  in  three  ways ;  first,  by  its  system  of  Local 
Examinations  ;  secondly,  by  its  system  of  Affiliated  Institutions ;  and, 
thirdly,  by  its  system  of  Advanced  Students.  Particulars  as  to  these  two 


80  Official  Report  of  the 

latter  methods  I  have  ventured  to  give  in  the  pamphlet  *  which,  I  think, 
is  in  the  hands  of  all  members  of  the  Conference. 

The  work  of  consolidation  cannot  be  the  creation  of  a  single  con- 
ference. It  must  be  slowly  and  patiently  wrought  out  in  the  light  of 
growing  knowledge  and  growing  experience.  The  second  resolution, 
which  is  the  rightful  sequel  of  the  first,  provides  for  the  carrying  out  of 
the  work  which  we  hope  will  be  happily  inaugurated  to-day.  As  mntual 
knowledge  advances,  as  we  grow  to  know  more  of  each  other,  more  of  our 
several  characters,  more  of  our  several  needs,  the  methods  of  co-operation 
of  which  I  have  spoken  as  existing  at  my  own  university  will,  I  trust,  be 
gradually  perfected  and  supplemented  by  others.  We  may  look  forward 
to  the  time  when  the  unity  of  the  Empire  will  be  strengthened  and 
compacted  by  the  alliance  which  will  bind  together  its  universities,  and 
by  the  consolidation  of  higher  education  throughout  its  boundaries. 

Even  to  have  anything  to  do  with  the  laying  of  the  first  stone  of  such 
an  edifice  as  this  is  a  great  delight  "  The  prize  is  worthy  and  the  hope  is 
great." 

Mr.  W.  PETERSON,   C.M.Gr.,  LL.D.   (Vice-Chancellor  and  Principal  of 
McGill  University)  : — 

I  appreciate  very  highly  the  honour  of  standing  here  in  association 
with  representatives  of  the  great  institutions  of  the  mother-country  and 
being  asked  to  speak  the  first  words  on  behalf  of  the  oversea  universities. 
We  are  starting  what  I  may  call  a  commission  of  inquiry — a  commission 
of  inquiry  upon  a  subject  which  we  claim  that  the  whole  Empire  should 
be  interested  in  unifying  on  an  Imperial  basis — higher  education  in  this 
country  and  in  the  King's  dominions  over-sea.  Points  of  difference  may 
possibly  arise  in  the  course  of  our  debate,  but  I  think  we  are  unanimous  in 
our  hearty  appreciation  of  the  effort,  which  owes  so  much  to  our  friend, 
Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  to  bring  home  to  all  who  cherish  that  feeling  of 
brotherhood  founded  not  alone  on  racial  and  political  affinities,  but  on 
common  aims  and  kindred  ideas. 

Speaking  for  universities  beyond  the  seas,  I  may  say  that  we  have 
long  taken  leave  of  the  idea  that  a  university  can  be  held  to  dis- 
charge its  whole  duty  if  it  keeps  itself  jealously  apart  from  the  practical 
interests  of  life,  and  from  the  calls  of  the  world's  work.  I  do  not  forget 
that  there  are  two  ideals  that  must  be  cherished  in  this  relation.  The 
ideal  of  the  small  college  whose  local  aims  and  circumstances  lead  it  at 
times  almost  to  frown  on  the  advances  of  what  it  would  call  "  mere 
utilitarianism "  and  which  limits  itself  and  does  its  work  often  well,  to 
moulding  and  fashioning  the  characters,  the  minds  and  faculties  of  its 
students.  And  the  ideal  of  the  larger  university  which  has  been  founded, 
as  very  many  modern  universities  have  been  founded,  in  the  midst 
of  a  great  central  population,  and  which  seeks  ever  to  identify  itself 
and  its  work  more  and  more  with  the  interests  of  those  in  the  midst 
of  whom  it  is  carrying  on  its  operations.  Such  an  institution  would 

*  This  Pamphlet  was  specially  compiled  by  the  Honorary  Secretary  for  the  use  of 
delegates  at  the  Conference ;  it  contained  the  replies  of  the  different  universities  of 
the  United  Kingdom  to  the  circular  letter  set  out  on  p.  70. 


I 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  81 

stultify  itself,  and  would  in  many  cases  belie  its  origin  if  it  aimed  at 
being  an  academic  ornament  instead  of  making  itself  also  a  centre  of 
practical  usefulness.  And  when  we  are  told  by  theorists  that  a  university 
is  no  place  for  what  we  call  a  technical  school,  I  should  like  to  answer, 
what  you  know  well  enough  in  this  country,  that  there  are  technical 
schools  and  technical  schools,  and  secondly,  that  if  the  university  should 
seek  to  embrace  within  the  sphere  of  its  operation  a  technical  institute 
with  a  sufficiently  high  standard,  it  is  doing  nothing  more  than  simply 
seeking  to  extend  the  range  of  interests  to  cover  which  universities  were 
first  founded.  The  modern  university,  after  ministering  to  the  needs  of 
the  professions  represented  by  law,  theology  and  medicine,  and  also 
general  culture,  may  well  go  on  to  embrace  within  the  sphere  of  its  work 
the  higher  aspects  of  commerce  and  industry  which  will  ever  continue  to 
be  linked  to  the  onward  march  of  scientific  inventions  and  discovery. 

The  Vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge  said  some  very  wise  things  especially 
about  the  fallacy  of  seeking  to  make  all  universities  fit  in  the  same  mould. 
He  spoke  rightly  of  the  meaning  of  the  resolution  which  has  been  placed 
before  you  as  something  that  will,  if  it  can  be  carried  out,  secure  for  us  all 
conjoint  efficiency  through  centralisation  and  correlation  of  effort.  I 
concur  in  this  view.  My  university  is  not  a  very  old  one,  but  still  it  has 
something  to  show  for  the  work  that  it  does  in  the  world,  and  if  this 
Conference  has  any  practical  result  at  all — as  we  all  hope  it  may  have — I 
venture  to  predict  that  it  will  be  ultimately  on  the  side  of  advantage  to  the 
older  universities  of  the  homeland.  Some  gentlemen  present  may,  perhaps, 
have  the  idea  that  the  desired  centralisation  is  to  take  place  immediately, 
and  more  or  less  exclusively,  in  the  old  country,  but  that  is  hardly  a  view 
which  the  colonies  can  be  expected  to  adopt  without  some  qualification. 

If  Mr.  Kinloch  Cooke,  who  has  organised  the  work  of  this  Conference 
so  admirably,  had  had  time  to  send  to  the  great  teaching  universities 
of  the  Empire  the  same  set  of  interrogatories  as  this  pamphlet*  shows 
he  addressed  to  the  universities  of  the  old  country,  I  know  of  one 
Canadian  university  which  would  have  been  proud  to  give  him  a  list  of 
the  students  it  has  succeeded  in  attracting  from  England  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  what  is  in  some  departments,  at  least,  a  unique  equipment. 
When  the  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Birmingham  was  speaking  the 
other  day  of  the  mining  plant  which  is  being  provided  there,  he  might 
have  found  the  needed  stimulus  for  further  subscriptions  towards  the 
seven-tenths  of  a  million  sterling  that  Birmingham  still  requires,  in  the 
fact  that  that  was  about  the  same  sum — £700,000 — which  McGrill  Univer- 
sity received  from  that  grand  philanthropist,  Sir  William  Macdonald. 
And,  as  a  consequence,  we  have  been  now  for  some  years  in  possession 
of  the  full  mining  plant  which  Birmingham  proposes  to  erect.  I 
mention  that  as  an  explanation  of  the  seeming  arrogance  of  a  colonial 
university  in  holding,  for  some  years  past,  matriculation  examinations  in 
London.  It  is  for  the  convenience  of  students  who  could  not  present 
adequate  certificates  of  entrance  upon  our  course  in  applied  science. 

I  do  not  wish  for  a  moment  to  speak  as  though  applied  science  were  the 
whole  of  education.     There  are  those  in  this  room  who  would  resent  any 
*  See  footnote  on  previous  page. 

VOL.  VI.— No.  31.  a 


82  Official  Report  of  the 

such  limitation,  and  McGill,  I  am  proud  to  say  in  passing,  sends  an 
annual  contribution  to  the  British  schools  at  Athens  and  at  Rome.  But 
there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  mainly  in  regard  to  the  application  of  science 
to  industry  that  England  needs  to  take  to  heart  the  advice  given  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales  when,  as  Duke  of  York,  he  came  back  from  that 
memorable  tour,  and  told  the  old  country  to  wake  up.  The  important 
announcement  which  Lord  Rosebery  made  the  other  day  puts  a  somewhat 
different  complexion  upon  the  problem  of  university  education  in  the 
metropolis,  and  if  the  progress  aimed  at  in  that  direction  can  be  made  to 
consist  with  the  organic  and  unified  development  of  the  University  of 
London  as  a  whole,  then  we  shall  soon  find  London  ranking  among  the 
really  great  universities  of  the  world.  If  universities  are  not  to  be  moulded 
to  any  one  type,  each  university  must  do  what  in  it  lies,  in  spite,  I  am 
afraid,  of  very  grave  and  pressing  difficulties,  to  secure  a  centralised 
administration  that  shall  make  its  influence  felt  through  every  department 
of  the  work  with  which  the  university  is  associated. 

At  the  colonial  Conference  last  year  I  ventured  to  advise  the  repre- 
sentatives of  Oxford  to  rely  at  least  for  the  purpose  of  the  Rhodes  Bequest 
upon  the  ordinary  B.A.  curriculum  instead  of  putting  out  their  strength 
on  schemes  of  graduate  study  and  research,  such  as  probably  never  entered 
into  the  mind  of  that  great  twentieth  century  founder.  In  new  countries, 
you  must  remember,  it  is  natural  that  there  should  be  a  danger  of 
premature  specialisation,  and  the  offer  of  £300  sterling  per  annum  will 
be  sufficient  to  induce  many  a  colonial  student,  who  might  otherwise 
grudge  the  time  and  effort  involved,  to  put  in  two  or  three  years  of  a 
liberal  training  before  entering  a  professional  or  technical  study.  But 
you  are  not  all  able  to  offer  Rhodes  scholarships  of  £300  sterling  per 
annum  for  the  raw  material  of  the  colonies,  and  I  look  for  greater 
developments  in  the  scheme  now  under  consideration,  in  the  region  of 
specialised  study  and  research.  It  is  mainly  here  that  we  are  in  danger  of 
losing  our  graduate  students  in  Canada.  Many  such  students  go  forward 
to  prosecute  special  work  in  our  own  departments  of  law,  of  medicine,  and 
of  applied  science.  The  average  passman  each  university  can  very  well 
look  after  for  itself.  But  what  is  called  for  the  purposes  of  this  Con- 
ference and  with  what  I  venture  to  say  is  a  certain  disregard  of  the  law 
of  linguistic  combination,  the  post-graduate  state — what  is  called  "  post- 
graduate "  work  is  an  expensive  business,  especially  for  the  smaller 
universities,  except  where  it  involves  merely  permission  to  use  laboratories. 

Perhaps  the  best  guide  to  the  immediate  object  before  us  would  be  to 
study  the  conditions  under  which  students  of  the  various  colonial  uni- 
versities have  sought  to  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  which  the 
scholarships  instituted  by  the  Royal  Commission  of  the  1851  Exhibition 
have  granted  for  future  study  and  research.  That  is  a  point  that  I  should 
like  to  hear  spoken  to  by  my  colleague,  Professor  Rutherford,  himself  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  these  scholars.  He  came  to  Cambridge  from 
New  Zealand,  and  from  New  Zealand  went  out  to  represent  the  onward 
march  of  science  in  the  post  which  he  holds  in  the  McGrill  University.  I 
do  not  wish  to  say  that  our  graduates  ought  not  to  go  to  foreign  universities 
in  the  prosecution  of  special  work,  but  it  would  be  much  better  if  we 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  83 

could  give  them  all  they  want  within  the  borders  of  the  Empire.  Canada 
was  described  the  other  day  as  the  spoilt  child  of  the  Empire.  Well, 
certainly  the  United  States  has  spoilt  Canada  of  many  students  who  are 
now  among  the  best  citizens  which  the  United  States  can  boast  to-day. 
We  do  not  want  this  process  to  go  on  for  ever.  There  is  plenty  of  room 
on  the  great  North  American  Continent  for  the  development  of  two  ideals 
of  citizenship,  and  for  two  friendly  nations  to  work  out  their  destiny  in 
mutual  esteem  and  respect.  So  we  shall  try  in  the  future  more  and  more 
to  get  our  young  men  to  stay  with  us. 

In  conclusion,  let  me  say  that,  to  the  great  universities  of  the  home- 
land the  colonies  will  not  grudge  their  very  best  students,  especially  if  they 
may  hope  to  get  them  back  again.  We  welcome  therefore  the  great 
possibilities  that  are  opening  up  in  the  old  country,  for  London  with  its 
vast  opportunities  of  making  itself  a  true  centre  of  imperial  influence,  for 
Oxford,  for  Cambridge,  for  the  Scotch  universities,  for  Dublin,  and  for 
all  the  rest.  We  shall  be  glad  to  become  fellow-workers  with  them  in 
trying  to  obtain  the  highest  results  in  the  region  of  specialised  study  and 
research.  Let  us  all  join  hands  in  an  eager  interchange  of  good.  Instead 
of  working  as  it  were  back  to  back,  let  us  take  every  method  of  keeping 
ourselves  and  each  other  thoroughly  well  informed  as  to  what  is  going  on 
in  the  different  centres  that  we  represent  so  that  there  may  be,  as  Mr. 
Chamberlain  put  it,  a  network  of  institutions  all  over  the  Empire  any  one 
of  which  may  help  the  other  in  the  spirit  of  the  old  motto,  "  Each  for  all 
and  all  for  each." 

The  CHAIRMAN  : — 

We  have  present  with  us  to-day  the  patriarch  not  only  of  British  but  of 
European  science,  and  I  think  we  ought  to  feel  it  a  great  honour  that  he 
should  have  come  to  this  Congress.  I  will  ask  Lord  Kelvin,  who,  I  believe, 
is  the  representative  on  this  occasion  of  Glasgow  University,  to  say  a  few 
words. 

The  RIGHT  HON.  THE  LOUD  KELVIN,  P.O.,  G.C.V.O.,  F.R.S.,  O.M.  :— 

I  came  here  to  listen  and  not  to  speak,  and  I  feel,  after  what  I  have 
heard,  that  it  would  have  been  wiser  if  I  could  have  been  allowed  to  remain 
a  listener.  I  have  heard  with  intense  interest  the  Chairman's  admirable 
speech.  I  have  also  listened  carefully  to  what  the  Vice-Chancellor  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge  has  said  in  his  important  speech  proposing 
the  motion  before  us.  The  Yice-Chancellor  of  McGill  University  has 
also,  I  am  sure  we  all  agree,  given  us  some  very  valuable  information. 
The  unification  of  the  British  Empire,  the  closer  relation  of  every  possible 
and  practicable  kind  between  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies  is  something 
that  we  have  very  much  at  heart  indeed. 

In  university  matters  and  in  science  matters  the  whole  world — not 
merely  the  British  Empire — is  one.  I  look  without  any  grudging,  without 
any  feeling  except  something  of  regret  when  students  from  Canada, 
students  from  Australia  and  students  from  the  United  States  coming 
to  Europe,  choose  a  German  university  or  choose  French  schools  of 
science  in  which  to  prosecute  their  university  studies,  whether  under- 

G  2 


84  Official  Report  of  the 

graduate  or  post-graduate.  I  feel  sympathy  with  the  choice  whether 
it-  be  Germany  or  France,  but  I  must  be  allowed  to  regret  that  it  is  not 
more  often  British.  I  do  not  grudge  the  German  nnd  the  French  schools 
their  share  of  our  own  colonial  students,  but  I  feel  that  we  have  a  strong 
impulse  of  rivalry— friendly  rivalry — with  Germany  and  France.  Let  us 
do  all  we  can  to  make  the  universities  of  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  England, 
as  attractive  to  students  from  any  other  part  of  the  world  as  universities  in 
any  other  part  of  Europe  can  be.  If  only  we  can  keep  before  us  the 
unity  of  university  work,  the  unity  of  scientific  investigation  throughout 
the  whole  world,  with  particular  reference  to  practical  work  throughout 
the  British  Empire,  I  believe  that  this  Conference  will  have  exceedingly 
valuable  results. 

The  practical  objects  before  us  have  been  explained  so  well  by  our 
Chairman  and  by  those  who  have  proposed  and  seconded  the  motion,  that  I 
really  have  nothing  further  to  say.  I  am  sure  you  all  feel  that  the  Conference 
has  begun  well  in  the  proposition,  and  I  presume  the  adoption,  of  the  very 
valuable  and  important  resolution  before  us.  I  should,  however,  like  to 
express  our  gratitude  to  those  gentlemen  who  have  come  from  Canada  and 
Australia  to  join  in  the  work  of  this  Conference.  I  hope  they  will  be 
gratified  with  all  they  find  in  this  country  and  that  they  will  take  back 
to  their  colonial  homes  that  feeling  of,  if  possible,  greater  resolution  that 
the  British  Empire  shall  be  one  in  every  possible  practical  way — that  it 
shall  be  one  in  a  working  union  of  the  universities  for  mutual  help  and 
joint  action  in  promoting  the  objects  of  the  universities. 

SIB  HENBY  ROSCOE,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  (University  of  London}  :— 

In  the  absence  of  the  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of  London 
perhaps  1  may  be  allowed  as  an  ex- Vice-Chancellor  and  one  intimately 
connected  with  that  university  to  offer  to  those  who  have  come  from  far 
and  near  a  welcome  from  our  Senate  in  the  warmest  terms.  Reference 
has  been  made  to  the  work  which  the  University  of  London  is  now  under- 
taking. I  can  assure  you  that  the  Senate  is  fully  aware  of  the  magnitude 
and  the  importance  of  the  task  which  lies  now  before  them,  and  that  their 
views  are  those  which  the  Chairman  has  so  well  expressed,  namely,  the 
importance  of  in  every  way  assisting  the  co-ordination  of  our  university 
with  those  in  other  parts.  Merely  as  an  indication  of  what  is  being  done 
I  may  say  that  although  we  are  quite  a  new  institution  as  far  as  the  teaching 
part  of  our  University  is  concerned,  no  less  than  270  graduates  or  under- 
graduates of  other  Universities  are  now  applying  as  candidates  for  our 
degrees  for  entrance  into  the  University  of  London.  Our  numbers  are 
increasingly  large.  No  less  than  3700  candidates  applied  for  our  recent 
matriculation  examination.  We  are  on  the  high  road  to  success,  I  believe, 
to  make  the  University  of  London  worthy  of  this  great  metropolis. 

There  is  another  point  to  which  I  should  be  glad  in  a  few  words  to 
allude.  Our  Chairman  stated  in  words  which  found  their  echo,  I  am  quite 
sure,  in  the  minds  of  all  those  who  have  our  Universities  at  heart,  the 
words  respecting  the  great  and  overwhelming  importance  of  original 
investigation  and  research.  As  an  instance,  a  small  instance,  of  what  we 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  85 

are  doing  here  in  London  I  would  point  to  the  Scholarships  which  have 
been  instituted  by  the  Royal  Commission  of  the  Exhibition  of  1851 
at  the  instance  of  the  late  Lord  Playfair.  The  Vice-Chancellor  of  McGill 
has  already  mentioned  the  matter,  but  he  did  not  state  what  I  can  state,  as 
I  happen  to  be  the  chairman  of  the  Scholarships  Committee,  namely,  that 
these  scholarships  are  the  beginning — only  the  beginning  of  what  I  think 
might  become  a  very  large  link  between  the  universities  throughout  the 
empire.  We  have  already  done  great  work  in  that  respect.  We  have 
spent  in  the  last  eleven  years  no  less  than  £60,000  in  the  establishment  of 
scholarships  not  only  available  for  colleges  and  universities  in  the  United 
Kingdom  but  also  for  institutions,  colleges  and  universities  in  the 
colonies,  and  during  that  period  no  less  than  195  scholars  have  been 
appointed.  These  scholarships  are  not  intended  to  facilitate  attendance 
at  ordinary  collegiate  studies,  but  to  enable  students  who  have  passed 
through  a  college  curriculum  and  have  given  distinct  evidence  of  capability 
for  original  research,  to  continue  the  prosecution  of  science  to  enable  them 
to  advance  the  industries  of  the  country.  These  are  the  objects  we  have 
in  view,  and  in  this  way  I  think  we  may  say  that  these  scholarships  have 
been  of  the  very  greatest  possible  use.  I  can  give  a  long  list  of  scholars 
who  are  now  distinguished,  who  hold  professorships  in  various  parts  of  the 
Empire,  or  who  are  occupying  posts  of  importance  in  our  scientific 
industries,  who  have  been  assisted,  and  I  believe  materially  assisted,  by  the 
1851  scholarships. 

I  mention  this  matter  because  I  believe  it  is  one  which  can  be  carded 
out  to  a  much  larger  extent  than  we  have  done  at  the  present  moment, 
and  I  may  say  that  if  this  sum  of  £6000  a  year  which  we  spend  could  be 
doubled  or  trebled,  we  should  still  find  plenty  of  young  men  who  would  be 
helped  up  in  the  higher  region  of  research,  and  who  by  passing  from  the 
college  where  they  were  trained  to  other  places,  from  New  Zealand,  from 
South  Africa,  from  Australia,  from  Canada,  who  come  over  to  London  or 
to  Cambridge  or  to  Oxford,  or  who  go  to  Germany,  France,  or  the  United 
States,  and  who  have  thus  the  advantage  of  getting  into  what  is  an  entirely 
new  atmosphere  of  science,  and  that  not  only  enlarges  their  view  of  life 
but  enables  them  to  prosecute  their  original  work  with  increasing 
advantage.  So,  too,  in  time  to  come,  British  graduates  will  pass  over  to 
our  colonial  universities,  indeed  at  least  in  the  case  of  McGrill  they  might 
well  do  so  now.  We  have  made  a  beginning  in  this  way  in  England,  and 
in  my  opinion  it  is  in  this  direction  that  there  is  ample  room  for 
extension. 

Mr.  R.  A.  REEVE,  B.A.,  M.D.,  LL.D.  (Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine, 
University  of  Toronto) : — 

I  should  be  unworthy  of  the  trust  committed  to  me  as  one  of  the  few 
representatives  of  the  University  of  Toronto,  which  is,  I  may  say,  the 
State  institution  of  the  province  of  Ontario,  if  I  did  not  offer  a  few 
remarks.  The  University  of  Toronto,  which  is  both  interested  in  and 
desirous  of  promoting  this  movement,  is  a  teaching  university,  and  has 
passed  its  semi-centenary.  It  has  a  faculty  of  arts,  of  medicine,  of  applied 
science,  and  in  part  of  law  ;  with  several  federated  institutions  incorpo- 


86  Official  Report  of  the 

rated  as  colleges  and  holding  their  university  powers  in  abeyance,  and  also 
with  various  special  affiliated  colleges. 

It  has  a  number  of  large  laboratories.  A  few  years  ago,  when  the 
British  Science  Association  met  in  Toronto,  a  very  appropriate  and  at  the 
same  time  graceful  tribute  was  paid  to  our  alma  mater — the  statement 
that  we  had  in  our  midst  the  finest  chemical  laboratory  in  Greater  Britain. 
Recently  there  has  been  added  a  very  large  building  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  medical  faculty  and  for  the  department  of  physiology,  providing 
lecture-rooms  and  a  system  of  laboratories.  By  a  happy  accident  our 
medical  building  happens  to  be  the  first  constructed  on  what  is  termed  the 
"  unit "  principle,  which  has  been  advocated  by  the  Harvard  schoolmen 
and  is  being  adopted  in  the  main  in  the  new  buildings  of  Harvard  medical 
faculty. 

There  was  a  time  when  the  chief  armament  of  our  institution  was 
brains  and  books.  There  were,  of  course,  laboratories  and  chairs  in 
natural  sciences.  There  is  now  a  good  staff  on  the  scientific  side,  as 
well  as  in  the  teaching  of  the  humanities,  but  I  would  like  to  state 
that  research  work  is  a  feature  in  at  least  seven  of  the  departments  of  the 
university.  A  number  of  students  are  engaged  in  studies  leading  up  to 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  which  involves  the  necessity  especially 
of  research  and  a  thesis  based  upon  original  investigation. 

Research  work  is  also  carried  on  by  undergraduates  in  their  fourth 
year,  and  this  is  a  happy  omen  of  the  ideal  that  we  aim  at,  of  having 
our  university  not  simply  a  high-class  old-time  college  but  a  university 
in  the  highest  and  broadest  sense.  The  University,  with  such  means 
as  have  been  at  her  disposal  has  been  able  to  educate  a  very  large 
number  of  men  who  now  occupy  leading  positions  in  our  own  province  and 
elsewhere. 

One  respect  in  which  we  have  been  lacking  is  that,  our  university 
being  the  State  institution,  private  individuals  have  not  felt  called  upon  to 
assist  her  financially.  Recently  friends  who  have  been  blessed  with  ample 
means  have  been  coming  to  our  aid  and  are  imitating  the  generosity  which 
has  characterised  the  gentlemen  alluded  to  by  the  Principal  of  the  McGill 
University.  Not  only  so,  but  the  Government  and  Legislature  of  the 
country,  which  practically  through  a  board  of  trustees  administer  the 
endowment  given  originally  by  the  Crown,  have  also  of  late  taken  a 
more  liberal  view  of  her  needs,  having  been  led  to  realise  that  a  live 
university  requires  steadily  increasing  funds  to  provide  for  growth  and 
expansion. 

I  was  on  the  point  of  saying  that  one  of  the  advantages  accruing 
from  this  Conference  would  possibly  be  that  a  sentiment  would  be 
created  which  would  stimulate  Canadians  to  do  still  nobler  deeds ; 
but  I  am  a  little  at  a  loss  how  to  use  this  argument  in  face  of  the 
fact,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  British  Government  occupies  a  somewhat 
unique  position  in  that  it  has  done  but  Little  to  encourage  original 
research,  and  that  the  wealthy  men  of  this  country  seem,  in  great  measure, 
only  to  have  awakened  to  the  great  interests  at  stake  a  few  years  ago  at 
the  inauguration  of  the  Birmingham  University.  We  gladly  hail  the  signs 
of  a  brighter  day  in  the  motherland  for,  as  in  duty  bound,  we  are  jealous 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  87 

for  her  honour  and  status,  and  would  fain  have  her  well  in  the  van.  The 
truth  is,  there  are  in  the  United  States  and  within  easy  reach  a  number  of 
very  wealthy  and  up-to-date  universities  which  generously  provide 
bursaries  or  fellowships  and  various  facilities  that  draw  our  brightest 
young  men,  who  too  often  are  lost  to  us.  We  rejoice  in  the  assured 
success  of  Canadians  amongst  our  cousins  but  we  need  them  at  home  ;  and 
we  could  the  more  surely  hold  them  if  they  could  find  more  freely  in  the 
United  Kingdom  superior  or  even  equal  facilities  for  advanced  work  of 
every  kind.  Even  in  medicine,  which  has  given  the  largest  quota  of  our 
graduates  to  you,  for  further  studies  and  higher  degrees,  the  current  tends 
towards  the  large  medical  centres  across  the  border  with  their  great  clinical 
facilities  and  well-planned  polyclinics. 

Mr.  J.  A.  EWING,  F.R.S.  (Director  of  Naval  Education  at  the  Admiralty 
and  Professor  of  Mechanism  and  Applied  Mechanics  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge)  \ — 

I  am  glad  to  have  the  opportunity  of  saying  a  few  words  in  support 
of  an  aspect  of  this  resolution  which  has  already  been  emphasised 
by  Sir  Henry  Koscoe,  namely,  that  part  which  bears  upon  post-graduate 
study  and  research.  There  is,  I  think,  no  more  direct  practical  means 
by  which  association  of  interest  and  thought  between  the  various 
universities  may  be  cultivated,  than  by  encouraging  students  who  have 
taken  their  first  degree  to  pass  from  one  university  to  another,  and  in  so 
passing  to  devote  themselves  for  a  time  before  they  go  out  into  practical 
life  to  the  carrying  out  of  some  piece  of  research.  I  speak  more  particu- 
larly in  relation  to  technical  research,  research  which  has  a  bearing  upon 
industry — upon  engineering. 

There  are  two  aspects  in  which  we  may  regard  research.  The 
obvious  aspect  is  to  regard  it  as  a  means  of  adding  to  knowledge,  and  this 
aspect  is  so  obvious,  that  in  the  minds  of  many  people  it  entirely  shuts  out 
the  other,  and  (in  this  relation)  the  more  important  aspect,  namely,  the 
function  of  research  as  an  instrument  of  education.  Research,  mainly, 
is  a  means  of  training.  Our  national  tendency  in  respect  of  technical 
education  has,  I  think,  been  too  much  in  the  direction  of  a  wide  diffusion 
of  comparatively  slight  and  superficial  knowledge.  That  has  been 
valuable,  undoubtedly  valuable,  directly  valuable  to  the  workmen  and 
others  who  have  acquired  even  this  slight  knowledge,  indirectly  valuable 
as  widening  the  field  of  choice  from  which  the  higher  experts  might 
ultimately  rise ;  but  to  my  mind,  what  is  really  wanted  in  our  national 
life,  considered  in  relation  to  the  application  of  science  to  industry,  is 
not  so  much  this  wide  diffusion  of  scientific  knowledge  as  the  thorough 
training  which  is  required  by  the  true  technical  expert,  and  there  is  no 
means  by  which  that  kind  of  training  can  be  so  well  acquired  as  by  carrying 
out  even  a  simple  piece  of  research. 

The  Germans  discovered  this  long  ago,  and  they  give  to  research 
a  vastly  more  important  place  in  the  educational  curriculum  than  we  do. 
What  is  wanted  in  aid  of  the  development  of  industry  is  the  man  with 
penetrating  insight,  thorough  grasp,  cultivated  critical  faculty,  power  of 
invention,  the  habit  of  experiment,  and  these  are  the  characteristics  which 


88  Official  Report  of  the 

research  gives,  or  fosters.  May  I  say  a  word  in  this  connection  about  our 
experience  in  Cambridge.  About  seven  years  ago  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge opened  its  doors  to  the  advanced  student,  as  he  is  called.  He  can 
now  come  to  the  University  of  Cambridge,  a  student,  that  is  to  say,  who 
has  taken  his  degree  in  any  university,  or  who  is  able  to  give  equivalent 
evidence  of  preliminary  training,  he  can  come  to  the  University  without 
any  trouble  at  all  from  those  somewhat  antiquated  and  unfortunate 
barriers  which  have  still  to  be  passed  by  the  ordinary  undergraduate.  He 
enters  without  examination,  and  he  may  devote  himself  at  once,  and 
throughout  his  whole  Cambridge  career,  to  the  work  of  research,  under 
the  guidance  of  one  or  other  of  the  professors. 

After  two  years  of  this  work  he  may  obtain  a  degree,  provided  that  he 
gives  evidence  of  having  carried  out  a  piece  of  research  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  University  authorities,  and  that  one  of  his  papers,  descriptive  of 
such  research,  is  of  distinction  as  a  record  of  research.  This  opportunity 
of  advanced  work  has  proved  invaluable.  I  do  not  think  that  any  recent 
reform  in  the  University  of  Cambridge  has  been  anywhere  near  so 
important  as  this  one  has  proved.  It  has  brought  to  us  not  only  from  the 
home  university  colleges  and  universities,  but  more  especially  from  the 
colonies,  a  band  of  most  admirable  young  men,  young  men  full  of 
enthusiasm  for  their  work,  of  much  more  than  average  ability,  and  it 
has  left  these  men  free  to  devote  themselves  to  what  seems  to  me  the  most 
highly  educative  exercise  that  they  can  possibly  choose.  It  is  due  in  very 
great  measure  to  the  1851  Exhibition  Scholarships,  whose  beneficent  in- 
fluence in  this  direction  it  is  impossible  to  exaggerate,  that  these  young  men 
have  been  able  to  support  themselves,  and  the  field  of  choice  has  thereby 
again  been  widened.  I  think  that  what  we  want  practically  is  more  of  the 
same  kind  of  thing.  After  all,  the  researcher  must  live,  and  the  scholarship 
which  comes  to  him  must  be  of  such  value  as  to  form  an  adequate  reason 
why  he  should  devote  himself  to  the  work  of  original  research  for  a 
year  or  two  rather  than  immediately  pass  into  practical  life.  His  own 
motives  in  this  respect  may  not  be  entirely  far-seeing.  He  may  attach 
more  importance  than  the  case  warrants  to  the  direct  value  of  his  con- 
tributions to  knowledge.  I  do  not  suggest  that  these  are  not  valuable, 
but  the  student  himself  is  probably  scarcely  aware  at  the  time  that  the 
really  important  side  of  his  work  is  the  subjective  side,  is  its  influence 
upon  his  own  habit  of  mind  and  the  development  of  his  own  capacities 
which  is  thereby  secured.  In  many  cases  the  students  to  whom  I  have 
referred  when  they  came  to  Cambridge,  devoted  themselves  to  research  in 
pure  science.  The  genius  of  Professor  J.  J.  Thomson  has  attracted  many 
of  them  to  the  Cavendish  laboratory,  and  under  the  spell  of  that  genius 
they  have  done  work  which  is  of  conspicuous  value  as  a  contribution  to 
knowledge.  One  of  the  distinguished  men  who  have  come  and  gone  from 
us  in  that  way,  who  has  come  from  that  colony  and  gone  to  another, 
is  Professor  Rutherford.  My  own  side  of  the  work  has  been  a  more 
modest  one,  for  a  comparatively  small  number  of  these  men  have  come 
to  the  engineering  laboratory. 

But  those  who  have  come  have  immensely  profited  by  the  research 
which  they  have  done  there,  and,  in  one  or  two  instances  at  least,  I  think 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  89 

we  may  fairly  claim  that  the  research  has  also  been  of  direct  scientific 
value  as  a  contribution  to  knowledge.  There  is  no  part  of  my  work 
there  as  professor  on  which  I  can  look  back  with  greater  satisfaction  than 
the  part  of  it  which  has  been  given  to  the  supervision  of  the  research 
of  these  students.  It  has  been  in  every  way  a  valuable  stimulus 
to  university  life  to  have  these  men  there,  and  to  them  it  has  been  an 
enormous  advantage,  an  advantage  which,  measured  by  the  most  sordid 
tests,  has  demonstrated  itself,  because  we  have  found  that  there  has  been 
no  difficulty  in  securing  places  with  the  great  industrial  manufacturers 
for  men  who  have  had  this  kind  of  training. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  in  conclusion  to  remark  that  among  the 
holders  of  the  1851  Exhibition  Scholarships  who  have  come  under  my 
personal  supervision,  there  has  been  no  one  more  able,  no  one  who  has 
used  his  time  to  greater  advantage  than  one  of  the  students  who  has 
come  to  us  from  a  colonial  university,  Mr.  Walter  Rosenhain,  from  the 
University  of  Melbourne. 

The  HON.  SIR  JOHN  BUCHANAN  ( Vice-Chancellor  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
University)  : — 

I  have  not  the  privilege  of  being  so  intimately  associated  with  the 
cause  of  education  as  to  bs  able  to  speak  from  personal  knowledge  of  the 
technical  details  which  we  have  heard  to-day.  But  I  should  like,  if  I  may, 
to  make  a  very  few  remarks  as  to  our  local  circumstances,  and  to  give 
some  details  with  reference  to  the  University  with  which  I  am  connected. 

The  University  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  grew  out  of  a  movement 
inaugurated  by  that  eminent  statesman,  the  late  Sir  George  Grey,  for 
the  advancement  of  education  in  South  Africa.  Small  as  our  beginnings 
were  I  think  that  a  review  of  our  progress  will  show  that  though  we 
began  very  low  in  the  rung  of  the  ladder,  we  have  gone  steadily  upwards, 
and  moreover  that  we  have  endeavoured  to  make  sure  our  feet  at  every 
step  from  the  first  to  the  last.  The  time  is  well  within  my  recollection 
when,  in  our  sparsely  populated  country,  the  ordinary  farm  teacher  was  a 
runaway  soldier  or  a  runaway  sailor.  We  are  not  an  examining  university. 
Shortly  after  our  establishment  we  first  endeavoured  to  raise  the  standard 
of  the  schools  by  instituting  what  we  called  the  school  elementary  examina- 
tion. This  examination  began  to  be  the  ambition  of  the  country  schools 
and  became  the  leaving  examination.  We  went  a  step  further  and  estab- 
lished the  school  higher  examination  and  in  a  very  short  time  the  schools 
gradually  rose  to  the  level  of  that  examination.  The  Schools  continued 
to  develop,  and  now  at  the  present  moment  I  may  say  that  the  school 
leaving  examination  in  the  Cape  Colony  is  to  a  great  extent  the  matricula- 
tion examination  at  the  University.  With  regard  to  all  our  university 
examinations  at  the  Cape  we  have  founded  our  system  upon  the  model  of 
the  London  University,  and  we  have  endeavoured  to  raise  all  our  examina- 
tions to  that  high  standard.  I  think  I  may  safely  say  that  now  we  have 
approached  the  efficiency  of  the  University  of  London. 

One  gentleman  who  has  spoken  to-day  referred  to  the  scholarships 
established  by  Mr.  Rhodes.  Now  Mr.  Rhodes1  scholarships  have  not  a  very 
direct  effect  upon  the  University  of  the  Cape,  because  the  object  of  these 


90  Official  Report  of  the 

scholarships  is  to  induce  our  young  men  not  to  graduate  with  us  but  to 
seek  the  great  advantage  of  coming  to  an  older  university,  and  especially 
to  Oxford,  and  to  have  the  advantage  of  the  wider  culture  which  you 
thus  get  at  an  older  and  more  complete  university.  But  I  must  say  this 
for  the  University  of  the  Cape  that  though  we  only  examine  we  have 
endeavoured  to  stimulate  the  ambition  of  the  best  of  our  students  and  to 
induce  them  to  pursue  elsewhere  their  studies  after  obtaining  our  degree. 
It  is  that  relation  to  this  object  of  post-graduate  study  strongly  brought 
forward  in  the  resolution  that  we  at  the  Cape  are  most  interested.  While 
we  are  anxious  to  promote  the  development  of  education  by  bringing 
schools  to  everybody's  door  if  possible,  we  acknowledge  the  greater 
efficiency,  I  may  say  the  higher  ethical  standard  of  refinement,  which  can 
only  be  gathered  by  the  students  knowing  something  outside  their  own 
country. 

For  a  long  time  we  had  very  little  reciprocity  shown  us  on  the  part 
of  the  Home  universities,  perhaps  because  we  did  not  deserve  it,  but  now 
since  our  standards  have  been  raised,  I  am  proud  to  say  that  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  now  London  and  Dublin,  have  met  us  very  fairly  and 
very  generously  with  regard  to  our  graduated  students.  The  students  that 
come  home  from  us  are  what  you  would  call  post-graduate  students.  At 
present  they  are  mostly  students  of  medicine  and  students  of  law  ;  speaking 
of  my  own  profession,  with  us  no  student  can  pass  his  law  examination 
until  he  has  first  graduated.  Many  of  our  students  who  wish  to  adopt 
a  profession,  run  over  to  England  to  have  the  advantage  of  the  universities 
here.  We  have  now  a  number  of  scholarships  which  are  intended  and 
which  have  the  effect  of  inducing  our  students  to  continue  their  post- 
graduate studies  in  this  country,  and  that  object  we  are  trying  still  further 
to  forward. 

The  university  has  now,  through  the  liberality  of  the  Government  and 
of  private  donors,  sixteen  or  seventeen  scholarships  of  an  average  value  of 
£150  a  year  for  three  years.  These  are  won  by  graduates  who  have 
taken  their  B.A.  degree  in  honours,  and  who  are  able  to  pursue  their 
studies  in  this  country,  and  it  is  this  object  that  I  am  more  particularly 
anxious  that  this  Conference  should  promote  as  far  as  possible.  We  have 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  local  circumstances,  we  have  established  our 
own  schools  of  mining  and  engineering,  and  have  made  them  as  effective 
as  we  could,  I  think  it  is  six  years  since  we  first  established  a 
mining  course,  and  every  student  who  has  passed  through  the  course 
we  have  prescribed,  has  had  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  employment  in 
South  Africa  in  the  sphere  which  he  has  chosen.  Now  we  are  very  anxious 
you  should  be  able  to  supply  our  students  with  that  scientific  teaching 
which  is  our  object  in  sending  our  best  men  to  you.  At  present  many 
students  who  want  schools  of  engineering  or  of  science  go  abroad.  I  hope 
that  this  difficulty  will  be  removed,  and  that  you  will  have  our  best  men 
coming  from  the  Cape  carrying  forward  their  post-graduate  studies  in 
this  country. 

We  have  not  yet  been  able  to  go  very  far  in  the  matter  of  original 
research,  but  we  have  made  a  beginning.  We  have  established  one 
fellowship.  It  is  rather  a  big  name,  but  it  is  a  fellowship  which  is  open 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  91 

to  a  student  who  wishes  to  pursue  original  research,  an  object  worthy 
of  encouragement,  not  only  for  the  better  education  of  the  person 
himself,  but  also  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  learning.  At  the  Cape 
we  cannot  perhaps  offer  the  student  a  very  large  field  for  original 
research.  Probably  the  most  interesting  field  is  that  of  ethnology. 
So  many  different  races  inhabit  the  country,  so  many  different  races 
are  gradually  disappearing,  so  many  changes  are  constantly  taking  place, 
that  this  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  studies  we  can  offer,  and  one 
perhaps  some  of  my  friends  here  present  will  appreciate.  We  can  offer 
some  opportunity  for  original  research  in  the  science  of  astronomy,  for 
there  is  in  the  country  a  very  well-equipped  observatory.  With  the 
exception  of  these  two  branches  of  study,  perhaps,  as  far  as  research  goes 
that  is  probably  all  we  can  specially  hold  out.  We  in  the  Colonies  are  very 
desirous  that  our  best  young  men  should  be  able  to  pursue  their  post- 
graduate studies  in  this  country,  and  to  attain  to  the  high  excellence  in 
the  different  branches  of  science,  physics,  chemistry,  and  other  cognate 
branches  of  learning  which  they  can  only  now  get  by  going  abroad. 

SIR  OLIVER  LODGE,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.  (Principal  of  the  University  of 
Birmingham)  : — 

I  think  we  understand  the  benefit  of  post-graduate  studies  and  the 
need  for  advanced  specialisation.  I  was  going  to  speak  about  that,  but 
my  Chancellor*  yesterday  in  that  impromptu  at  Sir  Gilbert  Parker's 
luncheon  at  the  House  of  Commons  strongly  urged  the  advantage  of  each 
one  university  making  a  speciality  in  someone  direction,  and  the  inter- 
change of  students  which  naturally  follows  therefrom.  I  feel  that  we 
ought  to  interchange  students  freely ;  that  we  ought  to  be  able  to  pass 
them  from  any  one  university,  and  transfer  them  to  any  other  after  a 
certain  stage  has  been  reached ;  and  that  we  might  be  willing  freely 
to  recognise  each  other's  stages.  I  do  not  think  that  we  need  be  too 
squeamish  about  it ;  it  is  the  best  students  who  wish  to  make  greater 
progress  and  to  reach  a  higher  stage.  We  all  have  duffers  whom  we  some- 
times pass  through  whom  we  feel  we  ought  not  to  pass  through — but  these 
will  not  want  to  go  on  ;  we  shall  not  trouble  universities  with  them. 

It  is,  as  a  rule,  the  best  students  who  will  migrate.  But  there  are 
various  practical  problems  which  I  feel  that  the  Council  which  may  be 
the  outcome  of  this  Conference  must  take  in  hand.  There  are  certain 
problems,  some  of  difficulty,  all  of  interest,  which  I  will  briefly  enumerate, 
without  attempting  to  solve,  such  as  our  influence  on  secondary  educa- 
tion— the  relations  between  universities  and  schools.  I  should  like  to 
see  each  university  the  head  of  a  province — the  head  of  an  educational 
province — which  shall  inspect  and  examine  the  schools  of  its  district, 
and  conduct  school-leaving  examinations,  as  the  Chancellor  of  the  Cape 
University  has  said :  examinations  which  shall  serve  as  matriculation  or 
entrance  examination  to  the  university,  and  not  alone  to  that  university. 
I  would  like  to  see  a  community  of  entrance  tests,  so  that  we  can  accept 
each  other's  results  and  admit  to  any  university  a  student  who  has  satisfied 

*  The  Eight  Hon.  Joseph  Chamberlain,  M.P.  (Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies). 


92  Official  Report  of  the 

the  entrance  requirements  of  another  province.  Under  certain  restrictions 
and  with  care  I  think  that  something  in  that  direction  might  be  done. 

But  there  is  still  a  further  problem  in  connection  with  school  examina- 
tions. One  of  the  most  difficult  questions  is  how  much,  and  how  far,  and 
how  we  are  to  bring  in  the  teachers.  I  feel  that  boys  and  students  should 
always  be  examined  on  what  they  have  been  taught ;  that  examination 
should  be  the  natural  outcome  of  teaching,  and  that  the  teaching  should 
not  have  to  aim  at  externally-applied  examination  tests.  Examinations 
which  are  specially  prepared  for,  defeat  their  object.  The  curriculum 
supplied,  and  the  methods  of  teaching  adopted,  must  be  criticised,  but 
criticised  separately  and  directly,  not  indirectly  through  failure  of  students. 
I  believe  that  in  many  cases  students  can  be  examined  with  the  co-opera- 
tion of  their  teachers.  I  feel  that  that  is  very  much  the  case  in  schools. 
I  do  not  feel  that  university  men,  especially  young  men  who  have  just 
taken  their  degree,  are  the  best  examiners  for  a  school.  They  are  apt  to 
set  questions  which  interest  them.  The  things  which  the  boys  ought  to 
know  are  things  which  the  examiners  have  known  so  long  that  they  feel 
them  quite  dull  and  commonplace  ;  they  would  not  like  to  disgrace  them- 
selves by  asking  such  obvious  things  ;  yet  these  are  the  things  which  the 
boys  ought  to  have  been  taught ;  and  if  they  are  to  be  asked  ornamental 
questions  that  please  the  young  high-honour  graduate  they  must  neces- 
sarily be  specially  prepared  and  coached  for  them  in  a  most  unwholesome 
manner. 

It  is  the  lower  grade  of  education,  I  mean  school  education,  which  is 
in  such  a  bad  way,  at  any  rate  in  this  country  ;  I  do  not  know  how  it  is 
in  the  Colonies.  In  the  highest  university  education  we  can  hold  our 
own  with  the  world  pretty  well,  but  as  to  public  school  education  the 
appalling  ignorance  of  the  man  in  the  street  on  any  scientific  matter  is 
something  discreditable  to  this  country.  I  do  not  find  it  so  strongly 
developed  elsewhere  in  the  most  civilised  parts  of  the  world.  Now,  if 
teachers  were  emancipated  I  think  they  might  do  better  in  this  respect ;  at 
any  rate,  I  feel  that  'the  influence  of  universities  on  schools  has  not 
hitherto  been  wholly  'good.  Among  other  details  there  has  been  an 
encouragement  of  premature  specialisation  by  the  system  of  scholarships 
adopted. 

There  are  many  other  things  to  be  considered,  such  as  the  period 
at  which  literary  studies  should  be  introduced.  One  word  on  that, 
because  that  is  a  pressing  problem  with  many  of  us.  Technical  schools  are 
springing  up  everywhere,  and  the  best  of  the  students  want  to  go  to  the 
university.  If  we  insist  on  their  matriculating  in  literary  studies  we  shall 
shut  the  door  on  this  class,  or  else  we  shall  encourage  them  with  great 
industry  to  cram  something  up  by  which  they  can  scrape  through.  But 
that  gives  them  no  culture,  and  it  takes  away  the  advantage  of  humane 
study.  I  should  like  to  admit  them  on  the  subjects  upon  which  they  have 
been  taught,  but  not  to  give  them  a  degree,  not  finally  to  lose  sight  of 
them  until  they  have  been  immersed  in  the  more  humane  education.  But 
I  would  do  that  at  some  stage  when  they  themselves  arc  anxious  for  it, 
because  I  have  found  that  technical  students  sooner  or  later  do  feel  the 
absence  of  humane  education  and  wish  to  get  some  culture.  That  is  the 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  93 

time  at  which  literary  studies  may  properly  be  entered  upon,  and  instead 
of  technical  studies  being  postponed  to  the  later  stages  of  a  degree  course, 
in  some  cases  literary  studies  can  be  postponed.  I  think  that  is  a  difficulty 
we  shall  have  to  face,  now  that  we  have  to  deal  with  schools  of  so  many 
different  kinds. 

The  incoming  Council  may  be  able  to  bring  pressure  to  bear  on  the 
Government ;  we  must  make  the  Government  realise  the  necessity  of 
utilising  the  energies  and  activities  which  are  now  alive.  It  has  been  said 
that  the  country  has  awaked.  I  do  not  think  it  has ;  the  country  is 
aroused — educationally,  at  any  rate — in  a  way  it  has  not  been  before  ;  it  is 
hardly  awake,  but  it  is  turning  over  uneasily  in  its  slumber  and  realising 
that  something  ought  to  be  done.  Now  is  the  time  for  us  to  act.  We 
must  co-operate  with  each  other,  not  by  uniformity,  but  rather  by  the 
opposite,  by  differentiation,  on  the  one  hand,  at  the  highest  stages,  and, 
on  the  other,  by  experiment,  each  trying  experiments — educational  experi- 
ments on  the  training  of  teachers  and  the  examination  of  schools,  and  so 
on,  comparing  results,  comparing  results  fully  and  freely,  as  indeed  we 
always  do — when  a  deputation  comes  from  one  university  to  another  to 
study  its  methods  ;  it  is  always  welcomed  in  every  part  of  the  world. 
Let  us  compare  our  experimental  results  under  our  different  conditions, 
and  then  adopt  those  methods  which  are  found  to  work  most  ad- 
vantageously and  to  be  the  best. 

Mr.  THEODORE  T.  GUBNEY,  M.A.  (formerly  Professor  of  Mathematics  in 
the  University  of  Sydney,  N.S.  W.)  : — 

I  am  a  delegate  whose  appointment  has  come  by  cablegram.  I  cannot, 
therefore,  as  Lord  Kelvin  rather  suggested,  admit  that  I  have  come  from 
the  other  end  of  the  world  especially  to  attend  this  very  important  Con- 
ference. Nevertheless,  my  journey  from  Australia  is  a  very  recent  one. 
I  left  Australia  last  December,  and  I  have  spent  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century  in  the  service  of  the  University  of  Sydney.  It  is,  therefore,  possible 
that  my  views  may  be  taken  at  any  rate  as  reflecting  faintly  the  views  of 
my  own  governing  body  in  the  University. 

There  are,  at  present,  about  six  hundred  students  in  the  University  of 
Sydney,  which  last  year  celebrated  its  jubilee,  when  delegates  from  all  over 
the  world  came  with  representations.  The  university  has  various  faculties 
— law,  medicine,  arts  and  sciences.  The  medical  school  is  making  a  great 
name  in  Australia.  It  has  attached  to  it  one  of  the  best  and  most  complete 
hospitals  of  Australia,  in  every  way  up  to  date,  flourishing  in  numbers  and 
in  good  deeds.  Naturally  in  a  mining  community  like  New  South  Wales, 
a  great  deal  of  attention  is  given  to  mineralogy  and  allied  branches  of  study. 
At  one  time  Sydney  University  was  looked  upon  as  an  institution  belonging 
to  the  lettered  class,  the  wealthy  class.  Now  it  is  recognised  as  belonging 
to  everyone,  poor  and  rich.  Everyone  is  encouraged  to  come,  and  the 
good  are  encouraged  to  stay. 

I  should  like  to  say  why  I  think  the  University  of  Sydney  is  in  accord 
with  the  resolution  before  us.  Under  an  ad  eundem  gradum  regulation  it- 
has  welcomed  to  its  halls  students  from  all  the  universities  of  the  world. 
Jjet  me  explain  how  this  ad  eundem  gradum  method  operates.  Take 


94  Official  Report  of  the 

for  instance  a  student  who  has  passed  through  one  university ;  he  will 
have  credentials  that  he  has  passed  such  and  such  a  time  in  residence,  and 
on  those  credentials  he  will  be  admitted  to  a  corresponding  position  in 
the  University  of  Sydney,  not  higher  but  the  same  in  point  of  time. 
During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  we  have  determined  the  status  that 
can  fairly  and  reasonably  be  awarded  to  such  a  student.  Again,  the 
university  has  always  welcomed  men  with  complete  degrees  and  offered  to 
them  ad  eundem  degrees.  Many  lawyers,  members  of  the  legal  profession 
come  to  reside  in  Sydney,  leave  their  own  university  and  wish  to  be 
attached  to  some  university — they  do  not  wish  to  lose  touch  with  university 
life  altogether.  We  welcome  them  with  open  arms  ;  we  require  no  exami- 
nation ;  we  accept  their  degree.  The  University  of  Sydney  has  on  its 
staff  graduates  of  almost  every  university.  It  has  in  return,  though  of 
course,  to  a  very,  very  much  smaller  extent,  occasionally  sent  men  from 
its  own  halls  back  to  the  old  world.  One  I  call  to  mind,  a  very 
distinguished  graduate  of  our  own,  Dr.  Elliott  Smith,  who  after  leaving 
us  went  to  Cambridge  and  is  now  doing  good  work  in  Egypt.  We  have 
also  sent  students  who  have  taken  our  B.A.  degree  to  Cambridge  and 
Oxford,  and  have  awarded  scholarships  under  the  Act  promoted  by  the 
Commissioners  of  the  1851  Exhibition. 

I  have  now  given  several  reasons  why  I  think  that  the  University  of 
Sydney  is  in  accord  with  us  to-day,  and  I  may  perhaps  say  that  personally 
I  am  strongly  in  favour  of  the  resolution.  I  see  many  difficulties  ahead, 
but  no  doubt  they  will  be  successfully  surmounted.  There  must,  of  course, 
be  no  interference  with  the  absolute  independence  of  our  colonial  uni- 
versities, still  less  with  the  Universities  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford.  The 
council  will  merely  have  to  suggest.  That  is  clear.  I  notice,  however, 
that  the  resolution  has  been  most  cautiously  and  carefully  drawn  up,  and  I 
heartily  congratulate  the  members  of  the  committee  on  their  achievement. 

SIB  ARTHUR  RUCKER,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.E.S.  (Principal  of  the  University 
of  London) : — 

Most  unfortunately  an  engagement  which  I  could  not  put  on  one  side 
compelled  me  to  leave  the  room  in  the  middle  of  the  discussion  which  was 
taking  place  this  morning,  and  if,  therefore,  on  my  return  I  offer  to  make 
a  few  remarks  I  hope  you  will  excuse  me  if  I  traverse  the  ground  which 
has  already  been  passed  over  or  if  I  am  unaware  of  some  of  the  points 
which  have  been  raised.  I  take  it  however  from  what  Mr.  Bryce  has  just 
said  that  the  debate  on  the  first  resolution  is  about  to  come  to  an  end. 
It  would  perhaps,  therefore,  be  desirable  that  I  should,  in  a  few  words, 
point  out  what  that  resolution  says.  It  has,  I  think,  been  made 
perfectly  clear  that  it  does  not  tend  to  any  cast  iron  system,  to  any  plan 
which  attempts  to  mould  institutions  so  different  and  so  various  as  the 
Universities  of  the  Empire  into  one  particular  form  or  shape. 

Absolute  freedom  for  the  individual  university  is  I  take  it  the  corner- 
stone of  this  movement.  At  the  same  time  it  is  important  that  if  this 
absolute  freedom  should  be  left  it  is  also  recognised  that  another  corner- 
stone of  the  movement  is  absolute  reciprocity.  We,  representatives  of  the 
English  universities,  do  not  come  here  to  confer  a  favour  upon  you  who 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  95 

represent  colonial  universities.  We  ask  you,  on  the  contrary,  as  those 
with  whom  so  much  of  the  future  of  the  Empire  lies,  to  confer  upon  us 
the  favour  of  working  together  with  us,  and  we  fully  recognise  the  fact 
that  the  interchange  of  students,  which  is  one  of  our  main  objects,  is  not 
to  be  merely  the  drafting  of  students  from  the  colonies  to  the  British  Isles, 
but  the  converse  process  of  the  going  out  of  students  from  the  British 
Isles  to  the  colonies.  It  would  be  of  little  use  that  the  average  colonist 
or  the  average  member  of  a  great  colony  should  know  something  of  England 
unless  the  average  Englishman  also  knows  something  of  the  Empire  beyond 
the  seas,  and  it  is  our  determination  to  do  all  that  we  can  to  promote  that 
interchange.  Then  the  third  point,  to  come  to  actual  detail,  upon  which, 
I  think,  great  good  may  be  done,  is  that  it  is  very  desirable  that  at  some 
central  place  there  should  be  knowledge  of  what  is  going  on  in  all  the 
universities  of  the  Empire. 

Very  few  of  us,  who  are  professional  educationalists,  could,  I  think, 
stand  a  close  examination  into  the  details  of  most  of  the  universities  to 
which  we  are  referring,  and  it  is  therefore  extremely  important  that 
both  those  who  reside  in  this  country  and  those  who  reside  in  the 
colonies  should  know  what  it  is  that  we  are  sending  our  students  to, 
that  we  should  have  a  full  and  detailed  knowledge  of  the  courses 
which  are  required  and  the  systems  of  education  which  are  in  vogue 
in  different  parts  of  the  Empire.  And  here,  I  may  say,  as  one  who 
has  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  McGrill  University,  as  one  who  has 
pored  over  the  plans  of  Professor  Threlfall  with  a  view  to  seeing  what  I 
could  extract  from  them,  I  fully  admit,  and  know  that  some  of  the 
colonial  universities  can  afford  opportunities  of  the  very  first  rank  for 
study  and  for  post-graduate  work.  This  being  so  then  let  us  have  some 
central  office  where  all  this  knowledge  is  co-ordinated,  where  all  these 
facts  are  known. 

We  cannot  and  do  not  want  to  control  the  teaching  of  the  different 
universities,  but  we  do  want  this  interchange,  and  that  interchange  can 
only  be  brought  about,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  by  some  great  system  of 
scholarships.  I  believe  that  the  1851  Commissioners  have  set  an  example 
which  is  worthy  of  being  followed  everywhere.  They  have  devised  a 
system  by  which  they  have  shaken  themselves  free  from  the  rigid  exam- 
ination test,  if  I  may  call  it  so,  of  English  education.  They  have  given 
these  scholarships,  not  by  examination,  but  by  recommendation.  Then 
they  have  recognised  another  great  principle,  namely,  the  freedom  of  the 
student  to  choose.  They  do  not  tell  him  where  he  must  go  ;  they  merely 
ask  him  whether  he  would  like  to  go,  and  then,  when  he  has  made  a 
selection,  and  unless  it  is  obviously  absurd,  they  invariably  approve  it. 
If,  then,  we  can  get  something  of  this  kind,  if  we  can  get  free  from  over- 
examination,  free  from  the  other  tyranny,  of  what  I  may  call  educational 
machinery,  leaving  the  student  freedom  where  he  pleases,  then  I  feel  that 
very  great  advantage  would  be  derived. 

I  do  not  propose  to  detain  youflonger  but  just  let  me  say  this  much :  I 
have  the  honour  of  being  closely  connected  with  what  is  one  of  the  youngest 
teaching  universities  in  the  world.  We  are  striving  all  we  can  to  bring 
about  in  this  great  metropolis  the  possibility  of  a  degree  being  open  to 


96  Official  Report  of  the 

every  man  who  is  worthy  of  it.  It  is  a  task  which  occupies  the  whole  of 
the  energy  or  would  occupy  the  whole  of  the  energy  and  the  whole  of  the 
time  of  a  far  abler  man  than  I  can  claim  to  be,  but  let  me  say  this,  that  I 
believe  I  am  only  urging  the  view  of  all  English  Educationalists  when  I  say 
we  would  be  prepared  as  far  as  we  can  to  put  aside  for  the  moment  the 
particular  tasks  which  are  almost  paramount  if  we  could  only  do  something 
to  bring  about  that  unification  of  the  interests  of  education  of  the  whole 
Empire  which  this  meeting  is  intended  to  help. 

The  CHAIEMAN  then  put  the  resolution,  which  was  carried  unani- 
mously. 

SIR  HENRY  EOSCOE,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.E.S.  :— 

I  would  desire  to  propose  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Bryce  for  his  able 
conduct  in  the  chair  and  for  the  most  valuable  address  he  has  given  us. 

The  vote  was  passed  by  acclamation. 

The  CHAIRMAN  : — 

I  thank  you  heartily  for  the  motion  you  have  been  kind  enough  to 
pass.  I  look  upon  it  as  a  great  honour  to  have  presided  over  this 
Conference  and  to  have  had  the  privilege  of  taking  part  in  what  I  hope 
will  be  one  of  the  steps  towards  cementing  the  unity  in  every  respect  of 
the  various  branches  of  the  Empire. 

The  Conference  adjourned  for  luncJwon. 


Hfternoon  Session. 

THE  ET.  HON. 
THE  LOED  STEATHCONA  AND  MOUNT  EOYAL, 

P.O.,   LL.D.,    G.C.M.G. 

(Chancellor  of  McGill  University  and  High  Commissioner 
for  the  Dominion  of  Canada), 

IN  THE  CHAIR. 
The  CHAIRMAN  : — 

I  need  hardly  say  that  it  gives  me  the  greatest  pleasure  to  meet 
here  to-day  delegates  from  every  part  of  the  Empire  on  this  the  first 
occasion  when  representatives  of  the  different  universities  have  assembled 
together  for  one  common  object.  So  far  as  the  Canadians  are  concerned, 
I  think  I  am  expressing  their  feeling  when  I  say  that  none  are  more 
anxious  than  they  to  see  every  facility  given  to  post-graduate  study  and 
research.  And  they  earnestly  desire  to  see  a  closer  relationship  between 
the  universities  of  the  Mother-country  and  the  universities  of  the  over- 
sea portions  of  the  King's  dominions.  There  is  no  necessity  for  me 
to  tell  you,  who  are  much  better  acquainted  than  I  am  with  all  such 
matters,  that  the  subject  before  us  to-day  is  one  of  the  greatest  moment. 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  97 

That  this  movement  will  be  productive  of  great  good  there  can  be  no 
question,  and  I  need  hardly  say  that  I  am  perfectly  in  accord  with  it. 

My  duty  now  is  to  call  upon  the  Acting-Vice-Chancellor  of  Oxford  to 
move  the  second  resolution. 

That  a  Council,  consisting  in  part  of  representatives  of  British  and  Colonial 
Universities,  be  appointed  to  promote  the  objects  set  out  in  the  previous 
Resolution.  And  that  the  following  persons  be  appointed  a  Committee  for  the 
constitution  of  the  Council.  The  Rt.  Hon.  the  Lord  Kelvin,  G.C.V.O.,  F.R.S., 
O.M. ;  The  Rt.  Hon.  the  Lord  Strathcona  and  Mount  Royal,  G.C.M.G.  (Chan- 
cellor of  McGill  University,  and  High  Commissioner  for  the  Dominion  of 
Canada);  The  Rt.  Hon.  James  Bryce,  M.P.,  F.R.S. ;  The  Rt.  Hon.  R.  B. 
Haldane,  K.C.,  M.P. ;  Sir  William  Huggins,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.,  O.M.  (President  of 
the  Royal  Society) ;  Sir  Michael  Foster,  K.C.B.,  M.P. ;  The  Rev.  F.  H.  Chase, 
D.D.  (President  of  Queens'  College  and  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge) ;  Mr.  T.  Herbert  Warren,  M.A.  (President  of  Magdalen  College  and 
Pro- Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford) ;  Sir  Arthur  Riicker,  LL.D., 
D.Sc.,  F.R.S.  (Principal  of  the  University  of  London) ;  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  D.Sc., 
LL.D.,  F.R.S.  (Principal  of  the  University  of  Birmingham);  The  Rev.  J.  P. 
Mahaffy,  D.D.  (Senior  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin) ;  The  Hon.  W.  P. 
Reeves ;  and  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  D.C.L.,  M.P. 

Mr.  T.   HERBERT  WARREN,  M.A.  (President  of  Magdalen  College,  and 
Acting  Vice-Chancellor  of  Oxford)  : — 

I  feel  myself  to  be  here,  however  unworthy,  in  a  very  proud  position, 
the  position  of  representing  the  senior  University  of  the  Empire,  for  such, 
I  think,  Oxford  may  claim  to  be,  at  the  first  really  representative  meeting 
which  I  believe  has  been  held,  of  all  the  universities  of  the  Empire.  I 
am  sorry,  indeed,  that  the  actual  Vice-Chancellor  of  Oxford,  Dr.  Monro, 
is  not  able  to  be  present,  and  that  I,  as  the  Acting  Vice-Chancellor,  have  to 
take  his  place.  If  I  tell  you  that  Dr.  Monro  is  a  canny  Scotsman,  and, 
further,  that  he  is  the  Provost  of  Oriel  College — the  College  from  which 
Mr.  Rhodes  went  out  into  the  Empire  and  which  he  has  repaid,  according 
to  the  old  classical  metaphor,  "for  his  nurture,"  so  handsomely,  I  am 
sure  that  you  will  believe  me  when  I  say  that  the  Vice-Chancellor  of 
Oxford,  Dr.  Monro,  is  most  heartily  with  us  ;  that  anything  which  he  can 
do  to  further  the  cause  on  behalf  of  which  we  are  met  here  to-day,  he  will 
most  gladly  do. 

Oxford,  perhaps,  may  claim  to  feel  a  special  duty  in  this  matter.  I 
think  we  all  at  Oxford  feel  the  duty.  It  is  not  that  we  are  seeking  any 
advantage  to  ourselves,  but  that  we  are  anxious,  each  and  all  of  us,  to  do 
our  duty  to  the  Empire  ;  to  endeavour  to  promote  that  cause  of  unity  and 
co-operation  which  never  seemed  more  hopeful  or  more  full  of  happy 
prospect  than  now.  We  do  feel  that  it  is  a  duty,  and  we  feel  it  partly 
because  we  occupy  historically  this  position,  and  partly  because  of  that 
striking,  that  munificent  endowment  to  which  allusion  has  so  often  been 
made,  and  is  certain  to  be  made  again,  the  Rhodes  Scholarships. 

I  do  not  think  I  need  tell  you  that  there  are  several  fallacies 
which  have  been  often  current  with  regard  to  universities  all  over  the 
world,  and  two  which  have  borne,  and  possibly  to  some  extent  still 
bear,  a  little  hardly  upon  the  older  universities ;  but  perhaps  espec;illy 

VOL.  VI.— No.  31.  H 


98  Official  Report  of  the 

upon  Oxford.  One  is  that  a  university  is  a  place  where  everything 
ought  to  be  taught.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  very  name  implies 
that  a  university  is  a  place  where  universal  learning — everything  con- 
ceivable—ought to  be  taught.  Well,  I  believe,  that  is  not  the  meaning 
of  "  University."  I  believe  it  has  another  meaning — no  less  interesting 
and  fraught  with  significance — that  university  is  really  an  old  name  for 
a  corporation  ;  that  a  university  is  a  corporation  which  represents  the 
interests  of  learning ;  that  it  is  a  guild  in  which  the  craftsmen  rise 
through  various  degrees  just  as  they  did  in  the  older  Companies  of  the 
city  or  a  trade  to  which  they  are  apprenticed ;  the  apprentice  gradually 
learns  a  trade  and  so  comes  to  be  a  "  Master  "  of  his  art.  That,  I  believe 
to  be  the  real  meaning  ;  but  the  other  meaning,  if  not  historically  true,  is 
valuable. 

A  university  is,  at  any  rate,  a  place  where  a  good  many  things  ought  to 
be  taught,  and  for  a  reason  which  I  shall  refer  to  in  a  moment.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  Oxford  was  such  a  university — a  university  where  every- 
thing ought  to  be  taught,  and  we  often  receive — and  I  know  the  Vice- 
Chancellor  of  Cambridge  will  say  the  same  of  Cambridge — a  good  deal  of 
friendly  advice  and  a  good  deal  of  candid  criticism  complaining  that  we 
do  not  teach  this,  that,  or  the  other.  Everything  that  can  be  taught 
ought  to  be  taught  within  the  university,  that  is  one  fallacy,  and 
another  fallacy  is  that  a  university — especially  the  old  universities,  and 
perhaps  especially  Oxford — is  a  place  where  nothing — nothing  valuable 
at  any  rate — is  actually  taught.  Well,  I  hope  that  you  of  the 
colonial  universities  do  not  hold  that  fallacy ;  that  you  do  not 
think  that  Oxford  is  only  a  pleasant  place  to  which  young  gentle- 
men are  brought  and  where  they  pass  through  a  very  happy  time  and 
make  many  friendships  and  acquire  a  smattering  of  ancient  information 
and  of  the  arts  of  cricket  and  football  and  then  go  out  and  face  the  world 
without  any  special  preparation.  No  doubt  there  is  something  of  that 
which  is  still  true  ;  but  I  think  you  will  find,  or  you  will  believe,  that 
Oxford  is  not  an  university  of  that  kind  ;  but  while  it  still  retains,  as  far 
as  they  should  be  retained,  those  old  traditions,  it  is  a  place  which  is 
imbued  and  inspired  with  the  desire  to  promote  learning,  to  advance 
research,  and  to  play  its  part  in  this  complex  modern  world. 

But  "non  omnia  possumus  omnes."  We  cannot  do  everything,  and 
although  Oxford  is  anxious  to  be  a  complete  university,  there  are  some 
things  which  can  be,  as  was  stated  in  Mr.  Bryce's  opening  speech  this 
morning,  better  taught  at  one  university  and  some  at  another,  and  I 
naturally  ask,  if  Oxford  is  thrown  open,  and  if  Oxford  does  its  best  to 
receive  your  students  and  is  anxious  to  welcome  them,  what  are  the 
things  which  Oxford  can  offer,  what  are  the  things  in  which  she  is 
strong  ?  There  are  many  fallacies  about  Oxford,  and  one  which  is  a  very 
ancient  fallacy  indeed,  "there  are  no  mathematics  at  Oxford."  In  the 
University  of  Henry  Smith  there  have  been  many  distinguished  mathe- 
maticians. At  Oxford  there  is  a  great  deal  of  science.  Sir  Arthur 
Riicker,  himself  a  son,  a  loyal  son,  learned  his  science  there,  and  he  will 
bear  me  out  that  the  cause  of  science  is  advancing  healthily,  strongly  and 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  99 

vigorously  at  Oxford.  But  there  are  some  things,  I  think,  in  which 
Oxford  is  especially  strong  at  the  present  moment,  and  for  which,  in  the 
division  of  labour,  we  should  rather  expect  that  students  might  resort  to 
Oxford. 

Oxford  is  strong  in  Theology  and  strong  in  Philosophy,  two  abstruse 
and  abstract  subjects  that  perhaps  may  not  immediately  commend  them- 
selves very  much  to  an  audience  like  this,  and  yefe  which,  I  think,  will 
be  found  important  in  proportion  as,  by  the  very  means  that  you  are 
anxious  to  take,  man  raises  himself  above  the  merely  material  needs 
which  surround  him.  The  moment  he  solves,  by  science  and  the  applica- 
tion of  intellect,  the  problems  of  the  material  world  ;  the  moment  he 
achieves  something  like  happiness  in  this  world,  these  questions  have 
to  be  dealt  with,  after  long  investigation  of  their  character,  of  what  has 
been  done  before  and  what  has  still  to  be  discovered.  Oxford  is  strong, 
and  I  hope  will  remain  strong,  in  these  subjects,  and  she  will  welcome,  as 
she  has  already  welcomed,  serious  students  of  them  coming  from  all  parts  of 
the  world  ;  from  the  United  States,  the  colonies,  and  other  countries.  But 
there  are  some  other  subjects  in  which,  perhaps,  she  is  not  less  strong,  and 
which,  at  the  present  moment,  may  appeal  to  you  even  more.  There 
is,  pre-eminently,  the  subject  of  History  and  that  which  goes  with  it, 
which  is  a  very  great  problem,  the  study  of  political  science  in  all  its 
aspects.  What  can  be  more  valuable  to  students  of  the  Empire  than  the 
study  of  history  and  the  study  of  political  science  ? 

With  all  deference  to  the  University  of  Pitt  and  to  the  University  of 
Mr.  Balfour,  whom  we  are  looking  forward  to  hearing  with  so  much 
interest,  I  think  I  may  say  that  the  University  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  and 
Mr.  Gladstone,  of  Lord  Salisbury,  Lord  Rosebery  and  Mr.  John  Morley, 
and  the  gentleman  who  presided  over  us  this  morning  with  so  much  tact 
and  learning,  and,  to  come  to  my  own  time,  rather  further  down,  the 
University  of  Mr.  Asquith  and  Lord  Milner — certainly  holds  a  high 
place,  and  can  demonstrate  that  it  is  a  University  where  the  efficient 
and  useful  study  of  history  and  political  science  can  be  well  pursued. 
And  then  there  is  one  other  thing  which  I  think  can  be  peculiarly  well 
learned  at  Oxford.  It  can  also  be  learned  in  Cambridge  hardly  less  well ; 
perhaps  equally  well  in  some  ways,  but  it  certainly  can  be  learned  very 
well  at  Oxford,  and  that  is  the  study  of  our  own  language.  Where  can 
you  study  so  well  English  History  and  English  language  as  in  Oxford  or 
in  Cambridge,  where  you  are  surrounded  with  the  past,  where  you  have 
the  traces  and  the  relics  and  the  remnants  of  the  past  round  you,  where 
the  historical  spirit  and  the  inspiration  of  the  great  men,  poets  and 
writers  who  have  lived  in  these  ancient  halls  and  colleges  seem  still  to  be 
about  us. 

We  ought  to  welcome  and  invite  students  in  these  subjects,  but  we 
should  also  welcome  and  invite  students  of  every  kind — students  coming 
to  study  with  the  distinguished  professors  who  may  have  been  brought  to 
Oxford  from  some  other  university,  either  in  this  country  or,  as  sometimes 
happens,  from  the  colonies.  Well,  you  may  say,  "  If  they  are  asked  to 
come,  what  are  the  opportunities  presented  to  them."  I  shall  not 

H  2 


100  Official  Report  of  the 

dilate  any  longer  on  the  Rhodes'  scholarships,  which  I  hope  will  bring 
a  considerable  number  of  students— a  constant  flow  of  students — from 
all  parts  of  the  Empire,  to  Oxford.  I  was  rather  struck  with  what 
my  friend,  Mr.  Peterson,  the  Vice-Chancellor  of  McGill  University,  said 
just  now.  He  now  recommends  us  to  follow  the  line  indicated  by  Mr. 
Rhodes  himself,  and  to  accept  and  to  encourage  ordinary  B.A.  students  as 
Rhodes  scholars  rather  than  post-graduates.  "Well,  my  own  feeling  is  that 
we  want  both  ;  and  if  Mr.  Rhodes  had  had  some  opportunity  of  re- 
considering the  position,  coming  to  Oxford  and  seeing  what  was  wanted, 
studying  the  general  university  problem  all  over  the  world,  I  think  he 
very  probably  would  have  been  quite  willing  that  students  who  could 
benefit  by  the  place  whether  they  came  to  take  the  B.A.  degree,  or  as 
post-graduates,  should  equally  enjoy  his  munificence,  for  I  am  quite  sure 
that  over  and  above  all,  and,  if  you  read  his  will  carefully  you  will  see  that 
it  is  actually  stated  in  terms,  over  and  above  all,  his  prevailing  desire 
was  that  students  of  many  kinds  should  enter  into  the  life  of  Oxford  and 
should  gain  what  they  could  gain  there,  and  then  go  out  all  over  the 
Empire. 

It  has  already  been  put  forward  that  onr  students  also  should  go  to 
these  other  universities  and  follow  up  the  studies  best  and  most  profitably 
provided  for  in  other  universities.  But  the  one  thing  which  Mr.  Rhodes 
thought  with  regard  to  Oxford  was  that  they  should  enjoy  Oxford  itself. 
When  you  ask  what  Oxford  has  to  offer,  I  think,  without  arrogance  and 
without  any  undue  sentimentalism,  I  may  say,  she  offers  herself.  As  one 
of  her  most  gifted  sons,  Matthew  Arnold,  said  of  her  :  There  she  stands 
in  all  her  beauty,  casting  a  spell  and  a  glamour  ;  "  whispering  from  her 
towers  the  last  enchantments  of  the  Middle  Age."  Much  the  same  is 
true  of  Cambridge.  There  certainly  is,  in  the  old  universities,  this  spell 
and  glamour  which  they  exercise  over  their  students.  There  is  one  thing 
more  about  them,  which  brings  you  back  to  what  I  was  saying  just  now 
of  Oxford  wishing  to  be  a  complete  university.  One  of  the  great  advan- 
tages there  is  this,  that  you  have  students  of  all  kinds,  of  all  ages,  of 
all  conditions,  some  rich,  some  poor,  some  older,  some  younger,  coming 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  mixing  absolutely  freely,  pursuing  different 
studies,  but  with  a  common  aim — the  aim  which  we  have  before  us  to-day, 
the  advancement  of  knowledge  of  the  best  interests  of  the  Empire  that 
these  students  should  rub  up  against  each  other  and  meet  and  should 
clash  in  friendly  collision  and  rivalry.  I  am  quite  sure  as  regards  the 
future  political  relations  nothing  would  be  more  valuable  than  that  these 
students  should  meet  at  the  Union  Society  and  college  debates  and  in 
the  friendly  intercourse  of  college  rooms  and  so  on.  The  more  complete 
you  can  make  a  university  the  greater  variety  and  richness  of  life  the 
student  will  have.  For  that  reason,  amongst  others,  it  is  my  wish,  and  I 
believe  the  wish  of  all  Oxford  men,  that  Oxford,  although  she  puts  forward 
some  specially  strong  points,  should,  as  far  as  possible,  neglect  none.  We 
may  not  be  able  to  rival  Cambridge  in  some  of  the  developments  of  physical 
science,  or  of  Birmingham,  in  some  of  the  wonderful  experiments  they 
are  making — most  fertile  and  most  fruitful,  in  the  application  of  science 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference          101 

to  trade  and  commerce  ;  bufc  we  do  wish  in  reason  to  have  students  of 
every  kind. 

Well  now,  gentlemen,  to  come  to  practical  politics,  you  will  ask  how 
can  they  come  and  what  means  are  there  by  which  they  can  come  ?  I 
have  here,  I  need  not  repeat  it,  a  somewhat  long  paper,  in  the  drawing  up 
of  which  I  had  a  hand,  and  the  contents  of  which  I  hope  I  know,  which 
sets  forth  what  the  conditions  of  the  arrangements  are  now.  Beside  the 
Rhodes  scholarships,  I  would  also  remind  you  that  the  college  scholar- 
ships are  open  to  any  son  of  the  Empire  that  conforms  to  their  conditions. 
Some  of  them  are  tied  to  age,  bat  many  of  them  are  not.  I  would  like 
to  say  that  in  my  own  experience,  some  of  the  very  best  of  Oxford  students 
have  been  of  colonial  birth  and  colonial  training,  and  in  some  cases  have 
taken  Oxford  scholarships,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  it  might  not  be 
more  so  in  the  future.  I  might  mention  two  very  distinguished  pro- 
fessors :  Professor  Alexander  of  Owens  College,  Manchester,  and  Professor 
Gilbert  Murray,  of  Glasgow,  who  were  both  of  Australian  birth,  and  there 
is  not  the  least  reason  why  others  should  not  follow  ;  in  fact,  there  is 
every  reason  why  more  and  more  should  follow  in  their  steps. 

The  resolution  which  I  have  the  honour  to  put  forward  is  merely 
taking  a  practical  step  to  carry  out  the  resolution  to  which  you  came  this 
morning.  I  have  the  very  greatest  pleasure  in  supporting  so  practical 
a  proposal,  and  I  can  assure  you  that  Oxford  will  do  what  she  can  to 
encourage  this  movement,  and  that  Oxford  feels  strongly  that  in  doing  so 
she  will  not  only  be  giving,  but  she  will  be  receiving,  things  of  the  very 
greatest  value  to  her  life  and  to  her  vigour. 

Mr.  RICHARD   THEELFALL,  F.R.S.  (formerly  Professor  of  Physics  in  the 
University  of  Sydney,  N.S.  W.)  : — 

It  is  five  years  since  I  was  in  Australia,  and  we  all  know  events  move 
quickly  there,  and  I  no  longer  feel  that  I  really  have  the  right  to  appear 
as  the  representative  of  any  Australian  institution.  But  as  my  friends 
have  put  me  forward  as  a  representative  of  the  University  of  Sydney,  it 
behoves  me  to  do  the  best  I  can  in  that  capacity,  and  I  trust  that  you 
will  bear  with  my  shortcomings  after  this  apology. 

From  one  of  the  speakers  this  morning  I  think  I  gathered  that  there 
was — at  all  events  in  one  mind — a  suspicion  that  the  standard  of  some 
Colonial  Universities  was  not  as  high  as  the  standard  of  Universities  in 
this  country.  I  may  say  that,  at  all  events  when  I  was  in  Australia,  the 
standard  of  University  teaching,  if  the  age  of  the  pupil  be  taken  into 
consideration,  is  at  least  as  high  as  any  standard  that  exists  in  England, 
and  I  do  not  think  it  would  be  fair  to  the  Australian  people  for  there  to 
be  any  idea  or  shadow  of  suspicion  that  the  standard  is  lower,  age  for  age, 
than  it  is  in  England.  In  the  whole  of  Australasia  there  are  fewer  people 
than  there  are  in  London.  There  are  not  more  people  than  were  in 
England  in  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  yet  we  have  in  Australia 
three  large  Universities,  those  of  Sydney,  Melbourne,  and  Adelaide,  together 
with  the  smaller  University  of  Tasmania  and  several  universities  in  New 


102  Official  Report  of  the 

Zealand.  I  can  assure  you  that  the  efforts  put  forward  per  head  of 
population  in  the  cause  of  University  education  have  been  greater  in 
Australasia  than  they  have  ever  been  in  England.  In  1898,  when  I  was 
Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  of  Sydney,  I  made  it  my  business 
to  look  into  the  condition  of  every  physical  laboratory  in  England,  and 
there  was  not  at  that  time  any  laboratory  in  England,  with  the  exception 
of  that  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  which  was  finer  or  better  kept  up 
than  the  laboratory  which  I  had  the  honour  at  that  time  to  administer. 

I  have  already  said  that  in  considering  the  matter  of  standard  you  must 
consider  it  age  for  age,  and  the  precise  difference  that  exists  between  the 
Australian  Universities  and  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
is  that  the  students,  as  a  rule,  are  younger  at  Colonial  Universities.  They 
are,  I  believe,  about  two- years  younger  on  the  average,  and  therefore  the  abso- 
lute standard  for  the  Honour  degree  must  necessarily  be  lower  by  an  amount 
corresponding  to  that  difference  in  age,  because  my  experience  as  a  teacher 
has  been  to  show  that  the  standard  to  which  any  examination  reaches 
is  really  set  by  the  candidates  and  not  by  the  examiner.  If  you  look  at 
any  list  of  examination  results  you  will  see  that  a  certain  number  of 
students  were  passed  and  a  certain  number  of  students  fail.  It  therefore 
shows  that  the  standard  was  such  that  it  could  be  attained  year  after  year 
by  a  certain  percentage  of  those  presenting  themselves — which  is  what  I 
mean  by  saying  that  the  standard  is  really  set  by  the  students,  and  their 
setting,  of  course,  depends  on  their  age. 

We  have  heard  something  about  the  desirability  of  interchange  of 
students  between  the  Universities,  but  we  must  all  bear  in  mind — as  far  as 
Australia  goes  certainly,  and  I  believe  what  I  am  saying  is  really  true  of  other 
Colonies — we  must  remember  that  we  have  to  propose  an  exchange  between 
classes  of  students  who  are  not  of  equal  age,  and  that  would  naturally  imply, 
I  think,  that  the  greatest  setting  will  not  be  from  the  English  universities 
to  the  Colonial,  but  from  the  Colonial  to  the  English  universities. 
It  is  perfectly  clear  and  obvious  that  a  student  who  has  attained  a 
degree  in  his  own  University,  and  has  passed  through  what  I  suppose  we  must 
all  call  the  drudgery  of  the  earlier  stages  of  the  University  examinations, 
will  not  be  willing  to  pass  through  such  an  ordeal  again  ;  and,  therefore, 
if  he  is  to  be  encouraged  to  leave  his  Colonial  University  after  a  certain 
sojourn  there  and  to  come  to  an  English  University,  it  must  be  because 
he  is  free  to  obtain  his  degree,  or  to  follow  up  the  study  that  he  wishes 
to  pursue  without  having  to  go  through  what,  no  doubt,  would  be  the 
embarrassing  formality  of  an  elementary  examination.  And  it  is  precisely 
on  that  ground  that  I  think  the  Cambridge  system,  which  was  referred  to 
this  morning,  of  allowing  students  to  enter  the  University  without  exami- 
nation and  without  compelling  them  to  qualify  for  a  degree,  except  as  a 
result  of  research,  is  one  highly  to  be  approved. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  this  Conference  to  my 
mind,  is  the  unanimity  with  which  we  all  seem  to  agree  that  education, 
to  be  right,  to  be  real  and  thorough,  must  involve  a  certain  amount  of 
research.  That  is  the  thing  which  has  struck  me  more  than  anything  else. 
There  remains  the  question  what  the  Council  is  to  do.  We  are  all 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  103 

agreed  that  an  interchange  of  students  under  approved  conditions  is 
desirable  ;  we  are  all  agreed  that  research  is  a  necessary  portion  of  educa- 
tion. But  how  are  those  students  who  wish  to  leave,  say,  the  University  of 
Sydney  to  go  to  the  University  of  Cambridge  ?  It  may  be  within 
your  experience  that  those  who  have  the  greatest  inclination  have  not 
always  the  greatest  means.  And  in  practice,  surely,  does  not  the  work 
of  the  Council  boil  itself  down  to  increasing  the  facilities  by  which 
students  in  Colonial  Universities  can  either  go  through  other  Colonial 
Universities  or  come  to  English  Universities,  or  in  the  reverse  case  English 
students  visit  the  Colonies  in  those  cases  in  which  they  are  not  financially 
able  to  do  so  on  their  own  resources  ?  I  believe  as  a  matter  of  fact 
there  are  plenty  of  opportunities  given  now  by  every  University  to 
students  from  other  Universities.  If  we  look  it  up  we  shall  find  that  it  is 
already  possible  for  any  student  to  go  to  any  other  University  that  gives 
privileges.  But  there  always  remains  the  difficulty  of  the  financial  question. 
That  the  1851  Exhibition  scholars  have,  as  a  rule,  been  a  very  great 
success,  I  can  endorse  that  from  my  own  experience  of  them.  It  has 
also  been  pointed  out  that  Mr.  Rhodes  has  given  a  large  sum  for  a 
similar  purpose.  And  it  has  been  said  that  these  sums  are  inadequate. 
Now,  then,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  duty  of  the  Council  will  be  to 
see  if  they  cannot  increase  facilities  similar  to  those  provided  by  the  Com- 
missioners of  the  1851  Exhibition.  That  is  the  essential  question  we  have 
to  deal  with — What  can  be  done  to  increase  those  facilities  ?  It  is  not 
for  me  to  suggest  what  the  Council  should  do,  but  I  say  if  any 
progress  is  to  be  made  in  this  direction  it  must  receive  financial 
support.  I  do  not  see  where  the  support  is  coming  from,  but  we 
need  support,  and  support  has  a  way  of  coming  when  rich  people 
get  to  know.  And  no  doubt  the  first  step  towards  that  knowledge  is 
for  the  Council  to  decide  what  form  they  desire  such  support  to  take, 
and  to  make  their  desire  thoroughly  well  known. 


SIR  GILBERT  PARKER,  D.C.L.,  M.P., 

IN  THE  CHAIR. 
The  CHAIRMAN  : — 

It  is  unfortunate  for  us  that  Lord  Strathcona,  having  another  and 
important  engagement,  must  keep  it,  and  I  have  been  requested  to  take 
his  place.  I  cannot  possibly  act  as  a  substitute,  but  I  very  willingly 
act  as  his  deputy.  And  before  we  proceed  further,  may  I  say  a  word 
concerning  the  names  which  have  been  read  out  to  you  this  afternoon  in 
connection  with  the  second  resolution,  which,  as  you  will  see,  is — "  The 
following  persons  be  appointed  to  arrange  for  the  constitution  of  the 
Council." 

You  will  notice  the  names  which  have  been  submitted  are  not  the 
names  of  the  Council,  but  they  are  the  names  of  what  are  practically  the 
preliminary  Executive  Committee.  It  is  quite  clear  that  the  Executive 
Committee  must,  as  it  were,  be  in  a  position  to  meet  together.  It  would 


104  Official  Report  of  the 

be  impossible,  particularly  at  first,  for  the  Council  to  meet  together— the 
members  of  which  are  3,0<  0  or  12,000  miles  apart.  Therefore  it  has 
been  considered  necessary  to  limit  that  preliminary  Committee  to 
gentlemen  resident  in  England  who  represent  Universities  here  and 
others  who  are  more  or  less  associated  with  the  Colonies. 

As  soon  as  the  Committee  has  arranged  for  the  Council  and  selected 
those  people  who,  upon  advice — upon  competent  and  wise  advice — will  be 
asked  to  form  the  Council,  that  Executive  Committee  will  cease  to  exist, 
and  the  Council  itself  will  become  the  body  which  will  appoint  its  own 
Committee.  I  feel  it  necessary  to  make  this  explanation,  lest  there  should 
be  some  misunderstanding  that  there  was  not  sufficient  representation  of 
the  Universities  of  the  Colonies  upon  this  preliminary  Executive  Committee. 

The  REV.  J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  D.D.  (Senior  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin}  .— 

I  had  intended  to  come  forward  at  the  end  of  the  last  resolu- 
tion, because  I  was  bound  to  give  an  account  to  you  why,  in  this 
pamphlet*  of  answers  to  important  questions,  the  University  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  is  silent.  It  was  not  from  any  want  of  zeal,  but 
because  we  were  under  very  peculiar  stress  and  difficulty.  We  had 
to  wait  till  the  debate  in  the  House  of  Parliament  last  night  to  know 
whether  we  should  not  be  plundered  of  £11,000  or  £12,000  a  year 
under  the  new  Land  Bill ;  and  if  that  had  taken  place,  it  would  be  very 
dangerous  for  us  to  offer  large  additions  to  our  education  in  the  face  of  so 
great  a  misfortune.  Now  that  danger  seems  to  be  avoided,  and  therefore 
I  am  here  to  speak  of  what  Trinity  College  may  do.  Secondly,  we 
found,  in  trying  to  meet  the  wishes  of  the  Colonies  hitherto,  we  had  not 
satisfied  the  wishes  of  the  best  of  them.  The  things  they  were  offered  were 
not  exactly  the  things  wanted,  and  the  reason  we  delayed  in  making  our 
offer  was  to  wait  for  the  present  Conference,  and,  understanding  what 
exactly  were  the  desires  of  the  Colonies,  we  could  then  meet  them  with  a 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  case. 

The  new  Council  will  no  doubt  be  able  to  give  us  useful  information 
on  this  point.  At  all  events,  one  thing  they  will  talk  of  is  post-graduate 
studies.  Well,  with  great  respect  to  the  many  people  who  have  used  that 
term,  I  greatly  prefer  in  Trinity  College  to  call  them  "advanced 
studies."  Advanced  studies  begin  with  us  before  the  bachelor's 
degree  and  continue  long  afterwards,  and  it  may  be  found  expedient 
that  young  men  with  degrees  from  the  Colonial  Universities  should 
take  up  their  course  at  the  beginning  of  a  great  study,  which  is  at 
the  end  of  our  second  year,  and  then  go  on  to  what  are  called  the 
honour  degrees  in  a  special  subject,  when  I  believe  we  should  be  prepared 
to  give  them  not  the  degree  of  B.A.,  but  the  degree  of  B.Sc.  or  Bachelor 
of  Letters.  We  hope,  if  they  are  properly  cultivated  when  they  come 
to  us,  that  they  will  be  able  to  prosecute  the  one  subject  which  they  have 
on  their  minds ;  but  we  shall  take  care  to  test  them,  not  merely  by  the 
statement  that  they  have  made  research,  but  by  a  good  stiff  examination, 

*  See  footnote,  p.  80, 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  105 

to  show  what  they  know  of  the  work  of  their  predecessors.  I  have  the 
strongest  opinion  that  going  into  research  without  knowing  the  history  of 
a  subject  is  almost  certain  to  be  an  idle  pursuit.  We  have  already  offered 
scholarships  to  some  South  African  students,  especially  in  the  Medical 
School ;  we  are  ready  to  offer  more,  and  we  hope  that  a  great  many 
Colonials  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  come  and  stay  with  us.  We 
have  some  very  willing  and  very  excellent  South  Africans  and  Australians 
with  us  at  present,  and  we  hope  we  shall  have  many  more. 

It  is  said  to  be  a  common  belief  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  that  if  a 
man  knows  everything  about  one  subject  he  cannot  know  anything 
about  any  other  subject.  The  great  traditions  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
are  that  we  do  not  consider  that  any  man  knows  one  subject  perfectly  if 
he  does  not  know  a  number  of  subjects  round  about  it.  And  if  a 
University  education  means  anything,  it  means  that  we  shall  not 
educate  even  tradesmen  in  one  faculty,  but  men  who,  in  addition  to 
their  special  faculty,  shall  be  obliged  to  know  the  general  lines  of  human 
culture.  Professor  Threlfall  said  he  wished  to  speak  on  the  fact  that, 
age  for  age,  the  students  in  Australia  and  other  places  were  as  good 
as  students  here.  But  if  he  had  known  anything  about  horse  racing 
or  other  such  amusements,  he  would  have  known  that  a  three-year-old  in 
Australia  is  a  very  much  older  horse  than  a  three-year-old  in  England. 
The  Australian  boy  at  sixteen  is,  I  take  it,  as  old  as  the  English  boy 
of  eighteen,  on  account  of  the  climate  and  other  circumstances,  and 
that  is  also  the  case  in  Ireland.  I  should  feel  rather  ashamed  of  an 
Irish  boy  of  seventeen  who  was  not  able  to  beat  an  English  boy  of 
nineteen.  So  that  if  these  young  gentlemen  in  our  highly  developed 
Colonies  want  to  meet  with  proper  matches  of  the  same  age,  let  them  come 
to  us.  We  will  give  them  a  distinctly  lively  course.  We  will  give  them 
what  the  President  of  Magdalen  said — the  distractions  and  amusements 
of  great  colleges,  clubs,  and  societies ;  and  that  will  be  to  them  of  great 
value  as  it  will  be  to  us,  as  we  should  get  the  new  ideas  which  they 
would  bring. 

I  am  impressed  by  the  fact  that  this  movement  is  going  back  from 
the  modern  time  into  the  mediaeval.  The  whole  trend  of  modern 
Universities  in  our  generation  has  been  examinations.  Now  they  discover 
that  the  mediaeval  idea  of  teaching,  not  examinations,  is  the  really 
important  thing.  We  are  going  back  to  the  teaching.  The  plant  of 
modern  science  is  very  expensive,  but  that  is  not  the  real  plant  of  a 
University ;  the  real  plant  of  a  University  is  a  great  teacher.  And  I  do 
not  see  how  you  are  going  to  have  a  large  number  of  great  teachers 
unless  your  philanthropists,  who  are  taking  every  pains  to  let  the 
boys  be  educated  for  nothing,  will  also  take  pains  to  give  a  high 
position  and  a  handsome  income  to  the  teachers  who  are  to  educate 
them.  Until  we  make  the  ambition  of  teaching  as  great  as  that 
of  a  lawyer,  a  soldier,  or  a  politician,  the  great  intellects  of  the  country 
will  not  take  up  the  teaching  profession.  Jf  there  is  a  division  of  the 
property  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  into  a  number  of  small  salaries,  the 
danger  is  that  third  or  fourth-rate  men  will  get  fellowships,  and  teach  first- 


106  Official  Report  of  the 

rate  young  men ;  whereas,  what  we  want  to  do  is  to  get  the  pick  of  the 
country  to  do  that  work,  and  in  all  recent  benevolencies  and  generosities  I 
see  this  great  flaw.  If  we  had  what  we  ought  to  have — great  teachers 
scattered  over  the  Colonies,  and  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland— then, 
indeed,  the  moving  of  students  from  one  to  the  other  would  be  a  matter 
of  absolute  necessity.  They  would  go  from  one  University  to  another  to 
learn  from  a  great  teacher. 

And  this  will  lead  to  another  step  in  the  co-ordination  of  Universities, 
and  that  is,  I  hope  in  the  future  we  shall  have  not  only  interchange  of 
students,  but  an  interchange  of  professors.  There  are  many  subjects 
which  do  not  require  an  expensive  plant,  and  which  the  professor  may 
carry  with  him  in  his  head.  Nothing  could  be  more  important  than 
that  the  great  men  from  over-sea  should  come  to  us,  and  that  the 
great  men  from  us  should  go  and  spend  a  year  or  two  in  teaching 
their  views  to  the  students  of  the  over-sea  Colleges  and  Universities. 
I  know  it,  practically,  because  I  think  there  are  in  Dublin  medical 
men  and  men  of  science  who  find  the  teaching  of  schools  in  the 
United  States  of  America  so  good,  that  after  their  sons  have  got  their 
education  in  Dublin  they  send  them  to  the  practical  schools  in  America. 
I  do  not  see  why  that  should  not  be  a  great  object  of  this  University 
movement. 

Let  me  conclude  with  one  caution.  I  hear  all  kinds  of  boys  talking 
about  going  into  original  research.  I  do  not  think  they  know  what  original 
research  means.  Original  research  means  great  new  ideas,  and  until  a 
man  has  learned  his  subject  thoroughly  and  for  years,  he  is  not  competent 
to  know  what  is  original  research  and  what  is  not ;  and  I  sincerely  hope 
when  you  talk  of  this  subject  you  will  talk  of  research,  which  any  boy 
can  do  under  his  master,  and  not  of  original  research,  which  only  belongs  to 
the  great  leaders  of  science.  I  knew  a  boy  of  fourteen  who  told  me  that  he 
had  already  chosen  the  medical  profession  and  he  was  preparing  for  it.  I 
said,  "  How  are  you  preparing  for  this  profession  ?  I  suppose  you  are 
reading  botany  and  zoology."  "  Oh,  not  at  all,  I  have  never  thought 
of  that,  but  I  have  given  up  Greek."  That's  the  kind  of  thing  we  hear 
about  boys  who  go  in  for  original  research.  Let  me  caution  you 
against  these  mistakes.  Let  us  have  no  nonsense,  but  if  we  adhere  to  the 
great  traditions  of  the  Universities,  and  if  we  stick  to  the  fact  that  all 
human  knowledge  is  homogeneous,  and  that  all  educated  men  ought  to 
have  an  opinion  on  many  subjects,  I  believe  this  movement  cannot  but 
lead  to  lasting  and  great  good  to  the  Empire. 


The  CHAIRMAN  : — 

You  will  forgive  me  if  I  respectfully  suggest,  as  time  is  extremely 
limited,  that  the  speeches  should  be  short.  We  have  a  number  of 
speakers  yet  to  address  us,  and  inasmuch  as  we  must  adjourn  within  an 
hour  or  an  hour  and  a  quarter,  I  feel  that  it  is  only  a  proper  warning 
to  give  in  order  that  no  one  shall  be  neglected,  and  no  part  of  the 
Empire  be  left  out.  In  this  connection  let  me  say  that  there  should  be 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference          107 

another  representative  added  to  the  list  which  has  been  placed  in  your 
hands.  Only  to-day  we  received  the  name  of  the  representative  of  the 
University  of  Tasmania.  That  completes  the  cycle,  with  the  exception  of 
Melbourne  University,  which,  though  represented  on  the  General 
Committee,  is  not  represented  here. 


Mr.    ALFRED    HOPKINSON,    E.G.,    LL.D.    (Vice -Chancellor   of    Victoria 
University  and  Principal  of  Owens  College,  Manchester)  : — 

I  think  it  is  not  unfitting  that  one  of  those  who  represent  the 
Universities  and  Colleges  which  have  been  growing  up,  some  of  which 
have  now  been  in  existence  for  fifty  years  in  the  great  centres  of  population 
in  England,  should  say  a  word  or  two  on  the  relation  of  these  Universities 
to  the  question  which  we  are  now  discussing.  We  know  perfectly  well 
that  our  very  existence  depends  on  the  support  which  is  given  through 
local  and  municipal  feeling  in  the  districts  in  which  we  are  placed,  but  if 
we  regard  ourselves  simply  as  local  or  provincial  Universities — I  know  I 
am  speaking  the  view  of  my  colleagues  who  represent  those  Universities 
and  University  Colleges — we  shall  be  falling  entirely  short  of  the  ideal 
which  we  have  placed  before  us,  and  neglecting  one  of  the  most  important 
duties  which  we  ought  to  perform. 

One  great  point  in  our  modern  Universities  which  have  grown  up  in 
the  large  towns  is  this — that,  although  I  believe  we  are  doing  our  best 
to  retain  a  firm  hold  of  the  best  of  the  ancient  traditions,  at  the  same 
time  we  can  make  ourselves  as  adaptable  as  possible  to  new  conditions. 
And  here  I  should  like  to  mention  three  practical  points  in  respect  of 
which  I  think  we  could  do  good  work  and  draw  ourselves  into  closer 
relationship  with  the  Universities  in  other  parts  of  the  Empire.  As 
regards  all  three  we  have  already  had  some  experience,  and  in  a  quiet 
way  we  have  already  been  able  to  accomplish  some  useful  work,  and  with 
larger  resources  we  shall  be  able  to  do  much  more. 

The  first  point  is,  that  we  ought  to  have  a  free  interchange  of 
information  and  advice  between  the  heads  of  the  Universities  in  various 
parts  of  the  Empire,  with  regard  to  appointments  on  their  teaching  staff. 
In  all  our  new  Colleges  and  Universities  we  have  a  large  body  of  what  we 
may  call  junior  staff,  the  younger  men  who  are  occupying  appointments 
which  are  not  of  such  a  character  as  would  be  suitable  for  men  who 
have  achieved  distinction  to  retain  for  any  long  period.  What  we  want 
is  rapid  circulation  amongst  men  of  that  class  as  soon  as  they  have  proved 
what  they  are  capable  of,  and  I  am  glad  to  know  that  at  the  present 
moment  at  the  McGill  University  there  are  two  gentlemen  holding 
professorships  who  were  formerly  teachers  of  the  College  over  which  I 
have  the  honour  to  preside.  We  ought  to  have  that  close  intimate 
relationship  which  will  lead  to  circulation  of  the  teaching  staff. 

The  second  point  is  that  we  should  have  in  all  our  Universities 
very  convenient  arrangements  for  those  who  wish  to  pursue  research  of 
some  kind  or  another.  .  We  have  already  in  my  own  University  or  College, 
whichever  you  like  to  call  it,  a  system  of  research  studentships  and 


108  Official  Report  of  the 

fellowships.  In  one  subject  alone,  chemistry,  there  are  now  twenty-five 
students  who  have  already  taken  their  degrees  at  various  Universities  and 
who  are  pursuing  original  research.  This  kind  of  arrangement  we  ought 
to  see  made  reciprocal  and  general.  The  fees  charged  are  low,  the  freedom 
given  to  such  students  is  very  large,  the  door  is  open  to  all  who  choose  to 
come  to  show  that  they  are  able  to  pursue  work  of  that  kind  with  profit 
and  success.  It  is  very  expensive  work.  You  have  to  supply  the  rooms, 
you  have  to  provide  appliances,  you  have  to  charge  very  low  fees  ;  but  it 
is  work  for  which  we  claim  and  I  think  we  are  entitled  to  larger  support, 
and  I  hope  it  will  be  reciprocal  work.  I  shall  not  be  satisfied  till  we  see 
from  my  own  College  of  Manchester,  as  has  been  suggested  by  the  Yice- 
Chancellor  of  Capetown,  students  going  to  study  astronomy  or  ethnology 
in  the  University  over  which  he  presides.  The  1851  Exhibition  Com- 
missioners, as  has  been  pointed  out,  to  some  extent  already  provide  for 
the  support  of  work  of  this  kind  in  an  admirable  manner.  "We  are  glad 
to  know  that  we  have,  within  our  walls,  Colonial  students  working  at 
research  with  those  Exhibitions,  and  we  are  able  to  send  out  to  other 
Universities  those  who  have  proved  their  capacity  in  our  own. 
".•^And  the  third  point  is  that — apart  altogether  from  the  promotion  of 
original  research  in  physical  science,  we  have  to  deal  with  the  case  of  many 
who  will  be  far  better  for  going  to  another  country  to  learn  something  of 
the  actual  life  of  people  under  different  conditions  from  those  in  which 
they  were  brought  up.  In  economics  particularly,  and  social  science 
generally,  good  work  of  that  sort  may  be  done,  and  I  for  my  part  should 
be  extremely  sorry  to  think  that  the  work  of  Universities  in  our  great  towns 
was  to  have  for  its  main  object  to  learn  methods  of  making  goods  to 
undersell  the  Germans  or  to  find  means  to  persuade  people  to  buy  our 
goods  in  preference  to  the  goods  of  our  competitors ;  excellent  objects 
to  achieve  if  possible,  but  not  the  special  work  for  a  University  to  have 
in  view.  Those  are  secondary  matters  compared  with  the  great  object 
of  Universities,  which  is  training  men  to  render  useful  service,  to  take 
their  proper  positions  and  do  their  proper  work  in  life.  With  regard 
to  the  term  "  University,"  after  all,  is  not  the  historic  and  proper 
meaning,  though  perhaps  not  the  etymological,  that  the  University  is 
a  place  open  to  all  comers  who  are  fit  to  come  and  make  use  of 
the  education  given  therein  ?  That  is  what  the  term  "  University " 
historically  means.  And  was  not  the  University  based  historically 
on  the  idea  of  a  number  of  nations  united  together  ?  That  is  what  I  hope 
may  be  our  case — that  we  shall  not  be  local  and  provincial,  but  that  we 
shall  draw  students  by  suitable  and  liberal  arrangements  to  interchange 
freely,  though  not  too  rapidly,  and  after  a  due  amount  of  study,  coming 
from  one  University  to  another. 

We  cannot  read  the  biographies  of  any  one  of  the  great  scholars 
who  advanced  knowledge  in  the  sixteenth  or  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  without  feeling  how  much  the  advancement  and 
the  revival  of  learning  in  Europe  was  due  to  the  fact  that  those  scholars 
passed  freely  from  one  University  to  another.  I  believe  now,  at 
the  opening  of  this  new  century,  we  are  probably  at  the  outset  of 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference          109 

another  great  movement — I  will  not  say  for  the  revival,  but,  at  all  events, 
for  the  advancement  of  learning.  What  has  been  accomplished  has  been 
due  principally,  no  doubt,  to  the  individual  labourers,  the  almost  solitary 
work  of  the  great  men  of  science  and  investigators  of  the  last  century ; 
but  the  step  forward  now  will  depend  more  upon  united  action,  the 
gathering  together  what  the  individuals  have  contributed,  and  by  stepping 
forward,  not  as  isolated  Universities  or  as  individual  nations,  but  as  one 
great  commonwealth  in  learning  and  in  science. 

I  was  glad  to  hear  what  fell  from  our  Chairman  this  morning — that 
united  action  to  promote  the  progress  of  knowledge  is  to  be  regarded  not 
merely  as  a  question  of  the  British  race,  but  of  the  whole  world.  At 
the  same  time,  a  first  step  has  to  be  taken  if  it  is  to  be  done  practically 
and  effectively,  and  in  the  case  of  our  Colonies  the  movement  forward  is 
far  easier  than  in  the  case  of  other  nations,  for — to  use  the  old  quotation 
which  was  applied  to  the  relation  of  Greece  and  the  various  colonies  of 
Greece — it  is  far  easier  to  secure  common  action  when  the  people  who  are 
working  together  are  people  of  like  tongue,  of  like  blood,  and  of  like 
manners  and  customs. 


Mr.  JOHN  WATSON,   M.A.,  Ph.D.   (Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Queen's 
University,  Kingston,  Ontario)  : — 

I  am  a  graduate  of  Glasgow  University,  but  I  have  been  in 
Canada  for  thirty  years.  I  think,  therefore,  that  I  know  something 
about  the  feeling  in  the  Old  Country,  and  I  know  something  about  the 
feeling  in  the  Colony.  Principal  Peterson  has  suggested  to  you  what 
perhaps  might  seem  rather  a  novel  idea  at  first,  namely,  that  it  was 
possible  that  young  Englishmen  might  come  out  to  the  Colonies  to  study. 
Well,  I  think  it  is  quite  possible  in  such  very  exceptional  circumstances 
as  the  scientific  department  of  M°Gill  University,  which  has  been  so 
magnificently  endowed  by  the  public-spirited  and  wealthy  men  of  Montreal ; 
but  I  think  you  would  make  an  entire  mistake  to  suppose  that  it  is 
possible  as  a  rule.  I  do  not  think  you  will  have  half  a  dozen  students 
going  from  England  to  the  Colonies  in  ten  years.  I  feel  certain  there 
is  not  much  outlet  that  way.  On  the  other  hand,  I  see  no  reason  why 
there  should  not  be  a  very  great  increase  in  the  number  of  students 
who  go  from  the  Colonies  to  England;  and  I  think  it  would  be  a 
good  thing  for  the  English  student,  and  a  good  thing  for  the  Canadian. 

I  find  in  Canada  an  extraordinary  spirit  of  loyalty  to  the  Empire. 
It  is  simply  marvellous.  When  I  first  went  out,  my  notion  was  that 
Canada  ought  to  become  part  of  the  United  States  and  have  done  with  it. 
I  make  the  confession  now  that  I  have  absolutely  changed  that  view,  and 
I  have  come  to  that  opinion  because  I  feel  that  the  whole  sentiment  and 
the  whole  history  of  Canada  is  such  that  the  thing  is  an  impossibility.  I 
assure  you  it  makes  quite  a  difference  to  stand  at  the  circumference  and 
to  stand  at  the  centre  when  you  are  considering  a  question  of  Empire.  It 
seems  to  me  that  you  come  to  realise  much  more  fully  and  forcibly  what 
it  is  to  belong,  or  not  to  belong,  to  an  Empire  when  you  come  from  a 


HO  Official  Report  of  the 

Colony  than  when  you  are  at  home;  therefore,  when  I  see  some  of  our 
young  men  going  to  the  English  Universities,  it  can  work  for  nothing  but 
good.  It  will  certainly  give  the  English  undergraduate  an  idea  of  what 
the  actual  feeling  is  in  the  Colonies,  and  I  think  it  will  react  on  him. 
On  the  other  hand,  I  am  entirely  averse  to  the  sending  of  our  Canadian 
youths  to  get  all  their  University  education  in  England.  I  think  it  would 
be  disastrous.  A  Canadian,  or  any  Colonial,  should  not  go  from  home 
nntil  he  is  somewhat  mature.  I  am  perfectly  clear  in  my  own  mind 
that  the  time  for  the  colonist  to  go  is  after  he  has  taken  his  degree  in 
his  own  country. 

You  have  heard  from  various  representatives  of  Colonial  Universities 
remarks  that,  I  take  it,  show  they  are  a  little  touchy  about  the  manner 
in  which  their  Universities  are  viewed.  The  reason  is  plain  enough.  For 
example,  supposing  a  student  graduates  in  our  University  and  wishes  to  go  to 
Oxford,  he  must  begin  all  over  again.  That  is  absurd.  The  ordinary 
degree  in  one  of  our  Canadian  Universities  is  quite  as  good  as  the 
ordinary  B.A.  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge.  I  have  known  men  who  have 
been  through  both.  This  Council,  when  it  is  appointed,  will  have  to 
take  it  for  granted  that  the  Colonies  will  not  be  satisfied  unless  it  be 
recognised  that  their  degree  of  B.A.  is  equal  to  the  pass  degree  of  the 
English  Universities.  With  that  assured,  there  can  be  profitable  prose- 
cution of  study-research  if  you  like.  I  am  greatly  in  favour  of  research, 
but  I  am  astonished  at  the  narrow  view  of  research  that  the  ordinary 
scientific  man  takes.  He  seems  to  suppose  that  there  is  no  research  unless 
a  man  is  working  with  chemical  test-tubes,  or  something  of  that  kind.  I 
entirely  dissent  from  this  view.  You  can  have  research  in  any  subject. 
It  all  depends  on  the  spirit  which  you  bring  to  it.  Someone  made  the 
remark — I  do  not  remember  who,  but  it  is  a  very  correct  one — that  it  is 
a  great  mistake  to  get  young  men  to  begin  research  too  soon.  They  should 
have  a  solid  basis  before  they  begin  research,  but  when  you  have  got  it — 
or  rather,  in  a  sense,  before  they  have  got  it — then  by  all  means  let  them 
pursue  their  particular  study.  But  research  applies  to  all  study. 

I  suppose  what  we  teachers  have  to  do  in  the  first  place  is  to  put 
young  men  at  the  point  of  view  that  we  have  reached  ourselves.  That  is 
the  first  thing,  and  further,  if  we  have  got  the  genuine  spirit  of  inquiry  in 
ourselves,  we  should  seek  to  get  it  into  them.  If  we  can  do  that  with  the 
ordinary  student,  if  we  can  get  him  to  know  what  has  been  done  already, 
and  get  him  to  feel  that  he  ought  to  try  and  make  it  his  own,  we  have 
already  put  him  in  the  way  of  research.  If  you  give  him  further  oppor- 
tunity of  study,  he  is  likely  to  profit  by  it.  But  how  is  this  further 
opportunity  to  be  had  ?  Many  of  our  colonial  students  are  poor.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  one  of  the  speakers  was  right  when  he  suggested  you  have 
simply  to  give  scholarships.  It  is  scholarships,  scholarships,  scholarships 
-  that  is  my  notion  of  what  can  be  done.  I  think,  therefore/that  it  is 
perfectly  clear  the  main  influx  must  come  from  the  Colonies  to  the 
Mother  Country.  It  is  no  use  thinking  of  the  other,  and  I  will  give 
you  one  reason  why  I  think  it  objectionable. 

I  come  from  Ontario.    Queen's  University  is  one  of  the  two  main 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  111 

universities  in  Ontario,  Toronto  University  being  the  other.  Now,  Ontario 
is  going  this  way.  The  Board  of  Education  has  so  regulated  the  studies 
in  the  High  Schools  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  there  will  be  about 
one  student  taking  Greek  in  each  of  the  schools.  That  is  the  fact,  and 
I  believe  that  Latin  will  follow.  I  believe  in  practical  education.  I 
believe  in  education  being  thorough  and  all  round,  but  I  do  not 
understand  why  the  study  of  classics,  which  is  the  key  to  all  historical 
study  of  an  ancient  kind,  should  be  entirely  dropped  out  of  use  in  our 
schools.  But,  as  that  is  going  to  happen,  I  should  like  to  see  some  means 
adopted  by  which  our  young  men  might  go  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
It  is  a  strange  assumption  that  because  we  have  widened  our  ideas  of  what 
education  is,  and  taken  in  more  subjects,  we  are  now  to  say  the  old  studies 
have  had  their  day  and  have  ceased  to  be. 

Mr.    T.     HERBERT    WARREN    (Acting -Vice-Chancellor    and    President 

of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford)  : — 

I  rise  for  one  minute  of  explanation,  for  the  purpose  namely,  of  calling 
the  attention  of  aentlemen  to  page  14  of  the  pamphlet*  in  their 
hands,  which  will  show  that  at  Oxford,  at  any  rate — though  I  think  they 
will  find  it  is  practically  the  same  at  Cambridge  and  London — con- 
siderable allowance  is  made  for  those  students  from  Colonial  Universities 
who  have  gone  through  a  part,  and  still  more  allowance  to  those  who 
have  gone  through  the  whole,  of  their  studies  in  the  Colonies.  I  do  not 
say  that  we  ought  not  to  go  further  in  that  direction  ;  and  one  thing  the 
Council  may  do  is  to  consider  how  far  we  may  go  in  that  direction.  But 
it  is  not  the  case  that  we  do  not  recognise  the  need  ;  we  recognise  already 
to  a  considerable  extent  study  done  at  a  Colonial  University. 

SIR  WILLIAM  RAMSAY,  K.C.B.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.  (Professor  of  Chemistry 
in  University  College,  London)  : — 

Perhaps  I  am  in  an  unique  position  as  compared  with  all  the 
speakers  who  have  addressed  you,  and  that  must  be  my  excuse  for 
venturing  to  trespass  upon  your  time.  There  is  in  this  room  a  number 
of  my  friends  who  are  the  very  people  you  ai%e  discussing — students 
from  Colonial  Universities.  They  are  working  in  my  laboratory  at 
this  present  moment ;  and  with  that  reverence  which  characterises 
University  College,  the  room  in  which  they  work  goes  by  the  name  of 
the  "Home  and  Colonial  Stores."  I  wish  to  make  a  few  remarks 
following  up  those  which  Lord  Kelvin  made  earlier  in  the  morning. 

I  think  he  hit  the  nail  on  the  head  in  attempting  to  make  any 
University  relations  depend  upon  a  point  which  I  think  has  not  been 
sufficiently  emphasised.  It  depends  on  the  man  ;  students  from  Colonial 
Universities  are  in  the  habit  of  moving  about  from  one  place  to  another 
— Germany,  France,  Norway,  Sweden  and  Holland.  The  reason  is  that 
in  each  University  there  is  a  particular  man  they  go  to  work  with ;  and 
where  there  are  first-rate  Professors,  eminent  in  their  subjects,  the 

*  See  footnote,  p.  80. 


112  Official  Report  of  the 

students  will  go.  If  we  had  such  men  the  students  would  coine.  A 
remark  made  by  one  of  the  other  speakers  is  also  a  very  important  one— 
that  when  you  get  such  able  men  you  must  pay  them  well ;  the  reason  being 
that  if  you  do  not  offer  sufficiently  high  inducements  to  clever  young 
men  to  take  up  the  scholastic  profession  in  its  highest  branches  they 
will  devote  themselves  to  other  branches  and  never  enter  it.  So  the 
question  resolves  itself  into  two  heads.  Offer  sufficient  inducements 
in  the  way  of  salaries  to  attract  the  very  very  best  brains  you  can  get 
in  this  country,  and  the  students  will  follow ;  they  will  go  where  the 
brains  are  to  be  found. 

Another  point  I  should  like  to  make,  and  which  I  have  some 
diffidence  in  mentioning,  is  the  fact  that  the  question  of  Indian 
Universities  has  been  entirely  left  out.  I  have  no  doubt  this  was 
deliberately  done.  I  should  like,  however,  to  press  upon  the  Council,  when 
appointed,  the  very  great  importance  of  devoting  a  not  inconsiderable 
proportion  of  their  deliberations  to  this  question.  Anyone  who  knows 
the  Indian  Universities  will  recognise  in  them  an  imitation  of  what 
London  University  used  to  be  in  the  year  1858  ;  they  have  hardly 
grown  with  the  times.  There  are  five  such  Universities  which  are  purely 
examining  bodies.  There  is  a  number  of  affiliated  colleges  of  all  ranks 
of  efficiency ;  and  the  system  is  acknowledged  to  be  a  very  bad  one. 
There  has  been,  as  you  know,  a  Commission  lately  appointed  to  see 
if  anything  could  be  done  to  improve  their  condition,  and  that  Commis- 
sion has  issued  a  report,  which  in  my  opinion,  does  not  touch  the  fringe 
of  the  subject.  The  changes  required  are  much  more  radical  than  those 
which  have  been  suggested,  and  I  hope  the  Council  will  approach  the 
question  of  Indian  Universities  in  order  to  see  if  anything  can  be  done  to 
improve  University  education  in  India. 

Mr.  H.  DEAN  BAMFOED,  LL.D.  (University  of  New  Zealand)  :-— 

The  motion  now  before  the  meeting  is  simply  the  practical  corollary  of 
the  motion  which  was  passed  unanimously  this  morning,  and  since  the  first 
motion  has  been  fully  discussed,  and  we  are  all  agreed  upon  the  point, 
there  is  no  use  in  my  reiterating  arguments  which  have  already  been  placed 
before  you.  I  merely  desire  now,  on  behalf  of  the  University  which  I 
have  the  honour  to  represent— the  University  of  New  Zealand — to  place 
on  record  the  concurrence  of  that  University  with  the  present  scheme. 
I  need  hardly  say  that  such  a  scheme  would  benefit  New  Zealand  equally 
with  the  other  Colonies,  and  it  is  my  earnest  hope,  as  representing  the 
University  of  New  Zealand,  that  a  very  great  practical  outcome  will  be  the 
result  of  the  appointment  of  the  Council. 

One  point  about  this  discussion  has  struck  me  as  rather  curious, 
namely,  that  until  this  afternoon  the  question  was  almost  entirely 
approached  from  the  point  of  view  of  science.  I  had  intended  to  refer 
to  this  at  length,  but  after  the  remarks  by  the  eminent  representatives 
of  Oxford  and  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  I  will  not  presume  to  add  any- 
thing more,  except  to  say  that  to  confine  ourselves  to  science,  purely  and 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference          113 

simply,  would  be  to  place  a  very  narrow  construction  upon  the  resolution 
passed  this  morning.  There  is  no  reference  there  to  science,  nor 
does  the  resolution  deal  solely  with  the  question  of  research.  The 
resolution  reads  thus  : — 

Such  relations  should  be  established  between  the  principal  teaching  Univer- 
sities of  the  Empire  as  will  secure  that  special  or  local  advantage  for  study,  and  in 
particular  for  post-graduates'  study  and  research,  be  made  as  accessible  as  possible. 

It  would,  I  think,  place  a  very  narrow  construction  upon  the  resolu- 
tion, if  the  incoming  Council  were  to  devote  their  attention  solely  to 
scientific  subjects. 

As  regards  the  resolution  now  before  us,  since  I  have  been  in  England 
I  have  discovered  that  a  great  many  more  facilities  are  available  to 
Colonial  students  than  is  generally  known  in  the  Colonies,  and  it  seems 
to  me  that  if  the  Council  which  is  about  to  be  appointed  were  to  do 
nothing  more  than  collect  and  formulate  facts  for  the  benefit  of  Colonial 
Universities  it  would  do  a  very  valuable  work  indeed.  In  addition  to 
this  work  it  will  be  able  to  collect  information  regarding  the  different 
Colonial  Universities.  Before  any  complete  reciprocity  can  be  established 
between  the  home  Universities  and  those  of  the  Colonies,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  have  a  far  more  accurate  knowledge  than  we  have  at  present. 
The  different  Universities  will  require  to  be  compared.  We  require  to  have 
some  knowledge  as  fco  how  they  are  managed  and  how  they  are  worked  in 
their  different  departments.  To  take  a  single  instance,  my  own  University 
of  New  Zealand  has  its  degree  examinations  set  and  corrected  by 
examiners  here,  the  foremost  men  in  England  being  chosen  for  the 
purpose.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether  any  other  colleges 
adopt  the  same  course.  Other  facts  of  a  similar  nature  should  be 
collected  and  put  into  a  concrete  form  by  the  Council,  and  in  getting 
information  of  this  kind  I  think  the  Council  would  be  doing  very  valuable 
work. 

There  is  only  one  other  matter  upon  which  I  wish  to  remark.  The 
advantages  flowing  to  the  Colonies  from  this  scheme  are  so  obvious 
that  there  is  no  need  to  refer  to  them ;  but  I  think  that  advantages 
would  also  be  secured  to  England  directly  and  indirectly.  Not  only, 
as  has  been  pointed  out,  would  the  standard  of  teaching  and 
•  general  education  be  increased,  but  I  think  that  a  scheme  of  reciprocal 
University  education  throughout  the  Empire,  or  even  a  considerable 
portion  of  it,  would  do  a  very  great  deal  towards  democratising 
education.  And  that  is  one  of  the  best  works  which  has  to  be 
performed  in  the  future. 


SIR  DYCE  DUCKWORTH,  M.D.,  LL.D.  (University  of  Edinburgh)  : — 

In  speaking  on  behalf  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  my  remarks 
shall  be  very  short,  and  c^g^  for  the  reason  that  I  represent  on  this 
occasion  a  University  which  is  known  for  many  years  to  have  opened 
her  doors  perhaps  more  largely  to  Colonial  students  than  any  other  in 

VOL.  VI.— No.  31.  i 


114  Official  Report  of  the 

the  three  Kingdoms.  In  my  own  time  there  was  certainly  a  very  large 
number  of  men  who  came  from  all  our  Colonies,  and  during  the  past  thirty 
years  those  numbers  have  largely  increased  ;  especially  have  they  come  from 
Canada  and  from  South  Africa.  Indeed,  a  very  large  Africander  con- 
tingent has  been  a  peculiarity  amongst  the  undergraduates  of  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  for  many  years. 

The  arrangements,  I  think,  in  all  the  Scottish  Universities  readily 
lend  themselves  to  the  convenience  of  undergraduates  coming  from  the 
Colonies.  The  attractions  to  these  Universities  have  generally  been  the 
presence  of  men  whose  eminence  as  teachers  has  made  them  known  beyond 
the  limits  of  these  three  Kingdoms,  and  their  fame  has  drawn  men  from 
all  parts  of  the  Empire.  With  the  multiplication  of  Universities  and  the 
spread  of  teaching  institutions,  we  may  perhaps  not  find  so  many  eminent 
men  collected  together  in  these  Universities  as  was  the  case  thirty  or  forty 
years  ago.  That,  of  course,  varies  from  time  to  time.  We  know  that  great 
teachers  are  not  always  to  be  found,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
wherever  there  is  a  great  teacher  at  work  there  will  be  plenty  of  students 
to  listen  to  him. 

I  am  quite  sure  that  not  only  Edinburgh,  but  all  the  Scottish  Universities, 
will  be  ready,  more  now  than  ever,  to  open  their  doors  and  to  make 
convenient  arrangements  for  what  is  called  post-graduate  instruction  on 
the  part  of  Colonial  students.  The  conditions  are  not  hard,  and  the 
arrangements  already  existing  are  such  that  they  can  be  conveniently 
met.  I  need  say  no  more  than  assure  this  assembly,  on  behalf  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  that  the  arrangements  designed  or  approved  by 
such  a  body  as  this  will  be  loyally  accepted,  and  that  my  University  will 
be  among  the  first  to  take  advantage  of,  and  provide  every  means  in  its 
power,  to  promote  the  object  for  which  this  Conference  is  gathered. 

The  CHAIRMAN: — 

Nearly  every  Colony  has  been  represented  by  the  speakers,  but  if 
Professor  Horace  Lamb,  representing  Adelaide  University,  is  present,  I 
should  be  very  glad  if  he  would  speak.  (A  pause.")  I  believe  Professor 
Lamb  is  not  here.  I  would  suggest,  as  a  number  of  Universities  in 
Canada  are  represented  here,  the  representatives  of  which  have  not  yet 
spoken,  that  the  representatives  of  Acadia  University,  of  Dalhousie, 
McMaster,  Ottawa,  Bishop's  College  Lennoxville,  Manitoba,  King's 
College,  Windsor  (N.S.),  might  speak,  confining  themselves,  if  they 
will  allow  me  to  say  so,  to  a  very  short  period  of  time.  I  am  sure 
the  meeting  will  be  glad  to  hear  them. 

The  Rev.  J.  P.  WHITNEY,  D.C.L.  (Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Bishop's  College,  Lennoxville,  Quebec) : — 

I  sincerely  trust  that  this  Council  will  take  a  very  large  view  of 
its  powers.  I  should  be  sorry  indeed  if  it  were  to  consider  that, 
in  arranging  for  every  facility  here  given  for  post-graduate  or  advanced 
studies,  it  was  doing  all  that  was  necessary  in  this  great  work.  So 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  115 

far  as  my  experience  goes,  which  is  only  that  of  three  years  in  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  a  great  many  difficulties  of  Colonial  education 
lie  very  near  the  root,  or  rather  in  the  lower  than  in  the  higher  stages, 
which  are  more  particularly  likely  to  be  benefited  by  the  arrangement 
proposed. 

What  I  should  like  particularly  to  see  this  Council  do  would  be  to 
act  as  a  bureau  of  education  for  the  whole  of  the  Empire,  and,  if  it  were 
possible,  to  do  something,  say,  for  instance,  in  making  arrangements  for 
matriculation  at  most  of  the  Universities.  This  would  very  much  facilitate 
the  imperial  work  of  education.  In  addition,  I  think  that  the  Council 
ought,  to  try  and  do  something  in  the  direction  of  what  has  been  done  in 
England  on  a  comparatively  humble  scale  by  the  Teachers'  Guild.  I  take 
it  the  Colonies  have  a  very  unique  opportunity  of  avoiding  many  of  the 
disastrous  mistakes  that  have  been  made  in  education  in  the  Mother  Country. 
In  the  Colonies,  if  only  the  opportunities  are  properly  used,  we  can  have  in 
every  single  Colony  a  systematic  scheme  of  instruction  without  running  into 
those  various  ramifications  which  obtain  in  England,  and  if  anything  can  be 
done  by  this  Council  to  arrange  that,  so  far  as  possible,  the  whole 
educational  work  of  the  Empire  should  be  co-ordinated  with  due  regard 
to  local  differences,  I  imagine  nothing  would  be  more  beneficial. 

And  then  there  is  the  great  work  of  seeing  that  the  whole  position 
of  students  and  teachers  is  more  worthily  recognised  than  it  is  at  present. 
In  particular  I  think  a  few  years  engaged  in  English  education  or  at  an 
English  University  is  of  invaluable  good  to  anyone  who  is  proposing  to 
take  up  the  work  of  education  in  the  Colonies.  "We  want  for  Colonial 
education,  not  Englishmen  like  myself,  who  have  gone  out,  and  have  gone 
out  with  the  very  best  intentions,  but  we  want  men  who  know  a  great 
deal  more  about  Colonial  life,  and  at  the  same  time  we  want  men  who 
can  lay  hold  of  the  priceless  [privilege  of  the  traditions  of  English 
education.  I  think  therefore,  that  any  suggestions  that  this  Council  can 
make  with  regard  to  the  general  training  of  teachers  would  be  of  invalu- 
able service. 


Mr.  P.  B.  JEVONS,  D.Litt.  (Sub- War  den  of  the  University  of  Durham)  :— < 

I  only  wish  to  occupy  two  minutes  of  the  time  of  the  meeting  in 
calling  attention  to  the  enormous  waste  in  the  world  of  Universities 
at  the  present  time.  It  is  a  waste  partly  due  to  the  division  and  sub- 
division of  intellectual  work,  and  partly  due  to  the  false  traditions  which 
maintain  that  a  University  is  a  place  where  all  things  ought  to  be  taught 
or  are  taught.  The  waste  is  twofold.  In  the  first  place  you  may  have  a 
most  accomplished  representative  of  learning  lecturing  possibly  to  two  or 
three  men,  perhaps  only  to  one,  perhaps  without  getting  anybody  to  attend 
the  lecture  at  all.  On  the  other  hand  you  may  have  undergraduates  who 
would  be  willing  to  attend  the  lecture  of  the  best  professor,  and  the  best 
professor  does  not  happen  to  be  a  professor  in  their  own  University,  and 
they  have  no  means  whatever  of  migrating  from  their  own  University  to 
that  University  in  which  there  is  the  prince  of  their  profession. 

i  2 


Official  Report  of  the 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  development  of  Universities  is  now  approaching 
to  a  new  stage,  in  which  what  is  truest  and  best  in  the  past  will  be  developed 
still  further— the  idea  of  a  Unwersitas  or  a  corporation.  And  I  trust  we 
may  look  forward  to  a  time  when  there  shall  be  one  corporation  of  learning 
throughout  the  whole  British  Empire,  and  what  are  now  called  Universities 
shall  be  each  of  them  representative  of  some  department,  or  several 
departments,  of  learning.  If  that  can  be  attained,  and  we  can  have 
interchange  of  students  and  interchange  of  professors,  and  perfect  freedom 
of  movement  from  one  branch  of  a  University  to  another,  then  we  may 
hope  for  some  considerable  advance  in  learning  in  the  Empire. 

Mr.  THOMAS  HABEISON,  M.A.,  LL.D.  (Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
New  Brunswick) : — 

I  speak  for  the  University  of  New  Brunswick.  New  Brunswick  is  a 
Province  founded  in  1783  by  the  United  Rules.  Very  shortly  after  the 
arrival  of  this  Commission  in  that  country,  then  a  barren  wilderness, 
they  conceived  the  lofty  ideal  of  a  provincial  seminary  of  arts  and 
science,  to  be  situated  in  Frederick's  Town,  and,  as  early  as  the  year 
1800,  they  obtained  a  Royal  Charter,  so  you  see  that  we  have  already 
celebrated  our  centenary. 

Our  University  is  part  and  parcel  of  the  Public  School  system.  The 
Public  Schools  prepare  for  the  High  Schools  ;  the  High  Schools  prepare  for 
the  University.  "We  enjoy  affiliation  with  the  ancient  Universities  of  Oxford, 
Cambridge,  and  Dublin.  We  have  certain  privileges  from  Edinburgh  ;  but 
owing  to  our  proximity  to  the  great  University  of  Harvard,  the  greatest 
inducements  are  offered  to  our  promising  graduates  to  go  there.  The  man 
who  takes  his  B.A.  at  Harvard,  or  is  admitted  to  the  fourth  year  of  the 
undergraduate  course  without  examination,  in  one  year  becomes  a  B.A.  at 
Harvard,  and  if  he  is  of  the  right  stuff  he  gets  employment.  Harvard 
has  some  3000  or  4000  students ;  it  has  assistants  and  instructors 
and  other  aids  to  teaching,  and  some  of  our  most  promising  men  are 
permanently  in  Harvard  in  the  capacity  of  instructors.  No  doubt  the 
facilities  that  will  be  offered  by  means  of  this  gathering  will  induce 
our  men  to  seek  English  Universities  rather  than  American.  I  am 
very  much  obliged  tg  the  American  Universities.  They  are  very  liberal ; 
liberal  in  their  terms.  They  allow  a  great  option  in  study,  and  they 
supplement  these  offers  by  exhibitions  or  scholarships.  We  graduate 
about  twenty-five  men  in  the  year,  and  three  or  four— and  last  year  five— 
of  our  men  have  gone  to  Harvard. 

I  would  like  to  say  for  myself  that  I  am  a  Canadian  by  birth.  My 
grandfather  was  one  of  those  landlords  who  came  out  in  1783.  I  was  born 
on  the  place  that  he  cleared,  just  a  wilderness,  and  at  the  age  of  nineteen— 
in  my  nineteenth  year— I  was  sent  to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  simply 
because  my  grandfather  came  from  Ireland.  I  have  enjoyed  all  my  life 
the  immense  advantage  of  the  friendship  of  that  great  man  at  the  head  of 
Trinity  College.  With  the  exception  of  the  five  years  of  my  life  which 
I  spent  in  Trinity  College,  the  rest  has  been  spent  in  Canada,  and  all 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  117 

through  those  years  that  venerable  man  has  never  ceased  to  correspond 
with  me.  From  year  to  year  he  has  dropped  me  a  line  "  just  to  keep  me  in 
touch  with  Trinity."  I  am  over  here  partly  on  account  of  this  Conference, 
and  partly  because  they  have  instituted  in  Dublin  a  scholarship  re-union. 
I  was  elected  a  scholar  in  1843  ;  I  was  invited  over  to  meet  the  scholars 
in  1853,  and  so  on  to  1903  ;  I  mention  this  to  show  the  influence  of  the 
Universities  here.  Our  first  President  was  from  Oxford  and  our  Professor 
of  Classics  was  from  Cambridge  ;  we  have  had  a  Professor  of  Economics 
from  Edinburgh,  a  Professor  of  Mathematics  from  St.  Andrews,  a  Professor 
of  Philosophy  from  Glasgow.  And  so  we  are  bound  up  with  each  other — 
the  younger  with  the  older  Universities. 

The  CHAIRMAN  : — 

I  now  have  great  pleasure  in  calling  upon  one  whose  sympathies 
with  this  movement  have  been  marked,  whose  advice  and  co-operation 
have  been  invaluable.  I  shall  call  upon  one  whose  labours  also  in  the 
cause  which  we  have  at  heart,  co-ordination  of  education,  and  more 
particularly  the  application  of  science  to  industrial  life,  are  known  to  every 
citizen  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  to  all  who  are  interested  in  education 
throughout  the  Empire.  I  refer  to  Mr.  Haldane. 


The  Right  Hon.  R.  B.  HALDANE,  K.C.,  M.P.  :— 

In  bringing  this  discussion  to  a  close,  I  have  been  asked,  to  touch 
upon  the  more  general  aspects  of  this  controversy.  Speaking  for  myself, 
I  can  only  say  that  this  Conference  fills  me  with  a  peculiar  emotion.  Ten 
years  ago  there  were  those  of  us  who  dreamt  of  a  time  when  the  education 
of  the  Empire  might  be  co-ordinated,  and  yet  it  seemed  to  us  that  a  con- 
ference of  this  kind  was  but  a  dream,  almost  beyond  the  reach  of  what 
was  practical.  Well,  the  Imperial  sentiment  has  moved  rapidly.  The 
Empire  is  now  one  in  a  sense  in  which  it  was  not  one  before,  and  among 
the  fruits  of  that  growth  we  witness  the  possibility  of  this  conference. 

I  think  there  are  various  meanings  which  attach  to  that  somewhat 
loose  and  elastic  word,  federation.  There  are  those  who  believe  in  and 
dream  of  a  legislative  federation,  a  parliamentary  federation.  There  are 
those  who  think  that  an  executive  federation — a  federation  in  the  arrange- 
ments by  which  our  Crown  obtains  its  advice — may  be  brought  about. 
There  are  those  who  believe  in  the  possibility  of  a  legal  federation,  under 
which  there  might  be  a  supreme  Imperial  tribunal  which  should  be  the 
ultimate  resort  of  all  those  who  sought  justice  throughout  the  King's 
dominions.  There  are  even  those  who  whisper  about  inquiring  minds 
upon  the  subject  of  a  fiscal  federation.  But  whatever  may  be  covered 
by  that  elastic  term,  we  to-day  have  got  before  us  yet  another  kind  of 
federation  which  has  sprung  not  only  into  a  possibility,  but  into  a  very 
practical  possibility  by  the  tone  of  this  Conference — I  mean  the  educational 
federation  of  the  Empire. 

Believing  as  I  do  that  the  possibility  of  federation  rests  upon  sentiment, 


118  Official  Report  of  the 

that  it  can  never  be  more  than  what  yon  may  call  a  constitutional Clothing 
of  a  reality  which  is  a  sentiment  and  depends  npon  common  sentiment  I 
for  one  rtfaich  the  deepest  importance  to  the  gathering  which  we  have  had 
*>-day  We  have  had  the  representatives  of  the  Universities  of  every  part 
of  the  King's  dominions  breathing  a  common  feeling  and  speaking  a  com- 
mon speech  Our  ideas  have  turned  out  to  be  the  same,  our  aspirations 
have  turned  out  to  be  the  same,  we  all  seem  to  desire  that  the  Universities 
should  take  their  part  in  raising  the  intellectual  level  of  the  nation  in 
its  widest  sense,  and  that  there  should  be  the  free  circulation  of  our 
intellectual  capital.  That  would  be  done  in  different  ways  and  in 
different  places.  My  dream  is  to  see  this  great  British  nation  in  its 
different  parts,  with  its  great  common  constitution,  co-operating  for  a 
common  end,  but  co-operating  with  the  developments  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  soil  and  to  the  branches  of  the  people,  and  that  you  may  have  in 
education  just  as  well  as  anything  else. 

Your  great  Universities  across  the  Atlantic  have  done  splendid  work 
in  many  departments  of  research.  Well,  the  soil,  the  climate,  the  tastes 
of  the  people,  yes,  and  the  commercial  aspirations  of  the  people,  because 
you  can  never  leave  that  out  of  account  in  dealing  with  the  question  of 
education,  these  are  the  root  and  source  of  much  of  the  energy  which  is 
thrown  into  education.  These  aspirations,  varying  in  different  places,  all 
tend  to  give  a  different  complexion — a  different  intellectual  complexion — 
to  the  University  feeling  in  each  locality.  For  my  part,  I  should  like  to 
see  a  state  of  things  in  which  we  should  have  the  Universities  of  Canada 
and  the  Universities  of  Australia  developing  together  features  which  would 
make  them  sought  by  students  from  other  and  more  distant  parts  of  the 
Empire.  I  should  like  to  see  a  co-ordination  in  which  special  subjects 
should  be  pursued  with  special  power  and  special  distinction  in  special 
places.  The  universities  of  the  nation,  while  fulfilling  a  common 
function,  should  not  necessarily  be  moulded  in  precisely  the  same  fashion 
in  every  quarter,  but  we  should  get  real  co-operation  in  the  education, 
not  of  localities,  but  of  the  English-speaking  nation  as  a  whole. 

Now  we  are  here  to-day  to  discuss  very  practical  matters  ;  to  discuss 
what  is  nothing  short  of  the  steps  by  which  we  may  advance  towards  the 
realisation  of  our  idea.  I  feel  for  myself  that  we  best  attain  to  a 
common  understanding  by  the  definition  of  common  lines  of  action,  and 
yet  by  a  common  understanding  and  a  common  definition  which  are  not 
too  precise.  It  would  have  been  impossible  at  the  commencement  of  this 
Conference  for  any  individual  one  of  us  to  have  defined  exactly  what  we 
were  all  likely  to  mean,  and  yet  I  venture  to  say  that  the  course  of 
to-day's  proceedings  has  made  far  more  definite  what  in  the  morning  was 
rather  a  vague  aspiration.  Some  of  us  now  feel  that  there  are  common  lines 
which  we  can  pursue,  that  there  are  practical  steps  which  can  be  taken  towards 
the  fulfilment  of  the  end  which  we  have  in  view.  It  may  be  that  that  will 
assume  the  form  of  a  system  of  Imperial  scholarship  which  will  enable  the 
student  to  go  to  such  part  of  the  Empire  as  seems  best  to  him  for  pursuing 
the  particular  branches  of  study  which  he  has  selected.  It  may  be  that  it 
will,  in  addition,  assume  a  form  of  development  of  post-graduate  research 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference          119 

— because  I  think  that  the  supply  of  this  would  cut  at  the  very  root  of 
the  deficiency  of  British  education.  I  do  feel  that  in  the  development 
of  post-graduate  research  in  different  forms  and  with  special  qualities  in 
the  different  parts  of  the  Empire,  you  may  have  what  will  give  the  organic 
plan  which  that  great  system  of  Imperial  education  which  we  aim  at 
developing  must  have  before  it  in  the  future.  You  cannot  separate  these 
considerations  ;  they  must  all  enter  in. 

But  whatever  the  result,  at  least  to-day  we  are  a  step  further  on 
towards  doing  that  which,  as  a  people,  as  the  great  English-speaking 
people,  we  need  more  than  anything  else.  We  have  got  the  splendid 
energy  of  our  race,  we  have  got  the  power  which  is  ours,  in  a  unique 
degree,  of  adapting  ourselves  to  new  conditions,  of  overcoming  difficulties 
which  to  others  might  even  seem  to  be  insurmountable,  and  yet  we  have 
been  deficient  in  the  capacity  of  organisation.  "What  we  have  lacked  in 
this  country,  somehow,  has  been  the  thinking  faculty,  and  it  is  the  work 
of  education  to  develop  the  thinking  faculty  in  a  nation.  And  never 
before  was  the  thinking  faculty  so  much  needed  as  to-day  when  the 
weapons  which  science  places  in  the  hands  of  those  who  engage  in 
great  rivalries  of  commerce  leave  those  who  are  without  them,  however 
brave,  as  badly  off  as  were  the  dervishes  of  Omdurman  against  the  Maxims 
of  Lord  Kitchener. 

Our  work  is  to  endeavour  to  do  something  practical  in  that  direction 
— something  which  will  lead  to  the  production  of  the  great  men  of  whom 
Professor  Kamsay  spoke — the  great  men  who  come  not  by  accident  but 
as  the  product  of  the  development  of  academic  civilisation,  and  what 
we  have  to  do  is  to; take  such  steps  as  will  make  the  uprising  of  those 
great  men  possible,  not  in  one  place,  but  in  all  places.  I  hope  that 
you  may  give  us  from  Canada  another  Kelvin,  from  Australia  another 
Darwin,  from  South  A.frica  another  Faraday.  All  these  things  are  within 
the  hopes — the  practical  hopes — of  the  future,  if  only  we  are  in  earnest  in 
this  great  question  of  education.  And  I  for  one  congratulate  myself,  and 
I  congratulate  you,  on  the  spirit  of  this  meeting.  It  has  shown  that  we 
possess  what  Goethe  used  to  call  "  was  uns  atte  landigt,  das  Gemeine"  that 
common  quality  without  which  men  cannot  act  together,  but  by  means  of 
which  when  present  men  of  different  mind  and  different  temperament, 
but  with  a  common  purpose,  can  emerge  united  and  successful  in  the 
accomplishment  of  a  great  thing. 

The  CHAIRMAN  : — 

After  the  admirable  speech  we  have  listened  to,  I  think  you  will 
agree  with  me  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  continue  this  Conference. 
Mr.  Haldane  has  rounded  off  the  great  question  in  that  manner  which 
is  his  own,  and  with  that  breadth  of  view  for  which  he  is  remarkable. 
There  is  little  more  to  do  for  me  as  the  Deputy-Chairman  but  to  thank 
you  for  your  attendance  here,  and  to  say  that  if  the  faith  was  great 
which  prompted  me  at  first  to  attempt  to  call  this  meeting  together, 
the  faith  would  have  been  much  greater  which  would  have  suggested 
that  this  meeting  should  have  been  carried  over  into  two  days.  With 


12o  Official  Report  of  the 

a  sort  of  fear  lest  the  general  principles  which  belong  to  this  first  meeting 
—for  it  should  deal  only  with  general  principles— might  not  warrant  a 
two  days'  discussion,  I,  with  a  certain  amount  of  discretion,  which  in 
some  is  called  valour,  limited  the  Conference  to  this  one  day,  which 
I  trust  you  may  not  think  has  been  inadequate  in  the  circumstances. 

The  Chairman  then  put  the  resolution  which  was  carried  unanimously. 

Mr.  W.  PETERSON,  C.M.G.,  LL.D.  :— 

I  would  desire  to  propose  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  Chairman  of  the 
afternoon,  Lord  Strathcona.  We  hope  he  may  be  long  spared  to  give 
the  results  of  his  wonderful  success  in  life  to  the  Empire  at  large  as  well 
as  to  the  country  which  we  hope  he  will  not  forget.  I  should  like, 
also,  to  include  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  and  to  thank  him  not  only  for  the 
way  in  which  he  has  fulfilled  the  duty  of  Deputy-Chairman,  but  also 
for  having  conceived  and  brought  to  so  successful  an  end  this  great 
gathering  which  we  have  been  all  celebrating  to-day. 

The  CHAIRMAN  : 

I  will  not  detain  you  long.  I  merely  want  to  say  that  my  gratification 
is  very  great  indeed.  Mr.  Haldane  has  said  that  he  is  touched  with 
emotion  at  seeing  so  many  people  gathered  together,  representing  educational 
interests  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire  ;  but  his  emotion  cannot  in  any 
sense  equal  mine  ;  for  I  sat,  as  it  were,  for  weeks — I  may  almost  say  for 
months — like  a  spider  at  the  end  of  a  telegraph  wire  not  knowing  when 
I  would  be  shocked,  not  knowing  when  some  refusal  would  come  from 
some  University  not  perhaps  quite  understanding  the  mission  of  this 
Conference.  I  am  glad  to  say  that  no  University  of  the  Empire  is 
unrepresented  on  the  General  Committee  ;  and  I  am  glad  to  say  that  only 
one  is  not  represented  at  tins  Conference.  To  me  it  is  a  source — I  will 
not  say  of  pride — it  is  a  source  of  the  deepest  gratitude,  because  I  have 
held  always  that  Imperialism  should  not  be  a  thing  of  words,  it  should  not 
be  a  thing  of  drums  and  flags,  and  it  is  our  duty  to  see  that  it  is  not  a 
thing  of  rags  and  tatters. 

I  have  felt  that  if  we  could  not  federate  by  constitutional  means  in  a 
Parliamentary  union  we  at  least  could  do  it  upon  one  broad  policy, 
where  rivalries  are  always  and  must  be  submerged  in  the  greater  issue 
and  where  there  are  no  questions  of  parties  :  that  is,  the  broad  question  of 
education  which  represents  the  uplifting,  the  raising,  of  the  whole  standard 
of  civilisation  and  the  moral  conduct  of  nations.  I  hope  these  are  not 
large  words  ;  they  are  only  meant  to  convey  to  you  that  in  attempting  to 
bring  this  Conference  together  I  have  done  it  with  no  little  purpose  of  my 
own  behind,  but,  so  far  as  I  might,  to  help  to  serve  the  general  interests 
of  the  Empire  into  which  our  hearts  go,  whether  it  is  in  Australia,  the 
Cape,  Canada,  or  elsewhere,  with  a  desire  to  do  something  which  is  not 
wholly  selfish,  but  is  for  one  common  good  and  towards  one  common  end. 

The  Conference  then  terminated. 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Dinner  121 


OFFICIAL  REPORT 

OF  THE 

ALLIED  COLONIAL  UNIVERSITIES  DINNER. 


On  the  evening  of  July  10,  the  Allied  Colonial  Universities  dinner 
took  place  at  the  Hotel  Cecil.  The  Prime  Minister  presided,  and  the 
guests  included,  in  addition  to  the  university  delegates,  many  heads  of 
colleges,  and  men  prominent  in  educational  and  scientific  work.  The 
more  important  of  the  learned  societies  sent  their  presidents,  and  the 
different  departments  of  State  their  chief  permanent  officials.  Every  pro- 
fession was  represented,  and  among  the  company  were  bishops,  judges, 
eminent  physicians  and  surgeons,  leading  lawyers,  Royal  Academicians, 
men  in  the  front  rank  of  literature  and  journalism,  as  well  as  several 
members  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  many  graduates  and  under- 
graduates of  Colonial  universities.  In  all  over  400  guests  were  present. 
The  thanks  of  the  Committee  are  due  to  those  great-minded  men  whose 
generosity  made  possible  so  unique  an  Imperial  gathering. 

THE    PRIME    MINISTER'S   SPEECH. 

After  the  customary  loyal  toasts  had  been  duly  honoured,  the  Chairman 
rose  to  propose  the  toast  of  the  evening,  "  The  Universities  of  the  King's 
Over-Sea  Dominions."  He  said  : — 

MY  LORDS  AND  GENTLEMEN, 

We  here  are,  if  I  may  venture  to  say  so,  a  gathering  remarkable  in  the 
individual  capacity  of  the  members  who  compose  it.  But  I  think  we  are 
still  more  remarkable  taken  in  connection  with  the  central  idea  which  has 
brought  us  together.  It  is  not  merely,  or  simply,  or  chiefly  that  there  are 
in  this  room  representatives  of  scholarship,  of  science,  of  all  the  great 
spheres  of  activity  in  which  modern  thought  is  indulging  itself.  It  is  that 
we  are  here  representing  what  will  turn  out  to  be,  I  believe,  a  great  alliance 
of  the  greatest  educational  instruments  in  the  Empire — an  alliance  of  all 
the  universities  that,  in  an  increasing  measure,  are  feeling  their  responsi- 
bilities, not  merely  for  training  the  youth  which  is  destined  to  carry  on  the 
traditions  of  the  British  Empire,  but  also  to  further  those  great  interests  of 
knowledge,  scientific  research,  and  culture  without  which  no  Empire,  how- 
ever materially  magnificent,  can  really  say  that  it  is  doing  its  share  in  the 


122  Official  Report  of  the 

progress  of  the  world.  I  think  that  we  who  in  this  room  belong  to  the  old 
co7n£Tand  who  were  educated  in  the  older  Universes  of  England  of 
Gotland,  or  of  Ireland,  have  great  reason  to  be  proud  of  those  who  may  be 
described  as  our  educational  children-I  mean  the  nmvemtie.  of  the  other 

portions  of  the  Empire. 

We  boast  community  of  blood,  of  language,  of  laws,  of  literature,  but 
surely  we  may  also  boast,  and  with  not  less  reason,  that  the  ideals  of  educa- 
tion which  have  worked  a  great  work  in  the  old  country  are  now  doing 
their  work  among  its  younger  children,  and  are  carrying  on  in  all  the  self- 
governing  portions  of  the  Empire  work  like  that  which  they  performed  in 
the  parent  country.  In  the  few  sentences  which  I  have  uttered  I  have 
already  mentioned  two  subjects,  each  of  which,  separately,  has  been 
exercising  the  minds,  at  all  events,  of  people  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic— 
the  ideas  of  education  and  the  ideas  of  Empire.  We  have  been  quarrelling 
—it  would,  perhaps,  not  be  too  much  to  say  that  we  are  still  quarrelling— 
over  both.  I  ask  you  to  consider  them  in  conjunction,  but  I  hope  that 
the  two  elements  brought  into  this  chemical  composition  will  prove  less 
explosive  than  they  do  in  their  separate  and  individual  character.  At 
all  events  I  am  certain  that  nothing  I  shall  say  will  hurt  the  sentiments 
even  of  the  most  ardent  opponent  of  the  Education  Act  passed  through 
Parliament  last  year,  or  will  in  the  smallest  degree  anticipate  that 
interesting  discussion  upon  tariff  reform  with  which  it  is  promised  us  that 
the  autumn  is  to  be  occupied.  I  mean  to  talk  of  education,  and  I  mean  to 
talk  of  Empire  ;  but  I  trust  and  believe  I  shall  tread  upon  nobody's  toes, 
and  that  partly  because  on  an  occasion  like  this,  in  which  universities 
and  not  schools  are  concerned,  I  think  I  am  justified  in  treating  very 
lightly  that  part  of  the  great  educational  problem  which  touches  upon 
secondary  education.  I  confess  that,  for  my  own  part,  I  have  never  been 
able  to  make  a  theory  satisfactory  to  myself  as  to  what  is  or  is  not  the  best 
kind  of  education  to  be  given  in  those  great  public  schools  which  are 
the  glory  of  our  country,  and  which,  in  their  collective  effect  upon  British 
character  I  think  cannot  be  overrated,  but  which  are  subjected,  and  perhaps 
rightly  subjected  to  a  great  deal  of  criticism  as  to  that  portion  of  their 
efforts  which  is  engaged  on  the  strictly  scholastic  and  technical  side. 

I  cannot  profess  myself,  individually,  to  be  satisfied  with  the  old 
classical  ideal  of  secondary  education  ;  and  yet  I  am  not  satisfied — perhaps 
I  ought  to  put  it  more  strongly  and  say  I  am  still  less  satisfied — with  any 
of  the  substitutes  that  I  have  seen.  I  have  heard  the  old  system  defended 
on  the  ground  that  the  great  classical  languages  contain  the  masterpieces 
of  human  imagination  which  have  never  been  surpassed ;  and  of  course 
that  is  true.  But  I  do  not  think  we  can  defend  classical  education  in  the 
ordinary  great  public  and  secondary  schools  of  the  country  on  that  ground 
alone.  You  have,  after  all,  to  make  a  simple  statistical  calculation,  which 
perhaps  cannot  be  put  down  in  figures,  but  which  can  be  made  by  every 
man  with  the  smallest  experience,  and  perhaps  I  ought  to  say,  with 
the  smallest  memory  of  what  he  was  and  what  his  school-fellows  were  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  or  eighteen,  in  order  to  know  that  a  mastery  of 
the  dead  languages  of  a  kind  which  enables  them  to  enjoy  the  great  works 
with  their  feet  on  the  hearth,  which  is  the  only  way  to  enjoy  any  work 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Dinner  123 

of  literature  is  possessed  by  a  very,  very  small  percentage  of  the  boys  who 
leave  the  great  public  and  secondary  schools.  Well,  you  cannot  keep  up 
a  system  of  education  for  a  very,  very  small  percentage  ;  and,  if  that 
was  the  only  defence  of  a  classical  education,  I  think  it  would  have  to 
be  abandoned  except  for  the  few  who  are  qualified  to  derive  all  the 
immense  advantages  which  to  the  few  it  is  capable  of  imparting.  But 
when  I  turn  to  the  other  side  and  ask  what  the  substitute  is,  then  I 
confess  I  am  even  less  happy  than  when  I  consider  the  classical  ideal ; 
for  I  am  quite  sure — at  least  I  am  not  quite  sure,  but  I  think — 
you  will  never  find  science  a  good  medium  for  conveying  education  to 
classes  of  forty  or  fifty  boys  who  do  not  care  a  farthing  about  the  world 
they  live  in  except  in  so  far  as  it  is  concerned  with  the  cricket  ground,  or 
the  football  field,  or  the  river — you  will  never  make  science  a  good  medium 
of  education  to  those  boys  ;  for  only  a  few  are  really  capable  at  that  age  at 
all  events 

LORD  KELVIN  : — Oh  no. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :— You  dissent  from  this ;  perhaps  at  any  age—of 
learning  all  the  lessons  which  science  is  capable  of  teaching.  And  I  go 
further :  for  myself  I  never  have  been  able  to  see  how  you  are  going 
to  get  that  supply  of  science  teachers  for  secondary  schools  who 
have  both  the  time  to  keep  themselves  abreast  with  the  ever-changing 
aspect  of  modern  science  and  to  do  all  the  work — the  most  important 
work  which  an  English  schoolmaster  has  to  do,  which  is  that  not  merely 
of  teaching  a  class,  but  of  influencing  a  house — influencing  a  house  and 
impressing  moral  and  intellectual  characteristics  on  those  committed  to 
his  charge. 

I  do  not  know  whether  it  was  Lord  Kelvin's  presence  which  inspired 
me  to  say  something  which  I  was  afraid  he  would  not  like.  I  did  not 
mean  to  deal  with  the  topic  at  any  length.  I  only  meant  to  say  that  while, 
so  far  as  I  am  concerned,  at  all  events,  I  do  think  we  have  not  yet 
arrived  at  the  ideal  system  or  the  ideal  character  of  our  secondary  public 
school  education,  I  do  think  that,  so  far  as  this  assembly  is  concerned  and 
so  far  as  the  universities  are  concerned,  we  are  on  much  more  solid  ground 
when  we  come  to  the  education  with  which  they  have  got  to  deal;  and 
especially  and  chiefly  do  I  say  that  we  are  on  absolutely  secure  ground 
when  we  are  dealing  with  that  post-graduate  education  which,  I  hope,  will 
be  the  great  practical  result,  or  one  of  the  great  practical  results  of  the 
meeting  which  I  am  addressing  to-night.  We  know  exactly  what  we  want 
when  we  are  dealing  with  post-graduate  education,  and  it  is  our  business  to 
see  that  the  students  who  desire  it  have  it,  and  that  the  number  of  those 
who  desire  it  is  augmented  so  far  as  our  influence  will  go. 

I  daresay  many  of  us  have  looked  back  with  a  certain  regret,  and 
a  certain  feeling  of  shame,  to  the  mediaeval  passion  for  learning  without 
fee  and  without  reward — with  no  desire  to  make  the  universities  stepping- 
stones  to  good  places  or  successful  mercantile  or  industrial  undertakings — 
but  with  an  ideal  which  made  thousands  of  students  from  every  country 
in  Europe  undergo  hardships  which  would  be  regarded  in  these  days — 
these  softer  days — as  absolutely  intolerable,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  seeking, 


124  Official  Report  of  the 


the  actual  realities  of  the  world  in  which  they  lived.  Jet, 
alter  all,  we  have  something  to  learn  from  them  ;  and  if  we  in  these  days 
could  imitate  their  disinterested  passion  for  knowing  and  for  extending 
the  bounds  of  knowledge,  surely  we,  with  our  better  methods,  our  clearer 
appreciation  of  what  it  is  that  we  can  know  and  what  we  cannot  know, 
might  accomplish  things  as  yet  undreamed  of.  Now,  what  did  they 
do  ?  They  moved  from  university  to  university,  from  Oxford  to  Paris, 
from  Paris  to  Padua,  from  country  to  country,  in  order  that  they 
might  sit  at  the  feet  of  some  great  master  of  learning,  as  they  con- 
ceived learning,  of  some  great  teacher  who  might  lead  their  thoughts 
into  undreamed-of  paths  ;  and  I  hope  that  in  the  universities  of  the  future 
every  great  teacher  will  attract  to  himself  from  other  universities  students 
who  can  catch  his  spirit,  young  men  who  may  be  guided  by  him  in  the 
path  of  scientific  fame,  men  who  whether  they  come  from  north  or  south, 
whether  they  come  from  the  narrow  bounds  of  this  island  or  from  the 
furthest  verge  of  the  Empire,  may  feel  that  they  have  always  open  to 
them  the  best  the  Empire  can  aiford,  and  that  within  the  Empire  they 
can  find  some  man,  of  original  genius  and  great  teaching  gifts,  who  may 
spread  the  light  of  knowledge  and  further  the  cause  of  research. 

I  have  said  that  they  were  to  find  this  —  I  have  suggested,  at  all  events, 
that  they  should  find  this—  within  the  limits  of  the  Empire.  I  hope  in 
putting  it  that  way  I  have  not  spoken  any  treason  against  the  universality 
of  learning  or  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  science.  I  quite  agree  that 
the  discoveries  made  in  one  university  or  by  one  investigator  are  at  once 
the  common  property  of  the  world  ;  and  we  ought  to  rejoice  that  it  is  so. 
No  jealous  tariffs  stand  between  the  free  communication  of  ideas.  And 
surely  we  may  be  happy  that  that  is  the  fact.  And  yet,  though  knowledge 
is  cosmopolitan,  though  science  knows  no  country  and  is  moved  by  no 
passions  —  not  even  the  noblest  passion  of  patriotism  —  still  I  do  think 
that  in  the  methods  and  machinery  of  imparting  knowledge,  as  there 
always  has  been  in  modern  times,  so  there  should  still  continue  to  be 
some  national  differentiation  between  the  centres  of  knowledge  which 
reflects  the  national  character  and  suits  the  individual  feeling,  and  that  a 
student  —  an  English-speaking  student  and  a  citizen  of  the  Empire  —  from 
whatever  part  of  the  world  he  may  hail,  ought  to  find  something  equally 
suited  to  him  as  a  student,  and  more  congenial  to  him  as  a  man,  in  some 
university  within  the  ample  bounds  of  the  Empire. 

If  that  be  our  ideal,  we  have  to  ask  ourselves  whether  we  have  accom- 
plished it,  or  whether  we  are  in  process  of  accomplishing  it  :  that  we  can 
accomplish  it  I  do  not  entertain  the  smallest  doubt.  The  movement 
which  has  begun  with  the  inter-University  meeting  of  which  this  is  the 
culmination,  is  not  destined  to  finish  with  this  evening's  proceedings.  It 
is  but  the  beginning  and  the  seed  of  far  greater  things.  And  I  feel 
confident  that,  if  the  representative  men  whom  I  see  here  gathered  together 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  should  by  good  fortune  meet  a  few  years  hence 
in  this  metropolis  of  the  Empire,  they  will  be  able  to  say,  and  to  say  with 
confidence,  that  the  work  begun  to-night  has  not  been  unfruitful  ;  that 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Dinner  125 

the  machinery  for  interchanging  ideas  between  our  great  academic  centres 
has  worked  admirable  good,  not  merely  for  the  individual  student,  and  not 
merely  for  the  cause  of  knowledge,  but  for  the  cause  of  Empire  itself. 
And  while  learning  ought  never  to  be  perverted  to  the  cause  of  faction,  or 
to  the  cause  of  separation  between  different  sections  of  mankind,  neverthe- 
less it  is  true — it  will  be  true — that  this  intercommunication  of  the 
highest  thoughts  between  the  leaders  of  academic  training  in  every  portion 
of  the  empire  to  which  we  belong  will  have  furthered  not  merely  sound 
learning,  but  sound  patriotism. 

It  is  in  that  faith  that  I  have  been  proud  to  share,  however  humbly, 
the  work  on  which  you  are  engaged.  It  is  this  reason  which,  I  think, 
will  make  memorable — memorable  in  academic  history — the  undertaking 
which  my  friend,  Sir  Gilbert  Parker,  more,  perhaps,  than  any  man  in  this 
room,  has  set  himself  to  accomplish  ;  and  it  is  in  the  cause  of  education, 
of  learning,  of  research,  of  science,  and  of  Empire  that  I  now  ask  you  to 
fill  your  glasses  and  drink  to  the  toast  of  the  Universities  of  the  King's 
Oversea  Dominions.  I  venture  to  couple  it  with  the  names  of  Sir  John 
Buchanan,  Yice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  Professor  Threlfall,  representing  the  University  of  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales. 

The  HON.  SIB  JOHN  BUCHANAN  (Vice-Chancellor  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  University)  in  reply  to  the  toast  pointed  out  that  at  his  University 
they  were  endeavouring,  by  means  of  scholarships  and  the  like,  to  send 
over  every  year  their  best  graduates  to  continue  their  studies  in  the  old 
country.  It  interested  him  greatly  to  find  endeavours  being  made  to  pro- 
mote scientific  study  and  advanced  education  here.  He  sincerely  hoped  the 
projects  now  being  discussed  would  be  accomplished,  whether  the  necessary 
endowments  were  procured  from  Government  or  otherwise,  so  that 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  students  might  find  in  the  mother-country 
facilities  for  post-graduate  study,  and  the  means  of  equipping  themselves 
for  any  scientific  position  without  having  to  resort  to  institutions  abroad. 
Such  a  happy  condition  of  things  would  also  cultivate  and  promote  that 
feeling  of  oneness  which  all  Britons  were  endeavouring  to  encourage  among 
the  different  parts  of  the  empire. 

Mr.  THBELFALL,  F.R.S.,  speaking  as  a  former  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Sydney,  reminded  the  audience  that  for  many  years  he  had  been 
engaged  in  trying  to  do  his  best  in  the  cause  of  education  in  New  South 
Wales.  After  expressing  sentiments  of  loyalty  to  his  old  university, 
he  went  on  to  say  that  the  movement  which  was  being  inaugurated  was  a 
movement  in  which  he  felt  the  deepest  interest  and  the  deepest  concern. 
It  was  not  for  him  to  enlarge  upon  the  subject  of  education  which  had 
been  so  ably  treated  by  the  Prime  Minister,  but  he  greatly  desired,  without 
going  deeply  into  details  of  university  education,  to  see  opportunity  given 
both  to  those  who  lived  on  this  side  of  the  line  and  those  who  look  upon 
the  Southern  Cross  to  meet  together  and  to  mix  together,  and  that  their 
teachers  might  be  inspired  by  a  mutual  hope  and  a  mutual  ambition. 


126  Official  Report  of  the 

SIR  GILBERT  PARKER,  D.C.L.,  M.P.,  then  proposed  "  The  Universities  of 
the  United  Kingdom." 

After  expressing  gratitude  on  behalf  of  the  Committee  for  the  response 
which  they  had  met  with  from  the  Universities  of  the  United  Kingdom 
and  the  other  Universities  of  the  Empire,  he  said  the  problem  which 
they  had  before  them  was  the  co-ordination  of  higher  education  through- 
out the  Empire,  the  specialisation  of  study,  the  establishment  at  different 
points  of  centres  of  special  advantage  in  particular  research,  available  for 
students  in  every  part  of  the  Empire,  whether  coming  from  the  older 
centres  where  intellectual  power  was  dominant  or  from  the  newer  centres 
where  intellectual  power  was  nascent  and  growing. 

There  had  gone  from  Oxford  and  from  Cambridge  statesmen  who 
to-day  held  under  great  difficulties  and  with  great  power  the  position  of 
England  intact  and  strong  in  the  midst  of  consuming  difficulties  and 
great  political  dangers.  But  in  the  over-sea  dominions  great  and  im- 
portant work  was  being  done.  National  character  was  being  strengthened 
by  the  patient  labours  of  scholarly  men  in  Universities,  struggling  bravely 
with  insufficient  endowment  and  inadequately  equipped,  especially  on  the 
scientific  side.  Of  late  years,  however,  such  institutions  as  Sydney 
University,  in  Australia,  and  Toronto  and  McGrill  Universities,  in  Canada, 
had  moved  on  with  surer  tread  because  of  better  endowment.  McGrill 
University,  at  this  moment,  with  an  immense  endowment  and  a  high 
standard  of  work  before  her,  took  her  place  among  the  best  Universities  of 
the  world  in  scientific  instruction  and  research.  And  here  he  wished  to 
say  how  much  it  was  regretted  that  a  slight  accident  had  kept  away  from 
this  meeting  Lord  Strathcona,  Chancellor  of  McGrill,  whose  deep  interest  in 
this  movement  had  taken  most  practical  and  helpful  form. 

These  young  institutions  filled  their  own  place  according  to  their 
opportunities  ;  they  did  not,  could  not,  compete  with  the  long  traditions 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  And  it  would  be  folly  for  anyone  representing, 
as  he  had  the  honour  to  represent  as  a  delegate,  a  colonial  University  to 
attempt  to  exalt  the  colonial  Universities  while  those  parent  Universities, 
which  had  fed  the  Empire  and  fed  the  world  with  great  ideas,  existed, 
preserving  the  majesty  and  dignity  of  high  achievement. 

The  immediate  objects  which  they  all  had  at  heart  were  not  to 
diminish  in  one  tittle  those  great  studies  which  had  refined  the  intelligence 
of  the  United  Kingdom  and  had  contributed  to  the  scholarship  of  the 
world.  Those  deep  influences  must  remain,  no  matter  what  the  develop- 
ment of  science  or  post-graduate  research  might  be,  distinct,  strong,  vivid, 
actual  influences  upon  the  life  of  this  country.  Their  aim  was  to  provide, 
through  an  Imperial  council,  a  closer  academic  union,  an  academic  feder- 
ation. Their  aim  was  national  and  one  of  which  no  one  need  complain. 
They  had  no  desire  to  displace;  they  had  every  desire  to  create,  to 
promote,  to  exalt  science  to  that  place  which  was  necessary  if  we  were  to 
preserve  our  place  among  the  nations  of  the  world. 

The  REV.  H.  MONTAGU  BUTLER,  D.D.  (Master  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge)  replied,  and  in  the  course  of  an  eloquent  speech,  said  we  were 


Allied  Colonial  Universities  Dinner  127 

laying  the  first  stone,  or  nearly  the  first  stone,  of  an  "  academic  federa- 
tion." We  were  increasing  the  ties  which  bound  together  the  great 
Empire  of  England.  He  was  almost  ashamed  to  remind  the  audience  of 
words  which,  trite  as  they  are,  were,  he  understood,  learned  by  heart  in 
every  school  in  the  United  States  of  America.  He  meant  those  words  of 
Mr.  Burke — "My  hold  on  the  Colonies  is  in  the  close  affection  which 
grows  from  common  names,  from  kindred  blood,  from  similar  privileges, 
and  from  equal  protection.  These  are  ties  which,  though  light  as  air, 
are  strong  as  links  of  iron."  Those  words  still  thrilled  the  hearts  of 
Englishmen  and  Americans  alike. 

Noble  as  they  were,  it  struck  him,  and  it  may  have  struck  others, 
that  even  Mr.  Burke,  that  "prodigy  of  nature  and  of  acquisition,"  as 
Grattan  called  him,  never  seemed  to  have  foreseen  two  ties  which,  under 
our  own  observation,  had  largely  brought  together  the  great  British 
alliance.  He  was  not  ashamed  to  put  the  two  together  in  one  sentence, 
even  though  the  first  might  seem  to  be  too  slight  for  so  august  an 
assembly.  He  alluded  to  the  alliance  of  athleticism  and  the  alliance  of 
study.  Mr.  Burke  failed  to  foresee  that  tie,  and  he  also  failed  to  foresee 
that  other  tie,  the  tie  of  Inter- Colonial  study,  the  love  of  knowledge,  the 
determination  to  make  use  of  the  Universities  of  the  old  country  for  the 
purpose  of  study,  the  welcome  which  was  sure  to  be  given  in  the  old 
country  to  the  votaries  of  knowledge  who  came  from  our  colonies.  That 
was  a  fact  with  which  we  had  now  to  deal.  That  was  a  fact  which  made 
this  movement  so  precious  to  all  who  in  any  capacity  represented  one  of 
the  home  Universities. 

In  conclusion,  he  expressed  the  hope  that  Colonial  students  might 
come  to  us  in  ever-increasing  numbers  ;  come  with  their  eyes  and  their 
hearts  open  ;  and,  if  he  might  borrow  the  generous  language  of  our 
gracious  King  to  his  late  illustrious  guest,  Soyez  U  Uenvenu,  make  them- 
selves at  home  with  us,  and  be  more  than  welcome. 

The  REV.  J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  D.D.  (Senior  Fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin)  followed  with  a  well-reasoned  and  witty  speech.  Alluding  to  the 
advance  of  scientific  teaching  in  the  universities,  he  was  proud  to  say 
owing  to  the  liberality  of  his  chancellor,  and  other  rich  friends,  they 
were  able  to  make  a  good  beginning,  and  he  thought  that  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  would  immediately  be  a  scientific  school  fit  for  any 
student  in  Greater  Britain  to  work  in.  But  it  was  true  of  them  as  it 
was  true  of  a  great  ancient  people,  they  lived  with  economy,  and 
pursued  their  studies  along  with  manly  sports.  Above  all,  and  this  he 
begged  to  say  to  the  great  advocates  of  modern  science  present,  the 
success  of  Trinity  College  was  mainly  caused  by  the  fact  that  they  did 
not  like  a  man  who  knew  only  one  thing,  because  they  had  come  to 
the  conclusion  after  three  centuries  of  experience  that  no  man  can  know 
one  thing  really  well  without  knowing  three  or  four  other  things  besides. 
He  understood  that  in  a  couple  of  years  there  would  be  another  Conference 
of  Colonial  representatives  held  in  this  country.  In  that  event  he  desired 
to  offer  the  hospitality  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  when  the  opportunity 
would  occur  for  the  delegates  to  see  a  very  interesting  curious  country,  and 


128      Official  Report  of  the  Colonial  Universities  Dinner 

he  had  no  doubt  that  Trinity  College  would  be  able  to  offer  the  visitors  a 
good  many  subjects  of  original  research. 

Mr.  T.  CHASE  CASGBAIN,  K.C.,  M.P.  (Vice-Chancellor  of  Laval 
University')  then  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  Chairman.  After 
referring  in  the  most  graceful  manner  to  Mr.  Balfour's  speech,  Mr. 
Casgrain  took  occasion  to  remark  that  coming  as  he  did  from  the  French 
province  of  Quebec  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  representing  a  French 
institution,  the  University  of  Laval,  he  might  well  say  that  this  question 
of  the  relations  between  the  colonies  and  the  mother-country  was  one  of 
great  concern  to  all  French  Canadians.  True  it  was  that  in  1760  they 
were  left,  to  the  number  of  60,000,  in  what  they  considered  at  that  time 
to  be  a  land  of  exile,  but  the  60,000  of  1760  had  grown  to  2,000,000  now, 
and  when  the  health  of  his  Majesty  was  proposed  it  was  always  drunk  with 
the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Indeed  nothing  could  increase  the  devotion  felt 
by  French  Canadians  for  the  throne,  and  the  love  and  respect  they  one 
and  all  entertained  for  King  Edward  VII. 

To  this  toast  the  Prime  Minister  made  a  most  sympathetic  and  cordial 
reply,  and  the  proceedings  having  ended  the  guests  separated. 


NOTE. 

In  drawing  up  this  Report  I  have  done  my  best  to  secure  accuracy  and 
uniformity.  In  the  case  of  the  Conference,  proofs  were  forwarded  to  each 
speaker,  and  except  in  a  few  instances,  where  the  delegates  had  left 
England,  these  proofs  were  returned  corrected.  The  corrections  were  duly 
made,  and  when  possible,  a  revise  was  sent  out.  Mr.  Bryce's  opening 
address  is  printed  in  full,  but  here  and  there  in  the  speeches  which  follow 
it  was  found  necessary  to  make  some  little  curtailment  in  order  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  space. 

With  regard  to  the  after-dinner  speeches  a  verbatim  report  is  given 
of  the  speech  made  by  the  Prime  Minister.  The  remaining  speeches  I 
have  briefly  summarised,  selecting  for  reproduction  what  appeared  to  be 
the  more  salient  points.  If,  in  this  summary,  I  have  erred  in  judgment, 
I  would  beg  the  speakers  to  pardon  me,  and  I  would  also  ask  the  same 
indulgence  of  the  delegates  who  spoke  at  the  Conference.  The  time  at  my 
disposal  was  short,  and  it  was  thought  inadvisable  to  delay  the  production 
of  the  Report. 

I  should  like,  if  I  may,  to  take  this  opportunity  of  thanking  the 
speakers  for  their  kind  co-operation,  which,  I  need  hardly  say,  has  greatly 
lessened  the  responsibility  which  I  am  duly  sensible  attaches  to  the 
compilation  of  so  important  a  document. 

C.   KlNLOCH   COOKE, 

July  24, 1903.  ffon-  Secretary. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

"Far  as  the  breeze  can  bear,  the  billows  foam, 
Survey  our  empire,  and  behold  our  home*"— Byron, 

VOL.  VI.  SEPTEMBER,   1903.  No.  32. 

THE    FREE    TRADE   FAITH 

PROTECTION  and  Free  Trade,  superficially  considered,  are  the 
two  fiscal  systems  which  govern  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the 
world.  But  the  difference  between  them  is  more  than  a  question 
of  principle ;  for  whereas  one  is  merely  a  policy,  the  other  is  a 
religion.  If,  like  Protection,  it  were  merely  a  fiscal  policy,  it 
would  stand  on  its  merits,  it  would  be  popular  in  proportion  to 
its  capacity  for  squaring  with  the  facts  of  international  competi- 
tion. But  is  this  so  ?  On  the  contrary,  one  must  profess  Free 
Trade  opinions  or  be  held  up  to  scorn  as  a  heretic. 

Every  one  admits  that  our  commercial  supremacy  is  seriously 
threatened ;  that  unless  we  mean  to  fall  out  of  the  race,  some- 
thing must  be  done.  But  when  a  remedy  is  proposed,  men  do 
not  ask  whether  it  meets  the  evil,  but  whether  it  is  inspired  by 
Free  Trade.  In  matters  of  faith  such  an  attitude  is  defensible,  but 
in  business  matters  it  is  simply  ridiculous.  The  Caliph  Omar 
adopted  it  when  he  destroyed  the  Alexandrian  Library,  and  has 
been  held  up  to  the  derision  of  the  world  ever  since.  Nevertheless, 
the  follower  of  the  Prophet  was  more  intelligible  than  the  followers 
of  Manchester  School  politicians.  The  late  Lord  Farrer  said  that 
it  was  immoral  to  question  Free  Trade,  a  belief  he  shared  in 
common  with  all  genuine  Free-traders.  Here  then  is  the  spirit  of 
the  religious  fanatic  unblushingly  expressed.  But  where  is  his 
authority?  In  every  religion  there  is  a  being  of  transcendent 
parts,  who  acts  as  a  medium  between  God  and  man.  But  Free 
Trade  acknowledges  no  god,  and  sees  in  man  nothing  higher  than 
a  purchaser  of  goods.  Its  source  having  no  connection  with 
deity,  therefore  the  claim  of  its  prophets  to  infallibility  must  rest 
VOL.  VI.— No.  32.  K 


130  The  Empire  Review 

on  the  harmony  which  exists  between  Free  Trade  and  the  material 
conditions  of  the  world.  Though  the  spirit  and  form  may  differ, 
the  fundamental  principles  of  religion  are  everywhere  the  same, 
because  they  are  formulated  in  direct  response  to  the  cry  of  the 
soul  for  community  with  its  Creator.  But  Free  Trade  as  a  fiscal 
system  has  nothing  in  common  with  Protection,  which,  until  the 
repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws,  was  the  recognised  policy  of  every 
great  nation  ;  it  sets  at  naught  the  facts  of  international  life ;  it  is 
rejected  by  all  civilised  foreign  countries,  by  the  British  Colonies, 
and  by  a  powerful  minority  in  these  Kealms. 

Not  a  few  maintain  that  the  triumph  of  Free  Trade  was  due  to 
the  economic  soundness  of  the  principle,  whereas  it  was  due  to 
luck.  The  geographical  situation  of  England,  her  immunity  from 
the  ravages  of  war,  the  inventive  and  enterprising  character  of  her 
people,  her  many  advantages  as  a  manufacturing  centre,  gave  her 
the  start  of  all  the  world  in  the  race  for  commercial,  colonial  and 
maritime  supremacy.  Moreover  she  emerged  from  the  Napoleonic 
wars  without  a  rival  on  land  or  sea,  an  enviable  position  she 
occupied  for  fifty  years,  during  which  the  development  of  cheap 
transport  and  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia 
poured  untold  wealth  into  her  lap.  In  these  circumstances,  there 
was  something  to  be  said  for  Free  Trade  as  a  temporary  fiscal 
policy.  Unfortunately,  it  was  adopted  as  though  it  were  for  all 
time,  and  the  credit  for  the  material  progress  of  the  Victorian 
era,  which  should  have  been  given  to  other  factors  in  the  situation, 
was  given  to  it  alone.  Hence  Free  Trade  and  prosperity  came  to 
be  regarded  as  synonymous.  That  they  are  nothing  of  the  kind 
is  proved  by  the  rapid  rise  of  Germany  and  the  United  States  as 
our  commercial  rivals  under  the  system  of  Protection. 

The  truth  is,  Free  Trade  never  has  been,  and  never  can  be, 
universal  in  the  sense  understood  of  the  Cobdenites.  That  they 
should  have  assumed  otherwise  only  proves  how  singularly  near- 
sighted they  were.  While  making  the  most  of  England's  position 
in  the  world,  they  neglected  to  consider  the  position  of  the  world 
towards  England.  She  was  the  workshop,  the  trader,  and  the 
carrier  of  all  nations,  and  as  long  as  they  favoured  Free  Trade  she 
would  continue  to  be  so.  In  other  words,  universal  acceptance  of 
Manchester  School  theories  would  have  made  mankind  tributary 
to  this  country.  This  was  the  aim  of  Cobden  and  Bright,  and 
there  was  nothing  to  be  said  against  it  could  it  have  been  realised. 
But,  unfortunately,  they  reckoned  without  mankind,  which  saw 
the  matter  from  an  entirely  different  point  of  view.  It  was  so 
foolish,  so  unenlightened,  so  ignorant  of  political  economy  as  to 
see  in  Free  Trade  nothing  but  a  means  for  furthering  the  interests 
of  England,  and  would,  therefore,  have  none  of  it.  Human 
nature  being  what  it  is,  no  other  conclusion  could  have  been 


The  Free  Trade  Faith  131 

expected,  and  had  we  been  as  scientific  as  we  professed  to  be  we 
should  have  taken  account  of  it. 

But  the  point  is,  Free  Trade  at  the  time  of  its  adoption  promised 
a  golden  harvest  to  this  country,  and  no  other  was  considered. 
To  suppose  anything  else  is  to  suppose  that  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  were  even  less  practical  than  experience  has  proved 
them  to  be.  In  support  of  this  argument  is  the  fact  that  Free 
Trade  would  not  be  adopted  as  the  fiscal  policy  of  this  country 
now,  though  the  principle  is  all  that  it  ever  was.  The  change  is 
in  the  conditions,  which,  instead  of  being  in  its  favour  as  they 
once  were,  are  now  adverse  to  it.  England  is  no  longer  supreme 
in  the  commercial  world.  She  has  several  keen  and  aggressive 
rivals.  Free  Trade  was  thus  placed  on  a  wrong  basis  from  the 
first.  So  far  from  being  a  general  principle  adapted  to  all  times 
and  places,  it  was  adapted  merely  to  the  triumphant  England  of 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Nor  is  this  all.  The  economic  stand  taken  by  Free-traders  is 
not  justified  by  common  sense.  Their  idea  was  that  the  raw 
material  of  the  world  should  be  brought  to  this  country  and 
shipped  back  again  as  manufactured  articles.  For  years  this  was 
done,  and  greatly  to  our  advantage.  The  mistake  lay  in  taking 
it  for  granted  that  such  a  state  of  things  could  last.  Not  only 
did  it  involve  an  enormous  waste  of  energy,  which  nature  abhors, 
but  an  admission  from  all  civilised  peoples  of  their  inferiority  to 
Englishmen,  both  of  which  were  bound  to  remedy  themselves  in 
course  of  time.  If  England,  thousands  of  miles  distant  from 
where  the  raw  material  was  grown,  could  manufacture  at  a  profit, 
the  producing  countries  very  soon  came  to  see  that  it  could  be 
done  to  better  advantage  on  the  spot.  They  were  right,  and 
when  they  put  their  idea  into  practice,  they  were  obeying  a  law 
at  least  as  sound  as  any  to  be  found  in  a  Manchester  School 
text-book.  In  truth,  Free  Trade  is  the  commercial  expression  of 
British  contempt  for  the  enemy,  and  therefore  of  that  splendid 
individualism  which  contributes  infinitely  more  to  our  strength 
than  it  does  to  our  weakness.  Such  a  fiscal  policy  could  never 
have  been  even  conceived  much  less  carried  into  practice,  except 
by  a  people  trained  for  centuries  to  scorn  the  impossible.  The 
same  spirit  that  prompts  Englishmen  to  form  in  line  before  the 
foe  prompted  them  to  face  the  trading  world  as  individuals.  It 
was  magnificent,  but  it  was  not  business. 

The  unsoundness  of  Free  Trade,  politically  considered,  was 
covered  by  the  cloak  of  cosmopolitan  sentimentality  we  received 
from  revolutionary  France.  Instead  of  starting  from  the  stand- 
point that  we  accepted  the  Free  Trade  theory  because  it  squared 
with  the  facts  of  our  existence,  we  disguised  our  perfectly  legiti- 
mate selfishness  under  the  mask  of  international  goodwill,  with 

K  2 


132  The  Empire  Review 

the  unfortunate  result  that  the  selfishness  has  disappeared  and 
the  affectation  remains.  That  is  not  to  question  the  genuineness 
of  our  goodwill  towards  the  foreigner,  but  it  is  not  the  effect  of 
Free  Trade,  and  to  argue  as  though  it  were  savours  of  insincerity. 
The  furtherance  of  the  national  interests  is  a  function  of  govern- 
ment whose  performance  is  essential  to  a  healthy  national  life. 
To  substitute  sentimentalism  for  it  is  to  leave  the  straight  path 
of  duty  for  the  quagmire  of  sophistry. 

This  is  what  we  have  done  by  adopting  Free  Trade  on  any 
other  ground  than  its  expediency.  To  hear  its  advocates,  one 
would  imagine  that  our  object  was  wholly  disinterested.  The 
nations  were  assured  that  Cobden  and  Bright  were  not  politicians, 
but  prophets,  who  promised  to  accomplish  all  that  Christianity 
had  failed  to  do.  They  came  to  give  the  world  peace  instead  of 
a  sword,  to  preach  cheapness  instead  of  self-sacrifice,  to  show 
that  freedom  of  trade  and  the  millenium  were  identical.  War, 
international  rivalry,  and  the  passions  in  which  they  have  their 
origin,  were  to  give  way  to  brotherly  love  and  universal  goodwill 
in  an  age  advanced  enough  to  accept  the  principle  of  Free  Trade. 
With  it  were  associated  progress,  political  economy,  and  enlight- 
enment. In  short,  it  was  the  final  word  of  civilisation.  The 
nations  listened,  but  they  were  not  impressed.  They  naturally 
wondered  how  a  people  could  be  commercial  and  not  warlike. 
They  scorned  the  gospel  of  cheapness  as  dear  at  the  price,  and 
saw  no  connection  between  peace  and  freedom  of  trade.  That  it 
was  the  parent  of  prosperity  they  utterly  denied,  and  in  due 
course  proved,  it  by  gaining  on  us  rapidly  in  the  commercial  race 
as  Protectionists.  They  were  further  strengthened  in  their 
attitude  by  the  fanaticism  of  Manchester  School  prophets,  who 
claimed  that  the  enormous  growth  of  the  national  wealth  during 
the  first  half  of  the  Victorian  era  was  entirely  due  to  Free  Trade. 

As  this  growth  coincided  with  the  dependence  of  the  foreigner 
on  England  for  manufactures,  and  ceased  with  his  emancipation 
therefrom,  he  naturally  concluded  that  the  law  of  supply  and 
demand  meant  nothing  more  than  a  demand  on  his  part  for  goods 
which  England  was  only  too  ready  to  supply,  and  the  "free 
exchange  of  commodities  " — the  production  of  the  raw  material 
by  him  and  the  production  of  the  finished  article  by  her.  In  this 
belief  he  was  confirmed  by  the  inconsistencies  of  the  free-traders 
themselves.  In  one  breath  they  denied  that  England  could  ever 
lose  her  position  as  the  workshop  of  the  world,  and  in  another 
maintained  that  their  one  desire  was  to  turn  trade  and  commerce 
into  their  natural  channels.  Unfortunately,  the  foreigner  is  so 
constituted  as  to  care  little  for  high-sounding  generalities  and 
much  for  hard  facts.  Hence  he  merely  laughs  at  a  nation  which 
urges  that  each  country  should  be  encouraged  to  produce  the 


The  Free  Trade  Faith  133 

commodities  for  which  it  is  best  suited,  and  then  draws  part  of 
its  revenue  from  tea  grown  in  India  and  Ceylon,  and  consumes 
bounty-fed  sugar  to  the  injury  of  its  own  Colonies  whose  natural 
product  is  cane  sugar.  Free-Trade  England  has  deceived  no  one 
but  herself. 

For  so  essential  to  the  success  of  the  principle  was  its  universal 
acceptance  that  the  arguments  in  its  favour  most  likely  to  appeal 
to  foreigners  were  set  forth  to  the  exclusion  of  the  one  that  carried 
greatest  weight.  That  is  to  say,  the  national  interest  was  thrust 
into  the  background,  while  the  most  was  made  of  such  vague 
generalities  as  the  era  of  peace,  freedom  of  trade,  the  triumph 
of  political  economy,  and  the  unity  of  mankind.  The  result  was 
topsy-turvy  thinking  in  which  the  only  realities  were  unrealities. 
Eeasoning  from  the  obvious  facts  of  national  existence  was  ridi- 
culed as  a  survival  of  the  bad  old  times :  reasoning  from  the 
cosmopolitan  theories  of  French  revolutionaries  was  the  acme  of 
scientific  enlightenment.  All  that  was  necessary  to  make  the 
lion  lie  down  with  the  lamb  was  to  persuade  him  to  become  a 
buyer  of  Lancashire  cottons  and  Yorkshire  woollens.  With  kings 
reduced  to  nonentities,  the  nations  of  the  world  were  no  longer  to 
fight  one  another  as  the  servants  of  jealousy  and  ambition.  For 
under  the  rule  of  beneficent  Free  Trade  their  intercourse  was  to  be 
so  friendly  that  their  swords  should  be  turned  into  ploughshares 
and  their  spears  into  pruning-hooks.  The  duty  of  a  people  was 
not  to  preserve  its  individuality  but  to  lose  it.  And  so  on,  until 
the  dignity  of  nationality  was  in  danger  of  being  lost. 

Such  fallacies  as  these  were  founded  on  an  entirely  mistaken 
idea  of  national  duty,  which  does  not  lie  abroad  but  at  home. 
Mrs.  Jelleyby's  efforts  on  behalf  of  South  Sea  Islanders,  so  far 
from  excusing  her  neglect  of  her  own  family  merely  aggravated  it, 
and  as  it  is  with  an  individual  so  it  is  with  a  nation.  England 
served  the  world  with  infinitely  greater  effect  when  she  was  con- 
tent to  develop  on  national  lines  than  she  has  ever  done  since  she 
took  to  cosmopolitanism.  And  it  must  be  so.  For  if  each  nation 
is  supposed  to  work  out  its  own  destiny  as  a  unit,  there  must  be 
a  waste  of  energy  when  one  is  devoted  to  the  conversion  of  all  to 
a  theory  of  its  own  which  has  no  moral  or  spiritual  authority. 
That  this  country  is  the  leader  of  civilisation  is  due,  not  to  Free 
Trade,  but  to  certain  noble  elements  in  the  English  character. 

When  a  man  gives  himself  up  to  the  pursuit  of  a  will-o'-the- 
wisp  he  says  good-bye  to  common-sense,  and  so  it  is  with  a 
people.  Otherwise  how  are  we  to  account  for  our  complacent 
attitude  towards  the  consequences  of  Free  Trade  ?  They  are  so 
extraordinary  and  so  fatal  to  our  best  interests  that  we  must  be 
living  on  the  reputation  of  our  practical  fathers  or  we  should 
have  perceived  it  long  ago.  As  the  followers  of  Cobden  we 


134  The  Empire  Review 

maintain  that  we  are  right  against  the  world,  not  because  it  is 
demonstrated  by  experience,  but  because  we  believe  our  theory 
to  be  perfect.  The  Protectionists  argue  on  very  different  lines. 
While  admitting  the  theoretical  superiority  of  Free  Trade  they 
hold  that,  in  practice,  it  is  a  failure,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it 
takes  no  account  of  those  moral  and  political  truths  which  lie  at 
the  root  of  all  national  greatness. 

The  Free-traders  show  the  narrow  spirit  of  the  sectarian. 
They  profess  to  hold  aloft  the  lamp  of  commercial  enlightenment, 
to  expound  the  principle  of  trade  with  economic  authority. 
Protection  is  a  survival  of  the  dark  ages.  It  is  as  much  out  of 
place  in  a  progressive  era  as  religious  intolerance  or  trial  by 
ordeal.  It  is  a  sign  that  foreigners  are  so  stupid  as  to  prefer  bad 
fiscal  methods  to  our  own  sound  ones.  All  this  and  more  may 
be  true,  but  it  hardly  makes  for  international  good-will.  To  hear 
the  Free-traders  one  would  imagine  that  they  were  in  a  huge 
majority  and  the  Protectionists  in  a  small  minority,  whereas  the 
exact  contrary  is  the  case.  The  world  outside  England  may 
be  blind  to  its  own  interest,  incapable  of  reasoning  correctly,  and 
wedded  to  a  benighted  past,  as  it  must  be  to  reject  Free  Trade, 
but  it  does  not  love  us  any  the  more  for  telling  it  so.  Moreover, 
it  may  be  pardoned  for  thinking  that  a  theory  which  is  not 
universally  accepted,  even  in  England,  and  failed  to  make  any 
impression  on  such  master  minds  as  Beaconsfield,  Bismarck, 
Macdonald,  and  Bhodes,  is  not  quite  so  perfect  as  its  advocates 
would  have  us  believe.  At  any  rate  if  all  the  other  civilised 
nations  are  wrong,  and  this  country  alone  is  right,  they  err  in 
good  company,  and  as  experience  is  on  their  side,  it  is  obvious 
that  when  there  is  the  death  and  burial  of  a  fiscal  policy  it  will 
not  be  Protection. 

Nor  is  it  only  the  intelligence  of  the  present  generation 
opposed  to  Free  Trade  that  is  called  in  question.  The  same 
attitude  is  taken  up  towards  the  wisdom  of  the  centuries.  The 
pigmies  of  the  nineteenth  century  measured  themselves  against 
the  giants  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  and 
assured  themselves  that  they  were  taller,  the  glory  of  the 
mightiest  names  in  our  history  were  said  to  be  eclipsed  in  the 
glory  of  the  shining  lights  of  the  Manchester  School.  And  it 
was  just  here  that  the  Free-trader  in  the  spirit  of  the  parvenu 
showed  his  consciousness  that  he  was  a  creature  of  yesterday. 
Not  only  did  he  scorn  the  conditions  which  reminded  him  of 
the  fact,  but  the  means  by  which  he  rose.  War  was  a  hindrance 
to  trade,  and  trade  was  the  object  of  existence.  Hence  war  was 
anathema.  It  was  a  relic  of  those  barbarous  times  when  nation 
fought  against  nation  at  the  bidding  of  kings.  An  age  enlightened 
enough  to  buy  in  the  cheapest  market  would  have  none  of  it. 


The  Free  Trade  Faith  135 

What  was  to  take  its  place  we  were  never  told,  for  arbitration 
as  a  means  of  settling  disputes  which  do  not  involve  national 
issues,  is  as  old  as  the  hills.  But  where  would  the  Free-trader 
be  if  it  were  not  for  war  ?  It  was  not  he  who  built  up  the 
British  Empire,  but  the  sturdy  ancestor  whose  Navigation  Laws, 
Corn  Laws,  and  other  protective  measures  he  despises.  Nothing 
less  than  three  centuries  of  successful  fighting  gave  to  this 
country  that  commercial  and  maritime  supremacy  which  brought 
forth  the  theory  of  Free  Trade.  A  broken  or  dejected  England 
never  could  have  even  conceived  it.  Nevertheless  the  Cobdenite 
can  hardly  contain  his  wrath  at  the  waste  of  life  and  treasure  in 
the  Napoleonic  wars,  which  he  thinks  could  have  been  avoided. 
How,  he  never  deigns  to  explain.  For  it  is  the  peculiar  privilege 
of  the  Free-trader  to  make  unsupported  statements  without  losing 
confidence.  Two  out  of  every  three  wars  of  modern  times  have 
been  waged  in  the  interest  of  commerce,  and  the  track  of  the 
trader,  even  in  the  nineteenth  century,  was  the  blood  of  the 
soldier.  Like  Sir  Henry  Campbell-Bannerman  Free-traders  shriek 
aloud  to  creation  their  horror  of  war,  but  when  it  comes  to 
sharing  the  spoil  they  coo  like  any  sucking  dove.  In  this, 
perhaps,  they  are  true  to  their  origin. 

When  Napoleon  called  us  a  nation  of  shopkeepers  he  forgot 
to  mention  that  our  manners  and  spirit  were  those  of  an  aris- 
tocracy. Free  Trade  made  us  a  nation  of  shopkeepers  with  the 
manners  and  spirit  of  such.  Until  the  revival  of  the  Imperial 
spirit  at  the  close  of  the  last  century  our  attitude  towards  the 
world  was  that  of  a  tradesman  who  would  pocket  any  affronts 
rather  than  lose  a  customer,  and  of  it  our  rivals  took  full  advan- 
tage. By  certain  honest  folk  among  ourselves  it  was  called  peace 
at  any  price.  Moral  factors  such  as  justice,  honour,  and  duty 
were  set  aside  for  such  vague  generalities  as  the  unity  of  nations, 
universal  goodwill,  and  the  progress  of  civilisation.  When  our 
rights  were  given  away  without  equivalent  it  was  described  as 
magnanimity  or  a  graceful  concession ;  when  Bismarck  insulted 
our  statesmen  from  pure  malice  he  was  said  to  have  given  a 
satisfactory  answer ;  when  the  Government  delivered  an  ultimatum 
and  ran  away  it  was  held  to  be  a  sign  of  moral  strength.  These 
were  the  days  when  England  protested,  apologised  and  scuttled  ; 
when  compensation  was  paid  to  the  United  States  for  the 
Alabama,  though  none  was  paid  to  Great  Britain  for  the  Fenian 
raids ;  when  British  ships  were  captured  on  the  high  seas  with- 
out a  demand  for  reparation ;  when  Canadian  territory,  fishery 
rights,  and  other  trifles  were  given  away  to  secure  American 
good-will ;  when  ministers  drew  up  State  Papers  proving  our 
case  to  be  flawless  and  then  surrendered  at  discretion,  as  in 
Venezuela  and  Nicaragua.  In  truth  there  was  no  end  to  the 


136  The  Empire  Review 

National  and  Imperial  sacrifices  demanded  by  Free  Trade,  though 
they  were  invariably  hidden   under  the   cloak   of  international 

friendliness. 

An   expression  of  the  same  idea  is  British   nervousness  of 

foreign    enmity,   though   the   South   African    tonic    has    partly 

effected  a  cure.     Public  men  talk  to  the  greatest  nation  in  the 

world  as  if,  in  its  relations  with  its  neighbours,  it  should  practice 

no  other  virtue  than  patience.     Be  humble,  they  cry  in  the  spirit 

of  Uriah  Heep,  and  we  shall  walk  the  international  road  in  peace. 

Be  subservient,  and  conciliatory,  and  slow  to  take  offence,  and 

then  we  shall  never  suffer  from  the  frowns  of  our  rivals.     Not 

only  that,  but  they  may  be  even  converted  to  Free  Trade.     Such 

an    attitude    reveals  a  certain    transparency   of    motive  and   a 

beautiful  ignorance  of  human  nature,  but  it  is   not  practical. 

The  moment  the  world  learns  that  its  patronage  is  more  to  a 

man  than  its  respect,  it  trades  on  the  knowledge  to  its  own 

advantage ;  and  as  it  is  with  an  individual  so  it  is  with  a  nation, 

Uriah  Heep  gets  more  kicks  than  favours  because  he  begs  where 

he  should  command.     That  is  to  say,  he  is  treated  neither  better 

nor  worse  than  he  deserves.     Nothing  could  be  more  mistaken 

than  the  idea  that  plain  speaking  is  a  political  sin.     It  is  a  true 

sign  of  statesmanship  to  know  when  to  speak.     It  is  a  truer  sign 

of  statesmanship  to  know  when  to  speak  plainly. 

The  curious  thing  is,  the  foreigner  is  not  equally  careful  of 
our  susceptibilities.  For  three  years  England  was  foully  slandered 
in  nearly  every  civilised  country,  the  statesmen  of  which  publicly 
turned  popular,  ill-will  to  their  own  political  advantage.  But 
they  are  Protectionists.  Apparently  there  is  no  need  for  them  to 
walk  warily,  or  to  cover  insult  by  a  euphemism.  We  proclaim 
from  the  housetops  that  without  courtesy,  not  far  removed  from 
sycophancy,  we  should  be  involved  with  our  neighbours.  They, 
correct  as  the  attitude  of  their  government  may  be,  may  treat  us 
as  a  door-mat  on  which  to  wipe  their  scurrilous  feet,  and  with 
perfect  impunity.  Hence  it  is  obvious  that  whereas  they  are 
able  to  command  civility  from  Free-traders,  these  are  not  able 
to  command  civility  from  them;  the  reason  is  plain  enough. 
The  one  gives  everything  for  nothing,  and  so  he  is  unable  to 
comply  with  the  law  of  international  intercourse,  which  is  ex- 
change. And  so  when  trouble  arises  he  is  without  a  weapon 
except  that  one  which  he  fears  and  despises.  The  Protectionist 
is  respected  even  by  the  Free-trader,  because  he  has  the  means 
of  making  himself  respected.  Having  something  to  give  or 
withhold,  he  can  retaliate  without  going  to  war,  and  his  dis- 
pleasure can  always  be  effective. 

What  effective  shape  did  our  displeasure  take  during  the 
three  years  of  the  South  African  War?  Had  the  positions  of 


The  Free  Trade  Faith  137 

Germany  and  ourselves  been  reversed,  it  is  inconceivable  that  we 
should  not  have  felt  the  weight  of  her  just  resentment,  and  that 
right  early.  She,  however,  has  lost  nothing  by  her  enmity  to  us. 
She  was  permitted  to  deny  favoured  treatment  to  Canada  when 
that  Colony  gave  this  country  a  Preferential  Tariff,  and  to  devise 
a  tariff  which  subjects  to  taxation  many  articles  which  were  once 
exempt,  and  raise  the  duties  on  others  by  nearly  fifty  per  cent. 
Finally,  she  has  threatened  to  strike  a  blow  at  England  to 
prevent  the  British  Empire  from  resolving  itself  into  a  single 
unit.  Nevertheless,  she  is  "friendly."  So  is  the  United  States, 
which  during  the  greater  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  waged 
social,  diplomatic  and  commercial  war  on  Canada  with  the  object 
of  including  her  in  the  Union.  And  so  were  the  Boers  when 
they  were  conspiring  to  destroy  British  supremacy  in  South 
Africa.  Until  the  pistol  is  actually  at  his  head  the  Free-trader 
will  not  believe  in  foreign  enmity.  Even  then  he  is  not  quite 
certain. 

Naturally  such  an  outlook  on  the  world  is  not  favourable  to 
the  development  of  a  sense  of  responsibility.  When  the  Soudan 
campaign  was  being  organised  at  Cairo,  Cobdenism  wrung  its 
hands  and  predicted  disaster;  when  the  Boers  rebelled  in  1880 
they  were  treated  tenderly  for  fear  of  offending  the  Dutch ;  when 
Canada  or  Newfoundland  is  wronged  our  first  thought  is  not 
justice,  but  the  means  by  which  we  may  propitiate  American  or 
the  French  aggressor.  Fiscal  reform  is,  we  are  told,  impossible, 
because  it  would  provoke  foreign  retaliation.  As  if  our  foreign 
rivals  took  a  pennyworth  of  British  goods  from  pure  love,  or 
could  raise  their  wall  of  tariffs  any  higher. 

Only  a  short  time  ago  Lord  Charles  Beresford  denounced 
shipping  subsidies,  not  on  economical  or  practical  grounds,  but 
because  it  would  unite  the  people  of  the  United  States  against 
this  country.  Why  ?  Having  themselves  adopted  the  principle 
of  Government  aid  to  ocean  lines,  they  could  hardly  resent  its 
adoption  by  us.  Moreover,  they  are  already  of  one  mind  so  far 
as  wresting  the  supremacy  of  the  sea  from  England  is  concerned, 
and  it  is  their  ability  to  compass  it,  not  our  fiscal  policy,  which 
will  determine  their  course.  To  suppose  that  the  Americans 
would  be  aroused  at  any  legitimate  measure  we  took  for  the 
preservation  of  our  mercantile  marine  is  to  pay  them  a  compli- 
ment as  poor  as  that  paid  to  the  reasoning  powers  of  the  British 
public.  The  United  States  is  doing  its  utmost  to  supplant  us  as 
the  leading  power  of  the  world.  If  we  re-enaoted  the  Navigation 
Laws  to-morrow  it  could  do  no  more.  But  did  any  of  the  great 
captains  of  the  past  argue  after  the  manner  of  Lord  Charles 
Beresford  ?  When  it  was  a  question  vital  to  England's  strength, 
Drake  never  feared  to  unite  the  Spaniards  against  her,  and 


138  The  Empire  Review 

Nelson  cared  no  more  for  the  French.  It  is  not  by  the  character 
of  its  fiscal  policy  that  a  people  falls,  but  by  a  decline  of  the 
national  spirit. 

But,  says  Lord  Charles  Beresford,  the  Americans  are  eighty 
millions — seventy-six  millions  are  the  actual  figures — whereas  we 
are  only  forty  millions.  What  of  that  ?  Napoleon,  in  reference 
to  the  relative  strength  of  England  and  France,  boasted  that 
fifteen  millions  must  give  way  to  thirty  millions.  But  he  lived 
to  find  that  he  had  made  a  mistake.  Lord  Charles  Beresford 
should  remember  that  courage  is  as  necessary  in  the  council  hall 
as  it  is  on  the  quarter-deck,  and  if  he  will  not  learn  it  from  the 
fighting  captains,  who  laid  the  foundations  of  the  British  Empire, 
let  him  learn  it  from  Canada,  who  with  four  millions  of  people 
successfully  resisted  the  commercial  pressure  exerted  by  sixty 
millions.  The  Free-traders  told  her  she  was  treading  the  path  to 
ruin,  that  her  "  manifest  destiny  "  was  absorption  by  the  United 
States,  that  it  was  hopeless  to  struggle  against  "  geographical 
continuity."  But  Canada  scorned  such  pusillanimous  arguments. 
What  she  proved  in  the  field  of  battle  she  proved  in  the  field 
of  commerce,  that  she  was  able  to  preserve  her  independence  as 
a  British  colony.  The  National  Policy,  so  far  from  being  a 
ruinous  mistake,  was  the  key  to  a  prosperity  which  has  lifted 
the  Dominion  to  a  position  in  which  she  threatens  to  rival  the 
Republic.  Free  Trade  would  have  thrown  her  into  the  arms  of 
an  alien  State.  Protection  gave  her  a  leading  place  in  the  British 
Empire,  with  the  promise  of  a  leading  place  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere  in  time  to  come. 

Lord  Charles  Beresford  advances  a  further  reason  for  his 
attitude  towards  subsidies.  He  says  that  whereas  "  the  United 
States  could  put  down  millions,  we  could  put  down  only 
thousands."  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  on  what  authority 
he  makes  this  wild  statement.  America's  indebtedness  to  Europe 
is  about  £750,000,000,  most  of  which  is  held  by  this  country. 
Moreover,  Lord  Charles  Beresford  forgets  that  to  forty  millions 
of  people  in  these  realms  must  be  added  ten  millions  in  the 
Britains  over  the  seas,  and  that  the  King  of  England  commands 
the  resources  of  four  Americas.  But,  unfortunately,  public  men 
in  Great  Britain  possess  little  or  no  imagination.  They  rarely 
think  of  the  Empire  as  a  whole,  and  that  is  why  they  so  often 
appear  provincial  beside  Colonial  statesmen,  who,  with  all  their 
faults,  seldom  forget  that  the  main  interests  of  the  Colonies  and 
the  Mother  Country  are  identical.  We  did  not  once  hold  our 
maritime  supremacy  on  sufferance,  but  because  we  were  strong 
enough  to  hold  it,  and  in  no  other  way  can  we  hold  it  now.  The 
spirit  of  our  sturdy  fathers,  not  the  spirit  of  Ethelred  the  Un- 
ready, must  be  ours,  if  we  would  defend  ourselves  in  the  com- 


The  Free  Trade  Faith  139 

mercial  war  of  the  twentieth  century.  The  paying  of  Danegelt 
spells  ruin. 

Before  the  rise  of  the  Manchester  School  this  country,  as  one 
of  the  nations,  played  that  part  in  the  world  marked  out  for  her 
by  her  geographical  position  and  the  character  of  her  people.  So 
admirably  was  it  done  that  the  finest  chapters  in  her  history  are 
those  in  which  she  championed  the  cause  of  freedom  almost 
single-handed ;  but  in  those  days  she  did  much  and  professed 
little.  With  sterilising  Cobdenism  she  professed  much  and  did 
little,  substituting  a  vague  altruism  for  duty.  To  the  foreigner  it 
was  pure  selfishness.  He  saw  England  enjoying  all  the  advantage 
of  her  position,  and  evading  most  of  its  responsibilities.  He  saw 
her  turn  a  cold  eye  upon  her  poor  and  struggling  neighbours,  in 
case  she  should  have  to  take  a  side.  He  saw  her  deliberately  turn 
the  agony  of  weaker  peoples  to  party  account.  In  short,  he  saw 
that  all  she  wanted  from  the  world  was  the  power  to  grow  richer 
and  yet  richer.  From  her  point  of  view  the  demand  looked 
modest,  but  from  his  point  of  view  it  looked  insolent.  We  know 
the  Free-trader's  opinion  of  his  Protectionist  father,  but  it  would 
be  interesting  to  know  the  opinion  of  the  Protectionist  father  on 
his  Free-trading  son. 

It  may  be  urged  that  Cobdenism  is  itself  an  effect.  The  true 
cause  of  the  national  crisis  of  the  twentieth  century  is  to  be  found 
in  the  abandonment  of  sound  national  ideals  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  With  the  growth  of  riches  and  luxury  in  a  country 
safe  behind  the  ramparts  of  the  sea,  a  materialism  developed 
itself,  grosser  than  any  known  before  since  Egypt  was  a  power 
in  the  world.  Only  that  we  are  not  a  logical  people,  and  there 
were  always  among  us  seven  thousand  who  did  not  bend  the 
knee  to  Baal,  we  should  be  further  along  the  broad  road  than  we 
actually  are.  As  it  has  ever  been,  we  are  arrested  on  the  brink 
of  the  precipice.  Of  this  materialism,  which  has  been  eating  the 
very  heart  out  of  us,  Free  Trade  is  the  most  powerful  expression, 
inasmuch  as  it  has  moulded  our  whole  conception  of  life  to  its 
own  likeness.  When  it  was  a  fine  ideal  it  was  inseparable  from 
free  labour  and  free  industry.  But  these  have  been  strangled  by 
State  interference  and  trade  unions,  and  all  our  fanaticism  has 
been  centred  on  Free  Trade,  whose  god  is  cheapness,  and  whose 
only  standard  of  measurement  is  the  pound  sterling. 

Now  that  failure  is  trying  men's  faith",  Free  Trade,  like  all 
religions,  is  being  assailed  by  criticism,  which  exposes  in  it  a 
thousand  weaknesses.  It  is  only  fifty  years  old,  and  already  it 
is  "  out  of  date,"  while  Protection  is  as  flourishing  as  ever.  Not 
a  single  prediction  made  by  its  prophets  have  come  to  pass.  The 
cheapness  for  which  we  have  sacrificed  so  much  is  not  ours. 
Living,  education,  and  amusements  are  cheaper  on  the  Continent 


140  The  Empire  Review 

than  they  are  here.     The  nations,  so  far  from  adopting  Free 
Trade  year  by  year,  raise  their  wall  of  tariffs  higher  against  this 
country  and  one  another.     Agriculture,  which  was  to  have  bene- 
fited by  the  new  policy,  has  steadily  declined.     Territories  that 
were  once  under  British  influence,  instead  of  being  more  profit- 
able markets  under  foreign  rule,  are  closed  to  us  by  discriminating 
duties.     Bread  was  no  dearer  for  the  corn  tax.     The  price  of 
meat  rose  last  year  in  Free-Trade  England,  but  not  in  Protec- 
tionist France  or  Germany,  according  to  the  Cobdenite  an  utter 
impossibility.     In  banishing  war  from  the  world,  he  neglected  to 
banish  the  passions  in  which  it  had  its  source,  and  so  the  reign  of 
peace  and  goodwill  is  no  nearer  than  it  ever  was.     The  era  of 
fighting  has  given  way  to  the  era  of   commercial  competition, 
which  is  only  more  pitiless  and  barbarous  than  its  predecessor. 
Its  victims  are  helpless  women  and  children,  as  well  as  strong 
men,  and  it  is  never  dignified  by  any  other  motive  than  that  of 
gain.    Hence  it  calls  forth  none  of  those  lofty  qualities  which 
are  called  forth  by  a  righteous  war.      The  military  yoke  may 
have  been  heavy,  but  it  was  light  compared  to  the  yoke  of  a 
commercial  trust. 

To  escape  from  it  the  Free-trader  can  see  no  way.  He  is  tied 
to  a  principle  which  was  suited  to  an  England  which  has  long 
passed  away,  but  not  to  the  England  of  to-day.  He  is  all  for 
meeting  the  foreign  kick  with  a  British  kiss.  That  is  to  say  his 
remedy  for  cut-throat  commercial  competitions  is  "to  contrast 
the  bad  methods  of  our  rivals  with  enlightened  Free  Trade 
methods,"  which  is  very  nice  and  beautiful  but  it  is  not  practical. 
Even  more  fatuous  is  the  cry  for  greater  efficiency,  as  though  the 
Briton  could  become  so  much  more  efficient  than  the  American 
or  German  as  to  equal  a  fifty  to  one  hundred  per  cent,  tariff.  He 
is  asked  to  compete  with  those  who  act  in  partnership  with  the 
State.  It  is  a  modest  demand  which  he  is  finding  it  more  and 
more  difficult  to  meet.  Soon  he  will  find  it  impossible,  and  then 
we  shall  hear  less  of  doctrinaire  Free  Trade  and  more  of  genuine 
Free  Trade  as  it  was  understood  by  Adam  Smith.  One  by  one  our 
industries  are  being  ruined  or  transferred  to  Protectionist  countries 
and  we  are  told  that  we  must  develop  others.  What  others? 
To  this  no  reply  is  ever  given  for  there  is  none  to  give.  Neither 
is  there  any  to  the  question  as  to  the  point  at  which  it  would  be 
dangerous  for  the  value  of  British  imports  to  exceed  the  exports, 
or  whether  it  would  be  safe  to  have  all  imports  and  no  exports. 
At  present  the  balance  in  favour  of  the  foreigner  is  £200,000,000, 
because  the  Free-trader  considers  the  consumer  and  middle-man 
more  than  the  producer.  The  Protectionist  does  exactly  the 
reverse.  If  the  prophets  would  only  study  the  works  of  their 
masters,  instead  of  the  works  of  the  nineteenth  century  economists 


The  Free  Trade  Faith  141 

they  might  do  their  country  a  practical  service.  As  it  is  their 
followers  ask  for  bread  and  are  given  a  stone.  And  then  there  is 
wonder  that  they  turn  towards  a  system  that  other  nations  find 
effective.  It  at  all  events  recognises  that  man  has  a  soul  as  well 
as  a  purchasing  capacity,  and  that  there  are  things  whose  value 
cannot  be  estimated  in  £  s.  d. 

For  the  great  weakness  of  twentieth  century  Free  Trade  in 
its  relations  to  the  problem  of  the  day  is  its  helplessness.     Sir 
Henry  Campbell-Bannerman,  on  unimpeachable  authority,  declares 
that  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  people  of  this  country  are  underfed. 
This  he  holds  to  be  an  argument  against   the  adoption  of  any 
change  in  our  fiscal  system.     But  he  is  inconsistent,  for  while  he 
thus  admits  the  poverty  of  England  in  one  breath,  he  denies  it  in 
another.     We   are  rich    and  prosperous   because   we  are  Free 
Traders.     In  a  certain  sense  these  contradictory  propositions  are 
correct,  but  it  is  not  in  the  national  sense.     We  have  become  the 
middlemen  of  the  world  at  the  price  of  national  decay,  and  the 
income  returns  of  which  we  make  so  much  are  less  an  index  of 
the  wealth  of  the  United  Kingdom  than  an  index  of  the  number 
of  millionaires,  British  and  foreign,  who  live  here  on  the  money 
they  have  accumulated  in  other  countries.     Means  must  be  found 
to  place  the  Colonies  on  a  different  footing  from  the  Protectionist 
foreigner  in  the  markets  of  the  Mother-Country,  to  obtain  revenue 
in  such  a  way  as  to  benefit  the  country  as  a  whole,  to  secure  fair 
treatment  from  our  rivals,  to  restrict  the  immigration  of  foreign 
labour,  and  to  meet  the  bounty  system  of  the  Continent     The 
Protectionists  are  already  in  the  field  with  definite  proposals,  but 
what  are  the  Free-traders  doing  ?    It  is  to  be  feared  nothing  but 
calling  on  the  name  of  Cobden,  who  would  have  scorned  them, 
with  their  nose  buried  in  a  text-book.    Yet  if  they  only  knew  it 
the  future  might  be  with  them.     England  admits  the  excellence 
of  their  theory;  all  they  have  to  do  is  to  square  it  with  facts. 
They  did  it  once,  and  under  wise  leadership  could  do  it  again. 
But  to  shout  aloud  against  the  heathen  Protectionist,  and  to 
rage  against  inquiry  as  sacrilege,  are  worse  than  folly.     They  are 
an  acknowledgment  that  Free  Trade  has  reached  that  stage  when 
it  depends  not  on  truth,   but   on   arbitrary   authority.     If  the 
teachings  of  the  Nazarene  can  be  modified  to  suit  the  condition 
of  the  world,  surely  the  teachings  of  Cobden  and  Bright  may  be 
treated  in  a  similar  spirit.     Free  Trade  should  be  recognised  as  an 
ideal,  whose  expression  must  be  limited  by  circumstance.     Where 
is  the  man  who  will  breathe  fresh  life  into  the  dry  bones  of 
twentieth  century  Cobdenism  ? 

Does  not  the  truth  lie  in  a  nutshell  ?  Free  Trade  which  was 
once  in  harmony  with  condition  is  no  longer  so.  Therefore  we 
are  tied  to  a  corpse  without  knowing  it.  Year  by  year  our  hold 


142  The  Empire  Review 

on  actuality  becomes  weaker ;  year  by  year  we  see  more  and  more 
of  the  economic  side  of  Free  Trade  and  less  and  less  of  its  human 
side.  Hence  it  is  no  longer  an  inspiration  but  a  fetter.  In  1899 
we  were  given  a  dramatic-  demonstration  of  the  consequences  of 
losing  touch  with  conditions  by  our  military  failures  in  South 
Africa.  For  success  in  war,  like  success  in  commerce,  depends 
on  adaptability.  Because  our  ideas  in  the  art  of  war  were 
survivals  of  an  order  of  things  which  had  passed  away,  they  were 
sterile  in  their  relation  to  existing  conditions,  the  consequence  of 
which  was  the  collapse  of  our  military  system  on  the  outbreak  of 
war.  And  every  phase  of  the  South  African  struggle  is  repeated 
in  the  commercial  struggle  we  are  waging  with  the  world.  Our 
faith  in  Cobdenism  is  as  touching  as  our  faith  in  the  British 
Army,  when  it  was  "ready  to  take  the  field  to  the  last  button," 
and  so  our  attitude  of  economic  superiority  is  as  marked  towards 
our  rivals  in  the  world  as  our  attitude  of  military  superiority 
towards  the  enemy  in  South  Africa.  In  trade  as  in  war  we  are 
wedded  to  the  frontal  attack,  we  are  reluctant  to  seek  cover,  we 
avoid  flank  movements.  In  short  our  methods  in  the  one 
campaign  are  as  mechanical  as  they  were  in  the  other. 

Then  again  we  boasted  that  Free  Trade  was  to  conquer  the 
world.  In  the  same  spirit  we  boasted  that  we  should  conquer 
the  Boers  by  a  picnic  party  to  Pretoria.  Every  other  prophecy 
we  made  in  connection  with  the  South  African  war  was  falsified 
by  events  in  the  same  way,  and  we  are  equally  short-sighted  in 
fiscal  matters.  As  the  Boers,  with  no  knowledge  of  military 
science,  were  to  be  overcome  with  ours,  so  we  profess  to  be  able 
to  overcome  the  Protectionists  by  our  economic  superiority. 
When  the  farmers  of  the  veldt  made  short  work  of  our  military 
science,  and  laughed  at  our  methods  as  comic  opera,  we  were 
indignant,  and  said  they  didn't  play  the  game  properly.  In  a 
similar  way  we  complain  of  foreign  nations,  which  decline  to 
play  the  international  game  according  to  British  rules.  We 
accuse  them  of  unfairness,  and  almost  of  wickedness,  when  the 
truth  is  they  are  merely  in  possession  of  the  best  modern  weapons, 
and  use  them.  We  are  tied  to  the  ox- waggon  of  a  theory, 
whereas  they  go  where  they  will  on  a  practical  horse. 

The  fact  is,  our  ideas  on  the  art  of  war  were  formulated  in 
an  age  to  which  they  were  adapted.  Because  it  had  passed 
away  they  were  worse  than  useless,  they  were  a  positive 
hindrance  to  efficiency.  They  destroyed  initiative,  dwarfed  intel- 
ligence, and  made  our  military  training  so  mechanical  as  to  be 
ridiculous.  The  Army  existed  not  to  fight,  but  to  make  a  brave 
show  on  the  parade  ground.  Said  one  of  our  generals  when  it 
was  pointed  out  to  him  that  the  enemy  were  as  thick  as  leaves 
on  the  far  side  of  the  river  he  was  about  to  cross,  "  I  have  made 


The  Free  Trade  Faith  143 

my  dispositions,  and  mean  to  go  on."  The  following  day  there 
was  a  disaster  because  it  was  not  the  circumstances  which 
decided  the  mode  of  action,  but  the  text-book.  Minor  instances 
of  the  same  spirit  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely.  And  as  it 
was  with  our  soldiers,  so  it  is  with  our  civilians.  We  are 
organised  for  commercial  peace,  which  existed  when  England 
was  supreme  in  the  world,  not  for  commercial  war  which  is  the 
result  of  keen  rivalry.  Free  Trade  exists  for  the  nation,  not  the 
nation  for  Free  Trade.  Situations  are  constantly  arising  which 
call  for  initiative  and  resource.  But  we  content  ourselves  with 
quoting  from  the  economists,  or  acting  as  Cobden  would  have 
done  in  very  different  circumstances.  Then  we  wonder  why  we 
are  defeated.  Again,  we  were  ready  enough  to  sneer  at  the 
stupid  officer  in  South  Africa,  but  what  about  the  stupid  civilian 
at  home  ?  He  is  no  better  equipped  for  the  international  struggle 
than  the  soldier  was  for  the  struggle  with  the  Boers.  The 
commercial  Intelligence  Department  of  the  nation  is  every  whit 
as  defective  as  the  military  Intelligence  Department,  which  was 
the  laughter  of  the  "peasant  of  the  veldt."  Not  a  single  branch 
of  the  public  service  is  organised  on  business  lines.  As  for 
intelligence,  it  is  despised. 

Another  lesson  learned  in  the  South  African  War  may  be 
useful  in  our  fiscal  fight  with  the  nations.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  campaign  we  were  so  wise  in  our  own  conceit  that  we 
received  Colonial  offers  of  help  with  amusement.  We  had 
trained  and  disciplined  troops  who  could  shoot  at  a  fixed  target 
with  greater  or  less  skill,  who  could  move  together  with  the 
accuracy  of  a  machine,  who  could  act  as  a  unit  but  not  as 
individuals.  What  use  had  we  for  practical  riders  and  shots? 
For  men  of  initiative  and  resource  ?  For  men  whose  everyday 
life  was  better  training  for  the  field  than  that  given  to  the  best 
soldiers  in  Europe  ?  But  in  a  very  few  weeks  we  had  discovered 
that  the  Boers  were  mounted,  which  Mr.  Balfour  assured  us 
could  not  have  been  foreseen,  and  the  official  tone  in  acknow- 
ledging Colonial  offers  of  aid  was  as  effusive  as  it  was  before 
indifferent.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  irregulars  of  Greater 
Britain  were  one  of  the  .factors  in  bringing  the  war  to  a  suc- 
cessful conclusion. 

We  are  adopting  a  similar  attitude  in  trade.  We  see  no  use  in 
Colonial  preferences.  We  underrate  the  British  Empire  as  a 
market  though  it  is  expanding,  and  overrate  the  foreign  market 
though  it  is  contracting.  We  fail  to  realise  that  what  the  United 
States  was  to  the  nineteenth  century,  Canada  will  be  to  the 
twentieth,  and  Australasia  and  South  Africa  have  a  future  scarcely 
less  brilliant.  If  their  military  aid  is  a  source  of  strength  so  also 
is  their  commercial  aid.  The  fruits  of  the  policy  we  adopt  now 


144  The  Empire  Review 

will  be  reaped  neither  to-day  nor  to-morrow  but  within  the  next 

decade. 

But  we  are  not  likely  to  be  given  such  a  dramatic   lesson 

in    trade    as    we    received    in    the    South    African    Campaign. 

War  is  a  stern  master  in  whose  school  men  must  learn   or 

die.     Moreover  it  is  not  a  religion,  but  an  art  whose  principles 

we  have  adapted  to    the    twentieth   century.      Our    economic 

text-books  tell  us  that  this  or  that  cannot  be  done.      So  said 

the  military   text-books   or   the   Intelligence   Department   with 

regard  to  South  Africa.     But  the  Boers  performed  the  impossible 

with  ease,  with  the  result  that  it  was  not  they  who  were  compelled 

to  adopt  our  methods  of  warfare  but  we  who  had  to  adopt  theirs. 

And  so  it  must  be  in  our  fiscal  relations  with  the  world.     The 

perfectly  legitimate  weapons  of  our  neighbours  must  also  be  ours. 

True  Protection  is  a  bad  master,  but  so  also  is  Free  Trade,  and 

therefore,  we  may  find  the  solution  of  our  many  problems  in  a 

readjustment  of  taxation.     But  the  point  is  we  must  learn  from 

the  enemy  even  as  we  learned  from  the  enemy  in  South  Africa. 

For  the  era  of  competition  is  only  just  beginning.     If  we  feel  the 

pinch  now  what  will  the  pressure  be  later  on  ?     To  stand  still  is 

impossible.     Hence  the  desire  for  a  system  which  will  give  us 

real  Free  Trade  instead  of  a  phantom.     If  we  use  armaments  as  a 

means  of  securing  peace  why  not  use  Protection  or  Preferential 

Tariff  to  secure  Free  Trade  ? 

C.  DE  THIERRY. 


Economical  Needs  of  Canada  145 


ECONOMICAL   NEEDS   OF   CANADA 

MUCH,  very  much,  has  been  written  of  late  about  Canada,  and 
many  pens,  far  abler  than  mine,  nave  been  busy  extolling  the 
wonderful  resources  of  the  Dominion  and  explaining  the  very 
special  opportunities  Canada  offers  to  the  able-bodied  emigrant 
from  England.  In  this  paper  I  do  not  desire  to  cover  the  same 
ground,  but  rather  to  emphasise  the  economical  importance  of 
British  capitalists  turning  their  attention  to  our  grand  possession 
on  the  North  American  Continent  and  Canada's  want  of  that 
class  of  emigrant  which  in  the  early  days  went  forth  from 
England  to  make  their  homes  in  the  United  States. 

The  arrival  of  the  able-bodied  man  is  useful,  that  of  the 
mechanic  valuable  in  certain  ways,  but  it  is  not  entirely  what  is 
now  wanted  in  Canada.  The  need  is  for  the  settling  of  families 
of  independent  incomes.  And,  strange  to  say,  the  greater  the 
number  of  children  the  better.  Beady-made  families  are  in 
special  demand.  Canada  is  not  a  country  of  immense  fortunes 
like  the  United  States,  though  it  possesses  a  number  of  rich  men. 
But  the  generality  of  incomes  are  merely  comfortable.  The 
fabulous  fortunes  across  the  border  have  been  made  not  alone 
by  industries,  but  by  the  discovery  of  mineral  wealth  and  by 
a  town  growing  up  on  what  was  supposed  to  be  a  very  ordinary 
property,  by  newspapers,  banks,  railroads,  and  enterprises  of  a 
like  nature.  For  example,  Mr.  Pierpont  Morgan  is  a  banker, 
Mr'.  Whitelaw  Reid  has  an  influential  newspaper,  the  Van- 
derbilts  and  Goulds  are  railroad  proprietors,  the  Astors  and 
Goelets  owned  farms  on  which  New  York  now  stands,  the 
[Rockefellers  found  land  on  which  oil  wells  of  unceasing  supply 
have  been  discovered.  But  these  are  possibilities  equally  sure 
in  Canada  if  only  the  right  class  of  men  take  the  matter  in 
hand.  Undeniably,  to  start  anything  there  must  be  capital. 
Hitherto  the  emigration  from  the  Motherland  has  been  slow  and, 
in  quantity,  small — chiefly  from  the  lower  orders  who  want 
employment  instead  of  giving  it.  The  penniless  man  cannot 
help  to  build  up  a  country  quickly,  though  in  the  end  he  may 
become  one  of  the  foremost  and  wealthiest  members  of  the 
VOL.  VI.— No,  32.  L 


146  The  Empire  Review 

community.  Witness  Mr.  Carnegie,  who  as  a  lad  had  nothing, 
and  to-day  gives  away  his  millions,  the  result  of  cleverness 
and  determination  working  together.  Canada  is  a  white  man's 
country,  and  especially  a  Briton's  country,  though  people  in 
England  are  apt  to  regard  it  as  a  land  of  one  long  winter 
without  intermission.  The  "  stay-at-homes "  do  not  realise 
what  the  Canadian  summer  is — the  glory  of  it,  the  heat,  the 
return  Mother  Earth  gives  for  many  months  under  ice  and 
snow.  The  climate  varies  in  intensity  in  different  parts,  but  the 
summers  are  beautiful  all  over  the  land. 

The  first  impression  felt  by  all  travellers  in  Canada  is  the 
absence  of  humanity — so  vast  an  expanse  of  magnificent  country 
with  no  one  in  it.  Everything  is  there  but  man;  the  need  of 
population  is  the  harassing  thought  which  never  leaves  one  as 
the  train  glides  along  over  that  grand  but  unpeopled  land.  All 
honour  is  due  to  the  men  who  have  done  the  immense  amount 
of  development  already  accomplished,  for  in  so  vast  a  country 
people  are  but  as  a  drop  in  the  ocean.  It  needs  a  gigantic  popu- 
lation to  make  any  show  over  an  area  of  three  thousand  square 
miles,  and  all  told  there  is  not  six  millions  of  people  in  the  whole 
of  Canada — not  even  the  population  of  London — as  against 
seventy-five  millions  in  the  United  States.  One  is  filled  with 
admiration  at  the  wonders  performed  by  what,  after  all,  is  a  mere 
handful  of  human  beings.  Three  trunk  railroads  cross  the  con- 
tinent. Ports  there  are  on  all  the  lakes,  many  with  grain  elevators 
(new  devices  for  loading  ships).  The  Canadian  waterway  is  one  of 
the  finest  things  in  nature,  and  where  nature  failed  to  connect  the 
lakes  men  have  built  canals.  In  fact,  so  much  has  been  done 
that  when  one  contemplates  what  the  beginning  meant  it  is  like 
a  fairy  story.  And  there  was  no  negro  population  to  help  in 
these  great  undertakings. 

Nine-tenths  of  English  people  who  think,  know  that  Canada 
is  enjoying  great  fiscal  prosperity,  and  that  an  impetus  has  suddenly 
arisen  in  Canadian  emigration—probably  generated  by  the  great 
arch  of  wheat  set  up  in  Parliament  Street  for  the  Coronation — 
that  is  to  say,  a  greater  percentage  of  our  emigrants  are  now 
going  to  Canada  than  to  other  places.  But  how  many  realise 
the  steady  American  emigration  to  Canada  which  has  been  in 
progress  during  the  last  few  years?  And  this  not  from  the 
unprovided  class,  but  from  well-to-do  farmers  and  others  in 
better  circumstances,  with  capital.  The  energy  and  enterprise  of 
the  American  nation  is  never  idle,  never  complacent,  never  asleep. 
All  the  world  knows  that  Canada  to  the  quick  intelligence  of  the 
American  is  Naboth's  Vineyard ;  nor  is  it  surprising,  seeing  the 
immense  possibilities  of  the  land — below  as  well  as  above  the 
surface— that  he  should  long  to  possess  it. 


Economical  Needs  of  Canada  147 

Already  he  has  stepped  over  the  dividing  fence.  There  are 
forces  which  by  silent  undercurrent  effect  great,  if  gradual, 
changes,  and  there  are  many  ways  of  acquiring  territory  other 
than  by  arms.  It  can  be  done  by  exchange  or  sale,  by  absorption 
or  by  possession,  which,  as  Great  Britain  has  known  so  often  to 
her  cost,  is  "  nine-tenths  of  the  law."  If  Naboth's  Vineyard 
should  pass  from  its  present  ownership  it  will  come  about  by  one 
of  the  two  last-named  processes — in  no  other  way.  For  more 
loyal  and  devoted  Colonists  than  the  Canadians  do  not  exist. 
But  with  ready-made  families  transferring  themselves  in  unlimited 
numbers  over  the  border  and  bringing  with  them  the  much-needed 
capital,  bit  by  bit  the  mines  and  ranches  of  Canada  will  become 
merged  into  the  United  States. 

Undoubtedly  the  quicker  a  country  is  opened  up  and  inhabited 
the  better  for  all.  And  no  nation  on  the  face  of  the  earth  can 
do  this  work  so  well  or  so  rapidly  as  the  United  States  of 
America.  But  Great  Britain  requires  this  land  for  her  surplus 
population  in  a  way  the  United  States  will  not  require  it  for 
centuries  to  come.  Happily,  at  present  Canada  is  entirely  our 
own,  but  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  if  continued 
effort  is  not  made  from  these  shores  to  people  it  that  effort  will 
be  made,  as  it  is  now  being  made,  from  over  the  border.  Many 
Americans  spend  every  summer  at  the  Canadian  lake,  mountain 
and  seaside  resorts,  and  a  considerable  number  have  already 
purchased  country  places  within  the  limits  of  the  Dominion.  All 
along  the  St.  Lawrence  River  there  are  ideal  sites  for  country 
houses.  And  times  have  changed  in  the  Motherland.  Each 
year  finds  the  incomes  of  landed  proprietors  growing  less,  and 
the  incomes  of  other  classes  of  the  community  increasing.  The 
old  county  families  are  getting  poorer  every  day,  and  as  the 
exigencies  of  modern  living  grow  in  extravagance,  life  becomes 
more  and  more  complicated.  The  pleasures  of  sport  are  now 
reserved  for  the  very  rich,  even  fishing,  which  was  perhaps 
the  most  easily  attained,  is  at  a  premium  except  to  those  whose 
near  relatives  still  own  properties. 

In  the  Dominion  it  is  altogether  different ;  the  peninsula 
of  Nova  Scotia,  three  hundred  miles  long  and  one  hundred 
broad,  is  a  new  Scotland  teeming  with  fish  and  game  of  every 
kind.  Cape  Breton  and  Prince  Edward  Island  are  equally  well 
stocked  and  situate  in  the  midst  of  beautiful  wooded  and  hilly 
scenery  most  fertile  and  capable  of  very  varied  production. 
Arcadia,  that  lovely  land  of  Evangeline,  rich  and  fertile,  has 
a  soil  especially  conducive  to  fruit  farming.  All  over  this  land 
are  found  apple  orchards,  as  well  as  the  small  fruits,  which  pay 
well.  There  are  farms,  that  is  houses  already  built  and  land 
reclaimed,  to  be  bought  for  very  small  outlay  compared  to  what 

L  2 


148  The  Empire  Review 

is  required  here.  The  journey  from  England  is  neither  long  nor 
expensive,  a  visit  to  the  Motherland  is  therefore  easy.  Except 
that  the  summers  are  hotter  and  the  winters  rather  colder, 
the  climate  is  not  unlike  what  we  are  accustomed  to  here, 
but  the  sky  is  brighter  and  the  air  more  exhilarating.  After 
all,  what  can  be  more  delightful  than  life  on  a  fruit  farm 
with  all  the  advantages  of  a  sporting  estate  thrown  in?  The 
same  kind  of  thing  is  found  all  along  the  line  through  the 
province  of  Quebec  and  as  far  as  Ontario.  Quebec  and  Arcadia 
were  settled  by  the  French,  whose  thrift  and  hard  work  shows 
itself  by  the  ribbon-like  strips  of  ground  ending  in  a  point  allowing 
each  owner  to  possess  a  river  frontage.  A  lesson  is  there  learnt 
of  how  much  can  be  done  with  very  little  possession.*  These 
habitants,  as  they  are  called,  who  live  near  Quebec  are  a  strange 
survival  of  the  French  pioneers.  They  have  enormous  families, 
eighteen  children  being  nothing  unusual,  yet  they  make  their 
little  strip  of  land  provide  for  this  large  family,  thus  showing 
what  this  splendid  land  is  capable  of  doing. 

The  most  intense  feeling  that  Canada  produces  is  that  Nature 
is  only  waiting  for  man  to  come  and  take  the  goods  she  has 
stored  up  for  us.  And  where  so  much  is  left  wild  which  would 
repay  an  hundred-fold,  the  emptiness  is  a  sin  and  a  shame.  Every 
nerve  should  be  strained  to  bring  the  right  kind  of  people  to  fill 
the  void,  and  to  enjoy  the  gifts  and  values  they  will  never  find  in 
England.  On  landing  at  any  of  the  ports — St.  John's,  Halifax, 
or  the  two  Sidneys,  wonderful  deep-water  harbours  capable  of 
sheltering  a  fleet  at  a  time — by  train  or  boat  one  can  go  by 
either  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  Baie  de  Chaleur,  and  through  one 
of  the  most  lovely  inland  seas,  the  Bras  D'Or  Lake,  each  and  all 
filled  with  still  life.  No  one,  who  has  not  travelled  through  this 
country,  can  realise  its  really  entrancing  beauty.  And  remember 
that  one  can  board  a  steamer  at  Liverpool  and  continue  in  the 
same  ship  till  Montreal  is  reached.  After  leaving  the  Atlantic 
this  glorious  waterway  leads  on  to  the  magnificent  St.  Lawrence 
Kiver.  On  every  side  and  at  every  mile  new  scenic  beauty  is 
met.  If  only  there  were  people,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people ; 
for  no  numbers  would  be  too  many  in  a  country  of  such  vast 
dimensions  as  Canada. 

In  the  north-west  territory,  Manitoba  and  British  Columbia, 
with  its  almost  perfect  climate,  it  is  easy  to  obtain  a  grant  of 
Government  unreclaimed  land;  but  that  means  pioneering  and 
the  roughest  of  work  with  necessary  isolation,  added  to  great  land 
distance,  as  well  as  three  thousand  miles  of  sea  from  England,  a 
prospect  not  perhaps  quite  enticing  to  people  accustomed  to  every- 

*  In  the  east  of  Canada  it  is  not  the  custom  to  have  large  farms,  300  acres  being 
the  average  extent. 


Economical  Needs  of  Canada  149 

thing  ship-shape,  however  cramped  and  small.  The  development 
of  this  part  of  Canada  is  work  for  experienced  colonists,  and  if 
English  families  were  to  buy  farms  in  the  east  the  older  colonists 
would  doubtless  migrate  to  the  west,  but  this,  without  selling  their 
land  first,  they  cannot  easily  do.  The  beginning  of  the  settle- 
ment of  the  United  States  came  about  by  the  arrival  of  the 
Puritans  and  Cavaliers,  who  were  driven  from  England  by  con- 
scientious motives  and  forced  to  fly  with  their  families.  These 
emigrants  made  their  homes  in  Massachusetts,  further  inland 
and  south.  Then  eame  the  French  emigres  to  Louisiana,  both 
contingents  bringing  with  them  funds,  furniture,  and  education. 
Later  on  the  same  people  or  their  children  migrated  further  west 
and  north ;  in  fact,  spread  out  into  the  wilderness,  with  the 
result  that  one  finds  most  delightful  people  all  over  America,  in 
the  new  towns  as  well  as  in  the  old.  And  hence,  from  one  cause 
and  another,  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  Pacific,  millions 
of  souls  are  enjoying  the  benefits  of  civilisation. 

What  the  early  pioneers  in  the  United  States  went  through 
to  accomplish  this  success  can  never  be  adequately  described. 
But  families  going  to  the  older  established  parts  of  Canada  will 
meet  with  a  very  different  condition  of  affairs.  They  will  find 
large  towns  with  buildings  as  good  as  many  at  home,  and  in 
several  places  modern  improvements  not  to  be  seen  in  the 
Motherland.  They  will  find  many  delightful  people  whose 
families  have  been  established  for  long  years.  In  short,  the 
horrors  and  dangers  of  settling  have  been  overcome.  If  only  a 
number  of  families,  each  with  a  small  capital  and  many  children, 
would  make  the  break  and  go  to  Canada,  there  to  build  up  a 
colony  together,  happiness  and  health  await  them.  Moreover, 
and  this  is  an  important  matter,  the  educational  advantages  for 
children  are  both  excellent  and  cheap.  Should  any  family,  then, 
take  the  plunge  and  perhaps  buy  a  farm  in  Nova  Scotia  or  New 
Brunswick,  the  future  of  the  children  is  at  any  rate  assured,  and 
a  competence  is  sure  if  a  large  fortune  is  not  made. 

Here,  however,  everything  is  overcrowded,  every  profession 
overstocked,  and  the  sons  of  gentlemen  are  obliged  to  accept  and 
be  thankful  for  employment  far  below  what  their  standing 
entitles  them  to  obtain.  Every  year  the  problem  what  to  do 
with  sons  and  daughters  becomes  more  difficult  to  solve.  With 
new  cities  springing  up,  which  must  come  with  emigration,  more 
lawyers,  architects,  engineers,  and  mechanics  of  every  kind  are 
required ;  and  those  on  the  spot,  educated  in  the  country,  have 
the  best  chance  of  rising  to  the  top.  Look  for  instance  at  the 
wonderful  growth  of  Winnipeg  in  the  last  few  months.  Houses 
cannot  be  built  fast  enough  for  the  applicants,  and  from  a  wooden 
hamlet  Winnipeg  will  one  day  become  the  Chicago  of  Canada. 


150  The  Empire  Review 

There  is  not  to-day  a  family  in  Great  Britain  of  good  social 
standing,  several  members  of  which,  if  not  in  absolute  want, 
find  it  no  easy  matter  to  live  as  they  were  accustomed  to  do, 
on  their  present  diminished  incomes.  It  is  to  these  people, 
these  ladies  and  gentlemen,  and  to  their  children,  whose  future 
can  only  be  a  shade  more  depressing  than  the  outlook  for  the 
present  generation,  that  I  would  point  to  Canada.  The  advan- 
tages that  England  possessed  for  many  of  the  old  families  are 
now  mostly  enjoyed  by  millionaires  from  the  new  countries,  and 
consequently  seaside  towns  and  London  flats  are  rapidly  filled 
with  men  and  women  who  would  greatly  prefer  a  wider  and 
more  interesting  existence  if  they  could  afford  it  here.  But  as 
that  cannot  be  obtained,  why  not  take  it  where  it  is  to  be  had  ? 
And  it  is  to  be  had  in  Canada. 

For  residence  in  Canada  it  is  necessary,  however,  that  the 
ladies  should  have  a  little  practical  knowledge  of  daily  house- 
hold work — a  branch  of  education  usually  entirely  disregarded 
in  England,  though  never  in  Germany — a  rudimentary  know- 
ledge of  cooking,  and  some  idea  how  clothes  ought  to  be  washed. 
Not  that  the  wife  would  become  a  servant,  but  that  servants 
are  few  and  often  badly  trained ;  consequently  knowledge  is 
power,  and  it  is  a  great  thing  to  know  what  you  have  to  teach. 
Cooking  all  over  Canada  and  also  in  the  United  States  is  a  weak 
point,  except  in  the  rich  houses,  where  they  employ  the  best 
chefs;  in  hotels,  stations,  and  in  small  private  houses,  it  leaves 
much  to  be  desired. 

There  are  stacks  of  officers  out  of  the  army  about  the  age 
of  forty-three.  They  mostly  have  some  little  capital,  and  they 
at  least  have  education,  and  generally  foreign  service  experience. 
These  are  some  of  the  men  who  would  make  Canada  into  a 
richer  and  still  more  important  country,  if  they  would  put  their 
shoulders  to  the  wheel.  It  was  probably  some  engineer  officer 
who  thought  of  harnessing  Niagara  to  work  electricity  for  the 
benefit  of  manufactories  and  towns  for  miles.  Why  should  not 
an  English  officer  think  of  something  equally  brilliant  if  he 
were  on  the  spot?  Hanging  round  Pall  Mall  and  Piccadilly 
is  not  conducive  to  invention,  or  even  to  the  true  interests  of 
life.  It  seems  absurd  that  we  should  own  such  a  country  as 
Canada  and  that  the  upper  classes  should  neither  care  to  investi- 
gate it  nor  care  if  we  lose  it.  It  is  assuredly  the  country  for 
younger  sons  and  their  families.  A  climate  fit  for  white  people 
and  a  population  of  English,  with  the  same  sovereign,  the  same 
home  customs,  and  the  same  laws. 

Large  schemes  are  on  foot  in  Canada  for  further  transporta- 
tion. The  Grand  Trunk  is  beginning  new  lines  to  the  west, 
and  Sir  William  van  Home,  who  played  so  important  a  part 


Economical  Needs  of  Canada  151 

in  the  construction  of  the  great  Canadian  Pacific  Kail  way, 
and  in  founding  the  "  Empress "  line  of  steamers,  the  best 
passenger  route  to  the  Far  East,  is  still  working  hard  on  similar 
enterprises.  A  line  of  steamers  from  England  which  would 
improve  the  journey  to  Canada  and  simplify  the  service  to 
China,  at  present  made  chiefly  through  the  Port  of  New  York, 
would  be  a  great  boon,  but  unfortunately  there  is  not  sufficient 
traffic  for  this  venture.  That  there  is  plenty  of  money  in 
England  was  proved  again  by  the  Transvaal  Loan  subscribed 
for  five  times  over  in  three  days.  There  was  an  old  American 
story  truer  at  the  time  than  now,  which  I  should  like  to  mention 
here.  A  child  was  asked  in  a  geography  lesson  the  question— 
"Where  is  the  capital  of  England?"  The  answer  came  pat 
and  firm,  "  In  the  United  States."  Why  cannot  some  of  that 
surplus  capital  go  to  the  development  of  Canada?  Kome  was 
not  built  in  a  day  we  are  told,  but  in  the  West  they  now  build 
quicker,  and  if  a  wise  and  careful  forethought  is  not  soon 
exercised,  we  shall  undoubtedly  see  an  American  phoenix  rising 
out  of  the  neglect  of  England. 

Seeing  is  believing,  and  nothing  would  be  wiser  than  for 
summer  trips  to  be  made  to  the  eastern  provinces  of  Canada. 
The  Allan  Line  make  cheap  rates  for  return  journeys,  and 
there  are  many  inns  on  all  the  lakes  and  good  hotels  in  the 
cities.  In  fact  a  fishing  trip  would  not  cost  more  than  taking 
a  house  in  England  for  the  hot  months  or  going  on  the  Continent. 
The  more  the  English  people  realise  the  advantages  of  Canada, 
the  better  for  them  and  the  better  for  the  Empire.  They 
should  see  for  themselves  the  rich  land  now  lying  waste,  land 
which  a  very  few  years  of  cultivation  might  turn  into  a  property 
any  British  landowner  would  be  proud  to  possess. 

In  conclusion  I  would  say  that  these  remarks  are  not  written 
from  hearsay,  but  from  observation  during  a  journey  round  the 
ports  of  Lake  Ontario,  through  the  orchard  land,  and  slowly 
on  through  the  rich  and  varied  country  to  the  wide  open  gates 
of  Canada  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  was  then  borne  in  on  the 
minds  of  all  the  party  what  wealth,  health  and  happiness  awaits 
those  families  who  have  the  courage  to  break  away  from  the 
narrow  daily  round  in  England  and  make  their  home  in  a  larger 
sphere  with  a  broader  horizon. 

MAUD  PAUNCEFOTE. 


152  The  Empire  Review 


THE   DEPRESSION   IN    AGRICULTURE 

IN  this  paper  I  propose  to  touch  briefly  on  the  various  points 
connected  with  the  present  depression  in  agriculture.  I  do  not 
intend  to  trace  the  history  of  agriculture  in  this  country  from 
early  ages,  but  will  begin  with  the  last  century.  At  that  period 
families  were  practically  self-supporting.  They  grew  their  own 
food,  barley  for  their  beer,  and  wool  for  their  clothing;  their 
habits  were  primitive,  their  wants  few.  The  era  of  large  towns 
had  not  commenced.  About  the  year  1700,  great  changes  began 
to  take  place.  Owing  to  increasing  population,  a  demand  arose 
for  corn ;  much  land  was  enclosed  and  broken  up  for  the  first 
time ;  improved  methods  of  cultivation  were  introduced,  and 
general  prosperity  followed.  The  population  was  still  sparse,  but 
the  production  of  the  soil  increased  to  such  a  degree,  that  England 
was  able  to  export  much  corn.  The  result  was  a  fall  of  the 
rates,  an  increase  in  the  purchasing  power  of  wages,  and  a 
higher  standard  of  living  among  all  classes. 

Later,  the  wars  on  the  continent,  or  fiscal  policy,  threw 
England  back  on  her  own  resources.  Population  was  increasing, 
manufacturing  industries  were  becoming  prominent,  the  old 
wasteful  system,  or  want  of  system,  gave  way  to  modern  improve- 
ments, and  the  last  ten  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  first 
fifteen  of  the  nineteenth,  were  probably  unexampled  in  the  history 
of  agriculture.  Before  the  declaration  of  peace  in  1815,  prices 
of  all  agricultural  produce  had  been  much  inflated;  wheat  was 
selling  at  115s.  per  quarter,  with  the  result  that  valuable  pasture 
was  broken  up,  land  that  was  fit,  and  only  fit,  for  the  grazing  of 
sheep,  was  turned  into  arable  and  ruined.  The  effect  of  this 
period  of  prosperity  was  an  enormous  increase  of  rent,  excessive 
expenditure  on  buildings,  and  a  high  standard  of  living. 

The  next  twenty  years  was  a  period  of  widespread  ruin  and 
disaster.  Losses  were  enormous.  Wheat  fell  from  74s.  to  43s. ; 
mutton  from  5s.  Sd.  to  2s.  M. ;  beef  from  4s.  6d.  to  2s.  U.  It 
might  be  supposed  that  these  low  prices  were  beneficial  to  the 
country,  but  the  contrary  was  the  case  ;  the  poor  rates  went  up 


The  Depression  in  Agriculture  153 

to  a  previously  unheard-of-figure,  and  in  some  cases  the  land 
became  derelict^  the  owners  being  unable  to  face  the  burdens. 

Referring  one  day  to  the  journals  of  Mr.  Nassau  William 
Senior,  Poor  Law  Commissioner  for  Ireland,  I  came  across  a 
letter  addressed  by  Mr.  Jeston  in  1833  to  the  English  Poor  Law 
Commissioners,  from  Cholesbury  (Bucks)  of  which  parish  he 
was  rector.  The  following  extracts  from  this  letter  fairly  set 
forth  the  altered  position : — 

I  am  informed  (says  Mr.  Jeston)  by  the  very  oldest  of  my  parishioners,  that 
sixty  years  ago  there  was  but  one  person  who  received  parish  relief,  but  it 
should  seem  that  the  parish  for  many  years  past  has  been  an  overburdened  one, 
though  within  the  last  year  the  burdens  have  been  much  increased  by  the  land 
going  out  of  cultivation,  and  the  whole  of  the  population  being  thrown  upon 
the  rates.  .  .  .  The  parish  officers  not  being  able  to  collect  any  more  funds 
threw  up  their  books  and  from  that  time  their  duties  have  fallen  upon  myself 
.  .  .  for  the  poor  .  .  .  applied  to  me  for  advice  and  food.  My  income  being 
under  ^£140  a  year  rendered  my  means  of  relief  small,  but  my  duty  was  to  keep 
them  from  starving,  and  I  accordingly  commenced  supporting  them  by  daily 
allowances  of  bread,  potatoes,  and  soup.  .  .  . 

After  many  journeys  I  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  "  rate  in  aid  "  for  £50  on 
an- adjoining  parish.  The  present  state  of  the  parish  is  this  ;  the  land  almost 
entirely  abandoned  (16  acres  only,  including  cottage  gardens,  being  now  in 
cultivation)  the  poor  thrown  only  upon  the  rates  and  set  to  work  upon  roads 
or  gravel  pits,  and  paid  for  this  ...  at  the  expense  of  another  parish.  I  have 
given  up  a  small  portion  of  glebe  (the  rest  is  abandoned  on  account  of  the 
rates  assessed  on  it)  to  the  parish  officers,  rent  free,  for  the  use  of  the  poor. 
The  £50  will  be  expended  in  less  than  two  weeks,  and  I  shall  have  to  apply  for 
another  "  rate  in  aid." 

This  condition  of  things  led  to  the  alteration  of  the  Poor 
Law  in  1834,  and  two  years  later  a  new  era  began.  For 
some  time  lavish  expenditure  on  improvements  took  place, 
money  was  spent  freely  on  buildings  adapted  to  the  new 
requirements,  and  a  very  large  capital  sunk  in  drainage  works. 
Many  Acts  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  were  passed,  in- 
cluding the  Commutation  of  Tithes  Enclosure  and  Drainage  Acts. 
A  cycle  of  prosperity  was  opening  out,  but  the  corn  laws  were 
being  bitterly  attacked  by  Cobden  and  the  Anti-Corn  Law 
League,  and  after  an  agitation,  accentuated  by  the  Irish  famine, 
continuing  over  seven  or  eight  years,  they  were  finally  repealed 
on  June  25th,  1846.  To  the  policy  of  Free  Trade  which  followed 
the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  is  ascribed  all  the  prosperity  ex- 
perienced by  this  country  during  the  next  quarter  of  a  century, 
but  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia,  and  the 
increased  facilities  for  trade  brought  about  by  the  use  of  steam 
power,  had  at  least  quite  as  much  to  do  with  the  prosperity  of 
the  country  as  the  policy  of  Free  Trade. 

England,  at  that  time,  was  in  a  peculiarly  favourable 
position  for  an  advance.  Enormous  strides  had  been  made  in 


154  The  Empire  Review 

all  our  industries.  This  country  alone,  practically,  had  an  un- 
limited supply  of  coal  and  iron  at  that  time,  and  in  all  in- 
dustrial arts  England  was  far  ahead  of  her  continental  rivals. 
Kailways  were  being  introduced  everywhere,  and  for  many 
years  British  subjects  as  engineers,  contractors,  and  their 
employes  had  a  practical  monopoly  on  the  continent.  Coal  and 
iron,  too,  had  to  be  brought  from  England  notwithstanding 
heavy  duties,  for  the  construction  and  working  of  these  railways 
Her  steamships  also  enabled  her  to  carry  her  trade  to  every  part 
of  the  civilised  world,  and  to  bring  back  the  raw  material 
necessary  for  her  manufactures.  A  few  years  changed  all  this, 
the  Exhibition  of  1851  opened  the  eyes  of  foreigners,  who  were 
not  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  our  discoveries.  From  followers 
they  soon  became  rivals,  and  now  it  is  with  the  very  greatest 
difficulty  that  British  trade  can  hold  its  own. 

Agriculture  from  the  year  1850  to  1877  had  its  ups  and  downs 
like  everything  else,  but  on  the  whole  was  in  a  flourishing  state. 
British  farming  and  all  connected  with  it  were  models  which 
others  copied.  The  soil  was  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  and 
stock  of  all  kinds  both  in  quality  and  numbers  was  in  a  satis- 
factory condition.  The  capital  invested  in  land  (apart  from  the 
freehold)  in  1877  was,  according  to  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  James) 
Caird's  figures,  not  less  than  £360,000,000,  representing  an 
income  of  some  £40,000,000  divided  between  the  landlord 
and  tenant.  By  1881  Lord  Beaconsfield  estimated  that  one- 
third  of  that  capital  (through  the  bad  seasons,  low  prices  and 
the  effect  of  the  repeal  of  the  malt  tax  on  the  lighter  lands) 
had  gone.  From  that  time  to  the  present  the  depression  has 
steadily  continued  with  ever-increasing  financial  loss,  and  it  is  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  the  whole  of  the  capital  embarked  in 
farming  twenty  years  ago  has  vanished. 

A  very  large  number  of  farms  are  now  untenanted,  or  held 
at  merely  nominal  rents.  Their  former  occupants  have  either 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  many  going  over  to  the  United  States, 
there  to  increase  the  number  of  our  agricultural  rivals,  or  have 
disappeared  altogether— gone  under,  so  to  speak,  With  the 
landlords,  however,  it  is  not  a  case  of  giving  up  and  going, 
for  their  capital  is  invested  in  their  estates,  and  to  them 
they  must  stick.  As  a  class  they  have  nobly  done  their  duty, 
and  to  their  hurt  have  often  continued  to  give  employment, 
rather  than  allow  the  labourers  to  suffer.  By  every  means  in 
their  power  they  have  endeavoured  to  assist  their  tenants,  not 
looking  merely  to  the  "  pound  of  flesh  "  stipulated  for  in  lease 
or  agreement.  But  what  good  after  all  can  remissions  of  rent  do. 
The  evil  is  too  deeply  seated  for  that,  and  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  at  any  rate  in  the  Southern  and  Eastern  counties  of 


The  Depression  in  Agriculture 


155 


England  rents  have  been  reduced  not  less  than  50  or  60  per  cent., 
and  in  many  cases  even  more,  the  present  season,  owing  to  the 
excessively  light  crops  in  several  districts,  and  the  unexampled 
low  prices,  bids  fair  to  be  the  worst  on  record. 

The  labourer,  on  the  other  hand,  has  little  or  no  cause  for 
complaint.  His  wages  which  had  gone  up  about  3s.  to  4s.  a 
week  twenty  years  ago,  have  so  remained;  but  everything  he 
wants  is  much  cheaper.  His  cottage,  as  a  rule,  is  far  better,  and 
he  has  no  trouble  in  getting  a  garden  or  an  allotment.  Notwith- 
standing these  advantages,  however,  it  is  becoming  each  year 
more  difficult  to  get  sufficient  labour,  even  for  the  reduced  area 
of  land  under  cultivation. 

Now  let  me  show  by  figures  how  this  depression  affects  the 
prosperity  of  the  country  and,  individually,  people  of  all  classes. 
Take,  for  example,  an  averaged  sized  estate,  say  of  3000  acres, 
divided  into  ten  farms  of  300  acres  each,  let  in  normal  times  at 
£1  per  acre,  tithe  free.  The  landlord's  profits  would  be : — 


Twenty  years  ago. 

Now  (if  let).* 

Deductions.     Rent. 
£                £ 
Land  tax      ....      100        3,000 
Tithe  rent  charge  at  5s. 
per  acre  commuted   .       750 

Deductions. 
£ 

Land  tax  (at  Is.)      .     .        75 
Tithe  rent  charge  at  66 
per  cent  500 

Rent. 
£ 
1,500 

Income     tax     at     6d. 
(£53  15s.)  ....         54 
Expenses      of      estate 
management,  repairs, 
etc.,  15  per.  cent.      .      450 
Taxes  on  hall,  assessed 
taxes,  etc  46 
1,400 

Income  tax  at  lid.  .     .         42 
Expenses      of      estate 
management,  repairs, 
(very    low    estimate 
20  per  cent.)    ...       300 
Taxes  on  hall,  assessed 
taxes,  etc  43 

960 

Total  landlords'  profits    .        1,600 

Total  landlords'  profits    . 

540f 

*  If  in  hand  the  outgoings  more  than  swallow  up  receipts. 
t  Or  about  1*  per  cent,  on  the  cost  of  the  buildings. 

The  income  tax  assessors  reckon  tenants'  profits  on  a  farm  at 
half  the  rental.  Accepting  this  assessment  as  the  profits  of  each 
tenant  on  an  estate  such  as  I  have  indicated  twenty  years  ago 
(the  basis  of  assessment  has  not  changed)  would  be  £150,  making 
a  total  profit  for  the  ten  tenants  of  £1500.  Now  with  the  rents 
at  half  their  former  value,  the  profits  of  the  same  ten  tenants 
would  be  only  £750.  With  regard  to  labour  there  is  no  arbitrary 
rule  by  which  to  gauge  the  actual  amount  expended,  but  experi- 
ence shows  that  twenty  years  ago  the  annual  expenditure  in 
wages  on  the  estate  in  question  would  have  been  25s.  per  acre, 
making  a  total  annual  expenditure  of  £3750.  Now  under  good 
farming,  and  expenses  cut  down  as  low  as  possible,  only  15s  per 
acre,  or  a  total  of  £2250  would  be  spent.  If  the  land  were 


156  The  Empire  Review 

in  hand— and  much  land  is  either  out  of  cultivation  or  roughly 
laid  down  to  grass— the  labour  bill  would  not  come  to  more  than 
10s.  per  acre,  making  a  total  of  £1500  for  the  year. 

Summing  up  the  three  positions  then,  it  will  be  seen  that, 
whereas  twenty  years  ago  the  landlord  had  to  spend  £1600  per 
annum;  tenants,  £1500;  labourers,  £3750;  a  total  of  £6850. 
Now  with  reduced  rents  and  less  profits,  the  landlord  has  to 
spend  £456  per  annum ;  tenants,  £750 ;  labourers,  £2250 ;  a 
total  of  £3456.  While,  with  the  estate  in  hand,  landlord's  house 
shut  up,  tenant  gone,  everything  managed  as  cheaply  as  possible, 
bailiffs,  salaries,  &c.,  £250;  labourers'  wages,  £1500;  a  total  of 
only  £1750.  Moreover  in  each  case  the  money  received  was  and 
is  spent  directly  in  this  country,  very  much  of  it  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood.  So  large  a  falling  off  in  the  local  expenditure 
must  have  a  corresponding  effect  on  the  prosperity  of  the  towns 
and  villages,  for  agriculture  is  undoubtedly  the  backbone  of  the 
country,  and  when  it  suffers  all  must  suffer  with  it. 

But  the  reader  will  say,  "  At  any  rate  we  benefit  by  the 
cheapness  of  food."  This  opens  up  a  wide  subject  and  one  into 
which  I  do  not  propose  to  go.  But  I  may  perhaps  be  allowed 
to  point  out  that  when  in  1859  wheat  cost  54s.  4td.  per  quarter 
the  41b.  loaf  cost  5%d. ;  in  1893,  with  wheat  at  30s.  per  quarter, 
the  price  of  the  41b.  loaf  was  the  same. 

And  now  let  me  comment  upon  one  or  two  plans  by  which 
relief  may  be  obtained.  Small  holdings  and  the  various  proposals 
with  regard  to  them,  merely  touch  the  fringe  of  the  question,  and 
it  is  easy  to  show  that  the  experiment  has  not  always  been  a 
success.  In  the  year  1845  Feargus  O'Connor  and  others  made 
the  attempt  in  Gloucestershire.  I  myself  knew  those  holdings 
well  thirty-seven  or  thirty-eight  years  ago.  The  holders  were 
then  on  their  beam  ends,  and  in  1885  the  last  of  them,  John  Lee, 
after  thirty-six  years'  hard  struggle,  being  unable  to  dispose  of  his 
holding,  was  about  to  throw  it  up  and  seek  work  as  a  labourer. 
It  is  hardly  to  be  wished  that  the  condition  of  our  labourers 
should  be  no  better  than  that  of  the  French  or  Italian  peasant 
where  small  holdings  are  the  rule. 

We  have  been  brought  up  to  the  worship  of  Free  Trade  as  a 
fetish.  Theoretically  the  principle  is  perfect,  but  in  practice  we 
find  that  this  country  alone,  of  the  great  nations,  is  wedded  to  it. 
Cobden's  predictions  and  sanguine  belief  that  in  a  few  years  all 
the  world  would  be  free-traders  has  been  falsified.  It  is  not 
probable  that  this  country  could  produce  enough  to  support  our 
enormous  population,  but  the  result  of  our  fiscal  policy  has  been 
to  make  us  more  and  more  dependent  for  our  supplies  on 
foreign  countries.  The  meaning  of  this  is  that  we  must  at 
all  times  have  command  of  the  seas.  Captain  F.  N.  Maude 


The  Depression  in  Agriculture  157 

strongly  advocates*  —  what  he  calls  Imperial  Insurance  —  an 
ad  valorem  duty  on  all  our  ocean-borne  commerce.  This  would  give 
us  £24,000,000  to  spend  on  our  navy,  which  would  then  suffice 
for  all  our  needs.  Another  scheme,  put  forward  by  the  late  Major 
Jackson  of  Swordale  suggests  a  5  per  cent,  duty  on  all  our 
imports,  an  arrangement  he  calculates  would  produce  a  net 
revenue  of  over  £21,000,000,  which  would  be  ear-marked  to 
provide  old  age  pensions,  to  all  who  are  not  subject  to  pay  income 
tax,  on  arriving  at  the  age  of  65  :  the  number  of  recipients  he 
gives  at  1,500,000,  and  the  cost  at  19J  millions.  By  relieving  the 
poor-rates  you  would  indirectly  greatly  benefit  agriculture. 

But  what  would  be  more  immediately  effective,  and  give  agri- 
culture what  it  has  never  had,  real  free  trade,  would  be  to  relieve 
it  of  all  rates  levied  on  land  used  for  agricultural  and  kindred 
purposes.  In  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  afterwards  real 
property  was  the  only  tangible  property,  hence  all  taxes  were 
levied  on  it.  This  injustice  goes  on  to  the  present  day,  and 
agricultural  land  and  all  improvements  made  on  that  land  (the 
raw  material  on  which  we  grow  food  for  the  country)  are  taxed 
up  to  the  hilt.  Now  and  again  some  legislative  enactment  may 
indirectly  prove  favourable  to  the  agriculturist,  but  any  temporary 
advantage  thus  derived  is  soon  taken  away  by  other  legislation, 
and  the  position  is  as  before.  Thus  a  grant  in  aid  of  rates  is 
made  by  the  Exchequer,  but  on  the  other  hand  land  is  bled  more 
than  ever  by  the  operation  of  the  Death  Duties.  The  small  duty 
on  corn  imposed  in  1902  has  been  taken  off  this  year,  though  in 
operation  it  had  not  affected  the  price  of  bread  in  any  way,  but 
had  put  a  little  heart  into  the  sorely- tried  agricultural  classes. 

In  other  trades,  the  buildings  and  plant  only  are  rated,  but  in 
agriculture  every  acre  is  rated  according  to  its  possible  producing 
value.  Lord  Masham  (a  staunch  Protectionist)  would  be  sur- 
prised, and  rightly  so,  if  it  were  proposed  to  rate  the  produce  of 
the  mills  of  his  company,  so  would  any  cotton-spinner  or  iron- 
master. And  yet  that  is  what  we  do  with  the  produce  of  land. 
To  take  wheat  alone.  The  average  rates  on  it  are  25.  a  quarter. 
Again,  the  railway  charges  are  far  higher  for  home  grown 
produce  than  for  foreign.  On  the  L.  S.  W-  B.  the  rate  per  ton 
for  imported  meal  from  Southampton  to  London  is  Us.  6d., 
but  from  Bishopstoke,  Winchester,  and  Botley  (nearer  London), 
31s.  3d.,  275.  9d.,  and  31s.  Sd.  per  ton,  respectively.!  Even 
so  lately  as  1887  Sir  James  Caird  writes :  "  We  have  still  an 
advantage  over  these  (i.e.,  rich  foreign  lands),  in  the  cost  of 
transport,  which  is  equal  to  the  rent  here.''  Yet,  soon  after,  our 

*  National  Review,  January  1903. 

t  These  charges  have,  I  believe,  been  somewhat  modified  since  the  article  was 
written.— W.  D,  M. 


158  The  Empire  Review 

shipowners  were  giving  American  growers  2$.  per  ton  for  wheat 
sent  over  here  as  ballast,  which  on  arrival  at  Liverpool  was  and 
is  distributed  through  the  country  at  less  than  our  own  home- 
grown corn.  It  appears  to  pay  the  Canadian  to  send  his  hay 
here,  but  it  does  not  pay  (owing  to  the  cost  of  carriage)  the 
Eastern  Counties  farmers  to  send  straw  to  London. 

I  have  only  sketched  in  the  merest  outline  the  difficulties  at 
present  surrounding  the  agricultural  problem.  But  the  impor- 
tance of  finding  a  solution  cannot  be  over-estimated.  It  is  on 
agriculture  that,  even  now,  nearly  one-half  our  population  de- 
pends, and  when  agriculture  prospers  all  industries  prosper  with 
it.  The*future  of  agriculture  lies  with  the  inhabitants  of  our 
large  towns :  it  is  for  them  to  say  whether  they  are  satisfied  to  be 
almost  entirely  dependent  on  foreign  supplies,  a  national  danger 
in  time  of  war,  or  whether  it  is  not  to  their  advantage  to  encourage 
home  industries,  and  ensure  certain  prosperity. 

W.  DALZIEL  MACKENZIE. 

PAWLEY  COURT. 


The  Roads  of  Empire  159 


THE   ROADS   OF   EMPIRE 

DEEAMING-,  I  saw  the  long  brown  road 

Through  plain  and  ranges  run, 
The  lean  teams  struggling  with  their  load 

Beneath  the  tropic  sun, 
Where,  forward  flung  from  every  shore, 

Our  world-wide  Empire  sets 
To  guard  her  lines  of  work  and  war 

Her  frontier  vedettes. 

I  heard  the  busy  axes  swing 

That  hewed  the  path  ahead, 
I  heard  the  rifle  bullets  sing 

That  heaped  the  road  with  dead ; 
Far  westward  in  the  sunset  glow 

The  long  train  sank  at  last, 
With  farm  and  city  left  to  show 

Where  England's  wains  had  passed. 

Dreaming,  I  saw  the  broad  blue  road 

Where  ships  of  England  sped; 
The  flag  of  ocean-empire  glowed 

From  every  foremast  head ; 
And  where  those  towering  sails  unfurled, 

Those  smoke- wreaths  dulled  the  sky, 
The  passing  fleets  of  all  the  world 

Dipped  flags'  as  they  went  by. 

I  heard  the  tall  yards  creak  and  swing 

When  sea-winds  searched  the  spars, 
I  heard  the  brown-faced  sailors  sing 

Beside  the  capstan  bars ; 
The  red  moon  rose,  the  sea-mists  fell 

On  conning-tower  and  mast, 
With  burning  slavers  left  to  tell 

That  England's  ships  had  passed. 


160  The  Empire  Review 

The  wheel-tracks  faded  from  the  sands, 

The  flags  no  longer  flew, 
The  white  mists  wove  a  hundred  strands 

Of  pathways  brown  and  blue, 
Till  all  those  roads  were  coloured  bands 

Twined  in  and  out  and  through, 
Silk  ribbons  flung,  oh  !  far-off  lands, 

To  bind  our  hearts  to  you ! 


WILL  H.  OGILVIE, 


Workmen's  Insurance  and  National  Prosperity    161 


WORKMEN'S   INSURANCE   AND   NATIONAL 
PROSPERITY 

[The  speech  delivered  at  Hanover  by  Herr  Moller,  the  Prussian  Minister  of 
Commerce,  has  been  followed  to-day  by  the  publication,  for  the  first  time,  of 
a  report  of  an  interview  with  him  in  1902,  bearing  more  directly  on  German 
commercial  hopes  in  the  British  Colonies.  In  this  Eeport  the  Minister  is 
quoted  as  saying,  "  The  real  cause  why  Great  Britain  is  behind  Germany  is  the 
monopolistic  practices  of  the  trade  unions.  Germany  has  trade  unions  too,  but 
they  can  never  achieve  the  position  of  domination  which  they  occupy  across 
the  Channel.  The  most  weighty  factor  against  such  an  eventuality  is  our 
invalid  and  working-men's  insurance  system." — Morning  Post  Correspondent, 
Berlin,  August  7.] 

INSURANCE  in  various  forms  has  done  more  than  any  other 
institution  to  protect  mankind  from  those  accidents  of  fortune, 
which  leave  not  only  men,  but  women  and  children  destitute. 
In  most  countries  insurance  has  long  been  in  existence  among 
the  upper  classes,  but  among  the  working  classes  where  the 
need  is  certainly  not  less,  insurance  has  been  thoroughly  and 
systematically  organised  in  one  country  alone — Germany.  The 
system  which  has  been  in  force  in  that  country  for  the  last 
twenty  years  is  of  so  remarkable  and  in  many  respects  of  so 
beneficent  a  character,  that  some  few  months  since  I  induced 
an  influential  deputation  from  the  National  Conference  of 
Friendly  Societies  in  England  to  accompany  me  to  Germany 
and  study  the  question  on  the  spot. 

The  work  of  State  insurance  in  Germany  was  initiated  by  the 
message  of  the  Emperor  William  I.  to  the  Eeichstag  in  November 
1881,  the  message,  as  communicated  by  the  Chancellor,  Prince 
Bismarck,  running  thus  : — 

We  consider  it  Our  Imperial  duty  to  impress  upon  the  Reichstag  the 
necessity  of  furthering  the  welfare  of  the  working  people.  We  should  review 
with  increased  satisfaction  the  manifold  successes,  with  which  the  Lord  has 
blessed  Our  reign,  could  we  carry  with  us  to  the  grave  the  consciousness  of 
having  given  our  country  an  additional  and  lasting  assurance  of  internal  peace, 
and  the  conviction  that  we  have  rendered  the  needy  that  assistance  to  which 
they  are  justly  entitled.  Our  efforts  in  this  direction  are  certain  of  the 
approval  of  all  the  federate  Governments,  and  we  confidently  rely  on  the 
support  of  the  Eeichstag,  without  distinction  of  parties.  In  order  to  realise 
these  views  a  Bill  for  the  insurance  of  workmen  against  industrial  accidents 

VOL.  VI.— No.  32.  M 


The  Empire  Review 

will  first  of  all  be  laid  before  you,  after  which  a  supplementary  measure  will  be 
submitted  providing  for  a  general  organisation  of  industrial  sick  relief  insurance. 
But  likewise  those  who  are  disabled  in  consequence  of  old  age  or  invalidity 
possess  a  well-founded  claim  to  a  more  ample  relief  on  the  part  of  the  State 
than  they  have  hitherto  enjoyed.  To  devise  the  fittest  ways  and  means  for 
making  such  provision,  however  difficult,  is  one  of  the  highest  obligations  of 
every  community  based  on  the  moral  foundations  of  Christianity.  A  more 
intimate  connection  with  the  actual  capabilities  of  the  people,  and  a  mode  of 
turning  these  capabilities  to  account  in  corporate  associations,  under  the 
patronage  and  with  the  aid  of  the  State,  will,  we  trust,  develop  a  scheme  to 
solve  which  the  State  alone  would  prove  unequal. 

By  the  system  evolved  from  this  imperial  mandate,  the 
working  man,  incapacitated  from  work  by  sickness,  accident, 
infirmity  or  old  age,  has  a  legal  right  to  a  measure  of  provision, 
both  for  himself  and  family,  which  saves  him  from  being  com- 
pelled to  rely  upon  public  charity.  The  means  by  which  this 
end  has  been  obtained,  is  based  upon  compulsory  insurance  on 
the  part  of  the  working  man  and  his  employer,  under  an  adminis- 
tration on  which  the  insured  is  represented.  The  system 
includes  three  forms  of  insurance — accident,  sickness,  and 
invalidity  and  old  age.  I  will  take  them  in  the  order  named. 

In  the  case  of  "  accident "  insurance,  the  premiums  are  entirely 
paid  by  the  employers,  and  when  death  occurs  as  the  result  of 
an  accident,  an  allowance  is  made  to  the  survivors  from  the  day 
of  death.  Widows  and  children  receive  50  per  cent,  of  the  yearly 
earnings,  and  dependent  parents  20  per  cent.  For  the  first 
thirteen  weeks  an  injured  man  is  supported  out  of  sick  fund 
(No.  2),  and  if  by  that  time  he  is  not  sufficiently  recovered  to 
resume  woirk,  he  receives  an  allowance,  during  disablement,  up 
to  60  per  cent,  of  yearly  earnings;  or  free  hospital  treatment 
during  the  whole  cure,  and  an  allowance  for  the  family.  Accident 
insurance  is  extended  to  workpeople  engaged  in  industry  or  agri- 
culture, to  officials  whose  salaries  do  not  exceed  ^6100  a  year, 
and  to  small  employers.  The  employers  are  united  in  trade 
associations  and  contribute  to  the  insurance  funds  proportion- 
ately to  the  wages  paid,  or  to  the  number  of  hands  employed,  as 
well  as  to  the  risk  of  accident  in  the  various  occupations. 

In  the  case  of  insurance  against  sickness,  the  workman  pays 
two-thirds  of  the  premium,  and  the  employer  one-third.  In  the 
event  of  illness,  the  allowance  is  made  for  thirteen  weeks,  or  the 
sick  man  receives  free  hospital  treatment,  and  half  the  sick  pay 
for  the  support  of  the  family.  Similar  relief  is  provided  for 
women  in  child-bed  for  four  weeks;  and  when  death  occurs, 
the  funeral  expenses  (twenty  times  the  daily  wages)  are  paid. 
This  class  of  insurance  is  managed  by  local  sick  associations, 
of  which  there  are  a  number  of  organised  branches.  One  of  the 
many  indirect  advantages  of  the  system  is,  that  not  only  is  the 


Workmen's  Insurance  and  National  Prosperity    163 


man  paid,  but  with  the  knowledge  that  his  family  is  provided 
for  he  is  able  to  enjoy  the  first  essential  to  recovery  from  any 
form  of  accident  or  sickness — a  mind  at  rest. 

The  funds  in  the  third  case,  that  of  insurance  against  infirmity 
and  old  age,  are  supplied  partly  by  the  State  and  partly  by 
employers  and  employed.  The  State  contributes  to  each  annuity 
the  fixed  amount  of  fifty  marks  (£'2  10s.)  per  annum,  and  also 
pays  the  workman's  contribution  while  he  is  serving  in  the  army 
or  navy.  The  employer  and  the  employed  contribute  equally  and 
in  proportion  to  wages  earned.  Payment  of  these  contributions  is 
really  made  by  the  employer,  who  affixes  stamps  to  the  card  of 
the  insured  weekly,  the  stamps  being  issued  by  the  Imperial 
Insurance  Department ;  and  in  paying  the  wages  of  the  employed 
the  employers  are  entitled  to  deduct  the  workmen's  share. 

TABLE  SHOWING  CHABGES  OF  THE  ENTIRE  WORKMEN'S  INSURANCE  ON  THE 
YEAR'S  AVERAGE.* 


— 

Employers. 

Employed. 

Empire. 

Total. 

Marks. 
5-15 

Marks. 
10-30 

Marks. 

Marks. 
15-45 

Accident  Insurance     

6-08 

6-08 

Invalidity  Insurance  

4-65 

4-65 

2-88 

12-18 

Total  

15-88 

14-95 

2-88 

33-71 

*  These  figures  show  that  the  workman  does  not  really  pay  half  the  whole  charges,  for  by  the 
Workmen's  Insurance  he  gets  back  considerably  more  in  compensation  than  he  pays  in 
contributions. 

These  three  branches  of  National  State  Insurance  supplement 
one  another  and  form  a  complete  organisation  which  goes  far  to 
relieve  distress  thrown  upon  the  family  in  the  case  of  sickness, 
incapacity  for  work,  or  death  of  the  head.  Nor  is  that  all.  The 
effect  of  the  organisation  is  even  far  more  reaching.  The  social 
status  of  the  workman  is  raised  to  a  higher  plane  than  that  attained 
perhaps  in  any  other  country,  as  the  workman  claims  as  a  right 
from  the  State  that  relief  in  sickness  for  himself  and  family 
which  the  State  has  helped  him  to  purchase  and  not  left  him  to 
beg.  Out  of  the  capital  funds  of  the  workmen's  insurance,  grants 
by  way  of  advance  are  made  for  improving  the  dwellings  of 
workmen  and  for  supporting  every  improvement  of  public  interest. 

Now  (1901)  already  (says  Dr.  Zacher  *)  one  million  marks  are  expended 
daily  in  Germany  for  this  branch  of  provision  for  workmen  alone,  whilst  the 
accumulated  funds  already  exceed  one  milliard  marks  (J650,000,000),  one  hundred 
millions  (^65,000,000)  of  which  have  been  spent  in  constructing  workmen's 
dwellings  and  special  establishments  for  sick,  injured,  invalided  and  con- 
valescent work-people,  public  baths  and  the  like  institutions  for  the  benefit  of 

*  See  '  Guide  to  the  Workmen's  Insurance  of  the  German  Empire.' 

M  2 


164  The  Empire  Review 

the  working  classes.  As,  however,  the  circumstances  which  tend  to  disturb 
the  good  relations  between  employers  and  employed  are  everywhere  much  the 
Mm"  the  hope  is  natural  and  well  justified,  that  the  consideration  and  fore- 
thought which  the  German  labourers  owe  to  the  beneficent  sacrifice  of  their 
employers  will  find  an  echo  in  other  civilised  countries,  for  the  welfare  of  the 
human  race  and  the  consolidation  of  social  peace  and  concord. 

The  policy,  on  the  part  of  the  controllers  of  the  fund,  is  to  pre- 
vent danger  from  sickness  and  accident.  As  sickness  immediately 
makes  a  call  upon  the  common  fund,  the  various  local  branches, 
or  sick  clubs,  not  only  address  themselves  to  restoring  the  sick  to 
health,  but  endeavour  to  prevent  by  every  hygienic  and  other 
beneficent  measure  the  occurrence  of  disease.  Thus  by  the  aid  of 
the  State  Sick  Insurance  Department,  millions  of  publications, 
such  as  the  '  Tuberkulose  Merkblatt '  are  distributed  among  the 
working  classes  and  have  attracted  much  interest. 

Statistics  of  the  sick  and  invalided  have  been  compiled  and  show 
that  of  all  men  working  in  mining,  metallurgy,  industry  and 
building  who  become  invalided  at  the  age  of  thirty,  more  than 
half  suffer  from  consumption.  The  proportion  among  workwomen 
is  much  the  same.  This  has  led  the  department  to  issue  a  circular 
calling  attention  to  the  importance  of  the  crusade  against  con- 
sumption. The  three  great  Unions,  engaged  under  the  active 
patronage  of  the  Empress  in  combating  tuberculosis,  to  which 
the  Workmen's  Insurance  Department  and  other  insurance 
institutions  belong,  were  much  impressed  and  proceeded  to  take 
up  the  work,  especially  the  provision  of  sanatoria  for  consumptives 
throughout  Germany.  And  The  Imperial  Insurance  Department 
advised  the  insurance  institutions  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
favourable  opportunities  offered  by  the  exertions  of  these  Unions, 
and  in  cases  of  consumption  where  the  insured  is  capable  of 
recovery,  to  demand  the  aid  of  the  sick-clubs  and  communities 
concerned,  for  the  preservation  of  the  workman's  self-support,  by 
granting  a  treatment  to  that  purpose  in  sanatoria,  which  will,  if 
the  result  answers  the  hoped  for  expectations,  lessen  the  annuities 
they  are  charged  with. 

The  favourable  experiences  up  to  the  year  1899  led  to  an 
extensive  support  of  the  insurance  institutions.  It  was  felt  to  be 
not  only  a  question  of  guarding  the  family  from  immediate  hunger 
and  care,  but  also  one  of  effecting  a  timely  removal  of  such 
members  of  the  family  who  might  threaten  others  with  infection. 
These  efforts  together  with  the  improvement  in  the  general  con- 
dition of  the  working  classes,  brought  about  by  the  whole  organisa- 
tion of  the  State  Sick  Insurance  Department,  have  already  had  a 
remarkable  effect  on  the  tuberculosis  death-rate  in  Prussia, 
which  has  fallen  from  31  per  10,000  in  1886,  to  19  per  10,000 
in  1901,  whereas  the  annual  tuberculosis  death-rate  in  the  United 


Workmen's  Insurance  and  National  Prosperity    165 

Kingdom  only  fell  from  24  per  10,000  in  1886  to  19  per  10,000 
in  1900.* 

In  addition  to  sanatoria  for  consumptives  and  home  dwellings, 
many  other  institutions  for  the  benefit  of  the  working  classes  have 
been  promoted  by  the  Workmen's  Insurance  Department.  Accident 
stations,  centres  for  sick  nursing  and  institutions  for  conva- 
lescents have  been  erected.  Loans  at  a  low  rate  of  interest  are 
granted  for  the  purpose  of  making  railroads,  the  encouragement 
of  cattle-raising,  for  labourers'  colonies,  and  public  baths.  The 
vitality  of  the  German  workman  is  improving,  and  the  birth-rate  is 
the  highest  in  Europe,  while  the  tendency  to  save  has  been  increased 
by  the  compulsory  insurance  system. 

Now  let  us  turn  from  this  remarkable  development  of  State 
socialism  in  Germany  and  consider  the  friendly  societies  of  the 
United  Kingdom  which,  with  a  similar  object  in  view,  have  grown 
up  by  voluntary  effort.  Our  friendly  societies  are  practically 
societies  by  means  of  which  the  poorer  classes  aid  each  other  in 
emergencies  arising  from  sickness,  death  and  other  causes  of 
distress.  Their  history  is  full  of  interest  to  the  student  of  sociology 
but  can  only  be  briefly  referred  to  here. 

The  origin  of  friendly  societies  in  all  countries  appears  to  have 
been  the  burial  club.  Such  societies  are  found  to  day  in  China 
and  flourished  among  the  Greeks  and  Komans.  In  mediaeval  times 
the  Teutonic  races  had  their  guilds,  the  religious  guilds  being 
suppressed  in  the  16th  century.  The  first  system  of  relief  by 
poor  law  was  introduced  about  the  same  time.  While  there  are 
reasons  for  connecting  the  friendly  societies  with  the  guilds  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  it  seems  probable  that  the  friendly  societies 
came  into  existence  in  their  present  form  early  in  the  18th  century, 
and  of  these  the  first  were  formed  by  the  Huguenot  refugees  in 
Spitalfields. 

A  number  of  small  societies,  many  of  which  did  not  contain 
more  than  50  members,  appear  to  have  grown  up  through  the 
18th  century,  and  first  received  recognition  from  Parliament  by 
Sir  George  Rose's  Act  in  1793,  which  provided  encouragement  in 
various  ways,  as  well  as  immunity  from  taxation  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent.  The  societies  at  that  time  were  practically 
small  clubs,  in  which  the  feature  of  good  fellowship  was  more 
prominent  than  any  reliable  system  of  insurance  for  sickness  and 
death.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  was  not  an  uncommon  thing  for 
these  societies  to  break  down  financially,  and  in  1819  another  Act 
was  introduced  in  which  a  friendly  society  is  thus  defined :  an 
institution  whereby  it  is  intended  by  contribution  on  the  principle 
of  mutual  insurance,  for  the  maintenance  and  assistance  of  the 
contributors  thereto,  their  wives  and  children,  in  sickness,  infancy, 

*  The  British  statistics  for  1901  are  not  yet  published. 


166  The  Empire  Review 

advanced  age,  widowhood,  or  any  other  natural  state  or  con- 
tingency, whereof  the  occurrence  is  susceptible  of  calculation  by 

way  of  average.* 

A  series  of  Acts  with  similar  objects,  which  appear,  however,  t< 
have  been  but  imperfectly  attained,  were  passed  down  to  1875, 
when  further  legislation,  regulating  the  friendly  societies  in 
Great  Britain,  came  into  force.  This  legislation  provided  simpler 
means  to  members  of  friendly  societies,  for  ascertaining  and 
regulating  defects  of  management,  and  restraining  fraud,  and  for 
placing  the  business  of  registration  under  the  control  of  a  Chief 
Begistrar,  aided  by  an  Assistant  Kegistrar  and  an  Actuary  in  each 
of  the  three  countries  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  process  of  amalgamating  the  friendly  societies  and  their 
branches  has  thus  been  going  on  for  many  years.  Now  most  of 
them  are  registered.  Since  the  National  Conference  of  Friendly 
Societies  was  established,  it  has  been  of  great  service  in  obtaining 
further  means  of  improving  the  law  and  enabling  the  societies 
to  strongly  represent  to  the  Government  and  to  the  legislature, 
any  matters  which  they  desire  to  bring  forward.  The  following 
figures  f  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  widespread  character  of  these 
institutions  and  the  sums  of  money  under  their  control. 


Name  of  Institution. 

Number 
of  Institutions. 

Members. 

Funds. 

Ordinary  Friendly  Societies      .... 
Branches  of  Registered  Orders  .... 
Collecting  Friendly  Societies    .... 
Medical  Societies  

7,090 
19,340 
45 
86 

2,807,823 
2,409,438 
5,922,615 
298,691 

£ 

13,747,273 
19,004,596 
5,207,686 
70,207 

Benevolent  Societies                       .     . 

70 

18,363 

286,141 

Working  Men's  Clubs     

632 

175,469 

209,041 

Specially  Authorised  Societies  .... 

465 
55 

114,307 
3,424 

956,266 
6,599 

Societies  and  Branches  . 

27,783 

11,750,130 

39,487,619 

Such  then  in  brief  is  the  history  of  the  friendly  societies  of 
this  country.  Beginning  with  a  number  of  small  isolated  societies, 
amalgamation  and  co-operation  have  gone  on,  side  by  side,  with 
the  extension  of  membership,  until  rather  more  than  a  quarter 
of  the  entire  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  members  of 
these  institutions.  And  if  they  have  not  been  constituted  into 
a  State  Department,  similar  to  the  State  Sick  Insurance  Depart- 
ment in  Germany,  they  at  least  represent  the  best  portion  of  the 
working  classes  of  the  country  combined  in  a  mutual  effort  for 

*  The  promoters  of  this  Act  stated  that  it  was  desirable  to  protect  such  persons 
(members  of  friendly  societies)  from  the  effects  of  fraud  or  miscalculation. 

t  They  are  taken  from  the  returns  of  registered  societies  and  branches  of 
societies  to  December  81,  1899. 


Workmen's  Insurance  and  National  Prosperity    167 

their  common  good  and  collectively  represented  by  the  National 
Conference  of  Friendly  Societies  which  meets  annually. 

It  is  impossible  to  regard  this  wide  organisation,  the  result 
of  individual  voluntary  effort  on  the  part  of  the  thrifty  portion  of 
the  working  classes  of  this  country,  without  admiration  for  the 
pluck  and  foresight  which  it  displays.  Under  it  the  thrifty  and 
those  dependent  on  them,  have  some  sort  of  provision  made 
against  a  rainy  day.  For  the  unthrifty  no  such  provision  exists, 
and  in  the  event  of  any  contingency  arising  which  should 
prevent  the  wage-earner  from  getting  his  living,  their  families 
are  thrown  upon  the  poor-rate. 

In  contrasting  the  English  and  German  systems  of  workmen's 
insurance,  the  point  of  the  relative  position  of  the  thrifty  and  the 
unthrifty  is  an  important  one.  Under  the  German  law,  however 
loth  a  man  may  be  to  provide  against  emergencies,  he  is  compelled 
to  do  so  and  not  to  leave  those  dependent  upon  him  to  starve 
or  beg  during  emergency,  in  case  he  should  be  by  nature  too 
imprudent  to  make  any  provision  himself.  Another  and  ex- 
tremely important  difference  between  the  systems  in  the  two 
countries  is  that  in  Germany  the  employers  are  compelled  to 
contribute  to  the  workmen's  insurance.  It  is  true  that  under 
the  various  Acts  denning  employer's  liability  in  England,  com- 
pensation in  case  of  accident  to  a  workman  is  provided  by  the 
employer,  but  there  is  no  compulsory  contribution  on  his  part  for 
sickness,  invalidity  or  old  age.  In  Germany  the  employers' 
contribution  in  both  these  contingencies  is  a  considerable  one 
and  forms  a  substantial  addition  to  the  annual  revenues  of  the 
Sickness  and  Invalidity  Insurance  Department.  These  contribu- 
tions combined  with  the  organised  State  administration  of  the 
central  insurance  fund,  make  the  condition  of  the  workman,  in 
case  of  sickness  or  invalidity,  distinctly  better  in  Germany  than 
in  England. 

Granted  then  that  the  position  of  the  German  workman 
is  better  under  this  system  than  that  of  the  English  workman, 
how  does  the  German  system  of  insurance  affect  the  employer  ? 
Is  his  contribution  to  the  workman's  insurance  merely  an 
additional  burden  upon  him  ?  Or  is  it  the  payment  of  a  premium 
for  which  he  gets  an  adequate  economic  return  ?  The  advocates 
of  the  system  in  Germany  strongly  maintain  that  the  latter  is  the 
case,  and  that  the  economic  advantage  of  this  system  to  the 
employer  is  undoubted.  Thus  Mr.  A  Domeier,  in  a  Keport 
written  for  the  London  Chamber  of  Commerce  in  1900  points 
out  that  the  great  trade  of  Germany  during  the  time  the  Work- 
men's Insurance  Department  has  been  in  force  has  not  suffered. 
In  1882  Great  Britain's  share  of  the  traffic  of  the  world  was 
19*7  per  cent.;  Germany's  was  only  10*3  per  cent.  In  1898 


168  The  Empire  Review 

Great  Britain's  share  was  16 '8  per  cent.,  and  Germany's  was 
11 '3  per  cent.  Commercially,  then,  the  effect  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  disadvantageous.  Moreover  it  seems  probable  that 
the  system  rather  tends  to  prevent,  than  to  encourage,  strikes 
among  workmen,  except  under  very  strong  provocation,  as  the 
employer's  contribution  to  the  insurance  fund  is  only  paid  while 
wages  are  being  earned.  Thus  the  employer's  chances  of  retaining 
a  permanent  and  efficient  staff  of  workmen  and  employes  are 
increased. 

The  advantages  of  encouraging  saving  habits  among  workmen 
in  this  country  are  so  far  recognised  by  employers  that  in  many 
instances  large  employers  contribute  generously  to  funds  so  saved. 
It  does  not  seem  likely,  however,  that  compulsory  insurance 
similar  to  that  obtaining  in  Germany  will  readily  find  favour 
with  either  workmen  or  employers  in  England.  But  is  there 
any  reason  why  a  satisfactory  scheme  should  not  be  brought 
about  voluntarily  ?  If  large  employers  will  look  into  the  matter 
they  may  find  that  to  aid  and  encourage  insurance,  and  at  the 
same  time  win  the  good-will  of  their  workmen,  is  a  sound 
economic  as  well  as  a  humane  policy. 

ALFRED  HILLIEE. 


A  Voyage  to  Australia  in  1800  169 


A   VOYAGE   TO   AUSTRALIA   IN    1800 

(Being  the  first  long  voyage  performed  by  a  vessel  fitted  with 
centre-boards,  then  known  as  sliding  keels.) 

THANKS  to  steam  and  the  Suez  Canal,  the  modern  English- 
man of  only  moderate  means  and  average  leisure  hands  over  a 
not  too  fat  bundle  of  bank  notes  to  the  clerk  in  Leadenhall 
Street,  and  within  six  weeks  he  is  walking  on  the  shady  side 
of  Pitt  Street,  Sydney,  or  flying  in  swift  cable  cars  over  the 
gum  sleepers  that  pave  the  hilly  thoroughfares  of  Melbourne. 
No  one  with  three  months  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to 
spare  need  die  in  London  without  having  first  looked  upon  the 
fairylike  Jenolan  Caves  and  hazy  blue  mountains,  the  fern-clad 
gorges  of  Tasmania,  the  hot  springs  of  New  Zealand,  and  the 
sighing  palm  groves  of  dreamy  Samoa.  After  a  somewhat  curved 
course  from  the  Thames  to  Gibraltar,  and  another  through  the 
island-dotted  Mediterranean  to  Port  Said,  the  great  vessel  simply 
follows  straight  lines  ruled  as  by  a  schoolboy  on  the  chart. 
Port  Said  to  Aden ;  Aden  to  Colombo  :  Colombo  to  the  western 
outposts  of  the  new  Commonwealth. 

How  vastly  different  were  the  facilities  and  limitations  of 
travel  at  the  dawn  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Then,  unless 
an  Englishman  were  a  soldier,  a  sailor,  or  perchance  a  merchant 
prince  with  his  own  fleet  of  vessels,  he  never  saw  Australia's 
shores  at  all ;  even  thus  fortunately  circumstanced,  he  could  at 
most  hope  to  visit  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Port  Jackson  and 
Botany  Bay,  since  the  rest  of  the  chart  was  still  a  blank,  its  bays 
and  headlands,  let  alone  its  interior  lakes  and  mountains,  named 
only,  if  at  all,  in  the  gibberish  of  the  native  tribes.  Instead  of 
doing  the  journey  in  a  floating  palace  of  six  or  eight  thousand 
tons  register,  with  the  fare  of  a  first-class  hotel,  and  every 
comfort  and  luxury  to  beguile  the  tedium  of  a  passage  measured 
in  days,  the  venturesome  voyager  of  those  times  had  to  trust 
himself  to  a  rat-infested  sailing  ship,  and  in  this  he  had  to 
content  himself  with  the  most  slender  resources  and  the  poorest 
of  food  for  months  and  months,  during  which  period  the  dreary 


170  The  Empire  Review 

monotony  of  the  calm  was  relieved  only  by  the  peril  of  the 
hurricane.  The  roundabout  route  that  had  perforce  to  be 
covered,  made  the  distance  between  London  to  Melbourne  a 
matter  of  some  fourteen  thousand  miles,  and  the  curious  may 
trace  the  dotted  line  on  the  Mercator  Chart,  where  it  is  still 
laid  down  for  sailing  ships,  skirting  the  Cape  Verdes  outposts 
of  Portugal's  dwindling  possessions  oversea,  as  well  as  our  own 
territories  in  South  Africa. 

Such,  in  fact,  was  the  track  sailed  over  in  1800  by  H.M.S.  Lady 
Nelson,  a  tiny  vessel  of  only  sixty  tons  burden  belonging  to  the 
Admiralty.  Her  commander  was  one  John  Grant,  a  near  relation 
of  the  Master  of  the  Kolls  of  that  name  who  lies  in  his  grave  at 
Dawlish,  a  little  village  of  South  Devon  with  which  so  many 
memories  of  this  story  are  bound  up ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that,  when  this  pigmy  warship  remained  intact  in  the  Downs 
through  a  gale  that  dismasted  six  stouter  vessels  and  drove  them 
ashore,  Grant  knew  that  he  had  not  misplaced  his  trust.  What 
finally  became  of  this  gallant  little  brig  history  does  not  say,  nor 
have  I  been  able  to  trace  her  away  from  Sydney;  but  she  is 
immortalised  in  a  model  in  the  Naval  Museum  at  Greenwich 
Hospital,  the  Westminster  Abbey  of  illustrious  ships  of  the  line. 
There  is  some  evidence  that  Grant  came  back  from  his  plucky 
voyage  a  disillusioned  and  disappointed  man ;  but  it  is  fair  to  say, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  somewhat  obscure  cause  of  his 
failure,  that  he  throughout  displayed  a  single  purpose  and  an 
unswerving  loyalty  to  his  original  object  of  testing  and  vindicating 
the  sliding  keels  fitted  to  the  Lady  Nelson  and  invented  by  his 
friend  and  kinsman,  Captain  John  Schank. 

With  that  gallant  seaman  my  story  has  not  much  direct 
concern,  but  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  he  lived  to  be  an 
admiral  and  passed  a  long  evening  of  life  in  his  old  garden  at 
Dawlish,  perfecting  his  sliding  keels  (known  to  modern  yachtsmen 
as  centreboards),  as  well  as  a  certain  ingenious  gun-carriage  and 
sundry  other  inventions  half  a  century  ahead  of  his  time.  On 
one  occasion  Schank  had  the  honour  of  entertaining  King 
George,  who  was  probably  visiting  the  West  Country  with  Lord 
Exmouth ;  and  the  old  gentleman  is  said  to  have  been  not  best 
pleased  when  the  King  alluded  to  him  somewhat  curtly  as  "old 
Schank  the  boatbuilder,"  the  reference  being  to  his  well-known 
mania  for  inventions.  It  was  from  this  peaceful  Devon  garden 
that  Grant  took  seeds  and  kernels  from  the  old  land  to  the  new, 
and  I  well  remember  some  eight  years  ago  walking  among  the 
direct  offspring  of  those  seeds  on  Garden  Island  when  enjoying 
the  hospitality  of  Captain  Castle  and  the  officers  of  the  Mildura 
on  that  little  outpost  of  England's  naval  establishment  in  the 
South  Seas.  The  old-world  garden  at  Dawlish  is  almost  a  thing 


A  Voyage  to  Australia  in  1800  171 

of  the  past,  but  in  the  possession  of  Captain  Schank's  great- 
grandson  there  still  remain  the  yellow  leaves  of  the  log  of  Grant's 
voyage ;  and  it  is  from  this  document  that  my  account  of  the 
voyage  is  compiled. 

Leaving  the  Thames  in  the  middle  of  January  1800,  Grant 
reached  the  Cape  Verde  islands  with  little  in  the  way  of  adventure, 
and  there  he  made  a  considerable  stay,  making  excursions  into 
the  interior  after  sport  of  a  not  very  promising  character,  and 
otherwise  availing  himself  of  the  inexpensive  hospitality  of  the 
Portuguese  governor.  The  only  note  of  interest  in  his  log  during 
this  break  in  the  voyage  has  reference  to  a  number  of  semi-wild 
goats  and  cattle,  which  he  had  reason  to  believe — and  was  later 
confirmed  in  the  suspicion — belonged  to  the  Government  by  a 
right  that  would  not  bear  a  too  close  investigation.  Sickness, 
always  a  serious  matter  on  board  a  sailing  vessel  unprovided 
with  a  doctor,  overtook  the  Lady  Nelson  on  her  way  to  the  Cape, 
but  Grant  was  equal  to  the  occasion,  prescribing  for  his  patients 
with  great  promptness  and  success.  He  isolated  on  a  deck-bed 
the  only  victim  to  fever,  and  dosed  the  whole  ship's  company 
with  tea  and  spruce  beer  as  a  corrective  of  the  heating  oatmeal 
supplied  on  his  Majesty's  ships.  He  now  steered  a  course  which 
kept  off  the  Brazils,  and  the  little  brig  soon  ran  into  some  heavy 
weather  that  tested  not  only  her  sliding  keels,  but  everything  and 
everyone  on  board. 

It  was  just  before  coming  triumphantly  through  this  ordeal 
and  arriving  all  well  at  Cape  Town  that  the  Lady  Nelson  and  her 
commander  were  once  more  subjected  to  the  impertinence  of  the 
unbelieving.  They  fell  in  with  a  Spanish  brig  which  had  been 
taken  by  a  Cape  Town  privateer  in  the  River  Plate  and  boarded 
by  a  prize-master.  That  officer  had  completely  lost  his  bearings, 
and,  as  a  mark  of  gratitude  to  Grant  for  putting  him  right  again, 
he  spoke  of  him  as  a  madman,  laughed  at  his  command  as  far 
too  small  for  a  king's  yacht,  and,  when  he  saw  the  sliding  keels 
by  reason  of  a  sudden  lurch  of  the  vessel  away  from  his  own,  he 
mistook  them  for  some  started  sheathing.  Such  a  mistake  was, 
after  all,  not  unnatural  in  a  man  whose  eyes  had  never  before 
beheld  such  a  device,  yet  his  eyesight  was  not  above  error,  seeing 
that  a  couple  of  days  later,  while  the  vessels  were  still  together, 
he  signalled  as  Table  Mountain  a  black  mass  that  soon  proved 
to  be  nothing  more  than  a  cloud  ! 

Just  a  week  short  of  the  six  months  since  the  Lady  Nelson 
had  left  the  Thames,  she  rode  at  her  anchors  in  Simon's  Bay. 
Independent  of  his  long  sojourn  in  the  Cape  Verdes,  Grant 
had  been  at  sea  ninety-nine  days,  through  fair  weather  and 
foul,  and  had  not  lost  a  single  spar  or  stitch  of  canvas,  much 
less  a  boat.  Fresh  cause  for  congratulation  awaited  him  at  the 


172  The  Empire  Review 

Cape,  recalling  the  discomfiture  of  the  larger  vessels  in  the 
Downs,  for  he  learnt  that  H.M.S.  Porpoise,  which  had  left 
Spithead  at  the  same  time  and  bound  for  the  same  destination 
as  himself,  had  suffered  very  heavily. 

As  soon  as  the  wind  was  favourable,  Grant  weighed  anchor 
and  sailed  into  Table  Bay,  where  he  had  orders  to  remain 
until  the  advent  of  the  summer  calms.  During  the  stay  he  was 
able  to  observe  both  the  Dutch  owners  and  their  native  subjects 
to  some  purpose,  as  is  evident  from  the  records  he  has  left  con- 
cerning the  relations  of  both  rulers  and  ruled.  Nor,  read  in  the 
light  of  recent  settlements,  are  his  remarks  on  the  political  out- 
look of  that  country  quite  without  present  interest.  For  example, 
take  the  following  extract  :— 

With  all  the  improvements  this  country  is  capable  of,  the  probability  is 
that  the  revenues  would  never  defray  the  expense  in  the  hands  of  the  English, 
though  it  would  be  capable  of  much  annoyance  in  the  possession  of  an  enter- 
prising maritime  power  like  ours.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  late  mild  and 
just  government  *  has  left  a  favourable  impression  of  the  British  character 
on  the  minds  of  the  discerning  part  of  the  inhabitants  ;  yet  at  the  same  time 
it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  democratic  principles,  which  have  been  instilled  into 
the  Dutch  by  their  French  neighbours  at  home,  may  have  many  warm 
advocates  in  Cape  Town  and  its  vicinity.  Perhaps  it  would  not  be  fair  to 
ascertain  the  character  of  the  African  Dutch  from  the  variety  of  people  of  all 
nations  in  the  town,  or  those  in  its  neighbourhood,  whose  habits  or  dis- 
positions are  affected  by  an  intercourse  with  Caflres,  Boschmen,  and  vagrant 
Hottentots.  Probably  we  may  be  more  successful  in  the  Midland  districts, 
such  as  the  Twenty  Four  Eivers,  Eoodtland,  and  the  course  of  the  Broad 
Kiver.  There  we  view  the  African  Boer,  whose  simplicity  is  not  destroyed 
by  attacks  from  the  one  side,  or  his  comfort  from  the  other.  He  abounds 
with  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  has  but  few  inducements  to  indulge  avarice 
or  sensuality.  ...  On  the  arrival  of  the  stranger,  he  is  neither  accosted  with 
bows  or  grimaces,  nor  is  a  family  put  in  an  uproar  to  distress  him;  if  the 
unwieldy  Boer  rises  from  his  seat,  and  relinquishes  his  pipe  to  approach  jthe 
newcomer,  it  is  to  be  considered  rather  as  a  mark  of  extraordinary  respect  than 
a  necessary  token  of  welcome.  The  words  oot  span  and  coom  binnen  (which 
in  Dutch  imply  to  unharness  and  come  in)  are  signals  of  the  latter.  Such  as 
look  for  punctilio  and  omciousness  will  be  disappointed. 

Here  we  have  a  picture  of  the  up-country  Boer  that  might  with 
equal  truth  have  been  sent  home  by  the  last  mail  before  the  out- 
break of  the  late  war. 

Coming  more  particularly  to  the  position  of  the  subject  races 
under  their  Dutch  rulers,  Grant  seems  of  opinion  that  they  were 
nowise  to  be  pitied.  Incidentally  he  utters  a  prophecy  which, 
seeing  the  recent  figures  show  the  coal  return  to  date  for  New 
South  Wales  and  the  Cape  Colony,  is  less  wide  of  the  truth 

*  This  was  evidently  written  after  Grant's  return  home.  His  book  was  finally 
printed  in  1803,  the  year  in  which,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  British  Government 
restored  Cape  Colony  to  the  Batavian  Government  after  an  occupation  lasting  nearly 
seven  years. 


A  Voyage  to  Australia  in  1800  173 

than  might  have  been  looked  for  in  a  sailor  untrained  in  such 
matters. 

The  government  of  the  Colony  [he  says]  also  obliges  masters  to  maintain 
their  decayed  and  aged  slaves  ;  indeed,  the  Dutch  are  very  indulgent  to  those 
Africans  (the  appellation  for  those  slaves  that  are  born  at  the  Cape),  and  the 
Malays  employed  for  domestic  purposes;  but  the  lot  of  many  of  those  who 
till  the  vineyards,  and  the  half-naked  Mozambiques,  who  are  occupied  in 
carrying  wood,  is  very  different.  .  .  .  Had  the  English  retained  the  Colony, 
the  labour  of  wood -carriers  might  have  been  dispensed  with,  as  coals  might 
have  been  sent  from  New  Holland,  as  will  hereafter  be  shown ;  or  by  working 
the  mines  of  the  Colony,  which  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  contain 
abundance  of  this  article,  a  consideration  of  the  utmost  importance,  where 
wood  is  scarce,  or  at  a  distance,  and  the  labour  of  slaves  exorbitant. 

One  more  extract  from  this  portion  of  his  journals  may  be  given, 
if  only  to  show  that,  however  patriotic,  Grant  could  judge  his 
countrymen  in  their  right  perspective  when  contrasting  their 
customs  with  those  of  neighbouring  nations.  He  thus  compares 
the  fashionable  baths  at  Swaart  Berg,  where  the  mode  assembled 
under  the  Southern  Cross,  as,  under  the  Great  Bear,  it  congre- 
gated in  the  Pump  Eoom  at  Bath : — 

These  fashionables  have  an  opportunity  of  enjoying  as  great  a  transition  to 
inconvenience  and  expense,  by  crowding  into  the  huts  as  the  nobility  and 
gentry  of  Britain  experience  at  our  watering  places ;  and  I  consider  the 
"  speeclactries  "  (romping,  low  jokes  and  pastimes)  of  the  Dutch  Boers  better 
adapted  to  their  education  and  manners,  than  the  amusements  of  ass  and  smock 
races,  lately  in  vogue  at  Margate,  etc.,  to  more  refined  understandings. 

On  December  3rd  Australia  was  sighted,  and  here  Grant 
embarked  on  a  baptismal  revel  that  has  filled  in  half  the 
more  familiar  names  on  that  tortuous  coastline.  He  led  off,  as 
was  fitting,  with  a  compliment  to  his  kinsman,  and  Schank's 
Mountain  stands  close  to  Mount  Gambier  (in  approximately 
Lat.  38°  S.  and  Long.  140°  B.),  easily  seen,  therefore,  from  the 
sea.  Cape  Schank  was  named  later,  and  forms,  in  fact,  the  lower 
extremity  of  a  mountain  range  that  commences  with  Arthur's 
Seat,  nearer  Melbourne.  It  guards  one  shore  of  Port  Western. 
On  the  run  to  Sydney  he  was  naming  left  and  right,  to  port  and 
starboard,  every  spit  of  land,  every  island,  every  inlet,  that  was 
not  already  down  on  a  somewhat  blank  chart ;  and  his  straight- 
forward and  uneventful  narrative  of  a  slow  progress,  bearing  up 
or  hauling  off  as  the  traps  of  that  treacherous  coast  might  dictate 
from  day  to  day,  is  chiefly  interesting  at  this  stage  as  evidence  of 
the  origin  of  Australian  coast  names.  The  Australian  capitals, 
only  one  of  which  was  then  in  existence,  have,  as  we  now  know, 
with  a  single  exception,  august  namesakes  in  the  royalties  or 
statesmen  of  these  days;  but  it  is  surprising  how  obscure  may 
have  been  the  reasons  for  some  of  the  names  along  the  coast. 


174  The  Empire  Review 

Grant  named  everything  he  saw:  Lady  Julia  Percy  Island; 
Cape  Otway  (after  a  naval  officer  on  the  Transport  Board) ;  Cape 
Liptrap  (after  Mr.  John  Liptrap,  of  London);  Curtis  Island 
(after  Sir  Koger  Curtis,  who  then  commanded  a  South  African 
station  to  which  the  island  bore  a  strong  resemblance)  ;  and  the 
Glennie  Islands  (after  Mr.  George  Glennie,  a  particular  friend  of 
Captain  Schank's).  Indeed,  looking  at  the  map  and  deducting 
Grant's  names,  one  wonders  what  he  had  to  start  with.  His 
own  chart  gives,  at  any  rate,  one  curious  case  in  which  this 
usually  inquisitive  sailor  missed  a  great  chance.  For  one  spot  on 
the  coast,  which  bears  the  description,  "  where  the  lines  are  open 
no  land  was  seen,"  with  some  hint  at  the  possible  existence  of  an 
inland  sea,  is  undoubtedly  what  we  now  know  as  Port  Philip,  the 
approach  to  the  city  of  Melbourne ! 

The  Lady  Nelson  passed  Sydney  Heads  at  six  o'clock  on 
the  evening  of  December  16th,  having  taken  seventy-one  days 
from  the  Cape,  and  being  the  first  vessel  to  cover  that  track. 
Triumphing  over  the  lugubrious  forecasts  of  the  "peevish  and 
melancholy,"  her  plucky  commander  dropped  his  anchors  in  eight 
fathoms  and  went  ashore.  I  am  struck  by  the  close  resemblance 
between  his  brief  entry  in  the  log  that  evening  and  my  own  first 
impression  of  Sydney  Harbour  as  written  home  to  a  friend  the 
morning  I  arrived.  His  very  sparing  praise  was  almost  identical 
with  my  own  words  on  the  occasion ;  and  it  may  be  taken  as  a 
general  rule  that,  however  powerfully  it  may  appeal  to  him  on 
closer  acquaintance,  that  wonderful  refuge  for  shipping  does  not 
at  first  sight  enthrall  the  unbiassed  visitor. 

The  chronology  of  his  journal  is  here  and  there  a  little  obscure 
during  his  stay  in  the  colony ;  but  Grant  seems  to  have  remained 
three  months  ashore,  performing  various  official  duties,  generally 
disappointed,  but  always  observant.  To  the  much  maligned 
aboriginal  owners  of  that  fair  land  he  is  just,  as  indeed  he  always 
was  when  estimating  a  strange  race.  Although  he  could  not 
form  any  very  high  opinion  of  the  intellectual  status  of  men  who 
drank  the  oil  from  the  ship's  lamps  and  gibbered  like  frightened 
monkeys  when  shown  a  mirror,  he  nevertheless  dealt  with  them 
far  more  kindly  than  some  who  have  endeavoured  to  persuade 
those  at  home  that  the  "black-fellow"  is  all  that  is  vile.  "I 
have  before  remarked,"  he  says  in  one  passage,  "upon  the  gentle 
disposition  which  is  so  striking  a  feature  in  the  character  of  the 
New  Hollander.  In  the  individual  of  whom  I  am  now  speaking 
it  was  remarkable ;  his  attention  and  readiness  to  oblige  upon  all 
occasions  were  very  great." 

For  about  nine  months  Grant  was  now  busy  undertaking  various 
official  surveys  among  the  islands  and  bays  of  that  broken  coast, 
and  it  was  during  his  stay  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Port  Western 


A  Voyage  to  Australia  in  1800  175 

that  he  made  his  chief  attempt  at  gardening,  apart  from  some 
preliminary  experiments  on  Garden  Island.  One  islet  in  Port 
Western  he  named  after  John  Churchill  of  Dawlish,  though  the 
name  does  not  figure  in  all  atlases.  Churchill,  it  seems,  had 
given  him  the  seeds  of  vegetables  and  the  stones  of  wall  fruits 
and  the  pepins  or  kernels  of  several  sorts  of  apples,  with  the 
broad-minded  injunction  that  he  should  plant  them  in  the  new 
land  "  for  the  future  benefit  of  our  fellowmen,  be  they  country- 
men, Europeans,  or  savages."  Captain  Schank  had  likewise  given 
Grant  seeds  with  the  same  object,  and  he  warmly  praises  a 
particular  apple  with  a  single  pepin  *  from  Schank' s  garden, 
the  "pepins"  of  which  had  been  prepared  for  transplanting  by 
Lady  Elizabeth  Percy,  after  whom  he  named  the  apple  in  the 
new  country. 

His  gardening  essays  were  not  conducted  without  some  diffi- 
culty. In  the  first  place,  he  found  himself  on  the  spot  with 
neither  hoe  nor  spade.  These  and  other  gardening  implements 
had  been  brought  out  from  home  by  Schank's  advice,  but 
they  had  been  placed  in  His  Majesty's  storehouse  on  Garden 
Island,  "  from  whence,  from  whatever  principle  of  economy  and 
good  management,  it  was  not  easy  to  draw  anything  out  again." 
No  sooner  had  this  omission  been  made  good  with  a  worn  coal 
shovel  from  the  ship,  than  another  menace  presented  itself  in 
the  nocturnal  raids  of  some  large  animal  t  that  dug  up  the 
ground  and  scattered  the  seeds.  The  only  available  dog  was 
ineffectual,  and  Grant  bitterly  regretted  the  traps  of  all  sizes 
that  he  also  had  brought  from  England,  but  that  were  likewise 
"  snugly  lodged  in  His  Majesty's  store."  Despite  all  his  diffi- 
culties, however,  he  was  able  to  plant  not  only  Churchill  Island, J 
but  another  close  to  it,  which  he  named  Margaret  Island,  in 
honour  of  Mrs.  Schank,  with  wheat,  peas,  Indian  corn,  rice, 
coffee,  potatoes,  and  fruit  stones. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  surveys  on  which 
Grant  was  detailed,  was  that  of  the  Hunter's  Eiver  district, 
with  a  special  view  to  the  possibilities  of  coal  mining,  and  of 
this  expedition,  on  which  he  started  from  Sydney  in  May, 
Lieut.  Governor  Colonel  Paterson  was  in  charge.  They  took 
with  them  a  schooner,  the  Frances,  to  load  with  coals,  and  the 
abundance,  in  those  days,  of  that  precious  mineral  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  it  could  be  collected  from  the  reef 
at  low  tide,  and  that  one  man  alone  dug  the  forty  tons  with 
which  the  schooner  was  quickly  loaded.  The  more  serious 

*  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether  such  an  apple  is  still  familiar  in 
Australian  orchards, 
t  Probably  a  wombat, 
t  This  should  lie,  roughly,  in  Lat.  38°  32'  S.  and  Long.  146°  19'  E. 


176  The  Empire  Review 

business  of  the  survey  was  varied  with  inland  excursions  after 
kangaroos,  and  also  the  working  of  a  seme  net  for  large  mullet, 
of  which  quantities  were  taken  in  this  w%,y  for  the  consumption 
of  the  party.  The  Frances  was  sent  back  to  Sydney  with  a 
valuable  cargo  of  not  only  Hunter's  Eiver  coal,  but  also  various 
useful  timbers,  among  them  planks  of  Australian  ash. 

It  was  during  this  trip  that  Grant  has  most  to  say  of  the 
native  mammals  and  birds,  but  it  cannot  be  pretended  that  his 
notes  on  the  wonderful  fauna  of  that  home  of  living  fossils 
contain  much  that  is  interesting  or  anything  that  is  new.  He 
very  naturally  confused  the  morepork  with  the  goatsucker,  or 
nightjar,  of  his  own  home,  but  he  seems  to  have  had  less 
aptitude  for  natural  history  than  his  colleague,  Paterson,  and 
of  his  observations  he  has  unfortunately  left  us  no  account. 

Towards  the  autumn  of  1801  Grant  seems  to  have  become 
restless  to  leave  a  land  that  held  only  disappointment  for  him. 
His  first  endeavour  was  to  reach  India  in  the  Cornwallis.  In 
this  he  was  apparently  frustrated  by  the  authorities,  but  at  length 
he  contrived  to. take  passage  in  the  Anna  Josepha,  originally 
a  Spanish  brig,  then  taken  in  the  wars,  and  thus  the  property 
of  the  English,  being  in  fact  renamed  after  the  Governor's 
wife,  Mrs.  King,  a  name  surviving  in  King  Street,  Sydney's 
third  principal  thoroughfare.  She  appears  to  have  been  ill- 
found,  and  Grant  had  a  discomfiting  passage  by  way  of  the 
Horn  and  the  Falkland  Islands.  At  last,  however,  she  reached 
the  Cape,  carrying  thither  the  first  consignment  of  New  South 
Wales  coal  oversea,  thus  fulfilling  his  own  prophecy.  The 
coal  sold  at  Cape  Town  for  thirty-six  rix  dollars,  or  about  £7  10s. 
the  ton  ! 

Grant's  eventful  voyage  came  to  an  end  on  board  of  H.M.S. 
Imperieuse,  which  took  him  in  broken  health  and  with  shattered 
illusions  back  to  England.  Ke  vie  wing  in  brief  the  results  of 
his  enterprise,  he  says  :— 

If  I  have  in  the  least  contributed  to  the  service  of  my  King  and  country,  I 
am  well  satisfied.  I  had  difficulties  and  disadvantages  to  struggle  with,  which 
those  only  can  conceive  who  have  found  themselves  in  similar  situations.  My 
little  vessel  sailed  on  her  voyage  with  no  creditable  report  of  her  fitness  for  the 
purpose;  and  even  her  successful  performance  of  it  did  not  obtain  her  that 
praise  which  in  my  humble  opinion  she  merits. 

To  the  intrepid  mariner  of  a  century  ago  we  are  indebted  in  no 
small  measure  for  the  grand  inheritance  we  now  possess.  And 
it  is  to  men  like  Captain  Schank  that  succeeding  generations  of 
Britons  will  look  back  with  feelings  of  gratitude  and  admiration. 

F.  G.  AFLALO. 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria         177 


AMONG  THE   LEPERS  IN  NORTHERN 
NIGERIA 

II.* 

NOTHING  would  be  more  natural  and  ordinary  than  for  a  young 
man,  when  in  want  of  new  garments,  to  buy  the  cast-off  robes  of 
the  "  mai-rumpa,"  the  landlord  of  the  shed.  If  the  leprous  affec- 
tions of  the  landlord  happened  to  be  of  an  ulcerative  nature,  the 
garments  could  hardly  have  failed  to  have  been  soiled  by  the 
discharge.  They  would  be  cheaper  on  this  account,  but  the 
circumstance  would  not  probably  be  held  sufficient  ground  to 
justify  a  wash,  for  with  native  cloth,  woven  as  it  is  in  narrow 
strips  which  are  tacked  together  edge  to  edge  to  make  the  piece, 
and  native  laundry  methods  which  are  violent  and  elementary, 
the  risk  of  damage  to  the  garments  would  be  great.  They  would 
probably  pass  directly  from  the  body  of  the  salesman  to  that  of 
the  purchaser.  For  several  years  the  young  man  goes  on  in  this 
way,  buying  his  clothes  from  the  mai-rumpa.  During  all  this 
time  he  is  wearing  them  day  by  day,  and  rolling  about  at  night, 
with  nothing  between  his  bare  skin,  and  the  coarse  hard  mats 
that  serve  the  Hausas  as  beds,  but  these  leprous  garments.  The 
glands  of  his  skin  can  hardly  fail  to  become  stocked  with  any- 
thing that  may  exist  in  the  garment,  but  up  to  now  he  is  as  the 
hard-beaten  ground.  By-and-by,  however,  comes  the  plough  of 
adversity,  and  crushes  him  into  a  condition  predisposed  to  the 
disease. 

He  goes  on  a  long  journey,  in  the  course  of  which  he  suffers 
great  fatigue  and  privation,  he  is  wounded  in  a  brawl  and  loses 
much  blood,  or  he  has  a  severe  illness  from  which  he  makes 
but  an  imperfect  recovery.  Previous  to  whichever  of  these 
circumstances  occasions  the  young  man's  liability,  the  micro- 
organism of  leprosy  may  have  often  got  admission  to  the  intimate 
structures  of  his  skin  through  the  puncture  made  by  the 
mosquito,  scratch  wounds,  and  the  like,  but  by  reason  of  the 
*  No.  I.  appeared  in  the  August  number. 

VOL.  VI.— No.  32.  N 


178 


The  Empire  Review 


*  This  sketch  map  originally  appeared  in  the  Laiwet,  and  is  reproduced 
here  by  the  kind  permission  of  the  Editor.      .  .•  •; 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria         179 

healthy  resistance  offered  by  his  tissues,  they  have  been  unable 
to  make  good  their  footing.  Now,  however,  the  case  is  different. 
Here  and  there  through  trifling  wounds  of  the  nature  suggested, 
the  microbes  creep  from  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  skin  to  the 
innermost  recesses  of  its  structure,  and  finding,  owing  to  the 
debilitated  state  of  the  individual's  health,  no  resistance  to  speak 
of,  they  settle  down,  spread,  and  increase  and  multiply,  producing 
the  disease  with  which  they  are  associated. 

One  morning  the  young  man  finds  a  tiny  patch  on  his  arm. 
As  evanescent  skin  troubles  of  various  sorts  are  not  uncommon 
among  his  fellow-countrymen  he  probably  pays  little  attention 
to  it  at  first.  Presently  he  awakes  to  the  fact  that  apparently 
this  thing  has  not  only  come  to  stay,  but  that  it  is  increasing. 
He  becomes  alarmed,  and  consults  a  learned  friend,  or  perhaps 
a  native  doctor.  Eemedies  are  used,  but  to  little  purpose.  Then 
scattered  over  the  prominences  of  his  body  (for  it  is  on  the  parts 
of  the  body  that  have  borne  the  brunt  of  the  contact  with  the 
infected  robe  that  the  earliest  manifestations  of  the  disease 
usually  occur)  other  similar  patches  make  their  appearance,  and 
at  last,  in  spite  of  his  wishes,  he  is  left  in  little  doubt  that  he  is 
a  leper.  The  subsequent  course  of  the  disease  will  depend  largely 
on  the  condition  of  health  of  the  person  attacked.  To  take  an 
average  case,  in  the  course  of  the  next  dozen  years  a  cycle  of 
changes  much  as  follows  will  play  itself  out.  The  patches  that 
first  appeared  on  the  man's  skin  will  become  reinforced  by  others, 
or  by  little  nodular  swellings,  that  may  vary  from  the  size  of  a 
split  pea  to  that  of  half  a  walnut.  The  patches  or  nodes,  or  both 
may  increase  in  number,  and  in  the  extent  of  skin  they  involve, 
till  the  surface  of  the  man's  back  and  limbs  are  little  more  than 
mere  masses  of  leprous  growth.  As  the  disease  increases  its  hold 
upon  him,  the  lines  of  his  face  become  altered,  his  features 
become  thickened  and  distorted.  His  nerves  become  affected, 
giving  rise  to  neuralgias,  and  later  to  localised  paralyses,  and 
ulcerations  set  in  that  rob  him  of  his  fingers  and  toes,  and  some- 
times of  larger  portions  of  his  members,  and  invading  his  mouth 
and  throat  modify  or  destroy  his  voice. 

I  should  call  this  a  case  of  average  severity,  but  there  are  many 
other  degrees  both  milder  and  more  severe.  The  more  severe  are 
often  very  dramatic.  The  disease  marches  to  a  fatal  termination 
with  extreme  rapidity — the  man  being  seized  as  if  by  violence. 
From  the  first  his  case  is  hopeless.  The  disorder  appears  to  be 
panting  to  tear  him  to  pieces.  Crop  after  crop  of  leprous  nodules 
make  their  appearance  rising  up,  as  it  were,  the  one  upon  the 
other.  Within  half-a-dozen  months,  it  may  be,  of  the  onset,  the 
man  is  a  mere  mass  of  leprosy ;  his  ears  have  become  tuberculated 
masses,  his  features  bag  and  hang,  the  eyebrows  over  the  eyes, 

N  2 


180 


The  Empire  Review 


SKETCH   MAP*    OF    THE    CENTRAL    SUDAN. 


*  Specially  drawn  for  THE  EMPIRE  REVIEW. 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria         181 

and  the  cheeks  over  the  lower  jaw,  like  pouches  filled  with  some 
unwholesome  kind  of  pebble.  His  limbs  become  knotted,  his 
hands  thickened,  his  mind  clouded.  Then  a  wave  of  disorganisa- 
tion passes  over  him.  The  nodes  on  his  limbs  break  down  into 
suppurating  ulcers,  his  lower  lids  fall  away  from  his  eyeballs, 
displaying  their  raw  red  inside  surfaces,  his  extremities  may  be 
almost  said  to  swell  up  and  burst  off,  his  tongue  thickens,  his 
mouth  degenerates  into  a  sloughing  cavity,  and  the  individual 
himself  becomes  unsupportable,  a  loathsome  spectacle,  intolerable 
to  his  friends  alike  on  account  of  appearance  and  smell — tolerable 
only  to  the  flies.  Yet  when  such  a  man  dies,  I  do  not  hesitate 
to  say,  his  clothes  would  not  be  allowed  to  waste. 

There  are  other  degrees  of  severity,  however,  on  the  milder 
side  of  the  average.  Leprosy  is  in  many  respects  comparable  to 
a  disease  well  known  in  our  own  country — I  refer  to  phthisis. 
While  well-developed  phthisis  is,  as  a  rule,  a  very  fatal  malady, 
there  is  little  room  to  doubt  that  a  very  large  number  of  persons 
contract  at  some  period  or  other  of  their  lives  minor  degrees 
of  the  disease  from  which,  'under  suitable  circumstances,  they 
ultimately  recover.  I  would  say  that  it  is  the  same  with  leprosy. 
Leprosy  is  supposed  to  be  incurable.  Incurable  it  certainly  is  in 
the  sense  that  at  present  we  are  not  in  possession  of  any  remedy 
that  affects  its  course  as  definitely  as,  say  quinine  affects  that  of 
malarial  fever  or  mercury  and  iodide  of  potash  another  and  more 
common  than  reputable  disorder.  It  is  not  incurable  in  any  other 
sense  however.  Eecoveries  from  the  disease  are  by  no  means  of 
infrequent  occurrence.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  a  rare  thing  to 
hear  of  the  actual  morbid  processes  covering  a  period  of  more 
than  twenty  years.  If  the  patient  has  survived  so  long,  it  will 
often  be  found  that  all  specific  leprous  manifestations  have  dis- 
appeared. Their  effects  may  remain,  the  fingers  and  toes  that 
he  may  have  lost  will  never  grow  again,  but  it  is  as  illogical  to 
regard,  on  that  account,  a  man  as  suffering  from  leprosy  when  he 
may  have  enjoyed,  previous  to  the  date  of  his  examination,  from 
five  to  fifteen  years  unbroken  health,  and  when  his  capacity  for 
his  labour  is  only  limited  by  the  actual  destruction  of  tissue 
resulting  from  the  pre-existent  disease,  as  it  would  be  to 
suggest  that  a  man  is  still  suffering  from  small-pox  because  ten 
years  after  he  has  had  the  disease  he  happens  to  be  still  badly 
marked. 

The  influence  of  heredity  on  the  spread  of  leprosy  is  another 
matter  in  which  popular  belief  is  in  error.  In  point  of  fact  direct 
heredity  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  spread  of  leprosy. 
My  Nigerian  results  bear  heavily  on  this  point.  Of  all  the  lepers 
I  examined  in  the  Sudan,  only  ten  per  cent,  had  any  leprous 
taint  in  their  ancestry,  leaving  ninety  per  cent,  that  must  have 


182  The  Empire  Review 

derived  their  disease  or  their  tendencies  from  other  sources. 
Moreover,  out  of  the  children  of  leper  parents  a  percentage  of 
less  than  ten  developed  the  disorder,  so  that  even  supposing  the 
occurrence  of  any  hereditary  factor  possible,  it  is  evident  that  it 
did  not  among  my  cases  avail  itself  of  more  than  a  tenth  of  its 
opportunities.  The  sequence  of  these  two  circumstances  is 
plain.  If,  of  lepers  living  at  any  one  time,  only  ten  per  cent, 
are  born  of  leprous  parentage  or  ancestry,  and  if  of  such  people 
as  do  happen  to  be  born  of  tainted  parentage,  less  than  ten 
per  cent,  ultimately  develop  the  disorder,  the  working  limit  of 
any  hereditary  factor,  even  if  it  were  of  assured  occurrence, 
could  not  exceed  one  case  out  of  every  hundred— which  is  much 
the  same  as  not  existing  at  all.  I  am  convinced  that,  in  the 
Sudan  at  least,  in  no  direction  has  heredity  anything  to  do  with 
the  spread  of  leprosy. 

I  spoke  before  of  a  certain  faulty  condition  of  life  that  might 
render  a  given  race  of  people,  who  were  subject  to  it,  liable,  upon 
the  intervention  of  even  a  very  slight  degree  of  further  adversity 
to  infection.  In  Hausaland  I  look  upon  defective  diet  as  that 
faulty  condition,  and  as  the  most  commonly  acting  agency  in  the 
breakdown  of  the  resistance,  which  the  tissues  of  the  people 
should  present  to  the  disease.  The  great  mass  of  the  people 
subsist  upon  the  narrowest  of  narrow  vegetable  diets.  A  porridge- 
like  preparation  of  rice  and  dhurra  (guinea  corn  * )  and  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  country,  yams  (Dioscorea  sativa)  constitute 
almost  their  only  food-stuff.  Very  few  of  the  poorer  classes  ever 
even  smell  meat,  let  alone  taste  it.  Neither  do  they  appear  to 
care  for  the  leguminous  class  of  food,  though  beans  grow  very 
well  in  the  country.  The  result  is  that  their  diet  is  deficient  in 
nitrogenous  elements,  elements  that  are  absolutely  necessary  to 
the  effective  upkeep  of  the  body.  It  is  a  significant  fact,  that 
this  condition  of  defective  diet  is  common  to  the  other  leper- 
fields  of  the  world,  whether  situated  in  touch  with  the  Arctic 
circle  or  under  the  Equator.  In  each  instance,  if  you  take 
the  national  diet  of  the  poorer  classes  of  the  leprous  race, 
and  put  its  chemical  elements  down  on  paper,  you  will  find 
among  the  solids  a  very  large  amount  of  carbon  and  almost  no 
nitrogen. 

In  India  and  China  rice  is  the  staple  food-stuff  of  the  classes. 
In  Scandinavia  and  Iceland  the  exigencies  of  climate  call  for  the 
consumption  of  large  quantities  of  fats,  to  the  displacement  of 
other  necessary  aliments.  In  the  West  Indian  and  Pacific 
Islands  it  is  vegetables  again.  In  the  Central  Sudan  it  is 
probably  not  too  much  to  say  that  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  endemic  area  subsist  on  a  vegetable  diet  of  the 

*  Sorghum  vulgare. 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria         183 

straitest  sort,  and  I  believe  that  this  circumstance  directly  affects 
their  resistance  to  leprosy.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge 
how  excessively  prone  to  ulcerative  changes  are  the  body  surfaces 
of  the  tropical  native  of  the  poorer  classes.  The  rest  of  his 
tissues  are  probably  in  the  same  tumble-down  condition;  but 
we  can  see  his  skin,  and  the  readiness  with  which  ulcers  follow 
the  slightest  scratch,  or  appear  on  the  eye  without  any  apparent 
encouragement  at  all,  is  so  well  marked  as  to  be  immediately 
evident  even  to  the  most  casual  observer. 

I  do  not  think  it  unreasonable  to  attribute  this  state  of  things 
to  defective  diet.  You  cannot  make  a  sound  damp-proof  wall  out 
of  inferior  porous  bricks  even  though  you  have  twice  as  many  of 
them  as  you  need.  In  such  a  case  as  this  excess  of  quantity  fails 
to  make  up  for  defects  of  quality.  It  is  the  same  with  the  native. 
It  is  not  that  he  does  not  get  food  enough,  but  that  he  does  not 
get  the  right  kind  of  food.  His  dietary  is  badly  balanced.  Many 
of  us  have  heard  of  the  Irishmen  who  made  a  mixture  of  beer  and 
whiskey  his  regular  stand-by,  for  the  alleged  reason  that  if  he 
drank  beer  alone  he  got  full  before  he  was  drunk,  and  if  whiskey 
alone  drunk  before  he  was  full.  The  story  lends  itself  very  aptly 
to  the  illustration  of  dietetic  matters.  In  this  country  many 
people  live  on  so  highly  nitrogenized  a  diet,  that  they  are  fed 
long  before  they  are  full.  Of  the  evil  results  of  going  on  to  the 
full  mark  after  the  fed  mark  has  been  passed,  I  need  not  speak 
here.  In  the  Sudan,  however,  the  case  is  reversed. 

The  standard  diet  of  the  low  class  Sudani  is  so  poor  in  these 
nitrogenous  elements,  that  he  is  full  long  before  he  is  fed,  with 
the  natural  result  of  impairing  his  stamina.     For  the  effective 
discharge  of  the  functions  of  his  body,  and  for  the  maintenance 
at  a  normal  standard  of  the  vitality  of  that  body's  tissues ;  he 
needs  a  certain  definite  amount  of  nitrogenous  nourishment  and 
the  getting  of  that  certain  definite  amount  he  fails  to  achieve. 
In  the  effort  to  get  it,  moreover,  out  of  a  national  array  of  food- 
stuffs that  contain  an  overwhelming  percentage  of  carbon-bearing 
material,  little  more  than  a  mere  trace  of  the  desired  element,  he 
still  further  adds  to  his  embarrassments.     In  the  vain  attempt 
to  get  enough  nitrogen  for  his  needs,  he  charges  himself  with  very 
bulky  meals,  taxing  his  digestive  organs  to  their  utmost  limit. 
He    does    not  even    then,    however,    get    enough    nitrogenous 
material,  because  the  percentage  of  those  constituents  in  his 
food-stuffs  is  so  low  that  he  has  eaten  all  he  can  hold  long  before 
he  has  got  the  amount  commensurate  to  his  needs.     All  he  does 
by  his  efforts  is  to  further  increase  his  difficulties  by  encumbering 
his  economy  with  a  large  amount  of  superfluous,  and  therefore 
deleterious  carbon,  and  enfeebled  as  the  resistive  powers  of  the 
tissues  are  already  by  lack  of  nitrogen,  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine 


184  The  Empire  Review 

that  this  overburden  of  carbon,  littering  up  blood,  lymph,  and 
tissue  elements  can  only  have  the  effect  of  still  further  reducing 
their  power  of  resisting  morbid  change,  and  as  a  consequence 
rendering  the  individual  much  more  liable  to  the  endemic 
disease. 

Of  course  it  is  not  claimed  that  this  dietetic  factor  is  always 
by  itself  sufficiently  potent  to  lay  a  man  of  average  powers  open 
to  the  attack  of  the  leprosy  bacillus.  It  is  only  suggested  that  it 
is  a  factor  that  certainly  occurs  in  the  Sudan  and  is  also  common 
to  the  leper-fields  of  the  world,  and  that  it  diminishes  to  such 
an  extent  the  resistance,  naturally  offered  by  the  tissues  of  the 
body  to  disease,  that  that  resistance  is  on  the  supervention  of 
further  adversity,  readily  disposed  of  altogether.  The  ad- 
ditional adverse  influence  often  shows  up  very  clearly.  In 
the  Sudan,  among  the  bulk  of  the  people,  time  is  measured 
and  dates  are  defined  by  events,  and  I  have  been  struck  by  the 
frequency  with  which  the  year  or  so  immediately  succeeding 
some  untoward  event,  a  war,  a  famine,  or  a  pestilence,  have  been 
named  by  patients  as  the  time  of  the  onset  of  their  disease. 
In  many  cases  business  reverses  or  domestic  losses  involving 
sudden  poverty  or  grief,  have  appeared  to  pave  the  way  for  the 
malady. 

In  women  the  first  signs  of  its  invasion  not  infrequently 
appear  during  lactation.  The  bodily  prostration  consequent 
upon  the  dangers  and  privations  attending  pilgrimages  and  other 
long  journeys  over  wild  and  savage  countries  is  frequently  taken 
advantage  of  by  the  disease,  and  prisoners  of  war  often  develop 
it  within  a  short  space  of  time  from  their  introduction  into  a  life 
of  slavery. 

These  then,  accidental  ill-health  or  other  chance  debilitating 
agencies  and  a  diet  deficient  in  a  necessary  amount  of  nitrogenous 
elements,  are  probably  the  influences  that  tear  down  a  man's 
natural  defences,  and  render  him  liable  to  the  disease.  All  the 
micro-organism  responsible  for  the  production  of  leprosy  now 
requires  is  the  chance  of  getting  at  that  man,  some  vehicle  to 
convey  it  from  the  place  of  its  generation  to  the  place  where 
everything  is  ready  for  it  to  do  further  mischief,  and  this,  as  I 
have  explained  before,  it  finds  in  the  Sudan  in  the  constant 
circulation  of  clothes  that  goes  on  among  the  people  and  the 
promiscuous  use  of  rugs,  mats,  and  other  things  of  a  like  nature, 
that  are  never  washed  and  are  absolutely  certain  to  become 
contaminated  by  any  suppurating  leper  in  whose  way  they  may 
happen  to  come. 

The  reader  will  now  be  in  a  position  to  understand  that 
leprosy  is  not  a  disease  of  the  ordinary  normal  man,  but  that  the 
resistance  naturally  offered  by  the  healthy  tissues  of  the  human 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria         185 

body  to  disease  must  be  broken  down  by  some  adverse  influence 
before  the  micro-organism  that  causes  the  disease  can  come 
into  effective  operation.  That  in  the  Sudan  at  least,  and 
probably  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world,  this  weakening  of 
resistance  is  in  the  main  the  outcome  of  an  incorrect  diet. 
That  the  organism  concerned  with  the  spread  of  leprosy,  the 
leprosy  bacillus,  is  a  vegetable  parasite,  and  that  that  parasite 
is  probably  conveyed  from  affected  to  healthy  persons  by  a 
process  of  what  may  be  'called  mediate  contagion,  in  which 
uncleanly  garments,  wraps,  rugs,  mats,  most  probably  play  the 
part  of  the  vehicle.  That  leprosy,  in  short,  is  a  contagious  and 
infectious  disease,  and  that  in  the  Sudan  it  is  spread  from  person 
to  person  mainly  by  the  agency  of  infected  clothes. 

It  would  be  hardly  wonderful  if,  thinking  in  this  way,  I  held 
high  opinion  of  segregation  as  a  means  of  checking  the  advance 
of  the  disease,  if  not  of  stamping  it  out  in  any  given  locality 
altogether.  But  segregation  is  unfortunately  a  measure  that 
appears  to  be  beyond  man's  reach  in  the  greater  leper-fields  of 
the  world.  In  any  country  where  leprosy  exists  to  such  an 
extent  as  it  exists  in  the  Sudanese  leper- field,  which  is  described 
in  the  first  part  of  this  paper,  any  measure,  even  distantly 
resembling  compulsory  segregation,  could  not  be  put  into  effective 
operation  by  any  known  force.  Of  course,  to  take  every  leper, 
individual  by  individual,  as  he  develops  the  disorder,  clear  away 
from  his  former  surroundings,  and  deposit  him  in  some  place 
where  he  could  be  looked  after  and  not  allowed  to  contaminate 
the  community,  would  be,  or  I  think  it  would  be,  to  stamp  out 
the  disease  within  a  reasonable  space  of  time  in  any  given  area, 
and  I  believe  it  would  eradicate  it  without  the  help  of  any  other 
improvement  that  might  be  effected  at  the  same  time,  in  the 
general  well  being  of  the  community  from  which  the  lepers  are 
taken  ;  but  it  is  said  by  those  who  know  that  this  is  not  practic- 
able, and  there,  for  the  present,  the  matter  ends.  If  this  be  so, 
if  segregation  be  impracticable,  and  in  a  country  like  India  for 
example,  it  may  be  well  doubted  if  the  evil  of  leprosy  be  not 
immeasurably  smaller  than  the  evil  that  would  be  stirred  up, 
if  the  Government  took  in  hand  any  such  large  proceeding  as 
the  compulsory  segregation  of  the  lepers,  then  the  practicable 
cure  for  the  leprous  patch  on  a  country,  when  that  patch  is  of 
the  proportions  of  the  Chinese,  Indian  or  Sudanese  fields,  lies  in 
the  gradual  amelioration  of  the  general  and  particularly  the 
dietetic  conditions  under  which  the  great  lower  classes  live. 

In  the  days  when  the  Saxon  herd  gave  a  Saxon  name  to  the 
beast  which  he  tended,  while  the  Norman  named  the  savoury 
baked  meats  that  the  Saxon  rarely  saw,  leprosy  was  rife  in  our 
own  islands,  Two  centuries  ago,  with  gradually  cheapening 


186  The  Empire  Review 

food,  and  the  improving  circumstances  of  the  poorer  classes,  it 
had  disappeared;  and  in  countries  like  China,  India,  and  the 
Sudan  to-day,  countries  still  practically  locked  up  by  ignorance, 
weakness  or  misfortune,  much  the  same  cycle  of  changes- 
expedited  of  course,  as  all  things  are  now  expedited,  by  the 
increased  momentum  of  the  age — will  take  place. 

In  Northern  Nigeria,  this  cycle  of  changes  is  not,  fortunately, 
a  matter  of  the  future  at  all,  but  of  the  actual  present.  Out  of 
the  present  military  operations  in  that  far  off  part  of  the  Central 
Sudan,  will  come  many  and  wide  ameliorations  in  the  condition 
of  the  people — not  the  least  among  which  will  be  an  immediate 
improvement  in  the  diet  of  the  masses.  At  the  present  time,  or 
at  least  up  to  the  date  of  the  fall  of  Kano,  the  country  has  lain 
under  the  oppressive  hand  of  an  aristocracy  that  supported  itself, 
vampire-like,  upon  the  very  vitals  of  the  land.  The  slave  trade 
was  the  one  and  only  buttress  of  its  fortunes.  To  fill  the  coffers 
of  the  ruling  classes,  the  country  was  raided  right  and  left,  and 
the  produce  poured  into  the  slave  markets  of  the  great  Moham- 
medan towns.  The  rural  districts  were  almost  uninhabitable. 
The  uncertainty  of  safety  limited  the  farming  efforts  of  the 
countrymen  to  the  production  of  just  what  was  necessary  for 
his  own  personal  use — and  sometimes  scarcely  that.  What  he 
did  produce  was  often  taken  from  him.  Cattle  could  not  be 
kept  because  the  country  was  constantly  under  the  searching 
scour  of  war  parties  ;  and  the  roads  were  so  unsafe  for  caravans 
and  freight  charges  consequently  so  high,  that  interchange  of 
foodstuffs  between  one  part  of  the  country  and  another  was 
almost  impossible. 

With  the  lifting  of  the  heavy  hand  of  the  raider,  how- 
ever, all  this  will  be  relieved.  The  country  will  be  able  to 
move  and  breathe.  In  the  South,  the  rich  grass  lands  will 
support  oxen,  sheep  and  goats ;  wide  fields  of  yam,  manioc 
and  rice  will  be  grown  freely  and  without  fear.  Increased 
freedom  of  trade  will  stimulate  production  in  excess  of  local 
needs.  Flocks  and  herds  will  be  driven  northwards  along  the 
now  safe  roads  to  the  great  Mohammedan  towns,  and  the  herds- 
men will  return  with  wheat,  guinea  corn  and  cloth  from  their 
markets.  These  things  are  not  problematical,  their  beginnings 
are  now  within  our  grasp.  That  the  results  of  the  British 
occupation  oi  Northern  Nigeria  will  be  most  beneficial  to  the 
country  itself,  is  a  matter  beyond  debate.  There  is  land  in 
abundance,  the  husbandmen  are  waiting  to  till  it;  there  are 
wide  openings  for  trade,  the  merchants  are  waiting  to  traffic. 
Hitherto  the  shadow  of  a  great  fear  has  brooded  over  the  land, 
every  kind  of  movement  has  been  throttled  by  the  grip  of  icy 
apprehension. 


Among  the  Lepers  in  Northern  Nigeria         187 

British  occupation  is  removing  the  shadow;  the  grip  will  relax 
into  a  genial  and  peaceful  springtime.  And  with  peace  will  come 
plenty,  more  food  and  cheaper  food,  and  that,  of  course,  means 
better  nourishment  for  the  masses  ;  and  with  the  advent  of  these 
things,  the  influence  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  predisponents 
to  the  particular  disease  with  which  we  have  been  dealing  in 
this  article  will  deminish,  and  it  may  be  confidently  expected 
that  a  marked  decrease  in  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  itself, 
will  constitute  one  of  the  signs  of  the  times  by  which  the  new 
found  prosperity  of  the  country  may  be  gauged. 

T.  J.  TONKIN 

(Medical  Officer  Hausa  Association's 
Central  Sudan  Expedition) . 


188  The  Empire  Review 


THE   INDIAN   VILLAGE   MONEY-LENDER 

IN  the  heart  of  rural  India,  far  removed  from  railway,  or  even 
government  road,  there  lies  a  beautiful  little  plateau  on  the 
western  slopes  of  one  of  the  forest-clad  ranges  of  Central  India, 
some  1500  feet  above  sea-level.  Approaching  from  the  west,  the 
traveller  emerges  from  the  teakwood  jungle  of  the  hills,  home  of 
tiger,  bear,  elk,  deer,  ape,  peacock,  and  the  aboriginal  Kurku, 
upon  a  cultivated  plain  dotted  with  villages,  which  are,  however, 
not  easily  discerned  by  the  unaccustomed  eye,  so  wrapped  are 
they  in  foliage.  From  the  vantage  point  of  a  slight  rise,  at 
least  ten  such  can  be  counted  within  a  radius  of  three  miles, 
the  central  one  a  straggling  village  of  about  a  thousand  inhabit- 
tants,  almost  accounted  a  town  in  these  remote  parts,  while 
others  are  tiny  clusters  of  huts  sheltering  not  more  than  half 
a  dozen  families. 

If  it  be  sundown,  when  the  herds  are  returning  from  their 
daily  graze  in  the  long  grass  of  the  jungle,  clouds  of  dust  will 
be  marking  their  track  along  every  approach  to  the  village,  as 
one  long  stream  of  cattle,  buffaloes,  goats  and  sheep  winds  home- 
ward, accompanied  by  the  shrill  cries  of  the  urchins  who  tend 
them.  Bred  to  the  work  are  they  from  early  childhood,  and 
herding  cattle  is  far  more  to  their  mind  than  the  study  of  the 
"  3  E's "  in  a  government  school.  Here  comes  one  enjoying 
a  ride,  his  bare  brown  heels  thumping  the  bare  black  side  of  an 
old  she-buffalo,  whose  mild  white  eyes  and  rolling  gait  belie  the 
threatening  aspect  of  her  wide-sweeping  horns.  For  this  in  the 
native  tongue  is  "Buffalo-town,"  and  right  well  it  has  earned 
its  name,  though  alas !  two  recent  famines  have  decimated  the 
herds  which  were  once  its  boast,  and  many  a  day  must  elapse 
before  it  can  regain  its  erstwhile  prosperity.  Just  at  the  entrance 
to  the  village,  where  two  main  approaches  converge — roads  I 
cannot  call  them,  while  my  horse's  hoofs  ring  over  the  great 
slabs  of  out-cropping  basalt  that  break  the  monotony  of  the 
dusty  roadway— under  a  spreading  tamarind  tree  stands  the 
village  inn,  an  unpretending  wattle  and  daub  structure  with 
thatched  roof,  flanked  by  wretched  barns  for  stables. 


The  Indian  Village  Money-lender  189 

The  exterior  is  not  inviting,  at  least  to  a  western  eye,  but 
the  site  is  well  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  traveller, 
loiterer,  or  trafficker.  Withdrawn  sufficiently  from  the  road 
to  give  a  sense  of  quiet,  it  faces  an  open  plot,  where  in  the  light 
of  a  flaring  beacon  is  held  the  evening  "little  bazaar"  of  grain 
and  vegetables.  On  the  village  side  of  the  inn  stands  the 
"  temple/'  a  humble  structure  on  whose  earth-plastered  verandah 
are  loafing  the  village  grandees,  undisturbed  in  their  chatter 
by  the  ceaseless  din  of  tom-toms  within.  No  sign-post  proclaims 
the  nature  of  the  tavern;  no  blaze  of  light  attracts  the  eye, 
advertising  the  wares  on  sale  within,  nor  are  they  needed;  a 
powerful  sickly  odour,  arresting  the  attention  many  yards  off, 
proclaims  the  presence  of  daru,  a  native  spirit,  the  manufacture 
of  which  is  a  government  monopoly. 

I  enter  in  search  of  Hahnuman,  the  owner,  whose  combined 
trades  of  publican  and  moneylender  have  brought  him  rapid 
wealth,  in  spite  of  the  heavy  licence  which  he  has  to  pay  to 
government  for  his  retail  trade  in  spirit,  a  privilege  yearly  sold 
by  auction  to  the  highest  bidder,  subject  to  conditions  that  seek 
to  prevent  excessive  drinking ;  and  he  is  consequently  the  most 
likely  man,  unless  I  betake  myself  to  the  corn-dealer's  at  the 
other  end  of  the  village,  to  change  my  gold  or  even  a  cheque 
upon  a  Bombay  bank.  A  mild  surprise  greets  me  from  the  long 
robed  figures  squatting  within,  with  their  backs  to  the  dingy 
wall,  and  the  despatch  of  a  sparkling-eyed  little  lad,  resplendent 
in  green  and  gold,  across  the  street  to  fetch  his  grandfather, 
gives  me  a  few  moments  to  look  round.  Ornamentation  there 
is  none,  if  we  except  the  tiny  glasses  on  the  earthen  counter, 
behind  which  stands  a  sour-visaged  young  man,  among  the  kegs 
of  spirit,  his  heavy  jewellery  betokening  him  probably  a  partner 
in  the  concern,  while  he  occupies  himself  casting  up  a  long 
column  of  accounts  on  very  greasy  paper,  with  reed-pen  dipped 
in  Indian  ink  from  an  old-world  brazen  inkstand  of  curious 
device. 

But  a  glance  outside  reveals  HAhnuman  himself  coming 
across,  his  little  grandson  trotting  by  his  side  with  an  air  that 
plainly  says,  "  My  grandfather  is  a  great  man  here,  and  I  shall  be 
the  same  one  day."  The  old  man's  bloated  figure  and  reeling  gait 
betray  but  too  clearly  that  he  has  not  been  proof  against  the 
temptations  of  his  trade,  and  one  wonders  sorrowfully  whether 
this  high-spirited  bright-eyed  little  lad  will  ere  long  be  walking  in 
his  grandfather's  footsteps.  So  this  is  Hdhnumdn — a  man  known, 
feared,  and  hated  for  leagues  round  by  the  hapless  ryots  who  fall 
into  his  clutches.  And  well  he  may  be,  if  the  face  be  a  true 
index  of  the  character  within.  Bleary  eyes,  smooth  square  chin, 
an  immense  nose  surmounted  by  clumsy  gold-bound  spectacles,  a 


190  The  Empire  Review 

low  massive  forehead  and  an  expression  hard  even  to  cruelty, 
combine  with  the  squat  portly  figure  to  convey  an  impression 
wholly  repulsive.  This  man,  you  instinctively  feel,  will  extort  his 
pound  of  flesh  remorselessly,  though  he  be  already  tottering  with 
one  foot  in  the  grave. 

Suggestively  in  keeping  with  its  owner,  the  smart  red-tiled 
brick  house  yonder  stands  out  trim  and  well-to-do  among  its 
meaner  neighbours,  fit  emblem  of  one  who  grows  wealthy  at  the 
expense  of  his  poorer  fellows,  or,  as  he  would  prefer  to  put  it, 
"  aids  them  in  their  distress  out  of  his  abundance ;  "  and  you  find 
yourself  wondering  what  wealth  is  stored  within,  behind  that 
massive  iron-bound  door  that  fronts  the  spotless  white  verandah. 
Could  curiosity  satisfy  itself,  you  would  doubtless  find  scant 
furniture  and  few  signs  of  comfort  such  as  the  exterior  would 
lead  you  to  expect,  but  in  their  place  dingy  coffers  filled  with 
mortgage-deeds  on  lands  pledged  by  hard  pressed  owners. 

For  debt  is  India's  curse ;  the  recurrence  of  crop  failures,  the 
lack  of  a  foresight  which  would  lay  by  in  a  good  season  against  a 
bad  one,  and  the  custom  of  extravagant  display  at  weddings  and 
such-like  social  functions  have  ever  made  the  Indian  peasant  a 
willing  borrower.  And  added  to  the  natural  thriftlessness  of  the 
people,  the  introduction  of  our  Western  usages  has  heavily 
weighted  the  scale  against  the  ryot  in  favour  of  the  money- 
lender, thereby  encouraging  rapacity  in  what  might  be  only  a 
necessary  and  legitimate  business. 

For  in  old  days,  before  the  advent  of  the  Sirkar,*  the  ryot  had 
not  the  power  freely  to  alienate  his  land,  nor  could  the  payment 
of  debt  be  enforced  by  sale,  eviction  or  imprisonment ;  hence  the 
money-lender  was  less  ready  to  make  advances,  and  had  to  be 
content  to  obtain  his  interest  as  best  he  might,  with  the  public 
opinion  of  the  village  to  support  him  if  his  demands  were  fair,  but 
knowing  that  if  he  went  too  far  he  might  on  some  dark  night  fall 
a  victim  to  his  debtor's  wrath,  and  the  fear  of  such  vengeance 
acted  as  a  wholesome  check  upon  his  cupidity. 

Now,  however,  that  no  man  is  allowed  to  take  justice  thus 
summarily  into  his  own  hands,  the  money-lender  has  it  very 
much  his  own  way,  knowing  that  his  claims  can  be  enforced  by 
decree  of  court.  The  ingenious  debtor  must  find  some  other 
means  of  evading  payment,  and  an  amusing  instance  of  such 
evasion  came  lately  under  the  writer's  own  notice.  Not  far  from 
his  bungalow  is  the  site  of  a  deserted  village,  where  the  jungle 
has  encroached  until  no  trace  remains  beyond  the  rude  masonry 
of  the  village  well.  Here,  not  long  since,  there  dwelt  a  little 
community  of  low-caste  folk,  who  got  deeper  and  deeper  into 
H&muman's  debt,  till  he  had  a  lien  upon  their  lands,  their  cattle, 
*  I.e.  British  Government. 


The  Indian  Village  Money-lender  191 

their  coming  crops — in  a  word,  on  all  they  possessed  that  was 
mortgageable.  They  determined  to  strike  for  liberty,  and  on  a 
moonlit  night  the  village  arose  as  one  man,  packed  their  few 
household  goods  upon  their  beasts,  and  trekked  across  the  border 
into  the  neighbouring  province,  where  the  law  of  the  district 
they  had  left  could  not  touch  them.  Hdhnuman  over-reached 
himself  that  time,  but  the  borders  of  other  provinces  are  not 
always  quite  so  handy !  True,  their  land  remains  in  his  posses- 
sion, but  untilled  as  yet ;  it  yields  him  naught,  and  as  the  district 
is  thinly  peopled,  and  the  soil  not  of  the  best,  he  may  wait  many 
a  long  day  before  he  finds  the  needed  cultivators. 

As  the  capitalist  of  Indian  agriculture,  the  money-lender,  was 
a  useful  and  even  necessary  factor  in  village  life,  and  his  relations 
with  the  cultivators  were  wont  to  be  paternal  and  friendly,  under 
changed  conditions  he  has  too  often  become  the  oppressor  and 
the  enemy  of  the  rural  community.  In  his  mastery  of  the  situa- 
tion, the  interest  he  demands  is  apt  to  be  excessive.  Kates  vary 
from  one  to  four  per  cent,  per  month,  according  to  circumstances, 
and  the  security  that  can  be  offered ;  for  moderate  security  two 
per  cent,  per  month  may  be  safely  regarded  as  a  normal  rate. 
This  rate  was  being  exacted  by  Hdhnuman  from  one  of  my  own 
servants,  but  no  complaint  was  made  until  his  cattle  were  seized 
for  arrears,  and  even  then  the  outcry  was  not  so  much  against 
the  rate  of  interest  as  excessive  as  against  the  harshness  that 
refused  him  further  time  for  payment.  Another,  an  ayah,  who 
had  had  recourse  to  a  money-lender  to  provide  for  the  wedding  of 
an  adopted  son,  had  borrowed  at  the  rate  of  twenty-four  per  cent, 
per  annum  upon  the  cash,  and  fifty  per  cent,  upon  a  further  loan 
of  grain.  Having  improvidently  failed  to  pay  more  than  occa- 
sional instalments  of  interest,  her  double  debt  had  by  compound 
interest  mounted  up  by  leaps  and  bounds ! 

The  above  two  instances  were  of  persons  in  a  better  position 
than  many  a  small  cultivator,  the  one  receiving  a  regular  monthly 
wage,  and  the  other  being  at  the  time  a  woman  of  some  position 
in  her  own  village.  If  such  as  they  find  escape  from  the  usurer's 
toils  difficult,  what  chance  has  the  peasant  with  his  more  pre- 
carious livelihood  ?  His  land  tax  must  be  paid  to  government 
in  cash  upon  a  given  day ;  and  if  he  has  not  the  necessary  ready 
money  (as  is  often  the  case,  seeing  that  the  government  for  its 
own  security  requires  payment  before  the  crop  is  reaped),  he 
must  needs  go  to  the  money-lender  to  borrow  it ;  and  his  harvest 
when  realised  must  suffice  to  repay  this  with  interest,  to  maintain 
himself  and  his  family,  and  to  provide  the  seed  grain  for  next 
sowing  time.  And  if  thriftlessness  or  past  bad  seasons  have  left 
their  legacy  of  debt,  this  also  must  be  met.  What  wonder  then 
that  the  frequent  recurrence  of  drought  in  recent  years  over  wide 


192  The  Empire  Review 

districts  has,  with  varying  degrees  of  rapidity,  brought  the  agri- 
culturist at  length  to  the  condition  of  dire  poverty  and  chronic 
debt  from  which  he  is  now  suffering  in  so  many  parts  of  India. 
His  ancestral  lands  are  passing  into  the  hands  of  the  money-lending 
classes ;  his  resources  are  diminished,  if  not  exhausted,  and  he 
himself  is  becoming  embittered  and  hopeless. 

And  in  a  very  real  sense  this  extinction  of  his  credit  is 
responsible  for  famine,  with  all  its  misery  and  loss  of  life  to  the 
people,  and  its  drain  upon  the  resources  of  the  Government.  For 
recent  famines  have  been  famines  of  credit  rather  than  of  food : 
it  has  not  been  so  much  that  food  was  insufficient  as  that  the 
people  had  neither  cash  nor  credit  wherewith  to  buy  it.*  Unless, 
then,  the  agriculturist's  resources  can  be  increased  and  his  power 
of  resistance  strengthened,  famine  must  recur  with  every  serious 
crop  failure.  That  millions  of  our  fellow-subjects  should  thus  be 
losing  their  prosperity  and  independence  and  sinking  to  the  verge 
of  ruin  is  a  matter  for  grave  reflection,  and  becomes  still  more 
serious  when  it  is  acknowledged  that  the  cause  in  a  large  measure 
lies  at  our  own  door. 

And  while  the  Government  of  India,  fully  alive  to  the  danger, 
has  made  strenuous  efforts  in  some  directions  to  meet  it,  and  is 
considering  what  can  yet  be  done  in  others,  surely  we  also,  as 
citizens  of  our  great  Empire,  have  a  duty  in  the  matter.  It  is  for 
us  to  study  both  the  causes  of  the  evil  and  its  possible  remedies, 
and  by  intelligent  sympathy  and  appreciation  to  strengthen  the 
hands  of  our  Indian  administrators  in  their  endeavour  to  grapple 
with  so  vast  and  intricate  a  problem. 

EEIC  LEWIS. 

*  See  Sir  A,  Macdonnell's  Famine  Commission  Eeport  of  1901,  §  222. 


About  Dominica  193 


ABOUT   DOMINICA 

THE  island  of  Dominica  lies  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  midway 
between  the  French  islands  of  Guadeloupe  to  the  north- 
west and  Martinique  to  the  southward,  between  15°  20'  and 
15°  45'  north  latitude  and  61°  13'  and  61°  30'  west  longitude.  It 
is  the  largest  island  of  the  Leeward  Islands  colony  and  the 
loftiest  of  the  lesser  Antilles,  and  is  about  thirty  miles  long  by 
fifteen  broad,  comprising  an  area  of  186,436  acres,  or  nearly 
300  square  miles,  of  which  about  76,000  acres  only  are  under 
cultivation,  the  coast-line  being  about  100  miles.  The  island  is 
of  volcanic  origin  and  very  mountainous ;  it  is  well  watered  and 
contains  365  rivers  and  streams  (one  for  each  day  of  the  year), 
all  of  which  are  well  supplied  with  fish.  There  are  two  fresh- 
water crater  lakes  in  the  centre  of  the  island  at  an  altitude  of 
2200  feet  above  the  sea;  a  geyser,  locally  called  the  "Boiling 
Lake,"  about  ten  miles  from  the  leeward  coast ;  and  there  are 
also  innumerable  sulphur  springs  in  different  parts  of  the  island, 
and  several  fine  waterfalls. 

In  shape  Dominica  is  an  irregular  oval.  Tradition  has  it  that 
on  the  return  of  Columbus  from  his  second  voyage  to  the  New 
World,  in  describing  Dominica  to  the  Queen  of  Spain,  he  crushed 
in  his  hand  a  piece  of  parchment  and  threw  it  on  a  table  in  order 
to  indicate  the  rugged  configuration  of  the  island.  Masses  of  moun- 
tains varying  at  altitudes  of  between  800  ft.  and  5000  ft.  occupy  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  north  and  south  parts  of  the  island, 
but  in  the  centre  a  series  of  plateaux  stretching  across  the  widest 
part  of  the  island  form  a  break  in  the  mountain  system.  These 
plateaux  have  local  names,  but  they  are  generally  known  as  the 
Layou  Flats.  They  vary  in  elevation  from  500  to  1000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  are  broken  in  places  by  ravines  and  low  mountain 
slopes,  but  the  greater  part  is  flat  or  undulating.  The  extent  of 
the  Layou  Flats  is  about  20,000  acres.  They  are  covered  by 
valuable  timber,  watered  by  a  number  of  streams  and  rivers,  the 
largest  of  which  are  the  Layou  river  on  the  west  side  and  the 
Pagoua  river  on  the  east  side  of  the  island,  the  former  flowing  into 
the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  latter  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
VOL.  VI.— No.  32.  o 


194  The  Empire  Review 

lands  belong  to  the  Crown  and  can  be  purchased  at  the  nominal 
price  of  10s.  per  acre.  But  there  are  no  roads.  Some  time  ago 
a  trace  was  run  through  the  flats,  and  they  might  be  opened  up 
by  the  building  of  a  tramway  connecting  them  with  the  port  of 
shipment.  In  this  way  an  extent  of  40  square  miles  of  the 
island  would  be  materially  developed,  but  the  funds  necessary  to 
the  accomplishment  of  this  object  are  wanting.  The  wealth  of 
timber  would  afford  an  opportunity  for  an  export  trade  in  cabinet 
woods,  shingle  and  staves.  The  land  is  admirably  adapted  for 
the  cultivation  of  coffee,  cacao,  limes,  and  many  other  tropical 
products  and  provisions ;  and  cattle  would  thrive  well  on  the 
pasture  lands.  The  natives  believe  in  the  existence  of  gold 
in  the  Layou  Flats  at  a  point  called  Eavine  d'Or,  and  old 
French  writers  mention  the  existence  of  a  gold  mine  known  only 
to  the  Caribs,  the  original  inhabitants  of  Dominica,  Nutmegs, 
cinnamon  and  allspice  might  be  grown  on  many  parts  of  the  Flats. 
Oranges  would  grow  luxuriantly.  And  the  lower  parts  are  well 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  tobacco.  Indeed,  samples  of  tobacco 
grown  by  the  late  Dr,  Imray  in  his  private  garden  in  Eoseau,  and 
which  he  forwarded  to  Kew,  obtained  a  most  favourable  report 
from  Sir  Joseph  Hooker — then  Director  of  Kew  Gardens. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  the  island  are  good.  The  seasons 
of  the  year  are  commonly  divided  into  two,  the  dry  and  the 
rainy ;  but,  in  reality,  they  are  not  so  distinctly  marked.  From 
January  to  March  the  weather  is  generally  fine  and  locally  is 
known  as  the  tourist  season,  being  the  time  of  the  year  when 
visitors  from  America  and  England  go  "  tripping "  round  the 
islands  in  order  to  escape  the  rigorous  winter.  From  April  to 
June,  the  medium  between  the  dry  and  the  wet  seasons,  light 
refreshing  showers  fall,  almost  of  daily  occurrence.  Next  comes 
the  "  hurricane  season,"  which  extends  from  the  middle  of  July 
to  the  first  week  in  September.  The  months  of  August  and 
September  are  sultry  and  hot,  and  the  last  three  months  of  the 
year  constitute  the  season  of  the  great  rains.  The  temperature 
varies  according  to  the  altitude  from  55°  F.  to  85°  F.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  in  Eoseau,  the  capital  and  seaport  of  the 
island,  situated  on  the  leeward  coast,  is  79-40°  F.,  the  average 
maximum  84°  F.,  and  minimum  74°  F.  In  the  mountains  the 
temperature  is  delightful,  averaging,  according  to  the  altitude, 
from  55°  F.  to  76°  F. 

The  census  taken  last  year  showed  the  population  to  be  just 
over  29,000  odd,  of  which  less  than  1,000  are  whites,  the  rest 
being  either  negroes  or  coloured  people.  The  death-rate  is  small, 
being  about  sixteen  per  thousand,  which  is  a  very  low  rate  for 
the  tropics,  and,  indeed,  lower  than  that  recorded  for  many  of 
the  towns  of  Great  Britain,  including  London,  the  death-rate  of 


About  Dominica  195 

which  in  1900  was  18*8  per  thousand.  Yellow  fever,  occasionally 
the  Angel  of  Death  to  some  of  the  neighbouring  islands,  is 
unknown  in  Dominica.  The  island  is  exceptionally  healthy, 
save  a  small  swampy  area  in  the  north-west,  where  malaria  is 
prevalent.  As  a  health  resort  for  pulmonary  and  rheumatic 
invalids  it  is  doubtful  if  a  more  favourable  spot  can  be  found  in 
the  world  than  this  beautiful  isle  in  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Only  about  three  hundred  aboriginal  Caribs  are  left.  These 
interesting  descendants  of  the  warlike  races  who  were  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  West  Indies,  at  that  time  bold  and 
tenacious,  are  now  only  to  be  found  in  Dominica,  where,  on 
account  of  the  natural  recluses  afforded  by  the  thickly-forested 
mountains,  they  were  able  to  hide  themselves  from  the  cruelty 
of  the  successive  Spanish,  French,  and  English  invaders  who 
succeeded  in  exterminating  them  in  the  other  islands.  They 
now  form  a  valuable  though  scanty  portion  of  the  community, 
and  have  reserved  for  their  exclusive  use  a  portion  of  the  island 
called  by  the  Carib  name  "  Salybia."  But  it  is  to  be  feared 
that,  owing  to  their  intermarriage  with  the  negroes,  they  will  be 
before  very  long  a  race  in  name  only.  They  are  pacific,  indus- 
trious, and  generally  of  good  moral  character.  The  Caribs  have 
a  king  of  their  own  in  Salybia  who  is  to  all  purposes  a  despotic 
monarch.  His  subjects  have  implicit  confidence  in  him;  he 
settles  their  disputes  and  punishes  their  wrongs,  which,  however, 
are  not  of  a  serious  nature,  for  the  greater  crimes  are  unknown 
among  them.  They  work  at  basket  and  fishpot  making,  make 
ropes,  tents,  and  canvas,  industries  which  the  negroes  have 
learned  from  them. 

The  political  life  of  Dominica  has  had  many  variations. 
In  1833  the  island  was  incorporated  with  Antigua  and  the  other 
islands  of  the  Leeward  Group  under  one  central  government, 
with  a  governor-in-chief  residing  at  Antigua,  and  a  lieutenant- 
governor  at  Dominica.  In  1863,  the  "  Single  Chambers  Act " 
was  passed,  constituting  the  Council  and  House  of  Kepresenta- 
tives  a  single  chamber  of  twenty-eight  members,  of  whom  nine- 
teen were  to  be  elected  and  nine  nominated  by  the  governor.  In 
1865  a  Bill  modifying  the  constitution  was  carried  through  the 
Legislature,  reducing  the  number  of  members  to  fourteen,  of 
whom  seven  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  Crown  and  seven 
were  to  be  elected.  In  1872  the  Federal  Colony  of  the  Leeward 
Islands,  of  which  Dominica  forms  a  part,  was  established  by  an 
Act  of  the  Imperial  Parliament;  the  seat  of  government  was 
transferred  to  Antigua,  and  a  "  President "  was  appointed  in  the 
island  to  discharge  such  authorities  as  the  governor  might  assign 
to  him.  The  Federal  Legislature  comprises  a  central  Executive 
Council,  together  with  a  central  Legislative  Council,  which  consists 

o  2 


196  The  Empire  Review 

of  ten  members  nominated  by  the  governor,  and  ten  elected  by  the 
various  islands  forming  the  federation,  of  whom  Dominica  elects 
two.     The  refusal  of  a  section  of  the  population  to  pay  a  land 
tax  in  1893  gave  rise  to  a  riot  in  the  district  of  La  Plaine  on  the 
Windward  Coast,  and  occasioned  the  appointment  of  the  late  Sir 
Eobert  G.  C.  Hamilton,  K.C.B.,  as  a  royal  commissioner  "  to 
inquire  into  the  condition  and  affairs  of  the  Island  of  Dominica." 
He  made  many  admirable  suggestions,  none  of  which — as  far  as 
I  know — were  adopted.     But  the  most  important  advice,  that 
"  Dominica   should    be  withdrawn  from  the  Leeward    Islands 
Federation,  and  be  placed  under  a  lieutenant-governor,"  was  met 
half-way  by  the  appointment  under  Letters  Patent  of  an  "  Admin- 
istrator "  with  increased  authority  over  local  affairs.    And  in  1898 
there  was  a  further  change  in  the  constitution.     On  the  promise 
of  a  grant  of  a  paltry  £15,000  to  the  island  by  the   Colonial 
Secretary  in  the  event  of  the  island  changing  its  constitution  for 
that  of  Crown  Colony,  in  spite  of  strong  opposition  from  the 
elective  side  of  the  Assembly,  a  Bill,  carried  by  the  casting  vote 
of  the  late  Administrator,  Mr.  P.  A.  Templer,  was  passed  pro- 
claiming Dominica  a  Crown  Colony,  with  a  Legislative  Council 
of  six  official  and  six  non-official  members   nominated   by  the 
Governor  of  the  Leeward  Islands.     Early  this  year  Dominica's 
political  connection  with  the  Leeward  Islands  Federation  was 
changed,  the  Administrator  being,   in  effect,  armed  with  more 
extensive  executive  power,  the  Governor  at  Antigua  retaining 
only  a  nominal  supervision.     It  is  only  to  be  regretted   that 
Dominica  has  not  been  let  loose  altogether  from  the  Federation, 
for  her  progress  has  certainly  been  retarded  to  no  small  degree 
by  the  supervision  of  officials  residing  in  another  island  where 
the  conditions— commercial,  industrial,  agricultural,  and  in  many 
other  respects — are  diametrically  different  to  those  of  Dominica, 
and  who,  consequently,  are  without  any  knowledge  of  the  state 
of  affairs  existing  in  that  island.     Before  the  recent  increase  in 
the  executive  powers  of  the  Administrator,  all  matters  of  import- 
ance had  to  be  referred  by  him  to  the  Governor- in-chief  at 
Antigua  for  his  imprimatur,  and  communications  to  the  Colonial 
Office  could  not  be  made  direct  but  had  first  to  pass  through  the 
Governor,  thus  creating  the  delay  in  transit  of  several  weeks, 
a  serious  matter  when  a  decision  from  headquarters  is  anxiously 
awaited  on  a  matter  of  great  local  importance. 

I  feel  sure  I  am  giving  expression  to  the  opinion  of  the 
majority  of  my  countrymen  when  I  suggest  that  the  position 
of  Dominica  would  be  materially  enhanced  if  it  were  separated 
from  the  Leeward  Islands  Federation.  To  give  one  instance, 
however,  in  favour  of  this  proposition  and  in  apt  illustration  of 
the  occasional  high-handed  interference  in  the  local  affairs  of 


About  Dominica  197 

Dominica  by  officials  residing  in  another  island,  only  two  years 
ago  the  Federal  Council  rushed  through  "an  Act  to  incorporate 
the  Synod  of  the  Diocese  of  Antigua  and  to  provide  for  the 
administration  of  the  Church  of  England  in  the  Colony,"  an  Act, 
in  short,  to  incorporate  the  Diocesan  Synod,  which  meant  the 
destruction  of  the  Dominica  Church  Council,  a  corporate  body 
established  under  an  Act  of  1878  of  the  Local  Legislature,  and 
vested  thereby  with  the  power  of  administering  the  property  and 
temporal  affairs  of  the  Church  of  England  in  Dominica.  The 
Bill  was  strongly  opposed  by  a  Dominica  representative  at  the 
meeting  of  the  Federal  Council,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not 
within  the  competency  of  the  Council  and  therefore  ultra  vires, 
and  that  the  only  power  to  repeal,  alter,  or  vary  the  Dominica 
Church  Council  Act,  1878,  was  the  body  which  created  that  Act, 
viz.,  the  Local  Legislature.  The  obvious  intention  of  the  pro- 
moters of  the  Bill  was  the  transference  of  the  Dominica  Church 
Council  property  to  another  corporate  body  in  a  distant  island, 
and  this  without  any  previous  notice  to  the  Dominica  Church 
Council  from  the  government.  The  upshot  of  this  arbitrary 
measure  was  an  appeal  by  the  Dominica  Church  Council  to  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  praying  for  the  disallowance 
of  the  Act,  and  this  was  granted  by  Mr.  Chamberlain.  I  hope 
that  the  Island  will,  at  no  distant  date,  be  made  an  independent 
colony  under  the  full  and  unquestioned  control  of  its  Adminis- 
trator-in-Executive  Council,  responsible  solely  to  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Colonies. 

Since  the  proclamation  of  the  island  as  a  Crown  Colony  in 
1898,  and  the  advent  of  Mr.  Hesketh  Bell  as  Administrator,  a 
marked  change  for  good  has  taken  place.  Under  the  aegis  of 
Mr.  Bell  several  attempts  have  been  made  towards  the  advance- 
ment of  Dominica.  With  the  help  of  a  grant-in-aid  by  the  Home 
Government — though  totally  inadequate  for  the  needs  of  the 
island — a  new  road  has  been  made  connecting  the  Windward  with 
the  Leeward  coasts,  intended  to  open  up  the  fertile  lands  in  the 
interior  and  to  bring  to  light  their  many  latent  resources,  and  thus 
to  attract  capitalists  to  the  island ;  and  last  year  a  coastal  steamer 
was  put  on  and  subsidised  by  the  Government,  thus  affording 
greater  facility  to  the  planters  for  the  conveyance  of  their  produce 
to  Roseau,  the  capital  and  port  of  shipment.  A  telephonic  system 
over  the  island  is  also  in  course  of  establishment,  and  ninety-six 
miles  of  wire  have  already  been  laid  down. 

Dominica  has  only  within  the  last  two  or  three  years  shaken 
itself  free  from  the  bonds  of  depression,  and  in  its  present  circum- 
stances, when  it  needs  to  be  nurtured,  and  its  destinies  shaped 
by  the  strong  hand  of  the  Colonial  Office,  the  Crown  Colony 
system  is  the  best  form  of  government.  It  is  the  most  feasible 


198 


The  Empire  Review 


and  advantageous  method  of  control  until  the  island  is  in  a  more 
prosperous  condition,  when  it  will  be  necessary  to  relax  the  strong 
and  even  despotic  hand  of  the  official  and  substitute  therefor  an 
independent  legislative  assembly,  the  majority  of  members  of 
which  to  be  elected  by  a  popular  vote— a  form  of  government,  in 
fact,  somewhat  similar  to  that  which  exists  at  Barbados.  Under 
such  a  system,  which  has  worked  well  in  Barbados,  there  would 
be  no  fear  for  the  good  government  of  Dominica,  for  the  electorate 
would  take  care  to  have  their  interests  and  the  welfare  of  the  land 
of  their  birth  safe-guarded  by  electing  those  citizens  who  possess 
their  confidence,  men,  indeed,  bound  up  to  the  island  by  strong 
ties  of  interest  and  affection,  sons  of  the  soil,  who  would  know 
best  what  was  wanted  for  the  good  of  their  country.  But  the 
line  must  be  clearly  drawn  between  the  time  wherein  Crown 
Colony  Government  should  reign  and  the  time  when  that  system 
should  be  superseded  by  a  form  of  self-government. 

The  once  flourishing  industry  of  cane-sugar  as  a  staple  has  been 
superseded  in  many  of  the  islands  by  a  variety  of  other  tropical 
products,  such  as  cacao,  lime,  nutmegs,  coffee,  onions,  bananas, 
and  pineapples.  These  products  are  commonly,  but  errone- 
ously called  the  "  minor  "  products  of  the  West  Indies ;  the  origin 
of  this  misnomer  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sugar-cane  was 
in  former  days  the  staple  of  each  of  the  Caribbean  Islands,  but 
those  were  the  days  when  the  cultivation  of  that  industry  brought 
great  wealth  to  the  West  Indian  planters,  and  when  other  pro- 
ducts were  grown  on  a  very  small  scale.  But,  at  the  present 
day,  though  sugar  yields  a  greater  percentage  of  income  as  com- 
pared with  the  other  products  of  the  West  Indies  taken  in  the 
aggregate,  nevertheless  the  so-called  minor  products  are  in  effect 
the  principal  sources  of  revenue  of  many  of  the  islands,  in  regard 
to  which  it  would  be  quite  logical  to  say  that  the  epithet  "minor" 
might  with  greater  exactitude  be  applied  to  the  cane  product. 

Dominica  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration,  and  a  few  figures 
will  show  that  the  cultivation  of  sugar  is  not  the  chief  industry 
of  each  island.  The  following  statistics  will  demonstrate  the 
rapid  rise,  on  the  one  hand,  of  the  cacao  and  lime  industries 
within  quite  recent  years,  and  the  depression,  on  the  other  hand, 
of  the  sugar  industry. 


Product. 

1886. 

1892. 

1901. 

1902. 

Cacao    .... 

£ 

7  000 

£ 

9700 

£ 

54.  000 

£. 

QQ    000 

Lime  Juice      .... 

3  600 

nooo 

35  000 

39  000 

Sugar  Cane      

2,  688  tons 

17,000 

107  tons 

1,500 

From  this  comparison  it  is  seen  that  while  the  production  of 


About  Dominica  199 

sugar  has  heavily  decreased,  the  revenue  derived  from  cacao  last 
year  is  more  than  quadruple  that  of  only  sixteen  years  previously, 
and  also  that  within  the  same  period  the  lime  product  (including 
raw  juice,  concentrated  juice,  and  lime  oil)  has  trebled  its  revenue 
nearly  four  times  over !  Surely  this  is  a  healthy  outlook  for  the 
future  agricultural  prospects  of  Dominica  ! 

The  following  statements  are  extracted  from  Mr.  Hesketh 
Bell's  Address  to  the  Legislative  Council  of  Dominica  last  April. 

The  trade  of  the  Presidency  in  imports  and  exports  during  1902  represented 
a  total  value  of  £170,000,  a  figure  considerably  in  excess  of  any  previous  record. 
It  is  particularly  satisfactory  to  find  that,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the 
island,  the  local  value  of  the  exports  exceeded  the  net  value  of  the  imports. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  prices  of  our  staple  products  were  rather  lower 
than  those  ruling  in  the  preceding  year,  the  total  value  of  our  exports  repre- 
sented an  increase  of  £14,000.  The  output  of  cacao  showed  a  rise  of  nearly 
35  per  cent.,  while  the  exports  of  raw  and  concentrated  lime  juice  are  almost 
equal,  showing  that  our  planters  are  evidently  alive  to  the  advantage  of  dividing 
their  risks.  If  we  compare  our  present  exports  with  those  of  ten  years  ago, 
we  find  some  interesting  and  satisfactory  changes.  The  production  of  sugar 
then  represented  about  £17,000,  as  against  only  £1,500  last  year.  On  the  other 
hand  the  value  of  cacao  shipped  in  1892  was  £9,700  as  compared  with  £29,000 
in  1902.  Lime  juice  has  risen  from  £11,000  to  £39,000,  while  essential  oils 
have  gone  up  from  £3  to  £3,368.  Other  products  for  which  our  soils  are 
particularly  adapted  are  also  not  being  neglected,  and  satisfactory  increases 
may  be  noted  in  our  exports  of  bananas,  cocoanuts,  oranges,  and  other  fresh 
fruits. 

The  cacao  industry  of  the  island  now  competes  in  the  market 
with  the  cacao  of  Grenada  and  Trinidad.  Within  the  last  ten 
years  the  Dominica  planters  have  taken  to  the  extensive  planting 
of  this  product,  and  many  acres  of  newly  planted  cacao  are  coming 
into  bearing.  Hitherto  the  name  of  "  lime  juice  "  has  always  been 
associated  with  the  island  of  Montserrat,  but  even  when  its  lime 
industry  was  at  its  height  before  the  devastation  of  that  island  by 
the  great  hurricane  of  a  few  years  ago,  Dominica  has  always  been 
the  greatest  producer  of  limes  of  the  West  Indies,  and  of  the  world. 
The  industry  was  first  introduced  into  the  island  about  half  a 
century  ago  by  the  late  Dr.  Imray,  an  eminent  botanist,  and  a 
benefactor  to  the  island,  and  is  to-day  the  staple  product  of 
Dominica.  Few  people  in  Great  Britain  know  that  the  famous 
"  Rose's  Lime  Juice  Cordial "  is  prepared  from  the  juice  of  the 
lime  fruit  grown  in  the  island  of  Dominica.  Messrs.  Rose  &  Co. 
possess  the  largest  lime  estate  in  the  island,  the  Bath  Estate, 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Roseau  River,  and  near  to  the 
capital  Roseau. 

Tentative  shipments  to  New  York  and  to  Liverpool  have  been 
made  by  the  Administrator  of  samples  of  onions,  and  of  a  few 
crates  of  pineapples  grown  at  the  grounds  of  the  Government 
House,  and  the  market  reports  of  these  shipments  have  been  most 


200  The  Empire  Review 

gratifying.  Dominica  pineapples  could  reach  the  New  York 
markets  at  an  earlier  date  than  those  from  the  Bahamas,  and  as 
the  results  obtained  by  the  former  exceeded  expectations,  the 
extensive  cultivation  of  that  product  is  to  be  advocated.  It  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  shipments  to  Liverpool  also  obtained  good 
results,  and  the  specimens  were  said  to  be  just  as  good  as  those 
from  the  Azores.  Coffee  is  now  grown  only  on  a  small  scale. 
It  has  practically  been  swamped  out  of  the  market  by  the  Brazilian 
coffee. 

Sir  Daniel  Morris,  the  Imperial  Commissioner  of  Agriculture 
for  the  West  Indies,  has  been  successful  in  his  efforts  to  establish 
an  Agricultural  School  in  the  island.  This  institution  will  prove 
to  be  of  great  value  to  the  island,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  means 
of  inculcating  in  the  rising  generation  of  sons  of  planters  and 
others  the  principles  of  advanced  agricultural  science,  for  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  depression  in  the  trade  of  the  West  Indies  is 
due  in  no  inconsiderable  proportion  to  the  lack  of  application  of 
scientific  methods  to  planting  as  well  as  to  machinery.  With  the 
establishment  of  this  educational  institution,  the  too  primitive 
methods  of  cultivation  formerly  in  vogue  will  soon  be  replaced 
by  the  more  civilised  method,  for  it  will  be  found  that  where 
hitherto  an  acre  of  land  produced  say  £5  income  from  a  given 
product,  that  same  acre,  with  the  addition  of  science  and  common 
sense,  will  produce  about  £20  profit. 

The  Botanical  Garden,  besides  being  one  of  the  "sights" 
of  the  island,  is  a  highly  valuable  institution,  in  that  the 
planters  can  obtain  from  its  curator  seeds  and  young  plants 
to  any  number  of  almost  any  kind  of  tropical  and  subtropical 
product  at  a  very  low  price.  In  conjunction  with  these 
two  institutions,  a  few  words  may  be  said  in  regard  to  the 
Agricultural  Society.  This  society  came  into  existence  about 
three  years  ago.  It  was  inaugurated  by  two  young  English 
settlers,  Mr.  E.  A.  and  Mr.  A.  K.  Agar,  in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  Alford  Nicholls,  a  resident  Englishman  who  went  out  to 
Dominica  thirty  years  ago.  Monthly  meetings  of  the  Society  are 
held,  which  many  of  the  planters  from  all  parts  of  the  island 
attend ;  papers  are  occasionally  read  and  matters  agricultural  are 
discussed  among  its  members.  The  advantage  produced  by  the 
intercourse  of  ideas  and  methods  of  cultivation  individually 
employed  by  the  various  planters  through  the  medium  of  the 
Agricultural  Society  cannot  be  over-estimated. 

An  agricultural  show  is  annually  held  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Imperial  Commissioner  of  Agriculture  for  the  West  Indies,  in 
which  exhibits  of  agricultural  products,  agricultural  implements, 
and  of  all  the  industries  of  the  island  (including  specimens  of 
basket-making,  fishpot  making,  ropes,  building  stone,  needle  and 


About  Dominica  201 

other  hand-work  and  even  boats  and  canoes)  are  displayed,  and 
prizes  are  awarded  to  the  exhibitors.  If  only  the  capitalist  who  is 
ever  seeking  for  a  profitable  venture  into  which  he  might  place 
his  money,  could  drop  in  "just  casually,"  as  the  Americans  would 
say,  at  one  of  the  yearly  Dominica  Agricultural  Exhibitions  and 
there  see  that  marvellous  display  of  almost  every  tropical  product 
or  industry,  he  would  not  give  Dominica  the  cold  shoulder.  Then 
the  hundreds  of  acres  of  fertile  land  would  no  longer  lie  un- 
developed as  they  have  been  for  centuries,  and  the  efforts  of 
planters  and  others  to  advertise  to  the  world  through  the  medium 
of  these  exhibitions  the  advantages  that  the  island  offers  for  its 
profitable  development  would  not  be  in  vain.  Again,  if  the  Layou 
Flats  were  opened  up  and  the  latent  wealth  they  contain  thus 
made  known,  it  would  be  safe  to  predict  that  Dominica  would 
become  as  rich  and  prosperous  an  island  in  the  West  as  Ceylon 
is  in  the  East.  Then  the  "Gem  of  the  Antilles"  would  be  a 
brighter  gem  than  it  is  now. 

In  concluding  this  article,  it  is  well  to  point  out  that  the 
material  and  industrial  prospects  of  Dominica  have  in  no  way 
suffered  by  the  eruptions  which  have  taken  place  in  Martinique, 
its  southern  neighbour.  Dominica,  strange  to  say,  was  within 
recent  times,  before  the  great  eruptions  of  May  last  year,  the 
only  island  in  the  West  Indies  (except  St.  Vincent),  possessed  of 
active  volcanic  agency  in  what  is  locally  known  as  the  "  Boiling 
Lake,"  and  it  would  seem  that  this  geyser  of  boiling  sulphur  has 
acted  as  a  safety-valve  to  the  island,  for  though  no  more  than 
thirty  miles  distant  from  Martinique,  it  has  not  been  affected  by 
the  volcanic  outbursts  in  that  island,  and  during  the  whole 
period  of  the  eruptions,  it  showed  no  signs  of  sympathetic  seismic 
disturbances.  In  an  interesting  letter  published  in  the  Times  of 
the  22nd  July,  1902,  drawing  attention  to  the  advantages  which 
Dominica  offered  to  English  settlers  of  moderate  capital,  Mr.  Bell 
asserted  very  justly  that  "  it  would  be  unfair  to  let  the  growing 
prosperity  of  this  beautiful  island  suffer  through  erroneous  reports 
of  dangers  and  drawbacks  which  practically  do  not  exist." 

Small  in  comparison  with  others  of  our  colonial  possessions, 
Dominica  ranks  among  the  most  beautiful  of  them  all ;  its  climate 
is  good,  the  fertility  of  its  soil  unsurpassable,  and  there  is  scope 
for  the  development  of  its  thousands  of  acres  of  virgin  land. 

HAKOLD  A.  ALFOED  NICHOLLS. 


202  The  Empire  Review 


SUSAN   PENNICUICK 

A  STORY  OF  COUNTRY  LIFE  IN  VICTORIA. 
CHAPTEB  XV. 

LILY'S  WEDDING-DAY. 

THE  days  rolled  on  quickly ;  Christmas  came  and  went ;  the 
grass  on  the  wide  plains,  so  green  and  fresh  in  the  spring-time, 
began  to  be  sere  and  yellow;  the  water-holes  and  creeks  dried 
up ;  day  after  day  the  sun  rose  and  set  in  a  cloudless  sky ;  the  air 
quivered  with  heat ;  for  it  was  midsummer,  and  the  6th  of  January 
was  fixed  for  Lily's  wedding-day. 

The  ceremony  had  to  be  early  in  the  day  for  the  bride  had 
far  to  go,  so  it  was  all  one  wild  hurry  and  bustle,  for  after  the 
manner  of  the  Grant  family  nobody  seemed  to  have  any  appointed 
task,  and  the  tables  had  to  be  laid  for  the  breakfast,  the  bride 
dressed,  and  the  bridesmaids  got  ready  all  before  eleven  o'clock. 
Mrs.  Grant  was  quite  in  a  flutter  of  excitement.  Not  the  biggest 
prayer-meeting  that  ever  was  planned  could  have  given  her  so 
much  pleasure,  and  since  Ann  would  not  be  sympathetic,  she 
appealed  to  Sue  on  every  point. 

"You're  so  good,  dear,"  she  said,  "and  I  do  hope  Lil  will  be 
happy.  She  ought ;  James  Wilson  is  a  professing  Christian,  and 
has  always  walked  in  the  narrow  way.  And  now  there's  the 
breakfast  to  be  seen  to,  and  not  a  servant  among  the  lot  with 
the  least  idea  of  laying  a  table  as  my  mother  taught  me  it  should 
be  laid.  What  do  you  think  ?  Which  end  shall  I  put  the  saddle 
of  mutton  ?  and,  oh  dear,  there  are  those  tongues  to  go  on  yet, 
and  the  blancmanges  to  turn  out,  and  how  I'm  to  get  those 
children  dressed  I  don't  know,  for  Mrs.  Desmond  isn't  a  bit  of 
good  in  the  world  and  Ann's  just  as  cross  as  two  sticks.  I  tell 
her  that  her  turn  will  come  along  some  day.  I'm  sure  I  wish  she 
and  Dr.  Finlayson  would  make  a  match  of  it,  but  I'm  afraid 
there's  no  hopes  of  that  just  at  present.  And  dear,  dear,  how 
am  I  to  get  those  children  dressed  in  time  ?  " 

"  I'll  dress  them,  auntie,"  said  Sue,  looking  hopelessly  at  the 
breakfast-table,  where  all  the  provisions  seemed  to  be  in  the 


Susan  Pennicuicfc  203 

wildest  confusion.  She  could  only  undertake  one  thing,  she  knew, 
and  she  preferred  to  dress  the  children  and  leave  her  aunt  free  to 
set  the  feast  out  as  best  she  might. 

And  for  once  the  girls  of  the  Grant  family  were  daintily 
decked  out  in  delicate  pinks  and  blues  made  by  Sue  and  Mrs. 
Desmond  after  the  weightier  matters  of  the  trousseau  had  been 
disposed  of,  and  they  thought,  of  course,  a  great  deal  more  of 
their  fine  raiment  than  children  to  whom  pretty  clothes  were  an 
everyday  occurrence. 

Lily  hardly  made  a  lovely  bride ;  her  orthodox  white  satin 
seemed  to  emphasise  unpleasantly  her  weather-beaten,  sunburnt 
face.  But  it  was  a  face  brim  full  of  happiness,  and  Sue  could 
not  help  looking  at  it  enviously.  Why,  oh  why,  should  such 
happiness  not  have  been  hers  ?  She  had  asked  Sue  to  be  brides- 
maid, but  Sue  had  refused  even  before  her  mother  had  sharply 
tabooed  it. 

"  You've  plenty  of  sisters,  Lil,"  she  had  said,  and  then  she 
kissed  Sue  ruefully  ;  "  I  couldn't,  my  dear,  I  couldn't." 

"  Of  course  not,"  said  Sue,  but  she  would  not  have  been 
human  if  she  had  not  thought  of  the  little  farm  down  in  the 
Heytesbury  Forest  and  wondered  what  poor  scruple  was  keeping 
her  away.  At  least,  there  her  position  would  be  assured.  She 
need  envy  no  one. 

The  little  country  church  was  crowded  to  suffocation,  and  Sue 
felt  weary  and  faint  before  the  ceremony  was  over.  Then  the 
last  solemn  words  were  spoken  that  made  the  young  couple  man 
and  wife,  and  they  left  the  church  together.  Everyone  else  made 
a  rush  for  the  buggies  and  waggonettes  outside,  and  Sue  found 
herself  standing  apart  vainly  trying  to  comfort  Vera  who  was 
sobbing  heart- brokenly. 

"  I  corned  to  church  to  mawwy  Ned — my  Ned,  an'  he's  lefted 
me  alone,  oh — oh — oh,"  sobbed  Vera. 

"Dear  little  girl,  poor  little  girl,"  said  Sue  in  terror  lest  she 
should  break  down  herself. 

Then  she  saw  Dr.  Finlayson  at  her  elbow. 

"  Miss  Sue,"  he  said  gently,  "  you  look  very  white.  I  should 
like  to  prescribe  a  glass  of  wine  for  you  as  quickly  as  possible." 

Sue  smiled. 

" Indeed,"  she  said,  "you  are  very  kind,  but  where  am  I 
to  get  it?  You  seem  to  forget  that  this  is  a  temperance 
wedding." 

Dr.  Finlayson  muttered  something  not  very  complimentary  to 
his  host  and  stooped  down  over  Vera. 

"  What's  the  matter  with  the  little  maid  ?  "  he  asked.  "  She 
seems  in  terrible  tribulation." 

"  It's  about  Ned  Hart,"  said  Sue  helplessly.    "  All  the  morning 


204  The  Empire  Review 

she  has  been  dancing  about  saying  she  was  going  to  be  married 
to  him.  I  couldn't  make  her  understand.  Uncle  wouldn't  let 
Ned  come— he  caught  him  with  a  pipe,  I  believe,  and  now  he 
isn't  here  she  is  heart-broken.  I  never  thought  she  was  taking 
all  that  nonsense  about  his  marrying  her  so  seriously." 

"  Poor  little  girl,"  said  the  doctor ;  "  so  you  and  I  are  both  out 
in  the  cold.  Will  you  marry  me  instead  ?  " 

Vera  stopped  crying  for  a  moment,  and  looked  him  gravely  in 
the  face. 

"  No,"  she  said,  "  no.     You  is  too  ugly." 

"  Oh,"  he  sighed,  "  so  you  won't  have  me  for  my  want  of 
good  looks." 

"  I  wonder  if  she  thinks  Ned  Hart  beautiful  ?  "  laughed  Sue. 

Vera  looked  at  her  cousin  critically. 

"  Sue  will  mawwy  you,"  she  said  thoughtfully. 

Sue  flushed  crimson  and  gave  the  little  girl  a  small  shake. 

"  It's  a  brilliant  idea,"  said  the  doctor,  whisking  her  away  and 
kissing  her ;  "  Sue,  Sue,  will  you  ?  "  and  his  eyes  looked  kind  and 
tender  and  eager. 

"  Oh,  Dr.  Finlayson  !  " 

"  That  is  no  answer.  Will  you  ?  Do  you  know  how  lonely  I 
am?  Will  you?" 

"  I  can't,"  said  Sue  in  a  trembling  voice,  because  she  too  was 
very  lonely,  and  the  look  in  his  eyes  comforted  her  though  she 
had  given  all  her  love  to  another  man. 

"I  think,"  he  said  gently,  putting  down  Vera  and  putting  a 
hand  on  Sue's  shoulder,  "  I  think  I  know  all  about  you.  I  think 
I  do,  don't  I?" 

Sue  looked  out  of  the  church  porch  at  the  ragged  gum  tree  at 
the  gate ;  the  bark  hung  down  in  long  untidy  strips,  and  a  faint 
wind  just  stirred  them.  She  had  felt  so  intensely  lonely,  so  out 
of  all  the  love  and  gladness  of  life,  that  the  doctor's  words  com- 
forted her,  and  were  indeed  somewhat  of  a  temptation.  If  it  had 
not  been  for  the  baby  she  had  left  at  home  in  charge  of  Maggie, 
the  under-housemaid,  there  is  little  doubt  how  things  would  have 
gone  in  spite  of  her  love  for  Koger  Marsden.  She  had  just  begun 
to  feel  as  if  it  were  impossible  to  stand  alone. 

"  Do  you  ?  "  questioned  Sue ;  "  do  you  ?  Then  it  is  very  good 
of  you  to  so  honour  me.  I — can't  tell  you  how  grateful  I  am 
to  you." 

"But  I  don't  want  you  to  be  grateful  to  me,"  he  said.  "I 
want  you  to  marry  me." 

Sue  looked  down  and  twisted  the  ribbons  at  her  waist  round 
her  fingers.  Vera  found  them  a  very  unexciting  pair  of  lovers 
and  trotted  to  the  gate  to  look  after  the  dust  raised  by  the  departing 
wedding-party. 


S'isan  Pcnnicukk  205 

"I  can't,"  she  said,  "I  can't,  I  can't.  You  must  see  that  it 
is  impossible." 

He  hesitated  a  moment. 

"  Are  you  thinking  of  the  child? "  he  said  slowly. 

Sue's  eyes  were  full  of  tears  that  brimmed  over  and  fell  on 
her  cheek. 

"  See  here,  little  girl,"  said  the  man  beside  her,  taking  her 
hand  and  holding  it  lightly,  "  I  love  you,  I  love  you.  In  spite  of 
myself  I  love  you.  You  would  hate  me  perhaps  if  I  told  you  how 
hard  I  have  fought  against  it.  I  think  I  have  guessed  your  history 
from  the  very  first,  and  I  love  you,  Sue,  I  love  you." 

Sue  looked  at  him  pitifully.  But  for  all  the  tears  on  her  cheeks 
she  was  a  happier  woman  than  she  had  been  this  morning. 

"  Sue,  do  you  still  love  Koger  Marsden  ?  " 

"  Yes,  yes,  oh,  yes,"  said  Sue,  with  a  sudden  gust  of  passionate 
tenderness  she  knew  she  could  never  feel  for  the  man  beside  her, 
and  she  knew,  too,  she  had  thrown  her  chance  of  happiness  away. 
She  might  have  had  peace  with  Alec  Finlayson  even  though  there 
had  been  no  passion  in  her  love. 

"Forgive  me,"  she  said  gently,  "I  can't  help  it.  I  never 
thought " 

"Oh,  I  will  forgive  you,"  he  said.  "Poor  little  girl,  life  is 
bitterly  hard,  isn't  it  ?  Let  us  make  a  compact,  you  and  I.  If 
you  want  any  help  will  you  come  to  me  ?  You  might,  you  know. 
Tempers  are  queer  on  the  Hallejuiah  Station  for  all  the  real 
good  hearts  at  bottom.  Now  will  you  come  to  me  if  you  want 
help?" 

"Baby  and  me?"  she  said,  flushing  as  for  the  first  time  she 
acknowledged  her  child. 

"  You  and  the  child,  certainly,"  he  said.  "  Mind,  it  is  a 
promise." 

Sue  put  her  hand  on  his  arm. 

"  Thank  you,"  she  said  gratefully,  "  thank  you,  thank  you. 
You  don't  know  how  lonely  I  feel  sometimes.  Thank  you.  Don't 
you  think  we  had  better  start  now?  " 

"  Wait  a  little,  just  a  little,  till  the  dust  of  the  other  buggies 
has  gone  down.  We  don't  want  to  be  smothered  and  ruin  your 
pretty  dress." 

"We'll  be  friends,"  said  Sue,  "we'll  be  friends.  It  isn't  like 
it  usually  is  when  a  man  asks  a  girl  to  marry  him  and  is  offended 
because  she  refuses.  You  can't  be  offended  with  me,  can  you, 
because  you  knew  all  about  me  before,  and  it  is  you  who  have 
honoured  me,  isn't  it  ?  And  I  should  be  lonelier  than  ever  if  you 
aren't  my  friend,"  she  said  wistfully. 

"I  will  be  your  friend,"  he  said  simply,  taking  her  hand; 
"  and,  believe  me,  I  should  be  honoured  if  you  would  be  my  wife." 


206  The  Empire  Review 

Then  he  helped  her  into  his  buggy,  put  Vera  between  them, 
and  drove  back  to  Larwidgee  in  the  blazing  sunshine." 

The  wedding  breakfast  passed  off  as  wedding  breakfasts  usually 
do,  only  that  in  this  case  the  bride's  health  was  drunk  in  tea, 
lemonade,  cold  water  and  similar  unexciting  beverages.  Many 
speeches  were  made  and  a  good  deal  of  promiscuous  kissing  went 
on,  then  the  bride  changed  her  dress,  the  last  farewells  were  said, 
and  the  whole  bridal  party  stood  on  the  verandah  and  watched  the 
newly-married  couple  out  of  sight  on  the  road  to  Gaffer's  Flat. 

"  Oh  dear,  oh  dear,"  said  Mrs/  Grant,  as  she  wiped  her  hot 
face.  "  It  was  a  terrible  to-do,  but  it's  all  over  now.  Lily  will 
be  back,  I  suppose,  in  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  and  we  must 
see  and  get  the  house  at  Titura  ready  for  her.  But  it'll  never  be 
the  same  again.  It's  a  bit  sad,  but  still,  I'm  not  one  that 
believes  in  old  maids.  Let  them  marry  and  have  children  of 
their  own,  say  I.  It's  the  making  of  a  woman,  but  one  can't 
help  feeling  it  when  they  first  leave  the  nest.  What,  going 
already,  doctor  ?  " 

"  I  must,"  said  Finlayson. 

"  Oh,  but  we  counted  on  you  to  stop  and  cheer  us  up  a  bit," 
she  said,  being  very  mindful  of  the  saying  that  one  wedding 
makes  many.  She  was  the  last  woman  in  the  world  one  would 
have  called  a  matchmaker,  but  dearly  she  would  have  liked 
Dr.  Finlayson  for  her  eldest  daughter,  and  since  he  had  been 
here  so  often  of  late  she  had  begun  to  ask  herself,  "Why  not?  " 
That  Sue  should  be  the  attraction  seemed  entirely  out  of  the 
question,  therefore  she  asked  again,  "  Won't  you  stay  a  little 
longer?" 

"  Indeed  I  can't.  I've  been  idle  all  the  morning,  and  what 
will  become  of  my  patients  if  I  neglect  them  any  longer?  "  and 
he  went  for  his  buggy  and  drove  away  feeling  in  his  heart  of 
hearts  that  it  was  a  good  thing  for  him  that  Sue  had  refused 
him.  And  yet,  deeper  down  still  was  the  strong  feeling  of  love 
that  made  him  know  that  Sue's  companionship  was  the  one  thing 
that  would  have  crowned  his  life. 


CHAPTEE  XVI. 
POLLY'S  LOVE  AFFAIR. 

THE  night  of  Lily's  wedding-day  Sue  spent  in  tears.  It 
was  only  to  be  expected  after  the  excitement  and  fatigue.  Alec 
Finlayson  had  offered  her  friendship,  had  asked  more  and  she  had 
put  it  aside,  and  as  she  sat  there  in  her  room  alone  looking  at  her 
sleeping  child  she  could  not  but  remember  that  she  had  put  away 
from  her  the  comfort  of  a  man's  love,  put  away  from  herself 


Susan  Pcnnicuicfc  207 

a  home  and  a  position  in  the  world.  What  was  to  become  of 
her,  what  was  to  become  of  her  little  child  ?  The  shadow  of  its 
up-bringing  weighed  heavily  on  her,  every  day  the  burden  grew, 
and  if  she  had  not  loved  Koger  Marsden  so  dearly  and  so  well, 
Alec'  Finlayson  would  have  taken  that  burden  upon  himself. 
No  wonder  she  cried  her  eyes  out  hopelessly  half  the  night. 

Wearily  next  day  she  awakened  with  a  dull  sense  of  pain  that 
at  first  she  could  not  understand.  Nothing  was  worse  than  it 
had  been,  she  told  herself,  and  she  was  pleased  to  think  that  Alec 
Finlayson  had  loved  her. 

Through  the  open  curtainless  window  the  sunshine  stole  into 
the  room,  fresh  with  the  freshness  of  early  morning,  and  as  she 
sat  up  the  remembrance  of  last  night's  anxiety  came  over  her  and 
she  buried  her  face  in  the  pillow  once  more  and  felt  she  wished 
never  to  look  at  the  sunshine  again.  Before  her  stretched  a  weary 
waste  of  years  with  no  hope,  no  happiness  for  her.  It  never 
occurred  to  her  she  could  love  again,  never  occurred  to  her  that 
another  man  might  take  Marsden'e  place.  She  must  live  her 
life  alone,  take  up  the  dreary  everyday  tasks  and  make  the 
best  of  it. 

No,  there  was  no  comfort  for  her.  All  she  could  do  was  to 
help  her  aunt,  who  had  given  her  shelter,  and  then  when  her 
baby  grew  older  possibly  she  might  find  some  way  to  earn  her 
living.  She  would  ask  Koger  to  help  her.  For  such  a  purpose 
she  would  not  mind  asking  his  help,  and  the  only  spot  of  bright- 
ness she  could  find  in  her  future  was  a  vague  hope  that  some  day 
she  might  perhaps  own  a  little  poultry  farm  where  she  could 
have  her  child  and  acknowledge  it  as  her  own.  Even  so  the 
prospect  was  dreary,  and  there  were  years  of  life  to  be  lived 
through  yet,  for  she  knew  well  enough  while  her  baby  required 
all  her  care  she  could  not  start  out  to  earn  her  own  living. 

A  cracked  old  bell,  the  getting-up  bell,  began  to  peal  through 
the  house,  and  she  sat  up  in  bed,  and  then  the  door  opened  and 
Mrs.  Grant  came  in.  Her  clothes  had  apparently  been  flung  at 
her  all  at  once  with  a  pitchfork,  and  she  was  now  engaged  in 
reducing  them  to  something  like  order. 

"  Not  out  of  bed  yet,"  she  said,  struggling  with  a  refractory 
tape.     "  My  !     I  was  sure  you'd  be  up.     Are  you  all  right  ?  " 
"  Yes,"  said  Sue,  wearily. 

Her  head  was  throbbing  as  if  it  would  burst,  the  result  of 
yesterday's  excitement,  but  her  aunt — kind  as  she  meant  to  be — 
was  not  exactly  the  sort  of  person  she  could  confide  in. 

"  That's  right,  but  I  must  say  you  look  rather  white,"  she 
said,  satisfactorily  disposing  of  the  tape  and  now  beginning  on 
the  buttonholes,  "  and  here's  a  pretty  to-do.  The  house  all 
higgle-de-piggledy,  and  not  a  scrap  of  bread  for  breakfast. 


208  The  Empire  Review 

Whatever  those  girls  could  have  been  thinking  of  I'm  sure  I 

don't  know." 

"  We  might  have  scones,"  suggested  Sue,  feeling  something 
was  expected3 of  her,  "or  Johnny  cake.  Johnny  cake  is  nice  for 
a  change." 

"  Well,  we  might,  if  there  was  anyone  could  make  them 
decently /but  I  declare  to  goodness  I'm  just  worried  out  of  my 
life.  Seven  servants  and  there  isn't  one  can  make  a  scone 
fit  to  send  to  table,  and  there's  Etta  been  crying  all  night  with 
a  sore  throat— the  child's  sickening  with  something,  I'm  sure. 
I'll  just  send  over  for  Dr.  Finlayson  if  she  isn't  better  by 
to-morrow." 

"  Do  you  think  she  could  have  eaten  too  much  cake  yesterday  ?  " 

asked  Sue. 

"  I  don't  know,  I'm  sure,  but  the  overseer's  children  are  sick, 
his  wife  sent  up  this  morning  for  some  medicine,  and  Ann's  gone, 
and  Mrs.  Desmond's  just  that  helpless " 

Mrs.  Grant  paused  in  her  list  of  troubles  more  from  want  of 
breath  than  because  there  were  not  plenty  behind,  and  Sue  said 
hastily : 

"  I  can  make  scones,  good  ones,  really,  aunt." 

"  Can  you,  my  dear,  well,  if  you  would  it  would  really  be  a 
relief  to  my  mind.  Maggie  shall  mind  baby  for  you.  It's  about 
all  she's  fit  for.  Mind,  now,  and  make  plenty.  There's  eighteen 
of  us  inside,  you  know — and  seven  in  the  kitchen,  and  the  men, 
that  makes  eleven,  and  then  I  always  give  some  to  the  Chinaman, 
and  the  men'll  be  over  from  Titura  to-day,  and  the  boys  want  to 
go  picnicking  down  the  creek.  So  you'd  better  make  plenty." 

Sue  rather  thought  she  had,  and  began  a  mental  calculation 
while  her  aunt  finished  buttoning  her  dress  and  turned  to  the 
glass. 

"Well,  I  don't  look  very  tidy  now,  do  I?  But,  really,  I'm 
bothered.  There's  Polly— not  sixteen  till  February,  and  last  night 
Ann  caught  her  up  at  the  station  experience  young  men's  hut. 
Nice  goings  on.  Young  King  was  away  and  Hart  was  sitting 
on  the  doorstep  with  Polly.  Ann  says  she's  sure  he  kissed  her, 
too.  Keally,  where  Polly  got  it  from  I'm  sure  I  don't  know. 
So  carefully  as  I've  kept  her  too — never  a  novel— never  a  story- 
book but  the  Sunday  at  Home  has  she  read  all  her  life." 

Sue's  white  face  flushed  crimson.  There  was  love-making  in 
the  air  yesterday  evidently. 

"Polly  can  help  you,"  went  on  Mrs.  Grant.  "I'll  send  her 
to  you  as  soon  as  you're  dressed.  I  must  keep  a  watch  on  that 
young  lady.  She's  only  a  child,  of  course,  so  it  don't  amount  to 
much." 

The  girl  looked  at  her  aunt  curiously,  and  out  of  her  own 


Susan  Pcnnicuick  209 

experience  judged  her.  Was  she  so  innocent,  so  ignorant  of  the 
world's  ways  as  to  imagine  that  a  girl  who  could  steal  out  to  a 
clandestine  interview,  who  had  been  kissed  and  made  love  to  even 
by  plain  Ned  Hart,  could  be  sent  back  to  the  nursery  and  forget- 
fulness  by  a  word  from  her  mother. 

"  Don't  you  know  I'm  right,  Sue  ?  " 

"  Oh,  aunt,  how  can  I  tell  ?    But— but 

Sue  could  hardly  put  her  feelings  into  words,  but  instinctively 
she  felt  that  if  Polly  cared  at  all  about  Ned  Hart,  banishment  to 
the  nursery  and  a  course  of  lessons  from  Mrs.  Desmond's  old- 
fashioned  "  Magnall's  Questions  "  was  not  likely  to  effect  a  cure. 

"  Well,"  said  her  aunt,  leaving  the  room,  "  I'll  send  her  to 
help  you,  and  see  you  make  plenty  of  scones." 

Half-an-hour  later  she  met  the  young  cousin  in  the  kitchen, 
and  the  two  set  to  work  on  the  family  breakfast.  Sue  used 
sometimes  to  think  it  seemed  as  if  the  servants  were  kept  for 
their  own  benefit,  for  certainly  in  the  ill-managed  household,  if 
ever  there  were  an  extra  call,  those  numerous  maid-servants  were 
not  equal  to  it.  At  first  nothing  was  said  by  either  of  the  girls, 
but  at  length,  when  Sue's  arms  were  plunged  up  to  the  elbows  in 
flour,  she  stole  a  glance  at  her  cousin. 

Polly  was  a  tall,  fat,  overgrown  girl  with  a  pleasant,  kindly, 
if  somewhat  simple  face,  and  a  complexion  which  might  have 
been  good  had  it  not  been  tanned  by  the  sun  and  wind.  She  was 
pouring  milk  into  the  flour  as  she  worked  it  up,  and  every  now 
and  then  wiped  away  a  furtive  tear,  which  at  first  Sue,  judging  her 
by  herself,  pretended  not  to  notice.  She  tried  to  talk  cheerfully 
about  yesterday's  festivities,  but  it  was  hard  work  feigning  an 
interest  she  did  not  feel — harder  still  when  Polly  openly  showed 
she  did  not  intend  to  talk  and  did  not  even  trouble  to  answer  her 
remarks.  She  gave  it  up  after  two  or  three  trials,  and  kneading 
up  the  flour  and  milk  into  a  light  dough,  cut  a  large  slice  off,  put 
it  on  the  pasteboard,  rolled  it  out,  and  cut  out  the  scones  with 
the  top  of  a  cocoatina  tin,  Polly  meanwhile  leaning  up  against  the 
wall,  the  picture  of  sullen  misery. 

"  You're  cutting  them  too  small,"  she  volunteered  at  last, 
"  you'll  never  get  done  at  this  rate." 

"  Oh,  it  doesn't  matter.  I'll  do  the  first  lot  this  way,"  said 
Sue.  "  They'll  look  nicer  for  the  dining-room.  I'll  cut  the  others 
out  square." 

At  this  moment  Vera  came  running  into  the  kitchen  with  her 
pinafore  dragging  behind  her. 

"  Tie  up  my  pinny,  please,  Sue,  tie  up  my  pinny." 

"Tie it  for  her,  Polly,"  suggested  Sue,  "my  hands  are  all  floury." 

"  You's  been  kyin',  Sissy,"  said  Vera,  gravely,  pursing  up  her 
little  mouth. 

VOL.  VI.— No.  32.  p 


210  The  Empire  Review 

"Go  away  this  minute,"  said  Polly,  shaking  her,  "  you 
nuisance,"  and  Vera,  nothing  daunted,  danced  out  of  the  kitchen 
singing  at  the  top  of  her  voice,  "  You's  been  kyin',  kyin',  kyin'." 

Polly  stamped  her  foot  in  unavailing  impatience. 

"  I  hate  mother,"  she  began.     Then  a  sob  choked  her. 

"Hush,  hush,  dear,"  Sue  looked  round  at  the  maid-servant 
who  was  supposed  to  be  engaged  on  the  breakfast,  but  who  was 
manifestly  listening  with  all  her  ears,  "  don't  talk  like  that." 

"But  it's  the  truth,"  said  Polly,  under  her  breath,  "she's 

cruel." 

"  It  was  for  your  good,"  suggested  Sue,  feebly. 

"You  don't  know  anything  about  it,"  said  Polly,  recovering  a 
little  at  the  prospect  of  a  confidante. 

"  You  can  tell  me,"  said  the  elder  girl,  rolling  out  a  piece  of 
dough  and  beginning  to  cut  out  another  batch  of  scones. 

"  She  says  I'm  to  stop  in  the  school-room,  she  says  I'm  not  to 
see  Ned  Hart  again,  she  says— I  don't  care,  I  will,"  finished  Polly, 
with  sullen  determination,  that  made  Sue  feel  she  meant  all,  and 
more  than  all  that  she  said. 

"  But,"  she  remonstrated,  as  in  duty  bound,  "  you  know,  dear, 
it  really  wouldn't  do  for  you  to  be  going  up  to  the  men's  hut,  and 
in  the  evening,  too." 

"Why  not?" 

"Why  not,"  echoed  Sue,  seeking  round  in  her  mind  for  a 
convincing  answer  and  ending  up  feebly  with,  "  well,  dear,  you 
see,  it  looks  bad.  Of  course,  I  know  it's  all  right,  but  it  doesn't 
look  well." 

"What  do  looks  matter  in  a  Christian?"  said  Polly,  playing 
the  family  trump  card  triumphantly. 

"Ah,  but,  Polly,  Christianity  doesn't  teach  you  to  disobey 
your  mother.  If  she  says  you  mustn't  see  Ned  Hart  again,  then 
you  mustn't." 

"  But  there's  no  harm  in  it :  and  I  want  to  see  him,  and  he 
wants  to  see  me;  and — and — and  it's  beastly  slow  sticking  home 
in  the  school-room  all  day.  I  shall  see  him  whether  mother  likes 
it  or  no." 

Sue  retired  to  the  griddle  and  turned  her  scones  thoughtfully. 
Then  she  came  back  to  the  table. 

"  Polly,  dear,"  she  said,  and  a  burning  blush  rose  to  her  face 
as  she  thought  how  near  home  the  lecture  went,  a  lecture  that 
suited  her  own  case  even  better  than  Polly's,  "  I  hear  Ned  Hart 
kissed  you.  Well,  you  see,  no  girl  should  let  a  man  do  that 
unless — I  mean— yes,  unless  he  is  her  lover  and  he  is  going  to 
marry  her." 

Polly  hung  her  head  and  tried  to  make  some  excuse. 

"  It  was  an  accident,"  she  muttered ;  "  I  never  thought.     But 


Susan  Pennicuicfc  211 

I  don't  think  he  meant  to.    Oh,  Sue,  Sue,  don't  you  understand  ?  " 
and  the  simple  childish  blue  eyes  filled  with  tears. 

Did  she  understand?  Did  she  not  understand  only  too  well. 
Who  was  she  that  she  should  preach  to  this  child  ? 

"  Don't  cry,  dear,  don't  cry.  Wait  till  the  scones  are  done, 
and  then  come  to  my  room  and  tell  me  all  about  it." 

But  once  in  Sue's  room  Polly  began  to  cry  afresh. 

"  What  shall  I  do  ?  "  she  sobbed,  "  what  shall  I  do  ?  Mother 
says  I  mustn't  talk  to  him,  and  I  can't  go  by  as  if  I  didn't  know 
him,  specially  when  he  comes  into  tea  every  night." 

"  No,  no,  of  course  not,"  said  Sue,  "  aunt  didn't  mean  that. 
Talk  to  him  just  like  you  always  do.  Only  don't  let  him  kiss  you, 
and  don't  go  to  his  hut.  See,  it's  not  so  bad ;  and  if  he  really 
cares  for  you,  you  know,  he  will  tell  you  so.  Now,  wash  your 
face,  dear,  it's  nearly  breakfast  time,  and  you  don't  want  them  all 
to  see  you've  been  crying." 

This  view  comforted  Polly  wonderfully,  Sue  was  glad  to  see. 
She  was  too  much  of  a  child  to  take  desperately  dreary  views  of 
life,  and  before  the  bell  had  rung  for  morning  prayers  there  was 
a  smile  on  her  face  again. 

At  prayers  the  whole  household  had  assembled,  Ned  Hart 
amongst  them,  and  Sue  noticed  that,  though  he  kept  his  eyes 
apparently  glued  to  his  hymn  book,  yet  ever  and  again  he  darted 
a  furtive  glance  at  the  conscious  Polly.  The  knowledge  of  those 
stolen  looks  evidently  brought  balm  to  the  girl's  troubled  soul, 
and  Sue  herself  hardly  knew  whether  to  be  glad  or  sorry.  They 
were  so  young,  both  of  them,  she  hardly  thought  it  would  matter 
much  if  only  her  aunt  would  look  after  her  daughter  and  not 
interfere  too  much.  He  had  been  worshipping  ever  since  Sue 
had  made  his  acquaintance,  and  apparently  he  had  now  passed 
the  stage  of  the  devout  lover  who  adores  his  mistress  from  a 
distance  and  hardly  dares  lift  his  eyes  from  the  hem  of  her 
garment.  All  breakfast-time  she  thought  it  over,  she  had  spoiled 
her  own  life,  utterly  wasted  it  and  laid  it  desolate,  at  least  she 
might  give  care  and  help  and  sympathy  to  her  young  cousin. 

And  next  day  there  was  a  fresh  call  for  her  sympathy.  Etta's 
throat  was  worse,  and  Kosy  was  ill,  too,  and  Dr.  Finlayson  being 
called  in  pronounced  it  scarlet  fever.  One  by  one  the  others 
sickened,  none  of  them  were  very  ill,  but  they  were  all  fretful  and 
cross  and  needed  care  and  attention,  and  as  no  one  could  amuse 
fretful  children  like  Sue,  no  one  could  tell  a  story  as  she  could,  her 
aunt  made  use  of  her  without  scruple,  and  thought  her  unkind 
when  she  presumed  to  take  precautions  for  her  own  child's  sake. 

So  what  with  Polly's  love  affair  and  the  sick  children,  her 
hands  and  her  thoughts  were  kept  busy,  and  though  she  never 
suspected  it  herself,  this  was  an  untold  blessing  to  her. 

p  2 


212  The  Empire  Review 

Nothing  can  be  well  done  unless  undivided  attention  is  given 
to  it,  even  the  scrubbing  of  a  floor  requires  the  thoughts  to  be 
concentrated  on  boards,  wet  floorcloths  and  warm  water,  and  if  it 
is  so  with  manual  labour,  much  more  so  is  it  with  mental.  Sue 
had  no  time  to  think  of  her  own  sorrows.  She  found  herself 
established  as  head  nurse  to  the  Grant  children  and  sole  confidant 
of  their  sister's  love  affair. 

And  the  last  alone  was  no  sinecure,  for  every  spare  moment 
that  young  lady  could  spare  from  the  lessons  she  was  kept  so 
closely  to,  she  made  her  way  to  Sue's  room,  nursed  the  baby  and 
waited  till  she  was  free,  and  then  poured  into  her  sympathetic 
ears  the  meagre  details  of  her  little  story. 

How  he  had  looked  when  last  they  met ;  how  she  had  felt ; 
how  he  had  only  said,  "  Good  morning,  Polly,  we  killed  last  night, 
do  you  think  your  mother  will  want  the  trotters,  because  a  dog 
got  at  the  carcase  and  there  are  only  three ;  "  but  then  Maggie 
was  by  and  Mrs.  Desmond,  and  didn't  Sue  think,  didn't  she  think 
he  just  made  those  trotters  an  excuse,  because  he  must  have 
known  mother  never  bothered  about  them  ?  To  all  of  which  Sue 
listened  with  an  interest  feigned  at  first,  but  gradually  deepening 
as  she  saw  how  much  in  earnest  the  girl  was. 

But  it  was  terribly  hard  work.  Always  before  her  was  the 
utter  uselessness  of  thinking  of  Boger  Marsden.  She  could  not 
help  him,  she  only  made  herself  doubly  wretched  thinking  about 
him.  Evening  after  evening,  when  she  went  for  her  daily  walk, 
the  only  quiet  time  she  could  hope  for,  Polly  would  join  her  in 
the  plantation,  or  beside  the  lake,  and  slipping  her  arm  round  her 
waist  under  cover  of  the  darkness,  would  pour  out  her  whole  heart 
to  her  cousin.  She  felt  it  was  very  hard  to  bear.  She  might 
have  been  worse  if  she  had  been  left  to  herself,  but  as  it  was  the 
effort  to  wear  a  smiling  face  when  her  heart  was  full  of  gnawing 
anxiety  for  the  future  cost  her  so  much  that  her  cheeks  grew 
white  and  worn  under  the  strain,  and  there  was  a  wistful  weary 
look  in  the  dark  eyes  that  would  have  gone  to  the  very  heart  of 
anyone  who  loved  her  well  enough  to  notice.  But  there  was 
none  such  at  Larwidgee.  Her  aunt  indeed  was  fond  of  her  in  a 
careless  warm-hearted  sort  of  way,  but  she  was  a  little  doubtful 
about  her  too.  Occasionally  she  would  say : 

"  Why,  Sue,  you're  losing  your  roses,  child.  I  daresay  the 
summer's  too  hot,  and  it  has  been  a  trying  time  with  the  children 
all  sick  and  one  thing  and  another ;  I'll  not  be  sorry  to  see  the 
cool  weather  again." 

"  Yes,  you  must  have  been  bothered,"  said  Sue,  "  but  it  might 
have  been  worse." 

"  Oh,  it's  bad  enough,"  grumbled  Mrs.  Grant.  "  My  dear,  my 
life's  just  bothered  out  of  me.  The  Lord  sends  everything  for 


Susan  Pennicuick  213 

the  best,  I  know,  but  I  can't  see  the  best  of  this  unless  it  may  be 
that  Dr.  Finlayson  might  take  a  fancy  to  Ann.  What  do  you 
think  ?  He  sees  enough  of  her.  I  always  take  care  to  leave  them 
alone  a  bit,  and  Ann  is  very  earnest,"  and  the  mother  looked  to 
her  for  confirmation. 

Sue  sighed.  The  love  affairs  of  the  Grant  family  seemed 
destined  to  drift  to  her,  for  Mrs.  Grant  harped  on  Ann  and  Dr. 
Finlayson  perpetually.  It  sometimes  seemed  to  Sue  that  her  aunt 
was  warning  her,  but  she  had  never  put  the  question  so  straight 
as  to-day.  Sue  stooped  over  Vera's  cot  and  smoothed  her  tumbled 
pillow  thoughtfully.  That  Ann  loved  Dr.  Finlayson  she  did  not 
doubt,  that  he  gave  not  a  second  thought  to  her  she  did  not  doubt 
either,  and  out  of  her  own  great  sorrow  she  pitied  her  even  as  she 
pitied  her  younger  sister. 
•  "  What  do  you  think,  Sue  ?  "  asked  her  aunt  again. 

"  I  don't  know,  aunt.  I'm  afraid  he  doesn't  think  about  Ann 
-yet." 

"  But  he  might — in  time." 

"He  might,"  assented  Sue. 

"  And  then  you  see " 

"  Do  show  me  Vewabella,"  said  a  pathetic  little  voice  from 
the  cot,  "  do  lift  me  up  and  show  me  Vewabella,  Sue.  Hasn't 
seen  Vewabella  for  ever  so  long?  " 

"  Be  quiet,  you  silly  child,"  said  Mrs.  Grant,  who  had  no 
sympathy  for  childish  fancies,  but  Sue  catching  up  a  light  shawl 
wrapped  it  round  the  little  girl  and  taking  her  in  her  arms  carried 
her  across  to  the  looking-glass. 

The  little  white  face  bent  forward  eagerly. 

"How  does  you  do,  Vewabella?"  said  the  child,  bending 
forward,  eagerly  nodding  at  her  own  image.  "  Hasn't  seen  you 
for  a  long  time.  Has  you  been  sick  too  ?  " 

Then  the  tired  head  drooped  on  the  girl's  shoulder. 

"  Want  to  go  to  bed,  Sue.  Dood  by,  Vewabella— my  head 
is  bad." 

"  Silly  you  are  to  encourage  her,  Sue,"  said  Mrs.  Grant,  as 
the  girl  laid  her  back  in  her  cot  again.  "  She's  getting  too  heavy 
for  you.  You're  as  white— as  white " 

"No,  it's  not  that,"  said  Sue  faintly.  "  I  feel  a  little  dizzy. 
It's  the  hot  day,  I  think,"  and  she  dropped  into  a  chair  and  closed 
her  eyes  wearily. 

"  Hot  fiddlesticks,"  began  Mrs.  Grant,  "  why,  it's  much  cooler 

than  yesterday,  and Oh,  I  say,  doctor,  I'm  glad  to  see  you. 

Here's  a  new  patient  for  you." 

Dr.  Finlayson  was  closely  followed  by  Ann,  who  fell  in  with 
her  mother's  plans  for  the  first  time  in  her  life,  and  constituted 
herself  the  doctor's  shadow  as  long  as  he  was  in  the  house. 


214  The  Empire  Review 

"  It's  nothing— nothing,"  said  Sue,  trying  to  smile,  but  the 
doctor  bent  over  her  and  spoke  almost  tenderly,  as  he  never  spoke 
to  her,  Ann  noticed  bitterly. 

"  Nothing,  is  it  nothing?  "  he  said.  "  I  think  we  have  been 
doing  too  much,  Miss  Sue.  Mrs.  Grant,  we've  been  working  the 
willing  horse  too  hard,  and  our  head  nurse  is  knocked  up." 

"  Indeed,  indeed  no,"  murmured  Sue,  who  felt  her  aunt  would 
not  be  best  pleased  at  seeing  her  eldest  daughter  ignored  in  this 
manner,  for  Ann  indeed  had  done  her  best,  but  Ann  had  not  a 
happy  knack  with  children. 

"  Indeed,  indeed  yes,"  persisted  the  doctor.  "  Well,  the 
worst  is  over  now,  and  I  shall  forbid  you  to  enter  the  sick  rooms 
again.  Give  her  good  strengthening  things,  and  see  that  she  eats 
them,  Mrs.  Grant,  and  let  her  enjoy  herself." 

Sue  almost  smiled  at  the  last  clause,  and  yet  the  doctor's 
kindness  comforted  her,  though  she  was  hardly  conscious  of  it 
herself. 

"  Shall  I  bring  you  some  books  to  read,  Miss  Sue?  "  he  asked. 
"  I  had  several  new  ones  up  from  Mullen's  last  week,  and  I  think 
you  would  like  to  read  them." 

"Don't  bring  any  godless  literature  into  this  house,  Dr. 
Finlayson,"  said  Ann  tartly,  a  tartness  which  her  cousin  both 
understood  and  forgave.  It  was  hard,  she  felt,  that  she,  who  had 
only  friendliness  to  offer  the  doctor,  should  receive  all  attention 
from  him,  while  Ann,  who  did  care  intensely,  was  passed  over 
and  utterly  ignored. 

"I  promise  you  they  are  not  godless  books,"  he  said  gravely, 
"  but  some  of  the  best  works  of  the  day.  Your  cousin  is  run 
down  and  wants  a  little  looking  after.  Well,  well,  I'll  bring  the 
books  to-morrow,  meanwhile  lie  down  for  the  rest  of  the  day  and 
let  some  one  else  do  your  work.  You've  been  working  too  hard. 
I  ought  to  have  seen  it  before." 

So  Sue  was  despatched  to  her  own  room  by  her  aunt,  and 
tired  out  thankfully  lay  down  on  her  bed.  Here,  later  on,  Polly 
came  flying  in  to  relate  tearfully  how  cruel  father  was,  he  was 
sending  Ned  Hart  to  Titura  and  he  wasn't  coming  back  for  three 
months. 

"  And— and  he's  gone,"  sobbed  the  child.  "  We  only  had  a 
minute,  and  he  squeezed  my  hand  hard  and  said,  '  It'll  seem  like 
the  fourteen  years  Jacob  worked  for  Kachel.'  Wasn't  it  nice  of 
him  ?  Oh,  he  doea  love  me,  doesn't  he,  Sue  ?  " 

(To  be  continued.) 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


215 


INDIAN   AND   COLONIAL   INVESTMENTS* 

THE  course  of  affairs  in  the  United  States  and  anxiety  with 
regard  to  the  political  situation  in  the  Near  East  have  given 
rise  to  caution  in  the  money-market,  with  the  result  that 
discount  rates  are  appreciably  higher  than  they  were  a  month 
ago.  The  Bank  of  England  is  not  so  strong  as  it  was,  but  the 
depletion  of  the  reserve  is  due  merely  to  the  usual  holiday  and 
harvest  demands,  and  would  have  no  effect  on  rates  but  for  the 
above-named  causes  of  anxiety. 

The  continued  decline  of  prices  in  the  American  market  up  to 
a  recent  period  had  a  depressing  effect  in  all  departments  of  the 
Stock  Exchange,  partly  owing  to  the  sentimental  influence  which 
a  special  movement  in  one  market  always  exercises  over  the  rest, 
and  partly  because  a  big  fall  in  any  one  class  of  securities  forces 
holders  to  realise  on  their  other  stocks  in  order  to  protect  stocks 
which  are  the  immediate  subject  of  depression.  For  these  reasons 
Consols,  Indian,  Colonial,  and  Municipal  Stocks,  have  all  been 
flat,  and  the  few  new  issues  put  on  the  market  on  the  strength 
of  the  low  rates  for  money  last  month  met  with  such  a  decided 
snub  that  no  more  are  likely  to  be  heard  of  for  some  time  to 
come.  It  must  be  added  that  a  strong  rally  in  the  American 

INDIAN  GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present  Amount. 

When 
Redeem- 
able. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

INDIA. 

£ 

3J%  Stock  tt)      .     .     . 
2J%      "     Inscribed'  (t) 

63,040,302 
48,635,384 
11,892,207 

1931 
1948 
1926 

107£ 
97$ 

3£ 

P 

Quarterly, 
it 

3J  %  Rupee  Paper    .     . 
3J%      „          „    1854-5 

Bx.  5,843,690 
Bx.  11,  517,  620 

65 
65£ 

Various  dates. 
30  June—  31  Deo. 

8  %      „          „    1896-7 

Bx.  1,316,930 

1916 

68* 

84' 

30  June—  30  Deo. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


Rupee  taken  at  K.  44. 


*  The  tabular  matter  in  this  article  will  appear  month  by  month,  the  figures 
being  corrected  to  date.  Stocks  eligible  for  Trustee  investments  are  so  designated.— ED. 


216 


The  Empire  Review 


market  has  had  no  corresponding  effect  on  the  market  for  gilt- 
edged  securities.  Indian  railways  have  kept  tolerably  steady  and 
Madras  stocks  have  displayed  some  rallying  power,  arising  from 
the  directors'  efforts  to  secure  good  terms  for  the  purchase  of 
the  undertaking  in  1907.  Bengal-Nagpur  is  a  strong  stock,  and 
though  eligible  for  trustee  investments,  can  be  bought  to  yield 
per  cent. 

INDIAN  RAILWAYS   AND   BANKS. 


Title. 

Subscribed. 

Last 
year's 
dividend. 

Share 
or 
Stock. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

Assam—  Bengal,  L.,  guaranteed  3  %    . 
Bengal  and  North-  Western  (Limited) 
Bengal  Central  (L)  g.  8$  %  +  Jth  profits 
Bengal  Oooars  L                       ... 

£ 
1,500,000 
2,750,000 
500,000 
150,000 

coo  >ou: 

100 
100 
5 
100 

93 
126£ 

1014 

3± 

I* 

4i$ 

Do  Shares       

250,000 

4 

10 

10 

4 

Bengal  Nagpur  (L),  gtd.  4%+  Jth  profits 
Bombay,  Bar.  &  0.  India,  gtd.,  5  %     . 
Burma  Guar.  24,  %  and  propn.  of  profits 
Delhi  Umballa  Kalka,  L.,  guar.  3|  %  +  \ 

3,000,000 
7,550,300 
2,000,000 

800,000 

6ft 
4| 

100 
100 
100 

100 

168£ 
114J 

X 

East  Indian  "A,"  ann.  cap.  g.  4%  -f  $\ 
BUT.  profits  (t)     j 

2,502,733 

5* 

100 

121 

*A* 

Do.  do,  class  "  D,"  repayable  1953  (t)  . 
Do.  4$  %  perpet.  deb.  stock  (f)  .     .     . 
Do  new  3  °/  deb.  red.  (t).               .     . 

4,047,267 
1,435,650 
5,000,000 

5 

? 

100 
100 
100 

132 

138 
95 

w 

Great  Indian  Peninsula  4%  deb.  Stock  (t) 
Do.  3%  Gua.  and  ^  surp.  profits  1925  (ft 
Indian  Mid.  L.  gua.  4%  &  |  surp.  profits^) 
Madras,  guaranteed  5  %  by  India  (t)    . 
Do.  do.  4f  %  (t)     

2,701,450 
2,575,000 
2,250,000 
8,757,670 
999,960 

4 
3| 

5 

4$ 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

125 
107 

121J 

r] 

344 

Do.  do.  44  %  (t)      .     .     . 

500  000 

4! 

100 

1134 

4 

Nizam's  State  Rail.  Gtd.  5  %  stock     . 
Do.  34,  %  red.  mort.  debs.     .... 
Rohilkund  and  Eumaon,  Limited.     . 
South  Behar,  Limited     

2,000,000 
1,112,900 
200,000 
379  580 

5 
3* 
8 
3* 

100 
100 
100 
100 

123 
954, 
1444. 
92 

$ 

31! 

South  Indian  4  J  %  per.  deb.  stock,  gtd. 
Do.  capital  stock  

425,000 
1,000  000 

3 

100 
100 

136 
114 

1 

Sthn.  Mahratta,  L.,  34,  %  &  $  of  profits 
Do.  4  %  deb.  stock     .           .... 

3,500,000 
1,195  600 

5 

4 

100 
100 

104 
111 

| 

Southern  Punjab,  Limited  .... 
Do.  34,  %  deb.  stock  red  
West  of  India  Portuguese,  guar.  L.     . 
Do.  5  %  debenture  stock  

966,000 
500,000 
800,000 
550,000 

4 

I* 
I 

100 
100 
100 
300 

97 
97 
85 
105 

*i 

3j 
6 
4$ 

BANKS. 

Chartered  Bank  of  India,  Australia,  \ 
and  China    / 

Number  of 
Shares. 

40,000 

10 

20 

424. 

AH 

National  Bank  of  India  .... 

40,000 

10 

12* 

28 

4^ 

3T5 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 
*  The  yield  given  makes  HO  allowance  for  extinction  of  capital. 

Canadian  Government  stocks  are  in  two  instances  somewhat 
easier  in  sympathy  with  the  general  movement  in  securities. 
Much  interest  has  been  attracted  to  the  market  for  Canadian 
railway  stocks.  The  undertakings  have  been  doing  so  well  that 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


217 


the  stocks  resisted  the  depressing  influence  of  the  demoralisation 
in  the  American  market  with  considerable  success.  It  is  reported 
that  the  dividend  announcement  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  resulted 
in  a  neat  little  catch  for  a  group  of  American  "  bears,"  who  sold  the 
stock  short  the  day  before  it  was  made.  When  it  became  known 
that  the  distribution  was  to  be  at  the  rate  of  6  per  cent,  per  annum, 
the  stock  bounded  up  several  points,  greatly  to  the  discomfiture 
of  the  group  in  question.  The  position  of  the  undertaking  is 

CANADIAN   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

4%  Inter-  U  Guaran- 
colonial/  1    teed  by 
4%    „        [     Great 

1,500,000 
1,500,000 

1908 
1910 

102 

104 

s* 

3| 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4%    „        J    Britain. 

1,700,000 

1913 

106 

3A 

4%  1874-8  Bonds.     . 
4  %      „       Ins.  Stock 
4  %  Reduced  Bonds    . 
4  %        „      Ins.  Stock 

4,099,700\ 
7,900,300J 
2,209,321\ 
4,233,815/ 

1904-Sf 
1910 

/  101£ 

\  1014 

/  104 
\  104 

CO  CO  CO  CO 

1  May—  1  Nov. 
1  Jan.—  1  July, 

3*  %  1884  Ins.  Stock  . 

4,605,000 

1909-34* 

102 

gl 

1  June—  1  Deo. 

4  %  1885  Ins.  Stock  . 
3  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

3,499,900 
10,101,321 

1910-35* 
1938 

105 
101 

H 

2rf 

|l  Jan.—  1  July. 

a*%    »          ..   (0 

2,000,000 

1947 

90 

21 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

PROVINCIAL. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

3  %  Inscribed  Stock  . 

1,324,760 

1941 

89 

N 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

MANITOBA. 

6  %  Debentures    .     . 
5  %  Sterling  Bonds    . 

346,700 
308,000 

1910 
1923 

105 
114 

£ 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4%       „        Debs.     . 

205,000 

1928 

103 

m 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

NOVA  SCOTIA. 

3%  Stock  .... 

164,000 

1949 

92 

3A 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

QUEBEC. 

5  %  Bonds  .... 

1,199,100 

1904-6 

101J 

*i 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3%  Inscribed  .     .     . 

1,890,949 

1937 

89 

3 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

MUNICIPAL. 

Hamilton  (City  of)  4% 
Montreal    3    %    Deb.  I 
Stock      .     .     .     ./ 

482,800 
1,440,000 

1934 

permanent 

103 

90 

8f 

3| 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 
1  May—  1  Nov. 

Do.  4  %  Cons.    „ 

1,821,917 

1932 

107 

3f 

Ottawa  6  %  Bonds     . 

92,400 

1904 

102 

4 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Quebec  4%  Debs.  .     . 
Do.  3$  %  Con.  Stock  . 

385,000 
351,797 

1923 
drawings 

102 
96 

«f 

N 

Jl  Jan.—  1  July. 

Toronto  5  %  Con.  Debs. 

136,700 

1919-20 

109 

A 

Do.  4  %  Stg.  Bonds    . 
Do.  4  %  Local  Impt.  . 
Do.  3i  %  Bonds    .     . 

300,910 
412,544 
1,059,844 

1922-28f 
1913 
1929 

101 
100 
98 

«f 

4 
3| 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Vancouver  4  %  Bonds 

121,200 

1931 

102 

3?f 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Do.  4%  40-year  Bonds 

117,200 

1932 

lOOx 

4 

7  Feb.—  7  Aug. 

Winnipeg  5  %  Debs.  . 

138,000 

1914 

106 

*& 

30  Apr.—  31  Oct. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

(t)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


218 


The  Empire  Review 


CANADIAN   RAILWAYS,   BANKS   AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid  up 
per 
Share. 

Price. 

Yield 

RAILWAYS, 

* 

Canadian  Paoifio  Shares     .     . 
Do.  4  7  Preference  .... 

$84,500,000 
£6,678,082 

5 

$100 
100 

128J 
106 

3f 

3H 

Do.  5  %  Stg.  1st  Mtg.  Bd.  1915 
Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock  .     . 
Grand  Trunk  Ordinary. 
Do.  5  %  1st  Preference  .     .     . 
Do.  5  %  2nd      

£7,191,500 
£13,518,956 
£22,475,985 
£3,420,000 
£2,530,000 

5 
4 
nil 
5 
5 

100 
100 
Stock 
11 
it 

110 
111* 

112* 
99 

3*f 
^ 

if 

£7,168,055 

1 

H 

49| 

2 

Do.  4  %  Guaranteed      .     ... 

£5,219,794 

4 

ti 

102J 

3il 

Do.  5  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock  .     . 

£4,270,375 

5 

100 

136* 

3^J 

Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock  .     * 

£10,393,966 

4 

100 

108 

3» 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Bank  of  Montreal    .... 

60,000 

10 

$200 

500 

4 

Bank  of  British  North  America 

20,000 

6 

50 

68 

*ft 

Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce  . 

$8,000,000 

7 

$•50 

16 

3 

Canada  Company     .... 

8,319 
100,000 

60s. 
22s.  6d. 

1 

11* 

36J 
35 

It 

Trust  and  Loan  of  Canada.     . 

50,000 

7 

5 

4| 

3 

25,000 

7 

3 

s 

British  Columbia  Eleotrio\0rd. 

£210,000 

4 

Stock 

73i 

^A 

Railway  /Pref  . 

£200,000 

5 

Stock 

92* 

57 

• 

£2  capital  repaid  July  190a 


NEWFOUNDLAND   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

3*  %  Sterling  Bonds 

2,178,800 

1941-7-8 

92 

3$ 

3  %  Sterling       „ 

325,000 

1947 

79 

4 

4  %  Inscribed     ,, 

320,000 

1913-38* 

103 

N 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4  %        „       Stock 

509,342 

1935 

107 

4  %  Cons.  Ins.       . 

200,000 

1936 

107 

3H 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

exceedingly  strong,  as  the  net  revenue  of  $9,921,460  is  sufficient 
to  pay  10  per  cent,  on  the  common  stock.  The  Grand  Trunk 
accounts  have  somewhat  disappointed  the  more  sanguine  expec- 
tations, which  rose  to  a  small  distribution  on  the  Third  Preference 
Stock.  The  gross  traffic  receipts  for  the  half-year  were,  it  is 
true,  some  £401,000  more  than  were  earned  in  the  first  six 
months  of  1902,  but  including  a  sum  of  £15,000  devoted  to 
bridge  renewals,  the  expenses  also  increased  to  the  extent  of 
£392,000,  leaving  only  £8000  to  add  to  the  net  revenue,  for  as 
£4000  less  were  brought  into  the  account,  the  only  gain  as 
compared  with  the  corresponding  period  a  year  ago  is,  that  after 
paying  the  dividend  on  the  Second  Preference  Stock,  the  balance 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


219 


to  be  carried  forward  is  £5000,  as  against  £2800  last  year. 
The  shares  of  the  Bank  of  Montreal  have  once  more  risen  to 
$500,  a  notable  movement  in  these  times  of  general  depres- 
sion ;  those  of  the  Bank  of  British  North  America  have 
receded  slightly,  and  Hudson  Bays  have  steadied  down  to  35, 
and  will  not,  perhaps,  be  the  subject  of  much  speculation  until 
the  financial  year  gets  older. 

In  view  of  the  near  approach  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's  fiscal 
campaign  the  Return,  compiled  by  that  able  public  servant,  Sir 
Alfred  Bateman,  and  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade  a  few  days 
ago,  showing  the  working  of  the  Canadian  preferential  tariff  is 
both  timely  and  instructive.  The  figures  give  the  yearly  value 
of  imports  for  consumption  from  the  United  Kingdom  and  the 
United  States  into  Canada  since  the  Canadian  preferential  tariff 
on  British  goods  came  into  force,  and  of  the  different  rebates 
on  the  duty  allowed  on  goods  from  the  United  Kingdom. 
In  considering  the  first  set  of  figures  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  reciprocal  tariff,  according  preferential  treatment  to  goods 
from  the  United  Kingdom  and  certain  British  possessions  and 
foreign  countries  (not  including  the  United  States)  came  into 
operation  on  April  23rd,  1897,  and  the  British  preferential  tariff 
according  preferential  treatment  to  British  goods  only,  on  August 
1st,  1898. 

TABLE  SHOWING  IMPORTS  FOB  CONSUMPTION  PROM  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 
AND  THE  UNITED  STATES  INTO  CANADA. 


Years  ending 
30th  June. 

Imports  for  Consumption  (including 
Bullion  and  Specie). 

From  the  United 
Kingdom. 

From  the  United 
States. 

1897   

£* 
6,043,600 
6,678,271 
7,615,094 
9,208,369 
8,839,349 
10,114,579 

JB* 
12,667,611 
16,172,382 
19,111,062 
22,570,763 
22,702,399 
24,884,143 

1898  .... 

1899  
1900  

1901  

1902  

*  Conversions  into  £  sterling  have  been  made  at  the  rate  of  4*.  Hd.  per  dollar. 

The  following  rebates  of  duty  were  allowed  on  articles  the 
growth,  produce,  or  manufacture  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
imported  direct  into  Canada  :  — 


(i.)  Under  the  Eeciprocal  Tcuriff. 


Period. 


April  23rd,  1897,  to  June  30th,  1898 
July  1st,  1898,  to  July  31st,  1898 


Rebate  of  Duty  allowed 
on  goods  from  the 
United  Kingdom. 


220 


The  Empire  Review 


No  reduction  of  duty,  under  the  reciprocal  tariff  (in  force 
until  July  31st,  1898),  was  allowed  on  wines,  malt  liquors, 
spirits,  spirituous  liquors,  liquid  medicines,  and  articles  containing 
alcohol  ;  sugar,  molasses,  and  syrups  of  all  kinds,  the  product  of 
the  sugar-cane  or  beetroot  ;  tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigarettes. 


(ii.)  Under  the  British  Preferential  Tariff. 


Period 


August  1st,  1898,  to  June  30th,  1900 
July  1st.  1900,  to  the  present  time  * 


Rebate  of  Duty  allowed 

on  goods  from  the 

United  Kingdom 

Jth 


*  August,  1903. 

No  reduction  of  duty,  under  the  British  preferential  tariff, 
is  allowed  on  wines,  malt  liquors,  spirits,  spirituous  liquors,  liquid 
medicines,  and  articles  containing  alcohol;  tobacco,  cigars,  and 
cigarettes.  The  reduction,  as  regards  refined  sugar,  is  only  to 
apply  when  evidence  satisfactory  to  the  Minister  of  Customs 
is  furnished  that  such  refined  sugar  has  been  manufactured 
wholly  from  raw  sugar  produced  in  the  British  colonies  or  posses- 
sions. It  is  further  provided  that  manufactured  articles  to  be 
admitted  under  such  preferential  tariff  from  the  United  Kingdom 
shall  be  bond  fide  the  manufactures  of  that  country,  and  that  such 
benefits  shall  not  extend  to  the  importation  of  articles  into  the 
production  of  which  there  has  not  entered  a  substantial  portion 
of  the  labour  of  such  country.  The  regulations  for  the  entry  of 
goods  under  the  British  preferential  tariff  provide  that  the 
portion  of  the  labour  entering  into  the  production  of  every  manu- 
factured article  must  be  not  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  value  of 
the  article  in  its  condition  ready  for  export  to  Canada. 

In  connection  with  this  information  it  may  be  convenient 
for  readers  to  have  before  them  the  following  table  showing  the 
population  of  Canada  in  each  of  the  years  1897  to  1902,  and 
for  that  purpose  I  have  made  the  following  extract  from  the 
'  Statistical  Year  Book  of  Canada.' 


Years  ended 
30th  June. 

Estimated 
Population. 

Years  ended 
30th  June. 

Estimated 
Population. 

1897. 

No. 
5,141,508 

1900 

No. 
5  322  348 

1898.      . 

5  199  267 

1001  * 

5371   m  ^ 

1899.     ..... 

5,259  491 

1902 

54.KA    QQ1 

*  Census  of  March  31st,  1901. 

Australian  securities  of  every  description  have  been  adversely 
affected  by  the  depressing  influences  prevailing  in  other  depart- 
ments. The  poor  reception  accorded  to  the  recent  Queensland 
3J  per  cent,  loan  did  not  help  matters,  while  the  knowledge 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


221 


that  other  States  desire  to  come  upon  the  market  tends  to 
keep  prices  at  a  low  level.  As  the  Queensland  loan  was,  I 
understand,  fully  underwritten,  the  State  will  obtain  the  required 
funds,  but  it  must  be  conceded  that  the  Government  was  unfortu- 
nate in  not  securing  a  larger  measure  of  public  success  for  the 
issue.  Conditions  just  prior  to  its  appearance  seemed  fairly 
favourable,  and  a  3J  per  cent.  Trustee  stock  at  a  net  price  not 
much  above  95  ought  to  have  been  tempting  even  in  bad  times ; 
but  the  actual  issue  of  the  prospectus  took  place  at  a  most 
gloomy  moment,  when  no  offer  was  good  enough  to  attract 
either  the  market  or  investors. 


AUSTRALIAN  GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

1                                •      -A    . 

4%  Inscribed  Stock 

t)       9,686,300 

1933 

108 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3$  /o      t>              »» 

3<y 
^           •)                   ii 

I 

16,500,000 
12,500,000 

1924 
1935 

100 
89 

jl  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

VICTORIA. 

4£%  Bonds      .     .     .   !    5,000,000 
4  %  Inscribed,  1882-3        5,421,800 

1904 
1908-13f 

101 
101* 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 
1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4%         ,,         1885(0        6,000,000 

1920 

105 

3£  %       „         1889  (t) 

5,000,000 
2,107,000 

1921-6f 
1911-26* 

98 
100 

4 

11  Jan.—  1  July, 

3  %         ,','         (0  '     '. 

5.559,343 

1929-49f 

90 

3& 

QUEENSLAND. 

4  %  Bonds  .... 

10,267,400 

1913-15f 

101 

3* 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock 
3J  %      „ 

1 

7,939,000 
8,616,034 

1924 
1921-30f 

104 
96 

s 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 

Q  o/ 
d  7o             >»                       »J 

t) 

4,274,213 

1922-47f 

90 

3/8 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

4%  Bonds  .     .     .     *  ! 

6,586,700 

1907-16t 

100£ 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock   . 

1,365,300 
6,222,900 

1916 
1916-36* 

101 
103£ 

jl  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

3J  %      )>              i< 

t 

2,517,800 

1939 

100 

3$ 

3O/ 
/o             »>                     » 

t 

839,500 
2,760,100 

1916-26J 
After  1916J 

90 
90 

4 
4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA. 

4  %o  Inscribed  .     .     . 

1,876,000 

1911-31* 

103 

3H 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

3%°      "          (t)  '.     '. 

2,380,000 
3,750,000 

1920-35* 
1915-351 

99 
90 

31* 

jl  May—  1  Nov. 

3%        »          (4  •     • 

2,500,000 

1927J 

90 

1 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 

TASMANIA, 

3}  %  Insobd.  Stock 

') 

3,456,500 

1920-40* 

100 

3i 

) 

4  °/0         „            ,, 

t)       1.000,000 

1920-40* 

107 

3JL 

}1  Jan.—  1  July, 

Q    OS 

t)          450,000 

1920-40* 

91 

s| 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

I  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 


%  No  allowance  for  redemption. 
(*)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


222 


The  Empire  Review 


AUSTRALIAN   MUNICIPAL  AND   OTHER   BONDS. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Melbourne*  Met.  Bd.\ 
of  Works  4%  Debs.  / 

1,000,000 

1921 

102 

Bf 

1  Apl.—  1  Oct. 

Do.  City  4%  Debs.      . 

850,000    !  1915-22* 

101 

4 

Do.    Harbour    Trust\ 
Comrs.  5%  Bds.       ./ 

500,000 

1908-9 

102J 

*& 

1  Jan.—  1  July 

Do.  4%  Bds.     .     .     . 

1,250,000 

1918-21* 

101 

3H 

Melbourne        Trams\ 
Trust  4J%  Debs.    ./ 

1,650,000 

1914-16* 

105 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

S.Melbourne  4*%  Debs. 

128,700 

1919 

101 

*T7« 

Sydney  4%  Debs.  .     . 

640,000 

1912-13 

101 

aP 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  4%  Debs.  .     .     . 

800,000 

1919 

101 

8tf 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

AUSTRALIAN  RAILWAYS,   BANKS  AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

1° 

Emu  Bay  and  Mount  Bischoff  .     .     . 

12,000 

2* 

5 

Do.  4$%  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .... 

£130,900 

4 

100 

Mid.  of  Western  Australia  6  %  Debs.  . 

£670,000 

nil 

100 

Do.  4  %  Deb.  Bonds,  Guaranteed  .     . 

£500,000 

4 

100 

101 

3ti 

BANES  AND  COMPANIES. 

Bank  of  Australasia  

40,000 

11 

40 

83 

55 

Bank  of  New  South  Wales  .... 

'100,000 

10 

20 

40 

5 

Union  Bank  of  Australia  £75    .     .     . 

60,000 

8 

25 

38 

Do.  4  %  Inscribed  Stock  Deposits  .     . 

£750,000 

4 

100 

99 

4.  i 

Australian  Mort.  Land  &  Finance  £25 

80,000 

nil 

5 

2 

nil 

Do.  4  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock    .... 

£1,900,000 

4 

100 

*1 

Dalgety  &  Co.  £20     

154,000 

5 

4i 

el 

Do.  4J  %  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .     .     .     . 
Do.  4%           „                               .     . 
Goldsbrough  Mort  &  Co.  4  %  A  Deb.\ 
Stock  Reduced  / 

£620,000 
£1,643,210 

£1,234,350 

4 

100 
100 

100 

110$ 
65J 

"8 

a 

Do.  B  Income  Reduced  

£740,610 

4 

100 

Hi 

Australian  Agricultural  £25      .     .     . 
South  Australian  

20,000 
14,200 

£2| 

21* 
20 

58* 
48 

$ 

Trust  &  Agency  of  Australasia       .     . 

42,479 

nil* 

1 

*T5 

Do.  5  %  Cum.  Pref  

87,500 

5 

10 

'01 

51 

Met.  of  Melb.  Gas  5  %  Debs.  1908-12. 

£560,000 

5 

100 

105 

C»8 

4| 

Do.  4$  %  Debs.  1918-22-24  .... 

£250,000 

4 

100 

103 

Some  of  the  Australian  States  have  good  cause  to  be  thankful 
to  the  Federal  Treasurer  in  that  he  was  able,  during  the  past 
financial  year,  to  return  them  a  much  larger  sum  than  was 
estimated.  But  for  this  adventitious  aid  their  budget  statements 
would  make  a  poor  showing.  Thus  New  South  Wales,  in  spite 
of  an  increase  of  £353,000  in  revenue,  finishes  up  the  financial 
year  with  a  debit  balance  of  £247,000,  which,  added  to  the 
deficits  brought  forward  from  previous  years,  makes  a  total 
adverse  balance  of  £484,000.  The  loan  account  is  also  over- 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments  223 

drawn  to  the  extent  of  nearly  £2,800,000,  and  though  this  is  a 
large  reduction  on  the  debit  balance  at  the  end  of  the  previous 
year,  the  position  is  by  no  means  healthy.  The  policy  of 
economy  in  administration,  and  strict  limitation  of  loan  expen- 
diture which  Mr.  Waddell,  the  Treasurer,  has  recently  advocated, 
is  indeed  urgently  needed.  Whether  he  will  be  able  to  carry  it 
out  in  the  face  of  labour  party  opposition  remains  to  be  seen. 

Queensland,  albeit  she  has  made  efforts  at  retrenchment 
worthy  of  all  praise,  is  nevertheless  left  with  a  deficit  of 
£190,000  as  the  result  of  the  year's  working.  Prospects  are 
however  much  brighter  than  they  have  been  for  a  long  time. 
Further  steps  are  to  be  taken  to  secure  an  equilibrium  of  revenue 
and  expenditure.  Among  other  things  the  number  of  legislators 
is  to  be  reduced,  and  when  this  and  other  reforms  are  carried 
out,  the  finances  of  the  State  should  soon  wear  a  better  aspect. 
In  the  meantime,  however,  it  is  unfortunate  to  find  that  the 
Treasury  returns  for  the  first  month  of  the  current  year  show 
reduced  receipts  and  an  increased  expenditure. 

On  the  other  hand  Victoria  is  in  the  fortunate  position  of 
ending  up  a  difficult  year  with  a  balance  on  the  right  side,  the 
approximate  surplus  being  £153,000.  This  is  entirely  attributable 
to  the  unexpectedly  large  returns  from  the  Commonwealth,  but 
the  result  is  none  the  less  satisfactory,  seeing  that  when  the  year 
began  the  State  was  faced  with  a  prospective  deficit  of  nearly 
£1,000,000.  Mr.  Shiels,  who,  I  regret  to  see,  is  retiring  from 
the  treasurership  on  account  of  ill-health,  may  well  congratulate 
himself  on  his  achievement.  The  South  Australian  Govern- 
ment has  secured  a  modest  increase  in  revenue  for  the  year,  and 
when  the  final  figures  are  made  up,  the  Treasurer  expects  to 
show  a  small  surplus. 

A  specially  interesting  report  has  been  issued  by  The  Com- 
mercial Banking  Company  of  Sydney,  Limited,  for  the  half-year 
to  30th  June  last.  The  record  of  this  institution  during  the  last 
ten  years  has  been  one  of  quiet  but  uninterrupted  progress.  The 
development  which  the  period  named  has  witnessed  in  the  bank's 
operations  has  been  accompanied  by  a  more  than  corresponding 
growth  in  liquid  assets,  and  in  this  respect  the  position  is  un- 
doubtedly stronger  than  ever  before.  Profits  have  also  steadily 
increased,  and  while  the  dividend  has  been  raised  from  8  to  10 
per  cent.,  the  amount  carried  forward  has  been  augmented  each 
half-year.  The  feature  of  the  present  report  is  the  transfer  of 
£15,000  to  reserve  fund,  in  addition  to  the  usual  dividend  distri- 
bution of  10  per  cent.  This  is  the  first  allocation  to  reserve 
that  has  been  made  since  1893,  and  the  fund  is  thereby  raised 
to  £1,025,000,  or  £25,000  more  than  the  paid-up  capital.  The 
transfer  involves  this  time  a  reduction  of  about  £6000  in  the 


224 


The  Empire  Review 


amount  carried  forward,  but  still  implies  an  increase  of  £9000 
in  the  net  profit  earned. 

New  Zealand's  Budget  statement  is  quite  up  to  the  standard 
of  recent  years,  and  shows  a  surplus  of  £303,000  out  of  a  revenue 
amounting  to  £6,447,000.  Mr.  Seddon,  moreover,  foreshadows 
a  surplus  of  £500,000  on  the  current  year's  transactions.  He 
proposes  raising  a  loan  of  £1,000,000  during  the  year,  and  antici- 
pates no  difficulty  in  obtaining  it  locally.  The  Bank  of  New 
Zealand  has  again  fully  participated  in  the  national  prosperity. 
The  report  for  the  year  to  31st  March  discloses  profits  amounting 
to  £290,590,  being  approximately  the  same  as  for  the  previous 
year.  Of  this,  £80,000  goes  in  payment  of  interest  on  the 

NEW  ZEALAND   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

5  %  Bonds  .... 

266,300 

1914 

108 

q 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 

5  %  Consolidated  Bonds 

236,400 

1908 

101 

4£f 

Quarterly. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

29,150,302 

1929       i     108 

3^ 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3J%      „           ,,      U 

6,161,167 

1940      !     101 

3JL 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3%        ii           n      W 

5,134,005 

1945       |      91 

8A 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

(*)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


NEW  ZEALAND   MUNICIPAL  AND  OTHER   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Auckland  5%  Deb. 

200,000 

1934-S* 

Ill* 

4| 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  Hbr.  Bd.  5%  Debs. 

150,000 

1917 

107 

^T5B 

10  April—  10  Oct. 

Bank  of  New  Zealand\ 
4%  Qua.  Stockf     ./ 

£2,000,000 

99* 

*& 

Apr.—  Oct. 

Christchurch  6%  Drain- 
age Loan      .     .     . 

|    200,000 

1926 

126* 

*& 

30  June—  31  Dec. 

Dunedin  5%  Cons.      . 

312,200 

1908 

103 

4A 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Lyttleton  Hbr.  Bd.  6% 

200,000 

1929 

126* 

*& 

Napier    Hbr.  Bd.  5%\ 
Debs  / 

300,000 

1920 

106 

4* 

il  Jan.—  1  July, 

Do.  5%  Debs.  .     .     . 

200,000 

1928 

104 

4| 

National  Bank  of  N.Z.\ 
£7*  Shares  £2*  paid/ 

100,000 

div.10% 

Jan.  —  July. 

New  Plymouth  Hbr.\ 
Bd.6%Debs.     .     ./ 

200,000 

1909 

104* 

•A 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Oamaru  5%  Bds.  .     . 

173,800 

1920 

91 

5^ 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Otago  Hbr.  Cons.  Bds.\ 
5%      ) 
Wellington  6%  Impta.\ 
Loan  / 

417,500 
100,000 

1934 
drawings 

106 
121* 

«l 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 
1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  6%  Waterworks  . 
Do.  4*%  Debs..     .     . 
WestportHbr.4%Debs. 

130,000 
165,000 
150,000 

1933 
1925 

126* 
104 
104 

1 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 
1  May—  1  Nov. 
1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

earlier?61*1  calculated  on  tater  date  °*  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
t  Guaranteed  by  New  Zealand  Government. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


225 


,£2,000,000  ,of  Guaranteed  Stock,  and  a  dividend  of  5  per  cent, 
on  the  ordinary  shares  requires  only  ,£21,180.  A  sum  of  £15,000 
is  applied  in  reduction  of  Property  and  Premises  accounts,  and 
there  remains  for  transfer  to  the  Assets  Realisation  Board,  the 
substantial  sum  of  £124,410,  in  addition  to  the  statutory  pay- 
ment of  £50,000. 

South  African  Government  stocks,  like  everything  else,  have 
given  way  to  some  extent,  and  the  fresh  borrowing  that  is  in 
contemplation  will  have  very  little  chance  on  the  London  market 
at  present.  The  trade  figures  of  Cape  Colony  are  equally  satisfac- 
tory with  those  of  the  Budget,  referred  to  last  month.  The 
imports  for  the  year  ending  June  30th  last  amounted  to  £37,694,143 
as  compared  with  £27,752,863  for  1901-2,  and  the  exports  to 
£22,850,198  against  £12,693,756.  The  latter  include  gold  exports  ; 
but  even  allowing  for  that  the  expansion  is  remarkable,  and 
hardly  justifies  the  disappointment  that  has  been  expressed  as  to 
the  effect  on  trade  of  the  termination  of  the  war.  The  output 
of  gold  from  the  Transvaal  for  July,  for  the  first  time  since  the 
war,  exceeded  £1,000,000  in  value,  but  the  growth  is  still  very 
slow  compared  with  what  it  might  be  if  an  ample  supply  of 
labour  could  be  secured.  The  objections  to  the  importation  of 
Chinese  coolies  seem  to  be  growing  weaker,  and  it  would  not 
be  surprising  if  the  experiment  were  put  into  practice  on  a 
tentative  scale  before  long.  In  the  meantime  except  for  a 
slight  rally  recently  the  market  for  mining  shares  has  been 
extremely  dull,  and  prices  have  further  declined.  Banks  and 
Miscellaneous  South  African  shares  have  given  way  also  in 
sympathy. 

Khodesian  securities  almost  always  move  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  those  of  the  other  South  African  Colonies,  but  they  have 


SOUTH   AFRICAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

GAPS  COLONY, 

£ 

4*  %  Bonds      .     . 

970,900 

dwgs. 

104 

*§ 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

4  %  1883  Inscribed 

3,733,195 

1923 

108 

3& 

1  June—  1  Deo. 

4  %  1886        „ 

9,997,566 

1916-36* 

105 

3? 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

3*  %  1886      „ 

8,215,080 

1929-49* 

99 

3& 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

37o  1886        „ 

7,448,367 

1933-43* 

89 

sF 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

NATAL. 

4J  %  Bonds,  1876  .     . 

758,700 

1919 

109 

3*i 

16  Mar.—  16  Sep. 

4  %  Inscribed  .     .     . 

3,026,444 

1937 

115 

Apr.—  Oct. 

34%        „             -     . 

3,714,917 

1939 

102 

iff 

1  June—  1  Deo, 

3%    ,; 

6,000,000 

1929-49* 

92 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

•  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

VOL.  VL— No.  32. 


Q 


226 


The  Empire  Review 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  RAILWAYS,  BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

£2,500,000 

5 

100 

102 

415 

Northern  Railway  of  the  8.  African  } 

£1,500,000 

nil 

100 

nil 

2 

Pretoria-Pietersburg  4  %  Debs.  Red.   . 

£1,005,400 

4 

100 

100 

4 

Rhodesia  Rlys.  5  %  1st  Mort.   Debs.\ 
guar.  by  B.S.A.  Co.  till  1915.     .     ./ 
Royal  Trans-African  5  %  Debs.  Red.  . 

£2,000,000 
£1,814,877 

5 
5 

100 
100 

106 

4| 
*f 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Robinson  South  African  Banking  .     . 

1,500,000 

74 

1 

li 

5 

African  Banking  Corporation  £10  shares 
Bank  of  Africa  £18|  

80,000 
120,000 

6 
12 

5 

GJ 

13 

§* 

Standard  Bank  of  S.  Africa  £100    .     . 

50,000 

17 

25 

82 

5^ 

Ohlsson's  Cape  Breweries     .     .     »,  ;  ^ 

30,000 

52 

5 

26 

10 

South  African  Breweries      .     .     .  .. 

750,000 

30 

1 

3 

10 

British  South  Africa  (Chartered)   .   ":>;& 

4,568,392 

nil 

1 

2^ 

nil 

Do  5  7  Debs.  Red.    .                .     .     « 

£1,250,000 

5 

100 

103Ax 

4i| 

Natal  Land  and  Colonization    .     .     . 

34,033 

15 

5 

8 

9| 

Cape  Town  &  District  Gas  Light  &  Coke 

10,000 

10 

10 

15 

SB 

Kimberley  Waterworks  £10.     .     .     . 

45,000 

5 

7 

4^ 

7f 

South  African  Supply  and  Cold\  Or-d. 

300,000 

£4 

1 

.  , 

Storage  /  Pref  . 

150,000 

7 

1 

resisted  the  downward  tendency  to  some  extent.  The  country 
has  a  sufficiency  of  native  labour  for  its  own  needs,  though  it 
has  none  to  spare  for  the  Transvaal.  The  mining  industry, 
which  must  be  its  mainstay  for  some  years  to  come,  is  making 
fair  progress,  the  output  for  July  constituting  a  further  "  best  on 
record."  What  this  means  by  comparison  can  be  judged  from 
the  following  statement,  which  gives  the  monthly  output  of  gold 
from  practically  the  commencement  of  the  industry. 


1903. 

1902. 

1901. 

1900. 

1899. 

January  

oz. 
16  245 

oz. 
15  955 

oz. 
10  697 

oz. 
5  242 

oz. 
6,671 

February     

17,090 

13,204 

12  237 

6,233 

6,433 

March     . 

19,626 

16  891 

14  289 

6  286 

6  614 

April  . 

20  727 

17  559 

14  998 

5  456 

5  755 

May  . 

22  137 

iq'fiQft 

UARQ 

fi  554 

4  939 

June  
July  
August    

22,166 
23,571 

15,842 
15,226 
15  747 

14,863 
15,651 
14  734 

6,185 

5,738 
10  138 

6,104 
6,031 
3  177 

September   . 

IK  iA4 

1Q    QKQ 

10  749 

5  653 

October  

16  849 

14  503 

10*727 

4  276 

November    . 

15  923 

16  486 

9  169 

4  671 

December    

16,210 

15,174 

9,463 

5,289 

Total     .... 

141,562 

194,268 

172,059 

91,940 

65,313 

The  means  of  communication  are  being  rapidly  extended,  a 
most  important  consideration  in  a  territory  of  so  wide  an  extent. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


227 


The  development  of  the  copper  deposits  in  the  north,  upon 
which  great  hopes  are  fixed,  largely  depends  upon  their  being 
brought  into  touch  with  the  railway  system. 

The  Sugar  Convention  Act  is  now  added  to  the  list  of 
Imperial  enactments,  but  the  accomplishment  of  this  most  desir- 
able piece  of  legislation  has  had  not  the  slightest  effect  on  the 
securities  of  the  Colonies  concerned,  none  of  these  securities 
having  changed  in  price  since  last  month.  These  securities,  it 
will  be  seen  from  our  table,  give  a  return  of  about  3J  per  cent., 

CROWN  COLONY   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When 
Redeemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Barbadoes  3£%  ins.    . 

375,000 

1925-42f 

101 

37 

1  Mar.—  1  Sep. 

Brit.  Guiana  3%  ins.  . 

250,000 

1923-45* 

90 

3§ 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Ceylon  4%  ins.  .     .     . 

1,076,100 

1934 

112 

3| 

15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3%  ins  

2,450,000 

1940 

96 

u 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Hong-Kong  3$  %  ins  (t) 
Jamaica  4%  ins.    .     . 

341,800 
1,098,907 

1918-43* 
1934 

102 
106 

8§ 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3£%ins.     .     .     . 
Mauritius    3%  guar.\ 
Great  Britain  (t)     ./ 

1,449,800 
600,000 

1919-49* 
1940 

100 

98* 

Sb 

24Jan.—  24July, 
1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Do.  4%  ins  

482,390 

1937 

110 

3* 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Trinidad  4%  ins.  (t)    . 
Do.  3%  ins.  (0  ... 

422,593 
600,000 

1917-42* 
1926-44f 

104 
91 

£ 

15  Mar.—  15  Sep. 
15  Jan.—  15  July. 

Hong-Kong  &  Shang-\ 
hai  Bank  Shares     .  / 

80,000 

Div.  £3$ 

65 

H 

Feb.—  Aug. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  shorter  period.  f  Yield  calculated  on  longer  period. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

and  in  view  of  the  efforts  that  are  being  made  in  behalf  of  the 
various  dependencies,  the  stocks  should  take  on  an  even  more 
stable  character  than  they  possess  at  present.  The  settlement 
of  the  exchange  question  in  the  Straits  Settlements  should  have 
a  beneficial  influence  in  many  directions,  as  did  the  fixing  of  the 
rupee  exchange  in  India.  Singapore  and  Penang  are  not,  how- 
ever, represented  by  any  issue  of  securities  on  the  London 
market. 

TRUSTEE. 

August  Wnd,  1903. 


Q  2 


228  The  Empire  Review 


LETTERS   TO   THE   EDITOR 
I. 

SIDELIGHTS  ON  MB.   SEDDON'S  LABOUR   POLICY. 
To  the  Editor  of  THE  EMPIEE  EEVIEW. 

NEW  ZEALAND  is  one  of  the  few  countries  which  dabble,  in 
many  cases  successfully,  with  experimental  legislation.  Mr. 
Seddon,  whether  from  a  true  sympathy  with  the  working-man, 
or  from  a  desire  to  catch  votes,  has  for  many  years  made  it  his 
special  aim  to  legislate  in  favour  of  the  employe.  In  New 
Zealand  the  weekly  half-holiday  is  compulsory,  and  the  early- 
closing  movement  results  in  shops,  except,  perhaps,  those  of 
fruiterers  and  tobacconists,  being  closed  by  6  P.M. 

But  by  far  the  more  important  of  Mr.  Seddon's  socialistic 
enactments  is  the  Act  which  brought  into  being  the  Board  of 
Conciliation  and  the  Arbitration  Court.  It  was,  I  believe,  the 
intention  of  legislators  that  the  Board  should  adjudicate  in  dis- 
putes between  employers  and  employed,  and  only  in  difficult 
cases  were  matters  to  be  referred  to  the  Arbitration  Court. 
But  in  the  working  it  would  appear  that  the  Court  is  always 
sitting,  and  the  Board  so  rarely  engaged  as  to  cause  one  to 
wonder  if  it  really  exists.  The  main  question  that  occupies  the 
Court,  at  least  so  it  seems  to  the  onlooker,  is  the  raising  of 
wages.  For  in  very  few  cases  has  the  Court  decided  against  an 
increase  of  wage.  True,  in  one  instance  the  books  of  the  company 
were  produced,  and  as  the  accounts  showed  that  the  company 
was  paying  none  too  well,  the  Court  gave  an  award  to  the  effect 
that  the  wage  be  not  increased.  But  the  general  tendency  has 
been  to  give  a  substantial  increase  to  the  wage  of  the  workers 
seeking  the  adjudication  of  the  Arbitration  Court,  the  result  being 
a  corresponding  increase  in  the  prices  of  food-stuffs — meat,  bread, 
milk,  eggs,  and  other  staple  articles  of  diet. 

To  employers  the  working  of  the  Court  has  had  serious  con- 
sequences.   No  longer  may  they  engage  youths  at  low  wages. 


Letters  to  the  Editor  229 

Yet  in  justice  to  themselves  they  cannot  afford  to  give  raw,  inex- 
perienced boys  the  wages  which  the  law  demands.  No  doubt  in 
the  past  the  young  people  of  both  sexes  received  an  insufficient 
wage,  and  it  was  probably  this  cause  which  enabled  the  small 
business  man  to  compete  against  larger  ventures.  But  these 
small  employers  cannot  afford  to  pay  high  wages  for  inexperience, 
nor  can  they  fulfil  the  requirements  which  the  Court  demands  for 
men.  Consequently,  in  the  present  condition  of  things  the  small 
man  must  go  under.  This  seems  to  fetter  independence  and  give 
all  the  profit  to  the  larger  firms.  I  have  recently  heard  of  a  case — 
a  saddlery  business — in  which,  after  paying  the  wages  demanded, 
the  employer's  profit  was  sixpence  on  each  saddle.  The  saddles 
were  sent  across  to  Australia  and  realised  higher  prices,  but  the 
manufacturer  did  not  share  in  the  gain ;  his  profit  still  remained 
at  sixpence.  Is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that  many  employers  are 
obliged  to  enter  the  field  again  as  journeymen  ? 

A  firm  of  curriers  asked  their  men  the  lowest  wage  they  would 
take.  After  receiving  the  answer  it  was  decided  to  dismiss  the 
men,  and  import  expensive  machinery  to  do  the  work.  Another 
example  shows  how  the  ordinary  casual  employer  suffers.  A  man 
who  described  himself  as  a  rough  carpenter,  was  asked  to  make  a 
fowl  run,  of  which  even  an  amateur  can  make  a  fairly  successful 
job.  In  reply  to  the  usual  question  as  to  what  wages  he  expected 
the  man  quoted  the  minimum  wage  awarded  by  the  Court.  Being 
a  union  man  he  "  could  not  work  for  less."  His  offer  was  accepted 
and  the  job  handed  over  to  him.  And  a  more  slovenly  piece  of 
work  I  have  never  seen.  I  recently  watched  another  carpenter  at 
work.  In  three  hours  he  had  railed  on  to  the  supports  seven 
pieces  of  wood.  These  were  found  to  be  of  the  wrong  height. 
At  one  o'clock  he  began  to  take  them  off,  and  by  five  he  had 
replaced  them  by  seven  more  already  sawn  lengths.  That  was 
his  day's  work. 

Some  of  the  cases  before  the  Court  have  been  of  the  most  trivial 
nature.  Experts  have  even  been  summoned  to  decide  whether 
carpenters  were  "heavy  "  or  "light."  One  case  which  occupied 
a  two  days'  hearing,  was  to  decide  whether  the  work  of  the  men 
cited  was  cabinet-making  or  carpentering.  The  employers  had 
to  pay  accordingly— to  pay  the  experts,  the  expenses  of  the  trial, 
as  well  as  their  own  solicitor's  costs. 

The  findings  of  the  Court  vary  considerably.  For  instance,  it 
was  pointed  out  in  a  certain  trade,  that  the  Danneverke  men 
were  awarded  £2  25.,  while  at  Hastings  they  received  £2  5s., 
and  for  the  same  class  of  work  at  Napier  the  wages  were  fixed  at 
£2  10s.  Again  in  the  city  of  Auckland,  certain  journeymen  were 
required  to  be  paid  £3  per  week,  but  in  the  suburbs  they  were 
only  entitled  to  £2  25.  At  Wellington,  eleven  shillings  more 


230  The  Empire  Review 

per  week  were  given  than  in  the  same  trade  in  another  town. 
As  a  critic  justly  remarked  :— 

It  is  the  Court  itself  which  persistently  transgresses  the  common-sense  rule 
that  not  the  place  where  labour  is  sold,  but  the  market  value  of  labour,  should 
be  the  criterion  in  settling  disputes. 

With  all  these  restrictions,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  employers  begun  to  fight  shy  of  unionist  workmen.  But 
as  soon  at  it  became  apparent  that,  worried  by  wages  and 
untold  annoyances,  employers  were  inclined  to  refuse  employ- 
ment to  men,  who  would  or  could  take  only  the  wage  allotted 
by  the  Arbitration  Court  to  special  trades,  a  deputation  of  unionists 
waited  on  the  Premier.  They  pointed  out  the  grievance,  and 
urged  that  the  law  should  give  a  compulsory  preference  to 
unionists,  and  that  officers  should  be  appointed  who  would  see 
that  the  awards  were  enforced.  The  Premier  promised  to  bring 
both  matters  before  Parliament. 

The  first  serious  trouble  has  arisen  in  the  furniture  trade  in 
Auckland.  The  Court  had  decreed  that  men  classed  by  the 
union  as  "  competent,"  should  receive  Is.  3d.  per  hour.  With 
our  system  of  eight  hours'  work  per  day,  this  meant  an  earning 
of  ten  shillings.  Taking  advantage  of  a  slack  season,  the  Tonson 
Garlick  and  the  Direct  Supply  Companies  dismissed  such  of 
their  men  whom  they  considered  were  not  worth  to  them  the 
minimum  wage  of  Is.  3d.  per  hour.  The  employers  offered, 
however,  to  re-employ  these  hands  upon  their  obtaining  from 
their  union  certificates  as  "incompetents,"  entitling  them  to  the 
lower  wage  of  one  shilling  per  hour.  This  compromise  was  not, 
however,  taken  advantage  of,  and  the  men  elected  to  join  the 
ranks  of  the  unemployed.  Several  found  other  employment, 
and  the  remainder  received  assistance  from  various  trades  unions. 
Mr.  Tregear,  acting  for  the  Government,  came  from  Wellington  to 
bring  about  an  understanding.  Both  sides,  however,  remained 
firm,  and  the  peacemaker  returned  from  his  unsuccessful  quest. 
Deputations  then  approached  the  Premier,  who,  in  replying  to 
one  deputation  said,  that  if  the  law  did  not  give  that  protection 
to  employes  which  he  thought  every  employer  and  right-minded 
person  in  the  Colony  would  admit  they  were  entitled  to,  the  law 
must  be  altered  in  order  to  give  such  protection.  A  leading 
labour  leader  gave  his  opinion,  that  an  amending  Bill  was 
necessary  to  prevent  the  Act  becoming  a  dead  letter. 

For  several  weeks  the  deadlock  continued  until  the  Arbitra- 
tion Court  was  invited  to  enforce  their  award.  On  every  point 
raised  judgment  went  against  the  trades  union.  The  judge  failed 
to  see  any  intention  to  "  lock  out,"  or  to  injure  the  union.  It 
was  a  matter  of  necessary  regulation  of  business.  The  employers 


Letters  to  the  Editor  231 

had  not  discriminated  between  unionists  and  non-unionists.  In 
point  of  fact  the  men  were  not  dismissed,  but  suspended 
pending  their  receiving  permission  to  work  at  a  decreased 
wage.  During  the  hearing  of  the  case,  one  of  the  law  officers 
acting  for  the  workers  asserted  that  virtually  by  this  case  the 
efficacy  of  the  Industrial  Conciliation  and  Arbitration  Act  was  on 
its  trial.  This  suggestion  was  repudiated  by  the  judge,  who 
denied  also  that  a  decision  averse  to  the  applicants'  cause  emascu- 
lated the  Court's  award  or  destroyed  the  efficiency  of  the  present 
system  of  settling  labour  disputes.  The  matters  which  had  given 
rise  to  the  applications  for  enforcement  of  award,  had  been  clothed, 
according  to  the  judge,  with  an  importance  and  with  proportions 
they  did  not  merit. 

Thus  ended  the  first  serious  workers'  trouble  since  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  Act.  Up  to  the  present,  the  employes,  or  perhaps 
the  agents  who  make  their  living  out  of  the  workers,  have  shown 
too  great  a  desire  to  rush  into  litigation.  They  have  been  assisted 
by  the  law  officers  of  the  Crown  and  by  the  Labour  Department 
in  such  a  way  that  law  suits  cost  them  nothing.  The  employer 
has  lost  all  round.  Indirectly,  of  course,  the  workers  have  not 
gained  considerably,  for  the  increased  price  of  food-stuffs  militates 
against  them.  The  hardship  of  this  falls  upon  the  man  with 
small  fixed  income  who  finds  it  increasingly  harder  to  live. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  unionists  have  dissented  from  the 
finding  of  the  Court ;  and  their  representative  has  asserted  their 
determination  to  adhere  to  their  stated  position  and  to  have  the 
matter  brought  at  the  earliest  opportunity  before  Parliament  in 
the  coming  session.  In  Christchurch,  a  recent  meeting  of  the 
Gasfitters'  Union,  passed  a  motion  deciding  that  the  proceedings 
before  the  Arbitration  Court  be  withdrawn  as  no  confidence  could 
be  placed  in  that  body  in  view  of  the  recent  finding  of  the  Court 
in  Auckland  and  New  Plymouth.  This  coming  as  a  direct  result 
of  the  session  of  the  Court  is  of  importance.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  further  litigation  may  be  postponed  for  similar  reasons. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Premier  has  expressed  himself  as 
somewhat  dissatisfied  with  the  verdict.  He  has  declared  that  the 
action  of  the  employers  seems  to  him  suspiciously  like  a  lock-out, 
when  the  men  were  suddenly  declared  incompetent  to  earn  the 
wage  awarded  by  the  Court.  However,  the  Court  held  that 
the  Act  itself  was  in  no  jeopardy.  In  Mr.  Seddon's  opinion  an 
amendment  of  the  Act  is  necessary,  and  something  should  be  done 
to  provide  against  a  repetition  of  the  occurrence.  A  candid  friend 
suggests  that  the  matter  be  referred  to  the  Privy  Council.  But 
as  that  authority  is  out  of  favour  at  present  on  account  of  the 
judgment  in  the  Porirua  case,  there  is  but  little  chance  of  that 
step  being  taken. 


232  The  Empire  Review 

So  matters  stand  in  New  Zealand  at  present.  Both  parties 
are  awaiting  the  session  of  Parliament.  Each  seems  rather 
fearful  of  what  the  other  may  do.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
gap  be  supplied  with  Chinese  labour:  but  any  such  solution  is 
decidedly  unpopular.  The  stand  taken  by  the  unionists  appears 
hostile.  Some  weeks  ago  a  meeting  was  convened  by  a  private 
individual  for  the  purpose  of  protesting  against  a  promise  reported 
to  have  been  made  by  the  Premier  that  preference  to  unionists 
should  be  made  compulsory.  The  meeting  was  open  to  all  non- 
unionists  :  but  the  hall  was  invaded  by  unionists  who  interfered 
greatly  with  the  proceedings,  and  almost  succeeded  in  carrying 
a  hostile  motion. 

To  say  that  the  employers  shall  not  have  the  right  to  select 
their  own  men  is  obvious  tyranny.  The  band  of  organised 
workers  in  New  Zealand  is  only  a  small  proportion  of  the 
population  of  the  colony  :  and  to  say  that  they  shall  dictate  to 
the  rest  of  the  people  in  the  islands,  is  giving  great  power  to  the 
still  smaller  number  of  people  who  act  as  leaders  of  the  unionists. 
This  certainly  seems  an  infringement  of  the  liberty  of  the  subject. 
Mr.  Seddon  has  referred  to  the  fact  that  labour  in  the  colony  is 
on  a  very  satisfactory  footing :  but  the  next  minute  we  find  him 
saying  that  he  does  not  agree  with  the  principles  of  the  unionists 
in  not  wishing  for  an  influx  of  population.  Evidently  then,  signs 
are  not  wanting  that  unionists  are  apt  to  dictate  in  other  matters 
than  those  directly  concerning  them.  The  Premier  says  too,  that 
employers  are  safer  with  regard  to  their  property,  that  they  have 
better  machinery,  more  profits,  and  more  stability  than  in  the 
days  of  low  wages.  This  may  seem  so  to  the  Premier  who  sees 
and  judges  by  statistics :  but  the  general  feeling  seems  to  be  that 
of  a  smouldering  fire,  from  which  flames  may  break  at  any  time. 
Legislation  may  protect  the  employe:  but  soon,  as  matters  are 
tending,  the  poor  employer  will  need  very  great  protection  or  he 
will  fall  away,  and  in  his  place,  co-operative  labour  will  rear  its 
head. 

HILDA  KEANB. 

AUCKLAND,  June. 


Letters  to  the  Editor  233 


II. 
THE  PRESENT  AND  FUTURE  PROSPERITY  OF  CANADA. 

To  the  Editor  of  THE  EMPIRE  EEVIEW. 

DEAR  SIR. — The  following  facts  and  figures  concerning  the 
trade  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  for  the  year  1903,  should  be 
of  interest  to  your  readers  who  wish  to  keep  informed  as  to 
affairs  in  Greater  Britain. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  last,  the  trade  of  Canada 
was  $467,637,000,  showing  an  enormous  expansion  in  the  com- 
merce of  the  colony,  and  bearing  favourable  testimony  to  the 
wisdom  of  the  present  government's  fiscal  policy.  The  figures 
for  this  year  show  an  increase  of  $43,750,000  over  those  of 
1902.  On  the  basis  of  imports  which  actually  entered  into 
consumption,  and  Canadian  produce  only,  exported,  the  trade 
for  the  year  1903  amounted  to  $448,188,999,  compared  with 
$398,811,358  for  last  year,  being  an  increase  of  $49,377,641. 

In  1896  the  trade  of  the  Dominion  was  $220,502,817;  in 
1903  it  has  risen  to  $448,188,999.  In  other  words,  within  the 
past  seven  years  the  trade  of  Canada  has  more  than  doubled. 
During  the  period  of  National  Policy,  which  existed  for  nearly 
eighteen  years  prior  to  1896,  the  increase  was  only  $60,000,000, 
or  less  than  3  per  cent,  annually,  whilst  during  the  past  seven 
years  increase  has  been  about  15  per  cent,  annually,  and  for 
the  same  period  the  exports  alone  have  increased  about  130 
per  cent. 

Last  year  the  exports  of  Canadian  products  were  $37  per 
capita,  whilst  the  exports  from  the  United  States  were  but  $18 
per  capita.  Those  who  are  enthusiastic  believers  in  Canada's 
great  future  and  source  of  strength  to  the  Empire,  will  no  doubt 
read  with  great  satisfaction  that  the  total  trade  of  Canada, 
estimating  the  population  at  five  and  three  quarter  millions,  was 
last  year  $18  per  capita ;  while  the  United  States,  with  more 
than  fifteen  times  that  population,  was  but  $31  per  capita,  and 
this  during  times  of  unprecedented  prosperity  for  the  Union. 

Furthermore,  in  1850  the  United  States,  with  a  population 
of  over  twenty-three  millions,  had  a  total  foreign  trade  of 
$320,000,000.  The  Dominion  of  Canada,  a  century  younger, 
and  with  a  population  of  less  than  six  millions,  has  to-day  a 


234  The  Empire  Review 

foreign  trade  of  about  $470,000,000.  And  how  much  greater 
even  would  that  trade  be  to-day  if  our  short-sighted  people  of 
a  generation  ago  had  but  turned  their  energy  and  capital  into 
plans  for  the  development  of  Canada,  instead  of  pouring  millions 
upon  millions  of  British  capital  into  every  scheme  for  the 
development  of  the  United  States  and  the  South  American 
Kepublics,  often  getting  no  return  for  the  money  paid  out, 
especially  so  in  the  last-named  countries.  The  folly  of  that 
policy  is  shown  to-day  by  our  manufacturers  having  to  withstand 
fierce  competition  from  the  American  invasion. 

Canada  has  for  half  a  century  suffered  neglect  at  the  hands 
of  the  British  public  in  their  endeavour  to  develop  the  States. 
The  old  saying,  "It  is  never  too  late  to  mend,"  is  in  this  case 
applicable.  We  have  yet  the  opportunity  to  employ  our  energy 
in  the  development  of  Canada,  and  share  in  her  prosperity. 
The  American  has  already  seized  this  opportunity,  and  thousands 
of  his  countrymen  have  already  crossed  the  border  and  taken 
up  new  homes  under  the  British  flag,  with  the  object  of  bettering 
their  condition.  The  youth  of  England  should  also  grasp  this 
opportunity,  and  start  out  for  the  great  North  West,  taking  up 
lands  and  endeavouring  to  make  Canada  in  reality  Britain's 
granary,  by  developing  the  wheatfields  of  that  country. 

If  our  poor  in  the  crowded  cities  throughout  the  United 
Kingdom  could  only  be  brought  to  understand  the  boundless 
opportunities  open  to  them  for  agricultural  developments  as  well 
as  timber  and  mineral  products,  which  are  freely  offered  them 
in  the  Canadian  provinces,  there  would  set  in  a  tide  of  immigra- 
tion from  the  Motherland  which  would  go  further  towards  the 
development  of  our  colony  than  any  other  single  policy  could 
do.  The  time  seems  now  ripe  for  Parliament  to  arrive  at  some 
method  in  the  way  of  securing  State  aid  to  immigration,  a  policy 
which  is  of  supreme  importance  not  only  to  Canada,  but  to  all 
the  colonies.  Let  this  be  accomplished,  and  the  future  of  British 
North  America  is  assured. 


I  am,  Sir,  yours  truly, 

CHARLES  E.  T.  STUART-LINTON. 


KlTTANNING,  PA.,  U.  S.  A. 


Letters  to  the  Editor  235 


III. 

IF   RUSSIA   INVADES   INDIA 

To  the  Editor  of  THE  EMPIEE  KEVIEW. 

I  HAVE  read  Dr.  Oldfield's  paper*  with  much  interest.  He 
deals  with  a  subject  of  which  I  have  some  practical  acquaint- 
ance, my  experiences  embracing  the  period  of  the  Mutiny  and 
that  of  the  slow  but  steady  uprearing  of  that  stately  fabric,  the 
Administration  of  British  India.  Both,  then,  as  a  soldier  and  as 
one  who  served  for  years  in  the  Punjab  in  civil  employ,  I  may, 
perhaps,  claim  to  be  heard  in  reply.  And  I  am  happy  to  say 
that  my  views  as  regards  the  matters  touched  on  are  diametrically 
opposed  to  those  the  writer  sets  forth. 

First  as  to  the  statement  that  the  value  of  the  British 
army  is  greatly  negatived  by  its  immense  mortality.  For  this 
astounding  assertion  no  statistics  are  quoted,  and  no  authorities 
given.  If  there  be  this  awful  mortality  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
fact  should  not  have  been  brought  prominently  by  the  Indian 
Government  to  the  notice  of  the  Home  Government;  for  the 
very  existence  of  the  former  depends  on  the  capacity  of  the 
British  forces  to  meet  any  possible  foe.  Until,  therefore,  Dr. 
Oldfield  can  produce  figures  to  support  what  he  says,  little 
more  need  be  said.  In  so  far  as  my  personal  experience  is 
concerned,  it  proves  exactly  the  contrary.  During  the  hot  season 
the  greater  part  of  the  British  troops  are  in  hill  stations,  where 
the  climate  is  excellent,  and  the  regiments  that  are  retained  in 
the  plains  are  certainly  far  better  off  as  regards  health  than  was 
the  case  some  thirty  or  forty  years  ago. 

Dr.  Oldfield  holds  that  the  native  army  could  not  be  greatly 
enlarged,  and  that  the  Pax  Britannica  finds  India  peopled  with  a 
race  which  has  in  every  sense  degenerated.  To  this  I  answer  that 
the  native  army  could  be  very  considerably  enlarged  if  it  were 
deemed  advisable  to  increase  its  numbers.  There  are  certain 
tracts  in  India  which  have  never  given  valuable  soldiers  to  our 
army,  and  the  old  fighting  spirit  of  the  Mahrattas  has,  it  may  be 

*  See  July  No.  of  THE  EMPIRE  REVIEW. 


286  The  Empire  Review 

added,  nearly  disappeared.  But  it  is  not  races  of  this  description 
that  have  given  us  much  trouble,  and  we  must  go  northwards  to 
find  the  men  who  have  the  greatest  capacity  for  arms.  The  Jats 
of  Bhurtpore  and  Kohtuck  have  hardly  yet  been  drawn  upon, 
nor  have  the  people  between  Lahore  and  Multan;  and  there 
are  thousands  of  men  of  kindred  race  between  Delhi  and  Peshawur 
who  would  willingly  enlist  under  our  standards. 

With  this  point  let  us  consider  the  statement  in  which 
the  writer  contends  that  English  officers  know  well  that  the 
natives  "  are  losing  all  the  little  spirit  of  bravery  and  devil  they 
possessed,"  and  that  the  old  fighting  spirit  is  rapidly  dying  out. 
To  anyone  long  resident  in  India,  the  real  facts  about  the  people 
of  that  great  continent  are  pretty  well-known,  but  to  those  in 
England  this  knowledge  is  by  no  means  so  assured,  and  such  wild 
assertions  as  this  may  at  first  sight  seem  to  contain  the  elements 
of  a  certain  amount  of  truth.  It  really  is  the  case  that  three- 
fourths  of  the  people  of  India  are  as  peace-loving  as  the  heart 
of  man  could  desire.  All  the  peasantry  ask  is  that  they  may  be 
left  alone.  The  rise  of  one  chief  after  another  to  power,  and  the 
rush  of  his  plundering  hordes  across  the  country,  has  left  the 
agriculturists  just  as  they  were ;  for  when  the  robber's  bands 
were  broken  up,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Pindarris,  by  Wellesley, 
the  people  again  settled  down  to  peace  and  quietness.  Even  in 
the  more  northern  parts  of  India,  into  which  successive  waves  of 
invasion  penetrated,  as  time  went  on,  the  sword  was  laid  aside 
and  the  people  became  contented  agriculturists. 

That  burning  desire  to  be  up  and  fighting  was  simply  non- 
existent, except  among  the  remains  of  the  ruffian  crew  who, 
before  the  Pax  Britannica  took  the  place  of  universal  pillage, 
were  enabled  to  live  by  plunder,  and  plunder  only.  The  spirit  of 
bravery  is  as  powerful  as  ever  in  the  stronger  races,  nor  has  the 
British  Government  done  anything  to  crush  it  out.  There  is  no 
more  efficient  body  of  soldiers  anywhere  than  the  Central  India 
Horse  or  the  Bengal  Cavalry,  which  a  distinguished  Prussian 
cavalry  officer  once  told  me  were,  as  he  thought,  the  finest 
cavalry  in  the  world !  And  what  you  may  say  of  the  mounted 
branches  recruited  from  Jats,  Sikhs,  Punjabi  Mussulmans  and 
Pathans,  you  may  with  equal  justice  say  of  the  splendid  Infantry, 
made  up  of  Gurkhas,  Sikhs,  and  other  warlike  races.  No  one 
who  has  seen  these  magnificent  regiments  could  venture  to 
assert  that  they  came  of  a  decaying  race,  but  would  gladly  hail 
the  prospect  of  securing  additional  battalions  of  such  men. 

As  his  authority,  Dr  Oldfield  gives  an  Anglo-Indian  officer 
who  states  that  soon  we  shall  have  nothing  but  the  hill  tribes  to 
recruit  real  soldiers  from,  "  and  have  to  be  content  with  a  much 


Letters  to  the  Editor  237 

inferior  army."  One  would  like  to  learn  who  this  very  prescient 
officer  is.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  tell  us  that  there  are  vast 
provinces  in  India  from  which  no  soldiers  are  drawn.  This 
certainly  is  the  case,  and  if  we  were  reduced  to  calling  upon  such 
tracts  of  country  as  Bengal  proper  for  soldiers,  our  position 
would  indeed  be  a  very  serious  one,  but  we  never  have  filled  up 
our  army  from  such  countries,  and  should  never  dream  of 
doing  so. 

Dr.  Oldfield  shows  how  completely  he  misunderstands  the 
whole  question  when  he  says  there  is  no  national  spirit  to 
stimulate  the  natives  of  India  to  fight  for  their  fatherland. 
There  is  a  certain  class  of  natives  in  India  who  prate  very 
largely  on  patriotism  and  fatherland,  and  who  care  neither  for 
the  one  nor  the  other;  nor  to  a  certain  extent  can  they  be 
reproached  for  this  indifference.  The  two  words  patriotism  and 
fatherland  form  good  rallying  cries,  but  those  who  utter  them 
are  perfectly  well  aware  that,  constituted  as  is  Hindustan,  there 
can  be  no  patriotism  in  its  fullest  sense,  while  fatherland  to  the 
native  simply  means  his  own  homestead.  It  is  not  as  if  India 
was  one  homogeneous  people.  It  is  nothing  of  the  sort,  the  only 
bond,  for  instance,  that  unites  the  inhabitant  of  the  Bechna 
Doab  with  the  inhabitant  of  Orissa  being  the  one  of  similarity 
of  complexion.  The  Brahmin  of  one  part  of  India  will  not  eat 
or  intermarry  with  the  Brahmin  of  other  parts,  and  as  with 
Brahmin  so  also  with  other  castes ;  the  people  of  the  various 
nationalities  being  as  distinct  the  one  from  the  other  as  the 
British  are  from  the  Spaniards,  or  the  French  from  the  Eussians. 
There  is  everything  to  accentuate  these  differences.  First,  there 
is  distance  that  keeps  the  races  apart ;  secondly,  there  are  customs 
that  have  the  strength  of  law ;  thirdly,  and  what  is  most  potent, 
there  is  diversity  of  language.  In  the  Indian  Peninsula  it  is 
said  that  there  are  nineteen  distinct  languages,  few  of  which 
have  any  affinity;  therefore,  to  talk  of  patriotism  and  father- 
land as  we  in  Europe  understand  the  terms  is  misleading, 
for  the  people  of  Travancore  have  not  one  particle  of  interest 
in  the  Punjabi,  and  the  Mahrattas  regard  both  Bengal  and 
the  Punjab  as  lands  unknown,  with  which  they  can  have  no 
concern. 

Dr.  Oldfield  gives  "  a  well-known  pleader  in  Lahore  "  as  his 
authority  for  the  fact  that  in  Mahomedan  times  there  was  some 
hope  for  the  Hindoos  to  rise  to  high  place,  for,  says  this 
gentleman,  "  you  English  love  to  make  us  parasites,  and  to 
repress  us  into  mediocrity."  I  should  be  inclined  to  gather  that 
this  "  well-known  pleader  "  must  be  responsible  for  a  good  deal 
of  Dr.  Oldfield's  reasoning.  However  this  may  be,  I  venture  to 


288  The  Empire  Review 

affirm  that  this  "well-known  pleader"  has  not  properly  got 
up  his  brief.  Certainly,  some  Mahomedan  rulers  did  sparsely 
employ  Hindoos  in  positions  of  trust— but  these  were  exceptional 
cases— for,  as  a  rule,  the  Hindoo  was  shown  in  every  way  that 
he  was  of  the  subjugated  race.  There  is,  it  seems  to  me,  a  very 
ungracious,  indeed  ungrateful  tone  in  this  assertion,  that  we 
English  love  to  make  the  natives  parasites  and  to  repress  them 
into  mediocrity.  The  real  truth  is,  that  we  may  shower  benefits 
all  round,  and  there  still  will  be  left  a  residuum,  outside  the 
charmed  circle  of  Government  employes,  and  as  everyone 
cannot  possibly  be  satisfied,  these  complaints  must  ever  be  on 
the  surface.  I  contend  that  in  every  possible  way  consistent 
with  our  safe-guarding  of  the  Empire  we  have  done  and  are 
doing  our  utmost  to  secure  place  and  position  for  the  native. 
There  are  native  gentlemen  in  the  Governor-General's  Council, 
in  the  High  Court  of  Calcutta,  and  in  the  High  Courts  of  the 
various  Provinces,  and  it  is  now  the  rule  to  appoint  natives  to 
the  executive  and  judicial  branches  of  the  Service,  which  ap- 
pointments were  thirty  years  ago  held  almost  exclusively  by 
Englishmen.  The  same  applies  in  the  engineering  and  medical 
departments,  while  all  but  the  highest  posts  in  education,  the 
forests  and  such  departments  have  now  in  them  more  natives 
than  Europeans. 

On  what  grounds  can  it  be  said  that  England  in  her  administra- 
tion of  India  represses  the  sturdy  independence  that  allied  with 
pure  patriotism,  is  the  best  bulwark  for  the  integrity  of  a  nation  ? 
Mere  assertions  of  this  sort,  without  a  particle  of  proof  are 
absolutely  worthless.  I  can  conscientiously  affirm  that  I  never 
came  across  anything  in  the  administration  that  would  have 
tended  to  repress  such  an  honourable  exhibition. 

The  contention  that  independence  of  character  is  crushed  down 
by  all  Anglo-Indians,  as  also  is  the  spirit  of  patriotism,  is  equally 
inaccurate  and  misleading;  indeed  this  candid  critic  at  once 
proceeds  to  ruin  his  own  case  by  confessing  that  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  India  there  is  no  such  thing  as  that  fine 
patriotism  which  would  say,  "  we  are  sons  and  daughters  of  the 
Indian  Empire."  If  there  be  no  one  who  can  be  found  to  feel  or 
to  say  this,  how  can  he  possibly  charge  the  Anglo-Indian  official 
with  the  crime  of  repressing  such  a  sentiment  ? 

Taking  up  the  cudgels  for  the  upper  classes,  "doomed  by 
British  administration  to  rot  among  the  only  pleasures  they  know 
—eating,  drinking  and  smoking  "—Dr.  Oldfield  seeks  to  show 
that  even  giving  commissions  in  the  army  to  these  gentlemen 
does  not  work  well,  while  the  encouragement  to  native  rulers  to 
maintain  troops  is  producing  anything  but  good  feeling.  Keally 


Letters  to  the  Editor  239 

it  is  very  difficult  to  take  such  arguments  seriously.  Seeing 
these  unfortunate  native  gentlemen,  who  Dr.  Oldfield  says  are 
sank  in  debauchery,  have  no  other  employment,  the  British 
Government  tries  to  raise  them  out  of  their  idleness,  and  yet, 
according  to  him,  nothing  is  gained.  He  is  full  of  complaints, 
but  in  no  way  does  he  attempt  to  show  how  matters  can  be 
improved.  The  English  gentleman  finds,  if  he  has  no  patri- 
mony, that  he  must  work  for  his  living — but  this  is  just  what 
the  native  gentleman  will  not  attempt,  his  idea  of  life  being  too 
often  a  handsome  salary  and  nothing  to  do  for  it.  Why  is  the 
government  to  be  blamed  for  the  ineptitude  of  these  men  ?  Natur- 
ally they  are  not  fit  for  much,  and  the  granting  to  some  of  them 
of  commissions  certainly  does  advantage  them  to  a  certain  extent. 
As  to  the  assertion,  that  the  maintaining  of  troops  in  native 
States  is  causing  bad  feeling,  because  the  charges  are  so  heavy,  it 
is  merely  necessary  to  point  out  that  Dr.  Oldfield  does  not  seem 
to  comprehend  the  question  raised. 

On  one  occasion  a  havildar  (serjeant)  in  the  army  of  a 
neighbouring  State,  came  to  me  asking  me  to  obtain  his 
entry  as  a  private  Sepoy  in  a  (British)  native  regiment.  "  But," 
I  remonstrated,  "  your  pay  as  a  havildar  is  sixteen  rupees  a 
month,  and  as  a  Sepoy  you  would  only  receive  six  or  seven 
rupees."  "Yes,  sahib,"  he  replied  with  a  grin,  "but  you  see 
I  should  get  the  six  or  seven  rupees,  whereas  with  my  Kajah 
Sahib  I  never  get  anything."  It  probably  is  not  as  bad  as  this  in 
the  generality  of  the  native  States,  but  we  may  be  assured  that 
the  rajahs  referred  to  by  Dr.  Oldfield  spend  no  more  on  their 
little  forces  than  they  please,  and  are  also  very  glad  to  have 
a  decent  kind  of  military  about  them,  thus  securing  them  the 
countenance  and  good-will  of  the  British  Government  and  its 
officials. 

India  is  a  country  per  se,  with  three  hundred  millions  of  people, 
the  entire  English  population,  inclusive  of  the  army,  being  under 
one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  souls.  How  is  it  possible,  if 
we  are  to  retain  our  hold  of  the  country,  to  give  equal  privileges, 
in  the  ratio  of  respective  inhabitants,  to  the  natives  ?  The  thing 
is  simply  impracticable,  for  if  the  Hindustani  in  proportion  to  his 
numbers  filled  up  government  places,  the  British  had  better  give 
up  India  at  once.  Dr.  Oldfield  says  that  what  is  required  is  a 
sympathetic  government,  which  will  open  its  ports  without  fear 
or  favour  to  the  best  men,  failing  which,  "when  the  Russian 
invasion  comes,  the  helpless  natives  will  be  slaughtered  in  their 
thousands  by  "  the  incoming  foe.  Surely  this  is  rather  hard  on 
the  Russians ! 

Finally,  Dr.  Oldfield  shows  what  he  and  his  native  friends  are 


240  The  Empire  Review 

really  striving  for — "  the  development  of  a  national  empire."  That 
cannot  be,  at  any  rate  during  this  century,  for  the  people  of  the 
North  and  the  South  are  no  more  likely  to  coalesce  than  are  water 
and  oil ;  and  until  there  is  true  homogeneity  of  race  and  religion, 
there  can  be  little  hope  of  blending  together  the  many  discordant 
elements  that  make  up  the  people  of  Hindustan. 

A.  F.  P.  HAKCOUET,  Col. 

JUNIOR  UNITED  SERVICE  CLUB. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

"Far  as  the  breeze  can  bear,  the  billows  foam, 
Survey  our  empire,  and  behold  our  home."— Byron, 

VOL.  VI.  OCTOBER,  1903.  No.  33. 

SOME   ADVANTAGES   OF   PREFERENTIAL 
TARIFFS* 

He  that  will  not  apply  new  remedies  must  expect  new  evils,  for  time  is  the 
greatest  innovator ;  and  if  time,  of  course,  alter  thing's  for  the  worse,  and 
wisdom  and  counsel  shall  not  alter  them  for  the  better,  what  shall  be  the  end  ? 
A  froward  retention  of  custom  is  as  turbulent  a  thing  as  an  innovation,  and 
they  that  reverence  too  much  old  times  are  but  a  scorn  to  the  new. — Lord 
Bacon. 

I. 
INCREASED   EXPORTS   AND   HIGHER   WAGES 

IN  the  great  fiscal  battle  now  in  progress,  the  opponents  of 
the  new  policy  of  preferential  tariffs  will  find  their  main  strength 
in  the  national  dislike  of  innovation.  In  naval  matters  only  is 
eagerness  shown  to  adopt  new  methods,  full  realisation  of  the 
dangers  threatening  British  maritime  supremacy  causing  every 
effort  to  be  made  to  outclass  in  armament  and  construction  the 
vessels  of  foreign  powers. 

The  manufacturers  of  the  United  Kingdom  have  for  years 
unceasingly  pointed  out  that  the  same  progressive  spirit  has  been 
lacking  in  Britain's  commercial  policy,  although  the  need  is 
equally  great.  Nations  who  were  in  no  department  trade  rivals 
of  Britain  in  the  days  of  Cobden  and  Bright  have  become  keen 
competitors.  Markets  then  open  have  been  practically  closed  by 
hostile  tariffs  find  preferential  arrangements  which  discriminate 
against  British  goods.  While  other  governments  have  been 
giving  as  much  thought  and  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the 

*  These  articles  were  in  type  before  the  changes  in  the  Cabinet  were  announced. 

VOL.  VI.— No.  33.  E 


242  The  Empire  Review 

business  opportunities  of  their  subjects  as  to  naval  efficiency, 
British  statesmen  have  been  inert,  if  not  indifferent ;  contented 
to  keep  battleships  sufficiently  numerous  and  powerful  to  protect 
the  merchant  marine  without  in  any  way  seeking  to  maintain  or 
increase  the  commerce  which  it  carries.  Now  there  is  promise 
of  better  things,  and  the  great  awakening  caused  by  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain's proposals  can  result  in  nothing  but  good. 

The  Colonial  Secretary  asserts  that  the  modernising  of  our 
trade  relations  by  the  adoption  of  preferential  tariffs  would  bring 
about  increased  exports  of  British  manufactured  goods  and  result 
in  better  wages  for  the  working  man.  Everything  points  to  such 
an  outcome.  In  many  lines  of  manufactured  goods  the  United 
Kingdom  is  at  present  hard  pressed,  other  countries  being  able 
to  produce  the  same  articles  at  about  th,e  same  cost.  In  such 
cases  when  British  goods  compete  with  those  of  foreigh  nations 
in  neutral  markets  the  situation  is  as  follows  : — 


Foreign  Goods. 
British  Goods. 

Cost  of  production  and  transportation. 

Duty. 

Profit. 

Cost  of  production  and  transportation. 

Duty. 

Profit. 

Such  a  state  of  affairs  naturally  leads  to  the  keenest  competi- 
tion. To  obtain  orders  there  is  a  disposition  to  cut  prices,  and 
goods  are  sold  at  the  very  closest  margin  of  profit.  Higher  wages 
cannot  therefore  be  expected.  Om  the  contrary  there  is  the 
strongest  inducement  to  lower  them  in  order  to  decrease  the  cost 
of  production  and  thus  be  in  a  position  to  undersell  foreign 
rivals. 

By  means  of  the  new  policy,  however,  a  great  change  would 
be  wrought,  and  the  British  merchant  would  secure  in  all  the 
colonies  the  advantageous  position  he  now  occupies  in  Canada. 
The  manufacturers  of  the  United  Kingdom  could  sell  at  the 
same  prices  as  their  competitors  and  obtain  a  larger  margin  of 
profit,  of  which  British  workmen  would  naturally  claim  and 
receive  their  share  in  the  form  of  higher  wages.  All  competition 
would  be  overcome.  If,  for  a  necessarily  short  time,  the  foreign 
dealer  offered  his  goods  at  actual  cost,  plus  the  duty,  the  British 
trader  could  meet  his  quotations  and  still  make  a  profit,  repre- 
sented by  the  amount  of  the  preferential  duty  in  his  favour. 
More  than  this  the  new  policy  would  enable  the  United  Kingdom 
to  compete  on  equal  terms  in  those  lines  of  manufactured  goods 
which  can  be  produced  abroad  at  a  lower  cost,  the  position 
being : — 


Foreign  Goods. 
British  Goods. 

Cost  of  production  and  transportation. 

Duty. 

Profit. 

Cost  of  production  and  transportation. 

Preferential  duty. 

Profit. 

Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs        243 

Preferential  tariffs,  therefore,  cannot  fail  to  result  in  the 
control  of  colonial  markets  by  British  merchants  as  regards 
articles  of  which  the  cost  of  production  is  as  low  or  lower  than 
that  of  their  rivals,  and  even  where  the  latter  had  an  advantage 
in  this  respect  it  would,  in  many  cases,  be  neutralised  by  the 
favourable  tariff.  This  must  ensure  greater  demand,  less  com- 
petition, and  better  prices,  the  only  things  necessary  to  bring 
about  an  era  of  the  greatest  prosperity  and  higher  wages. 

While  Mr.  Chamberlain's  opponents  are  striving  to  prove  by 
theoretical  arguments  that  increased  employment  would  be  of  no 
advantage  if  the  cost  of  living  increased,  the  Americans  have  been 
putting  the  point  to  a  practical  test.  The  trusts  in  that  country 
have  within  recent  years  raised  the  price  of  commodities,  and  the 
workmen's  unions  have  secured  better  wages  for  labour.  Mr. 
Commons,  in  the  American  Review  of  Reviews  for  August,  shows 
that  the  result  has  proved  beneficial  both  to  master  and  man. 
He  says : — 

The  amount  of  employment  has  greatly  increased,  and  this  has  occurred  at 
the  time  of  the  increase  in  prices  and  before  the  increase  in  wages.  Where 
there  has  been  an  increase  of  20  per  cent,  in  amount  of  employment,  and 
where  daily  wages  increased  20  per  cent.,  th«  aggregate  gain  in  yearly  earnings 
has  been  44  per  cent.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  standard  of  living,  the 
wage-earner's  condition  has  more  than  kept  pace  with  the  rise  in  prices,  i.e.  his 
yearly  earnings  will  purchase  mor*  goods  at  the  increased  prices  than  could 
have  been  purchased  in  1897  at  lower  prioes. 

If  the  theories  of  British  free  traders  were  sound  the  exports 
of  manufactures  of  the  United  States  should  have  decreased  in 
the  circumstances  outlined  above  ;  but  the  fact  is  that  they  have 
increased  enormously. 

Even  if  preferential  tariffs  raised  the  cost  of  living  it  seems 
clear  that  Mr.  Chamberlain's  policy  would  prove  advantageous ; 
but  everything  points  to  the  British  workman  getting  just  as 
cheap  food  under  preferential  tariffs  as  under  free  trade.  Prices 
of  foodstuffs  are  controlled  by  supply  and  demand.  This  is  con- 
clusively shown  by  the  average  price  of  wheat  during  the  past 
half  century.  In  1846  wheat  was  worth  54s.  Sd.  per  quarter ;  in 
1901  the  price  was  26s.  9d.  What  caused  this  great  reduction  ? 
Not  free  trade,  because  in  1867,  after  twenty-one  years  of  untaxed 
imports,  wheat  was  worth  64s.  5d.,  or  9s.  $d.  per  quarter  more 
than  in  1864.  The  great  reason  for  the  fall  in  price  was  the 
adoption  of  the  land  grant  system  in  the  United  States,  resulting 
in  the  extension  of  the  wheat-growing  area.  Millions  of  acres 
of  virgin  soil  were  sold  at  nominal  prices  ;  railways  were  built  in 
every  direction ;  the  facilities  for  oversea  transportation  wonder- 
fully improved,  and  the  cost  of  sending  wheat  to  Liverpool 
greatly  reduced.  Immense  quantities  of  grain  were  thence- 

E  2 


244  The  Empire  Review 

forward  shipped  to  Great  Britain,  and  the  market  has  since 
been  kept  so  abundantly  stocked  that  prices  have  fallen  to  their 
present  low  level. 

Cheap  food  depends  upon  the  maintenance  of  this  bountiful 
supply,  and  one  of  the  greatest  questions  at  issue  is  whether  this 
can  be  best  assured  by  continued  free  trade  or  by  preferential 
tariffs.  America  will  not  long  continue  its  present  exportation. 
It  is  admitted  by  competent  authorities  that  Great  Britain  must 
be  prepared  to  receive  less  grain  from  that  country  in  the 
immediate  future.  Their  reasons  are  convincing.  Nearly  all 
the  land  in  the  United  States  capable  of  profitable  working  is 
under  cultivation.  The  approximate  limit  of  wheat  production 
has  been  reached,  while  the  population  to  be  fed  is  increasing 
at  the  rate  of  over  1,500,000  a  year.  Obviously  the  needs  of  these 
additional  consumers  can  only  be  met  out  of  the  surplus  now 
sent  abroad.  This  unavoidable  decrease  in  United  States  exporta- 
tion to  Great  Britain  will  cause  an  advance  in  price,  unless  the 
present  supply  can  be  maintained  by  stimulating  and  encouraging 
the  growth  of  wheat  in  other  countries.  This  Mr.  Chamberlain 
proposes  to  do  by  granting  tariff  advantages  to  the  colonies,  which 
would  lead  to  the  cultivation  of  immense  areas  of  splendid  land 
at  present  unoccupied. 

A  preference  to  the  colonies  would  also  avert  another  prospec- 
tive cause  of  increased  prices.  Encouraged  by  the  successful 
cornering  of  raw  cotton,  the  wheat  producers  of  the  United 
States  are  combining  to  raise  the  price  of  their  output.  It  is 
reported,  on  what  appears  to  be  good  authority,  that  30,000 
farmers  have  banded  together  and  agreed  not  to  sell  their  wheat 
under  $1  per  bushel,  and  Canadian  farmers  have  been  asked 
to  join  the  combine.  If  a  tariff  advantage  were  granted  to 
Canadian  farmers  there  would  be  no  inducement  for  them  to 
join  in  the  proposed  agreement,  and  without  their  co-operation 
the  attempt  now  being  made  to  raise  the  price  of  wheat  must 
fail.  It  seems  strange  that  the  most  violent  opponents  of  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  policy  should  be  the  "  Manchester  school."  To 
about  the  same  extent  that  British  workmen  are  dependent  upon 
United  States  wheat  Lancashire  manufacturers  have  relied  upon 
that  country  for  raw  cotton,  neglecting  to  press  upon  the  Govern- 
ment, until  recently,  the  necessity  of  encouraging  its  growth  in 
British  Colonies.  Now  that  the  price  has  been  artificially  raised 
they  are  organising  and  seeking  to  do  for  cotton  what  Mr. 
Chamberlain  proposes  to  do  for  wheat;  the  only  difference 
between  them  being  that  the  Manchester  men  are  a  little  late 
while  the  Colonial  Secretary  is  taking  his  step  in  time. 

Another  result  of  preferential  trade  not  less  important  than 
those  already  mentioned,  would  be  the  increase  in  the  potential 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs        245 

power  and  wealth  of  the  Empire  through  the  settlement  and 
development  of  the  colonies.  The  United  States  relies  for  its 
influence  abroad,  not  on  its  small  standing  army,  but  on  the 
force  it  can  bring  to  bear  in  time  of  conflict.  As  her  colonies 
grow  in  importance  Britain  will  be  placed  in  an  even  stronger 
position.  She  will  then  be  able  to  reduce  her  land  forces  and  the 
taxes  now  imposed  to  maintain  them,  secure  in  the  knowledge  that 
when  occasion  demands  an  army  can  be  assembled  from  different 
portions  of  the  Empire  equal  to  any  service  required  from  it.  It 
is  also  impossible  to  doubt  that,  if  left  to  their  own  initiative,  the 
colonies  will  contribute  their  share  of  the  cost  of  Imperial  defence. 
Reproaches  and  demands  will  only  defeat  the  object  in  view. 
The  colonists  are  thoroughly  British  and  have  the  racial  aversion 
to  yielding  to  pressure  of  this  nature.  Fair-minded,  and  intensely 
loyal,  they  may  be  relied  upon  to  do  what  is  just  as  soon  as  their 
position  permits.  All  their  resources  are  at  present  required  for 
the  development  of  their  vast  territories.  When  they  begin 
to  reap  a  return  for  the  large  sums  now  being  expended  they 
may  be  trusted  to  bear  their  share  of  the  cost  of  maintaining 
the  Empire  as  cheerfully  as  they  gave  their  lives  during  the 
late  war. 

Preferential  tariffs,  therefore,  promise  improved  markets, 
higher  wages,  a  continuance  of  the  supply  of  cheap  food  and  the 
building  up  of  communities  destined  to  relieve  the  British  public 
of  a  portion  of  its  present  taxation. 

Whab  is  the  outlook  under  free  trade  ?  Perhaps  a  new  aspect 
is  afforded  by  taking  the  statistics  and  information  furnished  by 
the  commercial  progress  of  the  last  thirty  years  and  using  them 
as  a  basis  and  guide  in  making  a  forecast  of  the  future. 

The  most  notable  result  of  such  an  inquiry  is  the  changed 
commercial  position  which  the  United  States  is  likely  to  hold 
with  respect  to  Great  Britain  should  the  present  policy  of  laissez 
faire  be  continued.  In  1870,  and  for  many  years  later,  America 
was,  from  force  of  circumstances,  the  best  friend  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  She  sent  large  quantities  of  natural  products,  taking 
in  exchange  manufactured  goods.  The  population  of  the  Republic 
at  that  time  was  38,558,371,  and  the  imports  from  the  United 
Kingdom  were  valued  at  $150,066,269.  United  States  industries 
produced  annually  goods  worth  over  four  billion  dollars,  but  of 
these  fjths  were  consumed  by  the  home  population,  and  she 
was  in  no  sense  a  commercial  rival  of  Great  Britain  in  foreign 
markets. 

In  the  year  1900  the  population  of  the  United  States  had 
reached  76,303,387.  What  effect  had  this  addition  of  over  thirty- 
seven  million  people  upon  trade  with  Great  Britain  ?  It  resulted 
in  an  increase  of  only  $7,516,132.  In  1870  the  United  States 


246  The  Empire  Review 

was  purchasing  goods  valued  at  $152,066,269;  in  1900  she  bought 
to  the  extent  of  $159,582,401.  Her  population  had  grown 
100  per  cent,  while  her  imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  had 
increased  only  5  per  cent.  More  startling  than  this  is  the  fact 
that  the  merchandise  purchased  had  greatly  changed  in  its 
character,  and  last  year  (1902)  raw  and  manufacturers'  materials 
formed  $76,000,000,  or  nearly  one-half,  the  principal  items 
being :— 

Hides,  goat-skins  and  furs 11,074,861 

Crude  tin       . 7,912,575 

Tin  in  plates,  for  manufacturing  purposes       .         .         .  5,995,515 

Copper,  for  manufacturing  purposes        ....  6,561,473 

Manilla 4,209,733 

Crude  rubber  and  gutta  percha       .....  8,171,552 

This  brings  out  the  fact  that  a  formidable  percentage  of 
British  exports  to  the  United  States  is  made  up  of  raw  materials 
produced  in  foreign  countries.  The  British  workman  does  not 
profit  from  business  of  this  character.  So  far  as  he  is  concerned 
the  American  market  is  represented  by  the  $83,000,000  of  his 
products  sold  in  it.  It  is  to  his  disadvantage  that  British 
merchants  supplied  raw  material  of  almost  as  great  value  to  be 
used  by  United  States  manufacturers  in  forming  articles  to 
compete  with  those  made  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Mr.  Austin, 
Chief  Statistician  of  the  United  States  Government,  sets  forth 
this  fact  very  clearly  in  a  recent  official  report  in  which  he 
says : — 

Discussion  of  the  exportation  of  American  manufactures  and  their  distribu- 
tion to  the  various  countries  of  the  world  would  scarcely  be  complete  without  a 
statement  of  the  dependence  of  the  producers  of  these  manufactures  upon 
foreign  countries  for  the  material  from  which  they  are  in  part  produced.  The 
importation  of  manufacturers'  material  is  as  great  in  value  as  the  exportation 
of  finished  manufactures.  The  manufacturers  of  the  country,  in  other  words, 
send  abroad  their  surplus  product  in  exchange  for  the  material  for  manu- 
facturing which  they  draw  from  abroad. 

It  has  long  been  evident  that  the  United  States  offers  a 
declining  market  for  goods  of  foreign  manufacture,  the  high  tariff 
keeping  out,  as  far  as  possible,  everything  which  competes  with 
home  industries,  and  Britain  cannot  hope  to  increase  her  present 
trade  under  existing  conditions.  The  free  markets  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  on  the  contrary,  have  afforded  to  American  producers 
opportunities  of  which  the  fullest  advantage  has  been  taken.  In 
1895,  United  States  manufacturers  were  selling  goods  in  Britain 
valued  at  $40,132,211.  In  1902  they  had  increased  this  trade  to 
$100,020,388.  Moreover,  the  United  States  has  become  one  of 
Great  Britain's  most  formidable  rivals  in  the  world's  markets. 
During  the  past  thirty  years  the  trade  of  the  Eepublic  with 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs        247 


British  Colonies  has  been  rapidly  increasing,  and  its  growth  since 
1895  is  astonishing. 

TABLE  SHOWING  GBOWTH  OF  UNITED  STATES  EXPORTS  TO  BRITISH  COLONIES 

(1895-1902). 


British  Colonies. 

1895. 

1902. 

Increase. 

British  North  Amerioa    .... 
British  Africa                               . 

53,981,768 
5,203,378 

103,755,021 
28,759,878 

49,773,253 
23,556,500 

Australia    

9,014,268 

28,469,983 

19,455,715 

Other  British  Colonies    .... 

13,930,122 

19,185,434 

5,255,312 

Total    .... 

82,129,536 

180,170,316 

98,040,780 

Of  this  exportation,  $97,387,560,  or  54  per  cent.,  consisted  of 
manufactured  goods.  In  treating  of  British  territory  as  a  market 
for  American  manufactures,  Mr.  Austin  remarks  : — 

The  United  Kingdom  and  its  dependent  territory  are  by  far  the  largest 
consumers  of  manufactures  of  the  United  States.  Of  the  total  exports  of 
manufactures  from  the  United  States  in  1902,  amounting  to  $403,212,857,  the 
value  of  $200,810,864,  or  practically  one-half,  went  to  British  territory. 

The  colonial  demand  for  manufactured  foods  is  increasing  by 
leaps  and  bounds.  Who  is  to  reap  the  benefit  ?  In  present 
conditions  the  United  States  seems  to  be  gleaning  a  goodly 
portion  of  the  harvest,  without  the  anxiety  of  government  and 
without  cost ;  the  heavy  burden  of  maintaining  the  Empire  being 
borne  by  the  British  taxpayer. 

It  has  been  urged  that  the  United  States  might  meet  pre- 
ferential tariffs  by  an  export  duty  on  raw  cotton,  and  thus  ruin 
Lancashire's  chief  industry.  There  is  no  indication  of  any  such 
policy,  which  would  have  the  effect  of  increasing  the  price  of 
American  cotton  and  cause  British  manufacturers  to  look  to 
other  countries  for  their  supplies.  That  the  American  Govern- 
ment sees  in  the  increased  price  of  cotton  a  danger  to  the 
Southern  planters,  is  proved  by  the  official  announcement  of  the 
Agricultural  Department : — 

Indefinite  mischief,  says  Secretary  Wilson,  is  being  done  to  the  cotton - 
growing  industry  by  the  speculative  movement  in  cotton.  European  nations 
which  manufacture  cotton  and  also  own  lands  in  outlying  provinces  where 
cotton  might  be  grown  are  anxious  to  become  independent  of  American 
speculators  and  are  organising  and  holding  out  inducements  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  cotton-raising  industry. 

Is  it  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, through  its  official  mouthpiece,  would  censure  speculators 
for  raising  the  price  of  raw  cotton  if  it  entertained  any  idea  of 
doing  exactly  the  same  thing  by  means  of  an  export  duty  ? 

Another  ground  of  opposition  to  Mr.  Chamberlain's  policy  is 
the  belief  that  its  adoption  will  so  greatly  injure  the  trade  of  the 


248 


The  Empire  Review 


United  States  as  to  cause  that  country  to  withdraw  its  support 
of  Britain  in  the  East.  To  the  credit  of  the  Kepublic  be  it  said 
that  public  opinion,  as  voiced  by  the  newspapers,  recognises  the 
right  of  Britain  to  make  the  best  trade  arrangements  she  can 
with  her  Colonies.  There  seems  to  be  no  disposition  to  threaten, 
for  the  good  reason  that  even  if  preferential  trade  be  established 
throughout  the  Empire,  Great  Britain  and  the  Colonies  will 
probably  remain  America's  best  customers.  The  business  men 
of  that  country  have  learned,  through  bitter  experience,  that 
colonisation  by  the  other  great  Powers  results  in  no  commercial 
advantage  to  the  United  States.  Brazil  has  become  Germanised, 
and  United  States  exports  to  that  country  have  decreased  from 
$7,746,117  in  1895  to  $5,317,778  in  1902. 

The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Asiatic  Eussia  and  with 
the  colonies  of  France  and  Germany  in  Africa,  Asia  and  Oceania, 
is  most  discouraging.  In  1902  United  States  trade  with  these 
vast  territories  only  exceeded  by  $289,214,  or  about  £60,000,  her 
exports  to  the  British  Bermudas,  which  have  an  area  of  seventeen 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  17,535. 

TABLE  SHOWING  GROWTH  OP  UNITED  STATES  EXPOETS  TO  DEPENDENCIES  OP 
RUSSIA,  FEANCE,  AND  GEEMANY  (1895-1902). 


Dependencies. 

1895. 

1902. 

Area. 

Population. 

Asiatic  Russia 

204  937 

1  029  327 

Miles. 
6  564  778 

22  705  181 

French  East  Indies   .     .     . 
Africa 

69,136 
496  170 

1,301 

315  718  \ 

363,037 

15,863,185 

„       Madagascar  .     .     . 
„       Oceania    .... 
German  Africa      .... 
,,        Oceania  .... 

696,814 
252,651 

31,121  / 
337,770 
4,330 
45,041 

1,676,294 

9,220 
930,760 
96,160 

27,983,064 

88,300 
11,800,000 
448,938 

Total.     .     .     . 

1,719,708 

1,764,608 

9,640,249 

78,888,668 

In  the  circumstances  is  it  conceivable  that  the  United  States 
will  welcome  or  encourage  any  extension  of  Kussian,  French  or 
German  influence  at  the  expense  of  Great  Britain  ?  Is  it  not  more 
probable  that  if  the  United  Kingdom  resolves  upon  a  change  in 
fiscal  policy  America  will  offer  some  adequate  return  for  the 
privilege  of  trading  in  British  markets  ?  The  Kepublic  is  now  not 
only  willing,  but  eager,  to  grant  concessions  to  Canada.  Why  to 
Canada  and  not  to  the  United  Kingdom  ?  The  reason  is  that  the 
Dominion  fought  the  United  States  with  the  latter 's  own  weapons. 
To  use  Lord  Lansdowne's  phrase  "they  furnished  themselves 
with  a  revolver  and  adopted  a  protective  policy."  According  to 
free  trade  theories  this  ought  to  have  proved  ruinous,  but  as  a 
matter  of  fact  it  caused  a  wave  of  prosperity  to  sweep  over  the 
country.  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  in  his  electoral  address-  of  1901, 
graphically  described  the  change  which  took  place. 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs        249 

In  1878  [he  said]  Canada  occupied  a  position  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  very 
different  from  that  which  she  enjoys  to-day.  At  that  time  a  profound  depres- 
sion hung,  like  a  pall,  over  the  whole  country,  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the 
western  limits  of  the  province  of  Ontario,  beyond  which  to  the  Eocky  Moun- 
tains stretched  a  vast  and  almost  unknown  wilderness.  Trade  was  depressed, 
manufactures  languished,  and,  exposed  to  ruinous  competition,  Canadians 
were  fast  sinking  into  the  position  of  being  mere  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers 
of  water  for  the  great  nation  dwelling  to  the  south  of  us. 

We  determined  to  change  this  unhappy  state  of  things.  We  felt  that 
Canada,  with  its  agricultural  resources,  rich  in  its  fisheries,  timber  and  mineral 
wealth,  was  worthy  of  a  nobler  position  than  that  of  being  a  slaughter  market 
for  the  United  States.  We  said  to  the  Americans,  "  We  are  perfectly  willing 
to  trade  with  you  on  equal  terms ;  we  are  desirous  of  having  a  fair  reciprocity 
treaty,  but  we  will  not  consent  to  open  our  markets  to  you  while  yours  remain 
closed  to  us."  So  we  inaugurated  the  national  (protective)  policy.  You  all 
know  what  followed.  Almost,  as  if  by  magic,  the  whole  face  of  the  country 
underwent  a  change.  Stagnation  and  apathy  and  gloom — aye,  and  want  and 
misery,  too — gave  place  to  activity  and  enterprise  and  prosperity.  The  miners 
of  Nova  Scotia  took  courage,  the  manufacturing  industries  in  our  great  centres 
revived  and  multiplied,  the  farmer  found  a  market  for  his  produce,  the  artisan 
and  labourer  employment  at  good  wages,  and  all  Canada  rejoiced  under  the 
quickening  influence  of  a  new-found  life. 

The  United  States  no  longer  regards  with  pride  its  rejection  of 
the  advances  made  by  Canada  with  the  object  of  arranging  for 
mutual  tariff  concessions.  And  the  New  York  Sun,  in  a  recent 
issue,  made  the  following  significant  admissions  : — 

Looking  backward  on  the  relations  of  the  United  States  to  the  Dominion  on 
the  north  of  us,  we  can  plainly  see  how  our  Senate  has  blundered.  It 
blundered  by  abrogating  in  1866,  instead  of  amending,  the  Marcy-Elgin 
reciprocity  treaty  with  Canada.  It  blundered  when  it  advised  Grant's 
administration  not  to  negotiate  another  Canadian  reciprocity  which  Canada 
sent  George  Brown  to  Washington  to  urge.  All  that  is  now,  however,  "  a  back 
number,"  at  least,  until  and  unless  the  United  Kingdom  rejects,  in  like  manner, 
Canada's  present  plan  of  "  preference." 

It  is  sincerely  to  be  hoped  that  the  United  Kingdom  will  not 
follow  the  course  which  the  United  States  now  so  sincerely 
repents. 

ALBERT  SWINDLEHUBST. 


250  The  Empire  Review 

II. 

COMMERCIAL  PROSPERITY   IN   IRELAND 

THE  question  of  Preferential  Tariffs  is  so  complicated,  the 
considerations  to  be  entertained  so  varied,  and  the  field  of  inquiry 
so  wide,  that  one  shrinks  from  it  instinctively,  no  matter  how 
anxious  he  may  he  to  arrive  at  a  satisfactory  conclusion.  To 
examine  the  question  exhaustively  would  be  impossible  in  the 
limits  of  an  ordinary  magazine  article,  and,  indeed,  if  such  were 
even  possible,  I  doubt  whether  the  average  reader  would  have 
either  inclination  or  ability  to  read  and  digest  its  contents.  Any 
article,  therefore,  dealing  with  the  entire  question  must  neces- 
sarily be  restricted  to  the  discussion  either  of  broad  principles 
or  of  generalities. 

The  discussion  of  broad  principles  or  generalities,  however,  will 
never  enable  us  to  arrive  at  a  reliable  conclusion  upon  the  Tariffs 
Question.  In  my  view  the  most  useful  results  in  elucidating  the 
fiscal  problem  would  be  obtained  by  a  series  of  preliminary 
investigations,  limited  in  their  scope  and  directed  to  one  aspect 
of  the  question.  Inquiries  with  a  view  to  ascertain,  for  instance, 
how  certain  districts  of  the  United  Kingdom  would  probably  be 
affected  by  the  proposed  tariffs ;  what  would  be  the  likely  effect 
of  such  on  particular  industries ;  how  much  revenue  would  there- 
by be  made  available  for  the  relief  of  taxation,  or  for  a  national 
old  age  pension  fund;  how  Canada  would  be  affected;  how 
Australia ;  the  political  aspect  as  distinguished  from  the  economic ; 
whether  food-stuffs  should  be  taxed,  and  so  forth.  Each  of  these 
questions  could  be  dealt  with  exhaustively  in  an  article,  but  any 
attempt  to  do  much  more  within  such  narrow  compass  must 
fail.  Nor  would  we,  in  prosecuting  such  inquiries,  be  driven 
into  the  region  of  pure  speculation.  There  are  ample  materials 
at  hand  from  which  reasonable  solutions  to  most  of  the  foregoing 
questions  may  be  obtained. 

No  person  will  now  deny  that  d  priori  Free  Trade  or  the 
international  exchange  of  commodities  at  their  natural  value  is 
the  ideal  position,  whether  viewed  from  a  moral  or  a  commercial 
standpoint.  Indeed,  Cobden's  opponents  never  asserted  the  con- 
trary. But  what  I  may  call  the  d  posteriori  argument  has,  at 
length,  come  to  be  called  in  question  by  many  thinking  people, 
by  whom  hitherto  it  was  unreservedly  accepted.  It  no  longer 
avails  to  state  that  the  country  has  thriven  well  for  the  last  half 
a  century  or  more  under  Free  Trade,  and  that,  therefore,  we 
ought  not  to  disturb  the  status  quo.  To  say  so  is  simply  to 
repeat  in  other  words,  the  argument  from  antiquity,  condemned 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs        251 

long  since  by  sound  philosophy.     It  is  not  only  in  itself  untrue, 
but  has  a  pernicious  tendency  to  discourage  all  inquiry. 

A  glance  at  the  present  customs  tariff  of  the  United  Kingdom 
would  be  most  instructive  to  those  who,  even  to-day,  repeat  ad 
nauseam  this  Free  Trade  shibboleth,  albeit  in  good  faith.  They 
will  find,  doubtless  to  their  great  surprise,  that  at  the  present 
time  there  are  between  forty  and  fifty  classes  of  British  imports 
subject  to  import  duty,  three  of  which  have  been  taxed  within 
the  past  year  or  so,  and  no  fewer  than  eight  of  which  are  found 
every  morning  on  Mr.  Goschen's  "  free  "  breakfast-table.  This 
argument  is  further  misleading  in  that  it  suggests  that  France, 
Germany,  the  United  States  of  America,  and  Canada,  and  all  the 
industrial  and  other  countries  which  have  adopted  a  policy  of 
Protection,  have,  during  the  same  period  and  in  consequence  of 
Protection,  gone  "  to  the  dogs."  If  this  is  true  it  must  be  capable 
of  easy  proof  from  statistics,  which,  it  has  been  said,  can  be  made 
to  prove  anything.  But  hitherto  Free  Trade  folk  have  not  shown 
that  this  suggestion  is  well-founded.  Meantime,  it  appears  from 
the  latest  returns  that  the  total  exports  from  France  in  the  year 
1900  amounted  to  £163,121,280,  and  that  in  1900  they  exceeded 
that  sum  by  more  than  three  million  sterling ;  in  the  former  year 
Germany's  total  exports  amounted  to  £210,350,000,  and  in  the 
following  year  to  £237,650,050;  the  total  exports  from  the 
United  States  of  America  in  1900  amounted  to  $1,394,483,082, 
and  in  1901  to  $1,487,764,991 ;  the  total  exports  from  Canada  in 
1900  amounted  to  $191,894,723,  and  in  1901  to  $196,487,632.  On 
the  other  hand  the  value  of  the  total  exports  from  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1900  amounted  to  £354,373,754,  and  in  1901  to 
£347,864,268,  showing  a  decrease  in  British  exports  during  1901 
of  over  six  and  a  half  millions  sterling. 

But  even  assuming  for  the  moment,  as  the  fair  traders  contend, 
that  this  shrinkage  is  directly  attributable  to  the  existing  fiscal 
system,  I  think  it  might  be  a  dangerous  experiment  to  alter  our 
system  and  place  a  duty  on  our  food  supplies  unless  we  are 
reasonably  sure  before  doing  so  that  our  colonies  and  possessions 
in  the  near  future  will  be  able  to  meet  all  the  requirements  of  the 
mother  country. 

Examining  in  the  first  place  the  national  requirements  in  corn, 
for  example,  our  most  important  import,  it  appears  that  of  our 
total  sea-borne  supply  in  1902,  169,419,771  cwts.  came  from 
foreign  countries,  and  33,688,499  cwts.  from  British  Colonies  and 
possessions.  The  colonies  and  possessions,  therefore,  would  have 
to  send  us  about  five  times  as  much  corn-stuffs  as  they  do  at  the 
present.  Of  the  latter  quantity  Canada  supplied  12,919,362  cwts., 
Australia  4,174,753  cwts.,  and  New  Zealand  239,700  cwts.  The 
corn-producing  power  of  Australia  is  capable  of  great  expansion, 


252  The  Empire  Review 

although  it  should  be  observed  that  in  the  opinion  of  Sir  Charles 
Dilke  and  other  experts  who  have  studied  carefully  Australasian 
affairs,  that,  owing  to  the  great  droughts  which  recur,  it  would 
not  be  safe  to  rely  upon  a  very  large  increase  in  or  a  very  regular 
supply  of  Australasian  corn.  It  may  be,  therefore,  that  we  must 
rely  for  the  increase  in  our  food  supplies  mainly  upon  Canada, 
which  certainly  has  great  geographical  and  physical  advantages 
over  our  other  colonies,  and  possesses  a  handsome  handicap  when 
the  question  of  freights  has  to  be  considered.  The  question  is, 
can  this  be  done  with  safety  ?  I  have  already  shown  the  quantity 
of  corn  imported  from  Canada  in  1902.  During  the  same  year 
the  total  value  of  cheese  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  was 
£6,412,002,  of  which  Canada  supplied  £4,301,859  worth.  The 
total  value  of  bacon  and  ham  imported  was  £17,285,869,  the 
Canadian  supplies  being  valued  at  £4,854,082 ;  and  of  the  total 
live  cattle  imports  in  1902,  amounting  to  £88,40,664,  the  Canadian 
cattle  were  valued  at  £1,610,325. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  be  able  to  supply  the  present  population 
of  Great  Britain  with  these  products,  and  assuming  that  there 
would  be  no  increase  from  the  other  British  Colonies,  Canada 
would  have  to  send  us,  roughly  speaking,  thirteen  times  as  much 
corn,  half  as  much  more  cheese,  four  times  as  much  bacon  and 
ham,  and  about  six  times  as  much  live  cattle  as  she  at  present 
exports  to  this  country.  One  of  the  most  important  considera- 
tions in  solving  the  tariffs  question  is  whether  or  not  it  can  be 
reasonably  hoped  that  within  a  few  years  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
will  be  in  a  position,  by  reason  of  the  virginity  of  the  soil,  pro- 
ducing two  crops  of  wheat  in  the  year,  and  the  movement  of 
population  and  capital,  to  fulfil  these  conditions. 

To  be  in  a  position  to  answer  this  question  one  must  examine 
the  rate  at  which  the  population  is  increasing  in  the  Dominion, 
whether  by  immigration  or  reproduction,  and  the  ratio  which  the 
area  at  present  in  occupation,  and  in  agricultural  production,  bears 
to  the  total  area  of  the  Dominion  available  for  cultivation.  The 
total  population  of  Canada  in  1891  was  4,833,239  persons,  and 
the  last  census,  taken  in  1901,  showed  that  it  had  increased  to 
5,371,051,  the  males  numbering  2,751,473,  and  the  females 
2,619,578.  Since  that  census  was  taken  there  has  been  a 
"boom"  in  Canadian  immigration,  and  the  population  is  said 
to  have  increased  in  a  much  greater  proportion  than  hitherto, 
especially  in  respect  of  immigrants  from  the  United  States  ;  but 
it  might  be  unsafe  to  assume  that  in  the  future  a  greater  pro- 
portionate increase  will  take  place  than  appears  from  the  returns 
already  published. 

The  total  value  of  Canadian  exports  for  the  year  1891  was 
$98,417,296,  and  for  the  year  1901  no  less  than  $196,487,632,  or 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs        253 

more  than  double ;  the  returns  for  each  year  of  the  intervening 
decade  showing  uniform  progress.     The  total  area  occupied  in 
1891  according  to  the  census  of  that  year  was  60,287,730  acres, 
showing  an  increase  on  that  of  1881  of  just  fifteen  million  acres, 
equivalent  to  one-third.     The  returns  showing  the  area  occupied 
in  1901  are  not  yet  complete,  but  the  figures  for  all  the  provinces 
except  Ontario  and   Quebec  are  available.     These  show  that  in 
1891  the  total  acreage  occupied,  exclusive  of  the  two  provinces  last 
named,  was  23,2-20,529,  and  the  total  acreage  occupied  in  1901 
was  27,648,342.     If  it  is  assumed  that  the  same  rate  of  progress 
was  maintained  in  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  where 
37,067,201  acres  were  occupied  in  1891,  the  land  of  agricultural 
production  in  the  latter  provinces  would  be,  roughly  speaking, 
about  45,000,000  acres.     I  believe  this  will  prove  to  be  much 
under  the  actual  acreage  when  the  returns  are  published.     The 
total  acreage  therefore  of  the  lands  in  the  Dominion  of  agricultural 
production    would    be    upon    this    hypothesis   over   72,000,000, 
against  60,287,730  in  1891.     But  even  this  great  increase  does 
not  nearly  represent  the  actual  progress  made,  because  the  figures 
for  1901  only  represent  the  land  actually  devoted  to  agricultural 
production,  whereas  formerly  "  occupied"  land  of  every  sort  was 
included  in  the  Dominion  returns.     That  this  progress  of  expan- 
sion is  being  fully  maintained  will  appear  when  it  is  stated  that  in 
the  year  ended  31st  December  1901,  the  number  of  acres  taken 
up  from  government  by  immigrants  and  others  was  more  than 
double  the  average  annual  takes  during  the  previous  ten  years. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  total  area  of  the  Dominion  is 
3,653,946  square  miles  or  2,338,525,440  acres,  and  that  at  present 
only  about  72,000,000  are  utilised  for  the  production  of  agriculture, 
we  may  reasonably  hope  that  in  the  near  future,  ample  deductions 
being  made  in  respect  of  mountains,  forests,  swamps,  and  so  forth, 
the  Dominion  alone  will  almost  be  in  a  position  to  feed  the 
population  of  this  country.  Indeed,  Canada  even  in  the  lifetime 
of  some  of  us  may  approximate  to  a  realisation  of  the  somewhat 
boastful  legend  inscribed  on  her  triumphal  arch  last  year: — 
"  Canada,  the  Granary  of  the  World." 

I  have  myself  carefully  investigated  our  aspect  of  the  Tariffs 
Question,  namely  the  probable  effect  which  would  be  produced 
upon  Ireland  by  the  imposition  of  the  suggested  taxes  on  food- 
stuffs, and  I  propose  to  state  briefly  the  results  I  have  obtained, 
as  a  humble  contribution  to  the  fund  of  public  knowledge  now 
being  accumulated. 

At  the  outset  it  must  be  remembered  that  Ireland  for  all 
practical  purposes  is  a  purely  agricultural  country.  With  the 
exception  of  the  brewing  industry,  carried  on  in  the  capital, 
industrial  Ireland  may  be  regarded  as  lying  within  the  Parlia- 


254 


The  Empire  Review 


mentary  boundaries  of  the  four  divisions  of  Belfast.  Kegard 
therefore  must  be  had  to  the  effect  of  the  suggested  tariffs  on 
agricultural,  as  distinguished  from  industrial  Ireland.  One 
essential  difference  between  Ireland  and  England  is  that  the 
former  although  she  does  not  do  so  now,  could  easily  provide 
a  much  larger  number  than  her  present  population  with  all  the 
necessaries,  and  some  of  the  luxuries  of  life ;  whereas  under 
existing  conditions  the  vast  population  of  England  are  forced  to 
rely  almost  entirely  for  their  daily  bread  upon  a  sea-borne  supply. 
The  total  imports  to  Ireland  are  very  small.  In  1902  they 
amounted  to  only  a  little  over  thirteen  millions,  and  when  it  is 
remembered  that  close  upon  seven  millions  were  consigned  to 
Belfast,  almost  three  millions  to  Dublin,  and  something  more  than 
one  million  to  "  Cork's  own  town,"  one  is  struck  with  the  modesty 
of  the  requirements  of  the  rest  of  that  country.  If  Lord 
Avebury's  aphorism  that  riches  consist  in  the  fewness  of  wants 
be  true,  this  and  other  countries  might  envy  the  affluence  of  the 
Emerald  Isle. 

It  would  be  manifestly  impossible  to  deal  seriatim  with  all 
the  Irish  exports  and  imports,  so  I  propose  to  examine  only  those 
the  value  of  which  is  greatest  with  a  view  to  ascertain  how  they 
would  be  affected  by  the  imposition  of  a  duty.  Dealing  in  the 
first  place  with  wheat,  3,795,600  cwts.  of  which  were  imported 
into  Ireland  in  1901,  it  appears  from  the  returns  that  only 
787,568  cwts.  were  grown  in  Ireland  during  that  year.  Oats, 
however,  were  grown  to  the  extent  of  17,782,956  cwts.,  as 
against  136,900  cwts.  imported,  and  2,915,498  cwts.  of  barley 
were  produced,  as  against  610,666  cwts.  imported.  Some  of  each 
of  these  commodities  was  exported  to  Great  Britain  and  else- 
where, but  the  quantity  was  small  and  may  be  neglected. 

TABLE  SHOWING  QUANTITIES  AND  VALUE  OF  WHEAT,  OATS,  AND  BABLEY, 
IMPORTED  INTO  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  IN  1902. 


Description. 

Foreign. 

Colonial. 

Wheat     .... 

Cwt. 
58,301,637 

19,410,799 

Cwt. 
22,700,590 

£ 

7,669,024 

Barley     .... 
Oats  

25,107,646 
15,262,351 

7,106,888 
4,856,624 

93,191 
594,816 

24,824 
184,699 

Assuming  that  the  Colonial  supply  comes  in  free,  there  still 
would  be  a  vast  quantity  subject  to  duty.  The  corn  duty  of 
Is.  a  quarter,  imposed  last  year,  produced  a  revenue,  in  fact,  of 
about  two  and  a  half  millions  sterling,  and  it  is  estimated, 
excluding  Colonial  corn,  that  it  would  have  yielded  at  least  two 
millions.  Any  substantial  duty,  therefore,  say  Is.  3d.  a  cwt.,  or 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs        255 

5s.  a  quarter,  which  is  much  lower  than  the  corn  duty  in 
Germany  and  much  less  than  half  that  in  France,  must  enhance 
Irish  produce,  and  prove  of  considerable  benefit  to  the  Irish 
producer.  It  would  also  result  in  a  larger  area  being  devoted 
to  cultivation  of  cereals  in  Ireland.  In  1901  the  corn-growing 
area  was  459,303  acres  less  than  in  1881,  and  the  total  cereal 
produce  was  less  in  1901  than  in  1891  by  2,561,284  cwts.  Thus 
there  would  be  an  almost  certain  increase  in  the  demand  for 
agricultural  labour,  the  two-fold  effect  of  which  would  be  to 
retard,  if  not  to  stop,  emigration  from  Ireland,  and  to  increase 
the  rate  of  wages  paid  to  Irish  agricultural  labourers. 

Dealing  next  with  the  cattle  trade  of  Ireland,  it  appears  from 
the  returns  that  in  1901  405,697  cattle  were  imported  into  the 
United  Kingdom  from  foreign  countries  as  distinguished  from 
the  Colonies,  valued  at  £7,238,309,  and  315,584  sheep  and 
lambs  valued  at  £482,580.  Swine  were  also  imported  to  some 
extent,  but  the  number  is  small  and  may  be  neglected.  In  that 
year  Ireland  exported  the  following  stock  to  Great  Britain: 
cattle,  642,638,  valued  at  £11,465,733 ;  sheep  and  lambs,  843,325, 
valued  at  £1,289,584  ;  and  swine,  596,129,  valued  at  £1,351,225  ; 
total  value,  £14,106,542.  If  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  say  15  per 
cent,  were  imposed  on  foreign  cattle  the  Irish  exporter  on  this 
item  alone  would  be  benefited  by  nearly  two  millions  sterling 
per  annum,  even  assuming  the  appreciation  of  Irish  cattle  ex- 
ported was  somewhat  less  than  the  amount  of  foreign  duty. 
Further,  the  total  value  of  the  cattle  on  the  Irish  farms, 
estimated  in  1901  at  £71,176,564,  would  also  be  proportionately 
increased. 

Hitherto  I  have  dealt  with  Irish  food  supplies,  but  in  estimating 
the  probable  effect  of  tariffs  on  Ireland,  the  large  export  trade  in 
Irish  horses  must  be  also  taken  into  the  account.  For  the  five 
years  previous  to  and  including  1901  there  were  on  an  average 
31,015  horses  per  annum  shipped  from  Irish  ports  to  England, 
the  total  annual  value  of  which  is  estimated  at  £788,282.  In 
1901  there  were  39,281  foreign  horses  and  mares,  and  only 
1575  Colonial  horses  and  mares,  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  total  value  of  which  is  stated  at  £1,076,907  and  £53,791, 
respectively.  If  the  same  duty  were  put  on  foreign  horses  as 
on  foreign  cattle,  the  Irish  breeders  would  further  benefit  very 
substantially  both  in  an  immediate  increase  of  prices  obtained, 
and  in  the  appreciation  of  their  stock,  the  value  of  which  was 
estimated  in  1901  at  £12,315,177. 

Again,  take  the  case  of  eggs,  the  production  of  which  in 
Ireland  is  said,  owing  to  foreign  competition,  to  barely  pay.  At 
present,  according  to  the  Irish  Board  of  Agriculture  returns,  they 
are  bought  by  the  dealers,  on  an  average  all  the  year  round,  at 


256  The  Empire  Review 

6s.  8Jd.  per  great  hundred  (i.e.  120)  or  3d.  a  dozen ;  in  remote 
parts  they  are  often  purchased  at  5d.  a  dozen.  There  is  a  very 
large  trade  done  with  Great  Britain  in  Irish  eggs,  which  it  is 
said  rarely  include  those  used  for  electioneering  purposes,  but 
unfortunately  there  are  no  complete  returns  available.  In  1902 
18,448,245  great  hundreds  of  foreign  and  518,550  of  colonial  eggs, 
valued  respectively  at  £6,099,418  and  £202,567  were  imported 
into  the  United  Kingdom.  The  latter  would  be  duty  free  under 
the  new  regime,  but  if  a  duty  of  Is.  a  great  hundred  were  put  on 
the  former,  not  only  would  the  price  of  Irish  eggs  be  increased, 
but  a  great  stimulus  will  be  given  to  their  production  in  Ireland. 
The  English  consumer,  although  possibly  paying  a  fractional 
increase,  would  get  a  more  wholesome  and  nutritious  supply,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  Imperial  Exchequer  would  be  enriched  by 
about  one  million  sterling  per  annum. 

The  total  imports  of  foreign  bacon  and  ham  into  the 
United  Kingdom  in  1902  was  5,945,546  cwt.  An  immense  trade 
in  bacon  and  ham  is  done  with  Great  Britain  from  Limerick, 
Cork,  Waterford,  Dublin,  Belfast,  and  Derry,  but  its  volume  is 
not  recorded.  A  duty  of  say  10s.  a  cwt.  upon  foreign  supplies 
of  these  commodities,  or  about  a  penny  per  pound,  would  scarcely 
be  felt  by  the  British  consumer.  The  consequent  rise  in  the 
Irish  prices  would  greatly  benefit  the  Irish  producer  and  at 
the  same  time  produce  a  revenue  of  about  three  million 
sterling. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  in  the  development  of  Ireland 
which  is  at  present  going  on  so  rapidly,  is  the  great  improvement 
in  the  various  processes  of  butter-making.  Local  creameries 
were  first  instituted  by  the  late  Canon  Bagot,  a  Protestant 
rector  in  Kildare,  twenty  years  ago,  and  of  late  years,  mainly 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Mr.  Horace  Plunkett,  they  have 
been  established  all  over  Ireland.  A  vast  and  increasing  trade  in 
Irish  butter  is  now  done  with  England,  but  unfortunately  no 
reliable  statistics  are  available.  The  average  price,  however,  in 
1901  is  stated  by  the  Irish  Board  of  Agriculture  to  have  been 
92s.  Ad.  a  cwt.,  or  less  than  IQd.  per  pound,  and  it  is  claimed  that 
some  classes  of  Irish  butter  are  quite  equal  to  the  best  Danish  and 
Normandy  produce.  The  foreign  butter  imported  for  that  year 
was  3,449,898  cwt.  If,  therefore,  a  duty  of  10s.  a  cwt.  were 
imposed  the  Irish  producer  cannot  fail  to  be  very  substantially 
benefited,  and  the  Exchequer  be  enriched  by  close  on  two  million 
sterling. 

The  only  other  import  the  taxation  of  which  would  even 
appreciably  affect  Ireland  is  that  of  petroleum,  and  this  cannot  be 
left  out  of  the  account.  The  total  imports  of  lubricating  and 
illuminating  petroleum  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1902 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs         257 

amounted  to  £5,193,582,  of  which  the  Colonial  supply  only 
amounted  to  £2176.  Any  duty,  therefore,  upon  this  product 
must  increase  its  cost  to  the  Irish,  as  well  as  the  English,  con- 
sumer, and  it  cannot  be  suggested  that  the  former  can  reap  any 
compensating  advantage.  But  even  assuming  a  duty  is  put  on 
petroleum  he  will  not  suffer  much.  Of  the  total  quantity 
imported,  lubricating  petroleum,  for  which  there  is  practically  no 
demand  in  Ireland,  is  represented  by  £1,163,266.  If  the  illumi- 
nating petroleum  imported  be  consumed  in  proportion  to  the 
population  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Ireland  buys  only  £43,180 
per  annum.  It  must,  however,  in  fairness  be  stated  that  the 
adoption  of  the  principle  contended  for  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  does 
not  necessarily  imply  an  obligation  to  tax  all  imports,  and  if,  as 
in  the  case  of  petroleum,  no  imperial  advantage  is  to  be  gained, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  some  detriment  sustained  by  the  British 
consumer,  the  government  of  the  day  might  be  relied  upon  to 
protect  the  interests  of  the  latter,  by  admitting  that  particular 
commodity  free,  in  return  for  a  reciprocal  advantage  conferred 
upon  this  country  by  the  country  of  export. 

A  fair  consideration  of  the  foregoing  facts  will,  I  think,  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  whatever  results  may  attend  the  imposition 
of  the  suggested  tariffs  in  the  remainder  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
at  least  in  Ireland  they  would  be  on  the  whole  productive  of  very 
great  advantage  to  the  general  community. 

F.  ST.  JOHN  MOEEOW. 


VOL.  VI.— No.  33. 


258  The  Empire  Review 

III. 
EFFECT   ON   CANADA. 

"IN  not  much  more  than  half  a  century  the  overwhelming 
population  of  Englishmen  beyond  the  sea,  supposing  the  Empire 
to  hold  together,  will  be  equal  in  number  to  the  Englishmen  at 
home,  and  the  total  will  be  much  more  than  a  hundred  millions." 
Thus  wrote  Professor  Seely  some  eighteen  years  ago,  and  the 
vital  question  now  raised  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  is  whether  the 
Empire  is  "  to  hold  together." 

Among  the  opponents  of  the  Colonial  Secretary's  fiscal  policy 
there  are  many  who  contend  that  the  changes  proposed  will  not 
only  prove  costly  to  England  but  will  also  favour  a  portion  of  the 
Empire  which,  they  say,  has  not  borne  its  fair  share  of  Imperial 
burdens,  the  allusion  being  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  It  is 
not  my  intention  in  this  article  to  deal  with  that  part  of  the 
contention  which  implies  an  extra  cost  to  England,  although  I 
very  much  doubt  if  the  consumer  will  be  put  to  any  additional 
expense  in  the  event  of  a  preference  being  given  to  the  colonies. 
My  desire  is  rather  to  traverse  the  latter  part  of  the  opposing 
argument  and  to  show  that  it  is  altogether  at  variance  with 
historical  facts.  Pass  over  the  early  history  of  colonial  enterprise, 
the  trials  and  tribulations  incident  to  conquest  and  settlement, 
and  there  remains  a  splendid  record  of  development.  Mr.  Clive 
Phillips  Wolley,  our  poet  of  the  Pacific  coast,  referring  to  the 
colonials  in  Canada,  aptly  speaks  of  them  as  a  people : — 

Who  have  won  you  a  world,  from  the  Pole  to  the  Boundary  Line, 
Through  the  land  of  the  Lakes  in  the  east,  to  the  land  of  the  Douglas  Pine, 
Hewing  our  road  with  the  axe,  winning  our  wealth  in  the  mine. 

With  the  fierce  rivalry  of  that  great  and  abounding  country 
(the  United  States  of  America)  which  time  and  again  has  sought 
to  have  us  "  cribbed,  cabined,  and  confined,"  our  work  in  Canada 
has  been  difficult.  And  the  struggles  to  develop  half  a  continent 
(the  future  granary  of  the  world)  have  often  been  increased  by 
the  very  fact  that  we  are  British,  the  invasions  from  our 
neighbours  (1775-76,  1812-14,  1837-38,  1870-71)  being  all 
undertaken  in  the  hope  of  striking  effective  blows  at  England. 
During  these  periods  of  stress  Canada  fought  and  suffered  much 
but  never  wavered,  remaining  constant  to  the  one  great  purpose 
of  her  forefathers — the  expansion  of  the  Empire. 

Nor  has  the  support  from  the  motherland  always  been  hearty 
and  encouraging.  For  instance,  we  were  told  by  a  Colonial 
Secretary  of  State,  when  it  was  desired  to  prefer  our  claims 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs         259 

against  the  United  States  on  account  of  the  Fenian  raids,  that 
"  Canada  could  not  reasonably  expect  this  country  (England)  to 
bear  for  an  indefinite  period  the  constant  risk  of  serious  mis- 
understanding with  the  United  States."  That  "  British 
diplomacy  has  cost  Canada  dear  "  is  too  well  known  a  theme 
to  need  repetition,  but  I  cannot  refrain  from  quoting  the  following 
extract  from  Sir  Charles  Dilke's  book,  published  in  1899,  on  the 
British  Empire : — 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  is  not  what  it  might  have  been  if  we  had  known 
what  we  now  know  at  the  time  of  the  boundary  negotiations  with  the  United 
States,  and  there  is  no  heavier  charge,  among  all  the  heavy  charges  that  may 
be  brought  against  British  Government  in  relation  to  the  Colonies,  than  that 
which  arises  from  the  ignorance  and  neglect  which  were  shown  both  in  the 
negotiations  of  1842  and  in  the  other  two  cases  which  now  concern  the 
boundaries  of  the  same  Dominion. 

In  what  sense  British  statesmen  regarded  the  colonies  may  be 
judged  from  the  statement  made  by  Lord  John  Eussell  in  the 
House  of  Commons  on  February  8th,  1850,  when  he  said  :  "I 
come  now  to  a  question  which  has  been  much  agitated,  and 
which  has  found  supporters  of  very  considerable  ability,  namely, 
that  we  should  no  longer  think  it  worth  our  while  to  maintain 
our  Colonial  Empire."  And  twenty  years  later  we  find  James 
Anthony  Froude  recording  :  "  It  is  even  argued  that  our  colonies 
are  a  burden  to  us,  and  that  the  sooner  that  they  are  cut  adrift 
from  us  the  better."  Yet  in  spite  of  this  unsympathetic  treat- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  motherland  the  Imperial  spirit  has 
ever  remained  with  us,  even  when  it  seemed  to  be  waning  in 
the  old  country. 

The  change  in  public  opinion  at  home  regarding  closer  union 
with  the  colonies  was  largely  due  to  the  development  of  a  colonial 
policy  by  continental  powers,  and  in  1887  we  have  the  Times 
instructing  us  to  the  effect  that  "  We  are  all  beginning  to  feel 
there  is  a  great  reserve  of  strength  for  the  mother- country  "  in 
the  colonies.  A  "  reserve  of  strength  "  which  perhaps  I  may  be 
permitted  to  say  in  more  recent  days  warned  Europe  that  war 
with  England  meant  war  with  the  British  Empire.  Yet  with 
this  picture  of  "  splendid  isolation  "  came,  strange  to  say,  a 
demand  from  the  motherland  that  the  self-governing  colonies 
should  contribute  in  money  towards  the  maintenance  of  a  navy 
and  army  over  which  they  have  no  control.  That  is  to  say,  in 
order  to  gain  a  revenue,  some  people  in  England  were  again  pro- 
posing a  course  which  had  already  lost  her  one  Empire  in  the 
West. 

Canada  has  had  her  own,  and  for  the  smallness  of  her  popu- 
lation, very  heavy  work  to  do,  but  she  has  at  all  times  given 
the  Imperial  service  some  of  her  best.  We  have  no  Walhalla  or 

s  2 


260  The  Empire  Review 

Westminster  Abbey,  but  in  the  history  of  the  Empire  there  are 
some  Canadian  names  writ  large.  Sir  Provo  Wallis,  a  Nova 
Scotian,  died  senior  Admiral  of  the  Fleet,  after  fifty-four  years' 
service  at  sea.  Upon  Broke's  disablement  he  took  the  command 
at  the  battle  of  the  Shannon  and  the  Chesapeake,  and  the  victory 
he  gained  "  restored  confidence  in  England  in  her  Naval  Arm."  * 
Colonel  Delaney,  son  of  the  speaker  of  the  Nova  Scotian  Legisla- 
ture, was  one  of  Wellington's  aides  and  fell  at  Waterloo.  Sir 
Benjamin  Hallowell  "rendered  more  service  than  almost  any 
other  officer,"  said  Nelson,  alluding  to  the  achievements  of  his 
Canadian  captain.  Major-General  Charles  Beckwith,  a  nephew  of 
a  Nova  Scotian  judge,  fought  with  Wellington  in  Spain ;  Vice- 
Admiral  Sir  Edward  Belcher,  also  a  Nova  Scotian,  served  as 
assistant  under  Captain  Beechy  in  the  Blossom  on  her  voyage  to 
Behring  Sea  to  seek  the  North-west  Passage.  Sir  John  Eardley 
Wilmot  Inglis,  another  Nova  Scotian,  on  the  death  of  Lawrence 
defended  Lucknow  from  the  4th  of  July  to  September  the  6th,  and 
"  There  does  not  stand  recorded  in  the  annals  of  war  an  achieve- 
ment more  truly  heroic  than  the  defence  of  the  Residency  of 
Lucknow."  t  Sir  Fen  wick  Williams  of  Kars  was  one  of  the 
three  who  alone  won  hereditary  honours  in  the  Crimea.  He,  too, 
was  a  Nova  Scotian  and  the  first  of  the  twelve  British  officers  to 
receive  a  sword  of  honour  from  the  City  of  London.  These  are 
but  a  few  of  the  Canadians  who  have  helped  to  make  the  British 
Empire.  The  list  is  a  very  long  one  and  can  easily  be  continued 
to  the  present  day. 

It  is,  I  think,  sometimes  forgotten  that  many  Canadians  volun- 
teered for  the  Indian  Mutiny  Campaign,  while  offers  of  regiments 
have  frequently  been  made  by  Canada  when  England  has  seemed 
to  need  our  aid.  It  is  no  fault  of  Canada's  that  the  War  Office 
only  accepted  our  help  in  the  case  of  the  Canadian  voyageurs  for 
the  Nile,  and  of  the  troops  for  South  Africa.  Again,  Canada 
(with  a  population  of  six  millions  all  told)  through  her  military 
college  has  not  less  than  145  commissioned  officers  in  the  Army, 
and  several  Canadians  hold  distinguished  positions  in  the  Navy. 
Well  may  Wolley  write : — 

War  ?     We  would  rather  peace ;  but,  mother,  if  fight  we  must, 
There  be  none  of  your  sons  on  whom  you  can  lean  with  surer  trust; 
Bone  of  your  bone  are  we,  and  in  death  would  be  dust  of  your  dust. 

Canadian  statesmen  worked  out  the  Confederation  of  the 
British  North  American  Colonies — which  Gladstone  described 
as  "  a  measure  which  has  done  so  much  for  the  solidarity  of  the 
Empire."  Canadians  built  the  Canadian  Pacific  Bail  way,  estab- 

*  James'  '  Naval  Annals.' 

t  General  Order,  Governor-General  of  India,  1857. 


Some  Advantages  of  Preferential  Tariffs         261 

lished  a  steamship  service  between  Vancouver  and  Hong-Kong, 
made  graving  docks  for  ships  of  war  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts,  assisted  in  the  construction  of  the  fortification  and  in 
providing  the  garrison  of  the  naval  station  for  the  Pacific  waters, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  laying  the  Pacific  cable.  Yet  Sir 
John  Colomb  and  others  chide  Canada  for  not  doing  her  duty  to 
the  Empire.  I  would  remind  Sir  John  Colomb  that  before  Canada 
grappled  with  these  works  in  1880,  he  cried  aloud  for  a  railway 
across  Canada  for  Imperial  purposes.  It  was  then,  according  to 
him,  "  a  work  of  immense  value  in  war  "  ;  it  was  "  vital  to  our 
Imperial  life  in  half  the  world  "  ;  it  was  "  of  vast  importance  to 
us  at  home,"  it  was  an  "  Imperial  question."  But  all  this  he 
seems  to  have  forgotten.  Let  me  point  to  the  certificate  of  the 
Times. 

The  chief  value  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Eailway  to  this  country  is  that 
it  offers  an  alternative  line  which  we  can  use  or  not  as  we  may  please.  .  .  . 
Anything  which  threatens  the  security  of  our  present  route  to  the  East  will 
force  us  to  turn  with  preference  to  a  line  of  communication  which  will  be 
uninterrupted  and  our  own.* 

Later,  we  have  General  Sir  Andrew  Clarke  saying  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  that  it  is  an  "  inestimable  advantage 
as  a  communication  in  war,  and  a  national  advantage  in  time  of 
peace."  And  Lord  Jersey,  in  his  report  of  the  Colonial  Con- 
ference held  at  Ottawa  in  1894,  records  the  grand  and  impressive 
fact  that  "  Canada  had  linked  two  oceans — the  mother-country 
has  a  half-way  house  for  the  Empire."  Of  the  Hong-Kong  and 
Vancouver  service,  Lord  Granville  said :  "  It  was  a  most  desirable 
thing  both  from  a  naval  and  military  point  of  view ;  "  f  and  at  the 
Colonial  Conference  in  1897,  presided  over  by  the  Colonial  Secre- 
tary, a  resolution  refers  to  the  Pacific  cable  as  a  "  project  of  high 
importance  to  the  Empire,"  a  verdict  supported  by  Mr.  Austen 
Chamberlain  in  the  House  of  Commons,  who  described  the 
Pacific  cable  as  "  a  great  Imperial  undertaking  of  strategic  impor- 
tance in  time  of  war."  { 

With  these  facts  before  us,  I  submit  that  Canada  has  done 
her  duty  to  the  Empire  and  is  ready  to  do  it  again.  Further 
I  would  say  to  the  people  of  England  that  if  with  a  halting  and 
vacillating  policy  at  home  great  things  have  already  been  accom- 
plished by  a  small  population  in  Canada,  what  will  be  her  means 
for  co-operation  with  the  motherland  in  any  grand  Imperial 
policy  if  she  become  at  once  the  basis  for  the  food  supply  of  the 
Empire  and  a  recruiting  ground  for  the  Army  and  Navy  ? 

It  is  said  that  Canada  is  growing  rich  and  has  become  a  nation. 

*  Tunes,  October  25,  1886.  f  Times,  April  30,  1897. 

J  July  31,  1901, 


262  The  Empire  Review 

This  is  true,  but  if  in  a  burst  of  exuberant  patriotism  we  had 
saddled  ourselves  with  a  liability  for  an  annual  contribution  to  the 
Navy  of  England,  we  should  have  been  poor  indeed.  We  should 
not  have  had  the  men  for  Modder  Eiver,  Paardeberg,  or  Hart's 
Biver,  and  history  might  have  been  written  differently  for  the 
eyes  of  European  nations  who  have  stood  aghast  at  the  reserved 
strength  of  the  British  Empire.  England's  strength,  like  that  of 
the  United  States,  lies  in  commerce  and  industrial  activity.  In 
Canada  we  have  undertaken  with  a  handful  of  people  to  subdue  a 
continent;  to  have  a  population  and  to  be  a  source  of  greater 
strength  to  the  Empire,  the  problem  lies  yet  before  us.  We  must, 
then,  first  develop  our  transportation  facilities  by  land  and  by  sea 
so  as  to  become  commercially  independent.  We  cannot  build 
a  line  of  battleships  for  England,  nor  can  we  help  to  maintain 
them  till  we  have  our  millions  of  acres  peopled  by  our  millions  of 
men.  Can  England  afford  to  help  us  commercially  to  hasten  this 
end? 

The  United  States  commercial  policy  gave  it  martial  strength. 
That  country  grew  without  a  large  Army  or  Navy.  We  propose 
to  do  the  same.  They  took  the  risk  in  their  case,  the  risk  we  take 
is  ours.  As  an  eminent  Edinburgh  reviewer  has  said  :  "  Canadians 
cannot  face  the  burdens  of  the  new  and  old  world  at  the  same 
time.  They  cannot  undertake  to  subdue  at  once  nature  in  a 
new  continent  and  humanity  in  an  old  ...  It  is  plainly  to  the 
interest  of  the  home  country  that  the  military  relation  of  the 
Empire  should  be  placed  on  a  fixed  basis.  It  is  equally  to  the 
interest  of  the  colonies  that  the  commercial  relation  should  also 
be  defined."  In  concert  with  other  colonies  we  have  proposed 
a  policy  which  we  believe  will  hasten  our  ability  to  supply  men 
and  ships  so  that  the  Empire  may  "hold  together,"  come  what 
may.  Mr.  Chamberlain  asks  England  to  consider  that  proposal. 
We  in  Canada  anxiously  await  the  reply. 

CHAELES  HIBBEET  TUPPEE. 

*  Edinburgh  Review,  October  1902. 


Highland  Soldiers  of  the  Indian  Border         263 


HIGHLAND    SOLDIERS   OF   THE   INDIAN 
BORDER 

OF  the  score  or  more  of  races  from  which  our  Indian  Army  is 
recruited,  who  shall  say  which  furnishes  the  finest  soldiers  ? 
Gurkha,  Sikh,  Pathan ;  Dogra,  Bajput,  Baluch ;  each  has  his 
merits,  each  has  his  failings,  but  none  presents  a  more  puzzling 
complex  of  admirable  virtues  and  reprehensible  vices,  of  amiable 
and  repellent  traits  of  character,  than  that  Highland  Cateran  of 
India,  the  North- West  Frontier  Pathan. 

The  question  of  the  origin  of  the  race,  like  that  of  their 
kinsmen  the  Afghans,  is  an  ethnological  problem  as  yet  unsolved. 
Few  will  now  be  found  to  uphold  Bellow's  plausible  theory  of 
their  descent  from  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel,  despite  their  own 
tradition,  their  Jewish  appearance,  and  the  existence  of  many 
Jewish  names  and  a  few  Jewish  customs  among  them.  It  is,  in 
fact,  difficult  to  assign  a  common  origin  for  a  race,  or  collection 
of  races  comprising  elements  so  dissimilar  as  the  dashing,  alert 
Afridi  and  the  stolid  Bunerwal,  the  predatory,  irreligious, 
Ismaelitish  Waziri,  and  the  mild,  though  intermittently  fanatical 
husbandman  of  Swat. 

The  home  of  the  Pathan  is  that  iron  barrier  of  rugged 
mountains  which  separates  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Punjab  from 
the  bleak  uplands  of  Afghanistan.  It  is  known  to  Afghan  and 
Punjabi  alike  as  Yagistan,  or  the  country  of  rebels,  and  well  does 
it  deserve  the  name,  for  its  inhabitants,  owning  no  sway  save 
that  of  their  petty  chieftains,  and  finding  no  sufficient  livelihood 
in  the  cultivation  of  their  narrow  and  ill-watered  valleys,  sally 
forth  therefrom  to  plunder  with  equal  gusto  the  villages  of  our 
fellow-subjects  of  the  King  in  British  India,  or  of  those  of  our 
good  ally,  the  Ameer.  The  Pathan  soldier  of  all  tribes  has  some 
common  characteristics  which  make  him  popular  with  most 
"  newly  caught "  subalterns  of  the  Indian  Army ;  and  others 
which  too  often  make  him  the  bSte  noire  of  more  experienced 
officers.  Perhaps  one  reason  for  his  attracting  the  youthful 
staff  corps  officer  is  the  fact  that  he  speaks  Hindustani  as  a 
foreign  language— and  therefore  simply.  So  that  young  Mr. 


264  The  Empire  Review 

Griffin  can,  by  conversation,  become  fairly  well  acquainted  with 
Private  Sher  Dil,  from  Tirah,  long  before  he  has  arrived  at  the 
stage  of  being  able  to  understand  a  single  word  that  Bola  Singh, 
the  Sikh,  addresses  to  him. 

Apart  from  this,  however,  there  is  an  apparent  frankness  and 
straightforwardness  about  the  Pathan,  and  an  absence  from  his 
speech  of  the  somewhat  servile  expressions  of  respect  customary 
among  other  Indian  races,  which  have  an  irresistible  charm  for 
the  young  Englishman.  In  the  tall,  hard-featured,  hawk-eyed 
"jawan,"  who  talks  with  such  pride  of  his  Pathan  origin,  who 
recounts  with  such  enthusiasm  the  valiant  deeds  of  his  clan  in 
intertribal  fights,  and  who  enters  into  his  work  with  such  a  spirit 
of  healthy  emulation,  the  keen  young  officer  finds  a  kindred  spirit, 
and  it  is  only  after  some  years'  experience  that  he  sees  how 
narrow  is  the  line  that  separates  the  pride  of  race  from  empty 
vanity,  and  realises  that  the  tribal  fights  produce  more  deeds 
of  atrocious  treachery  than  of  derring-do,  and  that  the  healthy 
emulation  degenerates  too  often  into  childish  jealousy. 

The  vanity  of  the  Pathan  is  one  of  his  prominent  characteristics, 
and  ridicule  is  to  him  the  most  unbearable  of  all  the  ills  of  life. 
I  remember  a  case  in  which  a  young  Orakzai  sepoy  stabbed 
himself  through  the  heart  with  his  own  bayonet,  for  the  sole 
reason,  so  far  as  could  be  ascertained,  that  he  was  tired  of  a  life 
which  was  made  a  burden  to  him  by  the  "  chaff  "  of  his  comrades 
for  a  solecism  in  manners  committed  at  a  feast  given  to  another 
regiment. 

Let  me  give  another  instance  of  this  abnormal  sensitiveness. 
A  frontier  political  was  taking  an  evening  stroll  round  his  camp 
with  some  of  the  ragged  tribal  chiefs  of  his  district,  and  being 
a  little  irritated  by  their  vain-glorious  boasting  about  rifle-shooting, 
suggested  that  they  should  give  some  proof  of  their  prowess. 
They,  nothing  loth,  squatted  down  and  made  some  very  pretty 
shooting  at  stones  and  bushes,  completely  "  wiping  the  eye  "  of 
two  sepoys — good  shots— whom  the  political  called  up  from  his 
personal  escort  with  a  view  to  taking  his  boastful  friends  down 
a  peg.  Never  a  word  passed  the  lips  of  the  crestfallen  pair  for 
the  next  twenty-four  hours,  arid  never  a  morsel  of  food  did  they 
taste  till  time  and  hunger  had  softened  the  pangs  born  of  their 
public  discomfiture.  This  trait  of  vanity  is  shown,  too,  in 
athletic  sports,  in  which  one  would  expect  the  Pathan,  from  his 
physique  and  endurance,  to  excel.  That  he  does  not  do  so 
I  attribute  to  his  morbid  fear  of  being  beaten,  a  fear  which  either 
deters  him  from  entering  into  a  contest  at  all,  or  impels  him, 
when  he  feels  things  going  against  him,  to  "  jack  up,"  and 
pretend  that  he  considers  the  whole  affair  to  be  a  childish  folly 
unworthy  of  his  attention. 


Highland  Soldiers  of  the  Indian  Border          265 

The  courage  of  the  Pathan,  whatever  his  detractors  may  say, 
is  undoubted.  None  deny  his  dash  and  elan  in  a  winning  fight, 
but  there  are  those  who  doubt  his  reliability  when  things  are 
going  ill,  and  cool  pluck  is  more  to  be  desired  than  impetuous 
gallantry.  I  cannot  say  that  I  have  heard  of  instances  in  which 
he  has  displayed  any  deficiency  in  this  respect,  and  many  cases 
have  been  known  where  Pathans  have  exhibited  in  tough  rear- 
guard actions  a  hardihood  and  tenacity  worthy  of  the  patient, 
stolid,  imperturbable  Sikh.  Nor  can  any  man  be  lacking  in  cool 
courage  who  would  ply  the  dangerous  trade  of  a  rifle-thief,  a  trade 
practised  by  Pathans  ever  since  rifles  were  invented ;  practised, 
probably,  by  many  of  our  sepoys  ere  they  ate  the  salt  of  the 
Sirkar,  and  by  a  few,  alas,  after  they  have  done  so.  The  man 
who  creeps  by  night  into  a  walled  camp  surrounded  by  watchful 
sentries,  and  abstracts  a  rifle  from  a  tent  full  of  lightly-sleeping 
soldiers,  must  have  no  small  allowance  of  Napoleon's  "  courage 
of  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,"  or  he  must  be  singularly  blind  to 
the  possibility  of  having  his  life  let  out  by  the  bayonet  of  Thomas 
Atkins  or  the  kookrie  of  Johnny  Goorkha. 

For  warfare  in  the  rugged  frontier  hills  no  man  could  be  more 
fitted  by  nature  and  early  training  than  the  Pathan.  In  our 
small  frontier  wars  we  have  no  more  useful  soldiers.  The  little 
difficulty  of  fighting  against  their  own  people  does  not  go  for 
much,  so  long  as  they  are  not  called  upon  to  fight  against  their 
own  immediate  tribe.  Even  then  they  have  been  known  to  show 
no  compunction,  though  they  have  recognised  kinsmen  of  their 
own  among  the  enemy.  Desertion  is  the  one  crime  which  they 
are  too  apt  to  commit  under  such  circumstances.  When  one 
remembers  that  the  sepoy  is  armed  with  a  rifle  which  commands, 
across  the  border,  a  price  of  six  hundred  rupees  and  more,  one 
wonders  that  desertions  are  not  commoner  than  they  are.  Such 
a  sum  would  mean  to  an  Afridi  or  Waziri  ease  and  plenty  for  the 
rest  of  his  life. 

To  watch  a  Pathan  in  action  is  a  liberal  education  in  the 
gentle  art  of  skirmishing,  Lessons  in  taking  cover  and  in  making 
the  best  use  of  ground  are  superfluous  to  a  man  who,  from  his 
youth  up,  has  hunted  the  wary  markhor  or  mountain  goat,  and 
has  stalked,  and  been  stalked  by,  his  hereditary  enemy  from  the 
next  village.  At  the  first  shot  fired  he  is  off  like  an  arrow  to 
the  nearest  point  of  vantage,  whence  he  can  obtain  a  view  of 
his  enemy  and  remain  unseen  himself.  His  eyes  glitter,  his 
fingers  are  upon  the  sights  of  his  rifle,  every  muscle  is  tense, 
every  sense  on  the  alert.  Woe  betide  the  unwary  enemy  who 
shows  himself  within  range  of  his  Lee-Metford. 

Pathans  have  a  system  of  blood  feuds,  similar  to  the  Corsican 
vendetta,  in  the  conduct  of  which  they  acquire  a  skill  in  taking 


266  The  Empire  Review 

the  lives  of  others,  and  in  taking  precautions  for  the  preservation 
of  their  own,  which  serves  them  well  in  warfare.  No  man  holds 
human  life  more  cheaply  than  the  Pathan,  nor  does  he  value  his 
own  at  a  much  greater  price  than  that  of  his  neighbour.  But  he 
has  enough  lo'gic  to  see  that  in  order  to  slay  his  enemy  he  must 
remain  alive  himself.  Therefore  he  makes  use  of  methods  which 
seem  to  us  treacherous  and  even  cowardly.  The  laws  of  blood- 
feuds  vary  in  different  tribes.  With  some,  the  feud  ends  with  the 
death  of  the  original  murderer  at  the  hands  of  his  victim's  next- 
of-kin.  With  others  the  murderer's  next-of-kin  makes  it  his 
business  to  put  an  end  to  the  avenger,  and  so  on  from  generation 
to  generation ;  thus  it  often  happens  that  two  families  wage  a 
hereditary  war,  of  which  the  origin  is  shrouded  in  the  mists  of 
antiquity.  The  life  of  the  "  badiwan,"  or  participator  in  a  blood- 
feud,  is  no  bed  of  roses.  There  is  no  mistaking  such  a  man. 
Everything  about  him,  from  the  restless  eyes  that  take  in  every 
detail  of  his  surroundings  to  the  nervous  fingers  ever  playing 
with  his  weapons,  betray  the  man  who  goes  in  danger  of  his  life. 
Many  such  enlist  in  our  regiments  and  often  rise  high  therein, 
since  they  have  no  temptation  to  "  cut  their  names,"  and  return 
to  their  homes  after  two  or  three  years'  service,  as  so  many  Pathan 
sepoys  do. 

The  behaviour  of  the  Pathan  soldier  in  barracks,  though  not 
bad,  still  leaves  something  to  be  desired.  It  occasionally  happens 
that  he  and  his  cronies,  irritated,  perhaps,  by  the  extortions  of 
some  vendor  of  cloth  or  of  sweetstuff,  taking  their  revenge  by 
clearing  out  the  bazaar,  looting  right  and  left,  till  the  arrival  of  the 
military  police  puts  a  stop  to  their  frolics.  Such  outbreaks  are, 
however,  not  very  common. 

As  Mahomedans  they  are  not  addicted  to  the  use  of  alcoholic 
beverages,  but  they  occasionally  attain  similar  results  by  the  use 
of  char  as,  a  preparation  of  Indian  hemp.  This  drug  produces  a 
hilarious  type  of  intoxication,  and  sometimes  leads  to  deeds  of 
violence  to  which  our  hardy  mountaineer  is  already  too  prone. 
Murders,  under  the  influence  of  charas  and  otherwise,  are  of 
occasional  occurrence.  They  are  perhaps  less  common  than  one 
would  expect  among  men  with  whom  the  natural  solution  of  a 
dispute  is  the  extinction  of  the  other  disputant.  They  are  almost 
always  committed  on  sudden  provocation,  and  not  as  the  result  of 
long-continued  brooding  over  past  injuries. 

Pathan  recruits  for  the  Indian  Army  are  drawn,  as  I  have  said, 
from  many  tribes  which,  though  alike  in  their  main  characteristics, 
differ  slightly  in  their  customs,  their  dress,  and  their  mode  of 
speaking  their  rugged  Pushtoo  language.  Beginning  in  the  north, 
we  have  the  various  tribes  embraced  by  the  comprehensive  name 
of  Yussafzai,  or  sons  of  Joseph— to  wit  the  Bunerwals,  Swatis 


Highland  Soldiers  of  the  Indian  Border          267 

and  Bajauris.  Buner,  the  country  of  the  Bunerwals,  is  perhaps 
rather  more  worth  living  in  than  most  of  the  stony  wastes  in 
which  less  favoured  tribes  have  to  drag  out  their  existence.  A 
Buneral  who  was  temporarily  serving  his  Queen  in  "Waziristan 
once  remarked  to  me  with  a  contemptuous  glance  around  him  : — 

This  country  contains  nothing  but  stones,  thieves,  and  serpents.  Now  in  my 
country  the  hills  are  green  with  grass,  the  valleys  are  running  with  water,  and 
the  villages  nestle  among  trees.  You  should  take  leave,  sahib,  and  come  to 
my  village  and  shoot  the  countless  partridges  and  the  markhor  that  swarm 
upon  the  hillsides. 

I  suggested  that  some  of  his  fellow-tribesmen  might  possibly 
be  less  hospitably  inclined  towards  me  than  he  was  himself.  But 
he  laughed  such  gloomy  forebodings  to  scorn,  saying  that  if  a 
hair  of  my  head  were  injured  neither  he  nor  any  of  his  numerous 
brothers  would  rest  till  I  was  avenged.  I  thanked  him  for  his 
kind  intentions,  but  utterly  failed  to  make  him  understand  that 
it  would  be  but  a  slender  consolation  to  my  sorrowing  relatives 
even  if  he  mowed  down  the  whole  tribe  of  Bunerwals.  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  visiting  this  paradise,  however,  a  couple  of  years 
later,  when  a  force  under  Sir  ^Bindon  Blood  went  in  to  exact 
retribution  for  their  share  in  the  unprovoked  attack  on  the  Mala- 
kand  in  1897.  And  really,  for  a  Pathan,  my  friend  had  exaggerated 
surprisingly  little.  The  mountain  sides  were  clothed  in  abundant 
verdure,  and  teemed  with  game — oorial,  markhor,  black  partridge, 
grey  partridge,  sand-grouse,  and  seesee  (rock  partridge).  The 
valleys  were  well  supplied  with  running  streams,  and  seemed 
extremely  fertile,  and  the  villages  were  large,  well  built,  and — an 
unusual  thing  on  the  border — un walled.  This  last  would  seem  to 
show  that  the  Bunerwals  do  not  thieve  much  among  themselves 
or  that  their  system  of  blackmail  works  well. 

The  main  body  of  General  Blood's  force  entered  Buner  by  the 
Tangai  Pass,  traversed  all  the  more  accessible  parts  of  the  country, 
burning  the  villages  of  sundry  of  our  more  prominent  enemies, 
and  made  its  exit  by  the  Umbeyla  Pass,  the  scene  of  desperate 
fighting  in  1863,  when  Chamberlain's  force  went  in  to  deal  with 
the  "  Hindustani  fanatics,"  a  colony  of  religious  enthusiasts  who 
had  made  their  down-country  homes  too  hot  to  hold  them,  and 
had  formed  a  cave  of  Adullam  in  these  Northern  fastnesses. 
Considering  the  great  fighting  reputation  gained  by  the  Bunerwals 
in  the  Umbeyla  Campaign,  when  the  Crag  Picket,  a  rocky  bluff 
standing  out  among  the  densely  wooded  eminences  of  the  pass, 
was  taken  and  retaken  some  half  dozen  times,  the  feeble  resistance 
offered  to  Sir  Bindon  Blood's  force  came  as  something  of  a  surprise. 
No  doubt  the  overwhelming  size  of  the  force,  and  the  artistic  way 
in  which  several  passes  were  threatened  at  once,  had  something  to 
do  with  this.  But  it  must  be  remembered  too  that  in  '63  half 


268  The  Empire  Review 

Pathandom  was  gathered  together  to  help  the  Bunerwals  in  what 
was  looked  on  as  a  religious  quarrel,  although  it  had  its  origin,  as 
usual,  in  questions  of  meum  and  tuum. 

The  Bunerwal,  though  a  good  fighting  man,  is  much  more  of 
a  herdsman,  cattle-breeder  and  trader  than  a  cateran.  He  has  a 
reputation  among  other  Pathans  for  slow-wittedness  and  simplicity, 
and  is  usually  somewhat  of  a  butt  in  a  regiment.  An  Afridi  told 
me  a  malicious  tale  about  the  introduction  of  camels  into  Buner. 
It  seems  that  an  adventurous  camel  once  found  its  way  across  the 
passes  into  the  country  of  these  simple  folks — though  in  truth  the 
passage  through  a  needle's  eye  would  seem  the  easier  feat.  The 
inhabitants  were  filled  with  surprise  at  the  sight  of  this  strange 
visitor,  and  were,  moreover,  deeply  shocked  that  he  should  be 
going  about  in  an  unclad  state.  So  they  constructed  for  him  a 
pair  of  nether  garments.  The  perplexed  animal,  after  the  manner 
of  camels,  went  forth  to  graze,  and  naturally  tore  his  breeches  in 
the  process.  They  were  repaired  at  the  public  charges  on  many 
occasions,  till  at  last  the  Bunerwals,  feeling  that  their  guest  was 
an  insupportable  burden  on  their  finances,  gently  but  firmly 
expelled  him  from  their  country. 

The  Swati,  next  neighbour  to  the  Bunerwal,  is  physically  his 
inferior,  however  much  he  may  be  his  superior  intellectually. 
The  Valley  of  Swat,  to  which  the  Malakand  Pass,  another  of  our 
border  battle-grounds,  gives  access,  is  in  its  lower  part  broad  and 
fertile,  being  watered  by  the  considerable  river  which  gives  its 
name  to  the  country.  Bice  is  the  chief  crop,  and  is  of  a  quality 
which  causes  it  to  be  in  high  request  in  the  Punjab.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  peculiarly  Jewish  in  aspect,  immoral  in  their  habits,  and, 
though  ordinarily  peaceful,  are  liable  to  fits  of  furious  fanaticism, 
as  they  showed  in  1897  when  their  "  Mad  Mullah  "  worked  them 
up  to  make  their  all  but  successful  attack  on  our  Malakand 
position.  In  this  they  were  helped  by  the  Bunerwals,  and  by 
various  sections  of  the  Bajouris,  who  live  close  up  to  the  Afghan 
border,  to  the  west  of  our  route  to  Chitral,  comprising  several 
septs,  all  first  class  fighting  men,  and  all  ruffians  of  the  reddest 
dye. 

The  Mamoonds  are  perhaps  the  bravest,  best  armed,  and  most 
evilly  disposed  of  the  Bajouris.  They  gave  an  infinity  of  trouble 
in  1897,  when  a  brigade  under  General  Jefferies  had  the  difficult 
task  of  punishing  them.  Not  many  of  them  have,  so  far,  enlisted 
in  our  regiments,  and  as  a  consequence  they  are  still  in  a  state  of 
semi-savagery.  For  as  I  shall  try  to  show  in  speaking  of  the 
Afridis,  intercourse  with  the  British  undoubtedly  exerts  a  softening 
influence  on  these  wild  hillmen,  causing  them  to  forego  such 
customs  as  the  mutilation  of  dead  enemies  and  the  torture  of 
prisoners. 


Highland  Soldiers  of  the  Indian  Border          269 

Turning  southward  we  come  to  the  Mohmands,  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  Mamoonds.  The  Mohmands  are  a  numerous 
and  powerful  tribe  inhabiting  certain  barren  hills  north  of  Peshawar, 
to  the  east  of  the  Kunar  River,  which  separates  them  from 
Afghanistan.  So  far  as  I  have  seen  them,  they  are  not  an  attrac- 
tive race,  although  they  make  useful  soldiers.  Any  specimens 
I  have  met  have  been  burly  of  figure,  slow  of  speech,  and  serious, 
not  to  say  sullen,  of  demeanour.  They  were  the  aggressors  on 
the  occasion  of  the  fight  at  Shabkadr  in  August  1897,  when,  after 
attempting  in  vain  for  several  hours  to  overwhelm  a  battalion  of 
Native  Infantry,  they  were  in  their  turn  overwhelmed  by  a 
regiment  of  Bengal  Lancers,  aided  by  a  Field  Battery,  which 
artistically  dropped  shells  a  little  ahead  of  the  cavalry  as  they 
executed  a  dashing  charge  on  their  flank. 

The  tribe  which  comes  next  in  geographical  order — that  of  the 
Afridis — is  the  type  of  all  that  is  best  and  worst  in  the  Pathan. 
If  one  were  seeking  for  instances  of  the  finest  deeds  of  valour,  of 
the  most  daring  robberies,  the  most  admirable  acts  of  loyalty  and 
devotion,  or  of  the  blackest  treachery,  the  annals  of  this  famous 
—some  would  say  infamous — tribe  would  be  more  likely  to  furnish 
them  than  those  of  any  other.  In  courage,  physique  and 
intelligence  the  Afridi  stands  pre-eminent  among  Pathans.  And 
if  in  past  years  he  has  used  those  qualities  to  our  great  loss  and 
damage,  he  has  in  some  measure  made  up  for  it  by  supplying 
many  thousands  of  valuable  recruits  to  our  army.  And  these  same 
recruits,  returning  to  their  mountain  homes  after  faithful  service, 
have  carried  back  to  their  kinsmen  civilising  influences,  so  that 
the  modern  Afridi  no  longer  deserves  the  sweeping  condemnation 
showered  upon  him  by  General  Macgregor,  who  described  him  as 
a  "shameless,  cruel  savage,"  a  "ruthless,  cowardly  robber,"  and 
a  "  cold-blooded,  treacherous  murderer."  In  our  Tirah  Campaign 
of  1897  several  of  our  men  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Afridis,  and 
were  well  treated  and  cared  for  till  the  campaign  was  over.  And 
in  no  instance  were  the  bodies  of  our  killed  subjected  to  the  horrible 
mutilations  of  which  some  other  tribes  are  guilty. 

The  Afridis  have  been  a  sore  thorn  in  our  side  ever  since  our 
acquisition  of  the  Punjab  brought  us  into  contact  with  them. 
The  important  position  they  occupy  round  the  Khyber  and  Kohat 
Passes,  no  less  than  their  predatory  habits,  accounts  for  this.  A 
corps  of  irregulars,  the  Khyber  Rifles,  was  raised  among  them  for 
the  guardianship  of  the  Khyber  Pass,  a  duty  which  they  performed 
fairly  well  till  1897,  when  the  general  tribal  rising  culminated  in 
the  seizure  and  burning  of  the  Khyber  forts,  in  spite  of  the  gallant 
defence  made  by  the  Afridi  garrisons  against  their  own  kinsmen. 
The  avenging  of  this  outrage  by  the  army  which  invaded  Tirah 
under  Sir  William  Lockhart  is  a  matter  of  history.  Since  then 


270  The  Empire  Review 

the  guarding  of  the  Khyber  Pass  has  been  again  entrusted  to  the 
Afridis  in  the  form  of  a  reconstituted  Khyber  Eifles,  with  an 
increased  number  of  British  officers. 

This  country  of  Tirah,  unseen  by  English  eyes  till  Lockhart's 
army  forced  its  entrance  by  way  of  Dargai  and  the  Sampagha  and 
Arhanga  Passes,  is  the  summer  resort  of  the  Afridis,  who  in  the 
winter  desert  its  snow-clad  heights  for  their  caves  and  fortified 
villages  in  the  Bara,  Bazai  and  other  valleys.  And  a  beautiful 
country  this  Tirah  is,  if  one  could  only  enjoy  it  with  a  fair  prospect 
of  surviving  more  than  a  few  hours.  But  short  of  a  complete 
occupation,  an  undertaking  far  too  costly  in  money  and  troops  to 
be  seriously  thought  of,  no  measures  could  possibly  enable  us  to 
take  advantage  of  this  cool  and  delectable  Switzerland  of  the 
Frontier. 

Numerous  as  our  misunderstandings  with  the  Afridis  have 
been,  none  of  them  have  had  their  origin  in  religious  fanaticism. 
They  are  the  least  priest-ridden  of  men.  Their  disregard  for 
religion  is  a  byword.  There  is  a  tale  of  a  bold  priest  who 
tried  to  wean  them  from  their  heathenish  ways,  and  unguardedly 
recommended  the  setting  up  of  shrines  over  the  graves  of  holy 
men,  at  which  they  might  pray.  So,  having  no  holy  men  of 
their  own,  they  slew  the  bold  priest  and  made  a  shrine  of  his 
grave. 

Near  neighbours,  and  perhaps,  although  the  Afridis  scornfully 
deny  it,  near  kinsmen,  are  the  Orakzai.  They  share  most  of  the 
Afridi  characteristics,  but  are  in  many  ways  an  inferior  race. 
They  lack  especially  the  "  thorough-bred "  appearance  of  the 
Afridi,  having  a  coarser  type  of  feature  and  a  less  lithe  and 
graceful  appearance  than  the  latter.  When  not  engaged  in 
weaving  plots  against  their  common  foe,  the  Feringhee,  they  are 
the  bitterest  of  mutual  enemies. 

Proceeding  further  South,  and  passing  over  minor  tribes,  like 
the  Bungashes  and  the  Populzais,  we  come  to  the  great  Waziri 
tribe,  of  which  there  are  two  main  divisions,  the  Darwesh  Khel 
Waziris  and  the  Mahsud  Waziris.  These  two  sections  are  very 
much  alike — alike  in  their  customs,  their  appearance,  their  dress, 
and  their  truculent  predatory  nature.  The  features  of  their 
rugged,  inhospitable  country  are  reflected  in  their  character.  A 
sea  of  tumbled  brown  strata,  unclothed  by  any  scrap  of  vegetation 
— such  is  the  impression  given  to  the  eye  by  the  greater  part  of 
Waziristan.  Here  and  there,  it  is  true,  one  finds  a  kind  of  oasis 
where  the  life-giving  water  reaches  the  surface  and  creates  a 
patch  of  green  which  seems,  by  contrast,  like  a  glimpse  of 
Paradise.  The  upper  slopes  of  the  highest  mountains,  too,  are 
covered  with  pines  and  holly  oaks.  But  such  places  only  serve 
to  accentuate  the  hideous  barren  nakedness  of  the  great  bulk  of 


Highland  Soldiers  of  the  Indian  Border          271 

the  country.  Having  once  seen  it,  one  ceases  to  feel  any  surprise 
at  their  mode  of  life.  Having  no  goods  of  their  own,  and  no 
means  of  producing  them,  they  naturally  enough  devote  them- 
selves to  acquiring  those  of  other  people.  They  believe  in  "  th© 
good  old  rule,  the  simple  plan,"  which  held  good  in  our  own 
Scottish  land  till  not  so  many  years  ago. 

A  raiding  party  of  Waziris  on  business  bent  is  a  sight  which  is 
naturally  not  often  seen,  but  once  seen  is  not  to  be  forgotten.  It 
consists  as  a  rule  of  twenty  or  thirty  men,  lithe,  active,  catlike 
in  their  movements,  clad  in  flowing  cotton  garments  once  white, 
but  now  harmonising  with  the  general  drab  monochrome  of  the 
hills.  In  winter  they  wear  long  sheepskin  coats,  skin  outermost, 
girded  at  the  waist  with  a  cotton  girdle.  Each  fourth  man 
carries  a  bag  of  flour  to  serve  as  sustenance  till  the  raid  is  over. 
The  rest  have  no  impedimenta  save  rifle,  slung  butt  foremost  over 
one  shoulder  and  the  long  keen  knife  in  the  girdle.  Silently, 
crouchingly,  they  wind  in  Indian  file  over  the  stony  tracks,  their 
grass  sandals  making  as  little  noise  as  the  velvet  pads  of  so  many 
leopards.  Forty  or  fifty  miles  in  a  night  is  nothing  to  these 
tireless,  sinewy  men.  And  wideawake  must  be  the  British 
officer,  and  hard  as  nails  must  be  his  men,  if  he  would  baulk 
these  caterans  of  their  prey,  or  intercept  them  as  they  hurry  to 
their  strongholds  with  their  booty  of  cattle  or  of  merchandise — 
laden  camels. 

At  the  present  time  the  Waziri  is  more  of  an  unredeemed 
savage  than  any  other  Pathan.  No  scruples  of  honour,  no  regard 
for  the  laws  of  hospitality,  no  ties  of  blood-relationship  even, 
seem  to  check  his  wild-beast  passions.  A  man  will  murder  his 
own  brother  to  gain  possession  of  a  coveted  rifle,  or  sell  the  life  of 
his  dearest  friend  for  a  trifling  bribe.  They  were  Darwesh  Khel 
Waziris  who  committed  the  terrible  outrage  at  Maizar  in  1897 — 
the  earliest  of  the  outbreaks  of  that  eventful  year.  A  small  force 
of  three  hundred  men  went  to  Maizar  as  escort  to  a  political 
officer,  and  was  resting  in  that  village  while  the  British  officers 
were  being  entertained  by  the  people  of  the  place.  Suddenly  a 
hot  fire  was  opened  on  them  from  short  range,  and  it  was  only 
through  the  steadiness  and  gallantry  of  the  officers  and  men 
of  the  force  that  it  escaped  total  annihilation.  Few  Waziris 
have  so  far  enlisted  in  our  army.  They  do  not  take  kindly 
to  the  restraints  of  discipline,  and  the  enforced  cleanliness  of 
military  life  is  repulsive  to  them.  But  under  strict  discipline 
they  are  said  to  make  good  soldiers,  and  doubtless  an  increasing 
number  of  them  will  come  forward  as  recruits  in  the  course  of 
time. 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  as  time  goes  on  the  inde- 
pendent tribes  of  the  frontier  are  coming  into  closer  and  closer 


272  The  Empire  Review 

touch  with  us,  and  are  getting  to  understand  us  better.  They  no 
longer  suspect  us  of  designs  on  their  territory  or  independence, 
and  recognise  the  fact  that  all  we  want  of  them  is  orderly 
conduct — and  co-operation  in  the  event  of  an  enemy  from  farther 
north  advancing  on  their  territory  and  ours.  And  much  will 
that  enemy  endure  at  their  hands,  whether  they  meet  him  as 
disciplined  soldiers  of  our  Indian  Army,  or  hang  on  his  flanks  as 
independent  banditti  of  the  hills. 

D.  M'L. 


The  Anti-Imperial  Policy  of  Australia          273 


THE    ANTI-IMPERIAL   POLICY    OF 
AUSTRALIA 

IT  is  useless  to  shut  our  eyes  to  facts,  and  no  good  end  can  be 
served  by  pretending  that  the  people  with  whom  we  have  to  deal 
are  influenced  by  pure  and  disinterested  affection  for  ourselves, 
when,  in  reality,  they  simply  regard  us  with  indifference  as  mere 
outsiders.  The  long  wrangle  about  the  Naval  Agreement,  which 
has  just  been  ratified  by  the  Federal  Parliament  after  a  debate  of 
a  most  acrimonious  character,  ought  to  suffice  to  show  how  little 
reliance  is  to  be  placed  on  Australian  professions  of  loyalty  to  the 
Imperial  ideal.  It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  there  is 
not  a  great  deal  of  real  fidelity  to  that  ideal  among  the  people  of 
Australia ;  but  the  Empire  is  a  long  way  off,  and  the  people  who 
are  most  concerned  with  shaping  the  policy  of  the  country  are 
least  accessible  to  sentimental  considerations.  It  is  extremely 
hard  for  anyone  who  has  spent  a  lifetime  in  Australia  to  realise 
how  extremely  small  and  parochial  are  the  local  affairs  about 
which  he  is  in  the  habit  of  interesting  himself. 

It  is  impossible  otherwise  to  account  for  the  amazing  clause 
prohibiting  the  letting  of  mail  contracts  to  shipping  companies 
employing  other  than  white  crews,  thus  shutting  out  the  great 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company,  which  ran  the  first  mail 
steamers  to  Australia,  and  all  the  other  companies  in  the  Indian 
trade,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Orient-Pacific  Company,  which 
shares  the  present  contract.  The  Federal  Premier  told  Mr. 
Chamberlain  that  the  provision  was  inserted  "to  encourage 
British  seamen,"  but  he  forgot  to  add  the  fact  that  the  British 
seaman  is  almost  non-existent  in  his  country. 

It  seems  to  be  an  act  of  the  purest  benevolence  on  the  part  of 
Sir  Edmund  Barton  and  his  colleagues,  who  go  out  of  their  way  to 
encourage  the  British  seaman,  and  protect  the  British  shipowner 
against  himself  by  preventing  his  employing  "  men  of  a  race  less 
adapted  for  maritime  purposes."  It  might  occur  to  some 
benighted  persons  that  the  shipowners  are  at  least  as  capable  as 
Sir  Edmund  and  his  colleagues  of  deciding  who  are  adapted  for 
their  purposes,  but  then  they  employ  the  Lascars  "  for  their  own 
VOL.  VI.— No.  33  T 


274  The  Empire  Review 

profit,"  and  they  can  hardly  be  expected  to  take  a  dispassionate 
view  of  the  matter. 

In  fact,  the  shipowner  is  so  hopelessly  stupid  that,  for  the 
sake  of  a  supposed  saving  of  a  few  pounds  a  month  in  wages,  he 
will  man  his  ships  with  bad  sailors,  when  he  can  get  good  sailors 
for  a  little  more,  and  of  course  take  all  the  incidental  risks.  It  is 
not  by  any  means  proved  that  the  hereditary  sailors  of  Western 
India,  who  are  known  as  Lascars,  are  really  less  adapted  for  their 
work  than  other  men.  There  are  stories  of  their  supposed 
cowardice,  and  inability  to  bear  cold ;  but  stories  at  least  as  bad 
have  been  told  about  crews  composed  of  white  men.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  records  of  the  old  Indian  Navy  which 
anyone  can  see,  and  they  show  that  the  Lascar  crews  of  the  East 
India  Company's  ships  were  second  to  none  in  courage,  discipline, 
or  endurance,  and  the  events  of  the  last  few  years  have  proved 
that  the  men  in  the  service  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Company  are  in  no  way  unworthy  to  be  their  successors,  and 
follow  in  their  footsteps.  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  make 
assertions  about  things  not  generally  known. 

The  general  impression  in  Australia  is  that  the  dark  skin,  if 
not  exactly  the  brand  of  Cain,  is  certainly  a  sort  of  "brand  of 
cheapness,"  which  is  very  much  worse  in  the  estimation  of  the 
more  enthusiastic  advocates  of  the  colour-line.  All  the  members 
of  the  Federal  Ministry  but  two  are  (or  were,  for  one  has 
resigned)  lawyers ;  and  it  is  really  one  of  the  most  incompre- 
hensible things  in  this  incomprehensible  country  that  men  with 
precise  legal  training  can  gravely  talk  about  "black  curses,"  and 
"yellow  agonies,"  as  if  the  colour  of  a  man's  skin  were  of  the 
smallest  consequence  before  the  law.  No  attempt  has,  in  fact, 
been  made  to  define  "colour"  in  the  legal  sense,  and  it  would 
probably  be  extremely  difficult  to  frame  a  definition  that  would 
hold  water.  It  is  not  generally  known  out  of  India  that  the 
Aryan  native  of  that  country  considers  himself  a  white  man,  and 
he  has  good  grounds  for  his  opinion,  as  the  oldest  Sanskrit 
literature  clearly  shows,  if  anyone  concerned  cared  to  look  for 
evidence.  It  is  certainly  not  scientific  evidence  that  will  satisfy 
those  who  are  seeking  to  exclude  the  people  of  British  India 
from  a  share  in  the  opportunities  afforded  by  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  sparsely  peopled  territories  of  the  Empire — a  territory 
with  only  one  thousand  inhabitants  to  every  mile  of  inhabited 
coast-line,  and  less  than  one  and  a  half  to  the  square  mile  of 
area. 

It  is  humiliating  for  the  inhabitants  of  such  a  territory  to  be 
forced  to  confess  that  they  cannot  compete  in  their  own  country 
with  the  pestilent  outsider,  and  are  consequently  forced  to  make 
stringent  laws  to  keep  him  out.  It  quite  upsets  old-fashioned 


The  Anti-Imperial  Policy  of  Australia  275 

economic  ideas  of  people  bred  in  the  old  world  to  find  that  four 
millions  of  people  feel  themselves  so  much  crowded  on  an  island 
continent  with  an  area  of  over  three  million  square  miles  that 
they  are  compelled  in  self-defence  to  pass  stringent  laws  against 
the  immigration  of  possible  competitors  in  the  labour  market.  It 
is  humiliating  for  any  civilised  community  to  confess  that  it  is 
unable  to  keep  the  supremacy  in  its  own  labour  market  without 
penal  statutes  to  keep  "inferior  races"  at  a  distance.  It  is  not 
easy  to  understand  why  the  superior  race,  if  it  is  really  superior, 
is  unable  to  hold  its  own,  and  more  than  hold  its  own,  by  its  own 
natural  forces,  without  the  help  of  the  statute  law,  and  it  may 
some  day  become  a  question  whether  the  rest  of  the  world  will 
allow  a  community  so  microscopic  to  continue  its  policy  of 
shutting  out  all  the  rest  of  the  human  race  from  such  a  vast 
territory.  The  provision  with  regard  to  mail  contracts  is  a  new 
departure. 

The  Australian  Colonies  have  never  let  contracts  for  the 
carriage  of  English  mails.  The  existing  contract  for  the  Suez 
service  was  made  by  the  Imperial  Post-Office,  which  received  a 
small  contribution  in  aid  from  the  separate  Australian  Govern- 
ments. It  is  quite  an  open  question  whether  that  contribution 
could  not  be  continued,  since  the  Australian  Postmaster-General 
is  not  a  party  to  the  contract ;  but  the  avowed  object  is  to  force 
the  whole  world  to  adopt  and  comply  with  Australian  prejudices. 
Natives  of  India  are  not  to  have  equal  rights  and  opportunities 
with  other  British  subjects  in  Australia  if  it  can  be  prevented; 
and  it  remains  for  the  India  and  Colonial  Offices  to  decide  how 
far  one  group  of  self-governing  colonies  can  safely  be  allowed  to 
go  in  asserting  its  independence  of  the  Empire  as  a  whole. 

It  is  evidently  the  intention  of  those  in  authority  in  the 
Commonwealth,  in  spite  of  their  professions  of  loyalty  to  the 
Empire,  to  secure  as  large  a  measure  of  independence  as  they 
in,  and  this  question  of  the  employment  of  Lascars  on  mail- 
boats  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  Imperial  Government  to 
make  its  position  quite  clear.  It  has  an  undoubted  right  to 
protect  the  people  of  the  Empire  as  a  whole,  or  of  any  part  of  it, 
against  oppression  by  those  of  any  other  part.  The  attempt  to 
deprive  Lascars  of  their  right  to  work  is  undoubtedly  an  act 
of  gross  oppression.  Is  it  yet  too  late  to  disallow  the  Postal  Act 
in  which  the  provision  is  included?  If  so,  there  is  plenty  of 
time  to  instruct  the  Governor-General  to  reserve  the  Navigation 
Bill,  which  is  announced  as  part  of  the  Federal  Government's 
programme  for  next  year  (if  it  should  pass)  for  the  Eoyal  Assent. 
Many  things  will  certainly  happen  before  that  time  comes, 
and  a  general  election  will  be  one  of  them;  for  the  Federal 
Houses  are  moribund,  The  result  cannot  be  foreseen  with  any 

T  2 


276 


The  Empire  Review 


approach  to  certainty.  The  one  thing  that  has  become  apparent 
is  that  the  Government  has  made  itself  detested  by  all  parties 
throughout  the  country,  and  will  not  be  returned  with  even 
its  present  shadowy  majority  at  its  back.  Its  own  members, 
especially  Sir  Edmund  Barton,  the  Premier,  will  find  it  very 
hard  to  secure  their  seats. 

The  whole  thing  is  in  a  state  of  the  utmost  uncertainty  and 
doubt.     There  are  no  recognised  party  divisions  in  the  country 
on  which  it  is  possible  to  count.     The  only  party  which  really 
knows  its  own  mind  is  the  Socialist,  or  Labour  party  as  it  is 
called,  nominally  representing  the  political  labour  leagues,  and 
really  controlled  by  three  great  trade  unions  :  (1)  The  Australian 
Workers'  Union,  of  quite  uncertain  numerical  strength,  supposed 
to  consist  of  all  the  men  working  in  the  bush  ;  (2)  The  Miners', 
with  strongholds  in  the  New  South  Wales  coalfields,  Ballarat  in 
Victoria,  Broken  Hill,  and  on  the  West  Australian   goldfields ; 
(3)  Maritime  Labour  Federation,  which  includes  the  Seamen's 
Unions,  and  all  those  concerned  with  the  loading  and  discharging 
of  ships.     These  are  really  only  paper  organisations,  and  it  is 
very  doubtful  whether  they  represent  one-twentieth  of  the  total 
number  of  votes  on  the  roll.     The  collapse  of  the  engine-drivers' 
strike  on  the  Victorian  Kailways  was  a  shocking  example  of  the 
impotence  of  political  trade-unionism.     The  party  is  not  the  less 
a  force  to  be  reckoned  with,  since  it  gives  its  support  "  in  return 
for  concessions,"  and  can  always  be  relied  on  by  a  weak  govern- 
ment on  a  critical  division  if  it  gets  its  price.     It  wishes  to  treat 
natives  of  India  as  "  coloured  aliens."     Its  next  attempt  will  be 
to  drive  British  and  foreign  shipping  off  the  Australian  coast  to 
the  great  injury  of  Imperial  interests.    Will  the  Colonial  Office 
submit  to  that  ? 


JAMES  EEID. 


BONDI,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


Irish  Universities 


'277 


IRISH     UNIVERSITIES     AND     THE     ALLIED 
COLONIAL   UNIVERSITIES   CONFERENCE 

KEADEES  of  this  Keview  will  be  familiar  with  the  proceedings 
of  the  Allied  Colonial  Universities'  Conference  from  the  official 
report  published  in  the  August  number.  By  the  courtesy  of  the 
Editor  I  am  allowed  an  opportunity  of  indicating  how  the  Con- 
ference, and  the  movement  in  which  it  has  been  the  initial  stage, 
may  exercise  a  wide-reaching  and  salutary  influence  upon  the 
vexed  problem  of  Irish  university  education. 

The  promoters  of  the  Conference  were  primarily  concerned 
with  the  universities  and  colleges  in  the  King's  dominions  beyond 
the  seas,  and,  in  the  nature  of  things,  can  have  scarcely  taken 
into  account  its  effect  upon  academic  conditions  in  the  Sister 
Island.  But  it  is  characteristic  of  all  large  and  fruitful  schemes 
that  they  carry  with  them  consequences  which  their  originators 
had  only  partly  anticipated.  The  primary  object  of  the  Con- 
ference, as  set  forth  in  the  first  resolution  passed  on  July  9th, 
was  to  establish  certain  relations,  especially  for  the  furtherance 
of  "post-graduate  study  and  research"  between  "the  principal 
teaching  universities  of  the  Empire."  Delegates  were  accordingly 
invited  from  these  universities  and  their  constituent  colleges. 
But  Ireland  at  once  presented  a  difficulty.  Outside  of  Dublin 
University  (which  in  fact,  if  not  in  theory,  is  identical  with 
Trinity  College),  there  was  no  teaching  university  which  could 
be  asked  to  send  representatives.  The  Committee  therefore 
invited  the  two  larger  Queen's  Colleges,  Belfast  and  Cork,  to 
take  part  in  the  proceedings.  Cork  was  represented  by  its 
President,  Sir  K.  Blennerhassett,  and  Belfast  (in  the  unavoidable 
absence  of  its  President)  by  myself.  In  the  Report  the  two 
colleges  appear  under  the  heading  "  Boyal  University  of  Ireland," 
but,  strictly  speaking,  this  is  incorrect.  The  Koyal  University  is, 
like  London  University  in  its  older  form,  a  purely  examining  and 
degree-conferring  Board,  and  has  no  constituent  colleges.  By  its 
constitution  it  ignores  the  existence  of  any  teaching  bodies  (except 
in  the  preparation  for  medical  degrees),  and  receives  within  its 


278  The  Empire  Review 

fold  all  and  sundry  who  can  pass  its  examination-tests.  It  is  on 
the  singular  academic  situation  thus  created  that  the  movement 
inaugurated  in  the  recent  Conference  may  powerfully  react. 

In  explaining  my  view  more  fully,  I  desire  to  avoid  the  con- 
troversial and  political  issues  which  complicate  the  question,  and 
to  deal  merely  with  its  educational  aspects,  as  they  present  them- 
selves to  one  whose  connection  till  recently  was  entirely  with  the 
English  university  system.  Owing  to  historical  causes,  which 
are  too  familiar  to  need  repetition  here,  Irish  education,  in  its 
higher  developments,  is  affected  by  an  unfortunate  spirit  of 
sectionalism  which  hampers  its  full  and  vigorous  development. 
The  only  teaching  university  in  the  country,  that  oi  Dublin, 
occupies  a  remarkable  position.  On  its  greatness  as  a  seat  of 
learning,  and  as  a  nursery  of  orators  and  statesmen,  it  would  be 
merely  impertinent  for  an  outsider  to  dwell.  Members  of  the 
Conference  were  favoured  with  a  taste  of  the  wit  and  eloquence 
that  are  traditional  within  its  walls  in  the  speeches  of  Dr.  Mahaffy . 
But  "  Trinity,"  clarum  et  venerabile  nomen  though  she  be,  is  not 
a  national  university  in  the  same  sense  as  Oxford  or  Cambridge. 
She  has  indeed  thrown  open  her  doors  freely  to  all  corners,  with- 
out distinction  of  class  or  creed.  But,  as  far  as  appears  at 
present,  she  cannot  make  herself  acceptable  to  the  mass  of  the 
Irish  people,  who  accept  on  educational  questions  the  guidance 
of  their  Church,  without  a  revolution  that  would  transform  her 
almost  beyond  recognition.  Naturally  enough  she  refuses  to  accept 
this  situation,  and  in  the  struggle  to  enforce  her  claims  as  the 
national  home  of  learning,  she  is  led  to  hold  somewhat  jealously 
aloof  from  all  other  centres  of  academic  life  in  the  island. 

The  principal  of  these  centres  are  the  three  Queen's  Colleges 
of  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway,  and  University  College,  Dublin, 
which  is  under  the  management  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers.  Up  till 
1882  the  Queen's  Colleges  had  a  common  bond  in  the  Queen's 
Universit^,  of  which  they  were  the  constituent  members.  But 
with  the  dissolution  of  that  university  they  became  isolated  units, 
divergent  in  their  surroundings  and  their  needs.  Many  of  their 
professors  meet  one  another,  and  those  of  University  College,  on 
the  examining  Boards  of  the  Eoyal  University,  and  are  personally 
on  the  most  harmonious  terms.  But  association  for  a  few  weeks 
annually  in  Dublin  cannot  produce  common  ideals  and  methods, 
especially  among  examiners  who  have  no  voice  in  the  government 
of  the  institution  to  which  they  are  attached.  Moreover,  outside 
these  four  colleges,  which  are  directly  or  indirectly  supported  by 
the  State,  there  are  several  theological  colleges  and  a  miscellaneous 
number  of  private  bodies  which  send  up  candidates  for  the  Eoyal 
University  examinations. 

Thus,  over  the  Irish  academic  world,  full  as  it  is  of  intellectual 


Irish  Universities 


279 


ability  and  enthusiasm  for  the  "  things  of  the  mind,"  there  falls 
everywhere  the  shadow  of  sectionalism.  How  deeply  the  evil  is 
felt,  and  how  ardent  is  the  desire  to  remove  it,  appears  clearly  in 
the  evidence  given  before  the  recent  Koyal  Commission  on  Irish 
University  Education.  But  none  of  the  witnesses  could  have 
anticipated  that  an  outside  movement  was  so  speedily  destined  to 
take  shape,  which  may  co-operate  towards  this  end.  The  very 
basis  of  the  Allied  Colonial  Universities  Conference  was  the 
recognition  of  a  common  aim  in  all  academic  bodies,  however 
diverse  in  age,  in  type,  or  in  geographical  position.  Its  pro- 
moters had  floating  before  them  the  magnificent  conception  of 
an  imperial  academic  organism,  in  which  Oxford  would  have  its 
function  beside  Sydney,  and  Cambridge  beside  Montreal.  The 
essential  solidarity  of  university  education  in  all  quarters  of  the 
globe  where  the  British  flag  flies  was  the  animating  idea  of  the 
whole  gathering,  and  found  eloquent  expression  from  the  lips  of 
many  of  the  speakers. 

It  is  this  conception  of  the  solidarity  of  university  education 
in  its  diverse  forms  which,  above  all  things,  needs  to  be  pressed 
home  upon  Irish  public  opinion  at  the  present  moment.  Nothing 
could  be  more  beneficial  to  the  units  into  which  her  academic  life 
is  now  sundered  than  to  be  caught  up  into  the  sweep  of  a  compre- 
hensive and  centralising  movement.  It  has  even  been  to  the 
good  that  representatives  of  Dublin  University  and  of  the  Queen's 
Colleges  should  have  been  summoned  together  to  a  Conference 
where  the  questions  in  debate  were  not  in  any  way  distinctively 
Irish,  but  affected  equally  all  universities  throughout  the  Empire. 
And  if,  on  the  permanent  Council  which  is  to  be  formed  to  carry 
out  the  objects  of  the  Conference,  it  is  found  possible  to  per- 
petuate a  similar  joint  representation,  a  still  greater  step  in 
advance  will  be  made. 

And  now  I  come  to  what  is  the  most  important  consideration. 
The  Conference,  as  stated  above,  had  as  its  object  the  drawing 
closer  together,  for  certain  purposes,  of  "  the  principal  teaching 
universities  of  the  Empire."  It  was  therefore  only  by  a  liberal 
interpretation  of  terms,  a  wise  regard  to  the  spirit  rather  than  the 
letter,  that  any  academic  body  in  Ireland,  outside  of  Dublin 
University,  could  be  included  in  its  membership.  The  most 
distant  dominions  of  the  King — Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Manitoba 
— sent  their  representatives ;  so  did  the  most  modern  teaching 
universities — London,  Wales,  Birmingham.  Yet  Ireland,  apart 
from  "  Trinity,"  might  have  been  left,  had  the  Committee  not 
strained  a  point,  entirely  in  the  cold.  And  while  things  remain 
as  they  are,  she  can  never  take  her  proper  place  in  an  educational 
council  of  the  Empire. 

Thus,  entirely  unconnected  with  current  Irish  controversies, 


280  The  Empire  Review 

and  since  the  publication  of  the  Report  of  the  Eoya>l  Commission, 
a  new  cause  has  arisen  to  give  increased  urgency  to  the  demand 
that  the  Irish  colleges,  at  present  isolated  from  one  another, 
should  be  affiliated  to  some  university  or  universities.  With  the 
respective  merits  of  the  various  solutions  that  have  been  pro- 
posed I  am  not  called  upon  to  deal.  Whether  the  "  Eoyal " 
should  be  reorganised  into  a  teaching  university,  with  constituent 
colleges ;  or  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  northern  university  should 
be  created  side  by  side ;  or  Dublin  University  should  be  so  re- 
constituted as  to  embrace  more  than  one  college— all  this  is  for 
statesmen  and  administrators  to  decide.  The  one  point  which, 
for  my  own  part,  I  wish  to  emphasise,  is  that,  unless  a  Teaching 
University  replaces  the  present  Examining  Board,  Ireland  will 
occupy  an  inferior  position  in  the  Imperial  educational  council 
to  countries  which  were  uninhabited  wildernesses  when  she  was 
already  famous  as  a  seat  of  learning  and  of  art. 

F.  S.  BOAS. 


Civil  Officials  in  Northern  Nigeria  281 


CIVIL   OFFICIALS   IN   NORTHERN   NIGERIA 

WHEN  the  energetic  young  barrister  from  the  Temple  signs  a 
contract  with  his  Majesty's  Government  and,  in  consideration  of 
a  salary,  part  of  which  it  is  possible  to  save,  becomes  a  Resident 
in  Northern  Nigeria,  an  officer  of  the  Supreme  Court  there  and 
a  candidate  for  the  quick  promotion  which  invariably  accompanies 
service  in  the  tropics,  he  is  surprised  to  find  on  receiving  a  list  of 
necessary  articles  from  the  Colonial  Office  that  he  must  call  on 
a  military  tailor  and  ransack  some  military  equipment  store  or 
other  for  his  kit.  But  after  being  a  few  months  in  the  country 
he  realises  the  immense  importance  of  a  uniform ;  in  fact,  it  is 
a  necessity,  for  when  two  hundred  white  men  are  pulling  the 
strings  of  government  among  a  people  numbered  by  tens  of 
millions  every  unit  must  be  made  the  most  of.  If  a  man  be 
small  he  must  wear  a  big  helmet  and  ride  on  a  horse  ;  if  his  feet 
be  large  he  can  all  the  better  carry  a  massive  pair  of  leggings ; 
if  he  be  clean-shaven,  the  sooner  he  loses  his  razor  and  has  to 
grow  a  beard  the  better. 

So  small  is  the  number  of  civilians  in  Northern  Nigeria  that 
there  is  no  club  or  headquarters,  no  organisation  whatever  for 
social  intercourse,  and  there  is  little  time  to  think  of  such  things. 
But  all  civilians  are  welcomed  as  honorary  members  of  the  regi- 
mental mess,  that  mess  which  is  never  so  happy  as  when  its 
members  are  going  away  one  or  two  at  a  time,  to  get  that 
experience  of  modern  might  for  which  they  are  willing  to  risk 
their  lives  and  constitutions.  It  is  an  ever-changing  mess.  A 
new  president  every  few  weeks ;  sometimes  a  score  of  men,  some- 
times only  three,  but,  many  or  few,  each  man  sits  down  to  dinner 
in  solemn  state,  with  his  boy  behind  him.  Members  come  every 
fortnight,  the  mail-boat  always  brings  them  in,  and  members  go 
every  day,  for  leave,  on  expeditions,  to  outposts  and  to  hospital. 
The  building  is  not  palatial — merely  a  small  wooden  bungalow, 
containing  the  mess-room,  ante-room,  and  a  verandah.  Here 
the  soldier  and  the  civilian,  the  accountant,  the  storekeeper,  the 
surveyor,  the  doctor,  in  fact,  one  and  all  of  the  little  band  of 
white  officials,  can  see  the  papers  and  read  Eeuter's  telegrams — 


282  The  Empire  Review 

the  news  of  the  world  seems  very  real  when  it  is  condensed  into 
ten  words  twice  a  week.  At  the  mess  one  meets  with  new  faces, 
some  white,  some  browned,  some  yellow,  and  some  quite  pink 
and  fresh  from  home.  Men  who  have  been  hard  at  it  all  day 
feel  the  grip  of  that  strange  bond  which  unites  all  white  men  in 
the  tropics — the  bond  of  the  knowledge  that  every  meeting  may 
be  the  last.  It  is  not  good  to  think  of  that ;  but  it  is  good  to  be 
together;  the  civilian  grows  accustomed  to  wearing  khaki  and 
white  drill,  acknowledges  salutes,  plays  polo  and  is  helped  in  his 
work  by  all  the  traditions  of  the  service. 

The  new-comer  soon  finds  that  the  comforts  of  the  military 
headquarters  are  not  much  greater  than  those  of  a  campaign,  and 
that  the  comforts  of  the  civil  quarters  are  only  a  little  better. 
True,  the  houses  sent  out  for  military  officers  are  handed  over 
to  civilians,  and  the  soldier  goes  on  managing  with  his  old  one, 
long  since  condemned.  For  the  civilian  has  first  claim,  he  is 
stationed  at  headquarters  more  permanently  ;  his  work  is  more 
sedentary,  the  strain  of  attention  is  less  intermittent,  than  in 
the  camp.  Still,  a  wooden  house  is  but  a  wooden  house  in  the 
sun,  and  much  luxury  is  not  possible  on  the  scale  the  exigencies  of 
ways  and  means  and  estimates  allow. 

Free  quarters,  furnished  quarters,  sound  very  well  in  Downing 
Street,  but  when  four  have  to  live  in  rooms  designed  for  two ;  when 
seven  must  sleep  in  the  hut  designed  for  four ;  when  away  from 
headquarters,  a  tattered  E.  P.  tent,  a  grassmat  enclosure,  a  mud- 
walled  hut  or  a  green  canvas  tent,  seven  foot  square,  are  each  of 
them  veritable  achievements;  when  in  the  houses  provided  at 
headquarters  the  tornado  hurtles  through  window-frames,  innocent 
of  glass  for  months ;  when  the  daily  storm  drips  through  the  roof ; 
when  the  Treasury  itself  with  all  its  precious  figures  has  to  be 
hurriedly  protected  with  tarpaulins  and  ground-sheets;  when 
doors  have  no  latches,  tables  no  legs,  washstands  no  tops,  chairs 
no  bottoms ;  it  is  little  material  comfort,  though  a  great  en- 
couragement, to  know  that  the  High  Commissioner  himself 
has  nothing  better,  and  the  promising  barrister  weighs  his 
"poor-quarters  compensation"  allowance  in  his  hand  and 
orders  out  a  set  of  compactum  folding  furniture  from  his  agent 
at  home. 

This  follows  him  round  the  Protectorate  for  some  months, 
and  next  tour  he  brings  a  set  out  with  him.  So  surely  as  the 
first-tour  man  wears  his  revolver,  so  surely  the  second-tour  man 
brings  his  own  furniture.  The  Downing  Street  regulations  may 
tell  him  he  will  have  a  bed  issued  to  him  at  Burutu  on  the  coast ; 
but  if  there  are  only  ten  beds  in  the  store  at  the  time  to  send 
down  for  twelve  men,  two  of  them  wish  they  had  brought  one  of 
their  own.  Of  course  there  may  and  there  probably  will  be  more 


Civil  Officials  in  Northern  Nigeria  283 

in  hand  when  they  reach  the  storekeeper  at  Lokoja ;  but  that 
does  not  help  the  five  days  journey  up  from  the  sea  much. 

Many  a  man's  first  introduction  to  the  country  is  five  nights 
on  the  deck.  There  are  no  cabins,  the  beds  are  set  in  rows  on 
the  deck  at  night,  and  he  picks  up  tip  after  tip  about  sleeping, 
eating  and  drinking,  as  to  each  of  which  every  man,  when  re- 
moved from  the  levelling  influences  of  civilisation,  has  his  own 
peculiar  notions.  The  day  passes  quickly,  for  he  does  everything 
for  himself  and  counts  and  recounts  his  belongings.  He  slowly 
realises  how  much  the  unnoticed  comforts  and  conveniences  of 
civilisation  mean  to  a  man,  how  great  a  part  of  the  day  is  taken 
up  with  arranging  for  and  attending  to  the  common  needs  of 
existence,  and  he  looks  eagerly  for  a  likely  boy  at  Onitsha,  the 
first  stopping  place  after  leaving  the  Delta. 

Half  a  dozen  come  on  board  all  appearing  to  his  unpractised 
eye  equally  undesirable,  but  under  the  guidance  of  a  doctor  who 
has  been  out  before,  he  selects  two.  One,  a  "  valet,"  who  produces 
a  bundle  of  testimonials  all  earned  in  a  few  months  and  who  asserts 
that  the  different  names  are  all  his  or  rather  the  names  which 
he  has  acquired  according  to  the  whims  and  wishes  of  his 
many  masters.  And  another,  whose  fingers  are  itching  for  the 
frying  pan,  whose  yellow  eyeballs  roll  and  who  bubbles  at  the 
mouth  as,  with  arm  outstretched,  he  gives  the  list  of  his  possi- 
bilities, from  seven  soups  to  seven  sweets  and  seven  different 
"  devils."  The  one  can  fold  clothes,  clean  forks,  wash  plates, 
dress  a  table  and  knows  all  the  mysteries  of  the  bath,  the  razor, 
bianco  and  grease,  yea  even  that  last  night's  clothes  which  are 
still  "cold"  must  not  be  put  on  again  until  dinner-time,  and 
that  blankets,  pillow-cases  and  pyjamas  want  spreading  on  the 
verandah  rail  in  the  sun  until  they  are  "hot  too-much."  The 
other  is  indeed  a  jewel,  for  he  can  bake  bread,  knows  all  about  the 
sour  dough  leven,  and  can  make  those  small  cakes  which  white 
men  like  in  the  afternoon ;  he  can  wash,  yes,  he  can  wash  even  the 
blankets — the  heavy  ones,  and  "hirening"  is  his  delight;  he  also 
knows  more  Hausa  than  the  "  valet,"  besides  a  smattering  of 
Yoruba,  Fulani  and  two  other  weird  unholy  tongues,  best  of  all 
he  can  neither  read  nor  write. 

Asked  for  characters,  the  "  valet "  asserts  with  frank  untruthful- 
ness  in  his  happy  face  that  some  "  teefnian  "  stole  them  yesterday, 
the  fact  being  that  good  wine  needs  no  bush,  and  he  could  well  afford 
to  sell  the  writings  to  less  accomplished  rogues.  He  also  tells  his 
employer  that  amongst  his  other  advantages  he  is  not  a  "  God- 
palaver  boy,"  and  that  finally  clinches  his  engagement,  for  it  is  a 
lamentable  fact  that  the  boys  trained  in  the  Protestant  Missions 
over  there  have  not  as  a  class  earned  a  good  name  for  the  very 
necessary  respect  due  from  a  black  man  to  a  white  man.  The 


284  The  Empire  Review 

bargain  struck,  the  "valet"  takes  the  keys,  and  a  general  over- 
hauling of  belongings  occupies  the  rest  of  the  day.  For  the  first 
time  in  his  life  the  middle-class  man  knows  what  it  is  to  be  waited 
on  hand  and  foot,  to  have  his  servant  watch  him  like  a  dog, 
evidently  noticing  nothing  but  the  needs  of  the  new  master  who 
has  such  a  lot  of  clothes,  who  has  already  "  dashed  "  him  a  waist- 
coat, a  claspknife,  and  a  piece  of  red-checked  cloth,  and  who 
promises  him  a  pair  of  trousers  when  the  tailor  comes  along.  He 
finds  his  bed,  bad  as  it  is,  better  made  than  it  was  last  night,  and 
that  the  lad  really  does  understand  the  "  palaver  "  of  the  mosquito 
net — how  to  hang  it  up  and  how  to  tuck  it  in ;  he  finds  he  likes 
having  his  clothes  quietly  taken  from  his  hands  one  by  one  as  he 
stands  behind  the  funnel  getting  ready  for  the  night ;  and  he  falls 
asleep  feeling  that  his  new  life  is  beginning  in  earnest.  Arrived 
at  Lokoja,  he  gets  a  bed,  reports  himself,  registers  his  rifle, 
ascertains  he  has  three  days  to  wait  before  going  up  to  his  Province, 
does  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  walking  about  and  realises  he  is 
in  a  new  world. 

A  week  ago  he  bumped  his  head  against  the  machine-made 
carving  of  the  bath-room  dado  on  the  ship ;  now  his  bath  is  heated 
in  a  meat  tin,  for  the  store  is  out  of  kettles  and  he  is  not  yet 
willing  to  risk  the  small  enamelled  one  from  his  canteen  basket 
for  the  furious  fire  of  logs  on  the  scooped  sand.  A  week  ago  he 
switched  on  the  electric  light  in  his  cabin  without  getting  out  of 
his  bunk ;  now  he  wedges  a  quarter  of  a  candle  into  his  folding 
lantern,  blessing  the  man  who  first  discovered  the  transparent  but 
unbreakable  talc.  A  week  ago  he  had  his  soda  water  from  the 
icebox ;  now  he  gets  his  water  half  cold  from  the  condenser  in  a 
cement  keg,  and  sings  a  hymn  to  the  brain  which  invented  the 
convenient  and  portable  sparklet.  He  watches  the  "  valet "  sitting 
on  the  ground  with  his  much  scarred  legs  stretched  straight  out, 
happy  in  a  waistcoat  and  loincloth,  lavishing  bianco  on  a  pair  of 
canvas  boots,  and  he  thinks  of  the  neat  maid  who  answers  the  bell 
at  home.  He  likes  the  croak  of  the  nine-inch  lizard  on  the  ceiling, 
shudders  at  the  bound  of  the  half-ounce  spider  off  the  bed, 
thinks  something  fatal  will  happen  while  he  watches  his  cook 
bartering  for  fowls,  scolds  the  " valet"  for  killing  chickens  in  a 
brutal  way,  eats  his  new  mysterious  food  with  interest,  and, 
after  five  days  on  planks,  finds  a  compactum  bedstead  eighteen 
inches  wide  with  all  its  perils,  the  most  comfortable  thing  on 
earth. 

In  the  morning  a  police  orderly,  in  a  uniform  which  reminds 
him  of  the  inane  golf  links,  brings  him  a  note  from  His  Honor  the 
Chief  Justice,  and  he  walks  across  to  find  a  man  sitting  in  his 
shirt-sleeves  with  his  papers  at  one  end  of  the  table  and  the  remains 
of  his  breakfast  at  the  other.  Younger  than  expected,  but  full  of 


Civil  Officials  in  Northern  Nigeria  285 

special  wisdom,  as  the  new-comer  finds  after  he  has  told  of  the 
Temple,  the  ship  and  the  trip  up  river.  He  learns  much  of  the 
people  and  his  duties,  much  of  proclamations  and  the  reasons 
for  them,  of  the  scheme  of  legislation,  and  the  scope  and  limits 
of  the  Supreme  Court.  He  gets  a  general  idea  of  the  line  where 
English  Law  gives  way  to  that  of  the  Mohammedan.  He  hears 
much  of  native  courts,  of  the  nursing  of  the  system  of  the 
Fulani,  which,  shorn  of  so  little,  will  take  its  old  place  at  the  top, 
and  he  listens  to  a  kindly  homily  on  the  difficulties  and  need  for 
tact  in  the  present  state  of  transition  from  soldier  to  civilian.  He 
learns  much  of  servants  and  equipment,  of  "  chop  boxes,"  of  simple 
precautions  against  thieves,  of  woollen  clothing,  of  the  fatal  few 
minutes  in  the  sun  without  a  helmet,  of  the  treacherous  cool  wind 
at  sundown,  of  the  danger  of  a  cold  bath,  of  the  advisability  of 
dressing  every  day  for  dinner — if  only  as  a  general  tonic,  of  the 
chicken  run,  the  scarcity  of  vegetables,  the  danger  of  unboiled 
surface  water,  and  above  all  the  necessity  of  taking  things  quietly 
and  of  leaving  all  household  details  to  the  boys. 

He  dines  at  the  mess,  keeps  his  eyes  open  and  his  mouth 
shut,  even  refusing  to  sing,  which  he  regrets  afterwards,  but 
when  the  senior  officers  are  playing  bridge  in  the  corner  of  the 
verandah,  he  finds  the  fellows  want  to  hear,  so  he  tells  them  all 
he  can  remember  of  the  latest  small-talk  and  gossip  in  the  week 
he  left.  Just  as  he  says  good-night  he  is  introduced  to  the 
lieutenant  who  is  to  command  his  escort  and  take  charge  of  the 
garrisons  in  his  province,  and  accepts  his  invitation  to  breakfast 
in  the  morning.  As  he  walks  home,  helmet  in  hand,  his 
boy  a  few  yards  ahead  with  the  lantern,  as  he  hears  the  grass- 
hoppers and  the  deafening  frogs,  watches  the  flitting  glow-worms, 
listens  to  the  shrieks  of  the  midnight  dancers  coming  on  the 
wind  from  the  native  town  in  front,  turns  his  head  in  the  dark- 
ness to  the  monotony  of  the  tomtom  on  the  belated  canoe,  is 
challenged  at  the  guardroom,  again  at  the  canteen,  and  again  as 
he  passes  the  treasury,  he  begins  to  realise  how  thoroughly  he  has 
stepped  into  a  new  life  during  the  last  seven  days— and  he  says 
nothing  in  his  letters  home  about  the  escort  and  the  missing  bed. 
He  has  made  many  friends  and  earned  many  good  opinions 
before  the  mails  are  ready  and  the  little  fleet  of  canoes  pushes  off 
for  the  long  trip  up  the  Benue  Kiver ;  and,  with  his  boys  sitting 
in  glee  on  the  baggage,  he  sets  out  on  the  tedious  journey  to  his 
province  with  a  light  heart  and  a  strong  determination  to  earn 
promotion  whether  it  comes  or  not.  There  we  can  leave  him. 

He  will  "take  over"  from  the  man  he  relieves,  and  find  so 
much  to  do  that  he  will  rise  before  the  sun  and  fall  asleep  in 
respectable  time  after  dinner.  He  will  hold  his  courts  and  make 
his  tours.  The  time  will  pass  as  time  only  can  for  a  busy  man 


286  The  Empire  Review 

whose  heart  is  in  his  work.  Everything  will  not  go  smoothly. 
He  will  worry  a  little  over  the  first  few  sentences  he  inflicts,  and 
wonder  whether  they  were  just.  He  will  grow  irritable,  every- 
one there  does  grow  irritable,  and  at  times  will  not  be  on  speaking 
terms  with  the  officer  commanding  the  station — the  only  other 
white  man  within  a  hundred  miles.  He  will  have  fever  and  get 
over  it.  He  will  get  paler  and  thinner.  His  gums  will  be  white, 
his  feet  will  be  cold.  He  will  be  well  ready  for  his  leave  when 
it  comes,  but  will  "  hand  over  "  to  his  successor  with  regret. 

On  the  way  down  to  the  steamer  he  will  read  again  the  official 
confidential  instructions  he  received  on  taking  up  his  duties, 
understanding  them  more  fully  than  he  did  then,  and  he  will 
realise  how  much  the  man  knows  who  wrote  them.  He  will 
leave  his  boys  on  board  wages  with  the  Koman  Catholic  Fathers 
at  Onitsha ;  but  they  will  come  down  to  Burutu  to  see  him  off, 
taking  back  with  them  their  boxes  full  of  parting  gifts,  and  a 
wholesome  recollection  of  the  great  white  man's  canoe  like  a 
big  island,  full  of  houses  in  rows,  of  the  "  big  big  bath  that  you 
no  fill  with  kettle  at  all,"  and  of  the  wonderful  ovens  in  the 
ship's  kitchen  "fit  to  creep  inside."  He  will  rest  and  gather 
strength  all  the  way  home,  feeling  that  the  climate  and  food 
have  affected  him  far  beyond  the  compensation  of  the  pay ;  but 
he  will  have  that  greatest  of  all  compensations — satisfaction 
with  himself. 

This  is  the  real  work  of  empire-building.  A  man  gifted  with 
abnormal  genius  seizes  the  opportunity  and  starts  the  organisa- 
tion, but  without  men,  just  as  without  money,  the  organisation 
will  collapse  and  the  opportunity  will  be  lost.  Northern  Nigeria 
is  calling  to-day  for  men.  The  country  has  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  soldier  for  several  years,  the  soldier  cannot  safely  leave 
it  yet;  but  it  is  time  the  civilian  made  a  start,  it  is  time  he 
prepared  for  the  day  when  he  will  enlist  the  disbanded  Hausa 
in  the  new  police.  Military  administration  is  the  only  possible 
one  in  the  beginning.  When  no  right  is  recognised  but  might,  it 
is  useless  sending  right  alone;  but  when  might  has  done  right 
long  enough  to  accustom  the  people  to  obey  right  for  itself  alone, 
then  might's  work  is  done. 

When  the  time  arrives  for  the  native  to  prefer  the  hoe  and 
the  axe  to  the  spear  and  the  arrow,  then  the  subaltern  will  leave 
his  revolver,  coated  with  vaseline,  in  his  box  and  turn  his  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  foolscap,  learning  to  explain  instead  of  to 
command,  to  summon  instead  of  to  seize.  The  sooner  the  change 
can  be  effected  the  better,  for  though  at  first  sight  the  military 
organisation  of  stores  and  transport  seems  more  effective,  the  civil 
system  will  be  as  good  in  time,  and  work  on  cheaper  lines.  At 
first  it  can  only  be  expected  that  there  will  be  blunders,  for  new 


Civil  Officials  in  Northern  Nigeria  287 

ideas,  new  methods,  always  lead  to  a  certain  measure  of  error  and 
mistake ;  once,  however,  the  new  machinery  has  been  fairly 
started  the  return  for  money  spent  will  be  greater  and  more 
lasting.  Under  a  military  administration,  an  army  must  be 
maintained,  not  only  sufficient  for  obvious  needs  but  for  all 
reasonable  possibilities,  and  if  a  country  is  to  be  governed  by 
undisguised  force,  the  power  of  that  force  must  never  be  allowed 
to  weaken,  rather  must  it  increase  as  its  influence  extends.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  civil  administration,  though  needing  the 
fullest  attention  until  it  is  organised  and  in  working  order,  would 
require  less  and  less  attention  from  home,  less  and  less  outside 
assistance  as  it  extends. 

Moreover,  the  soldier  would  have  to  be  paid  from  London 
longer  than  the  civilian,  for  while  the  people  would  willingly  find 
money  for  the  power  of  the  court,  they  would  bitterly  resent 
finding  money  to  maintain  the  soldiers  set  over  them;  this 
resentment  would  smoulder  for  generations  and  ultimately  break 
out  in  open  rebellion  when  least  expected.  Northern  Nigeria 
must  not  be  the  Kussia  of  Africa,  there  must  be  no  Nihilism 
added  to  the  terrible  secret  societies  of  the  negro,  and  the 
Government  needs  no  political  opposition  to  make  it  fully  aware 
of  that ;  but  for  a  civil  administration  there  must  be  civilians, 
and  for  a  time  they  must  look  to  the  soldiers  for  assistance.  The 
people  must  in  time  be  not  so  much  governed  as  led  to  govern 
themselves,  just  as  in  time  they  must  be  led  to  provide  the  money 
for  the  expenses  of  government  themselves.  The  soldier  and 
the  grant  in  aid  are  both  necessary,  and  vitally  necessary  for  a 
time,  but  not  for  all  time. 

The  presence  of  the  white  man  must  be  not  as  that  of  a 
despot,  not  as  that  of  an  owner,  but  as  that  of  an  experienced 
adviser.  The  white  man  must  come  as  an  expert  in  government, 
engineering,  trade,  economy,  justice,  and  finance.  There  need 
be  no  fear  of  the  Hausas  not  wanting  such  assistance.  True, 
they  will  never  need  labour ;  the  artisan,  the  artificer,  the  farmer, 
will  never  rear  his  children  there;  but  for  governors,  judges, 
doctors,  engineers,  and  organisers  and  controllers  of  industries, 
there  will  be  an  ever-increasing  demand.  For  those  seeking  but 
a  comfortable  living  and  a  quiet  occupation  Northern  Nigeria  is 
closed,  and  will  be  closed  until  the  earth  has  lost  some  of  its 
deadly  fertility,  and  until  the  people  live  under  something  like 
sanitary  conditions.  But  for  those  in  search  of  a  strenuous  life, 
for  those  who  can  deal  with  men  as  others  deal  with  material, 
who  hold  no  family  closer  than  the  people,  who  can  grasp 
great  situations,  coax  events,  shape  destinies,  and  ride  on  the 
crest  of  the  wave  of  time,  Northern  Nigeria  is  holding  out  her 
hands.  For  the  men  who  in  India  have  made  the  Briton  the 


288  The  Empire  Review 

lawmaker,  the  organiser,  the  engineer  of  the  world,  this  new  old 
land  has  much  honourable  work  to  offer  and  great  rewards  to 

bestow. 

Whether  the  country  be  governed  by  the  soldier  or  the  civilian, 
we  must  find  the  money  at  first ;  but  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
that,  for  we  are  the  world's  bankers,  and  we  shall  not  shrink  from 
an  investment  because  the  return,  though  certain,  will  be  slow. 
We  cannot  leave  this  race  of  black-skinned  men  to  grope  in 
darkness  for  the  civilisation  which  was  given  to  us  some 
centuries  ago.  London  is  now  and  will  for  ages  be  the  busy 
centre  of  bond  fide  commerce — the  Venice  of  the  West.  We  can 
find  the  money,  and  we  can  find  the  men.  Our  mothers  do  not 
draw  us  with  nervous  grip  back  to  the  fireside  of  boyhood,  back 
into  the  home  circle,  back  to  the  purposeless  sports  of  middle 
life ;  it  is  our  greatest  pride  that  they  do,  albeit  tearfully,  send  us, 
fearless  and  erect,  to  lead  the  backward  races  into  line.  "  Surely 
we  are  the  people."  Shall  it  be  the  Little  Englander  for  whom 
the  Norman  fought  the  Saxon  on  his  field  ?  Was  it  for  the  Little 
Englander  the  archers  bled  at  Crecy  and  Poictiers  ?  Was  it  for 
him  that  Cromwell  drilled  his  men  ?  Is  it  only  for  the  desk  our 
youngsters  read  of  Drake  and  Frobisher,  of  Nelson,  Olive,  and 
men  like  Mungo  Parke?  Is  it  for  the  counting-house  they 
learn  of  Carthage,  Greece,  and  Home  ?  No  !  No  !  A  thousand 
times  No ! 

The  British  race  will  take  its  place,  the  British  blood  will  tell. 
Son  after  son  will  leave  the  Mersey,  strong  in  the  wish  of  his 
parents  to-day,  stronger  in  the  deeds  of  his  fathers  in  the  past, 
braving  the  climate,  taking  the  risks,  playing  his  best  in  the 
game  of  life. 

G.  D.  HAZZLEDINE. 


The  Chinese  Servant  at  Home  and  abroad      289 


THE   CHINESE   SERVANT   AT   HOME 
AND    ABROAD 

I. 

AT  HOME. 

THE  majority  of  writers  on  Chinese  servants  refer  to  them  at 
home,  where  the  supply  of  workers  is  far  in  excess  of  the  demand, 
for  the  wages  are,  to  them,  high,  and  their  number  practically 
unlimited.  In  China,  therefore,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  as  good  a 
servant  as  can  be  made  of  a  Chinese.  One  should,  however,  study 
the  Chinaman,  not  only  under  home  influences,  but  also  when  he 
has  engaged  himself  in  service  in  a  foreign  land. 

A  man's  habits  and  behaviour  in  his  own  country,  whatever 
be  his  nationality,  are  formed  largely  by  public  opinion.  But  a 
strange  country  has  certain  inevitable  effects  on  the  emigrant, 
not  the  least  being  that  change  in  his  behaviour  which  makes  it 
appear  that  his  "natural  man"  was  forcibly  constrained  by  the 
pressure  of  his  surroundings  at  home.  "When  this  pressure  is 
removed  rapid  development  is  possible,  leading  sometimes  to  the 
growth  of  latent  good,  formerly  hampered  by  competition  or 
stunted  for  lack  of  opportunity,  at  other  times  to  the  free  ex- 
pansion of  natural  vice.  As  the  emigrants  increase  in  numbers 
and  importance,  public  opinion  and  censorship  grow  up,  and 
the  natural  restraint  of  the  home  life  may  again  come  to  bear, 
though  with  a  diminished  and  less  concentrated  force. 

All  this  applies  equally  to  the  yellow  as  to  the  white  races ;  and,  in 
judging  of  what  a  man  really  is,  a  wrong  conclusion  will  be  drawn 
if  he  be  observed  only  at  home,  and  no  peep  made  at  him  under 
a  more  sporting  guise,  be  it  at  Paris  or  at  Singapore.  The  widely- 
spread  nature  of  the  Chinese  invasion  into  other  lands  is  well 
known.  From  North  Japan  to  Kangoon  and  Mandalay,  along 
the  entire  coast  and  far  inland,  the  Chinese  is  found,  and  found 
always  busy.  Many  occupations  attract  him.  He  particularly 
appreciates  the  freedom  he  enjoys  under  British  rule.  He  may 
be  seen  as  a  wealthy  and  independent  merchant  at  Singapore  and 
Shanghai,  or  trusted  by  the  European  employer  as  the  head  of 
the  native  clerks  in  a  bank.  Failing  these  higher  employments, 
VOL.  VI.— No.  33.  u 


290  The  Empire  Review 

he  will  work  as  a  domestic  servant,  or  he  may  even  be  reduced  to 
the  outcast  occupation  of  the  rickshaw  coolie,  a  man  who  is 
regarded  by  his  own  brethren  as  the  lowest  of  his  race. 

First  let  me  speak  of  the  Chinaman  as  I  found  him  at 
home.  The  very  first  thing  the  new-comer  has  to  do  after 
landing  in  China  is  to  get  a  boy.  The  name  is  no  indication  of 
either  age  or  bachelorhood ;  in  the  East  it  simply  means  a  man- 
servant who  is  not  a  coolie,  and  is  a  specimen  of  that  conglomera- 
tion of  tongues  known  as  "pigeon"  English.  When  the  early 
adventurer  came  to  the  shores  of  Hindustan,  one  caste,  called 
"  Boyee,"  or  "  Bhoi,"  accepted  the  duties  of  menial  service  under 
the  white  races.  As  the  wave  of  trade  rolled  on  to  the  distant 
East,  the  medley  of  tongues  was  carried  as  foam  on  its  crest,  and, 
among  many  other  associated  terms  of  Malay,  Portuguese  and 
English,  the  word  "  Bhoi "  reached  the  shores  of  China  and 
Japan,  where  its  convenience  caused  it  to  be  accepted  as  the 
name  for  the  white  man's  servant.  The  slightly  capricious 
European  maid-servant  of  the  twentieth  century  is  almost  en- 
tirely supplanted  by  the  man  in  the  Far  East,  where  the  question 
of  equality  of  the  sexes  is  seldom  thought  worthy  of  serious 
consideration.  Some  women  have  an  ayah,  or  amah,  to  wait 
on  them,  but  very  many  do  quite  well  with  a  masculine  lady's- 
maid.  Even  if  living  at  a  friend's  house  or  in  an  hotel,  before 
settling  down,  the  new-comer  must  engage  a  boy. 

The  usual  plan  is  to  get  him  through  a  native  of  known 
position,  who  will  guarantee  the  character ;  a  friend's  head  boy 
or  the  club  or  hotel  butler  being  common  channels.  A  popular 
form  of  minor  theft  is  to  take  one  of  the  best  of  the  hotel  servants, 
a  very  slight  raise  of  wages  being  a  sufficient  decoy.  Hotel 
managers  are  accustomed  to  being  regularly  abused  for  having 
a  bad  staff  of  servants,  and  this  petty  larceny  is  one  of  the  most 
obvious  reasons  of  the  defect.  A  preliminary  interview  is  of  course 
necessary ;  so,  in  their  very  best  clothes,  such  as  will  never  be 
seen  again,  as  they  are  probably  borrowed,  the  candidates  will 
be  introduced  to  the  new  master ;  not  in  undue  numbers — one, 
very  highly  recommended,  will  appear,  and,  if  he  is  definitely 
rejected,  will  be  succeeded  by  another.  In  addition  to  their 
splendid  clothes  and  abnormally  polite  manners,  each  will  have 
a  bundle  of  "  characters  "  obtained  from  former  masters ;  for  a 
servant  always  demands  one  on  leaving,  and  it  is  generally  given 
him,  whether  he  be  good  or  bad,  to  save  the  worry  and  un- 
pleasant consequences  of  a  refusal.  They  offer  for  inspection 
many  sheets  of  note-paper — some  very  dirty  and  cracked— em- 
bossed, possibly,  with  the  arms  of  a  legation,  and  bearing  a 
signature  that  may  be  historic  or  utterly  unknown.  These  are 
amusing  to  read,  but  as  they  can  be  hired  out  at  prices  varying 


The  Chinese  Servant  at  Home  and  Abroad      291 

with  the  date  and  the  value  of  the  signature,  they  may  not  be  of 
the  slightest  use  as  a  recommendation.  One  candidate,  for 
instance,  produced  a  testimonial  given  by  a  late  governor  of 
Hong-Kong  to  his  old  cook,  whom  he  had  found  faithful  and 
capable,  and  though  his  appearance  was  eminently  uninviting, 
the  title,  "  governor's  cook,"  had  so  seductive  a  sound  that  he 
was  given  the  engagement.  It  is  well  that  even  such  little 
vanities  as  the  possession  of  the  late  governor's  chef  should  be 
punished,  but  the  punishment  in  this  case  was  almost  too  severe ; 
the  fellow  had  no  other  claim  to  a  knowledge  of  cooking  than 
that  conferred  by  the  borrowed  character.  My  old  boy  in  Pekin, 
a  most  interesting  but  quite  unmitigated  rascal,  brought  me  a 
character  which  he  said  was  given  him  by  Sir  Thomas  Wade, 
when  minister,  and  he  was  full  of  stories  of  the  legation ;  but 
though  a  minister  to  China  may  have  had  much  to  put  up  with 
in  old  days,  yet  I  doubt  if  Sir  Thomas  would  have  tolerated  him 
for  an  hour. 

At  first  sight  the  channel  of  introduction  might  appear  to  be 
of  dubious  value ;  but  as  the  servant  will  probably  pay  a  commis- 
sion, which  may  last  during  the  time  he  holds  the  situation,  it  is 
not  worth  his  introducer's  while  to  speak  for  one  who  is  unlikely 
to  stop  long.  The  servant  first  selected  will  probably  undertake 
to  engage  the  rest  of  the  domestic  staff,  with  an  eye  to  the 
commission  he  will  receive  from  each.  Registry  offices  and 
advertisements  being  at  present  unknown,  a  newly-arrived  Briton 
has  practically  no  alternative ;  and  though  there  are  disadvantages 
connected  with  the  method,  it  seems  satisfactory,  on  the  whole, 
to  accept  those! whom  the  first  boy  recommends.  All  the  servants 
then  work  well  together.  They  will  commonly  be  relations  of 
the  head  boy,  usually  "  brothers,"  though  that  word  may  mean 
anything  from  sons  of  the  same  parent  to  possessors  of  the  same 
family  name,  about  as  much  related  ad  all  the  Smiths  of 
England. 

Having  obtained  a  good  head  boy,  called  "  butler,"  "  com- 
prador," or,  more  commonly,  "  number  one  boy,"  the  new  master 
entrusts  him  with  the  entire  management  and  responsibility  of 
the  household.  In  a  large  establishment  his  duties  are  dignified 
and  superior ;  he  acts  as  a  sort  of  male  housekeeper,  as  a  personal 
valet  to  his  master,  and  rather  superintends  the  service  than 
actually  waits  at  table.  He  will  receive  practically  all  orders  for 
the  servants,  and  be  held  responsible  for  their  behaviour.  If,  as 
is  most  likely,  he  has  himself  procured  and  engaged  them,  they 
will  at  once  accept  his  orders.  Though  this  has  the  obvious  dis- 
advantages of  the  master-servant  under  the  master,  yet  the  head 
boy  is  probably  experienced  and  speaks  English  well ;  he  knows 
English  habits,  and  will  understand  all  his  master's  orders  and 

u  2 


292  The  Empire  Review 

annoyances,  even  if  he  has  his  private  opinion  that  both  are 
evidences  of  insanity.  The  lower  grade  servants,  on  the  other 
hand,  will  probably  not  speak  English,  nor  understand  orders 
given  in  that  language. 

The  water  coolie  is  the  man  who  carries  water  to  the  bed- 
rooms, and  is  very  lavish  of  his  gifts  to  the  stair-carpet  and  floors 
on  the  way.  If  his  master  expresses  objections  to  this  indis- 
criminate irrigation,  the  man  will  probably  grin  and  be  silent,  or 
repeat  "  Yes,"  and  "  No  savey "  alternately,  as  a  means  of 
appeasing  the  wrath  he  has  invoked,  these  being  the  only  words 
he  knows  of  the  language  he  thinks  is  English.  The  master  has 
committed  several  errors  in  this  case.  The  correct  thing  is  to 
send  for  the  head  boy  and  abuse  him  heartily — but  not  before  the 
water  coolie— for  having  so  little  intelligence  as  to  engage  such 
a  dirty  fellow.  Fine  the  head  boy,  if  necessary,  but  do  not  take 
the  slightest  notice  of  the  real  offender.  This  plan  will  be  far 
more  effectual,  and,  moreover,  the  direct  abuse  of  so  lowly  a 
person  as  a  coolie  would  have  a  bad  effect  on  the  head  boy,  who 
would  think,  in  accordance  with  Chinese  ideas,  that  his  master 
did  not  understand  his  own  position,  or  he  would  not  have 
behaved  in  so  undignified  a  manner. 

The  right  way  to  manage  the  head  boy  is  to  make  him  clearly 
understand  that  everything  is  left  to  him,  and  that  he  will  have  to 
make  good  any  loss  or  deficiency.  He  should  be  given  a  complete 
inventory  of  everything  of  value,  and  it  is  as  well  that  he  should  not 
know  where  the  duplicate  list  is  kept,  or  he  may  serve  his  master 
the  trick  my  head  boy  played  on  me  in  North  China.  I  had 
made  a  most  careful  list  of  all  my  linen  and  underclothing  on  a 
blank  page  of  my  diary,  which  the  boy  must  have  seen.  Shortly 
afterwards  he  left  my  service,  when  I  found  that  he  had  not  only 
stolen  a  number  of  my  shirts,  but  also  the  diary.  I  would  gladly 
have  presented  him  with  twice  the  amount  of  linen  if  he  would 
only  have  brought  back  my  notes. 

After  some  experience  of  the  land  and  its  language,  a  Briton 
may  prefer  to  dispense  with  the  intermediary  and  to  engage  and 
control  his  servants  separately.  This  plan  may  succeed,  but  it 
often  leads  to  trouble  and  disturbances  in  the  "  servants'  hall," 
and  the  chief  sufferer  is  undoubtedly  the  master.  This  method 
does  away  with  all  mutual  and  relative  responsibility,  and  no 
individual  servant  will  be  answerable  for  the  misdeeds  of  the 
household ;  he  will  say  they  were  not  committed  by  him  and  that 
he  does  not  know  who  is  the  real  culprit.  Moreover,  the 
apportioning  of  duties  requires  much  experience  and  anxious 
thought,  if  done  by  the  master ;  while,  under  the  other  system, 
it  is  all  arranged  for  him  by  the  head  boy. 

To  get  the  maximum  amount  of  work  out  of  the  Chinese  one 


The  Chinese  Servant  at  Home  and  Abroad      293 

must  remember  that  the  fewer  novelties  they  have  to  contend 
with  the  more  likely  they  are  to  produce  a  fair  result.  The 
method  of  managing  Chinese  through  a  head  boy  is  one  to  which 
the  race  is  accustomed.  From  the  lowest  to  the  highest  in  the 
land,  lower  is  held  responsible  to  higher,  child  to  parent, 
younger  brother  to  elder,  subordinate  official  to  magistrate ;  and 
so,  by  gradients,  from  the  most  abject  beggar  to  the  very 
Emperor  of  China  himself.  The  series  cannot  be  said  to  stop 
even  here,  for  the  Emperor  always  acknowledges  his  responsibility 
for  every  good  or  evil  that  happens  to  the  whole  country,  and  on 
the  occasion  of  a  flood  or  a  famine  reports  himself  to  heaven. 
This  responsibility  of  the  higher  for  the  actions  of  the  lower 
gives  the  inferior  entirely  into  the  hands  of  his  superior.  In 
family  life  all  the  children  and  their  parents  are  under  the 
authority  of  the  grandfather,  while  he  lives,  who  has  not  only 
financial  control  but  also  absolute  power  of  life  and  death. 

It  is  hardly  to  be  imagined,  however,  that  the  head  boy  would 
accept  the  blame  for  the  faults  of  the  household,  unless  he  were 
well  paid  for  it.  He  takes  a  percentage  of  any  monetary  trans- 
action that  passes  through  his  hands,  and  of  the  wages  of  each 
of  the  servants  he  engages.  If  one  of  them  does  not  pay  the 
head  boy  enough,  things  will  go  wrong ;  it  will  be  discovered  that 
the  defaulter  is  dishonest,  and  permission  will  be  asked  to  have 
him  discharged.  The  little  habit  of  deducting  commissions  has 
raised  a  great  outcry  against  the  Chinese  among  foreigners,  who 
call  it  dishonesty— an  accusation  which  shows  lack  of  under- 
standing on  the  part  of  the  critic.  It  is  said  that  the  imperial 
taxes  are  represented  by  about  one-third  of  what  the  people 
actually  pay ;  the  remaining  two-thirds  being  the  cost  of  collec- 
tion. If  the  latter  amount  be  greatly  exceeded,  a  petition  may 
be  got  up  by  the  people,  and  the  magistrates  reprimanded  by  the 
authorities ;  but  up  to  the  two-thirds  or  thereabouts,  the  Chinese 
accept  as  customary  the  "  squeeze "  made  by  the  official,  the 
amount  varying,  of  course,  with  the  opportunity.  The  custom 
is  invariable  and  unavoidable ;  only  a  new  comer  says  "  I  will 
not  be  squeezed." 

In  the  matter  of  estimating  his  opportunities  the  native  is  no 
fool ;  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  belongs  to  the  Chinese 
race,  which  consists  of  the  finest  business  men  in  the  world ; 
a  race  against  which  we,  "a  nation  of  shopkeepers,"  at  heart 
half  ashamed  of  it,  will  eventually  be  quite  unable  to  hold  place. 
To  take  only  one  simple  item,  the  exact  value  of  money.  Our 
smallest  coin  is  a  farthing — forty-eight  to  the  shilling — its  pur- 
chasing power  almost  theoretical.  The  Chinese  are  accustomed 
to  calculate  value  with  the  difference  of  one  "  cash,"  a  practical 
and  much  used  coin,  one  of  which  will  purchase  a  cup  of  tea  at 


294  The  Empire  Review 

a  railway  station,  and  three  hundred  of  which  go  to  the  shilling  ; 
and  they  will  accept  a  profit  of  one  "  cash  "  on  a  tiny  transaction, 
though  the  amount  is  far  from  representing  the  percentage  that 
is  squeezed  from  a  European.  The  boy  judges  the  size  of  the 
golden,  or  even  the  copper,  egg  that  he  thinks  his  own  goose  can 
be  made  to  lay ;  and,  naturally,  the  bigger  the  goose  the  bigger 
the  egg.  If  fortunate,  he  is  able  to  make  a  double  profit ;  for 
not  only  does  he  add  a  little  to  the  cost  of  an  article  when  he 
presents  his  master  with  the  bill,  but  the  shopkeepers  also  have 
to  give  him  presents  to  retain  his  custom. 

It  is  only  fair  to  remember  that  all  the  money  will  not  be 
accumulated  without  someone  finding  it  out;  and  the  Chinese, 
whatever  his  position,  will  be  squeezed  in  his  turn.  A  Cantonese 
engine-driver  on  the  Northern  Chinese  Eailway  was  unlucky 
enough  to  have  an  elder  brother  to  whom,  though  he  himself  had 
a  wife  and  children,  he  had  to  hand  over  all  his  wages,  amounting 
to  about  £2  a  month,  according  to  the  Chinese  custom.  The 
elder  brother,  it  is  true,  was  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  household ;  but,  as  he  was  lazy  and  a  confirmed  opium- 
smoker,  the  family  starved,  and  the  money  all  went  in  "  the 
black  smoke."  Most  Chinese  smoke  a  little  opium  occasionally, 
but  an  inveterate  opium  habit  is  a  luxury  of  extreme  and 
increasing  expense.  If  the  boy's  relations  do  not  get  all,  or  some 
of  his  money,  local  officials,  secret  societies,  and  even  robbers 
will  have  to  be  fed  ;  the  latter  to  keep  away  from  the  house,  as 
the  head  boy  will  be  held  responsible  for  thefts. 

It  is  simple  to  demand  a  low  wage  and  make  a  large  profit  by 
a  squeezing  process  of  which  the  master  is  unconscious  and  by 
which,  therefore,  he  is  not  annoyed.  One  prominent  feature  that 
must  not  be  overlooked  is  the  element  of  uncertainty  as  to  the 
amount  that  can  be  obtained.  All  the  Eastern,  and  particularly 
the  Mongolian,  races  are  inveterate  gamblers.  The  suppression 
of  gambling  is  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  that  occur  in  the 
European  colonies  and  settlements.  A  Chinese  coolie  will 
regularly  gamble  for  his  daily  meal,  and  risk  getting  a  very 
full  interior  or  an  empty  one.  But,  explain  and  reason  against 
it  as  much  as  one  may,  the  habit  is  universal ;  and  though  the 
servants,  with  customary  lack  of  guile,  always  say,  "I  never 
squeeze  master,"  they  all  do  it.  The  Chinese  say  they  appreciate 
the  English  custom,  and  remark :  "  Yes,  they  want  very  high 
wages,  but  they  will  not  squeeze  "  ;  but  to  alter  the  custom  would 
involve  a  revolution  of  the  national  character. 

So  much  for  one  side  of  the  honesty  of  the  Chinese  servant ; 
now  to  consider  the  other.  The  integrity  of  the  Chinese  mer- 
chant is  a  proverb  in  the  West,  and  he  is  contrasted  with  other 
nations  in  this  particular ;  but  no  great  amount  of  belief  need  be 


The  Chinese  Servant  at  Home  and  Abroad      295 

placed  in  the  honesty  of  the  Chinese — honesty,  that  is,  as  we 
idealize  it.  The  fact  is,  the  Chinese  are  magnificent  business 
men.  Plenty  of  other  races — notably  the  women  of  Burma — can 
drive  a  hard  bargain,  but  the  honesty  of  the  Chinese  is  largely 
founded  on  policy ;  and  Christian  England  may  supply  him  with 
a  proverb  to  the  point.  The  Chinese  look  ahead ;  they  are  slow 
to  act :  they  are  never  in  a  hurry ;  and  they  know  that  though 
they  may  make  immediate  profit  by  sending  a  consignment  of 
goods  far  below  sample,  they  will  lose  by  it  in  the  long  run. 
Hence,  if  a  servant  has  a  good  place  and  makes  a  fairly  large 
squeeze,  he  is  not  so  foolish  as  to  risk  all  that  for  a  small  theft. 
In  consequence,  the  Chinese  do  not  greatly  pilfer  small  coins  left 
about,  though  they  may  join  with  local  thieves  and  carry  out  an 
occasional  robbery. 

The  method  by  which  small  thefts  are  carried  out  is  ingenious 
and  carefully  arranged  so  as  to  provide  a  way  of  retreat.  A 
diamond  pin,  such  as  a  mistress  might  easily  drop  at  a  ball,  or  a 
master  lose  in  the  street,  will  not  be  actually  stolen,  but  will  be 
found  to  have  fallen  behind  the  chest-of-drawers  and  stuck  in  the 
wood  at  the  back.  After  great  trouble  and  searching  it  is  trium- 
phantly found  by  Lung  Fan — honest  fellow !  A  careless  master 
—and  there  are  many  such — who  creates  no  disturbance  and  who 
does  not  appear  to  suspect  foul  play,  will  enable  the  assiduous 
search  of  that  honest  Lung  Fan  to  fail.  Another  way,  which 
commends  itself  and  is  common,  causes  the  gradual  sinking  into 
obscurity  of  a  coveted  article.  A  curio  begins  by  standing  on  the 
mantelpiece ;  presently  it  slides  behind  a  picture-frame  for  some 
days  ;  then,  if  its  absence  is  not  noticed,  it  goes  to  a  more  distant 
part  of  the  room,  is  almost  entirely  hidden  for  a  week  or  more. 
One  day,  some  time  later,  the  mistress  has  a  "  turn  out,"  and 
quite  by  accident  saves  her  curio  by  finding  it  hidden  away  at  the 
bottom  of  a  rarely  opened  drawer.  If  unsuspicious  she  may  return 
her  treasure  to  the  mantelpiece ;  but  if  Lung  Fan  be  questioned 
he  will  show  how  devotedly  he  cares  for  his  master's  goods. 
"  Master  too  many  piecee  have  got ;  me  fear  makee  blake — missey 
welly  angly,"  he  explains ;  whereupon  the  mistress,  like  many 
others,  thinks  she  has  found  a  real  treasure  in  Lung  Fan,  and 
feels  that  she  now  appreciates  the  good  side  of  the  Chinese 
servant. 

Yet  Chinese  honesty  may  be  defended  with  warmth  by  those 
who,  knowing  the  country  well,  can  still  point  to  their  own 
staff  as  honourable  types.  To  these  the  following  story  may  be 
instructive,  if  not  already  known,  as  it  comes  from  an  authority 
which  is  quite  reliable.  For  twenty  years  a  Briton  held  a  good 
official  post  in  the  Imperial  Customs  Service,  and  he  had  one 
solid,  reliable  boy  whose  honesty  was  unimpeachable.  He  had 


296  The  Empire  Review 

left  the  house  and  valuables  at  Pekin  in  this  man's  care  during 
the  holidays  in  Europe— absences  extending  to  a  year  at  a  stretch 

an(j  haa  missed  nothing  on  his  return.  At  last  the  farewell 

came ;  the  master  was  to  leave  the  country  for  good,  and  turned 
over  in  his  mind  the  question  of  how  he  could  suitably  reward  the 
faithful  Wang  for  his  many  years  of  honest  service.  Now,  Wang 
knew  his  master  was  going,  and  was  sad  at  the  thought  of  parting 
with  his  kind  old  friend,  and  sadder  still  at  the  idea  of  no  longer 
being  able  to  carefully  tend  the  silver  and  valuables  that  had  been 
his  special  pride.  At  last  he  could  stand  it  no  longer  and  decided 
that  this  double  parting  was  too  much ;  so  he  left  his  ma  ster  late 
one  night  and  took  all  the  plate  and  other  "portable  property '' 
with  him.  Miles  away  in  the  interior  that  careful  Wang  passes 
the  evening  of  his  life,  still  the  trusty  guardian  of  the  goods  con- 
fided to  his  care  by  his  dear  old  master.  If  he  soliloquizes  in 
"  pigeon  "  English,  he  may  remark,  with  a  chuckle,  "  I  belong 
one  wellee  lich  man ;  ole  master  he  belong  one  number  one  damn 
fool,"  for  Chinese  appreciate  the  value  of  the  English  tongue  as 
a  vehicle  for  the  expression  of  annoyance.  The  danger  of  keeping 
Chinese  servants  is  far  less  than  that  of  parting  with  them. 

A  Chinese  servant  is  generally  cheerful,  although  he  may  look 
solemn  and  serious,  and  seldom  grumbles  at  extra  work  being  put 
on  his  shoulders  if  it  is  of  the  kind  he  usually  performs.  A 
servant  engaged  to  look  after  a  household  very  rarely  complains 
when  he  has  an  additional  person  to  wait  upon,  without  an 
increase  of  the  staff  or  the  wages.  There  is  one  thing,  however, 
which  makes  Chinese  domestic  servants  nearly  as  tiresome  as 
natives  of  India — they  will  invariably  object  to  do  each  other's 
work  even  in  an  emergency.  This  appears  to  be  allied  to  the 
spirit  of  English  trades  unions,  in  accordance  with  which  a  brick- 
layer may  make  a  brick  wall  but  not  put  in  stone  corners,  and  it 
does  not  arise  from  any  actual  objection  to  the  work,  as  work.  A 
sense  of  the  value  of  time  and  punctuality  are  nowhere  endemic 
virtues  in  the  East,  but  both  can  be  driven  into  the  Chinese, 
while  their  idea  of  obedience  has  qualifying  features  that  distin- 
guish it  from  Western  notions.  Tell  a  Chinese  to  do  a  thing  and 
he  will  do  it;  but  tell  him  to  do  it  in  a  particular  way,  and  he  will 
very  likely  do  it,  not  in  that  way,  but  in  one  that  he  considers 
equally  good. 

The  strength  of  a  sturdy  Chinese  coolie  is  immense ;  he  can 
carry  all  day,  on  a  bamboo  pole  on  one  shoulder,  two  bales,  each 
of  which  weighs  over  fifty  pounds.  Employers  speak  well  of 
their  power  of  endurance  for  continued  labour,  though  they  do 
nothing  like  as  much  work  as  an  European  in  a  day.  One  white 
man  would  be  worth  about  five  Chinese,  not  because  he  is 
stronger,  but  because  the  Chinese  will  not  work  continuously, 


The  Chinese  Servant  at  Home  and  Abroad      297 

though,  of  course,  the  wages  of  the  latter  are  much  smaller. 
They  are  not  quarrelsome ;  the  servants'  quarters  are  notably 
quiet  everywhere.  Angry  words  are  occasionally  heard,  and 
raised  voices  often;  but  as  the  voice  is  raised  to  emphasise  a 
bargain,  or  in  addressing  a  superior,  the  shouting  may  be  merely 
business  or  politeness.  Their  cleanliness,  as  shown  by  the  order 
in  which  they  keep  a  house,  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  an 
English  maid-servant  who  has  a  careless  mistress.  They  have 
no  religious  feeling  impelling  them  to  sweep  under  the  carpets,  so 
unless  strong  supervision  is  maintained  the  house  will  be  dirty. 
Drink,  unfortunately,  has  a  great  attraction  for  Chinese;  they  are 
all  apt  to  get  drunk  if  they  can. 


II. 

ABEOAD. 

All  that  has  been  said  so  far  applies  to  the  Chinese  servant  in 
his  native  land :  the  modifications  found  among  the  emigrants 
are  indications  of  his  real  character.  At  the  outset,  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  the  Chinese,  by  travelling  out  of  the  eighteen 
provinces,  offends  against  the  whole  tradition  and  education  of 
his  race,  and,  unless  impelled  by  crime  or  a  dangerous  zeal  for 
reform,  his  action  will  be  viewed  with  grave  disfavour  by  his 
relations,  The  place  that  is  most  distant  in  actual  practice, 
because  of  its  inaccessibility  and,  to  them,  unknown  character, 
is  Bangkok ;  yet  in  this  town  the  Chinese  are  the  sole  source  of 
a  domestic  establishment.  The  Siamese  very  rarely  engage  in 
service  under  white  men,  and,  if  they  do,  are  so  hopelessly 
unsatisfactory  that  their  stay  is  short.  The  number  and  in- 
fluence of  the  Chinese  in  Bangkok  is  very  great;  few  families 
other  than  the  royal  house  could  effectually  claim  to  be  of 
pure  Siamese  blood  unmixed  with  Chinese.  Sino-Chinese — the 
children  of  mixed  parents,  Chinese  and  Siamese — are  numerous. 
The  Siamese  call  them  "  Look-Cheen "  (half  Chinese) ;  and 
though  the  females  adopt  Siamese  habits  and  clothes,  yet  the 
males  wear  the  pig-tail  and  costume  of  China.  A  simple,  though 
not  quite  infallible,  way  of  detecting  Siamese  blood  in  an  ap- 
parent Chinese  is  to  look  for  tattooing  marks.  Pure  Chinese 
are  very  rarely  tattooed;  Siamese  and  Look-Cheens  almost 
invariably. 

This  mixed  population  is  extremely  unruly ;  the  police  of 
Bangkok  probably  have  the  hardest  people  in  the  world  to 
control,  the  difficulty  being  increased  by  the  protection  extended 
by  the  white  nations  to  the  natives.  British  law  is  definite ;  the 


298  The  Empire  Review 

third  generation  born  in  a  foreign  country  loses  its  British 
protection.  Other  nations,  notoriously  the  French,  do  all  they  can 
to  register  natives.  The  Chinese  especially  are  under  British  and 
Portuguese  patronage;  but,  as  British  law  is  strict,  if  a  native 
prefers  foreign  protection,  he  must  find  his  way  to  the  French 
Legation.  When  the  Dutch  representative  in  1899  repudiated 
the  claim  of  numerous  Malays  to  be  Dutch  subjects,  one  of  them, 
an  old  woman,  gravely  remarked  to  me  that  she  would  pay  seven 
shillings  and  become  a  Frenchwoman.  The  difficulties  and 
troubles  caused  by  these  various  legations  are  enormous,  and  the 
mere  statement  by  an  offending  Chinese  that  he  is  under  a 
legation  protection  makes  the  Siamese  native  policeman  shiver  in 
his  puttees — he  wears  no  shoes.  In  fact,  the  municipal  police 
enjoy  no  sinecure,  and,  although  criticised  by  every  one,  are 
extremely  efficient  considering  the  great  difficulties  they  have  to 
contend  with. 

At  Bangkok  the  force  of  Chinese  public  opinion  is  non- 
existent, if  one  may  deduce  absence  of  causes  from  the  lack  of 
effects :  and  so  all  the  disadvantages  of  emigration  appear  as 
regards  the  character  of  the  bad  individual.  Of  the  crimes  that 
come  before  the  public,  theft  is  so  common  that  in  one  year 
hardly  a  day  passed  without  an  attempt,  successful  or  otherwise, 
being  made  to  rob  an  European  house.  In  ten  months  my  own 
house  was  broken  into  at  least  three  times;  once — and  most 
effectually — in  broad  daylight,  during  the  midday  sleep  of  my 
household.  Up  till  quite  recently  there  were  innumerable  pawn- 
shops which  received  stolen  goods,  kept  chiefly  by  Chinese  under 
Portuguese  protection — they  are  registered  as  Macao  Portuguese. 
Stolen  goods  were  often  found  in  these  shops,  but  the  risk  was 
well  worth  the  attention  of  the  Chinese ;  for  the  Portuguese 
legation  had  no  good  prison,  and  a  fine,  therefore,  was  more 
convenient  to  the  consul.  An  amusing  state  of  affairs  arose, 
however,  when  the  British  legation  provided  a  temporary  charge 
d'affaires  for  the  Portuguese.  Some  of  these  good  tradesmen 
then  took  lodgings  in  the  British  legation  gaol  for  a  time ;  an 
imprisonment  they  could  not  escape  by  paying  ten  shillings ;  and 
though  they  did  not  much  mind  the  gaol,  they  did  object  to  the 
interference  with  their  business. 

Secret  societies  are  both  numerous  and  powerful ;  to  them  is 
attributed  the  ghastly  and  precise  mutilation  which  is  at  times  a 
feature  of  the  frequent  murders.  Assaults  and  wounding  among 
the  Chinese  are  extremely  common.  Dr.  Nightingale,  the  surgeon 
to  the  British  legation  at  Bangkok,  told  me  that  hardly  a  week 
passed  without  several  Chinese  being  brought  to  his  police 
hospital  suffering  from  fearful  slashes  and  gashes.  They  recover 
rapidly  from  the  wounds,  but  stolidly  say  that  they  know  nothing 


The  Chinese  Servant  at  Home  and  Abroad      299 

whatever  of  their  assailants — an  indication  that  they  fear  them 
not  a  little.  If  Chinese  dread  giving  evidence  when  their  own 
skin  or  life  has  been  threatened,  it  will  hardly  be  a  surprise  to 
hear  that,  in  cases  between  Europeans  and  Chinese,  evidence 
from  the  Mongol  is  not  easily  obtained.  Every  one  knows  and 
recognises  this,  and  it  requires  a  stretch  of  our  honourable 
traditions  for  the  British  consul  to  take  down,  word  for  word,  the 
defence  of  a  Chinese  thief  when  reasonably  accused  by  an 
Englishman.  It  may  be  doubted  if  any  other  white  man  would 
do  it ;  but  the  British  official  has  a  sportsmanlike  feeling  that  the 
black  or  brown  skin  must  be  given  the  benefit  of  every  possible 
doubt. 

There  are  three  main  avenues  of  entry  for  Chinese ;  through 
Hong  Kong  and  Singapore,  the  chief  distributing  centres,  and 
from  the  interior,  through  Yunan,  though  domestic  servants  rarely 
enter  from  the  north.  If  a  servant  commits  a  robbery  in  Hong 
Kong,  he  can,  for  a  few  dollars,  slip  up  to  Bangkok,  where  he  is 
unknown  to  the  police,  and  somehow  gets  a  place.  He  commits 
another  robbery,  goes  down  to  Singapore  with  the  plunder,  stops 
there  a  few  months,  and  comes  back  to  Bangkok.  Nothing  can 
be  proved  to  his  discredit ;  no  witnesses  will  swear  against  him  if 
they  are  Chinese,  and  other  testimony  is  unlikely.  If  his  old 
master  catches  him,  he  at  once  claims  British  or  foreign  protection. 
If  he  is  brought  before  the  British  Consul,  by  whom  the  good 
youth's  possession  of  a  batch  of  characters  under  two  different 
names  is  not  regarded  as  serious,  his  box  does  not  actually  contain 
the  stolen  things— they  disappeared  with  him  to  Singapore  six 
months  ago — and  so,  according  to  the  exponents  of  British  law 
that  all  British  subjects  are  equal,  the  poor  boy  is  honest  and  must 
be  set  free. 

The  western,  and  especially  the  British,  law  is  a  joy  to  the 
heart  of  the  Chinese,  who  soon  find  out  its  weak  spots  and  revel 
in  the  assumption  that  until  a  man  is  proved  guilty  he  is  considered 
quite  honest.  In  Java  a  few  years  ago  a  number  of  Chinese  stood 
to  lose  heavily  over  their  coffee  plantations,  and,  under  their  own 
law  and  customs,  would  have  been  obliged  to  pay  up  all  they 
possibly  could.  There  they  found  official  bankruptcy  easy,  and 
proof  of  fraudulent  bankruptcy  against  a  Chinese  almost  impossible. 
They  developed  it  into  a  sort  of  trade,  and  dragged  heaps  of  money 
through  the  loopholes  that  Dutch  law  provides.  The  recognition 
of  a  Chinese  is  difficult,  and  identification  after  a  lapse  of  time 
almost  impossible.  The  police  of  Bangkok  tried  to  start  a 
servants'  registry  office,  using  the  thumb-marks  as  identification ; 
but  the  white  man  in  the  East  is  too  careless  and  lazy  to  work 
the  system  properly.  Bangkok  has  become,  and  is  likely  long  to 
remain,  the  refuge  of  the  riffraff  and  thieving  servants  of  the  rest 


300  The  Empire  Review 

of  the  far  East;  and  whatever  is  bad  in  a  Chinese  is  found  at  its 
worst  at  Bangkok. 

Clubs,  many  of  which  are  probably  secret  societies,  are  a  great 
source  of  trouble.  The  servant  boys  of  Swatow,  Hankow,  Canton, 
and  Hainan  (Hylam),  besides  many  others,  all  have  their  respective 
clubs,  at  each  of  which  it  is  said  that  the  masters  are  registered. 
If  a  man  gets  a  reputation  as  a  bad  master,  he  may  be  boycotted 
by  his  servant's  club,  and  will  then  be  unable  to  get  any  more 
boys,  from  among  the  members  of  that  particular  club,  at  all 
events.  Fortunately,  the  different  clubs  hate  each  other,  so  the 
servants  at  work  in  the  same  house  are  usually,  though  not 
invariably,  members  of  the  same  club.  A  Swatow  boy,  for 
instance,  strongly  dissuaded  his  master  from  taking  a  Cantonese 
water  coolie.  "  Canton  boy,"  he  urged,  "  have  got  too  muchee 
sos  (sauce) :  master  no  likee."  Management  through  a  head  boy 
becomes  impossible  because,  though  the  head  boy  may  accept  the 
responsibility,  he  will  not  be  found  worthy  of  it,  and  just  as  little 
confidence  can  be  placed  in  those  who  act  as  servants'  references. 
One  of  the  most  responsible  Chinese  in  Bangkok,  holding  a  good 
and  lucrative  position,  sent  me  one  of  his  countrymen  who  turned 
out  a  thoroughly  bad  boy.  His  introducer,  when  challenged,  said 
he  knew  nothing  about  him,  and  that  a  "  flend  "  had  recommended 
him.  In  China,  no  Chinese  would  have  dreamt  of  assuming  such 
an  attitude  as  guarantor. 

Eedress  is  difficult  to  obtain,  for  they  get  the  best  of  the 
bargain  no  matter  what  steps  are  taken  against  them.  In  China, 
a  servant  who  commits  a  fault  can  be  lightly  punished  or  fined ; 
or  for  very  rare  and  flagrant  offences,  such  as  cruelty  to  a  master's 
child,  he  can  be  beaten.  At  Bangkok,  not  only  are  the  clubs  a 
protection  to  the  bad  man,  but  as  I  have  said,  the  legations  also 
step  in.  A  lie  appears  no  evil  to  a  good  Chinese,  who  in  daily 
life  often  considers  truth  to  be  something  worse  than  a  crime — 
a  rudeness.  So  it  requires  some  ingenuity  to  estimate  the 
restraining  influences  at  work  which  will  prevent  a  bad  Chinese 
from  lying  to  any  extent,  if  inclined.  There  is  no  known  oath 
that  will  bind  a  Chinese  to  speak  the  truth.  However  badly  and 
cruelly  a  Chinese  behaves,  he  must  not  be  struck  when  under  the 
protection  of  the  British  law,  or  a  fine  of  £1  will  be  imposed  on 
his  master.  If  the  crime  be  actually  proved  and  punishment 
inflicted,  the  legation  gaol  is  not  so  very  uncomfortable  to  a 
Chinese,  while  an  alternative  fine  will  be  weighed  as  an  item  of 
the  financial  profit  and  loss  account.  Thrashing  of  natives  is 
strongly  to  be  deprecated,  as  a  rule.  During  four  years  of  travel 
in  four  far  eastern  countries  I  only  once  had  to  thrash  a  man 
and  that  was  for  maltreating  my  pony.  Official  punishment  is 
another  matter  altogether ;  for  Chinese  criminals  under  their  own 


The  Chinese  Servant  at  Home  and  Abroad     301 

rulers,  can  be  controlled  by  pain  alone,  while  the  criminal 
becomes  a  worse  man  out  of  his  own  country,  and  requires  more 
stringent  treatment. 

The  retail  Chinese  traders  in  Bangkok  and  elsewhere  are  often 
most  dishonest,  and  will  enter  on  a  bill  things  that  were  neither 
ordered  nor  delivered.  I  went  one  day  to  a  Chinese  shop  on  the 
river  side  with  which  I  had  regularly  dealt,  and  asked  the  way  to 
a  place  that  sounded  like  "  Khoon  Peer."  The  directions  were 
correctly  given  me,  but  at  the  end  of  the  month  I  found  a  chair 
put  into  my  bill.  When  asked  what  it  meant,  the  shopman  said  I 
had  gone  to  the  store  and  ordered  a  deck  chair  on  that  particular 
day.  The  only  possible  explanation 'was  that  "  Khoon  Peer" 
sounds  something  remotely  like  "deck  chair;"  but  a  bottle  of 
brandy  was  also  entered  in  the  bill  without  any  sound  excuse. 

The  Chinaman's  genius  as  a  trader,  controlled  at  home  by  official 
and  other  squeezes,  expands,  when  abroad,  in  a  manner  which  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  trade  of  Singapore.  Here,  in  all  directions,  he 
is  rapidly  beating  the  European  at  his  own  game  of  money- 
making.  The  European  population  of  Singapore  in  1890  was 
5254,  and  the  Chinese  121,908.  It  is  said  that  Singapore  is 
probably  as  much  owned  by  Chinese  as  Calcutta  is  said  to  be  by 
the  Parsees.  The  best  carriages,  best  horses,  best  wines ;  all 
the  best  things  are  bought  by  Chinese;  and  the  number  of 
Chinese  owners  of  race-horses  at  the  Singapore  race  meeting  is 
remarkable. 

How  thoroughly  the  Chinese  can  unite  and  work  in  combina- 
tion is  shown  by  the  rice-lading  coolies  of  Koh- Si-Chang.  The 
Menam  river  bar  draws  only  a  few  feet  of  water  at  full  high-tide  ; 
ships,  therefore,  can  be  only  half  loaded  at  Bangkok ;  the  rest  of 
the  cargo,  usually  rice,  being  put  in  at  an  island,  Koh-Si-Chang, 
by  Chinese  coolies,  who  work  pretty  much  as  they  like.  These 
independent  labourers  once  fell  out  with  the  chief  mate  of  a 
vessel,  when  they  absolutely  refused  to  go  on  with  the  loading, 
left  work  for  more  than  a  day,  and  returned  when  they  thought 
they  had  sufficiently  demonstrated  their  powers  of  retaliation. 

In  conclusion,  the  Chinese  in  China  is  a  manageable,  hard- 
working, industrious,  and  fairly  reliable  man.  He  is  not  uncivil, 
and  is  willing  to  work  if  permitted  to  do  it  in  his  own  way. 
During  work  he  is  usually  very  good-tempered,  seldom  grumbles, 
and  hardly  ever  strikes.  All  these  virtues  are  founded  on  the 
simple  fact  of  competition.  His  vices  include  an  utter  lack  of 
any  form  of  real  conscience.  His  surroundings  are  dirty,  and  his 
food  a  continual  source  of  annoyance  to  all  other  races.  Emigrated 
he  is  careless,  unreliable,  impudent,  and  independent. 

DOUGLAS  KNOCKEE. 


302  The  Empire  Review 


A   COLONIAL   VIEW   OF   CAMBRIDGE 

To  enter  one  of  the  old  English  universities  is  the  dream  of 
most  young  Colonials  who  have  found  time  from  their  farming 
and  other  employments  to  pass  a  school  elementary  examination 
conducted  under  the  auspices  of  a  distant  examining  body  called 
a  university.  Cecil  Khodes,  whose  great  mind  opened  in  the 
sunny  blue  ground  of  the  diamond  fields,  typified  and  indeed 
idealised  this,  when,  for  a  time,  he  left  the  sparkling  gravel  and 
the  glistening  mud  of  the  dibris  heaps  to  read  for  a  degree  at 
Oxford,  and  ended,  as  the  world  knows,  by  endowing  splendid 
scholarships  for  a  similar  object. 

But  before  Mr.  Ehodes  became  the  Colonial  guide  to  Oxford, 
Cambridge  had  long  welcomed  Colonials.  A  couple  of  years  ago 
there  were  some  forty  South  Africans  at  Cambridge,  and  as  many 
at  least  from  other  parts  of  the  Empire.  Many  of  the  Colonial 
universities  are  affiliated,  and  their  graduates  are  allowed  privileges 
in  the  matter  of  keeping  terms  and  being  exempted  from  certain 
examinations.  The  dignities  and  sport  play  an  important  part 
in  life  in  the  colonies  as  well  as  here,  and  it  is  well  for  the  hardy 
young  life  which  has  grown  without  restraint  on  the  wide  frontiers 
of  the  Empire,  to  be  shut  for  a  short  time  in  the  maternal  con- 
servatory of  culture  and  athletics,  and  drink  deep  of  its  inspiring 
atmosphere. 

The  colonial  does  not  mind  having  to  "  keep "  his  rooms 
before  midnight ;  such  restraints  he  looks  upon  as  the  rich  glass 
of  the  conservatory,  where  he  lives  with  the  great  ghosts  of  the 
past  and  his  contemporaries  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  South 
Africans  have  been  known  to  avoid  compulsory  chapel  attendances 
by  suddenly  finding  that  they  belonged  to  the  Dutch  Keformed 
Church.  There  are  no  worldly  cares  save  for  tutors  and  deans 
who  are  in  loco  parentis.  The  townsfolk  are  ready  to  offer 
any  service  to  their  young  masters,  though  they  laugh  last,  as 
they  pocket  great  sums  of  money.  There  is  a  great  danger  of 
the  undergraduate  despising  "  townees"  too  much,  and  it  often 
takes  an  Englishman  many  years  to  outgrow  this  caste  superiority 
over  people  who  are  after  all  typical  shop-keepers  and  electors. 


A  Colonial  View  of  Cambridge  303 

The  colonial  is  usually  a  man  who  has  been  used  to  roaming  at 
large  through  life ;  so  that  the  absence  of  responsibility  and  the 
irksomeness  of  restraint  in  college  life  has  before  now  disgusted 
many  at  first.  But  it  is  only  at  the  very  first,  and  even  then  there 
is  a  pleasure  to  the  soul  in  that  restraint  which  is  a  tradition  of 
the  great  place.  He  soon  acquires  a  habit  of  ringing  up  the  sleepy 
porter  or  landlady  just  as  the  bell  of  great  St.  Mary's  is  sounding 
midnight.  He  keeps  his  pipe  well  under  his  gown  while  in  the 
streets  at  night ;  and  his  great  hands  do  not  itch  to  knock  his 
tutor  down  if  the  latter  is  of  the  schoolmaster  sort  and  forgets 
that  he  has  to  deal  with  men.  Kindness,  however,  is  the  general 
experience;  for  the  tutors  of  most  colleges  have  old  university 
friends  in  the  colonies  whom  they  are  anxious  to  hear  about, 
and  they  are  willing  to  slacken  in  the  case  of  their  Imperial 
pupils  restrictions  which  were  really  made  for  monks  and  boys 
coming  fresh  from  a  public  school.  By  the  undergraduates 
themselves  the  colonial  has  always  been  well  received.  His 
parentage  is  not  inquired  into.  He  is  treated  on  his  own  merits, 
and  usually  makes  a  good  impression  whether  in  social  life  or 
sport.  Fellowships  and  scholarships  often  fall  to  colonials,  and 
South  Africa  has  had  the  wonderful  distinction  of  once  winning 
the  Wooden  Spoon. 

To  the  young  traveller  from  over  the  seas,  still  full  of  the 
novelty  of  his  great  journey,  all  is  as  yet  like  a  beautiful  scene  in 
a  theatre  of  which  he  expects  the  curtain  to  fall  at  any  moment. 
The  fairy  buildings  of  colleges  and  chapels,  the  turf,  the  trees,  the 
moss,  are  sweet  and  wondrous  to  one  who  comes  perhaps  from  a 
very  brown  country  where  the  only  human  antiquity  is  the  bright 
painting  of  an  extinct  Bushman  in  some  lonely  cave  in  the  midst 
of  the  veldt.  The  very  crows  filling  the  quiet  "Backs"  with 
their  hoarse  cries,  among  the  grey  arched  bridges  over  the  river 
and  the  rich  creepers  on  the  blackened  buildings,  take  him  back 
ages.  What  would  he  not  have  given  far  away  in  the  veldt  for  a 
handful  of  rich  moss,  a  piece  of  frieze  from  an  old  chapel,  or  a  bit 
of  well-worn  oaken  beam  from  an  old  tavern  ?  And  now  he  is 
living  in  it  all,  a  very  piece  of  it  himself.  He  feels  that  it  is 
something  to  look  upon  some  great  author  or  statesman  as  a 
member  of  his  college,  a  fellow-undergraduate  in  fact,  though  not 
of  his  year ! 

Here  are  the  books  or  manuscripts  of  the  great  man  in  the 
college  library,  presented  by  himself,  in  the  same  shelves  with 
chained  and  illumined  volumes  still  covered  with  the  dust  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  ancient  College  servant,  himself  a  survival  of 
some  generations,  tells  him  about  it  in  a  proud  and  respectful 
whisper.  Or  the  new-comer  walks  in  the  quiet  sombre  cloisters 
where  saintly  men  meditated;  or  he  finds  himself  behind  the 


304  The  Empire  Review 

same  barred  windows  which  could  not  hold  in  an  iron  Cromwell. 
Even  here  the  utilitarian  spirit  and  the  struggle  for  existence 
have  invaded.  Many  of  the  college  grounds  are  being  let  out  in 
building  leases,  and  many  of  the  wide  athletic  fields  will  soon  be 
given  up  to  eke  out  small  scholarships  dating  from  times  when 
agricultural  land  and  money  were  of  greater  worth  than  now. 
Wordsworth's  rooms  at  John's  and  Thackeray's  at  Trinity  have 
now  become  mere  corners  of  new  palatial  kitchens  and  butteries. 

At  first  the  man  from  the  colonies,  full  of  hero-worship,  is 
shocked  by  the  levity  of  the  undergraduates  who  are  brimful  of 
the  joy  of  life.  He  had  expected  to  find  sober  learning  in  a 
subdued  surrounding  where  it  were  almost  a  sacrilege  to  laugh. 
He  is  in  rapture,  it  may  be,  because  he  has  come  across  in  an 
afternoon's  stroll,  some  relic  of  Milton  or  of  some  other  great 
mind  which  had  gladdened  his  soul  in  the  loneliness  of  the  bush. 
Perhaps  also  he  has  seen  in  the  flesh  Hamblin  Smith  whose 
algebra  he  has  often  puzzled  over  under  a  distant  verandah. 
Full  of  enthusiasm  over  his  great  find  he  mentions  it  to  his 
English  fellows,  but  they  who  have  been  bred  among  antiquities, 
like  the  pigeons  who  nest  in  St.  Paul's,  have  something  more 
recent  to  think  about,  and  laugh  at  him.  To  them  Hamblin 
Smith  is  a  tennis  player,  Milton  is  their  "  gyp  "  or  Lord  Byron  is 
the  favourite  at  Newmarket ;  and  they  rush  to  the  Union  to  see 
the  latest  telegrams  from  that  place,  leaving  the  Colonial  to  mend 
his  shattered  gods  as  best  he  can.  I  was  "  up  "  once  at  the  time 
of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Sports  and  well  do  I  remember  the 
great  crowd  of  undergraduates  and  dons  whom  examinations  alone 
kept  from  London,  waiting  at  the  Union  for  the  telegram  which 
would  tell  who  had  won  the  final  event.  Suddenly  "  click,  click," 
went  the  machine,  and  as  the  clerk  came  out  with  the  message 
there  was  a  wild  rush  to  the  board.  A  don  who  had  torn  his 
gown  in  the  rush  was  bent  over  the  paper,  touching  it  with  his 
spectacled  eyes,  and  everyone  was  impatient.  Suddenly  the  old 
don  looked  up  and  turned  away  in  disgust  saying,  "  Bah,  it's  only 
from  the  House  of  Commons,"  and  a  shudder  of  disappointment 
went  through  the  crowd. 

At  the  Union  debates  where  orators  whose  names  are  house- 
hold words  in  the  colonies  first  learned  to  think  on  their  feet,  the 
tone  is  trivial  when  it  is  not  blase.  Everywhere  boyish  spirits 
are  the  order,  and  even  dons,  who  are  great  authorities  on  their 
subjects,  are  boys  when  they  doff  their  gowns  after  the  lecture.  At 
the  theatre,  musical  comedies  and  variety  entertainments  draw 
brimful  and  bubbling  houses,  which  call  for  a  " speech"  from 
every  jolly  buffoon  and  a  thrown  kiss  from  every  favourite 
actress.  Tragedy  and  the  opera  are  seldom  taken  to  Cambridge, 
unless  it  is  to  be  run  at  a  loss.  There  is,  it  is  true,  a  Greek  play 


A  Colonial  View  of  Cambridge  305 

performed  by  the  students  every  other  year,  when  the  house  is 
filled  with  dons,  and  girls  from  Newnham  and  Girton,  and  their 
friends  from  other  parts  of  England.  All  this  is  a  disappointment 
to  the  hero-worshipper  for  a  time,  but  of  course,  he  had  begun 
with  too  staid  an  idea  of  a  university  and  he  is  soon  infected 
with  the  jolly  genius  of  the  place. 

In  unlearning  what  are  often  only  pedantries  he  learns  a  great 
deal  when  he  realises  that  wisdom  is  no  less  wise  when  it  is  a 
merry  fellow  all  ablaze  with  life,  and  liable  to  be  mistaken  by  a 
passing  stranger  for  folly.  He  had  expected  to  find  "  spare  fast 
that  oft  with  gods  doth  diet";  but  instead  he  finds  the  modern 
undergraduate  setting  a  glitter  of  fashion  of  his  own,  especially  in 
waistcoat  buttons.  The  lean  horse  of  Chaucer's  "  clerkes "  is 
superseded  by  the  elegant  motor-car.  The  cooking  and  furniture 
are  in  the  most  approved  style.  The  caterers  and  cooks  of  the 
college  kitchens  make  fortunes,  keep  carriages,  and  send  their 
sons  to  the  University,  i.e.  the  other  University.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  live  a  tolerable  social  life  in  Cambridge  unless  one  is 
ready  to  pay  nearly  double  for  all  goods,  or  unless  one  can  command 
unlimited  credit.  So  Cambridge,  though  open  to  anyone,  is  kept 
aristocratic,  or  plutocratic,  for  one  could  hardly  live  on  an  ordinary 
scholarship.  Tastes  are  cultivated  which,  though  a  glorious  end 
in  themselves,  take  years  to  unlearn,  and  sometimes  to  pay  for. 
In  the  May  Week,  during  the  boat-races,  when  the  undergraduate 
is  worshipped  by  his  elegant  and  beautiful  cousins  and  their  friends, 
the  university  is  the  centre  of  brilliant  society,  and  much  money 
is  lavished  on  entertainments  to  cheer  the  dear  fellows  after  all 
their  hard  work. 

Let  us  DOW  look  a  little  into  the  routine  of  daily  life  at  the 
university.  In  the  morning  the  streets  and  courts  are  crowded 
with  men,  with  or  without  gowns,  on  bicycle  or  afoot,  with  their 
notebooks,  on  their  way  to  the  lectures  or  laboratories  in  the 
various  colleges.  Girls  drive  in  from  Girton  and  Newnham  to  find 
as  good  a  place  as  they  can  in  the  lecture-halls.  Here  the  colonial 
is  struck  by  the  aloofness  between  them  and  the  undergraduates. 
At  his  school  or  university,  and  in  his  colonial  life,  he  has  been 
used  to  look  upon  girl  students  as  his  "  chums,"  to  see  them  in 
cap  and  gown  talking  with  undergrads  in  the  quadrangles,  or 
joining  in  a  game  of  tennis.  But  here  the  sexes  stand  apart. 
In  the  morning,  then,  all  looks  dignified,  and  one  would  think 
learning  was  the  sole  object  of  a  university,  if  one  did  not  see  a 
rent  in  the  mask  in  the  shape  of  a  sporting  "  undergrad  "  with 
whip  or  dog  swaggering  to  the  hunt  or  to  the  races. 

In  the  afternoon  gowns  are  at  a  premium :  not  one  is  seen 
save  of  a  grave  scholar  or  don  going  to  read  in  the  university 
library.  Men  pour  out  of  their  rooms  arm-in-arm,  or  cycling  in 
VOL.  VI.— No.  33.  x 

i 


306  The  Empire  Review 

the  bright-hued  blazers  and  costumes  of  every  branch  of  sport, 
from  rowing  to  lacrosse.  The  calm  slow  river  which  seemed  in 
the  quietness  of  the  morning  like  a  canal  in  a  garden  is  now  alive 
with  bright  boats.  The  ear  is  greeted  with  pleasant  sounds,  the 
roll  of  the  sliding-seats,  the  grating  of  the  oars  in  the  rowlocks  as 
the  men  bend  together  over  the  stretchers,  then  the  clean  gripping 
of  the  water  by  eight  blades  and  the  boat  is  heard  to  leap  strongly 
through  the  water.  The  green  fields  for  miles  around  are  tinted 
with  ruddy  boisterous  life.  The  muscles  are  being  tightened  by 
a  world  of  athletics,  and  the  animal  spirits  buoyed  up  by  the 
infectious  enthusiasm  of  young  life  acting  upon  young  life.  For 
a  few  hours  history  has  ceased,  and  Cambridge  lives  only  in  a 
realm  of  play.  As  the  light  grows  dimmer  the  young  athletes, 
with  glowing  bodies  all  spattered  with  mud  and  rain,  return  to 
cosy  rooms  to  scores  of  genial  tea-parties  enjoyed  in  an  atmo- 
sphere sweet  with  smoke  and  fire-light,  and  filled  with  the  merry 
music  of  young  voices. 

After  this,  refreshed  in  mind  and  body,  men  read  or  play  ping- 
pong  till  "hall."  Dinner  in  hall  is  an  excellent  old  custom,  and 
at  most  colleges  one  is  obliged  to  dine  in  hall  a  certain  number  of 
times  a  week.  There  is  no  trace  of  the  afternoon's  play  except  in 
the  liveliness  of  men's  faces,  and  all  the  men  are  in  their  gowns. 
At  the  high  table  sit  the  master  and  fellows ;  the  undergraduates 
are  on  well-browned  benches  at  long  tables  in  the  hall  below,  like 
the  retainers  of  a  great  Saxon  house.  All  stand  for  a  moment 
while  the  Latin  grace  is  read  from  a  tablet  by  a  "  scholar,"  and 
at  once  the  chatter  of  a  healthy  meal  begins.  Pictures  of  former 
masters  and  worthies  of  the  college  look  down  on  the  repast  from 
the  carved  panels  of  the  walls.  There  are  "storied  windows 
richly  dight,"  antlers  on  the  walls,  and  a  balcony  from  which 
curious  strangers  may  watch  the  lions  feed.  The  meal  is  whole- 
some, and  is  washed  down  by  brown  college  ale  all  foaming  in 
silver  tankards  engraved  with  the  college  crest  and  a  Latin  in- 
scription. Serviettes  are  unknown,  being  too  modern. 

After  "  hall "  the  streets  are  filled  again  with  men  in  cap  and 
gown  according  to  rule,  for  now  it  is  "  dusk  " — though,  indeed, 
it  is  often  dusk  all  day.  The  men  are  on  their  way  to  a 
friend's  rooms  or  to  their  own  rooms  to  read,  or  to  the  theatre, 
or  to  the  Union  to  hear  the  debate  if  it  be  Tuesday  night. 
Proctors,  in  cap  and  gown,  who  were  recently  dining  at  the  high- 
table,  glide  swiftly  through  the  streets,  followed  each  by  a  pair 
of  fleet  serving-men,  the  "  bull-dogs,"  one  of  whom  may  be  one's 
own  "gyp"  disguised  in  a  top-hat  and  tail-coat.  These  are  the 
censors  of  morals  who  patrol  in  all  weathers,  pouncing  round 
corners  upon  men  who  are  not  wearing  their  gowns,  who  are 
smoking  out  of  doors  or  who  "  snatch  a  fearful  joy  "  in  the  shape 


A  Colonial  View  of  Cambridge  307 

of  a  clandestine  kiss.  So  till  midnight  when  all  is  quiet  again  in 
the  streets,  save  for  the  sound  of  a  man  rushing  to  "  keep"  at 
twelve,  or  an  air  from  a  phonograph  or  a  jolly  song  floating 
through  an  open  window,  or  a  few  late  roysterers  in  evening- 
dress  strolling  as  straight  as  they  can  from  a  dinner-party. 

In  the  college  itself  one  can  still  see  one's  friends,  and  in  the 
quiet  early  hours  philosophise  with  them  over  a  pipe.  Mean- 
while, through  the  day,  there  are  ample  opportunities  for  society, 
wide  reading  and  specific  study.  Then,  after  fifty-nine  nights  of 
such  residence,  the  term  ends,  and  the  Colonial  sees,  rather  sadly, 
his  young  friends  going  to  their  homes.  He  may  accompany 
them,  or  go  to  the  great  life  of  London  or  the  Continent,  thus 
blending  the  ideal  with  the  actual. 

Besides  good-humoured  intercourse  with  one's  kind,  the 
modern  spirit,  with  its  epigrammatic  superiority,  comes  into 
wholesome  touch  with  the  masterly  relics  of  yesterday,  well- 
living  bachelor  dons  of  the  old  time,  when  fellowships  were  only 
for  the  unmarried.  These  hale  souls  still  spend  their  summers  in 
Italy,  talk  of  adventures  on  the  road  when  they  did  the  "  grand 
tour"  in  coaches,  quote  Byron  and  Scott,  and  tell  anecdotes  of 
Carlyle  and  Browning,  whom  they  knew.  Alas,  every  year  they 
depart,  and  one  can  only  treasure  up  in  one's  memory  a  noble 
face,  a  kindly  and  musical  voice,  which  read  or  spoke  wise  and 
encouraging  words :  it  is  a  memory  which  ever  chastens,  and 
throws  on  the  admirer  a  faint  ray  of  the  master's  torch.  One 
recalls  a  stalwart  white-haired  figure  on  the  tow-path  cheering 
the  college  boats,  as  kindred  in  spirit  with  each  young  oarsman 
as  when  he  himself  stroked  the  eight  in  the  Mays. 

There  is  a  life  of  dons  of  which  the  outer  world  knows  nothing. 
There  are  combination  rooms  lit  up  only  by  candles,  where  the 
Fellows  are  said  to  "  take  coffee "  after  hall.  In  one  of  these 
there  is  a  little  wooden  box  on  wheels  which  crosses  the  table 
with  the  mediaeval  port.  But  "  favete  linguis  !  "  we  must  not 
disturb  their  repose,  for  most  of  them  have  been  good  oars  in 
their  day,  and  even  now  they  may  be  seen  riding  along  the  tow- 
path  on  horseback  or  bicycle  coaching  their  college  boat,  and  even 
taking  an  oar  on  occasion.  Besides,  they  give  good  breakfasts 
and  keep  open  house  to  undergraduates.  After  lecture  they  are 
only  ready  to  forget  that  they  are  great  authorities  on  anything 
but  sport.  Being  human  they  are  above  mere  specialism.  They 
spend  half  their  year  abroad  gathering  wisdom  and  health  with 
which  they  are  only  too  ready  to  inspire  the  young  minds  in  their 
charge. 

Cambridge  has  also  little  great  men  of  its  own  who  are 
authorities  on  everything,  men  who  cultivate  a  cynical  cleverness 
in  everything,  and  talk  frivolously  on  any  subject  for  any  length 

x  2 


308  The  Empire  Review 

of  time.  Such  men  are,  amongst  others,  the  presidents  of  the 
Union,  not  always  the  best  speakers,  and  the  writers  to  the 
'Varsity  papers,  who  are  diminutive  Timeses  and  Punches.  There 
are  coteries  of  scientists  who  wait  about  for  fellowships  and  talk 
and  think  in  formulae.  There  are  clubs  containing  men  of  all 
manner  of  thought  and  want  of  opinion  who  meet  periodically, 
wear  weird  emblems,  and  practise  weird  rites. 

Though  containing  all  shades  of  opinion  and  of  nationality, 
Cambridge  has  deeply  imbedded  in  its  system  that  caste  distinction 
and  deference  to  authority  which  is  a  mark  of  the  British  constitu- 
tion. The  University  confers  on  a  man  a  hall-mark  which  is  not 
merely  a  sign  of  learning,  but  an  "  Open  Sesame  "  to  society,  and 
a  title  to  admiration  from  all  else.  There  the  Established  Church 
if  not  a  living  soul  is  a  living  body.  The  undergraduate  puts  on 
his  surplice  for  chapel  as  he  does  his  gown  for  dinner  in  the  hall. 
The  Dean  is  a  power  in  the  College  with  whom  the  delinquent 
from  chapel  attendance  has  dreaded  interviews.  Among  the  men 
there  is  a  rigid  etiquette  of  discourtesy  which  holds  it,  for  instance, 
a  high  crime  to  greet  in  the  street  or  to  shake  hands  anywhere. 
One  may  know  a  man  very  well  in  his  rooms,  or  fancy  one  does, 
but  in  the  street  one's  ready  greeting  is  met  by  a  cool  stare,  though 
an  hour  afterwards  the  same  superior  person  may  be  talking 
warmly  with  you  in  someone's  rooms.  The  uninitiated  would 
apply  the  unpleasant  word  rudeness  to  such  conduct  which  some 
men  never  overcome. 

It  gives  University  men  a  reputation  for  coldness  and  lack  of 
sympathy  which  is  often  only  an  acquired  cloak  of  the  place.  The 
secret  of  it  lies  in  an  ultra-Bohemianism  which  aims  to  be  above 
even  courtesy.  The  Cambridge  man  smokes  a  pipe  in  the  street, 
scorns  a  high  hat,  puts  his  feet  on  the  mantelpiece  and  smokes  in 
the  presence  of  ladies  who  may  be  honoured  by  seeing  him  live. 
Ladies  and  strangers  are  given  to  understand  that  they  are 
inferior  though  well-meaning  persons  who  have  not  had  the 
advantage  of  university  life  and  must  put  up  with  the  patrician 
manners  of  the  place,  or  depart  from  it.  This  is  clearly  written 
in  every  undergraduate's  face.  It  is  the  effect  of  monasticism,  or 
the  continuation  of  public  school  life  with  the  absence  of  that 
feminine  influence  which  is  a  very  part  of  Colonial  life  at  the 
University  or  elsewhere,  and  adds  a  gentleness  to  men's  lives. 
At  Cambridge  there  is  little  or  no  society  for  undergraduates 
other  than  their  own  unless  it  be  at  a  don's  house,  and  after  all  the 
don  is  only  the  larger  or  more  confirmed  undergraduate.  Even 
in  the  May  week  society  has  to  try  to  rises  to  the  manners  of  the 
university  man. 

In  educational  matters  Cambridge  is  wonderfully  up-to-date, 
which  is  difficult  to  understand  when  one  sees  with  what  difficulty 


A  Colonial  View  of  Cambridge  309 

new  and  obvious  triposes  are  established,  and  with  what  heat  the 
Greek  question  in  the  "little-go  "  is  discussed  in  and  out  of  the 
University.  Why  a  man  who  has  crossed  the  seas  to  read  science 
or  law  should  be  obliged  to  pause  long  at  the  threshold  while  he 
learns  the  beautiful  Greek  syntax  and  grammar  which  is  to  open 
his  mind,  is  a  study  in  gilded  cobwebs  which  is  a  temptation  to 
the  four  winds  of  heaven.  Unless  one  happens  to  be  a  graduate, 
Greek  is  a  preliminary  necessity  whether  a  man  wish  to  take  a 
degree  in  medicine,  mechanics,  morals  or  music. 

Every  other  man  one  meets  is  a  science  man.  The  labora- 
tories of  science  and  medicine  are  admirably  equipped,  and  filled 
with  research  men  from  all  the  colonies  and  even  foreign  countries. 
The  Senior  Wrangler  divides  the  honours  of  the  year  with  the 
winner  of  the  wooden  spoon,  but  a  world  of  silent  work  is  done 
in  the  great  laboratories  which  are  bringing  a  newer  and  greater 
fame  to  the  ancient  University. 

S.  B.  KITCHIN, 


310  The  Empire  Review 


THE   PEARLING   GROUNDS   OF   AUSTRALIA 

A  LITTLE-KNOWN  portion  of  the  globe  is  that  tract  of  land 
which  forms  the  north-western  division  of  Australia,  and  includes 
one  of  the  most  barren  wastes,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
mountainous  regions  in  the  whole  of  the  island-continent.  The 
district  is  properly  termed  the  Terra  Incognita  of  Australia,  and 
few  have  explored  its  trackless  deserts  or  penetrated  the  fastnesses 
of  the  gigantic  Leopold  Ranges. 

Here  a  fiercely  hostile  tribe  of  aborigines  hold  sway,  whose 
grim  reputation  does  not  tend  to  entice  the  wanderer ;  strange 
tales  of  cannibalism  not  infrequently  reach  the  coast,  and  it  is 
known  that  the  natives  use  flint  spearheads  dipped  in  a  deadly 
poison.  Small  wonder  that  the  country  is  almost  wholly  immune 
from  the  visits  of  white  men,  and  the  official  geographical  know- 
ledge of  it  is  practically  nil.  Yet  this  mystic  "  Land  of  the  Never 
Never"  abounds  in  mineral  wealth  to  an  exceptional  degree, 
gold  and  copper  being  widely  distributed,  and  diamonds  numerous 
in  the  more  easterly  parts  of  the  great  plain.  Adventurous 
spirits  seeking  fresh  fields  to  conquer  may  well  turn  their  eyes 
to  this  little  corner  of  our  great  Empire,  where,  far  from  civilisa- 
tion's reach,  nature  rules  in  all  her  solitary  grandeur.  But  if  the 
interior  of  this  land  is  rigorously  guarded,  the  coast  is  com- 
paratively easy  of  access,  and  here,  also,  rich  treasure  may  be 
obtained.  Along  the  sea-board,  fringing  it  to  a  width  of  many 
miles,  lie  the  famous  Australian  pearling  grounds,  whereon  are 
found  many  of  the  world's  finest  gems.  From  Cossack  to  Port 
Darwin  the  lucrative  shallows  extend,  but  the  richest  beds  are 
in  Eoebuck  Bay  and  its  vicinity,  where  the  greater  part  of  the 
pearling  fleet  is  usually  assembled. 

The  divers,  however,  have  a  partiality  for  certain  localities  at 
different  seasons,  and  for  a  time — generally  in  the  autumn — many 
luggers  frequent  the  shoaly  waters  of  the  Ninety  Mile  Beach, 
which  begins  at  Cape  Bossut,  sixty  miles  south  of  Broome,  and 
stretches  towards  Port  Hedland.  Beagle  Bay  and  the  Lacipede 
Islands  are  favourite  haunts  in  midsummer,  when  the  weather  is 
proverbially  fine,  and  Cygnet  Bay  in  King  Sound  provides  a  good 
winter  shelter.  The  average  " lugger"  from  which  all  diving 


The  Pearling  Grounds  of  Australia  811 

operations  are  carried  on,  is  a  two-masted  craft  about  thirty-five 
feet  in  length  and  twelve  feet  across  the  beam ;  its  chief  peculi- 
arity lies  in  a  very  small  free-board,  rendering  its  life  in  a  moder- 
ately rough  sea  extremely  dangerous.  Yet  this  risky  design  is 
found  necessary  to  allow  the  heavily- weighted  diver  to  descend 
over  the  gunwale  with  freedom,  and  to  permit  of  his  being 
dragged  on  board  from  the  depths  without  the  use  of  blocks  and 
tackle.  It  occasionally  happens  that  these  boats  become  swamped 
when  a  distance  from  shore,  and  then  the  entire  crew  take  refuge 
in  the  dinghy !  As  a  rule  there  is  but  one  white  man  in  each 
boat,  the  crew  being  composed  of  Malays,  while  the  diver  usually 
hails  from  Manila  or  Japan.  The  diver  is  in  reality  in  charge  of 
affairs,  for  he  learns  by  experience  to  know  where  the  pearl 
oysters  are  most  abundant,  and  directs  the  vessel's  course  ac- 
cordingly. He  receives  no  regular  salary,  but  is  given  an  interest 
in  "  returns,"  so  that  his  conscientious  effort  may  always  be 
depended  upon. 

Many  people  imagine  that  pearling,  like  gold-mining  or 
diamond-digging,  is  in  the  main  a  speculative  concern,  in  which 
failure  to  obtain  the  gem  means  ruin  or,  at  least,  useless  expendi- 
ture of  labour — according  to  the  responsibilities  undertaken  ;  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  pearls  play  quite  a  secondary  part  in  the  attractive 
industry.  It  is  the  shell  that  forms  the  remunerative  commodity 
of  these  waters ;  pearls  are,  indeed,  too  scarce  in  themselves  to 
attract  the  fortune-seeker.  Many  hundreds  of  shells  may  be 
opened  before  one  pearl  is  found,  and  I  have  known  instances 
where  the  jewel  has  not  been  seen  throughout  a  whole  season. 
So  long,  however,  as  mother-of-pearl  commands  the  price  it 
has  done  these  many  years,  there  will  be  few  failures  among 
the  fleets. 

The  depth  at  which  work  is  performed  rarely  exceeds  fifteen 
fathoms ;  the  bivalves  are  numerous  in  deeper  waters,  but  no 
diver  can  endure  the  enormous  pressure  sustained  on  the  lower 
beds ;  even  a  few  seasons'  work  at  the  fifteen  fathoms  level 
practically  ends  his  career.  There  are  no  white  divers  on  this 
coast;  nor  are  there  any  natives  employed  to  work  without  the 
aid  of  the  diving-dress,  for  the  waters  abound  in  sharks,  and  more 
than  once  in  earlier  days  the  naked  aborigines  have  been  crushed 
to  death  by  octopoda. 

Schooners  go  out  with  the  lugger  fleet  and  act  as  floating 
stations  for  the  deposit  of  the  shells,  and  as  storehouses  for 
the  supply  of  foodstuffs.  In  many  cases  these  larger  vessels 
seek  the  shelter  of  some  mangrove-fringed  creek  within  easy 
access  to  the  working  craft ;  particularly  is  this  the  case  when 
the  field  of  operations  lies  off  the  Ninety  Mile  Beach,  for  here 
storms  are  frequent  and  anchorage  unstable.  Cape  Bossut 


312  The  Empire  Review 

and  the  adjoining  Lagrange  Bay  are  usually  turned  into  odd- 
looking  townships  of  stranded  vessels  in  the  height  of  the 
season. 

The  diving  work  is  conducted  in  the  most  matter-of-fact 
manner,  little  precaution  being  taken  to  prevent  accident ;  fortu- 
nately mishaps  are  rare,  thanks  in  no  small  measure  to  the 
wonderful  vitality  of  the  Manilaman  diver.  No  rope  ladders  are 
employed;  the  diver  drops  heavily  from  the  gunwale,  grasping 
only  the  plunger  line  as  a  guide  to  his  descent.  For  the  first  few 
fathoms  his  downward  course  is  alarmingly  rapid,  while  the 
sensation  experienced  when  the  lower  depths  are  reached  is  not 
a  pleasant  one.  A  novice,  going  down  in  the  "  dress  "  almost 
invariably  turns  turtle  when  a  very  short  distance  under  water, 
and  this  unnerves  him  so  that  he  usually  releases  his  grip  of  the 
plunger  line,  and  then — he  may  perform  several  complete  revolu- 
tions before  he  lands,  probably  on  his  head,  among  the  clinging 
marine  growths.  Well  do  I  remember  my  own  initiation  into 
the  mysteries  of  the  diver's  life,  and  ever  since  I  have  sym- 
pathised deeply  with  those  who  explore  the  hidden  caverns  of  the 
dark  blue  waters. 

It  came  about  in  this  way,  nearly  three  years  ago,  after  doing 
some  exploring  work  in  the  interior,  I  found  myself  at  Broome, 
awaiting  a  steamer  to  connect  with  Singapore  and  home.  The 
few  whites  then  in  the  settlement  interpreted  the  laws  of 
hospitality  in  a  generous  manner,  and  I  was  afforded  every 
opportunity  of  watching  the  luggers  at  work  in  and  around 
Boebuck  Bay.  Meanwhile  I  ostensibly  put  up  at  one  of  the 
hotels  on  shore,  though  to  escape  mosquitoes  and  kindred  pests 
I  invariably  carried  my  camp  blanket  out  to  the  end  of  the  rough 
wharf  in  the  evenings,  at  which  time  the  air  was  usually  filled 
with  the  indescribable  clamour  of  drunken  coolies,  and  the  weird 
drum  beating  of  the  everlasting  Malay  concerts.  The  Japanese 
element,  too,  after  sundown,  became  especially  boisterous,  and 
their  harsh  unmusical  chants,  accompanied  by  much  hand-clapping 
and  cymbal-clashing,  was  diabolical  in  the  extreme. 

After  a  week  of  this  sort  of  thing  I  was  glad  indeed  to  accept 
an  invitation  to  visit  Cape  Bossut  in  the  lugger  Rose  which  was 
about  to  set  out  on  a  lengthy  cruise ;  so  I  embarked  without 
delay,  thankful  at  the  prospect  of  a  few  days'  rest  on  the  waters. 
The  owner  of  the  lugger  at  the  last  moment  decided  not  to  sail 
with  me ;  the  monsoon  season  was  approaching,  he  said,  and  he 
was  not  a  good  sailor,  so  when  the  anchor  was  raised,  and  the 
Rose  was  threading  her  way  out  among  the  sand-banks,  I  realised 
that  the  only  white  man  on  board  other  than  myself  was  an 
elongated  specimen  of  the  genus  sand-groper  just  recovering  from 
the  effects  of  a  prolonged  debauch  on  shore.  I  found  this 


The  Pearling  Grounds  of  Australia  313 

individual  to  be  good-natured  enough  but  wholly  ignorant  of 
seamanship,  and,  as  the  vessel  possessed  no  chart  of  the  route, 
we  had  perforce  to  steer  close  inshore  and  trust  largely  to 
providence  for  our  safe  guidance.  The  diver,  however,  was  an 
exceptionally  intelligent  member  of  his  class,  and  seemed  to 
understand  by  instinct  when  any  danger  threatened  ;  and,  while 
the  white  "commander"  slumbered  heavily  during  the  long 
watches  of  the  night,  Mariano,  as  the  diver  was  named,  gave 
me  much  interesting  information,  in  his  soft-voiced  broken 
English,  concerning  the  hazardous  nature  of  the  pearlers' 
work. 

About  3  o'clock  in  the  morning,  while  the  Rose  was  on  a 
long  tack  seaward,  he  begged  me  to  go  into  the  cabin  and  get  a 
short  sleep.  I  looked  at  the  for'ard  deck  where  the  Malay  crew 
were  huddled,  presumably  asleep,  then  glanced  at  my  deputy 
host  who  was  snoring  stentoriously  in  the  lee  scuppers,  and  I 
hesitated.  Mariano  laughed.  "  Me  watch,"  he  said  significantly, 
and  I  was  satisfied.  I  dropped  off  into  dreamland  at  once,  but 
in  five  minutes  awoke  with  a  start  to  find  myriads  of  creatures 
swarming  over  my  face  and  body.  I  grabbed  wildly  and  caught 
something ;  it  was  a  huge  cockroach.  Going  hastily  on  deck  I 
was  greeted  by  the  commander  who  had  just  awakened.  "  Yes, 
mate,"  he  said  gravely,  "  you  need  to  be  very  drunk  before  you 
can  sleep  down  there,"  and  I  felt  inclined  to  agree  with  him. 

Towards  daybreak  the  breeze  freshened  and  we  were  soon 
thrashing  to  windward  through  a  choppy  sea,  shipping  an 
alarming  amount  of  water  at  each  plunge;  but  the  headland 
of  Cape  Letouche  Treville  was  almost  abeam,  and  a  few  miles 
further  south  False  Cape  could  be  located  where  the  waves  dashed 
confusedly  over  the  treacherous  reefs.  The  commander  was 
sober  enough  now,  and  he  set  about  preparing  breakfast  in  a 
manner  that  at  once  proclaimed  the  tactics  of  the  bushman. 
"  Sailoring  isn't  my  line,"  he  admitted  with  becoming  modesty, 
"  but  I  can  handle  the  nigs  all  right,  an'  that's  the  main  thing  in 
this  business."  As  if  to  illustrate  his  assertion  he  thrust  his 
head  out  of  the  hatchway,  and  with  sundry  sulphurous  expletives 
ordered  the  pumps  and  diving  gear  to  be  got  ready.  Mariano, 
meanwhile,  sat  by  the  tiller  smiling  very  broadly ;  it  was  evident 
that  he  did  not  think  much  of  my  companion's  influence  with  the 
scowling  black-skinned  crew. 

False  Cape  was  safely  weathered,  and  then  we  entered  the 
sheltered  waters  of  Lagrange  Bay  where  many  luggers  were 
assembled.  Cape  Bossut  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  this 
pearlers'  haven,  and  we  steered  slowly  towards  its  mangrove- 
covered  beach.  Numerous  sea-snakes  here  surrounded  the 
vessel,  gliding  hither  and  thither  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 


314  The  Empire  Review 

They  were,  as  nearly  as  I  could  judge,  about  four  feet  long,  and 
their  skins  were  very  prettily  mottled ;  but  though  of  extremely 
venomous  appearance,  Mariano  assured  me  that  they  were 
perfectly  harmless.  He  was  evidently,  also,  pleased  to  see  these 
reptiles,  and  straightway  announced  his  intention  of  descending 
to  examine  their  submarine  haunts.  "  Snake  feed  on  oyster,"  he 
said  to  me,  "  good  sign." 

I  assisted  in  having  the  Bose  hove  to,  and  then  watched 
further  proceedings  with  much  interest.  The  sounding-line  gave 
the  depths  as  fifteen  fathoms,  which  was  considered  a  satisfactory 
level,  and  soon  Mariano  was  encased  in  his  cumbrous  rubber 
suit,  with  helmet  tightly  clamped,  and  the  great  weighted  boots 
securely  fixed.  With  much  difficulty  he  managed  to  place  his 
limbs  over  the  gunwale,  then  he  balanced  himself,  see-saw 
fashion,  like  some  inert  monster,  while  extra  weights  were  laid 
across  his  shoulders.  The  pumps  were  manned  by  two  evil- 
looking  Malays  who  mechanically  bent  to  their  labours  and  sent 
a  wheezing,  sputtering,  current  of  air  coursing  through  the  long 
tube,  which  emerged  from  the  escape  valves  of  the  helmet  in  a 
hissing  vapoury  stream.  The  plunger  line  having  now  been 
thrown  overboard,  the  diver,  grasping  it  tightly,  released  his 
grip  of  the  gunwale  and  flung  himself  heavily  backward.  He 
struck  the  water  with  a  hollow  plunge,  and  disappeared  from 
sight,  whilst  the  air-bubbles  burst  furiously  over  the  line  of  his 
descent.  The  long  tube  paid  out  in  writhing  coils,  and  the  air 
throbbed  down  with  increased  intensity  as  the  lower  depths  were 
reached.  A  few  minutes  passed  and  the  surface  of  the  sea  around 
had  regained  its  placid  aspect,  and  only  the  vague  air-bubbles 
indicated  the  diver's  presence  below.  Another  short  interval 
elapsed  before  Mariano  signalled  to  be  raised,  and  the  commander 
and  I  began  to  haul  on  the  slim  rope  whioh  had  paid  out  with 
the  tube  ;  and  quickly  the  tell-tale  bubbles  drew  nearer  and  nearer, 
and  hissed  more  vigorously  as  the  diver  rose  from  the  depths. 
Then  suddenly  a  dark  form  bobbed  up  some  yards  away  and  lay 
flat  on  the  water  with  limbs  extended ;  and  the  rushing  air 
blew  the  wavelets  into  foam  as  the  strange  figure  was  towed 
alongside. 

"  No  shell  down  there,"  Mariano  said  laconically,  when  we 
undid  his  helmet ;  so  we  pulled  him  on  deck  and  helped  to 
extricate  him  from  his  unwieldy  habiliments. 

The  commander  now  proposed  to  take  the  Rose  into  Cape 
Bossut  creek,  where  a  stranded  schooner  could  be  seen,  with 
several  wigwam-like  shelters  dotting  the  sand  around;  but  in 
a  too  eager  moment  I  intimated  my  desire  to  take  a  plunge  in 
the  dress,  and  to  this  the  commander  readily  agreed.  Mariano, 
however,  did  his  best  to  dissuade  me  from  my  purpose ;  but  his 


The  Pearling  Grounds  of  Australia  315 

language  was  not  complete  enough  to  explain  why,  and  I  dis- 
regarded his  advice — for  which  I  was  very  sorry  later. 

I  was  quickly  assisted  into  the  clumsy  garments — which  were 
several  sizes  too  big  for  me — and  before  I  had  fully  realised  my 
intention  I  was  hanging  over  the  gunwale  waiting  to  receive  the 
helmet  over  my  head.  The  lugger  had  been  drifting  gently  all 
the  time  and  a  new  oyster-bed  might  have  been  reached,  so  I 
was  given  the  shell  net  in  case  I  happened  to  see  something 
worth  picking  up,  and  with  final  injunctions  from  the  commander 
to  "  keep  on  even  keel "  while  descending,  the  helmet  was  closed 
tight  and  I  was  shut  off  completely  from  the  outside  world.  I 
rested  over  the  gunwale  helplessly  for  some  seconds,  half-choked 
by  the  superabundance  of  rubber-tainted  air  within  my  limited 
prison,  then  I  revived  somewhat,  and  sidled  into  the  water  as 
gently  as  I  could. 

For  a  brief  space  I  seemed  to  descend  at  lightning  speed ;  a 
blurred  vision  of  green  flashed  before  my  eyes ;  my  ears  buzzed 
painfully  and  my  head  felt  as  if  it  had  suddenly  grown  too  large 
for  the  helmet.  I  had  not  anticipated  these  sensations,  and 
would  have  given  much  to  be  safe  above  once  more,  but  down 
I  had  to  go  whether  I  would  or  not.  Soon  the  sighing  in  my 
ears  became  less  violent,  and  it  seemed  as  if  my  rapid  downward 
course  had  been  considerably  checked.  The  wall  of  green  appeared 
no  longer  as  a  quivering  hallucination,  and  the  rhythmic  pulsa- 
tions of  the  pumps  sounded  distinctly  through  the  tubing.  I  felt 
that  all t was  well  again,  and  was  beginning  to  congratulate  myself, 
when  I  suddenly  began  to  rotate,  my  feet  remaining  as  a  centre 
around  which  my  head  described  an  ellipse.  After  a  few  moments 
of  this  unpleasant  kind  of  performance  I  did  not  know  which  end 
of  me  was  uppermost,  and  I  gasped  and  spluttered  and  perspired 
profusely  ;  then,  after  an  eternity  of  time,  as  it  seemed,  my  head 
bumped  gently  against  a  giant  mass  of  coral  and  the  shock  helped 
to  bring  back  my  senses. 

I  found  it  no  easy  matter  to  regain  the  perpendicular,  and  my 
head  bobbed  like  a  football  on  the  coral  bottom  for  some  time 
before  I  succeeded  in  my  efforts  ;  but  the  sight  that  met  my  gaze 
then  was  sufficient  reward  for  all  my  sufferings.  I  stood  in  the 
midst  of  a  magnificent  marine  forest,  where  graceful  coral  branches 
intertwined  with  less  material  tendril  growths.  Delicate  fern- 
like  plants  covered  the  honeycombed  snowy  rocks,  and  enormous 
Neptune's  cups  appeared  here  and  there  among  the  clinging 
vegetation.  The  fronds  of  the  coral  palms  trembled  as  if  in  a 
gentle  breeze,  and  the  more  robust  growths  swayed  slowly  to  and 
fro.  It  was  as  if  a  luxurious  tropical  thicket  had  been  submerged, 
and  yet  retained  its  pristine  grace  and  beauty.  My  radius  of 
sight  was  but  a  few  yards,  unfortunately;  beyond  that  all  was 


316  The  Empire  Review 

blurred  and  indistinct  as  a  picture  out  of  focus.  I  tried  to  walk, 
and  at  once  realised  that  my  limbs  would  hardly  obey  my  will ; 
the  pressure  of  the  water  had  cramped  them  so  that  my  move- 
ments were  like  those  of  an  automaton — and  this  at  a  depth  of 
less  than  a  hundred  feet.  Shell  fish  of  all  descriptions  were 
scattered  around,  and  among  them  I  observed  a  solitary  pearl 
oyster ;  and  I  picked  it  up  as  if  it  were  of  the  rarest  value  and 
placed  it  in  the  net.  With  much  trouble  I  also  succeeded  in 
breaking  off  a  coral  branch ;  instead  of  being  brittle  to  the  touch 
it  proved  to  have  all  the  tenacity  of  the  willow. 

I  was  preparing  to  go  further  afield  in  search  of  treasure  when 
a  tug,  tug,  came  at  the  rope  encircling  my  body ;  I  had  reached 
the  limit  of  the  line,  and  the  ship  was  drifting  onwards.  At  the 
second  tug  my  feet  lifted  clear  of  the  bottom  and  I  immediately 
acquired  a  horizontal  position  ;  then  a  deadly  faintness  came  over 
me  and  I  felt  myself  choking.  I  jerked  wildly  at  the  communi- 
cating rope,  and  in  a  moment  I  commenced  to  shoot  upwards, 
gyrating  the  while  like  a  spinning  minnow.  When  I  reached  the 
surface  and  was  pulled  aboard  I  was  more  dead  than  alive,  but 
I  was  satisfied,  nevertheless,  to  have  gone  through  the  ordeal. 
Mariano  surprised  me  after  I  had  been  rescued  from  the  dress  by 
emptying  from  it  several  gallons  of  water. 

" Helmet  leak,"  he  said,  "no  keep  even  keel;  get  drowned  ! 
See  ?  "  I  did  see,  and  marvelled  that  I  had  escaped  so  easily. 
I  still  have  the  coral  branch  to  remind  me  of  my  experience.  .  .  . 
Eecently  I  have  learned  that  the  crew  of  the  Rose  mutinied  some 
little  while  back,  and  she  came  into  port  with  neither  the  diver 
nor  the  commander  aboard. 

A  lugger  is  never  anchored  while  working  a  patch,  for  the 
molluscs  are  seldom  found  very  closely  together,  and  in  conse- 
quence the  ship  is  allowed  to  drift  while  the  diver  follows  on, 
filling  his  shell  net  as  he  proceeds.  If  a  chasm  'occurs  in  the 
drifting  course,  the  unfortunate  below  must  depend  wholly  on 
his  grip  of  the  plunger  line  to  save  him,  and  if  a  series  of  giant 
coral  cups  or  other  obstacles  bar  his  way  he  must  clamber  over 
them  as  best  he  can.  The  enormous  length  of  air  tube  curling 
through  the  water  also  needs  his  close  attention,  for  as  the 
so-called  "shallows"  are  of  varying  depths,  many  fathoms  of 
extra  tubing  are  constantly  dangling  around,  and  a  few  seconds 
sagging  against  a  sharp  rock  or  coral  cup  might  penetrate  the 
rubber,  and — the  diver's  career  is  ended.  When  sailing  between 
two  known  beds,  or  prospecting  for  fresh  shell  levels,  the  diver 
is  not  brought  aboard  but  is  raised  to  the  gunwale  where  he 
clutches  fast ;  and  there  he  hangs,  sometimes  temporarily  fastened 
by  stout  ropes  to  the  mast  or  deck  clamps  until  the  intervening 
waters  have  been  crossed  and  the  lugger  is  again  hove  to. 


The  Pearling  Grounds  of  Australia  317 

The  Malays  who  attend  to  the  air  pumps  require  to  be  always 
under  careful  supervision ;  two  of  them  can  rarely  work  together 
long  without  finding  something  to  quarrel  about,  and  then  their 
duty  is  neglected  while  they  argue  or  fight  over  their  trivial 
differences. 

I  was  recently  on  board  the  lugger  Dorothy  when  at  work  off 
Cape  Bossut,  and  while  the  owner  was  examining  some  strange 
coral  specimens  in  the  little  cabin  aft,  I  remained  on  deck  to  see 
that  the  pumps  were  kept  properly  manned.  All  went  well  for 
several  minutes,  and  the  thudding  pistons  drove  the  hissing  air 
down  into  the  writhing  tube  with  unfailing  regularity.  Then 
suddenly  the  pulsations  ceased :  the  two  Malays  at  the  handles 
clutched  at  each  other's  throats  in  angry  altercation  and  were 
immediately  rolling  over  and  over  on  the  slippery  deck.  I  sprang 
to  the  pumps  and  succeeded  in  restarting  the  flow  of  air,  and  the 
lugger  owner,  rushing  from  the  cabin,  energetically  hurled  the 
squabbling  men  overboard  among  the  multitudinous  sea  snakes 
which  surrounded  the  vessel,  where  their  enmity  quickly  dissolved. 
When  the  diver  was  hauled  to  the  surface  he  was  unconscious, 
but  soon  recovered  when  the  great  helmet  was  unscrewed  from 
his  shoulders.  Such  incidents  are  not  uncommon,  and  it  is 
certainly  surprising  that  fatalities  do  not  oftener  occur. 

Broome,  on  Roebuck  Bay,  is  the  great  centre  for  all  pearlers. 
It  is  a  blistering  little  settlement,  situated  on  the  edge  of  Roebuck 
Inlet — a  mangrove-lined,  salt-water  creek,  which  harbours  a  most 
powerful  species  of  mosquito — and  the  population  is  approxi- 
mately made  up  of  fifty  whites  and  five  hundred  of  mixed 
Polynesian  race. 

Such  a  proportion,  as  may  be  imagined,  is  a  somewhat 
dangerous  one,  and  it  appears  all  the  more  so  when  it  is  known 
that  the  pearlers'  "hotels"  are  but  villainous  drinking  saloons, 
run,  alas,  by  one  or  two  unscrupulous  white  men. 

Details  of  life  in  this  out-of-the-way  township  may  well  be 
spared  the  reader ;  it  is  one  of  the  hottest  corners  on  the  face  of 
the  earth,  which  statement  is  true  in  a  double  sense,  thanks  to 
the  miserable  influence  of  the  renegades  mentioned.  The  master- 
pearler  does  not  visit  this  quarter  any  more  than  he  can  help ; 
he  remains  on  his  schooner  while  in  its  vicinity ;  association  with 
the  men  he  employs  would  destroy  all  his  authority  over  them 
and  lead  to  certain  disaster.  The  poorer  class  of  pearlers  are 
termed  "  beachcombers "  by  their  more  fortunate  fellows. 
Having  lost  their  boats  and  diving  gear  through  stress  of 
weather,  or  by  encountering  uncharted  rocks,  they  try  to  regain 
sufficient  money  to  begin  afresh  by  searching  the  beach  for  any 
chance  shells  that  may  have  been  washed  ashore.  Sometimes 
they  set  to  work  with  their  limited  tools  and  succeed  in  con- 


318  The  Empire  Review 

structing  various  and  crude  forms  of  "  two-masters  "  from  the 
wreckage  of  their  former  vessels  and  some  roughly  sawn 
eucalyptus  planks.  "  Cockroaches  "  the  results  are  called,  and 
they  reflect  much  credit  on  the  patience  and  ingenuity  of  their 
builders,  though  they  can  seldom  be  trusted  any  distance  from 
shore  owing  to  the  influx  of  water  through  their  ever-gaping 
seams.  After  a  storm  the  beachcomber  reaps  a  good  harvest, 
and  then,  if  his  form  of  labour  be  less  dignified,  it  nevertheless 
nets  him  quite  as  large  a  return  as  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  owner  of 
a  lugger. 

Some  very  fine  men  are  engaged  in  the  pearling  traffic,  as 
well  as  some  of  the  worst  specimens  of  humanity ;  but  the 
former  are  greatly  in  the  majority,  and  by  them  the  whole 
industry  is  influenced.  Lugger  owners  are,  on  the  whole,  a 
kindly  and  true-hearted  people,  and  the  schooner  captains  the 
most  generously  hospitable  men  I  have  ever  met. 

ALEXANDER  MACDONALD. 


Trinidad :  its  People  and  Resources  319 


TRINIDAD:    ITS   PEOPLE    AND    RESOURCES 

THE  arms  of  the  colony  of  Trinidad  bear  the  inscription, 
Misceri  probat  populos  et  foedera  jungi,  quaintly  adapted  from  an 
easily  recognised  source.  And  surely  never  was  motto  more 
aptly  chosen,  though  to  whom  the  selection  of  it  was  due  is 
involved  in  obscurity.  Probably  it  should  be  credited  to  Sir 
Ealph  Woodford,  who  did  so  much  for  the  island  in  the  early 
years  of  the  last  century. 

Here,  indeed,  in  this  pearl  of  the  Antilles  are  many  peoples 
mingled,  and  if  unity  and  perfect  amity  be  yet  to a  seek,  as  the 
recent  riots  and  the  Commissioners'  Keport  of  July  last  imply, 
all  this  makes  the  aspiration  of  the  motto  only  more  appropriate 
and  admirable.  For  in  this  colony  of  the  Crown  English- 
men, Scotsmen,  Irishmen,  Frenchmen,  Spaniards,  Portuguese, 
Germans,  Venezuelans,  East  Indians,  Chinese,  negroes,  and  half- 
castes  of  all  sorts,  make  a  population  of  over  250,000  souls.  Of 
these  some  88,000  are  Eoman  Catholics,  65,000  Church  of 
England,  7600  Wesleyans,  5800  Presbyterians,  4800  Baptists, 
1600  Moravians — the  total  Christian  population  according  to  the 
last  census  (1901)  being  in  round  figures  194,000.  To  these  must 
be  added  65,000  Hindus,  10,000  Mohammadans,  400  Buddhists, 
and  some  500  other  undenominated  non-Christians.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  nearly  all  the  Chinese  return  themselves  as  Buddhists. 
Here  is  a  congeries  of  peoples  and  religions  affording  an  extremely 
interesting  study  to  a  visitor,  and  one  which  well  repays  a  dipping 
below  the  surface. 

There  are  no  aboriginal  Indians  left ;  but  picturesque  traces  of 
their  habitat  survive  in  many  curious  names  of  towns  and  districts 
and  islands,  such  as  Tacarigua,  Arouca,  Chacachacare ;  while  the 
highest  mountain,  Teciiche  (3012  feet),  now  a  Government  station 
for  the  trigonometrical  survey  of  the  island,  was  originally  the 
dread  abode  of  an  Arouac  deity. 

In  spite  of  its  Spanish  name,  given  to  it  by  Columbus  on 
July  31,  1498,  when  he  sighted  the  three  sister  peaks  of  Moruga 
during  his  third  voyage,  Trinidad  has  never  been  a  completely 
Spanish  colony.  The  first  Spanish  Governor  was  not  appointed 


320  The  Empire  Review 

until  1532,  and  for  very  many  years  afterwards  the  island  remained 
only  nominally  Spanish,  being  raided  in  succession  by  the  English 
under  Ealegh,  by  the  Dutch,  and  by  the  French.  No  progress 
was  made  until  a  large  influx  of  French  people  was  brought 
about,  through  representations  made  to  the  Court  of  Madrid  by 
a  French  planter  in  Grenada  of  singular  foresight  and  commercial 
instinct,  named  M.  Kane  de  St.  Laurent.  The  French  element 
thus  introduced  was  largely  augmented  by  Sntigrfa  from  Martinique, 
Guadaloupe,  and  St.  Domingo  during  the  Kevolution,  and  the 
island  became  a  French  colony  in  all  but  name.  The  lovely 
district  of  Montserrat  in  the  centre  of  the  island  is  to-day 
essentially  a  French  district,  inhabited  by  descendants  of  dis- 
tinguished refugees.  Like  true  aristocrats  they  have  been 
extremely  exclusive,  have  intermarried  greatly,  and  now  form, 
as  it  were,  one  large  French  family.  The  friction  which  existed 
in  former  years  between  this  colonia  in  colonia  and  the  English 
Government  has  disappeared  under  wise  administration ;  and  now 
that  they  have  been  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  local  Government, 
they  are  no  less  loyal  than  cultured  and  refined.  They  possess 
the  broad-minded  common-sense  views  of  Englishmen  combined 
with  a  courtesy  and  grace  which  are,  alas  !  distinctively  French. 
Their  children  are  sent  to  school  in  England  to  be  educated,  since 
the  importance  of  such  a  training  is  recognised  as  necessary  to 
qualify  them  for  competition  in  the  colony.  The  Spaniards  in 
Trinidad  who  belong  to  the  upper  classes  are  mostly  political 
refugees  from  Venezuela,  where  revolutions,  due,  as  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  would  tell  us,  to  the  mongrel  breed  of  its  inhabitants, 
but  certainly  fomented  by  foreign  stimulation,  are  almost  chronic. 

It  is  not  easy  at  first  hand  to  affirm  that  anything  which  one 
sees  in  the  West  Indies  is  indigenous.  This  remark  applies  more 
perhaps  to  the  populations  than  to  the  fauna  and  flora.  Spanish 
by  discovery,  French  by  inhabitants,  English  by  conquest  only 
106  years  ago,  there  still  remain  to  be  accounted  for  some  minor 
items  in  European  immigration  and  some  major  items  in  the 
black  labourers?  The  Portuguese  came  chiefly  from  Madeira, 
whence  they  were  driven  by  religious  persecution.  The  Germans 
have,  true  to  their  instinct,  come  to  trade,  and  their  presence  is 
sufficiently  accounted  for  by  the  large  interests  which  German 
financiers  possess  in  Venezuela  close  by. 

The  negroes  are,  of  course,  the  descendants  of  the  African 
slaves  who  were  first  imported  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  As  cultivation  increased,  however,  and  further  tracts 
of  land  were  brought  into  use,  it  was  found  that  the  negro 
labourer  was  very  expensive.  Not  forming  an  insignificant  unit 
amid  an  overwhelming  negro  population,  as  in  Barbados,  the 
Trinidad  negro  added  to  his  laziness  insolence,  and  to  his 


Trinidad:  its  People  and  Resources  321 

insolence  greed,  until  at  last  all  necessary  work  had  to  be  paid 
for  on  his  own  terms  or  left  undone.  Thus  was  necessitated  the 
immigration  of  East  Indian  coolies,  who  are  indentured  to  the 
planters  for  a  term  of  years,  protected  by  the  Government,  and 
properly  cared  for.  There  are  some  85,000  of  these  excellent 
labourers,  quiet,  peaceful,  thrifty  and  industrious.  Many  of  them 
save  sufficient  money  to  re-purchase  their  caste  on  returning  to 
India :  many  others  both  return  and  come  back  to  Trinidad  under 
fresh  indentures,  so  well  have  they  been  treated  by  the  colony. 
This  speaks  highly  for  the  working  of  the  Immigration  Depart- 
ment, the  total  cost  of  which  amounts  to  some  £58,000  a  year, 
£40,000  of  which,  however,  is  borne  by  the  planter. 

Fortunately  for  the  colony,  sugar,  together  with  its  by-pro- 
ducts, is  now  by  no  means  the  only,  or  indeed  the  chief,  industry. 
Cacao,  coffee,  and  coco-nuts  give  excellent  returns,  and,  indeed, 
the  cacao  cultivation  has  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds  during 
the  last  ten  years  from  16,000,000  Ibs.  exported  in  1891  to  nearly 
35,000,000  Ibs.  in  1900.  The  coffee  crop  is  a  very  variable  one. 
Sometimes  the  yield  is  large,  sometimes  very  small ;  still  here 
again  the  figures  show  well,  standing  at  8000  Ibs.  exported  in 
1891  compared  with  19,000  in  1900.  Nor,  as  a  minor  industry, 
ought  one  to  omit  the  celebrated  Angostura  bitters,  the  secret  of 
which  is  so  well  preserved  locked  up  in  the  head  of  the  leading 
partner  in  Messrs.  Siegerts.  The  foreign  consumption  of  this 
article  seems  to  be  fairly  constant,  for  there  is  little  variation  in 
the  number  of  gallons  exported.  The  lowest  was  31,000  gallons 
in  1894,  the  highest  was  40,000  gallons  in  1897,  falling  to  37,000 
gallons  in  1900. 

One  extremely  useful  source  of  revenue  has  not  yet  been 
mentioned — the  celebrated  pitch  lake  at  La  Brea.  This  freak  of 
Dame  Nature,  covering  some  hundred  acres,  and  providing  an 
apparently  inexhaustible  supply  of  asphalt,  yielded  no  less  than 
£49,000  royalty  to  the  colony's  treasury  in  1900.  So  much 
litigation  was  caused  by  rival  claimants  to  the  right  of  digging 
pitch,  that  a  commission  was  appointed  in  1902  to  inquire  into 
all  the  concessions  and  the  several  rights  of  grantees.  This  com- 
mission issued  its  report  in  January  1903,  and  therein  it  is 
estimated  that  at  the  present  rate  of  extraction  of  about  120,000 
tons  per  annum  from  the  pitch  lake,  the  deposit  should  still  last 
for  more  than  a  century. 

It  is  exceedingly  probable  that  other  mineral  deposits  which 
exist  in  the  north  and  centre  of  the  island  will  soon  be  worked  to 
advantage.  Already  coal  and  glance-pitch  of  commercial  value  are 
being  obtained  in  the  Montserrat  district.  Indeed,  with  respect 
to  caloric  value,  the  two  qualities  of  Montserrat  coal  compare 
favourably  with  the  American  coal  best  known  in  Trinidad,  the 

VOL.  VI.— No.  33.  Y 


322 


The  Empire  Review 


Keynoldsville.  The  figures  as  given  by  the  government  analyst 
are  Reynoldsville  14*74,  Montserrat  No.  1, 16 '38,  and  No.  2, 14 '33. 
Mineral  oil,  too,  is  being  supplied  from  a  well  at  Tabaquite ;  and 
the  general  outlook  in  directions  other  than  sugar  is  distinctly 
cheering. 

A  new  industry  has  been  recently  brought  to  the  notice  of 
landowners,  and  is  one  which,  if  developed  on  sound  lines,  may 
rapidly  become  a  very  important  and  valuable  trade.  We  refer 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  bamboo  for  conversion  into  pulp  for 
wood-fibre  and  paper  manufacture.  A  bamboo  yields  half  its 
bulk  in  the  process  of  treament,  so  that  as  the  usual  London 
market  price  of  the  pulp  is  about  £10  per  ton,  the  bamboo  in  its 
natural  state  is  worth  about  £4  per  ton.  Now  an  acre  of  land 
will  yield  forty  tons  of  bamboos  in  favourable  districts  such  as 
the  western  and  southern  coasts  of  the  island. 

The  great  want  of  the  colony  is  cheap  and  easy  means  of 
transit  throughout  the  island.  To  meet  this  the  Government 
Kailway  has  opened  'some  new  lines  which  promise  to  be  suc- 
cessful. One  of  these,  the  Sangre  Grande  branch,  runs  almost 
parallel  with  the  north  coast  into  the  Manzanilla  district  on  the 
east,  penetrating  the  high  woods  and  stopping  within  eight  miles 
of  the  sea  close  to  the  Cunapa  and  Oropuche  rivers.  This  section 
opens  up  large  tracts  of  land  which  ought  to  be  rapidly  taken  up 
and  planted  with  cacao  and  coffee.  Some  of  the  allotments 
which  were  almost  inaccessible  are  now  easily  workable.  Much 
the  same  may  be  said  of  another  cutting  which  has  its  terminus 
at  Tabaquite  in  the  heart  of  the  Montserrat  district. 

But  apart  from  the  enterprise  of  the  railway  department, 
which  has  done  much  and  will  doubtless  do  more,  there  is  need 
above  all  else  of  the  extension  of  roads.  The  officials  in  charge 
of  this  Department  ought  to  realise  that  any  money  spent  in  a 
tropical  climate  in  facilitating  locomotion  is  well  spent.  No 
doubt  there  is  a  difficulty  in  the  central  part  of  the  island  in 
getting  suitable  metal  for  good  macadam  ;  but  the  stone  from  the 
local  quarry  at  Carrera,  one  of  the  islands  near  the  Bocas  used 
as  a  convict  station,  is  excellent  for  road  as  well  as  building 
purposes,  though  laborious  to  work  and  expensive  to  transport. 
Some  shaly  stuff  is  found  in  San  Fernando,  but  it  is  brittle  and 
dusty.  The  pitch  lake  is  the  great  stand-by  for  the  roads  in  the 
city ;  but  although  many  European  and  American  cities  have 
adopted  this  asphalt  pavement,  it  is,  under  the  fierce  tropical 
sun  or  drenching  tropical  rains,  generally  sticky  or  slippery, 
probably  the  exact  proportion  of  sand  or  gravelly  material  which 
ought  to  be  mixed  with  it  has  not  yet  been  determined.  With 
the  extension  of  good  roads  doubtless  many  thousands  of  acres 
of  yet  uncultivated  land  will  be  taken  up.  Over  600,000  acres 


Trinidad:  its  People  and  Resources  323 

await  the  capitalist,  and  a  large  proportion  of  this  land  is 
eminently  suitable  for  cacao  and  coffee,  while  the  low-lying 
swamps  are  exactly  adapted  for  the  growth  of  bamboos. 

There  is  also  a  hitherto  unattempted  field  open  to  those  who 
possess  enterprise  and  capital  in  the  raising  of  cattle  and  horses. 
For  many  years  the  troops  stationed  in  Barbados  and  St.  Lucia 
have  been  supplied,  under  rigid  terms  of  contract,  with  beef 
imported  from  Puerto  Eico,  until  lately  a  Spanish  colony,  while 
all  the  time  the  pastures  of  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  which  are 
capable  of  supplying  all  that  was  required,  have  lain  idle  and 
unproductive.  Now  that  the  question  of  a  secured  food  supply 
for  troops  or  for  our  navy  in  time  of  war  is  being  investigated, 
it  is  not  inappropriate  to  remark  that  we  ought  not  to  be,  and 
that  we  need  not  be,  entirely  dependent  upon  foreign,  perhaps 
hostile,  countries.  To  suggest  that  the  15,000  acres  of  Crown 
land  in  Tobago  should  be  turned  into  an  Imperial  farm  for  the 
breeding  of  beeves  and  chargers  may  give  rise  to  question,  and 
it  is  always  arguable  that  these  and  such-like  schemes  are  best 
left  to  private  enterprise;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
idea  itself  is  not  impracticable,  and  that  the  British  colonies  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  together  with  the  troops  and  ships  on  the 
West  Indian  station,  could  be  supplied  with  rations  and  regimental 
mounts  from  purely  British  colonial  sources  close  at  hand. 

The  Government  farm  in  Trinidad  sets  a  very  good  example 
in  a  small  way  of  the  method  in  which  the  idea  suggested  could 
be  carried  out.  The  Valsayn  estate  not  only  supplies  all  the 
public  institutions  in  the  island  with  milk  and  butter,  but 
encourages  better  breeds  of  horses,  cattle  and  asses.  The 
splendid  East  Indian  zebu  bulls  and  cows  which  are  there  raised 
form  a  sight  not  easily  forgotten.  An  attempt  is  also  made  to 
raise  pigs,  poultry  and  ducks,  but  the  dampness  of  the  situation 
militates  against  any  great  success  in  these  lines.  All  the 
mutton,  too,  which  one  eats  in  Trinidad  is  imported,  for  sheep 
generally  contract  malarial  diseases,  throat  troubles  and  foot-rot.  -1 

Of  the  valuable  timber  which  abounds  in  the  high  woods  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  speak.  As  cultivation  increases  the  trees 
will  be  cut  down  and  not  replaced.  Many  of  these  are  very 
beautiful  and  are  unrivalled  for  cabinet-making.  The  poui,  the 
purple-heart,  and  the  leopard-wood  especially  are  extremely  hard, 
of  fine  grain,  and  receptive  of  a  high  polish.  Where  cacao  is 
planted  the  bois  immortel  is  almost  invariably  used  as  a  shade 
tree,  but  although  invaluable  for  its  nitrogenous  contributions  to 
the  soil,  it  is  valueless  as  timber.  The  castilloa  elastica,  which 
yields  a  good  commercial  rubber,  has  been  recommended  as  an 
alternative  shade-tree  to  the  bois  immortel,  and  has  been  to  a 
small  extent  adopted  in  some  other  islands,  but  the  experiment 

y  2 


324  The  Empire  Review 

has  not  found  much  favour  in  Trinidad.  It  certainly  has  the 
advantage  of  making  the  same  ground  yield  a  second  product  of 
considerable  value,  but  whether  this  is  at  the  expense  of  the 
cacao  or  not,  experts  are  not  at  present  agreed. 

It  remains  only  to  speak  of  those  picturesque  attractions  of  the 
islands  which  must  certainly  be  counted  as  an  asset  when 
estimating  its  resources.  The  numbers  of  tourists  who  visit 
Trinidad  from  England  and  America  during  the  winter  months 
spend  their  money  very  freely,  and  every  penny  so  spent  is  a  gain. 
Of  late  years  the  number  of  visitors  has  largely  increased  owing 
to  the  facilities  offered  by  the  Koyal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Company 
and  some  American  and  Canadian  lines.  The  irritating  caprices 
of  an  English  winter — one  might  well  add,  and  of  an  English 
summer — are  delightfully  absent  in  this  tropical  isle.  There  is 
an  excellent  hotel  on  the  Savannah,  and  as  Trinidad  is  now  on 
the  direct  line  from  Southampton,  all  the  annoyance  and  trouble 
of  transhipment  of  baggage  and  self  at  Barbados  are  avoided. 

The  old  Indian  name  of  the  island,  Ier6,  "  the  land  of  humming- 
birds," seems  to  euphoniously  portray  the  ideas  of  daring  beauty, 
flashing  contrasts,  and  magnificent  scenery  which  are  actualised 
in  forest-clad  mountain,  silvery  glade,  and  "lightning-flash  of 
insect  and  of  bird.'*  The  roads,  high  o'er-arched,  embowered  by 
bamboos  bending  in  dainty  grace,  are  lined  with  coffee  trees  or 
nutmeg ;  the  rich  pods  of  cacao  hang  from  the  bare  trunks  or 
hard  bark  of  the  branchlets,  or  lie  in  gathered  heaps  which  glow 
with  all  shades  of  colour  from  a  deep  purple,  through  scarlet, 
pink,  and  orange  down  to  a  golden  saffron  or  lemon  chrome. 
Above  tower  the  vermilion-laden  boughs  of  the  bois  immortel, 
or  the  "  slender  coco's  drooping  crown  of  plumes ; "  while 
within  and  without  the  shade  flit  the  dusky  Indians  in  picturesque 
garments  of  varied  hues,  arms  and  ankles  zoned  and  gleaming 
with  silver  and  gold. 

AN  ENGLISH  VISITOE. 


Susan  Pennicuick 


325 


SUSAN    PENNICUICK 
A  STOEY  OF  COUNTKY  LIFE  IN  VICTORIA. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

A  DISTURBANCE   IN   THE   FAMILY 

"  Green  gravels,  green  gravels, 
The  grass  is  so  green, 
The  fairest  young  lady 
That  ever  was  seen. 
Oh,  Bosy!   Oh,  Rosy! 
Your  true  love  is  dead, 
An'  he  sent  you  a  message 
To  turn  round  your  head." 

"  YOU'VE  got  to  turn  your  head  round,  Kosy.  Go  on.  Go  on. 
You're  spoiling  the  game." 

"  But  it's  so  silly,"  objected  Kosy,  dropping  out  of  the  circle 
of  children,  and  putting  the  corner  of  her  pinafore  in  her 
mouth. 

"  But  you  said  you'd  play,  and  you've  got  to,"  maintained 
Etta  stoutly,  religiously  keeping  her  back  to  the  circle,  her  true 
love  having  died  some  time  before  and  sent  her  the  same  incon- 
venient message.  "  Come  on,  Kosy,  don't  be  nasty." 

But  Kosy  couldn't  be  prevailed  upon  to  join,  and  the  little 
circle  of  boys  and  girls  broke  up  and  looked  at  her  dismally. 

"You  is  nasty,"  said  Vera,  "you's  spoiled  our  game." 

"  O—o— oh,  o—o— oh,  silly-billy,  silly-billy,"  jeered  the  others 
in  chorus,  and  Kosy  began  to  whimper.  She  was  self-conscious 
enough  to  feel  foolish  at  turning  round  before  them  all  at  the 
bidding  of  an  unknown  and  deceased  true  love,  but  she  did  not 
like  being  pointed  at  and  laughed  at  for  not  doing  it. 

It  was  a  hot  day  in  February,  so  hot  even  now,  at  five  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  that  no  one  but  hardy  country  children  would 
ever  have  dreamt  of  indulging  in  violent  exercise,  but  the  young 
Grants  were  used  to  heat,  they  were  all  well  again  and  this 
was  the  last  day  of  the  holidays,  and  they  were  making  the 
most  of  it,  choosing  as  usual  for  their  playground  the  strip  of 


326 


The  Empire  Review 


grass  between  the  plantation  and  the  margin  of  the  lake.  Ted 
despised  such  childish  games,  and  he  lay  on  his  back  staring 
up  at  the  blue  sky  and  gave  them  his  opinions  on  the  matters  in 
hand  when  he  thought  they  were  called  for. 

"  Ugh,"  he  said  scornfully,  "  just  like  girls  to  squabble  over  a 
game.  Cry  baby,  cry." 

"  I  aren't  a  girl,"  remonstrated  Georgie,  who  was  eight  years 
old,  and  looked  upon  his  elder  brother  as  the  incarnation  of  all 
that  was  desirable  in  life. 

"Girls  is  better'n  boys,"  declared  Vera  with  dignity,  and 
without  a  doubt  in  her  own  mind. 

"  Oh,  come,  you're  only  a  kid  any  way,"  said  Ted.  "  What's 
the  good  of  girls  ?  Oh,  Kosy,  oh,  Eosy,  your  true  love  is  dead, 
an'  he  sent  you  a  message  to  turn  round  your  head.  Such  skite  ! 
Kosy  hasn't  got  a  true  love." 

"  Oh,"  echoed  the  others  in  chorus,  "  Kosy  hasn't  got  a  true 
love,  oh  1  oh  !  "  And  Kosy  sobbed  audibly,  as  if  this  omission 
at  the  age  of  ten  were  a  dire  calamity  of  which  she  was  most 
bitterly  ashamed. 

"  Polly's  got  a  true  love,"  said  Etta  thoughtfully  ;  "  Ned  Hart's 
Polly's  true  love.  I  saw  him  kiss  her  behind  the  wood- house 
yesterday  evening." 

"  My !  You'd  better  not  tell  the  old  girl  that,"  said  Tei, 
sitting  up  and  showing  more  interest  than  he  had  hitherto 
done. 

"  You  shouldn't  call  mother  the  old  girl,"  said  Kosy,  lifting  up 
her  face,  and  inwardly  desiring  a  chance  to  add  her  mite  of 
information  to  the  interesting  subject,  but  not  liking  to  come 
round  too  soon ;  "  you'll  go  to  hell  and  be  burnt  up  for  ever  and 
ever  if  you  don't  honour  your  father  and  mother." 

"Don't  care,"  said  Ted,  for  whom  the  threat  had  lost  its 
terrors.  "  Mother  isn't  a  bad  old  girl ;  oh,  lor' !  she's  heaps 
better'n  Ann.  How  Finlayson  could  look  at  Ann — ugh !— must 
be  hard  up." 

"Ann!"  chorussed  Etta  and  Kosy  together,  "Ann!  Much 
you  know !  Just  like  a  boy !  Silly !  You  are  silly  I  He's  Sue's 
true  love  "  ;  and  Vera  echoed  : 

"Yes,  Sue's  twue  love." 

"  Bosh !  "  said  Ted,  certain  of  the  superiority  of  the  masculine 
intellect.  "  He  always  sits  by  Ann  at  tea,  and  I  heard  mother 
say  to  Lil  the  other  day,  she  was  sure  now  he  had  taken  a  fancy 
to  Ann.'  He's  been  after  her  for  six  months  now,  you  know," 
meditated  Ted;  "it's  time  they  settled  it." 

"  Oh,  oh,  oh  !  " — again  a  scornful  chorus  from  the  girls — "  just 
like  a  boy.  Much  you  know." 

"Ann  just  makes  him  sit  by  her,"  went  on  Etta,  "and  so 


Susan  Pennicuick  327 

does  mother,  and  so  does  auntie,  but  he'd  like  to  sit  by  Sue 
and " 

"  And  he  talks  to  her  by  the  lake  here,''  broke  in  Kosy,  eager 
to  add  her  quota,  "  and  brings  her  books,  and  I  heard  him  say 
on'y  yesterday  something  about  coming  here  was  'glimpses  of 
sunshine,'  and " 

"Doctor's  Sue's  twue  love,"  put  in  Vera  as  a  summing  up. 

"Bosh!"  said  Ted  again,  overwhelmed  by  the  evidence  but 
unwilling  to  give  in.  "  It's  deuced  hot  here.  I'm  going  to  make 
a  raft  with  those  boards." 

"That's  a  wicked  swear  word,"  said  Georgie,  while  the  girls 
put  in : 

"And  you're  not  allowed  to  touch  those  boards.  They're  to 
make  a  gate  to  the  twenty  acre.  Will  said  so." 

"Who  cares,"  said  Ted  in  a  lordly  way.  "  Come  on,  kids. 
There's  a  bundle  of  rope  in  the  end  stall  in  the  stable,  you  go  and 
get  it,  and  don't  you  get  caught  now.  We'll  leave  those  girls ; 
who  wants  girls?  I'm  going  to  make  a  raft  like  the  boy  Sue 
told  us  about.  I'll  be  captain  and  Tom  can  be  mate." 

"  But  you're  not  let,  you're  not  let,"  cried  the  despised  girls. 
"We'll  tell." 

"  Tell  tale  tit,  tell  tale  tit,  you're  tongue  shall  be  slit,  and 
every  little  puppy  dog  shall  have  a  little  bit." 

Whether  it  was  this  awful  prospect  as  set  forth  in  rhyme  that 
appalled  them,  or  whether  Mother  Eve's  great  failing  got  the 
better  of  them,  or  what,  was  never  told,  but  the  girls,  instead  of 
retiring  to  carry  out  their  threat  as  Ted  half  feared  they  would, 
watched  him  and  Tom  with  interest  from  an  ever  decreasing 
distance,  and  at  last,  by  the  time  Georgie  had  arrived  with  a 
bundle  of  old  rope  that  had  been  used  as  clothes-line  and  dis- 
carded, they  had  come  close  up  and,  at  first  without  a  word, 
began  to  help  their  brothers  lift  the  boards  together,  and  before 
five  minutes  had  passed  the  raft  was  being  made  by  six  pairs  of 
busy,  eager  hands. 

Sue  came  out  of  the  plantation  and  watched  them  for  a 
moment  carelessly,  then  looked  for  and  found  a  shady  spot  where 
she  might  play  with  her  child  in  undisturbed  peace.  She  was 
rather  tired,  for  it  had  been  a  hot  day  and  had  been  given  over  to 
the  making  of  peach  preserve,  and  every  available  pair  of  hands 
had  been  pressed  into  the  service,  first  to  pick  and  then  to  peel 
and  stone  the  fruit. 

"  It  is  no  good  making  a  pound  or  two,"  Mrs.  Grant  had  said, 
and  Sue,  picking  peaches  in  the  heat  of  the  day  and  then  preparing 
the  pile  on  the  kitchen  table,  which  diminished  with  wearisome 
slowness,  thought  that  even  a  hundred  pounds  or  so  didn't  seem 
enough.  But  they  were  done  at  last,  and  her  aunt  had  decided 


328 


The  Empire  Review 


she'd  spend  the  evening  jam-making,  an  uncomfortable  arrange- 
ment which  did  not  meet  Sue's  views  at  all. 

"But  don't  you  stop,  my  dear,"  she  said,  greatly  to  her  relief. 
"  I  don't  want  to  keep  you.  You  go  out  for  a  walk  and  just 
give  an  eye  to  the  children,  will  you?  They're  always  a  bit 
wild,  and  I'm  frightened  for  the  lake.  Georgie  was  saying 
he  wanted  to  go  for  a  swim,  and  he'll  be  drowned  sure  as 
anything  if  he  does.  I  can't  think  whatever  put  it  into  his 
head." 

"Well,  it  is  tempting  on  a  day  like  this." 
"  It's  all  very  well  for  the  men,  but  I  won't  have  the  children 
in.     They've  gone  down  to  the  lake  now,  and  you  just  tell  them, 
Sue,  from  me,  I  won't  have  them  bathing  by  themselves.     Tell 
them  not  to  go  near  the  lake,  there's  a  good  girl." 

"I'm  leaving  you  all  the  work,  aunt,"  she  said,  preparing  to 
depart.  She  had  long  ago  given  over  wondering  why  a  well-to-do 
woman  like  Mrs.  Grant  should  not  get  a  cook  who  could  make 
her  jam  for  her. 

"  Never  mind,  you  go.  You  look  a  bit  washed  out,  and  no 
wonder,  the  day's  been  so  hot ;  but  I  must  get  that  jam  made 
to-night.  Lil's  coming  over  in  the  morning,  and  I  know  what 
that  means.  Nothing's  ever  done  once  we  get  Lil  back  in  her 
old  home  again,  so  I'll  just  finish  up  to-night." 

Thus  dismissed,  Sue  gladly  put  on  her  hat  and,  picking  up  her 
baby,  strolled  down  through  the  plantation  to  the  lake.  It  was 
hot  still,  but  at  least  there  was  a  promise  in  the  air  of  the  coming 
night,  and  the  faint  wind  that  blew  across  the  water  was  cool  and 
refreshing.  She  looked  for  the  children  and  was  relieved  to  see 
them  all  busy  over  a  pile  of  boards  and  apparently  not  even 
dreaming  of  a  bathe,  so  she  found  a  shady  spot  from  which  they 
were  just  visible  and,  seating  herself  on  the  ground  with  her  back 
to  a  tree,  gave  herself  up  to  her  own  thoughts. 

"Goo,  goo,  goo,"  said  the  baby,  and  her  mother  smiled  down 
on  her. 

Until  to-day  her  aunt  had  not  worked  her  very  hard.  The 
doctor  had  impressed  on  her  she  ought  to  be  careful,  and  canny 
Scotchman  as  he  was  he  had  managed  so  to  ingratiate  himself 
with  the  house  mistress  that  any  mandate  of  his  was  sure  to  be 
obeyed  to  the  letter. 

Truth  to  tell,  he  could  not  keep  away  from  Sue.  He  had  told 
himself  at  first  it  was  a  good  thing  she  had  refused  him,  but 
again  the  longing  for  her  company,  and  the  loneliness  of  his  life 
sent  him  again  and  again  to  Larwidgee.  Of  course  he  saw — 
what  man  could  help  it — he  was  more  than  welcome,  and  he 
shrewdly  suspected  he  was  welcomed  on  Ann's  account,  but  what 
matter.  When  Sue  should  give  in,  as  he  doubted  not  she  would 


Susan  Pennicuicfc 


329 


give  in  in  the  end,  it  could  not  matter  for  whose  sake  he  had 
been  welcomed. 

Very  circumspectly,  with  all  the  inborn  caution  of  his  race, 
did  he  set  about  his  wooing.  He  made  himself  the  friend  of  the 
family,  he  was  intimate  with  every  one  of  them,  Ann,  her  mother, 
her  aunt,  even  old  Grant  himself  had  a  welcome  for  the  doctor. 
And  the  doctor  he  owned  it  to  himself  came  only  to  see  Sue,  the 
one  woman  in  the  world,  could  he  have  helped  himself,  he  would 
not  have  loved. 

Once  intimate  with  a  family  so  busy  abgut  good  works,  he  had 
plenty  of  chances  to  cultivate  her  acquaintance,  and  he  pursued 
them  diligently,  and,  busy  man  as  he  was,  with  a  large  and 
growing  practice,  he  still  found  time  to  come  over  to  Larwidgee 
three  or  four  times  a  week.  And  always  Sue,  with  the  child  in 
her  arms,  the  child  that  he  knew  must  be  Marsden's,  seemed  to 
remind  him  that  her  past  history  should  place  a  barrier  between 
them.  He  agreed,  he  agreed,  but  he  could  not  keep  away,  and, 
as  the  clear-eyed  children  saw  plainly,  it  was  for  Sue's  sake  he 
haunted  the  station,  though  their  mother,  with  the  knowledge  of 
her  niece's  history  to  blind  her,  might  set  Ann  down  as  the 
attraction. 

And  Sue — well,  Sue  would  not  have  been  human  if  she  had 
not  felt  pleasure  in  Alec  Finlayson's  society,  if  she  had  not  felt 
both  affection  and  gratitude  for  the  man  who  was  her  only  link 
with  the  outside  world.  It  is  possible  that  but  for  the  child  her 
feelings  might  have  been  warmer,  but  that  child,  the  child  that 
was  her  sole  care,  was  a  constant  reminder  to  her  of  her  love  for 
its  father. 

And  as  she  sat  there  in  the  shade  this  hot  afternoon  she  was 
thinking,  not  of  Alec  Finlayson,  whom  she  had  come  out  to  meet, 
but  of  Eoger  Marsden,  whom  she  had  not  seen  since  that  day  in 
early  November  when  he  had  told  her  there  was  a  little  farm  in 
the  Heytesbury  Forest  waiting  for  her  if  she  should  choose  to 
take  it.  The  baby  lay  on  the  grass  beside  her  and  looked  up  with 
laughing  blue  eyes  to  the  blue  cloudless  sky  above,  and  Sue  let 
her  heart  drift  back  with  longing  to  that  bright  Sunday  when 
Marsden  had  seen  his  child  for  the  first  time  and  had  taken  them 
both  in  his  arms  in  one  long  passionate  embrace. 

"  Why,  why  was  the  world  so  hard  ?  " 

She  glanced  at  the  children  still  busy  over  the  pile  of  boards, 
thought  with  a  sigh  of  satisfaction  that  they  were  quite  safe,  and 
then,  with  a  feeling  that  it  was  a  relief  to  escape  from  her  own 
thoughts  she  saw  Alec  Finlayson  riding  towards  her. 

So  friendly  had  he  been  that  she  had  almost  forgotten  that  it 
was  little  over  six  weeks  since  he  had  asked  her  to  be  his  wife. 
She  had  grown  to  look  upon  him  as  a  dear  friend. 


330  The  Empire  Review 

He  dismounted  and  slipped  his  horse's  bridle  over  his  arm, 

"  Well,"  he  said,  holding  out  his  hand. 

She  put  hers  in  it  without  rising. 

"  You  look  rather  tired,"  he  said  as  he  glanced  at  her. 

"  Then  I  look  what  I  am.  I  am  very  tired.  No,  I'm  not  ill. 
Just  peaches  and  the  cracking  of  kernels  have  been  rather  too 
much  for  me." 

"The  hottest  day  in  the  year  too.  Whatever  made  you 
choose  the  hottest  day  in  the  year  to " 

"  To  make  peach  preserve  ?  Ah !  you  must  ask  aunt  that. 
Do  you  see  Georgie  ?  'f 

"  There  he  is,  stooping  down  by  Ted.  What  do  you  want 
with  him?" 

"  Just  to  know  he  isn't  bathing  in  the  lake.  Aunt  is  afraid 
they'll  get  drowned,  so  I'm  here  for  the  express  purpose  of  seeing 
that  they  don't." 

"  Oh,  they're  all  right,  building  a  house  or  something.  And 
what  have  you  been  doing  since  I  saw  you  last  ?  " 

Then  Sue  entered  into  a  long  account  of  her  own  trivial 
doings,  and  listened  with  interest  to  his  account  of  his  own.  He 
loved  her,  in  spite  of  himself  he  loved  her,  and  where  is  the 
woman  who  would  not  be  interested  in  a  devoted  lover,  more 
especially  when  her  own  life  is  lonely.  So  half-an-hour  slipped 
pleasantly  away  before  Sue  remembered  her  neglected  duties. 

"  The  children,"  she  said  suddenly,  "  the  children !  I've  been 
forgetting  them  and  I  don't  see  them  anywhere." 

Finlayson  rose  to  his  feet  and  looked  round. 

"  I — why,  by  George !  the  young  scamps  are  out  on  the 
lake !  " 

Sue  sprang  to  her  feet  and  saw  in  a  moment  that  he  was 
right. 

Ted,  being  undisturbed,  had,  with  the  aid  of  his  brothers  and 
sisters,  finished  the  raft  entirely  to  his  own  satisfaction.  Then 
it  had  to  be  launched,  and  launching  it  made  them  so  wet  it 
seemed  a  pity  not  to  make  some  further  use  of  it. 

"Let's  get  on  and  row  to  the  other  side,"  suggested  Ted, 
"  there's  two  palings'll  do  for  oars." 

"  You  can't  row,"  hesitated  Etta. 

"Pooh,  nonsense,  as  if  any  fool  couldn't  row." 

Apparently  the  argument  was  convincing,  for  Etta  agreed  to 
go,  and  Ted,  picking  up  Vera  in  his  arms,  waded  out  and  placed 
her  triumphantly  in  the  centre  of  the  raft.  The  rest  followed 
and  scrambled  on  board  as  best  they  could,  the  frail  raft  more 
than  once  threatening  to  capsize.  It  was  hardly  an  unmixed 
success  either,  for  their  weight  sunk  it  a  few  inches  beneath  the 
water,  but  as  Ted  pointed  out,  they  were  so  wet  already  that 


Susan  Pennicuicfc 


331 


didn't  much  matter.  They  were  not  in  deep  water,  and  there 
was  really  no  necessity  to  cross  the  lake,  perhaps  on  the  whole 
he  thought  they'd  better  not ;  but  they  might  as  well  paddle 
round  now  they  were  there.  So  they  paddled  round  to  their 
heart's  content  for  some  few  minutes  till  Sue  suddenly  remem- 
bered she  had  charge  of  them. 

In  a  moment  she  had  flown  to  the  edge  of  the  lake,  and  to  her 
dismay  saw  they  had  drifted  a  good  deal  further  from  the  shore 
than  she  had  at  first  thought. 

"  Children,  children,"  she  cried  despairingly,  "  Ted,  Etta, 
come  back  this  minute.  You'll  be  drowned." 

"  Drowned,"  scoffed  Ted,  "  not  a  bit  of  it.  Don't  you  believe 
it.  "We  know  a  trick  worth  two  of  that.  Georgie,  you  young 
beggar,  stop  your  own  side.  I'll  lay  you  out  when  I  get  you 
ashore,  if  you  don't  sit  still.  You'll  have  the  whole  thing 
capsized." 

"  Oh,  but  it's  comin'  undone  my  end,"  said  Georgie,  pushing 
forward. 

"Oh,  oh,  let's  get  off !  "  cried  the  girls  crowding  to  one  side. 
"  It's  coming  undone,  we'll  be  drowned." 

Ted  made  one  ineffectual  effort  to  keep  the  thing  properly 
balanced,  but  it  was  no  good,  the  children  were  now  thoroughly 
frightened.  The  girls  and  the  little  boy  began  to  scream,  and 
as  they  crowded  together  on  one  side  the  light  raft  tipped  up. 
Sue  caught  a  glimpse  of  jagged  boards  and  loose  rope-ends,  and 
then  with  a  simultaneous  shriek  of  terror,  the  little  crew  were 
flung  off  into  the  water. 

The  lake  there  was  shallow,  not  five  feet  deep,  but  still  quite 
deep  enough  to  drown  the  children,  and  she,  hardly  knowing  what 
she  was  doing,  dashed  into  the  water,  made  a  grab  at  some  floating 
petticoats  and  dragged  Etta  ashore.  The  doctor,  she  saw,  had 
hold  of  two  children,  and  she  plunged  in  again  and  caught  Rosy. 
By  the  time  she  had  landed  her  he  was  just  dragging  Ted  ashore 
by  the  arm. 

"  Is  that  all  of  you  ?  "  he  asked  of  the  whimpering  boy.  But 
Ted  was  gasping,  his  mouth  and  nose  and  eyes  full  of  water, 
"  where's  Tom  ?  " 

"  Tom  got  out  himself,"  sobbed  Sue.  "  They're  all  right. 
Oh,  Dr.  Finlayson,  if  you  hadn't  been  here,  they — they — might 
have  been  drowned." 

" Nonsense,  nonsense,"  said  he  cheerfully,  "the  water  was 
quite  shallow.  You  could  have  got  them  out  by  yourself,  or 
very  likely  they  would  have  struggled  ashore  by  themselves. 
Don't  cry,  don't  cry,  please  don't  cry."  Sue  shaken  and  frightened 
sat  down  on  the  ground  in  her  clinging  wet  skirts  and  sobbed  in 
spite  of  herself,  and  the  children,  all  but  Ted,  joined  her. 


332  The  Empire  Review 

"  Oh  come,  coine,"  said  the  doctor,  "  don't  do  that.  There's 
no  harm  done  except  to  our  clothes.  Come,  you  are  wringing 
wet,  you'd  best  go  home  and  change.  Ted,  what  devil  possessed 
you  to  lead  your  sisters  into  such  a  scrape.  What'll  your 
mother  say  ?  " 

"  Don't  tell  her,"  said  Ted,  shaking  the  water  out  of  his  clothes. 

"  Don't  tell  her,"  echoed  Finlayson,  "  and  will  she  be  thinking 
your  cousin  and  I  went  into  the  water  for  our  own  amusement, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  rest  of  you  ?  " 

"Don't  tell  her  you  went  into  the  water  at  all,"  suggested 
Ted  in  desperation. 

"Well,  really,"  said  the  doctor  looking  down  at  his  dripping 
person,  "  I  don't  quite  see  how  that's  to  be  hidden." 

"  Sue  could  change,  and  so  could  the  rest  of  us,"  said  Ted 
sullenly.  "  Mother '11  be  angry  if  she  knows.  She  told  us  not  to 
go  near  the  water." 

"Humph,"  said  the  doctor  looking  across  at  Sue  who  had 
dried  her  eyes  now,  "  Christian  training  doesn't  seem  to  have  hit 
it  exactly  here.  Now,  lad,  be  a  man  and  bear  your  punishment. 
You've  deserved  it  for  disobedience." 

They  began  to  walk  towards  the  house,  a  wet  and  bedraggled 
little  company,  but  Ted  stuck  to  his  point,  he  didn't  believe  in 
being  punished  if  he  could  help  himself. 

"  Susy,"  he  began,  "  don't  tell  unless  mother  asks  you." 

"  But  she's  sure  to  ask." 

"  Well,  don't  tell  unless  she  does.    Promise  now." 

"  Very  well,"  said  Sue,  feeling  certain  Mrs.  Grant  would  see 
some  of  them  before  they  got  their  wet  clothes  off,  and  that  she 
would  be  asked  for  an  explanation. 

"  Now,  doctor,"  said  Ted,  who  was  desirous  of  having  two 
strings  to  his  bow,  "  you'll  beg  us  off,  won't  you  ?  " 

"Will  I?  I'd  like  to  see  you  get  a  jolly  good  thrashing. 
You're  at  the  bottom  of  it.  But  I  don't  suppose  your  mother'd 
pay  any  attention  to  me."  <  ' 

"  Oh  yes  she  will,"  said  Ted,  brightening  up  once  he  saw  a 
chance  of  escaping  the  penalty  of  his  misdeeds,  "  because  of  Ann, 
you  know." 

"  Hold  your  tongue,  Ted.  Don't  be  silly,"  said  Sue  sharply, 
trusting  that  the  doctor  had  not  heard,  and  hoping  even  if  he 
had  to  stop  further  revelations. 

But  the  doctor  had  heard,  and  Ted  was  too  deep  in  his  own 
affairs  to  take  any  notice  of  her  hints. 

"  What's  your  sister  got  to  do  with  it  ?  "  he  asked. 

"  Oh,  you  know,"  said  Ted,  winking  knowingly.  His  spirits 
were  rising,  and  he  began  to  feel  quite  safe.  "Gammon  you 
don't  know.  It'll  be  all  right  if  you  put  in  your  word." 


Susan  Pcnnicuick 


333 


Etta  tossed  her  head,  dispirited  as  she  was,  wet,  frightened 
and  uncomfortable,  she  could  not  resist  correcting,  out  of  the 
depths  of  her  feminine  wisdom,  her  brother. 

"  You  are  silly,  Ted,"  she  said.  "  I  told  you  before  you  were 
silly." 

Alec  Finlayson  looked  from  one  to  the  other,  and  then  to 
Sue's  crimson  face.  She  did  not  know  what  they  would  say 
next,  nor  how  to  stop  them,  but  comprehension  began  to  dawn 
on  her  companion.  After  all,  he  had  his  suspicions  before,  this 
was  only  confirmation. 

"  You'd  better  get  home,  children,"  he  said  shortly,  "instead 
of  squabbling  here.  It's  not  well  to  stand  about  in  your  wet 
clothes,  and  I  must  get  home  too." 

Sue  looked  up  at  him.  She  was  afraid  of  her  aunt's  anger. 
But  how  could  she  ask  him  to  stay  and  shield  her,  knowing  as 
she  did  that  he  would  stay  for  her  sake,  and  that  her  aunt  would 
forgo  her  wrath,  if  he  pleaded,  for  Ann's. 

He  understood  this  too,  thanks  to  Ted's  revelations,  but  still 
as  he  looked  at  the  tired  face  of  the  girl  beside  him,  he  determined 
to  stay  if  he  could  be  of  any  possible  use  to  her. 

"  Will  your  aunt  be  very  angry  ?  "  he  asked,  when  she  did  not 
speak. 

"  Yes,  I'm  afraid  so.  I  really  ought  to  have  looked  after  them 
better,  and  you  see  she  has  been  making  jam  all  day." 

"  What  difference  does  that  make  ?  " 

"  She'll  be  tired — and— and — aggravated." 

"  Oh,  I  thought  good  Christians  never  allowed  their  tempers 
to  get  the  better  of  them." 

"It's  been  hot  all  day  in  the  kitchen,  and  anybody  might  be 
forgiven  for  being  cross.  And  then  the  children  to  be  so  naughty 
— oh  dear,  I  expect  they'll  all  be  whipped." 

"It's  not  a  heinous  crime,"  said  the  doctor.  "Butwhat'll 
happen  to  you  ?  " 

"  I  shall  be  scolded,  and  I  deserve  it  too.  I  never  once  thought 
of  them.  When  one  is  a  penniless  dependent,"  she  said  bitterly, 
and  stopped  because  there  was  nothing  else  to  be  said. 

But  Finlayson  understood,  and  seeing  she  was  really  dreading 
the  meeting  with  her  aunt,  determined  to  stop  and  see  it  through, 
even  though  as  he  saw  he  was  allowed  to  throw  oil  on  the  troubled 
waters,  only  because  he  was  supposed  to  be  a  suitor  for  Ann's 
hand  and  heart. 

"  I  think  I  will  stay  to  tea,"  he  said,  "  after  all.  I  daresay 
Will  can  lend  me  some  dry  things,"  and  the  relieved  look  on  Sue's 
face  was  his  reward. 

She  was  half  hoping  they  would  meet  Mrs.  Grant  as  they 
entered  the  house,  and  get  the  inevitable  confession  over  there 


334  The  Empire  Review 

and  then,  but  no  one  saw  them.  The  children,  glad  of  the 
reprieve,  rushed  away  to  change  their  things,  Finlayson  took  his 
horse  to  the  stable  and  went  in  search  of  young  Grant,  and  Sue 
went  to  her  own  room  to  put  on  another  dress. 

She  was  ready  by  the  time  the  tea  bell  rang,  and  as  she  left 
her  room,  Maggie,  the  under-housemaid,  who  came  to  take  the 
baby,  put  a  note  into  her  hand.  She  looked  at  it  in  astonish- 
ment. It  was  addressed  in  a  round  childish  hand  that  she  recog- 
nised instantly  as  Polly's,  though  why  Polly  should  write  her  a 
note  she  could  not  imagine.  She  had  gone  to  Titura  the  day 
before,  and  was  expected  back  with  Lily  on  the  morrow. 

"  Miss  Polly  gave  me  that  to  give  you  sometime  when  no  one 
was  looking,"  said  Maggie  grinning. 

The  tea  bell  rang  again  furiously,  but  she  stayed  a  moment  to 
read  her  letter. 

"  DEAREST  SUE,"  it  began.  "  I  know  you'll  do  me  a  kindness.  Ned 
Hart  and  me  we  just  can't  stand  it  any  longer.  He  loves  me,  you  know  he 
does,  you  said  you  thought  so  yourself  once,  and  I  know  I  love  him,  so  we're 
going  to  get  married.  It's  no  good  asking  Father,  he's  sure  to  say  no,  so  I'm 
going  to  run  away  with  him  to-night.  Simmonds,"  one  of  the  men  on  the 
place,  "  is  to  drive  me  over  to  Titura  and  every  one  knows  we're  sweethearts, 
so  he  won't  be  a  bit  astonished  if  about  half  way  over  Ned  comes  riding  up  and 
asks  him  to  change  places.  They'll  all  think  me  at  Titura  and  Lil'll  think  I've 
changed  my  mind  and  am  going  back  with  her  on  Friday.  Ned  won't  be 
missed  for  he  got  a  week's  holiday  yesterday. 

"  I  don't  know  where  we're  going  and  I  don't  know  how  we're  going  to  be 
married.  Ned'll  manage  that  somehow,  but  you've  always  been  so  kind  about 
it  I  want  you  to  tell  Father  and  Mother.  Mind  and  tell  them  before  Lil  comes 
because  they'll  wonder  then  what's  become  of  me. 

"  Good-bye  with  much  love  from  your  affectionate  cousin  Polly." 

There  was  no  date  to  it,  but  it  had  evidently  been  written  the 
day  before. 

Her  first  thought  was  to  rush  off  with  it  to  her  aunt,  her 
second,  dismay  at  the  consequences  to  herself. 

Whoever  reading  that  letter,  would  believe  her  statement  that 
she  had  not  aided  and  abetted  the  girl.  Angry  her  aunt  would 
be,  most  righteously  angry,  and  more  than  angry,  grieved  and 
distressed  beyond  measure.  How  could  she  tell  her,  and  what  on 
earth  was  to  be  done  about  Polly  ? 

Very  slowly  she  went  down  the  passage  and  pushed  open  the 
dining-room  door,  the  same  dismally-untidy  room,  just  a  shade 
shabbier,  that  she  had  taken  stock  of  eight  months  before.  All 
the  family  were  seated  at  tea,  and  no  confession  had  as  yet  been 
made  as  to  the  afternoon's  catastrophe,  and  Sue,  as  she  entered, 
heard  her  aunt  say, 

"  You  were  good  children,  I  hope,  and  didn't  go  bathing." 


Susan  Pennicuick 


335 


No  answer  seemed  required  to  this,  so  no  one  said  anything, 
but  Mrs.  Grant  asked  again, 
"  Did  you  go  bathing,  Ted  ?  " 

"  No,  never  thought  of  such  a  thing,"  said  Ted  promptly, 
bringing  down  the  doctor's  stern  glance  on  him,  but  comforting 
himself  with  the  reflection  that  he  was  sticking  strictly  to  the 
truth.  She  hadn't  asked  him  if  he'd  gone  on  a  raft,  and  he 
certainly  hadn't  gone  bathing  of  his  own  free  will. 

Finlayson  glanced  across  at  Sue  to  see  how  she  was  taking 
this  barefaced  statement,  and  repressed  an  exclamation  when 
he  saw  her  face  was  whiter  than  th,e  tablecloth.  He  thought 
she  was  taking  the  children's  peccadilloes  rather  much  to 
heart. 

"Why,  Sue,"  said  her  aunt,  not  unkindly,  "what  is  the 
matter?" 

"  This — this  letter,"  stammered  Sue,  going  straight  to  the 
point.  She  could  think  of  no  way  of  softening  the  blow,  and 
she  felt  it  was  best  over. 

"A  letter?  Who  from?  Why,  gracious  me,  you  are  white. 
Sit  down,  child." 

Sue  obeyed,  and  with  trepidation  watched  her  aunt  read  the 
letter. 

For  a  moment  it  seemed  Mrs.  Grant  did  not  understand,  then 
as  comprehension  began  to  dawn  on  her,  she  was  speechless  with 
wrath  and  dismay.  She  carried  the  letter  to  her  husband,  and 
then  openly  published  the  contents. 

"  The  wicked,  disobedient  girl,"  she  cried.  "  I'll  never  forgive 
her,  never !  flying  in  the  face  of  her  parents  and  her  God.  Father, 
can  we  get  her  back,  do  you  think  ?  " 

"  I  wash  my  hands  of  her,"  said  Mr.  Grant  solemnly.  "  She 
has  left  the  fold.  She  has  wandered  from  the  straight  path. 
Let  her  be  as  one  accursed.  I'll  have  no  more  truck  with  her. 

The  Lord  hath  said " 

Eliza,  one  of  the  slip-shod  maid-servants,  appeared  in  the 
doorway  with  a  pile  of  wet  clothes  in  her  arms. 

"  Please,  Mrs.  Grant,  what's  to  be  done  with  them  ?  I  found 
'em  stuffed  under  Miss  Etta's  bed." 

"Why?  What?  Why,  that's  the  dress  Etta  had  on  this 
afternoon.  Why — you've  been  in  the  lake,  miss  ;  "  and  she  took 
the  little  girl  by  the  shoulder  and  shook  her  with  a  severity  meant 
perhaps  more  for  her  elder  sister  than  herself. 

"The  raft — it  upset,"  whimpered  Etta;  "we  might  have 
been  drownded,"  she  added,  as  if  to  enlist  her  mother's  sympathy 
and  pity. 

"  You  were  on  the  lake  then,  and,  Ted,  you  lied  to  me."  She 
paused  a  moment,  as  if  she  hardly  knew  what  to  do,  then  she 


336  The  Empire  Review 

asked,  "  which  of  you  were  in  it?     Come,  now,  tell  me  quick,  or 
it'll  be  the  worse  for  you." 

Thus  exhorted,  Etta  opened  her  mouth. 

"  There  was  me  and  Ted  and  Rosy  and  Georgie  and  Tom  and 
Vera." 

"  Be  off  to  bed  with  you  this  minute  ;  no  tea  do  you  get  this 
night.  You're  breaking  my  heart,  you  disobedient  children.  Go 
to  bed,  and  I'll  sort  you  when  I've  settled  about  Polly.  Oh,  Lord, 
what  have  I  done  to  deserve  this  ?  " 

Sue  pitied  the  poor  mother  from  the  bottom  of  her  heart,  but 
the  doctor,  who  disapproved  of  fasting  on  principle,  put  in  a 
word  for  the  hungry  children  preparing  to  leave  the  table. 

"  Don't  be  hard  on  them,  Mrs.  Grant,  please.  They  are  very 
sorry.  Let  them  have  some  bread,  at  least.  It's  a  long  while 
since  dinner.  Don't  let  them  go  starving  to  bed." 

But  Mrs.  Grant  paid  no  heed. 

"  Spare  the  rod  and  spoil  the  child.  A  wiser  than  you  said 
that,  doctor.  No,  they  must  be  punished.  Off  with  you,  now. 
I've  been  too  lenient  with  Polly ;  I'll  just  make  no  mistake  about 
you,"  and  the  children  scuttered  out  of  the  room  like  frightened 
rabbits. 

11  What  about  Polly,  father  ?  "  she  went  on.  "  The  Lord  will 
surely  direct  us  in  our  search.  Perhaps  we  may  get  her  before 
they're  married." 

"  Let  her  be,  let  her  be,"  said  the  old  man,  sternly,  ''she  is 
no  child  of  mine.  She  stole  away  last  night,  and  she  shall  stay 
away.  She'd  better  marry  Ned  Hart  now,  if  he  will  have  her. 
She  has  disgraced  herself.  No  honest  man  will  want  her  now. 
If  thine  eye  offend  thee,  pluck  it  out;  we've  Scripture  for 
that." 

"  Oh,  but,  uncle,"  began  Sue,  eagerly,  "  indeed  she— 

"And  who  are  you  dare  speak  to  me?"  he  asked,  sternly, 
"  An  outcast  yourself." 

Ann,  who  had  been  reading  the  letter,  struck  in.  She  had 
never  liked  Sue,  she  was  glad  enough  to  find  at  last  what  looked 
like  a  legitimate  cause  of  complaint. 

"It's  all  her  fault,"  she  cried,  "I  knew  it;  I  warned  you 
what  would  come  of  holding  communication  with  the  unbeliever 
and  the  unrighteous.  She  has  encouraged  Polly  all  along.  Why, 
this  very  letter  says  so.  She  has  sympathised  with  her  and 
encouraged  her  to  deceive  us.  I  know — I  told  you  long  ago. 
She  has  not  the  true  grip.  She  has  always  been  against  us. 
She  has  no  regard  for  her  duty.  Even  to-day  she  let  those 
children  nearly  drown." 

For  once  in  her  life  Mrs.  Grant  agreed  with  her  eldest 
daughter,  and  since  her  husband  utterly  declined  to  move  in  a 


Susan  Pennicuick  337 

search  for  Polly,  she  turned  and  vented  her  wrath,  as  was 
perhaps  not  unnatural,  on  Sue,  and  angry  and  grief -stricken  she 
did  not  stop  to  pick  her  words.  Every  opprobrious  epithet  she 
could  think  of  she  hurled  on  the  unfortunate  girl. 

"  You  to  betray  us !  you,  that  I  picked  up  off  the  streets  ! 
Where  would  you  and  your  brat  have  been  if  it  hadn't  been  for 
me,  I  should  like  to  know ?  It  was  I  saved  your  good  name,  and 
you  teach  my  innocent  child  the  ways  of  wickedness  !  " 

Sue  covered  her  face  with  her  hands.  The  shame  had  come 
now,  the  shame  she  had  dreaded,  had  borne  so  much  to  hide. 
Her  aunt  was  relentless  in  her  wrath,  while  Ann  sat  open- 
mouthed  and,  for  once,  silent.  She  had  always  been  envious  of 
Sue,  but  she  had  never  guessed  how  strong  a  weapon  her  father 
and  mother  held  hidden  in  their  hands. 

"You  wanted  to  make  my  poor  girl  as  bad  as  yourself,  I 
suppose,"  went  on  Mrs.  Grant,  bitterly.  "You  taught  her." 

"And  you  brought  this  shameless  woman  among  your 
innocent  children,  mother,"  broke  in  Ann,  with  almost  a  ring 
of  triumph  in  her  voice.  "You,  who  ought  to  know  that  we 
ought  to  hold  no  communion  with  the  ungodly.  We  are  justly 
served.  We  have  taken  a  viper  to  our  bosom.  She  who  should 
have  been  an  outcast,  an  unrepentant  sinner.  What  could  you 
expect  ?  " 

"  Aunt,  aunt,"  wailed  Sue,  "indeed  it  wasn't  my  fault  about 
Polly.  I  never  dreamt  of  such  a  thing." 

"  You  encouraged  her !  You  sympathised  with  her !  She 
says  so  here,"  tapping  the  letter  with  a  trembling  hand.  "You 
wanted  to  make  her  as  bad  as  yourself ;  and  I  to  think  you  had 
repented  and  would  try  and  walk  in  the  narrow  way.  I  am 
justly  served,  as  Ann  says,  but  oh,  God,  if  the  sorrow  had  come 
to  me  and  not  to  my  little  child !  " 

"  I — aunt — I  thought,  there  was  no  harm  in  letting  her  talk 
about  him.  She  always  used  to  all  day  long  when  she  got 
the  chance ;  but  the  last  week  or  two,  since  he  has  been 
at  Titura,  she  has  held  her  tongue.  I  thought  she  was 
forgetting." 

"  I  told  you  so,"  said  Ann,  "  she  has  been  contaminating  our 
Polly.  I  always  said  we  should  hold  no  communication  with  the 
unrighteous." 

"  I  thought — I  thought  she  had  forgotten,"  still  protested 
Sue.  "  She  is  so  young." 

"  That's  it,"  said  Mrs.  Grant.  "  She  never  would  have 
thought  of  it  herself,  so  careful  as  I  have  always  been  of  her. 
You  say  yourself  you  let  her  talk  to  you  about  him,  and  you  knew 
I  had  expressly  forbidden  her  to  mention  his  name.  You,  a 
beggar  and  outcast,  living  on  our  charity,  and  I  to  trust  you  1 
VOL.  VI.— No.  33.  z 


3'38 


The  Empire 


The  fool  I  was,  the  fool !  Out  you  go,  you  and  your  child  !  if 
my  daughter  may  not  come  here,  neither  shall  you !  " 

Poor  Sue  !  the  torrent  of  words  left  her  hopeless.  She  had 
nothing  to  say — nothing.  Clearly  she  saw  how  her  aunt  would 
take  it,  and  seeing  things  from  her  point  of  view,  she  acknow- 
ledged she  had  right  on  her  side.  If  only  she  had  spared  her  the 
publication  of  her  shame.  Bitterly,  bitterly  she  felt  the  humilia- 
tion. Her  uncle's,  Ann's,  Will's  eyes  seemed  reading  her  through 
and  through,  and  she  felt  a  shame  she  had  never  felt  when  alone 
with  Dr.  Finlayson,  though  she  knew  he  had  guessed  her  secret 
long  ago.  Now  she  shrank  away  from  his  kind  eyes  ;  the  pity 
in  them  only  shamed  her  the  more.  But  he  could  stand  it  no 
longer. 

"  It  seems  to  me,"  he  said,  trying  to  speak  judicially,  and  as 
if  he  had  no  interest  in  the  case  beyond  that  of  the  family  friend, 
"  it  seems  to  me  you  are  laying  on  your  niece  the  sins  of  the  rest 
of  you.  All  the  country-side  knew  that  Polly  and  young  Hart 
were  sweethearts.  It's  only  a  runaway  match,  after  all.  Every- 
one knew  it  was  bound  to  come  sooner  or  later.  You'll  have 
them  back  in  a  day  or  two  asking  your  forgiveness  for  the  abrupt 
manner  in  which  they  settled  things  up.  A  runaway  match  is  a 
little  upsetting  at  first,  but  what  is  it  after  all?  Saves  the 
expense  of  a  wedding.  Hart's  a  sterling  good  fellow,  too.  I 
wouldn't  worry  about  it  if  I  were  you,  Mrs.  Grant.  A  girl's 
quite  safe  with  Hart." 

"It  isn't  only  that,"  put  in  Ann,  sourly;  she  by  no  means 
relished  the  championship  of  Sue,  "it  is  evident  Sue  and  her 
child  are  not  fit  to  live  here.  Out  of  this  house  she  must  go." 

Dr.  Finlayson  looked  at  the  shrinking  white-faced  girl  standing 
there  before  them  all.  How  she  must  have  suffered,  how  she 
must  have  battled  to  keep  that  child,  the  smiling  face  she  had 
always  worn  before  the  world  !  She  was  a  heroine  indeed.  And 
he  had  fought  against  his  passion,  he  had  doubted  the  advisability 
of  making  her  his  wife. 

He  rose  up  and,  standing  beside  her,  put  his  hand  on  her 
shoulder. 

"It  is  your  niece's  own  fault  she  lives  here,"  he  said,  quietly. 
"At  Mrs.  Wilson's  wedding  I  asked  her  to  marry  me,  and  she 
refused.  If  she  will  reconsider  that  offer  I  shall  be  the  proudest 
man  in  the  State.  If  she  won't,  I  hope  she  will  look  upon  me  as 
her  friend  and  will  come  to  me  if  she  wants  assistance." 

His  words  fell  like  a  thunderbolt  among  them,  and  for  Ann, 
at  least,  Polly's  disappearance  took  quite  a  minor  place.  In  the 
moment  of  her  triumph,  when  she  thought  she  saw  her  path 
clear,  her  house  of  cards  came  tumbling  about  her  ears.  It  was 
the  outcast  who  had  the  lover,  she,  Ann,  the  virtuous  woman, 


Susan  Pennicuick 


339 


was  left  desolate.     She  gave  a  long,  sobbing  sigh,  and  laid  her 
head  down  on  the  table. 

"  Whew,"  whistled  Willie,  comical  dismay  written  on  his 
face.  "  Come,  mother,  don't  fuss.  Let's  look  up  Polly  and 
have  a  double  wedding.  After  all,  anyone  with  eyes  must  have 
seen  Ned  Hart  and  Polly  were — were— why,  she  used  to  slip  out 
every  night  for  the  last  month  of  Sundays  and  meet  him  by  the 
old  stable  just  beyond  the  wood-house." 

"And  you  knew  this  and  never  warned  us,"  thundered 
Mr.  Grant.  "  The  evil-doer — the  evil-doer  encompasseth  us  round 
on  every  side.  Surely  mine  enemies  are  those  of  mine  own 
household,  and  the  Lord  hath  hidden  His  face  from  my  house. 
Leave  the  room,  sir,  leave  the  room  this  moment.  Not  another 
bite  nor  sup  do  you  take  at  this  table." 

Afterwards  Sue  used  to  laugh  when  she  thought  of  the  scene, 
the  Grants  were  so  rapidly  clearing  their  establishment ;  but  then 
she  did  not  laugh,  and  Willie  rose  with  a  wry  face  and  made  for 
the  door.  His  mother  stopped  him. 

"How  was  it  you  didn't  warn  us,  Will  ?  "  she  asked  sternly. 

"  'Twas  no  business  of  mine  to  go  telling  tales,"  he  said 
sullenly.  "  Besides,  you  could  have  seen  for  yourselves  if  you'd 
looked." 

"  About  what  time  did  they  meet  ?  " 

"  Oh,  how  do  I  know  ?    Just  after  dark,  generally." 

"  Nonsense.  She  was  always  in  the  schoolroom  then,  learning 
her  lessons." 

"  I'm  blind,  then.  Or  perhaps  it  was  her  ghost,"  and  young 
Will,  alarmed  at  his  own  temerity,  fled  and,  retiring  to  the 
kitchen,  made  interest  with  the  maids  for  something  to  eat. 

"There,"  said  Finlayson,  "it  seems  to  have  gone  on  in  the 
most  open  manner  right  under  your  eyes.  You  can't  blame  Sue 
now,  can  you  ?  Now  is  there  anything  I  can  do  for  you  ?  Send 
any  telegrams  ?  Go  anywhere  ?  " 

"  No,"  said  the  old  squatter,  "  she  can  go.  She  has  made  her 
own  bed  and  she  must  lie  on  it.  If  she's  his  wife  she  must  just 
stay  with  him,  and  if  she  isn't  then  she  ought  to  be,  and 
Larwidgee  is  no  place  for  the  likes  of  her.  Her  sin  is  on  her 
own  head." 

"It  is  not  only  Polly  who  has  sinned,"  said  Ann,  raising  her 
face  and  glaring  at  Sue,  "  when  you  remember  the  example  she 
has  had  before  her.  Father  !  Mother  !  Are  you  going  to  allow 
this — this  shameless  woman  to  stay  in  the  house  with  your  young 
daughters,  contaminating " 

"  She  is  coming  with  me.  I  shall  take  care  of  her,"  said 
Dr.  Finlayson  quickly. 

Then  Sue  remembered  with  thankfulness  the  little  farm  in 

z  2 


340  The  Empire  Review 

the  Heytesbury  Forest,  and  suddenly  the  shame  and  the  sorrow 
that  had  weighed  her  down  all  these  months  was  lifted  from  her 
shoulders.  They  had  shamed  her  openly,  now  there  was  no  need 
to  hide  it  away  any  longer,  no  need  to  lead  a  double  life.  She 
would  claim  her  child  openly,  she  would  go  to  the  man  who 
wanted  her,  to  the  man  who  loved  her ;  and,  to  Dr.  Finlayson's 
surprise,  a  look  of  glad  lightheartedness  came  over  her  face,  a 
look  he  had  never  seen  there  before.  Was  that  what  his  wooing 
was  doing  for  her  ? 

She  smiled  in  his  face  with  glad  and  happy  eyes  and  turned 
and  went  quietly  out  of  the  room,  and  he  followed  after  her. 

Outside  in  the  passage  they  met  Willie. 

"  Are  you  two  going  to  run  away  now  ?  " 

"  No,"  said  Sue,  "  no.  At  least,  not  together.  Dr.  Finlayson, 
how  am  I  going  to  thank  you  ?  How  ever  am  I  going  to  thank 
you?  "  and  in  the  fading  light  Willie  saw  her  take  his  hand. 

"  By  marrying  me,  of  course." 

"  God  forbid  I  should  do  you  such  a  wrong  !  But  it  was  good 
of  you !  It  was  brave  and  kind  of  you  !  Can  I  ever  forget  your 
goodness?" 

"But  you — you "  Finlayson  was  horribly  conscious  of 

Willie's  watching  eyes,  and  inwardly  cursed  the  Grant  family, 
lock,  stock  and  barrel. 

"How  good  you  are!  How  good  you  are!  I  will  never 
forget !  Don't  you  see  I  am  free  at  last.  They  have  freed  me 
at  last  themselves.  I  needn't  pretend  any  more.  I  am  not  going 
to  give  up  my  child.  I  am  glad  to  openly  call  her  mine.  Oh  !  I 
am  glad— glad — glad !  You  don't  know  how  sick  of  it  I  have 
been.  I  didn't  know  myself.  I  couldn't  go  on  living  like  this. 
Only — only 

"  Sue,  what  are  you  going  to  do  ?  " 

"Will,  could  you  drive  me  to  Gaffer's  Flat  to-night?  " 

"  Certainly  I  could  and  I  will,"  said  Will.  "  I  can  do  any- 
thing to-night.  This  row  will  allow  of  our  doing  anything  for 
the  next  twenty-four  hours.  Then  we  must  look  out  for  squalls." 

"  I  can't  stay  here,  you  know.  Baby  and  I  mustn't  stay  here 
a  moment  longer  than  we  can  help." 

"  You  are  coming  with  me,"  said  Finlayson  rather  helplessly. 

"  Indeed  I  am  going  to  do  no  such  thing.  You  know — you 
know,  you  couldn't  really  marry  me,  though  you  were  so  brave 
and  good.  Oh,  never  think  I  don't  think  you  are  the  best  man 
in  the  world — worth  a  much  better  wife  than  I  should  ever  be. 
But  don't  you  understand ;  you  must  see  how  it  is.  Oh !  it's 
horrible  bathos,  isn't  it,  but  I  haven't  sixpence  in  the  world. 
Will  you  lend  me  £5  for  a  week  ?  " 

A  maid  came  in  and  put  a  smoky  oil  lamp  on  a  shelf  in  the 


Susan  Pennicuick 


341 


passage,  and  by  its  yellow  light  Finlayson  saw  her  face  trans- 
formed, saw  the  gladness  in  it,  the  light  dancing  in  her  eyes. 

"You  are  so  good,  so  good  I  don't  mind  asking  your  help. 
Marry  you  ?  You  understand,  don't  you,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  I  am  a  married  woman  already.  I  belong  to  Koger 
Marsden,  and  I  am  going  to  him." 

There  was  a  shuffling  of  chairs  in  the  dining-room. 

"  Get  what  things  you  want  together,"  said  Will  hurriedly — 
he  had  no  desire  to  meet  his  parents  again  this  evening,  "  and  I'll 
have  the  buggy  ready  by  the  men's  hut  in  half  an  hour.  Quick 
now,  if  you  don't  want  to  meet  them  again." 

MAEY  GAUNT. 


(To  be  continued.) 


342 


The  Empire  Review 


INDIAN   AND    COLONIAL   INVESTMENTS* 

A  STRONG  demand  for  gold  to  go  to  Germany  and  increasing 
anxiety  with  regard  to  the  political  situation  in  the  Near  East, 
decided  the  directors  of  the  Bank  of  England  to  advance  their 
rate  of  discount  from  3  to  4  per  cent,  on  September  4th.  The 
movement  took  the  market  somewhat  by  surprise,  as  although 
an  advance  was  believed  to  be  probable  at  no  very  distant  date, 
it  was  not  expected  at  that  particular  moment.  The  Bank  has 
since  taken  means  to  make  its  rate  effective,  and  has  succeeded 
in  getting  the  market  largely  under  its  control.  It  is  thought 
that  a  further  rise  to  5  per  cent,  in  the  near  future  is  by  no 
means  an  improbable  contingency. 

The  effect  of  the  rise  in  money  rates  has  naturally  been 
adverse  to  high-class  securities,  particularly  as  it  has  been  accom- 
panied by  the  important  Cabinet  crisis  with  all  the  unsettlement 
it  involves;  by  fears  of  developments  from  the  Balkan  disturb- 
ance ;  and  by  the  absence  of  encouraging  circumstances  in  any 
of  the  principal  markets.  Consols  have  once  more  made  a  low 
record,  having  been  dealt  in  under  89.  Other  British  Govern- 
ment stocks  have  not  been  affected  to  the  same  extent,  but  there 
is  a  degree  of  depression  among  all  classes  of  Indian  and  Colonial 
securities,  the  latter  being  marked  down  appreciably  on  the  news 

INDIAN  GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present  Amount. 

When 
Redeem- 
able. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

INDIA, 

£ 

3J%  Stock  tt)     .     .     . 

3     o/                   }t\ 
/o      II     (*)••• 
2J%      „    Inscribed  (t) 

63,040,302 
48,635,384 
11,892,207 

1931 
1948 
1926 

105J 

96j 

a 

8JL 

Quarterly, 
it 

3J  %  Rupee  Paper    .     . 

Rx.  5,843,690 

65 

4* 

Various  dates, 

8J%      „          „    1854-5 

Rx.  11,  517,620 

66 

'V** 

30  June—  31  Deo, 

3  %      ..          ii    1896-7 

Rx.  1,316,930 

1916 

58 

*P 

30  June—  30  Deo. 

(<)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments.  *  Rupee  taken  at  Is.  id. 

*  The  tabular  matter  in  thia  article  will  appear  month  by  month,  the  figures 
being  corrected  to  date.  Stocks  eligible  for  Trustee  investments  are  so  designated.— BD; 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


343 


of  Mr.  Chamberlain's  resignation.  Indian  sterling  loans,  for 
instance,  are  one  to  two  points  lower  than  last  month,  although 
the  position  in  the  Dependency  has  in  no  sense  changed  for  the 
worse.  Indian  railways,  in  contrast  with  the  Government  stocks 
and  with  most  other  groups,  have,  in  several  instances,  improved 
in  market  value.  Among  these  are  Bengal  and  North-Western, 
Bombay,  Baroda  and  Central  India,  and  Madras  Five  Per  Cent, 
stock. 

INDIAN   RAILWAYS   AND   BANKS. 


Title. 

Subscribed. 

Last 
year's 
dividend. 

Share 
or 
Stock. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

Assam—  Bengal,  L.,  guaranteed  3  %    . 
Bengal  and  North-Western  (Limited) 
Bengal  Central  (L)  g.  3J  %  +  ith  profits 

£ 

1,500,000 
2,750,000 
500,000 
150,000 

3 
5 
5 
5 

100 
100 
5 
100 

93 
129£ 
5 
103* 

« 

3 

4M 

Do.  Shares       

250,000 

4 

10 

10 

4 

Bengal  Nagpur  (L),  gtd.  4%+  ith  profits 
Bombay,  Bar.  &  C.  India,  gtd.,  5  %     . 
Burma  Guar.  2£  %  and  propn.  of  profits 
Delhi  Umballa  Kalka,  L.,  guar.  3J  %  +\ 
net  earnings      .     .          .          •     •  / 

3,000,000 
7,550,300 
2,000,000 

800,000 

4 

*ft 

4 

4| 

100 
100 
100 

100 

103 
165J 
106£ 

114J 

3S 

H 

East  Indian  "  A,"  ann.  cap.  g.  4%  +  Jj 
sur  profits  (t)          •     .      .                  / 

2,502,733 

9 

100 

120 

*A* 

Do.  do,  class  "  D,"  repayable  1953  (t)  . 
Do.  4£  %  perpet.  deb.  stock  (t)  .     .     . 
Do.  new  3  %  deb.  red.  (t)  
Great  Indian  Peninsula  4%  deb.  Stock  (t) 
Do.  3%  Gua.  and  fo  surp.  profits  1925  (t) 
Indian  Mid.  L.  gua.  4%  &  J  surp.  profits(i) 
Madras,  guaranteed  5  %  by  India  (t)    . 
Do.  do.  4|  °/  (t)      

4,047,267 
1,435,650 
5,000,000 
2,701,450 
2,575,000 
2,250,000 
8,757,670 
999,960 

5 

| 

4 

9 

5 

4| 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

131 
137 
94 
125 
107 
102£ 
130 
12U 

3| 
3* 

3ig 

Do.  do.  4*  %  (t)     '  

500,000 

4 

100 

1134 

4T8 

Nizam's  State  Rail.  Gtd.  5  %  stock     . 
Do.  3£  %  red.  mort.  debs  
Rohilkund  and  Kumaon,  Limited.     . 
South  Behar,  Limited     

2,000,000 
1,112,900 
200,000 
379,580 

5 

| 

100 
100 
100 
100 

123 
95J 
147£ 
93 

$ 

% 

South  Indian  4J  %  per.  deb.  stock,  gtd. 
Do.  capital  stock  

425,000 
1,000,000 

PJ 

100 
100 

137 
114 

% 

Sthn.  Mahratta,  L.,  3J  %  &  J  of  profits 
Do.  4  %  deb.  stock     ...... 

3,500,000 
1,195,600 

5 
4 

100 
100 

104 
111 

$ 

Southern  Punjab,  Limited  .... 
Do.  3J  %  deb.  stock  red  
West  of  India  Portuguese,  guar,  L,     . 
Do,  5  %  debenture  stook  

966,000 
500,000 
800,000 
550,000 

4 

t* 

5 

100 
100 
100 
300 

98 
98 
88 
108 

i 

61* 

4$j 

BANES. 

Chartered  Bank  of  India,  Australia,  \ 
and  China    / 

Number  of 
Shares. 

40,000 

10 

20 

42J 

*H 

National  Bank  of  India  

40,000 

10 

12* 

28 

4T7zr 

*Tff 

(t)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 
*  The  yield  given  makes  no  allowance  for  extinction  of  capital. 

Canadian  reduced  bonds  and  stock,  and  the  3J  per  cent, 
inscribed  stock,  are  each  quoted  a  point  lower  than  a  month  ago, 
this  being  merely  a  part  of  the  general  downward  movement  that 


344 


The  Empire  Review 


has  been  in  progress.  The  half-yearly  report  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Kailway  Company  confirmed  the  favourable  impression 
created  by  the  dividend  announcement,  but  owing  to  the  current 
weakness  in  the  American  market,  the  shares  are  lower  in  price. 
Grand  Trunk  issues  on  the  other  hand  have  advanced,  the 
working  statement  for  the  month  of  July  having  counteracted 
the  rather  disappointed  feeling  induced  by  the  results  for  the 
half-year  to  the  end  of  June.  The  statement  indicates  that  the 

CANADIAN   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re-       Pri 
deemable.       ] 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

4%  Inter-}}  Guaran- 
oolonial/  1    teed  by 
4%    „        [     Great 

1,600,000 
1,500,000 

1908 
1910 

102 
104 

Mi 

3| 

)1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4%    „        J   Britain, 

1,700,000 

1913          106 

4  %  1874-8  Bonds.     . 
4  %     „       Ins.  Stock 
4  %  Reduced  Bonds   . 
4  %        „     Ins.  Stock 

4,099,700\ 
7,900,300/ 
2,209,321\ 
4,233,815/ 

1904-Sf 
1910 

/  101* 

\  ioi| 

/  103 
\  103 

811  1 
3iJ  / 

1  May—  1  Nov. 
1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3J  %  1884  Ins.  Stock  . 

4,605,000 

1909-34* 

101 

4 

1  June  —  1  Deo. 

4  %  1885  Ins.  Stock  . 
8  %  Inscribed  Stock  ft) 

3,499,900 
10,101,321 

1910-35* 
1938 

105 
101 

Jl  Jan.—  1  July. 

2i%     „             „     (t) 

2,000,000 

1947 

90 

2£ 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

PROVINCIAL. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

3  %  Inscribed  Stock  . 

1,324,760 

1941 

88 

8$ 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

MANITOBA. 

5  %  Debentures    .     . 
5  %  Sterling  Bonds    . 

346,700 
308,000 

1910 
1923 

105 
114 

s* 

Jl  Jan.—  1  July. 

4%       „        Debs.     . 

205,000 

1928 

103 

8H 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

NOVA  SCOTIA. 

3%  Stock  .     .    &   V 

164,000 

1949 

92 

3& 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

QUEBEC, 

6%  Bonds  .     .     i     . 

1,199,100 

1904-6 

lOli 

*! 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3%  Inscribed  .     .     . 

1,890,949 

1937 

89 

3f 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

MUNICIPAL. 

Hamilton  (City  of)  4  % 
Montreal    3    %    Deb.\ 
Stock      .     .           ./ 
Do.  4%  Cons.    „        . 
Ottawa  6  %  Bonds     . 
Quebec  4%  Debs.  .     . 
Do.  3J  %  Con.  Stock  . 
Toronto  5  %  Con.  Debs. 

482,800 
1,440,000 

1,821,917 
92,400 
385,000 
351,797 
136,700 

1934 
permanent 

1932 
1904 
1923 
drawings 
1919-20 

103 

90 

107 
102 
102 
96 
109 

35 

3| 

H 

if 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 
|l  May—  1  Nov. 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 
}l  Jan.—  1  July. 

1" 

Do.  4  %  Stg.  Bonds    . 
Do.  4  %  Local  Impt.  . 
Do.  3J%  Bonds    .     . 

300,910 
412,544 
1,059,844 

1922-28f 
1913 
1929 

101 
100 
98 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Vancouver  4  %  Bonds 
Do.  4  %  40-year  Bonds 

121,200 
117,200 

1931 
1932 

102 
lOOx 

4 

'  1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 
7  Feb.—  7  Aug. 

Winnipeg  5  %  Debs.  . 

138,000 

1914           106 

*& 

30  Apr.—  31  Oct. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 

(«)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


345 


CANADIAN   RAILWAYS,   BANKS   AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid  up 
per 
Share. 

Price. 

Yield 

RAILWAYS. 

Canadian  Pacific  Shares 
Do.  4  %  Preference  .     . 
Do.  5  %  Stg.  1st  Mtg.  Bd.  1915 
Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb,  Stock 
Grand  Trunk  Ordinary. 
Do.  5  %  1st  Preference  . 
Do.  5  %  2nd       „      .     . 
Do.  4  %  3rd       „      .     . 

$84,500,000 
£6,678,082 
£7,191,500 
£13,518,956 
£22,475,985 
£3,420,000 
£2,530,000 
£7,168,065 

5 
4 
5 
4 
nil 
5 
5 
1 

$100 
100 
100 
100 

Stock 

n 

126 
104 
110 
112 
19J 
114 
102 
52J 

3il 
3;nr 

*il 

Do.  4  %  Guaranteed 
Do.  5  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock 
Do,  4  %  Cons,  Deb.  Stock 

BAKES  AND  COMPANIES, 

Bank  of  Montreal    .... 
Bank  of  British  North  America 
Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce  . 
Canada  Company     .... 
Hudson's  Bay     

£5,219,794 
£4,270,375 
£10,393,966 

60,000 
20,000 
$8,000,000 
8,319 
100,000 

4 
5 
4 

10 
6 
7 
60s. 
22s.  Qd. 

ibo 

100 

$200 
50 
$•50 

11* 

103 
108 

500 
67 
16 

3  1 

Trust  and  Loan  of  Canada.     . 
Do.  new    

50,000 
25,000 

1 
7 

5 
3 

i 

?! 

British  Columbia  Electric\0rd. 
Railway  ....     ./Pref. 

£210,000 
£200,000 

4 
5 

Stock 
Stock 

78* 
92A 

ft 

*  £2  capital  repaid  July  1903. 

NEWFOUNDLAND   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

8£  %  Sterling  Bonds 

2,178,800 

1941-7-8 

92 

3S 

3  %  Sterling 

325,000 

1947 

79 

4 

4  %  Inscribed     „ 

320,000 

1913-38* 

103 

3f 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

4%        „       Stock 

509,342 

1935 

107 

311 

4  %  Cons,  Ins, 

200,000 

1936 

107 

3« 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

increased  revenue  is  no  longer  being  altogether  absorbed  by 
growth  in  expenditure,  as  there  was  a  balance  of  about  £20,000 
to  add  to  net  earnings.  Canadian  Bank  shares  and  those  of 
land  companies  are  very  firm,  the  enormous  immigration  to  the 
Dominion  affording  great  promise  of  increased  and  profitable 
business  for  the  undertakings  represented  by  these  investments. 
Hudson's  Bay  shares  are  attracting  a  fair  amount  of  investment 
attention,  quite  a  different  matter  from  the  extensive  speculation 
which  took  place  in  these  at  the  beginning  of  this  year.  The 
price  has  risen  from  35  to  36  during  the  month.  The  shares 
of  the  Canada  Company  are  quoted  at  35J,  and  give  a  yield  of 
over  8  per  cent. ;  but  they  have  a  very  quiet  market,  as  there  are 


346 


The  Empire  Review 


comparatively  few  of  them,  and  a  one-pound  share  quoted  at  35J 
is  not  attractive  to  everybody. 

Australian  Government  stocks  have  participated  in  the  general 
decline,  and  prices  are  now  practically  at  the  lowest  points  wit- 
nessed for  some  years.  As  compared  even  with  a  year  ago — a 
period  of  great  depression  when  the  Australian  outlook  was  far  less 
favourable  than  now — there  has  been  a  fairly  general  fall  of  from 
3  to  6  per  cent,  throughout  the  list  of  active  stocks.  The  3  per 
cent,  issues  have  suffered  most  severely,  owing  no  doubt  to  the 
fact  that  the  market  is  glutted  with  this  particular  description  of 
stock,  in  which  most  of  the  recent  loans  have  been  floated ;  but  as 

AUSTRALIAN   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

4%  Inscribed  Stock 

3 

9,686,300 

1933 

108 

1  Jan,—  1  July. 

3J  %      ii             ii 
8  %        „ 

I 

16,500,000 
12,500,000 

1924 
1935 

98 

88 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

VICTORIA, 

4$  %  Bonds      .     . 

5,000,000 

1904 

101 

^TTff 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4  %  Inscribed,  1882- 
4  %         „         1885 

3 
t) 

5,421,800 
6,000,000 

1908-13f 
1920 

100J 
104 

8ii 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

3J  %       „         1889 

4  % 

t} 

5,000,000 
2,107,000 

1921-6t 
1911-26* 

97 
101 

? 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3  %         „       .  0)  . 

» 

5,559,343 

1929-49f 

89 

Ii 

QUEENSLAND, 

4  %  Bonds  .     . 

10,267,400 

1913-15f 

101 

3? 

4  %o  Inscribed  Stock 

3io%        ii                 || 

*) 

8 

7,939,000 
8,616,034 

1924 
1921-30f 

106 
95 

4§ 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 

3  /£        ,i             ii 

4 

4,274,213 

1922-471 

89 

Q 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA, 

4  %  Bonds  .     .     . 

_ 

6,586,700 

1907-16J 

100£ 

3il 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4%      „      ... 
4  %  Inscribed  Stock 

• 

1,365,300 
6,222,900 

1916 
1916-36* 

101 
lOUx 

3* 
3* 

ll  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

?i%      " 

t)       2,517,800 

1939 

100 

N 

0    &                 "                              " 

2 

839,500 

1916-26J 

90 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Q   O/ 

°  /o        »              ii 

0 

2,760,100 

After  1916J 

90 

4 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA, 

4  %  Inscribed  . 

'  t  ' 

1,876,000 

1911-31* 

103 

3H 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

a  %  „    it)  . 

3  %       „         It)  . 
3%       „         \t). 

Ji 

2,380,000 
3,750,000 
2,500,000 

1920-35* 
1915-351 
1927J 

98 

88 
88 

3t 

a 

}l  May—  1  Nov. 
15  Jan.—  15  July. 

TASMANIA, 

3J  %  Inscbd.  Stock 

(f) 

3,456,500 

1920-40* 

100 

3J 

A  y 

*   /O                 II                        II 

(t)       1,000,000 

1920-40* 

107 

3A 

1  Jan.  —  1  July, 

8  %  

(t)          450,000 

1920-40* 

91 

3f 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 

j  No  allowance  for  redemption. 
(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments, 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


347 


AUSTRALIAN   MUNICIPAL   AND   OTHER   BONDS. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

j 
j   When  Re- 

!    deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Melbourne  &  Met.  Bd.\ 
of  Works  4%  Debs.  / 

1,000,000 

1921 

102 

8S 

1  Apl.—  1  Oct. 

Do.  City  4%  Debs.     . 

860,000 

i  1915-22* 

101 

4 

Do.    Harbour    Trust\ 
Comrs.  5%  Bds.       ./ 

500,000 

1908-9 

102| 

V* 

1  Jan.  —  1  July 

Do.  4%  Bds.     .     .     . 

1,250,000 

1  1918-21* 

101 

3ii 

Melbourne        Trams  \   .,  AKn  f^ 
Trust  4J%  Debs,    ./j  M50'00 

1914-16* 

105 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

S.  Melbourne  4J%  Debs.j      128,700 

1919 

101 

*T7* 

Sydney  4%  Debs.  .     . 
Do.  4%  Debs.  .     .     . 

640,000 
300,000 

1912-13 
1919 

101 
101 

NT 
Hi 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

AUSTRALIAN   RAILWAYS,   BANKS  AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

Emu  Bay  and  Mount  Bisohofl  .     .     . 
Do.  4£%  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .... 
Mid.  of  Western  Australia  6  %  Debs.  . 
Do.  4  %  Deb.  Bonds,  Guaranteed  .     . 

BANES  AND  COMPANIES. 

12,000 
£130,900 
£670,000 
£500,000 

40,000 

* 

3 

nil 
4 

11 

5 
100 
100 
100 

40 

3J 
97* 
42* 
101 

83 

n4§ 

£JL 

Bank  of  New  South  Wales  .     .     .     . 
Union  Bank  of  Australia  £75    .     .     . 
Do.  4  %  Inscribed  Stock  Deposits  .     . 
Australian  Mort.  Land  &  Finance  £25 
Do.  4  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock    .... 
Dalgety  &  Co.  £20     

100,000 
60,000 
£750,000 
80,000 
£1,900,000 
154,000 

10 
8 
4 
nil 
4 
5* 

20 
25 
100 
5 
100 
5 

40 
38 
99 
2 
95£ 

5^ 

s 

* 

3 

Do.  4}  %  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .... 
Do.  4%           ,,                               .     . 
Goldsbrough  Mort  &  Co.  4  %  A  Deb.\ 
Stock  Reduced  / 

£620,000 
£1,643,210 

£1,234,350 

? 

4 

100 
100 

100 

110* 
66* 

a 

6 

Do.  B  Income  Reduced  

£740,610 

4 

100 

35i!r 

111 

Australian  Agricultural  £25      .     .     . 

20,000 
14,200 

11£ 

21* 
20 

49 

I 

Trust  &  Agency  of  Australasia  .     .     . 
Do.  5  °/  Cum.  Pref.  ...          .     . 

42,479 
87,500 

nil 
5 

1 
10 

*8A 

5* 

Met.  of  Melb.  Gas  5  %  Debs.  1908-12. 
Do.  4£  %  Debs.  1918-22-24  .... 

£560,000 
£250,000 

5 

4 

100 
100 

105 
103 

& 

regards  the  general  list,  there  is  no  intrinsic  justification  for  the 
severe  fall,  which  must  be  attributed  chiefly  to  outside  influences 
and  sympathy  with  other  markets.  A  notable  feature  just  now, 
is  the  strength  of  the  leading  Australian  bank  shares,  all  of 
which  show  improvement  in  response  to  the  maintenance  of 
profits,  on  a  satisfactory  scale. 

Mail  reports  of  Sir  George  Turner's  Federal  Budget  statement 
are  now  to  hand.  His  estimates  of  revenue  and  expenditure  for 
the  current  year  are  not  so  satisfactory  as  the  results  actually 


348 


The  Empire  Review 


obtained  for  the  past  twelve  months.  In  revenue,  a  falling  off  to 
the  extent  of  ^£530,303  is  anticipated,  while  on  the  other  hand 
expenditure  is  expected  to  show  an  increase  of  £418,690.  Last 
year  the  receipts  were  unexpectedly  swelled  by  the  duties  on 
imported  grain,  which,  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  local  harvest, 
largely  exceeded  the  estimate.  This  year  a  plentiful  harvest  is 
anticipated ;  consequently  the  treasurer  reckons  on  a  diminished 
income  from  this  source  of  no  less  than  £319,000,  while  other 
sources  of  revenue  are  expected  to  show  a  reduction  of  about 
£211,000.  As  regards  the  estimated  expenditure,  the  principal 
increases  are :  £260,000  for  new  works  and  buildings,  and 
£100,000  in  the  postal  department. 

These  Federal  budget  figures  derive  special  interest  from 
their  bearing  on  the  finances  of  the  component  States  for  the 
current  "year.  The  total  amount  to  be  returned  to  them  is 
estimated  at  £7,251,464,  as  against  £8,200,457  received  by 
them  last  year.  According  to  this  estimate,  the  revenues  of 
the  various  States  will  suffer  in  the  following  proportions  : — 


New  South  Wales 
Victoria    •  *.    .;;/ 
Queensland       .  \1' 
South  Australia 
Western  Australia 
Tasmania  . 

• 

£ 

489,373 
160,859 
114,365 
37,183 
129,667 
17,546 

Total 


£948,993 


So  great  a  reduction  in  revenue  is  a  serious  matter  for  the 
States.  Some  of  them  show  deficits  for  last  year,  while  others 
only  just  managed  to  make  both  ends  meet,  and  it  is  apparent 
that  their  difficulties  will  be  greatly  increased  this  year.  New 
South  Wales  and  Queensland,  which  both  have  large  accumu- 
lated deficits,  are  in  the  worst  position ;  but  the  situation  calls 
for  the  strictest  economy  all  round.  It  must  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  the  experience  of  the  current  year  as  regards  New 
South  Wales,  does  not  so  far  bear  out  the  Federal  treasurer's 
estimate.  The  revenue  receipts  for  the  months  of  July  and 

NEW  ZEALAND   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

6%  Bonds  .     .     .     .           266,300 
5%  Consolidated  Bonds          236,400 

1914 
1908 

108 
101 

«i 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 
Quarterly. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stook 

IV%  "      " 

0  /o             II                    II 

t)     29,150,302 
t)  !     6,161,167 
t)       6,384,005 

1929 
1940 
1945 

109 
101 

89 

4 

1  May—  1  Nov. 
1  Jan.  —  1  July. 
1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

(t  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments  349 

NEW   ZEALAND   MUNICIPAL  AND   OTHER  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Auckland  5%  Deb.      . 
Do.  Hbr.  Bd.  5%  Debs. 

200,000 
150,000 

1934-8* 
1917 

Ill* 
107 

*| 
*& 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 
10  April—  10  Got. 

Bank  of  New  Zealand1! 
4%  Qua.  Stockf     ./ 

£2,000,000 

— 

99i 

*& 

Apr.—  Oct. 

Christchurch  6%  Drain- 
age Loan      .     .     . 

\    200,000 

1926 

126$ 

«i 

30  June—  31  Deo. 

Dunedin  5%  Cons.      . 

312,200 

1908 

103 

*T5« 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Lyttleton  Hbr.  Bd.  6% 

200,000 

1929 

126J 

*A 

iv 

Napier    Hbr,  Bd.  5%\ 
Debs             .     .     ./ 

300,000 

1920 

106 

^ 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  5%  Debs.  .     .     . 

200,000 

1928 

104 

4| 

National  Bank  of  N.Z. 
£7£  Shares  £2£  paid 

100,000 

div.  10  % 

4i 

5S 

. 
Jan.  —  July. 

New  Plymouth  Hbr. 
Bd.  6%  Debs.     .     . 

200,000 

1909 

104J 

6A 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Oamaru  5%  Bds.  .     . 

173,800 

1920 

91 

H 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Otago  Hbr.  Cons.  Bds.j 

417,500 

1934 

107 

*A 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 

Wellington  6%  Impts.l 
Loan  .     .     .     »     .  J 

100,000 

drawings 

118J 

«A 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  6%  Waterworks  . 

130,000 

ii 

123* 

w 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  4$%  Debs..     .     . 

165,000 

1933 

104 

4 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

WestportHbr.4%Debs. 

150,000 

1925 

102 

8 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

t  Guaranteed  by  New  Zealand  Government. 

August  show  a  total  increase  over  those  of  the  corresponding 
months  of  1902  of  £111,000,  and  embrace  a  net  increase  of 
£47,000  in  receipts  from  the  Commonwealth.  No  doubt  a  deter- 
mined effort  at  retrenchment  on  the  part  of  this  State  would 
soon  effect  a  substantial  betterment  in  its  financial  position. 

Amid  the  turmoil  of  discussion  on  the  fiscal  question  and  in 
the  stagnation  of  the  holiday  season,  South  African  financial 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

CAPE  COLONY, 

£ 

.   .,.,      '     ,    ; 

4£  %  Bonds      .     . 
4  %  1883  Inscribed 

970,900 
3,733,195 

dwgs. 
1923 

104 
107 

d§ 

H 

15  Apr.—  15  Got, 
1  June—  1  Deo. 

4  %  1886 

9,997,566 

1916-36* 

104 

9 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

3*  %  1886       ,, 

8,215,080 

1929-49* 

99 

3r9* 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

3  %  1886 

7,448,367 

1933-43* 

87 

31 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

NATAL. 

4£  %  Bonds,  1876  .     . 
4  %  Inscribed  .     .     . 

758,700 
3,026,444 

1919 
1937 

107x 
113 

I1 

15  Mar.—  15  Sep. 
Apr.—  Oct. 

34%        »              •     • 

3,714,917 

1939 

101 

3* 

1  June—  1  Deo, 

0    O/ 
3  /o                  M                          .         . 

6,000,000 

1929-49* 

93 

& 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 


350  The  Empire  Review 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  RAILWAYS,  BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

; 

Mashonaland  5  °/  Debs  

£2,500,000 

5 

100 

104* 

41? 

Northern  Railway  of  the   S.  African) 
Rep  4  7  Bonds  / 

nil 

100 

93J 

nil 

Pretoria-Pietersburg  4  %  Debs.  Red.    . 

£1,005,400 

4 

100 

100 

4 

Rhodesia  Rlys.  5  %  1st  Mort.    Debs.\ 
guar.  by  B.S.A.  Co.  till  1915.     .     ./ 

'  £2,000,000 

5 

100 

106 

4| 

Royal  Trans-African  5  %  Debs.  Red.   . 

£1,814,877 

5 

100 

85J 

5£ 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES, 

Robinson  South  African  Banking  .     . 

1,500,000 

?i 

1 

1A 

5  3 

African  Banking  Corporation  £10  shares 
Bank  of  Africa  £18|  

80,000 
120,000 

6 
12* 

5 
61 

tf 
13* 

*S 

Standard  Bank  of  S.  Africa  £100    .     . 

50,000 

2 

18 

4 

25 

O-WIJ 

85 

5A 

Ohlsson's  Cape  Breweries     .... 

30,000 

52 

5 

25 

10§ 

South  African  Breweries      .... 

750,000 

30 

1 

3 

10 

British  South  Africa  (Chartered)    .     . 

4,568,392 

nil 

1 

21 

nil 

Do.  5  7  Debs.  Red.    .     .           ... 

£1,250,000 

e 

100 

104 

413 

Natal  Land  and  Colonization    . 

34,033 

15 

5 

8 

p 

Cape  Town  &  District  Gas  Light  &  Coke 
Kimberley  Waterworks  £10.     .     .     . 

10,000 
45,000 

10 
5 

10 

7 

15 

South  African  Supply  and  Cold)  Or-d. 

300,000 

£4 

1 

Storage  /  Pref. 

150,000 

7 

1 

affairs  have  excited  but  little  interest.  The  Government  stocks,  like 
all  other  securities  of  a  similar  class,  have  relapsed  to  some  extent, 
the  single  exception  being  an  advance  of  a  point  in  Natal  Three 
Per  Cent.  Inscribed  stock.  The  gold  output  of  the  Transvaal 
continues  to  exhibit  a  steady  advance,  that  for  the  month  of 
August  being  20,275  ounces  more  than  the  production  of  the 
previous  month.  The  following  table  gives  the  monthly  output 
for  some  years  past,  with  the  value  since  it  has  appeared  in 
the  official  return.  It  should  be  noted  that  it  is  only  since  the 
War  that  the  return  has  been  in  fine  gold : — 


1903. 

1902. 

1901. 

1899. 

oz. 
199,279 
196,513 
217,465 
227,871 
234,125 
238,320 
251,643 
271,918 

value. 

£994,505 
1,012,322 
1,068,917 
1,155,039 

i'  '"** 

OZ. 

70,340 
81,405 
104,127 
119,588 
138,602 
142,780 
149,179 
162,750 
170,802 
181,439 
187,375 
196,023 

oz. 

7,'478 
19,779 
25,960 
26,474 
31,936 
33,393 
39,075 
52,897 

OZ. 

431,010 
425,166 
464,036 
460,349 
466,  ,452 
467,271 
478,493 
482,108 
426,556 
19,906 
61,780 
73,670 

February     .... 
March    . 

April.      . 

May  . 

June  

Julv 

August   

September  .... 
October  
November    .... 
December    .... 

Total    .     .     . 

1,837,134 

!        "        i 

1,704,410 

238,992 

4,256,797 

Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


351 


It  will  be  seen  that,  except  in  the  case  of  March,  which 
contained  three  days  more  than  its  predecessor,  last  month's 
output  showed  the  largest  increase  in  any  one  month  since  the 
end  of  the  war,  and  really  gives  little  ground  for  pessimism  as  to 
the  future  of  the  gold  industry.  The  gold  production  is  still, 
however,  but  little  more  than  one-half  what  it  was  before  the 
war,  and  those  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  mines  naturally 
desire  to  get  on  a  little  faster.  The  progress  of  the  South 
African  banks  is  extremely  satisfactory.  The  accounts  of  the 
Bank  of  Africa  show  that  the  net  profits  for  the  half-year  ended 
June  30th  last  amounted  to  £71,800,  which  compares  with 
£63,200  for  the  first  half  of  1902.  The  balance  brought  in, 
too,  was  £4569  more,  making  a  total  increase  of  £13,050  in  the 
amount  available  for  distribution.  The  usual  contribution  of 
£3000  is  made  to  the  Pension  Fund,  and  £20,000  is  added  to 
reserve,  against  £10,000  last  year.  Although  the  paid-up  capital 
has  been  increased  from  £750,000  to  £889,744,  the  directors  are 
able  to  pay  1  per  cent,  more,  or  at  the  rate  of  13  instead  of  12 
per  cent,  per  annum,  and  to  carry  forward  £23,253,  against 
£19,002  a  year  ago. 

Ehodesian  securities  have  shared  the  dulness  of  other  South 
Africans,  British  South  Africa  shares  having  receded  to  2£.  The 
gold  return  for  the  month  of  August  was  somewhat  disappointing, 
as  it  was  6384  ounces  less  than  the  output  for  July,  and  is  the 
smallest  return  since  February  last.  The  Ehodesian  production 
for  the  eight  months  of  1903,  however,  amounts  to  160,749 
ounces,  against  194,268  ounces  for  the  whole  of  1902,  so  that 
by  the  time  the  end  of  the  year  is  reached  the  previous  year's 
output  will  be  considerably  exceeded.  The  following  table  gives 
the  output,  month  by  month,  since  January,  1899  :  — 


1903. 

1902. 

1901. 

1900. 

1899. 

January  

oz. 
16,245 

oz. 
15,955 

oz. 
10,697 

oz. 
5,242 

oz. 
6,371 

February 

17,090 

13,204 

12  237 

6,233 

6  433 

March     

19,626 

16,891 

14,289 

6,286 

6,614 

April  . 

20,727 

17,559 

14,998 

5,456 

5,755 

22,137 

19,698 

14,469 

6,554 

4,939 

22,166 

15,842 

14,863 

6,185 

6,104 

July  . 

23,571 

15,226 

15,651 

5,738 

6,031 

August    ...           . 

19,187 

15,747 

14,734 

10,138 

3,177 

September 

15,164 

13,958 

10,749 

5,653 

October  
November 

•• 

16,849 
15,923 

14,503 
16,486 

10,727 
9,169 

4,276 
4,671 

December     .                      . 

;• 

16,210 

15,174 

9,463 

5,289 

Total     .... 

160,749 

194,268 

172,059 

91,940 

65,313 

The  response  to  the  appeal  in  aid  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jamaica 
on  account  of  the  disastrous  cyclone  from  which  the  island  suffered, 


352 


The  Empire  Review 


has  been  very  cordial,  and  demonstrates  the  interest  felt  at  home 
in  the  fortunes  of  the  Crown  Colonies,  which  are,  of  course,  more 
immediately  attached  to  us  than  are  the  self-governing  States.  It 
is  reported,  too,  that  the  disaster  was  not  quite  so  serious  as  was 
at  first  feared,  a  fair  number  of  banana  plantations  having  escaped 

CROWN  COLONY  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When       I     p  , 
Redeemable. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Barbadoes  3fc%  ins.    . 
Brit.  Guiana  3%  ins.  . 

375,000 
250,000 

1925-42f 
1923-45* 

99 
90 

If 

1  Mar.  —  1  Sep. 
1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Ceylon  4%  ins.  .     .     . 

1,076,100 

1934 

112 

3| 

15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3%  ins  
Hong-Kong  3J%  ins  (t) 
Jamaica  4%  ins.    .     . 

2,450,000 
341,800 
1,098,907 

1940 
1918-43* 
1934 

96 
102 
106 

1 

1  May—  1  Nov. 
15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.3J%ins.     .     .     . 

1,449,800 

1919-49* 

100 

3$ 

24  Jan.—  24  July. 

Mauritius    3%  guar.) 
Great  Britain  (t)     ./ 

600,000 

1940 

98$ 

3^ 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Do.  4%  ins  

482,390 

1937 

110 

3$ 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Trinidad  4%  ins.  (t)    . 

422,593 

1917-42* 

102 

315 

15  Mar  .—15  Sep. 

Do.  3%  ins.  (t)  .     .     • 

600,000 

1926-44f 

91 

3^B 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 

Hong-Kong  &  Shang-) 
hai  Bank  Shares    .  / 

80,000 

Div.  £3J 

65* 

•A 

Feb.—  Aug. 

•  Yield  calculated  on  shorter  period.  f  Yield  calculated  on  longer  period. 

(«)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

the  ravages  of  the  storm.  The  incident  has  not  affected  the 
prices  of  Jamaica  stocks,  and  the  only  movements  among  other 
Crown  Colony  securities  are  due  to  the  deduction  of  dividends 
from  Barbados  and  the  Trinidad  issues.  Hong-Kong  and 
Shanghai  Banking  Corporation  shares  have  further  improved 
in  market  value. 

TRUSTEE. 

September  21^,  1903. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

"Far  as  the  breeze  can  bear,  the  billows  foam. 
Survey  our  empire,  and  behold  our  home/' — Byron. 


VOL.  VI. 


NOVEMBER,   1903. 


No.  34. 


MR.   MORLEY'S   LIFE   OF   GLADSTONE* 

A  GEE  AT  work  worthy  of  its  great  subject.  The  art  of 
writing  a  Life  is  an  art  by  itself.  How  many  essay  it,  how  few 
succeed.  Mr.  Morley  has  already  taught  us  in  his  Life  of 
Cobden  how  the  life  of  a  great  man  should  be  written,  and  when 
he  undertook  the  Life  of  Mr.  Gladstone  we  knew  that  the 
painting  of  the  portrait  had  been  entrusted  to  a  master. 

Our  anticipations  are  more  than  realised,  for  Mr.  Morley  has 
given  the  nation  a  masterpiece.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  lay 
down  the  book  when  once  taken  up.  One  is  fascinated  by  the 
tale  of  that  eventful  and  complex  life  as  it  is  rolled  out  from  phase 
to  phase,  from  the  day  when  he  entered  the  school,  for  which 
through  life  he  retained  such  filial  affection,  to  those  sad  days  of 
suffering  borne  with  Christian  courage,  which  closed  the  long, 
splendid  and  chequered  career.  Throughout  the  work  attention 
is  never  diverted  from  the  central  figure,  the  accessories  are 
admirably  put  in,  but  they  are  never  permitted  to  be  more  than 
accessories ;  and  we  have  before  us  the  man,  in  great  measure 
described  by  himself,  the  man  in  his  strength,  in  his  successes  and 
in  his  failures,  the  true  man  in  the  simplicity  of  his  nature,  the 
subtlety  of  his  intellect  in  his  devotion  to  duty,  and  in  the  lofti- 
ness of  his  character.  Now  that  the  heat  of  the  battle  is  over, 
that  the  passion  and  prejudices  of  past  fights  have  died  away,  his 
opponents  will  admit  that  the  story  of  those  fights  is  honestly 

*  'The  Life  of  William  Ewart  Gladstone,'  by  John  Morley.  With  Portraits. 
3  vols.  8vo.,  42s.  net.  Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ld.,  London. 

VOL.  VI.-— No.  34.  2  A 


354 


The  Empire  Review 


told,  and  that  there  is  no  attempt  to  add  to  his  fame  by  deprecia- 
tion of  his  antagonists,  while  his  friends  and  followers,  who 
believe  that  the  picture  of  the  true  man  will  amply  justify  their 
devotion  to  his  memory,  are  more  than  satisfied. 

The  labour  which  confronted  Mr.  Morley  was  appalling.     He 
devotes   a   chapter    to   the    contents   of    the   Octagon   room    at 
Hawarden,  the  room  which  Mr.  Gladstone   built  adjoining  his 
library  to  hold  his  correspondence.     Mr.  Gladstone  described  this 
Octagon  as  "a  necessity  of  his  profession   and  history."     He 
estimated    the    selected   letters   addressed    to   himself    at   sixty 
thousand,  and  Mr.  Morley  reckons  other  letters  and  papers  which 
found  their  way  there  at  several  tens  of  thousands  more.     There 
were  stored  between  five  and  six  hundred  holographs  from  the 
Queen,   which   were    made    heirlooms.     One    can    imagine    his 
dismay  at   the  "slightly  improvident  thrift"  which  left  such  a 
mass   of    correspondence,   out   of  which   he   had   to   select    the 
material  for  describing  a  long  and  eventful   life.     Nor  was  this 
all.     He  had  to  deal  also  with  letters  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's correspondents,  and   he  reckons  that  between  two   and 
three  hundred  thousand  papers   must  have  passed  under    his 
review.      Half    the   contents   of    the   Octagon   were    papers    of 
business.     In  this  region  of  his  true  calling,  says  Mr.  Morley, 
all  is  order,  precision,  persistency,  and  the  firmness  and  ease  of 
the   strong.      The    correspondence    of    a  Prime   Minister  must 
record  depressing  evidence  of  human  vanity,  human  selfishness, 
and    sordid    ambition ;    but    there    is    evidence    also   of    single- 
mindedness,  unselfish  labour  for  the  public  good,  and   modesty 
such  as  that  of  the  peer  "  who  to  the  proffer  of  the  garter,  replied, 
with  gratitude  evidently  sincere,  '  I  regret,  however,  that  I  cannot 
conscientiously  accept  an  honour  which  is  beyond  my  deserts.' ' 

Probably  in  a  Prime  Minister's  correspondence  the  lower 
element  predominates ;  but  a  little  leaven  leaveneth  the  lump, 
and,  in  spite  of  all  the  evidence  of  human  weakness  which  had 
passed  before  him,  Mr.  Gladstone  retained  to  the  last  his  generous 
view  of  human  nature.  The  miscellaneous  correspondence  in  the 
Octagon  marks  the  active  interest  which  that  inquiring  intellect 
took  in  all  the  questions  of  the  day.  Religious  questions  have,  as 
might  be  expected,  a  leading  part  in  it,  and  one  learns  how,  a 
devout  believer  himself,  he  acknowledges  "  the  high  place  assigned 
to  liberty  in  the  councils  of  Providence."  He  is  in  constant 
correspondence  with  the  chiefs  of  the  literary  and  scientific 
world.  In  the  collection  are  letters  from  Cavour,  from  Dupan- 
loup,  from  Garibaldi,  from  Minghetti  Eicasoli,  from  David 
Massari,  from  Guizot.  It  is  pleasant  to  read  the  letters  which 
passed  between  him  and  Mr.  Disraeli  on  the  illness  and  on  the 
death  of  Lady  Beaconsfield.  Mr.  Morley  concludes  his  chapter 


Mr.  Morley's  Life  of  Gladstone  355 

on    the   Octagon    and    its    contents  by  a   quotation    from    the 
Prelude : 

Not  wholly  so  to  him  who  looks 
In  steadiness ;  who  hath  among  least  things 
An  under-sense  of  greatness  ;  sees  the  parts 
As  parts,  but  with  a  feeling  of  the  whole. 

Such  steadiness,  such  under-sense  and  feeling  of  the  whole  was  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's gift  and  inspiration,  never  expending  itself  in  pensive  musings  upon  the 
vain  ambitions,  illusions,  cheats,  regrets  of  human  life  .  .  .  but  ever  stirring 
him  to  duty,  and  manful  hope,  to  intrepid  self-denial  and  iron  effort. 

An  official  who  served  long  under  Mr.  Gladstone  at  the 
Treasury  naturally  turns  with  interest  to  the  chapter  on  Mr. 
Gladstone's  finance. 

Mr.  Morley  tells  the  story  most  skilfully  and  most  impressively. 
Writers  on  finance  are  generally  the  slaves  of  their  figures,  for 
figures  are  the  subject-matter  of  finance.  Financial  measures 
are  judged  in  figures,  are  measured  by  figures,  and  their  results 
are  told  in  figures.  Figures  are  the  weapons  with  which  budgets 
are  fought.  They  are  essential  to  financial  business,  and  to 
financial  discussion,  but  they  bore  the  untrained  mind.  Mr. 
Morley,  addressing  the  nation,  avoids  this  pitfall.  In  his  chapter 
on  the  spirit  of  Gladstonian  finance,  he  portrays  the  great 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  summarises  his  work  in  words 
which  all  can  understand.  He  traces  the  long-considered  and 
lasting  purpose  which  inspired  every  act  of  Mr.  Gladstone's 
financial  administration  from  outset  to  close,  and  which  made 
it  an  epic  of  finance.  He  shows  us  that,  while,  on  other 
questions,  Mr.  Gladstone  had  to  follow,  to  adapt  himself  to 
the  governing  forces  of  the  public  mind,  in  finance  he  was 
a  strenuous  leader.  He  shows  us  that  the  social  question,  which 
Mr.  Gladstone  has  been  accused  of  ignoring,  was  the  main- 
spring of  his  action.  "  Tariff  reform,  adjustment  of  burthens, 
invincible  repugnance  to  waste  or  profusion,  accurate  keeping 
and  continuous  scrutiny  of  accounts,  substitution  of  a  few  good 
taxes  for  many  bad  ones  "...  were  directly  associated  in  him  with 
the  amelioration  of  the  hard  lot  of  the  working  class.  "  If  you 
want,"  said  Mr.  Gladstone,  "  to  benefit  the  labouring  classes, 
and  to  do  the  maximum  of  good,  it  is  not  enough  to  operate  upon 
the  articles  consumed  by  them,  you  should  rather  operate  on  the 
articles  that  give  them  the  maximum  of  employment " — that  is, 
the  area  of  trade  should  be  extended  by  removing  restrictions. 
He  ranked  cheap  postage,  and  abolition  of  taxes  on  printed 
matter  in  the  catalogue  of  free-trade  legislation,  adding  that 
these  measures  may  well  take  their  place  beside  the  abolition  of 
prohibitions,  and  protective  duties,  the  simplifying  of  revenue 

2  A  2 


356  The  Empire  Review 

laws,  the  repeal  of  the  Navigation  Act,  as  forming  together  the 
great  code  of  industrial  emancipation. 

In  the  same  spirit  he  sought  to  encourage  thrift  among 
the  working  classes  by  the  establishment  of  Post  Office  Savings 
Banks.  He  was  proud  of  this  measure  as  providing  for  the 
savings  of  the  people  with  safety,  cheapness  and  convenience,  he 
was  proud  of  it  also  because  it  provided  the  minister  of  finance 
with  a  strong  financial  arm  by  giving  him  a  large  and  certain 
command  of  money. 

Men  who,  at  the  present  moment,  are  hesitating  over  the 
proposal  to  revert  to  taxes  on  consumption  and  restrictive  legisla- 
tion, would  do  well  to  read  this  masterly  chapter  on  finance. 

The  chapter  on  the  great  Budget  is  the  best  description 
which  has  as  yet  been  given  of  two  great  measures  closely  linked 
together — the  French  Treaty  and  the  Budget  of  1860.  Con- 
sequent upon  the  Budget  came  the  rejection  by  the  Lords  of  the 
Bill  repealing  the  paper  duty,  followed  by  Mr.  Gladstone's  victory 
over  the  Lords  in  the  following  year.  In  this  chapter,  and  in  the 
chapter  on  the  battle  for  economy,  Mr.  Morley  carries  us  back 
with  singular  vividness  into  the  conflict  of  those  days— the 
antagonists  are  in  the  ring,  the  actors  are  on  the  stage  before  us. 
We  assist  at  the  meetings  of  the  Cabinet,  we  share  the  dis- 
cussions of  ministers  among  themselves,  and  we  follow  them  into 
Parliament.  The  play  is  of  the  deepest  interest,  and  the  players 
are  not  unworthy  of  it. 

Our  political  history  during  the  period  between  1859  and  1866 
repays  study.  While  Lord  Palmerston  lived  there  was  practical 
truce ;  Mr.  Disraeli  was  distrusted,  Lord  Palmerston  was  trusted 
by  the  Tories.  Lord  Palmerston  was  popular  with  a  large  section 
of  the  Liberals,  and  personally  unpopular  with  very  few.  His  real 
interest  was  concentrated  on  foreign  affairs.  Immediately  before 
his  accession  to  power  the  foolish  address  of  the  French  colonels 
to  the  Emperor  had  roused  one  of  our  periodical  panics.  The 
war  between  France  and  Austria  upon  the  Italian  question  had 
broken  out.  The  war  between  North  and  South  in  the  United 
States  followed.  Prussia  took  the  first  step  towards  the  creation 
of  Germany  by  forcing  on  the  Schleswig-Holstein  war,  and  when 
the  ministry  fell  in  1866,  the  war  between  Prussia  and  Austria 
was  riveting  the  attention  of  Europe.  Lord  Palmerston  as 
Prime  Minister,  pre-occupied  with  foreign  affairs,  had  not  time 
for  the  consideration  of  home  questions.  They  were  not,  indeed, 
the  questions  which  specially  interested  him,  and  his  majority  in 
the  House  of  Commons  was  too  small  for  effective  liberal  legisla- 
tion. Hence  home  reforms  of  all  kinds  were  in  abeyance. 

The  one  exception  was  the  department  over  which  Mr.  Glad- 
stone presided.  The  story  of  the  Palmerston  ministry  has 


Mr.  Morley's  Life  of  Gladstone  357 

usually  been  told  with  a  tendency  to  represent  Mr.  Gladstone  as 
a  somewhat  difficult  colleague,  kept  in  order  by  Lord  Palrner- 
ston's  tact.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  achievements  of  the 
Palmerston  ministry  in  home  affairs  are  simply  the  record  of 
Mr.  Gladstone's  administration.  The  French  Treaty,  and  the 
Budget  of  1860,  which  completed  Peel's  work  of  tariff  reform  and 
swept  away  the  last  restriction  on  trade,  the  abolition  of  the 
paper  duty  after  its  rejection  by  the  Lords,  and  the  enactment  of 
taxes  in  a  single  bill  yearly  instead  of  in  several  bills,  which 
deprived  the  Lords  of  their  power  to  reject  taxes  in  detail,  the 
institution  of  the  Post  Office  Savings  Banks — the  first  proposals 
for  effectively  reducing  the  public  debt — the  subjection  of  all 
public  expenditure  to  independent  audit,  and  the  subjection  also 
of  the  audited  accounts  to  effective  control  by  the  House  of 
Commons.  These  measures  were  the  fruit  of  Mr.  Gladstone's 
chancellorship.  Last,  not  least,  came  his  long  fight  for  economy. 
For  six  years  battle  was  waged  round  the  public  expenditure 
between  him  and  Lord  Palmerston.  He  stood  almost  alone  in  a 
lukewarm,  a  hostile,  cabinet,  but  he  won  the  day,  for  he  carried 
back  the  expenditure  which  had  risen  by  leaps  and  bounds  in 
1859  and  1860  under  the  influence  of  panic,  to  the  amount,  or 
very  near  the  amount,  at  which  it  stood  before  the  panic — a 
rebuke  to  those  who  would  say  with  a  great  statesman,  "  who  are 
we  that  we  should  stem  the  torrent,"  and  a  warning  against  the 
pessimism  which  numbs  effective  action  in  a  great  cause. 

Mr.  Morley  passes  rather  shortly  over  the  famous  episode  of 
1874,  when  Mr.  Gladstone  went  to  the  country  with  a  proposal 
to  sweep  away  the  income  tax.  The  defeat  of  his  government  put 
an  end  to  the  proposal,  and,  in  consequence,  the  details  were  not 
given  to  the  public.  There  was  at  the  time  much  curiosity  on  the 
subject,  but  the  idea  was  born  in  no  financial  mystery ;  it  required 
no  financial  legerdemain.  In  1873  this  country  paid  to  the  United 
States  £3,200,000  under  the  "Alabama"  award.  In  ordinary 
circumstances  a  capital  charge  of  this  character  would  have  been 
borrowed,  and  the  liquidation  spread  over  a  few  years.  But  Mr. 
Gladstone  and  Mr.  Lowe  resolved  if  possible  to  provide  it  out  of 
the  revenue  of  the  year  without  resort  to  loan.  For  that  purpose 
they  retained  a  large  amount  of  taxation  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  remitted.  As  the  payment  of  the  £3,200,000  did  not 
recur  the  'government  would  have  at  their  disposal  in  the  next 
financial  year  a  surplus  of  £3,200,000  in  addition  to  the  surplus 
arising  from  the  growth,  at  that  time  large,  of  revenue  during  the 
year.  They  might  in  fact  reasonably  hope  to  have  in  the  next 
financial  year  a  surplus  of  from  £4,000,000  to  £5,000,000  available 
for  remission  of  taxation. 

At  the  close  of  the  session  the  Government  was  readjusted 


358 


The  Empire  Review 


and  Mr.  Gladstone  became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  as  well 
as  First  Lord.  Before  Parliament  separated,  he  sent  for  the 
Chairman  of  the  Inland  Kevenue  and  myself,  and  gave  us 
instructions  as  to  information  which  we  were  to  collect  for  him 
during  the  autumn.  He  said  nothing  of  his  intentions,  but  we 
guessed  that  the  question  of  the  income  tax  was  in  his  mind. 
At  the  close  of  December,  when  three  quarters  of  the  financial 
year  had  expired,  we  were  ordered  to  have  our  papers  ready  for 
him  against  his  return  to  town.  We  attended  him  on  the  day  of 
his  return  in  January,  and  he  spent  several  hours  with  us  in  a 
close  examination  of  the  financial  position.  He  then  for  the 
first  time  intimated  to  us  that  he  saw  his  way  to  dispense  with 
the  income  tax,  and  discussed  the  method  by  which  he  could 
make  good  the  deficit.  He  had  in  fact  a  magnificent  surplus  to 
handle.  His  successor,  who  had  no  object  in  exaggerating  it, 
calculated  it  at  £5, 500,000,  and  the  result  more  than  justified 
the  calculation.  He  did  not  in  January  anticipate  so  much. 

Following  his  usual  policy  he  contemplated  dividing  his  re- 
missions between  direct  and  indirect  taxation.  Probably  his 
choice  under  the  latter  head  would  have  fallen  on  sugar,  the 
duty  on  which  he  would  have  abolished  at  a  cost  of  about 
£2,000,000.  The  abolition  of  the  income  tax  would  have  cost 
the  revenue  in  the  year  1874-5  about  £4,600,000,  with  a  further 
loss  of  about  £900,000  in  the  following  year.  If  he  remitted  in 
direct  taxation  as  much  as  he  remitted  in  indirect  taxation, 
or  £2,000,000,  it  would  have  left  him  £2,600,000  to  make 
good  in  new  taxation  for  the  year.  He  looked  to  the  death 
duties  with  some  readjustment  of  other  duties  to  supply  the 
deficit.  It  is  clear  that  this  was  practicable  since  his  successors 
increased  the  death  duties  in  twenty  years  by  some  £6,000,000, 
and  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  increased  death  duties 
would  not  have  been  an  addition  to  but  in  substitution  for 
existing  taxation.  He  would  then  have  been  left  with  a  surplus 
of  £1,500,000  to  aid  him  in  a  scheme  for  readjustment  of  local 
taxation.  Such  is  the  outline  of  his  plan.  But  in  the  middle  of 
January  he  was  in  advance  of  the  usual  time  for  maturing  the 
Budget  which  would  be  opened  in  April,  and  he  would  have  had 
three  months  during  which  to  reduce  his  idea  into  a  working 
plan.  I  do  not  think  he  had  definitely  made  up  his  mind  to 
propose  the  abolition  of  the  income  tax  until  he  had  fully 
ascertained  the  state  and  the  prospect  of  finance  on  the  day  I 
have  named,  but  I  am  convinced  that  from  that  time  he  saw  his 
way  clearly.  I  doubt  whether  he  had  communicated  his  decision 
to  any  of  his  colleagues  before  that  day.  I  was  present  the  day 
following  when  he  explained  his  proposals  to  Mr.  Bright,  and  I 
gathered  that  Mr.  Bright  then  learned  his  views  for  the  first 


Mr.  Morley's  Life  of  Gladstone  359 

time.     A  few  days  later  he  decided  on  the  appeal  to  the  country, 
and  the  rest  of  the  story  is  known. 

Those  who  served  Mr.  Gladstone  knew  well  the  ease  with 
which  he  got  through  business,  due  to  three  qualities— power  of 
concentration,  method,  and  wonderful  memory.  We  who  had 
occasionally  to  ask  him  for  decisions  on  pressing  matters,  knew 
that  it  was  dangerous  to  interrupt  him  when  engaged  on  some 
special  question.  He  would  not,  in  fact,  be  diverted.  His  Budget 
notes  were  always  in  his  own  hand.  On  one  occasion  he  made 
an  important  modification  on  the  day  of  the  Budget,  and  it  would 
have  interfered  with  his  arrangement  of  time  in  the  afternoon  to 
wait  and  make  the  necessary  changes  in  his  notes.  He  said  to 
me,  laughing,  "I  will  give  you  a  proof  of  confidence.  Take 
my  notes  and  amend  them,  but  woe  betide  you  if  anything  is  out 
of  place."  His  memory  amazed  one.  Facts  and  figures  were 
packed  there  ready  for  immediate  use,  and  what  is  more  extra- 
ordinary, facts  and  figures  stored  half  a  century  before  were 
as  available  as  those  of  yesterday.  Sir  Algernon  West  gives  an 
instance  in  his  Reminiscences  which  delighted  us  who  were 
present.  In  1880,  Mr.  Gladstone  was  discussing  a  measure, 
which  he  was  about  to  introduce  into  Parliament,  converting 
the  malt  tax  into  a  beer  tax.  He  began  the  conversation  by 
assuming  that  under  the  malt  tax  the  profit  of  the  maltster 
was  3  per  cent,  on  the  quarter  of  malt.  Sir  Algernon,  then 
Chairman  of  the  Inland  Revenue,  corrected  him,  saying  it  was 
4  per  cent.  "  Surely,"  said  Mr.  Gladstone,  "  you  told  me  it  was 
-Q  per  cent.,  or  how  could  I  have  got  it  into  my  head?"  Then 
turning  to  the  Deputy  Chairman,  he  said  :  "  Can  you  recollect  as 
far  back  as  1832  ?  "  "  Yes,"  replied  Mr.  Young,  "  and  the  profit 
was  then  reckoned  at  3  per  cent."  "  Ah  !  "  said  Mr.  Gladstone, 
"  I  now  see  how  I  got  that  figure  into  my  head ;  I  was  elected 
member  for  Newark  in  that  year,  and  I  studied  the  malt  question 
then."  This  is  but  a  sample  of  feats  of  memory  with  which  we 
were  familiar. 

Mr.  Gladstone  was  a  model — I  might  say  fascinating — chief. 
He  was  exacting.  His  standard  of  duty  was  high,  and  he  im- 
pressed it  on  his  subordinates.  He  expected  them  to  know  their 
business,  to  devote  themselves  to  it,  and  he  marked  with  severity 
omissions,  and  especially  want  of  exactness.  I  can  see  now  the 
searching  glance  he  turned  upon  one  when  one  laid  before  him  a 
proposal  or  made  a  suggestion,  accompanying  it  with  the  for- 
midable remark,  "  Let  us  see  how  that  is,"  and  with  questions 
which  early  taught  one  the  danger  of  approaching  him  with 
imperfect  information.  But  never  was  there  a  more  generous 
master  to  those  who  worked  well  and  conscientiously.  He 
gave  full  meed,  and  more  than  full  meed  to  their  efforts  and 


360 


The  Empire  Review 


services,  and  he  never  forgot  them.  He  had,  I  think  I  may 
say,  a  pride  in  the  Civil  Service,  of  which  he  was  so  long  the 
virtual  chief.  Even  in  those  sad  days  of  suffering  at  Cannes 
in  the  beginning  of  1898  he  talked  to  me  of  his  old  sub- 
ordinates in  the  Civil  Service,  recalling  with  genuine  pleasure 
the  aid  he  had  received  from  them  in  the  many  measures  con- 
nected with  his  name.  The  severe  but  just  and  most  generous 
master  won  in  return  the  loyal  devotion  of  his  officers. 

One  feels  as  one  lays  down  Mr.  Morley's  book  that  a  fitting 
monument  has  been  raised  to  the  great  statesman.  The  current 
of  public  opinion  has  of  late  years  set  in  a  direction  different  from 
that  which  prevailed  during  the  greater  part  of  Mr.  Gladstone's 
life,  and  opposed  to  that  which  he  would  have  desired.  The 
generation  in  power,  or  the  predominant  part  of  it  is  not  favour- 
ably inclined  to  the  lesson  which  he  taught,  and  perhaps  therefore 
under-estimates  the  teacher,  but  the  nation,  as  a  whole,  reverences 
lofty  aims  and  great  powers  devoted  to  its  service,  and  Mr.  Morley's 
work  places  Mr.  Gladstone  on  a  pedestal  from  which  he  will  not 
be  removed. 

WELBY. 


Why  Asiatic  Labour  is  necessary  for  the  Rand     361 


WHY    ASIATIC    LABOUR    IS    NECESSARY 
FOR   THE    RAND 

THE   FACTS    AND   FIGURES 

IN  a  very  few  days,  probably  before  this  article  is  published, 
the  Commissioners,  who  for  some  time  past  have  been  sitting 
at  Johannesberg  conducting  an  exhaustive  inquiry  into  all 
questions  connected  with  the  subject  of  Native  Labour,  will 
have  issued  their  Eeport.  And,  in  view  of  the  evidence  taken,  it 
may,  I  think,  be  inferred  with  some  certainty  that  the  majority 
report — for,  as  in  the  case  of  all  commissions,  a  minority  report 
may  be  expected — will  recommend  the  employment  of  Asiatic 
labour  under  well-defined  restrictions,  prominent  among  which 
will  doubtless  be  the  compulsory  return  to  their  own  land  of 
all  Asiatics  imported  under  articles  of  indenture  to  work  in  the 
gold  mines  of  the  Kand  or  elsewhere.  The  next  step  presumably 
will  be  a  petition  to  the  Legislative  Council  to  put  into  force 
the  Commissioners'  finding.  It  is  scarcely  conceivable  that  any 
objection  will  be  made  in  this  quarter,  though,  as  the  Council 
stands  prorogued  to  November  30,  and  the  drafting  of  an 
ordinance  must  take  some  little  time,  legislation  can  hardly  be 
expected  before  the  New  Year. 

Possibly  that  section  of  the  South  African  community  which 
has  so  strenuously  objected  to  the  introduction  of  Asiatic  labour 
on  the  Band — a  section  which  can  claim  friends  in  certain  political 
circles  here— will  make  a  still  further  effort  to  arrest  progress  by 
way  of  a  final  appeal  to  Downing  Street.  But  it  needs  no  ac- 
quaintance with  Cabinet  secrets  to  pronounce  beforehand  that 
any  such  appeal  will  be  useless.  Mr.  Chamberlain,  when  Colonial 
Minister,  made  it  plain  that  the  question  of  introducing  Asiatic 
labour  into  the  Transvaal  was  solely  a  matter  for  local  juris- 
diction, and  must  be  settled  by  the  will  of  the  majority  on  the 
spot.  And  any  communication  on  the  subject  addressed  to 
Mr.  Alfred  Lyttelton  will,  without  doubt,  be  answered  in  the 
same  manner. 


362 


The  Empire  Review 


AN  IMPERIAL  QUESTION. 

But  if  the  power  of  action  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Transvaal 
Executive  the  issue  before  the  public  is  far  reaching  in  its 
consequences.  On  it  the  welfare  of  all  South  Africa  depends. 
More  than  this,  it  is  an  Imperial  question.  Whether,  as 
Mr.  Asquith  tells  us,  Mr.  Chamberlain  is  wrong  and  Great 
Britain's  exports  are  in  a  flourishing  condition,  or  as  Mr. 
Chamberlain  says,  with  a  little  further  observation  than  the  late 
Home  Secretary,  British  export  trade  is  declining,  one  thing  is 
certain,  that  for  some  time  past  little  or  no  business  has  been 
done  on  the  Stock  Exchange,  gilt-edged  securities  are  tumbling 
down  to  a  price  quite  unprecedented,  and  consols  have  touched  a 
"record"  point  in  the  descending  scale.  Without  doubt  this 
disastrous  position  is  mainly  due  to  the  scarcity  of  gold.  Not 
an  altogether  surprising  fact,  seeing  that  the  production  and 
buying  power  of  the  Transvaal  mines,  the  most  important  gold- 
producing  area  in  the  world,  have  been  practically  at  a  standstill 
for  a  period  not  of  months  but  of  years. 

Nor  is  the  situation  rendered  less  acute  when  one  considers 
the  cost  of  the  South  African  War  and  the  necessity  of  finding  the 
money  to  meet  it,  while  one  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
in  a  short  time  large  sums  will  be  required  to  supply  the  demands 
consequent  on  the  putting  into  force  of  the  financial  sections  of  the 
Irish  Land  Purchase  Act.  I  do  not  say,  nor  do  I  mean  to  imply,  that 
with  Asiatic  labour  on  the  Kand  the  situation  will  be  so  changed 
that  rivers,  so  to  speak,  will  run  in  dry  places.  I  do  not  wish  to 
present  an  exaggerated  picture  or  to  sketch  an  horizon  wanting 
in  reality.  But  it  is  quite  obvious  that  if  the  Transvaal  mines  were 
working  full  speed  the  gold  output  would  be  very  different  to  what 
it  is  to-day.  Moreover,  and  South  Africa  will  appreciate  the 
point,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Transvaal  and  Orange 
Kiver  Colony  Governments  have  to  find  £65,000,000  (of  which 
£30,000,000  has  already  been  raised  under  Imperial  guarantee), 
that  the  Cape  Colony  requires  money  for  its  railway  extension, 
and  Natal  is  also  in  need  of  funds.  To  go  further  afield,  scarcely 
a  State  Government  in  Australia  can  continue  its  administrative 
work  without  further  loans,  while  in  New  Zealand,  be  the  assets 
of  the  colony  what  they  may,  money  is  also  needed  for  present 
requirements.  I  think  I  have  said  enough  to  show  that  the 
question  of  introducing  Asiatic  labour  on  the  Hand  is  an  Imperial 
question,  and  I  cannot  suppose  that,  with  the  knowledge  of  the 
responsibility  before  them,  the  Transvaal  government  will  hesitate 
to  do  their  part  towards  relieving  the  public  tension. 


Why  Asiatic  Labour  is  necessary  for  the  Rand     363 


NATIVE  LABOUR  SUPPLY. 

I  fully  admit  if  the  native  labour  supply  were  sufficient  it  would 
not  be  necessary  to  introduce  the  Asiatic.  But  it  is  not  sufficient. 
Moreover,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  things  are  very  different 
now  in  South  Africa  to  what  they  were  before  the  war,  and  the 
amount  of  native  labour  required  in  the  Transvaal  to-day  is 
far  in  excess  of  what  it  was  in  the  days  of  the  Kriiger  regime. 
In  addition  to  an  adequate  supply  for  the  mines,  the  railways 
sanctioned  by  the  Bloemfontein  Conference  require  the  services 
of  some  forty  thousand  natives,  while  the  expenditure  of  the  whole 
seven  and  a  half  millions  will  involve  the  employment  of  a  further 
twenty  thousand.  Again,  a  considerable  supply  of  native  labour 
is  wanted  for  rebuilding  purposes  and  for  meeting  the  needs  of 
the  rapidly-growing  white  population.  Even  allowing,  that 
the  same  number  of  natives  are  working  now  as  before  the  war, 
it  is  clear  that  the  variety  of  vocations  they  are  required  to  fill 
must  take  away  from,  the  supply  available  for  the  mines.  Indeed, 
whereas  before  the  war  at  least  ninety-eight  thousand  natives 
were  employed  in  the  mines,  to-day  the  services  of  only  sixty 
thousand  have  so  far  been  secured.  And  to  get  this  number  the 
recruiting  areas  have  had  to  be  extended.  Nor  does  it  seem  that 
there  is  any  near  probability  of  this  number  being  largely  in- 
creased, while,  with  the  added  liabilities,  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  all  the  levels  be  properly  exploited.  This  means  that  a 
considerable  number  of  natives  in  excess  of  the  number  employed 
before  the  war  must  be  forthcoming. 

Now  for  figures.  I  believe  that  the  mines  can  give  immediate 
employment  to  some  230,000  natives,  while  in  five  years'  time 
370,000  will  be  wanted.  Taking  the  area  south  of  the  Zambesi, 
the  native  population  all  told  is  6,326,411,  that  of  Central  Africa 
7,271,280,  making  a  total  of  13,597,691.  But  unfortunately  this 
number  is  not  available  for  recruiting  purposes.  Natal  is  a  closed 
area :  recruiting  in  Ehodesia  is  impossible  owing  to  the  negotia- 
tions which  are  proceeding,  while  in  German  South  West  Africa 
and  British  Central  Africa  the  recruiting  of  only  1000  natives  in 
each  territory  has  been  sanctioned.*  Kegarding  the  Portuguese 
possessions,  recruiting  in  the  Northern  province  is  closed  by 
reason  of  arrangements  not  being  completed  with  the  chartered 
companies,  and  even  when  arrangements  are  concluded  the 

*  Since  this  article  was  in  type  I  understand  that  recruiting  is  also  to  be  allowed 
in  Nyassaland  (British  Central  Africa  Protectorate)  for  a  period  of  two  years  But  I 
do  not  anticipate  any  great  results  from  this  privilege.  It  is  an  open  secret  that  the 
British  Central  African  has  not  been  a  success  on  the  Rand  ;  the  climate  does  not 
suit  him,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  arrivals  have  either  died  or  had  to  go  into 
hospital.— C.  K.  C. 


364  The  Empire  Review 

gradual  building-up  of  a  constant  supply  will  take  some  six  or 
seven  years.  From  the  above  total  we  must,  therefore,  deduct 
the  native  populations  of  Natal,  Khodesia,  German  South  West 
Africa,  British  Central  Africa,  Uganda  and  the  Northern 
province  of  Portuguese  South  Africa,  in  all  a  deduction  of 
8,925,461,  leaving  a  net  total  of  4,672,230  natives  from  among 
whom  it  may  be  possible  to  recruit  labour. 

Of  this  number  possibly  one  in  sixteen  of  men  between 
eighteen  and  thirty-six  years  of  age  could  be  induced  to  work 
continuously  outside  their  own  territories.  This,  I  think,  is  Sir 
George  Farrar's  estimate,  although  doubtless,  as  Sir  Godfrey 
Langden  says,  the  ratio  of  able-bodied  men  may  be  taken  as 
1  : 10.  But,  as  it  would  never  be  permitted  to  deplete  the  terri- 
tories named  of  the  entire  able-bodied  male  population,  and  as  the 
majority  of  natives  will  be  required  to  work  outside  their  own 
territories,  it  will,  I  think,  be  safer  to  take  the  ratio  of  1 : 16  as  the 
basis  of  our  calculation.  This  gives  in  round  numbers  a  net 
total  of  292,000  natives  available  for  the  mines  and  for  all  the 
developments  in  South  Africa.  Moreover,  the  native  African 
does  not  like  underground  employment.  And,  in  view  of  the 
numerous  openings  for  surface  labour,  I  venture  to  think  that 
but  a  very  small  portion  of  these  two  hundred  and  ninety-two 
thousand  will  sign  on  for  twelve  months  at  mining  work.  It 
does  not,  therefore,  require  much  knowledge  of  arithmetic  to  see 
that  if  the  Kand  mines  are  to  be  worked  at  full  speed  it  cannot 
be  done  with  native  labour,  for  the  simple  but  conclusive  reason 
that  the  required  supply  cannot  be  obtained. 


Sm  PERCY  FITZPATKICK'S  OPINION. 

Keferring  to  the  shortage  of  labour,  when  giving  evidence 
oefore  the  Labour  Commission,  Sir  Percy  Fitzpatrick  pointed  out 
that  the  shortage  was  felt  intermittently  before  the  war  ;  in  fact, 
there  was  a  constant  shortage,  not  such  as  to  cripple  industry, 
but  enough  to  retard  developments.  All  along,  however,  it  was 
confidently  believed  that  an  ample  supply  of  native  labour  existed, 
and  that  it  was  merely  a  matter  of  organisation  and  better 
facilities  in  order  to  secure  it.  Nor  was  this  opinion  held  only 
before  the  war ;  the  same  belief  continued  for  some  time  after 
hostilities  had  ceased.  Indeed,  so  strong  was  Sir  Percy's  belief 
in  the  South  African  supply  that  he  admits  it  was  this  very  con- 
fidence that  caused  him  to  persist  in  unremitting  and  searching 
tests,  and  to  insist  upon  the  fullest  evidence  being  forthcoming 
before  accepting  the  importation  of  coloured  labour  as  inevitable. 
Everything  has  been  done  that  can  be  done  to  secure  the  services 


Why  Asiatic  Labour  is  necessary  for  the  Rand     365 

of  native  labour  for  the  mines,  but  without  result,  or,  at  any  rate, 
without  any  very  practical  result.  Here  and  there  a  handful,  so 
to  speak,  has  been  found,  but  what  is  that  among  so  many  ?  It 
is  now  proved  beyond  a  shadow  of  doubt  that  the  available  supply 
is  nothing  like  it  was  thought  to  be,  while  the  demands  on  that 
supply  have  increased  beyond  all  expectations. 

From  every  part  of  South  Africa  [Sir  Percy  Fitzpatrick  tells  us]  we  have  the 
same  complaint.  In  Cape  Colony  the  shortage  has  for  some  time  been  the 
cause  of  agitation ;  witness  the  appeals  for  importation  of  cheap  Italian  labour, 
and  later  meetings  under  Mr.  Merriman  of  the  Fruit  Growers'  Association  for 
any  cheap  labour ;  see  also  the  testimony  of  Colonel  Stanford  at  the  Bloem- 
fontein  Conference.  In  Basutoland  we  have  proved,  and  the  C.S.A.E.  have 
proved,  that  there  is  no  surplus  worth  mentioning  for  the  mines.  I  havo 
personal  experience  which  shows  at  present  there  is  none  available  even  for 
the  farms  in  the  neighbourhood.  Zululand  is  closed  to  recruiting  by  the  Natal 
Government,  for  the  reason  that  it  does  not  yield  enough  for  their  own  needs. 
Rhodesia  has  for  years  been  complaining  of  shortage,  and  appealing  for 
indentured  Indians. 

The  Portuguese  East  Coast  has  been  the  salvation  of  the  Band,  but  all  the 
evidence  goes  to  show  that  we  cannot  expect  very  much  more  from  that 
quarter.  Farther  north,  in  the  east,  centre,  and  west  of  Africa  we  appear  to 
have  little  to  hope  for.  Up  to  the  time  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's  visit,  I  firmly 
believed  that  other  parts  of  Africa  could  supply  us  with  the  labour  that  we 
required.  His  authoritative  statement  regarding  the  position  of  the  Central 
African  Provinces  was  the  first  cause  of  doubt.  Our  own  experience  has 
corroborated  what  he  said.  The  testimony  of  the  recognised  authorities  upon 
the  native  question  at  the  Bloemfontein  Conference,  men  entirely  free  from 
any  interest,  except  the  sense  of  duty,  was  evidence  which  cannot  be  ignored, 
more  especially  as  this  evidence  accorded  entirely  with  our  own  experience. 
We  were,  and  are,  face  to  face  with  certain  facts  which,  to  my  mind,  cannot  be 
explained  away. 

Like  many  others,  who  may  be  said  to  represent  the  capitalist 
class,  Sir  Percy  hoped  that  the  supply  of  native  labour  would 
suffice  to  carry  them  over  the  dead  centre  on  to  the  time 
when  cheaper  living  and  better  conditions  would  enable  the  use 
of  white  labour  to  gradually  and  generally  extend,  and  eventually 
to  a  very  great  extent  replace  coloured  labour.  But  to  one  and 
all  it  is  now  clear  that  the  native  labour  available  will  not  suffice 
for  this  purpose,  and  to  delay  any  longer  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  full  mining  operations,  means  a  handicap  on  develop- 
ment which  the  resources  of  South  Africa  are  unable  to  bear.  I 
quite  agree  that  it  is  in  every  way  regrettable  that  the  African 
supply  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements.  For,  as  Sir 
Percy  says,  the  question  would  be  simpler,  the  labour  more  easily 
obtained  and  managed,  and  possibly  cheaper  than  any  other,  and 
the  money  paid  in  wages  would  have  remained  in  the  country. 
But  as  I  have  shown  by  figures,  the  general  accuracy  of  which 
cannot  be  questioned,  there  is  nothing  now  to  be  done  but  to 
accept  the  situation  and  adopt  the  other  alternative. 


366  The  Empire  Review 


EESTEICTIONS  AND  THEIR  EFFECT. 

As  to  the  exact  restrictions  to  be  placed  on  imported  Asiatic 
labour  it  would,  perhaps,  be  rash  to  prophesy.  By  recalling, 
however,  the  resolution  passed  at  the  Bloemfontein  Conference, 
and  comparing  its  wording  with  the  restrictions  drawn  up  by 
Sir  George  Farrar,  without  which  he  is  understood  to  have  said 
that  he  would  not  consent  to  the  introduction  of  Asiatics,  a  fairly 
correct  forecast  may,  I  think,  be  made.  The  resolution  at  the 
Conference  ran  thus  : 

This  conference  is  of  opinion  that  the  permanent  settlement  in  South  Africa 
of  Asiatic  races  would  be  injurious,  and  should  not  be  permitted ;  but  that  if 
industrial  development  positively  requires  it,  the  introduction  of  unskilled 
labourers,  under  a  system  of  Government  control  only,  by  which  provision  is 
made  for  indenture  and  repatriation  at  the  termination  thereof,  should  be 
permissible. 

After  reciting  the  proviso  in  the  Bloemfontein  resolution  and 
adding  a  penal  clause  to  the  effect  that  any  breach  of  the  restric- 
tions be  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  the  following  restric- 
tions were  suggested  by  Sir  George  Farrar  at  the  meeting  over 
which  he  presided  at  the  East  Kand  Proprietary  Mines  on 
March  31  last : 

No  mining,  trading,  spirit,  or  other  licence  whatsoever  shall  be  granted  to 
any  immigrant  or  to  any  other  person  on  behalf  of,  or  as  agent  or  trustee  for 
any  immigrant,  nor  shall  it  be  lawful  for  any  immigrant  to  hold  any  land, 
buildings,  or  fixed  property,  mijnpachts,  claims,  or  any  right  to  minerals  or 
precious  stones  either  in  his  own  name,  or  in  the  name  of  any  other  person  on 
behalf  of,  or  as  the  agent  or  trustee  for  him,  or  be  registered  as  a  voter. 

No  immigrant  shall  be  imported  into  this  colony  otherwise  than  as  an 
unskilled  labourer,  nor  shall  any  immigrant  be  employed  in,  or  undertake  on 
his  own  behalf,  any  work  other  than  work  ordinarily  done  by  unskilled  native 
labourers  on  mines  in  this  colony,  and  in  particular  and  by  way  of  enumera- 
tion, and  not  by  way  of  limitation,  no  immigrant  shall  carry  on  any  of  the 
following  trades  or  occupations  (that  is  to  say) :  carpenter,  blacksmith,  mason, 
electrician,  bricklayer,  fireman,  amalgamator,  assayer,  miller,  timberman, 
banksman,  pumpman,  platelayer,  skipman,  brickmaker,  fitter,  turner,  or  shop- 
man generally,  engine-driver,  wire-splitter  and  rigger,  boilermaker,  pattern- 
maker, sampler  (mine  and  cyanide),  cyanide  shiftsman,  gardener,  stoper  or 
miner,  drill  sharpener,  machineman,  pipeman,  trammer  (underground  and 
surface),  millwright,  sorting  or  crushing  station  overseer,  hawker,  shopkeeper, 
general  or  special  trader,  nor  shall  any  immigrant  hold  a  blasting  certificate,  or 
be  employed  in  any  clerical  work  on  a  mine  or  elsewhere. 

In  view  of  these  statements  it  may  safely  be  concluded  that 
every  care  will  be  taken  by  the  Commissioners  to  safeguard  the 
vested  interests  of  the  white  miner  and  the  white  trader,  and 
there  is  little  doubt  that  Sir  George  Farrar's  draft  will  find 
reflection  in  any  ordinance  ultimately  issued  by  the  Council. 


Why  Asiatic  Labour  is  necessary  for  the  Rand     367 

Indeed,  I  believe  that  several  mine  owners  have  already  drawn 
up  the  duties  which  are  to  be  assigned  to  the  Asiatics,  and  that  in 
no  case  whatever  will  they  be  allowed  to  do  any  skilled  work, 
so  there  is  not  the  remotest  possibility  of  the  Asiatic  coming  into 
competition  with  the  white  man.  As  to  wages,  I  believe  the 
sum  to  be  paid  the  coloured  immigrant  will  work  out  about 
the  same  as  that  now  paid  to  the  Kaffir.  If  any  reduction  be 
made,  it  will  be  to  meet  the  extra  cost  of  importation  and 
repatriation.  That  the  opposing  forces  will  find  fault  in  any 
event  may  be  assumed.  It  will  certainly  be  said  that  it  is  in- 
tended to  supplant  the  native.  A  little  reflection,  however, 
must  show  the  futility  of  any  such  argument.  For  example, 
the  arrangements  connected  with  the  employment  of  Asiatic 
labour  will  be  far  more  expensive  than  any  outlay  connected  with 
the  recruiting  of  natives  ;  and  all  this  extra  cost  cannot  come  out 
of  wages.  There  will  always  be  a  margin  on  the  wrong  side. 

Nor  is  it  yet  known  what  particular  race  of  Asiatics  are 
best  suited  for  mining  work,  whether  Chinese  or  Indian,  nor 
whether  the  supply  of  the  right  kind  can  be  maintained  with 
certainty.  Personally,  I  think,  even  when  the  ordinance  allowing 
importation  of  coloured  labour  is  promulgated,  the  mine  owners 
will  be  very  chary  of  bringing  over  the  Asiatics  by  tens  of 
thousands  before  they  have  tested  their  fitness  for  the  work. 
A  very  good  plan  would  be  to  get  a  number  of  men  from  different 
centres  and  select  from  sample,  so  to  speak.  If  the  Chinese  be 
chosen,  I  strongly  advise  the  managers  not  to  import  all  their 
labour  from  one  province.  There  are  obvious  objections  to  such 
a  course.  But  whatever  course  be  pursued,  you  may  depend 
upon  it  that  the  mine  owners  will  take  all  the  native  labour  they 
can  get  before  asking  for  Asiatics.  And  if  by  any  chance  native 
labour  should  be  available  in  sufficient  quantities  there  is  little 
doubt  that  the  immigration  of  Asiatics  will  cease  altogether. 

It  is  useless  to  make  comparisons,  as  some  critics  do,  between 
America,  Australia  and  South  Africa  as  regards  the  effects  of 
Chinese  labour.  For  whereas  in  South  Africa  very  strict  legisla- 
tion will  be  enacted  before  the  labour  comes  into  the  country  ;  in 
America  and  Australia  no  such  legislation  was  passed  until  the 
mischief  complained  of  was  accomplished. 


THE  WHITE  MAN:   LOED  GREY'S  OPINION. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  for  one  moment  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Asiatic  involves  displacement  of  white  labour ;  on  the 
contrary,  after  a  certain  leeway  is  made  up  in  the  proportion  of 
white  to  coloured  labour,  every  seven  Asiatics  imported  means 
employment  for  an  additional  white  man.  So,  if  fifty  thousand 


368  The  Empire  Review 

Chinese  or  Indians  be  brought  over,  at  least  seven  thousand 
additional  skilled  white  men  would  find  employment.  Speaking 
a  few  months  ago  on  the  connection  between  the  prosperity  of 
the  white  population  and  its  ability  to  employ  native  unskilled 
labour,  Lord  Grey  instanced  the  position  by  reference  to  a  small 
group  of  mines  in  Ehodesia. 

I  find  [he  said]  that  at  these  four  mines  there  were  employed,  during  April 
last,  130  white  men  and  1213  natives.  It  is  beyond  dispute  that  not  one  of 
these  130  white  men  would  have  received  any  employment  at  all  if  they  had 
not  been  able  to  attract  to  the  mines  the  native  labour  required  for  work 
which,  in  existing  conditions,  could  not  possibly  be  undertaken  by  white  men, 
except  at  wages  which  no  white  man  in  South  Africa  should  be  asked  to  accept. 
It  is  certain  that  if  no  coloured  labour  had  been  available  the  mines  would 
never  have  been  opened  out  at  all.  They  would  not  have  offered  the  oppor- 
tunity for  the  employment  of  a  single  white  man.  Now,  just  consider  what 
the  position  is.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  management  has  been  able  to 
secure  sufficient  Kaffir  labour  these  mines  are  able  to  offer  highly-paid  employ- 
ment to  white  men,  to  create  a  necessity  for  shops,  foundries,  hotels,  recreation- 
rooms,  livery  stables,  schools,  churches,  hospitals,  and  a  branch  railway— now 
under  construction — to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  industry  and  of  its 
employees;  to  buy  mining  material  and  expensive  machinery,  manufactured 
by  British  workmen;  to  purchase  large  supplies  of  groceries  and  other  pro- 
visions supplied  by  British  firms ;  to  make  an  appreciable  contribution  to  the 
world's  supply  of  gold ;  and  to  earn,  it  is  hoped,  for  the  shareholders  of  their 
companies  substantial  profits. 

As  with  the  Kaffirs,  so  it  will  be  with  Asiatics;  instead  of 
the  threatened  evils  we  shall  have  innumerable  blessings,  and 
mines  which  otherwise  would  lie  untouched  will  be  worked  for 
the  benefit  alike  of  South  Africa  and  the  United  Kingdom.  I  use 
the  term  United  Kingdom  advisedly,  seeing  that  each  stamp 
erected  in  South  Africa  represents  about  £433  spent  in  the 
motherland,  while  to  keep  the  stamp  at  work  an  annual  expendi- 
ture of  £629  is  laid  out  on  stores. 


LORD  MILKER'S  VIEWS. 

Here  it  may  be  timely  to  quote  Lord  Milner's  views  on  this 
and  kindred  subjects.  Replying  to  a  deputation  of  the  White 
League  before  leaving  South  Africa,  he  said  : 

We  do  not  want  Asiatics  in  large  numbers  permanently  settled  in  the  midst 
and  taking  the  bread  out  of  the  mouths  of  white  men,  and  lowering  their 
standard  of  living  by  competing  for  work  which  those  white  men  can  perfectly 
well  perform  themselves.  But  we  may  want  them  in  considerable  numbers  for 
temporary  purposes,  and  under  control  which  will  ensure  their  return  to  their 
own  country,  in  order  to  do  work  for  which  it  is  economically  impossible  to 
pay  wages  on  which  a  European  can  live  in  this  country  as  he  ought  to  live, 
work  which  is  urgently  required,  and  which  without  external  assistance  may 
have  to  remain  undone.  .  .  .  There  is  absolutely  no  reason  that  I  can  see 
in  nature  or  common-sense  why  we  should  not  use  indentured  labourers — 


Why  Asiatic  Labour  is  necessary  for  the  Rand     369 

whether  Asiatics  or  others — for  purposes  for  which  we  may  require  them,  and 
as  long  as  we  may  require  them,  without  being  permanently  saddled  with  them 
for  all  purposes.  To  say  that  such  labourers  once  here  must  necessarily  remain 
here  always,  because  they  may  have  remained  in  other  countries  where  the 
danger  of  their  so  remaining  was  not  foreseen  and  therefore  not  guarded  against, 
seems  a  complete  non  sequitur.  In  this  colony  we  certainly  shall  guard 
against  it.  ...  Of  all  extraordinary  things  about  this  muddled  controversy  the 
strangest  is  that  white  labour  and  Asiatic  labour  should  be  regarded  as  mutually 
exclusive.  The  strongest  argument,  it  seems  to  me,  in  favour  of  unskilled 
Asiatic  labour  is  that  it  will  open  up  a  field  for  the  employment  of  a  vastly 
increased  number  of  whites,  and  of  well-paid  whites.  From  that  point  of 
view  it  appears  to  me  that  the  regulated  use  of  Asiatic  labour  should  not 
only  not  encounter  the  hostility  but  obtain  the  enthusiastic  support  of  the 
White  League. 

These  words  are  not  the  words  of  a  prejudiced  mind  or  a 
party  politician ;  they  are  the  outcome  of  much  careful  observa- 
tion and  very  special  experience.  Any  comment  on  them  is 
unnecessary.  Their  meaning  is  clear. 


SHABEHOLDERS'  POSITION. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  the  shareholders' 
position.  And  this  will  perhaps  be  best  gauged  when  I  say  that 
between  £300,000,000  and  £400,000,000  are  invested  in  the 
Transvaal  mines  on  the  estimate  of  highly-paid  white  labour  and 
moderately-paid  coloured  labour.  Now  this  estimate  is  rendered 
null  and  void  by  the  present  shortage  of  native  labour.  Accordingly 
it  follows  as  night  does  day  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
import  coloured  labour  in  order  to  allow  of  a  reasonable  return  on 
this  enormous  capital.  Some  idea  of  the  falling  off  in  the  output 
of  gold  can  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  while  the  average 
monthly  output  during  the  six  months  immediately  before  the  war 
was  447,928  oz.  (in  bullion)  that  for  the  last  six  months  was  only 
240,604  oz.  (fine  gold).  If  this  sort  of  thing  be  allowed  to  con- 
tinue not  only  will  it  be  impossible  to  pay  off  the  £35,000,000 
loan  for  public  works  in  the  new  colonies  but  there  will  be  no 
assets  to  justify  the  issue  of  the  war  contribution  loan  of 
£30,000,000,  the  first  instalment  of  which  (£10,000,000)  is 
guaranteed  by  the  great  mining  corporations.  And  if  the 
Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Eiver  Colony  cannot  meet  their 
liabilities,  the  British  taxpayer  must.  Which  is  it  to  be  ? 

C.    KlNLOCH   COOKE. 


VOL.  VI.— No.  34. 


2  B 


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The  Empire  Review 


THE   POLICY   OF   "LAISSEZ-FAIRE" 

[What  is  the  alternative  to  the  proposals  which  I  make  ?  Where  do  you 
find  in  any  single  speech  which  has  been  made  on  the  other  side,  where  do  you 
find  a  clear-cut  policy  which  can  be  put  against  mine  ?  No ;  the  policy  which 
is  offered  to  you  is  laissez-faire — let  matters  alone.  My  judgment  is  that  this 
country  of  ours  has  let  things  alone  too  long.  We  have  been  too  ready  to 
drift. — Mr.  Chamberlain  at  Tynemouth,  October  21.] 

STUDENTS  of  early  Victorian  literature  and  of  the  evolution 
of  orthodox  Liberalism  must  be  struck  by  the  fact  that,  whilst 
the  England  of  to-day  is  vastly  different  from  the  England  of 
fifty  years  ago,  the  tenets  of  orthodox  Liberalism  have  remained 
virtually  unaltered.  We  all  remember  Macaulay's  famous  review 
of  Kanke's  History  of  the  Popes,  and  the  remarkable  contention 
of  that  champion  of  Liberalism  that  religion  is  non-progressive 
because  it  is  based  on  eternal  truth.  Can  it  be  that  the  Liberals 
make  the  same  claim  for  their  political  creed  ? 

There  is  scarely  a  department  of  English  life  and  thought 
that  has  not  undergone  transformation  during  the  last  generation. 
Our  canons  of  literature  and  art,  our  commercial  and  social  life, 
our  philosophic  outlook  on  the  world,  all  are  changed.  Even 
our  cricket  is  not  what  it  was  when,  according  to  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  the  battle  of  Waterloo  was  won  on  the  playing 
fields  of  Eton.  Even  politics  are  not  the  same.  We  have  no 
longer  with  us  Whigs  and  Tories,  some  people  doubt  in  the 
existence  of  Conservatives,  but  we  have  Imperialists  and  Socialists, 
and  actually  an  Independent  Labour  Party !  Everywhere  the 
hand  of  time  has  dealt  roughly  with  cherished  British  institutions. 
We  do  not  disdain  to-day  to  drive  in  motor  cars,  dine  at  restau- 
rants and  live  in  flats.  Change — evolution  or  improvement — 
whatever  we  may  choose  to  call  it — has  left  us  very  little  of  the 
England  of  Dickens  and  Thackeray.  But  the  orthodox  Liberals 
have  stood  still,  "they  have  learned  nothing  and  forgotten 
nothing."  Their  old  shibboleths  remain,  they  still  go  about 
with  the  mystic  words  laissez-faire  engraved  on  their  hearts 
and  "  free-trade  "  inscribed  on  their  banners.  They  do  not  under- 
stand that  we  are  living  in  times  when  these  watch-words  no 
longer  appeal  to  the  people.  They  are  the  real  Conservatives,  the 
Chinese  of  western  civilisation,  who,  in  the  words  of  the  Psalmist, 


The  Policy  of  "  Laissez-Fair c  " 


371 


'have  seen  an  end  of  all  perfection;"  the  Psalmist,  however,  was 
careful  to  add:  "but  Thy  commandment  is  exceeding  broad." 

Nearly  twenty-five  years  ago,  the  private  secretary  of  a 
Conservative  Cabinet  Minister  was  heard  to  say  to  a  Radical 
Member  of  Parliament  at  a  dinner-party,  that  Liberalism  was 
dead,  that  the  people  had  got  all  the  liberties  they  wanted, 
and  that  there  was  nothing  left  to  fight  for.  From  a  strictly 
political  point  of  view  the  speaker  was  right,  and  he  was  not 
contradicted.  In  truth,  recent  legislation  has  been  more  of 
a  social  than  of  a  political  nature.  We  are  face  to  face  with 
problems  which  appear  to  us  of  far  greater  importance  than 
academic  political  questions,  for  the  struggle  for  life  has  become 
keener,  the  quest  of  wealth  more  feverish.  What  indeed  was 
the  object  of  our  political  reforms  ?  Did  they  not  partake  of  the 
character  of  pioneer  work?  Were  they  not  conceived  with  %  a 
view  to  the  breaking  down  of  all  obstacles  to  progress — a  sort  of 
political  dynamite  intended  to  remove  disabilities  and  to  clear  the 
way  for  good  government,  for  that  great  panacea  for  the  ills  of 
the  body  politic,  the  government  of  the  people  by  the  people  ? 

The  orthodox  Liberals  were  as  the  voice  of  one  crying  in  the 
wilderness,  and  they  have  accomplished  their  mission.  The 
English  people  owe  them  a  debt  of  gratitude,  they  owe  them 
their  liberty.  But  the  English  people  are  a  practical  people,  they 
are  not  going  to  rest  and  be  thankful ;  Matthew  Arnold  complained 
of  their  want  of  lucidity,  and  they  are  certainly  not  doctrinaire. 

When  the  government  of  this  country  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  great  families,  when  the  tape  and  sealing  wax  office  meant 
nepotism  and  jobbery,  the  State  was  the  natural  enemy,  and 
laissez-faire  was  the  cry  that  appealed  to  all.  But  notwith- 
standing their  talents,  their  prestige,  and  their  power,  the 
Liberals  have  never  been  able  to  introduce  their  policy  in 
its  fulness,  nor  to  defend  any  of  its  outworks,  whenever  these 
were  seriously  attacked.  Human  nature  has  proved  too  strong 
for  them.  We  must  go  to  the  United  States  of  America  to  see 
individualism  in  its  glory,  although  even  there  limitations  are 
fixed  on  the  "  go-as-you-please  "  system  of  government. 

In  Great  Britain  we  have  long  since  ceased  to  go-as- we- 
please.  We  have  compulsory  education  and  compulsory  sanita- 
tion, we  have  factory  laws  and  an  Employers'  Liability  Act.  We 
are  prohibited  from  appointing  to  the  discharge  of  certain 
duties,  people  not  qualified  by  the  possession  of  certificates 
of  proficiency — even  the  plumbers  are  to  be  registered.  The 
Englishman's  home  is  no  longer  his  castle,  it  is  invaded  by  a 
veritable  army  of  officials  bent  on  compelling  him  to  lead  the 
life  of  a  good  citizen  and  to  refrain  from  being  a  nuisance  The 
municipality  houses  our  working-classes,  provides  them  with 

2  B  2 


372 


The  Empire  Review 


electric  tramways  to  take  them  to  their  work,  pleasant  gardens 
for  their  recreation,  music  and  pictures  for  their  aesthetic  tastes. 
It  lights  and  paves  the  streets,  it  superintends  our  slaughter- 
houses and  bakeries,  and  generally  watches  over  our  food  and 
even  inspects  the  milk  of  our  children.  We  protect  the  British 
workman  against  the  greed  of  his  employer,  we  protect  his  wife 
and  children  against  himself.  We  are  endeavouring  to  solve 
the  over-crowding  and  the  sweating  problems.  Laissez-faire 
has  gone  to  the  wall,  the  State  or  the  municipality  is  all-per- 
vading, and  even  our  consciences  are  said  to  be  State-aided. 

One  by  one  the  planks  in  the  platform  of  British  individualism 
have  been  removed,  until  there  is  very  little  of  it  left.  The 
British  workman  has,  indeed,  for  the  most  part  voluntarily 
resigned  his  freedom  of  action  even  where  it  had  not  been 
limited  by  the  State.  Thus  he  has  banded  himself  together 
with  others  in  the  same  walk  of  life  as  himself,  and  has  sub- 
ordinated his  personal  interests  to  those  of  his  confraternity. 
He  may  be  out  of  work,  but  he  will  not  accept  lower  wages 
nor  work  longer  hours  than  his  fellows,  so  far  from  competing 
with  them  he  will  actually  leave  his  work  and  starve  for  their 
benefit.  He  has  discovered  that  union  is  strength  and  that  the 
separate  individual  social  atom  is  helpless. 

For  the  average  unsophisticated  modern  Britisher  the  doctrine 
of  laissez-faire  is  as  antiquated  as  the  religion  of  the  Druids.  There 
is  more  vitality  in  the  Scandinavian  Eddas  of  the  fighting  Vikings 
than  in  the  doctrinaire  theories  of  the  last  century.  When  Sir 
William  Richmond  wanted  to  abolish  the  smoke  nuisance,  he  cast 
the  cant  of  laissez-faire  behind  him  and  appealed  for  State-aid. 
It  was  not  the  go-as-you-please  policy  that  rescued  the  children 
from  the  cotton-mills,  the  women  from  the  coal-pit ;  that  protects 
our  animals  from  human  cruelty  and  has  even  proclaimed  a  close 
time  for  birds.  In  our  home  policy  we  have  long  since  discovered 
that  if  individualism  is  to  reign,  it  cannot  do  so  with  safety  to  the 
Commonwealth  except  as  a  limited  monarchy — it  may  reign  but 
it  must  not  govern. 

In  our  foreign  policy  we  are  still  very  go-as-you-please,  but 
then  we  have  excellent  reasons  for  this.  Did  not  the  late  Lord 
Dufferin  tell  us  that  the  work  of  our  ambassadors  would  be  much 
facilitated  if  we  were  but  better  organised  for  war,  or  words  to 
that  effect  ?  But  that  is  another  story.  And  in  respect  of  our 
naval  and  military  forces  we  are  still  very  go-as-you-please.  No 
Englishman  need  exercise  the  sacred  duty  of  citizenship  and  defend 
his  country  unless  he  chooses,  consequently  it  is  not  surprising 
that  our  foreign  policy  should  be  one  of  drift,  should  lack  initia- 
tive and  seek  the  line  of  least  resistance. 

In  our  commercial  relations  with  other  countries  this  go-as- 


The  Policy  of  "  Laissez-Faire  "  373 

you-please  policy  assumes  the  sacrosanct  name  of  free  trade.  It 
is  the  holy  of  holies  of  the  orthodox  Liberal  tabernacle,  and  woe 
to  those  who  would  sacrilegiously  profane  it.  Free  trade  means 
that  we  are  free  to  buy  our  goods  from  whatever  nation  or  colony 
we  like  and  at  as  cheap  a  price  as  we  can  obtain.  But  it  does  not 
mean  that  we  are  free  to  sell  our  own  goods  to  these  nations  and 
colonies.  Both  the  freedom  and  the  trading  are  one-sided.  For 
the  consumer  this  may  be  an  excellent  arrangement,  the  producer's 
enthusiasm  for  it  might  conceivably  be  somewhat  chastened. 
Such,  however,  is  our  conservatism  and  such  the  force  of  habit, 
that  many  of  our  producers  still  worship  at  the  shrine  of  this 
fetish  of  Liberalism.  Thus  do  the  natives  of  Eastern  countries 
throw  themselves  under  the  car  of  Juggernaut,  or  immolate  them- 
selves to  propitiate  their  deity. 

The  whole  duty  of  the  good  Liberal  is  to  buy  in  the  cheapest 
market,  no  matter  whether  this  craving  for  cheapness  results  in 
insensate  competition,  perhaps  in  fraud,  whether  the  quality  of 
the  goods  suffers  deterioration  or  the  workers  who  produce  them 
are  sweated.  Cheapness  is  regarded  as  the  consumer's  sole  deside- 
ratum, and  the  interests  of  the  consumer  are  paramount,  those 
of  the  producer  not  worthy  of  consideration.  In  other  countries, 
on  the  contrary,  a  less  narrow  view  prevails ;  the  national  import- 
ance of  the  producer  is  acknowledged,  and  the  interests  of  the 
consumer  are  made  subservient  to  those  of  the  community.  Why, 
indeed,  should  not  the  worker  deserve  well  of  his  country  ?  The 
consumer  who  is  not  also  a  producer,  is  after  all,  a  drone  in  the 
human  hive.  He  is  but  a  prodigal  who  lives  on  the  results  of  his 
progenitors'  industry,  and  who,  therefore,  spends  the  interest  of 
the  nation's  capital  without  adding  to  that  nation's  wealth.  He 
may  be  in  the  position  of  a  money-lender,  he  may  be  living  on  the 
interest  derived  from  money  invested  in  foreign  lands,  but  that 
does  not  make  him  less  of  a  drone.  In  England  we  have  many 
drones,  we  call  them  our  "  leisured  class."  Their  existence  is 
due  partly  to  the  vast  amount  of  wealth  accumulated  in  this 
country  during  the  last  century,  and  partly  to  a  feudal  tradition, 
which  we  illogically  retain,  that  work  is  degrading.  We  still 
cling  to  Cobbett's  definition  of  a  gentleman— "  a  man  who  has 
no  business  in  the  world." 

Nevertheless,  it  is  not  pleasant  to  reflect  that  we  may  some 
day  become  a  nation  of  consumers,  of  drones,  for  free  trade  is 
gradually  killing  off  the  producer.  The  agricultural  producer  is 
already  moribund,  and  the  agricultural  labourer  is  forsaking  the 
ungrateful  rural  districts  and  swelling  the  population  of  the 
smoky  grimy  town,  there  to  arrest  for  a  generation  or  two 
the  total  extinction  of  the  anaemic  and  stunted  factory  hand. 

In  the  days  when  the  gospel  of  free  trade  was  first  preached 


374  The  Empire  Review 

the  situation  was  different.  The  continent  of  Europe  had  not  yet 
awakened,  the  United  States  of  America  was  not  taken  seriously. 
Whilst  other  countries  had  been  devastated  for  centuries  by  wars, 
we  had  fostered  and  consolidated  our  trade.  We  had  the 
mechanical  inventions,  we  held  the  sea,  we  were  the  workshops 
of  the  world.  Free  trade  was  to  stimulate  foreign  countries  to 
increase  their  output  of  raw  materials,  which  we  would  return  to 
them  in  the  shape  of  manufactured  articles.  It  was  an  idyllic 
dream.  But  presently  foreign  statesmen  asked  themselves  why 
this  should  continue,  why  their  own  countries  should  not  them- 
selves convert  their  indigenous  raw  materials  into  manufactured 
articles.  The  division  of  labour  was  an  excellent  theory,  but  was 
it  not  being  carried  too  far  when  the  most  profitable  business  was 
allowed  to  remain  the  monopoly  of  one  country  only  ?  So  they 
protected  their  countries,  created  manufactures  and  imported  raw 
materials  from  us ; — our  coal  output  is  a  large  item  in  our  export 
trade.  This  policy  has  been  so  successful  that  to-day  we,  who  were 
the  workshop,  have  become  the  dumping  ground  of  the  world. 

The  situation  has  changed  completely,  and  we  must  make 
haste  and  put  our  house  in  order  if  we  wish  to  regain  a  portion  of 
what  we  have  lost — we  must  organize.  The  days  of  go-as-you- 
please  are  over.  We  must  read  the  signs  of  the  times  aright  or 
we  shall  not  only  laissez-faire,  we  shall  laissez-passer,  until  our 
trade  is  irretrievably  lost. 

If  there  is  any  truth  in  the  contention  of  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer 
that  a  nation  is  an  organism,  it  follows  that  a  highly  civilised 
State  should  be  highly  organised,  and,  if  the  analogy  be  kept  up, 
it  seems  obvious  that  a  nation  in  which  everything  is  left  to 
individual  enterprise  or  chance  must  be  invertebrate.  Indeed,  the 
greatest  phenomenon  of  modern  times  is  the  tendency  towards 
social  centralisation.  The  laissez-faire  policy  has  been  found 
unworkable  in  municipal  life,  it  will  have  to  be  abandoned  in 
national  life  as  well. 

Let  us  take  for  instance,  our  railways.  These  have  been 
accused  of  unpatriotic  conduct  because  they  offer  facilities  to 
foreign  produce  which  they  deny  to  the  English  farmer.  But  the 
railways  reply  very  truly  that  they  are  business  undertakings, 
dividend-earning  concerns,  that  they  must  make  money,  and  that 
business  has  nothing  to  do  with  patriotism.  It  is  more  profitable 
for  them,  and  less  troublesome,  to  carry  large  quantities  of  foreign 
produce  from  a  port  of  entry  to  a  distributing  centre,  than  to  collect 
indigenous  produce  in  dribblets.  The  argument  is  perfectly  sound, 
but  it  is  a  reductio  ad  absurdum  of  the  laissez-faire  policy.  The 
railways  are  our  national  highways ;  is  it  prudent  to  allow  them  to 
be  managed  in  the  selfish  interests  of  individuals  ?  Surely  those 
interests  should  be  subordinated  to  the  interests  of  the  nation. 


The  Policy  of  "  Laissez-Faire  "  375 

But  whenever  complaints  are  made  of  the  successful  com- 
petition of  foreign  produce  or  of  foreign  manufactures  we  are 
invariably  told  that  the  true  source  of  all  our  weakness  is  not  free 
trade  but  our  ignorance — we  are  so  badly  educated.  The  rail- 
ways, we  are  told,  would  gladly  help  the  agriculturists  and  dairy- 
farmers  if  these  persons  would  but  help  themselves ;  but  they  are 
so  stupid  and  so  benighted,  they  won't  organise.  We  want  bread 
and  the  free  traders  give  us  stones.  Why  are  we  ignorant  and 
benighted  ?  Because  of  our  happy-go-luckiness.  We  have  free 
trade  in  education.  Every  continental  government  fosters  educa- 
tion, but  in  England  education  is  virtually  left  to  what  amounts  to 
private  enterprise.  A  great  deal  of  excellent  work  is  done  here 
and  there,  but  it  is  all  sporadic,  hap-hazard,  there  is  no  centrali- 
sation ;  and  what  is  true  of  education  is  true  of  countless  other 
fields  of  human  effort  in  this  Merry  England  of  ours. 

We  are  constantly  assured  that  State  interference  in  trade, 
especially  in  the  form  of  a  tax  on  food,  would  be  resented  by  the 
working-classes,  and  that  the  statesman  who  would  attempt  to 
come  to  power  on  the  top  of  a  dear  loaf  would  commit  political 
suicide.  But  the  working-classes  have  more  wisdom  than  they 
are  given  credit  for ;  they  are  capable  of  even  greater  sacrifices 
than  voting  for  a  dear  loaf,  they  are  capable  of  starving  for  an 
idea.  The  working-classes  are  sufficiently  intelligent  to  know 
their  own  interests,  and  have  already  discovered  that  the  laissez- 
faire  policy  will  not  advance  those  interests.  They  have  learned 
that  free  trade  in  labour  spells  economic  slavery  for  them, 
and  so  they  have  organized  themselves  into  trade  unions  and 
learned  the  difficult  lesson  of  subordinating  their  immediate 
selfish  wants  to  the  common  good  of  their  fraternity. 

But  whatever  we  may  propose  to  do,  the  time  is  fast 
approaching  when  a  go-as-you-please  national  policy  will  become 
impossible.  Before  long  we  shall  find  ourselves  impelled  by  the 
instinct  of  self-preservation  to  take  a  serious  view  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country.  Perhaps  those  very  working-classes,  whose 
patriotism  our  statesmen  appear  to  distrust  to-day,  may  insist  that 
the  House  of  Commons  shall  no  longer  be  regarded  as  the  best 
club  in  London,  that  legislation  shall  cease  to  be  the  recreation 
of  our  leisured  classes,  and  that  the  complicated  and  technical 
business  of  government  shall,  in  future,  be  no  more  entrusted  to 
amateurs.  It  seems  that  some  of  our  statesmen  have  already 
seen  the  writing  on  the  wall.  Let  us  hope  that  at  least  something 
may  yet  be  done  in  time  to  prevent  these  islands  from  becoming  a 
residential  neighbourhood  for  the  English-speaking  race — a  sort 
of  health-resort  for  American  millionaires. 

E.  A.  BEAYLEY  HODGETTS. 


376 


The  Empire  Review 


THE   RHODES   SCHOLARSHIPS 

Mr.  Ehodes  had  no  intention  of  awarding  these  scholarships  to  what  were 
called  research  students ;  he  intended  them  to  go  to — should  he  say — youths 
or  young  men  who  were  associated  with  the  ordinary  undergraduate.  Of 
course,  in  the  selection  of  the  scholars  under  the  terms  of  the  will  much  more 
depended  upon  the  localities  from  which  the  students  came  than  upon  any 
authority  given  to  the  trustees.  It  might  be  that  in  certain  places,  perhaps 
more  particularly  in  the  United  States  than  in  the  Colonies,  a  student  would 
be  sent  who  would  have  had  already  a  certain  amount  of  instruction  in  his  own 
country,  and  who  might  therefore  go  to  Oxford  and  take  a  post-graduate 
course.  That  must  rest  with  the  Colonies  or  the  United  States,  so  long  as  the 
terms  of  the  will  were  observed.  The  terms  of  the  will,  particularly  with 
regard  to  South  Africa,  where  scholarships  were  given  to  particular  schools 
and  particular  institutions,  were  very  precise ;  and  it  was  provided  that  the 
students  from  these  particular  institutions  were,  as  candidates  for  the  scholar- 
ships, to  be  submitted  to  an  ordeal  in  which  both  scholastic  and  athletic 
proficiency  was  aimed  at  as  well  as  the  test  described  by  the  will  as  to  the 
moral  character.  There  was  not  the  least  intention  on  the  part  of  the  trustees 
to  divert  those  scholarships  from  the  end  to  which  they  were  directed  by 
Mr.  Rhodes.  [Mr.  Bourchier  F.  Hawksley  (one  of  the  Trustees  of  Mr.  Rhodes' 
Will)  at  Bristol  Grammar  School.  The  Times,  October  10.] 

A  YEAE  and  a  half  have  come  and  gone,  and  the  great  ideas 
propounded  in  Mr.  Cecil  Ehodes'  will  are  beginning  to  take 
shape  under  the  moulding  hands  of  Dr.  Parkin.  The  words  of 
this  will  only  sketched,  in  the  merest  outline,  the  form  the 
bequests  were  to  take,  and  the  marble  was  left  unchipped  from 
whence  the  perfect  shape  was  to  be  evolved.  One  corner,  it  is 
true,  had  been  begun  as  a  guide  to  the  further  sculpture  ;  that  is 
to  say,  at  the  Diocesan  College  School  of  Kondebosch  a  tentative 
scholarship  of  £300  had  been  offered,  and  the  first  selection  made, 
before  death  put  an  end  to  further  experiment.  Save,  however, 
for  this  small  excursion,  and  a  page  or  two  of  directions,  all  was 
left  to  the  imagination  and  organisation  of  the  executors.  The 
great  gifts,  after  the  first  outburst  of  surprise,  excited  little 
enthusiasm  in  those  for  whom  they  were  intended.  Nebulosity 
has  a  chilling  effect  upon  the  average  man,  and  novelty  he 
regards  with  a  suspicious  eye.  So  it  was  that  this  colossal  will 
was  dismissed  from  men's  minds,  as  great  indeed,  but  without 


The  Rhodes  Scholarships 


377 


form  and  void,  until  the  spirit  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters, 
and  Dr.  Parkin's  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  in  pursuance  of 
his  commissionership,  aroused  them  to  renewed  wonder. 

Never  has  such  a  voyage  been  undertaken  with  such  an 
object.  The  will  of  one  man,  obedient  to  British  traditions,  that 
look  upon  the  ocean  not  as  a  bar  of  separation,  but  as  a  bond 
of  union,  had  spanned  the  earth  from  end  to  end,  had  sent  its 
servant  on  an  errand  entailing  two  full  months  of  actual  travelling 
alone,  and  had  drawn  into  one  current  for  the  furtherance  of  its 
design  the  youth  of  America  and  of  Europe,  of  Africa  and  of 
Australasia. 

And  what  is  that  design  ?  The  Alpha  and  Omega  of  the 
whole  of  this  educational  scheme  is,  briefly,  Anglo-Saxon  unity. 
Education,  in  the  sense  of  mere  book-learning,  takes  but  a 
secondary  place  in  this  idea,  which  is  the  offspring  of  a  practical 
statesman,  for  training,  not  students,  not  professors  of  economics, 
or  of  sociology,:or  of  any  other  ology,  but  leaders  who,  becoming 
imbued  with  his  aim,  will  in  their  turn,  take  up  the  fight  and 
carry  it  in  time,  whether  it  take  twenty  years  or  whether  it  take 
two  hundred,  to  a  successful  conclusion. 

There  are  two  periods  in  a  man's  life  when  he  is  most 
susceptible  to  influence,  the  one  being  the  first  seven  years  of 
his  existence,  when  everything  to  him  is  new,  and  the  mind  is 
a  plastic  blank  on  which  others  may  impress  what  they  please ; 
and  the  second  when,  on  leaving  school,  he  finds  himself  on  the 
threshold  of  a  new  life,  and  his  intellect  awakes  to  vistas  and 
broad  horizons  until  then  undreamt  of,  and  his  unchecked 
enthusiasm  but  awaits  the  guiding  hand  to  direct  which  of  the 
many  unknown  pleasant  paths  before  him  shall  be  the  one  along 
which  he  shall  seek  his  destiny.  The  first  of  these  two  periods  is 
the  right  of  the  State  under  whose  flag  the  child  is  born,  in 
which  to  sow  in  him  that  love  of  the  country  in  whose  confines 
he  has  his  being,  and  those  traditions  of  righteousness  and  of 
freedom  that  are  his  birthright,  and  that  nought  will  afterwards 
efface.  But  the  second  period  is  to  him  who  will  take  the 
responsiblity,  and  this  second  period  is  the  one  Mr.  Khodes  has 
chosen  for  his  own. 

At  this  stage  of  the  development  of  the  human  soul,  in 
each  awakening  brain,  all  the  blind  forces  of  the  age  find  their 
battlefield  ;  the  Sturm  und  Drang  which  surged  through  Germany 
as  it  passed  from  adolescence  to  manhood,  finds  its  counterpart 
in  each  unit  as  it  is  given  out  by  the  schools  to  the  beckoning 
life  beyond.  All  is  untried,  all  is  attractive,  and  the  bewildered 
brain,  though  unconsciously,  welcomes  a  master  hand  on  the 
tiller.  Rightly  guided  at  such  a  crisis,  the  eager  enthusiasms 
of  youth,  too  apt  to  lose  themselves  in  mere  wasting  illusions, 


378  The  Empire  Review 

can  be  stored  up  in  accumulators  of  great  potential  energy,  an 
irresistible  dynamic  force  to  be  used  by  some  great  will  for  the 
carrying  out  of  some  great  idea ;  for  enthusiasm  rightly  balanced 
is,  after  all,  the  sheet-anchor,  as  well  as  the  driving  power,  of  the 
soul,  individual  and  collective.  At  such  a  period  of  susceptibility, 
far-reaching  effects  may  be  expected  from  transplantation  for  a 
limited  time  to  a  foreign  shore,  whence  it  becomes  possible  to 
view  each  native  country  in  better  perspective,  and  where  on 
the  untried  eyes  may  now  dawn  a  larger  patriotism  than  that  of 
country — that  of  race  which,  overleaping  physical  impediments  and 
political  barriers,  shall  swell  the  ever-strengthening  torrent  under 
whose  impetus  those  geographical  boundaries,  those  political  dis- 
abilities, shall  go  down,  and  nations,  who  are  now  like  inland, 
divided  seas  without  outlet,  shall  merge  into  one  immense  ocean 
washing  the  shores  of  the  world.  Nor  will  a  conception  like 
this  be  weakened  when  the  very  terms  of  such  a  sojourn  in  a 
strange  land  brings  it  continually  to  the  mind,  but  immeasurably 
enhanced.  The  future,  which  in  commerce  is,  not  to  the 
merchants,  but  to  the  great  trusts,  is  in  politics,  not  to  the 
countries,  but  to  the  races ;  and  that  is  the  prescient  aim  of 
Mr.  Ehodes'  will — not  the  British  Isles,  but  the  British  Empire, 
and  not  even  the  British  Empire,  but  the  British  race. 

But  Canada  and  the  United  States  are  opposed  to  sending 
their  youth  abroad  until  two  years  shall  have  first  been  spent  in 
their  own  universities,  the  B.A.  degree  even  taken,  and  a  post- 
graduate course  at  Oxford  alone  contemplated.  By  this  time 
the  period  of  mental  upheaval  would  be  safely  passed,  and  the 
stamp  of  America  finally  set  upon  the  new  mind.  It  is  argued 
that  if  these  scholars  were  dispatched  straight  from  school  to 
another  land  to  finish  their  studies,  and  that  land  Great  Britain, 
they  would  return  plus  Anglais  que  les  Anglais,  to  be  in  future 
but  pilgrims  and  sojourners  in  their  own  home.  Such  a  fear 
would  suggest  a  certain  lack  of  self-confidence  in  the  New  World, 
a  sentiment  not  generally  associated  with  it.  That,  in  the  first 
flush  of  return,  differences  will  be  apt  to  be  emphasised  rather 
than  likenesses,  is  probable  enough.  An  introduction  of  any 
new  element  suggests  dissimilarity,  but  a  few  months  of  fitting 
anew  into  the  old  surroundings  will  wipe  out  those  feelings  of 
strangeness,  bringing  to  the  surface  again  the  effects  of  years  of 
childish  training,  while  over  that  momentous  excursion  of  three 
years  at  Oxford  must  grow  the  daily  habits,  the  national  interests 
and  idiosyncrasies  that  attach  to  life  wherever  it  is  taken  up.  It 
will  not  be  a  stranger,  but  an  American,  who  will  be  sent  back 
from  Oxford,  but  an  American  plus  an  Anglo-Saxon.  With  the 
whole  childhood  and  boyhood  of  a  man  their  own,  to  train  and 
impress  as  best  they  may  think,  with  a  manhood  spent  under 


The  Rhodes  Scholarships 


379 


their  institutions,  neither  America  nor  Canada  should  fear  the 
effects  of  those  three  years  in  a  closely  related  land,  but,  with 
such  influences  before  and  after,  might  well  spare  their  youth 
during  the  transition  stage  from  adolescence,  when  there  is 
most  hope  of  moulding  him  to  the  larger  issues.  For  that  a 
certain  modification  and  enlargement  is  desirable  cannot  be 
questioned.  If  it  be  true  that  the  future  is  to  the  races,  a 
great  change  must  be  effected  both  in  England  and  America,  and 
further  in  Africa  and  Australia  ;  a  softening  of  traits  of  difference, 
and  strengthening  of  traits  of  similarity,  and  a  habit  of  mind 
that  embraces  as  personal,  all  things  that  affect  the  race  in 
any  point,  whether  they  are  germane  to  the  interests  of  each 
particular  country  or  not. 

It  is  a  wonderful  idea  for  which  these  scholarships  are  to  act  as 
the  leaven,  that  of  the  homogeneity  of  the  English-speaking  race 
which,  if  it  were  only  united,  would  be  the  irresistible  master  of 
the  world.  This  idea  had  fired  Mr.  Ehodes  so  long  ago  as  1877, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  1891  we  find  him  writing  a  letter  to 
Mr.  W.  T.  Stead  in  which  he  says : — 

What  an  awful  thought  it  is  that  if  we  had  not  lost  America,  or  if  even  now 
we  could  arrange  with  the  present  members  of  the  United  States  Assembly  and 
our  House  of  Commons,  the  peace  of  the  world  is  secured  for  all  eternity  1  ... 
Fancy  the  charm  to  young  America,  just  coming  on  and  dissatisfied — for  they 
have  filled  up  their  own  country  and  do  not  know  what  to  tackle  next — to 
share  in  a  scheme  to  take  the  government  of  the  whole  world.  .  .  .  What  a 
scope  and  what  a  horizon  of  work,  at  any  rate,  for  the  next  two  centuries,  the 
best  energies  of  the  best  people  in  the  world,  perfectly  feasible,  but  needing  an 
organisation,  for  it  is  impossible  for  one  human  atom  to  complete  anything, 
much  less  such  an  idea  as  this,  requiring  the  devotion  of  the  best  souls  of  the 
next  200  years. 

The  letter  contains  his  scheme  for  a  Society  of  Wealth,  a  Society 
roughly  outlined  by  him  when  he  was  only  twenty-four  years  old, 
by  which  these  ideas  should  be  carried  through ;  and  though  in 
after  years  he  may  have  modified  his  thought  as  to  the  means  by 
which  he  might  attain  his  objective,  that  objective  remained  the 
same  throughout,  and  by  his  will  he  strives  to  realise  it  instead 
through  a  sort  of  informal  society  of  brains,  the  Rhodes  scholars, 
the  children  of  his  spirit.  These,  bound  by  no  vows  except  those 
of  their  own  forging,  a  plan  perhaps  more  efficacious  where  our 
peculiar  Anglo-Saxon  temperament  is  concerned  than  a  stricter 
order,  and  one  certainly  more  attractive  to  our  minds  than  any 
secret  society,  will  go  out  into  all  the  world  year  by  year  carry- 
ing with  them  the  teaching  so  devoutly  preached  by  their  master ; 
and  this  lever  may  in  the  end  silently  produce  that  climax  which 
thoughtful  minds  are  more  and  more  earnestly  desiring. 

To  put   off  the   date  when  candidates   for   the  scholarships 


380 


The  Empire  Review 


shall  become  eligible  will  largely  curtail  the  results  aimed  at  by 
the  Founder.  Even  with  his  resources  the  field  of  labour  is 
limited.  There  are  to  be  only  one  hundred  Americans  elected 
out  of  a  total  of  seventy-six  millions,  and  only  sixty  colonials 
out  of  a  total  of  twenty-one  millions,  and  these  last  figures,  if 
India  were  to  be  included,  would  reach  a  total  of  three  hundred 
and  sixteen  millions.  Everything  should  be  done  to  facilitate  the 
working  of  the  leaven  which  is  in  such  infinitesimally  small 
proportion  to  the  whole,  and  not  to  sterilise  it  by  conditions. 
Bather  than  alter  the  terms  of  such  a  will  to  meet  the  fears 
across  the  water,  it  would  be  better  for  Canada  and  America  to 
establish  scholarships  at  their  own  universities  for  British  youths, 
and  in  this  way,  by  an  interchange  of  scholars,  the  balance 
would  be  kept  even,  while  every  year  the  bands  of  fellowship 
that  unite  us  already  would  be  drawn  closer.  If  America  is  too 
self-centred,  England  is  too  insular ;  and  it  is  not  in  the  anglicising 
of  the  rest,  but  in  the  Saxonising  (if  it  is  permissible  to  coin  a 
word)  of  all,  that  success  is  to  be  expected.  America,  whose 
millionaires  do  so  much  for  education,  should  not  find  this  diffi- 
cult of  execution,  and  the  object  is  large  enough  to  satisfy  the 
most  audacious  minds. 

It  is  often  urged  against  Mr.  Rhodes'  schemes  that,  though 
the  broad  idea  is  magnificent,  the  detail  is  hasty  and  might  often 
be  altered  with  advantage.  But,  in  the  present  instance,  there 
can  be  no  suggestion  of  haste.  For  more  than  ten  years  before 
his  death,  the  thought  of  forwarding  the  union,  first  of  South 
Africa,  and  afterwards  of  the  Empire,  through  education,  was 
mature  in  his  mind.  In  1891  at  Kimberley,  where  he  was  pro- 
posing the  toast  of  the  Afrikander  Bond,  he  sketched  his  idea  of  a 
university  which  should  be  the  ultimate  means  of  federation,  and 
his  words  are  all  the  more  weighty  when  it  is  recalled  that  they 
were  addressed  to  what  has  since  been  proved  to  have  been  the 
chief  separatist  agency  in  South  Africa.  He  said  : — 


If  we  could  get  a  Teaching  Residential  University  founded  in  the  Cape 
Colony,  taking  the  people  from  Bloemfontein,  Pretoria,  and  Natal,  having  the 
young  men  going  in  there  from  the  ages  of  eighteen  to  twenty-one,  they  will  go 
back  to  the  Free  State,  to  the  Transvaal,  and  to  Natal,  let  me  even  say  they 
will  go  back  to  Mashonaland,  tied  to  one  another  by  the  strongest  feelings 
that  can  be  created,  because  the  period  in  your  life  when  you  indulge  in 
friendships  which  are  seldom  broken  is  from  the  age  of  eighteen  to  twenty-one. 
Therefore  if  we  had  a  Teaching  Residential  University  these  young  men  would 
go  forth  into  all  parts  of  South  Africa  prepared  to  make  the  future  of  the 
country,  and  in  their  hands  this  great  question  of  union  could  safely  be  left. 
...  I  feel  that  should  a  Teaching  University  such  as  I  have  indicated  be 
established  .  .  .  the  young  men  who  will  attend  it  will  make  the  union  of 
South  Africa  in  the  future.  Nothing  will  overcome  the  associations  and  the 
aspirations  they  will  form  under  the  shadow  of  Table  Mountain. 


The  Rhodes  Scholarships  381 

Political  expediency  prevented  him  carrying  out  his  idea  at  the 
time,  and  afterwards  other  means  were  found  necessary  to  effect 
South  African  union,  but 

Thought  like  this 
Dies  not,  but,  changing,  burgeons  from  the  grave, 

and  this  thought  remained  with  him,  blossoming  finally  into  that 
still  greater  scheme  whereby  all  English-speaking  people  should 
be  drawn  together  in  the  bonds  of  brotherhood.  These  ten  years 
solitary  consideration  of  a  subject  before  attempting  to  put  it 
into  execution  provides  an  ample  margin  for  the  verification  of 
detail. 

Here  already,  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  residential  system ;  and 
again  in  the  will  the  same  point  is  taken  up,  in  the  paragraphs 
which  run : — 

Whereas  in  the  case  of  young  Colonists  studying  at  a  university  in  the 
United  Kingdom  I  attach  very  great  importance  to  the  University  having  a 
residential  system  such  as  is  in  force  at  the  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  for  without  it  those  students  are  at  the  most  critical  period  of 
their  lives  left  without  any  supervision.  And  whereas  there  are  at  the  present 
time  fifty  or  more  students  from  South  Africa  studying  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  many  of  whom  are  attracted  there  by  its  excellent  medical  school, 
and  I  should  like  to  establish  some  of  the  Scholarships  hereinafter  mentioned 
in  that  University,  but  owing  to  its  not  having  such  a  residential  system  as 
aforesaid  I  feel  obliged  to  refrain  from  doing  so,  etc. 

This  may  be  a  detail,  but  it  seems  to  indicate  more  strongly  how 
intent  Mr.  Khodes  must  have  been  that  his  students  should  come 
under  the  influence  of  his  wishes  while  still  young  enough  to  be 
swayed  by  them,  for  in  men  of  a  more  mature  age  the  idea  of 
such  close  supervision  becomes  both  ridiculous  and  impossible. 

Besides  this,  in  Cape  Colony  the  scholarships  have  been 
expressly  allotted  to  four  schools,  one  of  which  has  the  unique 
distinction  of  having  served  as  the  experiment  whereby  the 
Founder  tested  the  practicability  of  his  scheme.  If  the  idea  of  a 
preliminary  two  years'  course  at  a  university  before  becoming 
eligible  to  be  called  a  Rhodes  scholar  is  adopted,  then  the  terms 
of  the  will  as  regards  Cape  Colony  must  be  entirely  altered,  the 
direct  bequests  to  those  four  schools  withdrawn,  and  the  reason 
ignored  which  led  to  this  distinction  as  between  the  other 
countries  benefited  and  the  Cape,  a  reason  to  which  sufficient 
weight  has  not  been  given,  and  which  is  that,  by  these  most  direct 
gifts,  the  Dutch  of  the  old  Colony  shall  receive  for  a  certainty  an 
equal  opportunity  with  the  British,  and  shall  have  the  greatest 
difficulty  in  standing  aloof  from  this  peace-making  agency. 

There  is  another  reason  against  the  preliminary  two-years' 
course  at  a  local  university  before  election  to  a  scholarship,  and 
that  is  that  Mr.  Rhodes/  system  of  marks  thereby  becomes  almost 


382  The  Empire  Review 

impossible.  On  the  face  of  it,  this  appears  a  detail  not  worth 
consideration ;  but  underlying  it  is  a  principle  that  will  become 
difficult  of  execution  in  any  other  way.  To  refer  again  to  the 
text  of  the  will,  it  proceeds  :— 

My  desire  being  that  the  students  who  shall  be  elected  to  the  Scholar- 
ships shall  not  be  merely  book-worms  I  direct  that  in  the  election  of  a  student 
to  a  Scholarship  regard  shall  be  had  to 

(1)  His  literary  and  scholastic  attainments. 

(2)  His  fondness  of  and  success  in  manly  outdoor  sports  such  as  cricket, 

football  and  the  like. 

(3)  His  qualities  of  manhood,  truth,  courage,  devotion  to  duty,  sympathy 

for  the  protection  of  the  weak,  kindliness,  unselfishness  and  fellow- 
ship, and 

(4)  His  exhibition  during  school  days  of  moral  force  of  character  and  of 

instincts  to  lead  and  to  take  an  interest  in  his  school  mates  for  those 
latter  attributes  will  be  likely  in  after  life  to  guide  him  to  esteem  the 
performance  of  public  duty  as  his  highest  aim. 

and  further  suggests  that  these  objects  should  be  attained  by  a 
scheme  of  marks  in  which  the  first  of  the  four  qualifications  shall 
be  decided  by  examination,  and  shall  be  allotted  three-tenths  of 
the  total  number  of  marks,  while  the  second  and  third  shall  be 
allotted  five-tenths  between  them  (two-tenths  to  the  second  and 
three-tenths  to  the  third),  and  shall  be  decided  by  the  con- 
temporaries of  the  candidates,  and  the  fourth  qualification  shall 
receive  the  remainder  of  the  marks ;  namely  two-tenths,  and  be 
settled  by  the  recommendation  of  the  headmaster. 

This  novel  method  of  selection  makes  it  clear  that  the  men 
desired  are  less  those  with  chances  of  a  double  first  than  those 
who,  with  perhaps  only  average  qualities  under  each  of  the  four 
points,  yet  combine  all  in  a  fair  degree,  and  may  be  expected  to 
turn  out  first-class  citizens  and  those  on  whom  others,  less  well 
balanced,  will  rely.  For  the  man  who  will  be  able  to  sway  men 
is  not  a  mere  student,  nor  a  mere  athlete  ;  neither  is  he  a  man  of 
good  moral  qualities  alone,  for,  if  only  possessed  of  those,  he  is 
likely  to  become  that  special  aversion  of  Mr.  Khodes— a  mug- 
wump ;  nor  even  is  he  a  forcible  character  only,  for  unless  backed 
by  righteousness  his  ambitions,  founded  upon  sand,  will  but 
crumble  away  at  his  death  ;  but  he  is  a  combination  of  all  four — 
thoughtful,  healthy,  magnanimous,  electric ;  and  it  is  for  these 
leaders  of  men  that  this  leader  is  looking.  Nor  again  will  such  a 
man,  especially  if  he  be  dependent  on  the  resources  within 
himself  for  a  livelihood,  be  very  ready  to  pursue  a  further  course 
of  study  at  Oxford  after  having  taken  one  course  already  at 
another  university,  while  his  contemporaries  gain  a  three-years 
start  of  him  in  the  race  ;  but,  leaving  such  studies  to  the  merely 
assimilative  cast  of  mind,  he  will  devote  himself  early  to  carving 
out  a  career. 


The  Rhodes  Scholarships 


383 


This  means  of  discovering  the  suitable  tools  has  been  called 
unpractical  and  impossible  of  success ;  but,  as  Mr.  Bhodes 
himself  says  of  another  scheme  of  his,  "  I  think  that  the  two 
objections  to  it  are  that  it  is  unusual,  and  that  Mr.  Ehodes  is 
connected  with  it ;  but  still,  sir,  we  will  have  a  try  at  it."  It  is 
not  so  long  ago  since  the  Transcontinental  Telegraph  was  laughed 
at  as  an  absurd  dream,  and  yet  it  is  now  arranged  from  end  to 
end,  and  finished  over  three-quarters  of  its  course.  Nor  is  it 
long  since  the  Cape  to  Cairo  Kailway  was  spoken  of  as  a  "wild 
cat  scheme,"  and  yet  it  is  within  a  few  miles  of  the  Victoria 
Falls,  and  a  bridge  is  already  being  constructed  to  span  them,  and 
altogether  some  three  thousand  miles  of  rail  are  already  complete. 
The  scheme  in  its  entirety  is  worth  at  least  a  trial,  and  modifica- 
tions can  always  be  introduced  later  on  when  this  or  that  part  of 
ie  machinery  has  been  proved  by  experience  to  be  faulty.  But 
until  such  actual  proofs  are  forthcoming  the  idea  deserves  to  be 
attempted  just  as  it  stands, 

SOUTH  AFRICAN. 


384  The  Empire  Review 


LIFE   IN   NEW   ZEALAND   AS   IT   IS 

IN  spite  of  a  South  African  war,  a  speechmaking  Premier, 
occasional  telegrams  "  from  Our  Own  Correspondent "  in  the 
Times,  to  say  nothing  of  The  Empire  Review,  New  Zealand 
still  remains  to  most  English  people,  and  certainly  to  all  the 
world  outside  England,  practically  an  unknown  land. 

Not  even  the  many  who  go  to  and  fro  between  the  colonies 
and  the  Old  Country,  nor  they  that  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships, 
have  as  yet  materially  changed  this  almost  universal  state  of  crass 
ignorance.  Most  people  who  make  any  attempt  to  follow  the 
swift  march  of  events,  think  of  New  Zealand  as  a  kind  of  some- 
what perilous  laboratory  of  sociological  experiments,  which  it  is 
as  well  for  the  nations  to  watch,  as  by  so  doing  a  little  experience 
may  often  be  picked  up  cheap ;  and  if  fingers  have  to  be  burnt,  it 
is  just  as  well  if  it  can  be  so  arranged  that  only  those  of  New 
Zealand  should  suffer.  Educated  people  know,  or  think  they 
know,  that  we  have  an  Act  destined  to  prevent  strikes  and  lockouts ; 
an  Old  Age  Pensions  Act,  a  native  population  called  Maoris,  a 
good  many  troublesome  volcanoes  that  are  apt  to  break  out  with- 
out giving  due  notice  (witness  the  terrible  eruption  of  Waimanyu 
at  the  end  of  August,  which  killed  four  people) ;  much  fine 
scenery,  and  a  very  good  climate. 

These  vague,  and  more  or  less  inaccurate  notions  make  up  the 
sum  of  their  knowledge  about  New  Zealand.  If  asked  what  life 
in  the  colony  is  really  like,  supposing  any  intelligible  answer  at 
all  could  be  given,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  even  now  it  would  be 
that  everyone  knows  everyone  there,  and  that  everyone  knows 
how  to  ride.  The  average  Britisher  still  often  does  not  know  the 
difference  between  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  and  though  it 
may  not  now  be  generally  true  that  he  actually  thinks  the  former 
a  kind  of  appanage  of  or  adjacent  island  to  the  latter,  yet  less 
than  six  years  ago  it  certainly  was  true.  Even  now  he  sometimes 
asks,  "Where  is  Australasia?"  And  this  to  the  proud  New 
Zealander  with  his  reasons  against  Australian  federation  in 
number  as  the  miles  of  stormy  Pacific  Ocean  between  the  colony 
and  the  continent — twelve  hundred  and  over  ! 


Life  in  New  Zealand  as  it  Is  385 

There  is  no  one  in  New  Zealand,  from  the  pioneer  colonist  to 
the  temporary  resident,  with  relations  in  England,  who  has  not 
felt,  possibly  groaned  over  the  difficulty  of  giving  these  relatives 
any  real  idea  of  what  the  life  is.  Till  very  recently,  at  any  rate, 
they  would  write  telling  their  New  Zealand  friends  that  a  brother 
or  cousin  was  coming  out  to  some  place  in  Australia,  a  thousand 
or  two  miles  away  at  least,  and  they  would  be  very  grateful  for 
any  hospitality  shown  him.  Even  now  the  Englishwoman 
living  in  New  Zealand,  whether  from  motives  of  health  or 
economy  or  what,  in  a  house  not  as  well  fitted  up  in  many  ways 
as  a  London  artisan's  dwelling,  with  possibly  a  large  family,  and 
certainly  not  more  than  one  servant,  most  likely  none,  who  thinks 
she  has  written  such  full  and  complete  accounts  in  her  letters  of 
the  kind  of  revolutionised  life  she  leads,  sits  in  dismayed  amuse- 
ment contemplating  white  elephants  in  the  shape  of  breakfast 
jackets  and  elegant  morning-gowns,  sent  out  by  well-meaning 
relatives,  and  marvelling  how,  after  all,  they  can  have  so  little  idea 
of  her  needs.  Quite  as  many  more  English  people  jump  to  the 
conclusion  that  no  one  in  the  colonies  looks  fit  to  be  seen,  and 
bring  out  with  them  clothes  such  as  have  not  made  them  exactly 
a  byword  for  being  well-dressed,  and  cause  much  remark  among 
colonials. 

Matters  are  nowise  mended  by  the  increasing  number  of 
English  tourists  who  come  out  for  a  short  time,  nothing  like  long 
enough  to  judge ;  and  most  of  all  those  who  come  out  and  live 
several  years  in  one  place,  or  at  any  rate  in  one  district  of  one 
island,  and  judge  of  the  whole  colony  from  an  experience  limited 
in  the  extreme.  The  nonsense  sometimes  written  by  people  such 
as  these  is  as  exasperating  as  it  is  egregious.  As  a  young  English 
tourist  in  New  Zealand  was  recently  heard  to  remark,  "  the  whole 
show's  so  utterly  different" — a  forcible  expression  with  more  truth 
in  it  than  most  generalities.  Nor  do  colonials  writing  in  the 
English  press  improve  matters  either,  unless  they  are  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  Old  Country  life  to  be  able  to  seize  on  the  points 
of  difference — those  likely  to  strike  a  stranger — and  institute  com- 
parisons, which  need  not  be  odious,  between  the  two.  Worst  of 
all  is  it  when  a  colonial  with  some  grievance,  real  or  fancied, 
against  his  government,  writes  a  book  by  way  of  chastising  with 
scorpions  his  ungrateful  fellow-colonials.  That  book  is,  of  course, 
read  by  the  English  public,  who  have  no  means  of  gauging  its 
merit,  and  is  by  them  accepted  as  an  impartial  study  of  New 
Zealand  life  and  politics  by  some  fearless  pattern  of  integrity  who 
ventures,  at  any  cost  to  himself,  to  speak  the  unvarnished  truth. 

Now  if  there  were  a  number  of  salient  differences  it  would  be 
somewhat  easier  to  prepare  English  people  for  colonial  life ;  but 
instead  of  this  there  are  few  points  of  striking  dissimilarity,  but 
VOL.  VI— No.  34.  2  c 


386  The  Empire  SevieW 

an  infinity  of  small  differences,  and  it  is  just  these  small  differences 
which  are  so  much  in  every-day  life,  and  of  which  it  is  so  hard 
to  convey  any  realistic  idea.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  whole  life 
is  so  different,  that  to  an  English  person  coming  out,  or  even  to  a 
returned  colonial  long  resident  in  England,  especially  if  familiar 
with  London  life,  it  seems  another  world ;  and  they  are  to  be 
excused  if  they  ask  themselves  many  times  during  the  first  few 
weeks : — "  Am  I  really  I  ?  Is  it  really  I,  or  some  other  person  ?  " 

Colonists  of  long  standing  would  probably  agree  without  a 
dissentient  voice  that  it  is  hopeless  for  any  but  an  adaptable 
English  person,  not  too  conservative,  to  attempt  to  settle  down  in 
New  Zealand ;  and  not  only  adaptability  (in  some  forms  not  too 
common  an  English  quality)  but  also  youth  is  generally  a  sine  qua 
non  of  a  successful  colonist.  It  is  fairly  safe  to  say  that  scarcely 
anyone,  unless,  at  least,  comparatively  young,  ever  really  settles 
down  in  New  Zealand ;  and  it  is  not  reasonable  to  expect  them 
to  do  so.  The  rare  exceptions,  if  investigated,  would  probably 
prove  to  be  either  people,  whose  health  forbade  their  residence  in 
England,  or  those  whose  lot  there  had  been  to  have  means  too 
slender  to  live  upon  without  a  struggle.  Of  this  there  can  be  no 
question.  Anyone  with  a  small  income  has  a  far  happier  and 
brighter  life  in  New  Zealand  than  in  a  big  English  town,  and 
probably  also  than  in  the  country;  and  most  especially  is  this 
true  of  women.  Very  few,  even  of  the  young  and  adaptable, 
settle  down  at  first,  although  many  do  so  afterwards,  and  I  have 
known  some  of  the  most  inveterate  grumblers  at  the  colony  return 
to  England,  find  that  after  all,  they  were  worse  off  there,  and 
finally  be  very  glad  to  come  back.  Some,  however,  hate  the  life 
eternally,  and  are  hated  accordingly;  for  such  as  these  New 
Zealand  is  no  place.  They  are  bad  colonists,  and  because  they 
are  bad  colonists  they  do  not  get  on,  and  because  they  do  not 
jget  on,  they  give  the  colony  a  bad  name,  although  they  cannot 
hang  it.  But  they  would  if  they  could. 

What  no  power  on  earth  yet  discovered  has  been  able  to  do,  is 
to  drive  into  the  heads  of  the  outside  world  that  life  in  New 
Zealand  is  utterly  different  in  different  parts.  Considering  that 
the  North  is  subtropical,  while  in  the  South  are  some  of  the 
largest,  if  not  quite  the  largest  glaciers  in  the  world  outside  polar 
regions,  this  is  so  almost  of  necessity.  Of  necessity,  also,  people 
in  a  seaport  town  like  Wellington,  the  seat  of  Government  and 
vice-regal  residence,  have  a  life  differently  ordered  from  that  of 
the  dwellers  in  a  back  block,  mostly  half-felled  bush  and  half- 
cleared  paddocks,  and  miles  from  any  neighbours,  except,  perhaps 
(in  the  North  Island  only)  Maoris,  or  even  from  those  living  on  a 
large  run,  with  few  neighbours,  and  none  within  walking  distance, 
and  the  few  there  are  so  far  off  that  when  they  come  on  a  visit, 


Life  in  New  Zealand  as  it  Is 


387 


it  usually  almost  perforce  becomes  a  visitation,  and  they  stay  a 
night,  it  may  be  two  nights.  New  Zealand,  while  actually  in 
point  of  area  much  the  same  size  as  the  United  Kingdom,  seems 
very  much  larger,  partly  owing  to  the  great  variety  of  climate  and 
scenery,  partly  because  it  is  divided  into  two  large  and  one  small 
island,  and  partly  because  travelling  in  it  is  still  so  portentously 
slow. 

Nor  has  any  human  agency  yet  been  able  to  make  the  outside 
world  realise  the  part  that  the  Maoris  play,  or  rather  do  not  play, 
in  New  Zealand  life.  The  fact  that  they  are  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  North  Island  is  one  oftener  stated  than  realised.  It 
is  possible — indeed,  usual — to  live  for  years — it  may  be  five,  ten, 
even  fifteen  years — in  southern  towns  and  never  see  a  single 
native ;  whereas  in  the  "  far  north  " — North  of  Auckland,  for 
instance — there  are  townships  and  whole  districts  with  far  more 
Maoris  than  Pakehas,  and  what  Pakehas  there  are  have  often  a 
certain  dash,  though  it  may  be  only  slight,  of  Maori  blood,  which 
is  considered  no  disgrace  whatever.  Into  the  lives  of  South 
Islanders  the  Maoris  no  more  enter  than  into  the  lives  of  the 
dwellers  in  Kensington  or  Clapham,  except  that  they  are  more 
accustomed  to  Maori  names ;  and  whenever  any  native  question 
comes  up,  or  there  is  some  slight  disturbance  in  the  King  Country 
or  elsewhere,  they  always  find  considerable  space  devoted  to  it  in 
their  daily  papers. 

But  you  cannot  live  long  in  most  parts  of  the  North  Island 
without  coming  more  or  less  into  contact  with  natives.  When 
Parliament  is  in  session,  or  the  Native  Land  Court  is  holding  a 
sitting,  I  have  often  seen  numbers  of  Maoris  in  the  region  of  the 
Parliamentary  buildings  in  Wellington ;  but,  as  a  rule,  except  to 
consult  their  solicitors  (for  they  are  very  fond  of  doing  legal 
business),  they  do  not  come  much  about  the  towns.  I  have  often 
been  asked  if  we  do  not  use  them  as  servants.  To  say  that  they 
use  us  as  servants  is  nearer  the  truth,  or,  at  least,  there  are  cases 
of  large  native  landowners  employing  white  men ;  but  I  did  not 
know  that  anyone  had  even  attempted  to  make  servants  of  them 
until  I  found  two  or  three  acting  as  chambermaids  in  a  hotel  at 
Whakarewarewa,  near  Rotorua,  whose  manager  is  one  of  the  best 
authorities  on  the  Maori  language  and  customs — indeed,  on  all 
that  concerns  the  natives — which  perhaps  accounts  for  his  being 
successful  where  others  have  not  dared  even  to  make  the  first 
attempt.  It  is  not  that  they  cannot  learn  to  do  almost  anything, 
he  said — and  in  this  he  agrees  with  every  competent  authority — 
it  is  that  they  are  too  lazy. 

What  strikes  every  visitor  to  New  Zealand  is  the  extremely 
friendly  relations  existing  between  the  Maoris  and  the  Europeans. 
We  have  had  Maori  wars,  it  is  true,  in  times  twenty  and  odd 

2  c  2 


388  The  Empire  Review 

years  past ;  we  have  discontented  natives  occasionally  still.  But 
that  does  not  alter  the  fact  that  the  New  Zealander  as  a  rule  likes 
the  Maori,  and  the  Maori  likes  the  New  Zealander.  Each  is  always 
ready  to  have  a  talk  or  crack  a  joke  with  the  other.  Perhaps 
nowhere  do  a  dark  and  a  white  race  so  thoroughly  exemplify  the 
excellence  of  dwelling  together  in  unity.  In  the  north,  in  country 
where  there  are  still  plenty  of  natives  and  no  European  tourists 
to  demoralise  them,  the  Maoris  always  expect  to  talk  on  the 
friendliest  terms  with  any  and  every  Pakeha  they  meet ;  they 
can  generally  speak  more  or  less  English.  They  think  themselves 
quite  as  good  as  the  white  man ;  and  in  this  they  are  often  not 
far  wrong.  It  is  not  so  long  since  I  was  staying  in  a  hotel  in 
the  little  settled,  far  northern  peninsula,  where  I,  the  hotel 
proprietor,  his  wife  and  children,  sat  at  one  table,  and  at  another 
some  score  or  more  Maoris,  so  quiet  and  well-behaved  (much  more 
so  than  Pakehas  of  corresponding  class)  that  no  reasonable  person 
could  have  objected  to  them.  I  do  not  think  I  have  ever  known 
a  New  Zealander,  especially  one  who  has  lived  in  a  district  with 
any  native  population,  who  was  not  very  fond  of  the  Maoris. 

The  root  of  all  differences  between  New  Zealand  and  England 
lies  in  the  former  being  ruled  by  democracy — omnipotent,  omni- 
vorous, omnipresent — and  with  a  very  big  capital  D.  If  your 
sentiments  are  "  odi  profanum  vulgus,"  then  avoid  New  Zealand 
as  you  would  ten  thousand  plagues.  For  there  profanum  vulgus 
has  as  much  power  as  it  very  well  can  have,  all  that  is  good  for 
it,  and,  it  might  be  thought,  a  little  more.  It,  or  its  incarnation 
in  the  person  of  Mr.  Seddon,  regulates  the  affairs  of  the  entire 
colony,  and  of  all  who  therein  dwell,  on  the  whole  wisely,  though 
sometimes  with  a  minuteness  of  detail  which  causes  the  unre- 
generate  to  blaspheme  and  say  rude  things  about  fatherly  govern- 
ments and  grandmotherly  legislation. 

There  is  nothing  on  which  democracy  has  not  left  its  mark — 
from  the  council  which  rules  the  State  and  the  highest  Govern- 
ment departments  down  to  the  schools,  the  hours  of  work  of  all 
employes,  even  the  dress  aad  deportment,  especially  the  deport- 
ment, of  your  domestics.  Well  for  you  if  you  have  command 
enough  of  your  countenance  not  to  betray  your  amazement  at  the 
latter ;  still  better  for  you  if  you  have  sense  of  humour  enough  to 
laugh  (in  private)  when  your  maid  comes  with  a  request,  it  may 
be,  for  the  loan  of  your  bicycle  to  go  for  a  ride  with  her  young 
man.  "  I've  tried  it  round  the  lawn  several  times  already  " — in 
your  absence,  of  course — "  and  I  can  ride  it  quite  well." 

From  this  very  democracy,  as  well  as  from  the  extraordinary 
prosperity  of  the  colony,  arises  no  doubt  that  extreme  scarcity  of 
servants,  which  is  one  of  the  most  patent  differences  between 
English  and  colonial  life.  The  servant  question  is  troublesome 


Life  in  New  Zealand  as  it  Is  389 

enough  in  England,  but  it  is  nothing  to  what  it  is  in  New 
Zealand,  where  many  private  families,  even  of  excellent  social 
standing  and  good  means,  are  either  quite  unable  to  get  servants 
or  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  they  are  more  nuisance  than 
they  are  worth,  and  they  would  rather  do  their  own  work.  Very 
few  families  keep  more  than  one  servant,  and  hardly  anyone  more 
than  two ;  and  though  a  colonial  servant  does  far  more  work  than 
an  English  one,  she  expects  an  amount  of  holidays  and  liberties 
which  would  make  an  English  mistress  gasp,  and  makes  colonial 
mistresses  impotently  angry ;  and  even  if  you  can  induce  one  of 
these  ladies  to  come  to  you,  though  she  may  be  fairly  capable  in 
a  rough  way,  she  is  in  no  sense  what  would  in  England  be  con- 
sidered a  "  trained  servant." 

This  servant  difficulty,  indeed,  affects  the  whole  arrangement 
of  life,  at  least,  among  those  who  rank  as  gentle-folks.  The 
dinner-hour,  if  not  midday,  as  it  very  frequently  is  even  in  towns, 
can  hardly  be  put  later  than  6.30,  for  the  young  lady  in  the 
kitchen  likes  to  get  the  washing-up  done  early  and  have  her 
evening  free  to  go  out,  from  at  any  rate  eight  o'clock.  Even  in 
hotels  dinner  is  often  at  this  heathenish  hour ;  they  must  keep 
their  servants  somehow,  even  though  those  servants,  as  a  rule  at 
least,  have  a  soul  quite  above  learning  the  elements  of  that  good 
waiting  which  is  usually  looked  for  in  hotels. 

Colonial  servants  cannot  be  taught  to  say  "  ma'am  "  or  "  sir  " ; 
you  can  give  up  all  thoughts  of  that.  In  the  backwoods,  more- 
over, they  do  not  see  why  they  should  not  chip  in  and  take  a 
turn  in  their  masters'  and  mistresses'  conversation  whenever  they 
like,  there  being,  truth  to  tell,  often  little  or  no  social  difference 
between  employer  and  employed.  If,  however,  colonial  servants 
are  ever  impudent,  I  should  be  strongly  inclined  to  say  that  it 
was  the  fault  of  the  employer.  You  can  hold  your  own  with 
them  ;  you  will  get  no  curtsy-bobbing,  no  bowing  and  scraping, 
but  if  you  are  worthy  of  their  respect,  you  will  certainly  have  and 
retain  it. 

It  might  be  thought  that  the  atmosphere  of  Democracy  would 
kill  snobbishness  in  the  bacillus  stage.  On  the  contrary,  it  seems 
peculiarly  suited  to  that  object  of  Thackerayan  ridicule.  Yet  in 
New  Zealand,  though  one  hears  much  talk  of  favouritism,  it  is 
generally  true  that  everyone  must  stand  on  his  own  merits.  If  a 
clergyman,  the  cloth  will  cast  no  halo  around  your  head,  for  the 
clergy  there,  in  that  strongly  materialistic  and  not  very  church- 
going  atmosphere,  have  no  social  position  beyond  what  they,  as 
individuals,  can  win  for  themselves,  a  fact  which  English  clergy- 
men are  even  slower  to  recognise  than  they  are  to  reconcile  them- 
selves to  it.  Similarly,  doctors  and  lawyers,  being  professional 
men,  have  of  ancient  right,  as  it  were,  a  certain  standing  in 


390 


The  Empire  Review 


England.  Not  so  in  New  Zealand— at  least,  not  necessarily  so ; 
but  then  many  people  are  doctors  and  lawyers  there  who  would 
never  by  any  chance  be  found  in  the  rank  of  those  professions  in 
England. 

This  brings  me  to  one  of  the  most  nonsensical  statements 
ever  made  about  New  Zealand — that  everyone  knows  everyone, 
and  that  there  are  no  social  distinctions.  Everyone  does  not 
know  everyone,  and  there  most  certainly  are  social  distinctions, 
although,  of  necessity,  nothing  like  the  endless  number  of  different 
grades  that  exist  in  England,  where  social  classes  not  only  rise 
very  much  higher,  but  also  descend  very  much  lower  than  in  any 
colony.  There  are  nothing  like  the  extremes  in  New  Zealand,  in 
any  sense  of  the  word,  that  exist  in  England.  There  is  not  only 
no  aristocratic,  but  also  practically  no  leisured  class,  or  at  best, 
but  a  very  small  one,  and  in  certain  places  only.  All  social 
functions  of  a  public  character,  from  vice-regal  receptions  to 
dances  given,  say,  by  large  boating  clubs,  are  far  more  mixed  in 
character,  and  must  be  so,  under  the  rule  of  Democracy,  than 
similar  functions  could  possibly  be  in  England.  What  is  true  is 
that  in  New  Zealand  you  are  liable  to  meet  people  whom  you 
never  would  meet,  on  a  footing  of  social  equality,  in  England  ; 
but  when  you  have  said  that,  you  have  said  enough.  You  can 
choose  your  own  friends  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  you  can  in 
England. 

Newcomers  in  one  of  the  smaller  New  Zealand  towns,  where 
there  is  often  far  more  choice  of  society  than  in  an  English  town 
as  large  or  even  far  larger,  are  called  upon  by  everyone  considering 
themselves  in  at  all  the  same  social  position,  that  is,  if  they  look 
reasonably  "nice."  That  call  must,  of  course,  be  returned  in 
person,  but  the  acquaintance  need  go  no  further  unless  desired. 
At  least  that  has  been  done  which  neighbourliness  and  hospitality 
to  the  stranger  within  their  gates  demand.  In  New  Zealand,  as 
everywhere  else,  people  of  like  tastes  and  like  breeding,  broadly 
speaking,  consort  together,  and  those  who  in  England  would 
rank  as  gentlefolks  have  as  their  friends  others  who  would  so 
rank.  Not  necessarily,  however,  as  calling  acquaintances,  for 
you  cannot  in  New  Zealand,  without  giving  great  offence,  draw 
the  hard  and  fast  rules  obtaining  under  English  social  conditions. 
It  seems  to  me,  especially  on  revisiting  England,  that  the  really 
best  colonial  society  is  more  exclusive  in  some  ways  than  English ; 
money  is  less  a  passport  to  it. 

Democracy,  in  the  back-country,  certainly  acquaints  you  with 
strange  companions,  even  with  strange  bed-fellows,  or,  at  least, 
room-fellows,  if  you  are  not  careful,  for  in  most  country  places 
even  now  they  are  sufficiently  primitive  to  think  it  quite  right 
and  proper  to  crowd  two  or  three  people,  complete  strangers,  into 


Life  in  New  Zealand  as  it  Is 


391 


one  room,  or  put  them  up  with  shakedowns ;  but  the  forewarned 
can  forearm  themselves  against  such  horrors  by  telegrams  ahead 
and  flat  refusals,  unless  in  the  backest  of  backwoods,  where 
hardly  anyone  except  backwoods  settlers  ever  penetrate.  Anyone 
who  has  ever  been  in  really  backwoods  country  would  infinitely 
prefer  camping  out  to  the  agonies  of  being  "put  up,"  as  you  are 
liable  to  be  in  such  places.  A  great  deal  of  New  Zealand  is  still 
most  distinctly  "  backwoods."  Of  necessity,  in  such  places  where 
there  is  hardly  ever  more  than  one  hotel  or  accommodation  house, 
everyone  must  sit,  if  not  at  the  same  table,  at  least  in  the  same 
room,  from  the  Lord  Bishop  of  the  Diocese,  it  may  very  well  be, 
to  a  member  of  the  Legislature,  the  coach-driver,  and  possibly 
some  Maoris  or  dirty  old  diggers,  who  may  be  more  than  "  half 
seas  over." 

A  concrete  illustration  often  saves  much  explanation.  Last 
February  I  was  in  a  township  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the 
North  Island,  where  the  native  population  equalled,  if  it  did  not 
exceed,  the  European.  A  relative  of  my  hotel  proprietor  (for  hotel 
read  public-house),  a  handsome  woman,  obviously  with  a  dash  of 
Maori  blood,  happened  to  be  having  a  tennis  party  followed  by 
dancing  on  her  lawn,  and  he  suggested  that  I  should  go  along 
there  with  him.  Imagine  such  an  incident  in  England !  I 
accepted  the  invitation  in  the  spirit  in  which  it  was  meant,  and 
doubtless  both  the  hotel-keeper  and  his  wife,  and  my  hostess, 
would  have  been  much  amazed  and  possibly  hurt  if  I  had  not 
done  so.  Outside  the  gate  was  a  crowd  of  Maoris  peeping  in. 
Usually,  it  seemed,  a  good  many  of  them  came  in,  bringing  their 
musical  instruments  with  them  and  forming  quite  a  band — it  is 
wonderful  how  musical  they  are — of  course  simply  as  guests  like 
myself.  That  evening  there  was  a  half-caste  Maori  playing  a 
violin,  and  playing  it  very  sweetly  too ;  I  was  introduced  to  him 
as  to  any  English  gentleman,  and  of  course  treated  him  as  such. 
Indeed,  his  manners  were  truly  courteous.  But  though  these 
things  are  a  part  of  New  Zealand  life,  it  is  only  in  the  far  north 
and  in  the  back  country  that  such  a  scene  could  be  witnessed. 

One  great  reason  for  the  fundamental  differences  between 
English  and  colonial  society,  lies  in  the  fact  that  not  only  the 
Premier  but  all  the  Ministry,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  are  men 
who  have  risen  by  sheer  force  of  ability,  and  not  by  reason  of  any 
such  extraneous  advantages  as  social  position  and  education, 
though  former,  and  perhaps  less  able  Ministries  have  been  very 
different.  Mr.  Seddon  never  entertains  at  all,  in  the  usual 
acceptation  of  the  word  *  ;  and  he  so  far  overshadows  all  the  other 
Ministers  that,  in  comparison  with  what  he  does,  what  they  do 

*  I  have  reason  to  believe  that  in  the  last  two  or  three  months  he  has  somewhat 
altered  his  ways  in  this  respect, 


392  The  Empire  Review 

does  not  much  matter.  In  England  an  invitation  to  an  evening 
party  in  Downing  Street,  or  to  the  private  residence  of  the  colonial 
minister,  is  a  coveted  honour  falling  to  the  lot  of  the  very  few. 
In  Wellington  an  invitation  to  the  Ministerial  residence  in 
Molesworth  Street  would  hardly  be  so  considered— a  fact  which 
New  Zealanders,  with  some  excuse,  but  perhaps  not  the  best  of 
breeding,  have  made  sufficiently  plain  for  it  to  be  perceived  by  a 
man  with  much  less  than  Mr.  Seddon's  perspicacity. 

By  reason  of  their  official  position  Ministers,  their  wives  and 
families  are,  of  course,  invited  to  all  vice-regal  functions  and  some 
private  entertainments  (at  any  rate  if  the  inviters  have  a  political 
axe  to  grind),  but  beyond  that  they  have  practically  no  social 
position.  They  may  retort  that  they  do  not  value  so  paltry  a 
thing ;  I  am  only  insisting  on  the  fact  to  show  one  great  cause 
for  the  unlikeness  of  English  and  New  Zealand  social  life.  Time 
was  when  the  members  of  the  House  of  Kepresentatives  and  of 
the  Legislative  Council  were  asked  en  masse  to  receptions  or 
entertainments,  but  those  days  are  long  gone  by .  The  stamp  of 
men  now  in  Parliament  is  in  general  very  different,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  social  position,  from  what  it  was  even  fifteen  or  twenty 
years  ago.  I  am  not  saying  that  New  Zealand  now  returns  worse 
members,  but  simply  that,  socially,  they  are  often  drawn  from  a 
different  rank.  Certainly  members  of  the  House  are  one  of  those 
classes  who  take  a  relatively  much  lower  rank  in  New  Zealand 
than  their  English  prototypes. 

Colonials  have  the  reputation  of  being  very  hospitable,  and  on 
the  whole  this  reputation  is  undoubtedly  deserved,  even  in  the 
towns,  while  in  the  back-country  nothing  can  exceed  the  kindness 
of  the  settlers.  There  seems  nothing  that  they  will  not  do  to 
help  you,  no  trouble  too  much  for  them  to  take  ;  and  though  the 
hospitality  may  be  rough,  you  may  be  quite  certain  that  it  is  their 
very  best  that  is  offered  you.  And  here  is  noticeable  another  of 
the  most  striking  differences  between  New  Zealand  and  England. 
One  old  colonist  I  have  often  heard  of  (needless  to  say  an  English 
importation,  for  Democracy  does  not  allow  its  children  to  speak 
so  ungrammatically)  used  to  growl  out  something  to  the  effect 
that  nobody  didn't  do  nothing  for  nobody  for  nothing.  But  in 
New  Zealand  a  great  many  people  do  a  great  deal  for  nobody  for 
nothing.  When  travelling  in  the  country  districts,  whatever 
trouble  a  settler  has  taken  for  you,  you  do  not  tip  him ;  you 
cannot  without  giving  offence.  Tipping  is  very  little  done  in 
New  Zealand,  except  on  steamers,  and  in  the  town  hotels.  New 
Zealanders  are  too  proud,  and  may  they  ever  remain  so  !  As  for 
offering  a  twopenny  tip  to  a  railway  porter  there,  I  have  some- 
times watched  in  the  hope  of  discovering  a  "new  chum"  trying 
to  do  it  that  I  might  witness  the  result — but  so  far  in  vain. 


Life  in  New  Zealand  as  it  Is 


393 


Another  fact  that  must  strike  anyone  viewing  New  Zealand 
with  fresh  eyes,  is  that  the  subjects  of  conversation — I  am 
speaking  in  generalities — are  mainly  people,  mutual  friends  and 
acquaintances  as  a  rule,  and  their  doings,  rather  than  larger 
topics  of  general  interest,  or  questions  of  the  day  such  as  pre- 
dominate at  any  rate  in  certain  circles  in  London.  This  is  very 
naturally  so,  and  is  one  of  the  inevitable  consequences  of  living 
in  a  community  of  800,000  instead  of  one  of  40,000,000.  But  this 
is  a  very  different  thing  from  saying  that  New  Zealanders  are 
given  to  scandalmongering  and  malicious  gossip.  No  doubt  they 
do  their  share  of  these,  for  they  are  no  whit  less  human  than 
other  folks ;  but  though  I  have  spent  some  time  lately  in  New 
Zealand  small  towns  (they  are  all  very  small  towns  as  English 
ideas  go,  Auckland  being  not  much  over  60,000)  I  never  heard 
one  single  unkind  word  said  by  anyone  about  anyone  else. 
Chance,  perhaps,  but  fact  also,  and,  it  seems  to  me,  a  fact  worth 
recording. 

The  scarcity  of  servants  is  probably  largely  responsible  for 
another  striking  feature  of  colonial  life — the  separation  of 
interests  between  men  and  women.  In  England  women  do 
not,  somehow,  seem  so  much  of  men's  lives  a  thing  apart ;  their 
work,  interests  and  amusements  do  not  seem  so  widely  separated. 
This  is  probably  largely  because  so  many  colonial  women  have 
to  spend  so  much  time  in  domestic  drudgery,  not  only  in  the 
backwoods,  where  the  settlers'  wives  (who  are,  fortunately,  not 
usually  gentlewomen)  have  to  bake  in  camp  ovens,  cure  hams 
and  bacon,  and  even  make  soap,  besides  all  the  other  household 
work;  but  even  in  the  towns.  Hence  they  frequently  become 
increasingly  absorbed  in  children  and  housework,  and  are  some- 
times apt  to  discuss  in  season  and  out,  feminine  details  of 
rdcipes,  patterns  and  infantile  management  with  which  the 
masculine  mind  gets  a  little  bored.  The  Colonial  woman  is  apt, 
for  one  cause  or  another,  to  become  prematurely  aged  and  to 
lose  her  freshness  and  good  looks,  and  too  often  also  her  health. 
Anyhow,  she  frequently,  though  it  may  not  always  be  her  fault, 
does  not  manage  her  menfolk  as  well  as  she  might.  They  go  off 
to  their  clubs  and  their  sports,  golf,  fishing,  races,  or  whatever 
else  they  like,  and  leave  their  womenfolk  a  good  deal  to  their 
own  devices — at  least,  they  are  apt  to  do  so,  and  it  is  a  bad  state 
of  things,  bad  for  the  men  and  bad  for  the  women. 

In  general,  most  observers  would  probably  agree  that  colonial 
women  are  more  presentable,  have  better  manners,  and  are 
far  better  dressed  than  the  men,  whereas  in  England,  in  the 
corresponding  classes  the  reverse  is  noticeably  the  case.  The 
colonial  man,  undoubtedly,  dresses  far  worse,  relatively  to 
Englishmen,  than  the  colonial  woman  relatively  to  English- 


394  The  Empire  Review 

women.  Colonials,  as  a  whole,  whether  from  the  bright  climate 
or  whatever  cause,  are  very  pleasure-loving  ;  and  it  is  surprising 
to  what  an  extent  racing  and  all  kinds  of  sport  often  predominate 
in  the  conversation,  especially  of  men.  Of  the  average  colonial 
youth  one  is  inclined  to  be  unkind  enough  to  parody  the  old 
nursery  rhyme,  and  say  : — 

His  head  is  full  of  cricket 
Underneath  his  little  hat. 

(Winter  version,  "football.") 

There  is  one  feature  of  New  Zealand  life  which  every  visitor 
to  the  colony  notices  without  fail.  It  has  been  commented 
on  times  without  number,  and  it  is  a  charge  against  which 
New  Zealanders  had  better  not  even  attempt  to  defend  them- 
selves, though  they  may  have  something  to  plead  in  excuse. 
I  refer,  of  course,  to  the  rampagious  character  of  most  of  the 
children.  One  wonders  if  they  really  are  the  worst  brought  up  in 
the  world.  Parental  control  is  very  slight,  and  the  disrespectful 
way  in  which  parents  seem  to  allow  their  children  to  treat  them 
must  have  caused  many  an  English  visitor,  Germanic^,  to  make 
big  eyes.  The  usual  excuse  that  the  children  are  so  much 
with  their  parents — will  not  hold  water.  It  is  true  that,  like 
John  Bull,  the  children  usually  muddle  through  somehow ;  but 
when  children  have  been  allowed  to  run  riot  and  behave  as 
they  like  for  the  first  six  or  eight  years  of  their  lives,  the  mischief 
is  done,  and  no  one  need  ever  think  that  any  amount  of  care 
and  trouble  in  the  future  will  entirely  undo  it. 

Everyone,  of  course,  is  prepared  for  the  "  colonial  twang  " — 
an  evil  worse  in  some  parts  of  New  Zealand  than  in  others,  but 
increasing  everywhere;  and  though  it  is  nonsense  to  say  that 
everyone  bred  in  the  colony  has  it  more  or  less,  nevertheless  it 
is  true  that  the  New  Zealander  born  and  bred  never,  or  almost 
never,  really  speaks  quite  like  anyone  born  and  bred  in  England. 
A  sharp  ear  can  detect  not  a  twang  so  much  as  a  different  intona- 
tion, and  generally  a  quicker  way  of  speaking.  "An  English 
voice"  is  noticeable  above  all  others  in  a  real  colonial  crowd, 
and  the  "  very  English  way  of  speaking"  is  generally  one  of  the 
first  things  that  strikes  the  colonial  in  England. 

Educationally  New  Zealand  has  a  reputation  which  is  perhaps, 
on  the  whole,  higher  than  it  deserves.  Primary  education  there 
is  excellent,  though  some  of  the  methods  are  open  to  a  good 
deal  of  criticism.  Many  of  the  remarks  made  in  the  recent  Daily 
Telegraph  sham  education  controversy  apply  to  New  Zealand 
primary  education.  Secondary  education  suffers  from  too  much 
democracy.  College,  or  rather  high-school  governors,  once  men 
selected  for  their  scholarship,  or  because  they  were  known  to 


Life  in  New  Zealand  as  it  Is  395 

have  had  an  education  in  old  country  universities  and  public 
schools,  are  now  too  often  largely  controlled  by  men  apparently 
selected  for  their  lack  of  all  qualities  likely  to  make  them  com- 
petent educational  authorities,  men  of  whom  one  can  sometimes 
only  say  that  it  is  well-nigh  inconceivable  how  they  could  have 
been  appointed.  Naturally  this  tends  to  lower  the  standard  of 
teachers  selected,  too  many  of  whom  are  socially  and  in  every 
other  way  inferior  to  many  of  their  pupils,  at  whose  houses  they 
would  never  visit.  " Which  is  right,  dook  or  duke?"  was  a 
question  recently  put  by  a  young  miss  at  a  New  Zealand  high- 
school,  to  her  teacher.  "And  which  should  you  say,  town  or 
taoun  ?  "  Needless  to  say,  it  was  not  exactly  thirst  for  information 
which  prompted  these  questions.  I  do  not  for  a  moment  think 
that  in  every  high-school  in  the  colony  there  is  a  teacher  to  whom 
it  would  be  possible  even  to  think  of  putting  such  questions. 
"What  I  do  say  is,  that  I  believe  once  there  were  none,  and  that 
once  again  there  ought  to  be  none. 

To  anyone  devoted  to  art  or  belonging  to  an  Old  World  artistic, 
musical  or  literary  coterie,  life  in  New  Zealand  would  be  a 
Siberian  exile  indeed,  and  the  winter  of  their  discontent  there 
would  be  unending.  In  time,  as  all  lovers  of  New  Zealand  hope, 
she  will  have  an  art  and  a  literature  of  her  own ;  but  it  is 
early  days,  as  yet,  to  talk  of  that,  although  signs  of  both  are 
visible.  One  of  the  reasons  why  most  English  people  do  not  like 
New  Zealand  life  for  long  is  that  they  feel  "  so  far  away  from 
everything."  That  is  so,  and  must  be  so.  If  you  live  there,  you 
must  resign  yourself  to  being  unable  really  to  follow  English,  and 
still  more  world  politics  as  you  could  in  England ;  but  you  can, 
and  many  colonials  do,  keep  at  least  as  well  abreast  of  the  time  as 
provincial  English  folk  and  London  suburbanites,  indeed,  it  might 
be  thought  often  considerably  better.  New  books  in  the  colonial 
editions  get  out  to  New  Zealand  very  quickly.  Many  a  time  I 
have  known  colonials  write  home  to  their  English  friends  about 
some  new  book  that  they  have  read,  it  may  be  some  time  back, 
but  which  had  not  yet  come  the  way  of  the  dweller  in  England. 
If  fate  fixes  your  dwelling  in  Wellington — windiest  and  healthiest 
of  towns,  unattractive  at  first,  but  with  some  subtle  power  of 
winning  most  people's  attachment — you  may  be  able  to  have 
access  to  what  is,  I  understand,  the  best  library  south  of  the  line, 
the  Parliamentary  (General  Assembly)  library.  If  you  cannot 
then  keep  up  to  date  in  your  reading,  far  more  up  to  date  than 
all  but  very  few  English  people  manage  to  do,  it  will  be  your 
own  fault.  Except  for  foreign  books,  I  would  rather  have  access 
to  it  than  to  any  English  library,  except,  of  course,  the  two  or 
three  unapproachable  collections  such  as  the  British  Museum  and 
Bodleian,  and  except  also  (though  this  is  a  very  doubtful  excep- 


396  The  Empire  Review 

tion)  the  London  Library ;  and  I  have  known  others  well  qualified 
to  judge  express  similar  opinions. 

The  question  is  often  put  to  colonials  who  have  lived  both  in 
New  Zealand  and  in  England,  in  which  place  they  would  rather 
live.  This  is,  after  all,  very  much  like  asking  anyone  which  they 
prefer,  beef  or  strawberries.  It  entirely  depends  upon  circum- 
stances. The  supreme  deciding  factor  is,  to  most  people,  their 
individual  aims  and  tastes;  the  next  factors  in  importance, 
whether  they  have  means  enough  to  live  an  English  life  that  is 
worth  living,  and  not  really  duller  and  more  denied  than  a 
colonial  life,  and  also  where  most  of  their  friends  reside.  If  the 
career  on  which  you  have  set  your  heart  is  journalistic,  literary, 
musical  or  artistic,  it  is  suicidal  folly  for  you  to  stay  long  in  New 
Zealand.  Generally  speaking,  anyone  with  ambition,  tenacity 
and  energy  undoubtedly  finds  more  scope  in  England ;  competi- 
tion, it  is  true,  is  far  keener,  for  the  struggle  for  life  is  one  of 
those  subjects  on  which  the  real  New  Zealander  is  blissfully 
ignorant;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  opportunities  is 
infinitely  greater.  The  positions,  the  openings  do  exist  in 
England ;  they  do  not  in  New  Zealand,  at  least  not  in  any  of 
these  ranks  of  life.  On  the  other  hand,  if  you  have  capital 
enough,  and  care  for  an  open-air  life  on  land,  a  runholder's  life  in 
New  Zealand  would  probably  seem  one  of  the  most  delightful  in 
the  world. 

If  health  is  a  serious  consideration,  and  you  have  flung  away 
ambition ;  if  you  are  adaptable,  and  most  especially  if  explorations 
in  virgin  bush  and  on  unclimbed  mountains  have  any  charms  for 
you ;  if,  indeed,  the  life  of  a  colony,  vigorous,  growing,  as  yet  not 
half  developed,  has  a  human  interest  for  you,  you  will  find  New 
Zealand  life  not  perfect,  certainly,  but  vitally  interesting,  and  the 
New  Zealanders  equally  certainly  not  perfect,  but  with  at  least 
as  much  claim  on  your  affections  and  regard  as  the  people  of  any 
other  community.  New  Zealand,  in  fact,  except  in  certain  parts 
for  the  botanist  and  the  explorer  of  an  adventurous  turn  of  mind, 
is  no  paradise  for  anyone  but  the  working  man,  not  even  a 
climatic  paradise.  He  at  present  has  matters  very  much  his  own 
way;  he  is  prosperous  as  certainly  he  never  was  before,  and 
possibly  never  will  be  again.  How  long  the  present  phase  of 
New  Zealand  life  will  last  it  is  hard  to  say ;  it  is  for  the  outsider 
a  singular  compound  of  the  interesting,  the  amusing  and  the 
aggravating.  To  the  native  born  it  must  ever  be  "home";  at 
least  if  it  is  not  so  I,  for  one,  have  no  patience  with  him. 

CONSTANCE  A.  BARNICOAT. 


The  Internationalisation  of  Marketable  Securities     397 


THE    INTERNATIONALISATION   OF 
MARKETABLE    SECURITIES 

THE  great  awakening  of  the  fiscal  question  has  brought  home 
to  the  minds  of  the  people  the  truths  of  the  commercial  advance- 
ment of  the  German  Empire,  the  Americanisation  of  English 
trade,  and  the  backwardness  of  Great  Britain  in  the  struggle  for 
international  business  supremacy.  Indeed,  the  delirium  of  excite- 
ment and  turmoil  into  which  politics,  industry,  and  commerce 
have  been  plunged  by  the  all-absorbing  topic  of  the  past  few 
months  has  not  been  without  its  influence  on  the  world  of  finance 
in  helping  to  maintain  the  depression  of  British  Consols  and  every 
first-class  stock.  Hence,  at  the  present  moment,  when  both 
the  British  and  American  markets  are  labouring  under  the 
weight  of  large  masses  of  undigested  paper,  the  question  of 
the  internationalisation  of  marketable  securities  should  be  of 
special  interest. 

Underlying  the  forcible  and  conscious  desire  of  the  leading 
nations  to  outwit  one  another,  there  lies  the  pervading  idea 
of* an  energy  devoted  to  that  most  powerful  of  all  protectionist 
factors — the  power  of  unity  and  combination,  the  most  palpable 
power  of  international  respect  and  goodwill,  and  the  most  lively 
influence  toward  cordial  interchange  of  dealings  and  a  solid  basis 
of  friendship.  There  are  many  other  securities  for  the  limitation 
of  territorial  ambition  and  trade  aggression  to  the  industrial  arts 
of  peace  besides  this  one  of  actual  union  of  forces,  and  among 
them  the  internationalisation  of  capital  and  of  marketable  securities 
holds  a  primary  place.  An  analysis  of  the  elements  of  inter- 
national indebtedness  shows  on  how  much  deeper  a  foundation 
than  the  mere  interchange  of  commodities  lies  the  balance  of 
transactions  between  the  various  countries  of  the  world.  The 
insidious  character  of  foreign  loans  occupies  a  full  share  of 
effectiveness;  and  rapid  and  extensive  movements  of  a  revolu- 
tionary character  and  influence  have  recently  been  consummated. 

To-day  the  international  money  market  stands  on  the  thres- 
hold of  an  era  of  shifting  scenes  and  unsettled  centres  for  the 
settlement  of  international  liabilities.  And  many  striking  diver- 


398 


The  Empire  Review 


gences  from  the  role  of  past  experience  are  already  displayed. 
For  instance,  there  is  the  liquidation  by  the  United  States  of  her 
indebtedness  to  Great  Britain ;  there  is  the  increasing  popularity 
of  Japanese  loans  as  a  result  of  the  Anglo- Japanese  Treaty ;  there 
is  the  specialisation  of  Spanish  stock  on  the  Paris  Bourse ;  there 
is  the  Franco-Bussian  financial  as  well  as  political  entente,  while, 
above  all,  there  is  the  popularisation  of  English  and  Continental 
securities  in  Wall  Street,  as  evidenced  in  the  liberal  application 
by  the  Yankee  of  his  spare  millions  to  British  Consols,  German 
Treasury  Bonds,  and  French,  Swedish,  Scandinavian  and  Danish 
securities.  In  fact,  the  dominance  of  American  influence  over 
the  Berlin  and  Paris  Bourses  is  an  undoubted  reality. 

Another  remarkable  feature,  despite  all  these  instances  of 
"  community  of  interest "  ideas,  but  a  feature  which,  because 
of  the  admitted  fact  that  gold  movements  affect  the  prices  of 
Inter-Bourse  stocks,  is  closely  related  to  the  interchange  of 
securities,  is  the  avowed  policy  of  each  nation  to  accumulate  as 
much  gold  as  possible.  This  end  has  been  so  successfully 
achieved  that  one  of  the  most  prominent  points  connected  with 
the  monetary  situation  of  the  past  three  years  is  the  great 
strength  of  the  reserves  of  yellow  metal  held  by  the  leading 
national  banks.  No  better  proof  of  this  fact  can  be  found  than 
the  pronounced  and  maintained  addition  to  the  note  circulation 
and  equivalent  withdrawal  of  coin  throughout  continental  Europe 
and  the  United  States. 

A  forcible  demonstration  of  America's  command  over  the 
gold  of  the  world  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  is  no  uncommon 
occurrence  for  many  millions  of  gold  to  be  on  its  way  to  the 
United  States,  concurrently  with  a  largely  increased  excess  of 
American  exports  over  imports.  Bussian  financial  institutions 
repeatedly  tell  their  German  confreres  that  they  want,  not 
Kussian  four  per  cent,  rente,  but  gold.  The  Bank  of  France 
has  become  the  holder  of  the  largest  amount  of  gold  of  any 
financial  institution  in  the  world.  An  unprecedented  reserve  of 
the  yellow  metal  has  been  attained  by  the  Bank  of  Austria- 
Hungary.  Germany,  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere  of  distrust, 
has  maintained  an  uncommonly  high  rate  for  money,  in  order 
not  to  lose  her  hold  on  the  gold  flowing  back  to  the  Keichsbank, 
and  in  spite  of  considerable  reductions  by  the  Bank  of  England 
and  Bank  of  France  in  their  respective  rates.  Germany's  recent 
sudden  and  sharp  demand  for  gold  culminated  in  our  central 
institution  raising  the  discount  rate  from  3  to  4  per  cent,  on 
September  3rd.  The  severe  strictures  of  the  inspection  com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  Italian  Government  to  inquire  into  the 
working  of  the  three  Italian  banks  of  issue  are  in  the  direction 
of  a  consolidation  of  the  financial  solvency  of  that  nation.  In 


The  Internationalisation  of  Marketable  Securities     399 

fact,  the  united  gold  reserve  of  the  European  and  American 
national  banks  has  been  increasing  by  tens  of  millions. 

On  the  other  hand,  side  by  side  with  this  hoarding  of  the 
yellow  metal,  the  main  feature  of  international  finance  has  been 
the  phenomenal  dealings  by  the  capitalists  of  one  nation  in  the 
securities  of  other  countries.  The  participation  of  American 
financiers  in  British  Government  stocks  has,  undoubtedly,  very 
largely  been  due  to  the  much  higher  yield  to  be  obtained  on 
these  investments  than  on  United  States  3  per  cents.,  and 
therefore,  the  movement  is,  to  some  extent,  a  temporary  and 
speculative  one,  but  if  this  particular  feature  is  more  noteworthy 
for  its  peculiarity  than  for  its  permanency,  there  are  many  other 
instances  in  which  subscriptions  on  a  large  scale  to  foreign  loans 
prove  that  the  distribution  of  capital  is  becoming  more  and  more 
cosmopolitan. 

Now  let  us  examine  some  of  the  other  cases  of  the  interchange 
of  international  indebtedness,  because  the  question  is  one  of 
more  than  passing  interest.  It  has  been  stated  that  Sir  Michael 
Hicks-Beach's  arrangement  with  the  New  York  banks,  with 
regard  to  the  "  Khaki  "  loan,  created  the  precedent  for  Germany 
selling  one  hundred  million  marks  of  4  per  cent.  Treasury  Bonds 
in  the  United  States,  but  the  latter  step  seems  rather  to  be  the 
development  of  a  policy  of  which  an  outward  expression  already 
exists  in  the  number  of  foreign  banks  found  in  Lombard  Street  and 
the  energetic  exploitation  and  elasticity  of  scope  of  the  Teuton. 
It  is,  of  course,  a  different  progress  to  that  silent  but  onward 
march  of  the  German  commercial  world,  so  clearly  demonstrated 
by  the  Germanising  of  Italy  and  the  practical  conversion  of  that 
country  into  a  German  commercial  colony.  Nor  can  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  industrial  undertakings  of  one  nation  by  another 
whose  own  industrial  expansion  has  been  checked  by  ever- 
increasing  speculation,  be  looked  upon  with  equanimity.  But 
the  significant  fact  remains  that  both  these  processes  indicate 
a  wider  range  of  the  interests  of  capital,  and  a  full  understanding 
by  a  government  that  the  cheapest  way  of  satisfying  cash  require- 
ments is  to  go  direct  where  money  is  abundant. 

To  bring  about  a  condition  of  cheap  money — necessary  for 
the  flotation  of  a  State  loan — and,  at  the  same  time,  to  attract 
gold  from  abroad,  is  clearty  an  impossibility,  and  the  German 
Government,  being  confronted  by  these  conflicting  factors, 
bridged  the  gulf  by  ignoring  the  roundabout,  and  therefore, 
much  more  expensive  and  uncertain  method  by  which  the 
dearth  of  gold  in  the  Fatherland  could  be  filled  up.  This  is  one 
side  of  the  shield.  On  the  reverse,  there  is  the  very  palpable 
dominance  of  American  influence  over  the  Berlin  stock-market, 
with  the  consequent  intensification  of  wild  speculation. 


400  The  Empire  Review 

No  law  will  ever  stamp  out  the  gambling  instinct  in  mankind. 
A  clear  instance  of  the  reflection  of  Wall  Street  operations  on 
the  Berlin  Bourse  is  provided  by  the  fact  that,  recently,  items  of 
news  which  caused  prices  in  New  York  to  drop  $1  to  $2  brought 
about  a  fall  in  Berlin  of  5  per  cent.  At  the  same  time,  the 
German  money  market  was  almost  wholly  dependent  on  England, 
and  German  industries  thereby  dependent  on  English  finance  and 
English  credit.  Naturally,  the  uncertain  prosperity  of  many  of 
the  American  enterprises  with  which  German  capital  and  German 
investors  are  concerned  has  in  no  way  tended  to  lessen  the  import- 
ance of  the  pillar  of  British  credit  before  Teutonic  waywardness. 
This  is  very  largely  due  to  the  growing  dislike,  on  this  side  of  the 
Channel,  to  speculation  in  the  so-called  "  International "  stocks. 
But  the  interdependence  of  the  American,  British  and  Berlin 
markets  is  significantly  indicated,  especially  by  the  sympathetic 
tone  of  iron  and  steel  securities. 

German  investors,  taught  a  severe  lesson  by  the  collapse  of 
their  industrials,  are  said  to  be  displaying  a  most  satisfactory 
tendency  to  purchase  sound  state  securities,  and  to  be  showing  a 
preference  for  a  small  and  safe  rate  of  interest  instead  of  for  large 
but  precarious  dividends.  It  is  true  that  some  evidence  of  this 
improvement  in  the  moral  tone  of  capital  is  to  be  derived  from 
the  immense  over-subscription  to  recent  German  and  Prussian 
loans.  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  although  in  Germany 
there  is  always  plenty  of  money  awaiting  investment,  and  that 
syndicated  banks  invariably  guarantee  these  loans,  and  therefore 
make  certain  against  their  failure,  financiers  of  standing  have  taken 
to  advising  the  German  Government  to  issue  3J  per  cent,  instead 
of  3  per  cent,  loans.  This  is  in  order  to  check  the  propensity  to 
indulge  in  Spanish,  Italian,  Boumanian  and  even  Servian  and 
Bulgarian  bonds,  which  offer  more  tempting  returns.  Overloaded 
as  the  German  money  market  has  been  with  government  loans, 
the  announcement  recently  made  that  £5,000,000  German  3  per 
cents,  and  £13,880,000  Prussian  consols  were  listed  on  the 
London  Stock  Exchange  is  significant  of  a  liking  for  German 
stock  by  British  investors.  Yet  it  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that 
England  is  second  to  France  in  her  participation  in  the  securities 
of  the  Fatherland. 

France,  indeed,  possesses  unsurpassed  powers  of  assimilation 
of  capital,  and  amidst  the  general  continental  and  American  infla- 
tion and  subsequent  depression  of  industrials,  the  Paris  market 
has  been  the  only  great  financial  centre  in  which  capital  seemed 
to  remain  unfettered.  This  position  has  naturally  meant  the 
loaning  of  much  money  abroad.  Let  us,  therefore,  turn  to  some 
of  the  distinctive  events  of  that  centre.  When  one  grasps  the 
extent  of  the  emigration  of  French  capital  it  is  difficult  to  see  how 


The  Internationalisation  of  Marketable  Securities     401 

this  Bepublic  could  afford  to  fall  out  with  any  other  nation.  Just 
as  it  is  in  the  highest  interests  of  her  merchants,  agriculturists, 
and  manufacturers  to  preserve  cordial  relations  with  the  best 
markets  for  her  surplus  produce,  so  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  her  financiers  that  the  more  remunerative  channels  for  capital 
should  be  kept  open. 

A  noteworthy  feature  of  the  Paris  market  is  the  growing 
inclination  of  French  capitalists  to  buy  stocks  quoted  in  London 
rather  than  to  add  to  their  holdings  of  English  bills.  The  mone- 
tary abundance  in  Germany  which  was  coincident  with  the 
commercial  depression  was  wholly  due  to  the  aid  of  French 
capital,  either  in  the  purchase  of  bankers'  drafts  and  bills  or  in 
the  acquisition  of  German  Government  stocks.  Here  again  is  to 
be  seen  the  French  dislike  to  home  industrials  and  a  preference 
for  foreign  securities.  And  while  public  opinion  upon  England's 
conduct  of  the  Boer  War  was  condemnatory,  and  French  attacks 
even  virile,  there  existed  a  very  marked  desire  by  French  investors 
to  buy  British  consols. 

The  vast  accumulated  funds  of  the  Credit  Lyonnais,  the 
Kothschilds,  the  Comptoir  d'Escompte  and  others,  are  utilised 
almost  entirely  in  subscribing  to  foreign  State  loans,  and  especi- 
ally to  the  purchase  of  Eussian  bonds.  At  the  end  of  1902, 
£280,000,000  of  these  were  held  by  France,  while  to  this  figure 
must  be  added  the  investments  in  Eussian  "Industrials."  In 
fact,  Eussian  securities  absorb  one-third  of  French  participation 
in  foreign  stocks,  and  this  takes  no  account  of  the  vast  amount 
of  French  capital  which  has  been  irretrievably  sunk  in  the  many 
metallurgical  enterprises  of  the  Slav.  A  recent  Danish  loan  was 
subscribed  to  the  extent  of  five-eighths  by  the  Credit  Lyonnais, 
the  remainder  coming  from  Hamburg. 

An  interesting  statement  was  published  in  the  autumn  of  last 
year  by  the  French  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  Journal 
Officiel,  showing  that  France  had  nearly  30,000,000,000  francs  of 
her  national  wealth  invested  in  the  five  parts  of  the  world.  The 
figures  are  as  follows  : — 


Millions 
of  franca. 
EUROPE — 
Bussia     .....    6,966 

Spain.     .....     2,974 

Austria-Hungary     .     .     2,850 

Italy 1,430 

Turkey 1,818 

England.  ....  1,000 
Germany  .  .  .  .  , .  87 
Netherlands .  200 


Belgium  .     . 
Monaco  * 

Other  parts  ... 


21,012 


Millions 
of  francs. 

Brought  forward.  .    21,012 
ASIA— 

China      .....  651 

Asiatic  Turkey  . "  .     .  345 

Asiatic  Russia   ..'.'•  60 

British  India    4  ,*fc*-r*t*  22 

Siam  .      .      .      .     .     .}£  10 

Other  parts  .     .     .    '\  ^  33 

1  moil  £rat££  s*it*i!  o^' 


1,121 


Carried  forward  .     .     22,133 


VOL.  VI.— No.  34.  2  D 


402 


The  Empire  Review 


Millions 
of  Francs. 


Brought 

forward  . 

AFRICA  — 

British  Africa    . 

.     .     1,592 

1,436 

Jllg^J/U 

Tunisia    .     .     . 

.      .         512 

Congo  Free  State 

.     .           72 

Abyssinia     .     . 

.     .          32 

Other  parts  .     . 

.     .          49 

NORTH  AMERICA— 

United  States    . 

.     .        600 

Mexico    .     .     . 

.     ,        300 

Canada    .     .     . 

.     .        138 

Newfoundland  . 

.     .          20 

22,133 


Brought  forwai 
CENTEAL  AMERICA  — 
Cuba  

Millions 
of  Franca. 

•d.      .     26 

126 
10 
154 

923 

246 
226 
219 
130 
700 
180 

884 
290 

624 
57 

British  West  Indies     . 
Other  parts  .... 

SOUTH  AMERICA  — 
Argentina     .... 
Columbia      .... 
Chili 

Uruguay  
Venezuela     .... 
Brazil      
Other  parts  .... 

Oceana  and  Philippines  . 
Total    . 

i 

29, 

855 

3, 


1,058 
Carried  forward  .     .     26,884 


And  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  greater  portion  of  this  sum  has 
gone  to  State  loans,  railways,  mines,  canals  and  similar  under- 
takings. Some  striking  features  are  revealed  by  the  above 
figures.  For  instance,  after  showing  to  which  European  nations 
French  capital  migrates,  there  is  also  clear  evidence  of  the  great 
extent  to  which  French  capital  follows  the  British  flag.  While 
such  statistics,  of  course,  can  only  be  a  rough  approximation, 
they  form  an  index  of  the  proportionate  distribution  of  capital, 
and  in  this  sense,  are  of  extreme  value.  Similar  returns  by 
every  other  nation  would  be  of  considerable  interest,  especially 
as  the  most  distinguished  experts  are  unable  to  arrive  at  any 
definite  conclusion  of  the  amount  of  the  wealth  of  the  world. 

That  heavy  commitments  in  foreign  securities  bring  their  own 
troubles  finds  an  exemplification  in  the  difficulties  which  arose 
on  the  French  Bourse  in  November,  1902.  Owing  to  the  boom  in 
Spanish  Fours  on  the  top  of  a  flooding  of  that  market  with 
Spanish  stock,  heavy  commitments  for  the  rise  placed  the 
market  in  «  very  unpleasant  position.  And  again,  the  recent 
Russian  crisis  was  a  source  of  embarrassment  to  many  a  French 
investor.  It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  remind  readers  of  the 
Baring  crisis  of  1890  and  its  connection  with  Argentina  and 
Portugal. 

With  the  coffers  of  the  French  banks  overflowing  with  private 
deposits,  with  a  decided  appreciation  in  the  capital  value  of  French 
public  securities,  and  with  a  large  annual  increase  in  the  value  of 
deceased  estates,  there  is  no  cause  for  wonder  that  the  ingenious 
scheme  of  M.  Caillaux— the  China  indemnity  loan  of  265,000,000 
francs — was  covered  more  than  twenty-four  times  over,  of  which 
twenty- three  times  came  from  Paris  alone.  And  it  is  a  fact  that 
while  affording  another  proof  of  the  self-supporting  power  of  the 


The  Internationalisation  of  Marketable  Securities     403 

French  nation,  it  brings  into  bolder  relief  the  remarkable  trait  of 
the  French  people  in  their  fascination  for  foreign  securities.  Yet 
the  French  invariably  subscribe  all  their  own  loans. 

Since  1888,  no  less  a  sum  than  £177,000,000  has  been  sub- 
scribed for  Eussian  Four  Per  Cents,  by  France,  and  including 
in  the  account  previous  issues  quoted  in  their  entirety  on  the 
Paris  Bourse,  French  holdings  of  Kussian  bonds  probably  exceed 
£400,000,000.  Sentiment,  combined  with  a  strong  belief  of  the 
Frank  in  the  certain,  although  slow  development  of  the  industrial 
and  mineral  resources  of  the  vast  territories  of  the  Czar,  has 
led  to  this  position.  The  steady  unloading  of  Italian  stocks, 
owing  to  the  adherence  of  Italy  to  the  Triple  Alliance,  has 
supplied  some  of  the  capital  required  for  these  purchases  and  for 
the  increase  of  holdings  in  Spanish  bonds. 

Dearth  of  capital  in  Eussia  is,  however,  still  one  of  the  great 
embarrassments  to  Muscovite  financiers,  and  in  view  of  the 
widening  influences  of  the  Great  Siberian  Eailway  in  opening 
up  uninhabited  lands  and  promoting  colonisation,  there  is  no 
likelihood  of  a  decrease  in  the  requirements  of  capital  for  a  very 
long  time  to  come.  But  in  May,  1901,  in  the  face  of  monetary 
stringency  and  dwindling  reserves  of  gold  and  silver  in  the 
Eussian  national  bank,  £16,960,000  came  from  France  towards 
the  new  Eussian  four  per  cent,  loan  of  £20,000,000.  Lombard 
Street  held  aloof  from  the  deal. 

The  negotiation  of  another  £15,000,000  of  Eussian  bonds  in 
March  1902  marks,  however,  an  important  departure  in  Mus- 
covite financial  tactics,  for  this  time,  contrary  to  usual  arrange- 
ments, it  was  floated  in  Berlin.  Putting  aside  all  the  extravagant 
utterances  about  Eussian  umbrage  over  the  remarks  of  French 
newspapers  respecting  her  finances,  and  the  supposed  warning 
note  signified  by  the  change,  the  important  fact  underlying  the 
departure  is  the  revelation  of  the  extent  to  which  France  is 
surfeited  with  Eussian  paper.  One  is  reminded  of  the  position 
of  Eussian  stocks  in  1886,  when,  owing  to  the  support  given  to 
them  from  Germany,  they  were  maintained  at  a  high  level 
because  financiers  were  said  to  be  "  up  to  their  necks  "  in  them. 
Undoubtedly  the  heavy  sales  of  British  Consols  and  other  securi- 
ties from  Berlin,  just  before  this  issue,  helped  toward  the  loan 
being  subscribed  a  hundred  times  over,  but  beneath  the  thin, 
gauze-like  veil  of  Eussian  credit  as  the  attractive  force,  lies  the 
political  significance  surrounding  the  entente— &  significance  added 
to  by  the  ensuing  re-admission  of  Eussian  loans  to  the  London 
market.  And  on  August  15th,  1902,  Eussian  Eentes  to  the 
extent  of  2,310,000,000  roubles  were  listed  on  the  New  York 
Stock  Exchange. 

Thus  we  see  France,  Eussia,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and 

2  D  2 


404  The  Empire  Review 

the  United  States  drawn  together  into  a  web  which,  although 
spun  from  the  overpowering  desire  and  self-interest  of  Kussia  to 
popularise  her  securities,  tends  to  give  to  international  rapproche- 
ments a  decisive  monetary  aspect,  and  leads  to  their  being  viewed 
through  the  blinding  light  of  financial  entanglements.  Yet  it  is 
impossible  to  forget  that  the  ambitious  programme  of  the  national 
economic  development  of  Kussia  is  surrounded  by  so  many  un- 
certain factors  that  its  position  in  the  scale  of  the  credit  of 
European  nations  is  rather  on  the  decline  than  in  the  ascendant. 

Foreign  capital  has  played  so  important  a  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  an  Empire  peopled  by  130,000,000  souls,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  realise  what  would  happen  to  her  and  to  the  nations 
that  have  supplied  her  with  capital  in  the  event  of  that  eternal 
bugbear,  a  great  European  war.  Attempts  at  realisation  of  the 
immense  holdings,  in  order  to  possess  as  much  ready-money  as 
possible,  would  certainly  be  universally  adopted.  It  has  been  cal- 
culated that,  should  this  eventuality  actually  recur,  the  depression 
in  Kussian  bonds  alone  would  be  from  20  to  30  per  cent. 

Interest  received  on  money  loaned  to  foreign  countries  un- 
doubtedly greatly  assists  England  in  liquidating  the  enormous 
excess  of  indebtedness  created  by  the  large  preponderance  of  her 
visible  imports  over  her  exports — an  excess  which  reached 
£184,000,000  in  1902.  But  during  the  past  few  years  this  lien, 
as  regards  the  United  States,  has  been  rapidly  diminishing. 
Nevertheless,  the  special  report  on  "  British  and  Foreign  Trade 
and  Industry,"  just  issued  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  considers  that 
Sir  Kobert  Giffen's  estimate,  of  £90,000,000  as  the  revenue  derived 
from  foreign  investments  to  be  fairly  correct.  The  exceptional 
position  which  enables  America  to  export  gold  at  the  same  time 
that  she  remains  a  creditor  nation  arises  from  the  foreign  un- 
loading of  American  securities  and  the  purchase  of  them  by 
the  United  States  at  extravagant  premiums,  and  from  the  enor- 
mous investment  of  redundant  American  capital  in  European 
securities. 

The  various  recent  subscriptions  to  British  loans  is  but  a  drop 
in  the  bucket  of  America's  surplus  wealth,  but  they  have,  without 
doubt,  led  to  the  unprecedented  popularisation  of  Consols  in  the 
American  market,  even  to  the  extent  of  Yankee  recommendation 
of  them.  Their  lower  price  and  their  availability  as  collateral 
security,  free  from  the  disturbances  incident  to  United  States 
securities,  have  produced  this  result.  So  that  the  policy  adopted, 
maugre  the  speculative  devices  to  which  it  has  given  birth,  has, 
once  and  for  all,  encouraged  the  creation  of  an  international 
market  for  British  securities.  According  to  the  arrangement 
between  the  Union  Bank  and  Baring  Brothers  of  London  on 
the  one  side,  and  the  National  City  Bank  and  Farmers'  Loan 


The  Internationafisation  of  Marketable  Securities     405 

and  Trust  Company  of  New  York  on  the  other,  Consols  registered 
by  the  Bank  of  England,  subject  to  the  joint  order  of  the  former 
two  concerns,  are  transferable  in  New  York  by  the  joint  order 
of  the  latter  two,  who  will  pay  interest  by  book  credits,  or  in 
dollars  over  the  counter,  upon  interest  days  at  market  rates  for 
sterling,  without  formalities  or  delays,  or  machinery  not  familiar 
to  Americans. 

In  view  of  the  existence  of  an  annual  trade  balance  of  about 
£100,000,000  due  to  the  United  States,  an  increase  in  the  demand 
for  European — and  particularly  for  British — investments  is  inevit- 
able. There  are  many  pitfalls  attached  to  such  a  condition,  most 
notable  among  which  is  a  gradual  appreciation  of  values  based  on 
a  demand  hedged  in  by  all  the  uncertainties  of  trade  fluctuations. 
But  the  position  is  unavoidable  and,  as  a  development  of  an 
economic  law  which  cannot  be  arrested,  must  be  faced.  So  also 
must  the  diversion  of  a  certain  proportion  of  profits  and  interest, 
which  otherwise  would  be  spent  at  home,  to  the  other  side  of  the 
Atlantic. 

The  attempt  made  by  Mr.  J.  Pierpont  Morgan  to  introduce 
American  securities  on  the  Paris  Bourse,  so  vigorously  opposed 
by  the  "  nationalist "  element  in  France,  was  only  the  outcome 
of  the  enormous  investment  of  French  capital  in  America.  But 
it  is  impossible  not  to  feel  that  an  excessive  cosmopolitanism  in 
this  direction  brings  so  many  fresh  dangers  and  is  surrounded  by 
so  many  perplexing  qualifications  that  the  political  opposition  to 
the  scheme  as  yet  put  forth  savours  very  largely  of  a  desire  to 
exclude  the  excessive  speculative  spirit  of  Yankee  Stock  Exchange 
life.  And  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  new  economic  organism 
of  the  United  States  is  now  being  looked  upon  as  an  irresistible 
force — but,  unfortunately,  a  force  which  embraces  many  and 
varied  factors  of  the  over-investment  type — it  is  questionable 
whether  the  actual  Americanisation  of  some  foreign  stock 
exchanges  which  has  already  been  experienced  does  not  carry  a 
preponderance  of  disadvantages.  The  inadequacy  of  America's 
national  gold  reserve  undoubtedly  has  been  diminished  by  the 
continual  buying-in  of  her  securities,  and  the  more  American 
capital  is  loaned  abroad,  the  safer  becomes  the  position.  Yet 
despite  these  facts  and  the  apparent  higher  credit  status  of  the 
United  States  than  of  Great  Britain,  as  exhibited  by  the  smaller 
return  on  United  States  Two  Per  Cent.  Gold  Bonds  than  on 
British  Consols,  the  tenacity  of  the  American  people  for  paper 
money  is  an  ever  present  danger  to  the  financial  stability  of  a 
nation  that  boasts  of  being  the  possessor  of  wealth  to  the  value 
of  100  billion  dollars. 

In  these  days,  when  one  market  cannot  be  stricken  without 
all  the  others  being  affected,  many  facts  could  indeed  be  recorded 


40G  The  Empire  Review 

of  the  multiplicity  of  influences  which  are  continually  changing 
the  status  of  international  stocks.  Look,  for  instance,  at  the 
crisis  in  Foreign  Government  securities  in  1885  arising  out  of 
the  danger  of  an  Anglo-Eussian  war  and  the  re-opening  of  the 
complicated  Eastern  Question.  Between  April  10th  and  14th, 
Kussian  1873  Bonds  fell  from  95  to  79J,  in  view  of  the  possible 
cessation  of  payments  of  interest  on  her  foreign  debt. 

Spain  is  primarily  a  country  in  which  "  accidents  "  must  be 
duly  weighed  when  her  securities  are  entertained.  Sensitive- 
ness and  fluctuation  attaches  to  every  bond  of  the  States  of 
Eastern  Europe.  The  internal  distractions  so  common  in  the 
French  Eepublic  imposing  upon  her,  when  they  exist,  a  virtual 
silencing  of  her  voice  in  great  European  questions,  invariably 
rebound  on  the  stock  markets  of  all  other  countries.  The  copper 
crisis  embarrassments  of  the  Societe  des  Metaux  and  of  the 
Comptoir  d'Escompte  in  1889  gave  such  a  blow  to  the  markets 
for  international  stocks  that  all  inter-Bourse  securities  suffered 
severely,  although  the  depression  was  quickly  rectified  by  the 
way  Berlin,  Brussels,  and  London  were  on  the  alert  to  pick  up 
good  stocks  at  low  prices.  Then  there  has  been  presented  the 
spectacle  of  Eussia  borrowing  ^£12,000,000  from  France  to  pay 
for  the  grain  imported  from  America  because  of  deficient 
harvests ;  of  Italy,  in  her  extravagance,  emulating  the  spending 
power  of  a  first-class  nation  ;  and  of  Portugal  being  compelled  to 
compound  with  her  creditors.  In  the  political  arena  probably  the 
Triple  Alliance  has  been,  in  recent  years,  responsible  for  more 
variations  in  the  prices  of  European  stocks  than  any  other 
factor. 

When  the  great  scheme  of  1888  for  the  conversion  of  the 
British  Three  Per  Cent,  debt — one  further  step  in  which  came 
into  force  last  April — was  mooted,  the  rapid  realisation  of  the 
fact  that  British  credit  was  worth  more  than  a  3  per  cent, 
basis  was  at  once  reflected  in  advances  in  the  prices  of  foreign 
securities,  and  in  the  success  of  France,  Eussia  and  other 
countries,  in  also  reducing  their  annual  interest  liabilities.  And 
when  the  financial  crisis  in  the  United  States  in  1893  passed 
away,  the  whole  list  of  European  and  other  government  securities, 
except  the  few  which  were  under  burdens  of  their  own  making, 
felt  the  impulse  of  appreciation. 

These  facts  lay  bare  the  weaker  points  of  foreign  government 
securities  considered  as  investments,  and  at  the  present  time, 
when  the  closer  welding  of  the  British  Empire  is  riveting  the 
attention  of  the  world,  they  should  moderate  extreme  pessimistic 
views.  But  the  truth  that  the  wider  the  area  of  an  influence 
the  greater  is  the  degree  of  dissemination  of  its  power,  must  not 
be  forgotten,  nor  must  the  "force  of  foreign  loans"  be  ignored. 


Trie  Internationalisation  of  Marketable  Securities     407 

The  extreme  abundance  or  cheapness  of  money  may  and  does 
frequently  overrule  all  other  factors.  This  was  what  happened 
in  1883,  despite  the  dragging-on  of  an  unsettled  political  situa- 
tion ;  and  it  is  an  influence  not  absent  from  the  existing  troubles 
in  Wall  Street.  Yet  the  fact  that,  at  the  present  day,  no  country 
can  afford  to  let  its  creditors  suffer,  either  by  way  of  dividend  or 
principal,  ameliorates,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  two  leading  factors 
— politics  and  money — which  rule  foreign  securities. 

As  long,  however,  as  Europe  remains  an  "  armed  camp,"  the 
issuing  of  new  loans  for  the  strengthening  of  defensive  forces 
must  go  on  intensifying  the  sensitiveness  of  the  stock  markets,  in 
the  same  way  that  an  inflated  state  of  speculation  re-acts  upon 
those  countries  which  are  ever  ready  to  finance  their  needy  neigh- 
bours. Considerable  though  the  fresh  creations  may  recently 
have  been,  the  accumulated  savings  of  the  world  are  so  far  in 
excess  of  demands  that  the  average  return  to  be  obtained  on 
loanable  capital  is  slowly  but  surely  falling.  This  is  a  broad 
fact  which  can  lead  but  to  a  wider  interchange  of  the  bonds  of 
the  various  nations,  and  to  the  controlling  flow  of  investment 
money  towards  that  mass  of  stocks  which  are  dealt  in  in- 
differently on  the  continent  and  in  London.  The  consequence 
must  be  the  lessening  of  the  tendency  for  periods  of  doubt 
and  dulness  to  develop  into  unreasoning  and  excessive  fright. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  system  of  loan-mongering  and 
bolstering-up  which  has,  at  times,  displayed  itself  among  Euro- 
pean countries,  a  system  so  often  associated  with  extravagant 
and  unproductive  expenditure,  and  one  which  must  come  to  an 
end  after  a  time,  is  not  to  be  commended.  It  leads  to  a  state 
of  chronic  distrust  and  anxiety ;  and  when,  perchance,  the  scene 
of  the  greatest  trouble  shifts,  it  means  that  it  goes  to  another 
quarter  only  to  be  intensified.  For  instance,  the  Cabinet  crises 
which  occurred  in  1892  in  as  many  centres  as  Madrid,  Lisbon 
and  Athens,  arose  from  the  financial  difficulties  of  the  countries 
of  which  these  cities  are  the  capitals — crises  which  were  reflected 
by  severe  depression  in  every  other  monetary  centre. 

It  is  under  such  conditions  that  the  "stag"  class  and  the 
speculative  accounts  arising  therefrom  are  swelled  to  an  ab- 
normal degree,  exercising  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  prices 
of  securities  because  of  the  attendant  "  clique-control "  and 
"  rigging."  And  although  the  Corporation  of  Foreign  Bond- 
holders is  supposed  to  protect  the  interests  of  investors,  their 
duties  do  not  seem  to  be  carried  as  far  as  they  might  be. 

The  civilised  world  settles  its  balance  of  commerce  through 
London,  and  the  movement  of  gold  and  silver  entailed  by  this 
process  is  enormous.  That  the  amount  of  metal  required  is 
reduced  by  the  internationalisation  of  securities  is  undoubted, 


408  The  Empire  Review 

but,  unfortunately,  the  exact  extent  of  the  saving  cannot  be 
obtained.  At  any  rate,  the  apologetic  explanation  of  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  for  placing  half  of  the  £10,000,000 
loan  of  1900  in  America,  explains  a  great  deal.  On  August  7th, 
1900,  he  told  the  House  of  Commons  that : — 

The  reserve  of  the  Bank  of  England  stood  at  the  lowest  point  at  which  it 
has  stood  for  seven  years,  and  I  was  advised  by  those  best  competent  to  judge 
that  great  relief  might  be  afforded  here,  by  the  movement  of  gold  from  the 
United  States,  if  a  large  part  of  this  loan  was  taken  there. 

These  words  certainly  illustrate  a  very  useful  temporary 
expedient,  and  as  long  as  the  paper  security  exchanged  for  the 
gold  remains  abroad  it  acts  as  an  export  in  favour  of  the  bor- 
rowing country.  But  it  is  really  only  a  case  of  putting  off  the 
evil  day  until  the  paper  returns  from  whence  it  came.  Then  is 
to  be  seen  a  prolonged  period  of  depression  on  the  markets  of  the 
country  to  which  the  security  is  indigenous,  and  then  is  it  found 
that  all  the  theories  about  floating  indebtedness  not  being  affected 
by  international  loans,  while  correct  in  the  abstract,  are  subject 
to  very  considerable  variation  in  actual  fact.  In  the  depression 
that  culminated  in  a  quotation  of  87f  for  Consols  on  Septem- 
ber 29th,  no  factor  has  been  more  potent  than  this  opportunity 
of  the  big  "  stags  "  at  home  and  abroad  to  derange  the  markets. 

As  an  economic  factor  in  the  transmission  of  specie  the  inter- 
change of  foreign  investments  is  of  considerable  value.  Given 
the  supposition  of  genuine  investment,  the  inter-participation  of 
countries  in  one  another's  securities  is  to  be  encouraged,  for  it 
must  draw  together  the  different  portions  of  the  globe  into  a 
closer  intercourse.  But  underlying  these  benefits,  there  remains 
to  individual  holders  many  uncertainties.  There  are  elections 
and  changes  in  political  power,  and  especially  those  events  which 
surround  harvest  prospects  and  the  actual  food  supplies  of  a 
country,  as  expressed  in  gold  values,  industrial  depression,  or 
worse  still,  a  drifting  into  financial  insolvency.  To  such  eventuali- 
ties investors  must  not  be  blind. 

Yet,  on  the  whole,  the  amount  of  the  loans  in  default  is  com- 
paratively small.  From  a  summary  for  1901-1902,  supplied  by 
the  Council  of  Foreign  Bondholders,  the  figures  are :  approximate 
principal  outstanding  £43,999,181,  approximate  interest  arrears 
£28,472,000.  Of  the  first  figure  Argentine  Provincial  Cedulas, 
including  interest,  absorb  £15,858,688,  then  comes  Honduras  with 
£5,398,570  principal  and  £13,826,418  interest,  while  Venezuela 
and  San  Domingo  follow. 

To  sum  up ;  the  large  sums  received  by  Great  Britain  annually 
as  interest  on  foreign  securities  are  a  valuable  aid  in  adjusting  the 
excess  of  her  imports  over  her  exports,  while  the  30,000,000,000 


The  Intcrnationalisation  of  Marketable  Securities     409 

of  francs  invested  by  France  abroad  is  a  powerful  factor  in  main- 
taining an  almost  continuous  influx  of  gold  into  that  country.  Dis- 
advantages in  the  rate  of  exchange  so  long  experienced  by  Italy 
are  due  to  the  large  amount  of  her  securities  held  by  other 
nations,  and  for  the  same  reason,  although  the  exports  of  the 
United  States  are  very  much  more  than  the  imports,  the  rate  of 
exchange  is  invariably  against  the  Yankee. 

Thus  the  orthodox  creed  with  reference  to  trade— that  a 
country  should  strain  every  effort  to  increase  its  exports — must 
be  so  far  reversed  in  regard  to  stock  exchange  securities  as 
will  be  consistent  with  advocating  the  importation  of  a  reasonable 
proportion  of  foreign  stocks  and  bonds. 

EDWAKD  E.  GELLENDER. 


410  The  Empire  Review 


CANCER   IN   IRELAND:    AN   ECONOMIC 
QUESTION 

KEADEES  of  THE  EMPIEE  EEVIEW  are  familiar  with  the  facts, 
and  arguments  used  by  me  to  prove  that  the  physical  deteriora- 
tion of  the  classes  which  furnish  the  majority  of  our  recruits  is 
due  to  defective  nutrition  from  insufficient  and  unsuitable  food.* 
My  present  object  is  to  show  that  cancerous  diseases,  which 
occur  later  in  life,  are  caused  by  the  long-continued  consumption 
of  unwholesome  animal-food,  and  that  this  unwholesomeness 
is  produced  by  modern  economic  conditions.  I  have  chosen 
Ireland  as  the  country  which  affords  the  most  reliable  data, 
because  its  economic  and  social  conditions  are  so  simple,  the 
population  being  chiefly  rural,  and  engaged  in  agricultural 
pursuits,  and  because  external  influences,  which  depend  upon 
immigration,  are  wanting,  whereas  in  England  and  in  Scotland 
the  multiplicity  of  industries,  the  number  and  extent  of  urban 
communities,  and  the  complexity  of  economic  and  social  condi- 
tions make  the  study  of  so  obscure  a  subject  as  cancer  extremely 
difficult. 

During  the  past  forty  years  the  death-rate  from  cancerous 
diseases  in  all  European  countries,  and  in  the  United  States  of 
America  has  steadily  risen,  being  highest  in  Bavaria,  Denmark, 
Holland  and  Norway.  So  widespread  and  so  continuous  is  this 
increase,  that  it  cannot  be  ascribed  to  local  or  accidental  causes, 
but  it  must  be  sought  for  in  the  growth  of  new  conditions,  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  extent,  common  to  all  the  affected  countries, 
which  the  people  themselves  have  produced. 

The  following  figures  show  the  progress  of  the  disease  in  the 
United  Kingdom  since  1864  :— 

The  steady  increase  in  the  recorded  mortality  from  cancer  in  all  three 
portions  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  very  remarkable.  In  Ireland  in  1864,  the 
first  year  in  which  the  registration  system  was  in  force,  the  rate  of  mortality 
from  cancer  was  2'7  per  10,000  living.  In  1871  it  had  risen  to  3 '2 ;  in  1881 
to  3-7;  in  1891  to  4'6,  and,  as  already  stated,  in  1901  it  reached  6 -5.  In 
England  (including  Wales)  in  1864  the  rate  was  8 '9.  In  1871  it  was  4'2;  in 
1881  5-2;  in  1891  6 '9,  and  in  1900  it  had  risen  to  8 '3.  In  Scotland  in  1864 


*  <« 


Army  Organisation ;  The  Recruit,"  May  1903, 


Cancer  in  Ireland:   an  Economic  Question       411 

the  rate  was  4'3;  in  1871  it  was  4'4;  in  1881  5'2;  in  1891  6'8;  and  in 
1900  8-0.  .  .  .  The  total  deaths  (2,893)  from  cancer  in  Ireland,  in  1901, 
consist  of  1,296  deaths  of  males,  and  1,597  of  females.  The  male  deaths 
represent  45  in  every  100  deaths  from  this  cause,  while  the  female  deaths 
represent  a  percentage  of  55.* 

In  the  researches  made  by  the  elder  Jenner  which  led  to 
his  great  discovery,  it  was  his  observation  of  the  occupations 
of  those  individuals  who  suffered  from  cow-pock  which  enabled 
him  to  trace  the  connection  between  that  complaint  and  their 
employment.  So  the  observation  of  the  occupations  of  those 
persons  who  have  died  of  cancerous  diseases  affords  the  only 
reliable  means  of  successful  inquiry.  Table  VI.  of  the  Official 
Keport  quoted  above  gives  the  occupations  of  the  1288  males  who 
died  from  cancer  in  Ireland  in  1901.f  After  deducting  5  "other 
occupations  "  and  21  "  unspecified,"  there  remain  1262  deaths, 
which  are  returned  under  56  different  occupations,  of  which  509 
deaths  are  recorded  under  the  heading  of  "  farmer ; "  5  of 
"  farmers,  sons  of,"  and  302  of  "  labourer,"  making  a  total  of  816, 
which  is  approximately  two-thirds  of  the  total  number  of  deaths. 
Of  the  remaining  third  three-fourths  were  individuals  in  the 
same  class  of  life,  and  exposed  to  similar  social  and  economic 
conditions. 

Of  the  total  number  (2893)  deaths  of  males  and  females  in 
1901,  cancerous  diseases  of  the  digestive  system  amounted  to 
1583,  namely,  849  of  males,  and  734  of  females,  which  represent 
fractionally  Jf  of  the  whole.  When  other  organs  of  the  body  are 
the  seat  of  the  disease,  the  parts  primarily  affected  are  those 
engaged  in  their  nutrition.  Hence  there  is  a  strong  presumption 
that  it  is  the  food  which  is  at  fault,  and  it  enforces  the  obligation 
that  all  food  should  be  perfect  "  after  its  kind."  This  is  a  duty 
which  has  been  neglected  by  Christian  nations;  we  have  failed 
to  appreciate  at  their  true  sanitary  value  the  laws  of  Moses  in 
regard  to  animal-food. 

In  the  same  report  some  general  causes  are  suggested  to  ac- 
count for  the  increasing  mortality  of  cancerous  diseases  in  Ireland 
since  1864,  and  in  regard  to  County  Armagh,  where  the  mortality 
was  highest  in  1901,  namely  10*6  per  10,000  of  the  population, 
some  local  and  special  causes  are  assigned.  Of  the  general 
causes  the  first  is  heredity,  but  it  is  difficult  to  dissociate  that 
cause  from  the  fact  that  the  conditions  of  living  of  children 

*  Supplement  to  the  thirty-eighth  Detailed  Annual  Report  of  the  Registrar- 
General  of  Marriages,  Births,  and  Deaths  in  Ireland.  Special  Report  on  Cancer  in 
Ireland  1903. 

t  This  total  is  less  by  8  than  the  total  number  of  deaths  of  males  shown  on 
Table  II.  as  having  occurred  in  1901.  The  majority  of  deaths  is  generally  of 
females ;  for  them  a  table  of  occupations  is  required,  which  should  include  the 
occupations  of  their  fathers,  and  in  the  case  of  married  women,  and  widows,  of  their 
husbands  also. 


412  The  Empire  Review 

and  of  their  parents  are  identical,  and  consequently  the  same 
results  may  follow ;  however,  it  must  be  conceded  that  in- 
creased vulnerability  is  most  probably  hereditary.  Contagion 
is  also  thought  a  factor,  in  which  opinion  I  concur,  but  I  believe 
the  channel  of  ingress  to  be  restricted.  Kecent  bacterial  dis- 
coveries point  to  cancer  being  not  only  transmissible  from 
individual  to  individual,  but  also  between  men  and  animals. 
Tuberculosis  is  suggested,  but  in  England,  while  tuberculosis 
is  decreasing,  the  mortality  from  cancer  is  increasing,  May  it 
not  be  that  deficient  and  unwholesome  food  is  the  cause,  in  the 
case  of  the  young  it  is  associated  with  growth,  and  in  the  fully- 
matured  and  old  with  repair.  How  serious  the  question  of 
nutrition  is  to  the  Irish  poor,  of  affecting  their  mental  and 
physical  conditions,  and  their  liability  to  constitutional  diseases, 
the  following  statement  will  show : — 

One  of  Dr.  Warner's  tables  embraces  50,000  English,  Irish,  and  Jewish 
children,  and  shows  a  percentage  of  low  nutrition  varying  between  about 
4  to  6,  and  of  mental  dulness  varying  between  6  and  14,  Irish  children  being 
50  to  100  per  cent,  (approximately)  worse  than  English  or  Jewish  children, 
who  stand  nearly  equal.* 

Intemperance  and  smoking  are  also  alleged  causes  of  cancer, 
but  adequate  consideration  does  not  seem  to  have  been  given  to 
the  fact  that  cancerous  diseases  are  more  common  among  women ; 
moreover,  so  far  as  I  can  judge,  the  results  of  my  present 
inquiries  do  not  support  this  contention,  both  smoking  and 
drinking  being  less  at  the  present  time  among  the  classes  who  are 
chiefly  affected.  Cancerous  diseases  are  also  ascribed  to  syphilis, 
but  syphilis  is  a  rare  disease  among  the  small  farmers  and 
labourers  of  Ireland,  whose  sexual  morality,  to  say  nothing  of 
Irish  women,  is  the  highest  in  Europe.  Sites  of  wounds  and 
injuries,  and  those  parts  of  the  body  which  are  subject  to 
irritation,  are  stated  to  be  specially  liable  to  become  diseased. 
Quite  true.  But  that  holds  good  of  other  constitutional  diseases 
such  as  rheumatism,  which  fastens  on  joints  which  have  been 
sprained ;  in  neither  case  can  injury  be  considered  the  cause  of 
these  constitutional  manifestations. 

The  local  causes  which  the  medical  profession  consider  to  be 
operative  in  the  County  Armagh  are  referable  to  climate,  such  as 
dampness,  proximity  to  rivers  and  woods,  geological  formation, 
sub-soil  contamination,  and  insanitary  environment  generally,  but 
these  things  have  been  always  existent  in  Ireland,  and  they 
cannot  have  suddenly  become  so  pestilential.  The  special  causes 
which  are  referred  to  are  all  dietetic.  Thus  one  observer  states 
that  "  the  part  of  the  body  mostly  affected  is  the  stomach,"  and 

*  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  of  Physical  Training  (Scotland),  Vol.  I.,  1903. 


Cancer  in  Ireland:   an  Economic  Question       413 

considers  that  this  is  due,  in  great  measure,  "  to  the  description  of 
the  food  used  by  the  people  generally."  Tea-drinking,  and 
improper  and  partially  cooked  food  are  also  mentioned  as 
causes. 

From  this  history  of  cancer  in  Ireland,  and  the  comparison  of 
its  mortality  with  that  of  England  and  Scotland,  it  is  clear  that 
two  questions  require  to  be  investigated ;  the  first  is  that  cancer 
has  steadily  increased  in  Ireland  during  the  past  forty  years,  and 
the  second  is  that  the  mortality  is  much  lower  than  in  England 
and  in  Scotland.  The  answers  to  both  these  questions,  para- 
doxical as  it  may  appear,  are  the  same ;  it  is  the  poverty  of  the 
Irish  people. 

During  the  three  months  I  have  spent  in  Ireland  prosecuting 
this  inquiry,  I  have  made  careful  search  into  the  probable  causes 
of  this  increased  mortality,  and  I  find  that  there  is  no  new  factor 
other  than  the  economic  one.  The  food  of  the  people  is  entirely 
different.  This  change  dates  from  the  Irish  famine,  and  has  been 
facilitated  by  steam  transport ;  coincident  with  the  increased 
import  of  cheap  food  has  been  the  increase  of  mortality  from 
cancerous  diseases.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  famine  the  people  lived 
upon  what  the  country  itself  produced,  their  diet  being  oatmeal 
porridge,  potatoes,  eggs  and  milk,  with  fish  and  home-cured  bacon 
occasionally.  Now  cheap  American  bacon  and  flour  pancakes 
cooked  in  bacon  fat,  Indian  meal  porridge  sweetened  with 
chemically-coloured  beet  sugars,  and  boiled  tea  are  the  staple 
food  commodities  of  the  people.  Tillage  land  has  been  converted 
into  pasturage,  and  its  produce,  including  eggs  and  butter,  is 
exported.  With  part  of  the  proceeds  the  small  farmer  and 
labourer  supply  their  families  with  cheap  imported  food.  The 
following  extract,  from  a  letter  written  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Eussell, 
though  used  by  me  for  another  purpose,  proves  how  vast  has  been 
the  change. 

When  the  real  economic  argument  is  approached  it  seems  impossible  that 
a  tax  upon  food  can  benefit  the  mass  of  the  people  in  Ireland.  The  Irish 
masses  are,  in  the  main,  consumers — buyers  not  sellers.  In  large  numbers  they 
are  struggling  slowly  upwards  into  the  light.  The  baker's  cart  now  goes  every- 
where— even  into  the  remotest  parts  of  the  country.  American  bacon  and 
flour  are  largely  used  by  the  poor.  Indian  meal,  alas  1  is  still  a  necessary  in 
the  Western  regions,  and  Chamberlainism  means  a  certain  rise  in  the  price  of 
all  those  articles  of  food.  I  say  nothing  of  beef,  because  with  the  great  mass 
of  the  people  it  is  not  an  article  of  consumption  at  all.* 

The  want  of  variety  in  the  food,  and  with  the  exception  of 
potatoes,  the  almost  total  absence  of  vegetables  is  injurious  to 
health,  but  it  limits  the  field  of  inquiry,  and  makes  my  task  the 

*  Letter  of  Mr.  T.  W.  Russell,  M.P.,  in  the  Manchester  Guardian,  quoted  by 
the  Irish  Daily  Independent  and  Nation  of  September  21,  1903, 


414  The  Empire  Review 

easier.  It  is  evident  that  a  diet  of  this  kind  is  deficient  in 
nutritious  qualities.  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it 
accounts  for  the  revolution  in  national  habits,  which  has  taken 
place  during  the  past  forty  years,  namely  the  substitution  of 
porter  and  tea-drinking  for  whisky.  Men  take  porter  to  supple- 
ment their  food,  and  when  they  have  not  got  the  money 
to  buy  it,  they,  like  women,  take  tea  to  lessen  the  cravings  of 
hunger. 

The  second  conclusion  which  I  have  come  to  is  that  this  food 
is  unwholesome.  The  imported  flour  is  inferior  and  lacks  some 
of  the  most  important  constituents  of  wheat,  it  is  also  wanting  in 
freshness.  In  the  hamlet  where  I  am  now  staying  for  the  pur- 
poses of  this  inquiry  there  is  a  mill  which  grinds  two  thousand 
tons  of  Indian  corn  annually  to  supply  the  surrounding  district, 
which  is  sparsely  inhabited  by  a  dwindling  population.  The  con- 
sumption of  tea  is  enormous.  A  labourer,  whose  weekly  wage 
amounts  to  seven  shillings  and  sixpence,  and  with  no  family  but 
hisrwife,  buys  each  week  half  a  pound  of  tea  costing  one  shilling 
and  fourpence ;  they  could  not  afford  it,  but  his  wife  keeps  some 
fowls  and  sells  the  eggs.  With  such  a  mode  of  living  it  is  impos- 
sible for  the  digestive  organs  to  continue  healthy. 

It  is  unwholesome  animal  food  which  I  believe  to  be  the 
direct  cause  of  cancer,  and  which  in  Ireland  consists  of  cheap 
American  bacon ;  very  little  other  "  flesh  meat,"  as  they  term  it, 
is  eaten,  the  peasant  farmer  and  labourer  are  too  poor  to  buy  it. 
The  bacon  is  chiefly  fried.  "If  we  had  cabbage,"  they  say 
"  surely  we  would  boil  the  bacon  with  it."  With  a  peat  fire  and 
without  proper  utensils  it  is  only  half -cooked,  and  goes  further, 
the  fat  not  being  lost ;  the  father  and  mother  eat  the  bacon,  and 
the  children  get  the  gravy  fat.  I  am  informed  that  American  pigs 
are  turned  loose  in  the  cattle  yards,  and  root  among  the  refuse  for 
undigested  corn.  Also  that  pigs  are  fed  on  the  entrails  of  poultry, 
and  on  the  offal  of  slaughtered  cattle,  and  on  the  carcases  of  diseased 
animals.  From  another  source  I  learn  that  pigs  suffering  from 
disease,  probably  malignant,  are  slaughtered,  and  the  lard  from 
them  is  rendered  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  margarine  and 
other  food  products. 

Should  it  be  conceded,  as  I  believe  it  will  be  in  the  near  future, 
that  unwholesome  animal  food  is  the  cause  of  cancerous  diseases, 
then  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  the  mortality-rate  in 
England  and  in  Scotland  is  so  much  higher  when  the  consump- 
tion of  meat  is  so  much  larger.  Alas  !  the  poorer  classes  in  Ireland 
cannot  afford  to  use  meat  as  a  food,  only  as  a  relish.  Probably 
the  legend  of  "potatoes  and  point"  is  not  known  to  the  reader; 
it  depicts  a  state  of  things  in  Ireland  which  existed  before  the  era 
of  cheap  food  imports,  and  when  the  staple  food  was  potatoes, 


Cancer  in  Ireland:   an  Economic  Question       415 

which,  when  peeled,  were  made  more  palatable  by  gently  rubbing 
them  against  a  cooked  salt  herring  or  piece  of  bacon  suspended 
by  a  string  ;  this  relish  did  duty  for  many  mouths. 

It  has  not  been  sufficiently  considered  that  the  unwholesome- 
ness  of  animal  flesh  may  be  caused  otherwise  than  by  disease.  A 
store  bullock  may  be  in  the  pink  of  condition,  so  far  as  appearance 
goes,  and  yet  its  flesh  may  be,  on  this  very  account,  an  inferior 
article  of  diet.  The  measures  taken  to  prevent  the  importation 
of  cattle  from  proscribed  countries  have  more  for  their  object  the 
protection  of  our  own  herds  than  the  health  of  the  people.  The 
pecuniary  loss  is  what  is  considered  ;  for  the  flesh  of  animals  which 
have  been  slaughtered  because  of  disease  is,  in  some  instances, 
allowed  to  be  sold,  if  only  the  diseased  parts  are  removed.  The 
relationship  between  the  diseases  of  men  and  animals  has  only 
recently  obtained  the  recognition  it  deserves.  So  little  was  it 
understood,  that  it  was  only  in  1894  that  the  War  Office  substi- 
tuted coir  mattresses  for  the  straw  palliasses  previously  in  use, 
though  I  had,  in  1884  in  India,  and  in  1888  to  the  War  Office, 
pointed  out  the  grave  danger  to  health  of  returning  to  the  farm- 
yard straw  after  three  months'  use  in  the  barrack-room.  In  the 
researches  I  made  in  India  between  1880  and  1903  in  relation  to 
the  prevalence  of  enteric  fever  among  British  troops  I  found  that 
the  flesh  of  animals,  when  not  perceptibly  diseased,  yet  gave 
unmistakable  proof  that  its  food  and  sanitary  environment  were 
objectionable. 

The  conditions  which  cause  the  unwholesomeness  of  live  stock, 
other  than  disease,  are  referable  to  their  breeding,  sheltering,  and 
feeding,  and  of  their  flesh,  after  slaughter,  and  food  products 
manufactured  from  it,  to  the  changes  which  subsequently  take 
place.  All  three  conditions  in  the  management  of  live  stock  have 
been  neglected  or  misunderstood  in  the  three  portions  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  breeding  cattle  for  slaughter  purposes  the 
object  aimed  at  is  to  develop  size  and  weight  at  the  earliest  age 
attainable  so  as  to  make  the  greatest  profit  in  the  shortest  possible 
space  of  time.  It  is  the  commercial  value  and  not  the  nutritive 
and  health-giving  properties  which  is  considered.  It  is  only  by 
allowing  the  animal  to  come  to  maturity  that  the  juices  and  fibre 
of  the  meat  become  most  nutritious.  The  breeding-in  and  in  of 
pigs  in  Ireland  is  notorious.  The  history  of  the  potato  blight  and 
its  prevention  by  fresh  seed  ought  to  have  taught  the  danger. 
Nature  gives  the  warning,  but  in  the  desire  of  immediate  gain  it 
is  forgotten  or  neglected. 

The  sheltering  of  store  cattle  is  altogether  too  artificial ;  con- 
finement and  warmth  tend  to  the  deposit  of  fat,  but  not  to  the 
growth  of  healthy  tissue,  which  requires  air  and  exercise.  Places 
of  shelter  should  be  away  from  dwellings  and  poultry  runs,  and 


416 


The  Empire  Review 


they  should  be  well  drained.  In  Ireland  the  peasant  and  his  pig 
no  longer  lodge  together,  for  the  presence  of  cattle  in  human 
dwellings  is  now  a  punishable  offence,  but  still  at  the  peasant's 
door  and  under  his  window  are  festering  dung-heaps  in  which 
pigs  wallow  and  ducks  and  hens  feed. 

The  use  of  artificial  foods  for  cattle,  like  breeding,  is  intended 
for  rapid  growth  and  fattening,  but  their  effect  upon  the  flesh  for 
food  purposes,  and  upon  the  health  of  the  consumer,  receives 
little  attention.  Equally  applicable  is  this  remark  to  the  use  of 
fertilisers,  including  sewage  farms  and  ensilage.  The  application 
of  manure  to  land  should  be  always  followed  by  ploughing,  and 
when  it  is  to  be  laid  down  in  pasturage  root  crops  should  be  first 
cultivated.  At  the  present  time  cattle  are  put  upon  grass  land 
too  soon  after  it  has  been  top-dressed ;  the  sanitary  objections  are 
self-evident. 

Cattle  slaughtered  abroad,  and  all  imported  food  products  in 
the  manufactured  state,  must  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion  both 
in  regard  to  the  increasing  mortality  from  cancer,  and  to  the 
physical  deterioration  of  certain  classes  of  the  population  who 
are  the  greatest  consumers ;  their  relation  to  each  other  is  not  a 
mere  coincidence  but  it  is  cause  and  effect.  In  any  change  of  the 
fiscal  policy  of  the  Empire  the  health  of  the  people  must  be  con- 
sidered as  well  as  the  cheapness  of  food  supplies ;  so  far  as  Ireland 
is  concerned  the  picture  I  give  is  of  grave  significance,  for,  as 
landlords  disappear,  there  will  be  less  money  spent  in  the  country, 
and  free  trade  will  effect  no  improvement  in  the  economic 
conditions  of  the  people. 

WILLIAM  HILL-CLIMO,  M.D. 


Imperial  Literature  417 


IMPERIAL  LITERATURE 

I. 

'  MY  COLONIAL  SERVICE.' 

SIR  G.  WILLIAM  DES  VOEUX'S  book  entitled  '  My  Colonial 
Service,'  is  a  decidedly  interesting  and  valuable  contribution  to 
the  growing  literature  on  colonial  administration,  that  curious 
engine  which  keeps  the  component  parts  of  the  Empire  together, 
and  the  machinery  of  which  is  still  an  unknown  quantity  in  the 
best-informed  circles  of  English  political  and  educated  society. 
It  is  more  than  that :  it  is  a  delightful  book  of  travels  well-nigh 
round  the  world,  and  it  is  well  written  throughout. 

Preface,  introduction  and  book  repay  careful  reading,  though 
exception  might  be  taken  to  the  slur  on  the  intelligence  of  his 
expected  readers  which  the  author,  unwittingly,  no  doubt,  casts 
upon  them  by  supposing  "  his  name  to  be  hardly  known  to 
them,"  or  that  his  personal  experiences  in  a  wide  field  are 
likely  to  be  regarded  as  "  the  ponderous  biography  of  a  nobody." 
To  have  been  educated  at  the  Charter  House,  at  Balliol  under 
Jowett  and  at  the  Bar,  are  not  preparations  for  becoming  a 
nonentity,  and  the  successes  which  attended  Sir  William  in  his 
colonial  career,  despite  an  unusual  bad  run  of  severe  illnesses,  are 
proofs  that  esteem  on  the  part  of  his  chiefs  and  fair  rejoicing  on 
that  of  his  co-strugglers  in  the  battle  of  advancement  kept  his 
name  in  good  prominence  and,  at  least,  high  enough  to  escape  all 
personal  fear  of  being  out  of  the  public  view. 

No  doubt  the  accident  of  good  birth  and  the  advantage  of 
powerful  friends  early  in  life  are  now  as  they  ever  were — very 
valuable  gifts  of  the  gods;  but  in  a  practical  country  they  rise 
in  value  or  the  reverse  according  to  the  personal  merits  of  the 
individual,  and  as  the  great  officers  of  State  want  lieutenants  to 
carry  out  their  instructions,  they  soon  weary  of  great  connections 
if  the  man  himself  is  found  wanting.  It  is,  therefore,  instructive 
as  well  as  gratifying  to  read  a  volume  written  almost  with  naiveti, 

*  '  My  Colonial  Service.'    Two  vols.,  24s.  net.    John  Murray,  London. 

VOL.  VI.— No.  34.  2  E 


418  The  Empire  Review 

which  disposes  of  big  connections  in  an  introduction  to  devote  its 
context  to  the  matter  at  hand. 

It  is  not  possible  in  a  review  to  argue  the  justice  or  policy  of 
measures  adopted  by  the  governor  of  a  colony  to  which  he  was 
partial  at  the  time,  for  our  colonies  differ  so  much  and  in  so 
many  respects  that  circumstances  alone  must  determine  their 
worth,  and  circumstances  are  changeable  things.  We  are  ex- 
periencing the  truth  of  this  axiom  somewhat  keenly  at  the 
present  time  in  the  mother-country.  But  upright  men  cannot 
go  far  wrong,  and  the  history  of  British  administration  within 
the  last  hundred  years  is  pre-eminently  that  of  honourable  men 
doing  their  best  for  British  dependencies  in  Britain's  name.  Their 
doings  can  best  be  recorded  by  themselves,  and  therefore  it  is 
that  contributions  such  as  the  present  have  so  much  merit  in  the 
eyes  of  an  awakened  Empire  like  our  own. 

Should  the  book  reach  a  second  or  more  editions,  a  fate  which 
it  amply  deserves,  let  us  hope  that  the  anecdotes  will  be  multi- 
plied. The  few  that  are  sprinkled  here  and  there  are  neither 
engrossing  nor  very  mirth-giving.  They  are  the  only  stars  that 
do  not  shine  as  resplendent  as  one  would  wish  in  a  bright  literary 
sky  filled  with  illuminating  matter. 

HUBEET  E.  H.  JEBNINGHAM. 


II. 

SIB  WILFBID  LAUBIEB  AND  THE  LIBEBAL  PABTY.* 

Mr.  J.  S.  Willison's  two  volumes  give  a  very  fascinating  picture 
of  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier,  and  his  career.  The  Prime  Minister  of 
Canada  is  popular  with  his  political  opponents,  as  well  as  with 
the  Liberal  party ;  and  he  has  achieved  a  position  and  a  reputa- 
tion outside  his  native  country  to  which  few  colonial  statesmen 
have  ever  attained. 

Sir  Wilfrid's  earlier  days  after  leaving  college  were  passed  in 
the  study  and  practice  of  law,  and  in  journalism ;  but  even  then 
he  was  singled  out  by  his  friends  as  a  coming  man.  That  early 
promise  has  not  been  disappointed ;  and  to-day  we  find  him  at  the 
head  of  the  government  of  the  Dominion,  the  leader  of  the  Liberal 
party,  respected  and  admired  in  every  province  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific.  His  rise  in  public  life  was  not  as  rapid  as  it  might 
have  been  had  the  fortunes  of  the  party  been  in  the  ascendant 
between  1878  and  1896  ;  but  since  1887  he  has  made  his  way  to 
the  front  by  his  own  personality,  character,  and  attainments. 

It  was  not  until  1871  that  he  entered  the  Parliament  of  the 

*  '  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  and  the  Liberal  Party.    A  Political  History.'    By  J.  S. 
Willison.    Two  vols.,  24s.  net.    John  Murray,  Albemarle  Street. 


Imperial  Literature  419 

Province  of  Quebec.  He  became  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons  at  Ottawa  in  1874,  and  three  years  afterwards  entered 
the  government.  This  advancement,  at  the  age  of  thirty-six, 
serves  in  itself  to  show  that  his  conspicuous  ability  was  recognised 
in  the  early  days  of  his  political  life.  But  he  did  not  long  enjoy 
the  sweets  of  office.  The  Mackenzie  government,  of  which  he 
was  a  member,  was  defeated  at  the  general  election  in  1878 ;  and 
the  Conservatives  under  the  leadership  of  Sir  John  Macdonald 
resumed  the  control  of  affairs.  They  retained  possession  until 
1896.  During  these  long  eighteen  years  of  opposition,  Mr.  Laurier 
was  prominent  in  the  Liberal  Councils,  and  indeed,  became  the 
leader  of  the  party,  rather  against  his  will,  on  the  retirement  of 
Mr.  Edward  Blake— now  the  member  for  Longford — in  1887. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  since  1896,  he  has  been  the 
Prime  Minister  of  Canada,  and  that  he  has  filled  the  position 
with  much  credit  to  his  country. 

From  the  beginning  of  his  career  he  has  pursued  the  highest 
ideals.  There  are  few  men  who  can  look  back  upon  their  past  with 
greater  satisfaction,  and  with  less  regret  than  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier. 
A  French-Canadian,  proud  of  his  motherland  and  language,  and 
tenacious  of  the  rights  of  his  compatriots,  he  is  none  the  less  a 
devoted  Canadian  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word  and  a  loyal 
British  subject.  "  Since  his  earliest  utterances  he  has  never  said 
a  word,"  says  Mr.  Willison,  "  that  breathes  the  spirit  of  racial 
bigotry  or  warms  the  idea  of  a  separate  national  existence  for  the 
people  of  Quebec.  He  seems  to  have  acquired  at  a  very  early  age 
a  singularly  clear  grasp  of  the  main  principles  of  parliamentary 
government,  and  there  is  a  remarkable  maturity  in  his  earliest 
appreciations  of  the  spirit  and  efficiency  of  British  institutions. 
His  speeches  display  a  fervid  and  impassioned  patriotism  which 
might  well  be  taken  as  an  object-lesson  by  some  schools  of  political 
thought  in  the  United  Kingdom  whose  disciples  are  said  to  be 
"  friends  of  every  country  but  their  own." 

Doubtless  from  the  nature  of  his  surroundings  at  the  time,  he 
was  not  much  in  sympathy  with  confederation,  and  the  circum- 
stances that  led  up  to  it ;  but  he  loyally  accepted  the  position  when 
it  became  an  accomplished  fact,  and  has  done  much  to  cement 
the  union,  to  make  Canada  a  united  country,  and  its  inhabitants 
a  united  people.  Mr.  Willison  observes  that  "  he  labours  with 
strenuous  hand  and  abounding  faith  to  unify  and  consolidate  the 
various  elements  of  confederation,  to  promote  material  development 
and  establish  national  self-confidence."  As  bearing  upon  this 
side  of  his  character  what  can  be  finer  than  the  concluding  part 
of  his  speech  at  Arichat  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1900  ? 

Three  years  ago,  when  in  England  at  the  Queen's  Jubilee,  I  had  the  privilege 
of  visiting  one  of  those  marvels  of  Gothic  architecture  which  the  hand  of  genius, 

2  E  2 


4 '20  The  Empire  Review 

guided  by  an  unerring  faith,  had  made  a  harmonious  whole,  in  which  granite, 
marble,  oak,  and  other  materials  were  blended.  This  cathedral  is  the  image 
of  the  nation  that  I  hope  to  see  Canada  become.  As  long  as  I  live,  as  long  as 
I  have  the  power  to  labour  in  the  service  of  my  country,  I  shall  repel  the  idea 
of  changing  the  nature  of  its  elements.  I  want  the  marble  to  remain  marble  ; 
the  granite  to  remain  granite  ;  the  oak  to  remain  oak ;  the  sturdy  Scotchman 
to  remain  a  Scotchman ;  the  brainy  Englishman  to  remain  an  Englishman  ; 
the  warm-hearted  Irishman  to  remain  an  Irishman.  I  want  to  take  all  these 
elements  and  build  a  nation  that  will  be  the  foremost  among  the  great  powers 
of  the  world. 

Much  more  might  be  said  about  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier's  affection 
for  his  native  land  and  his  devotion  to  her  interests.  But  he  is 
none  the  less  a  true  son  of  the  Empire.  His  Imperial  sentiments 
are  as  keen  and  as  strong  as  those  which  make  him  so  thorough 
a  Canadian.  One  need  only  recall  his  action  in  connection  with 
the  South  African  war,  under  conditions  of  some  difficulty ;  his 
support  of  the  policy  of  England,  and  his  stirring  addresses  to  the 
Canadian  contingents.  In  many  other  ways  his  Imperialism  has 
been  manifested.  The  sympathies  of  Sir  Wilfrid  are  always  on 
the  side  of  any  proposal  that  may  have  for  its  object  the  good  of 
the  British  race,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  integrity  and  the 
interests  of  the  Empire. 

These  volumes  are  not  only  interesting  as  a  study  of  the 
personality  of  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier.  They  deal  also  with  the 
attitude  of  the  Liberal  party  in  regard  to  the  many  important 
questions  of  internal  and  external  policy  that  have  agitated  the 
country  in  the  last  forty  years  or  more.  Naturally  these  subjects 
are  dealt  with  in  a  somewhat  partial  manner  (which  is  quite 
pardonable),  rather  than  from  the  standpoint  of  the  historian. 
The  work  is,  however,  none  the  less  an  important  contribution  to 
the  literature  dealing  with  Canada  and  Canadians.  Mr.  Willison 
has  carried  out  the  general  idea  of  his  book  skilfully,  and  with 
much  ability  and  sympathy,  and  it  will  be  invaluable  to  the 
student  of  Canadian  history. 

J.  G.  COLMEE. 


The  Rani  of  Khariguhr 


421 


THE    RANI   OF    KHARIGUHR 

AT  the  present  moment  the  question  of  more  intimate  relations 
between  the  European  and,  Indian  fellow-subjects  of  King 
Edward  VII.  is  much  discussed.  The  advocates  of  the  freer 
mingling  of  the  races  are,  however,  brought  to  a  standstill  almost 
at  the  outset  by  a  reference  to  the  continued  seclusion  of  Indian 
women,  If  the  feminine  portion  of  Oriental  society  is  regarded 
as  too  sacred  even  to  be  looked  upon  by  stranger  eyes  it  is  no 
wonder  that  Britishers  retort  by  practically  refusing  to  Indian 
gentlemen,  even  those  of  royal  rank,  the  privileges  of  ordinary 
friendship. 

Diversity  of  religion,  antagonistic  social  customs,  and  many 
other  reasons  will  always  preclude  real  intimacy  between  Europeans 
and  Indians,  just  as  the  same  causes  operate  to  prevent  the 
varied  sects  and  races  forming  the  heterogeneous  population  of 
India  from  having  amicable  intercourse  with  each  other.  The 
chief  barrier  and  insurmountable  obstacle,  however,  is  undoubtedly 
the  pardah.  Were  it  not  for  that  it  might  be  hoped  that  some 
day  Englishmen  and  Indians  would  be  as  much  of  companions 
as  would  be  possible  in  the  case  of  a  German  and  a  Frenchman, 
or  a  Spaniard  and  an  American,  if  personally  sympathetic  with 
each  other.  Nevertheless  there  are  not  wanting  faint  signs  of 
its  gradual  abolition.  The  much  needed  reform  when  it  comes 
will  come  from  within.  Let  the  women  be  educated  and  their 
own  hands  will  softly  and  quietly  move  aside  the  shrouding  folds. 
Behind  them  we  cannot  get,  over  them  we  dare  not  climb.  In 
this  connection  an  Indian  lady  who  is  of  active  mind  and 
unwonted  industry  becomes  doubly  interesting.  In  herself  she 
is  an  object  of  interest  inasmuch  as  she  presents  the  unusual 
spectacle  of  a  woman  who  has  overcome  the  general  sloth  of  the 
languid  East,  and  takes  duty  as  her  watchword,  and  further  she 
rivets  attention  on  account  of  the  effect  her  example  may  have 
on  the  ultimate  emancipation  of  her  sex,  and  on  the  welfare  of 
her  country.  Such  a  woman  is  the  Rani  of  Kharigurh,  the 
subject  of  this  article. 

The  buildings  of  the  Kaiser  Bagh,  Lucknow,  once  a  palace  of 
the  kings  of  Oudh,  have  been  apportioned  by  Government  to  the 


422  The  Empire  Review 

talukdars,  or  barons,  of  that  province.  In  the  suite  belonging  to 
the  Kharigurh  Eaj  dwells  the  Eani  of  that  State  during  her  brief 
visits  to  the  capital  of  the  district.  At  the  foot  of  the  staircase 
leading  to  her  apartments  is  stationed  a  guard  of  soldiers  who 
present  arms  on  the  arrival  and  departure  of  distinguished  guests. 
The  men  are  similar  in  physique  to  our  own  little  Gurkhas, 
but  not  as  smart  in  appearance  as  the  drilled  and  disciplined 
Nepaulese  riflemen  of  whom  the  Indian  army  is  so  proud.  A 
flight  of  rather  steep  stone  steps  gives  access  to  a  long  room 
with  a  refreshing  view  over  the  green  lawns  of  the  Kaiser  Bagh 
(King's  Garden),  away  to  the  marble  Baraduri,  and  Canning 
College.  The  furniture  and  ornaments  of  the  Eani's  reception 
room  are  European  in  style,  the  only  distinctly  Oriental  touch 
being  the  art  muslin  draperies  arranged  in  two  directions,  one  for 
the  daytime,  the  other  for  use  by  lamplight,  when  the  presence 
of  male  visitors  necessitates  pardah,  curtain  being  the  literal 
translation  of  the  word. 

Surat  Kunwar,  the  Kani  Sahiba,  is  a  very  bright  and  amiable 
lady  with  charming  manners.  Her  Highness  is  the  younger 
daughter  of  the  late  Eaj  ah  of  Acham,  her  mother  also  comes 
from  Nepaul,  and  is  closely  related  to  the  reigning  family  of  that 
mountainous  and  little-known  kingdom.  Soon  after  her  birth 
some  thirty  odd  years  ago,  Surat  Kunwar  was  taken  to  Khat- 
mandu,  the  capital  of  the  State,  where  many  noble  families 
desired  an  alliance  with  the  infant  princess.  Among  these  was 
a  son  of  the  famous  Jung  Bahadur,  Maharajah  and  Prime 
Minister  of  Nepaul,  who  gave  valuable  assistance  to  Lord  Clyde 
during  the  tragic  days  of  the  Indian  Mutiny  by  bringing  a 
Gurkha  force  to  join  the  British  troops.  It  may  be  interesting 
to  note  that  in  Nepaul,  as  in  other  Himalayan  States,  a  dual  form 
of  government  exists.  In  this  far  corner  of  the  Empire  there 
are  twin  potentates,  the  Dhiraj  or  King,  the  de  jure  head,  and 
the  Maharaj  or  Prime  Minister,  the  de  facto  ruler.  The  mother 
of  Surat  Kunwar,  however,  declined  a  marriage  with  her  own 
people  and  gave  her  daughter  to  Indar  Nikra  Shah,  Eajah  of 
Kharigurh.  Kharigurh  is  a  small  principality  situated  in  Oudh 
on  the  borders  of  the  famous  tiger-haunted  district  called  the 
Terai.  Singhi  is  the  capital,  and  the  palace  there  is  the  principal 
residence  of  the  chief  of  the  State. 

At  the  time  of  the  wedding  the  bride  had  reached  the  mature 
age  of  ten,  and  the  bridegroom  was  about  nine  years  older.  The 
little  bride,  whose  education,  after  native  custom,  had  been 
considered  of  no  importance,  soon  after  her  marriage  began  study 
in  real  earnest.  Finding  her  of  unusual  intelligence  and  ability 
her  mother-in-law  had  her  taught  Nagri,  the  variety  of  Hindoo- 
stani  generally  used  by  Hindoos,  and  later  on  her  husband  gave 


The  Rani  of  Khariguhr  423 

her  instruction  in  Urdu,  the  language  common  in  Upper  India. 
Thus,  as  quite  a  young  girl,  Her  Highness  was  able  to  read  and 
write,  and  take  an  intelligent  interest  in  the  perusal  of  vernacular 
newspapers,  considerable  accomplishments  for  a  woman  of  her 
class  and  time.  Though  many  of  the  native  journals  gave,  and 
continue  to  give,  perverted  and  distorted  views  of  the  policy  of 
the  Government  of  India,  her  tact  and  shrewdness  enabled  her  to 
form  her  own  opinions.  She  estimated  the  qualities  of  the 
dominant  race  by  the  treatment  she  individually  received  from 
the  Europeans  with  whom  she  was  brought  into  contact,  and 
as  a  consequence,  is  a  thoroughly  loyal  and  devoted  subject  of 
His  Gracious  Majesty  the  King-Emperor. 

Failing  issue  by  a  first  wife  a  Hindoo  is  allowed  to  take 
a  second,  and  even  a  third.  As  Surat  Kunwar  had  no  children 
her  husband  married  another  Nepaulese  lady,  and  subsequently 
got  a  wife  from  the  Panjaub.  Surat  Kunwar,  however,  always 
remained  the  favourite.  The  Kajah  died  of  consumption  at  the 
early  age  of  thirty,  leaving  no  direct  heir,  natural  or  adopted,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  senior  Kani,  in  accordance  with  Hindoo 
practice  in  such  cases.  Surat  Kunwar  had  always  been  her 
husband's  confidant  and  counsellor  in  public  as  well  as  private 
affairs,  and  was  thus  quite  qualified  to  fill  the  position  and 
discharge  the  duties  of  a  ruler  so  far  as  a  pardah-nashin  may. 

Among  the  multifarious  departments  of  the  Indian  Govern- 
ment is  that  known  as  the  Court  of  Wards,  which  deals  with  the 
supervision  of  estates  belonging  to  minors,  women,  dotards,  or 
other  persons  considered  incapable  of  managing  their  own  affairs. 
The  officer  placed  in  charge  has  immediate  control  over  the 
estate,  and  is  the  intermediary  between  the  owner  and  the 
Government  as  represented  by  the  officials  administering  the 
district.  It  is  quite  unusual  for  a  woman  to  be  allowed  the 
direction  of  a  large  territorial  property.  Only  where  the  lady 
is  of  proved  capacity  and  integrity  is  she  permitted  to  assume 
such  responsibility  and  is  entrusted  with  the  disposal  of  her  lands 
and  revenues.  These  rights  are  generally  vested  in  her  nearest 
male  relative.  Should  he  be  unpleasant  or  obnoxious  to  her  she 
can  petition  the  Government  to  accept  the  superintendence  of 
the  estate,  and  so  defeat  the  ends  of  her  own  or  her  husband's 
kindred.  As  a  rule  those  placed  under  Government  sway  in  this 
manner  are  only  too  glad  to  be  released.  It  is  much  better  to 
have  the  spending  of  one's  own  income  than  to  be  dependent  on 
a  certain  limited  allowance,  liable  to  still  further  curtailment  at 
the  will  of  another. 

After  the  death  of  her  husband  her  own  youth — she  was  still 
in  her  teens — and  the  trouble  given  by  the  junior  Eanis,  who 
sided  with  the  late  Kajah's  relations  and  would-be  heirs,  decided 


424  The  Empire  Review 

Surat  Kunwar  to  ask  for  the  appointment  of  a  Court  of  Wards 
officer  who  would  act  equitably  and  justly  for  all  concerned. 
When  Her  Highness  felt  herself  strong  enough  to  dispense  with 
this  departmental  control,  the  supervision  of  the  principality  was 
again  placed  in  her  hands.  So  wisely  and  well  has  she  governed 
that  she  has  received  numerous  testimonials  from  distinguished 
officials  commending  her  capacity  and  judgment  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  her  State.  / 

Two  years  ago  Her  Highness  began  the  study  of  English  under 
the  .tuition  of  an  English  lady,  and  is  now  able  to  write  very  fair 
little  notes  in  that  language,  and  can  converse  on  a  variety  of 
subjects  with  the  European  ladies  she  meets.  It  is  astonishing 
to  learn  that  the  Hani's  grandmother  committed  eati,  and  perished 
in  the  flames  that  consumed  the  body  of  her  husband.  Her 
mother  submits  to  the  barbarous  treatment  inflicted  on  Hindoo 
widows ;  in  spite  of  shaven  head  and  the  very  plainest  of  attire, 
the  old  lady  is  still  beautiful.  The  representative  of  the  third 
generation,  though  also  a  widow,  is  too  advanced  in  her  ideas  to 
comply  with  these  ancient  customs.  She  is  a  lady  of  culture, 
who  reads  '  Kim '  and  is  learning  to  play  the  piano.  Her  most 
ardent  desire  at  the  present  moment  is  to  go  to  England.  She 
feels  the  restrictions  of  the  par  dak,  but  is  not  yet  disposed  to 
effect  so  radical  a  change  as  would  be  involved  by  the  discon- 
tinuance of  so  time-honoured  and  universal  a  practice ;  a  change, 
moreover,  that  would  outrage  the  susceptibilities  of  her  people  to 
an  extent  that  would  be  painful,  if  not  actually  dangerous. 

The  Kani,  of  course,  still  wears  the  distinctive  dress  of  her 
native  land,  and  speaks  its  language.  Her  costume  always  con- 
sists of  the  same  garments,  however  varied  may  be  their  colour 
and  material.  The  most  characteristic  feature  of  her  picturesque 
attire  is  a  pair  of  voluminous  trousers.  In  India  the  petticoat  is 
a  sign  of  servitude,  and  is  never  worn  by  women  of  the  better 
classes.  The  nether  garments  of  Mahomedan  ladies  have  so 
many  sweeping  folds  that  the  effect  is  that  of  a  full  skirt.  Those 
of  the  Nepaulese,  on  the  other  hand,  though  containing  no  less 
than  fifteen  yards  of  stuff,  are  unmistakably  divided.  This  ample 
supply  of  material  is  gathered  in  at  the  waist,  and  narrows  down 
to  two  small  apertures  for  the  feet,  which  are  very  plainly 
exposed.  The  shape  thus  produced  is  not  unlike  the  bulging 
form  of  a  circus  clown.  Above  these  wide  pantaloons  is  a  tight- 
fitting  bodice  with  long  sleeves.  On  special  occasions  a  long 
muslin  or  gauze  train,  called  a  phurria,  is  gracefully  draped 
round  the  whole  figure.  These  garments  are  made  of  the  richest 
brocades,  the  softest  silks  or  the  finest  muslins,  according  to 
times  and  seasons,  but  never  alter  in  style  and  structure.  The 
glossy  black  hair  of  the  Kani  is  parted  in  the  middle  at  the  back 


The  Rani  of  Khariguhr  425 

of  her  head,  and  arranged  in  a  becoming  coronet  above  her  brow. 
In  front  a  high  black  plurne  stands  erect,  and  a  few  lovely 
ornaments  of  European  manufacture  glitter  among  the  thick 
braids.  Eound  the  forehead  and  temples  the  straight  locks  are 
cut  short,  and  lie  in  a  soft  fringe  down  to  the  ears.  Except  for 
state  functions,  very  little  jewellery  is  worn.  Her  Highness 
encases  her  small  and  shapely  feet  in  open-work  silk  stockings 
and  the  daintiest  of  French  embroidered  shoes  to  match  her 
costumes. 

Oiiental  ideas  of  feminine  beauty  differ  considerably  from  our 
own.  In  eastern  eyes  a  perfect  woman  is  she  who  has  "  large 
eyes,  a  large  nose,  black  teeth,  and  a  gait  like  that  of  a  majestic 
elephant."  Perhaps  the  Kani  of  Kharigurh  does  not  fulfil  all 
these  requirements,  but,  in  spite  of  teeth  stained  with  missi,  she 
is  certainly  very  pleasing  to  look  upon.  The  handsome  dark  eyes 
are  full  of  intelligence,  and  her  movements  are  instinct  with  high- 
bred grace.  Very  interesting  to  a  palmist  are  the  small  hands ; 
the  head  and  heart  lines  are  well  defined,  though  there  is  little 
development  of  the  mounts.  Fortunately  for  her  people  the  line 
of  life  betokens  a  long  and  healthy  existence.  Her  Highness  is 
very  devout,  and  is  most  particular  about  the  due  performance  of 
her  religious  duties.  She  is  invariably  accompanied  by  a  Guru  or 
High  Priest,  who  conducts  daily  service  according  to  the  rites  of 
her  faith.  When  paying  visits  to  European  ladies  the  Rani 
sometimes  drives  in  a  closed  landau  with  reed  blinds  to  the 
windows  through  which  the  occupants  of  the  vehicle  can  see 
without  being  seen.  Generally  it  is  more  convenient  to  use  a 
palanquin,  as  this  conveyance  can  be  carried  right  inside  a  room 
and  so  insure  absolute  privacy. 

Surat  Kunwar  is  a  most  interesting  specimen  of  the  advanced 
Indian  princess  who,  without  losing  any  of  the  traditional  graces 
that  belong  to  her  position  and  personality,  has  yet  taken  many 
a  forward  step  towards  the  coming  emancipation  of  her  sex  in 
the  East. 

The  learning  of  Western  ways  and  gradual  progress  towards 
the  freedom  of  European  civilisation  are,  of  course,  the  direct 
result  of  British  occupation  of  the  great  peninsula.  In  most 
Oriental  palaces  are  now  to  be  found  European  ladies  engaged  in 
instructing  not  only  the  children  of  the  princes  and  nobles,  but 
their  wives  as  well.  Many  Indian  ladies  can  speak  and  write 
English ;  a  few  extend  their  knowledge  to  French.  Some  learn 
to  play  the  piano  with  a  certain  amount  of  facility,  Indians  as  a 
rule  having  a  very  good  ear  for  time  and  tune.  Indeed,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  come  across  an  Indian  lady  without  at  least  a 
desire  for  some  acquaintance  with  the  literature  of  her  own 
country,  if  not  for  a  larger  sphere  of  education. 


426  The  Empire  Review 

There  are  instances  of  the  little  princesses  betrothed  to  the 
youthful  heirs  of  royal  houses  being  instructed  in  English,  French 
and  music,  in  order  to  render  them  suitable  companions  to  their 
carefully  taught  husbands.  Gradually,  but  quite  perceptibly,  the 
barriers  hitherto  shutting  in  the  women  of  the  East  are  yielding 
to  the  pressure  of  the  West,  and  fuller  freedom  is  merely  a 
question  of  time.  It  cannot  be  very  long  before  the  wearisome 
restrictions  of  the  pardah  will  be  removed,  and  Hindoo  women 
return  to  the  liberty  they  enjoyed  prior  to  the  institution  of  the 
custom  as  a  protection  against  their  Mahomedan  conquerors,  and 
in  imitation  of  their  habits.  With  the  safety  established  by 
British  regard  for  law  and  order,  there  is  no  real  reason  why 
Indian  women  should  not  take  a  greater  part  in  the  social  life  of 
the  country. 

Though  it  may  be  many  years,  generations  even,  before 
Europeans  and  Indians  mix  together  on  equal  terms,  there  can 
be  no  question  that  the  education  and  training  of  the  women  of 
Hindoostan  is  the  first  and  most  important  step  towards  this 
desirable  end.  Her  Highness  the  Rani  of  Kharigurh  as  a  widow 
is  unable  to  brave  public  opinion  by  discarding  the  pardah  and 
going  into  the  outer  world.  Perhaps  the  day  is  not  far  distant 
when  some  powerful  Oriental  potentate  will  set  an  example  to 
his  brethren  of  all  stations  by  brushing  aside  the  jealous  curtain 
cramping  his  womenkind,  and  will  permit  his  Maharani,  and  not 
only  a  junior  lady  of  his  Zenana,  to  associate  with  her  European 
masculine  as  well  as  feminine  fellow-subjects  of  a  great  and 
united  empire. 

L. 
MUSSOOBIE,  INDIA. 


The  White  Cheetah  427 


THE    WHITE    CHEETAH 

A   STORY   OF   THE   STRAITS   SETTLEMENTS. 

"  JOLLY  glad  to  see  you,  Blake." 

There  was  no  doubting  the  sincerity  of  the  speaker ;  unalloyed 
relief  and  welcome  shone  in  his  tired,  feverish  eyes,  and  in  the 
smile  that  lighted  up  his  worn,  haggard  face. 

As  Roche  Blake  stepped  on  shore  from  the  launch,  West- 
macott  repeated  his  greeting,  and  wrung  the  hand  of  the  new- 
comer with  genuine  warmth. 

"You  are  looking  very  fit,"  he  added,  "the  East  evidently 
suits  you." 

"  Oh,  yes,  it  does  me  well  enough,"  Blake  answered,  carelessly. 
"  But  I  can't  say  the  same  for  you,  old  man ;  you  want  your  leave 
badly.  Why  didn't  you  send  across  for  me  before  ?  " 

He  remembered  Westmacott's  jovial,  healthy  face  a  year  back, 
when  he  left  Singapore  for  this  little  settlement  of  Mahung, 
where  the  firm,  in  whose  employ  they  both  were,  had  a  coffee 
plantation  that  paid  better  for  a  white  overseer's  presence.  The 
Malays  have  a  respect  for  a  British-born  master  that  no  Eurasian, 
however  devoid  of  colour,  can  command. 

"  I  couldn't  very  well.  There  was  nothing  the  matter  with 
me.  The  chief  would  have  called  it  malingering.  But  Mahung 
has  not  happened  to  suit  me.  I  hope  you  will  get  along  better." 

They  had  walked  up  the  clearing  that  led  down  to  the  sea  by 
this  time,  and  were  passing  through  a  grove  of  senna  trees  that 
surrounded  the  hut  where  the  overseer  lived  in  solitary  state,  with 
some  Chinese  "  boys  "  to  serve  him,  and  the  solace  of  a  pipe  and 
a  few  well-worn  novels  as  sole  companionship  during  the  long 
evenings  when  his  work  was  done. 

"  It's  all  right  here  in  the  day,"  continued  Westmacott,  "one 
is  out  and  about,  and  there  is  plenty  to  do  to  keep  these  beggars 
up  to  the  work.  But  it's  a  bit  dull  at  night.  I  hope  you  have 
brought  a  stock  of  'baccy  and  books." 

He  showed  Blake  round  the  premises,  went  through  the  last 
month's  accounts  with  him,  and  handed  over  the  keys  of  a  small 
safe,  and  other  insignia  of  office. 

"  There  is  not  much  trouble  with  the  men,"  he  said.  "  All 
that  are  in  our  service  are  easily  kept  in  order,  and  the  up-country 


428  The  Empire  Review 

people  don't  come  down  once  in  a  blue  moon.     They  are  only 
half  civilised,  and  scared  at  a  white  man." 

He  was  to  return  by  the  same  launch  that  had  brought  Blake 
—a  two  days'  journey  from  Singapore ;  and  it  was  time,  when  all 
these  details  were  finished,  for  him  to  start. 

Yet  he  hung  about  as  though  there  were  something  on  his 
mind  that  he  wanted  to  unburden  himself  of.  At  last  it  came. 

"Well,  I  suppose  I  must  be  moving.  Good-bye,  old  man. 
Take  care  of  yourself — and — I  wouldn't  go  out  at  night.  It's  an 
unhealthy  sort  of  place  after  dark." 

"  I  shouldn't  think  there  would  be  any  temptation  to  roam  in 
this  jungle  after  dinner,"  said  Blake.  "  One  goes  the  usual  round 
the  last  thing,  I  suppose? " 

"Not  necessary,"  answered  Westmacott,  quickly.  "Much 
better  to  see  everything  locked  up  while  it's  light,  and  then  turn 
in  for  good.  There  are  curious  sounds  out  there  at  night.  Any 

one "   he  hesitated,  and   an   odd  look  came  into  his  face, 

"  any  one  not  used  to  the  place  might  think  they  were  human — 
but  they  are  not." 

"  What  sort  of  sounds  ?    Jackals  or  pariahs,  I  suppose." 

Westmacott  was  silent,  lost  in  uneasy  thought. 

Suddenly  he  turned  to  Blake  and  put  a  hand  on  his  shoulder. 

"  Old  chap,"  he  said,  "  I  may  be  a  bit  queer.  Living  alone  in 
a  place  like  this  isn't  a  very  elevating  thing  for  the  mind.  But 
there  are  some  things  I  could  swear  to — sane  or  insane.  If  you 
hear  a  soft  sort  of  calling — as  if  some  one  — a  woman,  perhaps — 
was  in  distress  and  wanted  help — don't  go.  See  that  your 
shutters  are  closed  and  your  doors  locked,  and  have  your  revolver 
handy.  If  anything  touches  your  chicks,*  shoot.  Look  here." 

He  rolled  back  his  sleeve,  showing  some  deeply  scored  marks ; 
scars  evidently  of  a  recent  mauling. 

"  I  went  out  one  night,"  he  said,  in  a  low  voice,  "  couldn't 
resist  it — the  sound  draws  you.  That's  what  I  got— and  never 
an  hour's  easy  sleep  since.  Good-bye— so  long !  " 

And,  with  a  quick  change  of  manner,  he  nodded  to  some  of 
the  hands  waiting  about  to  take  leave  of  him,  and  hurried  off 
towards  the  launch.  An  hour  later  a  dwindling  speck  on  the 
horizon  was  all  that  Blake  could  see  of  the  boat  that  was  carrying 
away  his  predecessor,  the  only  white  man  who  had  ever  dwelt  at 
Mahung,  so  far  as  he  knew. 

And  when  the  sudden  darkness  of  the  East,  that  has  no 
lingering  shadows  of  twilight  to  soften  the  loss  of  day,  encom- 
passed the  bungalow,  Koche  Blake  felt  a  chill  of  loneliness  and 
something  that  was  akin  to  apprehension,  steal  over  him  like  the 
black  cloud  of  night. 

*  Venetians. 


The  White  Cheetah  429 

No  doubt  he  would  in  any  case  have  felt  a  little  depressed  on 
this  first  evening  of  exile  after  the  sociable  party  at  dinner  to 
which  he  had  been  accustomed  in  his  "  Chummery  "  at  Singapore ; 
but  Westmacott's  warning,  of  which  he  had  made  light  mentally 
at  the  time,  occurred  to  him  now  with  unpleasant  distinctness 
and  weight. 

As  he  sat  alone  during  the  long  evening,  he  caught  himself 
listening  to  the  vague  sounds  of  a  tropical  night ;  jungle  voices 
and  movements,  now  stealthy,  now  harsh  and  startling.  Once  he 
rose  to  his  feet,  his  heart  beating  unevenly,  certain  that  far-off  in 
the  distance  some  one  was  calling  for  help.  But  the  cry,  whatever 
it  was,  died  away,  and  there  was  no  repetition  of  it.  Blake  called 
himself  a  chicken-hearted  fool  and  went  to  bed,  though  sleep  was 
capricious  and  evaded  him  until  dawn. 

The  next  day,  ashamed  of  even  this  passing  tremor,  he  went 
about  his  work  with  the  determination  to  keep  a  grip  on  himself, 
and  to  make  physical  fatigue  induce  sufficient  mental  drowsiness 
to  ensure  sleep. 

He  settled  himself  in  a  deck  chair  after  dinner  with  the  most 
interesting  book  that  he  had  brought,  and  rejoiced  when  he  found 
himself  dozing  over  it  now  and  then. 

The  night  was  particularly  quiet ;  a  hush  seemed  to  have  fallen 
over  bird  and  beast  and  forest. 

Blake  congratulated  himself  on  having  regained  his  mental 
equilibrium.  Then  suddenly,  quite  close  to  the  bungalow,  came 
a  sound  that  set  every  pulse  throbbing  and  seemed  to  turn  his 
heart  to  water. 

A  faint,  low  call,  as  of  a  wounded  child  or  woman,  that  rose 
and  fell,  now  plaintive,  now  insistent  in  its  appeal,  and  that  died 
away  in  a  horrible  sobbing  moan.  Then  silence  !  a  stillness  so 
profound  that  his  ears,  strained  to  keenest  tension,  could  detect 
the  brush  of  some  soft  body  against  the  outside  shutters. 

Beads  of  dew  started  out  on  his  forehead,  and  his  hands 
clenched  themselves  as  he  listened,  while  Westmacott's  words 
reiterated  themselves  in  his  brain  :  "If  you  hear  a  soft  sort  of 
calling — don't  go.  See  that  your  doors  are  locked  and  your 
shutters  closed,  and  if  anything  touches  your  chicks— shoot." 

Something — some  one — was  sliding  one  of  the  shutters  back 
an  inch  at  a  time ;  through  the  chick  Blake  could  discern  a  line 
of  moonlight  that  widened  as  he  watched  it. 

His  revolver  was  on  the  side  table ;  he  crept  round  to  it  on 
tip-toe,  and  then,  keeping  close  to  the  wall,  on  to  the  window 
space  where  the  CL.:  \k  hung. 

And  as  he  stared—  unnerved,  almost  paralysed — he  caught  a 
glimpse  through  the  interstice  of  something  white  that  crouched 
outside,  and  then,  rising  up  to  ne,i  lv  his  own  height,  pushed 


430  The  Empire  Review 

desperately  at  the  shutter,  stiff  in  its  groove,  and  moaned  to  itself 
with  a  wailing  sob  that  seemed  to  draw  him,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  repulse  him. 

He  lifted  his  revolver,  took  unsteady  aim,  and  then  his  heart 
seemed  to  stop  heating,  and  his  hand  fell  useless  to  his  side. 

For  the  shutters  had  opened  wider,  and  the  chick  was  pushed 
aside,  while  the  eyes  that  were  looking  into  his  were  those  of  a 
woman — hunted  eyes  gleaming  pale  in  a  wan  face  full  of  an  awful 
nameless  terror  and  suffering  that  froze  his  very  soul  with  pitying 
horror. 

A  white  woman  here,  and  in  this  plight !  For  her  long  fair 
hair,  streaming  bright  in  the  moonlight,  and  the  white  dress  she 
wore,  were  flecked  with  blood ;  and  her  little  hands,  which  she 
wrung  in  pleading,  were  torn  and  bruised. 

He  was  at  the  shutter  in  an  instant,  pushing  it  aside  with  all 
his  strength  to  make  room  for  her  to  come  in.  And  as  he  did  so 
two  white  soft  arms  wound  themselves  round  him,  and  held  him 
fast,  and  he  found  himself  struggling  for  his  life,  while  cruel  fangs 
were  fastening  in  his  throat  and  the  hot  breath  of  a  beast  of  prey 
was  on  his  cheek.  Blindly,  desperately,  he  struggled  in  the  grip 
that  held  him,  soft  as  velvet,  strong  as  steel ;  his  strength  and 
courage  ebbing  away  with  the  sudden  physical  and  mental  strain 
of  it. 

A  dreadful  faintness  seized  him ;  his  frenzied  grasp  of  the 
creature's  throat  relaxed ;  dimly  he  realised  that  death  had  come ; 
then  there  was  a  report  and  a  flash,  and  his  assailant  with  a  last 
convulsive  effort  fell  heavily  away,  and  there  was  silence. 

But  of  this  he  was  oblivious,  for  his  senses  had  failed  at  the 
moment  when  the  chance  of  his  revolver  going  off  had  released 
him.  And  ten  minutes  later,  when  the  "  boys  "  found  him,  he 
was  lying  apparently  lifeless,  his  throat  and  shoulder  torn  and 
mangled,  and  beside  him  the  dead  body  of  a  white  panther  shot 
through  the  heart ! 

For  a  fortnight  he  lay  at  death's  door,  alternately  delirious 
with  fever  and  collapsing  from  weakness.  And  in  his  worst  times 
he  raved  incessantly  of  the  haunting  vision  that  had  been  still 
before  his  eyes  when  he  fought  for  his  life  with  a  power  natural 
and  supernatural. 

*  *  *  *  # 

It  was  the  first  day  of  convalescence,  and  he  had  sent  for  the 
sub-overseer  to  come  to  him. 

"  Look  here,  Dixon,"  he  said,  "  I  want  you  to  tell  me  how 
you  found  me  that  night.  I  must  thresh  this  thing  out  or  go  off 
my  head.  Tell  me  all  you  know." 

The  overseer  looked  at  him  carefully. 

"  All  I  know,  sir,"  he  repeated  at  last.     "  Well,  I  believe  it 


The  White  Cheetah  431 

will  be  the  best  thing  for  you — if  you  are  strong  enough  to 
hear  it." 

"  Go  ahead,"  said  Blake  briefly. 

"  Have  you  ever  heard  of  Mr.  Macdonald,"  began  Dixon, 
"the  first  white  overseer  who  came  to  this  plantation,  a  matter 
of  fifteen  years  ago  now  or  more  ?  Well,  he  was  a  Scotchman, 
pucka  Scotch,  not  your  half  and  half  with  a  touch  of  the  tarbrush, 
hard  as  nails,  dour  and  glum,  and  fonder  of  the  whiskey  bottle 
than  of  anything  else.  He  brought  his  wife  with  him  ;  a  little 
bit  of  a  thing,  timid  and  young  and  delicate,  and  like  a  flower  to 
look  at — all  white  and  gold.  It  was  too  lonely  a  life  for  her  ;  she 
tried  to  make  the  best  of  it,  and  went  singing  over  the  house,  and 
putting  flowers  about,  and  odds  and  ends  that  she  made,  and 
making  believe  she  was  contented  and  happy.  But  the  silence 
frightened  her,  and  the  wild  sounds  at  night  frightened  her  still 
more,  and  I've  seen  her  sometimes,  when  he  was  on  his  rounds, 
run  flying  in  from  the  trees  there  as  if  something  were  after  her, 
and  when  she  reached  the  verandah,  wring  her  hands  and  hold 
them  over  her  heart,  and  cry  as  if  she  couldn't  stop.  It  wasn't  a 
fit  life  for  her ;  any  man,  but  the  man  she  was  married  to,  would 
have  seen  that. 

"Well,  she  plucked  up  courage  at  last  and  told  him  she 
thought  she  had  better  go  away  for  a  change.  I  remember  it 
well,  because  it  was  on  that  very  day  some  of  the  Malays  came 
from  over  the  hills  yonder,  real  wild  men  that  hadn't  any  dealings 
with  the  planters  as  a  rule.  One  of  them  had  noticed  her  terror 
of  them,  and  it  made  him  angry,  so  that  he  put  a  spell  on  her ;  I 
don't  rightly  know  how,  but  I  heard  him  telling  the  others  that 
the  white  woman  who  feared  them  should  be  feared  herself  some 
day.  Anyhow  she  fainted  away,  and  Mr.  Macdonald  carried  her 
indoors,  I  helping  him  ;  and  when  she  came  to  herself  she  said  to 
him  :  '  Oh,  Eowan,  let  me  go  away  from  here.  I  shall  die  if  you 
don't.'  He  was  very  angry  with  her,  said  it  was  a  parcel  of  non- 
sense, and  she  was  a  fine  wife  for  a  working  man  to  bring  to 
foreign  parts.  She  sobbed  and  clung  to  him,  and  he  told  her  not 
to  be  a  fool  and  sent  her  off  to  her  room.  And  then  he  turned  to 
me.  '  Clear  those  men  off  the  place,  Dixon,'  he  said.  '  Mrs. 
Macdonald's  not  herself  and  they've  helped  to  upset  her.  Send 
them  packing.'  So  I  did. 

"  It  was  about  two  nights  after  that,  I  think,  that  we  all  of 
us  heard  a  strange  sort  of  calling  round  the  place  after  nightfall 
and  wondered  what  it  could  be.  It  flashed  across  my  mind 
suddenly  that  it  was  like  a  woman's  voice,  and  that  it  must  be 
Mrs.  Macdonald.  I  waited  a  while  until  I  heard  it  again — it  was 
a  little  before  midnight  then — and  I  felt  I  could  wait  no  longer. 
I  hurried  on  my  things  and  came  along  here,  and  just  as  I  passed 


432  The  Empire  Review 

the  verandah  I  caught  a  glimpse  of  something  white  that  crouched 
and  sprang  and  ran  towards  the  wood. 

"I  could  get  no  answer  to  my  knocks  and  calls,  and  every 
shutter  was  closed,  and  at  last  I  got  in  a  frenzy  and  broke  through 
one  of  the  chicks.  There  was  Mr.  Macdonald  in  a  sort  of  stupefied 
sleep — he  had  been  drinking  heavily — and  no  sign  of  his  wife.  I 
shook  him  awake  and  told  him  about  the  sound  and  asked  him 
where  Mrs.  Macdonald  was.  He  roused  up  at  last  and  said  she 
had  kept  on  disturbing  him,  telling  him  she  heard  some  one 
calling,  and  begging  him  to  go  and  see  if  it  was  any  one  in  distress. 
At  last  she  said  she  must  go  herself  if  he  wouldn't ;  and  she  went, 
and  he  admitted  that  he  shut  her  out.  *  If  she  chose  to  go  on 
a  fool's  errand,'  he  said  to  me,  '  I  thought  I'd  let  her  stop  for  a 
while,  it  would  cure  her  of  some  of  her  silly  fancies,  maybe.' 

"  Well,  I  roused  up  some  of  the  men  and  we  hunted  every- 
where for  miles  round,  and  not  a  sight  nor  a  sound  of  Mrs. 
Macdonald  did  we  find  either  then  or  ever.  She  was  clean  gone  ! 
Some  of  the  men  declared  they  had  seen  a  white  slinking  creature 
run  by  and  across  the  clearing  to  the  jungle ;  but  none  of  them 
seemed  very  clear  when  they  were  questioned.  Mr.  Macdonald 
wasn't  fit  to  understand  it  for  a  day  or  two,  and  when  he  did  he 
cursed  and  swore  and  said  he  would  make  her  pay  for  frightening 
him  if  she  did  come  back. 

"  She  never  did  though,  leastways  not  rightly,  not  as  she  was 
before. 

"  But  from  that  time  we  used  to  hear,  now  and  again,  the 
same  soft  calling  round  and  about  the  place ;  and  many  a  time 
one  or  other  of  us  saw  what  we  thought  was  a  white  cheetah 
crouching  and  creeping  through  the  trees ;  and  on  those  nights 
Mr.  Macdonald  always  took  more  whiskey  than  usual,  and  was 
the  worse  for  it  next  day.  At  last  one  night  the  sound  came 
louder  than  ever,  and  presently  we  heard  a  shot,  and  when  we 
got  here  Mr.  Macdonald  was  lying  half  in  the  room  and  half  on 
the  verandah,  and  the  chicks  were  pushed  aside,  and  he  had  shot 
himself  through  the  heart. 

"  But  the  queer  thing  was  that  something  had  dragged  him 
through  the  chicks  after  he  had  shot  himself,  and  his  shoulders 
were  all  torn  and  frayed.  And  if  ever  a  man's  face  showed 
mortal  terror,  terror  that  was  stronger  than  the  fear  of  death 
itself,  Mr.  Macdonald's  did.  We  couldn't  bear  to  look  at  it  any 
of  us ;  it  was  too  ghastly !  " 

Dixon  stopped,  lost  in  thought ;  and  there  was  silence  for  a 
few  moments  between  the  two  men. 

Then  Blake  said  in  a  changed  voice : 

"Tell  me  exactly  what  you  think.  The  whole  thing  is  so 
horrible — nothing  could  make  it  worse." 


The  White  Cheetah  433 

"  It's  difficult  to  say  what  I  think,"  answered  Dixon  slowly. 
"  Some  things  are  best  not  put  into  words.  We  heard  no  more 
calling,  and  saw  nothing  more  after  Mr.  Macdonald's  death  until 
the  overseer  who  succeeded  him,  and  who  was  an  Eurasian,  got  a 
remove,  and  Mr.  Westmacott  came.  Then  it  started  again  ;  and 
I  believe  Mr.  Westmacott  had  a  sharp  tussle  of  it  one  night.  It 
seemed  as  if  the  white  panther  had  a  grudge  against  the  white 
man  that  couldn't  be  satisfied." 

"  Dixon,"  said  Blake,  in  a  low  voice,  "  I'm  quite  sane,  as  you 
see,  and  I'm  going  to  tell  you  something.  You  say  that  when 
you  found  me  that  night  there  was  a  panther  lying  dead  beside 
me,  shot,  mercifully  for  me,  by  my  own  revolver.  But  the  thing 
that  I  fought  and  struggled  with,  the  thing  I  saw  with  my  own 
eyes,  was — a  woman  !  " 

They  neither  of  them  spoke  for  a  time  after  that,  until  Dixon 
got  up  to  go. 

"  You'll  pull  through  now,  sir,"  he  said,  "  and  it  would  be 
worth  your  while  to  ask  for  a  substitute  and  take  a  holiday. 
Better  to  lose  a  little  pay  or  promotion  than  one's  health." 

Then  he  stepped  up  close  to  Koche  Blake  and  lowered  his 
voice. 

"  There  are  more  queer  things  in  these  lonely  parts  of  the 
world  than  people  at  home  dream  of.  I'd  sooner  lose  five  years' 
salary  myself  than  offend  one  of  those  witch  folk  and  have  a  curse 
fastened  on  me.  She  had  to  work  out  her  time  unless  something 
happened  to  put  an  end  to  it.  I  think  you  have  given  her  rest, 
poor  soul,  at  last.  The  next  man  who  comes  here  will  be  safe 
enough,  I  warrant." 

BEATEICE  HEBON-MAXWELL. 


VOL.  VI.— No.  34.  2  F 


434  The  Empire  Review 


BRITISH   EMIGRATION:   AN   APPEAL   TO 
ENGLAND 

[When  the  late  Mr.  Justice  Mills  was  last  in  England,  I  had  several 
conversations  with  him  upon  the  subject  of  emigration.  He  took  special 
interest  in  my  endeavour  to  point  the  British  emigrant  to  Canada  rather  than 
the  United  States,  and,  after  returning  home,  sent  me  an  address  which  he  had 
delivered  in  Ontario  during  1901  on  the  subject,  asking  me  to  give  it  publicity 
in  these  pages.  At  that  time  he  was  writing  a  series  of  articles  for  me  on  the 
Monroe  Doctrine,  and  I  held  the  paper  back,  hoping  for  an  opportunity  later 
on  of  getting  him  to  bring  it  up  to  date.  That  opportunity  never  came,  and 
I  have,  therefore,  decided  to  publish  that  portion  of  the  paper  which  is  not 
affected  by  the  lapse  of  time. — ED.] 

WE  have  in  Canada  to-day  many  times  over  a  larger  area  of 
excellent  agricultural  land  still  unoccupied  than  in  all  the  rest  of 
North  America.  We  have  to-day  the  opportunities  and  the 
attractive  forces  that  were  possessed  by  our  neighbours  between 
1835  and  1865.  We  trust  ours  will  be  as  useful  in  contributing 
to  the  rapid  growth  of  settlement  in  Canada  as  theirs  were  to  the 
rapid  growth  of  settlements  in  the  valley  of  Mississippi.  I  should 
indeed  be  sorry  to  put  any  restraints  upon  the  restlessness  and 
enterprise  which  carries  the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom  into 
all  the  waste  places  of  the  earth.  They  go  forth  to  better  their 
own  fortunes,  to  engage  in  trade  and  commerce,  to  convert 
predatory  tribes  of  men  in  Africa  and  in  Asia  into  legitimate 
traders  and  to  impress  upon  them  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  the  security  of  life  and  property  from  depredation  by 
wandering  marauders,  and  by  changing  these  into  a  fixed  and 
law-abiding  population.  They  have  trained  multitudes  into  more 
industrious  habits,  and  have  taught  them  to  put  more  confidence 
in  the  value  of  upright  dealing  than  they  had  before  known.  As 
long  as  the  world  was  being  reduced  by  their  labour  from  chaos 
to  order,  and  from  a  state  of  violence  to  one  of  peace,  a  useful 
work  was  being  done,  but  it  is  now  necessary  to  turn  the  attention 
of  Englishmen  in  another  direction. 

We  have  at  present  a  great  territorial  empire,  with  but  little 
prospect  of  future  growth  by  further  expansion.  It  means  a 
great  deal  to  them  that  the  existing  possessions  should  become 


British  Emigration:  An  Appeal  to  England      435 

populous  and  wealthy.  What  is  to  be  done  with  the  Empire  ? 
How  are  its  wealth  and  population  to  be  increased  ?  How  is 
greater  security  to  be  given  to  the  life  and  property  within  its 
borders  in  order  that  its  commerce  may  continue  to  grow  ?  In 
our  case  I  am  sure  that  numbers  of  well-informed  and  public- 
spirited  people  will  afford  to  us  the  best  security  for  our  advance- 
ment. At  the  present  time  there  are  in  the  world  about 
120,000,000  of  people  speaking  the  English  language.  Koughly 
speaking  one-half  of  this  number  is  in  the  British  Empire ;  the 
other  half  is  in  the  United  States.  The  growth  of  the  republic 
is  now  largely  the  growth  of  a  city  population.  Their  progress 
by  immigration,  in  the  nature  of  things,  cannot  be  so  rapid  in 
the  future  as  in  the  past. 

There  are  parts  of  the  British  Empire  which  present  far  more 
inviting  fields  for  the  settlement  of  an  agricultural  population. 
There  is  no  reason  why  those  in  the  British  Empire  of  the 
white  race,  speaking  the  English  tongue,  should  not  overtake 
the  white  population  of  the  United  States  at  an  early  period. 
The  North- West  Territories  of  Canada  alone  are  capable  of 
furnishing  abundant  room  for  a  population  as  large  as  that  of 
Eussia  in  Europe.  These  are  the  prospects  presented;  what 
shall  we  do  with  them  ?  I  submit  that  the  time  has  come  when 
the  moral  influence  of  the  public  men  of  England  should  be  givex 
to  support  British  emigration  to  the  British  possessions,  and  not 
to  swell  the  population  of  a  country  that  is  really  more  hostile  to 
the  United  Kingdom  than  it  is  to  any  other  country  in  Christen- 
dom. I  am  sorry  that  it  is  so.  It  is  a  great  misfortune  to  both 
countries ;  but  the  fact  remains. 

The  Englishman  who  leaves  his  country  and  takes  up  his 
abode  elsewhere,  no  doubt  does  so  with  reluctance,  but  this 
reluctance  is  overcome  by  the  hope  that  he  will  improve  the 
condition  of  his  family.  It  forms  no  part  of  his  calculation  that 
his  descendants,  along  with  this  improved  condition,  are  to  be 
trained  to  look  more  unfavourably  upon  the  country  of  their  birth 
than  upon  any  other  occupied  by  white  men.  He  discovers  that 
the  political  atmosphere  which  he  breathes  is  filled  with  prejudice 
against  the  country  which  he  has  left  behind  him  with  fond 
regret ;  that  in  every  foreign  dispute  which  may  arise,  the  rulers  of 
his  native  land  are  represented  as  being  in  the  wrong,  as  greedy, 
grasping,  tyrannical,  and  cowardly ;  cringing  to  the  strong, 
oppressing  the  weak,  and  ever  incapable  of  doing  what  is  right. 
In  these  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  public  adven- 
turer with  great  ambition,  with  little  scruple,  and  anxious  to 
push  his  political  fortune,  often  finds  that  he  can  do  this  most 
successfully  by  attacking  the  United  Kingdom,  by  adversely 
criticising  its  public  policy.  He  feels  that  he  is  best  promoting 

2  F  2 


436  The  Empire  Review 

his  own  personal  fortunes,  if  he  can  find  some  question  of 
difference  where  none  exists,  or  can  greatly  magnify  some 
question  of  difference  where  one  does  exist. 

He  assumes  towards  the  government  of  the  United  Kingdom 
an  arrogant  tone,  because  he  believes  it  is  so  anxious  for  peace,  so 
slow  to  wrath,  that  he  can  pursue  his  own  personal  fortunes 
without  any  risk  of  the  peace  being  broken.  He  attributes  to 
British  statesmen  the  worst  motive  for  every  act  done,  and  for 
every  course  of  public  policy  put  forward.  In  taking  this  course 
he  can  easily  persuade  himself  that  he  is  right,  that  his  suspicions 
are  well  founded,  for  the  political  atmosphere  by  which  he  is 
surrounded  has  favoured  the  growth  of  these  suspicions  ;  so  that  I 
fear  there  is  little  prospect  of  friendly  co-operation  between  the 
two  sections  of  the  great  Anglo-Saxon  family,  until  some  over- 
powering necessity  presses  it  upon  our  neighbours.  I  greatly 
regret  that  this  is  so ;  the  world  would  certainly  be  better  off  if 
more  generous  sentiments  prevailed,  and  more  friendly  relations 
were  established ;  but  the  disregard  for  public  law,  under  the 
name  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  is  a  declared  menace  to  our 
sovereign  rights.  So  we  must  consider  the  facts  as  they  are,  and 
not  simply  as  we  would  like  to  have  them:  and  we  must  not 
forget  that  it  is  not  in  our  power  to  uphold  our  rights,  and  to 
maintain  our  self-respect,  and  at  the  same  time  do  much  to 
improve  these  relations. 

It  is  for  this  reason  true,  that  British  statesmen  practically 
take  sides  against  their  own  country  who  do  not  endeavour  to 
turn  the  emigration  from  the  United  Kingdom  towards  other 
British  possessions,  otherwise  the  British  emigrant  goes  abroad 
to  increase  the  wealth  and  population  of  the  country  whose 
convictions  are  hostile,  and  who  will  turn  the  descendants  of 
these  men  into  currents  that  will  be  unfriendly  to  British 
interests  hereafter.  British  statesmen  should  remember  that 
there  is  as  much  required  from  the  United  Kingdom  as  from 
other  parts  of  the  Empire,  to  promote  Imperial  unity.  I  have  no 
sympathy  with  those  who  are  calling  upon  the  Imperial  Parliament 
to  burden  the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom  for  our  benefit ;  to 
put  impediments  in  the  way  of  their  commercial  growth  to  help 
UB,  but  they  should  consider  how  much  the  Empire  will  be 
strengthened  by  the  increase  of  wealth  and  population  of  the 
colonies ;  how  the  development  of  their  mineral  resources,  and 
the  increase  of  their  numbers  would  do  vastly  more  to  give  to  it 
prosperity,  peace  and  security  than  could  be  accomplished  by 
directing  their  population  and  wealth  into  regions  whose  people 
believe  that  nothing  good  ever  emanates  from  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  inferences  in  respect  to  com- 


British  Emigration :   An  Appeal  to  England      437 

inercial  affairs,  out  of  which  the  indifference  of  British  states- 
men has  arisen,  are  altogether  erroneous.  I  do  riot  say  that  Eng- 
land has  not  prospered  under  her  policy  of  Free  Trade.  I  do  not 
say  that  the  principles  of  Free  Trade  are  not  economically  sound. 
I  think  they  are  ;  but  it  is  not  true  that  other  nations  are  likely 
soon  to  accept  them,  and  to  act  upon  them.  It  is  true  that  all 
great  States  to-day  are  much  more  ready  to  consider  the  mischief 
that  may  be  done  to  other  communities  by  restriction,  than  to 
consider  the  benefits  which  they  themselves  may  reap  from  the 
absence  of  all  commercial  restraint.  And  so  we  find  this  feeling 
has  long  been  a  barrier  in  the  way  of  the  extension  of  the 
principles  of  freer  international  trade.  It  is  true  that  where  there 
are  no  hostile  political  considerations  involved,  those  who  are  the 
disciples  of  protection  are  less  likely  to  use  it  to  injure  a  state 
with  which  they  are  closely  allied,  than  with  one  with  which  they 
have  no  political  connection.  The  United  Kingdom  has  a  far 
greater  security  for  her  continued  progress  in  population  and 
wealth,  in  the  growth  of  her  colonies,  than  she  possibly  can  have 
in  the  progress  of  her  economic  views  with  the  peoples  and 
governments  of  foreign  states.  Let  British  statesmen  compare 
the  volume  of  trade  between  Canada  and  the  United  Kingdom 
with  the  volume  of  trade  between  the  United  Kingdom  and  the 
United  States,  and  it  will  be  seen  how  much  more  she  will  gain 
commercially  by  the  addition  of  five  million  to  the  population  of 
this  country,  than  by  double  that  number  to  the  population  of  our 
neighbours. 

Why  should  she  hesitate  in  deciding  in  what  direction  her 
moral  influence  should  be  thrown  in  respect  to  emigration  from 
the  United  Kingdom  ?  She  does  no  wrong  to  any  other  sovereignty 
by  the  good  she  does  to  a  section  of  her  own  empire.  It  will  cost 
her  no  money  ;  it  calls  for  no  change  in  her  fiscal  policy.  She  is 
simply  asked  to  advise  her  own  people  in  the  interest  of  the  whole 
household.  Let  British  statesmen  then  consider  the  facts  and 
govern  their  conduct  by  the  situation  as  it  is.  It  is  by  a  firm  and 
courteous  public  policy,  based  upon  what  is  obviously  just,  thai 
the  unity  of  the  empire  is  to  be  promoted  and  its  interests  upheld. 
We  cannot  ask  the  United  Kingdom,  at  the  present  time,  to 
encourage  an  artisan  population  to  come  indiscriminately  to 
Canada ;  but  there  are  many  artisans  who  know  something  of 
agriculture,  who  could  readily  learn  more,  and  who  could  become 
more  prosperous  as  farmers  in  Canada,  than  they  can  ever  become 
as  artisans  at  home. 

We  have  many  farmers  in  Ontario  who  desire  more  room,  and 
who  would  sell  their  possessions  in  this  province  to  acquire  a 
larger  area  for  themselves  and  their  sons  upon  the  prairies  of  the 
North-west.  Many  small  farms  will  admit  of  much  more  intensive 


438  The  Empire  Review 

cultivation  than  has  yet  been  given  them,  and  by  the  necessary 
skilled  labour  their  products  could  be  enormously  increased. 
There  are  ordinary  tradesmen,  bricklayers,  masons,  blacksmiths 
and  carpenters,  for  whom  there  is  no  room.  If  we  add  200,000 
to  the  agricultural  population  of  our  territories  annually,  we  could 
diffuse  among  them  20,000  of  the  classes  I  have  mentioned.  It  is 
of  great  consequence  that  this  should  be  done,  and  by  this  large 
addition  from  the  British  Islands  we  could  venture  upon  securing 
a  very  much  larger  number  from  the  continent  of  Europe  than  we 
have  hitherto  obtained,  for  we  could  more  readily  convert  them 
into  a  people  with  British  ideas  and  British  tendencies,  by  making 
them  early  acquainted  with  our  language,  and  by  so  opening  to 
them  the  literature  of  England  we  would  enable  them  to  ac- 
quire our  habits  of  thought  and  expression  and  thus  become  an 
inseparable  part  of  our  population. 

If  there  is  to  be,  as  it  is  in  the  interests  of  mankind  there 
should  be,  a  Great  British  Empire,  teaching  men  to  love  freedom, 
to  seek  truth,  to  hate  falsehood  and  oppression,  and  ready  to 
make  some  sacrifices  for  the  common  good,  the  people  of  the 
United  Kingdom  must  themselves  become  interested  in  its  accom- 
plishment. The  breezes  which  now  tend  to  carry  us  from  all 
parts  of  the  British  dominions  into  the  same  harbour  may  again 
sleep,  and  may  not  afford,  for  a  long  time  to  come,  so  favourable 
an  opportunity  of  being  drawn  together.  I  do  not  suggest  any 
written  constitution.  I  do  not  propose  any  compact.  What  I 
suggest  is  a  friendly  understanding,  friendly  co-operation  for 
common  purposes,  voluntarily  undertaken.  Common  enterprises 
for  the  common  good,  common  dangers  to  be  guarded  against, 
will  determine  better,  through  the  lapse  of  time,  what  the  con- 
stitution of  the  British  Empire  should  be,  than  any  statesman, 
however  wise  or  cautious,  can  do  at  the  present  time. 

DAVID  MILLS. 


Susan  Pennicuick  439 


SUSAN   PENNICUICK 

A   STORY   OF   COUNTRY   LIFE   IN   VICTORIA 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

A   SUDDEN   DEPARTURE. 

SUE  went  straight  to  her  room,  and  gathering  a  few  things 
together  put  them  into  a  small  portmanteau.  She  would  take 
that  first  and  then  come  back  for  the  sleeping  child.  She  did 
not  care  to  go  through  the  house  and  run  the  risk  of  meeting 
her  aunt  or  cousins,  so  she  opened  the  window  and  went  out  into 
the  hot,  still,  moonlit  night.  The  full  round  moon  hung  low  in 
the  clear  cloudless  sky  and  the  garden  was  bathed  in  its  light, 
and  only  in  the  plantation  beyond  were  great  shadows.  Such  a 
perfect  night ;  it  spoke  to  her  of  peace  and  hope  and  happiness 
and  her  heart  beat  high.  She  had  thrown  off  all  disguise,  she  would 
live  her  own  life  now.  It  was  better,  better  to  be  open  and  above 
board,  and  in  her  exaltation  she  forgot  that  the  step  she  was 
taking  would,  she  had  told  Koger  only  four  months  ago,  bring 
sorrow  on  him  and  herself  and  the  child. 

To-night  she  forgot.  The  warm  summer  night,  the  scent  of 
the  flowers,  the  roses  and  the  lilies,  on  the  warm  night  air  spelt 
happiness  to  her.  The  low  contented  bleat,  bleat  of  a  flock  of 
sheep  came  from  the  home  paddock,  and  from  the  reed  beds  on  the 
other  side  of  the  lake  rose  the  mournful  wail  of  the  curlews.  It 
was  good-bye,  good-bye,  good-bye  to  her  dreary  life.  She  was 
beginning  a  new  one.  Such  a  glorious  night.  Bright  as  day 
was  the  garden  and  every  little  plant  cast  a  clean-cut  shadow. 
Half  mechanically  she  noticed  how  her  skirts  swept  the  ragged 
borders,  the  weeds  springing  here  and  there  out  of  the  hard,  dry 
earth,  and  the  garden  tools  which  lay  scattered  across  the  beds 
the  children  called  their  own.  This  afternoon  she  would  have 
felt  bound  to  pick  up  those  tools,  would  have  felt  responsible  for 
the  untidiness.  Now  it  was  good-bye,  good-bye;  she  had  done 
with  all  that.  She  was  grateful  to  her  aunt,  grateful  for  all  her 
kindness,  but  most  grateful  of  all  in  that  she  had  showed 
her  the  impossibility  of  the  life  she  had  been  trying  to  lead  all 


440  The  Empire  Review 

these  months,  in  that  she  had  set  her  free,  given  her  no  alter- 
native but  to  go  to  the  man  she  loved.  Her  heart  laughed  and 
sang  with  joy  as  she  looked  at  the  moonlight  and  the  dark 
shadows. 

Then  out  from  beside  the  big  Safrano  rose  stepped  Dr.  Finlay- 
son  and  took  the  portmanteau  from  her  hands. 

"  Let  me,"  he  said,  and  they  walked  through  the  plantation 
side  by  side. 

Sue  hardly  knew  what  to  say  to  him.  Did  he  care  for  her  ? 
It  hardly  seemed  possible,  and  yet  he  had  stood  by  her  when  they 
shamed  her,  and  she  was  grateful  to  him,  and  the  gratitude  was 
different  to  that  she  had  for  her  aunt. 

"  Sue,"  said  he,  "  have  you  thought  well  that  you  are  throwing 
away  your  life  ?  "  and  he  tried  to  eliminate  every  trace  of  personal 
feeling  from  his  voice.  "And  how  old  are  you,  child,  barely 
twenty-one." 

"  If  you  knew,  if  you  knew,"  she  said,  with  a  long  drawn 
breath,  "  how  glad  and  happy  I  am." 

What  could  he  say  ?  Nothing  he  had  to  offer  he  knew  could 
bring  her  happiness  like  this. 

The  tall  young  gum  trees  threw  their  dark  shadows  across  the 
way,  but  the  moonlight  shone  down  between  them  in  great  white 
patches  where  it  was  as  light  as  day.  Through  the  tree  trunks 
to  the  left  gleamed  the  waters  of  the  lake  like  a  silver  shield,  and 
never  a  breath  of  wind  ruffled  its  glassy  surface.  The  still,  hot 
Australian  night  wrapped  them  close  in  her  warm  embrace,  and 
only  the  sound  of  their  footsteps  on  the  short  dry  grass  broke  the 
stillness.  A  lizard  scuttered  from  beneath  their  feet  and  a  little 
white  owl  flew  across  their  path. 

"A  white  owl,"  said  Sue  with  a  little  laugh,  a  laugh  that 
had  a  light-hearted  ring  in  it  such  as  he  had  never  heard  from 
her  lips,  "  is  the  very  best  of  luck." 

Just  beyond  the  plantation  they  saw  the  buggy,  and  Finlayson 
paused  a  moment,  and  Sue  stood  still  too.  The  moonlight  coming 
through  the  trees  cast  a  tracery  like  lace  on  her  white  dress. 

"  It  isn't  too  late,  still,"  he  said. 

"  It  is,  it  is.  There  are  only  two  things  I  want  in  this  world, 
Roger  and  my  child." 

"It  leads -it  leads " 

"Do  you  think  I  have  not  thought,  thought,  and  thought. 
The  first  wrong  step  was  long  ago,  and  having  taken  it  I  must  go 
on.  How  could  I  leave  my  little  child,  my  sweet  baby,  how 
could  I  ?  What  sort  of  a  woman  would  I  have  been  if  I  had  ? 
And  now  I  must  go  to  her  father.  He  wants  us  and  we  both  of 
us  want  him,  oh,  we  want  him." 

•"But " 


Susan  Pennicuick  441 

"  That  woman  who  married  him  is  nothing  to  him.  I  have 
been  foolish  in  letting  her  stand  in  the  way.  The  two  things  in 
the  world  for  me  are  Koger  and  his  child.  If  you  only  could 
understand  how  glad  I  am." 

Words  of  his  were  futile,  and  he  picked  up  the  portmanteau 
and  went  to  the  buggy. 

"Look  sharp,"  said  Willie.  "I  want  to  get  off  before  the 
governor  gets  a  chance  of  seeing  us." 

"  All  right,"  said  Sue.  "  I'm  just  going  back  for  baby,  I  won't 
be  a  minute." 

The  doctor  did  not  follow.  Sue  could  carry  the  baby  by 
herself  and  when  she  came  back  he  helped  her  into  the  seat 
beside  Will  without  a  word. 

•'  Now,"  he  said,  "  come  round  by  Mullin's  Hill  and  I  will  get 
you  some  money.  There's  no  train  to-night,  is  there?  " 

"  No,"  said  Sue,  "  but  the  first  leaves  Gaffer's  Flat  at  six 
to-morrow  morning.  We  have  to  stop  at  Geelong  two  hours  and 
then,  of  course,  there  is  a  ten  mile  drive  from  Cobden,  but  I  ought 
to  get  there  by  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon." 

"  Good  heavens,  you  seem  to  know  all  about  it." 

"  I  have  dreame$  of  it  so  often,  so  often,"  said  Sue  dreamily, 
and  Willie  struck  the  old  horse  with  the  reins  and  they  started 
off. 

At  Mullin's  Hill  Dr.  Finlayson  left  them  after  handing  to  Sue 
a  pocket-book  with  an  earnest  declaration  that  she  was  not  to 
think  of  paying  him  back  till  she  was  a  very  well-to-do  woman 
indeed,  and  Sue  felt  a  lump  rise  in  her  throat  as  she  pressed  his 
kind  hand. 

And  at  Gaffer's  Flat  Willie  left  her  at  the  little  inn.  He  was 
very  anxious  to  get  back  before  his  father  should  have  missed  the 
horse  and  buggy.  It  was  quite  likely  it  would  not  be  missed,  and 
Willie,  after  the  fashion  of  the  Grant  family,  did  not  wish  to 
incriminate  himself.  As  far  as  he  was  concerned  they  might 
think  Sue  had  wandered  out  on  the  plains  or  gone  away  with 
Dr.  Finlayson. 

And  strange  to  say  Sue  did  not  feel  lonely,  she  only  felt  free. 
She  pulled  up  the  blind  of  the  little  bedroom  window  and  let  the 
moonlight  stream  in  so  that  she  might  look  at  the  little  sleeping 
face  on  her  arm  and  rejoice  over  it.  Her  baby,  hers,  hers,  her 
very  own  before  the  world,  and  she  kissed  it  again  and  again,  and 
fell  asleep  at  last  thinking  of  Eoger's  joy  when  he  should  find 
his  home  no  longer  empty. 

And  the  joy  stayed  with  her  next  morning.  The  bright  warm 
morning  sunshine  still  spoke  to  her  of  freedom  and  love;  even  the 
long  hot  wait  at  Geelong  did  not  tire  her,  and  it  was  only  when  at 
four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  the  train  stopped  at  Cobden  and  she 


442  The  Empire  Review 

found  herself  the  only  passenger  left  on  the  platform  that  a  faint 
misgiving  crept  into  her  heart. 

Baby  was  fretful  and  she  was  tired  and  the  afternoon  was 
breathless.  The  hot  sun  poured  down  on  the  shelterless  platform, 
the  only  shade  was  a  corrugated  iron  shed,  where  it  was  hotter  if 
possible  than  out  in  the  open.  All  around  the  view  was  shut  in 
by  the  dense  forest.  Just  round  the  station  and  the  house  of  the 
solitary  guardian  of  the  line  the  trees  had  been  rung,  but  beyond 
again  was  forest  and  the  hills  shut  them  in  on  every  side.  She 
and  the  porter,  who  was  also  the  station-master,  seemed  to  be  the 
only  living  things  in  the  glare  and  the  heat,  and,  as  he  took  her 
ticket,  she  felt  he  looked  at  her  curiously.  Oh,  if  only  she  had 
thought  to  wait  in  Geelong  a  day  and  written  to  Roger  to  come 
and  meet  her.  It  was  ten  miles  to  his  farm,  she  knew,  and  how 
was  she  to  get  there.  She  could  not  walk  on  such  a  day  with  the 
child.  How  could  she  have  been  so  foolish,  and  the  exaltation 
began  to  die  out  of  her  heart. 

The  man  took  her  ticket. 

"  Can  you  tell  me,"  she  asked,  "  how  I  can  get  to  Mr. 
Marsden's  place." 

"  Don't  know  him  about  here.  He  isn't  anywhere  about  here, 
is  he?" 

"He's  got  a  selection  at  Timboon,  at  least  that's  the  post- 
office." 

"  Why,  bless  you,  Timboon's  ten  mile  off,"  said  the  man, 
scratching  his  head. 

Sue's  shyness  departed.  He  seemed  to  think  it  so  natural  she 
should  want  to  get  to  Timboon. 

"  I  know,  I  thought  perhaps  I  could  get  a  trap  here." 

The  man  shook  his  head.  "We  send  the  mail  across  on 
horseback  every  night.  But  a  trap?  come  on  in  and  see  the 
missus,  maybe  she'll  know." 

His  cottage  was  a  little  way  back  from  the  line  and  the 
garden  was  full  of  dead  sticks,  all  the  plants  had  died  from  want 
of  water.  A  woman  in  a  cotton  dress  came  to  the  door  in  answer 
to  the  shouts  of  "  Mother,"  and  looked  curiously  at  Sue,  and  once 
again  to-day  she  felt  shy  and  frightened. 

"  Here's  a  lady  wants  to  get  to  Timboon.  Do  you  know  if  old 
Sullivan's  going  down  this  afternoon?" 

"  I  think  he  is,  but  it's  only  a  tilted  cart,  does  the  lady  know 
that  ?  Come  in  out  of  the  heat." 

Sue  came  into  the  hot  little  house,  and  the  woman  pushed 
forward  a  hair-seated  arm-chair  into  which  she  sank  down 
gratefully. 

"  Anyone  in  particular  you  were  wanting  ?  "  asked  the  woman. 

Then  Sue  plunged.     She  would  have  to  for  the  future  describe 


Susan  Pcnnicuick  443 

herself  as  Eoger's  wife,  and  she  only  hoped  the  woman  did  not 
hear  her  heart  beating. 

"  Mr.  Marsden.  I'm  his  wife,  and  of  course  I  ought  to  have 
let  him  know  I  was  coming,  but  baby  got  well  so  quickly  and  I 
was  so  anxious  to  get  home " 

"Ah,  quite  right,"  said  the  woman  approvingly.  "I  can't 
abide  them  gadabout  women  as  is  always  for  stopping  away 
from  home.  Well,  there  don't  look  much  the  matter  with  baby 
now." 

The  plunge  was  made  and  Sue  breathed  freely. 

"  No,  indeed,  she  really  is  quite  well  now.  I  daren't  travel  when 
she  was  ill,"  she  went  on  embroidering  quite  easily,  "  but  when  I 
found  she  was  quite  well,  of  course  I  was  very  anxious  to  come, 
and  I  couldn't  wait  to  write.  I  might  have  telegraphed  this 
morning,  though,"  she  added  as  an  afterthought,  ardently  wishing 
she  had. 

"  It'ud  have  gone  on  with  the  mail-bag  this  evening,"  said  the 
porter,  and  Sue  gave  a  sigh  of  relief.  She  could  have  done 
nothing  else  then.  "  You'd  better  make  out  with  the  missus,  and 
if  old  Sullivan  doesn't  come  along  there's  Ferguson  two  miles 
along  the  line  might  take  you  for  a  consideration." 

"  Mr.  Hadry'll  be  passing  to-day.  He'll  be  the  best  of  the  lot. 
You  wait  here  till  he  comes." 

They  made  her  very  welcome.  The  woman  praised  the  baby, 
and  Sue,  for  the  first  time,  had  the  joy  of  hearing  her  little 
unwanted  baby  praised  and  petted  and  made  much  of  as  a  baby 
should  be.  It  was  a  new  sensation,  a  delight  to  Susan  to  look  on 
and  show  her  pride  as  the  baby's  mother.  She  took  off  baby's 
clothes  because  of  the  heat  and  she  and  this  stranger  looked  down 
admiringly  at  the  plump  pink  limbs,  until  the  other,  looking  up, 
saw  the  world  of  gladness  in  the  girl's  eyes  and  said  wonderingly, 

"  My  word  !  One  would  think  no  one  had  ever  praised  baby 
before." 

"  No  one  ever  did,"  said  Sue  truthfully  enough,  bending  down 
and  kissing  the  little  damp  mouth. 

" Not  her  father?" 

"  Oh,  her  father,  of  course,"  said  Sue,  thinking  of  the  only 
two  occasions  of  which  he  had  seen  her,  "  but  then  you  under- 
stand." 

It  was  a  subtle  compliment. 

"  I  should  just  think  I  did  after  bringing  up  five  of  them," 
and  after  that  Mrs.  Peterson  entertained  Sue  wholeheartedly,  and 
gave  the  baby  such  unstinted  admiration  and  worship  that  after- 
wards Sue  used  to  think  her  first  taste  of  real  delightful  mother- 
hood came  to  her  in  that  little  square,  hot,  best  parlour  of  the 
Cobden  railway  station,  and  she  ever  afterwards  had  a  strong 


444  The  Empire  Review 

affection  for  the  white  china  poodles  that  adorned  the  mantelpiece 
and  the  green  paper  basket  fly-catcher  that  hung  from  the  ceiling. 
They  gave  her  a  sense  of  contentment  and  happiness  that  she  had 
never  felt  before,  a  feeling  that  she  held  a  delightful  place  in  the 
world,  and  for  the  same  reason  she  confessed  to  an  affection  for 
horse-hair  furniture.  It  was  all  such  a  good  omen,  if  her  home- 
coming was  to  be  like  this.  She  drew  a  long  sigh  of  relief  and 
gladness. 

But  it  was  long  after  six  o'clock,  and  the  breathless  hot  day 
was  dying  before  Mr.  Hadry  came  along  in  his  buggy. 

"Marsden's  wife.  Why,  yes,  of  course,  he's  been  expecting 
her  this  long  time,"  said  the  jolly-faced  farmer  with  the  big  beard, 
looking  at  her  out  of  kindly  blue  eyes,  and  Sue  flushed.  Eoger 
had  smoothed  the  way  for  her  then.  "  I  pass  his  boundary  fence. 
I'm  awful  afraid,"  he  added  apologetically,  "I  haven't  time  to 
drive  you  right  up  to  the  house,  but  it  will  only  be  half  a  mile  to 
walk  if  you  don't  mind." 

"  Mind,"  said  Sue,  "  oh,  I  can  do  that  easily,  the  walk  will  be 
pleasant  in  the  cool  of  the  evening;"  and  she  said  good-bye 
gratefully  to  the  woman  who  had  given  her  her  first  unadulterated 
taste  of  the  bliss  of  motherhood.  Hadry  helped  her  into  the 
buggy  and  they  set  off  along  the  dusty  track.  It  was  a  delightful 
evening.  The  shadows  grew  longer  and  longer,  the  hot  sun  sank 
beneath  the  hills,  the  hot  day  was  over,  and  the  birds  were  crying 
their  thanks  for  the  coming  night.  The  parrots  flew  chattering 
across  the  road,  the  magpie  poured  out  its  liquid  evening  hymn, 
the  jackasses  cried  to  each  other  with  shouts  of  joyous  laughter, 
and  she  was  going  home,  home,  home.  She  said  it  to  herself, 
and  then  she  said  it  aloud  to  the  baby  with  this  new  delightful 
feeling  that  now  she  might  own  her  child,  she  might  openly  let 
her  share  her  life. 

"  We're  going  home,  darling.  Mother's  little  girlie  will  see 
her  daddy.  We're  going  home." 

The  big  man  beside  her  stretched  out  a  rough  forefinger  and 
touched  the  dimpled  chin,  and  the  baby  gurgled  and  laughed  and 
snatched  at  him  with  her  tiny  hands. 

"  And  is  that  the  way  a  wife  thinks  about  her  husband  ?  " 

'Yes,  I  think  so.     Isn't  it?" 

"  I  don't  know.     I  haven't  a  wife,  worse  luck." 

Sue  looked  at  his  stalwart  proportions  and  his  kindly  face. 
He  was  a  man  of  middle  age. 

"  Is  she  dead  ?  "  she  asked  softly. 

"  Dead,  oh  no.     I  never  had  a  wife." 

"  Ah  well,  you  must  remedy  that.  It  is  dull  for  a  man  alone. 
You  miss  half  the  pleasures  of  life.  Surely  there  are  girls  in  the 
Heytesbury  Forest." 


Susan  Pennicuick  445 

"I  suppose  there  are.  But  that's  the  mischief  of  it.  One 
can't  marry  a  wife  to  order." 

"  Oh  no,  one  wouldn't  do  that,  but  still " 

"  You  think  it  should  be  possible  to  find  the  one  I  wanted, 
well,  so  it  should,  of  course." 

"  And  the  farm  wanting  a  mistress  ?  " 

"And  the  farm  wanting  a  mistress  badly.  Ah,  would  you, 
mare,  hold  up  there !  And  you're  going  home.  It's  well  to  be 
you.  Do  you  never  think  of  the  many  in  this  world  that  haven't 
a  home,  not  a  warm  happy  home  such  as  you  are  going  to  ?  " 

"  Often,  often,"  said  Sue,  and  again  a  slight  fear  and  misgiving 
caine  into  her  heart.  Was  not  she  homeless  and  outcast  ?  What 
right  had  she  to  be  so  happy,  and  the  darkness  was  deepening. 
The  forest  was  lonely  and  the  magpie's  song  and  the  jackass's 
rippling  laughter  was  hushed  and  Sue  was  crushing  down  a  fear. 
Then  the  tree  tops  began  to  be  touched  with  a  silver  light,  and  in 
the  east,  through  a  gap  in  the  hills,  she  saw  the  moon  rising  like 
the  forest  on  fire. 

"There'll  be  light  enough  for  you  to  see  your  way,"  said  the 
farmer  pointing  with  his  whip,  "  supposing  you've  never  been 
here  before." 

"  I've  never  been  here  before." 

"  Ah,  well,  the  moon'll  be  up  before  we're  there.  It's  only 
about  a  mile  now." 

What  would  be  the  end?  Now,  now  was  the  momentous 
change  in  her  life.  She  was  going  to  her  lover,  to  the  man  who 
called  himself  her  husband.  Would  he — would  he  be  glad  to 
see  her  ?  Would  he  accept  the  responsibility  of  wife  and  child 
gladly,  or  would  he  remember  all  it  bound  him  to  ?  She  remem- 
bered her  own  words  of  wisdom  and  warning,  all  the  arguments 
that  still  stood  good,  and  yet  she  was  going  to  him,  and  rejoicing 
in  the  thought  that  she  was  going,  and  the  moon  rose  and  rose  up 
above  the  hill  and  forest  and  the  track  among  the  trees  stood 
out  in  the  white  light.  Then  the  farmer  brought  his  horse  to 
a  stop  by  a  big  gum  tree. 

"  Here  you  are,  Mrs.  Marsden,  here  are  the  slip  panels  and 
you  can  follow  the  wheel  tracks  easily  enough  in  the  moonlight. 
We'll  put  the  little  trunk  in  the  hollow  tree  here  till  you  can 
send  for  it.  Tell  Marsden  I  awfully  sorry  I  can't  take  you  any 
further,  but  I've  an  appointment  I  must  keep.  Now  there  you 
are,"  and  he  lifted  her  down  and  put  her  portmanteau  inside  a 
tree.  "  Now  no  one'll  be  able  to  see  it  from  the  road  even  if 
they  come  along,  which  isn't  likely."  Then  he  held  out  his 
hand.  "I'll  come  over  and  see  you  in  a  day  or  two,  if  I 
may,"  and  Sue  could  only  say,  shyly,  she  would  be  delighted  to 
see  him. 


446  The  Empire  Review 

'Well,  so  long,  Mrs.  Marsden.  Gee  up,  little  mare,"  and 
the  buggy  went  rattling  away  down  the  dusty  track  in  the  moon- 
light, and  Sue  was  very  near  her  journey's  end  indeed. 

Only  half  a  mile  now,  only  half  a  mile,  and  she  turned  and 
walked  along  by  the  wheel  tracks.  The  ground  was  uncleared, 
the  bracken  and  fern  and  tea-tree  grew  thick  among  the  tall 
gum-trees  on  either  hand,  and  she,  remembering  this  hot  summer 
night  would  bring  out  snakes,  walked  resolutely  as  much  in  the 
light  as  she  could,  and  more  and  more  anxious  she  grew  as  she 
neared  her  destination.  Suppose,  oh,  suppose  he  did  not  want 
her.  Would  a  wedding-ring  make  all  the  difference  ?  She,  an 
un wedded  woman  with  his  child  in  her  arms,  casting  herself  on 
his  mercy,  what  might  he  say  ?  What  would  he  say  ?  And 
slower  and  slower  grew  her  footsteps  along  the  cart  track,  heavier 
and  heavier  grew  the  sleeping  child  in  her  arms.  Suppose, 
suppose  he  scorned  her  ?  Or  suppose  that  he  did  not  scorn  her, 
only  seemed  to  think  there  might  be  difficulties,  as  there 
assuredly  would  be,  unless  he  was  prepared  to  receive  her  as  his 
wife,  and  call  her  such  before  all  this  little  world  in  the  forest 
here. 

At  last  a  cottage  loomed  up  before  her  in  the  white  light. 
All  the  trees  and  scrub  round  it  had  been  cleared  away,  and  from 
the  open  door  streamed  the  yellow  light  of  a  kerosene  lamp. 

Sue  stood  still  on  the  edge  of  the  little  clearing,  and  her 
heart  beat  to  suffocation.  It  is  to  be  feared  that,  if  at  that 
moment  Mrs.  Grant  had  appeared  and  offered  her  an  asylum  on 
the  most  humiliating  terms,  she  would  have  clutched  at  them 
eagerly.  Anything,  anything  to  get  away  from  this  awful  pass 
to  which  she  had  brought  herself.  For  herself  she  would  never 
have  dared,  but  here  was  the  child  in  her  arms  stirring,  and  for 
her  sake  she  must  go  on.  A  man  came  out  and  went  round  to 
the  back — not  Eoger,  certainly  not  Boger,  she  saw  that,  and 
dragged  herself  on  again  till,  leaning  against  one  of  the  verandah- 
posts  in  the  shadow  of  the  house,  she  could  see  in  at  the 
uncurtained  window.  The  room  was  barely  enough  furnished, 
but  there  were  two  big  comfortable  easy  chairs,  and  leaning 
back  in  one  of  them,  a  pipe  in  his  mouth  and  his  hands  behind 
his  head,  was  Boger  Marsden  himself. 

Sue  wanted  to  cry  out,  she  wanted  to  call  his  name,  to  beg 
and  pray  him  to  have  pity  on  her,  but  her  tongue  refused  to 
speak,  and  her  heart  beat  almost  to  suffocation.  He  looked 
lonely,  he  looked  as  if  he  wanted  her,  and  then  came  the  desire 
to  see  him  alone,  to  get  it  all  over  before  that  man  came  back, 
and  she  gathered  all  her  failing  strength  together  for  a  last  effort 
and  went  slowly  in  at  the  open  door. 

"Boger,"  her  voice  seemed  to  shriek  in  her  own  straining 


Susan  Pcnnicuick  447 

ears,  but  it  was  a  muffled  terrified  whisper  to  him,   "Koger, 
Eoger." 

He  sprang  to  his  feet  as  she  appeared  in  the  doorway  and 
stood  still  one  moment  as  if  he  thought,  as  indeed  he  did,  that 
his  eyes  must  have  deceived  him.  The  white  face  grew  whiter 
and  more  piteous  as  she  saw  his  hesitation,  and  then  in  another 
moment  he  had  her  in  his  arms. 

"  Lovely,  Lovely,  you  have  come  then.  My  own  little  wife !  " 
His  arms  were  straining  her  and  his  child  to  his  breast,  his  lips 
were  on  hers,  his  hot  tears  were  on  her  cheeks.  The  wild 
unutterable  delight  brought  the  tears  to  her  eyes  and  the  sob 
to  her  throat.  Never  in  her  wildest  anticipations  had  she  dreamt 
of  such  joy.  She  was  all  the  world  to  him,  she  read  it  in  his 
face,  she  saw  it  in  his  eyes,  and  she  was  paid  ten-thousandfold 
for  all  that  had  gone  before. 

"  And  I  was  afraid,  afraid,"  she  said  with  a  sob. 

"  Afraid,  my  sweetheart,"  he  said  wondering,  "  what  of  ?  " 

"  If  you  hadn't  wanted  me — me  and  baby.  Oh,  if  you  hadn't 
wanted  us !  " 

"And  when  I  shut  my  eyes  I  have  pictured  you  standing  in 
that  doorway,  oh,  so  often,  so  often,  and  to  open  them  and  find 
you  there.  Is  it  true,  Sue  ?  Is  it  true  at  last  ?  "  He  pushed  her 
down  into  the  chair  he  had  been  sitting  in,  and  looked  down  on 
her  with  the  lovelight  and  the  gladness  still  dancing  in  his  eyes. 

"And  you  look  so  tired,  so  tired,  my  little  wife,  we  must 
mend  that." 

She  looked  down  at  the  child  on  her  knee.  He,  with  sudden 
understanding,  picked  the  little  one  up  in  his  arms. 

That  crowned  it  all.  He  accepted  them  as  his  belongings, 
he  was  more  than  glad,  and  Sue's  cup  was  full.  She  dropped 
her  face  in  her  hands  and  burst  into  passionate  weeping. 

"  Oh,  Eoger,  Koger,  I  am  the  happiest  woman  in  the  world." 

MABY  GAUNT. 


(To  be  continued.} 


448  The  Empire  Review 


INDIAN   AND   COLONIAL   INVESTMENTS* 

THE  relapse  that  has  taken  place  since  this  time  last  month  in 
the  prices  of  Colonial  Government  securities  can  be  much  more 
accurately  ascribed  to  the  political  disturbance  at  home  than  can 
the  decline  in  other  stocks  or  the  crisis  in  the  Consol  market,  for 
the  particular  question  which  has  led  to  the  reorganisation  of  the 
Cabinet  concerns  the  colonies  even  more  intimately  than  the 
mother  country. 

Prices  of  Colonial  Government  stocks  during  the  past  few  weeks 
bear  evidence  that  they  have  been  under  influences  scarcely  felt 
in  the  other  markets  of  the  Stock  Exchange.  The  general  fall 
which  occurred  on  the  announcement  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
resignation  was  experienced  by  Colonial  stocks  as  severely  as  by 
any;  but  when,  after  the  critical  Consol  settlement  had  been 
passed  without  any  apparent  disaster  in  the  Stock  Exchange,  the 
Funds  commenced  their  sharp  recovery,  the  Colonial  stocks 
exhibited  their  independence  of  the  rest  of  the  markets  by  waiting 
for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Cabinet  before  making  any  appreciable 
upward  movement.  Moreover,  during  the  sharp  relapses  which 
prices  in  general  have  since  suffered — on  the  day  of  the  Busso- 
Japanese  war  scare,  for  instance — Colonial  securities  stood  out  as 
the  one  strong  feature  of  the  markets.  At  the  same  time  the 
main  factors  of  the  general  depression,  such  as  the  glut  of  first-class 
issues  awaiting  absorption  by  the  public,  have  not  been  without  a 
share  in  causing  the  all-round  decline  which  Colonial  securities 
show  as  compared  with  a  month  ago  ;  and  the  fact  that  the  stocks 
are  only  infrequently  the  subject  of  speculation  would  account  to 
some  extent  for  their  comparative  steadiness.  As  to  the  influence 
of  the  money  market  it  has  turned  distinctly  in  favour  of  high 
class  investment  securities.  The  market  has  passed  from  a  position 
of  some  stringency,  with  expectations  of  a  rise  in  the  Bank  rate 
to  5  per  cent.,  to  a  state  of  ease.  The  large  exports  of  gold  for 
Egypt  and  various  other  demands,  such  as  the  repayment  of  a 
further  block  of  Netherlands  South  African  Bailway  bonds  have 

*  The  tabular  mattex  in  this  article  will  appear  month  by  month,  the  figures 
being  corrected  to  date.  Stocks  eligible  for  Trustee  investments  are  so  designated. — ED, 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 
INDIAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


449 


Title. 

Present  Amount. 

When 
Redeem- 
able. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

INDIA. 

£ 

3J%  Stock  (*)      .     .     . 
&%,,»... 

63,040,302 
48,635,384 

1931 
1948 

105 

96* 

3A 

Quarterly. 

2£%      „    Inscribed  (t) 

11,892,207 

1926 

80 

31 

3|  %  Rupee  Paper    .     . 

Ex.  5,843,690 

,  , 

65 

3f* 

Various  dates. 

3*%      „          „    1854-5 

Ex.  11,  517,  620 

66 

SA* 

30  June—  31  Deo, 

3   %      „          „    1896-7 

Ex.  1,316,930 

1916 

58 

3** 

30  June—  30  Deo. 

(*)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments.  *  Rupee  taken  at  1«. 

INDIAN   RAILWAYS   AND   BANKS. 


Title. 

Subscribed. 

Last 
year's 
dividend. 

Share 
or 

Stock. 

Price. 

Yield. 

EAILWAYS. 

£ 

Assam  —  Bengal,  L.,  guaranteed  3  %    . 

1,500,000 

3 

100 

92 

3i 

Bengal  and  North-  Western  (Limited) 

2,750,000 

5 

100 

130 

3J 

Bengal  Central  (L)  g.  3*  %  +  ith  profits 
Bengal  Dooars,  L  

500,000 
150,000 

5 
5 

5 
100 

5 
103* 

5 

Do,  Shares       .                      ..'«-. 

250,000 

4 

10 

10 

^ 

Bengal  Nagpur  (L),  gtd.  4%+ith  profits 
Bombay,  Bar.  &  C.  India,  gtd.,  5  %     . 

3,000,000 
7,550,300 

4 

100 
100 

102 

s* 

Burma  Guar.  2£  %  and  propn.  of  profits 
Delhi  Umballa  Kalka,  L.,  guar.  3|  %  + 

2,000,000 
800,000 

45TT 
k 

100 
100 

105* 
114* 

4 

East  Indian  "  A,"  ann.  cap.  g.  4%  +  ) 
sur.  profits  (t)     

2,502,733 

5* 

100 

119 

W 

Do.  do,  class  "  D,"  repayable  1953  (t)  . 

4,047,267 

5 

100 

130 

3 

Do.  4J  %  perpet.  deb.  stock  (t)  .     .     . 

1,435,650 

4* 

100 

137 

3 

Do.  new  3%  deb.  red.  (t).     .     .     i     . 

5,000,000 

3 

100 

93* 

3^ 

Great  Indian  Peninsula  4%  deb.  Stock  t 
Do.  3%  Gua.  and  fa  surp.  profits  1925  t 

2,701,450 
2,575,000 

4 
3| 

100 
100 

106 

jj 

Indian  Mid.  L.  gua.  4%  &  J  surp.  profits  t 
Madras,  guaranteed  5  %  by  India  (t) 

2,250,000 
8,757,670 

5 

100 
100 

102 

128 

8 

Do.  do.  4|  °/  (t)      

999,960 

4$ 

100 

118* 

Ql  5 

Do.  do.  4*  %  (4      

500,000 

4* 

100 

111* 

4 

Nizam's  State  Eail.  Gtd.  5  %  stock     . 

2,000,000 

5* 

100 

122 

4tk 

Do.  3J  %  red.  mort.  debs.     .     .     . 

1,112,900 

31 

100 

951 

311 

Eohilkund  and  Kumaon,  Limited. 

200,000 

8 

100 

147* 

5^ 

South  Behar,  Limited     ..... 

379,580 

31 

100 

93 

3£ 

South  Indian  4}  %  per.  deb.  stock,  gtd. 

425,000 

4 

100 

137 

8& 

Do.  capital  stock  ...          .     . 

1,000,000 

el 

100 

115 

544 

Sthn.  Mahratta,  L.,  3J  %  &  j  of  profits 

3,500,000 

5* 

100 

104 

4 

Do.  4  %  deb.  stock     

1,195,600 

4 

100 

109 

3| 

Southern  Punjab,  Limited  .... 

966,000 

4 

100 

98 

Do.  3*  %  deb.  stock  red  
West  of  India  Portuguese,  guar.  L.     . 
Do.  5  %  debenture  stock  ...... 

500,000 
800,000 
550,000 

5 

100 
100 

300 

96 
88 
108 

3f 

BANKS, 

Number  of 
Shares. 

Chartered  Bank  of  India,  Australia,\ 

40,000 

10 

20 

434 

4*4 

and  China    / 

• 

To 

National  Bank  of  India        .... 

40,000 

10 

12* 

28 

47 

2 

(t)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 
*  The  yield  given  makes  no  allowance  for  extinction  of  capital. 

VOL.  VI.— No.  34  2 


450  The  Empire  Review 

resulted  in  no  hardening  of  money  rates,  and  it  is  generally 
expected  now  that  the  4  per  cent,  rate  will  suffice  until  the  end 
of  the  year. 

India  2J  per  cent,  stock  has  fallen  to  80,  but  the  other  Indian 
Government  securities  show  little  change.  The  railways,  however, 
have  suffered  from  weakness  all  round  in  spite  of  the  Government 
report  on  their  working  during  the  past  year  which  on  the  whole 
is  regarded  as  eminently  satisfactory.  The  heaviest  fall  is  that  of 
no  less  than  eight  points  in  Bombay,  Baroda  and  Central  India 
stock,  and  that  is  probably  connected  with  attention  having  been 
drawn  to  the  fact  that  the  Company's  contract,  which  appears  to 
be  a  bad  one  for  the  Government,  expires  in  a  year  or  two. 

One  looks  in  vain  to  Canada  for  any  visible  cause  for  the 
depression  in  her  securities.  Her  finances  seem  to  be  in  an 
exceptionally  strong  position  thanks  partly  to  the  cycle  of  pros- 
perity which  she  has  been  enjoying  and  which  everyone  hopes 
may  long  last.  From  the  returns  recently  published  it  appears 
that  the  revenue  of  the  Dominion  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  with 
June  was  66  million  dollars,  8  million  in  excess  of  that  for  the 
preceding  year,  and  a  million  more  than  the  estimate.  The 
ordinary  expenditure,  including  2J  million  dollars  for  sinking 
funds,  was  51|  million  dollars,  leaving  a  difference  of  14£  million 
dollars  against  half  that  sum  for  1901-2.  During  the  past  year 
the  debt  per  head  of  the  population  has  been  reduced  from  nearly 
50  dollars  to  45*2  dollars.  With  such  a  satisfactory  exchequer 
the  Dominion  was  in  the  fortunate  position,  more  fortunate  than 
one  of  her  Australian  sisters,  of  being  able  to  pay  off  in  cash  the 
loans  of  two  millions  sterling  which  fell  due  for  repayment  on 
October  1st,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  continuing  the  loan 
which  in  these  unpropitious  days  for  borrowing  colonies  is  a 
costly  process. 

The  securities  of  the  Canadian  railway  companies  have  been 
very  weak,  but  this  has  been  due  to  speculative  trouble,  especially 
in  Montreal,  and  not  to  any  intrinsic  cause.  True  some  dis- 
appointment attended  the  publication  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
monthly  statement,  but  the  company  has  made  a  distinct 
success  in  the  placing  of  its  issue  of  ^750,000  guaranteed  stock, 
90  per  cent,  of  the  applicants  being  stockholders.  The  report  of 
the  company  shows  that  in  the  first  half  of  this  year  the  increase 
in  receipts  was  unfortunately  nearly  balanced  by  the  increase  in 
expenditure;  and  at  the  meeting  there  were  some  complaints 
regarding  the  high  ratio  of  working  expenses,  the  causes  for 
which  the  chairman  affirmed  were  beyond  the  control  of  the 
board  and  of  a  temporary  nature.  The  new  Grand  Trunk  Pacific 
Eailroad  Bill  has  been  passed  by  both  Houses  of  the  Legislature 
but  a  further  Bill  promoted  by  the  Government  itself  for  the 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


451 


extension  of  the  scheme  is  under  discussion  in  the  Senate.  The 
connection,  if  any,  that  the  Grand  Trunk  Company  is  to  have 
with  the  working  of  the  new  railroad  is  yet  to  be  decided  by  the 
stockholders,  but  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  directors  are  bent 
upon  entering  on  extensive  shares  in  the  speculation.  Canadian 
Pacific  shares  have  fallen  considerably,  rumours  being  circulated 
of  new  capital  issues ;  but  the  real  cause  of  decline  is  unloading 
by  American  speculators.  The  shares  of  the  Canadian  land  com- 

CANADIAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

nterest  Payable. 

4  %  Inter-1     Guaran- 
oolonial/     teed  by 
4%    „              Great 

1,600,000 
1,500,000 

1908 
1910 

100 
103 

4 

4 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4%    „            Britain. 

1,700,000 

1913 

104 

8 

4%  1874-8  Bonds.     . 
4%      „       Ins.  Stock 
4  %  Reduced  Bonds   . 
4  %        „     Ins.  Stock 

4,099,  700\ 
7,900,300/ 
2,209,321\ 
4,233,815/: 

1904-8f 

I 

1910 

102 
102 
103 
(  103 

3&  \ 

3Tv/ 
SH  \ 
H*J 

1  May—  1  Nov. 
1  Jan.  —  1  July, 

3£  %  1884  Ins.  Stock  . 

4,605,000     1909-34* 

101 

3& 

1  June  —  1  Deo, 

4  %  1885  Ins.  Stock  . 
3  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

3,499,900     1910-35* 
10,101,321         1938 

105 
100 

1* 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 

2i%     „             „     (t) 

2,000,000         1947 

88 

3 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

PROVINCIAL. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

3  %  Inscribed  Stock  . 

1,324,760 

1941 

88 

3§ 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

MANITOBA, 

6  %  Debentures    . 
5  %  Sterling  Bonds    . 

346,700 
308,000 

1910 
1923 

105 
113 

J£ 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4%       „        Debs.     . 

205,000 

1928 

103 

3*1 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

NOVA  SCOTIA, 

3%  Stock  .... 

164,000 

1949 

92 

3& 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

QUEBEC, 

5  %  Bonds  .... 

1,199,100 

1904-6 

101* 

4| 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3%  Inscribed  .     .     . 

1,890,949 

1937 

86 

3f 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

MUNICIPAL. 

Hamilton  (City  of)  4  % 
Montreal    3    %    Deb.\ 

Stock      .     .     .     .J 

482,800 
1,440,000 

1934 
permanent 

101 

89 

3*f 
3| 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 
ll  May—  1  Nov. 

Do.  4  %  Cons.    „ 
Ottawa  6  %  Bonds      . 

1,821,917 
92,400 

1932 
1904 

107 
101 

Bf 

5 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Quebec  4%  Debs.  .     . 
Do.  3J  %  Con.  Stock  . 

385,000 
351,797 

1923 

drawings 

103 
96 

si1 

jl  Jan.—  1  July 

Toronto  5  %  Con.  Debs. 

136,700 

1919-20 

109 

4 

Do.  4  %  Stg.  Bonds    . 
Do.  4  %  Local  Impt.  . 

300,910 
412,544 

1922-28f 
1913 

101 
100 

SH 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  3J  %  Bonds    .     . 

1,059,844 

1929 

98 

3f 

M4? 

Vancouver  4  %  Bonds 

121,200 

1931 

100 

4 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Do.  4  %  40-year  Bonds 
Winnipeg  5  %  Debs.  . 

117,200 
138,000 

1932 
1914 

100 
106 

4 
*& 

7  Feb.—  7  Aug. 
30  Apr.—  31  Oct. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

2  G  2 


452 


The  Empire  Review 


CANADIAN   RAILWAYS,   BANKS   AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid  up 
per 
Share. 

Price. 

Yield 

RAILWAYS, 

1° 

Canadian  Pacific  Shares 

$84,500,000 

5 

$100 

121* 

4 

Do.  4  %  Preference  . 

£6,678,082 

4 

100 

105 

Do.  5  %  Stg.  1st  Mtg.  Bd.  1915 
Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock 
Grand  Trunk  Ordinary 

£7,191,500 
£13,518,956 
£22,475,985 

j 

100 
100 

Stock 

111 
111 
15J 

i 

Do.  5  %  1st  Preference 

£3,420,000 

5 

,, 

111 

4* 

Do.  5  %  2nd       ,, 

£2,530,000 

5 

fl 

99 

5 

Do.  4  %  3rd       „      . 

£7,168,055 

1 

_ 

45* 

2 

Do.  4  %  Guaranteed 

£5,219,794 

4 

103 

3A| 

Do.  5  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock 

£4,270,375 

5 

100 

133J 

3| 

Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock 

£10,393,966 

4 

100 

106 

3f 

BANES  AND  COMPANIES, 

Bank  of  Montreal    .... 

60,000 

10 

$200 

500 

4 

Bank  of  British  North  America 

20,000 

6 

BO 

65 

4|| 

Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce  . 

$8,000,000 

7 

$•50 

16 

4| 

Canada  Company     .... 

8,319 

60s. 

1 

35* 

8Jk 

100,000 

22s.  6d. 

11* 

34 

ga 

Trust  and  Loan  of  Canada.     . 

50,000 

7 

5 

78 

25,000 

7 

3 

2£ 

7& 

British  Columbia  Electrio\0rd. 

£210,000 

4 

Stock 

84* 

4f 

Railway  /Pref. 

£200,000 

5 

Stock 

93i 

gs 

*  £2  capital  repaid  July  1903. 

NEWFOUNDLAND   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

3*  %  Sterling  Bonds 

2,178,800 

1941-7-8 

90 

4 

3  %  Sterling 

325,000 

1947 

79 

4 

4  %  Inscribed     „ 

320,000 

1913-38* 

103 

if 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4%        „       Stock 
4  %  Cons.  Ins, 

509,342 
200,000 

1935 
1936 

107 
107 

if! 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

panies  have  also  been  weak  in  spite  of  the  encouraging  reports 
of  agricultural  work  in  the  Dominion. 

Australian  Government  stocks  have  again  had  a  bad  month, 
and  quotations  have  established  fresh  low  records.  Needless  to 
say,  the  market  in  these  securities  is  entirely  dominated  by  the 
gloom  prevailing  in  other  departments,  for  there  is  absolutely 
nothing  in  the  condition  of  Australian  affairs  to  account  for 
the  continuous  fall  in  prices.  On  the  contrary,  prospects  are 
brighter  than  they  have  been  for  a  long  time  past,  and  the 
present  level  of  quotations  seems  to  afford  a  good  opportunity 
for  the  genuine  investor.  Nearly  everyone  of  the  3  per  cent, 
stocks  has  been  marked  down  to  about  85,  at  which  price  the 
yield,  inclusive  of  rede  tion,  works  out,  in  most  cases,  at  some- 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments  453 

where  about  4  per  cent.  And  it  must  be  remembered  that  these 
stocks  are  available  for  investment  by  trustees.  A  large  portion 
of  these  issues  has  never  been  absorbed  by  the  public  and  they 
are  particularly  sensitive  to  market  influences.  The  older  3J  per 
cent,  stocks  and  the  bond  issues,  mostly  held  by  real  investors, 
have  not  depreciated  to  the  same  extent,  and  there  has  evidently 
been  no  pressure  of  sales.  Latest  reports,  in  fact,  indicate  that 
some  demand  has  arisen,  and  quotations  have  recovered  from  the 
lowest  points. 

Much  interest  has  been  felt  for  some  time  regarding  the 
arrangements  that  would  be  made  by  the  Victorian  Govern- 
ment for  the  repayment  of  the  £5,000,000  4J  per  cent,  bonds, 
maturing  on  January  1st.  And  it  is  unfortunate  that  the  State, 
which  has  made  such  strenuous  efforts  to  put  its  finances 
in  order,  should  have  so  large  an  obligation  to  meet  at  so  un- 
propitious  a  time,  when  a  conversion  on  favourable  terms  is  quite 
out  of  the  question.  It  is  now  known  that  holders  of  existing 
bonds  will  be  offered  the  option  of  taking  in  exchange  for  every 
£100  held,  either  £108  of  Victorian  3J  per  cent,  stock  1929-49, 
or  £100  Victorian  Treasury  Bonds  due  July  1st,  1906,  and  £1  5s. 
cash  payment.  The  Treasury  Bonds  may  be  converted  at  any 
time  up  to  December  31st,  1905,  into  £104  of  Victorian  3J  per 
cent.  Stock  1929-1949.  Debentures  not  lodged  for  conversion  by 
November  4th  will  be  paid  off  at  par  on  January  1st.  No  doubt 
underwriting  has  been  resorted  to,  as  the  State  could  not  afford 
to  risk  a  failure,  but  the  terms  seem  sufficiently  favourable  to 
induce  present  holders  to  exchange.  The  knowledge  that  this 
operation  was  impending  has  been  rather  a  drag  upon  the  market 
and  helped  no  doubt  to  depress  quotations-,  so  the  announcement 
that  satisfactory  arrangements  have  been  effected  is  exercising  a 
favourable  influence. 

Since  last  month,  reports  of  budget  statements  by  four  of 
the  Australian  State  Treasurers  have  come  to  hand.  Comment 
has  previously  been  made  upon  last  year's  results  in  the  cases  of 
New  South  Wales  and  Victoria.  It  is  worth  mentioning,  how- 
ever, that  the  actual  surplus  obtained  by  the  latter  State  was 
£194,000,  or  £44,000  more  than  the  approximate  figure  origin- 
ally announced.  The  estimates  for  the  current  year  are  based 
upon  small  increases,  both  in  revenue  and  expenditure,  but 
the  actual  receipts  for  the  first  quarter  exhibit  a  decrease  of 
£54,491.  A  surplus  of  £230,000,  including  last  year's  £194,000,  is 
anticipated,  but  this  will  be  nearly  all  absorbed  by  reductions  in 
income  tax,  restoration  of  percentage  deductions  from  Civil 
Service  salaries,  reduction  of  debt  and  other  minor  allocations. 
The  New  South  Wales  estimates  are  also  reckoned  on  the  expec- 
tation of  increased  revenue,  and  foreshadow  a  surplus  of  £33,000, 


454 


The  Empire  Review 


to  be  applied  in  reduction  of  previous  deficits.  Strict  economy 
is  promised  for  some  years  to  come.  Mr.  Waddell  makes  the 
interesting  announcement  that  the  rents  from  the  Government's 
Darling  Harbour  purchases  have  covered  working  expenses  and 
interest,  besides  leaving  a  small  surplus  of  profit.  He  estimates 
that  within  thirty-five  years  the  surplus  rents  will  provide  a 
fund  sufficient  to  pay  off  the  whole  cost  of  purchase,  totalling, 
when  completed,  about  £4,450,000. 

The  South  Australian  Treasurer  managed  to  secure  last  year 
the  modest  surplus  of  £3492,  and  anticipates  for  the  current  year 
the  still  more  modest  one  of  £1143.  There  is  nothing  showy 
about  these  figures,  but  it  is  some  satisfaction  to  be  able  to  make 

AUSTRALIAN  GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

4%  Inscribed  Stock 

9 

9,686,300 

1933 

107 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

"5  /O            )!                            II 

I 

16,500,000 
12,500,000 

1924 
1935 

97 
86 

|l  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

VICTORIA, 

4£%  Bonds      .     .     . 
4  %  Inscribed,  1882-3 

5,000,000 
5,421,800 

1904 
1908-13f 

102 
101 

m 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 
1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4%         „         1885  ( 

j 

6,000,000 

1920 

104 

3a 

3£o%       „         1889  1 

4  /o           ii                 • 

3 

5,000,000 
2,107,000 

1921-6f 
1911-26* 

96 
101 

4 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

3%         „         (t)  . 

. 

5,559,343 

1929-49f 

86 

if 

QUEENSLAND, 

4  %  Bonds  .     .     . 

10,267,400 

1913-15f 

101 

3f 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock 
3io%      ,,              „ 

(<i 

7,939,000 
8,616,034 

1924 
1921-30f 

106 
95 

sfl 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

**  /O                »»                            II 

o 

4,274,213 

1922-47f 

87 

3T9ff 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 

4  %  Bonds  .     .     . 

t 

6,586,700 

1907-16f 

100 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock 

• 

1,365,300 
6,222,900 

1916 
1916-36* 

100 
102 

4 
3$ 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

3*  %      „ 

i) 

2,517,800 

1939 

99 

3f 

3  %                        „ 

t) 

839,500 

1916-26$ 

87 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3  %        M              „ 

t) 

2,760,100 

After  1916$ 

87 

8& 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA. 

4  %  Inscribed  . 
3*%      „          (0  . 

• 

1,876,000 
2,380,000 
3,750,000 

1911-31* 
1920-35* 
1915-35$ 

101 

96 
87 

1 

15  Apr.—  15  Oot, 
jl  May—  1  Nov. 

3%        „          (0  . 

• 

2,500,000 

1927$ 

87 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 

TASMANIA, 

3J  %  Insobd.  Stock 

t)       3,456,500 

1920-40* 

99 

3i& 

4  %         ,,             H 

t)       1,000,000 

1920-40* 

107 

3  \ 

1  Jan.  —  1  July, 

3O/ 

t)          450,000 

1920-40* 

89 

s| 

I  vle!^  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  *ield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earner. 


1  No  allowance  for  redemption. 
(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


455 


AUSTRALIAN   MUNICIPAL   AND   OTHER   BONDS. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Melbourne  &  Met.  Bd.\ 
of  Works  4%  Debs.  / 

1,000,000 

1921 

100 

4 

1  Apl.—  1  Got. 

Do.  City  4%  Debs.      . 

850,000 

1915-22* 

101 

4 

Do.     Harbour     Trust\ 
Comrs.  5%  Bds.       .  J 

500,000 

1908-9 

102J 

*A 

1  Jan.—  1  July 

Do.  4%  Bds.     .     .     . 

1,250,000 

1918-21* 

101 

344 

Melbourne         Trams\ 
Trust  4£%  Debs.    ./ 

1,650,000 

1914-16* 

105 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

S.  Melbourne  4£%  Debs. 

128,700 

1919 

101 

*& 

Sydney  4%  Debs.  .     . 

640,000 

1912-13 

101 

8f 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Do.  4%  Debs.  .     .     . 

300,000 

1919 

101 

*H 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

AUSTRALIAN   RAILWAYS,   BANKS   AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield; 

BAILWAYB. 

1" 

Emu  Bay  and  Mount  Bischoff  .     .     . 

12,000 

2* 

5 

3} 

^T8 

Do.  4£%  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .... 
Mid.  of  Western  Australia  6  %  Debs.  . 

£130,900 
£670,000 

^ 

100 
100 

97* 
42* 

nil 

Do.  4  %  Deb.  Bonds,  Guaranteed  .     . 

£500,000 

4 

100 

101 

»H 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

40,000 

11 

40 

86 

5A 

Bank  of  New  South  Wales  .... 

100,000 

10 

20 

40£ 

5^ 

Union  Bank  of  Australia  £75    .     .     . 

60,000 

8 

25 

41 

*M 

Do.  4  %  Inscribed  Stock  Deposits  .     . 

£750,000 

4 

100 

99 

4i 

Australian  Mort.  Land  &  Finance  £25 

80,000 

nil 

5 

2* 

nif 

Do.  4  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock    .... 

£1,900,000 

4 

100 

95J 

*l 

Dalgety  &  Co.  £20     v 

154,000 

H 

5 

4| 

6i 

Do.  4£  %  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .     .     .     * 

£620,000 

4 

100 

110* 

8 

*& 

Do.  4%            „                   „            .     . 

£1,643,210 

4 

100 

100£ 

4 

Goldsbrough  Mort  &  Co.  4  %  A  Deb.\ 
Stock  Reduced  / 

£1,234,350 

4 

100 

66* 

6 

Do.  B  Income  Reduced  ..... 

£740,610 

4 

100 

36} 

11 

Australian  Agricultural  £25      .     «     ,' 

20,000 

£2f 

21* 

58* 

*tt 

South  Australian  

14,200 

11* 

20 

49 

414 

Trust  &  Agency  of  Australasia  .     .     . 

42,479 

**» 

nil 

1 

lo 

Do.  5  7  Cum.  Pref.  ...          • 

87,500 

5 

10 

9 

5A 

Met.  of  Melb.  Gas  5  %  Debs.  1908-12. 

£560,000 

5 

100 

102£ 

"A 

Do.  4£  %  Debs.  1918-22-24  .... 

£250,000 

*i 

100 

101 

*X 

both  ends  meet  during  .a  period  of  severe  depression.  Western 
Australia  was  fortunate  enough  to  realise  a  surplus  of  .£231, 659 
on  the  past  year's  operations.  This  apparently  will  be  swallowed 
up  during  the  current  year,  for  the  treasurer's  estimate  of  receipts, 
including  the  above  surplus,  is  £3,844,859,  while  the  expenditure 
is  set  down  at  £3,843,347,  leaving  a  margin  of  only  £1512. 
Western  Australia  has  to  reckon  each  year  with  reduced  receipts 
from  the  Commonwealth  under  the  sliding  scale,  but,  owing  to 
the  prosperous  condition  of  affairs  in  that  State,  the  general 


456 


The  Empire  Review 


revenue  shows  a  healthy  expansion.  All  the  Treasurers  agree  in 
regarding  the  outlook  for  the  ensuing  season  as  most  promising. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  with  regard  to  the  wheat  crop  which 
last  year  was  a  disastrous  failure;  this  year  a  record  yield  is 
expected,  and  instead  of  importations  being  required  there  will, 
no  doubt,  be  a  surplus  for  exportation. 

For  several  years  past  the  New  Zealand  budget  statements 
have  formed  interesting  and  pleasant  reading.  That  for  the  year 
ended  31st  March  last  is  no  exception.  The  revenue  yielded 
a  total  sum  of  £6,447,435,  and  the  expenditure  amounted  to 
£6,214,019,  there  being  thus  a  surplus  of  £233,416  or  £303,905, 
including  £70,489  brought  forward  from  the  preceding  year.  The 
estimate  of  revenue  for  the  current  year  is  £6,528,600,  and  of 

NEW   ZEALAND   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

6  %  Bonds  .... 
5  %  Consolidated  Bonds 

266,800 
236,400 

1914 
1908 

107* 
101 

<Hr 
HI 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 
Quarterly. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

29,150,302 

1929 

107 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3*%      „           „      W 

6,161,167 

1940 

101 

3JL 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3%        „           „      (t) 

6,384,005 

1945 

90 

3T7* 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

(t  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

NEW   ZEALAND   MUNICIPAL  AND   OTHER   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Auckland  5%  Deb.      . 

200,000 

1934-S* 

111$ 

*§ 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Do.  Hbr.  Bd.  5%  Debs. 

150,000 

1917 

105 

4 

10  April—  10  Oct. 

Bank  of  New  Zealand) 
4%  Qua.  Stockf     ./ 

£2,000,000 

— 

99$ 

Apr.—  Oct. 

Christchurch  6%  Drain- 
age Loan      .     .     . 

1    200,000 

1926 

126$ 

1* 

30  June—  31  Deo. 

Dunedin  5%  Cons.      . 

312,200 

1908 

101 

4f 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

LyttletonHbr.Bd.6% 

200,000 

1929 

126$ 

4 

j 

Napier    Hbr.  Bd.  5%\ 
Debs  / 

300,000 

1920 

106 

X  6 

|l  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  5%  Debs.  .     .     . 

200,000 

1928 

104 

4f 

j 

National  Bank  of  N.Z.\ 
£7$  Shares  £2$  paid/ 

100,000 

div.  10% 

5$ 

Jan.—  July. 

New  Plymouth  Hbr.l 
Bd.  6%  Debs.     .     ./ 

200,000 

1909 

104$ 

f* 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Oamaru  5%  Bds.  .     . 

173,800 

1920 

91 

57 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Otago  Hbr.  Cons.  Bds.\ 
5%      / 

417,500 

1934 

107 

*A 

1  Jan.  —  1  July, 

Wellington  6%  Impts.) 
Loan  / 

100,000 

drawings 

118$ 

5^ 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  6%  Waterworks  . 
Do.  4$%  Debs..     .     . 

130,000 
165,000 

n 

1933 

123$ 
104 

*f 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 
1  May—  1  Nov. 

WestportHbr.4%Debs. 

150,000 

1925 

102 

31 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

earlier161*1  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
t  Guaranteed  by  New  Zealand  Government. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


457 


expenditure  £6,255,857,  leaving  a  surplus  of  £272,743.  There 
should  thus  be  a  credit  balance  on  March  31st,  1904,  of  £576,648, 
but  a  considerable  portion  of  this  will  be  transferred  to  the  Public 
Works  Fund.  As  regards  loan  receipts  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  over  £1,000,000  was  raised  in  the  colony  last  year  on  short 
dated  4  per  cent,  debentures  issued  direct  from  the  treasury,  and 
altogether  nearly  £7,000,000  has  been  raised  by  this  means  during 

SOUTH   AFRICAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield.       Interest  Payable. 

1 

GAPE  COLONY. 

£ 

| 

4£  %  Bonds      .     . 

970,900 

dwgs. 

103 

4§         15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

4  %  1883  Inscribed 

3,733,195 

1923 

107 

3}         1  June—  1  Deo. 

4  %  1886 

9,997,666 

1916-36* 

103 

3|         15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

3*  %  1886       „ 

8,215,080 

1929-49* 

99 

3A       1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3  %  1886 

7,448,367 

1933-43* 

86 

3£f       1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

NATAL. 

4£  %  Bonds,  1876  .     . 

758,700 

1919 

107 

3f  f       15  Mar.—  15  Sep. 

4  %  Inscribed  .     .     . 
8J%        „              .     . 

3,026,444 
3,714,917 

1937 
1939 

113 
100 

8|         Apr.—  Oct. 
3|        1  June—  1  Deo, 

q  O/ 

•»  7o         >i             • 

6,000,000 

1929-49* 

90 

3f         1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  RAILWAYS,  BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

Mashonaland  5  %  Debs  » 

£2,500,000 

5 

100 

101 

434 

Northern  Railway  of  the   S.  Africanl 
Rep.  4%  Bonds  / 

£1,500,000 

nil 

100 

W* 

To 

nil 

Pretoria-Pietersburg  4  %  Debs.  Red.    . 

£1,005,400 

4 

100 

100 

4 

Rhodesia  Rlys.  5  %  1st  Mort.    Debs.\ 
guar.  by  B.S.A.  Co.  till  1915.     .     ./ 

£2,000,000 

5 

100 

105 

4| 

Royal  Trans-African  5  %  Debs.  Red.   . 

£1,814,877 

5 

100 

85J 

5£ 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Robinson  South  African  Banking  .     . 
African  Banking  Corporation  £10  shares 

1,500,000 
80,000 

? 

1 

5 

11 

6 

Bank  of  Africa  £18£  ... 

120,000 

12* 

6} 

12! 

Standard  Bank  of  S.  Africa  £100    .     . 

50,000 

2 

18 

4 

25 

*^£ 

86 

Ohlsson's  Cape  Breweries     .     .     4     . 

30,000 

52 

5 

23 

1 

South  African  Breweries      .... 

750,000 

30 

1 

10 

British  South  Africa  (Chartered)    .     . 

4,568,392 

nil 

1 

2£ 

nil 

Do.  5  %  Debs.  Red  

£1,250,000 

5 

100 

104 

4f§ 

Natal  Land  and  Colonization    .     .     . 

34,033 

15 

5 

8 

1  6 
03 

Cape  Town  &  District  Gas  Light  &  Coke 

10,000 

10 

10 

15 

*tt 

Kimberley  Waterworks  £10.     .     .     . 

45,000 

5 

7 

5 

7 

South  African  Supply  and  Cold"!  Or-d. 

300,000 

£4 

1 

.  . 

.  . 

Storage                                       /  Pref 

150,000 

7 

1 

458 


The  Empire  Review 


the  last  three  years.  The  amount  of  loan  money  in  hand  is 
considered  sufficient  to  preclude  the  necessity  of  further  borrowing 
before  the  31st  of  March,  but  power  is  taken  to  raise  £1,000,000 
for  requirements  accruing  after  that  date.  Mr.  Seddon  expects 
to  obtain  this  money  without  recourse  to  the  London  market. 

The  labour  problem  continues  to  be  the  all-important  factor 
in  South  African  affairs,  and  the  report  of  the  Labour  Commission 
is,  at  the  time  of  writing,  expected  daily.  Meanwhile  Mr.  Skinner, 
the  Commissioner  of  the  Chamber  of  Mines,  has  reported  in 
favour  of  the  importation  of  Chinese,  but  he  urges  the  policy  of 
increasing  the  number  of  Kaffirs  employed  in  the  mines  by  every 
means  possible,  in  view  of  a  time  when  native  labour  will  be 
sufficient  for  all  local  requirements.  The  official  returns  for  Sep- 
tember as  to  labour  at  the  mines  give  the  net  increase  on  the 
month  as  only  238  natives,  the  number  having  been  affected  by  the 
allotment  of  nearly  1800  natives  to  the  railways.  Arrangements 
have  already  been  made,  with  the  approval  of  the  Portuguese 
Government,  for  the  recruiting  of  natives  during  the  next  two 
years  in  the  territories  of  the  Nyassa  Company. 

The  scarcity  of  labour  has  severely  affected  the  gold  output, 
the  return  for  September  showing  very  small  increase.  This 
table  gives  the  official  monthly  returns  to  date,  those  since  the 
war  being  in  fine  gold  : — 


J 

L903. 

1902. 

1901. 

1899. 

oz. 
199,279 

value. 

• 
oz. 
70,340 

oz. 

oz. 
431,010 

February     .... 

196,513 
217,465 

•• 

81,405 
104,127 

•  • 

425,166 
464,036 

April  

227,871 

119,588 

460  349 

May  
June       

234,125 
238,320 

£994,505 
1,012  322 

138,602 
142,780 

7,478 
19  779 

466,452 
467,271 

July 

251,643 

1  068  917 

149  179 

25  960 

478  493 

August   .           ... 

271,918 

1,155,039 

162,750 

26  474 

482,108 

September  .... 
October 

276,197 

1,173,211 

170,802 
181,439 

31,936 
33  393 

426,556 
19  906 

November    .... 
December    .... 

•• 

.. 

187,375 
196,023 

39,075 
52,897 

61,780 
73,670 

Total    .     .     . 

2,113,331 

•• 

1,704,410 

238,992 

4,256,797 

Another  excellent  South  African  bank  report,  that  of  the 
Standard  Bank,  has  been  issued,  and  at  the  meeting  the  chairman 
reviewed  the  position  of  affairs  in  South  Africa  hopefully  enough. 
The  18  per  cent,  dividend  has  been  maintained,  and  it  is  satisfac- 
tory to  note  that  the  whole  amount  of  the  commandeered  gold 
has  been  written  off,  on  the  failure  of  the  company  to  obtain  a 
restoration  of  the  amount  from  the  Imperial  Government, 
although  the  chairman  holds  out  hope  that  the  Government 
may  even  yet  reconsider  its  decision. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


459 


The  shares  of  the  British  South  Africa  Company  have  fallen 
during  the  month  to  2J-  being  1J  points  below  the  highest  price 
of  the  year.  The  Khodesian  gold  output  again  shows  a  decline 
on  the  month.  The  following  table  gives  the  official  returns  for 
the  past  few  years  : — 


1903. 

1902. 

1901. 

1900. 

1899. 

January                   .           , 

oz. 
16,245 

oz. 
15  955 

oz. 
10  697 

oz. 
5  242 

oz. 
6  371 

February      .     ..      .      .      . 
^Icircli 

17,090 
19,626 

13,204 
16,891 

12,237 
14  289 

6,233 
6  286 

6,433 
6  614 

April 

20,727 

17  559 

14  998 

5  456 

K    7KK 

May 

22,137 

19,698 

14,469 

6  554 

4  939 

£*•<* 

June  .                           .     . 

22,166 

15,842 

14  863 

6  185 

6104 

July  . 

23,571 

15,226 

15,651 

5  738 

6  031 

August 

19,187 

15,747 

14  734 

10  138 

3  177 

September    
October        .           . 

18,741 

15,164 
16,849 

13,958 
14,503 

10,749 
10  727 

5,653 
4  276 

November    
December    . 

•• 

15,923 
16,210 

16,486 
15,174 

9,169 
9  463 

4,671 
5  289 

Total     .... 

179,490 

194,268 

172,059 

91,940 

65,313 

The  securities  of  the  Crown  Colonies  have  not  been  much 
affected  by  the  prevailing  weakness.     The  only  declines  are  in 

CROWN  COLONY  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When 
Redeemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Barbadoes  8J%  ins.    . 

375,000 

1925-42f 

99 

31 

% 

1  Mar.—  1  Sep. 

Brit.  Guiana  3%  ins.  . 

250,000 

1923-45* 

90 

3; 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Ceylon  4%  ins..     .     . 

1,076,100 

1934 

112 

15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3%  ins  

2,450,000 

1940 

94 

3! 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Hong-Kong  3$  %  ins  (t) 
Jamaica  4%  ins.    . 

341,800 
1,098,907 

1918-43* 
1934 

99^ 
106 

& 

3 

I 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3*%  ins.     .     .     . 

1,449,800 

1919-49* 

100 

3i 

24  Jan.—  24  July. 

Mauritius    3  %  guar.\ 
Great  Britain  (t)     ./ 

600,000 

1940 

98* 

3& 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Do.  4%  ins  

482,390 

1937 

110 

3i 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Trinidad  4%  ins.  ft)     . 
Do.  3%  ins.  (t)  .     .     . 

422,593 
600,000 

1917-42* 
1926-44f 

102 
91 

Btf 

15  Mar.—  15  Sep. 
15  Jan.—  15  July. 

Hong-Kong  &  Shang-\ 
hai  Bank  Shares     .  / 

80,000 

Div.  £3J 

66 

j* 

Feb.—  Aug. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  shorter  period.  f  Yield  calculated  on  longer  period. 

(t)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

Ceylon  Threes  and  in  the  3J  per  cent,  stock  of  the  Far  Eastern 
Colony  of  Hong  Kong. 

TBUSTEE. 

October  16th,  1903. 


460  The  Empire  Review 


LETTERS   TO   THE   EDITOR 

I. 

AN  IMPERIAL  COUNCIL  FOR  THE  EMPIRE 
To  the  Editor  of  THE  EMPIRE  KEVIEW. 

SIB, — During  the  first  few  decades  of  the  last  century,  when  the 
country  became  ripe  for  reform,  a  Bill  to  that  end  passed  through 
Parliament  after  being  buffeted  about  in  many  a  fierce  contest 
between  the  opposing  political  factions  of  the  time.  At  that 
period  of  our  history  the  nation  entered  upon  a  new  regime  of 
political,  social  and  industrial  development  and  improvement,  by 
which  the  morale  of  the  nation  was  raised  to  a  higher  plane. 
The  dawn  of  another  century  again  sees  the  country  grappling 
fiercely  with  countless  problems,  and  at  a  disadvantage  owing  to 
lack  of  reform  in  many  channels.  For  our  position  since  the 
days  of  the  Reform  Bill  has  developed  from  a  small  kingdom  to 
that  of  a  powerful  world-wide  Empire ;  surely  a  unique  change, 
the  importance  of  which  we  have  been  slow  to  realise. 

The  commencement,  therefore,  of  this  century,  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  last,  discloses  the  nation  in  need  of  legislative  reform. 
And  a  change  vitally  needed  is  the  reforming  of  the  Houses 
of  Parliament  at  Westminster,  making  them  Imperial  in  fact  as 
well  as  in  name.  The  time  has  arrived  for  securing  representa- 
tion to  our  powerful  self-governing  colonies  in  the  councils  of  the 
Empire,  thereby  bringing  them  into  closer  communication  with 
the  motherland,  forming  a  more  compact  Empire  both  as  regards 
political  and  economic  conditions,  and  for  the  common  defence 
of  its  several  parts.  Occasional  Colonial  Conferences,  admirable  in 
their  way,  have  so  far  been  of  no  great  practical  use,  little  having 
been  achieved  beyond  assurances  of  loyalty,  good- will,  and  inter- 
changes of  courtesies.  But  the  establishment  of  a  permanent 
"  Imperial  Council "  at  Westminster,  consisting  of  prominent 
members  of  the  Home  and  Colonial  Governments,  together  with 
representatives  of  the  more  important  Crown  Colonies,  meeting 
annually  and  holding  sittings  concurrently  with  Parliament, 
could  not  fail  to  be  of  great  assistance  towards  the  further 
progress  of  the  Empire. 

I  would  suggest  that  six  principal  ministers  of  the  existing 
administration  be  made  members  of  this  council,  namely :  the 


Letters  to  the  Editor  461 

Prime  Minister,  the  Secretaries  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  India, 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  War,  and  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty, 
together  with  several  ministers  from  the  preceding  Cabinet,  who 
would  become  ex  officio  members.  With  regard  to  Indian  repre- 
sentation, four  members  of  the  Indian  Council,  one  for  each  of 
the  governed  provinces,  should  on  their  retirement  from  India 
become  members  of  the  Imperial  Council.  The  several  self- 
governing  colonies  might  be  represented  by  their  Agents-General, 
together  with  a  limited  number  of  their  prominent  citizens  who 
have  held  office;  whilst  the  more  important  of  the  Crown  Colonies 
could  be  divided  into  groups,  each  group  returning  a  member.  A 
preference  should,  if  possible,  be  given  to  Colonial  Premiers  on 
their  retirement  from  the  premiership  by  offering  them  the 
position  of  Agents-General,  and  in  this  way  securing  their 
services  as  Imperial  Councillors. 

As  to  the  mode  of  appointing  members  for  the  Imperial 
Council  from  the  several  parts  of  the  Empire,  I  would  venture 
to  suggest  that  all  candidates  from  the  self-governing  colonies 
should  be  elected  by  their  Federal  Council  or  Parliament,  those 
from  India  being  nominated  by  the  Viceroy  in  council,  whilst 
those  from  the  Crown  Colonies  should  be  nominated  by  their 
different  legislatures.  Finally,  all  should  receive  their  appoint- 
ment from  the  King,  who  would  reserve  the  right  of  veto. 

This  Imperial  body  would  then  become  the  King's  Privy 
Council,  and  advise  on  all  Imperial  matters.  In  the  present 
condition  of  things,  the  House  of  Commons  is  overworked  and 
has  as  much  as  it  can  do  to  legislate  for  the  United  Kingdom, 
The  time  is,  therefore,  approaching  when  something  must  be 
done  to  relieve  the  House  of  Commons  of  extra  burdens.  And 
the  establishment  of  this  Council  would  go  some  way  towards 
effecting  this  end.  It  would  also  be  a  step  towards  Imperial 
Federation,  and  help  to  solve  the  problems  of  Imperial  Defence, 
Customs  Union,  and  numerous  other  questions  on  which  must 
depend  the  future  welfare  and  existence  of  this  Empire.  I 
confess  an  Imperial  Council  such  as  I  propose  might  at  first 
prove  more  ornamental  than  useful,  but  that  condition  of  things 
would  be  of  short  duration.  A  body  of  public  men  selected  from 
all  parts  of  the  King's  dominions,  debating  and  advising  the 
Imperial  authorities  on  questions  for  the  good  of  the  Empire, 
would  wield  in  time  a  very  important  influence  over  their  respec- 
tive legislatures. 

For  some  months  past  the  burden  of  Imperial  Defence,  carried 
upon  the  somewhat  overloaded  shoulders  of  the  motherland,  and 
the  unwillingness  of  the  colonies  to  contribute  towards  the  upkeep 
of  the  united  services,  has  been  freely  discussed  in  Parliament 
and  in  the  press.  Some  colonists  plead  that  they  do  not  consider 
it  their  duty  to  pay  out  money  for  such  purposes,  not  having  a 


462  The  Empire  Review 

voice  in  our  councils  nor  any  control  over  the  expenditure.  In 
Canada,  it  is  common  knowledge  that  many  are  in  favour  of  con- 
tributions to  the  Navy,  if  in  return  they  receive  representation 
and  a  voice  in  the  foreign  policy  of  the  Empire.  And  Sir 
Wilfrid  Laurier  is  reported  to  have  said,  "  If  you  want  our  aid 
call  us  to  your  councils."  An  Imperial  Council  would  overcome 
the  difficulty,  and  lay  the  foundation-stone  of  a  United  Empire. 

CHAELES  E.  T.  STUAKT-LINTON. 


II. 
SIDELIGHTS    ON    FRENCH    SOCIAL    LIFE 

To  the  Editor  of  THE  EMPIEE  KEVIEW. 

WITH  your  permission  I  should  like  to  make  a  few  additions 
to  my  article  which  appeared  under  the  above  name  in  your 
March  issue. 

One  feature  in  the  present  anti-clerical  policy  of  the  Combes 
Ministry  deserves  special  notice  as  illustrating  a  peculiar  feature 
in  French  social  life.  It  may  be  roughly  estimated  that  about  ten 
thousand  nuns  from  the  closed  convents  have  found  their  way  to 
Belgium  and  England  with  the  intention  of  founding  in  these 
countries  religious  schools  for  girls  similar  to  those  of  the  dissolved 
orders  in  France  and  of  attracting  thither  a  French  clientele. 

It  has  been  an  almost  invariable  practice  from  time  imme- 
morial for  French  mothers  to  send  their  girls  to  convent  schools 
and  to  keep  them  there  until  opportunity  occurred  for  a  suitable 
marriage.  From  the  convent  to  matrimony  was  the  rule.  I 
remember  a  lady  being  asked  whether  she  intended  to  take  a 
larger  apartment  now  that  her  daughter  was  grown  up.  She 
replied  in  the  negative,  alleging  that  her  daughter  was  going  to 
be  married  in  six  months  and  therefore  no  fresh  arrangements 
were  necessary.  Every  French  girl  has  a  dowry,  "a  dot,"  and 
the  value  of  this  determines  the  eligibility  of  future  husbands. 
No  dowry,  no  husband.  Hence  French  parents  put  aside  money 
for  their  daughters  from  the  very  commencement  of  their  own 
matrimonial  lives.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  there  is  a 
great  difference  between  French  and  English  ideas  of  marriage, 
and  to  understand  France  and  its  people  properly  this  difference 
must  be  fully  recognised,  since  the  French  ideas  on  the  subject 
form  the  basis  of  French  society  and  explain  much  that  to  the 
English  mind  is  almost  incomprehensible.  The  truth  is,  a 
French  girl  buys  her  husband,  and  the  family  are  responsible 
for  the  value  of  the  purchase. 

Now  that  the  schools  are  closed  what  is  to  be  done  with  the 
girls  ?    The  natural  alternative,  that  of  sending  them  to  the  lay 


Letters  to  the  Editor  463 

schools,  is  out  of  the  question,  because  as  far  as  social  opinion  is 
concerned  these  institutions  do  not  present  the  same  guarantees 
as  the  convent  schools.  A  tacit  convention  obtains,  even  in 
Catholic  families  of  the  more  advanced  ^Republican  type,  that  the 
fathers  should  control  the  education  of  the  boys,  while  the 
mothers  should  be  free  to  bring  up  their  daughters  in  the  manner 
consecrated  by  tradition,  which  is  itself  based  on  social  usages  and 
prejudices.  Unless,  therefore,  the  present  French  Government 
changes  its  policy  as  far  as  the  nuns'  schools  are  concerned,  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  many  future  mothers  of  France  will  receive,  if  not  an 
English  training,  at  any  rate  a  training  in  England.  So  interesting 
an  experiment  will  be  watched  on  both  sides  of  the  Channel,  and 
should  assist  in  the  promotion  of  an  Anglo-French  understanding 
among  future  generations  of  French  men  and  women. 

The  French  bourgeoisie  begins  very  low  down  in  the  French 
social  scale — at  the  actual  ouvrier  en  blouse  who  works  for  wages, 
and  ends  at  the  noble  and  exclusive  coteries  of  the  Faubourg  Saint 
Germain.  This  wide  extension  of  the  French  middle-class  gives, 
with  few  exceptions,  a  certain  uniformity  and  polish  of  manner 
which  is  curious.  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  vulgarity ;  and 
when  the  men,  and  especially  the  women,  rise  to  a  higher  plane 
in  the  social  system  they  generally  conduct  themselves  as  if  they 
had  been  accustomed  to  the  surroundings  all  their  lives.  French 
women  invariably  dress  well  and  in  the  prevailing  mode,  and  they 
glide  unostentatiously  into  the  conventions  of  society  without 
abandoning  their  occupation,  or  even  thinking  that  it  is  necessary 
to  do  so.  Let  me  give  an  instance  of  what  I  mean.  The  female 
cashier  of  a  Paris  restaurant  married  the  chef  de  cuisine  of  an 
important  hotel.  Every  day,  about  three  o'clock,  the  husband 
sent  his  wife  a  carriage  and  pair  of  horses,  and  the  lady,  dressed 
in  the  best  mode,  took  her  children  for  a  drive  in  the  Bois  de 
Boulogne.  Once  I  ventured  to  remark  to  the  lady  that,  seeing 
her  husband  was  in  such  a  good  position  I  wondered  she  remained 
cashier  to  the  restaurant.  Without  hesitation  she  replied :  "  I 
must  think  of  the  children,  the  money  I  earn  will  be  useful  to 
them."  In  a  word,  the  French  "  snob,"  whether  male  or  female, 
is  almost  unknown. 

Access  to  "  Society "  in  France  is  just  as  difficult  as  in 
England.  There  is  an  "  upper  ten  thousand  "  but  it  is  not  the 
inner  circle  of  French  Society,  the  reason  being  that  political 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  bourgeoisie,  and  the  aristocratic 
element  of  the  noble  faubourg  does  not  count.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  easy  to  enter  Paris  cosmopolitan  society.  The  modus 
operandi  is  as  follows.  On  arriving  in  Paris  the  stranger  takes 
a  sumptuous  apartment  and  issues  invitations  for  a  grand  banquet. 
All  is  done  without  his  intervention.  The  contractor  and  the 


464  The  Empire  Review 

banquet  provide  the  guests.  He  "orders"  a  certain  number  of 
dukes,  marquises,  and  barons,  all  decorated.  These  gentlemen 
accept  with  pleasure  and  partake  of  the  stranger's  hospitality. 
And  the  guests  are  genuine  enough,  even  if  a  few  might  have 
some  difficulty  in  proving  their  patent  of  nobility.  The  banquet 
over,  the  curtain  descends,  the  contractor's  bill  is  promptly 
settled,  and  next  day  the  Society  newspapers  will  say :  "  The 
great  Mr. ,  who  has  just  arrived  in  Paris,  gave  a  splendid  en- 
tertainment last  evening  at  his  palatial  residence,  etc."  Following 
this  announcement  will  be  a  muster-roll  of  aristocratic  names 
sufficient  to  attract  the  attention  which  is  required.  And  the 
stranger  of  the  day  before  may  be  said  to  be  "  launched." 

The  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  no  way  resembles  the  House  of 
Commons  either  as  to  origin  or  working.  Deputies  are  mainly 
drawn  from  the  ranks  of  men  who  have  proved  unsuccessful  in 
their  professions,  the  majority  being  lawyers  without  briefs  or 
doctors  without  a  clientele.  Advocates  are  perhaps  the  more 
numerous,  doubtless  because  they  can  make  a  flaming  speech 
at  the  Tribune,  and  have  some  acquaintance  with  law  as  far  as 
concerns  the  Chamber.  All  deputies  are  nominees  of  the  local 
committees  representing  the  predominant  faction  in  the  respective 
departments  to  whom  they  are  responsible.  The  consequence  of 
this  system  is  that  the  deputy  cannot  be  independent  but  must 
implicitly  obey  his  Committee.  As  a  rule  members  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  are  very  poor,  their  allowance  of  twenty- 
five  francs  per  day  being  insufficient  to  support  the  exigencies  of 
Paris  official  life.  It  is  this  poverty  of  the  deputies  which  is  the 
real  cause  of  the  Panama  and  other  scandals.  Money  must  be 
obtained  somehow  and  the  tempter  is  sure  of  his  victim.  The 
principal  occupation  of  deputies  is  to  besiege  administrative 
bureaus  and  demand  places  for  their  constituents.  An  influential 
elector  must  have  a  place  in  a  government  office  for  some  friend 
or  relative,  and  will  not  be  refused.  If  there  be  no  place  vacant 
one  must  be  created.  This  curious  system  has  led  to  an  enormous 
increase  of  the  holders  of  office,  who  must  all  have  salaries,  and 
the  final  end  of  the  scourge  is  not  in  sight.  Deputies  are,  more- 
over, expected  to  execute  commissions  for  influential  electors. 
It  is  said  that  a  deputy  was  once  requested  to  buy  a  piano  for  the 
wife  of  a  member  of  his  Committee,  which  he  did.  The  piano 
arrived  at  its  destination  filled  with  smuggled  cigars,  but  no 
notice  was  taken  of  the  affair  by  the  officials.  A  deputy  so 
weighted  and  treated  cannot  be  said  to  represent  the  national 
interests,  although  he  probably  represents  his  own^nd  those  of 
his  masters  in  the  local  committees. 

CHABLES  LYON. 

PARIS. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

"  Far  as  the  breeze  can  bear,  the  billows  foam, 
Survey  our  empire,  and  behold  our  home*" — Byron. 

VOL.  VI.  DECEMBER,  1903.  No.  35. 

INDIA   AND    PREFERENTIAL   TARIFFS* 

THE  new  fiscal  policy  has  been  launched  under  rather  un- 
favourable circumstances.  It  is  not  easy  to  convince  the  British 
public  that  they  have  been  unconsciously  approaching  to  the 
brink  of  a  great  danger,  and  that  the  economic  system  with 
which  the  country  is  identified  needs  modification.  The  icono- 
clast who  attacks  a  settled  belief  should  speak  with  no  vacillation, 
strike  no  uncertain  strokes,  hold  out  no  allurements  which  he  has 
to  withdraw,  use  no  arguments  or  illustrations  the  full  bearing  of 
which  he  has  not  studied.  And  while  we  admire  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain's patriotism  and  singleness  of  purpose,  and  his  great  gifts 
of  elucidation  and  argument,  we  cannot  but  regret  that  he  has 
entered  on  the  conflict  with  an  imperfect  equipment  of  statistical 
knowledge,  and  has  not  realised  how  necessary  it  is  to  support 
abstract  proposals  by  concrete  instances  in  order  to  carry  his 
public  with  him. 

Now  that  the  dust  and  din  of  the  first  stage  of  the  controversy 
have  somewhat  subsided,  out  of  the  confused  welter  of  personal 
recriminations,  party  politics,  mistakes,  misunderstandings  and 
inaccurate  figures,  certain  conclusions  like  clear  landmarks 
begin  to  emerge.  These  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  concise 
formulae. 

The  import  trade  of  this  country  amounts  to  about  £500,000,000, 
of  which  £200,000,000  represent  food,  £150,000,000  repre- 
sent raw  material,  and  £150,000,000  are  paid  for  manu- 
factured and  partly-manufactured  articles. 

*  The  statistics  used  in  this  paper  are  taken  from  the  Board  of  Trade  Bluebook, 
"Memoranda,  Statistical  Tables  and  Charts,"  1903,  and  from  the  "Beview  of  the 
Trade  of  India,  1902-3,"  published  by  the  India  Office. 

Yp&.  VI.— No.  35.  2  H 


466  The  Empire  Review 

The  food  we  must  have  to  support  our  population,  and  the 
raw  materials  to  support  our  industries,  but  the  manu- 
factured articles  we  ought  to  make  ourselves,  and  could 
very  well  do  without. 

For  these  imports  we  pay  by  exporting  £280,000,000  worth 
of  goods,  the  surplus  products  of  our  soil  and  industries 
after  supplying  home  consumption. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  life  and  death  to  us  to  find  markets 

in  which  we  can  sell  these  £280,000,000  worth  of  goods. 
Some  of  our  customers — the  Continental  nations  and  the 
United  States  of  America —are  wedded  to  Protection,  and  have 
imposed  on  our  goods  heavy  and  increasing  duties  which  threaten 
to  become  prohibitive.  Our  export  trade  with  them,  which  stood 
at  about  £100,000,000  in  1870,  has  only  averaged  £107,000,000 
during  the  last  twelve  years,  and  if  the  value  of  coal,  which  is 
our  capital,  is  deducted,  it  has  seriously  diminished.  On  the 
other  hand  our  export  trade  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  and 
especially  with  our  Colonies  and  India,  has  steadily  increased. 
It  stood  at  about  £90,000,000  in  1870  and  has  averaged 
£140,000,000  during  the  last  twelve  years. 

The  problem  before  us,  therefore,  is  threefold.  First,  how  to 
keep  out  the  foreign  manufactured  articles  which  we  are  able  to 
make  ourselves,  though  at  a  slightly  greater  cost.  Secondly,  how 
to  prevent  foreign  nations  from  closing  their  markets  by  prohibi 
tive  'tariffs  against  our  manufactures.  Thirdly,  how  to  increase 
and  foster  our  trade  with  our  Colonies  and  India. 

Mr.  Balfour  and  Mr.  Chamberlain  answer  the  first  and 
second  problems,  by  the  proposal  to  establish  retaliatory  duties 
and  to  enter  on  a  tariff  war.  Mr.  Chamberlain  would  meet  the 
third  by  a  system  of  preferential  tariffs.  But  he  rests  his  proposal 
not  merely  on  the  ground  of  mutual  benefit  to  trade,  but  also  on 
the  higher  basis  of  policy.  He  asserts  his  belief,  resulting  from 
his  experience  as  Colonial  Secretary,  that  as  the  colonies  grow 
greater  and  more  powerful,  the  fissiparous  tendency,  or  the  spirit 
of  megalomania,  drives  them  more  and  more  to  the  assertion  of 
independence,  and  that  though  the  ties  of  blood  and  traditional 
affection  retain  them  for  the  present,  these  ties  will  become  too 
weak  unless  they  are  strengthened  by  the  bonds  of  material 
advantage  and  mutual  profit. 

If  I  rightly  interpret  the  attitude  towards  these  proposals 
which  the  general  public  has,  so  far,  assumed,  it  is  that  they 
admit  the  necessity  of  keeping  markets  open  for  our  goods,  and 
the  danger  to  our  trade  arising  from  the  growth  of  tariffs,  which 
tend  to  become  prohibitive.  But  they  feel  doubtful  as  to  how 
the  proposed  remedies  will  work.  They  are  not  satisfied  that 
we  can,  by  retaliatory  duties,  compel  other  nations  to  observe 


India  and  Preferential  Tariffs  467 

moderation.  They  fear  that  in  the  process  we  may  do  ourselves 
more  harm  than  we  do  to  them;  they  doubt  whether  it  is 
possible  for  two  countries  to  arrange  a  preferential  tariff  which 
shall  be  mutually  advantageous;  and  they  shrink  from  the 
prospect  of  corrupt  influences  and  mercantile  greed  which  may 
be  developed  in  the  struggles  of  rival  industries  and  trade  interests. 
Above  all,  they  want  to  have  concrete  instances  placed  before 
them  to  show  how  these  proposals  will  work. 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  deal  only  with  a  single  branch 
of  this  great  subject ;  not  with  the  principle  of  retaliation,  at  all ; 
but  with  the  question  of  preferential  tariffs,  and  with  that  question 
only  as  far  as  it  concerns  our  relations  with  India.  I  shall 
attempt  to  examine  what  sort  of  preferential  tariff  can  be  devised 
for  Indian  trade,  if  Mr.  Chamberlain's  principle  should  be 
accepted,  and  what  its  commercial  and  financial  effects  would  be. 

In  the  first  place  it  must  be  admitted  that  our  connection 
with  India  is  very  different  from  our  connection  with  our  self- 
governing  colonies.  They  can,  if  they  choose,  sever  themselves 
from  us  and  set  up  as  independent  nations,  and  we  should  take 
no  step  to  restrain  them  by  force.  India  cannot  sever  itself 
except  by  armed  rebellion,  and  we  should  put  forth  all  our  strength 
to  defeat  such  rebellion.  At  the  same  time  it  is  our  policy  and  our 
duty  to  keep  the  sword  in  reserve,  and  to  govern  India  so  that 
our  connection  may  be,  and  may  be  felt  to  be,  highly  advantageous 
to  the  welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  country.  Now  India  is,  as 
Lord  George  Hamilton  truly  said,  "  intensely  protectionist." 
There  has  been  a  school  of  administrators,  among  whom  Sir 
John  Strachey's  is  the  most  distinguished  name,  whose  aim  was 
perfect  free  trade  between  India  and  England,  and  about  twenty 
years  ago  they  came  near  to  accomplishing  that  aim  as  far  as 
India  was  concerned.  But  circumstances  were  against  them. 

England  never  contemplated  reciprocity,  but  taxed  everything 
taxable  which  came  from  India— tea,  coffee  and  tobacco— with 
serene  impartiality.  The  fall  of  silver  upset  for  a  time  Indian 
finance,  and  it  became  necessary  to  impose  duties  on  many 
articles  imported  from  England.  The  principle  of  Free  Trade 
never  was  accepted  by  the  educated  Indian  public,  who  would 
gladly  see  the  heaviest  possible  taxation  imposed  on  all  manu- 
factured imports  in  order  to  assist  their  own  infant  industries 
to  spring  up  and  flourish.  The  Eeport  of  the  Indian  Famine 
Commission  of  1879-80  tended  in  the  same  direction,  insisting 
strongly  that  the  salvation  of  India  depended  on  the  growth  of 
Diversity  of  Occupations,  as  the  only  safeguard  a  tropical  agri- 
cultural country  can  have  against  devastating  famines.  Thus  the 
fair  ideal  of  absolute  Free  Trade  has  been  forced  to  vanish  from 
India,  as,  indeed,  it  has  from  England  where  only  free  imports 

2  H  2 


468 


The  Empire  Review 


are  now  possible.     When,  however,  it  is  urged,  as  it  has  been 

urged  by  Lord  George  Hamilton,  that  the  protectionist  spirit  in 

India  constitutes  a  serious  danger,  because  when  the  Indians  see 

that  England  has  conceded  something  to  a  protectionist  policy 

they  will  claim  the  right  to  go  much  further,  he  surely  forgets  the 

control  which  England  possesses  and  always  will  retain.     India 

cannot  possibly  be  more  protectionist  in  spirit  than  Australia  or 

Canada,  and  if  a  preferential  tariff  system  is  adopted  with  them 

it  may  safely  be  adopted  with  India.     We  have  kept  down  the 

Indian  passion  for  taxing  imports  by  showing  that  we  have 

hitherto  adhered  to  the  system  of  free  imports.     The  action  we 

may  now  take  cannot  be  used  to  justify  a  claim  to  penalise  the 

entry  of  our  own  manufactures  into  that  country,  but  only  that 

India  may  be  allowed  to  carry  out  the  policy  to  the  same  extent 

that  we  do.     The  time  has  thus   come  when  the   doctrine  of 

preferential  tariff  will  be  welcomed  by  the  people  of  India,  if  a 

scheme  is  drawn  out  which  shall  be  shown  to  be  of  mutual 

commercial  advantage. 

I  propose  to  offer  a  rough  sketch  of  such  a  scheme,  though 
well  aware  how  many  probabilities  of  error  lie  in  the  path,  and 
how  essential  it  is  that  the  knowledge  of  many  men  versed  in  the 
commerce  and  finance  of  the  country  should  be  combined  before 
a  sound  and  sufficient  programme  can  be  prepared. 

In  the  year  1901-2  India  had  recovered  from  the  disastrous 
effects  of  two  severe  famines  following  in  close  succession,  and 
the  trade  figures  of  that  year  may  probably  be  accepted  as  normal. 
The  total  imports  of  private  merchandise  (excluding  government 
stores  and  treasure)  amounted  to  about  £54,000,000,  and  the  exports 
of  Indian  produce  and  manufactures  to  £80,000,000.  The  following 
table  shows  the  principal  articles  of  import,  distinguishing  the 
values  of  goods  imported  from  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies, 

TABLE  1. — VALUE  OF  PRINCIPAL  ARTICLES  IMPORTED  INTO  INDIA  IN  1901-2 
(THOUSANDS  OMITTED). 


Articles. 

From  Great 
Britain  and 
Colonies. 

From 
Protectionist 
Countries. 

Total  from  all 
Countries. 

Salt       . 

330 

86 

518 

Liquors 

. 

811 

291 

1,108 

Sugar    . 

. 

1,424 

1,934 

3,745 

Metals  . 

2,907 

1,647 

4,600 

Machinery  an 

dhai 

dware 

3,689 

443 

4,168 

Dyes      . 

25 

341 

385 

Tobaeco 

162 

96 

300 

Petroleum 

. 

2,423 

2,812 

Silk  manufactures 

"90 

294 

989 

Woollen 

§ 

724 

414 

1,312 

Cotton  twist  and  yarn    . 

1,670 

95 

1,765 

Other  cotton  goods 

19,279 

792 

20,165 

Apparel  and  boots  . 

625                363 

i 

1,129 

India^and  Preferential  Tariffs  469 

and  from  the  protectionist  countries  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  total  column  includes  also  the  imports 
from  China,  Japan,  South  America,  etc. 

On  these  the  following  suggestions  are  offered : — 

Liquors. — Considering  the  importance  of  preventing  intem- 
perance from  spreading  in  India,  we  should  not  give  encourage- 
ment to  English  trade  by  lowering  the  already  high  duties  charged. 
It  is,  however,  a  question  whether  a  specially  heavy  or  prohibitive 
tax  should  not  be  laid  on  the  cheap  deleterious  spirits  which 
come  from  Holland  and  Germany,  but  this  would  be  urged  on 
moral  and  physical  grounds  and  would  only  be  a  by-product  of 
the  policy  we  are  now  discussing. 

Salt  comes  mainly  from  England,  a  small  quantity  from 
Germany,  and  the  rest  from  Arabia,  Aden,  Persia  and  Egypt.  If 
it  is  necessary  to  enter  into  a  tariff-war  with  Germany,  the  duty 
on  their  salt  might  be  raised.  But  it  would  be  a  considerable 
advantage  to  English  trade  if  the  duty  now  imposed  on  Cheshire 
salt  were  lowered.  At  present  that  supply  goes  chiefly  to  Calcutta 
and  penetrates  up  the  Ganges  Valley  to  about  the  border  of  the 
Province  of  Bengal,  or  to  a  point  where  the  up-country  salt  can 
be  sold  cheaper.  By  lowering  the  import  duty  English  salt  would 
command  a  larger  area.  But  as  this  would  mean  only  the  sub- 
stitution of  foreign  salt  for  country  salt  and  would  not  greatly  in- 
crease the  consumption,  the  Indian  finances,  which  realise  about 
£900,000  from  the  duty  on  English  salt,  would  suffer  with  little 
prospect  of  recoupment ;  and  the  Indian  Government  would  not 
be  justified  in  conceding  such  a  preference  unless  some  corres- 
ponding advantage  is  granted  by  England. 

Sugar. — The  duty  on  sugar  produces  nearly  half-a-million. 
Half  of  it  comes  from  Austria-Hungary  and  Germany,  and  most 
of  the  balance  from  Mauritius.  Here  it  would  be  easy  to  lower 
the  rate  on  colonial  and  to  raise  it  on  continental  sugar  without 
affecting  the  Revenue.  But  it  would  probably  be  wiser  to  watch 
the  effect  of  the  Sugar  Bounties  Treaty  before  making  any  imme- 
diate alteration. 

Metals  and  Machinery. — More  than  a  quarter  of  the  whole  im- 
port comes  from  protectionist  countries.  The  present  duty  is  light 
and  produces  about  £150,000.  In  view  of  the  condition  of  our 
iron  and  steel  industry,  it  might  be  possible  to  raise  the  duty  on 
the  foreign  imports,  and  to  lower  it  on  the  English  unmanufac- 
tured steel  and  iron ;  but  in  face  of  the  protectionist  feeling  in 
India,  and  the  great  desirability  of  establishing  the  manufacture 
of  hardware  and  machinery  in  the  country,  the  duty  on  this  class 
of  goods  should  remain  unchanged,  the  reduction  only  affecting 
raw  materials. 

Oils. — More  than  two  millions  worth  of  petroleum  oil  comes 


470  The  Empire  Review 

from  Russia,  and  ,£200,000  worth  from  the  United  States.  As 
petroleum  is  found  in  Burma,  Assam  and  many  parts  of  India, 
its  production  would  be  encouraged  by  raising  the  present  very 
light  duty  (producing  only  £20,000)  on  the  foreign  oil.  This 
would,  however,  raise  the  price  to  the  consumer  and  might  fall 
hardly  on  the  poor. 

Cotton  goods. — The  duty  on  these  goods,  3J  per  cent,  ad 
valorem,  produces  nearly  £600,000,  so  that  it  is  a  serious  matter 
to  tamper  with  it,  and  there  is  also  a  "countervailing"  excise 
duty  on  the  cotton  cloth  manufactured  in  country  mills.  To 
lower  the  customs  and  excise  duty  by  a  half  would  be  popular 
both  in  Manchester  and  in  India,  and  would  increase  consumption 
to  an  extent  which  might  partly  recoup  the  government.  Out  of 
£22,000,000  worth  of  this  class  of  goods  imported,  about  £800,000 
worth  come  from  protected  countries,  so  that  a  special  rate  imposed 
on  them  would  not  do  very  much  good  to  the  Ke venue.  It 
might  be  a  useful  weapon  in  reserve. 

The  outcome  of  this  discussion  of  the  imports  is  that  if  the 
Government  of  India  decide  to  carry  out  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
principles  they  might  benefit  English  trade  by  reducing  the  rate 
on  salt,  unmanufactured  iron  and  steel,  and  cotton  goods,  at  a 
considerable  cost  to  the  Revenue,  which  might,  however,  be 
partially  recouped  by  a  larger  consumption  in  the  case  of  cotton 
goods;  they  might  benefit  colonial  production  by  reducing  the 
rate  on  Mauritius  sugar,  and  raising  it  on  German  and  Austro- 
Hungarian  sugar ;  and  they  might  strike  a  blow  at  the  trade  of 
protected  countries,  if  reprisals  were  necessary,  by  raising  the 
duty  on  the  machinery  and  hardware,  salt,  petroleum  and  cotton 
goods  which  they  send. 

Now  we  turn  to  the  exports,  and  the  following  table  gives  the 
same  information  as  before  regarding  the  value  of  the  goods  sent 
in  1901-2  to  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  to  the  protectionist 
countries,  and  to  all  the  outside  world  taken  together.  It  should 
be  explained  that  when  the  returns  give  Egypt  as  the  destination  of 
exports  they  have  been  debited  to  the  Continent  of  Europe,  because 
in  almost  all  cases  those  goods  are  despatched,  when  they  reach 
Egypt,  to  whatever  European  market  appears  most  favourable. 

Tea  and  coffee  are  exported  to  England  mainly  from  India  and 
Ceylon,  China  tea  having  fallen  now  to  only  one-seventeenth  of 
the  whole,  or  half  a  million  against  8,000,000  sterling.  Nearly 
all  the  tea  goes  to  England  or  the  colonies ;  about  a  third  of  the 
coffee  to  France.  If  therefore  we  may  assume  that  the  twopenny 
war  tax  on  tea  will  be  taken  off,  and  that  of  the  remaining  4d, 
half  will  be  remitted  to  India  and  Ceylon,  it  is  evident  that  the 
China  tea  trade  will  be  killed,  but  the  quantity  is  so  small  that  it 
will  not  do  much  good  to  the  planters.  But  the  cheapening  of 


India  and  Preferential  Tariffs 


471 


TABLE  2. — VALUE  OP  PRINCIPAL  ARTICLES  EXPORTED  FROM  INDIA  IN  1901-2 
(THOUSANDS  OMITTED). 


Articles. 

To  Great 
Britain  and 
Colonies. 

To  Pro- 
tectionist 
Countries. 

Total  to  all 
Countries. 

Coffee    .                  .                                                491 

330 

837 

Tea 

5,163 

86 

5,488 

Kice      . 

5,186               2,529 

9,233 

Wheat  . 

1,181                  934 

2,171 

Spices    . 

. 

188                   208 

509 

Metals  . 

165                    65 

360 

Tobacco 

212                     12 

233 

Indigo  . 

377                   633 

1,235 

Oil  seeds 

•• 

2,603 

8,247 

11,189 

Cotton,  raw 

, 

266              3,866 

9,617 

Hides      „ 

324 

3,380 

3,718 

Jute 

• 

3,535 

4,281 

7,864 

Silk 

t 

160 

285 

452 

Wool 

724 

25 

761 

Cotton  twist  and  yarn 

70 

7 

6,281 

Other  cotton  goods 

1,171 

.  . 

1,926 

Jute  and  gunny  manufac 
Apparel  and  boots  . 

ture<3 

2,143 
187 

2,379 
29 

5,807 
245 

Hides,  dressed 

1,570 

183 

1,769 

Lac        . 

226 

371 

636 

tea  in  England  will  give  a  stimulus  to  consumption  here,  and 
therefore  to  production  in  India.  More  land  will  be  put  under 
tea  and  more  labour  will  be  employed.  The  same  will  be  the 
case  with  coffee  if  the  rate  is  lowered,  and  therefore  such  a 
preferential  tariff  will  be  a  great  boon  to  India,  and  will  remove 
a  grievance  which  has  long  been  a  subject  of  complaint  there. 

Rice. — England  imports  about  two-thirds  of  its  rice  from 
India  and  one-third  from  other  countries,  so  that  the  imposition 
of  a  tax  on  foreign  rice,  while  the  Indian  product  is  left  free, 
would  probably  enable  India  to  swallow  up  the  whole  of  the 
trade.  India  exports  largely  to  Ceylon  and  to  Mauritius,  as  well 
as  to  England,  but  about  2J  millions  out  of  £9,000,000  go  to  the 
markets  of  the  Continent,  and  could  therefore  be  shut  out  by 
prohibitive  rates. 

Wheat. — The  export  of  wheat  has  varied  enormously,  rising 
to  9i  millions  sterling  in  1891-92,  and  falling  to  zero  in  1899-1900, 
while  last  year  it  exceeded  the  figure  of  1901-02  by  40  per  cent. 
Now  wheat  is  grown  almost  exclusively  on  artificially  irrigated 
land,  and  the  out-turn  is  less  affected  by  drought  than  that  of 
any  other  important  food-crop.  It  serves,  therefore,  as  a  reserve 
of  food  which  can  be  exported  when  there  is  a  surplus,  and 
retained  for  home  consumption  when  there  is  a  famine.  For 
this  reason  it  is  of  the  most  vital  importance  to  the  well-being 
of  India  that  the  area  under  wheat  should  be  as  large  as  possible, 
and  the  stimulus  which  would  be  given  to  its  cultivation  by  a 
remission  of  duty  if  other  imported  wheat  were  taxed  in  England 


472 


The  Empire  Review 


would  be  invaluable.  About  40  per  cent,  of  the  export  is  sent  to 
continental  Europe,  partly  to  Belgium ;  but  as  most  of  it  is  con- 
signed in  the  first  instance  to  Egypt  it  is  uncertain  to  what 
country  that  quantity  is  finally  destined. 

Tobacco. — India  produces  an  immense  quantity  of  rather  coarse 
tobacco,  but  the  export  is  very  small;  only  about  300,000  Ibs. 
valued  at  .£35,000,  being  sent  to  England.  A  preferential  rate  on 
Indian  tobacco  would  greatly  encourage  the  growth  of  the  finer 
sorts  and  would  improve  the  system  of  manufacture. 

Indigo  is  supposed  to  be  a  dying  industry,  though  some  people 
still  maintain  that  the  synthetic  indigo  of  Germany,  while  it  can 
compete  in  price,  is  not  equally  durable  as  a  dye.  If  the  import 
of  dyes  is  taxed  in  England,  and  if  indigo  is  admitted  free,  it 
might  rescue  from  extinction  a  large  amount  of  English  capital 
invested  in  India. 

To  recapitulate  the  principal  articles  of  Indian  export  to 
which  a  helping  hand  might  be  given  are  tea,  coffee,  and  tobacco, 
on  which  the  present  high  duties  might  well  be  reduced ;  and 
rice,  wheat,  and  indigo,  which  might  be  admitted  free,  while  the 
imports  from  protectionist  countries  are  taxed.  In  the  case  of 
wheat  the  advantage  would  accrue  not  only  to  the  export  trade 
but  to  the  whole  of  India,  whose  sheet-anchor  against  famine  is 
a  large  extension  of  the  area  under  that  crop. 

An  objection  has  been  raised  in  the  speeches  of  Lord  George 
Hamilton  and  of  Sir  Henry  Fowler  that  if  the  protectionist 
countries  are  irritated  by  the  grants  of  preferential  rates  to  India 
by  England,  and  still  more  by  the  setting  up  of  rates  hostile  to 
themselves  in  India,  they  might  retaliate  by  imposing  prohibitive 
duties  against  Indian  imports  into  their  markets.  One  answer  to 
this  would  be  that  though  they  take  collectively  a  large  share 
(34 -3  per  cent,  of  the  whole  in  1901-2)  of  Indian  exports,  each 
individual  country  represents  a  very  small  figure  (Germany  8  per 
cent.,  France  7  per  cent.,  the  United  States  7  per  cent.,  Belgium 
4  per  cent,  and  so  on),  so  that  unless  they  all  combine  together  to 
boycott  India,  which  is  very  unlikely,  the  injury  done  by  any 
single  country's  hostility  would  be  slight.  But  the  better  and 
more  general  reply  is  that  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  any 
country  will  injure  itself  in  order  to  spite  another.  If  France  or 
Germany,  for  instance,  believe  that  the  introduction  of  any  goods 
from  outside  will  do  harm  to  their  industries,  they  will  relentlessly 
crush  that  import  by  heavy  and  still  heavier  duties.  It  is  because 
we  are  satisfied  that  they  are  actually  in  train  to  impose  prohibi- 
tive rates  on  our  manufactures,  that  the  proposal  to  adopt  a 
system  of  retaliation  has  been  mooted.  It  is  illogical,  therefore, 
to  argue  that  India  should  be  deterred  from  preferential  duties  by 
the  fear  of  a  prohibitive  tariff  being  set  up  against  itself. 


India  and  Preferential  Tariffs  473 

A  reference  to  the  table  of  exports  on  p.  471  will  enable  the 
reader  to  judge  how  far  it  is  likely  that  Indian  trade  can  be 
excluded  from  the  protected  markets  without  injury  to  the 
population  of  those  countries.  The  articles  exported  are  all 
either  raw  materials  (such  as  rice,  wheat,  spices,  dyes,  oilseeds, 
cotton,  hides,  jute  and  silk)  or  very  slightly  manufactured  (such 
as  gunny-bags  and  dressed  hides,)  some  of  which  could  not  be 
procured  elsewhere  at  all,  and  all  of  which  are  needed  either  for 
food  or  for  employment  in  industries  which  would  suffer  if  their 
raw  materials  were  enhanced  in  price.  The  prospect  of  a  boycott 
against  such  a  trade  as  this  is  one  which  India  could  well  afford 
to  laugh  at. 

It  appears,  then,  that  by  a  manipulation  of  the  tariff  in  the 
direction  proposed  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  much  benefit  might 
accrue  to  the  trade  of  England  in  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel, 
and  salt,  and  to  that  of  Mauritius  in  sugar.  Similarly  India 
might  receive  great  advantage  in  respect  of  its  production  of  tea, 
coffee,  tobacco,  wheat,  rice,  and  indigo.  The  effect  on  the 
Revenue  of  both  countries  cannot  be  fully  calculated  without 
forming  an  estimate  of  the  gain  to  be  obtained  by  raising  the 
rates  in  other  countries.  But  looking  only  to  the  loss  arising 
from  the  alterations  which  have  been  suggested,  the  English 
Treasury  would  surrender  by  a  reduction  of  twopence  in  the 
pound  on  Indian  tea,  and  three-farthings  on  Indian  coffee,  about 
£1,500,000,  while  the  import  of  Indian  tobacco  is  at  present  so 
small  that  the  loss  would  be  infinitesimal.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  India  took  off  a  quarter  of  the  duty  on  English  salt,  the  whole 
duty  on  English  and  Mauritius  sugar,  half  the  duty  on  metals 
(raw  and  partly  manufactured)  and  half  the  duty  on  cotton  goods, 
the  loss  to  the  Revenue  would  be  about  £700,000.  The  gain  to 
India  from  the  greater  security  against  famine  would  far  exceed 
this  sum,  while  in  England  the  duty  Mr.  Chambeizlain  proposes 
to  levy  on  wheat  imported  from  protected  countries  would  more 
than  recoup  the  Treasury  for  the  abandonment  of  these  duties 
on  Indian  produce. 

In  the  general  scheme  of  English  party  politics  India,  from 
its  want  of  popular  representation,  exercises  little  weight,  and  the 
decision  of  the  country  on  the  proposed  changes  in  fiscal  policy 
will  be  influenced  mainly  by  home  and  colonial  considerations. 
But  the  facts  and  arguments  set  forth  in  this  article  seem  to 
show  that  as  far  as  India  is  concerned  the  adoption  of  a  system 
of  preferential  tariffs  will  be  beneficial  to  the  trade  of  the  two 
countries  and  will  offend  against  no  sound  economic  principles. 

C.  A.  ELLIOTT. 


474  The  Empire  Review 


IMPERIAL   FISCAL   UNION:   TREND    OF 
COLONIAL   OPINION 

MR.  CHAMBERLAIN  AND  THE  1887  CONFERENCE 

PERHAPS  the  point  in  Mr.  Chamberlain's  speeches  which 
seems  most  to  vex  his  opponents  is  the  not  infrequent  reference 
to  the  offer  from  the  colonies.  Not  only  is  the  use  of  the  term 
offer  directly  challenged,  but  the  supporters  of  the  policy  of 
laissez  faire  go  farther  and  deny  that  the  colonies  have  ever 
given  serious  expression  to  a  desire  for  Imperial  fiscal  union. 
Yet  in  spite  of  the  stress  which  the  Free  Importers  have  laid 
upon  their  denials,  I  look  in  vain  for  any  trace  of  argument. 
Here  and  there  the  party  utterance  of  some  colonial  politician 
has  supplied  a  convenient  quotation,  and  the  matter  has  been 
used  with  unmixed  satisfaction  in  support  of  the  view  so  tersely 
expressed,  although  in  most  cases  of  the  kind,  if  the  quotation 
was  only  read  with  the  context,  the  conclusion  drawn  would 
require  to  be  very  considerably  modified. 

There  has  been  no  examination  of  facts  ;  no  dipping  deeply 
into  the  mind  of  the  colonies,  so  to  speak;  no  dealing,  in  a 
considered  way,  with  the  studied  opinion  of  our  over-sea  com- 
munities. It  is  probably  on  this  account  that  Mr.  Chamberlain 
hesitated  for  so  long  a  time  to  contradict  his  traducers.  At  last, 
however,  we  find  him  turning  round  upon  the  men  who  spurn  the 
benefits  of  closer  commercial  union  between  the  colonies  and  the 
motherland,  and  refuse  to  allow  that  our  kinsmen  in  other  climes 
have  shown  any  leaning  towards  a  policy  of  Imperial  fiscal  union. 
Speaking  the  other  day  at  Newport,*  Mr.  Chamberlain  said  : — 

We  are  told  by  some  speakers  on  the  other  side  that  the  whole  of  my  policy 
rests  on  the  assumption  that  the  colonies  will  meet  us  half  way,  whereas  they, 
the  colonies,  will  not  respond  to  our  appeal.  Gentlemen,  that  is  a  slander  upon 
the  colonies.  It  is  absolutely  untrue. . . .  Every  evidence  confirms  my  own  belief 
— confirms  the  trust  I  have  always  felt  in  the  patriotism  of  our  children  across 
the  seas,  in  their  affection  for  the  motherland,  and  in  their  desire,  while  of 
course  maintaining  their  own  rights  and  interests,  to  treat  her  better  than 


*  November  21. 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union :  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     475 

any  one  else.  Not  a  day  passes  that  I  have  not  lately  received  resolutions 
from  boards  of  trades,  from  manufacturers'  associations,  and  from  meetings,  and 
private  letters  from  statesmen  and  others  approving  of  the  policy  that  we  are — 
that  I  am — proposing  to  you,  and  assuring  me  of  reciprocal  support.  .  .  . 

If  you  say  to  them,  "  Go  adrift ;  follow  your  own  bent,  we  do  not  appreciate 
your  offers,  we  reject  the  opportunities  which  you  give  to  us,  we  have  no 
sympathy  with  your  backward  policy,"  if  we  say  that  to  them  they  will  not  be 
afraid  to  stand  alone,  but  at  present  they  want  to  stand  by  our  side  and  we,  those 
of  us  who  have  any  gift  of  imagination,  who  can  look  forward  to  the  future,  we 
see  that  without  their  aid,  without  their  assistance,  then  indeed  we  shall  sink 
from  our  high  place  among  the  nations,  then  indeed  the  glorious  history  of 
which  we  are  so  proud  will  have  to  come  to  an  end.  No,  I  do  not  believe  that. 
When  these  infant  colonies  as  they  are  at  present,  who  have,  nevertheless  shown 
such  a  powerful  appreciation  of  their  duty  and  responsibility  to  the  empire  of 
which  they  form  a  part,  when  these,  our  sons  and  our  kinsmen,  come  to  us 
and  say  "  Let  us  draw  closer  together  the  sympathy  that  exists,  the  affection 
that  is  with  us  both,  let  us  make  a  material  tie,  let  us  bind  ourselves  "...  when 
they  say  this,  will  you  turn  your  backs  upon  them  ?  No,  we  shall  meet  them 
at  least  half  way.  We  shall  meet  them  not  in  a  peddling  and  huckstering 
spirit,  quarrelling  with  them  about  farthings  when  the  existence  of  the  Empire 
is  at  stake  ;  we  shall  meet  them  in  the  spirit  they  would  show  to  us,  we  shall 
grasp  the  hands  that  they  offer  to  us  across  the  seas. 


THE  OFFER  FROM  THE  COLONIES. 

If  the  term  offer  implied,  or  was  intended  to  imply,  what  is 
commonly  known  in  trading  circles  as  a  firm  offer,  then  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  critics  might  be  technically  justified  in  resisting 
the  use  of  the  expression,  for  a  firm  offer  assumes  full  acquaint- 
ance beforehand  with  all  details  by  the  parties  to  the  compact, 
and  requires  to  be  followed,  within  a  reasonable  period,  either  by 
a  definite  acceptance  or  a  definite  refusal.  But  Mr.  Chamberlain 
has  put  forward  no  such  absurd  claim ;  in  fact,  he  has  expressly 
stated  that  before  the  details  of  any  reciprocal  arrangements  are 
settled,  a  committee  of  experts  will  be  summoned  to  give  advice, 
and  presumably  the  same  course  will  be  taken  in  the  colonies. 
In  this  matter,  as  well  as  in  the  more  general  question  of  an 
expressed  desire,  Mr.  Chamberlain  naturally  credits  his  accusers 
with  having  taken  the  trouble  to  read  the  reports  of  the  four 
Colonial  Conferences  at  each  of  which  the  subject  of  preference 
came  up  for  discussion.  From  the  tone,  however,  of  the  speeches 
made  by  many  advocates  of  free  imports,  I  very  much  fear  that 
Mr.  Chamberlain  is  assuming  too  much.  Indeed,  it  would  seem 
that  not  only  have  these  gentlemen  neglected  to  peruse  the 
documentary  evidence,  but  have  avoided  doing  so,  fearing  lest 
the  insight  might  lead  them  into  paths  which,  in  the  light  of 
their  other  utterances,  would  doubtless  be  regarded  as  dangerous. 
Still,  it  is  hardly  fair  to  rest  content  with  bald  denials,  and  more 
especially  is  this  to  be  condemned  on  the  part  of  the  leaders,  as 


476  The  Empire  Review 

it  naturally  involves  repetition  by  the  rank  and  file,  with  the 
inevitable  result  of  a  mistaken  impression  being  formed  by  that 
section  of  the  public  which  pins  its  faith  to  the  statements  of 
individuals  and  takes  as  gospel  the  teaching  of  a  political  party. 

Perhaps,  as  I  am  familiar  with  the  reports  mentioned,  and 
have  also  had  several  opportunities  of  speaking  on  the  points  at 
issue  with  both  past  and  present  premiers  of  the  self-governing 
communities,  it  will  not  be  regarded  as  impertinent  on  my  part 
if  I  venture  to  throw  some  light  on  the  considered  opinions  of 
colonial  statesmen  concerning  the  question  of  preference.  Such 
a  proceeding  may  not  be  uninteresting  at  this  moment,  and  if  my 
services  only  save  the  marring  of  further  speeches  by  loose 
criticism  and  illogical  argument,  I  shall  be  well  repaid  for  the 
trouble.  At  any  rate,  the  course  I  propose  to  take  will  afford  the 
general  public  a  chance  of  seeing  for  themselves  and  founding 
their  opinions  on  fact.  And  after  reading  what  I  have  to  say 
I  have  no  hesitation  in  believing  that  the  great  majority  of 
thinking  people  will  agree  with  me  that  the  question  of  preference 
or  no  preference  has  reached  the  stage  when  it  is  permissible 
to  make  the  pronouncement  that  the  Colonial  governments  in- 
tend us  to  regard  their  wishes  in  the  form  of  an  offer.  In  other 
words,  they  have  accepted  the  principle  and  are  prepared  to 
negotiate.  Nothing  can  be  done,  however,  until  we  have  also 
accepted  the  principle  and  are  in  a  position  to  negotiate.  But 
this  cannot  be  till  a  mandate  is  given  Mr.  Balfour  to  substitute 
for  the  policy  of  free  imports  a  policy  of  retaliatory  tariffs. 
When  that  is  done,  and  the  most-favoured-nation  treatment  dies 
a  natural  death,  the  course  is  clear  for  installing  a  preference 
policy  with  the  colonies.  Yet  here  again  a  halt  must  be  called, 
for  the  installation  cannot  go  on  till  the  further  step  is  taken  and 
the  mandate  of  the  people  given  to  Mr.  Chamberlain's  proposals. 

WOBKING  MEN  AND   THE   PEICE   OF  BBEAD. 

I  shall,  I  think,  best  assist  the  end  in  view  by  taking  my 
readers  back  to  the  year  1887,  when  the  first  colonial  conference 
was  held  in  Downing  Street.  As  I  had  but  recently  returned 
from  Australia  and  was  regarded  as  an  expert  on  colonial  defence, 
I  received  an  official  invitation  from  Lord  Knutsford,  then  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  the  Colonies,  to  attend  the  opening  meeting. 
During  the  stay  of  the  delegates  in  this  country  I  had  frequent 
opportunities  of  making  their  acquaintance,  and  from  that  time 
to  the  present  no  leading  statesman  from  overseas  has  visited  this 
country  without  my  having  a  personal  talk  with  him  on  the  affairs 
of  his  colony  and  the  progress  of  Imperial  thought.  Strange  as 
it  may  seem  to  the  Little  England  section  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union :  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     477 

opponents,  it  was  Mr.  Hofmeyr,  the  leader  of  the  Bond  Party  in 
the  Cape  Colony,  who  was  most  prominent  in  advocating  the 
institution  of  Imperial  tariffs.  The  conference,  it  will  be  re- 
membered, was  mainly  called  to  consider  the  subject  of  defence, 
but  various  questions  in  connection  with  trade  were  debated,  and 
among  the  suggestions  put  forward  was  a  proposal  that  commerce 
within  the  Empire  should  be  encouraged  by  imposing  a  duty  of 
an  equal  rate  on  all  imports  entering  the  Empire  from  foreign 
countries,  and  that  the  revenue  thereby  acquired  should  be 
applied  to  the  defence  of  the  Empire.  The  suggestion  was 
Mr.  Hofmeyr's,  and  in  the  course  of  a  very  forcible  analytical 
argument  he  made  several  references  showing  beyond  doubt  that 
his  policy,  if  not  identical,  was  at  any  rate  framed  on  the  same 
basis  as  that  which  is  clearly  traceable  all  through  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain's speeches.  While  his  remarks  on  future  treaties  with  foreign 
nations  and  the  ethics  of  the  most-favoured-nation  clause  might 
well  be  substituted  for  similar  remarks  recently  made  by  the 
Prime  Minister  when  urging  a  policy  of  retaliation.  Referring  to 
what  he  called  "  a  difficulty  which  would  probably  be  advanced  " 
against  his  proposition,  namely,  "  that  the  food  of  the  poor  man 
in  England  would  be  taxed,"  Mr.  Hofmeyr  said : 

Now,  a  tax  of  two  per  cent,  or  thereabouts  would  not  raise  the  price  of  the 
bread  of  the  poor  man  very  much,  especially  as  the  poor  man  would  get  bread- 
stuffs  duty  free  from  all  the  colonies,  from  Canada,  Australia  and  India ;  and 
the  grain -producing  power  of  those  and  various  other  colonies  might  be 
developed  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent,  so  that  ultimately  hardly  any  rise 
in  price  would  be  observed.  I  have  no  doubt  that  if  the  labouring  population 
of  England  were  polled  on  the  subject  they  would  not  consider  this  an  in- 
superable objection,  especially  if  it  were  explained  to  them  that  the  scheme 
might  result  in  the  development  of  a  better  market  for  their  own  manufactures 
in  the  colonies. 

SOLID AEITY  OF  THE   EMPIRE. 

I  do  not  say  that  this  reasoning  is  on  all  fours  with  that  of 
Mr.  Chamberlain's,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  views  now 
being  enunciated  by  the  late  Colonial  Secretary  and  those  set 
forth  by  Mr.  Hofmeyr  fifteen  years  ago  show,  at  any  rate,  an 
intimate  connection  in  the  matter  of  "polling"  the  working 
classes  on  the  question.  It  is  singular  that  Mr.  Chamberlain's  critics 
have  failed  to  make  any  reference  to  Mr.  Hofmeyr's  tariff  views, 
as  on  the  question  of  the  rights  and  wrongs  of  the  South  African 
War  Sir  H.  Campbell-Bannerman,  Mr.  Courtney,  and  Mr. 
Morley  found  occasion  to  refer  frequently  to  the  opinions  held  by 
the  leader  of  the  Bond  Party,  and  sometimes  it  appeared  as  if 
they  adopted  them  as  part  of  their  own  policy.  Nor  is  it  only  in 
the  matter  of  taxation  of  food  and  the  polling  of  the  working  man 
that  Mr.  Hofmeyr  is  found  to  be  in  agreement  with  Mr, 


478  The  Empire  Review 

Chamberlain.  It  is  an  open  secret  that  the  position  in  which 
this  country  was  placed  by  the  most-favoured-nation  clause  when 
Canada  appealed  to  us  for  assistance  against  what  many  regard  as 
the  harsh  commercial  treatment  meted  out  to  her  by  Germany, 
and  the  pending  negotiations  as  to  the  new  commercial  treaty 
with  the  German  Empire,  were  mainly  responsible  for  the  late 
Colonial  Secretary's  pronouncement  at  Birmingham  last  May. 
Indeed  no  other  course  was  open  to  him  as  I  ventured  to  point 
out  at  the  time  in  the  columns  of  the  Morning  Post.  Over  and 
over  again  since  then  Mr.  Chamberlain  has  called  attention  to 
these  matters,  urging  the  necessity  of  promoting  the  solidarity  of 
the  Empire,  while  Mr.  Balfour's  remarks  at  Bristol  on  rnost- 
favoured-nation  treatment  are  still  fresh  in  our  memory. 

Yet  all  this  was  foreshadowed  by  Mr.  Hofmeyr,  and  if  we  had 
taken  the  warning  offered  then  the  situation  would  be  very 
different  to  what  it  is  to-day.  It  may  perhaps  be  more  con- 
venient if  I  quote  the  exact  words  used  by  the  famous  Bond 
leader. 

My  excuse  [said  Mr.  Hofmeyr]  for  bringing  this  subject  forward  must  be 
that  as  it  is  an  important  one,  and  as  it  has  been  discussed  outside  this 
conference  repeatedly,  it  may  be  as  well,  now  that  the  delegates  from  the 
various  colonies  are  assembled  together,  that  they  should  give  some  attention 
to  it.  ...  I  think  a  great  deal  will  be  gained  if  the  attention  of  the  Imperial 
Government  and  Parliament  and  of  the  Colonial  Governments  and  Parliaments 
be  directed  to  it.  If  no  attention  were  directed  to  it,  if  it  were  not  discussed, 
we  should  find  that  the  difficulties  standing  in  the  way  of  an  Imperial  Fiscal 
Union  instead  of  decreasing  in  number  would  become  greater  and  greater.  If 
there  are  treaties  standing  in  the  way  those  treaties  instead  of  lapsing  in  course 
of  time  would  be  renewed,  and  other  treaties  would  be  added  to  them,  increasing 
the  looseness  of  the  Empire  instead  of  promoting  its  solidarity.  But  if  this 
matter  be  discussed,  and  if  it  be  continually  borne  in  mind,  it  stands  to  reason 
that  in  future  treaties  which  may  be  entered  into  between  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment and  foreign  countries  the  fact  that  the  colonies  are  not  foreign  countries, 
but  are  inseparable  parts  of  the  British  Empire,  will  be  remembered,  and  the 
most-favoured-nation  clause  will  not  be  brought  to  bear  against  England's  own 
kith  and  kin. 

FOREIGN  AND  COLONIAL  TRADE. 

And  now  let  me  take  you  to  another  point  of  Mr.  Hofmeyr's 
argument,  namely,  that  "the  consumption  of  British  goods  in 
foreign  countries  is  decreasing,  and  has  been  decreasing  for  years 
and  years  past,  while  it  has  been  and  is  increasing  in  the  colonies." 
Words  strangely  akin  to  a  particularly  important  plank  in  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  programme.  I  refer  to  that  portion  to  which 
Mr.  Balfour  has  given  his  adherence.  Like  Mr.  Chamberlain, 
the  South  African  delegate  did  not  ask  for  his  case  to  be 
received  without  figures,  though  his  figures  were  only  given  by 
way  of  illustration,  and,  like  Mr.  Chamberlain,  he  dealt  mainly 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:   Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     479 

with  the  same   section  of    British  and  foreign  and  British  and 
colonial  trade  as  that  selected  by  the  late  Colonial  Secretary. 

The  exports  of  produce  and  manufactures  of  the  United  Kingdom  to 
foreign  countries  in  1871  [said  Mr.  Hofrneyr]  amounted  in  round  numbers 
to  £171,800,000,  or  to  77  per  cent,  of  the  whole  of  the  exports  of  British 
merchandise.  In  1880  they  had  decreased  to  £147,800,000,  or  to  only  66  per 
cent,  of  the  sum  total.  The  colonies,  on  the  other  hand,  took  British  goods  in 
1871  to  the  extent  of  £51,250,000,  or  23  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  and  in  1880 
they  took  £75,250,000,  or  nearly  34  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  There  was  a  loss 
in  foreign  trade  of  11  per  cent.  ;  there  was  a  gain  in  colonial  trade  of  11  per 
cent.  While  the  British  exports  to  foreign  countries  decreased  by  11  per  cent., 
British  exports  to  the  colonies  increased  to  the  extent  of  11  per  cent. 

It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  Mr.  Hofmeyr  avoids  any  direct 
comparison  with   the  year   1872,  the   choice  of  which  by  Mr. 
Chamberlain  has  caused  such  an  outcry  from  the  free  importers. 
Yet  the  result  is  the  same,  so  far  as  principle  is  involved.     Again, 
Mr.   Hofmeyr's   figures    were  called  in   question    just    as    Mr. 
Chamberlain's  have  been.     It  was  said  that  a  period  of  ten  years 
was  too   short.      Accordingly  Mr.  Hofmeyr  added  another  six 
years,  comparing  1885  with  1880,  with  the  result  that  he  found 
that   the  value  of  British  goods  and   merchandise  exported  to 
foreign  countries  in   1880  amounted  in  value  to  £147,800,000, 
whereas  the  value  of  the  same  class  of  goods  exported  to  foreign 
countries  in  1885  was  only  £135,000,000,  showing  a  falling-off 
of  some  £12,000,000.      Turning  to  the  British  exports  to  the 
colonies,  during  1880   they  reached  in  value  £75,000,000,  while 
in   1885   they  had  gone  up  to  £77,900,000,  showing  a  further 
advance  of  £2,750,000  in  the  five  years,  thus  proving  that  the 
increase  in  the  consumption  of  British  goods  in  the  colonies  as 
compared  with  the  decrease  in  foreign  countries  was  not  a  mere 
temporary    matter,    "  but    something,"   as    Mr.   Hofmeyr  said, 
"which  is  permanent  and  which  is  likely  to  continue."     On  the 
question  of  permanence  we  have  recently  had  abundant  informa- 
tion from  Mr.  Chamberlain,  while  that  it  is  likely  to  continue  there 
is  no  doubt  whatever — in  fact  it  really  matters  little  what  period 
you  take.     It  comes  to  the  same  thing.     In  the  light  of  the  facts 
here  produced,  how   can  it  be  argued  that  colonial  opinion  is 
against  Mr.  Chamberlain?    And  this  is  only  the  beginning  of 
the  story. 

THE  BOND  OF  MATEEIAL  ADVANTAGE. 

I  pass  on  to  discuss  the  views  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
as  put  forward  by  their  representatives  on  the  same  occasion. 
Most  of  us  have  heard  of  Sir  Samuel  Griffith,  G.C.M.G.,  member 
of  the  Judicial  Commitee  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  a  few  months 
ago  appointed  President  of  the  Federal  High  Court,  after  many 


480  The  Empire  Review 

years'  service  as  Chief  Justice  of  Queensland.  Not  only  is  Sir 
Samuel  a  lawyer  of  great  eminence,  but  he  possesses  a  keen 
knowledge  of  public  opinion  and  has  rendered  his  State  good 
service  in  various  public  offices,  being  twice  Prime  Minister.  In 
addition  to  his  work  in  the  Queensland  Cabinet  he  was  three 
times  elected  President  of  the  Federal  Council  of  Australasia,  the 
body  which  drafted  the  Constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  and 
was  mainly  responsible  for  the  movement  which  led  to  the 
federation  of  the  Australian  Colonies.  When,  therefore,  I  name 
Sir  Samuel  Griffith  as  a  strong  advocate  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
policy  I  think  it  will  be  generally  conceded  that  I  name  a 
man  whose  opinions  carry  considerable  weight.  But  by  an 
advocate  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  I  refer  to  Sir  Samuel  in 
the  light  of  a  follower.  Sixteen  years  ago  we  find  him  enunci- 
ating principles  bearing  a  photographic  resemblance  to  the  doc- 
trines now  being  preached  from  the  Birmingham  pulpit.  Indeed, 
it  was  the  present  Chief  Justice  of  Australia  who  opened  the 
discussion  on  Imperial  Fiscal  Union  at  the  first  Colonial  Con- 
ference held  at  Downing  Street  by  submitting  the  question, 
"  Whether  it  should  not  be  recognised  as  part  of  the  duty  of  the 
Governing  Bodies  of  the  Empire  to  see  that  their  own  subjects 
have  a  preference  over  foreign  subjects  in  matters  of  trade." 

Curiously  like  to  Mr.  Chamberlain's  utterance  the  other  day 
when  bidding  farewell  to  the  Agents-General  at  the  Colonial 
Office,  are  the  following  words  of  the  Queensland  delegate  :— 

There  is  no  doubt  [he  said]  that  the  bond  of  material  advantage  is  a 
very  strong  one ;  it  ought  not  to  be  considered  the  highest  motive,  but  it  is 
practically  a  very  strong  and  important  consideration.  I  do  not  suggest  for 
a  moment  that  the  time  has  arrived  for  an  Imperial  Zollverein.  That  would 
interfere  too  much  with  the  fiscal  systems  of  the  colonies  and  with  their 
revenue  and  expenditure.  But  I  do  maintain  that  if  the  unity  and  solidarity 
of  the  Empire  were  thoroughly  recognised,  not  merely  from  the  teeth  down- 
wards, as  Carlyle  says,  but  recognised  as  the  pervading  sentiment  to  govern 
us  in  all  our  acts  as  an  Imperial  Power,  the  subject  I  am  calling  attention  to 
would  not  strike  anyone  as  being  very  strange  as  it  probably  now  does  strike 
some  people. 

As  regards  buying  in  the  cheapest  market  Sir  Samuel  holds,  as 
we  all  hold,  that  to  establish  and  maintain  the  prosperity  of  its 
own  people  is  the  first  end  of  every  nation.  But  if  buying  in  some 
other  than  the  cheapest  market  would  conduce  more  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  Empire,  then  he  argues,  "  as  in  all  other  matters, 
individual  liberty  must  yield  to  the  general  good  of  the  whole 
community."  Passing  on  to  Customs  charges  and  preferential 
treatment,  we  find  him  in  exact  accord  with  Mr.  Chamberlain. 

If  any  member  of  the  Empire  [he  says]  thinks  fit  for  any  reason  to  impose 
customs  charges  upon  goods  imported  from  abroad,  it  should  be  recognised 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     481 

that  goods  coming  from  British  possessions  should  be  subject  to  a  lighter  duty 
than  those  coming  from  foreign  possessions  ;  or,  to  put  it  in,  I  think,  a  prefer- 
able way,  that,  the  duty  on  goods  imported  from  abroad  being  fixed  according 
to  the  convenience  of  the  country,  according  to  the  wishes  of  its  legislature,  as 
to  which  there  should  be  perfect  freedom,  a  higher  duty  should  be  imposed 
upon  the  same  kind  of  goods  coming  from  foreign  countries  ...  it  would  never 
be  suggested,  I  think,  that  England  should  treat  the  people  of  France  on 
precisely  the  same  terms  as  she  would  treat  the  people  of  Scotland.  In  all 
matters  except  those  relating  to  this  question  of  trade  that  principle  is  entirely 
recognised. 

IN  PRAISE  OF  PREFERENCE. 

Very  'pertinent  to  the  issue  now  before  us  is  the  statement 
that  "  some  people  really  seem  to  think  it  would  be  sinful — morally 
wrong — to  adopt  any  principles  other  than  those  of  universal 
philanthropy  when  you  come  to  deal  with  foreign  nations  in 
questions  of  trade."  But  perhaps  Sir  Samuel  touches  a  higher 
plane  when,  in  behalf  of  a  preferential  treatment,  he  appeals  to 
the  common  brotherhood  of  Britons,  whether  they  live  in  the  old 
country  or  are  domiciled  in  the  great  over-sea  dominions  of  the 
Crown. 

A  man's  first  duty  [he  says]  is  to  his  family  and  then  to  his  country,  and 
by  country  I  mean  it  in  the  highest  sense— the  whole  British  Empire.  .  .  . 
Some  day,  perhaps,  human  nature  will  advance  so  far  that  we  shall  regard  all 
mankind  as  so  truly  a  brotherhood  that  we  shall  no  longer  have  any  feelings  of 
rivalry  with  foreign  countries,  and  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  take  any  steps  to 
protect  ourselves  against  them.  But  in  the  meantime,  while  other  countries  do 
not  recognise  that  doctrine,  and  while  we  do  not  ourselves  do  so,  though  we 
may  profess  to  do  so,  it  is  desirable  that  we  should  give  practical  effect  to  the 
principles  that  we  hold  by  giving  natural  advantages  to  the  people  of  our  kith 
and  kin.  I  believe  that  doing  so  would  tend  in  a  very  large  degree  to  maintain 
and  strengthen  the  feeling  that  we  are  all  one  nation,  and  would  tend  in  many 
ways  to  bring  about  a  stronger  union  than  can  now  be  said  to  exist. 

In  the  course  of  the  discussion  Sir  John  Downer,  late  Premier 
of  South  Australia,  strongly  protested  against  a  trade  policy  which 
refused  to  take  cognisance  of  what  was  going  on  in  other  countries, 
and  the  worshipping  of  a  fetish  "  as  if  we  were  men  without  the 
powers  of  thinking."  To  his  mind  the  origin  of  Free  Trade  and 
Protection  had  very  little  to  do  with  philanthropic  motives.  In 
his  opinion  self-interest  was  the  motive  power  in  bringing  about 
Free  Trade,  "  and  self-interest  will,  in  time,  bring  about  exactly 
the  opposite  in  due  course."  "And,"  he  added,  with  singular 
foresight,  "  I  think  the  time  is  not  very  far  distant  now." 

The  question  [he  went  on  to  say]  is  whether  the  United  Kingdom  is  to  look 
on  at  foreign  combinations  to  destroy  her  trade,  and  never  in  any  way  to 
endeavour  to  make  any  internal  combination  herself.  .  .  .  The  time  must 
come,  but  the  time  is  fast  approaching,  when  I  think  that  those  who  in  the 
past  have  strongly  advocated  Free  Trade  will  see  that  it  is  absolutely  impossible 
that  their  trade  can  exist  unless  they  adopt  a  different  expedient. 

VOL.  VI.--NO.  35.         v  2  i 


482  The  Empire  Review 

On  the  general  question  the  observations  of  Sir  William  Fitz- 
herbert,  then  Speaker  of  the  Legislative  Council  of  New  Zealand, 
and  a  man  of  vast  colonial  experience,  may  with  advantage,  be 
recalled : 

I  am  quite  sure  [he  said]  that  amongst  other  things  we  have  done  one  thing, 
go  far  as  it  lies  in  our  power,  to  cement  the  Empire  together,  and  that  is  as 
regards  the  defence  of  the  Empire.  We  are  now  employed  in  trying  to  solve 
that  other  great  problem,  namely,  the  problem  of  feeding  the  people  of  this 
great  Empire,  and  we  ought  not  to  follow  any  policy,  under  whatever  name, 
however  much,  to  judge  from  its  name,  it  would  appear  to  lead  us  in  a  different 
direction.  ...  If  we  are  to  draw  closer  the  bonds  of  union  between  the  British 
Empire  all  over  the  world,  the  matter  of  the  trade  relations  of  the  Empire  is  of 
fundamental  importance,  and  one  with  which  we  must  attempt  to  deal.  .  .  . 

Considerable  interest  centred  in  what  Mr.  Service — at  one 
time  Premier  of  Victoria  and  himself  a  Free  Trader — would  say. 
Perhaps  his  line  of  argument  may  assist  towards  the  better 
understanding  of  the  way  in  which  Free  Traders  in  Australia 
regard  what  some  fiscal  critics  here  look  upon  as  "the  gospel 
according  to  Cobden."  "  I  am  a  Free  Trader,"  said  Mr.  Service, 
in  opening  his  speech  as  the  first  representative  of  Victoria,  "  but 
I  am  not  one  of  those  Free  Traders  who  believe  in  Free  Trade 
as  a  fetish  to  be  worn  as  a  mere  phrase  round  our  necks,  and  who 
regard  it  as  always  indicative  of  precisely  the  same  condition  of 
things  that  it  was  indicative  of  in  the  Cobden  period,  or  hold  that 
circumstances  might  never  arise  of  an  Imperial  character  which 
might  demand  a  revision  of  our  policy  on  that  subject."  Now 
if  you  examine  Mr.  Chamberlain's  speeches,  you  will,  I  think, 
find  that,  referring  to  the  same  point,  the  late  Colonial  Secretary 
has  himself  made  use  of  phraseology  very  like  to  that  used  by 
Mr.  Service.  I  will  assume  that  Free  Trade  was  the  true  remedy 
for  the  condition  of  affairs  that  existed  half  a  century  ago.  But 
even  with  this  assumption  it  cannot  be  said  that  Cobden  was 
considering  the  matter  from  the  colonial,  much  less  the  Imperial, 
standpoint.  Apply  Mr.  Service's  proviso  to  the  position  of  to-day, 
and  the  whole  face  is  changed.  Circumstances  have  arisen  "  of 
an  Imperial  character  "  which,  as  he  very  properly  says,  demand  a 
revision  of  our  fiscal  policy.  But  if  we  decline  to  revise  that 
policy  we  affirm  an  absurdity,  namely,  that  our  oversea-dominions 
have  remained  stationary  for  half  a  century. 

CHEAP  FOOD  SUPPLY. 

The  Victorian  Premier  was  not  unmindful  of  the  opposition 
which  a  preference  policy  might  raise  in  the  motherland,  and 
specially  alluded  to  the  matter  of  a  cheap  food  supply. 

Turning  to  the  question  of  the  free  admission   of  foreign  products  into 
England  [he  said]  if  you  take  the  cereal  products  as  an  illustration,  and  assume 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     483 

that  you  were  to  put  a  duty  of — I  do  not  care  what — £1  per  bushel,  or  any 
duty  you  like,  upon  foreign  wheat,  I  hold  that  it  is  quite  impossible  that  the 
price  of  wheat  could  be  raised  to  the  English  consumer.  It  might  be  for  the 
first  year  or  two,  because  at  the  moment  the  products  of  our  new  colonies  and 
dependencies  might  not  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  English  demand  for  that 
year  or  two,  but  after  that  time  the  colonies  could  easily  supply  it.  We  can 
raise  any  amount  of  wheat  in  the  Canadian  territories,  the  Australian 
territories,  and  the  Indian  territories,  and  other  parts  of  the  empire,  which 
would  effectually  prevent  the  possibility  of  any  increase  of  price  of  cereals.  So 
far  as  that  ie  concerned,  therefore,  we  may  put  it  on  one  side  altogether. 

I  wish  that  friends  and  foes  alike  would  read,  mark,  learn  and 
inwardly  digest  these  views — views,  mind  you,  not  of  a  Protec- 
tionist, but  of  an  avowed  Free  Trader  and  a  man  of  considerable 
standing  at  that  date  in  the  Australian  political  world.  Why,  he 
goes  further  even  than  Mr.  Chamberlain  when  he  says  that  as 
regards  the  possibility  of  the  price  of  wheat,  or  by  implication,  the 
price  of  bread  being  raised  to  the  consumer,  the  question  "  may  be 
put  on  one  side  altogether,"  although  the  reasoning  by  which  he 
arrives  at  this  conclusion  is  practically  identical  with  the  reasoning 
employed  by  Mr.  Chamberlain  himself.  Now,  there  is  a  most 
important  deduction  to  be  made  from  Mr.  Service's  statement, 
that  the  price  of  bread  might  perhaps  be  higher  for  the 
first  year  or  so  after  the  introduction  of  a  preference  policy, 
"  because  at  the  moment  the  products  of  our  own  colonies  and 
dependencies  might  not  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  English  demand 
for  that  year  or  two,  but  after  that  time  the  colonies  could 
easily  supply  it."  Here  is  matter  for  serious  thought. 

The  free  importer  will  probably  see  in  this  a  point  to  aid  his 
side  of  the  case  ;  but  let  him  not  use  it,  for  it  is  a  false  point.  I 
can,  however,  imagine  a  free  importer,  holding  forth  on  the 
absurdity  of  the  colonies  sending  us  all  their  wheat  supply  and, 
clinching  his  argument  with  the  deduction  that  Mr.  Service 
promised  us  that  within  two  years'  time  the  colonies  and  depen- 
dencies would  raise  enough  wheat  to  supply  the  Empire,  whereas 
sixteen  years  have  passed  by  and  we  are  still  dependent  for  our 
food  upon  the  help  of  the  foreigner.  And  I  can  go  further  in  my 
imagination  and  picture  the  applause  which  would  be  sure  to 
follow  such  a  pronouncement  by  the  leader  of  a  political  party. 
But,  alas,  instead  of  strengthening  his  cause,  the  speaker  will 
have  given  himself  away.  For  Mr.  Service's  reasoning  depended 
on  a  preferential  policy  being  in  existence.  The  real  deduction 
from  what  he  said  is  this :  If  sixteen  years  ago  we  had  adopted 
preferential  treatment  for  the  colonies  in  the  matter  of  cereal 
products,  for  the  last  thirteen  years  we  should  have  had  our  food 
supply  provided  from  within  the  Empire,  and  the  money  which 
has  gone  into  the  pockets  of  the  foreigner  during  that  period 
would  have  gone  into  the  pockets  of  our  kith  and  kin. 

2  i  2 


484  The  Empire  Review 

Another  and  equally  important  deduction  is  that  if  no  tangible 
difference  has  been  effected  within  the  last  sixteen  years  without  a 
preference ;  the  position  will  be  the  same  sixteen  years  hence— in 
other  words,  without  a  preference  the  great  agricultural  resources 
of  the  colonies  cannot  be  developed — at  any  rate,  in  a  reasonable 
time.  I  do  not  say,  nor  do  I  mean  to  imply,  that  by  establishing 
a  preference  policy  we  shall  people  the  colonies  and  quadruple 
our  wheat  supply  within  the  Empire  in  a  couple  of  years'  time. 
But  I  feel  certain  that  once  a  preference  policy  is  established  so 
great  will  be  the  impetus  given  that  before  a  decade  is  over  we 
shall  be  quite  independent  of  foreign  wheat,  and  that  meanwhile 
the  trade  of  the  Empire  will  have  very  materially  advanced. 

Winding  up  his  speech,  Mr.  Service  said  : 

I  think  nothing  could  be  more  advantageous  to  the  unity  of  the  empire 
than  to  establish  a  greater  sympathy  in  a  financial  sense,  or  rather  in  a  tariff 
sense.  T  -  ^Aiy  think  the  effect  of  it  would  be,  even  if  it  was  a  comparatively 
impotent  cord  that  was  to  be  tied  round  the  component  parts  of  the  empire, 
still,  it  would  be  another  cord  added  to  the  strength  of  the  ties  which  already 
exist ;  that  is  to  say,  if  we  could  have  a  recognition  throughout  the  empire  that 
the  products  of  the  various  dependencies  would  be  treated  on  a  different  footing 
fiscally  from  the  products  of  foreign  countries  I  should  be  inclined  to  regard 
very  favourably  such  a  proposal. 

WAGES  QUESTION  IN  THE  COLONIES. 

We  have  heard  a  good  deal  about  the  possible  effect  of  a 
preference  policy  on  the  wages  of  the  British  working  man. 
Mr.  Chamberlain  is  confident  that  if  his  policy  be  carried  out  in 
its  entirety 'wages  will  increase.  But,  be  that  as  it  may,  at  the 
moment  I  am  concerned  with  colonial  opinion,  and,  therefore, 
one  must  look  at  the  question  from  the  standpoint  of  wages  in 
the  colonies  rather  than  wages  in  the  mother-country.  This 
factor  in  the  issue  did- not  escape  the  notice  of  Mr.  Service,  who 
anticipated  there  might  be  at  first  a  fear  among  the  "producing " 
classes  in  his  colony  that  a  preference  policy  was  going  to  inter- 
fere with  their  wages.  But,  he  added,  "it  is  very  easy  to  put 
the  matter  in  a  light  which  would  commend  itself  to  them." 

Whether  [he  said]  you  reduce  the  English  duties  5  per  cent,  below  the 
foreign  duties,  or  raise  the  foreign  duties  5  per  cent,  above  the  English,  the 
same  effect  is  obtained  .  .  .so  that  a  wise  man  in  our  colonies  at  all  events 
would  put  it  in  one  way  rather  than  in  the  other;  that  is  to  say,  in  a  pro- 
tectionist colony  it  had  better  be  put  as  a  proposition  to  increase  the  duties 
upon  foreign  imports  rather  than  as  a  proposition  to  reduce  the  duties  upon  the 
English  imports. 

There  is  little  to  say  by  way  of  comment  on  this  point  except 
to  note  that  in  alluding  to  the  working-classes  Mr.  Service 
describes  them  as  "producers "  and  not  as  " consumers,"  a  des- 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion    485 

cription  which  will  doubtless  be  challenged  by  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
opponents,  who  would  apparently  have  us  suppose  that  though 
the  working  man  is  undoubtedly  a  "  consumer,"  he  is  in  no  sense 
of  the  term  a  "producer."  By  way  of  emphasising  the  true  in- 
wardness of  Mr.  Service's  diplomacy,  and  showing  that  what  one 
oversea  Premier  enunciated  sixteen  years  ago  is  held  to  by  another 
oversea  Premier  to  be  applicable  to-day,  I  would  call  attention  to 
the  recent  cablegrams  from  New  Zealand  which  indicate  that 
while  Mr.  Seddon's  preference  proposals  include  provisions  for 
concluding  reciprocal  trade  agreements  with  foreign  countries, 
"consideration  for  the  industries  of  New  Zealand  prevents  a 
reduction  of  the  duties  on  British  imports." 


A  QUESTION  FOR  "THE  HEART  OF  THE  EMPIRE." 

I  cannot,  I  think,  better  conclude  my  review  of  the  1887 
Conference,  and  its  intimate  bearing  upon  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
proposals,  than  by  a  few  references  to  the  speech  made  by 
Mr.  Deakin,  then  Chief  Secretary  of  Victoria,  and  now  Prime 
Minister  of  the  Australian  Commonwealth.  Mr.  Deakin  was,  as 
he  is  at  the  present  time,  heart  and  soul  for  establishing  a  pre- 
ference policy.  But  as  he  has  stated  his  views  so  recently,  and 
they  have  been  duly  chronicled  in  the  daily  Press,  it  is  not 
necessary  for  me  to  repeat  them  here.  I  should  however  like  to 
say  that  he  made  a  special  point  of  his  belief  "that  one  of  the 
strongest  of  the  ties  that  can  unite  the  Colonies  or  people 
together  is  the  tie  of  self-interest,  with  all.  the  other  ties  which 
flow  from  intimate  commercial  relationship  in  the  way  of  inter- 
course and  association."  Adding  by  way  of  peroration  that  the 
Australasian  Colonies  would  gladly  take  their  part  in  any 
movement  for  an  Imperial  tariff. 

But  if  it  is  not  necessary  to  set  out  in  detail  Mr.  Deakin's 
views  on  Mr.  Chamberlain's  policy,  it  is  a  timely  opportunity  for 
drawing  attention  to  the  pronouncement  made  by  the  now  Prime 
Minister  of  the  Australian  Commonwealth  that  the  whole 
question  is  one  really  for  the  English  people,  and  not  for  the 
Colonies. 

So  far  as  I  can  judge  [he  said]  until  a  very  great  change  indeed  comes  over 
the  manner  of  regarding  fiscal  questions  in  Great  Britain  (a  change  which  may 
come  sooner  than  we  anticipate)  it  is  almost  idle  for  us  to  raise  the  issue.  It 
may  be  well  for  the  colonies  to  set  it  on  record  that,  because  they  are  so 
Imperialist  in  feeling,  because  they  are  so  stirred  by  every  movement  that 
helps  to  bind  together  the  Empire,  and  looking  upon  this  proposal  as  one  of 
the  means  of  uniting  its  scattered  parts,  they  would  gladly  avail  themselves 
of  it.  But  it  is  not  for  the  colonies  to  urge  the  adoption  of  the  proposal  ay 
one  which  would  be  a  benefit  to  them.  It  is  really  an  Imperial  matter,  and 


486  The  Empire  Review 

until  the  head  and  heart  of  the  Empire  here  become  animated  by  the  same 
feeling,  and  become  convinced  that  this  is  a  good  means  to  adopt,  our 
voices  must  be  futile,  the  expression  of  our  views  may  be  considered  premature 
We  feel  it  is  a  question  to  be  dealt  with  elsewhere,  and  by  others  who 
might  even  regard  us  as  being  moved  by  selfish  interests,  whereas  we  are  really 
moved  by  Imperial  interests, 

Here,  then,  we  have  the  kernel  of  the  present  issue.  Nothing 
in  the  way  of  an  Imperial  tariff  can  ever  be  carried  out  until  the 
people  of  this  country  agree  to  abandon  worshipping  Free  Trade 
as  a  fetish.  Canada,  the  Cape  Colony,  and  New  Zealand  may  in 
turn  give,  as  they  have  given,  a  preference  to  British  goods,  and 
their  example  may  be  followed  by  Australia.  But  until  the 
motherland  refuses  to  place  herself  in  a  position  to  offer  some 
return  we  are  as  we  were.  An  arrangement  in  which  one  side 
gets  everything  and  the  other  side  gets  nothing  is  bound  sooner 
or  later  to  come  to  grief.  Beciprocity  alone  is  the  commercial  tie 
which,  to  use  Mr.  Deakin's  words,  will  demonstrate  the  unity  of 
the  Empire  and  assist  to  make  it  a  potent  reality. 

Enough,  I  think,  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  national 
feeling  of  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  the  Cape  Colony,  expressed 
as  it  was,  without  any  party  bias,  at  the  Colonial  Conference  of 
1887,  is  with  Mr.  Chamberlain.  In  another  article  I  shall  deal 
with  the  views  of  Canada  as  placed  on  record  at  Ottawa,  and 
refer  to  what  passed  on  the  subject  of  closer  commercial  union  at 
the  Conferences  of  1897  and  1902.  This  summary,  taken  with 
the  statements  of  Colonial  statesmen  since  May  of  this  year,  will, 
I  venture  to  hope,  assist  the  public  in  arriving  at  the  truth 
concerning  the  opinion  of  the  self-governing  communities  upon 
the  proposed  changes  in  our  fiscal  policy. 

C.   KlNLOCH   COOKE, 


Malaria  in  India  and  the  Colonies 


48? 


MALARIA  IN    INDIA  AND    THE    COLONIES* 

THE  extent  to  which  malaria  prevails  in  the  tropics  will  scarcely 
be  realised  except  by  persons  who  have  studied  the  vital  statistics 
of  many  tropical  Colonies.  The  following  table  from  the  annual 
report  of  the  sanitary  commissioner  with  the  Government  of 
India  exhibits  the  incidence  of  the  disease  in  comparison  with 
other  maladies  among  the  British  troops  in  that  country  during 

1900. 

AVERAGE  STRENGTH  OF  TROOPS,  60,653. 


Malarial  fever        .         . 

19,445 

50 

710 

Enteric  fever 

970 

290 

141 

Other  fevers  .... 

1,479 

2 

67 

Dysentery     .... 

1,561 

52 

108 

Hepatic  congestion 

, 

1.010 

5 

68 

Hepatic  abscess 

. 

156 

95 

15 

Heat  stroke  .... 

174 

52 

8 

Cholera  

107 

89 

2 

Contagious  diseases 

18,049 

i        W 

1,650 

Total  . 

• 

42,951 

649 

2,769 

The  death-rate  for  malaria  shown  by  this  table  is  much  below 
the  truth,  because  large  numbers  of  the  cases  are  invalided  before 
death ;  and  in  others  the  fatal  result,  really  due  to  malaria,  is 
often  ascribed  to  intercurrent  affections,  such  as  pneumonia  and 
dysentery. 

From  the  same  report  we  find  that  out  of  305,927  persons  com- 
posing the  European  and  Native  Armies  and  the  gaol  population, 
no  less  than  102,640,  or  just  about  one- third,  were  admitted  into 
hospital  for  malarial  fever  during  the  year ;  while  among  the  entire 
population  of  India  no  fewer  than  4,919,591  deaths  are  attributed 
to  fever — that  is,  a  mortality  exceeding  13,000  deaths  every  day. 

As  a  whole,  however,  India  is  by  no  means  an  intensely  mala- 
rious country.  The  attacks  from  the  disease  among  the  French 
troops  in  Algeria  vary  from  65  per  cent,  to  221  per  cent,  of  the 

*  This  paper  was  read  at  the  Meeting  of  the  Royal  Colonial  Institute,  held 
on  November  10,  and  the  proofs  have  been  specially  revised  by  Major  Ross  for  THE 
EMPIRE  REVIEW.  It  is  reproduced  here  by  kind  permission  of  the  Council. 


488  The  Empire  Review 

strength  per  annum,  the  death-rate  reaching  2  per  cent,  of  the 
strength.  Among  the  British  troops  in  Sierra  Leone  from  1892 
to  1898,  the  admission  rate  averaged  213  per  cent.,  and  the  death- 
rate  4*2  per  cent,  per  annum.  In  Italy  the  mortality  from 
malaria  has  been  estimated  to  amount  to  15,000  deaths  annually. 
It  must  be  understood,  however,  as  regards  the  Colonies,  that 
these  figures  give  no  adequate  idea  of  the  death-rate,  owing  to 
the  large  amount  of  invaliding  from  them  which  takes  place. 

Another  method  of  estimating  the  prevalence  of  malaria  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  large  numbers  of  native  children  in  mala- 
rious places  can  always  be  shown  to  be  infected  with  the  parasites 
which  cause  the  disease.  Thus  numerous  scientific  expeditions 
have  shown  that  they  can  be  detected  in  over  half  the  children 
under  five  years  of  age  in  many  localities  in  Africa.  This  suggests 
that  nearly  all  the  children  under  that  age  suffer  from  the  disease ; 
and  there  are  reasons  for  supposing  that  most  of  the  great  infantile 
mortality  among  the  natives  in  tropical  Africa  is  due  to  it. 

But,  besides  its  immense  prevalence,  malaria  has  other 
characteristics  which  greatly  enhance  its  maleficence.  It  occurs 
most  of  all  in  the  richest  and  most  fertile  tracts,  and  especially 
attacks  those  engaged  in  various  agrarian  pursuits.  It  is,  there- 
fore, particularly  the  enemy  of  the  pioneer,  the  traveller,  the 
planter,  the  engineer,  and  the  soldier — that  is,  of  those  whose 
labours  are  essential  to  the  development  of  tropical  Colonies. 
It  may  be  safely  maintained,  not  only  that  many  important 
undertakings  and  industries  in  the  tropics  have  been  ruined  by  it, 
but  that  the  progress  of  whole  countries — some  of  which  possess 
the  greatest  natural  resources — has  been  retarded  in  consequence 
of  this  pernicious  malady.  The  question  how  best  to  contend 
against  the  scourge  becomes,  therefore,  one  of  the  greatest 
economical  importance  for  an  Empire  like  ours,  which  is  so  closely 
concerned  with  the  tropics ;  and  I  propose  to  devote  this  paper 
to  an  examination  of  this  question  from  a  practical  point  of 
view. 

Science  has  fully  established  three  great  laws  concerning 
malaria :  first,  that  it  is  caused  by  numbers  of  microscopical 
parasites  which  live  and  propagate  themselves  in  the  blood  ; 
secondly,  that  these  parasites  are  carried  from  sick  persons  to 
healthy  ones  by  the  agency  of  a  genus  of  mosquitoes  called 
Anopheles ;  thirdly,  that  these  kinds  of  mosquitoes  breed  prin- 
cipally in  shallow  and  stagnant  terrestrial  waters.  These  laws 
are  held  by  experts  to  satisfy  nearly  all  the  known  facts  about  the 
disease.  For  instance,  it  has  been  recognised  for  centuries  that 
malaria  is  connected  with  marshes;  and  this  fact  was  long 
explained  by  the  hypothesis  that  the  malarial  poison  emanates 
from  such  waters— whence,  indeed,  the  name  malaria.  The 


Malaria  in  India  and  the  Colonies  489 

hypothesis,  however,  was  never  verified  by  experiment,  and  we 
now  know  it  to  have  been  not  precisely  correct. 

The  germ  of  the  disease  itself  does  not  emanate  from  the 
marsh,  but  the  carrier  of  the  germ — the  Anopheles— does  so. 
How  accurately  this  discovery  fits  the  circumstances  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  yellow  fever  also  is  carried  by 
mosquitoes,  but  is  not  connected  with  marshes,  because  the 
insects  which  convey  it,  and  which  are  called  Stegomijia,  do  not 
breed  in  terrestrial  waters,  but  in  tubs  and  pots  lying  in  the 
vicinity  of  houses.  And  the  laws  referred  to  have  recently  been 
still  further  vindicated  by  the  actual  extirpation  of  malaria  on  a 
large  scale  by  measures  adopted  against  the  implicated  mosquitoes. 
Four  years  have  now  elapsed  since  these  great  laws  were  estab- 
lished ;  and  a  vast  mass  of  information  has  been  accumulated 
regarding  the  actual  working  of  the  preventive  measures  which 
have  been  based  upon  them.  It  may  now,  therefore,  be  of  interest 
to  discuss  and  compare  these  measures  in  some  detail — especially 
as  the  public  still  remains  imperfectly  educated  with  regard  to  them. 

Preventive  measures  against  malaria  should  be  clearly  divided 
into  two  classes — namely,  those  which  the  individual  can  adopt  to 
protect  himself  against  infection,  and  those  which  a  State  or 
municipality  may  adopt  in  order  to  protect  the  public  at  large. 
The  first  class  have  been  so  largely  discussed  that  it  is  unnecessary 
to  deal  with  them  at  length  in  this  paper.  On  the  whole,  I  think 
that,  for  the  tropics  at  least,  mosq  uito-nets  constitute  the  most 
useful  prophylactic.  It  will  be  the  experience  of  almost  everyone 
who  has  lived  in  the  tropics  that  the  majority  of  mosquito-bites 
are  inflicted  during  the  sleep  of  the  victim.  This  is  especially  the 
case  with  Anopheles,  which  is  a  nocturnal  mosquito.  I  suppose 
it  would  not  be  incorrect  if  we  estimated  that  at  least  ninety  per 
cent,  of  the  bites  of  this  mosquito  are  given  at  night  in  the  case 
of  persons  who  do  not  use  nets  ;  and  therefore  such  use  of  nets  is 
likely  to  prevent  something  like  the  same  percentage  of  the  chances 
of  infection  with  malarial  fever.  In  other  words,  this  means 
that  persons  using  mosquito-nets  carefully  and  punctiliously 
during  sleep  would  have  only  ninety  per  cent,  the  chances  of 
infection  to  which  a  person  who  neglects  them  would  be  open — a 
very  great  gain  indeed.  Indeed,  it  has  already  been  reported  from 
many  malarious  localities  that  the  mere  knowledge  which  we 
possess  regarding  the  mode  of  infection  by  mosquitos  has,  of  itself, 
sufficed  largely  to  reduce  malaria  amongst  educated  Europeans 
and  others  who  take  intelligent  advantage  of  the  facts  which 
science  has  revealed.  For  example,  of  the  numerous  gentlemen 
who  have  been  investigating  malaria  in  the  most  deadly  climates, 
very  few  have  become  infected,  and  many  of  them  inform  me 
that  their  only  precaution  has  been  the  mosquito-net. 


490  The  Empire  Review 

Another  precaution,  scarcely  less  useful,  is  that  afforded  by 
the  use  of  punkahs  and  fans.  These  not  only  drive  away  most 
noxious  insects,  but  keep  the  body  cool  and  comfortable  even  in 
the  greatest  heat  of  the  tropics.  Indeed,  I  am  inclined  to 
attribute  the  comparative  health  enjoyed  by  Europeans  in  India 
largely  to  the  constant  use  of  the  punkah,  and  the  comparative 
unhealthiness  of  the  European  in  Africa  largely  to  the  neglect  of 
it.  Unfortunately,  labour  cannot  always  be  procured  for  the 
employment  of  the  punkah,  and  the  machinery  required  for 
mechanical  fans  of  various  kinds  remains  still  somewhat  unsuit- 
able for  use  in  the  tropics.  A  prophylactic  which  is  much 
advocated  consists  in  the  constant  use  of  quinine.  This  drug 
cannot  really  be  said  to  be  a  preventive  against  malaria,  because, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  does  not  exclude  the  parasites,  but  only 
destroys  them  after  they  have  effected  an  entry  into  the  body. 
To  be  of  real  benefit  it  must  be  consumed  constantly,  and  in 
considerable  doses,  and  this  is  apt  to  impair  the  digestion  and 
have  other  unpleasant  effects  which  the  individual  is  always  loth 
to  expose  himself  to.  On  the  whole,  I  consider  it  to  be  of  much 
less  value  than  the  mosquito-net,  and  recommend  it  only  when 
the  individual  is  exposed  to  peculiarly  great  danger. 

A  fourth  personal,  or  rather  domestic,  prophylactic  is  the 
wire-gauze  screen  to  the  windows,  and  it  is  one  which  is  very 
useful  where  it  can  be  employed.  Unfortunately,  few  Europeans 
in  the  tropics  own  the  houses  in  which  they  live,  and  still  fewer 
are  willing  to  go  to  the  considerable  expense  involved  by  these 
screens.  They  should,  however,  be  employed  for  hospitals, 
barracks,  railway-stations,  rest-houses,  hotels,  and  places  where 
measures  against  mosquitoes  are  too  difficult  and  costly.  It  is  to 
be  regretted  that  such  screens,  which  are  so  largely  employed  for 
private  houses  in  the  Southern  States  of  America,  are  not  more 
used  in  the  better  class  of  houses  in  our  tropical  possessions. 
Lastly,  a  precaution,  which  also  can  scarcely  be  called  one  for 
individual  adoption,  is  that  of  segregation.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  mosquitoes  acquire  the  infection  principally  from  native 
children  in  malarious  places;  and  consequently  the  farther  we 
live  from  this  source  of  contagion  the  healthier  we  are  likely  to 
remain.  In  India  the  Europeans  are  almost  always  segregated  in 
special  quarters  and  cantonments — a  practice  to  which  we  must 
largely  ascribe  their  comparative  immunity  from  malaria.  But 
in  Africa  this  is  by  no  means  always  the  case.  Many  of  those 
who  have  studied  the  subject  practically  in  the  tropics  are  most 
emphatic  regarding  the  benefits  of  segregation;  and  it  is  only 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  farther  we  live  from  probable 
sources  of  infection  the  healthier  we  shall  be. 

But  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  whole  subject  of 


Malaria  in  India  and  the  Colonies  491 

the  prevention  of  malaria  is  contained  within  these  formulas  of 
personal  prophylaxis.  They  will,  indeed,  enable  individuals  to 
protect  themselves  to  a  large  extent ;  and  if  strenuous  efforts  are 
made  to  instil  them  into  the  general  population,  it  is  to  be 
supposed  that  a  certain  percentage  of  the  public  will  take  the 
trouble  to  adopt  them.  But  every  practical  sanitarian  knows  by 
this  time  that  if  we  depend  solely  upon  personal  prophylaxis  for 
prevention  of  any  disease  we  rely  upon  a  broken  reed.  The  fact 
is  that  the  vast  mass  of  the  people  will  never  believe  in,  or  even 
seek  to  know,  the  principles  of  personal  hygiene,  and  will 
certainly  not  adopt  them  in  spite  of  all  our  efforts.  As  a  single 
example,  the  benefits  of  vaccination,  though  accepted  as  an 
axiom  of  sanitary  science,  are  neither  believed  in  nor  willingly 
adopted  by  a  large  percentage  of  people  living  even  in  a  civilised 
country  like  Great  Britain;  and  it  is  precisely  for  this  reason 
that  State  interference  in  the  form  of  compulsory  vaccination  has 
been  found  necessary.  It  is,  therefore,  quite  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  the  mass  of  the  populace  in  barbarous  countries 
will,  even  perhaps  for  centuries,  accept  the  discovery  that  malaria 
is  borne  by  mosquitoes.  Even  now,  four  years  after  the 
discovery  was  made,  the  bulk  of  Europeans  in  Africa,  as  I  am 
continually  informed,  still  reject  it.  If  we  depend  for  the 
prevention  of  the  disease  on  the  conversion  of  the  public,  we 
must  wait  many  years  for  definite  results. 

From  these  considerations  it  follows  that  for  immediate 
results,  at  least  in  tropical  and  barbarous  countries,  we  must  look 
chiefly  to  State  action  which  does  not  depend  upon  the  conversion 
of  the  public,  but  only  on  that  of  the  rulers ;  it  can  be  adopted 
immediately ;  and,  moreover,  will  benefit  the  largest  number  of 
people  for  the  least  amount  of  trouble  and  expense.  State 
measures  far  the  repression  of  malaria  have  already  been  tried  in 
Sierra  Leone,  Havana,  Lagos,  Ismailia,  the  German  Colonies, 
Hongkong,  and  many  other  places.  They  are  (1)  drainage  of  the 
soil,  (2)  other  measures  against  mosquitoes,  (3)  attention  to  many 
details  suggested  by  the  recent  discoveries.  That  such  State 
measures  actually  have  the  effect  of  reducing  malaria  on  a  large 
scale  has  been  known  from  the  earliest  times — from  the  times 
when  the  Eomans  drained  large  portions  of  Italy ;  and  I  shall 
now  show  that  similar  successes  have  been  obtained  quite 
recently  in  some  of  the  places  just  mentioned. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  instance  is  that  of  Havana.  Early 
in  1901  the  Americans  demonstrated  that  yellow  fever  is  carried 
by  mosquitoes  of  the  genus  Stegomyia.  General  Wood,  the 
American  Governor,  did  not  lose  a  single  moment  in  acting  upon 
this  information  ;  and  immediately  placed  every  facility  in  the 
hands  of  his  chief  sanitary  officer,  Major  Gorgas,  for  eradicating 


492  The  Empire  Review 

the  disease  from  Havana  by  attacking  these  mosquitoes.  The 
most  energetic  measures  were  taken  in  the  way  of  clearing  the 
town  of  the  larvae  and  of  destroying  presumably  infected  insects 
in  the  houses.  As  everyone  knows,  the  result  was  the  immediate 
disappearance  of  yellow  fever.  Since  then  similar  efforts  have 
been  continued  by  the  sanitary  staff  of  the  town,  with  the  result 
that  there  has  been  no  reappearance  of  the  disease. 

Moreover,  the  same  measures  have  led  to  improvement  as 
regards  the  other  great  mosquito-borne  disease,  malaria.  Colonel 
Gorgas  had  been  kind  enough  to  write  me  as  follows  :  "I  think 
the  results  of  the  work  in  Havana  almost  as  striking  from  a 
malarial  point  of  view  as  from  that  of  yellow  fever.  In  1900,  the 
year  before  mosquito  work,  we  had  325  deaths  in  the  city  from 
malaria ;  in  1901,  the  first  year  of  mosquito  work,  151  deaths 
from  that  disease ;  in  1902,  the  second  year,  77  deaths,  and  for 
the  first  five  moths  of  1903,  21  deaths.  Taking  into  consideration 
the  fact  that  for  a  long  time  a  considerable  number  of  deaths  due 
to  obscure  fevers  which  are  not  malarial  will  be  reported  as  due 
to  malaria,  this  indicates  a  pretty  close  approximation  to  the 
extinction  of  malaria  in  Havana,  or,  at  least,  gives  a  very  good 
hope  of  its  extinction."  It  should  be  remembered  that  Havana  is 
a  city  of  250,000  inhabitants ;  and  obviously  the  instance  gives 
decisive  evidence  regarding  the  good  effect  of  State  measures 
directed  against  mosquito-borne  diseases,  recording,  as  it  does  a 
reduction  of  80  per  cent,  in  the  malaria. 

At  the  same  time  Sir  William  MacGregor,  Governor  of  Lagos, 
undertook  similar  measures  against  malaria  in  that  Colony,  long 
known  as  one  of  the  most  unhealthy  of  British  possessions.  He 
had  many  great  difficulties  to  contend  with,  not  the  least  among 
which  is  the  fact  that  Lagos  itself  is  built  on  a  low  and  swampy 
territory  and  is  surrounded  by  dense  forests.  Sir  William 
MacGregor,  assisted  by  his  able  medical  department,  attacked 
the  disease  by  every  means  in  his  power — by  gradually  draining 
the  swamps,  by  protection  of  the  houses  with  gauze,  by  encourag- 
ing the  use  of  quinine,  and  by  arranging  numerous  lectures  for 
the  instruction  of  the  people  regarding  tropical  sanitation. 
Owing  to  the  difficulties,  good  results  are  only  slowly  being 
arrived  at ;  but  he  has  kindly  informed  me  that  "  malaria  has  lost 
its  terrors  for  us  in  Lagos." 

A  third  instance  is  that  of  Hongkong.  In  the  medical  report 
for  1902  it  is  said  that  the  deaths  of  the  Chinese  from  malarial 
fever  were  887  in  1900,  541  in  1901,  and  393  in  1902.  Moreover, 
the  admissions  to  the  Civil  Hospital  for  malaria  in  1902  were 
only  349,  as  compared  with  787  in  1901.  These  figures  imply 
a  reduction  of  over  50  per  cent,  in  the  malaria. 

In  Cape  Coast,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  Gold  Coast, 


Malaria  in  India  and  the  Colonies  493 

State  sanitary  measures  were  put  on  an  improved  footing  by 
Sir  Matthew  Nathan  on  the  recommendation  of  Dr.  Logan 
Taylor  of  the  Liverpool  School  of  Tropical  Medicine.  The 
Chamber  of  Commerce  has  recently  reported  very  favourably  of 
the  results,  and  says  that  "  during  the  past  six  months  the  white 
residents  here  have  been  almost  entirely  free  from  malarial 
attacks,  and  the  natives,  whilst  suffering  from  the  effects  of  an 
exceptionally  cold  rainy  season,  have  also  been,  as  far  as  is 
known,  practically  immune  to  malaria." 

Dr.  Travers  reports  striking  improvements  in  the  malaria  rate 
at  Klang,  in  the  Malay  Peninsula.  During  1901,  116  cases  were 
admitted  into  hospital;  but  in  1902,  after  certain  extensive 
drainage  works  had  been  undertaken,  the  admissions  fell  to  only 
11.  Similarly,  at  Port  Swettenham  there  were  136  admissions  in 
1901,  and  only  15  in  1902  after  the  operations. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  and  rapid  results  have  been  obtained 
at  Ismailia  on  the  Suez  Canal.    At  the  end  of  1802,  Sir  William 
MacGregor  and  I  visited  the  place  at  the  invitation  of  the  Suez 
Canal  Company,  in  order  to  report  on  the  best  method  of  dealing 
with  the  malaria,  which  had  long  been  extremely  prevalent  in  the 
town.    The    company  maintains    at    Ismailia    a  very  effective 
medical  department,  and  possesses  accurate  statistics  extending 
over  many  years ;  and  the  campaign  at  Ismailia  therefore  promised 
to  be  a  typical  one.    In  a  little  over  six  months  after  our  visit 
the  company  reported  that  one  class  of  mosquitoes  have  been 
practically  banished  from  the  town,  and  that  progress  was  very 
satisfactory.      Major    Penton,   K.A.M.C.,   who  visited   Ismailia 
about  that  time,  writes  to  me,  not  only  that  the  mosquitoes  have 
almost  disappeared,  but  that  there  is  a  great  reduction  in  the 
fever.    He  says :  "  Coincident  with  the  destruction  of  mosquitoes 
and  their  larvae,  malaria  fever  at  Ismailia  this  year  shows  a  most 
striking  improvement.     All  medical  officers  here  are  agreed  upon 
this.     Statistics  show  that  up  to  the  present  it  is  the  healthiest 
year  on  record.    Dr.  Pressat  informed  me  that  from  January  1 
to  June  30  this  year  there  were  only  three  cases  of  malarial  fever 
in  hospital,  against  52  for  the  same  period  last  year,  and  that 
throughout  Ismailia  there  were  569  cases  of  fever  from  January  1 
to  May  30,  1902  (an  average  year),  against  72  for  the  same  period 
this  year.    It  is  more  than  probable,  moreover,  that  many  of  the 
cases  were  relapses  from  previous  infection.     Bearing  in  view  the 
remarkable  diminution  in  malarial  fevers  that  has  attended  the 
present  operations  against  mosquitoes,  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  when  they  are  completed,  malarial  fever  will  practically  have 
disappeared."      The    reduction  in  the  fever    already  amounts, 
according  to  Major  Penton's  figures,  to  87  per  cent. 

Many  similar  instances  occurring  in  the  German  and  French 


494  The  Empire  Review 

Colonies,  and  in  Italy,  have  been  recorded  ;  and  altogether  it 
must  be  admitted  as  proved  by  experience  that  malaria  can  be 
very  largely  reduced  in  tropical  towns  by  the  measures  now 
known  to  us.  But  we  should  particularly  note  that,  in  spite  of 
this  fact  having  been  recognised  for  some  time,  little  has  been 
done  in  very  many  places  in  this  connection — at  least,  so  far  as 
can  be  judged  from  published  information.  And  as  the  prevention 
of  malaria  is  of  really  great  economical  importance,  not  only  for 
trade  but  for  general  administration,  we  are  now  forced  to  ask 
what  is  the  best  method  for  encouraging  quicker  advances  in  the 
future. 

The  delay  is  really  due  to  two  causes — first,  a  natural  hesita- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  authorities  to  expend  the  funds  necessary 
for  such  a  campaign ;  and  secondly,  a  hesitation  to  add  to  the 
burdens  of  the  medical  and  engineering  departments  of  the 
Colonies.  To  be  properly  executed,  the  work  against  malaria 
involves  considerable  expense  for  drainage  or  other  measures 
against  mosquitoes,  and  for  the  remaining  methods  of  defence 
just  mentioned;  and,  besides  this  expense,  many  government 
and  municipal  officials  must  of  course  be  put  to  serious  trouble 
in  regard  to  the  supervision  of  the  required  works  and  the 
collection  of  statistics  and  the  preparation  of  reports.  Hence, 
as  with  every  other  new  movement,  that  against  malaria  will  be 
generally  taken  up  only  after  there  is  clear  evidence  in  regard 
to  the  advisability  of  taking  it  up  at  all.  Moreover,  even  when 
the  authorities  have  decided  to  take  it  up,  they  must  be  guided 
by  experts  who  possess  not  only  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  but  also  a  direct  knowledge  of  the  local  conditions  of  the 
places  for  which  the  campaign  is  proposed.  Still  further,  the 
operations  against  malaria  will  often  require  the  services  of 
special  executive  officers  appointed  for  that  work  alone.  Now 
I  think  it  may  be  freely  admitted,  with  regard  to  the  first  point, 
that  the  authorities  in  all  our  tropical  possessions  are  now  fully 
alive  to  the  advisability  of  attacking  the  disease  as  quickly  as 
their  means  allow;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  their  organisation 
is  not  yet  sufficiently  perfect  to  enable  them  to  give  effect  to  such 
desires. 

What,  then,  should  next  be  done  in  order  to  hasten  this 
campaign  ?  It  seems  to  me  that  the  best  answer  can  be  obtained 
from  a  series  of  resolutions  recently  passed  by  the  Chambers  of 
Commerce  in  Liverpool,  associated  with  members  of  the  Chambers 
of  Manchester  and  London  and  of  the  Congress  of  the  Eoyal 
Institute  of  Public  Health.  This  meeting  recommended,  with 
special  reference  to  West  Africa,  that  a  fully  qualified  Medical 
Officer  of  Health  should  be  appointed  to  each  of  the  principjfc1 
West  African  towns ;  that  this  officer  should  be  supervised  by  a 


Malaria  in  India  and  the  Colonies  495 

Sanitary  Commissioner  working  on  the  Indian  model  of  organisa- 
tion ;  and  that  an  annual  sanitary  report  regarding  the  West 
African  Colonies  should  be  regularly  published. 

The  organisation  here  referred  to  is  simply  that  which  long 
experience  in  India  has  shown  to  be  necessary  for  the  proper 
conduct  of  sanitary  affairs.  In  India  an  admirable  sanitary  report 
is  published  yearly,  giving  general  statistics  of  the  whole  Indian 
Empire,  together  with  details  regarding  sanitary  matters  in  the 
principal  stations,  and  other  useful  items.  It  is  obvious  that, 
without  such  a  report,  both  the  public  and  the  Government  are 
likely  to  remain  much  in  the  dark  regarding  local  sanitary  affairs ; 
while  no  one  can  know  without  statistics  what  is  the  exact 
degree  of  unhealthiness  of  a  particular  place,  or  what  is  actually 
being  done  there  to  improve  the  sick  rate.  Of  course,  with  many 
governments  that  do  not  publish  annual  reports  of  this  nature, 
some  facts  can  nevertheless  be  unearthed  from  other  publications ; 
but  this  is  a  very  cumbersome  substitute  for  the  specific  report 
of  the  kind  referred  to.  The  mere  fact  that  an  account  of  all 
sanitary  efforts  will  be  regularly  published  in  such  a  report  is  of 
itself  sufficient  to  stimulate  local  medical  officers  and  others  to 
active  exertion.  Similarly  the  appointment  of  a  Sanitary  Com- 
missioner for  a  given  district  is  also  a  measure  which  Indian 
experience  proves  to  be  necessary.  The  function  of  such  a  Com- 
missioner is  to  travel  from  place  to  place  within  his  district ;  to 
study  the  condition  of  sanitary  affairs  and  the  efforts  which  are 
made  to  improve  them ;  and  to  report  directly  on  the  subject  to 
headquarters.  Sanitary  Commissioners  therefore  exert  a  most 
stimulating  effect  on  local  governors,  municipalities,  and  sanitary 
and  medical  officials. 

I  have  only  to  mention  as  an  example  the  work  which  has  so 
long  been  done  by  Colonel  King  in  Madras.  Nor  is  this  the 
Sanitary  Commissioner's  only  function.  Being  presumably  an 
e::pert,  his  advice  is  always  at  the  disposal  of  local  bodies  and 
persons  in  regard  to  difficult  sanitary  questions  in  dispute— a 
most  important  item.  Lastly,  the  local  Health  Officer  is  equally 
necessary  in  any  town  of  considerable  size.  I  mean  by  Health 
Officer  a  man  wnose  sole  duty  it  is  to  attend  to  the  sanitary 
business  of  his  area.  Medical  men  are  often  given  the  duties  of 
a  Health  Officer  in  addition  to  their  own  medical  work ;  but  this, 
though  possible  in  very  small  districts,  is  not  advisable  where 
both  sanitary  and  medical  duties  are  apt  to  be  heavy.  In  such 
cases,  the  experience,  I  venture  to  say,  of  every  sanitarian  and 
medical  man  in  this  country  shows  that  the  sanitary  duties  are 
apt  on  emergency  to  be  neglected  for  the  medical  ones— a  thing 
which,  of  course,  is  opposed  to  the  principle  of  the  greatest 
welfare  of  the  greatest  number, 


496  The  Empire  Review 

These  resolutions,  then,  simply  asked  for  a  definite  centralised 
sanitary  organisation  in  place  of  the  one  at  present  in  existence. 
The  latter  is  (outside  India)  essentially  a  decentralised  system, 
in  which  local  sanitary  affairs  are  entirely  in  the  hands  of  local 
authorities ;  who  act  merely  on  the  advice  and  by  the  means  of 
their  own  subordinate  medical  officers ;  who  are  neither  stimu- 
lated nor  controlled  by  superior  authority  ;  and  who  are  not  even 
always  compelled  to  give  a  regular  and  sufficient  account  of  their 
sanitary  doings.  Those  of  us  who  are  familiar  with  practical 
sanitation  will  easily  recognise  what  such  a  system  means.  The 
local  authorities  may,  in  fact,  do  as  little  as  they  please ;  and  as 
sanitary  expenditure  always  remains  the  Cinderella  of  the  local 
budget,  this  may  sometimes  mean  practically  nothing  at  all.  As 
precise  information  regarding  the  sickness  and  the  measures 
taken  to  deal  with  it  cannot  easily  be  obtained,  even  public 
criticism  in  the  press  is  often  impossible ;  and  those  who  live  in, 
or  are  interested  in,  the  Colonies  concerned  are  powerless  to 
produce  any  change  for  the  better.  The  system  now  proposed, 
then,  aims  at  removing  these  defects,  by  compelling  the  local 
authorities  to  show  a  regular  record  of  their  sanitary  works, 
and  by  exposing  that  work  to  periodical  scrutiny  by  experts. 

Of  course,  it  may  be  found  advisable  after  discussion  to 
modify  the  details,  while  retaining  the  principles,  of  the  proposals 
of  the  Chambers  of  Commerce.  I  have  recently  had  the  privilege 
of  hearing  the  personal  views  on  these  points  of  Mr.  Chamberlain, 
to  whom  we  are  all  so  much  indebted  for  his  far-seeing  and 
powerful  efforts  on  behalf  of  tropical  medicine  and  sanitation. 
He  thinks  that  there  are  several  serious  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  appointing  permanent  Sanitary  Commissioners — principally 
that  they  themselves,  owing  to  the  highly  expert  nature  of  their 
functions,  may  prove  difficult  of  control  and  may  commit  the 
Colonies  to  unwise  expenditure.  But  he  was  good  enough  to 
suggest  an  alternative  scheme — namely,  that  several  learned 
societies  might  periodically  be  asked  to  send  out  special  Com- 
missioners for  the  purpose  of  examining  and  reporting  upon  the 
sanitary  affairs  of  specified  tropical  Crown  Colonies;  and  that 
such  reports,  after  editing  by  the  societies  referred  to,  mignt 
then  be  submitted  to  Government  for  consideration.  Com- 
missioners of  this  kind  would  cost  less,  and,  not  being  servants 
of  Government,  would  be  able  to  give  entirely  unprejudiced 
opinions.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  suggestion  is  a  very 
valuable  one.  Mr.  Chamberlain  also  thought  that  there  would 
be  no  difficulty  about  the  regular  publication  of  statistics. 

A  modification  will  also  be  necessary  for  India.  There, 
Sanitary  Commissioners  and  Health  Officers  already  exist,  but 
are  fully  occupied  with  their  existing  duties,  which  I  know 


Malaria  in  India  and  the  Colonies  497 

personally  are  arduous  enough.  The  proper  course  for  the 
Indian  Government  is  to  appoirt  special  Malarial  Commissioners. 
There  should  be  one  (or  more  if  possible)  for  the  civil  population 
—to  organise  active  measures  against  the  disease  in  some  of  the 
large  malarious  towns,  and  especially  in  the  planting  districts — 
and  another  for  the  military  stations.  I  am  not  a  little  astonished 
that  the  latter  has  not  been  appointed  years  ago.  The  Corn- 
mander-in-Chief  has  at  his  disposal  numbers  of  able  medical  men 
easily  available  for  this  duty;  and,  as  shown  in  the  Indian 
statistics,  the  admissions  for  malaria  among  both  the  white  and 
native  troops  amount  to  no  fewer  than  about  60,000  a  year.  This 
enormous  sick  list  not  only  causes  a  great  expense  to  Government, 
but,  in  accordance  with  the  well-known  laws  of  Malaria,  produces 
much  sickness  and  invaliding  among  the  troops  in  the  form  of 
relapses  directly  they  are  sent  on  active  service.  Now  I  myself 
have  no  doubt  whatever,  and  the  instances  of  Havana  and 
Ismailia  support  me,  that  these  admissions  could  easily  be 
reduced  by  one-half,  or  more,  if  proper  general  measures  were 
taken  against  the:  disease  in  the  military  stations  and  barracks. 
In  order  to  expedite  such  measures,  one  or  more  military  doctors 
should  be  appointed  to  go  from  station  to  station  for  the  purpose 
of  organising  and  directing  them. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  rest  assured  that,  if  we  wish  for  a 
continuous  policy  against  malaria  and  the  other  great  diseases 
in  the  tropical  Colonies,  we  must  reorganise  our  sanitary  system. 
I  do  not  mean  that  we  may  hope  for  no  advance  even  with  our 
present  system,  but  such  advances  will,  I  fear,  be  only  local,  and 
dependent  solely  on  the  individual  energy  of  local  governors  or 
medical  men.  I  think  that  our  ambitions  should  not  be  reduced 
to  such  narrow  limits.  On  the  whole,  perhaps,  malaria  can  be 
dealt  with  more  easily  and  effectually  than  any  other  great  disease 
— than  tuberculosis,  cholera,  or  plague,  for  instance ;  and  at  the 
same  time  it  constitutes  a  most  serious  bar  to  the  development  of 
many  countries.  In  these  circumstances,  I  think  that  we  should 
not  rest  content  merely  with  local  and  intermittent  efforts,  but 
should  endeavour  to  formulate  some  scheme  which  will  ensure 
a  general  advance  against  the  enemy.  I  should  like  to  see  the 
disease  reduced  in  every  tropical  town  as  it  has  been  reduced 
in  Havana,  Lagos,  and  Ismailia;  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
this  should  not  be  done.  Do  not  let  us  rest  until  we  see  that 
the  country  has  become  fully  alive  to  its  responsibilities  in  this 
matter. 

KONALD  Boss 

(Professor  of  Tropical  Medicine, 
University  of  Liverpool). 

VOL.  VI.— No.  35.  2  K 


498  The  Empire  Review 


THE  HUMOURS  OF  ANTIPODEAN  POLITICS 

A  COLONIAL  parliament  is  a  motley  gathering.  The  uncon- 
ventional or  bizarre  in  dress  or  speech  or  manner  is  too  common 
to  attract  marked  attention.  In  the  New  Zealand  House  there 
are  still  a  few  wealthy  and  cultured  "  gentlemen  of  the  old 
school "  ;  but  there  is  also  a  member  who  acted  as  lamp-lighter 
to  the  borough  that  became  his  constituency,  and  another  who 
follows,  in  the  intervals  of  his  parliamentary  duties,  the  humble 
avocation  of  a  cobbler.  Sutor  et  bomts  et  solus  fornwsus  est 
et  rex.  Cheek  by  jowl  with  "  squatter,"  journalist  and  barrister 
sit  tinsmith,  carpenter  and  shoemaker.  And  these  latter 
are  by  no  means  the  least  capable  or  least  energetic  of  our 
legislators.  The  "  Oxford  bleat "  is  still  occasionally  heard  in 
debate;  but  the  homely  vernacular  of  the  factory  and  workshop 
is  more  usual,  and  frequently  more  effective.  The  New  Zealand 
Cincinnatus  was  a  boiler-maker.  When  he  received  his  "call  to 
the  Lords  "—the  Governor's  warrant  of  appointment  to  a  seat  in 
the  Upper  House — the  messenger  found  him  inside  a  boiler, 
attired  in  rusty  dungaree,  and  manfully  hammering  at  the  rivets. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  our  political  life  is  wanting  in 
les  esprite  fins.  The  Colony's  first  premier,  for  example,  a  witty 
and  eloquent  Irishman,  James  Edward  Fitzgerald,  bequeathed  a 
rich  legacy  of  anecdote.  It  is  told  of  him,  that  on  his  first 
election  he  was  subjected  at  the  hustings  to  much  interruption 
by  a  butcher  who  enjoyed  a  dual  notoriety  as  a  raucous  "  heckler  " 
in  local  politics  and  as  owner  of  the  first  sausage-machine  im- 
ported into  the  new  settlement.  The  crowd  wearied  of  the 
butcher's  interjections  and  heckled  him  in  turn.  "  Leave  politics 
and  go  back  to  your  sausage-machine,"  called  one.  "Yah!" 
retorted  the  excited  butcher,  "if  I  had  the  candidate  in  my 
sausage-machine,  I'd  make  mincemeat  of  him!"  Whereupon 
Fitzgerald,  with  an  immobile  face :  "  Is  thy  servant  a  dog,  that 
thou  shouldst  do  this  thing  ?  " 

Of  the  faceticc  attributed  to  Mr.  W.  B.  Mantell,  for  many- 
years  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Council,  the  best  perhaps  is  a 
quip  at  the  expense  of  the  late  Sir  Julius  Vogel,  who  inaugurated 


The  Humours  of  Antipodean  Politics  499 

the  Public  Works  Policy  and  "  borrowing  boom  "  of  the  seventies. 
On  returning  from  London,  after  the  successful  flotation  of  one 
of  his  big  loans,  Sir  Julius  was  welcomed  with  great  jubilation 
by  the  citizens  of  Wellington,  who  honoured  the  popular  Hebrew 
statesman  with  a  torch-light  procession  through  the  town . 
Mantell,  an  uncompromising  critic  of  his  borrowing  schemes,  did 
not  join  in  the  demonstration,  and,  being  met  in  a  by-street  by 
a  friend  who  asked  why  he  was  not  at  the  torch-light  procession, 
promptly  retorted,  "  Le  Jew  ne  vaut  pas  la  chandelle." 

The  most  illiterate  members  of  the  House  are  often  the  most 
grandiloquent  advocates  for  what  they  usually  describe  as  our 
" splendid  system  of  national  education"  ("splendid"  is,  in 
New  Zealand,  an  "  essential  epithet  "of  "  education  ").  One  of 
this  class  was  about  to  refer,  in  terms  of  eulogy  doubtless,  to 
the  exemplary  educational  establishment  in  his  own  particular 
"  model  borough."  "Sir,"  said  he,  "  I  have  a  school  in  my  eye." 
41  No,"  was  the  prompt  interjection  of  the  wit  of  the  House, 
"only  a  pupil." 

But  it  is  rather  to  those  social  incongruities  that  form  a 
pleasantly  distinctive  feature  of  private  life  in  the  colonies  that 
we  owe  most  of  what  is  amusing  in  the  conduct  of  political 
affairs.  A  former  Governor,  in  response  to  an  invitation  to  a 
Parliamentary  dinner  at  Government  House,  received  from  one 
member  an  answer  in  which  the  invitation  was  courteously 

declined  on  theground   that  "  Mrs.  S and  me  never  meal 

out."    Mr.  S privately  admitted  that  the  real  reason  was,  he 

had  no  evening  clothes,  or,  as  he  expressed  it,  "  dress  suit,"  but 
did  not  like  to  say  so. 

A  member  who  was  at  onco  uneducated  and  pretentious 
provided  the  gaiety  of  three  successive  Parliaments  by  a  ludicrous 
combination  of  purism  and  pedantry  with  incorrigible  ignorance. 
He  condemmed  a  "school  reader"  prepared  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Minister  for  Education,  on  the  ground  that  it  con- 
tained "coarse  expressions" — "quite  unfit  for  the  ears  of  boys, 
to  say  nothing  of  girls !  "  Challenged  to  cite  an  instance,  he 
quoted  the  sentence,  "  the  sailor  ran  amuck,"  believing  apparently 
that  the  expressive  Malay  derivative  contained  an  inelegant 
allusion  to  a  midden.  It  may  have  been  from  a  patriotic  desire 
to  attribute  Scotch  nationality  to  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
"  worthies "  of  history  and  fiction  that  he  referred  to  a  Greek 
philosopher  as  Archie  Medes,  and  in  a  laboured  quotation  from 
Pope,  called  Hector's  wife  "Andrew  Mackie."  During  a  debate 
on  a  Koad  Board  Bill,  a  waggish  member  wickedly  told  him, 
in  reply  to  his  query,  that  "ending  in  a  cul  de  sacn  meant 
"  ending  in  a  precipice."  Not  long  after,  in  the  course  of  a 
financial  debate,  he  solemnly  warned  the  Government  that  "  The 

2  K  2 


500  The  Empire  Review 

Colony  was  on  the  brink  of  financial  ruin,  trembling,  Sir,  on  the 
verge  of  a  tremendous  cul  de  sac."  Laughter  had  no  terrors 
for  this  intrepid  soul ;  he  had  been  to  a  feast  of  learning  and 
stolen  the  scraps — and  he  wasn't  going  to  waste  them. 

Foreign  quotations  or  literary  allusions,  however,  may  be 
dangerous  things  even  for  the  learned  to  play  with.  A  minister 
in  a  former  administration,  who  was  a  distinguished  scholar  and 
an  enthusiastic  student  of  Homer,  was  visiting  a  Board  School 
on  one  occasion ; ,  his  attention  was  attracted  by-  a  pretty  little 
girl  with  large,  brown,  saucer-like  eyes.  He  stopped  before  her 
and  asked  in  his  kindly  way :  "  My  little  girl,  did  you  ever  hear 
of  the  ox-eyed  Juno?"  The  little  girl  never  had.  "  Well,  my 
dear,  you  are  very  like  her/*  and,  with  a  kindly  pat  on  the  head 
he  passed  on.  The  next  issue  of  a  local  paper  had  a  letter  from 
"  An  Indignant  Mother  "^— and  indignant  mothers  have  votes  in 
this  country ! — complaining  that  the  minister  had  insulted  her 
daughter — before  the  whole  school  too!  She  had  come  home 
crying  bitterly  because  "  the  gentleman  said  she  looked  like 


a  cow." 


On  one  occasion  there  was  a  proposal  before  the  House  to 
introduce  chamois  into  the  mountain  districts  of  New  Zealand.' 

The  clause  was  strenuously  opposed  by  Mr.  K ,  a  politician 

of  Scotch  descent.  Had  not  the  acclimatisation  societies  done 
enough  mischief  already,  with  their  rabbits  and  sparrows,  their 
stoats  and  weasels?  What  was  this  "chamois"  anyway?  A 
Minister  obligingly  sent  to  the  library  for  a  copy  of  Mark  Twain's 
'  A  Tramp  Abroad '  and  handed  it  to  the  member  with  this 
passage  marked : 

The  chamois  is  a  black  or  brown  creature  no  bigger  than  a  mustard  seed ; 
you  do  not  have  to  go  after  it,  it  comes  after  you  ;  it  arrives  in  vast  herds,  and 
skips  and  scampers  all  over  your  body,  inside  your  clothes ;  thus  it  is  not  shy, 
but  extremely  sociable;  it  is  not  afraid  of  man,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  will 
attack  him ;  its  bite  is  not  dangerous,  but  it  is  not  pleasant ;  its  activity  has 
not  been  overstated — if  you  try  to  put  your  finger  on  it  it  will  skip  a  thousand 
times  its  own  length  at  one  jump,  and  no  eye  is  sharp  enough  to  see  where 
it  lights. 

Mr.  K solemnly  read  the  extract  to  the  House,  without 

even  a  glimmering  suspicion  that  Mr.  Samuel  Clemens  was  not 
a  writer  upon  natural  history ;  expressed  his  belief  that  "  we 
have  quite  enough  of  these  nasty  jumping  things  in  the  country ;  " 
and  declared  his  fixed  intention  to  vote  against  the  Bill. 

"  Noxious  weeds,"  equally  with  noxious  insects,  are  responsible 
for  one  of  the  little  incidents  that  relieve  the  tedium  of  Parlia- 
mentary proceedings.  A  member  who  had  all  a  Yorkshireman's 
difficulty  with  his  h's,  baaed  on  his  own  lingual  deficiency  a 
.retort  which  he  himself  doubtless  thought  extremely  felicitous, 


The  Humours  of  Antipodean  Politics  501 

and  which  the  members  certainly  received  with  huge  delight. 
He  was  addressing  the  House  on  Sir  John  Mackenzie's  "  Noxious 
Weeds  Extermination  Bill;"  and  in  the  course  of  his  speech 
made  some  exceedingly  "tall  "  statements  that  members  received 
with  derisive  incredulity.  Sentence  after  sentence  was  greeted 
with  ironical  "  Ohs  "  from  every  side  of  the  House.  At  last  the 
Yorkshireman  turned  on  his  tormentors:  "You  may  hoh !  and 
you  may  hoh !  and  you  may  hoh !  But  you  can't  '  hoh '  me 
down."  And  then,  after  an  inspired  pause — "  I  hain't  no  noxious 
weed !  " 

Such  laches  sometimes  put  a  severe  strain  on  the  courtesy  of 
better  educated  members.  On  an  occasion  when  the  French 
Consul  at  Wellington,  the  Count  D'Abans,  had  made  a  presenta- 
tion of  works  of  arfc  to  the  House,  a  member,  in  moving  a  motion 
of  thanks,  referred  to  him  as  Count  Door-bang ;  the  seconder 
called  him  De-e  Abbans.  The  leader  of  the  opposition,  who  was 
in  courtesy  bound  to  speak  to  the  motion,  and  whose  French 
is  not  of  "  Stratford  Atte  Bow,"  was  in  a  quandary :  he  could 
not  utter  the  name  correctly  without  appearing  to  pass  a  priggish 
reflection  on  the  mispronunciation  of  preceding  speakers.  His 
wit,  however,  served  him;  and  he  managed  to  make  a  graceful 
five  minutes  speech,  in  which  he  referred  to  the  Count  by  nearly 
a  dozen  periphrases,  all  different  and  all  felicitously  elegant, 
without  once  mentioning  his  name.  His  over-sensitiveness, 
however,  was  quite  unnecessary.  Members  are  seldom  in  the 
least  put  out  by  laughter  at  their  solecisms.  They  usually 
retort  that  they  haven't  had  the  advantage  of  a  college  education 
like  the  member  who  is  laughing ;  they  regret  it,  but  are  not 
ashamed  of  it ;  and  they  sometimes  add,  in  the  best  of  good 
humour,  that  they  are  prepared  "  to  back  themselves  "  according 
to  their  particular  avocation  "  to  hump  coal,"  or  "  fell  Kauri 
pine  "  or  "  yard  cattle  with  the  best  man  in  the  House !  "  And 
they  are,  not  unfrequently,  as  good  as  their  word. 

Elections  in  New  Zealand  are  not  productive  of  much 
humorous  incident — neither,  happily,  do  they  now  give  rise  to 
much  scurrility  or  bitterness.  For  both,  perhaps,  the  presence 
of  women  is  responsible.  Yet  the  choice  of  a  candidate  seems 
occasionally  the  result  of  a  lighthearted  freak  rather  than  of 
deliberate  judgment.  At  a  recent  electign  one  constituency 
returned  as  its  member  a  gentleman  who  is,  notoriously, 
both  by  practice  and  precept,  a  strong  supporter  of  "  the  trade  " 
— a  genial  soul  who  takes  sugar  in  his.  Yet  the  same  electors, 
on  the  same  day,  and  at  the  same  booths,  carried  "  Prohibi- 
tion "  for  that  constituency  by  a  large  majority.  An  analysis  of 
the  figures  shows  that  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  electors  must  have 
voted  at  once  for  the  thirsty  bon  vivant  and  for  "no  license," 


502  The  Empire  Review 

Some  suggest  they  chose  him  as  their  member  because  he 
would  serve  as  a  "  horrible  example  "  in  Parliament  of  the  traffic 
they  condemned  ;  others  think  that  the  electors,  believing  him  to 
be  a  good  representative,  thought  to  make  him  a  still  more 
useful  member  by  closing  the  hotels  in  his  neighbourhood, 
Either  way,  it  is  one  of  life's  little  ironies. 

At  the  same  election  another  constituency  returned  a  gentle- 
man who  made  but  one  public  appearance  in  the  contest.  He 
addressed  a  crowd  on  a  wharf  for  five  minutes ;  his  remarks  were 
understood  to  be  personal  rather  than  political.  After  his  brief 
introduction,  he  declared  "  he  wasn't  in  form  to  talk  politics," 
but  would  give  them  a  song.  In  a  fine  rich  baritone  voice  he 
sang  two  verses  of  "  Sons  of  the  Sea,"  the  crowd,  good  humouredly 
enough,  joining  in  the  chorus.  Then  when  someone  made  a 
rude  interruption  hinting  at  the  humour  of  the  vine-leaf,  the 
candidate,  to  prove  his  sobriety,  offered  to  dance  a  horn-pipe — 
and  did.  His  election  expenses  in  the  contest  three  years  ago 
were  officially  returned  as  12s.  Qd. ;  this  time  they  were  probably 
nil.  Yet  he  is  an  exceedingly  able  and  immensely  popular 
member  in  a  country  where  a  considerable  majority  of  the 
electors  in  the  whole  contest  voted  for  prohibition. 

But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  there  are  many  elections  in 
the  Colony  conducted  in  this  light-hearted  spirit,  As  a  people 
we  take  a  sternly  practical  view  of  politics.  We  pay  our 
members  of  Parliament  J925  a  month  to  make  laws  for  us, 
and  it  is  their  business  to  do  it.  We  expect  them  in  return  to 
devote  themselves  with  reasonable  application  to  the  work  of 
legislation ;  to  bring  intelligent  study  to  bear  on  our  social  and 
industrial  needs ;  and  to  attend  to  the  wishes  of  their  constituents 
with  "  promptness  and  despatch."  That  is  the  plain  common- 
sense  view  we  take  of  what  we  want ;  and — it  must  be  said  to 
the  credit  of  the  New  Zealand  House  of  Eepresentatives, — we 
generally  get  it. 

0.  T.  J.  ALPEES. 

CHRISTCHURCH,  NEW  ZEALAND. 


The  Present  Position  pf  Zionism  503 


THE   PRESENT   POSITION    OF   ZIONISM 

THE  present  Zionist  movement  takes  its  date  from  the  publica- 
tion of  Herzl's  "  Jewish  State,"  but  the  movement  did  not  in  a 
moment  spring  full-fledged  in  1896  from  the  brain  of  the  Viennese 
journalist.  The  idea  that  formed  the  basis  of  what  may  be  con- 
sidered a  peaceful  Jewish  crusade  had  been  seething  in  the  minds 
of  thinkers — Jews  and  non-Jews — for  decades. 

Early  last  century  interest  was  taken  in  the  economic 
regeneration  of  Palestine  by  Sir  Moses  Montefiore,  the  Eothschilds 
and  the  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle  t  an  institution  created  in 
1860  "for  the  protection  and  improvement  of  Jews  in  general, 
but  mainly  devoted  to  the  interest  of  those  in  the  East  of  Europe, 
North  Africa  and  Asia  Minor."  The  headquarters  of  the 
Alliance  Israelite  Universelle  are  in  Paris,  but  its  subscribers  are 
drawn  from  the  Jewish  communities  throughout  the  civilised 
world.  These  philanthropists  devoted  their  energies  to  the 
establishment  of  schools  and  agricultural  colonies  in  Palestine. 
The  Alliance  farm  school  at  Jaffa  was  established  in  1870,  and 
despite  innumerable  obstacles  of  varying  descriptions  it  is  now  in 
a  very  strong  financial  position,  the  sale  of  the  products  of  all 
branches  of  agriculture  more  than  paying  the  expenses  of  the 
institution.  The  earliest  Jewish  agricultural  colony  founded  in 
the  Holy  Land  last  century  was  that  of  Sir  Moses  Montefiore  in 
1854.  The  persecutions  that  the  Bussian  Jews  underwent  in 
1881-2  led  to  the  establishment  of  several  smaller  settlements. 
These  were  to  some  extent  created  by  the  colonists  themselves, 
although  they  owed  much  to  the  beneficence  of  Baron  Edmund 
de  Bothschild  and  to  small  societies  sprinkled  over  Europe  such 
as  the  various  Chovevei  Zion  (lovers  of  Zion). 

Most  of  these  colonies  are  now  under  the  care  of  the  Jewish 
Colonisation  Association.  In  1898  there  were  computed  to  be  about 
4600  Jewish  agricultural  colonists  in  Palestine  farming  625,000 
acres.  Jewish  philanthropists  were  not  the  only  ones  to  take  an 
interest  in  the  settlement  of  poor  Jews  on  holy  soil.  The  restora- 
tion movement  was  also  assisted  to  some  extent  by  non-Jews, 
men  like  Lord  Shaftesbury,  Mr.  Laurence  Oliphant  and  ColoneJ 


504  The  Empire  Review 

Gawler.  The  last  named  formed  a  Palestine  Colonisation  Society 
in  London  as  long  ago  as  1845,  but  the  disturbed  condition  of 
Syria  in  consequence  of  the  then  recent  war  between  Turkey  and 
Egypt,  prevented  the  plans  from  being  realised.  The  scheme  of 
Mr.  Laurence  Oliphant  and  Lord  Shaftesbury,  put  before  the 
public  in  1878,  with  which  King  Edward  (then  Prince  of  Wales) 
expressed  his  sympathy,  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  colony 
that  still  exists.  In  his  endeavours  to  obtain  a  concession  for  an 
autonomous  State  from  the  Porte,  Mr.  Laurence  Oliphant  had 
the  support  of  both  Lord  Beaconsfield  and  Lord  Salisbury. 

The  constantly  recurring  Eastern  Question  also  drew  the 
world's  attention  to  Syria,  and  when  it  became  fashionable  among 
the  Powers  to  champion  the  cause  of  the  oppressed  nationalities, 
Israel  did  not  retire  into  concealment.  As  early  as  1852  a  Jewish 
State  under  British  protection  had  been  pointed  to  as  of  advantage 
to  Great  Britain  in  securing  for  her  the  overland  route  to  India, 
and  the  arguments  of  Rollings  worth  who  proposed  such  a  scheme 
were  not  without  influence  on  Lord  Palmerston.  Thirty  years 
later  Mr.  Laurence  Oliphant  wrote  : 

Political  events  in  the  East  have  so  shaped  themselves  that  Palestine,  and 
especially  the  provinces  east  of  the  Jordan,  owing  to  their  geographical  position, 
have  now. become  the  pivot  upon  which  of  necessity  they  must  ultimately  turn. 
Situated  between  the  holy  places  at  Jerusalem  arid  the  Asiatic  frontier  of 
Russia,  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea,  between  Syria  and  Egypt, 
their  strategic  value  and  political  importance  must  be  apparent  at  a  glance ; 
and  the  day  is  probably  not  far  distant  when  it  may  be  found  that  the  most 
important  interests  of  the  British  Empire  may  be  imperilled  by  the  neglect  to 
provide  in  time  for  the  contingencies  which  are  now  looming  in  the  immediate 
future. 

The  new  movement  may  be  said  to  have  been  born  in  1882, 
although  it  did  not  pass  out  of  childhood  for  another  fourteen 
years.  At  that  period  pamphlets  advocating  an  immediate  return 
to  Zion  were  published  in  Russia  and  at  the  same  time  Miss 
Emma  Lazarus,  the  American  Jewish  poetess,  devoted  her  muse 
to  the  same  end.  The  Chovevei  Zion  was  formed  to  systematise 
and  organise  the  colonisation  of  Palestine,  and  a  scheme  of  a 
kindred  description  was  elaborated  by  M.  Cazalet,  who  advocated 
the  settlement  of  persecuted  Eussian  Jews  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Euphrates  in  connection  with  the  proposed  railway  project.  Such 
was  the  position  of  affairs  when,  in  1896,  Theodore  Herzl,  a 
Jewish  journalist  and  playwright  of  Vienna  who  had  himself  been 
emancipated  from  the  restraints  of  Judaism,  although  his  spirit 
was  none  the  less  Jewish,  came  to  the  conclusion  in  consequence 
of  the  then  recent  anti-Semitic  successes  in  the  Austrian  elections, 
that  the  Jewish  question  could  only  be  solved  from  without. 

His  scheme  was  not,  at  first,  of  a  Zionist  description.  It 
foreshadowed  a  Jewish  State,  a  refuge  for  the  oppressed  of  Israel, 


The  Present  Position  of  Zionism  505 

where  they  could  work  out  untrammelled  and  without  fear  of 
persecution  their  own  destiny,  and  in  this  he  followed  the  lines 
marked  out  by  predecessors,  such  as  Joseph,  Prince  of  Naxos,  a 
Jew  high  in  the  confidence  of  the  Saltan  Solyman,  who  obtained 
the  concession  of  Tiberias  and  the  villages  in  its  vicinity  wherein 
to  settle  the  Jewish  people,  or  Judge  Noah,  who  built  a  city  in 
the  United  States — flippantly  designated  Noah's  ark — for  the 
purpose  of  settling  the  Jews  of  the  world  there,  which,  when 
completed,  needed  nothing  but  inhabitants.  Herzl  soon  recognised, 
however,  the  apparently  insuperable  difficulties  that  would  surround 
all  attempts  to  found  a  Jewish  State  beyond  the.  limits  of  the 
Holy  Land,  and  in  his  pamphlet  "  The  Jewish  State,"  published 
simultaneously  in  English,  French  and  German,  he  explained  his 
scheme  to  the  world.  The  moment  was  the  most  propitious  in 
the  history  of  the  movement.  The  Sultan  was  then  in  trouble  in 
consequence  of  the  unsatisfactory  manner  in  which  his  Armenian 
subjects  were  being  treated,  and  feared  lest  the  indignation  that 
was  rising  against  him  throughout  Europe  might  culminate  in  an 
attempt  to  visit  the  misdeeds  of  his  subjects  upon  their  heads  and 
upon  his.  To  him  the  new  scheme  seemed  pleasing,  inasmuch  as 
he  hoped  thereby  to  gain  the  favour  of  the  Jews  of  Europe  and 
through  their  influence  to  safeguard  himself  from  any  attack  that 
might  be  meditated.  He  sent  the  Chevalier  Newlinsky  as  his 
ambassador  to  a  distinguished  Anglo-Jewish  journalist  with  an 
offer  of  the  Holy  Land  for  the  settlement  of  the  Jews,  provided 
that  the  leaders  of  Anglo-Jewry  would  use  their  influence  in  his 
behalf  with  the  British  Government.  The  offer  of  the  Sultan 
was  communicated  to  but  a  few  of  the  leaders  of  the  Community, 
and  by  them  refused  without  hesitation,  and  apparently  in  retalia- 
tion the  Sultan  proceeded  to  place  severe  restrictions  on  Jewish 
settlers  in  Palestine  and  even  on  visitors  of  that  race. 

The  recent  congress  was  the  sixth.  The  first  was  held  in 
1897,  at  Basle,  which  was  also  the  locale  of  all  the  others  with 
the  exception  of  that  of  1900,  held  in  London.  These  gatherings 
are  the  nearest  approach  that  have  ever  been  made  to  parliaments 
of  Jewry.  Local  Jewish  parliaments  have  been  convened  prior  to 
the  birth  of  the  new  movement.  Such  was  the  Parliament  of 
Jews  held  in  this  country  under  the  Plantagenets,  for  the  purpose 
of  supplementing  the  ordinary  revenue,  the  Sanhedrin  convened 
by  Napoleon  I.,  the  several  conferences  of  leading  Jews  during 
recent  years  whenever  a  crisis  such  as  the  recent  Kisheneff 
Massacre  arose  in  Jewry,  but  not  until  the  era  of  Dr.  Herzl  has  a 
gathering  of  world- wide  Jewry  ever  been  collected.  To  Basle, 
journey  Jews  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  turbanned 
Moroccan,  the  Eussian  Pole  in  his  peculiar  costume,  the  Highland 
.Jew  of  the  Caucasus,  the  Persian  Jew  in  the  garb  of  his  country 


506  The  Empire  Review 

at  this  half-way  house  to  2»ion  meet  on  equal  ground  the  Eeform 
Rabbi  of  the  United  States,  the  South  African  financier,  the 
Viennese  journalist,  the  German  professor.  All  branches  of  Jewry 
send  their  delegates.  They  coine  from  Shanghai  and  from  San 
Francisco,  Copenhagen  is  not  unrepresented,  nor  has  Cape  Town 
refrained  from  participating. 

If  the  Zionist  movement  has  effected  nothing  else,  it  has  once 
more  brought  together  the  splintered  fragments  of  the  ancient 
race,  and  has  revived  in  them  the  consciousness  of  mutual  kinship. 
The  Congresses  themselves  have  done  little  concrete  work,  but 
definite  results  seldom  arise  from  gatherings  of  that  description. 
At  the  first  gathering  the  following  political  programme  was 
adopted . — 

The  aim  of  Zionism  is  to  create  for  the  Jewish  people  a  publicly,  legally 
assured  home  in  Palestine.  In  order  to  attain  this  the  Congress  adopts  the 
following  means :  (1)  To  promote  the  settlement  in  Palestine  of  Jewish  agri- 
culturists, handicraftsmen,  industrialists,  and  men  following  professions; 
(2)  The  centralisation  of  the  entire  Jewish  people  by  means  of  general  institu- 
tions agreeable  to  the  laws  of  the  land ;  (8)  To  strengthen  Jewish  sentiment 
and  national  self -consciousness ;  (4)  To  obtain  the  sanction  of  governments  to 
the  carrying  out  of  the  objects  of  Zionism. 

On  point  (1)  it  was  decided  that  while  the  movement  should 
help  those  Jews  already  settled  on  the  land,  or  natives  of  Palestine, 
it  should  not  help  in  settling  Jews  in  the  country  until  the  con- 
ditions laid  down  in  the  preamble  had  been  attained. 

At  the  second  Congress  in  1898,  also  held  in  Basle,  it  was 
decided  to  found  the  Jewish  Colonial  Trust  as  an  English  limited 
liability  company  with  a  capital  of  £2,000,000  in  £1  shares.  The 
prospectus  of  the  company  was  issued  during  Passover,  1899,  and 
it  stated  that  the  Trust  would  not  undertake  business  unless  the 
subscriptions  totalled  at  £250,000  fully  paid.  That  number  of 
shares  was  taken  up  during  the  month  allowed  for  application, 
the  subscribers  being  resident  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  June, 
1901,  the  shares  taken  up  totalled  380,000,  and  the  shareholders 
numbered  110,000.  The  movement  has  now  320,000  contributing 
members  of  whom  about  7000  reside  in  England.  Herzl  had  an 
interview  with  the  German  Emperor  in  1899,  and  several  with 
the  Sultan,  by  whom  he  was  received  with  great  distinction. 
And  speaking  at  the  recently  concluded  Congress,  Dr.  Herzl 
said  — 

The  negotiations  were  without  result.  I  could  naturally  accept  nothing  that 
praa  not  in  harmony  with  our  Basle  programme,  and  in  particular,  scattered 
divided  colonies  in  various  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire  did  not  satisfy  our 
national  requirements. 

The  energies  of  the  leaders  were,  however,  not  by  any  means 
confined  to  these  incidents.  AH  the  more  determined  are  their 


The  Present  Position  of  Zionism  507 

efforts  for  the  secrecy  which  shrouds  them,  and  within  the  last 
two  months  two  of  the  leading  European  powers  were  brought  to 
the  verge  of  lending  their  support  to  Dr.  Herzl  and  his  coadjutors. 
Unfortunately,  however,  the  proverbial  slip  occurred.  Kecent 
events  in  Russia  and  Roumania,  relapses  of  the  Jewish  patient, 
have  been  seized  by  the  Zionists  to  point  the  moral  of  the  tale 
they  never  tire  of  relating,  and  the  horrors  detailed  by  the  papers 
day  by  day  decided  many  waverers  to  throw  in  their  lot  with 
them.  An  escape  from  Russia,  from  the  possibility  of  renewed 
Kisheneffs,  seemed  a  necessity.  It  was  impossible  to  leave  human 
beings  to  the  mercy  of  an  infuriated  Russian  mob  or  the  still 
crueller  treatment  of  Russian  officialdom.  No  civilised  State  seems 
willing  to  receive  the  persecuted  refugees  within  its  own  territories. 
Germany  and  Austria  have  already  closed  their  gates.  The 
United  States  seem  about  to  act  similarly.  Anti-alien  legislation 
is  even  threatened  in  England.  On  no  land  may  the  foot  of  the 
wanderer  tarry.  From  Austria  to  Germany,  from  Germany  to 
England,  from  England  to  America  is  he  tossed  and  buffeted,  and 
in  the  last  State  he  is  but  tolerated,  and  at  the  expense  of  his 
orthodoxy  received  with  a  very  doubtful  welcome.  A  few,  the 
merest  fraction,  are  taken  in  charge  by  the  Jewish  Colonisation 
Association  and  settled  in  the  Argentine  or  Canada,  but  the 
numbers  of  these  fortunate  ones  are  but  as  a  drop  to  the  ocean  of 
kinsmen  that  they  have  left  behind  them. 

Nowhere  on  earth  seems  there  hope  for  the  persecuted  Jew, 
and  in  his  despair  he  turns  to  Zion,  the  name  that  sustained  his 
ancestors  throughout  their  untold  sufferings.  Since  no  State 
would  receive  the  victims  of  intolerance  and  oppression,  the  Jew 
would  show  himself  independent  of  all  States  and  found  and  build 
up  one  for  himself.  But  before  the  children  of  Israel  were 
allowed  to  enter  the  Promised  Land  they  had  to  spend  forty 
years  in  the  wilderness.  To  the  leaders  of  the  return  of  to-day, 
if  we  may  judge  from  recent  negotiations,  it  appears  that  some 
preparation  is  also  considered  necessary.  Of  two  schemes  we 
have  heard  in  which  Dr.  Herzl  and  his  associates  have  interested 
themselves.  Negotiations  have  been  conducted  for  the  settlement 
of  large  numbers  of  Jews  in  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia ;  the  former 
the  land  of  sojourn  that  served  as  an  ante-room  to  Canaan,  the 
latter  the  scene  of  the  captivity  whence  Judah  returned  to  £ion 
under  the  leadership  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 

The  idea  of  a  settlement  in  El  Arish,  in  the  Egyptian  terri- 
tories was  abandoned  because  of  irrigation  difficulties.  In  the 
realisation  of  their  plans  in  Egypt  the  Zionists  had  the  active 
support  and  sympathy  of  both  the  British  and  Egyptian  Govern- 
ments. With  the  disappearance  of  the  Bagdad  Railway  scheme, 
the  projected  Jewish  settlement  in  Babylon  remained  in  the 


508  The  Empire  Review 

indefinite  state  of  an  unrealised  ambition.  The  failure  of  the 
El  Arish  plan,  however,  led  to  a  further  offer  by  the  British 
Government.  A  large  tract  of  country  suitable  for  European 
colonisation  abutting  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  Uganda  Eailway 
has  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Zionist  leaders,  who  have 
appointed  a  committee  to  prospect  the  territory  and  are  now 
considering  the  offer. 

The  conditions  laid  down  by  the  British  Government  are 
disclosed  in  a  letter  from  Sir  Clement  Hill  to  Mr.  L.  J.  Green- 
berg,  the  representative  of  the  Zionists.  The  main  features  of 
the  scheme  are  the  grant  of  a  considerable  area  of  land,  the 
appointment  of  a  Jewish  official  as  the  chief  of  the  local  adminis- 
tration, and  permission  to  the  colony  to  have  a  free  hand  in 
regard  to  municipal  legislation  and  as  to  the  management  of 
religious  and  purely  domestic  matters,  such  local  autonomy  being 
conditional  upon  the  right  of  his  Majesty's  Goverment  to  exercise 
general  control.  The  British  Government  would  reserve  power 
to  reoccupy  the  land  if  the  settlement  should  not  prove  a  success. 
The  acceptance  of  the  offer  is  not  universally  advocated  by  Jews. 
The  opinion  of  an  important  section  of  Anglo-Jewry,  as  voiced 
by  Mr.  Lucian  Wolf  in  the  Times,  is  in  favour  of  the  immediate 
rejection  of  the  offer  on  the  grounds,  first,  that  the  probable 
settlers  are  at  present  totally  unfitted  for  self-government ;  secondly, 
that  the  oppressed  Jews  of  Eastern  Europe  need  civilised  European 
contact  and  surroundings  in  order  to  raise  themselves  in  the  scale 
of  civilisation;  thirdly,  because  the  formation  of  autonomous 
alien  colonies  within  British  territory  is  opposed  to  the  interests 
of  the  Empire.  In  the  Zionist  camp  itself  there  is  considerable 
hostility  to  the  scheme.  The  opposition  claim  that  they  are 
Zionists,  not  Ugandaists,  that  the  aim  of  Zionism  is  to  create  for 
the  Jewish  people  a  publicly  legally  assured  home  in  Palestine, 
not  in  an  African  swamp,  nor  an  Egyptian  desert,  nor  a 
Babylonian  wilderness. 

In  another  direction  also  the  movement  has  come  into  pro- 
minence of  late.  The  Jewish  Colonisation  Association,  the 
institution  representative  to  some  extent  of  European  Jewry,  to 
which  Baron  de  Hirsch  confided  the  administration  of  the 
millions  that  he  devoted  to  the  welfare  of  the  Jewish  race,  has 
recently  obtained  Parliamentary  sanction  to  the  use  of  the  money 
for  educational  purposes  rather  than  for  those  of  colonisation. 
The  plea  of  the  Association  is  that  they  are  preparing  future 
emigrants  for  the  life  that  lies  before  them.  The  Zionists  claim, 
however,  that  the  administrators  of  the  Hirsch  Fund  are  acting 
contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  great  philanthropist  in  frittering 
away  the  princely  fortune  at  their  disposal  in  schools  and 
workshops  and  model  dwellings. 


The  Present  Position  of  Zionism  509 

Their  few  and  insignificant  colonies  scattered  in  the  four 
corners  of  the  globe,  the  Zionists  consider  but  a  caricature  of  the 
noble  plans  of  Baron  de  Hirsch  whose  object  it  was,  they  say,  to 
remove  the  whole  of  Jewry  from  the  power  of  fanatical  mobs  or 
heartless  officials.  If  the  philanthropist  had  lived  to  see  the 
initiation  of  the  Zionist  movement,  he  would  have  been  among 
its  promoters,  and  in  these  circumstances  they  demand  that  the 
money  given  by  him  should  be  placed  at  their  disposal  for  their 
own  purposes.  The  administrators  of  the  Fund,  however,  have 
shown  no  intention  whatever  to  comply  with  this  request,  and  the 
recent  action  of  prominent  English  Zionists  in  attempting  to 
induce  the  British  Parliament  to  withhold  its  consent  to  the 
measure  introduced  by  the  Association,  has  not  tended  to  render 
the  relationship  of  the  two  parties  more  amicable. 

Although  the  movement  as  regards  its  political  objects  has 
the  support  of  probably  a  majority  of  the  Jews  throughout  the 
world,  the  better  and  richer  classes  are  almost  without  an  ex- 
ception opposed  to  it.  At  first  the  hostility  was  active,  inasmuch 
as  the  opponents  believed  the  schemes  of  Dr.  Herzl  to  be 
dangerous  and  fraught  with  trouble.  Of  late,  however,  the  edge 
seems  to  have  worn  off  the  opposition,  and  now  many  of  the 
former  anti-Zionists  have  become  merely  non-Zionists.  The 
movement,  however,  still  draws  its  supporters  almost  entirely 
from  the  poorer  and  poorest  classes,  and  the  more  prosperous 
ones,  as  was  also  the  case  in  the  days  of  Ezra,  look  upon  the 
proposed  return  with  doubt  and  disinclination,  Zionism  has  not 
however  a  political  side  alone.  It  has  been  the  cause  of  a 
revival  in  Jewish  literature,  and  as  such  has  the  support  and 
approval  of  all  lovers  of  the  race.  The  movement  seems  to  have 
quickened  the  Jewish  consciousness,  and  as  a  result  the  Jew  has 
awakened  to  the  glorious  history  of  his  past,  to  the  splendours  of 
the  literature  that  has  been  handed  down  to  him  at  every  step 
with  accretions  by  his  ancestors,  and  Zionist  societies  throughout 
the  world  have  made  the  study  of  that  history  and  literature  an 
aim  almost  equal  in  importance  to  the  return  to  Zion.  Directly 
or  indirectly  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  movement  Hebrew 
has,  after  a  sleep  of  twenty  centuries,  again  become  a  living 
language,  and  once  more  the  soil^of  Palestine  hears  the  ordinary 
conversation  of  life  conducted  in  the  language  of  the  prophets 
and  the  psalmists.  There  are  now  children  living  in  the  colonies 
in  Palestine  who  have  never  spoken  another  tongue  but  that  of 
the  Old  Testament. 

Many  objections  have  been  raised  to  the  movement.  The 
most  formidable  perhaps  are  those  termed  political.  For  genera- 
tions the  eyes  of  the  Powers  have  been  cast  covetously  on  Syria, 
France  has  long  considered  that  portion  of  the  Sultan's  dominions 


510  The  Empire  Review 

her  own  particular  inheritance.  Bussia  with  the  insuperable 
desire  to  extend  in  every  direction  is  said  to  have  already  studded 
the  land  with  fortresses  in  the  form  of  monasteries  and  other 
retreats.  Germany  has  of  late  discovered  a  new  born  interest  in 
the  Holy  Land,  an  interest  that  is  making  up  in  intensity  what  it 
may  lack  in  years.  Moreover  Turkey  is  still  in  possession,  and  has 
never  shown  much  inclination  to  let  go  her  hold  on  any  portion 
of  her  dominions  even  to  retain  her  nominal  supremacy.  Palestine 
also  includes  within  her  limits  centres  sacred  to  the  religions  of 
Europe,  the  possession  of  which  the  churches*would  still  like  to 
regain.  Is  it  likely  that  the  heads  of  the  various  denominations 
would  willingly  see  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  pass  into 
Jewish  hands  ? 

The  answer  of  the  Zionists  is  that  the  holy  places  could  be 
exterritorialised  and  placed  under  the  care  of  the  European 
consuls.  To  the  other  political  objections  they  reply  that  by  the 
constitution  of  a  Jewish  State  in  the  Holy  Land,  the  Jewish 
problem  that  is  troubling  so  many  of  the  European  States  at  the 
present  day  would  be  solved,  and  the  relief  obtained  by  the  rulers 
of  the  Pale,  of  Galicia  and  of  Kournania  would  more  than  com- 
pensate them  for  the  non-fruition  of  any  designs  they  may  at 
present  entertain  against  the  rulers  of  Palestine.  The  anti- 
Zionists  do  not  think  that  a  Jewish  occupation  of  the  Holy  Land 
would  tend  to  alter  Eussian  plans  in  the  slightest,  and  use  the 
possibility  of  a  future  annexation  jof  Syria  by  Eussia  as  an  argument 
against  any  Jewish  settlement  in  that  province. 

Another  argument  of  the  opposition  is  that  the  land  in  which 
the  Zionists  contemplate  settling  is  at  present  a  barren  desert  and 
incapable  of  supporting  the  sparse  population  already  on  its  soil. 
The  land  that  once  flowed  with  milk  and  honey  is  now  a  wilder- 
ness of  sand  and  rocks,  and  centuries  of  misgovernment  have 
rendered  large  tracts  of  it  permanently  unfit  for  habitation.  But 
elated  with  the  optimism  of  enthusiasm  the  dreamers  point  to  the 
efforts  of  the  Mormons  that  turned  a  salt  desert  into  a  garden, 
and  by  energy  supported  by  faith  and  hope  changed  the  wilder- 
ness of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  into  smiling  fields  and  pleasant 
meadows.  For  the  agricultural  rehabilitation  of  Palestine,  say 
the  Zionists,  capital  and  labour  alone  are  needed.  Labour  in  the 
form  of  hundreds  and  thousands  of  down-trodden  Jewish  artizans, 
skilled  and  unskilled  is  at  hand;  the  capital  will  not  always  be 
wanting.  The  Hirsch  millions  may  one  day  be  devoted  to  the 
worthiest  of  all  possible  objects,  Jewish  millionaires  may  come 
forward  when  the  hour  arrives ;  or  the  Jewish  millions  themselves 
may  supply  the  need.  That  agriculture  in  Palestine  may  prove 
profitable  has  already  been  proved,  it  is  claimed,  by  the  colonies 
already  in  existence.  Moreover  Palestine,  by  its  situation  on  the 


The  Present  Position  of  Zionism  511 

high  road  to  India  and  the  East,  by  its  proximity  to  the  Suez 
Canal,  is  the  centre  of  the  commercial  world,  and  when  roads  and 
railways  have  been  constructed  across  the  kingdom  of  David  and 
of  Solomon,  the  country  will  become  prosperous  and  self-support- 
ing independently  of  the  land. 

The  next  question  put  by  the  critics  is  not  so  easily  answered. 
They  ask  what  form  will  the  government  of  the  new  State  take. 
Will  it  be  a  religious  or  a  secular  republic  ?  If  the  former,  the 
only  logical  and  possible  action  will  be  to  give  all  the  Levitical 
ordinances  without  exception  the  force  of  the  law,  for  the  only 
Judaism  is  the  orthodox  Judaism.  If  the  book  of  Leviticus  is 
taken  as  the  law-book  of  the  nation  but  a  fraction  of  the  proposed 
settlers  will  consent  to  abide  by  its  provisions,  and  even  among 
those  it  will  prove  unworkable.  If  on  the  other  hand  the  govern- 
ment is  to  be  a  secular  one,  in  what  respect,  ask  the  critics,  is  the 
new  State  to  be  Jewish  ?  No  definite  reply  seems  to  have  been 
vouchsafed  by  the  Zionists.  Some,  the  more  liberal  in  their 
religious  views,  have  spoken  in  favour  of  a  secular  government ; 
others,  members  of  the  orthodox  party,  claim  that  when  Israel 
has  once  returned,  the  various  religious  problems  will  be  found  to 
have  settled  themselves.  Finally  the  anti-Zionists  point  to  the 
incapacity  for  self-government  on  the  part  of  the  great  majority 
of  the  Jewish  race,  Jews  debased  by  poverty  and  oppression  in 
Eussia,  Eoumania,  Galicia,  Morocco  and  Persia.  The  attempt 
to  form  a  government  out  of  material  such  as  that  without  any 
previous  training  or  apprenticeship  is  foredoomed  to  immediate 
and  complete  failure,  a  failure  that  would  render  the  last  state  of 
the  Jews  far  worse  than  the  present. 

Such  is  the  present  condition  of  this  great  Jewish  question. 
The  masses  almost  on  the  brink  of  despair  clutch  at  the  hope 
that  is  offered  them,  careless  even  if  it  prove  a  mirage.  The 
minority  claiming  foresight  and  become  conservative  through 
comfort  denounce  the  dream  as  an  hallucination,  a  will-o'-the- 
wisp  that  would  drag  its  followers  to  perdition.  With  the  former 
are  enthusiasm  and  hope,  with  the  latter  reason.  Humanly 
speaking  the  latter  are  in  the  right,  but  more  than  once  in  the 
world's  history  enthusiasm  has  proved  all  but  invincible,  and  in 
its  course  has  overthrown  and  prevailed  over  reason.  Who  knows 
but  that  the  dreamers  may  once  more  succeed  and  the  thinkers 
fail  ?  Who  knows  but  that  when  the  Eastern  Question  is  onee 
more  re-opened,  out  of  the  welter  of  conflicting  interests  a  Jewish 
State  may  arise?  Less  expected  phenomena  have  more  than 
onco  appeared. 

ALBERT  M.  HYAMSON 
(j&Toyi,  Sec,  Union  Jewish  Literary  Societies), 


512  The  Empire  Review 


HOW   TO   INCREASE   BRITAIN'S   AGRI- 
CULTURAL  PRODUCTION 

FOB  some  years  past  I  have  devoted  much  time  to  the 
theoretical  study  of  agriculture  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  have  compared  the  results  obtained  there  with  those  arrived 
at  in  my  native  country,  Germany.  A  brief  summary  of  the 
conclusions  I  have  come  to  will  be  found  in  the  following  lines. 

If  we  reckon  the  value  of  Great  Britain's  home  supply  of 
agricultural  produce  at  £120,000,000  and  divide  this  sum  by 
47,760,585,  which  figure  represents  the  number  of  acres  under 
cultivation  in  the  British  Isles/  we  find  there  is  a  return  of  about 
£2  10s.  3d.  per  acre.  As  the  productive  power  of  soil  may  be 
said  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  consumption  of  manure,  a  com- 
parison between  Britain's  use  of  mineral  manure  and  that  of  some 
foreign  countries  is  instructive.  Professor  Grandeau,  of  Paris, 
has  compiled  tables  showing  the  amount  of  pure  phosphoric  acid 
and  pure  kaliurn  used  by  various  countries,  wherefrom  it  is 
evident  that  Great  Britain  consumes  per  acre  much  less  phosphate 
and  kalium  than  Germany  or  France,  and  only  about  one-fourth 
as  much  as  Belgium. 

The  value  of  Germany's  home  supply  of  agricultural  produce 
(inclusive  of  live-stock)  in  a  cultivated  area  of  84,014,000  acres 
may  be  said  to  be  £500,000,000,  or  £5  15s.  per  acre,  more  than 
double  as  much  as  the  return  per  acre  of  the  cultivated  area  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  Belgium  it  is  found  possible  to  grow 
vegetables  to  as  high  a  value  as  1600  francs  (£64)  per  acre.  More- 
over, foodstuffs,  especially  wheat,  are  cheaper  in  Belgium  than 
in  England.  The  fundamental  reason  for  the  depression  of 
agriculture  in  Britain  is  not  low  prices,  but  small  crops,  and 
British  fanning  can  only  be  benefited  by  increasing  the  size  of 
the  crops  without  adding  much  to  the  cost  of  production. 

Between  1860-1900  Germany  increased  the  value  of  her  home 
production  by  £200,000,000,  that  is  to  say,  from  £300,000,000  to 
£600,000,000,  although  the  population  increased  by  15,000,000  or 
40  per  cent,  during  this  period,  and  although  her  imports  have 
not  risen  but  fallen  in  comparison  with  her  own  population  and 


How  to  Increase  Britain's  Agricultural  Production     513 

her  own  production,  and  although  the  prices  of  food-stuffs,  of  grain 
especially,  have  fallen  as,  indeed,  they  have  done  everywhere. 
Belgium,  although  thickly  populated,  supplies  nearly-  the  whole  of 
London  as  well  as  herself  with  vegetables.  And  the  commercial 
position  of  France  is  due  in  no  small  measure  to  the  fact  that  the 
soil  produces  sufficient  food-stuffs  for  the  requirements  of  the  entire 
population. 

In  Britain  the  ratio  of  imports  to  production  is  3  :  2.  In 
Germany  1 : 10.  Or  to  put  it  another  way,  of  every  thirty  persons 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  twelve  are  fed  from  the  home  supply  ; 
and  of  every  thirty  persons  in  Germany,  twenty-seven  are  fed 
from  the  same  source.  The  cultivated  area  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  is  47,760,585  acres,  so  that  the  United  Kingdom,  by 
adopting  the  methods  of  Germany,  should  be  able  to  produce  at 
least  four-sevenths  of  Germany's  total  production,  a  value  of 
£286,000,000;  that  is,  the  British  farmers  could  more  than 
double  their  crops  and  feed  the  whole  of  their  population  without 
the  necessity  of  importing  any  food-stuffs  whatever. 

According  to  Professor  Wagner  of  Darmstadt,  the  possible 
results  of  thorough  manuring  obtained  on  many  thousands  of 
German  farms  amounts  per  acre  to :  wheat  32  cwt.,  barley  30  cwt., 
oats  32  cwt.,  mangolds  800  cwt.,  potatoes  400  cwt.,  clover-hay 
120  cwt.,  and  grass-hay  80  cwt.  Taking  Mr.  Eider-Haggard's 
calculation,  the  average  crops  in  England  between  the  years 
1890-1900,  amounted  per  acre  to :  wheat  16  cwt.,  barley 
15  cwt.,  oats  14  cwt.,  mangolds  350  cwt.,  potatoes  95  cwt., 
clover-hay  31  cwt.,  grass-hay  27  cwt.  Now  the  important  point 
of  Britain's  farming  consists  in  the  raising  of  cattle ;  this  can  be 
seen  from  the  fact,  that  in  the  United  Kingdom  there  are 
28,373,988  acres  of  meadow  land — 58  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
cultivated  area— against  18  per  cent,  in  Germany.  In  England, 
cattle  and  horse-breeding  are  carried  out  and  improved  in  a 
most  exemplary  manner  by  means  of  breeding-societies,  oppor- 
tunities for  instruction,  exhibitions,  prizes,  etc. ;  but  of  what  use 
is  all  this  when  the  most  important  thing  of  all,  the  fodder,  is 
wanting  ? 

In  this  matter  the  condition  of  things  might  easily  be  improved. 
Manuring  with  phosphate  would  double  the  yield ;  manuring  with 
phosphate  and  potash  and  nitrogen — thorough  manuring — would 
treble  it,  and  this  threefold  quantity  of  crops  would  contain  three 
times  the  quantity  of  nutritive  elements  and  actually  represent  a 
ninefold  increase  of  nutritive  contents.  Albumen  would  be 
increased  from  3  to  12  per  cent.,  fat  from  4  to  15  per  cent.,  and 
soluble  carbon  hydrates  (sugar,  starch)  from  10  to  30  per  cent. 
The  value  of  hay  in  England  amounts  to  £25,000,000.  The 
increase  would  bring  it  up  to  £75,000,000,  and  all  this  could  be 

VOL.  VI.— No.  35.  2  L 


514  The  Empire  Review 

obtained  by  a  comparatively  small  expenditure  for  manuring, 
namely:  £3, 000,000  spent  on  basic  slag  and  superphosphate, 
£3,000,000  on  potash,  and  £1,500,000  on  nitre,  a  total  of 
£7,500,000.  Great  Britain  now  spends  considerably  more  than 
this  sum  every  year  in  order  to  feed  her  herds  with  imported 
fodder.  With  the  increased  yield,  obtained  by  the  outlay  in 
artificial  manuring,  the  United  Kingdom  would  not  only  be  able 
to  maintain  double  the  quantity  of  live-stock,  but  would  require 
no  more  imported  fodder,  and  would  produce  the  food-stuffs  she 
now  imports. 

Let  me  be  more  explicit.  In  1902  England  imported  meat 
to  the  value  of  £40,000,000 ;  cattle  valued  at  £8,000,000 ;  oats 
valued  at  £12,000,000 ;  butter  valued  at  £20,000,000  ;  margarine 
valued  at  £2,000,000  ;  milk  valued  at  £2,000,000 ;  cheese  valued 
at  £2,000,000— a  total  import  valued  at  £86,000,000.  These 
imports  she  could  produce  herself  if  the  soil  were  manured  so  as 
to  give  the  double  or  treble  yield  of  fodder.  The  increase  of  yield 
in  continental  countries  has  been  accomplished,  despite  stubborn 
opposition,  by  the  introduction  and  application  of  the  principle, 
that  those  nutritive  vegetable  substances  which  have  been  ex- 
tracted from  the  soil  by  the  crops  must  be  replaced.  There  is  by 
no  means  sufficient  farm-yard  manure  to  supply  the  soil's  need. 
The  artificial  manures  used  by  Germany  to-day  represent  a  value 
of  £12,000,000,  and  this  sum  brings  in,  together  with  the 
whole  system  of  high  farming,  an  increased  harvest  valued  at 
£200,000,000. 

Between  the  years  1880  and  1902  the  consumption  of  manures 
increased  in  Germany  as  follows  : — 

Basic  Slag.         .  .  "  ^     .  from  200,000  tons  to  1,100,000  tons 

Superphosphate.  .  ,.         .        „     400,000    „    „       900,000    ,, 

Potash       .         .  .  .     '     .'        „     150,000    „     „       250,000    „ 

Nitre      '    .         .  .  .       -i        „     100,000    „     „       400,000    „ 

And  the  consumption  of  basic  slag  alone  in  the  whole  of  Europe 
increased  from  200,000  tons  in  1880  to  2,000,000  tons  in  1902. 

The  most  important  question  for  Great  Britain,  then,  is  to  teach 
the  farmer  how  best  to  use  the  different  manures  :  and  to  furnish 
him  with  the  required  manures  at  the  cheapest  possible  rate. 
The  use  of  mineral  manure  would  never  have  been  so  general 
in  Germany  had  it  not  been  that  both  these  questions  were 
thoroughly  and  systematically  examined  by  special  organisations 
throughout  the  country,  whose  influence  penetrated  to  every 
village.  These  organisations  are  agricultural  co-operative  cor- 
porations, which  afford  the  farmer  the  opportunity  of  buying  the 
right  sort  of  manure  at  a  cheap  price.  For  it  is  asking  too  much 
of  a  plain  farmer  to  expect  him  to  calculate  exactly  whether, 


How  to  Increase  Britain's  Agricultural  Production     515 

given  certain  costs  of  carriage,  it  would  be  cheaper  for  him  to 
purchase  a  14  or  a  16  per  cent,  manure.  The  calculation  is  done 
for  him  by  the  corporation,  which  also  assumes ,  general  control 
of  the  goods  delivered,  while  at  the  agricultural  expeiimental 
station  the  goods  are  analysed  at  the  expense  of  the  manufac- 
turer. Furthermore,  the  corporations  allow  the  farmer  time  to 
pay  for  the  manure,  often  waiting  until  his  crop  is  sold. 

Equally  important  is  their  influence  by  means  of  instruction  ; 
they  have  ample  opportunity  on  delivery  of  the  goods  to  supply 
the  farmer  with  advice,  and  they  give  similar  counsel  through 
travelling  teachers,  winter  schools,  technical  periodicals,  meetings 
and  lectures.  The  corporations  of  each  province  are  combined 
under  the  Chamber  of  Agriculture,  a  semi-governmental  depart- 
ment, to  which  they  are  subordinate.  In  fact,  Germany  has 
achieved  the  great  success  of  feeding  nine-tenths  of  her  popula- 
tion by  using  artificial  manures,  and  this  has  been  rendered 
possible  by  the  work  of  the  corporations. 

It  is  extraordinary  that  Great  Britain  uses  so  little  of  the 
very  phosphate  manure  which  is  in  every  respect  most  suited  to 
her  soil.  It  can  be  shown  that  the  United  Kingdom  consumes 
only  one-third  of  the  mineral  manure  used  by  Germany  and  only 
about  one-half  of  the  quantity  consumed  by  France.  The  con- 
sumption of  basic  slag  by  Great  Britain  is  one-seventh  that  of 
Germany,  and  this  insignificant  consumption  of  basic  slag  is 
particularly  striking  as  it  is  a  native  product;  contains  50  per 
cent,  of  lime,  which  British  soil  needs  in  very  many  cases ; 
is  most  suitable  for  the  moist  British  climate,  as  it  cannot  be 
washed  away ;  is  cheap ;  and  two-thirds  of  the  supply  ar 
exported. 

The  results  I  have  described  are  not  obtained  under  those 
"  special  circumstances  "  or  "  exceptional  conditions  "  of  which 
we  hear  so  much.  This  fact  is  clear  from  the  statistics  given. 
They  are  the  simple  consequence  of  great  natural  laws  thoroughly 
recognised  by  modern  science.  And  with  general,  plentiful  and 
proper  manuring  the  soil  of  Great  Britain  can  be  made  to  do  what 
the  soil  in  Germany  does,  namely,  produce  sufficient  to  provide, 
if  not  for  the  whole,  at  least  for  the  greater  part  of  the  country's 
needs.  England  will  only  be  able  to  retain  the  full  profit  of  her 
world- wide  commerce,  and  her  export  industry  when  she  utilises 
to  the  full  the  yielding  power  of  her  soil. 

THEOBALD  DOUGLAS. 

WIESBADEN. 


2  L  2 


516  The  Empire  Review 


THE  STORY  OF  CANADA'S  POSTS 

II.* 
GEOKGE  HEEIOT,  1800-1816. 

AFTER  the  death  of  Hugh  Finlay  the  offices  of  Deputy  Post- 
master General  and  Superintendent  of  Maitres  de  Postes  were 
separated.  George  Heriot,  who  succeeded  Finlay,  contended  that 
the  two  positions  should  he  controlled  by  the  same  individual, 
holding  that  the  head  of  the  postal  department  could  alone 
administer  the  office  of  superintendent  effectively,  while  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  punctuality  in  forwarding  the  mail  it  was 
necessary  that  he  should  possess  the  right  of  control  over  the 
Maitres  de  Postes,  with  power  to  censure  or  dismiss  in  case  of 
misconduct.  His  arguments,  however,  failed  to  avert  the  division 
of  duty,  and  the  post  of  Superintendent  of  Provincial  Posthouses, 
as  the  office  was  now  called,  was  bestowed  on  a  Canadian  in 
whose  hands  it  almost  became  a  sinecure.  Finding  themselves 
freed  from  the  authority  of  the  Postmaster- General,  the  Maitres 
de  Postes  lost  no  time  in  demanding  increased  payment  for 
conveying  the  mails.  This  demand  could  not  well  be  resisted, 
and  the  former  charge  of  sixpence  per  league  was  raised  to  eight- 
pence  and  subsequently  to  ten  pence  for  the  same  distance.  Left 
to  themselves,  the  Maitres  de  Postes  gradually  drifted  into  habits 
of  negligence  and  even  insolence,  until  travelling  became  most 
uncomfortable. 

On  the  5th  of  April,  1800,  Heriot  took  charge  of  the  Canadian 
postal  department,  and  the  office  at  Quebec,  his  only  assistant 
being  a  clerk  named  Giffend.  As  Deputy  Postmaster-General  of 
the  Provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and 
their  Dependencies,  he  was  answerable  to  the  British  Postmaster- 
General  for  the  conduct  of  his  deputies,  whose  appointments  were 
in  his  hands.  And  he  was  at  liberty  to  establish  new  postal 
routes  and  offices,  or  make  other  improvements,  provided  that  in 
his  opinion  the  changes  were  likely  to  benefit  the  revenue.  At 
this  period  the  entire  number  of  post-offices  throughout  the 

*  No.  I.  see  September,  1902. 


The  Story  of  Canada's  Posts  517 

whole  of  the  provinces  did  not  exceed  twenty,  and  the  estimated 
population  was  about  450,000. 

The  subsequent  progress  of  the  country  in  trade  and  popula- 
tion, and  the  development  of  its  resources  were  remarkable.  In 
the  Upper  Province  of  Canada  the  quick  changes  were  more 
noticeable  than  in  the  Lower.  Here  everything  was  in  a  state  of 
transition  and  so  rapid  was  the  improvement,  that  in  a  very  few 
years  settlements  appeared  where  forests  had  stood.  For  instance, 
while  in  1800  only  2600  loads  of  timber  reached  Great  Britain, 
from  the  Canadian  provinces,  in  1810  125,300  loads  were  landed 
on  our  shores.  And  writing  to  a  friend,  in  the  same  year,  the 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Assembly  remarked  :— 

We  have  seen  Upper  Canada  in  her  infancy  at  a  period  when  flour  and  pork 
were  imported  from  the  mother  country,  and  now  besides  supplying  its  own 
wants,  exports  yearly  from  80,000  to  100,000  barrels  of  flour,  a  great  deal  of 
pork,  as  well  as  other  commodities. 

As  the  provinces  advanced,  the  want  of  improved  postal 
facilities  became  more  and  more  manifest.  Yet,  no  matter 
how  desirous  Heriot  might  have  been  to  comply  with  the 
representations  from  the  governors,  traders,  and  settlers,  he  was 
bound  by  his  instructions  to  consider  the  Post  Office  purely  as  a 
Board  of  Revenue.  Accordingly,  when  extensions  of  existing 
postal  routes  were  asked  for,  the  question  of  justification  was  sure 
to  arise.  To  establish  posts  to  the  scattered  settlements  where 
the  amount  of  correpondence  was  so  trifling  meant  a  heavy  loss 
of  revenue.  The  traders  and  settlers,  however,  argued,  and  I 
confess  with  truth  on  their  side,  "  that  no  circumstance  could 
have  so  beneficial  an  influence  in  accelerating  the  progress  of  their 
improvements  as  a  proper  and  liberal  regulation  of  their  internal 
postal  system."  At  last,  yielding  to  the  pressure  brought  to  bear 
upon  him,  Heriot  instructed  Mr.  William  Allen,  the  Postmaster 
of  York,  to  apply  the  entire  revenue  produced  from  postage  in 
the  Upper  Province  towards  improving  the  internal  postal  com- 
munications and  giving  facilities  to  the  new  settlements. 

The  internal  postage  rates  applicable  to  the  British  dominions 
in  North  America  at  this  date  were : — * 

Distance                                         Single.  Double.  Treble.  Ounce. 

s.    d.  s.    d.  s.    d.  t.    d. 

Not  exceeding  60  miles .         .         .         .        04  08  10  14 

Over  60  but  not  exceeding  100  miles        .        06  10  16  20 

Over  100  but  not  exceeding  200  miles      .        08  14  20  24 

For  every  100  miles  over  200  (extra)        .        02  04  06  08 

But  as  the  distances  along  the  roads  and  paths  travelled  were 
in  every  case  almost  a  matter  of  conjecture,  it  was  impossible  to 
determine  what  the  actual  rate  should  be.  Hence  the  charges 

*  The  charges  were  fixed  by  5  Geo.  III.,  ch.  25. 


518  The  Empire  Review 

were  often  wrongly  apportioned.  Still  the  post  more  than  paid 
its  way,  and  che  surplus  net  revenue  obtained  in  the  first  twelve 
months  of  Heriot's  period  of  office  was  £884.  Ten  years  later  it 
amounted  to  £2514,  so  that  in  the  course  of  a  decade  the  profits 
had  increased  nearly  threefold.  This  surplus  revenue  was  paid 
over  to  the  English  Post  Office,  and  actually  went  to  increase  the 
British  postal  revenue. 

No  adequate  measures  were  taken  to  see  that  the  roads  were 
properly  repaired,  although  Government  officials,  known  as 
"grand  voyers,"  were  entrusted  with  the  work  of  enforcing  the 
law  in  this  respect.  It  is,  however,  only  fair  to  say  that  owing 
to  the  smallness  of  their  salaries,  they  could  not  afford  to  travel 
in  order  to  execute  their  duties.  As  a  result,  the  roads  near  the 
boundaries  of  the  provinces  were  universally  neglected.  Again, 
the  local  interest  of  each  province  induced  the  authorities  to 
attend  to  the  formation  and  maintenance  of  roads  leading  to  their 
ports  of  shipment,  more  than  to  those  communicating  with  the 
adjoining  provinces.  In  these  circumstances  any  effective  im- 
provement of  the  internal  postal  arrangements  was  hardly 
practicable.  Writing  in  1812,  Heriot  said  :  "  There  is  only  one 
principal  road  of  communication  for  a  post  throughout  his 
Majesty's  Provinces  in  North  America,  and  no  other  route  than 
the  present  can  be  projected."  The  route  in  question  led  from 
Halifax  to  Amherstberg,  the  couriers  in  their  journeys  passing 
through  Novia  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Lower  and  Upper 
Canada.  Notwithstanding  the  laches  of  the  "  grand  voyers " 
many  new  routes  were  opened,  and  whereas  in  1800  the  distance 
covered  by  the  mails  was  only  813  miles,  in  twelve  years  it  had 
increased  to  1251,  and  in  1816  a  total  of  1722  miles  was  reached, 
exclusive  of  the  "  way  "•*  posts  of  the  Lower  Provinces  or  the 
yearly  express  to  Gaspe.  This  increase  in  mileage  took  place 
chiefly  in  Upper  Canada. 

The  most  important  post  during  Heriot's  term  of  office  (1800- 
1816)  was  that  between  Halifax  and  Quebec.  Since  the  establish- 
ment of  this  post  in  1787,  no  alteration  had  been  made  in  the 
route  or  in  the  mode  of  conveyance  except  a  slight  acceleration 
of  speed  between  Quebec  and  Fredericton.  But  in  1809  British 
merchants  interested  in  the  trade  and  fisheries  of  the  North 
American  colonies  sent  an  urgent  petition  to  the  Privy  Council, 
complaining  of  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  provinces. 
Referring  to  the  postal  communications  between  Halifax  and 
Quebec  they  pointed  out  that  the  average  time  occupied  by  the 
couriers  in  performing  the  journey  was  not  less  than  three  weeks, 

*  "  Way  "  posts  were  the  posts  instituted  by  the  Provincial  Legislatures ;  in  most 
instances  there  was  no  post-office  along  their  extensive  routes,  the  letters  being 
delivered  and  collected  by  the  courier  who  made  his  own  postal  charges, 


The  Story  of  Canada's  Posts  519 

although  the  same  route  had  occasionally  been  traversed  by 
individuals  in  six  days.  The  rate  travelled  by  a  courier  was 
about  three  miles  an  hour,  and  the  distance  between  Halifax  and 
Digby  (estimated  to  be  about  153  miles)  was  scheduled  in  the 
Couriers'  "  Way  Bill  "  to  be  performed  in  fifty-two  hours. 

The  comparison,  however,  was  of  little  value,  since  a  traveller 
could  proceed  with  as  few  stoppages  as  he  found  convenient, 
whilst  the  courier  had  to  carry  his  mail,  generally  weighing  some 
two  hundredweight.  And  although  only  seven  post  offices 
intervened  between  Halifax  and  Quebec,  yet  he  had  to  stop  at 
over  thirty  stages  on  the  way,  at  all  of  which  certain  matters  had 
to  be  attended  to  before  he  could  proceed  on  his  journey.  The  only 
suggestion  Heriot  could  make  for  improving  the  communication  was 
to  increase  the  number  of  couriers  and  shorten  the  stages,  which  in 
some  instances  were  over  thirty  miles  distant  through  lonely  and 
uninhabited  districts.  Many  a  poor  courier  lost  his  life  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  duty,  and  the  following  case  is  typical  of  ths 
privations  which  these  men  at  times  were  forced  to  endure. 

On  the  20th  of  December,  1811,  a  courier  named  Marques, 
carrying  the  mail  from  Fredericton  for  Quebec,  reached  the  small 
military  settlement  of  Presque  Isle.  Owing  to  the  severity  of  the 
weather  he  had  obtained  an  assistant  to  accompany  him  up  the 
river  St.  John  as  far  as  the  Great  Falls,  The  two  men  had  pro- 
ceeded safely  to  a  point  some  miles  beyond  the  Bock  at  Tobique 
when  the  ice  gave  way,  and  both  narrowly  escaped  drowning. 
They  recovered  the  mail,  but  drenched  to  the  skin  and  with  the 
nearest  habitation  fifteen  miles  distant,  their  condition  was  a 
pitiful  one.  Bravely  they  continued  their  bitter  journey,  but 
their  clothes  soon  became  frozen  stiff  and  considerably  retarded 
their  progress.  Still  they  persevered,  and  managed  to  get  within 
three  miles  of  the  Great  Falls,  the  next  military  station,  before 
the  assistant  was  compelled  to  give  up,  being  unable  any  longer 
to  walk.  His  companion  did  his  best  to  persuade  him  to  struggle 
on,  but  all  to  no  purpose,  the  poor  fellow  lay  as  he  fell.  Marques 
saw  that  darkness  was  approaching,  and  that  he  could  do  nothing 
more  for  his  companion,  so  with  a  promise  to  send  back  assistance 
he  started  off  alone.  On  reaching  the  settlement,  he  lost  no  time 
in  making  the  Sergeant  acquainted  with  what  had  happened  ; 
but  by  this  time  darkness  had  set  in  and  nothing  could  be  done 
till  daylight.  As  early  as  possible  a  party  of  the  104th  Eegiment 
set  off  to  bring  in  the  missing  man,  and  after  a  prolonged  search 
he  was  found,  still  alive,  but  both  feet  were  badly  frost-bitten,  in 
fact  he  was  almost  frozen  to  death.  With  great  difficulty  the 
soldiers  succeeded  in  conveying  the  poor  fellow  to  the  settlement 
where,  in  spite  of  every  possible  attention,  he  rapidly  succumbed 
to  the  effects  of  the  exposure, 


520  The  Empire  Review 

During  Britain's  arduous  struggle  with  the  French,  the 
Americans  had  displayed  no  friendly  disposition  towards  us,  and 
for  a  long  while  preparations  were  on  foot  for  a  great  war.  It 
was  early  recognised  that  in  the  event  of  a  struggle,  our  postal 
communications  with  New  York  would  be  severed,  while  the 
needs  of  the  military  and  civil  establishments  necessitated  the 
keeping  up  of  a  more  frequent  and  regular  postal  communication 
between  Quebec  and  Halifax.  Eventually  America  declared  war, 
selecting  Canada  as  the  first  object  of  attack.  Daily  the  enemies' 
privateers  were  expected  to  make  an  attempt  to  capture  the  packet 
boats  plying  across  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  between  St.  John  and 
Digby,  and  it  was  therefore  decided  that  the  route  between 
Halifax  and  Fredericton  should  be  altered.  Accordingly  the 
mails  were  sent  overland  once  a  week  by  the  head  of  Chignocto 
Bay  a  distance  of  308  miles,  the  couriers  leaving  Halifax  and 
Fredericton  on  the  same  day  (Tuesday)  meeting  to  exchange 
mails  at  Fort  Cumberland. 

The  new  route  was  by  St.  John  and  Sussex  Vale.  The 
courier  from  St.  John  crossed  the  river  Hammond  near  Sussex 
Vale,  and  a  little  distance  on  the  Kenebeckais  river  had  to  be 
ferried.  Bearing  away  to  the  right  and  skirting  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  for  some  distance,  he  passed  through  the  valley  be- 
tween the  Kenebeckais  ajid  Petcudiac  (or  Pedicodiack)  rivers, 
and  striking  the  right  bank  of  the  Petcudiac  he  followed  it  for 
a  considerable  distance,  then  crossed  by  ferry  to  the  left  bank 
which  he  followed  until  he  came  to  the  Bend,  from  which  point 
it  was  open  country  to  Fort  Cumberland.  The  Halifax  courier 
leaving  Fort  Cumberland  crossed  the  boundary  into  Nova  Scotia, 
making  straight  for  Amherst,  leaving  Amherst  he  made  for  the 
open  and  hilly  country  which  led  him  over  the  top  of  Cobiquid 
Mountain,  and  on  to  Londonderry  and  Truro,  where  he  joined  a 
regular  post  road  through  Windsor  and  Horton  to  Halifax. 

At  the  end  of  the  war  the  old  route  across  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
was  reverted  to,  and  an  accelerated  service  established,  the 
journey  between  the  two  cities  being  performed  in  seventeen  days 
each  way  in  summer,  and  twenty-three  days  in  winter.  This  was 
rendered  possible  by  the  employment  of  extra  couriers  on  the 
road.  At  the  same  time  the  number  of  posts  were  increased,  the 
mail  between  Halifax  and  Digby  being  conveyed  by  light  cart  in 
summer  and  sleigh  in  winter,  while  boats  were  used  to  cross  the 
Bay  of  Fundy;  and  between  St.  John  and  Fredericton,  canoes  in 
summer  and  sleighs  in  winter.  From  Fredericton  to  the  Great 
Portage  the  mails  were  carried  in  carriages,  on  foot,  or  by  canoe, 
and  those  between  the  Great  Portage  and  Quebec  by  the  Maitres 
de  Postes,  being  the  only  service  this  department  now  performed. 
In  1801  a  regular  post  was  established  between  Quebec  and 


The  Story  of  Canada's  Posts  521 

York  (Toronto)  then  the  seat  of  the  Government  in  Upper  Canada, 
the  Governor  (Lient. -General  Hunter)  agreeing  that  in  the  event 
of  the  revenue  not  meeting  expenditure,  the  deficiency  should  be 
made  up  either  from  the  contingencies  of  the  Province  or  by  the 
Provincial  Legislature.  This  course,  however,  was  not  necessary, 
and  Heriot  appears  to  have  been  more  satisfied  with  results, 
for  soon  after  the  post  was  established  he  wrote  to  the  Postmaster- 
General  : — 

I  have  the  pleasure  to  acquaint  you  that  the  communication  by  post  with 
Upper  Canada  is  now  commenced  with  manifest  advantage  to  the  revenue  and 
general  satisfaction  of  the  inhabitants. 

Two  years  later  a  regular  fortnightly  post  was  established 
between  Montreal  and  Kingston.  The  cost  of  this  post  was  only 
£100  a  year,  due  to  the  courier  carrying  newspapers  upon  which 
he  made  his  own  profit.  The  journey  was  performed  in  about 
forty  hours.  The  road  between  York  and  Kingston  was  very  bad ; 
it  was  only  used  in  winter,  for  during  the  summer  months  the 
mail  was  carried  by  water,  but  no  regular  postal  communication 
existed  between  these  two  places  until  1810  when  a  general  bi- 
weekly post  was  allowed.  In  1802  an  "  occasional "  post,  that  is 
the  post  went  as  often  as  the  public  service  or  the  necessities  of 
commerce  required,  was  established  between  York  and  Sandwich, 
calling  at  Amherstberg.  The  journey  was  made  on  foot  and 
occupied  nearly  three  months,  the  mail  being  carried  by  a  man 
who  appears  to  have  been  an  itinerant  trader  making  three  or 
four  trips  in  the  year. 

The  war  with  the  United  States,  however,  particularly  affected 
Upper  Canada,  and  every  able-bodied  individual  was  called  on 
to  serve  in  the  militia,  all  postal  arrangements  being  thereby 
completely  disorganised.  The  only  posts  in  existence  during  the 
struggle  for  supremacy  were  the  "  military  expresses."  Following 
the  conclusion  of  peace  in  1815,  the  posts  between  Montreal  and 
Kingston,  Kingston  and  York,  and  from  York  to  Niagara  and 
Amherstberg  were  re-established.  Between  Montreal  and  Kings- 
ton the  mails  were  conveyed  on  horseback  once  a  week.  The 
post  left  Kingston  and  Montreal  on  Monday  evenings,  the  courier 
starting  from  Kingston  being  due  to  arrive  at  Brockville  on 
Tuesday,  Cornwall  on  Wednesday,  and  Montreal  on  Thursday. 
The  remaining  mails  were  also  weekly,  and  in  each  instance  were 
dispatched  from  York  on  Wednesdays. 

Next  year  the  Montreal  and  Kingston  post  was  made  bi-weekly 
and  conveyed  by  carriages,  which  set  out  every  Monday  and 
Thursday,  doing  the  journey  in  about  forty  hours.  A  change 
was  also  made  in  connection  with  the  York,  Niagara,  and 
Amherstberg  mail.  The  whole  mail  then  left  York  every  Monday 
at  4  P.M.,  being  taken  by  carriage  as  far  as  Dundas,  where  a 


522  The  Empire  Review 

post  office  was  established.  From  thence  the  Niagara  portion 
was  carried  on  horseback.  And  the  mail  for  Sandwich  and 
Amherstberg  left  Dundas  every  second  Thursday,  the  distance, 
some  260  miles,  being  traversed  on  foot,  as  the  greater  part  of 
the  journey  was  through  a  wilderness. 

Although  the  population  of  the  lower  province  in  1800  was 
some  three  times  that  of  Upper  Canada,  the  inhabitants  made  so 
little  use  of  the  post  that  no  extensions  or  increased  facilities  were 
considered  necessary.  The  post  between  Quebec  and  Montreal 
remained  as  originally  arranged  by  Finlay  until  1812,  when  a 
contract  was  made  with  a  stage-car  proprietor  for  the  conveyance 
of  an  extra  mail  which  left  Quebec  and  Montreal  every  Saturday 
morning.  In  1810,  an  office  was  established  at  William  Henry, 
and  in  the  year  following  another  at  St.  Denis.  These  were  the 
first  offices  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  both  were 
served  from  Berthier,  the  mails  being  conveyed  across  the  St. 
Lawrence  by  canoe.  The  war  partly  disturbed  these  arrangements, 
but  on  peace  being  signed  the  service  was  resumed. 

The  year  1816  witnessed  a  notable  change  in  the  Quebec  and 
Montreal  post :  the  conveyance  of  the  mail  by  the  Maitres  de 
Poste  was  discontinued,  and  a  contract  made  with  Messrs.  Bureau 
and  Whitney  stage-car  proprietors  for  a  five-day  service,  at  the 
annual  cost  of  £1440.  No  post  went  from  either  end  on  Fridays 
or  Sundays.  The  post  to  William  Henry  and  St.  Denis  was  also 
increased  to  five  days  a  week.  As  these  stage  carriages  conveyed 
passengers,  the  couriers  who  had  travelled  with  the  mails  under 
the  previous  arrangement,  were  now  retained  to  act  as  guards, 
being  held  responsible  for  the  safety  of  the  mail,  and  the  punctual 
delivery  of  "  way  "  letters  on  the  route.  The  mails  were  despatched 
from  Quebec  and  Montreal  at  5  P.M  ,  the  journey  occupying  about 
thirty-six  hours. 

In  August,  1803,  John  Howe  was  appointed  Postmaster  and 
Agent  for  the  Packet  boats  at  Halifax.  The  new  official  was 
able  and  energetic,  a  member  of  the  provincial  legislature  and 
possessing  considerable  influence  throughout  the  province.  In  his 
position  of  Deputy-Postmaster,  however,  he  was  subordinate  to 
Heriot.  At  that  time  only  five  offices  were  attached  to  the  regular 
postal  establishment  of  Nova  Scotia,  Halifax,  Windsor,  Horton, 
Annapolis  and  Digby,  all  of  which  were  on  the  line  of  the  Quebec 
and  Halifax  post.  When  Sir  George  Prevost  became  governor  of 
the  province  in  1808,  he  asked  for  several  postal  communications 
to  be  established,  not  on  the  ground  that  the  settlers  and  traders 
required  them,  or  would  be  benefited  thereby,  but  for  military 
purposes,  the  object  being  to  form  a  system  of  regular  postal 
communication  between  the  various  military  settlements  scattered 
throughout  the  province  for  defence  purposes. 


The  Story  of  Canada's  Posts  523 

Howe  appears  to  have  favoured  the  projected  posts ;  but  Heriot, 
recognising  that  such  posts  could  not  possibly  pay,  informed  the 
governor  that,  under  instructions  from  the  Postmaster-General  of 
England,  he  could  not  authorise  these  posts,  nor  would  he  be 
justified  in  incurring  a  large  expense  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  very 
small  correspondence.  The  Governor,  finding  Heriot  determined 
to  adhere  to  his  decision,  took  the  matter  entirely  into  his  own 
hands  and  prevailed  on  the  Legislature  of  the  Province  to  grant 
him  the  necessary  funds  to  establish  these  posts  in  different  parts 
of  Nova  Scotia.  Similar  action  was  taken  by  the  Governor  of 
New  Brunswick  and  Prince  Edward  Island  with  like  result,  which 
to  a  great  extent  made  the  Postmasters  of  these  provinces 
independent  of  Heriot. 

The  first  provincial  or  "  way  "  post  established  in  Nova  Scotia 
was  that  to  Pictou,  Truro,  and  Antigonishe,  the  Provincial  Legisla- 
ture agreeing  to  pay  a  sum  of  £350  a  year  towards  the  cost.  On  the 
western  seaboard  the  postal  route  terminated  at  Digby,  where  the 
Quebec  mail  crossed  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  From  Digby  a  way 
post  was  established  to  serve  Yarmouth,  Shelburn  and  Liver- 
pool, for  which  service  the  Legislature  voted  £230  per  annum. 
The  only  way  post  established  in  New  Brunswick  was  from 
Fredericton  (where  Mr.  Alexander  Phair  was  postmaster  to) 
Dorchester,  then  a  small  settlement,  and  for  this  the  assembly 
voted  an  allowance  of  £50  a  year.  The  way  post  to  Pictou 
was  (at  the  desire  of  Governor  Debarres)  extended  to  Prince 
Edward  Island,  the  assembly  accepting  responsibility  for  the 
cost  of  a  courier  between  Pictou  and  Charlottetown  and  the 
employment  of  a  packet  boat  between  the  Island  and  the  Bay  of 
Vert.  With  Cape  Breton  there  was  no  regular  mail,  letters  being 
forwarded  by  vessel  whenever  opportunity  offered. 

The  agreement  with  the  United  States  Post  Office  was 
renewed  by  Heriot,  but  with  the  proviso  that  the  intercourse  was 
to  be  for  commercial  correspondence  only,  and  the  prepayment 
of  postage  compulsory  as  far  as  the  frontier,  each  country 
collecting  and  retaining  its  own  postage.  The  result  of  this 
arrangement  was  that  senders  of  letters  from  Canada  to  be 
forwarded  to  England  from  New  York  were  required  to  prepay 
the  postage  as  far  as  New  York,  as  much  as  9d.  being  charged 
on  a  single  letter  between  Montreal  and  Swan  ton.  The  distance 
was  about  sixty  miles  vid  Chambly  and  St.  Johns,  where  post 
offices  were  established,  and  the  correct  postal  charges  were : — 
under  60  miles,  ±d ,  over  60  and  under  100  miles,  Qd.,  so  that 
there  was  an  overcharge  of  3d.  Then,  as  the  United  States 
postage  had  to  be  handed  over  to  the  United  States'  courier  at  the 
frontier,  the  sender  was  required  to  forward  sufficient  cash  with 
his  letter  for  the  purpose.  All  this  was  most  inconvenient,  and 


524  The  Empire  Review 

after  the  war  a  new  arrangement  was  made,  by  which  prepay- 
ment was  agreed  to  on  letters  posted  in  Canada,  but  a  letter 
posted  in  the  United  States  could  not  be  prepaid.  This  agree- 
ment virtually  made  Heriot  the  agent  of  the  United  States  and 
collector  of  their  postage.  For  this  he  received  a  commission 
of  20  per  cent,  on  the  amount  collected,  which  added  several 
hundred  pounds  to  his  income. 

A  bitter  feeling  sprang  up  throughout  the  Canadian  provinces 
regarding  the  disposal  of  surplus  revenue  derived  from  internal 
postage.  And  strong  protests  were  made  against  the  money 
being  remitted  to  England  instead  of  being  retained  in  the  Colony 
and  applied  towards  opening  up  postal  communications  with 
new  settlements,  the  improvement  of  roads  and  erection  of 
bridges,  all  of  which  were  badly  needed.  Year  by  year  the 
balance  remitted  had  increased  until  the  sum  for  1815  reached 
^68099  2s.  Id.  The  demands  of  the  settlers  and  traders  were 
strongly  supported  by  Lieut. -Col.  Sir  Gordon  Drummond,  Ad- 
minis  trator-in-Chief  of  Canada.  Heriot  pleaded  that  his  instruc- 
tions prevented  him  from  giving  facilities  where  the  anticipated 
revenue  did  not  warrant  it,  and  that  the  whole  revenue  derived 
from  Upper  Canada,  after  deducting  expenses,  did  not  amount 
to  £200  a  year.  At  length  the  correspondence  between  the  two 
men  became  so  heated  and  contentious  that  the. Administrator 
declined  to  carry  the  matter  further  with  Heriot,  and  appealed 
direct  to  Lord  Bathurst,  then  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies. 
At  the  same  time  he  requested  Heriot's  withdrawal  on  the  ground 
that,  unless  the  superintendence  of  the  posts  was  placed  in  other 
hands,  there  would  be  no  hope  of  improvement.  He  also  com- 
plained of  Heriot's  want  of  respect  for  himself  as  his  Majesty's  repre- 
sentative and  for  the  dignity  of  the  King's  Provincial  Government. 

On  the  the  other  hand,  Heriot  did  not  hesitate  to  put  forward 
his  case : 

My  situation  [he  remarked]  has  ever  been  rendered  extremely  hurtful  to  my 
feelings  by  an  idea  which  the  inhabitants  of  this  country  have  adopted  that 
I  am  invested  with  a  carte  blanche  relative  to  the  disposal  of  the  Post  Office 
revenue.  The  Governors  [he  continued]  may  be  actuated  by  zeal  and  by  a 
prejudice,  perhaps  laudable,  to  favour  the  inhabitants  of  their  particular 
provinces.  ...  I  feel  the  trouble  and  anxiety  incident  to  my  situation  too 
great  for  the  state  of  my  health,  and  shall  be  happy  to  give  up  the  appoint- 
ment. .  .  .  The  degree  of  suffering  depends  on  the  more  or  less  acute  per- 
ception of  the  mind,  to  me  the  indignity  offered  is  intolerable,  and  no  motive 
of  interest  or  advantage  can  induce  me  to  remain  longer  in  the  service. 

Shortly  after  sending  this  despatch  Heriot  resigned  his  appoint- 
ment (March,  1816)  and  was  succeeded  by  Daniel  Sutherland. 

J.  G.  HENDY 
(Curator  of  the  Record  Eoom,  G.P.O.,  London}. 


Scotland  at  the  South  Pole  525 


SCOTLAND  AT  THE  SOUTH  POLE 

LITTLE  is  known  of  our  most  southerly  possession — the 
Falkland  Islands.  Yet  some  two  thousand  English  and  Scotch 
people  live  here  governed  by  English  laws  and  regulations. 
Although  wind-swept  and  desolate,  and  surrounded  by  thousands 
of  miles  of  storm-tossed  ocean,  this  far-off  colony  is  by  no  means 
an  unimportant  settlement.  And,  in  the  event  of  war  with  a 
South  American  State,  Stanley  Harbour,  the  only  English 
port  in  the  South  Atlantic,  might  become  a  place  of  first 
importance. 

At  present  the  Islands  are  having  a  bad  time.  Their  one 
source  of  wealth  is  the  export  of  wool.  For  that  purpose  many 
thousands  of  sheep  are  annually  reared,  and  the  two  larger  islands 
are  entirely  given  over  to  sheep-farming.  At  one  time  a  sheep- 
farmer  was  able  to  earn  a  considerable  income.  Wool  fetched 
a  good  price  in  the  English  market,  the  fat  was  converted  into 
tallow,  and  the  inhabitants  lived  almost  entirely  on  mutton, 
which  is  still  known  for  obvious  reasons  by  the  name  of  "365." 
This  prosperous  state  of  affairs  has  unfortunately  changed. 
"  Scab "  made  its  appearance,  thousands  of  sheep  had  to  be 
destroyed,  and  the  farmers  were  put  to  very  .great  expense  before 
the  disease  could  be  eradicated.  It  was  necessary  to  separate  the 
flocks  by  several  miles  of  wire  fencing,  another  heavy  drain  on 
the  farmers'  purse.  Then,  when  reasonable  hopes  were  enter- 
tained of  recouping  this  expense,  the  price  of  wool  began  to  fall. 
Now  it  fetches  but  4%d.  instead  of  Is.  per  Ib.  as  was  formerly  the 
case.  The  freight  of  every  bale  of  wool  costs  305.  to  send  to 
England,  so,  as  may  be  imagined,  the  Falkland  Island  sheep- 
farmer  of  to-day  reaps  but  an  infinitesimal  profit  of  all  his  hard- 
earned  toil,  nor  does  the  outlook  seem  more  promising.  This 
is  especially  hard  as,  in  many  cases,  men  have  come  out  here 
putting  all  their  money  and  energy  into  their  work,  hoping  to 
make  enough  in  time  to  return  home  and  settle  down.  The  same 
cry  comes  from  the  sheep-farmer  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
but  there  other  interests  and  occupations  are  possible,  and  the 
life  of  an  Australian  colonist  has  its  compensation  in  the  way  of 


5 26  The  Empire  Review- 

climate,  scenery  and  life.    But  in   these  isolated  Islands  there 
is  nothing  else  to  take  the  place  of  sheep-farming. 

Other  industries  have  been  tried,  but  have  either  died  a  natural 
death  or  failed  from  some  cause  or  another.  Sealing  at  one  time 
was  carried  on  successfully,  but  the  seals  were  not  preserved,  and 
the  females,  which  are  supposed  to  have  the  best  fur,  were 
indiscriminately  killed  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Consequently 
only  a  few  hair  seals  are  left,  and  their  skins  are  practically 
worthless.  Penguin  oil,  which  at  one  time  fetched  £25  a  ton, 
became  of  so  little  value  that  it  was  not  worth  exporting.  Thus 
the  Islands  are  still  peopled — for  penguins  are  very  human — with 
a  large  number  of  these  ungainly,  but  quaint  and  fascinating 
birds,  whose  eggs  are  much  appreciated  here  by  the  inhabitants. 
In  fact,  near  Stanley,  the  only  town  in  the  Islands,  the  penguin 
rookeries  are  in  danger  of  being  exterminated,  as  in  nesting 
season  cutters  bring  in  boatloads  of  eggs  for  sale,  which  fetch 
two  shillings  a  hundred. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  penguins  in  the  Falklands.  The 
"  Grentoo,"  the  "  Jackass  " — so  called  from  the  braying  sound  he 
makes— and  the  "  Eocky  "  penguin.  The  "  Emperor "  and 
"  King  "  penguins  are  now  only  found  further  south.  The  ways 
and  habits  of  these  birds  are  most  interesting,  and  it  would  be 
a  thousand  pities  if  they  became  extinct.  Wild-fowl  of  almost 
every  description  abound  on  the  Islands.  Countless  gulls  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  the  slaughter-houses,  where  they  act  as 
scavengers ;  and  the  "  loggerheads,"  or  steamer  ducks,  and  the 
black,  long-necked  "  shag  "  are  so  tame  in  Stanley  Harbour  as  to 
be  the  easy  prey  of  sailors  and  boys,  who  stone  and  kill  them  for 
pure  mischief,  as  they  are  unfit  for  food,  having  a  strong  fishy 
flavour.  Three  varieties  of  geese  are  to  be  found,  the  Kelp  goose, 
the  Upland  and  Brent  goose ;  the  last  two  are  very  good  eating 
when  young.  Snipe,  teal,  dotterel,  wild  swans,  curlews,  hawks, 
bitterns,  and  small  birds  of  every  kind  abound  on  the  Islands. 

Many  years  ago  we  had  wild  horses  and  cattle  in  the  Falkland s, 
and  in  an  old  official  report  of  1855  it  is  stated  that : 

a  large  herd  of  cattle  in  Lafonia  (on  the  East  Falklands)  fled  north  before  a 
southerly  gale  in  such  confusion  that,  being  checked  in  their  mad  stampede  by 
a  peat  wall  covered  with  gorse,  they  leapt  over  a  high  cliff  and  were  all  dashed 
to  pieces.  Since  then,  however,  in  consequence  of  their  ruthless  and  wholesale 
slaughter  hardly  any  are  left. 

Of  fish  there  is  plenty,  the  deep-sea  product  being  cod, 
mullet,  and  smelts,  besides  shell-fish — clams,  mussels  ;  while  in 
the  streams  the  angler  is  sure  of  a  good  day  with  the  trout.  At 
one  time  it  was  suggested  that  fish  might  be  salted  and  exported 
to  the  Eoman  Catholic  countries  in  South  America,  where, 
especially  during  Lent,  it  is  so  much  in  demand.  But  the  scheme 


Scotland  at  the  South  Pole  527 

fell  through  on  account  of  the  stormy  and  treacherous  weather 
round  the  coast,  which  makes  the  life  of  a  fisherman  a  very 
precarious  one.  After  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Patagonia  it  was 
supposed  that  the  Falklands  also  possessed  mineral  wealth,  as  in 
the  prehistoric  ages  these  Islands  were  supposed  to  form  part  of 
the  mainland  of  South  America.  But  up  to  the  present  these 
hopes  have  not  been  fulfilled.  From  time  to  time  small  quantities 
of  iron  pyrites  have  been  found,  but  no  enterprising  person  has 
yet  gone  further  than  theorising  on  the  subject. 

The  soil  is  unsuitable  for  cultivating  grain,  but  some  of  the 
small  islands  are  covered  with  tussock,  which  grows  to  a  height 
of  several  feet,  and  is  used  for  feeding  cattle  and  horses  during 
the  winter.  The  ground  is  covered  with  a  short  coarse  grass  on 
which  the  sheep  feed.  In  some  districts  the  balsam-bog  forms 
a  curious  feature,  little  hillocks  extending  for  miles  so  close 
together  that  a  horse  can  with  difficulty  make  his  way  between 
them.  The  "  diddle-dee  "  bush  is  common  and  useful  for  lighting 
fires  in  the  camp,  as  it  is  of  a  most  inflammable  nature  even 
when  wet  with  rain ;  it  has  a  small  red  berry  which  makes 
excellent  jam.  Scurvy  grass,  which  has  a  sweet-smelling  white 
flower,  wild  celery,  the  tea  plant,  pronounced  by  explorers  as 
being  a  good  substitute  for  tea  and  even  now  is  sometimes  used 
for  that  purpose,  and  many  other  white  flowering  plants  and 
ferns  are  seen  on  the  Islands.  The  flora,  from  a  botanical  point 
of  view,  is  of  great  interest,  although,  on  account  of  the  cold 
weather  and  high  winds  the  general  aspect  of  the  country  is 
bleak  and  desolate.  There  are  no  trees  or  shrubs  of  any  size. 

Peat  is  the  only  fuel  used  in  the  Falklands,  there  being 
neither  coal  nor  timber.  Cut  into  large  square  blocks  and 
rickled,  the  peat,  when  perfectly  dry,  makes  excellent  firing.  A 
few  years  ago  there  was  a  peat  slip,  causing  one  death  and  great 
destruction  of  property  in  Stanley.  Since  then  trenches  have 
been  dug  to  drain  the  peat  bogs  above  the  town.  But  for  the 
peat,  Stanley  would  hardly  have  been  built  where  it  is.  Situated 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  East  Falklands,  close  to  the  harbour 
which  bears  its  name,  the  town  is  very  exposed,  and  the  low  hills 
on  either  side  seem  to  form  a  gully,  where  the  winds  from  every 
quarter  seem  to  congregate  together.  On  the  West  Falklands 
the  country  possesses  a  certain  wild  picturesque  beauty  of  its 
own;  but  there  is  nothing  to  redeem  the  desolate  aspect  of 
Stanley,  surrounded  by  peat-bogs  and  barren  grey  rocks. 

About  one  hundred  houses  are  placed  close  together,  each 
with  its  little  garden,  where  carrots,  turnips,  and  cabbages  grow. 
Nearly  every  house  has  its  porch  full  of  flowers,  and  these 
patches  of  colour  do  much  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  the  place. 
Stanley  Harbour  is  six  miles  long,  and  ships  of  5000  tons  can  anchor 


528  The  Empire  Review 

here.  During  the  so-called  summer  months,  from  December 
to  April,  the  little  town  is  enlivened  by  the  presence  of  three  or 
four  English  men-of-war,  belonging  to  the  South  American 
station.  The  arrival  of  the  ships  is  looked  forward  to  by  the 
inhabitants,  and  for  a  time  the  sleepy  little  place  wakes  up  and 
puts  on  holiday  attire.  Dances  and  riding  picnics  are  organised, 
and  there  are  few  places  where  our  "  handy  man "  is  so 
appreciated. 

The  chief  drawback  to  life  in  the  Falklands — after  the 
weather,  which  is  beyond  description,  for  when  it  doesn't  blow 
it  rains,  and  when  it  doesn't  rain  it  blows,  but  frequently  both— 
is  the  monthly  mail  service.  Once  a  month  only  do  we  receive 
news  from  Europe  brought  by  a  Pacific  steamer,  and  a  fortnight 
later  another  steamer  homeward  bound  calls  for  our  letters. 
Mail  days  are  the  great  events  of  the  month  in  Stanley;  flags 
fly  from  the  hotels  and  consulates,  and  business  is  quite  brisk 
when  on  fine  days  passengers  bound  for  other  ports  land  to  buy 
stamps  and  to  look  at  the  "  Stores  "  and  try,  with  doubtful  success, 
to  get  a  meal  on  shore.  The  "  First  and  Last,"  the  "  Kose,"  and 
the  "  Ship,"  are  very  popular  establishments,  where  an  excellent 
glass  of  beer  can  be  obtained,  and  where  one  can  get  a  good 
square  meal,  the  fare  consisting  chiefly  of  the  inevitable  mutton, 
varied  at  the  "  Kose  "  by  a  very  popular  dish  with  the  sailors 
of  eggs  and  bacon,  price  2s.  Qd.  "  Lame  ducks,"  as  battered  and 
disabled  sailing  ships  are  called,  put  in  from  time  to  time  for 
repairs  after  battling  against  the  storms  round  the  Horn,  and 
the  harbour  is  dotted  about  with  old  hulks,  the  remains  of  what 
were  once  fine  ships  but  have  come  to  their  last  anchorage  in 
these  far-off  waters,  amongst  them  the  old  Great  Britain.  Some 
of  these  hulks  are  used  for  storing  grain  and  coal,  others  are 
left  until  they  fall  to  pieces  and  are  eventually  sold  as  wreckage. 

The  Falklands  are  supposed  to  have  been  discovered  by  Davis 
in  1592,  and  visited  by  Hawkins  in  1594.  In  1763  France  took 
the  Islands  and  started  a  settlement  at  Port  Louis.  In  1820  the 
Republic  of  Buenos  Ayres  established  a  settlement  here  which 
the  Americans  destroyed  in  1831.  Two  years  later  we  took 
possession  of  the  Islands  for  the  protection  of  the  whale  fishery, 
and  in  1842  a  regular  civil  administration  was  formed  at  Port 
Louis.  Soon  afterwards  Stanley  became  headquarters,  and  it 
still  remains  the  seat  of  government. 

"Darwin"  seems  to  have  had  a  very  poor  opinion  of  the 
Falklands,  as,  in  his  '  Voyage  of  the  Beagle/  he  says,  "  After  the 
possession  of  these  miserable  Islands  had  been  disputed  by  Spain, 
France,  and  England,  they  were  left  uninhabited."  Possibly 
some  may  agree  with  him,  especially  during  the  long,  dark  winter 
months,  when,  except  for  the  monthly  mail,  nothing  occurs  to 


Scotland  at  the  South  Pole 


529 


vary  the  monotony  of  life  in  this  distant  little  colony.  Yet,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  climate  is  exceedingly  healthy,  epidemics 
being  practically  unknown.  A  good  price  is  paid  for  labour — 
even  an  ordinary  workman  gets  Sd.  an  hour ;  and  until  the  last 
few  years  fortunes  were  to  be  made  in  sheep-farming  and  other 
occupations. 

If  proper  accommodation  and  a  cheaper  mail  service  were 
provided,  there  is  no  reason  why  residents  in  Buenos  Ayres  and 
Monte  Video  should  not  spend  the  summer  months  in  Stanley, 
and  thus  avoid  the  hot  season  in  South  America  instead  of  going 
to  England  for  change.  After  all,  it  is  something  to  be  on 
English  soil  and  amongst  English  people ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  much  more  use  might  be  made  than  is  at  present  of  Scotland 
at  the  South  Pole. 

ELLA  M.  HART-BENNETT. 

COLONIAL  SECRETARY'S  QUARTERS, 
FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 


VOL.  VI.— No.  85. 


2  M 


5.°>0  The  Empire  Review 


THEIR   EXCELLENCIES 

THAT  the  main  principles  of  our  Imperial  life  are  but  little 
understood  in  the  mother  country  is  disputed  by  no  one  who 
knows  the  Empire  intimately.  For  instance,  on  the  appointment 
of  the  first  Governor-General  of  Australia,  politicians  and  others 
commonly  represented  him  as  solely  responsible  for  setting  in 
motion  the  legislative  machinery  of  the  Commonwealth,  just  as 
they  represented  the  Federal  Bill  as  one  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
achievements.  They  failed  to  realise  that  as  self-government  is 
in  England  so  it  is  in  Australia.  The  Governor-General  no 
doubt  plays  an  important  part  in  navigating  the  Federal  ship, 
but  the  actual  work  must  be  done  by  the  Prime  Minister  as 
the  head  of  a  responsible  Ministry.  Nor  has  the  governor  of  a 
colony  which  has  won  for  itself  a  responsible  position  in  the 
Empire,  more  executive  power  than  the  King,  and  of  course 
infinitely  less  influence. 

But  if  inaccurate  thinking  invests  the  colonial  governor  with 
too  much  power,  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  social  and  political 
conditions  in  greater  Britain  invests  his  wife  with  too  little.  She 
is  a  greater  personage  than  her  husband,  an  acute  critic  once 
remarked  of  Lady  Loch,  and,  should  she  be  successful,  the  same 
may  be  said  of  "  her  Excellency  "  in  all  the  main  divisions  of  the 
Empire.  This  may  sound  a  little  extravagant,  but  it  is  none  the 
less  true  that  unmarried  governors  are  almost  invariably  failures. 
Lord  Milner  is  a  brilliant  exception,  but  he  is  an  extraordinarily 
able  man  in  an  extraordinarily  difficult  position.  It  ought  by 
now  to  be  as  well  known  in  Downing  Street  as  it  is  in  the 
colonies,  that  a  governor  who  has  not  taken  to  himself  a  wife 
has  small  chance  of  success  in  a  democratic  State. 

One  has  merely  to  remember  the  political  conditions  of  a 
self-governing  province  to  understand  that  this  must  be  so.  A 
creative  statesman  like  Lord  Cromer  would  find  no  scope  in 
Canada  or  Australasia,  as  an  ordinary  colonial  governor  would 
find  himself  entirely  out  of  his  depth  in  Egypt.  Up  to  1891, 
the  man  who  made  history  in  the  dominion  was  Sir  John  Mac- 
donald ;  the  man  who  is  making  it  now  is  Sir  Wilfred  Laurier. 
Until  the  raid,  the  driving  force  in  South  African  affairs  was  the 
late  Cecil  Khodes.  In  Australia  personalities  are  not  so  marked, 


Their  Excellencies  531 

but  political  power  lies  with  responsible  Ministries,  not  with  the 
governor.  It  should  never  be  forgotten,  too,  that  distrust  of  the 
Colonial  Office,  rooted  in  the  colonial  mind  by  a  century  of 
tyranny,  neglect,  and  ignorance,  is  a  very  real  factor  in  the  attitude 
of  Englishmen  oversea  towards  the  representative  of  the  Sovereign. 
It  is  an  honourable  colonial  tradition  to  speak  and  act  as  though 
the  contrary  were  the  case,  just  as  it  is  an  honourable  tradition 
of  English  public  life  to  take  for  granted  that  men  who  do  their 
utmost  to  aid  the  Empire's  foes,  are  animated  by  the  purest 
patriotism ;  but  the  moment  the  Colonial  Office  tries  to  assert 
authority,  the  real  sentiment  of  the  public  comes  to  the  surface, 
and  it  is  the  governor  who  suffers.  He  is  the  "  foreign  noble- 
man," "a  minion  of  Downing  Street,"  and  "  the  embodiment  of 
arrogant  officialism."  The  Colonial  Office  is  the  most  admirable 
institution  in  the  British  Empire  until  it  ventures  to  perform 
its  functions.  Then  it  is  the  worst. 

But,  as  a  peer  with  a  distinguished  Imperial  record  once 
remarked,  "if  colonial  governors  have  no  power,  they  have 
influence,"  and  therein  lies  their  strength.  They  do  not  represent 
England  but  the  Crown.  Hence  their  whole  duty  is  to  minister 
to  loyalty,  to  do  nothing  that  will  wound  it,  to  do  everything  that 
is  possible  to  stimulate  it.  An  unsympathetic  governor  not  only 
weakens  the  tie  that  binds  colonials  to  their  Sovereign,  but  gives 
new  life  to  class  prejudice.  That  is  to  say  he  creates  a  feeling  of 
antagonism  to  Englishmen  as  distinct  from  colonials.  It  is  an 
ill  servant  that  gives  a  bad  impression  of  his  master,  and  this  is 
practically  what  a  tactless  governor  does  in  a  self-governing 
colony. 

Nor  is  the  duty  of  a  governor  to  the  State  of  which  he  is  the 
head  less  imporant  than  his  duty  to  the  Sovereign.  Government 
House  is  the  aristocratic  centre  of  a  democracy.  Its  influence 
on  colonial  life  and  growth,  like  that  of  loyalty  to  the  Crown, 
can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  Its  strength,  born  of  a  settled 
order  of  things,  throws  into  relief  the  weakness  of  a  struggling 
community  in  which  each  man  thinks  himself  as  good,  if  not 
better  than  his  neighbour.  It  sets  up  an  ideal  of  manners. 
The  aggressive  spirit  of  colonial  independence  is  modified  by  the 
presence  of  the  King's  representative,  who  is  proud  to  call  him- 
self a  servant,  while  at  the  same  time  his  birth  and  station 
command  deference  without  the  aid  of  self-assertiveness,  self- 
consciousness  and  insolence,  which  are  too  often  characteristic 
of  ambitious  individuals  in  a  society  in  process  of  evolution; 
Government  House,  therefore,  maintains  a  standard  of  simplicity 
that  keeps  the  exaggeration  of  the  rich  within  bounds. 

Again,  in  the  political  arena,  the  influence  of  a  governor 
makes  for  nothing  but  good.     The  nice  sense  of  personal  honour, 

2  M  2 


532  The  Empire  Review 

which  distinguishes  an  English  gentleman,  has  a  wholesome 
tendency  to  elevate  crude  ideas  on  mutual  obligations.  In  short, 
the  governor  is  the  ambassador  of  the  old  world  to  the  new, 
the  silent  witness  that  grace  and  beauty  are  as  necessary  to  life 
as  vigour.  It  is  the  head  of  the  family  who  is  best  able  to  carry 
on  its  traditions,  not  the  younger  sons,  who  are  forced  to  go  out 
into  the  world  to  make  their  own  career.  Hence  Englishmen 
in  the  mother-country  have  all  the  charm  for  colonials  that  the 
chief  of  a  noble  house  has  for  its  cadets.  No  one  felt  it  more 
than  Sir  John  Macdonald.  "  I  do  not  think,"  he  says  in  one  of 
his  letters,  "  that  there  is  anything  in  the  world  equal  in  real 
intellectual  pleasure  to  meeting  the  public  men  of  England. 
Their  tone  is  so  high,  and  their  mode  of  thinking  so  correct 
that  it  really  elevates  one."  'This  is  the  opinion  of  unprejudiced 
colonials  abroad  in  the  Empire.  The  aristocratic  basis  of  society, 
the  institutions  which  do  not  bear  transplanting,  the  atmosphere 
created  by  a  thousand  years  of  national  existence,  invest  the 
best  type  of  Englishmen  at  home  with  an  indefinable  something 
that  is  absent  in  his  brethren  who  have  developed  under  other 
conditions.  Like  the  soft  haze  that  veils  an  English  landscape, 
it  is  as  elusive  as  it  is  suggestive.  Government  House  radiates 
this  subtle  quality  in  the  Englands  oversea.  It  brings  home  to 
the  colonial  mind  that  freedom  is  well,  but  that  service  is  better  ; 
that  equality  is  not  the  final  word  of  civilisation.  This  loyalty 
to  the  Sovereign  saves  the  colonies  from  those  grosser  forms  of 
materialism  which  are  destroying  lofty  ideals  in  the  United 
States.  The  social  standard  in  Canada  and  Australasia  is  not 
set  by  the  millionaire,  but  by  the  gentleman  whose  birth  is  con- 
sidered before  wealth,  honesty  before  success. 

Of  Colonial  governors  Lord  Carrington  is  perhaps  the  most 
popular  type.  He  has  been  paid  one  of  the  highest  compliments 
ever  paid  to  a  governor  since  the  inauguration  of  self-govern- 
ment ;  for  everywhere  throughout  the  English-speaking  world  he 
was  regarded  as  the  ideal  of  what  his  Excellency  should  be.  When 
in  Australia,  his  influence  extended  far  beyond  the  borders  of 
New  South  Wales,  a  fact  which  was  demonstrated  at  the  farewell 
banquet  given  to  him  in  November  1890.  The  question  is  this, 
would  he  have  gained  this  enviable  position  had  he  been  a  bachelor. 
It  is  unlikely.  His  tact,  geniality,  broad  views,  and  complete 
identification  with  the  interests  of  Australia  in  general,  and  New 
South  Wales  in  particular*  undoubtedly  would  have  made  him 
one  of  the  most  successful  governors  of  his  time ;  but  that  he  was 
something  more  he  owes  to  Lady  Carrington,  who  has  no  rival 
in  the  hearts  of  the  Australian  people  save  only  Lady  Loch. 
When  Lady  Carrington  left  Sydney  her  path  from  Government 
House  to  the  station  was  strewn  with  flowers,  and  the  women, 


Their  Excellencies  533 

with  that  artistic  sense  born  of  their  tropical  climate  which  was 
so  marked  in  the  Commonwealth  decorations,  formed  an  avenue 
of  palms  by  holding  enormous  leaves  in  their  hands. 

The  late  Max  O'Eell  in  *  John  Bull  and  his  Island'  says  that 
when  policy  marks  out  an  unusually  commonplace  Englishman 
for  a  responsible  position,  questions  are  immediately  asked  as  to 
the  kind  of  wife  he  has.  Should  her  claims  to  distinction  be 
greater  than  his,  it  is  she  who  practically  gets  the  appointment. 
This  is  an  exaggeration,  but  there  is  enough  truth  in  it  to  be 
amusing.  The  reign  of  more  than  one  noble  mediocrity  at 
Government  House  has  been  rendered  brilliant  by  a  charming 
spouse,  and  again  and  again  the  blunders  of  aristocratic  masculine 
inexperience  has  been  carried  off  by  aristocratic  feminine  grace. 
The  functions  of  the  governor  being  what  they  are,  his  wife, 
if  sympathetic,  is  bound  to  exert  the  more  potent  influence  of 
the  two.  "  Her  Excellency,"  is,  therefore,  a  title  of  some  signi- 
ficance, though  it  was  officially  recognised  only  a  year  or  two  ago 
as  a  compliment  to  the  Commonwealth. 

Why  English  people  should  take  for  granted  that  the 
"  advanced  "  woman  is  a  power  in  Greater  Britain  they  would 
find  it  hard  to  explain.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  she  is  there  very 
much  what  she  is  in  this  country.  Hence  no  governor  should 
ever  be  sent  to  a  self-governing  colony  with  a  strong-minded  wife. 
Intellectual  ladies  of  rank,  with  a  gift  for  public  speaking  and 
pronounced  views  on  the  mutual  relations  of  the  sexes,  have 
their  place  in  the  world,  no  doubt,  but  that  place  is  not  Govern- 
ment House.  Nothing  is  more  fatal  to  her  Excellency's  popu- 
larity than  extreme  opinions  of  any  kind.  She  should  remember 
that  her  mission  in  a  British  colony  is  not  personal  but  repre- 
sentative. It  should  be  her  ambition  to  win  hearts  rather  than 
to  win  souls ;  to  work  for  the  Empire  rather  than  for  total  absti- 
nence ;  to  elevate  her  sex  by  example  rather  than  by  precept. 
And  so,  not  for  her  are  the  methods  of  the  tract  distributor  and 
propagandist.  Colonials  are  as  much  in  need  of  moral  stimulus 
as  other  people,  but  it  should  never  be  given  by  a  governor's 
wife  whose  ideas  on  the  subject  are  peculiar  to  herself.  Danger 
lies  that  way. 

As  a  rule  the  Colonial  Minister  is  too  careful  to  make 
obvious  mistakes  in  his  choice  of  their  Excellencies,  and  so  when 
her  Excellency  is  unpopular  the  causes  are  subtle :  they  reveal 
themselves  only  in  the  fierce  light  that  beats  on  Government 
House.  Young  and  beautiful,  an  ideal  wife  and  mother,  a 
devoted  friend,  and  the  great  lady  to  her  finger-tips,  she  may  yet 
lack  the  saving  grace  of  tact.  In  a  woman  of  the  world,  who  is 
little  more,  it  rarely  fails  to  win  love ;  in  a  woman  with  a  warm 
heart  it  inspires  devotion.  Sympathy  is,  perhaps,  the  better  word 
to  use,  because  tact  is  too  oftem  merely  the  expression  of  a  desire 


534  The  Empire  Review 

to  please  or  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  right  thing  to  (Jo,  whereas 
sympathy  is  the  expression  of  feeling.  When  the  floods  in  New 
South  Wales  rendered  hundreds  of  families  homeless,  Lady 
Carrington  went  in  person  to  the  scene  of  the  disaster  cheering 
the  sufferers  with  her  gracious  presence,  and  setting  an  example 
to  the  charitable  by  organising  relief.  A  similar  part  was  played  by 
Lady  Hely  Hutchinson  in  Natal  a  few  years  ago.  The  influence 
here  is  more  than  charm,  it  is  temperament.  Her  Excellency 
may  be  admired  for  her  beauty,  esteemed  for  her  worth,  and 
reverenced  for  her  goodness,  but  without  tact  she  will  not  be 
loved.  One  has  merely  to  remember  the  conditions  of  colonial 
life  to  understand  that  this  must  be  so.  Colonials  are  apt  to 
generalise  in  a  superior  way  on  the  strength  of  English  social 
distinctions,  but  it  may  be  doubted  if  their  own  petty  social  dis- 
tinctions have  a  basis  as  sound  in  human  nature.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  they  are  more  rigid  than  the  better  defined  lines  of  social 
demarcation  at  home ;  and,  therefore,  social  tolerance  is  a  plant 
of  slow  growth  in  the  upper  circles  of  colonial  society.  People 
are  either  friends  or  mortal  enemies,  and  so  sensitive  that  they 
often  mistake  an  unintentional  slight  for  an  insult.  Only  a 
woman,  and  an  intuitive  woman,  can  hope  to  steer  a  safe  course 
through  such  shoals  and  quicksands  as  these;  only  she  can 
distinguish  between  the  pushing  new-comer  and  old  colonists  of 
weight  and  standing ;  only  she  can  charm  the  warring  elements 
of  her  little  world  into  harmony  ;  only  her  delicacy  can  hold  the 
balance  even  between  retiring  worth  and  the  ambitious  rich. 
More  than  one  governor's  wife  has  made  herself  unpopular  by 
mistaking  smart  folk  for  the  backbone  of  society.  It  is  a  mistake 
which  is  never  forgiven. 

Her  Excellency  blunders  most  when  she  is  oppressively 
conscious  of  her  station.  No  one  more  readily  bows  to  rank 
when  its  air  is  simple  than  a  colonial ;  no  one  resents  it  more 
deeply  when  it  is  arrogant.  He  cordially  dislikes  a  great  lady 
who  is  more  anxious  to  assert  her  own  dignity  than  to  maintain 
the  dignity  of  the  Crown,  who  makes  no  effort  to  hide  her 
longing  for  home,  who  sees  no  charm  in  the  colonial  life  around 
her.  He  does  not  want  an  exile  at  Government  House,  but 
a  social  light  that  reflects  the  glory  of  the  Crown.  A  lady 
who  once  honoured  an  Australian  State  with  her  presence, 
contemptuously  described  her  guests  as  "those  colonials," 
the  inference  being  that  it  was  a  bore  to  receive  them.  Duties 
conceived  in  such  a  spirit  are  bound  to  be  irksome ;  therefore 
they  are  performed  in  a  manner  which  leaves  something  to  be 
desired  in  the  matter  of  graciousness.  An  influence  so  chilling 
to  loyalty  is  mischievous  in  the  extreme.  Better  that  the 
Sovereign  should  never  be  represented  at  all  than  one  who 
weakens  his  hold  on  the  affections  of  his  subjects  oversea. 


Their  Excellencies  535 

Another  form  of  tactlessness  is  a  desire  to  be  exclusive,  her 
Excellency  refusing  to  meet  on  friendly  terms  anyone  outside  a 
charmed  circle,  which  consists  of  a  few  favoured  colonials  and 
representatives  of  the  Navy,  Army  and  Civil  Service.  The 
creation  of  a  narrow  clique  would  be  fatal  to  the  King's 
popularity ;  the  creation  of  a  clique  which  is,  as  it  were,  foreign 
is  fatal  to  the  popularity  of  a  governor's  wife.  It  is  her  duty 
to  identify  Government  House  with  the  colony,  not  to  make  it  an 
alien  social  centre.  It  is  not  so  long  since  the  daughters  of  a 
pro-consul  made  themselves  thoroughly  disliked  by  refusing  to 
dance  with  anyone  who  was  not  an  officer  or  an  official,  the  rule 
being  as  rigidly  observed  at  private  balls  and  parties  as  it  was  at 
Government  House.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  ancestors  of 
ladies  with  such  exaggerated  ideas  of  their  own  importance  did 
not  come  over  with  the  Conqueror,  and  colonials  are  not  slow  in 
finding  it  out.  They  naturally  infer  that  dignity  which  is  so 
frightened  at  contact  with  the  vulgar  crowd,  is  based  not  on  the 
traditions  of  a  noble  house,  but  on  the  accident  of  official  position. 
In  nothing  did  Lord  Beaconsfield  show  his  profound  knowledge 
of  human  nature  more  clearly  than  in  his  perception  of  the  need 
for  the  representation  of  the  Crown  to  consist  of  great  peers  of 
the  realm.  Even  when  exclusiveness  wears  a  sweet  and  gentle 
aspect,  as  it  sometimes  does,  it  'gives  rise  to  a  soreness  of  feeling, 
which  is  unfortunate.  Any  attempt  to  make  Government  House 
a  thing  apart  from  the  life  of  the  colony  is  resented. 

That  her  Excellency  has  a  difficult  role  to  play  is  indisput- 
able. How  difficult  it  is  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  while 
a  governor  rarely  fails  to  win  popularity,  her  Excellency  is  not 
so  fortunate.  For  every  one  of  the  first  who  has  not  succeeded, 
there  are  two  of  the  second.  With  common  sense  and  geniality, 
an  English  nobleman  can  always  manage  to  avoid  the  pitfalls  of 
official  life,  and  in  any  contest  he  may  have  with  his  ministers  he 
is  bound  to  have  the  support  of  a  large  body  of  colonial  opinion. 
Indeed,  it  has  been  said  that  colonials  will  more  readily  forgive  a 
governor  who  quarrels  with  a  premier  than  a  slight  from  her 
Excellency.  The  first  they  look  at  from  the  political  point  of 
view  and  rather  enjoy,  the  second  from  the  personal  point  of  view 
and  resent.  To  be  dignified  without  stiffness,  gracious  without 
condescension,  gentle  without  colourlessness,  is  not  so  easy  as 
people  imagine.  A  perfect  sense  of  the  fitness  of  things  is 
possible  only  to  a  tactful  woman  with  a  warm  heart  and  a 
sound  social  training.  In  other  words,  the  feminine  type  which 
has  dominated  the  world  from  the  beginning  of  time,  is  the 
type  which  triumphs  at  Government  House. 

C.  DE  THIEBRY. 


536  The  Empire  Review 


FRANCE   AND    NEWFOUNDLAND 

THE  STORY   AND   A  SOLUTION. 

DUKING  the  past  sixty  years,  commission  after  commission 
has  considered  the  Newfoundland  question,  but  without  result. 
Both  Sir  Charles  Dilke  and  a  distinguished  French  Admiral 
have  declared  it  to  be  the  most  dangerous  matter  pending 
between  England  and  France.  Not  only  is  the  position  one  of 
great  hardship  to  the  unfortunate  Newfoundland  fishermen,  but 
it  seriously  affects  Canada.  How  would  Englishmen  in  any  part 
of  the  world  bear  with  regulations  excluding  them  from  their 
own  territory?  How  would  they  submit  to  have  their  fishing 
gear  taken  up  by  naval  officers,  and  their  implements  of  industry 
constantly  destroyed  on  their  own  land  at  the  bidding  of  the 
foreigner?  Yet  this  is  an  every-day  occurrence  on  the  so-called 
"  French"  shore  in  Newfoundland.  But  besides  all  this,  the 
question  remains  an  obstacle  to  the  union  of  Newfoundland  with 
Canada,  a  consummation  devoutly  to  be  wished  by  all  good 
Imperialists,  and  just  now  very  favourably  viewed  by  Canadians 
and  Newfoundlanders. 

Then  there  is  the  outrageous  smuggling,  aided  directly  by  the 
French  Colonial  Government.  France  allows  every  petty  nation 
a  representative  on  St.  Pierre,  but  to  England,  with  the  largest 
commercial  interests,  a  consul  is  absolutely  prohibited,  and  any 
British  agent  who  presumes  to  set  foot  on  the  island  is  driven 
away  like  a  wild  animal.  Not  long  ago  the  St.  Pierre  authorities 
even  dismissed  the  English  cable  hands  from  a  suspicion  that 
they  gave  information  to  their  countrymen.  All  North  America 
is  robbed  by  these  audacious  contraband  traders.  Canada  and 
Newfoundland  are  put  to  an  expense  of  $200,000  a  year  for  a 
preventive  service.  Even  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier,  persona  gratissima 
at  Paris,  has  failed  to  obtain  from  the  French  government  so 
reasonable  a  concession  as  the  appointment  of  a  British  consul  at 
St.  Pierre.  And  why  ?  Because  the  little  Gallic  Island  thrives, 
and  lives,  and  has  its  being,  by  plundering  the  revenues  of  its 
neighbours,  Canada  and  Newfoundland.  Stop  this  demoralising 
traffic  and  St.  Pierre  would  cease  to  exist. 


France  and  Newfoundland  537 

The  idea  that  the  French  trade  in  Newfoundland  is  an 
important  industry  is  illusionary.  It  is  nothing  of  the  kind. 
Bounty  piled  on  bounty  does  not  suffice  to  keep  it  going.  The 
real  crux  of  the  situation  lies  in  its  sentimental  side.  Our 
neighbours  across  the  Channel  are  pre-eminently  sensitive  on  all 
questions  that  are  considered,  however  remotely,  to  affect  their 
national  honour.  The  little  rocky  islets  of  St.  Pierre  and 
Miquelon,  and  the  old  fishery  rights  on  the  Newfoundland  coast 
are  all  that  now  remain  of  the  mighty  New  France  in  America. 
Hence  any  hot-headed  Breton  deputy  can  get  up  a  fierce  excite- 
ment in  the  Chamber  by  accusing  the  minister  of  bartering  away 
French  rights  in  Newfoundland.  Recently  one  of  these  senti- 
mental Celts  issued  a  stirring  appeal  for  the  help  of  his  Gallic 
brethren  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  Wales,  and  the  Isle  of  Man,  to 
prevent  the  robbery  of  the  Bretons  in  Newfoundland  by  the  Infidel 
National  Government. 

With  these  preliminaries  I  pass  on  to  explain  the  past  and 
present  condition  of  the  question  and  its  possible  solution. 

All  writers  on  the  subject  begin  its  history  with  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht  (1713).  That  convention  is  but  a  modern  instance. 
The  real  conflict  began  with  the  defeat  of  the  Armada.  Till  then 
England  and  France  were  more  or  less  allies,  and  the  privateer 
from  Plymouth  who  robbed  and  plundered  Philip's  galleons  was 
outri vailed  by  the  dashing  pirates  from  Brest  and  La  Eochelle. 
When,  however,  the  terrible  power  that  overshadowed  Europe 
disappeared,  and  Philip's  navy  sank  into  insignificance,  then 
began  between  the  ancient  rivals,  France  and  England,  that  long 
contest  for  the  dominion  of  the  sea  and  the  control  of  North 
America,  which  ended  with  Wolfe's  victory  at  Quebec,  and 
Trafalgar.  St.  Pierre,  Miquelon  and  the  "  French  "  Shore  are  all 
that  now  remains  to  France  after  that  long  duel  of  two  hundred 
years. 

In  the  negotiations  for  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  which  were 
long  and  protracted,  France  knew  well  that  she  must  lose 
Newfoundland,  so  she  offered  to  surrender  the  island  and  all 
fishery  rights,  as  well  as  some  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  for 
Acadie  (Nova  Scotia).  But  the  voice  of  the  Continental  Colonies 
(now  the  United  States)  was  firm  and  solid  in  refusing  to  allow 
our  opponents  any  settlement  on  the  mainland.  In  giving  up 
Cape  Breton  the  English  insisted  that  the  island  should  not  be 
fortified,  and  that  the  fishery  should  be  concurrent.  The  French 
pointed  out  that  the  two  nations  could  not  fish  together,  that 
it  would  involve  perpetual  quarrels.  Queen  Anne  and  the  English 
merchants  were  agreed  that  the  French  should  have  no  fishing 
privileges  in  Newfoundland,  yet  in  spite  of  these  protests  the 
treaty  was  made.  Considering  that  our  enemies  had  been  com- 


538  The  Empire  Review 

pletely  vanquished  and  lay  at  England's  mercy,  this  compact  of 
1713  is  one  of  the  most  disgraceful  in  our  history. 

The  politicians  of  the  day  were  venal  and  fierce  partisans. 
The  desire  for  French  wines  set  many  against  Marlborough. 
The  hard  drinkers  complained  that  they  were  poisoned  by  port. 
All  the  boon  companions,  the  loose  women,  lawyers,  doctors,  the 
inferior  clergymen  were  united  against  the  Duke.  Swift  and 
Pope,  Addison  and  Steele,  fought  their  fierce  literary  battles  over 
the  treaty  which  to-day  regulates  the  manner  in  which  the 
French  fishermen  may  build  their  temporary  huts,  and  erect  their 
fishing  stages. 

On  one  point  this  treaty,  which  still  remains  the  law  on 
the  subject,  is  remarkably  clear  and  explicit.  The  sovereignty  of 
England  over  the  island  is  stated  most  emphatically. 

The  island  called  Newfoundland,  with  the  adjacent  islands,  shall  from  this 
time  forward  belong  of  right  wholly  to  Great  Britain.  .  .  .  Nor  shall  the  most 
Christian  King,  his  heirs  and  successors  or  any  of  his  subjects  at  any  time 
hereafter  lay  claim  to  any  right  to  the  said  Island  and  Islands  or  to  any  part 
of  it  or  them.  Moreover,  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  the  subjects  of  France  to 
fortify  any  place  in  the  said  Island  of  Newfoundland,  or  to  erect  any  buildings 
there,  besides  stages  made  of  boards,  and  huts  necessary  and  useful  for  drying 
of  fish,  or  to  resort  to  the  said  Island  beyond  the  time  necessary  for  fishing  and 
drying  fish.  But  it  shall  be  allowed  to  the  subjects  of  France  to  catch  fish  and 
to  dry  them  on  land  in  that  part  *  only. 

The  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  confirms  this  part  of  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht,  as  does  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  (1783). 

The  King  of  Great  Britain  cedes  the  Islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  in 
full  right  to  his  most  Christian  Majesty  to  serve  as  a  shelter  to  the  French 
fishermen,  and  his  said  Majesty  engages  not  to  fortify  the  said  Islands,  to  erect 
no  buildings  upon  them,  but  merely  for  the  convenience  of  the  fishery  and  to 
keep  upon  them  a  guard  of  fifty  men  only  for  the  Police.f 

And  at  the  last  Treaty  of  Paris  (1815),  confirms  the  Treaty  of 
Utretcht  and  foregoing  treaties. 

From  the  wording  of  these  old  compacts  three  points  stand  out 
very  clearly.  First,  that  England,  as  the  sovereign  power,  can 
alone  exercise  coercive  jurisdiction  within  her  own  territory. 
This  principle,  which  is  the  very  A  B  C  of  international  law,  has 
been  for  a  very  long  time  set  aside  by  the  French.  Nets  and  gear 
of  every  kind  belonging  to  British  fishermen  have  been  taken  up 
and  destroyed  by  French  naval  officers,  and  the  men  themselves 
over  and  over  again  driven  away  from  their  own  coasts.  For  a  long 
time  the  Imperial  authorities  assented  to  these  outrages.  The  late 

*  Here  the  boundary  line  is  described  from  Cape  Bonavista  to  Point  Bich,  after- 
wards altered  from  Gape  John  to  Cape  Ray. 
t  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  Art.  G. 


France  and  Newfoundland  539 

Lord  Derby  actually  approved  of  them,  and  in  every  convention 
provision  was  made  allowing  French  officers  to  carry  out  sum- 
mary proceedings.  Of  course  they  have  no  more  legal  rights  to 
execute  laws  on  British  territory  in  Newfoundland  than  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight  Lord  Salisbury  was  the  first  English  Minister 
to  give  orders  that  the  execution  of  the  law  should  be  confined  to 
our  own  naval  officers,  and,  with  a  few  isolated  exceptions,  this 
is  now  the  practice. 

The  second  point,  that  England  alone  can  execute  the  pro- 
visions of  the  treaties  on  her  own  coasts  is  equally  clear.     The 
instructions  to  the  naval  officers  and  their  reports  are  kept  secret, 
but  they  may  be  summed  up  thus  :  "  Always  keep  on  good  terms 
with  the  French.     Don't  bother  about  the   Colonials,  avoid  all 
disputes  with  your  naval  antagonists."     A  remarkable  illustration 
of  this  rule  was  shown  a  few  years  ago.   A  Frenchman  committed 
a  most  outrageous  criminal  assault  on  an  English  settler's  wife. 
The  husband   complained  to  the  naval  officer,  a  Justice  of  the 
Peace,  who  declined  to   allow  the  man  to  be  arrested.     The 
criminal  was  afterwards  tried  by  the  French  Admiral  and  banished 
from  the  coast.    Here  was  an  opportunity  of  vindicating  British 
authority,  but  the  officer's  idea  was  "  we  have  difficulties  enough 
on  our  hands  without  mixing  ourselves  up  with  troubles  of  this 
kind."    In  fact  the  gravity  of  the  situation  on  the  Treaty  Shore 
was,  in  my  opinion,  largely  increased  by  the  naval  officers  trying 
to  keep  on  good  terms  with  the  French,  whose  object  is  to  make 
trouble.    Happily  we  have  had  lately  most  prudent  commanders 
in  charge  of  both  ships  of  war,  and  at  last  their  instructions  are 
based  on  the  reports  of  the  Royal  CommissioD,  which  sets  forth 
that  when  a  complaint  is  made  by  a  French  officer  against  any 
British  subject,  the  English  naval  authority,  before  acting  in  the 
matter,  shall  hold  an  investigation   and  satisfy  himself  of  the 
proof  of  the  wrongful  act  before  applying  any  forcible  measure. 
After  nearly  a  century  of  mismanagement,  common  sense  is  at 
last  being  applied  to  the  carrying  out  the  treaties  on  the  Treaty 
Shore.      The  report  is  most  complete  and  exhaustive.     It  is 
strong  in  our  favour  and  a  complete  vindication  of  the  position 
taken  up  by  Newfoundland.    This  doubtless  is  the  reason  why 
at  the  instance  of  the  French  Government  it  is  kept  from  the 
public. 

Having  explained  the  law  as  to  the  English  rights  on  the 
foregoing  points,  I  will  next  consider  the  French  rights.  I  do  not 
wish  to  state  them  unfairly  or  to  minimise  them  in  any  way. 
They  depend  mainly  on  the  Declaration  of  George  III.  appended 
to  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  1783.  Lord  St.  Helens,  who  arranged 
the  agreement  with  Vergennes,  told  him  that  they  could  not  put 
any  exclusive  right  in  the  treaty,  but  that  they  would  promise  it, 


540  The  Empire  Review 

ministeriellement   and    give    instruction   to    the   government   of 
Newfoundland  to  that  effect. 

By  Article  IV.,  "His  Majesty,  the  King  of  Great  Britain  is 
maintained  in  his  right  to  Newfoundland  as  by  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
except  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  which  are  ceded  in  full  right  to 
his  Most  Christian  Majesty."  Article  V.  alters  the  limits  of 
Cape  John  and  Cape  Ray.  Then  comes  the  declaration  setting 
forth 

That  in  order  to  prevent  the  quarrels  which  have  hitherto  arisen  between 
the  two  nations  in  the  fishery  to  be  enjoyed  as  by  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  King 
having  entirely  agreed  with  the  French  King  upon  the  articles  of  the  definite 
treaty,  will  seek  every  means  which  shall  not  only  insure  the  execution  thereof 
with  his  accustomed  good  faith  and  punctuality,  but  will  besides  give,  on  his 
part,  all  possible  efficacy  to  the  principles  which  shall  prevent  even  the  least 
foundation  of  dispute  for  the  future. 

To  this  end,  and  in  order  that  the  fishermen  of  the  two  nations  may  not 
give  cause  for  daily  quarrels,  His  Britannic  Majesty  will  take  the  most  positive 
measures  for  preventing  his  subjects  from  interfering  in|  any  manner  by  their 
competition  with  the  fishery  of  the  French  during  the  temporary  exercise  of 
it,  which  is  granted  to  them  upon  the  coast  of  Newfoundland ;  and  he  will  for 
this  purpose  cause  the  fixed  settlements,  which  shall  be  formed  there,  to  be 
removed.  His  Britannic  Majesty  will  give  orders  that  the  French  fishermen 
be  not  incommoded  in  cutting  the  wood  necessary  for  the  repairs  of  their 
scaffolds,  huts  and  fishing  vessels. 

It  is  quite  clear  that  the  English  envoy  virtually  promised  to 
give  the  French  exclusive  rights  from  Cape  John  to  Cape  Eay, 
but  the  word  "  exclusive  "  is  not  used  either  in  this  declaration  or 
in  the  Act  of  Parliament  passed  a  little  later.     On  two  occasions, 
at  the  Peace  of  Amiens  Joseph  Bonaparte  wanted  the  word 
"exclusive  "  inserted,  and  again  in  1815,  but  the  English  Govern- 
ment absolutely  refused.     Putting  aside  the  fraud  of  the  declaration 
and  many  other  arguments  that  might  be  brought  forward,  the 
French  contention  that  they  have  a  prior  and  virtually  exclusive 
right  to  the  fishery  within  these  limits  can  hardly  be  denied.     If 
they  had  been  able  to  occupy  every  part  of  the  fishing  ground 
within  those  boundaries,  no  one  could  doubt  their  authority  to 
hold  it.     There  are  over  700  miles  of  coast  on  the  Treaty  Shore, 
but  of  this   stretch   our  opponents   occupy   an  infinitely   small 
portion.     On  the  north  east  coast,  and  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle, 
where  the  French  once  had  a  hundred  fishing  establishments, 
they  possess  but  one  fishing  room  really  occupied,  and  another 
temporarily.    Where  they  employed  3,000  hands  there  are  now 
not  more  than  sixty. 

On  the  west  coast  they  are  simply  reduced  to  half  a  dozen 
small  holdings  and  less  than  300  fishermen.  The  intrinsic  value 
of  their  catch  of  codfish  for  several  years  past  has  not  amounted 
to  £10  per  head.  On  the  other  hand,  during  the  same  period 


France  and  Newfoundland  541 

a  great  number  of  English  settlements  have  arisen  on  the  coast 
and  the  population  now  numbers  17,331.  This  extensive  popula- 
tion, be  it  remembered,  grew  up,  not  in  opposition  to  the  French, 
but  with  their  tacit  consent  and  encouragement.  The  colonial 
settlers  were  useful  in  many  ways.  They  looked  after  the  fishing 
stages  and  boats  when  the  French  left ;  they  grew  garden  stuff, 
and  most  of  their  catch  of  fish  was  bartered  in  an  underhand  way 
for  liquor,  sugar  and  tea,  passed  in  as  the  genuine  product  of 
French  industry,  and  receiving  the  immense  bounty.  All  these 
facts  are  admitted  by  the  French  in  their  Colonial  Official  Journal. 
Having  encouraged  the  growth  of  the  population,  which  at  first 
did  not  interfere  with  their  cod-fishing  operations,  it  is  idle  for 
the  French  to  attempt  now  to  dispossess  them. 

Modern  diplomacy  established  as  a  rule  of  international  law, 
that  where  territory  had  been  continuously  occupied  without 
opposition  by  one  nation  for  fifty  years,  or  even  where  there  has 
been  undisturbed  possession  and  actual  occupation  for  twenty 
years,  or  thereabouts,  such  territory  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the 
settled  property  of  the  nation  in  occupation  and  shall  not  be 
the  subject  of  international  arbitration.  It  is  sound  law  and 
common  sense  that  when  an  owner  grants  a  limited  easement 
like  the  present  very  restricted  grant  of  fishery  privileges  to  the 
French,  whatever  is  not  included  in  such  license  to  fish  is  retained 
by  the  owner.  This  is  the  position  of  England  as  grantor  and 
Sovereign  Power. 

The  privileges  of  the  French  by  the  Treaty  are  strictly  limited 
to  three  things.  First,  they  have  the  right  to  catch  fish.  The 
original  draft  of  the  Treaty  named  cod-fish,  but  the  French  Abbe 
who  drew  the  document  in  Latin,  considered  cod  an  inelegant 
word,  so  he  substituted  fish.  But  that  cod-fish,  and  cod-fish 
only  was  contemplated  is  shown  by  the  text.  It  was  the  only 
fishery  known  and  carried  on  at  the  time.  The  Treaty  says  the 
fishery  must  be  carried  on  in  its  accustomed  manner,  which  at 
that  period  consisted  of  the  fishing  ship  coming  out  from  France, 
and  on  arriving  at  its  station  the  vessel  was  laid  up  and  the  crew 
built  their  temporary  huts  and  stayed  ashore.  Moreover  as  a 
clear  proof  of  its  meaning,  cod  is  the  only  commercial  fish  that  is 
cured  by  drying  and  salting.  Only  the  catching  and  drying  of 
fish  on  land  is  allowed.  The  Newfoundland  contention  on  this 
particular  contains  strong  points,  though  I  would  not  limit  the 
French  to  their  strict  interpretation.  Their  second  privilege  is 
to  dry  their  fish  on  land  in  temporary  huts  and  stages  made 
of  boards.  They  are  distinctly  prohibited  from  erecting  any 
buildings.  Thirdly  they  are  allowed  to  cut  wood  on  land  for  the 
strictly  limited  purpose  of  repairing  these  stages  and  huts  and 
their  fishing  vessels. 


542  The  Empire  Review 

Outside  these  limits  they  have  no  other  rights.  They  cannot 
come  to  the  island  before  the  fishery  season  commences,  nor  remain 
after  it  closes.  They  cannot  barter  or  trade  goods.  It  will  be 
quite  clear  to  any  legal  mind  that  England  as  the  Sovereign 
Power  retains  the  right  to  use  this  part  of  her  dominion  for  every 
other  purpose  that  does  not  interrupt  or  unduly  prejudice  this 
limited  license  to  the  French,  and  that  where  Frenchmen  do  not 
temporarily  occupy  the  coast  and  do  not  fish,  English  subjects 
may  occupy  the  coast  and  may  utilise  their  own  territory.  To 
taboo  this  whole  extensive  shore,  the  most  fertile  and  beautiful 
part  of  the  colony,  the  richest  in  mineral  treasure,  to  make  the 
whole  land  into  a  barren  wilderness  simply  because  half-a-dozen 
old  French  brigs  fish  in  six  or  seven  harbours  is  too  absurd  for 
discussion.  Obsolete  treaties  of  this  kind  must  be  interpreted 
reasonably  and  according  to  the  existing  state  of  facts.  They 
were  made  when  there  was  only  a  very  small  scattered  population, 
now  they  are  an  intolerable  burden. 

The  presence  of  the  French  on  the  Newfoundland  coast  is  not 
only  an  anomaly,  it  is  kept  up  in  defiance  of  all  the  laws  of  sound 
political  economy.  A  decaying  wretched  business  which,  seeing 
the  difficulties  that  have  to  be  met,  no  nation  but  the  French 
would  ever  attempt  to  continue.  It  is  bolstered  up  with  a  bounty 
on  export  amounting  to  more  than  the  actual  value  of  the  fish, 
with  a  premium  of  fifty  francs  to  every  French  fisherman  in 
Newfoundland  (fifty  francs  is  also  given  by  the  municipality  of 
St.  Pierre  to  every  petit  pecheur  on  the  coast,  and  four  thousand 
francs  has  been  distributed  since  1900  by  the  Department  of 
Marine  Inspection  of  St.  Pierre  amongst  the  St.  Pierre  fisher- 
men who  go  to  the  Treaty  shore),  with  drawbacks  on  every- 
thing used  in  the  business  amounting  to  as  much  as  the 
bounty.  In  short  every  Frenchman  sent  out  to  the  Treaty 
shore  costs  the  treasury  of  the  Republic  forty  pounds  sterling. 
On  the  barren  islets  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  and  on  this 
miserable  decaying  industry  France  has  expended  during  the 
past  fifty  years,  including  cost  of  her  war  ships,  at  least  one 
hundred  million  dollars. 

Some  fifteen  years  ago  a  French  governor  of  St.  Pierre 
declared  that  the  annual  trade  of  the  island  amounted  to  thirty 
million  francs.  It  has  now  come  down  to  less  than  half  that 
amount.  And  imports  that  were  once  valued  at  fourteen  million 
francs  in  one  year,  recently  declined  to  six  millions.  This  heavy 
fall  is  partly  due  to  bad  fisheries,  but  chiefly  to  the  stoppage  of 
the  smuggling  trade  by  the  increased  vigilance  of  Canadian  and 
Newfoundland  revenue  cruisers.  What  that  illicit  trade  amounted 
to  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  even  to-day  the  imports  of 
St.  Pierre  come  to  nearly  $260  per  head,  whilst  the  average  imports 


France  and  Newfoundland  543 

per  capita  in  Newfoundland  and  Canada  are  $30.  Making  all 
allowance  for  legitimate  business  and  for  the  increased  consump- 
tion on  a  barren  island,  clear  proof  remains  that  there  is  the 
loss  of  revenue  of  the  duty  on  a  million  dollars  worth  of  goods, 
the  larger  part  being  spirits  annually  smuggled  from  St.  Pierre 
into  Canada,  Newfoundland  and  New  England.* 

In  discussing  this  question  one  must  always  bear  in  mind  that 
France  carries  on  four  distinct  fisheries  in  Newfoundland  waters. 
First,  the  deep  sea  or  bank  fishery  on  the  grand  banks  in  which 
295  vessels  are  engaged  (105  from  France,  the  rest  from  St.  Pierre) 
and  some  5000  hands.  This  is  the  main  industry.  Second,  the 
shore  fishery  on  the  Newfoundland  coast  with  five  or  six  vessels 
and  about  300  men.  Third,  shore  fisheries  peche  sedentaire  from 
St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon.  Fourth,  the  small  bank  fishery  on 
St.  Pierre  bank,  in  which  mostly  small  vessels  are  engaged,  as  it 
is  within  a  few  hours  run  of  the  land. 

In  recent  years  the  difficulty  of  the  Treaty  Shore  has  been 
further  complicated  by  the  lobster  question,  which  began  about 
1886.  Newfoundlanders  and  Nova  Scotians  were  carrying  on 
this  business  along  the  coast  without  molestation  from  the 
French,  until  angry  feelings  were  aroused  by  the  Bait  Act  of  1888, 
which  for  the  time  almost  ruined  them  and  from  which  they 
have  never  recovered.  They  not  only  attacked  the  English 
factories,  but  began  to  build  themselves.  Now  it  was  clear 
enough  that  substantial  erections  with  brick  or  stone  foundations, 
brick  chimneys  and  corrugated  iron  roofs  were  in  distinct  violation 
of  the  treaties.  And  when  the  French  Commodore's  attention  was 
called  to  this  anomaly,  he  promptly  ordered  them  to  be  taken 
down.  Of  course,  this  was  only  a  blind.  Next  season  more 
were  put  up,  and  finally  in  1890,  M.  Jusserand,  the  accomplished 
English  scholar,  stepped  into  our  Foreign  Office  and  suggested 
a  little  temporary  arrangement.  Like  a  good  diplomatist,  he  had 
made  a  little  note  of  an  agreement  which  ran  as  follows  : 

THE  Modus  Vivendi. 

The  question  of  principle  and  of  respective  rights  being  entirely  reserved  on 
both  sides,  the  maintenance  of  the  status  quo  can  be  agreed  upon  on  the 
following  basis :  Without  France  or  Great  Britain  demanding  at  once  a  new 
examination  of  the  legality  of  the  installation  of  British  or  French  lobster 
factories  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  where  the  French  enjoy  rights  of 
fishing  conferred  by  the  treaties,  it  shall  be  understood  that  there  shall  be  no 
modification  in  the  position  occupied  by  existing  establishments  of  the  subjects 
of  either  country  on  the  1st  July,  1889,  except  that  subject  of  either  nation 
may  remove  any  such  establishment  to  any  spot  on  which  the  commanders  of 
the  two  naval  stations  shall  have  previously  agreed. 

*  See  Prowse'p,  '  History  of  Newfoundland,'  1st  ed.  p.  579,  for  a  full  account  of  the 
demoralising  influence  of  this  traffic. 


544  The  Empire  Review 

No  lobster  factories  which  are  not  in  operation  on  1st  July,  1889,  shall  be 
permitted  unless  by  consent  of  the  British  and  French  senior  naval  officers  of 
the  station.  In  consideration  of  each  new  lobster  factory  so  permitted,  it  shall 
be  open  to  the  fishermen  of  the  other  country  to  establish  a  new  lobster  fishery 
on  some  spot  to  be  similarly  agreed  on.  Whenever  any  case  of  competition 
arises  between  the  fishermen  of  either  country  the  commanders  shall  proceed 
on  the  spot  to  a  provisional  "  delimitation  of  the  lobster  fishery  grounds, 
having  regard  to  the  situation  acquired  by  the  two  parties." 

N.B.  It  is  well  understood  that  this  agreement  is  quite  provisional,  and 
shall  only  be  good  for  the  fishing  season  which  is  about  to  open. 

This  was  about  the  cleverest  diplomatic  trick  ever  played  upon 
the  simple,  confiding  British  Government.  It  saved  the  French 
fishery  from  utter  destruction,  and  legalised  factories,  which 
were  admitted  to  be  wholly  and  absolutely  illegal.  It  com- 
pletely annuls  for  the  time  England's  sovereign  rights,  and 
gives  the  French  officers  equal  authority  to  adjudicate  and  make 
delimitations  on  British  territory.  The  Newfoundland  govern- 
ment protested  against  the  arrangement  as  suicidal,  but  without 
effect.  Year  after  year  we  have  been  passing  this  detested 
measure.  In  one  way  it  has  produced  a  certain  amount  of  peace 
on  the  Treaty  Shore.  The  French  lobster  factories  are  few,  the 
English  are  many,  but  the  result  to  the  poorer  fishermen  who 
have  not  licensed  factories  is  deplorable.  The  Eoyal  Com- 
missioners, Admiral  Erskine  and  Sir  John  Bramston,  must  have 
been  disgusted  with  the  employment  of  English  men-of-war 
sailors  raiding  poor  settlers'  premises  and  tearing  away  their 
small  boilers  at  the  instigation  of  French  officers.  To  crown 
the  absurdity  of  the  situation,  Commodore  Bourke  gave  orders 
not  only  that  the  fishermen  should  sell  their  lobsters  only  to 
licensed  canners,  but  also  fixed  the  price  the  canners  should  pay 
for  the  crustaceans.  During  the  season  the  whole  coast  is 
virtually  under  martial  law.  The  hardy  Newfoundlander,  how- 
ever, evades  it  and  carries  on  his  business  in  defiance  of  both 
the  French  and  English  navies.  All  the  same,  he  is  prosecuted 
under  an  intolerable  tyranny. 

The  worst  feature  of  the  modus  vivendi  was  the  fillip  it  gave  to 
the  French  industry.  The  codfishery  had  failed  and  the  foreigner 
would  have  had  to  decamp  but  for  the  lobsters,  which  have  risen 
to  such  an  enormous  price  that  the  few  thousand  cases  put  up 
by  the  French  exceed  in  value  their  whole  catch  of  cod,  and 
enable  them  to  remain  on  the  coast.  Year  by  year,  however, 
they  are  dwindling,  and  the  inevitable  failure  must  soon  come. 
The  wandering  cod  and  the  disappearing  lobster  are  more 
effectually  settling  the  French  Shore  question  than  all  the 
diplomacy  of  Europe. 

Of  the  various  French  industries  the  owners  of  the  deep  sea 
vessels  (armateurs)  are  by  far  the  most  influential  body ;  their 


France  and  Newfoundland  545 

great  desire  is  free  access  to  bait  from  Newfoundland,  and 
they  have  declared  in  the  most  outspoken  way  that  free  bait 
for  their  important  trade  "is  worth  a  dozen  French  shores." 
With  a  certain  amount  of  give  and  take  then  it  would  appear 
that  we  have  here  a  basis  for  a  settlement.  Negotiations 
between  the  two  Foreign  Offices  are  going  on,  and  have  pro- 
gressed considerably,  and  compensation  to  the  owners  of  the 
old  dilapidated  fishing  premises  could  be  easily  settled  either  by 
arrangement  or  arbitration.  The  only  possible  difficulty  I  see  in 
the  way  of  a  settlement  is  that  French  national  pride  may  look 
for  some  exchange  of  territory,  if  so,  we  have  plenty  of  spare 
land  in  Africa  to  satisfy  the  Gallic  earth  hunger,  or  we  might  give 
them  Dominica,  which  is  entirely  French  and  lies  between  their 
own  islands  of  Martinique  and  Guadaloupe.  Its  cession  to 
France  would  complete  their  little  West  Indian  archipelago. 
Another  proposal  is  to  give  France  a  free  hand  in  Morocco, 
reserving  the  open  door  for  trade.  The  corresponding  advantage  to 
England,  whilst  it  would  be  far  more  important  than  a  settlement 
of  the  Newfoundland  question,  might  include  that  as  a  minor  point. 

These  are  some  of  the  difficulties  on  the  French  side ;  but  this 
long  standing  dispute  is  further  complicated  by  the  attitude  of 
the  Newfoundlanders.  For  some  time  it  has  been  an  open  secret 
that  if  the  colonists  would  allow  the  French  free  bait,  an  amicable 
settlement  might  be  arrived  at.  The  island  government  is 
mainly  influenced  by  the  views  of  their  fish  merchants.  "  Keep 
the  French,  they  say,  from  getting  bait,  and  their  catch  will  be 
so  decreased  that  they  will  have  none  of  their  bounty-fed  fish  to 
glut  our  markets  in  the  Mediterranean."  The  1903  season 
offers  a  striking  illustration  of  the  supreme  importance  of 
a  free  supply  of  bait  for  French  operations.  For  weeks  and 
weeks  their  whole  fleet  were  kept  idle ;  they  admit  a  loss  of  one- 
third  on  their  catch  this  year ;  but  really  their  voyage  has  been 
a  most  disastrous  failure — not  half  what  it  was  last  season — all 
caused  by  want  of  bait ;  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  fish  is 
abnormally  scarce  and  dear.  I  have  always  differed  from  the 
Newfoundland  merchants'  view.  As  Lord  Bacon  said  they  look 
only  to  the  present  gain.  An  amicable  settlement  is  of  vital 
importance  to  the  future  of  the  colony,  and  can  only  be  arrived 
at  by  mutual  concessions.  If  Newfoundland  would,  on  her  part, 
allow  the  French  to  buy  bait  and  anchor  their  ships  at  all  ports 
of  entry  in  the  island,  France,  in  return,  would  probably  give 
up  the  Shore  or  all  claim  to  exclusive  rights  on  the  coast,  which 
would  practically  amount  to  the  same  thing,  grant  us  also  a  British 
Consul  at  St.  Pierre  and  give  us  further  an  undertaking  that 
French  fishing  vessels  should  sell  no  goods  or  liquor  to  the 
islanders  and  carry  only  a  bare  sea  stock. 

VOL.  VI.— No.  35.  2  N 


546  The  Empire  Review 

The  true  character  of  the  Treaty  Shore  question  is  now 
thoroughly  known.  French  officers,  like  Admiral  Kevilliere,  have 
completely  exploded  the  myth  that  their  trans-Atlantic  fishery 
was  a  nursery  for  the  navy,  apart  from  sentiment.  It  is  purely 
a  question  of  give  and  take,  and  diplomacy  must  be  a  very  poor 
business  if  a  small  representative  commission  could  not  now  settle 
the  matter  in  a  fair  and  reasonable  way.  Now  is  the  time  to 
make  an  arrangement.  The  French  fishery  is  at  its  lowest  point ; 
and  St.  Pierre  is  in  such  a  state  of  commercial  depression  that 
numbers  of  its  inhabitants  are  fleeing  from  the  island.  Their 
extremity  is  Newfoundland's  opportunity. 

D.  W.  PBOWSE 
(Retired  Judge,  Central  District 

Court  of  Newfoundland). 
ST.  JOHN'S,  NEWFOUNDLAND. 


Susan  Pcnnicuick  547 


SUSAN   PENNICUICK 

A   STORY   OF   COUNTRY   LIFE   IN   VICTORIA 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
JOHN  HADBY'S  VISIT. 

AND  the  gladness  stayed  with  Sue.  In  the  days  that  came 
after  the  sun  rose  and  set  for  her,  the  sky  was  blue,  the  stars 
that  spanned  the  southern  skies  glittered  there  for  her,  the  wild 
winds  that  caine  down  the  gullies,  the  rain  storms  that  blotted 
out  the  hills  round,  all  said  the  same  thing,  she  was  a  glad  happy 
woman,  she  was  mightily  blest,  and  when  the  winter  had  passed, 
and  September  saw  the  grass  springing  again  growing  up  pure 
and  straight  and  green  out  of  the  virgin  soil,  and  the  warm  sun 
sent  his  rays  down  between  every  little  blade,  it  was  for  her  and 
hers  the  world  was  glad.  The  little  blue  and  black  wren  that 
brought  his  weeping-eyed  bride  to  her  home  in  the  wattle  tree 
close  by  her  bedroom  window,  claimed  her  protection  because  she 
was  happy,  the  very  hares  that  made  raids  on  her  cabbages  asked 
her  mercy  because  her  life  was  so  free  from  care. 

"I  feel  as  if  the  world  were  mine,"  she  said  one  glorious 
spring  morning  to  Roger,  as  he  prepared  to  set  out  to  his 
clearing,  "  the  whole  world.  One's  got  to  be  unhappy,  to 
thoroughly  appreciate  happiness.  I  was  an  old,  old  woman 
when  the  grass  began  to  grow  like  this  last  year,  it  didn't 
seem  to  matter  about  anything  as  long  as  I  managed  to  keep 

baby,  and  now — and  now " 

"  And  now  ?  "  He  looked  down  into  the  dark  happy  eyes,  at 
the  bright  brown  hair,  at  the  colour  in  her  cheeks,  and  the  slim 
figure  in  the  blue  print  gown.  Truly  this  woman  who  counted 
him  her  husband  was  very  sweet  and  very  charming  indeed. 

"  Everyone  here  counts  me  your  wife,"  she  said,  holding  her 
little  daughter  so  that  the  baby's  feet  felt  the  ground,  "  I  feel 
your  wife." 

2  N  2 


548  The  Empire  Review 

••  Darling,  you  are  my  wife." 

"  And  yet  I  bought  my  own  wedding  ring  in  a  shop  in 
Geelong  with  the  money  that  Dr.  Finlayson  lent  me,  because 
I  didn't  think  it  looked  well  to  be  without." 

"  Don't,  Lovely,  don't." 

She  kissed  the  ring  and  then  the  baby. 

"  Oh,  Eoger,  don't  you  understand.  I  was  just  thinking  how 
happy  I  was;  and  I  feel  your  wife,  dear.  I  just  feel  as  if  I 
was  your  wife;  only,  sweetheart,"  her  voice  took  on  a  tender 
ring  that  made  the  tears  smart  behind  his  eyes,  "  happier,  because 
you  have  showed  me  how  much  you  love  me ;  and  I  have  under- 
stood what  it  was  to  be  miserable." 

They  did  not  often  discuss  their  relations  ;  but  the  neighbour- 
hood assumed  that  Sue  was  Boger's  wife,  and  as  yet  no  breath 
of  scandal  had  assailed  her.  All  her  time  was  taken  up  in 
keeping  her  house  and  making  her  home  dainty.  Eoger's  means 
were  small.  The  law  obliged  him  to  make  his  wife  a  certain 
allowance,  and  he  was  obliged,  too,  to  improve  the  selection ; 
but  her  life  here  among  the  forest  and  the  hills  was  healthy,  and 
the  lightness  had  come  back  to  her  step  and  the  sunshine  to  her 
eyes.  The  child  grew  and  throve;  Roger  seemed  to  do  every- 
thing in  his  power  to  make  her  forget  the  one  fatal  sin  that  had 
ruined  her  life,  and  the  winter  passed  and  the  springtime  saw 
her  still  wondering  at  her  own  bliss. 

John  Hadry  came  over  within  a  week,  as  he  had  said  he 
would,  and  Sue,  proud  and  happy,  received  him.  Had  he  not 
lent  her  a  helping  hand  to  come  here,  and  she  received  him  with 
open  arms.  His  farm  was  not  above  six  miles  away  at  Crafers, 
and  he  soon  got  into  the  habit  of  riding  over  to  spend  an  evening 
with  the  Marsdens. 

Sue  never  invited  any  one  to  the  house.  She  always  felt  that 
some  day,  if  they  discovered  that  she  was  not  really  Koger's  wife, 
they  might  reproach  her;  but  any  one  who  chose  to  come  she 
made  very  welcome,  and  most  welcome  of  all  was  John  Hadry. 
He  used  to  come  and  sit  and  smoke  over  the  fire  on  the  long 
winter  evenings  and  watch  Sue  as  she  directed  her  small  hand- 
maid, the  daughter  of  a  German  selector.  When  the  work  was 
done  Sue  would  bring  her  knitting  and  sit  down  with  the  men 
by  the  fire,  and  then  they  talked  of  many  things — the  wind  that 
howled  among  the  tree  tops,  the  rain  that  beat  against  the 
window  panes  only  made  the  little  nest  hidden  here  in  the  forest 
seem  the  cosier. 

"  You  can't  go,  you'll  have  to  stop,  the  night,"  said  Sue  one 
evening  when  the  wind  was  howling  down  the  gully,  "  you'd  be 
drowned.  Hark  at  the  rain." 

John  Hadry  laughed. 


Susan  Pennicuick  549 

"  Well,  there's  no  one  to  care  much  if  I  am.  But  you'd  have 
my  death  on  your  conscience,  so  I'll  stop  if  you'll  keep  me." 

"Oh,  come,"  said  Roger,  "tell  that  to  the  marines.  A  fine 
up-standing  fellow  like  you,  why,  half  the  girls  in  the  place  would 
be  wild  about  you  if  you  only  care  to  hold  up  your  finger." 

The  farmer  stroked  his  beard,  in  which  streaks  of  grey  were 
showing.  "  No  one  was  ever  wild  about  me,  or  if  she  was  I  never 
knew  it,"  he  said  sadly. 

"  We  must  mend  that,"  said  Roger  lightly,  rising  from  his 
chair.  "  I'm  just  going  out  to  see  about  your  mare.  Sue,  give 
him  some  whiskey,  and  tell  him  not  to  take  such  gloomy  views 
of  life.  I  never  do." 

Roger  never  did.  That  was  true  enough.  He  enjoyed  the 
present  to  the  full,  and  looked  neither  backwards  nor  forwards 
unless  he  was  absolutely  obliged. 

"  And  were  you  never  wild  about  any  one  ?  "  asked  Sue,  setting 
down  whiskey  and  hot  water  before  him  and  beginning  to  slice 
a  lemon. 

He  looked  at  her  thoughtfully. 

"Ah,  that's  quite  a  different  matter." 

"  Surely  she  didn't  say  no." 

It  is  curious  how  a  man  will  confide  in  a  pretty  young  woman 
when  she  shows  an  interest  in  him. 

"  I  never  asked  her,  sweet  little  lady.  She  was  a  married 
woman  before  ever  I  saw  her,  and  yet  she  was  only  a  child — only 
seventeen,  poor  little  lady,  poor  little  lady." 

There  was  a  world  of  pity  in  his  voice. 

"  It's  twenty  years  ago  now,  she  was  the  wife  of  my  dearest 
friend,  and  he  was  just  the  biggest  blackguard  that  ever  walked 
this  earth." 

"  Oh,"  said  Sue  sympathetically.  She  hardly  knew  what  to 
say ;  but  he  seemed  glad  to  have  her  to  confide  in.  "  She  is 
dead?" 

"  No,  no,  she  is  alive,  poor  little  lady.  She  couldn't  live  with 
him,  and  yet  he  has  given  her  no  chance  for  a  divorce,  so  there 
you  are.  How  can  I  help  her  ?  How  can  I  help  her?  Once  we 
thought  he  was  dead ,  but  no  such  luok ;  that  sort  of  man  never 
dies.  Life  must  be  a  struggle  for  her,  but  how  can  I  help  it,  poor 
little  lady,  poor  little  lady.  I  can't  talk  of  it,"  and  the  pain  in 
his  voice  hurt  Sue.  "  All  alone  as  she  is,  she  that  is  so  unfitted 
to  be  alone.  I  have  thought  and  thought,"  he  went  on  presently, 
"  and  I  see  no  way  of  mending  it.  There  are  some  things  that 
won't  bear  talking  about,  Mrs,  Marsden." 

There  are  indeed ;  no  one  knew  that  better  than  Susan. 

"  And  you  would  like  to  see  her  mistress  of  the  farm  ?  " 

His  strong,  brown,  hairy  hand  rested  on  his  knee,  and  he 


550  The  Empire  Review 

clutched  it  hard  like  a  man  in  pain.     The  firelight  flickered  on 
his  face  and  showed  her  that  he  was  biting  his  lip  hard. 

"You  wouldn't — I  mean  she  is  alone — and  you  are  alone— 
wouldn't  it  be  easier  for  her  ?  " 

"  Ah,  Mrs.  Marsden,  for  God's  sake  don't  tempt  me.  Don't 
you  know  that's  the  question  I  ask  myself  when  I  sit  over  my 
fire  alone  in  the  evening.  Who  would  be  the  worse  ?  and  I  would 
take  such  care  of  her.  Who  would  be  the  worse  ?  But  I  mustn't 
— for  her  good  name's  sake  I  mustn't.  It's  all  very  well  for  you, 
a  young  and  happy  married  woman.  Suppose  there  was  a  barrier 
between  you  and  Marsden,  what  would  you  do?  " 

"  I  would  go  to  him,"  said  Sue  with  a  sudden  burst  of  passion. 
This  man  did  not  know  what  she  was  talking  about.  "  Life 
without  him  is  not  worth  living." 

"  Don't  tempt  me,  don't  tempt  me.  It  is  all  very  well  from 
the  safety  and  security  of  your  home  to  talk  like  that,  but  it  means 
so  much  to  a  woman." 

"What  means  so  much  to  a  woman?"  said  Eoger,  coming 
in.  "A  home?  Why,  yes,  of  course;  and  to  a  man  too  for 
that  matter.  There's  not  a  pin  to  choose  between  them  if  I 
may  judge  between  my  loneliness  here  before  Sue  and  baby 
arrived  on  the  scene.  You'll  have  to  get  married,  old  man. 
Meanwhile  the  mare  is  quite  comfortable  and  contented  to  stop 
till  morning." 

And  then  the  conversation  drifted  away  to  fencing  and  clearing, 
and  the  condition  of  the  stock,  and  it  was  not  till  the  summer 
that  John  Hadry  spoke  of  his  little  lady  again.  Only  Bue 
knew  he  looked  enviously  at  Koger  and  counted  her  a  happy 
woman. 

So  she  was  happy,  but  great  happiness  always  stands  us  on 
the  edge  of  a  precipice.  We  cannot  be  wildly  happy  without 
knowing  that  a  touch  will  spoil  it  all  and  send  us  toppling  over. 
Placid  content  is  another  thing,  that  does  not  admit  fear,  but 
happiness  is  of  different  stuff ;  and  when  Sue  remembered,  as  she 
sometimes  needs  must,  that  Church  and  State  had  not  blessed  her 
union  with  Roger,  she  told  herself  she  was  glad,  because  with  that 
remembrance  before  her  she  told  herself  she  need  fear  no  other 
sorrow.  Otherwise  she  was  so  happy  she  would  have  been  afraid. 

And  one  day  in  summer  Hadry  spoke  of  his  love  to  Sue 
again.  With  a  troubled  air  he  told  her  that  "  his  little  lady  " 
was  thinking  of  taking  lodging  in  the  forest,  that  she  was 
entering  into  negotiations  with  Mrs*  Mitchell,  Sue's  next  door 
neighbour. 

"  You'll  be  pleased." 

"Pleased,  too  pleased,  God  help  me.  I  can't  stand  it,  Mrs. 
Marsden,  I  shall  clear  out." 


Susan  Pennicuick  551 

"  Oh,"  said  Sue,  "oh,"  and  there  was  a  world  of  pity  in  her 
eyes.  She  had  been  there  too,  and  she  understood. 

A  week  or  so  later  he  came  across  to  say  good-bye. 

"  She's  coming  and  I'm  off.  I  can't  stand  it,  Mrs.  Marsden, 
mortal  man  couldn't  stand  her  winning  ways.  She  doesn't  know 
what  she's  tempting  me  to,  God  bless  her,  and  I  wouldn't  have 
her  guess  for  the  world.  She  would  be  so  bitterly  ashamed.  She, 
that  has  always  looked  upon  me  as  her  friend.  The  man  can 
manage  the  farm  for  a  couple  of  months  right  enough,  and  I'll  go 
and  look  after  some  property  I  have  in  Tasmania.  Maybe  I'll 
hear  something  of  that  blackguard  of  a  husband  of  hers.  He 
hails  from  the  same  district  as  I  do.  You'll  go  and  see  her,  Mrs. 
Marsden,  won't  you,  and  make  it  as  nice  for  her  as  you  can. 
Only  don't  mention  her  husband,  will  you.  Treat  her  like  you 
would  any  ordinary  woman,  maid  or  widow.  It'll  be  dull  for  her 
at  Mitchell's,  and  I  know  she's  counting  on  me,  but  she  doesn't 
understand." 

And  then  he  went  away  and  Sue  did  not  see  him  again  for  a 
long  time. 

But  she  did  not  call  on  Mrs.  Mitchell's  lodger.  Hadry  had 
omitted  to  mention  her  name,  she  only  knew  her  as  his  "  little 
lady,"  not  that  that  mattered,  but  she,  remembering  that  she 
was  an  unwedded  wife,  felt  that  she  might  not  call  on  her.  If 
Hadry  were  hurt  she  must  try  and  think  of  some  good  excuse. 
Sometimes  when  she  saw  how  miserable  the  man  was  she  was 
tempted  to  tell  him  the  exact  truth.  Meanwhile  she  was  happy 
enough,  and  it  was  so  much  better  not  to  call. 

And  summer  laid  his  iron  hand  on  the  land  again,  and  the  new 
year  broke  hot  and  breathless,  ushered  in  by  a  heat  greater  even 
than  is  usual  in  an  Australian  summer.  Marsden's  man,  after 
the  manner  of  his  kind,  took  a  fortnight's  holiday,  but  he  himself 
kept  steadily  to  work  clearing  on  the  other  side  of  the  selection, 
and  the  two  women  were  left  to  their  work  undisturbed  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  day.  There  was  no  temptation  to  go  outside 
in  the  glare  and  heat,  and  Sue  kept  her  doors  and  windows  closed 
in  the  vain  hope  of,  at  least,  keeping  the  house  cool. 

"I  have  to  go  over  to  Crafers  to-morrow,"  announced  Koger 
one  hot  evening  in  the  first  week  in  January.  "Here's  old 
Atkinson  written  to  say  he's  got  a  buyer  for  the  wood,  a  man 
who  buys  to  sell  again  in  the  Melbourne  market.  He  thinks  he'll 
take  it  all  off  my  hands  at  a  fair  price.  It  ought  to  bring  about 
forty  pound  if  I've  any  luck." 

"  Oh,  I  hope  you  sell,"  said  Sue,  "I'm  always  afraid  of  it 
being  burnt  while  it's  on  the  ground." 

"  Of  course  it's  a  risk,"  said  Eoger,  "  but  I  shan't  dilate  on  it 
naturally  to  Atkinson's  buyer.  By  the  way,  Paterson  tells  me 


552  The  Empire  Review 

Hadry  is  back  again.     They  expected  him  back  last  night  at  the 
farm." 

"And  his  little  lady'i  still  at  the  Mitchells'?"  said  Susan. 
"  Gretchen  is  great  friends  with  Mrs.  Mitchell,  and  she  says  she's 
going  to  stop  a  month  longer.  What  can  Mr.  Hadry  mean  by  it. 
I  never  saw  a  man  more  determined  to  stay  away." 

Eoger  put  his  hand  beneath  her  chin,  turning  up  her  face,  and 
looked  down  into  the  depths  of  her  dark  eyes,  and  his  look  was 
very  tender. 

"  Possibly  like  other  folks,"  he  said  slowly,  "  he  may  have 
seen  the  error  of  his  ways.  The  farm's  a-wanting  a  mistress," 
he  quoted. 

"  Oh,  Eoger,  Eoger."  Sue  blushed  and  then  she  asked 
quickly,  "  Have  you  ever  seen  the  little  lady  ?  " 

"  No,  never.  According  to  you,  for  he's  never  mentioned  her 
to  me,  she's  little  short  of  an  angel.  But  I  haven't  much  opinion 
of  old  Hadry 's  taste  in  women  myself,"  said  Eoger,  thinking  of  a 
certain  day  in  Melbourne  when  he  had  seen  love  in  Hadry 's  eyes. 
He  had  often  wondered  if  the  farmer  remembered  seeing  him 
along  with  Mrs.  Buckley,  but  as  he  had  never  referred  to  it  Eoger 
preferred  it  should  be  buried  in  oblivion.  He  never  thought  on 
that  day  in  Melbourne  if  he  could  help  himself.  Even  now  he 
changed  the  subject. 

"It's  going  to  be  a  snorter  to-morrow." 

"I'm  afraid  it  is,"  said  Sue,  " a  regular  blazing  day." 

"I  don't  suppose  old  Atkinson  considered  that,"  laughed 
Eoger  as  he  watched  her  bathe  her  small  daughter  and  slip  her 
into  her  little  white  nightgown.  "  Come  and  kiss  your  daddy, 
Pussy,  and  tell  him  if  you've  been  a  help  to  your  poor  mother 
to-day." 

Sue  laughed  as  she  brushed  out  the  damp  curls. 

"  Dad,  dad,  dad,"  said  the  baby  patting  his  face ;  and  mother 
and  father  looked  into  each  other's  eyes  and  laughed  a  happy  laugh. 

And  at  six  o'clock  next  morning  Sue  was  speeding  Eoger  on 
his  journey. 

"  Lovely,"  he  smiled  at  her,  "  you  look  very  dainty  and  cool." 
And,  indeed,  she  did,  though  her  dress  was  only  a  blue  and  white 
striped  cotton. 

"  And,  oh  dear,  its  going  to  be  such  a  day,"  she  sighed,  "  just 
hark  to  the  wind." 

Indeed,  it  was  a  fierce  hot  wind  day,  as  they  found  when  they 
came  out  together  a  few  minutes  later.  Though  it  was  barely  a 
few  minutes  after  six  the  sun  was  like  a  ball  of  fire  in  a  copper- 
coloured  sky  and  the  mighty  north  wind  came  raging  through  the 
gum  trees,  tearing  at  their  branches,  tossing  up  their  bark  as  it 
rushed  roaring  away  to  the  sea. 


Susan  Pennicuick  558 

Stie  ensconced  herself  close  against  the  stable  wall  to  be  out 
of  the  way,  but  it  found  her  out  even  there,  and  blew  out  her  dress 
and  pulled  down  the  coils  of  her  thick  bright  hair. 

"  Such  a  day  for  you,"  she  sighed  as  she  put  up  her  hands. 

"  Well,  I  don't  half  like  leaving  you.  You  see,  I'll  probably 
have  to  go  ten  miles  beyond  Crafers." 

"  But  we  can't  afford  to  let  the  chance  of  this  deal  slip  ?  " 

"  Indeed  we  can't.  Well,  Lovely,  I  must  go.  Come,  give  me 
a  kiss." 

Sue  held  up  her  face  and  then  began  to  laugh. 

"  Upon  my  word,  Eoger,"  she  said,  "  if  Gretchen's  looking 
out  of  the  window,  which  I  sincerely  trust  she  isn't,  she  must 
think  we're  a  couple  of  lunatics  to  stand  spooning  here  with  the 
north  wind  just  tearing  us  to  pieces.  There,  there  goes  your 
hat,"  as  the  wind  caught  his  soft  felt  and  twirling  it  round  and 
round  finally  deposited  it  inside  the  open  kitchen  door. 

"  Never  mind,  I'll  get  it  in  a  minute.  Surely  a  man  may  kiss 
his  wife  even  if  Gretchen  does  elect  to  look  on.  Now  be  good, 
sweetheart,  and  don't  get  into  any  mischief.  I'll  be  back  at  eight 
o'clock,"  and  he  mounted  his  horse  and  was  soon  lost  to  sight 
among  the  surrounding  tree  trunks. 

Sue  went  in  and  washed  and  dressed  her  little  girl,  then  she 
and  Gretchen  had  their  breakfast  and  Gretchen  went  out  again 
for  another  pail  of  water  from  the  well. 

"  There  is  smoke  outside,"  she  remarked  as  she  set  down  the 
brimming  bucket. 

"  Smoke  is  there  ?  "  said  Sue.  "  I  hope  the  brushwood  won't 
take  fire  and  burn  the  fences  like  it  did  last  year." 

"  I  think  it  will,"  observed  her  handmaid,  and  her  mistress 
sighed. 

"  What  a  nuisance !  Well,  we  couldn't  do  much  against  a 
wind  like  this.  The  fences  will  have  to  go,"  and  she  went  on 
playing  with  her  baby,  who  was  toddling  about  the  room  and 
thoroughly  enjoying  herself. 

She  wondered  for  a  moment  if  there  was  any  danger,  but 
dismissed  the  thought.  There  was  a  clearing  all  round  the  house 
bigger  now  than  it  was  when  she  had  come  there  eleven  months 
before,  for  she  had  made  a  garden  in  the  winter.  Last  year 
all  the  scrub  was  burnt  and  a  good  deal  of  their  fencing,  too, 
but  as  she  said  it  was  beyond  her  to  help,  and  as  the  morning 
advanced  and  the  baby  grew  fretful  she  lay  down  on  her  bed  and 
with  the  child  on  her  arm  went  sound  asleep. 

The  blinds  were  down  both  in  the  sitting-room  and  the  bed- 
room, the  house  was  comparatively  cool  and  dark,  and  Sue  slept 
peacefully  till  a  hand  was  laid  on  her  shoulder  and  Gretchen's 
voice  said  in  her  ear, 


554  The  Empire  Review 

"  Mrs.  Marsden,  Mrs.  Marsden,  oh,  do  look  here,  please." 

"  Hush,"  said  Sue,  "  don't  you  see  baby's  asleep." 

For  all  answer  the  girl  drew  up  the  blind,  and  Sue  saw 
thick  clouds  of  smoke  driven  by  the  fierce  hot  wind  rushing 
past,  hiding  from  sight  even  the  fence  that  surrounded  the 
garden. 

"  Good  gracious,"  cried  Sue,  rubbing  her  eyes,  as  if  they  might 
have  deceived  her,  "  why,  Gretchen,  is  it  smoke  ?  " 

"  Smell  it,"  said  the  girl  laconically,  and  indeed  the  air  was 
redolent  of  the  strong  aromatic  smell  of  the  burning  gum  leaves. 
"  Oh,  ma'am,"  she  added,  "it's  an  awful  fire." 

Sue  opened  the  door  and  the  two  women  peered  out.  The 
little  yard  was  thick  with  smoke,  and  the  wind  was  roaring 
through  the  tree  tops  so  that  they  could  hardly  hear  one  another 
speak.  Snatching  up  a  tea-cloth  from  the  dresser  Sue  put  it  over 
her  head  and  followed  by  Gretchen  made  her  way  across  the  yard 
to  the  slip  panels.  The  sky  was  heavy  and  overcast,  whether 
by  clouds  or  by  the  smoke  they  could  not  tell,  the  air  was  thick 
and  heavy  with  it,  and,  leaning  over  the  slip  rails,  they  could  see 
nothing  but  smoke,  like  a  fog  shutting  out  even  the  tree  trunks. 
Two  or  three  wallaby  rushed  past  seemingly  too  terrified  to  notice 
their  proximity,  and  a  tiny  bandicoot  leapt  under  the  rails  and 
took  refuge  in  Gretchen's  dress. 

"  Oh,  ma'am,"  she  cried,  "  that's  the  worst  sign,  I've  heard  my 
father  say.  We'll  be  burnt  up  if  we  don't  run,"  and  she  made 
as  if  she  would  have  started  off  there  and  then. 

Sue  laid  her  hand  on  her  arm. 

"Wait  a  minute.  We  must  get  baby,"  and  she  ran  back  to 
the  house. 

They  knew  little  enough  about  bush  fires,  either  of  them,  but 
it  was  evident  this  was  no  ordinary  bush  fire,  but  a  raging  con- 
flagration sweeping  all  before  it.  The  house,  the  out-buildings, 
were  all  of  wood  with  shingle  roofs,  now  dry  as  tinder,  a  spark 
would  set  them  alight,  and  the  fire  would  be  roaring  on  them  in 
less  than  half  an  hour. 

Sue  wrung  her  hands.     "  Oh,   Gretchen !  Gretchen !     You 

know  the  country  best.     Which  way " 

"Down  to  Mitchell's,"  said  Gretchen  promptly.     "Quick,  get 
baby  and  let's  run." 

"  But  the  animals,  we  can't  leave  them  ?  There,  I've  opened 
the  hen-house  door.  You  let  the  old  hen  out  of  the  coop — now 
the  pigs— we'll  leave  the  sty  open  and— and,  Gretchen,  Gretchen, 
catch  Maggie." 

They  rushed  about  in  hopes  of  giving  every  living  thing 
a  chance  of  life.  Sue  even  remembered  to  open  the  cage  door 
and  let  her  canary  go  free.  It  fluttered  round  helplessly,  and 


Susan  Pennicuick  555 

finally  perched  on  the  verandah  just  out  of  reach.  Sue  tried  to 
catch  it  again. 

"It's  no  good,"  panted  Gretchen,  "  we  must  save  ourselves," 
and  she  dashed  into  the  house  again  and  reappeared  in  an  ulster. 
Sue  put  on  a  heavy  winter  cloak  to  keep  the  sparks  from  her 
light  dress  and  wrapped  a  blanket  about  the  baby.  Then  she 
found  that  a  heavy  child  of  sixteen  months  old  wrapped  in  a 
blanket  was  as  much  as  she  could  manage,  and  returned  to  the 
sitting-room  where  her  maid  was  putting  everything  that  seemed 
to  her  valuable  into  her  pockets  and  into  a  pillowcase  in  hasty 
preparation  for  departure,  while  on  the  doorstep  the  household 
magpie,  still  uncaught,  was  dancing  up  and  down  calling  shrilly, 
'  'What's  the  matter?  What's  the  matter?  What  the  devil  is 
the  matter?" 

"  Oh,  poor  Mag.,"  cried  Sue,  and  Gretchen  made  a  sudden 
dart,  caught  the  bird  and,  evading  a  vicious  peck,  put  him  in  her 
ulster  pocket  and  buttoned  it  down  over  him.  There  he  relieved 
his  feelings  by  crowing  like  the  farmyard  cock,  and  using  up  all 
his  voluminous  and  somewhat  profane  vocabulary  in  unavailing 
protest  against  his  cramped  quarters. 

It  was  not  ten  minutes  since  Gretchen  had  called  Sue,  but  the 
smoke  was  growing  thicker  and  thicker,  and  breathing  was 
absolutely  difficult. 

"  We  must  start,"  said  Sue  with  a  sob.  She  was  leaving  the 
dear  little  home  to  certain  destruction.  "Oh,  dear,  I  do  hope 
there's  nothing  left  alive  and  shut  up  that  I've  forgotten." 

"  The  fire's  quite  close,"  cried  Gretchen,  as  another  gust  of 
wind  threatened  to  lift  the  roof  from  the  house,  and  the  two 
women  rushed  out  and  fled  before  the  north  wind,  down  the 
garden  and  through  the  forest,  the  magpie  in  Gretchen 's  pocket 
shrieking  wildly  and  the  baby  in  her  mother's  arms  sobbing  with 
fright.  Straight  before  the  wind  they  ran,  right  through  the 
forest ;  there  was  not  even  a  track  to  guide  them,  and  the  smoke 
was  blinding  now.  Bound  this  great  tree,  under  that  heavy 
branch,  across  these  rough  logs,  and  always  it  seemed  to  their 
excited  imaginations  that  the  fire  was  close  behind  them. 

About  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  homestead,  just  after  they 
had  left  the  boundary  fence,  they  came  to  a  creek  which  cut  right 
across  their  path ;  the  banks  were  rather  steep  and  its  bed  was 
broad,  though  the  heat  had  reduced  the  water  to  the  merest 
trickle,  and  in  no  place  did  it  come  higher  than  their  ankles. 
They  scrambled  down  the  banks,  walked  through  the  water, 
which  was  cool  and  refreshing  to  their  hot  feet,  and  struggled  up 
the  opposite  side.  Then  they  paused  a  moment  to  take  breath, 
and  look  back  the  way  they  had  come.  There  was  nothing  much 
to  see ;  the  wind  was  as  high  and  the  smoke  as  thick  as  ever,  but 


556  The  Empire  Review 

still,  though  the  smell  of  the  burning  gum  leaves  was  so  strong, 
there  was  no  sign  as  yet  of  the  fire. 

Sue  sat  down  for  a  moment  on  a  log  to  rest.  The  child  was 
heavy,  the  heat  was  stifling,  and  they  had  come  the  mile  and  the 
half  in  less  than  five  and  twenty  minutes. 

"  The  creek  will  stop  the  fire,  Gretchen,"  she  panted.  "  Surely 
we're  safe  enough  now;  "  but  even  as  she  spoke  a  small  flock  of 
sheep  with  one  or  two  wallabies  among  them  dashed  out  of  the 
forest,  crossed  the  creek,  and  were  soon  lost  amidst  the  fern  and 
undergrowth. 

"  They  don't  think  so,"  said  Gretchen.  "  Let  me  carry  baby 
for  a  bit." 

"  No,  no,  I  can  manage ;  "  and  Gretchen,  as  if  struck  with  fresh 
terror  at  the  sight  of  the  frightened  animals,  resumed  her  head- 
long flight  through  the  bush,  and  Sue  followed  her  as  best  she 
might,  and  their  only  guide  was  the  wind  behind  them. 

CHAPTEB  XX. 

A  STBUGGLE  FOB  LIFE. 

ANOTHEB  half  hour's  scramble  and  they  emerged  on  a  tiny 
clearing  about  an  acre  in  extent  surrounded  by  a  post  and  rail 
fence  with  a  weatherboard  cottage  in  the  middle.  On  the 
verandah  a  couple  of  women  and  half  a  dozen  children  were 
standing,  anxiously  looking  out,  but  so  dense  was  the  smoke  the 
newcomers  had  come  half  way  across  the  clearing  before  they 
were  seen  by  those  on  the  verandah. 

"  Hey,  honey,"  called  out  one  of  the  women  as  they  approached, 
"  but  who  are  ye  ?  What !  Mrs.  Marsden  from  Timboon.  I  was 
afeard  ye  might  be  along,  but  where's  your  man  ?  " 

The  tears  came  into  Sue's  eyes  as  she  thought  of  Koger. 
What  would  she  not  have  given  to  have  had  him  by  her  side  ? 

"  He  .went  over  to  Crafers  this  morning,"  she  said. 

"  This  morning?  Lord  sakes  !  Why,  the  wind  was  blowing 
a  hurricane !  " 

"  It  wasn't  so  bad  when  he  left,"  protested  Sue,  "  and  we 
never  dreamt  of  such  a  fire  as  this.  Last  year  the  brushwood  was 
burnt,  but  it  didn't  do  much  harm  else.  He  said  he'd  be  home 
to-nigkt  and  now — and  now,"  fairly  breaking  down,  "  there  won't 
be  any  home  for  him  to  come  to." 

"Lord  sakes  !  Lord  sakes?"  muttered  Mrs.  Mitchell  again, 
"  to  leave  ye  with  a  north  wind  ablowin'  like  this.  But  come  in, 
come  in  and  rest  a  minute." 

Clutching  the  verandah  post  was  a  little  woman  in  a  bright 
pink  cotton  dress.  For  a  moment  Sue  thought  that  it  was  Mrs. 
Mitchell's  lodger,  John  Hadry's  "  little  lady,"  and  then  her  heart 


Susan  Pennicuick  557 

gave  a  great  bound  as  the  woman  raised  her  head  and  looked  her 
full  in  the  face.  This  could  not  be  his  "  little  lady,"  the  woman 
he  loved,  the  neglected  wife  of  a  man  who  was  an  utter  brute. 
No  one  would  call  Roger  an  utter  brute,  least  of  all  Hadry,  who 
was  his  friend,  and  this  woman  was  Koger's  wife  in  the  eyes 
of  the  law.  This  was  the  woman  whose  place  she  had  taken  and 
for  a  moment  her  heart  sank.  Would  she  get  up  and  denounce 
her,  would  she  declare  before  her  neighbour  and  her  servant  that 
she  was  no  wife,  that  the  child  in  her  arms  was  nameless. 

Just  for  one  second  she  forgot  the  fire  from  which  she  was 
fleeing,  heeded  not  the  wild  wind  that  like  a  blast  from  a  furnace 
scorched  her  face  and  seemed  touching  with  fiery  fingers  the  tree- 
tops  as  it  passed,  she  only  looked,  shrinking,  into  that  woman's 
eyes  and  then  she  saw  with  a  curious  feeling,  half  of  elation,  that 
they  shrank  before  hers.  Why  should  this  woman  shrink  before 
her  ?  Why  should  she  look  as  if  she  feared  her  ?  Half  puzzled 
she  stepped  on  to  the  verandah  and  listened  to  Mrs.  Mitchell's 
comments  upon  the  situation. 

"  Come  in,  come  in  and  give  the  baby  a  sup  of  rnilk.  She's 
fretting,  poor  thing.  And  God  knows  how  long  we  can  stop 
here." 

"  But,  Mrs.  Mitchell,  where's  your  husband  ?  " 
"  Down  Warrnambool  way  hoeing  'taters.  We  can't  live  by 
the  selection  alone,  ye  see,  with  such  a  many  mouths  to  feed ; 
but  deary  me,"  going  to  the  door  and  looking  at  the  drifting 
smoke,  "  I  don't  know,  can  we  save  the  house  without  him. 
Johnny,  have  ye  filled  everything  with  water,  the  pig  barrel, 
and  all?" 

"  Yes,  mum,"  said  a  little  lad  of  twelve,  setting  down  a  heavy 
bucket  full  of  water  and  leaning  against  the  door-post  while  .he 
wiped  the  heat-drops  from  his  forehead,   "yes,  mum,  there's 
nothen  left  but  the  cups,  and  it  ain't  any  good  filling  them." 
Sue  glanced  round  her  quickly. 

Some  sheds  at  a  short  distance  one  from  the  other  stretched 
from  the  house  to  very  nearly  the  edge  of  the  clearing.  They 
were  used  evidently  as  stables,  cow  byres  and  pig  styes. 

"  Do  you  think  we  can  stay  here  ?  "  she  asked.  "  Hadn't  we 
better  go  while  we  can  ?  " 

"  Well,  I  don't  know,"  said  the  woman.  "  It's  the  only  home 
we've  got.  I'd  like  well  to  save  it  if  I  could,  and  we're  four  full- 
grown  women,  not  to  count  the  children.  The  clearing's  all 
planted  with  'taters  too,"  she  went  on,  looking  round  at  the  neat 
furrows,  "  green  'taters  can't  burn.  We'd  better  stop  as  long  as 
we  can.  We  might  be  quite  safe." 

"Very  well,"  said  Sue,  with  quick  decision.  "We'll  help  all 
we  can,  but  the  children,  they  are  such  mites. 


558  The  Empire  Review 

"  Oh,  they're  helpful,"  said  the  mother,  "  Clara's  thirteen,  and 
Johnny,  he's  handy,  and  Sam,  he's  good,  but  he's  hurt  his  foot 
and  must  just  mind  the  little  ones." 

"  But  what  can  we  do  with  the  babies,  though  ?  "  asked  Sue. 
"  Yours  is  so  tiny,"  but  even  though  she  spoke  to  Mrs.  Mitchell 
she  found  herself  watching  the  other  woman 

"Put  the  babies  among  the  potatoes,"  she  suggested  in  a 
kindly  voice  enough,  and  Sue  felt  as  if  she  must  be  dreaming. 
It  was  no  time  to  dream  though,  and  she  folded  the  blanket  round 
her  little  one,  and  following  Mrs.  Mitchell  laid  her  down  in  a 
potato  furrow  so  that  the  bending  green  leaves  might  shelter  her 
somewhat.  Mrs.  Mitchell  put  her  three  months  old  baby  beside 
her,  and  a  tiny  girl  of  two  years  who  had  no  shoes  on  and  who 
clung  terrified  to  her  mother's  skirts  was  set  down  and  told  to  be 
good  now  and  mind  baby,  while  Sam,  a  pretty  delicate  boy  of 
eight  or  nine,  who  had  hurt  his  foot  and  could  hardly  walk  was 
told  to  mind  the  lot. 

Then  the  women — those  two  women  whose  lives  had  so 
strangely  met— and  the  rest  of  the  children  set  to  work  with 
might  and  main  to  pull  down  the  out-buildings,  even  a  little  boy 
of  five  who  had  lost  his  hat  and  who  only  had  on  a  shirt  and  a 
pair  of  trousers  helped  with  the  rest.  It  was  hard  work,  work 
they  were  none  of  them  accustomed  to ;  in  their  hurry  they  had 
no  time  to  look  for  tools,  and  though  all  worked  with  a  will,  there 
was  no  method  in  it  and  they  did  not  progress  very  fast.  The 
smoke,  too,  was  thicker  than  ever,  and  made  their  eyes  smart  and 
water.  Just  overhead,  close  at  hand  almost,  it  seemed,  hung  the 
sun,  a  round  blood-red  ball,  which  they  could  look  at  easily  with 
the  naked  eye  and  the  children  kept  crying  : 

"  The  moon,  the  funny  moon,  mammy,  do  look  at  the  moon." 

"  Here,  Mrs.  Marsden,  here,  do  come  and  help  me  with  this 
beam,"  called  out  Beatrice  Buckley  as  she  tugged  at  the  roof  of 
one  of  the  sheds,  and  even  then  Sue  could  not  help  thinking  it  was 
strange  that  she  should  call  her  so  glibly  by  the  name  that  in  law 
was  her  own.  She  was  glad  that  she  did,  though.  In  the 
midst  of  her  terror  and  anxiety  she  was  thankful  that  this 
woman  did  not  give  her  away  before  these  others. 

They  worked  on  steadily  for  what  seemed  like  hours  till  the 
first  shed  was  level  with  the  ground,  and  then  Sue,  raising  her 
eyes,  saw  the  lurid  glow  of  the  flames  through  the  smoke  and 
the  brushwood.  They  would  be  down  on  the  little  clearing  in  a 
very  few  minutes.  She  dropped  the  axe  she  had  been  using,  and, 
pointing  with  her  finger,  called, 

"Mrs.  Mitchell,  Mrs.  Buckley,  look,  look." 

"Children,  children,"  called  the  good  woman  wringing  her 
hands,  "leave  the  sheds.  We  must  save  the  house,"  and  they 


Susan  Pennicuick  559 

all  they  made  for  the  cottage  which  was  very  nearly  in  the  centre 
of  the  clearing. 

"Johnny,"  cried  his  mother,  "  you  get  on  the  roof,  and  we'll 
hand  you  up  wet  blankets  and  sacks." 

Like  all  Australian  cottages  the  house  was  one  storied  and  the 
roof  very  low,  so  that  the  boy  had  no  difficulty  in  obeying  his 
mother  who,  having  dragged  out  the  kitchen  table,  stood  on  it 
handing  him  up  buckets  of  water  and  blankets  while  the  other 
three  women  with  the  children  went  backwards  and  forwards  to 
the  water  hole  bringing  water  in  every  available  vessel,  from  the 
biggest  wash  tub  to  the  tin  dipper. 

The  forest  behind  them  was  in  flames  now,  the  smoke  was 
stifling  and  the  heat  unbearable,  while  the  strong  north  wind 
bore  before  it  great  burning  branches  and  sheets  of  bark.  The 
outhouses  were  on  fire  and  the  fence  was  a  ring  of  flame,  still 
the  little  band  worked  on.  Mrs.  Mitchell  was  a  stern  hard- 
featured  woman  of  five  and  thirty  who  looked  older  than  her 
years,  and  her  children  evidently  believed  in  her  and  worked  well 
under  her  guidance. 

"  Johnny,  my  lad,"  she  said,  "  the  roof's  wet,  isn't  it." 

"  Fine  and  wet,"  he  answered.  "  I  think  we'll  save  it  yet,  but 
the  shed  is  all  afire  and  it's  comin'  quite  close." 

"  Never  heed  the  sheds  if  we  can  save  the  house,"  she  said. 
"  And  we'll  do  it,  we'll  do  it." 

The  workers  themselves  were  wet  through  and  safe  therefore 
from  the  flying  sparks,  and  Sue  was  just  beginning  to  think  they 
might  really  succeed,  when  a  cry  from  the  eldest  girl  startled  her. 

"  Mammy,  mammy,  it's  aglow  on  the  other  side.  The  lean- 
to's  caught." 

"  No,  no,"  cried  the  poor  woman  sharply,  "  no,  no.  Oh,  God, 
oh,  God,  it's  the  third  time  I've  been  burnt  out.  Not  this  time, 
Lord,  not  this  time." 

The  boy  slid  down  off  the  roof  just  as  the  flames  burst  out  on 
the  other  side,  and  above  the  roaring  of  the  bush  fire  they  could 
plainly  distinguish  the  crackling  of  the  weatherboards  and  knew 
their  efforts  had  been  in  vain. 

Clara  called  out  again  that  it  was  aglow  inside,  and  the  poor 
woman  threw  one  more  despairing  glance  at  her  home. 

"  We'll  run  now  for  our  lives,"  she  said,  and  they  turned  and 
ran  to  where  they  had  left  the  children.  The  babies  were  crying 
in  the  furrow,  while  the  two  older  ones  were  crouching  under  the 
potato  plants  for  shelter  from  the  fierce  heat  which  was  now 
almost  unbearable. 

"  We  can't  stay  here,"  cried  Sue,  snatching  up  her  child ;  "  the 
water-hole,  let's  get  into  the  water-hole." 

Mrs.  Mitchell  shook  her  head. 


560  The  Empire  Review 

"It's  five  foot,"  she  said,  "we'd  be  drowned.  We  must  run 
through  the  forest." 

"  But— but  it's  all  on  fire." 

"  No  matter,  we  can't  stand  here  to  be  roasted  alive.  We'll 
wet  ourselves  in  the  water  and  there's  a  clearing  about  four 
times  this  size  about  a  mile  away.  Here,  Sam,  you  get  on 
mammy's  back,"  and  she  stooped  to  let  the  lame  boy  climb  up. 

"  Clara,  you  carry  the  baby  and — and "     She  looked  round 

beseechingly. 

"Mrs.  Buckley,  you'll  carry  the  little  girl,  won't  you?"  said 
Sue.  '*  And  Billy  here  must  hold  my  dress,  and  Johnnie  must 
hold  his  hand  on  the  other  side  so  he  won't  get  lost  in  the  smoke. 
Gretchen,  let  the  pillow-case  go  and  help  Tom  along.  Quick,  let's 
get  wet  through,"  and  she  dipped  her  baby  in  the  water-hole  and 
then  pushed  Billy  under. 

"God  bless  you,  ladies,"  said  the  woman  as  she  saw  her 
children  disposed  of.  "  What  I  should  have  done  this  day  with- 
out you,  the  Lord  only  knows." 

The  house  was  now  one  mass  of  flames,  it  seemed  certain 
death  to  stay  where  they  were,  for  even  the  potato  plants  were 
shrivelling  up  fast,  while  behind  them  the  forest  was  one  lurid 
mass  of  flame,  from  the  scrub  and  undergrowth  to  the  tops  of 
the  tallest  trees ;  but  ahead  as  yet  only  the  tops  of  the  trees  were 
on  fire,  and  their  only  hope  lay  in  reaching  the  clearing  before  the 
scrub  was  impassable. 

There  was  not  a  moment  to  be  lost.  Sue  saw  that  Billy  had 
hold  of  her  skirts,  then  she  called  on  Mrs.  Mitchell  to  lead  the 
way,  and  they  fairly  raced  across  the  paddock  and  rushed  over 
the  charred  and  smouldering  remains  of  the  post  and  rail  fence, 
poor  little  Billy  crying  out  pitifully  as  the  burning  coals  touched 
his  bare  feet.  Her  baby  was  heavy,  and  Sue  could  only  give  a 
hand  to  him  occasionally,  but  she  saw  that  he  clung  to  her  dress 
and  that  his  brother  dragged  him  on  on  the  other  side.  To  his 
sufferings  there  was  no  time  to  give  heed. 

"Keep  close,  Johnny,"  she  kept  imploring.  "Billy/ hold 
tight,"  for  she  feared  they  might  be  lost  in  the  smoke. 

Straight  on  went  Mrs.  Mitchell  heedless  of  the  dense  smoke 
and  the  burning  leaves  and  pieces  of  bark  that  fell  on  her,  and 
that  the  little  lad  on  her  back  was  brushing  off  and  crushing  in 
his  hard  little  hands.  Next  her  came  Gretchen,  plodding  on  as 
stolidly  as  if  running  for  her  life  dragging  a  heavy  child  along 
beside  her  was  an  everyday  occurrence  with  her,  and  behind  her 
came  Clara,  frightened,  but  quiet,  and  guarding  her  little  charge 
with  the  tenderest  care ;  Mrs.  Buckley  followed,  and  last  of  all 
came  Sue,  her  own  child  weighing  her  down,  but  still  managing 
to  help  the  little  lad  beside  her  fairly  well.  If  she  had  had  time 


Susan  Pennicuick  561 

she  would  have  torn  up  her  skirt  or  a  piece  of  blanket  to  bind  up 
the  poor  little  feet ;  but  there  was  no  time,  for  now  every  dry 
twig  and  piece  of  bark  kept  bursting  into  flame. 

Once  or  twice  Mrs.  Mitchell  in  her  anxiety  for  her  little  flock, 
stopped  and  looked  round,  but  Sue  waved  her  on. 

"  Go  on,  go  on,"  she  cried,  "you  can't  help  us.  They're  all 
right,  go  on.  There's  no  time  to  spare." 

And  indeed '  there  was  not,  for  already  the  fire  was  roaring 
overhead,  already  her  cloak  was  full  of  smouldering  holes,  and  the 
boys'  shirts  were  nearly  burnt  off  their  backs,  but  she  kept  putting 
the  fire  out  and  encouraging  them  to  hold  up  a  little  longer.  It 
was  barely  a  twenty  minutes'  run  to  the  clearing.  All  her  life 
passed  before  her.  She  thought  of  her  child,  of  Roger,  of 
the  woman  who  had  stolen  her  good  name,  and  now,  like  herself, 
was  fleeing  before  the  fire,  of  all  her  perplexities  and  sorrows,  and 
wondered  if  after  all  she  would  not  be  better  dead  and  out  of  it 
all.  But  not,  oh  not  such  a  cruel  death  as  this.  She  must  get 
out  of  it,  she  would,  and  she  held  out  a  hand  again  to  the  small 
boy  who  was  beginning  to  flag,  and  implored  the  others  not  to 
give  in  yet. 

"  Such  a  little  way  now,  boys,  such  a  little  way." 

Yes,  such  a  little  way,  but  could  they  do  it.  All  the  birds 
seemed  to  have  left  the  forest  long  ago,  but  lizards  and  snakes 
glided  past  them,  rabbits  scuttered  away  through  the  fern,  and 
dingoe  and  wallabies  fled  before  the  advancing  flames  and  paid  no 
heed  to  their  human  companions  in  the  race  for  life.  At  last  just 
as  she  began  to  feel  she  could  stand  it  no  longer,  that  the  smoke 
was  overpowering  her  and  the  heavy  weight  dragging  her  down, 
the  whole  party  emerged  on  a  little  plain,  covered  with  long 
yellow  grass,  dry  as  tinder  now  in  the  middle  of  summer.  It  was 
nearly  two  acres  in  extent,  and  Mrs.  Mitchell  made  for  the  centre 
so  as  to  be  as  far  away  as  possible  from  burning  branches 
and  falling  trees,  and  Sue,  gathering  up  the  last  remnants  of  her 
strength,  caught  up  the  little  boy,  and  carried  him  up  to  his 
brothers  and  sisters.  Then  she  sank  exhausted  beside  them,  feel- 
ing that  not  to  save  her  life,  no,  nor  her  child's,  which  was  in- 
finitely more  precious,  could  she  have  gone  a  step  further.  Poor 
little  Billy  crouched  down  beside  her  and  she  saw  his  bare  feet  all 
so  terribly  cut  and  burned,  she  wondered  not  that  he  had  cried, 
but  that  he  had  ever  got  on  at  all.  Her  baby  was  wailing  and 
crying  pitifully,  Mrs.  Buckley  was  sobbing  heartbrokenly,  "  What 
shall  I  do,  oh,  what  shall  I  do  ?  "  and  the  rest  of  them  lay  on  the 
ground  utterly  exhausted. 

"  Mrs.  Mitchell,"  asked  Sue,  vainly  trying  to  hush  her  child, 
"  are  we  safe  here,  do  you  think  ?  " 

"  I  don't  know,"   said    the  woman  raising    her  head    and 
VOL.  VI— No.  35.  2  o 


562  The  Empire  Review 

looking  round,  "  I  don't  know.     The  wind's  that  high  and  the 
smoke's  smothering." 

The  fire  was  making  headway  fast  now,  the  ground  felt 
scorching  beneath  their  feet,  and  the  air  was  filled  with  burning 
leaves,  and  great  sheets  of  bark,  which  were  borne  aloft  on  the 
fierce  wind,  and,  which  falling  all  around  them,  set  alight,  not 
only  to  the  crisp  grass,  but  to  their  clothes  as  well. 

"The  grass'll  be  alight  all  over  in  a  minute,"  said  Mrs. 
Mitchell  wearily.  "  God  help  us,  we  must  die." 

The  howling  of  the  wind  and  the  roaring  of  the  flames  made 
an  awful  din,  and  every  now  and  then  through  the  smothering 
smoke  they  could  see  the  great  trees,  veritable  pillars  of  flame, 
falling  with  a  terrible  crash.  The  grass. on  the  plain  was  luckily 
scanty,  but  it  was  burning  in  patches  already. 

"  Surely  we're  safe  now,"  said  Sue,  taking  courage  once  more, 
"'  surely " 

"  The  grass  is  catching — -" 

"  But  couldn't  we  burn  it  in  front  of  us,  like  people. do ?  " 

"  I  don't  know,"  said  Mrs.  Mitchell  wearily.  "  I  reckon  if  we 
had  a  man  amongst  us  we  might.  But  we're  done — eh  !  my  man ! 
my  man,  I'll  never Isee  ye  more,"  and  Sue  looking  up>  saw  the 
tears  streaming  down  her  hard  face  as  she  rocked  herself  to  and 
fro  with  the  two  youngest  children  clasped  close  in  her  arms. 

The  others  seeing  their  mother  give  way,  raised  a  pitiful  wail, 
and  the  girl  felt  that  now  indeed  was  her  last  hour  come. 
Closer  she  bent  over  her  child,  put  her  lips  down  to  the  little  face 
she  loved  so  tenderly,  and  prayed  with  all  her  heart  that  the 
smoke  might  be  merciful,  and  they  might  feel  no  pain.  The  grass 
might  be  burnt,  of  course,  safety  lay  that  way,  but  she  could  not 
do  it,  not  for  life  itself  could  she  rise  again.  And  it  was  such  a 
terrible  death,  such  a  ghastly  horrible  death. 

"  God  help  us,"  she  sobbed,  "  God  help  us  !  God  be  merciful 
to  us  !  If  only—" 

MARY  GAUNT. 


(To  be  continued.) 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments  563 


INDIAN   AND    COLONIAL   INVESTMENTS* 

ANY  favourable  reaction  that  might  have  taken  place  in  the 
prices  of  Colonial  Government  securities  from  their  depression  of 
a  month  ago  has  been  checked  by  a  distinct  and  prolonged 
hardening  of  loan  and  discount  rates.  The  cause  is,  of  course,  in 
America.  The  need  of  gold  in  that  country  by  the  banks  and 
trust  companies  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  their  reserves  in 
the  endeavour  to  stave  off  threatened  disaster,  and  the  annual 
requirements  in  connection  with  the  crop  movements  have  in 
combination  occasioned  such  an  exceptionally  keen  demand  for 
gold,  that  the  price  of  the  metal  in  the  London  bullion  market 
has,  during  the  month,  exceeded  78s.  per  oz.,  the  highest  ruling 
for  several  years  past,  and  large  withdrawals  of  both  bar  gold  and 
American  coin  have  been  made  for  the  United  States  from  the 
Bank  of  England  itself. 

These  circumstances  have,  of  course,  renewed  the  fear  that  we 
shall  see  a  5  per  cent.  Bank  rate  before  the  year  is  out,  although 
there  is  an  evident  desire  on  the  part  of  the  Bank  directors  to 
maintain  the  lower  rate  if  they  can  possibly  do  so.  Although  at 
the  time  of  writing  the  fears  as  to  a  5  per  cent.  Bank  rate  have 
somewhat  subsided,  the  conditions  have  naturally  been  adverse 
to  investment  securities,  and  although  the  movements  in  Colonial 
Government  stocks  have  been  small  and  few  in  number,  they 
indicate  weakness  all  round.  But  in  spite  of  all  this  the  fact 
that  the  public  has  not  been  quite  denuded  of  capital  waiting  for 
employment  has  been  proved  by  the  success  during  the  month  of 
more  than  one  investment  issue. 

The  stocks  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  have  been  added  to  the 
list  of  investments  eligible  for  trustees,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
observe  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  securities  of  Newfoundland 
and  the  Canadian  Provinces,  the  only  Colonial  Government 
inscribed  loan  officially  quoted  in  London  which  has  not  yet 
complied  with  the  conditions  of  the  Colonial  Stocks  Act  is  the 
loan  amounting  to  ^8100,000  of  the  Island  of  Antigua.  They  are 

*  The  tabular  matter  in  this  article  will  appear  month  by  month,  the  figures 
being  corrected  to  date.  Stocks  eligible  for  Trustee  investments  are  so  designated.— ED. 

2  O  2 


564  The  Empire  Review 

INDIAN   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present  Amount. 

When 

Redeem- 
able. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

INDIA. 

£ 

3*  %  Stock  (fl      .     .     . 

63,040,302 

1931 

104 

3J 

Quarterly. 

3     fo         n        (*)         ... 

48,635,384 

1948 

97 

31 

2*%      „    Inscribed  (t) 
3*  %  Rupee  Paper    .     . 
3*%      „          „    1854-5 

11,892,207 
Rx.  5,843,690 
Rx.  11,  517,  620 

1926 

80 
65 
66 

3f* 
W 

H 

Various  dates. 
30  June—  31  Deo. 

B"|      „          „    1896-7 

Rx.  1,316,930 

1916 

58 

3? 

30  June—  30  Deo. 

(f)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


Rupee  taken  at  li.  4d. 


INDIAN   RAILWAYS   AND   BANKS. 


Title. 

Subscribed, 

Last 
year's 
dividend. 

Share 
or 
Stock. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

Assam  —  Bengal,  L.,  guaranteed  3  %    . 
Bengal  and  North-  Western  (Limited) 
Bengal  Central  (L)  g.  3$  %  +  Jth  profits 
Bengal  Dooars,  L.      .     .     .     .     .     . 

1,500,000 
2,750,000 
500,000 
150  000 

3 
5 
5 
5 

100 
100 
5 
100 

91 
130 
5 
103* 

I 

250,000 

4 

10 

10 

4 

Bengal  Nagpur  (L),  gtd.  4%+  1th  profits 
Bombay,  Bar.  &  C.  India,  gtd.,  5  %     . 
Burma  Guar.  2*  %  and  propn.  of  profits 
Delhi  Umballa  Kalka,  L.,  guar.  3*  %  +  } 
net  earnings       f 

3,000,000 
7,550,300 
2,000,000 

800,000 

4 

«* 

4| 

100 
100 
100 

100 

102 
157 
105* 

4* 

East  Indian  "  A,"  ann.  cap.  g.  4%  -f  %} 
sur  profits  (t)          .     .     •      .             J 

2,502,733 

5* 

100 

122 

4** 

Do.  do,  class  "  D,"  repayable  1953  (t)  . 
Do.  4*  %  perpet.  deb.  stock  (t)  .     .     . 
Do.  new  8  %  deb.  red.  (t)  .     .     .     r>~,^ 
Great  Indian  Peninsula  4%  deb.  Stock  t) 
Do.  3%  Gua.  and  ^  surp.  profits  1925  t) 
Indian  Mid.  L.  gua.  4%  &  J  surp,  profits  t) 
Madras,  guaranteed  5  %  by  India  (t)    . 
Do.  do.  4|  %  (t)      .     .     .     .     . 

4,047,267 
1,435,650 
5,000,000 
2,701,450 
2,575,000 
2,250,000 
8,757,670 
999,960 

5 

Bf 

5 
4$ 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

132 
137 
92* 

107 
102 
127 
118* 

CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

Do.  do.  4*  %  (t)      

500,000 

4 

100 

4 

Nizam's  State  Rail.  Gtd.  5  %  stock     . 
Do.  3J  %  red.  mort.  debs.     .... 
Rohilkund  and  Kumaon,  Limited.     . 
South  Behar,  Limited     

2,000,000 
1,112,900 
200,000 
379,580 

5* 
|| 

100 
100 
100 
100 

122* 
95J 
147* 

South  Indian  4*  %  per.  deb.  stock,  gtd. 
Do.  capital  stock  

425,000 
1,000,000 

4 

100 
100 

137 
116 

ffl 

Sthn.  Mahratta,  L.,  3*  %  &  J  of  profits 
Do.  4  %  deb.  stock      

3,500,000 
1,195,600 

4 

100 
100 

104 
110 

s|g 

Southern  Punjab,  Limited  .... 
Do.  3*  %  deb.  stock  red.       .... 
West  of  India  Portuguese,  guar.  L.     . 
Do.  5  %  debenture  stock  

966,000 
500,000 
800,000 
550,000 

4 
5 

100 
100 
100 
300 

100 
96 
88 
108 

4 

BANKS. 
Chartered  Bank  of  India,  Australia,  \ 

Number  of 
Shares. 

40,000 

10 

20 

41* 

National  Bank  of  India  . 

40  000 

10 

12* 

27A 

4~JL 

i^»lj 

•"'a 

(x)  Ex  dividend.  («)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

*  The  yield  given  makes  no  allowance  for  extinction  of  capital. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


565 


all  of  course  subject  to  the  provision  that  trustees  may  not 
purchase  at  a  price  more  than  15  per  cent,  higher  than  their 
redemption  value  or,  if  they  are  redeemable  within  fifteen  years, 
at  any  price  above  the  redemption  value. 

Indian  Government  securities  have  remained  steady  during 
the  month,  and  the  Kailways  have  in  most  instances  recovered 
from  their  decline.  The  stock  of  the  great  Bombay,  Baroda,  and 
Central  India  Kail  way,  whose  contract  with  the  Government, 

CANADIAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable 

4  %  Inter-  \)  Guaran-        ,  ^  j^ 
colonial/I    teed  by        i,ow,uw 
*%    i,        I     Great          1,500,000 

1908 
1910 

102 
103 

If 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4%    „        J    Britain. 

1,700,000         1913 

104 

i| 

4  %  1874-8  Bonds.     . 
4%      „       Ins.  Stock 

4,099,700\     1Qat  Q. 
7,900,300/     iw*~ 

/  100 
\  100 

A 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

4  %  Reduced  Bonds    . 
4  %        „      Ins.  Stock 

2,209,321\;       1Q10 
4,233,815/i 

/  103 
\  103 

m 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3$  %  1884  Ins.  Stock  . 

4,605,000     1909-34* 

101 

8^       1  June—  1  Deo. 

4  %  1885  Ins.  Stock  . 
3  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

3,499,900     1910-35* 
10,101,321         1938 

105 
100 

I* 

}l  Jan.—  1  July. 

2i  %     ,;           .,    (t) 

2,000,000  \      1947 

88 

3 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

PROVINCIAL. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

:  ;<»  #'.:•* 

3  %  Inscribed  Stock  . 

1,324,760 

1941 

88 

ga 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

MANITOBA. 

5%  Debentures     .     .  1        346,700         1910 
5  %  Sterling  Bonds    .           308,000         1923 

105           4^ 
113           4^ 

}l  Jan.—  1  July. 

4%       „        Debs.     .   !        205,000  j       1928 

101 

3H 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

NOVA  SCOTIA. 

3  %  Stock  .... 

164,000 

1949 

92 

3& 

1  Jan.—  1  July 

QUEBEC. 

5  %  Bonds  .... 

1,199,100 

1904-6 

100J 

4* 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3  %  Inscribed  .     .     . 

1,890,949 

1937 

86 

3| 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

MUNICIPAL. 

Hamilton  (City  of)  4  %           482  ,  800 

101           3^1 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Montreal    3    %    Deb.  I 
Stock      .     .     .     ./ 

1,440,000 

permanent 

87 

BA 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Do.  4  %  Cons.    „ 
Ottawa  6  %  Bonds     . 

1,821,917 
92,400 

1932 
1904 

105 
101 

3| 
5 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Quebec  4  %  Debs.  .     .           385,000 
Do.  3$  %  Con.  Stock  .   j        351,797 

1923 

drawings 

103 
96 

Jl  Jan.—  1  July 

Toronto  5%  Con.  Debs.  '        136,700 

1919-20 

109 

3 

Do.  4  %  Stg.  Bonds    .           300,910 
Do.  4  %  Local  Impt.  .   i        412,544 

1922-28f 
1913 

101           8ft 
100           4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  3J  %  Bonds    .     . 

1,059,844 

1929 

98           8f 

Vancouver  4  %  Bonds 

121,200 

1931 

100           4 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Do.  4  %  40-year  Bonds 

117,200 

1932 

100           4 

7  Feb.—  7  Aug. 

Winnipeg  5  %  Debs.  . 

138,000 

1914 

104 

H 

80  Apr.—  81  Oct. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


566 


The  Empire  Review 


CANADIAN   RAILWAYS,   BANKS  AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid  up 
per 
Share. 

Pricx 

>. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

» 

Canadian  Pacific  Shares 

$84,500,000 

5& 

$100 

121, 

k 

H 

Do.  4  %  Preference  .     . 

£6,678,082 

4 

100 

105 

«H 

Do.  5  %  Stg.  1st  Mtg.  Bd.  1915 

£7,191,500 

5 

100 

111 

3* 

Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock 

£18,518,956 

4 

100 

111 

Grand  Trunk  Ordinary 

£22,475,985 

nil 

Stook 

15, 

\ 

nil 

Do.  5  %  1st  Preference 

£3,420,000 

5 

; 

110 

4^ 

Do.  5  %  2nd       „      . 

£2,530,000 

5 

n 

«7V1 

\ 

5 

Do.  4  %  3rd       „ 

£7,168,055 

1 

\ 

2 

Do.  4  %  Guaranteed 

£5,219,794 

4 

it 

102^ 

Hi 

Do.  5  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock 

£4,270,375 

5 

100 

133J 

\ 

w 

Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock 

£10,393,966 

4 

100 

1074 

BAKES  AND  COMPANIES. 

Bank  of  Montreal    .... 

60,000 

10 

$200 

498 

4 

Bank  of  British  North  America 

20,000 

6 

tJO 

63 

4| 

Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce  . 

$8,000,000 

7 

$•50 

161 

4j 

Canada  Company     .... 

8,319 

60s. 

1 

361 

8,,7_ 

Hudson's  Bay           .... 

100,000 

22s.  6d. 

11* 

33 

3| 

Trust  and  Loan  of  Canada.     . 

50,000 

7 

5 

4 

7^ 

Do.  new              .          ... 

25,000 

7 

3 

2 

7 

British  Columbia  Eleotrio\0rd. 

£210,000 

4 

Stock 

81 

X 

4; 

Rail  wa  v  /Pref  . 

£200,000 

5 

Stock 

94 

C 

*  *2  capital  repaid  July  1903.  («)  Ex  dividend. 

NEWFOUNDLAND   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Be- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

3$  %  Sterling  Bonds 

2,178,80C 

1941-7-8 

90 

4 

3  %  Sterling        „ 

325,000 

1947 

79 

4 

4  %  Inscribed     „ 
4  %        „       Stook 

320,000 
509,342 

1913-38* 
1935 

103 
107 

»fi 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4  %  Cons.  Ins. 

200,000 

1936 

107 

3H 

•  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

as  was  mentioned  last  month,  expires  within  the  next  year  or 
two,  and  in  whose  case  the  fall  was  by  far  the  most  severe,  is  a 
marked  exception. 

If  the  securities  of  any  Colony  can  be  said  to  have  been  the 
strongest  of  all  during  the  month  they  are  those  of  Canada,  and 
this  fact  is  some  evidence  that  the  stock  markets  do  not  share  the 
pessimists'  view  of  the  heart-burning  and  indignation  in  the 
Dominion  over  the  Alaskan  decision.  It  is  true  that  the  4  per 
cent.  Bonds  and  Stock  redeemable  1904-8  have  fallen  two  points 
to  par,  but  this  is  most  probably  due  to  the  near  approach  of  the 
redemption  date,  for  Canada  has  shown  herself  very  well  able  to 
provide  for  the  meeting  of  her  loans  when  they  fall  due. 

The  Dominion  is   taking  active  steps  to  reap   the  greatest 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments  567 

possible  advantage  from  her  present  wave  of  prosperity.  In  view 
of  the  great  immigration  to  the  North  West  Territory,  the 
surveys  for  the  new  Trans-continental  railway  are  being  rapidly 
pushed  forward  so  that  ;the  line  between  Winnipeg  and  Moncton 
may  be  commenced  without  delay.  The  securities  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  have  not  been  adversely  affected  by  the 
chairman's  statement  of  the  large  capital  issues  to  be  made  in  the 
future.  The  effect  of  these  was  probably  discounted  some  weeks 
ago.  The  market  seems  to  have  concentrated  all  its  disfavour  on 
the  Grand  Trunk  stocks  which  have  been  very  weak,  although 
they  have  now  almost  recovered  their  prices  of  a  month  ago. 
The  shares  of  the  Canadian  banks  and  land  companies  have 
continued  depressed  in  spite  of  the  country's  prosperity. 

There  was  some  little  demand  for  Australian  Government 
securities  during  the  early  part  of  the  month  under  review,  and  a 
substantial  recovery  took  place  from  the  lowest  points  recorded. 
Renewed  apprehensions  of  dearer  money,  however,  soon  put  an 
end  to  the  little  burst  of  activity  and,  though  prices  have  been 
fairly  well  maintained  at  the  improved  level,  the  market  has 
relapsed  into  its  now  customary  quietude.  Bank  and  miscel- 
laneous securities  remain  quiet  and  stationary,  but  some  of  the 
land  and  agricultural  companies'  shares  show  a  tendency  to 
improve  in  response  to  the  improvement  in  pastoral  prospects. 

An  interesting  feature  in  Australian  finance  at  the  present 
time  is  the  large  amount  of  gold  being  exported  by  the  States. 
Up  to  the  end  of  September  the  total  gold  exports  represented  a 
value  of  over  £13,000,000  sterling  or  an  increase  of  about 
4J  millions  as  compared  with  the  same  period  last  year.  It 
is  probable  that  the  export  will  continue  on  a  large  scale 
during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  as  considerable  forward  orders 
have  been  placed.  The  movement  is  due  principally  to  the 
failure  of  last  year's  Australian  wheat  crop,  which  necessitated 
large  purchases  from  other  countries.  Reduced  exports  of  other 
commodities,  owing  to  the  drought,  has  been  a  factor,  while  there 
has  been  no  offset  in  the  shape  of  large  loans  contracted  outside 
Australia.  It  is  a  fortunate  circumstance  that  Australia's  gold 
production  shows  a  very  satisfactory  expansion  this  year,  but  the 
large  export  will  not  be  effected  without  some  depletion  of  stocks, 
which  are,  however,  ample. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  present  position  of  the  money 
market  and  adverse  conditions  generally,  the  Victorian  Govern- 
ment may  well  be  satisfied  with  the  result  of  its  offer  for 
conversion  of  the  Bonds  for  £5,000,000,  due  on  1st  January. 
In  all,  holders  of  bonds  to  the  amount  of  £3,402,000  agreed  to 
accept  in  exchange  new  bonds  or  stock  on  the  terms  described  in 
our  last  issue.  This  left  a  balance  of  £1,598,000  to  be  provided 


568  The  Empire  Review 

for,  which  has  since  been  offered  to  the  public,  either  in  the  form 
of  3J  per  cent.  Inscribed  Stock  (1929-1949)  at  the  price  of 
£92  12s.  6d.  or  of  4  per  cent.  Treasury  Bonds  due  1st  July,  1906, 
at  £98  15s.  per  cent.  Holders  of  the  Treasury  Bonds  will  be 
entitled  to  convert  into  £104  of  3J  per  cent.  Stock  for  each  £100 
Bond  at  any  time  up  to  31st  December,  1905.  Interest  on  the 
bonds  will  be  payable  on  January  1st  and  July  1st,  the  first  half- 
yearly  payment  being  due  1st  July,  1904.  On  the  Inscribed 
Stock  interest  payments  will  be  made  on  1st  April  and 
1st  October,  and  holders  will  receive  a  full  six  months'  interest 
on.  1st  April  next ;  this  advantage  combined  with  the  allowance 
for  discount  on  prepayment  of  instalments  brought  down  the  net 
price  of  issue  to  about  92  per  cent.  The  applications  from  the 
public  are  understood  to  have  amounted  to  about  £500,000 
leaving  over  £1,000,000  in  the  hands  of  the  underwriters. 

In  dealing  last  month  with  the  finances  of  Western  Australia 
the  fact  was  mentioned  that  the  accrued  surplus  of  £231,000  at  the 
end  of  last  year  would  be  swallowed  up  by  expenditure  this  year. 
The  Treasurer's  budget  speech  shows,  however,  that  the  position 
in  this  respect  is  much  better  than  the  cabled  figures  indicated  ; 
inasmuch  as  the  estimates  of  general  expenditure  include  large 
sums  which  would  usually  be  provided  for  out  of  loan  monies. 
No  less  than  £100,000  is,  for  instance,  to  be  spent  on  railway 
construction,  and  other  large  sums  will  be  expended  on  revenue 
producing  works  of  various  kinds.  These  items,  though  properly 
chargeable  to  loan  account,  are  in  effect  being  provided  out  of 
surplus  revenue ;  the  current  year's  receipts  should  therefore 
amply  cover  the  ordinary  expenditure,  and,  if  present  favourable 
prospects  are  fulfilled,  a  good  surplus  might  well  be  realised. 

A  few  years  ago  Western  Australian  Government  stocks 
occupied  the  lowest  place  among  Australian  Government  secu- 
rities; now  they  command  prices  equal  to  those  of  any  of  the 
State  Governments.  There  is  ample  justification  for  the  change. 
Probably  in  no  other  of  the  Australian  States  has  so  large  a 
proportion  of  the  loan  monies  been  expended  on  revenue 
producing  works,  and  the  Treasurer,  in  delivering  his  budget 
statement,  was  justified  in  referring  to  the  figures  with  satis- 
faction. Out, of  a  total  loan  indebtedness  of  somewhat  over 
£15,000,000  no  less  than  £13,323,799  has  been  spent  on  railways, 
tramways,  harbour  and  river  improvements,  water  supply  and 
sewerage ;  and  the  bulk  of  the  amount  earns  full  interest. 
Moreover  sinking  funds  to  the  amount  of  about  £900,000  have 
been  accumulated  as  an  offset  to  the  debt.  The  practice  of 
establishing,  a  sinking  fund  for  all  loan  issues  has  been  an 
excellent  feature  in  West  Australian  finance,  and  the  Treasurer 
now  desires  to  confirm  the  practice  by  making  it  compulsory. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


569 


He  is  introducing  proposals  to  amend  the  Constitution  with  that 
object. 

The  opening  of  the  Cape  stocks  to  trustee  investment  has  not 
improved  their  price.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  a  rumour  that  the  large  Cape  Town  loan  floated, 
none  too  successfully,  early  in  the  month  was  the  forerunner  of 
further  borrowing  by  the  Colony  itself,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  rumour  was  officially  contradicted,  the  opportunity  being  taken 
to  assure  the  market  of  the  buoyancy  of  the  general  revenue  of 
the  Colony.  Two  South  African  municipalities  have  floated  loans 
in  London  during  the  past  month.  Durban,  first  in  the  field, 
placed  at  a  price  of  97  a  loan  of  £300,000  bearing  4  per  cent. 

AUSTRALIAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock  It) 

9,686,300 

1933 

107 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

8*%      „             „      4 
3%        „             „    (4 

16,500,000 
12,500,000 

1924 
1935 

96 
86 

>l  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

VICTORIA. 

4f%  Bonds      .     .     . 

5,000,000 

1904 

102 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4  %  Inscribed,  1882-3 

5,421,800 

1908-13f 

101 

3-ji 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4  %         „          1835  (t) 

6,000,000 

1920 

104 

3f 

1 

3£  %        „          1889  (t) 

4% 

5,000,000 
2,107,000 

1921-6f 
1911-26* 

95 
101 

•} 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3%         „         (t)  .     . 

5,559,343 

1929-49f 

86 

3f 

1 

QUEENSLAND. 

4  %  Bonds  .     .     . 

10,267,400 

1913-16f 

101 

3^ 

1. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 
84%      „              „    (t) 

7,939,000 
8,616,034 

1924 
1921-30f 

106 
95 

3f  1 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3%        „.            «    (t) 

4,274,213 

1922-47t 

87 

»A 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

4  %  Bonds  .... 

6,586,700 

1907-16f 

100 

4 

I  Jan.—  1  July. 

4  °/ 

li  365,  300 

1916 

100 

4 

1 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock   . 

6,222,900 

1916-36* 

102 

3$ 

>1  Apr.  —  1  Oct. 

34%      „              „    (t) 

2,517,800 

1939 

100 

34 

j 

3%        „              „    M 

839,500 

1916-26J 

87 

»A 

vl  Jan.—  1  July. 

3%         „              „    M 

2,760,100 

After  1916t 

87 

3& 

1 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA. 

4  %o  Inscribed  .     .     ." 

1,876,000 

1911-31* 

101 

3* 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

"a  /o      »i            '/   •     • 

2,380,000 
3,750,000 

1920-35* 
1915-35J 

96 

86 

a 

Jl  May—  1  Nov. 

3%        I!           *(  .     . 

2,500,000 

1927J 

87 

s 

1C  Jan.—  15  July. 

TASMANIA. 

3}  %  Inscbd.  Stock  (t) 

4%        ..           »     (t) 
37.                     .  (t) 

3,456,500 
1,000,000 
460,000 

1&20-40* 
1920-40* 
1920-40* 

99 
107 
89 

1 

11  Jan.—  1  July. 

,  v  * 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

±  No  allowance  for  redemption, 
(it)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


570 


Th*  Empire  Review 


AUSTRALIAN   MUNICIPAL   AND   OTHER   BONDS. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Melbourne  &  Met.  Bd.\ 
of  Works  4%  Debs.  / 

1,000,000           1921 

100 

4 

1  Apl.  -1  Oct. 

Do.  City  4%  Debs.      . 

850,000     1  1915-22* 

99 

4^ 

Do.    Harbour    Trust\ 
Comrs.  5%  Bds.       ./ 

500,000         1908-9 

102J 

*& 

1  Jan.—  1  July 

Do.  4%  Bds.     .     .     . 

1,250,000       1918-21* 

101 

3^5 

Melbourne         Trams  \ 
Trust  4$%  Debs.    ./ 

1,650,000       1914-16* 

105 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

S.  Melbourne  4*%  Debs. 

128,700     ;      1919 

101 

47 

Sydney  4%  Debs.  .     . 
Do.  4%  Debs.  .     .     . 

640,000     !  1912-13 
300,000          1919 

101 
101 

Hi 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

AUSTRALIAN  RAILWAYS,   BANKS  AND   COMPANIES. 


Number  of 

Dividend 

1 

;       f>_;  J 

Title. 

Shares  or 

for  last 

i    raid 

Price. 

Yield. 

Amount. 

Year. 

up. 

RAILWAYS. 

Emu  Bay  and  Mount  Bischoff  .     .     . 

12,000 

21 

5 

3J 

Do.  4i%  Irred.  Deb.  Stook  .... 
Mid.  of  Western  Australia  6  %  Debs.  . 

£130,900 
£670,000 

nit* 

100 
100 

8?| 

Do.  4  %  Deb.  Bonds,  Guaranteed  .     . 

£500,000 

4 

100 

101 

8*i 

BANES  AND  COMPANIES. 

Bank  of  Australasia  .....     ,  ' 

40,000 

11* 

40 

84 

gi 

Bank  of  New  South  Wales  .... 

100,000 

m+>m 

10 

20 

40$ 

5 

Union  Bank  of  Australia  £75    .     .     . 

60,000 

8 

25 

41 

415 

Do.  4  %  Inscribed  Stook  Deposits  .     . 

£750,000 

4 

100 

99 

4iV 

Australian  Mort.  Land  &  Finance  £25 

80,000 

nil 

5 

2f 

nfl 

Do.  4  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock    .... 
Dalgety  &  Co.  £20     

£1,900,000 
154,000 

4 

5A 

100 
5 

94i 

n 

Do.  4$  %  Irred.  Deb.  Stook  .... 

£620,000 

4 

100 

noi 

9 

Do.  4%           „                               .     . 

£1,643,210 

4 

100 

98J 

4 

Goldsbrough  Mort  &  Co.  4  %  A  Deb.\ 
Stook  Reduced  / 

£1,234,350 

4 

100 

65J 

6 

Do.  B  Income  Reduced  

£740,610 

4 

100 

371 

11 

Australian  Agricultural  £25      .     . 

20,000 

21* 

«•"  2 

58J 

South  Australian  Company.     .     . 

14,200 

UJL 

20 

471 

413 

Trust  &  Agency  of  Australasia  .     . 

42,479 

nil 

1 

Do.  5  %  Cum.  Pref.  ..... 

87,600 

5 

10 

9 

5A 

Met.  of  Melb.  Gas  5  %  Debs.  1908-12 

£560,000 

5 

100 

103 

IB 

Do.  4$  %  Debs.  1918-22-24  .     .     . 

£250,000 

100 

101 

*& 

interest  and  redeemable  in  1953,  the  issue  meeting  with  great 
success  for  such  times  as  these.  The  amount  was  subscribed 
twice  over  two  days  before  the  time  originally  appointed  for 
closing  the  lists,  and  it  was  allotted  as  far  as  possible  to  the  small 
investor,  applicants  for  £500  or  under  receiving  allotments  in  full. 
The  Cape  Town  loan  for  a  million  sterling  was  offered  a  few  days 
later,  but  a  large  portion  had  to  go  to  the  underwriters. 

The  eager  awaiting  of  the  Labour  Commission  report  has 
not  agitated  the   Cape  as   much   as  the  rest  of   South  Africa. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


571 


NEW  ZEALAND   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


i 

Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

5  %  Bonds  .... 
5  %  Consolidated  Bonds 

266,300 
286,400 

1914 
1908 

107$ 
100 

i 
I     5* 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 
Quarterly. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t)  j 

29,150,302 

1929 

107 

»A 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3J  %      „            „      (*) 

6,161,167 

1940 

101 

3& 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3  %        ,>           „      (t)  , 

6,384,005 

1945 

90 

i     3& 

1  Apr,—  1  Got. 

(t  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

NEW   ZEALAND   MUNICIPAL  AND  OTHER   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Auckland  5%  Deb.               200  ,  000 

1934-8* 

Ill* 

4| 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Do.Hbr.Bd.5%Debs. 

150,000 

1917 

105 

4 

10  April—  10  Oct. 

Bank  of  New  Zealand\ 
4%Gua.  Stookf     ./ 

£2,000,000 

— 

98* 

*& 

Apr.—  Oct. 

Christchurch  6%  Drain- 
age Loan 

\    200,000 

1926 

126$ 

*£ 

30  June-  -31  Deo. 

Dunedin  5%  Cons.      . 

312,200 

1908 

101 

4| 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Lyttleton  Hbr.  Bd.  6% 

200,000 

1929 

126$ 

% 

Napier    Hbr.  Bd.  5%\ 
Debs  / 

300,000 

1920 

106 

H 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

Do.  5%  Debs.  .     .     . 

200,000 

1928 

104 

4f 

National  Bank  of  N.Z.  \ 
£7$  Shares  £2$  paid/ 

100,000 

div.  10  % 

H 

5S 

Jan.  —  July. 

New  Plymouth  Hbr.\ 
Bd.  6%  Debs.     .     J 

200,000 

1909 

101$ 

5ft 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Oamaru  5%  Bds.  .     . 

173,800 

1920 

91 

Of 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Otago  Hbr.  Cons.  Bds.\ 
5%      / 

417,500 

1934 

107 

*A 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Wellington  6%  Impts.\ 
Loan  / 

100,000 

drawings 

118$ 

4 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  6%  Waterworks   . 

130,000 

II 

123$ 

« 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  4$%  Debs..     .     . 

165,000 

1933 

103 

H 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

WestportHbr.4%Debs. 

150,000 

1925 

102 

4 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 

lier. 

t  Guaranteed  by  New  Zealand  Government. 

Apparently  the  progressive  party  is  just  as  averse  to  the  immi- 
gration of  Asiatics  as  the  Bond.  It  is,  of  course,  admitted  by  all 
parties  that  the  development  of  Cape  Colony  is  being  retarded  by 
the  scarcity  of  labour,  but  the  opinion  is  generally  expressed  that 
sufficient  native  labour  is  actually  in  the  country  and  can  be 
collected  in  course  of  time,  although  practical  suggestions  as  to 
how  this  is  to  be  carried  out  are  unfortunately  scarce.  But  by 
the  Transvaal  the  issue  of  the  Labour  report  and  the  carrying 
out  of  its  findings  have  been  impatiently  awaited  as  the  signal  for 
the  long-delayed  recuperation  of  the  mining  industry. 

As  we  go  to  press,  the  news  is  to  hand  that  the  majority 
report  is  published.  Many  people  thought  that  the  delay  was 
caused  by  an  attempt  to  obtain  an  unanimous  result,  and  there 


572  The  Empire  Review 

SOUTH   AFRICAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield.   1    Interest  Payable. 

GAPE  COLONY. 

£ 

. 

j 

4A  %  Bonds      .     .     . 

970,900 

dwgs.      1     101 

4|         15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

4  %  1883  Inscribed  (t)  . 

3,733,195 

1923 

105 

m       1  June—  1  Dec. 

4  %  1886        „ 

9,997,566 

1916-36* 

103 

3§         15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 

3*  %  1886       „        (t)  . 

8,215,080 

1929-49* 

98 

3A       1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3>0  1886        „        (t) 

7,448,367 

1933-43* 

85 

3j|       1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

NATAL. 

4*  %  Bonds,  1876  .     . 
4  %o  Inscribed  .     . 

758,700 
3,026,444 

1919           107 
1937           113 

3H       15  Mar.—  15  Sep. 
3§         Apr.—  Got. 

^3  so          tt                  *       * 

3,714,917         1939 

99 

4        1  June—  1  Dec, 

*»  /a             ti                          • 

6,000,000     1929-49* 

90 

3§        1  Jan.—  1  July. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 
Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  RAILWAYS,  BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 
Mashonaland  5  °/  Debs.                  .     , 

£2,500,000 

5 

100 

100 

5 

Northern  Railway  of  the  S.  African\ 
Rep.  4  y  Bonds  / 

£1,500,000 

nil 

100 

92J 

nil 

Pretoria-Pietersburg  4  %  Debs.  Red.   . 
Rhodesia  RIys.  5  %  1st  Mort.    Debs.\ 
guar.  by  B.S.A.  Co.  till  1915.     .     ./ 
Royal  Trans-African  5  %  Debs.  Red.    . 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Robinson  South  African  Banking  .     . 
African  Banking  Corporation  £10  shares 
Bank  of  Africa  £18f  

£1,005,400 
£2,000,000 
£1,814,877 

1,500,000 
80,000 
120,000 

K 

5 

9 

12* 

100 
100 
100 

1 
5 
6J 

101 
101 
85$ 

? 

12* 

^ 

*H 

5£ 

? 

Standard  Bank  of  S.  Africa  £100  1*  V 
Ohlsson's  Cape  Breweries     .... 
South  African  Breweries      .... 
British  South  Africa  (Chartered)    .     . 
Do.  5  %  Debs.  Red  

50,000 
80,000 
750,000 
4,568,392 
£1,250,000 

18 
52 
30 
nil 
5 

25T 
5 
1 
1 
100 

82* 
24 
3 

3* 

103 

10 
nil 

4i| 

Natal  Land  and  Colonization    . 
Cape  Town  &  District  Gas  Light  &  Coke 
Kimberley  Waterworks  £10.     .     .     . 
South  African  Supply  and  Cold\  Ocd. 
Storage  /  Pref 

34,033 
10,000 
45,000 
300,000 
150,000 

15 
10 

I 

7 

5 
10 
7 

1 
1 

8 
15 
5 

9| 

?» 

is  reason  to  believe  that  efforts  in  this  direction  were  put  forward. 
They  were,  however,  it  seems,  put  forward  in  vain,  since  a 
minority  report  has  been  decided  upon  which  will,  it  is  under- 
stood, head  the  signature  of  the  two  commissioners  who  do  not 
find  themselves  able  to  endorse  the  findings  of  their  colleagues. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
minority  report  will  show  any  wide  change  of  opinion,  and  it 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


573 


CROWN  COLONY   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When 
Redeemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Barbadoes  8fc%  ins.  (t) 

375,000 

1925-42f 

99 

3A 

1  Mar.—  1  Sep. 

Brit.  Guiana  3%  ins.  (t) 

250,000 

1923-45* 

90 

3| 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Ceylon  4%  ins.  (t)  .     . 

1,076,100 

1934 

112 

3§ 

15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3%  ins.  (t)  .     .     . 

2,450,000 

1940 

94 

3* 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Hong-Kong  3J%  ins  (*) 
Jamaica  4%  ins.  (£)     . 
Do.  3A%  ins.  (f)      .     . 

341,800 
1,098,907 
1,449,800 

1918-43* 
1934 
1919-49* 

100 
106 
100 

H 

31 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 
24  Jan.—  24  July. 

Mauritius    3  %  guar.} 
Great  Britain  (t)     .  / 

600,000 

1940 

98* 

3A 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 

Do.  4%  ins.  ($)  .     .     . 

482,390 

1987 

111 

34 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Trinidad  4%  ins.  (<)     . 

422,593 

1917-42* 

102 

3^.| 

15Mar.—  15  Sep. 

Do.  3%  ins.  (*)  .     .     . 

600,000 

1926-44f 

91 

«*& 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 

Hong-Kong  &  Shang-1 
hai  Bank  Shares     .  / 

80,000 

Div.  £3£ 

65 

5A 

Feb.—  Aug. 

•  Yield  calculated  on  shorter  period.  f  Yield  calculated  on  longer  period. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

may,  I  think,  be  taken  that  the  majority  report,  so  far  as  it 
applies  to  the  scarcity  of  labour,  expresses  the  unanimous  view 
of  the  Commissioners.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  useful  to  give  the 
findings  of  the  majority  report.  They  are  as  follows  : — 

(1)  The  demand  for  native  labour  for  agriculture  in  the  Transvaal  is 
largely  in  excess  of  the  present  supply,  and  as  the   development  of  the 
country  proceeds  this  demand  will  greatly  increase. 

(2)  The  demand  for  native  labour  in  the  Transvaal  for  the  mining 
industry  is  in  excess  of  the  present  supply  by  about  129,000  labourers, 
and,  while  no  complete  data  as  to  the  future  requirements  of  the  whole 
industry  are  obtainable,  it  is  estimated  that  the  mines  on  the  Witwaters- 
rand  alone  will  require  within  the  next  five  years  an  additional  supply  of 
196,000  labourers. 

(3)  The    demand  for  native    labour  for    other  Transvaal    industries, 
including  railways,  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  present  supply,  and  wiD 
increase  concurrently  with  the  advancement  of  mining  and  agriculture. 

(4)  There  is  no  adequate  supply  of  labour  in  Central  or  Southern  Africa 
to  meet  the  above  requirements. 

On  the  question  of  employing  white  in  the  place  of  black 
labour,  the  evidence  of  Mr.  Creswell  has  failed  to  convince  the 
Commission  that  the  proposal  can  be  seriously  entertained.  Both 
"  past  and  present  experience,"  they  say,  has  shown  it  to  be 
"  impractical  and  impossible."  Moreover,  as  the  Eeport  says, 
"the  evidence  of  the  past  is  overwhelmingly  and  conclusively 
against  the  contention  that  white  labour  can  successfully  compete 
with  black  in  the  lower  field  of  manual  industry."  To  judge 
from  the  findings  as  well  as  from  the  analysis  of  the  Beport 
which  has  been  called  over,  the  Commission,  while  making  no 
recommendation,  is  convinced  that  the  only  solution  of  the 


574 


The  Empire  Review 


problem  is  the  importation  of  Asiatics  under  well  defined  restric- 
tions. Much  evidence  was  taken  as  to  the  possibility  of  im- 
proving the  labour  supply  from  June,  within  the  area  of 
reference,  by  legislative  or  other  action  ;  but  the  Commissioners 
are  of  opinion  that  "  none  of  these  remedial  measures  offer  a 
practical  solution  of  the  problem."  It  now  only  remains  for 
steps  to  be  taken  in  accordance  with  the  procedure  laid  down 
in  the  Editor's  article  last  month,  and  by  the  beginning  of  the 
New  Year  we  shall,  no  doubt,  be  able  to  announce  legislation 
on  the  subject. 

The  October  return  of  the  gold  output  issued  by  the  Chamber 
of  Mines  shows  an  increase  of  8347  ounces  on  the  month  which, 
although  twice  aw  good  as  that  of  the  preceding  month,  is  far 
below  the  best  monthly  increase  of  the  year.  The  following 
table  shows  the  returns  for  some  years,  those  since  the  war  being 
in  fine  gold : — 


1903. 

1902. 

1901. 

1899. 

January  ...... 
February     .     .     .     . 
iMarch.     .      .      .      .      « 

oz. 
199,279 
196,513 
217,466 

value. 

oz. 
70,340 
81,405 
104,127 

oz. 

oz. 
481,010 
425,166 
464,036 

April                       .  ':>J'' 

227,871 

119,588 

460  349 

Mav 

284,125 

£994,505 

188,602 

7,478 

466,452 

JM.ttjr     .          .          .                    .         * 

238,820 

1,012,822 

142,780 

19,779 

467,271 

July 

251,648 

1,068,917 

149,179 

25,960 

478,493 

271,918 

1,155,039 

162,750 

28,474 

482,108 

September  .... 

276,197 
284,544 

1,178,211 

170,802 
181,489 

31,936 
33,393 

426,556 
19,906 

November    .     .  -    . 
December    .     .-•_'*. 

187,375 
196,023 

39,075 
52,897 

61,780 
73,670 

Total    .     .     . 

2,397,875 

I 

1,704,410 

238,992 

4,256,797 

THE  EEPORT  OF  THE  CONSOLIDATED  GOLD  FIELDS  COMPANY. 

An  instructive  object-lesson  on  the  influences  that  have  been 
at  work  on  the  mining  industry  of  the  Band  and  on  their  results 
is  furnished  by  the  record  of  the  important  Consolidated  Gold 
Fields  Company  laid  before  the  public  during  the  month.  For  the 
year  ended  June  30,  the  company's  profit  was  £390,000  against 
£893,000  for  the  preceding  year,  and  the  dividend  on  the  ordinary 
shares  was  passed.  There  were  apparently  some  shareholders 
who  considered  that  as  the  board  had  so  large  a  credit  balance  as 
£1,977,000,  which  it  proposed  to  carry  forward,  there  ought 
certainly  to  have  been  some  distribution,  even  if  the  25  per  cent, 
of  the  preceding  year  could  not  be  repeated.  But  the  directors 
had  evidently  the  mass  of  shareholders  with  them  in  refusing  to 
make  any  indentation  on  the  amount  brought  forward  from  the 
preceding  year,  a  course  which  they  had  never  before  adopted,  and 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments  575 

which  they  thought  should  certainly  not  be  entered  upon  in  such 
critical  financial  times  as  the  present,  when  their  subsidiary  com- 
panies are  likely  to  be  in  need  of  capital.  Lord  Harris,  the  able 
Chairman  of  the  Company  is  optimistic  as  to  the  prospects  of  the 
coming  year,  and  his  opinions  carry  all  the  more  weight  because 
at  this  time  last  year  he  was  among  the  few  pessimists  whose 
prognostications  have  proved  to  be  so  well-founded  In  his  speech 
to  the  shareholders,  he  naturally  devoted  considerable  time  to  the 
all-important  labour  question,  proving  incidentally  that  the  Gold 
Fields  Company  is  thoroughly  performing  its  share  in  the  solution 
of  the  problem. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  speech  sum  up  his  idea  of  the 
present  position  of  the  question.  Maintaining  that  the  delay  in 
arriving  at  a  satisfactory  conclusion  on  the  subject  has  not  been 
entirely  undesirable,  he  said : — 

The  City  of  London  contains  a  number  of  impatient  people ;  we  make  up 
our  minds  quickly  here  in  striking  bargains,  and  also  in  deciding  that  a  policy 
is  sound  or  the  reverse,  and  we  are  very  impatient  when  other  people  who  are 
concerned  in  the  subject  do  not  as  readily  form  their  opinions.  Although  the 
past  twelve  months  have  been  most  disappointing  in  not  producing  earlier  a 
satisfactory  conclusion  upon  the  subject  of  importing  Asiatic  labour,  I  submit 
that  there  is  one  very  satisfactory  result  of  what  has  been  done,  and  that  is 
that  what  has  been  done  has  been  thoroughly  well  done,  and  that  when  permis- 
sion is  given  to  import  Asiatic  labour  the  trial  will  be  made  with  the  assent  of 
a  vast  majority  of  the  people  whose  lives  have  got  to  be  spent  in  the  Transvaal, 
and  whose  feelings  deserve  first  consideration.  A  hurried  decision,  such  as 
many  in  the  City  would  have  liked  if  it  had  been  possible,  would  not  have  had 
the  same  amount  of  stability  that  the  decision  will  now  have,  and  therefore  I 
think  that  there  will  be  no  ground  to  retrace ;  and,  once  set  on  foot,  the  move- 
ment should  proceed  evenly  and  steadily. 

After  referring  to  what  must  now  be  taken  as  a  fact  that 
South  Africa  itself  cannot  supply  the  demand  for  labour,  Lord 
Harris  went  on  to  point  out  the  vast  importance  of  the  subject 
not  merely  to  the  Transvaal  but  to  the  empire  as  a  whole. 

I  was  told  pie  said]  the  other  day  that  one  prominent  financier  asked 
another  when  these  bad  times  would  end,  and  the  reply  was,  "  As  soon  as  your 
South  African  gold  mines  turn  out  more  gold."  It  is  idle  to  talk  of  railway 
works,  and  irrigation  works,  and  heroic  schemes  for  making  the  Transvaal  a 
more  thickly  populated  and  an  agricultural  rather  than  a  pastoral  country. 
Every  one  of  these  ideas,  excellent  as  they  are,  is  dependent  upon  the  activity 
of  the  mines,  and  it  is  a  satisfactory  gain  to  know  that  this  is  recognised  by 
the  government  authorities,  not  merely  out  there,  but  also  at  home. 

He  explained  that  if  the  seemingly  unlimited  capability  of  the 
country  in  production  of  precious  metals  is  to  be  turned  to  full 
advantage,  it  is  essential  that  capitalists  should  be  shown  that 
they  have  a  prospect  of  getting  their  money  back  within  a  fairly 
reasonable  time,  for  if  the  ore  is  only  to  be  got  out  sluggishly, 


576 


The  Empire  Review 


lazily  and  over  a  long  period  of  years,  capitalists  will  turn  their 
attention  to  something  more  attractive.  But  there  is  no  mistaking 
Lord  Harris's  opinion  that  the  eventual  outcome  of  the  present 
situation  will  obviate  this  calamity,  and  there  is  no  mistaking  the 
cheerfulness  of  his  views  as  to  the  future  of  the  industry.  At  the 
conclusion  of  a  speech  which  was  both  sound  in  argument  and 
conception  he  said  : — 

I  have  dealt  with  a  good  many  subjects,  but  I  would  rather  you  went  away 
with  one  conviction,  and  that  is  that  there  is  no  occasion  whatever  for  you  to 
be  despondent  as  regards  the  mining  industry  generally  in  the  Transvaal  or 
our  interests.  From  every  point  of  view,  in  my  opinion,  the  outlook  is  as 
encouraging  now  as  it  was  discouraging  twelve  months  ago. 

These  words  from  so  weighty  an  authority  naturally  carry 
great  weight. 

The  labour  question  is  of  no  less  importance  to  Khodesia  than 
to  the  Transvaal,  complaints  arising  on  all  sides  of  the  stagnation 
of  business  there.  The  gold  output  for  October  showed  a  decrease 
of  823  ounces  on  the  month  and  is  the  lowest  for  any  month 
this  year  since  February. 

The  following  table  enables  comparison  with  the  returns  for 
the  last  five  years  : — 


1903. 

1902, 

1901. 

1900. 

1899. 

January  .                .     .      . 

oz. 
16,245 

oz. 
15,955 

oz. 
10,697 

oz. 
5,242 

'oz. 
6,371 

February      .      .      .      .      . 
March 

17,090 
19,626 

13,204 
16,891 

12,237 
14,289 

6,233 
6,286 

6,433 
6  614 

April  

20,727 

17,559 

14,998 

5,456 

5,755 

May 

22,187 

19,698 

14,469 

6,554 

4  939 

June  .           

22,166 

15,842 

14,863 

6,185 

6,104 

July  ,     . 
August    .     .     .     .    V     ;' 
September   ... 
October  .     .     .     .     .     .--, 
November         .     v    VN  v 

23,571 
19,187 
18,741 
17,918 

15,226 
15,747 
15,164 
16,849 
15,923 

15,651 
14,734 
13,958 
14,503 
16,486 

5,738 
10,138 
10,749 
10,727 
9,169 

6,031 
3,177 
5,653 
4,276 
4,671 

December    . 

16,210 

15,174 

9  463 

5  289 

Total     .... 

197,408 

194,268 

172,059 

91,940 

65,313 

There  have  been  no  marked  changes  in  the  prices  of  Crown 
Colony  securities,  but  Hong- Kong  3J  per  Cents,  have  recovered 
slightly  from  the  fall  which  occurred  last  month  during  the  Busso- 
Japanese  scare. 

TRUSTEE. 

November  20tft,  1908. 


•,-'•1 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

"  Far  as  the  breeze  can  bear,  the  billows  foam, 
Survey  our  empire,  and  behold  our  home."— Byron. 


VOL.  VI.  JANUARY,  1904.  No.  36. 


FISCAL   ILLUSIONS 

"Let  us  remember  that  this  unrivalled  Empire  has  been  reared  upon  a 
foundation  of  Free  Trade :  let  us  beware  lest  by  any  tampering  with  our  sacred 
heritage  of  free  food  we  undermine  the  splendid  edifice,  and  perhaps  involve  our 
posterity  in  ruin." — CHORUS  OF  ORATORS. 

"  Your  fathers  are  bidding  you  remember  their  sufferings  under  Pro- 
tection, &C."— LOBD  ROSEBERY. 

GOOD  economic  wine  should  need  no  bush,  and,  whatever  the 
excellence  of  Free  Trade,  those  who  extol  it  in  public  would  be 
wiser  not  to  commend  it  by  assertions  like  the  above,  remarks  so 
brazen  in  their  disregard  of  history  that  Cobden  would  blush  to 
hear  such  advocacy  of  his  creed. 

Men  in  the  street  and  other  people  who  have  not,  after  the 
manner  of  budding  professors,  "  thought  long  upon  the  subject," 
are  very  much  swayed  by  the  fact  that  there  came  an  unexampled 
burst  of  trade  in  England,  unique  both  since  and  before  that  date, 
soon  after  the  abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws  and  the  reductions 
subsequently  effected  in  our  general  tariff.  (British  exports 
in  1840  were  £51,000,000;  in  1850,  £71,000,000;  in  1860, 
£135,000,000.)  Unreflecting  people  are  readily  persuaded  by 
appropriate  orators  that  this  huge  access  of  commercial  pros- 
perity was  occasioned  wholly  by  the  fiscal  changes  of  the  decade 
1840-50,  for  the  orators  take  good  care  to  drop  no  hint  that 
there  were  any  other  contributory  factors,  and  the  audience 
have  forgotten  how  exceptionally  potent  those  other  factors 
were. 

To  one  at  least  of  these  other  causes  we  must  allot  a  very  great 
responsibility  for  the  good  results  which  followed  the  period 

VOL.  VI.-  No.  36.  2  i> 


5?8  The  Empire  Review 

1840-50,  and  that  one  is,  the  spreading  of  railways  throughout 
our  land  just  in  that  very  period.  Though  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  line  had  been  opened  in  1830,  yet  during  the  decade 
1830-40  only  a  small  total  mileage  was  constructed.  It  was  in 
the  next  ten  years,  however,  1840-50  ("the  railway  mania") 
that  England  found  itself  strewn  with  main  lines ;  our  great 
industrial  centres  became  now,  for  the  first  time,  efficiently 
linked  with  each  other,  with  the  coal  and  iron  supplies,  and  with 
the  shipping  ports,  by  the  completion  of  our  trunk-lines  of  rail- 
way. (Comparing  the  map  in  a  Bradshaw  of  1840  with  that  of 
1851 — when  the  Great  Northern,  youngest  of  the  lot,  arrived  in 
London — we  see  the  rapidity  with  which  the  change  occurred.) 
Nowhere  else  did  the  revolution  in  transport  come  about  with 
such  impetuosity ;  and  here  we  have  one  reason  why  commerce 
and  industry  in  England  made  a  forward  leap  unmatched  at  the 
time  in  any  other  land. 

Now  Cobdenites  will  admit  that  the  sudden  entry  of  such  a 
transforming  factor  as  railways  would,  by  itself,  have  produced  a 
large  fraction  of  the  great  increase  in  trade  that  followed  1850, 
even  supposing  that  other  things  had  remained  the  same,  i.e., 
if  trade  had  continued  fettered  by  the  old  Protective  tariff ;  this 
we  know  from  experience  of  what  has  happened  when  railways 
have  been  introduced  in  other  countries,  countries  "  clouded  by 
Protection ;  "  in  their  case  as  in  ours  with  railways  came  an 
outburst  of  industrial  sunshine.  And,  per  contra,  supposing  that 
railways  had  not  been  spread  across  our  country  at  that  time, 
does  any  Cobdenite  believe  that  the  Free  Trade  legislation  of 
1846  would,  of  itself,  have  occasioned  anything  more  than  a 
comparatively  moderate  swell  of  industrial  life  ?  What  is  the  use 
of  removing  the  barrier  of  a  customs  tariff,  if  there  remain  the  far 
greater  impediment  caused  by  slow  or  costly  transport  such  as  canals 
and  roads  ?  The  removal  of  the  highest  tariff  ever  imposed  could 
not  cheapen  commodities  so  much  as  the  substitution  of  carriage 
by  rail  for  that  in  vogue  before.  The  speed  and  certainty  (in  all 
weathers)  of  the  new  method  of  transit,  besides  cheapening  goods 
immediately,  excited  new  ventures  in  industry  all  over  the  land ; 
England  "  woke  up."  Not  only  did  raw  material  become  easily 
accessible,  and  finished  goods  find  quick  conveyance  to  the 
exporting  ships,  but  railways,  as  Stephenson  foretold,  opened  the 
world  to  labour ;  poor  men  now  could  move  cheaply  and  instantly 
to  distant  places  where  they  were  in  demand ;  and  it  was  the 
perception  of  this  novel  fact  which  (inter  alia)  led  to  the  relaxa- 
tion of  "  settlement  "  laws  and  other  mediaeval  bonds.  Eailways 
set  the  masses  "free,"  as  had  never  been  before. 

And  in  all  this  beneficent  operation  of  railways  on  trade, 
England— as  fifty  years  farther  back,  when  Power  was  applied  to 


Fiscal  Illusions  579 

textile  industries — had  a  long  start  over  the  Continent :  we  "  got 
away  "  first. 

To  insist  strongly  on  the  industrial  impetus  given  by  the 
railways  made  during  1840-50  is  not  to  belittle  the  inspiriting 
operation  of  the  tariff  changes  introduced  at  the  same  time ; 
justice  may  be  done  to  both.  But  railways  enabled  the  whole 
area  of  England  to  respond  to  the  new  opportunities  offered  by  Free 
Trade,  to  take  quick  advantage  of  the  lucky  situation.  When  a 
great  change  like  this  has  come  to  pass,  and  when  we  find  that  there 
were  several  distinct  causes  simultaneously  at  work,  each  of  them 
qualified  to  bring  about  a  result  of  the  kind  that  occurred,  it  is 
vain  to  attempt  by  any  syllogistic  skill  to  "demonstrate"  how 
much  of  the  total  benefit  belongs  to  one  of  those  causes,  and  how 
little  to  another.  If  we  are  slaves  to  political  or  academic  tradi- 
tion, we  may  father  it  all  on  one  ;  if  we  know  something  of  the 
magic  wrought  by  every  great  invention,  we  may  exercise  our 
common-sense,  and  use  a  little  judgment.  "  Free  Trade,"  said 
Mr.  Asquith  at  Worcester,  "keeps  open  the  sources  of  supply." 
But  railways  create  new  sources  where  there  were  none  before — a 
much  more  vital  service. 

What  has  been  urged  above  with  regard  to  railways  applies 
with  no  less  force  to  steamships.  The  same  remarkable  decade 
1840-50  was  the  critical  one  in  which  steam-power  was  boldly 
tested  in  the  ocean  voyages  of  our  mercantile  marine;  for 
the  first  time  in  history  steamships  began  to  make  themselves 
at  home  all  over  the  globe  (even  up  to  forbidden  Japan).  The 
triumph  of  Cobden  and  Peel  came  thus  at  a  critical  juncture 
signalised  by  the  double  victory  of  steam  for  transport  purposes 
on  sea  as  well  as  on  land.*  Pre-eminently  at  sea  it  is  the  first 
step  that  costs,  and  the  feasibility  of  ocean  traffic  by  steam 
once  proved — as  it  was  in  the  'forties — a  brisk  development  of 
international  trade  was  bound  to  follow,  tariff  or  none. 

But  in  other  respects  besides  that  of  its  silence  with  regard  to 
railways  and  steamships  the  tale  of  our  Free  Trade  orator  sounds 
strangely  empty  in  its  retrospect. 

How  is  he  able  to  ignore  the  extraordinary  discoveries  of  gold 
in  Australia  and  California — both  Anglo-Saxon  countries — which 
occurred  between  1848  and  1851,  i.e.  at  the  close  of  the  same  phe- 
nomenal decade  ?  Only  once  before  had  a  similar  event  burst  on 
the  West,  when  Columbus  discovered  America  :  and  we  know  what 
happened  then.  It  was  not  so  much  the  opening  of  a  New  World 
that  aroused  the  enterprise  of  Europe,  as  the  incident  tha  t  it  was 
a  new  world  full  of  gold  and  silver  :  this  salient  fact  proved 

*  Though  the  pioneer  voyages  of  steamships  in  the  "  forties  "  were  mostly  made 
by  passenger  ships,  yet  these,  having  shown  the  practicability  of  long  ocean  voyages 
by  steam,  were  quickly  followed  by  the  introduction  of  steamers  for  cargo-traffic. 

2  p  2 


580  The  Empire  Review 

sufficient  to  awaken  the  Western  nations  as  nothing  else  would 
have  done ;  they  shook  off  medieval  lethargy,  and  stood  erect  in 
a  Renaissance,  not  only  of  political  but  still  more  of  commercial 
energy.  England  in  particular  owes  to  this  golden  circumstance 
the  brilliant  sequence  of  Elizabethan  enterprise  over  distant  seas 
which  by  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  bore  fruit  in  the 
founding  of  the  East  India  Company — i.e.  the  founding  of  our 
present  dominion  in  India.  The  novel  attraction  of  gold  beyond 
the  dreams  of  avarice  fired  Englishmen  to  such  a  pitch — in- 
tensified by  the  Spanish  claim  to  monopolise  the  whole — that 
they  accomplished  feats  of  adventure  they  would  have  thought 
incredible  before :  in  trying  to  win  gold  they  stepped  into  the 
front  rank  of  nations,  and  gained  an  Empire  by  the  way. 

In  Cobden's  time  more  than  three  centuries  had  passed  since 
Europe  had  experienced  the  awakening  influence  on  trade  of  such 
a  tidal  wave  of  gold.  Novf  came  another,  of  greater  volume  than 
the  former,  and  it  poured  into  every  nook  and  cranny  of  an 
organised  industrial  society  which  had  long  desired  it,  needed  it 
sorely,  and  was  sensitive  to  monetary  changes  to  a  degree  unknown 
in  medieval  times.  Wherever  the  new  gold  penetrated  prices  rose ; 
and  to  the  English  manufacturers,  weighted  by  large  outlay  and 
costly  machines,  these  higher  prices  were  the  breath  of  life ;  they 
strained  every  nerve  to  make  their  output  of  goods  the  greatest 
possible.  And  thus  we  have — to  a  great  extent — a  purely  golden 
reason  why  the  export  of  English  manufactures  showed  a 
"record"  increase  in  the  decade  1850-1860.  Large  arrivals  of 
new  gold,  especially  of  new  gold  easily  won,  must  always  bring 
higher  prices  to  every  producer  of  useful  goods ;  and  the  con- 
sequent incitement  to  produce  one's  utmost  will  ensue  as  surely 
in  a  country  with  a  protective  tariff  as  in  one  without,  though  in 
the  latter  it  may  bear  fruit  more  readily.  This  tonic  effect  on 
industry  was  more  marked  in  the  case  of  England  than  of  any 
other  country,  because  the  gold-stream  welled  up  in  Anglo-Saxon 
territory,  and  because  England  alone  possessed  ships  ready  to 
profit  by  the  ensuing  augmentaion  of  trade. 

Aline,  too,  might  be  spared  for  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851, 
which,  conceived  at  a  most  auspicious  moment,  served  as  an 
unparalleled  advertisement  for  English  manufacturers  throughout 
the  world ;  and  here  again  we  had  the  advantage  of  first 
innings. 

Was  not  a  further  impulse  given  to  our  trade  by  the  passing 
of  the  Limited  Liability  Acts  in  the  decade  following  the  intro- 
duction of  Free  Trade  ?  industry  on  a  larger  scale  became  more 
possible,  and  the  new  Companies  could  command  the  best 
machinery. 

In  this  same  decade  Bessemer  patented  (1856)  his  process  for 


Fiscal  Illusions  581 

the  rapid  and  sure  conversion  of  pig-iron  into  steel.  This 
invention,  when  it  was  taken  up  everywhere  a  few  years  later, 
created  an  extraordinary  outbreak  of  new  industrial  activity — as 
much  in  Germany  and  the  United  States  as  with  us,  though 
Protection  reigned  with  them,  while  Free  Trade  ruled  over  us. 
Steel  rails  being  now  procurable  at  one-tenth  their  cost  before, 
there  soon  arose  a  phenomenal  extension  of  railways  in  America, 
in  our  colonies,  and  in  other  undeveloped  areas.  Thousands  of 
miles  of  pioneer  line  were  pushed  out  into  hitherto  uncultivated 
tracts ;  land  along  these  lines  was  offered  practically  free  ;  hence 
vast  regions  began  to  be,  for  the  first  time,  farmed.  Thus  the 
world  was  provided  with  unprecedented  supplies  of  food  and  raw 
material ;  there  came  to  be  much  more  stuff  per  head,  stuff 
cheaply  got,  and  cheaply  carried ;  and  prices  fell  across  the 
Western  world  (on  this  account,  not  to  mention  others).  Prices 
fell  more  in  England  than  elsewhere,  because  the  new  supplies 
were  mainly  grown  in  Anglo-Saxon  countries,  and  carried  in 
English  ships. 

This  invention  of  Bessemer  (backed  up  by  the  work  of 
Siemens  and  others)  was  like  a  creative  act,  and  far  outdid  the 
effects  of  removing  any  tariff.  And  this  explains  why  wheat  and 
other  staples  did  not  become  regularly  cheap  until  some  score  of 
years  after  the  abolition  of  the  old  Corn  Laws.  Sir  Eobert  Peel 
merely  granted  free  admission  to  wheat ;  but  it  was  not  until 
railways  were  thrust  out  into  the  West  that  any  large  increase  in 
the  supply  of  (cheap)  wheat  was  possible ;  and  as  these  railways 
took  some  years  to  build,  and  indeed  could  not  have  been 
attempted  until  Bessemer's  process  had  been  generally  adopted, 
the  new  abundance  of  food  and  raw  material  could  not  be  realised 
before  the  'seventies,  i.e.  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  Cobden's 
triumph.* 

Again,  the  many  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel  that  grew  out  of  Bessemer's  labours  quickly  bore  fruit 
in  the  construction  of  a  new  mercantile  marine,  ships  of  iron  or 
steel  much  larger  and  stronger  than  the  vessels  hitherto  employed. 
Being  of  greater  size,  they  could  be  worked  at  less  cost  per  ton ; 
and  this,  through  competition,  introduced  a  period  of  lower 
freights.  Meanwhile,  towards  the  close  of  the  sixties,  the 
method  of  double  or  triple  expansion  of  steam  came  to  be  applied 
to  marine  engines  ;  this  brought  about  the  use  of  higher  pressure 
steam,  with  another  new  economy  in  working.  Once  more  came 

*  To  illustrate  the  far-reaching  effects  of  the  new  steel-processes,  one  may  quote 
Mr.  Gilbertson  in  the  '  Nineteenth  Century '  of  November  1903 :— "  By  1880  the 
inventions  of  Bessemer  and  Siemens  had  provided  mild  steel  as  the  base  of  the 
tinplatc,  in  place  of  hammered  iron,  and  thus  the  decreased  cost  of  production" 
encouraged  a  greater  export  from  the  United  States  of  tinned  meat,  butter,  fish  &c, 


582  The  Empire  Review 

the  possibility — and,  therefore,  through  competition,  the  necessity 
—for  still  further  lowering  of  freights. 

So  that  while  on  the  one  hand  great  pioneer  lines  in  unpeopled 
areas  were  evoking  the  production  of  enormous  fresh  supplies  of 
food  and  raw  material,  in  England  various  inventors  had  been 
the  means  of  providing  a  superior  mercantile  fleet,  ships  waiting 
to  carry  home  the  new  supplies,  with  the  inducement  of  low 
rates  previously  unknown. 

No  audience  could  endure  the  recital  of  a  complete  list  of  all 
the  events  which  have  contributed  to  make  cheap  food  a  matter 
of  course  in  these  latter  years ;  still  a  passing  allusion  might  be 
permitted  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the  telegraph  system  after  1850, 
and  to  the  spread  of  submarine  cables  since  1860.  These  wires, 
by  bringing  together  in  daily  business  intercourse  capitalists  and 
men  of  eager  enterprise  scattered  across  the  land  or  across  the 
globe,  have  enabled  work  to  be  planned  on  a  greater  scale,  and 
foods  to  be  produced  at  smaller  cost. 

It  is  indeed  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  part  that  has  been  played 
by  engineers  in  providing  the  masses  with  cheap  necessaries. 
Each  engineering  feat  such  as  those  just  mentioned  creates 
abundance;  a  system  of  "free  imports"  merely  lets  it  in  when 
created.  Yet  credulous  people  are  told  by  their  favourite  orators 
that  abundance  is  a  blessing  for  which  we  should  thank  "  Free 
Trade"  alone— an  almost  static  institution  compared  with  the 
dynamic  potency  of  human  effort  and  skill.  Our  twentieth 
century  cheapness  is  a  stable  structure  supported  on  many  legs, 
not  absurdly  poised  on  one,  as  the  orators  suggest.  Those  who 
pretend  to  attribute  our  present  material  welfare  solely  or  mainly 
to  the  reform  of  the  tariff  in  1846  talk  after  the  manner  of  quacks 
with  a  pill ;  our  national  wealth  is  a  river  fed  from  many  springs. 
The  brilliant  expansion  of  English  commerce  after  1850  was  due 
to  several  causes,  Free  Trade  being  only  one.  And  to  speak  as 
if  the  least  deviation  from  the  rule  "  Customs  for  revenue  alone  " 
would  sap  the  foundations  of  our  commercial  greatness  is  to 
assume  that  the  greatness  is  founded  chiefly  on  "  free  imports," 
and  to  ignore  the  fact  that  it  rests  mainly  on  quite  other  con- 
ditions. It  is  because  Germany,  for  example,  enjoys  these  other 
conditions  (or  most  of  them)  that  her  recent  progress  has  been 
so  marked — notwithstanding  the  circumstance  that  she  has  per- 
sisted (for  the  last  twenty-five  years)  in  fiscal  methods  opposed 
to  our  own.  If  the  tariff  were  the  crucial  condition  on  which 
a  nation's  welfare  hung,  how  could  that  great  industrial  growth 
have  come  about  in  a  benighted  land,  where  statesmen  have  not 
"  learned  to  think  upon  such  matters." 

We  should  make  up  our  minds  on  this  point,  because  in  so 
far  as  we  believe  that  railways,  steamships,  and  a  host  of  other 


Fiscal  Illusions  583 

dynamic  discoveries  and  events  have  supplied  large  affluents  to 
our  stream  of  wealth,  to  that  extent  we  lessen  the  balance  due  to 
Free  Trade.  Free  imports  become  a  less  dominant  factor ;  and 
so  any  variation  in  the  degree  of  Free  Trade,  any  "  tampering  " 
with  the  pristine  principle,  cannot  produce  the  vast  bogey  crop 
of  evils  which  our  Cobdenites  foretell. 

When  Lord  Kosebery  at  Leicester  said  :  "  Your  fathers  are 
bidding  you  remember  their  sufferings  under  Protection,"  did  he 
wish  his  hearers  to  believe  that  those  sufferings,  cruel  as  they 
often  were,  were  due  to  nothing  but  the  Tariff  of  those  times  ? 
Why  did  not  this  well-instructed  statesman  add  that  in  those 
suffering  days  there  was  no  network  of  railways  quickening  life, 
railways  that  have  since  transformed  the  world ;  that  then  there 
had  not  yet  come — after  centuries  of  scarcity— the  astonishing 
new  supplies  of  gold  to  fan  the  fire  of  trade ;  that  those  hard 
times  were  unbefriended  by  steamships,  "limited"  companies, 
"  mild  "  steel,  Atlantic  cables,  and  other  magic  influences  ?  Why 
did  he  not  explain  that  no  small  part  of  their  suffering  was 
caused  by  the  rotting  tendency  of  our  poor  law  administration 
during  the  Napoleonic  war,  which  left  a  legacy  of  demoralisation 
that  blighted  the  industrial  affairs  of  the  country  for  many  years 
after  the  introduction  of  a  wiser  law  in  1834  ?  Comparing  the 
life  of  our  masses  to-day  with  what  it  was  sixty  years  ago,  does 
not  Lord  Kosebery  think  that  for  some  portion  of  the  better 
times  they  now  enjoy  they  should  thank  those  successive  Acts 
by  which  a  majority  instead  of  a  small  minority  of  the  nation 
came  to  exercise  political  power ;  that  development  of  municipal 
activity  and  sanitation  which  has  so  improved  the  lowest  levels 
since  the  Corn  Law  days  ;  the  multiplication  of  hospitals ;  the 
ceaseless  discoveries  of  science  affecting  health ;  the  new-born 
zeal  of  the  Churches  to  engage  in  prosaic  practical  work  amongst 
the  poor ;  and  other  social  movements  unknown  to  the  hard  old 
times  ?  Even  then  he  would  have  omitted  three  most  important 
causes  of  the  greater  general  welfare  of  our  day;  the  devoted 
efforts  of  Lord  Shaftesbury  and  his  friends,  which,  prevailing  over 
the  bitter  opposition  of  the  Cobden  school,  secured  for  English 
women  and  children  the  inestimable  advantage  of  our  Factory 
Acts ;  the  provision  of  Elementary  Education  for  every  child  in 
the  kingdom  in  1870,  a  measure  which  was  the  only  logical 
sequence  of  those  Acts ;  and  last,  but  not  least,  the  growth, 
since  Cobden's  day,  of  the  influence  exercised  by  Trade  Unions, 
an  influence  that  has  not  only  "  stiffened  "  the  mass  of  wage- 
earners  to  demand  the  highest  wage  their  employer  can  afford 
to  pay,  but  has  also  more  or  less  educated  the  public  to  sympathise 
with  better  rates  of  pay  whenever  possible. 

Lord  Bosebery,  who  is  nothing  if  not  humorous,  might  have 


584  The  Empire  Review 

led  his  audience  back  to  the  still  sadder  days  of  the  Stone  Age ; 
"  sufferings  "  were  then  as  common  as  cheap  bread  now ;  were 
they,  too,  due  to  a  mistaken  tariff?  or  were  there  other  conditions 
which  made  human  life  an  irksome  business  ? 

Of  course  a  sober  Free  Trade  advocate  may  reply  to  the 
foregoing ;  "  Granted  that  our  nineteenth  century  prosperity  is 
the  outcome  of  many  different  causes,  why  do  anything  to 
impair  any  one  of  them  ?  Free  Trade,  i.e.  the  enforcement  of 
the  principle  '  custom  duties  for  revenue  alone/  is  only  a  single 
one  of  the  sources  of  our  national  wealth — but  why  tamper  with 
one  ?  Great  inventions  come  like  the  wind,  beyond  our  foresight 
or  control;  but  we  can  control  our  fiscal  system,  and  freedom 
from  tariff  once  established,  if  it  be  a  good  thing  on  the  whole, 
is  a  force  which  is  with  us  every  day,  never  ceasing  in  its  bene- 
ficial work." 

The  point  here  is  the  "  tampering."  It  implies  that  our 
present  fiscal  system,  if  touched  in  any  way,  must  of  necessity 
be  rendered  less  beneficial  to  industry  on  the  whole ;  it  assumes 
that  English  fiscal  arrangements  cannot  be  improved,  or  made 
to  give  better  results  than  they  have  done  up  to  date.  This  may 
be  so,  but  is  certainly  not  self-evident,  considering  how — to  name 
only  one  of  the  consequences  of  Free  Trade — our  agriculture  has 
been  blighted,  and  how  the  physical  type  of  Englishman  is 
getting  to  be  an  unhealthy*  (spite  of  the  smug  death-rate)  small- 
boned,  "  towny  "  creature,  while  more  and  more  women  every 
year  are  incapable  of  rearing  babies  properly.  A  system  that 
has  caused  or  helped  to  cause  so  much  injury  (whatever  its  title 
to  our  gratitude  on  other  grounds)  cannot  claim  sanctuary  from 
remedial  criticism,  nor  can  it  be  allowed  to  assume  that  noli-me- 
tangere  virginal  pose  so  dear  to  its  platform  advocates.  After 
fifty  years'  experience,  Free  Trade  does  not  show  itself  so  entirely 
beneficent  and  innocuous  as  to  exempt  it  from  the  common  lot 
of  other  human  institutions,  that  of  being  reconsidered  when 
occasion  prompts,  and  possibly  found  wanting. 

The  cry  of  the  "inclined  plane"  betrays  the  same  instinctive 
dread  of  "interference  " — like  the  shrinking  from  medical  aid  of 
a  man  who  has  done  without  for  many  years.  He  has  come  to 
regard  his  long-continued  health  as  bound  up  with  abstention 
from  drugs  (though  it  was  due  to  much  more  important  circum- 
stances), and  when,  finding  himself  a  bit  sick,  he  is  told  to  take 
some  medicine  prescribed,  he  feels  as  if,  by  thus  violating  his 
custom  of  many  years,  he  will  plunge  his  organism  into  ruin. 
Taking  of  drugs,  as  well  as  abstention  from  drugs,  have  become 
in  his  mind  absurdly  over-estimated  items,  as  compared  with  the 

*  People  may  be  unhealthy  and  yet  live  a  long  time :   owing  to  preventive 
sanitary  measures  our  death-rate  is  low,  but  the  people  are  not  robust, 


Fiscal  Illusions  585 

essential  habits  and  pursuits  on  which  sound  health  is  mainly 
based. 

The  tariff  is  not  so  crucial  a  matter  as  Cobdenites  declare ; 
if  it  were,  France,  Germany  and  the  United  States  could  not 
have  thrived  and  developed  for  years  on  end  as  they  have, 
pervaded  all  the  time  by  what  the  Cobden  Club  consider  the 
poison  of  a  protective  system.  They  have  prospered,  as  England 
has,  mainly  because  like  us  they  have  enjoyed  the  advantages  of 
great  inventions,  happy  discoveries,  wiser  political  institutions, 
and  a  keener  social  sense  of  humanity. 

But  all  this  is  insisted  on  by  many  of  the  anti-Chamberlain 
speakers  and  writers.  Let  us,  they  say,  do  everything  we  can 
to  vivify  our  educational  system,  to  raise  the  standard  of  housing 
and  other  details  of  sanitation ;  let  us  try  to  mitigate  the  disasters 
arising  from  conflict  between  the  objects  aimed  at  by  employers 
and  those  pursued  by  trade  unions;  let  us  enjoin  on  our 
mercantile  class  a  less  condescending  attitude  towards  their 
foreign  customers,  together  with  some  acquaintance  with  the 
language  of  people  to  whom  they  hope  to  sell.  Eailway  rates 
and  kindred  matters  are  pressed  forward  as  details  that  demand 
immediate  attention.  Sir  John  Brunner  urges  nationalisation 
of  canals — also  "  active  Government  aid  to  trade,"  apart  from 
fiscal  interference.  Sir  James  Blyth  lays  stress  on  "  the  oilier 
methods  of  bettering  our  commercial  position."  More  recently 
we  have  Lord  Eosebery  at  the  Surrey  Theatre,  entreating  the 
nation  to  take  in  hand  the  problem  of  business  education,  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  Imperial  and  local  expenditure,  to  swallow 
less  alcohol,  to  bring  our  weights  and  measures  into  line  with 
those  of  foreigners,  to  grow  cotton  on  Imperial  soil,  and  to  see 
that  our  commercial  travellers  are  equipped  for  their  work. 

It  is  cheering  to  encounter  men  who  thus  appreciate  the  many 
requisites  of  successful  trade,  instead  of  having  no  eye  for  any 
factor  beside  that  of  blind  free  importation.  At  the  same  time, 
if  they  feel  that  our  prosperity  hinges  on  so  many  factors,  they 
admit  that  mere  tariff  changes  can  neither  save  us  nor  ruin 
us ;  a  tariff,  or  the  freedom  from  one,  is  not  that  omnipotent 
force  which  Cobdenites  assume.  In  a  common-sense  article  in 
the  '  Nineteenth  Century'  Nov.  1903,  Mr.  Benjamin  Taylor 
remarks : — 

"  It  has  often  occurred  to  the  present  writer,  when  professionally  engaged 
in  delving  into  tariffs  and  treaties,  that  the  economic  importance  of  tariffs  is 
generally  over-estimated.  .  .  .  Our  own  commercial  eminence  was  established 
before  we  adopted  Free  Trade.  .  .  .  Certainly  high  tariffs  have  not  prevented 
the  economic  development  of  America  and  Germany.  But  neither  have  high 
tariffs  created  that  development.  It  is  the  result  of  the  character  and  capacity 
of  the  people,  as  well  as,  but  more  than,  the  natural  resources  of  the 
countries," 


586  The  Empire  Review 

The  revision  of  our  tariff,  then,  is  not  a  matter  to  contemplate 
with  hysterical  alarm.  A  man  whose  income  is  drawn  from  many 
distinct  investments,  though  he  would  not  do  anything  to 
diminish  the  dividend  received  from  any  one  of  them,  may  yet 
consider  the  question  of  modifying  one  particular  investment  in  a 
cooler  and  more  reasonable  mood  than  he  would  if  his  whole 
fortune  were  at  stake.  And  tariff  reform  offers  itself  as  a  handy 
instrument  for  attaining  certain  ends.  For  a  change  in  our  tariff 
instantly  affects  the  profits  of  foreigners'  trade  with  us,  and 
compels  them,  in  consequence,  to  shape  their  fiscal  legislation 
with  a  new  regard  to  our  interests,  instead  of  with  none,  as  now. 
Kehabilitation  of  canals,  improved  education,  better  sanitation, 
&c.,  are  all  vital,  but  none  of  these  can  be  achieved  without  a 
large  outlay  of  capital.  It  is  worth  examining  therefore  if  it  be 
possible  to  secure  future  benefit  by  a  careful  overhauling  of  our 
present  fiscal  arrangements.  A  watch  may  have  served  us  well 
for  years,  but  when  it  begins  to  err  and  befool  us  in  our  daily 
work  we  promptly  call  in  skilled  mechanic  aid. 

Lastly,  the  orators  never  fail  to  declare,  in  the  peroration  of 
their  speech,  that  this  Empire,  the  greatest  the  world  has  ever 
seen,  was  built  up,  reared,  developed,  on  a  foundation  of  Free 
Trade.  Passing  over  the  obvious  reply  that  it  has  at  least  equal 
claims  to  be  founded  on  railways,  cheap  steel,  and  other  factors 
mentioned  above,  and  saying  nothing  about  the  grit  of  our 
ancestors,  the  natural  resources  of  our  country,  its  geographical 
situation  and  political  experience,  how  does  this  childish  state- 
ment tally  with  historical  fact  ? 

Under  what  fiscal  system  did  we  live  when  we  planted  our 
Empire  throughout  the  world,  and  fought  great  part  of  Europe  to 
a  brilliantly  successful  issue?  while  at  home  we  built  beautiful 
houses,  filling  them  with  furniture  and  prints  so  exquisite  that 
London  to-day  boasts  many  firms  whose  highest  ambition  is  to 
sell  our  undiscerning  generation  forged  imitations  of  that  skilful 
past.  It  was  in  that  eighteenth  century  that  Cugnot,  Trevithick, 
and  others  laid  the  foundations  of  our  modern  locomotive,*  while 
similar  pioneer  work  had  made  possible  the  steamship  and  the 
telegraph ;  it  was  then  that  one  invention  after  another  flashed 
like  a  meteoric  shower  across  the  industrial  night  of  England, 
until  before  the  century  closed  our  textile,  iron,  and  earthen- 
ware trades  were  entirely  revolutionised.  We  twentieth- century 
cuckoos,  having  come  into  the  soft  heritage  bequeathed  by  our 
great-great-grand-fathers,  believe  with  a  complacent  smile  that 
we  have  done  the  trick  ourselves:  for  "much  wealth  doth  often 
cause  a  foolish  elation  of  mind." 

Whether  we  like  it  or  not,  our  Empire  was  made  during  a 

*tHedley's  was  hauling  coal  at  Wylam  by  1813. 


Fiscal  Illusions  587 

regime  of  the  most  brazen  Protection  that  the  world  has  ever 
seen.  It  was  not  so  much  because  of  the  Protection  as  because 
the  natives  of  this  land  had  then  commanding  qualities.  One- 
third  of  our  present  population  won  for  us  India,  Canada,  the 
Cape :  if  the  argument  were  worth  a  farthing,  we  might  point  to 
the  fact  that  what  has  been  added  to  the  Empire  since  the  advent 
of  Free  Trade  is  the  smallest  fraction  of  what  our  benighted  and 
protected  ancestors  secured  for  us,  after  gaining  it  in  the  toughest 
struggle.  In  those  days  it  was  not  we  who  outnumbered  our 
enemy ;  but  we  mastered  him,  nevertheless.  And  it  was  in  a 
highly-protected  atmosphere  that  those  English  girls  were  bred 
who,  though  inexpert  at  hockey  or  bridge,  were  yet  capable  of 
giving  birth  to  the  men  who  thus  made  our  Imperial  fortune. 

If  there  is  any  causal  connection  between  the  character  of  a 
fiscal  system  and  the  character  of  a  people  living  under  it,  then  a 
modest  shame  should  restrain  the  Cobden  orator  from  his  favourite 
peroration . 

ERNEST  FOXWELL. 


588  The  Empire  Review 


IMPERIAL   FISCAL   UNION:   TREND   OF 
COLONIAL   OPINION 

THE  OTTAWA  CONFERENCE  ON  PREFERENCE 

Again  and  again,  in  spite  of  proof  that  is  before  their  eyes,  my  opponents 
say  there  is  no  evidence  of  a  demand  from  the  Colonies.  ...  It  is  really  a 
monstrous  misrepresentation.  Do  they  really  believe  in  their  hearts  that  I 
have  invented  this  thing  ?  Have  they  forgotten  the  Ottawa  Conference  ?  .  .  . 
— Mr.  Chamberlain  at  Leeds,  Dec.  16. 

LAST  month  I  dealt  with  the  national  feeling  of  Australia, 
New  Zealand  and  the  Cape  Colony  as  expressed  at  the  first 
Colonial  Conference  held  at  Downing  Street  in  1887.  This  month 
I  propose  to  devote  myself  more  especially  to  the  views  of 
Canada  as  expressed  at  the  second  official  gathering  of  statesmen 
representing  the  self-governing  colonies  which  took  place  at 
Ottawa,  in  1894 — just  ten  years  ago.  On  this  occasion,  as  might 
be  expected,  Canada  was  very  strongly  represented.  Mr.  (now 
Sir)  Mackenzie  Bowell,  then  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce, 
presided  over  the  meetings,  the  other  delegates  representing  the 
Dominion  Government  being  Sir  Adolphe  Caron,  Postmaster- 
General;  Mr.  Foster,  Minister  of  Finance  and  Sir  Sandford 
Fleming.  With  the  exception  of  the  last-named,  all  the  Cana- 
dian delegates  were  members  of  the  Privy  Council  of  Canada. 
The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  sent  three  representatives,  including 
Mr.  Hofnieyr,  who  had  attended  the  1887  conference;  Victoria 
and  Queensland  two,  and  New  South  Wales,  Tasmania,  South 
Australia,  and  New  Zealand  one  each,  while  the  Home  Govern- 
ment was  represented  by  Lord  Jersey,  who  was  accompanied 
by  Mr.  W.  H.  Mercer  of  the  Colonial  Office. 

The  entire  proceedings  at  Ottawa  supply  an  interesting  chapter 
to  the  pages  of  Imperial  history;  but  particularly  instructive 
just  now,  when  the  Motherland  is  in  the  throes  of  a  fiscal  con- 
troversy, is  the  official  report  of  the  two  days'  debate,  which 
resulted  in  the  Conference  recording  its  belief  "  in  the  advisability 
of  a  customs  arrangement  between  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies,  by  which  trade  within  the  Empire  may  be  placed  on  a 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union;   Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     589 

more  favourable  footing   than   that  which  is  carried   on  with 
foreign  countries." 


THE  MINOEITY  VOTE. 

To  prevent  misunderstanding  I  will  at  once  mention  that 
while  Canada,  Tasmania,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  South 
Australia,  and  Victoria  voted  in  favour  of  the  resolution,  the  votes 
of  New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  and  New  Zealand  were  cast 
against  it.  Had  all  the  delegates  present  been  afforded  the 
opportunity  of  recording  their  views,  the  majority  in  favour  must 
have  been  considerably  greater.  But  to  equalise  strength  it  was 
decided  to  take  the  vote  by  colonies  and  not  by  representatives, 
one  vote  being  allowed  to  each  colony.  And  with  the  president's 
ruling  no  fault  can  be  found.  Following  Sir  Eobert  Wisdom's 
lead  in  1887  Mr.  Suttor,  the  New  South  Wales  delegate,  took  the 
line  that  the  motion  went  beyond  the  purview  of  the  conference. 
Accordingly  he  did  not  regard  the  proposal  as  practical,  and  on 
this  basis  framed  his  argument  against  it.  I  will  not  say  that  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  opponents  may  not  find  in  his  speech  material  to 
support  their  policy,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  will  not  do  to 
assume  that  the  New  South  Wales  delegate  would  have  voted 
against  the  motion  if  the  position  was  then  as  it  is  to-day.  Queens-, 
land  adopted  similar  tactics  to  New  South  Wales,  and  Mr. 
Thynne,  the  senior  delegate,  took  much  the  same  course  as  that 
adopted  by  Mr.  Suttor.  But  his  vote  was  even  of  less  value  than 
that  of  the  New  South  Wales  representative,  and  cannot  be 
accepted  as  gauging  the  opinion  of  the  colony  on  the  issue. 

Pressed  by  the  president  to  say  if  he  thought  it  "  inadvisable  " 
to  have  a  customs  arrangement  with  Great  Britain,  Mr.  Thynne 
evaded  a  direct  reply,  falling  back  on  his  point  that  the  resolution 
went  "  beyond  the  functions  of  the  conference."  He  admitted, 
however,  that  "it  might  possibly  "  be  advantageous  to  the  colonies 
to  have  some  preferential  trade  arrangement  with  Great  Britain. 
Compared  with  Mr.  Thynne' s  hesitancy  we  have  the  very  forcible 
speech  made  in  1887  by  Sir  Samuel  Griffith,  the  Queensland 
Premier  and  now  Chief  Justice  of  Australia.  And  as  Sir  Samuel 
was  then,  and  is  now,  an  ardent  supporter  of  preference,  I  do  not 
think  that  Mr.  Thynne's  vote,  given  as  it  was  on  a  side  issue, 
need  occasion  much  concern.  Then  I  come  to  Mr.  Lee  Smith, 
who  represented  New  Zealand.  The  value  of  his  opposition  is 
shown  in  his  opening  remarks  when  he  said  "  that  the  feeling 
which  binds  together  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  would  be 
more  forcibly  cemented  by  paying  more  regard  to  the  great 
question  of  commercial  relation."  After  so  pronounced  an  utter- 
ance in  favour  of  the  resolution,  his  vote  is  hardly  worthy  of 


590  The  Empire  Review 

serious  consideration.  But  here,  agairi,  all  doubts  are  set  aside, 
seeing  that  the  New  Zealand  Premier  and  his  Cabinet  have 
declared  themselves  full  believers  in  preference,  and  true  followers 
of  Mr.  Chamberlain.  Having  thus  briefly,  and  I  hope  fairly, 
alluded  to  the  opposing  faction,  I  pass  on  to  examine  the  argu- 
ments put  forward  by  the  statesmen  who  represented  the  Dominion 
of  Canada. 

CANADA'S  IMPEEIALISM. 

The  preference  resolution  was  proposed  by  Mr.  Foster,  whose 
speech  occupied  much  the  same  position  at  Ottawa  as  Mr. 
Hofmeyr's  did  at  Downing  Street  in  1887.  After  alluding  to  the 
fact  that  the  progress  and  stability  of  the  Empire  depended  on 
the  unity  of  its  different  parts,  and  referring  to  the  part  played 
by  the  Army  and  the  Navy  in  fostering  this  unity,  he  went  on 
to  say : 

There  is  one  thing  which  is  stronger,  in  its  way,  than  any  other,  and  which 
is,  to  my  mind,  essentially  necessary  in  order  that  unity  shall  be  preserved 
between  parts  of  an  Empire  so  far  removed  from  each  other,  and  in  some 
respects  with  such  divergent  interests.  I  refer  to  the  common  blood  of  trade 
and  commerce  which  flows  from  the  heart  of  the  Empire  out  into  the  limbs  of 
the  dependencies  and  back  again  with  its  strength  and  vivifying  influence  to 
the  heart  of  the  Empire.  Trade  and  commerce  carry  with  them  knowledge 
and  sympathy.  It  is  impossible  for  the  commercial  community  of  Great 
Britain  to  have  to  do  with  the  commercial  interests  of  any  country,  especially 
with  the  trade  interests  of  the  parts  of  the  Empire,  without  getting  a  large 
knowledge  of  the  resources  and  capabilities  of  those  different  parts,  and  without 
having  bound  up  with  that  a  material,  and,  if  you  wish,  a  selfish  interest.  .  .  . 
And  this  is,  to  my  mind,  the  guarantee  of  the  future  unity,  the  future  stability, 
and  the  future  prosperity  of  the  great  British  Empire. 

Having  thus  prefaced  his  remarks  by  urging  the  importance 
of  closer  trade  relations,  he  proceeded  to  show  how  commerce 
between  the  different  parts  of  the  Empire  could  be  advanced  by  a 
policy  of  preference. 

Who  doubts  [he  said]  for  a  single  moment  that  if  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies  could  be  formed  into  a  commercial  union,  whereby  the  trade  between 
the  different  parts  of  the  Empire  would  have  a  more  favoured  position  than 
outside  or  foreign  trade,  who  doubts  but  that  immense  benefits  would  imme- 
diately accrue  to  the  Empire  as  a  whole  ?  What  would  it  mean  ?  It  would 
mean,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  energy,  the  genius,  the  strength,  the  power, 
the  research  of  the  commercial  communities  of  Great  Britain  would  be  directed 
more  and  more  to  her  colonial  possessions,  and  that  whatever  there  was  of 
advantage  in  the  direction  of  these  forces  and  these  powers  towards  the 
development  of  the  colonies  would  immediately  have  its  result  in  the  growth 
and  progress  of  these  colonies.  What  an  impetus  would  be  given  to  emigra- 
tion if,  for  all  practical  trade  purposes,  the  British  Empire  were  one,  and 
whenever  a  man  left  Great  Britain  he  could  feel  that  in  making  his  choice 
there  were  two  things  to  be  considered :  one,  to  go  under  a  foreign  flag  and 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:   Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     591 

engage  in  an  industrial  or  commercial  life  which  had  not  the  advantages  that 
it  otherwise  might  have ;  the  other,  to  remain  under  the  same  institutions,  the 
same  flag,  and  when  he  came  to  think  of  his  material  and  commercial  interests 
to  feel  that  he  was  placing  himself  in  a  better  position  by  means  of  a  favoured 
customs  or  trade  arrangement. 

PREFERENCE,  NOT  UNIFORM  TREATMENT. 

It  is  often  said  by  the  opponents  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's 
programme  that  just  as  Imperial  Free  Trade  is  impossible  of 
attainment  so  also  is  preferential  trade  within  the  Empire,  for 
that  would  necessarily  involve  the  same  treatment  being  meted 
out  to  every  dependency  of  the  Crown.  Criticism  of  this  kind 
is  too  often  allowed  to  pass  unnoticed.  And  yet  it  is  so  easy  to 
meet.  A  policy  of  preference  does  not  require  uniformity  of 
treatment,  nor  do  Mr.  Chamberlain's  proposals  involve  uniformity. 
What  is  intended  is  to  make  a  bargain  with  each  dependency 
or  group  of  dependencies.  And  as  this  was  also  the  contention  at 
Ottawa  it  may  be  of  assistance  in  the  present  position  of  the 
fiscal  controversy  to  recall  that  portion  of  Mr.  Foster's  argument 
in  which  he  deals  with  the  point. 

The  motion  [he  said]  is  framed  so  as  to  give  it  as  wide  a  range  and  as  great 
elasticity  as  possible.  This  motion  does  not  ask  that  Great  Britain  shall  give 
on  every  product  of  her  colonies  a  preferential  position,  but  she  may  choose  as 
regards  certain  things  which  would  be  of  use  to  her  colonies.  Certain  things 
she  might  not  be  able  even  to  put  a  small  duty  upon,  but  she  may  be  able  to 
accede  to  this  proposition  without  any  detriment  to  her  trade  and  commerce. 
This  resolution  is  so  framed  that  it  does  not  necessarily  become  inclusive  of  all 
the  products.  It  gives  a  choice  of  selection.  The  only  thing  to  affirm  is  that 
more  favourable  trade  arrangements  be  given  to  the  colonies  than  is  given  to 
foreign  countries.  I  desire  to  put  in  three  or  four  words  after  the  word 
"products,"  making  my  resolution  read  "products,  in  whole  or  in  part,"  so 
that  it  will  leave  the  clause  elastic  and  will  not  bind  a  colony  to  give  differential 
arrangements  upon  every  article  of  her  imports,  but  will  allow  a  selection,  so 
that  a  number  may  be  chosen,  and  upon  these  a  differential  rate  or  more 
favourable  treatment  may  be  given. 

The  reference  to  the  term  "  products  "  was  in  no  way  intended 
to  interfere  with  the  phraseology  of  the  main  resolution  above 
quoted.  It  had  to  do  with  the  wording  of  the  second  resolution, 
which,  after  amendment,  read  as  follows  : — 

That  until  the  mother-country  can  see  her  way  to  enter  into  customs 
arrangements  with  her  colonies,  it  is  desirable  that  when  empowered  so  to  do, 
the  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  or  such  of  them  as  may  be  disposed  to  accede  to 
its  view,  take  steps  to  place  each  other's  products  in  whole  or  in  part  on  a  more 
favoured  customs  basis  than  is  accorded  to  the  like  product  of  foreign  countries. 

Here  it  may  be  convenient  to  recite  the  preamble  governing 
both  resolutions  : 

Whereas:  The  stability  and  progress  of  the  British  Empire  can  be  best 
assured  by  drawing  continually  closer  the  bonds  that  unite  the  colonies  with 


592  The  Empire  Review 

the  mother-country  and  by  the  continuous  growth  of  a  practical  sympathy  and 
co-operation  in  all  that  pertain  to  the  common  welfare.  And  whereas :  This 
co-operation  and  unity  can  in  no  way  be  more  effectually  promoted  than  by  the 
cultivation  and  extension  of  the  mutual  and  profitable  interchange  of  their 
products.  Therefore  resolved :  (Here  follow  the  two  resolutions  above 
recited.) 

The  true  value  of  the  minority  vote  on  the  first  resolution 
is  perhaps  best  gauged  from  the  fact  that  both  the  preamble 
and  the  second  resolution  were  passed  unanimously. 

THEORY  AND  PRACTICE. 

Dealing  with  the  "  theoretical "  reasons  against  Great  Britain 
giving  a  more  favoured  place  to  the  commerce  of  her  colonies 
than  to  the  commerce  of  foreign  countries,  Mr.  Foster  said  he 
had  been  asked  by  Englishmen  why  Canada  did  not  let  British 
goods  in  free  when  Great  Britain  gave  free  entry  to  Canadian 
goods.  Of  course,  this  was  before  Canada  gave  any  preference  to 
our  manufactures,  but  the  reply  is  equally  forcible  in  the  altered 
conditions  of  to-day.  "True,"  said  Mr.  Foster,  "you  give  an 
t>pen  market  to  the  goods  of  Canada,  but  you  give  an  equally 
open  market  to  every  competitor  of  Canada,  and  consequently 
you  are  doing  no  favour  to  Canada  for  which  you  can  ask  a 
favour  in  return,"  an  answer  which  is  unassailable.  Then  came 
Mr.  Foster's  turn  to  interrogate.  And  the  question  he  put  was — 
"  What  foreign  country  is  especially  solicitous  as  to  what  it  does 
for  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain?"  Answering  the  question 
himself,  he  made  the  following  telling  reply : 

Great  Britain,  forty  or  fifty  years  ago,  started  out  on  the  assumption  that  it 
would  be  better  for  her  to  reverse  the  policy  of  former  times,  which  was  a 
strictly  protective  policy,  amounting  to  prohibition,  and  make  herself  the 
workshop  for  the  world.  It  was  wise  without  a  doubt,  but  a  workshop  for  the 
world  then  was  different  from  the  workshop  for  the  world  at  the  present  time. 
Then  Great  Britain,  when  she  made  her  market  free  to  the  produce  of  the 
world,  had  practically  the  monopoly  of  supplying  the  world  in  return  for  what 
they  needed  of  manufactured  goods,  but  from  that  time  to  this  the  lines  have 
been  continuously  raised  until  every  European  country  to-day,  almost  without 
exception  and  almost  every  great  country,  has  raised  fiscal  walls  against  the 
commerce  of  Great  Britain,  has  prevented  the  ingress  of  her  goods,  in  so  far  as 
the  tariff  wall  went,  diminished  the  sale  of  her  goods  within  their  borders  by 
the  impetus  they  gave  to  manufacturing  industry  on  account  of  the  raising  of 
those  walls,  until  to-day  countries  which  twenty  years  ago  depended  on  English 
makers  chiefly  for  nine-tenths  of  what  they  consumed  in  the  way  of  manu- 
factured articles  are  to-day  making  within  their  own  borders  nine-tenths  of 
what  they  consume. 

THE  COLONIES  SAVE  THE  SITUATION. 

Continuing  in  the  same  strain,  the  Canadian  delegate  per- 
tinently remarked  that,  not  content  with  raising  walls  against  the 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     593 

commerce  of  Great  Britain  so  far  as  manufactured  goods  were 
concerned,  foreign  nations  had  taken  advantage  of  the  open 
markets  of  Great  Britain  and  competed  therein,  "  thus  lessening 
the  scope  and  area  of  the  patronage  of  the  working  men  of  Great 
Britain  and  of  the  working  marts  of  Great  Britain."  Facts  and 
deductions  identical  with  the  facts  and  deductions  which  Mr. 
Chamberlain  is  now  endeavouring  to  impress  on  the  home 
electorate.  Another  point  constantly  pressed  by  Mr.  Balfour 
and  Mr.  Chamberlain  is  that  the  present  position  of  our  outside 
trade  is  due  more  to  increased  trade  with  the  colonies  than  to  our 
exports  to  foreign  nations.  On  this  point  Mr.  Foster's  observa- 
tions are  particularly  opportune : 

It  is  true  [he  said]  that  Great  Britain  has  been  cut  out  from  a  great  many 
countries,  but  still  has  extended  her  commerce.  How  has  she  done  it.  She 
has  done  it  through  her  colonies.  In  foreign  countries  she  has  not  extended 
her  commerce  to  anything  like  the  extent  she  has  in  the  colonies.  A  colonial 
consumer  is  worth  more  to  the  British  producer  than  six  European  consumers  ; 
so  that  every  colonial  dependency  that  she  possesses  has  become  her  customer, 
and  her  commerce  could  never  have  extended  as  it  has  if  it  had  not  been  for 
these  dependencies.  True,  the  colonies  have  all  protected  against  the  mother- 
country,  but  none  of  them  have  protected  as  the  foreign  countries  have  pro- 
tected against  her.  .  .  .  You  will  find  that  the  protection  is  far  lower  in  the 
colonies  of  Britain  against  British  goods,  taking  it  on  an  average,  than  it  is  in 
the  foreign  countries.  So  that  she  has  gained  by  her  colonies. 

Mr.  Chamberlain  has  carried  the  case  to  the  present  day,  and 
finds  the  same  result  holding  good.  Surely,  then,  the  time  has 
arrived  for  some  return  for  these  concessions,  if  not  as  a  matter 
of  grace,  at  any  rate  as  a  matter  of  business.  For  if  it  be  that 
Britain's  foreign  export  trade  is  not  increasing  in  the  proportion 
it  should  do,  while  Britain's  trade  with  her  colonies  is  growing 
by  leaps  and  bounds,  in  the  name  of  commonsense  it  ought  to 
be  our  first  aim  and  object  to  foster  that  trade  by  giving  a 
preference  to  colonial  over  foreign  products.  And  this  all  the 
more  when  the  colonies  ask  it  of  us. 


FOREIGN  WHEAT  SUPPLY, 

In  advancing  his  plan  of  a  customs  arrangement  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  colonies,  Mr.  Foster  did  not  confine  his 
line  of  argument  to  one  side  of  the  issue.  Looking  at  the  problem 
through  home  as  well  as  through  colonial  spectacles,  he  dealt  at 
length  with  the  absolute  necessity  of  a  continued  food  supply 
for  the  Motherland,  and  instanced  how  closely  the  matter  rested, 
in  existing  circumstances,  on  the  friendship  of  foreign  powers. 
Quoting  Kussia,  probably  with  the  view  that  Eussia  of  all 
VOL.  VL-No.  36,  2  Q 


594  The  Empire  Review 

European  Powers  was  the  most  likely  at  some  time  or  other  to 
be  found  in  open  hostility  to  Great  Britain,  he  said  : 

A  great  war  carried  on  with  Eussia  or  some  of  the  other  Powers  would 
make  them  conserve  their  food  supplies  and  prevent  them  sending  them  to 
Great  Britain  .  .  .  the  true  food  supply  and  the  strategic  food  supply  of  Great 
Britain  is  in  her  own  colonies  and  her  own  dependencies,  with  whom  she  will 
never  be  at  war,  and  between  whom  and  herself  it  is  most  easy  for  her  to  keep 
continual  communication.  For  the  markets  of  trade  are  more  easily  kept  open 
in  a  friendly  than  in  an  unfriendly  country,  and  in  a  friendly  part  of  the 
Empire  than  among  the  foes  of  the  Empire. 

Passing  from  Europe  to  the  Continent  of  America,  the 
Canadian  delegate  impressed  on  the  conference  the  economic 
difficulties  standing  in  the  way  of  a  continuous  supply  from  the 
United  States.  Most  of  the  available  arable  land  in  that  portion 
of  the  great  North  American  Continent,  he  reminded  his  audience, 
had  been  taken  up,  and  the  productiveness  of  those  wide  acres 
was  diminishing  year  by  year.  The  amount  of  land  going  out 
of  wheat  cultivation  was  great,  and  the  fact  that  the  American 
people  are  becoming  wealthier  was  having  an  effect.  "  The  lands 
are  being  taken  up  in  parks  and  grazing  grounds,  and  the  popula- 
tion is  increasing  at  the  rate  of  two  millions  of  people  a  year." 
As  against  these  contentions  it  may  be  argued  that  the  past  ten 
years  have  witnessed  but  little  change  in  the  quantity  of 
American  wheat  reaching  this  country.  But  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  the  next  ten  years  will  see  a  similar  condition  of 
things.  What  was  true  in  1894  will  be  doubly  true  in  1904,  and 
one  has  only  to  read  the  daily  newspapers  to  understand  the  true 
inwardness  of  the  migration  of  farmers  from  the  United  States 
into  Canada. 

LOED  EOSEBEEY'S  VIEW. 

Without  doubt  the  time  is  coming  when  Great  Britain 
will  have  to  look  to  the  colonies  for  the  major  part  of  her 
food  supply.  It  will  therefore,  I  think,  be  admitted  that  Mr. 
Chamberlain's  proposal  as  regards  preferential  treatment  of 
colonial  products  is  put  forward  quite  as  much  in  the  interest  of 
the  Mother-country  as  in  that  of  the  colonies.  But  while  no 
doubt  exists  regarding  the  capacity  of  the  Britains  oversea  to 
produce  sufficient  wheat  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  unless  some  inducement  be  offered  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  immediate  future  will  see  the  necessary 
number  of  acres  put  under  wheat  in  the  colonies.  On  this  point, 
Mr.  Foster's  words  have  a  special  significance.  In  proportion  as 
Great  Britain  stimulates  her  colonies,  so  in  proportion  will  "  these 
colonies  become  the  supply  centres  of  food  for  Great  Britain." 
Herein  we  have  the  key  to  the  situation.  The  colonies  are  well 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion    595 

able  to  meet  the  calls  likely  to  be  made  on  them,  but  "  it  needs  an 
impetus  "  to  accomplish  this  end.  In  other  words,  if  we  are  to 
be  a  self-contained  Empire  in  the  vital  matter  of  food — within, 
say,  the  next  ten  years — we  must  give  the  colonies  a  preference  on 
their  wheat  exports. 

But  Lord  Rosebery  would  have  us  look  at  the  matter  from 
an  altogether  different  standpoint.  Astounded,  indeed,  will  be 
our  kinsmen  oversea — long  accustomed  to  hear  him  preach 
so  ably  the  doctrines  of  colonial  development  and  closer  union — 
at  the  views  propounded  in  Edinburgh.  After  correctly  stating 
that  the  new  plan  is  to  develop  wheat-growing  within  the 
Empire,  Lord  Rosebery  went  on  to  point  out  that  the  sole  effect 
as  regards  agriculture  in  the  motherland  would  be  "to  stimulate 
wheat-growing  and  agriculture  in  the  colonies  to  an  almost 
unlimited  degree."  This  accurate  conclusion  he  used,  not,  as 
might  be  supposed  from  his  past  credentials,  to  urge  the  people 
of  this  country  to  do  their  utmost  to  bring  about  so  desirable 
an  Imperial  result,  but  to  warn  them  that  the  new  policy  would 
open  up  an  "illimitable  area  of  competition"  for  the  British 
farmer,  and  lead  to  the  further  depopulation  of  the  country 
districts  in  England  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  Canadian 
agriculturist.  Lord  Rosebery  seemed  to  forget  that  his  remarks 
strangely  conflicted  with  the  cheap-food  appeal  which  he  has 
advanced  elsewhere.  This  great  card  of  the  free  importers  was 
thrown  to  the  winds  in  order  to  secure  a  momentary  triumph  for 
the  text,  that  a  tax  of  two  shillings  a  quarter  on  imported  foreign 
wheat  would  not  assist  but  rather  be  to  the  detriment  of  the 
British  farmer.  Starting  with  an  earnest  desire  to  proclaim  the 
advantages  of  free  imports,  Lord  Rosebery  would  seem  to  have 
succeeded  in  proclaiming  himself  an  ardent  Protectionist. 

Before  he  had  finished  speaking,  however,  Lord  Rosebery 
fully  admitted  Mr.  Foster's  contention  against  the  United  States 
being  a  never-ending  granary  for  Great  Britain.  "  In  time," 
said  he,  "  the  United  States,  with  its  growing  population  of 
eighty  millions  or  more,  will  not  have  surplus  food  enough  to 
feed  that  population."  But  even  this  admission  apparently  failed 
to  satisfy  him,  for  he  went  on  to  proclaim :  "  Then  will  be 
the  time  of  Canada  and  Australia  to  develop  to  every  advan- 
tage their  virgin  soils  and  become  the  great  grain-supplying 
source  of  the  Empire."  Thus  the  British  farmer,  according  to 
Lord  Rosebery,  is  to  continue  the  present  struggle  until  the 
United  States  supply  dries  up,  in  the  sure  and  certain  hope  that 
these  years  of  self-denial  and  useful  preparation  will  properly  fit 
him  to  deal  successfully,  when  the  natural  period  arrives,  with 
an  "  illimitable  area  of  competition  " — but  without  the  assistance 
of  a  preference  of  two  shillings  a  quarter  on  home-grown  wheat, 

2  Q  2 


596  The  Empire  Review 


CANADA'S  OFFEK. 

The  leading  speakers  who  oppose  Mr.  Chamberlain's  proposals 
on  public  platforms  seem  sadly  perplexed  over  the  colonial  side 
of  the  fiscal  question.  I  quite  understand  that  it  does  not  at 
all  suit  their  purpose  to  have  it  said  that  the  colonies  desire  a 
preference.  Much  more  would  it  be  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
cause  they  advocate  to  admit  that  the  colonies  have  put  their 
wishes  in  the  form  of  an  offer  and  have  long  been  looking  for  an 
answer  from  the  mother-country.  Still,  when  these  things  are 
facts,  it  can  hardly  be  called  statesmanship  to  deny  their 
existence,  and  not  altogether  complimentary  to  the  colonies  to 
ignore  the  pronouncements  of  their  accredited  representatives. 
Yet  this  is  what  the  free  importers  are  doing,  not  the  rank 
and  file,  but  the  men  whose  names  are  to  be  found  high  up  in 
the  Imperial  class-lists.  At  the  bidding  of  Lord  Rosebery  it 
would  appear  that  the  fiat  has  gone  forth  that  a  main  plank 
in  the  platform  upon  which  the  free  importers  have  taken  their 
stand  is  to  be  that  no  offer  has  yet  come  from  the  colonies. 
Yet  to  embrace  this  instruction  in  all  sincerity,  history  must 
perforce  be  disregarded,  and  the  resolutions  of  colonial  conferences 
and  parliaments  set  aside. 

But  while  these  sources  are  not  to  be  probed,  current  utterances 
of  colonial  politicians,  often  made  to  suit  local  party  methods, 
are  seized  upon  with  avidity,  if,  in  any  way,  they  can  be  made  use 
of  in  stemming  the  tide  of  fiscal  reform,  now  running  so  fast 
towards  an  Empire  in  being  rather  than  an  Empire  on  paper. 
I  readily  admit  that  in  a  great  controversy  it  is  well  to  keep  up 
to  date  with  colonial  criticism,  but  keeping  up  to  date  does  not 
necessarily  involve,  as  the  free  importers  would  have  us  believe, 
the  avoidance  of  official  records.  Moreover,  it  is  surely  creating 
a  wrong  precedent  to  attach  more  value  to  a  statement  made  by  an 
unauthorized  individual  than  to  the  statements  delivered  after 
mature  consideration  by  the  official  representatives  appointed  for 
the  express  purpose  by  the  colonial  governments  of  the  time. 
Yet  these  are  the  tactics  practised  by  the  opponents  of  fiscal 
reform.  Not  a  single  speaker  of  the  many  who  have  repeated 
parrot-like  the  cry  that  no  offer  has  come  from  the  colonies  has  even 
alluded  to  the  discussions  on  trade  within  the  Empire,  which  took 
place  in  1887  and  1903  at  Downing  Street  and  Ottawa  respectively . 
Yet  the  delegates  on  both  occasions  were  selected  by  the  colonial 
parliaments  to  debate  in  conference  the  very  question  which 
Mr.  Chamberlain  has  raised.  Such  a  direct  slight  to  the  voice 
of  the  colonial  people  is  hardly  in  accordance  with  English  ideas 
of  courtesy. 

But  not  only  are  conference  resolutions  forgotten ;  the  same 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion     597 

fate  has  befallen  the  resolutions  of  the  Dominion  parliament. 
Possibly,  the  free  importers  have  been  so  much  occupied  with 
the  immediate  affairs  of  party  politics  in  England  that  they 
have  had  no  time  to  notice  such  small  concerns  as  the  resolutions 
of  the  Dominion  Parliament.  But  in  order  that  this  excuse  may 
no  longer  avail,  I  will  place  upon  record  here  that  fully  ten  years 
ago  a  resolution  was  passed  by  the  Canadian  Parliament  offering — 
I  use  the  word  advisedly — that  whenever  Great  Britain  should 
see  her  way  to  give  Canada  preferential  treatment  Canada  would 
give  a  lower  scale  of  duties  to  British  products  entering  the 
Dominion.  Referring  to  this  resolution  at  the  Ottawa  Conference, 
Mr.  Foster  said:  — 

The  Times,  commenting  on  the  resolution,  said  this  in  substance :  That  is 
a  remarkable  step  which  Canada  has  taken,  it  deserves  to  be  considered,  but 
Great  Britain  can  scarcely  change  her  fiscal  relations  for  one  colony.  What 
do  the  other  colonies  think  about  this  ?  And  if  it  does  happen  that  the  other 
colonies  think  in  the  same  way  that  Canada  thinks,  then  the  lead  has  been 
given  to  a  remarkable  proposition  which  must  be  considered  by  Great  Britain ; 
and  she  may  eventually  change  her  fiscal  relation  entirely. 

THE  LATE  LOED  SALISBUEY  ON  RETALIATION. 

We  all  know  now  what  the  other  colonies  think,  but  some  of 
us  may  have  possibly  forgotten  what  Lord  Salisbury  thought.  I 
therefore,  append  an  extract  from  a  speech  made  by  the  late 
Prime  Minister  not  very  long  after  the  passing  of  the  Canadian 
resolution. 

We  live  in  an  age  of  a  war  of  tariffs.  Every  nation  is  trying  how  it  can,  by 
agreement  with  its  neighbour,  get  the  greatest  possible  protection  for  its 
industries,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  greatest  possible  access  to  the  markets 
of  its  neighbours.  I  want  to  point  out  to  you  that  what  I  observe  is  that  while 
A  is  very  anxious  to  get  the  favour  of  B,  and  B  is  anxious  to  get  the  favour  of  C, 
nobody  cares  two  straws  about  getting  the  commercial  favour  of  Great  Britain. 
What  is  the  reason  of  this?  It  is  in  this  great  battle  Great  Britain  has 
deliberately  stripped  herself  of  her  armour  and  her  weapons  by  which  the 
battle  is  to  be  fought.  You  cannot  do  business  in  this  world  of  evil  and 
suffering  on  those  terms.  If  you  fight,  you  must  fight  with  the  weapons  with 
which  those  whom  you  are  contending  against  are  fighting. 

I  do  not,  of  course,  quote  this  opinion  of  the  late  Lord  Salis- 
bury as  directly  bearing  upon  the  offer  from  the  colonies,  but 
rather  to  show  that  the  trend  of  opinion  in  England  was  even 
then  in  close  proximity  to  the  trend  of  opinion  in  the  colonies. 
But  having  quoted  it  I  will  give  Mr.  Foster's  comments  upon  the 
views  expressed. 

This  is  a  remarkable  utterance  [said  Mr.  Foster] .  It  is  the  utterance  of  a 
leading  statesman.  No  reader  of  Great  Britain's  contemporary  history  is 
unaware  of  the  fact  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  looseness  of  ideas  with  reference 
to  this  thing,  and  that  people  are  coming  more  and  more  to  ask  what  is  the 


598  The  Empire  Review 

best  thing  uncLr  the  present  circumstances  for  us  to  do  with  reference  to  our 
commerce.  Depend  upon  it,  before  long  the  people  of  Great  Britain  will  be 
fighting  on  that  practical  issue.  If  it  turns  out  that  free  trade  is  best  she  will 
be  kept  under  free  trade,  and  if  it  turns  out  that  something  else  is  better  that 
better  plan  will  be  adopted.  That  time  may  be  more  or  less  distant,  but  con- 
troversy is  verging  towards  the  practical  point,  and  it  will  have  to  be  settled  by 
the  British  people, 

CHEAP  FOOD. 

From  this  singularly  accurate  forecast  of  the  present  situation 
in  Great  Britain,  I  pass  on  to  notice  a  few  more  points  raised  by 
the  passive  resisters  of  fiscal  reform.  The  points  selected  are 
those  which  have  attracted  very  general  attention,  and  I  com- 
mend their  treatment  by  the  Canadian  representative  to  the 
opponents  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's  proposals.  On  the  question  of 
the  cheap  loaf,  which  so  greatly  agitates  the  opponents  of  a 
preference  policy,  Mr.  Foster  made  some  pertinent  remarks. 

Go  down  [he  said]  to  Montreal  to-day  (1894)  and  ask  the  price  of  a  loaf  of 
bread.  Put  that  in  your  note-book.  Go  back  six  years  and  ask  the  price  of 
a  loaf  of  bread.  Put  that  in  your  note-book.  Get  the  price  of  flour  then  and 
the  price  of  flour  to-day.  You  will  find  that  the  price  of  wheat  to-day  is  exactly 
half  what  it  was  then,  and  yet  the  citizen  pays  the  same  for  his  loaf  that  he 
did  six  years  ago.  Take  the  course  of  French  history,  where  they  have  placed 
increased  duties  on  wheat  and  breadstuff's  year  by  year.  Take  statistics  and 
read  them  as  to  the  price  of  wheat  and  flour  and  the  duties  placed  upon  them. 
Ask  whether  or  not  the  price  of  the  loaf  has  risen  in  connection  with  it,  and 
then  come  back  to  whether  or  not  it  is  not  possible  that  Great  Britain  might 
put  a  slight  discriminating  duty  upon  wheat,  and  her  artisan  and  her  labourer 
pay  not  a  single  cent  more  for  his  loaf  than  he  does  to-day. 

COLONIAL  INDUSTEIES. 

Nor  did  the  Canadian  delegate  overlook  the  importance  of 
avoiding  any  concession  to  the  motherland  likely  to  prejudice  the 
position  or  progress  of  colonial  industries.  This  point  has  a 
particularly  intimate  bearing  on  the  present  controversy,  seeing 
that  the  opponents  of  preference  have  not  hesitated  to  say  that 
Mr.  Chamberlain's  proposals  will  imperil  if  not  destroy  the 
industries  which  the  colonies  have  worked  so  hard  to  build  up 
and  encourage.  Indeed,  some  critics  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to 
state  that  the  stopping  of  colonial  industries  will  be  a  natural  result 
of  a  preference  policy;  and  this,  notwithstanding  that  the  late 
colonial  minister  has  himself  shown  the  charge  to  be  devoid  of 
foundation.  But  let  us  see  what  the  Canadian  Minister  of 
Finance  has  to  say  on  the  subject  at  a  date  when  the  Dominion 
industries  were  at  a  far  more  tender  age  than  they  are  to-day. 

Canada  [he  said]  is  a  protective  country.  We  believe,  rightly  or  wrongly — 
and  we  have  acted  on  that  belief— that  to  develop  our  own  industries  in  the 
peculiar  circumstances  in  which  we  were,  we  had  to  have  something  more  than 


Imperial  Fiscal  Union:  Trend  of  Colonial  Opinion    599 

revenue  duties.  We  have  developed  these  industries ;  we  would  not  care  to  see 
these  industries  destroyed  now.  There  are  certain  of  them  which,  even  if  Great 
Britain  were  to  assent  to  this  and  make  an  arrangement,  we  would  not  wish  to 
imperil.  All  this  resolution  binds  us  to  do  is  to  put  the  goods  of  Great  Britain 
in  whole  or  in  part — whatever  may  be  negotiated  and  come  within  the  scope  of 
this  arrangement  if  it  is  finally  completed — on  a  more  favoured  basis  than  we 
put  the  goods  of  a  like  kind  from  a  foreign  country.  So  that  it  would  not 
necessitate  the  destruction  of  cherished  and  very  vital  interests  in  the  colonies, 
but  it  would  give  them  their  chance.  But  whatever  reasonable  protective 
duties  you  may  impose,  goods  will  come  in  from  foreign  countries,  and  if  you 
give  Great  Britain,  with  reference  to  these  manufactured  articles,  a  better 
position  than  the  foreign  makers,  you  would  give  her  a  decided  advantage,  and 
that  brings  you  within  the  scope  of  this  resolution.  Therefore,  I  do  not  see 
how  I,  as  a  Protectionist  and  coming  from  Canada,  could  object  to  this  resolu- 
tion on  that  ground  for  fear  that,  by  its  being  carried  out,  we  will  be  obliged 
to  destroy  great  and  vital  industries.  .  .  .  We  would  simply  be  obliged  to  give 
the  British  manufacturer  a  better  position  in  competition  in  our  market  than 
foreign  nations. 

A  GIVE-AND-TAKE  POLICY. 

Finally,  Mr.  Foster  repudiated  the  idea  of  Canada  supporting 
a  policy  which  involved  the  colonies  giving  everything  to  Great 
Britain  and  Great  Britain  giving  no  return.  "  Commerce,"  he 
rightly  said,  "  is  inexorable,  sentiment  is  free,  and,  when  it  comes 
down  to  a  point  of  arrangement,  between  those  having  the  entire 
power  of  their  fiscal  arrangements,  between  themselves  by  the 
constitution  and  the  law,  it  will  proceed  on  a  commercial  basis, 
and  a  fair  consideration  and  a  fair  distribution  will  be  asked  for." 
Since  this  statement  was  made  Canada,  as  we  all  know,  has  given 
a  preference  to  British  goods  without  asking  or  receiving  anything 
in  return.  But  to  judge  from  the  resolution  of  the  Canadian 
parliament,  to  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier's  utterances  at  the  Coronation 
Conference  and  the  still  more  recent  pronouncements  of  other 
Canadian  Ministers,  a  general  opinion  prevails  in  the  Dominion 
that  the  time  has  arrived  when  Canada's  concession  should  meet 
with  its  equivalent  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Moreover, 
Canada  is  prepared,  if  Great  Britain  will  give  a  preference  to 
Canadian  wheat,  to  lower  still  further  her  tariff  rates  against  the 
products  of  the  mother-country. 

When  Mr.  Foster  was  indicating  by  examples  how  a  preference 
policy  could  be  worked  to  the  advantage  of  the  colonies  the  New 
South  Wales  representative  interposed  with  the  selfish  observa- 
tion : 

But  if  we  are  going  to  enter  into  such  an  arrangement  as  this,  that  England 
i£  going  to  check  the  introduction  of  foreign  goods  to  assist  her  colonies  in 
order  to  increase  the  volume  of  trade  between  the  colonies  and  herself,  she 
may  fairly  ask  us  to  reciprocate  and  allow  her  to  send  her  manufactured  goods 
on  the  same  terms  that  she  receives  our  products.  I  want  to  ask  my  fellow 
delegates  if  they  are  prepared  to  pledge  their  governments  to  that  extent,  that 


COO  The  Empire  Review 

in  the  event  of  England  allowing  our  goods  to  go  in  in  that  way,  and  taxing 
the  foreign  goods,  we  are  prepared  to  reciprocate  and  allow  the  manufactured 
goods  of  England  to  come  into  our  ports  free.  I,  for  one,  must  say  that  I  am 
not  prepared  for  that. 

That,  as  Mr.  Foster  pointed  out  in  reply,  is  not  a  fair  state- 
ment of  the  case. 

No  man  [he  said]  carrying  on  business  with  a  business  man  would  attempt 
for  a  moment  to  do  business  in  that  way.  When  two  business  men  come 
together  to  talk  about  business,  they  are  supposed  to  ask  only  fair  advantages 
for  either  side ;  and  one  man  does  not  say  to  the  other  :  "  You  give  me  £10  and 
I  will  give  you  J61."  Neither  would  Britain  or  other  commercial  communities 
make  such  requests.  If  Great  Britain  gives  us  to-day  no  advantage  over 
another  nation,  we  give  Great  Britain  no  advantage  over  another  ;  and  if  Great 
Britain  comes  and  says :  "  We  will  grant  you  5  per  cent,  over  another,"  will 
she  ask  us  to  give  her  35  or  40  per  cent,  advantage  ?  That  would  not  be  fair  ; 
it  is  not  contemplated. 

Here  again  we  have  Mr.  Chamberlain  anticipated.  His 
preference  scheme,  like  that  expounded  by  Mr.  Foster,  is  based 
on  a  give-and-take  principle,  the  one  essential  being  that  the 
foreigner  is  placed  at  some  disadvantage  to  the  Briton  in  the 
markets  of  the  Empire. 

I  think  now  that  I  may  fairly  claim  to  have  put  forward  the 
views  of  Canada  on  preference  as  they  were  expressed  at  Ottawa. 
And  I  venture  to  hope  that  a  perusal  of  these  opinions,  which 
have  the  advantage  of  being  official,  may  assist  Lord  Eosebery 
towards  the  better  understanding  of  what  Mr.  Chamberlain  terms 
the  offer  from  the  colonies. 

C.   KlNLOCH   COOKE. 


Federation  and  the  Navy  601 


FEDERATION   AND   THE   NAVY 

THE  British  Islands  for  hundreds  of  years  have  depended 
mainly  on  the  Navy  for  their  protection.  The  Colonies  and 
dependencies  would  not  now  be  subject  to  King  Edward  but  for 
the  action  of  the  Navy  in  the  past,  and  there  could  be  no  thought 
of  a  closer  union  between  the  dominions  of  the  Crown  except  by 
reckoning  on  the  Navy.  I  do  not  forget  the  great  soldiers,  nor 
the  great  statesmen  and  administrators  ;  without  them  the  Navy 
would  have  been  of  no  avail;  but  ultimately  these  rested  for 
their  power  to  act  on  the  "  fleet  in  being,"  shown  by  Captain 
Mahan  to  be  the  governing  factor  in  the  progress  of  the  nation. 
That  the  Navy  is  the  strongest  bond  of  Empire  can  hardly 
be  gainsaid.  Can  it  be  more?  Can  it  form  the  nucleus  round 
which  the  Empire  of  the  future  may  be  built  ?  These  are  the 
questions  which  I  propose  to  deal  with  in  this  paper. 

Most  people  who  think  of  Federation  at  all  adopt,  broadly 
speaking,  one  of  two  attitudes  of  mind.  The  true  "  little 
Englander"  may  be  left  out  of  account,  as  may  the  little 
Australians  and  Canadians,  a  small  and  diminishing  band,  who 
act  as  if  they  wanted  to  relieve  their  feelings  by  abasing  those 
nearest  them.  With  this  class  of  individual  are  often  confounded 
persons  who  may  be  called  "big"  Englanders,  Canadians  or 
Australians.  These  are  they  who  have  hardly  yet  grasped  the 
primary  necessity  to  Federation,  namely,  that  it  must  mean 
some  sacrifice  from  each  State,  and  that  the  first  sacrifice  which 
each  must  make  is  the  acceptance  of  the  axiom,  that  the  whole 
is  greater  than  its  part.  In  Great  Britain  the  feeling  crops  out 
most  strongly  in  the  "  parent  and  children  "  theory.  Great  Britain 
is  the  metropolis,  the  Colonies  are  the  suburbs.  Federation  on 
these  lines  would  mean  the  absorption  of  the  suburbs.  True, 
the  suburbs  would  be  represented  on  the  town  council,  but 
suburbs  do  not  as  a  rule  look  upon  this  as  an  acceptable  equiva- 
lent for  increase  of  rates.  In  the  Colonies  this  feeling  of  "  big- 
ness "  leads  the  people  to  look  to  a  future  as  independent  States. 
They  are  the  young  men  who  resent  being  tied  to  their  mothers' 


602  The  Empire  Review 

apron-strings,  and  who  want  to  be  off  on  their  own  account, 
without  waiting  till  they  are  properly  equipped  for  the  battle 
of  life.  They  laugh  at  their  parents'  advice,  and  point  to  a 
grown-up  cousin  as  an  example  of  what  they  also  can  be  in  a 
year  or  two. 

The  other  attitude  of  mind,  which  appears  to  me  the  correct 
one,  is  that  of  looking  for  partners.  This  is  found  in  men 
content  to  subordinate  local  to  Imperial  affairs,  and  who  think 
all  the  states  should  be  equal  both  in  rights  and  duties.  From 
this  point  of  view  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  argue  with  the 
Colonies,  and  to  say  straight  out  where  we  think  they  are  not 
doing  their  duty,  as  well  as  listening  and  replying  to  their  argu- 
ments spoken  equally  plainly  against  us.  Such  a  course,  unfor- 
tunately, shocks  a  good  many  people — especially  in  England,  where 
there  is  a  school  of  men  who  have  done  good  service  to  the  cause, 
but  who  fear  that  by  plain  speaking  the  Colonies  will  be  offended. 
No  one  has  spoken  both  to  us  and  to  them  more  plainly  than 
Mr.  Chamberlain,  and  it  is  certainly  not  in  the  Colonies  that 
his  words  have  been  most  resented.  If  we  are  to  treat  the 
Colonies  as  equals— and  unless  we  do  so  I  fail  to  see  how  there 
can  be  true  Federation — we  must  give  them  credit  for  equal 
intelligence  with  ourselves.  The  difficulties  connected  with 
Federation  will  never  be  surmounted  if  they  are  not  faced. 
They  must  be  plainly  stated  if  a  basis  is  to  be  found  which 
shall  appeal  to  all  as  just  and  equitable,  and  without  such  a 
basis  Federation  is  impossible.  A  basis  of  this  kind  can  only  be 
something  which  will  stand  the  fullest  discussion ;  it  must  be 
self- adjusting,  and  provide  both  for  representation  and  taxation 
in  matters  common  to  all,  and  yet  leave  absolute  freedom  to 
each  in  local  affairs.  Eventually  this  can  only  be  found,  I  think, 
in  a  true  Imperial  Parliament. 

I  doubt  if  anything  else  can  in  the  end  satisfy  the  needs  of 
the  British  race,  for  nothing  else  as  yet  satisfied  that  race  in 
whatever  part  of  the  world  it  has  settled.  Again,  an  Imperial 
Parliament  must,  it  would  seem,  consist  of  two  Houses,  with 
the  King  as  the  third  estate.  This  also  has  been  found  by  all 
the  Britains  as  essential.  Such  a  Parliament  would  probably 
have  to  be  initiated  by  the  senior  partner,  and  to  it  would 
probably  have  to  be  assigned  all  questions  of  an  Imperial  nature 
which  the  States  would  agree  to  refer.  This  would  fall  hardest 
on  Great  Britain,  because  she  would  have  to  share  with  others  the 
decision  in  many  questions  now  under  her  sole  control.  Whether 
the  Mother  of  Parliaments  would  ever  set  up  another  superior  to 
herself  may  be  doubted;  but  the  alternative  would  seem  to  be 
the  creation  of  local  Parliaments  for  the  countries  of  the  Union, 


Federation  and  the  Navy  603 

and  it  may  be  noted  that,  so  long  as  Imperial  affairs  were  outside 
the  scope  of  the  local  parliaments,  the  objections  to  Home  Rule 
for  Ireland  or  any  other  part  of  the  King's  dominions  would 
largely  disappear.  Purely  home  affairs  and  economical  adminis- 
tration, as  well  as  Imperial  matters  like  defence  and  foreign 
policy,  suffer  from  the  exigencies  of  party  strategy;  and  it  is 
notorious  that  the  present  Parliament  is  quite  unable  to  get 
through  its  work.  Both  the  "  ins  "  and  the  "  outs"  focus  their 
attention  mainly  on  the  affairs  of  the  moment,  and  hence,  now 
local  questions,  such  as  licensing,  now  Imperial,  such  as  foreign 
policy,  decide  the  fate  of  ministries,  with  the  result  that  no 
continuous  treatment  of  either  is  possible. 

There  would  be  no  difficulty  in  the  new  Imperial  Parliament 
as  to  representation  in  the  House  of  Commons  ;  it  would  obviously 
be  on  the  population  basis,  and  probably  a  system  of  redistribu- 
tion of  seats  at  regular  intervals  might  be  arranged.  The 
difficulty  would  come  with  the  Upper  House.  In  the  United 
States  of  America  each  state  in  the  Union  has  the  same  number 
of  representatives  in  the  Senate,  and  I  think  a  similar  arrange- 
ment would  be  insisted  on  by  the  Colonies.  No  real  difficulty 
presents  itself  as  to  colonial  members  of  Parliament  attending 
a  Parliament  in  London.  A  session  lasting  four  months  in  the 
year — which  would  probably  be  sufficient — would  allow  members 
to  pass  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in  their  own  colonies.  Their 
travelling  expenses  would  have  to  be  a  charge  on  Imperial  funds, 
and  probably  they  would  have  to  be  paid  salaries,  because  while 
in  England  they  would  be  too  far  from  their  state  to  attend  to 
their  own  affairs. 

But  Home  Eule  all  round,  payment  of  members,  and  a 
reform  of  the  House  of  Lords,  is  a  tall  order,  and  again  party 
politics  would  delay  its  realisation.  In  fact  I  have  little  doubt 
that  if  it  were  proposed  by  the  Unionists,  who  now  would  be 
horrified  at  the  suggestion,  it  would  be  at  once  opposed  by  the 
Liberals.  But  there  has  been  so  far  no  idea  of  either  party 
suggesting  anything  of  the  kind  in  connection  with  a  scheme 
for  Federation,  therefore  one  cannot  look  upon  it  as  practicable 
at  present. 

Two  schemes,  however,  have  been  suggested — preferential 
tariffs,  and  an  Imperial  Council.  Do  either  of  these  provide  a  basis 
for  Federation  ?  and  if  not,  in  what  degree  are  they  likely  to  help 
forward  the  cause  ?  To  take  the  last  first :  the  proposal  is  that 
a  council  should  be  formed  consisting  of  certain  members  of  the 
British  Government  and  of  certain  members  from  the  colonial 
governments,  who  together  should  form  a  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council  to  advise  the  sovereign  on  Imperial  affairs.  That 


604  The  Empire  Review 

such  a  council  might  have  an  important  effect  on  the  action  of 
the  British  Government,  and  that  it  would  make  for  continuity 
in  Imperial  policy,  cannot  be  denied.  The  Colonies  would  have 
an  opportunity  of  bringing  forward  their  views,  and  it  would  be 
known  that  they  had  been  consulted.  But  they  are  already  able 
to  do  this  at  colonial  conferences,  which  are  free  from  the 
objections  to  a  council,  and  also  through  their  Agents-General, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  cable  and  the  press.  All  that  would  be 
gained  would  be  the  feeling  that  this  was  done  officially  and 
as  a  matter  of  right,  instead  of  unofficially  and  as  a  matter  of 
courtesy  as  at  present.  To  a  voice  in  Imperial  affairs,  the 
Colonies  have  no  claim  as  a  right  until  they  are  prepared  to  take 
up  their  share  of  the  burdens  of  Empire,  and  this  they  are 
unwilling  to  do  at  present. 

An  Imperial  Council  could  have  no  executive  power,  it  could 
only  advise,  indeed  it  is  proposed  to  make  it  advisory  only  in  the 
first  instance.  Its  advice  might  or  might  not  be  followed  by  the 
executive,  the  British  ministry ;  it  would  be  difficult  to  make  the 
representation  on  any  proportionate  basis  ;  taxation  for  Imperial 
affairs  would  not  exist,  and  the  fundamental  axiom  of  all  self- 
governing  communities  that  taxation  and  representation  must 
go  together  would  be  violated.  The  more  the  advice  of  such 
a  council  was  followed  and  the  more  perfect  the  representation 
the  more  would  this  be  the  case,  while  I  cannot  help  thinking 
there  would  be  considerable  friction  with  regard  to  contributions 
for  defence  and  other  Imperial  purposes.  Contributions  would 
be  on  no  particular  basis ;  they  would  have  to  be  voted  by  the 
various  state  parliaments,  paid  to  and  expended  by  the  British 
Parliament  on  or  against  the  advice  of  the  representatives  of  the 
contributing  states,  without  such  representatives  having  a  voice 
in  its  expenditure.  Again,  if  I  am  right  in  thinking  that  the 
Imperial  Parliament  of  the  future  must  be  a  reformed  continua- 
tion of  the  present  so-called  Imperial  Parliament,  in  which  the 
Colonies  were  properly  represented,  it  would  hardly  be  a  step 
towards  it  to  set  up  another  body  which  might  desire  to  become 
a  rival.  I  cannot  see,  therefore,  that  an  Imperial  Council  would 
form  any  basis  on  which  to  build  Federation. 

A  modification  of  this  idea  that  each  colony  should  be  con- 
sulted on  all  matters  affecting  itself  is  open  to  the  objection  that, 
if  consultation  were  made  a  practice,  it  would  quickly  develop 
into  a  right,  and  this  would  almost  necessitate  the  decision  being 
in  accordance  with  that  colony's  wishes,  however  weighty  the 
interests  of  Great  Britain  or  of  other  colonies  against  it.  To  be 
obliged  to  consult  anyone  on  a  matter  affecting  himself  and  then 
to  act  against  his  expressed  wishes  would  be  to  give  offence 


Federation  arid  the  Navy  605 

gratuitously.  I  think  there  is  the  further  objection  that  though 
this  proposal  might  conceivably  attach  the  colony  to  the  mother- 
country,  it  would  not  have  the  effect  of  drawing  the  Colonies 
closer  to  each  other,  which  is  at  least  as  important. 

A  Privy  Council  stands  for  the  Norman  principle  of  govern- 
ment by  the  Sovereign  through  nominated  advisers.  A  Parliament 
is  the  Anglo-Saxon  system  of  government  by  the  people  through 
elected  representatives.  These  two  ideals  are  antagonistic,  and 
English  history  is  the  story  of  the  conflict  between  them.  Twice 
has  the  struggle  broken  out  into  armed  strife,  Magna  Charta  and 
the  Commonwealth  were  the  results.  A  parliament  is  what  each 
of  the  self-governing  colonies  have  insisted  on,  and  is  what  other 
colonies  are  working  for.  It  is  argued  that  the  British  Parliament 
is  the  offspring  of  the  old  Privy  Council,  and  that  a  Federal 
parliament  would  grow  from  colonial  representation  in  an  Imperial 
Privy  Council.  That  part  of  the  British  Parliament  which  can 
be  traced  to  a  Privy  Council  origin  is,  however,  rather  the  House 
of  Lords  than  the  Commons;  and  the  upper  chambers  in  the 
colonies  are  representative  and  not  nominated.  It  is  also  urged 
that  the  Cabinet  is  but  a  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  but  in 
reality  the  Cabinet  is  responsible  to  Parliament,  and  wields  those 
powers  of  the  Privy  Council  which  are  not  dormant.  To  revive 
these  latent  powers  as  a  form  of  Imperial  authority  would,  I 
think,  be  contrary  to  all  colonial  ideals;  I  believe  it  would 
militate  against  the  formation  of  an  Imperial  Parliament,  and 
might  end  in  disintegrating  the  Empire. 

Now,  with  regard  to  preferential  tariffs.  Opinions  differ  as  to 
whether  protection  will  do  us  harm  or  good.  Opinions  also 
differ  as  to  whether  a  preference  to  the  Colonies  will  lead  to 
bickering  or  to  increased  friendship  between  the  various  parts  of 
the  Empire.  Personally,  I  believe  Mr.  Chamberlain's  proposals 
will  be  good  for  us  and  good  for  the  Empire.  These  proposals 
have  split  up  parties,  which  is  in  itself  a  sign  that  the  subject 
is  of  wider  interest  than  most  which  politicians  put  before 
us.  They  have  turned  men's  thoughts  to  the  Empire,  and  have 
shown  how  deep  is  the  feeling  in  England  that  the  Colonies  are 
more  to  us  than  foreign  nations.  I  believe  that  Mr.  Chamberlain 
is  taking  one  of  the  most  practical  steps  which  can  now  be 
made  towards  Federation,  because  it  will  create  an  atmosphere  in 
which  some  basis  may  be  sought  for,  and,  if  sought  for,  found. 
It  will  lift  our  thoughts  above  local  affairs  and  place  before  us  all 
an  ideal.  Without  an  atmosphere  we  cannot  expect  the  idea  of 
Federation  to  grow,  and  unless  it  grows  it  will  die.  Ministers 
cannot  act  unless  they  have  the  people  behind  them,  and,  as  a 
rule,  ministers  are  so  tied  by  party  strategy  that  they  cannot  give 


606  The  Empire  Review 

a  lead.  Mr.  Chamberlain  has  had  the  courage  to  step  down 
from  his  position  as  a  minister  for  the  purpose  of  leading  us,  and 
it  seems  to  me  that  all  who  really  desire  Federation  should  con- 
sider the  question  dispassionately. 

In  what  other  way  can  inter-imperial  trade  be  fostered  than 
by  preference  in  some  form  ?  and  what  is  the  use  of  giving  a 
preference  in  articles  which  the  Colonies  do  not  produce?  A 
great  deal  more  justification  exists  for  those  who  consider  that 
Federation  can  only  come  through  co-operation  for  defence ;  but 
defence  without  trade  would  be  as  useless  as  trade  without  defence. 
The  main  object  of  defence  is  to  provide  that  the  inhabitants  shall 
be  able  to  trade  and  earn  their  own  living  free  from  foreign 
or  outside  interference.  If  the  laws,  fiscal  or  otherwise,  of  a 
foreign  state  are  such  that  trade  with  that  state  is  rendered 
difficult  or  impossible  there  are  examples  of  even  force  being 
used  to  open  the  markets.  Tariffs  are  the  weapons  of  commerce, 
and  where  there  is  a  chance  of  their  use  being  effective  it  would, 
one  would  think,  be  better  to  oppose  tariff  with  tariff  than 
to  resort  to  arms. 

But  while  I  give  the  strongest  possible  support  to  pre- 
ferential tariffs,  I  do  not  think  that  in  themselves  they  provide  a 
basis  for  Federation.  The  best  they  can  do  is  to  create  an 
atmosphere  in  which  a  scheme  of  Federation  may  flourish,  and  I 
do  not  think  any  other  proposal  does  this.  Surely  the  next  step 
would  be  the  joint  control  and  provision  of  the  only  force  which 
can  protect  the  Imperial  interests  which  will  spring  up  under 
preferential  tariffs — the  Navy.  The  more  each  part  of  the  Empire 
depends  on  the  other  parts  for  its  trade,  the  more  necessary  is  this 
defensive  force.  Unless  it  is  amply  sufficient,  and  unless  it  is 
under  joint  control,  it  will  be  used  for  the  benefit  of  one  part  more 
than  for  another  in  time  of  stress ;  and  those  Colonies  which 
assist  to  pay  for  its  maintenance  would  naturally  claim  its  pro- 
tection in  preference  to  those  which  do  not.  The  burden  of 
maintenance  presses  heavily  on  the  United  Kingdom,  and  this 
will,  and  does,  cause  the  Navy  to  be  kept  with  the  smallest 
possible  margin  of  strength.  With  more  liberality  on  the  part  of 
the  Colonies  they  would  have  a  right  to  insist  on  the  Navy  being 
maintained  at  a  higher  degree  of  strength,  and  they  would  be  the 
first  to  gain  by  this  in  the  event  of  war.  We  too  should  gain 
by  their  interest  in  the  matter,  and  in  the  better  understanding 
which  they  would  then  have  of  the  problems  of  Imperial  defence, 
with  the  result  that  the  subject  would  be  faced  by  all  the  states 
and  be  put  on  a  sound  basis. 

Federation,  we  are  assured,  must  be  achieved  step  by  step. 
Shall  these  steps  commence  by  association  vaguely  in  all  things, 


Federation  and  the  Navy  607 

and  becoming  gradually  more  defined  ?  or  shall  they  commence  by 
co-operation,  more  or  less  complete,  in  one  thing,  which  shall  be 
extended  to  others  by  degrees  ?  Shall  we,  that  is,  begin  with  a 
shadowy  organisation,  to  become  materialised  by  and  bye,  or  shall 
we  form  a  carefully  thought  out  plan  for  directing  conjointly  one 
department  of  Imperial  affairs  and  extend  its  scope  from  time  to 
time?  The  Imperial  Council  would  be  an  example  of  the  first. 
At  present  there  is  no  example  of  the  second,  though  something 
of  the  kind  may  be  necessary  when  preferential  trade  is  agreed  to 
all  round. 

I  doubt  if  the  formation  of  an  organisation  without  power  will 
appeal  to  the  British  race  whether  in  England  or  the  Colonies.  I 
think  we  should  all  consider  it  rather  a  waste  of  time ;  and  if  this 
is  true,  it  would  seem  that  we  must  adopt  the  second  alternative, 
that  is,  we  must  co-operate  in  one  thing  at  a  time,  hoping  that 
this  will  create  a  demand  for  its  extension  to  others.  This  system 
would  have  the  advantage  that,  as  special  organisations  would 
have  to  be  created  for  each  department  brought  under  federal 
control,  and  as  these  organisations  would  have  no  existence  except 
by  the  will  of  the  parliaments  of  the  various  states,  they  would 
not  encroach  upon  the  authority  of  the  existing  state  governments, 
nor  upon  that  of  the  future  Imperial  Parliament,  while  their  powers 
would  naturally  fall  to  the  latter  as  soon  as  formed.  This  is  an 
important  point  in  favour  of  the  adoption  of  this  course.  Further 
advantages  are  that  we  should  be  enabled  in  this  manner  to  sort 
out  those  departments  which  should  be  federalised ;  that  we  should 
gradually  arrive  at  the  fair  proportion  which  each  state  should 
pay  towards  the  total  federal  expenses;  that  each  would  be 
effectively  represented  upon  a  central  body  towards  the  expenses 
of  which  they  properly  contributed ;  and  that  we  could  take  the 
next  step  as  soon,  or  as  late,  as  the  individual  states  were  pre- 
pared to  do  so.  It  would  not  be  necessary  for  all  the  states  to 
join  at  one  and  the  same  time,  for  a  principle  could  be  agreed 
upon,  and  any  state  could  adhere  as  soon  or  as  late  as  it  liked. 
I  cannot  help  thinking  this  progressive  adherence  should  be 
considered.  It  has  obtained  in  trade  preferences  and  in  con- 
tributions to  the  Navy.  The  Colonies  differ  as  much  from  each 
other  as  we  differ  from  any  one  of  them,  and  it  must  only 
delay  Federation  indefinitely  if  we  wait  to  get  everyone  into  line 
in  details. 

If  I  am  right  in  arguing  thus,  my  case  is,  I  submit,  made  out. 
The  first  step  would  be  the  adoption  of  Mr.  Chamberlain's  pro- 
posals for  preferential  tariffs,  the  actual  details  of  the  duties  or 
preferences  being  settled  I  suppose  by  the  different  states  them- 
selves in  the  first  instance,  and  all  doubtful  points  or  disputes 


608  The  Empire  Review 

being  referred  to  a  commission  which  might  either  form  a  sort  of 
Imperial  Board  of  Trade,  or  which  might  have  only  an  inter- 
mittent existence.  The  second  step  would  be  the  appointment  of 
a  commission  to  decide  on  the  best  means  of  federalising  the  Navy 
as  the  force  which  must  protect  that  trade,  and  which  is  charged 
with  the  defence  of  the  Empire  as  a  whole,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  military  forces,  which  are  necessarily  more  or  less  territorial 
in  organisation.  These  two  steps  should  indeed  be  taken  together, 
for  the  first  depends  so  much  on  the  second  that,  speaking 
practically,  it  cannot  possibly  exist  for  long  alone. 

Food  is  of  such  vital  importance  that  we  cannot  risk  non- 
delivery in  war.  Food  from  our  own  Colonies  is  exposed  to 
greater  risk  in  war  than  food  from  a  neutral.  Therefore,  if  we 
encourage  the  supply  of  food  from  our  Colonies  in  preference  to 
the  supply  from  neutrals,  to  the  advantage  financially  of  those 
Colonies,  they  owe  it  to  us  and  to  themselves  to  take  their  share 
of  the  cost  of  protecting  its  transport.  But  if  they  do  this  it  is 
only  reasonable  they  should  have  a  voice  in  the  administration,  and 
the  commission  suggested  would,  of  course,  have  this  question  as 
part  of  their  reference.  Whether  they  would  advise  representa- 
tion on  the  Committee  of  Defence,  or  at  the  Admiralty,  or  in  some 
other  way,  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  say,  but  I  see  several 
reasons  why  they  should  adopt  the  second.  The  Committee  of 
Defence  has  to  do  more  with  policy  than  administration;  and 
though  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  Colonies  should  join  with  us  in 
a  complete  scheme  for  Imperial  defence,  they  do  not  appear  to  be 
anxious  to  do  so.  But  they  do  like— and  naturally — to  have  a 
voice  in  the  way  the  money  they  provide  is  expended,  and 
therefore,  as  they  are  providing  money  for  the  Navy  only,  the 
Admiralty  would  seem  to  be  the  body  in  which  they  should  be 
represented. 

The  Board  of  Admiralty  now  consists  of  the  First  Lord,  a 
Civil  Lord,  the  Parliamentary  and  Permanent  Secretaries,  making 
four  civilians,  and  four  sea  lords.  Probably  it  would  be  advisable 
to  maintain  this  proportion  between  civil  and  naval  members ;  but 
it  is  known  that  there  is  plenty  of  work  for  more  sea  lords,  and 
their  numbers  might  be  increased.  New  civilian  members  might 
be  added  for  such  of  the  Colonies  as  contributed  to  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Navy  on  the  basis  arrived  at  by  the  commission. 
They  would,  of  course,  be  appointed  by  the  colony,  probably  for 
periods  of  not  more  than  two  or  three  years,  during  which  they 
would  reside  in  England.  The  appointments  would  of  necessity 
be  for  periods  of  moderate  length  only,  as  otherwise  the  colonial 
members  would  get  out  of  touch  with  their  own  colonies,  while 
this  would  further  be  desirable  as  gradually  increasing  the  number 


Federation  and  the  Navy  609 

of  colonial  statesmen  who  would  be  acquainted  with  naval 
defence  and  requirements. 

The  Admiralty  is  an  administrative  body.  It  does  not  repre- 
sent or  tax  anyone,  and  therefore  on  such  a  body  there  could  be 
no  question  of  either  proportionate  representation  or  proportionate 
contribution.  The  suggestion  would  avoid  but  not  solve  these 
difficulties,  which  are  the  crux  of  the  whole  question  of  Federation. 
It  is  this  difficulty  which  stands  in  the  way  of  our  advance,  but  it 
seems  to  be  agreed  that  we  must  lead  up  to  and  not  force  it. 
There  is  also  the  objection  that  the  Board  of  Admiralty  might 
become  too  large ;  but  I  cannot  think  this  alone  would  be  fatal ; 
and  there  must  be  objections  to  any  scheme  brought  forward. 

Sir  John  Forrest  thinks  that  the  "  aim  and  object  should  be 
to  make  the  Eoyal  Navy  the  Empire's  Navy,"  and  suggests  the 
holding  of  a  conference  to  consider  the  subject ;  and  Sir  Edward 
Holroyd  made  a  very  important  speech  in  Melbourne  last  July, 
arguing  that  preferential  tariffs  would  not  solve  one  of  the 
problems  connected  with  common  defence.  Tariffs,  he  said,  would 
require  constant  revision  because  no  state  would  allow  its  fiscal 
arrangements  to  be  tied  up  for  more  than  a  brief  period,  and 
therefore  no  permanent  bond  of  union  would  be  formed.  He 
considers  that  an  advisory  council  is  less  than  Australia  desires 
and  less  than  she  is  entitled  to  get  in  return  for  her  contribution 
to  the  Navy.  He  proposes  that  the  British  Government  should 
make  the  first  move  and  ask  the  House  of  Commons  to  affirm  the 
proposition  that  co-operation  for  common  defence  is  feasible,  and 
would  be  beneficial  to  the  whole  Empire ;  and  that  they  should 
recommend  the  appointment  of  commissioners  to  frame  measures 
for  enabling  it  to  be  carried  into  effect  with  the  aid  of  such 
colonies  as  may  be  willing  to  form  a  league  with  the  United 
Kingdom  for  that  purpose. 

These  opinions  are  given  to  show  that  my  suggestions  are 
made  in  good  company,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
arguments  which  lead  up  to  them,  and  I  think  that  in  the 
circumstances  all  political  parties  could  adopt  them  without 
interfering  with  their  present  plans.  In  conclusion,  therefore, 
I  would  urge  that  the  Government,  as  one  of  their  earliest  acts, 
should  move  the  Sovereign  to  appoint  a  Koyal  Commission  (which 
should  include  representatives  from  the  colonies)  to  frame  a 
scheme  to  make  the  Navy  a  federal  force.  The  British  Govern- 
ment could  then  officially  put  forward  their  recommendation  to 
the  colonies  and  ask  for  their  adherence,  leaving  it  open  to  each 
to  join  as  soon  or  as  late  as  their  Governments  chose  to  do  so. 
It  would  of  course  be  open  to  any  colony  to  ask  for  amendments 
on  joining,  but  the  consent  of  all  parties  to  any  existing  agreement 
VOL.  VL— No.  36,  2  B 


610  The  Empire  Review 

would  be  required  to  any  alterations  desired  by  later  adherents, 
I  would  also  submit,  with  the  greatest  respect,  that  if  the 
Prince  of  Wales  could  accept  the  Presidency  of  the  Commission, 
a  practical  result  to  its  labours  would  be  assured,  the  Navy  could 
feel  that  its  efficiency  would  not  be  sacrificed,  the  Colonies  that 
their  views  would  have  due  consideration,  while  a  real  step 
forward  would  be  taken  towards  Imperial  Federation. 

L.  H.  HOBDEEN. 


Anand  Pal:  The  Dacoit  61 1 


ANAND    PAL:    THE    DACOIT 

THE  Government  of  India  has  kept  for  a  great  many  years 
past  a  special  department  for  the  suppression  of  Thuggee  and 
Dacoity.*  The  Thug,  whose  profession — I  might  almost  say 
religion — was  murder  by  strangulation  and  poisoning  for  the 
sake  of  gain,  is  now  practically  extinct,  though  his  name  remains 
in  the  department  he  called  into  existence  ;  but  the  brotherhood 
of  Dacoits,  which  pillages  without  killing  when  not  resisted,  is 
still  numerous  and  widely  scattered  like  the  gipsies  all  over  the 
country.  Its  members  rove  in  gangs  under  different  leaders,  and 
have  their  headquarters  in  Native  States  where  they  are  not 
easily  got  at,  and  where  in  bygone  days  they  enjoyed  the  covert 
protection  of  ruling  magnates  who  took  a  share  of  their  spoils. 
Now  and  again  a  band  passes  through  a  British  district,  but 
rarely  lingers— the  risk  is  too  great. 

The  way  a  man  is  officially  registered  a  dacoit  by  pro- 
fession is  somewhat  peculiar.  The  General  Superintendent  of 
the  Thuggee  and  Dacoity  Department  at  Simla  has  assistants 
in  various  stations  whose  business  it  is  to  hunt  up  dacoits  by 
the  help  of  small  bodies  of  detective  police  placed  at  their 
disposal,  and  what  are  called  "  approvers,"  i.e.,  convicted  dacoits, 
who,  to  obtain  certain  privileges  which  admit  of  their  living 
with  their  wives  and  female  relatives  in  comparative  ease  under 
custody  at  specified  places,  confess  to  the  dacoities  in  which  they 
and  others  still  at  large  have  been  implicated.  These  confessions, 
corroborated  by  the  evidence  of  other  approvers,  at  a  distance, 
and  local  records,  form  the  basis  on  which  the  police  work.  If 
shown  to  be  false,  the  perjurer  knows  he  will  lose  his  privileges 
as  approver  and  can  be  despatched  to  the  Andamans.  It  is 
also  necessary  to  point  out  that  under  the  Indian  Penal  Code 
five  or  more  persons  guilty  of  ordinary  robbery  f  can  be  convicted 

*  It  is  Thagi  and  Dakaiti  in  the  new  spelling — but  I  adhere  to  the  old  as  best 
known — though  adopting  the  new  in  the  word  Anand  where  the  two  a's  are  pro- 
nounced somewhat  like  a  short  u  as  in  Ferdinand. 

t  Indian  Penal  Code,  Sec.  391.  "  When  five  or  more  persons  conjointly  commit, 
or  attempt  to  commit  a  robbery,  or  where  the  whole  number  of  persons  conjointly 
committing  or  attempting  to  commit  a  robbery,  and  persons  present  and  aiding  such 
commission  or  attempt  amount  to  five  or  more,  every  person  so  committing, 
attempting  or  aiding,  is  said  to  commit  dacoity." 

2  E  2 


612  The  Empire  Review 

of  dacoity,  although  it  does  not  follow  that  everyone  under 
sentence  in  a  British  jail  for  this  crime  is  a  dacoit  by  birth  and 
profession,  as  are  the  men  with  whom  the  Thuggee  and  Dacoity 
Department  is  especially  concerned. 

This  brief  explanation  is  necessary  for  my  story,  which  dates 
back  some  thirty  years,  and,  therefore,  does  not  pretend  to  deal 
with  the  intricacies  of  a  system  most  British  magistrates  have 
criticised  and  now  undergoing  material  alterations. 


I. 

In  the  British  district  of  Merabad,  which  adjoins  the  Native 
States  of  Krishnapore  and  Soorujpore,  Seth  Janki  Pershad, 
Merchant  and  Banker,  and  Ibrahim  Hussein  Khan,  Inspector  of 
Police,  figured  in  villages  at  a  distance  from  head-quarters 
as  the  chief  of  earthly  powers.  The  one  owned  Bunniah's 
shops  on  which  the  poorer  classes  depended  for  food  and  loans ; 
the  other  inspired  terror  by  a  control  thought  at  times  to  be 
subsidised  by  the  merchant  for  his  own  ends.  From  one  of  these 
shops  in  the  village  of  Dhubri,  there  had  lately  been  abstracted 
two  sacks  of  grain,  and  as  five  men  were  implicated  in  the  case, 
they  had  been  convicted  of  dacoity,  though  all  were  well-known 
inhabitants  of  the  village,  and  declared  they  had  only  taken  what 
the  Bunniah  owed  them. 

The  affair  created  a  great  sensation,  and  while  a  subscription 
was  being  made  for  the  purpose  of  employing  a  vakeel,  or  pleader, 
to  appeal  against  the  conviction  and  sentence,  Baliah,  brother  to 
one  of  the  prisoners,  revolved  vengeance  in  his  heart.  "  Dacoity, 
indeed  !  "  he  muttered  to  himself,  "  it  would  serve  the  S6th  right 
to  be  really  dacoited."  And  not  long  afterwards  he  contrived 
to  obtain  a  secret  interview  with  Anand  Pdl,  leader  of  a  band 
of  dacoits  in  Krishnapore,  to  whom  he  imparted  certain 
information. 

The  moon  was  full  on  the  night  that  Seth  chose  for  his 
journey  to  Krishnapore,  whither  he  was  bound  to  negotiate  a  loan 
with  the  Durbar.  Two  bags  of  rupees  strapped  across  a  pony, 
under  a  light  load  of  fodder  for  the  sake  of  concealment,  were 
taken  for  ground  bait  to  Durbar  officials,  while  a  diamond  ring 
for  the  Maharaja  lay  hidden  in  his  vest.  An  armed  horseman 
preceded  and  rode  on  each  side  of  the  Seth's  palanquin,  while  a 
fourth  brought  up  the  rear  behind  the  laden  pon}'.  Thus,  with 
eight  palki  bearers,  the  party  consisted  of  thirteen  persons 
including  the  Seth,  and  for  some  miles  to  the  edge  of  his  district 
Inspector  Ibrahim  Hussein  consented  to  escort  it  with  two 
constables. 
^  "  You  will  be  safe  enough  now,  Seth  Sahib,"  he  laughingly 


Anand  P<il:  the  Dacoit  613 

remarked  as  he  left  him,  "  I  only  wish  I  had  a  chance  of  coming 
across  Anand  Pal ;  my  name  would  be  great.  The  Thuggee 
police  are  no  use ;  they  are  afraid  of  him,  and  Duffadar  Kishen 
Lai  thinks  only  of  his  fat  belly." 

Ibrahim  Hussein  had  ridden  barely  two  miles  at  a  walk  when 
the  sound  of  a  horse's  feet  galloping  from  behind  caused  him  to 
stop  and  look  round.  Presently  a  breathless  affrighted  rider 
whom  he  recognised  as  one  of  the  Seth's  attendants  gasped 
forth :  "  The  dacoits  have  attacked  the  S6th  and  killed  God 
knows  how  many  of  us  ;  what  could  we  do  against  fifty,  perhaps 
a  hundred  ?  " 

Now  Ibrahim  Hussein  Pathan  was  a  brave  man,  whose  only 
foible  as  a  police  officer  had  no  reference  to  his  own  sex,  and 
had  been  fostered  by  various  successes  with  the  opposite  one, 
produced  by  his  good  looks  and  smart  appearance.  Without  a 
moment's  hesitation  he  made  his  informant  turn  and  ride  back 
with  him  to  the  scene  of  conflict,  telling  the  mounted  constables 
to  follow.  He  found  the  S6th  unharmed  but  shaken  in  nerve, 
bewailing  his  losses,  which  included  the  rupees,  the  diamond 
intended  for  the  Maharaja,  and  other  jewels.  Four  of  the  palki- 
bearers  and  one  of  the  mounted  servants,  wounded  by  a  sword, 
were  with  him,  and  the  rest  of  the  party,  except  a  horseman  who 
had  ridden  on  ahead,  turned  up  by  degrees  in  the  course  of  an 
hour,  during  which  the  inspector  carefully  examined  the  locality 
and  noted  details  from  the  witnesses,  all  of  whom,  save  the 
wounded  sowar,  had,  he  felt  sure,  bolted  on  the  approach  of 
the  dacoits — a  conclusion  subsequently  confirmed  by  the  Seth. 
Their  own  accounts  of  the  enemy  and  the  prodigies  of  valour 
they  performed,  rivalled  FalstafFs  when  the  men  in  buckram 
set  upon  him. 

The  tracks  of  camels'  feet  in  the  sand  showed  that  there  must 
have  been  a  good  many  dacoits,  and  the  wounded  sowar  stated 
that  one  whom  he  shot  at  limped  slowly  in  a  certain  direction 
where  his  camel  was  probably  posted.  Following  up  the  clue, 
the  inspector  suddenly  came  on  a  figure  lying  dark  and  still  in 
the  moonlight.  The  man  was  not  dead,  but  in  a  swoon,  from 
which,  under  the  inspector's  treatment,  he  soon  rallied,  to  find 
himself  a  prisoner  bound  hand  and  foot  in  the  S6th's  palki. 
Before  dawn  the  party  returned  to  the  village  they  had  left  a 
few  hours  before,  and  the  wounded  prisoner  lay  under  lock  and 
key  securely  guarded  and  carefully  nursed,  the  assistant  surgeon 
being  sent  for  to  expedite  his  recovery,  which  at  first  seemed 
doubtful.  At  the  end  of  a  week  he  was  pronounced  fit  to  be 
moved. 

During  all  this  time  Ibrahim  Hussein  watched  his  prize 
vigilantly  and  tried  unsuccessfully  to  extract  information  re- 


614  The  Empire  Review 

garding  his  gang  and  leader,  with  a  view  to  more  captures  and  the 
recovery  of  the  stolen  property.  "Let  me  alone  now,"  groaned 
the  sick  man ;  "  when  I  am  well  you  shall  know  all,  provided  I 
am  allowed  to  become  an  approver."  The  inspector  saw  his  way 
to  a  grand  coup ;  his  name  would  be  great,  and  the  Sirkar  would 
see  what  a  useless  lot  Duffadar  Kishen  Lai  and  his  crew  were, 
compared  with  its  own  regular  police. 

Another  coup  was  also  at  hand.  For  three  evenings  on 
his  way  to  visit  his  prisoner  at  dusk  Ibrahim  Hussein  had 
noticed  in  the  village  a  tall,  fine  young  woman  who  seemed 
to  be  struck  by  his  good  looks,  as  she  had  twice  lifted  her 
head-cloth  coquettishly  and  allowed  him  to  see  a  very  handsome 
face  and  pair  of  bright  eyes  which  regarded  him  with  evident 
admiration.  Last  night  he  had  spoken  to  her,  and  to-night 
she  had  agreed  to  meet  him  if  he  promised  to  be  alone,  as  she 
was  obliged  so  be  verjr  careful  of  her  reputation.  She  was  to 
come  to  the  house  where  he  kept  his  prisoner,  the  key  of  whose 
room  remained  always  in  his  possession.  For  the  occasion  he  would 
take  the  place  of  the  constable  told  off  to  guard  the  prisoner,  who 
was  to  be  moved  next  morning.  The  suggestion  had  come  from 
his  charmer  who,  congratulating  him  on  his  capture  and  laurels 
in  store,  revealed  her  pride  in  having  attracted  such  a  brave  and 
mighty  Eustum.  She  and  everyone  else,  the  Sirkar  included, 
believed  as  he  had  written  in  his  report,  that  having  arrived  too 
late  to  protect  the  Seth  and  his  party  he  had  come  on  a 
wounded  dacoit  whom  he  knocked  senseless  with  a  blow  of  his 
fist  just  in  time  to  avoid  being  cut  down  himself.  These  and 
other  little  embellishments  were  fair  enough,  as  no  one  could  or 
would  contradict  them. 

Timidly  and  bashfully  she  stole  in  at  the  appointed  hour.  "  I 
am  cold,  Eustum,  I  am  not  brave  like  thou  art.  So  I  have 
brought  wine  which  Sadi  loved.  Shall  I  sing  thee  one  of  Sadi's 
songs?"  "No,  some  one  might  hear,"  the  cautious  inspector 
replied.  "Let  me  then  tell  the  story  of  my  life,  that  thou 
mayest  not  think  me  a  wanton.  But  first,  my  lord,  let  us  have 
wine."  As  she  spoke  she  produced  from  under  her  mantle  a 
bottle  and  two  silver  cups  one  of  which  she  filled  and  handed  to 
him.  Then  apparently  filling  the  other,  she  lifted  it  to  her  lips, 
and  set  it  down  half  empty,  just  as  the  inspector  had  drained 
Ids  cup  at  a  draught. 

"  That  is  good,"  she  said,  wiping  her  rosy  lips  with  her  fingers, 
while  he  pressed  near  with  bold  hot  eyes  from  which  she  shrank. 
"  Nay,  my  lord,  you  must  sit  there  and  not  lay  hand  on  your 
slave  till  you  have  heard  her  tale.  It  may  be  she  will  not  find 
favour  in  your  eyes  when  it  is  ended." 

He  obeyed,  strangely  mastered,  and  she  began,    He  remem- 


Anand  Pdl:  the  Dacoit  615 

bered  being  enmeshed  in  a  net  of  woven  words  and  enthralled 
by  her  superb  figure  and  glorious  eyes ;  but  what  she  said  he 
never  could  recall.  It  was  music  to  listen  to  the  tones  of  her 
voice ;  the  waves  of  the  sea  he  had  beheld  at  Bombay  seemed 
to  be  in  his  ears.  Gradually  his  senses  began  to  sink  under 
them  and  then  to  float  in  delicious  dreams  while  he  stretched 
forth  his  arms  murmuring  words  of  passion.  Then  he  grew 
inarticulate,  and,  in  less  than  ten  minutes,  lay  back  insensible 
from  the  opiate  in  the  wine  he  had  drank.  Taking  the  key  of 
the  prisoner's  room  from  his  pocket  she  whispered  to  herself 
with  a  long  breath — "  Thank  Heaven,  I  escaped  even  the  smell 
of  his  beard  !  " 

When  the  inspector  awoke  from  his  long  trance  and  learned 
how  he  had  been  duped  by  a  woman  his  rage  and  feelings 
generally  can  be  imagined.  The  tale  he  invented  to  account  for 
the  dacoit's  escape  was  even  more  skilful  than  that  of  the  capture. 
Still  he  knew  his  name,  instead  of  being  great,  would  suffer,  and 
that  Duffadar  Kishen  Lai  would  rejoice  over  his  failure.  That 
thought  was  gall  and  wormwood.  It  was  not  relieved  when, 
some  time  after,  a  registered  letter  bearing  the  Benares  postmark 
was  put  into  his  hands,  and  he  read  the  following  words : — 

Brother — For  all  brave  men  are  brothers — Anand  Pal,  the  dacoit,  thanks 
thee  for  saving  his  life  and  allowing  a  devoted  fearless  wife  to  plan  his  escape. 
She  craves  pardon  for  the  opium  in  Rustum's  wine.  If  ever  thou  art  tired  of 
the  Sirkar's  service  and  needest  a  friend  remember  Anand  Pal. 

It  was  indeed  the  great  dacoit  leader  who  had  slipped  through 
his  hands  !  Would  this  secret  ever  be  betrayed  to  the  world  ? 

With  an  execration  at  his  own  folly  and  cursing  a  woman's 
cunning  he  swore  he  would  have  his  revenge. 


II. 

HAD  Anand  Pal  looked  the  leader  he  was,  Ibrahim  Hussein 
would  probably  have  been  more  on  his  guard  against  a  plot  for  the 
prisoner's  rescue.  To  outward  appearance  there  was  nothing  to 
distinguish  him  from  the  ordinary  run  of  spare  active  men,  rather 
under  than  over  the  average  height.  The  men  who  served  under 
him  acknowledged  a  mastery  of  mind  and  spirit,  while,  as  we  have 
seen,  he  possessed  other  qualities  sufficient  to  make  a  woman 
dare  a  great  deal  for  his  sake.  The  younger  son  of  a  well-born 
family,  he  had  rebelled  against  the  rule  of  his  grandfather,  an  old 
Thakur,  quarrelled  with  his  relations,  and  incensed  at  not  obtaining 
what  he  considered  justice  from  the  Durbar,  gone  out  as  an  outlaw 
and  finally  degenerated  into  a  captain  of  dacoits.  In  India,  where 
flattery  is  indigenous  to  the  soil  and  honorific  titles  are  common 


616  The  Empire  Review 

as  pariah  dogs,  it  is  nothing  for  a  person  of  humble  station  to  be 
styled  in  conversation  by  someone  still  humbler  as  "Maharaj." 
This  title,  however,  applied  to  Anand  Pal  by  his  band  of  five  and 
twenty  dacoits  and  many  others,  implied  a  genuine  recognition  of 
claims  to  real  fealty  and  power.  The  Maharaj,  despite  a  smooth 
quiet  manner  and  uncommanding presence,  had  a  way  of  enforcing 
obedience  and  inspiring  attachment  among  his  followers. 

When  Se"th  Janki  Pershad  was  dacoited  and  Anand  Pal  had 
ordered  his  men  to  disperse  and  meet  him  at  a  certain  rendezvous 
it  never  occurred  to  them  to  question  the  command  by  staying  to 
look  after  his  safety.  They  had  seen  him  run  towards  his  camel, 
posted  out  of  sight  of  theirs,  and  never  dreamt  but  what  he  had 
made  good  his  retreat.  True,  a  gun  had  been  fired,  but  not  till 
after  they  were  assembled  at  the  rendezvous  did  it  occur  to  them 
as  possible  that  their  absent  leader  could  have  met  with  an  accident. 
Revisiting  the  scene  of  dacoity  after  the  inspector  had  left  it  with 
his  prisoner  they  came  across  Anand's  Pal's  tethered  camel  and 
traced  marks  of  blood.  In  twenty-four  hours  two  of  them  dis- 
guised as  humble  travellers  had  returned  to  Dhubri  with  Baliah, 
whom  they  had  forcibly  detained  till  after  the  dacoity,  to  see  if  he 
had  been  put  up  to  lure  them  into  a  trap.  How,  after  that,  the 
stratagem  designed  by  Anand  Pal's  wife  was  effected  needs  no 
further  comment  except  that  Anand  Pal  himself  did  not  at  all 
approve  of  the  plan.  "  Thou  art  a  good  wife  and  true  comrade," 
he  had  said  to  her,  "  but  see  that  thou  playest  not  such  a  part 
again,  beloved,  even  to  save  my  neck." 

"  There  was  no  other  way,  Maharaj,"  she  replied  meekly. 

"What  if  the  dog  had  forced  thine  honour  and  jeered  at 
mine  ?  "  he  grunted. 

"  You  forget,  my  lord,  I  had  this,"  she  said,  producing  a  small 
dagger  from  her  vest.  "  Six  inches  in  his  heart  or  my  own  would 
have  sufficed  to  guard  your  honour." 

Now  all  this  was  past  and  gone;  two  years  of  successful 
dacoities  skilfully  devised  and  daringly  executed  lay  between  that 
narrow  escape  from  Ibrahim  Hussein's  clutches  and  the  scheme 
he  was  now  considering. 

"  The  Thakur  Sahib  will  be  pleased  if  you  do  this,  Maharaj, 
because  Narain  Singh  is  his  enemy  and  deserves  ill-fortune.  He 
has  let  you  and  your  band  lie  hid  in  his  old  fort  when  the  Durbar's 
police  have  hunted  you,  and  has  allowed  his  own  sonar  (silversmith) 
to  melt  up  quickly  your  loot  of  gold  and  silver.  Surely  you  will 
seek  to  oblige  him  in  this  instance." 

Thus  spake  Sheo  Buksh,  Kdmdar,  or  chief  official  of  the  petty 
Thakur  of  K6thi,  whose  domain  included  many  miles  of  sandy 
desert  far  distant  from  the  capital  of  Krishnapore,  whose  vassal 
he  was. 


Anand  Pdl:  the  Dacoit  617 

"  My  friend,"  replied  the  dacoit  leader  with  a  smile,  "  talk 
not  of  obligation ;  the  Thakur  Sahib  has  had  his  percentage  on 
our  takings  and  the  sonar  has  been  paid  for  the  use  of  his  melting- 
pots.  We  are  grateful  for  the  fort  and  its  patronage,  but  our 
interests  are  mutual,  as  you  know  very  well.  The  question  is 
whether  this  job  which  you  suggest  can  be  carried  out  to  our 
advantage  as  well  as  that  of  the  Thakur  Sahib  who  wishes  to  be 
revenged  on  his  enemy.  If  I  can  see  my  way  to  act  as  you 
suggest,  well  and  good." 

Shortly  after  this  conversation,  the  Krishnapore  Durbar  and 
the  Thuggee  Department  were  amazed  to  hear  that  Thakur  Narain 
Singh  while  on  his  way  to  marry  the  daughter  of  a  notable  chief- 
tain in  another  State  with  a  retinue  of  a  hundred  followers,  had 
been  surprised  one  night  in  camp  by  an  attack  from  dacoits,  who 
had  succeeded  in  carrying  off  a  quantity  of  booty,  which  included 
presents  for  the  bride,  to  the  value  of  several  thousands  of  rupees. 
In  defending  the  treasure  ten  of  the  Thakur's  party  sacrificed  their 
lives,  while  the  dacoits  escaped  leaving  five  of  their  number  behind 
killed  outright. 

The  uproar  created  by  such  a  daring  outrage  led  Anand  Pal  to 
disperse  his  band  for  a  time,  with  instructions  as  to  when  and 
where  he  would  call  them  together  again  after  the  storm  had 
blown  over.  Taking  with  him  only  one  staunch  adherent  and  his 
faithful  Kajputni  wife  he  disappeared,  leaving  no  trace  behind  as 
to  where  he  had  gone.  For  months  the  Durbar's  troops  and  police 
patrolled  and  searched  the  country  in  vain.  No  one  was  more 
assiduous  in  the  search  than  the  Thakur  of  Be"  thi  and  his  Kamdar 
Sheo  Buksh.  They  told  the  English  officer  specially  deputed  to 
conduct  it  that  nothing  could  be  more  deplorably  weak  than  the 
Durbar's  police  arrangements,  begging  at  the  same  time  that  he 
would  regard  this  expression  of  opinion  as  strictly  confidential. 
The  offer  of  a  reward  of  five  thousand  rupees  for  any  information 
resulting  in  the  capture  of  Anand  Pal,  alive  or  dead,  proved  as 
ineffectual  as  the  other  efforts  of  the  Thuggee  Department  to  trace 
the  famous  dacoit. 

III. 

ONE  of  the  largest  cities  in  India  is  the  capital  of  a  native 
State  which  I  will  call  Sultanabad.  Adventurers  and  ruffians  of 
all  classes,  when  wanted  by  British  police,  used  to  hide  themselves 
in  its  recesses  and  trust  to  the  jealousy  of  the  State's  officials 
towards  those  of  the  Sirkar,  or  Government  of  India,  for  assist- 
ance in  escaping  from  justice.  Delay  in  extradition  was  certain ; 
sometimes  a  fugitive,  tracked  by  the  Sirkar's  police,  would  receive 
a  friendly  hint,  emanating  from,  if  not  actually  conveyed  by,  some 


618  The  Empire  Review 

one  in  the  employ  of  the  State,  just  as  the  net  was  closing  in  on 
him.  Sultanabad  seemed  to  think  it  bad  enough  to  be  called  an 
Alsatia  for  criminals,  without  proof  of  the  name's  appropriateness 
being  adduced  weekly  in  a  number  of  arrests  ;  and,  like  greater 
and  more  civilised  States,  it  preferred,  when  arrests  were  to  be 
made,  that  its  own  police,  not  the  Sirkar's,  should  have  all  the 
credit  of  making  them. 

Knowing  this,  Inspector  Ibrahim  Hussein  obtained  leave  to 
go  there  as  a  detective,  duly  armed  with  letters  and  a  warrant 
for  the  apprehension  of  Anand  Pal,  to  the  chagrin  of  Kishen  Lai 
and  his  subordinates,  who  did  not  see  what  right  he  had  to  inter- 
fere with  their  business.  The  fact  that  Inspector  Karim  Baksh  of 
the  Sultanabad  Police  was  a  kinsman  of  his  and  likely  to  afford 
him  more  assistance  than  they  could  hope  for  from  the  same 
quarter,  only  increased  their  jealousy.  A  reward  of  five  thousand 
rupees  is  not  offered  every  day,  let  alone  the  honour  and  glory  of 
a  notable  capture. 

Ibrahim  Hussein  had  been  some  days  in  Sultanabad  when,  one 
morning,  passing  a  sonar's  shop,  he  noticed  a  customer  inside 
in  flowing  white  garments  with  a  grey  beard  and  blue  spectacles 
who  was  apparently  offering  something  for  sale.  His  quick  eye 
was  attracted  by  a  point  which  the  sonar  failed  to  observe, 
namely,  that  the  top  of  the  little  finger  of  the  customer's  left 
hand  had  been  sliced  off.  This  peculiarity,  he  remembered, 
belonged  to  the  dacoit  who  had  spent  a  week  under  his  care 
nearly  three  years  ago,  and  it  flashed  upon  him  that  here  in 
disguise  might  be  the  very  individual  he  was  in  search  of. 

When  the  customer  returned  to  his  house  from  the  sonar's 
shop  he  said  to  his  wife  and  servant,  "  The  blood-hound  Ibrahim 
has  arrived.  I  saw  him  to-day  as  I  was  in  the  sonar's  shop,  but 
he  can  hardly  have  recognised  me  in  this  disguise.  If  he  did  he 
doubtless  shadowed  me  home  and  we  may  have  the  Kaj  police 
here  to-morrow,  though  it  will  probably  take  the  Eesidency  two 
days  to  set  them  upon  me  through  the  Dewan.  It  is  well, 
however,  to  prepare  for  emergencies  at  once.  We  will  leave 
to-night." 

He  then  proceeded  to  take  off  his  beard  and  white  clothes, 
and,  sending  them  out  of  the  house  by  the  hand  of  his  servant, 
lay  down  to  take  his  mid-day  nap  after  giving  the  Kajputni  certain 
instructions.  His  forecast  would  have  been  all  right  but  for 
Ibrahim  Hussein's  influence  with  Karim  Baksh,  which  led  to  his 
being  awaked  by  a  hubbub  outside  before  his  servant  returned. 
Looking  through  the  closed  Venetians  he  saw  a  body  of  Kaj 
police  in  the  street  and  two  men  on  horseback,  one  of  whom  was 
his  enemy  Ibrahim.  Whispering  hurriedly  to  his  wife  he  opened 
the  door  they  were  thundering  at  and  indignantly  demanded  to 


Anand  Pal:  the  Dacoit  619 

know  what  was  the  matter.  Karim  Baksh  fell  back  in  astonish- 
ment and  conferred  with  the  Sirkar's  inspector.  "  It  is  no  mis- 
take," said  the  latter,  "  he  was  an  old  man  this  morning  and  you 
will  find  his  blue  spectacles,  beard  and  white  clothes  if  you  let  me 
search  the  house.  I  tell  you  that  is  Anand  Pal.  Take  him  before 
the  Dewan  or  Kesidency  Magistrate  and  I  will  be  answerable." 

So  well  did  the  disturbed  occupant  of  the  house  feign  surprise 
and  threaten  penalties,  and  so  plausible  was  his  own  account  of 
himself,  that  the  Kaj  inspector  was  not  inclined  to  take  further 
action  without  orders  from  the  Dewan.  But  again  Ibrahim 
Hussein  prevailed.  Anand  Pal  was  told  he  must  accompany  the 
police  to  the  Kesidency,  Karim  Baksh  preferring  not  to  trouble 
the  Dewan  till  he  was  quite  sure  he  had  not  got  hold  of  the 
wrong  man.  Making  a  virtue  of  necessity,  and  still  boiling  over 
with  indignation,  the  prisoner  at  once  professed  his  readiness  to 
be  taken  before  the  Eesidency  magistrate.  Though  Ibrahim 
entreated  he  might  be  handcuffed  that  indignity  was  spared  him, 
Karim  Baksh  being  still  half  afraid  that  a  mistake  might  have 
been  made  for  which  he  would  be  called  to  account. 

The  procession  set  forth,  the  accused  walking  between  two 
constables  belonging  to  the  Residency  and  preceded  by  half-a- 
dozen  Eaj  policemen  with  two  inspectors  mounted  bringing  up 
the  rear.  Behind  them  a  mixed  crowd  soon  gathered  and 
followed,  at  the  tail  end  of  which  a  veiled  woman  with  a  male 
attendant  watched  and  waited  with  heavy  hearts  to  see  if  the 
Maharaj's  lucky  star  would  once  more  befriend  his  matchless 
courage. 

A  broad  river  divides  the  city  from  the  limits  of  the  British 
Eesidency.  In  the  hot  weather  it  is  a  narrow  stream  trickling 
through  sand  and  huge  rocks  ;  in  the  rains  it  becomes  a  swirling 
flood  five  or  six  hundred  yards  wide.  The  flood  was  at  its  height 
as  the  procession  crossed  the  bridge  from  the  city.  The  middle 
of  the  bridge  had  been  reached,  when,  with  a  sudden  bound, 
Anand  Pal  stood  on  the  parapet  for  a  moment ;  then  calling  out, 
"For  the  second  time,  0  Ibrahim!"  jumped  into  the  torrent 
below.  The  constable  he  had  shouldered  aside  in  his  leap  sprang 
after  him,  reckless  of  tbe  danger,  and  also  descended  into  the 
river,  fracturing  his  skull  at  once  by  falling  on  a  sunken  rock. 
A  cry  of  horror  and  astonishment  went  up  from  the  crowd,  while 
the  two  inspectors  hurried  forward  and  backward  to  make 
arrangements  for  guarding  each  bank  of  the  river  and  recovering 
the  dare-devils  who  had  plunged  into  it.  Half  a  mile  down 
stream  the  body  of  the  unfortunate  constable  was  taken  out; 
that  of  the  dacoit  had  not  been  found  when  darkness  put  an  end 
to  the  search. 

Two  days  after,  a  message  reached  Ibrahim  Hussein  which 


620  The  Empire  Review 

took  him  to  a  village  five  miles  down  the  river  accompanied  by 
a  detachment  of  Residency  police.  Posting  them  round  a  mean 
thatched  hut  he  crept  forward  softly,  peeped  through  a  chink  in 
the  door,  and  listened  to  a  woman  wailing  a  death  dirge,  as  she 
rocked  herself  backwards  and  forwards  beside  a  still  form  on  the 
floor.  "  Come  and  see,  0  Ibrahim  Hussein  Khan,"  she  chanted, 
"  the  hero  you  could  not  capture.  His  arm  is  broken  and  his 
body  covered  with  bruises ;  but  even  the  cruel  river  could  not  kill 
him.  It  was  the  fever,  the  terrible  fever,  which  I  could  not 
quench.  I  found  him,  I  found  my  lord  whom  the  Sirkar  and 
Raj  together  could  not  find,  the  invincible  who  knew  no  fear. 
Come,  0  black-bearded  Pathan,  but  you  shall  not  earn  your  five 
thousand  rupees.  I  will  burn  his  body  and  do  suttee  on  the  pile. 
For  me  he  loved,  even  me,  the  Rajputni,  did  the  lord  of  heroes 
cherish  above  all  other  women." 

With  a  strange  feeling  at  his  heart  and  an  admiration  he  had 
never  felt  before  for  any  woman,  the  Pathan  lifted  the  latch, 
walked  in,  and  looked  upon  her  dauntless  dead.  She  went  on 
with  her  dirge  as  if  oblivious  of  his  presence.  Presently  he  spoke 
in  tones  meant  to  comfort.  "He  was  a  brave  man  without 
doubt,  and  I  am  glad  he  escaped  the  Sirkar's  doom.  Thou  also 
art  a  brave  woman,  and,  if  thou  wilt,  I  will  shield  thee  in  my 
home  and  thou  shalt  be  the  light  of  mine  eyes.  Come,  I  swear 
it,  though  once  thou  didst  deceive  me." 

He  stretched  out  his  hand  to  raise  her  but  she  rose  to  her  feet 
unaided  and  faced  him. 

"  There  shall  be  no  deception  this  time,"  she  said,  suddenly 
and  swiftly  plunging  a  dagger  in  his  breast.  Then  withdrawing 
the  weapon  she  buried  it  as  swiftly  in  her  own. 

Hearing  his  cry  the  policemen  rushed  in,  but  Ibrahim  Hussein 
was  past  all  mortal  help,  though  he  lingered  till  the  next 
morning. 

Her  spirit  joined  Anand  PaTs  the  same  night. 

G.  H.  TREVOK. 


The  Wonders  of  Maoriland  621 


THE   WONDERS   OF   MAORILAND 

L  STORY  OF  THE  TARAWERA  ERUPTION,  TOLD  BY  SOPHIA, 
THE  OLD  NATIVE  GUIDE. 

n.  VISIT  TO  THE  GREAT  WJMANGU  GEYSER. 
m.  MAORI  CHARACTERISTICS. 

WHEN  staying  in  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand  last  year, 
I  often  visited  the  geysers  at  Wackarewarewa,  and  had  many 
opportunities  of  talking  to  Sophia,  the  old  Tarawera  guide, 
whose  native  name,  Hinerangi,  means  young  girl  in  Heaven. 
She  was  born  at  Bussell,  Bay  of  Islands,  in  1830,  her  father, 
Alexander  Grey,  being  a  Scotchman,  and  her  mother,  Hinerangi, 
a  pure-blooded  Maori,  of  the  Tohurangi  tribe.  Although  Sophia 
was  baptized  by  the  missionaries  into  the  Protestant  faith,  I 
fancy  she  has  not  altogether  discarded  the  superstitious  beliefs 
and  traditions  of  her  mother's  people,  for  though  several 
religious  denominations  have  invited  her  to  join  their  ranks,  her 
invariable  reply  is  that  she  prefers  the  creed  of  her  early  years, 
and  does  not  care  to  change.  She  married  a  Maori,  Tiawihio, 
and  had  three  children — Davey,  George  and  Miriam,  all  of  whom 
are  now  living.  In  her  younger  days  Sophia  was,  I  am  told,  a 
very  pretty  girl ;  even  now,  at  her  advanced  age  of  seventy- three 
years,  she  is  a  striking  looking  woman,  with  a  fine  presence,  and 
very  good  manners.  Indeed  she  seems  to  have  inherited  many 
of  the  good  characteristics  of  both  races. 

I  never  tired  of  hearing  her  relate  the  thrilling  story  of  the 
awful  catastrophe  of  the  10th  of  June,  1886,  and  then  it  was  the 
idea  came  to  me  that  some  record  should  be  written  of  this  fine 
old  woman's  terrible  experience  on  that  night  of  horror.  As  no 
one  has  undertaken  the  task,  I  propose  to  do  so,  although  I  feel 
that  I  can  never  reproduce  her  striking  language  and  dramatic 
gestures,  or  paint  the  fire  that  flashed  from  her  eyes,  when  she 
told  me  how  she  restrained  those  sixty-two  people  from  rushing 
out  of  her  whar6  (house),  to  certain  destruction. 


622  The  Empire  Review 


I. 

SOPHIA'S  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  ERUPTION. 

"  Lady  !  I  had  been  guide  to  the  Pink  and  White  Terraces  at 
Tarawera  for  sixteen  years,  when  the  dreadful  Eruption  took 
place,  and  utterly  destroyed  the  lovely  work  of  nature  which  was 
more  beautiful  than  I  can  tell  you. 

"They  are  gone — quite  gone,  those  lovely  terraces — some  people 
say  buried,  but  I  know  better,  they  are  blown  to  bits,  as  the 
whole  of  that  side  of  Tarawera  burst  up.  Well !  I  will  tell  you 
the  story  of  that  dreadful  night,  though  it  makes  my  heart  ache, 
and  I  can't  help  the  tears  coming  when  I  think  of  the  relations 
and  friends  I  have  lost,  and  the  happy  days  I  passed  guiding  my 
visitors  round,  and  showing  them  what  they  said  was  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  sights  in  the  world. 

"  A  party  of  visitors  had  come  up  from  Dunedin  and  Christ- 
church,  and  arranged  with  me  to  take  them  to  Eotomahana  Lake 
at  8  o'clock  in  the  morning.  We  started  walking  for  the 
boats,  and  when  we  got  down  to  the  creek,  found  it  was  all 
dry.  There  was  no  water,  and  the  boats  were  stuck  in  the 
mud.  When  I  saw  this  I  was  astonished,  for  the  boats  here 
used  to  float  in  plenty  of  water.  I  could  not  understand  it, 
and  said  to  the  people,  l  My  word  !  this  is  a  new  thing,  the 
creek  is  dry.'  And  they  replied,  '  Yes,  Sophia,  it  is  something 
quite  new.' 

"  Whilst  we  were  standing  there,  the  water  began  to  come  up 
with  a  crying  sound  all  along  the  shores  of  the  lake,  and  as  it 
rose  it  floated  the  boats  up  and  up,  and  went  right  to  the  water- 
fall, and  then  rushed  back  again  leaving  the  creek  dry  as  before. 
Then  I  called  out  to  the  crew,  '  Come  up,  come  up,  be  quick, 
there  is  a  new  thing  here.'  And  when  they  got  down  to  the 
side  of  the  bridge,  there  was  no  water  at  all,  and  again  the  boats 
were  high  and  dry  in  the  creek,  and  for  the  second  time  we  heard 
the  water  returning  with  a  crying,  moaning  sound.  Hu,  hu,  hu, 
it  whimpered,  as  it  swept  round  the  edges  of  the  shore. 

"  The  boatmen  and  other  natives  looked  at  each  other,  not 
understanding  this  strange  thing,  and  said :  '  Sophia,  was  it  like 
this  when  you  came  down?'  I  answered,  'Yes.'  Whereupon 
the  visitors  became  very  frightened  and  said,  '  Sophia,  we  must 
go  back ; '  but  the  natives  said,  '  No  !  tell  the  paJcehas  (white 
people)  not  to  go  back,  but  to  come  on  in  the  boat.'  They  were 
anxious  of  course  to  finish  the  excursion,  for  they  were  to  get 


The  Wonders  of  Maoriland  623 

seventeen  shillings  a  head,  and  as  there  were  nine  visitors  this 
meant  a  sum  they  did  not  wish  to  lose. 

"  The  boatman  urged  them  saying,  '  Yes,  yes,  it  is  all  right, 
jump  in/  so  they  got  in  and  we  commenced  to  pull.  I  was  steering, 
but  as  we  went  along  I  noticed  that  the  waters  of  the  lake  were 
very  high,  and  that  the  boat  hardly  required  any  steering,  for 
there  was  only  an  inch  or  two  of  vegetation  to  be  seen  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  where  the  rushes  used  to  grow  very  high, 
and  a  good  deal  of  steering  used  to  be  required,  but  on  this 
occasion  we  passed  out  straight  into  the  lake  over  the  tops  of  the 
rushes  and  weeds. 

"  We  pulled  away  about  a  mile  and  a  half  when  I  looked  round 
and  saw  a  small  canoe  with  one  man  in  it  come  from  under  a 
Christmas  tree.  We  thought  it  was  some  one  going  to  catch  kouras 
(a  species  of  fresh  water  crayfish)  and  the  men  said,  '  Look,  there 
is  some  one  going  to  catch  kouras,'  but  as  we  looked  the  canoe 
got  larger  and  shot  out  into  the  lake,  and  then  from  one  man  the 
number  increased  to  five,  they  were  all  paddling  fast,  fast,  but  to 
our  horror  they  appeared  to  have  dogs'  heads  on  the  bodies  of 
men.  Then  the  canoe  got  larger  till  it  looked  like  a  war  canoe, 
and  then  we  saw  thirteen  in  it  all  paddling  faster  and  faster. 
Whilst  we  were  watching  astonished  and  terrified  (for  the  boat- 
men had  stopped  rowing)  the  canoe  got  smaller  until  only  five 
men  were  left,  and  at  last  there  remained  but  one  very  big  man, 
the  canoe  got  still  smaller  and  then  with  the  last  remaining  man 
disappeared  into  the  waters  of  the  lake. 

"  After  seeing  this  the  visitors  became  much  alarmed  and  very 
excited.  '  Sophia,'  they  said,  '  do  please  take  us  back,  we  are 
very  frightened,  and  are  sure  something  dreadful  is  going  to 
happen,'  but  I  persuaded  them  to  go  on.  'What!'  I  said, 
'  you  come  all  this  way  to  see  the  Pink  and  White  Terraces,  and 
want  to  go  back  without  visiting  them.  No,  no,  it  is  all  right ; 
see,  we  will  go  on.*  I  must  tell  you,  lady,  that  one  of  the  gentle- 
men who  could  draw  well,  made  a  sketch  of  the  canoe  with  the 
thirteen  men,  and  afterwards  had  it  photographed  and  sent  me  a 
copy.  We  went  on  and  landed  at  Te  Ariki,  the  boatmen  telling 
all  their  friends  what  we  had  seen.  I  then  guided  the  visitors 
round  to  the  White  Terraces,  where  we  had  lunch  before  going 
on  to  the  Pink  Terraces. 

"  Here  I  saw  the  old  chief  Eangiheua  of  the  Tuhoorangi  tribe, 
and  told  him  what  we  had  seen  ;  of  the  rising  of  the  waters  and 
the  apparition  of  the  war  canoe  with  the  thirteen  men  paddling. 
The  old  man  was  sitting  at  his  door  with  his  arms  folded,  and 
looking  here  and  there,  said,  'is  that  tika?'  (true).  I  replied, 
'  Yes !  every  one  in  the  boat,  including  the  nine  visitors,  saw  it.' 


624  The  Empire  Review 

'Then,'  said  he,  'if  that  be  true,  there  is  going  to  be  a  big  war, 
and  many  chiefs  and  people  will  be  killed — aue  aue  '  (alas  ! ).  He 
looked  very  sad  and  groaned.  I  suppose  he  was  thinking  he 
might  be  killed  himself.  I  must  tell  you,  lady,  that  this  old  chief 
perished  afterwards  in  the  eruption,  for  he  went  with  his  family 
to  one  of  the  islands  on  the  lake  for  some  warm  curative  baths, 
and  whilst  there  the  island  was  overwhelmed  and  every  living 
thing  destroyed. 

"  Six  days  later  we  went  again  to  the  Terraces,  and  I  guided  the 
visitors  over  as  usual.  Amongst  the  sights  we  visited  a  geyser 
called  Fatapuho  (which  means  a  pain  in  the  stomach)  and  it  was 
sending  out  flames  and  smoke.  This  was  on  Tuesday,  the  9th 
June.  Then  I  noticed  again  on  crossing  the  lake  that  the  water 
was  very  high  and  covered  the  rushes.  When  I  saw  the  chief 
Rangiheua,  I  said,  '  What  is  this  new  thing  ? '  the  old  man  shook 
his  head  saying,  '  We  shall  have  a  bad  summer,  Sophia,  a  bad 
summer,'  and  he  shook  his  head  again  and  again,  muttering  to 
himself  the  while. 

"  Well,  I  took  my  people  up  to  the  Pink  Terraces ;  they  wanted 
to  bathe,  but  I  said,  '  No,  no ;  it  is  too  cold  and  too  late,'  so  we 
returned  to  Wairoa  village.  When  I  got  back,  I  saw  Mr.  McCrae, 
proprietor  of  the  Eotomahana  Hotel.  I  said  to  him,  '  I  think 
this  is  my  last  day  at  Kotomahana  Lake,'  and  I  told  him  what  we 
had  seen.  He  said,  '  What  are  you  saying,  you  old  devil !  What 
are  you  telling  the  people  to  frighten  them  ?  Next  week  you  are 
going  to  take  a  party  to  Kotomahana  for  a  fortnight.'  'Well, 
well,  Mr.  McCrae,  never  mind,'  I  replied. 

"  I  then  went  home  and  got  to  bed.  I  had  been  on  the  lake  for 
a  month,  guiding  visitors  round.  I  was  tired,  and  all  my  clothes 
were  dirty — for  I  had  plenty  of  nice  things  that  ladies  had  given 
me — so  the  next  morning  I  got  up  at  half-past  four  o'clock  and 
went  down  to  the  Creek  to  do  my  washing.  I  was  washing  till 
6  A.M.,  then  I  felt  very  cold,  for  it  was  a  cold  day,  so  I  went  up  to 
my  house,  and  my  old  man,  Tiawihio,  said,  '  Are  you  ill  ?  I  will 
make  you  a  cup  of  tea.'  At  half -past  seven  o'clock  Mr.  Bainbridge 
came  up  from  McCrae's  Hotel.  I  was  lying  on  my  bed,  and  he 
said,  '  Sophia,  what  sort  of  a  day  is  this  ?  '  I  said,  '  very  bad  and 
very  cold.'  He  saw  I  was  shivering,  and  went  down  to  the 
Hotel  and  brought  me  up  something  hot.  '  Drink  it  all,'  he  said, 
'  and  cover  yourself  up  with  blankets.'  My  blankets  though 
were  all  damp,  as  I  had  washed  them,  but  I  had  some  shawls, 
and  I  lay  down  again  and  my  old  man  covered  me  up.  I  was 
lying  there  all  day,  and  at  5  P.M.  got  up  and  began  my  sewing, 
for  I  was  making  a  warm  skirt  to  go  to  Eotomahana. 

"I  finished  the  work  at  11.30  P.M.  and  went  to  bed.    But  I 


The  Wonders  of  Maoriland  625 

had  only  lain  down  about  five  minutes,  when  I  felt  the  earth- 
quake coming,  heaving  up  the  ground  like  waves. 

"  My  old  man  went  out  and  called  to  me :  '  Eppai  (Sophia) , 
water  is  running  down  the  hills.'  I  asked,  '  Is  it  raining  ?'  and 
he  said,  '  No.'  Then  I  went  out  myself  and  heard  it  running 
down  the  hills.  Then  I  went  down  to  my  two  old  aunties'  wharS, 
and  asked  them,  *  What  is  this  ? '  for  the  earth  was  shaking 
and  heaving ;  but  the  two  women  said,  '  Oh,  it  is  all  right ;  it 
will  be  finished  soon ' ;  for  they  were  thinking  it  was  the  earth- 
quake we  used  to  have  every  year  about  this  time ;  but  it  did  not 
finish,  and  only  got  worse.  So  I  said  to  the  old  aunties,  '  Come, 
we  will  go  up  to  my  whare,'  for  I  was  frightened  ;  but  they  said 
'  No,  no;  it  will  soon  be  over.'  But  whilst  they  were  speaking, 
the  ground  swayed  up  and  down  like  waves,  and  the  booming 
commenced  like  big  guns  going  off  and  rolling  like  thunder. 

"  I  was  terrified,  and  went  quickly  down  to  get  the  children 
who  were  at  their  brother  Davey's  house.  I  took  them  up  to 
my  whare,  and  when  I  got  there  I  found  ten  or  twelve  persons 
already  in  the  house.  At  12.30  P.M.  the  noise  seemed  to  get 
louder,  the  thundering  and  booming  with  explosions,  and  a  con- 
tinuous vibrating  sound  like  hm,  hm,  hm.  It  was  as  light  as 
day — yes,  lady,  almost  like  the  sun  that  is  now  shining  on  us. 
The  light  came  from  the  crater.  Then  an  appalling  crash,  and 
my  old  man  shouted  to  me  '  Haere-mai,  Eppai,  konewera  teau  * 
(come  and  see,  the  world  is  going  to  be  burnt). 

"  Lady,  it  was  a  grand  and  awful  sight ;  Tarawera  in  flames 
rising  high  into  the  sky,  the  red  hot  stones  and  lava  pouring 
down  its  sides,  the  beautiful  lake  glowing  in  the  blaze  of  light, 
all  bright  like  noonday,  and  the  surrounding  bush  nearest  the 
mountain  in  flames.  A  great  wind  too  came  rushing  down  the 
Wairoa  valley  towards  the  eruption,  and  so  the  splendid  forest 
was  blown  down  and  quite  destroyed.  At  1.30  A.M.  a  big  black 
cloud  came  over  Tarawera,  settling  over  it  black  as  the  darkest 
night ;  and  then  we  sat  in  my  whare  waiting,  as  we  thought,  for 
the  last  moment  to  come. 

"We  could  hear  the  people  come  crawling  along  the  little 
pathway,  groping  their  way  up  the  hill,  for  they  could  not  see, 
and  were  only  able  to  feel  their  way  slowly  along,  for  there  was 
not  a  ray  of  light,  only  the  blackest  darkness,  such  as  I  had  never 
seen  before  or  since.  Some  of  them  came  up  with  no  clothes ;  and 
as  I  had  plenty  of  things,  we  clothed  them.  At  last  there  were 
sixty-two  people  in  the  whar6.  Whilst  we  were  sitting  there, 
the  red  hot  stones  and  ashes  began  to  fall,  and  smashed  the 
window,  and  with  the  weight  of  these  stones  and  ashes — for  the 
ashes  lay  very  thick — the  rapuhu  (reed)  roof  began  to  give  way ; 
VOL.  VI.— No.  36.  2  s 


626  The  Empire  Review 

so  my  old  man  and  some  of  the  younger  ones  got  some  wood  and 
propped  up  the  roof  and  walls,  though,  fortunately,  the  whare 
was  very  strong  and  well  built. 

"The  noise  never  ceased,  and  the  terrible  roaring  was  con- 
tinuous. Then  an  earthquake,  and  Eotomahana,  another  part  of 
the  mountain,  burst  up  between  2.30  and  3.30.  All  the  people 
in  the  whare  were  terrified;  they  wanted  to  rush  out,  but  I 
would  not  Iqt  them  go,  saying:  'No,  you  shall  not  go  out 
you  will  be  killed ;  you  must  stay  here ;  at  least  we  can  all  die 
together.' 

"  All  through  that  awful  night  many  were  praying,  each  in  his 
own  way ;  one  poor  old  man  who  had  been  sitting  in  the  corner 
of  the  ivliare  wrapped  in  a  blanket,  was  praying  earnestly  all  night. 
He  had  onty  two  prayers,  which  never  varied,  one  Maori,  and 
one  learnt  from  the  missionaries ;  these  he  repeated  alternately 
the  whole  night  through,  and  they  seemed  to  give  him  great 
comfort.  At  8  A.M.,  it  got  a  little  lighter,  and  at  9  o'clock  we 
went  outside,  walking  on  the  hot  ashes  and  hot  black  flint 
stones.  Then  we  got  on  to  the  Eotorua  road,  and  passed  by  the 
Green  Lake.  Many  were  crying  bitterly,  for  they  had  lost 
children  and  relations,  killed  by  the  falling  stones,  or  crushed  in 
the  ruins  of  their  houses,  like  young  Mr.  Bainbridge,  who  was 
killed  by  the  falling  of  McCrae's  Hotel.  In  looking  back,  many 
sad  things  come  to  my  memory.  I  remember  one  poor  woman 
whose  two  children  were  both  killed  whilst  in  her  arms,  which 
were  clasped  round  them.  I  could  give  you  many  other  such 
instances,  but  it  is  all  so  sad,  I  do  not  like  to  speak  much  of  it. 

"As  we  reached  the  Blue  Lake  we  were  met  by  our  friends 
from  Eotorua  who  came  to  look  for  us,  thinking  we  were  killed. 
They  were  delighted  to  see  us  safe,  but  many  began  to  cry  when 
they  heard  of  those  that  they  had  lost,  relations  and  friends. 

"And  so  we  arrived  in  safety,  after  a  night  of  awful  horror — 
a  night  so  dreadful  it  will  live  in  my  heart  as  long  as  I  have 
any  memory.  And  that,  dear  lady,  is  all  I  have  to  tell  of  the 
great  Tarawera  Eruption  of  June  10th,  1886.  Hei-ltoneirra 
(Farewell!)" 


The  Wonders  of  Maoriland  627 

II, 

.THE  GEE  AT  WAIMANGU  GEYSER.* 

HE  AJIING  fthat  the  Great  Waimangu  Geyser,  discovered  about 
sixteen  months  ago,  and  situated  nine  miles  from  Waiotapu, 
was  well  worth  a  visit  I  arranged  with  some  friends  to  camp  out 
there  for  the  night,  and,  by  spending  the  best  part  of  two  days  on 
the  spot,  ensure  a  better  chance  of  seeing  the  much-wished-for 
sight.  The  weather  being  fine,  we  left  Falloonas  Hotel,  Waiotapu, 
at  10.30  A.M.  in  a  light,  four-wheeled  carriage,  with  "  John,"  our 
Maori  driver,  and  a  pair  of  active  little  ponies,  a  roll  of  rugs, 
and  a  box  of  provisions. 

We  drove  nine  miles,  ascending  gradually  along  a  soft  road, 
clay  at  times  alternating  with  sand,  and  edged  by  bracken,  fern, 
and  Manuka  scrub,  from  which  there  was  but  little  variation  on 
the  route.  We  skirted  the  beautiful  and  precipitous  Rainbow 
Mountain,  so  called  from  its  varied  and  brilliant  colouring,  every 
shade  of  red,  pink,  and  yellow  being  visible  on  its  sides,  and  after 
many  sharp  turns  and  constant  windings  of  the  road  reached  a 
little  grassy  plateau,  from  which  we  obtained  an  extensive  view  of 
the  surrounding  mountains,  the  geyser  basin  and  the  steaming 
valley.  Just  below  the  plateau,  the  little  camp  was  visible,  con- 
sisting of  two  or  three  tents  belonging  to  the  guide  (Shepherd), 
and  the  caretaker,  who  welcomed  us  on  our  arrival.  Then 
followed  a  rest  and  another  look  at  the  interesting  bird's-eye  view, 
before  starting  on  foot  for  the  geyser  valley.  The  path  sloped 
gradually  downwards,  and  was  composed  of  soft,  dark,  rather 
gritty  earth,  which  was  breaking  away  from  the  sides  of  the  hills 
in  water- worn  channels,  with  here  and  there  a  stunted  green  bush 
or  bunch  of  long,  wiry  ribbon-like  grass  (toi-toi)  with  its  graceful 
plumed  head,  to  break  the  monotony  and  grim  desolation  of  the 
scene. 

Soon  we  reached  the  narrow,  sandy  valley,  which  was  covered 
many  feet  deep  by  the  ashes  of  the  Tarawera  Eruption.  A 
stream  of  boiling  water,  the  overflow  from  the  geyser  and  its 
lake,  ran  through  the  valley,  and  crossing  over  by  stepping- 
stones  we  found  ourselves  on  what  was  apparently  a  thin  crust 
of  crumbling,  gritty  subtance  through  which  boiling  water  was 
coming  up  hissing  and  bubbling  with  great  energy.  The  crust 
covered  a  large  area,  and  from  the  peculiar,  fizzling  noise  it 
makes  is  called  the  Devil's  Frying  Pan. 

*  An  accurate  water  measurement  of  the  geyser  basin  has  lately  been  made  by 
the  Government  guide  who,  with  a  companion,  undertook  the  dangerous  task  of 
crossing  the  basin  in  a  boat.  They  found  the  greatest  depth  to  be  48  feet,  the 
length  134  yards,  and  the  width  30  yards. 

2  s  2 


628 


The  Empire  Review 


It  seemed  a  terribly  dangerous  place,  but  things  became  more 
unpleasant  as  we  advanced  and  heard  the  great  blow  holes  at  the 
base  of  a  beautiful  and  very  precipitous  rock  called  Gibraltar, 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  great  Mediterranean  fortress.  The 
surface  of  the  rock  was  streaked  with  brilliant  patches  of  red  and 
yellow  colouring,  and  from  the  apertures  steam  was  rushing  out 
with  a  fearful  and  unceasing  roar,  as  from  the  valves  of  a  dozen 
locomotives  The  noise  was  deafening,  but  one  was  able  to 
approach  quite  close,  as  the  wind  was  driving  the  steam  away 
from  us.  The  volume,  force  and  velocity  of  these  jets  was 
terrific,  and,  the  guide  told  us,  never  varied.  It  did  indeed  seem 
a  pity  that  all  this  energy  should  be  going  to  waste. 

Leaving  nature's  workshop,  we  proceeded  to  a  place  nearer 
the  geyser,  and  were  enveloped  by  clouds  of  steam  impregnated 
with  sulphur.  So  dense  indeed  was  the  vapour  that  we  could 
scarcely  see  where  we  were  walking,  and  we  found  the  heat 
unpleasantly  scorching  to  our  faces,  whilst  the  ground  was  very 
hot,  and  the  boiling  steam  with  its  horrid  odour  of  acid  and 
sulphur  combined,  seemed  to  penetrate  one's  clothes.  As  the 
position  was  becoming  rather  risky,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
guide,  we  beat  a  hasty  retreat,  recrossed  the  boiling  stream,  and 
going  up  the  slope  of  the  geyser  basin  looked  into  its  shadowy 
depths. 

The  water  had  a  milky- white  appearance,  and  steam  was 
coming  up  in  dense  volumes  from  the  centre,  and  on  the  outer 
sides  was  rolling  like  clouds  over  the  surface  and  round  the  edges. 
Leaving  the  geyser,  we  climbed  up  a  large  cliff  on  the  opposite 
side  facing  the  blow-holes,  and  from  the  top  of  this  looked  straight 
down  into  the  basin  of  the  geyser — a  fine  sight,  the  dreary  desola- 
tion of  the  scene  being  most  impressive.  We  waited  there  about 
an  hour  and  a  half,  hoping  the  geyser  would  play,  but  as  it  gave 
no  sign  of  activity,  and  was  getting  late,  we  started  on  the 
return  journey,  reaching  the  camp  about  sunset.  As  the  geyser 
had  not  played  since  the  previous  day,  and  not  to  its  greatest 
height  for  some  days  past,  we  thought  there  was  every  probability 
of  a  fine  display.  And  in  a  few  hours  this  proved  to  be  the  case, 
for  at  ten  minutes  past  10  P.M.  we  witnessed  a  magnificent 
spectacle  The  atmosphere  was  perfectly  clear,  the  night  still 
and  calm,  not  a  sound  or  flutter  in  the  air  disturbed  the  quiet 
magic  of  the  scene.  Eight  over  the  pool  shone  the  full  and 
brilliant  moon.  Nothing  indicated  the  awful  transformation  that 
was  soon  to  follow. 

In  a  few  minutes  a  low  rumbling  sound  was  heard  coming  as 
if  from  the  very  depths  of  the  earth,  it  sounded  so  deep  and  far 
away.  To  the  low  rumble  succeeded  a  hideous  roar  which  ever 
steadily  increased,  growing  in  awful  volume  till  the  grand 


The  Wonders  of  Maoriland  629 

crescendo  was  reached,  when  with  a  rending  crash  a  vast  black 
column  of  mud,  stones  and  boiling  water  hurled  itself  upwards, 
and,  tearing  the  surface  of  the  peaceful  lake,  shot  five  or  six 
hundred  feet  into  the  air,  the  steam  that  enveloped  it  ascending 
about  nine  hundred  or  one  thousand  feet,  far  above  the  tops  of 
the  surrounding  mountains.  The  wild  chaos  of  deafening  sounds 
is  quite  indescribable,  for  the  awful  roaring  was  accompanied  by 
the  grinding  and  crashing  of  the  stones  and  boulders  that  were 
thrown  up  and  collided  with  each  other  as  they  fell.  The  centre 
of  the  column  looked  quite  black,  but  the  edges  were  shrouded  in 
billows  of  white  feathery  steam  on  which  the  moon  shone  with 
a  pearly  radiance  making  the  scene  as  light  as  day,  and  a  picture 
of  unsurpassed  grandeur  and  incomparable  beauty. 

Fortune  still  further  favoured  us,  for  the  next  morning,  soon 
after  eight  o'clock,  we  saw  another  great  outburst.  Without 
any  warning  the  geyser  shot  up  with  a  terrific  roar,  and  before 
attaining  its  greatest  height,  branched  like  a  gigantic  spray  of 
black  coral,  and  spreading  through  the  soft  white  steam  clouds, 
rose  many  hundred  feet  into  the  air. 

According  to  an  analysis  made  by  Mr.  Maclaurin,  the  Govern- 
ment analyst,  the  deposit  from  the  crater,  which  is  a  greyish- 
black  colour,  shows  the  following  composition  : — 


Ferrous  Sulphate      .     ,/.-*...; 
Magnesium  sulphate 
Free  sulphur    .      .   •     *  •',  * 
Sulphide  of  iron  (iron  pyrites) 
Silica  and  silicates    . 


13'0 
3'5 

•8 

50-5 
32-2 


100-0 


This  deposit,  although  mainly  formed  by  substance  contained 
in  the  water  of  the  geyser,  is  in  part  composed  of  the  surrounding 
country  rock,  and  most  of  the  silica  and  silicates  shown  in  the 
analysis  were  from  the  last-named  source,  although  a  portion  of 
the  silica  is  no  doubt  derived  from  the  water.  Evidence  of 
"  country  rock  "  is  found  in  the  presence  of  small  pieces  of  black 
rock,  and  also  of  crystals  of  quartz,  felspar  and  a  little  mica. 

The  great  Waimangu  Geyser  undoubtedly  ranks  as  one  of  the 
greatest  wonders  of  the  world,  and  to  see  it  as  I  did  in  the 
solitude  and  mystery  of  night,  or  in  the  bright  awakening  of 
morning,  cannot  fail  to  awaken  in  the  most  callous  and  blase 
traveller  a  real  and  genuinely  great  sensation  of  awe  and 
astonishment. 


630  The  Empire  Review 


III. 
MAOBI  CHAKACTEBISTICS. 

THE  Maoris  are  a  generous  though  somewhat  improvident 
and  unthrifty  people.  Few  think  of  an  old-world  saying  that 
"  a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine,"  and  things  go  on  till  they  drop  to 
bits  and  have  to  he  replaced,  whether  it  he  the  roof  of  the  house 
or  the  only  coat.  There,  is  also  an  indolence  and  languor  about  the 
Maoris  that  recalls  the  East.  I  remember,  when  in  India,  having 
occasion  to  send  a  note  requiring  a  prompt  reply  calling  an  out- 
door servant.  I  told  him  to  take  it  quickly.  "Yes,  Mem  Sahib," 
he  replied,  with  a  salaam,  and  for  the  moment  it  seemed  as  if  he 
was  about  to  carry  out  his  intention,  but  after  a  few  quick  steps 
the  energy  wore  off  and  he  fell  into  a  leisurely  saunter.  A  friend 
standing  by  laughingly  remarked,  "  Just  look  at  that  man,  going 
along  as  if  to-morrow  would  do  as  well  as  to-day !  "  And  so  it 
is  with  the  Maori ;  he  is  a  good-humoured,  light-hearted,  happy- 
go-lucky  creature,  a  devotee  of  rest  and  sunshine,  and  steeped  in 
an  artistic  love  of  brilliant  colouring.  But  I  am  glad  to  say  the 
Maori  character  is  changing,  and  education  is  correcting,  or 
greatly  modifying,  his  natural  defects. 

As  illustrating  the  superstitious  beliefs  of  the  Maori,  let  me 
tell  you  the  legend  of  the  Taniwha  (demon)  as  I  heard  it  from 
Sophia. 

The  Taniwha  was  a  large  log  of  wood  that  for  long  years  had 
been  in  Tarawera  Lake.  To  it  the  Maoris  had  attributed  super- 
natural powers,  and  bestowed  on  it  the  name  of  Matarehuwha. 
They  looked  on  it  as  a  species  of  tricksy  spirit  endowed  with  a 
personality,  and  always  spoke  of  it  as  "  he."  Sophia  said  Matare- 
huwha was  not  a  good  spirit,  but  still  was  not  very  bad,  he 
seemed,  though,  of  an  active  nature,  and  appeared  able  to  move 
about  to  any  part  of  the  lake  at  his  own  pleasure.  Sometimes 
he  would  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water  with  his  branches 
stuck  out,  then  the  visitors  used  to  put  handkerchiefs  on  them 
as  they  passed  in  the  boats,  and  these  the  Maoris  used  to  take 
away  afterwards.  One  day  Sophia  said  they  came  up  to  Matare- 
huwha, and  the  boatmen  tried  to  catch  hold  of  him  by  seizing 
his  branches,  but  to  their  great  astonishment  and  discomfiture, 
he  evaded  them  by  sinking  at  once  to  the  bottom  of  the  lake, 
where  he  remained  till  danger  was  past.  Matarehuwha  would 
sometimes  come  to  meet  the  boats,  and  at  others  go  cruising 
round  and  round  the  water's  edge,  then  sinking  would  suddenly 
disappear  from  the  surface,  and  remain  submerged.  Never  was 
he  very  long  in  any  place,  but  seemed  to  lead  a  busy,  moving- 
about  life.  One  day  Matarehuwha  was  resting  on  the  edge  of 


The  Wonders  of  Maoriland  631 

the  shore,  and  a  paTceha,  McGregor  by  name,  was  passing 
by,  and  seeing  him  so  near,  hauled  him  out,  and  to  the 
great  horror  of  the  Maoris,  burned  him.  From  this  ill-advised 
act  they  prophesied  all  kinds  of  evil,  and  afterwards  declared  that 
this  sacrilege  was  the  cause  of  the  Tarawera  Eruption.* 

But,  if  superstitious,  the  Maoris  have  a  keen  sense  of  humour. 
Recalling  one  day  the  time  of  the  eruption,  Sophia  mentioned 
that  their  Eotorua  friends  t  brought  out  refreshments,  which 
included  a  bottle  of  whiskey.  "  With  us,"  said  Sophia,  "  was  an 
old  woman,  a  cousin  of  my  husband's ;  she  had  been  praying  hard 
all  the  night,  and  seeing  the  whiskey,  cried  out :  'Oh,  Eppai, 
give  that  bottle  back  to  the  people,  think  of  God  and  other 
things,'  pointing  at  the  same  time  with  her  finger  to  the  sky. 
Whereupon  the  woman  behind  me  pulled  my  skirt  violently, 
telling  me  at  the  same  time  not  to  listen  to  the  old  woman,  but 
to  take  the  whiskey.  Well !  lady,  you  know  I  had  been  blue 
ribbon  myself  for  seventeen  months.  So  to  quiet  the  poor  soul, 
I  said ;  '  All  right,  you  shall  do  the  praying  and  we  will  drink  the 
whiskey  ! ' '  The  narration  of  the  story  seemed  to  amuse  Sophia 
greatly,  and  she  ran  off  in  fits  of  laughter. 

Another  funny,  though  somewhat  gruesome  story  of  an  old 
Maori  chief,  who  was  fighting  a  great  land  case  in  court, 
indicates  that  humour  is  not  confined  to  the  feminine  portion 
of  the  Maori  population.  The  judge,  who  had  been  interrogating 
him  through  an  interpreter,  said,  "  Very  good,  Chief,  that  sounds 
all  very  well,  but  what,  may  I  ask,  became  of  the  family  of  your 
enemy  after  his  death?"  A  twinkle  came  into  the  old  man's 
eye,  as  with  a  grave  face  he  opened  his  enormous  mouth,  and 
raising  his  hand,  pointed  with  a  forefinger  down  his  throat ! 
The  conclusion  was  obvious,  and  for  a  few  moments,  as  may  be 
easily  imagined,  consternation  reigned  in  the  court. 

The  Maori  children  are  singularly  quick  and  observant,  to 
judge  from  a  story  told  me  by  Maggie,  the  pretty  Maori  guide  at 
WacJcarewarewa  of  a  little  girl  called  Emily.  This  precocious 
mite  had  at  various  times  seen  certain  high  Government  officials, 
and  noticing  they  were  all  very  stout,  with  prominent  and  some- 
what imposing  figures,  her  inquiring  mind  was  greatly  perplexed. 
At  last  she  sought  information  from  her  elders  by  asking  :  "  Why 
have  Government  got  big  drum  in  front  ?  Have  they  all  got  a 
big  drum  ?  " 

Another  anecdote  about  little  Emily  shows  that  she  was  duly 

*  In  his  report  to  the  New  Zealand  Government  Mr.  Malfroy  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  certain  occurrences  which  took  place  some  considerable  time 
before  the  eruption.  He  particularly  mentions  earthquakes,  renewed  activity  in 
geysers  long  dormant,  increased  energy  at  White  Island,  and  a  tidal  wave  on  the 
East  Coast  (Bay  of  Plenty). 

f  See  p.  6. 


632  The  Empire  Review 

sensible  of  her  creature  comforts,  while,  like  her  white  sisters,  her 
personal  appearance  was  not  entirely  a  negative  quantity.  She  is 
a  me  thodical  little  person,  and  is  employed  to  sweep  and  keep  a 
small  house  in  order.  One  day  her  employer,  who  was  going  to 
Auckland,  said  to  Emily,  "  You  have  been  a  very  good  girl,  and 
I  should  like  to  bring  you  something  back  with  me,  so  take  a 
pencil  and  write  down  what  you  would  care  to  have."  Emily 
made  out  her  list  as  follows :  (1 )  Some  liver  and  bacon ;  (2)  A 
piece  of  pink  ribbon  for  my  hair. 

It  will  be  readily  imagined  what  an  enjoyable  time  one  can 
spend  in  the  society  of  so  charming  a  people.  I  was  quite  sorry 
when  the  time  came  for  me  to  say  good-bye  to  my  Maori  friends, 
and  am  only  now  consoled  by  the  knowledge  that  we  shall  meet 
again  before  long. 

E.  I.  MASSY. 


Early  Days  in  Bombay  633 


EARLY   DAYS   IN   BOMBAY 

To  us  in  the  twentieth  century  it  seems  strange  that  Bombay, 
"  proud  city  of  the  waters,"  should  ever  have  held  second  rank  to 
Surat :  yet  so  it  was  three  hundred  years  ago.  Just  as  "  Plympton 
was  a  borough  town,  When  Plymouth  was  a  fuzzy  down,"  so 
Surat  was  the  headquarters  of  a  factory  when  Bombay  was  a 
neglected  native  seaport,  frequented  by  pirates.  Some  sailors  of 
the  old  Company  had,  however,  marked  the  harbour  hidden  behind 
the  Back  Bay,  and  as  early  as  1627  the  Company  tried  to  get 
possession  of  the  place. 

In  that  year  a  joint  expedition  of  English  and  Dutch  ships 
was  sent  to  Bombay.  It  was  just  twelve  years  since  we  had 
beaten  the  Portuguese  in  the  second  sea-fight  off  the  Swally 
Roads  near  Surat,  and  we  were  still  friendly  with  Holland  and 
at  enmity  with  Spain  and  Portugal.  Spain  had  annexed  Portugal 
in  1580,  and  for  sixty  years  the  two  countries  formed  a  single 
kingdom.  A  Dutch  admiral,  Harman  Van  Speult,  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  joint  expedition  against  Bombay :  his  object 
was  to  form  an  establishment  there  and  to  attack  the  Portuguese 
in  the  Red  Sea.  Unfortunately  Van  Speult  died,  and  his  death 
upset  the  entire  undertaking.  Bombay  remained  with  the 
Portuguese.  Meantime  changes  speedily  occurred  in  European 
politics.  Portugal  broke  loose  from  Spain  and  reassumed  her 
independent  existence;  and  with  Portugal  as  an  independent 
power,  the  traditions  of  England  had  been  as  friendly  in  the  past 
as  they  were  to  be  in  the  future.  With  Holland,  on  the  other 
hand,  our  relations  had  become  strained.  They  had  played  us 
foully  false  in  the  tragedy  at  Amboyna ;  and  it  was  not  until  the 
time  of  Cromwell  that  we  reaped  our  revenge.  In  1653  we  were 
at  open  war  with  Holland ;  a  Dutch  fleet  threatened  Surat.  The 
president  and  council  of  that  factory  wrote -home  to  the  directors 
of  the  Company,  pointing  out  how  convenient  it  would  be  if 
they  possessed  some  insular  fortified  station,  and  they  suggested 
that  the  Portuguese  might  for  a  consideration  part  with  Bombay 
and  Bassein. 

The  directors  agreed  with  the  president  and  council,  and  drew 


634  The  Empire  Review 

the  attention  of  the  Lord  Protector  next  year  to  their  proposition. 
In  that  year  the  masterful  governor  of  the  fortunes  of  England 
made  a  treaty  with  Holland,  ensuring  that  tardy  justice  should 
be  done  on  all  who  were  partakers  or  accomplices  in  the  massacre 
of  the  English  at  Amboyna ;  he  made  a  treaty  also  at  the  same 
time  with  Portugal,  placing  on  an  international  basis  the  right 
of  English  ships  to  trade  to  any  Portuguese  possession  in  the 
East  Indies ;  but  further  than  this  he  did  not  go.  Nothing  was 
done  at  this  time  about  Bombay.  Cromwell  died  in  1658,  and 
Charles  II.  came  back  to  his  own  again  in  1660. 

In  April  of  the  following  year  the  merry  monarch  renewed 
the  charter  of  the  London  East  India  Company,  and  he  and  the 
Company  remained  on  the  best  of  terms  throughout  his  reign.  In 
June  of  that  same  year  Charles  married  the  Princess  of  Portugal, 
Catharine  of  Braganza.  The  marriage  treaty  was  dated  the  23rd 
June,  1661,  and  by  the  eleventh  article  of  this  treaty  the  Crown  of 
Portugal  ceded  and  granted  in  full  sovereignty  to  the  Crown  of 
England  the  Island  and  Harbour  of  Bombay.  A  secret  article 
was  appended  to  the  treaty,  in  which  Charles  guaranteed  to  the 
King  of  Portugal  his  possessions  in  the  East  and  undertook  to 
compel  Holland,  by  treaty  or  by  force,  to  accede  to  the  conditions 
of  the  treaty ;  so  that,  as  Sir  William  Hunter  has  put  it,  Bombay 
was  granted  not  merely  as  a  wedding-gift,  but  for  the  express 
purpose  of  enabling  the  English  king  to  defend  the  Portuguese 
settlements  in  India  from  the  Dutch. 

Thus  was  Bombay  ceded  as  a  matter  of  treaty,  but  it  still 
remained  to  obtain  possession  as  a  matter  of  fact.  The  king 
sent  out  Lord  Marlborough  with  five  ships  of  war  for  the 
purpose  of  taking  possession  ;  with  him  went  five  hundred  troops 
under  the  command  of  Sir  Abraham  Shipman ;  the  Portuguese 
Viceroy  accompanied  them  to  ensure  that  the  articles  of  cession 
were  strictly  observed ;  and  the  Directors  despatched  orders  to  Sir 
George  Oxenden,  the  Governor  of  Surat,  to  afford  his  best  services 
to  the  armament.  Lord  Marlborough  reached  Bombay  on  the 
18th  September,  1662,  and  straightway  demanded  cession.  Then 
began  a  wordy  strife.  There  was  a  difficulty  of  interpretation. 
The  English  admiral  interpreted  the  terms  of  the  treaty  to  signify 
Bombay  and  its  dependencies,  the  islands  of  Tanna  and  Salsette ; 
the  Portuguese  Viceroy,  on  the  other  hand,  read  the  treaty  strictly 
as  referring  only  to  the  island  of  Bombay.  Thereupon  the  noble 
Earl  demanded  the  cession  of  Bombay  in  the  first  instance,  as  this 
was  admitted  by  both  parties  to  be  within  the  terms  of  the  treaty. 
Moreover  he  was  anxious  to  land  his  troops,  numbers  of  whom, 
eaten  up  by  scurvy,  were  dying  daily  from  want  of  refreshment. 

The  Portuguese  Viceroy,  however,  declined  to  cede  the  island 
on  these  terms ;  and,  as  Sir  George  Shipman  was  not  then  with 


Early  Days  in  Bombay  635 

them,  he  declined  to  allow  any  troops  to  be  landed  in  his  absence, 
as  he  was  the  commander  of  the  English  troops.  The  daily 
death-roll  from  scurvy  perforce  continued.  Shipman  arrived  in 
October  1662,  produced  his  full  powers,  and  demanded  cession 
agreeably  to  the  treaty ;  but  the  Viceroy  urged  a  further  objection. 
He  alleged  that  the  form  of  the  Letters  Patent  of  the  King  was 
not  regular,  according  to  Portuguese  usage ;  he  offered,  therefore, 
to  retain  the  island  for  the  King  of  England  until  authority  in 
due  form  had  been  procured  from  Lisbon  to  enable  him  to  make 
the  cession.  Being  thus  checkmated  in  their  attempt  to  land  the 
troops  at  Bombay,  Lord  Marlborough  and  Shipman  then  bethought 
them  of  Surat,  and  applied  to  Sir  George  Oxenden  for  permission 
to  disembark  there.  They  took  it  for  granted  that  permission  would 
be  given ;  four  companies  of  a  hundred  men  each  were  actually 
landed  at  Swally,  and  Shipman  began  to  drill  them,  when  Sir 
George  Oxenden  sent  to  him  in  haste  entreating  him  to  depart,  on 
the  ground  that  the  jealousy  and  fear  of  the  Mughal  Government 
would  be  excited  by  such  a  display  of  force.  Deprived  of  their 
new  refuge,  Lord  Marlborough  re-embarked  Sir  Abraham  Shipman 
and  his  men,  and  put  to  sea  again ;  finally  he  landed  them  on  the 
small  island  of  Anjideva,  twelve  leagues  south  of  Goa,  left  them 
there  and  sailed  away  to  England. 

Anjideva  was  extremely  unhealthy,  and  there  was  no  protec- 
tion from  the  rains.  Sir  Abraham  Shipman  and  three  hundred 
of  the  men  died.  Before  his  death,  Shipman  proposed  to  Oxenden 
and  his  council  at  Surat  that  the  right  to  Bombay  should,  with 
the  assent  of  the  Viceroy  of  Goa,  be  ceded  by  the  King  to  the 
Company.  To  the  instant  adoption  of  this  course  there  were, 
however,  two  insurmountable  obstacles.  The  first  was  that  the 
cession  could  only  be  made  by  the  King  of  England,  who  was  five 
thousand  miles  away :  and  the  second  was  that  the  Viceroy  would 
never  assent  without  obtaining  fresh  instructions  from  Portugal. 
This  little  arrangement,  therefore,  fell  through,  and  the  troops 
were  left  at  Anjideva  to  die  during  the  rains.  Lord  Marl- 
borough  reached  home  and  told  his  story :  it  raised  the  ire  of 
honest  Samuel  Pepys,  and  of  Samuel's  master,  the  King  of 
England. 

The  Portugalls  have  choused  us,  it  seems,  [wrote  the  worthy  diarist  on  the 
15th  May,  1663],  in  the  Island  of  Bombay,  in  the  East  Indys;  for  after  a 
great  charge  of  our  fleets  being  sent  thither  with  full  commission  from  the 
King  of  Portugall  to  receive  it,  the  Govcrnour  by  some  pretence  or  other  will 
not  deliver  it  to  Sir  Abraham  Shipman,  sent  from  the  King,  nor  to  my  Lord  of 
Marlborough ;  which  the  King  takes  highly  ill,  and  I  fear  our  Queen  will  fare 
the  worse  for  it. 

Charles  sent  a  memorial  to  the  Portuguese  ambassador,  demanding 
justice  and  damages,  and,  furthermore,  immediate  orders  for  the 


636  The  Empire  Review 

cession  of  the  island  of  Bombay  and  its  dependencies,  the  islands 
of  Tanna  and  Salsette. 

This  royal  memorial,  however,  only  elicited  an  explanation 
that  the  intention  of  the  treaty  was  to  cede  the  island  of  Bombay 
but  not  its  dependencies.  The  King,  in  reply,  insisted  that  not 
only  the  island,  but  its  dependencies  also,  were  comprehended  in 
the  treaty,  seeing  that  Bombay  alone  "would  in  a  commercial 
view,  neither  give  to  the  English  in  the  East  Indies  a  station  that 
would  enlarge  their  trade,  nor  in  a  political  view  add  to  the  naval 
influence  of  England,  or  enable  the  two  Crowns  to  fulfil  the  secret 
article  of  the  treaty  for  counterbalancing  the  commercial  and 
naval  superiority  of  the  Dutch."  The  King's  diplomacy,  how- 
ever, proved  fruitless.  Salsette  was  only  separated  from  Bombay 
by  a  narrow  tidal  channel,  which  at  one  part  was  scarcely  125 
yards  wide ;  but,  nevertheless,  Salsette  and  Tanna  remained 
Portuguese  until  the  Marathas  captured  the  place  in  1739,  and  it 
did  not  come  into  the  possession  of  the  Company  until  the  Treaty 
of  Salbai  in  1782. 

Bombay,  however,  did  pass  into  their  possession  without  any 
orders  from  home.  Sir  Abraham  Shipman  and  the  greater  part 
of  his  troops  having  died,  his  secretary  Humphrey  Cooke  took 
charge  of  the  103  men  who  survived,  and  to  save  his  life  and  theirs 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Viceroy  of  Goa  in  November  1664.  Cooke, 
on  the  part  of  England,  accepted  cession  of  the  Island  of  Bombay 
only,  renounced  all  pretension  to  any  dependencies  of  the  island, 
and  exempted  all  the  Portuguese  residents  of  Bombay  from  pay- 
ment of  customs.  Having  got  everything  he  wanted,  the  Viceroy 
no  longer  opposed  the  landing  of  the  troops  ;  they  were  landed  at 
Bombay  on  the  3rd  March,  1665,  and  a  general  muster  and  an 
inventory  of  stores  were  taken  by  Captain  Gary,  a  member  of  the 
Surat  Council.  Thus  did  the  gaunt  fever-stricken  soldiers  take 
possession  of  Bombay.  Cooke  may,  of  course,  have  acted  with 
the  best  intentions,  but  he  had  clearly  acted  altogether  ultra  vires. 
When  King  Charles  heard  of  these  proceedings  he  promptly  dis- 
avowed Cooke's  convention  as  being  contrary  to  the  terms  of  the 
treaty,  turned  Cooke  out  of  office,  and  appointed  Sir  Gervase 
Lucas  to  be  Governor  of  Bombay.  At  the  same  time  the  King 
assured  the  Company  that  protection  would  be  afforded  to  their 
factories  and  trade  by  his  forces  occupying  the  island. 

In  this  curious  manner  did  Charles  II.  obtain  possession  of 
the  Island  of  Bombay.  He  had  had  trouble  enough  to  acquire 
seisin  of  his  new  territory,  and  was  very  soon  discontented  with 
his  acquisition.  Bombay,  indeed,  at  that  time  was,  as  Pepys 
said,  "  but  a  poor  place,  and  not  really  so  as  was  described  to  our 
King  in  the  draught  of  it,  but  a  poor  little  island."  There  is 
to-day  probably  no  fairer  prospect  in  the  world  than  the  entrance 


Early  Days  in  Bombay  637 

to  Bombay  Harbour.  The  long  line  of  the  hills  passes  out  of  sight 
as  the  vessel  enters  the  waters  of  the  Back  Bay  between  Malabar 
and  Colaba  Points,  and  the  eye  rests  on  a  magnificent  line  of 
public  buildings  from  the  Elphinstone  College  on  the  south  to 
the  General  Post  Office  on  the  north.  Then  as  the  vessel  rounds 
the  Prong  Lighthouse,  the  Isle  of  Elephanta  heaves  in  sight,  we 
pass  the  smiling  front  of  the  Bombay  Yacht  Club,  and  so  on  to 
the  docks  at  Mazagaon. 

But  when  Humphrey  Cooke  took  possession  of  Bombay,  its 
general  aspect  was  desolate  enough.  There  was  no  road,  nor 
bridge,  nor  aqueduct,  nor  tank  in  the  place.  Large  tracts  now 
recovered  from  the  sea  were  then  under  water.  Bhendi  Bazar, 
known  to  travellers,  was  at  high  tide  completely  covered  by  the 
sea — "the  waves  flowed  to  the  part  called  Umerkhadi "-— and 
near  where  the  temple  of  Mumba  Devi  now  stands,  the  receding 
tide  left  a  stream  of  salt  water  at  which  people  washed  their  feet 
before  entering  the  city.  The  population  then  was  about  ten 
thousand,  mostly  fugitives  and  vagabonds,  including  renegade 
Jesuits,  ever  ready  to  foment  rebellion  and  to  risk  life.  At 
Kamatipura,  hard  by  Byculla,  there  was  water  enough  for  boats 
to  pass.  "  In  fact  during  one  part  of  every  day  only  a  group  of 
islets  was  to  be  seen.  Forty  thousand  acres  of  good  land  were 
submerged.  The  rest  of  the  island  seemed  for  the  most  part  a 
barren  rock,  producing  only  some  palm  trees  which  covered  the 
Esplanade."  The  chief  town  was  Mahim.  There  were  a  few 
fishermen's  huts  on  Dongari  Hill,  and  a  few  houses  scattered 
among  the  palm  trees  in  the  fort.  There  was  a  four-square 
house,  afterwards  to  become  Government  House,  with  its  garden 
and  four  brass  guns.  A  few  rickety  forts  existed,  with  small 
pieces  of  ordnance,  for  a  protection  against  pirates.  The  Portu- 
guese on  the  island  were  depraved  and  corrupt. 

When  Sir  Gervase  Lucas  took  over  the  place  from  Humphrey 
Cooke,  he  became  extremely  depressed  and  sent  the  King  a  most 
mournful  report  of  the  new  possession.  The  fortifications,  he 
said,  were  ruinous  and  unsuitable ;  eighteen  months'  supply  of 
stores  and  provisions  of  every  description  was  wanted  at  once  ;  a 
garrison  of  four  hundred  men  was  absolutely  necessary ;  and  he, 
the  Governor,  really  could  not  live  in  Bombay  on  £2  a  day. 
Charles  referred  this  depressing  document  to  a  royal  commission. 
The  commission  were  of  opinion  that  under  the  circumstances  it 
would  be  improper  to  incur  any  great  expense  on  Bombay,  but 
they  recommended  that  a  reinforcement  should  be  sent  of  sixty 
men,  with  a  supply  of  clothes,  ammunition  and  stores.  The 
report  made  by  the  Governor  next  year  (1667)  was  more  cheerful* 
Sir  Gervase  Lucas  admitted  the  importance  and  value  of  the 
island,  but  pointed  out  that  it  was  exposed  to  the  jealousy  of  the 


638  The  Empire  Review 

Mughal  power ;  he  also  bemoaned  the  suspicious  practices  of  his 
predecessor,  the  secretary  Cooke,  which  had  rendered  it  almost 
impossible  to  tell  what  inhabitants  were  legally  possessed  of 
sufficient  titles  to  their  estates ;  at  the  same  time  the  Governor 
admitted  that  when  these  titles  had  been  investigated  and  the 
island  was  properly  cultivated,  it  would  be  very  productive. 

The  King  was  at  this  time  treating  with  the  Dutch  ;  and  on 
the  31st  July,  1667,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  them  in  which 
the  claims  of  the  East  India  Company  received  scant  considera- 
tion ;  and  either  as  a  sop  to  the  Company,  or  to  get  rid  of  a 
troublesome  possession,  he  determined  to  transfer  the  island  of 
Bombay  to  the  East  India  Company.  Sir  Gervase  Lucas  had 
died,  garrisoning  the  island  would  be  expensive,  retaining  it  would 
probably  involve  complications  with  the  Portuguese,  the  Marathas, 
and  the  Great  Mughal ;  so  Charles  offered  Bombay  to  the 
Company,  telling  them  that  he  gave  them  the  first  chance, 
"  albeit  there  were  some,  both  foreigners  and  others,  desirous  to 
have  it." 

And  on  the  27th  March,  1668,  he  issued  Letters  Patent 
granting  the  port  and  island  of  Bombay  to  the  East  India 
Company  in  perpetuity  : 

with  all  the  rights,  profits  and  territories  thereof,  in  as  full  manner  as  the 
King  himself  possessed  them,  by  virtue  of  the  treaty  with  the  King  of  Portugal, 
by  which  the  island  was  ceded  to  his  Majesty,  to  be  held  by  the  company  of 
the  King  in  free  and  common  socage,  as  of  the  manor  of  East  Greenwich,  on 
payment  of  the  annual  rent  of  ^£10  in  gold  on  the  30th  September  in  each  year. 

It  took,  however,  some  time  for  events  occurring  in  England 
to  be  notified  to  Bombay.  Sir  Gervase  Lucas,  the  King's 
Governor  at  Bombay,  had  before  his  death  quarrelled  with  Sir 
George  Oxenden,  the  Company's  Governor  at  Surat ;  and  their 
quarrel  was  symbolical  of  what  might  be  expected  in  the  future 
with  a  divided  authority ;  they  made  up  their  quarrel  and  Sir 
Gervase  died  in  harness  on  the  21st  May,  1667.  On  his  death 
a  dispute  ensued  between  the  Governor's  Deputy,  Captain  Henry 
Gary,  and  the  Governor's  predecessor,  Humphrey  Cooke ;  both 
claimed  succession  to  the  post.  Cooke  was  supposed  to  be 
tainted  with  corruption;  he  had  gone  to  Goa,  and  had  taken 
sides  with  the  Jesuits  against  Sir  Gervase  Lucas  in  a  dispute  as 
to  a  considerable  quantity  of  land  which  was  claimed  by  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Bundera. 

When  Lucas  died,  Cooke  came  back  to  Salsette,  and  endea- 
voured with  the  aid  of  the  Jesuits  to  assemble  a  force  to  seize 
Bombay.  Captain  Gary  and  his  council  thereupon  proclaimed 
Cooke  to  be  a  rebel  and  a  traitor ;  neither  from  Gary  nor  from 
Oxenden  could  Cooke  obtain  countenance  or  protection,  Captain 


Early  Days  in  Bombay  639 

Gary  was  determined  to  maintain  his  right  to  administer  the 
island  until  the  King's  pleasure  should  be  known,  and  he  busied 
himself  in  preparing  and  submitting  to  his  Majesty  a  statement 
of  the  revenues  of  the  island  as  improved  by  Sir  Gervase  Lucas 
and  himself.  This  statement  shows  that  the  rents  for  Mazagaon, 
Mahim,  Parel,  Vadel,  Sion,  Veroly,  and  Bombay,  together  with 
the  rents  of  the  tobacco  farm  and  taverns,  and  the  account 
of  customs  and  of  cocoa-nuts,  amounted  to  75,000  xeraphims, 
"  which  at  thirteen  xeraphims  for  22s.  6d.  sterling,  amounts  to 
£6490  175.  9d." 

The  worthy  captain  had,  however,  sent  in  his  administration 
report  to  the  wrong  superior  officer,  for  Bombay  had  meantime 
ceased  to  be  a  royal  town  and  had  passed  under  the  aegis  of  the 
Company.  Captain  Gary  received  a  letter  addressed  to  Sir 
Gervase  Lucas,  in  which  the  Court  of  Directors  enclosed  a  copy 
of  the  King's  grant,  and  empowering  him  to  deliver  the  Island  to 
Oxenden  and  the  Council  of  Surat.  The  Directors  appointed 
Sir  George  Oxenden  to  be  their  Governor  and  Commander-in 
Chief  at  Bombay ;  he  was  empowered  to  nominate  a  deputy- 
governor  from  his  Council,  and  was  to  reside  on  the  Island  with 
such  assistants  as  might  be  required.  The  Court  was  determined 
that  Bombay  should  be  an  English  colony,  and  framed  the 
following  regulation  with  that  view  : — 

The  fort  or  castle  was  to  be  enlarged  and  strengthened ;  a  town  was  to  be 
built  on  a  regular  plan  and  to  be  so  situated  as  to  be  under  the  protection  of  the 
fort ;  inhabitants,  chiefly  English,  were  to  be  encouraged  to  settle,  and  were  to 
be  exempt  for  five  years  from  the  payment  of  customs ;  certain  articles  were  to 
be  permanently  exempt  from  the  payment  of  duty ;  the  revenues  were  to  be 
improved  without  the  imposition  of  any  discouraging  taxes ;  the  Protestant 
religion  was  to  be  favoured,  but  no  unnecessary  restraints  were  to  be  imposed 
on  inhabitants  professing  a  different  faith ;  manufactures  of  all  sorts  of  cotton 
and  silks  were  to  be  encouraged  and  looms  provided  for  the  settlers  ;  a  harbour 
with  docks  was  to  be  constructed ;  a  proportion  of  soldiers  with  their  wives 
and  families  were  annually  to  be  sent  from  England ;  and  an  armed  vessel  of 
about  180  tons  was  to  be  stationed  at  Bombay  for  the  protection  of  the  island 
and  its  trade. 

With  this  flourish  of  trumpets  did  the  Company  take  posses- 
sion of  the  city  which  was,  in  future  ages  to  become  the  brightest 
jewel  in  the  diadem  of  the  Emperor  of  India. 

EUSTACE  J.  KITTS. 


640 


The  Empire  Review 


THE    SMITHS 

I. 

ON  the  vast  expanse  of  veld,  the  sun  beat  down  in  his  mid- 
summer strength.  The  hot  air  rose  and  fell  like  waves  of 
molten  glass  about  the  mountains  and  the  scattered  kopjes,  and 
shimmered  low  over  the  close  growth  of  stunted  bush  that  cloaked 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  Meerkats  and  ground  squirrels  darted 
about  among  it,  here  and  there,  or  flitted  across  the  sandy  wheel- 
tracks  that  scored  the  face  of  the  veld  in  places,  and  were,  by 
reason  of  the  purpose  they  served,  called  roads.  But  it  was  long 
since  the  ox  or  donkey  waggon  of  the  peaceful  farmer  had  wound 
its  slow  way  along  these  tracks,  or  the  prancing  horse  of  the 
young  Boer  in  search  of  a  wife  had  galloped  merrily  over  the 
thick  grey  sand.  For  nearly  a  year  and  a  half,  war  had  devas- 
tated the  land,  and  the  peace  that  brooded  over  this  great  stretch 
of  country  was  that  of  nature,  not  of  man. 

Far  away,  along  one  of  the  sandy  tracks  that  wound  its  way 
over  a  rise  in  the  veld,  a  small  cloud  of  dust  was  rising.  It  hung, 
faint  and  brown,  against  the  blue  of  the  sky  for  a  short  space, 
and  then  sunk  lazily  back  to  whence  it  had  come.  But  out  of  its 
haze  something  dark  and  solid  presently  appeared,  and  a  sound 
stole  on  the  air — the  dull  thud  of  a  horse's  feet.  The  rider— for 
it  was  a  single  horseman  who  thus  hove  in  sight — sat  heavily 
down  in  his  saddle,  and  his  steed,  a  big  gaunt  grey,  went  forward 
with  the  steady,  unflagging  jog-trot  of  the  seasoned  colonial 
horse.  The  man  was  big  and  gaunt  like  the  animal  he  rode,  and 
the  fresh  unsoiled  appearance  of  his  khaki  uniform  betrayed  a 
very  short  acquaintance  with  the  country  he  was  riding  through. 
His  tanned  and  wrinkled  face  was  clean-shaven,  and  his  grey  hair 
showed  long  and  unkempt,  beneath  his  flat  field-service  cap. 
There  were  two  stars  on  his  shoulder-straps,  but  a  tiny  metal 
cross  attached  to  his  third  button-hole,  proclaimed  his  rank  more 
truly.  This  solitary  rider  was  a  Church  of  England  chaplain  in 
the  British  Army. 

He  seemed,  like  his  horse,  quite  impervious  to  the  heat.    His 


The  Smiths  641 

gaze  turned  alertly  to  this  side  and  that  as  he  rode,  with  the 
trailing  dust-cloud  in  his  wake,  and  the  vast  silent  monotony 
before ;  here  following  the  flight  of  a  yellow-legged  hawk  over- 
head, and  there  the  fleet  skimming  of  a  squirrel  through  the  bush. 
Now  and  again,  the  bleached  skeleton  of  an  ox  appeared,  half 
buried  in  the  sand,  and  less  frequently,  dead  horses  and  mules 
that  were  not  yet  skeletons,  made  him  quicken  his  horse's  pace  to 
a  momentary  canter.  The  road  presently  dipped  down  into  a 
hollow,  rose  out  of  it,  ribboned  round  the  base  of  a  kopje,  and  at 
length  brought  him  full  on  a  spectacle  that  made  him  rein  in  his 
horse  and  sit  motionless,  gazing. 

Below  him,  out  of  broad  brown  flatness,  rose  what  was 
left  of  a  burnt-out  farmhouse.  The  roof  was  gone,  but  the  walls 
still  stood,  though  here  and  there  great  pieces  of  masonry  had 
fallen  away,  and  in  them  gaped  ragged  holes  that  had  once  been 
doors  and  windows.  Empty  kraals,  with  broken  fences,  sur- 
rounded the  ruin,  and  farther  away,  over  the  top  of  a  long  stone 
wall,  the  green  of  fruit  trees  appeared.  Behind  it  all  there  was 
a  long,  irregular  chain  of  kopjes,  their  crests  and  slopes  thickly 
studded  with  blue  and  purple  ironstone.  Nowhere  in  this  scene 
of  desolation  was  there  any  thing  of  life,  no  sound  of  bird  or  beast 
broke  the  heavy  stillness  that  brooded  over  it.  It  was  as  though 
Nature  slept,  or  lay  in  a  trance  about  those  blackened  walls. 

The  man  looked  long,  and  then  suddenly  broke  into  speech. 

"  Schiller,"  he  exclaimed,  "  I  see  with  you,  I  feel  your  inspira- 
tion. Most  truly  does  'Horror  live  in  desolate  window  holes.' 
Most  truly  does  it  live  where  '  The  clouds  of  Heaven  see  high 
within.'  " 

The  sound  of  a  human  voice  echoed  strangely  through  the 
silence.  The  speaker  felt  it,  and  the  flash  of  deep  feeling  that 
the  sight  had  evoked  left  his  features.  They  settled  once  more 
into  their  habitual  expression  of  stern  sadness,  and  he  turned  his 
horse's  head,  and  urged  the  animal  forward  again.  The  road 
wound  on  round  the  kopje  into  the  shadow  of  the  other  side, 
and  the  ruin  was  lost  to  sight.  But  the  rider  rode  now,  with 
eyes  that  looked  straight  before  him,  and  turned  neither  to  the 
right  nor  to  the  left ;  even  as  a  man  fixes  his  eyes  who  is  deep 
in  thought. 

The  track  clove  the  bush  of  the  veld  again,  streaked  whitely 
between  two  tall  kopjes,  and  came  suddenly  on  a  wide  river  that 
was  rolling  sluggishly  along  between  its  sloping  banks.  Wheel- 
track  pointed  to  the  shallows,  where,  in  times  past,  there  had 
been  a  drift,  and  horse  and  rider  plunged  in  and  came  safely  to 
the  other  side.  The  road  led  them  among  more  kopjes,  through 
a  great  rocky  donga,  and  finally  out  on  to  the  open  veld  once 
more,  becoming,  on  this  side  of  the  river,  more  worthy  of  its 
VOL.  VI,— No.  86.  2  T 


642  The  Empire  Review 

name.  It  hardened,  and  but  little  dust  rose  under  the  horse's 
feet;  the  wheel-tracks  were  newer.  A  cool  breeze  had  sprung 
up,  and  blew  in  the  rider's  face,  for  the  day  was  fast  drawing  to 
a  close ;  already  the  sun  had  disappeared  behind  the  western 
mountains,  and  the  gorgeous  heralds  of  his  departure  glowed 
crimson  and  pink  and  gold,  and  the  softest  palest  green  in  the 
evening  sky.  But  the  man's  reflective  eyes  were  not  looking  at 
the  sunset.  He  was  still  blinded  by  his  meditations. 

It  was  getting  dark.  Ahead  of  him,  lights  began  to  twinkle  out 
on  the  veld.  The  notes  of  a  bugle  sounded  faintly  in  the  distance, 
and  he  awoke  from  his  thoughts  and  sighed  ;  the  horse  of  its  own 
accord  quickened  its  pace.  The  tents  of  a  camp  became  visible 
with  a  streak  of  railway  line  passing  through  the  midst  of  them, 
and  grey  station  buildings  and  great  water-tanks  rising  darkly 
here  and  there.  The  chaplain  entered  the  camp  at  a  brisk  trot. 
Groups  of  soldiers  lying  about  enjoying  the  cool  of  the  evening 
after  the  broiling  day  remarked  to  each  other  as  he  passed  that 
the  new  padre  had  come  in  from  his  first  ride,  and  wondered  what 
he  thought  of  things.  But  no  one  stopped  him  to  ask,  and  he 
rode  straight  up  to  his  own  tent  and  dismounted.  A  soldier 
came  and  took  the  tired  horse  away,  and  he  entered  the  tent  and 
washed  his  hands  in  the  canvas  basin,  in  which  the  water  was 
still  warm  from  the  heat  of  the  day.  The  bugle  rang  out  again, 
and  he  quitted  the  tent  and  went  towards  a  small  corrugated 
iron  building  on  the  outskirts  of  the  camp.  It  was  the  mess-hut 
of  the  officers,  and  a  bright  light  streamed  from  the  open  door ; 
sounds  of  men's  voices  came  intermittently  from  within.  The 
chaplain  entered  as  the  others — there  were  seven  of  them — were 
taking  their  places  at  the  table,  and  after  responding  to  a  brief 
greeting  from  one  or  two,  he  sat  down  at  the  end  of  one  of  the 
wooden  forms  that  flanked  it.  Soup  was  brought  in  from  the 
little  kitchen  outside.  The  colonel,  at  the  head  of  the  table, 
asked  him  which  way  he  had  ridden. 

Over  the  river,  he  told  them,  into  the  Orange  Colony.  It  had 
been  a  very  long  ride. 

"  Uninteresting  too,"  said  the  colonel.  "  Very  poor  country, 
this.  Flat,  monotonous,  nothing  to  see."  He,  like  the  chaplain, 
was  a  new-comer. 

"Coming  back,"  went  on  the  latter  slowly,  "I  passed  a 
farmhouse  that  had  been  burned  down.  It  was,  I  think,  the 
saddest  spectacle  I  ever  looked  on — a  very  abomination  of  desola- 
tion. The  sight  of  it  turned  me  sick  at  heart— sick  at  heart  to 
think  that  such  had  been  the  work  of  my  own  countrymen.  It 
made  me  ashamed,  for  the  first  time  in  my  life,  of  English  deeds." 
--His  voice  was  low  and  deep,  and  he  spoke  with  intense 
feeling,  as  if  the  words  were  drawn  from  him  by  force,  The 


The  Smiths  643 

adjutant,  a  big  fair  man,  with  blue  eyes  that  looked  very  straight 
at  whomsoever  he  addressed,  regarded  him  for  a  moment  after 
he  had  spoken,  and  then  said  : 

"  Where  was  this  farm?  Was  it  about  half  a  mile  from  the 
river  where  you  cross  the  drift,  and  standing  near  some  kopjes, 
— a  place  with  a  lot  of  kraals  about  it,  and  a  garden  with  a 
stonewall?" 

"  That  was  the  place,"  said  the  chaplain. 

II. 

"  Ah  !  I  can  tell  you  something  about  it  then,  if  you'd  care 
to  hear,"  the  adjutant  rejoined,  "for,  as  it  happens,  I  assisted 
at  its  destruction  myself  a  few  months  ago. 

I   don't  know  whether  any  of  you  ever  met  young  Blake 
Smith,"   he  went  on,  addressing   the  others  generally.      "  He 
came  out  on  the  Canada  with  me,  about  a  year  ago,  as  a  civil 
surgeon,  and  was  eventually  sent  to  this  place.     He  was  a  fine 
young  fellow  in  every  way,  and  a  keen  sportsman — good  in  his 
own  line  too,  and  popular  with  the  men.     This  part  of  the 
country  was  reported  clear  of  Boers  just  then,  and  the  tenants 
of  that  particular  farm  had  taken  the  oath  of  neutrality,  and 
were  said  to  be  friendly  to  the  British.     Well,  one  day,  some 
time  after  Blake's  arrival,  he  and  I  and  eight  men  went  out  in 
that  direction  to  have  a  look  round  generally,  and,  not  wishing 
to  alarm  the  folk  at  the  farm,  we  left  the  men  on  the  river  bank, 
after  we  had  crossed,  and  went  on  alone.     I  had  no  wish  to  go 
to  the  house,  nor  had  Blake,  but  he  was  very  thirsty,  and  said 
he  would  ride  on  and  ask  for  a  drink  there,  while  I  waited  for 
him.     We  could  see  the  place  plainly  from  where  we  were 
standing,  and  Blake  laughed  as  he  drew  my  attention  to  the 
large  white  flag  that  was  flying  on  the  roof.     He  went  on  then 
leaving  me  where  I  was,  and  from  my  position  on  the  shoulder 
of  the  kopje,  I  saw  what  followed  remarkably  well.     Blake  rode 
straight  up  to  the  front  of  the  house — the  doors  were  shut,  and 
there  was  not  a  soul  about — and  pulling  up,  was  preparing  to 
dismount,   when,  without  a  shadow  of  warning,  there  came  a 
puff  of  smoke  from  one  of  the  windows,  a  sharp  crack,  and  he 
pitched  forward  on  his  horse's  neck,  and  rolled  off  on  to  the 
ground.     And  just  at  that  moment — it  was  a  peculiar  sight — a 
gust  of  wind  blew  the  white  flag  on   the  roof  out,   fair  and 
straight  above  him."     The  adjutant  paused. 
"  What  happened  then?  "  asked  the  colonel. 
"  I  got  the  men  up,"  was  the  reply,  "  we  surrounded  the  house, 
closed  in   and  rushed  it;    inside  we  found  three   men,   armed, 
a  couple  of  women,  and  some  youngsters.    We  brought  the  lot 

2  T  2 


644  The  Empire  Review 

into  camp,  afterwards  sending  the  men  to  the  base,  and  the 
women  and  children  to  the  nearest  concentration  camp.  The 
farm  we  burned  to  the  ground." 

"And  Blake  Smith?"  asked  another. 

"  Was  dead  when  we  picked  him  up  !  "  was  the  brief  reply. 

They  looked  at  the  chaplain.  His  head  was  bent,  the  food 
on  his  plate  untouched.  The  look  on  his  face  astonished  them 
all.  As  though  suddenly  becoming  conscious  of  their  regard, 
he  lifted  his  head,  and  looked  before  him  for  a  moment,  with 
eyes  that  betrayed  strong  suffering.  Then  he  rose,  steadying 
himself  with  a  shaking  hand. 

"  Sir,"  he  said  to  the  colonel,  "  I  must  beg  you  to  excuse 
me.  I — I — in  short,  Blake  Smith  was  my  son.  I  have  learned 
to-night,  for  the  first  time,  of  the  manner  of  his  death.  God 
forgive  me  for  my  hasty  judgment." 

He  went  out.  When  the  sound  of  his  departing  footsteps 
had  died  away,  the  adjutant  was  the  first  to  break  the  silence 
that  had  fallen. 

"  Poor  chap,  I'm  sorry,"  he  said ;  "  if  I  had  known — but  I  had 
quite  forgotten  that  his  name  was  Smith." 

CONSTANCE  PROWSE. 


The  Story  of  Canada's  Posts  645 


THE  STORY  OF  CANADA'S  POSTS 

in.* 
DANIEL  SUTHEBLAND,  1816-1827. 

DANIEL  SUTHEBLAND  had  been  Postmaster  of  Montreal  for 
nearly  ten  years  when  appointed  to  succeed  George  Heriot  as  Deputy 
Postmaster-General.  His  commission  in  no  way  differed  from 
that  of  his  predecessors,  the  postal  affairs  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick  and  their  dependencies,  being  all  enumerated  as 
under  his  direct  control.  On  two  occasions  he  had  acted  for 
Heriot,  and  was  regarded  by  his  superiors  as  a  most  capable  and 
energetic  officer.  He  had  not  been  long,  however,  at  his  new 
post  before  he  became  aware  of  difficulties,  equally  as  menacing 
as  those  which  had  driven  his  predecessor  from  official  life.  His 
troubles  arose  in  the  Upper  Province;  boldly  he  grappled  with 
the  situation,  rearranging  the  posts  as  far  as  was  safe  without 
incurring  loss  of  revenue,  and  within  a  few  months  had  established 
many  new  offices  and  lines  of  post.  Post  offices  were  opened  at 
Coteau  du  Lac,  Lancaster,  and  Matilda ;  and  between  Kingston 
and  York,  at  Thurlow.  On  Lake  Erie  an  office  was  started  at 
Long  Point,  and  an  entirely  new  line  of  post  was  extended  to 
Perth,  then  quite  a  new  settlement,  about  forty-two  miles  from 
the  main  road  at  Brockville,  the  settlers,  numbering  some  1400, 
being  chiefly  half -pay  officers  and  discharged  soldiers.  This  post, 
which  was  fortnightly,  was  managed  at  an  annual  expense  of 
£40,  including  an  office  at  Perth. 

The  new  arrangements  were  so  successful  that  further  improve- 
ments followed,  the  communication  between  Quebec,  York  and 
Kingston  being  made  twice  weekly,  and  that  with  Perth  extended 
to  Eichmond  and  made  weekly  instead  of  fortnightly.  Three  new 
offices  were  created  between  Dundas  and  Amherstberg,  namely, 
Talbot,  Burford,  and  Delawar,  all  in  districts  lately  a  wilderness, 
but  now  rising  in  importance. 

It  soon  became  evident  that  the  settlers  required  something 
*  No  i.  appeared  in  September,  1902 ;  No,  ii.  in  December,  1903. 


646  The  Empire  Review 

more  than  postal  improvements,  and  in  1819,  an  agitation  arose 
in  the  Upper  Province  for  transferring  the  administration  of  the 
Post  Office  to  the  Provincial  Legislature.  I  have  no  intention  of 
tracing  the  history  of  the  disputes  prevailing  in  the  Canadian 
Provinces  for  so  many  years,  but  I  ought,  perhaps,  to  point  out 
that  their  origin  in  nearly  every  case  was  due  to  the  same  causes 
— the  desire  of  the  Provincial  Legislatures  to  acquire  additional 
powers,  and  of  the  Executive  to  withhold  them,  or  only  to  con- 
cede such  power  as  it  would  have  been  unsafe  to  deny.  The 
grievances  mainly  related  to  the  method  of  conducting  the  busi- 
ness of  provincial  post  offices,  and  the  absence  of  local  control 
over  the  revenues.  And  as  these  grievances  are  inseparable  from 
my  story,  I  propose  to  trace  in  detail,  their  effect  upon  postal 
matters  in  Canada. 

I  have  already  *  referred  to  the  difficulty  of  accurately  gauging 
the  distances  on  roads  to  the  many  new  settlements  continually 
opening  up,  but  as  these  roads  came  to  be  used  more  frequently, 
their  exact  distance  became  better  known  to  the  settlers,  with  the 
result  that,  in  many  instances,  it  was  found  that  the  postage  rate 
charged  was  considerably  more  than  could  be  legally  demanded. 
The  matter  was  accordingly  brought  before  the  House  of  Assembly 
in  Upper  Canada,  and  a  Committee  of  Legislators  appointed  to 
enquire  into  the  abuses.  Mr.  Allen,  the  Postmaster  of  York,  was 
called  to  the  Bar  of  the  House,  and  examined  respecting  the 
postage  rates  charged  throughout  Upper  Canada,  and  it  was  mainly 
upon  his  evidence  that  the  Committee  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
"  That  gross  overcharges  were  being  made  which  ought  to  be 
redressed."  Upon  the  report  of  the  Committee,  the  House 
passed  a  resolution  condemning  the  administration  of  the  Post 
Office  in  that  province,  and  presented  it  on  the  2nd  March,  1820, 
to  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  who  forwarded  it  in  due  course  to 
the  Colonial  Minister,  Nothing,  however,  was  done  to  redress 
the  grievance,  and  things  continued  much  the  same  as  before. 

Two  years  later  the  House  of  Assembly  passed  a  second 
resolution  on  the  same  subject,  and  in  forwarding  it  to  Downing 
Street  the  Lieutenant-Governor  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  "  Post  Office  arrangements  had  undergone  much  discussion 
and  excited  a  good  deal  of  feeling  during  the  three  last  sessions 
of  the  provincial  legislature."  In  reply  the  Colonial  Secretary 
proposed  a  separate  Deputy  Postmaster  General  for  Upper  Canada, 
a  not  altogether  happy  suggestion,  seeing  that  just  then  urgent 
efforts  were  being  made  by  the  best  friends  of  the  colonists  to 
consolidate  the  two  provinces  under  one  Government.  As  might 
be  expected,  the  suggestion  was  declined  as  not  meeting  the 
requirements  of  the  Colonists,  whose  object  was  to  obtain  the 
*  See  December  No.,  1903,  p.  517. 


The  Story  of  Canada's  Posts  647 

management  of  the  internal  post  themselves  and  to  appropriate 
the  net  revenue  produced  from  the  posts  for  the  purposes  of  the 
province. 

Mr.  Fothergill,  who  had  held  the  postmastership  of  Port  Hope 
before  becoming  a  newspaper  proprietor  and  member  for  Durham 
in  the  Provincial  Assembly,  took  a  prominent  part  in  what  was 
known  locally  as  the  post  office  question.  And  on  a  motion  for 
enquiry  into  the  condition  of  the  province  he  strongly  urged  upon 
the  House  that  the  "  levying  of  money  by  the  post  office  depart- 
ment was  a  direct  infringement  of  the  constitution  as  laid  down 
in  Act  31,  Geo.  III.  cap.  31,  which  provides  that  '  no  tax  shall 
be  levied  on  the  people  of  this  country  except  such  as  shall  be 
appropriated  for  the  public  use  and  accounted  for  by  the  Legisla- 
ture."1 He  also  complained  of  the  tax  imposed  by  the  Post 
Office  on  newspapers,  which  he  said  was  nominally  a  postage  rate, 
but  in  reality  a  perquisite  of  the  Deputy  Postmaster-General's. 
•This  tax  was  paid  by  the  newspaper  proprietors  at  the  end  of  each 
quarter  according  to  the  number  of  papers  sent  to  their  subscribers 
through  the  post,  the  charge  being  4s.  per  annum  for  a  weekly 
paper,  or  5s.  for  one  published  twice  a  week,  that  is,  4s.  for 
delivering  52  papers  and  5s.  for  104.  Newspapers  sent  through 
the  post  without  the  annual  fee  being  paid  were  liable  to  bs 
charged  at  full  letter  rate. 

In  the  course  of  the  debate  on  the  motion  great  difference  of 
opinion  prevailed  as  to  whether  the  levying  of  the  Post  Office  rate 
was  constitutional,  even  the  Attorney  General  admitting  that  he 
did  not  know.  Some  speakers  referred  to  Act  18,  Geo.  III.  cap.  12, 
which  declares  that  Great  Britain  will  not  impose  any  duty, 
tax,  or  assessment,  except  where  necessary  for  the  regulation 
of  commerce  and  that  all  monies  raised  for  this  purpose  shall 
be  applied  to  and  for  the  use  of  the  Colony.  Others  were  of 
opinion  that  sect.  46  of  Act  31,  Geo.  III.  Cap.  31,*  controlled 
their  rights.  Neither  of  these  Acts  especially  repealed  Act  5, 
Geo.  III.  Cap.  25,  by  which  the  internal  rates  of  postage  were 
settled  for  the  British  Dominions  in  North  America,  and  after  a 
two  days'  debate  the  following  resolutions  were  carried : — 

(1.)  "  That  the  Post  Office  department  raises  in  this  Province  a  considerable 
sum  of  money,  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  46th  and  47th  clauses  in  the 
statute  of  the  31st  of  the  late  king,  which,  it  is  desirable,  should  be  under  the 
control  and  direction  of  the  Provincial  Legislature." 

(2.)  "That  a  well-regulated  Post  Office,  responsible  to  the  constituted 
authorities  in  this  province,  and  extended  in  the  number  of  establishments, 
would  equally  tend 'to  correct  and  prevent  abuses  in  the  Department,  to 
facilitate  the  commercial  intercourse  and  to  promote  the  diffusion  of  know- 
ledge." 

(3.)  "  That  the  Post  Office  must  in  time  become  an  important  branch  of  the 
Provincial  revenue." 


048  The  Empire  Review 

Before  passing  on  the  resolutions  the  Lieutenant-Governor 
consulted  with  Sutherland,  who  agreed  "  That  the  rapid  increase 
of  late  years  in  the  population  of  Upper  Canada,  its  spread 
over  so  many  hundreds  of  miles  in  length  and  breadth,  and 
the  consequent  demand  for  new  post  offices,  made  it  necessary 
that  something  should  be  done  to  improve  the  management." 
Apparently  he  had  not  been  made  aware  of  the  previous  sugges- 
tion to  appoint  a  separate  deputy  postmaster  general  for  Upper 
Canada,  for  he  proposed  the  creation  of  an  assistant  deputy  post- 
master general  to  undertake  the  general  management  of  the  post- 
office  department  in  Upper  Canada,  the  officer,  if  appointed, 
to  be  subordinate  to  himself.  In  course  of  time  the  resolutions 
and  proposal  came  before  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies, 
but  owing  to  his  being  engaged  at  the  time  in  considering  a 
scheme  whereby  the  two  Canadas  might  be  united,  the  matter 
was  again  postponed  and  nothing  more  was  heard  of  the  "  post- 
office  question  "  during  the  remainder  of  Sutherland's  term  of 
office. 

In  the  Lower  Province  Sutherland  had  appointed  James 
Williams  to  succeed  him  as  Postmaster  of  Montreal,  and  the 
new  official  soon  settled  down  to  good  and  useful  work.  At  that 
time  one  letter-carrier  had  to  deliver  all  the  letters  in  the  city, 
the  estimated  population  of  which  was  26,000,  and  the  post- 
master received  a  salary  of  ^300  a  year,  out  of  which  he  had  to 
pay  for  any  assistance  he  might  require,  as  well  as  for  office  rent, 
stationery,  and  other  small  necessaries.  Some  idea  of  the  work 
involved  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  seventy-five  mails 
were  received  and  despatched  weekly. 

Montreal  was  the  only  office  in  Lower  Canada  paid  by  salary, 
all  other  Postmasters  receiving  a  commission  of  twenty  per  cent, 
on  the  postage  collected.  Sutherland  appears  to  have  had  the 
same  difficulty  as  his  predecessor  in  finding  men  qualified  to 
perform  the  duties  of  postmaster.  Most  of  them  he  admitted 
were  incapable,  but  he  could  do  little  in  the  way  of  reform  owing 
to  the  amount  of  the  remuneration  being  so  small.  In  spite  of 
these  drawbacks,  however,  during  his  term  of  office  he  established 
forty-three  new  post  offices,  although  some  had  to  be  closed  in 
consequence  of  the  postmaster  refusing  to  carry  on  the  business, 
and  no  one  being  found  willing  to  take  their  places  on  the  terms 
offered.  Another  of  Sutherland's  difficulties  was  in  arranging 
mail  contracts.  He  was  not  permitted,  however  inconvenient, 
to  enter  into  any  contract  for  the  conveyance  of  mails  without 
first  consulting  the  Postmaster-General  in  London,  which  in 
most  instances  meant  a  delay  of  four  months,  and  often  in  the 
interim  the  contractors  changed  their  minds,  with  the  result  that 
several  posts  were  for  a  time  stopped  altogether. 


The  Story  of  Canada's  Posts  649 

In  such  trying  circumstances  it  is  scarcely  surprising  that 
dissatisfaction  was  rife  and  complaints  general.  In  many  cases 
Sutherland's  expressions  show  that  his  personal  feelings  were 
with  the  colonists,  and  on  one  occasion  when  dealing  with 
certain  resolutions,  concerning  the  want* of  postal  facilities,  passed 
by  the  citizens  of  Montreal,  the  Postmaster-General  in  London 
considered  that  Sutherland's  proposals  were  so  entirely  on  the 
side  of  the  citizens  that  the  question  arose  of  placing  the  office 
of  Deputy  Postmaster-General  in  other  hands.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  candidly  admitted  that  he  had  advantageously  ex- 
tended the  lines  of  post  to  the  benefit  of  the  inhabitants  and  the 
revenue.  That  Sutherland  was  popular  with  the  colonists  there 
is  little  doubt,  and  it  was  the  fear  that  his  removal  from  the 
office  might  embarrass  the  Government  at  home  by  bringing  to 
a  head  the  question  of  the  management  of  the  internal  posts 
throughout  the  British  North  American  provinces,  that,  upon 
this  instance,  prevented  his  dismissal. 

The  growing  population  and  trade  of  the  Canadas  as  well  as 
the  improved  commercial  relations  between  the  United  States 
and  the  British  provinces  from  1820-27  caused  several  new  and 
regular  lines  of  communication  to  be  opened  at  different  points 
of  the  frontier,  the  more  important  being  by  Buffalo  or  Lake 
Erie,  by  Lewiston  and  Youngstown  on  Lake  Ontario,  Sackets 
Harbour  at  the  other  end  of  Lake  Ontario,  by  Ogdensburgh 
on  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  by  steamboats  on  Lake  Champ- 
lain  to  St.  Johns.  In  fact,  the  transmission  of  correspondence 
through  American  territory  was  now  deemed  so  secure  that  in 
August,  1823,  Lord  Dalhousie  suggested  that  during  the  four 
winter  months,  when  there  was  considerable  delay,  the  mails  to 
and  from  England  should  be  sent  via  New  York  instead  of  via 
Halifax.  But  although  on  payment  of  a  transit  rate  to  the 
American  Government  the  mails  could  be  securely  transmitted 
in  sealed  bags  without  molestation,  objection  was  raised  to  the 
cost,  and  for  a  time  the  proposal  was  dropped. 

Another  line  of  communication  was  maintained  by  steam- 
boats belonging  to  the  American  Government,  across  the  Passam- 
aquoddy  Bay  between  Bobinstown  in  the  United  States  and 
St.  Andrews  in  New  Brunswick,  the  service  being  performed 
twice  weekly. 

John  Howe*  was  allowed  to  resign  his  position  on  the 
26th  March,  1818,  and,  in  return  for  his  long  and  faithful  service, 
the  office  of  postmaster  and  agent  for  the  packet-boats  was 
bestowed  upon  his  son  John  Howe,  Junior.  This  appointment 
differed  from  all  others  under  the  authority  of  the  Deputy  Post- 
master-General of  Canada,  inasmuch  as  it  was  made  direct  by 
*  See  December  No.,  p.  522, 


650  The  Empire  Review 

the  Postmaster-General  of  England,  and  a  separate  commission 
was  issued  for  the  packet  agency  which  carried  a  salary  of  £250 
a  year.  At  this  period  the  distance  covered  by  the  post  in  Nova 
Scotia  was  about  2,088  miles,  but  only  399  miles  were  recognised 
as  official  post  road.  Several  new  routes  were  opened  between 
1816  and  1820.  The  post  was  extended  to  Parsborough,  which 
was  served  by  a  packet  boat  from  Windsor  across  the  Bason  of 
Mines  on  the  west  to  Lewenberg,  and  on  the  east  to  Arichat  and 
Sydney,  new  post  offices  being  opened  at  all  the  places  mentioned. 
In  1820  the  amount  voted  by  the  legislature  for  the  upkeep  of  the 
posts  amounted  to  £800  for  the  year. 

Early  in  the  year  1818,  consequent  on  the  improved  condition 
of  the  roads,  the  overland  route  to  St.  John  and  Halifax  via  Fort 
Cumberland  was  again  reverted  to,  the  journey  between  Quebec 
and  Halifax  now  taking  from  twelve  to  sixteen  days.  Later  in 
the  same  year  the  Assembly  voted  an  annual  grant  of  £125  to 
establish  a  "way  "  *  post  to  Miramichi  in  New  Brunswick,  the 
sum  being  paid  to  a  Mr.  Russel,  who  acted  as  courier.  He 
received,  at  Fredericton  Post  Office,  the  letters  for  his  route, 
paying  to  the  Postmaster  whatever  postage  might  be  due  upon 
them.  He  then  proceeded  on  his  journey  to  Miramichi. 
Leaving  Fredericton,  he  crossed  the  river  St.  John,  landing  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Nashwak,  which  he  followed  until  he 
came  in  touch  with  the  Taxes  River  and  the  south-west  branch 
of  the  Miramichi,  along  the  right  bank  of  which  he  continued  to 
his  destination,  delivering  letters  en  route. 

In  some  cases  the  traders  paid  him  an  annual  subscription  of 
not  less  than  £5  for  his  trouble,  and  when  this  was  not  done  he 
charged  such  sums  as  pleased  him.  In  short  he  was  postman 
and  Postmaster  for  the  vrhole  district. 

The  arrangement  was  far  from  satisfactory  to  the  settlers,  who 
at  last  requested  that  the  post  should  become  a  regular  one  and 
be  managed  by  the  Post  Office,  and  in  1820  the  proposal  was 
agreed  to,  and  it  was  arranged  to  have  an  office  at  Newcastle, 
provided  the  Assembly  agreed  to  continue  the  annual  grant  of 
£125  towards  the  maintenance  of  the  courier.  To  this  condition 
the  House  objected  and  matters  remained  as  they  were  for  another 
three  years,  when  the  Assembly  authorised  a  further  grant  for  a 
courier  between  Dorchester  and  Bichibucto.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  Miramichi  district  took  advantage  of  the  new  arrangement, 
and  decided  to  pay  a  courier  to  travel  between  Newcastle  and 
Bichibucto,  post  offices  being  now  established  at  both  these 
settlements. 

In  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  the  roads  were  much  better 
than  in  either  of  the  Canadian  provinces,  owing  to  the  military 
*  See  December  No.,  p.  518. 


The  Story  of  Canada's  Posts  651 

garrisons  making  and  keeping  the  highways  between  their  settle- 
ments. In  1824,  at  the  instigation  of  Lord  Dalhousie  and  Sir 
James  Kempt,  the  legislature  of  New  Brunswick  began  laying 
out  a  new  road  from  the  Bend  of  Petticodiac  to  Miramichi.  The 
particular  reason  for  making  this  road  was  that  the  courier  on  the 
route  to  Quebec,  after  passing  the  Great  Falls,  crossed  the 
boundary  line  into  United  States  territory,  which  he  traversed 
until  reaching  the  Grand  Portage,  where  he  re-crossed  into  Lower 
Canada.  The  new  road,  estimated  to  be  fifty-three  miles  in 
length,  had  to  be  carried  through  an  immense  forest.  Another 
road,  forty-five  miles  long,  was  constructed  from  Miramichi  to 
the  Bay  of  Chaleur  where  the  river  Nipisighit  was  crossed.  From 
this  point  it  was  intended  to  carry  a  third  road  across  country  to 
the  river  Eistigouche,  where  a  junction  was  to  be  formed  with  a 
new  road  about  seventy-five  miles  in  length,  then  being  formed 
by  the  authorities  of  the  Lower  Canadian  Province. 

Early  in  1827  the  Deputy  Postmaster-General  approached 
Howe  with  a  view  of  transferring  to  him  the  superintendence  of 
the  New  Brunswick  posts,  but  whilst  the  matter  was  under 
negotiation  Sutherland's  health  broke  down  so  completely  that  he 
hurriedly  sailed  for  England,  leaving  his  assistant  (Stayner)  in 
charge.  Not  getting  better,  he  decided  to  resign,  and  upon  his 
recommendation  Stayner  was  appointed  to  succeed  him. 

During  Sutherland's  period  of  office  the  net  revenue  of  the 
Canadian  posts  transmitted  to  England  averaged  nearly  £6000  a 
year,  and  at  the  time  of  his  retirement  there  were  thirty-nine  post- 
masters in  Lower  Canada,  exclusive  of  the  office  at  Quebec,  which 
was  managed  by  F.  Belanger.  Upper  Canada  had  fifty-eight 
postmasters,  Nova  Scotia  fifteen,  and  New  Brunswick  seven. 

J.  G.  HENDY 

(Curator  of  the  Record  Room, 
G.P.O.,  London). 


652  The  Empire  Review 


SUSAN   PENNICUICK 

A  STORY  OF  COUNTRY  LIFE  IN  VICTORIA 

CHAPTEB  XXI. 
SAVED ! 

WHAT  was  that  ?  Surely  it  was  a  man's  voice  shouting,  and 
surely  that  was  the  galloping  of  a  horse  heard  above  the  crackling 
of  the  flames  and  the  roar  of  the  tempest. 

Beatrice  Buckley  started  to  her  feet. 

"  We're  saved  !  We're  saved !  They're  coming  to  help  us  !  " 
she  cried  wildly,  as,  bursting  through  the  ring  of  flame  at  the 
eastern  side  of  the  plain  came  two  men,  urging  forward  their 
frightened  horses  with  whip  and  spur.  They  saw  the  women  and 
children  at  once  in  spite  of  the  dense  smoke,  and  made  straight 
for  them.  A  moment  more  they  were  beside  them ;  and  Sue  too 
cried  aloud,  for  the  man  who  sprang  from  his  horse  and  took  her 
and  his  child  in  his  arms  was  Boger  himself. 

"Is  it  you?  Is  it  you?"  she  sobbed.  "Or  am  I  dead  or 
dreaming  ?  " 

"  Lovely,  Lovely,  I  have  come  in  time." 

Even  in  that  supreme  moment  Sue  saw  that  her  enemy  was  in 
the  other  man's  arms,  and  that  he  was  kissing  her  quite  as  madly 
as  Boger  had  kissed  her.  She  was  his  "  little  lady  "  then.  Poor 
John  Hadry ! 

But  apparently  Boger  had  not  noticed. 

"  Come  on,  Hadry,"  he  said,  "  we  haven't  a  moment  to  lose." 

It  was  all  done  so  quickly.  The  women  held  the  horses,  and 
the  two  men  proceeded  to  set  a  light  to  the  grass  south  of  where 
they  stood.  Systematically  they  did  it  as  the  women  might  easily 
have  done  if  they  had  not  been  so  frightened  and  worn  out,  and 
soon  all  the  southern  end  of  the  plain  was  one  mass  of  flame, 
driven  before  the  high  north  wind,  while  the  smoke  was  more 
stifling  than  ever. 

Help  had  not  come  a  moment  too  soon,  for  the  northern  end 
was  now  alight  and  the  fire  swept  down  on  them  rapidly.  Then 


Susan  Pennicuick  653 

they  retreated  on  to  the  patch  they  themselves  had  burned,  which, 
though  hot  and  black  and  smoking,  had  by  then  burnt  itself  out. 
The  grass  fire  swept  on  till  it  met  the  burnt  patch,  and  then  died 
out  for  want  of  fuel  to  feed  it,  and  the  rescued  party  found  they 
had  the  little  blackened  plain  for  a  refuge  and  were  saved. 

The  hot  black  ground  burnt  their  feet,  the  smoke  nearly  stifled 
them,  but  this  little  patch  was  an  ark  of  refuge,  and  they  were 
safe  if  the  forest  burned,  as  it  promised  to  do,  all  night.  The 
fierce  wind  blew  sheets  of  burning  bark,  branches  and  leaves  on 
to  them,  and  it  was  only  with  care  they  kept  the  children's  light 
clothes  from  catching.  The  men  huddled  them  all  together  as 
far  from  the  fire  as  possible,  and  Marsden  folded  the  blanket  Sue 
had  wrapped  round  her  child  over  both  of  them,  and  murmured 
tender  endearing  words. 

"  Roger,  Roger,"  she  whispered ;  and  he  had  much  ado  to 
catch  the  whisper  above  the  howling  of  the  blast  and  the  roar  of 
the  fire  that  swept  round  them,  "  do  you  see  who  that  is  ?  " 

"  That,  sweetheart,  that's  John  Hadry ;  surely  you  know 
Hadry.  He  must  be  mighty  fond  of  that  *  little  lady '  of  his. 
He  was  as  keen  to  get  through  as  I  was,  though  not  one  of  the 
others  would  dare.  They  said  it  was  useless,"  he  said  with  a  sigh 
that  was  almost  a  sob. 

"  Of  course  I  know  John  Hadry,"  said  Sue.     "  I  didn't  mean 

him.     I  meant  the  woman.     Don't  you  see  she  is " 

But  Roger  did  not  catch  her  meaning.  His  horse  was  terrified 
at  the  flames,  and  he  had  a  desperate  struggle  to  keep  it  quiet. 
Hadry 's  horse  had  escaped  and  was  racing  round  and  round  the 
ring  of  fire  like  a  thing  demented,  and  Roger,  once  he  had  quieted 
his  own,  gave  his  mind  to  quieting  the  children  and  making  them 
huddle  up  to  the  women  and  hide  their  faces  in  their  skirts.  A 
deadly  weariness  was  creeping  over  Sue.  It  was  all  she  could 
do  to  hold  her  child  in  her  aching  arms,  and  she  could  only  feel 
thankful  that  Roger  was  there.  What  did  it  matter  after  all  if 
this  woman,  who  called  herself  his  wife,  was  there  ?  what  did  it 
matter  if  she  did  openly  cling  to  and  embrace  another  man  ?  She 
had  done  her  very  worst ;  and,  after  all,  in  the  face  of  death  it 
had  not  been  so  bad.  She  was  thankful  she  had  come  to  Roger ; 
now  that  she  had  faced  death  with  his  child  in  her  arms  she 
knew  that  she  was  thankful  she  had  let  nothing  stand  between 
them.  Roger  did  not  understand  that  feeling.  He  took  every- 
thing as  a  matter  of  course.  Even  now,  as  he  stretched  down 
one  hand  to  her,  she  felt  he  regarded  her  as  his  wife ;  he  had 
forgotten  there  was  any  barrier  between  them.  His  eyebrows 
and  his  eyelashes  were  gone,  his  face  was  burnt  and  blackened 
by  the  nearness  of  the  flames,  and  he  had  to  stoop  over  her  to 
make  her  hear. 


654  The  Empire  Review 

"  You  aren't  hurt,  Lovely  ?  " 

She  shook  her  head. 

"Sure?" 

"  Quite  sure.     Are  we  safe  now  ?  " 

"  Quite  safe." 

"But — but — you  were  only  just  in  time." 

"  Oh,  my  God,"  he  muttered,  "  only  just  in  time.  I  thought 
you  might  get  down  to  Mitchell's,  and  Hadry  reckoned  you  might 
get  from  Mitchell's  here.  It  was  your  only  chance.  My  God  ! 
there  hasn't  been  such  a  fire,  they  tell  me,  since  the  big  fires  of 
'86.  I  was  afraid — I  was  afraid " 

"  Boger,  I'm  so  thankful — so  thankful  I  came  to  you," 
whispered  Sue.  There  came  to  her  a  sudden  remembrance  of 
the  March  day  down  among  the  sand  gullies  when  he  had  told 
her  he  had  betrayed  her  and  married  the  woman  who  was  clinging 
to  John  Hadry. 

"  Lovely,  you  didn't  know  you  were  coming  to  me,  did  you  ? 
It  was  the  merest  chance  I  got  to  you.  I  ought  to  have  been 
shot  for  leaving  you." 

"  I  didn't  mean  that,"  she  said,  laying  her  face  against  his 
hand.  "  I  meant,  I'm  glad  I  came  to  the  forest  to  you.  Aunt 
thinks  I'm  an  outcast,  you  know;  and  mother  and  father— I 
wonder  what  they  think  ?  " 

"Never  mind,"  he  said  a  little  uneasily.  "What  are  you 
thinking  of  that  for  now  ?  We  settled  all  that  so  long  ago.  I 
am  only  thankful  to  find  you  and  my  baby  all  right."  It  called 
up  all  her  tenderness  when  he  insisted  on  his  fatherhood. 

"  Oh,  don't  you  see,  Boger,"  she  said,  rising  to  her  feefc 
and  putting  her  lips  to  his  ear,  "  don't  you  see  who  that 
woman  is? " 

"What  woman?  Mrs.  Mitchell?  Oh,  the  other.  That's 
her  lodger,  I  suppose.  Staid  old  John  Hadry  seems  mighty 
gone.  He  was  as  keen  as  I  was  to  get  through,  and  that  was 
pretty  keen,  I  can  tell  you.  Not  another  man  at  Crafers  dared 
face  it.  Fancy  old  John  Hadry !  "  and  Marsden  laughed.  He 
could  afford  to  laugh  now  he  found  those  he  cared  for  were  safe. 

"  But,  Boger,  but,  Boger, — don't  you  see  who  she  is  ?  " 
"Who,  Lovely?" 
"That  woman?" 

Marsden  looked  again. 

"  I  should  say  she  was  the  dirtiest  sweep  I'd  ever  come  across, 
only  that  we  ain't  any  of  us  much  to  boast  of — even  you,  little 
Lovely." 

"Oh,  Boger,  Boger,"  said  Sue  impatiently,  "are  you  blind? 
Can't  you  see  ?  Can't  you  see  ?  She's  the  woman  you — you 
— she's  Beatrice  Buckley  I  " 


Susan  Pennicuick  655 

"  Impossible  !  "  The  old  way— the  old  way  that  possibly 
made  his  charm  for  Sue.  Roger  would  never  see  anything 
disagreeable  if  he  could  help  it.  "  Impossible  !  But— you  are 
right,  Sue.  Has  she  fooled  John  Hadry  now  ?  " 

"  It  can't  make  any  difference  to  us  what  she  does,"  said  Sue 
with  sudden  weariness.  "  She  has  done  us  all  the  harm  she 
could.  For  a  whim,"  she  added  bitterly,  and  for  the  second  she 
forgot  she  had  been  face  to  face  with  death,  forgot  her  gladness 
at  the  presence  of  the  man  she  loved. 

"  I  won't  have  poor  John  Hadry's  life  ruined,"  said  Marsden 
savagely.  "  She's  done  enough  harm." 

Involuntarily  he  stepped  forward  and  Sue  caught  his  hand 
again. 

" If  you  say  anything,"  she  said,  "you  give  me  away,"  and 
he  dropped  back  again  with  an  oath,  but  the  other  man  had 
evidently  guessed  they  were  talking  about  him,  and  he  pushed 
his  companion  gently  down  on  the  ground  again,  but  not  in  the 
least  as  if  he  were  ashamed  of  his  tender  embrace. 

"  I  think  it's  going  to  rain,"  he  said. 

Marsden  stamped  out  a  piece  of  burning  bark  that  had  fallen 
close  beside  him. 

"  I'm  sure  I  wish  it  would,"  he  said.  "  We're  nearly  roasted 
alive  here." 

"Oh,  the  worst's  over  now,"  said  Hadry.  "  Your  wife  isn't 
hurt,  is  she  ?  No,  that's  all  right.  It's  hot  to  be  sure,  but  the 
brushwood's  burning  itself  out,  and  once  the  rain  comes  we'll  be 
all  right.  We  must  just  be  patient  and,  indeed,  it's  a  miracle 
we're  alive  to  tell  the  tale.  Be  good  now,  children,  be  good.  It 
isn't  any  good  to  cry.  You'll  come  down  to  my  place  and  get 
your  tea  as  soon  as  the  rain  comes." 

They  were  wonderfully  good  and  patient,  those  little  bush 
children,  as  they  sat  there  on  the  ground  leaning  one  against  the 
other  extinguishing  the  sparks  which  fell  on  them,  and  which,  as 
the  time  went  on  grew  fewer  and  fewer.  Sue's  little  girl  raised  a 
pitiful  wail  every  now  and  then  that  went  to  her  mother's  heart, 
and  Mrs.  Mitchell,  hugging  her  baby  close,  was  silently  wiping 
the  tears  away.  Poor  thing;  her  husband  was  away,  she  had 
seven  children  and  had  lost  everything  she  possessed  in  the 
world. 

"  Don't  cry,  ma'am,"  said  Hadry  with  rough  kindness,  "  it 
might  have  been  worse.  See,  the  kids  are  all  right,  and  the 
fire'll  clear  the  land  for  you  finely.  We'll  start  off  for  my  place 
as  soon  as  we  can ;  it's  not  above  three  miles  off,  and  you  shall  be 
properly  looked  after." 

"But  you  are  sure  it's  all  right,"  asked  Sue,  "Lookatthq 
fire.  What  could  stop  it  ?  " 


656  The  Empire 

"  Forty  acres  of  potatoes,  madam,"  he  said,  "  and  the  hotise 
right  in  the  centre.  Oh,  we're  all  right.  To  be  sure  the  fences 
have  all  gone,  and  that  means  a  pot  of  money,  but,  Lord  !  I'm  in 
luck  compared  to  the  rest,"  and  his  hand  sought  that  of  the 
woman  beside  him. 

"  Is  everyone  burnt  out  ?  " 

"A  pretty  fair  number.  They've  been  running  in  ever  since 
seven  this  morning,  mostly  women  and  children,  for  the  men  are 
all  away  harvesting.  I'm  not  above  a  mile  from  the  township, 
you  know,  and  it's  pretty  well  clear  there,  but  there's  not  a  house 
standing  in  the  forest  for  miles  round.  I  soon  saw  it  wasn't  a 
bit  of  good  trying  to  stop  the  fire.  It'll  just  burn  on  till  it 
reaches  the  sea." 

"It  was  brave  of  you  to  come  for  us,"  said  Sue.  "Brave, 
it  was  the  bravest  thing  I  ever  heard  of." 

She  would  not  look  at  the  woman,  but  to  the  man  she  might 
safely  pour  out  her  gratitude. 

"  Well,  indeed,  Mrs.  Marsden,"  he  said  shamefacedly,  "  I'm 
afraid  it  isn't  much  you  have  to  thank  me  for.  I  hope  I'd  have 
come  through  for  you  women  anyway,  but  after  all,  when  all 
a  man  cares  for  is  behind  the  fire,  he  doesn't  deserve  much 
credit  for  trying  to  break  through,  does  he  ?  "  and  he  looked  down 
fondly  at  the  woman  beside  him. 

There  was  no  doubt  what  he  meant.  He  evidently  regarded 
this  woman  as  his  property,  and  Sue  looked  at  Marsden  with 
troubled  wonder  in  her  own  eyes.  If  this  woman  belonged  to 
John  Hadry,  how  came  it  she  stood  between  her  and  her  good 
name? 

Beatrice  Buckley  began  to  cry,  because,  as  Sue  said  after- 
wards, it  was  the  only  thing  to  be  done,  and  John  Hadry  openly 
stroked  her  hair. 

"  There,  my  pretty,  there,  my  pretty,  don't  you  fret.  The 
storm  is  coming  and  I  wish  it  would  hurry  up,  but  it's  coming 
and  you're  quite  safe,  my  pretty." 

"  It's  coming,  it's  coming,"  said  Marsden,  "  but  it's  weary 
waiting,"  and  Sue  felt  more  than  ever  impatient.  What  was  the 
meaning  of  all  this.  It  was  folly  to  hope  things  might  be  right 

for  her — and  yet — and  yet Something  of  her  feeling  perhaps 

Marsden  guessed,  and  he  clasped  her  hand  firmly  in  his. 

"  I  tried  so  hard  to  upset  the  marriage,  Lovely, ".he  muttered  ; 
"  don't  you  know  it,  don't  you  know  always,  whatever  happens, 
you  are  the  only  woman  in  the  world  for  me." 

And  Sue  could  only  lay  her  cheek  against  the  strong  hand 
that  grasped  hers  and  feel  that  she  had  much  to  be  thankful  for, 
whatever  happened,  and  tell  herself  she  would  not  pry  into  the 
future. 


Susan  Pennicuick  657 

It  was  weary  work  waiting,  only  the  knowledge  that  they 
were  safe  kept  them  up.  The  children,  worn-out,  slept,  and 
even  Sue's  little  girl  cried  herself  into  a  fitful  doze.  The  brush- 
wood and  undergrowth  burnt  itself  out,  the  wind  was  gradually 
subsiding,  but  still  the  tall  trees  were  on  fire  and  it  was  hopeless 
to  think  of  getting  through  for  some  time.  They  could  only 
wait,  and  Sue,  watching  Hadry's  tenderness  to  that  other  woman, 
forgot  her  lost  home  in  the  great  wonder  as  to  what  was  the 
meaning  of  it  all.  Hadry  was  a  decent  honest  farmer.  Had  he 
thrown  convention  to  the  winds  in  this  supreme  moment,  or  did 
he  really  think  this  woman  was  free  to  be  his  wife  ?  And  if  she 
were — and  if  she  were — Sue  closed  her  eyes  to  keep  back  the 
smarting  tears — what  a  grand  thing  life  might  yet  be  for  her  and 
her  little  daughter. 

And  so  the  afternoon  stole  slowly  on — the  hot,  burning  after- 
noon— the  heavy  smoke  lightened  a  little  and  the  furious  wind 
gradually  subsided.  Still  the  great  trees  were  on  fire,  and  every 
now  and  then  one  would  come  crashing  to  the  ground.  Four 
o'clock— five  o'clock— six  o'clock — the  clouds  had  been  gathering 
steadily,  and  now  there  came  a  vivid  flash  of  lightning  and  a 
deafening  clap  of  thunder,  another,  and  another,  and  then  there 
followed  a  perfect  deluge  of  tropical  rain  which  absolutely  hissed 
as  it  fell  on  the  red-hot  forest.  The  two  men  raised  a  shout, 
they  might  hope  to  get  away  now,  and  Sue  tried  to  rise  to  her 
feet,  but  she  was  stiff  and  cramped,  and  Marsden  put  his  arm 
round  her. 

"You  are  tired,"  he  said,  gently.  "Never  mind,  we'll  get 
away  now.  It's  not  above  three  miles  to  Hadry's.  Hallo,  Hadry, 
where's  your  horse  ?  I  saw  him  a  moment  ago." 

"  Made  clean  tracks,  the  brute,  at  the  first  flash.  He's  gone 
in  the  direction  of  home,  though.  You  pat  up  Billy  and  the 
little  girl — oh,  no,  by  Jove,  that  won't  do.  Sam  with  a  bad  foot 
can't  walk ;  put  him  up  with  Billy,  and  we  must  hump  the  little 
ones  amongst  us  somehow.  Here,  I'll  take  the  little  chap  and 
lead  the  way.  And,  I  say,  look  out  for  the  falling  branches  and 
trees,  it's  no  joke,  I  can  tell  you." 

The  storm  still  continued  and  the  rain  was  pelting  down 
when  they  started  on  their  journey.  All  round  them  the  trees 
were  falling  and  branches  were  snapping  off,  but  they  felt  they 
could  wait  no  longer,  they  must  risk  something.  Weary  as  they 
were  their  progress  was  necessarily  slow,  the  children  fretted 
a  little,  and  Sue  stumbled  more  than  once. 

"Tired,  tired,  Lovely,"  said  Marsden's  tender  voice;  "only 
a  little  way  now  and  the  worst  is  well  behind  us.  Only  a  little 
further.  See  the  lights  of  the  township  ahead." 

They  were  plainly  visible  now,  the  glimmering  lights  that 
VOL.  VI.— No.  36.  2  a 


658  The  Empire  Review 

seemed  to  stretch  out  friendly  arms  to  welcome  them.  Was  it 
the  rain  or  the  tears  in  her  own  eyes  that  made  those  lights  so 
unsteady  ?  Strangely,  her  thoughts  went  back  to  that  winter's 
night,  her  first  night  at  Larwidgee,  when  she  had  looked  out  on 
the  lights  through  the  pouring  rain.  It  had  been  her  first  step 
in  the  unknown  world.  She  had  only  just  begun  to  realise  the 
woe  that  was  coming  then.  Now  the  worst  was  over,  whatever 
happened  she  had  passed  the  worst.  Had  it  been  so  bad,  had  it  ? 
Had  not  Roger  loved  her  well  ?  Had  he  not  done  all  that  man 
might  do  to  retrieve  that  one  false  step,  and  had  she  not  had 
many  happy  days  ?  Was  not  the  little  child  nestling  in  her  arms 
dearer  than  her  life  to  her  ?  After  all,  life  might  have  given  her 
harder  things  to  bear. 

Wrong  ?  Oh,  yes,  very  wrong,  cruelly  wrong,  but  would  she 
have  done  differently  ?  She  listened  to  the  patter  of  the  cease- 
lessly falling  rain,  the  sound  of  their  footsteps,  the  monotonous 
hum  of  their  voices,  the  gentle  breathing  of  the  sleeping  child 
in  her  arms.  Ah,  no,  it  might  be  all  wrong  as  the  world 
counted  wrong,  but  they  were  so  dear  to  her,  so  dear  to  her,  the 
little  child  and  its  father ;  these  two  were  hers,  for  them  the 
world  was  well  lost,  and  she  would  not  have  things  different ;  ah, 
no,  she  had  done  the  best  she  could,  she  thought,  as  they 
emerged  on  the  main  road  and  the  glimmering  lights  were  close 
at  hand. 

Hadry  put  his  hand  to  his  mouth  and  gave  a  shrill  coo-ey, 
which  was  answered  by  shouts  and  the  sound  of  many  hurrying 
feet.  Men  and  women  rushed  out  into  the  rain,  questioning, 
pitying,  congratulating  ;  tired  children  were  picked  up  in  strong 
arms,  and  offers  of  shelter  came  from  all  sides. 

"  That's  right,  that's  right,"  said  Hadry,  "  Mrs.  Marsden  and 
Mrs.  Buckley  are  coming  to  my  place.  Will  you  see  about  the 
others,  Collins  ?  Somewhere  close  if  you  can,  they're  too  tired 
to  go  very  far  to-night." 

"  Mag,"  said  Gretchen,  "  '11  be  pretty  glad  to  get  out.  He's 
been  in  my  pocket  all  day.  I  wonder  he  ain't  smothered." 

The  magpie  gave  an  assenting  croak  so  opportunely  that  it 
made  Sue  laugh,  a  laugh  that  ended  in  a  sob,  and  Roger  put  his 
arm  round  her  and  lifted  her  on  to  Hadry's  verandah. 

"  Here  we  are,  safe  at  last,  thank  God  !  " 

She  was  nearly  dropping  with  fatigue,  but  still  she  noticed 
how  tenderly  John  Hadry  bore  himself  towards  the  other  woman. 
Hospitable  farmer  as  he  was  he  made  them  all  most  welcome, 
but  to  the  one  woman  he  turned  as  if  she  honoured  the  place 
with  her  presence,  it  were  dearer  and  better  because  she  was 
there. 

"  It's  only  a  small  house,"  he  said,  half  proudly  and  half 


Susan  Pennicuick 


659 


humbly,  turning  towards  her,  "  but  you'll  make  the  best  of  it, 
won't  you?  I'll  put  yeu  and  Mrs.  Marsden  in  the  best  bedroom, 
you  won't  mind  sharing  it,  will  you  ?  The  other  rooms  aren't 
furnished,  a  lonely  man  like  me's  had  no  need  of  them,"  and 
plainly  for  all  to  read  was  the  thought  in  his  mind  that  he  was 
lonely  no  longer.  "  My  housekeeper'll  do  all  that  she  can  for 
you,  and  Marsden  won't  mind  camping  in  the  sitting-room 
along  with  me." 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
CONCLUSION. 

IN  the  bedroom  the  two  women  faced  each  other  by  the  light 
of  a  couple  of  candles,  the  woman  who  was  Marsden's  wife  and 
the  woman  who  should  have  been,  and  Beatrice  Buckley  laughed 
hysterically. 

Their  hats  were  fit  only  for  the  dust-heap,  their  boots  were  so 
much  charred  leather,  their  heavy  cloaks,  burnt  into  holes  as  they 
were,  had  protected  in  some  measure  their  light  cotton  dresses,  but 
everything  they  had  on  was  black  from  contact  with  the  blackened 
ground,  and  as  for  their  faces,  not  even  the  pouring  rain  had 
cooled  them  after  their  long  exposure  to  the  heat. 

"Ah,"  said  the  older  woman,  still  sobbing  with  laughter,  "do 
you  know  what  a  scarecrow  you  look  ?  " 

"How  can  you,  how  can  you?"  asked  Sue  angrily.  With 
every  desire  in  the  world  to  be  dignified,  it  is  difficult  when  you 
are  a  scarecrow,  shut  up  in  a  little  room  with  another  scarecrow, 
to  make  the  best  of  things.  The  rain  beating  down  on  the  iron 
roof  overhead  seemed  impressing  on  her  that  she  hated  this 
woman,  hated  her  for  the  grievous  wrong  she  had  done  her.  A 
knock  at  the  door  brought  in  Mrs.  Yates,  Hadry's  housekeeper, 
with  a  steaming  can  of  hot  water,  a  large  tub,  a  basin  of  bread 
and  milk  for  the  baby,  and  the  information  that  there  was  a  bag 
of  clothes  outside  for  them.  Mrs.  Scott,  the  banker's  wife  from 
over  the  way,  had  sent  them  just  a  couple  of  blouses  and  skirts 
and  a  few  clean  under-things. 

"  That,"  said  Beatrice  Buckley,  "is  a  comfort,"  and  Sue  found 
herself  saying  the  same  thing.  Tragedy  and  comedy  go  hand  in 
hand,  they  say.  Clearly  she  could  but  be  grateful  to  Mrs.  Scott 
for  the  clothes. 

She  washed  her  child  and  fed  her  in  silence,  and  Mrs.  Buckley 
brushed  out  her  hair  and  watched  her. 

"I  never  had  a  child,"  she  said  a  little  wistfully;  and  Sue 
looked  up  at  her  quickly,  and  then  she  stooped  and  kissed  the 

2  u  2 


660 


The  Empire  Review 


little  fair  face  that  was  so  like  its  father's.  There  was  no 
mistaking  little  Susy's  father.  After  all,  this  woman  was  envying 
her;  the  blood  rushed  to  her  cheeks,  and  again  she  kissed  the 
little  warm  soft  face. 

Susy  put  up  her  hand  and  patted  her  mother's  cheek. 

"Mam,  Mam,"  she  said  with  a  little  contented  sound;  and 
Sue  could  hardly  have  said  whether  she  was  angry  with  the 
woman  opposite  her  or  sorry  for  her.  She  had  done  her  best  to 
ruin  her.  If  Mrs.  Scott,  the  banker's  wife,  only  knew  she  was 
not  Roger's  wife,  would  she  have  sent  her  those  clothes ;  if  John 
Hadry  had  known,  would  he  have  asked  her  to  share  a  room 
with  his  dear  little  lady  ?  She  knew  he  would  not,  and  her  heart 
grew  bitter  within  her.  Why  should  she  be  shamed  ? 

"And  you  married  Eoger  Marsden  after  all?"  went  on  the 
woman  opposite,  twisting  up  her  hair;  and  Sue  could  not  but 
notice,  hot  and  angry  as  she  was,  the  tremor  and  anxiety  in  her 
voice. 

"You  married  him,  you  mean,"  said  Sue  scornfully;  "married 
a  man  who  hated  you,  for  a  whim.  Took  advantage  of  his 
weakness,  and  yet  you  cared  no  more  for  him  than  you  do  for 
this  man  you  are  fooling  now." 

"  I  am  not  fooling  any  man  now,"  cried  the  other  woman 
passionately ;  and  she  meant  what  she  said,  Sue  felt.  "  Don't  you 
understand ;  can't  you  see  I  am  not  fooling  John  Hadry  ?  " 

"No,"  said  Sue  bitterly,  "I'll  take  good  care  you  don't." 

"  But  you  will  not  tell  him;  for  pity's  sake  you  will  not  tell 
him.  What  will  he  think  of  you  ?  " 

"He  will  pity  me,  I  should  think,"  said  Sue  wearily,  laying 
the  sleepy  child  on  the  bed ;  "  I  should  think  he  would  pity  me 
when  he  hears  my  story,  but  even  if  he  doesn't  that  is  no  reason 
why  I  should  let  him  come  to  grief.  He  has  always  been  kind  to 
me.  He  is  a  good  man,  is  John  Hadry." 

"  And  my  life  is  desolate,  and  you  grudge  me  a  little 
happiness?" 

"  I  don't  see  what  difference  it  is  going  to  make  to  you.  He 
won't  think  you  a  saint,  that's  all." 

"  I  love  John  Hadry  to  think  well  of  me.  I  shall  die  if  he 
doesn't;"  and  she  stretched  out  her  hands  across  the  table  and 
dropped  her  head  upon  them. 

The  child  was  asleep  now;  the  rain  was  coming  down  as 
steadily  as  ever,  and  Sue,  arraying  herself  in  one  of  Mrs.  Scott's 
blouses — Mrs.  Scott  was  a  woman  twice  her  size — moved  softly 
about  gathering  up  their  dirty  clothes  and  tidying  the  room. 

"  I — I  am  a  most  unhappy  woman,"  came  from  the  table  with 
a  long-drawn  sob.  "John  Hadry  loves  me.  If  you  tell  him— if 
you  tell  him- — " 


Susan  Pennicuick  061 

How  is  it  he  doesn't  know?  "  asked  Sue  a  little  curiously. 
"  He  seems  to  have  known  you  pretty  nearly  all  your  life." 

"  He  has  lived  in  the  forest  here  a  good  many  years,  and  it 
didn't  get  into  the  papers  at  all ;  neither  Roger  nor  I  were  keen 
on  letting  the  world  know  what  fools  we  had  made  of  ourselves, 
and — and  I  always  kept  my  old  name  to  John  Hadry.  I  love 
him;  I  cannot  live  without  him." 

"Less  than  two  years  ago  you  couldn't  live  without  Roger 
Marsden,"  said  Sue  in  a  voice  like  ice.  "  You  seem  to  have 
survived." 

"Roger  Marsden  behaved  cruelly  to  me — shamefully.  He 
married  me  one  night  and  left  me  next  morning.  Was  ever 
woman  so  shamefully  treated.  If  John  Hadry  only  knew 
that—" 

"  He  shall  know,"  said  Sue.     "  I  am  going  to  tell  him — now." 

Beatrice  Buckley  sprang  to  her  feet  and  put  her  hand  over 
Sue's  mouth. 

"  No,  no,  for  pity's  sake  !     For  God's  sake !  " 

Sue  moved  away  coldly. 

"  What  is  the  good  of  being  tragic  about  it?  don't  wake  baby. 
Of  course  I  shall  tell  him.  Why,  Roger  is  keeping  you  now. 
The  law  makes  him,"  she  said  bitterly. 

"  If  I  am  Roger's  wife,  what  are  you  ?  Are  you  going  to 
shame  yourself  in  this  place  where  they  all  think  so  highly  of 
you  ?  John  Hadry  knew  my  first  husband,  he  thinks  he  knows 
all  about  me.  James  Buckley  was  such  a  brute ;  he  knew  that, 
and  he  pitied  me,  he  knows  everything  except  that  one  thing. 
Let  it  drop ;  let  it  be  as  if  it  had  never  been.  For  pity's  sake 
let  it  be  as  if  it  had  never  been." 

"  Do  you  think  I  wouldn't — gladly,"  said  Sue.  "  It  was  your 
doing,  not  mine  or  Roger's,  and  whatever  happens,  I  am  not  going 
to  let  John  Hadry  be  fooled.  He  has  always  been  my  friend  ;  he 
has  always  been  so  good  to  me.  If  I  had  only  guessed  you  were 
the  dear  little  lady  he  was  always  talking  about,  I  would  have 
told  him  long  ago. 

Beatrice  Buckley  flung  herself  down  on  her  knees  before  Sue. 

"  Give  me  this  one  chance,  give  me  this  one  chance.  If  you 
knew  how  miserable  my  life  has  been,  how  I  have  craved  for 
kindness  and  tenderness.  Do  you  think  I  have  never  wanted  a 
child  in  my  arms?  For  your  own  child's  sake  give  me  this 
chance  ?  The  child  will  be  better  off,  for  if  I  marry  John  Hadry  I 
shall  not  take  Roger  Marsden's  money." 

"  You  can't  marry  John  Hadry." 

"  But  I  can  be  happy ;  I  tell  you  ;  I  can  be  happy.  You  have 
done  without  and  been  happy ;  only  give  me  the  same  chance  as 
you  have  had." 


662  The  Empire  Review 

Sue  laughed  bitterly.  It  seemed  so  strange,  this  woman  should 
be  begging  a  boon  of  her. 

"  Koger  and  I  started  fair.  I  knew  exactly  what  I  was  doing 
when  I  came  to  him,  and  he  knew  too.  John  Hadry  wouldn't 
be  starting  fair.  I'm  not  going  to  have  him  made  miserable. 
When  you  plotted  to  spoil  my  life  you  spoiled  your  own  too. 
It  seems  only  justice,"  she  added  wearily.  "Now  I  shall  go  and 
tell  Mr.  Hadry." 

The  pouring  rain  had  filled  the  house  gutters,  and  they  over- 
flowed now  and  fell  plashing  to  the  ground ;  on  the  iron  roof  it 
made  a  ceaseless  clatter,  and  Sue  wondered  dully  if  her  own  face 
had  ever  looked  so  desperate  as  that  one  between  the  two 
candles.  It  might  have  been  her  very  life  she  was  taking  from 
her,  and  yet  she  could  feel  no  pity  in  her  heart.  This  woman 
had  had  no  pity  for  the  girl  whose  promised  husband  she  was 
taking  by  fraud. 

There  came  a  knocking  at  the  door,  and  John  Hadry's  kindly 
voice,  with  a  ring  of  happiness  in  it  that  hurt  Sue,  and  made 
the  woman  opposite  .gulp  down  a  sob. 
"  Supper's  ready.    Are  you  corning  ?  " 

Beatrice  Buckley  caught  her  hand  and  then  answered  as 
cheerfully  as  she  could. 

"Yes,  yes,  we'll  be  there  in  a  minute.  Mrs.  Marsden'a 
just  settling  her  baby  to  sleep.  Go  on,  we'll  be  there  in  a 
minute." 

They  heard  his  retreating  footsteps  on  the  bare  boards,  as 
he  had  said  his  house  was  very  unfurnished,  and  then  Beatrice 
Buckley  held  Sue's  hand  in  both  her  own,  and  dropped  her  face 
upon  it. 

"Not  to-night?  Give  me  a  little  time.  Promise  me  you 
won't  tell  to-night." 

"What  is  the  good  of  delaying  ?  "  asked  Sue ;  but  she  knew  she 
would  grant  the  respite.  She  was  not  anxious  to  cloud  Hadry's 
kindly  face.  He  thought  her  honest  wife  and  mother  too. 
What  would  he  think  of  her,  if  he  knew  the  circumstances  of  the 
case.  Of  course  she  was  the  one  to  be  pitied.  But  he  loved  this 
woman,  and  love  is  very  blind  indeed.  He  would  very  likely 
look  upon  her  as  the  designing  woman  who  had  stolen  his 
"little  lady's"  husband  and  taken  the  place  that  should  have 
been  hers. 

She  pushed  Beatrice  Buckley  away  roughly. 
"  If  you  knew  how  I  hate  you,"  she  said  with  a  sudden  gust 
of  passion. 

"  But  you  won't  tell  to-night,  not  to-night." 

"  Not  to-night.    Not  till  I  have  spoken  to  Koger." 

Mrs.  Buckley  rose  to  her  feet  and  shook  down  her  borrowed 


Susan  Pennicuicfc  66 3 

skirts  with  a  sigh  of  relief.    Then  she  wiped  away  the  tears  from 
her  cheeks. 

"  Come  along  to  supper,"  she  said.  "  Perhaps — perhaps  we'll 
find  a  way  out  of  it." 

And  she  went  into  the  sitting-room  smiling  as  one  who  has 
nothing  to  fear,  while  Sue  followed  feeling  a  culprit  and  a  sinner, 
which  is  the  uncomfortable  way  things  sometimes  go  in  this 
wicked  world. 

John  Hadry  was  in  the  wildest  spirits,  a  reaction  after  the 
intense  anxiety  of  the  day ;  but  Eoger  and  Sue,  as  perhaps  was 
only  natural,  felt  as  if  it  were  only  by  an  effort  they  could  put  a 
brave  face  upon  it  at  all.  Indeed,  Roger  afterwards  owned  that 
if  it  had  not  been  for  Sue's  clasping  hand  beneath  the  table,  for 
the  shame  the  confession  would  bring  on  her  in  John  Hadry's 
eyes,  he  would  have  got  up  there  and  then  and  told  the  whole 
story  to  his  host.  His  love-making  was  so  open,  he  was  so 
certain  of  the  sympathy  of  the  Marsdens,  so  sure  that  he  had 
known  Beatrice  Buckley  all  his  life.  It  seemed  extraordinary 
that  that  one  episode  should  have  been  hidden  from  him.  It 
seemed  to  Sue  that  her  sad  story  had  been  blazoned  forth  to 
the  world,  that  it  had  rung  with  it,  and  yet  here  was  a  man 
within  sixty  miles  of  her  father's  house,  a  man  who  had  known 
Beatrice  Buckley  far  more  intimately  than  she  did,  and  yet  he 
did  not  know  that  she  had  married  Eoger  Marsden.  She  had 
nearly  reached  breaking  point ;  she  wanted  to  be  alone  with 
Eoger  to  sob  out  her  grief  and  misery  on  his  breast. 

"  Cold  beef,  Mrs.  Marsden  ?  And  potatoes  ?  Mrs.  Yates  is 
a  great  hand  at  frying  potatoes.  If  the  house  had  been  burnt 
down  I  believe  she'd  fry  potatoes  on  the  ashes  and  say  there  was 
nothing  like  them.  She's  been  a  treasure  to  a  poor  lonely 
bachelor;  but,  thank  God,  say  I,  those  days  are  nearly  at  an 
end !  "  and  he  looked  down  at  the  woman  beside  him  and  smiled 
tenderly.  She  sent  him  back  an  answering  look  of  tenderness. 
It  was  not  exactly  bold,  for  there  was  a  little  pitiful  quiver  at  the 
corners  of  her  mouth,  but  Sue  could  only  wonder  how  she  could 
look  at  all.  How  she  dared  when  she  remembered  that  the  other 
two  sitting  beside  her  had  such  a  tale  to  tell. 

But  that  little  pathetic  look  made  Hadry  feel  infinitely  tender. 
He  thought  she  was  tired  and  worn  out ;  he  knew  she  loved  him, 
and  he  wanted  to  guard  and  care  for  her,  all  of  which  Sue  under- 
stood so  thoroughly,  that  looking  at  Eoger 's  gloomy  face  a  little 
pity  crept  into  her  heart.  All  John  Hadry's  happy  castles  in  the 
air  would  be  dashed  to  the  ground,  and  it  was  no  fault  of  his. 
Her  life  had  been  spoiled,  but  at  least  she  had  had  a  hand  in  the 
spoiling  of  it,  but  John  Hadry  would  not  even  have  that 
satisfaction. 


664  The  Empire  Review 

He  reached  his  hand  out  and  laid  it  fondly  upon  that  of  the 
woman  beside  him,  looking  at  the  other  two  for  sympathy;  and 
she  looked,  too,  with  prayerful  entreaty  in  her  eyes. 

"  You  saw  how  it  was  with  us  two  to-day,"  he  said  with  a  little 
awkward  laugh;  "there  wasn't  much  hiding  up  things  then. 
But  I  know  Mrs.  Marsden  '11  understand.  She's  always  under- 
stood, God  bless  her !  Why,  the  very  first  day  I  saw  her,  Bee,  I 
told  her  about  my  dear  little  lady,  and  she  told  me  the  best  thing 
I  could  do  was  to  get  married  at  once,  and  I  had  to  tell  her — I 
had  to  tell  her" — with  a  long-drawn  sigh — " there  was  a  big 
barrier  between  us." 

If  John  Hadry  had  not  been  so  wrapped  up  in  his  love- 
making,  in  his  confession  of  love,  he  could  not  have  failed  to 
notice  that  Beatrice  Buckley  was  not  the  only  one  who  started. 
Koger  and  Sue  looked  at  one  another,  and  he  held  her  hand  more 
firmly  and  protectingly.  What  did  it  matter,  that  fond  hand 
seemed  to  say.  After  all,  no  matter  what  John  Hadry  blurted 
out,  their  relations  remained  unaltered. 

But  John  Hadry  noticed  how  Beatrice  shook  and  flinched. 

"  There,  there,  my  pretty,"  he  said  gently ;  "you  don't  like  me 
talking  about  a  bad  man ;  but  after  all  we  all  know  you  were 
married  before,  and  well,  of  course,  one  shouldn't  rejoice  when  a 
man's  dead,  but  James  Buckley  wasn't  any  good  to  any  one,  and 
when  he  died  and  set  you  free — why,  I,  of  course " 

Sue's  lips  were  cold.  It  seemed  to  her  her  own  voice  sounded 
very  strange. 

"But  you  told  me  you  remember  that  wet  day  only  last 
July " 

"You  remember,"  said  Hadry  thoughtfully,  and  there  was  a 
glad  light  in  his  eyes,  every  one  of  them  had  forgotten  their 
supper ;  "  yes,  you  were  always  kind.  I  was  mighty  cut  up  about 
it  all  that  winter.  You  said  you'd  forget  there  were  any  barriers, 
do  you  remember,  Mrs.  Marsden,"  still  smoothing  the  hand  that 
lay  on  the  table;  "but  I  didn't;  thank  God,  I  didn't.  It  was 
when  I  went  across  to  Tasmania,  you  remember,  that  I  heard 
from  a  fellow  he  had  died  the  month  before  in  Sydney,  and  I  just 
set  off  and  made  certain  sure." 

"Who  had  died?"  asked  Marsden;  and  Sue  heard  his  voice 
hoarse  and  husky  and  choked  with  anxiety. 

"Bather  a  rum  conversation  before  my  future  wife,"  said 
Hadry  a  little  uneasily ;  "  but  you  don't  mind  the  Marsdens,  do 
you,  dear  little  lady  ?  Mrs,  Marsden  knows  all  about  it,  because 
I  told  her  when  I  was  in  the  depths  of  despair,  and  she  comforted 
me  a  bit." 

"But  who  died?  asked  Marsden;  and  the  intense  anxiety  in 
his  voice  made  Sue  shrink  with  pain. 


Susan  Pennicuick  665 

.Roger  afterwards  wondered  which  of  those  two  women 
listened  most  anxiously  for  the  answer. 

"Why,  James  Buckley,  of  course."  Beatrice  Buckley  gave  a 
sharp  cry  of  intense  relief,  and  Hadry  transferred  his  kind  tender 
hand  to  her  shoulder. 

"  Poor  little  girl !  She  thought  he  was  dead  long  ago.  And 
yet  3^ou'd  have  thought/'  with  a  little  smile  at  Sue,  "she'd  have 
understood  I'd  never  have  let  her  face  the  world  alone  if  I  could 
have  helped  myself.  Yes,  I  knew  you  thought  he  died  at  'Frisco, 
but  he  didn't.  I  didn't  tell  you,"  softly  patting  her  shoulder, 
"  because  I  knew  it  would  only  make  you  anxious  and  miserable 
if  you  knew  he  was  alive ;  but  this  time  I  made  certain  sure, 
went  to  Sydney  and  looked  up  the  evidence  myself.  James 
Buckley  died  on  the  15th  October  last." 

Beatrice  Buckley  dropped  her  head  down  on  the  table  and 
sobbed  wildly. 

"  Oh,  oh,  oh,  God  is  very  good  to  me." 

"My  pretty,  my  pretty,"  cried  Hadry  distressed;  "if  I  had 
thought — if  I  had  thought 

Koger  bent  forward  and  drew  Sue  into  his  arms.  There  was 
a  sob  in  his  voice.  It  seemed  to  Sue  she  had  never  realised 
before  all  the  utter  misery  of  those  past  two  years. 

"My  own  little  Lovely;  my  wife,"  he  whispered. 

MARY  GAUNT. 


THE   END. 


666  The  Empire  Review 


INDIAN   AND   COLONIAL   INVESTMENTS* 

THE  past  few  weeks  have  done  nothing  to  relieve  the  dulness 
of  the  year's  record  in  the  stock  markets.  Since  this  time  last 
month  prices  have  been  almost  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  rumours 
regarding  the  Far  Eastern  situation,  and  the  political  disturbance 
both  at  home  and  abroad  goes  a  long  way  in  preventing  any 
return  of  active  business.  There  are,  however,  signs  that  the 
masses  of  stock  in  the  hands  of  the  financial  houses  and  under- 
writers, which  have  so  long  had  a  depressing  effect  on  the  market 
for  investment  securities,  are,  in  the  natural  order  of  things, 
gradually  becoming  absorbed  by  the  genuine  investor  and  that 
but  for  the  disturbing  external  influences  prices  would  during  the 
month  have  shown  some  improvement  from  this  cause.  It  is, 
nevertheless,  beyond  doubt  that  any  such  improving  process 
must  in  any  circumstances  be  extremely  gradual. 

The  4  per  cent.  Bank  rate  still  remains,  and  although  the 
immediate  future  of  the  money  market  is  still  somewhat  uncertain, 
the  position  is  decidedly  more  satisfactory  than  it  was  this  time 
last  month.  The  American  demand  for  gold  continues  but  it  will 
soon  be  at  an  end  and  it  is  now  being  met  by  imports  from  other 
countries — and  it  speaks  well  for  the  efficiency  of  India's  excep- 
tional currency  system  that  that  country  is  able  to  furnish  so 
much  of  the  needed  supply. 

The  movements  in  the  stocks  of  the  Indian  railways  have 
been  as  varied  as  the  records  revealed  in  the  half-yearly  reports. 
The  railways  do  not  yet  show  any  marked  recuperation  from  the 
effects  of  the  famine  and  plague.  In  fact,  in  some  cases  the 
removal  of  these  has  acted  adversely.  For  instance,  there  has 
not  been  sufficient  recovery  in  the  export  of  produce  to  counter- 
act the  loss  to  the  Bombay  Baroda  State  lines  of  the  traffic 
during  the  famine  of  grain  and  other  food  to  the  affected  districts. 
The  reports  of  this  company,  by  the  way,  contain  a  reference  to 
the  question  of  the  government's  right  to  purchase  the  line  in 
1905,  and  the  shareholders  are  urged  to  refrain  from  anything  like 

*  The  tabular  matter  in  this  article  will  appear  month  by  month,  the  figures 
being  corrected  to  date.  Stocks  eligible  for  Trustee  investments  are  so  designated. — ED. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 
INDIAN  GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


667 


Title. 

Present  Amount. 

When 
Redeem- 
able. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

INDIA. 

£ 

3J%  Stock  (*)     .     .     . 
3  %„(*)••• 

63,040,302 
48,635,384 

1931 
1948 

104 
97 

H 
H 

Quarterly, 
if 

2J  %      „    Inscribed  (t) 

11,892,207 

1926 

80J 

4« 

it 

3j  %  Rupee  Paper    .     . 

Rx.  5,843,690 

65 

3|* 

Various  dates. 

3J%      „          „    1854-5 

Rx.  11,  517,  620 

.  . 

66 

ft* 

30  June—  31  Deo. 

IX*          »    1896-7 

Ex.  1,316,930 

1916 

58 

8? 

30  June—  30  Deo. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments.  *  Rupee  taken  at  1*.  4d. 

INDIAN   RAILWAYS   AND   BANKS. 


Title. 

Subscribed. 

Last 
year's 
dividend. 

Share 
or 
Stock. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

£ 

Assam  —  Bengal,  L.,  guaranteed  3  %    . 

1,500,000 

3 

100 

91* 

3^ 

[ 

Bengal  and  North-  Western  (Limited) 

2,750,000         5 

100 

130 

3^ 

\ 

Bengal  Central  (L)  g.  3J  %  +  Jth  profits 
Bengal  Dooars,  L  

500,000         5 
150,000         5 

5           5 

100       100 

5 

5 

Do.  Shares       

9-fin.noo        -i           10 

Bengal  Nagpur  (L),  gtd.  4%  +  Jth  profits       3  ,  000  ,  000 
Bombay,  Bar.  &  C.  India,  gtd.,  5  %     .       7,550,300 

4           100     i  104J 
6«        100       157 

£ 

i 

:' 

Burma  Guar.  2J  %  and  propn.  of  profits 

2,000,000 

4           100       107 

3| 

h  i 

Delhi  Umballa  Kalka,  L.,  guar.  3J  %  +\         om  nm 
net  earnings  /         °w,uuu 

4|         100 

117 

*i 

[ 

WStt1'"1?  !*.*?**!)  ».«<».™»!   fii    10°   1X*X 

11 

E* 

Do.  do,  class  "  D,"  repayable  1953  (t)  . 

4,047,267         5          100    '  130Aa; 

3 

u| 

Do.  4J  %  perpet.  deb.  stock  (t)  .     .     .       1,435,650        4£         100       137         3; 
Do.  new  3  %  deb.  red.  (t)  5,000,000!      3          100        93        3; 

Great  Indian  Peninsula  4%  deb.  Stock  (t 
Do.  3%  Gua.  and  ^  surp.  profits  1925  (t 
Indian  Mid.  L.  gua.  4%  &  J  surp.  profits^ 
Madras,  guaranteed  5  %  by  India  (t)    . 

2,701,450         4           100       122J       3; 
2,575,000         3|      i  100       108$       3t 
2,250,000  i      4           100       104         3J 
8,757,670         5           100       124^     3| 

Do.  do.  4f  %(t)      .     .     .     .     ... 

999,960 
500,000 

4|         100    '  llQx 
4J      i  100       Ilia 

» 

4 

i 

Do.  do.  4}  °/  (t)      

Nizam's  State  Rail.  Gtd.  5  %  stock     . 

2,000,000 

5           100 

122 

*J6 

Do.  3J  %  red.  mort.  debs  

1,112,900 

3i         100 

95* 

3i 

i 

Rohilkund  and  Kumaon,  Limited.     . 

200,000 

8           100 

147J 

5, 

7ff 

South  Behar,  Limited     

379,580 

3*         100 

92^ 

3^ 

1 

South  Indian  4J  %  per.  deb.  stock,  gtd. 
Do.  capital  stock  ...... 

425,000 
1,000,000 

4*         100 

e|     i  loo 

135 

116i 

3A 
5U 

Sthn.  Mahratta,  L.,  3}  %  &  i  of  profits 

3,500,000 

5          100 

103i* 

41 

Do.  4%  deb.  stock     .     .     ...     . 

1,195,600 

4           100 

no* 

3g 

[    l  - 

Southern  Punjab,  Limited  .... 

966,000 

4           100 

99o; 

Do.  3J  %  deb.  stock  red  
West  of  India  Portuguese,  guar.  L.     . 
Do.  5  %  debenture  stock  

500,000 
800,000 
550,000 

3*         100 
5           100 
5           300 

901 

87i 
10SA 

H 

» 

BANES. 

Number  of 
Shares. 

„    •  • 

• 

1 

o 

Chartered  Bank  of  India,  Australia,  \ 
and  China    / 

40,000 

10 

20 

42J 

Hi 

National  Bank  of  India  

40,000 

10 

12* 

28 

4J 

(w)  Ex  dividend.  (*)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 

*  The  yield  given  makes  no  allowance  for  extinction  of  capital. 


GG8 


The  Empire  Review 


forced  sales  of  their  holdings.   The  directors'  advice  has,  however, 
had  little  effect  in  strengthening  the  price  of  the  stock. 

The  securities  of  the  Canadian  Railways  suffered  a  rather 
severe  set-back  on  the  publication  of  the  monthly  statements  for 
November,  the  working  expenses  having  increased  so  much  that 
very  small  increases  were  shown  in  the  net  profits.  But  the 
prices  have  now  more  than  recovered  their  level  of  a  month  ago. 
The  effect  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  debenture  issue  had  long  been 

CANADIAN   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

- 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable 

4  %  Inter-U  Guaran- 
colonial/l    teed  by 
4%    „        [     Great 

1,500,000 
1,500,000 

1908 
1910 

102 
103 

3& 
3* 

!1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4%    „        J   Britain, 
4%  1874-8  Bonds.     . 
4%     „       Ins.  Stock 

1,700,000 
4,099,700\ 
7,900,300) 

1913 
1904-Sf 

104 
/  100J 
\  100J 

*'i 

4     / 

1  May—  1  NOT, 

4  %  Reduced  Bonds   . 
4  %        „      Ins.  Stock 

2,209,321\ 
4,233,815/ 

1910 

/  104 
\  104 

3|    \ 
3f    / 

1  Jan.—  1  July; 

8J  %  1884  Ins.  Stock  . 
4  %  1885  Ins.  Stock  . 
3  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

4,605,000 
3,499,900 
10,101,321 

1909-34t 
1910-35* 
1938 

1    99 
105 
100 

P 

1  June—  1  Deo 
}l  Jan.—  1  July, 

2i%     „             „     (t) 

2,000,000 

1947 

87 

3 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

PROVINCIAL. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

3  %  Inscribed  Stock  . 

2,045,760 

1941 

87z 

3iJ 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 

MANITOBA. 

5  %  Debentures    .     . 
5  %  Sterling  Bonds    . 
4%       „        Debs.     . 

346,700 
308,000 
205,000 

1910 
1923 
1928 

105 
113 
101 

1 

Jl  Jan.—  1  July, 
1  May—  1  Nov. 

NOVA  SOOTIA, 

3%  Stock  .... 

164,000 

1949 

91 

3& 

1  Jan.—  1  July 

QUEBEC. 

5  %  Bonds  .... 
3  %  Inscribed  .     .     . 

1,199,100 
1,890,949 

1904-6 
1937 

100J 

86 

n 

1  May—  1  Nov. 
1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

MUNICIPAL. 

Hamilton  (City  of)  4  % 
Montreal    3    %    Deb  \ 
Stock      .     .     .      / 

482,800 
1,440,000 

1934 
permanent 

101 

87 

w 

3& 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 
1  May—  1  Nov. 

Do.  4  %  Cons.    „ 

1,821,917 

1932 

105 

3| 

Ottawa  6  JL  Bonds 

92,400 

1904 

101 

5 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Quebec  4%  Debs.  . 
Do.  3}  %  Con.  Stock 

385,000 
351,797 

1923 

drawings 

103 

95z 

w 

}l  Jan.—  1  July 

Toronto  5  %  Con.  Debs 

136,700 

1919-20 

109 

s 

Do.  4  %  Stg.  Bonds 
Do.  4  %  Local  Impt. 

300,910 
412,544 

1922-28f 
1913 

101 
100 

I* 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  3J  %  Bonds    . 

1,059,844 

1929 

98 

3i 

Vancouver  4  %  Bonds 

121,200 

1931 

100 

4 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Do.  4  %  40-year  Bonds 

117,200 

1932 

100 

4 

7  Feb.—  7  Aug. 

Winnipeg  5  %  Debs.  . 

138,000 

1914 

105 

*£ 

30  Apr.—  31  Oct. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


669 


CANADIAN   RAILWAYS,   BANKS   AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid  up 
per 

Share. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

* 

Canadian  Pacific  Shares     .     . 

$84,500,000 

54 

$100 

122f 

4* 

Do.  4  %  Preference  .... 

£6,678,082 

4 

100 

104 

Do.  5  %  Stg.  1st  Mtg.  Ed.  1915 

£7,191,500 

5 

100 

111 

Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock  .     . 

£13,518,956 

4 

100 

I07x 

Grand  Trunk  Ordinary.     .     . 

£22,475,985 

nil 

Stock 

16 

Do.  5  %  1st  Preference  .     .     . 

£3,420,000 

5 

1) 

11U 

4* 

Do.  5  %  2nd       ,  

£2,530,000 

5 

97| 

5? 

Do.  4%  3rd       

£7,168,055 

1 

)) 

46 

"8 

Do.  4  %  Guaranteed      .     .     . 

£5,219,794 

4 

M 

101* 

3-1  5 

Do.  5  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock  .     . 

£4,270,375 

5 

100 

134* 

3|B 

Do.  4  %  Cons.  Deb.  Stock  .     . 

£10,393,966 

4 

100 

107 

3f 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Bank  of  Montreal    .... 

60,000 

10 

$200 

508 

315 

Bank  of  British  North  America 

20,000 

6 

50 

64 

43-  x 

Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce  . 

$8,000,000 

7 

$50 

15 

4|r> 

Canada  Company     .... 

8,319 

60s. 

1 

35£ 

8/<r 

Hudson's  Bay           .     •     •     • 

100,000 

22a.  6d. 

11* 

38 

3 

Trust  and  Loan  of  Canada.     . 

50,000 

7 

5 

4JB 

7| 

Do  new              .          ... 

25,000 

7 

3 

23  x 

75 

British  Columbia  Electric\0rd. 

£210,000 

4 

Stock 

^4.^ 

Hi 

Railway  /Pref. 

£200,000 

5 

Stock 

QQ  A 

5§ 

1 

"a 

£2  capital  repaid  July  1903. 


00  Ex  dividend. 


NEWFOUNDLAND   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

3^  %  Sterling  Bonds 

2,178,800 

1941-7-8 

90 

4 

3  %  Sterling 

325,000 

1947 

79 

4 

4  %  Inscribed      „ 

320,000 

1913-38* 

101 

3£ 

1  Jan.  —  1  July. 

4  %        „        Stock 

509,342 

1935 

W5x 

4  %  Cons.  Ins.       . 

200,000 

1936 

105cc 

3f 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 


(x)  Ex  dividend. 


discounted,  so  that  the  official  announcement  had  little  effect 
on  the  prices  of  the  shares,  although  the  existing  4  per  cent. 
Consolidated  Debenture  Stock,  with  which  the  new  issue  is  to 
rank,  has  been  brought  down  towards  the  low  price  at  which  the 
new  stock  was  offered. 

Another  contribution  to  the  work  of  coping  with  the  transport 
of  the  rapidly  growing  produce  of  the  Dominion  has  been  made 
by  the  formation  of  the  Canadian  Transit  Company.  The  new 
company  is  building  a  fleet  of  a  dozen  specially-constructed 
vessels  to  take  advantage  of  the  improvements  that  have  now 
been  completed  on  the  canals  between  the  Great  Lakes  and 
Montreal.  The  Canadian  port  already  receives  a  greater  share  of 
the  lake  traffic  than  any  United  States  port  on  the  Atlantic, 


670  The  Empire  Review 

and  the  company's  object  is  to  increase  still  further  the  oppor- 
tunities which  Canada  is  already  employing  to  the  fullest  possible 
extent. 

Hudson's  Bay  shares  have  shown  an  appreciable  rise  of  4J 
points  to  38.  This  appears  to  be  due  to  the  completion  of  the 
liquidation  of  a  large  Canadian  account  which  has  been  over- 
hanging the  market  for  some  time  past. 

In  the  Australian  section  the  fact  that  the  Victorian  con- 
version loan  is  out  of  the  way  has  exercised  a  good  influence, 
and  in  spite  of  the  prevailing  inactivity  many  of  the  leading 
State  securities  are  quoted  higher ;  in  several  cases  the  January 
dividend    deductions  have  been  wholly  or  partially  recovered. 
Among   miscellaneous  securities  the  shares  of    the  Australian 
Mortgage  Land  and  Finance  Company,  Limited,  have  been  very 
strong  and  are  now  quoted  round  about  £4.    Last  month  they 
were  £%  15s.,  and  not  more  than  a  year  ago  they  were  sold  at 
about  £1.     The  Debentures  of  the  same  company  have  also 
improved.     No  doubt  the  recently  issued  report  was  more  favour- 
able than  had  been  anticipated  in  some  quarters,  but  the  rise  in 
quotations  may  be  attributed  partly  to  the  better  pastoral  outlook. 
It  is  permissible  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  year  to  take  a 
short  purview  of  Australia's  financial  record  for  the  past  twelve 
months.     This  cannot  be  described  as  cheerful  or  even  specially 
interesting.      Only  one    event    stands  out  prominently  in  the 
financial  history  of  1903,  namely,  the  successful  struggle  of  the 
Victorian  Government,  in  the  interests  of  financial  reform,  against 
the  combined  forces  of  the  labour  party  and  the  civil  servants. 
Beyond  this  there  has  been  nothing  to  excite  special  attention, 
though  much  good  work  has  been  done  by  most  of  the  States  in 
efforts  to  make  both  ends  meet  in  the  face  of  adverse  circum- 
stances.   As  regards  the  coming  year,  prospects  are  decidedly 
more  encouraging,  and  a  confident  feeling  prevails.     The  antici- 
pations of  a  bountiful  harvest  seem  to  be  well  justified,  and  when 
the  ingathering  has  been  effected  there  should  be  some  improve- 
ment in  general  trade,  which  of  late  has  been  distinctly  quiet. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  difficulty  to  be  faced  by  the  Australian 
States  during  the  coming  year  will  be  in  connection  with  the 
raising  of  loans.  The  London  market  may  be  regarded  as  closed 
to  Australian  issues  for  some  time  to  come,  except  on  the  most 
onerous  terms  ;  and  the  local  markets  have  already  begun  to  feel 
the  effects  of  the  drain  caused  by  borrowings  for  public  purposes. 
The  recent  raising  of  fixed  deposit  rates  by  the  four  leading 
banks  in  New  South  Wales — which  held  out  for  some  time  after 
the  smaller  banks  had  taken  the  step— is  attributed  in  large 
measure  to  this  cause.  The  worst  sufferer  will  doubtless  be  the 
New  South  Wales  Government,  which  appears  to  be  in  sore 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


671 


straits  for  funds  to  carry  out  its  public  works  commitments.  It 
has  recently  borrowed  money  privately  from  insurance  offices  in 
Sydney,  probably  against  Treasury  Bills,  and  is  now  offering 
4  per  cent,  funded  stock  repayable  in  1907.  The  London  4  per 
cent.  Treasury  Bills  of  the  same  Government  for  £500,000  are 
said  to  be  on  offer  privately  at  the  low  price  of  £98  5s. 

The  half-yearly  report  of  the  Western  Australian  Bank  to 
28th  September  last  has  just  been  received  here  and  shows  the 
usual  record  of  steady  prosperity.  The  shareholders  are  now 
reaping  in  full  measure  the  reward  of  a  policy  which  has  enabled 
them  to  accumulate  a  reserve  fund  two  and  a  half  times  as  large 
as  the  paid-up  capital.  The  net  profits  for  the  past  half-year  are 

AUSTRALIAN   GOVERNMENT  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

4  %o  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 
"a  /o      n               n     (*/ 
3%        „              „     (0 

VICTORIA. 

9,686,300         1933 
16,500,000         1924 
12,500,000         1935 

• 

107 
98 
86 

I 

1  Jan.—  1  July, 
jl  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

4J%  Bonds      .     .     . 
4  %  Inscribed,  1882-3 
4%         „         1885m 
3fcQ%       „         1889  (4 

3%         ,"         (0  '.     '. 

5,000,000 
5,421,800 
I     6,000,000 
5,000,000 
2,107,000 
5,559,343 

1904 
1908-13f 
1920 
1921-6f 
1911-26* 
1929-491 

102 
101 
105 
95 
101 
85 

4 

Hi 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 
1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

QUEENSLAND. 

4  %  Bonds  .     .     . 
4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

aV     "          "  ft 
3  /o      »>           n   (*; 

10,267,400 
7,939,000 
8,616,034 
4,274,213 

1913-15f 
1924 
1921-30t 
1922-47f 

101 
105 
95 
86 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

j 

4  %  Bonds  . 
4%      „      .     .     .     . 

6,586,700 
1.365,300 
6,222,900 
2,517,800 
839,500 
2,760,100 

1907-16f 
1916 
1916-36* 
1939 
1916-26J 
After  1916J 

100 
100 
102 
lOOz 
860; 
86x 

35 
9 

34 

H 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 
}l  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock   . 

01   o                                                 /« 

dt  ^     »»          ii  W 

q  o/                                      ;,\ 
d  To           »                  n     W 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA. 

4  %  Inscribed  . 
3a%      „          (0  .     . 
3%        „         (A  .     . 
3%        „         0)  -     . 

1,876,000 
2,380,000 
3,750,000 
2,500,000 

1911-31* 
1920-35* 
1915-35J 
1927J 

101 
96 
86 

88 

W 

Tft 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
}l  May—  1  Nov. 
15  Jan.—  15  July, 

TASMANIA. 

3}  %  Inscbd.  Stock  (t) 

A    °/                                                     l*\ 
*    /O                   II                          II           V" 

3  %  .                       (t) 

3,456,500 
1,000,000 
450,000 

1920-40f 
1920-40* 
1920-40f 

97 
105 

87 

1 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

t  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  he  redeemed 
earlier. 


J  No  allowance  for  redemption. 
(t)  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


672  The  Empire  Review 

AUSTRALIAN  MUNICIPAL  AND   OTHER   BONDS. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

|   When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Melbourne  &  Met.  Bd.\ 
of  Works  4%  Debs.  / 

1,000,000 

1921 

100 

4 

1  Apl.—  1  Got. 

Do.  City  4%  Debs.     . 

850,000 

1915-22* 

99 

*& 

Do.    Harbour    Trust  \ 
Comrs.  5%  Bds.       ./ 

500,000 

1908-9 

102* 

^ 

1  Jan.—  1  July 

Do.  4%  Bds.     .     .     . 

1,250,000 

1918-21* 

101 

8*i 

Melbourne        Trams\   1  ^n  nm 
Trust  4*%  Debs.    ./   i'650'00 

1914-16*  |     105 

4 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

S.  Melbourne  4*%  Debs.       128  ,  700 

1919           101           4A 

Sydney  4%  Debs.  .     . 

640,000 

1912-13     i     101           31 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  4%  Debs.  .     .     . 

300,000 

1919          101           3£§ 

1 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

AUSTRALIAN  RAILWAYS,   BANKS  AND   COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS. 

o 

Emu  Bay  and  Mount  Bisohofi  .     .     . 

12,000 

2* 

5 

3} 

3T98 

Do.  4*%  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .... 

£130,900 

4i 

100 

97J 

4 

Mid.  of  Western  Australia  6  %  Debs.  . 
Do.  4  %  Deb.  Bonds,  Guaranteed  .     . 

£670,000 
£500,000 

nil 
4 

100 
100 

37J 
101 

nil 
8*1 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Bank  of  Australasia                   .     »  •  ^ 

40,000 

114 

40 

84 

gi 

Bank  of  New  South  Wales  .... 

100,000 

**• 

10 

20 

39* 

5 

Union  Bank  of  Australia  £75    .     .     . 

60,000 

8 

25 

41* 

4.i£ 

Do.  4  %  Inscribed  Stock  Deposits  .     . 

£750,000 

4 

100 

99 

4i"s 

Australian  Mort.  Land  &  Finance  £25 

80,000 

nil 

5 

4 

nil 

Do.  4  %  Perp.  Deb.  Stock    .... 
Dalgety  &  Co.  £20     

£1,900,000 
154,000 

4 

5i 

100 
5 

^1 

4 
6 

Do.  4*  %  Irred.  Deb.  Stock  .     .     .     . 

£620,000 

4 

100 

110J 

Do.  4%           „                               .     . 

£1,643,210 

4 

100 

98i 

4 

Goldsbrough  Mort  &  Co.  4  %  A  Deb.\ 
Stock  Reduced  / 

£1,234,350 

4 

100 

65* 

6 

Do.  B  Income  Reduced  

£740,610 

4 

100 

40* 

10 

Australian  Agricultural  £25 

20,000 

£2| 

21* 

58* 

South  Australian  Company.     .     •  •  •»  j 

14,200 

11* 

20 

4ii 

Trust  &  Agency  of  Australasia  . 

42,479 

nil 

1 

Do.  5  °/  Cum.  Pref  

87,500 

5 

10 

9 

*)  9 

Met.  of  Melb.  Gas  5  %  Debs.  1908-12. 

£560,000 

5 

100 

103 

4r9« 

Do.  4£  %  Debs.  1918-22-24  .... 

£250,000 

±* 

100 

101 

±T7S 

returned  at  ^£20,974,  which  compares  with  £15,488  for  the  corre- 
sponding period  of  1902,  when,  however,  the  profits  were  some- 
what below  the  average  of  recent  years.  The  customary  dividend 
of  17i  per  cent,  absorbs  only  £8750,  leaving  £12,224  to  swell  the 
amount  carried  forward,  which  now  reaches  the  substantial  total 
of  £20,789.  Owing  to  the  development  of  the  business  the 
directors  have  decided  to  increase  the  paid-up  capital  and  an 
issue  of  new  shares  will  shortly  be  made.  The  premiums  on 
these  will  go  to  swell  the  reserve  fund,  which  will  doubtless  be 
maintained  at  the  existing  ratio  to  paid-up  capital. 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments  673 

NEW   ZEALAND   GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

5  %  Bonds  .... 
5  %  Consolidated  Bonds 

266,300 
236,400 

1914 
1908 

109J 
100 

i  BH 

!    5 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 
Quarterly. 

4  %  Inscribed  Stock  (t) 

29,150,302 

1929 

107 

STB 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

3J%      „            „      (*) 

6,161,167 

1940 

101 

QJL 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3%        „            „      (t) 

6,384,005         1945 

90 

3& 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


NEW   ZEALAND   MUNICIPAL  AND   OTHER   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield. 

Interest  Payable. 

Auckland  5%  Deb.      . 

200,000 

1934-8* 

Ill* 

4| 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  Hbr.  Bd.  5%  Debs. 

150,000 

1917 

105 

3 

10  April—  10  Oct. 

Bank  of  New  Zealand\ 
4  %  Qua.  Stockf     .  / 

£2  000  000 

e**      )  ww  ,  w  w 

— 

98i 

Apr.—  Oct. 

Christchurch  6%  Drain- 
age Loan      .     .     . 

\    200,000 

1926 

126$ 

*& 

30  June-  -31  Deo. 

Dunedin  5%  Cons.      . 

312,200 

1908 

101 

4f 

1  Apr.—  1  Oct. 

Lyttleton  Hbr.  Bd.  6% 

200,000 

1929 

126J 

Mi 

Napier    Hbr.  Bd.  5%\ 
Debs  / 

300,000 

1920 

106 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  5%  Debs.  .     .     . 

200,000 

1928 

104 

4| 

National  Bank  of  N.Z.  \ 
£7$  Shares  £2$  paid/ 

100,000 

div.  10  % 

H 

Jan.  —  July. 

New  Plymouth  Hbr.\ 
Bd.  6%  Debs.     .     .  / 

. 

1909 

101* 

&tt 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Oamaru  5%  Bds.  .     . 

173,800 

1920 

91 

5£ 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Otago  Hbr.  Cons.  Bds.\ 
5%      / 

417,500 

1934 

107 

*A 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Wellington  6%  Irnpts.^ 
Loan  / 

100,000 

drawings 

118$ 

5^ 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  6%  Waterworks   . 

130,000 

123* 

4| 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

Do.  4*%  Debs..     .     . 

165,000 

1933 

103 

*i 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

WestportHbr.4%Debs. 

150,000 

1925 

102 

sf 

1  Mar.—  1  Sept. 

I 

*  Yield  calculated  on  later  date  of  redemption,  though  a  portion  of  the  loan  may  be  redeemed 
earlier. 

f  Guaranteed  by  New  Zealand  Government. 

New  Zealand  has  not  been  long  in  taking  advantage  of  the 
borrowing  powers  conferred  by  her  Parliament  in  the  last  session. 
The  Government  has  been  inviting  tenders,  locally  and  in 
Australia,  for  £500,000  in  4  per  cent.  Debentures,  repayable  in 
five  to  twenty  years,  presumably  at  the  option  of  the  purchaser, 
the  minimum  price  to  be  par.  This  is  only  half  the  amount 
sanctioned  by  Parliament,  but  it  is  assumed  the  remainder  will 
be  issued  at  the  first  convenient  opportunity. 

Although  South  African  affairs  are  almost  at  a  standstill 
pending  the  next  step  in  the  solution  of  the  labour  problem,  as 
much  work  in  the  way  of  development  as  can  be  done  under  the 
circumstances  is  being  pushed  forward  without  cessation,  in 
preparation  for  the  anxiously  awaited  revival  of  activity.  The 
VOL,  VI.— No.  36.  2  x 


674 


The  Empire  Review 


municipalities  are  not  behindhand  in  this  work,  and,  however 
unfavourably  their  issues  of  new  stock  may  be  received  by  the 
market,  they  are  obliged  to  obtain  the  necessary  money.  The 
loan  of  a  million  and  a  half  sterling  offered  by  Johannesburg  at 
the  beginning  of  the  month  met  with  a  very  poor  response, 
a  large  proportion  having  to  be  taken  by  the  underwriters.  The 
town  had  to  pay  rather  dearly  for  the  accommodation,  obtaining 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  GOVERNMENT   SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present 
Amount. 

When  Re- 
deemable. 

Price. 

Yield.       Interest  Payable. 

CAPE  COLONY, 

£ 

4J%  Bonds      .     .     . 
4%  1883  Inscribed  (t). 
4  %  1886 

970,900        dwgs,          103 
3,733,195  '      1923          105 
9,997,566     1916-36*       103 

4|         15  Apr,—  15  Got, 
3JJ       1  June—  1  Deo. 
3g         15  Apr.—  15  Got, 

3*%  1886      „        «). 

8,215,080     1929-49*  !      98 

3&       1  Jan.—  1  July. 

3%  1886        „        (4. 

7,448,367 

1933-43*         88 

3£|       1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

NATAL. 

4}  %  Bonds,  1876  .     . 
4  %  Inscribed  .     .     . 

758,700         1919          107 
3,026,444         1937           113 

SH       15  Mar.—  15  Sep. 
3|        Apr.—  Got. 

«*  %        ii             •     • 

3,714,917         1939            99 

8|        1  June—  1  Deo, 

8%          „             .     • 

6,000,000 

1929-49* 

90 

3$        1  Jan.—  1  July. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 
*  Yield  calculated  on  earlier  date  of  redemption. 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  RAILWAYS,  BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 


Title. 

Number  of 
Shares  or 
Amount. 

Dividend 
for  last 
Year. 

Paid 
up. 

Price. 

Yield. 

RAILWAYS, 
Mashonaland  5  °/  Debs  

£2,500,000 

5 

100 

100 

5 

Northern  Railway  of  the  S.  African\ 
Rep.  4  7  Bonds  / 

£1,500,000 

nil 

100 

94* 

nil 

Rhodesia  Rlys.  5  %  1st  Mort.   Debs.\ 
guar.  by  B.S.  A.  Co.  till  1915  .     .     .  / 
Royal  Trans-African  5  %  Debs.  Red.   . 

BANKS  AND  COMPANIES. 

Robinson  South  African  Banking  . 
African  Banking  Corporation  £10  shares 
Bank  of  Africa  £18£                        v-'  • 

£2,000,000 
£1,814,877 

1,500,000 
60,000 
160,000 

5 
5 

S* 

12A 

100 
100 

1 
5 
61 

103 

84* 

l&x 

H 

5$ 

| 

Al 

Standard  Bank  of  S.  Africa  £100    .     . 
Ohlsson's  Cape  Breweries     .     .     »    :„• 
South  African  Breweries      .... 
British  South  Africa  (Chartered)    .     . 
Do.  5  %  Debs.  Red  

50,000 
30,000 
750,000 
4,568,392 
£1,250,000 

18 
52 
30 
nil 
5 

25* 
5 

ioi 

83 
25 
3x 
2A 
104J 

i 

10* 
10 
nil 

A3 

Natal  Land  and  Colonization    .     .     . 
Cape  Town  &  District  Gas  Light  &  Coke 
Kimberley  Waterworks  £10.     .     .     . 
South  African  Supply  and  Cold!  Ond. 
Storage  /  Pref. 

34,033 
10,000 
45,000 
300,000 
150,000 

15 
10 
5 
£4 

7 

5 
10 

7 
1 
1 

8 

% 

r*B 

f  SWOHH  • 
OJ  CO  t-  • 

i 

(*)  Ex  dividend. 


tndian  and  Colonial  Investments 


675 


only  95  for  the  4  per  cent,  loan,  and,  as  it  is  understood  that  an 
underwriting  commission  of  1J  per  cent,  was  paid,  it  actually 
received  only  93J.  Port  Elizabeth,  asking  for  a  smaller  loan  of 
£360,000,  fixed  its  issue  price  at  the  higher  figure  of  97,  the 
same  as  that  of  the  recent  Cape  Town  and  Durban  issues,  but  in 
this  case  the  amount  subscribed  considerably  exceeded  the  total 
offered. 

In  spite  of  the  difficulties  and  rumours  of  difficulties  that  have 
been  abundant  since  the  publication  of  the  Labour  Commis- 
sioners' report,  the  best  informed  authorites  are  still  confidently 
hoping  for  an  early  solution  of  the  problem.  The  reports  of  the 
mining  companies  all  tell  the  same  tale  of  everything  in  readiness 
for  a  vigorous  resumption  of  work  as  soon  as  an  adequate  supply 
of  labour  is  forthcoming.  The  encouraging  view  that  is  taken 
of  the  outlook  is  reflected  in  the  general  appreciation  in  value  of 
the  shares  of  the  South  African  Banking  companies,  which  are, 
of  course,  most  intimately  affected  by  the  state  of  the  chief 
industry  of  the  country.  In  this  connection  the  record  of  the 
Robinson  South  African  Banking  Company,  as  presented  at  the 
recent  meeting  of  shareholders,  is  an  important  addition  to  the 
few  authoritative  opinions  on  the  much-discussed  question. 
After  making  provision  for  bad  and  doubtful  debts  and  for 
contingencies,  the  company  showed  a  profit  of  £193,403,  and 
the  board,  taking  into  account  the  slack  time  that  had  prevailed, 
and  the  impossibility  of  adding  much  to  their  usual  banking 
profits  by  any  flotations  of,  or  profitable  dealings  in,  the  securities 
of  the  mining  companies  in  which  the  bank  is  interested,  regard 
this  as  a  satisfactory  result,  as  apparently  do  also  the  share- 
holders. At  the  meeting,  Mr.  J.  B.  Eobinson  himself  was, 

CROWN  COLONY  SECURITIES. 


Title. 

Present             When 
Amount.       Redeemable. 

Price. 

Yield,    j   Interest  Payable. 

Barbadoes  3A%  ins.  (t) 

375,000 

1925-42+ 

99 

3, 

n 

1  Mar.—  1  Sep. 

Brit.  Guiana  3%  ins.  (t)        250,000       1923-45*         90 

a 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 

Ceylon  4%  ins.  (t)  .     . 

1,076,100           1934           112 

3; 

15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3%  ins.  (0  .     .     .   12,450,000           1940            94 

3; 

> 

1  May—  1  Nov. 

Hong-Kong  3£%  ins  (t) 
Jamaica  4%  ins,  (t) 

341,800 
1,098,907 

1918-43* 
1934 

100 
106 

3< 
a 

i 

15  Apr.—  15  Oct. 
15  Feb.—  15  Aug. 

Do.  3^%  ins.  (0      .     . 

1,449,800 

1919-49* 

100 

3! 

24  Jan.—  24  July. 

Mauritius    3%  guar.l 
Great  Britain  (t)     .  j 

600,000 

1940 

98$ 

3A 

1  Jan.—  1  July. 

Do.  4%  ins.  (t)  .     .     . 
Trinidad  4%  ins.  (t)     . 

482,390 
422,593 

1937 
1917-42* 

111 
102 

3*1 

1  Feb.—  1  Aug. 
15  Mar.—  15  Sep. 

Do.  3%  ins.  (t)  .     .     . 

600,000 

1926-44f 

92 

3§ 

15  Jan.—  15  July. 

Hong-Kong  &  Bhang-") 
hai  Bank  Shares     .  J 

80,000 

Div.  £3i 

64 

5& 

Feb.—  Aug. 

Yield  calculated  on  shorter  period.  t  Yield  calculated  on  longer  period. 

(0  Eligible  for  Trustee  investments. 


6?6 


The  Empire  Review 


unfortunately,  unable  to  preside.  In  any  case  he  would  have 
been  on  his  way  to  South  Africa ;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  was 
confined  to  his  room  through  indisposition.  His  place  in  the 
chair  at  the  meeting,  however,  was  admirably  filled  by  Mr. 
James  Tyhurst.  Mr.  Tyhurst  is  not  only  managing-director  of 
the  bank,  but  his  name  is  well  known  in  affairs  South  African. 
As  chairman  of  the  Transvaal  Diamond  Mines,  Limited,  he  takes 
much  interest  in  that  new  Eand  industry  from  which  so  much 
is  hoped  and  expected.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Robinson  Bank  he 
gave  full  details  of  the  considerable  development  work  that  has 
been  effected  at  all  the  mines  of  which  the  company  is  agent, 
always  supplementing  these  details  with  a  reference  to  the  only 
drawback  to  the  proper  working  of  the  properties.  Speaking 
after  the  publication  of  the  Commission's  report  he  had  little 
to  add  to  the  views  therein  expressed,  but  the  following  single 
extract  from  his  speech  emphasises  the  opinion  already  put 
forward  as  to  the  wide-spread  importance  of  a  speedy  settlement. 

There  is  not  only  an  absolute  shortage  of  native  labour  for  present  require- 
ments, but  a  startling  deficiency  in  the  requirements  of  the  immediate  future. 
It  is  now  generally  recognised  that  the  mines  are  the  mainspring  of  the  welfare 
of  the  entire  South  African  colonies,  for,  without  their  activity  and  prosperity, 
money  can  neither  be  made  nor  circulated  in  the  country  ;  and  thus  upon  the 
prosperity  of  the  mining  industry  depends  the  prosperity — one  had  almost  said 
the  existence — of  a  commercial  and  agricultural  community. 

The  monthly  return  of  the  Transvaal  gold  output  for 
November  was  little  different  from  what  had  been  expected. 
It  simply  shows  that  the  small  normal  increase  has  been  in- 
sufficient, as  was  the  case  in  February,  to  counteract  the  effect 
of  there  being  a  decrease  on  the  month  of  two  working  days. 
The  following  Table  gives  the  returns  for  some  years  past : — 


1 

903. 

1902. 

1901. 

1899. 

January  . 

oz. 
199,279 

value. 

oz. 
70,340 

oz. 

oz. 
431,010 

February     .... 

196,513 
217,465 

•• 

81,405 
104,127 

•  • 

425,166 
464,036 

April  

227,871 

119,588 

460,349 

May  

234,125 

£994,505 

138,602 

7,478 

466,452 

June  

238  320 

1,012  322 

142,780 

19,779 

467,271 

July  
August  . 

251,643 
271,918 

1,068,917 
1,155,039 

149,179 
162,750 

25,960 

28,474 

478,493 
482,108 

September  .... 
October  

276,197 
284,544 

1,173,211 
1,208,669 

170,802 
181,439 

31,936 
33,393 

426,556 
19,906 

November   .... 
December    .     .     .     . 

279,813 

1,188,571 

187,375 
196,023 

39,075 
52,897 

61,780 
73,670 

Total    .     .     . 

2,677,688 

•• 

1,704,410 

238,992 

4,256,797 

The  Bhodesian  return  is  even  more  unsatisfactory.     It  shows 
a  decrease  not  only  when   compared  with  the  output  for  any 


Indian  and  Colonial  Investments 


677 


other  month  of  the  year,  but  also  when  compared  with  that  for 
the  corresponding  month  of  either  of  the  two  preceding  years. 
This  Table  gives  the  monthly  returns  since  1898. 


1903. 

1902. 

1901. 

1900. 

i 

1899. 

OZ. 

16,245 

oz. 
15,955 

02. 

10,697 

I 
oz. 
5,242 

oz. 
6,371 

February 

17,090 

13  ,  204 

12.237 

6,233 

6,433 

March.         

19,626 

16,891 

14,289 

6,286 

6,614 

April                             . 

20,727 

17,559 

14,998 

5,456 

5,755 

May       

22,137 

19,698 

14,469 

6,554 

4,939 

June      
July 

22,166 
23,571 

15,842 
15,226 

14,863 
15,651 

6,185 
5,738 

6,104 
6,031 

August        .           ... 

19,187 

15,747 

14,734 

:          10,138 

3,177 

September 

18,741 

«•  15,164 

13,958 

10,749 

5,653 

October      

17,918 

16,849 

14,503 

!     10,727 

4,276 

November                   . 

15,714 

15,923 

16,486 

9,169 

4,671 

December  

16,210 

15,174 

|      9,463 

5,289 

Total   .... 

213,122 

194,268 

172,059 

91,940 

65,313 

There  have  been  practically  no  movements  among  Crown 
Colony  securities,  but  Hong  Kong  and  Shanghai  Bank  shares 
have  been  slightly  affected  by  the  unsettled  state  of  affairs  in  the 
Far  East. 

TRUSTEE. 

December  16th,  1903. 


678 


The  Empire  Review 


LETTERS   TO   THE   EDITOR 


I. 

OXFORD'S    DUTY    TO    THE    EMPIRE 
To  the  Editor  of  THE  EMPIBE  KEVIEW. 

SIB, — The  present  moment  is  one  of  critical  importance  in  the 
history  of  the  Empire.  The  vast  community  has  finally  realised 
its  identity  and  is  seeking  to  strengthen  its  new  position.  Yet 
strangely  conflicting  side  issues  have  been  raised  and  are  impeding 
the  progress  of  the  new  body  politic.  Many  are  prevented  from 
joining  in  this  strong  and  moving  spirit  by  opposition  to  the 
war,  some  by  a  dread  of  militarism  and  others  by  a  craven  fear 
of  being  great.  But  no  problem  of  the  future  is  greater  than  this 
imperial  problem  with  its  limitless  possibilities. 

And  while  the  great  mind  of  the  English-speaking  people  is 
slowly  inquiring  into  this  matter,  what  do  we  find  to  be  the  Oxford 
point  of  view  ?  Surely  that  which  causes  all  the  British  race  to 
concentrate  its  thoughts  to  itself,  should,  in  an  even  greater  degree, 
animate  the  work  of  the  men  who  must  continually  fill  the 
leading  positions  in  our  social  life.  In  all  this  it  is  not  difficult  to 
perceive  that  the  general  tone  of  Oxford  at  present  is  circumscribed 
and  narrowed  by  a  cynical  scorn  of  enthusiasm,  an  impatience  of 
commonplace  truths,  an  indefiniteness  of  thought  amounting 
almost  to  indecision,  and  an  entire  lack  of  fixed  ideal.  To  say, 
however,  that  Oxford  is  losing  faith  in  herself  would  be  untrue. 
One  of  her  most  famous  sons  has  shown  boundless  confidence  in 
his  old  university.  Cecil  Ehodes,  at  least,  was  not  afraid  to  work 
for  an  ideal,  and,  by  bis  will,  he  has  done  his  best  to  inspire 
Oxford  with  his  own  aspirations.  According  to  him  Oxford  is 
to  become  a  seminary  from  which  men  shall  come  fully 
qualified  and  anxious  to  work  for  the  good  of  the  Empire. 
Must  such  an  ideal  remain  a  dream  ?  Why  should  not  Oxford 
give  the  lie  to  Macaulay's  verdict :  "The  glory  of  being  farther 
behind  the  age  than  any  other  portion  of  the  British  people  is 
one  which  that  learned  body  acquired  early  and  has  never  lost." 


Letters  to  the  Editor  679 

The  work  of  Oxford  must  be  that  of  the  exponent  of 
Imperialism.  Not  alone  in  Great  Britain  but  in  the  colonies, 
America,  and  in  Europe,  there  is  a  vast  mass  of  ideas  floating 
about  concerning  all  empire  which  needs  dissipation  or  correction. 
The  gospel  of  sane  Imperialism  must  be  preached  from  Oxford. 
She  knows  the  raison  d'etre  of  our  expansion.  Unless  it  tends 
to  general  happiness,  peace  and  justice  it  is  not  justified.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  supremacy  which  to  Cecil  Ehodes  was  to  give  peace 
to  the  world,  can  only  be  carried  out  with  the  support  of  a  sane 
Imperialism.  Many  say  that  the  genius  of  the  race  will  lead  it 
safely  if  slowly—without  doubt ;  but  even  national  genius  is 
fallible,  and  unless  the  men  who  know  are  ready  to  guide  it, 
there  are  others  who  may  lead  their  country  astray.  It  cannot 
be  said  that  Oxford  has  always  led  national  feeling ;  but  surely 
no  body  should  be  more  capable  of  doing  so  if  it  made  the  effort. 
At  this  very  moment  Mr.  Chamberlain  is  making  a  brave  attempt 
to  strengthen  Imperial  unity.  His  critics  say  his  plan  is  proposed 
without  sufficient  basis.  The  work  of  Oxford  must  be  to  give  its 
judgment  on  this,  as  on  all  similar  suggestions. 

Speaking  last  year  *  at  the  Union  Society,  Dr.  Parkin  declared 
that  there  were  two  spheres  of  work  open  to  Oxford  men,  social 
reform  at  home  and  life  in  the  colonies  abroad.  At  the  same 
time  he  affirmed  his  great  confidence  in  Oxford  and  invited 
Oxford  men  to  take  their  choice.  The  work  at  home  is  found  on 
all  sides.  Our  political  life  needs  a  school  of  men  who  will  help 
to  make  Parliament  more  imperial  and  less  local ;  who  will  be 
able  to  enter  into  the  discussion  of  Imperial  matters  with  the 
authority  of  men  who  have  studied  the  question  at  issue.  Before, 
however,  we  begin  to  change  such  important  institutions  as 
parliamentary  procedure  and  fiscal  policy,  it  is  necessary,  as 
Mr.  Michael  Sadler  said  at  the  Extension  meetings  in  Oxford, 
to  educate  the  people  better. 

It  is  evident  that  an  immense  amount  of  valuable  work  could 
be  done  by  university  extension.  Where  popular  opinion  in  the 
cities  and  towns  of  the  country  is  either  unawakened  to  these 
matters  or  cursed  by  the  wrongness  of  Jingoism  or  Little 
Englandisrn,  courses  of  lectures  on  the  history  of  the  Empire,  on 
its  moral,  social  and  intellectual  standpoints  would  be  of  great 
use.  The  study  of  history  in  the  national  schools  could  be  taught 
with  particular  bearing  on  the  Empire's  foundation  and  growth 
and  the  causes  thereof,  and  would  prove  far  more  interesting  than 
the  mere  learning  of  dates. 

In  the  great  cities  and  especially  in  London  the  work  to  be 
done  was  never  more  pressing.  The  Bishop  of  London,  addressing 
Oxford  men  not  long  ago,  said  that  there  was  no  work  so  necessary. 

*  November  6th,  1902. 


680  The  Empire  Review 

The  cities,  with  London,  are,  after  all,  the  heart  of  the  Empire  and 
supply  most  of  their  new  blood  to  the  colonies.  It  must  be  part 
of  the  duty  of  Oxford  to  help  in  the  work  of  purification  which  is 
going  on,  but  how  inadequately.  The  need  of  the  university  settle- 
ments in  London  is  for  more  men  ready  to  devote  themselves  to 
lifelong  work  among  the  overcrowded  people.  Until  the  terrible 
conditions  of  the  lives  of  the  poor  in  the  great  cities  are  amelio- 
rated it  is  useless  to  talk  to  them  about  the  responsibilities  and 
privileges  of  Empire.  Forty  thousand  souls  are  added  yearly  to 
the  population  of  London,  and  yet  the  apathy  of  nearly  all  classes 
with  regard  to  this  question  remains  undisturbed.  The  men 
who  can  fight  best  against  this  indifference  are  the  men  who,  keen 
in  the  love  for  their  old  university,  are  able  to  realise  how 
necessary  such  work  is  to  the  national  life. 

In  another  great  side  of  public  life,  in  the  industrial  world, 
what  vast  need  there  is  for  a  spirit  of  culture  and  reasonable 
intercourse.  Why  should  not  Oxford  men  qualify  themselves  by 
study  and  actual  experience,  to  become  the  leaders  of  the  com- 
mercial world  ?  There  would  be  no  need  of  a  Labour  party  led 
by  its  own  delegates  with  their  selfish  and  anti-expansive  ideals. 
Every  branch  of  national  life  would  be  nurtured  on  Oxford 
thought  and  led  by  Oxford  men,  and  all  would  tend  towards  the 
best  Imperialism. 

The  work  abroad  is  to  be  found  in  each  colony  in  varying 
proportions.  It  is  necessary  that  the  Imperial  ideas  of  the  colonies, 
which  are  not  altogether  free  from  a  certain  amount  of  self- 
assurance  and  ingratitude,  should  be  moulded  on  broader  lines. 
Sometimes  indifference  and  positive  hostility  must  be  encountered. 
The  Oxford  man  must  go  to  these  countries  and  not  only  live 
there  but  die  there.  He  must  show  himself  to  be  in  earnest. 
No  casual  fortune-making  spirit  will  fight  the  Empire's  battles. 
There  is  much  that  the  free-minded  colonial  peoples  will  gladly 
learn,  for  they  have  outgrown  the  narrow  traditions  of  vested 
interests  and  cramped  civilisation.  How  can  our  unity  be 
strengthened  more  than  by  the  teaching  and  preaching  of  men 
brought  up  to  the  glories  of  English  literature  among  the  traditions 
of  Oxford.  We  must  never  let  our  colonies  forget  that  Shake- 
speare and  Milton  were  their  countrymen.  Again,  how  much 
can  be  learnt  from  a  free  people.  We  must  go  to  them  in  no 
spirit  of  intellectual  superiority  but  as  learners  as  well  as  teachers. 
In  the  material  connections  of  mother-country  and  colonies  there 
are  powerful  agents  of  union  to  be  aided.  Trade  in  every  form 
must  be  watched  and  guided  by  those  who  have  studied  the  com- 
mercial position  of  the  component  parts  of  the  Empire.  In  all 
things  Oxford  must  be  able  to  take  the  colonial  point  of  view 
together  with  that  of  the  motherland. 


Letters  to  the  Editor  681 

Here  then  is  a  labour  unsurpassed  in  arduous  toil  and 
glorious  encouragement.  The  first  step  has  been  pointed  out  to 
Oxford  men  by  her  great  alumnus — Cecil  Rhodes,  and  already 
from  all  parts  of  the  Empire  there  are  coming  young  men  to 
inherit  our  traditions.  Oxford  must  realise  her  Imperial  position 
or  her  work  will  be  done  by  others.  Time  will  show  what 
influence  she  will  have  brought  to  bear  in  the  new  Englands  over- 
sea. Is  it  possible  that  such  a  gathering  of  the  gentlemen  of 
England  and  her  children  States  can  fail  to  seize  a  post  of  such 
honour  and  difficulty  ? 

N.  DE  L.  DAVIS. 
JESUS  COLLEGE,  OXFORD. 

II. 

PROPOSED   SEQUEL  TO  THE  RHODES   SCHOLARSHIPS. 
To  the  Editor  of  THE  EMPIEE  EEVIEW. 

SIB,— Beading  the  Official  Keport  of  the  Allied  Colonial 
Universities  Conference  in  the  August  number,  I  was  much 
struck  with  the  following  words  in  the  speech  made  by  the 
Acting  Vice-Chancellor  of  Oxford,  Referring  to  the  Rhodes 
scholarships,  Mr.  Warren  says  : — 

Over  and  above  all  his  [Mr.  Rhodes']  prevailing  desire  was  that  students  of 
many  kinds  should  enter  into  the  life  of  Oxford,  and  should  gain  what  they 
could,  and  then  go  out  all  over  the  Empire. 

Mr.  Rhodes,  living  as  he  did  so  much  in  South  Africa,  saw 
clearly,  as  many  colonials  see,  that  if  the  "  imperial  idea  "  is  to 
grow  into  concrete  form,  it  is  necessary  for  colonials  to  know 
the  country  which  is  the  centre  of  the  British  race.  By  knowing 
England,  I  mean  knowing  her  through  having  lived  in  the 
country,  no  matter  for  how  short  a  time,  from  hearing  her  great 
men  speak,  visiting  her  historical  monuments,  breathing  the  air 
and  living  the  life  of  England.  In  this  way,  and  in  this  way 
only,  can  colonists  be  brought  to  realise  in  the  fullest  degree  the 
glorious  heritage  to  which  Britons  all  over  the  world  are  heirs. 
Not  only  would  such  an  experience  have  an  important  effect  upon 
the  lives  and  minds  of  all  young  colonials,  but  it  would  give  a 
marvellous  stimulus  to  the  consolidation  of  the  Empire. 

"But  do  colonials  not  know  England?"  some  reader  will 
probably  ask.  Certainly — from  the  history-book,  from  literature, 
and,  best  of  all,  from  their  fathers.  But  what  is  this  compared 
with  the  effect  produced  upon  the  mind  of  the  colonial  who  visits 
England  for  the  first  time !  I  have  been  fortunate  enough  to 
experience  this  effect,  and  have  also  had  opportunities  of  talking 
VOL,  VI.— No,  36.  2  y 


682  The  Empire  Review 

with  other  young  colonials  after  their  first  visit  home,  and  the 
impression  has  been  the  same  in  every  case.  No  one  understood 
better  than  Mr.  Rhodes  the  far-reaching  effects  of  this  impression, 
and,  like  the  practical  man  he  was,  he  founded  a  number  of 
scholarships  at  Oxford  University  for  colonial  students.  Pro- 
fessor GL  E.  Parkin  is  now  in  Australia  arranging  details,  on 
behalf  of  the  trustees,  for  the  eighteen  scholarships  which  fall 
to  the  lot  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  A  magnificent  gift, 
and  one  which  will  work  incalculable  good.  But  what  about  the 
young  men  who  can  never  even  remotely  be  in  a  position  to 
qualify  for  one  of  these  scholarships  ?  Are  they  never  to  see 
England,  the  land  of  their  forefathers  ? 

Australia  is  the  most  isolated  of  all  Britain's  colonies,  being 
11,000  miles  from  England — six  weeks  by  steamer  via  the  Suez 
Canal.  The  journey  is  expensive.  Unaided,  I  do  not  suppose 
10  per  cent,  of  Australian  born  are  able  to  make  it.  Fathers 
possessing  the  required  means  send  their  sons  to  England  after 
they  have  finished  their  schooling  or  taken  their  university  course; 
but  the  great  majority  of  young  Australians  never  have,  and 
never  will  have,  the  same  opportunity.  This  means  that  there 
is  a  large  British  population  growing  up  in  Australia  to-day  to 
whom  the  home  of  their  race  will  never  be  anything  but  a  dream. 
The  effect  in  two  or  three  generations  must  be  apparent  to  all. 
Even  to-day  many  families  are  living  in  Australia  where  grand- 
father, father  and  son  have  never  been  away  from  the  Common- 
wealth, and  this  in  a  young  colony.  These  families  are  in  no 
sense  disloyal  to  the  Empire,  but  their  loyalty  is  of  a  passive 
nature,  like  that  of  a  child  for  a  parent  whom  it  has  been  taught 
to  love,  but  has  never  seen. 

Cecil  Ehodes  has  set  the  lead  in  bringing  about  a  more  satis- 
factory state  of  affairs.  How  is  the  lead  he  has  given  to  be 
followed  ?  Must  it  for  ever  be  impossible  for  a  colonist  without 
a  big  account  at  his  bankers  to  visit  the  old  country  at  least  once 
in  his  life-time?  A  keen  desire  to  see  England  exists  in  all 
Australians.  How  are  these  young  colonials  to  carry  out  so 
laudable  a  desire?  That  is  the  problem  I  should  like  to  see 
solved.  Can  it  be  solved  by  some  system  of  mutual  insurance,  or 
is  the  question  of  cheaper  fares  at  the  root  of  the  difficulty? 
Perhaps  some  of  your  readers  will  offer  suggestions. 

Yours  faithfully, 

ISOLATED  BRITON, 

SYDNEY,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES, 
9th  October,  1903. 


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