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EMPIRE 


REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL  OF  BRITISH  TRADE 


EDITED    BY 

SIR  CLEMENT  KINLOCH-COOKE 


VOLUME    XXIX 


r\ 


LONDON 

MACM1LLAN     AND    CO.,     LIMITED 
1916 


y 


DA 
10 


LONDON  :    PRINTED  BY  WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS,   LIMITED, 
DUKE  STREET,    STAMFORD  STREET,  S.E.,  AND  GREAT  WINDMILL  STREET, 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

THE  EMPIRE  IN  ARMS.    By  DONALD  MACMASTEE,  K.C.,  M.P.       ..  1 

SIR  EDWARD  HOLDEN  AND  THE  FINANCIAL  SITUATION     ..  9 
CANADA'S    PLACE   IN    THE  WAR.      By  J.  OBED  SMITH,  F.R.G.S. 
(Assistant    Superintendent    of   Emigration  for   the  Dominion   of 

Canada)          17 

THE   REBELLION   IN    SOUTH  AFRICA.     By  MADELINE  CONYEKS 

ALSTON            ..          ..          ..  26 

NEW  MARKETS  FOR  BRITISH  GOODS.  By  THE  EDITOR..  ..  32 
SOUTH  DEVON.  THE  HOME  OF  THE  ELIZABETHAN  HEROES.  By 

TRAVELLER 37 

THE  CHIVALRY  OF  GREATER  BRITAIN.  By  ROBEY  F.  ELDRIDGE  40 
WE  ARE  COMING  AT  OUR  EMPIRE'S  CALL.  A  PATRIOTIC  SONG. 

By  JOHN  JOHNSTON  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  44 

SIDELIGHTS  ON  COLONIAL  LIFE  46 

THE  MORAL  FACTOR  IN  WARFARE.  By  H.  DOUGLAS  GREGORY  49 

THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE.  By  THOMAS  STEWART  58 

ANILINE  DYE  INDUSTRY.  DEBATE  IN  HOUSE  OF  COMMONS 

ANALYSED.     By  THE  EDITOR         ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  59 

AUSTRALIA  AND  THE  BELGIAN  REFUGEES.  By  F.  A.  W. 

GlSBORNR            ..              ..              ..              ..              ..              ..              ..              ..              ..  78 

OUR  GLORIOUS  ARMY.    A  PATRIOTIC  SONG.    By  ALFRED  SMYTHE..  81 

LORD  CROMER'S  NEW  BOOK.     By  C.  B.  COXWELL 83 

EDINBURGH  CASTLE.     By  CHARLOTTE  PIDGBON          88 

BRITISH  BANKING  INSTITUTIONS.     LONDON  COUNTY  AND  WEST- 
MINSTER BANK,  LIMITED        ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..89 

A   MOTHER'S   MEDITATION.     By  CHARLES   PERCY   GRAHAM  MONT- 
GOMERY              92 

NOTE  FROM  SOUTH  AFRICA.    By  W.  P.  TAYLOR 93 

CANADA  AND  THE  WAR 95 

ADMIRALTY  COURTS-MARTIAL.     By  the  Right  Hon.  the  EARL  OF 

SELBORNE,  K.G.  (late  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty) 97 

THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  FALKLANDS  (with  Diagrams).    By  W.  R.  C. 

STEELE  (Naval  Officer  on  H.M.S.  "  Invincible  ")          106 


iv  Contents 

PAGE 

BELGIAN  REFUGEES  AND  FOOD  PROBLEMS  IN  ENGLAND. 

By  CHRISTOPHER  TURNOR  (President  of  the  National  Food  Fund)  ..  114 
SECOND  LIEUTENANTS.  A  PATRIOTIC  POEM.  By  M.  G.  MEUGENS  119 
FROM  BAGDAD  TO  ALEXANDRIA  BY  CARAVAN.  By  ARTHUR 

WHITLEY  (Chief  of  Staff  of  Sir  John  Jackson,  Ltd.,  Bagdad)  . .     120 

A  WAR-TIME  SKETCH  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA.  THREE  MEN  IN  A 

RAILWAY  CARRIAGE.  By  W.  P.  TAYLOR 125 

SONS  OF  THE  EMPIRE.  A  PATRIOTIC  POEM.  By  ROBEY  F. 

ELDRIDGE  128 

THE  EMPIRE  LIBRARY— 

(i)  THB  BRITISH  EMPIRE  :    ITS  GROWTH  AND  JUSTIFICATION.     By 

Sir  CHARLES  LUCAS,  K.C.B.,  K.C.M.G 129 

(ii)  THE  SYSTEM  OF  NATIONAL  FINANCE.     By  E.  HILTON  YOUNG,  M.P.  134 

(iii)  THE  ARYA  SAMAJ.    By  LAJPAT  RAI  136 

Reviewed  by  C.  B.  COXWELL 

CHRONICLES  OF  MAN.    By  C.  FILLINGHAM  COXWELL   ..         ..         ..  223 

WESTERN  CANADA  BEFORE  THE  WAR.     By  E.  B.  MITCHELL..          ..  230 

RABINDRANATH  TAGORE.    By  ERNEST  RHYS 231 

Reviews  by  "  CRITICUS  " 

A  HISTORY  OF  PERSIA.    By  Lt.-Col.  P.  M.  SYKES,  C.M.G.,  C.I.E.  ..  271 

THE  WORLD  IN  THE  CRUCIBLE.    By  SIR  GILBERT  PARKER,  Bart.,  M.P.  277 

Reviews  by  C.  B.  COXWELL 

ORDEAL  BY  BATTLE.    By  FREDERICK  SCOTT  OLIVER.    A  REVIEW   ..  325 

THE  SOUL  OF  THE  WAR.     By  PHILIP  GIBBS.     Reviewed  by  CRITICUS  374 

(i)  PAGEANT  OF  DICKENS.     By  W.  WALTER  CROTCH 561 

Reviewed  by  F.  J.  HIGGINBOTTOM 

(ii)  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE,  1916    ..          562 

TO  AN  ANGEL.    By  ENID  DAUNCEY          137 

SIDELIGHTS  ON  THE  WAR.    By  OVERSEA  CORRESPONDENTS  ..  138 

THE  GOVERNMENT  AND  THE  WAR.    MUNITIONS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

By  THE  EDITOR        145 

THE  ANILINE  DYE  INDUSTRY,  ITS  POSITION  AND  PRO- 
SPECTS. By  WILLIAM  PEARCE,  M.P 150 

SOUTH  AFRICA'S  GOLD  RESOURCES  AND  THE  EMPIRE.     By 

W.  P.  TAYLOR  154 

ADMIRALTY  BOOTS.     By  PERCY  F.  FISHER       160 

CANADA'S   PLACE   IN    BRITISH   FICTION.      By  MARIANNE   GREY 

OTTY 164,216,266,301,406 

THE  PASSING  OF  LITTLE  ENGLANDISM.  By  D.  A.  E.  VEAL  ..  168 
FUTURE  OF  IRISH  GOVERNMENT.  By  H.  DOUGLAS  GREGORY  ..  172 
AUSTRALIA'S  COURT  OF  ARBITRATION.  By  VANCE  PALMER  ..  184 
CANADA  IN  WAR  TIME.  By  OVERSEA  CORRESPONDENTS  ..  ..188 
THE  CALL  TO  ARMS.  A  PATRIOTIC  POEM.  By  ALFRED  SMYTHE  ..  192 

ENGINEERING  PROBLEMS  OF  MESOPOTAMIA  AND  EUPHRA- 
TES VALLEY.  By  Sir  JOHN  JACKSON,  C.V.O.,  M.P.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.  (Edinburgh) 193 

"  SOMEWHERE  JN  FRANCE."     A  POEM.     By  Lady  KINLOCH-COOKE     200 


Contents  v 

PAGE 

WOMEN  FARMERS  IN  RHODESIA.    By  MADELINE  CONYBRS  ALSTON  201 
IMPRESSIONS   OF    PEKING.      By   C.   D.   WEBSTER   (Captain  3Qth 

Punjabis)        205 

A  SOUTH  AFRICAN  SKETCH.     By  W.  P.  TAYLOR 220 

"  WHAT  OF  THE  NAVY."    A  POEM.     By  M.  G.  MEUGENS    ..          ..  222 

BUSINESS  IN  CANADA.    By  OVERSEA  CORRESPONDENTS         ..         ..  233 
THE  NEED  FOR  NATIONAL  SERVICE.     By  the  VISCOUNT  MILNER, 

G.C.B.,  G.C.M.G 239 

DEMOCRACY  AND  THE  WAR.     By  H.  DOUGLAS  GREGORJT   ..          ..244 

SUGAR  BEET  AS  A  HOME  INDUSTRY.     By  THE  EDITOR  ..          ..  252 

FREE  PLACES  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.    By  LUCY  LOWE,  M.A. 

(Head  Mistress,  Girls'  High  School,  Leeds)       ..          ..          ..          ..  258 

BRITISH  TRADE  AND  THE  NEW  CHINA.     By  FRANCIS  ALDRIDGE  261 
NOTES  FROM  CANADA,  NEW  ZEALAND,  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA. 

By  OVERSEA  CORRESPONDENTS       ..          ..          ..       279,329,380,425,470 

THE  NEXT  IMPERIAL  CONFERENCE.     By  F.  A.  W.  GISBORNE  ..  287 

ENGLAND— AND    THE    PERSIAN    GULF.      By   EDWARD  E.  LONG 

(Editor,  Indian  Daily  Telegraph)            ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  294 

PREPARATION   FOR  WAR   SERVICE   IN   SCHOOLS.     By  LILIAN 

M.  FAITHFUL  (Principal,  Ladies'  College,  Cheltenham)         ..          ..  299 

GLIMPSES    AT    MALAYA.      By    T.    A.    SHEARWOOD   (of  the  Straits 

Settlements) 308 

THE  ROMANCE  OF  THE  LABLACHES.    By  JAMES  STANLEY  LITTLE  314 

TABLE  SPA  WATER.    A  NEW  BRITISH  INDUSTRY.    By  SCIENTIST    ..  322 

SOME    FURTHER    NOTES    ON    NATIONAL    SERVICE.      By  the 

VISCOUNT  MILNER,  G.C.B.,  G.C.M.G 335 

TEA  AND  EDUCATION.     By  A.  E.  DUCHBSNE 342 

MORAL  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR  IN  AUSTRALIA.     By  F.  A.  W. 

GISBORNE         ..          ..          ..          350 

THE   COALITION    GOVERNMENT  AND   THE   NATION.      By  H. 

DOUGLAS  GREGORY 360 

CHARLES    DICKENS:    IMPERIALIST.       By   W.   WALTER   CROTCH 

(President  of  the  Dickens  Fellowship) 367 

BOTHA'S  RETURN :  AN  APPRECIATION.    By  W.  P.  TAYLOR     ..         ..  379 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  AMERICAN  EXCHANGE.    By  MOHETON 

FREWEN          ..          385 

SUPPLEMENTARY  PENSIONS  AND  GRANTS.     By  THE  EDITOR..  400 

THE  PATRIOTS.    A  POEM.    By  CHARLOTTE  PIDGEON 405 

METHODS  OF  BARBARISM:  A  COMPARISON.     By  D.  A.  E.  VEAL  ..  413 

THE   CAMPS   ON   SALISBURY   PLAIN.      By   ELIZABETH  GARNETT 

(Founder  of  the  Navvy  Mission)    ..          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  417 

PROFESSIONAL   CLASSES   IN   WAR   TIME.     By  A.  R,  MORMON 

(Head-Mistress  of  the  Francis  Holland  School)            421 

ANCIENT  MUNITIONS.     By  R.  C.  S.  WALTERS,  B.Sc.  (Eng.),  London  433 


vi  Contents 

PAGE 

IMPEEIAL  ORGANISATION  FOR  WAR  PURPOSES.     By  D.  A.  E. 

VEAL 443 

A  NEW  ZEALAND   SKETCH.     OUR  TOWNSHIP  IN  WAR  TIME.     By 

R.  W.  REID 446 

CANADA  AND  CHILD  IMMIGRATION.  By  G.  BOGUE  SMART  (Chief 
Inspector  of  British  Immigrant  Children  and  Receiving  Homes  in 
Canada)  450 

THE    MERGUI    ARCHIPELAGO.      By    EDWARD   E.    LONG   (Editor, 

Indian  Daily  Telegraph) 458 

THE  COMMONWEALTH  COURT  OF  ARBITRATION.    By  F.  A.  W. 

GlSBORNE  461 

FREEDOM'S  BATTLE.     A  POEM.     By  ROBEY  F.  ELDRIDGE   ..          ..469 

POLICY  AND  STRATEGY.     By  A.  E.  DUCHESNE          481 

THE  HERITAGE  OF  BRITAIN.    By  H.  DOUGLAS  GREGORY  ..         ..486 

THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  CHILD.     By  THE  EDITOR 499 

CURRENCY  AND  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.     By  W.  W.  HARD- 

WICKE,  M.D 503 

BOTHA'S  COLOURS.    By  W.  P.  TAYLOR 511 

THE  CORNISH  RIVIERA.     By  A.  E.  WITTY 513 

A  MAIDEN'S  GIFT  TO  KING  CHARLES  I.     A  POEM.      By  ROBEY 

F.  ELDRIDGE 520 

NOTES  FROM  CANADA,  NEW  ZEALAND,  SOUTH  AFRICA,  AND 

THE  CROWN  COLONIES.     BY  OVERSEA  CORRESPONDENTS         521,  563 

THE  VALUE   OF   SOUTH-WEST  AFRICA.     By  the  Rev.  WILLIAM 

EVELBIGH  (of  Kimberley) ..      529 

ADAM  SMITH  ON  IMPERIAL  UNION.     By  D.  A.  E.  VEAL  ..          ..537 
THE   WELFARE   OF   THE   CHILD.     By   E.  A.  HELPS  (late  H.M. 

Inspector  of  Schools)  ..          .,          ..          ..          ..          ..          ..      541 

WHERE  THERE  IS  PEACE.     BY  W.  P.  TAYLOR        547 

THE    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS.      By    R.    J.    WILKINSON,    C.M.G. 

(Colonial  Secretary) ..      549 

PROBLEMS  OF  THE  PACIFIC.    By  G.  H.  LEPPER 555 


I 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL    OF     BRITISH    TRADE 


VOL.  XXIX.        FEBRUARY,   1915.  No.   169. 


THE    EMPIRE    IN    ARMS 

WE  are  all  unhappily  only  too  familiar  with  the  subject  of  my 
observations.  This  will  exempt  me  from  troubling  my  readers 
with  too  many  details.  I  will,  therefore,  plunge  in  medias  res, 
and  I  am  quite  sure  they  will  understand  why  I  adopt  this 
method  of  treatment. 

The  Germans  could  have  gone  from  their  own  country 
directly  into  France,  but  not  so  easily,  they  thought,  as  through 
Belgium.  Consequently  they  made  Belgium  the  door-mat  for 
the  German  jack-boots,  desolated  that  fair  land,  laying  waste  its 
countryside,  burning  its  towns  and  villages,  slaying  men,  women, 
and  children,  and  destroying  the  finest  treasures  of  art  and 
architecture.  There  is  nothing  more  wicked  and  shameless  in 
all  the  Records  of  War.  Nor  is  there  anything  more  heroic 
than  the  magnificent,  though  unequal,  resistance  of  the  Belgian 
King  and  the  Belgian  people. 

How  has  this  war  come  about?  The  Germans  say  that 
England  is  responsible  for  it,  but  how  can  that,  with  any  truth, 
be  said  ?  All  our  interest  was  in  the  maintenance  of  peace,  and 
we  tried  in  every  way  to  retain  peace  and  refer  the  immediate 
subject  outstanding  to  a  Conference  of  the  Powers.  Germany 
would  not  have  that — that  way  peace  lay — Germany  did  not 
want  peace.  She  wanted  war,  and,  in  order  that  she  might 
conduct  the  war  in  her  own  interest,  tried  to  bargain  with  us 
to  remain  outside  and  neutral.  We  asked  both  France  and 
Germany  if  they  were  prepared  to  respect  Belgian  soil  and 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  169.  B 


The  Empire  Review 

Belgian  independence  by  not  passing  their  armies  through  Bel- 
gian territory.  Both  France  and  Germany  (Prussia),  as  well  as 
Russia  and  ourselves,  were  parties  to  a  treaty  to  respect  Belgian 
neutrality.  France  at  once  assented,  so  did  Bismarck  when 
asked  the  same  question  in  1870,  but  the  Germany  of  1914 
would  give  no  assurance,  and  on  the  4th  of  August,  in  defiance 
of  all  international  obligations  and  of  good  neighbourhood,  pro- 
ceeded to  march  her  armies  through  Belgium  (with  whom  she 
had  no  quarrel)  to  attack  France.  Now,  it  is  important  to  have 
the  German  point  of  view  on  this  outrageous  proceeding. 

This  is  the  statement  made  by  Dr.  Bethmann-Hollweg,  the 
German  Imperial  Chancellor,  in  the  Eeichstag  on  4th  August 
last  :— 

Gentlemen, — We  are  now  in  a  state  of  necessity,  and  necessity  knows  no 
law  1  Our  troops  have  occupied  Luxemburg,  and  perhaps  (as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  speaker  knew  that  Belgium  had  been  invaded  that  morning)  are  already 
on  Belgian  soil.  Gentlemen,  that  is  contrary  to  the  dictates  of  International 
Law.  It  is  true  that  the  French  Government  has  declared  at  Brussels  that 
France  is  willing  to  respect  the  neutrality  of  Belgium  as  long  as  her  opponent 
respects  it.  We  knew,  however,  that  France  stood  ready  for  the  invasion. 
France  could  wait,  but  we  could  not  wait.  A  French  movement  upon  our 
flank,  upon  the  lower  Rhine,  might  have  been  disastrous.  So  we  were 
compelled  to  override  the  just  protests  of  the  Luxemburg  and  Belgian 
Governments.  The  wrong — I  speak  openly — that  we  are  committing  we  will 
endeavour  to  make  good  as  soon  as  our  military  goal  has  been  reached. 
Anybody  who  is  threatened,  as  we  are  threatened,  and  is  fighting  for  his 
highest  possessions,  can  have  only  one  thought — how  he  is  to  hack  bis  way 
through  (wie  er  sich  durchhaul)  ! 

It  is  the  merest  trifling  with  truth  to  say  that  we  brought  on 
the  war.  We  never  desired  war,  nor  had  we  any  material  interest 
to  serve  by  war.  We  wished  for  nothing  better  than  to  be  left 
alone  to  develop  our  world  estate.  The  truth  is  we  were  unpre- 
pared for  war.  Our  standing  Army  was  small  in  numbers,  our 
Militia  was  not  on  a  war  footing,  and  our  Navy,  strong  and 
glorious  as  it  is,  was  short  of  fast  cruisers  capable  of  promptly 
hunting  down  the  various  commerce  destroyers  created  by 
Germany  and  judiciously  distributed  in  the  distant  seas.  Ger- 
many was  prepared  on  sea  as  well  as  on  land,  and  had  been 
preparing  for  this  war  for  the  last  thirty  years.  To  her  the 
moment  was  opportune  to  strike :  she  was  carrying  out  the  old 
Prussian  policy  of  Frederick  the  Great,  who  said  :  "  He  is  a  fool, 
and  that  nation  is  a  fool,  who,  having  the  power  to  strike  his 
enemy  unawares,  does  not  strike  and  strike  his  deadliest."  * 
She  did  hope  and  believe  that  Great  Britain  would  stand  out, 
but  even  if  we  did  come  in,  the  Emperor  and  his  generals  had 

*  "Germany  strikes  when  Germany's  hour  has  struck." — Lord  Roberts  at 
Manchester. 


The  Empire  in  Arms  3 

every  confidence  that  they  would  "  walk  over  French's  con- 
temptible little  army."  They  know  better  now. 

Unprepared  as  we  were,  it  is  better  that  the  war  should 
have  come  now.  The  war  was  bound  to  come  sooner  or  later 
against  the  British  nation,  because  we  are  the  nation  whose 
destruction  Germany  sought  as  essential  to  her  own  aggrandise- 
ment ;  and  as  it  was  certain  we  would  have  to  fight  German} 
sooner  or  later,  it  was  better  to  have  the  fight  out  when  we  had 
powerful  Allies  than  to  face  the  conflict  single-handed.  For- 
tunately for  us,  the  very  madness  of  German  statesmanship 
forced  Austria  to  press  her  humiliating  demands  on  Servia  to 
such  a  degree  that  Russia,  the  natural  protector  of  the  Slav 
races,  was  compelled  to  intervene,  with  peaceful  intentions, 
asking  Austria  to  stay  her  hand  until  wiser  and  disinterested 
counsel  could  prevail,  when  adjustments  could  be  made  and  peace 
preserved.  Then  came  the  insolent  notice  from  the  Kaiser  that 
unless  Eussia  stopped  mobilisation,  in  a  few  hours  a  state  of  war 
would  exist  between  Eussia  and  Germany.  This  brought  Eussia 
on  the  scene,  and  with  Eussia  came  France  as  Eussia's  ally. 

Now  the  object  of  Germany  was  clear — to  violate  the 
neutrality  of  Belgium,  march  her  army  through  it  by  the 
shortest  route,  crush  France  before  she  could  get  ready,  and 
when  crushed,  turn  the  entire  German  army  against  Eussia, 
which  it  was  expected  would  be  slow  in  mobilising,  and  which 
could  be  easily  held  in  check  by  the  Eastern  German  armies 
until  France  had  been  crushed  and  the  Western  German  armies 
set  free  to  co-operate  in  the  subjection  of  Eussia.  Had  this  plan 
worked  out  it  is  perfectly  possible  that,  with  France  crushed,  the 
united  German  armies  with  the  Austro-Hungarian  forces  might 
have  successfully  withstood  the  Eussian  advance,  and  might 
have  closed  the  war  with  France  humbled  and  prostrate,  its 
seaboard,  just  opposite  our  own,  transferred  to  Germany,  the 
Belgian  Kingdom  wiped  out  and  Germanised,  a  large  slice  of 
Eussia  added  to  Germany,  and  Servia  an  Austrian  province. 

I  say  that  might  well  have  been  one  result  if  that  scheme  had 
worked  out,  and  it  might  be  an  interesting  point  to  query  what 
would  have  been  our  position  if  we  had  stood  aside  and  permitted 
this  to  be  done  ?  How  long  would  it  be  before  we  were  wiped  out, 
if  we  should  have  to  fight  single-handed  this  new  and  powerful 
German  Empire  with  an  army  twenty  times  greater  than  ours 
and  a  fleet  in  all  probability  larger  and  stronger  ?  But  there 
were  just  a  few  reasons  why  the  scheme  did  not  work  out,  and 
why  we  hope  and  believe  it  never  will  work  out.  The  first  is 
the  glorious,  the  heroic  resistance  of  Belgium,  which  delayed 
the  invaders  until  the  French  got  time  to  find  themselves. 

•The   second    reason  is   the  prompt  presence  in  France  of 


4  The  Empire  Review 

"French's  contemptible  little  army,"  that  made  such  a  splendid 
stand,  and  in  every  one  of  the  battles  upheld  the  honour  and  fine 
fighting  qualities  of  British  soldiers.  There  is  nothing  in  war 
that  exceeds  the  valour,  the  skill,  and  endurance  of  our  Army  at 
the  front. 

The  third  reason  for  the  scheme  not  working  out  is  the 
presence  of  our  superb  Navy,  which  has  sterilised  the  German 
Grand  Fleet,  so-called,  stopped  all  German  imports  and  exports, 
protected  our  own  commerce  to  such  an  extent  that  we  scarcely 
feel  the  pressure  of  war,  though  the  greatest  war  the  world  has 
ever  known  is  raging  almost  within  our  hearing. 

Eight  well,  too,  has  our  Navy  upheld  its  traditions  of  the  sea, 
though  the  larger  opportunities  for  conquest  were  denied  it  by 
the  timidity,  or  should  I  say  the  caution,  of  its  opponents.  So 
much  may  not  be  said  for  the  Admiralty,  who  appear  to  have 
grievously  underrated  the  number  and  gun  power  of  heavily- 
armoured  German  cruisers  on  the  high  seas,  which  exposed  not 
only  much  commerce  to  destruction,  but  also  our  gallant  sailors, 
who  had  to  face  unequal  contests  in  old  and  under-gunned  ships. 
They,  however,  fought  bravely  and  died  game. 

There  is  a  fourth  reason  for  the  failure  of  the  German  scheme. 
Russia  did  come  on  grandly  and  quickly  with  her  mighty  and 
victorious  legions,  and  taught  the  haughty  German  that  it  would 
require  more  than  all  his  strength  to  stay  her  sure  advance. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  we  owe,  and  acknowledge,  a  great 
debt  of  gratitude  to  Russia  for  relieving  the  pressure  in  the 
Western  theatre  of  war.  Nor  must  we  forget  the  aid  we  received 
from  Japan,  our  powerful  ally  in  the  Far  East. 

I  have  said  that  for  thirty  years  Germany  has  been  preparing 
for  this  war.  Her  statesmen,  her  soldiers,  her  writers,  her 
professors,  and  her  preachers  have  instilled  into  the  German 
mind  that  Germany  must  trust  to  the  sword  to  enable  her  to 
acquire  an  expanded  Empire — a  World  Empire — larger  and 
greater  than  our  own — an  Empire,  in  fact,  dominating  the  world. 

Von  Bernhardi  frankly  confesses  it  in  discussing  "  The  Next 
War."  The  idea  is  crystallised  in  the  song  "Deutschland  iiber 
Alles  "  (Germany  above  all),  and  in  the  watchword  "  World-power 
or  Downfall."  These  are  the  stakes  for  which  Germany  is  playing 
to-day,  and  the  main  obstacle  to  the  achievement  of  her  purpose 
is  the  British  Empire,  which  stands  in  her  way,  and  must  be  rent 
asunder  in  order  that  Germany  may  get  her  share  of  the  earth. 
We  are  the  lion  in  the  path,  and  for  this  reason  this  nation  is 
more  bitterly  hated  in  Germany  than  all  the  other  nations  on 
the  face  of  the  globe.  We  are  hated,  too,  most  heartily  for 
coming  into  the  fight  at  this  time.  We  were  told  before  the 
war  that  our  own  title  to  our  great  overseas  possessions  rests 


The  Empire  in  Arms  5 

upon  priority  in  robbery,  that  we  are  a  decadent  nation,  that 
our  pretence  to  power  is  a  sham,  and  that  we  must  make  way 
for  the  culture  and  sway  of  Germany  !  We  are  also  told  that 
the  highest  culture  is  born  of  war,  and  that  the  supreme  object  of 
nations  is  only  achieved  by  war.  This  is  the  creed  of  Treitschke, 
who  preached  it  openly  in  speech  and  writing  for  thirty  years. 
The  creed  has  now  obsessed  the  whole  German  mind — of  people 
and  Kaiser  alike.  Moreover,  there  are  Germans  to-day  so  self- 
deceiving  as  to  believe  that  this  war  has  been  brought  on 
by  England,  and  many  more  Germans  better  informed  are 
mendaciously  asserting  the  same  thing. 

The  Prime  Minister,  Mr.  Asquith,  has  said  that  we  have  gone 
into  this  war  in  defence  of  our  own  honour  and  to  uphold  the 
public  law  of  Europe.  That  is  undoubtedly  true,  but  there  is 
even  more  than  these  involved  in  this  struggle — the  greatest 
that  the  world  has  ever  known.  The  very  existence  of  our 
Empire  is  in  issue,  and  that  issue  will  be  decided  on  the 
battlefields  of  Europe.  Our  great  Dominions  have  realised  the 
momentous  character  of  the  issue,  and  they  are  sending  to  us 
their  best  in  men  and  material  to  lighten  the  titanic  burden  that 
is  falling  on  the  Motherland.  They  awakened  early  to  a  sense 
of  duty,  and  Canada  was  foremost  in  the  coming.  Verily,  one  is 
proud  to  be  a  Canadian.  Next  came  Newfoundland  with  its 
contingent,  and  then  New  Zealand.  And  now  Australia  has 
covered  herself  with  glory — the  Sydney  has  smashed  the  Emden 
and  her  land  forces  are  in  Egypt.  India  has  responded  nobly — 
her  legions  are  not  only  on  the  battlefield  of  Europe,  but  are  on 
guard  on  two  continents  besides.  In  South  Africa  General  Botha 
and  the  loyal  Dutch  and  British  have  crushed  the  dupes  of 
German  intrigue  and  restored  peace  to  the  Union.  Outer,  or 
Greater,  Britain  has  awakened  to  a  true  sense  of  obligation  and 
a  determination  to  discharge  it.  The  wards  of  the  outer  watch 
stand  true. 

But  we  may  ask,  have  the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom  fully 
realised  the  issues  that  are  at  stake  ?  I  doubt  it.  The  response 
from  those  that  have  volunteered  has  been  noble.  But  there  are 
others,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  some  ground  for 
abstention  from  service,  altogether  apart  from  the  question  of 
patriotism.  Many  see  that  the  provision  for  dependents  in  case 
of  death  or  permanent  disablement  is  insufficient.  This  must  be 
remedied.  Others  see  that  equality  of  service  is  not  demanded, 
and  that  shirking  is  privileged.  This  should  not  be.  We  were 
not  prepared  for  this  war.  We  had  not  sufficient  trained  men 
ready  to  take  the  field,  and  we  had  not  the  arms  and  equipment 
for  those  that  required  training.  We  must  lose  heavily  in  human 


6  The  Empire  Review 

life  and  in  money  for  our  lack  of  foresight  and  our  lack  of 
preparation.  We  were  warned  of  the  danger  by  our  greatest 
soldier  and  wisest  patriot,  and  by  others  too  ;  but  we  heeded  not 
the  warning.  And  this  is  the  great  lesson  that  this  struggle 
teaches  us :  that  never  again  shall  these  islands  be  without 
1,000,000  men  trained  to  serve  their  country  at  the  outbreak 
of  war,  with  ample  arms  and  equipment  to  enable  them  to  render 
prompt  and  efficient  service.  This  does  not  mean  the  maintenance 
of  a  standing  army  of  1,000,000  men  in  time  of  peace,  but  it  does 
mean  that  every  youth  must  undergo  a  course  of  training  that 
will  qualify  him  to  fight  for  his  country  in  self-defence  and  for 
self-preservation.  For  unpreparedness,  even  if  happily  we  do 
succeed  now,  we  shall  pay  a  triple  price  in  gold  and  blood. 
Meantime,  what  is  our  duty  ?  We  must  strain  every  nerve  to 
make  good  these  deficiencies.  Fortunately,  the  nation  is  united 
in  its  purpose,  united,  perhaps,  as  it  never  was  before.  The 
people  are  splendid.  The  rich  and  the  poor,  the  titled  and  the 
un titled,  the  idler  and  the  toilers  are  vying  with  each  other  in 
rendering  service  to  the  country.  Some  are  giving  in  blood, 
others  in  gold.  Some  in  blood  and  gold. 

As  this  is  the  home  of  freedom  for  all,  I  hope  that  before  the 
close  of  this  war  we  shall  have  heard  the  last  of  comparisons 
between  the  classes  and  the  masses,  for  we  are  proving  by  the 
day's  work  that  we  are  all  one  in  heart  and  soul  and  purpose. 

Let  us  hasten  to  support  the  men  at  the  front,  who  are  laying 
down  their  lives  for  us.  Our  brothers  are  calling  to  us  from  the 
trenches.  They  must  not  call  in  vain.  One  hundred  years  ago 
our  forefathers,  in  a  long  and  bloody  war  against  an  aspirant  for 
world-power,  purchased  for  themselves  and  for  those  who 
succeeded  them  one  hundred  years  of  peace.  We  are  the 
inheritors  of  that  bounty.  Now,  after  the  lapse  of  a  century,  the 
burden  has  been  cast  upon  us  under  almost  similar  circumstances 
of  purchasing  another  hundred  years  of  peace  for  ourselves  and 
our  successors.  This  is  a  great  task — much  greater  than  has 
fallen  to  the  nations  before — but  if  we  are  true  to  duty  we  shall 
accomplish  it.  And  if  we  are  not  true,  then  we  will  deserve  the 
fate  that  unmistakably  will  await  us  in  this  life  and  in  the  pages 
of  history.  If  we  succeed,  then  I  think  we  may  forecast  that  our 
descendants  will  not  have  to  refight  the  battle  a  century  hence, 
for  by  that  time  these  islands  and  our  Dominions,  Canada, 
Newfoundland,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa  (to  say 
nothing  of  India  and  our  other  great  Dependencies)  will  number 
at  least  300,000,000  of  freemen,  British  born,  and  of  European 
descent,  whose  voice  and  power  will  be  effective  to  proclaim  and 
maintain  "  peace  among  ourselves  and  with  all  nations."  Let  us 
then  do  our  duty  in  our  day,  avoiding  vain  and  boastful  speech, 


The  Empire  in  Arms  7 

thrice  armed  by   the  justice  of   our  cause,   putting  our  trust 
in  God. 

And  here  I  recall  the  noble  words  of  Lincoln  when  his 
country  was  involved  in  war,  but  how  applicable  in  our 
situation  : — 

Fondly  do  we  hope,  fervently  do  we  pray  that  this  mighty  scourge  of  war 
may  speedily  pass  away.  Yet  if  God  will  that  it  continues  until  all  the 
wealth  piled  up  by  the  bondsmen's  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  unrequited 
toil  shall  be  sunk,  and  until  every  drop  of  blood  drawn  with  the  lash  shall  be 
paid  by  another  drawn  by  the  sword,  as  was  said  three  thousand  years  ago,  so 
still  it  must  be  said,  "  The  judgments  of  the  Lord  are  true  and  righteous 
altogether."  With  malice  towards  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firmness 
in  the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the  right,  let  us  strive  to  finish  the  work  we 
are  in,  to  bind  up  the  nation's  wounds,  to  care  for  him  who  shall  have  borne 
the  battle,  and  for  his  widow  and  his  orphan,  to  do  all  things  which  may 
achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  lasting  peace  among  ourselves  and  with  all 
nations. 

Envy,  jealousy,  and  grasping  greed  are  at  the  bottom  of 
German  aspirations  in  so  far  as  the  British  Empire  is  concerned. 
The  despoiler  of  Belgium,  the  joint  assassin  of  Poland,  occupies 
a  poor  pedestal  from  which  to  reproach  British  statesmen  or  the 
British  race.  It  is  true  that  part  of  our  acquisitions  are  the 
avails  of  war,  but  we  can  say  with  truth  that  we  have  governed 
the  conquered  honestly  and  in  their  own  interest ;  and  when 
they  were  fully  qualified  for  it,  the  most  absolute  rights  of  self- 
government  were  ungrudgingly  conceded  to  them.  Take,  for 
example,  Canada,  New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  Australia,  and 
Newfoundland.  To  the  minds  of  many  foreigners  these  great 
self-governing  States  are  mere  Dependencies  or  tributaries  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  Nothing  is  further  from  the  truth — they  are 
absolutely  self-governed,  and  practically  independent  nations. 
Their  Constitutions  are  very  Charters  of  Liberty,  and  in  these 
the  King  reigns  as  absolutely  under  the  advice  of  his  local 
Cabinets  as  he  does  at  Westminster. 

King  George  V.  is  a  many-headed  Sovereign.  If  he  is  not 
personally  present,  he  is  as  effectually  present  for  the  purpose 
of  reigning  at  Ottawa,  Melbourne,  Wellington,  St.  John's,  and 
Cape  Town  (or  Pretoria)  as  he  is  at  Westminster. 

It  does  not  lie  in  any  German's  mouth  to  reproach  the 
British  race  with  rapacity  or  public  robbery.  This  great  Empire 
which  is  ours  to  enjoy  and  maintain  was  created,  it  is  true,  in 
times  and  circumstances  of  trial  and  battle,  by  a  race  that  had 
"  the  wit  to  plan,  and  the  strength  to  execute,"  and  were  equal 
to  facing  every  danger  on  sea  and  on  land.  As  Watson  says  : — 

Time  and  the  ocean  and  some  fostering  star- 
In  high  cabal  have  made  us,  ^(hat  we  axe... 


8  The  Empire  Review 

And  for  what  we  are,  and  for  what  we  have  been,  as  a 
people,  and  as  an  Empire,  none  of  us  need  blush  for  shame, 
while  everyone  may  rejoice  in  the  enjoyment  of  justice  and 
liberty,  an  inheritance  that  will  not  be  sacrificed  to  the  greed  of 
any  despoiler.  We  may  not  have  succeeded  in  every  venture, 
but,  on  the  whole,  our  showings  are  the  best  and  the  greatest  of 
any  of  the  nations.  We  have  taken  hard  knocks  and  have  given 
hard  knocks,  and  in  the  end  survived  and  prospered.  Shelley 
truly  says  : — 

Beaten  back  in  many  a  fray, 

Newer  strength  we'll  borrow, 
And  where  the  vanguard  stands  to-day 

The  rear  will  come  to-morrow. 

Our  cause  in  this  war  is  the  cause  of  humanity  and  civilisa- 
tion, and  it  must  prevail,  not  merely  because  it  is  right,  but 
because  the  whole  might  of  our  Allies,  and  of  ourselves,  must 
and  will  be  exerted  to  make  right  prevail.  We  are  fighting 
against  arrogant  militarism  reaching  out  for  world-power,  against 
a  nation  that  violates  its  own  plighted  faith  and  ruthlessly 
attacks  a  weak  and  unoffending  country  whose  integrity  it  had 
guaranteed ;  we  are  fighting  for  peace  and  good  order  in  the 
community  of  States  and  the  right  of  each  State  to  enjoy  liberty 
and  peace.  And  we  but  too  plainly  see  that  our  own  destruction 
as  an  Empire  is  an  indispensable  preliminary  to  the  substitution 
of  German  "culture"  for  British  justice  and  British  freedom. 
May  God  forbid  that  the  day  should  ever  dawn  when  we  must 
give  way  to  such  humiliation  !  Meantime,  the  duty  is  with  us 
to  safeguard  public  honour  and  our  national  heritage.  We  are 
still  a  race  of  freemen,  and  we  intend  to  remain  freemen.  The 
Kaiser  has  overlooked  an  ineffaceable  truth  which  our  Canadian 
poet,  Bliss  Carman,  has  crystallised  in  inspiriting  and  undying 
words : — 

There  are  people  who  are  loyal  to  the  glory  of  the  past, 

Who  hold  to  hearts'  traditions  and  will  hold  them  to  the  last, 

Who  would  not  sell  in  shame  the  honour  of  their  name, 

Though  the  world  was  in  the  balance  and  a  sword  thereon  was  cast. 

All  our  might  in  men  and  money,  all  the  resources  of  our 
allies,  are  honourably  and  irrevocably  pledged  to  bring  this 
contest  to  a  victorious  end.  The  sooner  we  provide  the  forces 
essential  to  the  achievement  of  that  object  the  sooner  that  end 
will  come,  and  with  it  lasting  peace. 

DONALD  MACMASTEE. 


Sir  Edward  Holden  and  the  Financial  Situation       9 


SIR  EDWARD  HOLDEN  AND  THE  FINANCIAL 
SITUATION  * 

FEW  meetings  in  the  City  of  London  command  more  interest 
in  financial  and  economic  circles  than  that  of  the  shareholders  of 
the  London  City  and  Midland  Bank.  And  this  interest  is  not 
aroused  solely  by  the  balance-sheet  and  profit  and  loss  account. 
It  is  in  no  small  measure  due  to  the  Chairman's  annual  review 
of  events  affecting  the  international  situation  which,  according 
to  custom,  precedes  his  reference  to  matters  more  directly  con- 
cerning the  operations  of  the  Bank  itself.  This  year  Sir  Edward 
Holden's  remarks  claim  special  attention  in  view  of  the  financial 
and  economic  conditions  pressing  upon  the  country  and  the 
nation  owing  to  the  world-wide  war  in  which  we  have  been 
suddenly  and  unexpectedly  plunged. 

The  requirements  of  space  prevent  the  reproduction  in  full  of 
Sir  Edward's  speech,  but,  in  making  our  selection,  we  think  we 
have  rightly  interpreted  the  views  of  our  readers.  The  financing 
of  the  war  by  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary,  and  the  question 
of  gold  supply  and  American  bankers,  are  matters  of  vital  im- 
portance, not  only  to  ourselves  and  our  kinsmen  oversea,  but  to 
the  whole  future  of  the  world's  commerce. 

I.  FINANCING  THE  WAE. 
(a)  By  Germany. 

On  the  18th  of  July  last,  the  Dresdner  Bank  caused  a  great 
commotion  by  selling  its  securities  and  by  advising  its  clients  to 
sell  their  securities.  This  was  recognised  as  the  first  semi-official 
intimation  of  a  probable  European  conflagration,  and  Berlin 
became  apprehensive.  War  was  declared  between  Austria  and 
Servia  on  the  28th,  people  were  seized  with  panic  and  great  runs 
took  place  on  the  Keichsbank  for  gold,  and  on  the  joint  stock 
banks  of  Germany  for  gold  or  notes.  The  Keichsbank  lost  10 
millions  sterling  of  gold  or  thereabouts,  and  to  prevent  further 
loss,  a  measure  was  passed  prohibiting  the  bank  from  paying  any 
more  of  its  notes  in  gold. 

To  meet  the  difficulties  of  the  other  banks,  the  Keichsbank 

*  Selections  from  Sir  Edward  Holden's  gpeech  delivered  on  January  29  at  the 
Annual  Meeting  of  Shareholders  of  the  London  City  and  Midland  Bank. 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  169.  c 


10  The  Empire  Review 

discounted,  during  the  month  of  August,  about  200  millions 
sterling  of  bills.  Of  this  amount  117  millions  were  drawn  out  in 
notes  with  which  the  banks  were  enabled  to  meet  the  runs. 
They  next  proceeded  to  establish  war  loan  banks,  war  credit 
banks  and  war  aid  banks  all  over  the  country  under  the  patron- 
age of  corporations,  municipalities  and  private  financiers,  and  to 
make  use  of  the  mortgage  banks  already  established.  The 
Beichsbank  had  the  right  to  issue  notes  to  any  amount  provided 
it  held  as  cover  practically  one-third  in  gold  and  two-thirds  in 
bills  of  exchange.  As  the  Beichsbank  was  to  play  an  important 
part  in  war  finance,  they  were  careful  to  keep  down  the  issue  of 
their  notes  as  much  as  possible,  as  they  knew  that  criticism 
would  be  directed  against  them. 

They,  therefore,  proceeded  to  issue,  and  are  continuing  to 
issue  notes  through  the  media  of  the  various  war  and  credit 
banks.  Government  securities,  other  securities  and  produce 
are  pledged  with  the  war  banks,  advances  to  the  extent  of  75 
per  cent,  being  made  on  the  first-named  class  of  security  and  on 
the  other  classes  to  the  extent  of  45  per  cent.  These  advances 
are  made  in  war  bank  notes  which  are  legal  tender  and  perform 
all  the  functions  of  money.  The  mortgage  banks  are  under  the 
control  of  Chambers  of  Commerce  and  municipalities,  and  they 
make  advances  on  the  mortgage  of  properties  by  an  issue  of  notes 
which  are  also  legal  tender  and  perform  all  the  functions  of 
money.  In  this  way  we  see  how  the  country  is  gradually  being 
supplied  with  the  currency  required  for  carrying  on  the  war,  but, 
knowing  that  the  eyes  of  the  world  would  be  fixed  on  their  gold 
position,  they  were  careful  to  maintain  a  difference  between  the 
Beichsbank  note  and  the  notes  of  the  two  other  classes  of  banks. 
The  Beichsbank  note,  although  it  is  no  longer  payable  in  gold, 
was  issued  on  the  basis  of  gold  and  bills  of  exchange,  while  the 
notes  of  the  war  and  credit  banks  have  no  relation  whatever  to 
gold,  and  are  issued  on  the  basis  of  securities  and  properties. 

The  mobilisation  of  the  German  armies  was  financed  by  the 
notes  of  the  Beichsbank  for  from  four  to  six  weeks,  so  that  by 
the  end  of  August,  with  the  war  and  other  demands,  the  total 
discounts  and  loans  of  the  Beichsbank  amounted  to  about 
243  millions  sterling  and  the  total  notes  issued  to  about  212 
millions.  By  this  time  the  pressure  on  the  bank  was  becoming 
too  great,  the  war  loan  was  issued  and  a  sum  of  about 
223  millions,  partly  on  bonds  and  partly  on  treasury  notes,  was 
raised.  By  the  end  of  the  year  the  whole  of  the  loan  was  paid 
up  and  the  debt  to  the  Beichsbank  discharged.  This  first  loan 
was  subscribed  for  to  the  extent  of  about  40  millions  sterling  by 
persons  who  obtained  loans  through  the  war  banks,  and  40 
millions  by  depositors  in  savings  banks,  leaving  about  143  millions 
to  be  subscribed  by  joint  stock  banks  and  other  people.  Thus  we 


Sir  Edward  Holden  and  the  Financial  Situation     it 

see  people  pledging  their  securities  and  properties  and  with  the 
proceeds  taking  up  the  loan. 

After  December,  the  financing  of  the  war  enters  on  a  second 
stage.  The  Keichsbank,  at  the  end  of  December,  on  the  basis  of 
its  gold,  was  able  to  issue  a  further  200  millions  sterling  of  notes. 
The  money  for  financing  the  war  will,  therefore,  be  obtained 
again  from  the  Bank  until  the  pressure  becomes  too  great,  when 
a  new  loan  of  250  millions  sterling,  which  has  already  been 
sanctioned,  will  be  issued.  The  operations  of  the  war  and 
mortgage  banks  will  again  take  place ;  new  loans  will  be  created, 
new  securities  and  new  properties  will  be  pledged,  and  when  this 
loan  is  taken  up,  the  Keichsbank  will  a  second  time  be  paid  off. 
This  will  carry  on  the  war  for  another  six  months  and  will  bring 
us  up  to  June,  when  no  doubt  the  Eeichsbank  will  once  more  be 
required  to  provide  funds.  New  loans  will  be  issued  and  further 
properties  will  be  pledged,  so  we  may  expect  an  evil  day  by  and 
by  when  this  huge  pledging  will  have  to  be  paid  off,  and  heavy 
depreciations  must  inevitably  result.  The  question  arises,  how 
often  can  this  operation  be  repeated  ?  We  know  the  cost  of  the 
war  to  Germany  is  somewhere  about  2  millions  per  day,  so  that 
by  the  end  of  twelve  months  there  will  have  been  a  drain  on  the 
people  either  of  liquid  resources  or  securities,  properties  or  produce, 
amounting  to  over  700  millions  sterling. 

Having  dealt  with  the  domestic  side,  let  us  examine  the 
international  side.  In  considering  this  side,  we  must  remember 
that  Germany  has  a  population  of  about  70  millions  of  people 
who  have  to  be  fed,  clothed  and  largely  provided  with  employ- 
ment. In  1913,  imports  into  Germany  amounted  to  about  535 
millions  sterling,  and  of  this,  228  millions  came  from  the  Allies 
and  their  colonies.  The  war  reduces  Germany's  imports  at  one 
stroke  to  about  307  millions  sterling.  A  considerable  amount  of 
these  imports  consisted  of  food  products,  a  large  proportion  of 
which  came  from  the  Allies. 

Having  regard  to  the  control  which  the  Allies  have  over  the 
seas,  and  further  to  the  fact  that  the  Allies'  ships  as  well  as 
German  ships  are  no  longer  available  for  the  carrying  of  freight 
to  Germany,  will  the  whole  of  this  amount  of  307  millions  still 
find  its  way  into  Germany,  always  keeping  before  us  the  fact  that 
German  importers  will  offer  greatly  enhanced  prices  to  secure 
what  is  absolutely  necessary  for  them  ?  For  example,  it  is 
alleged  that  cotton,  which  costs  from  6-8  cents,  per  pound  in 
America,  is  being  sold  at  from  18-20  cents,  per  pound  in  German 
ports.  These  imports  cannot  be  paid  for  by  the  notes  of  the  war 
banks  and  the  credit  banks  or  even  by  the  notes  of  the  Eeichs- 
bank, and  they  must  be  paid  for  either  by  exports,  securities,  or 
gold.  It  was  feared  that  securities  held  by  Germans  might  find 
their  way  on  to  the  London  Stock  Exchange,  but  restrictions  of 

c  2 


12  The  Empire  Review 

such  a  nature  have  been  placed  on  transactions  there  that  such  a 
contingency  will  be  prevented,  and  it  would  appear  that  restric- 
tions have  also  been  placed  on  other  Stock  Exchanges,  although 
perhaps  not  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  London.  Assuming, 
therefore,  that  the  difficulties  placed  in  the  way  of  the  realisation 
of  securities  held  by  Germans  are  insurmountable,  the  only  two 
ways  remaining  of  paying  for  her  imports  are  by  exports  and  by 
gold.  As  one  of  our  objects  in  taking  part  in  the  war  has  been 
to  prevent  the  annihilation  of  small  States,  the  action  of  such 
countries  as  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  Holland,  Italy,  Bulgaria, 
and  Eoumania  in  assisting  our  enemies  with  food  and  other 
commodities  appears  both  ungrateful  and  suicidal. 

The  exports  of  Germany  in  1913  amounted  to  about  500 
millions  sterling,  and  of  this  total,  the  Allies  and  their  colonies 
took  about  200  millions,  leaving  a  balance  of  300  millions. 
What  proportion  of  this  300  millions  will  Germany  be  able  to 
export?  Taking  again  into  consideration  that  she  has  neither 
the  advantage  of  the  same  number  of  ships,  nor  of  the  same 
number  of  men  engaged  in  her  industries,  as  she  had  in  1913, 
and  further  that  such  proportion  of  those  exports  which  contain 
imported  raw '  material  will  be  increased  in  price,  I  think  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  her  exports  will  fall  off  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  her  imports,  and  that  the  balance  will  have  to  be 
paid  in  gold.  We  see  that  almost  superhuman  efforts  have  been 
and  are  being  made  to  increase  the  gold  in  the  Reichsbank.  The 
increase  has  hitherto  been  at  the  rate  of  about  1£  millions  per 
week,  apparently  from  circulation  and  from  other  sources.  The 
gold  has  now  reached  about  106  millions  sterling.  But  in  order 
to  pay  for  their  imports  through  Scandinavia  and  Holland,  they 
have  already  had  to  export  about  5  millions  sterling  of  gold  to 
those  countries.  It  will  be  clearly  seen  from  what  I  have  said  that 
the  maintenance  of  the  financial  position  of  Germany  will  depend 
on  the  balance  of  her  imports  over  exports  being  small,  and  on 
the  increase  of  gold  exceeding  or  being  equal  to  the  export  of 
gold.  In  my  opinion,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  make  up  our 
minds  that  there  will  be  no  cessation  of  this  war  on  account  of 
the  gold  position  in  Germany,  at  all  events  within  twelve  months 
— and  it  may  be  longer.  But,  remember,  I  do  not  say  that  there 
might  not  be  a  cessation  of  hostilities  for  other  reasons.  If  I 
might  venture  an  opinion,  I  should  say  that  the  weakness  will  first 
show  itself,  if  it  has  not  already  done  so,  in  Austria  and  Hungary. 

(6)  By  Austria-Hungary. 

Let  us  now  make  a  short  examination  of  the  position  of 
Austria-Hungary.  The  population  of  the  two  kingdoms  is  about 
57  millions,  and  consists  of  a  number  of  different  nationalities. 
Although  these  two  countries  are  fighting  together  as  one  nation, 


Sir  Edward  Holdcn  and  the  Financial  Situation     13 

we  are  more  likely  to  see  jealousy  and  discord  arising  in  their 
armies  than  in  armies  composed  of  men  of  the  same  nationality. 
Austria  and  Hungary  are  poor  countries  in  comparison  with 
Germany,  and  they  have  suffered  great  losses  and  great  lock-ups 
of  resources  in  consequence  of  the  Balkan  wars.  The  Austro- 
Hungarian  Bank  performs  the  same  functions  for  these  countries 
as  the  Eeichsbank  performs  for  Germany.  For  a  considerable 
time  the  Dual  Monarchy  has  been  in  the  position  that  its 
imports  have  been  larger  than  its  exports  ;  consequently,  their 
exchanges  have  been  against  them,  and  although  there  has  been 
a  tendency  for  their  gold  to  diminish  rather  than  to  increase,  yet 
they  have  succeeded  in  maintaining  it  during  the  last  few  years 
at  between  50  and  52  millions  sterling. 

According  to  law,  the  Austro-Hungarian  Bank  is  empowered 
to  issue  notes  so  long  as  two-fifths  of  the  issue  is  covered  by  gold 
and  silver.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  there  were  in  the 
Bank  about  50  millions  sterling  of  gold.  We  cannot  say  what 
gold  is  held  at  the  present  time  as  the  Bank  has  ceased  to  issue  a 
balance-sheet,  and  one  would  conclude  that  the  amount  of  gold 
must  have  fallen  and  not  increased,  otherwise  there  would  be  no 
necessity  for  discontinuing  to  make  known  their  financial  position. 

Assuming  that  the  gold  has  not  diminished  and  that  no 
alteration  has  been  made  in  their  law,  the  Bank  would  be  able 
to  assist  in  the  financing  of  the  war  to  the  extent  of  an  additional 
70  millions  sterling.  Like  Germany,  Austria  has  established 
war  banks  for  the  same  purpose  but  not  to  the  same  extent,  but 
we  have  no  record  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Bank  financing  the 
war  in  the  same  way  as  the  Eeichsbank  did.  A  war  loan  was 
issued  in  November,  and  to  the  surprise  of  most  people,  the  sub- 
scriptions have  reached  the  relatively  large  total  of  about  130 
millions  sterling.  Of  this  amount  about  60  per  cent,  was 
subscribed  through  the  joint  stock  and  other  banks  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  leaving  about  40  per  cent,  to  the  general  public.  It  is 
reported  that  the  people  were  so  patriotic  and  so  desirous  of 
assisting  their  country  that  small  farmers  sent  the  proceeds  of 
their  crops,  country  waiters  sent  their  £5,  and  servants  in  country 
houses  sent  their  savings. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  her  external  trade.  In  1913  her  imports 
amounted  to  about  140  millions  sterling,  and  of  these  she  took 
about  40  millions  from  the  allied  countries,  leaving  a  balance 
from  other  countries  of  about  100  millions.  A  large  amount  of 
her  imports  came  from  her  neighbours  and  she  is  not,  therefore, 
to  such  an  extent  as  Germany,  dependent  on  sea-transport.  She 
will,  of  course,  curtail  all  luxuries  such  as  cognac  and  champagne 
from  France,  silks,  objects  of  vertu,  clocks,  watches,  precious 
stones,  etc.,  but  it  seems  probable  that  she  will  be  able  to  keep  up 
her  imports  to  about  100  millions  sterling. 


14  The  Empire  Review 

Her  exports  in  1913  amounted  to  about  114  millions,  and  of 
these,  the  Allies  took  about  25  millions,  leaving  a  balance  of  about 
90  millions.  In  this  balance,  I  should  say  there  might  be  a 
shrinkage  of  about  one-half,  leaving  her  with  exports  of,  say, 
between  45  and  50  millions,  thus  the  difference  between  her 
imports  and  exports  might  amount  to  the  latter  figure.  She 
may,  therefore,  be  called  upon  to  pay  for  her  foreign  purchases 
to  the  extent  of  between  40  and  50  millions  sterling  after  she  has 
used  her  exports  in  part  payment. 

Summing  up  the  financial  position  of  Austria-Hungary,  even 
if  she  pledges  her  properties  and  securities  as  Germany  has  done 
and  finds  sufficient  gold  to  pay  for  the  balance  of  her  imports, 
one  has  difficulty  in  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  she  will  be 
able  to  continue  the  war  for  any  great  length  of  time  unless  she 
receives  financial  assistance  from  Germany. 

II.  GOLD  AND  AMERICAN  BANKERS. 

Bankers  fully  realise  that  the  times  we  have  yet  to  face  may 
be  difficult  because  we  are  still  the  free  market  for  gold,  and  gold 
is  as  essential  to  us  as  it  is  to  Germany  or  Austria.  The  Bank  of 
England  at  the  present  time  holds  about  69  millions  of  gold.  Of 
this  amount  about  20  millions  have  been  supplied  by  America  in 
order  to  ease  their  exchanges. 

At  the  present  time  America  is  shipping  her  autumn  produce. 
The  exports  of  wheat,  and  even  of  cotton,  are  much  larger  than 
last  year ;  consequently,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  exchange  on 
London  being  sold  in  New  York.  In  addition  to  the  exports  of 
the  usual  commodities,  very  large  supplies  of  war  materials  are 
being  sold  to  the  belligerents.  These  supplies  during  the  last  three 
months  have  been  about  16  millions  sterling  more  than  in  1913, 
and  this  is  causing  the  sale  of  an  additional  amount  of  exchange. 
These  sales  are  driving  down  the  exchange  to  such  points  that  it 
is  becoming  profitable  for  financiers  to  take  gold.  Undoubtedly 
large  amounts  of  gold  would  already  have  been  taken  from  us  had 
it  not  been  for  the  extraordinary  condition  of  affairs  prevailing, 
and  the  additional  expense  and  risk  involved.  When  the  war 
broke  out  an  exactly  opposite  condition  of  exchange  existed. 
Exports  and  imports  were  stopped.  Those  who  had  already 
exported  goods  to  America  and  wished  to  bring  their  money  back 
were  unable  to  do  so,  except  at  a  loss,  because  there  was  little  ex- 
change on  London  and  no  gold  available ;  any  exchange  that 
coald  occasionally  be  bought  was  between  five  and  six  dollars,  as 
against  a  parity  of  4. 8665,  which  meant  a  loss  of  about  20  per  cent. 

At  that  time  America  owed  this  country  an  amount  of  about 
90  millions  sterling  payable  within  a  short  time.  It  became 
necessary,  therefore,  to  make  immediate  arrangements  for  its 
payment  Strenuous  efforts  were  at  once  put  forth  to  bring  about 


Sir  Edward  Holden  and  the  Financial  Situation     15 

the  export  of  cotton,  the  holding-up  of  which  was  causing  distress 
in  America  and  embarrassment  in  this  and  other  countries. 
There  is  no  body  of  financiers  in  the  world  who  can  so  rapidly 
extricate  themselves  from  positions  of  difficulty  as  the  American 
bankers.  To  prevent  too  great  a  slump  in  cotton  causing  losses 
to  the  planters  and  factors,  and  to  facilitate  its  export,  they  raised 
a  fund  of  20  to  27  millions  sterling  whereby  holders  of  cotton 
could  pledge  it,  receiving  an  advance  equal  in  amount  to  six  cents 
per  pound.  In  order  that  those  who  had  contributed  the  money 
towards  this  fund  might  suffer  no  inconvenience,  it  was  agreed  that 
certificates  should  be  issued  for  the  amounts  contributed,  and  the 
holders  of  these  certificates  could  sell  them  if  they  wanted  to 
realise.  Although  the  fund  has  not  been  fully  taken  advantage  of, 
yet  to  a  certain  extent  it  has  answered  its  purpose.  The  export 
of  cotton  was  further  facilitated  by  the  declaration  of  the  British 
Government  that  cotton  would  not  be  regarded  as  contraband. 

Farther,  in  order  to  cause  the  exchanges  to  operate,  the 
bankers  all  over  America  raised  a  fund  of  20  millions  sterling 
in  gold  and  arranged  to  transmit  this  gold  to  Ottawa  for  the 
account  of  the  Bank  of  England.  Credits  were  thus  created  in 
this  country  against  which  exchange  might  be  sold  in  New  York. 
By  these  and  other  means  they  succeeded  in  their  purpose,  and 
instead  of  the  exchange  in  New  York  being  so  high  as  to  require 
gold  to  be  sent  either  to  Ottawa  or  to  this  country,  it  is  now  so 
low  that  gold  may  have  to  be  sent  either  from  Ottawa  or  from 
London  to  America.  Instead  of  being  a  debtor  for  immediate 
payments,  America  is  rapidly  becoming,  if  she  has  not  already 
become,  a  creditor  for  immediate  payments.  If  gold  has  to  be 
exported,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  we  English  bankers  will  be  of  as 
great  assistance  to  our  country  as  the  American  bankers  were  to 
theirs  in  contributing  their  20  millions  of  gold,  and  that  in  case  of 
necessity  we  shall  not  hesitate  to  place  our  gold  at  the  disposal  of 
the  Bank  of  England. 

We  said  at  our  last  meeting  that  we  should  this  year 
disclose  the  amount  of  gold  held  by  this  bank,  and  we  have 
done  so.  It  has  taken  several  years  to  accumulate  this  gold, 
but  when  we  have  seen  the  Germans  taking  bar  gold  from 
year  to  year,  we  have  ourselves,  rather  than  let  all  of  it  go  to 
Germany,  nearly  every  week  taken  a  portion  for  our  own  vaults. 
When  the  great  strike  took  place  in  1913,  we  saw  that  a  large 
amount  of  sovereigns  might  be  demanded,  and  we  immediately 
proceeded  to  have  that  portion  of  our  gold  which  consisted  of 
bars,  minted  into  sovereigns,  so  that  we  have  in  our  vaults  gold 
beyond  the  amount  which  we  publish.  In  addition  to  this,  I 
might  say  that  during  the  crisis  we  voluntarily  sent  over  to  the 
Bank  of  England  an  additional  2£  millions  of  newly-coined 
sovereigns.  Knowing  what  I  do  of  the  gold  question  in  this 


16  The  Empire  Review 

country,  I  should  say  there  must  be  in  the  hands  of  the  bankers 
at  least  fifty  millions  sterling  of  gold,  and  I  cannot  understand  the 
hesitancy  displayed  by  them  in  showing  it  in  their  balance-sheets. 

Here,  again,  I  should  like  to  commend  the  American  bankers. 
They  have  now  established  their  twelve  regional  banks,  each 
bank  being  similar  in  many  respects  to  our  Bank  of  England. 
These  banks  are  required  to  hold  40  per  cent,  of  their  notes  in 
gold,  and  the  national  banks  have  contributed  a  large  proportion 
of  that  gold  from  their  own  vaults,  yet  they  still  continue  to  show  in 
their  balance-sheets  the  amount  of  gold  which  they  have  on  hand. 

May  I  be  allowed  here  to  express  the  hope  that  the  people  of 
this  country  will  continue,  at  all  events  during  the  war,  to  use  as 
currency  the  £1  and  10s.  notes  in  place  of  gold,  and  allow  the 
gold  to  find  its  way  gradually  into  the  banks,  and  that  the 
bankers  will  not  hesitate  to  make  known  the  amount  of  gold 
which  they  have  accumulated. 

Further,  I  should  like  to  say  that  when  Sir  George  Paish 
went  to  America  at  the  request  of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
he  succeeded  in  bringing  about  an  arrangement  with  the  bankers 
there,  and  subsequently  with  the  bankers  here,  whereby  if 
"  during  the  continuance  of  the  war,  or  for  one  year  thereafter, 
the  exchanges  between  the  two  countries  should  become  such 
that  gold  exports  from  either  country  to  an  unreasonable  amount 
might  result,  committees  of  bankers  shall  be  appointed  in  the 
United  States  and  in  the  United  Kingdom  respectively,  to 
consider  plans  for  dealing  collectively  with  the  situation  by  such 
methods  as  may  seem  at  the  time  mutually  desirable." 

This  is  a  very  important  agreement,  and  from  what  I  know  of 
the  American  bankers,  I  am  quite  satisfied  that  they  will  act 
loyally  with  the  English  bankers,  and  that  together  they  will 
make  such  arrangements  as  will  prevent  any  serious  disloca- 
tion taking  place  in  the  trade  between  the  two  countries.  Such 
an  arrangement  will  be  facilitated  because,  owing  to  the  establish- 
ment of  the  regional  banks,  and  the  reduction  in  the  legal 
reserve  from  25  per  cent,  to  18  per  cent,  in  the  national  banks  of 
New  York  City,  there  appears  at  the  present  time  to  be  no  great 
necessity  for  shipping  gold  from  this  country,  although  American 
bankers  may  have  the  power  to  take  it  from  us.  The  position 
will  be  further  facilitated  when  London  can  sell  securities  to 
New  York,  because  by  such  operation  the  exchanges  would  rise. 
***** 

So  able  and  comprehensive  a  review  of  the  financial  and 
economic  situation,  past,  present  and  future,  cannot  fail  to  be 
widely  read  and  appreciated,  and  we  are  under  an  obligation  to 
the  London  City  and  Midland  Bank  authorities  for  providing 
the  facilities  which  have  allowed  us  to  deal  with  the  Chairman's 
speech  in  the  current  issue. 


Canada's  Place  in  the  War  17 


CANADA'S    PLACE    IN    THE    WAR 

GEOGRAPHICAL  POSITION 

A  STRIKING-  lesson  as  far  as  British  sentiment  and  feeling  is 
concerned  was  taught  by  the  recent  raid  on  the  East  Coast.  It 
brought  home  to  us  the  dual  character  of  the  present  conflict. 
We  are  all  apt  to  treat  the  conditions  of  war  with  a  certain 
amount  of  complacency,  especially  when  the  fighting  is  taking 
place  on  the  other  side  of  the  silver  streak,  but  the  German  raid 
has  shown  us,  in  its  fullest  sense,  the  second  or  other  half  of  the 
war  conditions,  namely  that  of  defence  against  invasion. 

In  these  respects  Canada's  position  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  Motherland,  because  within  the  last  week  or  so  reports  have 
been  current  (whether  founded  on  fact  or  not  is  not  yet  stated) 
that  friends  of  the  enemy  in  the  United  States  have  been  dili- 
gently providing  themselves  with  German  uniforms,  and  are 
alleged  to  have  arranged  for  the  invasion  of  Canada  by  a  sudden 
swoop  upon  the  city  of  Vancouver  and  other  towns  and  cities 
not  too  far  inland  from  the  international  border.  And  this,  while 
Canada  is  trying  to  do  her  share  in  what,  for  want  of  a  better 
term,  may  be  considered  the  offensive  in  a  war  which  I  hope  and 
trust  will  reincarnate  the  spirit  of  justice  and  liberty  throughout 
the  world. 

To  realise  adequately  Canada's  position,  it  will  be  convenient 
to  refer  shortly  to  the  geographical  position  of  the  Dominion. 
At  the  extreme  north,  the  Arctic  Circle,  with  its  almost  boundless 
stretch  of  ice-bound  shores  and  seas,  leaves  no  opportunity  for 
invasion  from  that  direction.  On  the  west  the  Pacific  Ocean 
laps  the  shores  of  British  Columbia  for  hundreds  of  miles,  but 
there  are  many  rocky  and  dangerous  inlets  and  islands,  and  even 
the  skilled  navigator  is  glad  when  he  reaches  the  open  sea,  or 
that  part  of  the  coast  where  traffic  has  required  the  presence  of 
lights  and  other  guides.  On  the  island  of  Vancouver,  where  is 
situated  Victoria,  the  capital  of  the  province,  we  have  the 
excellent  harbour  of  Esquimault,  which,  until  a  short  time  ago, 
was  a  naval  base  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  Admiralty. 


18  The  Empire  Review 

Here  a  large  portion  of  the  Navy  could  ride  in  safety,  and  the 
harbour  is  still  used  as  a  naval  base ;  but  there  are  no  war  vessels 
there  to-day.  Judging,  too,  from  the  results  of  bombardment 
by  modern  heavy  guns,  land  fortifications  seem  to  be  almost 
useless  against  an  attacking  sea  force.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore, 
that  Victoria  is  practically  undefended,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  city  of  Vancouver  on  the  mainland,  ninety  miles  up 
the  Straits. 

The  Atlantic  Ocean  sweeps  the  extensive  eastern  coast  line 
of  the  Dominion.  But,  thanks  to  the  arrangements  made  by  the 
Admiralty,  and  the  presence  of  all-powerful  battleships  and 
cruisers,  there  is  little  or  no  chance  of  an  invasion  of  Eastern 
Canada  while  the  Navy  remains  supreme.  The  fortified  port  of 
Halifax,  which  for  a  number  of  years  was  also  under  the  exclusive 
control  of  the  Admiralty,  is  still  an  important  portion  of  the 
scheme  for  the  defence  of  the  Empire  and  its  trade. 

This  leaves  only  the  land  boundary,  or  international  line 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada,  which  for  the  greater 
part  is  protected  only  by  isolated  stone  posts  in  a  direct  straight 
line  across  treeless  prairie ;  and  in  other  parts  by  the  central  line 
of  Great  Lakes  and  waterways.  When  one  considers  that  this 
enormous  length,  nearly  four  thousand  miles,  of  frontier  is  with- 
out a  fortress  of  any  kind,  the  full  import  of  the  Treaty  of  Ghent, 
which  consummated  peace  between  the  United  States  of  America 
and  Canada  exactly  a  century  ago,  will  be  understood  and 
appreciated.  One  may  readily  assume,  then,  that  on  the  inter- 
national land  boundary  no  danger  from  invasion  is  probable. 

It  is  now  more  than  a  century  ago  (July  11,  1812)  that 
General  Hull  of  the  United  States  Army  crossed  from  Detroit 
into  Canada  with  fifteen  hundred  men,  and  on  the  Great  Lakes 
armed  American  vessels  gathered  for  the  purpose  of  preying  upon 
Canada's  commerce  and  assisting  in  military  operations  for  the 
conquest  of  the  Dominion.  These  hostilities  continued  until 
winter  set  in  and  a  respite,  which  a  real  Canadian  winter  can 
nearly  always  bring,  followed.  The  campaign  opened  again  early 
in  1813,  when  both  sides  reinforced  their  troops.  Indeed,  at  one 
time  no  less  than  ten  thousand  British  and  Canadian  soldiers 
were  taking  part  in  the  fighting,  aided  by  native  Indians  of 
Canada.  But  the  j^ear  happily  closed  with  results  somewhat  in 
favour  of  the  British  and  Canadian  forces,  and  in  August,  1814, 
the  Treaty  of  Ghent  was  signed. 

But  while  fear  of  invasion  by  a  United  States  army  has  dis- 
appeared for  ever,  Canada  may  still  have  to  think  of  the  possibility 
of  a  raid  of  misguided  civilians,  as  happened  in  the  case  of  the 
Fenians  in  1866,  when  the  battle  of  Bidgeway  was  fought. 
Withdrawing  after  an  encounter  with  Canadian  volunteers  they 


Canada's  Place  in  the  War  19 

were  received  and  taken  into  custody  by  the  United  States 
military  officials,  who  stated  that  there  were  35,000  other  Fenians 
ready  for  the  invasion  and  200,000  more  in  reserve.  On  May 
25,  1870,  the  Fenians  again  crossed  the  international  boundary 
in  Quebec,  and  after  doing  some  damage  were  driven  over  the 
border.  They  also  threatened  to  assist  a  rebellion  in  the  Great 
North- West,  which  the  late  Lord  Wolseley,  and  the  Canadians 
under  him,  put  an  end  to  at  Fort  Garry,  now  the  city  of 
Winnipeg. 

From  this  short  historical  narrative  it  will  be  readily  seen 
that  Canada  has  to  look  to  her  home  defence  as  well  as  to  assist 
the  Imperial  Forces.  For  a  country  with  a  comparatively  small 
population  this  is  no  easy  burden  to  bear,  and  the  position  is  not 
rendered  easier  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  time  has  yet  to 
come  when  Canada  will  be  privileged  to  hold  for  her  own  use 
large  sums  of  gold  on  which  to  base  her  material  wealth  to  be 
used  for  her  protection  and  development. 

THE  MONROE  DOCTRINE. 

This  war  will  enable  the  people  of  the  Western  world 
(Canadians  included)  to  readjust  their  point  of  view  and  to  realise 
that  the  European  Continent  is  capable  of  carrying  on  for  years 
a  conflict  in  which  probably  fifteen  millions  of  men  are  engaged. 
They  may  well  revert  to  the  assumed  protection  of  the  Monroe 
doctrine  with  a  certain  amount  of  hope  and  desire  that  the  respect 
which  that  doctrine  has  received  for  nearly  100  years  will  be 
continued  by  the  belligerents  of  to-day.  President  James  Monroe 
promulgated  this  doctrine  in  1823,  and  it  was  courteously 
recognised  by  all  the  Great  Powers  on  the  following  basis  : — The 
right  to  see  fair  play  in  America ;  the  right  of  the  United  States 
to  enlarge  at  the  expense  of  her  neighbours  :  the  right  of  the 
United  States  to  settle  the  interior  affairs  of  America  without 
interference  from  or  suggestions  from  European  Powers. 

Indeed,  in  1902,  Germany  undertook  to  make  no  conquests  or 
settlements  in  South  America,  and  therefore  the  Monroe  doctrine 
seems  to.  be  placed  like  a  protecting  wing  over  the  fortunes  of 
the  American  people.  This  undertaking  led  to  the  suggestion 
that  the  American  Navy  would  be  obliged  to  afford  protection  to 
Canada,  because  invasion  of  the  States  might  otherwise  take  place 
from  Canada  itself  through  enemies  of  Canada ;  but  ex-President 
Taft  seems  to  have  laid  down  the  dictum  that  such  would  not  be 
the  case,  and  that  the  United  States  would  not  interfere  in  an 
invasion  of  Canada,  by  Germany  for  instance,  but  would  assert 
the  Monroe  Doctrine  only  if  Germany  were  able  and  proposed  to 
set  up  a  Government  foreign  to  that  of  Canada  in  the  Dominion. 


20  The  Empire  Review 

Whether  this  theory  be  accepted  or  not,  and  other  American 
statesmen  do  not  hold  Mr.  Tart's  views,  it  is  clear  that  Canada 
is  obliged  to  be  on  the  alert  in  connection  with  home  defence. 

In  this  connection  let  me  quote  Sir  Robert  Borden,  Prime 
Minister  of  Canada,  who  says  : — 

As  the  policy  of  a  great  and  friendly  nation,  the  Monroe  doctrine  is 
entitled  to  every  respect.  The  people  of  this  Dominion  are  agreed  and 
determined  to  take  their  part  in  the  struggle  which  involves  the  destiny 
of  their  Empire.  They  are  quite  prepared  and  willing  to  assume  all 
responsibility  that  the  action  involves,  and  they  have  reasonable  confi- 
dence in  Canada's  ability  to  defend  her  own  territory. 

That  there  is  no  difference  of  opinion  on  this  question 
between  political  parties  is  obvious  from  the  following  statement 
made  by  Sir  Wilfrid  Laurier  :— 

I  supported  the  Canadian  Government  because  I  love  the  land  of  my 
ancestors  of  France,  and,  above  all,  I  love  the  Land  of  Liberty — England. 
So  long  as  there  is  any  danger  at  the  front,  so  long  as  victory  has  not 
been  won,  Belgium  not  restored  to  her  rights,  France  not  made  safe 
against  aggression,  and  so  long  as  small  nations  are  not  secure  in  their 
independence,  I  would  stand  by  the  Prime  Minister  of  Great  Britain  in 
the  position  he  had  taken.  In  Opposition  I  proclaimed  the  principle  that, 
when  Great  Britain  was  at  war,  Canada  was  at  war,  and  I  have  en- 
deavoured to  enforce  that  principle  by  the  development  of  Canada,  not 
as  a  Colony,  but  as  a  nation  within  the  Empire.  ...  I  do  not  want 
Canada  to  be  saved  by  the  Monroe  doctrine,  but  by  the  Canadian  people ; 
and  no  nation  is  worthy  of  being  a  nation  unless  it  is  ready  at  all  times 
to  defend  its  own  independence  and  fight  for  it  if  need  be. 

WHEN  THE  NEWS  CAME. 

Nothing  could  exceed  the  amazement  felt  in  Canada  at  the 
sudden  outburst  of  this  great  and  terrible  war,  unless  it  be  the 
altogether  extraordinary  and  spontaneous  determination  to  stand 
by  the  Empire  in  every  way  possible  with  men,  money  and 
material. 

Following  "immediately  on  the  offer  of  men,  the  Canadian 
Government  purchased  two  submarines  and  placed  them  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Admiralty,  while  the  Canadian  cruisers  Niobe, 
11,000  tons,  and  Rainbow,  7,000  tons,  were  similarly  handed 
over  for  the  protection  of  commerce  in  the  Pacific.  In  addition, 
the  steamers  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company  are 
rapidly  being  converted  into  cruisers  with  very  satisfactory 
results,  and  eight  additional  submarines  are  now  under  con- 
struction in  Canada. 

The  bulletin  announcing  that  Great  Britain  was  about  to 
despatch  a  military  force  to  Belgium  was  received  in  Winnipeg 
with  prolonged  cheers.  For  many  minutes  the  crowd  shouted, 
cheered,  waved  their  hats,  and  called  for  cheers  for  the  King,  the 


Canada's  Place  in  the  War  21 

Flag,  Tommy  Atkins,  Jack  Tar  and  the  leaders  of  the  British 
Army.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  instance  of  patriotic 
enthusiasm  occurred  when  the  Fort  Garry  Eegiment  of  Cavalry, 
which  included  many  leading  citizens  of  Winnipeg,  marched  into 
Valcartier  Camp,  a  thousand  strong.  They  had  chartered  two 
special  trains,  and  their  arrival  at  Valcartier  Camp,  1,800  miles 
away,  was  a  complete  surprise  to  the  Minister  of  Militia.  An 
article  in  the  World's  Work  tells  of  the  transformation  of  a 
smiling  plateau  eighteen  miles  north  of  Quebec  which  was  a 
great  garden,  dotted  with  perhaps  150  houses  of  Valcartier 
village.  Two  weeks  later  houses  and  crops  were  gone ;  row  after 
row  of  white  tents,  thousands  in  all,  stood  gleaming  in  the  sun, 
each  row  three  miles  long.  The  sleepy  village  was  replaced  by  a 
martial  city,  complete  with  streets,  sewers,  water  mains,  electric 
lights,  telephones,  and  hundreds  of  teams  and  waggons  to  move 
its  war-time  traffic.  Thus  when  the  trains  began  to  roll  in, 
bringing  the  citizens  of  this  tent-city  from  all  parts  of  Canada 
nearly  everything  was  in  readiness  to  receive  them. 

Already  33,000  troops  have  been  despatched  and  are  in  camp 
on  Salisbury  Plain,  in  Bermuda,  or  fighting  at  the  front,  and 
this  constitutes  the  greatest  movement  of  troops  for  such  a  dis- 
tance that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  In  three  lines,  thirty-three 
transports,  with  all  the  accoutrements  and  equipment  of  a  full 
Army,  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  safety  under  the  escort  of  British 
cruisers.  Further  contingents  are  being  organised  (some  are  already 
in  training)  and  will  be  sent  over  from  time  to  time  as  need  be, 
until  the  full  total  of  108,000  men  on  active  service  is  complete. 
But  this  is  not  all ;  the  Prime  Minister  has  declared  that,  if  and 
when  necessary,  200,000  or  300,000  will  be  sent  to  fight  against 
the  Germans.  Let  it  never  be  forgotten  there  are  two  million 
men  between  18  and  44  years  of  age  in  Canada  prepared  to 
defend  the  Empire,  which  they  know,  as  we  all  know,  secures  to 
them  liberty  of  thought  and  freedom  of  action. 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  admiration  that  Canadians  have  for 
their  Commander-in- Chief,  Sir  John  French,  and  it  is  with  no 
little  pride  that  I  quote  what  he  says  of  the  Canadian  troops  : — 

In  1910  I  inspected  the  Canadian  Forces,  and  I  look  forward  with 
great  pleasure  to  the  day  when  the  contingent  from  Canada  will  join  the 
army  under  my  command.  Canada,  in  sending  these  troops,  is  giving  the 
strongest  and  most  tangible  proof  of  the  unity  of  the  Empire. 

Germany  hoped  that  the  two  and  a  half  millions  of  French 
Canadians  would  not  be  too  willing  to  fight  for  their  national 
liberty,  that  the  four  hundred  thousand  Germans  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  Austrians  in  Canada  would  remain 
absolutely  and  entirely  neutral.  Instead  of  that  the  French 


The  Empire  Review 

Canadians  are  organising  complete  units  of  their  own  race  and 
creed,  and  in  the  city  of  Berlin  (Canada),  where  the  population 
is  mostly  of  German  birth  or  extraction,  the  inhabitants  have 
passed  resolutions  supporting  the  Allies,  besides  contributing 
large  sums  of  money  for  the  purposes  of  the  war.  There  is 
only  one  thought  in  the  Dominion  to-day,  and  that  is  : — "  When 
England  is  at  war,  Canada  is  at  war." 


GIFTS  AND  SUPPLIES. 

In  the  matter  of  money  and  money's  worth,  Canada  has  not 
been  behind  in  her  contributions  to  her  own  national  patriotic 
fund.  Governments,  municipalities,  town  councils,  and  in- 
dividuals have  vied  with  each  other  in  giving  of  their  means 
for  the  very  many  societies  and  schemes  for  the  welfare  of  the 
wounded  and  the  dependent  and  the  prosecution  of  the  war 
generally.  But  Canada  has  not  stopped  there.  The  Dominion 
of  Canada  is  sending  1,000,000  bags  of  flour,  2  Ibs.  for  each 
individual  in  the  British  Isles,  which  is  being  baked  into  31,500,000 
quartern  loaves,  free  of  charge,  by  bakers  in  England  and  dis- 
tributed through  a  Committee  appointed  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment to  those  in  need.  A  grant  has  also  been  made  of  $100,000 
for  the  Hospice  Canadien  in  France,  and  $50,000  for  Belgian 
sufferers.  The  province  of  Alberta  has  given  500,000  bushels 
of  oats  to  the  Mother  Country  and  5,000  bags  of  flour  to  the 
Belgians  ;  British  Columbia  1,000,000  cans  of  salmon  and  $5,000 
to  the  Belgian  Relief  Fund ;  Manitoba  50,000  bags  of  flour  and 
$5,000  to  the  Belgian  Relief  Fund;  New  Brunswick  100,000 
bushels  of  potatoes  and  15,000  barrels  of  potatoes  to  the  Belgian 
Relief  Fund ;  Nova  Scotia  $100,000  to  the  Prince  of  Wales's 
Fund,  apples  for  troops,  food  and  clothing  for  Belgians  ;  Ontario 
$500,000  in  cash,  250,000  bags  of  flour,  100,000  pounds  of  apples 
for  the  Navy,  $15,000  to  the  Belgian  Relief  Fund;  Prince 
Edward  Island  100,000  bushels  of  oats,  besides  cheese  and  hay. 

Quebec  has  given  four  million  pounds  of  cheese  and  $25,000 
to  the  Belgians  ;  Saskatchewan  1,500  horses  for  remounts  to  the 
British  Empire  and  $5,000  to  Belgians ;  while  cities  like  Ottawa, 
Montreal  and  Toronto,  besides  contributing  largely  to  funds,  are 
providing  batteries  of  guns  and  other  war  requisites.  The 
American  citizens  in  Toronto  have  contributed  $125,000  to  the 
families  of  Canadian  Volunteers.  A  gentleman  in  Montreal  has 
given  his  steam  yacht,  paid  the  cost  of  taking  the  5th  Royal 
Highlanders  to  Europe  and  presented  $500,000  to  the  Canadian 
Patriotic  Fund.  The  scattered  settlers  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
district  have  collected  £600  towards  the  expense  of  the  war.  The 
members  of  the  North  West  Mounted  Police  have  given  £173 


Canada's  Place  in  the  War  23 

and  are  contributing  one  day's  pay  every  month  as  long  as  it  is 
required  for  the  purposes  of  the  war.  The  far-off  district  of  the 
Yukon,  in  the  Arctic  Circle,  has  offered  to  provide  500  men  and 
has  given  £1,200  in  cash. 

The  native  Bed  Man  of  Canada  is  also  desirous  of  taking  his 
share  with  his  white  brother.  At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Blood 
Indians,  the  tribal  funds  were  voted  to  the  sum  of  £200,  and  the 
resolution  was  signed  by  Chief  Shot-Both-Sides  and  Chief  Ermine 
Waters.  This  is  typical  of  the  resolutions  of  some  seventeen 
other  tribes,  who,  in  all,  have  contributed  £2,600.  Some  of  the 
Redskins  are  already  members  of  the  Canadian  Contingent  on 
Salisbury  Plain,  and  several  tribes  in  Northern  British  Columbia 
have  offered  to  form  a  corps  of  Guides,  though  it  is  difficult  to  see 
just  how  they  could  be  useful  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

Canada  is  manufacturing  ammunition  and  other  military 
requisites.  She  is  also  supplying  large  quantities  of  woollen 
clothing,  preserved  foodstuffs  and  harness :  it  is  estimated  that 
the  amount  of  orders  placed  in  the  Dominion  by  the  British, 
French  and  Russian  Governments  already  exceeds  in  value 
£8,000,000.  Canada  is  also  providing  a  large  number  of 
remounts  for  cavalry,  artillery  and  transport  purposes,  and  as 
nearly  all  the  world's  supply  of  nickel  is  within  the  borders  of  the 
Dominion,  she  is,  in  a  sense,  helping  the  Mother  Country  by 
prohibiting  the  export  of  that  metal  to  any  enemy  country. 
Canadian  manufacturers  have  made  for  the  British  army  alone 
750,000  pairs  of  socks,  1,500,000  woollen  undergarments  and 
250,000  cotton  undergarments,  as  well  as  40,000  waterproof 
canvas  coats,  lined  with  sheepskin.  In  addition  they  have 
supplied  300,000  pairs  of  shoes  and  500,000  suits  of  underwear  to 
France.  Russia  is  also  taking  every  saddle  it  is  possible  for 
Canadian  manufacturers  to  make  immediately  and  for  some  time 
to  come. 

The  Canadian  Red  Cross  Organisation  has  equipped  a  field 
hospital  and  three  field  ambulances,  provided  10,000  blankets, 
shirts  and  pairs  of  socks  and  contributed  $12,500  to  the  St.  John 
Ambulance  Hospital  in  France.  Canadians  have  organised,  and 
are  maintaining  the  Queen's  Canadian  Military  Hospital  at 
Folkestone  in  which  all  the  patients  thus  far  have  been  Belgians 
and  French.  No  fewer  than  seventeen  hospitals  now  at  work 
owe  their  origin  and  maintenance  to  Canadians.  The  women  in 
Canada  have  provided  the  Canadian  Women's  Hospital  with  100 
beds  as  an  addition  to  the  Naval  Hospital  at  Haslar,  and  have 
furnished  forty  ambulance  motor  cars.  Never  was  there  any 
doubt  that  Canadians  preferred  the  British  Flag  to  independence ; 
but  if  there  had  been,  the  spontaneous  action  and  generous 
voluntary  gifts  connected  with  this  war  would  for  ever  dispel  any 


24  The  Empire  Review 

such  illusion.  The  Union  Jack  is  recognised  as  the  only  official 
flag  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada  to-day,  and  our  people's  regard 
for  it  is  not  excelled  by  anyone  in  the  British  Empire. 

A  somewhat  unique  but  intensely  practical  method  of  pro- 
viding for  those  rendered  destitute  or  dependent  by  the  war  is  the 
action  taken  by  the  patriotic  farmers  of  Saskatchewan  and  now 
spreading  all  over  the  West.  Their  Grain  Growers'  Association 
has  asked  each  grain  grower  to  set  apart  one  acre  of  land  to  be 
sown  with  wheat,  the  proceeds  of  which  are  to  be  given  to  the 
Patriotic  Fund.  The  Association  has  850  branches  and  their 
members  should  produce  from  these  single  acres  in  the  aggregate 
600,000  bushels  of  grain.  Manitoba  has  offered  the  same. 

Canada's  place  in  the  war,  from  commercial  and  other  stand- 
points, is  prospective  as  well  as  immediate.  She  is  able  to  supply 
the  Old  Land,  that  needs  so  much  in  the  way  of  foodstuffs,  with  a 
large  quantity  of  what  she  requires.  The  Dominion  has  under- 
taken to  increase  her  foodstuff  crops  by  50  per  cent,  this  year  in 
order  to  make  up  some  of  the  deficiency  that  will  be  keenly  felt 
in  consequence  of  the  devastation  of  the  harvest  fields  in  Europe. 
This  will  mean,  if  an  average  crop  of  wheat  be  reaped,  that 
Canada  can  guarantee  for  export  enough  wheat  or  flour  to  keep 
everyone  in  the  Homeland  for  eigh't  or  nine  months  out  of  the 
twelve.  Besides  this  single  illustration  of  wheat,  our  small 
potatoes  will  be  growing  larger  and  the  little  pigs  bigger.  Canada 
proposes  to  do  a  large  share  towards  guaranteeing  foodstuffs  for 
the  British  people,  and  the  money  her  farmers  will  receive  will 
be  a  new  and  material  addition  to  the  wealth  of  the  Empire. 

BEAVE  BELGIUM. 

The  Belgians  in  Canada  who  have  been  called  by  their  King 
to  the  colours  are  being  assisted  by  the  people  of  the  Dominion  in 
their  equipment  and  in  their  training,  and  the  first  batch  of  250 
left  Canada  for  the  Belgian  lines  two  or  three  weeks  ago. 
Correspondence  between  the  heads  of  the  Belgian  Relief  Com- 
mittee for  Nova  Scotia  at  Halifax  and  the  Central  Committee 
at  Montreal  reveals  what  the  Canadian  contribution  in  cash  and 
supplies  are  doing  to  relieve  distress  in  Belgium.  The  Doric, 
which  recently  sailed  from  Halifax  for  Rotterdam,  carried 
12,000  bags  and  600  barrels  of  flour ;  11,000  barrels  of  potatoes  ; 
1,500  boxes  of  dried  apples  ;  2,000  cases  of  canned  goods ;  5,500 
packages  of  clothing  and  a  considerable  amount  of  cheese  and 
fish.  The  Calcutta,  placed  at  the  Committee's  disposal  by  the 
British  Admiralty,  will  take  112,000  bushels  of  wheat,  and  on 
the  same  ship  the  Board  of  Trade,  Toronto,  are  sending  sixteen 
cars  of  flour,  the  Quebec  Committee  three  cars  of  miscellaneous 


Canada's  Place  in  the  War  25 

goods,  while  several  shippers  from  outside  Montreal  are  con- 
tributing cars. 

In  addition  to  the  cargoes  of  the  Doric  and  the  Calcutta,  there 
was  the  Tremorvah,  a  ship  placed  by  the  British  Admiralty  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Nova  Scotia  Government.  The  Tremorvah  carried 
a  large  cargo  which,  in  addition  to  Nova  Scotia's  contribution, 
included  food  supplies  and  clothing  sent  to  the  Central  Committee 
at  Montreal  from  all  parts  of  Canada.  The  cargoes  on  the 
Tremorvah,  the  Doric  and  the  Calcutta,  total  in  value  about 
£175,340.  A  fourth  steamer  with  supplies  for  the  Belgians  will 
be  sent  from  Halifax,  and  the  Central  Belief  Committee  at 
Montreal  are  making  an  appeal  for  money  to  buy  wheat  to 
send  on  this  vessel.  And  Canada  has  sent  $10,000  to  provide 
milk  for  Belgian  babies. 

We  all  recall  the  prospective  financial  catastrophe  that 
immediately  after  the  beginning  of  the  war  was  prevented  by  the 
timely  action  and  advice  of  the  Government,  and  their  advisers.  In 
the  course  of  arranging  these  most  intricate  and  important  matters, 
Canada  was  given  another  opportunity  of  helping  the  Empire,  in 
so  far  that  the  Bank  of  England  arranged  to  open  a  receiving 
branch  for  gold  in  Ottawa,  thus  obviating  the  dangerous  necessity 
of  recalling  her  gold  from  America  and  entrusting  it  on  the  high 
seas  with  eaemy  ships  about.  A  similar  arrangement  was  made 
at  Melbourne,  Australia ;  thus  we  see  another  link  in  the  great 
chain  of  the  Empire  around  the  world. 

Thus  does  Canada  intend  to  uphold  her  position  as  a  nation 
within  the  British  Empire,  and  to  maintain  for  herself  and  the 
world  that  dearly  loved  liberty  of  thought  and  action,  which 
reserves  to  every  man  the  right  to  do  his  best  for  his  country,  his 
family  and  himself.  We  have  not  glorified  war  or  sought  to 
depart  from  the  paths  of  peace,  but  our  hearts  are  firm  and 
united  in  the  inflexible  determination  that  the  cause  for  which 
we  have  drawn  the  sword  shall  be  maintained  to  an  honourable 
and  triumphant  issue.  But  while  Canadians  are  determined  to  see 
this  war  through  to  the  bitter  end,  they  are  by  no  means  anxious 
to  continue  fighting  for  fighting's  sake.  They  long  for  the  day 
of  peace,  but  that  must  not  be  until  the  wrongs  of  Belgium  are 
avenged  and  Prussian  militarism  swept  from  the  face  of  the 
earth. 

J.  OBED  SMITH. 


VOL.  XXIX.— No.  169. 


26  The  Empire  Review 


THE   REBELLION   IN    SOUTH   AFRICA 

THE  historical  and  political  significance  of  the  South  African 
rebellion  is  a  matter  upon  which  judgment  cannot  yet  be  delivered. 
So  far  as  the  war  in  Europe  is  concerned  its  significance  will  no 
doubt  be  of  little  account  except  in  so  far  as  it  throws  light  on 
the  machinations  of  Germany,  but  for  us  in  South  Africa  it  means 
much.  We  British  who  ventured  to  cast  doubts  upon  Boer 
loyalty  and  gratitude  now  know  that  our  fears  were  not  altogether 
unfounded.  Hitherto,  when  we  have  ventured  to  give  expression 
to  these  doubts  we  have  run  the  risk  of  being  accused  of  racialism 
and  narrow-mindedness,  for  under  the  influence  of  Liberal 
mythology  the  Boer  has  become  a  kind  of  Greek  god,  communing 
with  solitude  among  his  flocks  and  herds.  The  brilliant  success 
of  self-government  in  South  Africa  was  even  quoted  by  Mr. 
Churchill  as  a  reason  for  giving  Home-Eule  to  Ireland ! 

In  the  light  of  recent  events,  however,  one  cannot  say  that 
self-government  has  been  altogether  a  failure,  for  under  a  Crown 
Colony  government  it  is  probable  that  the  rebellion  would  have 
been  of  a  more  serious  nature  than  it  is  ;  that,  but  for  the  strong 
hand  and  the  personal  influence  of  General  Botha,  to  whom  all 
honour  is  due,  the  rebellion  might  have  spread  throughout  the 
Union.  But  the  blame  lies  at  the  door  of  the  Home  Government 
for  granting  self-government  without  any  safeguards  whatsoever. 

First,  they  should  have  taken  steps  to  prevent  the  whole- 
sale retrenchment  of  British  officials  which  took  place.  Secondly, 
a  practical  land  settlement  scheme  should  have  been  formulated. 
Lord  Milner  realised  its  necessity,  for  he  knew  that,  as  the 
British  population  in  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Kiver  Colony  was 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  towns,  the  country  districts  needed 
the  leaven  of  British  settlers.  But  no  attempt  was  made  to  carry 
on  the  work  begun  by  him  in  this  respect,  rather  the  reverse. 
Thirdly,  the  Defence  Force  should  have  been  under  the  control 
of  the  Imperial  authorities,  with  a  British  general  as  Com- 
mandant-General ;  its  complexion,  if  not  its  units  should  have 
been  British.  It  was  outrageous  that  a  man  like  Beyers,  known  to 
be  bitterly  anti-British,  should  have  been  Commandant-General  of 


The  Rebellion  in  South  Africa  27 

the  forces  of  a  British  Colony.  A  near  relative  of  his  told  me 
that,  so  bitter  were  his  feelings,  no  English  had  been  spoken  in  his 
house  since  the  war,  although  English  had  been  the  household 
language  before  the  war.  The  disloyalty  of  Maritz  was  also 
known.  One  who  was  present  relates  how,  on  one  occasion 
Maritz  refused  to  enter  a  wayside  hotel  until  a  portrait  of 
the  King  had  been  removed  from  the  dining-room.  Knowing 
such  things,  is  it  any  wonder  that  the  pride  of  the  South  African 
British  was  wounded  ? 

All  the  sentimental  nonsense  talked  in  Liberal  circles  of 
gratitude  wiping  out  the  seeds  of  enmity  surely  betrayed  an 
ignorance  of  human  nature.  Gratitude  does  not  infer  anything 
so  abstract  in  the  sphere  of  politics.  Does  old  Mrs.  Green  feel 
grateful  when  she  receives  her  insurance  money  ?  Will  the  Irish 
feel  grateful  to  England  if  they  get  Home-Rule  ?  I  do  not  think 
any  Englishman  will  look  for  gratitude.  Why  then  expect  so 
much  from  one  who  was  so  lately  our  enemy  ?  The  Boer  was 
not  at  all  impressed  by  our  boasted  magnanimity  in  granting 
self-government ;  he  accepted  our  generosity  as  a  right,  an 
acknowledgment  of  his  worth,  and  even  superiority ;  and  he 
proceeded  to  prove  this  by  wiping  out,  wherever  possible,  all  traces 
of  the  Crown  Colony  government.  He  even  went  to  the  trouble 
of  erasing  the  stone-engraved  words  "  Girls  "  and  "  Boys  "  from 
the  entrance  gates  of  a  government  school,  finding  in  these  an 
evidence  of  the  tyranny  of  the  English  language.  As  a  letter- 
writer  in  a  Johannesberg  paper  remarked :  South  Africa  is  the 
one  country  in  the  world  where  the  fact  of  being  an  Englishman 
carries  with  it  no  prestige.  Our  "  magnanimity,"  however,  not 
only  created  a  false  impression  among  the  ignorant  Boers — one 
gives  men  like  Generals  Botha  and  Smuts  the  credit  for  knowing 
better— but  in  Europe  as  well.  Bead  what  von  Bernhardi  says  : 
"  The  Boers  have  maintained  their  place  as  a  nation ;  in  a  certain 
sense  they  have  shown  themselves  superior  to  the  English.  It  was 
only  after  many  glorious  victories  that  they  yielded  to  a  crushingly 
superior  force.  They  accumulated  a  store  of  fame  and  national 
consciousness  which  makes  them,  though  conquered,  a  power  to 
be  reckoned  with.  The  result  of  this  development  is  that  the 
Boers  are  now  the  foremost  people  in  South  Africa,  and  that 
England  preferred  to  grant  them  self-government  than  to  be  faced 
by  their  continual  hostility." 

Miss  Hobhouse  has  sent  an  appeal  to  the  women  of  South 
Africa  to  work  together  for  peace.  We  are  apt  to  overlook  the 
part  that  women  are  undoubtedly  playing  in  this  rebellion ;  for 
the  women  of  the  back-veld  have  never  allowed  their  men-folk 
to  forget  and  bury  the  past.  Talk  to  a  Boer  man  about  the 
war  and  he  will  discuss  it  in  a  friendly  way  ;  talk  to  his  wife  and 

D  2 


28  The  Empire  Review 

she  becomes  eloquent  in  her  denunciations  of  her  treatment  in 
the  Concentration  Camps.  The  wife  of  a  distinguished  and  loyal 
politician  has  never  forgiven  the  British  because  she  lost  two 
children  in  the  camps. 

Miss  Violet  Markham,  who  knows  South  Africa  well,  makes 
out  in  a  very  charming  and  interesting  book  that  we  English  in 
South  Africa  have  much  exaggerated  the  ill-effects  of  self- 
government.  To  a  mere  traveller,  even  one  as  broad-minded  as 
Miss  Markham,  that  point  of  view  is  natural.  But  Miss  Mark- 
ham  has  not  lived  on  the  back-veld  since  the  war.  She  has  not 
been  worried  by  the  inefficiency  of  the  local  postal  service ;  she 
has  not  heard  the  daily  complaints  of  English  parents  unable  to 
get  their  children  educated  in  their  own  language,  or  even  of 
Dutch  parents  who  could  not  get  their  children  taught  English. 
She  has  not  felt  the  regret  of  seeing  one's  friends  leaving  the  land 
for  other  countries — Australia,  New  Zealand,  Canada,  or  British 
East  Africa — and  their  farms  taken  up  by  unprogressive  Dutch- 
men. She  has  not  felt  the  futility  of  living  amongst  people  who 
look  upon  one  as  an  intruder.  In  the  towns  one  does  not  realise 
these  things.  "Why  is  it  always  considered  so  necessary,  we 
asked,  to  conciliate  a  people  who  have  no  desire  for  reconciliation  ? 
One  does  not  improve  a  bad-tempered  child  by  giving  in  to  him 
on  every  point. 

We  have  viewed  the  gradual  withdrawal  of  troops  during  the 
last  few  years  with  misgivings,  but,  knowing  the  uselessness  of 
protesting  against  anything  detrimental  to  our  interests,  little 
was  said. 

To  come  down  to  more  recent  events.  As  early  as  the 
beginning  of  September  rumours  were  current  from  the  Cape 
to  the  Zambesi  of  Beyers'  treason.  It  was  even  rumoured  that 
Beyers  had  been  shot,  along  with  seven  others.  Then,  to  our 
dismay,  we  read  a  loyal  speech  by  Beyers  in  the  daily  papers — 
a  speech  which  we  afterwards  learned  he  had  been  forced  into 
delivering.  The  next  surprise  was  the  public  denial  of  the 
rumours,  and  official  notices  at  railway  stations  and  other  public 
places  proclaiming  that  anyone  repeating  current  rumours  about 
General  Beyers  would  be  liable  to  prosecution  for  criminal  libel. 
It  was  an  incomprehensible  method  the  Government  adopted,  this, 
of  fighting  sedition  in  our  midst  by  a  policy  of  mystery  and 
secretiveness,  instead  of  taking  the  initiative  and  calling  in  all 
arms  and  ammunition.  In  spite  of  the  Government's  warnings, 
however,  the  rumours  persisted,  and  some  of  us  knew  too  that 
seditious  meetings  were  being  held,  even  in  districts  where  no 
rebellion  has  as  yet  broken  out,  among  the  Boers  of  the  back- 
veld,  by  Pienaar,  an  ex-major  of  the  Defence  Force,  and  others. 
We  have  since  learned  that  by  the  agreement  between  Beyers  and 


The  Rebellion  in  South  Africa  29 

Germany  the  rebellion  was  planned  to  break  out  in  August. 
Finally,  at  Beyers'  suggestion,  the  last  of  the  Imperial  troops 
were  withdrawn.  Beyers  resigned,  but  still  no  active  steps  were 
taken  by  the  Union  Government  until  Maritz's  treason  was 
discovered.  It  is  now  known  that  De  la  Key  was  also  among  the 
rebels,  and  but  for  the  timely  tragedy  of  his  death  would  have 
been  in  the  field.  De  la  Bey  was  an  old  man,  and  it  is  said  that 
latterly  he  had  become  obsessed  with  the  hatred  of  everything 
British.  It  is  also  known  that  when  De  la  Eey  was  shot  he  and 
Beyers  and  de  Wet  were  on  their  way  to  address  a  contingent  of 
volunteers  starting  from  Potchefstroom  for  German  South  West 
Africa.  Had  they  succeeded  in  reaching  their  destination  they 
would  no  doubt  have  also  succeeded  in  making  traitors  of  1000  or 
more  armed  men. 

The  Cape  Times  calls  this  an  opera-bouffe  rebellion,  and, 
certainly,  the  whole  thing  is  absurdly  childish,  but  then,  it  must 
be  remembered,  the  back-veld  Boer  is  an  extremely  childish 
person.  The  Westminster  Gazette,  commenting  on  de  Wet's 
speech  at  Vrede,  says  that  it  shows  that  his  mental  balance  was 
seriously  disturbed.  It  is  impossible,  I  suppose,  in  the  heart  of 
London  to  realise  the  elementary  nature  of  the  speech  of  an 
ordinary  back-veld  Boer.  De  Wet  could  think  of  nothing  to  say 
against  the  "  pestilential  English  "  but  that  he  had  been  fined  5s. 
for  flogging  a  Kaffir.  The  general  opinion  of  the  back-veld  is 
that  no  justice  exists  now  that  they  can  no  longer  sjambok  Kaffirs 
at  their  will. 

The  Boer  is  also  a  very  dull  person,  devoid  of  ideas,  but  from 
an  anthropological  point  of  view  he  is  an  interesting  study, 
raising  all  sorts  of  questions  relating  to  heredity  and  environment. 
All  over  the  world  we  find  that  the  white  man  is  not  able  to 
withstand  the  degenerating  influences  of  isolation  in  the  midst  of 
a  black  population  without  reversion  to  a  rude  primitive  type 
himself.  We  English  think  we  know  what  isolation  means 
because  we  have  perhaps  lived  on  a  veld  farm  for  a  few  years. 
But  ours  is  a  geographical  isolation  only.  We  have  our  weekly  pile 
of  letters  and  English  papers  and  magazines ;  we  have  our  trips 
to  Johannesberg  and  Durban  and  England  varied  by  the  East 
Coast  route  and  a  run  through  Egypt  and  the  Continent ;  and  we 
have  a  more  or  less  continuous  flow  of  visitors.  We  have  no  time, 
besides,  to  stagnate,  if  we  mean  to  develop  our  farms.  Our  so- 
called  isolation  is  a  very  different  thing  from,  that  of  the  Boer  who 
sees  the  world  only  from  his  stoep  through  a  cloud  of  tobacco 
smoke.  His  is  an  isolation  that  has  produced  a  state  of  mental 
inertia  which  rebels  against  the  spirit  of  activity.  In  a  British 
Colony  it  has  dawned  upon  the  consciousness  of  the  Boer  mind 
that  a  man  must  be  up  and  doing  or  go  to  the  wall.  He  must 


30  The  Empire  Review 

also  obey  the  law.  "  This  rebellion  will  spread  like  a  veld  fire," 
said  a  gentleman  from  the  Free  State.  "  Why  do  you  think  so  ?  " 
I  asked.  "  Because,"  he  replied,  "  the  Boer  is  at  heart  a  rebel." 

The  attitude  of  the  rebel  Boer  is  well  expressed  in  an  illumi- 
nating circular  letter  quoted  in  the  Cape  Times.  "  Never  again 
in  our  lifetime  shall  we  get  such  a  beautiful  opportunity  of  getting 
rid  of  the  British  yoke,  and  building  up  a  nation  of  our  own, 
founded  on  the  Voortrekker's  religion,  manners,  customs  and 
traditions.  If  we  had  a  sympathetic  Boer  Government  at  the 
head  of  affairs  there  would  be  nothing  easier  under  the  sun. 
Surely  you  do  not  labour  under  the  mistake  that  de  Wet,  Beyers, 
and  Maritz  want  to  bring  us  under  the  German  Empire.  No. 
They  want  to  bring  back  or  regain  that  independence  for  which 
we  struggled  so  hard  twelve  years  ago,  because  if  that  indepen- 
dence, for  which  we  gave  up  our  lives  and  allowed  the  land  to  be 
ruined  is  not  worth  possessing,  then  it  was  a  waste  of  time  and 
foolish  to  make  these  sacrifices.  My  conviction  however  is 
that  it  has  appeared  as  clearly  as  possible  during  these  twelve 
years  that  that  independence,  more  than  ever  before,  is  necessary 
for  our  people  if  we  do  not  want  to  be  totally  absorbed  by 
English  manners  and  customs,  and  by  so  doing  see  our  existence 
as  descendants  of  the  Huguenots  and  Voortrekkers  disappear." 

But  the  civil  war  in  our  midst  is  not  a  racial  strife,  although 
the  rebels  pretend  that  it  is.  It  is  the  struggle  between  Botha 
and  Hertzog  continued  on  the  battle-field.  It  is  a  rebellion  of 
the  back-veld  against  the  spirit  of  change  and  progress,  a  pathetic 
attempt  to  stay  the  hand  of  time.  The  Boer  is  fighting  for  the 
right  to  live  his  life  in  his  own  old  way,  irrespective  of  law  and 
order.  And  the  fact  that  Hertzog  has  not  dissociated  himself 
from  the  rebels  is  evidence  for  supposing  that  he  is  largely 
responsible  for  the  trouble.  He  could  have  stopped  the  rebellion 
had  he  chosen.  We  have  every  confidence  in  the  ability  of 
Generals  Botha  and  Smuts  to  quell  the  rebellion.  But  what 
will  be  the  final  result  ?  Will  any  good  come  of  it  all  ? 

At  present  we  don't  quite  know  where  we  are.  Sedition,  we 
feel,  is  in  the  air,  and  for  every  rebel  who  has  shown  his  colours 
there  are  probably  two  lying  low.  Nevertheless,  the  rebellion  will 
do  much  to  draw  the  English  and  the  loyal  Dutch,  especially 
those  who  have  taken  up  arms  in  the  Imperial  cause,  together. 
A  great  many  Dutch,  in  fact  the  majority  of  the  better  classes, 
do  feel  that  the  rebels  have  dishonoured  South  Africa,  and  they 
are  anxious  to  wipe  out  the  stain.  But  if  peace  is  to  be  the  out- 
come, General  Botha,  when  the  day  of  settlement  comes,  will  have 
to  use  the  firmness  he  showed  himself  capable  of  in  dealing  with 
the  strike  leaders.  There  must  be  no  half-measures ;  probably  no 
one  knows  this  better  than  General  Botha.  Will  he  have  the 


The  Rebellion  in  South  Africa  31 

courage  to  punish  all  the  rebels,  not  only  the  leaders,  with  the 
severity  their  crime  deserves  ?  A  term  of  penal  servitude  would 
surely  not  be  too  severe  a  punishment  for  the  rank  and  file, 
while  the  possession  of  fire-arms  by  any  rebel  must  be  forbidden 
for  the  term  of  his  life. 

Again,  as  this  rebellion  has  been  planned  and  organised  by 
officers  of  the  Defence  Force,  it  is  not  too  much  to  expect  that, 
when  the  re-organisation  of  the  Force  takes  place,  at  least  half 
the  officers  should  be  of  British  birth.  And  a  seditious  propa- 
ganda such  as  Hertzog  has  been  preaching  must  be  treated  as  a 
criminal  offence.  There  are  limits  to  the  rights  of  free  speech, 
even  in  a  British  Colony,  when  the  results  are  so  disastrous. 

MADELINE  CONYEBS  ALSTON. 


REFERENCE    BOOKS,    1915 

Who's  Who.  Some  of  us  are  old  enough  to  remember  Men 
and  Women  of  the  Time,  an  annual  much  in  request  for  reference 
purposes.  But  it  needed  modernising  and  expanding.  Its 
successor,  in  purport  if  not  in  title,  was  Who's  Who,  with  which 
the  older  book  was  incorporated.  The  result  was  a  success  from 
the  first,  and  year  by  year  that  success  has  been  repeated  until 
to-day  we  have  a  most  useful  and  interesting  volume  comprising 
a  series  of  biographical  sketches  not  to  be  found  in  any  other 
collection.  Who's  Who  tells  the  reader  exactly  what  he  wants 
to  know,  no  more  and  no  less,  and  tells  it  well.  Convenient  in 
size,  well  printed,  and  firmly  bound,  this  book  forms  a  pleasing 
addition  to  the  library,  writing-table  or  office.  Nothing  more 
accurate  is  published,  nothing  more  comprehensive  is  required. 

Whitaker's  Almanac.  Probably  no  annual  is  more  read  or 
consulted  than  Whitaker's  Almanac.  And  deservedly  so,  for  it 
contains  a  vast  amount  of  useful  information  given  in  a  form 
as  concise  as  it  is  convenient.  The  letter-press  for  the  current 
year  has  been  carefully  revised,  but  the  size  of  the  volume 
remains  the  same  and  the  general  arrangement  of  contents  has 
undergone  no  change.  In  the  space  formerly  occupied  by 
articles  on  the  World's  Peace  and  the  proceedings  of  the  Hague 
Tribunal,  will  be  found  an  account  of  the  matters  leading  up  to 
"  The  Great  War,"  and  several  pithy  papers  on  kindred  subjects. 
Other  new  features  include  excellent  summaries  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  Act  (U.S.A.)  and  the  War  Budget,  while  the  Army 
section  has  been  enlarged  to  include  the  changes  introduced 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  war.  As  a  book  of  general  reference 
Whitaker's  Almanac  has  no  rival. 


32  The  Empire  Review 


NEW    MARKETS    FOR    BRITISH    GOODS 

HEAVY  CHEMICALS 

OF  recent  years  Germany  has  advanced  with  greater  rapidity 
and  far  more  steadfastness  of  purpose  than  the  United  Kingdom 
in  the  matter  of  scientific  research.  Nothing  has  shown  this  in 
a  more  practical  form  than  the  controlling  position  Germany 
holds  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline  dyes.  In  the  preparation 
of  medicines  we  have  also  allowed  Germany  to  forge  ahead  of  us. 
Neither  the  British  Government  nor  British  manufacturers  must 
any  longer  permit  these  inroads  on  markets  which  at  one  time 
were  entirely  in  our  own  hands.  Acting  together,  both  the  one 
and  the  other  must  make  a  strenuous  attempt,  while  the  oppor- 
tunity presents  itself,  to  gain  back  the  position  we  as  a  country 
have  lost,  and,  what  is  more,  see  to  it  that  when  the  war  is  over 
things  do  not  lapse  again  into  the  old  groove. 

In  the  present  article  my  purpose  is,  not  so  much  to  deal  with 
the  more  profound  subject  of  scientific  research  as  to  direct 
attention  to  the  exports  from  this  country  and  Germany  of  what 
are  known  as  heavy  chemicals,  other  than  those  used  as  artificial 
manures,  and  to  indicate  the  chief  markets  where  the  sale  of 
German  chemicals  can  be  replaced  by  the  same  or  similar  pro- 
ducts manufactured  in  this  country.  The  figures  as  well  as  the 
facts  are  taken  from  the  official  reports  issued  during  the  last  few 
months  by  the  Board  of  Trade. 

Taking  the  year  1912  for  Germany  *  and  1913  for  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  value  of  heavy  chemicals  exported  to  all  destinations 
amounted  to  £4,066,600  and  £6,684,900  respectively.  The 
importation  into  this  country  from  Germany  (valued  at  £255,100) 
may  be  dismissed  as  insignificant  compared  with  our  own  pro- 
duction of  the  same  class  of  article.  So  far  then  as  the  Home 
market  is  concerned,  British  manufacturers  have  little  to  fear 
from  German  competition,  but  it  is  different,  as  I  shall  endeavour 
to  show,  with  neutral  markets,  while  even  in  British  India, 
Canada,  Australia,  South  and  West  Africa  we  have,  as  regards 
some  chemical  products,  no  small  difficulty  in  holding  our  own. 
*  This  is  the  latest  year  available  for  German  statistics. 


New  Markets  for  British  Goods  33 

First  let  us  take  aluminous  sulphates.  Germany's  principal 
markets  for  alums  are  Switzerland  (we  do  no  trade  with  this 
country),  France,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  the  United  States, 
Sweden,  Spain,  Italy  and  Argentina.  In  all  these  countries,  if 
we  except  the  United  States  and  Argentina,  where  we  have  a  fair 
trade,  Germany  holds  a  very  strong  position.  On  the  other  hand 
in  Norway  we  have  secured  most  of  the  business,  in  British  India 
we  possess  a  long  lead  and  in  Canada  we  divide  the  market  with 
Germany.  In  New  Zealand,  however,  the  figures  show  but  a 
small  margin  in  our  favour.  As  regards  alums,  therefore,  the 
openings  for  an  increased  sale  of  the  British-made  product  may 
be  said  to  be  both  numerous  and  extensive. 

Germany's  exports  of  arsenic  compounds  are  about  four  times 
those  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  chief  market  for  both 
countries  is  the  United  States,  the  larger  share  falling  to 
Germany.  In  Italy  our  trade  takes  the  premier  position,  but 
elsewhere,  particularly  in  Scandinavia,  France,  Eussia,  Brazil, 
Uruguay,  the  Dutch  East  Indies  and  Argentina  the  German 
product  has  the  larger  sale.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  many 
possibilities  present  themselves  for  extending  the  sales  of  British- 
made  arsenic  compounds.  The  British  exportation  of  bleaching 
powder  to  neutral  markets  and  the  oversea  Dominions  is  not  far 
behind  that  of  Germany,  the  United  States  again  being  the  chief 
market  for  both  countries,  although  here  the  advantage  lays  with 
Great  Britain.  Again,  in  Denmark,  British  India,  China  and 
Brazil  we  hold  strong  positions.  Elsewhere,  excepting  in  Russia 
and  the  Netherlands,  where  we  send  considerable  supplies,  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  trade  is  in  German  hands. 

Let  us  now  pass  on  to  carbonate  of  ammonia.  Here  we 
practically  control  all  markets ;  at  the  same  time  it  would  be 
idle  to  deny  that  German  competition  is  pressing  us  hard  in 
Italy,  Switzerland  and  South  America.  As  regards  aniline  oil 
and  toluidine  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  comparison,  as  the  returns 
for  Germany  include  a  number  of  closely  allied  products.  It  may 
however  be  said  that  Germany  does  the  greater  part  of  the 
export  trade  in  these  products.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that 
openings  for  British  trade  are  to  be  found  in  the  United  States, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  Russia,  Spain,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands, 
Turkey  and  Japan.  The  bulk  of  the  benzol  and  toluol  exported 
from  both  Germany  and  the  United  Kingdom  goes  to  France,  so 
that  in  this  case  exceptional  opportunities  exist  for  extending  the 
sale  of  the  British-made  products  in  that  market.  In  Belgium, 
the  Netherlands,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Russia,  Argentina  and  the 
United  States  the  possibilities  are  smaller  but  they  are 
numerous.  Carbolic  acid  is  exported  from  Germany  to  the 
British-Colonial  and  neutral  markets  in  somewhat  larger 


34  The  Empire  Review 

quantities  in  the  aggregate  than  from  the  United  Kingdom,  but 
the  distribution  varies  considerably.  Thus  the  United  Kingdom 
supplies  the  greater  part  of  the  carbolic  acid  required  in  British 
India,  Sweden  and  the  Netherlands,  while  Germany  has  hitherto 
taken  the  lead  in  the  French,  Swiss,  Kussian  and  Japanese 
markets.  In  the  United  States  Germany  and  ourselves  may  be 
said  to  share  about  equally.  It  should  not  be  difficult  therefore, 
to  extend  the  British  exportation  of  carbolic  acid  in  France,  Italy, 
Switzerland,  Eussia  and  Japan,  and  possibly  a  larger  market 
could  be  found  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  matter  of  coal-tar  we  hold  the  position  in  British 
India,  British  South  and  West  Africa,  and  Australia,  but  the 
Belgian,  French  and  Russian  markets  are  practically  controlled 
by  Germany.  This  should  no  longer  be  the  case.  In  naphtha- 
lin  the  British  trade  is  chiefly  with  British  South  Africa, 
Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  Germany  taking  the  lead  in  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Russia  and  Turkey.  With 
France,  China  and  the  United  States  the  status  of  both 
exporting  countries  is  about  the  same.  The  whole  business, 
however,  is  a  small  one,  but  many  markets  might  be  assailed  with 
advantage  to  this  country.  As  regards  mineral  pitch  the  openings 
lie  in  the  smaller  markets  such  as  the  Netherlands,  Switzerland, 
and  Turkey,  where  the  greater  portion  of  the  imported  article  comes 
from  Germany.  In  the  larger  markets  we  already  hold  a  very 
strong  position,  and  particularly  is  this  so  in  Belgium,  France, 
Russia  and  Italy.  In  the  matter  of  tar-oil  and  creosote  over 
90  per  cent,  of  the  British  exports  are  sent  to  the  United  States 
where  competition  with  Germany  is  practically  nil.  On  the 
other  hand  Germany  sends  nearly  half  her  total  exports  of  tar-oil 
to  the  Netherlands.  Belgium  and  France,  where  British  imports 
are  relatively  small.  Both  Germany  and  ourselves  do  a  fair 
trade  with  Norway  and  Sweden,  Italy,  Russia  and  Brazil,  but  in 
the  markets  of  Switzerland  and  Rumania  the  British  produce  is 
unrepresented,  the  whole  trade  going  to  Germany. 

In  sulphate  of  copper  Germany's  export  trade  is  very  small. 
Her  two  largest  markets  are  Switzerland  and  Serbia,  and  in  both 
these  places  she  has  the  upper  hand.  In  all  other  markets  we 
may  be  said  to  have  a  monopoly.  It  is  different,  however,  with 
cyanide  of  potassium.  Take  for  example  the  United  States  market, 
which  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Germans.  We  are  also  worsted  by 
the  enemy  in  British  South  Africa,  Mexico,  Russia,  Spain  and 
Italy,  while  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  Switzerland,  Belgium  and 
the  Netherlands  take  no  supplies  of  this  chemical  from  the 
United  Kingdom. 

And  now  we  come  to  soda  ash,  soda  calcined,  refined,  bleaching 
soda  and  the  like.  Our  exports  of  soda  ash  exceed  Germany's 


New  Markets  for  British  Goods  35 

exports  of  soda  calcined,  refined  and  bleaching  soda,  but  the 
markets  we  supply  are  very  different  to  those  supplied  by  Germany. 
Thus  the  distant  markets  of  Japan,  British  India,  Argentina, 
Brazil,  United  States,  Russia,  the  Dutch  East  Indies  and  Chili, 
may  be  said  to  be  almost  entirely  in  British  hands,  while  in  the 
European  markets,  Germany  has  to  contend  with  very  little 
competition  from  the  United  Kingdom,  as  for  instance  in  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark.  In  these  countries 
there  is  every  opportunity  for  extending  the  United  Kingdom  trade. 
In  Italy  and  the  Netherlands  we  might  also  make  considerable 
headway.  Although  we  export  considerably  more  bicarbonate  of 
soda  than  Germany,  our  present  trade  might  be  extended  in  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Switzerland  and  Russia. 
Over  60  per  cent,  of  Germany's  total  export  trade  in  caustic  soda 
went  to  Switzerland  in  1912,  whereas  Great  Britain  was  not  even 
represented  in  the  markets  of  that  country  in  1913.  In  all  other 
markets,  except  in  that  of  Belgium,  our  exports  exceed  those  of 
Germany,  In  addition  to  the  countries  named,  Italy,  Rumania, 
Scandinavia,  the  Netherlands  and  Russia,  also  offer  considerable 
scope  for  British  enterprise  in  this  trade. 

The  greater  part  of  the  export  trade  both  of  Germany  and  the 
United  Kingdom  in  chromate  and  bichromate  of  soda  is  with 
Western  Europe — France,  the  Netherlands,  Switzerland,  Belgium 
and  Spain.  In  all  these  markets  Germany  has  held  first  position 
for  some  time  past.  An  opportunity  occurs  now  for  British 
traders  to  reverse  the  position.  The  United  States  has  also  been 
largely  supplied  with  these  chemicals  by  Germany.  Whether 
after  the  war  ends  the  situation  will  be  the  same  depends  on 
the  progress  we  make  during  the  next  few  months.  In  addition 
German  trade  to  the  value  of  £2,000  with  British  possessions 
awaits  British  exporters.  As  regards  the  trade  in  soda 
crystals  we  might  capture  a  few  markets  from  Germany,  for 
example  those  of  Switzerland,  Russia,  France  and  Belgium, 
while  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  extending  our  trade 
in  this  commodity  with  the  Netherlands,  Brazil,  Chili  and  the 
United  States.  A  large  market  also  awaits  us  in  Belgium  and 
the  Netherlands  for  sulphate  of  soda,  Germany's  exports  to  these 
countries  being  about  three  and  a  half  times  as  great  as  those 
from  the  United  Kingdom.  Again  in  the  United  States,  Brazil, 
Italy,  France  and  Denmark,  we  might  do  a  much  better  trade 
than  we  have  done,  whilst  the  markets  of  Switzerland,  Rumania, 
Venezuela  and  Mexico  would  seem  to  offer  an  entirely  new  field, 
seeing  that  as  late  as  1913  we  sent  no  sulphate  of  soda  to  these 
countries.  The  export  trade  in  sulphuric  acid  being  so  far  con- 
fined to  Germany,  the  possibilities  for  British  manufacturers  in 
this  direction  would  seem  very  large. 


36  The  Empire  Review 

It  is  hardly  worth  while  going  into  the  matter  of  Austria- 
Hungary's  export  trade  in  heavy  chemicals,  it  is  so  insignifi- 
cant when  compared  with  that  of  this  country  and  Germany. 
The  only  Austro-Hungarian  markets  of  any  importance  are 
Rumania  for  chloride  of  lime,  carbolic  acid,  naphthalin,  calcined 
soda,  and  sulphuric  acid,  Eussia  for  coal  tar  and  pitch,  Italy  for 
coal  tar  and  pitch,  Serbia  for  sulphate  of  copper,  calcined  soda, 
coal  tar  and  pitch,  and  Bulgaria  for  carbolic  acid  and  naphthalin. 
The  total  value  of  Austria-Hungary's  export  trade  to  all  des- 
tinations in  1913  only  reached  £164,565,  of  which  £1,120  was  done 
with  this  country.  The  aggregate  value  of  the  German  and 
Austro-Hungarian  trade  in  the  chemicals  mentioned  in  this  article, 
which  in  present  circumstances  might  be  directed  to  British 
manufacturers,  is  £3,682,625.  No  one  can  doubt  that  so  great  a 
trade  is  worth  having,  and  therefore  it  behoves  us  without  delay 
to  do  all  in  our  power  not  only  to  capture  it,  but  to  secure  it  as  a 
permanency.  This  however  can  only  be  done  by  means  of  tariffs 
or  bounties.  Which  is  it  to  be  ? 

EDITOE. 


THE    MESSENGER 

THE  Messenger,  with  bursting  heart, 
Draws  rein  before  the  palace  gate, 
He  sees  the  great  doors  rolled  apart, 
The  stairs  that  mount  towards  his  fate. 

Through  casements  open  to  the  night 
Float  sounds  of  laughter,  dance  and  song, 
While  midst  a  blaze  of  splendid  light 
He  sees  the  gay  king  in  the  throng. 

The  warning  that  no  pen  might  trace  .... 
Quick,  quick!     The  words  that  must  be  said! 
The  guard  in  terror  scan  his  face  .... 
Ah  God  !     The  Messenger  is  dead  ! 

ENID  DAUNCEY. 


South  Devon  37 


SOUTH    DEVON 

THE  HOME  OF  THE  ELIZABETHAN  HEROES 

No  county  has  contributed  more  to  the  maritime  history  of 
England  than  the  county  of  Devonshire.  Especially  is  this  true 
of  South  Devon,  steeped  as  it  is  in  traditions  of  the  sea  and 
famous  the  world  over  for  its  "bracing  moors  and  perfumed 
dales." 

The  very  name  of  Devon  instinctively  calls  back  to  memory 
the  brilliant  exploits  of  Francis  Drake,  John  Hawkins,  and 
Martin  Frobisher,  who  saved  this  country  from  a  threatened 
invasion  by  the  Invincible  Armada.  It  was,  too,  from  the  shores 
of  Devon  that  these  sturdy  mariners  and  other  hardy  "  adven- 
turers "  set  out  on  those  early  voyages,  which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  a  greater  Britain  beyond  the  seas.  Many  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  who  sailed  in  the  May /lower  from  Plymouth  in 
1620  and  opened  up  the  New  World  to  colonisation,  were  bred 
on  Devonshire  soil.  Plympton  was  the  birthplace  of  Joshua 
Reynolds,  and  Ottery  St.  Mary  will  ever  be  associated  with  the 
name  of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge. 

But  it  is  not  so  much  for  its  historic  interest  that  South  Devon 
is  famed  to-day  as  for  its  delightful  climate  and  incomparable 
beauty. 

"  Unblemished  as  a  priceless  pearl, 

Stamped  in  dale  and  wood  and  rill, 
Peeping  from  the  water's  whirl 
Cloaking  every  sunny  hill." 

Verily,  indeed,  may  it  be  said  that  to  anyone  seeking  health  and 
pleasure  South  Devon  has  no  rival  in  the  world.  Nor  are  these 
characteristics  limited  to  any  particular  season ;  from  year's  end 
to  year's  end  climate  and  scenery  alike  possess  an  attraction 
which  has  never  failed  to  find  its  counterpart  both  in  prose  and 
in  verse.  To  Buskin  the  shire  of  Devon  is  "  England's  Italy." 
Michael  Drayton  extolled  its  beauties  in  his  Polyolbion,  while 
later  writers  and  artists  innumerable  have  wielded  pen  and  brush 
in  praise  of  its  natural  glories.  Whether  it  be  the  old-world 
surroundings  of  the  coast  towns,  the  wild  picturesqueness  of  the 


38  The  Empire  Review 

tors,  or  the  quaintness  of  the  villages,  each  has  an  interest  of  its 
own,  while  the  more  modern  features  of  the  seaside  resort  are 
forgotten  in  the  beauty  and  freshness  of  the  ever-green  valleys 
that  stretch  in  some  cases  to  the  water's  edge.  Exacting,  indeed, 
must  be  the  traveller  who  cannot  find  a  spot  to  meet  his  fancy 
in  a  county  embracing  within  its  borders  the  mildness  of  Madeira 
and  Monte  Carlo,  and  the  exhilarating  air  of  Yorkshire  and  the 
heather-clad  mountains  of  Scotland. 

To  the  yachtsman  South  Devon  is  a  paradise.  The  seaboard 
is  steep-to,  and  a  vessel  can  lie  close  to  the  shore  in  one  of  the 
many  safe  anchorages,  perhaps  in  some  little  landlocked  cove 
overhung  with  trees,  and  in  water  so  clear  that  the  anchor  and 
chain  can  be  plainly  seen  below.  Some  of  the  rivers  are  navig- 
able for  small  yachts,  while  there  is  hardly  one  that  does  not 
provide  sport  for  the  angler  and  facilities  for  the  boating 
enthusiast.  Of  all  Devonshire  streams  perhaps  the  most  lovely 
is  the  Kiver  Dart,  justly  called  "  the  Ehine  of  England,"  and 
next  to  Cowes  Dartmouth  is  probably  the  most  popular  yachting 
station  on  the  Southern  coast.  The  castle,  on  one  side  of  the 
river,  and  Kingswear  on  the  other,  act  as  sentinels  of  a  well- 
nigh  land-locked  harbour,  bounded  by  verdure-clad  cliffs  some 
300  feet  in  height.  A  trip  up  the  Dart  to  Totnes  by  steamer  or 
boat,  a  run  of  eleven  miles,  allows  a  peep  at  the  sylvan  beauties 
of  South  Devon  at  their  best.  Here,  too,  lies  the  old  training 
ship  Britannia,  now  superseded  by  the  Britannia  Eoyal  Naval 
College. 

To  the  holiday-seeker  South  Devon  offers  a  royal  selection. 
A  visitor  making  Plymouth  the  centre  of  operations  will  find 
a  dozen  places  within  easy  reach  whose  names  are  household 
words  for  their  natural  attractions.  A  well-equipped  rail  service 
takes  one  to  villages  and  towns  of  historic  memory,  while  to 
the  motorist,  travelling  is  equally  agreeable,  for  the  roads  are 
good  and  the  wayside  inns  excellent.  Several  packs  of  hounds 
meet  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  and  golf  links  are  avail- 
able a  few  miles  outside  the  town.  Plymouth  is  also  the  first 
stopping-place  of  the  longest  distance  regular  non-stop  train-run 
in  the  world  (226  miles  by  the  10.30  a.m.  from  Paddington). 

Torquay,  aptly  described  by  Sir  Walter  Besant  as  "  the  most 
lovely  town  in  England,"  may  be  regarded  as  the  capital  of  the 
South  Devon  Eiviera.  Surveying  the  town  from  the  deck  of 
H.M.S.  Bellerophon,  Napoleon  exclaimed :  "  It  is  beautiful.  It 
reminds  me  of  Porte  Ferrajo.  I  should  love  to  live  there !  " 
There  is  nothing  quite  like  Torquay  elsewhere  in  England ;  it 
can  be  matched  only  on  the  French  and  Italian  coasts.  When- 
ever any  sunshine  visits  these  islands  Torquay  is  the  favoured 
spot,  and  no  one  who  has  ever  stayed  there  will  combat  the 


South  Devon  39 

late  Duke  of  Argyll's  testimonial  that  its  sole  industry  is  "  the 
manufacture  of  health." 

Here,  also,  the  sportsman  will  find  his  every  want  supplied. 
In  addition  to  yachting  and  boating,  he  can  hunt  the  fox,  the 
hare  and  the  otter,  fish  in  lake,  river  and  sea,  and  play  golf  to  his 
heart's  content. 

At  Exeter  the  visitor  finds  himself  at  every  turn  face  to  face 
with  the  visible  memorials  of  an  eventful  past.  He  can,  at  will, 
conjure  up  visions  of  the  days  when  Norman  and  Saxon,  Yorkist 
and  Lancastrian,  King  and  Parliament,  struggled  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  "Red  Mound,"  and  he  will  assuredly  find  much  to 
interest  him  in  the  cathedral  which  tells  the  story  of  English 
ecclesiastical  architecture  for  well-nigh  a  thousand  years.  No 
better  centre  for  touring  South  Devon  could  be  found  than 
Exeter.  Space  does  not  permit  of  reference  to  other  well-known 
haunts  of  beauty  such  as  Dawlish,  Teignmouth,  Salcombe,  Kings- 
bridge,  Ashburton,  Newton  Abbot,  Ivybridge,  and  Yelverton, 
while  numerous  lesser  known  spots,  both  on  coast  and  moorland, 
merit  the  attention  of  the  health  seeker  and  the  tourist. 

The  extension  of  coach  and  motor  services  in  several  directions 
has  opened  up  districts  hitherto  unknown,  and  the  inauguration, 
in  1906,  of  the  short  route  from  London,  which  brought 
Taunton  and  places  west  more  than  twenty  miles  nearer  the 
metropolis,  has  done  much  to  increase  the  popularity  of  South 
Devon  from  the  holiday  maker's  point  of  view.  The  hotel 
accommodation  meets  all  requirements  and  all  purses.  Motor 
garages  are  everywhere,  and  the  modest  cyclist  is  in  no  sense 
forgotten. 

The  Great  Western  Kail  way — appropriately  called  "  The 
Holiday  Line" — provides  rapid  and  direct  communication  with 
every  part  of  the  county.  The  tour  may  be  as  long  or  as  short 
as  one  desires,  but  a  sojourn  in  the  "  Shire  of  the  Sea  Kings  " 
once  tried  is  likely  to  be  often  repeated.  Endless  variety  obviates 
the  possibility  of  either  weariness  or  disappointment,  and  the 
pleasure  afforded  by  a  pilgrimage  into  Devonshire  is  appreciably 
enhanced  by  the  ease  and  comfort  in  which  the  traveller  can  pass 
from  one  place  to  another.  Indeed,  too  much  praise  cannot  be 
given  to  the  Great  Western  Company  for  all  that  has  been 
done  in  this  direction.  Truly  it  may  be  said  that  a  holiday  in 
South  Devon  begins  when  one  enters  the  train  at  Paddington. 

TEAVELLEE. 


40  The  Empire  Review 


THE   CHIVALRY   OF  GREATER   BRITAIN 

No  more  magnificent  spectacle  has  ever  been  witnessed  than 
the  gathering,  from  all  quarters  of  the  habitable  globe,  of  the 
overseas  contingents  of  the  British  Army  to  fight  side  by  side 
with  the  men  of  the  Motherland.  The  greatness  and  grandeur 
of  it,  the  wonder  of  it,  have  hardly  yet  made  themselves  fully 
apparent. 

The  welding  into  one  of  the  mightiest  Empire  the  world  has 
ever  known  must  have  come  with  a  shock  of  over-mastering 
surprise  upon  our  enemies,  who,  for  years,  have  been  deluding 
themselves  with  the  fiction  that  the  British  people  were  effete, 
strengthless,  disunited,  incapable  of  rising  to  the  height  of  a 
supreme  occasion.  They  believed  that  a  transformation  had 
taken  place  in  the  English  character,  that,  instead  of  the  fearless 
and  chivalrous  knights  of  olden  days,  there  could  only  be  found 
in  the  England  of  to-day  men  immersed  in  the  pursuit  of  gain, 
and  saturated  with  the  spirit  of  sport  and  pleasure.  In  short, 
the  Kaiser  and  his  military  advisers  promised  themselves  an  easy 
task  in  dealing  with  Great  Britain  after  France  and  Kussia  had 
been  brought  to  their  knees,  England  meantime  looking  on 
supinely  as  a  neutral.  In  their  view  the  British  Empire,  when 
touched  by  the  mighty  engine  the  Germans  had  forged  in  their 
citizen  army,  and  by  the  fleet  they  were  rapidly  bringing  up  to 
the  level  of  our  own,  would  fall  to  pieces  like  a  pack  of  cards. 

These  enemies  of  ours,  who  so  long  wore  the  sheep's  clothing 
of  a  pretended  friendship,  have  made  many  miscalculations,  but 
none  more  ludicrously  unfounded  than  this.  The  supposed  pack 
of  cards  has  proved  itself  a  carefully  constructed  building,  the 
component  parts  of  which  fit  together  with  an  exactness  which 
frames  them  into  an  edifice  strong  enough  to  stand  foursquare  to 
all  the  winds  of  heaven,  and,  when  foes  assault  it,  to  answer  to 
the  description  of  England's  great  dramatist : 

"  Come  the  three  corners  of  the  world  in  arms, 
And  we  shall  shock  them.     Nought  shall  make  us  rue 
If  England  to  itself  do  rest  but  true." 


The  Chivalry  of  Greater  Britain  41 

True  to  herself  she  has  been,  and  true  to  her  has  proved  that 
Greater  Britain  which,  since  Shakespeare's  day,  has  arisen  to 
astonish  an  admiring  world.  Its  response  to  her  call  has  been 
immediate.  Each  separate  portion  of  her  widely  extended 
dominions  has  vied  with  the  others  in  an  eager  desire  to  help. 
At  the  first  breath  of  danger  to  the  Homeland  these  stalwart 
sons  of  an  age-old  mother  have  gathered  in  her  defence.  Their 
coming,  as  Sir  Clement  Kinloch-Cooke  aptly  points  out  in  his 
New  Year's  message  to  the  Daily  Graphic,  "  is  a  triumph  for  the 
British  ideas  of  freedom,  justice,  and  honour — virtues  that  can 
never  fail  to  place  the  British  flag  first  among  the  nations  of  the 
world." 

Writing  in  "  King  Albert's  Book,"  Lord  Rosebery  says : 
"  War  is  a  ruthless  devouring  monster  at  best.  But  there  is 
chivalrous  war,  and  there  is  devilish  war,  and  the  devastation  of 
innocent  Belgium  will  long  subsist  as  the  capital  example  of  the 
devilish."  As  surely  as  this  is  the  case,  so  surely  is  it  certain 
that  the  coming  of  the  overseas  contingents  of  our  Army  from 
afar  has  in  it  much  of  that  chivalrous  spirit  which,  in  war,  has 
always  been  the  animating  principle  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race. 
How  otherwise  than  by  the  urging  of  such  a  lofty  sentiment  as 
this  would  men  be  found,  at  the  gathering  cry,  to  leave  so  readily 
their  homes,  whether  in  the  frost-bound  regions  of  snow  and  ice, 
or  in  lands  which  Nature  has  dowered  with  her  richest  gifts  of 
vegetation,  or  in  those  other  portions  of  the  globe  whose  climatic 
conditions  differ  as  widely  as  do  the  characteristics  of  their 
inhabitants. 

Doubtless  they  are  moved  also  by  the  recognition  of  the 
certainty  that,  were  the  Motherland  crushed,  they,  as  component 
parts  of  the  British  Empire,  would  fall  under  the  heel  of  the 
tyrannical  power  which  seeks  to  bestride  the  whole  earth  like  a 
Colossus.  But  assuredly  they  are  animated  by  those  finer 
instincts  to  which  reference  has  been  made :  they  come  to 
support  "  the  British  ideas  of  freedom,  justice,  and  honour." 

Freedom  !  They  are  its  most  fitting  exponents ;  for,  as  it  has 
been  said :  "  The  pulse  of  freedom  throbs  through  every  vein  of 
the  British  Empire."  And  the  freedom,  not  of  that  Empire  alone, 
but  of  the  whole  world  is  menaced.  Greater  Britain  is  showing, 
in  the  sight  of  all,  that  Brotherhood  of  Empire  which  is  so 
essential,  by  sending  its  sons  to  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  with 
the  troops  of  the  old  country  itself  and  its  allies  "  for  the  freedom 
of  the  world."  *  For,  did  but  the  Teutons  gain  the  world- 
domination  they  seek,  the  knell  of  liberty  would  be  rung. 

Justice  !  "  Be  just  and  fear  not,"  is  the  Briton's  motto. 
But  no  justice  can  be  expected  from  men  who  set  before 

*  See  Daily  Graphic. 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  169.  E 


42  The  Empire  Review 

themselves  as  their  one  object  the  aggrandisement  of  their  own 
State  at  the  cost  of  others,  and  are  ready  to  "  hack  through  "  all 
obstacles,  regardless  of  uprightness  and  good  faith. 

Honour !  The  keeping  of  Great  Britain's  plighted  word  to 
Belgium  was  the  determining  cause  which  brought  this  country 
into  the  war,  our  Teutonic  opponents  holding  themselves  at 
liberty,  as  Treitschke  argued,  with  a  casuistry  as  subtle  as  it  is 
unconvincing,  to  make  treaties  with  a  mental  reservation  that 
they  should  be  binding  only  so  long  as  they  themselves  do  not,  in 
what  they  consider  the  interest  of  their  Fatherland,  desire  to 
break  them.  It  is  this  amazing  disregard  of  the  moral  law  that 
has  ranged  against  Germany,  not  Britain  and  her  Allies  alone, 
but  the  conscience  of  the  civilised  world. 

It  is  to  uphold  such  noble  principles  as  these  that  Greater 
Britain  is  ready  to  support  the  Homeland.  And  this  readiness 
has  shown  once  for  all  that  the  British  Empire  has  achieved  its 
purpose.  It  is  held  together  by  the  loosest  of  bonds,  yet  these 
bonds  have  proved  of  a  strength  which  suffices  to  draw  all  its 
children  together  in  time  of  need.  Even  critics,  inclined  perhaps 
to  be  captious,  are  compelled  to  admit,  as  a  St.  Louis,  U.S.A., 
journal  does,  "  that  there  is  not  at  the  present  moment  any 
more  effective  institution  in  the  whole  world  of  political  fabrics 
than  the  British  Empire."  The  same  journal  goes  on  to  say : — 

The  fact  cannot  be  gainsaid  that  England  ....  has  the  knack  of  making 
men  step  out  of  their  own  free  will  to  die  in  her  defence.  She  has  the  gift  of 
keeping  alive,  across  tumbling  seas,  round  half  a  world,  the  undying  bond 
that  unites  the  heart  to  home.  She  has  shown  herself  indifferent  to  the 
possession  of  taxing  power  over  her  colonies,  but  what  matters  it?  Those 
colonies  willingly  tax  themselves  to  send  her  warships,  and  their  sons  seize 
their  rifles  in  time  of  strife  to  go  to  her  aid.  She  has  the  wisdom  so  to  train 
the  swarthy  children  of  alien  races,  and  even  the  foes  of  yester-year,  that 
they  put  their  living  bodies  between  England  and  England's  enemies.  .  .  . 
England's  practice  of  government  lays  hold  on  the  deepest  things  in  the  soul 
of  Man. 

This  it  is  which  has  given  us  that  magnificent  spectacle  of 
the] gathering  of  Greater  Britain  at  the  call  of 'the  Old  Country. 
Such  a  sight  may  well  silence  the  pessimism  of  any  who  doubted 
our  power  to  meet  adequately  the  stress  of  a  great  war.  England 
herself  has  risen  grandly  to  the  occasion.  It  was  an  American 
poet,  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich,  who  foretold  what  has  actually 
happened,  when  he  wrote : — 

"  While  men  pay  reverence  to  mighty  things, 
They  must  revere  thee,  thou  blue-cinctured  Isle 
Of  England — not  to-day,  but  this  long  while 
In  the  fore-front  of  nations.  .  .  . 

Secure,  with  august  smile 
Thou  sittest,  and  the  East  its  tribute  brings. 


The  Chivalry  of  Greater  Britain  43 

Some  say  thy  old-time  power  is  on  the  wane, 
Thy  moon  of  grandeur  filled,  contracts  at  length — 
They  see  it  darkening  down  from  less  to  less. 
Let  but  a  hostile  band  make  threat  again, 
And  they  shall  see  thee  in  thine  ancient  strength, 
Each  iron  sinew  quivering,  lioness  ! " 

Truly,  we,  who  have  seen  the  lioness  roused  by  the  Teutonic 
menace,  may  well  say  with  Whittier,  "  Life  greatens  in  these 
later  years,"  for  not  only  have  our  overseas  Dominions  astonished 
the  world,  but  the  Mother  Country  has  amazed  it  still  more, 
since,  immediately  the  greatness  of  the  peril  was  realised,  the 
voice  of  domestic  contention — at  that  moment  perilously  acute — 
was  hushed,  "  and  thoughts  of  difference  passed  like  dreams 
away." 

All  that  has  supervened  has  but  strengthened  the  determina- 
tion of  Britain,  stern  as  the  fight  is,  sadly  marked  as  is  this  fearful 
war  by  the  loss  of  dear  and  valued  lives,  to  hold  on  firmly  to  the 
end.  Such  is  the  fixed  resolve  of  home-born  Britons,  of  our 
kindred  who  dwell  beyond  the  seas,  and,  in  an  especial  sense,  of 
every  one  who  fights  under  Great  Britain's  banner,  one  and  all, 
inspired  by  the  noble  cause  they  support,  and  animated  by  the 
true  heroic  spirit,  declare : — 

"  We  must  behold  110  object  save  our  country, 
And  only  look  on  death  as  beautiful 
So  that  the  sacrifice  ascend  to  heaven 
And  draw  down  freedom  on  her  evermore." 

BOBBY  F.  ELDBIDGE 


FARM    LABOUR-SAVING    MACHINERY 

The  introduction  of  machinery  in  Ontario  has  revolutionised 
farm  labour  and  has  been  of  great  economic  value.  Production 
has  been  considerably  increased.  There  are  ploughs  and  harrows 
and  cultivators  on  which  the  farmer  sits  while  driving.  The 
modern  reaping  machine  cuts  and  binds  the  harvest  crop  of  grain 
admirably.  The  threshing  machine  makes  the  grain  ready  for 
market  as  fast  as  two  men  can  fork  the  sheaves.  Then  there  are 
other  labour-savers  such  as  the  mowing  machine  for  hay,  a  rake 
for  throwing  it  into  continuous  windrows,  a  hay  loader  and 
a  machine  for  unloading  hay  into  the  barn.  There  is  also  the 
wonderful  sheaf  loader,  the  steel  frame  windmill  for  pumping 
water,  chopping  food  for  stock,  the  Indian  corn  shredder,  and 
the  swift  cream  separator ;  and,  finally,  electric  machinery,  the 
value  of  which  has  been  demonstrated  on  a  number  of  farms,  is 
rapidly  coming  into  use. 


44  The  Empire  Review 


WE   ARE   COMING   AT   OUR   EMPIRE'S   CALL 

A  PATRIOTIC   SONG 
(To  the  tune  of 'We  are  coming,  Father  Abraham.") 

WE  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more, 
From  Scotland's  glens  and  heath-clad  hills 

And  from  old  Ireland's  shore, 
From  England's  peaceful  verdant  plains 

And  Wales's  rugged  land ; 
We  are  ready,  we  are  coming 

At  duty's  stern  command. 
We'll  fight  for  home  and  country, 

As  our  fathers  fought  before. 
We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more. 

Chorus. 
We  are  coming,  we  are  coming, 

As  our  fathers  came  before ; 
We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more. 

We  leave  our  homes,  our  friends,  our  work, 

Our  city  street  or  farm; 
Our  nearest  and  our  dearest 

We  leave  at  war's  alarm. 
Those  left  behind  are  dull  and  sad 

In  cottage  and  in  hall ; 
But  neither  we  nor  they  regret 

We've  answered  duty's  call. 
We'll  rally  to  our  battle  flag, 

All  steadfast  to  the  core. 
We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more. 

Chorus. 
We  are  coming,  we  are  coming, 

As  our  fathers  came  before; 
We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more. 


We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  Call  45 

And  far  across  the  oceans, 

In  British  freedom's  lands, 
We're  getting  quickly  ready, 

We're  gathering  into  bands. 
From  hills  where  pines  are  waving, 

From  where  the  palm  tree  grows, 
From  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 

From  where  the  Ganges  flows, 
From  'neath  Australian  gum-trees 

And  from  New  Zealand's  shore 
We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more. 

Chorus. 
We  are  coming,  we  are  coming, 

From  every  ocean's  shore ; 
We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more. 

We're  called,  and  we  are  coming  ; 

As  brothers  all  we  feel. 
We  never  will  be  wanting; 

We  will  be  true  as  steel. 
We'll  hold  the  flag  for  freedom, 

For  honour  and  for  right. 
We'll  guard  our  Empire's  hearths  and  homes ; 

For  what  we  love  we'll  fight. 
Together  we  will  stand  or  fall 

Till  freedom's  fight  is  o'er. 
We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more. 

Chorus. 
We  are  coming,  we  are  coming, 

From  every  ocean's  shore; 
We  are  coming  at  our  Empire's  call, 

Ten  hundred  thousand  more. 

JOHN  JOHNSTON. 


46  The  Empire  Review 


SIDELIGHTS    ON    COLONIAL    LIFE 

Supply  of  Paper. 

The  Canadian  mills  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  for 
the  purpose  of  newspaper  printing  are  experiencing  a  greatly 
increased  demand  for  their  products.  These  paper  companies  are 
inundated  with  inquiries  and  demands  to  such  an  extent  that  new 
mills  are  being  discussed  by  pulp  and  paper  manufacturers.  The 
export  business,  particularly,  has  been  subjected  to  a  remarkable 
stimulation.  Under  normal  circumstances  Canada  produces 
about  1,600  tons  of  news  print  paper  per  day,  of  which  400  tons 
are  used  in  the  Dominion.  The  balance  of  1,200  tons  is  exported. 
The  extent  to  which  Canadian  mills  can  assist  in  maintaining  the 
world's  production  of  paper  since  Continental  supplies  have  been 
partially  cut  off  is  not  difficult  to  estimate.  There  is  a  natural 
hesitancy  in  regard  to  the  erection  of  new  mills,  since  immediately 
the  European  war  terminates  conditions  will  change.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  a  recognised  fact  that  once  trade  has  been 
diverted  from  any  avenue,  it  is  difficult  to  recover. 

Ontario's  Cheese  Output. 

In  this  country  it  is  not  generally  understood  how  great 
is  the  production  of  cheese  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  In 
Ontario  alone,  where  considerably  over  half  the  cheese  of 
Canada  is  made,  about  130,000,000  Ibs.  is  the  annual  production. 
In  this  province  cheese,  and  to  a  less  extent  butter,  are 
manufactured  under  the  co-operative  or  factory  system.  The 
factories  are,  for  the  most  part,  managed  by  men  trained  in 
dairy  schools,  and  all  are  directed  by  Government  instructors. 
They  are  established  nearly  everywhere  in  the  province. 
Material  improvement  has  been  made  in  recent  years  in 
appliances  and  sanitary  conditions.  Eecent  legislation  re- 
quiring registration  of  cheese  factories  and  the  taking  out  of 
certificates  by  makers  has  led  to  greater  care  in  the  factory  and 
higher  efficiency  in  the  work.  Permanent  certificates  have  been 


Sidelights  on  Colonial  Life  47 

granted  only  to  makers  of  marked  capability,  while  one  year 
certificates  are  granted  to  others.  The  cheese  is  exported  chiefly 
to  the  British  Isles. 

The  Yukon  Gold  Mines. 

Although  Canada  includes  within  its  area  some  very  high 
latitudes,  a  vast  proportion  of  its  territory  is  in  the  latitudes 
inhabited  by  the  most  populous,  progressive  and  wealthy 
nations  of  Europe  and  of  the  world.  But  its  high  latitudes 
are  not,  by  any  means,  the  least  valuable  portion  of  its  area. 
The  gold  mines  of  the  Yukon,  within  a  few  miles  of  the 
Arctic  Circle,  have  produced  twenty  million  sterling  in  gold 
within  the  past  ten  years,  and  are  expected  to  produce  as  much 
more  within  the  next  decade. 

India  and  Canada. 

A  member  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  under  the 
Government  of  India  who  recently  visited  Canada,  stated  that 
India  offers  a  field  of  almost  unparalleled  opportunity  for  the 
Canadian  manufacturer.  In  view  of  the  rapid  agricultural 
development  of  that  country,  implements  of  all  kinds  are  very 
much  in  demand,  while  Canada  has  still  another  opportunity  in 
the  matter  of  small  wares,  which  have  hitherto  been  imported  to 
India  from  Germany  and  Austria  on  a  large  scale. 

South  African  Meat. 

Interesting  figures  with  regard  to  the  prices  likely  to  be 
fetched  in  London  markets  by  chilled  or  frozen  meat  sent  from 
South  Africa  were  given  at  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Natal 
Co-operative  Society.  The  meeting  was  in  favour  of  Natal  taking 
a  lead  in  the  meat  export  trade,  and  seemed  hopeful  of  making  a 
beginning  in  the  coming  season. 

Western  Canada. 

The  attractions  and  possibilities  of  Western  Canada  are  at 
length  becoming  fairly  well  realised  in  this  country,  but  to 
nothing  like  the  extent  that  they  are  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  as  is  shown  by  the  large  number  of  American  farmers 
who  are  selling  their  land  south  of  the  international  boundary 
and  crossing  over  into  British  territory.  An  American  syndicate 
recently  acquired  10,000  acres  north  of  Bassano,  Alberta,  for  the 
purpose  of  engaging  there  in  mixed  farming,  cattle  and  hogs  to 
receive  a  large  share  of  attention. 


48  The  Empire  Review 

A  Magnificent  Playground. 

Three  hundred  miles  north  of  Toronto,  nestling  in  the  midst 
of  the  everlasting  green  of  the  Temagami  Forest  Eeserve,  lies 
Lake  Temagami,  the  last  word  in  summer  playgrounds. 
Hundreds  of  miles  of  water,  clear  as  crystal,  air  laden  with 
balsamic  odours  and  green  receding  hillsides  make  Temagami  an 
ideal  resting  place  for  the  denizens  of  Ontario  cities.  It  is 
reached  from  Toronto  by  the  Cobalt  Special  running  over  the 
Grand  Trunk  and  Temiskaming  and  Northern  Ontario  lines.  If 
forty  days  were  spent  each  year  in  visiting  four  of  Temagami's 
beautiful  islands  each  day,  it  would  take  ten  succeeding  years  to 
visit  once  each  of  her  1,600  isles  and  islets.  If  the  3,000  miles  of 
the  shore  line  of  this  marvellous  lake  were  explored,  it  would 
result  in  a  canoe  trip  equal  to  the  distance  from  Halifax  to 
Vancouver,  and  some  200  miles  out  into  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
And  this  is  Ontario's  heritage ;  this  lake  which  ten  years  ago 
was  scarcely  marked  on  a  Government  map,  and  absolutely 
unknown  except  to  the  Indian,  the  trapper  and  Hudson  Bay 
trader. 

Experimental  Farms. 

Manitoba  now  produces  its  own  alfalfa  seed.  The  first 
threshing  of  this  product  took  place  recently  on  the  Government 
demonstration  farm  at  Neepawa.  About  six  acres  of  the  first 
crop  of  alfalfa  were  threshed,  and  from  this  field  twenty-five  and 
a  half  bushels  (1,535  Ibs.)  of  clean  seed  were  obtained,  the  quality 
being  of  an  exceptionally  high  nature.  The  seed  was  the  well- 
known  Grimm's  variety  and  was  sown  in  rows  three  feet  apart, 
and  so  thoroughly  cultivated  by  machine  as  well  as  by  hand  that 
all  weeds  were  exterminated.  The  wisdom  of  the  policy  of 
agricultural  education  laid  down  by  the  Department  at  Ottawa 
is  constantly  being  confirmed,  this  experiment  in  alfalfa  having 
been  made  possible  by  the  Dominion  Government  grant  for  the 
purpose. 


lit 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL    OF    BRITISH    TRADE 


VOL.  XXIX.  MARCH,   1915.  No.   170. 


THE    MORAL    FACTOR    IN   WARFARE 

IN  the  history  of  civilisation  moral  issues  have  always  exerted 
a  deep  influence.  Even  in  the  darkest  era  of  the  Middle  Ages 
spiritual  beauty  always  commanded  not  only  attention  and 
respect,  but  even  genuine  reverence,  and  the  harsh  code  of  the 
feudal  baron  was  softened  by  the  institution  of  chivalry,  and  was 
governed  in  theory,  but  frequently  not  in  practice,  by  the 
principle  of  mutual  obligations — the  principle  of  the  compact. 
Society  in  fact  is  only  possible  on  such  an  assumption,  and  there- 
fore in  proportion  as  the  observance  of  this  principle  is  secured, 
civilisation  advances.  Thus,  the  history  of  progress  is  the  history 
of  the  suppression  of  lawless  anarchy — of  conversion  from  the 
the  state  in  which  man  individually  and  nationally  is  a  law  unto 
himself  to  the  state  in  which  he  acknowledges  and  performs  his 
duty  to  his  neighbour.  The  idea  of  reciprocity  is  the  foundation 
of  human  liberty,  and  forms  the  basic  distinction  between 
civilised  man  and  the  savage. 

Now  the  supremacy  of  this  truth  has  only  been  won  after 
centuries  of  strife  and  turmoil,  but  it  has  hitherto  formed  the 
groundwork  of  modern  European  international  relations,  and  has 
moreover  in  the  most  enlightened  nations  been  directly  respon- 
sible for  the  triumph  of  toleration,  for  toleration  is  impossible  save 
under  a  polity  which  recognises  the  ideal  of  the  compact.  Thus 
the  whole  structure  of  modern  life,  individual  and  social,  depends 
upon  this  great  central  principle. 

The  whole  conception  of  society  is  therefore  at  issue  in  the 
present  war.  For  Germany  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia  is 
attempting  a  reversion  to  the  practices  of  barbarism.  In  the  first 
VOL.  XXIX. -No.  170.  F 


50  The  Empire  Review 

instance,  her  action  is  a  denial  of  the  validity  of  the  compact.  A 
treaty  is  "  a  mere  scrap  of  paper,"  and  can  therefore  be  ignored  if 
it  is  inconvenient  to  observe  it.  There  is  no  such  thing  as 
honour  and  good  faith  in  international  statecraft.  A  treaty 
signed  to-day  may,  if  circumstances  seem  to  be  favourable,  be 
repudiated  to-morrow.  Such  a  doctrine  if  victorious  must  not 
only  upset  the  stability  of  European  intercourse  but  must  plunge 
the  world  back  into  barbarism,  for  it  implies,  and  indeed  asserts, 
that  force  is  the  only  guarantee. 

And  secondly,  Germany  is  seeking  to  overthrow  toleration. 
Power  is  the  highest  ideal  of  the  State.  To  achieve  and  to  in- 
crease power  is  the  greatest  of  moral  duties,  and  for  this  purpose 
any  and  every  means  is  justifiable.  Why?  To  extend  the 
empire  of  Teutonic  "  Kultur  "  ;  to  enforce  this  inestimable  bless- 
ing on  as  large  an  area  of  the  globe  as  possible.  Germany 
possesses  a  virility  superior  to  that  of  any  other  nation.  She  is 
the  home  of  a  peculiar  and  transcendent  intellectual  leadership. 
No  other  people  can  boast  of  similar  learning  and  wisdom. 
Therefore  she  is  entitled  to  claim  world  supremacy,  and  to  use 
that  supremacy  for  the  propagation  of  her  ideals.  The  other 
nations  of  the  earth  must  become  German  in  thought,  in  aspira- 
tion, and  in  outlook.  It  is  her  bounden  duty  not  only  to  herself 
but  to  humanity  to  see  that  this  noble  object  is  attained. 

Germany  therefore  wishes  to  crush  toleration.  Individuality 
other  than  Teutonic  must  vanish.  These  inferior  national 
achievements  and  ideals  of  other  countries  must  give  place  to  the 
superior  Prussian  virtues.  For  this  reason  is  the  plea  of  the 
"  scrap  of  paper  "  advanced.  Force  is  supreme,  we  are  told,  but 
is  merely  a  means  to  an  end.  When  the  revolting  nations  have 
been  battered  and  tortured  into  submission  to  the  all-wise  decrees 
of  the  "  All-Highest,"  then  will  the  reign  of  perfect  blessedness 
descend  upon  the  earth,  and  the  benignity  of  the  one  true 
"  Kultur  "  will  shine  forth  upon  a  renovated  and  redeemed  world. 

This  insufferable  nonsense  has  been  instilled  in  season  and 
out  of  season  for  a  generation  past  into  the  German  people  by  the 
pestilential  school  of  Treitschke  and  Bernhardi  until  the  whole 
nation  has  been  rendered  as  mad  as  was  France  under  the  Terror. 
And  of  the  two,  I  think  the  madness  of  the  Jacobins  was  a  nobler 
thing — it  did  inscribe  on  its  banners  the  uplifting  motto  of 
"  Liberty,  Equality  and  Fraternity  "  :  a  motto  which  it  earnestly, 
though  in  mistaken  fashion,  sought  to  realise ;  and  it  had  been 
provoked  by  intolerable  wrongs.  The  madness  of  the  Prussian, 
on  the  contrary,  has  not  been  so  provoked,  and  it  has  no  great 
ideal,  in  the  true  sense,  as  inspiration.  It  is  merely  the  outcome 
of  brutal  selfishness ;  the  product  of  overweening  pride  and  self- 
complacency.  Prussia  is  suffering  from  an  excess  of  material 


The  Moral  Factor  in  Warfare  51 

prosperity,  so  rapidly  achieved  as  to  upset  her  mental  and 
spiritual  balance.  Under  the  imposing  veneer  of  "Kultur"  lies 
the  hideous  reality  of  self-worship.  We  have  been  witnessing 
the  results. 

For  the  horrible  atrocities  which  have  disgraced  the  German 
name  in  Belgium  are  the  direct  fruit  of  this  creed.  In  the 
modern  history  of  all  European  nations  there  have  been  isolated 
instances  of  ruthless  sack  and  pillage  in  warfare,  but  these  in  the 
past  have  been  the  excesses  of  troops  demoralised  by  defeat — of 
troops  which  have  temporarily  got  out  of  hand.  Never  before 
has  a  great  nation,  professedly  civilised,  emblazoned  on  its 
standards  the  legend  of  "  frightfulness  "  ;  never  before  has  such  a 
legend  been  employed  cynically  and  completely  by  such  a  nation 
as  one  of  the  powerful  weapons  of  legitimate  warfare.  Belgium 
has  been  devastated  and  her  people  outraged  and  tortured  and 
slain  with  a  devilish  minuteness  and  consistency  which  has  only 
been  equalled  in  modern  times  by  "the  unspeakable  Turk." 
Many  of  these  terrible  offences  have  been  the  work  of  irrespon- 
sible and  demoralised  soldiery,  but  it  seems  only  too  true  that 
much  of  the  work  has  been  perpetrated  at  the  direct  instigation 
of  senior  officers,  and  is  the  outcome  of  a  calculated  policy 
devised  by  the  German  authorities.  Taking  into  account  excesses 
due  to  demoralisation  and  to  a  mad  spirit  of  hatred  and  revenge, 
there  still  remains  an  awful  tale  of  woe  inflicted  upon  the 
innocent  inhabitants  of  a  small  and  peaceful  State  as  an  aid  to 
"Kultur."  The  belligerent  nations  are  to  be  terrorised  into 
submission.  Outrage  is  a  necessary  ally  to  force,  and  the  most 
brutal  instruments  are  perfectly  justifiable  in  order  to  win 
Teutonic  ascendency.  All  means,  however  contemptible,  how- 
ever savage,  however  heathenish,  are  to  be  employed  to  gain  a 
triumph  for  German  arms,  and  to  impose  the  "  blessings  "  of  the 
German  spirit  upon  mankind.  To  such  a  despicable  and  revolting 
pass  have  the  iron  tenets  of  militarism  brought  a  people  once 
respected  and  admired  for  their  contributions  to  piety  and 
learning. 

These,  in  brief,  are  the  issues  involved  in  the  present  struggle. 
The  Allies,  it  is  true,  are  fighting  for  their  very  existence,  but 
they  are  also  fighting  the  battle  of  civilisation.  They  are  fighting 
for  the  sanctity  of  the  compact,  for  the  elemental  rights  of  small 
nations — above  all,  in  my  judgment,  to  crush  and  to  tread  finally 
under  foot  that  arrogant  spirit  of  militarism,  which  under  the 
hideous  hypocrisy  of  "  Kultur,"  has  been  the  bane  and  the  curse 
of  Europe  for  a  generation  past,  and  which  has  been  directly 
responsible  for  the  horrible  atrocities  in  Belgium. 

Accordingly,  this  is  essentially  a  conflict  of  ideals.  It  is  not 
surprising,  therefore,  to  find  amongst  the  allied  peoples  a 


52  The  Empire  Review 

unanimity  and  a  moral  earnestness  which  is  not  often  to  be 
observed  in  warfare.  It  will,  I  think,  be  of  interest  to  examine 
the  nature  and  the  influence  of  the  moral  factor. 

In  all  military  history  we  find  moral  forces  playing  a  very 
prominent  part.  Thus,  in  the  Middle  Ages  courage  and  endurance 
was  provoked  amongst  both  combatants  in  the  Wars  of  the 
Crusades  by  the  religious  issue.  Nowadays  we  stigmatise  those 
wars  as  the  product  of  bigotry  and  superstition,  but  apart  from 
the  material  benefits  they  conferred  upon  civilisation — for 
example,  the  extension  of  commerce  and  the  growing  knowledge 
of  the  refinement  and  the  learning  of  the  East — there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  in  the  earlier  period  (and  to  a  lesser  degree, 
throughout)  they  strengthened  the  religious  convictions  of 
Christendom,  and  led  to  a  deeper  nobility  of  life  and  character. 
The  warriors  were  fortified  by  a  genuine  religious  ideal — albeit  a 
mistaken  one — and  earnest  piety  gained  in  consequence. 

But  the  richest  examples  are  to  be  obtained 'from  the  terrible 
religious  wars  and  persecutions  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  Catholic  and  Protestant  alike  lived  in  a  higher  world 
throughout  those  stormy  times.  It  was  the  militant  shock  of  the 
Reformation  which  effected  in  a  few  years  the  aspirations  of 
centuries — the  genuine  reform  in  the  life  and  practice  of  the 
Catholic  priesthood  and  episcopacy.  A  direct  assault  upon  the 
principles  of  the  faith  stung  the  hierarchy  into  renewed  youth 
and  vigour.  The  annals  of  those  two  centuries  are  stained  with 
the  mutual  bigotry  and  oppression  of  the  two  combatants.  Now 
Protestant,  now  Catholic  endured  ruin  and  torture  and  death  for 
conscience  sake,  and  proved  by  their  sufferings  not  only  the 
support  to  be  derived  from  spiritual  ideals,  but  also  the  uncon- 
querable nature  of  those  ideals.  Scourged  by  fire  and  sword  and 
famine  they  still  clung  tenaciously  to  the  lands  in  which  they  had 
taken  root.  Not  all  the  might  of  Spain  and  the  ferocious  cruelty 
of  Alva  could  stamp  out  Protestantism  from  the  narrow  confines 
of  the  Netherlands.  And  the  persistent  and  brutal  policy  of  two 
centuries  signally  failed  to  crush  Catholicism  in  Ireland.  A  war 
of  moral  ideals  is  frequently  the  most  terrible  of  wars,  but  the 
people  who  in  such  a  struggle  rest  calm  and  strong  in  the  absolute 
certainty  of  the  righteousness  of  their  cause  can  never  be  conquered . 
They  may  be  beaten  down,  but  they  will  rise  again,  and  they  will 
eventually  triumph.  In  a  contest  between  ideals  the  nobler 
comes  out  the  victor. 

And  this  same  moral  earnestness  as  a  help  in  warfare  has  been 
shown  over  and  over  again  in  the  history  of  many  of  our  greatest 
commanders.  The  spirit  which  imbued  Lord  Nelson  and  his 
fleet — the  spirit  so  nobly  expressed  in  his  last  prayer  before 
Trafalgar — has  repeatedly  in  the  past  animated  and  encouraged 


The  Moral  Factor  in  Warfare  53 

our  seamen   and  soldiers.     It  was   the   spirit  which  is   to-day 
guiding  our  brave  men  on  land  and  sea  in  their  grim  struggle. 

May  the  great  God  whom  I  worship  grant  to  my  country,  and  for  the 
benefit  of  Europe  in  general,  a  great  and  glorious  victory,  and  may  no 
misconduct  in  anyone  tarnish  it,  and  may  humanity  after  victory  be  the 
predominant  feature  in  the  British  fleet !  For  myself  individually,  I 
commit  my  life  to  Him  that  made  me,  and  may  His  blessing  alight  on 
my  endeavours  for  serving  my  country  faithfully !  To  Him  I  resign 
myself,  and  the  just  cause  which  is  entrusted  to  me  to  defend.  Amen, 
Amen,  Amen. 

That  is  the  spirit  which  has  been  our  inspiration  on  many  a 
stricken  field  ;  that  is  the  spirit  which  sustained  in  so  eminent  a 
degree  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  which  was  the  dominant  charac- 
teristic of  John  Nicholson,  which  actuated  General  Gordon,  which 
was  the  outstanding  feature  of  Lord  Roberts'  long  and  noble  life. 
It  is  an  unconquerable  spirit,  and  the  man  or  the  nation  which 
possesses  it  in  deep  sincerity  cannot  die. 

To  many  of  us  the  strength  begotten  of  this  spirit  has  been 
revealed  during  the  past  few  months.  As  we  read  Sir  John 
French's  vivid  despatches  on  the  terrible  retreat  from  Mons  to  the 
Marne  in  August  last,  and  on  the  deadly  conflict  around  Ypres  in 
October-November,  as  we  realised  the  overwhelming  nature  of 
the  odds  against  our  troops,  a  conviction  came  to  us  that  officers 
and  men  alike  had  been  fortified  and  strengthened  by  Divine 
guidance  and  Divine  aid.  No  other  explanation  seemed 
adequate. 

In  all  times  of  stress  and  peril  this  spiritual  element  in 
warfare  has  been  reinforced  and  expressed  by  literature,  by 
oratory,  and  by  song.  These  agencies  at  such  times  have  always 
played  a  deeply  important  part.  They  have  encouraged  and 
inspired  not  only  the  warriors  in  the  battle  line,  but  the  civil 
population  at  home.  They  have  been  one  of  the  greatest 
incentives  to  the  resolute  performance  of  duty  whether  in  the 
field  or  by  the  hearth. 

Chief  amongst  these  uplifting  factors  must  of  course  be  placed 
the  Bible.  Generation  after  generation  of  men  have  derived 
comfort,  and  strength,  and  courage  from  its  pages.  To  our  own 
country  it  has  been  a  sure  defence  and  shield  throughout  the 
centuries — a  noble  inspiration.  Most  especially  can  this  be  said 
of  the  Book  of  Psalms.  Its  grand  and  stately  music  has  thrilled 
and  nerved  not  only  the  individual  but  the  people.  Prayer  and 
intercession,  calm  assurance  in  Divine  help  and  in  Divine  mercy, 
praise  and  thankfulness — all  the  various  emotions  and  aspirations 
of  mankind  in  times  of  danger  and  of  succeeding  prosperity  are 
expressed  with  a  beauty  and  richness  of  language  which  appeals 
especially  in  a  period  of  anxiety,  of  sorrow,  and  of  great  national 


54  The  Empire  Review 

necessity.     What   strength   has   come,   for   example,    from    the 
simple  though  majestic  words  of  the  46th  Psalm. 

God  is  our  refuge  and  strength,  a  very  present  help  in  trouble. 
Therefore  will  not  we  fear,  though  the  earth  be  removed,  and  though  the 
mountains  be  carried  into  the  midst  of  the  sea;  though  the  waters 
thereof  roar  and  be  troubled,  though  the  mountains  shake  with  the 
swelling  thereof. 

Or  from  the  opening  words  of  the  18th  Psalm, 

The  Lord  is  my  rock  and  my  fortress,  and  my  deliverer ;  my  God,  my 
strength,  in  whom  I  will  trust ;  my  buckler,  and  the  horn  of  my 
salvation,  and  my  high  tower. 

Or  from  the  beautiful  lines  of  the  90th  Psalm, 

Lord,  Thou  hast  been  our  dwelling-place  in  all  generations.  Before 
the  mountains  were  brought  forth,  or  ever  Thou  hadst  formed  the  earth 
and  the  world,  even  from  everlasting  to  everlasting,  Thou  art  God. 

Again,  what  a  rallying  cry  in  a  righteous  cause  have  been 
the  verses  of  the  68th  Psalm, 

Let  God  arise,  let  His  enemies  be  scattered  ;  let  them  also  that  hate 
Him  flee  before  Him ! 

And  finally  we  have  the  spirit  of  national  thanksgiving  in  the 
124th  Psalm  :— 

If  it  had  not  been  the  Lord  who  was  on  our  side,  now  may  Israel  say ; 
if  it  had  not  been  the  Lord  who  was  on  our  side,  when  men  rose  up 
against  us  :  then  they  had  swallowed  us  up  quick,  when  their  wrath  was 
kindled  against  us  :  then  the  waters  had  overwhelmed  us,  the  stream  had 
gone  over  our  soul ;  then  the  proud  waters  had  gone  over  our  soul. 

We  have  all  admired  the  beauty  and  the  grandeur  of  these 
and  similar  passages,  but  in  calmer  years  for  many  of  us  they 
have  not  seemed  to  possess  any  very  special  significance.  They 
have  aroused  our  interest  and  our  delight  on  account  of  their 
literary  perfection,  but  they  have  seemed  merely  the  stately  relics 
of  a  past  age.  That  is  not  so  to-day.  The  old  words  have 
become  possessed  of  a  new  and  vivid  meaning,  and  we  can  in  a 
measure  appreciate  the  fervour  they  aroused  in  our  Puritan 
forefathers. 

And  so  it  is  with  many  of  our  hymns.  Most  especially  so, 
perhaps,  with  that  grand  old  Lutheran  hymn,  so  nobly  translated 
by  Carlyle  : — "A  safe  stronghold  our  God  is  still."  Most  of  us 
have  in  the  past  admired  its  diction,  but  we  have  been  unable  to 
realise  its  spirit,  its  i^-  ^sioned  language  has  been  foreign  to  our 
circumstances  and  outlook.  To-day  it  is  otherwise.  We  can 
enter  into  the  feelings  of  the  original  hearers.  These  words 


The  Moral  Factor  in  Warfare  55 

express   the   thoughts   which,   in   all  humility,   are    uppermost 

amongst  us  : — 

The  ancient  prince  of  hell 
Hath  risen  with  purpose  fell ; 
Strong  mail  of  craft  and  power 
He  weareth  in  this  hour ; 
On  earth  is  not  his  fellow. 

The  fire  and  passion  of  the  verse  inspires  and  uplifts  us.  And 
such  a  thought  as  that  conveyed  in  the  concluding  lines  doubtless 
comforts  and  sustains  the  people  whose  land  has  been  so  cruelly 
outraged  in  these  last  months  : — 

God's  word,  for  all  their  craft  and  force, 

One  moment  shall  not  linger, 
But,  spite  of  hell,  shall  have  its  course ; 

'Tis  written  by  His  finger. 
And,  though  they  take  our  life, 
Goods,  honour,  children,  wife, 
Yet  is  their  profit  small ; 
These  things  shall  vanish  all, 
The  city  of  God  remaineth." 

These  words  are  a  beacon-light  of  hope  to  the  oppressed. 

Thus  both  in  Scripture  and  in  song  is  to  be  found  a  very  real 
inspiration  and  help  in  the  time  of  national  danger.  It  has  been 
so  in  the  past ;  it  is  so  now.  A  new  spiritual  earnestness  will  be 
aroused,  is  being  aroused,  in  the  country.  This  day  of  stress  and 
peril  has  brought  us  nearer  to  the  reality  of  things,  and  the 
nobility  of  the  ideal  for  which  we  are  fighting  has  quickened  our 
religion.  Peace  and  prosperity  had  slackened  our  moral  fibre; 
there  was  a  tendency  towards  materialism.  A  new  spirit  has 
shown  itself  amongst  us.  Political  differences  have  been  laid 
aside  ;  party  has  been  merged  in  patriotism ;  and  every  class  in 
the  community,  rich  and  poor  alike,  is  striving  to  do  its  duty. 
Huge  financial  burdens  are  being  borne  with  a  true  courage  and 
a  true  unselfishness  ;  sacrifices  are  being  shared  ;  men  are  giving 
their  lives,  their  services,  and  their  money  freely  and  without 
stint.  Duke  and  peasant ;  business  man  and  artisan,  both  are 
labouring  at  the  common  task,  and  are  giving  of  their  best.  The 
suffering  entailed  has  been  and  will  yet  be  terrible  ;  it  has  been 
faced  with  a  sublime  heroism,  and  the  more  fortunate,  the  more 
prosperous,  are  seeking  to  alleviate  the  distress  around  them. 
There  is  a  note  of  common  brotherhood,  of  mutual  help,  that  has 
rarely  before  been  struck  in  our  land. 

Such  have  been  the  results  of  this  great  trial.  It  has 
deepened  our  spiritual  life,  individually  and  nationally.  We 
must,  however,  strive  continually  to  preserve  this  tone,  and  in 
this  respect  two  very  important  moral  duties  are  imposed  upon  us. 


56  The  Empire  Review 

Firstly,  the  duty  of  patience  and  of  the  steady  and  consistent 
maintenance  of  a  calm  dignity  and  resolution  which  will  disdain 
the  exhibition  of  panic  or  of  foolish  and  unreasoning  pessimism 
on  the  news  of  a  reverse,  however  serious.  The  spirit  of  our 
nation  has  thus  far  been  admirable,  and  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  it  will  continue  so.  Let  us,  however,  be  on  our  guard 
against  any  sudden  weakness  of  this  kind.  We  have  much  for 
which  to  be  thankful.  Hitherto  our  shores  have  been  spared  the 
horrors  of  invasion,  whilst  our  commerce  and  our  industry  has 
been  carried  on  to  an  extent  for  which  at  the  outbreak  of  war  we 
had  not  dared  to  hope.  The  losses  of  our  mercantile  marine 
have  been  astonishingly  small,  and  our  shipping  consequently 
traverses  the  various  trade  routes  in  almost  complete  security. 
Our  German  rivals  on  the  contrary  have  been  almost  swept  from 
the  sea.  Their  overseas  trade  is  strangled,  whilst  ours  continues 
to  flourish.  Unemployment  and  distress  in  this  country  are 
remarkably  small.  Apparently  it  is  otherwise  in  Germany. 

Again,  the  revelation  of  a  solidarity  of  parties,  of  creeds,  of 
classes,  and  of  races  throughout  not  only  the  United  Kingdom, 
but  also  the  Empire,  has,  in  a  measure,  surprised  us,  although  we 
had  hoped  and  anticipated  that  such  a  crisis  would  have  the 
unifying  result  which  has  actually  taken  place.  Lastly,  our 
Army  in  spite  of  its  terrible  ordeal  has  more  than  held  its  own, 
and  helps  to  maintain  the  Allies'  unbroken  front  in  the  West. 
These  numerous  blessings  should  make  us  very  thankful. 
They  are  an  earnest  of  our  ultimate  success. 

Secondly,  we  must  be  very  especially  on  our  guard  against  the 
spirit  of  revenge.  Horrible  atrocities  have  been  committed  by 
the  foe.  Let  not  our  righteous  anger  lend  itself  to  retaliation. 
It  is  inconceivable  that  we  should  sully  our  arms  by  enormities  of 
the  same  frightful  intensity  as  those  perpetrated  by  the  Prussians, 
but  there  is  a  danger  that  passion  may  lend  itself  to  ignoble  ends. 
I  do  not  believe  that,  however  consistent  and  continuous  the 
German  massacres  of  civilians  may  be,  our  troops  will  seek 
retribution  in  similar  excesses,  but  although  we  respect  the  lives 
of  the  inhabitants,  there  are  other  ways  in  which  revenge  may 
show  itself.  Germany  has  wantonly  and  impiously  destroyed 
some  of  the  noblest  monuments  of  human  genius  in  Belgium  and 
France.  She  has  sacked  Louvain ;  she  has  battered  Kheiins 
Cathedral  into  ruin  ;  she  has  wreaked  her  spiteful  anger  on  many 
a  noble  dome,  and  has  desecrated  and  deformed  some  of  the 
fairest  of  French  and  Flemish  churches.  Let  us  not  seek  to 
repay  these  wrongs  by  similar  ruthless  destruction  in  Germany. 
I  do  not  believe  we  shall.  I  think  we  have  too  high  a  regard  for 
the  ethics  of  true  culture  and  of  true  civilisation  thus  to  defame 
ourselves.  Passions,  however,  rage  fiercely  in  a  time  of  conflict, 


The  Moral  Factor  in  Warfare  57 

and  under  the  sway  of  hot  anger  deeds  are  done  which 
subsequently  cause  shame  and  remorse.  Let  us  see  to  it  that  we 
keep  our  hands  clean.  Let  us  steadfastly  remember  that  we  are 
waging  a  great  and  noble  crusade,  and  let  us  therefore 
disdain  to  stoop  to  action  that  has  the  faintest  appearance  of 
unworthiness.  I  feel  confident  that  we  shall  act  with  such 
restraint.  Constant  vigilance  against  the  outburst  of  vengeful 
passion  in  our  midst  is,  however,  our  best  guarantee  against 
excesses. 

But  whilst  we  refuse  to  entertain  revenge,  we  do  most 
assuredly  intend  to  inflict  salutary  justice.  At  a  later  period 
doubtless,  cries  will  be  heard  importuning  us  not  to  forget  that 
Germany  is  "  our  dear,  though  erring  brother."  We  shall  not 
heed  such  foolish  sentiment.  Germany  has  committed  an 
unspeakable  crime  against  civilisation  and  against  humanity.  She 
must  pay  the  penalty  of  her  crime.  She  must  be  taught  that 
wickedness  cannot  range  the  world  with  impunity,  and  since  she 
has  shown  such  a  lofty  disregard  for  treaties,  the  terms  imposed 
upon  her  must  necessarily  be  such  as  to  compel  obedience.  The 
"mere  scrap  of  paper"  must  be  so  drafted  that  to  attempt 
repudiation  or  evasion  in  the  future  would  bring  instant  disaster 
upon  the  head  of  the  offender.  Our  own  security  and  the  future 
peace  of  Europe  alike  demands  this. 

And  more.  So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  restore  ruined  homes 
and  broken  lives,  Germany  must  furnish  the  means  of  doing  this. 
Common  justice  requires  it.  The  price  must  necessarily  be 
heavy.  It  must  be  exacted  to  the  uttermost  farthing.  And 
compensation,  such  as  is  possible,  must  be  obtained  for  the 
magnificent  architecture  and  sculpture  and  art  so  basely  rained 
and  destroyed.  This  may  perhaps  entail — and  very  justly — the 
confiscation  of  many  German  artistic  treasures.  She  has  brutally, 
savagely,  and  without  provocation  demolished  much  of  her 
neighbours'  artistic  property ;  she  must,  so  far  as  is  humanly 
practicable,  repair  the  loss,  and  such  reparation  can  most  fittingly 
take  this  form.  Such  a  confiscation  would  not  be  robbery ;  it 
would  not  be  revenge.  England  has  no  claim  for  a  share  of 
German  art ;  but  most  assuredly  France  and  Belgium  by  all  the 
canons  of  simple  equity  have  a  very  strong  claim  for  such 
a  recompense.  If  they  put  forth  such  a  demand  we  shall  support 
them,  conscious  of  the  rightfulness  of  the  exaction.  If  they 
agree  to  forego  their  perfectly  valid  case  for  a  reparation  which 
however  fully  made  cannot  adequately  meet  the  gross  injury 
which  has  been  inflicted,  it  will  be  one  of  the  most  generous  acts 
known  to  history. 

The    terms  of    peace  must  necessarily   therefore    be  hard. 
Germany  has  sinned  grievously,  and  grievously  must  she  pay  for 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  170.  G 


58  The  Empire  Review 

her  sin.  This  is  a  struggle  which  admits  of  no  compromise  and 
of  no  false  sentiment.  The  grandeur  of  the  moral  ideal  must  be 
amply  vindicated,  and  this  can  alone  be  done  by  a  crushing 
triumph,  and  a  settlement  which  will  stand  as  a  permanent 
monument  of  the  disaster  and  the  folly  of  militant  aggression 
and  brutal  self-worship.  Kaiserdom  and  the  brazen  impudence 
and  faithlessness  of  Prussian  tradition  must  be  finally  and 
irrecoverably  trodden  under  heel.  Merely  to  sprinkle  rose-water 
will  not  avail ;  the  system  which  has  produced  all  this  misery 
must  be  ground  into  powder.  Thus  shall  the  past  achievements 
of  human  progress  be  secured  ;  thus  shall  the  new  barbarism  be 
overthrown,  and  the  foundations  laid  for  a  nobler  conception  of 
liberty  and  of  mutual  obligations  than  has  ever  before  obtained 
in  the  world's  history. 

H.  DOUGLAS  GEEGOEY. 


THE     BRITISH     EMPIRE 

AN  AUSTRALIAN  APPRAISEMENT 

FEOM  Arctic  e'en  to  storm-swept  Southern  seas, 
The  Empire's  flag  proclaims  an  Empire  won — 
A  mighty  Power  that  knows  nor  setting  sun, 

Nor  limit  to  her  world- wide  influences. 

No  overlord  promulgates  wild  decrees 

To  crush  what  Freedom  hath  so  nobly  done; 
Firm-founded  on  her  people's  will  alone, 

The  King  of  Kings  controls  her  destinies. 

In  her  wide-scattered  units  lies  her  might; 
The  ties  of  kinship  stronger  are  than  chains, 
And  while  that  bond  of  brotherhood  remains, 

From  South  will  rise  e'en  unto  Northern  night 

This  mighty  paean  over  land  and  sea — 

One  people,  one  United  Destiny. 

THOMAS  STEWAET. 

BOTANY,  N.S.W.,  AUSTBALIA. 


Aniline  Dye  Industry  59 


ANILINE    DYE    INDUSTRY 

DEBATE  IN  HOUSE   OF  COMMONS  ANALYSED 

THE  subject  of  aniline  dyes  and  the  Government  proposals  to 
meet  the  situation  brought  about  by  the  war  were  discussed  in 
the  House  of  Commons  on  February  22.  Mr.  Almeric  Paget,  the 
popular  member  for  Cambridge,  opened  the  debate  in  a  well- 
reasoned  and  business-like  speech,  in  the  course  of  which  he  gave 
some  useful  particulars  regarding  the  industry.  Touching  on 
figures  he  mentioned  that  the  turnover  of  goods  in  connection 
with  these  dyes  was  an  enormous  item  in  the  trade  of  the 
country,  involving  something  like  £200,000,000  sterling.  The 
actual  amount  of  the  dyes  consumed  in  the  country  he  placed  at 
£2,250,000,  of  which  £1,750,000  came  from  Germany.  Switzer- 
land supplied  us  with  dyes  valued  at  £150,000 ;  he  had  seen  the 
figure  put  as  high  as  £300,000,  and  we  ourselves  turned  out  about 
£200,000  worth .  The  exports  were  a  negligible  quantity.  Taking 
dyes  and  intermediate  products  together,  their  value  did  not 
exceed  £177,000,  of  which  some  £27,000  went  to  Germany. 

After  a  few  remarks  from  Mr.  Lough  directed  towards  post- 
poning any  action  for  a  few  months,  Mr.  Hewins,  who  has 
rendered  yeoman  service  in  connection  with  the  many  inquiries 
that  have  taken  place  by  the  Tariff  Commission,  resumed  the 
debate.  He  faced  the  issue  in  an  essentially  practical  manner, 
and  was  listened  to  with  marked  attention.  Deprecating  the 
introduction  of  Tariff  Eeform  to  meet  any  particular  industry, 
he  addressed  himself  and  his  arguments  to  the  position  in  which 
we  found  ourselves  placed  and  a  criticism  of  the  Government 
proposals.  "Will  the  Government  scheme  give  us  the  dyes  we 
want?"  was  his  first  question.  After  consultation  with  a  great 
many  people  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  industry  in  all  its 
phases,  he  was  reluctantly  forced  to  the  conclusion  not  only 
that  the  scheme  would  not  give  us  the  dyes  we  want  during  the 
period  of  the  war,  but  unless  materially  amended  it  could  never 
do  so.  This  was  tantamount  to  saying  that  the  scheme  as 
drafted  was  useless  to  effect  the  purpose  i^i  was.  designed  to  meet, 

G  2 


60  The  Empire  Review 

Passing  to  the  Agreement  as  between  consumers  of  dyes  and 
the  Company  it  is  proposed  to  establish,  Mr.  Hewins  called 
attention  to  Clause  3  and  the  question  of  "reasonable  prices." 
Perhaps  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  our  readers  if  we  give  the 
exact  wording  of  the  Agreement.  It  runs  as  follows : — 

Memorandum  of  Agreement  made  this  day  of  191    between 

British  Dyes  Limited  whose  registered  office  is  at 

in  the  of  (hereinafter  called  "  the  Company  ")  of  the  one  part 

and 
of 
in  the  of  (hereinafter  called  "  the  Customer  ")  of  the  other  part. 

Whereas  the  Company  has  been  incorporated  since  the  commencement  of 
the  present  war  for  the  purpose  among  other  things  of  producing  manufac- 
turing and  selling  dyes  colours  and  other  chemical  substances  (hereinafter 
collectively  referred  to  as  Dyes)  which  previously  to  the  war  were  exclusively 
or  principally  manufactured  in  Germany  and  sold  by  Germans  and  German 
companies  and  firms.  And  whereas  under  the  provisions  of  the  Contracts  of 
which  particulars  are  set  out  in  the  Schedule  hereto  the  Customer  is  or  may 
be  bound  after  the  war  to  take  delivery  of  the  goods  specified  in  the  third 
column  of  the  said  Schedule.  And  whereas  the  Company  has  supplied  and/or 
agreed  to  supply  the  Customer  with  certain  of  the  dyes  required  by  the 
Customer  for  the  purposes  of  the  Customer's  business  but  it  was  stipulated 
by  the  Company  and  accepted  by  the  Customer  as  one  of  the  terms  and 
conditions  upon  which  such  supply  would  be  made  that  this  Agreement 
between  the  parties  hereto  should  be  executed. 

Now  it  is  hereby  agreed  and  declared  by  and  between  the  Company  and  the 
Customer  as  follows  that  is  to  say : — 

1.  The  consideration  for  this  Agreement  is  the  supply  by  the  Company  to 
the  Customer  of  certain  of  the  dyes  required  by  the  Customer  and  the  mutual 
accommodation  of  the  parties  hereto  by  the  sale  and  purchase  of  such  dyes 
during  the  continuance  of  the  present  war. 

2.  The  Customer  undertakes  with  the  Company  that  as  from  the  conclusion 
of  the  present  war  and  for  a  period  of  five  years  thereafter  or  until  five  years 
have  elapsed  from  the  last  delivery  to  the  Customer  pursuant  to  the  terms  of 
the  Contracts  set  out  in  the  Schedule  hereto  or  until  five  years  have  elapsed 
from  the  determination  of  the  said  Contracts  whichever  shall  be  the  longest 
period  the  Customer  (a)  will  purchase  from  the  Company  all  Dyes  which  may 
be  required  by  the  Customer  for  the  purposes  of  the  Customer's  business  or 
such  amounts  and  quantities  thereof  respectively  as  the  Company  may  from 
time  to  time  be  able  and  willing  to  supply  to  the  Customer  of  good  quality 
and  suitable  for  the  purposes  of  the  Customer's  business  and  at  reasonable 
prices  within  a  reasonable  time  after  the  same  shall  be  ordered  having  regard 
to  the  obligation  and  requirements  of  the  Customer  and  (b)  will  not  purchase 
from  any  Company  firm  or  person  (other  than  the  Company)  any  Dyes  which 
may  be  so  required  as  aforesaid  excepting  only  such  amounts  and  quantities 
thereof  respectively  as  the  Company  may  from  time  to  time  be  unable  and/or 
unwilling  so  to  supply  to  the  Customer.     Provided  always  that  the  fulfilment 
by  the  Customer  of  his  legal  obligations  under  the  Contracts  set  out  in  the 
Schedule  hereto  shall  not  be  deemed  a  breach  of  this  Clause. 

3.  The  prices  to  ba  charged  by  the  Company  and  paid  by  the  Customer  to 
the  Company  for  the  dyes  during  the  period  referred  to  in  the  preceding  clause 
hereof  shall  be  reasonable  prices  from  time  to  time  fixed  by  the  Directors  of 
the  Company.  Provided  that  if  the  Customer  shall  consider  such  prices 


Aniline  Dye  Industry 


61 


unreasonable  he  shall  in  writing  notify  the  fact  to  the  Company  within  seven 
days  after  being  informed  of  the  said  prices  indicating  in  such  notice  the  prices 
he  is  willing  to  pay  and  in  the  event  of  the  Company  being  unwilling  to  accept 
the  prices  named  by  the  Customer  he  shall  be  at  liberty  to  call  upon  the 
Company  to  submit  the  question  of  whether  the  Directors'  prices  are  reason- 
able or  not  to  the  decision  of  a  Eeferee  appointed  by  the  President  for  the  time 
being  of  the  Association  of  Chambers  of  Commerce  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  Referee  shall  decide  whether  the  prices  charged  by  the  Directors  are 
reasonable  and  in  so  deciding  he  shall  have  regard  to  all  the  circumstances 
including  the  fair  current  prices  at  which  dyes  are  being  sold  by  other  suppliers 
and  if  he  shall  come  to  the  conclusion  that  they  are  not  reasonable  he  shall 
prescribe  what  prices  shall  be  charged  and  in  that  event  the  prices  fixed 
by  the  Eeferee  shall  be  the  prices  to  be  charged  by  the  Company  to  the 
Customer. 

4.  Strikes   breakdowns  war  fire  flood  and  all   similar  occurrences  which 
might  curtail  or  render  impossible  either  the  manufacture  or  the  consumption 
of  the  Dyes  shall  be  regarded  as  force  majeure  and  as  mutually  releasing  either 
party  from  its  obligations  in  respect  to  the  time  stipulated  for  delivery  of  any 
Dyes  bought  or  sold  in  pursuance  of  this  Agreement  during  the  period  of 
derangement. 

5.  The  expression  the  Company  and  the  expression  the   Customer  shall 
respectively  include  their  respective  successors  in  business  where  the  context 
so  admits. 

In  Witness,  etc. 

THE  SCHEDULE  ABOVE  REFERRED  TO. 


Date  of  Contract. 


With  whom  Con- 
tract made. 


Description  of  goods  and 
quantity  thereof  remain- 
ing undelivered  under 
the  Contract. 


Period  over  which  un- 
delivered goods  are  to 
be  delivered. 


As  regards  reasonable  prices  and  the  right  of  the  customer  in 
certain  circumstances  to  appeal  to  a  referee,  Mr.  Hewins  perti- 
nently observed  :  "  How  are  you  going  to  deal  with  all  the 
delicate  machinery  of  an  industry  in  that  way?"  He  had  no 
objection  to  reasonable  prices  or  proper  wages  or  anything  else 
of  that  kind,  and  there  was  a  great  deal  to  be  said  for  them  from 
the  point  of  view  of  Tory  tradition.  But  if  the  Government 
were  going  to  adopt  measures  of  that  kind,  do  not  let  them  go 
back  to  the  expedients  of  the  Middle  Ages  without  consideration 
of  what  they  were,  and  let  us  have  before  us  a  little  evidence. 
"Supposing,"  he  continued,  "the  manufacturing  dyers  do  not 
meet  the  prices  arranged,  how  are  you  going  to  make  them? 
There  are  two  or  three  thousand  different  dyes  used  at  the 


62  The  Empire  Review 

present  time.  We  have  only  to  take  the  catalogue  of  one  of  the 
great  German  firms  to  see  the  very  nice  distinctions  which  are 
drawn  between  one  dye  and  another  in  different  industries,  and 
I  think  that  we  might  have,  what  is  very  often  the  case,  the 
substitution  of  the  cheaper  dye  which  is  available.  I  do  not 
know  how  you  are  going  to  work  it." 

He  then  dealt  shortly  with  research  work,  for  which  the 
Government  propose  to  allocate  the  sum  of  £100,000,  extending 
over  a  period  of  five  years,  and  ridiculed  the  suggestion  that  so 
small  an  amount  could  possibly  achieve  the  end  in  view.  How 
right  he  is  needs  no  demonstration.  Anyone  who  knows  what 
America  and  Germany  have  spent  on  research  work  in  connection 
with  aniline  dyes  will  endorse  all  he  said  on  the  subject,  and  will 
cordially  agree  with  his  criticism  that  if  the  Government 
intend  to  endow  research  for  the  purpose  of  adapting  dyes  to 
manufacturing  products  in  this  country  we  must  have  laboratories 
in  sufficient  numbers  and  endowed  on  a  sufficient  scale. 

The  creation  of  a  subsidised  monopoly  with  a  certain  binding 
power  over  our  manufacturers  found  in  Mr.  Hewins  a  stern 
opponent.  The  introduction  for  the  second  time  of  com- 
pulsion, for  it  can  be  regarded  in  no  other  light,  into  our 
national  policy  is  contrary  to  the  sentiment  of  a  free  people 
and  a  free  country ;  it  also  involves — that  is  if  the  taxpayers 
are  not  to  run  the  risk  of  losing  their  money — the  raising 
of  Protection  in  its  worst  form.  As  an  alternative  to  the 
Government  proposals,  Mr.  Hewins  made  a  suggestion  worthy 
of  the  closest  consideration ;  the  general  principle  underlying 
the  action  of  the  Government  should  not,  he  said,  be  towards 
State  ownership  and  the  State-running  of  this  important 
industry,  it  should  be  regulative  and  advisory.  "  If,  for 
example,  the  Government,  or  a  Minister  of  the  Government, 
proceeded  to  organise  it  as  we  have  organised  other  matters, 
then  a  very  great  deal  could  be  made  out  of  our  present 
potentialities.  We  have  in  the  country  certain  great  dye 
works,  and  a  certain  number  of  smaller  firms,  and  I  am  also 
advised  that  we  have  great  chemical  firms  which  could  produce 
dyes  and  so  help  us  out  of  the  difficulty,  and  that  if  you  organise 
for  this  purpose  both  the  dye  potentialities  and  the  chemical 
potentialities  you  could  solve  the  question.  I  do  not  know  what 
difficulties  there  may  be  in  the  way  of  such  complete  organisa- 
tion. There  was  a  Liberal  organ  the  other  day,  I  think  it  was 
the  Daily  Chronicle,  which,  in  a  leading  article,  suggested  that 
there  were  difficulties  of  the  nature  of  international  agreements 
which  would  stand  in  the  way  of  any  complete  organisation  of 
that  kind.  All  that  I  wish  to  say  on  that  is  that  when  it  is  the 
safety  and  employment  of  our  English  people  that  is  at  stake  I 


Aniline  Dye  Industry  63 

should  not  let  international  considerations  stand  in  the  way. 
I  think  I  would  make  people  understand  that.  If  that  were 
done  I  am  advised  that  the  potentialities  of  the  case  would  be 
equal  to  the  difficulties  we  have  to  meet. 

As  regards  the  question  of  security  after  the  war,  Mr.  Hewins 
did  not  commit  himself  to  any  particular  form,  but  there  was 
sound  common-sense  in  his  attitude  towards  the  Government 
proposals.  The  Government  are  ready  and  willing  to  give  away 
public  money  by  way  of  subsidies  and  bounties,  but  refuse  to 
consider  the  question  of  reasonable  security.  They  must  not 
then  be  surprised  to  find  the  country  against  them.  Instead  of 
regarding  the  position  with  a  statesmanlike  outlook,  they  have 
tried,  although  unsuccessfully,  to  combine  the  principle  of  party 
with  the  demands  of  the  nation. 

The  next  speaker  was  Mr.  Theodore  Taylor,  a  North  of  England 
Liberal  and  recognised  expert  on  the  question.  On  the  necessity 
for  immediate  action  he  believed  that  a  quarter  of  the  dye  houses 
in  the  country  would  have  to  close  by  the  end  of  March  and  half  by 
the  end  of  June  if  nothing  were  done.  In  fact  there  was  no  doubt 
about  urgency.  He  thought  the  best  way  of  giving  relief  to 
British  colour  users  was  to  facilitate  by  every  means  possible 
the  sending  of  raw  material  from  this  country  into  Switzerland 
and  the  bringing  of  it  back  again  in  the  form  of  the  finished 
article.  After  chiding  all  governments  for  depriving  the  colour 
industry  of  the  use  of  free  alcohol,  which  is  necessary  for  the 
business,  he  proceeded  to  point  out  that  Germany  had  excelled  in 
the  manufacture  of  colour  mainly  because  of  her  application  of 
science  to  industry — a  matter  in  which  we  have  been  behind. 
"  She  has  applied  her  qualities  of  perseverance,  method,  and  hard 
work,  and  the  German  colour  industry  has  been  established  as  an 
efficient  instrument  of  human  service  more  on  its  merits  than  by 
any  Government  action.  Neither  this  Government  nor  any  other 
imaginable  British  Government  would  wish  to  establish  in  this 
country  an  industry  that  could  not  later  on  stand  on  its  own 
merits."  He,  at  all  events,  would  not  support  the  bringing  into 
life  of  any  hot-house  plant.  "  What  some  of  us  believe  is  that 
British  brains  and  British  capital  will  be  forthcoming  if  once  the 
industry  can  get  a  start."  He  had  not  communicated  with  the 
Government ;  he  did  not  know  what  their  views  might  be ;  but  he 
imagined  that  their  object  was  to  pay  back,  as  it  were,  what  we 
really  owed  to  the  manufacturers  in  this  business,  and  to  give  them 
a  chance  of  a  fair  start.  "  The  question  is,  is  this  the  best  scheme 
for  the  purpose  ?  " 

On  the  question  of  scheme  he  was  on  sure  ground  when  he  said, 
"  If  we  are  ultimately  to  compete  efficiently  with  Germany  we 
shall  have  to  build  an  industry  on  its  merits."  He  deprecated 


64  The  Empire  Review 

giving  one  class  of  the  community  an  advantage  over  another 
class,  and  to  him  there  appeared  a  blot  on  the  scheme  inasmuch  as 
it  favoured  "  the  principles  of  coercion  and  exclusion."  What  is 
to  happen,  he  asked  of  the  Government,  to  members  of  the  dyeing 
community  who  have  not  enough  capital  for  their  own  business  ? 
What  is  to  happen  to  them  during  the  years  of  stress  if  they  are 
to  be  debarred  from  buying  certain  sorts  of  colours  because  they 
have  not  the  capital  to  subscribe  to  the  company  ?  He  begged 
the  Government  to  strike  out  the  five  years'  agreement,  and 
he  was  opposed  to  the  referee,  for  he  did  not  believe  it  was 
possible  to  get  half  a  dozen  dyers  in  the  trade  at  any  one  time 
to  agree  upon  what  is  a  reasonable  price. 

Sir  Philip  Magnus  offered  some  useful  remarks  from  the 
standpoint  of  one  who  had  "  watched  the  industry  from  its  early 
growth,"  and  he  was  followed  by  Mr.  William  Pearce,  whose 
contribution  to  the  debate  was  worthy  of  the  high  reputation 
he  holds  as  a  chemist  and  a  Liberal  of  broad-minded  views. 
Referring  to  the  success  of  the  German  undertaking  he  introduced 
at  once  a  human  note,  always  interesting  to  the  House,  when  he 
said : — 

"  It  is  quite  true  the  first-class  dye— magenta  colour,  a  most 
momentous  discovery,  but  of  fairly  easy  application  —  was 
discovered  by  an  Englishman,  Mr.  Perkin,  who  was  a  student 
at  the  Eoyal  College  of  Science,  Oxford  Street,  now  absorbed  in 
the  Imperial  College  of  Science,  South  Kensington,  and  with  that 
particular  institution  in  the  late  sixties  or  the  beginning  of  the 
seventies,  I  myself  was  connected.  There  was  a  very  distinguished 
professor  of  chemistry  at  the  head  of  that  institution,  Dr. 
Hoffman,  who  assisted  Mr.  Perkin  in  his  work.  A  year  or  two 
later  he  was  tempted  to  Berlin.  He  left  an  enormous  reputation 
in  London,  and  I  have  heard  that  when  he  went  to  Berlin  he  took 
this  aniline  colour  with  him.  At  any  rate,  it  stimulated  German 
intelligence  and  German  perseverance,  and  the  whole  industry 
has  been  taken  up  regardless  of  expense,  and  now  it  has  a 
position  very  hard  for  this  House  to  realise." 

He  then  gave  two  or  three  instances  of  what  German  science 
had  achieved  in  the  kindred  substances  of  these  dyes.  "For 
these  reasons  the  production  of  colours  in  this  country  very  much 
came  to  a  standstill.  The  opening  speaker  (Mr.  Paget)  men- 
tioned betanaphthol.  He  said  that  under  an  arrangement  the 
manufacture  was  discontinued.  That  may  have  been  true  thirty 
years  ago,  but  I  set  up  as  a  manufacturer  of  betanaphthol  twenty 
years  ago  and  spent  a  considerable  amount  of  money  in  plant. 
When  I  had  produced  the  article  I  found  it  had  either  to  be 
sold  in  Germany  or  America.  The  dyeing  industry  had  very 
largely  vanished  and  there  was  no  demand  for  it  in  this  country. 


Aniline  Dye  Industry  65 

I  give  this  as  an  instance  to  show  how,  once  having  languished, 
it  is  difficult  to  revive  an  industry,  and  the  thing  went  from 
bad  to  worse.  Before  the  war  the  textile  trade  had  nothing 
to  complain  of.  After  the  war  I  do  not  think  anybody  can 
say  with  any  great  certainty  what  is  going  to  happen,  and 
that  is  one  of  the  difficulties  of  the  Government  scheme." 

Mr.  Pearce  mentioned  two  instances  of  German  science  and 
German  industry.  We  give  his  own  words :  "As  to  the  sort  of 
problem  the  country  and  the  House  are  facing,  let  me  mention 
two  instances  of  German  science  and  German  industry.  Fourteen 
years  ago  India  was  producing  between  3,000,000  and  4,000,000 
pounds  of  natural  indigo  a  year ;  last  year  I  believe  the  total 
value  of  the  crop  was  130,000  pounds.  Germany  had  captured 
by  the  synthetic  process  the  whole  of  that  business,  and  the  steps 
the  Germans  took,  and  the  methods  they  pursued  to  accomplish 
this  great  achievement,  were  almost  a  romance.  They  had  to 
cheapen,  and  greatly  cheapen,  the  production  of  two  or  three 
reagents,  in  one  of  which  I  have  had  great  experience — fuming 
sulphuric  acid.  Fourteen  or  fifteen  years  ago  fuming  sulphuric 
acid  was  at  an  entirely  prohibitive  price.  I  have  heard  of  it 
having  been  sold  at  prices  from  £15  to  £100  per  ton.  Very 
large  quantities  of  this  would  be  required  for  any  possible  scheme 
of  making  synthetic  indigo,  and  the  German  scientists  set  them- 
selves down  to  conquer  this  particular  manufacture.  One 
German  company  alone,  the  Badische  Soda  and  Anilin  Fabrik, 
spent  in  making  experiments  and  plant  during  the  last  fifteen 
years  a  sum  approaching  a  quarter  of  a  million,  and  probably 
double  that  amount.  The  other  reagents  had  to  be  worked  out 
in  the  same  sort  of  way." 

"  Then  Germany  took  infinite  pains  to  get  hold  of  the  commercial 
side  of  the  industry.  I  heard  of  a  firm  of  British  colour  manu- 
facturers complaining  that  they  could  not  proceed  with  their 
business  in  India  successfully.  They  sent  out  a  representative  to 
find  out  the  reason,  and  they  found  that  the  German  synthetic 
indigo  was  everywhere,  and  it  was  made  up  in  packages  just  like  the 
real  Indian  manufacture.  Those  were  the  steps  taken  by  Germany 
to  acquire  the  synthetic  indigo  industry,  but  her  latest  achieve- 
ment has  been  the  synthetic  manufacture  of  ammonia.  To  do 
this  she  had  to  produce  pure  nitrogen  and  pure  hydrogen  in  very 
large  quantities.  The  great  dyeing  firms  of  Germany  have  been 
doing  this,  and  they  have  erected  a  plant  which,  after  a  great  many 
experiments  and  enormous  expense,  is  now  sucessfully  producing 
ammonia  in  very  large  quantities  by  catalytic  action.  This  is 
done  at  a  temperature  of  550  degrees  Centigrade  under  a  pressure 
of  175  atmospheres.  The  operation  has  to  be  performed  in  an 
almost  bomb-proof  structure  with  automatic  safeguards  devised 


66  The  Empire  Review 

to  prevent  the  introduction  of  the  smallest  quantity  of  oxygen  or 
air,  which  would  explode  the  whole  of  the  apparatus.  Last  year 
the  Germans  put  on  the  market  through  this  instrumentality 
30,000  tons  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  it  was  then  worth  about 
£11  a  ton.  This  year,  if  the  war  had  not  happened,  the  Germans 
would  have  placed  100,000  tons  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  on  the 
English  market,  and  they  would  have  made  a  profit  of  at  least 
£500,000.  These  facts  show  how  much  time,  money,  experience, 
and  science  has  been  devoted  by  Germany  to  the  production  of 
these  various  colours."  He  approved  the  Government  scheme  as  a 
temporary  measure  provided  a  proper  scientific  and  commercial 
business  arrangement  was  aimed  at  regarding  the  selection  of 
dyes  and  the  allocation  of  each  to  a  particular  work,  so  that 
there  should  be  "  no  waste  or  overlapping."  Mr.  Parkes,  who 
followed,  again  pointed  out  that  one  of  the  reasons  why 
the  dye  industry  left  the  country  was  the  heavy  tariff  on 
alcohol. 

Mr.  Bunciman  then  rose  to  reply.  He  admitted  the  urgency 
of  the  matter  and  the  shortness  of  supplies  and  took  no  exception 
to  the  proposal  that  the  Government  should  deal  with  the 
question  by  emergency  methods  alone.  But  after  enumerating 
the  only  possible  emergency  methods  he  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  Government  scheme  offered  the  best  way  out  of  the 
difficulty.  "  If  the  Government  is  to  buy  up  the  raw  products 
here  and  send  them  out  to  Switzerland  to  be  turned  into  dyes, 
under  what  principle  is  the  Government  to  dispose  of  the  dyes 
when  they  come  back  to  this  country  ?  There  is  no  distribution 
which  could  be  made  by  any  Government  Department  which 
would  not  lay  itself  open  to  the  charge  of  making  unfair  selection . 
We  could  send  some  of  these  Swiss  products,  say,  to  the  Hon. 
Member  for  Radcliffe  (Mr.  Theodore  Taylor),  but  if  we  did  so,  his 
competitors,  I  feel  sure,  would  complain  bitterly  that  we  were 
unfair  to  them.  We  might  send  them  to  some  of  the  calico 
printers  in  Lancashire,  say,  the  large  concern  which  has  that 
title.  I  feel  sure  that  there  are  many  manufacturers  who  would 
say  that  we  have  no  right  to  support  the  large  concerns  at  the 
expense  of  the  smaller  ones.  We  might  send  those  dyes  we  had 
to  spare  to  the  Bradford  dyers,  but,  if  we  did  so,  some  fifty  or 
sixty  competitors  would  say  we  were  taking  the  side  of  the  large 
men  against  the  small  men.  I  do  not  know  any  conceivable  way 
in  which  the  Government  could  take  a  comparatively  small 
proportion  of  the  dyes  which  it  had  obtained  by  exchange  in  this 
way  and  distribute  them  throughout  the  country  without  it 
getting  into  all  the  evils  which  come  from  the  Government  being 
able  to  confer  benefits  upon  individual  traders.  The  next  proposal 
that  individual  firms  here  should  buy  up  the  raw  products  and 


Aniline  Dye  Industry  67 

send  them  out  to  Switzerland  would  mean  inevitably  that  the 
very  evil  to  which  my  hon.  friend  referred  of  a  small  man  being 
cut  out  would  certainly  arise.  The  third  idea  that  new  chemical 
merchants  should  come  on  the  market  and  embark  on  this  would 
have  all  the  same  difficulties  about  the  distribution  of  the  finished 
products  when  they  came  back  to  this  country. 

"  For  practical  purposes  and  in  order  that  we  may  get  rid  of  a 
great  many  inequalities  and  injustices  which  must  arise  by  any 
other  scheme,  we  were  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  only  way 
in  which  you  can  do  an  exchange  with  the  Swiss  is  through  a 
company  of  users  in  this  country  acting  more  or  less  on  the  co- 
operative principle.  They,  purchasing  the  raw  materials  and 
having  permission  from  the  Government  to  export  them,  would 
send  them  out  to  Switzerland.  The  finished  dye  products  would 
come  back,  and  that  company  would  be  responsible  for  the 
distribution  of  those  dye  products  on  the  fairest  and  most  equable 
terms.  It  is  necessary,  and  absolutely  necessary,  that  you  should 
have  a  person  or  a  company — the  company  would  be  based,  as 
this  is,  more  or  less  on  the  co-operative  principle — who  would 
make  all  the  agreements  for  sale.  There  is  no  way,  so  far  as  we 
have  been  able  to  discover,  of  dealing  with  the  supplies  from 
Switzerland  without  depending  upon  company  organisation  in 
one  way  or  another." 

"  There  is  another  way  of  dealing  with  the  emergency,  that  is 
by  organising  the  dye  producers  at  home  on  such  a  plan  as  to 
prevent  overlapping,  to  prevent  the  manufacture  of  some  products 
for  foreign  markets  at  a  time  when  we  are  in  urgent  need  of  some 
other  products  for  our  own  textile  industries  at  home,  for  the 
spreading  out  of  the  processes  of  manufacture,  allowing  some  of 
the  larger  chemical  companies  to  produce  some  of  the  raw 
products,  making  use  of  coal  owners,  gas  companies,  and  the  like 
for  the  production  of  poluol  and  other  necessary  bases  for  dyes. 
This  can  certainly  be  done  by  a  Government  Department,  but  it 
can  be  much  better  done  by  an  organisation  of  business  men,  who 
know  the  necessities  of  the  industry  and  who  can  have  at  their 
command  not  only  the  technical  but  the  commercial  knowledge 
without  which  no  success  can  attend  our  efforts.  There,  again, 
we  were  driven  to  the  conclusion  that  in  order  to  conduct  this 
joint  transaction,  and  in  order  to  reorganise  the  various  industries 
which  now  make  dyes  or  provide  the  necessary  stuffs  in  the 
manufacture  of  dyes,  a  company  more  or  less  on  co-operative 
lines  was  necessary.  Therefore,  we  were  driven  to  the  conclusion 
that  we  must  have  a  company,  even  if  we  are  to  deal  only  with 
the  present  emergency." 

As  to  whether  the  Company  should  be  brought  to  an  end 
immediately  war  was  over,  Mr.  Eunciman  said  the  Government 


68  The  Empire  Review 

had  accepted  the  view  of  the  expert  Committee  which  examined 
the  problem  and  had  decided  against  "  strangling  the  Company 
immediately  peace  was  signed."  He  was  not  in  a  position  to 
disclose  all  the  steps  taken,  but  he  was  willing  to  give  as  far  as 
he  was  able  the  arrangements  that  had  been  made.  "We  have 
entered  into  arrangements  with  the  Swiss  manufacturers  for  raw 
and  intermediate  products  to  go  out  there.  Arrangements  have 
been  made  for  those  products  to  pass  across  France.  We  have 
organised  at  home  the  production  of  some  of  the  raw  material  on 
wider  bases,  and  although  some  of  these  bases  are  necessary  for  the 
production  of  explosives,  we  have  seen  to  it  that  the  production 
of  explosives,  vastly  important  as  it  is,  shall  not  altogether 
exclude  the  possibility  of  having  some  of  the  surplus  products 
sent  out  to  Switzerland,  and  returned  here  as  the  finished  dye. 
Lord  Moulton,  who  has  done  valuable  work  on  the  High 
Explosives  Committee  during  the  time  he  has  been  at  work  there, 
and  has  extended  enormously  the  possibility  of  the  production  of 
poluol  and  other  necessary  ingredients  of  explosives,  has  at  the 
same  time  been  giving  us  great  assistance  by  providing  us  with 
additions  to  the  bases  for  our  raw  material.  The  gas  companies 
have  helped  us  in  the  great  centres,  where  we  have  invited  them 
to  put  up  plant,  and  the  Coal  Owners'  Company  have  practically 
turned  over  to  us  their  whole  supply  of  benzol,  from  which  we 
draw  a  very  large  percentage  of  poluol.  We  have  done  ali  we 
can  to  see  there  is  no  wastage  in  any  product.  That  has  placed 
us  in  a  position  to  supply  the  Swiss  manufacturers  with  what 
they  most  need  in  order  that  they  may  return  to  us  what  we 
need. 

"  Then  we  have  made  arrangements  to  obtain  an  option  on  the 
works  of  Messrs.  Keid,  Holliday  and  Co.,  at  Huddersfield.  The 
reason  why  we  did  this  was  that,  in  making  a  survey  of  the  dye 
works  of  the  United  Kingdom,  we  found  in  these  works  all  we 
needed  better  than  in  any  other  works  we  examined.  They 
already  produced  dyes  and  some  of  the  intermediate  products. 
But  it  is  necessary  that  Keid,  Holliday's  should  be  in  the  same 
concern  as  the  organised  supply  to  Switzerland  which  was  to 
return  commodities  from  Switzerland.  For  this  reason  we  did 
not  wish  the  whole  works  of  Messrs.  Keid,  Holliday's  and  their 
staff  to  be  used  in  the  production  of  intermediate  products  when 
they  could  be  obtained  from  outside  by  a  wider  and  better  organ- 
isation. We  wanted  the  works  to  be  specialised  more  highly. 
We  did  not  want  them  to  do  every  stage  in  the  manufacture  of 
dyes  themselves,  but  we  wanted  them  to  specialise  on  the  later 
processes,  while  we  supplied  the  necessary  bases  from  which  they 
were  to  start."  On  the  question  of  the  price  to  be  paid  to  Messrs. 
Keid,  Holliday's  no  details  were  given,  but  it  represented  a  six  per 


Aniline  Dye  Industry  69 

cent,  basis  on  the  annual  profit  for  the  last  six  years.  The  price 
is  to  be  paid  in  cash,  and  the  proprietors  take  their  money  out  of 
the  concern. 

Mr.  Runciinan  undertook  that  the  Government  scheme 
should  safeguard  the  small  consumer.  The  most  severe  criticism, 
he  pointed  out,  had  come  from  the  three  greatest  dye  users  in 
the  United  Kingdom.  Eef erring  to  the  administration  of  German 
patents  he  said  the  Government  policy  was  to  give  the  companies 
when  war  was  over  every  opportunity  of  making  the  most  of  the 
German  patents.  The  question  of  royalties  was  a  matter  to  be 
settled  hereafter.  On  the  matter  of  the  Board  of  Customs  and 
Excise  he  made  the  very  useful  pronouncement  that  the  regula- 
tion "  will  enable  the  company  to  obtain  permission  to  use  alcohol 
for  industrial  purposes  free  of  duty."  As  to  the  five-years'  agree- 
ment he  did  not  anticipate  this  would  affect  the  subscriptions,  and 
as  regards  the  quality  of  dyes  produced  that  must  be  left  to  the 
directors  to  decide.  He  agreed  the  Company  must  live  "  in  open 
competition  with  other  people,"  but  it  was  not  proposed  to  make 
the  signing  of  the  five-years'  agreement  an  essential  condition  of 
subsidising  capital  to  the  undertaking.  Dealing  with  the  supply 
of  chemicals  he  thought  the  difficulty  we  suffered  from  was  the 
lack  of  supply  of  "second-grade  chemists,"  the  Government 
grant  of  £10,000  a  year  for  research  work  would  be  given  for 
technical  education,  and  this  would  secure  a  larger  number  of 
chemists  in  the  second  grade. 

Mr.  Chamberlain  now  interposed,  and  opened  with  observing 
that  not  a  single  speaker  had  found  fault  with  the  Government 
for  taking  action ;  the  character  of  the  emergency  with  which  we 
were  confronted  was  very  generally  recognised,  but  strange  to  say 
everyone  who  had  spoken,  except  the  President  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  regarded  the  Government  scheme  as  not  suitable  for  the 
emergency.  The  argument  on  which  the  President  decided  that 
it  was  necessary  at  once  to  form  a  company  turned  upon  our 
relations  with  Swiss  manufacturers.  True,  Switzerland  could 
not  supply  us  with  what  we  wanted  unless  we  supplied  her 
with  the  raw  material  which  she  was  to  work  up.  But,  he  added, 
"I  do  not  understand  why  a  company  must  be  formed  for  that 
purpose.  You  only  had  to  issue  licences  to  existing  individuals 
for  export  under  conditions  which  you  would  lay  down,  and 
which  you  would  watch  over  by  your  representatives.  You  had 
only  to  issue  licences  for  export  to  those  who  might  come  to  you, 
and  the  whole  trade  might  be  done  by  existing  concerns,  and 
would  be  done  already  if  these  licences  had  been  freely  given.  It 
really  does  not  follow  that  to  deal  with  an  actual  emergency,  so 
far  as  that  emergency  can  only  be  met  from  Switzerland,  you 
need  a  company  at  all,  and  if  it  does  not  follow  that  for  that 


70  The  Empire  Review 

purpose  you  need  a  company,  the  whole  basis  of  the  structure 
which  the  President  raised  is  cut  away  at  once." 

Referring  to  the  fiscal  aspect  Mr.  Chamberlain  assured  the 
Government  he  was  content  to  treat  the  question  quite  apart 
from  what  the  policy  after  the  war  is  going  to  be  and  to  treat  it 
purely  as  a  practical  question  how  we  are  to  supply  our  needs  in 
this  particular  instance.  He  was  anxious  to  see  a  concern 
founded  upon  business  principles  and  one  that  would  secure  the 
support,  and  the  willing  support,  of  business  men.  It  was  very 
difficult  for  those  not  directly  connected  with  the  trades  con- 
cerned to  judge  exactly  of  the  prospects  of  such  a  concern  as  the 
Government  are  proposing  to  establish.  The  best  test  we  can 
apply  was,  "Do  the  men  who  know  most  and  who  are  most 
interested  voluntarily  put  up  money  for  your  scheme  ?  That 
test  the  Government  have  utterly  destroyed,  because  this  money 
is  not  being  subscribed  voluntarily,  but  the  Government  are 
putting  every  form  of  pressure  on  the  people  most  concerned  to 
force  them  to  put  up  their  money." 

On  the  matter  of  distributing  the  goods  after  they  come  from 
Switzerland,  Mr.  Chamberlain  said :  "  The  Company  is  to  dis- 
tribute them  by  preferences  among  its  customers,  giving,  first,  a 
preference  to  its  subscribers,  and,  secondly,  a  preference  to  many 
of  those  who  bind  themselves  to  buy  their  supplies  wholly  from 
the  Government."  These  were  the  terms  laid  down.  "  When  the 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,"  he  continued,  "  tells  us  that 
people  have  been  forced  to  pay  six  times  the  pre-war  prices  in 
order  to  get  dyes  to  supply  the  immediate  demand,  when  he  says 
that  the  only  source  of  supply  is  Switzerland,  and  when  he  asks 
a  monopoly  for  the  Swiss  source  of  supply  and  for  the  subscribers 
of  this  Company,  does  he  mean  to  tell  me  that  the  subscriptions 
to  the  Company  are  voluntary  ?  No ;  there  is  coercion,  and  for 
the  moment  very  effective  coercion,  and,  therefore;  for  the 
immediate  emergency  during  the  war  the  pinch  is  greatest,  for 
pressure  is  going  to  be  applied  on  subscribers  to  subscribe  to  the 
Company.  The  fact  that  they  are  subscribing  is  no  test  of  the 
success  of  the  concern." 

"  Then  as  to  reasonable  prices.  The  President  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  has  told  us  that  reasonable  prices  means  only  one 
thing.  Are  they  the  cheapest  prices  at  which  you  can  buy  ?  If 
that  is  so,  why  not  say  so  at  once,  and  do  not  put  in  the 
Agreement  the  expression  '  reasonable  prices,'  which  no  one  can 
understand,  but  put  into  your  Agreement  '  that  you  will  buy 
from  us  unless  you  can  get  the  goods  cheaper  elsewhere.'  That 
is  what  the  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  says  they  mean.  If 
they  mean  that,  what  security  do  they  give  the  Company,  and 
the  people  who  are  asked  to  invest  money  ?  What  is  going  to  be 


Aniline  Dye  Industry  71 

the  position  after  the  war  ?  .  .  .  To  give  some  idea  of  these 
great  German  organisations  I  am  told  that  one  of  them  alone 
makes  a  net  profit  of  something  like  a  million  a  year.  .  .  .  Not 
merely  are  their  other  processes  of  manufacture  highly  organised, 
but  their  works  are  highly  equipped.  The  methods  of  sale  for 
the  disposal  of  the  produce  are  equally  skilled,  and  these  great 
institutions  have  been  running  for  years,  piling  up  reserves  as 
to  the  amount  of  which  none  of  us  can  speak  with  confidence, 
though  we  know  that  they  are  absolutely  enormous,  and  that 
these  institutions  can  afford  out  of  their  reserves,  apart  from 
profits — to  trade  for  a  very  long  time  if  they  thought  it  necessary 
— to  forego  profits  in  order  to  prevent  serious  competition  arising 
with  their  industry." 

Proceeding  to  discuss  the  question  of  security  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain observed:  "  It  is  not  contended  that  the  British  Company  will 
be  able  to  supply  all  the  articles.  It  is  probable  that  the  British 
Company  may  not  be  able  to  supply  the  full  demand  for  some  of 
them.  Suppose  the  consumer  orders  so  much  of  article  'A,'  and 
so  much  of  article  '  B,'  and  the  Company  says,  '  We  do  not 
make  all  you  require  of  "  A,"  and  we  can  only  give  you  fifty  per 
cent.'  Very  well,  you  take  fifty  per  cent.,  and  the  consumer  has 
to  go  elsewhere  to  buy  the  other  fifty  per  cent,  of  'A.'  The 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  his  experience  may  know  of 
the  grievance  which  arises  from  giving  more  favourable  terms  to 
those  who  do  an  exclusive  trade  than  to  those  who  do  a  partial 
trade.  What  is  to  prevent  the  highly  organised  German 
companies  from  penalising  a  company  which  has  to  go  to  them 
for  part  of  their  supplies  ?  What  is  to  prevent  a  highly  organised 
German  company  from  penalising  a  British  company  for  not 
having  come  to  them  for  its  whole  supplies  ?  I  think  the  lines  of 
the  scheme  give  no  security  to  the  investor  of  capital,  and  no 
security  to  the  users  of  the  dyes." 

Mr.  Chamberlain  did  not  condemn  the  Government  proposals 
on  the  ground  that  they  were  protective,  but  he  disliked  bounties, 
and  he  objected  to  wasting  public  money.  He  wanted  the  money 
used  to  be  the  foundation  of  an  industry  and  not  to  be  thrown 
away.  Touching  on  the  Keid-Holliday  agreement  he  hit  the 
right  nail  on  the  head  when  he  pointed  out  that  one  would  have 
thought  that  the  proprietors  of  this  business  would  have  been  the 
first  to  put  money  into  the  new  company,  instead  of  that  they 
were  "to  be  bought  out  entirely  in  cash."  On  this  point  he 
found  a  supporter  in  Sir  Alfred  Mond,  who  made  an  interesting 
speech,  and  as  an  expert  was  naturally  listened  to  with  attention. 
Then  the  Parliamentary  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade  took 
up  the  cudgels  on  behalf  of  the  Government.  All  through  he 
seemed  to  be  skating  on  thin  ice,  and  he  got  home  with  difficulty. 


72  The  Empire  Review 

He  seemed  to  find  Mr.  Chamberlain's  points  somewhat  difficult  to 
answer,  and  in  cross-examination  stumbled  badly  at  times.  His 
speech,  however,  was  most  diplomatic,  and  he  managed  to  reach 
the  end  of  his  task  without  compromising  the  Government, 
no  easy  matter  in  view  of  the  very  general  criticism  the  scheme 
had  received  from  all  parts  of  the  House.  Mr.  Bolan,  Sir 
Frederick  Cawley,  Mr.  Bigland  and  Mr.  Higham  also  made 
useful  contributions  to  what  was  a  most  informing  and  instructive 
debate. 

EDITOR. 


NEW    ZEALAND    AND    THE    WAR 

A  further  demonstration  of  the  loyalty  of  the  Maoris  has  been 
received  by  the  Prime  Minister  of  New  Zealand  in  an  offer 
conveyed  to  him  by  a  number  of  native  chiefs  to  give  a  half-year's 
rent  from  various  blocks  of  land  owned  by  them  to  the  Empire 
Defence  Fund.  The  amount  of  this  gift  will  be  about  £1,000. 
On  learning  that  the  Government  had  accepted  a  contingent  of 
Maoris,  no  less  than  sixty  leading  chiefs  in  one  district  volunteered 
in  one  hour.  A  ferocious-looking  mountain  sheep  bred  on  the 
slopes  of  Mount  Euapehu  was  presented  recently  to  the  Mana- 
watu  Agricultural  and  Pastoral  Association  for  the  purpose  of 
being  auctioned  in  aid  of  the  Belgian  Belief  Fund.  The  sheep 
was  called  "Kaiser  Bill,"  and  when  finally  sold,  it  was  found 
that  the  total  amount  paid  during  the  selling  and  re-selling  was 
£607  2s.  In  Auckland  where  a  "Belgian  Week"  was  held 
to  collect  funds  for  the  relief  of  our  distressed  ally,  several 
touching  incidents  took  place.  One  small  farmer,  at  the  Mayor's 
inaugural  meeting,  who  had  travelled  sixty  miles  in  order  to 
be  present  and  offer  help  and  whose  son  is  in  the  Expeditionary 
Force,  agreed  to  give  10  per  cent,  of  his  income  to  the  Fund. 
He  had,  since  war  started,  though  only  owning  a  farm  of 
a  hundred  acres,  given  J  per  cent,  of  his  income  to  a  Belgian 
Fund  and  ^  per  cent,  to  New  Zealand's  own  Patriotic  Fund. 
A  capital  response  has  been  made  to  the  request  of  the 
provincial  executive  of  the  New  Zealand  Farmers'  Union  that 
farmers  in  the  Auckland  district  should  place  areas  of  land 
suitable  for  cropping  at  the  disposal  of  the  Union  free  of  cost. 
Farmers  from  all  parts  of  the  province  are  offering  land  freely  to 
the  Union,  and  it  is  expected  that  a  very  large  area  will  be  avail- 
able while  the  war  lasts.  It  is  the  intention  of  the  Union  to 
provide  manure,  seeds,  labour,  etc.,  and  raise  crops  which  will  be 
its  own  property.  The  object  of  the  scheme  is  to  increase 
production  and  provide  additional  work. 


Australia  and  the  Belgian  Refugees  73 


AUSTRALIA  AND  THE   BELGIAN   REFUGEES 

ONE  of  the  saddest  features  of  the  war  is  its  effects  on  the 
inoffensive  inhabitants  of  the  districts  where  it  principally  rages. 
Except  in  the  Balkan  regions,  where  racial  and  religious 
animosities  of  peculiar  intensity  and  bitterness  have  smouldered 
for  centuries,  Europe  has  not  known  since  the  time  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  an  international  conflict  that  has  brought  more 
misery  and  loss  to  non-combatants.  In  Belgium,  East  Prussia 
and  elsewhere  whole  populations  are  in  flight ;  just  as  Ostrogoths 
and  Gallic  provincials  formerly  fled  before  the  hosts  of  Attila. 
Where  the  contending  armies  have  passed  there  remains  but  a 
deserted  countryside  of  smoking  villages.  Swept  out  of  their 
cottages  by  swarms  of  horsemen  the  peasants  have  fled  to  the 
cities,  only  to  be  driven  again  from  them  by  furious  bombard- 
ments. Even  the  inanimate  triumphs  of  Art  have  been 
wantonly  attacked  and  defaced.  Displays  of  what  Mr.  Asquith 
rightly  denounced  as  "blind  barbarian  vengeance"  have  been 
numerous,  and  Rheims  and  Louvain  will  long  supply  the 
justification  for  the  sternest  indictment  ever  directed  by  a  British 
Prime  Minister  against  a  foreign  nation. 

But  of  all  the  nationalities  suffering  in  this  way  the  Belgians 
may  justly  put  forward  the  first  claims  to  the  compassion  of 
neutral  peoples,  and  in  particular  to  that  of  all  citizens  of  the 
British  Empire.  For  Belgium  was  guiltless  of  any  offence 
against  any  one  of  the  warring  nations.  She  has  suffered,  and  is 
suffering,  the  worst  miseries  of  war  merely  because  she  dared  to 
assert  the  elementary  right  of  an  independent  State  to  resist  the 
violation  of  its  territory.  In  so  doing  she  fought  the  battle  of 
England,  and  rendered  her  the  inestimable  service  of  delaying 
the  German  onset  sufficiently  long  to  allow  of  transporting  the 
first  expeditionary  army  to  the  shores  of  France.  Had  the 
Belgian  Government  bowed,  under  protest,  to  apparent  necessity, 
and  allowed  a  German  army  to  occupy  Antwerp  without 
resistance  within  the  first  week  of  the  war,  an  invasion  of 
England  might  have  been  attempted.  In  any  case,  the  threat  of 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  170.  H 


74  The  Empire  Review 

it  would  probably  have  delayed  the  sending  of  troops  to  France, 
and  rendered  the  position  of  that  country  one  of  the  gravest 
peril.  These  risks  were  happily  averted  by  the  heroism  of  the 
defenders  of  Liege ;  and  Britons,  not  only  in  the  Mother  Country, 
but  all  over  the  world,  have  reason  to  feel  deeply  indebted  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  small  country  that  so  manfully  defended  its 
own  liberties,  and  those  of  Europe. 

The  question  at  once  arises,  how  can  that  debt  best  be 
discharged?  Both  public  and  private  beneficence,  it  is  well 
known,  are  doing  much  to  mitigate  the  sufferings  of  the  innocent 
victims  of  war.  Among  other  gifts  that  of  the  sum  of  £100,000 
by  the  Federal  Government  of  Australia  deserves  honourable 
mention.  But  money,  food  and  clothing  in  themselves  are 
hardly  enough.  France,  Holland  and  Great  Britain  are  providing 
shelter  and  subsistence  for  large  numbers  of  Belgian  refugees  at 
considerable  cost.  The  burden  is  particularly  heavy  in  the  case 
of  Holland  which,  owing  to  its  geographical  position,  has 
naturally  received  the  largest  number  of  fugitives,  and  which, 
though  not  itself  actually  at  war,  is  obliged  to  maintain  its  entire 
armed  force  ready  for  action,  and  also  to  suffer  great  losses 
through  the  interruption  of  trade.  All  three  countries  are 
already  fully  inhabited,  and  they  cannot  supply  what  is,  after  all, 
the  chief  requirement  of  their  unfortunate  guests,  permanent 
homes  and  opportunities  for  making  a  living.  To  satisfy  that 
want  the  exiles  must  go  further  afield. 

On  the  termination  of  hostilities,  of  course,  supposing  the 
Governments  of  Great  Britain,  Holland  and  France  to  be  able  to 
bear  the  burden  of  providing  for  the  wants  of  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  destitute  aliens  until  peace  is  restored,  the  refugees 
might  return  to  their  own  country  without  fear  of  molestation. 
But  what  attractions  would  they  find  there?  Destroyed  homes, 
devastated  lands,  ruined  factories  and  workshops — all  the 
machinery  of  industry  for  the  time  destroyed.  Their  condition 
in  such  circumstances  would  be  even  more  deplorable  than  it  was 
before ;  because  for  a  long  time  to  come  no  remunerative 
employment  could  be  provided  for  half  those  who  urgently 
needed  it.  And  an  impoverished  Government  could  do  little  to 
alleviate  the  general  distress.  Far  better,  then,  that  at  least  a 
portion  of  the  refugees,  instead  of  subsisting  for  perhaps  years  on 
charity  in  England,  Holland  or  elsewhere,  should  be  assisted  to 
form  new  homes  for  themselves  in  some  country  where  they 
would  be  warmly  welcomed,  and  where  they  would  find  boundless 
opportunities  for  improving  their  condition. 

Such  a  country  is  Australia.  For  the  unhappy  victims  of 
war,  whose  misfortunes  appeal  so  strongly  and  justly  to  British 
sympathies,  Australia  would  be  an  ideal  land  of  refuge  and  hope. 


Australia  and  the  Belgian  Refugees  75 

It  has,  on  the  whole,  a  delightful  and  salubrious  climate, 
boundless  areas  of  fertile  soil  crying  for  cultivators,  immense 
mineral  resources,  and  all  the  raw  material  necessary  for  the 
prosecution  of  many  manufacturing  industries  still  unknown 
within  its  limits.  Both  for  its  economic  development  and  its 
national  safety,  the  Commonwealth  urgently  needs  population. 
And  there  is  this  further  consideration.  Australia  has  already 
sent  away,  or  will  shortly  send  away,  some  40,000  of  the  flower 
of  her  manhood  to  join  the  forces  of  the  Empire  in  Europe. 
Many  of  her  soldiers,  it  is  to  be  feared,  will  never  return. 
Would  it  not  be  wise  policy,  then,  on  her  part  to  seek 
compensation  for  her  losses  by  the  introduction  of  even  a  larger 
number  of  suitable  immigrants  ?  The  chance  now  afforded  to 
her  by  the  European  cataclysm  of  combining  good  business  with 
real  benevolence  is  a  unique  one,  and  should  not  be  neglected. 

The  advantages,  immediate  and  prospective,  which  Australia 
might  expect  to  derive  from  the  importation  of  Belgian  refugees, 
are  too  obvious  to  need  notice.  It  is  a  mere  commonplace  to 
affirm  that  every  sparsely-peopled  country  is  the  better  off  for  the 
increase  of  its  population,  provided,  of  course,  the  new-comers 
are  not,  racially  or  otherwise,  undesirable.  Belgians,  as  a  whole, 
certainly  may  be  regarded  as  eligible  colonists.  They  are  an 
industrious  and  law-abiding  race,  and  eminently  skilful  in 
agriculture  and  the  mechanical  arts.  They  are,  in  fact,  excepting 
only  people  of  our  own  blood,  the  very  best  class  of  settlers 
Australia  could  select,  and  they  would  introduce  into  the 
Commonwealth,  in  addition  to  special  skill  in  agriculture  and 
various  handicrafts,  virtues  such  as  thrift,  frugality  and  industry 
which  large  numbers  of  Australian  working  men  might  well 
imitate. 

Three  classes  of  immigrants  would  be  particularly  desirable  : — 
farmers  and  rural  workers,  skilled  tradesmen  and  domestic 
servants.  There  is  room  for  any  number  of  additional  cooks, 
nurses  and  housemaids  in  Melbourne  and  Sydney  alone  ;  and,  in 
return  for  efficient  service,  wages  would  readily  be  paid  that 
would  astonish  the  ordinary  female  worker  in  Europe.  Belgian 
widows  and  their  daughters,  therefore,  if  able  and  willing  to  work, 
would  find  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  employment  of  the  kind 
specified  in  Australia.  Shop  girls,  waitresses  and  milliners' 
assistants,  however,  are  not  wanted.  The  present  supply  exceeds 
the  demand. 

But  a  large  accession  to  the  present  diminutive  number  of 
rural  workers  in  Australia  is  the  most  pressing  need.  And  no 
better  opportunity  could  possibly  be  found  for  supplying  this 
vital  want  than  that  now  presented  by  the  expulsion  from  their 
homes  of  thousands  of  the  most  thrifty,  skilful  and  industrious 

H  2 


76  The  Empire  Review 

cultivators  to  be  found  in  continental  Europe.  A  moderate 
State  outlay,  supplemented,  perhaps,  by  private  contributions, 
would  be  sufficient  to  transport  and  settle  in  various  parts  of  the 
Commonwealth  large  numbers  of  the  most  valuable  colonists  the 
country,  in  its  present  state  of  undevelopment,  could  obtain  from 
any  source.  The  combination  of  Asiatic  industry  and  temperance 
with  European  intelligence  and  morals  to  be  found  in  the  small 
freeholder  of  Belgium  is  one  that,  introduced  into  a  new  country 
of  infinite  agricultural  possibilities,  must  vastly  increase  the  general 
prosperity. 

Before  undertaking  the  conveyance  to  Australia  of  considerable 
numbers  of  refugees  the  Federal  authorities  would,  of  course,  have 
to  devise  means  for  their  reception  and  settlement  on  arrival. 
The  co-operation  of .  the  various  State  Governments  would  be 
necessary  to  carry  out  a  comprehensive  scheme  of  land  settlement. 
The  Commonwealth  Government  might  indeed  find  homes  for  a 
limited  number  of  the  immigrants  in  its  own  territory  surrounding 
the  Federal  capital  site ;  and  it  would  probably  soon  find  a  large 
Belgian  colony  established  on  the  land  now  being  brought  under 
irrigation  in  the  Yass-Canberra  region  a  most  valuable  source  of 
revenue.  The  huge  "  undeveloped  estate  "  owned  by  the  Common- 
wealth in  the  north  of  Australia  could  scarcely  be  recommended 
as  a  site  for  the  establishment  of  a  new  Belgium.  Such  an  ex- 
periment might  result  in  a  repetition  of  the  pitiable  experiences  of 
the  Scotch  settlers  at  Darien  a  couple  of  centuries  ago.  New 
South  Wales  could  find  land  and  homes  for  hundreds  of  refugees 
in  the  large  tracts  of  irrigated  land  along  the  Murrumbidgee 
Biver  and  elsewhere.  In  Victoria  there  is  room  for  half  a  dozen 
more  Milduras,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  South  Australia. 
Queensland  and  West  Australia  each  could  readily  absorb  tens  of 
thousands  of  vine-growers,  farmers  and  orchardists.  In  short,  the 
only  difficulties  to  be  overcome  are  those  of  selection,  trans- 
portation and  finance. 

The  last  named  unquestionably  at  the  present  time,  when 
Australia  is  faced  with  an  extraordinary  war  expenditure  for  the 
coming  year  of  over  £10,000,000,  while,  owing  to  the  ravages  of 
drought,  the  public  revenue  for  some  time  has  steadily  declined, 
would  constitute  a  formidable  impediment.  Boughly,  perhaps,  it 
may  be  computed  that  to  establish  a  family  of  five  persons  on  a 
holding,  and  to  provide  them  with  the  means  of  living  until  the 
first  crop  was  harvested,  would  cost  about  £250.  It  would  not 
be  necessary  at  first  in  a  climate  like  that  of  the  inland  regions  of 
Australia  to  build  substantial  homes.  Portable  dwellings,  such 
as  those  which  the  Government  of  New  South  Wales  has  lately 
supplied  in  large  numbers  for  the  use  of  the  unemployed,  would 
be  suflicient  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  immigrants  for  the  first  few 


Australia  and  the  Belgian  Refugees  77 

months.  Blocks  of  irrigated  land  not  exceeding  ten  or  fifteen 
acres  might  be  assigned  to  each  family  on  fair  conditions  as  to 
residence  and  improvement,  payment  being  made  by  instalments. 
A  million  pounds  judiciously  spent  should  thus  cover  the  cost  of 
bringing  out  to  Australia,  and  settling  there,  some  20,000  highly 
desirable  immigrants ;  and  apart  from  the  certainty  of  eventual 
repayment  of  capital,  the  taxes  paid  by  the  new-comers  after  the 
first  three  years  might  be  expected  in  themselves  to  represent  fair 
interest  on  the  whole  sum  spent.  Considerations  of  temporary 
gain  or  loss,  however,  should  not  be  allowed  to  weigh  too  heavily. 
Apart  from  the  promptings  of  humanity,  the  paramount  con- 
sideration of  national  safety  should  urge  on  the  Commonwealth 
rulers  the  advisability  of  taking  advantage  of  the  present  oppor- 
tunity of  strengthening  the  living  defences  of  Australia. 

Necessarily  some  discrimination  would  have  to  be  exercised  in 
choosing  suitable  emigrants,  and  these  might  be  required  to  pass 
certain  tests  applied  by  boards  of  selection  established  in  London 
and  elsewhere,  and  acting  on  behalf  of  the  Commonwealth 
Government,  before  free  passages  to  Australia  were  granted.  As 
regards  conveyance,  it  might  be  suggested  that  captured  German 
vessels  and  their  crews  should  be  utilised.  It  were  fitting 
retribution  that  the  ships  and  sailors  of  the  nation  whose  soldiers 
had  driven  helpless  multitudes  from  their  native  country  should 
be  employed  to  transport  the  victims  to  new  homes.  Troop-ships 
returning  from  the  seat  of  war  to  Australia  might  also,  on  the 
homeward  voyage,  perform  the  useful  office  of  emigrant  ships.  In 
so  doing  they  would  perform  a  double  service,  and  minister  to  the 
needs  both  of  war  and  peace. 

Agricultural  immigrants,  naturally,  would  be  most  valuable  to 
a  country  like  Australia.  But  others  would  be  welcome  also. 
Belgian  coal-miners  could  find  work  at  Newcastle  and  elsewhere, 
and  receive  wages  which,  to  them,  would  seem  munificent.  For 
men  skilled  in  the  textile  trades  the  existing  woollen  factories 
in  the  Commonwealth  would  afford  a  certain  amount  of  immediate 
employment ;  and  helped  by  a  high  tariff,  and  by  advantages 
unsurpassed  elsewhere  in  the  way  of  cheap  and  abundant  supplies 
of  raw  materials  close  at  hand,  capitalists,  we  may  be  sure,  once 
the  services  of  a  sufficient  number  of  skilled  operatives  were  at 
their  disposal,  would  soon  convert  several  Australian  cities  into 
rivals  of  Leeds  and  Bradford.  The  manufacture  of  silk  might  also 
be  introduced,  as  well  as  other  industries  now  unknown  in  the 
Commonwealth . 

Above  all,  an  influx  of  skilled  Belgian  iron-workers  might  be 
followed  by  the  founding  of  an  Australian  Liege.  No  other 
manufacturing  industries  are  of  greater  importance  to  the  future 
prosperity  of  the  Commonwealth  than  those  associated  with  the 


78  The  Empire  Review 

working  of  iron,  steel  and  the  useful  metals.  In  respect  of  mineral 
wealth  Australia  stands  second  to  no  other  country  in  the  world. 
Hitherto,  however,  she  has  been  obliged,  for  want  of  suitable 
labour,  to  send  the  great  bulk  of  her  mineral  products  abroad  for 
treatment  and  manufacture.  Skilled  Belgian  workmen  might 
wreak  economic  vengeance  on  their  late  oppressors  by  manu- 
facturing in  their  adopted  country  the  £2,000,000  worth  of  metal 
goods  which  the  Commonwealth  for  some  time  past  has  imported 
annually  from  Germany.  That  country  would  thus  suffer  the 
same  punishment  for  its  misdeeds  as  Spain  suffered  in  the  days  of 
Alva  for  the  persecution  of  the  Flemish  weavers,  and  France 
later  for  the  expulsion  of  thousands  of  Huguenot  workmen  after 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Nemesis  rules  in  the 
industrial  as  in  the  moral  world. 

Unhappily,  among  a  numerically  weak  but  politically  strong 
section  of  the  Australian  people,  any  scheme  for  the  introduction 
of  large  numbers  of  foreigners,  no  matter  how  eligible,  would  be 
viewed  with  disfavour.  Political  trade-unionism,  in  short, 
sullenly  blocks  the  way.  Were  the  present  Labour  Government 
wise  and  bold  enough  to  place  before  the  Federal  Parliament  a 
comprehensive  project  of  State-assisted  immigration  such  as  I  have 
ventured  to  advocate,  its  action  would  most  certainly  be  damned 
with  expressions  far  stronger  than  "  faint  praise."  "  Australia 
for  Australians  "  is  a  popular  cry  among  the  classes  who  desire  to 
make,  and  keep,  the  continent  an  industrial  close  borough,  whose 
citizens  shall  enjoy  valuable  and  exclusive  privileges.  This 
rather  narrow  and  selfish  aspiration  is  certainly  not  cherished  by 
all  Australian  workers — probably  not  by  the  majority — but  it 
unquestionably  rules  among  the  aristocracy  of  labour,  and  the 
more  fanatical  members  of  trade-unionism.  These  men  fear,  with 
some  reason,  that  immigrants  trained  in  habits  of  industry  and 
self-denial  would  not  readily  listen  to  the  gospel  of  idleness  that 
is  now  so  sedulously  preached  by  some  of  the  representatives  of 
the  industrial  elect ;  and  that  skilled  workmen,  or  agriculturists, 
accustomed  in  their  native  country  to  live  comfortably  on  a 
couple  of  shillings  or  so  a  day,  under  Australian  industrial 
conditions  would  quickly  join  the  hated  class  of  employers,  and 
so  strengthen  the  forces  opposed  to  the  demands  of  organised 
labour. 

Moreover,  the  sanctity  of  the  Eight  Hours'  Day  would  probably 
not  be  respected  by  men  who,  during  their  previous  lives,  had  been 
accustomed  to  work  for  at  least  ten  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four, 
especially  when  they  found  themselves  on  the  road  to  indepen- 
dence. "  Eat,  drink  and  be  merry,  for  the  State  will  provide," 
is  a  doctrine  that  appeals  but  little  to  the  hard-working  cultivator, 
who  aspires  to  the  possession  of  a  home  and  land  of  his  own  in 


Australia  and  the  Belgian  Refugees  79 

old  age,  and  does  not  pin  all  his  hopes  to  the  future  enjoyment  of 
a  sorry  ten  shillings  a  week,  bestowed  on  him  by  a  grudging 
State.  Finally — and  to  the  popular  politician  this  is  perhaps  the 
most  cogent  objection — small  freehold  proprietors  are  a  stubborn 
and  intractable  race,  and  deaf  to  the  persuasions  of  the  labour 
organiser.  As  property  owners  they  naturally  defend  the 
interests  of  property,  and  utterly  reject  the  Gospel  of  Socialism. 

A  clear  indication  of  the  feelings  of  certain  Labour  politicians 
towards  State-assisted  immigration  on  a  large  scale  was  given  by 
the  attitude  assumed  by  the  Premier  of  one  State,  where  the 
Labour  Party  is  now  dominant,  towards  the  advocates  of  a 
scheme  for  the  granting  of  assistance  to  enable  a  number  of 
Belgian  widows  and  orphans  to  emigrate  to  the  Antipodes.  In  a 
published  letter  the  statesman  referred  to  charitably  ascribed  to 
the  ladies  who  had  expressed  their  willingness  to  provide  employ- 
ment for  some  of  these  unfortunates  a  desire  to  obtain  the  services 
of  "  white  slaves."  Further,  the  Agent-General  for  the  State 
was  officially  instructed  to  withhold  support  from  any  project  of 
the  kind.  It  would  not  be  fair,  indeed,  to  accuse  politicians  of 
the  "  Australia  for  Australian  Trade-unionists  "  school  of  lacking 
ordinary  humanity.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  full  of  sympathy 
for  the  hapless  victims  of  war  now  driven  from  their  wrecked 
homes.  In  a  hundred  speeches  Belgian  valour  and  patriotism 
are  extolled.  Money  also,  raised  by  taxing  less  vociferous 
humanitarians,  is  promised  them.  The  Levite,  indeed,  is 
prepared  to  fling  to  the  wounded  traveller  all  the  silver  he  can 
abstract  from  the  pockets  of  the  Good  Samaritan.  But  admission 
to  his  own  sumptuous  hostelry  is  rigorously  forbidden. 

It  were  entirely  unjust,  however,  it  must  be  repeated,  to 
ascribe  the  not  highly  commendable  mental  attitude  towards 
strangers  distinctive  of  the  extreme  section  of  trade-unionists  to 
the  Australian  people  as  a  whole.  Such  an  attitude  would  be 
repudiated  with  vigour  by  nine  persons  out  of  every  ten  ;  though 
unfortunately,  seeing  that  government  by  majority  in  theory 
usually  becomes  government  by  minority  in  practice,  the  tenth 
individual  in  the  Commonwealth  has  become  a  personage  of 
considerable  political  importance.  The  ordinary  Australian 
citizen  has  a  wholesome  feeling  of  kindliness  for  deserving 
outcasts  of  all  nationalities  ;  and  the  unmerited  sufferings  of  the 
Belgian  exiles  appeal  with  peculiar  force  to  his  sympathies.  All 
that  seems  needed  to  give  practical  effect  to  the  universal  desire 
to  ameliorate  the  now  deplorable  condition  of  the  refugees  is  the 
adoption  by  the  official  leaders  of  public  opinion  in  Australia  of  a 
well-devised  scheme  for  providing,  not  only  food  for  the  starving, 
but  homes  for  the  homeless. 

Enlightened  policy,  philanthropy  and   self-interest  all   point 


80  The  Empire  Review 

the  same  way.  By  bringing  to  their  country,  and  establishing 
on  portions  of  its  vast  and  yet  unoccupied  lands,  colonies  of 
industrious  but  stricken  outcasts,  the  innocent  victims  of  war, 
Australian  statesmen  and  the  people  they  represent  would 
ultimately  reap  the  blessings  that  reward  not  only  those  who 
give  but  those  who  receive.  The  race  that  has  transformed  the 
barren  Campine  of  Belgium  into  a  region  of  fruitful  gardens  and 
farms  would  soon,  we  may  be  sure,  when  removed  to  Australia, 
draw  abundance  from  rich  lands  now  lying  desolate.  A  land  of 
refuge  would  thus  become  a  land  of  prosperity  and  hope;  and 
the  gratitude  of  those  whose  cruel  distresses  had  been  so  relieved 
would  display  itself  in  the  material  benefits  conferred  by  their 
industry  on  their  adopted  country.  Thus  charity  and  expediency 
go  hand  in  hand.  Australia  has  already  nobly  responded  to  the 
call  of  patriotism.  Let  us  trust  she  will  be  obedient  also  to  that 
of  wise  and  far-seeing  humanity. 

F.  A.  W.  GISBOENE. 

TASMANIA. 


RECORDING    VOTES    IN   MILITARY  CAMPS 

\  The  general  elections  were  due  in  New  Zealand  shortly  after 
the  contingent  of  8,000,  who  volunteered  for  service  at  the  front, 
had  to  leave,  and  the  Government  consequently  put  through 
speedily  an  Expeditionary  Force  Voting  Bill,  the  ordinary  routine 
of  camps  being  temporarily  suspended  in  order  to  allow  the  men 
to  record  their  votes.  In  New  Zealand  every  adult  over  twenty- 
one  enjoys  this  privilege.  At  the  booths  to  which  the  troops 
were  marched  in  companies  each  member  was  handed  a  ballot- 
paper  on  which  were  the  names  of  the  three  political  parties — 
Government,  Opposition  and  Labour — and  it  was  left  to  the 
members  to  strike  out  the  names  of  the  two  parties  for  which 
they  did  not  desire  to  vote.  Provision  was  also  made  for  votes 
to  be  taken  on  both  licensing  issues.  After  the  voting  each 
member  of  the  force  had  to  mark  his  ballot-paper  and  then 
enclose  it  in  an  envelope  addressed  to  the  returning  officer  of  the 
electoral  district  in  which  he  resided  immediately  before  he  joined 
the  force.  The  votes  are  to  be  dealt  with  as  though  they  had 
been  recorded  by  an  "  absent  voter,"  and  to  be  added  to  the  total 
of  votes  cast  for  the  Government,  Opposition  or  Labour  candidates 
who  had  been  named  by  the  leaders  of  the  parties. 

J\ 


Our  Glorious  Army  81 


OUR  GLORIOUS  ARMY 

A  PATEIOTIG   SONG 

FORTH  to  the  battle, 

Brave  comrades  go, 
In  their  prime  manhood 

Facing  the  foe; 
Seeming  light-hearted 

'Mid  partings'  strain, 
Shall  we  behold  them 

Ever  again? 

Tramp  !  tramp  !  and  measured 

Their  footsteps  come, 
To  martial  fanfare, 

Clarion  and  drum ; 
Friends  we  have  many 

In  that  long  tide, 
Passing  so  fearless, 

Here  from  our  side. 

Young  ones  and  kind  ones, 

Best  of  our  blood; 
Strong  ones  and  brave  ones, 

Noblest  and  good. 
Into  the  future, 

Veiled  from  our  sight, 
Long  lines  of  heroes 

Pass  through  the  night. 

They  have  our  blessings, 

They  have  our  pray'rs; 
Glory  awaits  them 

Where  ruin  stares : 
Strong  hearts  and  true  hearts, 

Men  without  nerves, 
Staunch  to  the  colours 

Each  nobly  serves. 


82  The  Empire  Review 

"England  expects"  them 

In  righteous  cause 
To  do  their  duty, 

Nor  doubting,  pause. 
Sons  of  her  Empire, 

Strength  of  her  strength, 
Comes  to  them  victory, 

Glorious  at  length ! 

Proud  ones  and  picked  ones 

Go  forth  to  fight, 
Under  the  banner, 

Eight  against  Might. 
Shall  we  not  cheer  them? 

Bravest  and  best, 
Grandest  of  armies, 

Honoured  and  blest. 


ALFBED  SMYTHE. 


THE    THIRD    CANADIAN    CONTINGENT 

IN  connection  with  the  raising  of  the  third  Canadian  con- 
tingent, a  plan  will  be  adopted  whereby  young  men  in  small 
towns  and  rural  districts  will  be  given  a  better  opportunity  to 
offer  their  services  to  the  country.  The  first  contingent  was 
mobilised  at  Valcartier.  The  second  is  being  mobilised  at  various 
divisional  headquarters.  In  creating  the  third  force,  recruiting 
stations  will  be  opened  at  battalion  headquarters,  where,  after  a 
company  has  been  raised,  it  will  be  trained  for  several  weeks 
before  being  mobilised  at  the  regimental  or  divisional  head- 
quarters. Many  complaints  have  been  received  by  the  authori- 
ties from  farmers'  sons  and  young  men  in  small  Canadian  towns 
and  villages  to  the  effect  that  although  willing  to  serve,  they 
have  found  it  difficult  to  become  attached  to  regiments  recruited 
in  larger  centres.  Under  the  new  plan  the  opportunity  to  enlist 
will  be  taken  practically  to  the  door  of  everybody  in  Canada. 
Hitherto  the  Canadian  military  authorities  have  had  to  dis- 
criminate rather  than  to  search  for  recruits,  and  hence,  no 
doubt,  the  complaints  from  the  young  men  in  the  outlying 
districts,  who  on  arrival  in  the  large  centres  found  the  various 
units  full  and  the  registers  closed. 


Lord  Cromer's  New  Book  83 


LORD    CROMER'S    NEW    BOOK* 

THE  year  1894  marks  an  important  epoch  in  the  diplomatic 
history  of  the  relations  between  Great  Britain  and  Egypt.  In 
January,  1892,  Abbas  II.  had  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
Khediviate,  and  in  August  Lord  Eosebery  had  become  Secretary 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs.  Before  he  left  the  Foreign  Office  in 
March,  1894,.  the  battle  fought  by  Lord  Cromer  for  British 
supremacy  in  Egypt  had  been  virtually  won.  The  "  Frontier 
Incident  "  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  had  resulted  in  the 
collapse  of  the  Khedive. 

Of  the  character  of  the  young  Egyptian  who  came  fresh  from 
the  narrow  training  of  an  Austrian  college  to  the  Khedivial 
Palace,  Lord  Cromer  formed  a  shrewd  estimate  at  the  outset. 
After  the  first  interview  with  Abbas,  he  informed  Lord  Salisbury 
of  his  belief  that  the  young  man  would  be  "  very  Egyptian"  and 
he  marks  that  as  the  keynote  of  all  that  followed.  It  must  be 
regarded  as  extremely  fortunate  for  the  Empire  that  this  Egyptian 
was  opposed  by  a  statesman  so  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
Egyptian  character.  Lord  Cromer  formed  the  opinion  that  the 
main  object  of  the  Khedive's  existence  was  to  enrich  himself  by 
every  means  at  his  disposal,  fair  or  foul,  and  the  instances  which 
he  cites  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  young  man  was  entirely 
unscrupulous  in  the  replenishment  of  his  coffers.  He  was  always 
ready  to  be  the  tool  of  the  Sultan,  and  was  continually  engaged 
in  eminently  discreditable  intrigues  with  Constantinople.  He  was 
invariably  courteous,  and  he  was  ready  when  impelled  by 
expediency  to  deny  any  statement  that  he  had  ever  made.  Lord 
Cromer  describes  him  as  like  the  Vergilian  Drances,  "  seditione 
potens."  He  proceeds  : — 

He  was  a  master  of  petty  intrigue,  and  was  so  wedded  to  tortuous  courses 
that  he  was  incapable  of  steadfastly  pursuing  for  long  any  really  loyal  and 
straightforward  course  of  action. 

Finally,  it  was  clear  from  the  beginning  that  he  intended  to 
pose  as  an  ardent  patriot,  and  as  a  supporter  of  everything 
Egyptian  ;  from  this  it  was  a  short  step  to  Anglophobia. 

*  '  Abbas  II.'  By  the  Earl  of  Cromer.  London :  Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ltd. 
2s.  6d.  net. 


84  The  Empire  Review 

The  return  of  the  Liberal  Party  to  power,  which  occurred 
during  the  absence  of  Lord  Cromer  in  England,  and  which  placed 
Lord  Kosebery  at  the  Foreign  Office,  had  a  most  important  effect 
upon  the  development  of  events  in  Egypt.  Tigrane  Pasha, 
Abbas'  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  who  imagined  himself  to  be 
peculiarly  skilful  at  gauging  British  public  opinion,  and  knew 
that  a  section  of  the  Liberal  Party  favoured  a  speedy  evacuation 
of  Egypt,  proceeded  to  impress  upon  the  young  Khedive  (who 
was  quite  ready  to  be  impressed  with  anything)  that  the  time 
was  ripe  for  the  adoption  of  an  Anglophobe  policy.  The  result 
was  that  Lord  Cromer  found  on  his  return  that  the  boy  who 
seemed  friendly  in  July  had  become  hostile  in  November. 

The  numerous  petty  complaints  (for  example,  that  an 
English  officer  had  appeared  at  a  reception  in  long  boots  when  he 
ought  to  have  come  in  trousers)  were  merely  outward  signs  of  a 
deep-lying  discontentment  and  resentment,  due  to  the  fact  that 
British  troops  remained  in  occupation  of  the  country  while 
British  administrators  thwarted  the  capricious  will  of  the  young 
ruler.  Abbas  was  clearly  becoming  Anglophobe ;  his  dislike  for 
every  British  official  was  of  the  same  order  as  that  felt  by  the 
English  translator  of  a  well-known  Latin  epigram  for  Doctor 
Fell,  and  the  chief  place  in  his  dislike  was  awarded  to  Lord 
Cromer.  In  posing  as  the  champion  of  Egyptian  nationalism 
against  the  British  oppressor,  he  could  avail  himself,  as  Lord 
Cromer  points  out,  of  all  the  catch-words  of  modern  democracy. 
In  reality  he  cared  nothing  for  the  welfare  of  his  countrymen  and 
everything  for  his  own  dignity  and  aggrandisement.  Lord 
Cromer  decided  that  his  best  course  was  a  diplomacy  based  on 
the  principles  of  Polonius'  advice  to  Laertes  regarding  quarrels, 
and  he  therefore  displayed  a  studied  moderation  towards  the 
young  Khedive. 

But  Abbas  soon  precipitated  a  breach  by  a  coup  d'etat.  At 
the  end  of  1892  Mustapha  Pasha  Fehmi,  the  Prime  Minister, 
became  dangerously  ill.  The  Khedive  urged  the  sick  man  to 
resign,  and  when  the  latter  advised  his  master  to  consult  Lord 
Cromer  before  anything  was  decided  upon,  Abbas  summarily 
dismissed  him,  together  with  the  Ministers  of  Finance  and 
Justice,  and  appointed  Fakhry  Pasha,  Tigrane  Pasha's  alter  ego, 
in  his  place.  The  whole  move,  which  swept  all  the  Anglophile 
Ministers  from  the  Cabinet,  was  planned  and  executed  without 
Lord  Cromer's  knowledge.  When  apprised  of  the  facts,  he 
immediately  reported  them  to  London.  Abbas  was  warned  that 
Her  Majesty's  Government  expected  to  be  consulted  in  such 
important  matters  as  a  change  of  Ministry,  and  informed  that  as 
no  change  then  appeared  necessary  the  nomination  of  Fakhry 
Pasha  could  not  be  sanctioned.  The  next  intentions  of  Abbas 


Lord  Cromer's  New  Book  85 

seemed  uncertain,  but  Lord  Cromer  thought  it  best  to  settle  the 
matter  locally,  and  eventually  the  following  terms  were  agreed 
upon.  The  reinstatement  of  Mustapha  Pasha  Fehmi  was  not 
insisted  upon,  but  Fakhry  Pasha  was  dismissed,  and  Eiaz  Pasha 
(the  only  influential  Mohammedan)  was  appointed  in  his  place. 
Abbas  made  a  formal  declaration,  in  terms  dictated  by  Lord 
Cromer,  of  his  anxiety  to  cultivate  the  most  friendly  relations 
with  England  and  his  willingness  to  adopt  the  advice  of  Her 
Majesty's  Government  in  all  questions  of  importance  in  the 
future.  The  crisis  was  over,  and  the  first  collision  had  ended 
with  a  compromise. 

Though  the  dismissal  of  Fakhry  Pasha  was  warmly  approved 
by  the  united  English  press  and  the  friendly  Powers  of  Europe, 
the  appointment  of  Riaz  Pasha  unfortunately  proved  a  dis- 
appointment. He  applauded  the  Khedive's  recent  conduct  and 
encouraged  him  in  his  attitude  of  hostility  to  England.  The 
Anglophobe  press  represented  the  incident  just  concluded  as  a 
triumph  for  Abbas.  Violent  Anglophobe  language  was  used  at 
provincial  meetings,  and  deputations  congratulated  the  Khedive 
upon  his  patriotism.  This  popular  movement  was  in  reality 
hollow.  Lord  Cromer  believes  that  the  withdrawal  of  the  army 
of  occupation  would  have  filled  almost  every  man  in  the  country 
with  dismay,  but,  as  he  points  out,  the  fundamental  inconsistency 
of  the  Egyptian  character  made  it  possible  for  the  same  indi- 
vidual to  be  at  once  a  patriot  anxious  to  be  rid  of  the  British 
garrison  and  an  advocate  of  good  government  anxious  for  it  to 
remain. 

The  real  trouble  was  the  belief  that  a  relaxation  of  the  British 
hold  on  Egypt  was  in  contemplation.  For  such  a  disease  the 
remedy  was  obvious.  Lord  Cromer 's  recommendation  was  imme- 
diately approved,  an  announcement  was  made  to  the  Khedive 
that  it  had  been  decided  to  augment  the  British  garrison,  and 
twenty-four  hours  later  an  infantry  battalion  which  happened  to 
be  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal  on  its  way  from  India  to 
England  marched  into  Cairo.  The  effect  of  the  stroke  was 
instantaneous.  The  anti-European  agitation  was  checked,  and 
on  January  26th,  1893,  Lord  Cromer  telegraphed  to  the  Foreign 
Ofiice  :— 

The  lesson  which  the  Khedive  has  now  received  will,  I  am  of  opinion,  cause 
His  Highness  to  be  very  careful  in  his  conduct  for  the  present. 

In  point  of  fact,  a  year  passed  before  His  Highness  broke  out 
again. 

In  the  summer  of  1893,  Abbas  visited  Constantinople  with  a 
view  to  enlisting  the  sympathies  of  the  Sultan,  while  Tigrane 
Pasha  went  the  round  of  the  foreign  embassies  with  the  same 


86  The  Empire  Review 

object.  The  Sultan  was  clearly  far  too  frightened  of  England, 
however,  to  help  the  Khedive  as  he  very  possibly  desired,  and  the 
visit  of  Abbas  was  a  failure.  Tigrane,  under  advice  from  Con- 
stantinople, completely  changed  his  front,  and  professed  himself 
anxious  to  work  well  with  the  British.  A  deputation  of  the 
Sheikhs  and  notables  of  Egypt  which  went  at  the  same  time  to 
Constantinople,  also  failed ;  it  had  only  gone  to  please  Abbas ; 
the  Sheikhs  were  quite  contented  with  the  British  regime, 

But  in  the  following  October  Lord  Cromer  found  signs  of  an 
impending  storm.  Eiaz  Pasha,  from  whom  much  had  been 
hoped,  completely  succumbed  to  the  combined  influence  of  his 
master  and  his  environment.  Almost  every  official  was  now  anti- 
British,  and  Abbas  was  singling  out  for  insult  and  abuse  every- 
one who  could  on  the  flimsiest  pretext  be  represented  as  a  friend 
of  England.  As  before,  it  was  the  Khedive  who  brought  matters 
to  a  head.  Maher  Pasha  had  during  Lord  Cromer's  absence  been 
appointed  Under  Secretary  for  War,  and  was  setting  himself  to 
undermine  the  authority  of  General  (now  Lord)  Kitchener,  the 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Egyptian  Army.  In  January,  1894, 
Abbas,  accompanied  by  this  person,  went  up  the  Nile.  Utterly 
ignorant  of  military  affairs,  he  saw  fit  to  subject  every  section 
of  the  Egyptian  Army  to  a  foolish  criticism,  the  childishness  of 
which  did  not  make  it  less  offensive,  to  insult  British  officers, 
and  to  sow  dissension  in  all  ranks.  General  Kitchener  finally 
replied  to  some  especially  disparaging  remarks  of  Abbas  on 
parade  by  tendering  his  resignation  forthwith.  The  Khedive 
withdrew  his  remarks,  but  the  General  declined  to  withdraw  his 
resignation,  though  he  agreed  not  to  persist  in  it. 

Lord  Cromer,  who  was  immediately  informed,  was  impressed 
both  by  the  gravity  of  the  incident  and  by  the  opportunity  which 
it  offered  him.  With  the  full  support  of  the  Government  he 
insisted  upon  adequate  reparation.  Biaz  Pasha  advised  Abbas 
to  yield.  The  Khedive  addressed  to  the  Sirdar  a  letter  which 
was  considered  to  make  satisfactory  amends  for  his  behaviour, 
and  a  few  days  later  Maher  Pasha  left  the  War  Office.  So  ended 
the  "  Frontier  Incident,"  and  with  it  the  effectual  hostility  of  the 
Khedive. 

The  folly  of  Abbas,  in  fomenting  mutiny  in  his  own  army,  is 
very  severely  stigmatised  by  Lord  Cromer,  who  emphasises  the 
extreme  danger  of  tampering  with  the  discipline  of  any  body  of 
armed  men,  and  particularly  such  a  body  as  the  Egyptian  Army. 
He  remarks : — 

It  is  difficult  to  find  language  sufficiently  condemnatory  of  behaviour  of 
this  sort.  In  the  course  of  my  experience  I  never  recollect  a  case  of  mis- 
conduct on  the  part  of  anyone  in  a  high  and  responsible  position  more 
mischievous  than  that  of  the  Khedive  Abbas  on  this  occasion. 


Lord  Cromer's  New  Book  87 

The  "Frontier  Incident"  resulted  in  the  downfall  of  the 
Kiaz  Ministry,  which  no  longer  found  favour  with  the  Khedive 
when  once  it  had  presumed  to  point  out  to  him  his  folly.  It  is 
significant  of  the  change  which  had  taken  place  that  Abbas 
consulted  Lord  Cromer,  in  accordance  with  his  promise  of 
January  1893,  as  to  the  appointment  of  a  new  Minister.  Nubar 
Pasha  was  appointed  to  succeed  Eiaz.  Lord  Cromer  insisted 
that  Mustapha  Pasha  Fehmi  and  Ibrahim  Pasha  Fuad,  who  had 
been  so  rudely  dismissed  in  1893,  should  have  seats  in  the 
Cabinet,  but  he  consented  to  the  inclusion  of  Fakhry  Pasha. 
Nubar  Pasha's  ministry  of  conciliation,  which  lasted  eighteen 
months,  was  successful.  On  his  retirement  towards  the  end  of 
1895,  Abbas,  who  had  been  enraged  by  the  attitude  of  the  Sultan 
during  a  visit  to  Constantinople  in  the  summer,  became  com- 
paratively friendly,  and  consented  to  the  nomination  of  the 
Anglophile  Mustapha  Pasha  Fehmi.  But  the  battle  had  been 
won  in  the  preceding  year. 

Lord  Cromer  has  given  us  an  account,  as  masterly  as  it  is 
modest,  of  a  struggle  which  was  until  yesterday  practically  a 
closed  book.  The  result  is  a  human  and  imperial  document  of 
the  highest  value.  Of  the  writer's  achievements  during  the 
period  of  twenty-four  years  which  he  passed  as  British  pro-consul 
in  Egypt,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  speak.  The  position  which 
he  held,  the  vast  experience  which  he  gained  in  the  course  of  his 
long  labour  of  administration  and  reform,  his  familiarity  with 
Egyptian  institutions,  and  with  the  manners  and  method  of  every 
section  of  the  cosmopolitan  Egyptian  population,  qualify  him  as 
no  other  man  could  be  qualified  for  such  a  work  as  this.  As  an 
authority  on  modern  Egypt  he  stands  alone. 

He  would  be  remembered  as  an  historian  if  he  had  never 
written  a  line  beyond  the  present  book.  Apart  from  the 
absorbing  interest  of  his  theme,  his  wisdom  and  foresight  as  a 
statesman  and  his  skill  as  a  writer  combine  to  make  '  Abbas  II.' 
extraordinarily  fascinating.  The  narrative  is  admirably  clear 
and  lively,  and  a  most  judicious  selection  has  been  made  of  the 
documents  available  for  quotation.  Genius  is  often  shown  more 
clearly  in  a  brief  telegram  than  in  a  long  despatch,  and  the 
telegrams  of  Lord  Cromer  to  the  Foreign  Office  are  among  the 
most  interesting  features  of  the  book.  The  preface  is  excellent. 
The  last  chapter,  which  is  mainly  composed  of  examples  of  the 
misappropriations  and  intrigues  of  Abbas,  is  of  recent  com- 
position, and  I  confess  that  I  did  not  find  it  so  absorbing  as 
the  rest.  Lord  Cromer  has  not  given  us  much  in  the  shape  of 
detailed  analysis  of  the  character  of  Abbas.  He  has  preferred  to 
let  the  Khedive's  actions,  in  the  main,  speak  for  themselves. 
Perhaps  the  picture  with  which  we  are  left  is  a  little  shadowy, 


88  The  Empire  Review 

and   the   addition   of    some   slight   description   of   the  personal 
appearance  of  the  man  would  certainly  have  been  welcome. 

But  if  the  picture  of  Abbas  is  a  little  lacking  in  definiteness, 
the  charming  modesty  of  Lord  Cromer  has  fortunately  failed  to 
prevent  the  book  from  being  an  admirable  picture  of  the  great 
pro-consul  himself.  The  statesman  and  the  diplomatist  breathe 
in  every  line,  and  not  the  least  pleasant  impression  which  we 
take  away  is  that  of  the  complete  harmony  and  confidence  which 
existed  between  Lord  Cromer  and  the  Government  at  home. 
There  is  something  in  the  quality  of  the  book  which  reminds  us 
of  the  writings  of  Julius  Caesar.  There  is  the  same  calm 
dignified  strength,  the  mark  of  the  man  who  having  made  history 
sits  down  to  write  it. 

C.  B.  COXWELL. 


EDINBURGH   CASTLE 

THE  Castle  on  the  hill  looks  down 

Upon  the  ancient  town, 
That  shared  in  troublous  days  of  old 

The  fight  for  King  and  Crown. 
The  hand  of  Time  has  lightly  touched 

With  warmer  tones  of  grey, 
Those  walls  and  battlements  that  speak 

In  living  tones  to-day. 

Down  ^n  that  northern  town  it  looks 

That'Castle  on  the  hill- 
So  grand  and  mighty  in  its  strength, 

So  cold,  so  stern,  so  still. 
It  has  the  power  to  thrill  our  hearts 

As  thronging  memories  press, 
Of  those  old  days  the  Castle  knew 

Of  long  and  dire  distress. 

The  Castle's  massive  gates  are  closed, 

And  as  in  days  long  dead, 
Again  those  ancient  walls  resound 

With  warders'  martial  tread. 
Grim  war  once  more  awakes  to  life 

The  fortress  old  and  grey, 
And  in  its  stronghold  Britain  keeps 

Her  prisoners  of  to-day. 

CHAELOTTE  PIDGEON. 


British  Banking  Institutions  89 


BRITISH    BANKING    INSTITUTIONS 

LONDON  COUNTY  AND  WESTMINSTER  BANK,  LTD. 

FOUNDED  some  eighty  years  ago,  few  banks  have  secured  a 
larger  or  more  cosmopolitan  business  than  the  London  County 
and  Westminster,  and  none  rallied  more  loyally  to  the  support 
of  the  Government  in  the  financial  crisis  through  which  the 
nation  passed  during  the  early  months  of  the  war.  Not  only 
did  the  directorate  assist  the  State  to  carry  out  its  domestic 
programme,  they  also  took  a  leading  part  in  arranging  the 
Belgian  Loan  that  was  launched  so  successfully  in  this  country. 
In  this  way,  therefore,  the  Bank  may  justly  claim  to  have 
helped  on  that  gallant  defence  to  which  Great  Britain  and 
France  are  so  deeply  indebted. 

The  annual  general  meeting  of  shareholders,  always  an 
interesting  gathering,  was  this  year  rendered  more  so  owing  to 
the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  held.  In  the  absence  of 
the  Chairman,  Lord  Goschen,  who  has  been  with  the  Colours 
since  the  commencement  of  hostilities,  Mr.  Walter  Leaf  presided, 
and  in  the  course  of  an  extremely  useful  and  instructive  speech, 
dealt  not  only  with  matters  especially  affecting  the  interests  of 
shareholders,  but  with  a  number  of  other  points  of  wider  and 
more  general  consequence.  It  is  not  generally  known  that  the 
Bank  made  no  use  of  the  moratorium  against  their  depositors, 
and  conducted  the  current  accounts  of  customers  on  regular  lines 
during  the  period  of  financial  stress.  That  the  course  taken  was 
a  wise  one  received  practical  endorsement  by  the  unshaken 
confidence  of  the  public,  and  proved,  if  proof  were  necessary,  the 
sound  foundation  on  which  the  Bank's  business  is  based. 

Referring  to  the  question  of  the  holding  of  gold  reserves  by 
the  joint  stock  banks,  which  has  long  been  a  matter  of  keen 
discussion  in  financial  circles,  Mr.  Leaf  said  :— 

The  outbreak  of  war  put  an  end  to  argument,  and  we 

had  to  take  practical   action.     The  view  adopted   by  your 

Board  was  that,  as  the  first  and  primary  object  of  a  gold 

reserve  was  to  inspire  confidence,  it  must  above  all  things  be 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  170.  i 


90  The  Empire  Review 

visible.  In  other  words,  it  ought  to  be  in  the  Bank  of 
England  or  in  the  Treasury  Eedemption  Account,  not  in  the 
vaults  of  the  joint  stock  banks.  Nor  did  we  think  it 
justifiable,  while  urging  the  public  not  to  hoard  gold,  to 
hoard  it  ourselves  on  a  large  scale.  Our  policy,  therefore, 
was  to  fix  on  a  sum  which  we  considered  needful  for  our 
internal  requirements,  a  sum  which  would  make  us  absolutely 
safe  and  enable  us  to  meet  all  probable  calls.  And  here  let 
me  say  in  passing  that  even  in  the  very  height  of  the  crisis, 
whenever  we  were  asked  for  gold,  we  did  not  insist  on 
paying  in  Bank  of  England  notes,  but  were  always  ready 
with  gold.  When  we  had  fixed  on  this  sum,  we  handed 
over  all  we  held  beyond  it— a  very  large  amount — to  the 
Bank  of  England.  In  doing  this  we  fulfilled  what  we  con- 
sidered a  public  duty,  and  we  feel  sure  that  you  and  the 
public  at  large  will  give  us  credit  for  it.  We  now  have  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  that  the  Treasury  and  the  Bank 
between  them  hold  gold  much  more  than  enough  to  pay  off 
the  whole  of  the  currency  notes  issued  and  the  bank  notes 
in  circulation.  In  fact,  if  it  were  decided  to  pay  off  the 
whole  of  the  additional  paper  currency  issued  since  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  and  reduce  the  circulation  to  its 
normal  amount,  that  could  be  done  at  once,  and  the  Bank  of 
England  stock  of  gold  would  still  be  larger  than  what  we 
consider  the  normal. 

Passing  to  the  effect  of  the  war  on  the  trade  of  the  country, 
the  Chairman  supported  the  general  view  that  it  had  been  less 
than  was  expected,  and  was  noticeable  rather  in  displacement 
and  dislocation  than  in  actual  diminution.  The  return  of  the 
aggregate  imports  and  exports  for  the  year  1914  showed  our 
foreign  trade,  including  the  five  months  of  war,  to  be  still 
standing  at  an  amount  slightly  in  excess  of  the  figures  for  1910, 
thus  proving  that  we  have  lost  no  more  than  the  gain  of  the 
great  boom  of  the  last  four  years.  That  of  course  was,  so  far, 
satisfactory,  though  Mr.  Leaf  was  far  from  suggesting  this  com- 
paratively small  decrease  measures  more  than  a  fraction  of  the 
harm  done  by  the  war  or  the  harm  the  war  is  going  to  do  to 
commerce.  The  loss  in  six  months  of  the  gain  of  several  years 
was  itself,  by  its  mere  suddenness,  a  serious  dislocation,  and 
represented  the  closing  of  many  outlets  for  the  useful  employ- 
ment of  the  banks'  reserves.  Proceeding,  he  observed  : — 

It  shows  itself  in  the  drop  in  the  discount  rates,  which 
have  now,  with  the  Bank  Bate  maintained  at  5  per  cent., 
fallen  to  below  2  per  cent.,  a  consequence  of  the  great 
plethora  of  money  shown  in  the  wholly  unprecedented 
augmentation  of  the  "Other  Deposits"  at  the  Bank  of 
England.  Other  causes  have  contributed  ;  a  powerful  in- 
fluence has  been  the  great  creation  of  new  credit  by  the 
Government  and  the  Bank  of  England  in  the  free  discount 


British   Banking  Institutions  91 

of  bills  which  otherwise  would  have  been  locked  up  by  the 
cessation  for  a  time  of  remittances  from  abroad.  This  has 
set  free  a  large  amount  of  money  which  for  the  time  cannot 
find  fresh  employment  to  the  same  extent  in  the  financing  of 
international  trade.  But  the  growth  of  our  customers' 
balances  has  not  been  confined  to  the  City  of  London;  it 
has  been  general  throughout  the  country  and  points,  no 
doubt,  to  a  natural  desire  to  keep  liquid  as  large  an  amount 
of  capital  as  possible  during  the  uncertainty  of  the  crisis. 
The  response  to  the  call  for  the  great  National  War  Loan 
shows  how  largely  these  balances  are  waiting  for  new  and 
liquid  investments. 

After  calling  attention  to  the  growth  of  customers'  balances 
since  the  declaration  of  war,  Mr.  Leaf  concluded  with  the 
following  remarks  on  the  more  national  situation  : — 

To  the  ordinary  responsibilities  of  bankers,  those  to  their 
depositors  and  their  shareholders,  has  now  been  added  in  a 
very  special  sense  a  third,  their  responsibility  to  the  nation. 
You  will,  I  am  sure,  support  your  directors  when  they  say 
that  this  responsibility  must  come  first  of  all.  We  are  faced 
every  day  with  new  problems  of  the  greatest  complexity, 
often  not  admitting  of  delay.  Let  me  mention  one  of  the 
most  constant — the  problems  of  aiding  our  own  commerce 
without  thereby  aiding  the  commerce  of  the  enemy.  The 
extraordinary  complexity  and  ramification  of  modern  inter- 
national finance  makes  this  question  one  of  extreme 
uncertainty,  and  in  meeting  it  day  by  day  we  must  often 
make  mistakes ;  we  may,  for  instance,  wrongly  refuse  a 
credit  needed  for  our  own  trade  from  a  suspicion  that  by  one 
of  the  back  doors  still  open  it  may  ultimately  go  to  the 
benefit  of  that  "  alien  enemy  "  who  is  ever  in  our  thoughts. 
We  are  thus  subject  to  constant  criticism.  On  the  whole,  we 
acknowledge  that  public  criticism  has  been  most  friendly, 
and  we  are  grateful  for  the  spirit  in  which  our  efforts  have 
been  met.  Of  critics  of  less  kindly  attitude  we  may  fairly 
ask  a  reasonable  measure  of  indulgence,  and  invite  them  and 
you  to  accept  our  assurance  that  we  have  throughout  spared 
neither  thought  nor  labour  in  doing  our  duty  to  the  best  of 
our  lights.  We  have,  I  think,  good  reason  to  be  proud  of 
the  position  which  the  British  banking  system  retains  after 
nearly  six  months  of  this  furious  and  world-wide  war, 
and  absolutely  confident  of  the  ability  of  the  Empire  in 
commerce  and  finance,  as  well  as  in  the  naval  and  military 
resources  of  the  Empire,  to  carry  it  on  to  a  successful 
conclusion. 

In  thanking  the  shareholders  for  their  unanimous  vote  of 
confidence,  Mr.  Leaf  paid  a  well-deserved  compliment  to  the 
staff,  particularly  to  the  senior  officers  of  the  Bank,  and  he  certainly 
voiced  the  opinion  of  the  meeting  when  he  announced  that  Mr. 


92  The  Empire  Review 

Barthorpe  and  Mr.  Buckhurst,  who  had  previously  held  the 
respective  titles  of  Town  and  Country  Manager,  had  been 
appointed  Joint  General  Managers. 

That  our  credit  has  been  maintained  and  maintained  at  the 
highest  level  needs  no  demonstration.  And  when  the  war  is 
over  and  the  public  are  in  a  position  better  to  appreciate  and 
understand  the  true  inwardness  of  the  great  financial  crisis 
through  which  the  nation  has  passed,  one  may  rest  assured  that 
the  thanks  of  a  grateful  people  will  be  cordially  and  readily  given 
to  the  banking  institutions  of  this  country  for  the  assistance  they 
have  given  the  State  in  its  hour  of  stress  and  strain. 


A   MOTHER'S   MEDITATION 

Suggested  by  the  death  of  the  Master  of  Kinloss,  killed  in  battle 
December  19,  1914. 

ALAS!   on  earth  I  ne'er  shall  see  again 

My  son,  upon  the  field  of  battle  slain, 

My  first-born,  whom  I  loved  with  all  my  heart, 

From  whom  indeed  'twas  terrible  to  part, 

When  he  went  off  so  bravely  and  so  bright 

To  do  his  duty  nobly,  and  to  fight 

For  King  and  country,  England's  honoured  name, 

To  take  his  chance  of  wounds,  or  death,  or  fame. 

I  trust  that  later  I  shall  feel  some  pride; 

But,  oh !   just  now  I  want  him  by  my  side 

To  soothe  my  aching  brow,  to  stop  the  pain, 

And  let  me  rest  my  weary  worn-out  brain. 

Yet  I  am  only  one  of  many  more — 

Some  younger,  richer,  others  very  poor — 

Whose  lot  it  is  to  suffer  in  this  way 

And  sadly  mourn  their  lost  ones  day  by  day. 

If  only  I  can  bravely  bear  my  grief, 

And  in  the  thought  for  others  find  relief, 

I  may  some  lesson  learn,  some  comfort  know, 

More  calm,  more  patient,  more  courageous  grow. 

Oh,  Man  of  Sorrows!     May  Thine  outstretched  Hand 
Be  placed  in  mine,  to  lead  me  to  that  land 
Where  tears  are  gently  wiped  from  every  eye 
And  mothers  meet  their  sons  again  on  high. 

CHARLES  PERCY  GRAHAM-MONTGOMERY. 

Vicar  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  Taunton. 


Note  From  South  Africa  93 


NOTE    FROM    SOUTH    AFRICA 

As  the  old  Boer  predicted,  Botha  has  burst  Beyers'  bottle,  and 
now  he  is  about  to  smash  up  the  German  Lager. 

The  south-eastern  wind  blows  the  clouds  over  the  mountain 
and  envelops  with  fleecy  cloth  the  dear  old  table,  but  un- 
perturbed amidst  the  mists  of  time  it  stands  to-day  as  it  stood 
in  the  old  struggles  of  Hottentot,  French,  Dutch  and  English, 
and  on  its  brow,  facing  the  day's  brightness,  in  bold  relief,  is  the 
noble  monument  of  Cecil  Ehodes  surrounded  by  the  lions  of  the 
Empire  that  he  loved  so  dearly.  In  silent  grandeur  mountain 
and  monument  call  the  soul  to  arms. 

In  the  city  life  is  in  the  perturbation  of  the  struggle. 
Unobtrusive  khaki  shades  the  Oriental  colourings  and  light 
summer  fashions.  Thoroughfares  are  crowded  with  men  from 
the  farms,  from  the  mines,  lawyers  and  doctors,  engineers  and 
mechanics,  in  short,  men  of  every  class  and  every  grade  all 
bound  for  the  front.  Born  soldiers  these,  fine,  active  men,  right 
of  age,  full  of  muscle  and  the  joy  of  life.  They  are  going  to 
take  German  South  West,  and  afterwards  to  fight  the  Germans 
in  Europe.  I  have  met  many  of  them  in  their  homes.  I  know 
the  sacrifices  they  have  made.  Many  have  worked  years  to 
obtain  positions,  and  many  have  sent  their  wives  into  the  towns 
and  left  their  farms  in  the  hands  of  black  servants.  Each  and 
all  are  animated  with  the  same  spirit  of  loyalty  and  patriotism. 
They  go  forth  as  one  man  to  meet  the  common  foe. 

There  are  of  course  men  who  won't  fight,  not  Englishmen, 
men  who  lack  education  and  training.  They  are  the  flotsam  and 
jetsam,  and  have  come  into  notoriety  through  a  crime.  Every 
country  has  its  wastage.  Civilisation  and  technical  schools 
reduces  it,  but  new  blood  is  essential  in  all  countries,  and  South 
Africa,  with  its  peculiar  climates,  calls  for  new  blood  incessantly ; 
without  it,  the  country  must  fall  back  to  the  backveld  Boer,  and 
the  land  will  go  out  of  cultivation  until  it  becomes  a  native 
wilderness.  But  let  there  be  no  mistake.  The  flag  for  which 
Britishers  and  Colonists  are  fighting  to-day  is  not  again  to  hang 
listless  subject  only  to  the  lazy  dictate  of  a  backveld  Boer. 


94  The  Empire  Review 

There  is  to  be  no  going  back  to  Krugerism  after  this  struggle. 
Henceforth  the  watchword  of  this  great  Union  must  be  "  Pro- 
gress," and  as  we  fight  to  break  and  hold  here,  so  must  the  Empire 
help  to  hold  what  we  have  fought  to  secure. 

If  South  Africa  is  to  remain  a  part  of  the  Empire,  the  self- 
same interest  must  be  taken  in  it  that  Canada  and  Australia  are 
receiving.  It  must  not  be  allowed  to  sag  back  either  into  a 
Dutch  Eepublic  or  a  native  Utopia.  The  land  has  its  attributes. 
Geographically  the  country  has  important  strategic  uses.  Its 
climate  was  made  by  God  to  draw  mankind  to  its  refreshing 
breath.  But  if  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  is  to  populate  its  plains, 
there  must  come  a  stream  of  workers,  bringing  with  them  new 
tenets,  and  filled  with  new  ambitions.  There  must  be  a  real 
awakening  from  the  apathy  that  for  years  has  reigned  supreme. 

W.  P.  TAYLOR. 

CAPE  TOWN. 


RELIEF    FUNDS 

The  collections  made  throughout  the  schools  of  the  Union  by 
the  Boys'  and  Girls'  League  of  South  Africa  when  the  last 
mail  left  totalled  £952  15s.  2d.  The  Committee  has  been 
enabled  to  contribute  to  the  following  funds  the  amounts  shown : 
Belgian  Widows'  and  Orphans'  Fund,  £210;  Prince  of  Wales' 
Fund,  £200;  Governor-General's  Fund,  £l30;  Hospital  Ship 
Fund,  £130 ;  Central  Good  Hope  Bed  Cross  Fund,  £120 ;  Anglo- 
French  Ked  Cross  Fund,  £35;  Mayor's  Fund,  £25;  Pegasus 
Fund,  £20 ;  total,  £870. 


DOD'S    PARLIAMENTARY    COMPANION    1915 

The  current  issue  of  this  indispensable  book  marks  the  eighty- 
third  year  of  publication.  Not  only  does  it  contain  excellent 
short  biographies  of  legislators  in  both  Houses  of  Parliament, 
but  it  gives  much  useful  information  concerning  the  official  side 
of  the  Lords  and  Commons.  Neatly  bound  and  convenient  in 
size  it  is  an  invaluable  companion  and  an  instructive  guide.  The 
price  is  3s.  Qd.  net,. and  the  publishers  are  Whittaker  and  Co., 
2,  White  Hart  Street,  Paternoster  Square. 


Canada  and  the  War  95 


CANADA    AND    THE    WAR 

The  Royal  Canadian  Naval  Volunteers. 

In  May,  1913,  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  in  Victoria,  British 
Columbia,  for  the  formation  of  a  Canadian  naval  volunteer  force, 
Mr.  S.  Geary  writing  to  the  Premier  of  British  Columbia  on  the 
subject,  and  the  Premier,  in  his  reply,  undertaking  to  lay  the 
matter  before  the  Minister  of  Naval  Affairs.  Subsequently  an 
interview  was  arranged  with  the  Minister  and  Deputy  Minister, 
and  sanction  was  given  for  drilling  to  proceed  in  the  Navy  Yard 
pending  the  necessary  legislation.  On  the  8th  of  August  in  the 
same  year  the  first  naval  volunteers  were  received  on  board 
H.M.S.  New  Zealand  by  Captain  Halsey,  B.N.,  who  com- 
plimented officers  and  men  on  their  efforts  as  pioneers,  and 
wished  them  success.  The  men  continued  their  drill  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  official  recognition  had  not  yet  been 
accorded,  and  their  work  and  earnestness  so  impressed  the  naval 
authorities  that  reward  came  in  May  last  when  they  were  given  a 
place  in  the  defensive  forces  of  the  Empire.  Mr.  Geary,  who 
was  one  of  the  principal  movers  in  the  early  stages  of  the  force, 
has  since  come  to  England  and  been  given  a  commission  in  the 
Royal  Naval  Division. 

Canada  and  the  Belgians. 

Initiated  by  an  Ontario  agricultural  paper,  a  movement  has 
commenced  among  Ontario  farmers  to  adopt  Belgian  children, 
and  thousands  of  applications  have  been  received  from  all  over 
the  province.  Many  of  them  are  from  well-to-do  people  having 
no  children  of  their  own.  It  is  recognised  that  any  movement  of 
this  nature  will  have  to  meet  with  the  approval  of  the  Belgian 
Government.  The  Belgian  Consul  at  Ottawa  has  been  consulted 
and  expresses  his  appreciation  of  the  desire  to  assist  the  orphaned 
children  and  to  place  them  in  the  prosperous  farm-houses  of  the 
province.  He  has  submitted  the  matter  to  his  Government  and 
the  reply  is  awaited  with  interest.  An  appeal  has  been  addressed 
by  the  Montreal  Trades  and  Labour  Council  for  contributions 
to  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  Belgian  trade  unionists.  It  is  pointed 


96  The  Empire  Review 

out  that  the  Belgians  were  always  generous  contributors  to  trade 
unionism.  Now  that  their  country  has  been  devastated,  thou- 
sands killed  and  their  best  workers  imprisoned,  it  is  hoped  that 
assistance  in  a  practical  manner  may  be  forthcoming.  Montreal 
has  purchased  and  forwarded  £2,000  worth  of  condensed  milk 
for  Belgian  infants,  and  20,000  bushels  of  wheat  have  also  been 
contributed.  Among  the  more  recent  contributions  are  1,500 
sacks  of  flour  forwarded  from  Swan  Lake  and  district  (Manitoba) . 

Patriotism  in  Manitoba. 

The  Manitoba  and  Winnipeg  books  of  the  patriotic  fund  which 
were  audited  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  showed  that  £180,000 
had  been  contributed.  Both  the  Province  of  Manitoba  and  the 
City  of  Winnipeg  can  look  back  on  their  work  since  the  war  broke 
out  and  feel  satisfied  that  they  have  done  their  duty.  In  addition 
the  province  has  contributed  to  other  funds  £20,000,  of  which 
£10,000  was  in  cash  and  £10,000  in  flour.  The  province  has  also 
assisted  the  Belgian  Belief  Fund  to  the  extent  of  £8,000  and  has 
given  £20,000  to  the  Bed  Cross — one-half  in  money  and  the  other 
half  in  equipment.  This  colossal  demonstration  of  the  true 
patriotic  spirit  has  only  commenced,  for  as  long  as  the  war  lasts 
the  province  and  its  capital  city  will  continue  the  work.  Each 
day  new  subscribers  are  adding  their  support  in  substantial  con- 
tributions to  the  patriotic  fund,  and  it  is  a  forgone  conclusion  that 
all  future  conditions  which  may  arise  as  the  result  of  the  war  will 
be  met  in  the  same  hearty  generous  way  as  have  the  demands  of 
the  past  few  months. 

More  Orders  for  Canada. 

The  British  War  Office  contemplates  placing  further  huge 
orders  in  Canada  for  leather  equipment.  A  delegation  of  sixty  of 
the  leading  tanners  of  Canada  have  been  consulted  by  Sir  George 
Foster,  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce,  and  asked  if,  in  the 
event  of  such  orders  being  received  they  would  be  able  to  supply 
the  leather.  Sir  George  was  assured  that  the  capacity  of  the 
Canadian  factories  is  fully  equal  to  any  demand  that  may  be 
made  upon  them.  It  is  understood  that  the  existing  orders  from 
the  British  War  Office  already  placed  in  Canada  are  to  be 
materially  increased.  With  the  orders  for  war  equipment  already 
placed  by  the  Allied  Powers  with  Canadian  manufacturers,  the 
factories  are  in  many  cases  working  at  high  pressure.  For  the 
time  being  all  other  orders  must  take  second  place,  and  Canadian 
firms  may  be  relied  on  to  assist  the  authorities  by  every  means  in 
their  power,  at  the  same  time  local  labour  supplies  are  equal  to 
the  demand. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL    OF    BRITISH    TRADE 


VOL.  XXIX.  APRIL,   1915.  No.   171. 


ADMIRALTY    COURTS-MARTIAL 

CONSIDEKABLE  uneasiness  has  been  awakened  in  the  public 
mind  as  well  as  amongst  all  ranks  and  ratings  in  the  Navy  by 
the  abandonment,  without  notice  of  any  kind,  of  so  well  established 
a  custom  as  that  of  holding  Courts-Martial  to  investigate  the 
loss  of  his  Majesty's  ships  of  war.  Not  only  is  the  change  opposed 
to  the  traditions  of  the  naval  service,  it  is  contrary  to  the 
principles  that  for  generations  have  guided  our  constitutional 
practice.  A  Court-Martial  has  ever  been  regarded  on  the  one 
side  as  the  prerogative,  if  not  the  right  of  a  naval  officer,  and  on 
the  other  as  the  natural  and  proper  tribunal  for  safeguarding  the 
interests  of  the  State.  So  important  indeed  are  the  issues  at 
stake  that  I  readily  comply  with  the  Editor's  invitation  to  refer 
to  the  subject  in  the  pages  of  this  EEVIEW,  and  even  if  I  repeat 
much  of  what  I  have  already  said  in  the  House  of  Lords,  I  am 
glad  of  the  opportunity  to  emphasise  views  that  I  am  convinced 
are  shared  not  only  by  the  Navy  but  by  a  very  large  section  of 
the  community  both  here  and  in  the  Dominions  overseas. 

At  the  outset  let  me  say  that  I  find  no  fault  with  Lord  Crewe's 
statement  on  behalf  of  the  Government,  that  there  is  no  statutory 
obligation  to  hold  a  Court-Martial  in  the  case  of  the  loss  of  a 
warship.  The  statement,  as  a  statement,  is  perfectly  correct, 
but  I  must  be  allowed  to  remind  him,  and  through  him  the 
Government,  of  what  a  distinguished  Admiral  has  reminded  me, 
that  the  British  Navy  is  very  much  like  the  British  Constitu- 
tion. Many  of  its  most  important  customs  are  unwritten.  The 
historian  of  the  Navy  was  the  late  Sir  William  Laird  Clowes. 
His  writings  extend  into  seven  bulky  volumes,  and  he  is  the 
only  man,  I  suppose,  who  has  read  through  the  records  of  all 
VOL.  XXIX.  -No.  171.  K 


98  The  Empire  Review 

the  naval  Courts-Martial.  Therefore  it  may  be  safe  to  assume 
there  is  no  greater  authority,  either  in  the  Admiralty  or  outside, 
on  the  custom  of  the  Navy  in  the  matter  of  Courts-Martial.  It 
may  be  well  then  to  consider  his  views  on  this  all-important 
subject.  I  do  not  think  any  one  could  study  his  works  without 
coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Admiralty  has  made  a  complete 
departure  from  the  established  practice  of  the  Navy  in  declining 
to  hold  a  Court-Martial  in  the  cases  of  the  loss  of  His  Majesty's 
ships  since  the  outbreak  of  the  present  war.  His  examination  of 
the  naval  records  reveals  the  fact  that  since  1652  the  rule  was 
established  that  in  the  case  of  every  ship  lost,  captured,  or 
surrendered,  a  Court-Martial  should  be  assembled  to  deal  with  the 
captain  or  other  survivor  of  the  vessel.  Let  me  give  two  illustra- 
tions to  show  how,  in  his  mind,  this  rule  practically  did  not  admit 
of  an  exception.  There  was  a  ship  called  the  Jack,  which  struck 
her  colours  on  July  21, 1781,  and  upon  which  no  Court-Martial  was 
held.  Sir  William  Laird  Clowes  infers  from  that  fact  that  she 
was  not  a  King's  ship  at  all,  but  probably  a  merchantman.  Again, 
in  alluding  to  the  case  of  the  Blanche,  a  44-gun  frigate  which  in 
1805  surrendered  to  a  French  force  of  four  ships  and  100 
guns  and  sank  within  a  few  hours,  he  writes  as  follows  on  the 
subject  of  the  Court-Martial  held  over  Captain  Mudge : — 

In  this  case  it  is  clear  that  the  Blanche  was  in  a  desperate  condition  when 
she  surrendered.  The  usual  Court- Martial  on  the  loss  of  the  ship  honourably 
acquitted  Captain  Mudge  and  congratulated  him  on  his  able  and  gallant 
conduct. 

From  the  same  authority  we  learn  that  from  1688  to  1901, 
when  he  finished  his  researches,  1,008  King's  ships  were  lost,  but 
I  fail  to  find  in  his  writings  the  slightest  evidence  showing  that 
any  one  of  these  ships  in  which  there  were  survivors  was  not 
the  subject  of  a  Court-Martial.  Of  course,  there  never  were 
Courts-Martial  in  cases  of  ships  without  survivors;  but  Sir 
William  Laird  Clowes  certainly  thought  that  the  custom  of  the 
Navy  was  practically  universal  in  the  cases  of  ships  lost  where 
survivors  existed. 

I  will  now  quote  the  Admiralty  Regulations  which  entirely 
bear  out  my  contention.  Eegulation  No.  177  runs  thus  :  — 

When  one  of  His  Majesty's  ships  shall  be  wrecked,  or  otherwise  lost  or 
destroyed,  or  taken  by  the  enemy,  the  command,  power,  and  authority  given 
to  the  captain,  and  to  the  other  officers  and  the  crew  with  respect  to  each 
other,  shall  remain  and  be  in  full  force,  as  effectually  as  if  such  ship  were  not 
lost,  until  a  Court-Martial  shall  have  inquired  into  the  cause  of  the  loss  or 
capture  of  such  ship,  or  the  officers  and  crew  shall  be  otherwise  disposed  of 
and  separated,  as  directed  by  the  Naval  Discipline  Act. 

Then  there  is  Regulation  No.  616,  headed  "Lives,  Stores, 
Books,  and  Papers." 


Admiralty  Courts -Martial  99 

If  a  ship  is  wrecked  or  otherwise  lost  or  destroyed,  the  captain  will  use 
every  exertion  to  preserve  the  lives  of  the  crew  ;  and  when  as  many  of  them 
as  possible  have  been  saved,  he  is  to  use  his  utmost  endeavours  to  save  the 
stores,  provisions,  and  furniture  of  the  ship.  He  is  to  give  his  particular 
attention  to  the  saving  of  all  books  and  papers  relating  to  the  ship's  accounts, 
that  he  may  be  enabled  to  cause  the  necessary  books  to  be  made  out  for 
transmission  to  the  Admiralty  immediately  after  the  Court-Martial  to  inquire 
into  the  loss  of  the  ship  has  taken  place. 

Then  we  have  Kegulation  No.  1,355,  headed  "When  Ship 
has  been  Wrecked." 

In  the  event  of  a  ship  being  captured,  wrecked,  or  otherwise  lost  or 
destroyed,  the  officers  and  ship's  company  shall,  subject  to  provisions  of  the 
Naval  Discipline  Act  in  force  at  the  time,  be  entitled  to  full  pay  until  the 
time  of  their  being  discharged,  or  removed  into  other  of  His  Majesty's  ships, 
or  of  their  dying,  unless  the  sentence  of  the  Court-Martial  held  on  the  loss  of 
the  ship  shall  otherwise  direct. 

I  do  not  think  anybody  could  read  these  regulations  without 
coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Admiralty  have  always 
hitherto  contemplated  the  continuance  of  the  custom  of  holding 
a  Court-Martial  on  the  loss  of  any  one  of  His  Majesty's  ships. 

Let  me  now  pass  to  the  reasons  given  to  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  for  the  suspension 
of  this  time-honoured  custom.  After  observing  that  "To  hear 
the  talk  in  some  quarters,  one  would  suppose  that  the  loss  of  a 
ship  by  mine  or  submarine  necessarily  involved  a  criminal 
offence.  .  .  .  One  would  suppose  that  it  involved  a  criminal 
offence  for  which  somebody  should  be  brought  to  book,"  he 
said  :  "  Losses  by  mine  and  submarine  must  frequently  be  placed 
on  the  same  footing  as  heavy  casualties  on  land.  They  cannot 
be  treated  as  presumably  involving  a  dereliction  of  duty  or  a  lack 
of  professional  ability."  This  is  trading  on  the  ignorance  of  the 
public  and  throwing  dust  in  their  eyes ;  because  there  never  has 
been  connected  with  the  holding  of  a  Court-Martial  any  presump- 
tion of  professional  incapacity  or  of  dereliction  of  duty,  nor  has 
it  ever  cast  a  slur  on  the  officers  tried. 

Continuing  he  said  : — 

The  circumstances  and  conditions  of  modern  naval  warfare  are  entirely 
different  from  all  previous  experience.  In  old  wars  the  capture  or  destruction 
of  ships  was  nearly  always  accompanied  by  an  act  of  surrender,  which  was  a 
proper  and  very  necessary  subject  for  investigation  by  Court-Martial. 

I  would  remind  the  First  Lord  that  there  were  quite  as  many 
cases  of  Court-Martial  when  ships  were  lost  by  wreck.  The  fact 
is  that  the  particular  cause  and  the  circumstances  of  the  loss 
have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  it.  The  only  question  is  that 
the  ship  has  been  lost.  How  or  why  it  has  been  lost  is  beside 
the  principle  that  because  the  ship  has  been  lost  it  ought  to  be 


100  The  Empire  Review 

the  subject  of  a  Court-Martial.  Therefore,  however  much  the 
conditions  of  naval  warfare  change,  those  conditions  may  have 
some  effect  on  the  expediency  or  convenience  of  the  time  of 
holding  the  Court-Martial,  but  they  have  no  bearing  on  the 
principle  whether  or  not  a  Court-Martial  should  be  held.  The 
First  Lord's  next  argument  referred  to  that  particular  point.  He 
said  that  the  conditions  of  naval  warfare  now  are  such  that 
sometimes  the  actual  holding  of  a  Court-Martial  might  be  very 
difficult  and  inconvenient.  I  concede  that  at  once.  No  reason- 
able person  would  ever  say  that  it  should  be  other  than  a  matter 
entirely  at  the  discretion  of  the  Admiralty  when  the  Court-Martial 
is  to  be  held.  With  regard  to  the  losses,  there  is  a  long  list  of 
which  we  know,  beginning  with  the  Amphion  and  ending  with 
the  Formidable.  I  am  quite  prepared,  if  the  Admiralty  say  so,  to 
bow  to  their  decision  and  admit  that  the  time  may  not  yet  have 
come  when  a  Court-Martial  can  be  held  in  all  these  cases  with  con- 
venience, or  possibly  without  disadvantage,  to  the  public  service. 
But  I  am  not  prepared  to  believe  that  in  the  case  of  none  of  these 
ships  could  a  Court- Martial  have  been  summoned  without  grave 
loss  to  the  public  service. 

Mr.  Churchill  then  went  on  to  say,  "  Nothing  could  be  worse 
for  the  Navy  or  the  Admiralty  than  for  public  attention  or  naval 
attention  to  be  riveted  on  half-a-dozen  naval  causes  celebres." 
That  is  erecting  a  figure  of  straw  in  order  to  knock  it  down.  In 
the  whole  history  of  the  Navy  there  has  been  no  case — except, 
perhaps,  that  of  Admiral  Byng,  which  I  think  became  a  cause 
celebre  after  Admiral  Byng  ceased  to  exist — in  which  public 
attention  was  riveted  on  a  naval  cause  celebre  when  it  was  in 
progress.  The  other  day  Admiral  Troubridge  was  tried  by  Court- 
Martial  by  order  of  the  Board  of  Admiralty  in  connection  with 
the  escape  of  the  Goeben.  Was  public  attention  then  riveted 
on  a  naval  cause  celebre  *  Why,  the  public  never  knew  that  the 
trial  was  being  he. Id.  Nor  has  the  evidence  ever  been  published. 
The  Admiralty  had  it  entirely  in  their  power  to  keep  the  matter 
secret,  and  they  have  the  same  power  with  respect  to  any  Court- 
Martial  that  may  be  held.  So  that  the  First  Lord's  argument 
will  not  stand  examination  for  a  moment.  The  fact  is — and  this 
is  what  I  wish  to  lay  particular  stress  upon — that  this  question  of 
the  holding  of  a  Court-Martial  in  the  case  of  ships  that  are  lost 
in  war  or  in  peace  is  not  merely  a  question  between  the  Board  of 
Admiralty  and  the  captain  or  officers  concerned.  It  is  a  much 
wider  question  even  than  that.  It  is  a  question  between  the 
officers  involved  and  the  rest  of  the  naval  service,  and  it  is  a 
question  between  the  Navy  and  the  public.  The  officers  who  are 
involved  in  the  loss  of  a  ship  have  the  right  that  they  should  be 
cleared  of  responsibility  before  the  rest  of  the  great  Service  to 


Admiralty  Courts-Martial  101 

which  they  belong,  and  the  nation  has  a  right  to  know  under 
what  circumstances  the  valuable  ships  that  belong  to  it  have 
been  lost. 

I  will  now  quote  Sir  William  Laird  Clowes  to  show  how  this 
matter  has  been  viewed  for  generations  past  by  the  Navy.  This 
is  the  substance  of  his  observations  : — 

It  was  understood  that  a  Court-Martial  on  the  loss  of  a  ship  need  not 
necessarily  imply  any  charge  against  the  captain  or  other  survivor.  The 
whole  story  of  the  British  Navy  makes  it  clear  that  a  captain  and  his  ship  are 
always  associated  for  administrative  purposes,  and  the  captain  has,  of  course, 
always  been  held  absolutely  responsible  for  the  safety  of  his  ship.  If  a  ship 
is  lost,  no  matter  in  whatever  circumstances,  the  incident  must  be  accounted 
for  by  the  captain ;  and  if  the  captain  has  been  lost  the  Court-Martial  is  held 
upon  any  survivor  with  the  object  of  determining,  from  such  facts  as  are 
available,  the  causes  of  the  disaster. 

Again — 

The  attitude  of  mind  of  officers  of  the  Navy  towards  the  supreme  import- 
ance of  Courts-Martial  will  be  gathered  from  the  action  of  Captain  Pakenham, 
of  the  Crescent,  who,  when  his  ship  struck  to  the  Dutch  in  1781,  refused  to 
resume  his  command,  considering  that  a  Court-Martial  was  necessary  to  clear 
him  from  guilt. 

And  further — 

The  principle  of  holding  Courts -Martial  achieved  in  its  fulfilment  two 
practical  results — (1)  Ascertaining  the  cause  of  the  loss  of  the  vessel  and  fixing 
responsibility  of  those  concerned ;  and  (2)  providing  for  public  information 
such  facts  relating  to  the  destruction  of  public  property  as  the  taxpayers  of  the 
country  are  entitled  to  be  made  acquainted  with. 

•  A  distinguished  Admiral  writing  to  me  on  the  question 
points  out  that  "  Courts-Martial  are  not  at  all  meant  as  a 
slur  on  the  captain  or  surviving  officers  and  men,  but  a  public 
opportunity  for  them  to  clear  themselves."  Then  let  me  give 
the  opinions  of  two  distinguished  naval  correspondents  who  write 
to  the  daily  newspapers.  It  is  necessary  to  make  this  evidence 
cumulative  because  I  want  the  public  to  understand  that  the 
attitude  of  mind  of  the  Navy  to  Courts-Martial  has  been  quite 
different  from  that  suggested  by  the  First  Lord.  The  first  of 
these  correspondents  writes — 

When  a  ship  of  His  Majesty  is  lost,  it  is  the  rule  that  the  captain  of  the 
ship  is  tried  by  Court-Martial,  or,  if  he  is  lost  with  the  ship,  the  survivors  are 
tried.  The  assembling  of  a  Court-Martial  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  an 
offence  has  been  committed.  The  principle  is  that  the  reason  why  the  ship 
was  lost  must  be  made  clear. 

The  other  says— 

The  institution  was  maintained  in  olden  days  quite  as  much  for  the 
protection  of  officers  who  lost  ships  innocently  as  for  the  punishment  of 
officers  who  lost  them  wrongfully.  It  was  to  the  naval  officer  what  the 


102  The  Empire  Review 

verdict  of  a  jury  is  to  the  subject — the  palladium  of  his  liberties,  the  final 
acquittal  of  his  peers. 

In  face  of  all  this  evidence  it  is  not  possible  to  contend  that 
the  holding  of  Courts-Martial  involves  any  slur  necessarily  on  the 
officers  who  are  the  subject  of  the  investigation. 

I  do  not  want  to  weary  my  readers  with  extracts,  but  I 
should  like  to  cite  a  few  cases  bearing  on  and  illustrating  the 
subject  and  the  question  of  custom.  They  extend  over  a  great 
period  of  years.  After  the  action  with  the  Dutch  on  July  26, 1657, 
William  Howe,  of  the  Virgin,  was  tried  by  Court-Martial  and 
shot.  The  captains  of  the  Blacknose,  John  Elizabeth,  and  the 
Blessing,  were  dismissed  the  Service.  The  captain  of  the 
Cumberland,  lost  on  October  10,  1707,  was  court-martialed  on  his 
release  from  captivity  and  honourably  acquitted.  Captain  Wyld, 
of  the  Royal  Oak,  whose  ship  was  lost  on  the  same  occasion, 
was  dismissed  the  Service ;  and  Captain  Bolton,  of  the  Chester, 
was  absolved  from  all  blame.  I  pass  on  to  May  8,  1744,  when 
the  Northumberland  was  lost.  The  captain,  Thomas  Watson, 
was  killed.  The  first-lieutenant,  Thomas  Craven,  and  Allison, 
the  master,  were  court-martialed.  Craven  was  honourably 
acquitted,  but  Allison  was  condemned  for  surrendering  the  ship 
and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  In  1756  the  Warwick 
was  taken  by  the  French.  This  is  a  remarkable  case.  Captain 
Molyneux  Shuldham  was  a  prisoner  of  war  for  two  years,  and  on 
his  release  was  tried  by  Court-Martial  and  adjudged  to  have  done 
his  duty.  The  officers  of  the  Berwick,  taken  by  the  French  on 
March  7,  1795,  were  court-martialed  as  soon  as  prisoners  were 
exchanged,  and  honourably  acquitted.  On  August  18,  1812,  the 
Attack  was  forced  to  strike  her  colours  to  Danish  gun-boats. 
Lieutenant  Simmonds  and  his  officers  and  men  were  most 
honourably  acquitted  by  Court-Martial.  H.M.S.  Tiger,  run 
ashore  at  Odessa  on  May  12,  1854,  was  the  subject  of  a  Court- 
Martial  which  sat  on  board  the  Victory  at  Portsmouth  in  April, 
1855— very  nearly  a  year  afterwards.  The  president  of  the 
Court  was  Bear-Admiral  W.  F.  Martin,  and  the  surviving  officers 
and  men  of  the  ship  were  put  on  trial.  The  Court-Martial 
resulted  in  the  acquittal  of  the  lieutenant,  Alfred  Royer,  and  the 
reprimand  of  the  master. 

I  have  given  cases  from  every  war,  from  the  time  of  the  Dutch 
wars  and  the  wars  of  Cromwell  right  up  to  and  inclusive  of  the 
Crimean  war,  to  show  how  constant  and  how  absolutely  unbroken 
has  been  this  custom.  The  last  case  that  I  propose  to  cite  is  that 
of  the  Captain,  lost  off  Finisterre  on  September  6,  1870.  Her 
captain,  Captain  Burgoyne,  and  the  designer  of  the  ship,  Captain 
Coles,  were  both  drowned.  Out  of  the  ship's  crew  475  were  lost, 
and  18  saved.  A  Court-Martial  was  held  on  the  survivors.  I 


Admiralty  Courts-Martial  103 

do  not  think  there  was  a  single  officer  among  them  ;  there  may 
have  been  a  warrant  officer,  possibly  there  was  a  gunner,  but 
certainly  no  higher  officer.  On  June  16,  1871,  Lord  Lauderdale 
said  in  the  House  of  Lords  : — 

The  Court-Martial  that  had  sat  to  inquire  into  the  loss  of  the  Captain 
found  that  the  ship  capsized  by  pressure  of  sail,  assisted  by  the  heave  of  the 
sea,  and  that  the  sail  carried  at  the  time  of  her  loss,  regard  being  had  to  the 
force  of  the  wind  and  the  state  of  the  sea,  was  insufficient  to  have  endangered 
a  ship  endued  with  a  proper  amount  of  stability.  And  they  added :  "  The 
Court,  before  separating,  find  it  their  duty  to  record  their  conviction  that  the 
Captain  was  built  in  deference  to  public  opinion,  expressed  in  Parliament,  and 
in  opposition  to  the  views  and  opinions  of  the  Controller  and  his  Department, 
and  that  the  evidence  all  tends  to  show  that  they  generally  disapproved  of  her 
construction." 

These  are  remarkable  words  to  be  found  in  the  finding  of  a 
naval  Court-Martial,  and  show,  I  think,  the  extraordinary  value 
of  investigations  of  this  kind.  Here  was  the  Captain  lost,  and 
the  Court-Martial  had  the  courage  to  say  that  she  was  lost 
because  of  her  defective  design,  and  that  her  defective  design  was 
not  due  to  the  fault  of  the  Controller  of  the  Admiralty  but 
because  there  had  been  political  and  parliamentary  interference 
with  the  Controller  and  the  ship  had  been  built  to  this  design  in 
spite  of  his  remonstrance.  One  could  not  have  a  clearer  case  of 
the  great  value  to  the  public  of  Courts-Martial  in  order  that  they 
may  know  why  their  ships  are  lost. 

Let  me  now  deal  with  Lord  Crewe's  defence  of  the  Admiralty. 
He  said  :— 

The  general  view  which  the  Admiralty  take  is  that,  where  there  is  any 
question  of  a  failure  on  the  part  of  an  officer  to  obey  orders,  to  act  with  due 
sense  of  responsibility,  or  to  take  proper  precautions,  or  in  cases  in  which 
misbehaviour  on  the  part  of  a  crew  or  any  portion  of  it  is  alleged  to  have  led 
to  disaster,  it  is  advisable  that  a  Court-Martial  should  be  held ;  but  in  cases 
where  those  considerations  do  not  in  any  degree  arise,  speaking  generally  the 
Admiralty  hold  that  a  Court-Martial  may  not  be  necessary. 

I  do  not  want  to  dwell  on  the  fact  that  the  latter  part  of  this 
statement,  if  it  represents  the  final  view  of  the  Board  of  Admiralty, 
implies  a  complete  departure  from  the  established  custom  of  the 
Navy  for  more  than  two  and  a  half  centuries ;  but  I  wish  to  lay 
stress  on  the  words  which  Lord  Crewe  used  as  to  the  circumstances 
in  which  the  Admiralty  think  a  Court-Martial  should  be  held.  Take 
the  case  of  the  Formidable.  I  know  nothing  about  the  circum- 
stances of  the  loss  of  that  vessel,  but  I  have  read  in  the  newspapers 
allegations  in  respect  of  the  loss  of  the  Formidable  that  exactly 
comply  with  the  conditions  laid  down  by  Lord  Crewe.  The  mere 
fact  that  these  allegations  have  been  publicly  made  seems  to  me 
a  very  strong  argument  for  holding  a  Court-Martial  in  this  case : 
and  I  would  apply  exactly  the  same  argument,  though  perhaps 


104  The  Empire  Review 

in  a  lesser  degree,  to  the  loss  of  such  ships  as  the  Cressy,  the 
Hogue,  and  the  Aboukir.  It  is  not  a  question  merely  between  the 
Admiralty  and  the  officers  concerned ;  it  is  a  question  between 
those  officers  and  the  whole  of  the  Navy,  and  between  the  Navy 
and  the  public. 

I  have  now  laid  down  what  I  believe  to  be  the  undoubted 
custom  of  the  Navy,  a  custom  practically  unbroken  in  peace  or  war 
for  250  years.     I  have  tried  to  show  what  the  attitude  of  the  Navy 
to  this  question  has  been,  and  to  dispose  altogether  of  the  sugges- 
tion that  a  Court-Martial  necessarily  involves  a  criminal  offence 
or  a  slur  on  the  character  of  the  officers  tried.     I  have,  I  think, 
succeeded  in  disposing  of  Mr.  Churchill's  arguments.    And  I  have 
shown  also  that  the  Admiralty,  by  its  own  Regulations,  has  always 
contemplated  the  holding  of  Courts-Martial.     Having  said  that,  I 
wish  to  state  quite  clearly  that  the  responsibility  in  this  matter 
can  rest  only  on  the  Board  of  Admiralty.    The  Board  of  Admiralty 
can  hold  these  Courts-Martial  when  they  choose.     There  is  no 
obligation  on  them  to  hold  the  Court-Mar tial  the  week  after  the 
ship  has  been  lost.     From  the  cases  I  have  given,  I  have  shown 
that  even  at  the  time  of  the  Crimean  War  a  Court-Martial  was 
held  a  year  after  the  ship   was  lost ;  and  in   the  case  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars  Courts-Martial  were  held  on  the  return  of  officers 
to  England  after  years  of  captivity.     Therefore  the  argument  of 
immediate  inconvenience,  although  it  may  be  quite  sound  for  the 
moment,  cannot  be  held  permanently  valid  as  a  reason  for  never 
holding  a  Court-Martial  on  the  loss  of  these  ships.     Again,  I  can 
quite  understand  that  evidence  might  come  out  in  the  course  of 
some  of  these  Courts-Martial  which  in  the  interests  of  the  public 
service  the  Admiralty  might  not  think  should  become  public 
property ;  but  that,  again,  is  entirely  within  the  power  of  the 
Admiralty  to  control.     They  have  controlled  it;  not  one  single 
word  has  been  published  in  respect  of  the   Court-Martial  on 
Admiral  Troubridge.     They  could    preserve  exactly  the  same 
secrecy  in  respect  of  the  evidence  given  at  any  Court-Martial. 

But  I  have  one  word  to  say  about  that.  When  the  Admiralty 
hold  a  Court-Martial,  although  they  have  the  right  to  withhold 
the  evidence  if  they  think  it  would  be  to  the  detriment  of  the 
public  service  to  publish  it,  they  have,  in  my  opinion,  no  right  to 
withhold  from  publicity  the  result  of  the  Court-Martial.  They 
have  no  business  to  bring  an  officer  to  trial  and  not  publish  the 
result.  I  say  this  with  special  reference  to  the  case  of  Admiral 
Troubridge,  because  although  it  was  announced  with  the 
authority  of  the  Press  Bureau  that  he  had  been  ordered  to  haul 
down  his  flag  and  come  home  to  be  tried  by  Court-Martial, 
there  has  never  been,  so  far  as  I  know,  any  official 
announcement  that  he  has  been  acquitted  by  that  Court-Martial. 


Admiralty  Courts-Martial  105 

The  whole  of  the  public  knowledge  on  that  subject  has  been 
derived  from  unofficial  information  in  the  newspapers,  and  I  say 
in  the  most  emphatic  way,  that  although  the  Admiralty  have  the 
right  to  withhold  the  evidence  in  the  interests  of  the  public  service, 
they  have  no  right  to  suppress  the  result  of  a  Court-Martial 
when  once  an  officer  has  been  tried. 

The  First  Lord  said,  in  the  speech  to  which  I  have  already 
referred,  that  he  must  respectfully  claim,  on  behalf  of  the  Board 
of  Admiralty,  "  an  absolute  discretionary  power  with  regard  to 
holding  Courts-Martial  or  Courts  of  Inquiry."  I  have  conceded 
that,  though  I  think  that  the  discretionary  power  would  be  very 
ill-used  if  the  whole  practice  of  holding  these  Courts-Martial  is 
abrogated.  He  went  on  to  say  that  the  Board  of  Admiralty  must 
also  have  absolute  discretionary  power  as  to  "  the  removal  with- 
out trial  of  officers  who  have  forfeited  the  confidence  of  the 
Board."  I  entirely  agree  with  that.  In  a  period  of  great  national 
emergency  like  the  present  there  is  no  question  that  the  Admiralty 
should  have  and  must  exercise  the  power  of  removing  an  officer  from 
his  command  even  without  trial  if  he  has  forfeited  their  confidence. 
Again,  in  his  opinion  the  Admiralty  must  reserve  an  absolute 
discretionary  power  as  to  "  the  publication  of  particular  informa- 
tion on  particular  incidents."  Here  again  I  concur.  That  must 
be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  Board  of  Admiralty. 

But  after  making  all  these  concessions  I  have  a  deep  convic- 
tion that  this  custom  is  for  the  best  interests  both  of  the  Navy 
and  of  the  public  service,  and  I  think  the  Government  are  in 
danger  of  confusing  two  different  principles  in  their  policy  of 
secrecy.  There  are  matters  which  in  a  time  of  war  should 
be  kept  from  the  possible  knowledge  of  the  enemy  at  all  costs. 
But  there  are  other  matters  which  it  is  more  important  that  our 
people  should  know  than  that  the  enemy  should  not  know,  and 
I  think  the  Government  have  sometimes  forgotten  that  and  gone 
too  far.  After  all,  the  strength  of  the  nation  at  this  time  is  based 
on  its  unity,  on  its  confidence  in  the  public  service,  and  in  its 
belief  that  the  Government  trust  it.  No  greater  blow  could 
possibly  be  given  to  our  national  strength  than  that  the  public 
should  have  any  cause  to  believe  that  the  Government  was  wavering 
in  its  confidence  in  their  patriotism  or  in  their  power  of  endurance. 
And  I  only  offer  these  criticisms  because  I  firmly  believe  that  the 
complete  screen  of  secrecy  which  has  been  shut  down  on  these  naval 
disasters  is  bad  for  the  national  temperament,  because  I  believe 
it  proceeds  mainly  from  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  public  which 
the  public  have  not  deserved,  and  because  I  believe  also  that  the 
suspension  of  this  practice  is  injurious  to  the  naval  service  as  a 
whole. 

SELBORNE. 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  171.  L 


106  The  Empire  Review 


THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  FALKLANDS 

I. 

THE  FRAMEWORK. 

So  far  we  have  heard  but  little  about  our  sea  battles;  not 
even  the  generalities  of  an  Eye  Witness  have  run  the  gauntlet  of 
the  Press  Bureau.  Why  the  Government  should  insist  on  the 
public  remaining  satisfied  with  the  scant  information  given  in 
official  despatches  passes  all  understanding.  But  so  it  is  and 
apparently  so  it  is  to  be.  Silence  is  well  and  proper  if  to  speak 
would  give  anything  away  to  the  enemy,  but  how  can  it  interfere 
with  strategic  operations  either  by  land  or  sea  to  tell  of  the  gallant 
deeds  performed  by  our  brave  sailors.  Moreover  the  successes  of 
our  fleet  like  those  of  our  arms  lose  much  in  the  telling  by  the 
absence  of  any  reference  to  individual  ships  and  individual  units. 
One  can  only  hope  that  at  least  steps  have  been  taken  to  see  that 
the  present  and  future  generations  are  not  for  ever  deprived  of 
any  record  showing  the  brilliant  exploits  and  glorious  heroism  of 
our  Navy  and  our  Army. 

It  was  on  December  8  that  the  British  squadron  under  Sir 
Frederick  Sturdee  met  and  defeated  the  German  squadron 
commanded  by  Admiral  Graf  von  Spee.  At  7.30  a.m.  the 
German  ships,  consisting  of  the  Scharnhorst,  Gneisenau,  Nurnberg, 
Leipzig  and  Dresden  were  sighted  near  the  Falklands,  and  in  the 
battle  which  followed  the  Dresden  alone  escaped,*  the  other 
four  ships  being  sunk  by  the  fire  of  the  British  fleet.  The 
Scharnhorst  and  Gneisenau  were  twin  vessels,  having  a  dis- 
placement of  11,420  tons,  carrying  eight  8-2-inch  and  six  5-9- 
inch  guns  with  a  nominal  speed  of  22  knots.  The  Dresden  was 
sister  ship  to  the  Emden.  Her  displacement  tonnage  was  3,590, 
and  she  carried  ten  4-1-inch  (35  pounder)  guns.  The  Nurnberg 
and  Leipzig  were  cruisers  of  the  same  class  and  similarly  armed, 

*  The  Dresden  was  finally  caught  near  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  about 
420  miles  from  the  Chilian  province  of  Valparaiso,  on  March  14  by  the  Kent  and 
the  Glasgow,  and  after  a  few  minutes'  fighting  hauled  down  her  colours  and  hoisted 
the  white  flag. 


The  Battle  of  the  Falklands  107 

but  of  the  three  the  Dresden  was  the  fastest,  her  speed  being 
24£  knots. 

The  British  squadron  consisted  of  six  ships  :  two  battle 
cruisers,  the  Invincible  (flagship)  and  the  Inflexible,  with  a  dis- 
placement tonnage  respectively  of  17,250,  and  armed  with  eight 
12-inch  and  sixteen  4-inch  guns,  three  cruisers,  the  Carnarvon, 
10,850  tons  displacement  carrying  four  7 '6-inch,  six  6-inch  guns 
and  twenty  3  pounders,  and  the  Kent  and  the  Cornwall,  9,800 
tons  displacement,  carrying  fourteen  6-inch,  eight  12-pounders 
and  three  3-pounders,  and  the  Glasgow,  a  light  cruiser  of  4,800 
tons,  armed  with  two  6-inch,  ten  4-inch,  one  12-pounder,  and 
four  3-pounders.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  British  ships 
were  greatly  superior  in  gun-fire  to  the  German ;  it  is  equally 
obvious  that  had  this  force  been  concentrated  off  the  coast  of 
Chili  on  November  1,  when  the  same  German  squadron  vanquished 
Admiral  Cradock,  that  disaster  would  never  have  happened.  Nor 
should  we  to-day  be  mourning  the  loss  of  the  Good  Hope  and 
the  Momnouth  and  the  sacrifice  of  so  many  brave  officers  and 
men. 

Keplying  to  a  message  conveying  the  congratulations  of  the 
Imperial  Japanese  Navy  on  the  action  off  the  Falklands,  the  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  pointed  out  that  "  with  the  sinking  of  the 
Scharnhorst,  Gneisenau,  Leipzig,  and  Nilrnberg  the  whole  of  the 
German  Squadron  based  on  Tsing-tau  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
had  been  destroyed,  and  that  base  itself  reduced  and  captured." 
This  event,  he  added,  marks  the  conclusion  of  the  active  operations 
in  which  the  Allied  Fleets  have  been  engaged  in  the  Pacific  for 
more  than  four  months,  and  though  it  has  fallen  to  a  British 
Squadron  in  the  South  Atlantic  to  strike  the  final  blow  it  is 
largely  owing  to  the  powerful  and  untiring  assistance  rendered  by 
the  Japanese  Fleet  that  this  result  has  been  achieved.  Indeed  so 
important  and  far-reaching  was  the  victory  that  Mr.  Churchill  did 
not  hesitate  to  say  that  "  The  peace  of  the  Pacific  is  now  for  the 
time  being  restored,  and  the  commerce  of  all  nations  can  proceed 
with  safety  through  the  vast  expanses  from  the  coasts  of  Mozam- 
bique to  those  of  South  America.  The  expulsion  of  the  Germans 
from  the  East  is  complete." 

In  the  absence  of  any  official  story  the  account  *  given  below 
of  the  battle  has  a  special  and  a  timely  interest.  It  is  told  in 
simple  language,  but  with  a  dramatic  vividness  that  brings  before 
the  reader  a  picture  lifelike  both  in  detail  and  incident.  The 
author,  a  young  officer  only  nineteen  years  of  age,  was  fortunate 
enough  to  take  part  not  only  in  the  battle  he  so  forcibly  describes, 
but  also  in  the  fight  off  Heligoland. 

EDITOR. 

*  Being  extracts  from  a  letter  written  home  immediately  after  the  battle. 


108  The  Empire  Review 

II. 

THE  STOET  QF  THE  FIGHT. 

PORT  STANLEY,  FALKLAND  ISLANDS. 

H.M.S.  Invincible,  12  December,  1914. 

At  9  A.M.  the  stirring  "  action  "  bugle  call  was  sounded  all 
over  the  ship.  Half  the  men  are  in  coaling  rig,  having  just  come 
from  coaling.  By  10.30  we  are  outside  the  harbour.  The 
enemy's  ships  are  mere  specks  on  the  horizon,  the  nearest  of 
them  seventeen  miles  away.  At  10.35  we  are  making  twenty- 
three  knots.  All  the  decks  are  flooded  with  water  from  the  hoses 
to  stop  fires  breaking  out,  and  incidentally  to  clean  off  the  coal 
from  the  decks.  Right  ahead — away  right  down  on  the  horizon 
— a  little  on  our  starboard  bow,  are  five  little  specks  with  five 
little  trails  of  smoke  behind  them.  This  is  the  enemy.  Soon 
we  shall  be  within  range  of  them.  Our  engines  are  doing  their 
utmost  to  that  end.  We  are  deliberately  setting  ourselves  to 
riddle  them  with  shells  until  they  sink.  Until  we  have  done  that 
we  shall  continue  firing,  unless  they  first  sink  us ;  but  the  latter 
idea  does  not  occur  to  one  for  some  reason  or  other. 

The  disposition  of  our  own  fleet  is  as  follows  : — 


Glasgow 

Invincible  T 

A  Inflexible 

Kent 


Cam 


arvon 

t 

Cornwall 


It  is  a  glorious  day ;  quite  warm  for  these  latitudes.  Sun 
shining  brightly.  We  might  be  carrying  out  some  ordinary  peace 
manoeuvres.  Ah !  but  hark.  The  "  action "  bugle.  We  are 
about  to  begin  operations.  So  now  at  12.30  we  go  to  our  stations 
again.  At  12.50  the  range  of  the  second  ship  of  the  line  is  about 
17,000  yards.  At  12.55  we  are  going  full-speed  ahead,  about 
twenty-six  knots.  At  12.56  I  hear  a  distant  boom.  It  is  the 
Inflexible  firing,  the  first  shot  of  the  action  (barring,  of  course, 
the  shots  fired  by  the  Canopus).  At  12.58  the  range  is  15,700 
yards.  The  enemy  has  started  firing  by  now  and  their  shots  are 
falling  2000  yards  short.  I  realise  properly  for  the  first  time  that 
the  enemy  is  doing  his  best  to  sink  us.  We  are  his  mark,  his 
target.  Any  moment  a  shell  may  hit  us.  At  12.59  our  foremost 


The  Battle  of  the  Falklands  109 

turret,  "  A "  turret,  opens  fire.     Her  shots  fall  short.      She  is 
aiming  at  the  Scharnhorst. 

The  following,  I  think,  is  the  position  of  the  enemy's  ships  as 
we  open  fire : — 


Nflmberg 
A  A 

Oueisenau  A  Dresden 

Scharnhorst 


Leipzig 


According  as  one  or  the  other  German  ships  drop  astern  we 
make  her  our  target.  The  Leipzig  begins  to  drop  behind  about 
1.15,  so  we  change  our  target  to  her.  The  Leipzig  now  alters  her 
course  to  starboard,  and  the  Sckarnhorst  and  Gneisenau  to  port,  to 
close  on  us  and  engage  us  at  nearer  range.  At  1.30  they  open 
fire.  We  train  on  the  Gneisenau.  At  1.33  the  enemy's  shots  are 
falling  1000  yards  short.  At  1.40,  however,  they  get  within 
thirty  yards  of  us. 

It  is  noticed  that  they  get  their  shots  off  in  splendid  salvoes, 
all  the  flashes  being  almost  simultaneous.  At  1.42  they  are 
"  straddling  "  us,  i.e.  some  of  their  shots  fall  over  us,  others  fall 
short,  but  none  yet  hitting  us.  At  1.45  we  all  feel  a  dull  thud 
and  the  ship  quivers  slightly.  We  have  been  struck  for  the  first 
time.  Scouts  go  out  to  see  what  damage  has  been  done,  report 
a  big  hole  in  the  ship's  side,  in  the  marines  mess  deck,  several 
feet  above  the  water.  There  are  no  signs  of  fire  having  broken 
out.  At  2  P.M.  the  enemy  cease  firing.  We  "  check  "  fire.  At 
2.35  the  ScharnJiorst  and  the  Gneisenau  turn  away  to  starboard. 

Our  relative  positions  are  now  as  follows  : — 


Scharnhorst 


Invincible  A 

In  flex 


ible 


At  2.45  a  full-rigged  sailing  ship  appears  right  away  on  our 
port  bow,  and  she  looks  very  fine  in  contrast  to  us  black  death- 


110  The  Empire  Review 

bearing  monsters,  all  smoking  like  the  deepest  pit  of  Dante's 
Inferno.  She  must  have  had  a  ripping  view  of  the  opening 
stages  of  the  battle.  "  A  "  "  Q  "  and  "  X  "  turrets  re-open  fire, 
this  time  on  the  Scharnhorst:  range  about  14,800  yards. 
Inflexible  then  engages  the  Gneisenau,  It  is  now  that  the  fight 
resolves  itself  into  two  main  engagements.  When  the  Leipzig 
and  other  German  cruisers  alter  course  to  starboard  our  light 
cruisers  Kent,  Cornwall,  and  Glasgow  go  after  them.  The 
Glasgow  seems  to  have  got  nearest  the  Leipzig  and,  finding 
herself  straddled  by  her  shots,  alters  course  to  starboard  to  get 
out  of  range. 

The  position  is  somewhat  as  follows  : — 


Dresdet 


urnberg 


Glasgow/ 
Cornwall/ 
Kent/ 


The  Dresden  of  course  is  ahead  owing  to  her  superior  speed. 
It  is  due  to  this  fact  that  she  escaped.  Well,  between  them  the 
light  cruisers  polish  off  the  Niirnberg  and  the  Leipzig.  We,  in 
the  meanwhile,  hammer  away  at  the  Scharnhorst. 

At  2.53  the  enemy  alters  course  to  port  in  the  attempt  to 
"  close  "  us  and  so  engage  at  closer  range  for  their  8 '2-inch  guns. 
At  2.55  they  open  fire.  We  alter  course  at  the  same  time  in 
order  to  keep  the  same  distance  away.  This  is  our  whole  policy 
really :  to  engage  the  enemy  at  long  range,  while  theirs  is  to  do  the 
reverse. 

At  3.3  the  fore-top  tells  us  we  are  hitting  and  that  the 
Scharnhorst  is  on  fire.  At  3.81  feel  the  ship  reel  slightly — we 
have  been  hit  again.  The  range  is  now  about  11,000  yards,  and 
we  are  getting  fairly  close  to  them.  Soon  afterwards  we  are 
again  hit  twice.  This  was,  I  believe,  when  we  got  damaged 
most.  Whenever  we  are  hit  the  Commander  sends  out  scouts 


The  Battle  of  the  Falklands  111 

to  find  what  damage  has  been  done,  and,  if  a  fire  has  broken  out, 
to  extinguish  it.  On  one  of  these  occasions,  when  apparently  we 
have  been  hit  badly,  the  Commander  himself  goes  up  to  see  what 
damage  has  been  done,  and  in  doing  this  he  very  nearly  loses  his 
life.  He  has  just  closed  a  door  behind  him  when  a  shell  comes 
tearing  through  the  ship's  side.  Luckily  only  a  small  splinter 
catches  his  left  hand  and  another  hits  him  in  the  mouth.  A  first- 
aid  party  bandages  him  up  and  he  returns  to  the  transmitting 
station  limping  badly. 

At  3 . 38  the  third  funnel  of  the  Scharnhorst  is  reported  to  have 
been  shot  away  by  one  of  our  shells.  The  flagship  is  hit  again. 
The  range  is  now  as  low  as  9,850  yards.  We  are  going  full-speed 
ahead.  At  3.49  we  receive  a  signal  that  the  Bristol  has  captured 
the  enemy's  colliers. 

[The  Bristol  was  told  off  to  sink  the  enemy's  colliers,  for  the 
Germans,  it  would  seem,  had  thought  to  make  a  base  of  the 
Falkland  Islands,  and  intended  first  of  all  "  doing  for "  the 
inhabitants.  They  had  the  shock  of  their  lives  when  they  saw 
the  smoke  of  a  small  fleet  in  the  harbour,  for  I  don't  believe  they 
guessed  what  ships  they  had  to  combat  until  we  put  to  sea  to 
chase  them.] 

At  4  P.M.  the  Scharnhorst  is  seen  to  be  capsizing ;  to  have 
stopped  and  be  listing  to  port.  At  4.8  Scharnhorst,  going  down 
by  the  head,  ceased  firing  and  tipped  over.  At  4.17  she  has 
disappeared  completely  with  all  on  board.  No  time  to  think  of 
rescuing  those  struggling  bodies  clinging  to  wreckage,  no  time  for 
that.  The  Gneisenau  is  still  spitting  fire,  so  at  4.15  target  is 
changed  to  the  Gneisenau,  which  the  Inflexible,  so  far,  has  not 
succeeded  in  sinking.  The  smoke  is  pouring  out  of  our  funnel  so 
thickly  now  that  the  gunnery  lieutenant  in  the  fore-top  is  unable 
to  see  the  target,  and  for  a  minute  the  guns  do  not  fire.  We 
now  alter  course  to  starboard,  so  that  the  guns  will  fire  on  the 
port  side.  At  4.23  the  Gneisenau  seems  to  be  suffering  badly.  At 
4.25  she  is  still  "  straddling"  us  (the  range  is  about  10,000 yards). 
At  4.29  we  are  hit  again.  Again  at  4.38.  Just  after  this  we  are 
hit  for'd.  At  5.8  fore-funnel  of  Gneisenau  is  shot  away  by  "  A  " 
turret.  At  5.15  we  are  hit  again.  Then  we  land  a  shell  between 
the  Gneisenau 's  third  and  fourth  funnels.  At  5.17  we  bring  her 
bridge  down. 

At  half-past  she  is  listing  to  port  and  apparently  has  stopped. 
Then  for  a  minute  we  check  fire  while  we  close  her  to  give 
the  death-blow.  Eange  about  10,150  yards  when  "  Q  "  and  "  X  " 
turrets  fire  again.  Now  at  5.45  she  has  stopped,  but  occasionally 
a  flash  of  light  shows  that  she  can  still  fire.  Now  she  is  listing 
to  starboard  and  appears  to  be  sinking.  She  is  practically  a 
wreck,  with  only  one  turret  firing.  At  5.50  we  ease  down  to  ten 


112  The  Empire  Review 

knots.  Now,  at  last,  at  5.53  the  captain's  "  cease  fire  "  gong 
rings !  We  have  been  firing  on  and  off,  with  a  lull  now  and 
again,  solidly  for  about  five  hours.  The  order  is  now  given  for 
all  turrets  to  stand  by  to  open  fire,  if  required,  at  any  moment. 

Then  at  last  "  Away  first  and  second  cutters,  man  sea-boat." 
For  the  Gneisenau  is  heeling  right  over  on  her  side  on  the  water. 
The  beggars  are  done  for.  All  our  efforts  will  now  be  to  save 
life,  having  done  our  utmost  these  five  hours  to  destroy  it.  I 
mount  up  the  iron  ladder  to  the  next  deck — and  what  a  sight  meets 
my  eyes  !  Going  along  the  mess  deck  I  see  a  great  gaping  hole  in 
the  ship's  side*;  benches,  mess-tables,  reduced  to  matchwood, 
thousands  of  small  holes  everywhere,  fragments  of  iron  deck  and 
steel  shell  at  every  point.  Mounting  to  the  next  deck  I  go  along 
to  the  ward  room.  What !  is  this  the  ward  room  ?  It  can't  be. 
A  big  hole  in  the  deck,  armchairs  reduced  to  matchwood,  table 
the  same,  piano  hopelessly  broken  up.  Holes  everywhere, 
the  deck  like  a  rubbish  heap.  All  lights  out,  electric 
communications  smashed,  the  only  light  the  daylight  entering 
through  the  shell-holes  and  the  gap  in  the  ship's  side.  The  same 
with  the  pantry — a  hopeless  wreck — and  so  the  adjacent  cabin. 
Bunk  in  a  ridiculous  position  on  the  deck,  sheets  and  blankets 
burnt  up  by  lyddite  explosions,  curtains  riddled  by  splinters  of 
shells.  Going  further  for'd  I  find  the  paymaster's  cabin  wrecked 
by  a  shell,  and  the  chaplain's  cabin  the  same.  Warily  I  feel  my 
way  in  the  dark  to  our  own  flat  where  we  keep  all  our  gear,  and 
which,  being  for'd,  should  by  right  have  suffered  worse  than  any 
place  in  the  ship.  My  own  chest  I  find  absolutely  intact,  but 
notice  rents  in  one  other. 

With  C I  go  on  the  upper  deck.  Here  a  very,  very 

pitiable  sight  meets  our  eyes.  We  are  just  over  the  spot  where 
the  Gneisenau  sank.  Three  of  our  boats  are  away  picking 
up  survivors.  The  Inflexible's  boats  are  doing  the  same,  and 
so  are  the  Carnarvon's.  The  sea,  so  different  from  its  state 
at  noonday,  is  now  quite  angry,  and  strewn  with  floating 
wreckage  supporting  drowning  men.  To  add  to  the  misery  a 
drizzling  rain  is  falling.  From  the  little  knots  of  men,  gathered 
round  a  floating  something,  come  the  most  weird  and  uncanny 
cries,  expressive  of  the  most  acute  suffering ;  a  cry  of  appeal — the 
sort  of  cry  that  an  animal,  otherwise  incapable  of  making  any 
sound,  might  emit  if  strung  by  extreme  agony.  Some  of  them 
raise  their  arms  out  of  the  water  in  appeals  for  help  ;  for  there 
are  so  many  drowning,  and  so  few  boats  to  cope  with  them,  that 
it  is  almost  a  matter  of  choice  as  to  which  are  to  be  helped  first. 
We  throw  overboard  every  rope's  end  we  can  and  try  our  hands 
at  casting  to  some  wretch  feebly  struggling  within  a  few  yards  of 
the  ship's  side.  Missed  him !  Another  shot.  He's  farther  off 


The  Battle  of  the  Falklands  113 

now !  Ah  !  the  rope  isn't  long  enough.  No  good,  try  someone 
else.  He's  sunk  now.  Perfectly  motionless,  floating  in  an 
upright  position  just  a  foot  below  the  surface,  his  poor  limbs 
moving  with  the  tide,  up  and  down,  his  hair  like  seaweed.  Bubbles, 
a  few,  rise  from  his  mouth.  He's  quite  still  now,  quite  still. 

I  wonder  who'll  mourn  him.  I  wonder  if  he  had  any  foreboding 
of  his  fate  twenty-four  hours  back ;  wonder  if  he  thought  that 
body,  those  limbs  of  his  which  no  man  might  touch  perhaps  with 
impunity,  would  be  jostled  hither  and  thither  by  the  waves,  rolled 
over  and  over  by  the  tide  like  a  bottle  cast  loose.  Flotsam  and 
jetsam,  that's  all  he  is  now.  Many  such  do  we  see.  Now  we  lend 
a  hand  hauling  at  a  rope,  pulling  some  poor  devil  out  of  the  water. 

As  they  are  hauled  on  deck  they  are  taken  below  into  the 
ward-room  ante-room,  or  the  Admiral's  spare  cabin.  Here  with 
knives  we  tear  off  their  dripping  clothing.  Then  with  towels  we 
try  to  start  a  little  warmth  in  their  ice-cold  bodies.  They  are 
trembling,  violently  trembling  from  the  iciness  of  their  immersion. 
Some  of  them  had  stuck  it  for  thirty  minutes  in  a  temperature  of 
35°  Fahrenheit !  Most  of  them  need  artificial  resuscitation.  Some 
on  coming  to  consciousness  give  the  most  terrible  groans  as  if 
there  were  re-presented  to  their  minds  some  very  awful  picture. 
What  frightful  sights  they  must  have  witnessed,  some  of  them  ! 
Our  shells  did  terrible  havoc,  at  times  wiping  out  an  entire 
gun's  crew.  One  or  two  are  horribly  burned,  and  some  of  their 
bodies  are  red  where  they  have  been  peppered  with  lyddite. 

We  get  what  spare  warm  clothing  we  can,  such  as  blankets 
and  sweaters.  We  have  three  surgeons  on  board,  and  these  do 
what  best  they  can,  relieving  suffering  frequently  with  morphia. 
I  will  draw  a  veil  over  the  rest  of  this.  I  myself  don't  like  to 
think  of  it.  The  human  body  is  not  beautiful  under  all  circum- 
stances !  That  is  all  I  will  say.  We  rescue  about  107  men, 
twenty  of  whom  succumb  to  the  cold,  and  are  given  a  sea  burial 
the  next  day,  sewn  up  in  hammocks  weighted  with  fire-bars. 
Besides  the  men  there  are  five  officers  survivors.  These  are 
going  to  the.  Macedonia,  a  transport,  for  passage  to  England 
to-morrow  morning. 

W.  R  C.  STEELE. 


114  The  Empire  Review 


BELGIAN    REFUGEES    AND    FOOD 
PROBLEMS    IN    ENGLAND 

PROBABLY  no  economist  living  is  so  closely  acquainted  with 
conditions  in  the  world's  markets  as  to  give  all  the  reasons  which 
have  led  to  the  inflation  of  food  prices  as  we  feel  them  in  England 
now.  The  whole  system  is  exceedingly  complicated,  and  present 
conditions  so  exceptional,  that  analysis  is  defied  and  will  be  only 
possible  many  years  hence  when  information  can  be  collected  and 
evidence  sifted.  To-day,  as  practical  people,  we  can  only  deal  as 
best  we  can  with  difficulties  as  they  arise,  and  leave  to  future 
investigation  the  laborious  task  of  dissection. 

Now  the  most  pressing  subject  connected  with  food  which 
occupied  our  attention,  after  the  war  had  been  going  on  for  two 
or  three  weeks,  was  the  support  of  the  Belgian  refugees.  I  do 
remember,  it  is  true,  the  extraordinary  rush  which  short-sighted 
people  made  for  food  directly  war  broke  out,  so  that  their  own 
larders  might  not  become  empty  and  their  meals  might  go  on  at 
least  with  regularity.  But  I  regard  this  as  a  mere  lapse.  Our 
equilibrium  had  been  upset.  Some  of  us  slipped  a  little  and  made 
a  grab  at  the  nearest  thing  for  support.  The  nearest  thing  in 
many  cases  was  the  grocer's  and  provision  dealer's  shop,  which 
consequently  became  inundated  with  nervous  customers  anxious 
to  lay  in  household  commodities. 

That  phase  soon  passed  away,  but  the  case  of  the  refugees 
became  more  and  more  insistent.  Here  they  were  landing  in 
their  thousands,  from  terribly  over-loaded  boats  at  Folkestone  and 
other  places,  and  arrangements  had  to  be  made  not  only  for 
housing,  but  for  feeding  them.  Amid  the  welter  of  new  ideas  to 
which  such  conditions  gave  rise,  one  of  the  simplest  was  that 
which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  National  Food  Fund,  of 
which  I  have  the  honour  to  be  President. 

Put  in  simple  language,  the  business  of  the  Fund  is  to  collect 
food,  have  it  sent  to  the  offices  and  stores  at  IA,  Dover  Street, 
Piccadilly,  London,  there  divide  into  household  units,  and  send  a 
daily  supply  by  motor  car  or  train  to  the  refugees  wherever  they 
may  be  living. 


Belgian  Refugees  and  Food  Problems  in  England     115 

That  was  the  crude  idea,  which  has  now  become  considerably 
improved  upon.  For  instance,  the  great  London  Markets 
(Smithfield,  Billingsgate,  Covent  Garden,  Spitalfields  and  the 
Borough)  have  been  most  generous  in  gifts,  so  that  the  Fund  has 
not  had  to  buy  a  great  deal.  Numbers  of  shippers  and  merchants 
have  given  most  handsomely  in  bulk.  Then  the  Colonies — New 
Zealand,  Australia,  Canada  and  South  Africa — have  sent  magnifi- 
cent donations  in  kind.  From  these  sources  have  come  frozen 
mutton,  cheese,  butter,  and  other  dairy  produce,  dried  vegetables, 
coffee,  sugar,  raisins,  currants,  and  flour.  The  High  Commissioner 
of  New  Zealand  has  also  sent  on  behalf  of  the  citizens  of  Gisborne 
a  gift  of  £500.  The  London  Chamber  of  Commerce  has  helped 
immensely,  and  a  great  deal  of  food  is  now  sent  regularly  through 
this  agency.  Private  motor  cars  have  been  lent  for  purposes  of 
delivery  and  in  many  cases  the  owners  themselves  drive  in 
person. 

A  large  staff  of  volunteers  has  attended  daily  at  the  stores  right 
through  the  winter  months  to  help  divide  the  food,  pack  it  up, 
and  dispatch  it  to  its  many  various  destinations.  The  National 
Food  Fund  is  now  the  official  distributor  to  the  War  Kefugees 
Committee,  and  sends  a  daily  supply  of  food  to  the  hundreds  of 
London  flats  which  have  been  engaged  on  nine  months'  leases  to 
afford  the  Belgian  families  temporary  homes. 

There  is  a  great  and  rapidly  increasing  tendency  for  the  Fund 
to  have  more  and  more  work  thrust  upon  it,  for  many  people,  full 
of  sympathy  for  the  refugees,  offered  hospitality  which  they  have 
not  in  all  cases  found  it  very  easy  to  maintain.  It  has  been  found 
more  satisfactory  for  the  Belgians  to  be  housed  in  empty  houses 
and  flats  where  they  can  see  to  themselves  and  where  the  many 
difficulties  attendant  upon  the  sudden  arrival  of  strangers  in  an 
English  family  are  non-existent. 

Obviously  it  is  much  more  economical  for  a  central  body  to 
procure  food  in  bulk — either  by  gift  or  purchase  at  wholesale 
rates — and  deliver  it  to  the  refugees  in  the  form  of  daily  or  weekly 
rations,  than  to  make  provision  locally  by  increasing  the  house- 
hold bills  of  the  many  British  families  who  are  anxious  to  help. 
The  middleman's  profits  are  entirely  eliminated  and  where  the 
cost  of  feeding  may  work  out,  in  the  case  of  local  committees,  at 
ten  shillings  a  week  or  more,  the  cost  under  the  Fund  system  is 
at  least  twenty-five  per  cent.  less.  In  view  of  the  increased  cost 
of  living  all  round,  this  organisation  is  becoming  keenly  appreciated 
by  local  committees,  who  are  seeing  the  wisdom  of  transferring 
their  subscriptions  and  their  responsibility  for  the  support  of  the 
refugees  in  their  neighbourhood  to  the  National  Food  Fund.  In 
London,  at  the  great  stores,  the  more  important  articles  of 
domestic  consumption  have  gone  up,  since  the  outbreak  of  the 


116  The  Empire  Review 

war,  from  fifteen  to  as  much  as  forty  per  cent.  Here  are  a  few 

instances,  taken  from  the  current  list  of  a  great  retail  house : — 

Before  the  War.  Now. 

*.   d.  «.   d. 

Bread 0    6£  08 

Standard  flour       .                                   1    0£  1    5J 

Cheese  (Cheddar)  .                   .         .         0  10J  11 

Bacon  (Danish)      .                                     0    7J  09 

Tea       ...                   ..15  18 

Loaf  sugar     .                            ..02  04 

Granulated  sugar  .                   ..02  0    3£ 


Pearl  barley  . 


02  03 


Increases  such  as  these  are,  of  course,  felt  by  the  Fund,  but 
not  to  the  same  extent,  for  it  is  nearly  always  the  case  that  they 
who  buy  in  small  quantities  pay  a  greater  proportionate  increase 
than  they  who  buy  in  bulk.  Thus  it  is  frequently  pointed  out 
with  truth  that  the  poor,  who  buy  coal  by  the  hundredweight, 
pay  more  than  the  rich  who  buy  by  the  ton  or  the  truck  load. 

Inasmuch  as  the  Fund  is  dealing  daily  with  the  needs  of  over  four 
thousand  refugees,  the  committee  of  management  is  in  a  position 
to  obtain  a  vast  amount  of  information  as  to  the  needs  and  habits 
of  life  of  our  guests  in  their  various  social  degrees.  This  enables 
them  to  effect  economies  on  a  wide  scale  which  could  scarcely  be 
entered  into  in  the  case  of  two  or  three  families  supported  by  the 
patriotic  efforts  of  a  few  people.  The  daily  ration  for  a  Belgian 
is  quite  different  from  that  of  a  Britisher.  Tea,  which  no  house 
mistress  in  our  country  would  be  without,  can  nearly  always  be 
dispensed  with  in  sending  food  to  the  refugees.  They  appear  to 
have  no  liking  for  it  whatever.  In  the  case  of  meat,  Belgian 
cooking  can  be  trusted  to  making  appetising  dishes  from  joints 
and  portions  of  joints  which  we  should  scarcely  consider  worth 
troubling  about.  Onions,  too,  in  households  of  the  peasants  and 
artisan  classes,  seem  to  be  regarded  as  very  much  more  important 
articles  of  diet  than  with  us.  There  is  an  investigation  committee 
which  examines  every  application  for  food,  and  a  rule  has  been 
made,  which  is  strictly  adhered  to,  that  no  case  shall  be  dealt 
with  excepting  through  the  recommendations  of  responsible 
societies  or  committees  for  relief. 

The  operations  of  the  Fund,  however,  are  not  confined  to  the 
needy  among  our  Belgian  allies.  They  extend  also  to  feeding 
our  own  necessitous  poor.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
employment  is  now  on  the  whole  excellent  in  England,  there  are 
thousands  of  cases  where  the  war  has  flung  people  from  their 
situations.  Particularly  is  this  the  case  among  dressmakers. 
There  being  no  Court  this  year  orders  for  gowns  have  not  been 
given  with  anything  like  the  same  freedom  as  heretofore,  and 
many  festivities  common  to  a  normal  London  season  are  not  being 


Belgian  Refugees  and  Food  Problems  in  England     117 

held.  Money,  also,  has  been  very  tight  among  those  who  rely  for 
income  on  dividends.  In  many  cases  dividends  have  not  been 
paid  at  all,  and  in  many  more  they  have  been  greatly  reduced. 
These  circumstances  have  pressed  heavily  upon  the  needlewoman 
who  is  employed  by  the  Court  gown  makers.  So  work  has  been 
found  for  her  in  the  making  of  various  garments  for  soldiers.  She 
earns  very  much  less  than  before  the  war,  but  the  National  Food 
Fund  sends  her  a  good  dinner  and  tea  every  day  to  the  various 
improvised  workrooms  where  she  now  plies  her  needle.  One  of 
these  rooms  is  in  a  rehearsal  chamber  at  the  Court  Theatre, 
Sloane  Square.  Other  institutions  supplied  with  daily  food  are  : 
the  Kesidence  for  Gentlewomen,  Holland  Park,  Kensington  ;  the 
Soldiers'  Wives'  Home,  Hammersmith ;  the  Women's  League  of 
Service,  Battersea ;  the  Toy  Makers  and  Work  Girls,  Baker 
Street,  W. ;  and  the  Factory  Girls  at  Deptford. 

Over  700  necessitous  British  poor  are  now  fed  by  the  Fund 
besides  the  4,000  Belgian  refugees  which  rely  upon  the  organisa- 
tion for  their  daily  meals.  Their  numbers  are  going  up  rapidly, 
for  the  tendency,  as  already  pointed  out,  is  for  private  hospitality, 
however  whole-hearted  and  sincere,  to  dwindle  as  the  months  go 
by  and  the  war  drags  on.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  still  the  Belgian 
refugees  come  into  England  at  the  rate  of  about  1,000  a  week, 
and  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  feed  them. 

Since  the  Fund  commenced  its  work  it  has  discovered  that, 
quite  apart  from  the  problem  of  feeding  the  refugees,  there  is 
a  demand  for  its  services  in  another  and  more  permanent  direction. 
This  is  in  the  education  of  mistresses  of  working-class  homes  in 
food  economy.  It  is  evident,  of  course,  that  the  need  for 
instruction  has  arisen  from  the  realisation  on  the  part  of  women 
who  have  to  lay  out  a  week's  wage,  that  the  customary  sovereign 
or  less  has  depreciated  in  purchasing  power  very  considerably. 
Now  there  are  two  obvious  ways  of  meeting  this  situation.  The 
husband  can  be  given  more  wages,  or  the  retail  prices  of  the 
household  goods  his  wife  buys  can  be  artificially  regulated  and 
kept  low.  The  war  has  already  in  some  districts  provided  the 
willing  workman  with  more  money,  but  this  is  by  no  means  the 
case  everywhere,  and  at  present,  at  any  rate,  there  is  no  regulation 
of  the  retail  price  of  food  which  makes  a  great  deal  of  difference 
to  the  weekly  food  bill.  The  Clyde  strikers  claimed  that  the 
purchasing  power  of  the  sovereign  has  been  reduced  to  14s.  6d. ; 
in  London  the  workers  say  it  stands  at  about  15s.,  and  other 
large  centres  of  labour  report  similar  depreciation. 

Whatever  action  may  be  taken  to  increase  wages  or  decrease 
the  cost  of  food,  careful  economy  in  the  household  will  go  a  long 
way  toward  solving  the  domestic  problem,  and  it  is  in  this  direction 
that  the  National  Food  Fund  hopes  to  be  of  service. 


118  The  Empire  Review 

It  is  making  arrangements  for  an  Educational  Campaign 
throughout  the  country  for  giving  practical  and  simple  instruction 
in  buying,  cooking  and  using  food.  Mr.  Herman  Senn,  the  well- 
known  cookery  expert,  is  supervising  the  training  of  a  number  of 
ladies  who  will  become  teachers  or  commissioners  of  the  Fund, 
and  who  will  be  in  readiness  to  visit  any  part  of  the  country  to 
form  local  centres.  Pamphlets  and  leaflets  have  been  specially 
written  and  published  at  very  low  prices  for  distribution  in 
working  class  homes.  One  of  these,  the  "  Handbook  for  House- 
wives," costs  a  penny,  and  among  the  leaflets  are  "  Hints  for 
Saving  Fuel,"  and  "  Housekeeping  on  Twenty-five  shillings  a 
week  and  under."  A  large  pictorial  coloured  card  has  also  been 
prepared  to  show  in  a  striking  way  the  comparative  cost  and 
nourishing  qualities  of  some  of  the  most  ordinary  foods.  Another 
feature  of  the  curriculum  will  be  the  explanation  of  the  use  of 
fireless  cookers  and  makeshift  utensils  which  are  within  the 
reach  of  everyone. 

The  National  Food  Fund's  Educational  scheme  has  aroused 
keen  interest  in  many  quarters,  and  it  is  already  clear  that  its  own 
band  of  specially  trained  teachers,  even  if  greatly  increased  in 
number,  will  be  insufficient  to  cover  the  extensive  field  waiting  to 
be  worked.  To  meet  this  difficulty  it  is  hoped  that  a  large 
number  of  volunteers,  who  should  be  in  all  cases  people  who  have 
already  some  practical  knowledge  of  domestic  management  and 
cookery,  will  offer  themselves  to  be  trained  by  the  National  Food 
Fund  teachers.  It  is  thought  that  wherever  about  fifteen  such 
volunteers  can  be  found  who  will  organize  themselves  and  form  a 
class,  a  National  Food  Fund  teacher  can  easily  be  sent  to  train 
them.  They  would  be  taught  on  a  carefully  prepared  syllabus, 
which  would  include  both  theory  and  practice,  and  they  should, 
after  attending  a  course  of  lecture-demonstrations,  be  qualified  to 
pass  on  to  others  the  knowledge  they  have  thus  acquired.  They 
would  then,  in  their  turn,  hold  classes  for  working  women,  the 
syllabus  for  these  being  supplied  by  the  experts  of  the  National 
Food  Fund,  and  arranged  on  the  basis  of  what  had  already  been 
taught  to  the  volunteers.  The  National  Food  Fund  will  provide 
these  instructors  for  a  fee  which  will  just  cover  out  of  pocket 
expenses. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  Educational  Campaign  of  the  Fund 
trespasses  on  ground  already  well  covered  by  schools  of  cookery, 
Polytechnics,  and  classes  conducted  under  county  council  schemes 
for  technical  instruction,  but  this  is  not  the  case.  The  Fund  does 
not  set  itself  out  to  teach  the  art  of  cookery,  so  much  as  the 
economy  of  cookery,  and  although  in  working-class  homes  the  two 
should  go  together,  it  is  the  experience  of  teachers  that  classes 
are  too  often  looked  upon  as  an  opportunity  for  learning  how  to 


Belgian  Refugees  and  Food  Problems  in  England     119 

make  dishes  of  a  decorative  character,  and  that  prevention  of 
waste  is  a  neglected  subject.  The  National  Food  Fund's  scheme 
will,  it  is  hoped,  remedy  this,  and  enable  the  abundant  facilities 
enjoyed  by  public  bodies  and  the  skill  of  their  teachers  to  be 
utilised  with  greater  efficiency  and  economic  effect. 

CHRISTOPHER  TURNOR, 
President  of  the  National  Food  Fund. 


-SECOND    LIEUTENANTS" 

Do  you  hear  the  tramp  of  England's  boys 

As  they  march  on  youthful  feet, 
Down  the  muddy  roads  of  the  country-side, 

Down  the  long,  grey  city  street? 
The  fame  of  their  schools  behind  them, 

The  fame  of  their  land  before — 
For  his  school  and  his  land  are  the  make  of  a  man 

In  the  grim  old  game  of  war. 

On  playing-fields  and  in  class-rooms  bare 

They  nurture  the  same  old  breed, 
Of  boys  who  can  govern  and  work  and  plan, 

Of  boys  who  can  fight  and  lead. 
The  fame  of  their  brothers  behind  them, 

Their  own  fair  fame  before, 
They  follow  with  youthful  ardour  and  zest 

In  the  grim  old  game  of  war. 

Do  you  hear  the  talk  of  an  Empire's  sons 

As  they  meet  in  the  battle  line? 
"My  younger  brother  is  training  now," 

"And  so  is  mine,"  "And  mine." 
"  The  fame  of  our  fathers  behind  us, 

Old  England's  fame  before, 
Come,  hurry  up,  lads,  we  need  you  here 

To  win  in  this  game  of  war." 

Do  you  hear  the  tramp  of  England's  boys 

As  they  march  to  the  grey  dock  side  ? 
Do  you  see  their  eyes  as  the  transport  moves 

Away  on  the  midnight  tide  ? 
The  shores  of  England  behind  them, 

The  shores  of  France  before; 
The  glory  of  youth  and  hope  and  pride 

Is  their  strength  in  the  game  of  war. 

M.  G.  MEUGENS. 


120  The  Empire  Review 


FROM  BAGDAD  TO  ALEXANDRIA  BY 
CARAVAN 

I. 

THE  Mesopotamia  Irrigation  Works  may  justly  be  described 
as  the  largest  undertaking  ever  embarked  on  by  Turkey.  When 
complete  the  scheme  will  open  up  to  cultivation  a  tract  of 
country  that  has  practically  lain  dormant  for  centuries,  and 
provide  a  means  of  livelihood  for  a  population  of  some  25,000,000 
persons.  At  present  this  vast  territory  is  inhabited  by  about 
1,000,000  people,  mostly  nomadic  Arabs. 

The  new  barrage  across  the  Euphrates,  constructed  with  the 
object  of  restoring  the  supply  of  water  to  the  Hilleh  Channel  and 
irrigating  a  wide  area  of  land  of  great  agricultural  potentialities, 
was  finished  in  December  1913.  This  difficult  and  responsible 
task  was  entrusted  to  the  firm  of  Sir  John  Jackson,  Ltd.,  and  it 
may  be  assumed  that  the  same  firm  will  complete  the  scheme. 
It  can  hardly  be  expected,  however,  that  Turkey  will  be  left  in 
possession  of  Mesopotamia  when  the  war  is  over.  This  portion 
of  the  Turkish  dominions  seems  destined  to  form  part  of  the 
Indian  Empire.  A  delimitation  of  frontiers  on  this  basis  would 
solve  many  problems.  With  it  would  pass  all  difficulty  as  to 
the  last  section  of  the  Bagdad  railway,  while  a  new  field 
of  industry  would  await  the  energy  of  our  Indian  brothers, 
whose  heroic  deeds  in  the  battlefields  of  Northern  France 
have  won  for  them  a  foremost  place  in  the  annals  of  British 
history. 

When  Turkey  decided  to  cast  in  her  lot  with  the  enemies  of 
this  country  Sir  John  Jackson's  staff  were  still  in  residence  at 
Bagdad,  where,  owing  in  no  small  measure  to  their  fair  dealing 
with  the  Turks  and  the  Beduins,  they  were  one  and  all  held  in 
great  respect.  But  while  a  state  of  war  did  not  affect  the  good 
feelings  that  had  grown  up  between  employers  and  employed, 
it  necessarily  altered  the  status  of  British  subjects,  who  were 
ordered  at  once  to  leave  the  country. 


From  Bagdad  to  Alexandria  by  Caravan         121 

The  letter  printed  below  from  the  chief  of  the  staff,  addressed 
to  the  head  of  the  firm,  describes  the  happenings  after  war  was 
declared,  and  gives  some  particulars  of  the  long  and  adventurous 
journey  by  caravan  to  Alexandria. 

EDITOR. 

II. 

ALEXANDBIA, 
February  26,  1915. 

I  expect  you  were  rather  surprised  to  hear  we  had  got  out 
of  Turkey.  We  were  a  party  of  thirty-nine  who  actually 
embarked,  and  had  several  ups  and  downs  since  leaving  Bagdad 
on  December  13.  We  received  from  the  Authorities  many 
contrary  orders,  but  were  successful  at  last  in  getting  clear, 
although  we  were  obliged  to  leave  our  wives  and  families  in 
Bagdad,  the  Authorities  refusing  to  give  them  the  option  of 
accompanying  us.  Our  families  are  under  the  protection  of  the 
American  Consulate,  Bagdad,  and  occupy  houses  adjoining  the 
Consulate.  We  heard  on  February  13  by  telegram  that  they 
were  all  well. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  there  was  no  available  steamer  at 
Bagdad  to  take  away  the  Britishers — in  fact  the  Authorities 
refused  to  allow  any  one  to  leave  except  the  British  and  French 
Consuls.  The  Eussian  Consul-General  at  Bagdad  was  made  and 
kept  a  prisoner  in  his  own  house.  The  general  feeling  amongst 
the  populace  was  against  the  war,  and  so  far  as  Bagdad  and  the 
district  were  concerned  the  people  were  delighted  to  think  that 
the  British  would  soon  be  there  to  drive  the  Turks  out.* 

A  few  notes  from  my  diary  in  chronological  order  will 
perhaps  give  you  a  better  idea  than  anything  else. 

October  20,  1914.— On  this  date  the  last  ship  left  Bagdad  for 
Busreh  before  the  war  broke  out  and  carried  some  women  and 
children  and  British  not  detained  by  business. 

October  31. — British  and  French  Consuls  asked  for  their 
passports,  and  on  the  following  day  left  in  small  launch  Ishtar 
for  Busreh  and  Mahommerah. 

November  3. — Called  on  Vali.f  who  said  that  as  no  money 
could  now  be  forthcoming  our  works  must  be  temporarily 
suspended — subsequently  I  wrote  him  and  said  we  would  carry 
out  his  wishes  and  reduce  our  expenses  to  a  minimum.  I  had 
heard  late  on  the  evening  of  October  29  that  an  order  to  pay  us 
our  arrears  had  been  received  by  the  Vilayet. f  Unfortunately 
the  Government  Offices  were  closed  Friday,  October  30,  31  and 
November  2  on  account  of  Public  Holidays.  I  was  told  that 

*  The  British  troops  had  occupied  Busreh,  distant  some  500  miles  from  Bagdad. 

t  Resident  Governor. 

j  The  Local  Government. 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  171.  M 


122  The  Empire  Review 

owing  to  the  changes  in  the  situation  this  amount  could  not  now 
be  paid. 

November  6.* — The  safes  of  all  merchants,  banks,  belonging 
to  belligerents  were  sealed  up.  Ours  included. 

November  13. — I  paid  off  all  Ottoman  employees  with  the 
exception  of  ....  and  two  office  guardians. 

November  21. — At  the  request  of  Vilayet  we  sent  in  list  of 
plant  and  gear  in  Mesopotamia.  It  was  somewhat  approxima- 
tive as  regards  smaller  stuff.  I  sent  in  also  our  accounts 
for  the  month  ending  November  13,  showing  the  Government 
indebtedness  to  us. 

November  24. — New  Vali  arrived  at  Bagdad,  the  previous  one 
having  left  for  Busreh.  .  .  .  During  all  the  time  since  outbreak 
of  war  our  offices  were  watched  and  we  were  under  instructions 
not  to  remove  anything. 

November  28. — Arrested  without  notice  and  put  into  British 
Consulate,  same  happened  to  all  the  Britishers.  The  heads  of 
firms  were  taken  first ;  on  the  following  days  the  families  were 
sent  in. 

December  1. — Very  heavy  floods  on  Tigris.  Bagdad  flooded — 
about  3,000  houses  of  poorer  class  destroyed,  and  in  some  of  the 
better  class  the  water  was  seven  or  eight  feet  high  in  the 
courtyards. 

December  11  and  12. — All  merchants,  bankers,  were  taken  to 
their  offices  and  obliged  to  give  up  the  cash  in  their  safes.  No 
receipts  were  given.  During  our  stay  as  prisoners  in  the  Bagdad 
British  Consulate  we  were  not  badly  treated.  We  were  allowed 
to  have  our  own  cooks  and  servants  in.  The  number  interned 
was  about  sixty. 

December  13. — All  Britishers  and  Frenchmen  ordered  to  leave 
Bagdad  for  Aleppo.  We  were  told  to  pay  our  own  expenses  and 
therefore  the  American  Consul  advanced  the  necessary  funds  for 
carriage  hire  and  messing  expenses.  Three  Britishers  were 
allowed  to  remain  in  Bagdad  for  special  reasons  and  some 
Frenchmen.  The  caravan  included  thirty-eight  Britishers  and 
three  Frenchmen,  who  left  Bagdad  on  this  date  in  twenty-three 
carriages.  Four  ladies  whose  husbands  were  included  in  above 
and  wished  to  accompany  us  were  not  allowed  to  do  so,  being 
prevented  by  the  authorities.  Our  voyage  was  a  fairly  rough  one, 
but  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  isolated  instances  we  were 
well  treated  by  the  Turks.  We  generally  slept  in  our  boots,  and 
more  often  than  not  in  the  open.f 

*  Great  Britain  declared  war  against  Turkey  on  November  5. 

t  Not  a  little  of  the  discomfort  was  due  to  carriages  upsetting  and  to  the  smallness 
of  the  inns.  There  were  never  enough  bedrooms  and  some  of  the  party  had  to  sleep 
in  the  carriages.  The  best  rooms  were  retained  for  German  officers  on  their  way 
to  Busreh  to  take  command  of  Turkish  troops. 


From  Bagdad  to  Alexandria  by  Caravan        123 

January  1, 1915. — We  entered  Aleppo  not  knowing  whether  we 
were  going  to  be  put  into  jail  or  treated  decently.  However  we 
were  allowed  to  be  free,  and  after  the  first  day  took  possession  of 
the  British  Consulate. 

January  6. — We  were  told  we  should  have  to  go  to  Con- 
stantinople, whence  we  might  be  repatriated,  but  on  following 
day  were  informed  we  might  quit  the  country  via  Mersina. 

January  9. — Left  Aleppo  for  Mersina  in  carriages,  via 
Alexandretta.  When  within  twelve  miles  of  the  latter  place 
we  were  stopped  by  gendarmes  who  told  us  they  had  been 
sent  to  turn  us  back,  as  H.M.S.  Doris  had  been  bombarding 
the  road  into  Alexandretta  and  it  was  absolutely  impossible  to 
get  there  now.  Although  we  admired  the  thorough  way  in 
which  the  Doris  had  done  her  work  we  did  wish  she  had  waited 
a  day  or  so  !  When  nearly  in  sight  of  the  Mediterranean,  on 
January  12,  we  had  to  turn  back  and  arrived  at  Katma. 

January  13. — Waited  all  day  at  the  railway  station  for 
a  train  for  Radjou  which  we  eventually  reached  at  midnight. 
Kadjou  being  the  rail  head  on  the  Aleppo  side,  it  was  necessary 
to  find  transport  to  take  us  to  Osmanieh  (the  rail  head  on  the 
Adana  side  of  the  Taurus  mountains) .  No  transport  of  any  sort 
was  available,  everything  being  used  by  the  Military,  we  had 
therefore  to  send  to  Aleppo  for  carriages,  which  duly  arrived  on 
the  17th,  but  only  sufficient  to  take  the  luggage.  This  meant  a 
four  days'  tramp  for  the  caravan  over  the  Taurus. 

During  our  stay  we  saw  many  regiments  of  Turkish  soldiers 
passing  towards  Aleppo.  We  found  them  quiet :  they  showed  no 
hostility  towards  us  ;  some  who  said  they  were  going  to  Bagdad 
were  eager  in  their  questionings  as  to  the  state  of  the  roads, 
what  kind  of  place  was  Bagdad  etc. 

January  18. — Left  Radjou. 

January  21. — We  crossed  the  Jiaus  Dagh  Pass.  Magnificent 
views  and  a  fine  country.  The  pass  is  probably  not  more  than 
3,500  feet  high. 

January  22. — Arrived  Osmanieh. 

January  24. — By  rail  on  our  way  to  Mersina  we  were  stopped 
at  Tarsous  and  had  to  get  out.  It  appeared  the  Vali  of  Adana 
had  not  received  direct  instructions  about  us,  and  until  he  got 
these  we  were  to  be  detained.  We  remained  at  Tarsous  about 
three  weeks  when  orders  came  to  send  us  to  Caesarea.  We 
protested,  then  to  Constantinople,  we  protested  again,  at  last 
we  were  told  we  must  go  to  Brussa,  but  just  as  we  were  on 
point  of  leaving  for  Brussa,  orders  came  permitting  us  to  leave 
via  Mersina,  and  we  left  for  Alexandria  on  February  16. 

During  our  travels  we  practically  always  had  a  guard  of 
gendarmes  or  police  with  us. 

M  2 


124  The  Empire  Review 

There  are  scores  of  little  incidents  naturally  that  happened 
on  the  way,  but  the  above  is  an  account  of  the  main  features 
only. 

It  was  only  when  passing  Beyrout  on  February  18  that  I 
heard  our  men  at  Lebanon*  had  not  got  away,  and  that  they 
were  at  Damascus.  Subsequently  on  arrival  here  your  telegram 
informed  me  that  our  Salif  *  men  were  at  Hodeida.  I  am  doing 
what  is  possible,  but  being  out  of  the  country  I  am  afraid  there  is 
small  chance  of  success.  It  is  little  short  of  a  miracle  how  we 
got  clear,  more  especially  after  passing  over  the  roads  now  being 
used  for  military  transport. 

ARTHUR  WHITLEY. 

*  The  firm  of  Sir  John  Jackson,  Ltd.,  was  carrying  out  works  at  Lebanon  and  Salif. 


TORONTO'S    HARBOUR    DEVELOPMENT. 

The  immense  growth  of  Toronto  as  a  manufacturing  centre 
has  necessitated  the  development  of  the  city's  harbour  and  water 
front.  One  section  of  this  development  is  the  reclamation  of  the 
Ashbridge's  Bay  district  for  the  purpose  of  providing  an  ideal 
spot  for  industries  of  every  description.  Henceforth  industries 
seeking  a  home  in  Canada  will  be  taken  in  hand  by  the 
Harbour  Commissioners  of  Toronto,  and  will  be  shown  factory 
sites  in  an  industrial  district  within  a  mile  of  the  heart  of  a  big 
city,  and  served  by  railway  sidings  connecting  with  all  three 
Canadian  Transcontinental  railroads,  in  addition  to  service  at 
public  docks  by  lines  of  freight  vessels  carrying  cargoes  from 
Montreal  in  the  east  to  the  head  of  navigation  at  Fort  William 
in  the  west.  The  Harbour  Commissioners  have  provided  for  an 
expenditure  of  15  million  dollars,  and  when  their  work  is 
completed  there  will  be  646  acres  of  land  available  on  which  it  is 
estimated  1,000  new  factories  can  be  located.  Eailroad  siding 
reservations  30  miles  in  length  will  be  at  the  service  of  factories 
on  the  property,  free  of  expense,  and  five  miles  of  docks  will 
serve  the  shipping  ends  of  the  district.  A  traffic  agreement 
with  the  three  railroads  provides  for  free  interswitching,  the 
result  being  that  factories  will  receive  or  ship  goods  over  any 
one  of  the  three  lines  without  paying  the  charge  of  from  $5  to 
$8  per  car  which  factories  located  on  one  line  of  railway  have 
to  pay. 


A  War-time  Sketch  in  South  Africa  125 


A   WAR-TIME   SKETCH    IN    SOUTH    AFRICA 

THREE  MEN  IN  A   RAILWAY  CARRIAGE 

EVERYONE  knows  how  the  south-easter  blows  at  the  Cape. 
The  day  may  open  ever  so  calm,  but  if  you  see  flying  white  tearing 
over  the  gorges  it  is  certain  that  it  will  do  its  work  in  cleansing 
the  town  almost  as  well  as  a  shower  of  rain.  It  tears  round  corners 
and  forces  a  hefty  strong  man  to  seek  shelter  at  times  or  run 
zinqa  langapa,  as  the  Zulus  say,  round  the  street  corners. 

It  was  just  at  the  first  signs  of  the  renowned  doctor's  visit  that 
our  train  steamed  off,  and  I  found  myself  between  two  soldier  men 
and  their  kit.  Captain  K.  was  Scottish  Horse  and  showed  the 
Lovat  plaid  breeks,  a  variety  of  ribbons,  and  had  an  accent  that  took 
you  back  to  Killicrankie  or  perhaps  farther  north ;  for  although 
he  was  fresh  from  a  tent  with  a  temperature  of  126  degrees  at 
evening,  he  was  Scotland  for  Ever  wherever  he  went.  He  told 
his  tale  of  heat  and  dust.  Wind  that  blew  to  dry  you  up  and  with 
its  fine  dust  stopped  your  watch.  But  notwithstanding  heat, 
wind  and  sand,  the  Scottish  Horse  were  there  to  see  it  through 
and  everything  would  go  dead  right.  Like  a  true  Scotchman  he 
spoke  of  Colonel  Dalrymple  as  one  of  the  clans  might  have  spoken 
of  their  chiefs  these  hundreds  of  years  in  the  frays  that  are  for- 
gotten, and  this,  my  friends,  is  a  quality  that  is  in  the  blood.  I 
felt  I  was  travelling  with  a  born  soldier,  and  when  he  showed 
me  his  wounds  from  the  late  war,  I  perceived  he  carried  honour- 
able remembrances  on  his  body  as  well  as  on  his  chest. 

The  second  man  was  a  short  and  compact  lieutenant  of  the 
Defence  Force.  Scotch  too,  but  colonial  born.  Bright  blue  eyes 
and  a  delightful  big  sweeping  moustache.  It  was  nothing 
effeminate,  nor  did  it  offend  in  ferocity,  but  it  set  off  a  round  face 
and  lent  humour  to  its  smile.  He  told  us  he  was  drawn  from  his 
work  to  give  evidence  against  two  men  he  had  captured  in  the 
early  days  of  the  rebellion.  Then  we  drew  him  to  tell  us  of  the 
engagement.  "  It  was  hard  rough  work  around  Pretoria  and 
Eustenburg,  fighting  Beyers  and  Grobelaar.  The  country  was 
bushy  and  difficult.  However,  we  were  patient  and  got  them  on 


126  The  Empire  Review 

the  run."  Modestly,  he  told  how  he  had  shot  seven  rebels  in  one 
engagement.  "  We  should  have  all  been  shot  if  they  were  any 
good,  but  although  they  fairly  had  us,  at  forty  yards,  they  let  us 
off  and  preferred  running  to  killing.  Yes,  they  were  a  mean  lot. 
One  of  our  best  men  was  killed  with  white  flag  treachery,  and 
then  they  would  keep  on  wiping  our  men  out  from  a  strong 
position,  and  when  it  got  too  hot,  instead  of  fighting  it  out,  they 
would  surrender  to  save  their  skins.  That  is  their  bravery,  and 
what  a  grand  lot !  One  man  behind  a  dam  wall  with  an  old 
'  Sanna '  elephant  gun.  Every  time  he  loosed  off  it  was  like  a 
cannon ,  and  then  he  loaded  it  with  powder  from  the  muzzle.  When 
we  took  them  prisoners,  there  were  shot-guns  and  Sannas,  and 
every  old  thing  down  to  saloon  rifles.  They're  a  mischievous 
lot  carrying  out  the  work  of  other  mischief  makers.  We  hunted 
them  out  from  under  beds  where  women  were  pretending  to  be 
sick,  one  with  a  loaded  shot-gun  full-cock,  but  too  nervous 
to  resist,  and  now  I  have  to  waste  time  to  give  evidence  when  I 
ought  to  be  in  German  South-West.  If  I  were  fighting  I  would 
love  to  be  with  Lieutenant  M.  I'm  sure  he  never  wasted  time. 
He  carried  a  hole  in  his  shoulder  and  a  nick  in  his  trigger  finger, 
but  it  didn't  stop  his  fighting  when  he  got  there,  and  it  won't  in 
future." 

Then  a  third  man  walked  in.  Six  foot  two  and  as  wide  as  a 
door.  Had  tested  his  man  in  the  ring  and  just  missed  being 
a  heavy  weight  champion.  Oh  yes,  he  knew  German  South- 
West.  Went  there  for  diamonds.  Took  a  guide  from  Liideritz- 
bucht  to  go  to  Pomona ;  guide  got  lost  after  riding  seven  hours. 
Took  his  own  line  and  was  back  at  Luderitzbucht  in  a  couple  of 
hours.  Next  day  rode  alone,  got  there  dried  out ;  descried  his 
brother,  whose  tent  had  blown  away,  surveying  with  a  few  sheets 
of  iron  as  a  guard  from  heat  and  wind.  He  found  nothing 
open  and  made  for  Concession  Island.  A  ship  was  starting, 
but  German  Syndicate  chartered  it  to  get  to  a  sale  of  a  wreck 
and  wouldn't  agree  to  his  coming  for  fear  of  competition ; 
but  he'd  made  his  mind  up  to  go  on  that  ship,  and  he  went. 
They  refused  to  land  him  and  he  was  preparing  to  swim,  but 
discovered  he  would  be  naked  on  a  desert  island,  so  he  waited, 
and  presently  found  the  Germans  couldn't  get  their  boat  through 
the  rollers.  He  offered  to  swim  a  rope  ashore  if  they'd  bring 
his  things.  They  did,  and  after  half  an  hour's  struggling,  a  great 
roller  took  him  and  crushed  the  life  out  of  him.  He  found 
himself  a  twisted  mass,  bruised  and  beaten,  in  shallow  water,  and 
pulled  in  the  boat.  Holding  a  swimming  championship  he 
declared  this  his  hardest  sprint.  For  three  months,  in  company 
with  an  old  Scotchman,  he  condensed  sea  water  with  some 
paraffin  fuel,  and  lived  on  biscuit,  fish  and  air. 


A  War-time  Sketch  in  South  Africa  127 

Then  the  paraffin  gave  out,  and  before  they  died  of  thirst,  a 
steamer  arrived  with  horses  that  had  to  be  landed.  He  found  they 
didn't  know  how  to  land  horses,  and  drove  a  bargain  for  £100  to 
land  their  horses.  They  dropped  them  all  into  the  sea  and  there 
was  a  mass  of  struggling  horses  pawing  the  ship's  sides  in  despair, 
but,  with  the  boatswain,  he  steered  off  with  a  horse  swimming  on 
each  side  of  the  stern  of  a  boat,  and  soon  the  horses  followed, 
For  three  miles  they  swam,  and  then  came  to  the  rollers  and  he 
saw  himself  back  on  his  island ;  but  luckily  some  of  the  horses 
swam  ashore  and  neighed,  and  soon  the  lot  were  on  land.  There 
were  seven  lost,  but  he  took  no  risks  in  his  contract,  the  horses 
were  landed  and  he  was  paid.  Know  German  South  West. 
"  Oh  yes.  I've  been  through  Spion  Kop  and  Ladysmith,  but 
it's  Piccadilly  country  to  German  South- West.  That's  a  hell  of 
a  country.  Not  worth  fighting  for,  but  it's  got  to  be  taken,  and 
from  what  I  know  of  those  Germans  it  won't  take  long." 

W.  P.  TAYLOR. 


THE   INDIANS  OF  CANADA 

According  to  the  annual  report  of  the  Department  of  Indian 
Affairs  at  Ottawa  there  are  approximately  100,000  Indians  now  in 
Canada.  In  Manitoba  there  was  a  decrease  of  532  for  the  year, 
in  New  Brunswick  14,  and  in  Prince  Edward  Island  4.  In 
Ontario  the  Indian  population  increased  by  342,  in  British 
Columbia  198,  Yukon  139,  Quebec  93,  Saskatchewan  80,  Alberta 
52  and  Nova  Scotia  32.  The  report  states  that  the  general 
health  of  the  Indians  was  good  throughout  the  year.  Owing  to 
the  measures  adopted  for  providing  medical  attendance  for  them, 
the  influence  of  the  native  medicine  man  is  now  restricted.  As 
years  go  by  there  is  a  very  perceptible  change  in  the  manner  in 
which  many  of  the  Indians  live,  modern  influences  are  becoming 
very  marked  on  the  reserves,  and  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to 
find  Indian  homes  decently  and  comfortably  furnished.  The 
total  value  of  grain  and  root  crops  raised  by  the  Indians  during 
the  year  was  £371,284,  an  increase  of  Jb'41,701  as  compared  with 
the  previous  year. 


128  The  Empire  Review 


SONS    OF    THE    EMPIRE 

SONS  of  the  Empire  whose  wide-spread  dominions 

Encircle  the  Earth  like  rare  gems  in  her  crown — 
Men  of  all  races  and  creeds  and  opinions, 

Who  come  from  the  prairie,  the  farm,  and  the  town — 
The  clarion  call  from  Great  Britain  rang  loudly, 

She  sent  forth  her  summons  across  land  and  sea, 
You  came  at  that  call,  so  bravely,  so  proudly, 

Each  man  of  you  striving  that  first  he  might  be. 

And  now  you  are  fighting,  and  not  a  foot  yielding, 

You  give  for  your  country  your  lives  and  your  all, 
With  invincible  valour,  Britain  you're  shielding; 

God  save  her,  and  keep  her — she  never  shall  fall ! 
And  you  have  held  open  the  paths  of  the  ocean, 

Britannia,  as  ever,  is  Queen  of  the  Wave, 
The  Navy  you  man  with  such  heart-felt  devotion, 

From  the  foreign  invader  our  island  shall  save. 

Our  watchword  is  Freedom,  for  Liberty's  banner, 

The  flag  of  our  country,  floats  out  on  the  breeze — 
The  flag  that  we  love,  for  of  old,  in  like  manner, 

'Twas  that  of  our  fathers  on  all  lands  and  seas. 
They  bore  it,  right  nobly,  to  victory  ever, 

On  the  same  battle-fields  where  you  fight  to-day ; 
So  gallant  and  brave,  their  fame  shall  fade  never — 

The  same  dauntless  spirit  as  theirs  you  display. 

Throughout  the  wide  world,  where  such  glory  you're  gaining, 

Britannia's  great  might  resistlessly  shows ; 
The  star  of  her  destiny  shines  without  waning, 

And  high  in  the  heavens  resplendently  glows. 
Ere  long  you  will  triumph,  and  home  come  rejoicing — 

Brave  Sons  of  the  Empire! — with  duty  well  done. 
0  then  shall  we  all  your  great  deeds  be  voicing, 

And  lauding  your  prowess  for  Victory  won  ! 

KOBEY  F.  ELDRIDGE. 


The  Empire  Library  129 


THE    EMPIRE    LIBRARY 

THE    BRITISH  EMPIRE:    ITS   GROWTH   AND 
JUSTIFICATION  * 

THE  commencement  of  the  Empire  which  now  occupies 
about  a  quarter  of  the  total  land  area  of  the  globe  dates  only 
from  the  first  years  of  the  seventeenth  century,  from  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  and  the  beginning  of  that  of  James  I. 
Imperialism  cannot  be  born  until  unity  and  nationality  have 
been  developed.  Mediaeval  England  had  neither.  The  divisions 
of  English  society  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  either  smaller  or 
greater  than  the  dimensions  of  a  nation.  The  social  distinctions 
of  the  time  were  sharp,  and  the  men  of  the  growing  middle  class, 
the  men  who  were  to  be  the  Empire-builders  of  the  future,  still 
thought  of  themselves  rather  as  burghers  of  such  and  such  a 
borough,  or  as  members  of  such  and  such  a  guild,  than  as 
Englishmen.  The  Church,  feudalism,  and  chivalry,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  international,  not  national,  institutions,  which 
bound  England  to  the  Continent  and  militated  against  the 
development  of  anything  like  a  strong  national  spirit.  The 
country  was  constantly  being  torn  by  the  struggles  of  contending 
factions,  and  the  king's  authority,  continually  challenged  by 
forces  almost  if  not  quite  as  powerful  as  himself,  was  incapable 
of  welding  the  discordant  elements  into  a  united  whole.  Before 
England  could  set  her  foot  upon  the  path  of  Empire,  it  was 
necessary  for  her  to  make  herself,  and  the  story  of  her  making, 
as  Sir  Charles  Lucas  says,  is  the  story  of  an  island  gradually 
severing  its  political  existence  from  the  adjoining  continent,  and 
of  the  divers  elements  in  that  island  gradually  coalescing  into  a 
nation ;  the  island  nation  thus  formed  being  in  a  high  degree  a 
seafaring  enterprising  people. 

It  was  the  powerful  rule  of  the  Tudors  that  gave  England 
national  unity  and  made  her,  in  Tacitus'  phrase,  capable  of 
Empire.  Englishmen  had  always  been  enterprising,  and  the 
geography  of  their  country  had  made  them  sailors  by  necessity 
and  almost  by  second  nature,  but  it  was  not  until  they  became 

*  'The  British  Empire.'  Six  Lectures.  By  Sir  Charles  P.  Lucas,  K.C.B., 
K.C.M.G.  London :  Macmillan  &  Co.,  Ltd. 


130  The  Empire  Review 

conscious  of  the  ties  that  united  them  as  Englishmen  that  they 
were  ready  to  fulfil  their  destiny.  The  age  of  the  Tudors,  which 
was  for  England  the  beginning  of  modern  history,  saw  the 
beginning  of  the  voyages  of  exploration  and  discovery  which  first 
turned  men's  thoughts  towards  the  idea  of  colonisation.  In  the 
wonderful  new  activity  which  was  the  outcome  of  the  Renaissance 
and  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  Tudor  England  played  an 
important  part.  Shakespeare  is  full  of  the  new  spirit,  the  spirit 
begotten  of  the  innumerable  fresh  interests  and  opportunities  of 
the  age.  The  Elizabethan  seamen  who  sailed  forth  over  un- 
charted seas  in  search  of  the  Golden  Land  were  the  pioneers  of 
Empire.  But  their  voyages  were  the  result  of  private  enterprise 
and  their  object,  after  the  first  impulse  of  exploration  had  passed, 
was  trade.  There  was  no  thought  of  settlement  in  the  lands 
beyond  the  sea,  and  no  dream  as  yet  (except  possibly  in  the  mind 
of  Shakespeare)  of  an  imperial  destiny. 

The  glamour  and  romance  of  the  sixteenth  century  was 
succeeded  by  a  prosaic  period,  but  it  was  the  period  which  saw 
the  real  beginnings  of  imperial  advance.  Whereas  at  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century  Englishmen  had  sailed  the  seas  for  trade, 
and  had  always  set  out  with  the  intention  of  returning  to  their 
homes  so  soon  as  the  rich  cargoes  of  the  East  or  the  West  were 
loaded,  in  the  seventeenth  trade  led  to  settlement,  and  trade  and 
settlement  became  the  dominant  features  of  the  age,  the  former 
being  more  especially  with  the  East,  and  the  latter  mainly  in  the 
West.  The  characteristic  of  the  period  was  civil  rather  than 
foreign  war,  and  the  results  of  this  were  two-fold.  Firstly,  there 
were  often  powerful  motives  for  leaving  England.  Secondly,  as 
the  custody  of  the  State  was  perpetually  being  transferred,  there 
was  rarely  any  strong  foreign  or  colonial  policy,  and  trade  and 
settlement  consequently  continued  to  be  carried  on  mainly  by 
private  enterprise. 

As  early  as  1600  a  charter  had  been  granted  to  the  East 
India  Company.  Of  this  event  Sir  Charles  well  remarks  : — 

This  was  the  grain  of  mustard  seed  which  grew  into  the  great  tree  of  the 
British  East  Indian  Empire. 

In  1606  the  Colony  of  Virginia  was  settled,  and  this  was  soon 
followed  by  the  settlement  of  Maryland,  the  Carolinas,  and 
Pennsylvania.  Later  came  the  acquisition  of  New  York  by 
conquest  from  the  Dutch,  and  the  first  British  capture  of  Quebec. 
Among  the  other  important  settlements  made  in  the  course  of 
the  century  may  be  mentioned  those  in  the  West  Indies  and  in 
West  Africa.  The  century  witnessed  a  great  development  of  the 
Navy,  which  had  now  ceased  to  be  a  collection  of  privately 
owned  vessels  and  had  become  Royal.  It  also  saw  the  beginning 


The  Empire  Library  131 

of  the  Mercantile  system.  In  1696  was  established  the  "  Board 
of  Trade  and  Plantations,"  the  title  of  which  well  illustrates  the 
character  of  seventeenth-century  colonisation  in  general. 

The  period  which  extended  from  the  accession  of  Anne  in 
1702  to  the  Battle  of  Waterloo  in  1815  was  above  all  else  a  period 
of  foreign  war,  and  especially  of  war  with  France,  which  had  now 
grown  greatly  in  prestige  and  power,  and  twice  in  the  century 
made  a  bid  for  the  domination  of  Europe.  One  result  of  this  was 
that  direct  action  by  the  Government  in  colonisation  was  far  more 
in  evidence  than  it  had  been  before,  and  that  many  additions  to 
the  Empire  were  made  as  the  result  of  the  victory  of  British 
arms,  whether  in  Europe  or  in  distant  lands  and  seas.  The  war 
of  the  Spanish  succession,  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  the  Napole- 
onic wars  were  all  of  great  importance  for  the  growth  of  the 
Empire.  The  Treaty  of  Utrecht  confirmed  to  England  the 
possession  of  Gibraltar,  which  a  combined  Dutch  and  English 
fleet  had  taken  in  1704,  and  gave  her  Newfoundland,  Acadia 
(Nova  Scotia),  the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay,  and  St.  Kitt's.  The 
acquisition  of  Gibraltar  reflects  both  the  dominant  feature  of  the 
age  and  the  character  of  the  English  nation  at  the  time.  It  had 
no  direct  value  from  the  point  of  view  of  trade,  and  none  at  all 
from  that  of  settlement,  but  its  importance  to  a  warlike  and 
imperial  nation  was  enormous.  The  Seven  Years'  War,  which 
England  entered  in  order  to  fight  out  with  France  the  question 
of  supremacy  in  East  and  West,  resulted  in  the  conquest  of 
Canada  and  the  foundations  of  British  rule  in  India. 

A  period  of  triumphant  advance  was  succeeded  by  some  of 
the  darkest  days  in  our  imperial  history.  The  loss  of  the 
American  colonies  was  due,  not  to  oppression,  but  to  wrong- 
headedness,  short-sightedness  and  folly.  The  colonies  were 
Declared  independent  in  1783,  and  England  lost  Tobago  and 
Senegal  to  France.  In  India  alone  is  success  to  be  chronicled  in 
this  period.  Here  the  extension  of  British  power  and  influence 
steadily  continued.  The  Government  began  to  realise  the 
desirability  of  exercising  a  check  over  the  East  India  Company, 
and  in  1784  placed  over  it  a  Board  of  Control.  A  little  later  the 
Malay  peninsula  was  peacefully  acquired.  The  net  result  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  so  far  as  the  colonies  (exclusive  of  India)  were 
concerned,  was  the  gain  of  St.  Lucia,  Mauritius,  the  Seychelles, 
Malta,  Trinidad,  Heligoland,  Ceylon,  British  Honduras,  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  first  settlement  of  Australia  was  due 
partly  to  a  great  misfortune  and  partly  to  an  institution  of  which 
imperial  England  will  always  feel  ashamed.  After  the  loss  of 
the  American  colonies,  new  shores  were  needed  whither  to 
transport  English  criminals  ;  and  the  first  settlement  in  Australia 
was  a  convict  settlement.  During  the  whole  of  the  period  the 


132  The  Empire  Review 

Navy  was  of  enormous  importance  to  the  growth  and  security 
of  the  Empire,  though  many  would  demur  to  Sir  Charles'  opinion 
that  all  was  owed  to  the  fleet.  In  1801  was  appointed  a 
Secretary  of  State  for  War  and  the  Colonies.  The  double  title  and 
office  are  significant :  war,  not  trade,  was  now  the  keynote  to  our 
colonial  administration. 

Since  Waterloo,  England  has  been  singularly  free  from  wars 
with  European  nations.  During  the  last  century  not  far  short  of 
3,000,000  square  miles  of  territory  have  been  added  to  the  Empire. 
Both  State  action  and  private  enterprise  have  been  conspicuous. 
As  at  home,  so  in  the  Colonies,  the  period  has  been  remarkable 
for  the  rapid  development  of  social  and  political  liberty.  The 
old  colonial  system,  which  meant  the  exploitation  of  the  colony 
by  the  mother-country,  has  utterly  vanished,  and  the  self-govern- 
ing colony  has  been  evolved.  Large  and  important  additions 
have  been  made  to  the  Empire,  chiefly  in  the  second  half  of  the 
century,  but  the  greatest  achievement  from  an  imperial  point 
of  view  has  been  the  social  and  political  development  of  India, 
Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  and  Egypt. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  Empire  to-day  is  its  diversity. 
Englishmen,  being  islanders,  naturally  sought  in  their  expansion 
islands,  coast  lines,  and  peninsulas;  continental  development 
is  a  late  phase.  The  result  is  that  our  Empire  is  not  one  of 
continuous  subject  provinces,  like  that  of  Alexander,  and 
that  its  various  parts  differ  enormously  in  size,  climate  and 
products,  race,  the  tenure  by  which  they  are  held,  and  the  consti- 
tution which  they  enjoy.  It  has  not  been  the  object  of  English 
policy  to  destroy  colonial  individuality,  but  to  encourage  each 
colony  to  develop  in  its  own  way.  Englishmen  have  on  the 
whole  been  very  successful  in  administration.  Their  success  has 
been  partly  due  to  their  long  and  varied  experience  :  it  was  through 
lack  of  experience  in  administration  that  the  German  colonial 
empire  proved  so  weak.  At  least  two  traits  in  the  English 
character  have  stood  our  administrators  in  good  stead,  English 
love  of  fair  play,  and  English  pride  in  the  job  well  done ;  and,  if  it 
is  not  quite  true  that  Waterloo  was  won  on  the  playing-fields  of 
Eton,  it  is  certainly  true  that  to  the  English  public-school  system 
and  spirit  is  due  very  much  of  the  success  of  our  Colonial  govern- 
ment. 

The  motives  which  have  produced  the  Empire  have  been  no 
less  diverse  than  is  the  Empire  itself.  It  would  be  idle  to  pretend 
that  much  has  not  been  due  to  the  selfish  desire  of  individuals  for 
their  own  enrichment.  But  Englishmen  have  always  been  enter- 
prising, and  we  have  seen  how  enterprise  led  to  discovery,  dis- 
covery to  trade,  trade  to  settlement.  A  most  important  motive 
in  the  seventeenth  century  was  the  defence  of  political  and 


The  Empire  Library  133 

religious  independence  against  foreign  aggression.  England  was 
threatened  by  the  ambition  of  a  powerful  rival,  and  expansion 
was  in  a  measure  forced  upon  her.  The  influence  of  religion  has 
played  an  important  part.  The  missionary  has  often  prepared  the 
way  for  the  colonist,  and  philanthropy,  which  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  religion,  has  indirectly,  as  Sir  Charles  points  out,  been  a 
great  imperialist.  Desire  for  a  new  home,  inspired  by  political 
discontent,  by  persecution,  or  by  poverty,  has  been  at  various 
times  a  potent  impulse  towards  colonisation.  But  above  all,  it 
became  increasingly  clear  as  time  went  on  that  growth  is 
essentially  necessary  to  national  security.  A  small  people  cannot 
long  remain  independent  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  and  it  was 
the  growth  of  her  Empire  which  delivered  England  from  living  on 
sufferance.  One  advance  inevitably  leads  to  others.  As  the 
author  observes : — 

Nations,  like  men,  cannot  stand  still ;  they  grow  or  they  decline ;  there 
could  have  been  an  England  if  there  had  been  no  English  Empire,  but  it 
would  have  been  a  dependent  England.  If  England  has  made  an  Empire, 
equally  the  Empire  has  made  England. 

There  have  been  only  three  serious  risings  since  the  Empire 
became  fully  fledged,  the  War  of  American  Independence,  the 
Indian  Mutiny,  and  the  two  South  African  Wars,  and  each  of 
these  was  the  result  of  peculiar  circumstances.  There  have 
of  course  been  signs  of  discontent  from  time  to  time,  but  even 
though  we  may  not  quite  agree  with  Sir  Charles  that  discontent 
is  synonymous  with  life,  we  must  admit  that  it  is  a  normal 
accompaniment  of  active  and  healthy  existence,  being  in  fact  a 
perpetual  desire  to  move.  Indeed,  it  may  with  some  truth  be 
said  that  if  there  were  never  any  discontent  in  the  Empire,  the 
Empire  would  not  be  worth  much. 

This  little  book  is  at  once  a  history  and  a  justification,  and 
appears  at  a  time  when  it  is  likely  to  be  read  with  a  special 
interest,  a  time  when  the  Empire  is  on  its  trial.  The  author  does 
not  attempt  to  represent  British  motives  and  methods  as  having 
been  invariably  pure,  but  what  he  does  attempt  to  show,  and  in 
my  opinion  successfully,  is  that  the  history  of  the  Empire  is  itself 
its  justification,  and  that  from  the  utilitarian  point  of  view  it  has 
been,  and  is  more  than  ever  at  the  present  time,  an  enormous 
advantage  both  to  England  and  to  the  non-British  peoples 
absorbed  in  it,  for  whom,  as  he  says,  annexation  in  some  strange 
way  has  spelled  freedom.  He  justly  remarks  : — 

The  great  merit  of  the  British  Empire  is  that  where  England  has  gone  two 
blades  of  grass  have  grown  where  one  grew  before,  that  with  many  mistakes 
and  shortcomings  the  Empire  is,  none  the  less,  perhaps  the  most  effective 
machinery  which  has  so  far  been  produced  for  enabling  men  and  women  in 
every  stage  of  development  to  make  the  most  and  the  best  of  themselves. 


134  The  Empire  Review 

The  arrangement  of  the  book  is  admirable,  and  shows  the 
advantages,  both  for  author  and  for  reader,  of  writing  in  the  form 
of  a  series  of  lectures.  The  two  chapters  which  deal  with  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  are  rather  more  full  of  detail 
than  might  have  been  expected  in  a  book  of  the  size,  and  should 
be  of  real  value  to  students  of  imperial  history  in  presenting  them 
with  a  concise  yet  well-rounded  narrative.  The  general  reader 
will,  I  think,  take  most  interest  in  the  chapter  on  the  making  of 
England,  and  on  the  two  final  chapters,  which  include  a  survey  of 
the  Empire  as  it  is  to-day,  and  an  account  of  the  causes  that 
produced  it  and  the  elements  of  its  success.  The  influence  of 
Seeley  is  easily  discernible :  there  is  a  philosophical  breadth 
of  view  which,  as  well  as  certain  lines  of  thought  suggested, 
reminded  me  rather  forcibly  of  his  '  The  Expansion  of  England,' 
to  which  the  author  refers  in  the  course  of  the  book.  If  there 
is  a  point  upon  which  a  little  more  emphasis  might  have  been 
laid,  it  is  the  haphazard  character  of  British  colonial  policy  at 
more  than  one  important  juncture  and  the  large  share  of  good 
fortune  which  has  attended  our  imperial  progress. 


THE   SYSTEM   OF   NATIONAL   FINANCE* 

THE  ambition  of  this  book,  the  author  tells  us  in  his  preface, 
is  to  be  a  primer  of  the  system  on  which  the  financial  business  of 
the  nation  is  conducted  at  the  present  time,  and  with  this  object 
in  view  history  and  figures  have  as  far  as  possible  been  avoided. 
Some  figures  there  are,  but  most  of  them  have  been  relegated  to 
appendices,  with  great  advantage  so  far  as  the  readability  of  the 
book  is  concerned  and  without  detriment  (to  the  credit  of  the 
author  be  it  said)  to  the  lucidity  of  the  exposition. 

Mr.  Hilton  Young  points  out  at  the  start  the  essential 
similarity  between  the  financial  business  of  the  State  and  that  of 
an  individual,  showing  that  they  have  the  same  three  divisions  of 
getting,  keeping,  and  spending.  He  indicates  as  the  chief 
difference  between  them  the  fact  that,  whereas  an  individual  gets 
as  much  money  as  he  can,  the  State  gets  (or  ought  to  get)  only 
so, much  as  it  needs  for  certain  prescribed  specific  uses.  With 
the  system  of  the  Estimates  he  deals  at  considerable  length.  He 
shows  the  importance,  both  in  this  connection  and  in  general,  of 
the  financial  criticism  and  control  exercised  by  the  financial 
branches  of  the  great  spending  Departments  themselves.  It  is, 
iudeed,  to  this  criticism  and  control  that  he  looks  for  the  most 

*  'The  System  of  National  Finance.'    By  E.  Hilton  Young,  M.P.     London: 
Smith,  Elder  &  Co.    7s.  6d.  net. 


The  Empire  Library  135 

effective  safeguard,  under  modern  conditions,  against  extravagance 
and  waste.  As  to  the  important  check  hitherto  exercised  by  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  he  remarks  : 

One  thing  is  clear :  that  the  power  and  utility  of  the  Chancellor  in  this 
respect  must  be  affected  by  that  development  in  our  system  of  government 
which  now  allows  him  the  initiative  in  schemes  of  fresh  legislation  involving 
heavy  expense,  and  makes  him,  through  the  Treasury,  responsible  for  large 
headings  of  expenditure,  such  as  Old  Age  Pensions. 

In  describing  the  methods  by  which  supplies  are  voted  and 
appropriated  by  Parliament,  the  author  shows  how  the  rules  of 
the  House  of  Commons  for  financial  business  are  largely  survivals 
of  a  bygone  age,  when  the  great  anxiety  of  the  House  was  to 
prevent  the  Crown  from  getting  money  except  through  Parliament, 
and  later  to  prevent  it  from  spending  money  on  purposes  other 
than  those  for  which  Parliament  had  provided  it.  He  points  out 
that  the  real  need  in  the  financial  organisation  of  the  twentieth 
century,  so  far  as  Parliament  is  concerned,  is  that  the  House 
should  direct  its  attention  to  imposing  checks  upon  itself  and  the 
Ministers  responsible  to  it,  but  he  is  fully  alive  to  the  difficulty  of 
providing  such  checks. 

He  has  some  pertinent  remarks  to  make  on  the  machinery  of 
the  Committee  of  Supply  and  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means. 
He  deplores  the  system  under  which  between  a  third  and  a  half 
of  the  total  expenditure  for  the  year  may  be  voted  in  about  an 
hour  without  debate  or  criticism,  and  points  out  that  the  time 
spent  on  the  Keport  stages  of  Supply  resolutions  might  well  be 
saved  for  the  discussion  of  one  or  two  of  the  Votes  which  are  now 
passed  undiscussed  under  the  closure. 

After  having  seen  the  nation's  money  voted  by  Parliament, 
collected  by  the  Board  of  Customs  and  Excise  and  the  Board  of 
Inland  Eevenue,  and  safely  paid  into  the  Exchequer  Account  at 
the  Bank  of  England,  we  are  shown  how  it  is  issued  to  the 
spending  departments  and  finds  its  way,  via  the  Paymaster-General, 
into  the  pockets  of  the  nation's  creditors.  Mr.  Hilton  Young 
then  proceeds  to  deal  with  the  methods  by  which  the  national 
expenditure  is  audited  and  the  national  accounts  kept.  His 
chapter  on  Appropriation  and  Audit,  which  includes  some 
interesting  observations  on  the  Public  Accounts  Committee, 
is  one  of  the  best  in  the  book.  In  the  course  of  his  survey 
of  the  activities  of  the  Auditor-General,  he  well  illustrates  the 
difference  in  object  between  the  audit  conducted  by  a  commercial 
auditor  and  that  carried  out  by  the  great  department  whose 
headquarters  are  on  the  Victoria  Embankment. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  Annual  Balancing  there  are  two  pages 
for  which  I  felt  a  personal  gratitude  to  the  author :  they  contain 


136  The  Empire  Review 

an  admirably  clear  skeleton  outline  of  the  whole  course   of  the 
financial  business  of  the  year. 

The  matter  of  the  book  is  copious  and  well  arranged,  and  the 
manner  generally  attractive.  The  author  has  evidently  made  a 
careful  study  of  his  subject,  and  has  used  his  knowledge  to 
considerable  advantage.  He  is  not  afraid,  in  the  interests  of 
clearness,  to  recapitulate  and  repeat,  and  his  conclusions  are 
confidently  expressed.  The  book  contains  one  or  two  amusing 
misprints.  The  one  which  occurs  on  the  title-page,  in  a  quotation 
of  the  views  of  that  admirable  financer  Wilkins  Micawber,  is,  in 
a  financial  book,  distinctly  unfortunate.  What  Mr.  Micawber 
would  have  thought  of  an  annual  saving  of  £19  Os.  Qd.  on  an 
annual  income  of  £20  is  difficult  to  imagine,  but  he  can  scarcely 
have  considered  it  among  things  humanly  possible.  On  page  169 
an  esentially  nautical  metaphor  has  been  rendered  by  the  printer 
partially  zoological.  It  has  been  suggested  to  me  that  the 
substitution  of  sheep  for  ship  in  connection  with  the  proverbial 
ha'porth  of  tar  may  be  due  to  the  author's  humour.  But  this  seems 
unlikely. 

THE   ARYA  SAMAJ  * 

THE  movement  which  is  the  subject  of  this  book  is  the  result 
of  the  work  of  one  man.  The  man  was  Swami  Dayananda 
Saraswati,  who  was  born  in  1824  and  died  in  1883,  and  the 
movement  which  he  founded  is  probably  the  most  important 
religious  movement  of  modern  India.  By  nature  an  iconoclast 
and  an  enthusiast,  he  was  filled  from  his  early  youth  with  a 
passionate  desire  for  the  discovery  of  truth.  His  mind  was  first 
awakened  to  the  hollow  superstitions  of  the  time  by  the  sight  of 
a  mouse  devouring  with  impunity  the  offerings  placed  before  the 
image  of  the  god  Shiva.  Soon  after  this  incident,  his  thoughts 
were  powerfully  directed  to  the  problems  of  life  and  death  by  the 
loss  of  a  sister  and  an  uncle  whom  he  greatly  loved.  He  made 
up  his  mind  to  devote  himself  to  the  regeneration  of  the  ancient 
Hindu  religion.  Discouraged  by  his  parents,  who  endeavoured, 
as  a  means  of  keeping  him  from  his  purpose  to  induce  him  to 
marry,  he  fled  from  home,  and  gave  himself  up  to  a  lengthy  and 
arduous  period  of  study.  When  at  last  he  believed  himself  fitted, 
he  began  his  great  work  as  a  founder  and  a  preacher.  The  first 
Arya  Samaj  was  established  at  Bombay  in  1875,  but  the  con- 
stitution, and  the  Ten  Principles  to  which  each  Arya  subscribes, 
and  which  are  the  only  authoritative  exposition  of  the  beliefs  and 

*  '  The  Arya  Samaj.'  An  account  of  its  aims,  doctrine  and  activities,  with  a 
biographical  sketch  of  the  founder.  By  Lajpat  Rai.  London.  Longmans,  Green 
and  Co.  5s.  net. 


The  Empire  Library  137 

doctrines  of  the  movement,  were  settled  at  Lahore  in  1877.  At 
the  present  time  the  movement  is  of  very  wide  extent  and 
possesses  an  admirable  organisation. 

Dayananda  preached  an  exalted  monotheism  and  a  combina- 
tion of  a  spiritual  asceticism  with  an  elaborate  ritual  and  strictly 
defined  rules  of  conduct.  He  emphasised  the  necessity  of 
returning  to  the  Vedas  as  the  sole  fountain  of  authority, 
disregarding  all  additions  and  commentaries.  He  presents  in 
many  ways  a  curious  resemblance  to  Luther,  and  in  reading  the 
account  of  his  great  disputation  with  the  Pandits  one  cannot 
help  being  reminded  of  Luther's  debates  with  Eck  and  Miltitz. 

The  Arya  Samaj  does  not  confine  itself  to  religion.  It  has 
been  exceedingly  active  in  education,  and  the  Dayananda  Anglo- 
Vedic  College  at  Lahore  and  the  Gurukula  at  Hardwar  are 
abiding  monuments  of  its  labours  in  this  sphere.  In  social  work, 
and  notably  in  work  among  the  depressed  classes  and  the  relief  of 
famine,  it  has  been  conspicuous.  Of  its  activities  and  achievements 
in  these  directions,  as  well  as  its  religious  and  social  principles 
and  ideals,  the  author  gives  a  full  account.  He  also  deals  at 
length  with  the  relations  of  the  movement  with  British  authority 
and  the  prospects  of  its  continued  success  against  the  advance  of 
Christianity. 

There  is  a  readable  preface  by  Mr.  Sidney  Webb. 

C.  B.  COXWELL. 


TO   AN   ANGEL 

THE  fields  of  heaven  are  not  more  fair 
Than  my  garden  in  the  Spring, 

Nor  angel  voices  more  piercing  sweet 
Than  the  song  the  linnets  sing. 

I  see  the  haloes  of  glory  shine 

On  the  sparkling,  rainy  grass, 
The  orchard's  odorous  boughs  are  moved 

As  the  wings  of  seraphs  pass.  .  .  . 

The  tinkling  sound  of  a  tiny  harp 
That  is  touched  by  baby  hands  .  .  . 

Only  the  wren  ...  Oh  my  little  love 
That  left  me  for  God's  wide  lands ! 

ENID  DAUNCEY. 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  171.  N 


138  The  Empire  Review 


SIDELIGHTS    ON    THE    WAR 

CANADA 

New  Era  in  Canadian  History. 

THE  Premier  of  Manitoba,  in  a  recent  message  says  :  "  Many 
of  the  best  of  Canada's  sons  are  at  or  on  their  way  to  the  front. 
Many  thousands  more  are  ready  and  anxious  to  go.  The  fires 
of  patriotism,  ever  burning  in  Canadian  hearts,  are  aflame  as  they 
never  were  before.  The  Dominion  has  stepped  out  in  the  open 
with  the  declaration,  'Wherever  the  flag  or  the  righteous1  cause 
it  represents  are  in  danger,  there  is  Canada's  place  and  there  is 
the  place  of  Canada's  citizen  soldiers,  close  behind  the  soldiers 
of  the  King  from  the  Homeland  and  from  every  one  of  the 
far-flung  line  of  British  peoples  that  compose  the  Empire.'  I 
hold  that,  in  their  action,  begins  a  new  era  in  Canadian  history." 

Railway  Communications. 

Despite  the  war  quite  a  number  of  Bills  will  be  presented 
during  the  session  at  Ottawa  asking  for  new  railway  charters 
and  the  extension  of  lines  already  existing.  The  Kettle  Valley 
Railway  is  applying  for  an  Act  extending  the  time  for  the 
construction  of  several  lines  of  railway  in  British  Columbia, 
previously  authorised.  The  Western  Dominion  Railway  Com- 
pany, of  Calgary,  desires  an  extension  of  time  in  which  to 
construct  its  authorised  lines.  The  Brule,  Grand  Prairie  and 
Peace  Eiver  Railway  Company  will  seek  a  Dominion  charter, 
giving  it  the  right  to  construct  railway,  telegraph  and  telephone 
lines,  (i)  commencing  at  a  point  in  Alberta  at  Brule  Lake,  on 
the  main  line  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  and  Canadian  Northern 
Railways,  north-westerly  to  Grand  Prairie,  thence  to  a  point 
in  British  Columbia,  connecting  with  the  terminus  of  the  Pacific 
and  Great  Eastern  Railway  at  the  Peace  River  Block ;  (ii)  com- 
mencing at  Grand  Prairie  northerly  to  the  Pacific,  Peace  River 
and  Athabasca  Railway  at  or  near  the  point  where  the  railway 
crosses  the  Montagneuse  River,  passing  Spirit  River  Settlement 
and  crossing  the  Peace  River  at  or  near  Dunvegan,  approxi- 
mately 400  miles  in  all. 


Sidelights  on  the  War  139 

Only  about  100  miles  of  track  of  the  Canadian  Northern 
Pacific  Kailway  now  remain  to  be  laid  in  order  to  complete  the 
.British  Columbia  division.  Practically  all  the  structural  work  on 
the  steel  bridges  from  the  present  end  of  track,  a  few  miles  east 
of  Lytton  to  Kamloops,  has  been  completed.  The  completion  of 
the  entire  British  Columbia  portion  of  the  Canadian  Northern 
Pacific  Railway  is  anticipated  at  an  early  date. 

Next  Harvest. 

Great  preparations  are  being  made  in  all  the  provinces  for 
harvesting  a  record  crop  this  year.  A  considerable  amount  of 
new  land  is  being  broken  in  order  that  the  acreage  under  cultiva- 
tion may  be  large  enough  to  ensure  a  good  response  to  the  appeal 
made  by  the  Home  and  Canadian  Governments  for  a  big  farm 
produce  yield.  Farming  conditions  are  promising,  and  agri- 
culturists are  looking  forward  to  the  future  with  confidence. 
Because  of  the  heavy  precipitation  which  had  previously  fallen, 
there  has  been  an  immense  amount  of  ploughing  done  in  most 
sections,  and  there  is  sufficient  moisture  in  the  ground  to  ensure 
a  good  crop  for  next  year,  other  climatic  conditions  being  favour- 
able. Manitoba  has  the  largest  acreage  in  her  history  prepared 
for  the  spring  crop,  and  the  preparation  was  never  so  thoroughly 
well  done  as  it  is  now.  Ninety-two  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated 
land  was  ploughed  before  the  winter  set  in.  With  an  average 
crop  this  season  Manitoba  will  substantially  increase  her  products. 
Part  of  Canada's  duty  in  the  war,  a  duty  she  owes  to  herself  as 
well  as  to  the  Empire,  is  to  carry  on  with  all  her  energy  the 
policy  of  active  production  from  the  soil  and  the  factory. 

Educating  the  Farmer. 

The  Manitoba  Department  of  Agriculture  has  established 
still  another  demonstration  farm,  this  time  in  the  Kosehill 
District,  Southern  Manitoba.  The  nature  of  the  land  in  this 
district  is  somewhat  peculiar,  consisting  largely  of  a  ridge  which 
runs  nearly  north  and  south  and  has  a  sandy  loam  soil  with  a 
rather  light  gravel  subsoil.  Although  not  general,  this  type  of 
land  is  found  in  other  parts  of  the  province,  and  requests  have 
been  received  from  many  settlers  in  the  district  asking  for  tests  to 
be  made  of  a  suitable  rotation  for  this  class  of  soil.  About  forty- 
five  acres  of  land  have,  therefore,  been  selected,  fenced,  and 
summer  fallowed  for  demonstration  purposes. 

Live  Stock  in  Ontario. 

After  the  war  there  will  be  plenty  of  scope  for  the  farmer 
who  breeds  live  stock,  for  the  number  of  horses  killed  must 
result  in  a  world  scarcity.  Already  many  far-seeing  men  are 


140  The  Empire  Review 

arranging  to  engage  in  this  industry  in  Ontario,  which  is  so 
eminently  suited  for  breeding  all  kinds  of  stock.  This  province 
is  acknowledged  to  be  the  home  and  nursery  of  live  stock  for 
Canada  and  for  a  large  part  of  America,  and  the  quality  of  the 
stock  is  not  only  being  maintained,  but  greatly  improving  every 
year,  through  the  importation  of  large  numbers  of  first-class 
horses,  cattle  and  sheep  of  both  sexes.  In  addition  the  improve- 
ment in  all  branches  of  Canadian-bred  pedigree  stock  during 
the  past  few  years  is  very  great,  indicating  that  Ontario  is 
destined  to  remain  the  principal  supply  ground  for  other  provinces 
and  beyond. 

It  is  estimated,  says  a  Canadian  authority,  that  it  costs  from 
£20  to  £25,  counting  in  risk  and  everything,  to  raise  a  draught 
colt  up  to  two  years  of  age.  After  that  time  he  can  be  broken 
to  harness  and  will  pay  for  himself  until  he  reaches  the  market 
age.  At  present,  horses  are  so  scarce  that  four-year-olds  and 
even  three-year-olds,  if  up  to  size,  will  sell  from  £80  to  £100 
per  pair,  and,  if  of  extra  quality,  considerably  higher.  This  is 
certainly  a  splendid  return,  and  shows  that  horse-raising  can, 
even  in  ordinary  conditions,  be  made  just  as  profitable  as  any 
other  line  of  farm  business.  Anyone  who  really  understands  the 
business,  can  make  in  present  conditions  more  money  in  horse- 
raising  than  in,  perhaps,  any  other  line  of  farming.  The  large 
demand  created  by  the  war  has  made  everything  better  for  the 
horse  breeder,  and  this  favourable  position  should  continue  for 
some  years. 

Apple  Crop. 

Eeports  from  various  apple-growing  districts  of  Canada  prove 
that  last  year's  crop  was  an  exceptional  one  in  every  respect.  In 
all  sections  the  yields  were  larger  than  the  previous  year,  and  in 
point  of  quality  the  1914  crop  is  said  to  be  superior  to  any  raised 
for  a  considerable  time.  The  European  war,  however,  has  had 
a  serious  effect  upon  the  market.  It  resulted,  the  shippers 
claim,  in  leaving  virtually  only  Great  Britain,  United  States 
and  the  home  market.  In  the  Annapolis  Valley,  Nova  Scotia, 
the  yield  of  orchards  was  calculated  at  900,000  barrels,  equal 
to  an  increase  of  60  per  cent,  over  1913,  and  the  apples  were 
of  the  best  quality  seen  for  many  years.  In  New  Brunswick 
the  quantity  of  apples  was  about  twice  that  of  1913.  From 
the  Georgian  Bay  district  an  increase  of  75  per  cent,  was 
reported.  In  the  Lake  Ontario  region  also  the  crop  was  larger, 
while  in  the  Kootenay  Valley,  British  Columbia,  the  crop  showed 
an  increase  of  60  per  cent.  During  the  last  fiscal  year  Canada 
sold  abroad  $3,465,475  worth  of  apples,  of  this  total  the  sales  to 
Great  Britain  amounted  to  over  three  million  dollars. 


Sidelights  on  the  War  141 

Shrapnel  for  the  Allies. 

An  iron  and  shipbuilding  company  in  Toronto  has  installed 
a  special  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  shrapnel  shells.  The 
machinery  will  be  the  most  complete  in  Canada,  and  the 
factory  should  be  able  to  turn  out  a  large  supply  of  shells 
daily.  The  general  manager  of  the  company  states  that  his 
firm  has  been  given  a  portion  of  a  large  contract,  recently 
subdivided  among  a  number  of  Canadian  manufacturers. 
"  Already,"  he  said,  "  we  work  day  and  night  shifts  in  order  to 
fulfil  shipbuilding  contracts."  A  feature  of  the  situation  brought 
about  in  Canada  by  the  war  has  been  the  marked  adaptability  of 
Canadian  manufacturing  firms  of  which  the  above  is  but  the 
latest  example.  Everything  goes  to  prove  that  there  is  probably 
no  article,  of  German  or  other  manufacture,  which  the  Canadians 
have  so  far  touched  in  the  way  of  manufacture,  in  which  they 
cannot  compete  satisfactorily. 

Canada  to  Petrograd. 

Canada  to  Petrograd  is  the  latest  excursion  trip  organised 
by  a  transit  company  in  Canada,  and  passengers  by  this  route 
should  enjoy  an  interesting  and  diversified,  if  not  indeed  an 
exciting  journey.  The  British  port  of  arrival  is  Liverpool, 
whence  passengers  will  sail  to  a  port  in  Sweden.  Thereafter  the 
route  is  by  rail  to  a  port  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  after 
crossing  the  Gulf  by  steamer  the  railway  journey  to  Petrograd  is 
resumed.  No  previously  arranged  route  has  ever  touched  so  many 
countries  or  promised  so  many  possibilities  for  a  comparatively 
small  outlay.  This  service  has  been  inaugurated  by  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Eailway  Company  owing  to  the  large  number  of  Bussians 
desirous  of  returning  to  their  native  land  in  consequence  of 
the  war. 

Potato-growing  Contests  for  Boys. 

For  the  third  successive  year  a  boys'  potato-growing  contest 
has  been  organised  in  Ontario.  The  competitions  were  open  to 
boys  of  between  twelve  and  eighteen  years  of  age  living  on  farms 
of  not  less  than  fifty  acres  in  extent,  and  each  competitor 
operated  one-tenth  of  an  acre.  Last  year  was  particularly  un- 
favourable to  potatoes  in  Ontario,  and  the  average  yield  for  the 
Province  was  only  119  bushels  per  acre.  Yet,  in  spite  of  adverse 
conditions,  the  leading  prize-winner  last  year  obtained  a  yield  of 
451  bushels  per  acre.  This  year,  when  conditions  have  been 
so  favourable  that  the  potato  yield  in  Ontario,  167  bushels  per 
acre,  is  the  highest  on  record,  the  winner  of  the  first  prize 
obtained  the  yield  of  652£  bushels  per  acre,  of  which  630  bushels 


142  The  Empire  Review 

were  marketable.  Allowing  60  cents  per  bushel  as  the  value 
of  the  potatoes,  the  net  profit  of  the  first-prize  winner  works  out 
to  $302. 50  per  acre. 

Electric  Development. 

With  the  inauguration  by  the  Hydro-Electric  Commission 
of  Ontario  of  a  new  generating  plant  at  Wasdell's  Falls  the 
Commission  has  again  become  a  producer  as  well  as  a  dis- 
tributor of  electric  energy.  This  plant  will  serve  Beaverton, 
Gamebridge,  Brechin  and  the  agricultural  area  included  in  the 
territory  north  and  east  of  Lake  Simcoe.  Very  shortly  it  is 
expected  the  new  plant  at  Eugenia  Falls  will  be  ready  for 
operation.  The  smaller  centres  will  then  be  linked  with  the 
Niagara  system,  which  has  been  extended  to  Windsor,  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  southern  section  of  the  province.  The 
transmission  line  from  Niagara  Falls  to  Windsor  is  250  miles 
in  length,  one  of  the  longest  in  the  world. 

A  New  Manufacture. 

Steps  have  been  taken  by  the  Ontario  College  of  Pharmacy  to 
secure  the  manufacture  in  Canada  of  drugs  which  hitherto  have 
been  chiefly  or  wholly  produced  in  Germany,  and  which  are  not 
now  obtainable  from  that  source.  A  conference  will  be  held 
between  the  research  committees  of  the  College  of  Pharmacy  and 
the  Toronto  Academy  of  Medicine. 


AUSTRALIA   AND   NEW   ZEALAND 

Pensions  and  Allowances. 

In  reply  to  a  question  as  to  the  pensions  and  allowances  of 
widows  whose  husbands  die  or  are  killed  in  action,  Senator  Pearce, 
Federal  Minister  of  Defence,  replied  :  "  The  minimum  pension 
a  year  will  be  £52  in  the  case  of  a  woman  whose  husband  has 
died  or  is  killed  in  action,  and  £13  for  each  child  up  to  sixteen 
years  of  age  up  to  the  sum  of  £52,  so  that  in  the  case  of  a  widow 
with  four  children  the  pension  will  be  £104  a  year.  In  a  case  of 
total  disablement,  in  addition  to  the  £52  to  be  paid  to  the  wife, 
there  will  be  half  that  amount  payable  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  her  husband  has  also  to  be  provided  for,  and  an  equivalent 
amount  for  the  children.  The  question  of  provision  for  dependents 
other  than  widows  and  children  will  be  determined  on  the  same 
basis  as  that  laid  down  in  the  Commonwealth  Workmen's 
Compensation  Act,  and  the  percentage  as  to  disablement  will 
also  be  that  of  the  table  adopted  for  that  Act.  That  will  be  the 
minimum.  The  pensions  and  allowances  apply  not  only  to  the 


Sidelights  on  the  War  143 

military,  but  also  to  the  naval  forces,  and  will  come  into  operation 
on  the  departure  of  the  member  of  either  force  from  Australia  on 
active  service."  Questioned  further  as  to  whether  the  system  of 
deferred  pay  applied  in  any,  and  if  so,  in  what  cases  in  connection 
with  the  members  of  Expeditionary  Forces,  the  Minister  replied, 
"  The  answer  is — yes.  It  ranges  from  Is.  per  day  in  the  case  of 
privates  to  8s.  per  day  for  colonels." 

New  Zealand  Contingent. 

The  Defence  Department  of  New  Zealand  has  offered  to  keep 
the  Expeditionary  Force,  now  in  Egypt,  up  to  its  full  fighting 
strength  of  8,000,  and  applications  for  enrolment  in  the  rein- 
forcement drafts  are  far  in  excess  of  the  number  required.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  there  has  been  established  at  the  front,  for 
the  first  time,  an  organised  service  of  dental  surgeons  who  hold 
their  rank  under  the  Army  Medical  Corps,  it  is  interesting  to  learn 
that  it  was  decided  at  the  beginning  that  dentists  should  ac- 
company the  Expeditionary  Force.  Complaints  were  made  by 
some  of  the  soldiers  in  the  Expeditionary  Force  of  the  exorbitant 
prices  charged  by  the  canteen  contractors.  The  New  Zealand 
Government  at  once  took  the  matter  up,  with  the  result  that  it 
decided  to  take  over  the  canteens  on  the  troopships  and  run 
them  with  its  own  officers. 

Maori  Women  Volunteer. 

Intense  was  the  disappointment  when  Maori  warriors  came 
forward  in  numbers  very  far  in  excess  of  those  that  could  be 
accepted  for  the  New  Zealand  Expeditionary  Force  (only  500 
being  allowed  to  go)  and  were  told  that  the  weight  limit  was  12 
stone.  Many  of  those  who  volunteered  were  magnificent  speci- 
mens oi'  strength,  young,  some  6  ft.  6  ins.  high,  and  weighing, 
without  an  ounce  of  fat  on  their  bodies,  as  much  as  16  stone ! 
Among  the  volunteers  were  a  number  of  stalwart  "  wahines  " 
(native  women),  who  became  quite  indignant  when  they  were 
told  that  their  sex  could  not  be  accepted.  "  I  can  shoot  as  well 
as  any  man  who  ever  stepped,"  declared  one  Maori  woman,  who 
expressed  utter  scorn  for  the  incomprehensible  ways  of  the 
pakeha  (white  man)  in  despatching  an  army  of  men  to  fight 
without  their  women  being  there  to  look  after  them. 

Espionage  Precautions. 

According  to  a  proclamation  made  by  the  Governor  of  New 
Zealand,  it  is  held  to  be  treachery  if  any  person,  without  the 
permission  of  the  Military  Authority,  or  the  Minister  for  Defence, 
publishes  or  communicates,  or  permits  to  be  published  or  com- 


144  The  Empire  Review 

municated,  any  information  with  respect  to  the  movements  or 
disposition  of  any  forces,  ships,  or  war  material  of  His  Majesty  or 
His  Majesty's  Allies ;  or  with  respect  to  the  plans  of  any  naval  or 
military  operations  by  any  such  forces  or  ships  ;  or  with  respect 
to  any  works  or  measures  undertaken  for  or  connected  with  the 
fortification  or  defence  of  any  place ;  or  as  to  any  other  military 
or  naval  matters  if  the  information  is  such  as  might  be  directly 
or  indirectly  useful  to  the  enemy. 

Government  and  Monopolies. 

An  interesting  discussion  took  place  in  the  New  Zealand 
House  of  Representatives  after  information  had  been  received 
that  a  combination  between  a  meat  trust  and  some  shipping 
companies  menaced  the  New  Zealand  food  supply.  The  Prime 
Minister  said  that  he  had  been  watching  this  matter  for  a  long 
time  and  that  New  Zealand,  which  owned  its  own  railways, 
could  deal  with  the  meat  trust  without  making  any  alteration 
in  the  law.  There  would  not  be  the  slightest  difficulty.  It 
was  the  prerogative  of  the  Government  to  license  abattoirs  and 
slaughterhouses,  and  if  they  saw  anything  going  wrong  it  was  the 
easiest  thing  in  the  world  to  refuse  the  licenses.  The  position 
was  that  if  the  trust  came  to  New  Zealand  and  entered  into  fair 
competition  there  was  nothing  to  be  said ;  but  directly  it 
attempted  to  get  a  monopoly  the  State  would  interfere  and  not  a 
minute  would  be  lost  in  doing  so. 

Kauri  Gum  Industry. 

Interesting  measures  have  been  adopted  by  the  New  Zealand 
Government  to  assist  the  recovery  of  the  kauri  gum  industry  in 
the  Dominion  from  the  effects  of  the  war.  The  outbreak  of 
hostilities  caused  a  collapse  of  the  market,  but  the  arrangements 
made  by  the  Government,  within  a  few  weeks,  greatly  relieved 
the  critical  condition  of  the  industry,  and  it  is  hoped  will  restore 
almost  normal  activity.  Thousands  of  men  are  engaged  in  the 
kauri  gum  industry,  and  its  stagnation  threatened  to  throw  all  of 
them  into  the  ranks  of  the  unemployed.  The  Prime  Minister 
arranged  with  the  Gum  Commissioner  that  employment  should 
be  provided  for  a  certain  number  of  men  at  a  fixed  wage  on 
gum-bearing  land,  where  it  was  likely  they  would  be  able  to  find 
enough  gum  to  pay  their  wages  advanced  by  the  Department  of 
Lands.  The  scheme  further  provided  that  if  the  critical  conditions 
were  not  relieved,  the  Department  would  advance  a  certain  per- 
centage of  the  value  of  the  gum  based  on  the  prices  current  before 
the  war.  This  gum  was  then  to  be  placed  in  store,  insured  by 
the  Government,  to  be  sold  by  the  Government  when  it  thought 
the  market  favourable. 


< 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL    OF     BRITISH    TRADE 


VOL.  XXIX.  MAY,   1915.  No.   172. 

THE    GOVERNMENT    AND    THE    WAR 

MUNITIONS   AND   EQUIPMENT 

"  MUNITIONS,  more  munitions,  always  more  munitions,  that  is 
the  governing  condition  of  all  progress,  of  every  leap  forward," 
said  Sir  John  French,  speaking  on  the  other  side  of  the  Channel 
a  few  weeks  back.  Again  to  Lord  Durham,  "  The  more 
ammunition  the  less  danger  our  men  are  incurring  in  making 
advances.  .  .  .  The  ball  is  at  our  feet,  and  we  could  kick  it  if  we 
have  the  munitions."  The  matter  was  further  dealt  with  by  the 
Field-Marshal  in  a  recent  dispatch.  After  pointing  out  that  the 
power  of  defence  conferred  by  modern  weapons  is  the  main  cause 
of  the  long  duration  of  the  battles  of  the  present  day,  a  fact  which 
"  mainly  accounts  for  the  loss  and  waste  of  life,"  he  went  on  to 
say  that  both  the  one  and  the  other  can  be  shortened  and 
lessened  if  attacks  are  supported  by  the  most  efficient  and 
powerful  force  of  artillery  available.  But,  he  added,  in  order  that 
these  ends  may  be  secured  "  an  almost  unlimited  supply  of 
ammunition  is  necessary."  Addressing  the  House  of  Lords,  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  War,  referring  to  munitions,  said,  "the 
output  is  not  equal  to  our  necessities.  The  supply  of  war 
material  is  causing  me  very  serious  anxiety.  It  is  essential  that 
arrears  should  be  wiped  off.  Progress  in  our  equipment  has  been 
seriously  hampered  by  the  failure  to  obtain  sufficient  labour." 
The  same  theme  occupied  the  attention  of  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  at  Bangor : — 

We  stand  more  in  need  of  equipment  than  we  do  of  men.  This  is  an 
engineer's  war,  and  it  will  be  won  or  lost  owing  to  the  efforts  or  shortcomings 
of  engineers.  I  have  something  to  say  about  that,  for  it  involves  sacrifices 
from  all  of  us.  Unless  we  are  able  to  equip  our  armies  our  predominance  in  men 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  172.  o 


146  The  Empire  Review 

will  avail  us  nothing.    We  need  men,  but  we  need  arms  more  than  men  and 
delay  in  producing  them  is  full  of  peril  for  this  country. 

A  policy,  national  policy  as  it  was  called,  that,  with  a  European 
conflagration  hanging  in  the  balance,  left  the  heart  of  the  Empire 
dependent  for  its  military  operations  at  home  and  abroad  on  a 
Territorial  Army,  never  maintained  at  its  proper  strength,  and  a 
comparatively  small  Expeditionary  Force,  leaves  much  to  be 
explained .V  But  a  policy  that  has  failed  from  an  avoidable  cause 
to  keep  tlj&vArmy  at  the  Front  supplied  with  the  ammunition 
necessary  to  save  life  and  to  shorten  the  War,  is  far  more 
reprehensible.  "Why  were  so  many  of  our  best  mechanics  allowed 
to  enlist  in  the  new  Armies  if  their  services  were  urgently  required 
for  the  manufacture  of  munitions  of  war  ?  Why  did  the  Govern- 
ment not  take  over  the  shipyards  and  factories  immediately  after 
the  declaration  of  War?  Why  did  they  not  take  stock  of  the 
labour  available,  and  form  an  estimate  of  future  requirements  ? 
Why  did  they  not  schedule  recruits  and  place  specified  industries 
under  martial  law  ?  The  failure  of  the  Government  to  grasp  the 
initial  requirements  of  a  great  war  calls  for  very  searching  examin- 
ation, and  when  the  proper  time  comes  that  examination  will  be 
made.  Sooner  or  later  they  will  have  to  appear  before  the 
tribunal  of  public  opinion,  and  when  that  happens  it  will  be  of  no 
avail  to  plead  they  did  not  know  what  they  ought  to  have  known, 
what  they  were  paid  to  find  out.  The  nation  will  never  allow  a 
"wait  and  see"  policy  to  be  used  as  an  excuse  for  failure  to 
acquire  the  elementary  knowledge  that  war,  like  any  other 
business,  must  be  conducted  on  the  lines  of  common  sense. 

No  doubt  the  means  now  being  adopted  to  prevent  any 
shortage  of  labour  in  the  future  will  be  effective,  but  the  Govern- 
ment ought  never  to  have  allowed  a  shortage  to  occur.  It  was 
their  duty  from  the  first  to  see  that  sufficient  labour  was  always 
available  to  meet  the  national  requirements,  and  it  must  be 
obvious  to  everyone  that  the  omission  to  do  so  has  not  only 
resulted  in  much  valuable  time  being  lost,  but  has  been  the 
means  of  many  valuable  lives  being  lost.  Both  Germany  and 
France  organised  their  labour  at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  Why 
did  we  not  do  the  same  ?  Municipal  undertakings  that  were  not 
immediately  necessary  should  long  ago  have  been  stopped  and  the 
energy  employed  transferred  to  Government  work,  while  a  close  and 
constant  watch  should  have  been  kept  on  the  recruiting  stations, 
especially  in  the  North.  Had  these  steps  be  entaken  in  time  the 
Government  would  not  now  be  compelled  to  cover  the  walls  with 
bills  appealing  for  mechanics.  Only  the  other  day  I  met  a  man 
who  had  served  his  time  in  one  of  the  workshops  at  Newcastle. 
He  had  enlisted,  and  for  some  months  had  been  busy  learning  his 
new  business,  whereas  he  and  others  like  him  should  never  have 


The  Government  and  the  War  147 

been  allowed  to  go.  It  is  puerile  for  the  Government  to  say  as 
they  are  saying  from  Land's  End  to  John  o'  Groats  that  "  this  is 
the  kind  of  man  the  Army  wants  now"  The  Army  always 
wanted  this  kind  of  man,  but  not  at  the  drilling  stations.  He 
was  wanted  in  the  factory  and  the  workshop,  and  the  reason  he  is 
not  there  is  a  matter  for  the  Government  and  for  the  Government 
alone  to  explain.  It  should  never  have  been  necessary  for  Lord 
Kitchener  to  say,  as  he  is  reported  to  have  said,  to  the  Chairman 
of  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Engineers  the  other  day,  that  the 
most  effective  way  of  staving  off  conscription  was  to  fill  the 
shops  with  the  necessary  supply  of  labour  for  the  production  of 
munitions  of  war. 

Concurrently  with  the  discovery  made,  after  eight  months  of 
war,  that  our  labour  supply  requires  organisation,  we  are 
suddenly  informed  that  slackness  exists  in  the  ranks  of  the 
workers.  According  to  the  statement  made  at  the  Treasury  by 
the  Shipbuilding  Employers'  Federation  the  aggregate  amount 
of  ordinary  hours  avoidably  lost  by  ironworkers  on  the  Clyde 
and  on  the  North  East  coast  during  four  weeks  in  March  was) 
666,000,  equal  to  a  loss  of  25  per  cent,  of  the  normal  working- 
hours.  If  this  statement  be  correct  is  it  too  much  to  assume 
that  loss  of  hours  was  not  solely  confined  to  the  particular 
month  mentioned?  The  slackness  complained  of  must  have 
started  long  since  to  have  reached  such  alarming  proportions. 
Yet  we  hear  of  no  Government  inquiry  taking  place.  All  we 
know  is  that  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  as  becomes  a  man 
of  "push  and  go,"  told  the  Shipbuilding  Employers'  deputation  that 
he  had  gone  into  the  matter  "  a  great  deal  more  closely  during  the 
last  few  weeks"  and  had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  "excessive 
drinking  "  was  "  seriously  interfering  "  with  the  output  of  muni- 
tions. And  with  a  view  of  emphasising  that  drink  was  the  cause 
of  the  slackness  he  continued : 

Having  gone  into  this  matter  a  great  deal  more  closely 
during  the  last  few  weeks  I  must  say  that  I  have  a  growing 
conviction,  based  on  accumulating  evidence,  that  nothing 
but  root  and  branch  methods  will  be  of  the  slightest  avail  in 
dealing  with  this  evil.  I  believe  that  to  be  the  general 
feeling.  The  feeling  is  that  if  we  are  to  settle  German 
militarism  we  must  first  of  all  settle  with  the  drink.  We 
are  fighting  Germany,  Austria,  and  Drink ;  and,  as  far  as  I 
can  see,  the  greatest  of  these  three  deadly  foes  is  Drink. 

On  the  general  question  of  slackness  we  must  await  further 
particulars  before  expressing  an  opinion,  but  I  cannot  help  thinking 
the  conclusion  arrived  at  by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  that 
drink  is  the  sole  cause  to  be  an  erroneous  one,  at  any  rate  the  evil 
has  been  much  exaggerated.  Already  rumour  is  busy  with  all  kinds 


148  The  Empire  Review 

of  heroic  measures  to  meet  the  "  drink  problem  "as  it  is  called, 
but  before  considering  the  introduction  of  any  drastic  legislation 
the  Government  will  be  well  advised  to  invite  the  assistance  of 
the  new  local  organisations  where,  to  quote  the  words  of  the 
Lord  Mayor  of  Newcastle,  "masters  and  men  are  working  in 
perfect  accord."  Place  the  responsibility  for  the  conduct  of 
their  fellows  on  the  shoulders  of  the  working  men  themselves  and 
the  Government  may  rest  assured  that  the  end  is  in  sight.  But 
to  upset  the  whole  community,  penalise  an  enormous  industry 
and  throw  thousands  of  men  and  women  out  of  employment 
while  at  the  same  time  adding  materially  to  the  already  heavy 
burden  of  the  taxpayers,  and  to  do  all  this  to  remedy  the  faults  of 
the  few,  would  be  neither  just  nor  statesmanlike.  Moreover  such 
a  course  would  be  deeply  resented,  and  deservedly  so,  by  the 
working  classes  generally,  and  in  the  end  it  is  highly  probable 
that  more  harm  than  good  would  result.  As  the  North  East 
Coast  Armaments  Committee  pertinently  observe,  "  there  is  no 
need  for  great  national  restrictive  schemes."  This  Committee 
consists  of  men  who  know  thoroughly  the  conditions  in  the 
districts  they  have  to  deal  with  and  can  succeed  far  better 
without  the  help  of  "new  sledge-hammers  invented  for  them 
in  London."  Meanwhile  they  say,  and  truly  say,  "  the  fact  that 
the  Government  is  talking  of  these  big  drink  schemes  and  the 
consequent  slur  it  casts  on  the  workers  is  having  a  very  irritating 
effect  on  workmen."  To  quote  again  the  Lord  Mayor  of 
Newcastle. 

Our  workers  here  are  splendid,  and  will  do  all  that  is 
asked  now  they  know  at  last  what  is  wanted.  To  the 
politicians  who  are  seeking  great  remedies  in  London  they 
answer  in  the  local  phrase,  "  Stow  the  gaff,  and  let's  get  on 
with  the  work.  .  .  "  Mr.  Lloyd  George's  most  unpopular 
reference  to  drink  being  a  greater  enemy  than  Germany  or 
Austria  has  already  done  immense  harm.  Let  us  have  no 
more  of  such  talk. 

It  is  now  some  days  since  Parliament  re-assembled,  and  so  far 
the  Government  have  made  no  pronouncement  on  the  drink 
question.  Nor  has  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  said  anything 
in  confirmation  of  the  views  he  expressed  at  the  Treasury.  On 
the  other  hand  his  last  speech  in  the  House  on  the  subject  of 
munitions  would  lead  one  to  suppose  he  had  gone  too  far  in  his 
condemnation  of  the  worker,  for  he  now  tells  us  that  far  from 
there  being  a  deficiency  in  shell  production,  not  only  is  there  no 
shortage  but  that  we  have  a  good  reserve.  Meanwhile,  Mr.  Asquith 
has  been  talking  to  the  "  soldiers  of  industry  "  at  Newcastle.  It 
was  an  eloquent  address,  but,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  it  contained 
no  reference  either  to  drink  or  to  slackness.  Indeed,  the  Prime 


The  Government  and  the  War  149 

Minister  was  specially  careful  to  avoid  anything  like  recrimin- 
ation, and  as  usual  was  optimistic.  His  speech  gave  the  im- 
pression that  while  he  was  quite  pleased  to  have  an  opportunity 
of  meeting  the  men,  in  reality  there  was  very  little  to  say  as  there 
was  very  little  amiss,  but  in  any  event  no  blame  whatever  could 
be  attached  to  the  Government.  From  first  to  last  they  had 
foreseen  everything,  while  the  fact  that  the  Government  had 
appointed  a  Committee  to  deal  with  the  subject  of  supplies  as 
far  back  as  September  apparently  gave  him  much  satisfaction. 
As  regards  our  own  soldiers  they  were  never  better  equipped  than 
is  the  case  to-day,  "  the  main  armament  firms  register  the  very 
high  average  of  sixty-seven  to  sixty-nine  hours  per  week  per 
man,"  and  there  was  no  truth  whatever  in  the  mischievous 
report  that  the  operations  of  our  armies  and  those  of  our  Allies 
had  been  "  hampered  by  our  failure  to  provide  the  necessary 
ammunition." 

In  fact  the  only  matter  that  remained  unexplained  was  the 
reason  of  the  visit  to  Newcastle.  The  journey  to  the  North  at 
this  particular  moment  could  hardly  have  been  undertaken 
merely  to  tell  the  workers  in  Northumberland  and  Durham  that 
the  Government  were  much  gratified  with  the  patriotism  they 
had  displayed ;  that  could  have  been  done  by  letter.  If  the 
Government  saw  as  they  say  they  saw  long  ago  that  this  was  to 
be  a  war  of  munitions,  perhaps  they  will  explain  how  and  why 
the  present  crisis  has  arisen  ?  Why  should  it  have  been  necessary 
for  Lord  Kitchener  and  Sir  John  French  to  say  what  they  did  ? 
And  why  was  it  necessary  for  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War 
to  supplement  Mr.  Asquith's  speech  at  Newcastle  with  the 
following  message  to  the  workpeople  at  Barrow  : — 

Anything  less  than  the  full  output  means  gallant 
British  lives  sacrificed  unnecessarily  and  victory  post- 
poned. I  appeal  to  every  employee,  whether  engaged 
directly  upon  the  manufacture  of  munitions  or  upon  the 
erection  of  buildings,  or  machines  for  their  production,  to 
give  his  best  service,  and  so  fully  co-operate  with  our  brave 
Army  in  the  field. 

On  the  face  of  it,  and  in  the  absence  of  any  other  explanation, 
it  looks  as  if  the  statements  made  by  Lord  Kitchener  and  Sir 
John  French  represented  the  facts  and  the  speeches  of  the  Prime 
Minister  and  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  were  intended  to 
screen  the  Government  from  the  consequences  of  their  own  in- 
action. I  wish  to  give  the  Government  every  credit  for  doing 
their  best,  but  handicapped  as  they  have  been  from  first  to  last 
by  traditions,  they  have  failed  in  the  matter  of  munitions  and 
equipment  to  grasp  the  true  inwardness  of  the  situation. 

EDITOE. 


150  The  Empire  Review 


THE    ANILINE    DYE    INDUSTRY,    ITS 
POSITION    AND    PROSPECTS 

AFTER  many  vicissitudes  British  Dyes,  Ltd.,  the  Board  of 
Trade  project,  has  been  duly  launched.  Its  career  will  be 
watched  with  the  greatest  interest,  for  there  are  many  varied 
opinions  as  to  how  far  it  can  succeed  in  re-establishing  the 
industry  on  secure  foundations. 

I  say  re-establishing,  because  the  credit  of  initial  discovery 
belongs  to  this  country.  More  than  fifty  years  ago  the  late  Sir 
William  Perkin  produced  mauve,  the  first  aniline  colour.  He 
started  a  factory  in  London  which  originally  met  with  consider- 
able success,  but  unfortunately  that  success  was  not  fully  main- 
tained, and  having  gained  a  competency  by  his  manufacture, 
Perkin  decided  to  devote  himself  to  pure  research.  Speaking 
just  recently  at  the  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Chemical  Society,  his 
son,  Mr.  W.  H.  Perkin,  F.K.S.,  attributed  his  father's  retirement 
from  business  to  the  deficiency  of  really  qualified  chemists  at  that 
time  available  in  this  country.  Sir  William  had  been  a  student 
at  the  Eoyal  College  of  Chemistry  in  Oxford  Street,  where  the 
head  of  the  laboratories  was  Professor  Hoffman,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  chemists  of  his  day.  Hoffman  took  the  greatest 
interest  in  the  discovery  of  mauve,  and  his  attention  was 
naturally  directed  to  the  great  possibilities  which  might  follow  on 
its  manufacture.  Professor  Hoffman  shortly  afterwards  left  for 
Berlin,  and  it  has  been  frequently  said  that  he  took  -the  aniline 
dye  industry  with  him.  The  industry  was  particularly  suitable  to 
German  genius  and  perseverance,  and  under  Hoffman's  fostering 
care  it  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds,  until  to-day  more  than 
£12,000,000  of  capital  are  invested,  a  foreign  trade  of  £10,600,000 
has  been  developed,  and  1,200  chemically  distinct  dye-stuffs  are 
produced. 

The  German  works  have  been  gradually  amalgamated  into 
two  groups,  the  leaders  being  the  Badische  Anilin  und  Soda 
Fabrik  and  Meister  Lucius  &  Briinnig,  competitors,  but  friendly 
rivals,  and  the  industry  now  can  only  be  described  as  two  huge 
Trusts  supported  by  the  whole  power  of  the  German  State.  Each 


The  Aniline  Dye  Industry  151 

of  these  two  groups,  in  order  to  meet  the  latest  requirements  of 
British  Patent  Law,  have  established  works  in  Lancashire — the 
Mersey  Works  and  the  Ellesmere  Port  Works — both  having  fine 
sites  with  room  for  extension.  At  the  Ellesmere  Port  Works 
nearly  £100,000  has  been  spent  in  plant,  and  before  the  war 
more  colour  was  actually  produced  at  Ellesmere  than  in  all  the 
British  works  put  together.  An  ideal  beginning  for  British 
Dyes,  Ltd.,  would  have  been  the  purchase  of  the  Ellesmere  Port 
Works.  These  should  have  been  the  main  foundation  for  the 
project,  especially  as  the  services  of  at  least  one  of  the  directors 
might  have  been  secured,  and  the  whole  venture  started  on  the 
same  lines  which  have  spelled  success  in  Germany.  Moreover, 
a  very  large  profit,  probably  sufficient  to  finance  the  whole  under- 
taking, could  have  been  obtained  from  the  manufacture  of 
synthetic  indigo. 

This  was  the  chief  product  of  the  Ellesmere  Port  Works 
before  the  war,  but  only  as  to  the  final  stages  of  manufacture, 
the  intermediate  product,  phenyl  glycine,  was  entirely  supplied 
from  the  parent  works  in  Germany.  When  the  war  broke  out 
these  supplies  of  phenyl  glycine  were  cut  off,  and  instructions 
given  from  Germany  to  shut  down  the  British  works.  To 
prevent  stoppage  the  Board  of  Trade  took  action,  an  indemnity 
was  secured,  and  a  Controller  appointed  who,  after  much  exer- 
tion, has  now  been  able  to  obtain  phenyl  glycine  from  a  British 
company,  and  the  manufacture  of  synthetic  indigo  has  again 
been  resumed.  Meanwhile  the  shortage  of  blue  colour  had 
become  so  pronounced  that  the  Board  of  Trade  decided  to  buy  a 
large  portion  of  the  Indian  crop  of  natural  indigo,  and  purchases 
were  effected  to  the  amount  of  about  £200,000,  at  an  average 
price  of  12s.  per  Ib.  for  60  per  cent,  colour.  This  has  still  to  be 
placed  upon  the  British  market  where  synthetic  indigo,  being 
sold  on  the  basis  of  20  per  cent,  colour,  has  a  comparative  value, 
with  Indian  at  12s.,  of  4s.  per  Ib. 

The  new  production  of  synthetic  at  the  Ellesmere  Port  Works 
is,  however,  being  sold  to  consumers  at  Is.  6d.  per  Ib.,  presum- 
ably in  the  judgment  of  the  Controller  giving  a  sufficient  profit  to 
the  German  owners,  Meister  Lucius  &  Briinnig,  but  certainly 
entailing  much  difficulty  in  the  disposal  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
stock  of  Indian  indigo,  which  has  cost  a  very  much  higher  figure. 
Had  the  Ellesmere  Port  Works  been  incorporated  in  British 
Dyes,  Ltd.,  a  selling  price  of  even  2s.  Qd.  a  Ib.  for  synthetic 
indigo,  a  very  reasonable  figure  in  war-time,  would  have  brought 
in  a  profit  of  probably  £200,000  yearly,  a  very  useful  financial 
start  for  any  scheme.  I  called  attention  to  the  Ellesmere  Port 
Works  in  the  House  of  Commons  debate  before  Christmas,  and 
why  the  advantages  and  possibilities  of  their  inclusion  have  been 


152  The  Empire  Review 

ignored  is  difficult  to  explain.  Had  these  works  been  the  pivot 
of  British  Dyes,  Ltd.,  with  the  Read  Holliday  Works  as  supports 
(for  the  Bead  Holliday  Option  is  a  good  bargain),  a  splendid 
beginning  in  the  effort  to  re-capture  the  aniline  dye  industry 
would  have  been  accomplished.  The  local  conditions  in  England 
are  favourable,  the  primary  materials,  such  as  benzol,  toluol, 
phenol  and  naphthaline,  are  plentiful,  water  supply,  power  and 
electricity  are  cheap,  but  what  is  not  so  easily  procured  is  the 
chemical  knowledge  and  technical  skill — here  British  Dyes,  Ltd., 
compares  badly  indeed  with  the  Colour  Factory  on  the 
Continent. 

Let  me  now  give  the  administrative  scheme  of  one  of  tha 
largest  German  works  as  in  present  operation. 

The  Executive  consists  of  two  separate  bodies — the  Super- 
visory Board  and  the  Board  of  Directors.  The  Supervisory 
Board  is  constituted  by  the  principal  shareholders,  who  appoint 
the  Board  of  Directors.  No  director  can  be  a  member,  and  the 
Board's  responsibility  is  direct  to  the  shareholders.  The  number 
of  the  members  of  this  Board  is  limited,  eight  to  twelve  being 
selected  from  the  largest  shareholders.  The  Board  of  Directors 
is  appointed  for  a  number  of  years  by  the  Supervisory  Board ; 
the  directors  so  appointed  are  responsible  to  the  Supervisory 
Board.  The  directorate  consists  of  one  commercial  director 
(finance,  etc.) ;  two  technical  directors  (1)  intermediates,  (2) 
colours ;  one  legal  adviser  (patents,  contracts) ;  and  one  chief 
engineer  (power,  plant  and  machinery). 

This  Executive  is  enlarged  by  several  sub- directors.  The 
commercial  director  has  two  sub-directors,  (a)  purchases ; 
(6)  sales.  The  two  technical  directors  have  four  sub-directors  : 
(a)  Intermediates  :  (1)  Acids,  etc.,  (2)  Naphtol  and  Derivatives, 
etc. ;  (6)  Colours  :  (1)  Azo,  Keton,  Benzidine,  etc.,  (2)  Rosaniline, 
Indigo,  Vat,  etc.  The  legal  director  has  one  sub-director,  who  is 
the  secretary  of  the  Company.  Then  there  is  the  chief  engineer. 
Total,  five  directors  and  seven  sub-directors. 

The  technical  administration  is  further  sub-divided  into 
sectional  boards  under  the  chairmanship  of  each  sectional  sub- 
director.  These  sectional  boards  include  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments and  the  chairman  can  co-opt  suitable  assessors  from  the 
number  of  his  officers. 

Sir  William  Eamsay,  writing  to  the  Times,  states  that  any 
scheme  is  foredoomed  to  failure  which  is  not  under  the  manage- 
ment of  chemists.  Sir  Henry  Eoscoe  points  out  that  the  future 
must  depend  not  upon  the  manufacture  of  well-known  products, 
like  indigo,  alizarin  or  methyl  blue,  but  upon  new  colours  only  to 
be  found  through  the  work  of  research  chemists.  Will  these 
counsels  be  adopted  by  British  Dyes,  Ltd.  ?  If  so,  the  child 


The  Aniline  Dye  Industry  153 

industry  of  to-day  may  outgrow  the  need  of  paternal  aid,  whether 
in  the  form  of  Government  cash  or  of  a  protective  duty.  If 
protection  becomes  necessary,  a  very  big  price  requires  to  be  paid. 
In  the  United  States,  where  the  attempt  to  establish  a  self- 
contained  industry  is  now  being  discussed,  an  influential  committee 
of  the  American  Chemical  Society  puts  forward  the  following 
claim.  They  say : — 

It  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  during  the  past 
thirty  years  that  the  present  tariff  rate  of  30  per  cent,  on 
dyestuffs  is  not  sufficient  to  induce  the  domestic  dyestuff 
industry  to  expand  at  a  rate  comparable  with  the  consumption 
of  dyestuffs  in  the  United  States,  and  that  therefore  all 
dyestuffs  made  from  coal  tar,  whether  they  be  aniline, 
alizarine,  or  anthracene  dyes  or  indigo,  so  long  as  they  are 
made  in  whole  or  in  part  from  products  obtainable  from  coal 
tar,  should  all  be  assessed  alike,  viz.,  at  30  per  cent,  ad 
valorem  duty  plus  7£  c.  per  pound  specific. 

The  effect  of  heavy  duties  like  these  upon  our  own  textile 
trade,  and  to  what  extent  the  producing  cost  of  our  cotton  and 
woollen  goods  must  be  thereby  increased,  is  an  interesting 
speculation.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  position  of  the 
textile  trade  prior  to  the  war  was  most  favourable  with  regard  to 
dyes  ;  they  possessed  the  complete  range  of  all  German  colours  and 
discoveries,  and  at  lower  prices  than  any  other  country  in  the 
world,  besides  which,  any  difficulties  in  the  application  of  these 
colours  were  willingly  explained  by  agents  sent  from  the  German 
manufacturers  for  the  purpose.  After  the  war  will  the  same 
conditions  again  prevail,  and  if  so,  can  British  Dyes,  Ltd.,  thrive 
or  even  live  ?  And  if  found  unequal  to  competition  will  protec- 
tive duties  be  established  or  the  total  exclusion  of  German  dyes 
be  granted  ?  Such  are  the  problems  of  the  future.  Only  a  very 
bold  man  would  prophesy  as  to  the  results. 

It  may  be  safe  to  state  that  for  the  time  being,  until  peace 
returns,  the  operations  of  British  Dyes,  Ltd.,  ought  to  largely 
add  to  our  available  supply  of  dyes,  and  tend  to  check  the  present 
extravagant  rise  in  prices,  still  leaving  sufficient  margin  to  make 
the  Company  a  financial  success.  This  is  all  to  the  credit  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  and  must  mitigate  criticism. 

WILLIAM  PEAECE. 


VOL.  XXIX.— No.  172. 


154  The  Empire  Review 


SOUTH    AFRICA'S    GOLD    RESOURCES    AND 
THE    EMPIRE 

WHEN  the  safety  of  the  British  Empire  was  threatened  by  the 
German  intrigues  in  the  SouthA  frican  Kepublic,  and  the  Imperial 
Government  was  forced  to  take  the  measures  which  resulted  in 
the  Boer  War,  a  move  was  made  the  future  effects  of  which  are 
even  now  only  partially  realised.  To-day  Boer  and  Briton  are 
proceeding  in  amity,  with  the  development  of  a  United  South 
Africa — united  except  for  the  small  and  discredited  section  which 
follows  General  Hertzog. 

Although  the  fullest  self-government  has  been  granted  by  the 
Imperial  Government  to  South  Africa,  and  the  South  African 
people  have  been  given  the  opportunity  and  the  right  to  develop 
into  a  nation  on  their  own  lines,  the  benefits  to  the  Empire 
brought  about  by  the  incorporation  of  the  whole  sub-continent 
into  the  Imperial  system  are  of  the  greatest  importance.  Not 
only  has  the  security  of  the  Empire,  at  what  was  a  vulnerable 
point,  been  established,  but  an  inexhaustible  storehouse  of  vast 
wealth  in  various  forms  has  been  made  available  for  the  Empire's 
energy  and  capital. 

Beginning  with  the  gold  fields  of  the  Transvaal.  The 
extraordinary  geological  occurrence,  known  as  the  Witwatersrand 
formation,  on  which  the  great  gold  industry  of  the  Band  has  been 
built  up,  is  supplying,  and  will  supply,  the  Empire  for  many 
years  with  the  means  towards  immense  increases  in  industry, 
population  and  prosperity. 

A  great  geological  occurrence,  as  a  celebrated  writer  pointed 
out,  was  responsible  for  the  Boer  War.  Perhaps  in  every  sense 
his  words  carried  truth,  but  curiously  enough,  this  great  geological 
occurrence,  that  possibly  led  the  Empire  a  step,  will  lead  it  in  no 
distant  years  to  strides  immeasurable.  Having  been  one  of  the 
pioneers  that  trod  this  Rand  and  pierced  the  earth  for  scores  of 
miles  to  find  its  secrets  in  the  early  days,  and  having  always 
studied  the  whole  great  occurrence,  I  have  never  abandoned  the 
conviction  that  what  is  known  and  worked  to-day  is  but  a  small 
part  of  a  great  bed  of  strata. 


South  Africa's  Gold  Resources  and  the  Empire     155 

For  many  years  attempts  were  made  to  connect  the  gold,  in 
the  conglomerates,  in  the  Potchefstroom  District  (about  100 
miles  west),  but,  although  the  surface  geology  points  to  a 
connected  line  of  rand  beds,  to  define  the  actual  reefs  and  their 
gold  has  so  far  proved  impossible;  yet  there  is  abundant 
evidence  that  the  bodies  exist,  and  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time, 
and  then  a  line  will  be  found  there  twice  as  long  as  the  present 
Band.  But  it  is  to  the  Eastern  Band  that  I  now  have  to 
direct  attention.  Whilst  discoveries  to  the  Western  Band  have 
remained  dormant,  and  the  process  of  exhaustion,  in  depth, 
has  proceeded  in  the  Band  itself,  the  eastern  section  has 
demonstrated  the  continued  richness  and  permanency  of  the  beds 
going  eastward. 

To-day  the  richest  mines  on  the  Band  are  the  Modderfontein, 
the  Modder  "  B,"  the  Van  Byn  Deep  and  others,  and  recently 
the  assay  returns  of  the  Springs  Mines  show  the  continuance  and 
persistency  of  the  beds  turning  towards  the  south.  All  these 
mines  are  opening  up  what  is  known  as  the  Far  Eastern  Band, 
and  the  further  developments  and  discoveries  are  being  called  the 
South-East  Band. 

To  realise  the  vastness  of  this  great  gold  belt,  it  is  necessary 
to  state  that  the  present  line  actually  being  worked  is  computed 
at  fifty  miles,  and  its  return  is  close  on  to  forty  millions  sterling 
per  annum.  Up  to  now  the  question  amongst  a  great  section, 
embracing  statesmen,  politicians,  financiers,  shareholders  and 
others,  has  been,  how  long  will  it  last  ?  Through  disappointments 
in  share  gambling  thousands  have  suffered,  and  the  over- 
confidence  of  those  who  over-built  and  over-invested  has  led  to 
the  curious  aspect  of  one  of  the  richest  countries  in  the  world 
being  to-day  in  a  dormant  condition,  with  its  great  natural 
resources  untapped  by  the  seekers  of  wealth,  its  Stock  Exchange 
void  of  capital  and  speculation. 

The  principle  in  this  country  of  endeavouring  to  develop 
agricultural  resources  without  the  proper  introduction  of 
immigration,  has,  in  a  sense,  been  carried  on  by  the  mining 
section  as  well.  No  inducement  has  been  offered  to  foreign 
capital,  and  the  enterprising  prospector  has  been  so  heavily 
mulcted  that  a  great  deal  of  work  that  might  have  been  done 
has  been  retarded,  for  these  and  other  reasons. 

To-day,  however,  the  public  are  informed  that  the  Government 
engineer,  Mr.  Kotze,  estimates  the  additional  claims  lying  to 
the  East  at  91,000  claims,  which  are  computed  to  contain 
500,000,000  or  more  tons  of  ore,  whose  value  should  be  about 
£700,000,000.  These  figures,  so  far  as  tonnage  are  concerned, 
are  extremely  conservative,  being  only  5,495  tons  per  claim, 
whilst  many  claims  already  worked  out  have  yielded  over  30,000 

p  2 


156  The  Empire  Review 

tons  per  claim,  and  probably  no  claim  actually  stopped  has 
yielded  less  than  10,000  tons ;  therefore,  even  making  a  liberal 
allowance  for  unpayable  areas,  faults,  dykes,  etc.,  an  estimate  of 
an  average  yield  of  10,000  tons  per  claim  is  more  likely  to  be 
realised.  In  this  case,  the  total  tonnage  would  be  nearly 
1,000,000,000.  Mr.  Kotze's  estimate,  I  understand,  only  goes  as 
far  south  as  the  limits  of  the  area  already  proved  by  bore-holes 
and  shafts. 

The  limit  of  the  ground  covered  by  Mr.  Kotze's  estimate  in 
any  case  by  no  means  represents  the  limit  of  the  same  beds, 
which  form  the  basis  of  his  estimate. 

Discoveries  recently  made  tend  to  prove  the  extension  of  the 
beds,  and  further,  these  extensions  carry  gold  under  similar 
conditions  to  the  Modder,  Springs,  and  Daggafontein  area 
further  north;  and  the  opening  up  of  a  vast  extension  of 
this  great  gold  field  is  about  to  be  undertaken  from  surface 
outcrops. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Band  a  very  rich  but  thin  reef  was 
found  in  the  Heidelberg  District  known  as  the  Nigel  Eeef.  Its 
richness  in  gold  caused  all  development  to  be  carried  out  on  this 
particular  line,  and  the  extensions  southwards  of  the  same  beds, 
which  are  being  worked  in  the  far  eastern  gold  fields,  were  dealt 
with  by  Mr.  Kotze. 

It  is  now  contended  that  the  valuable  Van  Eyn,  Modderfontein 
series  of  blankets  overlies  the  Nigel  Eeef,  with  from  800  to  1,000 
feet  of  strata  intervening,  and  that  through  this  mistaken 
correlation  this  valuable  reef  series  has  hitherto  remained 
un worked,  and  that  the  new  correlation  is  correct  through  the 
character  of  the  matrix,  of  the  mineralisation  and  of  the  pebbles, 
all  of  which  it  is  claimed  are  exactly  similar,  as  well  as  the  walls, 
which  are  the  same  foot  wall  shales  and  overlying  quartzites,  and 
also  by  the  sequence  of  strata  proved  to  exist  above  the  reef,  by 
means  of  bore-holes  sunk  on  the  dip  of  the  reef.  These  have 
shown  that  the  beds  overlying  the  reef  to  a  thickness  of  nearly 
3,000  feet  agree  in  character  and  order  with  the  beds  which  have 
been  proved  to  overlie  the  Van  Eyn  series  in  a  great  number  of 
bore-holes  and  shafts  in  the  area  dealt  with  by  Mr.  Kotze.  The 
assay  values  obtained  are  maintained  to  be  very  satisfactory,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Van  Eyn  series  in  the 
southern  areas  will  prove  valuable.  The  reef  has  been  located 
at  various  points  in  the  new  area  over  a  distance  of  thirty  miles, 
with  a  comparatively  low  dip  which  should  allow  it  to  be  mined 
a  considerable  distance  in  depth. 

Being  outcrop,  it  should  have  a  considerable  advantage  over 
deep  level  propositions,  and  require  far  less  capital  and  time  to 
bring  it  to  a  producing  stage. 


South  Africa's  Gold  Resources  and  the  Empire     157 

The  above  discoveries,  it  is  said,  relate  only  to  the  Van  Eyn 
series,  but  it  is  claimed  that  through  the  correctness  of  this 
reef's  position  the  main  reef  series  can  be  located  to  the  west, 
and  that  a  section  of  the  main  reef  series  can  be  shown  some 
thirty  miles  long.  It  would  follow  that  the  Nigel  and  Van  Eyn 
Keefs  lie  at  a  much  lower  horizon  of  the  Witwatersrand  system 
than  the  Main  Eeef  Series  of  the  Central  Eand,  and  the  extension 
of  this  extremely  valuable  series  of  the  Central  Eand  should  be 
found  in  the  area  to  the  south-east  of  Boksburg. 

In  the  East  Eand,  what  has  hitherto  been  taken  to  be  the 
extension  of  the  Main  Eeef  Series  has  been  worked  by  various 
companies  for  along  a  length  of  about  five  miles,  at  an  expendi- 
ture of  some  millions  of  pounds.  The  results  have  been  very  un- 
satisfactory, and  no  payable  mines  have  been  established  on  this 
line.  The  reason  it  is  contended  is  now  obvious,  viz.,  that  the 
reefs  worked  are  not  those  of  the  Main  Eeef  Series  of  the 
Central  Eand  nor  are  they  the  Van  Eyn  Eeef  Series  of  the  Far 
East  Eand  ;  but  a  comparatively  valueless  and  unpayable  series 
of  reefs  which  lie  between  the  two,  and  that  on  the  dip  of  these 
unpayable  reefs  there  are  outcrops  at  three  places  of  reefs, 
which  have  all  the  characteristics  of  the  real  Main  Eeef  Series 
of  the  Central  Eand,  and  one  bed,  now  identified  with  the  Main 
Eeef  Leader  of  that  series,  carries  quite  encouraging  values. 
Five  assays  show  an  average  of  9'54dwts.  of  gold.  The  area 
to  the  south-east  of  Boksburg,  therefore,  may  prove  very  valuable, 
and  although  presenting  difficulties,  through  being  covered  with 
newer  uncomformable  formation,  the  reefs  can  be  traced  up  as 
they  have  been  in  the  Far  Eastern  area. 

The  area  where  the  conditions  are  favourable  for  such  develop- 
ment at  moderate  cost  extends  over  some  thirty  miles,  an  area 
equal  to  that  of  Main  Eeef,  from  Eoodepoort  to  Boksburg. 
Competent  mining  men  have  examined  these  new  discoveries  and 
are  satisfied  that,  as  far  as  the  actual  extensions  of  the  reefs  in 
both  the  new  areas  are  concerned,  they  are  both  proved.  It 
remains,  however,  to  find  out  whether  these  extensions  will 
prove  payable,  and,  in  regard  to  this  important  considera- 
tion, one  can  only  say  at  this  stage  that  they  seem  very 
promising. 

It  can  be  put  forward  that  these  "  reefs  "  are  really  sedi- 
mentary strata,  definite  layers  in  a  vast  water-borne  system, 
which  have  proved  consistently  payable,  with  few  exceptions, 
for  all  the  length  and  depth  to  which  they  have,  so  far,  been 
worked,  and  having  found  the  continuation  of  the  right  reefs, 
one  can  very  confidently  expect  that  the  values  will  continue 
as  well . 

The  two  new  areas,  together  with   that  referred  to  by  the 


158  The  Empire  Review 

Government  Mining  Engineer,  should  contain  a  tonnage  somewhat 
as  follows : — 

Mr.  Kotze's  Area 500,000,000  tons. 

The  New  Southern  Area     \  ^nn  nnn  nm 

Extension  Van  Byn  Series/'         '         '         '  500,000,000    „ 

The  New  South-East  Area         \  -run  nm  nnn 

Extension  of  Main  Beef  Series  /   '         '         '  750,000,000     „ 


1,750,000,000    „ 

And  from  my  own  knowledge  these  areas  described,  if  found 
payable,  by  no  means  exhaust  the  possibilities  of  this  wonderful 
gold-bearing  system.  There  remains  a  possible  200  miles  more 
of  the  margin  of  the  great  synclinal,  which  carries  the  Witwaters- 
rand  system.  Those  described  are  only  the  more  easily  and 
immediately  exploitable  areas.  The  other,  it  is  true,  presents 
greater  difficulties,  but  with  capital  and  time  it  is  quite  possible 
that  right  round  the  synclinal  area,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Johannesburg,  on  the  east  by  Springs,  on  the  south  by  Venters- 
kroon  and  on  the  west  by  Klerksdorp,  may  eventually  be  made 
to  yield  its  gold. 

With  a  probable  field  of  such  vast  extent,  a  part  of  which  is 
already  actually  proved,  the  administration  and  financing  and 
exploitation  of  the  mines  should  not  be  left  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners,  some  of  whom  up  till  now  have  had  the  chief 
control  of  this  great  industry,  and  who  have  endeavoured  to 
divert  the  trade  for  plant,  material  and  supplies  to  Germany, 
besides  making  huge  fortunes  out  of  the  manipulation  of  the 
shares. 

The  gold  and  its  exploitation  should  be  considered  in  the 
light  of  an  Imperial  asset  of  the  first  magnitude,  and  its  production 
in  tangible  concentrated  wealth  should  be  used  to  the  fullest 
extent  possible  for  the  strengthening  and  development  of  the 
Empire's  resources. 

In  addition  to  consideration  of  the  general  interests  of  the 
Empire,  there  is  a  further  reason  why  active  and  sustained 
interest  in  the  gold  industry  of  the  Band  should  be  taken  by 
the  people  of  the  Empire,  and  that  is,  the  inspiring  conduct  of 
affairs  by  the  Prime  Minister  of  the  Union,  and  his  able  lieu- 
tenant, General  Smuts  and  the  other  members  of  the  Cabinet,  at 
this  time  of  the  Empire's  troubles.  By  taking  a  more  active 
participation  in  the  further  development  of  the  industry  than  they 
have  done  in  the  past,  and  by  not  leaving  the  control  in  the 
hands  of  foreign  financiers,  immense  assistance  can  be  given  to 
the  Government  and  people  of  the  Union.  Whatever  money  is 
advanced  to  this  Government  or  invested  in  the  industry  on  sound 
and  business-like  methods  will  be  handsomely  repaid,  not  only  in 
dividends,  but  in  the  many  far-reaching  effects,  which,  although 


South  Africa's  Gold  Resources  and  the  Empire     159 

they  cannot  be  described,  will  most  certainly  result  from   the 
course  suggested. 

From  every  point,  South  African  and  Imperial,  the  people  of 
the  Empire  will  benefit  in  all  their  interests  by  vigorous  co- 
operation in  the  development,  not  only  of  this  great  gold  field, 
but  also  of  all  the  vast  resources  of  the  Union.  Neither  General 
Botha  nor  the  British  Government  need  have  any  anxiety  as 
long  as  this  country's  security  is  unlimited  gold.  Great  Britain 
need  never  fear  her  position  as  banker  as  long  as  she  takes  an 
Imperial  interest  in  this  vast  gold  field. 

The  Times  deplores  the  great  shrinkage  of  the  world's  output 
for  1914.  This  shrinkage  is  owing  to  all  other  gold  producers 
being  either  quartz  reefs  or  alluvial  placer  mining.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  whole  world's  output 
was  but  a  few  millions  sterling,  and  it  rose  to  over  fifty  millions 
upon  the  discoveries  of  California  and  Australia,  but  all  that 
alluvial  production  became  exhausted,  so  does  practically  every 
quartz  reef  in  its  little  lifetime,  and  is  short-lived  as  compared  to 
this  definite  producer.  Outside  of  the  Kand  gold  production  may 
shrink  to  negligible  quantities,  whereas  the  output  of  the  Rand 
is  only  limited  by  conditions  of  available  Capital  and  Labour,  and 
will  probably  continue  so  for  centuries. 

Mr.  Schumacher  voiced  the  hopes,  not  only  of  an  individual, 
but  of  every  member  of  the  Union,  when  he  expressed  his  desire 
for  the  developing  all  this  wealth,  and  his  speaking  from  the 
knowledge  of  previous  results  should  greatly  strengthen  the 
undertaking.  Surely  nothing  can  be  more  remunerative  than 
mining  on  the  Far  East  Band,  seeing  the  extraordinary  rich 
returns  being  gained  to-day,  and  working  costs  and  conditions 
constantly  becoming  more  and  more  favourable  to  mining  ? 

In  conclusion,  I  would  add  that  the  vast  coal  beds  of  the 
Eastern  Transvaal  make  mining  an  easy  matter  as  far  as  power 
is  concerned.  Coal  is  cheaper  there  than  in  any  country  in  the 
world,  and  there  is  enough  to  last  out  the  industry  and  supply 
the  country  as  well.  So  here  is  radium  in  gold  to  make  events 
possible  for  centuries  to  come  over  the  whole  globe.  For  it  is 
conceded  that  without  the  immense  gold  productions  during  the 
nineteenth  century,  many  of  the  world's  great  undertakings 
would  have  been  impossible,  but  as  it  assisted  great  revolutions 
and  caused  great  evolutions,  so  will  it  continue  to  do  its  duty ; 
but  its  very  vastness  must  cause  the  deepest  consideration  to  be 
given  to  it  and  its  intricacies,  and  this  gold  and  this  country  and 
its  people  must  not  be  lightly  passed  over  and  thereby  cause 
eternal  regret. 

W.  P.  TAYLOR. 


160  The  Empire  Review 


ADMIRALTY    BOOTS 

IT  will  come  as  a  surprise  to  most  patriotic  people  to  read 
that  since  the  early  part  of  1911  nearly  the  whole  of  the  uppers 
of  British  naval  boots  have  been  made  from  German  leather. 
Prior  to  1911  the  sailor's  boot  was  made  of  the  old-fashioned 
polishing  type,  the  leather  for  which  was  produced  entirely  by 
British  labour.  In  1910  the  Admiralty  decided  to  make  a 
change,  and  supply  a  boot  having  a  smarter  appearance.  A  firm 
handling  box  calf  of  German  manufacture  were  consulted  as  to 
the  most  suitable  material  to,  use.  Although  an  English  house, 
perhaps  one  can  hardly  blame  them  for  pushing  the  sale  of  the 
goods  in  which  they  were  so  largely  interested.  The  material 
was  approved  and  the  standard  sealed  samples  were  made  from 
leather  of  German  production. 

The  new  specification  came  to  the  notice  of  the  Light  Leather 
Federation,  and  they  were  not  a  little  surprised  to  find  that  the 
uppers  were  to  be  cut  from  well-dressed  box  calf  of  the  same 
quality  and  substance  as  the  standard  sealed  pattern  boots  which 
consisted  of  German  upper  leather.  This  change,  of  course, 
brought  about  a  serious  displacement  of  British  labour. 

The  Federation  immediately  wrote  to  the  Admiralty,  asking 
for  a  deputation  to  be  received,  stating  that  large  quantities  of 
box  calf  were  made  in  Great  Britain,  and  that  the  home  product 
was  quite  as  good  or  even  superior  to  any  made  abroad.  At  the 
same  time  it  was  made  clear  that,  in  the  circumstances,  and 
notwithstanding  the  excellence  of  the  British  product,  contractors 
would  hardly  venture  to  use  the  home-made  leather  as  the 
German  goods  had  a  distinctive  appearance,  and  there  would  be 
serious  risk  for  them  of  having  their  goods  rejected.  In  filling  a 
Government  contract  there  is  a  great  danger  in  using  a  material 
not  exactly  similar  to  the  standard.  Except  from  sheer  patriotism 
why  should  a  boot  manufacturer  accept  the  liability  of  having 
the  onus  of  proof  on  his  shoulders  that  the  British  goods  are 
equal  to  the  German,  when  he  could  easily  obtain  the  latter  ? 

Notwithstanding  many  requests  by  the  Federation,  and  con- 


Admiralty  Boots  161 

tinual  pressure  brought  upon  the  Admiralty  by  sympathising 
Members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  it  was  not  until  it  was 
brought  home  to  members  of  the  Labour  Party  how  seriously 
their  constituents  were  affected  by  the  change  that  it  was 
arranged  a  deputation  should  be  received  on  July  31,  1912.  It 
therefore  took  more  than  a  year  before  the  Federation  was  able 
to  bring  verbally  before  the  Admiralty  the  great  injustice  that 
was  being  done  to  British  leather  manufacturers  and  workers. 

The  deputation  was  received  by  the  Financial  Secretary,  and 
the  fullest  possible  evidence  was  given  by  different  members  of 
the  many  branches  of  the  leather  and  boot  industries  to  prove 
that  British  leather  manufacturers  could  supply  as  good  or 
superior  material  to  the  German.  It  was  also  guaranteed  that 
the  material  should  be  as  cheap  cutting,  and  the  durability  as 
great,  or  greater  than  that  of  the  German  standard.  Evidence 
was  given  by  raw  skin  merchants  that  the  raw  skins  necessary 
were  easily  obtainable.  Yet  notwithstanding  all  this  evidence 
and  the  maker's  guarantee  to  supply  all  the  material  required,  the 
Admiralty  declined  to  withdraw  the  German  sealed  pattern  boot, 
and  refused  the  all-British  specification  for  which  the  deputation 
had  asked.  Here  perhaps  it  may  be  well  to  say  that  the  deputa- 
tion did  not  fail  to  mention  the  grave  danger  of  encouraging  the 
production  of  German  leather,  as  in  the  event  of  war  supplies 
would  be  unobtainable.  A  slight  concession  was  granted  at  this 
interview,  and  a  standard  sealed  sample  boot  of  wholly  British 
dressed  leather  was  allowed  to  stand  side  by  side  with  the  German. 
The  members  of  the  Federation  felt  that  although  they  had  not 
secured  the  all-British  specification,  in  common  justice  that 
surely  would  be  granted  directly  the  Admiralty  found  that  the 
English  material  was  as  durable  as  the  German.  The  concession 
of  the  British  sample  of  course  was  appreciated;  but  the  con- 
tractors of  the  Admiralty  boots  had  got  so  in  the  habit  of  buying 
German  material  for  naval  orders  that  they  held  large  stocks,  and 
the  representatives  of  the  German  firms  did  not  mean  to  lose  the 
business  if  possible,  so  the  English  leather  trade  secured  very 
little  benefit. 

The  most  conclusive  evidence  was  given  as  to  the  durability 
of  the  English  production  against  German;  but  the  Admiralty 
decided  to  make  an  independent  test  of  the  wearing  of  the  British 
material.  This  was  in  1912.  Yet  it  was  not  till  two  years  later 
that  a  letter  was  received  from  the  Admiralty,  stating  that  the 
wearing  test  given  to  the  boots  made  from  British  leather  was 
"  somewhat  inconclusive."  From  the  British  producer's  point  of 
view  this  statement  could  only  mean  that  the  British  material 
had  not  worn  in  a  worse  manner  than  the  foreign.  As  no 
alteration  was  made  in  the  specification,  my  Federation  asked 


162  The  Empire  Review 

for  another  deputation  to  be  received  by  the  Director  of  Naval 
Contracts.  The  second  deputation  was  received  on  November  26, 
1914,  by  Sir  Frederick  Black.  It  was  then  pointed  out  that  the 
uppers  of  naval  boots  were  still  being  made  almost  entirely  from 
German  leather,  and  a  very  emphatic  request  was  made  by  the 
Federation  that  an  all-British  specification  should  be  given  for 
naval  boots  after  the  very  complete  test  given  to  the  British 
production.  The  leather  manufacturers  said  this  was  the  only 
guarantee  they  required  as  the  outlay  which  they  would  have  to 
make  in  putting  down  additional  plant  to  produce  the  leather 
would  be  recouped  to  them  in  the  ordinary  course  of  trade.  They 
also  agreed  that  if  the  all-British  specification  was  granted,  the 
manufacturers  of  this  particular  leather  would  guarantee  to 
supply  all  the  leather  required  after  they  had  had  a  reasonable 
time  to  make  the  necessary  enlargements  in  their  factories. 

The  Director  of  Naval  Contracts  replied  he  was  not  em- 
powered to  grant  the  request  of  the  deputation  for  an  all-British 
specification,  but  would  put  it  before  the  responsible  authorities. 
From  that  day  to  this  no  alteration  has  been  made.  Specifica- 
tions for  contracts  recently  issued  allow  foreign  material  to  be 
used,  and  unless  this  wrong  is  righted,  the  probability  is  that  the 
leather  will  now  be  obtained  mostly  from  America.  Already  she  is 
making  the  most  of  her  opportunities.  Her  exports  of  box  calf 
to  this  country  increased  from  £8,621  in  October  1913,  to  £73,409 
in  October  1914,  while  British  imports  of  other  kinds  of  leather 
from  the  same  source  advanced  from  £122,000  in  October  1913 
to  £225,000  in  October  1914. 

There  is  no  British  practical  leather  expert  who  will  not 
state  most  emphatically  that  the  home  production  of  box  calf 
is  as  good  and  even  superior  to  anything  that  the  foreigner 
can  turn  out ;  but  both  Germany  and  the  United  States,  with  a 
very  much  larger  free  market  for  their  productions,  have  been  able 
to  build  larger  factories,  and  consequently  to  produce  in  much 
larger  quantities  than  the  British  maker.  The  assistance  of  their 
respective  Governments  also  creates  a  competition  which  the 
unaided  British  producer  has  found  it  difficult  successfully  to 
combat.  The  danger  pointed  out  to  the  Admiralty  in  1912  of  a 
stoppage  of  supplies  in  the  event  of  war  has  been  well  borne  out 
by  events.  If  the  Admiralty  had  given  preference  or  any  en- 
couragement to  British  leather  manufacturers,  we  should  not 
have  seen  the  enormous  advance  in  the  import  of  American 
leather  that  has  taken  place  since  the  War  commenced.  The 
British  Government  would  also  have  been  saved  the  indignity 
of  having  to  allow  German  box  calf  to  come  into  this  country 
under  special  licence  in  order  to  fill  our  urgent  needs. 

An  opportunity  now  arises  for  this  country  to  capture  a  very 


Admiralty  Boots  163 

much  larger  share  of  the  leather  production  than  she  has  had 
hitherto,  and  surely  one  may  reasonably  expect  the  Government 
to  assist  as  far  as  rests  in  their  power.  The  British  producer 
of  leather  is  able  and  wishes  to  make  the  material  required  for 
government  forces.  He  and  not  the  foreigner  has  to  pay  the 
nation's  bill,  so  is  it  an  unreasonable  request  that  he  should  at 
least  have  preferential  treatment  ? 

PERCY  F.  FISHER. 


,NEW  ZEALAND  NOTES 

Commenting  on  the  despatch  of  reinforcements  to  the  original 
contingent  of  eight  thousand  New  Zealanders  now  in  camp  in 
Egypt,  the  New  Zealand  Minister  for  Defence  said :  "  We  want 
to  keep  the  force  that  has  gone  up  to  its  full  strength,  and  not 
only  that,  but  to  make  it  stronger  at  the  end  than  at  the  start." 
As  soon  as  one  contingent  sails  another  slightly  larger  takes  its 
place  in  camp. 

The  Imperial  Government  has  issued  a  notification  that  it  will 
provide  passages  to  and  from  Europe  for  all  New  Zealand  ex- 
Imperial  regular  and  ex- Imperial  territorial  officers  (between  the 
ages  of  25  and  40,  and  certified  medically  fit)  who  desire  to  rejoin 
their  old  units  for  the  duration  of  the  war.  In  order  to  make  it 
possible  for  law  students  to  accompany  the  next  contingent  from 
New  Zealand  the  University  Senate  has  decided  that  specially 
arranged  examinations  shall  be  held  for  men  accepted  for 
service. 

Nurse  Ball,  of  Auckland,  has  been  elected  to  membership  of 
the  King's  Empire  Veterans.  She  served  in  South  Africa  with 
the  Black  Watch,  42nd  Highlanders,  and  gained  the  Queen's 
Medal  with  three  bars  and  also  the  Koyal  Bed  Cross,  the  last 
being  one  of  the  four  decorations  which  can  be  worn  by  British 
women,  the  Victoria  Cross  of  the  nursing  profession.  Nurse 
Ball  received  the  Cross  for  carrying  a  wounded  soldier  fifty  yards 
under  fire  during  the  war  in  South  Africa  and  attending  him 
afterwards. 

The  seriousness  with  which  New  Zealand  identifies  herself 
with  the  Old  Country's  troubles  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact 
that  a  gigantic  cricket  match  which  it  was  proposed  should  take 
place  in  aid  of  war  funds  has  been  frowned  out  of  possibility  by 
numbers  of  prominent  citizens,  the  general  opinion  being  that 
the  place  of  sportsmen  is  at  the  front  where,  as  one  military  man 
put  it,  "  they  should  have  the  chance  of  playing  an  innings  in  the 
most  important  game  that  will  ever  be  played." 


164  The  Empire  Review 


CANADA'S   PLACE   IN   BRITISH   FICTION 

I. 

IN  the  British  Empire  at  the  present  time  Canadian  literature 
occupies  a  place  of  greater  importance  than  that  of  any  other 
colony.  This  does  not,  by  any  means,  assert  that  the  writers  of 
Canadian  literature  hold  a  prominent  position  in  the  republic  of 
letters  in  general;  but  merely  makes  the  claim  that  even  in  a 
young  nation,  whose  life  has  been,  until  recently,  little  more  than 
a  struggle  for  existence,  successful  effort  has  been  made  to  lay 
the  foundations  of  a  rich  future. 

A  special  interest  attaches  to  the  consideration  of  Canadian 
literature  at  the  present  time,  in  that  British  and  French  thought 
have  been  allied  in  its  making  as  far  back  as  the  history  of  the 
country  extends.  Indeed,  it  was  the  part  of  the  French,  and  not 
the  English,  language  to  be  first  in  expressing  the  spirit  of  the  new 
land.  Samuel  de  Champlain,  with  his  work  on  the  Indian  tribes 
and  his  book  of  voyages,  was  the  earliest  writer  to  make  Canada 
his  theme.  To  the  Church,  however,  is  owed  the  greatest  debt 
for  the  preservation  of  a  literature  in  those  early  days  ;  but  it  was 
in  reality  a  reflex  of  Bourbon  culture  and  not  a  product  of 
Canadian  inspiration.  Many  histories,  treatises  and  books  of  travel 
were  written  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  and  by  some  few  government 
officials;  but  fiction  can  only  flourish  where  there  is  a  large 
leisure  class,  and  these  few  attempts,  none  of  them  capable  of 
that  classification,  were  crushed  into  the  background  during  the 
days  of  stern  struggle  with  the  wilderness,  the  climate,  and  the 
Indians.  In  addition  to  this,  men's  hearts  were  not  so  much  in 
the  new  land  as  the  old.  They  looked  back  across  the  seas  to 
France  and  Britain  for  their  themes,  and  their  completed  work  was 
sent  home  for  publication. 

When  the  British  came  to  Canada,  they  came,  not  in  pursuit 
of  literary  inspiration,  but  of  wealth ;  or  because  the  age-long  cry 
of  adventure  rang  in  their  ears  and  impelled  them  on.  They  were 
simply  using  the  new  land,  in  most  cases,  as  a  stepping-stone  to 
better  enjoyment  of  the  old. 

For  those  who  came  with  the  definite  purpose  of  settling,  the 
first  problem  was  found  in  the  struggle  for  protection  against  the 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  165 

Indians,  and  for  supremacy  over  the  French.  In  the  military 
exploits  to  be  undertaken,  all  other  interests  were  sunk.  The 
Conquest  of  Canada  by  the  British  in  1763,  and  later  the 
consequences  of  the  Stamp  Act,  kept  the  country  in  an  unsettled 
state.  Canada's  immigrants  at  this  time  had  all  they  could  do 
to  interpret  the  requirements  of  their  new  existence.  It  was 
almost  entirely  a  life  of  action.  There  is  little  hope  of 
finding  original  Canadian  works  during  these  years.  In  1812 
came  another  period  of  war,  during  which  the  little  half- 
French,  half-British  dependency  was  again  thrown  into  an 
unsettled  state.  Quebec  may  be  said  to  constitute  the  only 
centre  of  literature  in  Canada  during  the  early  part  of  this  period, 
with  the  then  small  towns  of  Toronto,  Halifax  and  Montreal 
beginning  to  assert  themselves.  The  West  could  provide  many 
themes,  but  could  record  none. 

It  was  not  until  1800,  or  thereabouts,  that  the  country  began 
to  devote  attention  to  higher  learning  and  the  cultivation  of  a 
literature.      Although  these    first    Canadians  were    not    often 
originators,  they  were  eager  readers,  and  book  stores  sprang  up 
everywhere  among  the  growing  towns.      Men  laid  down   their 
swords  to  sharpen  their  wits  over  political  questions,  of  which 
there  were   soon  a   considerable  number  to  be  thrashed   out — 
questions  of  race,   of  language,  of  religion,  and  of  education ; 
questions  of  local  government,  federal  union,  and  the  relations 
between  the  Imperial  central  power  and  the  self-governing  colony. 
By  this  time  the  universities  were  beginning  to  find  themselves, 
and  here  the    British  took   the    lead.     Although  the    French 
established  Laval   University  in   1663,  the  British  led  in  the 
number  of  institutions  established.     King's  College  was  founded 
at  Windsor,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1789.     This  university  at  once  began 
collecting  a  library,  and  now  possesses  some  valuable  examples  of 
old  printing,  such  as  an  Aristotle  of  1495,  a  Coberger  edition  of 
the  Bible,  1485,  and  a  first  edition  of  the  Bishop's  Bible  of  1568. 
With  the  interest  shown  in  the  formation  of  libraries  came  a 
corresponding  interest  in  native  publications.     The  first  printing 
press  was   set  up  in  1759,  but  by  1830  there  were  several  in 
operation  throughout  Canada.     Before  this  time  even  the  card 
money  used  in  the  colony  had  been  hand-written,  while  the 
Ordonnances,  or"government  debentures,  were  printed  in  France. 
After  the  Conquest,  the  office  of  King's  Printer,  which  has  been 
an  institution  in  England  since  the  days  of  Caxton,  was  continued 
in  the  Provinces,   and  Gilmour  and  Brown  of  Quebec  became 
Printers  to  His  Majesty  in  1767.    The  first  book  printed  in  Quebec 
was  '  Le  Catechisme  du  Diocese  de  Sens,'  and  the  second  was  a 
legal  treatise.     Religion  and  law  thus  seem  to  have  been  the  first 
subjects  attended  to  in  this  new  land.     Nova  Scotia  was  the 


166  The  Empire  Review 

second  province  to  set  up  a  press.  John  Bushnell  was  King's 
Printer,  and  we  find  his  name  affixed  to  a  proclamation  offering 
£25  for  every  Micmac  scalp  captured  in  the  province. 

It  was  not  until  1830,  or  later,  that  books  on  general  subjects 
began  to  be  printed.  In  1769  a  novel  was  written  by  an  English- 
woman, who  for  a  short  time  was  resident  in  Quebec,  but  this 
tale,  '  The  History  of  Emily  Montague,'  may  not  have  been 
published  there.  The  earliest  Canadian  novel  is  believed  to  be 
'  St.  Ursula's  Convent ;  or  The  Nun  of  Canada/  printed  at 
Kingston,  Ontario,  in  1824. 

The  external  reasons  for  the  backwardness  of  a  Canadian 
literature  have  been  traced  already  in  the  early  struggle  for 
existence.  It  has  been  shown  that  settlers  had  scanty  induce- 
ments to  study  or  write  with  the  demands  of  war  and  the 
wilderness  constantly  pursuing  them.  Further,  the  government 
of  those  days  was  in  the  hands  of  a  few  highly  paid  officials  who 
came  out  to  make  the  most  of  their  position.  Efficiency  and 
merit  were  not  necessary  qualifications.  Charles  Dudley  Warner 
once  advanced  the  argument  that  lack  of  intellectual  activity  in 
Canadians  was  due  to  the  drain  upon  physical  energy  demanded  in 
keeping  warm.  Another  interesting  conjecture  is  that  the 
colonial  status  may  have  something  to  do  with  the  deficiency  in 
literary  production,  seeing  that  during  the  colonial  period 
American  literature  was  insignificant.  These  two  theories  seem 
to  have  been  disproved,  however,  in  the  light  of  the  last  twenty- 
five  years. 

In  Canada  at  the  present  time  fiction- writing  is  taken  up 
chiefly  by  the  business  or  professional  man  as  a  recreation  rather 
than  as  a  life  work.  No  one  attempts  to  make  his  living  as  a 
novelist.  Perhaps  Gilbert  Parker  and  Charles  G.  D.  Eoberts 
may  be  noted  as  exceptions ;  but  Ralph  Connor  and  H.  A.  Cody 
are  clergymen,  Robert  Service  is  a  banker,  and  the  majority  of 
women  novel-writers  follow  the  profession  of  journalism. 

In  fiction  Canadian  literature  has  been  particularly  weak. 
Although  many  novelists  occupy  a  position  in  the  forefront  of  the 
second  class,  few  can  be  said  to  more  than  attain  the  outskirts  of 
the  first  class.  Possibly  there  may  be  educational  reasons  for 
this.  The  education  of  the  English  portion  of  the  country  has 
tended  towards  the  scientific,  and  several  have  achieved  a  reputation 
in  their  respective  branches  of  science.  Among  the  French 
Canadians,  education  has  been  along  the  lines  of  history,  light 
philosophy,  the  classics,  oratory,  and  poetry,  all  of  which  should 
contribute  much  to  the  production  of  fiction.  Yet  the  names 
of  French-Canadian  novelists  are  not  numerous.  Marmette, 
Bourassa,  de  Gaspe,  Le  May,  Tasse,  De  Guerin,  and  Chauveau 
are  among  the  most  important.  French-Canadian  women 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  167 

writers  are  less  widely  known.  As  a  rule,  their  sweet  but  not 
commanding  voices  seldom  pass  the  boundaries  of  Eastern 
Canada.  Mile.  Angers,  who  writes  as  "Laure  Conan,"  is  the 
author  of  a  number  of  novels ;  and  Marguerite  Frechette,  niece  of 
Dr.  Louis  Frechette,  better  known  as  an  artist,  is  the  writer  of  a 
couple  of  novels. 

This  bi-lingualism  in  the  country  presents  an  interesting 
feature  of  Candian  literature.  It  adds  an  unusual  picturesqueness 
to  the  literary  history  and  deepens  the  sense  of  the  country's 
potentiality.  There  is  a  rich  field  for  romance  in  the  contact  of 
the  two  races.  De  Gaspe  found  it  so  fifty  years  ago,  and  there  is 
an  even  better  opportunity  to  test  it  at  present.  From  the 
French  point  of  view  there  is  quite  another  interest  attached  to 
French-Canadian  literature.  M.  Xavier  Marrnier,  of  the  Academic 
Fran9aise,  thus  expresses  it : — 

Mais,  quelle  que  soit  sa  valeur  monetaire,  il  me  semble  qu'un  ne  peut  voir 
sans  emotion  un  livre  canadien,  en  songeant  &  son  origine.  II  a  ete  compose 
dans  la  contree  qui  fut  la  Nouvelle -France ;  il  vient  &  travers  1'ocean  nous 
rappeler  le  beau  pays  deeouvert  par  nos  marins,  defriche  par  nos  laboureurs, 
glorifie  par  nos  soldats,  sanctifie  par  nos  religieuses  et  nos  missionnaires. 

In  considering  the  native  writers,  one  finds  many  who,  though 
born  in  Canada,  do  not  choose  that  country  as  the  background  for 
their  novels.  This  class  includes  Robert  Barr,  who  began  life  in 
the  backwoods  of  Ontario,  but  now  resides  in  London,  where  he 
began  his  literary  work  with  Jerome  K.  Jerome  on  The  Idler ; 
Grant  Allen,  who  also  lived  in  England ;  G.  B.  Burgin,  whose 
novels  are  cosmopolitan  ;  Isador  Archer,  who  resides  in 
Montreal,  bat  does  not  confine  himself  to  Canadian  subjects; 
Eve  H.  Brodlique ;  Mrs.  Annie  Christie ;  Lily  Dougall,  who 
spends  much  time  in  Edinburgh ;  Edward  Jenkins,  now  of 
London  ;  and  Mrs.  C.  C.  Harrison,  who  writes  stories  of  Virginia. 
These  are  only  a  few  of  a  large  class  of  native  novelists  who  seek 
their  inspiration  elsewhere. 

On  the  other  hand,  one  may  consider  the  British  and 
American  authors,  who  have,  for  the  time,  made  themselves 
Canadian  in  order  to  depict  the  history  or  the  spirit  of  the  people. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Mrs.  Gather  wood,  Conan 
Doyle,  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward,  Captain  Marryat,  and  John  Gait. 
Passing  mention  of  Canada  is  frequent  in  many  of  the  English 
novels  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  '  Vanity  Fair  '  and  in  Mrs. 
Gaskell's  '  Mary  Barton  '  some  of  the  characters  are  packed  off  to 
Canada  as  an  easy  and  comfortable  method  of  disposing  of  them. 
This  device  became  very  popular  among  the  less  known  English 
writers. 

MARIANNE  GREY  OTTY. 

(To  be  continued.} 


168  The  Empire  Review 


THE   PASSING  OF   LITTLE   ENQLANDISM 


"  Such  is  the  patriot's  boast,  where'er  we  roam, 
His  first,  best  country  ever  is  at  home." 

—Goldsmith. 

So  wrote  the  poet,  expressing  what  is  the  natural  and  general 
opinion  of  mankind.  But  there  are  exceptions  to  this  as  to  all 
rules.  In  the  service  appointed  for  the  Day  of  Intercession  on 
account  of  the  war,  the  nation  confessed  to  the  sins  of  conceit 
and  vainglory.  But  the  need  for  this  confession  has  not  arisen 
out  of  the  attitude  of  every  Briton  towards  his  country.  On 
the  contrary,  of  late  years  a  wave  of  national  depreciation  has 
swept  over  us.  There  are  men  who  have  come  to  think  that, 
not  the  best,  but  the  worst  country  is  England. 

The  Little  Englander  reasons  in  this  manner.  To  esteem 
one's  own  country  better  than  any  other  is  inconsistent  with  the 
theory  of  equality.  All  countries  must  be  equally  virtuous  in 
spite  of  appearances  that  point  strongly  to  a  contrary  conclusion. 
The  events  that  have  transpired  since  last  July  have  given  the 
Little  Englander  a  rude  awakening.  The  scales  which  delusion 
had  formed  over  his  mental  vision  have  been  torn  away. 
The  assertions  made  so  absolutely  have  proved  to  be  without 
foundation,  the  predictions  made  so  certainly  have  been  falsified 
by  the  event.  Little  England  theories  have  turned  out  to  be 
unworkable  in  practice ;  and  where  they  have  been  accepted  the 
results  have  proved  disastrous.  If  these  false  prophets  and 
blind  guides  possess  a  due  sense  of  their  responsibility  to  their 
fellow  men,  they  must  feel  inclined  to  wish  the  hills  to  fall  upon 
them,  to  save  them  from  facing  the  wrath  and  reproaches  of  the 
people  they  have  led  astray. 

In  the  days  before  the  war  the  Little  Englander  not  only  made 
a  practice  of  defaming  his  country,  he  brought  a  fierce  light  to 
beat  upon  her  past  and  to  expose  every  dark  corner.  To  him 
Britain  appeared  to  be  a  greedy,  arrogant  power  who,  in  her 
juggernaut  ride  to  greatness,  had  ridden  roughshod  over  weaker 
nations.  Her  treatment  of  the  coloured  races  came  in  for  censure, 
and  a  number  of  instances  were  produced  in  which  she  had  shown 


The  Passing  of  Little  Englandism  169 

herself  to  be  cruel,  tyrannical,  deceitful  and  treacherous.  A  true 
impression  of  her  character  was  to  be  gained,  not  from  the  lips  of 
her  own  people,  naturally  predisposed  in  her  favour,  but  from 
those  of  foreigners,  as  conveyed  by  the  epithet  "  Perfidious 
Albion." 

The  Little  Englander  insinuated  that  the  responsibility  for  the 
continuance  of  war  rested  with  Britain,  that  other  nations  only 
waited  for  us  to  take  the  initiative  in  the  matter  of  reduction  of 
armaments.  If  we  would  set  the  example  of  beating  swords  into 
ploughshares  and  spears  into  pruning  hooks,  they  would  follow  it 
only  too  gladly.  In  this  enlightened  twentieth  century  no  civilised 
nation  wished  to  go  to  war.  The  Little  Englander  felt  especially 
confident  of  Germany,  whose  people  were  of  a  kindred  race  to 
our  own,  a  race  considered  to  be  the  most  highly  educated  in 
the  world,  and  which  of  late  years  had  been  immersed  in  the 
peaceful  and  elevating  pursuits  of  music,  science,  and  commerce. 
They  had  raised  their  own  country  from  poverty  and  obscurity  to 
wealth  and  greatness.  It  was  ridiculous  to  suppose  that  they 
would  recklessly  throw  into  the  melting-pot  of  war  all  that  they 
had  accomplished  in  "  piping  times  of  peace."  Yet  Germany  has 
perpetrated  the  very  crime  which  the  Little  Englander  had 
asserted  impossible  to  a  civilised  nation.  As  a  man  who  has 
acquired  the  outward  polish  of  a  gentleman  may  remain  at  heart 
a  boor,  so  modern  Germany,  completely  arrayed  in  the  outward 
trappings  of  civilisation,  has  proved  herself  to  be  no  less  savage 
than  the  Germany  which  ages  ago  worshipped  Odin  and  Thor. 

It  is  fortunate  for  Britain  that  the  policy  of  the  Little 
Englander  was  not  carried  out  in  its  entirety,  and  the  reductions 
advocated  made  in  the  Army  and  Navy.  Had  that  been  done, 
England  would  now  be  experiencing  what  France  and  Flanders 
have  experienced  ;  Oxford  would  have  shared  the  fate  of  Louvain, 
Westminster  Abbey  that  of  Eheims  Cathedral ;  our  people  would 
have  been  reduced  to  the  condition  of  either  beggars  at  home  or 
exiles  abroad ;  our  manhood  would  have  been  threatened  with 
extinction,  our  population  with  annihilation,  our  cities  and  villages 
with  destruction,  and  all  our  pomp  of  yesterday  one  with  Nineveh 
and  Tyre. 

But  the  counsel  of  the  peace-at-any-price  party  was  not  without 
its  influence  on  the  Government  policy.  It  cooled  the  national 
desire  to  see  the  Army  strengthened  and  made  to  satisfy  the 
standard  of  experts.  The  war  found  our  military  authorities  un- 
ready, with  only  a  paltry  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men  available 
for  service  on  the  Continent,  and  so  we  were  not  in  a  position  to 
perform  our  promise  and  preserve  Belgian  territory  from  violation. 
If  the  army  so  terribly  outnumbered  at  Mons  had  been  annihilated 
— as  it  nearly  was,  being  only  saved  from  that  disaster  by  a  display 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  172.  Q 


170  The  Empire  Review 

of  superhuman  courage  and  steadiness  on  the  part  of  officers  and 
men — the  Little  Englanders  would  have  been  responsible  for  that 
calamity.  So  also  the  conquest  and  ravaging  of  Flanders  from 
end  to  end,  the  desolation  of  the  manufacturing  districts  of 
northern  France,  the  loss  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  brave  lives, 
are  due  to  the  neglect  of  the  old  Latins'  wise  injunction,  "  If 
you  wish  for  peace,  prepare  for  war." 

The  Little  Englander  has  awakened  from  his  delusion  re- 
garding Germany.  Let  us  hope  the  awakening  is  not  after  the 
manner  of  Samson,  who  detected  one  ruse  of  his  Philistine  wife 
only  to  fall  a  victim  to  another.  The  circumstances  in  which 
the  present  conflict  broke  out  make  it  abundantly  clear  that 
education  and  civilisation  by  themselves  are  powerless  to  subdue 
those  savage  primitive  instincts  and  passions  which  incite  men 
to  make  war  on  their  fellow-men.  "  Our  culture,  therefore, 
must  not,"  as  Emerson  warned  us,  "omit  the  arming  of  the 
man.  Let  him  hear  in  season  that  he  is  born  into  the  state  of 
war,  and  that  the  commonwealth  and  his  own  well-being  require 
that  he  should  not  go  dancing  in  the  weeds  of  peace." 

D.  A.  E.  VEAL. 


FARMING   IN   SOUTH   AFRICA 

Sixty-one  head  of  cattle  have  been  secured  mostly  from  herds 
in  the  South-West  of  Scotland,  for  exportation  to  South  Africa. 
The  animals  selected  are  mostly  of  the  big  commercial  type,  dark 
in  colour  to  suit  the  African  climate,  while  milk  recording  and 
breed  character  have  also  been  kept  in  view.  The  Government 
wool  expert  for  Natal  suggests  the  establishment  of  a  wool 
combing  mill  on  the  Umsindusi,  near  Maritzburg.  He  states  that 
the  industry  was  started  in  Australia  by  two  brothers  with  a  very 
limited  capital,  and  paid  at  the  rate  of  25  per  cent,  per  annum. 
The  same  conditions  as  applied  to  Australia  apply  in  Natal  now ; 
the  raw  material  is  at  hand,  there  is  a  good  supply  of  water,  and 
the  railway  can  run  the  wool  to  the  mills,  so  that  an  excellent 
opportunity  exists  for  anyone  prepared  to  undertake  the  establish- 
ment of  such  an  industry.  The  Union  Government  has  also 
decided  to  make  cash  advances  against  wool  and  mohair  deposited 
with  its  agent  at  certain  South  African  ports. 

It  is  pleasing  to  read  of  the  strides  made  by  the  wattle  bark 
industry  during  the  past  few  years  throughout  South  Africa, 
more  particularly  in  Natal.  On  its  introduction,  thirty  years 
ago,  by  Sir  George  Sutton,  it  was  not  regarded  with  favour  by 
the  majority  of  farmers.  Eesults  of  experiments,  however,  soon 


Farming  in  South  Africa  171 

convinced  them  of  the  wattle's  money-making  powers.  Besides 
producing  the  valuable  bark,  the  trees,  when  stripped,  are  in 
great  demand  in  the  mines,  as  props,  when  chopped  in  lengths. 
A  factory  is  now  being  erected  in  South  Africa  to  export  the 
wattle  extract  as  a  powder  packed  in  bags,  an  assurance  having 
been  given  that  it  will  thus  find  a  ready  market  in  England. 
Formerly  the  bark  has  had  to  be  sent  to  England  for  treatment, 
but  it  is  now  hoped  to  reduce  costs  by  dealing  with  the  product 
locally. 

The  Standing  Committee  of  the  Transvaal  Agricultural  Union 
recently  approached  the  Ministers  of  Agriculture  and  Railways 
and  the  Secretary  of  Finance,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  facilities 
for  transport  and  the  Government  inauguration  of  a  scheme  of 
advances  against  deposits  of  lucerne,  in  order  to  build  up  an 
export  trade  in  that  article.  The  high  regard  in  which  lucerne  is 
held  by  the  military  authorities  in  England  was  remarked  upon, 
as  also  was  the  relatively  good  price  obtainable  (£4  10s.  per  ton 
being  the  price  paid  in  England  for  lucerne  from  the  Argentine). 
It  is  understood  that  the  Committee's  representations  were 
sympathetically  received. 

An  experiment  in  the  cultivation  of  the  hop  plant  in  Natal 
has  proved  that  it  is  possible  to  raise  the  plant  to  great  advantage 
in  that  Province.  It  is  understood  that  the  farmer  who  made 
the  experiment  intends  developing  it,  and  that  several  other 
farmers  intend  taking  the  matter  up. 


WEIHA1WEI 

No  Indian  opium  has  been  imported  into  Weihaiwei  under 
official  licence  since  1909.  The  average  age  of  persons  licensed 
to  smoke  opium  under  medical  certificate  is  now  61  years.  The 
increased  price  of  the  drug,  the  difficulty  of  procuring  it,  the 
known  keenness  of  the  police,  and  the  comparatively  heavy  fines 
inflicted,  have  had  the  effect  of  reducing  the  consumption  in  the 
Territory  to  a  marked  extent.  Opium  may  still  be  consumed 
clandestinely,  but  the  consumption  is  confined  to  inveterate 
smokers,  and  is  condemned  by  the  public  opinion  of  the  Chinese 
in  the  Territory,  the  population  of  which  as  a  whole  is,  and 
always  has  been,  opposed  to  opium  smoking.  Weihaiwei  is  still 
a  very  sober  community,  but  individual  cases  of  drunkenness, 
formerly  extremely  rare,  and  which  cannot  yet  be  regarded  as 
numerous  when  compared  with  the  total  population,  are  more 
frequent  than  formerly.  Owing  to  Chinese  habits  and  tempera- 
ment drunkenness  seldom  assumes  a  violent  form. 

Q  2 


172  The  Empire  Review 


THE    FUTURE    OF    IRISH    GOVERNMENT 

WITH  the  passage  of  the  Government  of  Ireland  Bill  on  to 
the  Statute  Book  one  weary  stage  of  the  Irish  controversy  has 
come  to  a  conclusion,  and  the  whole  problem  remains  suspended 
until  the  termination  of  the  present  war.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  the  question  will  resume  a  position  of  supreme  importance  on 
the  restoration  of  European  peace,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped,  therefore, 
that  during  the  period  of  enforced  domestic  truce  secured  to  us, 
quiet  and  unobtrusive  but  persistent  efforts  will  be  made  to  secure 
a  basis  of  possible  agreement. 

In  order  to  establish  the  mere  foundations  of  compromise,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  a  clear  appreciation  of  the  essential  facts  of 
the  situation.  Undoubtedly,  the  governing  factor  of  the  whole 
position  is  the  inevitability  of  some  measure  of  Home  Eule  or 
Devolution.  Until  the  commencement  of  last  Session  there  were 
faint  hopes,  perhaps,  that  if  the  Government  of  Ireland  Bill  could 
be  defeated,  peace  and  the  elements  of  settlement  might  be 
obtained  by  an  alternative  policy  of  Land  Purchase  and  extended 
County  Council  Government.  Later  events  shattered  any  calcula- 
tions of  that  kind,  and  many  Unionists  accordingly  were  prepared 
to  yield  a  reluctant  assent  to  the  doctrine  of  Federalism.  That 
remains  their  present  attitude — they  are  willing  to  accept  a 
Federal  solution,  but  they  accept  it  with  undisguised  hesitation 
and  lack  of  sympathy,  and  they  consequently  wish  to  reduce  the 
scheme  to  the  narrowest  possible  limits.  In  that  reserve  lies  one 
of  the  greatest  dangers  to  the  prospects  of  a  lasting  settlement. 

This  brings  me  to  the  consideration  of  the  second  great  factor 
in  the  position  of  the  Irish  question.  Ireland  has  herself  under- 
gone a  complete  transformation  since  the  outbreak  of  war.  The 
crisis  has  revealed  two  great  facts — a  new  and  earnest  spirit 
of  Irish  loyalty,  and  the  depth  of  the  sentiment  for  a  National 
Parliament.  These  facts,  in  my  opinion,  have  altered  the  whole 
standpoint  from  which  the  Federal  solution  must  be  approached. 
I  confess  that  in  common  with  most  Unionists  I  entertained 


The  Future  of  Irish  Government  173 

Federalism  with  considerable  misgiving — as  a  last  resource;  a 
desperate  expedient  to  save  us  from  the  immeasurable  calamity  of 
civil  war.  I  regarded  Irish  Nationalism  with  intense  suspicion , 
and  therefore  I  considered  Federalism  dangerous  as  a  possible 
tool  of  disloyalty  in  the  future.  I  am  now  convinced  that  I  was 
mistaken  in  my  estimate  of  Nationalist  aims.  That  there  is  a 
disloyal  section  of  the  Party  there  seems  little  doubt,  but  the 
events  of  the  last  few  months  have  shown  that  the  mass  of  Irish 
Nationalism  is  fully  disposed  to  be  loyal.  It  has  often  been  said 
that  England's  difficulty  would  be  Ireland's  opportunity.  She  has 
nobly  proved  the  falseness  of  the  assertion  at  the  present  day. 
In  my  opinion  this  proof  of  Irish  loyalty  removes  the  core  from 
the  opposition  to  the  Federal  solution.  No  longer  should  the 
solution  be  accepted  with  reserve  and  dislike;  it  should  be 
considered  sympathetically. 

But  neither  the  Government  of  Ireland  Act  nor  any  conceivable 
Amending  Bill,  in  the  ordinary  sense,  offers  any  prospect  of  final 
and  statesmanlike  settlement  of  the  question.  The  defect  of  the 
Act  is  fundamental  and  ineradicable — it  is  anti-Federal  and 
therefor*  Separatist  in  its  scope.  Tke  grant  of  all  powers  to  the 
Irish  Parliament  save  those  expressly  reserved,  whilst  not  in  itself 
distinctly  opposed  to  true  Federalism,  is  a  concession  of  a  dangerous 
nature,  and  calculated  seriously  to  reduce  the  authority  of  the 
Imperial  Parliament.  But  the  entrustment  of  Customs  and 
Excise,  the  Post  Office  and  the  Judiciary  to  an  Irish  executive  is 
absolutely  foreign  to  all  Federal  principles ;  it  is  a  surrender  of  so 
vital  a  character  as  to  lead  inevitably  to  constant  dispute  with  the 
Imperial  authorities,  and  continually  to  aggrandise  Dublin  at  the 
expense  of  Westminster.  The  right  to  administer  Old  Age 
Pensions,  National  Insurance,  and  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank 
on  the  expiration  of  a  certain  period  emphasises  this  anti-Federal 
tone.  The  control  reserved  to  the  Imperial  Parliament  is 
altogether  too  limited ;  no  matter  how  loyal  Irish  politicians  may 
be,  the  central  authority  under  this  Act  is  too  weak  to  preserve 
national  efficiency,  since  there  is  a  constant  tendency  on  the  part 
of  all  subordinate  legislatures  to  encroach  on  the  power  of  the 
Federal  executive,  and  therefore  gravely  to  impair  the  smoothness, 
firmness,  and  continuity  of  national  purpose. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  was  the  first  Anglo- 
Saxon  experiment  in  Federalism,  and  the  looseness  of  authority 
there  accorded  the  central  Government  has  frequently  led  to 
serious  national  difficulty,  and  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  Civil 
War.  The  danger  resulting  from  a  comparatively  weak  central 
executive  was  again  only  a  year  or  two  ago  impressively  exemplified 
in  the  dispute  between  Washington  and  California  on  the  subject 
of  a  State  Land  Act  directed  against  Asiatics — a  dispute  containing 


174  The  Empire  Review 

the  elements  of  national  danger  in  its  revelation  of  individual 
action  on  a  subject  of  grave  national  import. 

Our  great  self-governing  colonies  in  drafting  their  Federal 
constitutions  have  taken  the  lessons  to  be  gained  from  the  United 
States  to  heart,  and  have  been  careful,  although  in  different 
degrees,*  to  retain  a  strong  central  executive.  They  have  done 
so,  since  experience  has  clearly  shown  that  men  of  common  race, 
and  with  common  patriotism  and  ideals,  will  nevertheless  split 
into  individualistic  groups,  harmful  to  national  unity  and  efficiency 
of  purpose,  unless  local  authority  is  very  carefully  delimited.  In 
the  Government  of  Ireland  Act  this  lesson  is  entirely  ignored, 
for  powers  are  granted  to  the  Irish  Parliament  far  in  excess  of 
those  enjoyed  by  the  Provincial  Legislatures  in  either  of  the 
Dominions,  or  even  by  the  individual  States  of  the  American 
Union.  The  Act  is  frankly  and  dangerously  separatist,  and  cannot 
therefore  afford  any  foundation  for  a  lasting  and  honourable 
settlement.! 

We  have  two  examples  within  the  British  Empire  of 
completely  successful  Federation — the  Dominion  of  Canada  and 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.  0The  powers  granted  under  the  latter 
Constitution  to  the  Provincial  Councils  would,  in  my  opinion, 
afford  an  adequate  basis  for  a  scheme  of  Home  Eule  for  Ireland, 
and  I  should  therefore  like  to  review  the  terms  of  the  South 
Africa  Act,  1909,  in  so  far  as  the  powers  of  the  Provincial  Councils 
are  defined. 

Sections  85  and  86  of  the  South  Africa  Act  run  as  follows  : — • 

"85.  Subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  Act  and  the  assent  of 
the  Governor-General-in-Council  as  hereinafter  provided,  the 
Provincial  Council  may  make  ordinances  in  relation  to  matters 
corning  within  the  following  classes  of  subjects,  that  is  to  say — 

(I).  Direct  taxation  within  the  Province  in  order  to 
raise  a  revenue  for  provincial  purposes. 

(II).  The  borrowing  of  money  on  the  sole  credit  of  the 
Province  with  the  consent  of  the  Governor-General-in- 
Council,  and  in  accordance  with  regulations  to  be  framed  by 
Parliament. 

(III).  Education,  other  than  higher  education,  for  a 
period  of  five  years  and  thereafter  until  Parliament  otherwise 
provides. 

(IV).  Agriculture  to  the  extent  and  subject  to  the 
conditions  to  be  defined  by  Parliament. 

*  Australia  has  followed  the  American  precedent  more  closely  than  either  of  the 
other  Dominions,  and  in  consequence  has  reaped  many  of  the  difficulties  of  the 
United  States.  Australia,  therefore,  furnishes  one  more  example  of  the  necessity 
for  a  powerful  Federal  authority. 

t  For  a  most  acute  analysis  of  the  anti-Federal  nature  of  the  present  Act,  see 
Mr.  F.  S.  Oliver's  pamphlet,  '  What  Federalism  is  not.' 


The  Future  of  Irish  Government  175 

(V).  The  establishment,  maintenance,  and  management 
of  hospitals  and  charitable  institutions. 

(VI).  Municipal  institutions,  divisional  councils,  and 
other  local  institutions  of  a  similar  nature. 

(VII).  Local  works  and  undertakings  within  the  Pro- 
vince, other  than  railways,  harbours,  and  such  works  as 
extend  beyond  the  borders  of  the  Province,  and  subject  to 
the  power  of  Parliament  to  declare  any  work  a  national 
work,  and  to  provide  for  its  construction  by  arrangement 
with  the  Provincial  Council  or  otherwise. 

(VIII).  Eoads,  outspans,  ponts,  and  bridges  other  than 
bridges  connecting  two  provinces. 

(IX).     Markets  and  pounds. 

(X).     Fish  and  game  preservation. 

(XI).  The  imposition  of  punishment  by  fine,  penalty,  or 
imprisonment,  for  enforcing  any  law  or  any  ordinance  of  the 
Province  made  in  relation  to  any  matter  coming  within  any 
of  the  classes  of  subjects  enumerated  in  this  section. 

(XII).  Generally  all  matters  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Governor-General-in-Council,  are  of  a  merely  local  or  private 
nature  in  the  Province. 

(XIII).  All  other  subjects  in  respect  of  which  Parlia- 
ment shall  delegate  the  power  of  making  ordinances  to  the 
Provincial  Council. 

"  86.  Any  ordinance  made  by  a  Provincial  Council  shall  have 
effect  in  and  for  the  Province  as  long  and  as  far  only  as  it  is  not 
repugnant  to  any  Act  of  Parliament." 

These  powers,  subject  to  reservations  which  I  will  mention 
shortly,  might  safely  be  granted  to  Ireland,  and  to  propitiate 
national  sentiment  it  would  be  advisable  to  substitute  for  the 
term,  "  Provincial  Council,"  the  term,  "  Provincial  Parliament," 
and  for  the  term,  "  ordinance,"  the  term,  "  Act."  The  following 
powers  held  by  the  Canadian  Provincial  Legislatures  might  als9, 
subject  to  reservation,  be  added  : — 

(I).  The  establishment  and  tenure  of  provincial  offices, 
and  the  appointment  and  payment  of  provincial  officers. 

(II).  The  establishment,  maintenance,  and  management 
of  public  and  reformatory  prisons  in  and  for  the  Province. 
The  control  of  the  police. 

(III).  The  imposition  of  shop,  saloon,  tavern,  auctioneer, 
and  other  licenses  in  order  to  raise  a  revenue  for  provincial, 
local,  or  municipal  purposes. 

In  considering  these  proposals  more  in  detail  the  first  subject 
which  calls  for  examination  is  finance.  Under  a  Constitution 
drafted  on  Canadian- South  African  lines,  an  Irish  Parliament 
would  obtain  the  right  to  levy  direct  taxation  for  provincial 
purposes,  to  raise  provincial  loans,  and  to  impose  licenses  to 
secure  a  provincial  revenue.  The  revenue  from  the  Post  Office 


176  The  Empire  Review 

and  from  Customs  and  Excise  would  remain  Imperial,  and  would, 
of  course,  be  collected  by  Imperial  officers,  but  purely  local 
taxation  should  be  collected  under  tbe  authority  of  the  Irish 
Parliament.  ^  It  is  very  doubtful,  however,  whether  during  the 
early  years  of  the  new  regime,  Ireland  would  be  able  to  pay  her 
way,  and  consequently  for  a  certain  period  an  annual  Imperial 
grant  would  have  to  be  made  to  the  Dublin  Parliament.  It  is 
only  right,  therefore,  that  Westminster  should  retain  a  certain 
control  over  Irish  finance,  and  accordingly  I  should  advocate 
that  so  long  as  Ireland  received  an  annual  British  subsidy  all 
financial  schemes  passed  by  the  Dublin  Parliament  should 
require  ratification  by  the  Imperial  House  of  Commons.  For 
reasons  stated  hereafter  I  attach  considerable  importance  to  this 
suggestion. 

Connected  with  the  question  of  finance  are  the  two  depart- 
ments of  agriculture  and  education.  The  Irish  Board  of 
Agriculture  should,  in  my  opinion,  be  responsible  solely  to  the 
Dublin  Parliament,  but,  as  under  the  existing  Act,  that  Parlia- 
ment should  be  debarred  from  legislating  on  the  subject  of  Irish 
Land  Purchase.  This  is  only  a  reasonable  stipulation.  The 
Land  Acts  have  been  financed  with  British  money,  and  it  is  only 
right,  therefore,  that  the  Imperial  authorities  should  be  safe- 
guarded against  the  jeopardising  of  the  system.  The  adminis- 
tration of  the  Acts  might  perhaps  be  entrusted  to  the  Irish 
Board,  although  it  might  be  more  satisfactory  to  establish  a 
separate  Land  Purchase  Board  under  Imperial  control.  Subject 
to  this  one  reservation,  I  certainly  think  Irish  agriculture  should 
be  entrusted  to  the  Irish  Parliament;  it  is  more  likely  to  be 
sympathetically  and  consistently  developed  under  Irish  legis- 
lators than  under  British  politicians,  who  necessarily  have  not 
the  same  close  conception  and  appreciation  of  national  needs. 

Education  is  a  far  more  difficult  subject.  Under  the  present 
Act  the  Dublin  Parliament  is  empowered  to  legislate  on  the 
question,  provided  that  no  statute  is  passed  directly  or  indirectly 
establishing  or  endowing  any  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free 
exercise  of  any  religion,  or  giving  a  privilege,  preference,  or 
advantage,  or  imposing  any  disability  or  disadvantage  on  account 
of  religious  belief.  This  guarantee — utterly  inadequate  and 
worthless  under  the  wide  and  separatist  terms  of  the  present 
Act — would  be  quite  effective  for  the  prevention  of  religious 
persecution  and  intolerance  under  the  carefully-guarded  powers 
of  true  Federalism,  and  it  is  therefore  only  necessary  to  decide 
whether  education,  subject  to  these  restrictions,  can  be  more 
usefully  and  efficiently  legislated  upon  and  administered  for 
Ireland  by  a  Dublin  Parliament,  or  whether  Imperial  control 
is  the  more  satisfactory.  Much  can  be  said  in  favour  of  one 


The  Future  of  Irish  Government  177 

uniform  educational  system  for  the  British  Isles,  but  on  the 
whole  I  incline  to  the  grant  of  separate  powers  in  education  to 
the  Irish  Legislature.  There  is  a  national  genius  in  education, 
and  therefore  Irish  education  will  probably  be  more  satisfactorily 
furthered  by  a  Dublin  Parliament  than  by  the  Imperial  au- 
thorities. I  think,  therefore,  that  subject  to  the  religious 
guarantee,  permanent  powers  of  legislation  and  administration 
in  both  elementary  and  higher  educational  matters  should  be 
delegated  to  Ireland,  and  consequently  in  this  respect  Dublin 
would  possess  rather  wider  powers  than  those  held  by  the  South 
African  Provincial  Councils. 

There  are  only  two  other  points  on  which  comment  seems 
necessary.  Under  the  South  Africa  Act,  the  subordinate 
legislatures  possess  the  right  to  impose  punishment  by  fine, 
penalty,  or  imprisonment  in  order  to  enforce  any  Provincial  law. 
This  right,  I  think,  requires  very  careful  limitation  and  definition. 
It  is  undesirable  to  have  complex  and  widely  differing  local  bye- 
laws  on  such  a  subject. 

Finally,  whilst  granting  the  Irish  Home  Office  control  of  the 
police,  I  think  it  would  be  wise,  in  accordance  with  the  recent 
Act,  to  reserve  control  of  the  Koyal  Irish  Constabulary  to  the 
Imperial  authorities  for  a  certain  period.  The  present  Act 
mentions  a  term  of  six  years ;  I  think  ten  years  would  be  more 
satisfactory,  as  giving  a  longer  period  for  the  new  Constitution  to 
establish  itself  and  allay  suspicion  and  apprehension. 

In  a  general  fashion  I  have  thus  outlined  a  scheme  of  Irish 
Local  Government  which  I  consider  would  be  a  statesmanlike 
and  durable  settlement  of  the  problem.  Such  a  settlement 
would  preserve  a  very  real  and  effective  supremacy  to  the 
Imperial  Parliament,  instead  of  the  shadowy  pretence  accorded  in 
this  respect  under  the  Government  of  Ireland  Act.  This 
supremacy  would  be  effective  for  two  main  reasons.  The  powers 
delegated  to  the  subordinate  Assembly,  although  wide  and 
generous,  would  be  purely  local,  and  would  be  specifically 
enumerated.  All  powers  not  actually  conferred  by  name  would 
ipso  facto  be  understood  to  rest  in  the  hands  of  the  central 
authorities.  Again,  any  Act  passed  by  the  Irish  Parliament 
would  only  have  effect  as  long  and  as  far  as  it  was  not  repugnant 
to  any  Imperial  Act.  Thus  the  supremacy  of  Westminster 
would  remain  complete. 

Further,  the  paper  guarantees  of  the  present  Act  against 
possible  oppression  of  the  Protestant  minority  would  under  such 
a  scheme  be  converted  into  a  real  and  substantial  protection.  Thus 
the  Irish  judges  would  be  permanently  appointed  by  the  Imperial 
Executive,  whilst  in  addition  to  Imperial  control  over  the  army 
in  Ireland,  the  Eoyal  Irish  Constabulary  would  during  the  first 


178  The  Empire  Review 

critical  ten  years  be  under  the  same  authority.  Again,  the 
initiation  and  maintenance  of  commercial  and  criminal  law  *  and 
procedure  (including  marriage  and  divorce)  would  be  retained  at 
Westminster,  whilst  the  necessity  of  submitting  all  financial 
schemes  for  ratification  to  the  Imperial  House  of  Commons  would 
afford  very  powerful  protection  against  unjust  or  differential 
taxation,  since  the  threatened  victims  would  thus  obtain  a 
valuable  right  of  appeal.  The  retention  of  control  of  the  Post 
Office  and  of  Customs  and  Excise  by  the  Imperial  Parliament 
would  give  further  security  in  the  same  direction.  Finally,  in 
the  important  sphere  of  education  the  religious  guarantee  would 
ensure  the  Protestant  minority  against  oppression,  whilst  the 
necessity  of  submitting  educational  finance,  in  common  with 
other  financial  measures,  to  Westminster  for  approval  would  be 
an  additional  and  important  assurance. 

Thus,  in  the  essential  matters  of  religion,  education,  justice, 
commerce  and  finance  the  Protestant  minority  throughout 
Ireland  would  under  this  scheme  possess  a  guarantee  of  the  most 
complete,  adequate,  and  effective  nature.  Consequently,  in  my 
opinion,  Ulster  should  under  such  a  constitution  accept  the 
authority  of  a  Dublin  Parliament.  Her  complaint  hitherto  has 
been  that  Home  Rule  would  prove  ruinous  to  her  vital  interests 
— that  not  only  her  material  prosperity  but  her  liberty,  her 
honour,  her  existence  would  be  gravely  imperilled,  and  that  no 
securities  could  be  devised  which  could  possibly  be  efficient  in 
view  of  the  vague,  indefinite,  and  sweeping  powers  accorded  an 
Irish  legislature  under  the  Government  proposals. 

Now  I  hold  that  this  complaint  is  fully  met  and  redressed 
under  such  a  scheme  as  I  have  reviewed.  These  vague  and 
sweeping  powers  are  reduced  within  reasonable  limits  and  are 
clearly  defined ;  for  a  doubtful,  uncertain,  and  purely  theoretical 
control  by  Westminster  is  substituted  a  firm  and  active  supremacy, 
and  under  such  conditions  are  imposed  guarantees  on  those  vital 
matters  which  rightly  are  all-important  to  the  Ulster  community 
— guarantees  which  under  such  circumstances  are  bound  to  be 
more  than  "  mere  scraps  of  paper  "  ;  guarantees  which  can  be 
fully  and  completely  discharged. 

An  entirely  new  situation  would  thus  be  created  under  such 
terms  as  these,  and  Belfast  could  without  danger  to  her  legitimate 
interests  join  hands  with  Dublin.  Nobody  on  either  side  really 
wants  exclusion  ;  it  is  a  highly  artificial  and  difficult  attempt  at  a 
solution  which  cannot  hope  to  be  permanent;  it  is  a  mere 
expedient,  and  as  such  is  poor  statesmanship.  Exclusion  would 
keep  alive  racial  and  sectarian  bitterness,  and  it  might  render 

*  By  commercial  law  I  mean  all  legislation  relating  to  banking,  insurance,  bills 
of  exchange,  companies,  bankruptcy  and  allied  subjects. 


The  Future  of  Irish  Government  179 

bankrupt  all  hopes  of  successful  Irish  Local  Government,  since, 
if  prolonged,  it  would  condemn  Ireland  to  an  indefinite  policy  of 
subsidies,  and  such  a  policy  would  be  tolerable  neither  to  Dublin 
nor  to  Westminster.  Ulster  has  previously  feared  financial 
exploitation  at  the  hands  of  a  Home  Rule  Legislature;  as 
previously  urged,  she  would  under  this  scheme  have  an  effective 
guarantee  in  the  financial  control  which  would  for  a  period  of 
years  be  wielded  from  Westminster.  The  terms  of  inclusion 
therefore  are  in  all  respects  ample,  and  it  would  be  a  grave 
calamity  should  the  North  still  maintain  its  present  attitude 
towards  a  situation  entirely  different.  I  am  hopeful  that  it  will 
not.  The  experiences  of  the  present  terrible  crisis  through  which 
as  a  nation  we  are  passing  will,  I  think,  tend  to  draw  Northerner 
and  Southerner  in  Ireland  together.  Standing  shoulder  to 
shoulder  on  the  battlefield  they  will  learn  to  recognise  and  respect 
each  other's  great  qualities,  and  each  will  realise  that  his  former 
opponent  is  not  as  black  as  he  has  been  painted.  War  is  some- 
times a  great  healer,  and  I  believe  such  will  be  the  case  in  the 
present  instance. 

Should,  however,  Ulster  still  refuse  under  any  conditions  to 
accept  a  Dublin  Parliament,  coercion  in  my  opinion  is  impossible 
— unthinkable.  The  only  statesmanlike  course  would  be  clear. 
Ulster  would  have  to  be  constituted  a  separate  Province  with 
powers  similar  to  those  conferred  on  Dublin,  and  Dublin  by 
good  and  enlightened  legislation  and  administration  would  have 
to  trust  to  persuasion  and  example  to  secure  the  future  adherence 
of  the  North.  Coercion  is  no  remedy,  and  a  fratricidal  strife 
after  the  noble  and  united  front  presented  to  the  common  enemy 
would  be  more  than  ever  criminal.  We  must  in  this  matter  be 
guided  by  the  experience  of  our  Dominions — Canada,  Australia, 
and  South  Africa  have  each  had  the  same  problem,  and  in  neither 
instance  has  the  consent  of  the  recalcitrant  State  been  attempted 
by  coercion.  Persuasion  in  a  problem  of  this  character  is  the 
only  solution,  and  much  as  I  hope  it  may  be  immediately  success- 
ful in  Ireland,  under  certain  circumstances,  we  must  in  spite  of 
serious  risks  and  disadvantages  be  content  to  wait — trusting  that 
experience  and  time  will  be  on  our  side. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  discuss  the  composition  and  the  method 
of  election  of  the  Irish  Parliament.  The  Assembly  should  consist 
of  two  Chambers,  and  the  Upper  House  should  be  a  representa- 
tive and  important  body.  The  members  should  possess  a  property 
qualification,  and  one  third  of  their  number  should  be  elected  by 
specially  defined  constituencies,  in  which  the  franchise  should  be 
exercised  by  ratepayers  assessed  at  a  comparatively  high  rateable 
value,  one  third  should  be  elected  by  grouped  County  Councils 
and  individual  Chambers  of  Commerce,  and  the  remaining  third 


180  The  Empire  Review 

should  be  nominated  by  the  Crown.,  These  members  would 
hold  office  for  the  duration  of  Parliament,  and  would  thus  seek 
re-election  at  each  dissolution. 

The  Senate  should  possess  the  right  to  veto  or  amend  any 
measure,  save  one  touching  finance,*  passed  by  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  in  case  of  irreconcilable  disagreement  between  the 
two  Chambers  the  Ministry  should  have  power  to  appeal  to  the 
electorate  by  means  of  the  Referendum.  If  the  action  of  the 
Senate  was  disapproved  by  a  majority  of  the  voters,  the  disputed 
Bill  would  pass  into  law.  The  Referendum  thus  cautiously 
applied  is  infinitely  superior  as  a  solution  to  a  constitutional 
deadlock  than  the  device  enforced  under  the  Government  of 
Ireland  Act — i.e.  of  the  two  Houses  sitting  together  and  taking  a 
joint  vote  on  the  matter  in  contention;  a  device  by  which  the 
State  is  temporarily  placed  under  Single-Chamber  Government, 
and  exposed  to  all  the  evils  of  that  unstable  and  demagogic 
system. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  should  be  elected  on 
the  existing  franchise,  but  should  be  unpaid  for  their  services. 
This  is  a  necessary  and  salutary  precaution  against  jobbery  and 
corruption,  and  should  do  much  to  imbue  confidence  in  the  new 
Legislature  amongst  the  Protestant  minority. 

The  exact  representation  to  be  accorded  that  minority  in  a 
Dublin  Parliament  is,  however,  a  question  of  great  difficulty. 
As  throughout  the  rest  of  the  United  Kingdom,  there  is  at 
present  considerable  inequality  in  the  distribution  of  seats. 
Thus  in  Ulster  alone  the  individual  Unionist  constituency 
consists  on  an  average  of  8,844  voters,  whilst  the  Nationalist 
constituency  does  not  in  general  contain  more  than  6,600 
electors.  The  Nationalists  are  obviously  over-represented. 
Comparing  the  various  provinces,  we  find  that  Ulster  secures 
on  an  average  one  member  for  every  7,687  voters,  whilst 
Leinster  has  one  member  for  every  5,896  of  the  electorate,  Con- 
naught  one  for  every  6,997,  and  Munster  one  for  every  6,088.  The 
inequality  is  therefore  general  throughout  Ireland,  and  the 
wealthiest  and  most  populous  Province  obtains  the  poorest 
representation.  Obviously,  this  is  not  fair,  and  an  essential 
condition  of  any  settlement  must  be  an  equitable  redistribution 
of  seats  in  Ireland,  based  on  equal  electoral  areas. t  The  prin- 

*  Personally,  I  should  like  to  see  the  Senate  entrusted  with  the  financial  veto 
also.  This  power  is  possessed  by  the  Senate  of  even  so  democratic  a  country  as  the 
United  States.  It  is  a  perfectly  reasonable  function,  and  one  which  on  occasion 
may  be  of  great  national  service.  I  am  afraid,  however,  that  the  Parliament  Act 
has  driven  the  financial  veto  from  the  realm  of  practical  politics,  and  consequently 
it  is  useless  to  labour  for  the  inclusion  of  the  power  in  Ireland. 

f  Constituencies  should  regularly  be  readjusted  on  the  completion  of  each  census, 
BO  as  to  retain  the  system  in  vigorous  form. 


The  Future  of  Irish  Government  181 

ciple  of  Proportional  Kepresentation  should  also  be  applied,  so 
as  to  gain  effective  representation  for  minorities  of  every 
political  and  religious  shade  throughout  the  country.  I  should 
not  like  to  see  this  system  introduced  in  connection  with  the 
Imperial  Parliament,  as  I  think  it  would  tend  to  establish  govern- 
ment by  groups,  and  therefore  government  of  an  unstable  order. 
But  this  objection  loses  its  force  in  the  case  of  a  subordinate  and 
local  Assembly,  where  the  issues  are  of  a  far  less  important 
nature,  and  consequently  do  not  afford  the  same  scope  for 
mischievous  action. 

But  would  Redistribution  and  Proportional  Representation 
combined  give  Ulster  and  the  Protestants  of  the  South  and  West 
adequate  representation  in  a  Dublin  Parliament?  The  total 
Irish  electorate  is  687,752,  and  the  total  Ulster  electorate  is 
253,685.  Thus  on  a  strictly  proportional  basis  Ulster  would  be 
entitled  to  return  nearly  one-third  of  the  total  number  of  members 
of  an  Irish  House  of  Commons.  Of  that  third  rather  over  half 
would  be  Unionist.  Thus  under  such  a  system  the  Protestant 
and  commercial  interest  would  secure  about  one-sixth  of  the 
total  membership.  The  Government  of  Ireland  Act  allows,  on  a 
uniform  population  of  27,000  for  each  constituency,  164  members 
for  the  Lower  House.  Therefore,  on  a  pro  rata  foundation,  the 
Ulster  business  community  would  secure  some  27  members,  and, 
taking  into  account  possible  gains  both  in  the  Province  and 
throughout  South-Western  Ireland  by  means  of  Proportional 
Eepresentation,  the  combined  Protestant  commercial  interest 
would  obtain  about  thirty  members  out  of  a  total  of  164. 

This  scale  of  representation  would,  in  my  opinion,  afford 
reasonable  and  satisfactory  protection  to  Irish  Protestant  interests. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  from  the  point  of  view  of  civil  and 
religious  liberty  and  justice  Ulster  would  be  fully  secure  by  reason 
of  the  guarantees  imposed  and  the  carefully  defined  limits  of  the 
legislative  and  administrative  powers  delegated  to  Dublin.  Nor, 
as  we  have  seen,  could  Acts  affecting  commercial  law,  and  labour 
and  industrial  conditions  be  passed — such  Acts  would  be  in  excess 
of  the  authority  conferred  on  the  Irish  Parliament.  Conse- 
quently, commercial  interests  in  those  respects  could  not  be 
assailed,  and  this  would  be  true  if  there  were  not  a  single  business 
man  in  the  whole  Assembly  Is  it  safe,  however,  from  the  com- 
mercial aspect,  to  entrust  large  financial  powers  to  a  Parliament 
in  which  farmers  would  be  in  an  overwhelming  majority  ?  As  I 
have  explained,  during  the  first  critical  years  Irish  finance  would 
be  subject  to  Imperial  control,  and  I  think,  therefore,  business 
interests  would  for  that  reason  enjoy  complete  protection. 

From  the  outset  the  Commercial  Party  would  be  strong 
enough  to  command  respect,  and  in  a  very  short  time,  as  the 


182  The  Empire  Review 

old  purely  sectarian  denominations  of  Nationalist  and  Unionist 
died  out,  this  Party  would  obtain  substantial  reinforcement  from 
the  South  and  West.  Such  towns  as  Dublin,  Wicklow,  Wexford, 
Waterford,  Queenstown,  Cork,  and  Limerick  would  return 
members  pledged  to  support  the  Commercial  rather  than  the 
Agricultural  Party.  Again,  both  Parties  by  the  same  process  of 
natural  development,  would  tend  to  become  less  rigid,  and  men 
of  all  occupations  would  gradually  find  themselves  falling  into 
two  main  camps — Conservatives  and  Kadicals.  As  the  religious 
issue  disappeared,  the  abnormal  strain  of  party  relationships 
would  disappear  also.  Thus,  whilst  from  the  commencement  of 
the  new  era,  strong  enough  to  wield  real  influence,  the  North 
under  a  proportional  system  of  Parliamentary  representation 
would  soon  be  able  to  win  a  fair,  although  not  an  undue  share, 
of  political  power. 

For  these  reasons  I  regard  special  representation  for  Ulster 
as  unnecessary,  and  I  should  regret  its  concession,  since  it  would 
introduce  an  unnatural  and  artificial  strain  into  the  settlement, 
and  would  tend  to  maintain  an  aggressive  individuality,  and  to 
keep  open  the  present  differences.  Munster,  Connaught,  and 
Leinster  would  regard  with  jealousy  the  special  and  superfluous 
privilege  conferred  on  Ulster.  That  privilege  would  be  con- 
tinually exposed  to  attack,  and  until  it  was  finally  removed  an 
insuperable  barrier  to  a  new  and  healthier  state  of  affairs  would 
remain.  A  settlement  to  be  sound  and  permanent  must  be  as 
natural  as  possible ;  anything  of  an  anomalous  nature  will  militate 
severely  against  success,  and  consequently  it  is  most  undesirable 
that  hot-house  protection  should  be  granted. 

We  have  in  this  scheme,  I  feel  confident,  the  basis  of  a 
possible  solution  of  the  Irish  question.  Local  self-government 
for  Ireland  is  now  a  certainty,  and  a  compromise  between  two 
opposing  principles  must  be  found.  Home  Eule,  as  understood 
in  the  South  Africa  Act,  satisfies  the  essential  conditions  of  such 
a  compromise — it  accords  the  Nationalists  a  wide  measure  of 
local  sovereignty ;  whilst  it  grants  the  men  of  Ulster  full  and 
complete  security  in  respect  of  their  rightful  claim  to  civil, 
religious,  and  material  liberty.  Finally,  it  preserves  to  the 
Imperial  Parliament  absolute  supremacy,  and  therefore  retains 
inviolate  the  unity  of  the  British  Isles.  This  latter  point  I  must 
emphasise.  The  Irish  Constitution  would  be  merely  a  unit  in  a 
new  Constitution  for  the  United  Kingdom.  It  is  obviously 
desirable,  however  complete  the  supremacy  of  the  Imperial 
Parliament,  that  for  the  preservation  of  the  sense  of  Union, 
Irish  members  should  continue  to  sit  at  Westminster,  but  it  is 
quite  unreasonable  that  Ireland,  granted  control  of  her  own  local 
affairs,  should  interfere  in  the  purely  local  affairs  of  Great  Britain. 


The  Future  of  Irish  Government  183 

The  only  possible  reconciliation  between  these  two  contending 
principles  lies  in  the  simultaneous  establishment  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Wales  of  local  Parliaments  with  similar  powers. 
The  four  partners  of  the  United  Kingdom  would  then  send  in 
strict  proportion  to  their  individual  population  members  to  West- 
minster for  the  transaction  of  purely  Imperial  affairs.  Thus 
would  the  sense  of  Union  be  fully  maintained ;  thus  would  the 
compromise  be  firmly  established  and  secured. 

The  Imperial  spirit  of  our  race  has  shone  forth  with  a  brighter 
and  more  intense  flame  during  these  months  of  stress ;  the  embers 
of  Irish  Nationality  and  loyalty  have  kindled  into  a  fierce  blaze 
of  devotion.  Let  us  not  quench  this  beacon-light  of  hope,  but  in 
due  course  let  us  signalise  the  restoration  of  European  peace  by 
the  inception  of  a  firm  and  abiding  peace  in  Ireland,  and  the 
foundation  of  a  true  Imperial  unity. 

H.  DOUGLAS  GBEGOBY. 


CANADA'S    NEW   DOCKS 

The  new  docks  at  St.  John  and  Halifax  form  a  portion  of  the 
Canadian  Government's  programme  for  making  the  harbours  of 
the  Dominion  among  the  best  equipped  in  the  world.  Every 
great  port  in  Canada  is  sharing  in  this  development.  Even  on 
distant  Hudson  Bay  there  is  a  harbour  under  construction  with 
dockage  and  grain  storage  equal  to  those  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  coasts.  On  the  Pacific  very  large  sums  are  being  ex- 
pended to  place  Vancouver  and  Victoria  in  a  position  to  cope 
with  the  great  Oriental  trade  which  is  expected  to  be  developed 
by  the  Panama  Canal.  Fort  William,  Port  Arthur,  Hamilton, 
and  Toronto  on  the  great  lakes  are  all  having  adequately  equipped 
harbours  constructed,  while  Quebec  and  Montreal  on  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  Halifax  and  St.  John  on  the  Atlantic  will  soon 
rival  the  greatest  European  ports  in  safety  of  harbour  accommo- 
dation and  adequacy  of  shipping  facilities. 


184  The  Empire  Review 


AUSTRALIA'S  COURT  OF  ARBITRATION 

IN  a  former  *  number  of  this  Review  appeared  an  article  under 
the  heading  of  "  An  Industrial  Dictatorship,"  bitterly  attacking 
the  Australian  Court  of  Arbitration  and  its  President.  The 
restriction  of  the  writer's  criticism  to  the  Commonwealth  Court, 
and  the  kind  of  evidence  he  adduces  in  support  of  his  charges  of 
partiality,  makes  any  discussion  of  the  matter  less  one  of  principle 
than  of  fact.  It  would  be  idle  to  argue  whether  the  Australian 
ideal  of  a  living  wage  may  prove  to  be  the  "  last  fatal  illusion  of 
a  dying  nation " ;  or  whether  the  Commonwealth  Court  of 
Arbitration  in  performing  its  ordained  duty  of  realising  that  ideal 
is  thus  hastening  a  process  of  internal  decay.  These  are  matters 
upon  which  most  people  have  long  made  up  their  minds. 

The  greater  part  of  Mr.  Gisborne's  article,  however,  is  taken 
up  in  proving  that  the  Arbitration  Court  was  the  prepared  tool  of 
one  political  party,  that  employers  always  suffer  from  their 
relations  with  it,  and  that  its  President  has  shown  a  marked  bias 
in  his  judgments  :  and  his  facts  are  so  false  and  misleading  that 
one  can  only  suppose  him  to  have  taken  them  without  question 
from  some  partisan  source.  In  this  connection  the  status  of  the 
Arbitration  Court  is  of  first  importance.  It  was  not  created  by  a 
Labour  Government — all  parties  concurred  in  creating  it — nor  was 
its  President  a  Labour  nominee.  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  was 
appointed  a  justice  of  the  Federal  High  Court  in  October  1906, 
by  the  Deakin  Government,  and  in  1907,  at  the  request  of  Mr. 
Justice  O'Connor,  who  was  then  President  of  the  Court  of  Arbitra- 
tion, he  accepted  the  position  which  the  latter  wished  to  vacate 
owing  to  ill-health.  In  the  natural  sequence  of  things  the 
appointment  fell  to  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  as  junior  member  of  the 
High  Court,  and  it  was  made  by  the  Deakin  Government  on  its 
own  responsibility.  The  statement  that  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  was 
the  "  nominee  of  the  Labour  Party,  whose  influence  notoriously 
decided  the  appointment,"  is  thus  entirely  at  variance  with  fact. 

*  August  1914. 


Australia's  Court  of  Arbitration  185 

There  is  the  same  disregard  of  actualities  in  the  statement 
that  the  Court  "  has  brought  plethoric  and  never-failing  emolu- 
ments to  lawj'ers,"  for  all  facts  point  to  precisely  the  contrary. 
The  Federal  Arbitration  Court  is  notoriously  an  unremunerative 
one  for  lawyers.  Either  party  in  a  suit  can  object  to  the  other 
side  conducting  its  case  through  a  lawyer  of  any  kind,  and  they 
are  nearly  always  excluded,  nine  cases  out  of  ten  being  conducted 
by  representatives  of  the  unions  and  the  employers  concerned. 

Coming  to  particular  cases  in  which  partiality  is  alleged, 
Mr.  Gisborne  instances  the  Waterside  Workers'  dispute.  No 
rebuke,  he  states,  was  administered  to  the  union  representa- 
tives who  "  declined  to  entertain  the  reasonable  suggestion  that 
they  should  restrict  their  membership."  Such  a  remark  must 
surely  have  been  made  under  a  misapprehension.  The  union 
representatives  were  perfectly  willing  to  restrict  their  membership, 
but  in  most  of  the  current  agreements  the  employers  had  insisted, 
as  a  condition  of  preference  to  union  members,  that  the  union 
should  be  open  to  all  competent  men.  When  the  ship-owners 
refused  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  regard  to  this  and  other 
matters,  the  President  of  the  Court  had  no  option  but  to  leave  the 
matter  of  restriction  where  it  stood,  there  being  no  dispute  with 
regard  thereto. 

Concerning  the  remuneration  of  employees  it  is  difficult  to  see 
what  the  writer  means  when  he  accuses  the  President  of  the 
Arbitration  Court  of  refusing  to  allow  the  workmen  to  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  profit  made  by  the  employer.  Such  a 
principle  obviously  cuts  both  ways.  If,  as  is  suggested,  wages 
should  rest  entirely  upon  profits,  it  would  be  the  business  of 
successful  companies  to  inaugurate  real  schemes  of  profit-sharing 
and  the  duty  of  the  Arbitration  Court  to  see  that  they  distributed 
wages  in  proportion  to  their  profits.  It  was  not,  however,  designed 
for  such  a  function,  but  to  see  that  wages,  and  therefore  the 
standard  of  national  life,  did  not  fall  below  a  certain  minimum. 
In  spite  of  the  claims  of  certain  unions,  the  President  has  declined 
(notably  in  the  case  of  the  Melbourne  Gas  Company)  to  make  the 
large  profits  of  a  commercial  venture  a  reason  for  prescribing  a 
higher  minimum. 

But  Mr.  Gisborne  reserves  his  most  bitter  attack  upon  the 
Court  of  Arbitration  for  its  rulings  in  regard  to  public  services. 
"The  Court,"  he  says,  "has  usurped  the  right  of  taxing  the 
people  by  interfering  between  the  employees  of  the  State  and 
their  proper  master,  the  public."  There  can  be  no  talk  of 
"  usurpation  "  where  Parliament  confers  the  power  and  duty  of 
acting  :  moreover,  when  an  award  is  made  Parliament  has  always 
an  opportunity  of  considering  it  and  rejecting  it  if  it  sees  fit. 
As  an  example  of  how  taxation  is  increased,  he  cites  the  disparity 
VOL.  XXIX. -No.  17-2.  B 


1 86  The  Empire  Review 

between  the  rates  of  pay  awarded  by  the  State  Wages  Boards  and 
the  Federal  Court.  "  While  three  guineas  per  week  is  the  highest 
rate  fixed  by  any  State  Wages  Board  as  payable  to  an  electrical 
mechanic  in  private  employment,"  he  says  "  .  .  .a  similar  work- 
man in  the  Commonwealth  service  will,  under  the  new  arrangement, 
receive  no  less  than  £186  per  year."  To  begin  with,  the  term 
"  similar  workman  "  is  misleading.  The  position  of  a  mechanic 
engaged  in  the  Commonwealth  service  differs  materially  from  that 
of  a  mechanic  in  private  employment  by  reason  of  the  complexity 
of  the  work  and  the  greater  skill  required.  Moreover  £186  was 
not  the  minimum,  but  the  maximum,  to  be  obtained  only  after 
three  years'  employment. 

Again  he  says :  "The  Public  Service  Commissioner  says  that 
practically  the  whole  of  the  telephone  revenue  will  be  swallowed 
up  in  salaries  and  wages  alone."  To  some  this  might  not  seem 
an  extraordinary  eventuality  in  a  country  where  distances  are  so 
great  and  the  postal  service  is  run  at  a  large  annual  loss  ;  but  as 
a  matter  of  fact  it  is  a  misconstruction  of  the  Public  Service 
Commissioner's  words.  He  merely  said  that  "  if  certain  things 
happened"  (which  have  not  happened)  these  consequences  might 
result.  And  since,  in  any  case,  the  Commissioner  is  bound  to 
defend  his  own  attitude  in  regard  to  wages,  it  is  hardly  convincing 
to  quote  his  pronouncements  on  a  ruling. 

These  things  are  matters  of  detail,  but  Mr.  Gisborne  makes 
such  a  number  of  sweeping  generalisations  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  deal  with  them  categorically.  He  speaks  of  the 
oppressively  benevolent  hand  of  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  "  turning 
what  were  once  profitable  mines  into  abandoned  shafts  and 
accumulations  of  machinery."  It  would  have  been  more  to  the 
purpose  to  have  quoted  a  few  instances  of  payable  mines  being 
left  in  this  condition.  Mining  is  an  uncertain  industry,  especially 
in  Australia,  and  "  what  were  once  profitable  mines  "  come 
eventually  to  the  ignominy  of  being  worked  on  calls  from  the 
shareholders,  or  to  final  abandonment.  In  some  cases  it  is  no 
doubt  a  relief  to  attribute  their  failure  to  human  agency,  but  it 
does  not  enlighten  economic  discussion. 

The  central  feature  of  the  article,  however,  is  the  reiteration 
that  the  employers  of  Australia,  as  a  class,  regard  the  Federal 
Court  of  Arbitration  as  an  enemy,  which  always  operates  against 
them  to  their  hurt.  "  One  class,"  says  the  writer,  "  always 
dragged  with  reluctance  to  the  bar  as  culprits,  has  invariably 
found  the  scales  of  justice  weighted  against  it."  And  again  :  "  In 
every  industrial  dispute  the  employees  always  stand  to  win,  and 
the  employers  always  stand  to  lose."  The  suggestion  in  these  two 
quotations  is  ludicrous  enough  to  anyone  acquainted  with  the 
realities  of  industrial  life,  in  Australia  or  elsewhere.  There  are 


Australia's  Court  of  Arbitration  187 

always  employers  to  be  found  who  will,  automatically  and  on 
principle,  resist  any  raising  of  wages,  whether  the  cost  of  living 
has  increased  or  not,  and  if  a  judgment  is  given  against  them  it 
is  open  to  them  to  assume  attitudes  of  injured  innocence.  One 
cannot,  however,  estimate  the  way  in  which  the  employers 
generally  regard  the  Court  of  Arbitration  from  the  opinions  and 
activities  of  this  small  but  very  eloquent  section.  A  better 
judgment  can  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  employers  have,  not 
infrequently,  asked  for  the  Court's  intervention  in  the  settlement 
of  disputes. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  back  further  than  volume  vii.  of 
the  reports  to  find  examples  of  this.  On  April  16,  1913,  for 
instance,  we  find  the  secretary  of  the  •  Commonwealth  Steam- 
ship Owners'  Association  making  an  application  for  a  conference 
in  the  matter  of  a  dispute  between  his  company  and  the  Federated 
Seamen's  Union  of  Australia.  On  May  27  in  the  same  year 
the  Managing  Director  of  W.  Angliss  and  Co.  Proprietary,  Ltd., 
filed  an  affidavit  in  support  of  a  conference  in  connection  with  a 
threatened  dispute  in  Victoria  and  the  Riverina  with  regard  to 
the  slaughtering  of  stock  for  export.  Again  on  December  15 
the  secretary  of  the  Victorian  Brewers'  Association  lodged  an 
application  for  a  conference  in  connection  with  a  dispute  in  the 
brewing  industry  extending  through  five  States.  One  would 
hardly  say  that  the  controllers  of  these  important  industries  were 
"  dragged  to  the  bar  with  reluctance,"  and  it  would  be  possible  to 
quote  many  instances  where  strikes  were  averted,  and  disputes 
settled  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  concerned,  by  the  mediary  influence 
of  the  President  of  the  Court. 

But  the  crowning  vindication  of  the  Court  lies  in  the  fact  that 
during  the  whole  ten  years  of  its  existence,  a  period  of  industrial 
disturbance  and  unrest  in  all  countries,  its  awards  have  never 
been  flouted  by  either  employers  or  employees.  This  is  the  best 
evidence  for  judging  the  temper  of  Mr.  Gisborne's  statement  that 
the  reappointment  of  its  President  for  a  further  term  "  and  with 
powers  equal  to  those  he  has  so  lamentably  misused,  would  be 
nothing  short  of  a  national  disaster."  One  can  only  reply  that 
Mr.  Justice  Higgins  has  since  been  reappointed,  and  that  he 
would  have  been  reappointed  by  any  government  that  could 
possibly  have  held  power  for  a  day. 

VANCE  PALMER. 


188  The  Empire  Review 


CANADA    AND    THE    WAR 

Production  of  Shells. 

AMONG  the  numerous  orders  placed  with  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  for  war  material  by  Great  Britain  and  her  Allies  since 
the  outbreak  of  war,  was  one  for  250,000  shrapnel  shells  per 
month  till  a  total  of  1,800,000  had  been  delivered.  This  order 
was  distributed  over  a  large  number  of  firms,  each  of  them  taking 
in  hand  some  portion  of  the  shell.  All  the  materials  used  are 
Canadian  products— the  lead  bullets,  the  cartridge  cases,  the 
brass  fittings  and  even  the  explosives.  For  this  one  contract 
4,000  tons  of  lead  will  be  required.  An  important  event  in 
Canada's  industrial  history  was  the  opening  of  the  works  of  the 
Armstrong- Whitworth  Company  of  Canada,  Limited.  The 
plant  is  now  ready  to  turn  out  the  highest  class  of  steel  goods  at 
their  new  plant  on  the  south  shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence  at 
Longueuil.  The  Company  has  250  acres,  all  of  which  they 
expect  to  utilise  in  time,  but  at  present  the  units  completed 
measure  65,000  square  feet  in  floor  area.  One  hundred  and  fifty 
men  at  work,  and  five  hundred  will  be  employed  shortly.  About 
j£250,000  has  already  been  expended.  The  units  completed 
include  the  raw  material  and  the  crucible  manufacturing  depart- 
ments, the  rolling  mill,  the  hammer  department  and  the  machine 
shop. 

Military  Camps. 

Sewell  Camp,  situated  on  the  main  line  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Eailway  between  Portage  la  Prairie  and  Brandon,  is  to  be 
opened  on  the  1st  of  May  for  the  mobilisation  of  western  troops 
enlisted  for  the  war.  Colonel  McBain,  who  planned  and  organised 
the  Valcartier  Camp,  has  completed  all  the  arrangements.  The 
camp  is  built  on  the  same  lines  as  Valcartier,  and  will  be  equipped 
with  a  telephone  service.  Complete  arrangements  have  been 
made  for  a  supply  of  water,  and  plans  will  be  prepared  to  secure 
perfect  sanitation.  There  will  be  sufficient  accommodation  at 


Canada  and  the  War  189 

Sewell  for  all  the  western  troops.  It  is  estimated  that  from-6, 000 
to  7,000  men  will  be  under  canvas  there  at  one  time.  It  is  stated 
that  three  great  military  camps  will  be  maintained  in  Canada, 
the  other  two  being  at  Petawawa  and  Valcartier.  The  troops  for 
Camp  Sewell  will  be  drawn  from  all  points  between  Fort  William 
and  Victoria,  British  Columbia.  From  Coburg,  a  small  town  in 
the  province  of  Ontario  with  a  population  of  about  5,000,  a  third 
detachment  has  left  for  the  central  training  camp  to  join  the 
next  Canadian  Contingent.  The  number  of  men  from  this  town 
amounts  to  nearly  500,  roughly  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  popula- 
tion, and  more  men  are  in  training. 

Ambulances  and  Nurses. 

No  fewer  than  twenty-eight  motor  ambulances  have  been 
presented  to  the  Bed  Cross  Society  by  the  people  of  Canada  to 
date.  The  latest  addition  to  this  important  branch  of  the  Society's 
work  emanates  from  Ottawa,  where  the  local  branch  of  the  Bed 
Cross  Society  has  given  four  ambulances  ;  two  of  these  are  to  be 
sent  to  the  Duchess  of  Connaught  Military  Hospital  at  Cliveden. 
The  other  two  will  be  used  for  the  Canadian  Overseas  Contingent, 
and  will  be  sent  to  France  at  an  early  date.  A  motor  ambulance 
is  of  course  one  of  the  most  important  adjuncts  of  the  field 
hospital.  A  cheque  for  £2,000  has  been  received  by  the  Chairman 
of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Canadian  Bed  Cross  organisation 
from  Mr.  A.  D.  Miles,  President  of  the  Canadian  Copper  Company. 
This  generous  donation  will  be  expended  in  aid  of  the  scheme  of  the 
St.  John  Ambulance  Association,  which  is  endeavouring  to  send  to 
Europe  a  number  of  qualified  Canadian  nurses  who  have  had  three 
years'  experience  in  hospitals.  It  is  not  long  since  that  the  War 
Office  asked  the  Canadian  Militia  Department  to  send  an  additional 
seventy-five  trained  nurses  to  England  as  soon  as  possible,  all  the 
nurses  who  accompanied  the  first  Canadian  contingent  being  fully 
occupied.  As  the  Militia  Department  has  received  about  2,000 
applications  from  nurses  desirous  of  accompanying  the  second 
contingent,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  meeting  the  request. 

University  Men  at  the    Front. 

The  University  of  Toronto  has  134  graduates  and  86  under- 
graduates in  the  first  Canadian  contingent,  and  53  graduates  and 
63  undergraduates  in  the  second  contingent,  a  total  of  336.  In 
comparison  with  the  members  of  the  great  English  schools  and 
universities  serving  with  the  forces,  this  number  is  perhaps  not 
large  ;  but  for  decades  Canada  has  been  following  a  path  of  peace 
and  security  and  her  educational  system  has  taken  little  heed  of 
military  necessities.  Unexpectedly  the  students  in  Canadian 


190  The  Empire  Review 

institutions  of  learning  found  themselves  faced  by  the  call  for 
Imperial  service,  and  they  responded  nobly.  In  a  comparison 
with  the  educational  establishments  of  the  Motherland  it  must, 
moreover,  be  remembered  that  the  Canadian  universities  have  not 
had  the  numbers  to  call  upon ;  but  each  year  the  balance  is  being 
redressed.  The  University  of  Toronto  has  offered  to  provide  and 
equip  a  base  hospital  of  1,040  beds,  and  having  a  staff  drawn  from 
the  medical  faculty  of  the  University.  It  is  proposed  that  if 
accepted  the  hospital  shall  be  sent  to  England  for  use  as  required 
by  the  War  Office. 

The  Canadian  Militia. 

The  Canadian  Manufacturers'  Association  has  issued  a  circular 
letter  to  its  members,  urging  them  to  do  their  utmost  to  en- 
courage enlisting  among  their  employes.  Complaints  have  been 
made  in  the  past,  recounts  the  circular,  that  manufacturers  have 
discouraged  their  men  from  joining  the  militia  by  refusing  to 
hold  their  positions  for  them  while  they  were  away  in  camp,  or 
by  other  means  penalising  their  attendance.  The  militia  will  be 
under  strength  this  year,  says  the  letter,  chiefly  because  of  the 
men  who  have  gone  to  the  front.  It  therefore  urges  the  manu- 
facturers to  do  their  utmost  to  fill  the  gaps  in  the  ranks  from 
among  their  workpeople.  While  the  camp  in  June  comes  in  one 
of  the  busiest  months  of  the  year,  when  it  is  not  convenient  to 
have  good  workmen  absent,  the  Association  urges  its  members  to 
rise  above  personal  considerations  of  convenience  or  gain  and  to 
view  such  matters  solely  from  the  standpoint  of  what  is  best  for 
the  interests  of  the  country.  To  those  who  are  large  employers 
of  labour,  the  suggestion  is  made  that  they  should  endeavour  to 
organise  one  or  more  full  companies,  and  put  them  into  the  local 
regiment  as  units,  procuring  commissions  for  officers  chosen  from 
the  leaders  of  their  men  and  assisting  them  to  pay  for  their 
officers'  equipment. 

Recruiting  Belgians. 

Major  Eoddan,  of  the  Victoria  Kifles,  Montreal,  has  been 
given  temporary  command  of  Belgians  who  are  recruiting  for  the 
colours  in  response  to  the  request  of  their  Government  for  all 
men  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45  years.  They  are  mobilising 
at  Montreal  and  accommodation  has  been  provided  in  the  High 
School  buildings.  The  Belgian  Consul  expects  to  have  about 
5,000  recruits  enlisted  before  arranging  for  transport  to  Europe, 
and  in  the  meantime  training  will  be  carried  on  regularly.  They 
will  be  under  the  supervision  of  the  Canadian  Government  until 
they  sail. 


Canada  and  the  War  191 

Breaking  the  Prairie. 

To  bring  into  productivity  as  early  as  possible  every  available 
acre  of  land  in  Canada  is  the  strong  desire  of  the  Dominion  as  well 
as  the  Provincial  Governments  throughout  that  country.  This, 
for  patriotic  as  well  as  for  economic  reasons.  The  manner  in 
which  this  end  may  be  most  swiftly  and  surely  attained  is  the 
problem  which  is  being  given  consideration.  A  great  need  has 
been  generally  recognised,  and  very  active  steps  are  being  taken 
by  the  Government  at  Ottawa  in  co-operation  with  the  Saskat- 
chewan grain  growers  and  similar  organisations  with  a  view  to 
ascertaining  the  quantity  of  land  lying  idle  in  the  hands  of 
speculators  and  others;  it  is  reported  that  a  Commission  will 
be  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  whole  matter.  The  slogan  of  the 
movement  is  "  A  hundred  million  Western  acres  under  cultiva- 
tion." Saskatchewan  has  acreage  ready  for  seed  this  spring  as 
follows :  New  Breaking  1,075,955  acres ;  Full  Ploughing 
4,407,320  acres;  Summer  Fallow  2,601,229,  giving  a  total  of 
8,084,504  acres.  This  means  an  increase  of  about  15  to  20  per 
cent.,  roughly  speaking,  over  the  area  of  1914.  The  land  is  in 
splendid  shape,  and  with  even  barely  normal  growing  conditions 
the  reward  of  the  farmer  ought  to  be  a  bountiful  one. 

Demand  for  Horses. 

Never  before  in  the  history  of  Canada  has  there  been  such  a 
demand  for  horses.  This  has  been  created  by  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Belgium,  the  horses  all  being  required  for  the 
various  armies  of  the  Allies.  By  the  beginning  of  February 
30,000  had  been  purchased  in  Canada  and  the  Government 
agents  are  still  looking  for  more.  Western  Canada  will  be 
thoroughly  scoured,  and  all  horses  found  suitable  will  be 
purchased  till  the  necessary  number  has  been  secured.  It  is 
estimated  that  before  the  end  of  the  war  the  owners  of  horses 
in  Canada  will  have  sold  about  £1,400,000  worth  of  horses. 

Fenders  for  Battleships. 

Thousands  of  bundles  of  hazelwood  or  willow  boughs  are 
required  for  the  battleships  of  the  Canadian  and  Imperial  Navies 
for  use  as  fenders  for  hanging  alongside  the  vessels.  The 
Canadian  Naval  Department  is  arranging  to  purchase  quantities 
of  these  fenders.  Prior  to  the  war  the  supply  was  obtained  from 
Norway  and  Sweden,  but  under  present  conditions  it  cannot,  of 
course,  be  obtained  from  those  countries. 

OVERSEA  CORRESPONDENTS. 


19-  The  Empire  Review 


THE    CALL    TO    ARMS 

To  arms  !     To  arms  ! 
The  cry  strikes  home  to-day, 

For  still  we  hear  the  call 
That  gathers  strength  upon  its  way — 
This  meteor  with  fierce,  fiery  ray 

Which  summons  all ! 

To  arms  !     To  arms  ! 
That  peace  may  reign  once  more, 

Though  die  of  war  be  cast 
Which  brings  stern  duty  to  our  door, 
And  bids  us  crown,  as  ours  before, 

The  glorious  past ! 

To  arms  !     To  arms  ! 
"  For  King  and  Country's  sake  " 

Must  sacrifice  be  made ; 
And  with  our  blood  aflame,  we  wake — 
That  tyrant  Pow'r  to  bend  and  break, 

Nor  be  dismayed. 

To  arms  !     To  arms  ! 
The  answer  Britain  gives:  — 

The  best  of  all  her  strength  ; 
The  best  of  sons,  of  men,  of  lives, 
The  loved  of  sisters  and  of  wives 

Through  Empire's  length. 

To  amis  !     To  arms  ! 
List  to  the  rolling  drum 

That  calls  upon  our  sons : 
At  which  no  Empire-heart  is  dumb, 
But  eager  all  who  answering  come 

To  man  the  guns ! 

To  arms  !     To  arms  ! 
In  God,  the  Nation's  trust 

Whose  noble  pride  of  name 
Recalls  to  life  the  mighty  dust, 
Unto  whose  laurels  England  must 

To-day  bring  Fame! 

ALFIIED  SMYTHE. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

AND 

JOURNAL    OF     BRITISH    TRADE 


VOL.  XXIX  JUNE,   1915.  No.   173. 

ENGINEERING    PROBLEMS    OF    MESOPO- 
TAMIA AND   EUPHRATES  VALLEY 

THE  area  which  I  propose  to  cover  within  this  title  may  be 
taken  as  extending  from  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  north-west 
to  Mosul  on  the  Tigris  and  to  Hit  up  the  Euphrates,  more  to 
the  west.  The  lands  bounded  by  the  two  rivers,  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  were  considered  by  the  Ancients  to  be  the  garden  of 
their  world.  These  lands  are  now  commonly  regarded  as  the 
site  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  and,  just  as  they  were  made  so 
productive  by  the  energy  and  engineering  of  men  who  lived 
prior  to  the  time  of  the  Babylonians,  so  to-day,  by  similar 
agencies,  they  can  be  made  one  of  the  very  best  districts  for 
raising  cotton  and  other  products — a  garden  of  the  world  indeed. 
Wherever  water  can  be  put  on  the  soil  by  the  primitive  methods 
at  present  used,  everything  is  fruitful  and  luxuriant.  Without 
water  the  land  remains  a  desert.  Some  ten  million  palm  trees 
on  ground  easily  irrigated  fringe  the  Shat-el-Arab.  supplying  a 
date  trade  valued  at  about  half  a  million  per  annum. 

For  hundreds  of  years  this  country  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks 
has  been  worse  than  misgoverned,  and  not  only  the  people  of 
Arab  blood  but  a  large  proportion  of  the  more  enlightened 
Ottoman  subjects  have  expressed  themselves  anxious  and  willing 
that  the  whole  territory  should  be  brought  under  the  influence 
and  control  of  Great  Britain.  Should  this  change  come  to  pass, 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  neither  the  British  Government  nor  the 
British  public  will  take  narrow  views,  nor  be  deterred  by  the 
prospect  of  larger  responsibilities.  In  my  opinion,  this  country, 
if  it  be  taken  over,  should  be  administered  by  a  service  of  officials 
entirely  distinct  from  that  of  India.  Assuming,  then,  that  the 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  173.  s 


194  The  Empire  Review 

country  passes  into  our  possession,  let  us  consider  what  particu- 
larly are  the  main  and  most  urgent  engineering  problems  to  be 
dealt  with  ?  Our  special  interests  in  Persia  and  Mesopotamia 
require  that  the  approaches  by  sea  should  always  be  kept  open. 
Much,  therefore,  should  be  done  in  the  way  of  improving  the 
lighting  and  the  navigation  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  a  most  dangerous 
sea,  particularly  at  its  south-eastern  end,  where  it  is  full  of  small 
islands  only  a  little  above  the  water  level,  and  sunken  rocks,  in 
many  cases  only  a  few  feet  below  the  water  level. 

When  I  made  my  voyage  from  Bombay  via  Muscat  to 
Mohammerah,  I  was  surprised,  in  a  sea  over  which,  as  I 
understood,  our  country  was  supposed  to  exercise  control, 
not  to  see  a  lighthouse  between  Muscat  and  the  head  of  the 
Gulf.  At  the  head  of  the  Gulf,  leaving  Koweit  on  the  west 
and  entering  the  Shat-el-Arab,  we  were  impeded  by  a  great 
sand-bar  at  the  entrance  to  that  river.  The  little  steamer  of  the 
British  India  Steam  Navigation  Company  in  which  we  travelled, 
drawing  only  some  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet,  so  far  as  I  remember, 
could  not  cross  this  sand-bar  all  afloat  but,  having  made  one 
attempt,  had  to  go  astern  and  practically  ram  its  way  through  the 
sand  for  probably  two  or  three  feet  in  depth.  Large  steamers 
very  often  have  to  lie  exposed  outside  the  bar  to  transfer  their 
cargoes  to  small  craft  for  delivery  at  Busra.  One  of  the  first 
problems  to  be  dealt  with  is  the  removal  of  this  obstruction  to 
the  navigation  of  vessels  of  even  moderate  size. 

Some  engineers  have  proposed  to  rely  upon  a  dredging  away  of 
this  bar,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think,  without  a  proper  system  of 
training  walls  to  somewhat  curtail  the  width  of  the  stream  and 
increase  its  scour,  this  plan  would  not  be  altogether  satisfactory. 
As  an  alternative,  many  are  of  opinion  that  the  better  plan  would 
be  to  carry  a  railway  to  Koweit  and  make  there  a  new  harbour 
with  much  easier  passage  to  deep  water  than  over  the  bar  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Shat-el-Arab,  and  in  this  opinion  I  agree.  The  river 
between  Fao,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Shat-el-Arab  and  Gorna  at 
the  junction  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  could  easily  be  made 
a  good  channel. 

At  the  old  city  of  Mohammerah,  the  head-quarters  of  the 
great  Sheik  of  Mohammerah,  strikes  off  the  river  Karun,  with  a 
more  or  less  good  channel  for  river  boats  of  not  more  than  three 
feet  draft,  up  to  Ahwaz,  an  old  Persian  town  from  whence  start 
the  main  caravan  routes  into  Persia.  Here  most  of  the  trade  is 
in  British  hands,  and  it  is  upon  this  river  that  the  largely  in- 
creasing business  of  the  Anglo-Persian  Oil  Company  has  to  rely 
for  water  transport.  The  Anglo-Persian  Oil  Company  is  a  purely 
British  organisation  in  which  last  year,  in  view  of  great  supplies 
of  oil  being  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  the  Navy,  the  British 


Engineering  Problems  of  Mesopotamia  195 

Government  acquired  an  interest  to  the  extent  of  about  two 
millions  sterling.  At  Moharnmerah,  where  my  party  were  guests 
of  Captain  Wilson,  then  British  Vice-Consul,  a  man  of  exceptional 
capabilities  for  such  a  position,  I  met  the  great  Sheik,  of  whom  I 
formed  a  very  high  opinion,  particularly  having  regard  to  his 
undoubted  pro-English  sympathies. 

At  Mohammerah  ample  provision  for  the  transfer  of  goods 
coming  down  stream  in  river  boats  to  deep  sea  steamers  should  be 
made,  and  at  Busra,  occupying,  as  it  does,  a  most  important 
position  with,  I  believe,  an  annual  trade  already  reaching  a  value 
of  some  six  million  sterling,  unless  a  new  harbour  is  made  at 
Koweit,  proper  port  works  with  ample  warehouses  and  transit 
sheds  should  be  provided  whether  for  trans-shipment  to  ocean 
steamers  from  the  shallow  draft  craft  coming  down  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  or  for  goods  coming  over  the  proposed  railway  from 
Bagdad.  Going  on  from  Busra  to  Gorna  by  the  Euphrates  to 
the  left,  or  by  the  Tigris  to  the  right,  we  immediately  get  into 
shallow  water.  I  have  not  personally  been  along  any  great  length 
of  the  Euphrates,  but,  from  what  I  am  told,  it  must  be  considered 
a  much  more  awkward  river  to  navigate  than  the  Tigris,  passing 
Amara  up  to  Bagdad,  a  distance  of  some  350  miles.  As  far  as  I 
can  judge  from  my  voyage  to  Bagdad  along  the  Tigris  in  a  very 
shallow  paddle-wheel  boat,  although  we  went  aground  thirteen 
times,  I  have  no  doubt  at  comparatively  small  expenditure  the 
navigation  of  this  river,  at  any  rate  as  far  as  Bagdad,  could  be 
made  quite  easy  for  vessels  of  moderate  draft.  But  in  view  of  so 
vast  a  quantity  of  water  under  the  proposed  irrigation  schemes 
having  to  be  taken  from  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  it  becomes  a 
question  whether,  with  a  country  without  any  extraordinary 
difficulties  for  railway  making,  it  would  not  be  better  for  transport 
to  rely  upon  railways,  more  or  less  neglecting  the  rivers.  It  would 
be  a  great  advantage  if  the  railways  were  constructed  either  before 
or  simultaneously  with  the  proposed  irrigation  works  so  as  to 
afford  a  better  means  of  transport  for  materials  for  the  latter,  and 
be  an  immediate  solution  of  the  problem  which  must  arise  as  soon 
as  the  irrigation  works  are  in  operation,  namely,  how  best  to  deal 
quickly  and  cheaply  with  the  transport  of  cereals,  fruits,  and 
other  produce. 

At  Bagdad  you  have  a  great  ancient  city  with  a  magnificent 
river  front,  full  of  merchants  of  all  nationalities,  many  of  con- 
siderable wealth,  a  great  centre  for  trade  between  Persia  and  the 
west.  From  Bagdad  we  crossed  the  desert  along  the  regular 
route  for  pilgrims  journeying  to  the  ancient  shrine  of  Kherbela, 
where  the  remains  of  two  grandsons  of  the  Prophet  are  laid,  to 
the  little  town  of  Museyib  on  the  Euphrates.  I  was  surprised  at 
the  number  of  pilgrims  seen  every  day,  and  while  in  Bagdad  I 


196  The  Empire  Review 

made  a  proposal  to  accept  a  concession  for  making  a  railway  across 
this  part  of  the  desert,  the  granting  of  which,  I  think,  was  only 
prevented  by  arrangements  between  Germany  and  the  Turkish 
Government,  prohibiting  the  granting  of  a  concession  for  such  a 
line  except  to  Germans.  Kherbela  is  a  sacred  city  which 
practically  no  Christians  are  allowed  to  visit,  at  any  rate  not  the 
mosques,  but  a  few  members  of  my  staff  went  there  in  connection 
with  the  cleaning  out  of  the  Kherbela  Canal,  which  had  silted  up. 
Care  however  was  taken  always  to  keep  to  the  front  Moham- 
medan engineers  and  supervisors. 

Here  perhaps  I  may  tell  a  little  story  of  my  journey  from 
Museyib  to  the  site  of  the  old  barrage.  Coming  from  Bagdad, 
my  son-in-law  and  daughter  who  were  with  me  went  on  with  an 
escort  of  two  soldiers  direct  to  Babylon,  where  we  were  the  guests 
of  the  German  explorers ;  the  others  of  our  party  and  myself  pro- 
ceeded to  Museyib.  The  night  was  pitch  dark — I  never  remember 
a  darker  one — and  about  eight  o'clock  we  arrived  at  Museyib, 
when  our  two  Turkish  soldiers  declined  to  go  any  further,  so  I 
decided  that  if  we  could  get  two  Arab  boatmen,  the  three  of  us 
would  venture  down  the  river  without  any  escort.  We  had  been 
told  that  proceeding  down  the  river  from  Museyib  we  were  safe  to 
go  on  until  we  saw  a  red  light  in  the  office  of  Sir  William  Willcocks' 
assistant,  but  we  had  not  been  told  that  this  office  was  situated 
below  the  falls  of  the  old  barrage.  On  we  went  without  seeing 
a  light  for  a  long  time  or  yet  the  banks  of  the  river.  I  then 
insisted  that  we  should  try  and  get  near  the  one  bank,  which  we 
did,  and  shortly  afterwards  saw  the  light.  Then  feeling  quite 
safe,  on  we  went,  but  it  was  fortunate  that  we  were  within  a  few 
feet  of  the  one  bank,  for  we  shortly  heard  a  fall  of  water.  We 
reached  out  and  gripped  the  bank,  to  find  the  following  morning 
that  we  had  been  within  about  eighty  feet  of  the  falls  of  the 
Euphrates  over  the  old  barrage. 

Let  me  now  refer  generally  to  the  great  scheme  of  irrigation 
work  prepared  for  the  Turkish  Government  by  Sir  William 
Willcocks,  so  well-known  in  connection  with  the  early  stages  of 
the  Nile  Irrigation  proposals,  as  well  as  works  in  India.  Sir 
William's  scheme  was  most  comprehensive  and  involved  an 
estimated  expenditure  of  some  eighteen  to  twenty  millions  sterling, 
but  as,  at  that  time,  the  financial  position  in  Turkey  would  not 
permit  of  such  large  responsibilities  being  undertaken,  it  was 
decided  to  proceed  only  bit  by  bit  with  the  construction  of  the 
most  urgent  works.  It  was  in  the  year  1907  that  Sir  William 
was  called  in,  and  at  the  end  of  1910  he  made  his  report.  At  the 
time  of  my  visit  to  Bagdad,  with  a  small  staff,  he  had  already 
made  a  start  with  preliminary  works  in  connection  with  the  first 
section  of  his  scheme,  the  erection  of  the  barrage  at  Hindia, 


Engineering  Problems  of  Mesopotamia  197 

being  represented  at  the  site  of  the  work  by  an  engineer,  Mr. 
Tabor. 

My  firm  being  invited  by  the  Turkish  Government  to  make 
proposals  for  the  further  carrying  out  of  these  works,  returning 
from  South  Africa  by  Aden,  I  proceeded  to  Bagdad  to  meet  the 
late  Nazim  Pasha,  then  Vali  of  Bagdad,  with  whom  I  made  a 
contract  for  constructing.  In  passing,  I  should  like  to  refer  to 
the  very  pleasant  relations  I  had  with,  and  of  the  very  high  opinion 
I  entertained  of,  Nazim  Pasha.  I  found  him  most  intelligent  and 
in  every  way  a  fair  dealing  and  honourable  man.  It  was  indeed 
a  sad  day  for  Turkey  when  he  was  murdered  in  Constantinople 
to  make  room  for  men  of  a  very  different  stamp.  The  contract 
being  agreed,  we  took  over  the  work  from  Sir  William  Willcocks 
in  February  1911,  and  the  Hindia  Barrage  was  completed  and 
inaugurated  by  the  succeeding  Vali  of  Bagdad  on  the  12th 
day  of  December,  1913,  well  within  the  estimated  time.  We 
also  cleared  and  deepened  about  sixty-five  miles  of  the  Hilla 
Canal,  and  carried  out  other  works  at  Faluja.  At  Habbania  we 
commenced  the  construction  of  the  Escape  Works,  by  which 
through  a  canal  cut  from  the  Euphrates  to  a  great  depression  in 
the  ground,  water  can  be  held  up  and  reserved,  and  in  the  dry 
months  passed  into  the  river  again  at  a  point  near  Faluja,  to 
increase  its  flow. 

Throughout  the  district  in  which  our  work  lay  we  found  the 
Arab  Sheiks  generally  favourable  towards  the  English,  while  it 
was  common  knowledge  that  as  a  rule  the  Germans  working  in 
connection  with  the  Bagdad  Railway  were  in  anything  but  favour 
with  the  natives.  It  was  in  the  year  1899  that  the  Germans 
launched  the  Imperial  Ottoman  Bagdad  Eailway  Company  for 
the  construction  of  a  line  to  link  up  the  Anatolian  Eailway  at 
Konia  with  Bagdad  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  This  important 
railway  coming  on  from  Constantinople,  it  is  understood,  has  been 
completed  by  the  Germans  to  the  western  side  of  the  Taurus 
Mountains,  and  a  length  of  some  eighty  miles  between  Bagdad 
and  Sammarra  recently  opened  for  traffic.  Once  we  have  peace, 
and  the  Germans  are  out  of  control  in  Turkey,  this  railway  should 
be  completed  across  the  Taurus  Mountains,  on  to  Bagdad  and 
thence  to  Busra,  at  any  rate,  if  not  further  on  to  Koweit.  With 
the  railway  completed  and  a  direct  line  of  only  some  450  miles  in 
length  from  Bagdad  through  Damascus  to  Beyrout,  a  vast  trade 
would  be  opened  out  for  the  whole  of  this  Mesopotamia  district 
and  through  Busra  to  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  east. 

The  total  area  to  be  irrigated  and  put  under  cultivation 
proposed  in  Sir  William  Willcocks'  scheme  is  estimated  to  cover 
not  less  than  1,400,000  hectares,  or,  say,  three  and  a  half  million 
acres.  And  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  any  outlay  in  this 


198  The  Empire  Review 

connection  will  be  amply  repaid,  as  was  the  case  with  the  great 
works  of  the  Nile  Valley  and  the  Chenat  Valley  of  India. 
Properly  irrigated,  this  Mesopotamia  district  should  become  one 
of  the  largest  granaries  of  the  world. 

According  to  the  laws  of  Turkey,  I  understand  it  is  still 
almost  impossible  for  Christians  or  non-Turkish  subjects  to  hold 
land.  Under  a  new  and  more  enlightened  government,  with 
reasonable  inducements  to  capitalists  as  to  the  ownership  of  land 
and  otherwise,  I  believe  this  great  Mesopotamia  district  would 
quickly  develop  and  become,  as  it  was  in  ancient  days,  one  of  the 
busiest  and  most  productive  parts  of  the  earth,  with  the  further 
advantage  of  being  able  to  give  an  outlet,  if  necessary,  for  the 
best  of  the  surplus  population  of  India. 

The  object  in  erecting  the  great  barrage  across  the  Euphrates 
at  Hindia  was  to  restore  the  supply  of  water  to  the  Hilla 
Channel.  This  channel  serves  a  large  area  of  land,  and  passing 
near  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Babylon,  runs  to  Diwania, 
irrigating  a  district  of  immense  agricultural  value.  Having 
regard  to  the  extreme  difficulties  of  labour  and  transport,  we 
considered  the  time  estimated  for  completing  the  work  some- 
what short,  but  I  am  pleased  to  say  that  notwithstanding  all 
the  difficulties  we  had  to  contend  with,  and  particularly  with 
regard  to  finance  caused  by  the  late  Balkan  War,  we  got  through 
our  work  well  within  the  estimated  time.  A  story  told  to  me  by 
Mr.  Tabor  well  exemplifies  the  difficulty  experienced  in  getting 
the  Arabs  to  work  on  the  right  lines.  The  Arab,  in  the  usual 
way,  digs  the  earth  with  a  kind  of  grocer's  ladle.  He  then  puts 
it  into  a  bag  on  his  left  shoulder,  walks  away  with  it  and  tips  it 
into  a  bank.  I  ordered  some  planks  and  wheelbarrows  to  be  sent 
out  with  a  view  of  getting  the  Arabs  to  use  them,  and  Mr.  Tabor 
explained  to  an  Arab  workman  how  he  could  make  much  better 
progress  by  using  the  planks  and  barrows.  Baising  himself  erect 
in  a  most  dignified  way  the  Arab  replied,  "  You  people  from  the 
west,  why,  a  thousand  years  ago  no  one  knew  you ;  my  people 
have  been  here  since  before  the  time  of  Moses.  Are  you  going 
to  teach  me  how  to  carry  earth  ?  " 

Another  difficulty  was  the  absence  of  good  fuel  at  or  near  the' 
site  of  the  works.  But  in  spite  of  all  drawbacks,  in  two  and 
three-quarter  years  we  completed  our  task :  the  barrage  was  put 
across  the  new  diversion  of  the  Euphrates,  the  original  channel 
of  the  river  dammed,  the  water  turned  into  the  diversion,  and 
head  regulators  built  for  the  Hilla  branch.  No  portion  of  the 
new  barrage  was  built  in  the  original  bed  of  the  river.  On 
account  of  the  importance  of  careful  examination  of  foundations 
we  decided  to  have  the  dam  wholly  constructed  in  the  dry,  and 
only  when  it  was  completed  were  the  banks  removed  and  the 


Engineering  Problems  of  Mesopotamia          199 

water  of  the  old  Euphrates  river  allowed  to  flow  in  its  new 
course.  The  erection  of  the  dam  across  the  old  river  was  a 
separate  affair. 

The  work  of  the  barrage  across  the  diverted  river  was  built 
mainly  of  brickwork  with  a  certain  amount  of  cement  concrete. 
The  bricks  were  manufactured  on  the  site,  and  on  the  whole  were 
very  good.  The  lime  came  down  from  the  old  quarries  of  Hit 
(some  say  the  Hit  of  the  Bible)  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  from 
which  no  doubt  the  pitch  referred  to  in  the  building  of  Noah's 
Ark  also  came.  The  barrage  has  thirty-six  openings,  each  sixteen 
and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  there  are  two  sluice  gates  in  each 
opening,  each  gate  being  sixteen  feet  six  inches  wide  by  eight  feet 
in  height.  At  one  side  of  the  barrage  a  lock  has  been  built  of  a 
width  of  about  twenty-six  feet,  and  a  length  of  about  three 
hundred  and  twenty-five  feet,  with  a  pair  of  gates  in  the  middle 
dividing  it  into  two  parts,  each  of  which  is  one  hundred  and 
sixty-two  feet  in  length.  The  Hilla  head  regulator  is  very 
similar  in  construction  to  the  main  barrage  but  it  has  only  six 
openings,  each  nine  feet  ten  inches  wide.  The  main  barrage 
raises  the  ordinary  summer  level  of  the  river  some  sixteen  feet, 
allowing  ample  supply  of  water  to  flow  into  the  Hilla  Channel. 
The  construction  of  the  dam  formed  across  the  old  channel  of  the 
river  was  a  little  peculiar,  being  built  according  to  a  system  which 
for  many  years  had  more  or  less  been  adopted  by  the  Arabs.  We 
made  a  series  of  long  sausages  (as  they  were  termed)  of  brush- 
wood, brought  from  many  miles  up  stream.  These  were  con- 
structed on  the  river  bank  and  rolled  into  the  water,  floated  into 
position  and  sunk  by  weights  to  the  bed  of  the  river. 

When  I  paid  my  visit  to  Bagdad,  my  chief  assistant  who 
accompanied  me  was  Mr.  Griffen  Eady,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  who  later 
took  up  the  position  of  our  chief  engineer  and  representative  at 
Constantinople.  Since  the  commencement  of  the  construction 
of  the  works  our  chief  engineer  and  representative  in  Meso- 
potamia, having  entire  control  of  the  whole  of  the  works,  has 
been  Mr.  Arthur  Noel  Whitley,  chiefly  assisted  by  Mr.  Percy 
Warbrick,  A.M.  Inst.  C.E.,  the  chief  of  the  commercial  depart- 
ment, under  Mr.  Whitley,  being  Mr.  William  Hill.  The  Turkish 
Government  had  a  special  engineer  of  European  education,  Mon- 
sieur Edmund  Bechara,  to  make  reports  to  them,  whom  we  found 
a  man  of  very  good  ability  and  character. 

I  need  hardly  say  that  it  was  a  keen  disappointment  to  me, 
when  our  organisation  had  become  so  satisfactory  and  when  we 
had  so  successfully  finished  the  first  barrage,  to  find  our  works 
suspended  and  the  English  staff  detained  by  the  Turks  at  Bagdad 
as  prisoners  of  war. 

JOHN  JACKSON. 


200  The  Empire  Review 


"SOMEWHERE    IN    FRANCE" 

1  SOMEWHEBE  in  France,"  beloved,  they  have  laid  you, 
In  that  sad  land  beyond  the  Channel's  blue, 

Lonely,  yet  not  alone,  for  all  around  you 

Sleep  your  brave  comrades,  trusted,  tried  and  true. 

The  thunder  of  the  guns  has  been  your  requiem, 
The  scream  of  shells,  the  rattling  hail  of  lead, 

While  winter  snows  laid  silently  and  softly, 
A  chill  white  pall  upon  your  narrow  bed. 

And  now  the  spring-time  sunshine  plays  and  quivers 
(The  spring  that  you  will  never  greet  again), 

Maybe  a  floweret  shyly  buds  and  blossoms, 

All  strange  and  lonely  in  that  land  of  pain. 

A  little  while — your  grave  will  be  o'ertrodden, 

Soon  the  frail  cross  have  fallen  in  the  breeze. 

No  loving  hands  are  there  to  tend  and  cherish 
That  grave  in  foreign  soil  beyond  the  seas. 

"Somewhere  in  France" — oh,  surely,  my  beloved, 
Tho'  sign  and  token  all  be  swept  away, 

It  is  not  in  that  land  of  desolation, 

But  in  my  heart  that  you  will  rest  alway. 

FLORENCE  KINLOCH-COOKE. 


Women  Farmers  in  Rhodesia  201 


WOMEN    FARMERS    IN    RHODESIA 

BEFOBB  the  war  the  woman  question  was  ever  with  us,  and 
women  were  privileged  to  hear  many  home-truths  in  the  sweeping 
manner  of  those  given  to  generalisation.  For  instance,  one  man 
took  the  ; trouble  to  give  a  lecture  in  Johannesburg  on  "  The 
Inefficiency  of  Women."  People,  apparently,  are  slow  to  realise 
that  there  are  all  kinds  of  women  in  the  world  as  well  as  all  kinds 
of  men,  although,  according  to  Havelock  Ellis,  the  limits  of 
variation  are  not  so  wide  among  one  sex  as  the  other.  The 
majority  of  people  of  both  sexes  are  muddle-headed  about  most 
things,  but  men  have  at  least  one  great  advantage  over  women 
in  the  wage-earning  world — they  have  generally  received  some 
special  training,  whereas  women,  for  the  most  part,  are  left  to 
train  themselves. 

Women  are  not  by  nature  specialists.  The  life  of  the  average 
woman  is  a  series  of  interruptions  and  of  picking  up  of  the  threads 
of  half-finished  work ;  meals,  children,  house-cleanings,  the 
laundry,  the  garden,  tradespeople,  visitors,  clothes,  colds  and 
fevers,  all  clamour  for  attention,  and  when  she  attempts  to  soar 
aloft  on  the  wings  of  Browning  or  Beethoven  for  half  an  hour 
soap  or  candles  or  cut  fingers  invariably  bring  her  back  to  earth. 
A  well-ordered  household  is  the  greatest  triumph  of  civilisation, 
and  its  achievement  requires  more  efficiency  and  concentration 
and  energy  than  any  man  dreams  of;  it  also  provides  the 
greatest  scope  for  women's  special  gifts.  But  women  can  no 
longer  count  on  having  a  household  upon  which  to  exercise  their 
genius.  The  problem  of  the  superfluous  woman  was  serious 
enough  before  the  war,  but  now,  more  than  ever,  we  who  have 
daughters  growing  up  must  face  the  possibility  that  theirs  will 
be,  as  likely  as  not,  a  life  of  voluntary  or  involuntary  spinster- 
hood.  What  then  are  we  going  to  do  for  them?  It  is  not 
enough  that  they  should  be  well  provided  for.  Every  sensible 
parent  must  realise  that  in  interesting  work  alone  lies  their 
salvation,  and  that,  in  justice  to  them,  they  should  be  given  as 
good  a  training  for  independence  and  as  good  a  start  in  life  as  is 
given  to  their  brothers. 


202  The  Empire  Review 

Failing  marriage,  unless  a  girl  has  special  creative  gifts,  the 
work  that  gives  her  the  widest  scope  for  diverse  activities  is  the 
life  to  bring  greatest  happiness  and  health,  and  no  work  makes  a 
stronger  appeal  to  the  modern  young  woman,  fond  as  she  is  of  an 
open-air  life,  than  farming.  The  women's  agricultural  colleges 
settle  the  question  of  training,  but  afterwards,  what  are  we  going 
to  do  for  them  ?  We  who  have  had  experience  of  colonial  life 
all  echo  the  cry  for  women,  more  women,  for  the  Colonies. 
Many  of  the  hardships  would  disappear  if  only  women  would 
come  in  greater  numbers.  The  war,  in  diverting  the  energies  of 
men  from  production,  is  giving  women  an  opportunity  of  proving 
their  efficiency  in  at  least  one  branch  of  labour  usually  allotted  to 
men.  South  Africa  is  not  a  great  wheat  country  but  it  grows 
the  next  best  thing — maize.  The  best  "  mealies,"  to  use  the 
South  African  term,  in  the  world  are  grown  in  South  Africa,  and 
particularly  in  Ehodesia.  As  time  goes  on  and,  with  the 
increase  in  the  production  of  this  valuable  crop,  people  learn  its 
value  as  an  article  of  diet,  we  shall  find  it  replacing  to  a  large 
extent  the  use  of  wheat  flour.  America  has  already  taught  us 
to  utilise  it  in  a  hundred  different  ways.  If  a  woman  has 
sufficient  capital— and  none  should  attempt  farming  in  South 
Africa  with  less  than  £1,000 — there  is  no  reason  why  she  should 
not  do  well.  Ehodesia,  in  particular,  is  not  a  country  for  the 
penniless  man  and  still  less  for  the  penniless  woman. 

I  make  my  appeal  to  the  woman  of  some  means  who  wishes 
for  a  more  useful  and  a  fuller  life  than  she  can  lead  at  home — 
and  there  are  many  such.  But  butterflies  should  not  masquerade 
as  bees,  and  farming  is  expensive  if  indulged  in  merely  as  a 
hobby  or  a  pose.  I  visited  one  farm,  ideal  from  the  picturesque 
point  of  view,  run  by  a  charming  lady  whose  efforts  to  combine 
social  gaiety  with  the  somewhat  persistent  claims  of  the 
incubator  resulted  in  failure ;  but  I  do  not  quote  this  case  as 
typical,  only  as  a  warning  that  it  is  not  advisable  taking  up 
farming  for  fun  any  more  than  nursing  in  a  lunatic  asylum. 
On  the  other  hand  I  knew  an  old  lady  who  had  been  farming  for 
thirty-five  years,  who  died  a  woman  of  substance  although  she 
had  spent  money  generously  during  her  lifetime.  Her  sister,  a 
lady  over  seventy  years  of  age,  manages  one  of  the  biggest 
estates  in  the  Eastern  Transvaal.  On  butter-making  mornings 
she  is  up  at  five  superintending  all  the  dairy  work  herself,  but 
when  she  travels  in  Europe  she  does  it  like  a  queen.  Another 
lady  in  the  Transvaal  successfully  runs  six  large  farms,  with 
2,000  acres  under  cultivation.  Ehodesia  has  a  special  attraction 
for  women  farmers. 

There  is  a  glamour  of  romance  about  Ehodesia,  and  one  feels 
conscious  of  great  possibilities  in  a  country  so  young  and  un- 


Women  Farmers  in  Rhodesia  203 

developed,  and  which  has  made  so  much  progress  in  so  short  a 
time.  Besides,  women  in  Rhodesia  are  really  needed,  for  a 
country  can  have  no  pretensions  to  civilisation  until  women  come, 
bringing  with  them  the  amenities  and  courtesies  of  life.  Men 
still  smile,  however,  and  are  prone  to  facetiousness  when  they 
hear  of  women  taking  up  land ;  but  after  a  visit  to  a  farm  run 
entirely  by  two  ladies  in  Ehodesia  I  had  the  satisfaction  of 
hearing  one  scoffing  male  tell  a  very  different  tale.  These  ladies, 
one  a  Girton  woman  and  M.A.  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  were 
travelled  women  of  the  world.  Their  efficiency  was  almost  over- 
whelming, and  it  was  evident  that  farming  was  to  them  no  mere 
hobby.  They  had  been  on  their  farm  for  only  five  years,  but  it 
had  more  to  show  for  the  time  than  any  farm  we  had  seen  during 
ten  years  in  South  Africa.  There  was  a  well-built  brick  and 
cement  house  of  eight  rooms,  including  a  good-sized  bath-room 
with  granolithic  floor  and  enamel  bath,  and  a  store-room  filled 
with  delectable  jams,  jellies,  bottled  fruits  and  marmalade — all  the 
produce  of  the  farm.  The  drawing-room  might  have  been  that 
of  a  London  flat — an  Indian  carpet,  comfortable  chairs,  a  cabinet 
containing  interesting  curios  from  Egypt  and  India,  good  pictures 
and  shelves  of  modern  books.  The  only  thing  not  likely  to  be 
found  in  the  London  flat  was  a  fussy  little  meerkat  that  quite 
believed  the  world  was  made  for  her  alone.  Near  the  house 
was  an  orchard  of  several  acres  of  plum,  peach,  apple  and 
orange  trees — the  orange  trees  laden  with  fruit  although  they 
had  not  been  in  the  ground  three  years.  In  the  kitchen  garden, 
although  it  was  mid-winter,  the  tomato  plants  were  also  heavily 
laden,  and  the  tomatoes  were  selling  at  threepence  a  pound. 
Crops  of  mealies  and  kafir  corn  were  also  doing  well.  The  farm 
buildings  were  extensive,  and  the  cattle,  sheep  and  pigs  were  in 
good  condition.  Everything  looked  thriving,  yet  we  saw  this 
farm  under  the  unfavourable  conditions  attendant  upon  a  three 
years'  drought.  These  ladies  do  the  dairy  work  themselves, 
sending  the  butter  direct  to  their  customers  instead  of  sending 
the  cream  to  the  local  creamery.  They  also  do  well  with  eggs, 
using  an  incubator  for  hatching.  A  large  haystack  we  noticed 
had  been  made  entirely  by  one  of  the  ladies,  and  the  home-cured 
bacon  and  pork  pies  were  worthy  of  a  Shropshire  farm. 

Another  interesting  farm  adjoining  the  one  just  described  is 
managed  by  a  lady  and  her  two  daughters.  One  of  the  daughters 
does  all  the  carpentry  and  blacksmith  work  of  the  farm ;  she 
also  built  a  good  substantial  house,  and  when  a  well  was  being 
bored  did  not  shrink  from  descending  to  do  the  blasting  herself. 
In  the  same  district  two  other  women  have  given  up  lucrative 
employment  to  run  a  poultry  farm,  and  are  also  doing  well.  The 
only  people  who  do  not  welcome  the  woman  farmer  in  Rhodesia 


204  The  Empire  Review 

are  the  police,  for  women  have  more  trouble  with  the  natives 
than  men  have,  and  not  being  able  to  settle  difficulties  promptly 
and  finally  by  means  of  physical  force,  they  have  to  fall  back  on 
the  less  satisfactory  and  more  tedious  processes  of  the  law.  The 
natives  cannot  grasp  the  status  of  the  woman  farmer.  They  are 
respectful  enough  to  the  woman  who  has  a  husband  in  the 
background,  but  the  independent  woman  is  a  conundrum  and  not 
a  normal  creation  at  all.  But  no  doubt  in  time  even  the  kafir 
will  condescend  to  take  women  seriously,  and,  after  all,  his 
presence  is  just  what  makes  farming  for  them  less  difficult  in 
South  Africa  than  in  the  other  Colonies.  The  kafir  can  at  least 
be  a  hewer  of  wood  and  drawer  of  water  ;  and  even  to  be  saved 
the  drudgery  of  washing  up  and  scrubbing  floors  is  something  to 
be  grateful  for. 

As  for  the  black  peril — it  is  not  on  the  farms  that  women  need 
be  afraid.  The  kafir  with  his  own  home  on  the  farm  is  generally 
a  harmless  person,  and  many  married  women  are  not  afraid  to 
remain  alone  on  isolated  farms  during  the  absence  of  their 
husbands.  It  is  the  native  corrupted  by  town  or  mine  life  who 
is  a  danger  to  the  community.  But  nevertheless,  all  women 
should  learn  to  shoot.  No  woman,  however,  should  live  alone. 
The  loneliness  of  the  veld  when  the  sun  goes  down  on  a  winter's 
evening  is  a  very  real  thing,  even  with  a  houseful  of  laughing 
children,  and  when  alone  it  is  enough  to  kill  all  enthusiasm  for 
work  or  Africa  or  anything  else.  I  have  myself  had  moments  of 
loneliness  on  the  veld  when  I  have  welcomed  the  visit  of  a 
policeman  as  that  of  an  angel.  Three  or  four  women  together, 
sharing  the  work  and  responsibility,  would  be  the  ideal  thing,  and 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  be  within  easy  reach  of  a  railway. 

Besides  dairy  farming,  fruit,  vegetables,  poultry,  eggs,  a 
woman  would  be  certain  to  do  well  with  bees.  Honey,  I  noticed, 
was  2s.  a  pound  in  Bulawayo.  Unless  she  has  a  considerable 
amount  of  money  at  her  disposal  I  should  advise  any  woman 
starting  farming  in  Rhodesia  to  put  up  huts  rather  than  a  house. 
A  rough  hut  18  feet  wide,  of  the  best  type,  costs  £40.  With  three 
large  huts  and  a  smaller  one  at  £20  two  women  could  have  a 
comfortable  home  for  £140.  These  huts  could  be  joined  by  a 
verandah,  costing  about  £10,  which  would  be  equivalent  to  an 
additional  room.  Most  of  the  huts  I  saw  in  Rhodesia  were 
extremely  picturesque,  and  delightfully  cool,  and,  when  properly 
furnished,  very  comfortable.  If  Rhodesia  is  not  a  country  for  the 
penniless  person  it  is  still  less  a  country  for  the  aimless  one  who 
desires  a  life  of  leisure.  It  is  a  country  where  only  workers  are 
wanted  and  cruel  to  those  who  cannot  help  themselves. 

MADELINE  CONYERS  ALSTON. 


Impressions  of  Peking 


IMPRESSIONS    OF    PEKING 

MY  ship,  a  P.  and  0.  mail  steamer,  left  Bombay  late  in 
January  *  and  reached  Shanghai  in  three  weeks.  We  stayed  a 
few  hours  at  Colombo,  and  then  steamed  to  Penang,  a  voyage  of 
four  and  a-half  days.  Our  next  stopping-place  was  Singapore. 
Here  we  stayed  a  day  and  coaled,  so  I  took  the  opportunity  to 
go  ashore  and  make  a  few  purchases  including  a  small  stock  of 
tobacco,  which  is  duty-free.  In  the  evening  I  hired  a  motor-car 
and  drove  round  the  island.  The  scenery  from  the  "  gap  "  is 
very  fine.  I  was  much  interested  in  the  rubber,  cocoanut-palin 
and  pineapple  plantations. 

Hong  Kong  was  reached  in  five  days,  with  the  north- 
east monsoon  against  us  the  whole  way ;  here  we  felt  a  great 
change  in  the  temperature.  The  P.  and  0.  wharf  is  at  Kowloon, 
on  the  mainland,  but  the  town  is  conveniently  reached  by  a 
well-run  service  of  ferry  boats.  Hong  Kong  is  full  of  very  fine 
and  distinctly  expensive  shops.  A  journey  up  the  Peak  in  the 
tramway  is  well  repaid  by  the  glorious  views  of  the  harbour  and 
surrounding  hills,  obtained  in  the  course  of  a  walk  along  the 
various  paths  cut  in  the  rocky  hill-sides.  Next  morning  we 
sailed  through  the  narrow  channel  forming  the  exit  from  the 
harbour  for  northern-bound  ships,  and  reached  Woosung  about 
midnight.  Here  we  took  a  pilot  on  board  before  entering  the 
Huang-po  river  at  daylight.  Shanghai  lies  about  fourteen  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  this  river.  We  arrived  in  the  rain.  The 
steamer  was  moored  in  midstream  and  we  concluded  the  last  two 
miles  of  our  voyage  in  a  launch.  We  were  landed  at  the 
Customs  jetty,  where  the  baggage  was  examined.  I  put  up  at 
the  Palace  Hotel,  conveniently  situated  near  the  jetty,  and  found 
it  very  comfortable;  moreover,  it  has,  as  is  the  custom  with 
many  hotels  in  China,  a  special  reduced  rate  for  Government 
officials.  I  had  hoped  to  leave  Shanghai  within  thirty-six  hours, 
but  the  connecting  steamer  was  delayed  again  and  again,  and  I 
was  forced  to  remain  there  for  five  days.  If  the  traveller  is  a 
free  agent,  the  best  way  to  reach  Peking  from  Shanghai  is  by 

*  1914. 


206  The  Empire  Review 

the  Tientsin-Puk'on  Kail  way,  on  which  a  sleeping  berth  should 
be  engaged.  The  journey  takes  thirty-six  hours,  but  very  heavy 
baggage  must  be  sent  by  sea  or  freight  train. 

Shanghai  is  full  of  very  varying  interests.  The  river  there  is 
sufficiently  wide  and  deep  to  allow  of  large  warships  being  moored 
in  midstream  opposite  the  settlements.  The  river  and  creeks 
are  full  of  native  craft,  ranging  from  the  heavy  sea-going  junk  to 
the  busy  little  sampan,  propelled  by  the  united  efforts  of  the 
family  crew,  with  one  oar  over  the  stern.  There  is  an  excellent 
system  of  electric  tramways,  very  clean  (in  the  first-class  com- 
partments). The  streets  are  in  good  order,  and  the  traffic  is  well 
controlled  by  the  Sikh  and  Chinese  constabulary.  There  are 
European  shops  fit  to  compare  with  most  at  home,  a  theatre, 
more  than  one  luxurious  club,  a  large  race-course  "run"  by 
foreigners,  and,  I  believe,  another  under  entirely  Chinese  control. 
In  the  narrow  side-streets  one  sees  every  sort  of  Chinese  shop, 
some  more  or  less  Europeanised,  but  most  in  their  purely  original 
native  style,  with  their  big  perpendicular  name-boards,  lanterns 
and  illustrative  trade  signs. 

The  town  itself  is  divided  into  two  settlements,  the  Inter- 
national and  the  French  (which  is  about  to  be  enlarged),  and 
beyond  the  French  settlement  is  the  Chinese  city,  beyond  which 
again  is  more  or  less  open  country  and  the  Arsenal.  The  rich 
merchants  of  Shanghai  have  built  themselves  luxurious  villas 
in  very  prettily  laid  out  grounds,  in  what  may  be  called  the 
"  suburbs."  Further  out  is  the  Koman  Catholic  settlement  at 
Siccawei,  with  its  cathedral,  observatory,  workshops,  and  schools. 

Ordinarily  direct  steamer  traffic  between  Shanghai  and 
Tientsin  does  not  begin  till  March,  but  this  year,  owing  to  a 
mild  winter,  the  first  steamer  broke  through  the  ice  at  Taku 
early  in  February.  There  are  several  local  lines  of  steamers 
connecting  on  this  route,  the  two  best  of  which,  sailing  under 
the  British  flag,  are  the  China  Navigation  Company  and  Jardine 
and  Matheson's  boats.  I  travelled  by  the  former,  in  the  Feng- 
tien,  a  small  but  very  well  appointed  steamer,  which  took  three 
days  to  reach  Taku,  without  stopping  at  any  of  the  intermediate 
ports.  On  arrival  at  Taku  in  the  early  morning  we  had  to  wait 
till  about  2  p.m.  to  cross  the  bar  at  high  tide,  and  passing  the 
demolished  Taku  forts,  we  immediately  entered  the  river  Pei. 
The  windings  of  the  river  lead  past  Tongku,  between  which  place 
and  Tientsin  three  long  cuttings,  to  straighten  the  river's  course, 
have  been  made,  thereby  shortening  the  journey  from  the  bar 
to  Tientsin  to  about  six  hours. 

The  riverside  scenery  is  monotonous,  but  interesting  to  the 
newcomer,  with  its  mud-hut  villages  with  their  paper  windows 
and  the  villagers  at  their  various  occupations,  and  the  small  river 


Impressions  of  Peking  207 

craft  scurrying  to  points  of  safety  near  the  banks  to  avoid  the 
wash  made  by  the  passing  steamer. 

At  Tientsin  steamers  moor  alongside  the  "Bund."  The 
Astor  House  Hotel  is  conveniently  near.  Baggage  is  conveyed 
from  the  wharf  to  the  station,  a  distance  of  about  a  mile,  by 
hand  trolley.  I  found  it  advisable  to  ask  for  the  English 
superintendent  at  Tientsin  station,  and  with  his  help,  I  sent, 
at  a  fairly  moderate  charge,  all  my  heavy  baggage  on  to  Peking 
by  slow  passenger  train,  enabling  it  to  arrive  there  about  the 
same  time  as  I  did  myself,  travelling  by  the  afternoon  mail  train. 
The  journey  from  Tientsin  to  Peking  takes  about  four  hours. 
The  Peking  terminus  is  at  the  Ch'ien-men  station,  quite  close 
to  which  is  the  Grand  Hotel  des  Wagons-lit,  at  which  rooms 
should  be  booked  in  advance.  Here  also  there  is  a  special  tariff 
for  government  officials,  but  all  charges  are  higher  than  those  at 
Shanghai.  There  are  other  hotels  in  Peking. 

I  strongly  advise  any  one  proposing  to  reside  at  Peking  to 
write  well  before  his  own  arrival  to  friends  there  to  help  him  in 
the  selection  of  a  house,  which  he  would  find  very  hard  to 
procure  at  short  notice.  Unless  a  European-built  furnished 
house  can  be  rented  (at  a  very  high  figure),  furniture  will  also 
have  to  be  arranged  for.  Hiring  of  household  furniture  is  not 
customary.  Chinese  are  fairly  skilful  carpenters,  and  furniture 
after  the  foreign  pattern  is  extensively  sold  in  Peking.  Never- 
theless, it  is  best  not  to  hurry  too  much  in  purchasing  it,  as 
better  bargains  can  be  struck  if  more  time  is  allowed  and  as 
experience  is  gained.  Articles  made  of  unseasoned  wood  are  very 
often  sold  to  the  unwary.  Auction  sales  are  occasionally  advertised 
in  the  local  papers.  A  semi-foreign  Chinese  house  outside  the 
Legation  Quarter  can  be  recommended  as  in  many  ways  more 
suited  to  the  climate  and  generally  more  moderate  in  rent,  the 
latter  varying  to  a  great  extent  in  accordance  with  the  distance 
of  the  house  from  the  Legations. 

All  furniture,  including  beds,  iron  stoves  and  baths,  can  be 
had  of  quite  good  quality  from  the  Chinese  shops,  but  those 
situated  near  the  Legation  Quarter  will  be  found  to  be  much 
more  expensive  than  those  some  distance  away.  The  nearer  the 
Legations  the  greater  the  expense,  applies  to  everything.  It 
is  advisable  to  bring  some  serviceable  table  and  hanging  lamps. 
Wall  lamps  in  Chinese  houses  are  dangerous.  Good  lamps  of 
any  kind  are  surprisingly  hard  to  procure,  probably  because  the 
Legation  Quarter  is  so  largely  lighted  by  electricity,  and  the 
Chinese  themselves  go  in  for  the  cheaper  article.  Tin-lined 
boxes  are  very  useful ;  indeed,  all  the  precautions  necessary  for 
the  care  of  one's  belongings  in  India  are  equally  necessary  at 
Peking.  Mosquito-nets  are  indispensable. 

VOL.  XXIX. —No.  173.  T 


208  The  Empire  Review 

Servants  must  be  procured  through  the  recommendation  of  a 
foreigner:  there  is  no  "chit"  system.  But  once  a  good  head 
"  boy  "  has  been  engaged,  he  is,  as  a  rule,  a  sufficient  guarantee 
for  the -rest  of  the  servants,  provided  he  is  allowed  to  produce 
them.  The  wages  of  servants  vary  in  accordance  with  the  above- 
given  rule. 

Bachelors  can  sometimes  find  quarters  in  a  "chummery," 
which  is  perhaps  a  desirable  arrangement  for  a  newcomer  to  the 
country.  As  there  are  now,  I  believe,  over  three  thousand 
foreigners  living  in  different  parts  of  Peking,  this  should  not  be 
very  difficult  to  arrange,  if  desired. 

For  anyone  fixing  on  a  house  some  distance  from  the  Lega- 
tions the  question  of  a  conveyance*  comes  in.  Rickshaws  ply 
everywhere  and  are  very  convenient,  but  the  charges  for  them  are 
such  that  if  they  are  being  constantly  used,  especially  for  night 
work,  a  private  one  is  well  worth  while.  A  rickshaw  by  the 
hour  in  Peking  is  considerably  more  expensive  than  a  tonga  in 
the  ordinary  Indian  station.  A  bicycle  would  be  very  handy,  and 
is  well  worth  bringing  out,  as  the  roads  of  Peking  are  being 
constantly  improved  upon. 

Once  outside  the  walls,  however,  the  so-called  roads  are  in 
the  same  condition  as  all  the  other  country  roads  in  China,  and 
are,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  impassable  for  rickshaws  or 
anything  else  on  wheels  not  very  strongly  built.  Therefore 
ponies  prove  the  most  useful  form  of  conveyance  for  all-round 
work.  The  only  kind  of  ponies  available  on  the  spot  are  Chinese 
ponies,  which  are  hardy  and  full  of  work,  though  not,  as  a  rule, 
comfortable  hacks  or  well-dispositioned  beasts.  Veterinary  ad- 
vice is  almost  impossible  to  obtain,  so  a  newcomer  will  do  well  to 
have  a  pony  selected  for  him,  as  the  native  dealers  are  very  cute, 
and  "palm  off  their  snags  "  on  the  unsuspecting  foreigner.  The 
"griffins"  (young  ponies)  are  brought  down  from  Mongolia  in 
herds,  and  are  quite  unaccustomed  to  white  faces,  and  as  a  large 
number  of  them  are  really  vicious  towards  foreigners,  always  be 
careful  before  mounting.  In  striking  contrast  with  other  things 
in  North  China,  they  are  cheap,  the  average  price  being  from  £8 
to  £9.  The  cost  of  keeping  a  pony  is  much  the  same  as  in 
India ;  for  two,  it  is  less,  as  one  "  mafoo  "  will  look  after  them 
both. 

Polo  is  played  from  March  to  October  in  Peking  and  Tientsin, 
and  intending  players  should  bring  gear  with  them,  including 
sticks.  In  the  winter  there  are  frequent  cross-country  paper 
hunts,  and  in  spring  and  autumn  two  very  well -patronised  race- 
meetings.  The  racecourse  is  about  five  miles  west  of  the  Lega- 
tions, and  near  it  there  are  a  few  foreign-built  houses,  used  mostly 
as  summer  country  residences.  A  few  people  keep  carriages, 


Impressions  of  Peking  209 

entirely  for  social  work,  but  they  are  of  no  use  for  anything 
else. 

For  people  coming  to  China  for  reasons  other  than  pleasure 
a  knowledge  of  the  language  is  desirable.  A  great  many 
foreigners  in  Peking  know  some  Chinese,  but  very  few  native 
teachers  can  speak  anything  but  their  own  language,  the  reason 
being  that  men  sufficiently  educated  to  speak  English,  French, 
German,  or  Russian  generally  find  permanent  employment 
in  the  railways  or  telegraphs,  or  with  foreign  firms.  A  large 
number  of  Chinese  teachers  are  available,  and  many  will  be 
recommended  or  will  personally  present  their  credentials.  Some 
are  experienced,  but  these  have  often  more  than  one  pupil,  and 
the  intending  student  will  find  it  difficult  to  obtain  his  lessons  at 
convenient  hours.  It  is  far  better  for  a  beginner  to  secure  a 
teacher  who  can  be  entirely  at  his  service.  A  great  many  people 
pay  their  teachers  too  high  a  wage,  thereby  "  spoiling  the 
market."  There  are  several  well-read  and  intelligent  Chinese 
only  too  glad  of  any  job.  The  beginner  should  look  before  he 
leaps,  and  get  reliable  advice.  In  the  East  city  classes  are  held 
for  language  study  under  missionary  management.  These  are 
open  to  all  for  a  small  fee  and  might  well  be  worth  finding  out 
about.  Anyone  thinking  of  studying  Chinese  should  bear  in 
mind  that  the  complicated  characters  are  a  great  strain  on  the 
eyes,  and  if  the  eyes  are  originally  weak,  to  undertake  this  study 
seriously  is  to  court  disaster. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  money  currency  deserves  mention. 
£1  will  generally  change  for  a  little  over  $10  (ten  dollars)  at  a 
bank.  A  dollar  is  nominally  worth  two  shillings,  and  if  changed 
at  a  money-changer's  will  fetch  115  cents  in  silver  money  or 
about  128  cents  in  copper.  Small  silver  consists  of  twenty,  ten 
and  five-cent  pieces.  A  twenty-cent  piece  is  worth  twenty-two 
copper  cents  and  a  ten-cent  piece  thirteen !  Careful  house- 
keepers generally  keep  their  accounts  in  copper  cents. 

Another  commodity  with  which  it  is  well  to  come  amply 
provided  is  calling-cards.  The  Peking  custom  is  that  the  new 
arrival  should  call  on  all  the  older  residents,  and  etiquette 
demands  that  all  the  officials  in  the  various  Legations  should  be 
called  on  individually.  In  90  per  cent,  of  cases  this  merely  means 
a  card  dropped  in  a  pigeon-hole  with  no  result.  The  married 
people  must  be  called  on  at  their  own  houses.  It  seems  to  be 
the  custom  in  some  quarters  to  return  calls  by  means  of  a  bundle 
of  assorted  cards  sent  round  by  a  coolie :  and  the  height  of 
particularity  demands  the  return  of  the  card,  initialled  by  the 
recipient  of  the  call !  However,  one  must  take  into  consideration, 
in  criticising  these  small  matters,  the  cosmopolitanism  of  Peking 
society, 

T  2 


210  The  Empire  Review 

During  the  season,  which  lasts  from  October  to  March, 
Peking  is  very  gay.  There  is  one  continual  round  of  dances, 
dinners,  and  other  entertainments  at  the  various  Legations, 
private  houses  and  the  Peking  Club,  a  well-appointed  double- 
storied  building,  with  a  large  reading-room,  where  European  and 
American  periodicals  can  be  seen.  It  contains  several  card- 
rooms,  a  billiard -room,  bar  and  ball-room.  There  are  six  tennis 
courts  (made  of  a  mixture  of  mud  and  chopped  straw),  some  of 
which,  during  winter,  are  converted  into  a  covered  ice-skating 
rink.  Ladies  are  allowed  to  play  tennis  or  to  make  other  use  of 
the  club  till  sundown  but  not  afterwards.  This  is  merely  a 
courtesy  extended  to  families  of  members,  who  pay  no  extra 
subscription.  There  is  also  a  skittle  alley  for  wet  weather. 
The  racecourse  is  maintained  by  the  Peking  Club :  it  is  about 
one  and  a  half  miles  long  and  has  a  fine  double-storied  grand- 
stand. Outside  the  Legations  is  the  International  Club,  merely 
kept  up  for  tennis  and  skating ;  its  membership  includes  Chinese 
as  well  as  foreigners. 

Peking  is  the  centre  of  missionary  work  carried  on  in  North 
China,  both  Protestants  and  Eoman  Catholics  having  built 
imposing-looking  churches  and  schools  in  various  quarters  of  the 
city.  Protestant  endeavour  largely  tends  towards  medical  aid 
for  the  Chinese,  the  result  being  several  well-appointed  hospitals 
for  both  men  and  women.  The  Union  Medical  College  is  a  large 
building  on  the  Hatamen  Street,  and  has  been  brought  into  being 
through  the  combined  efforts  of  several  British  and  American 
missions,  whose  doctors  not  only  give  lectures  to  Chinese 
students,  but  also  practise  in  the  hospitals  attached  and  amongst 
Chinese  and  foreigners,  privately.  The  Union  Medical  Hospitals 
are  superintended  by  an  English  matron  and  under  her  is  a  staff 
of  Chinese  male  and  female  nurses,  the  training  of  whom  is  a 
work  in  itself  to  be  much  applauded.  The  other  hospitals  are 
doing  equally  useful  work  in  their  own  spheres.  There  is  both  a 
civil  and  a  military  doctor  in  the  British  Legation  and  a  small 
hospital  for  the  Legation  Guard. 

The  city  of  Peking  has  been  greatly  altered  for  the  better  of 
recent  years.  The  main  streets  are  now  worthy  of  the  name, 
being  fairly  well  metalled  and  kept  up,  with  deep  gutters  on 
either  side  to  carry  off  the  water,  which  however  during  really 
rainy  weather  flows  in  torrents  through  the  main  gates,  thereby 
greatly  impeding  traffic,  sometimes  the  whole  day  long.  Through- 
out their  length  the  main  streets  are  lighted  by  electricity,  which 
is  reliable  except  under  certain  circumstances,  such  as  very 
severe  dust  storms.  The  water  supply  is  good,  it  being  carried 
in  pipes  from  mountain  sources  to  the  north.  There  are  stand- 
pipes  at  frequent  intervals  along  the  streets  and  private  house- 


Impressions  of  Peking  211 

holders  can  have  water  laid  on  in  their  houses  if  they  wish, 
otherwise  it  is  brought  in,  in  barrows,  at  fixed  rates.  During 
dry  weather  both  wells  and  stand-pipes  are  used  for  supplying 
the  water  for  laying  the  dust  on  the  streets.  There  are  a  few 
water-carts,  but  the  usual  method  is  sprinkling  with  a  large 
wooden  ladle  from  a  big  bucket.  The  side  alleys,  or  "hu- 
t'ungs,"  are  in  the  same  awful  state  as  they  always  have  been, 
and  during  rainy  weather  are  filthy  quagmires.  As  heavily  laden 
country  carts  are  not  allowed  to  proceed  along  the  metalled  roads, 
it  is  a  common  sight  to  see  them  completely  stuck,  often  in  mud 
and  slush  well  over  the  axles.  Trees  are  being  planted  along 
the  main  roads. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  changes  in  Peking  is  the  opening 
of  the  Ta-ch'ing  Gate,  about  200  yards  north  of  the  Ch'ien-men, 
and  which,  during  the  last  dynasty,  was  kept  closed,  except  to 
allow  for  the  entry  of  the  Emperor  into  the  Imperial  City. 
About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  north  of  the  Ta-ch'ing  Gate  is  the 
T'ien-an  Gate,  the  main  entrance  to  the  Imperial  City  ;  this  is  still 
kept  shut.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  west  of  it  is  the 
entrance  to  the  Nan-hai  (South  Sea),  the  portion  of  the  Imperial 
City  at  present  occupied  by  the  President  (and  out  of  which  he 
dare  not  stir). 

Of  the  recently  erected  important  foreign-style  buildings  the 
most  imposing  are  the  Law  Courts,  the  Bank  of  China,  the 
Council  Chamber,  and  the  Foreign  Office.  There  are  also  one  or 
two  large  museums  and  exhibition  buildings.  The  water-works, 
with  their  tall  chimney-stack,  and  the  electric  works,  both  testify 
to  the  increasing  westernization  of  the  capital. 

Now  a  few  words  about  Peking's  venerable  protector— the 
Wall.  This  huge  rampart,  sixteen  miles  long,  runs  without 
a  break  all  round  the  Tartar  city ;  it  is  pierced  by  nine  main 
gates,  three  on  the  south  side  and  two  on  each  of  the  others. 
On  the  south  side  there  is  also  the  famous  water-gate,  not  so 
imposing  as  the  rest,  but  historical  to  white  men,  as  being 
the  gate  through  which  the  Legations  were  relieved  in  1900. 
The  Wall,  with  its  enormous  stone  slabs,  has  become  uneven 
and  rugged  through  centuries  of  neglect  and  disrepair,  but 
nevertheless,  although  the  going  may  be  rough,  a  walk  on  it 
is  always  enjoyable.  From  it  every  breath  of  wind  is  felt  and 
glorious  views  obtained  of  the  mountains  to  the  north  (and  of 
Peking  itself),  especially  of  an  evening  after  a  spell  of  rain,  with 
heavy  black  clouds  hanging  low  and  the  red  sunset  glowing 
between  them  and  the  summits  of  the  hills.  The  Chinese  never 
use  the  Wall  as  a  promenade.  They  seem  to  prefer  the  stuffy 
atmosphere  of  their  narrow  "  hu-t'ungs."  Foreigners,  however, 
frequently  use  it  as  a  promenade.  The  authorities  talk  of  still 


212  The  Empire  Review 

further  desecrating  this  old  monument  by  piercing  another  hole 
in  it,  at  the  Ch'ien-men,  where  the  traffic  is  so  heavy,  and 
perhaps  yet  another  still  further  west.  However,  owing  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  in  Europe,  minor  improvements  in  China  are 
sure  to  come  to  a  standstill,  especially  as  China  seems  to  be  able 
to  do  nothing  really  useful,  without  borrowing  the  requisite 
funds,  and  the  Quintuple  Group  of  loaning  banks  has  already 
told  her  that  loans  are  "  off "  for  the  present. 

The  Wall  that  surrounds  the  Chinese  city  is  much  lower  than 
the  Tartar  city  wall,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  descend  from  the 
higher  to  the  lower  wall  at  the  points  where  they  unite. 

The  Imperial  City  is  a  walled  enclosure,  situated  in  the  centre 
of  the  Tartar  city,  and  the  Legations  lie  between  the  Imperial  City 
and  the  south  wall  of  the  Tartar  city.  The  southern  face  of  the 
Legations  is  well  protected  by  the  Wall,  which  forms  their  boundary 
on  that  side,  and  is  patrolled  from  the  German  and  American 
guards.  The  remaining  three  faces  are  protected  by  loopholed 
walls,  guarded  by  French  and  Germans  on  the  East,  Italians  and 
British  on  the  north,  and  British  and  Russians  on  the  west.  The 
other  Legations  are  all  centrally  situated,  and  their  military 
responsibility  is  confined,  ordinarily,  to  their  own  enclosures.  The 
Legations  have  almost  reached  the  limit  of  their  building  space, 
and  Government  officials  find  the  housing  question  a  difficulty. 

The  banks  include  the  Hong  Kong  and  Shanghai,  the  Yoko- 
hama Specie,  the  Eusso-Asiatic,  the  Deutsche-Asiatika,  the 
Banque  de  1'Indo-Chine,  and  an  American  bank.  The  Chartered 
Bank  of  India  is  also  opening  a  branch,  the  building  being  in 
process  of  construction. 

Sanction  has  been  given  for  the  construction  of  electric  tram- 
ways in  Peking,  and  six  main  routes  have  already  been  decided 
on,  running  both  inside  the  Tartar  city  and  in  the  Chinese  city. 
One  hears  of  opposition  to  the  scheme  on  account  of  the  threat- 
ened loss  of  a  livelihood  to  many  of  the  thousands  of  rickshaw 
coolies.  If  and  when  the  tramways  do  come,  there  will  have  to 
be  better  police  control  of  traffic  than  at  present,  or  there  will  be 
accidents  without  number,  as  occurred  in  Shanghai  when  tram- 
ways were  first  introduced  there. 

The  police  are  not  a  brilliant  force,  neither  smart  in  their 
work  nor  appearance.  Their  uniforms  in  winter  are  of  black 
cloth,  and  in  summer  they  don  khaki  (mustard  colour).  They 
carry  small  rattling  swords  and  rifles  of  an  antiquated  design. 
The  city  is  divided  up  into  police  districts,  and  police  posts  are 
in  evidence  everywhere.  During  my  visit  the  police  were  much 
occupied  in  carrying  out  an  order  for  the  removal  of  pigtails. 
The  campaign  started  against  rickshaw  coolies,  who,  if  they  had 
not  discarded  their  queues,  were  stopped  in  the  street,  and  while 


Impressions  of  Peking  213 

one  policeman  laid  hold  of  the  queue,  his  confederate  snipped  it 
off  with  his  scissors  and  put  it  into  a  bag  along  with  his  previous 
spoil.  After  a  day  or  two  of  these  rather  drastic  measures  many 
rickshaw  coolies  left  the  capital  to  preserve  their  beloved  appen- 
dages, but  amongst  those  who  remained  practically  all  were 
queueless.  After  the  coolies  came  the  shopkeepers  and  their 
assistants.  Every  shopkeeper  was  told  to  go  to  the  nearest 
police  station,  where  he  was  informed  that  unless,  before  the 
next  day,  he  had  cut  off  the  offending  queue  and  caused  his 
assistants  to  do  the  same,  the  police  would  take  the  matter  into 
their  own  hands,  as  in  the  case  of  the  coolies. 

The  Chinese  can  really  claim  efficiency  in  their  postal  and 
telegraph  services,  which  are  administered  by  foreigners.  Letters 
rarely  go  astray,  and  postage  fees  are  very  moderate.  There  are 
three  mails  a  week  to  and  from  Europe,  and  letters  reach 
England  by  the  fastest  of  them  in  twelve  days.  There  is  no 
official  civil  British  post  office  in  Peking  similar  to  those  of 
Germany,  France  and  Japan.  There  is,  however,  a  field  post 
office,  used  only  by  British  Legation  people.  This  office  sends 
letters  to  the  few  places  in  China  where  British  troops  are 
stationed,  also  to  England  and  India,  but  there  is  no  parcel  post. 
The  climate  of  North  China  is  variable  in  the  extreme,  the 
pleasantest  months  of  the  year  being  March,  April,  May,  October 
and  November.  December,  January  and  February  are  exces- 
sively cold  and  furs  are  a  necessity.  From  June  to  September 
is  the  hot  weather,  the  rainy  months  being  July  and  August. 
The  maximum  temperature  during  the  hot  months  ranges,  on 
an  average,  between  90°  and  98°,  and  the  minimum  about  20° 
lower.  August  is  considered  the  least  healthy  month.  Punkahs 
are  not  in  evidence :  the  better  houses  have  electric  fans. 
Except  in  the  rainy  season,  the  dust  is  very  trying,  and  in 
Peking,  where  coal-dust  lies  about  everywhere  in  large  heaps, 
ready  to  be  made  up  into  balls  mixed  with  mud,  it  is  of  an 
exceedingly  dirty  nature.  The  roads  dry  up  so  quickly  that  an 
afternoon's  bright  sun,  even  after  a  morning's  heavy  rain,  will 
prepare  the  dust  for  next  day. 

Most  Europeans  like  to  be  out  of  Peking  from  about  the 
middle  of  June  to  the  first  week  in  September.  This  period  is 
generally  spent  at  the  seaside  resorts  of  Pei-t'ai-ho,  Ch'in-Wang-tao 
and  Shan-hai-kuan,  where  the  sea  breezes  render  the  heat  less 
trying.  At  all  of  these  places  there  is  excellent  sea-bathing 
from  sandy  beaches.  Pei-t'ai-ho  is  the  most  popular  and  can  be 
reached  in  about  eleven  hours  from  Peking  by  train,  the  last 
five  miles  from  the  station  to  the  sea  being  accomplished  on 
donkeys.  There  is  a  small  hotel  at  Pei-t'ai-ho ;  houses  rent  for 
high  figures.  Some  people  pitch  tents. 


214  The  Empire  Review 

Ch'in-wang-tao,  ten  miles  from  Pei-t'ai-ho,  is  reached  in 
about  twelve  hours  from  Peking,  and  is  connected  by  a  branch 
line  belonging  to  the  Kailan  Mining  Administration,  with  the 
main  line  at  T'ang-ho.  It  is  a  small  port  administered  by  the 
Mining  Company.  It  is  said  to  be  an  ice-free  port,  but  steamers, 
nevertheless,  during  severe  frosts  have  to  break  their  way 
through  the  ice,  which  sometimes  extends  for  eighty  miles 
seawards.  The  wreck  of  a  Japanese  collier,  which  sprung  a  leak 
whilst  battling  through  the  ice,  still  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
not  far  from  the  harbour,  which  is  capable  of  berthing  four  ships 
of  about  3,000  tons.  There  is  a  small  permanent  community  of 
foreigners  at  C'hin-wang-tao,  who  reside  in  well-built  bungalows 
on  the  bluff  and  on  the  low-lying  ground  beneath  it.  There  is  a 
good  club,  with  three  tennis  courts  and  a  nine-hole  golf  course 
(on  which,  however,  play  is  not  very  feasible  during  the  wet 
season).  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  east  of  the  bluff  is  the  old 
coolie-camp,  which  is  now  divided  up  into  sunmer  quarters  for 
foreigners  who  desire  a  restful  holiday  by  the  sea.  They  are 
situated  practically  on  the  beach.  Application  for  these  quarters 
should  be  made,  if  possible,  the  year  before  residence  in  them  is 
required,  to  the  Kailan  Mining  Administration.  Eents  vary  from 
taels  150  to  taels  300,  for  the  season,  for  an  unfurnished  quarter. 

Shan-hai-kuan  is  about  ten  miles  east  of  Ch'in-wang-tao,  and  is 
the  place  where  the  Great  Wall  of  China  passes  across  the  plain 
from  the  mountains  to  the  sea.  The  hotel  is  quite  close  to  the 
railway  station  and  is  not  an  attractive  place  to  spend  a  summer 
holiday  in.  It  is  about  three  miles  from  the  sea  and  is  connected 
with  it  by  a  trolley  line.  In  autumn  and  spring  there  is  good 
duck  shooting  at  all  these  places,  and  this  year  I  shot  my  first 
snipe  on  August  4th. 

Eegarding  curios,  really  old  and  valuable  specimens  are  now 
exceedingly  hard  to  obtain.  The  Chinese  Government  has  at 
last  realised  the  enormous  loss  their  country  sustains  in  allowing 
their  most  precious  works  of  art,  especially  amongst  the  porce- 
lain, which  is  so  peculiarity  their  own  product,  to  be  bought  up 
by  foreigners.  For  this  reason  they  are  doing  their  best  to  hinder 
this  trade  and  have  erected  museums  for  the  collection  of  rare 
specimens.  All  the  same,  many  an  enjoyable  hour  may  be  spent 
amongst  the  various  curio-shops  of  Peking  in  the  search  for  the 
less  valuable,  but  in  many  cases  none  the  less  beautiful  speci- 
mens. Bargaining  is  the  rule.  A  visit  to  a  well-stocked  curio- 
shop  is  a  very  bewildering  experience,  as  in  the  varied  profusion 
of  articles  displayed,  it  is  hard  to  make  a  choice :  but  amongst 
the  most  attractive,  besides  the  porcelain,  are  perhaps  the  brass, 
copper,  blackwood  and  jade. 

These  few  observations  are  primarily  intended  to  be  of  assis- 


Impressions  of  Peking  215 

tance  to  possible  residents  in  Peking,  but  I  cannot  conclude  with- 
out a  word  on  China's  precarious  situation.  Always  in  financial 
difficulties,  the  War  has  increased  these  a  hundredfold.  Her 
internal  troubles  are  constantly  due  to  poverty  and  the  discontent 
caused  thereby  and  the  recent  revolts  of  soldiery,  to  non-issue  of 
pay  or  greedy  desire  for  loot.  Therefore,  if  in  the  near  future 
money  should  run  short,  further  trouble  seems  inevitable. 

C.  D.  WEBSTEE 
(Captain  3Qth  Punjabis). 


NEW  ZEALAND'S  GENEROSITY  TO  BELGIANS 

In  addition  to  the  very  large  sums  of  money  subscribed  by 
New  Zealanders  for  the  relief  of  Belgian  distress,  the  following 
telegram,  signed  by  the  Prime  Minister,  making  known  to  the 
Governor  of  New  Zealand  a  Cabinet  decision,  speaks  for  itself  : — 

"  The  Prime  Minister  begs  to  request  that  His  Excellency  will  inform  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  by  telegraph,  that  the  New  Zealand 
Government  is  prepared  to  forward  hrypediately  ^15,000  from  the  Consolidated 
Fund  for  the  relief  of  distressed  Belgians,  with  more  to  follow  monthly  if  the 
New  Zealand  Government  can  be  given  an  assurance  that  the  money  or  food 
purchased  therewith  will  be  used  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended. 
(Signed)  W.  F.  Massey." 

Mr.  H.  E.  Partridge,  of  Auckland,  New  Zealand,  has  given, 
in  aid  of  the  Auckland  Belgian  Belief  Fund,  the  whole  of  his 
noted  Lindaeur  Collection — extremely  valuable  paintings  of 
Maoris— valued  at  between  £20,000  and  £25,000. 


NEW  ZEALAND'S  POPULATION 

The  vital  statistics  for  New  Zealand  for  1914  are  now 
available,  and  show  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  to  have  been 
18,192,  while  the  net  increase  for  the  year  was  11,334.  For 
1914  the  birth-rate  was  25'99,  and  the  death-rate  9'31.  The 
Government  statistician  estimates  the  total  population  of  the 
Dominion  on  December  31st  at  1,158,438,  of  whom  601,085  were 
males  and  557,363  females.  The  total  number  of  persons  who 
arrived  in  the  Dominion  during  1914  was  37,646,  giving  an 
excess  over  departures  of  5,140.  Of  37,646  persons  who  went  to 
New  Zealand  last  year,  4,267,  or  11 '33  per  cent,  of  the  total, 
were  children  under  twelve  years  of  age,  and  of  32,506  departures, 
the  children  numbered  2,819,  or  8'67  per  cent.  The  departures 
shown  do  not,  of  course,  include  the  11,998  members  of 
Expeditionary  Forces  which  have  left  the  Dominion  since  the 
outbreak  of  war. 


216  The  Empire  Review 


CANADA'S    PLACE    IN    BRITISH    FICTION 

[Continued.] 

II. 

IN  taking  up  a  consideration  of  the  material  which  Canada 
can  offer,  and  has  offered,  to  the  novelist,  the  division  may  be 
made  according  to  certain  peculiarities  of  theme.  History  seems 
to  take  the  position  of  importance,  especially  among  the  writers 
of  a  couple  of  decades  ago.  Quebec  and  the  Maritime  Provinces 
are  the  great  sources  of  historical  fiction.  Stories  of  adventure 
and  exploration  have  always  been  popular,  and  no  richer  field 
could  be  opened  to  the  novelist  than  the  great  North- West. 
Again,  a  kind  of  continuation  of  the  animal  stories  which  began  so 
long  ago  with  .ZEsop  and  Renard  the  Fox  are  continued  in  the  work 
of  Charles  G.  D.  Roberts  and  others.  At  the  present  day,  novels  of 
manners  and  current  problems  are  more  and  more  attracting  the 
attention  of  the  thoughtful  writer.  Such  novels  find  their  central 
interest  in  the  problems  of  immigration,  in  studies  of  city  life,  and 
in  the  relations  of  Canada  to  England  and  other  countries.  The 
present  grim  struggle  is  bringing  out  its  Canadian  poets  from  all 
sides  ;  a  few  years  and  we  shall  see  fiction  written  by  Canadians 
far  surpassing  anything  ever  produced  before. 

To  take  up  the  subject  of  Canadian  historical  fiction  in  greater 
detail,  the  picturesque  conflict  of  the  British  and  French,  begun 
in  Europe,  and  continued  on  the  American  continent,  has  been 
the  theme  of  a  host  of  romances.  Quebec  and  Acadia,  the  storm- 
centres  of  this  struggle,  have  been  made  the  scene  of  many  a 
thrilling  tale.  The  gradual  withdrawal  of  French  influence  in 
Acadia  and  the  great  crisis  of  the  fall  of  Quebec  have  received 
much  attention  from  both  native  and  foreign  writers. 

Probably  the  earliest  of  these  writers  was  Major  Richardson, 
whose  first  novel,  '  Ecarte,'  was  printed  at  New  York  in  1829. 
This  was  followed  by  '  Wacousta'  in  1833,  and  later  by  '  The 
Canadian  Brothers,'  1840,  and  '  The  Guards  in  Canada,'  1848.  His 
novels  all  deal  with  the  warlike  side  of  early  history,  and  the 
seven  or  eight  which  he  produced  follow  much  the  same  vein. 

William  Kirby's  '  Le  Chien  d'Or,'  published  in  1877,  has  been 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  217 

generally  considered  the  best  Canadian  historical  novel.  The 
author  was  a  profound  student,  and  his  work  includes  not  only 
fiction,  but  also  poems  and  essays.  The  late  Lord  Tennyson  was 
greatly  interested  in  the  story,  and  wrote  the  author  that  few 
novels  had  ever  given  him  so  much  pleasure,  and  that  he  would 
like  to  write  a  poem  on  the  s'ubject.  '  The  Golden  Dog,'  to  give 
the  English  title,  describes  the  Quebec  of  the  mid-eighteenth 
century,  when  the  officials  of  Louis  Quinze  held  sway.  It  is  a 
novel  written  with  great  dignity  and  power,  and  is  separated  by 
its  style,  which  resembles  Thackeray's,  from  all  similar  attempts. 
Kirby's  characterizations  are  often  most  strikingly  done,  and 
the  life  of  the  French  administration  is  surrounded  with  an 
atmosphere  that  is  full  of  fascinating  detail.  A  delineation  of 
the  external  appearance  of  the  intendant  Bigot,  whose  cruelty 
and  evil  life  marked  him  above  the  rest,  is  a  good  example  of 
Kirby's  style : — 

His  low,  well-set  figure,  dark  hair,  small,  keen,  black  eyes  and  swarthy 
features,  full  of  fire  and  animation,  bespoke  his  Gascon  blood.  His  counte- 
nance was  far  from  comely ;  nay,  when  in  repose  even  ugly  and  repulsive ;  but 
hia  eyes  were  magnets  that  drew  all  men's  looks  towards  him,  for  in  them  lay 
the  force  of  a  powerful  will  and  a  depth  and  subtlety  of  intellect  that  made 
men  fear,  if  they  could  not  love  him. 

The  characters  are,  for  the  most  part,  skilfully  brought  out  as 
the  action  advances.  Amelie,  the  heroine,  is  a  most  attractive 
personality,  and  is  one  of  the  finest  women  in  any  of  the  novels 
of  the  period. 

There  runs  a  strain  of  pathos  through  the  book  that  wins  the 
reader's  heart  to  these  voluntary  exiles  from  old  France.  Very 
quaint  and  attractive  are  the  interiors  of  the  old  mansions  which 
form  the  background  for  the  strange  but  gay  society  transplanted 
from  beyond  the  seas  and  boldly  endeavouring  to  blossom  in  the 
new  land. 

'  Le  Chien  d'Or '  contains  many  snatches  of  ancient  French  lays 
and  merry  chansons  of  the  coureursdes  bois,  the  most  interesting 
of  which  is  one  sung  by  Amelie  at  an  evening  gathering,  a  song 
composed  by  a  dying  voyageur,  and  found  written  on  a  piece  of 
birch  bark  and  lying  by  the  side  of  his  lifeless  body  : — 

Petit  rocher  de  la  haute  montagne, 

Je  viens  finir  ici  cette  campagne ! 

Ah  1  doux  echos,  entendez  mes  soupirs  ! 

En  languissant  je  vais  bientdt  mourir. 

Rossignol,  va  dire  a  ma  maitresse, 

A  mes  enfants,  qu'un  adieu  je  leur  laisse, 

Que  j'ai  garde  mon  amour  et  ma  foi 

Et  desormais  faut  renoncer  a  moi. 

Of  the  later  writers,  the  historical  novels  of  Mrs.  Catherwood 


218  The  Empire  Review 

are  especially  worthy  of  mention.  She  has  written  a  number 
dealing  with  Canada,  but '  The  Lady  of  Fort  St.  John'  is  perhaps 
the  best,  and  gives  a  powerful  delineation  of  life  in  Acadia  during 
the  seventeenth  century.  The  bickerings  of  La  Tour  and 
D'Aulnay,  two  rival  fur  traders,  provide  the  theme.  Both  wished 
to  secure  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John 
Eiver,  in  what  is  now  New  Brunswick,  and  tragic  was  the  end  of 
their  strife.  No  page  in  their  history  is  so  well  known  to  the 
Canadian  schoolboy  or  girl  as  that  which  tells  of  Lady  La  Tour's 
gallant  defence  of  the  fort,  when  her  husband  was  absent  in 
Boston,  endeavouring  to  raise  a  force  sufficently  large  to  dis- 
courage D'Aulnay  from  all  attempts  to  gain  a  foothold  on  his 
domains.  Only  after  many  days  was  she  forced  to  surrender, 
through  the  treachery  of  a  Swiss  sentry  in  her  own  garrison. 

Of  this  novel,  L'Abbe  Casgrain  has  said,  "  It  recalls  the 
romances  of  Walter  Scott  and  forces  one  to  own  that  reality  is 
stranger  than  fiction."  The  character  of  Lady  La  Tour  is 
brought  out  in  gradual  strokes  of  action,  rather  than  in  conver- 
sation, to  show  her  tenderness,  her  courage,  her  quick  thought, 
and  her  unselfish  regard  for  others.  Her  own  honesty  leads  her 
to  trust  D'Aulnay  when  he  offers  safe  conduct  to  her  tiny  force, 
overcome  with  the  fatigue  of  constant  watchfulness.  The  scene 
in  which  the  noble  lady  is  forced  to  witness  the  hanging  of  her 
own  soldiers  has  something  of  the  minute  observation  of  detail 
that  marks  the  trial  scene  in  Oliver  Twist : — 

In  her  walk  she  passed  the  loops  dangling  ready  for  her  men.  A  bird, 
poised  one  instant  on  the  turret,  uttered  a  sweet  long  trill.  She  could  hear 
the  river. 

There  is  a  semi-Gothic  element  in  this  novel,  although 
published  in  1878,  which  is  reminiscent,  as  L'Abbe  Casgrain 
might  have  remarked,  of  similar  effects  in  '  The  Talisman.'  The 
strange  little  dwarf  Eossignol,  her  tame  swan,  and  all  the 
legends  and  superstitions  that  abound  in  the  novel,  give  it  a 
touch  of  weirdness.  This  is  carried  out  even  to  the  last  chapter, 
of  which  retribution  is  the  keynote,  in  the  account  which 
Eossignol  gives  of  D'Aulnay's  horrible  death  among  the  quick- 
sands of  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 

An  effective  introduction  of  scene  always  adds  much  to  the 
historical  novel.  In  this  story  the  situation  of  Fort  St.  John 
among  the  lofty  wooded  bluffs  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  most 
propitious.  A  description  of  these  bluffs  in  early  spring  opens 
the  first  chapter : — 

A  month  later  the  headlands  would  be  lined  distinctly  against  a  blue  and 
quickening  sky  by  freshened  air  and  light  and  herbage.  Two  centuries  and  a 
half  later  long  streaks  of  electric  light  would  ripple  across  that  surface  and 
great  ships  stand  at  ease  there,  and  ferry  boats  rush  back  and  forth.  But  i 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  219 

this  closing  dusk  it  reflected  only  the  grey  and  yellow  vaporous  breath  of  April 
and  the  shaggy  edges  of  a  wilderness.  The  high  shores  sank  their  shadows 
farther  and  farther  from  the  water's  edge. 

In  Charles  G.  D.  Roberts  is  found  a  native  writer  whose 
fiction  takes  its  inspiration  from  the  Maritime  Provinces.  He 
was  born  at  Fredericton,  the  capital  of  New  Brunswick,  and 
received  his  education  there.  Later  he  became  Professor  of 
English  Literature  at  the  historic  Nova  Scotian  university  of 
King's  College ;  hence  the  tales  of  these  two  adjoining  provinces 
are  done  by  the  hand  of  one  who  knows  them  well.  Being 
primarily  a  poet,  Roberts  weaves  into  the  tissue  of  his  fiction  an 
unusual  degree  of  poetic  colour  and  eloquence.  '  A  Prisoner  of 
Mademoiselle,'  published  1904,  is  typical  of  his  work.  Its  theme 
is  the  French  and  British  battle  for  supremacy  in  Acadia ;  but 
this  is  here  only  an  enveloping  action  for  the  love  interest. 
Roberts  does  not  delve  deeply  into  the  affairs  of  State  after  the 
manner  of  Kirby  in  '  Le  Chien  d'Or,'  but  prefers  to  blend  his 
history  with  love,  beautiful  scenery,  and  dashing  incident. 

The  lives  of  the  forest  animals  displayed  possibilities  to 
Roberts  at  the  beginning  of  his  literary  career,  and  their  tragedies 
find  a  place  not  only  in  his  short  stories,  but  also  in  the  novels. 
His  animal  stories  are  a  reiteration  of  the  idea  of  the  survival  of 
the  fittest — the  going  of  the  weakest  to  the  wall.  A  characteristic 
passage  from  '  The  Prisoner  of  Mademoiselle '  provides  an 
illustration : — 

As  the  darkness  grew  denser,  the  blockhouse  grew  less  solitary,  though  not 
less  silent.  The  furtive  life  of  the  wilds  began  to  centre  about  it.  Here  and 
there  a  softly  hurried  rustling  betrayed  the  wary  diligence  of  the  mice  and 
shrews.  Presently  a  fox  appeared,  his  brush  of  a  tail  floating  behind  him. 
He  drifted  swiftly  hither  and  thither,  a  darker  shadow  among  the  shadows,  and 
had  snapped  up  two  over-confident  or  unlucky  shrews  before  he  had  reached 
the  blockhouse. 

Then,  after  the  fox,  conies  a  frightened  rabbit,  leaping  across  the 
grass,  vainly  trying  to  elude  a  stealthy  and  purposeful  weasel, 
itself  soon  to  feel  the  talons  of  a  great  downy  owl. 

A  description  of  the  home  of  Governor  Biencourt,  taken  from 
the  above  novel,  not  only  illustrates  the  poetry  of  Roberts's  style, 
but  also  gives  a  picture  of  a  charming  bit  of  Acadian  architecture  : — 

The  manor  house  of  the  Seigniory  of  Cheticamp  was  a  wide,  low,  irregular 
wooden  structure  with  a  high-pitched  gable  and  narrow,  pointed  dormer 
windows  in  its  roof  and  overhanging  eaves.  Its  white  walls  gleamed  through 
the  light  green  of  apple  and  cherry  trees  which  billowed  softly  around  it. 
About  its  lower  windows  thronged  pink  roses  and  stately  blue  lai'kspur  and 
creamy-bloomed  syringa  and  honeysuckle.  From  its  wide  front  door  an 
avenue  of  stiff,  steeple-like  Lombardy  poplars  led  down  a  gentle  slope  to  the 
Port  Boyal  road. 

(To  be  continued.) 


220  The  Empire  Review 


A    SOUTH     AFRICAN    SKETCH 

DROUGHT,   RAIN,    AND  REBELLION 

IT  had  rained  incessantly  for  weeks.  Thirty  inches  had  fallen 
in  less  than  two  months.  Five  years  ago  a  dam  was  made  and 
it  never  filled.  Some  years  a  little  water  came  into  it,  but  it 
never  filled,  and  then  before  the  rains  came,  it  grew  strangely  hot ; 
the  ground  baked  and  cracked  in  the  vleys,  long  wide  cracks,  and 
snakes  and  rats  made  their  homes  in  them.  The  lucerne  became 
uncuttable,  for  the  mules  and  oxen  fell  so  deeply  into  the  gaps 
that  they  had  to  be  dragged  out.  One  felt  sure  heavy  rains  were 
coming.  They  did. 

One  downpour  filled  the  dam.  It  brought  thousands  of 
huge  toads,  almost  as  big  as  cheese-plates,  with  two  teeth, 
impudent  rascals,  that  attacked  your  boots  if  you  advanced  your 
foot.  There  were  snakes  in  the  waters  and  millions  of  tiny  fish, 
basketfuls  of  which  were  collected  at  the  dam  outlet,  and  given  to 
the  poultry.  In  the  roads  barbel  of  three  pounds  were  wabbling 
about  in  shallow  water.  A  fortnight  later  the  waters  came  several 
feet  higher  and  all  the  dams  gave  way,  and  mine  burst  with  them. 
Then  the  flood  went  careering  to  Potchefstroom.  Houses  and 
lands  were  flooded,  crops  of  wheat  and  oats,  which  unfortunate 
farmers  commandeered  for  the  war  had  left,  were  carried  away. 
Then  everything  grew  wild.  Grass  shot  up  to  your  waist's  height 
and  weeds  up  to  your  head.  The  peach  trees  were  overburdened 
and  the  fruit  ripened  and  rolled.  Hordes  of  flies  and  beetles  were 
stinging  and  eating  the  fruit.  Maize  grew  ten  feet  high,  and  the 
yellow  artichokes  bloomed  like  miniature  sunflowers.  Every- 
thing was  in  luxuriant  growth  and  the  pests  were  over-busy. 
Half  the  great  mangold  field  was  destroyed  by  grub,  who,  in 
their  turn,  were  being  eaten  by  starlings.  Dormant  nature  had 
indeed  been  awakened.  The  summer  colouring  of  the  veld,  that 
lasts  so  short  a  time,  showed  on  the  hill-sides  a  greyish  green,  so 
soft  a  colouring  that  is  found  nowhere  else.  It  is  not  to  be 
found  in  sea  or  sky.  It  is  the  colouring  of  grass  in  flower.  In 
Europe  you  have  the  soft  yellow  green  of  early  spring,  and  as 
summer  approaches  it  deepens  and  hardens ;  here  the  early 


A  South  African  Sketch  221 

softness  remains,  but  the  tints  change  to  soft  brown  gold,  until 
at  last  their  autumn  shades  will  be  seared  by  winter's  frosts,  and 
the  waving  masses  become  a  dried  dead  relic,  which  burns  and 
vanishes.  But  there  is  the  rain.  It  cannot  stop ;  it  has  been 
retarded  and  stored,  and  true  to  the  laws  of  balance  it  has  come 
to  soak  the  land.  The  dried-up  fountains  will  run  for  years,  and 
men  wrote  but  yesterday  of  Africa's  drying  up.  For  cattle  died  by 
thousands  and  farmers  were  distracted.  In  the  most  fertile  town 
of  the  Union  the  cows'  carcases  filled  the  river's  bed. 

Misfortune  came  with  the  rebellion ;  women  were  cursing  the 
British  Government,  many  of  them  women  whose  husbands 
were  fighting  for  the  Government.  Though  Great  Britain  had 
humbled  itself  to  get  peace,  and  everything  that  a  spoilt  child 
could  have  was  given  them,  whilst  loyalists  groaned  at  their 
many  advantages,  Dutch  women  have  never  ceased  to  abuse 
England  for  placing  them  in  camps,  and  they  have  been  ably 
supported  by  those  who  had  never  intended  to  be  true  British 
subjects ;  by  those  who  had  hidden  the  flag  of  the  Republic  and 
daily  schemed  and  plotted  to  destroy  the  English  and  hoist  it 
again.  When  one  sees  the  cruel  treatment  the  Allies  have 
received  in  this  war,  one  doubts  if  England's  generosity  was  not 
beyond  war's  scope  ?  Boer  sympathisers  say  they  were  only 
removed  in  order  to  burn  their  nouses.  It  is  a  lie!  Houses 
were  burnt  and  justly  burnt,  houses  were  spared  and  justly 
spared.  It  was  on  account  of  fair  play  that  they  were  not  burnt 
and  it  was  on  account  of  foul  play  that  they  were ;  and  it  was 
out  of  human  kindness  that  women  and  children  were  protected 
and  cared  for,  and  many  have  not  been  better  off  since.  That 
many  died  it  is  true,  but  humanity  cannot  take  the  same 
liberties  in  confinement  that  it  can  in  freedom,  and  what  is  done 
in  the  veld  cannot  be  done  in  a  town.  To  feed,  educate  and  care 
for  your  enemies  is  the  last  concession,  and  such  generosity 
cannot  be  excelled.  Has  Germany  repeated  it  ?  Will  any  other 
nation  ever  repeat  it?  Then  why  should  the  women  of  the 
Dutch  ever  have  been  drilled  to  the  complaint  ?  It  was  but  a 
trick  of  Hertzog,  Steyn  and  De  Wet.  Hertzog,  the  son  of  a 
German,  with  hatred  in  his  blood,  used  this  and  the  taal  as  his 
weapons  to  assail  the  British. 

The  first  attempt  is  dying  down  fast,  but  the  language 
question  has  been  forced  to  the  annoyance  and  cost  of  the  Union 
generally.  But  as  the  first  has  died  so  will  the  second.  The 
utter  futility  of  assailing  the  English  language  with  a  con- 
glomerate of  Dutch,  French  and  Hottentot,  that  has  no  litera- 
ture, is  as  mad  as  was  the  attempted  rebellion.  Why,  not  even 
the  renowned  author  of  '  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop ' 
could  ever  have  made  it  an  instrument  to  carry  it  to  live  in 


222  The  Empire  Review 

literary  usefulness,  and  these  braggarts'  Liliputian  attempts  to 
assail  the  tongue  of  Shakespeare  is  but  the  outcome  of  hidden 
malice  and  cloaked  hate.  But  "there  are  more  things  'twixt 
heaven  and  earth,"  and  with  the  future  will  come  movements 
and  developments  so  great,  that  all  this  despicable  meanness  will 
glide  away  in  the  light  of  the  great  events  that  will  absorb  the 
attention  of  a  people  with  a  greater  purpose. 

W.  P.  TAYLOR. 


"WHAT    OF    THE    NAVY?" 

THE  days  of  Drake  are  past  and  gone, 

What  of  our  glorious  day? 
The  same  the  deeds  of  daring  done, 
The  same  the  risks  so  gaily  run, 

The  same  fine  way  of  death. 

Poets  will  sing  in  the  days  to  come 

Of  the  Arethusa's  fight, 
Of  the  Kent  and  her  stokers'  work  below, 
Of  the  little  Gloucester  that  chased  the  foe 

In  splendid  loneliness. 

They  will  tell  of  the  nerve  of  English  boys 

Scouting  beneath  the  sea; 

Of  the  long,  cold  nights  and  the  ceaseless  strain, 
Of  the  trawlers  out  in  the  beating  rain 

Sweeping  for  hidden  death. 

Of  the  grey  North  Sea  and  its  bitter  winds 

And  its  awful  toll  of  lives. 
They  will  speak  with  awe  in  that  future  day 
Of  the  great,  veiled  tragedy  far  away 

When  Brandt  and  Craddock  died. 

They  will  tell  the  tale  of  the  gallant  three— 

Aboukir,  Cressy  and  Hague; 
They  will  make  a  ballad  of  Sturdee's  fame 
When  without  a  cheer  or  a  crowd's  acclaim 

He  sailed  across  the  world. 

They  will  tell  of  romance  and  adventure  high, 

Of  endurance  and  pluck  supreme; 
They  will  tell  of  a  spirit  game  to  the  last. 
The  days  of  Drake  may  be  gone  and  past, 

Our  glorious  day  is  here. 

M.  G.  MEUGENS. 


The  Empire  Library  223 


THE    EMPIRE    LIBRARY 

CHRONICLES   OF   MAN* 

THE  production  of  a  philosophical  poem  in  this  somewhat 
tmphilosophical  and  almost  wholly  unpoetical  age  argues  at  once 
a  high  enthusiasm  and  a  considerable  degree  of  courage.  The 
author  of  the  '  Chronicles  of  Man,'  best  described,  perhaps,  as  a 
rhythmic  essay  or  series  of  essays  upon  the  progress  of  the  human 
race  from  its  earliest  beginnings  to  the  present  era,  in  which  the 
chief  spheres  of  human  action  and  the  chief  phases  of  human 
thought  are  reviewed  and  illustrated,  appears  to  have  taken  as 
his  motto  the  famous  words  of  Terence :  "  Homo  sum  :  humani 
nil  a  me  alienum  puto." 

Besides  sketching  in  a  more  or  less  natural  order  of  time  and 
place  the  general  progress  of  mankind,  material,  intellectual  and 
moral,  in  almost  every  part  of  the  globe,  Dr.  Coxwell  has  provided 
us  with  a  series  of  biographies  and  portraits  of  something  like  a 
hundred  of  the  men  and  women  whose  aspirations  or  achieve- 
ments mark  epochs  in  the  course  of  human  advance.  He  has  also 
devoted  considerable  space  to  the  history  of  art  and  literature,  and 
to  the  great  philosophical  and  religious  systems  of  the  world.  He 
has  included  fairly  lengthy  sketches  of  some  of  the  greatest 
literary  productions,  such  for  example  as  the  Iliad,  jthe  great  poem 
of  Lucretius,  and  Dante's  Divine  Comedy,  and  he  has  not 
hesitated  to  set  forth  myth  and  legend  wherever  it  seemed 
significant  or  illuminating.  The  knowledge  and  wealth  of 
illustration  presented  are  remarkable,  yet  the  learning  is  never  of 
the  useless  or  pedantic  order.  One  feels  throughout  that  the 
author  is  no  mere  scholar  or  dreamer  whose  inspiration  is  that  of 
the  library,  but  an  earnest  student  who  has  combined  immense 
study  with  wide  travel.  The  plan  of  the  book  has  expanded  as 
the  work  proceeded,  but  the  whole  poem  is  informed  and  unified 
by  the  great  central  idea  which  runs  through  it  from  the  first  page 
to  the  last,  the  progress  of  humanity. 

The  definition  of  poetry  has  always  been  one  of  the  hardest  of 
problems,  and  it  is  not  proposed  to  hazard  a  solution  in  the 

*  'Chronicles  of  Man.'  By  C.  Fillingham  Coxwell.  London:  Watts  &  Co. 
6s.  net. 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  173  u 


224  The  Empire  Review 

present  article.  To  the  Greeks,  who  were  the  first  to  evolve  a 
theory  of  the  poetic  art,  a  poem  meant  primarily  a  thing  created, 
and  a  poet  a  creator.  Bomance,  which  is  a  development  of 
medieval  and  modern  times,  has  greatly  narrowed  the  common 
conception  of  the  poetic.  But  to  the  Greek  mind  a  dissertation 
upon  the  theory  of  atoms  or  a  treatise  on  metaphysics  could  seem 
no  less  poetic  than  the  story  of  the  Argonauts  or  the  love  songs 
of  Sappho.  It  is  to  the  broader  and  more  classical  conception  of 
poetry  that  Dr.  Coxwell's  book  belongs.  In  attempting  to  bridge 
the  gulf  which  modern  feeling  has  placed  between  scientific  and 
poetic  thought,  he  has  not  made  the  mistake  of  trying  to  clothe 
essentially  scientific  subjects,  such  as  the  theory  of  natural 
selection  or  the  researches  of  Mendel,  for  example,  which  demand 
exact  expression,  with  poetic  adornments  in  the  narrower  sense. 
He  has  kept  his  colours  for  the  pictures  upon  which  he  can  use 
them  with  effect,  as  in  the  following  lines  which  occur  in  a  fine 
passage  on  the  great  cathedrals  of  the  Middle  Ages  : — 

The  ancient  roofs  and  towers,  sharp  spires  of  lofty  grace, 
Benignly  mark  the  steps  of  those  who  wondering  pace 
Under  their  altitudes.     Wrought  portal,  columned  nave, 
Chantry  and  effigy  and  all  forgotten  grave, 
The  transept's  blaze  of  colour  and  the  cloister  wall 
And  solemn  altarpiece,  softly  the  past  recall. 

The  metre  of  any  long  poem  is  necessarily  a  matter  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  its  artistic  success,  for  upon  the  metre 
largely  depends  the  movement  which  is  to  carry  the  reader 
onward  from  page  to  page.  For  a  work  of  the  scope  and 
character  of  the  '  Chronicles  of  Man,'  there  were  practically 
only  three  metres  available.  In  choosing  the  Alexandrine,  the 
author  may  not  improbably  have  been  actuated  in  some  measure 
by  the  memory  of  the  lamentable  results  which  have  often 
attended  the  use  of  blank  verse  or  the  heroic  couplet  by  other 
than  the  very  best  of  hands.  The  former  offers  a  terrible 
temptation  to  mediocre  verbosity,  and  the  latter  possesses  among 
many  serious  defects  in  a  long  poem  that  of  emphasising  itself 
unduly  upon  the  ear  of  the  reader.  Dr.  Coxwell's  choice  was 
probably  influenced  also  to  some  extent  by  the  knowledge  that, 
with  the  exception  of  the  "  Polyolbion "  of  Dray  ton  and 
Browning's  "  Fifine  at  the  Fair,"  he  would  practically  be 
breaking  new  ground.  The  Alexandrine  has  not  hitherto  found 
general  favour  in  this  country.  It  must  be  confessed,  however, 
that  it  has  never  had  a  really  fair  trial,  and  in  subjecting  it  to 
such  a  magnificent  test  as  is  afforded  by  the  '  Chronicles  of 
Man,'  Dr.  Coxwell  has  rendered  an  important  service  to  English 
literature.  Moreover,  he  has  to  a  large  extent  justified  his  choice. 


The  Empire  Library  225 

He  is  alive  to  the  limitations  of  the  metre  as  well  as  to  its 
capabilities,  and  his  mastery  of  its  technique  has  enabled  him 
to  use  it  with  surprisingly  good  effect.  His  skilful  variation  of 
the  rhythm  is  particularly  remarkable.  The  long  line  has  its 
advantages  for  the  treatment  of  scientific  or  philosophical 
themes,  and  it  was  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  those  advantages,  in 
all  probability,  that  it  was  selected  for  this  poem.  The  verdict 
of  any  reader  upon  any  metre  must,  of  course,  be  largely  a  verdict 
of  the  senses,  and  there  are  some  to  whom  the  inherent  and 
obvious  defects  of  the  Alexandrine  will  always  render  it  unattrac- 
tive, but  Dr.  Cox  well's  interesting  and  valuable  experiment  may 
do  something  to  increase  its  popularity  by  demonstrating  its 
possibilities  in  the  hands  of  one  who  has  thoroughly  mastered  it. 

In  the  sonnets  which  are  placed  at  the  head  of  each  section 
and  at  the  end  of  the  book,  Dr.  Coxwell  has  attained  a  consider- 
able measure  of  technical  perfection.  Their  inclusion  may 
perhaps  suggest  the  inquiry  whether  possibly  the  occasional 
variation  of  the  Alexandrine  in  the  body  of  the  poem  itself, 
somewhat  in  the  manner  of  the  old  Roman  "  Satura,"  might  not 
have  been  worth  consideration.  I  think  that  there  can  be  no 
real  doubt,  however,  that  Dr.  Coxwell  has  been  well  advised  in 
avoiding  such  a  course,  which  would  have  inevitably  impaired 
the  dignity  of  the  poem  as  a  whole,  and  hindered  its  movement. 

The  ground  covered  by  the  poem  is  so  wide  that  anything 
more  than  the  broadest  indication  of  the  subjects  treated  is 
impossible  in  the  space  at  my  disposal ;  and  to  single  out  a  few 
topics  from  a  poem  of  such  magnitude  involves  a  certain 
unfairness  to  the  author.  Some  notion  of  the  scope  of  the  book, 
however,  may  be  gained  from  a  glance  at  the  admirable  table  of 
contents.  Dr.  Coxwell  has  throughout  wisely  availed  himself  of 
the  privilege  of  an  essayist  in  selecting  the  topics  which  interest 
him  most,  and  if  sometimes  the  critic  may  feel  inclined  to  find 
fault  with  the  space  and  prominence  given  to  a  topic  at  the 
expense  perhaps  of  others,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  book 
is  not  a  universal  history  of  the  world,  but  a  philosophical 
adumbration  of  human  progress. 

The  first  part  of  the  poem,  entitled  "  The  Dawn,"  opens  with 
an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  earth,  the  gradual  evolution  of  the 
human  species,  and  the  growth  of  primitive  society,  in  the  light 
of  the  latest  theories  and  conclusions  of  science.  The  nebular 
hypothesis  is  thus  set  forth  : — 

While  slumbered  mighty  time  in  an  obscurest  age, 
Whose  distance  inexact  no  wizard  e'er  could  gauge, 
Whirled  at  appalling  speed,  a  nebula  most  bright 
And  tenuous;  so  huge,  despite  their  rapid  flight 
Its  further  beams  in  view  scarce  yesterday  arrived. 

U  2 


226  The  Empire  Review 

This  rushing  universe,  so  came  it,  was  deprived 

Of  portions  vast  (unto  the  whole  as  drops  of  rain 

Are  to  a  sea)  which  form  a  loose  majestic  train 

Of  giant  stars;  still  follow  wide  abysmal  ways. 

Star-like  our  sun  contracts:  while  from  his  disc  there  strays 

Brave  Earth,  to  join  a  band  wheeling  around  their  sire, 

That  fiery  molten  globe  which  doth  his  brood  inspire 

With  motion  rotary.     As  Earth's  hot  surface  cools, 

Arise  about  her  soon  great  oceans,  lakes  and  pools  ; 

That  come  from  vapours  dense,  essential  are  for  life. 

An  especially  interesting  feature  of  this  part  of  the  book  is  a 
description  of  the  Stone  Age  in  Tasmania. 

After  this  introduction,  the  author  proceeds  to  sketch  at 
considerable  length  the  history  and  thought  of  the  great  oriental 
peoples  of  antiquity,  Egypt,  Persia,  Assyria,  Babylon,  India, 
China,  and  Japan.  Whether  he  is  describing  the  battle  of 
Barneses  with  the  Khita,  summarising  the  teachings  of  Zoroaster, 
explaining  the  doctrine  of  Karma  and  Nirvana,  or  narrating  the 
career  and  maxims  of  Confucius,  Dr.  Coxwell  shows  a  considerable 
command  of  expression,  and  an  effective  power  of  description. 
He  shows,  too,  in  narrating  the  Persian  stories  of  Majnun  and 
Leili,  Yusaf  and  Zuleikha,  for  example,  that  the  Alexandrine  is 
by  no  means  so  utterly  unsuited  to  the  expression  of  passion  and 
emotion  as  many  have  thought.  I  will  quote  the  concluding  lines 
of  the  latter  story  :— 

Sought  she  the  hillock  grave ;  black  almonds  threw  thereon ; 
Lamented  wildly  one  beneath,  for  ever  gone; 
Oft  sighed  and  kissed  the  earth  before  her  spirit  passed, 
Herself,  a  tear-washed  blossom,  in  it  soon  was  cast. 

The  second  part,  which  Dr.  Coxwell  has  called  "  The 
Mediterranean,"  contains  an  account  of  the  civilisation,  literature, 
and  thought,  of  Greece,  Eome,  and  Israel,  a  sketch  of  the  advance 
of  Christianity  in  the  Eoman  Empire,  some  lines  upon  the 
principles  and  triumphs  of  Islam  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  an 
account  of  the  great  awakening  which  we  call  the  Renaissance, 
including  an  interesting  picture  of  late  medieval  Italian  society. 
In  dealing  with  Greek  and  Boman  literature  and  civilisation,  Dr. 
Coxwell  has,  as  elsewhere,  been  wisely  eclectic,  and  has  avoided 
the  error  of  attempting  too  much  in  what  must  always  be 
primarily  a  field  for  the  specialist.  He  has  well  indicated  and 
illustrated  the  fundamental  elements  in  the  Greek  and  Boman 
genius,  sketched  those  portions  of  the  ancient  mythologies, 
philosophies,  and  literatures,  that  are  of  abiding  importance  for 
the  history  of  the  development  of  humanity,  and  summarised  the 
careers  of  some  of  the  greatest  figures  in  thought  and  action. 
The  summary  of  the  Iliad  which  we  find  at  the  beginning  of  the 


The  Empire  Library  227 

section  upon  Greece  is  perhaps  a  little  too  long  in  proportion  to 
the  total  length  of  the  section,  but  it  serves  its  purpose 
well,  and  this  is  certainly  a  place  where  the  author  may 
plead  the  privilege  which  I  mentioned  above.  In  describing 
the  life  work  and  philosophy  of  such  men  as  Socrates  and  Marcus 
Aurelius,  or  in  picturing  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  we  see  Dr.  Coxwell 
at  his  best. 

The  section  upon  Islam  contains  a  striking  description  of 
Cordova  as  it  was  when  under  the  Moors,  and  a  few  lines  from 
the  passage  describing  the  Caliph's  palace  are  worth  quoting  as 
an  example  of  the  author's  descriptive  powers  : — 

Without,  teemed  orangeries  and  courts  and  cool  cascades 
Upon  the  river's  banks  or  mid  enchanting  glades, 
While  near  at  hand  arose,  making  all  others  small, 
A  lofty  minaret  whence  rang  the  muezzin's  call ; 
That,  treading  by  the  fount  and  cypress-grove  and  palm, 
The  faithful,  lingering  oft,  might  reach  a  holy  calm 
In  the  stupendous  maze  of  pillared  aisles  and  tiers 
Which  Abderrahman's  mosque  majestically  rears. 

In  leading  up  to  the  Eenaissance,  Dr.  Coxwell  has  given  us  a 
very  interesting  sketch  of  the  curious  objects  and  methods  of 
medieval  thought. 

The  third  part  of  the  book,  entitled  "  A  Nation  and  a  City," 
comprises  an  epitome  of  English  history  from  the  Eoman  occu- 
pation to  the  end  of  the  Victorian  Era,  and  a  sketch  of  the 
history  of  Paris  from  the  earliest  times.  In  sketching  the  history 
of  our  own  country,  Dr.  Coxwell  has  omitted  scarcely  anything 
of  importance  to  our  national  development.  His  treatment  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  Industrial  Revolution  is  particularly 
interesting.  He  has  fully  appreciated  the  important  part  played  by 
Englishmen  in  the  general  progress  of  humanity,  and  he  has 
some  striking  passages  upon  British  activity  in  various  parts  of 
the  globe.  His  stirring  lines  on  Trafalgar,  prefaced  by  a  portrait 
of  Nelson,  are  especially  interesting  when  compared  with  the 
accounts  of  far  more  recent  naval  engagements  which  will  be 
found  in  a  later  part  of  the  book.  A  few  lines  upon  the  influence 
exercised  by  Queen  Victoria  in  the  promotion  of  imperial  unity 
may  be  quoted  : — 

Such  sovereign  goodliness  a  high  repute  could  earn 
In  many  a  foreign  Court,  and  hearts  o'erseas  which  yearn 
For  Britain's  true  regard;  nay,  yet  in  furthest  lands 
That  knew  thy  gracious  rule,  thy  name  for  virtue  stands, 
A  link  still  wonderful  to  bind  the  scattered  brood 
Of  nations  old  and  nations  young  in  blessed  mood, 
Of  long  enduring  peace,  respect  and  sympathy, 
Welding  an  empire  vast  whose  boast  is  liberty, 
Confident  in  the  nature  of  its  matchless  might 
In  freedom  to  remain,  grandeur  ensue  and  right! 


228  The  Empire  Review 

The  section  upon  the  history  of  Paris  is  mainly  remarkable 
for  a  full  and  dramatic  account  of  the  Eevolution,  which  Dr. 
Coxwell  has  evidently  studied  deeply. 

The  fourth  and  concluding  part,  which  is  the  most  ambitious 
and  the  most  successful  portion  of  the  poem,  and  by  far  the 
hardest  to  criticise,  is  entitled  "  The  Nature  of  Man."  It  opens 
with  a  lucid  and  graphic  description  of  the  working  of  the  brain, 
and  a  sketch  of  the  opinions  of  a  few  of  the  greatest  philosophers. 
There  follows  an  essay  of  considerable  length  upon  the  Spirit  of 
History,  and  the  poem  concludes  with  an  elaborate  essay,  which 
the  author  has  called  "  High  Desire,"  and  in  which  he  treats  of 
human  ideals  and  aspirations  in  general,  and  with  the  most 
recent  triumphs  of  man.  It  is  impossible  to  indicate  the  scope 
of  this  part  of  the  book  in  any  detail,  but  it  contains  an  enormous 
amount  of  matter  which  should  be  of  absorbing  interest  to  readers 
of  almost  every  class.  The  psychological  passage  which  I  have 
mentioned  demonstrates  both  the  technical  advantages  of  the 
Alexandrine  for  the  treatment  of  exact  scientific  topics,  and  the 
author's  clear  and  classical  manner  of  expounding  such  themes. 
There  is  a  rather  remarkable  passage  in  this  part  of  the  book  in 
which  under  the  name  of  "Ewis,  an  Island  State"  (a  name 
evidently  composed  of  the  initial  letters  of  the  four  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom),  some  of  our  national  foibles  are  subjected  to  a 
neither  unkindly  nor  ungraceful  satire.  The  sketch  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  at  the  end  of  the  section  on  the  Spirit  of 
History,  is  sympathetic  and  to  the  point.  There  are  some 
excellent  lines  upon  great  men  of  recent  times,  of  which  those 
upon  General  Gordon  and  Captain  Scott  will  perhaps  appeal 
most  strongly  to  the  generality  of  readers.  A  few  lines  from  the 
former  passage  may  be  quoted  : — 

'Ti3  scarce  the  hour  of  day, 
And  he  of  lonely  vigil,  comes  forth  to  the  way, 
Serenely  learns  of  foes  arrived  within  the  walls, 
Sighs  for  the  folk  he  loves,  never  himself,  and  falls ! 

Then  all  Earth  groaned  because  swift  rescuers  sought,  in  vain, 
The  straggler  that  had  lived  and  died  for  others'  gain  1 
An  ardent  being  strange,  hardy  and  small  and  spare, 
Rich  in  humanity  which  urged  him  oft  to  dare ; 
With  pale  eyes  capable  of  a  calm  gaze  intense, 
Unmoved  by  evil  sign  or  threat  of  violence ; 
Orbs  shining  with  such  light,  that  the  beholder  felt, 
They  like  his  voice,  at  times,  with  tenderness  might  melt! 
Thus  confident,  sagacious,  passionate  since  his  youth, 
Buthless,  if  need  and  justice  deprecated  ruth, 
One  could  arouse  the  faithful,  the  rebellious  tame, 
Though  saint  and  mystic,  won  a  man  of  action's  fame. 

The  author  has  daringly  introduced  in  this  portion  of  the 


The  Empire  Library  229 

book  a  sketch  of  the  course,  during  seven  or  eight  months,  of  the 
European  War,  in  which  he  shows  a  powerful  sense  of  the 
dramatic,  and  a  faculty  of  depicting  a  scene  in  a  few  graphic 
words.  The  outbreak  of  the  war  must  have  been  a  disappoint- 
ment to  many  of  his  hopes,  though  his  apprehension  of  the 
possibility  or  even  probability  of  such  a  struggle  is  shown  by 
more  than  one  passage  clearly  written  long  before  the  event. 
Forced  to  recognise  war  as  still  a  deplorable  necessity,  he  is  yet 
fully  alive  to  the  opportunities  which  it  affords  for  the  develop- 
ment of  some  of  the  greatest  of  human  virtues  even  at  so  terrible 
a  cost. 

In  a  poem  of  such  a  length,  the  great  difficulty  must  inevitably 
be  the  avoidance  of  the  commonplace  in  both  matter  and 
manner.  In  this  respect  Dr.  Coxwell  has  achieved  a  great 
measure  of  success.  He  has  chosen  his  subjects  judiciously,  with 
an  eye  both  to  artistic  effect  and  to  the  realisation  of  his  central 
object,  and  he  has  varied  both  style  and  rhythm  to  suit  his 
theme.  It  may  be  thought  that  his  comments  upon  the 
significance  of  an  event  or  a  story,  and  his  judgments  upon 
individuals  and  causes,  are  occasionally  a  little  obvious,  and  that 
more  might  sometimes  have  been  left  to  the  imagination  of  the 
reader.  It  may  be  thought,  too,  that  one  or  two  little 
peculiarities  of  style  (such  as  the  not  infrequent  omission  of 
relative  pronouns,  and  a  tendency  at  times  to  invert  the  natural 
order  of  words)  might  with  advantage  have  been  avoided. 
But  the  author's  wide  knowledge,  his  warm  human  sympathy 
and  breadth  of  view,  his  passionate  zeal  for  the  discovery  of 
truth,  and  above  all,  his  hopefulness  for  the  future,  combine 
to  invest  his  pages  with  a  charm  which  no  minor  blemishes 
can  diminish. 

In  tracing  the  advance  of  mankind  to  the  twentieth  century, 
and  reviewing  the  mighty  achievements  which  stand  to  its  credit 
at  the  present  day,  Dr.  Coxwell  emphasises  continually  his 
conviction  that  humanity  has  still  an  infinite  destiny  before  it. 
In  the  advance  of  knowledge,  in  the  development  of  social  virtues 
and  institutions,  in  unselfish,  tireless  effort  and  in  cheerful 
sacrifice,  he  sees  endless  possibilities  of  continued  progress,  not 
only  along  the  paths  upon  which  our  feet  have  already  ventured, 
but  through  tracts  still  unexplored,  towards  greater  power  and 
greater  happiness,  towards  something  altogether  higher  and  better 
than  we  yet  can  dream  of.  This  is  the  note  on  which  the  book 
closes,  and  which  is  the  keynote  of  the  whole  poem,  a  poem  which 
for  breadth  of  conception  and  variety  of  interest  is  perhaps 
unique. 


230  The  Empire  Review 


WESTERN  CANADA  BEFORE  THE  WAR* 

The  man  in  the  street,  who  knows  little  of  Canada  beyond 
what  is  suggested  by  advertisements  on  the  subject  of  emigration, 
should  welcome  this  sketch  of  Canadian  life  and  Canadian 
problems,  which  will  incidentally  teach  him  some  of  the 
essential  differences  between  Canada  and  the  great  nation  to 
the  South.  The  writer  possesses  a  keen  power  of  observation, 
a  warm  sympathy,  and  a  pleasing  humour,  and  she  has  the 
advantage  of  considerable  experience  in  social  work. 

Her  impressions  of  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  the  lonely 
scenery  of  the  prairie  and  the  social  amenities  of  the  towns,  are 
full  of  interest,  and  she  touches  upon  every  side  of  life  in  the 
West.  Her  remarks  on  Canadian  education  are  much  to  the 
point.  She  has  naturally  taken  special  interest  in  woman's 
sphere ;  and  in  showing  us  such  scenes  as  the  Home-makers  in 
conference,  or  in  sketching  the  daily  round  of  the  prairie  house- 
wife, she  is  at  her  best.  As  to  the  hardships  that  await  the 
Englishwoman  in  the  West,  she  is  wisely  frank ;  but  she  has  no 
doubt  of  the  real  happiness  which  pluck  and  patience  can 
achieve. 

The  main  social  and  economic  problems  of  the  country  are 
ably  illustrated.  Miss  Mitchell  shows  how  completely  Canada  is 
ruled  by  the  business  man,  and  how  the  towns,  which  have  often 
begun  as  advertisements  of  real  estate,  lure  the  farmer  from  the 
prairie  to  the  detriment  both  of  agriculture  and  of  social  life. 
Kural  depopulation  is  the  gravest  problem  with  which  Canada  is 
faced,  and  on  the  solution  of  this  and  the  cognate  problems  of 
immigration  her  future  to  a  large  extent  depends.  Miss  Mitchell 
believes  that  the  natural  elements  of  strength  in  the  country  will 
render  a  satisfactory  solution  ultimately  possible.  In  the  United 
States  the  results  of  untrammelled  individualism  have  been  in 
many  respects  deplorable,  but  if,  as  Miss  Mitchell  believes,  the 
task  of  America  in  the  present  generation  is  that  of  ladling  up 
spilt  milk,  she  is  certainly  right  in  her  conviction  that  most  of 
Canada's  milk  is  still  in  the  jug,  and  we  may  hope  that  the 
integrating  force  of  war  will  weld  a  heterogeneous  population 
into  a  nation  and  so  help  to  solve  some  existing  problems  even 
though  it  will  certainly  create  new  ones. 

I  shall  not  be  interpreted  as  implying  anything  but  praise  in 
suggesting  that  the  book  is  in  some  ways  characteristically 

*  •  Western  Canada  before  the  War.'  By  E.  B.  Mitchell.  London :  John 
Murray.  5s.  net. 


The  Empire  Library  231 

feminine.  The  style,  if  not  distinguished,  is  fluent  and  clear,  and 
apart  from  the  intrinsic  value  of  facts  presented  or  conclusions 
reached  the  author's  keen  interest  and  pleasure  in  her  subject  has 
given  real  charm  to  many  of  her  pages. 


RABINDRANATH    TAQORE * 

Eabindranath  Tagore,  the  subject  of  Mr.  Ernest  Ehys' 
interesting  little  biographical  study,  who  was  born  in  Calcutta 
in  1861,  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  most  remarkable  figures  in 
the  history  of  Indian  literature  and  thought.  Poet,  philosopher, 
dramatist,  educationist,  he  stands  out  as  one  in  whom  a  brilliant 
and  varied  genius  is  united  with  an  extraordinarily  lofty  nature 
and  a  singularly  lovable  personality. 

The  keynote  to  his  whole  life  and  work  is  his  intense  love  of 
Nature,  which  is  shown  in  the  words  which  Mr.  Rhys  quotes  in 
his  illuminating  preface : — 

Nature  shut  her  hands  and  laughingly  asked  every  day,  "  What  have  I  got 
inside  ?  "  and  nothing  seemed  impossible. 

In  his  poetry  and  his  religious  ideas  alike  he  is  an  interpreter 
of  the  natural  and  supernatural  and  of  the  human  nature  that 
they  condition.  His  human  aims  are  well  summed  up  as  being 
the  union  of  nations  and  the  destruction  of  caste,  religious  pride, 
race-hatred  and  race-prejudice, — in  a  word,  the  making  of  man. 
He  is  an  embodiment  of  the  highest  ideals  of  India  blended  with 
the  best  elements  of  that  civilisation  which  the  British  Empire 
is  fighting  to  preserve. 

It  is  interesting,  in  this  connection,  to  read  how  in  the  course 
of  his  recent  visit  to  Europe,  in  1913,  he  saw  much  that  gave 
him  cause  for  fear;  how  in  the  ceaseless  activity  and  feverish 
excitement  of  the  great  cities  of  the  West  he  discerned  the  seeds 
of  future  strife.  The  terrible  conflagration  of  August  1914  was 
the  sad  realisation  of  his  apprehensions. 

He  has  himself  translated  his  poems  from  Bengali  into 
English,  and  has  shown  in  the  translation  the  same  genius  that 
shines  in  the  original  conception.  In  dealing  with  his  poetry, 
Mr.  Ehys  has,  I  think,  perhaps  somewhat  overestimated  the 
acquaintance  of  the  general  English  reader,  for  whom  the  book 
is  presumably  intended,  with  the  peculiar  spirit  and  imagery  of 
Indian  poetry  as  a  whole  :  a  little  more  interpretation  in  places 

*Babindranath  Tagore.  A  Biographical  Study.  By  Ernest  Rhys.  London: 
Macmillan  and  Co.  Ltd.  5s.  net. 


232  The  Empire  Review 

might  not  have  been  amiss.  The  two  books  best  known  to 
England  are  '  The  Gardener '  and  '  Gitanjali,'  or  '  Song  Offerings.' 
Of  these  Mr.  Rhys  aptly  remarks  :— 

If  '  The  Gardener '  is  the  song-book  of  youth  and  the  romance  of  the  young 
lover  who  is  satisfied  with  a  flower  for  itself,  or  for  its  token  of  love's  happi- 
ness, to  be  realised  on  earth  in  a  day  or  night,  '  Gitanjali '  is  the  book  of  the 
old  lover  who  is  in  love  with  heavenly  desire. 

The  author  has  given  us  a  most  interesting  account  of  the 
plays  and  short  stories  of  Babindranath,  and  of  his  religious  and 
philosophic  thought,  which  demands  more  space  than  I  have 
at  my  disposal.  The  most  beautiful  side  of  the  poet's  genius, 
and  the  one  for  which  he  himself  would  most  desire,  I  think,  to 
be  remembered,  is  his  extraordinary  understanding  of  children 
and  child-nature.  The  imagination  of  a  poet,  as  Mr.  Ehys 
points  out,  is  very  near  a  child's,  and  the  secret  of  Rabindranath's 
understanding  of  childhood  is  very  near  the  secret  of  his  whole 
art  as  a  poet.  There  is  in  his  writings,  as  his^Lbiographer  puts 
it,  an  infinite  sympathy  with  the  babe  in  trouble  and  the  small 
boy  at  odds  with  authority.  It  is  this  sympathy  and  this  under- 
standing that  have  enabled  him  to  plan  and  establish  the 
remarkable  system  of  education,  physical,  intellectual,  moral, 
and  religious,  which  Mr.  Rhys  pictures  for  us  in  a  most 
fascinating  chapter. 

The  book  is  adorned  with  a  series  of  admirable  photographs. 
As  we  look  upon  the  noble  features  of  Rabindranath  Tagore,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  realise  the  sweetness  and  the  power  of  his 
wonderful  nature,  to  which  this  study  is  a  graceful  tribute. 

CRITICUS. 


Business  in  Canada  233 


BUSINESS    IN    CANADA 

Wounded  Canadians. 

Canada's  participation  in  the  war  having  reached  the  stage 
when  there  is  certain  to  be  a  steady  homeward  stream  of 
invalided  Canadians,  the  Canadian  Militia  Department  is  taking 
steps  to  look  after  wounded  and  sick  soldiers  on  their  arrival  in 
the  Dominion.  In  the  case  of  soldiers  having  no  homes  of  their 
own,  care  will  be  taken  that  they  suffer  no  inconvenience  or 
discomfort.  The  Militia  Department  has  received  offers  of 
splendid  accommodation  for  the  convalescent  soldiers  whose 
injuries  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  preclude  the  possibilities  of 
further  services  at  the  front.  Sir  William  and  Lady  Mackenzie 
have  offered  the  use  of  their  summer  home  and  grounds.  Sir 
Rodolphe  and  Lady  Forget  have  offered  the  use  of  their  palatial 
home  and  estate  at  Ste.  Irene,  together  with  the  hotel  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  Eiver.  Mr.  D.  Lome  McGibbon  and  Mrs. 
McGibbon  have  also  offered  their  home  in  Ste.  Agathe  with  the 
hotel.  The  offers  have  been  accepted. 

Western  Canada. 

Europe  will,  this  year,  pay  considerable  attention  to  reports 
concerning  the  wheat  crop  of  Western  Canada.  It  is  therefore  a 
matter  of  interest  to  know  how  the  official  estimates  are  arrived 
at  from  time  to  time  during  the  season.  In  the  Province  of 
Saskatchewan  the  method  is  as  follows  : — Some  fifteen  years  ago 
the  North- West  Territories  were  divided  into  sixteen  crop 
districts  for  statistical  purposes.  Crop  statistics  in  1900  were 
compiled  from  returns  furnished  under  the  ordinance  respecting 
Threshers'  Liens.  In  1902  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the 
North -West  Territories  had  seventy-three  crop  correspondents. 
At  the  present  time  attached  to  this  branch  are  some  1,500 
correspondents.  There  are  also  upwards  of  150  telegraphic  crop 
reporters  who  wire  reports  in  reply  to  series  of  questions.  It  is 
the  aim  of  the  Department  to  secure  the  services  as  crop 
correspondent  of  a  leading  agriculturist  in  each  township  (a 
township  consists  of  thirty-six  square  miles)  in  which  agricultural 
operations  are  conducted. 


234  The  Empire  Review 

Farm  Prospects. 

According  to  correspondents  of  the  Ontario  Department  of 
Agriculture,  it  is  certain  that  there  will  be  a  substantial  gain 
in  the  quantity  of  most  of  the  commodities  raised  this  year  on 
Ontario  farms.  Fall  wheat  already  shows  a  decidedly  increased 
area.  Much  more  fall  ploughing  than  usual  was  done.  In  the 
canning  districts  a  smaller  acreage  will  be  devoted  to  supplying 
the  factories  and  more  attention  will  be  given  to  general  farm 
crops.  Not  only  in  field  work,  but  in  the  orchard  and  the  stable, 
the  idea  of  improvement  and  increase  seems  to  have  taken  hold 
of  many,  and  the  year  1915  promises  to  be  one  of  the  busiest  in 
the  history  of  the  province.  Information  of  great  value  is  ex- 
pected from  the  experiments  now  being  conducted  by  the  Ontario 
Department  of  Agriculture  as  to  the  use  of  a  new  radium 
material  in  stimulating  plant  growth.  The  new  material  is 
described  as  radio-active  ore,  and  is  a  by-product  of  the  manu- 
facture of  radium.  It  is  manufactured  in  great  quantities 
because  of  the  small  percentage  of  the  precious  mineral  occurring 
in  great  masses  of  ore.  The  investigations  of  Professor  Kobert 
Harcourt,  of  the  Ontario  Agriculture  Department,  have  convinced 
him  of  its  value,  and  extensive  use  of  the  material  will  be 
authorised  at  the  college  next  spring. 

The  Flax  Supply. 

The  formation  of  a  Canadian  Flax  Association  is  directly  due 
to  the  effect  of  the  war  on  the  European  flax  supply.  A  few 
months  ago  the  outlook  for  the  linen  industry  in  the  North  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland  was  very  serious  indeed,  and  a  prominent 
manufacturer  went  to  Canada  for  the  specific  purpose  of  inves- 
tigating crop  conditions  and  prospects  there.  In  the  meantime, 
however,  this  season's  supply  of  seed  for  sowing  purposes  has 
been  practically  secured  from  Kussia,  and  what  anxiety  remains 
is  concerned  with  next  year's  seed,  the  bulk  of  which  has  hitherto 
been  imported  from  the  Continent.  The  war  may  be  said  to 
have  wiped  out  the  European  flax  supply.  Over  large  areas 
few  crops  of  any  kind  can  be  sown,  and  such  as  are  put  down 
will  naturally  be  for  food  purposes.  Belgium  exported  to  Great 
Britain  in  1913,  14,194  tons  of  flax  and  3,812  tons  of  tow.  In 
addition,  Great  Britain  imported  over  £1,200,000  worth  of  flax 
yarn  spun  in  Belgium.  This  year  the  whole  Belgian  export  of 
flax  is  cancelled,  Germany  having,  as  reported,  seized  the  stock 
of  fibre,  yarns  and  linen.  Moreover,  the  enemy  having  taken 
possession  also  of  the  straw  of  the  1913  crop,  held  in  reserve,  and 
of  the  1914  crop  which  had  just  been  harvested  when  war  broke 
out,  and  by  preventing  any  sowing  this  spring,  has  ruined  the 


Business  in  Canada  235 

Belgian  flax  industry  for  some  time  to  come  even  were  Belgium 
restored  to  its  people  to-morrow.  It  is  not  clear  how  much  seed, 
yarn,  etc.,  may  be  forthcoming  from  Russia  in  the  immediate 
future,  but  the  shortage  may  be  considerable,  and  the  formation 
of  the  above  organisation  shows  that  steps  are  well  advanced  in 
Canada  to  make  good  the  deficiency  so  far  as  possible. 

Last  Year's  Harvest. 

The  final  report  on  the  field  crops  of  Canada  for  the  year 
1914  shows  that  of  wheat  the  total  estimated  yield  was 
161,280,000  bushels  from  a  productive  area  of  10,293,900  acres, 
as  compared  with  231,717,000  bushels  in  1913  from  11,015,000 
acres ;  an  average  yield  per  acre  in  1914  of  15  •  67  bushels  against 
21  bushels  in  1913.  Fall-sown  wheat  gave  a  total  yield  in  1914 
of  20,837,000  bushels  from  973,300  producing  acres,  as  compared 
with  22,592,000  bushels  from  970,000  acres  in  1913.  The  average 
yields  per  acre  of  fall  wheat  were  21*41  bushels,  in  1914  and 
23-29  in  1913.  The  yield  of  spring  wheat,  viz.,  140,443,000 
bushels  from  9,320,600  acres  gave  the  average  rate  of  15*07 
bushels  per  acre.  In  1913,  the  corresponding  figures  for  spring 
wheat  were  209,125,000  bushels,  10,045,000  acres,  and  20*81 
bushels  per  acre.  Oats  in  1914  yielded  313,078,000  bushels  from 
10,061,500  acres,  or  31*12  bushels  per  acre,  as  compared  with 
404,669,000  bushels  from  10,434,000  acres,  or  38*78  bushels  per 
acre  in  1913.  Barley  upon  1,495,600  acres  gave,  in  1914, 
36,201,000  bushels,  or  24*21  bushels  per  acre,  as  compared  with 
1,613,000  acres,  48,319,000  bushels  and  29-96  bushels  per  acre  in 
1913.  For  the  remaining  grain  crops  the  total  yields  expressed 
in  bushels  were:  rye,  2,016,800  in  1914,  as  compared  with 
2,300,000  in  1913;  peas,  3,362,500  and  3,951,800;  beans,  797,500 
and  800,900 ;  buckwheat,  8,626,000  and  8,372,000 ;  mixed  grains, 
16,382,500  and  15,792,000;  flax,  7,175,200  and  17,539,000 ;  corn 
for  husking,  13,924,000  and  16,772,600  bushels.  For  the  same 
crops  the  yields  per  acre  in  bushels  were  :  rye,  18 '12  and  19*28; 
peas,  17*64  and  18 -05;  beans,  18*20  and  17 '19;  buckwheat, 
24*34  and  21-99;  mixed  grains,  35*36  and  33*33;  flax,  6*62  and 
11-30;  corn  for  husking,  54*39  and  60-30. 

Canadian  Sea  Harvest. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Canadian  Marine  and  Fisheries 
Department,  just  issued,  shows  that  the  total  value  of  all  kinds 
of  fish,  fish  products  and  marine  animals  secured  by  Canadian 
fishermen  last  year  amounted  to  £6,641,549.  In  a  general 
description  of  Canadian  fisheries  it  is  emphasised  that  Canada 
possesses  the  most  extensive  fisheries  in  the  world  and  that  the 
waters  in  and  around  Canada  contain  the  principal  commercial 


236  The  Empire  Review 

food  fish  in  greater  abundance  than  those  of  any  other  part  of  the 
globe.  Experiments  have  for  some  time  been  in  progress  with  a 
view  to  sending  supplies  of  fish  to  Great  Britain  even  from  the 
fishing  grounds  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Fruit-growing. 

As  a  fruit-growing  country  Canada  is  rapidly  assuming  a  premier 
position.  Of  apple  trees  alone  she  has  at  the  present  time  no 
fewer  than  25,000,000  trees  capable  of  producing  when  fully 
grown  50,000,000  barrels  of  apples  per  annum.  The  apple, 
moreover,  is  only  one  of  the  numerous  delicious  fruits  which  the 
Canadian  soil  and  climate  produces  in  abundance  and  perfection. 

Horse  Breeding. 

In  the  course  of  an  address  to  provincial  stockmen,  at  a 
meeting  held  in  Eegina,  Dr.  Eutherford,  of  the  Natural 
Eesources  Department  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Eailway  Company, 
pointed  out  that  the  great  destruction  of  high-class  animals, 
especially  Belgian  and  French  Percherons,  will  cause  breeders  in 
these  two  countries  to  look  to  Western  Canada  for  their  pedigree 
stock.  He  was  extremely  optimistic  of  the  future  prospects  for 
horse  raising.  This  view  is  commonly  held  by  horsemen 
throughout  the  West,  and  from  all  indications,  the  more 
farsighted  of  them  are  arranging  to  considerably  increase  their 
activities,  seeing  that  much  higher  prices  are  deemed  inevitable. 

Pulp  Wood. 

The  pulp  wood  industry  in  the  New  Ontario  is  in  a  particularly 
thriving  condition.  Mr.  J.  L.  Englehardt,  Chairman  of  the 
Government,  states  that  72,000  cords  have  been  handled,  a  figure 
in  excess  of  anything  attained  previously.  Thirty-six  thousand 
cords  have  already  been  disposed  of,  and  the  remainder  would  go 
as  soon  as  it  could  be  handled.  Nineteen  thousand  cords  remain 
to  be  sold,  and  there  is  confidence  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
this  respect.  Premier  Hearst,  who  recently  made  a  tour  through 
this  portion  of  the  province,  says :  "  I  was  more  than  delighted 
with  the  progress  made  last  year.  I  think  perhaps  there  has 
been  more  real  advancement  in  the  clearing  of  land,  and  along 
agricultural  lines,  than  we  have  had  in  any  two  years  at  least 
previously." 

Piercing  the  Selkirks. 

During  1915  the  construction  programme  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Eailway  Company  will  consist  largely  in  improving  the 
operated  lines  and  the  further  development  of  the  territory 
through  which  they  operate.  The  Natural  Eesources  Depart- 


Business  in  Canada  237 

nient  has  advocated  the  encouragement  of  the  mixed  farming  idea 
with  such  insistence  that  the  road  officials  have  decided  to  offer 
every  inducement  to  the  farmers  of  the  West  of  Canada  to  devote 
a  portion  of  their  attention  to  the  raising  of  live  stock.  For  this 
purpose  stockyards  will  be  established  in  small  centres,  situated 
in  such  a  way  that  the  greatest  possible  area  will  be  served.  The 
schedule  for  the  year  as  at  present  outlined  will  consist  of 
continuing  the  work  in  progress  on  the  Eogers  Pass  Tunnel  and 
the  completion  of  the  extensions  in  connection  with  the  Winni- 
peg depot.  The  work  on  the  Kogers  Pass  Tunnel  is  one  of  great 
magnitude.  The  task  of  piercing  the  Selkirks  is  among  the 
most  formidable  ever  undertaken  by  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway.  Its  progress  is  being  watched  with  interest  by  engineers 
all  over  the  world,  as  special  problems  have  been  encountered, 
and  it  is  believed  satisfactorily  solved. 

All-Canadian  Route. 

It  is  understood  that  plans  are  being  matured  for  a  large 
amount  of  grain  to  go  direct  from  Port  Arthur  and  Fort  William 
(Ontario)  to  Liverpool  during  the  forthcoming  season.  For 
many  years  much  of  the  export  grain  trade  of  Western  Canada 
has  gone  via  Buffalo  and  United  States  Atlantic  ports.  Mer- 
chandise moves  along  the  line  of  least  resistance,  and  the  All- 
Canadian  route  will  doubtless  ultimately  be  the  route  selected  by 
Canadian  grain  shippers. 

Quebec's  New  Railway  Bridge. 

The  rebuilding  of  the  gigantic  railway  bridge  across  the  St. 
Lawrence,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Chaudiere  Curve,  near 
Quebec,  which  collapsed  in  1907,  is  progressing  satisfactorily. 
The  piers  have  all  been  placed  in  position,  and  are  of  massive 
masonry,  being  built  of  the  celebrated  Riviere  a  Pierre  granite. 
The  steel  superstructure  is  now  being  placed  in  position,  and  is 
of  a  much  heavier  nature  than  that  of  the  former  bridge.  The 
central  cantilever  span  will  be  1,800  feet  in  length,  as  compared 
with  1,710  feet,  which  is  the  span  of  the  cantilever  bridge  over 
the  Firth  of  Forth — till  now  the  longest  span  in  existence.  The 
Quebec  bridge  will  therefore  be  one  of  the  engineering  wonders 
of  the  world.  Its  value  to  Quebec  cannot  be  over-estimated.  It 
will  be  the  means  whereby  five  railways  from  the  south  shore  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  will  enter  the  city  and  will  give  four  railways 
on  the  north  side  access  to  the  south.  It  should  prove  as 
beneficial  to  Quebec  as  the  Victoria  and  Lachine  bridges  have 
been  to  Montreal  whose  prosperity  they  have  been  so  instrumental 
in  building  up. 


238  The  Empire  Review 

Industrial  Winnipeg. 

Taking  into  consideration  that  the  past  year  was  one  of 
unsettled  business  conditions,  Winnipeg  stands  prominent  among 
the  cities  of  Canada  in  progress  along  industrial  lines.  During 
the  past  year  twenty-two  new  industries  have  been  established  in 
the  city,  a  number  of  them  as  yet  of  course  naturally  small. 
Many  of  these  new  industries,  however,  will  undoubtedly  grow 
and  become  important  in  the  near  future.  The  new  factories 
employ  a  considerable  number  of  hands  and  represent  a  wide 
variety  of  industrial  activities. 

Land  Settlement  in  Quebec. 

The  annual  report  for  the  Quebec  Provincial  Department  of 
Lands  and  Forests  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  30th  June,  1914,  has 
recently  been  published.  The  receipts  of  the  Department  for  the 
past  year  constitute  a  record  inasmuch  as  the  revenue,  ;£355,444, 
is  the  highest  ever  collected  since  Confederation.  The  report 
states  that  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  there  were  7,072,862 
acres  of  land  subdivided  into  lots  available  for  settlement. 

Sportsman's  Paradise. 

British  Columbia  is  called  the  "  Sportsman's  Paradise."  In 
this  province  is  to  be  found  a  larger  variety  of  game  and  fish  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  continent.  Grizzly  bears  roam  in  the 
interior  fastnesses,  black  bears  can  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
province,  big-horn  sheep,  goat  and  caribou  abound  in  the 
mountain  regions,  while  deer  of  several  varieties  are  to  be  found 
all  over  the  province.  Elk  shooting  may  be  had  on  the  northern 
portion  of  Vancouver  Island,  while  panthers  are  bagged  on  the 
coast  and  in  the  interior.  Of  birds  there  are  five  species  of 
grouse,  all  kinds  of  wild  fowl,  and  on  the  coast  the  pheasant 
affords  splendid  wing  shooting.  Fishing  is  equally  good, 
salmon  and  trout  being  the  principal  objects  of  the  sportsman's 
skill.  The  former  are  caught  with  spoon  bait  in  the  salt  water, 
as  British  Columbia  salmon  do  not  usually  rise  to  the  fly. 

Newfoundland  Coal  Mines. 

Operations  in  the  mines  of  Newfoundland,  which  were  largely 
suspended  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  have  been  partly  resumed. 
Five  hundred  men  are  now  at  work.  Canadian  manufacturing 
concerns  have  arranged  for  substantial  shipments  from  the  mines. 
This  will  increase  the  Government  revenues  through  the  payment 
of  the  export  ore  tax,  increase  the  demand  for  labour,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  indicative  of  improving  labour  conditions  in  the 
area  concerned. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL    OF    BRITISH    TRADE 


VOL.  XXIX.  JULY,   1915.  No.   174. 


THE    NEED    FOR    NATIONAL    SERVICE* 

I  HAVE  been  a  firm  believer  in  National  Service  for  years, 
and  certainly  no  one  who  held  the  same  views  as  myself  on  this 
all-important  subject  long  before  the  war  began  is  likely  to  have 
had  his  faith  weakened  by  the  events  of  the  last  ten  months. 
But  we  are  told  now  that  we  must  not  say  anything  to  disturb 
the  public  mind,  that  a  crisis  like  the  present  is  not  a  time  to 
make  a  radical  change  in  our  national  habits,  especially  in  our 
methods  of  recruiting.  There  always  are  excuses  for  not  doing 
the  right  thing.  When  we  began  to  agitate  for  National  Service 
in  comparatively  quiet  times,  we  were  met  with  the  objection 
that  it  was  absurd  to  imagine  that  people  would  ever  contemplate 
so  great  a  revolution  in  their  traditional  ideas,  some  said  until 
the  country  had  been  invaded,  but  at  any  rate  until  it  had  had  a 
big  fright.  Now  that  the  trouble  is  actually  upon  us,  we  are 
told  that  this  change  is  too  great  to  be  made  except  in  quiet 
times.  The  truth  is,  that  circumstances  never  are  favourable, 
the  moment  never  is  the  right  moment  where  courage  and 
imagination  are  lacking. 

And  yet  in  one  sense  I  agree  with  these  apostles  of  quietism. 
I  agree  that  this  is  not  the  moment  for  the  National  Service 
League  to  agitate  for  the  adoption  of  its  own  particular 
programme.  The  League  stands  for  universal  liability  to 
military  training  and  service  as  a  permanent  system,  and  has 
put  forward  a  scheme  for  carrying  its  principles  into  practice. 

*  From  a  speech  delivered  at  the  Annual  Meeting  of  the  National  Service 
League  on  Wednesday,  June  16th.  With  Lord  Milner's  consent  we  give  the  full 
text  of  the  body  of  this  speech,  of  which  only  abbreviated  reports  have  appeared  in 
the  Press.  Only  the  opening  and  concluding  sentences,  which  were  of  no  general 
public  interest,  are  omitted. — ED. 

VOL.  XXIX. -No.  174.  x 


240  The  Empire  Review 

Quite  apart  from  the  question,  whether  that  scheme  was  the  best 
possible,  the  resuscitation  of  it  at  this  moment  would  be  certain 
to  start  a  number  of  controversies  on  points  of  detail,  many  of 
them  of  minor  importance,  and  to  let  loose  a  fresh  flood  of 
inopportune  talk.  None  of  us  want  that.  Neither  ought  we,  as 
it  seems  to  me,  to  try  and  commit  the  country  to  the  adoption  of 
National  Service  as  a  permanent  system  in  the  rush  and 
excitement  of  the  present  time.  The  question,  how  the  future 
security  of  this  country  and  Empire  should  be  permanently 
provided  for  really  is  a  problem  for  deliberate  consideration  after 
the  restoration  of  peace.  We  have  no  wish  to  make  capital  for 
our  own  solution  of  that  problem  out  of  this  great  national 
emergency.  But  that  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not,  as 
citizens,  do  all  that  we  possibly  can,  working  side  by  side  with 
others,  from  whom  we  may  have  differed  in  the  past,  from  whom 
we  may  differ  again  in  the  future,  to  get,  and  get  with  the  least 
possible  delay,  what  is  essential  to  success  and  even  to  salvation, 
I  mean  National  Service  in  its  broadest  sense,  for  the  duration  of 
the  war.  To  do  that  is  not  to  stimulate  controversy,  it  is  not  to 
divide  the  nation.  It  is  simply  to  try  and  give  effect  to  what  is 
the  most  fervent  desire  of  the  vast  majority  of  the  British  people 
to-day.  They  have  never  been  so  unanimous  about  anything  as 
they  are  at  this  moment  in  their  longing  to  be  enrolled  for  the 
defence  of  the  country,  to  be  told  what  they  ought  to  do. 

The  real  opposition  to  National  Service  at  this  moment  is 
absolutely  negligible.  It  comes  from  the  same  quarters  and  is 
promoted  by  the  same  people,  who  up  to  the  very  day  of  the 
declaration  of  war  were  clamouring  against  our  taking  part  in 
the  war  at  all,  and  who  on  the  days  immediately  succeeding  that 
declaration  were  clamouring  against  the  despatch  of  the 
Expeditionary  Force.  In  neither  case  did  their  opposition 
count  for  anything  when  once  the  Government  had  made  up 
its  mind. 

The  genuine  opposition  to  National  Service,  as  I  have  said,  is 
negligible.  But  no  doubt  there  is  much  confusion  of  mind  as  to 
methods.  We  all  want  the  same  thing,  which  is  to  make  an  end 
of  fighting  with  half  or  only  half  our  strength,  to  fight  with  our 
whole  strength,  to  get  our  whole  weight  on  to  the  oar,  as 
Germany  does.  But  to  do  that  we  must  have  organised  effort, 
and  that  means  regulations,  and  regulations  are  no  use  without 
the  power  to  enforce  them.  How  are  you  to  get  orderly 
co-operation  among  millions  upon  millions  of  people  without 
rules,  and  what  is  the  good  of  rules  if  everybody  is  to  be  free  to 
obey  them  or  not  obey  them  as  he  pleases  ?  And  yet  the  moment 
anyone  proposes  the  simple  and  obvious  course,  namely  to  enact 
that  at  this  moment  of  supreme  danger  all  able-bodied  citizens 


The  Need  for  National  Service  241 

should  be  placed,  as  every  healthy-minded  man  is  only  too 
willing  to  be  placed,  at  the  disposal  of  his  country,  to  do 
whatever  work  he  can  most  usefully  do — a  thing  of  which  the 
individual  man  cannot  possibly  judge  for  himself,  only  those  in 
authority  can  tell  what  particular  men  are  best  fitted  for  or 
where  they  are  most  needed — I  say  the  moment  that  is  proposed, 
you  get  this  absurd  outcry  about  compulsion. 

We  are  fighting  to-day,  fighting  for  dear  life,  against  a  most 
formidable  enemy.  The  strongest  ally  of  that  enemy  is  in  our 
own  midst.  It  is  the  power  of  catch-words,  of  phrases,  with  no 
real  thought  behind  them,  words  like  militarism  and  conscription, 
which  are  used  in  many  different  senses,  and  which,  because  in  one 
sense  they  denote  a  thing  that  is  bad,  are  applied  to  something 
wholly  different  in  order  to  excite  prejudice  against  it.  This 
nation  has  a  fatal  proneness  to  be  led  away  by  clap-trap.  The 
present  pother  about  compulsion  is  a  case  in  point.  All  law, 
all  order,  all  discipline  involves,  in  the  last  resort,  compulsion 
Does  any  sane  man  on  that  account  object  to  law,  order  and 
discipline  ?  We  are  all  of  us,  every  day  and  every  hour,  doing, 
willingly  and  gladly  doing,  what  we  might  be  punished  for  not 
doing.  Are  we  therefore  slaves,  slaves  because  we  maintain  our 
families,  because  we  send  our  children  to  school,  because  we  clear 
the  refuse  from  our  doorsteps,  because  we  pay  our  taxes  ? 

As  a  matter  of  fact  we  have  already  got  any  amount  of 
compulsion,  in  connection  with  this  war.  And  there  is  going  to 
be  a  great  deal  more  of  it — that  must  be  evident  to  everybody. 
The  question  is,  how  to  get  the  maximum  of  service  out  of  a 
willing  people  with  the  minimum  of  friction  and  inequality  and 
waste.  My  own  firm  belief  is  that  if  you  had  an  equal  all  round 
system  of  National  Service,  there  would  be  very  little  need  for 
actual  compulsion  at  all.  There  is  an  idea  that  organised  labour 
would  resent  being  commandeered  for  the  service  of  the  State.  In 
my  opinion  that  is  just  what  it  would  not  resent.  "  If  we  are 
ordered  to  work  for  England,"  as  I  heard  some  typical  representa- 
tives of  working  class  opinion  say  only  the  other  day,  "  we  will 
obey."  The  trouble  is,  that  so  many  of  them  fear,  not  unnaturally, 
that  their  labour  will  not  simply  be  requisitioned  for  the  good  of 
the  community  but  exploited  for  the  benefit  of  a  few  individuals. 
They  feel  the  pinch  of  high  prices,  which  nothing  has  been  done 
to  check.  They  see  in  some  cases — they  may  be  only  few  and 
exceptional  cases,  but  they  make  a  desperately  bad  impression — 
that  huge  profits  are  being  made  out  of  the  war.  If  sacrifices  are 
demanded  of  them,  it  is  essential  that  they  should  feel  that  it  is 
the  community  alone  which  will  get  the  benefit. 

Now  all  this  is  not  inconsistent  with,  it  is  of  the  very  essence 
of  the  idea  of  National  Service.     We  must  all  make  sacrifices,  we 

x  2 


242  The  Empire  Review 

must  all  be  put  under  orders — provided  it  is  for  England,  or  as, 
remembering  what  our  fellow-countrymen  overseas  are  doing,  I 
should  prefer  to  put  it,  for  the  Empire,  nay,  more  than  that,  for 
the  cause  of  freedom  throughout  the  world,  for  which  other  great 
and  free  nations,  our  Allies,  are  throwing  their  whole  manhood 
into  the  scale.  But  if  we  are  to  do  this,  then  it  seems  to  me 
that  universal  liability  to  military  service  is  the  right  way  to 
attack  the  problem,  the  right  end  at  which  to  begin.  That  does 
not  mean  of  course  that  we  should  try  to  put  all  our  able-bodied 
men  into  the  field.  It  does  mean  that  they  would  all  be 
enrolled,  and  that  the  State  would  have  the  right  to  call  on  any 
man,  for  military  or  other  service,  as  and  when  it  wanted  him. 
Unless  he  was  so  called  upon,  he  would  be  free  to  go  on  with  his 
ordinary  work.  That  would  be  his  contribution  to  maintaining 
the  national  strength,  for  of  course,  subject  to  the  supreme  need 
of  fighting  men  and  of  munitions,  it  is  essential  to  keep  our 
industries  going.  But  nobody  would  be  exempt  merely  because 
it  suited  himself,  only  because  it  suited  the  State,  because  he 
was  more  useful  to  the  commonwealth  in  some  other  capacity 
than  as  a  fighting  man.  What  it  would  come  to  in  practice  is 
that,  as  men  were  wanted  for  military  service,  they  would  be 
called  up  in  age-classes,  beginning  say  at  twenty,  all  the  men 
between  certain  ages  being  called  up  together,  except  those  who 
for  State  reasons  were  exempt,  but  who  would  be  just  as  much 
bound  to  stick  to  the  work  for  the  sake  of  which  they  were 
exempted,  as  their  fellows  would  be  bound  to  shoulder  a  rifle. 

People  talk  a  great  deal  just  now  about  organising  the  whole 
nation  for  the  conduct  of  the  war.  I  am  not  sure  that  they 
always  know  what  they  mean  by  it.  It  seems  to  me  that 
universal  liability  to  military  service  is  the  broad  basis  on  which 
any  such  organisation  must  rest.  If  that  were  once  accepted, 
not  only  should  we  be  sure  of  getting  the  men  we  wanted  for  the 
field  and  of  getting  them  in  the  right  order — that  is,  the  younger 
men  before  the  older — but  we  should  have  a  starting-point,  a 
principle,  simple,  equitable,  and  of  far-reaching  application, 
by  the  aid  of  which  other  war-problems,  including  that  of 
munitions,  could  more  easily  be  solved. 

Any  way,  we  need  something  better  than  the  present  hap- 
hazard method  if  we  are  not  presently  to  run  short  of  men.  At 
the  moment  the  cry  is  all  for  munitions,  and  quite  rightly  so. 
But  if  there  is  one  thing  which  this  war  ought  to  have  taught  us, 
it  is  that  you  have  got  to  look  ahead,  and  that  you  can't  afford  to 
think  only  of  one  thing  at  a  time.  No  doubt  it  sounds  plausible 
enough,  and  is  a  good  excuse  for  those  who  never  like  to  face  any 
problem  squarely,  to  say  :  "  We  have  got  as  many  men  to-day  as 
we  can  arm  and  equip,  why  trouble  about  more  for  the  moment  ?  " 


The  Need  for  National  Service  243 

I  wonder  where  we  should  be  to-day  if  Lord  Kitchener,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  war,  had  gone  on  the  same  principle.  He  did 
not  waste  a  day  in  getting  all  the  men  he  could,  though  he  had 
no  arms  and  no  equipment.  Six  months  hence,  nine  months 
hence,  the  deficiency  of  material  may  have  been  made  good,  and 
the  great  cry  may  once  more  be  for  men.  Should  we  not  even 
now  be  preparing  to  get  them?  And  we  can't  go  one  better 
than  the  appeal  to  the  young  women  of  London  to  turn  out  their 
"  best  boys."  That  surely  is  the  last  ditch  of  the  system  of 
conscription  by  cajolery,  the  system  which  we  are  told  gives  us 
a  special  dignity  in  the  eyes  of  the  world,  and  from  which  it 
would  be  a  moral  lapse  to  descend  to  the  base  principle  that  every 
man  must  do  his  duty. 

But  I  must  not  begin  to  argue  which  method  is  in  itself 
the  nobler.  I  have  my  own  opinion  about  that.  My  feeling 
is  that  universal  service  is  finer,  fairer,  more  conducive  to 
national  solidarity,  more  reputable  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  than 
our  present  way  of  going  on.  Others,  I  know,  are  of  a  different 
opinion.  But  even  they  cannot  contend  that  it  would  not  give 
us  more  men,  or  that,  if  we  continue  on  our  present  lines,  we 
may  not  reach  the  last  decisive  stage  of  this  gigantic  struggle 
with  our  strength  still  only  half-developed,  with  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  able-bodied  men  of  military  age,  not  engaged  in  any 
other  work  of  vital  importance,  whom  we  have  never  put  into  the 
field.  That,  as  it  seems  to  me,  would  be  failure — failure  for  us, 
even  if,  thanks  to  the  intenser  efforts  of  our  Allies,  we  should 
collectively  just  manage  to  pull  through.  For  this  conflict  is  so 
vast,  the  stakes  are  so  gigantic,  the  consequences  will  be  so 
immeasurable,  that  no  nation  engaged  in  it  can  claim  to  have 
done  all  it  ought  unless  it  has  done  all  it  can. 

MlLNEE. 


244  The  Empire  Review 


DEMOCRACY    AND    THE    WAR 

NEARLY  twelve  months  of  critical  and  desperate  fighting  have 
passed  before  the  country  has  begun  to  realise  the  grim  realities 
of  the  situation.  Although  we  have  stemmed  the  violence  of 
the  original  German  rush,  we  have  as  yet  far  from  broken  the 
initiative  and  the  morale  of  the  enemy — we  have  in  no  way 
destroyed  his  confidence,  we  are  still  far  from  crushing  his 
resistance. 

Probably  the  future  historian  will  relate  that  the  disillusion- 
ment commenced  in  February  last,  when  the  late  Cabinet  made 
its  first  public  call  for  more  munitions.  Throughout  April  the 
munitions  controversy  raged ;  in  May  came  its  culmination — the 
virtual  admission  by  the  authorities  of  a  grave  shortage  and  the 
formation  of  a  National  Cabinet  with  a  separate  Minister  for 
Munitions.  The  country  had  at  last  recognised  that  victory  will 
not  be  easy ;  that  it  will  exact  a  stern  price,  that  it  will  demand 
our  best  efforts.  It  is  therefore  important  fully  to  appreciate  the 
nature  of  the  task  ahead,  and  to  cast  aside  any  lingering  mis- 
conceptions which  may  still  attend  us. 

As  regards  Germany,  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  enemy  is 
perfectly  confident  of  ultimate  victory,  that  while  he  knows 
he  is  paying  a  heavy  price  he  is  ready  to  make  any  and  every 
sacrifice  in  order  to  achieve  success.  The  German  people 
are  fighting  with  a  unanimity  equal  to  our  own.  They  are 
admirably  organised,  and  they  are  reconciled  to  the  prospect 
of  a  long  and  bitter  struggle.  They  are  determined  to  win 
because  they  know  that  failure  will  be  disastrous.  Meanwhile 
their  social  life  has  been  remarkably  little  upset  considering  the 
unprecedented  conditions.  Their  industrial  life  has  been  mainly 
diverted  to  war  purposes,  there  is  but  little  distress,  and  the 
country  is  very  far  from  starvation.  These,  in  brief,  are  the 
facts  as  they  come  to  us  from  competent  neutral  observers. 
They  reveal  an  enemy  more  formidable  than  we  have  ever  before 
faced,  and  falsify  the  stories  of  impending  German  exhaustion 
through  economic  pressure.  Another  dangerous  illusion  is  the 
view  that  after  a  few  disastrous  defeats  there  will  be  internal 


Democracy  and  the  War  245 

commotion  in  Germany — probably  revolution — and  that  this 
commotion  or  revolution  will  produce  the  collapse  of  German 
military  resistance  and  an  early  peace.  We  have  first  to  gain 
these  shattering  victories — not  to  speculate  upon  their  results — 
and  when  they  have  been  gained  probably  events  will  turn  out 
very  differently  from  such  anticipations.  Revolution  at  a  later 
date  may  or  may  not  occur  in  Germany,  but  it  is  most  unlikely 
that  it  will  have  the  effect  predicted.  We  must  rely  neither 
upon  economic  pressure  nor  upon  internal  commotion,  but  solely 
upon  military  strength  if  we  are  to  achieve  a  speedy  and  con- 
clusive triumph. 

And  in  this  connection  arises  another  fundamental  consider- 
ation. The  decisive  military  strength  in  this  war  must  come 
from  ourselves.  Hitherto  we  have  been  a  little  too  apt  to  rely 
upon  our  Allies  so  far  as  land  operations  are  concerned,  and 
to  comfort  ourselves  in  the  absence  of  decisive  success  with 
the  reflection  that  this  is  "  a  war  of  attrition."  Up  to  a  point 
it  is  very  good  business  to  keep  the  hostile  armies  fully  engaged, 
and  to  inflict  upon  them  a  loss  of,  say,  ten  men  for  every  five 
of  ours,  but  overwhelming  victory  will  not  come  from  an  in- 
definite continuation  of  this  policy.  The  doctrine  of  attrition, 
in  its  unqualified  sense,  is  as  dangerous  as  the  doctrine  of 
economic  pressure,  and  as  unlikely  to  lead  to  speedy  results.  We 
cannot  be  content  with  an  indefinite  continuation  of  this  trench 
warfare ;  victory  can  only  be  achieved  by  a,  real  territorial 
advance — an  advance  measured  by  miles  and  towns,  and  not 
by  yards  and  houses. 

Now  to  attain  this  a  huge  preponderance  of  men  and  of 
artillery  is  essential,  and,  for  all  practical  purposes,  we  are  the 
only  Allied  nation  with  the  necessary  potential  reserves.  France, 
Eussia,  and  Italy  are  putting  into  the  field  every  available  man, 
and  they  are  held.  The  backbone  of  German  militarism  will 
have  to  be  broken  by  ourselves,  and  in  the  last  resort  this  is  a 
duel  between  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  just  as  a  century  ago 
the  struggle  for  European  liberty  resolved  itself  into  a  duel 
between  this  country  and  Napoleon. 

But  organisation  is  playing  a  supreme  part  in  this  conflict, 
and  if  we  are  to  achieve  reasonably  early  victory — or,  indeed, 
victory  at  all — we  must  be  organised,  even  as  our  opponent  is 
organised,  although  due  regard  must  be  paid  to  the  difference  in 
national  spirit  and  tradition. 

First,  as  to  our  military  needs.  Is  conscription  necessary? 
Thus  far  the  voluntary  system  has  responded  magnificently  to  the 
call,  and  has  enabled  us  to  raise  an  army  of  nearly  3,000,000  men. 
Apparently  from  Mr.  Lloyd  George's  remarks  at  Manchester,  and 
Mr.  Churchill's  speech  at  Dundee,  Ministers  themselves  are  at 


246  The  Empire  Review 

present  satisfied  with  the  progress  of  recruiting.  It  is  urged  that 
compulsion  is  unnecessary,  since  numbers  are  far  in  advance  of 
equipment.  Doubtless  this  is  so  at  the  moment,  but  we  have  to 
look  ahead.  We  are  confronted  with  a  stupendous  task,  and 
when  our  new  armies  get  fully  into  action,  the  losses  may  prove 
so  heavy  and  the  campaign  so  prolonged,  that  the  flow  of  voluntary 
recruits  may  not  prove  adequate  to  supply  the  reserves. 

Our  present  methods  are  entirely  haphazard,  we  are  living  to 
a  large  extent  from  hand  to  mouth.  There  has  been  a  woeful 
lack  of  co-ordination  in  our  efforts,  and  consequently  many  men, 
who  would  have  been  more  useful  at  home,  have  been  allowed  to 
join  the  colours.  An  unduly  high  proportion  of  our  recruits  are 
married,  and  from  a  moral  point  of  view  it  is  obviously  wrong  to 
take  men  with  large  domestic  responsibilities,  and  to  leave  single 
men  of  twenty  to  thirty  free  to  follow  their  ordinary  civilian 
avocations.  By  every  consideration  of  justice  the  married  men 
should  form  our  ultimate  line  of  defence.  Again,  from  a  purely 
economic  standpoint,  it  is  manifestly  unwise  to  incur  without 
necessity  the  heavy  financial  burden  that  will  fall  on  this  country 
by  way  of  separation  allowances  and  pensions  if  the  present  policy 
be  continued. 

We  are  committed  to  a  vital  struggle;  a  struggle  which 
demands  all  our  energy ;  a  struggle  which  may  be  very  protracted. 
To  wage  such  a  conflict  with  any  reasonable  degree  of  confidence 
and  security  we  must  know  how  we  stand,  and  we  must  be  in  a 
position  to  use  our  latent  resources  as  and  when  they  are  required. 
This  can  only  be  done  by  compulsory  organisation,  for  the  volun- 
tary principle  does  not  admit  of  scientific  forethought.  We  have 
the  numbers  we  require  for  the  moment,  but  under  the  present 
system  we  have  no  guarantee  that  we  shall  have  them  three  or 
six  months  hence,  and  we  can  only  obtain  this  guarantee — a  vital 
matter  for  us — by  taking  stock  of  our  assets  now,  and  by  making 
arrangements  to  secure  further  drafts  as  and  when  they  are 
needed.  Probably  at  the  moment  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  a 
compulsory  levy — the  number  of  recruits  is  ahead  of  equipment — 
but  should  the  provision  of  equipment  at  a  later  date  have  been 
increased  so  as  to  permit  of  further  army  expansion,  and  should 
military  exigencies  demand  further  reinforcements,  we  must  have 
the  certainty — not  merely  the  hope  or  the  expectation — that  we 
shall  get  the  men,  and  that  we  shall  get  those  who  can  best  be 
spared.  This  can  only  be  attained  by  the  introduction  of 
conscription. 

The  first  essential  is  that  steps  should  immediately  be  taken 
to  compile  a  National  Eegister.  We  should  then  know  where 
the  men  are,  and  be  able  to  draw  upon  them  in  order  of  age,  as 
and  when  required.  Naturally  single  men  would  be  called  up 


Democracy  and  the  War  247 

first.  In  the  result  it  would  probably  be  found  that  very  little 
compulsion  would  be  necessary,  since  the  completion  of  such  a 
Eegister  would  have  a  tremendous  moral  effect,  and  would  cause 
a  very  large  number  of  shirkers  to  come  forward  without  further 
delay.  They  would  be  enlisted  as  their  services  were  needed. 
Accordingly  it  may  be  urged  that  the  taking  of  a  National 
Eegister  would  in  itself  adequately  meet  the  situation.  It  is, 
however,  merely  an  indispensable  preliminary  to  the  larger 
scheme,  and  as  an  isolated  measure  would  not,  in  my  opinion, 
solve  the  problem,  i.e.  the  substitution  of  regulated,  systematic 
action  for  erratic  and  uncertain  individual  initiative.  To  secure 
this,  compulsion  is  the  only  effective  weapon.  In  this  crisis  we 
must  be  prepared  ruthlessly  to  discard  ancient  shibboleths,  and 
to  have  an  eye  only  for  what  is  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the 
State. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  industrial  side  of  the  problem.  The 
question  of  munitions  is  apparently  at  present  even  more  urgent 
than  the  question  of  recruiting.  We  now  know  that  the  supreme 
factor  in  this  war  is  artillery.  Until  we  have  an  unlimited 
supply  of  high  explosive  and  of  other  ammunition  in  proportion 
we  cannot  hope  to  make  a  decisive  advance.  It  is  therefore 
essential  to  develop  our  material  resources  speedily  and  fully  and 
to  organise  the  requisite  labour. 

There  are  various  serious  impediments  to  be  removed. 
Hitherto  there  has  been  no  mobilisation  of  our  latent  engineering 
capacity.  Firms  have  applied  in  vain  to  the  War  Office  for 
contracts;  other  firms— a  minority — when  approached  have 
refused  to  take  on  Government  work  because  this  would  entail  a 
surrender  of  profitable  civil  business ;  yet  other  firms,  which  with 
some  adaptation  of  their  workshops,  would  be  able  to  manufacture 
munitions  or  some  part  thereof,  have  been  left  alone,  no  request 
having  been  made  to  them,  and  no  information  having  been 
given  them  as  to  their  possibilities,  they  have  naturally  con- 
tinued at  their  existing  work. 

All  this  is  now  to  be  remedied.  Under  the  Defence  of  the 
Realm  Act  the  Government  possesses  absolute  power  to  take 
over  any  factory,  and  evidently  this  right  will  be  fully  exercised 
through  the  representative  Munitions  Committees  to  be  estab- 
lished in  the  various  industrial  areas.  In  the  near  future 
apparently  our  material  resources  will  be  fully  utilised. 

But  the  main  difficulties  have  arisen  in  connection  with 
labour.  Without  doubt  there  is  a  serious  shortage  of  skilled 
mechanics.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  promiscuous  manner 
in  which  recruiting  has  been  carried  on.  Thousands  of  men, 
who  ought  never  to  have  been  taken,  have  been  removed 
from  the  workshops.  Mr.  Lloyd  George  now  announces  that 


248  The  Empire  Review 

steps  are  being  taken  to  secure  their  discharge  from  the  army, 
and  to  bring  them  back  to  the  factories.  Their  former  employers 
have  been  asked  to  supply  their  names,  and  from  this  information 
the  authorities  will  take  the  necessary  action.  Apparently  the 
men  concerned  will  not  be  allowed  to  remain  with  the  colours, 
but  will  be  brought  back  irrespective  of  personal  choice.  It  is  not, 
however,  clear  whether  artisans  in  the  trenches  are  to  be  recalled. 
This  is  a  more  difficult  matter  than  the  discharge  of  men  at 
present  merely  under  training,  but  the  obstacles  do  not  seem  to 
be  insuperable,  as  in  France  the  authorities  are  withdrawing 
mechanics  from  the  firing-line  for  service  in  the  factory.  We 
should  do  likewise. 

Presumably  it  will  be  illegal  for  any  worker  in  a  munitions 
factory  to  enlist  in  future,  and  in  this  connection  there  is  another 
point  which  should  be  mentioned.  A  heavy  percentage  of  miners 
have  now  been  recruited,  and  our  transport  services  have  also 
suffered  severely  from  the  same  cause.  There  is  a  serious 
risk  that  these  industries  will  be  dangerously  handicapped  unless 
further  enlistment  from  their  ranks  is  forbidden.  This  is  another 
example  of  the  necessity  for  a  compulsory  National  Register. 
We  must  so  organise  the  manhood  of  this  country  that  we  can 
depute  to  each  citizen  his  own  particular  task.  Only  in  this  way 
can  the  army  be  satisfactorily  and  methodically  reinforced,  and 
the  vital  war  industries  be  adequately  supplied  with  labour.  The 
continuation  of  the  present  haphazard  system  means  a  constant 
depletion  of  the  labour  ranks  by  the  removal  of  the  wrong  men. 
Only  by  a  National  Eegister  and  by  legislation  prohibiting  enlist- 
ment in  certain  trades  can  industrial  efficiency  be  properly 
secured. 

Such  steps  will  give  us  the  maximum  number  of  skilled 
artisans  available,  but  the  demand  for  munitions  is  so  enormous 
and  so  immediate  that  without  a  huge  auxiliary  army  of  unskilled 
workers  it  will  be  impossible  to  meet  it.  Further,  in  order  to 
secure  the  utmost  production  possible,  complete  harmony  between 
employers  and  employed  is  essential.  Unfortunately,  hitherto 
these  conditions  have  not  obtained.  Normally,  trade  union 
regulations  severely  hamper  output  and  the  employment  of  un- 
skilled or  female  labour.  In  the  present  crisis,  trade  union 
officials  some  months  ago  loyally  agreed  to  suspend  for  the 
duration  of  the  war  all  restrictive  regulations,  but  in  several 
districts  the  workmen  have  refused  to  follow  their  leaders' 
directions,  and  in  consequence  there  has  been  much  strife  and 
slackness  of  work.  Thousands  of  workmen  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land  have  honestly  and  patriotically 
done  their  best — have  consistently  laboured  long  hours,  and  have 
nobly  supported  their  comrades  in  the  trenches.  But  throughout 


Democracy  and  the  War  249 

there  has  been  this  strong  under-current  of  dispute  and  stoppage 
of  work.  Quarrels  over  wages  have  been  continual,  strikes  have 
been  frequent.  Among  a  very  small,  but  unfortunately  important 
minority  of  workmen  there  has  even  been  wanton  slackness  and 
drinking. 

For  this  state  of  affairs  the  authorities  have  been  largely  to 
blame.  Workmen  have  noticed  the  press  of  contracts  in  their 
employers'  hands  and  have  jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  huge 
profits  are  being  "made.  They  have  not  unnaturally,  on  such 
premises,  considered  that  they  ought  to  have  a  share  in  the  spoil 
— hence  the  constant  disputes  as  to  wages.  The  evil  has  been 
accentuated  by  the  unfair  competition  for  labour  amongst 
employers — the  constant  efforts  to  entice  men  away  from  par- 
ticular factories  by  the  offer  of  larger  wages  have  naturally  had 
an  unsettling  effect.  These  two  factors  have  naturally  been  a 
strong  temptation.  Had  the  men  realised  the  extreme  gravity  of 
the  situation  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  they  would  have  proved 
so  jealous  for  trade  union  rights,  and  whether  they  would  have 
clamoured  so  insistently  for  a  certain  rate  of  pay.  But  hitherto 
they  have  not  realised  the  desperate  nature  of  the  struggle,  and 
for  this  ignorance  the  undue  reticence  of  the  Press  Bureau  has 
been  largely  responsible. 

Further  enlightenment  as  to  the  critical  position  at  the  front 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  if  this  constant  bickering  is  to  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  this  connection  the  experiment 
recently  made  at  Glasgow  is  worthy  of  notice.  A  deputation  of 
eight  workmen  from  Messrs.  William  Beardmore  and  Company's 
establishment  at  Parkhead  has  lately  visited  the  firing  line,  and 
has  been  given  an  opportunity  of  acquiring  first-hand  informa- 
tion as  to  the  needs  and  dangers  of  the  moment.  The  deputation 
has  returned  convinced  of  the  necessity  and  determined  to 
increase  production  to  its  greatest  capacity.  This  example  might 
be  followed  with  advantage  in  other  works  and  in  other  centres. 
The  British  workman  is  as  sound  and  as  patriotic  as  any  member 
of  the  community.  Convince  him  of  the  vital  importance  of 
expanding  output  to  its  fullest  extent,  and  trouble  as  to  wages, 
hours  and  regulations  will  become  a  negligible  quantity. 

But  enthusiasm,  to  be  fully  effective,  must  necessarily  be 
organised,  and  consequently  Mr.  Lloyd  George's  Bill  is  a  welcome 
step  in  the  right  direction.  Strikes  and  lock-outs,  for  the 
duration  of  the  war,  become  illegal ;  all  disputes  must  be  referred 
to  arbitration.  Restrictive  trade  union  rules  and  regulations  are 
suspended  ;  slackness  and  breaches  of  discipline  will  be  fined  by 
the  local  Munitions  Committee,  composed  equally  of  employers' 
and  workers'  representatives.  Munition  factories  are  declared 
to  be  under  State  control,  and  in  these  factories  profits  will  be 


250  The  Empire  Review 

strictly  limited.  Employers  in  such  cases  will  have  the  number 
of  their  workmen  regulated  by  the  local  Committee,  and  no 
employer  may  seek  to  retain  or  engage  men  needed  for  munitions 
work.  Finally,  the  mobility  of  skilled  labour  will  be  ensured 
by  the  enrolment  of  volunteers  by  the  trade  unions  for  service 
in  any  factory  in  the  country  for  a  period  of  six  months.  These 
agreements  can  be  enforced  by  the  Munitions  Committees. 

These  are  very  wide  powers,  but  they  are  most  necessary,  and 
the  only  pity  is  that  they  were  not  adopted  nine  months  ago. 
The  delegation  of  such  authority  to  local  committees  cognisant 
of  the  peculiar  conditions  of  their  own  particular  districts  is  a 
wise  move,  and  should  do  much  to  make  the  scheme  successful, 
whilst  the  control  of  the  committees  over  recalcitrant  workers 
will  probably  be  effective  by  the  right  they  possess  to  enforce  a 
fine  by  expulsion  from  the  Union,  and  loss  of  all  benefits. 

The  scheme  appears  in  every  way  statesmanlike,  and  Mr.  Lloyd 
George  is  to  be  congratulated  upon  the  energy,  tact,  and  firmness 
which  he  has  displayed.  A  very  important  step  has  been  taken 
towards  the  organisation  of  our  resources,  but  this  must  be 
followed  up.  Only  by  the  employment  of  our  whole  energy  can 
we  hope  to  bring  this  war  to  a  decisive  issue  in  a  relatively  short 
time.  We  must  realise  that  unless  we  exert  ourselves  to  the 
utmost  there  is  grave  danger  of  the  struggle  being  indefinitely 
prolonged,  and  in  this  lies  a  serious  risk  of  an  inconclusive  peace. 
Unless  and  until  Germany  is  utterly  crushed  there  will  be  no 
safety  for  this  country ;  no  security  in  Europe.  We  must  crush 
her  now,  for,  in  Mr.  Churchill's  words,  "  not  to  win  decisively  is 
to  have  all  this  misery  over  again  after  an  uneasy  truce,  and  to 
fight  it  over  again,  probably  under  less  favourable  circumstances, 
and,  perhaps  alone."  Conclusive  victory  is  a  life  and  death 
matter  for  us ;  to  be  satisfied  with  anything  less  is  to  invite 
another  German  attack  at  a  later  date,  and  probably  to  court 
disaster.  We  must  destroy  the  foe  now;  otherwise  we  may 
live  to  see  the  day  when  he  will  destroy  us. 

Let  the  new  Government  take  the  nation  fully  into  their 
confidence ;  let  them  organise  her  citizens  completely  and 
methodically,  and  there  will  be  no  question  as  to  the  ultimate 
result.  The  need  was  excellently  stated  by  Mr.  Churchill  at 
Dundee : — 

What  does  the  nation  expect  of  the  new  National  Government?  I  can 
answer  my  question.  I  am  going  to  answer  it  in  one  word — action.  That  is 
the  need,  that  is  the  only  justification,  that  there  should  be  a  stronger  national 
sentiment,  a  more  powerful  driving  force,  a  greater  measure  of  consent  in  the 
people,  a  greater  element  of  leadership  and  design  in  the  rulers — that  is  what 
all  parties  expect  and  require  in  return  for  the  many  sacrifices  which  all  parties 
have  after  due  consideration  made  from  their  particular  interests  and  ideals. 
Action — action,  not  hesitation  ;  action,  not  words  ;  action,  not  agitation.  The 


Democracy  and  the  War  251 

nation  waits  its  orders.  The  duty  lies  upon  the  Government  to  declare  what 
should  be  done,  to  propose  it  to  Parliament,  and  to  stand  or  fall  by  the  result. 
That  is  the  message  which  you  wish  me  to  take  back  to  London — act ;  act 
now ;  act  with  faith  and  courage.  Trust  the  people.  They  have  never  failed 
you  yet. 

Let  the  Ministry  live  up  to  those  words.  Let  the  nation 
wholeheartedly  support  the  Ministry.  This  is  no  time  for  foolish 
recrimination;  for  paltry  and  disloyal  attacks  on  individual 
Ministers  ;  for  pessimism  as  empty  and  unreasoning  as  our  former 
optimism.  The  need  is  for  courage,  for  determination,  for  stern 
resolve  and  united  effort. 

H.  DOUGLAS  GREGORY. 


THE    SHADOW 

THE  sun  shines  bright  on  a  stricken  land 

And  the  shade  of  a  cross  lies  clear, 
On  a  roadside  worn  with  the  soldiers'  tramp 

And  the  flying  feet  of  fear. 
A  cross  in  a  land  where  day  by  day 
A  people  are  living  their  calvary. 

Only  one  of  the  thousands  of  brave  and  true 
Who  have  finished  the  fight  and  won, 

An  early  rest  in  a  sacred  spot 

'Midst  the  roar  of  cannon  and  gun. 

And  already  over  that  narrow  grave 

Creeps  the  moss  and  the  grasses  wave. 

And  the  shade  of  that  symbol  of  sacrifice 

Stretches  over  the  land  and  sea, 
And  darkens  a  home  in  an  English  town 

That  he  left  so  blithe  and  free. 
But  the  dearest  memory  of  life  will  be 
His  glorious  record  of  bravery. 

CHARLOTTE  PIDGEON. 


252 


The  Empire  Review 


SUGAR    BEET    AS    A    HOME    INDUSTRY 

FACTS  FOR   FARMERS 

THE  present  generation  is  familiar  with  the  American,  the 
South  African,  the  Canadian  and  the  Australian  millionaire.  Few 
persons,  however,  are  alive  who  can  remember  the  millionaire 
sugar  planter  of  early  Victorian  days.  Yet  at  that  period  of  our 
history  the  millionaire  sugar  planter  held  a  recognised  position 
in  the  social  life  of  London.  Economic  changes  in  the  production 
of  sugar  are  mainly  responsible  for  his  disappearance.  Then,  as 
now,  we  imported  the  whole  of  our  sugar  supply,  but  with  this 
difference.  Then  the  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  fed 
entirely  on  sugar  produced  from  cane,  largely  grown  in  the  West 
Indies.  Now  four-fifths  of  our  sugar  supply  is  produced  from 
beet,  grown  almost  exclusively  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

TABLB  SHOWING  DUE  IMPOBTS  OP  SUGAB  BEET,  1913. 


Place  of  Origin. 

Refined  Sugar. 

Haw  Sugar. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Germany  

465,453 
198,063 
178,566 
49,764 
26,571 
2,939 
385 
11 
11 

& 
6,161,380 
2,632,654 
2,477,347 
668,837 
357,275 
37,924 
5,300 
148 
168 

471,446 
160,158 
10,889 
2,466 

31,449 

£ 
4,727,472 
1,618,042 
104,314 
23,526 

307,826 

Netherlands  .... 
Belgium   .           ... 

France      
Russia  

United  States      .     .      . 
Denmark  

Other  foreign  countries 

921,763 

£12,341,033 

676,408 

£6,781,250 

From  this  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  for  the  year  in  question, 
the  latest  for  which  statistics  are  available,  our  total  importation 
of  beet  sugar,  raw  and  refined,  amounted  to  1,598,171  tons,  valued 
at  £19,122,283.  If  to  this  be  added  the  imports  of  cane  sugar, 
which  constitute  the  remaining  fifth  of  our  whole  supply, 
made  up  of  297,879  tons  from  foreign  countries,  valued  at 
£3,007,013,  and  71,729  tons  from  British  Possessions,  valued  at 
£927,282,  we  arrive  at  a  total  importation  of  1,967,779  tons, 
valued  at  £23,056,578.  In  other  words,  with  a  home  market  for 
sugar  amounting  to  nearly  two  million  tons,  we  have  been  content 
to  allow  four-fifths  of  that  supply  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  foreign 


Sugar  Beet  as  a  Home  Industry  253 

countries,  two  of  which  are  now  our  open  enemies  ;  and  this  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  we  have  in  the  United  Kingdom  soil  and  climate 
suitable  in  every  way  for  the  cultivation  of  beet.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  imagine  a  policy  more  opposed  to  British  interests, 
and  we  look,  with  some  confidence,  to  the  new  Government  to 
bring  about  a  change  in  the  present  'economic  position  by 
promoting  and  fostering  the  cultivation  of  beet  in  this  country. 

Seeing  that  the  enemy  had  supplied  us  during  1913  with  not 
far  short  of  two-thirds  of  the  sugar  consumed  in  these  islands,  we 
were  faced  last  August  with  a  sugar  famine.  Within  a  few  days 
of  the  outbreak  of  war  the  retail  price  of  sugar  rose  from  2d.  to 
5d.  per  lb.,  and  had  this  condition  of  things  been  allowed  to 
continue  sugar  would  soon  have  reached  a  prohibitive  price.  The 
prompt  action  of  the  Government,  however,  saved  the  situation. 
By  means  of  a  Commission  the  Government  purchased  900,000 
tons  of  sugar,  thereby  securing  for  this  country  a  six  months' 
supply,  a  wise  and  statesmanlike  course,  and  one  that  protected 
the  public  from  the  operations  of  rings  that,  regardless  of  public 
needs,  are  ever  ready  to  make  money  out  of  the  people's  neces- 
sities. But  how  different  would  have  been  the  position  had  the 
manufacture  of  sugar  been  a  home  industry !  In  these  circum- 
stances it  is  hardly  surprising  that  the  question  of  protecting 
ourselves  by  growing  our  own  beet  and  making  our  own  sugar 
has  rapidly  come  to  the  front,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  urgent 
among  our  agricultural  problems. 

In  considering  the  question  of  home-grown  sugar,  one  must 
not  forget  its  twin  industry,  refining,  which  suffered  severely 
from  the  displacement  of  cane  sugar  by  continental  beet.  Both 
capitalists  and  labour  in  this  country  felt  the  effects  of  the  change. 
Half  a  century  or  more  ago  we  refined  all  the  sugar  used  for 
home  consumption.  By  this  means  a  considerable  industry  was 
built  up,  giving  employment  to  thousands  of  hands.  In  East 
London  some  twenty  refineries  were  working.  In  Scotland,  with 
Greenock  as  a  centre,  eighteen,  in  Liverpool,  nine,  and  Bristol 
three.  To-day,  there  are  only  two  refineries  in  East  London, 
exclusive  of  three  or  four  used  for  brewer's  sugar.  Scotland 
has  five  and  one  for  brewer's  sugar,  Lancashire  three  and  several 
where  sugar  for  brewing  is  manufactured.  In  Bristol  there  are 
none.  If  we  grew  our  own  beet,  all  refining  would  again  be  done 
here  and  a  wide  field  opened  up  for  town  workers  as  well  as  for 
agricultural  labour. 

The  figures  for  the  world's  sugar  trade  since  1840  afford  an 
interesting  study  in  economics,  showing  as  they  do  in  concrete 
form  the  rise  in  the  volume  of  beet  sugar  placed  on  the  market 
during  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the 
corresponding  fall  in  prices.  In  1840  only  50,000  tons,  or  5  per 
cent,  of  the  world's  trade,  was  manufactured  from  beet,  and  the 


254 


The  Empire  Review 


price  of  sugar,  taking  the  average,  was  48s.  per  cwt.  With  the 
rise  in  beet  production  the  sugar  market  expanded  rapidly.  By 
1871  the  trade  had  doubled  itself,  and  in  the  following  year  had 
reached  three  times  what  it  was  in  1840,  the  percentage  in 
favour  of  cane  being  38  •  95  and  40  *  22  respectively.  Eleven  years 
later  the  trade  in  cane  and  beet  sugar  approached  equality,  and 
the  average  price  per  cwt.  fell  to  20s.  2d.  At  the  beginning  of 
this  century  the  market  was  taking  close  upon  6,000,000  tons  of 
beet  sugar,  which  formed  67 '61  per  cent,  of  the  world's  trade, 
the  price  again  falling  to  an  average  of  11s.  6d.  per  cwt. 

From  that  time,  however,  to  the  present  day,  although  the 
market  for  beet  sugar  has  continued  to  advance,  the  competition 
of  cane  sugar  has  become  more  acute,  with  the  result  that  last 
year  the  trade  returns  showed,  beet,  8,909,000  tons,  cane, 
7,559,000  tons,  and  the  price  rose  to  14s.  Id.  per  cwt.  on  the 
average,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  deal  made  by  the 
Government  in  August  for  stocks  in  hand  and  future  delivery  of 
900,000  tons  at  ^920  per  ton  shows  an  average  advance  of  5s.  lid. 
per  cwt.  The  steady  increase  shown  in  the  percentage  of  the 
cane  sugar  trade  since  1901  is  mainly  accounted  for  by  develop- 
ments in  Java  and  Cuba.  The  resources  of  these  countries  for 
growing  cane  sugar  are  said  to  be  without  limit,  and  fostered  as 
they  are  by  the  Dutch  and  American  Governments  and  the 
introduction  of  new  and  up-to-date  plant,  there  is  every  chance 
of  cane  sugar  again  securing  priority  of  place  in  the  market.  In 
this  connection  also  one  must  not  forget  that  in  these  countries 
land  is  cheap  and  labour  plentiful,  whereas  in  beet-growing 
countries  the  situation  is  exactly  the  reverse. 

The  position  of  the  Continental  beet  sugar  industry  up  to  the 
time  of  the  war  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : — 

SEASON  1913-1914. 


Country. 

Number  of 
Factories. 

Acres  under 
beet  cultivation. 

Yield  of  roots 
in  tons. 

Raw  sugar 
yield  iu  tons. 

Germany  .... 
Russia  
Austria  .... 

341 
294 
201 
209 

1,333,272 
1,811,700 
1,078,250 
540  550 

16,700,000 
12,180,000 
10,840,000 
5  980,000 

2,725,000 
1,731,000 
1,692,000 
786  000 

Italy 

39 

150  000 

1,770,000 

327  800 

Belgium  .... 
Netherlands  .  .  . 
Spain  

68 
27 
31 
21 

138,250 
154,250 
127,415 
71,287 

1,510,000 
1,530,000 
1,220,000 
870,000 

230,000 
228,600 
160,000 
136  500 

Denmark  .... 

9       » 

77,250 

950,000 

146,000 

1,240 

5,482,224 

53,550,000 

8,162,900 

In  Germany  the  beet  industry  has  made  the  greatest  progress 
and  the  German  factories  pay  high  dividends.  There  science 
and  commerce  have  worked  hand  in  hand,  with  the  result  that 
the  processes  of  extracting  the  sugar  have  been  cheapened  and 


Sugar  Beet  as  a  Home  Industry  255 

improved,  whilst  by  careful  selection  of  seed  the  percentage  of 
saccharine  in  the  beet,  which  half  a  century  ago  was  about  9  per 
cent.,  has  been  increased  to  15  and  even  17  per  cent.  This  means 
that  65  per  cent,  more  sugar  can  now  be  produced  from  the 
same  acreage  of  ground.  In  some  cases  the  saccharine  extracted 
is  said  to  have  reached  the  high  figure  of  20  per  cent.,  but  to 
avoid  any  semblance  of  exaggeration  we  have  purposely  not  used 
the  highest  figure. 

Now  that  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  are  closed  countries, 
that  Belgium  has  been  devastated,  and  Russia  and  France  are 
likely  to  require  all  the  sugar  they  can  produce  for  home  con- 
sumption, the  moment  seems  opportune  to  consider  the  possibility 
of  meeting  the  shortage  by  advancing  the  industry  in  this 
country.  There  is  little  doubt  about  the  success  of  the  under- 
taking to  judge  from  what  has  happened  elsewhere,  while  the 
very  large  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United  Kingdom  should 
prove  a  sufficient  incentive  to  put  forward  every  effort  to  wrest 
this  trade  from  the  enemy.  The  cultivation  of  beet  improves 
the  fertility  of  the  land,  since  good  cultivation  and  careful  weed- 
ing are  necessary  ;  it  also  provides  a  valuable  cattle  food  from  the 
residue,  and  finds  employment  in  the  local  factories  during  the 
winter  months  for  much  unskilled  labour.  Once  the  sugar  in- 
dustry is  fairly  started  here,  to  quote  Lord  Denbigh,  "  it  will 
put  new  life  into  our  arable  districts  and  greatly  benefit  British 
agriculture."  Successful  experiments  in  the  growing  of  sugar 
beet  have  disproved  the  once  popular  idea  that  our  climate  was 
unsuited  for  its  cultivation ;  all  that  is  wanted  is  a  sympathetic^ 
Government,  the  necessary  capital  to  start  factories,  and  efficient 
organisation. 

The  beetroot  requires  ample  moisture  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer,  and  plenty  of  sunshine  later  on,  to  enable  the  roots 
to  yield  a  good  percentage  of  saccharine.  For  the  lifting  and 
harvesting  fine  weather  in  October  is  essential.  No  one  can 
say  that  our  climate  does  not  favour  these  requirements.  The 
ideal  soil  for  sugar  beet  is  a  deep,  friable  loam,  but,  provided 
it  has  depth,  beet  grows  on  practically  any  soil,  certainly  any 
which  suits  mangolds.  In  the  south-west  of  England  suitable 
soil  abounds,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  sugar  beet  should  not 
be  grown  in  this  part  of  England  equal  to  any  that  is  produced 
on  the  Continent.  Seed  is  the  all-important  matter,  and  many  a 
failure  has  resulted  from  this  cause.  Any  farmer  starting  beet 
cultivation  to-day  is  in  a  favoured  position  in  this  respect,  for  he 
begins  with  the  advantage  of  years  of  accumulated  experiments 
and  research  in  seed  production.  It  is  not  generally  known  that 
it  takes  eight  years  from  the  time  the  selected  "  marked  beets  " 
are  planted  until  the  seed  is  ready  for  delivery  to  the  farmer. 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  174.  Y 


256 


The  Empire  Review 


In  this  matter  the  London  and  South  Western  Kailway  have 
taken  a  keen  interest,  and  any  farmer  desiring  seed  cannot  do 
better  than  make  application  to  the  Publicity  Department, 
Waterloo  Station,  for  a  supply.  By  an  arrangement  with  the 
Anglo-Netherlands  Sugar  Corporation  the  railway  company  is  in  a 
position  to  supply  seed  in  bags  of  28,  56  and  112  Ibs.  at  5d.  per  Ib. 

The  London  and  South  Western  Railway,  whose  commercial 
prospects  are  closely  associated  with  agricultural  prosperity,  has 
shown  a  practical  interest  in  the  cultivation  of  sugar  beet  and  the 
building  of  factories  within  its  system.  And  here  it  should  be 
said  that  the  construction  of  local  factories  is  eminently  desirable. 
These  factories  should  be  able  to  treat,  say,  30,000  to  40,000  tons 
of  roots  annually,  and,  as  Lord  Denbigh  points  out,  "  should  make 
contracts  for  fully  five  years'  supply,  consequently  the  price  paid 
for  the  roots  must  be  such  as  to  convince  the  farmer  that  it  will 
be  a  remunerative  crop  for  him  to  grow." 

As  to  farm  costs,  these  differ  according  to  localities  and  the 
price  of  labour,  but  a  fair  average  per  acre  is  as  follows : 


Dung,  15  tons  at  3s.  per  ton. 
Ploughing    ..... 

Scarifying 

Superphosphates  6  cwt.,  Nitrate  Soda  3  cwt. 
Sowing  above       .... 
Drilling  and  Rolling     . 

Seed 

Horse  hoeing        .... 
Hand  hoeing  and  singling     . 
Taking  up,  clearing  and  hoeing  tops 
Putting  on  rail     .... 
Bent  and  Taxes    . 


£10  15 


NOTE. — Cost  of  lifting,  lopping,  and  heaping  amount  to  about  25s.  per  annum.    The  lifting 
is  usually  begun  in  October  and  concluded  in  November. 

Local  conditions  also  govern  the  size  of  the  crop.  The 
farming  of  small  experimental  plots  has  shown  that  15  to  16  tons 
to  the  acre  can  be  secured  on  good  English  land,  but  a  more 
reasonable  expectation  would  be  12  to  15  tons,  which  is  quite  a 
profitable  yield.  At  £1  per  ton  for  crop  delivered  this  yield 
should  well  repay  the  farmer,  but  the  Anglo-Netherlands  Sugar 
Corporation,  Limited,  undertake  to  purchase  the  sugar  beet  grown 
from  seed  supplied  by  them,  also  to  pay  rail  charge  from  the 
forwarding  station  to  factory  at  prices  ranging  from  24s.  to  27s. 
per  ton  for  clean  roots,  according  to  distance  from  the  factory. 
In  the  event  of  the  grower  desiring  the  return  of  the  4  per  cent, 
dried  pulp  for  cattle  food,  this  can  also  be  arranged  with  the 
Corporation,  but  a  reduction  of  4s.  per  ton  from  the  quoted  price 
for  roots  will  be  made.  The  roots  must  be  delivered  in  good 


Sugar  Beet  as  a  Home  Industry  257 

condition  and  cut  off  flat  below  the  lowest  leaves.    Delivery  must 
be  made  between  the  20th  October  and  the  18th  December.* 

For  the  benefit  of  the  reader  it  may  be  convenient  to  give  the 
Beet  Growers'  Calendar. 

Month.  Operation. 

October  to  November    .     Deep  ploughing,  manuring  (6  to  8  cwt.  super,  and  6  to 

8  cwt.  kainit). 

April Harrowing  and  rolling. 

April  and  May    .     .     .     Drilling  (April  15th  to  May  15th)  f  cwt.  nitrate.    Rolling 

if  weather  dry. 
June (Two  weeks  later)  Chopping  out  to  10  inches  apart,  f  cwt. 

nitrate,  singling  out  to  foot  apart.     (Two  weeks  later) 

1J  cwt.  nitrate. 

June  and  July     .     .     .     Fields  to  be  kept  in  good  condition  by  hoeing. 
September  and  October .     Raising  crop. 

If  only  half  our  importation  of  beet  sugar  were  avoided  by  the 
production  of  that  amount  of  sugar  in  this  country  the  gain  would 
be  considerable  in  every  way.  It  may  be  said  that  experiments 
have  been  made  and  failed.  That  is  so  ;  but  circumstances  alter 
cases.  The  failure  at  Lavenham  in  the  sixties  had  little,  if 
anything,  to  do  with  the  actual  growing  of  sugar  beet.  The  chief 
reason  was  the  scarcity  of  roots  ;  it  required  at  least  20,000  tons 
of  roots  to  keep  the  factory  going,  and  only  half  that  amount  was 
forthcoming.  Railway  rates  also  stood  in  the  way  of  success,  and 
other  conditions  which  do  not  apply  to-day. 

Finally,  there  is  the  matter  of  excise  duty.  To  impose  a  tax 
of  this  kind  on  beet-grown  sugar  in  this  country  would  stifle  the 
industry  at  its  birth,  for  payment  of  excise  would  mean  all  the 
difference  between  profit  and  loss.  The  output  from  the  factory 
at  Cantley,  in  Norfolk,  owned  by  the  Anglo-Netherlands  Cor- 
poration, has  never  been  handicapped  in  this  way,  and  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  same  policy  will  be  followed  by  successive 
Governments  whatever  be  their  political  character.  Replying  to 
Mr.  Courthope  some  five  years  ago  on  this  very  question, 
Mr.  Balfour  said  :  "  There  cannot  be  the  smallest  doubt  of  the 
value  of  this  form  of  industry  to  our  rural  populace,  as  it  gives 
employment  at  the  very  time  of  the  year  when  work  is  least  in 
demand  for  the  operations  connected  with  agriculture.  I  should 
certainly  desire  to  support  any  practicable  scheme  which  might 
encourage  the  early  stages  of  this  infant  industry."  Again, 
whilst  Great  Britain  was  a  party  to  the  Brussels  Convention  it 
was  difficult  for  the  Government  to  give  assistance  to  any  sugar 
undertaking.  Now  that  connection  has  been  severed  a  new 
situation  has  arisen,  and  with  it  has  disappeared  the  delicate 
position  in  which  the  Government  found  itself  placed  by  its 
international  obligations. 

THE  EDITOR. 

*  This  was  the  arrangement  for  1915.  Intending  cultivators  are  recommended 
to  apply  to  the  L.  and  S.  W.  Ry.  Co.  for  a  copy  of  the  draft  agreement  which  the 
Anglo-Netherlands  Sugar  Corporation,  Ltd.,  is  willing  to  make  with  growers. 

Y  2 


258  The  Empire  Review 


FREE  PLACES  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

NEED   FOR  EXTENSION 

INVESTIGATIONS  have  proved  that  while  some  local  education 
authorities  admit  as  candidates  for  their  scholarships  to  secondary 
schools  all  children  of  parents  whose  income  falls  below  a  certain 
limit,  others,  possibly  in  the  same  district,  only  accept  as 
candidates  children  who  have  attended  elementary  schools,  while 
a  few  actually  penalise  the  parents  of  non-elementary  children 
by  fixing  for  them  a  lower  income  limit  than  in  the  case  of 
parents  of  elementary  children.  The  result  of  this  diversity  of 
treatment  is  that  children  of  parents  living  almost  in  adjoining 
roads,  if  these  roads  should  be  under  different  authorities,  may 
be  subject  to  different  conditions  with  regard  to  eligibility  for 
scholarships.  I  readily  allow  that  local  education  authorities 
as  a  body  are  anxious  to  work  towards  the  equal  and  just 
treatment  of  all  needy  children,  irrespective  of  the  place  of 
previous  education,  but  unfortunately  the  Government  does  not 
act  in  accordance  with  this  principle,  consequently  many  local 
education  authorities  and  governing  bodies  of  schools  which  are 
not  richly  endowed  cannot  afford  to  offer  the  scholarships  they 
would  wish  to  needy  children  who  have  not  previously  attended 
an  elementary  school. 

We  all  know  that  local  education  authorities  and  governing 
bodies  must  depend  to  a  great  extent  for  their  scholarship  money 
on  the  Government  grant,  which  is  at  present  only  given  when 
a  school  offers  a  required  proportion  of  free  places  to  pupils  who 
enter  the  school  from  public  elementary  schools.  This  is  the 
main  condition,  but  reading  carefully  through  the  last  issue  of 
the  regulations  for  secondary  schools,  one  is  struck  by  the 
extraordinary  number  of  hampering  restrictions,  in  addition  to 
the  one  mentioned,  with  regard  to  the  provision  of  free  places. 
No  private  scholarship,  i.e.  no  scholarship  offered  by  any  body 
except  a  local  education  authority  or  the  governing  body,  not 
even  one  given  by  a  co-operative  society,  even  if  it  fulfils  every 
other  condition  of  tenure,  can  count,  nor  can  free  tuition  offered 
to  a  boarder  be  reckoned  in  the  required  proportion.  Further, 


Free  Places  in  Secondary  Schools  259 

the  Government  do  not  countenance,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
their  grant,  the  division  of  scholarships  in  suitable  cases  into 
half-scholarships,  by  which  not  only  would  the  parent  have  the 
healthy  satisfaction  of  paying  what  he  could  afford,  but  also  an 
increased  number  of  children  could  be  benefited  out  of  what  are 
unavoidably  limited  funds. 

For  the  above  reasons  it  follows  that  a  particular  group  of 
children  is  inevitably  neglected,  for,  at  the  cost  of  repetition,  I 
must  emphasise  the  fact  that  without  the  financial  support  of  the 
Government,  local  education  authorities  and  governing  bodies 
are  in  most  cases  unable  to  meet  the  expenses  incurred  by  an 
extension  of  their  scholarship  scheme. 

It  is  no  use  to  urge  that  all  children  who  need  financial  help 
in  secondary  schools  should  first  pass  automatically  through  the 
elementary  school.  For  various  reasons  this  is  impossible.  On 
the  one  hand,  parents  who  can  provide  suitable  education  at  home 
for  the  earlier  stages,  refuse  to  be  forced  to  send  their  children  to 
one  type  of  school ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  financial  difficulties 
may  only  have  occurred  (possibly  through  the  death,  illness,  or 
business  failure  of  the  father)  after  the  child  has  been  for  some 
years  in  the  junior  forms  of  a  secondary  school,  and  in  the  case  of 
such  children  education  may  be  suddenly  and  completely  broken 
off  unless  scholarships  can  be  gained. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  how,  when  these  regulations  were 
drawn  up,  it  was  advisable  for  the  Government  to  concentrate 
their  efforts  on  the  transference  of  the  elementary  child  to  the 
secondary  school,  and,  of  course,  the  children  to  whom  I  refer  are, 
and  always  will  be,  a  minority.  All  the  same,  I  feel  that  the  time 
has  come  for  the  Government  to  extend  its  benefits  and  to  take  in 
all  needy  classes  of  the  community,  otherwise  the  Government 
scheme  fails  to  offer  equal  educational  opportunities  for  all,  and 
has  no  claim  to  be  considered  national. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  present  moment  is  inopportune  to 
press  this  new  claim  on  the  Government,  but  in  my  opinion  the 
moment  is  an  exceptionally  suitable  one  to  urge  the  claims  of  the 
poor  non-elementary  school  children.  And  for  this  reason  :  it  is 
not  the  artisan  who  is  suffering  most  severely  through  the  war 
from  a  financial  point  of  view,  but  what  may  be  called  for 
convenience  sake  the  poorer  middle-class — professional  men, 
small  business  men,  and  above  all,  the  widows  of  men  of  this 
class  who  have  fallen  in  the  war.  The  children  of  many  of  the 
above  parents  will  have  begun  their  career  at  a  secondary  school ; 
some,  on  the  other  hand,  will  be  only  just  ready  to  leave  the 
hands  of  governesses  or  will  be  just  finishing  their  training  in 
preparatory  schools.  The  educational  needs  of  these  children 
must  be  provided  for.  Scholarships  must  be  offered,  but  these 


260  The  Empire  Review 

cannot  be  offered  unless  the  Government  will  give  their  support 
by  allowing  them  to  count  towards  the  required  proportion  of 
free  places.  Regulations  that  will  ensure  these  scholarships 
being  given  in  the  right  way  and  in  the  right  quarter  should  not 
be  difficult  to  devise.  To  leave  a  certain  proportion  of  needy 
children  without  any  provision  may  mean  that  secondary  school 
children  will  be  withdrawn  even  before  the  elementary  school  age 
and  will  grow  up  without  adequate  education  at  all.  This  I  know 
has  actually  occurred.  At  the  best  these  children  would  have  to 
be  transferred  back  to  an  elementary  school,  which  could  not  be 
satisfactory  from  an  educational  standpoint ;  in  consideration  of 
these  facts,  I  would  therefore  venture  to  press  on  the  Government 
the  immediate  consideration  of  the  point  I  have  raised  affecting 
national  education.  After  all,  we  are  only  asking  the  Government 
to  undertake  what  the  late  Minister  for  Education  himself  voiced 
in  his  letters  to  the  schools  on  the  29th  of  August,  in  which  he 
urged  that  we  should  see  to  it  that  the  7,000,000  children  and 
those  who  follow  them  in  the  linked  generations  of  school  life, 
should  come  to  their  task  well  equipped. 

The  suggestion  I  would  make  is  the  same  as  that  contained 
in  the  following  resolution  passed  unanimously  at  the  recent 
Annual  Conference  of  the  Association  of  Head  Mistresses  : — 

That  in  the  interests  of  national  education  it  is  expedient  that  in  the  award 
of  "free  places,"  while  the  majority  of  such  places  shall  be  reserved  for 
children  from  public  elementary  schools,  some  places  shall  be  thrown  open  to 
all  children  of  parents  whose  income  falls  below  a  certain  limit,  irrespective 
of  the  place  of  previous  education,  such  free  places  to  be  included  in  the 
percentage  qualifying  for  the  grant. 

If  this  proposal  were  adopted,  the  injustice  to  which  I  have 
referred  would  disappear,  and  the  particular  class  of  child  to 
whose  educational  requirements  I  have  called  attention  would  no 
longer  be  placed  at  a  disadvantage. 

LUCY  A.  LOWE,  M.A. 
(Head  Mistress  of  the  Leeds  Girls'  High  School). 


British  Trade  and  the  New  China  261 


BRITISH    TRADE    AND    THE    NEW   CHINA 

THE  danger  of  political  prophecy  with  regard  to  China  is 
once  more  illustrated  by  the  newly-published  memoirs  of  the  late 
Count  Hayashi,  who  knew  the  country  and  the  people — in  fact 
his  ancestry  was  Chinese.  Therein  he  laid  it  down  as  a  funda- 
mental principle  of  Chinese  foreign  policy  that  one  great  Power 
must  always  be  played  off  against  another  ;  that  this  always  had 
been  the  policy  of  Peking,  and  always  would  be.  Yet  in  the 
process  of  publishing  the  book,  conclusive  evidence  of  the  falsity 
of  this  theory  had  been  supplied  by  the  recent  diplomatic  hap- 
penings in  the  Far  East.  It  would  have  been  well  had  reference 
been  made  to  the  fact  editorially,  but  it  is  passed  over  or  ignored. 
None  the  less  it  is  a  significant  occurrence  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  those  who  would  appreciate  what  is  happening  in 
China,  where  within  the  last  two  or  three  years,  and  especially  in 
the  few  recent  months,  there  is  the  birth  of  a  new  life,  a  new 
spirit,  and  a  new  national  self-consciousness  with  which  the  rest 
of  the  world  will  have  to  deal.  In  short,  we  are  face  to  face  with 
a  New  China. 

The  attention  of  the  world  has  been  so  focussed  on  the  Great 
War  that  there  has  been  little  or  nothing  of  it  for  events  in  China. 
The  combatants  entered  the  arena  with  possibly  somewhat  of 
compassion  for  the  fortunes  of  neutrals,  of  whom  China  was  one, 
who  are  normally  dependent  on  the  more  or  less  interested  assist- 
ance of  wealthier  and  more  powerful  neighbours.  They  knew  or 
thought  China  was  absolutely  dependent  on  them  for  financial 
aid,  for  the  bulk  of  her  trade,  for  diplomatic  backing  in  case  some 
rival  should  use  the  emergency  to  exploit  her,  and  they  likewise 
were  fully  aware  that  none  of  them  would  be  able  to  come  to  her 
assistance  in  any  of  these  respects.  In  fact  they  made  the 
situation  quite  clear  in  respect  to  finance ;  that  the  case  was 
precisely  the  same  with  regard  to  the  two  others  was  so  obvious 
that  China  was  never  under  any  illusions.  Yet  what  is  the 
position  to-day  ?  China  has  raised  and  is  raising  within  her  own 
borders  the  money  she  wants ;  her  trade,  judged  by  the  returns 
of  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs,  will,  despite  the  war,  show 


262  The  Empire  Review 

9 

very  little  sign  of  depression ;  while  single-handed,  and  with  hardly 
a  friend  in  the  world  to  advise  her,  she  has  emerged  successfully 
from  a  diplomatic  ordeal  which  might  well  have  tried  a  much 
more  powerful  and  independent  nation.  Therein  you  have  the 
results  of  the  new  self-consciousness  of  the  New  China — they 
are  the  first,  but  they  will  assuredly  not  be  the  last. 

Let  me  for  a  brief  moment,  before  passing  to  the  antici- 
pated effect  on  British  trade,  deal  rather  more  fully  with  this 
national  reawakening.  It  is  true  that  the  financial  appeal  made 
to  the  Chinese  people  by  the  Government  was  on  a  relatively 
humble  scale.  In  these  days  of  war  expenditure  at  three  millions 
a  day  it  even  seems  trivial.  The  first  $16,000,000  demanded  was 
not  only  subscribed,  but  $9,000,000  in  excess  was  supplied  by  the 
public.  Both  sums  were  spent,  and  now  a  new  loan  of  $24,000,000 
is  being,  or  rather  has  been,  just  issued.  The  result  is  not  yet 
known,  owing  to  the  slowness  characterising  communications 
from  the  interior,  but  it  will  be  successful  too,  since  the  British 
banks  are  participating,  and  foreigners  are  also  investing.  Nor 
is  this  all.  A  great  Patriotic  Fund  has  been  set  on  foot  to  raise 
$50,000,000  to  build  and  equip  an  arsenal  so  as  to  make  China 
independent  of  foreign  capital,  and  thus  avoid  her  having  recourse, 
as  she  might  have  to  do  under  the  recent  Ultimatum,  to  Japan  ; 
for  though  this  particular  demand  for  preferential  treatment  is 
"  postponed,"  the  Chinese  know  full  well  that  their  neighbours 
will  soon  seek  a  convenient  opportunity  to  revive  and  press  it. 

There  is  therefore  no  time  to  lose.  The  Patriotic  Fund  move- 
ment is  very  singular.  It  is  sweeping  the  country.  Much  of 
the  money  has  indeed  already  been  subscribed.  Everybody  is 
contributing :  on  the  one  hand  there  is  the  President  with 
$10,000  donated  and  a  monthly  allocation  o£  $3,000  from  his 
salary,  and  on  the  other  a  few  score  of  dollars  from  the  prisoners 
in  the  gaols  and  from  children  in  the  orphan  schools.  Meetings 
are  everywhere  being  held  in  support,  and  are  of  a  magnitude 
which  is  unimaginable  to  the  Western  mind.  At  two  in  Peking 
there  were  250,000  and  300,000  people  present.  The  patriotic 
fervour  is  extraordinary.  Railway  undertakings  are  now  able  to 
float  internal  loans  also,  and,  what  is  more,  obtain  the  money. 
The  sums  may  not  be  very  large,  but  it  is  very  surprising  in  view 
of  past  notorious  mismanagement  on  the  part  of  locally-collected 
railway-development  funds  that  they  were  ever  subscribed  at  all. 
One  such  loan  has  already  been  subscribed  for  the  Peking-Kalgan 
railway,  and,  encouraged  by  the  fact,  two  others  are  in  sight  or 
promised.  Indeed  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  when  railway 
development  is  almost  at  a  standstill  the  world  over,  it  still  goes 
on  in  China.  Quite  recently  the  new  line  was  opened  from 
Shuchow-Kaifong-Chenchow ;  it  links  up  the  two  great  trunk 


British  Trade  and  the  New  China  263 

railways  in   the  centre   and  in  the  east  which  traverse  China 
longitudinally,  and  is  the  precursor  of  many  more  to  come. 

Nor  is  this  all.  Internal  development  of  every  sort  is  being 
stimulated,  so  far  as  the  limited  finances  of  the  Eepublic  permit. 
Cotton-growing  is  being  encouraged  for  the  benefit  of  the  home 
factories ;  there  are  notable  improvements  in  agriculture,  which 
embrace  the  establishment  of  experimental  farms.  Improved 
administration  is  being  insisted  on  from  Peking  ;  the  people,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  demand  it.  The  censors  are  not  merely  destructive 
but  constructive  in  criticism ;  the  President  is  alert  and  sympa- 
thetic, and  while  honours  are  awarded  so  are  punishments. 
Indeed,  it  would  be  a  singularly  interesting  innovation  in  our 
every-day  life  if,  like  China,  we  could  have  not  merely  regular 
lists  of  honours  but  of  dishonours — with  the  reasons  assigned.  It 
would  be  singularly  efficacious  in  stimulating  official  energy  and 
enthusiasm,  where  too  many  are  accustomed  to  take  the  work  of 
routine  as  a  duty  to  be  perfunctorily  discharged. 

And  as  in  internal  so  in  matters  external.  The  old  policy  to 
which  Count  Hayashi  alluded  is  gone.  In  her  latest  negotiations 
with  Japan,  China  did  not  try  to  play  off  the  Western  Powers 
against  her  Oriental  neighbour — as  she  might  well  have  done. 
Courageously  she  took  her  stand  on  her  treaty  obligations,  and 
did  her  best  for  herself  honestly  and  single-handed  with  complete 
success,  for  while  she  had  to  make  concessions,  she  emerged  from 
the  negotiations  with  her  diplomatic  ability  vastly  enhanced,  and 
her  reputation  for  straightforward  dealing  higher  than  ever 
before.  The  success  of  the  new  policy  will  ensure  its  perpetua- 
tion, the  more  so  if  the  Western  Powers  will  realise  the  new 
order  of  things,  and  model  their  attitude  accordingly. 

It  is,  however,  obvious  that  the  New  China  which  must 
vitally  interest  all  Foreign  Powers  will  make  a  still  greater  appeal 
to  the  attention  of  the  British  trader  who  after  the  war  will  find 
a  new  problem  facing  him :  the  elimination  of  the  German 
co-operating  house.  Henceforward,  almost  entirely,  the  German 
"  jackal "  will  have  to  trade,  if  he  trades  at  all,  on  lines  of  fierce 
competition  with  his  British  rival.  He  has  never  been  "  running 
very  straight,"  but  now  he  has  openly  gone  on  the  war-path,  a 
very  representative  meeting  of  German  merchants  and  others  at 
Shanghai  having  unanimously  adopted  a  resolution  pledging  all 
those  present  to  use  their  utmost  efforts  to  damage  British  trade 
and  British  traders.  We  must  take  up  the  challenge  and  reply  ; 
it  is  war  to  the  knife,  both  now  and  in  future.  Anyway,  we  start 
with  much  in  our  favour,  since  the  Chinese  do  not  like  the 
Germans,  and  only  trade  with  them  because  they  offer  easier 
terms  and  often  greater  chances  of  personal  gain,  a  policy  which 
is  easy  of  adoption  where  the  Imperial  Government  pays 


264  The  Empire  Review 

subsidies  both  direct  and  indirect  to  minimise  commercial  losses. 
Still,  let  us  realise  that  a  greater  effort  will  be  necessary  on  the 
part  of  our  men,  and  a  rather  more  responsive  attitude  to  China's 
real  requirements. 

And  what  are  these  requirements?  They  are  correctly 
represented  by  what  the  Americans  call  a  "  square  deal "  in 
respect  to  treatment  and  with  regard  to  actual  trade,  by  the 
realisation  that  the  Chinese  demand  for  what  the  Westerner  can 
supply  is  crystallising  into  extreme  practicalness,  and  a  steady 
upward  movement  in  the  value  and  efficacy  of  the  article,  con- 
sistent with  cheapness.  It  is  far  easier  to  ensure  the  former 
than  to  give  effect  to  the  latter.  Japanese  commerce  is  daily 
becoming  keener  and  not  more  scrupulous.  China  is  herself 
becoming  a  producer.  We  need  expect  no  serious  rivalry  yet 
from  the  Chinese  cotton-mills,  for  instance,  but  it  will  one  day 
come ;  every  month  shows  that  China  is  making  progress  in  the 
direction  of  railway-work,  which,  often  inefficient  now,  is  steadily 
improving.  The  foreign  financier  will,  therefore,  always  be 
welcomed,  but  the  contractor  will  never  again  do  business  on 
quite  so  profitable  terms  as  in  the  past — and  they  have  been 
profitable,  or  the  pastime  of  concession-hunting  would  be  less 
followed  than  it  is.  The  field,  however,  is  so  wide  in  China  that 
there  is  ample  room  both  for  the  home  and  the  external  railway 
concessionaire,  and  the  sole  aim  which  should  guide  the  British 
trader  in  respect  to  railway  development  work  by  whomsoever  it 
is  carried  out,  is  the  rigid  demand,  in  which  Chinese  official 
support  is  certain,  that  there  must  be  no  preferential  freightage 
whatever  for  the  goods  of  any  nation.  This  is  the  sheet-anchor 
of  our  position  in  China.  Let  it  go,  and  we  are  doomed  to  suffer 
bitterly  for  our  neglect,  and  then  Nemesis  may  not  be  slow. 

The  point  came  up  in  connection  with  the  recent  demands  by 
Japan,  and  British  opinion  was  on  the  alert,  for  Japan,  alone  of 
all  nations,  gives,  over  her  own  lines  on  the  Chinese  mainland, 
a  30  per  cent,  preference  to  her  own  articles  of  production.  In 
this  connection  there  is  another  point.  British  concessions  must 
not  be  allowed  to  change  hands.  Attempts  are  avowedly  now 
being  made  to  buy  British  rights  in  two  projected  railways  in  the 
centre  and  in  the  south,  and  while  they  may  and,  one  hopes,  will 
fail,  the  mere  fact  they  are  made  at  all  shows  the  need  for  the 
acceptance  of  the  principle  just  enunciated.  A  railway  conces- 
sion in  China  is  not  a  private  matter.  British  official  support 
helps  to  secure  it,  and  its  grant  limits  the  number  of  any  others 
which  may  be  allotted  to  British  concerns ;  hence  the  duty  of  the 
Foreign  Office  to  look  after  the  collective  interests  of  our  traders 
in  the  Far  East  as  well,  of  course,  as  those  of  our  exporters. 

Still  China  is  now,  in  her  reawakening,  little  likely  too  to  be 


British  Trade  and  the  New  China  265 

imposed  on.  Her  State  purchases  will  be  more  discreet.  Her 
naval  and  military  requirements  will  be  met  increasingly  at  home, 
and  foreign  purchases  will  be  business-like.  Her  sympathies  will 
guide  the  destination  of  her  orders — British  traders  in  the  Far 
East  fully  appreciate  this  point.  State  and  Provincial  trans- 
actions with  the  foreigner  will  be  a  good  deal  more  "  under  the 
limelight."  Corruption  will  be  less  possible — all  to  our  advantage. 

On  the  other  hand  there  is  a  growing  desire  for  development 
since  it  must  open  up  sources  of  national  and  natural  wealth. 
There  will  therefore  be  a  readiness  to  consider  reasonable 
propositions  of  joint  enterprise  and  reward.  There  will  also  be  a 
readiness  to  remove  hindrances  in  the  way  if  this  can  be  done. 
The  termination  of  the  war  may  well  see  a  revival  of  discussion 
over  likin,  trademarks,  customs  and  the  like,  and  with  respect  to 
the  last-named,  it  is  idle  to  suppose  that  China  will  be  long 
content  with  the  present  cast-iron  restricted  tariff,  nor  have  we 
any  right  to  compel  her  so  to  remain.  After  the  war,  she,  too, 
will  know  well  we  are  no  longer  able  to  do  so,  even  if  we  wish, 
and  therefore  the  British  trader,  where  he  is  wise,  is  looking 
towards  change — change  which  is  only  natural  and  legitimate. 
In  all  this  there  is  nothing  which  need  perturb  us,  but  it  will 
necessarily  stimulate  our  efforts,  if  we  are  to  hold  our  own. 

Chinese  national  opinion  has  at  last  taken  shape  and  will 
make  its  voice  heard.  If  we  respect  it  and  modify  our  policy  to 
meet  the  aspirations  of  what  is,  after  all,  though  many  seem  to 
forget  it,  a  great  nation,  the  British  trader  has  nothing  to  fear 
and  not  a  little  to  welcome.  The  old  lines  of  policy  are  no  longer 
possible.  Let  us  hope  the  Foreign  Office  will  take  every  oppor- 
tunity of  showing  that  it  realises  the  fact. 

FEANCIS  ALDRIDGE. 


266  The  Empire  Review 


CANADA'S   PLACE   IN   BRITISH   FICTION 

[Continued.] 
III. 

JAMES  DE  MILLE,  likewise  a  native  of  New  Brunswick  and 
somewhat  the  predecessor  of  Roberts,  shows  the  possibilities  of 
Canadian  history  when  combined  with  humour.  Humour  was 
his  specialty,  and  '  The  Dodge  Club '  is  probably  better  known 
than  his  novels.  Nevertheless,  the  latter  form  a  large  part  of 
his  work.  One  of  these,  '  The  Lily  and  the  Cross,'  is  a  bit  of 
eighteenth  century  Acadian  history  after  the  secession  of  Acadia 
to  the  British.  The  story  opens  with  a  humorous  description 
of  the  Rev.  Amos  Adams,  a  schooner  from  Boston,  bearing  an 
oddly-assorted  crew  up  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  main  plot 
centres  around  a  French  nobleman  and  his  daughter,  who  have 
been  rescued  by  the  schooner.  His  descriptive  passages  again 
show  another  phase  of  Canadian  scenery,  which  the  following 
lines  will  illustrate  : — 

In  one  place  was  a  cluster  of  small  islands  ;  in  another,  rivers  rolled  their 
turbid  floods,  bearing  with  them  the  sediment  of  long  and  fertile  valleys.  The 
blue  waters  sparkled  in  the  sun  under  the  blue  sky,  the  sea-gulls  whirled  and 
screamed  through  the  air.  Nowhere  could  the  eye  discern  any  of  the  work  of 
man.  It  seemed  like  some  secluded  corner  of  the  universe,  and  as  if  those 
aboard  the  ship  "  were  the  first  that  ever  burst  into  that  silent  sea." 

As  a  writer  of  historical  and  romantic  fiction,  Gilbert  Parker 
is  the  best  known  of  Canadian  novelists.  He  was  born  in 
Addington,  Ontario,  but  has  since  travelled  extensively  and 
become  thoroughly  cosmopolitan  in  his  literary  field.  His  novels 
and  short  stories  draw  their  material  from  England,  Egypt, 
Quebec,  North-Western  Canada,  New  Caledonia,  the  South  Seas, 
and  other  picturesque  portions  of  the  globe.  His  well-known 
historical  novel,  '  The  Seats  of  the  Mighty,'  is  based  on  the 
memoirs  of  Captain  Robert  Moray,  officer  in  the  Virginia  and 
Amherst  Regiments,  and  gives  a  glowing  picture  of  the  thrilling 
events  of  1763,  the  year  in  which  France  lost,  and  England 
gained,  the  empire  of  the  North. 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  267 

Among  contributions  to  Canadian  historical  fiction,  mention 
must  be  made  of  de  Gaspe's  '  Les  Anciens  Canadians, '  published 
in  1862.  It  is  easily  the  best  historical  romance  in  French-Can- 
adian literature,  and  "  gathers  up,  and  preserves  in  lasting  form, 
the  songs  and  legends,  the  characteristic  customs,  the  phases  of 
thought  and  feeling,  the  very  local  and  personal  aroma  of  a 
rapidly  changing  civilization."  The  story  was  produced  for  this 
purpose.  It  was  in  1861  that  the  Soirees  Canadiennes  was 
established,  with  its  motto  :  "  Let  us  make  haste  to  write  down 
the  stories  and  traditions  of  the  people  before  they  are  forgotten." 
The  author,  who  was  then  over  seventy  years  of  age,  at  once 
began  to  write  his  novel,  and  with  such  loving  zeal  did  he  write 
that  in  one  year  his  book  was  ready  for  the  publishers.  His  own 
life  is  everywhere  reflected  in  its  pages.  He  was  born  of  noble 
French  parentage  in  1786,  and  occupied,  during  the  greater  part 
of  his  life,  the  manor  house  of  St.  Jean  Port  Joli,  which  is 
introduced  into  his  novel.  '  Les  Anciennes  Canadiennes '  is 
accompanied  by  copious  notes  and  addenda,  which  render  it 
interesting  and  valuable  to  the  historical  student.  It  has  been 
made  a  universally  Canadian  product  by  being  translated  into 
English  by  Charles  G.  D.  Koberts  and  also  by  Georgiana  Pernee. 

The  style  is  entirely  de  Gaspe's  own.  It  is  decidedly 
subjective,  and  the  author  launches  himself  into  the  reader's 
confidence  at  the  beginning  by  telling  his  purpose  and  his  idea 
of  the  novel,  presenting  it  all  with  the  simplicity  and  the 
modest  politeness  of  the  true  Frenchman.  The  style  is  quaint 
and  unhurried,  and  seems  the  product  of  a  happy  leisure. 
The  stream  of  narrative  diverges  from  time  to  time  into  cross- 
channels  of  highly  coloured  local  tradition.  There  is  the 
deep  and  unwavering  religious  fervour  of  the  French- 
Canadian  nature,  expressed  by  de  Gaspe  in  his  grand  old  cure, 
in  his  proud  personal  faith  and  in  countless  small  details.  A 
scene  from  the  novel  will  express  this  in  de  Gaspe's  own  words  : — 

It  is  noon.  The  Angelus  rings  out  from  the  cathedral  belfry.  All  the  city 
chimes  proclaim  the  greeting  of  the  angel  to  the  Virgin,  who  is  the  Canadian 
patron  saint.  The  loitering  habitants,  whose  calashes  surround  the  stalls, 
take  off  their  caps  and  devoutly  murmur  the  Angelus.  All  worship  alike  ;  there 
is  none  to  deride  the  pious  custom. 

In  a  few  strokes  de  Gaspe  outlines  a  character.  Uncle 
Raoul  is  an  amusing  personage,  and  his  somewhat  accentuated 
personality  reminds  one  of  Sir  Eoger  de  Coverley.  He  is  rent- 
collector  for  the  seigneury  and  conducts  his  dealings  with  great 
dignity,  tempered  with  mercy.  He  is  wont  to  frighten  the 
inhabitants,  who  come  to  pay  their  annual  excuses  in  lieu  of  rent, 
with  the  most  alarming  threats  and  to  end  by  sending  them  to 


268  The  Empire  Review 

the  kitchen  for  a  drink  of  brandy,  remarking  at  the  same  time : 
"  These  scoundrels  drink  more  of  our  brandy  than  their  rents 
will  ever  pay  for ! "  His  patriotism  in  a  dying  cause  is  as 
unbounded  as  his  generosity.  When  the  cloud  of  war  begins 
to  hang  yet  more  heavily  over  Quebec,  he  exclaims  :  "  The  English 
take  Canada !  By  Heaven,  I  would  undertake  to  defend  Quebec 
with  my  crutch  !  " 

Very  graceful  and  charming  are  the  cross-currents  of  feast 
and  dance  and  festival  which  eddy  about  the  main  action  of  the 
novel.  The  May-day  fete  shows  one  of  these  lightsome  bits  of 
description,  and  contains  a  gay  little  French  chanson : — 

Le  premier  jour  de  Mai, 

Labourez  1 
J'  m'en  fus  planter  un  mai, 

Labourez, 
A  la  porte  a  ma  mie ! 

But  the  pictures  of  French- Canadian  life  must  not  be  allowed 
to  overshadow  the  real  theme  of  the  novel.  The  final  struggle  of 
the  French  and  English,  which  ended  with  the  Conquest  of 
Canada  in  1763,  forms  the  background ;  and  the  problem  of  the 
story  lies  with  Archie,  the  young  Scotch  college  friend  of 
Haberville,  who  is  obliged  to  fight  on  the  English  side  against 
his  former  friends. 

The  story  closes  about  twenty  years  after  the  Conquest,  and 
the  final  words,  spoken  by  Haberville's  son,  who  has  been  gazing 
into  the  glowing  heart  of  the  great  family  fireplace,  remind  one  of 
Thackeray's  theory  that  a  novelist  is  but  the  director  of  a  puppet 
show :  "  I  have  been  watching  a  little  group  of  men  and  women  and 
children,  who  have  been  walking,  dancing,  rising,  falling,  and 
who  have  at  length  all  vanished." 

There  are  many  other  examples  of  Canadian  historical  fiction, 
some  of  which  may  be  mentioned  briefly.  J.  A.  Altskler's  'A 
Soldier  of  Manhattan '  is  a  romance  of  Ticonderoga  and  Quebec. 
M.  C.  Crowley  has  written  two  Canadian  novels,  '  In  Treaty  with 
Honour,'  a  story  of  Quebec  in  1837-38,  and  '  Love  Thrives  in  War,' 
which  has  the  War  of  1812  as  a  setting.  A.  Conan  Doyle  has 
produced,  in  'The  Eefugees,'  a  novel  of  two  continents.  He 
deals  with  the  unhappy  lives  of  the  Huguenots,  who  even  in 
America  did  not  find  the  peace  they  sought.  John  McLennan, 
who  made  his  reputation  by  '  Spanish  John,'  collaborated  with 
Jane  Newton  Mcllwraith  in  writing  '  The  Span  o'  Life,'  a 
dashing  tale  of  the  French  and  English  at  Louisberg  and  Quebec. 
This  novel  came  out  in  1904,  and  made  a  success  with  its  original 
plot,  interesting  characters,  and  faithfully  reproduced  local  colour. 
Blanche  L.  Macdonald  has  written  '  For  Faith  and  King  ';  Agnes 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  269 

M.  Machar,  better  known  for  her  poetry,  has  contributed 
'  Stories  of  New  France '  to  Canadian  historical  fiction  ;  and 
W.  H.  Withrow's  'Barbara  Heck,'  depicting  the  times  of  the 
founding  of  Upper  Canada,  was  produced  in  1882.  Among  a 
number  of  historical  fictionists  in  Quebec,  whose  work  has  been 
acceptable  to  English  readers,  is  M.  L'Esperance,  the  author  of 
'Le  Bastonnais,'  an  attractive  novel  of  the  days  of  the  old 
regime, 

To  draw  a  line  of  demarcation  between  history  and  adventure 
is  a  difficult  matter.  In  the  historical  novel  there  is  always  a 
dash  of  adventure  to  render  more  piquant  the  dull  facts  of 
history ;  the  tale  of  adventure  receives  a  touch  of  dignity  from 
the  introduction  of  a  slight  historical  setting.  But  one  may, 
more  generally,  consider  the  novel  of  adventure  as  one  in  which 
persons  and  events  of  less  renown  are  concerned.  The  political 
novel  is  a  product  of  modern  life,  and  forms  a  completion  of  the 
national  web  which  was  thrown  loosely  together  by  history  and 
adventure.  Adventure  novels  concern  the  Eanks  of  the 
Unknown — men  whose  lives  are  merged  in  the  event  itself.  No 
one  knows  for  a  certainty  who  first  made  his  way  around  the 
coasts  of  Labrador,  or  who  first  stood  and  gazed  with  wonder- 
wakened  eyes  at  the  vast  prairies  of  the  West,  or  who  first 
snatched  a  gleaming  nugget  from  Klondyke  soil.  Only  the  great 
fact  itself  remains  that,  through  these  pioneers,  it  has  been  made 
possible  for  men  to  build  cities  and  homes  in  the  once  unknown, 
and  to  live  there  in  the  manner  of  their  English,  French,  Slavic, 
Scotch,  Jewish  or  Galatian  forefathers. 

Canada  has  been  a  favourite  field  for  the  work  of  native  and 
foreign  writers  of  adventure.  The  stories  of  Jesuit  missions 
among  the  Indians  are  the  earliest  in  point  of  production,  and 
many  belong  to  the  pens  of  native  writers.  The  adventures  of 
settlers  in  the  wilderness  and  backwoods  of  Eastern  Canada,  the 
scouting  raids  of  militia,  and  the  explorations  of  the  great  North- 
West  follow  in  order. 

One  of  the  earliest  adventure  writers  was  a  woman — Mrs. 
Catherine  Parr  Traill,  who  came  to  Canada  from  England  in 
1832,  with  her  husband,  who  held  a  commission  in  the  army. 
They  settled  at  Kice  Lake  in  Ontario,  and  Mrs.  Trail]  began  a 
series  of  contributions  to  the  English  magazines.  Her  books 
have  quaint  old-fashioned  titles,  and  are  valuable  as  curiosities,  if 
for  nothing  else.  '  The  Backwoods  of  Canada  '  was  written  in 
1835,  and  '  The  Canadian  Crusoes '  and  '  The  Female  Emi- 
grants' Guide  '  followed  in  1836.  Mrs.  Traill  was  one  of  Canada's 
earliest  naturalists,  and  received  a  grant  of  land  for  her  labours  in 
the  scientific  field.  '  Pearls  and  Pebbles ;  or  Notes  of  an  Old 
Naturalist,'  is  a  product  of  this  phase  of  her  activities. 


270  The  Empire  Review 

Captain  Marryat's  '  Settlers  in  Canada '  is  also  an  early 
nineteenth  century  novel  which  belongs  to  the  adventure  class. 

Coming  to  more  modern  times,  a  host  of  writers  are  found 
striving  to  express  all  that  Canada  has  to  offer  in  the  field  of 
adventure.  Here,  the  wide  Northland  and  the  picturesque  West 
throw  their  fascination  over  many  a  page.  Of  all  these  writers, 
Gilbert  Parker  will  no  doubt  be  pronounced  the  most  successful. 
He  has  been  called  "  The  Literary  Discoverer  of  the  North- 
West,"  a  title  which  is  upheld  by  a  series  of  short  stories. 
'Pierre  and  His  People,'  published  in  1892,  is  his  first,  while 
'  The  Adventure  of  the  North '  and  '  A  Romany  of  the  Snows ' 
are  more  recent.  'Northern  Lights,'  a  still  later  collection  of 
short  stories,  takes  the  reader  through  two  epochs  in  the  history 
of  the  West.  The  border  days  before  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  had  brought  with  it  the  changes  of  civilization,  and  the 
West  as  it  became  after  the  North-West  Mounted  Police  and  the 
railway  "  startled  the  pioneer  and  sent  him  into  the  land  of  the 
farther  North,  or  drew  him  into  the  quiet  circle  of  civic  routine 
and  humdrum  occupation." 

Agnes  Laut,  a  native  of  Ottawa,  who  now  spends  much  time 
in  the  United  States,  has,  in  her  two  books,  '  Heralds  of  Empire ' 
and  '  Lords  of  the  North,'  assured  for  herself  a  place  among 
prominent  recent  novelists.  Both  deal  with  the  operations  of  the 
one-time  rival  fur-trading  houses,  the  North- West  Company  and 
the  famous  Hudson  Bay  Company.  Miss  Laut's  noted  canoe 
trip  far  into  the  northern  wilds  and  her  careful  study  of  this 
particular  field  of  history  should  add  permanence  and  value  to 
these  novels. 


(To  be  continued.) 


The  Empire  Library  271 


THE    EMPIRE    LIBRARY 

A    HISTORY   OF   PERSIA* 

HUMANITY  has  discovered  no  study  more  engrossing  than  the 
waxing  and  waning  of  Empires,  and  few  more  fascinating  than 
the  eternal  contrast  between  East  and  West.  For  all  who  would 
inquire  into  the  qualities  that  have  raised  men  and  nations  to 
imperial  power,  and  mark  the  causes  that  have  brought  such 
power  to  swift  destruction  or  lingering  decay;  for  all  whose 
delight  is  in  the  glamour  and  pageantry  of  the  mysterious  Orient, 
the  history  of  Persia  will  always  possess  a  peculiar  interest. 

The  past  century  has  been  for  students  of  that  history  a 
period  of  immense  importance.  Light  has  been  shed  on  many 
places  from  which  it  had  seemed  that  the  darkness  was  destined 
never  to  be  lifted.  Solutions  as  complete  as  they  were  unexpected 
have  been  found  for  problems  which  had  appeared  for  all  time 
insoluble.  The  triumphs  of  the  spade  at  Susa  have  laid  bare 
many  secrets.  The  mystery  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  is  a 
mystery  no  more.  In  many  other  directions  the  peaceful 
victories  of  the  archaeologist  and  the  explorer  have  increased  our 
knowledge  of  Persia's  mighty  past.  The  embodiment  in  a  single 
work  of  all  the  fruits  of  the  century's  research,  which  no  previous 
writer  had  attempted,  was  the  task  which  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Sykes  set  himself  to  perform. 

It  was  a  task  for  which  by  knowledge  and  practical  experience 
he  was  singularly  fitted.  Twenty-one  years  of  his  life  have  been 
spent  in  residence  and  travel  in  Persia.  Appointed  British  Consul 
for  Kerman  and  Persian  Baluchistan  in  1894,  and  British 
Assistant-Commissioner  for  the  delineation  of  the  Perso-Baluch- 
istan  frontier  in  1898,  he  was  sent  in  the  latter  year  to  establish 
the  Consulate  at  Sistan,  and  from  1906  to  1913  he  was  Consul- 
Gen  eral  at  Meshed.  In  the  course  of  his  career  in  Persia  he 
acquired  what  must  be  an  unique  knowledge  of  the  country  and 
the  people,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  his  modest  claim  to 

*  '  A  History  of  Persia.'     By  Lieut.-Colonel  P.  M.  Sykes,  C.M.G.,  C.I.E.     2  Vols. 
London :  Macmillan  &  Co.     £2  10s.  net. 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  174  z 


272  The  Empire  Review 

have  acquired  to  some  extent  the  Persian  point  of  view  is 
eminently  just. 

His  primary  aim,  he  tells  us  in  his  preface,  has  been  to  furnish 
fellow  officials  serving  in  Persia  and  adjoining  countries,  and 
students,  whether  European  or  Persian,  with  a  work  which  is, 
as  far  as  possible,  self-contained  and  complete.  That  aim  he  has 
certainly  achieved.  But  he  has  done  a  great  deal  more.  He  has 
written  a  book  which  will  immediately  take  its  place  as  the 
standard  work  upon  an  important  subject  and  which  entitles  him 
to  a  very  honourable  place  in  the  ranks  of  English  historians. 

The  book  demonstrates  most  emphatically  the  extreme  value 
of  military  and  diplomatic  experience  to  the  scientific  historian. 
Colonel  Sykes'  descriptions  of  campaigns  are  full  of  that  blend  of 
accuracy  and  lucidity  which  only  a  soldier  could  have  given  them. 
His  power  of  analysing  a  political  situation  and  his  skill  in  dealing 
with  such  matters  as  the  efforts  and  achievements  of  British  and 
French  diplomacy  at  the  Persian  court  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  or  the  origin,  development,  and  final  settle- 
ment of  the  Perso-Afghan  question,  are  clearly  the  result  in  part 
of  the  experience  which  he  obtained  as  a  representative  of  the 
British  Government  abroad.  The  whole  book  is,  indeed,  one 
more  illustration  of  a  fact  demonstrated  by  the  writings  of  Lord 
Cromer,  namely,  that  it  is  from  a  combination  of  the  man  of 
action  and  the  scholar  that  the  finest  historical  work  of  the 
modern  school  is  to  be  expected. 

The  author  is  evidently  deeply  interested  in  the  influence  of 
geographical  and  climatic  conditions  on  the  character  and  history 
of  a  people,  and  he  has  devoted  considerable  (though  not 
excessive)  space  in  the  first  volume  to  the  consideration  of  the 
climate  and  configuration  of  Iran  and  the  surrounding  countries. 
In  the  course  of  this  he  draws  an  interesting  comparison  between 
Persia  and  Spain,  in  regard  both  to  the  physical  character  of  the 
country  and  to  their  respective  inhabitants.  As  to  the  latter,  he 
points  out  in  passing  that  there  is  some  actual  blood  connection, 
the  Spaniards  being  in  part  descended  from  Persians  who  accom- 
panied the  Arab  conquerors  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 

These  founded  a  Shiraz  in  distant  Spain,  and  there  made  the  wine  which, 
as  the  familiar  Sherry,  still  preserves  the  Persian  name. 

After  a  survey  of  all  that  is  known  of  Elam,  Sumer  and 
Akkad  at  the  dawn  of  history,  Colonel  Sykes  proceeds  to  an 
account  of  the  early  empires  of  Elam  and  Babylon,  and  the 
overthrow  of  both  by  the  rising  power  of  Assyria.  He  then 
traces  the  rise  of  Media,  and  her  conquest  of  the  Persians  ;  and 
the  collapse  of  the  Assyrian  Empire  ending,  about  607  B.C.,  with 
the  fall  of  Nineveh.  The  verdict  of  history  upon  Assyria  as 


The  Empire  Library  273 

contrasted  with  Egypt  and  Babylon  is  thus  given ;  the  quotation 
may  serve  as  an  example  of  the  breadth  and  justice  of  the  author's 
historical  judgment. 

Although  Babylonia  and  Egypt  were  merciless  in  the  hour  of  triumph,  yet 
Babylonia  bequeathed  to  mankind  law,  astronomy,  science,  and  Egypt  erected 
buildings  which  still  challenge  the  admiration  of  the  world ;  whereas  Assyria, 
merely  borrowing  such  arts  of  peace  as  she  adopted,  shone  only  as  the  great 
predatory  power,  and  when  she  fell,  she  passed  away  into  utter  and  well- 
merited  oblivion. 

The  account  of  the  rise  of  the  ancient  Persian  Empire,  the 
great  collision  between  that  empire  and  Hellas  in  the  fifth  century 
B.C.,  and  the  decline  of  the  Eastern  power  after  its  repulse  by  the 
Western,  is  most  graphic  and  scholarly.  There  is  an  especially 
striking  passage  upon  the  career  and  character  of  Cyrus  the 
Great,  whom  Colonel  Sykes  justly  regards  as  one  of  the  most 
attractive  figures  in  history.  In  the  chapter  on  the  religion  of 
the  Medes  and  Persians  we  have  an  admirable  account  of 
Zoroastrianism,  and  its  immense  influence  upon  Judaism. 

We  are  so  accustomed  to  reading  the  great  story  of  Marathon, 
Thermopylae,  Salamis,  and  Plataea  in  the  patriotic  pages  of 
Hellenic  historians  and  in  the  works  of  writers  who  have  faith- 
fully reproduced  their  facts  and  judgments,  that  it  is  decidedly 
refreshing  to  hear  the  Persian  point  of  view.  That  point  of  view 
does  not,  however,  prevent  Colonel  Sykes  from  realising,  and 
enabling  us  to  realise,  perhaps  more  clearly  than  we  have  ever 
realised  it  before,  that  the  victory  of  Hellas  was  the  victory  of 
humanity,  the  triumph  of  the  higher  ideal. 

To  the  rise  of  Macedonia  and  the  career  and  conquests  of 
Alexander  the  author  has  devoted  special  attention,  and  the 
result  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuously  successful  portions  of 
the  book.  Colonel  Sykes  loves  to  follow  in  the  exact  footsteps  of 
the  victor  and  the  vanquished,  and  his  personal  explorations  in 
the  path  of  the  conquering  Macedonians  have  invested  his  pages 
with  a  wealth  of  graphic  detail  which  previous  historians  have 
failed  to  attain.  He  has  for  their  great  monarch,  "  perhaps  the 
most  famous  man  who  ever  trod  this  earth,"  an  intense  admira- 
tion, and  the  passage  in  which  he  summarises  his  career  is  a 
noble  example  of  historical  eulogy.  He  concludes  an  interesting 
comparison  between  the  Hellenised  empire  of  Alexander  and  the 
British  Empire  with  the  following  acute  suggestion  : — 

Would  it  be  far-fetched  to  compare  the  Macedonians  with  the  Scotch  who, 
descended  from  wild  clansmen,  have  yet  played  almost  as  leading  a  part  in 
empire-building  as  was  played  by  the  tribesmen  of  Macedonia  under  their 
ever-famous  King  ? 

After  dealing  with  the  wars  of  the  "  Successors,"  and  tracing 

z  2 


274  The  Empire  Review 

the  history  of  the  Seleucid  empire  to  its  overthrow  by  the 
great  power  of  Parthia,  Colonel  Sykes  traces  the  course  of  the 
struggle  between  that  power  and  the  Koman  Empire,  which  lasted 
until  216  A.D.,  when  Ardeshir  of  Persia  brought  Parthia  to  its 
downfall  and  founded  the  great  Sasanian  dynasty.  Of  the  great 
figures  of  this  dynasty,  of  Shapur  I.  (who  captured  Valerian),  of 
Shapur  the  Great,  and  of  Noshirwan  the  Just,  Colonel  Sykes  has 
much  to  tell,  and  tells  it  admirably.  Then  with  an  able  chapter 
on  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  Empire  by  the  Arabs  he  brings 
the  first  volume  to  a  close. 

The  second  volume,  which  begins  a  new  act  in  the  great 
drama  of  the  history  of  Iran,  opens  with  a  survey  of  the  career  of 
Mohamed  and  the  establishment  of  Islam,  which  includes 
striking  passages  upon  the  character  of  the  great  conqueror 
Prophet  and  the  principles  of  the  religious  and  political  system 
which  he  founded.  The  history  of  the  Caliphate,  which  covers 
the  period  632  to  1258  A.D.,  Colonel  Sykes  well  divides  into  three 
sections,  the  period  of  the  first  four  Caliphs  being  the  age  of  the 
Theocracy  of  Islam,  that  of  the  Omayyad  Caliphs  the  age  of 
the  Pagan  Reaction,  and  that  of  the  Abbasid  Caliphs  the  age  of 
Persian  ascendency.  The  chapter  on  the  golden  age  of  Islam  is 
particularly  fine.  In  the  chapter  upon  the  Seljuk  Turks,  Colonel 
Sykes'  readers  have  an  opportunity  of  reading  an  account  of  that 
attack  of  Christendom  on  Islam  which  is  known  as  the  Crusades, 
written  not,  as  usual,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  attackers,  but 
from  that  of  the  attacked. 

After  narrating  the  horrors  of  the  Mongol  cataclysm,  and  the 
reign  of  the  heathen  Il-Khans  of  Persia,  the  author  finds  in  the 
career  of  Tamerlane  a  magnificent  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of 
his  powers  as  a  military  historian,  which  he  has  used  to  the  full. 

Coming  to  the  Safavid  Dynasty,  we  have  an  admirable 
account  of  the  reign  of  Shah  Abbas  the  Great.  Of  this  man,  the 
greatest  of  Persia's  sovereigns  since  the  Moslem  conquest,  the 
most  loved  and  respected  by  Persians  themselves,  Colonel  Sykes 
remarks : — 

His  ideas  were  far  in  advance  of  those  current  in  his  time,  and  his  general 
outlook  was  eminently  wise  and  sane,  although  his  readiness  to  kill  on  the 
slightest  pretext  was  deplorable. 

The  rounding  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  Bartholomew 
Dias  in  1487-8  was  one  of  the  most  important  events  on  the 
threshold  of  modern  history.  For  Persia  it  had  far-reaching 
results.  It  produced  the  struggle  for  ascendency  in  the  Persian 
Gulf  which  was  carried  on  first  between  the  English  and  the 
Portuguese,  and  later  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch.  The 
bone  of  contention  was  throughout  simply  trade.  As  Colonel 
Sykes  says,  "  the  Persian  question,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 


The  Empire  Library  275 

English,  was  the  silk  question."  At  the  end  of  1621  Hormuz 
was  captured  from  the  Portuguese  by  an  Anglo-Persian  Expedi- 
tion, a  Portuguese  naval  attack  in  1625  was  a  complete  failure, 
and  an  expedition  fitted  out  in  1630  with  a  view  to  the  recapture 
of  Hormuz  was  also  unsuccessful.  As  to  the  Dutch  who  came 
later,  though  the  Shah  (who  as  a  monarch  naturally  felt  a  sympa- 
thetic resentment  against  the  nation  that  executed  Charles  I.) 
inclined  for  the  time  towards  the  enemies  of  England,  the 
situation  changed  completely  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
Holland  lost  nearly  all  her  colonial  possessions  in  Asia  to  Great 
Britain,  and  her  flag  finally  disappeared  from  the  Persian  Gulf. 
On  this  struggle  Colonel  Sykes  writes  an  especially  informing 
chapter. 

Few  dynasties  have  lived  so  long  and  so  successfully  upon 
their  reputation  as  did  that  of  the  Safavis  after  the  death  of  the 
Great  Shah  Abbas.  Of  the  fateful  battle  of  Gulnabad  in  1722, 
and  the  siege  and  capture  of  Isfahan  by  the  Afghans,  which 
extinguished  the  line,  the  author  has  given  a  most  graphic 
description.  The  next  figure  of  outstanding  importance  upon 
the  stage  of  Persian  history  is  Nadir  Kuli,  who  beginning  as  an 
Afghan  shepherd  freed  Iran  from  the  Afghans,  the  Turks  and 
other  invaders,  and  ascended  the  throne  in  1786  as  Nadir  Shah. 
Had  he  possessed  any  capacity  for  administration,  he  might  very 
conceivably,  with  the  immense  material  resources  at  his  disposal, 
have  restored  Persia  to  happiness  and  prosperity.  Success, 
however,  spoilt  his  character,  and  the  later  years  of  his  life  were 
marred  by  ever-increasing  avarice  and  cruelty,  which  earned  him 
the  hatred  of  the  people  he  had  freed.  In  1747  this  hatred  found 
final  expression  in  his  assassination. 

The  last  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  began  a  new  era  in 
Persian  history.  Incidentally  they  saw  the  commencement  of 
the  permanent  British  connection  with  the  country.  The  account 
of  the  French  and  British  missions  to  the  court  of  Fath  Ali  Shah, 
the  second  ruler  of  the  Kajar  dynasty,  forms  a  most  interesting 
chapter,  and,  as  I  have  already  indicated,  the  topic  is  one  which 
Colonel  Sykes  has  treated  particularly  well.  After  the  series  of 
disastrous  campaigns  against  Russia  (the  outcome,  as  he  points 
out,  of  Persian  aggression)  which  resulted  in  the  annexation  by 
Russia  of  all  the  Persian  provinces  which  lay  to  the  north  of  the 
Aras,  Persia  ceased  to  be  the  entirely  independent  power  which 
the  French  and  British  diplomats  had  so  sedulously  courted.  To 
balance  the  very  serious  losses  which  she  had  sustained,  she 
strove  from  1832  to  1857  to  recover  provinces  upon  the  eastern 
confines,  her  main  objective  being  Herat.  In  1855  came  the 
breach  with  England  and  the  formation  of  the  Anglo-Afghan 
Alliance;  and  in  1857  Persia  and  this  country  were  at  war. 


276  The  Empire  Review 

Hostilities  were,  however,  rapidly  concluded.  The  second  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  was  mainly  characterised  by  the  gradual 
envelopment  of  Persia  through  the  advance  of  Eussia  in  Central 
Asia,  and  by  that  general  awakening  which  resulted  from 
increasing  intercourse  with  the  West,  and  especially  with  the 
British  Empire. 

Of  Persia,  as  he  knew  it  before  the  revolution,  Colonel  Sykes 
has  given  us  a  detailed  picture.  His  account  of  a  Persian 
village  community,  which  he  made  the  object  of  a  special  study, 
will  be  of  very  considerable  value  to  the  student  of  sociological 
and  political  science,  and  it  is  interesting  to  compare  and  contrast 
it  with  what  we  know  of  the  early  English  village  community 
and  the  similar  communities  of  India. 

With  an  account  of  the  amazing  Revolution  which  resulted 
in  the  grant  of  a  constitution  to  Persia  in  1906,  and  ended  the 
old  order,  Colonel  Sykes  concludes  his  great  task.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  when  the  full  and  permanent  effects  of  the  new  order 
can  be  estimated,  and  a  new  chapter  added  to  the  history  of  the 
country,  the  work  will  be  undertaken  by  the  same  skilful  and 
sympathetic  hand. 

Although  Colonel  Sykes'  chief  interest  is  not  unnaturally  in 
the  military  and  political  side  of  his  subject,  he  has  by  no  means 
neglected  the  social  development  of  the  people,  their  religion, 
philosophy,  literature  and  art.  His  treatment  of  Persian  litera- 
ture, from  which  he  has  given  us  many  interesting  quotations,  is 
most  scholarly,  and  his  thorough  sympathy  with  the  Persian 
mind  has  enabled  him  to  interpret  the  thoughts  of  the  great 
writers  of  Iran  in  a  manner  which  would  have  been  quite 
impossible  in  the  case  of  a  historian  with  less  actual  experience 
of  the  country  and  the  people.  In  Persian  architecture  he  has 
taken  particular  interest.  The  book  is  most  magnificently 
illustrated  with  photographs  and  reproductions  in  colour,  and  is 
well  provided  with  the  maps  so  necessary  to  a  history  of  this 
kind.  Colonel  Sykes  is  a  master  of  apt  quotation.  His  citations 
from  his  authorities,  whether  Persian  or  otherwise,  are  invariably 
illuminating,  and  the  extracts  which  he  has  placed  at  the  heads 
of  his  chapters  are  always  most  happily  chosen.  The  plan  and 
arrangement  of  the  book  are  admirable.  In  one  very  minor 
respect  I  venture  to  think  that  an  improvement  might  have  been 
effected.  The  italicised  headings  to  the  sections  into  which  the 
chapters  fall  would  be  more  appropriate  in  a  book  of  reference  or 
a  student's  text-book  than  they  are  in  a  literary  history  of  the 
scope  and  dignity  of  Colonel  Sykes'  work.  Viewed  from  an  artistic 
point  of  view  they  break  up  the  text  in  a  rather  unfortunate 
manner,  and  would,  I  think,  have  been  better  relegated  to  the 
margin,  where  their  undoubted  utility  would  have  been  the  same. 


The  Empire  Library  277 

The  style  is  a  perfect  model  of  clarity  and  incisiveness,  never 
rising  to  any  very  lofty  heights,  and  scrupulously  avoiding  the 
rhetorical,  but  maintaining  always  a  dignity  that  is  entirely 
appropriate  to  the  great  subject  which  the  author  has  chosen. 
Perhaps  the  chief  impression  with  which  one  puts  down  the  book 
is  that  of  its  perfect  completeness.  Iran  has  had,  in  truth,  a 
mighty  past,  and  to  that  past  Colonel  Sykes  has  reared  a 
monument  that  is  in  all  ways  worthy  of  it.  He  has  incidentally 
provided  his  reviewers  with  an  exceptionally  pleasant  task. 


THE   WORLD   IN   THE   CRUCIBLE* 

SIB  GILBERT  PARKER'S  war  book  is  an  excellent  piece  of  work. 
Before  it  appeared  I  had  considerable  doubt  whether  an  account 
of  the  origins  and  conduct  of  the  war  could  yet  be  written ;  that 
feeling  has  now  entirely  disappeared.  It  is  a  book  to  be  read 
from  cover  to  cover.  There  is  nothing  hysterical  about  it, 
nothing  bombastic.  It  is  plain  fact,  fair  statement,  and  sound 
judgment. 

In  his  opening  words  the  author  emphasises  the  fact  that  the 
war  was  in  no  real  sense  the  outcome  of  the  crime  of  Serajevo ; 
that  its  causes  must  be  sought  in  the  national  character  and 
history  of  the  German  people.  He  recalls  the  repeated  failures 
of  Germany  to  succeed  as  an  imperial  Power,  aptly  quoting  the 
famous  epigram  of  Tacitus  on  Galba — "  omnium  consensu  capax 
imperii,  nisi  imperasset."  He  illustrates  the  amazing  political 
incapacity  of  the  race,  and  the  innate  tactlessness,  in  great  things 
as  well  as  small,  which  characterises  the  Teuton.  He  shows 
that  German  unity  is  not  a  reality  but  a  myth,  and  that  Junker- 
dom  has  for  years  realised  that  in  foreign  aggression  alone  lay 
the  possibility  of  welding  the  discordant  elements  of  the  population 
into  any  semblance  of  coherence. 

The  sketch  of  the  Kaiser  is  a  brilliant  piece  of  portraiture, 
at  once  trenchant  and  moderate,  and  marked  by  an  extraordinary 
insight  and  a  keen  analysis  of  character  and  temperament. 

A  great  deal  of  rubbish  has  been  talked  and  written  about  the 
connection  of  Nietsche  with  the  present  war.  The  author's 
calm  and  reasoned  account  of  the  real  relations  of  that  writer's 
doctrines  to  the  German  national  spirit  is  exceedingly  welcome 
as  an  antidote  to  the  vague  outpourings  of  writers  who  know 
Nietsche  only  by  hearsay.  Those  who  have  lightly  credited  him 

*  'The  World  in  the  Crucible.'  By  Gilbert  Parker.  London:  John  Murray. 
6s.  net. 


278  The  Empire  Review 

•with  the  origin  of  Kultur  will  read  with  surprise  the  words  of 
Sir  Gilbert : 

It  is  a  curious  anomaly  that  the  man  who  has  most  influenced  the  German 
mind  by  his  pernicious  doctrine  of  Will  to  Power  rejects  completely  the 
pompous  and  offensive  claim  of  all  modern  Germany,  that  in  German  Kultur 
is  to  be  found  the  salvation  of  the  world. 

Nothing  could  be  more  lucid  than  the  historical  sketch  of  the 
modern  German  Empire  since  its  foundation,  but  it  is  perhaps 
when  the  author  reaches  the  dramatic  events  which  preceded  the 
conflagration ;  when  he  narrates  the  steps  by  which  this  country 
was  impelled  to  enter  the  great  arena,  that  he  is  at  his  best. 
Here  we  have  a  fine  piece  of  impressionism,  a  description  full 
of  the  spirit  of  those  memorable  days. 

Of  the  martyrdom  of  Belgium,  of  the  doctrine  of  frightfulness 
and  of  the  creed  of  hate,  Sir  Gilbert  speaks  in  words  whose 
denunciation  is  the  more  effective  by  reason  of  their  calmness. 
He  brings  out  the  humorous  side  of  the  seduction  of  Turkey  as 
well  as  the  terrible  side,  and  there  runs  through  the  whole 
account  a  delightful  vein  of  sarcasm.  There  is  a  fascinating 
chapter  on  the  lights  and  lessons  of  the  war.  The  book  makes 
one  think,  and  should  do  much  to  strengthen  patriotism  by 
increasing  knowledge.  It  is  certain  of  a  very  general  welcome. 

C.  B.  COXWELL. 


Oversea  Notes  279 


OVERSEA    NOTES 

CANADA 

MANY  of  the  men  now  serving  with  the  Canadian  Contingents  were, 
before  enlisting,  fulfilling  the  residential  requirements  connected  with 
their  homesteads.  And  the  question  is  being  asked  :  "  What  is  their 
position  in  regard  to  these  requirements  now  that  they  are  no  longer 
able  to  fulfil  them  ?  "  The  Dominion  Lands'  Act,  however,  provides 
for  such  a  contingency.  Section  22  states  that  the  time  during 
which  an  entrant  is  absent  from  his  homestead,  while  he  is  a  member 
of  a  military  force,  enrolled  under  the  authority  of  the  Minister  of 
Militia,  and  engaged  as  a  member  of  that  force  in  military  duties, 
and  also  for  a  period  not  exceeding  three  months  after  his  discharge 
as  a  member  of  such  force  (to  permit  him  to  resume  his  residence  upon 
his  homestead),  may  be  counted  as  residence  within  the  meaning  of  the 
Act. 

SECTION  23  states  that  if  it  be  established  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Minister  that  an  entrant,  while  on  active  service  as  a  member  of  a  military 
force,  is  so  disabled  by  wounds  received  in  action  or  because  of  illness 
resulting  therefrom,  or  from  any  other  cause  after  his  enrolment,  and 
up  to  the  date  of  his  discharge  therefrom  that  it  is  not  possible  for  him, 
because  of  such  wounds  or  illness,  or  other  cause,  to  resume  occupation 
of  his  homestead  and  complete  the  conditions  of  his  entry  therefor,  the 
Minister  may  issue  letters  patent  for  the  homestead  in  his  favour. 
These  regulations  relate,  of  course,  to  those  homesteaders  who  held 
entry  before  enlisting  for  military  service.  Cases  have  arisen  where 
volunteers  now  serving  with  the  contingents  made  their  application  for 
patent  before  the  three  years  from  date  of  entry  had  expired,  and  in  these 
cases  it  was  decided  that  the  applications  be  accepted  after  the  three 
years  had  expired. 

A  WAR  revenue  tax  has  been  imposed  on  certain  railway  and  steamship 
tickets  issued  in  connection  with  travel  in  the  Dominion.  The  tax  is 
applicable  to  East-bound  homeward  tickets  that  have  been  purchased  in 
Europe,  and  is  charged  on  a  sliding  scale  as  follows  : — When  ocean  fare 
is  over  $10  up  to  $40  inclusive,  SI  tax  ;  ocean  fare  over  $40  up  to  $65 
inclusive,  $3  ;  ocean  fare  over  $65,  $5  tax.  On  East-bound  railway 
tickets  the  sliding  scale  ranges  from  5  cents  when  the  railway  fare  is 
over  $1  and  up  to  $5  inclusive  ;  to  10  cents  on  fares  from  $5  to  $10 
inclusive.  For  each  additional  $5  or  fraction  thereof  an  additional 
5  cents  is  charged.  Purchasers  of  East-bound  tickets  issued  in  Europe 


280  The  Empire  Review 

can  pay  the  tax  at  time  of  booking  if  they  so  desire.  No  war  revenue 
tax  on  either  ocean  or  railway  fares  is  charged  on  East-bound  homeward 
tickets  purchased  in  Europe  reading  from  United  States  points  via 
Canadian  ports.  No  tax  is  charged  on  West-bound  ocean  tickets  nor 
on  West-bound  or  round-trip  railway  tickets  purchased  in  Europe.  It 
is  worthy  of  note,  however,  by  intending  West-bound  passengers  that  if 
they  defer  purchasing  inland  railway  tickets  until  they  reach  Canada  the 
war  revenue  tax  is  chargeable  on  the  railway  basis  referred  to  above. 

LEADING  boot  manufacturers  of  the  chief  towns  of  Eastern  Canada 
met  recently  for  the  purpose  of  making  arrangements  to  deal  with  an 
immense  order  for  boots  for  the  British  Army.  It  is  understood  that, 
providing  it  be  guaranteed  that  the  boots  will  be  manufactured  according 
to  specifications,  2,000,000  pairs  will  be  turned  out  at  an  estimated  cost 
of  £1,600,000.  This  will  mean  that  10,000  pairs  of  boots  will  be  manu- 
factured per  day  for  a  period  of  seven  months. 

THE  City  Council  of  Calgary  have  notified  the  military  authorities 
that  no  proceedings  will  be  taken  for  the  collection  of  rates  against 
property  belonging  to  any  soldier  or  officer  serving  in  any  British  regiment, 
in  the  Canadian  Overseas  Contingents,  or  in  the  Naval  Service  during 
the  continuation  of  the  European  conflict.  A  large  number  of  local  men 
have  gone  to  the  front,  chiefly  in  the  Canadian  Volunteer  forces,  and  this 
decision  of  the  Municipal  Authorities  has  met  with  very  general 
approval. 

AFTER  allowing  for  seed  and  domestic  requirements,  official  estimates 
show  that  Canada  has  a  surplus  of  28,174,973  bushels  of  wheat  and  flour 
available  for  exportation  to  Great  Britain  and  elsewhere.  A  Winnipeg 
firm  has  received  an  order  from  the  Greek  Government  for  no  less  than 
40,000  barrels  of  flour,  while  the  demands  that  are  being  made  by  the 
Allies  on  the  resources  of  the  Dominion  are  enormous  and  are  propor- 
tionately benefiting  the  country. 

THE  total  new  single-track  railway  construction  in  Canada  during  the 
year  1914  was  2,088  miles.  This  was  considerably  less  than  the  mileage 
in  1913,  which  is  said  to  be  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  only  trunk 
line  construction  in  1914  was  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway,  which  is 
now  practically  completed  across  the  continent.  The  final  revision  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Railway  route  from  Le  Pas  to  Port  Nelson  gives  a  length  of 
424  miles.  This  is  one  of  the  most  direct  lines  in  Canada  for  the  distance. 
Two  hundred  and  forty  miles  of  the  road  are  completely  graded,  and 
54  miles  partially  so,  leaving  little  over  100  miles  to  the  Bay.  Trains 
will  shortly  be  able  to  run  to  mileage  214.  It  is  expected  that  the  grade 
to  Port  Nelson  will  be  completed  this  year,  and  that  the  whole  line  will 
be  ready  for  the  handling  of  the  1916  crop.  Central  Saskatchewan  will 
be  brought  within  little  over  a  day's  railway  journey  of  the  northern 
seaboard,  and  all  Western  Canada  will  benefit  accordingly. 

THE  Saskatchewan  Department  of  Agriculture  has  issued  its  first 
report  on  crop  conditions  for  1915.  Generally  satisfactory  conditions  are 
indicated.  The  early  spring  and  the  large  acreage  of  land  ploughed  last 


Oversea  Notes  281 

autumn,  combined  with  ideal  conditions  for  planting  the  seed,  indicate 
that  a  large  wheat  crop  has  been  sown  in  record  time.  The  acreage  of 
grain  crops  has  not  yet  been  finally  estimated,  but  the  preliminary 
report  shows  a  possible  increase  of  three-quarters  of  a  million  acres  in 
the  wheat  area.  The  increases  are  greater  in  the  south-eastern,  south- 
central  and  central  districts,  and  an  addition  of  about  100,000  acres  is 
reported  in  the  south-western  crou  district  of  the  province. 

AT  the  fourth  conference  of  Canadian  fruit  growers,  held  at  Grimsby, 
Ontario,  it  was  resolved  that  every  packer  and  shipper  of  fruit  be  com- 
pelled to  register  with  the  chief  inspector  of  the  division  in  which  he 
resides. 

"  Whereas  ever  since  the  coming  into  force  of  the  Fruit  Marks  Act  "  (runs 
the  resolution),  "  there  has  been  a  growing  desire  for  some  kind  of  report  of  the 
result  of  inspection  which  could  be  used  as  an  assurance  to  the  purchaser  that 
the  fruit  in  that  shipment  which  had  been  inspected  was  up  to  the  standard  of 
the  Fruit  Marks  Act ;  it  is  therefore  resolved  that  so  far  as  the  plan  can  be 
worked  out  without  injuring  the  work  of  inspection,  such  certificate  of  inspection 
be  given  to  shippers  requesting  same  ;  such  certificate  to  be  plainly  stamped 
or  printed  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  that  it  only  applies  to  the  packages 
inspected,  which  may,  if  found  desirable,  be  stamped  '  inspected  '  on  such 
parts  of  package  as  seem  likely  to  best  serve  as  an  intimation  that  such  package 
has  been  inspected." 

This  guarantee  will  be  appreciated  alike  by  purchaser  and  consumer. 

A  LARGE  linen  manufacturing  concern  in  Saskatoon  has  guaranteed 
through  the  local  Board  of  Trade  to  purchase  all  the  flax  grown  for 
fibre  by  the  farmers  throughout  the  district.  The  flax  must  be  seeded 
according  to  instructions  of  an  expert  provided  by  the  manufacturers, 
and  the  price  to  be  paid  the  farmer  should  assure  him  an  excellent  return 
for  his  labour.  It  is  anticipated  that  the  scheme  will  materialise,  and  it 
is  confidently  believed  that  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  demonstrating 
most  important  flax  fibre  possibilities.  It  is  not  contended  that  the 
quality  will  be  of  the  highest  grade,  such  as  emanates  from  certain  of 
the  more  moist  flax  growing  sections  of  Europe.  Nevertheless,  it  will 
probably  prove  suitable  for  all  except  the  finest  grades  of  linen  goods. 
At  present,  flax  is  largely  grown  all  over  Saskatchewan,  but  only  for 
the  seed.  The  straw  is  burnt  after  threshing. 

DURING  the  past  two  years,  the  very  profitable  possibilities  of  sheep 
raising  in  Saskatchewan  have  been  widely  demonstrated.  Formerly, 
coyottes  and  spear  grass  were  persistently  advanced  as  prohibitive  to 
the  successful  conduct  of  the  industry.  However,  these  fallacies  were 
eventually  shattered  by  the  results  achieved.  That  sheep  raising  is 
probably  the  safest  and  most  profitable  branch  of  animal  husbandry 
in  the  province,  is  no  longer  disputed.  Flocks  are  easily  handled. 
Parasitical  diseases  are  practically  unknown.  Of  300  known  weeds, 
sheep  will  thrive  on  260.  Their  value  on  a  fenced  summer  fallow  is, 
therefore,  obvious  ;  while,  if  turned  upon  stubble  in  the  fall,  they  will 
finish  to  perfection  for  the  market  on  wind  shelled  grain  which  would  be 
lost  otherwise.  Nor  is  mutton  alone  doing  well  for  the  farmer  ;  the 
wool  is  yielding  encouraging  returns,  especially  since  the  Saskatchewan 


282  The  Empire  Review 

Government  organised  co-operative  wool  sales  which  assured  the  grower 
of  full  market  value  for  his  clip.  Last  year  his  average  net  price  was 
16 '47  cents  per  Ib.  This  year  he  is  certain  to  do  much  better — indeed, 
the  Americans  are  already  offering  much  over  that  figure.  Such  encourag- 
ing conditions  may  be  relied  on  to  hasten  the  development  of  the  sheep 
industry  in  the  Province. 

THE  first  car  of  wheat  shipped  from  the  Peace  River  District  in 
Northern  Alberta  direct  to  Winnipeg  has  arrived.  About  1,200  miles 
were  traversed  by  the  consignment.  It  is  not  many  years  since  the  world 
laboured  under  the  false  impression  that  grain-growing  was  almost 
impossible  in  parts  of  Western  Canada.  Later,  everyone  marvelled  at 
the  possibilities  of  such  northerly  districts  as  Prince  Albert  and  Edmonton. 
During  the  last  few  years  crops  have  been  grown  in  the  Grande  Prairie 
and  Peace  River  Districts  of  Northern  Alberta.  With  this  first  shipment 
comes  proof  that  at  least  part  of  the  crop  is  genuine  hard  wheat. 

LAST  year  considerable  prospecting  work  was  carried  out  in  the 
Beaver  Lake  District  of  Northern  Saskatchewan  and  resulted  in  gold 
finds  of  considerable  promise.  Recently  news  has  been  received  of  two 
other  finds  within  easy  reach  of  the  route  of  the  New  Hudson  Bay  Railway 
now  under  construction,  one  being  at  Herb  Lake  and  the  other  at 
Wintering  Lake.  Further  developments  are  awaited  with  interest.  It 
is  confidently  asserted  by  the  older  inhabitants  of  the  district  that  there 
is  gold  in  the  north,  and  they  cite  the  fact  that  in  the  early  days  Indians 
frequently  brought  in  quartz  containing  gold  in  considerable  quantities 
and  occasionally  small  nuggets.  But  as  there  was  then  no  railway  north 
of  the  original  main  line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  the  remoteness 
of  the  source  of  such  samples  robbed  the  proposition  of  its  attraction. 

DURING  the  past  five  or  six  years,  cherry  growers  in  the  Province  of 
Ontario  have  complained  of  the  presence  of  maggots  which  attacked 
growing  cherries,  rendering  the  fruit  unfit  for  use.  Professor  L.  Csesar, 
of  the  Provincial  Agricultural  College,  has  been  making  investigations  for 
several  years,  and  the  results  of  his  observations  have  been  issued  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  Bulletin  227.  Two  distinct  varieties 
of /insects,  the  eggs  of  which  become  maggots,  have  been  identified  ; 
one  is  the  white-banded  cherry  fruit  fly,  and  the  other  the  black-bodied 
cherry  fruit  fly.  The  life  histories  of  both  these  flies — which,  happily, 
appear  to  attack  no  other  fruit  than  the  cherry — are  given  in  the  Bulletin, 
together  with  methods  of  treatment. 

THE  Canadian  Immigration  Commissioner  at  Winnipeg  tells  us  that 
of  this  year's  new  arrivals  in  Canada,  85  per  cent,  of  those  coming  from 
the  United  States  are  farmers,  and  all  are  well  equipped  financially. 
"When  seeding  is  completed  in  the  United  States,"  he  adds,  "we  expect  a 
still  larger  number  of  land  seekers  from  there.  Correspondence  with  regard 
to  lands  is  greater  than  at  any  time  during  the  past  two  or  three  years." 
He  also  looks  for  a  very  considerable  increase  in  the  migratory  movement 
of  agriculturists  from  Eastern  to  Western  Canada  during  the  summer. 
Western  farming,  as  an  agricultural  proposition,  is  becoming  increasingly 
more  attractive  to  the  Canadian  farmer. 


Oversea  Notes  283 

As  showing  how  rapidly  Western  Canada  is  developing,  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  since  the  Province  of  Alberta  was  organised  in  1905,  no 
fewer  than  2,524  bridges  have  been  erected.  At  the  present  time,  work 
of  this  description  has  naturally  been  interfered  with  to  some  extent ; 
but  the  steady  influx  of  settlers  to  these  rich  farming  lands,  due  largely 
to  the  improved  prospects  for  farmers  in  Canada,  will  call  for  still  further 
engineering  development  in  the  near  future. 

THE  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  native  tobacco  in  the  Province 
of  Ontario  has  developed  into  a  considerable  industry.  Each  year  the 
acreage  under  cultivation  continues  to  increase,  and  many  of  the  farmers 
are  entering  the  business  on  an  extensive  plan.  It  is  stated  that  the 
quality  of  the  plant  is  steadily  improving  and  finds  a  ready  sale. 


NEW   ZEALAND 

THE  New  Zealand  nursing  contingent  enjoys  the  same  status  as  officers 
in  the  Expeditionary  Force,  and  the  term  of  service  will  be  for  the  duration 
of  the  war  and  their  return  to  the  Dominion.  The  rates  of  pay  have 
been  fixed  as  follows  : — Matron  in  charge,  £150  per  annum  ;  sisters,  £120  ; 
nurses,  £100.  Each  member  of  the  contingent  receives  an  outfit  free, 
and,  where  meals  and  residence  are  not  otherwise  provided  for,  each 
receives  an  allowance  of  3s.  6d.  per  day. 

THE  New  Zealand  Soldiers'  Pensions  Act,  besides  granting  generous 
pensions  for  soldiers'  wives,  provides  for  the  payment  to  the  widows 
of  officers,  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  of  one  year's  pay  in 
addition  to  pension,  with  an  amount  equal  to  one-third  of  the  gratuity 
to  each  child  under  age.  The  Act  further  provides  that  a  pension  may 
be  continued  to  sons  until  they  attain  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  to 
daughters  until  their  twenty-first  birthday. 

A  PROPOSAL  that  has  met  with  general  approval  has  been  made  by  the 
Town  Clerk  of  Wanganui,  a  North  Island  town,  and  is  of  a  novel  nature, 
This  official  has  suggested  that  a  5  per  cent,  tax  on  totalisator  dividends 
be  instituted  in  aid  of  the  Belgians.  On  a  basis  of  the  turnover  in  the 
Dominion  during  the  past  few  years,  the  proposed  tax  would  provide 
£180,000  per  annum  for  the  relief  of  distress. 

TAIRUA  is  a  small  village  of  some  twenty-five  families,  near  Mercury 
Bay.  Most  of  the  breadwinners  are  engaged  in  bush  work  or  logging. 
Everyone  is  eager  to  do  something  to  help  in  the  war.  No  one  is  able  to 
give  much  individually  to  any  of  the  various  funds,  but  a  plan  has  been 
brought  into  operation  by  which  a  subscription  of  not  more  than  Is.  each 
is  made  each  month.  Nearly  every  house  produces  two  contributors, 
and  the  children  are  giving  Id.  to  3d.  a  month,  according  to  ages,  the 
amount  collected  being  about  £3  a  month. 

THE  Rangitikei  County  Council  has  resolved  that,  owing  to  higher 
cost  of  living  through  the  war,  the  whole  of  the  permanent  surfacemen 
under  the  Council  will  receive  an  extra  allowance  of  £1  per  month  during 


284  The  Empire  Review 

the  continuance  of  hostilities.  It  was  further  resolved  that  it  be  a 
recommendation  to  the  Government  to  levy  a  war  tax  to  meet  all  extra- 
ordinary expenses  in  connection  with '  the  war,  and  that  such  tax  be 
levied  on  land  and  large  incomes. 

THE  Union  Cold  Storage  Company  is  erecting  freezing  works  with  a 
capacity  of  3,000  sheep  a  day  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Auckland  at  a 
cost  of  £50,000.  In  addition  to  the  equipment  for  dealing  with  the 
bye-products  of  the  industry,  a  canning  plant  will  be  established  capable 
of  producing  a  large  quantity  of  preserved  meats,  and  the  works  will 
be  ready  for  operations,  it  is  hoped,  by  the  end  of  this  month.  In 
Whangarei,  further  north,  extensions  have  been  made  to  the  existing 
freezing  works,  increasing  their  capacity  three-fold.  These  works  will 
now  be  able  to  deal  with  over  2,000  sheep  or  150  head  of  cattle  a  day. 
The  new  canning  factory  will  be  brought  into  use  at  the  end  of  the 
producing  season. 

THERE  has  been  a  miniature  "  rush  "  to  beaches  in  the  West  Coast, 
owing  to  the  discovery  that  quantities  of  sand  thrown  up  are  gold-bearing, 
some  patches  being  particularly  rich.  Nearly  all  the  beaches  on  this 
coast  have  been  cut  away  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  and  in  some  places  the 
sand  is  cut  out  almost  into  the  bush.  Two  men  secured  over  £400  each 
for  three  months'  search,  several  are  at  work,  and  as  the  beaches  are  still 
cutting  away  much  more  gold  should  be  found. 

THE  Waimangu  Geyser,  the  largest  in  the  world,  near  Rotorua,  has 
resumed  activity.  After  displays  of  enormous  force  it  became  inactive, 
and  this  is  the  first  sign  of  renewed  vigour  after  a  rest  of  eleven  years. 
A  new  crater,  80  yards  by  75  yards  in  size,  and  about  20  feet  deep,  was 
blown  out  the  first  day,  and,  after  the  first  explosion,  when  mud  and 
stones  were  thrown  more  than  a  thousand  feet  into  the  air,  it  was  seen 
that  twenty  mud  "  boilers  "  throwing  mud  30  feet  high  had  appeared, 
besides  seven  great  steam  holes  from  which  huge  volumes  of  steam  were 
being  blown  under  great  pressure.  Some  of  the  sand  and  mud  sent  up 
by  the  initial  explosion  was  carried  as  far  as  Lake  Rotomahana,  a  distance 
of  three  miles  and  a  half.  The  inner  side  of  the  crater  walls  is  fractured 
in  many  places. 

FIGURES  collected  and  tables  compiled  recently  by  the  Department 
of  Labour  show  that  there  is  remarkably  little  unemployment  in  New 
Zealand.  From  three  sources  the  reports  indicate  that  there  are  a  few 
more  men  out  of  work  than  is  usual  at  this  time  of  the  year,  but  from 
all  other  quarters  the  figures  are  the  most  satisfactory  ever  recorded. 

THE  exports  from  the  Dominion  during  the  financial  year  which  ended 
March  31st  were  abnormally  large,  being  of  a  value  of  over  £27,000,000, 
or  nearly  four  millions  more  than  for  the  preceding  year. 

A  NEW  ZEALAND  lady  has  been  granted  a  taxi  driver's  licence,  the 
Mayor  and  the  entire  Whangarei  Borough  Council  holding  the  opinion  that 
there  was  no  reason  why,  other  conditions  being  equal,  a  woman  should 
not  have  a  licence  on  the  same  terms  as  a  man. 


Oversea  Notes  285 


SOUTH    AFRICA 

SOUTH  AFRICA  has  progressed  wonderfully  in  recent  years  in  the 
production  of  good  meat  and  good  beef  types.  At  this  year's  Agricultural 
Show,  a  Hereford  cow,  weighing  1,165  Ibs.  live  weight,  gave  695  Ibs.  of 
beef,  approximately  60  per  cent.  The  improvement  in  the  Hereford 
cows  was  most  marked,  and  the  beef  was  considered  equal  to  anything 
to  be  seen  on  the  European  markets.  It  is  clear  that  the  export  trade 
has  been  well  studied.  It  remains  for  the  South  African  farmers  to  dis- 
cover which  types  are  suited  for  particular  districts.  The  Shorthorn, 
the  Aberdeen  Angus,  the  Hereford,  the  Devon,  and  the  Eed  Poll  have 
already  captured  certain  defined  areas.  There  is  room  for  all  good 
breeds  in  South  Africa. 

A  NEW  woollen  textile  factory  has  been  opened  at  Woodstock,  Cape 
Town.  Special  modern  machinery  has  been  installed  for  the  purpose 
of  working  up  the  South  African  product,  and  it  is  hoped  that,  in  view 
of  the  restricted  output  of  British  factories  owing  to  the  war,  local  manu- 
factures will  soon  become  popular.  It  is  intended  to  use  white  labour 
as  far  as  possible. 

GREAT  difficulty  has  been  experienced  since  the  commencement  of 
the  war  in  shipping  wool  and  other  produce  from  South  African  ports 
owing  to  the  lack  of  freight  space.  In  consequence  there  has  been  much 
congestion,  and  at  one  time  at  East  London  alone  there  were  more  than 
20,000  bales  of  wool  awaiting  shipment,  merchants  being  compelled  to 
stack  it  in  the  street,  their  warehouses  being  full. 

SEVERAL  samples  of  South  African  grown  cotton  were  exhibited  at 
the  Agricultural  Show  held  in  Bloemfontein.  The  winning  exhibit  was 
of  the  Cleveland  variety,  grown  in  the  Kustenburg  district.  It  was 
reported  on  as  being  bright,  perfect,  of  a  good  colour,  with  a  strong  staple 
one  and  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  valued  at  Id.,  with 
American  middlings  at  Qd.  The  Government  exhibited  a  bale  of  Upland 
cotton,  to  which  a  statement  was  attached  showing  the  average  yield  for 
the  past  three  years  to  be  400  Ibs.  per  acre,  the  average  cost  of  production 
is  £2  17s.  Id.,  and  the  average  market  value  6d.  per  Ib. 

THE  trade  prospects  of  South  African  pine-apples  are  good.  In  the 
lower  Albany  District  of  the  Cape  Province  they  can  be  produced  very 
cheaply,  and  there  are  thousands  of  acres  under  cultivation.  The  owner 
of  one  estate  estimates  his  crop  will  be  2,000,000  dozen  pines.  These, 
although  smaller  than  the  Azores  pines,  are  claimed  to  be  superior  in 
flavour,  and  can  be  retailed  at  6d.  or  9d.  apiece,  against  2s.  to  6s.  each  for 
the  Azores  variety. 

GREAT  difficulty  was  experienced  in  acclimatising  the  ostriches  brought 
into  the  Union  from  North  Africa  some  time  ago.  Of  the  adult  birds 
only  two  survived  the  vicissitudes  of  the  long  journey  and  the  change  of 
climate,  but  the  chicks  were  found  to  do  better  and  a  large  proportion 


286  The  Empire  Review 

still  survives.  Experiments  are  now  being  carried  on  at  the  Government 
School  of  Agriculture,  Grootfontein,  both  as  regards  pure-bred  North 
Africans  and  crosses  with  South  African  strains.  Clipping  from  the 
latter  have  given  spadonas  of  exceptional  promise,  pronounced  by 
experts  to  be  of  peculiar  merit  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  Northern 
blood.  It  is  confidently  hoped,  therefore,  that  the  primary  object  of  the 
experiment  in  importing  these  Northern  birds  will  be  attained — namely, 
the  addition  to  the  South  African  ostrich  feather  of  certain  desirable 
characteristics  in  which  the  Northern  birds  excel. 

DURING  last  year  two  new  lighthouses  on  the  coast  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  were  completed — one  at  Cape  Point,  and  one  at  Slangkop. 
Under  tests  both  these  lights  proved  satisfactory,  but  at  the  request  of 
the  Admiralty  neither  has  been  put  into  operation.  The  new  automatic 
light  at  Koman  Rock  in  False  Bay  was  completed  and  put  into  service 
on  July  15th,  1914,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  in  use. 

IN  January,  1914,  the  working  cost  on  the  Transvaal  Gold  Mines 
was  18s.  3d.  per  ton  milled.  This  decreased  to  16s.  9eZ.  per  ton  in  August, 
1914,  but  increased  to  17s.  5d.  per  ton  in  December.  The  average  for 
the  year  was  17s.  3d.,  or  lOd.  per  ton  less  than  in  1913.  The  increase  is 
attributed  to  the  increased  cost  of  mine  supplies  due  to  the  war.  This 
increase  of  stores  is  equivalent  to  10  per  cent.,  representing  approximately 
a  rise  of  lOd.  per  ton  in  working  costs. 

LAST  year  the  Union  exported  1,000,000  bags  of  maize,  valued  at 
about  £440,000.  This  year  it  is  anticipated  that  the  production  will  be 
half  as  much  again,  thus  giving  a  surplus  of  about  3,000,000  bags  for 
export.  The  price  of  a  bag  of  mealies  last  year  was  about  8s.  In  March 
of  this  year  farmers  were  getting  from  10s.  Qd.  to  13s.  per  bag.  Present 
quotations  are  somewhat  lower,  but  if  the  average  is  taken  at  10s.  a  bag, 
the  surplus  crop  should  be  worth  a  million  and  a  half  sterling. 

THE  output  of  sugar  in  Natal  during  the  season  just  closed  was 
102,000  tons,  as  compared  with  92,000  tons  for  the  previous  season.  It 
is  estimated  that,  given  reasonable  conditions  as  to  labour  and  returns, 
twice  this  output  could  be  reached  in  Natal  alone,  while  in  Zululand 
the  prospects  are  still  more  hopeful.  Much  of  the  sugar  is  produced  on 
small  holdings.  In  Natal  and  Zululand  there  are  nearly  200  planters 
whose  holdings  do  not  exceed  500  acres,  and  in  no  case  do  "small 
holdings  "  exceed  1,000  acres. 

THE  mileage  of  line  open  and  in  working  order  in  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  at  December  31st,  1914,  was  9,133  miles,  as  compared  with  7,693 
miles  in  1910.  The  train  mileage  during  the  same  period  increased  from 
23,580,646  to  29,701,991,  equal  to  21'  8  per  cent. 

OVERSEA  CORRESPONDENTS. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

AND 

JOURNAL    OF    BRITISH    TRADE 

VOL.  XXIX.          AUGUST,  1915.  No.   175. 

THE   NEXT  IMPERIAL  CONFERENCE 

THE  question  as  to  whether  or  not  the  Imperial  Conference, 
due  for  this  year,  should  take  place  aroused  some  discussion  both 
in  Great  and  Greater  Britain.  Ministers  in  the  Homeland,  as 
is  well  known,  favoured  a  postponement ;  and  those  of  the 
Dominions  of  Canada  and  New  Zealand,  as  well  as  of  the  South 
African  Union,  took  the  same  view.  The  opinion  of  the  Indian 
Government,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted,  coincided  with  that 
of  the  Home  authorities.  The  Prime  Minister  of  the  Common- 
wealth expressed  a  contrary  opinion;  but  in  a  commendable  spirit 
of  patriotism  he  refrained  from  pressing  his  views  on  the  attention 
of  the  Imperial  Government. 

Public  opinion  in  Australia  is  apathetic  in  regard  to  the 
question.  The  ordinary  man  outside  politics  has  but  one 
dominating  subject  of  interest.  The  war  to  him  is  everything ; 
the  rest  nothing.  Sharp  swords,  he  thinks,  not  tongues,  are  the 
instruments  most  needed  at  the  present  crisis.  While  the 
tempest  is  at  its  height — while  the  Imperial  vessel,  assailed 
by  furious  gusts,  and  lashed  by  stupendous  waves,  is  in  danger 
of  foundering — its  officers,  to  his  mind,  should  be  on  deck 
grappling  with  the  immediate  peril,  and  not  in  the  cabin 
philosophically  discussing  problems  of  future  navigation.  Let 
such  wait,  he  contends,  not  without  reason,  until  the  storm 
has  been  weathered ;  then  let  those  in  authority  meet  and  take 
counsel  together  as  to  how  future  dangers  may  be  repelled  and 
late  damages  repaired.  Such  is  the  prevailing  public  opinion, 
and  it  seems  to  be  not  at  variance  with  that  wholesome  British 
characteristic — commonsense.  The  time  for  the  council  of  war 
is  either  before  or  after  the  battle — not  amid  the  roar  of  guns 
and  clash  of  steel. 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  175.  2  A 


288  The  Empire  Review 

Nevertheless  the  contentions  of  the  small  dissentient  minority 
deserve  respectful  consideration.  One  may  certainly  brush  aside 
as  trivial  the  formalist's  argument  that,  since  triennial  meetings 
of  Imperial  statesmen  have  been  arranged,  they  must  be  held  on 
the  dates  prescribed,  no  matter  what  the  circumstances  may  be. 
The  smaller  obligation  must  always  bow  to  the  greater.  The 
arguments  advanced  in  favour  of  holding  the  Conference  may  be 
roughly  stated  to  have  been  three  in  number.  Firstly,  it  was 
affirmed  that,  inasmuch  as  the  great  conflagration  now  raging 
must  result  in  territorial  and  political  changes  of  the  first 
magnitude,  good  policy  required  that  representatives  from  all 
parts  of  the  British  Empire  should  meet  before  the  assembly 
of  the  final  Peace  Congress  to  settle  the  terms  on  which  alone 
the  Empire  could  consent  to  the  termination  of  hostilities. 
Secondly,  stress  was  laid  on  the  moral  effect  such  a  meeting 
at  a  crisis  like  the  present  would  produce  on  the  minds  both 
of  friends  and  foes.  Thirdly,  the  view  was  urged,  that  a 
time  when  all  British  citizens  throughout  the  world,  Indians, 
Fijians,  Maoris,  and  other  coloured  races  included,  were 
aglow  with  patriotic  ardour,  and  unanimous  in  supporting 
the  Mother  Country  to  the  utmost  of  their  resources,  was 
peculiarly  fitting  for  a  meeting  of  the  Grand  Council  of  the 
Empire.  This  last  argument  at  first  sight  appeals  most  strongly 
to  the  feelings  of  the  British  Imperialist.  But,  like  most 
arguments  based  •  wholly  on  sentiment,  it  is  open  to  strong 
objections  on  the  grounds  of  policy  and  interest. 

The  first  of  the  three  arguments  can  be  disposed  of  without 
difficulty.  The  war  is  not  over — possibly  not  half  over.  Although 
the  lion's  first  spring  has  failed,  the  beast  is  still  fighting  furiously 
with  tooth  and  claw.  It  is  too  soon  yet  to  divide  his  hide. 
Certainly  there  are  but  few  Britons  who  do  not  feel  confident  of 
ultimate  victory.  The  complete  overthrow  of  the  enemy  the 
majority  of  us  regard  as  merely  a  matter  of  time  and  price.  But 
it  is  pertinent  to  remind  some  impulsive  amateur  dictators  that 
the  British  Empire  is  not  the  only  Power  engaged  in  the  struggle 
against  Germany  and  her  two  grievously  battered  confederates. 
France  and  Eussia,  both  nations  of  the  first  rank,  will  have  an 
important  say  also  in  the  final  settlement.  Except  in  the  vaguest 
possible  way  neither  has  yet  signified  her  demands ;  though  we 
may  be  sure  that,  considering  the  magnitude  of  the  sacrifices  each 
nation  is  making,  those  demands  will  be  by  no  means  negligible. 
Italy,  Belgium  and  Servia  will  also  have  to  be  considered.  And, 
in  all  probability,  there  will  be  further  claimants  to  shares  in  the 
spoils.  It  may  be  that  even  the  United  States  may  be  moved  to 
active  intervention.  Should  the  chief  belligerents  opposed  to  the 
central  European  Powers  be  encumbered  with  more  allies  they 


The  Next  Imperial  Conference  289 

will  find  the  task,  already  certain  to  be  great,  of  satisfying  all 
claims  at  the  end  of  the  war  immensely  augmented.  Obviously, 
then,  a  bill  of  damages  prepared  now  by  British  and  Colonial 
representatives  for  presentation  at  the  Peace  Congress  might  not, 
when  that  Congress  assembled,  meet  with  a  favourable  reception, 
and  would  probably  have  to  be  amended.  In  such  a  case  un- 
fortunate misunderstandings  might  arise  and  friction  be  generated 
among  the  Imperial  co-partners. 

Moreover,  should  the  representatives  of  the  British  Empire 
formulate  definite  terms  of  peace  while  the  war  was  still  raging, 
and  those  terms  become  known  to  Britain's  allies,  it  is  by  no 
means  impossible  that  the  latter  might  promptly  raise  objections, 
and  substantial  modifications  would  have  to  be  made.  Conceal- 
ment, on  the  other  hand,  would  induce  suspicion.  In  the  one 
case,  the  colonies  later  might  feel  affronted ;  in  the  other,  the 
present  harmonious  relations  between  Great  Britain  and  one  or 
more  of  her  allies  might  be  impaired. 

The  assurance  officially  given  on  the  first  day  of  the  present 
year  by  the  then  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  on  behalf  of 
the  British  Government  that  the  Dominions  would  be  consulted 
as  to  the  terms  of  peace  when  the  proper  time  came  should  satisfy 
all  requirements.  Mr.  Harcourt  intimated  that  it  was  intended  to 
consult  the  Prime  Ministers  of  the  Dominions  "  most  fully,  and 
if  possible,  personally,  when  the  time  arrives  to  discuss  possible 
terms  of  peace."  In  so  doing  he  recognised  explicitly  the  right 
of  each  of  the  Dominions  to  a  voice  in  the  final  settlement.  And, 
it  is  to  be  hoped,  the  magnificent  response  of  India  to  the  call  of 
danger  will  receive  similar  official  recognition.  The  day  is  past 
when  a  British  plenipotentiary  at  a  Peace  Congress  could  ignore 
the  wishes  and  interests  of  British  oversea  communities.  Such  a 
mistake  as  that  committed  by  Lord  Castlereagh  at  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  a  hundred  years  ago  in  restoring  a  valuable  conquest, 
like  Java,  to  its  former  owners  will  never  again,  one  may  feel  sure, 
be  repeated.  The  island  so  foolishly  retroceded  on  that  occasion 
would  now  be  of  inestimable  value  to  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia,  not  only  on  account  of  its  own  natural  wealth,  but  as  a 
source  of  supply  of  labour  necessary  to  the  economic  development 
of  the  northern  portion  of  the  adjacent  continent.  How  the 
interests  of  the  people  of  Newfoundland  were  sacrificed  by  the 
framers  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  recent  controversies,  now 
happily  closed,  only  too  clearly  proved.  One  can  well  imagine 
what  a  storm  of  indignation  would  sweep  over  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  were  it  to  be  announced  by-and-by  that  north-east  New 
Guinea  and  Samoa  were  to  be  handed  back  to  their  former  owners. 
The  promised  exchange  of  views  between  Imperial  statesmen 
will  obviate  the  repetition  of  many  deplorable  errors  made 

2  A  2 


290  The  Empire  Review 

in  the  past ;  but  the  time  for  such  pourparlers  has  not  yet 
arrived. 

To  a  certain  extent,  no  doubt,  the  spectacle  of  British  and 
Colonial  Ministers  assembling  as  usual  in  council  while  the  world 
shook  with  the  tramp  of  armies  and  the  din  of  battle  would  be 
impressive.  It  might  suggest  to  some  minds  the  meeting  of 
unperturbed  Senators  in  ancient  Eome  at  the  time  when  Hanni- 
bal was  at  the  city  gates.  The  politic  deliberation  shown  by 
Nelson  when,  during  the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  he  carefully 
sealed  the  brief  despatch  offering  terms  to  the  enemy  is  often 
applauded  as  an  example  of  British  coolness.  But  nonchalance, 
as  well  as  formalism,  may  be  carried  to  extremes.  The  members 
of  a  household  who  assembled  at  precisely  the  moment  ordained 
for  family  prayers,  when  the  house  was  in  flames,  would  show 
a  degree  of  heroic  piety  which  might  be  edifying,  but  which 
certainly  would  entail  unnecessarily  heavy  sacrifices.  Bluntly, 
the  moral  effect  produced  by  the  spectacle  of  responsible  British 
administrators  all  over  the  world  quitting  their  posts  during  a 
great  conflagration  to  engage  in  premature  and  futile  discussions 
would  not  be  favourable  to  the  reputation  of  the  British  race  for 
political  intelligence.  Such  an  exhibition  would  excite  rather 
derision  than  admiration,  and  make  Great  Britain's  allies  wish 
that  their  insular  friends  could  realise  that  the  present  is  a  time 
for  deeds,  not  words. 

Beyond  a  doubt  India,  Canada,  Australia,  South  Africa  and 
New  Zealand  have  established  a  right  to  be  so  consulted  ;  for  all 
these  provinces  of  the  Empire,  Canada  perhaps  excepted,  are 
vitally  interested  in  the  redistribution  of  the  conquered  territories. 
India  may  fairly  claim  as  her  reward  the  reservation  on  her 
behalf  of  the  lower  valley  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and 
perhaps  also  the  region  hitherto  known  as  German  East  Africa, 
as  fields  for  future  colonisation.  The  great  scheme  of  irrigation 
in  the  Far  East  recently  completed  by  the  firm  of  Sir  John 
Jackson,  Ltd.,  will  enable  the  fertile  plains  of  Mesopotamia  to 
sustain  thousands,  perhaps  millions,  of  industrious  emigrants 
from  the  congested  agricultural  areas  of  Hindustan  ;  and  it  were 
good  policy  for  the  British  and  Indian  Governments,  after  the 
termination  of  the  present  war,  to  adopt  the  wise  practice  of  the 
ancient  Boinans  and  modern  Bussians  of  allotting  lands  in  the 
conquered  territories  to  the  veterans  who  had  helped  to  acquire 
hem,  in  reward  for  their  services.  A  chain  of  semi-military, 
semi-agricultural  settlements  along  the  two  great  rivers  whose 
combined  waters  enter  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  would  greatly 
extend  British  influence  in  that  part  of  the  world,  and  at  the 
same  time  strengthen  the  ties  binding  India  to  Great  Britain. 

Since,  too,  the  safety  of  these  and  other  isolated  Indian  colonies 


The  Next  Imperial  Conference  291 

would  depend  on  the  retention  of  the  command  of  the  sea,  an 
additional  bond  of  interest  connecting  India  to  the  rest  of  the 
Empire  would  be  created,  for  the  value  of  the  services  rendered 
to  India  by  the  British  Fleet  would  then  be  more  fully  realised 
by  the  inhabitants  of  that  country.  The  general  principle  that 
the  temperate  portions  of  the  territories  embraced  by  the  Empire 
should  be  reserved  for  colonisation  by  its  white,  and  the  tropical 
portions  by  its  coloured  citizens  might  well  be  accepted ;  and  a 
favourable  opportunity  for  its  introduction  will  be  afforded  by  the 
coming  territorial  re-arrangements.  The  trade  advantages  both 
India  and  Great  Britain  would  derive  from  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  the  region  where  tradition  has  located  the  Garden  of 
Eden  are  too  apparent  to  need  enumeration.  Incidentally,  too, 
a  powerful  Indian  colony  under  British  protection  established  on 
the  western  fringe  of  Persia  would  serve  as  a  powerful  outwork 
of  the  line  of  defences  along  the  western  frontier  of  India, 
enabling  an  attack  to  be  made  on  the  rear  or  flank  of  any  force 
attempting  to  invade  that  country  from  Persia  or  Central  Asia. 
Whether  the  important  region  extending  from  Lake  Tanganyika 
to  the  Indian  Ocean  will  be  wholly  or  partly  annexed  by  Great 
Britain  after  the  war  need  not  now  be  considered.  But  should 
fresh  territory  be  acquired  in  that  quarter  Indians  might  justly 
claim  admittance  to  it  by  the  double  right  of  physical  fitness  and 
loyal  service. 

Let  me  now  pass  to  the  third  and  strongest  argument 
adduced  in  favour  of  an  early  meeting  of  the  Conference.  It 
may  be  conceded  at  once  that,  to  use  the  trite  phrase,  the 
"  psychological  moment  "  of  Imperial  destiny  must  not  be  allowed 
to  pass  neglected.  While  the  generous  warmth  of  a  common 
patriotism  pervades  the  various  communities  throughout  the 
Empire  the  hammer  of  the  statesman  should  be  employed  to 
weld  all  indissolubly  together.  None  save  those  destitute  either 
of  imagination,  patriotism  or  reason  would  favour  the  postpone- 
ment of  the  Conference  until  the  period  of  lassitude  and  ex- 
haustion that  must  follow  the  close  of  the  war  has  commenced. 
Shakespeare,  in  a  passage  too  familiar  to  need  quotation,  has 
warned  us  against  the  neglect  of  opportunity.  And  Dryden's 
lines  convey  an  admonition,  which  should  be  heeded  as  much  by 
the  rulers  of  nations  as  by  individuals  : — 

"  Heaven  has  to  all  allotted,  soon  or  late, 

Some  lucky  revolution  of  their  fate : 

Whose  motions  if  we  watch  and  guide  with  skill 

(For  human  good  depends  on  human  will), 

Our  fortune  rolls  as  from  a  smooth  descent, 

And  from  the  first  impression  takes  the  bent; 

But  if  uuseized  she  glides  away  like  wind, 

And  leaves  repenting  folly  far  behind." 


292  The  Empire  Review 

If  it  could  be  shown  that  Imperial  sentiment  has  now  reached  its 
zenith,  and  must  soon  begin  to  decline,  there  would  be  a  strong, 
almost  compelling,  reason  for  an  early  meeting,  but  if  on  the 
other  hand  the  feelings  of  loyalty  and  patriotism  now  so  actively 
displayed  are  not  evanescent  but  lasting,  prudence  requires  that 
enthusiasm  should,  for  a  space,  yield  to  policy. 

For  my  own  part  I  am  certainly  not  among  those  who  seem 
inclined  to  ascribe  to  people  of  the  British  race  the  emotionalism 
and  fickleness  of  children.  The  average  Briton,  whether  living 
at  home  or  abroad,  is  not  in  the  habit  of  clapping  his  hands  one 
moment  and  shaking  his  fist  the  next.  Stability  of  sentiment 
and  character,  and  the  reticence  that  usually  attends  fixity  of 
purpose,  are  the  dominating  characteristics  of  our  race.  An 
Englishman  carries  neither  his  heart  nor  mind  on  his  sleeve ;  and 
the  statesman  who  thinks  that  British  communities  have  no 
feelings  or  aspirations  save  such  as  find  expression  in  tumultuous 
displays  of  anger  or  approval  makes  a  great  mistake.  If  any 
reminder  of  this  truth  were  required  the  war  has  provided  it.  In 
free  countries,  when  a  great  emergency  arises,  the  people  rule  the 
Government,  not  the  Government  the  people. 

All  Ministers  of  the  Crown  throughout  Greater  Britain  are 
now  obeying  ihe  irresistible  orders  of  the  communities  whose 
affairs  they  administer  in  co-operating  zealously  with  the  Mother 
Country  in  resisting  what  is  unanimously  regarded  as  a  concerted 
attack  on  the  rights  of  all  free  nations.  The  feelings  that  animate 
the  people  of  Australia  and  Canada  in  exercising  such  pressure 
are  not  ephemeral  but  enduring.  They  slumber  in  times  of  peace 
simply  because  there  is  then  no  need  for  their  active  expression  ; 
but  in  days  of  storm  and  danger  they  awake,  and  their  power  is 
irresistible.  To  urge,  then,  that  because  the  war  has  evoked 
enthusiasm  and  unanimity  in  an  unprecedented  degree  throughout 
the  Empire  a  conference  of  its  representatives  should  be  held  at 
once,  no  matter  what  objections  might  be  raised  against  such  a 
gathering  on  the  grounds  of  inexpediency  or  inconvenience,  were 
to  attribute  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Dominions 
levity  and  impulsiveness  rather  than  genuine  patriotism.  Such 
an  argument  is  but  disguised  slander. 

After  the  war  we  shall  be  wiser  than  we  are  now.  Battle 
smoke  will  no  longer  obscure  the  air,  and  the  eye  of  the 
statesman  will  be  able  to  range  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
fields  now  thronged  with  contending  armies.  Meanwhile  the 
peoples  of  the  Dominions  can  rest  satisfied  with  the  assurance 
that  their  wishes  will  be  ascertained  before  the  commence- 
ment of  negotiations  for  peace.  Armed  with  that  knowledge 
the  Imperial  representatives  at  the  momentous  congress  of 
statesmen  that  will  follow  the  cessation  of  hostilities  will  be 


The  Next  Imperial  Conference  293 

able  to  speak,  not  for  forty  millions,  but  for  four  hundred 
millions  of  people.  To  borrow,  with  the  alteration  of  a  single 
word,  the  graphic  expression  of  the  late  Lord  Iddesleigh,  then 
Sir  Stafford  Northcote,  in  the  course  of  the  memorable  debate 
that  preceded  the  Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878,  an  expression 
repeated  later  in  the  same  debate  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  they  will 
"  enter  the  council  chambers  of  Europe  strong  in  the  strength  of 
a  united  Empire." 

After  the  final  settlement  has  been  made — a  settlement,  we 
may  be  sure,  as  satisfactory  to  India  and  the  Dominions  as  to  the 
Mother  Country — the  time  for  the  Conference  will  have  arrived. 
Then  the  spoils,  territorial  and  other,  can  be  apportioned, 
financial  questions  adjusted,  and  joint  action  with  a  view  to 
repairing  the  ravages  of  war  agreed  on.  Above  all,  let  us  hope, 
the  supreme  need  of  establishing  an  Imperial  Council  endowed 
with  powers  of  control  over  the  foreign  policy  and  the  military 
and  naval  forces  of  the  Empire  (and,  one  might  hope,  with  some 
measure  of  fiscal  authority  also),  will  at  last  be  recognised.  For 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  ultimate  result  of  victory  to 
the  conquerors  may  be  either  union  or  disunion. 

History  tells  us  how  the  ancient  Greek  States  successfully 
combined  to  repel  the  Persian  invasion ;  but  after  the  common 
foe  had  been  vanquished  the  victorious  confederacy  dissolved,  and 
within  a  brief  space  its  members  mutually  engaged  in  fratricidal 
and  ruinous  conflicts.  What  calamitous  consequences  imme- 
diately followed  the  overthrow  of  Turkey  by  the  coalition  of  the 
other  Balkan  States  but  a  year  or  two  ago  we  all  know  too  well. 
As  soon  as  the  stag  had  been  pulled  down  the  hounds  flew  at  one 
another's  throats.  With  far  greater  wisdom  Eome  and  the 
kindred  Latin  States  utilised  their  triumph  over  Carthage  to 
unite  and  found  an  enduring  dominion.  The  modern  Russian 
and  German  Empires,  too,  are  the  offspring  of  successful  com- 
binations. Let  the  example  of  Borne  be  followed  by  Great 
Britain  and  her  daughter  States,  not  that  of  Greece.  Then  the 
coming  Conference  will  be  extolled  by  future  annalists  as  one  of 
the  few  meetings  of  its  kind  in  the  world's  history  in  which  the 
work  achieved  by  the  valour  of  the  soldier  was  fitly  crowned  by 
the  wisdom  of  the  statesman. 

F.  A.  W.  GISBORNE. 


294  The  Empire  Review 


ENGLAND— AND  THE  PERSIAN  GULF 

ONE  of  the  most  fascinating  stories  connected  with  the 
upbuilding  of  England's  commerce  overseas  is  that  which  deals 
with  the  advent  of  the  English  trader  in  the  Persian  Gulf  just 
on  three  hundred  years  ago  and  the  establishment  of  his  position 
there,  a  position  to  be  transformed,  after  two  centuries  of  extra- 
ordinary vicissitudes  of  fortune,  from  one  purely  commercial,  to 
one  political  and  commercial  also,  and  which  has  led  to  the 
present  situation  in  Mesopotamia. 

It  has  been  an  axiom  of  British  politics,  of  late  years,  at  any 
rate,  thanks  largely  to  the  indefatigable  efforts  of  Lord  Curzon, 
that  the  British  flag  must  be  supreme  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  that 
the  Persian  Gulf  constituted,  in  a  very  real  sense,  one  of  India's 
frontiers,  and  a  corollary  of  that  had  come  to  be  that  British 
influence  was  predominant  at  Basrah  and  in  the  Shatt-el-Arab, 
so  much  so  that  immediately  on  the  outbreak  of  war  steps  were 
taken  to  protect  our  interests  there,  and  when  later  on  in  October 
it  became  apparent  that  Turkey  had  fallen  a  victim  to  German 
blandishment,  arrangements  were  at  once  made  for  the  despatch 
of  as  strong  a  force  as  possible  in  the  circumstances — having 
regard  to  the  many  other  spheres  in  which  we  were  engaged  in 
war — to  Basrah,  in  order  that  the  port  might  be  occupied  and 
held  and  the  Shatt-el-Arab  kept  open  for  British-Indian  trade. 
And  the  success  attained  by  that  expedition  has  put  the  hall- 
mark on  British  influence  not  only  there,  but  in  Mesopotamia. 

In  by-gone  ages  the  trade  of  the  Persian  Gulf  was  one  of 
the  richest  in  the  world.  When  Babylon,  Nineveh,  Antioch, 
Palmyra,  Carchemis,  Seleucus,  and  other  great  cities  of  Assyrian- 
Semitic  civilisation  were  at  the  height  of  their  power  and  influence, 
the  waters  of  the  Gulf  teemed  with  craft  laden  with  costly 
merchandise  from  every  known  part  of  the  globe.  We  know 
that  the  junks  of  China  were  to  be  seen  there ;  that  in  the  cities 
above-named  the  goods  of  India  found  a  ready  market ;  also  the 
products  of  Equatorial  Africa.  For  a  long,  long  time  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Persian  Gulf  was  in  Arab  hands,  chiefly.  Then 
came  thither  the  Portuguese,  attracted  by  the  tales  of  the  vast 


England — and  the  Persian  Gulf  295 

wealth  of  Ormuz.  And  the  Ormuz  of  those  days  was  wealthy, 
of  that  there  is  no  doubt.  A  barren  little  island  then,  as  it  is 
now,  and  one  of  the  hottest  places  on  earth,  it  was,  as  regards 
cultivation,  as  Purchas  puts  it,  a  place  "which  Nature  hath 
made  barren;  industry  plentiful."  Who  has  not  read  those 
famous  lines  of  Milton  concerning  the  fame  of  the  Ormuz  of 
three  centuries  ago : 

High,  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormuz  or  of  Ind. 

To-day  Ormuz  supports  about  two  hundred  wretched  people, 
who  eke  out  a  scanty  livelihood  by  collecting  salt,  and  on  account 
of  its  insufferable  heat  it  has  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
most  uninhabitable  places  on  the  globe,  and  yet  the  Abbe  Kaynal 
once  said  of  this  same  place,  and  its  people  :  "  The  streets  were 
covered  with  mats,  and  in  some  places  with  carpets,  and  the 
linen  awnings  which  were  suspended  from  the  houses  prevented 
any  inconvenience  from  the  sun.  Indian  cabinets,  inlaid,  with 
gilded  vases,  or  rare  china  filled  with  flowering  shrubs,  adorned 
their  apartments.  Persian  wines,  perfumes,  and  all  the  delicacies 
of  the  table  were  furnished  in  the  greatest  abundance,  and  they 
had  the  music  of  the  East  in  its  highest  perfection."  Again  : 
"  If  all  the  world  were  but  a  ring,  Ormuz  the  diamond  should 
bring,"  sang  Sir  Thomas  Herbert,  who  visited  Ormuz  and 
furnished  posterity  with  a  description  of  it  as  it  was  then. 

Small  wonder,  then,  that  its  fame  excited  the  cupidity  of  the 
great  Albuquerque.  In  the  year  1507,  after  scouring  the  Ked 
Sea,  he  sailed  for  the  Persian  Gulf,  bombarded  Muscat,  treating 
the  inhabitants  with  great  severity,  and,  with  seven  ships, 
appeared  before  Ormuz.  He  allowed  himself  to  be  bought  off — 
with  money  and  the  permission  to  build  a  fort,  but  in  the 
following  year  he  left  the  place,  the  fort  unbuilt.  In  1515  he 
returned,  with  a  fleet  of  twenty-seven  ships,  and  completed  his 
fort.  This  fort  gave  the  Portuguese  the  dominance  of  the  Gulf, 
and  they  caused  much  annoyance  thereafter  to  both  Turkey  and 
Persia.  Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  when,  nearly  a  hundred 
years  later,  England's  connection  with  the  Persian  Gulf 
commenced. 

It  was  brought  about  in  a  curious  manner.  An  English 
trader,  of  the  Levant  Company,  Kichard  Steele  by  name — I 
know  not  whether  he  was,  perchance,  in  any  way  related  to  the 
family  of  honest  Dick  Steele — had  journeyed  to  Aleppo,  to 
recover  a  debt  from  a  merchant  of  that  port.  The  debtor  fled, 
by  way  of  Persia,  to  India,  and  Steele  following  him,  arrived  in 
India,  where  he  interviewed  Crowther,  the  English  Factor  of  the 
Honourable  East  India  Company  at  Surat  and  told  him  of  the 


296  The  Empire  Review 

excellent  chances  existing  for  the  Company  for  trade  with  Persia. 
As  far  back  as  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  Anthony  Jenkinson  had 
gone  with  letters  to  Shah  Tamasp,  in  an  endeavour  to  establish 
trade  between  England  and  Persia,  and  in  the  year  1596  Sir 
Anthony  and  Eobert  Shirley  tried  to  persuade  Shah  Abbas  the 
Great  to  grant  facilities  for  this  purpose,  but  all  had  been  without 
success.  Now,  however,  Steele  and  Crowther  set  out  for  Jask ; 
they  were  well  received  there,  and  Steele  returning  to  England, 
Crowther  went  back  to  Surat,  reported  favourably  on  the 
prospects  of  trade,  and  a  ship  was  speedily  loaded  with  English 
merchandise  and  despatched  to  Jask.  The  hour  was  propitious. 
War  had  broken  out  between  Turkey  and  Persia,  and  Persian 
silks  could  not  be  exported  overland  to  Europe  on  account  of  the 
blockade.  This  was  the  opportunity  of  the  English  East  India 
merchants  :  it  was  seized.  And  thus  this  chance  visit  of  an 
English  merchant  to  Aleppo,  and  his  subsequent  chase  of  an 
absconding  client  to  India,  during  which  chase,  by-the-by,  he 
kept  his  eyes  open  and  noted  trade  possibilities  wherever  he 
journeyed,  led  to  the  establishment  of  English  trade  in  the 
Persian  Gulf  in  the  year  of  grace  1613,  and  it  was  also  the 
beginning  of  the  movement  which  resulted,  eventually,  in 
England  becoming  mistress  of  the  Gulf  waters. 

Four  years  later  we  find  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  jealous 
of  the  increasing  volume  of  English  trade  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
endeavouring  to  compel  the  Shah  to  grant  them  the  monopoly 
of  the  silk  trade  and  permission  to  fortify  the  sea-ports  of  the 
Gulf,  for  the  protection  of  their  shipping  and  factories.  Connock, 
the  East  India  Company's  Agent  at  Ispahan,  protested  at  once, 
and  supported  by  a  fleet  of  the  Company's  ships,  off  Jask,  the 
first  English  vessels  of  war  to  enter  the  waters  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  was  able  to  oppose  it  successfully.  But  the  Portuguese 
were  roused.  Admiral  Buy  Frere  blockaded  Jask,  in  the  absence 
of  the  English  vessels,  and  speedily  it  became  a  case  of  war  to 
the  knife  for  dominance  of  the  Gulf  between  the  English  and  the 
Portuguese.  With  four  ships  only,  Captain  Shilling  heroically 
fought  the  whole  Portuguese  squadron  and  lost  his  life,  but  won 
the  day  for  England,  giving  the  Portuguese  their  first  great 
set-back  in  these  waters. 

And  now  the  Shah  of  Persia  conceived  the  idea  of  getting  rid 
of  the  rapacious  Portuguese — with  the  aid  of  the  English. 
Ormuz  was  still  a  place  of  great  wealth,  and,  practically,  Portu- 
guese entirely.  The  Shah  wished  to  crush  it,  and  the  Honourable 
East  India  Company  agreed,  on  condition  that,  if  successful, 
their  trading  station  at  Gombroom  (now  Bunder  Abbas)  should 
be  exempted  from  paying  Customs,  and  they  should  be  given  a 
share  of  the  duties  imposed  on  their  rivals.  So,  in  the  year  1621, 


England— and  the  Persian  Gulf  297 

an  English  fleet,  combined  with  a  Persian  army  to  shatter  the 
Portuguese  power  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  concentrated  in  the  island 
of  Ormuz,  and  shattered  it.  Much  plunder  in  ships,  money  and 
stores  resulted,  but  most  valuable  of  all  were  the  trading  privileges 
gained,  half  the  Gombroom  Customs,  for  one  thing,  which  caused 
Gombroom  to  become  the  chief  seat  of  English  trade  in  the 
Gulf  and  successfully  established  that  trade  in  those  waters  : 
wise,  indeed,  were  the  terms  asked  by  the  Honourable  East  India 
Company  for  their  participation  in  the  reduction  of  Gombroom. 
But  wise  too,  in  his  generation,  was  Shah  Abbas,  for  he  refused 
to  allow  the  English  to  fortify  Ormuz,  or  any  other  harbour  in 
the  Gulf.  He  had  had  quite  enough  of  an  imperium  in  imperio. 

English  trade  in  the  Persian  Gulf  was  not  destined  to  be 
pursued  at  all  peacefully,  however,  nor  with  any  great  success, 
for  many  years.  Six  years  later,  in  1626,  the  Dutch  began  to 
intrigue  to  supplant  the  English  merchants  in  Persia,  and  four 
years  after  this,  the  Portuguese  conceived  the  idea  of  the  re- 
capture of  Ormuz,  which,  fortunately,  a  naval  engagement  on 
our  part  in  the  Indian  Ocean  frustrated.  Then  came  a  rebellion 
in  Persia  itself,  and  great  loss,  in  which,  it  is  interesting  to  note, 
Russian  merchants  also  suffered.  The  Civil  War  in  England, 
and  the  ascendency  of  the  Puritans,  brought  about  a  very  small 
demand  for  oriental  luxuries,  particularly  for  silks,  and  then  the 
Dutch,  enraged  by  Blake's  successes  over  them  in  Home  waters, 
sought  to  revenge  themselves  on  the  English  traders  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.  An  action  was  fought  in  the  Gulf  in  which  the 
English  vessels  (of  the  East  India  Company)  were  defeated,  and 
English  prestige  fell  rapidly  with  the  Shah  of  Persia  in  conse- 
quence. Luckily  the  news  arrived  in  India  about  this  time  of 
the  total  defeat  of  the  Dutch  off  Portland,  and  this,  communicated 
to  the  Shah,  restored  the  balance  somewhat,  but  for  a  long  time 
the  position  in  regard  to  English  trade  in  the  Gulf  was  precarious 
in  the  extreme. 

Peace  between  England  and  Holland  remedied  matters 
somewhat,  but  during  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
trade  was  practically  abandoned,  a  solitary  factor  being  kept  at 
Bunder  Abbas  to  collect  the  Customs.  Even  this  was  found 
difficult,  and  in  1684,  a  force  having  been  sent  into  the  Gulf  to 
bring  the  Shah  to  terms,  found  itself  confronted  by  a  large  Dutch 
fleet  and  a  body  of  Persian  troops,  and  withdrew.  The  accession 
of  William  of  Orange  to  the  English  Throne  brought  peace  and 
better  times  to  English  trade  in  the  Gulf,  and  little  trouble  of 
any  magnitude  occurred  until  over  seventy  years  later,  when  the 
Comte  D'Estaing,  with  some  French  ships,  flying  Dutch  colours, 
arrived  off  Bunder  Abbas  and  attacked  the  port.  It  capitulated, 
and  this  was  its  end.  A  few  years  later  Bushire  was  selected  as 


298  The  Empire  Review 

the  chief  station  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  it  remained  so 
until  the  close  of  the  Company's  commercial  career. 

But  France  was  crushed  now,  and  England's  naval  power  was 
unchallenged.  In  the  year  1765,  an  English  fleet  was  sent  into 
the  Persian  Gulf  to  chastise  the  Arah  pirates  and  patrol  the 
waters  there  :  and  one,  or  its  influence,  has  remained  there  ever 
since.  From  that  day  to  this,  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  England  has 
been  supreme — and  long  may  she  remain  so. 

EDWAKD  E.  LONG. 

The  Indian  Daily  Telegraph, 
LUCKKOW,  INDIA. 


LOUIS    BOTHA 

THOUGH  once  an  enemy,  yet  now  a  friend 
And  matchless  Leader  of  our  martial  bands, 

Who,  from  a  treach'rous  foe,  dost  now  defend 
The  precious  jewel  of  our  Afric  lands. 

How  noble  art  thou  in  thy  simple  life, 
Friend  of  our  friends  and  foeman  of  our  foes ; 

One  with  us  in  this  world-enwrapping  strife, 
Around  thy  brow  High  Fame  her  laurels  throws. 

'Tis  said  that  good  King  Edward  let  thee  see 

How  ready  ever  is  our  Empire-State 
To  welcome  men,  loyal  and  true,  like  thee, 

And  bury  deep  the  hatchet  of  past  hate. 

Briton  and  Boer,  we  fought  as  brave  men  may; 

Now  the  world  sees  how  mightily  we  smite, 
Banded  together  in  this  fateful  fray, 

For  the  great  cause  of  Liberty  and  Eight. 

We  hail  thee,  then,  we  of  the  Mother-Land; 

And  each  of  our  Dominions  oversea 
Salutes  thee,  who,  across  the  trackless  sand, 

Led  our  South  Africa  to  Victory! 

EOBEY  F.  ELDEIDGE. 


Preparation  for  War  Service  in  Schools         299 


PREPARATION  FOR  WAR  SERVICE  IN 
SCHOOLS 

IT  is  imperative  we  should  equip  the  present  generation  of 
girls  for  work  that  will  be  given  to  them  to  do  in  the  future. 
And  before  this  is  possible  we  must  attempt  to  anticipate  the 
alterations  which  will  be  made  in  professions  for  women. 

Alertness  is  essential  if  there  is  to  be  continuity  either  in 
business  life  or  in  school.  There  is  danger  on  all  sides  of  gaps, 
and  the  responsibility  rests  upon  women  that  there  may  not  now 
be  wanting  a  succession  of  fit  persons  to  serve  in  the  State. 
And  schools  themselves  are  threatened  with  depletion  both  of 
girls  and  of  staff  by  the  natural  restlessness  which  is  tempting 
women  everywhere  to  be  up  and  doing  something.  If  they  feel 
that  education  is  remote  from  ordinary  affairs  of  life,  they  will 
escape,  if  only  to  waste  their  energies  upon  packing  shells  which 
women  of  a  different  type  may  very  likely  do  more  effectively. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  preparing  for  something  which 
at  the  same  time  is  really  needed,  and  which  can  make  the 
utmost  of  their  training  and  intelligence,  they  will  remain. 

Two  kinds  of  equipment  will  be  of  value — training  for  specific 
occupation,  and  education  for  general  efficiency.  There  will  be, 
without  doubt,  increased  demand  for  women  in  the  professions 
of  medicine,  dentistry,  and  of  nursing.  In  horticulture,  whether 
in  nursery  gardens  or  in  private  gardens,  already  they  are  in 
urgent  demand,  so  as  to  ensure  an  increase  in  our  food  supply. 
In  dispensing,  too,  women  are  already  replacing  men  at  home, 
and  some  have  gone  abroad. 

Work  to  which  women  have  hitherto  been  unaccustomed 
will  require  their  services  for  as  long,  at  any  rate,  as  the  essential 
trades  are  subject  to  the  caprice  of  voluntary  enlistment.  Within 
the  last  few  months  it  has  been  clear  that  none  are  safe  from 
being  depopulated.  Hence  an  unlooked-for  demand  has  arisen 
for  trained  women  in  varied  directions — motor  works,  banks,  the 
War  Office,  the  department  of  scientific  analysis,  munition 
factories;  and  they  are  also  wanted  to  make  architectural 
models,  and  are  called  upon  to  keep  archives. 

A  very  much  larger  number  of  women  undoubtedly  will  join 


300  The  Empire  Review 

the  professional  classes  ;  but  changes  in  daily  occupation  will  not 
be  limited  to  these.  The  most  stay-at-home  will  perhaps  be  the 
first  to  realise  that  the  telephone  will  not  compel  the  attendance 
any  longer  of  the  skilled  artisan  and  electrician. 

To  prepare  for  all  this,  the  curriculum  will  have  to  be 
entirely  revised;  it  will  have  to  include  practice,  no  less  than 
theory.  Physics  will  have  to  apply  pupils  to  the  lighting  and 
heating  of  actual  buildings,  to  telephones,  to  electric  bells. 
Botany  must  be  transformed  into  gardening,  or,  at  any  rate, 
into  nature  study.  Drawing  cannot  for  a  while  be  so  much  a 
fine  art  as  an  applied  art,  concerned  with  design,  architectural 
drawing,  house  decorating.  Wood  carving  may  have  to  give  way 
to  carpentering.  Domestic  science  will  have  to  be  at  the  same 
time  an  art ;  needlework  need  not  be  less  good  for  being  concerned 
with  men's  shirts,  button-holing,  patching  and  darning ;  sport 
will  be  revolutionised  in  public  schools,  for  it  will  have  to  include 
the  labour  involved  :  those  who  use  a  field  will  manage  the  turf 
— those  who  ride  will  also  groom  their  horses. 

Many  will  take  to  these  things  kindly — they  will  be  waked 
up — school  will  seem  more  like  real  life.  Others  will  mind  much 
more — they  may  feel  even  disinherited  of  the  dreams  of  youth. 
For  them  perhaps  history  and  literature  may  prove  the  best 
reconcilers.  These  had  better  go  to  the  Greeks  and  discover  the 
aspiration  of  the  people  after  Marathon,  or  to  England  after 
the  Armada  or  Trafalgar ;  or  perhaps  from  the  Federation  of 
Mediaeval  Christendom  they  may  take  courage  to  look  into  the 
future  of  Europe. 

Quite  apart  from  the  curriculum,  a  large  school  has  many 
resources  which  may  be  called  upon  for  the  immediate  service 
of  the  State — scientific  apparatus,  staff,  a  large  body  of  workers 
from  among  its  pupils  past  and  present,  ready  and  organised  for 
specialised  work.  Women  of  ability  need  not  go  outside  their 
own  sphere  to  devote  leisure  to  the  making  of  drugs  in  the  school 
laboratory,  or  of  maps  under  the  direction  of  the  authorities. 
Some  unskilled  and  mechanical  labour  could  fall  upon  schools 
as  well  as  upon  factories  in  the  way  of  the  making  of  respirators, 
sandbags,  and  periscopes. 

A  national  register  which  comprised  only  the  sum  total  of  the 
attainments  of  individual  persons,  and  which  ignored  the  resources 
of  corporations  of  work  which  exist  outside  the  manufacturing 
world  altogether,  might  make  a  very  faulty  computation  of  the 
capacity  and  the  possible  output  of  the  nation  as  a  whole.  The 
larger  schools  might,  even  if  included  in  the  national  economy, 
become  local  centres  of  industrial  and  civil  service. 

LILIAN  M.  FAITHFUL,  Principal. 

LADIES'  COLLEGE,  CHELTENHAM. 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  301 


CANADA'S    PLACE    IN    BRITISH    FICTION 

[Continued.] 

IV. 

NORTHERN  CANADA  has  of  itself  produced  a  novelist  and  poet 
whose  work  has  attracted  widespread  attention  by  reason  of  its 
original  style  and  intense  realism.  Kobert  Service  first  became 
known  while  a  bank  clerk  in  Dawson  City,  Yukon.  "  The 
Canadian  Kipling  "  is  a  worshipper  of  "  The  God  of  things  as  they 
are."  "  I  don't  believe  in  pretty  language  and  verbal  felicities ;  but 
in  getting  close  to  the  primal  facts  of  life,  down  to  the  bed-rock  of 
things,  and  in  touch  with  Nature,  even  if  I  have  to  touch  it  in  the 
raw,"  is  his  creed,  and  in  this  spirit  he  wrote  such  verses  as  '  The 
Land  that  God  Forgot '  and  '  The  Law  of  the  Yukon.'  This  too, 
is  the  spirit  of  '  The  Trail  of  Ninety-eight,'  which  came  out  in 
1911.  It  is  the  story  of  adventure  in  the  days  of  the  Klondyke 
gold  rush.  It  is  youthful,  but  eloquent  and  original. 

What  a  drama  it  was,  and  what  a  stage!  The  Trail  of  '98 — high  courage, 
frenzied  fear,  despotic  greed,  unflinching  sacrifice.  But  over  all,  its  hunger 
and  its  hope,  its  passion  and  its  pain,  triumphed  the  dauntless  spirit  of  the 
Pathfinder— the  Mighty  Pioneer. 

The  Northland  is  made  a  kind  of  Nemesis  that  broods  over 
the  lives  of  the  men  and  women  who  come  under  its  influence. 
There  is  throughout  the  inexorable  doom  of  failure  for  the 
"misfits" — the  chain  of  incident  all  leads  up  to  this;  and 
the  hero,  despite  his  apparent  success,  comes  to  feel  its  force. 

Service  is  at  his  most  eloquent  when  describing  the  rush  of 
the  pioneer  gold-hunters  into  the  Yukon,  and  in  depicting  the 
life  of  the  frenzied  gold-born  town.  Of  this  life  he  gives  a  vivid 
picture : — 

The  spirit  of  the  gold-trail,  how  shall  I  describe  it  ?  It  was  based  on  that 
primal  instinct  of  preservation  that  underlies  our  veneer  of  humanity.  It  was 
rebellion,  anarchy;  it  was  ruthless,  aggressive,  primitive;  it  was  the  man  of 
the  Stone  Age,  in  modern  garb,  waging  his  fierce,  incessant  warfare  with  the 
forces  of  Nature,  spurred  on  by  the  fever  of  the  gold-dust,  goaded  by  the  fear 
of  losing  in  the  race ;  maddened  by  the  difficulties  and  obstacles  of  the  way. 
Men  became  demons  of  cruelty  and  aggression,  ruthlessly  thrusting  aside  and 
trampling  down  the  weaker  ones  who  thwarted  their  progress. 


302  The  Empire  Review 

There  is  an  indescribable  gruesomeness  in  the  scenes  in  which 
the  struggle  with  Nature  is  portrayed.  The  sure  retribution  of 
the  great  North  is  vividly  illustrated  in  the  death  of  The  Worm, 
a  miserable  atom  of  humanity  who  has  left  his  partner  to  be 
eaten  by  their  starving  dogs  while  he  attempts  to  escape  with 
their  wealth  to  Dawson.  Eetribution  comes  when  The  Worm 
discovers  that  he  has  forgotten  the  box  of  matches.  The  five, 
which  he  finds  in  his  pocket  are  soon  reduced  to  one,  and  this 
one  fails  him.  The  unsparing  details  of  his  death  are  full  of 
horror : 

A  thought  came  to  his  mind  that  he  would  straighten  out,  so  that  when 
they  found  him,  he  would  be  in  good  shape  to  fit  in  a  coffin.  He  did  not  want 
them  to  break  his  legs  and  arms.  Yes,  he  would  straighten  out.  He  tried, 
but  he  could  not,  so  he  let  it  go  at  that.  Over  him  the  wilderness  seemed  to 
laugh,  a  laugh  of  scorn,  of  mockery,  of  exquisite  malice.  And  there  in  fifteen 
minutes  the  cold  slew  him.  When  they  found  him,  he  lay  resting  on  his 
elbows  and  gazing  with  blank  eyes  of  horror  at  his  unlit  fire. 

Service's  characters  are  governed  by  the  Nemesis,  rather  than 
by  their  own  peculiarities.  They  act  in  obedience  to  Fate.  On 
our  first  introduction  to  them,  they  are  often  struck  off  in  skilful 
fashion.  "  The  Jamwagon "  is  described  as  "  a  tall,  dissolute 
Englishman,  gaunt,  ragged  and  verminous,  but  with  the  earmarks 
of  a  gentleman.  He  seemed  indifferent  to  everything  but  whisky, 
and  only  anxious  to  hide  himself  from  his  friends."  On  another 
occasion,  the  author  makes  use  of  one  of  his  rather  unique  similes 
to  sketch  the  heroine,  a  beautiful  girl  who  has  been  unwillingly 
drawn  into  the  vortex  of  Yukon  life :  "  She  minded  me  of  a 
delicate  china  cup  that  gets  mixed  in  the  coarse  crockery  of  a 
hash  joint." 

The  novel  is  not  entirely  a  novel  of  action.  There  is 
considerable  attention  paid  to  the  inner  struggles  of  the  hero  and 
the  heroine ;  and  there  is  the  sense,  at  the  close  of  the  book,  that 
the  Yukon  will  reject  not  only  the  physical  misfits  and  failures, 
but  also  the  morally  distorted. 

W.  A.  Fraser  is  another  native  writer  who,  in  '  The  Blood 
Lilies,'  illustrates  another  phase  of  the  varied  life  of  adventure 
which  Canada  has  to  offer  to  the  novelist.  '  Blood  Lilies  '  is  a 
novel  of  Athabaska,  as  that  territory  was  then  called,  and  contains 
as  its  chief  feature  the  life  of  the  Cree  Indians.  The  pioneers  of 
a  new  country  mingle  on  its  pages :  The  Scotch,  the  Irish,  the 
half-breeds  and  the  French.  The  gaiety  is  of  a  more  innocent 
type  than  that  of  '  The  Trail  of  Ninety-Eight.'  The  description 
of  the  wedding  feast  is  light  and  amusing,  with  the  quaint  little 
French  fiddler  tapping  his  foot  to  the  music,  and  calling  out, 
"  Swing  ze  partner !  "  and  "  A  la  main  lef  !  " 

There  is  a  hopelessness  in  the  lives  of  the  Crees  and  half- 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  303 

breeds,  degenerated  with  bad  whisky,  that  suggests  again  the 
brooding  Nemesis  of  the  Northland. 

Scene,  an  effective  asset  of  Canadian  literature,  enters  largely 
into  the  story.  The  prairies  are  described  in  all  the  beauty  of 
their  short  peaceful  summer,  as  well  as  when  they  are  blotted  out 
in  the  grip  of  winter  storms.  One  description  of  the  summer 
prairies  reads : 

Each  night  the  stars,  peeping  forth,  looked  down  upon  a  babe  brother 
flower,  new-born  into  raiment  of  white,  or  gold,  or  purple,  or  egg-blue ;  for 
the  red  men  say  that  Manitou  gave  to  their  beautiful  prairies  a  flower  for  each 
journey  of  the  son  over  its  sky-trail. 

In  contrast  to  this  is  the  picture  of  two  men  in  the  grip  of  one 
of  the  prairie's  powerful  and  treacherous  snow-storms  : 

The  two  giants  were  as  children  in  the  arms  of  the  whirlwind  ;  its  breath 
was  a  drug — it  smothered  their  senses ;  the  driven  snow  was  like  shot ;  it 
lashed  their  eyelids  closed.  They  waded  through  high  billows  that  swept 
them  back  like  a  receding  tide  ;  demoniac  voices  screamed  at  them  from  the 
tortured  pines. 

There  are  many  other  novels  of  adventure,  perhaps  of  equal 
importance  and  as  typically  Canadian  as  the  foregoing,  were  it 
possible  to  point  out  the  features  of  each  which  make  them 
essentially  the  products  of  Canadian  inspiration.  Kex  Beach  lays 
the  scene  of  '  The  Barrier  '  and  '  Pardners  '  close  to  the  Yukon.  In 
'  The  Silver  Horde '  the  salmon-fishing  industry  of  British 
Columbia  forms  the  background.  The  Hudson  Bay  is  described 
in  '  Jules  of  the  Great  Heart '  by  L.  Mott,  and  his  collection  of 
short  stories,  '  The  White  Darkness,'  deals  with  the  North-west. 
B.  E.  0.  Pain's  '  In  a  Canadian  Canoe '  is  concerned  with  personal 
adventure.  Old  Newfoundland  has  attracted  the  pen  of  Theodore 
Eoberts,  the  brother  of  Charles  G.  D.  Koberts,  and  '  The  Harbour 
Master  '  and  other  romantic  tales  have  proved  the  charm  that  lies 
in  this  near  relative  of  Canada.  Stewart  Edward  White  has 
given,  in  '  Conjurer's  House,'  a  lightsome  picture  of  a  Hudson  Bay 
post.  H.  Whitaker  has  chosen  the  North- West  for  his  theme  in 
'  The  Probationer,'  and  A.  H.  Heming  has  added  to  the  novels  of 
the  West  with  '  Spirit  Lake.'  S.  C.  Jones,  in  '  The  Micmac,' 
portrays  the  Nova  Scotian  swamps.  The  legends  of  Saguenay 
have  inspired  W.  H.  H.  Murray's  '  Mamelons  and  Ungava.'  First- 
hand knowledge  of  the  inner  land  of  Labrador  is  found  in 
Dillon  Wallace's  '  Ungava  Bob,'  and  Norman  Duncan  has  followed 
up  the  same  theme  in  'Dr.  Luke  of  the  Labrador'  and  other 
later  but  less  popular  works.  Dr.  Wilfred  Grenfell's  book,  '  The 
Vikings  of  To-day,'  did  much  to  bring  his  noble  work  before  the 
public.  A  French-Canadian  writer  on  Labrador  is  Dr.  Eugene 
Dick,  whose  '  Une  Drame  au  Labrador'  came  out  in  1897. 

The  North- West  Mounted  Police  should  prove  as  fruitful  a 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  175.  2  B 


304  The  Empire  Review 

field  for  the  novelist  as  it  has  already  done  for  the  moving  picture 
writer,  but  very  little  good  work  has  been  done  along  this  line. 
John  Mackie  might  be  mentioned  as  one  who  draws  his  stories 
of  the  North -West  Police  from  his  own  experiences.  His  work 
has  been  well  received  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  and  includes 
*  The  Devil's  Playground '  and  '  Sinners  Twain ;  a  Romance  of 
the  Great  Lone  Land.'  Pioneering  in  the  West  is  also  thrown 
into  the  form  of  fiction  by  John  Maclean,  whose  '  Warden  of  the 
Plains,'  a  story  of  the  North- West  Mounted  Police,  appeared  in 
1896. 

Stories  of  adventure  written  by  women  are  fairly  numerous 
and  consist  chiefly  of  personal  experiences.  Mrs.  Thompson 
Seton,  wife  of  the  writer  of  animal  stories,  has  written '  A  Woman 
Tenderfoot,'  the  resume  of  her  own  experiences  in  the  West. 
Mrs.  Kate  Hayes,  long  connected  with  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Eailway,  has  published  a  number  of  Western  stories,  such  as 
'  Prairie  Potpourri,'  which  was  the  first  book  printed  in  the  North- 
West  Territories.  Mrs.  Margaret  McNaughton  in  '  Overland  to 
Caribou '  has  recalled  her  journey  to  the  British  Columbian  gold- 
fields  as  the  wife  of  a  pioneer. 

Among  the  French-Canadian  writers  of  fiction,  Gerin  Lajoie 
must  not  be  forgotten.  His  '  Jean  Rivard '  is  the  life-story  of  a 
Canadian  pioneer  in  the  wilderness,  and  is  in  itself  a  curious 
contrast  to  M.  Lajoie's  quiet  life  as  assistant  librarian  in  the 
House  of  Parliament.  Still  another  view  of  the  West  through 
French-Canadian  eyes  is  '  Les  Pionniers  de  1'Ouest '  by  Josephe 
Tasse. 

Of  late  years  Canada  has  produced  a  number  of  animal  story 
writers,  who  follow  the  lead  of  Kipling's  'Jungle  Book,'  but 
replace  the  beasts  of  the  jungle  with  native  animals.  W.  A. 
Fraser's  '  Mooswa '  is  characteristic  of  this  type.  His  animals 
converse  after  the  manner  of  those  in  ^Esop's  'Fables,'  and 
someone  has  said  that  Mooswa,  the  moose  hero  of  his  book,  has  a 
"  moral  character  developed  beyond  the  usual  run  of  the  Christians 
who  hunt  in  the  spruce  forests  of  Upper  Athabaska."  Jack 
London  has  made  a  Yukon  wolf-dog  the  hero  of  his  early  novel, 
'The  Call  of  the  Wild,'  and  C.  Hawkes  has  written  up  the 
biography  of  a  grey  wolf  in  'A  Wilderness  Dog.'  Ernest 
Thompson  Seton  has  also  interpreted  animal  life,  like  Fraser,  from 
the  human  standpoint.  In  fact,  few  animal  writers  can  make 
their  stories  a  success  without  introducing  the  human  element  in 
some  form. 

Charles  G.  D.  Roberts  has  set  out  to  depict  a  somewhat  ideal- 
ized type  of  animal  life,  and  glorifies  the  struggle  for  existence 
into  a  kind  of  woodland  tragedy.  An  illustration  of  his  work  along 
these  lines  has  been  already  given.  '  Red  Fox ;  His  Career  in 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  305 

the  Ringwaak  Wilds '  is  his  only  long  novel  of  animal  life,  but  a 
large  number  of  short  stories,  much  more  interesting  for  that 
reason,  have  been  gathered  into  books  bearing  the  titles, '  Haunters 
of  the  Silences,'  '  Kindred  of  the  Wild,'  '  Watchers  of  the  Trails,' 
and  '  Kings  in  Exile.' 

Miss  Marshall  Saunders'  work  illustrates  another  type  of 
animal  stories,  having  the  domestic  pet  for  its  theme,  and  there- 
fore being  not  essentially  Canadian.  Her  well-known  story, 
'  Beautiful  Joe,'  was  written  in  competition  for  a  prize  offered  by 
the  Boston  Humane  Society  for  a  story  of  canine  life  which  would 
be  a  companion  piece  to  Anna  Sewell's  '  Black  Beauty.'  The 
judges,  Edward  Everett  Hale  and  Hezekiah  Butterworth,  awarded 
the  prize  to  Marshall  Saunders  of  Nova  Scotia.  This  was  in 
1889,  and  since  then  she  has  written  a  dozen  or  more  stories 
whose  purpose  is  the  protection  of  dumb  animals.  'Beautiful 
Joe'  has  been  translated  into  several  languages,  and  still  goes  on 
its  mission  of  preaching  kindness  to  other  homely  little  dogs  in 
foreign  lands. 

Novels  dealing  with  the  national  life  of  the  Canadian  people 
have  been  numerous,  and  the  productions  of  recent  years  sound 
a  hopeful  note  that  some  of  the  best  work  of  the  future  will  be 
done  along  these  lines.  The  presence  of  the  French  Canadian 
people,  with  their  superstitions  and  ceremonies,  must  always  add 
a  picturesque  touch  where  they  are  introduced.  Indeed,  when 
considering  Canadian  novels  of  manners  or  national  life,  the 
French  must  take  first  place.  Their  religious  leaders  as  well  as 
adventurers  were  among  the  first  to  visit  Canada,  and  have  left 
interesting  records.  Unfortunately,  most  of  the  stories  and 
romances  which  were  the  products  of  their  experiences  have  been 
lost.  One  of  these  stories,  'The  Pearl  of  Troyes;  or  Early 
Days  of  Ville  Marie,'  was  written  in  1818  by  M.  Bourgeoys,  and 
translated  into  English  and  published  in  1878.  '  St.  Ursula's 
Convent,'  written  in  1824  by  Miss  Julia  Beckwith,  usually  claims 
to  be  the  first  Canadian  novel.  Mary  B.  Sanford's  '  Eomance  of 
a  Jesuit  Mission '  belongs  among  these  stories  in  point  of  time 
and  in  theme. 

The  missionary  writers  of  the  North- West  have  produced 
some  interesting  fiction  dealing  with  national  problems  and  the 
everyday  life  of  certain  sections  of  the  country.  Of  these 
novelists,  Ealph  Connor  (Eev.  C.  W.  Gordon)  of  Winnipeg  is  by 
far  the  most  widely  known.  Mr.  Connor  belongs  to  that  type  of 
"  muscular  Christianity  "  which  in  English  literature  was 
exemplified  by  Eev.  Charles  Kingsley.  He  rides,  drives,  belongs 
to  a  curling  club,  and  is  ever  ready  to  strike  a  blow  for  the  cause 
of  public  decency  or  morals.  It  is  only  characteristic  of  such  a 
leader  that  he  should  be  among  those  who  are  leaving  Canada  to 

2  B  2 


306  The  Empire  Review 

give  their  lives,  if  need  be,  for  the  Motherland  at  the  front.  He 
is  a  passionate  lover  of  nature,  and  fills  his  books  with  beautiful 
backgrounds  of  Western  scenery  and  the  atmosphere  of  the 
Scotch  district  of  Ontario  where  he  was  born.  His  work  is  full 
of  truth  and  earnestness,  which  go  far  to  conceal  any  crudities 
that  exacting  critics  may  find  therein. 

The  scene  of  '  Black  Bock,'  his  first  novel,  is  laid  among  the 
Selkirks.  '  The  Sky  Pilot,'  which  followed  it,  belongs  to  the 
foothills  of  the  Kockies,  where  "  sky  pilots  "  are  at  work  among 
miners.  '  The  Prospector '  opens  in  an  Ontario  college  town,  and 
the  young  Scotch  hero's  football  exploits  recall  the  author's  own 
success  in  the  champion  Eugby  team  of  Western  Ontario.  The 
scene  shifts  later  to  the  far  West  and  the  mining  camps.  '  Glen- 
garry School  Days  '  and  '  The  Man  from  Glengarry  '  are  faithful 
pictures  of  Glengarry  County,  Ontario,  and  show  how  Canada's 
great  lumber  industry  is  carried  on.  *  The  Doctor '  takes  the  reader 
from  the  life  of  the  East  to  medical  work  among  the  cosmopolitan 
population  of  the  Kockies.  '  The  Foreigner '  deals  with  a  problem 
in  modern  Canadian  economics  destined  to  occupy  more  and  more 
attention — the  question  of  immigration  and  the  assimilation  of 
new  citizens,  in  this  case  into  the  life  of  the  prairies  and  towns 
of  Manitoba.  The  realistic  portrayals  of  the  lower  classes  of 
foreigners  are  the  product  of  Mr.  Connor's  missionary  experience. 
*  Corporal  Cameron '  follows  the  author's  favourite  theme  of 
Western  life,  as  does  his  latest  novel  '  The  Patrol  of  the  Sun 
Dance  Trail.'  Connor's  books,  taken  as  a  whole,  give  an  almost 
complete  survey  of  Canadian  life  of  to-day. 

A  recent  novelist,  who  follows  closely  in  the  footsteps  of 
Ralph  Connor,  is  the  Eev.  H.  A.  Cody,  whose  eight  years'  experi- 
ence among  the  Indians  of  the  Great  Slave  Lakes  has  given  him 
material  for  several  novels.  '  The  Frontiersman  '  and  '  The  Long 
Patrol '  keep  close  to  the  subject  of  missionary  life  in  the  North  ; 
'  The  Fourth  Watch  '  is  an  idyllic  portrayal  of  a  veteran  clergy- 
man in  an  obscure  New  Brunswick  settlement. 

Coming  to  subjects  of  wider  interest,  one  finds  in  Mrs. 
Humphry  Ward's  '  Lady  Merton,  Colonist,'  a  novel  which  has 
been  most  successful  in  catching  the  real  spirit  of  modern  Canada. 
This  novel,  published  in  London,  1910,  under  the  title  '  Canadian 
Born,'  is  the  story  of  an  Englishwoman  and  her  young  brother 
who  travel  by  special  car  through  Canada,  hoping  that  the  change 
of  scene  and  air  in  the  Rockies  will  improve  the  boy's  health. 
The  introduction  of  a  Canadian  with  prospects  of  a  successful 
political  career  precipitates  the  action.  The  story  effectively 
illustrates  the  contrast  of  the  Old  World  and  the  New.  The  Old 
World  and  its  ideals  are  exemplified  in  Lady  Merton  and,  more 
especially,  in  Arthur  Delaine,  the  Canadian's  English  rival,  who 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  307 

makes  a  "link  in  the  chain  of  tradition,"  living  in  the  dignity  of 
"  his  Cumberland  House,  his  classical  library,  his  pets,  his  friends, 
his  correspondents,  his  old  servants,  and  all  the  other  items  in  a 
comely  and  dignified  way  of  life."  On  the  other  hand  is  George 
Anderson,  the  Canadian,  representing  the  struggling  ambitious 
New  World.  As  he  tells  Lady  Merton  :— 

Very  few  people  are  always  "  anything  "  in  Canada.  It's  like  the  States. 
One  tries  a  lot  of  things.  Oh,  I  was  trained  as  an  engineer  at  Montreal,  but 
directly  I  had  finished  that  I  went  off  to  Klondyke.  I  made  a  lot  of  money — 
came  back — and  lost  it  all  in  a  milling  business  over  there  on  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods.  My  partner  cheated  me.  Then  I  went  exploring  to  the  North  and 
took  a  Government  job  at  the  same  time — paying  treaty-money  to  the  Indians. 
Then  five  years  ago  I  got  work  for  the  Canadian  Pacific  Eailway.  But  I  shall 
cut  it  before  long.  I've  saved  some  money  again.  I  shall  take  up  land  and 
go  into  politics. 

(To  be  continued.) 


THE    STUDIO    WINDOW 

BENEATH  my  casement  lies  the  river's  curve, 
Wide  waters,  gliding  slowly  night  and  day, 

Past  banks  whose  houses,  chimneys,  streets  and  wharves 
Change  with  the  shades  and  lights  the  livelong  day. 

Across  the  stream  wide  bridges  span  the  flood 
Where  strings  of  barges  lie  beside  the  quays, 

Or  pass  in  endless  files  behind  the  tugs 
That  draw  them  onward  to  the  unknown  seas. 

And  with  its  flow  my  life  and  soul  are  drawn 

As  by  enchantment,  so  that  here  I  stay 
To  look  and  dream  and  watch  the  rainbow  lights, 

The  purple  evening  and  the  golden  day. 

And  far  and  faint  the  hum  of  myriad  life 

Flows  all  about  the  shore  and  bridge  and  stream.  .  .  . 
Floats  up  like  some  old  song  that  laughs  and  sighs 

Through  all  the  maze  of  my  enchanted  dream. 


Up  from  below,  a  new  sound  rends  the  air — 
Fifes,  drums  and  tramping— marching — break  my  dream 

With  one  insistent  call — I  come  !    I  come  ! 
To  live  or  die,  at  last,  on  Life's  great  stream. 

ENID  DAUNCEY. 


308  The  Empire  Review 


GLIMPSES    AT    MALAYA 

THE  interest  now  taken  in  our  possessions  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  is  of  comparatively  recent  growth,  due  to  two  reasons. 
The  rubber  boom  of  five  years  ago,  and  the  Federation  of  the 
Protected  States.  To-day  the  Colony  of  the  Straits  Settlements 
and  its  dependencies  are  regarded  as  of  considerable  importance. 

The  Colony  itself  consists  of  the  islands  of  Singapore  (the 
seat  of  Government)  and  Penang,  Malacca  on  the  mainland, 
situated  towards  the  south  of  the  Straits  which  bear  its  name,  and 
two  or  three  smaller  places,  namely  the  Bindings,  the  Cocos  or 
Keeling  Islands  and  Christmas  Island.  Singapore,  the  capital,  is 
in  a  flourishing  and  progressive  condition.  It  was  founded  by 
Sir  Stamford  Baffles  in  1819  for  objects  adverse  to  Dutch 
monopoly,  being  thus  of  more  recent  date  than  Penang,  which 
fell  under  British  rule  through  the  exertions  of  a  Captain  Light 
in  1786,  being  acquired  by  purchase  from  its  Malay  rulers.  The 
seat  of  Government  was  removed  to  Singapore  as  far  back  as 
1836,  owing  to  its  situation  at  the  extreme  south  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  being  geographically  more  advantageous  and  also  to 
its  rapid  rise  commercially  and  in  point  of  population.  Some 
twenty  years  ago  the  military  force  of  the  Settlement  was  con- 
siderably increased  and  a  military  contribution,  the  burden  of 
which  was  thrown  upon  the  Colony,  was  levied,  an  incident 
which  caused  great  local  dissatisfaction  at  the  time.  The  city  of 
Singapore  is  at  present  strongly  fortified  while  the  other  settle- 
ments are  not  fortified  at  all.  Penang  had  formerly  a  small 
garrison  but  it  is  now  denuded  of  troops. 

Singapore  will  probably  become  the  naval  base  of  the  military 
marine  of  the  Far  East.  The  Tanjong  Pagar  docks,  an  enter- 
prise started  by  a  private  company  in  the  early  days  of  the 
settlement,  was  taken  over  by  the  Imperial  Government  in  1906. 
These  docks  were  from  the  beginning  a  financial  success,  and 
have  been  added  to  and  extended  from  time  to  time.  The 
amount  of  purchase  money  was  settled  by  an  Arbitration  at 
Singapore,  Sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach,  now  Lord  St.  Aldwyn, 
going  out  as  umpire,  and  Lord  Robert  Cecil  and  Mr.  Balfour 


Glimpses  at  Malaya  309 

Browne  being  retained  as  counsel  on  either  side.  The  main 
object  of  this  acquisition  was  for  naval  purposes  and  points  to 
the  intention  of  making  the  docks  the  head- quarters  of  the  China 
squadron.  Hongkong,  the  present  naval  base,  is  nearer  to  China 
than  Singapore,  but  when  India  and  Australia  are  taken  into 
consideration,  Singapore  has  the  advantage. 

Hongkong  is  an  isolated  Colony,  being  an  island  on  the  coast 
of  China,  with  no  other  British  settlement  near.  Singapore,  on 
the  other  hand,  bids  fair  to  become  the  capital  of  a  united 
Malaysia;  for  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Colony  are  the 
Federated  Malay  States,  five  in  number,  Selangor,  Perak,  Negri 
Sembelan,  Sungei  Ujong  and  Pahang. 

These  States  are  nominally  governed  by  their  own  rulers 
under  the  protection  of  the  British  Government,  but  are 
practically  subject  to  our  rule,  the  voice  of  the  Kesident  (acting 
under  home  instructions)  being  all-powerful  in  their  respective 
councils.  They  are  officered  and  policed  by  Englishmen,  and 
there  is  a  Civil  Service  from  which  the  magistrates  and  the 
officials  conducting  the  administration  are  drawn,  for  which  the 
examination  is  the  same  as  that  for  the  Indian  and  Home 
Civil  Services.  The  States  were  federated  in  1896;  a  judicial 
Commissioner  (there  are  now  three)  and  a  legal  adviser  appointed, 
and  the  Courts  opened  to  the  legal  profession  under  conditions 
similar  to  those  of  the  Colony.  Up  to  that  time  lawyers  were 
not  permitted  to  practise  in  the  States  Courts,  and  but  few  of 
their  magistrates,  who  decided  civil  as  well  as  criminal  matters, 
were  members  of  the  English  or  any  other  Bar,  a  condition  of 
affairs  that  told  against  the  introduction  of  European  capital  in 
mining  or  other  mercantile  enterprises.  Now  a  code  of  practice 
on  the  lines  of  the  Indian  Procedure  Act  is  in  force,  and  enact- 
ments are  drawn  up  each  year  by  the  legal  adviser,  adopting 
English  principles  of  law  as  far  as  applicable  to  Chinese  and 
Malay  races  and  to  the  exigencies  of  the  States  themselves.  The 
tendency  to  draft  officers  of  the  Native  States  into  the  Colony 
and  vice  versd  is  a  growing  one.  All  these  steps  are  preparatory 
towards  the  amalgamation  of  the  services,  and  the  probability  is 
that  in  a  few  years  these  States  will  be  entirely  incorporated  and 
form  a  united  Malaysia  with  Singapore  as  its  capital. 

Until  Federation  was  an  accomplished  fact  the  progress  of  the 
Malay  States  was  rather  slow ;  but  since  that  event  their  pros- 
perity has  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Perak  is  well  known 
for  its  mining  industries ;  all  five  for  their  rubber  plantations. 
The  railway  system,  which  formerly  only  existed  on  a  small  scale, 
is  extending  through  the  whole  Peninsula,  and  connects  Singapore 
with  Penang  and  Malacca. 

The  history  of  the  Colony  commences  with  Penang,  the  oldest 


310  The  Empire  Review 

settlement,  which,  after  some  years  of  negotiation  with  Bengal 
and  Kedah,  was  purchased  for  an  annual  payment  to  the  Sultan 
of  the  latter  place.  Affairs  were  managed  by  superintendents  till 
1805,  and  there  was  no  regular  administration  ;  then  it  became  a 
Presidency  Government,  and  remained  so  till  1827,  when  the 
Colony  (Malacca  having  been  ceded  in  1825  by  treaty  with 
Holland  in  that  year)  was  made  an  Indian  dependency,  and 
continued  to  be  subject  to  India  till  1867  ;  it  was  then  transferred 
to  the  Colonial  Office,  and  became  a  Crown  Colony. 

The  sources  of  legislation  are  such  local  Ordinances  as  are  not 
disallowed  by  the  Crown,  certain  Indian  Acts  passed  before  1867, 
which  a  Commission  held  for  that  purpose  decided  to  be  applicable, 
such  Imperial  Acts  as  have  been  held  to  extend  to  it,  all  statutes 
of  a  mercantile  nature,  and,  lastly,  Orders  in  Council.  The 
judicial  officers  administering  these  laws  are  a  Chief  Justice, 
assisted  by  three  Puisne  Judges.  There  are  also  District  Courts 
and  Courts  of  Eequest  for  small  matters,  the  Judges  and  Com- 
missioners being  drawn  from  the  Civil  Service.  In  fact,  the 
whole  legal  system  resembles  that  of  the  mother  country.  The 
Civil  Procedure  Ordinance  closely  resembles  the  Judicature 
Acts,  and  the  Evidence  Ordinance  repeats  the  Indian  Evidence 
Act.  The  Penal  Code  follows  that  of  India,  but  the  Sum- 
mary Jurisdiction  of  the  Magistrates  is  analogous  to  the  law  in 
England. 

According  to  the  last  Census  the  total  population  amounts  to 
about  600,000.  Of  this  number  over  5,000  are  Europeans,  some 
8,000  Eurasian,  Chinese  250,000,  natives  of  the  Archipelago 
60,000,  Tamils  60,000,  and  other  nationalities  about  6,000.  It 
will  therefore  be  seen  that  the  Chinese  numerically  predominate. 
The  Chinese  towkays  are  the  wealthiest  section  of  the  community. 
They  own  mines,  sugar  and  other  estates,  run  lines  of  local 
steamers,  manage  large  businesses — in  fact  they  take  the  lead  in 
almost  every  adventure  and  enterprise,  and  are  invaluable  agents 
for  developing  the  resources  of  the  Colony.  Amongst  them  are 
hosts  of  petty  traders,  who  labour  industriously  till  far  into  the 
night,  their  skill  chiefly  lying  in  shoemaking  and  carpentering. 
There  are  also  some  15,000  or  more  rikisha  pullers,  and  many 
thousands  of  indentured  coolies  in  the  mines  of  Perak  and 
Selangor,  though  these  last  do  not  belong  to  the  Colony. 

The  Governor  is  assisted  by  an  Executive  and  Legislative 
Council,  the  former  consisting  of  eight  of  the  principal  officers  of 
the  Government,  and  the  latter  of  nine  officials  and  seven 
unofficial,  so  that  any  Government  measure  can  be  carried  in 
spite  of  an  unofficial  adverse  vote.  The  dollar,  which  formerly 
varied  with  the  price  of  silver,  was  fixed  in  1906  at  two  shillings 
and  four  pence. 


Glimpses  at  Malaya  311 

The  language  of  the  country  is  Malay,  a  pleasant  and  easy 
tongue.  In  the  Native  States  pure  Malay  is  spoken,  but  at 
Singapore  and  Penang  the  language  is,  owing  to  the  prevalence 
of  the  divers  nationalities,  corrupted.  Although  the  Chinese 
preponderate  so  greatly,  yet  their  tongue  is  rarely  understood 
except  by  themselves,  and  not  always  even  then,  for  the  writer 
has  known  several  Straits-born  Chinese  who  do  not  understand  a 
word  of  their  own  language.  Most  of  the  leading  Chinamen  in 
the  Straits  have  been  born  there.  Their  fathers  or  grandfathers 
have  emigrated  from  China,  often  as  coolies,  and  have  risen  to 
wealth  and  importance  by  their  own  exertions.  The  language  of 
the  Courts  is  English,  interpreters  for  Malay,  Chinese  and  Tamil 
being  provided  by  the  Government.  In  the  outlying  districts,  in 
the  District  Officers'  Courts,  if  all  engaged  in  the  cases  understand 
Malay,  the  trouble  of  interpretation  is  sometimes  spared  and  the 
proceedings  are  conducted  in  that  tongue,  but  in  the  Supreme 
Court  everything  is  translated. 

The  island  of  Singapore  may  be  considered  flat,  though  there 
are  several  small  hills  ;  the  highest,  Bukit  Timah  by  name  (Bukit 
is  the  Malay  for  hill),  being  only  519  feet  above  the  sea  level. 
Penang,  on  the  other  hand,  is  mountainous ;  its  highest  peak  is 
2,724  feet.  It  is  a  beautiful  island,  having  luxurious  vegetation, 
which  covers  the  whole  of  it.  In  Province  Wellesley,  situated  on 
the  mainland  opposite  to  Penang,  there  are  also  mountains,  the 
highest  being  1,787  feet.  In  short,  the  whole  peninsula  is  hilly, 
and  in  the  Federated  States  there  are  several  fine  ranges,  the 
highest  of  which  is  some  8,000  feet. 

Malacca  is  the  most  interesting  of  the  settlements  on  account 
of  its  age  and  history.  It  was  a  thriving  centre  of  trade  as  far 
back  as  1576,  as  we  know  from  Eden's  translation  of  that  date, 
called  Vertomannus.  It  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese  under 
Albuquerque  in  1511  and  held  by  them  till  1641,  when  it  was 
captured  by  the  Dutch.  The  English  took  it  from  the  Dutch  in 
1795  and  held  it  till  1808,  when  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch 
according  to  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Vienna.  England, 
however,  acquired  it  by  treaty  in  1824,  in  exchange  for  Bencoolen 
and  some  other  places.  Its  ancient  trade  has  totally  disappeared, 
being  supplanted  firstly  by  Penang  and  afterwards  by  Singapore, 
and  the  familiar  name  for  it  at  the  present  day  amongst  Europeans 
is  "  sleepy  hollow."  It  possesses,  however,  some  agricultural 
resources.  Its  population  is  a  trifle  over  100,000,  but  there  are 
not  more  than  100  Europeans  in  the  place.  There  are  two  or 
three  Magistrates  and  a  Resident,  and  perhaps  thirty  Justices  of 
the  Peace,  of  whom  several  are  Chinese.  The  old  church  of 
St.  Paul,  with  the  tomb  of  the  second  Bishop  of  Japan  (1598), 
the  old  fort  on  St.  John's  Hill,  and  the  memorial  tablet  of 


312  The  Empire  Review 

St.  Francis  Xavier  with  its  strange  ancient  tombstones,  are  still 
objects  of  interest,  as  well  as  the  Portuguese  church  at  Bungaraya, 
which  is  said  to  be  more  than  300  years  old.  Malacca  lies  towards 
the  mouth  of  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  being  118  miles  from 
Singapore  and  251  from  Penang. 

Province  Wellesley,  already  mentioned  as  an  appendage  of 
Penang,  is  a  strip  of  coast  on  the  mainland,  and  is  incorporated 
with  that  settlement.  It  was  purchased  from  the  Sultan  of 
Kedah  for  $2,000,  in  addition  to  the  $4,000  a  year  annuity  paid 
to  him  for  Penang.  The  reason  for  its  acquisition  was  because 
its  rivers  were  infested  by  pirates,  whose  depredations  extended 
down  the  Straits  and  whom  the  Sultan  was  unable  to  exterminate. 
It  is  some  thirty-five  miles  in  length,  and  beyond  it  lie  the 
Bindings,  which  were  united  to  Penang  in  1889. 

Of  the  Federated  Malay  States,  Selangor  and  Perak  are  the 
most  important.  The  anarchy  and  dissension  amongst  the 
Malays  compelled  the  Sultans  of  those  States  to  ask  for  the 
assistance  of  the  British  Government  to  enable  them  to  establish 
efficient  administration,  with  the  result  that  a  Eesident  was 
appointed  to  Perak  and  Selangor  in  1874,  to  Sun j ei  U Jang  in  the 
following  year,  and  to  Pahang  in  1888.  The  main  duties  of  the 
Eesident  is  to  advise  as  to  the  collection  of  the  revenue  and  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  order.  Since  1874  the  revenue 
of  Perak  has  increased  some  twenty-fold.  Mr.  Birch,  the  first 
Kesident  of  Perak,  was  murdered  while  bathing,  in  1875,  and  it 
became  necessary  to  bring  troops  from  India  to  apprehend  and 
secure  the  murderers  ;  since  this,  Perak  has  been  quiet ;  as  also 
have  the  other  States,  with  the  exception  of  Pahang,  where 
disturbances  took  place  in  1894. 

Up  to  1896  the  States  were  separately  administered,  but  in 
that  year  their  Chiefs  agreed  to  coalesce,  and  the  principal  officer 
to  administer  the  affairs  of  all  the  States  was  called  the  Eesident- 
General,  the  Governor  of  the  Straits  Settlements  continuing  as 
High  Commissioner.  Subject  to  this  authority,  each  State 
continues  to  be  administered  by  its  own  Eesident  as  heretofore, 
and  laws  are  passed  by  each  State  in  its  Council. 

The  population  of  these  Native  States  is  nearly  800,000,  of 
whom  the  Chinese  take  the  first  place,  both  numerically  and 
commercially.  The  tin  mines  and  revenue  farms  mostly  belong 
to  Chinese,  and  they,  more  or  less,  monopolise  the  commerce. 
In  fact,  it  was  the  opening  of  tin  mines  which  first  attracted 
them  to  the  Peninsula.  For  some  time  they  had  not  the  latest 
and  most  improved  modern  appliances,  and  lost  a  good  deal  of 
metal  by  their  primitive  methods  of  working,  but  in  the  last  year 
or  so  all  this  has  been  altered,  and  many  modern  improvements 
have  been  adopted. 


Glimpses  at  Malaya  313 

The  Malays  themselves  come  next  in  number,  but  they  do 
little  or  nothing  industrially.  They  cultivate  in  a  leisurely  sort 
of  way,  collect  the  forest  produce,  and  are  fond  of  any  employ- 
ment touching  horses,  fishing,  or  boating;  but  being  naturally 
lazy,  they  are  of  no  account  as  traders.  The  wealthier  class  of 
Malays,  of  which  there  are  but  few,  are  too  indolent  to  do 
anything. 

Among  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Malaya  may  be  mentioned 
the  Sakai  and  Semangs.  The  former  lead  a  wild  life  amongst  the 
primeval  mountain  jungles,  and  in  consequence  of  the  ill-treat- 
ment which  they  have  in  the  past  suffered  from  the  Malays,  are 
very  shy  of  strangers,  and  carry  a  blow-pipe  which  has  small 
poisoned  darts.  They  are  dangerous  until  they  understand  that 
they  will  not  be  molested.  In  figure  they  are  short  men,  fairer 
than  Malays,  and  strongly  built.  The  Semangs,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  darker,  and  resemble  negroes.  These  last  are  savages, 
having  no  permanent  abodes,  and  live  upon  what  they  can  kill. 
Their  weapons  are  the  blowpipe  and  bow  and  arrow.  Neither  of 
these  races  are  Mohammedans  as  are  the  Malays.  Indeed, 
they  have  no  idea  of  any  Divinity,  merely  believing  in  good  and 
evil  spirits. 

T.  A.  SHEAEWOOD 
(Advocate  and  Solicitor  of  the  Straits  Settlements). 


314  The  Empire  Review 


THE   ROMANCE  OF  THE   LABLACHES 

GENIUS  knows  no  limitations.  Its  manifestations  are  erratic  ; 
they  follow  no  apparent  principle.  Doubtless  the  laws  of 
heredity  could  be  reduced  to  an  exact  science,  were  it  possible,  in 
tracing  the  pedigree  of  any  individual,  to  be  informed,  not  only 
as  to  the  known  characteristics,  but  as  to  the  hidden  potentialities 
of  every  unit  in  the  chain  of  that  individual's  countless  ancestors, 
male  and  female ;  or  could  we  probe  the  secrets  of  that  subtile 
counterplay  of  harmonious,  no  less  than  antagonistic,  attributes 
in  the  diverse  beings,  the  forbears  of  the  said  individual,  inter- 
mingling in  marriage.  But  such  an  investigation  transcends  the 
bounds  of  human  ingenuity. 

Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,  political  and  social  insurgent,  and 
prince  among  imaginative  poets,  was  the  son  of  an  ultra-Tory 
squire,  living  an  almost  Boeotian  life  in  Sussex.  His  mother  was 
a  gentlewoman  of  the  old-world  sort,  homely,  domesticated  and 
conventional.  Shelley's  advent  in  view  of  this  parentage  seems 
phenomenal  enough  ;  but  among  his  remote  ancestors  more  than 
one  gave  his  life  for  a  forlorn  hope.  Similarly  one  would 
scarcely  expect  a  great  singer  and  artist  to  spring  from  an 
ancient  French  family,  whose  members  had  devoted  their  lives 
from  generation  to  generation  to  the  service  of  their  country  in 
the  field,  in  diplomacy  and  in  the  Council  Chamber.  It  is  true 
Luigi  Nicola  Giuseppe  Lablache's  emergence  from  such  a  stock  has 
several  parallels ;  notably  that  of  Mario,  associated  with  Lablache 
in  many  an  operatic  triumph,  by  birth  the  Marquis  of  Candia, 
and  who  forsook  a  military  for  an  operatic  career.  He  preferred, 
as  did  Lablache  and  his  father  before  him,  to  renounce  the  title 
and  insignia  of  nobility  in  entering  upon  an  artistic  career.  In 
the  case  of  Nicola  and  Luigi  Lablache,  father  and  son,  it  may  be 
noted  that  the  renunciation  was  in  the  first  instance  enforced 
upon  them  by  the  Eevolution. 

The  family  of  Lablache,  and  it  was  as  Lablache  simply  that 
its  members  had  for  centuries  signed  their  names,  as  several  old 
documents  before  me  attest,  is  more  properly  and  fully  designated 


The  Romance  of  the  Lablaches  315 

as  Falcoz  de  La  Blache.  Originally  of  the  Dauphine,*  the 
family  had  an  extremely  picturesque  history.  Six  of  its 
members  were  Knights  of  Malta. f  Jean  Falcoz  was  Mistral 
of  Moirans  in  1334.  His  descendant  Jacques  de  Falcoz  La 
Blache  was  Mistral  of  Vourey  in  1446,  and  was  the  father  of 
Nicolas  de  Falcoz,  Seigneur  de  la  Maisonfort  de  La  Blache.  His 
descendant  Alexandre  de  Falcoz  La  Blache  was  Seigneur  de  La 
Blache,  Baron  de  Jarciau  and  Captain  of  Cavalry  in  Cardinal 
Mazarin's  regiment. J  About  the  year  1670  he  obtained  the 
barony  of  Anjou,  which  was  erected  into  a  county  for  him  and 
his  descendants,  male  and  female,  in  1679.  His  wife,  Gabrielle 
de  Levis,  was  the  daughter  of  a  de  La  Baume.  The  chateau  of 
the  family  still  remains,  although  in  a  ruined  condition,  at  Anjou, 
a  village  some  miles  from  Vienne  on  the  Rhone.  I  visited  it  some 
years  since,  and  examined  the  registers  showing  the  births  and 
marriages  of  several  generations  of  the  Lablaches  and  the 
signatures  of  those  noble  dames,  notably  that  of  Louise  de 
Polignac,  first  wife  of  Victor,  2nd  Count  of  Lablache,  with  whom 
the  lords  of  Anjou  intermarried. 

The  son  of  Victor  and  Louise  de  La  Blache,  Alexandre  Laurent, 
married  in  1733  Josephine  Marguerite  Michelle  de  Eoissey,  grand- 
niece  and  sole  heiress  of  the  celebrated  and  extremely  wealthy 
Paris  du  Verney.  Some  time  before  1740  this  Count  was  created 
Marquis  de  la  Blache.  There  were  several  sons  of  this  union,  but 
Alexandre  Joseph  de  Falcoz,  Count  de  La  Blache,  inherited  the 
entire  fortune  of  his  great-great-uncle.  The  lawsuit  which 
Beaumarchais  entered  against  him  is  one  of  the  interesting  lesser 
causes  celebres  of  history.  This  Count,  who  never  assumed,  it 
would  seem,  the  title  of  Marquis,  is  stated  by  Borel  d'Hauterive 
in  his  '  Annuaire  de  la  Noblesse  de  France '  (1882,  p.  151)  to  have 
died  in  the  environs  of  Paris  in  1802.  This,  however,  is 
manifestly  incorrect,  since  his  will  dated  September  21,  1792 — he 
was  undoubtedly  an  emigre — was  proved  in  London  in  1800 
(February  13)  by  his  widow  (nee  Baroness  Charlotte  Marie 
Gaillard  de  Beaumanoir) .  His  daughter,  Jeanne  Marie  Therese  de 
Falcoz  de  La  Blache  (1773-1854),  who  is  not  mentioned  in  her 
father's  will,  married  on  October  10,  1801,  Charles  Louis  Bernard 
de  Cleron,  Comte  d'Haussonville,  peer  of  France.  He  died  in 
1846,  and  the  present  Count  d'Haussonville,  for  a  long  time  the 
accredited  representative  of  the  Orleans  family  in  France,  is  the 
grandson  of  this  union. 

It  will  not  be  possible  to  deal  in  this  article  with  the  various 
Lablaches  or  their  achievements  in  the  army,  who  figure  in  the 

*  '  Nobiliare  du  Dauphin^  '  (Allard). 

t  '  History  of  Malta  '  (Abbe  de  Vertol). 

J  '  Le  Dictionnaire  de  la  Noblesse  '  (Ghenaye  de  Bois). 


316  The  Empire  Review 

pedigree.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Simon,  Count  de  La  Blache,  was 
the  father  of  Nicolas  Lablache,  born  at  Madrid  in  or  about  1766, 
and  grandfather  of  the  famous  basso,  Luigi  Nicola  Giuseppe 
Lablache,  born  at  Naples  in  1795.  Nicolas's  mother  was 
Catherine  de  Bonde.  His  wife,  Maria  Francesca  Bietagh,  was  the 
descendant  of  an  Irish  family  which  followed  James  II.  into  exile, 
settled  at  Naples,  and  served  the  Jacobite  cause  as  officers  under 
the  Dukes  of  Berwick  and  Ormond.  It  is  remarkable  that  while 
Simon  de  La  Blache  lost  his  head  as  a  Royalist  during  the 
Eeign  of  Terror,  his  son  Nicola  and  his  wife  had  strong 
sympathies  with  the  enemies  of  the  King  of  Naples.  Various 
accounts  of  Nicola  Lablache's  implication  in  the  insurrection  of 
1799  are  given  in  Neapolitan  histories.  In  any  case  his  death 
and  that  of  his  widow,  which  appears  to  have  followed  somewhat 
close  on  it,  left  his  young  children  more  or  less  without  protectors. 
They  were  brought  up  by  the  Princess  di  Avellino,  a  lady  about 
the  Court  of  Queen  Caroline.  The  son,  Luigi,  was  the  great 
singer ;  one  daughter,  Celia,  married  the  Marquis  de  Braida,  a 
Spaniard  bearing  a  Neapolitan  title,  and  the  other,  Adelaide, 
became  Abbess  of  a  convent  at  Sessa  (Soeur  Madeleine  Lablache). 
It  is  probable  that  the  Eepublican  sympathies  of  Nicolas  Lablache, 
who  moreover,  according  to  the  compiler  of  an  article  in  the 
'  National  Biography '  and  others,  was  engaged  in  mercantile 
pursuits  at  Marseilles,  account  for  the  fact  that  both  he  and  his 
son  never  cared  to  resume  the  title  of  which  Simon  de  La  Blache 
was  shorn,  together  with  his  estates,  at  the  Kevolution. 

Signer  F.  Florino,  in  his  notice  of  Nicola  Lablache  ("  La 
Scuola  Musicale  di  Napoli  ")  gives  the  following  account  of  this 
matter. 

Two  brothers  Lablache,  who  had  lost  their  father  by  the  guillotine, 
left  Marseilles  in  1794*  and  settled  in  Naples.  They  belonged  to  a  noble  family 
who  could  claim  the  coronet  of  a  count ;  but  since  on  their  arrival  at  Naples 
they  entered  a  commercial  company  trading  with  India,  it  was  believed  by 
some  that  Lablache  was  the  son  of  a  tradesman.!  To  the  elder  of  the  two 
brothers,  Nicola,  who  married  an  Irish  lady,  Francesca  Bietach,  there  was 
born  at  Naples  Luigi  Lablache  in  a  house  on  the  Riviera  di  Chiaia  at  Arco 
Marelli.  It  is  well  known  that  at  the  French  Eevolution  all  titles  of  nobility 
had  been  abolished  in  France.  Nicola  had  not  the  time  to  resume  his  title,  and 
Luigi  Lablache  perhaps  never  did  so  because  he  was  proud  of  having  obtained 
a  great  name  by  his  genius  and  could  better  adorn  his  family  by  his  own  fame. 
Francesca  Lablache,  who  shared  with  her  husband  the  most  exalted  liberal 
ideas,  embroidered  with  her  own  hands  a  large  flag  on  which  was  displayed  the 
Tree  of  Liberty  surmounted  by  the  Phrygian  Cap.  This  flag  was  set  up  before 
the  royal  palace  in  the  square  now  called  Piazza  del  Plebiscito. 

*  This  statement  sis  incorrect ;  although  it  seems  they  had  dealings  with 
Marseilles,  they  came  from  Madrid,  and  Nicolas  was  living  at  Naples  in  his  infancy. 

t  See  also  the  obituary  notice  of  Luigi  Lablache's  death  in  the  Journal  des 
D6bats,  February,  1858,  and  Signer  Errica  Pessina's  pleadings  in  the  Thalberg 
succession  suit  at  Naples,  1898. 


The  Romance  of  the  Lablaches  317 

This  account,  which  Florino  asserts  was  drawn  from  authentic 
statements  supplied  to  him  by  the  great  singer  and  his  eldest 
daughter,  Francesca  Thalberg,  goes  on  to  tell  how,  after  the 
critical  day  of  the  Eevolution,  June  13,  1799,  Lablache  and  his 
wife  Cimarosa  the  composer,  and  Dupont  the  dancer,  were 
hidden  by  friends  in  the  Eoyal  Theatre  of  the  Fondo.  They 
passed  some  days  there  in  ignorance  of  the  state  of  affairs  in 
Naples.  Then  Dupont  endeavoured  to  gain  information  by 
climbing  up  to  a  high  window  and  looking  out  on  to  the  street. 
He  fell  backwards  and  died  on  the  spot.  His  companions  hid 
his  body  for  five  days,  when,  concealment  being  no  longer 
possible,  and  their  scanty  food  supplies  giving  out,  they 
yielded  themselves  to  the  authorities.  Cimarosa  was  condemned 
to  imprisonment  in  the  Castle  Nuovo,  and  Lablache,  as  a 
Frenchman,  to  exile.  This  sentence  was  never  executed, 
however,  as  soon  afterwards  while  sitting  at  a  table  with 
his  family  he  died  of  heart  disease  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-three 
years. 

Other  accounts  give  it  that  on  the  entry  of  Cardinal  Sanfelice 
into  Naples,  Nicolas  was  taken  prisoner  and  confined  in  the 
Castle  of  St.  Elmo ;  that  he  was  shot  and  buried  within  the 
prison  enclosure,  no  stone  marking  his  grave,  and  that  when, 
years  afterwards,  his  son  wished  to  remove  his  body  to  a  more 
fitting  resting-place  and  raise  a  monument  over  it,  the  place  of 
his  interment  could  not  be  discovered.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
the  descendants  of  these  Neapolitan  nobles,  whose  ancestors 
sacrificed  their  lives  for  their  political  principles,  regard  the 
circumstance  as  a  blot  on  their  escutcheons,  and  endeavour  to 
conceal  the  truth.  Thus  the  Duke  of  Cassano's  ancestor  was  a 
martyr  to  the  same  cause  as  that  which,  according  to  the  above 
account,  cost  Nicolas  his  life.  The  great  gate  at  the  back  of 
the  Palace  through  which  he  was  led  to  execution  has  since  then 
been  sealed  up  hermetically,  as  it  was  and  is  looked  upon  as 
outside  the  pale,  in  being  connected  with  a  record  of  the  deepest 
disgrace  to  the  whole  family. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  researches  at  Naples  which  I  caused  to 
be  made,  with  the  invaluable  assistance  of  my  friend,  the  Marquis 
de  Kuvigny  and  Miss  B.  B.  Woodward,  who  spared  no  pains  in 
the  conduct  of  investigations  on  the  spot,  resulted  in  the  discovery 
of  an  entry  in  the  register  of  the  parish  of  SS.  Giuseppe  and 
Cristoforo  of  Naples,  which  sets  forth  that  "  on  the  8th  December, 
1802,  Don  Nicola  Lablache,  husband  of  Francesca  Bietagh.  .  .  . 
having  partaken  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  died  in  the  Communion 
of  S.M.C.  and  was  buried."  The  presumption  is  that  Nicolas, 
being  under  the  ban  of  exile,  found  it  convenient  to  throw  the 
authorities  off  the  scent.  But  the  whole  story  illustrates  the 


818  The  Empire  Review 

difficulty,  even  after  the  lapse  of  no  more  than  a  century,  of 
coming  by  the  exact  truth  as  to  an  uncertified  occurrence  in  the 
history  of  a  family.  Similarly  the  mystery  of  the  last  Comte 
de  La  Blache's  death,  variously  given  as  occurring  in  London  in 
1799  and  1800,  and  in  Paris  in  1802,  and  the  omission  of  all 
mention  of  his  daughter's  name  in  his  will,  seems  impossible  of 
elucidation.  This,  and  many  other  curious  details  in  connection 
with  the  Lablaches,  would  afford  material  for  interesting 
speculation  were  space  elastic. 

For  the  like  reason,  and  because  the  facts  are  matters  of 
common  knowledge,  no  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  sketch, 
in  outline  even,  the  public  and  private  career  of  Luigi  Lablache. 
His  acting  was  no  less  remarkable  than  his  singing.  He 
possessed,  too,  qualities  of  head  and  heart  and  a  distinction  of 
manner  which  made  him,  during  his  day  and  generation,  one  of 
the  most  sought-after  personalities  of  Europe.  No  doubt  the 
fact  that  he  was  a  scion  of  so  illustrious  a  house,  an  open  secret, 
the  fact  itself  being  one  to  which  he  was  indifferent  and  which  he 
never  paraded,  no  less  than  his  witty  tongue  and  charming 
personality,  may  be  held  to  account  for  the  favour  he  enjoyed  at 
all  the  principal  Courts  of  Europe,  notably  those  of  Queen 
Victoria,  Napoleon  III.  and  the  Kussian  Emperor.  For  eighteen 
years  or  so  he  gave  lessons  to  Queen  Victoria,  who  had  a  very 
sincere  regard  for  Signor  Lablache.  He  was  always  a  welcome 
visitor  at  her  Court.  The  Queen  spoke  Italian  well,  and  it  is 
noteworthy,  in  view  of  the  close  association  of  that  musician  with 
Nicolas  Lablache,  that  Cimarosa's  operas  were  great  favourites 
with  Her  Majesty.  Lablache  had  a  hobby,  the  collection  of  rare 
and  curious  snuff  boxes,  some  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
Wallace  Gallery  at  Hertford  House.  He  once  told  the  Queen  that 
he  possessed  365  specimens,  one  for  each  day  of  the  year.  Some 
time  afterwards  the  Queen  remarked  to  her  master  :  "I  have  been 
thinking,  Signor,  that  your  collection  is  incomplete,  you  have  not 
a  snuff  box  for  the  extra  day  in  Leap  Year."  Thereupon  she 
presented  Lablache  with  "  a  tiny  gold  box  of  exquisite  workman- 
ship." The  Queen  commissioned  Winterhalter,  who  painted  so 
many  of  the  great  men  of  his  day,  to  paint  a  portrait  of  her 
favourite  master,  and  after  his  death  she  requested  the  artist  to 
paint  a  replica,  which  she  sent  as  a  present  to  Frederic  Lablache, 
the  singer's  eldest  son. 

Luigi  Lablache  married  at  Naples,  in  1812,  Maria  Therese 
Pinotti,  and  was  the  father,  I  think,  of  ten  children.  The  eldest 
daughter  Therese  married,  after  the  death  of  her  first  husband, 
Bouchot,  the  painter,  Sigismund  Thalberg,  son  of  Prince  Maurice 
of  Dietrichstein  (3rd  son  of  Jean  Baptist  Charles,  Sovereign 
Prince  of  Dietrichstein)  by  his  morganatic  union  with  the  Baroness 


The  Romance  of  the  Lablaches  319 

Wetzlar  de  Plankenstein.  Thalberg,  so  well  known  to  the 
musical  world,  was  born  in  1812  and  died  in  1871.  There  were 
no  children  of  this  union,  but  a  daughter  of  Thalberg's  was 
adopted  by  Madame  Thalberg,  and  oddly  enough  figures  as  her 
child  in  the  pages  of  the  immaculate  Almanach  de  Gotha. 

Of  the  many  romantic  episodes  connected  with  Madame 
Thalberg,  mention  can  only  be  made  of  the  famous  Neapolitan 
lawsuit  which  followed  upon  her  death  in  1895.  She  left  a  large 
fortune,  but  with  the  exception  of  certain  insignificant  bequests 
to  one  or  two  blood  relatives,  the  whole  of  it  was  willed,  under 
exceedingly  dramatic  circumstances,  to  strangers.  The  cause 
pleaded  on  behalf  of  the  disinherited  nephews  and  nieces  occupied 
the  Neapolitan  courts  for  some  years.  Another  daughter  of  the 
great  singer,  who  was  much  about  the  Court  of  the  Empress 
Eugenie,  married  the  Baron  de  Caters,  a  Belgian.  Of  the  sons, 
Henri,  the  third,  married  Emelie  Demeric,  at  one  time  Court 
singer  to  the  Court  of  Russia.  Henri  Lablache,  son  of  this 
union,  survives.  Domenique,  the  second  son,  was  a  Commandant 
in  the  French  Army,  Chef  d'Escadron  d'Artillerie  and  Chevalier  de 
la  Legion  d'honneur.  He  died  in  1913,  aged  87.  Frederic,  the 
eldest,  sang  at  the  Italian  Opera.  He  was  a  well-known  and 
prolific  composer,  and  one  of  the  first  instructors  in  music  living 
in  England  during  the  mid-Victorian  era.  The  late  Queen  com- 
manded him  to  write  a  Processional  March  to  be  used  at  her 
first  Jubilee,  but  the  work  was  arrested  by  his  illness  and  death 
in  1887.  Frederic  Lablache  married  Fanny,  daughter  of  Major 
Wilton  of  Edinburgh,  also  a  singer  and  musician,  known  under 
the  professional  name  of  Fanny  Wyndham.  The  Lablaches 
inhabited  a  house  overlooking  Regent's  Park,  and  this  house  was 
the  rendezvous  of  all  the  great  musicians  and  composers  living  in 
and  coming  to  London  throughout  the  earlier  part  of  the 
Victorian  era.  Rubinstein,  Patti  and  Jenny  Lind  were  frequent 
visitors  ;  a  reception  by  Madame  Lablache  meant  the  gathering 
together  of  some  of  the  most  distinguished  and  interesting  people 
of  the  day.  Moreover  many  notable  foreigners,  exiles  some  of 
them  from  their  native  countries,  were  welcomed  at  Frederic 
Lablache's  table,  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  afterwards  Napoleon 
III.,  the  Prince  of  Syracuse,  and  the  Prince  de  Rohan  being  among 
them. 

Frederic  Lablache's  eldest  child,  Therese,  married  Baron  Hans 
Von  Rokitansky,  the  leading  basso  of  the  State  opera  at  Vienna, 
and  son  of  the  famous  physician  of  that  name.  His  next  child, 
Fanny,  was  the  authoress  of  many  charming  books  for  young 
people,  all  of  which  were  characterised  by  a  rare  and  delicate 
fancy.  His  only  son,  Luigi  Frederic  Lablache,  was  born  in  the 
house  at  Regent's  Park  which  has  been  the  home  of  the  family 
VOL.  XXIX. -No.  175.  2  c 


220  The  Empire  Review 

for  the  best  part  of  a  century,  and  died  there  on  December  18, 
1914,  in  his  65th  year.  Luigi  Lablache  was  destined  for  the 
army  and  spent  some  time  with  a  coach,  but  ill-health  at  that 
period  of  his  life  intervened.  Then,  for  some  years  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  drawing  and  painting,  first  in  London  and 
afterwards  at  Paris  under  Cabanel.  At  one  time  he  had  a  mind 
to  follow  the  career  of  his  father  and  grandfather,  and  with  this 
ambition  in  view  he  asked  his  father  to  try  his  voice.  But  he 
was  sternly  reproved.  "  No,  my  son,"  was  the  characteristic 
answer,  "  abandon  the  idea.  My  career  suffered  from  my  father's 
distinction,  and  you  are  less  able  to  excel  than  I  was." 

A  curious  coincidence,  showing  how  history  repeats  itself,  may 
be  recorded  here.  In  1812,  when  Luigi  Lablache  the  elder  was  a 
student  at  the  Conservatoire  at  Milan,  he  suddenly  became  weary 
of  his  studies  and  ran  away  to  Naples,  where  he  engaged  himself 
to  an  actor-manager,  one  Benevolo,  and  despite  his  youth  achieved 
at  once  a  phenomenal  success  in  such  parts  as  Othello  and  the 
Roman  Emperors.  However  the  Princess  di  Avellino  was  on  his 
track.  "  Six  sbirri  marched  up  to  the  debutant  and  arrested  him 
by  virtue  of  an  order  from  his  Majesty  Joachim  Murat,  who  for 
the  moment  possessed  the  advantage  of  being  King  of  Naples  by 
the  grace  of  his  brother-in-law.  He  was  brought  back  to  the 
Conservatoire  where  he  was  studying  under  the  able  direction  of 
the  celebrated  maestro,  Marcello  Parveno."  Benevolo  was  in 
despair  at  his  departure,  but  to  pacify  him  the  young  Luigi  had 
promised  that  he  should  not  be  the  loser  by  the  misfortune  in  the 
long  run.  It  was  a  long  run,  but  Lablache  had  an  equally  long 
memory.  Some  quarter  of  a  century  later,  when  Benevolo  had 
fallen  on  evil  days,  the  great  basso  sent  him  500  lire  to  come  to 
Paris,  where  on  his  arrival  he  witnessed  the  great  artist's  triumph 
in  Otello,  and  after  the  performance  was  presented  by  him  with 
a  deed  securing  him  a  pension  of  1200  lire  for  life.* 

Luigi  Lablache  the  elder  was  a  man  of  generous  instincts,  and 
it  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  everyone  who  knew  his  grandson, 
Luigi  Frederic  Lablache,  was  made  conscious  at  once  of  the 
spaciousness  of  his  character  and  its  essential  rectitude.  Modest 
and  unassuming,  the  insignia  of  his  birthright  was  upon  him,  and 
made  itself  felt  the  moment  one  came  into  his  presence.  Possessing 
a  rare  sense  of  humour  and  a  large  charity  of  judgment  he  was 
persona  gratissima  wherever  he  found  himself.  Member  of 
several  lodges,  he  was  an  earnest  and  consistent  Freemason  and 
served  as  Worshipful  Master  of  the  Lodge  of  Asaph  and  the 
Drury  Lane  Lodge  and  was  a  member  of  several  other  Lodges. 
Embracing  ultimately  the  stage  as  a  profession,  it  was  not  given 

*  For  a  full  account  of  this  matter  reference  may  be  made  to  Mr.  Sinclair  Dunn's 
'  The  Art  of  Singing.' 


The  Romance  of  the  Lablaches  321 

to  Luigi  Lablache,  owing  to  a  variety  of  circumstances  within  the 
knowledge  of  the  writer,  to  achieve  that  large  measure  of  popular 
success  in  London  which  his  undoubted  abilities  entitled  him  to 
expect.  Nevertheless  everything  he  undertook  was  stamped  with 
distinction.  He  was  recognised  as  an  actor  of  conspicuous 
ability  by  all  judges  of  the  drama,  capable  of  impersonating 
successfully  any  part  with  which  managers  might  entrust  him. 
Nor  did  this  versatility  imply  any  lack  of  personality.  It  meant 
that  he  "  knew  his  business,"  and  was  able  and  ready  to  sink  his 
own  individuality  in  the  part  which  he  chanced  to  be  playing. 

Luigi  Lablache's  first  engagement  was  with  Henry  Neville  at 
the  Garrick  in  the  "  Hunchback,"  and  for  some  years  following 
he  took  leading  parts  in  the  provinces.  Subsequently  he  played 
with  John  Phelps  and  was  engaged  by  Mr.  Charles  Chatterton. 
Then  he  went  on  tour  in  England  and  America  with  Mrs.  Scott 
Siddons,  playing  Shakesperean  parts.  In  later  years  he  was 
much  seen  in  the  United  States  in  association  with  Miss 
Fortescue  and  Miss  Olga  Nethersole;  but  previously  a  long 
engagement  with  Mr.  Wilson  Barrett  must  be  recorded.  In 
London  he  appeared  in  the  "Armada"  at  Drury  Lane,  and  as 
Eichmond  in  Eichard  Mansfield's  production  of  "  Eichard  III." 
He  was  also  seen  in  "  The  Eoyal  Oak."  In  recent  years  the  late 
Luigi  Lablache's  health  was  constantly  uncertain,  but  from  time 
to  time,  in  "  Mice  and  Men,"  in  Bernard  Shaw's  "  The  Devil's 
Disciples,"  in  "  The  Brass  Bottle,"  and  in  "  Strife,"  he  kept  alive 
the  reputation  he  won  in  his  early  youth. 

In  1874  Luigi  Lablache  married  Jane  Clementine,  the  only 
daughter  of  the  late  Clement  Breadon,  who  died  in  her  infancy, 
and  step-daughter  of  the  late  John  Mill,  Judge-Advocate  of 
Bombay,  by  whom  she  was  brought  up.  She,  and  the  two 
daughters  of  the  marriage,  survive  him. 

JAMES  STANLEY  LITTLE. 


2  c  2 


322  The  Empire  Review 


TABLE    SPA  WATER 

A    NEW    BRITISH    INDUSTRY 

MANY  thousands  of  our  fellow  countrymen  make  it  a  rule 
to  spend  a  few  weeks  annually  at  some  well-known  spa  renowned 
for  its  curative  properties,  and  especially  is  this  the  case  with 
persons  suffering  from  gout,  rheumatism,  arthritis,  neuritis, 
sciatica,  nervous  debility  or  exhaustion.  In  several  instances 
complete  cures  result,  in  others  the  cure  is  partial.  Few 
instances  occur  in  which  the  effect  is  not  in  some  way  beneficial. 
In  pre-war  days  the  more  popular,  and,  one  may  perhaps  say,  the 
more  frequented  spas  were  those  of  Germany  and  Austria,  but  it 
is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that,  at  any  rate  for  some  time 
to  come,  these  places  will  remain  deserted  as  far  as  Englishmen 
are  concerned.  That  being  so,  greater  patronage  will  doubtless  be 
bestowed  on  Buxton,  Droitwich,  Bath  and  Harrogate,  to  mention 
the  more  prominent  among  the  inland  health-giving  resorts  of 
this  country. 

For  a  long  time  scientists  were  unable  to  explain  how  it 
happened  that  seemingly  ordinary  spring  water  should  possess 
such  important  medicinal  value,  and  it  was  not  until  after  the 
discovery  of  radium  that  the  secret  was  revealed.  The  investiga- 
tions following  on  that  discovery  made  it  clear  and  beyond  doubt 
that  the  curative  properties  of  these  waters  were  due  to  what  is 
now  commonly  known  as  radium  emanation,  that  is,  to  a  gas 
emanating  or  produced  from  radium,  thus  confirming  the  view 
taken  by  Doctor  Burckhardt-Eble,  as  far  back  as  1835,  that  the 
clinical  results  obtained  at  Gastein  and  other  Continental  spas 
could  not  be  "attributed  to  any  salts  in  solution  since  none 
were  contained,"  but  to  the  presence  of  what  was  then  an 
unknown  gas. 

Two  matters  stand  out  in  connection  with  treatment  by 
radium  emanation,  the  great  increase  it  produces  in  nerve 
strength  and  general  vitality  and  the  considerable  quantity  of 
poisonous  matter  it  expels  from  the  human  body.  For  instance, 
radium  emanation  is  very  serviceable  in  cases  of  sleeplessness 
and  indifferent  digestion,  it  also  clears  the  skin  and  brightens  the 


Table  Spa  Water 

eyes,  acts  as  a  mild  tonic  as  well  as  a  laxative  and  lessens  blood 
pressure  and  cardiac  activity.  It  is  much  in  request  in  dental 
therapy.  Writing  to  the  Austro-Hungarian  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Dentistry  Professor  Trauner  tells  us  : — 

By  this  very  simple  treatment  I  have  got  surprisingly  good  results.  The 
pyorrhoea  and  the  subjective  trouble  either  disappear  altogether  or  linger  with 
diminished  severity  only  in  the  parts  where  there  are  accumulations  of 
tartar.  .  .  .  After  the  careful  removal  of  the  tartar  the  certain  disappearance 
of  the  pyorrhoea  is  secured.  .  .  .  The  pockets  in  the  gums  close  and  the  gum 
adheres  again  to  the  teeth.  All  the  loose  teeth  become  fixed,  even  those  of 
which  the  socket  has  been  damaged  by  the  former  disease. 

But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  effect  of  radium  emanation, 
to  quote  Professor  His,*  is  in  connection  with  its  action  on  uric 
acid.  After  reciting  Garrod's  conclusions,  that  gout  is  charac- 
terised by  a  permanent  presence  of  uric  acid  in  the  blood,  and 
that  it  may  be  diminished  by  a  rigid  diet  but  never  made  to 
disappear  entirely,  the  professor  goes  on  to  say  that  "  under 
the  influence  of  radium  emanation  the  blood  loses  its  uric  acid 
within  a  few  weeks."  Eighteen  cases  were  examined  by  him 
before  and  after  treatment.  In  fifteen,  he  tells  us,  "  the  desired 
result  was  effected  promptly ;  and  in  a  severe  case  of  gout  the 
blood  was  found  to  be  free  from  uric  acid  after  fourteen 
days'  treatment  by  drinking  water  containing  radium."  He 
concludes  what  must  be  regarded  as  a  most  informing  statement 
on  the  subject  of  radium  emanation  by  observing  that  "  in  the 
majority  of  cases  the  radium  treatment  of  gout  is  a  very 
powerful  remedy,  even  if  some  persons  are  refractory  to  the 
treatment." 

Both  Curie  and  Laborde  have  ascertained  the  proportion  of 
radium  emanation  contained  in  the  gases  and  waters  of  a 
number  of  thermal  springs,  and  various  authorities  have  in- 
vestigated the  biological  action  of  mineral  waters  laden  with 
emanation,  recognising  that  these  waters  exert  a  stimulating 
influence  on  the  ferments  of  the  body.  Laborde  remarks,  "  we 
cannot  but  be  struck  by  a  coincidence  that  almost  amounts  to  a 
revelation  when  we  find  that  the  mineral  waters  so  far  found  to 
be  the  most  radio-active  are  those  with  low  mineral  contents," 
an  observation  that  seems  to  justify  the  assumption  that  the 
greater  the  amount  of  radium  emanation  the  more  effective  are 
the  results  obtained. 

My  object,  however,  is  not  to  expatiate  at  any  length  on  the 
healing  properties  of  the  different  waters,  British  or  foreign,  but 
rather  to  find  a  means  of  overcoming  a  difficulty  that,  for  many 
years,  has  presented  itself  to  those  sufferers  from  the  disorders 

*  See  British  Medical  Journal,  February  4,  1911. 


324  The  Empire  Review 

above  mentioned  unable  to  afford  either  the  time  or  the  expense 
necessary  to  take  a  cure  at  one  of  the  fashionable  spas. 

To  transfer  the  water  in  bottle  would  be  easy  enough,  and 
provided  the  water  retained  its  properties  the  difficulty  in 
question  would  at  once  be  overcome,  but  unfortunately  this 
is  not  the  case,  radium  emanation  being  an  unstable  substance, 
a  natural  spa  water  does  not  maintain  its  full  efficiency  in  bottle 
for  more  than  a  few  days.  Consequently  some  other  alternative 
must  be  devised  if  the  end  in  view  is  to  be  achieved.  The  only 
possible  plan  is  to  introduce  the  radium  itself  into  water  irre- 
spective of  its  location  and  thus  to  produce  a  constant  supply 
of  radium  emanation.  Moreover  this  plan  has  the  additional 
advantage  of  enabling  the  strength  of  the  emanation  to  be 
arranged  in  accordance  with  the  patient's  requirements.  Eaonic 
Water,  the  invention  of  William  Browning  and  Co.,  of  4,  Lambeth 
Palace  Koad,  S.E.,  is  manufactured  in  this  way  and  supplied  in 
syphons  so  constructed  that  the  water  is  always  radio-active.  Its 
manufacture  is  supervised  by  a  staff  of  expert  chemists,  and  the 
water  is  carefully  sterilised  by  means  of  the  ultra-violet  rays ; 
the  method  used  is  an  electric  one,  and  the  results  are  in  every 
way  perfect.  The  use  of  light  in  the  sterilisation  of  water  is  a 
natural,  not  an  artificial  process,  one  that  nature  has  carried  on 
for  ages ;  it  is  by  far  the  best  of  all  sterilising  methods,  for  it 
destroys  all  microbes  and  germs  and  thoroughly  purifies  the 
water  without  destroying  its  essential  constituents. 

Eaonic  water  is  generally  regarded  to  be  a  genuine  scientific 
triumph  and  can  scarcely  fail  to  receive  a  warm  welcome  at  the 
hands  of  the  medical  profession.  Moreover,  it  places  within 
the  reach  of  all  a  curative  water  that  for  the  reasons  above 
stated  has  hitherto  been  enjoyed  only  by  a  limited  circle. 

SCIENTIST. 


The  Empire  Library 


THE    EMPIRE    LIBRARY 

ORDEAL    BY    BATTLE* 

THE  writings  of  many  of  the  more  reflective  of  our  publicists 
exhibit  so  conspicuous  a  tendency  to  philosophic  doubt  and 
reservation,  that  it  is  extraordinarily  refreshing  to  encounter  an 
author  whose  convictions  are  expressed  with  confidence,  and 
without  those  perpetual  qualifications  and  dilutions  which  have 
so  frequently  perplexed  and  disconcerted  us  in  other  pages.  Mr. 
Oliver's  book  has  deservedly  received  a  large  amount  of  attention, 
and  the  judgments  passed  upon  it  have  inevitably  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  particular  standpoint  from  which  it  has  been 
viewed,  but  hardly  anyone  will  be  prepared  to  deny  that, 
whatever  may  be  thought  of  his  claim  to  speak  with  authority, 
whatever  verdict  may  be  passed  upon  the  soundness  of  his  logic 
and  the  truth  of  his  conclusions,  the  uncompromising  vigour  of 
his  exposition  is  equalled  only  by  the  entire  sincerity  of  his 
beliefs. 

'  Ordeal  by  Battle  '  owes  its  origin  to  a  kind  of  symposium — 
to  a  series  of  discussions  between  Lord  Roberts  and  a  few 
friends,  who  at  the  end  of  1912  and  the  beginning  of  1913 
occupied  themselves  with  the  consideration  of  various  questions 
which  they  judged  to  have  received  unsatisfactory  treatment  in 
the  public  utterances  of  the  contemporary  political  leaders.  The 
nature  of  these  questions  need  hardly  be  stated  ;  the  warnings 
which  Lord  Koberts  was  continually  uttering,  in  his  closing 
years,  on  the  subject  of  the  defences  of  the  Empire,  are  well 
known  to  everyone.  It  is  evident  that  the  author  intends  his 
work  as  in  some  sort  a  tribute  to  his  great  friend,  the  soldier  who 
as  the  result  of  his  long  military  experience  believed  with  all  the 
intensity  of  his  powerful  intellect  that  universal  service  was  an 
urgent  and  ever-increasing  necessity.  Such  a  tribute  undoubtedly 
it  is.  Yet  on  occasions  one  finds  a  bitterness  of  expression 
entirely  foreign  to  the  hero  of  Kandahar  and  South  Africa. 
This,  however,  in  no  way  alters  the  fact  that  Mr.  Oliver  has 
written  an  exceptionally  interesting  and  able  book. 

*  '  Ordeal  by  Battle.'     By  Frederick  Scott  Oliver.     London :    Macruillan  and 
Co.,  Ltd.    6s.  net. 


326  The  Empire  Review 

At  times  he  is  exceedingly  depressing.  In  a  sense,  of  course, 
he  meant  to  be  so.  But  even  though  the  stern  argument 
of  facts  has  forced  upon  us  the  conviction  that  humanity  in 
general  has  not  advanced  nearly  so  far  as  we  had  complacently 
imagined,  even  though  the  events  of  the  past  year  have  shown  us 
conclusively  that  war  is  in  no  sense  the  anachronism  that  we  had 
hoped  it  had  become,  nevertheless,  many  of  us,  perhaps  even  the 
majority,  still  try  to  hope  that  the  unparalleled  horrors  of  the 
present  world-conflict  may  bring  within  the  sphere  of  ultimate 
possibility  the  permanent  reign  of  universal  peace.  The  most 
confirmed  pessimist  could  not  accuse  Mr.  Oliver  of  a  shadow  of 
optimism  in  that  direction.  He  seems  to  accept  warfare  as  an 
eternal  necessity  for  the  human  race — as  an  inevitably  recurring 
incident  if  not  an  essential  and  inseparable  condition  of  its 
normal  existence. 

It  is  disappointing  to  find  National  Service  urged  solely  on 
grounds  that  must  after  all  be  considered  primarily  as  those  of 
material  expediency.  National  and  imperial  security  is  a  great 
thing,  but  human  progress  is  a  greater,  and  more  stress  might 
have  been  laid  upon  the  duties  of  the  greatest  Empire  that  the 
world  has  known,  and  less  upon  its  interests,  even  though  the 
two  may  often  coincide  in  practice.  Something  also  might  with 
advantage  have  been  urged  as  to  the  moral  and  spiritual  benefit 
to  be  derived  by  the  individual  citizen  of  an  enlightened  nation 
from  the  service  of  the  State.  Mr.  Oliver  intends  above  all 
things  to  be  severely  practical,  and  very  possibly  he  is  right. 
But  his  book  is  deficient  in  psychology. 

In  his  account  of  what  he  judges  to  be  the  real  causes  of  the 
war  Mr.  Oliver  displays  extensive  historical  knowledge  and  a 
sound  sense  of  perspective.  He  rightly  emphasises  the  potent 
influence  that  tradition  or  imagination  may  have  upon  the 
passions  of  a  people,  even  against  the  obvious  dictates  of  ex- 
pediency, especially  when  they  are  subjected  to  unscrupulous 
manipulation,  and  he  points  out  in  an  apt  simile  that  the  fact 
that  one  of  two  vessels  is  at  anchor  does  not  preclude  the 
possibility  of  a  collision.  The  account  of  the  main  incidents 
preceding  the  war  and  of  the  early  course  of  the  war  itself  is  an 
able  piece  of  dramatic  description.  Mr.  Oliver  well  brings  out 
the  overwhelming  rapidity  with  which  events  moved  and  dragged 
the  world  after  them,  and  he  shows  a  useful  sense  of  the  im- 
portance and  significance  of  their  precise  sequence. 

In  considering  the  question  whether  it  is  possible  to  fix  the 
personal  responsibility  for  the  war  upon  any  individual  or  class, 
Mr.  Oliver  exonerates  the  professors,  the  Press,  and  the  people 
of  Germany,  and  is  unwilling  (unlike  most  writers  on  the  war)  to 
fix  the  guilt  definitely  on  the  Kaiser.  He  remarks  : 


The  Empire  Library  327 

It  is  conceivable,  though  very  unlikely,  that  behind  the  scenes  there  was 
some  strong  silent  man  who  worked  the  others  like  puppets  on  a  string  ;  but 
among  those  who  have  made  themselves  known  to  us  in  the  pages  of  White 
Papers  and  the  like,  there  is  none  whose  features  bear  the  least  resemblance 
to  our  conception  of  Antichrist ;  none  who  had  firm  control  of  events,  or  even 
of  himself.  There  is  none  of  whom  it  is  possible  to  say  truly  that  he  achieved 
the  results  at  which  he  aimed. 

The  chapter  on  German  miscalculations  (which  opens  with 
an  admirable  simile  which  is  too  good  to  quote)  deals  with  such 
matters  as  the  German  disappointment  at  the  non-appearance  of 
civil  war  in  Ireland  and  the  deplorable  collapse  of  the  time-table. 
There  are  some  rather  interesting  remarks  on  the  subject  of  the 
devastation  of  Belgium.  Mr.  Oliver  believes  that  this  had  three 
objects  :  to  secure  the  German  communications,  to  hamper  and 
distress  the  retreating  army,  and  most  of  all  to  set  a  ruthless 
object-lesson  before  the  eyes  of  Holland.  As  he  drily  remarks, 
it  seems  a  poor  bargain  to  save  your  communications  if  thereby 
you  lose  the  good  opinion  of  the  whole  world. 

He  discusses  with  much  force  the  topic  of  international  ill- 
will  and  its  causes,  and  the  following  passage  is  worth  quoting : 

Unfortunately  the  nations  of  the  world  never  see  one  another  face  to  face. 
They  carry  on  their  intercourse,  friendly  and  otherwise,  by  high-angle  fire, 
from  hidden-batteries  of  journalistic  howitzers.  Sometimes  the  projectiles 
which  they  exchange  are  charged  with  ideal  hate  which  explodes  and  kills ;  at 
others  with  ideal  love  and  admiration  which  dissolve  in  golden  showers, 
delightful  and  amazing  to  behold.  But  always  the  gunners  are  invisible  to 
each  other,  and  the  ideal  love  and  admiration  are  often  as  far  removed  from 
the  real  merits  of  their  objective  as  the  ideal  hate. 

The  metaphor  is  not  entirely  satisfactory,  but  the  idea  is 
eminently  true. 

One  is  a  little  weary  of  Von  Treitschke  and  Nietsche.  The 
journalists  have  at  last  begun  to  appreciate  the  fact ;  they  do 
not  talk  so  much  of  the  will  to  power,  and  the  Blonde  Beast 
ranges  less  freely  over  the  pages  of  our  daily  paper.  Mr.  Oliver, 
however,  deals  particularly  well  with  these  men  and  their 
writings,  and  with  those  of  Von  Bernhardi.  He  shows  that  on 
the  principles  of  Von  Treitschke  and  Von  Bernhardi  England 
would  have  acted  wisely  and  rightly,  if  believing  the  circum- 
stances to  be  favourable,  she  had  engineered  the  war.  And  he 
shows  that,  nevertheless,  on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  all  this 
philosophy  crumbled  to  the  ground  and  Germany  could  execrate 
Britain  as  a  treacherous  and  immoral  nation. 

Mr.  Oliver  touches  on  the  mobilisation  of  intellect  on  the 
side  of  the  government  in  Germany,  and  has  some  forcible 
remarks  on  German  methods  of  espionage.  Assuming  for  a 
moment  the  role  of  the  Devil's  Advocate,  he  quotes  extensively 
from  a  letter  from  a  German,  the  Freiherr  von  Hexenkiichen, 


328  The  Empire  Review 

setting  forth  his  views  on  such  varied  topics  as  the  German 
Bureaucracy  and  the  British  Press  Bureau,  British  methods  of 
recruiting,  and  German  self-knowledge.  This  letter  is  quite  one 
of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  book. 
£9  The  present  war,  in  the  author's  opinion,  is  for  the  British 
Empire  a  twofold  struggle.  Firstly,  there  is  the  conflict  in 
the  region  of  moral  ideas.  Secondly,  there  is  the  conflict  for 
the  preservation  of  our  institutions ;  democracy  is  now  fighting 
for  its  existence. 

That  Germany  will  not  conquer  us  with  her  arms  we  may  well  feel 
confident.  But  unless  we  conquer  her  with  our  arms — and  this  is  a  much 
longer  step — there  is  a  considerable  danger  that  she  may  yet  conquer  us  with 
her  ideas.  In  that  case  the  world  will  be  thrown  back  several  hundred 
years;  and  the  blame  for  this  disaster,  should  it  occur,  will  be  laid — and 
rightly  laid — at  the  door  of  Democracy,  because  it  vaunted  a  system  which  it 
had  neither  the  fortitude  nor  the  strength  to  uphold. 

The  book  is  before  all  else  a  practical  one.  As  to  its  value 
as  literature,  opinions  will  vary.  The  hardest  thing  that  could 
be  said  is  that  it  is  exceptionally  good  journalism.  It  is  much 
more  than  that.  It  is  a  trite  thing  to  say  of  a  book  that  the 
reader  will  not  wish  to  lay  it  down  until  the  last  page  has  been 
reached.  But  that  is  precisely  the  feeling  one  has  when  reading 
this  book.  Mr.  Oliver  has  an  attractive  style;  there  is  an  in- 
definable freshness  about  his  pages  that  is  an  important  element 
in  their  charm.  Where  he  is  more  dignified,  he  is  less  successful 
than  in  his  lighter  moments.  His  sarcasm  is  at  times  a  little 
heavy,  and  at  times  a  little  cheap.  But  he  has  both  humour  and 
imagination,  and  he  can  certainly  rise.  He  is  a  master  of 
neat  expression,  possesses  power  in  description,  and  employs 
a  nice  discrimination  in  the  choice  of  language.  He  is  a  deft 
swordsman  and  his  rapier  is  sharp.  He  is  able  to  draw  upon 
a  large  store  of  facts  and  he  knows  how  to  use  them  to  the 
best  advantage.  If  some  of  his  judgments  upon  men  seem  unduly 
harsh,  it  is  fair  to  remember  that  from  the  intensity  of  his 
convictions  he  is  necessarily  prejudiced,  and  the  number  of 
writers  who  without  strong  prejudices  produce  anything  of  any 
general  interest  or  advantage  to  humanity  is  exceedingly  small 
and  likely  to  become  constantly  smaller. 

It  is  very  possible  that  Mr.  Oliver  has  done  something  that 
will  bring  national  service  nearer.  It  is  certain  that  if  the  great 
step  is  taken  he  will  have  done  something  that  will  help  the 
more  obtuse  among  his  countrymen  to  understand  why  it  has 
been  necessary  to  take  it.  In  the  meantime,  the  reception  that 
has  been  given  to  his  outspoken  denunciation  of  some  of  our 
most  cherished  institutions  affords  a  signal  proof  that  England 
is  still  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term  a  free  country. 


Oversea  Notes  329 


OVERSEA    NOTES 

CANADA 

ANTICIPATIONS  in  regard  to  the  Canadian  harvest  are  now  regarded 
as  certain  to  be  fully  realised.  An  enormous  increased  acreage  has  been 
sown,  and  reports  foreshadow  a  splendid  crop.  The  press  bulletin 
issued  by  the  Census  and  Statistics  Office  gives  preliminary  estimates 
of  the  area  under  grain.  Wheat  covers  12,896,000  acres,  an  increase 
of  1,662,500  acres  over  the  area  sown  in  1914,  the  largest  acreage 
previously  sown  in  Canada.  The  three  North- West  provinces  have  a 
total  wheat  crop  of  11,659,700  acres,  an  increase  of  25  per  cent,  over 
last  year's  figures.  The  acreage  under  oats  is  11,427,000,  which  is 
13  per  cent,  more  than  the  area  harvested  last  year.  The  area  sown 
to  barley  is  1,518,400  acres,  to  rye  105,440  acres,  peas  189,470  acres, 
mixed  grains  453,000  acres,  hay  and  clover  7,788,400  acres,  alfalfa 
94,480  acres. 

DURING  the  month  of  July  1,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  were  moved 
from  the  Canadian  West  to  Montreal  to  the  order  of  the  New  Zealand 
Government.  This  is  the  second  huge  wheat  supply  purchased  by  the 
Department  of  Trade  and  Commerce  for  the  Dominion  of  New  Zealand 
to  relieve  the  shortage  in  that  country.  The  grain  was  sacked  in 
Montreal  and  loaded  on  shipboard  for  transportation  to  the  Antipodes, 
the  ocean  transportation  being  arranged  by  the  Government  of  New 
Zealand.  During  last  winter  300,000  bushels  of  Canadian  wheat  went 
to  New  Zealand  via  St.  John  and  100,000  via  Vancouver. 

ONTARIO  has  always  been  a  favourite  province  of  the  thrifty  Belgian 
farmer,  and  when  the  war  broke  out,  quite  a  large  number  of  reservists 
came  over  to  take  their  part  in  the  war.  The  course  of  the  fighting 
operations  has  resulted  in  many  Belgian  farmers  being  forced  to  leave 
the  country.  A  party  of  eleven,  all  expert  farmers,  have  settled  in 
Lambton  County,  and  will  establish  sugar  beet  farms. 

THE  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture  has  decided  to  present  a 
silver  medal  to  the  boy  or  girl  in  each  county  who,  in  the  war 
plot  potato  competition,  raises  the  largest  amount  of  potatoes.  The 
medal  under  consideration  bears  the  British  arms  and  the  Canadian 
beaver,  and  will  be  engraved  with  the  name  of  the  winner.  In  addition 
to  these  medals  the  12,000  children  who  have  entered  the  competition 


330  The  Empire  Review 

will  have  an  incentive  in  the  prizes  being  offered  by  the  rural  school  fair 
boards  for  war  potatoes.  From  present  indications  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  should  have  available  at  the  end  of  the  season  something  like 
40,000  bags  of  potatoes  to  sell,  the  proceeds  of  which  will  be  turned  over 
to  the  Patriotic  Fund.  Just  how  the  potatoes  will  be  disposed  of  has  not 
been  decided,  but  the  plan  favoured  at  present  is  to  have  them  collected 
at  central  points  and  sold  direct  to  the  public.  Toronto,  Hamilton, 
London  and  other  large  centres  would  become  the  collecting  and  dis- 
tributing points  for  a  large  portion  of  the  crop. 

THE  Canadian  Department  of  Agriculture  states  that  basing  a  forecast 
upon  the  set  of  blossoms  in  the  various  fruit  districts  of  Canada,  the 
apple  crop  will  be  large  except  in  Southern  and  Western  Ontario.  Large 
orchards  in  Eastern  Ontario  promise  a  heavy  crop  with  the  exception 
possibly  of  "Spies"  and  "  Greenings  "  in  certain  localities.  The  province 
of  Nova  Scotia  will  probably  have  a  record  crop,  and  if  marketing  con- 
ditions are  satisfactory  the  growers  should  have  a  very  successful  season. 
British  Columbia  reports  a  normal  crop,  probably  about  equal  to  that 
harvested  a  year  ago.  It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  many  young 
orchards  are  coming  into  bearing  in  this  province,  and  that  the  total  amount 
of  fruit  produced  will  probably  increase  yearly  for  some  time.  All  reports 
received  from  the  Annapolis  Valley  have  been  very  optimistic.  Growers 
estimate  the  total  crop  at  2,000,000  barrels  and  possibly  a  new  record  will 
be  made. 

THE  New  Brunswick  forests  are  extremely  rich  in  the  variety  of  their 
trees.  There  is  not  much  pine  left  now,  and  the  most  valuable  tree  of 
that  family  is  the  spruce,  but  among  hard  woods  there  is  a  great  wealth  of 
maple,  elm,  oak,  birch,  beech  and  ash.  About  £750,000  worth  of  forest 
exports  comes  from  New  Brunswick  to  the  British  Isles  every  year,  and 
about  £250,000  worth  is  sent  by  the  province  to  other  countries.  In 
addition  to  the  export  trade,  there  is  a  good  local  demand  at  good  prices. 
A  considerable  increase  in  export  is  anticipated  as  a  consequence  of  the 
war,  a  large  continental  demand  being  probable. 

POULTRY  farmers  in  this  country  and  in  Canada  are  very  directly 
interested  in  the  fact  that  in  order  to  conserve  her  supplies  of  food, 
Russia  has  prohibited  the  export  of  poultry,  dead  or  alive.  In  normal 
times  Russia  sends  large  quantities  of  poultry  to  Great  Britain.  So  far 
as  is  known  the  prohibition  only  applies  to  poultry.  Should  it  be  ex- 
tended.to  eggs  the  foreign  supplies  of  these  to  the  British  market  would  be 
curtailed  by  fully  one-third.  There  is  no  reason  why  Canada  should  not 
make  good  the  deficit  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  the  avenue  for 
produce  thus  provided  making  it  easy  for  many  a  man  of  small  capital 
to  make  a  beginning  which  may  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  lead  to 
striking  results. 

OFFICIAL  returns  of  the  lumber  industry  in  British  Columbia  show 
that  in  the  coast  district  52,500,287  feet  of  logs  were  scaled  during  the 
month  of  May,  as  compared  with  a  little  over  45,000,000  in  March  and 
April  and  43,000,000  feet  in  February.  In  the  corresponding  months  of 


Oversea  Notes  331 

last  year  the  scale  averaged  only  about  30,000,000  feet.  In  May  there 
were  received  in  addition  to  the  logs  7,450  cords  of  shingle  bolts  to  be 
turned  into  cedar  shingles,  the  demand  for  which  continues  active.  The 
Dominion  Government  has  placed  an  order  for  1,500,000  feet  of  lumber 
with  the  Canadian  Western  Lumber  Company  for  use  in  construction  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  Railway  terminal  at  Port  Nelson.  The  lumber  industry 
in  British  Columbia  has  been  seriously  interfered  with  by  the  scarcity  of 
shipping  and  the  consequent  high  freights.  There  are,  however,  indica- 
tions of  easier  conditions  and  improved  trade. 

APPLICATIONS  from  men  in  Ontario  skilled  in  iron  and  steel  work, 
machinists  and  fitters  continue  to  roll  in.  Some  150  men  of  London, 
Ontario,  have  applied  to  be  sent  to  England  for  work  in  munition 
factories,  and  many  more  are  expected.  Hamilton,  Toronto  and  other 
cities  have  already  sent  forward  parties  of  munition  workers,  and  are 
arranging  to  send  still  more. 

THE  Department  of  Mines  at  Ottawa  has  had  60  tons  of  bituminous 
sand  from  the  Mackenzie  River  mined  and  put  into  sacks.  This  sand 
is  to  be  tested  in  Edmonton,  and  if  the  results  are  satisfactory  it  will  no 
longer  be  necessary  for  Canada  to  obtain  supplies  from  Venezuela  for  its 
asphalt  pavements,  of  which  the  bituminous  sand  is  a  principal  ingredient. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  first  bituminous  sand  was  found  on  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  was  used  extensively  in 
building  the  walls  of  Babylon,  and  that  the  ingredient  is  still  in  demand. 

THE  excitement  of  the  first  homestead  rush  to  Western  Canada  was 
recalled  recently  when  some  choice  locations  were  available  for  entry  at 
Moose  Jaw.  Over  200  land  seekers  appeared  in  front  of  the  Dominion 
Lands  Office,  and  the  crush  was  so  great  that  the  applicants  had  to  be 
lined  up  and  admitted  in  proper  order.  The  incident  serves  to  show  that 
the  popularity  of  Western  Canada  has  not  diminished,  but  is,  on  the 
contrary,  as  great  as  ever. 

AFTER  a  season's  strenuous  digging  in  the  Red  Deer  River  Canyon 
of  Alberta,  eight  perfect  skeletons  of  extinct  carnivorous  and  herbivorous 
animals  have  been  discovered.  It  has  hitherto  been  almost  impossible 
to  obtain  more  than  parts  of  the  skeleton  of  any  species.  Much  of  the 
material  is  new  to  science.  The  fossils  were  found  in  the  Belly  River, 
and  the  full  reports  on  them  by  scientific  experts  is  being  awaited  with 
interest.  The  discovery  is  a  scientific  event  of  very  considerable 
importance. 

THE  Hudson  Bay  Railway  appropriation  for  1915-16  is  £1,100,000, 
of  which  £400,000  are  for  terminals  and  harbour.  Down  to  March  31st, 
1915,  the  expenditure  on  the  undertaking  was  nearly  three  millions 
sterling.  The  government  has  purchased  for  the  Hudson  Bay  and 
harbour  service  three  cargo  steamers  and  has  also  chartered  two  New- 
foundland sealers.  A  powerful  suction  dredger  with  tug,  a  barge, 
lighters,  scows  and  other  plant  are  engaged  at  Port  Nelson.  Wireless 
communication  has  been  established  for  some  time  between  Nelson  and 


332  The  Empire  Review 

The  Pas.  Work  has  been  proceeding  steadily  and  satisfactorily  though  to 
some  extent  interfered  with  by  the  war.  Schemes  for  the  electrification 
of  the  line  have  been  under  discussion. 

THE  railway  now  completed  through  Southern  British  Columbia 
materially  shortens  the  distance  between  the  coast  cities  and  interior 
points.  The  company,  which  is  a  subsidiary  one  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  started  its  work  in  1910.  The  first  grading  on  the  line  was 
done  on  the  Merritt  end  in  July,  1910.  Penticton,  which  is  situated 
about  midway  between  Vancouver  and  Nelson,  is  destined  to  be  one  of 
the  largest  towns  in  the  Okanagan  Valley.  It  has  a  population  of  about 
3,000,  and,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Okanagan  Lake,  is  a  tourist  resort 
practically  all  the  year.  Midway,  the  terminus  of  the  Crow's  Nest  line 
and  of  the  Kettle  Valley  Railway  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  Kettle 
River,  and  with  the  advent  of  the  railway  its  agricultural  development 
is  going  ahead  rapidly. 

THE  Chinese  Government  suggests  that  the  Canadian  Government 
should  extend  the  time  during  which  a  Chinaman  leaving  the  Dominion 
may  return  to  that  country  without  paying  a  head  tax.  Under  the 
present  regulations  permits  are  now  granted  to  Chinamen  leaving  Canada 
which  hold  good  for  one  year.  If  they  return  after  that  period  has 
elapsed  they  are  called  upon  to  pay  the  full  head  tax  of  £100.  China 
asks  that  the  period  be  extended  to  two  years.  It  is  pointed  out  by  the 
Chinese  authorities  that  there  are  many  Chinese  in  British  Columbia 
who  at  present  are  unemployed  in  consequence  of  the  war.  As  the 
Chinese  look  after  their  own  poor,  these  are  not  a  burden  to  the 
community  at  large.  Sailings  on  the  Pacific  are  disarranged,  and  it  is 
claimed  that  under  present  conditions  the  regulations  should  be  amended. 


NEW   ZEALAND 

NEW  ZEALAND  people  are  taking  the  King's  example  very  seriously. 
In  one  regiment  on  one  day  the  majority  of  the  officers  and  several 
hundreds  of  the  men  took  the  pledge  to  abstain  from  all  intoxicants  until 
the  end  of  the  war. 

A  FINE  example  of  Colonial  patriotism  deserves  to  be  placed  on 
record.  A  young  man  arrived  at  the  Timaru  recruiting  station  to  join 
the  reinforcements  going  out  to  the  Expeditionary  Force.  Having  had 
previous  experience  as  an  artilleryman,  he  left  his  work  on  an  up-country 
station,  and  walked  thirty  miles  to  Pembroke.  Continuing  on  foot,  he 
set  out  for  Timaru,  without  what  New  Zealanders  know  as  a  "swag," 
sleeping  by  the  roadside  and  taking  twelve  days  for  the  journey. 

IN  the  rank  and  file  of  Kitchener's  Army  is  a  New  Zealand  youth 
who  has  managed  to  evade  the  age  limit  and  who  surely  deserves  to  be 
heard  of  in  the  future.  Knowing  himself  a  good  deal  too  young  to  be 
allowed  through  in  New  Zealand  and  with  only  27s.  Gd.  in  his  pocket,  he 


Oversea  Notes  333 

spent  all  but  threepence  of  this  on  journeying  to  Wellington.  Here  he 
was  taken  on  a  steamer  on  which  he  was  able  to  work  his  passage  to 
London,  a  distance  of  14,000  miles,  where  he  was  at  once  accepted,  being 
a  lad  of  exceptionally  fine  physique  with  previous  training  in  a  cadet 
company,  on  presenting  himself  to  the  authorities. 

AN  interesting  war  trophy  sent  over  to  New  Zealand  from  the  Dar- 
danelles is  one  of  the  pontoons  carried  over  the  desert  by  the  Turkish 
soldiers,  and  launched  on  the  Suez  Canal  during  the  enemy's  unsuccessful 
effort  to  cross.  The  Minister  for  Defence  has  decided  that  since  the 
Nelson  (a  South  Island)  company  of  the  Expeditionary  Force  captured 
the  pontoon  it  is  to  be  presented  to  that  town. 

THE  extraordinary  sum  of  £2,420  was  realised  in  Martinborough,  a 
small  town  in  New  Zealand,  by  the  sale  of  a  flag  in  aid  of  the  Belgian 
Relief  Fund.  The  flag  was  presented  by  the  Chairman  of  the  Town 
Board,  and  in  the  usual  manner  was  sold  repeatedly.  There  were  ten 
sales  at  £100  each,  and  the  final  purchaser,  Mr.  W.  J.  Martin  paid  £200 
for  the  flag,  and  then  presented  it  to  the  local  school.  Some  little  time 
ago  it  was  announced  by  a  ladies'  outfitter  in  Gisborne  that  she  intended 
giving  the  whole  of  the  profits  of  her  business  for  twelve  months  to  the 
Fund.  She  has  already  handed  over  £200.  In  all  the  Dominion  has 
provided  well  over  £200,000  for  the  Belgian  Relief  Fund. 

No  greater  curio  will  probably  find  its  way  to  the  front  than  one  on 
its  way  from  the  Dominion,  sent  to  the  Belgian  Relief  Committee  by  a 
Mrs.  Lyell,  of  Nelson.  This  lady,  whose  grandfather  fought  at  Waterloo, 
has  despatched  as  her  contribution  some  old  linen  bearing  the  date  of 
1818  and  made  in  Belgium.  Strange  if,  as  is  possible,  it  again  reaches 
the  country  where  it  was  purchased  nearly  100  years  ago. 

A  LETTER  has  been  received  by  one  of  the  Maori  Members  of  the  New 
Zealand  Parliament  from  a  Maori  tribe  in  the  thermal  district  of  the 
North  Island  concerning  a  unique  gift  that  the  natives  desire  to  offer. 
The  letter  says  that  their  hearts  are  greatly  stirred  at  the  sufferings  of 
the  brave  Belgians,  and  that  they  grieve  sorely  that,  being  without 
money,  they  are  unable  to  subscribe  to  the  funds  their  pakeha  (white) 
friends  have  established.  They  have,  however,  a  fair  potato  crop,  and 
ask  that  they  may  send  as  much  as  can  possibly  be  spared  of  this  for  sale, 
the  proceeds  to  go  to  the  Belgian  Fund.  Every  family  proposes  to 
contribute  its  quota,  and  it  is  expected  that  several  tons  will  be  collected. 
They  state  that  they  feel  this  is  but  a  trifling  gift,  and  offer  it  in  all 
humility,  hoping  that  their  pakeha  friends  will  believe  they  are 
contributing  acording  to  their  small  means. 

THE  stationary  hospital  which  New  Zealand  is  supplying  for  service 
at  the  front  has  now  been  fully  organised.  Though  officially  designated 
a  "  stationary  "  one  it  is  virtually  a  mobile  unit,  taking  the  place  of  the 
old  so-called  "  field  hospitals  "  used  in  previous  campaigns.  It  will  be 
kept  but  one  remove  from  the  firing  line  and  will  consist  of  200  beds. 
The  personnel  comprises  eight  officers  (one  lieutenant-colonel,  two  majors, 


334  The  Empire  Review 

four  captains  or  subalterns,  one  quartermaster),  one  warrant  officer,  eight 
sergeants,  one  bugler,  seventy-six  rank  and  file.  Amongst  the  medical 
officers  is  an  eye,  ear  and  throat  specialist  and  a  dentist. 

THE  telephone  system  is  now  so  extensive  as  to  reach  even  the  back- 
blocks  and  gradually  the  pigeon  service  is  falling  into  disuse.  Only  a 
very  short  time  back  pigeons  were  commonly  used  to  convey  news  of  an 
accident  in  the  bush  or  to  summon  a  doctor  in  cases  of  illness. 

THE  New  Zealanders  appear  to  think  that  their  boys  should  enjoy  as 
much  comfort  as  they  can  provide  before  leaving  the  home  camps  for  the 
Dardanelles.  It  is  mid-winter  in  the  Dominion  just  now,  and  one  of  the 
committees  of  the  Patriotic  Fund  has  collected  money  for  setting  up 
in  camp  enough  hot  water  shower  baths  for  all  the  men. 


SOUTH   AFRICA 

A  CURIOUS  and  valuable  find  was  made  by  a  farmer  at  Constantia, 
near  Cape  Town,  recently.  It  was  decided  to  clear  and  plough  a  portion 
of  the  farm,  and  while  watching  his  men  at  work  the  farmer  noticed, 
among  the  stones  they  were  throwing  aside,  several  solid-looking  bars, 
covered  with  sand,  and  on  scratching  one  it  was  found  to  be  soft  and 
yellow  under  the  crust  of  earth.  An  assay  was  made  and  the  bar  found 
to  be  of  gold.  Sixteen  bars  altogether  were  recovered,  some  of  which 
were  of  pure  gold,  the  others  containing  a  proportion  of  alloy.  The 
value  of  the  gold  is  estimated  at  from  £7,000  to  £8,000,  and  the  mystery 
as  to  how  the  bars  came  to  be  at  the  spot  is  still  unsolved. 

THE  Municipality  of  Pretoria  has  recently  had  under  discussion  the 
question  of  the  erection  of  small  cottages  or  workmen's  dwellings.  The 
burden  of  heavy  rentals  bears  heavily  on  workmen,  and  in  consequence 
certain  areas  of  the  town  are  fast  taking  on  the  nature  of  slums,  A 
committee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  matter  has  reported  favourably, 
and  recommends  that  a  beginning  be  made  by  the  erection  of  twenty- 
four  cottages,  each  consisting  of  two  rooms,  pantry  and  bathroom,  to 
cost  approximately  £350  each  complete.  It  is  proposed  that  these 
cottages  be  let  at  a  rental  of  £3  per  month. 

ACCORDING  to  the  annual  report  of  the  Chief  of  the  Sheep  Division  of 
the  Union  Department  of  Agriculture,  there  were  35,818,000  sheep 
(wooled  and  non-wooled)  in  the  Union  at  the  end  of  1913,  as  against 
35,881,921  the  previous  year.  The  losses  during  the  year  totalled 
1,157,832,  of  which  700,558  were  due  to  drought.  There  were  32,226 
permanent  and  portable  dipping  tanks  in  the  Union,  of  which  2,909  were 
erected  during  the  year  1913.  The  total  expenditure  of  the  Sheep 
Division  for  the  year  amounted  to  £129,044,  of  which  £118,000  was 
expended  on  the  eradication  of  scab. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

AND 

JOURNAL    OF    BRITISH    TRADE 

VOL.  XXIX.       SEPTEMBER  1915.  No.   176. 

SOME   FURTHER  NOTES  ON   NATIONAL 
SERVICE 

THE  controversy  about  National  Service  has  now  entered  a 
very  acute  phase.  Owing  to  the  publication  of  a  manifesto 
signed  by  a  number  of  influential  persons,  which  advocated  the 
adoption  of  compulsory  military  service  during  the  war,  there  has 
been  a  violent  outburst  from  a  certain  section  of  the  Radical 
press,  and  there  is  a  prospect  of  very  strong  Resolutions  against 
"  Conscription "  at  the  forthcoming  Trade  Union  Congress. 
Neither  of  these  things  would  matter  very  much  in  themselves. 
The  newspapers,  which  are  taking  so  violent  a  line,  are  the  same 
newspapers  which,  for  years  past,  have  been  hopelessly  in  the 
wrong  about  the  danger  threatening  this  country  and  our  own 
requirements  for  self-defence.  They  have  steadily  preached 
peace  where  there  was  no  peace ;  have  derided  all  warnings  of 
the  German  menace,  and  have  opposed  and  abused  those  men 
who,  like  Lord  Roberts,  consistently  urged  the  necessity  of 
preparing  against  it. 

The  Trade  Union  Congress  has,  in  respect  of  foreign  policy 
and  armaments,  an  equally  bad,  if  not  a  worse,  record  for  want 
of  foresight  and  unpreparedness.  In  neither  case  is  there  much 
behind  these  fulminations.  As  was  seen  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  papers  like  the  Star,  the  Nation,  and  the  Manchester 
Guardian  are  liable  to  get  hopelessly  out  of  touch,  on  great 
questions  of  national  policy,  with  the  bulk  of  their  readers.  Up 
to  the  very  day  of  the  outbreak  of  war  they  were  denouncing 
England's  participation  in  it ;  yet,  when  the  Government  had 
once  made  up  its  mind,  those  denunciations  counted  for  absolutely 
nothing  at  all.  Neither  are  the  delegates  at  the  Trade  Union 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  176.  2  D 


336  The  Empire  Review 

Congress  really  representative,  on  national  as  distinct  from  purely 
trade  questions,  of  the  great  body  of  Trade  Union  members. 

The  importance  of  these  demonstrations  lies  not  in  themselves 
but  in  their  possible  effect  on  the  mind  of  the  Government.  If 
the  Government,  and  especially  if  Lord  Kitchener,  were  to  come 
forward  and  declare  that  compulsory  service  for  the  period  of  the 
war  was  necessary  in  order  to  win  it,  such  opposition  as  might 
still  be  raised  would  be  easily  swept  away.  But  if,  as  from  all 
appearances  seems  to  be  the  case,  the  members  of  the  Cabinet 
are  divided  in  opinion  on  the  question,  and  many  of  them  perhaps 
wavering,  then  these  demonstrations  may  perhaps  turn  the  scale 
in  favour  of  further  delay.  And  delay  may  be  fatal  to  the 
successful  conduct  of  the  war. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  necessary  that  all  those  who 
hold  that  the  adoption  of  the  principle  of  National  Service  is 
essential  to  success,  should  speak  with  no  uncertain  voice.  And 
it  is  important,  in  the  first  instance,  to  make  it  clear  how  it  has 
happened  that  this  subject  has  so  suddenly  come  to  the  front. 
It  is  not  due  to  any  action  on  the  part  of  those  who,  even  before 
the  war,  were  advocates  of  National  Service.  The  "  National 
Service  League"  in  particular  has  not  only  not  taken  the 
initiative  in  the  matter,  but  has  actually,  during  the  whole 
first  year  of  the  war,  urged  its  members  to  abstain  from  their 
former  propaganda  in  favour  of  the  particular  system  of  national 
defence  always  advocated  by  the  League.  Such  quiescence  may 
have  been  right  or  wrong.  But  at  any  rate  it  was  based  on  the 
sound  idea  that,  if  the  nation  was  to  be  converted  to  the  principle 
of  personal  service,  it  would  be  the  experience  of  the  war  itself 
and  not  any  preaching  of  abstract  doctrines,  that  must  bring 
about  this  result.  And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  from  those  who 
have  come  fresh  from  the  actual  field  of  battle,  or  who  have 
been  engaged  in 'the  practical  work  of  recruiting  in  this  country, 
that  the  impulse  to  the  new  movement  has  come. 

And  the  movement  itself  is  something  quite  distinct  from  the 
old  programme  of  the  National  Service  League.  The  object  of 
that  body  was  to  urge  the  principle  of  personal  service — the 
military  training  of  every  able-bodied  man — as  the  basis  of  a 
permanent  system  of  national  defence.  The  present  demand  is 
for  the  introduction  of  compulsory  service  for  the  duration  of  the 
war  and  as  the  only  means  of  winning  the  war,  and  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  question  of  the  permanent  system  to  be  adopted 
when  the  war  is  over.  It  is  natural  that  those  who  have  always 
believed  in  National  Service  should  support  that  demand,  but  the 
point  of  importance  is  that  the  demand  has  not  originated  with 
them  but  with  others,  who,  before  the  experience  of  the  war 
had  taught  them  differently,  were  not  supporters  of  National 


Some  Further  Notes  on  National  Service       337 

Service,  and  who,  for  all  that  I  know,  may  not  be  advocates  of  it 
as  a  permanent  system  even  now. 

The  question  of  the  abstract  merits  of  the  "voluntary 
system  "  as  opposed  to  the  principle  of  universal  military  service, 
which  prevails  in  Continental  countries,  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  present  case.  Men  may  take  different  views  about  the  most 
desirable  military  system— our  system  or  the  German  system  or 
the  Swiss  system — and  yet  agree  upon  the  best  course  to  pursue 
as  a  matter  of  immediate  necessity  in  view  of  the  problem  with 
which  we  are  at  this  moment  faced.  It  is  impossible  for  anyone 
to  have  right  vision  on  this  subject  unless  he  can  clear  his  mind 
absolutely  of  these  old  controversies  no  less  than  of  all  party 
prejudice,  and  concentrate  it  entirely  upon  the  instant  problem — 
how  we  are  to  insure  victory  in  this  war.  In  that  great  struggle 
it  becomes  increasingly  evident  that  this  country  has  hence- 
forward to  bear  the  heaviest  burden,  and  that  she  needs  every 
ounce  of  her  strength  to  carry  it.  The  power  of  Eussia  is  for 
the  time  being  broken,  and  France  has  all  along  strained  every 
nerve.  We  alone  have  large  unused  reserves  of  men,  and  the 
only  question,  is  shall  we  employ  the  power  of  the  State  to  call 
them  up  ?  To  the  practical  mind,  unclouded  by  old  controversies 
and  party  cries  and  shibboleths,  there  seems  to  be  only  one 
answer. 

Where  that  answer  is  not  given  it  is  due  either  to  ignorance 
— to  inability  to  grasp  the  actual  facts  of  the  situation  (for  which 
the  Government  policy  of  secrecy  and  the  Press  policy  of  mis- 
leading optimism  are  mainly  responsible)— or  to  the  effect  of  one 
or  other  of  the  red  herrings  which  are  so  ingeniously  drawn 
across  the  trail.  One  of  the  commonest  of  these  is  the  remark 
that,  even  if  universal  and  equal  obligation  be  the  riejit  basis  of 
recruiting,  it  is  now  too  late  to  adopt  it.  Too  late  |^The  appeals 
for  fresh  recruits  are  getting  more  and  more  franti^  'ILe  means 
adopted  to  put  the  screw  on  those  who  still  hang  back  less  and 
less  scrupulous.  The  recruiters  in  their  desperation  are  getting 
more  and  more  reckless  whom  they  take,  so  that  the  number  of 
obviously  unfit  people  who  are  enlisted  and  at  considerable 
expense  trained,  armed,  equipped  and  sent  abroad  only  to  be 
sent  back  again,  is  increasing.  Since  recruiting  must  perforce 
go  on  at  full  speed,  can  it  ever  be  too  late  to  have  a  rational 
system,  based  on  equality  of  obligation,  instead  of  the  present 
haphazard  one  ?  That  haphazard  system  is  not  only  inefficient 
and  inequitable,  it  is  fearfully  wasteful.  Owing  to  the  undue 
proportion  of  married  men  drawn  to  the  colours,  we  are  paying 
forty  millions  a  year  in  separation  allowances  alone.  What  we 
have  had  to  pay  for  training,  arming,  equipping,  and  sending  out 
to  the  Front  men  who  had  to  be  sent  back  again,  either  because 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  176.  2  E 


338  The  Empire  Review 

they  were  physically  unfit  or  because  they  were  indispensable  at 
home  for  industries  directly  necessary  to  the  conduct  of  the  war, 
can  never  be  known.  It  is  certainly  a  matter  of  further  millic 

But  when  the  frightful  wastefulness  of  our  present  systei 
pointed  out — as  it  was  recently  by  Colonel  Arthur  Lee,  coming 
fresh  from  the  Front,  in  his  admirable  speech  to  his  constituents 
— the  reasonable  appeal  for  economy  is  at  once  twisted  from  its 
true  meaning,  and  the  advocates  of  National  Service  are  repre- 
sented as  wishing  to  raise  "  penal  battalions  "  at  \d.  per  day ! 
As  a  matter  of  fact  no  one  that  I  know  of  has  suggested  that 
recruits  raised  under  a  compulsory  system  should  be  differently 
treated  from  those  raised  under  the  voluntary  system.  It  is  not 
another  army  that  is  wanted.  In  fact  we  have  too  many  armies 
already.  It  would  probably  be  better  to  merge  them  into  one. 
Not  another  army,  but  the  enlargement  of  the  numbers  of  one 
army,  and  a  steady  flow  of  new  men  to  replace  casualties.  What 
justification  there  is  for  making  "  conscription  "  a  penal  measure 
I  cannot  imagine.  It  is  part  and  parcel  of  the  root  fallacy  of 
regarding  National  Service  as  primarily  a  measure  of  compulsion. 
That  is  not  the  true  view  of  it  at  all.  It  is  not  the  view  of 
it  which  prevails,  I  will  not  say  in  Germany,  but  in  democratic 
France  or  democratic  Switzerland.  The  duty  of  every  man  to 
serve  his  country  as  a  soldier  is  no  doubt  enforceable  by  law  in 
those  countries,  but  it  is  none  the  less  regarded  as  a  privilege  and 
an  honour  to  fulfil  it.  It  is  not  penal  clauses — which  are 
practically  a  dead  letter— but  public  sentiment  that  enforces  it. 
The  law  is  not  needed  to  compel  men  to  serve  because  they  are 
unwilling.  It  is  needed  to  provide  the  necessary  organisation, 
the  necessary  order,  equality  and  method  for  the  co-operation 
of  willing  men.  It  is  good  order  and  equality  of  sacrifice  which 
is  the  essence  of  National  Service,  not  compulsion.  And  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  Britons  are  as  ready  as  any  other  race — perhaps 
more  ready — to  make  personal  sacrifices  for  their  country.  But 
many  of  them  feel — and  rightly  feel — that  those  sacrifices  should 
be  the  same  for  all,  and  that  it  is  an  absurdity  and  a  contra- 
diction to  say,  with  one  breath,  that  it  is  the  duty  of  every  man 
to  render  personal  service  to  the  State  and  that  our  national 
existence  depends  upon  his  performing  that  duty ;  and  to  say, 
in  the  next  breath,  that  such  service  ought  to  remain  purely 
optional  and  that  the  State  has  no  right  to  enforce  it.  How  can 
you  punish  a  man  for  not  volunteering  ?  It  is  a  contradiction  in 
terms.  It  will  be  time  enough  to  talk  about  imposing  penalties 
upon  men  for  not  serving  when  the  Government  and  Parliament 
have  screwed  themselves  up  to  the  point  of  enacting  the  duty  to 
serve  instead  of  merely  making  fine  speeches  about  it. 

The  idea  that  all  the  men   of  military   age  who  have  not 


Some  Further  Notes  on  National  Service       339 

already  joined  the  colours  are  "shirkers"  or  "slackers"  and 
despicable  persons  generally,  is  wholly  groundless  and  unjust,  and 
it  is  creating  a  quite  imaginary  difficulty  to  say  that  volunteers 
will  not  fight  side  by  side  with  "  conscripts,"  and  that  it  will  be 
necessary  to  keep  them  apart  in  two  separate  forces.  Everyone 
knows  that  at  present  it  is  very  much  a  matter  of  accident 
whether  a  man  joins  the  Army  or  not.  The  number  of  men 
who,  from  intense  patriotism  or  love  of  fighting,  are  dead  keen  to 
go  in  any  case,  and  will  do  so  whatever  the  influences  brought  to 
bear  upon  them  for  or  against,  are  always  a  minority,  just  as  the 
real  cowards  are — in  this  country  at  any  rate — a  very  small 
minority.  In  the  absence  of  regulation  and  guidance,  of  any 
equal  law  or  generally  acknowledged  principle,  the  majority  will 
always  be  somewhat  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do,  and  the 
decision  will  depend  upon  a  number  of  circumstances,  and 
especially  upon  the  influences  brought  to  bear  upon  the  indi- 
vidual for  or  against.  In  many  cases  it  is  the  employer,  in  many 
it  is  the  man's  family  or  the  society  he  frequents,  or  even  the 
neighbourhood  in  which  he  lives,  which  is  decisive.  Nothing  is 
more  remarkable  than  the  contrast  between  one  part  of  the 
country  and  another.  There  are  whole  districts  of  the  country- 
side which  are  to-day  almost  denuded  of  able-bodied  young  men. 
There  are  other  districts  and  towns  where  they  are  to  be  found 
in  abundance.  Yet  the  average  courage  of  Englishmen  is  pretty 
much  the  same  all  the  country  over.  Under  the  haphazard 
system  it  is  not  courage  or  cowardice,  in  most  cases  it  is  not 
character  at  all,  but  varying  and  incalculable  circumstances, 
which  bring  about  the  individual  decision.  When  the  advocates 
of  that  system  say — it  is  a  favourite  argument — that,  if  we 
resorted  to  compulsion  we  should  only  get  inferior  material,  they 
are  talking  nonsense.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  should  probably 
get  decidedly  better  material  than  we  do  in  the  last  spasms  of 
voluntary  recruiting.  Selection  is  all-important,  but  in  our 
present  straits  selection  is  impossible.  The  recruiter  has  to  take 
any  men  he  can  get,  however  unsuitable,  unless  they  are  abso- 
lutely cast  by  the  doctor.  From  the  practical  point  of  view,  the 
difference  between  having  all  the  men  of  a  given  age  to  draw 
from,  and  the  power  to  take  only  those  who  are  best  fitted  to  go 
and  who  can  best  be  spared,  and  being  obliged  to  take  just 
anybody  you  can  get,  however  ill-qualified  and  however  much 
needed  at  home,  is  enormous.  It  has  been  truly  said  that 
National  Service  is  just  as  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  men 
joining  the  colours  who,  in  the  national  interest,  ought  not  to  do 
so,  as  it  is  in  order  to  get  all  those  men  to  join  who  ought. 

There  is  another  objection,  and  an  equally  futile  one,  to  the 
adoption  of  National  Service  at  the  present  time.     It  is  said,  and 

2  E  2 


340  The  Empire  Review 

probably  with  truth,  that  we  have  already  enlisted  as  many  men 
— and  indeed  more  men — than  we  can  arm  and  equip.  What 
need  then  of  compulsion  to  add  to  the  number  ?  But  if  it  is 
sound  policy  to  confine  the  numbers  you  raise  to  those  you  can 
immediately  arm  and  equip,  why  go  on  recruiting  at  all  ?  And 
yet  we  know  that  Lord  Kitchener  is  anxious — and  rightly  so — to 
get  every  man  he  can,  and  we  see,  every  time  we  walk  down  the 
street,  the  extraordinary  shifts  to  which  he  is  put  in  trying  to  get 
them.  The  truth  is,  of  course,  that  the  provision  of  arms  and 
equipment  will  presently  overtake  the  provision  of  men,  and  that 
there  is  no  time  to  be  lost  in  training  the  men  in  the  interval. 
But  will  not  National  Service  give  us  excessive  numbers  ?  Not 
at  all.  It  will  not  give  us  one  man  more  than  the  military 
authorities  may,  at  any  stage,  require  and  be  ready  to  provide  for, 
for  under  National  Service  men  would  be  called  up  in  age  classes, 
beginning  with  the  lower  ages.  There  will  be  no  need  to  call  up 
men  between  thirty  and  forty  if  the  numbers  still  available  between 
twenty  and  thirty — and  here  the  Eegister  will  be  an  invaluable 
guide — are  likely  to  suffice.  Moreover  there  will  be  no  need  to 
call  up  at  one  and  the  same  time  all  who  may  ultimately  be 
wanted.  The  military  authorities  will  be  in  a  position  to  cal- 
culate with  reasonable  accuracy  what  numbers  any  particular 
levy  will  yield,  and  to  make  their  arrangements  accordingly, 
They  will  be  able  to  get  men  in  the  required  number  as  they  want 
them — not  obliged  to  scramble  for  them  all  the  time,  whether 
they  are  ready  to  deal  with  them  or  not,  for  fear  of  not  getting 
them  at  all. 

And  this  is  also  the  answer  to  the  objection  that  National 
Service  will  injuriously  affect  our  industry  and  diminish  exports. 
It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  take  millions  of  men  away  from 
productive  work  and  put  them  to  fighting  without,  for  the  time 
being,  injuriously  affecting  industry ;  but  of  the  two  methods  of 
taking  them,  the  so-called  voluntary  system  is  far  more  dis- 
organising to  industry  than  National  Service.  It  is  a  first  principle 
of  organised  national  effort,  that  men  should  not  be  set  to  fight 
who  are  more  useful  for  the  conduct  of  the  war  in  civilian 
occupations.  In  a  general  levy  such  men  can  be  regularly 
exempted.  But  it  does  not  at  all  follow  that,  in  the  scramble  of 
voluntary  recruiting,  they  will  exempt  themselves.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  we  know  that  many  such  men,  feeling  what  they  believe 
to  be  the  call  of  duty,  or  tempted  by  exceptional  rates  of  pay, 
have  thrown  up  positions  at  home  in  which  they  were  more 
useful  to  the  national  cause  than  they  could  be  in  the  field,  in 
order  to  join  the  army.  The  truth  is  that  it  is  often  impossible 
for  the  individual  to  judge  for  himself  where  he  is  most  needed. 

Over   and   above  all  this  there  is  the  moral   question.     The 


Some  Further  Notes  on  National  Service       341 

effect  of  the  adoption  of  National  Service,  if  only  the  thing  was 
done  in  a  bold  and  striking  way,  in  making  people  realise  once 
for  all  the  tremendous  gravity  of  the  crisis,  would  be  of  immense 
value.  No  less  valuable  would  be  the  effect  produced  upon  friend 
and  foe  alike  by  seeing  Great  Britain  at  last  absolutely  roused, 
straining  every  nerve,  determined  to  win.  Such  a  reinforcement 
of  the  spirit  and  confidence  of  the  allied  nations  would  be 
important  at  any  juncture,  but  never  more  important  than  to- 
day, when  the  tide  of  fortune  is,  for  the  moment,  flowing  so 
strongly  against  them. 

But  then  it  is  said,  "  Ought  we  not  to  assume  that  all  these 
considerations  are  present  to  the  mind  of  the  Government  ?  Is 
it  not  for  them  to  decide  ?  Is  it  right  that  we  should  worry 
them  by  suggestions,  or  raise  a  controversy,  which  may  divide 
the  nation,  at  a  moment  when  it  is  so  vital  that  we  should  all  be, 
or  at  least  appear,  united?"  And  that,  no  doubt,  would  be  a 
strong  argument,  were  it  not  for  the  new  theory  of  what  the  duty 
of  Government  is.  We  have  had  a  frank  statement  of  that  theory 
quite  recently  from  a  man  who  was  for  years  one  of  the  most 
influential  members  of  a  British  Cabinet.  He  has  sought  to 
defend  the  Ministry  to  which  he  belonged  for  being  so  ill- 
prepared  for  the  great  struggle  which  they  foresaw  or,  at 
least,  ought  to  have  foreseen,  on  the  ground  that  the  nation 
was  not  interested  in  these  questions  and  did  not,  in  fact, 
insist  on  its  rulers  making  provision  against  the  dangers  which 
threatened  it.  I  will  not  discuss  whether  this  is  a  right  or  a 
wrong  theory.  But  since  the  theory,  in  fact,  exists  and  seems, 
as  far  as  we  can  judge  from  many  incidents  in  the  conduct  of  the 
war,  to  be  still  acted  upon,  it  would  appear  that  the  nation 
cannot  escape  the  obligation  of  giving  a  lead  to  its  rulers.  Other- 
wise we  may  find  ourselves,  a  year  or  eighteen  months  hence, 
confronted  with  a  bad  peace,  and  then  be  told  that  the  Govern- 
ment are  not  to  blame,  because  the  nation  did  not  insist  on  their 
taking  the  steps  necessary  to  secure  victory.  Let  us,  therefore, 
in  this  instance,  insist  in  time. 

MILNEE. 


342  The  Empire  Review 


TEA    AND    EDUCATION 

Mr.  Alfred  Edward  Duchesne,  B.A.  (the  author  of  this  article),  is  announced  to 
be  the  winner  of  the  gold  medal,  together  with  a  cheque  for  £100  and  life  Fellow- 
ship, offered  by  the  Royal  Colonial  Institute  for  the  best  research  monograph  on 
the  applicability  of  the  dictum  that  "  A  Democracy  cannot  manage  an  Empire  " 
(Thueydides,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  37,  Jowett's  translation)  to  the  present  conditions  and 
future  problems  of  the  British  Empire,  particularly  the  question  of  the  future  of 

India.— Timtt,  August  20. 

ONE  of  the  most  disquieting  symptoms  of  the  present  time  is 
the  utter  ignorance  of  our  Dominions  beyond  the  seas  which  is 
displayed  not  only  by  school  children,  but  by  men  in  responsible 
positions,  to  the  performance  of  whose  duties  a  knowledge  of 
those  Dominions  would  seem  to  be  essential. 

We  find  members  of  the  Cabinet  who  know  nothing  of  our 
sources  of  supply  of  such  commodities  as  coffee,  sugar,  and  tea. 
Members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  with  unenlightened  zeal, 
oppose  the  enhancement  of  tea  duties  because  (they  assert) 
Indian  teas,  being  coarse,  rough,  and  low-priced  are  the  beverage 
only  of  the  working  classes.  A  quotation  from  a  report  by  a 
well-known  firm  of  tea  brokers  will  show  how  one-sided  is  this 
view.  This  report  says  :  "  Indian  teas  are  the  most  useful  and 
best  types  of  teas  grown  ;  there  are  no  teas  which  so  constantly 
fetch  the  high  prices  on  the  market  that  fine  Darjeelings  and 
Assams  do.  There  is  no  growth  which  gives  such  good  results." 
Those  who  enjoin  upon  the  nation  the  necessity  for  economy 
particularly  instance  tea  as  one  of  the  worthy  objects  of  war- 
time frugality,  because  they  are  under  the  impression  that  it  is 
imported  from  foreign  countries.  At  a  gathering  of  men  from  all 
parts  of  the  Empire,  including  some  of  our  leading  statesmen,  I 
once  propounded  the  query  :  "  Whence  in  1912  did  we  derive  our 
greatest  supply  of  wheat?"  No  one  knew  that  it  was  from 
India,  and  that  Bussia  in  that  year  was  sixth  on  the  list.  Yet  it 
is  Indian  wheat  which  regulates  the  price  on  the  market.  This 
year's  crop  has  been  estimated  at  some  10,000,000  tons,  of  which 
probably  a  quarter  will  be  available  for  export.  Possibly  the 
average  man  has  heard  of  Carolina  rice,  but  he  does  not  realise 
that  the  Indian  Empire  sent  us  last  year  50  per  cent,  more  rice 
than  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  is  not  then  to  be  wondered  at 


Tea  and  Education  343 

that  school  children  are  still  left  with  the  idea  that  China  is 
the  tea  country,  nor  that  this  impression  persists  into  adult  life, 
even  with  the  most  intelligent  of  our  housewives. 

Yet  the  story  of  our  Indian  tea  industry  is  one  of  great 
interest.  It  is  one  which  reveals  the  same  qualities  of  persever- 
ance, endurance,  light-hearted  indifference  to  personal  peril  and 
discomfort  as  now  characterise  those  of  our  race  who  are  under 
arms  upholding  the  cause  of  civilisation  in  so  many  quarters  of 
the  globe.  I  will  venture  to  quote  from  a  delightful  book  of 
essays  by  Mr.  Francis  Stopford,  a  man  who  knows  India 
thoroughly.  In  '  Life's  Great  Adventure  '  he  says  : 

Seventy  years  ago  the  tea  plantations  of  India  were  for 
the  most  part  jungle.  Stories  were  rife  of  valleys  of  death, 
where  if  a  man  slept  for  a  night  he  was  a  corpse  on  the 
morrow  ;  and  there  were  rivers  of  poisoned  waters — to  drink 
of  them  was  to  die.  Those  wild  lands  were  uninhabited 
except  for  a  few  indigenous  tribes,  who  lived  partly  by 
hunting  and  scratching  the  surface  soil,  and  partly  by  the 
collection  of  wild  honey,  gall-nuts,  and  such-like  produce, 
the  sole  harvest  of  thousands  of  fertile  acres. 

Then  came  the  Anglo-Saxon,  cutting  his  way  through 
the  forest,  and  cultivating  as  he  went,  who  quickly  discovered 
that  those  old  tales  of  the  deadly  valleys  and  rivers  of  death 
were  no  myths;  for  in  them  dwelt  a  dragon  whose  breath 
was  more  fatal  than  the  fiery  breathing  of  any  fabled  monster 
that  devastated  ancient  lands.  The  name  of  that  dragon  is 
Malaria.  Scores  died,  many  before  they  had  reached  man- 
hood ;  but  still  the  battle  went  forward.  Mile  after  mile 
was  slowly  conquered,  and  districts  where,  forty  years  ago, 
or  less,  white  men  died  off  like  rotten  sheep,  are  to-day 
healthy  and  prosperous,  yielding  tons  of  tea. 

It  is  hard  to  picture  the  loneliness  of  that  life  in  its 
earlier  stages.  Week  after  week  went  by,  with  no  sight  or 
word  of  a  neighbour.  Sickness  came,  and  there  was  no 
doctor  within  hail.  A  man  had  to  wrestle  with  disease  by 
himself,  or  perish.  Many  died,  and  in  utter  loneliness.  One 
man  I  know  of  ended  his  life  so.  The  first  news  of  his 
death  was  when  a  friend  by  chance  happened  to  ride  up  to 
his  bungalow.  He  shouted,  but  no  answer  came ;  he 
wandered  through  the  deserted  house,  and  when  he  opened 
the  bedroom  door  there  was  a  scuttling  of  rats,  and  on  the 
bed — ghastly.  But  it  was  thus  the  fight  went  on ;  it  was 
thus  the  triumph  came. 

This  is  no  exaggerated  account,  but  the  work  done  by  these 
heroic  pioneers  has  achieved  two  important  results.  It  has 
placed  a  sound,  absolutely  irreproachable  tea  within  the  reach  of 
all,  and  it  has  transformed  the  jungles  of  Assam  and  other  places 
in  India  where  tea  is  grown.  It  has  provided  work  under  pleasant 
and  equitable  conditions,  rigorously  enforced  by  law ;  it  has  en- 


344 


The  Empire  Review 


abled  the  thrifty  peasant  of  the  plains  to  provide  for  old  age,  to 
invest  in  land,  to  accumulate  savings  sufficient  to  place  his  family 
altogether  beyond  the  reach  of  want. 

It  was  only  in  1836  that  twelve  boxes  of  the  first  Indian  tea 
were  shipped  from  Calcutta  to  London.  It  is  curious  to  note 
that  this  tea  on  being  put  up  to  public  auction  realised  prices 
varying  from  16s.  to  32s.  per  Ib.  In  1839  the  second  shipment 
was  made  of  ninety-five  chests,  which  realised  from  4s.  to  11s. 
per  Ib.  From  this  very  small  beginning  the  industry  has  steadily 
grown.  In  1866  the  United  Kingdom  consumed  102  million 
pounds  of  tea,  of  which  only  about  4  million  pounds  were  Indian. 
In  1914  we  consumed  317£  million  pounds,  of  which  185  million 
pounds  were  Indian.  Or  again,  in  1850  there  were  only  1,000 
acres  in  India  under  tea,  producing  about  a  quarter  of  a  million 
pounds.  In  1913  there  were  610,000  acres,  producing  307  million 
pounds,  and  giving  employment  to  about  700,000  coolies. 

An  inspection  of  the  statistics,  relating  to  the  last  eight  years 
and  a  half,  taken  from  the  official  report  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
shows  that  the  consumption  of  tea  in  the  United  Kingdom  has 
steadily  increased,  and  that  this  increase  has,  particularly  in  the 
last  few  years,  been  very  largely  in  tea  from  India.  These  are 
the  figures : — 

HOME  CONSUMPTION  OF  INDIAN  TEA,  ETC. 


1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

1910. 

1911. 

1912. 

1913. 

1914. 

Jan.  to  June 

1914. 

1915. 

Millions  of  Ibs.: 

Indian    . 
All  others     . 

Total   .      . 

162*. 

157* 
118 

160i 
123J 

162* 
124*. 

168| 
124*. 

165J 
130£ 

172f 
132| 

185 

89J 
661 

106| 
59| 

274 

275*. 

283*. 

287 

293J 

295J 

305*. 

317i 

155*. 

166*. 

Percentage  : 

Indian     . 
All  others     . 

59 
41 

57-5 
42-5 

56-5 
43-5 

56-5 
43-5 

57-5 
42-5 

55-9 
44-1 

56-5 
43-5 

58-2 
41-8 

57-4 
42-6 

64-1 

35-9 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  consumption  of  Indian  tea  for  the 
latter  half  of  1914  was  95|  million  pounds.  If  the  same  pro- 
portion is  preserved  during  the  last  six  months  of  this  year  the 
consumption  for  the  current  half  year  will  be  114£  million 
pounds,  or  a  total  of  221^  million  pounds  for  the  current 
year. 

This  increase  in  consumption  is  not  due  to  an  excessive 
import  producing  an  overplus  of  tea  and  lowering  the  price, 
since  from  January  1  to  June  30,  1915  we  imported  67^  million 
pounds  of  Indian  tea,  and  consumed  106f  million  pounds,  so 


Tea  and  Education  345 

that  to  meet  our  consumption  we  had  to  draw  39£  million  pounds 
from  our  existing  stock.  Of  tea  from  all  other  countries  we 
imported  96£  million  pounds  and  consumed  59|  million  pounds, 
thus  adding  36£  million  pounds  to  our  stock.  The  contrast 
between  Indian  tea  and  its  competitors  is  marked  and  is  proof 
of  the  appreciation  of  the  Indian  product.  Of  course,  statistics 
of  this  description  present  no  attraction  to  anyone  except  the 
expert,  but  they  should  be  in  the  minds  of  all  those  who  have 
to  legislate  or  to  instruct.  They  should,  at  any  rate,  bring  the 
conviction  to  the  minds  of  the  unprejudiced  that  at  least  one 
Indian  product  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  comfort  and 
well-being  of  the  people  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

This  conviction  will  be  strengthened  when  we  reflect  how  very 
much  the  cause  of  temperance  has  been  assisted  by  the  increased 
popularity  of  tea  as  a  beverage.  It  is  only  necessary  to  contrast 
the  social  conditions  prevailing  some  half  century  ago  with  those 
of  the  present  day  in  order  to  realise  what  great  advances  in 
sobriety  have  been  made  by  the  mass  of  our  population. 
Dickens,  Thackeray,  Lever,  Trollope,  are  hardly  to  be  regarded 
as  worthless  characters,  or  as  writers  incapable  of  observing  and 
correctly  depicting  the  manners  and  customs  of  their  own  periods. 
Yet  their  books  teem  with  references  to  strong  drink  as  the 
necessary  accompaniment  of  nearly  all  the  functions  of  British 
existence.  There  is  no  occasion  from  birth  to  death,  from  out- 
door sport  to  fireside  recreation,  which  is  complete  without  its 
appropriate  alcoholic  support  or  refreshment. 

The  mirror  thus  held  up  reflects  the  tendencies  of  the  times. 
We  can  all  of  us  remember  when  the  lunch  of  the  clerk  was 
incomplete  without  its  tankard  of  bitter ;  when  the  postman  was 
rewarded  for  courtesy  by  a  glass  of  spirits ;  when  not  only  the 
charwoman  but  the  nurse  found  her  duties  impossible  of  per- 
formance without  the  fortifying  aid  of  spirits  or  double  stout. 
The  factory  worker  or  the  navvy  took  beer  in  his  can.  The 
soldier  certainly  endorsed  lago's  sentiments  : 

"  The  soldier's  a  man,  and  life's  but  a  span, 
And  therefore  a  soldier  should  drink." 

All  this  is  now  changed,  and  in  almost  every  instance  tea  has 
been  substituted  for  alcohol.  The  most  remarkable  instance  of 
this  substitution  is  perhaps  in  the  case  of  the  British  Army, 
which  now  demands  tea,  and  it  is  permissible  to  state  Indian 
tea,  for  every  meal ;  and  relies  upon  it  for  refreshment  at  any 
odd  moment  when  thirst  makes  itself  felt. 

In  another  way,  too,  are  the  Indian  tea  estates  of  importance 
to  this  country.  The  brains  which  have  organised  them,  the 
spirit  which  has  ensured  their  success,  and  the  capital  which  has 


346  The  Empire  Review 

been  invested  in  them,  are  all  British.  In  many  instances  tea 
shares  are  held  by  those  to  whom  they  have  been  left  as  their 
only  provision.  Many  a  man  who  has  spent  the  best  years  of 
his  life  in  India  has  invested  the  whole  of  his  hard- won  savings 
in  the  tea  industry,  and  on  the  income  from  those  savings  his 
widow  and  children  depend. 

The  Parliamentary  War  Savings  Committee  have  published 
a  booklet :  '  What  Economy  Means.'  Apparently  it  has  now 
been  discovered,  somewhat  late  in  the  day,  that  so-called  free 
trade  has  led  to  a  servile  dependence  on  other  countries  for  our 
food  supplies.  Says  this  booklet :  "  The  great  bulk  of  our  food 
supplies  comes  from  abroad."  Many  of  these  foods  which  we 
buy  from  abroad  are  luxuries  which  we  can  do  without, 
according  to  the  booklet.  The  nation,  it  is  supposed,  could  easily 
reduce  its  consumption  of  tea  by  some  10  ounces  per  head. 
This,  the  compiler  of  the  booklet  believes,  would  bring  us  back 
to  the  amount  consumed  in  1905,  and  estimates  that  28  million 
pounds  of  tea  would  thus  be  saved.  The  booklet  takes  the 
consumption  of  tea  in  1913  per  head  of  the  population  as 
6§  pounds,  and  assumes  that  if  the  10  ounces  were  cut  off  we 
should  merely  be  reverting  to  the  standard  of  consumption  of 
ten  years  ago.  This  expression  seems  to  betray  a  misconception 
of  what  the  average  implies.  The  compiler  seems  to  imagine 
that  the  average  has  increased  during  the  ten  years  because  the 
people  (speaking  generally)  who  drank  tea  in  1905  now  (each  of 
them)  drink  more  tea.  This  is  not  the  case.  The  increase  in 
average  consumption  does  not  mean  so  much  that  each  tea 
drinker  now  drinks  more  (so  that  moderation  has  lapsed  into 
excess)  as  that  a  greater  proportion  of  the  population  drink  tea 
now.  There  has  been,  as  mentioned  above,  a  very  beneficial 
substitution  of  tea  for  alcohol.  The  idea  that  "  tea  consumption 
by  many  persons,  especially  women,  is  immoderate,  and  might 
be  reduced  with  benefit  to  their  health  "  is,  to  say  the  least,  a 
slightly  exaggerated  one.  To  go  back  to  the  standard  of  1905 
would  mean,  then,  not  so  much  a  more  temperate  drinking  of  tea 
as  a  restriction  of  the  beverage's  sphere  of  beneficial  influence. 

The  figures  used  by  the  compiler  are  not  conspicuously 
accurate.  If  we  take  the  consumption  of  tea  last  year  as 
317J  millions  pounds,  and  that  in  1905  as  259  million  pounds, 
we  have  a  difference  of  58£  million  pounds.  Since  each  pound 
of  tea  consumed  pays  8d.  in  duty  this  restriction  of  our  con- 
sumption of  tea  would  mean  a  loss  to  the  Government  of 
£1,950,000.  Even  if  we  accept  the  basis  of  the  compiler's 
calculations  there  would  be  a  difference  of  37£  million  pounds, 
which  would  imply  a  loss  of  £1,250,000  to  the  national 
revenue.  Further  effects  would  be  to  embarrass  the  tea  estates 


Tea  and  Education  347 

and  their  shareholders  and  thus  diminish  the  general  spending 
power  of  this  country,  whilst  at  the  same  time  people  who  drank 
less  tea  would  in  a  large  number  of  cases  only  substitute  some 
form  of  (more  expensive)  alcoholic  stimulant.  Of  course  if  any 
person  made  an  actual  saving  by  drinking  less  tea  and  put  the 
amount  saved  into  the  War  Loan,  this  amount  would  obviously 
more  than  counterbalance  the  loss  of  duty  caused  by  the  lessened 
consumption.  The  point  is  that  the  saving  should  be  made  on 
such  commodities  as  cocoa,  coffee,  beet  sugar,  and  Havana  cigars, 
which  are  produced  outside  the  Empire,  and  not  on  British- 
grown  articles,  the  commerce  in  which  is  essential  to  our 
prosperity  and  to  our  power  to  meet  the  war  expenditure. 

So  much  for  this  country.  This  is,  however,  another  aspect 
of  official  ignorance  or  prejudice  which  is  perhaps  even  more 
injurious.  This  is  concerned  with  the  tea  industry  in  India 
itself,  particularly  with  the  conditions  on  which  land  is  held  and 
labour  recruited. 

To  take  Assam.  The  planting  industry  has  made  Assam,  and 
it  has  done  so  by  offering  attractive  terms  to  labourers  from 
other  parts  of  India.  Indian  labour  finds  several  outlets.  It 
may  be  content  to  remain  in  situ,  deriving  a  precarious  existence 
from  the  indigenous  agriculture.  It  may  be  drafted  to  Assam  or 
some  other  tea  district.  It  may  take  part  in  the  industrial 
development  of  India,  as  in  coal  mines,  cotton  and  jute  factories, 
railway  and  other  enterprises.  Finally  it  may,  under  the  aegis 
of  the  Indian  Government  and  on  the  guarantee,  for  fair  treat- 
ment, of  the  Colonial  authorities,  emigrate  to  some  other  of  our 
tropical  or  sub-tropical  dominions,  such  as  the  West  Indies, 
Fiji,  or  Natal,  or  even  to  foreign  colonies.  Of  all  these  alterna- 
tives the  second  would  appear  primd  facie  the  most  congenial 
to  the  coolie,  and  yet,  owing  to  the  force  of  native  tradition,  the 
absurdity  of  Government  regulations,  and  the  unequal  incidence 
of  official  favour,  it  is  probable  that  the  merits  of  the  case  are  so 
obscured  that  Assam  comes  last  in  the  coolie's  thoughts.  When 
Bombay  requires  a  dock  extension  official  patronage  is  given  to 
the  scheme  for  recruiting  labour.  Yet  Assam,  which  is  an  im- 
portant province  of  India,  and  which  offers  good  prospects, 
equitable  terms,  and  adequate  remuneration,  is  given  the  cold 
shoulder,  and  is  hampered  in  its  endeavours  to  obtain  the 
necessary  labour. 

For  the  last  fifty  years  Assam  has  recruited  its  labour  from 
various  parts  of  India  under  the  indenture  system.  Recently, 
however,  the  tendency  has  been  towards  what  is  known  as  free 
labour.  In  any  case,  owing  to  the  small  indigenous  population 
of  the  province  of  Assam,  this  import  of  labour  for  the  tea 
gardens  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  results  in  heavy  expenditure 


348  The  Empire  Review 

on  the  part  of  the  employers.  In  order  to  indemnify  the 
gardens  against  possible  loss,  both  in  labour  and  the  money 
involved,  Act  VI.  of  1901  required  the  coolie  to  enter  into  a 
four  years'  agreement.  The  Act  also  stipulated  for  certain 
penal  means  of  enforcing  this  contract.  In  1908  the  planters 
of  the  districts  of  Cachar,  Sylhet,  Kamrup  and  Goalpara  con- 
curred in  the  withdrawal  of  these  provisions.  In  1911  the 
Government  of  India  gave  notice  of  its  intention  of  enforcing 
this  withdrawal  on  Assam  Proper.  After  much  discussion  an 
Act  was  passed  in  March  of  this  year  by  the  Indian  Supreme 
Legislative  Council  which  provided  for  the  abolition  of  the 
system  of  recruitment  by  contractors  with  a  view  to  the 
suspension  of  sardari  recruitment  under  local  agents. 

It  had  all  along  been  obvious  that  some  concurrent  legislation 
would  be  necessary  to  secure  to  the  tea  estates  the  exclusive 
services  of  their  imported  labourers  for  a  time  sufficient  to  recoup 
to  the  employer  the  heavy  cost  of  the  migration  from  the 
recruiting  districts.  In  October  1913  the  Indian  Tea  Association 
in  Calcutta  were  informed  by  the  Government  of  India  that  a 
draft  Bill  for  the  prevention  of  enticement  had  been  approved 
by  the  Governor-General  in  Council,  and  would  in  due  course 
be  introduced  into  the  Assam  Council.  This  was  tantamount  to 
an  absolute  pledge  of  suitable  legislation,  and  in  consideration  of 
this  pledge  the  industry  acquiesced  in  the  proposed  changes 
affecting  methods  of  recruitment.  It  was  definitely  understood 
that  this  Bill  would  be  proceeded  with  so  as  to  come  into  force 
concurrently  with  the  withdrawal  of  the  labour  districts'  pro- 
visions. Such  a  course  would  only  have  been  in  accordance 
with  the  pledge  given,  and  would  have  met  the  necessities  of  the 
case. 

Unfortunately  about  the  middle  of  last  year  the  then  Secretary 
of  State  for  India  sent  for  the  papers  connected  with  the  planters' 
legislation  and  intimated  that  progress  in  the  matter  must  be 
suspended  till  his  decision  was  made.  Subsequently  it  became 
the  painful  duty  of  the  Government  of  India  to  announce  that 
the  Secretary  of  State  had  compelled  the  Government  to  falsify 
its  undoubted  pledge.  Lord  Crewe  stated  that  he  was  unable 
to  sanction  the  draft  Bill  as  he  regarded  as  objectionable  features 
the  curtailment  of  the  freedom  of  labourers  and  the  extension  of 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  criminal  courts.  He  refused  to  receive  a 
deputation  from  the  planting  industry,  although  he  had  actually 
received  one  from  a  body  of  persons  able  to  influence  him  against 
the  provisions  of  the  Bill. 

In  his  action  Lord  Crewe  entirely  ignored  the  fact  that  the 
Enticement  Bill  as  drafted  was  directed  solely  against  the 
enticer  of  labour  and  did  not  seek  to  punish  the  absconding 


Tea  and  Education  349 

coolie,  the  labourer  himself  being  adequately  safeguarded.  Unless 
some  enactment  on  the  lines  of  this  Bill  comes  into  force,  there 
is  a  strong  probability  that  at  no  very  distant  date  special  legisla- 
tion will  be  required  to  cope  with  the  condition  of  affairs  in 
Assam.  By  that  time  such  remedial  measures  will  come  too 
late  to  save  the  tea  industry  from  heavy  losses  which  will  affect 
most  adversely  the  labouring  population  of  the  whole  province. 
It  is  therefore  matter  for  congratulation  that  the  present 
Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Austen  Chamberlain,  has  referred  all  the 
papers  in  the  case  to  the  Government  of  India,  and  will  doubtless 
be  able  to  do  justice  to  the  interests  concerned. 

The  misunderstanding  in  this,  as  in  other  cases,  is  entirely 
due  to  that  ignorance  of  India  to  which  I  have  referred  above. 
We  have  no  longer  among  us  a  Burke,  who,  by  a  supreme  effort 
of  the  intellect,  could  conjure  up  vivid  pictures  of  our  Eastern 
dominions,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  if  we  are  to  avoid  in 
the  future  the  most  serious  errors,  that  some  effort  should  be 
made  to  dispel  this  prejudicial  ignorance.  If  it  exists  in  the 
case  of  our  ministers,  who  have  ready  access  to  official  records, 
how  much  more  may  it  not  be  suspected,  in  the  typical  man  of 
average  education  ? 

I  would  plead  that  in  all  classes  of  schools  the  Dominions 
beyond  the  Seas  should  be  the  especial  care  of  the  educational 
authorities,  who  should  recognise  it  as  their  plain  duty  to  instruct 
our  children  as  to  the  nature,  size,  importance  and  productions 
of  those  Dominions.  This,  if  properly  done,  would  arouse  a 
feeling  of  legitimate  pride  in  our  Empire,  a  pride  crushed  by  the 
authorities  in  a  generation  which  has  been  forbidden  to  fly  its 
national  flag  above  its  schools  on  Empire  Day.  At  the  same 
time  it  would  ensure  that  at  least  some  degree  of  popular  atten- 
tion would  be  given  to  these  Dominions,  so  that,  with  a  more 
enlightened  public,  Cabinet  Ministers  would  no  longer  feel  it 
necessary  to  act  unjustly  or  dishonourably  in  subservience  to 
popular  outcry  or  interested  pressure. 

Tea,  90  per  cent,  of  the  supply  of  which  is  drawn  from  our 
own  dominions,  might  well  form  an  introduction  to  lessons  on 
India  and  Ceylon  which  would  be  of  the  highest  value.  It  is  an 
axiom  in  pedagogics  that  instruction  should  proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,  and  tea  is  surely  more  familiar  in  our 
households  than  any  other  product  of  the  East. 

A.  E  DUCHESNE. 


350  The  Empire  Review 


MORAL    EFFECTS    OF    THE   WAR    IN 
AUSTRALIA 

LIKE  nearly  all  other  parts  of  the  British  Empire  Australia  is 
beginning  to  feel  somewhat  acutely  the  economic  effects  of  the 
terrible  struggle  now  raging  in  Europe.  Her  trade  has  been  in 
a  large  degree  disorganised  owing  to  the  temporary  closing  of 
some  of  the  principal  foreign  markets  for  her  products,  while 
at  the  same  time  her  opportunities  for  obtaining  from  older 
countries  the  supplies  of  capital  necessary  for  further  industrial 
expansion  have  been  greatly  circumscribed.  Many  thousands, 
too,  of  her  most  efficient  workers  have  been  withdrawn  from  the 
sphere  of  profitable  occupation  at  home  to  distant  fields  of  armed 
strife.  While  men  and  money  in  a  constant  stream  are  being 
sent  away,  immigration  and  the  inflow  of  capital  have  practically 
ceased;  and  the  export  of  the  merchandise  necessary  to  make 
good  the  huge  loss  entailed  by  military  and  naval  operations  on 
an  unprecedented  scale  is  subjected  to  numberless  impediments. 

Thus  the  candle  is  being  burnt  at  both  ends ;  indeed,  it  is 
alight  in  the  middle  also.  For,  to  complete  the  tale  of  mis- 
fortune, Nature,  determined  to  verify  a  familiar  saying,  has 
chosen  this  particular  time  to  inflict  on  the  Commonwealth  one 
of  the  most  disastrous  seasons  it  has  ever  yet  experienced. 
Owing  to  the  failure  of  the  last  harvest  inhabitants  of  Australia 
are  now  driven  to  the  novel  resource  of  importing  grain  from 
abroad  for  their  own  requirements.  Bread,  butter,  meat,  fodder 
and  other  commodities  have  reached  prices  unknown  for  a 
generation.  The  coming  deficiency  in  the  yield  of  sugar,  owing 
to  adverse  weather  conditions  in  Queensland,  will  soon  make 
another  article  of  food  rank  as  an  expensive  luxury.  Happily, 
recent  heavy  and  widely  distributed  rains  have  greatly  relieved 
the  prevailing  tension,  and  promise  soon  to  restore  the  old  reign 
of  plenty.  But,  between  them,  war  and  drought  have  subjected 
the  Commonwealth  already  to  a  degree  of  material  loss  never 
before  experienced.  And,  since  adversity  is  the  touchstone  of 
national  as  well  as  individual  character,  it  may  not  be  unprofit- 
able at  the  present  moment  to  attempt  a  brief  study  of  its  effects, 
as  so  far  visible,  on  the  character  of  the  Australian  people. 


Moral  Effects  of  the  War  in  Australia          351 

Much  has  been  said,  not  always  temperately,  in  condemna- 
tion of  war.  The  furor  pacificus,  indeed,  of  late  years  has 
rivalled  in  intensity  the  vehemence  of  the  extreme  advocate  of 
abstinence  from  alcoholic  comforts.  On  the  other  side  a  small 
band  of  fervid  disciples  of  Mars  have  blown  the  war  trumpet 
lustily.  Perhaps,  it  may  be  suggested,  much  of  this  energy 
might  as  profitably  be  employed  in  denouncing  or  applauding 
tempests  and  earthquakes.  At  all  events,  whether  he  hold 
views  concerning  the  ethics  of  war  similar  to  those  of  the  late 
Count  Tolstoy,  or  accept  the  gospel  of  the  mailed  fist  so  sedu- 
lously preached  by  General  von  Bernhardi,  the  mere  street  philo- 
sopher knows  that  material  and  physical  loss  is  nearly  always 
balanced  to  some  extent  by  moral  gain.  Even  when  we  show  our 
love  for  our  neighbour  by  killing  him  we  are  doing  some  good, 
for  we  teach  others,  besides  his  heir,  the  virtues  of  fortitude  and 
resignation.  Viewed  comprehensively  the  moral  effects  of  war, 
both  immediate  and  remote,  are  so  diverse  and  so  dependent  on 
individual  temperament  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  say  with 
certainty  whether  the  evil  outweighs  the  good,  or  contrariwise'. 
Perhaps,  however,  the  generalisation  may  be  hazarded  that  war 
makes  the  bad  worse  and  the  good  better.  Natural  cruelty  on 
the  one  hand  sinks  into  mere  savagery;  natural  kindliness  on 
the  other  displays  itself  in  acts  of  heroic  devotion  and  self- 
sacrifice,  such  as  are  seldom  seen  in  days  of  peace.  What 
contrasts  have  already  been  exhibited  in  the  course  of  this  war ! 
Compare  any  one  of  those  callous  wretches  who,  after  sinking 
in  cold  blood  a  defenceless  passenger  steamer,  jeered  at  the 
victims  struggling  for  their  lives  in  the  water,  with  the  heroic 
English  doctor  who,  mortally  stricken  himself,  bound  up  with 
dying  hands  the  wound  of  a  fellow  sufferer  in  the  trench  where 
both  had  fallen.  Who  will  say  that  the  depravity  of  the  one  is 
not  compensated  for  by  the  nobility  of  the  other  ?  Thousands  of 
similar  examples  no  doubt  have  occurred.  In  the  wild  chaos  of 
ferocity  and  gentleness — hatred  and  compassion — courage  and 
cowardice — forgiveness  and  revenge — the  finer  human  impulses 
find  at  least  as  much  scope  for  action  as  those  that  are  destructive 
or  debased. 

The  psychological  effects  on  a  young  community  of  the  first 
great  war  in  which  it  has  been  engaged  always  offer  an  interesting 
subject  of  investigation.  In  the  case  of  Australia  they  present 
peculiar  features  of  interest.  For  Australia  has  hitherto  been 
the  spoilt  child  of  the  British  Empire.  Perhaps  one  might  even 
say  the  country  has  been  treated  as  the  world's  privileged  child. 
She  has  for  many  years  past  been  allowed  to  go  her  own  way 
without  restraint  of  any  kind.  In  the  management  of  her  own 
affairs  she  has  enjoyed  absolute  power  without  a  particle  of 


352  The  Empire  Review 

responsibility.  Protected  by  the  Mother  Country's  invincible 
fleets,  without  any  appreciable  effort  or  sacrifice  on  her  own  part, 
she  has  never  had  any  reason  to  fear  the  consequences  of  foreign 
resentment  provoked  by  any  of  her  actions.  Not  unfrequentiy 
those  actions  in  the  past  have  justly  aroused  very  bitter  feelings 
among  strangers ;  but  the  governments  of  the  countries  whose 
subjects  were  the  sufferers  have  passed  over  those  wrongs  with  a 
smile  of  politic  indulgence  or  contempt.  For  no  sane  govern- 
ment would  stake  its  country's  existence  by  engaging  in  a 
struggle  with  a  mighty  Empire  because  the  rulers  of  a  handful 
of  people  inhabiting  one  province  of  that  Empire  had  assumed 
towards  it  a  wantonly  provocative  attitude.  It  were  decidedly 
unwise  for  a  big  boy  to  attempt  to  chastise  an  impudent  urchin, 
when  the  father  of  the  latter,  armed  with  a  thick  cudgel,  stood 
close  by.  But  Australia  had  more  than  physical  force,  gratu- 
itously supplied,  behind  her.  The  beneficent  nation  that  supplied 
her  with  free  protection  also  furnished  with  a  lavish  hand  the 
funds  necessary  for  her  economic  development.  Never  before  in 
the  history  of  the  world  have  a  group  of  small  communities 
enjoyed  such  unique  advantages  as  the  cluster  of  British  Colonies 
established  on  Australian  soil  have  long  been  blessed  with.  For 
a  full  century  and  more,  during  the  critical  period  of  infancy  and 
early  youth,  Australia  has  never  once  been  assailed  either  by  a 
foreign  or  domestic  foe,  and  has  enjoyed  undisturbed  tranquillity. 
But  to  indulge  a  child  is  to  teach  it  to  indulge  itself.  To 
indulge  a  young  and  dependent  community  has  the  same  effect. 
Under  the  exceptionally  favoured  treatment  accorded  to  them  by 
a  long  succession  of  British  Governments  young  Australia, 
together  with  many  fine  qualities,  developed  some  traits  not 
deserving  of  unqualified  admiration.  A  spirit  of  self-sufficiency, 
amounting  at  times  to  arrogance,  began  to  show  itself.  A  whole- 
some love  of  sport  was  carried  to  extremes,  so  that  among  a  large 
class  pleasure  became  the  chief  business  of  life.  An  excess  of 
material  comfort  induced,  chiefly  among  the  manual  workers, 
habits  of  indolence  and  wastefulness,  and  rendered  multitudes 
indisposed  to  exercise  the  virtues  of  self-denial  and  foresight. 
Worse  still,  the  manly  quality  of  individual  self-reliance  began  to 
weaken.  The  working  man,  instead  of  depending  on  his  own 
efforts  for  advancement,  combined  with  his  fellows  to  form 
industrial  associations  with  a  view  to  taking  collective  action 
against  any  tyrannical  tendencies  shown  by  the  class  of  employers. 
So  long  as  the  trade-union  confined  its  activities  to  securing  fair 
conditions  of  employment  for  the  worker,  and  to  affording  him 
the  opportunity  of  providing  against  future  sickness  or  want,  it 
performed  a  most  beneficent  function.  But  unfortunately  Aus- 
tralian trade-unions  in  their  operation  have  far  exceeded  these 


Moral  Effects  of  the  War  in  Australia          353 

bounds.  They  have  become  distinctly  aggressive  and  predatory 
bodies,  whose  avowed  object  is  that  of  pursuing  their  own 
interests  quite  irrespective  of  that  of  the  general  community. 
Their  influence  over  the  various  legislative  bodies  in  Australia 
which  have  become  their  docile  instruments  within  recent  years 
has  been  pernicious  and  demoralising ;  and  certain  measures  for 
which  they  have  been  responsible,  such,  in  particular,  as  that 
imposing  a  special  and  most  unfair  tax  on  landowners,  and  the 
infamous  regulations  under  which,  not  only  is  preference  of 
employment  in  the  public  service  given  to  trade-unionists,  but 
Government  contractors  are  compelled  to  exercise  the  same 
discrimination,  have  outraged  the  public  sense  of  justice. 
Prosperity,  in  short,  among  the  mass  of  Australian  working  men 
produced  the  two  evils  of  extravagance  and  rapacity.  The  more 
they  got,  the  more  they  spent,  and  consequently  the  more  they 
wanted.  And  the  utter  one-sidedness  of  these  incessant  demands 
was  almost  ludicrous.  No  attempt  ever  was  made  to  show  that 
the  service  rendered  by  the  dissatisfied  worker  was  worth  more 
remuneration.  And  no  promise  was  ever  given  that  increased 
pay  would  be  followed  by  increased  work.  The  only  argument 
relied  on  was  that  of  the  highwayman — the  argument  of  the 
pistol.  And  that  argument,  in  the  form  of  the  vote,  seeing  that 
these  gentle  controversialists  controlled  the  legislature,  usually 
proved  convincing. 

So  between  trade-unionists  always  squeezing  manufacturers, 
and  the  latter  applying  the  same  process  to  their  customers,  the 
public  fared  ill.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  for  several  years 
prior  to  the  fateful  1st  of  August,  1914,  a  state  of  suppressed  civil 
war  existed  in  the  Commonwealth.  In  the  report  of  the 
American  Trade  Commission  that  visited  Australasia  last  year, 
there  are  some  illuminating  comments  on  the  industrial  conditions 
prevailing  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand  at  that  time,  as  viewed 
by  a  body  of  skilled  and  impartial  observers.  These  gentlemen 
roundly  declared  that  the  industrial  laws  in  force  were  making 
both  countries  "breeding  grounds  of  loafers  and  idlers."  Aus- 
tralia, they  added,  was  facing  a  "  period  of  decadence  and  dry  rot 
while  the  process  of  '  nationalising  the  industries '  was  going  on, 
and  a  chief  subject  of  agitation  was  the  placing  of  a  premium  on 
idleness  by  the  paying  of  wages  to  habitual  idlers  and  unemployed." 
Under  such  agreeable  conditions,  described  by  the  Commissioners 
as  "really  deplorable  in  the  extreme,"  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
expressed  an  emphatic  opinion  that  the  two  countries,  each 
proudly  described  by  many  local  eulogists  as  an  "  industrial 
paradise,"  contain  "  more  idle,  disillusioned,  fault-finding  people 
who  condemn  the  country  and  its  institutions  than  can  be  found 
in  any  other  community  of  equal  population."  Such  was 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  176.  2  F 


354  The  Empire  Review 

industrial  Australia  viewed  through  frank  American  eyes  on  the 
eve  of  the  outbreak  of  war.  And  the  candid  Australian  cannot 
deny  that,  in  the  main,  the  gloomy  picture  of  the  country's  social 
conditions  was  well  justified.  Discontent,  self-seeking  and 
discord  raged  everywhere.  Employee  waged  relentless  war 
against  employer;  townsman  fought  countryman;  politicians 
out  of  office  fiercely  assailed  their  more  fortunate  rivals  in  office. 
No  country  was  ever  more  divided  against  itself.  The  fruits  of  a 
century  of  peace,  prosperity  and  security  were  but  domestic  strife 
and  disunion.  There  had  never  been  any  apprehension  of  external 
danger  to  compel  harmony  and  social  coherence.  High  policy  to 
the  Australian  statesman  had  become  but  a  question  of  securing 
high  wages  for  the  majority  of  the  electors.  Those  politicians 
who  distributed  most  lavishly  the  accumulations  of  the  industrious 
and  capable  few  among  the  needy  and  greedy  many  were  heaven- 
born  statesmen,  worthy  of  high  positions  and  high  salaries.  We 
need  not  pursue  the  retrospect  further.  Enough  to  say  that  the 
war  found  the  Commonwealth  suffering  from  various  social  and 
political  maladies  of  a  very  serious  nature,  and  administered  a 
shock,  the  immediate  effects  of  which  so  far  have  been  distinctly 
beneficial.  A  hope  may  be  expressed  that  those  effects  will  prove 
enduring. 

The  sudden  political  and  individual  transformation  brought 
about  by  the  German  attack  on  Belgium  in  the  United  Kingdom 
has  justly  excited  the  admiration  of  the  world.  Just  as  mole- 
cules coalesce  on  the  administration  of  a  sudden  shock,  so  British 
parties  and  classes,  only  the  day  before  ranged  in  hostile  ranks, 
instantaneously  united  in  a  common  resolve  to  sink  their 
differences  until  at  least  the  overthrow  of  the  common  enemy 
was  accomplished.  Industrial  and  political  strife  in  an  instant 
ceased,  and,  more  wonderful  still,  the  dark  cloud  that  threatened 
approaching  tempest  both  in  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  at  once 
dissolved.  A  political  truce  was  later  succeeded  by  a  political 
alliance  between  the  chief  parties.  Unfortunately,  the  imminence 
of  danger  was  not  so  clearly  recognised  in  Australia  as  to  lead 
at  once  to  such  happy  results.  But  at  least  the  asperities  of 
party  warfare  were  greatly  mollified,  and  at  the  Federal  Elections 
which  soon  followed  the  commencement  of  the  great  struggle, 
all  candidates  agreed  in  declaring  the  cause  of  Great  Britain  to 
be  the  cause  of  the  whole  Empire,  and  in  emphasising  the  duty 
of  Australia  to  afford  all  possible  help  to  the  Mother  Country  in 
her  great  task.  The  divine  fire  of  patriotism  burst  through  the 
ashes  of  class  jealousy,  selfishness  and  luxury,  and  warmed  the 
heart  of  the  nation.  Although  the  election  resulted  in  a  change 
of  government  and  domestic  policy,  there  was  no  change 
whatever  in  the  war  policy  adopted  by  the  previous  Ministry. 


Moral  Effects  of  the  War  in  Australia          355 

Nor  would  the  people  for  a  moment  have  tolerated  it.  Any 
sentimental  simpleton  who  then,  or  now,  adjured  an  Australian 
audience  not  to  "  humiliate  "  Germany,  would  probably  receive  a 
forcible  lesson  in  humility  himself.  And,  as  reports  arrived  of 
hideous  crimes  committed  by  the  devastators  of  Belgium,  a 
distinct  stiffening  of  the  moral  backbone  of  the  people  became 
noticeable.  Sentimental  illusions  concerning  the  abolition  of 
war  by  the  introduction  of  international  arbitration  faded  away. 
Even  ultra-pacificists  had  to  admit  that  there  was  only  one  way 
of  dealing  with  those  who  violated  treaties,  waged  a  courageous 
and  unrelenting  warfare  against  harmless  fishermen  and  wayfarers 
by  sea,  poisoned  wells,  and  slaughtered  unresisting  villagers. 
Militarism  of  a  sane  and  wholesome  kind  became  triumphant, 
and  each  successive  call  for  volunteers  to  aid  their  kinsmen  in 
the  firing  line  met  with  an  enthusiastic  response.  At  the  present 
moment  (22nd  June)  sixty-three  thousand  Australian  soldiers  are 
at  the  front,  and  more  than  twenty  thousand  in  addition  are 
being  trained  to  follow.  It  is  unnecessary  to  dilate  on  their 
military  qualities,  as  displayed  by  their  achievements  on  the 
Gallipoli  Peninsula.  Sufficient  to  say  that  those  achievements 
have  proved  them  to  be  worthy  comrades  in  arms  of  their  British 
and  Canadian  kinsmen.  No  higher  praise  could  be  given. 

While  the  outbreak  of  war  drew  individuals  and  classes 
together  in  the  Commonwealth,  it  must  sadly  be  admitted  that 
the  event  failed  to  have  the  same  effect  in  political  circles. 
Perfect  agreement,  it  is  true,  existed  between  both  parties  in 
regard  to  the  dominating  question  of  the  hour.  Not  a  voice  was 
raised  against  the  new  Government's  war  policy,  the  only  com- 
plaint occasionally  made  was  that  the  measures  taken  with  a 
view  to  assisting  the  Mother  Country  did  not  go  far  enough. 
But,  unhappily,  the  dependence  of  the  Labour  Ministry  on 
outside  political  organisations  made  it  impossible  for  a  really 
national  Government  to  be  constituted,  like  that  now  controlling 
affairs  in  Great  Britain.  Ministers  had  to  obey  the  orders  of  the 
body  aptly  called  the  Super-Parliament,  that  is  to  say,  the 
Labour  Conference  which  lately  assembled  in  Adelaide.  They 
were  compelled  to  maintain,  and  even  extend,  the  principle  of 
preference  to  unionists,  a  principle  utterly  repudiated  by  their 
opponents.  They  were  also  required  to  introduce  Bills  providing 
for  a  popular  referendum  next  November,  when  the  revolutionary 
proposals  for  the  alteration  of  the  Constitution  already  twice 
decisively  rejected  by  the  Australian  people  will  be  once  more 
submitted  to  the  popular  vote.  It  is  hard  to  describe  temperately 
the  conduct  of  those  selfish  wire-pullers  and  intriguers  at  whose 
dictation  the  Government  of  the  Commonwealth  finds  itself 
compelled  at  a  time  when  there  is  the  most  imperative  need 

2  F  2 


356  The  Empire  Review 

for  social  and  political  union  wantonly  to  re-kindle  the  flames 
of  a  most  bitter  domestic  controversy.  A  British  Government 
would  act  with  equal  wisdom  and  patriotism  were  it  to  choose 
the  present  moment  for  submitting  by  referendum  the  question 
of  Irish  Home  Rule  to  the  decision  of  the  electors  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  moderation  of  the  authors  of  the  referendum 
proposals  in  Australia  is  proved  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  course 
of  a  single  brief  sitting,  while  the  first  of  the  enabling  Bills  was 
under  discussion,  the  closure  was  applied  no  less  than  twenty- 
four  times.  In  this  sorry  business  there  is  a  touch  of  humour 
however.  Australian  soldiers,  both  abroad  and  at  home,  we  are 
gravely  told,  are  to  be  entitled  to  vote,  and  each  is  to  receive  an 
explanatory  pamphlet,  circulated  at  Government  expense,  ex- 
plaining the  issues  submitted.  This  publication  will  prove 
interesting  and  instructive  reading  to  the  soldier  crouching  in 
a  trench  with  shells  bursting  around  him.  Possibly  his  thoughts 
may  revert  to  Gibbon's  description  of  the  political  and  theological 
wrangles  that  agitated  the  minds  of  the  foolish  inhabitants  of  the 
famous  city  towards  which  he  is  now  fighting  his  way,  on  the 
eve  of  its  fall  nearly  five  centuries  ago. 

Outside  the  turbulent  atmosphere  of  politics,  happily,  the  war 
has  had  a  soothing  and  purifying  influence.  A  more  conciliatory 
attitude  has  been  adopted  by  the  leaders  of  the  trade  unions 
towards  employers  of  labour.  There  have  been  but  few,  and 
quite  unimportant,  strikes  in  Australia  since  last  August. 
Australian  employers,  like  their' fellows  in  England,  have  treated 
with  great  liberality  those  of  their  employees  who  decided  to 
volunteer  for  active  service,  and  have  offered  every  inducement 
to  others  to  act  similarly.  In  not  a  few  cases  men  have 
voluntarily  offered  to  accept  lower  wages  than  those  hitherto 
received.  Thus  labour  and  capital  have,  for  a  season,  cried 
truce,  and  feelings  of  amity  and  sympathy  have  superseded  the 
old  antagonism. 

Patriotism  and  the  spirit  of  mutual  forbearance  have  thus 
both  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the  war.  There  has  also  been  a 
marvellous  display  of  public  charity  towards  Germany's  unhappy 
victims.  On  a  single  day  one  Australian  city  alone  by  voluntary 
effort  contributed  £125,000  to  the  fund  raised  for  the  relief 
of  the  destitute  Belgians.  Up  to  the  end  of  May,  New  South 
Wales  contributed  altogether  to  eight  of  the  chief  patriotic  and 
charitable  funds  connected  with  the  war  an  amount  slightly 
exceeding  three  quarters  of  a  million  sterling.  Of  this  large  sum 
£317,278  represented  the  portion  allotted  to  Belgium  alone.  In 
Victoria  and  the  other  States  the  public  response  to  all  charitable 
appeals  has  been  equally  generous.  When  the  piteous  appeal  of 
the  Belgian  Commission  reached  Australia  an  emotional  heat- 


Moral  Effects  of  the  War  in  Australia          357 

wave  of  peculiar  intensity  swept  the  continent  from  shore  to 
shore.  Nor  was  the  outburst  of  benevolent  feeling  but  temporary 
and  evanescent.  In  spite  of  the  increasing  cost  of  living  and 
a  large  amount  of  unemployment,  a  steady  inflow  of  subscriptions 
to  the  chief  charitable  funds  has  been  maintained  for  months 
past,  and  shows  no  sign  yet-  of  diminution.  Large  numbers  of 
wage-earners  and  civil  servants  regularly  devote  a  fixed  percen- 
tage of  their  salaries  to  purposes  of  benevolence,  at  considerable 
self-sacrifice.  Nor  has  there  been  any  lack  of  personal  effort  in 
the  same  direction.  Thousands  of  women  who  are  not  in  a 
position  to  give  money  render  willing,  regular  and  most  valuable 
service  in  making  garments  and  other  comforts  for  the  sick, 
wounded  and  destitute.  Doctors  have  volunteered  to  go  to  the 
front  in  such  large  numbers  that  in  some  localities  there  is  now 
a  dearth  of  medical  practitioners.  Comfort  at  least  may  be 
derived  from  the  thought  that  a  war  conducted  by  some  of 
the  belligerents  with  a  degree  of  savagery  unknown  in  Europe 
since  the  last  Tartar  incursion  has  nevertheless  evoked  a  display 
of  the  highest  human  virtues  such  as  the  world  has  rarely,  if 
ever,  seen  before. 

Brief  reference  has  been  made  to  the  brilliance  of  the  exploits 
that  have  already  won  for  the  Australian  soldier  deserved  renown. 
The  mere  fact  that,  before  the  expiration  of  the  third  month 
following  the  first  landing  on  Turkish  soil,  there  had  occurred 
nearly  nine  thousand  casualties  among  the  men  belonging  to  the 
first  contingent  despatched  by  the  Commonwealth  speaks 
sufficiently  for  itself.  But  war  exacts  sacrifices  even  more  cruel 
than  those  claimed  by  the  battlefield.  The  courage  of  patient 
endurance  is  at  least  equal  to  the  courage  of  physical  effort.  The 
bitterness  of  life  is  often  far  worse  than  the  bitterness  of  death. 
Many  in  these  troubled  days  know  this  only  too  well.  Hundreds 
of  thousands  of  devoted  women,  wives  and  mothers,  have  given 
their  dearest  to  the  great  cause  now  submitted  to  the  arbitrament 
of  the  God  of  Battles.  For  them  there  is  constant  anxiety,  ever- 
present  care,  to  be  borne  in  silence.  The  excitement  of  action 
and  the  hope  of  winning  fame  which  animate  the  soldier  in  the 
presence  of  the  enemy  are  denied  to  the  mother  waiting  in  the 
distant  home.  And  when  the  long-feared  blow  at  last  falls,  the 
brightness  of  life  to  her  is  finally  extinguished.  Laudations  of  the 
dead  bring  but  barren  comfort  to  the  mourner : 

Though  the  sound  of  fame 
May  for  a  moment  soothe,  it  cannot  slake 
The  fever  of  vain  longing,  and  the  name 
So  honoured  but  assumes  a  stronger,  bitterer  claim. 

To  this  discipline  of  suffering  the  women  of  Australia  in  par- 
ticular are  now  for  the  first  time  in  any  large  degree  being  sub- 


358  The  Empire  Review 

jected.  The  number  of  Australian  troops  engagedin  the  Boer  War 
was  few  compared  to  that  of  the  force  now  representing  the 
Commonwealth  at  the  front,  or  on  its  way  thither.  And  the 
fighting  on  the  Gallipoli  Peninsula  almost  every  day  in  deadliness 
equals  that  at  Spion  Kop.  There  is  hardly  an  individual  among 
the  civilised  inhabitants  of  Australia  who  has  not  a  relative  or 
friend  engaged  on  active  service.  In  some  cases  as  many  as  six 
brothers  have  gone  to  the  war.  Cruel  as  have  been  the  bereave- 
ments already  suffered  by  many  wives  and  mothers,  and  yet  more 
cruel  the  suspense  daily  endured  by  a  far  greater  number,  it  is 
undeniable  that  the  moral  effects  of  the  bitter  trial  now  being 
undergone  will  eventually  be  good.  In  times  such  as  these  the 
small  frivolities  of  social  and  political  life  cease  to  interest,  and 
sink  to  their  real  level  of  importance.  Fashions  and  football  are 
no  longer  regarded  as  matters  of  grave  importance.  Under  the 
discipline  of  war,  it  may  be  hoped,  the  levity,  undue  self-esteem, 
and  lack  of  a  sense  of  responsibility  which  have  hitherto  been 
serious  blemishes  in  the  Australian  national  character  will  be 
greatly  mitigated,  if  not  entirely  removed.  The  union  of  men  of 
all  classes  in  the  ranks  fighting  for  a  common  cause  must  also 
tend  to  foster  feelings  of  fraternity  and  mutual  respect,  which,  it 
is  at  least  permissible  to  hope,  will  prove  permanent.  Indirectly, 
thus,  political  union  also  witt  be  encouraged,  and  the  insensate 
strife  between  wage  earner  and  wage  payer  that  has  so  long 
disturbed  the  internal  peace  of  the  Commonwealth  will  be  allayed. 
The  returned  Australian  soldier  will  be  a  wiser  citizen  than  he 
was  before  he  left ;  and  after  his  enlightening  experiences  he  will 
turn  but  an  impatient  ear  to  the  persuasions  of  those  evil  spirits 
of  the  industrial  and  political  world  who  live  by  faction  and 
delusion. 

One  sinister  truth  seems  to  shine  out  balefully  in  these  dark 
days.  Civilisation  within  the  last  half  century  has  made  far 
greater  progress  materially  and  intellectually  than  it  has  morally 
in  one  of  the  greatest  countries  of  Europe.  A  perusal  of  the 
ghastly  details  recorded  in  the  report  of  the  British  Commission 
on  Belgian  atrocities  transports  us  back  to  the  days  when  the 
armies  of  Alva  ravaged  the  Netherlands.  The  German  fury  at 
Louvain  on  August  25  last  year  rivalled  in  its  horrors  the  Spanish 
fury  at  Antwerp  on  November  4,  1576.  And  what  are  we  to  say 
of  the  work  of  those  assassins  of  the  sea,  who  wage  merciless 
warfare  alike  against  peaceful  fishermen  and  defenceless  pas- 
sengers in  unarmed  steamers,  destroying  all  that  come  in  their 
way,  apparently  out  of  sheer  wantonness?  German  "  Kultur," 
by  its  latest  achievements,  has  conclusively  proved  to  the  world 
that  the  highest  development  of  human  intelligence  is  consistent 
with  the  lowest  decadence  of  morals.  That  foul  and  murderous 


Moral  Effects  of  the  War  in  Australia          359 

alliance  of  science  and  savagery,  which,  by  its  operation  is 
bringing  such  incalculable  woes  upon  Europe  and  the  whole 
world,  must  be  sternly  dissolved,  and  never  again  allowed  to 
come  into  existence.  Otherwise  the  present  war  will  hereafter 
be  justly  described  as  the  suicide  of  Western  civilisation,  and  the 
dark  ages  will  again  enfold  Europe.  That,  no  matter  what 
temporary  reverses  may  be  sustained,  the  task  of  restoring  the 
rule  of  right  and  justice  will  ultimately  be  achieved  few,  however, 
can  doubt.  St.  George  will  again  vanquish  the  dragon.  The 
fate  of  Napoleon,  the  conqueror  without  a  conscience,  affords 
sufficient  illustration  of  the  historical  truth  that  moral  force 
always,  in  the  end,  prevails  over  physical  force,  no  matter  how 
consummate  the  intellectual  powers  that  direct  the  material 
instruments  of  human  cupidity,  rage,  or  ambition.  And  if,  as 
we  may  hope,  the  war  results  in  the  restoration  of  the  intellectual 
and  moral  equipoise  among  the  millions  now  afflicted  with 
homicidal  frenzy,  the  conquered  will  share  its  ultimate  blessings 
as  well  as  the  conquerors.  Perhaps  even  the  German  historian 
of  the  future  may  apply  to  the  convulsions  of  our  time  Coleridge's 
fine  image,  with  greater  truth  than  it  was  applied  to  the  work 
of  the  men  of  the  French  Terror  : — 

Ye  storms  that  round  the  dawning  East  assembled, 
The  sun  was  rising,  though  ye  hid  his  light. 

For  the  paramount  and  dearest  interest  of  all  inhabitants  of  the 
world,  irrespective  of  nationality,  is  the  continued  supremacy  of 
the  moral  law.  That  is  the  chief  issue  now  at  stake,  an  issue  far 
transcending  in  importance  all  questions  of  territorial  boundaries 
and  imperial  dominion.  Conscious  that  they  are  contending  for 
those  principles  of  freedom  and  justice  which  are  the  common 
heritage  of  all  nations,  the  soldiers  of  the  allied  armies  may  rest 
assured  that  their  efforts  are  supported  by  irresistible  spiritual 
forces,  and  that  a  cause  so  sanctified  as  theirs  must  in  the  end 
prevail. 

F.  A.  W.  GISBOBNE. 


360  The  Empire  Review 


THE    COALITION    GOVERNMENT    AND 
THE    NATION 

THE  Coalition  Government  has  weathered  the  early  weeks  of 
its  existence,  and  it  is  now  possible  to  form  some  estimate  of 
its  capacity  and  leadership. 

The  first  salient  feature  in  the  situation  is  that  the  Ministry 
has  firmly  established  its  authority  in  Parliament.  During  the 
week  inaugurating  the  changed  conditions,  the  House  of  Commons 
at  times  appeared  uncertain  and  confused,  but  this  was  not  greatly 
to  be  wondered  at,  seeing  that  the  whole  basis  of  its  traditional 
internal  organisation  had  been  rudely  upset.  However,  such 
little  incidents  as  the  perturbation  of  fervent  patriots  over  the 
"pooling"  of  Ministerial  salaries  quickly  passed,  and  the  House 
speedily  settled  down  to  business.  Criticism,  on  the  whole,  has 
throughout  been  restrained  and  patriotic,  whilst  the  unity  of 
parties  was  never  better  exemplified  than  during  the  course  of 
the  debate  on  the  National  ^Register.  Such  members  as  Sir 
Thomas  Whittaker  and  Mr.  Snowden  found  themselves  in  an 
insignificant  minority— a  doctrinaire  clique  more  intent  upon  the 
inviolability  of  their  narrow  and  pedantic  formulae  than  the  safety 
of  the  country.  The  complete  hold,  however,  which  the  Premier 
has  over  the  House  was  most  fully  shown  in  the  comprehensive 
fashion  in  which  he  dismissed  a  series  of  questions  on  munitions 
with  the  short  reply  that  answers  were  "contrary  to  the  public 
interest."  On  present  indications  the  Cabinet  is  assured  of  the 
necessary  Parliamentary  support  to  carry  on  the  Government 
efficiently. 

Much  valuable  legislation  has  already  been  accomplished  in 
consequence.  The  Ministry  has  to  its  credit  the  Munitions  and 
Ministry  of  Munitions  Acts,  the  War  Loan  Act,  and  the  National 
Kegistration  Act.  These  are  all  measures  of  first-class  impor- 
tance in  the  new  organisation  of  the  country  to  meet  the  stress 
of  a  gigantic  war,  and  the  new  Cabinet  deserves  every  commenda- 
tion for  its  prompt  action. 

But  if  we  analyse  the  position  a  little  more  thoroughly  we 


The  Coalition  Government  and  the  Nation       361 

shall  find  that  the  only  Act  showing  any  bold  initiative  on  the 
part  of  Ministers  is  the  War  Loan  Act.  There  they  proceeded 
entirely  on  their  own  responsibility  to  elaborate  a  scheme  of 
great  novelty — a  scheme  opposed  to  all  the  past  financial 
traditions  of  the  country,  but  so  ingeniously  framed  to  meet  a 
great  emergency  that  it  has  won  instant  and  unanimous  approval 
and  support.  Their  other  measures,  having  been  long  overdue, 
were  conceded  to  the  popular  demand  for  action  along  certain 
previously  defined  lines.  Ministers  were  merely  the  servants  of 
national  enthusiasm,  and  in  no  respect  the  leaders. 

And  this  trait  reveals  itself  in  Ministerial  conduct  in  most 
directions.  The  present  Cabinet  seems  to  be  perpetuating  the 
spirit  in  which  the  former  Liberal  Cabinet  too  often  confronted 
its  task — it  appears  to  lack  self-confidence.  Too  often  it  seems 
to  be  anxiously  feeling  the  national  pulse  instead  of  confronting 
the  situation  squarely,  and  boldly  announcing  a  course  of  policy 
in  consonance  with  the  facts.  It  seems  disposed  too  frequently 
to  abdicate  leadership,  and  timorously  to  halt  until  public  opinion 
has  overwhelmingly  declared  itself. 

This  timid  opportunism  was  strikingly  revealed  in  the  debates 
on  the  National  Kegistration  Act.  Faced  by  hostility  on  the 
part  of  a  petty  group  of  ultra-Radical  visionaries,  the  Government 
hastened  to  declare  that  in  no  way  was  compulsory  service  con- 
templated under  the  Bill.  Individual  Ministers  subsequently 
stated  that  complete  liberty  o'f  action  had  been  preserved  to 
introduce  conscription  later  if  necessary,  and  that  it  was  doubtful 
whether  the  country  would  very  much  longer  tolerate  the  in- 
justice of  the  voluntary  system.  In  other  words,  it  is  preferable 
apparently  to  wait  for  such  a  public  expression  of  intolerance 
rather  than  act  the  part  of  leaders,  and  tell  the  country  straight- 
forwardly what  is  necessary.  The  opponents  of  the  National 
Register  have  some  reason  to  remark  that  the  Cabinet  is  seeking 
to  introduce  conscription  by  stealth. 

National  Service  has  become  an  urgent  necessity  if  we  are  to 
conduct  this  war  with  our  whole  energy,  and  thus  ensure  a  con- 
clusive peace  at  a  reasonably  early  date.  The  country  is  ready 
for  the  change,  and  will  respond  to  a  firm  call  by  the  Government. 
The  Register  is  an  essential  preliminary,  but  when  it  has  been 
compiled  let  Ministers  without  further  delay  take  the  truly 
courageous  and  statesmanlike  course,  and  proclaim  their  inten- 
tion to  introduce  conscription.  Let  them  cease  paltering  with 
half-truths,  and  let  them  abandon  the  present  mean  and  cowardly 
and  undignified  policy  of  frantic  appeals  and  indirect  pressure. 
Let  them  rise  fully  to  the  intense  gravity  of  the  situation,  and 
the  public  response  will  not  be  in  doubt. 

The  same  lack  of  authoritative  guidance  was  shown  in   the 


362  The  Empire  Review 

recent  coal  strike  in  South  Wales.  At  the  last  moment,  when  it 
became  evident  that  the  men  intended  quitting  work,  the  Cabinet 
proclaimed  the  Munitions  Act.  The  proclamation  had  no  effect, 
and  after  a  few  days'  negotiation  the  Government  stultified  the  Act 
by  granting  substantially  the  men's  demands,*  and  by  waiving  the 
penalties  prescribed  by  law.  The  Act  was  thus  revealed  as  a 
failure  at  the  outset,  and  the  miners  had  defied  the  Government 
with  impunity. 

Such  action  may  secure  temporary  peace,  but  it  will  not  lead 
to  a  permanent  settlement  of  those  industrial  difficulties  which 
have  so  gravely  hampered  our  conduct  of  the  war.  The  Cabinet 
showed  a  lamentable  lack  of  decision  and  leadership  throughout 
the  dispute.  For  some  days  before  the  outbreak  of  the  strike  it 
had  been  apparent  that  a  stoppage  of  work  was  impending.  The 
Government  took  no  action  until  the  last  moment,  and  then 
contented  themselves  with  merely  proclaiming  the  Munitions 
Act.  Had  the  responsible  Minister  attended  the  conference 
which  decreed  the  strike,  and  had  he  informed  the  men  verbally 
that  the  national  situation  was  so  critical  that  the  Government 
could  not  and  would  not  tolerate  a  stoppage  of  the  mines ;  that 
with  a  view  to  the  preservation  of  industrial  peace  arbitration  was 
available,  and  that  absolute  justice  could  be  relied  upon ;  that  if 
this  warning  were  disregarded  the  Munitions  Act  would  be  pro- 
claimed, and  its  penalties  strictly  enforced,  in  all  probability  there 
would  have  been  no  cessation  of  work.  The  peace  would  have 
been  kept  had  a  firm  and  tactful  warning  been  conveyed  verbally, 
and  had  there  been  an  authoritative  statement  of  the  extreme 
nature  of  the  national  danger,  and  the  consequent  duty  imposed 
upon  the  miners  as  patriotic  citizens  to  continue  the  output 
without  interruption.  But  leadership  and  decision  were  wanting, 
and  the  strike  occurred.  Even  then  peace  with  honour  would 
probably  have  been  secured,  and  the  way  would  have  been  paved 
towards  a  general  settlement  of  industrial  unrest,  had  there  been 
made  a  verbal  statement  of  the  gravity  of  the  situation,  and  had 
it  been  firmly  intimated  that  the  Government  could  not  treat 
with  the  men  until  they  were  back  at  work,  and  that  unless  there 
were  an  instant  resumption  of  duties,  the  penalties  of  the  Act 
would  be  enforced.  Men  and  masters  alike  would  have  realised 
the  critical  nature  of  the  position,  and  would  have  recognised 
that  the  Government  meant  business. 

This  labour  question  has  got  to  be  faced  and  to  be  handled  if 

*  I  am  not  here  concerned  with  the  justice  or  injustice  of  those  demands.  On 
the  merits  of  the  dispute  between  the  coal-owners  and  the  men  it  is  very  possible 
that  the  latter  had  a  good  case.  The  only  relevant  point  is  that  the  wrong  steps 
were  taken  to  enforce  the  case,  and  the  Government  entirely  failed  to  mark  that 
fact,  and  to  uphold  the  authority  of  the  State. 


The  Coalition  Government  and  the  Nation       363 

we  are  to  wage  the  war  as  economically  and  as  effectively  as 
possible.  The  men  are  at  heart  as  patriotic  and  as  determined 
upon  national  victory  as  any  other  section  of  the  community,  but 
they  have  an  inadequate  perception  of  the  true  nature  of  the 
struggle,  and  they  have  widespread  suspicion  that  their  employers 
are  making  huge  profits  out  of  the  war,  and  are  refusing  to  afford 
them  any  real  share  of  these  advantages.  These  misconceptions 
and  suspicions  can  only  be  resolved  by  firm  leadership  and  com- 
plete trust  on  the  part  of  the  Ministry.  Thus  far  neither  essential 
has  been  fulfilled. 

Certainly,  there  has  been  throughout  a  lamentable  failure  to 
trust  the  people.  Many  of  us  hoped  that  the  accession  to  power 
of  new  elements  would  bring  about  a  welcome  transformation  in 
this  respect.  But  the  evil  policy  of  suppression  of  news  possess- 
ing no  intrinsic  military  value  has  been  persisted  in,  and  is 
largely  responsible  for  our  labour  difficulties.  Until  Ministers 
realise  that  the  people  are  not  children,  and  accordingly  give 
them  credit  for  that  courage  which  they  appear  to  lack  them- 
selves, we  shall  not  see  a  full  awakening  of  the  national  strength. 
But  if  we  are  to  render  victory  a  certainty  we  must  have  such  an 
awakening.  We  are  fighting  a  foe,  marvellously  organised  and 
commendably  endued  with  the  spirit  of  patriotism  and  self- 
sacrifice.  We  must  show  the  like  virtues  in  equal  intensity  if  we 
are  to  win,  and  we  can  only  have  an  opportunity  of  showing 
those  virtues  if  we  have  firm  and  trustful  leadership  from  the 
Cabinet. 

Finally,  in  a  matter  of  extreme  importance,  but  admittedly  of 
great  difficulty  and  complexity,  there  has  been  delay  and  in- 
decision. I  refer  to  the  question  of  cotton.  Under  the  Order 
in  Council  of  March  11,  cotton,  in  common  with  all  other 
merchandise,  is  liable  to  seizure  by  our  cruisers  if  it  has  an 
ultimate  enemy  destination.  Not,  however,  being  contraband  it 
is  not  liable  to  confiscation.  It  is  now  quite  apparent  that  this 
procedure  is  largely  ineffective,  since  from  the  official  figures  of 
the  last  few  months  it  is  obvious  that  huge  supplies  are  entering 
Germany  through  adjacent  neutral  territory.  These  facts  have 
been  patent  for  months  past,  and  although  cotton  is  an  essential 
element  in  the  manufacture  of  propulsive  explosives,  and  there- 
fore vital  for  the  enemy,  the  Government  has  done  nothing  to 
tighten  the  grip  on  this  traffic.  The  Premier  has  indeed  admitted 
that  he  is  not  satisfied  with  the  present  position,  and  we  have 
been  assured  that  the  subject  is  receiving  the  careful  attention  of 
the  Cabinet.  But  apparently,  although  Ministers  have  had 
months  for  reflection,  either  their  collective  wisdom  has  been 
unable  to  arrive  at  any  result,  or  they  lack  the  courage  to  put  it 
into  execution.  Meanwhile  the  enemy  replenishes  his  reserves  to 


364  The  Empire  Review 

his  heart's  content,  and  acquires  the  means  of  carrying  on  the 
struggle  indefinitely.  The  time  for  action  has  surely  arrived.* 

The  mere  declaration  of  cotton  as  absolute  contraband  would 
not,  as  Ministers  have  pointed  out,  be  likely  to  achieve  very 
much  better  results  than  the  present  blockade  policy.  Under  the 
Order  in  Council  our  cruisers  possess  the  same  right  to  stop  non- 
contraband  as  contraband,  but,  of  course,  in  respect  of  the 
former  compensation  is  allowed.  The  inclusion  of  cotton  on  the 
contraband  list  would  take  away  this  right  of  compensation,  and 
would  place  upon  the  shipper  the  onus  of  proving  that  his  cargo 
had  not  an  ultimate  enemy  destination.  These  two  factors 
would  probably  somewhat  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the 
blockade,  but  in  themselves,  as  Ministers  have  contended,  they 
would  not  be  likely  to  strangle  the  traffic. 

The  chief  value  of  a  declaration  of  contraband  in  respect 
of  cotton  would  seem  to  lie  in  its  effect  on  the  United 
States.  Both  the  American  Government  and  people  regard  our 
blockade  policy  as  arbitrary  and  illegal,  and  inasmuch  as  the 
stoppage  by  this  means  of  cotton  cargoes  interferes  with  the 
chief  livelihood  of  the  South — already  seriously  affected  by  the 
war — every  element  exists  for  a  strenuous  and  intensely  hostile 
agitation  by  a  powerful  class  against  this  country.  Now,  on 
American  precedents  themselves,  the  declaration  of  cotton  as 
contraband  would  appear  to  be  well  within  the  rulings  of  inter- 
national law,  and  consequently  it  seems  probable  that  the 
adoption  of  such  a  policy  would  be  likely  to  take  much  of  the 
sting  out  of  any  agitation  which  may  arise.  The  losses  occasioned 
by  our  conduct  would  doubtless  cause  a  certain  soreness  of 
feeling  amongst  the  interested  parties,  but  they  would  no  longer 
suffer  from  the  bitter  reflection  that  they  were  being  subjected  to 
illegal,  arbitrary  force. 

On  these  grounds,  therefore,  a  prompt  declaration  of  cotton 
as  contraband  appears  to  be  most  desirable,  but  just  as  this 
measure  in  itself  will  not  cripple  the  traffic  with  Germany,  so  in 
itself  it  will  not  placate  the  injured  interests  in  the  States  to  the 
extent  that  is  necessary  if  diplomatic  friction  is  to  be  avoided  in 
the  future.  Those  who  are  entitled  to  speak  with  authority  on 
this  subject  suggest  that  two  further  steps  are  necessary.  Firstly, 
the  British  Government  should  buy  from  the  Southern  planters, 
and  should  retain  in  bond  until  the  close  of  the  war,  the  normal 
annual  crop  purchased  by  Germany,  Austria  and  Turkey.  This 
would  involve  an  expenditure  of  about  £30,000, 000,  but  would  be 
money  well  spent  if,  as  seems  likely,  it  would  go  far  towards 
preventing  future  German  supplies,  and  also  towards  satisfying 

*  This  article  was  written  and  in  type  before  the  Government  declared  cotton  to 
be  absolute  contraband. 


The  Coalition  Government  and  the  Nation       365 

the  American  claims.  Secondly,  the  neutral  countries  adjoining 
Germany  should  be  informed  that  the  Allies  regarded  the 
cessation  of  the  traffic  in  cotton  with  Germany  as  vital,  and  that 
to  this  end  they  had  decided  to  admit  to  such  neutral  territories 
only  an  amount  based  on  the  value  of  the  average  annual 
importation  for  the  three  years  preceding  the  war.  The  Govern- 
ment have  hinted  at  negotiations  in  this  direction,  but  it  seems 
very  doubtful  whether  on  such  a  subject  negotiations  will  achieve 
much  useful  purpose,  and  probably  the  time  has  come  for  a  firm 
and  courteous  intimation  on  these  lines  without  further  delay. 
The  requirement  is  only  a  reasonable  one,  and  although  doubtless 
such  a  policy  would  lead  to  protests  from  the  neutrals  concerned, 
they  could  not  rightly  take  serious  exception  to  it. 

These  are  the  measures  advocated  by  those  possessing  expert 
knowledge  of  the  cotton  trade.  They  are  comprehensive  in 
scope,  and  would  probably  achieve  their  object.  It  is  now  quite 
certain  that  the  present  policy  will  not  lead  to  the  desired  results. 
It  is  at  once  irritating  to  the  United  States,  and  absolutely 
ineffective  in  respect  to  Germany.  The  Ministry  must  act,  and, 
having  regard  to  the  very  prolonged  time  they  have  now  spent  in 
reflection  on  a  matter  of  instant  and  vital  importance,  it  is  not 
unreasonable  to  expect  them  to  act  forthwith. 

To  sum  up.  The  Cabinet  has  in  some  respects  disappointed 
expectations.  The  nation  is  anxious  loyally  and  whole-heartedly 
to  support  the  present  Government.  It  is  willing  to  give  Ministers 
virtually  dictatorial  powers  to  wage  this  struggle  to  a  definite  and 
triumphant  conclusion.  But  firm  and  statesmanlike  leadership 
it  expects  and  calls  for.  Thus  far  the  demand  has  not  been 
satisfied. 

Courage  and  foresight  in  a  high  degree  is  necessary  at  this 
moment,  and  so  far,  with  perhaps  one  exception,  we  have  looked 
in  vain  for  a  display  of  these  qualities.  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  in 
connection  with  the  work  of  his  new  department,  has  shown 
fearlessness,  energy,  and  determination,  and  he  appears  to  be 
meeting  with  the  success  which  he  deserves.  Cannot  the  Ministry, 
as  a  whole,  rise  to  the  height  of  his  example  ?  There  has  been 
far  too  much  timid  inertia  and  irresolute  action ;  far  too  much 
secrecy  and  bland  assurance ;  far  too  great  a  lack  of  confidence  in 
the  people  of  this  country.  The  nation  anxiously  awaits  a  clear, 
decided  lead  from  its  rulers.  The  opportunism  of  mere  party 
leaders  in  a  time  of  peace  is  altogether  out  of  place  under  present 
circumstances,  and  must  be  discarded  finally  and  absolutely. 

We  have  need  of  a  ministry  inspired  with  the  noble  resolution 
of  the  elder  Pitt.  In  some  respects  the  present  crisis  resembles 
the  crisis  with  which  he  had  to  deal.  Just  as  in  August,  1914, 
we  entered  upon  war  woefully  unprepared,  so  the  outbreak  of  the 


366  The  Empire  Review 

Seven  Years'  War  found  us  miserably  unready.  Then,  as  now, 
our  adversary  struck  heavily  and  suddenly.  Then,  as  now, 
English  politics  were  dominated  by  the  spirit  of  pettiness  and 
opportunism.  But  Pitt  was  fully  equal  to  the  emergency.  His 
celebrated  declaration  on  assuming  power — "  I  know  that  I  can 
save  the  country,  and  I  know  that  no  other  man  can  " — formed 
the  keynote  of  his  actions.  "  His  ambition  had  no  petty  aim. 
'  I  want  to  call  England,'  he  said  as  he  took  office,  '  out  of  that 
enervate  state  in  which  twenty  thousand  men  from  France  can 
shake  her.'  His  call  was  soon  answered.  He  at  once  breathed 
his  own  lofty  spirit  into  the  country  he  served,  as  he  communicated 
something  of  his  own  grandeur  to  the  men  who  served  him.  '  No 
man,'  said  a  soldier  of  the  time,  '  ever  entered  Mr.  Pitt's  closet 
who  did  not  feel  himself  braver  when  he  came  out  than  when  he 
went  in.'  Ill-combined  as  were  his  earlier  expeditions,  many  as 
were  his  failures,  he  roused  a  temper  in  the  nation  at  large  which 
made  ultimate  defeat  impossible.  '  England  has  been  a  long  time 
in  labour,'  exclaimed  Frederick  of  Prussia,  as  he  recognised  a 
greatness  like  his  own,  '  but  she  has  at  last  brought  forth  a 
man.' "  * 

That  is  our  need  to-day — a  man  !  Pitt's  conduct  of  the 
struggle  against  France  is  probably  the  supreme  example  in 
English  history  of  what  firm  and  courageous  leadership  will 
accomplish.  The  nation  expects  the  same  spirit  from  its  present 
rulers,  and  only  the  same  spirit  can  save  us.  Let  there  be  an  end 
of  the  contemptible  policy  which  leans  upon  the  people  for  in- 
spiration— which  frankly  admits  that  the  continuation  of  a  certain 
system  will  probably  be  regarded  as  intolerable  by  the  nation  at 
no  distant  date,  but  which  calmly  assumes  a  continuation  of  the 
system  until  the  intolerance  has  been  irresistibly  declared.  This 
is  the  policy  not  of  men  but  of  pigmies.  Leadership,  action, 
courage,  foresight  is  imperative  in  the  present  crisis.  The  nation 
looks  to  the  Cabinet  for  such  guidance. 

H.  DOUGLAS  GBEGOEY. 

*  Green's  '  Short  History  of  the  English  People,'  p.  749. 


Charles  Dickens:   Imperialist  367 


CHARLES    DICKENS:     IMPERIALIST 

I  THINK  it  was  Lord  Morley  who,  in  one  of  his  happiest 
moments,  remarked  that  it  was  only  infirmity  which  clings  to  a 
label.  Similarly,  and  by  a  parity  of  reasoning,  I  might  say  that 
it  is  only  prejudice  which  revolts  at  a  title.  For  those  to  whom 
Imperialism  is  but  a  sanction  for  that  sort  of  blind  aggression,  or 
that  passion  for  ruthless  dominion  and  insensate  megalomania, 
which  defeats  itself,  Charles  Dickens  as  an  Imperialist  can  have 
only  the  interest  of  a  somewhat  bizarre  joke,  a  study  in  irony 
that  is  as  baffling  as  it  is  gratuitous.  Dickens,  it  is  certain,  was 
no  megalomaniac.  He  knew  the  value  and  the  charm  of  those 
small  things,  whose  day,  the  Scripture  tells  us,  is  not  to  be 
despised.  He,  of  all  men,  would  have  been  opposed  to  territorial 
aggression  and  to  the  overweening  pride  that  it  engenders.  But 
that  he  was  the  greatest,  as  he  was  certainly  the  first  of  the 
Imperialists,  seems  to  me  as  true  as  that  he  was  the  most  power- 
ful social  reformer  of  his  age  and  generation. 

That  Dickens  should  have  been  an  Imperialist,  even  before 
the  age  of  Imperialism,  and  at  that  moment  in  our  history  when 
Cobden  and  the  Little  Englanders  were  supreme,  when  the 
radicalism  which  permeated  him,  in  common  with  most  of  the 
thinkers  of  his  time,  to  saturation  point,  still  looked  askance  at 
our  Colonies,  and  frowned  upon  expansion  ;  that  paradox,  it  seems 
to  me,  was,  in  the  only  real  sense  of  a  much-abused  word, 
inevitable.  It  was  inevitable,  because  it  followed  naturally  and 
irresistibly  on  the  two  cardinal  doctrines,  the  two  dominant 
intellectual  passions  of  his  life.  Dickens,  let  us  remember,  was 
first  and  last  a  patriot,  and  because  he  was  a  patriot  he 
was  an  ingrained  democrat.  His  romantic  temper  suffered  no 
smallness  of  view.  He  had  a  profound,  an  invincible  belief  in 
the  common  people,  because  he  knew  that,  perhaps  more  than 
any  other  class,  and  far  more  than  any  of  the  specialised  pro- 
fessional sections,  do  they  exemplify  the  genius  of  our  race  as 
displayed  in  those  very  qualities  that  made  the  Empire  possible. 
Dickens  knew  what  this  age  had  forgotten,  and  what  the  present 
war  has  brought  home  to  us  again.  He  knew  that  our  strength 


368  The  Empire  Review 

lies  in  "  the  man  in  the  street  " — in  the  Mark  Tapleys,  the  Sam 
Wellers,  the  Swivellers  and  the  Gargerys — in  just  those  very  men 
whose  counterparts  are  carolling  blithely  in  the  trenches  to-day, 
cracking  much  the  same  Cockney  jokes  that  Weller  cracked,  and 
facing  death  much  as  Mark  Tapley  faced  it  at  Eden.  He  knew 
that  in  these  and  not  in  the  solemn  and  the  verbose  apologists  of 
the  Circumlocution  Office — the  Pecksniffs,  the  Stiltstalkers  and  the 
Barnacles — the  real  strength  of  Britain  lay.  He  realised  that 
under  the  blithe  insouciance,  the  invincible  good  spirits  of  the 
common  people,  under  their  apparent  heedlessness  and  indiffer- 
ence, there  lies  a  steady  capacity,  an  administrative  ability,  a  grip 
on  the  affairs  of  life,  that  only  a  strong  man  can  summon  and  an 
Imperial  race  possess. 

Believing  for  this  reason  in  the  English  people,  it  followed 
that  he  believed  in  the  Empire  they  had  founded.  If  we  do  not 
recognise  the  sequence,  it  is  because  we  still  cherish  the  ridiculous 
notion  that  the  Empire  was  the  result  of  the  work  of  superior 
persons  sitting  in  comfortable  offices  in  Whitehall.  It  was  not. 
The  Empire  was  built  up  for  us  by  common  men  ;  by  workmen 
who  could  barely  read  or  write,  but  who  tackled  the  scrub  with  a 
will,  and  who  won  for  us  the  reputation  of  being  the  best  colonisers 
in  the  world  ;  it  was  administered  by  clerks  whose  equivalent  you 
may  find  in  Moorgate  Street  any  morning,  who  were  quite  ordinary 
men — till  they  were  faced  with  an  extraordinary  situation  ;  it  was 
cemented  by  adventurers  like  Clive,  and  political  outlaws  like  Sir 
Gavan  Duffy,  who  was  transported  as  a  Fenian  and  lived  to  be 
Premier  of  New  South  Wales  !  The  pretentious  and  eminently 
respectable  mediocrities  at  Whitehall  had  very  little  to  do  with 
the  building  of  the  great  structure  which  has  amazed  mankind. 
Indeed,  as  history  shows,  they  tried  their  utmost  on  occasions  to 
shed  the  Colonies  as  "  inconvenient  accessories,"  whose  Premiers 
were  guilty  of  "  outrageous  bad  form."  Well  might  Kipling  ask, 
"  What  do  they  know  of  England  who  only  England  know?  " 

I  have  no  doubt  whatever  that  that  very  question,  unframed 
in  Kipling's  terms,  yet  stirred  echoes  in  Dickens'  mind.  His 
ebullient  spirit  would  force  him  to  realise  quite  clearly  that  the 
Englishman,  "  cribb'd,  cabined  and  confined  "  at  home,  could  yet 
in  the  Colonies,  with  their  freer  opportunities,  their  more  natural 
environment,  achieve  the  success  that,  given  fair  play,  was  his 
by  right.  Let  us  take  the  metamorphosis  of  Mr.  Micawber  as  a 
case  in  point.  It  will  be  within  the  recollection  of  my  readers 
that  the  eminently  practical  Englishwoman,  Miss  Betsy  Trotwood, 
remarked  to  Mr.  Micawber  : 

"  I  wonder  you  have  never  turned  your  thoughts  to  emi- 
gration." 

"  Madam,"  returned  Mr.  Micawber,  "it  was  the  dream  of  my 


Charles  Dickens  :   Imperialist  369 

youth  and  the  fallacious  aspiration  of  my  later  years."  (I  am 
thoroughly  persuaded,  by-the-bye,  that  he  never  thought  of  it  in 
his  life). 

But  the  fact  is,  of  course,  that  Micawber  was  quintessentially 
an  Englishman  who  had  no  need  to  think  of  emigration.  Its 
vast  possibilities,  its  stimulating  romance,  its  radiant  prospects, 
and  its  golden  lines — these  things,  which  carry  men  on  in  a  great 
enterprise  and  are  really  priceless  to  a  race,  these  were  in  his 
blood,  with  the  result  that  whereas  he  regarded  the  journey  from 
London  to  Canterbury  as  an  awful  pilgrimage,  only  to  be  solemnly 
undertaken,  Australia  was  "  no  distance,  comparatively  speaking." 

"  He  acquired,  in  his  adaptation  of  himself  to  a  new  state  of 
society,  a  bold,  buccaneering  air,  not  absolutely  lawless,  but 
defensive  and  prompt.  One  might  have  supposed  him  a  child  of 
the  wilderness,  long  accustomed  to  live  out  of  the  confines  of 
civilisation  and  about  to  return  to  his  native  wilds."  We  all 
know  how  well  Mr.  Micawber  throve  in  the  new  life ;  how  he 
became  a  district  magistrate  at  Port  Middlebay,  "deservedly 
esteemed,  highly  talented,  widely  popular."  I  am  aware,  of 
course,  that  so  splendid  a  Dickensian  as  Mr.  G.  K.  Chesterton 
makes  fun  of  Dickens  for  indulging  in  this  "typically  English 
optimism  about  emigration,"  and  for  "  regarding  Australia  as  a 
sort  of  island  Valley  of  Avalon,  where  the  soul  may  heal  of  its 
grievous  wound."  But,  as  it  seems  to  me,  the  point  is  that,  just 
because  this  optimism  is  "  typically  English,"  we  may  assume 
that  Imperialism  does  in  reality  excite  a  certain  chord  that  is 
always  ready  to  be  evoked  in  our  nature — the  chord  that  responds 
to  a  call  for  adventure,  for  enterprise,  for  taking  the  chances  and 
facing  the  odds.  As  for  the  soul's  grievous  wound  that  was  to  be 
healed  in  Australia,  as  in  Avalon,  surely  the  answer  is  that 
Micawber's  soul  was  still  undaunted,  still  buoyant,  still  erect 
when  in  England,  and  it  needed  only  a  medium  in  which  to  work 
and  thrive.  The  City  Eoad,  after  all,  is  a  somewhat  more 
congested  thoroughfare  than  Sydney  High  Street,  and  the  new 
Empire  out  yonder  calls  for  men,  and  men  like  Micawber — for 
men  with  his  good  spirits,  his  elasticity,  his  buoyancy,  his 
splendid  optimism,  his  unconquerable  faith.  The  very  casualness 
of  the  man  made  him  invaluable  as  a  coloniser. 

For  there  can  be  no  question  whatever  that  the  Empire  has 
been  built  up  quite  as  much  by  the  defects  of  the  British 
temperament  as  by  its  qualities,  and  no  one  certainly  had  those 
defects  more  glaringly  exemplified  than  the  immortal  Wilkins. 
The  man  who  lives  by  that  rule  of  thumb  which  was  death  to 
Micawber  certainly  cannot  face  a  new  life,  with  new  dangers  and 
responsibilities,  readily  and  easily.  It  seems  to  me  that  Mr. 
Bernard  Shaw  has  got  very  near  the  truth  of  this  matter  when, 
VOL.  XXIX.  —No.  176.  2  G 


370  The  Empire  Review 

quoting  Oliver  Cromwell,  he  reminded  us  that  "  no  man  goes  so 
far  as  one  who  doesn't  know  which  way  he  is  going,"  and  if  we 
grasp  truly  the  real  strength  of  Dickens's  greatest  creations  (all 
of  whom  were  Bohemians) — of  Micawber  and  of  Swiveller,  of 
Vincent  Crummies  and  of  Sam  Weller — we  shall  realise  that  we 
have  in  them  the  ideal  Empire  builders,  and  that  Empire  fulfils  a 
need  in  the  English  character. 

The  more  closely  one  considers  the  question,  the  more  one  is 
driven  to  agree  with  Dickens  and  to  dissent  from  his  critic. 
"G.  K.  C.,"  my  readers  will  remember,  once  claimed  very 
happily  for  the  creator  of  "David  Copperfield  "  that  he  united 
"extraordinary  common-sense  with  extraordinarily  uncommon 
sensibility."  As  it  seems  to  me,  the  common  sense  that  the 
author  of  this  phrase  detected  in  Dickens  is  lacking  in  the 
Chestertonian  criticism  of  emigration.  After  all,  do  not  the  facts 
justify  the  "  typically  English  optimism"  concerning  it?  As  a 
matter  of  hard  experience,  was  it  not  found  that  the  convicts 
who  went  out,  like  Provis,  to  the  golden  land  "down  under" 
did,  in  point  of  fact,  reform  and  reorganise  their  lives,  achieving, 
as  Provis  did,  wealth,  position,  and  respectability  ?  It  may  be 
argued  that  convicts  have  been  "born  again" — sometimes  of 
Samuel  Smiles — even  though  they  have  never  left  the  old 
country.  But  we  all  know  perfectly  well  that  the  shock  of  a 
new  life,  with  a  fresh  environment,  and  with  freer  opportunities 
does  help  the  soul  to  brace  itself  anew,  if  not  to  heal  it  of  its 
wounds.  Perhaps,  after  all,  it  was  Micawber's  environment 
almost  as  much  as  Micawber's  personality  that  kept  that  irre- 
sistibly buoyant  individual  in  perpetual  indigence.  Possibly  the 
cardinal  point  of  his  failure  lay  in  the  fact  that  in  an  old  country 
of  stereotyped  customs  and  solidified  interests  men  like  Micawber 
are  looked  at  askance,  while  in  a  new  country,  with  its  fresher, 
freer  life,  its  constant  expansion,  its  ever-changing  experiments, 
such  a  man  as  he  is  welcomed  with  open  arms.  Others,  let  us 
remember,  went  out  to  Australia  besides  Wilkins  Micawber — 
men  of  strong  character  and  stern  stuff — but  they  were  greater 
failures  than  Micawber.  They  went  out,  some  of  them  in  chains 
and  as  convicts,  for  they  had  committed  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanours in  this  proud,  stiff  land  of  England.  They  had — 
think  of  it ! — dared  to  demand  manhood  suffrage,  or,  worse  still, 
they  had  helped  to  form  trade  unions,  and  their  names  were 
anathema  maranatlia,  and  for  the  fight  they  made  for  justice  and 
equity  they  were  placed  in  the  felons'  dock  and  were  awarded  the 
felons'  sentence.  And  then — then  those  very  men,  their  sentence 
served  in  Australia,  won  for  our  Empire,  for  us  and  for  our 
children,  the  rights  denied  them  here.  It  was  the  Chartist 
"  convicts "  who  achieved  in  Australia  the  reforms  they  could 


Charles  Dickens  :   Imperialist  371 

not  secure  in  this  old  country,  with  its  Sir  Leicester  Dedlocks, 
its  Stiltstalkers,  and  its  Barnacles.  There  is  something  thrilling, 
surely,  in  that  reflection,  something  that  makes  us  prouder  of  the 
race  "  that  does  not  know  when  it  is  beaten,"  something  that,  as 
it  seems  to  me,  redeems  the  Empire  and  emigration  from  the 
taunt  of  foolish  optimism  ! 

For  Dickens  the  Empire  was  inspiring  in  another  respect 
also.  He  knew  that  the  instinct  which  caused  our  race  to  order 
the  waste  places  of  the  earth,  to  make  the  desert  blossom  like  a 
rose,  and  to  rule  with  a  mighty  but  a  light  hand  the  more 
stubborn  peoples  who  inhabit,  but  do  not  use  them,  he  knew 
that  instinct  to  be  priceless,  not  merely  for  our  own  development, 
but  for  those  whose  trustees  and  guardians  we  are.  Dickens 
was  a  convinced  modern ;  the  past  only  interested  him  so  long 
as  it  had  an  imperious  message  for  the  present.  He  stood  for 
civilisation :  he  had  no  faith  in  that  strange  idealisation  of  the 
aborigine ;  that  decadent  worship  of  the  black  which  has  in  our 
time  manifested  itself  so  strangely.  Who  does  not  remember 
his  plea  against  "  The  Noble  Savage,"  one  of  the  most  effective 
Philippics  in  our  language  ? 

"  To  come  at  once  to  the  point,  I  beg  to  say  that  I  have  not 
the  least  belief  in  the  Noble  Savage.  I  consider  him  a  prodigious 
nuisance  and  an  enormous  superstition.  His  calling  rum  fire- 
water or  me  a  pale-face  wholly  fail  to  reconcile  me  to  him.  I 
don't  care  what  he  called  me.  I  call  him  a  savage,  and  I  call  a 
savage  a  something  highly  desirable  to  be  civilised  off  the  face  of 
the  earth.  I  think  a  mere  gent  (which  I  take  to  be  the  lowest 
form  of  civilisation)  better  than  a  howling,  whistling,  clucking, 
stamping,  jumping,  tearing  savage.  It  is  all  one  to  me  whether 
he  sticks  a  fish-bone  through  his  visage,  or  bits  of  trees  through 
the  lobes  of  his  ears,  or  birds'  feathers  in  his  head;  .  .  . 
Yielding  to  whichsoever  of  these  agreeable  eccentricities,  he  is  a 
savage — cruel,  false,  thievish,  murderous ;  addicted  more  or  less 
to  grease,  entrails  and  beastly  customs ;  a  wild  animal  with  the 
questionable  gift  of  boasting ;  a  conceited,  tiresome,  bloodthirsty, 
monotonous  humbug." 

Dickens  could  weep  over  a  little  child,  and  could  make  the 
world  weep  with  him.  His  heart  was  as  tender  as  his  humour 
was  lightning-like  in  its  perception,  its  penetrating  thrust,  its 
wonderful  vividity  that  lit  up  the  darkness  of  the  country  for 
miles  around.  But  he  was  utterly  untouched  by  that  morbid 
sentimentality,  that  repulsive  shrinking  from  the  infliction  of 
pain,  where  pain  is  necessary,  that  spells  decadence.  "  Exeter 
Hall  "  and  all  it  stood  for  he  held  in  supreme  contempt.  Do 
you  remember  the  dialogue  between  Captain  Carton  and 
Commissioner  Pordage  ? 

2  G  2 


372  The  Empire  Review 

"  Sir,"  said  the  Commissioner,  "  I  trust  there  is  going  to  be 
no  unnecessary  cruelty  committed  ?  " 

"  Sir,"  returns  the  officer,  "  I  trust  not." 

"  That  is  not  enough,  sir,"  cries  Commissioner  Pordage, 
getting  wroth.  "  Captain,  I  give  you  notice.  Government 
requires  you  to  treat  the  enemy  with  great  delicacy,  consideration, 
clemency  and  forbearance." 

"  Sir,"  says  Captain  Carton,  "I  am  an  English  officer, 
commanding  Englishmen,  and  I  hope  I  am  not  likely  to  dis- 
appoint the  Government's  just  expectations.  But,  I  presume 
you  know  that  these  villains  under  their  black  flag  have  despoiled 
our  countrymen  of  their  property,  burnt  their  homes,  barbarously 
murdered  them  and  their  little  children  and  worse  than  murdered 
their  wives  and  children." 

"  Perhaps  I  do,  Captain  Carton,"  answers  Pordage  waving 
his  hand  with  dignity ;  "  perhaps  I  do  not.  It  is  not  customary, 
sir,  for  Government  to  commit  itself." 

"  It  matters  very  little,  Mr.  Pordage,  whether  or  not. 
Believing  that  I  hold  my  commission  by  the  allowance  of 
Government,  and  not  that  I  have  received  it  direct  from  the 
devil,  I  shall  certainly  use  with  all  merciful  swiftness  of  execution 
to  exterminate  these  people  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  Let  me 
recommend  you  to  go  home,  sir,  and  to  keep  out  of  the  night  air." 

Dickens,  of  course,  was  for  justice  to  the  aborigine.  "We 
have  no  greater  justification  for  being  cruel  to  the  miserable 
object  than  for  being  cruel  to  a  William  Shakespeare  or  an 
Isaac  Newton."  But  Dickens  had  no  fear  that  his  countrymen 
would  be  cruel.  He  had— and  this  confidence  lies  at  the  root  of 
his  Imperialism — a  supreme  and  an  overmastering  belief  in  the 
"  virtue,"  the  inherent  worth,  as  well  as  the  capacity  of  his 
fellow-countrymen.  He  knew  that  the  average  Englishman 
would  not  torture  niggers,  just  as  surely  as  we  know  that  the 
average  policeman  does  not  chastise  with  any  severity  the 
children  who  ask  him  the  time  or  run  screaming  away  from  the 
door  at  which  they  have  just  knocked.  If  any  people  in  the 
world  can  be  trusted  with  dominion  over  the  Zulus,  the  Kaffirs, 
the  Umtargarties,  or,  if  you  will,  the  Esquimaux,  then  assuredly 
we  may  say  it  is  the  race  that  Dickens  understood  and  portrayed  ; 
not  merely  because  of  the  absence  of  that  very  cruelty  on  which 
I  have  laid  stress,  but  by  reason  of  those  very  defects  that,  as  I 
have  pointed  out,  lie  so  close  to  the  heart  of  our  success.  It  is 
not  a  little  singular  that  the  people  who  in  their  own  colonies 
perpetrate  the  biggest  blunders  are  those  who  come  from  that 
land  of  system,  method  and  organisation — das  klassische  Land 
der  Schulen  und  Kasernen — that "  country  of  damned  professors," 
as  Palmerston  tersely  called  it,  to  wit  Germany. 


Charles  Dickens  :   Imperialist  373 

And  after  all  it  is  but  in  the  nature  of  things  that  we  should 
find  her  dispensation  the  most  galling,  not  only  to  the  civilised, 
but  to  the  savage  man.  The  wild  man  has  no  taste  for  being 
placed  under  the  microscope  ;  for  being  regulated,  ruled,  disciplined 
and  controlled  ;  his  food  weighed  out  to  him,  his  time  apportioned 
and  his  life  "  organised  "  in  every  one  of  its  several  acts.  Even 
he  does  not  care  to  be  governed  by  people  who,  so  to  speak, 
would  haggle  on  a  fire-escape.  Hence,  perhaps,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  in  every  colony  which  we  have  seized,  the  German 
exit  and  our  advent  has  been  wildly,  vehemently  applauded ! 

We  shall  find  a  better  type  of  coloniser,  a  truer  Imperialist 
than  the  German  merchants,  who  despoiled  Samoa,  or  spread 
disease  among  the  Hueros,  if  we  turn  to  Dickens,  and  let  him 
introduce  to  us  a  typical  example,  as  it  seems  to  me,  of  the  man 
who  made  our  Empire.  His  name  is  Mark  Tapley,  and  he  is 
speaking  amid  all  the  miseries  and  pestilential  squalor  of  his 
swamp-ridden  home  at  Eden.  "  Do  better  ?  "  he  says  cheerfully, 
"  to  be  sure  you  will !  We  shall  all  do  better.  What  we've  got 
to  do  is  to  keep  up  our  spirits,  and  be  neighbourly.  We  shall 
come  all  right  in  the  end,  never  fear." 

So  Mark  worked  on  early  and  late  with  nothing  but  "the 
habitual  cheerfulness  of  his  disposition  and  amazing  power  of 
self-sustainment ;  "  for  within  himself  he  looked  on  their  condition 
as  desperate  "  and  in  his  own  words  '  came  out  strong  '  in  con- 
sequence." Like  Chaucer,  he  perceived  the  harmonies  of  the 
world  and  forbade  despair.  No  troubles  could  extort  from  him  a 
single  fretful  note. 

A  good  type  that,  surely,  of  the  men  who  made  the  Empire  ; 
made  it  in  blood  and  tears,  but  still  with  a  smile  on  their  faces 
and  hope  in  their  hearts — men  who,  we  may  be  very  sure,  will 
not  lightly  suffer  to  be  debased  the  sovereignty  that  they  won  bj 
matchless  sacrifice. 

W.  WALTER  CROTCH, 
President  of  the  Dickens  Fellowship. 


374  The  Empire  Review 


THE    EMPIRE    LIBRARY 

THE  SOUL  OF  THE  WAR* 

THE  books  that  have  been  written  in  regard  to  the  present 
war  fall  very  roughly  into  two  main  classes.  On  the  one  hand 
they  are  the  books  that  purport  to  give  the  author's  notions  of 
the  causes  of  the  struggle,  and  the  measures  necessary  in  his 
judgment  for  its  successful  prosecution.  On  the  other  hand 
there  are  those  that  set  forth  simply  what  the  author  has 
himself  done  or  seen  in  the  great  conflict,  the  work  that  he  has 
accomplished,  the  impressions  that  he  has  received,  the  lessons 
that  he  has  learnt  from  his  experience  of  Armageddon.  It  is  to 
the  second  class,  which  is  the  smaller  and  the  more  interesting, 
that  Mr.  Gibbs'  work  belongs.  His  aim — he  gives  it  to  us  on 
almost  the  last  page,  but  it  is  evident  from  the  first  paragraph — 
is  simply  to  set  forth  the  scenes  and  character  of  the  war  as  they 
have  come  before  his  eyes  and  as  he  has  studied  them  for  nearly 
a  year  of  history.  He  adds  : — 

If  there  is  any  purpose  in  what  I  have  written  beyond  mere  record,  it  is  to 
reveal  the  soul  of  war  so  nakedly  that  it  cannot  be  glossed  over  by  the  glamour 
of  false  sentiment  and  false  heroics. 

Such  was  his  aim,  and  he  has  written  for  its  fulfilment  a 
strikingly  interesting  book.  Modest  and  unpretentious  in  tone, 
these  pages  show  wide  knowledge,  a  deep  human  sympathy,  keen 
powers  of  observation,  and  a  considerable  command  of  vivid  and 
forceful  language ;  they  should  make  an  instant  appeal  to  an 
extensive  public. 

Mr.  Gibbs  possesses  the  faculty  of  seizing  upon  the  salient 
features  of  a  scene  and  placing  it  in  a  few  aptly  chosen  words 
before  the  eye  of  the  reader.  He  has  powers  of  suggesting  what 
he  does  not  actually  describe,  and  many  of  his  slighter  pictures  are 
brilliant  pieces  of  literary  impressionism.  He  has  imagination, 
and  can  look  beneath  the  surface  of  things  to  find  their  true 
meaning.  He  is  acute  in  the  analysis  of  character.  I  know  few  finer 
comparative  studies  of  the  French  and  English  character  than  he 

*  '  The  Soul  of  the  War.1  By  Philip  Gibbs.  London  :  William  Heinemann. 
7s.6d.net. 


The  Empire  Library  375 

has  given  us  in  this  book.  He  does  not  trouble  himself  with  the 
broad  external  differences  between  Frenchman  and  Englishman 
that  everyone  can  see  and  that  all  the  world  accepts  as  common- 
place. His  interest  is  in  the  little  traits,  the  delicate  half-hidden 
differences  of  thought  and  feeling  that  are  so  often  revealed  only 
in  a  brief  word,  a  smile,  a  gesture— sometimes  in  silence  itself. 
He  can  detect  the  different  point  of  view  that  is  the  secret  of 
most  of  the  interesting  differences  between  the  two  peoples.  His 
knowledge  of  France  is  not  limited,  as  is  that  of  so  many  English- 
men, to  the  life  of  Paris,  or  rather  that  of  a  certain  section  of 
it ;  he  knows  the  provincial  towns,  the  commercial  centres,  the 
villages,  the  fields ;  and  he  has  studied  the  country  and  the  people 
with  so  much  real  sympathy  and  understanding,  that  many  of  the 
little  stories  that  he  tells  us,  the  little  scenes  that  he  describes, 
are  more  illuminating  than  many  pages  of  serious  and  solemn 
discourse. 

The  author  has  well  caught  the  spirit  of  those  memorable 
days  when  the  heart  of  the  world  was  heavy  with  foreboding. 
"  Impossible,"  men  were  saying  in  the  London  streets,  and  by 
the  Seine  the  word  was  echoed,  "  Incroyable."  With  appalling 
rapidity  came  the  dread  catastrophe,  and  humanity  suddenly 
awoke  to  find  its  worst  fears  realised.  Political  differences  were 
forgotten.  Social  and  commercial  activity  was  at  a  standstill. 
Things  that  had  mattered  mattered  now  no  more.  Of  the  fever  and 
anxiety  of  Fleet  Street  at  the  hour  of  the  crisis,  Mr.  Gibbs  has 
given  us  a  vivid  picture,  and  his  description  of  the  scene  on  the 
channel  steamer  on  that  night  of  nights,  full  of  the  strange 
gloom  and  tension  of  the  time,  forms  an  admirably  subdued 
prelude  to  the  great  drama  about  to  be  unfolded  before  a  horror- 
stricken  world. 

The  chapter  in  which  he  tells  us  of  the  mobilisation  of  the 
forces  of  France  is  an  able  piece  of  work.  He  shows  us  the  very 
soul  of  Paris  in  those  stirring  days,  the  pathetic  scenes  of  farewell 
between  son  and  mother,  father  and  children,  husband  and  wife, 
lover  and  mistress ;  the  boundless  fervour  of  patriotism  that 
animated  the  sons  of  France,  the  wonderful  spirit  of  willing 
sacrifice  that  inspired  men  and  women  of  every  condition  and 
degree.  At  the  railway  stations,  in  the  trains,  in  the  streets  of 
the  provincial  towns  that  lie  between  the  capital  and  the  military 
dep6ts  whither  the  flower  of  France  hastened  to  join  the  colours, 
on  the  roads,  in  those  picturesque  little  villages  that  dot  here  and 
there  the  countryside,  everywhere  the  spirit  was  the  same.  How 
well  Mr.  Gibbs  understands  those  types — the  officer  parting  from 
his  fair  wife  at  the  station,  the  neurotic  youth  in  the  train,  that 
"poor  weed  of  life  reared  in  the  dark  lairs  of  civilisation,"  with 
his  self-pity  and  his  sacrifice  of  self,  the  young  girls  carrying  fruit 


376  The  Empire  Review 

to  the  carriage  windows,  and  taking  payment  in  the  touch  of  a 
soldier's  lips  !     It  is  the  perfection  of  graphic  description. 

Mobilisation  is  completed,  the  grim  struggle  has  begun.  The 
fears,  the  doubts,  the  sorrow,  the  anxiety  of  the  hour,  the 
rumours  and  the  bewilderment  of  the  men  and  women  of  Paris 
and  the  country  as  the  great  secret  war  developed,  are  clearly 
mirrored  for  us  in  these  fascinating  pages.  How  vivid  is  that 
description  of  the  weary  journalists  at  the  Ministry  of  War, 
waiting  for  the  meagre  scraps  of  news  for  which  the  country  in 
its  turn  was  waiting  in  a  fever  of  expectation,  a  frenzied  mixture 
of  hopes  and  fears.  Mr.  Gibbs  has  wisely  told  many  of  his 
stories  in  the  language  in  which  he  heard  them.  He  has  re- 
produced his  conversations  with  soldiers  and  with  peasants ;  he 
has  let  the  British  sergeant  tell  his  own  story  of  the  retreat  from 
Mons,  and  in  his  own  words  the  gravedigger  at  work  upon  the 
battlefield  of  yesterday  makes  his  grim  comments  on  his  ghastly 
toil.  There  is  a  splendid  picture  of  Paris  as  she  was  in  the  time 
of  her  peril,  when  every  hour  seemed  to  bring  nearer  a  new  siege 
with  all  the  added  horrors  that  forty  years'  development  of 
German  military  science  would  inevitably  bring.  We  know — 
the  whole  world  knows — how  the  tide  turned  and  the  danger 
passed  away  and  the  heart  of  Paris  rose  once  more.  Let  me 
quote  a  few  words  from  the  end  of  the  fine  chapter  the  author 
devotes  to  those  anxious  days. 

O  fair  dream-city,  in  which  the  highest  passions  of  the  spirit  have  found  a 
dwelling-place — with  the  rankest  weeds  of  vice,  in  which  so  many  human 
hearts  have  suffered  and  striven  and  starved  for  beauty's  sake,  in  which  always 
there  have  lived  laughter  and  agony  and  tears,  where  liberty  was  cherished  as 
well  as  murdered,  and  where  love  has  redeemed  a  thousand  crimes,  I,  though 
an  Englishman,  found  tears  in  my  eyes  because  on  that  day  of  history  your 
beauty  was  still  unspoilt. 

It  is  a  fine  apostrophe. 

The  sufferings  of  the  towns  and  villages  overwhelmed  and 
ruined  in  the  onrush  of  the  invading  armies,  the  immortal 
bravery  of  that  last  Belgian  stand,  all  this  is  told  in  pages  full 
of  noble  sympathy  and  understanding.  Whether  we  can  admit, 
as  the  author  believes,  that  the  ennobling  influence  of  war  is  a 
mere  invention  of  the  philosophers,  whether  we  must  decline  to 
believe  in  the  purification  of  humanity  by  fire,  is  a  question 
which  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  survey.  The  sights 
that  he  saw  are  still  before  his  eyes,  the  cries  of  the  wounded 
and  the  desolate  are  ringing  in  his  ears ;  he  has  suffered  with  the 
sufferiDg  and  gazed  in  sorrow  on  the  slain,  and  we  cannot  feel 
surprised  that  he  looks  on  war  as  the  most  frightful  of  all  things 
human.  True  it  is  that  war  has  changed  its  nature.  It  is  no 
more  a  thing  of  pomp  and  pageantry  ;  the  numbers  engaged  irj 


The  Empire  Library  377 

a  modern  battle  are  too  enormous,  and  the  machinery  of  destruc- 
tion far  too  deadly,  for  it  to  accord  with  the  conceptions  which 
delighted  the  martial  poets  of  the  past.  Mr.  Gibbs  would  be  the 
first,  I  am  sure,  to  confess  that  with  all  its  horrors,  war  never- 
theless calls  forth  some  of  the  finest,  as  well  as  some  of  the 
basest,  qualities  of  human  nature.  But  he  has  viewed  the  war 
too  closely  and  written  of  it  too  soon,  to  attain  in  these  pages 
the  passionless  outlook  of  the  philosophic  historian,  and  what  he 
may  perhaps  have  lost  in  perspective  he  has  gained  in  vividness. 
Of  German  atrocities  in  Belgium  I  will  not  speak.  The  author 
has  not  spared  the  feelings  of  his  readers,  and  he  is  right.  It  is 
better,  a  thousand  times  better,  that  Englishmen  and  English- 
women should  know  and  realise  to  the  full  the  agony  through 
which  France  and  Belgium  have  been  passing,  for  it  is  by 
knowing  and  realising  the  depths  of  their  suffering  that  we  best 
shall  sympathise  and  help. 

Mr.  Gibbs  gives  us  a  wonderful  picture  of  some  of  the  ruined 
towns  of  Belgium  ;  of  the  heap  of  ruins  that  once  was  Furnes, 
and  of  Dixmude,  whose  position  has  exposed  her  to  bombardment 
throughout  so  many  months.  The  description  of  the  work  of 
the  military  hospitals  is  remarkably  vivid.  The  author  did  not 
play  the  part  of  a  mere  spectator.  He  did  his  share  of  the 
terrible,  wonderful  work,  and  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  his  share 
was  very  much  heavier  than  his  modest  account  would  warrant 
us  in  believing.  For  the  surgeons  and  the  nurses,  French  and 
British  alike,  he  has  nothing  but  the  warmest  praise.  The 
admiration  of  the  Belgians  for  the  heroism  of  the  British  nurses, 
he  tells  us,  passes  all  bounds.  I  must  quote  one  little  story  : 

"  They  are  wonderful,  your  English  ladies,"  said  a  bearded  man.  He 
hesitated  a  moment  and  then  asked  timidly,  "  Do  you  think  I  might  shake 
hands  with  one  of  them  ?  " 

I  arranged  the  little  matter,  and  he  trudged  off  with  a  flush  on  his  cheek 
as  though  he  had  been  in  the  presence  of  a  queen  and  graciously  received  .  .  . 
There  was  no  false  sentiment,  no  disguised  gallantry,  in  the  homage  of  the 
Belgians  to  those  ladies.  It  was  the  simple  chivalrous  respect  of  soldiers  to 
dauntless  women  who  had  come  to  help  them  when  they  were  struck  down 
and  needed  pity. 

But  it  is  when  he  speaks  of  the  soul  of  Paris,  in  my  opinion, 
that  the  author  is  at  his  best.  His  pages  are  so  full  of  the  true 
spirit  of  the  city,  so  full  of  the  beauty  and  charm  of  its  streets 
and  its  parks,  and  the  infectious  cheerfulness  of  its  brave  men 
and  women,  that  I  feel  sure  that  no  one  who  has  any  knowledge 
of  the  place  will  read  them  without  the  deepest  interest.  The 
little  scenes  that  he  paints  for  us  with  his  delicate  brush  and  his 
quiet  colours  are  full  of  subtle  grace  and  charm.  Nothing, 
perhaps,  is  more  typical  of  the  wonderful  natural  gaiety  of  the 


378  The  Empire  Review 

Parisian  mind  than  its  attitude  towards  the  danger  from  the  air, 
and  Mr.  Gibbs  gives  us  a  vivid  little  sketch  of  the  coming  of  the 
Zeppelins  and  their  reception  by  the  capital.  Finest  of  all, 
perhaps,  is  his  picture  of  Paris  in  the  spring.  The  whole 
chapter  is  full  of  a  deep  love  and  admiration  for  the  beauty  of 
the  city  and  the  spirit  of  its  citizens,  and  the  words  with  which 
it  closes  fittingly  express  the  truth  that  the  hearts  of  all  of  us 
must  feel.  Truly,  however  great  had  been  the  German  army,  it 
could  never  have  captured  the  soul  of  that  great  city  on  the  Seine. 
In  his  chapters  on  the  soldiers  of  France  and  the  soldiers  in 
khaki  the  author  has  used  to  the  full  his  keen  observation  and 
powers  of  analysis.  He  shows  how  the  French  soldier,  whatever 
his  coarseness  or  his  delicacy,  ever  longs  in  his  pain  for  feminine 
consolation,  and  how  all  his  ideals  and  his  yearnings,  and  his  self- 
pity,  are  intimately  associated  with  the  love  of  women  and 
especially  of  one  woman,  his  mother.  He  shows  how  candid 
that  same  soldier  is  in  the  analysis  of  his  emotions,  with  what 
freedom  from  shame  he  will  confess  the  fear  that  he  does  not 
feel,  with  what  a  wonderfully  cheerful  and  buoyant  heart  he  bears 
himself  in  the  midst  of  toil  and  peril. 

The  spirit  of  D'Artagnan  is  not  dead.  Along  many  roads  of  France  I  have 
met  gay  fellows  whose  courage  has  the  laughing  quality  of  that  musketeer  and 
his  Gascon  audacity  which  makes  a  jest  of  death  itself.  In  spite  of  all  the 
horrors  of  modern  warfare,  with  its  annihilating  shell-fire  and  the  monstrous 
ruthlessness  of  great  guns,  the  French  soldier  at  this  test  retains  that  quality 
of  youth  which  soars  even  above  the  muck  and  misery  of  the  trenches. 

With  the  British  soldier  he  deals  hardly  less  well.  He  sketches 
the  mental  attitude  of  the  average  Englishman  who  went  out  a 
year  ago  to  France,  to  an  unknown  land  in  which  he  was  to  do 
"  his  bit."  And  he  shows  us  the  spirit  of  the  man  who,  knowing 
what  war  is— knowing  what  this  war  is — by  grim  experience,  is 
still  eager  to  do  that  "  bit "  to  the  end. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  incidental  results  of  the 
great  struggle  has  been  the  better  and  fuller  understanding  that 
Englishmen  have  gained  of  the  true  character  of  their  brave  allies 
across  the  channel.  What  so  many  of  our  soldiers  have  had  the 
opportunity  of  learning  for  themselves  on  the  hospitable  soil  of 
France,  Mr.  Gibbs  has  set  forth  in  these  vivid  pages  for  those  of 
us  who  are  still  in  England.  But  to  paint  that  fascinating 
picture  of  the  French  character  was  not  the  main  object  with 
which  he  took  up  his  pen.  He  went  to  France,  in  the  most 
literal  sense  that  the  words  will  bear,  to  bring  the  war  home  to 
us,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to  the  measure  of  success 
that  he  has  attained. 

CRITICUS. 


Botha's  Return:  An  Appreciation  379 


BOTHA'S  RETURN:  AN  APPRECIATION 

No  trumpets  sound  the  war-note, 
No  lictors  clear  the  way, 
The  knights  will  ride 
In  all  their  pride, 
Along  the  streets  to-day. 

INSTEAD  of  garlands  hanging  from  doors  and  windows  one 
sees  floating  on  all  sides  the  flags  of  friendly  nations ;  Cape  Town 
is  en  fete.  Just  as  the  Eoman  general  entered  his  beloved  Eome 
and  brought  back  the  trophies  of  victory,  marching  under  the 
marble  arches  set  up  to  past  conquerors,  so  General  Botha  is 
returning  with  the  ashes  of  the  late  German  South- West,  and 
every  village  and  every  town  have  sent  representatives  to  do 
homage  to  the  victorious  army. 

To  those  who  have  opposed  him  Botha's  victory  may  mean 
little,  for  the  backvelder  in  South  Africa  only  lives  in  his  own 
little  world.  The  small-minded  Hertzogite  knows  only  of  a 
beneficient  England  which  gives  him  money  and  protects  him, 
and  that  in  return  he  gives  nothing.  He  cannot  realise  what 
British  protection  really  means ;  what  it  is  costing  in  men  and 
treasure  to-day.  His  hopes  and  ambitions  are  too  deadly  selfish, 
too  puerile,  his  ambition  is  solely  to  gain  power,  and  he  desires 
nothing  better  than  to  oppose  all  effort,  all  sacrifice  to  aid  the 
Empire.  This  great  victory  has  to  educate  him.  General 
Botha's  triumph  will  not  end  at  the  Cape.  To  him  is  com- 
mitted the  task  of  going  through  the  country  and  explaining  in 
the  rebel  districts  the  true  meaning  of  his  great  action,  but  to-day 
he  is  amongst  loyal  South  Africans,  and  from  this  loyalty  may 
resound  a  welkin  that  will  ring  its  truthfulness  throughout  the 
whole  land. 

The  little  backvelder  who  dreams  that  the  Union  Jack  is 
going  to  hang  dishonoured  in  Africa  dreams  an  idle  dream. 
There  may  be  men  who  cannot  reason  and  see  the  glory  beyond 
its  folds,  but  to  those  I  say  "  Beware."  They  may  mock  and 
spurn  it,  they  may  insult  it  in  the  darkness,  but  there  are  millions 
to  see  it  fly  in  honour  for  all  time ;  and  the  few  sullen  opposers 
here  are  but  a  tiny  blot  on  the  world's  brightest  escutcheon.  To- 
day we  do  honour  to  a  great  Britisher,  an  Imperialist  who  saw 
the  strength  and  might  hidden  in  the  folds  of  this  glorious  Flag, 
and  who  has  ever  striven  for  the  people  in  this  part  of  the 
Empire  living  under  its  folds.  Some  say  General  Botha  has 


380  The  Empire  Review 

been  too  lenient  ?  I  do  not  think  so.  He  serves  a  great  master. 
He  is  rich  in  his  strength.  His  cause  is  justice  and  truth,  and  he 
can  afford  to  be  lenient.  Time  makes  harsh  judgments  doubly 
cruel,  but  it  ever  sweetens  the  memory  of  forgiveness,  and  when 
General  Botha's  record  is  surveyed  in  long  after  years,  his  wisdom 
and  tenderness  to  his  erring  brothers  will  be  gilded  forever  in 
letters  of  gold. 

General  Botha  needs  no  greater  tribute  than  he  is  receiving. 
He  engaged  to  lead  his  followers  to  victory  and  return  with  them. 
He  has  done  so.  To-day  he  receives  the  welcome  of  the  capital 
of  his  beloved  country.  His  able  lieutenant,  General  Smuts, 
shares  his  triumph  and  so  do  all  his  brothers  in  arms.  These 
builders  of  Empire  have  added  a  great  stone  to  the  edifice,  and 
to-morrow — well,  to-morrow  they  will  build  again. 

W.  P.  TAYLOR. 

CAPE  TOWN. 


OVERSEA    NOTES 

CANADA 

THE  Ontario  Government  has  set  apart  $500,000  to  provide  500 
machine  guns  for  the  Canadian  troops  at  the  front.  The  machine 
gun  to  be  purchased  is  of  a  type  tested  and  approved  of  by  the  War 
Office.  It  weighs  completely  equipped  only  25|  Ibs.  and  possesses  many 
advantages  over  other  machine  guns  in  that  it  can  be  fired  from  any 
position,  and  will  therefore  be  available  for  use  from  aeroplanes.  It  can 
be  operated  from  the  shoulder  as  easily  as  from  a  fixed  mounting,  and  is 
regarded  as  the  latest  word  in  this  class  of  arm.  In  addition  to  the  gift 
of  the  Government,  private  citizens,  singly  or  in  groups,  are  providing 
funds  for  the  purchase  of  one  or  more  machine  guns.  For  instance,  the 
clergymen  of  the  city  have  given  one  gun.  Business  men  are  also 
sending  machine  guns  to  fill  their  place  in  the  ranks,  and  it  is  proposed 
that  every  fifty  business  men  who  cannot  themselves  volunteer  for  service 
abroad  shall,  in  lieu  of  personal  service,  send  one  machine  gun. 

THE  militia  reserves  in  Canada  are  to  be  organised.  To  that  end  a 
special  committee  has  been  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Militia.  It  is 
estimated  that  throughout  the  Dominion  there  are  at  present  300,000 
men  who  have  served  at  one  time  or  another  in  the  militia,  but  who  have 
retired.  There  are  thousands  of  others  who  ordinarily  would  be  too  old 
to  join  the  service,  but  who  would  be  of  value  in  case  of  trouble  at  home 
or  to  bring  up  to  full  strength  the  regiments  whose  ranks  have  been 
depleted  by  enlistment  for  overseas  service.  These  reserve  battalions 
were  suggested  by  Lord  Dundonald  and  advocated  by  the  present  Minister 
of  Militia  as  far  back  as  1892.  The  details  of  the  scheme  have  not  been 
decided  upon  yet,  but  the  idea  is  to  enrol  and  keep  account  of  all  who 
are  eligible  for  military  service,  even  though  they  are  not  able  to  proceed 


Oversea  Notes  381 

to  the  front.     The  men  thus  enrolled  would  be  available  for  home  defence 
at  any  time  should  their  services  ever  be  required. 

A  SUGGESTION  has  been  made  to  the  Montreal  authorities  that  the 
city  join  in  a  movement  spreading  throughout  the  empire,  and  contribute 
£1,500  for  the  purpose  of  building  an  aeroplane  for  war  service,  the 
latter  to  be  named  after  the  city.  The  suggestion  favours  the  idea  of  a 
league  of  cities  in  the  matter  of  supplying  airships  for  use  of  the  armies 
in  the  field.  The  amount  of  money  that  has  been  subscribed  in  Canada 
for  machine  guns,  and  all  sorts  of  military  accessories  is  not  realised  in 
this  country  and  the  list  will  probably  never  be  fully  compiled. 

NOVA  SCOTIA  has  already  distinguished  herself  in  sending  timely  help 
to  the  Belgians  to  relieve  the  destitution  caused  by  their  heroic  fight  for 
freedom  and  right.  The  members  of  the  Junior  Women's  Auxiliary  of 
Christ  Church,  Windsor,  Nova  Scotia,  are  deeply  interested  in  their 
cause,  and  the  devotion  of  the  Belgian  Royal  Family  in  this  crisis  of 
their  country  has  aroused  their  fullest  sympathy.  As  a  tangible  token 
of  their  admiration  and  esteem,  they  have  worked  for  the  Queen  of  the 
Belgians  a  coverlet,  which  has  been  transmitted  through  the  Agent- 
General  for  Nova  Scotia  in  London,  to  the  Belgian  Minister  for  Her 
Majesty's  gracious  acceptance.  A  novel  method  of  aiding  the  Red  Cross 
Society  in  Halifax  has  just  been  inaugurated  by  thirty-five  young 
business  men  of  that  city,  who  agree  to  pay  $2  a  month  to  the  Society  as 
long  as  the  war  lasts,  and  likewise  pledge  themselves  each  to  obtain  ten 
other  men  to  contribute  a  similar  sum.  By  this  scheme  the  fund  will 
benefit  to  the  extent  of  over  £900  every  six  months. 

LEAVE  of  absence  for  one  month  is  to  be  granted  to  non-commissioned 
officers  and  men  of  the  Expeditionary  Force  still  in  Canada  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  them  to  take  part  in  harvesting  work.  Leave  will 
be  granted  upon  certain  conditions  ;  for  instance,  the  privilege  will  be 
extended  only  to  well-conducted  and  deserving  men.  They  will  be 
required  to  wear  during  their  absence  their  working  suits,  leaving  their 
uniforms  and  equipment  with  their  respective  units.  Return  transporta- 
tion will  be  furnished  to  each  non-commissioned  officer  and  man  upon 
proof  being  given  that  they  have  actually  obtained  harvesting  employ- 
ment within  a  radius  of  so  many  miles  of  the  headquarters  of  their  unit, 
otherwise  they  will  be  obliged  to  pay  their  own  fare  should  they  elect  to 
leave  camp  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  harvesting  work.  This  should 
go  a  considerable  way  towards  solving  the  problem  of  shortage  of  labour 
on  the  Canadian  harvest  fields  for  which  the  war  has  there,  as  here,  been 
responsible. 

THE  tobacco  growers  of  Kent  County,  Ontario,  and  the  townspeople 
are  co-operating  in  a  movement  to  send  tons  of  Kent  grown  tobacco  to 
the  Canadian  soldiers  at  the  front.  A  local  office  building,  lent  for 
the  purpose,  has  been  fitted  up  with  tobacco-stripping  and  pressing 
machinery,  and  every  afternoon  and  evening  townspeople  and  tobacco 
growers  are  busily  engaged  in  preparing  50-lb.  bales  of  the  weed  for 
shipment  overseas.  Each  bale  is  labelled  :  "  Canadian  raw  leaf  tobacco, 
donated  by  the  growers  of  Kent  to  the  Canadian  soldiers  at  the  front." 


382  The  Empire  Review 

HUGE  lobster  catches  are  reported  off  the  Canadian  eastern  coast.  The 
boats  are  taking  lobsters  faster  than  the  factories  can  pack  them.  The 
catch  is  divided  over  the  various  canning  factories.  One  boat  belonging 
to  a  well-known  fleet  recently  took  as  many  as  4,400  fish.  A  resident  of 
Escuminac  reports  that  he  put  9,000  live  lobsters,  which  he  was  unable 
to  pack  at  the  time,  into  a  boat  which  he  had  transformed  into  a  cage, 
and  sank  it  in  order  to  keep  the  fish  alive  until  such  time  as  he  could  use 
them.  Immense  quantities  of  tinned  salmon  are  being  sent  to  France 
and  are  being  used  both  by  the  French  and  British  armies  as  alternate 
rations.  Canadian  bacon  in  large  quantities  is  also  arriving  in  France, 
where  large  supplies  can  be  seen  at  the  provision  depots  of  the  principal 
bases.  Tinned  fruit  from  the  Dominion  is  being  supplied  in  small 
quantities  to  the  officers'  messes  as  an  experiment,  and  larger  orders  are 
anticipated  in  the  immediate  future. 

THE  one  cent  amusement  tax  has  come  into  force  at  Montreal.  It  is 
for  the  benefit  of  the  hospitals  in  that  city,  also  for  charitable  institutions. 
Henceforth  this  tax  will  be  charged  in  connection  with  every  ticket 
purchased  for  a  theatre,  moving  picture  show,  amusement  hall,  concert 
hall,  circus,  playground,  race-course  or  skating  rink,  and  it  will  be 
payable  in  cash  or  by  means  of  tickets  issued  by  the  city.  The  new 
tax  is  favourably  regarded  and  is  expected  to  yield  a  very  considerable 
revenue. 

THE  first  shipment  of  wheat  has  been  sent  out  of  the  Peace  River 
country.  Wheat  has  been  grown  there  for  many  years  and  the  crop  is 
a  certain  one,  but  until  this  year  the  distance  and  the  absence  of  rail 
communication  had  rendered  shipment  to  outside  points  impossible. 
There  is  now  established  rail  communication  from  Edmonton  to  Peace 
River  Landing.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Edmonton  is  500  miles 
from  the  Peace  River  country,  or  just  about  as  far  as  the  point  to  which 
the  Pacific  Great  Eastern  Railway  is  now  in  course  of  construction,  that 
is,  to  Lake  La  Hache  in  Cariboo.  It  is  difficult  to  realise  that  at 
"  150-Mile  House  "  on  the  Cariboo  Road  one  is  as  near  the  wheat  fields 
of  the  Peace  River  as  at  Edmonton.  Some  day  much  of  the  traffic  of 
this  great  unexploited  land  will  find  its  way  to  the  Pacific  coast,  instead 
of  being  carried  across  the  continent. 

THE  exceptionally  low  rate  of  interest  according  to  ruling  prices 
which  the  Nova  Scotia  loan  for  one  million  dollars  recently  negotiated  in 
New  York  is  costing  the  province,  viz.,  $3  '90  per  cent.,  is  a  conclusive 
indication  not  only  as  to  the  high  position  held  by  Nova  Scotia  in  the 
financial  world,  but  also  of  the  solid  foundations  upon  which  her  pros- 
perity has  been  built  up  in  the  past.  Nothing  in  the  nature  of  a  boom 
has  inflated  values,  consequently  her  progress  has  been  steady  and  sure, 
and  is  largely  due  to  the  gradual  and  economical  development  of  her 
valuable  and  varied  resources.  As  these  become  better  known,  however, 
and  the  possibilities  of  their  further  development  fully  appreciated  by 
capital  and  labour,  one  looks  in  the  near  future  for  a  more  rapid,  though 
none  the  less  solid  advance  in  the  prosperity  of  the  province. 


Oversea  Notes  383 

ADVICES  from  Nova  Scotia  state  that  the  crop  outlook  in  the  province 
is  very  favourable.  It  is  estimated  that  from  15  per  cent,  to  20  per 
cent,  more  land  has  been  brought  under  cultivation  than  last  year,  and 
proportionately  larger  returns  are  looked  for.  The  hay  harvest  promises 
well,  and  will  be  at  least  25  per  cent,  above  the  yield  of  last  season, 
while  clover  is  abundant.  Grains  are  looking  well,  and  with  propitious 
weather  good  returns  are  anticipated.  All  live  stock,  especially  sheep 
and  cattle,  are  flourishing  and  there  is  plenty  of  pasturage.  Apples  have 
now  set,  and  it  is  possible  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  yield,  which, 
according  to  experts,  will  be  20  per  cent,  in  excess  of  last  year's  crop. 

ONTARIO'S  fruit  season  has  begun  and  the  annual  fruit  yield  of  the 
Province  is  estimated  at  $20,000,000.  The  Niagara  vineyards  are  in 
excellent  condition  and  the  peach  orchards  promise  a  large  yield.  In 
addition  to  making  known  the  opportunities  in  British  markets  for 
apples,  the  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture  rents  several  orchards 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  instruction  in  cultivation,  pruning  and  spraying. 
Demonstrations  in  packing  apples,  particularly  in  boxes,  are  given  at 
Fall  Fairs  and  elsewhere.  Farmers  are  paying  great  attention  to  their 
live  stock.  An  agricultural  census  of  the  counties  shows  that  more  pure- 
bred sires  are  heading  herds  than  before  and  more  farmers  are  keeping 
historical  records  of  their  herds. 

SOUTH   AFRICA 

IN  the  course  of  an  interesting  and  instructive  speech  at  the  Ordinary 
General  Meeting  of  shareholders  of  the  National  Bank  of  South 
Africa,  Ltd.,  the  Chairman,  Mr.  Hugh  Crawford,  reviewed  the  economic 
situation  in  South  Africa.  After  referring  to  the  campaign  in  German 
South- West  Africa,  he  went  on  to  say  :  "  Regarding  the  agricultural 
industry,  it  is  pleasing  to  observe  that,  whereas  last  year  severe  drought 
had  to  be  deplored — particularly  in  the  Free  State  Province,  where  it 
caused  great  loss — we  have  been  blessed  this  season  with  abundant  rains. 
So  general  and  timely  were  these  that,  in  the  spring,  everything  looked 
particularly  favourable  to  the  farmer,  but,  unfortunately,  the  Rebellion 
— now  happily  ended — supervened,  necessitating  the  absence  of  a  large 
number  of  the  male  population  from  their  farms.  If,  however,  the  full 
advantage  of  the  rains  may  not  be  reaped  this  year,  it  is  consoling  to 
reflect  that,  with  dams  and  springs  replenished,  our  agriculturists  will 
not  be  slow  to  secure,  next  season,  the  benefits  which  may  be  said  to  be 
already  almost  assured  to  them.  One  unwelcome  result  of  the  rather 
abnormal  rainfall  has  been  the  generation  of  stock  disease,  in  some 
districts  on  a  very  serious  scale. 

"  The  production  of  wool  makes  sound  progress,  but  exportation  figures 
for  1914  disclose  a  large  falling  away  owing  to  drought  in  the  Free  State, 
and,  perhaps,  also  to  restriction  of  shipping  facilities — a  problem  that  is 
being  felt  rather  acutely  at  the  present  time.  Last  year  I  alluded  to  the 
severe  slump  in  the  demand  for  ostrich  feathers,  and  during  1914  this 
branch  of  our  agricultural  industry  was  further  and  most  seriously 
affected.  Recent  rains,  it  is  pleasing  to  observe,  reflect  a  certain 


384  The  Empire  Review 

recovery  in  prices,  and,  at  the  restoration  of  peace,  the  outlook  should 
not  be  unfavourable,  particularly  as  production  has  been  considerably 
diminished  as  a  result  of  market  stagnation.  At  a  time  when  there  is  so 
much  to  deplore,  it  is  refreshing  to  learn  that  there  is  every  prospect  that 
maize  production  this  season  will  constitute  a  record,  official  estimates 
computing  that  3,000,000  bags  will  be  available  for  export. 

"  The  tobacco  crop  has,  on  the  whole,  been  a  poor  one,  this  being  partly 
attributed  to  too  copious  rains,  and  to  restricted  cultivation  owing  to  fear 
of  over-production.  Wattle-growing  is  an  expanding  industry,  and 
although  less  bark  was  exported  than  in  1913,  the  figures  of  that  year 
would  certainly  have  been  exceeded  but  for  the  intervention  of  war. 
Germany  has,  in  the  past,  taken  75  per  cent,  of  the  output,  the  process 
of  extracting  tannin  having  been  almost  confined  to  that  country,  but  it 
is  encouraging  to  observe  that  a  start  has  been  made  in  Natal  to  equip 
factories  capable  of  producing  the  extract  in  a  form  acceptable  to  British 
tanners.  The  outlook  for  the  sugar  crops  is  good,  the  cane  having,  to  a 
very  great  extent,  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  exceptional  drought 
experienced  during  1914. 

"  As  concerns  our  mineral  resources,  we  find  that  the  value  of  gold  pro- 
duced in  the  Transvaal  during  1914  was  £35,588,075,  against  £37,358,040 
in  1913.  The  dimunition  is  to  be  traced  to  the  labour  turmoil  with  which 
the  year  opened.  The  means  of  financing  this  great  industry  was  one  of 
the  first  problems  which  confronted  us  at  the  news  of  the  conflagration  in 
Europe,  as  lack  of  the  usual  shipping  resources  for  conveyance  of  the 
precious  metal  to  London  was  to  be  apprehended.  It  was,  of  course, 
apparent  that  the  South  African  Banks,  however  willing,  could  not 
indefinitely  continue  to  purchase  bullion  without  having  an  assured  outlet 
for  it.  The  Union  Government,  however,  made  suitable  arrangements 
with  the  British  Government  and  the  Bank  of  England,  and  the  solution 
of  the  difficulty  may  almost  be  said  to  have  saved  the  credit  of  this 
country.  For  this,  praise  is  due  to  our  Government,  as  also  for  its  action 
at  the  outbreak  of  War  in  convening  a  Conference  of  Bankers,  leaders  of 
the  Mining  Industry  and  principal  merchants,  when  an  excellent  agree- 
ment was  arrived  at  which  enabled  trade  to  proceed  with  uninterrupted 
confidence." 

NEW  ZEALAND 

SOME  notion  of  the  keenness  of  the  young  backblocks  New  Zealander  to 
"  do  his  bit  "  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  for  the  past  three  months 
the  registration  of  men  for  enlistment  in  one  country  district  has  been 
somewhere  in  the  region  of  a  thousand.  As  soon  as  the  heavy  casualties 
in  the  Dardanelles  were  published  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty,  all 
of  a  fine  type,  offered  themselves  in  three  days,  though  many  had  to  come 
a  great  distance  to  do  so. 

IT  has  been  decided  that  no  more  medical  students  can  be  allowed  to 
enlist  with  the  New  Zealand  Expeditionary  Forces.  This  decision  has 
been  adopted  following  on  the  rule  now  being  enforced  in  England  as  a 
measure  to  counteract  a  possible  shortage  in  doctors. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL    OF    BRITISH    TRADE 

VOL.  XXIX.         OCTOBER  1915.  No.  177. 


THE    PROBLEM    OF   THE   AMERICAN 
EXCHANGE 

I  EECALL  nearly  or  quite  thirty  years  ago  listening  with  close 
attention  but  some  bewilderment  to  the  speech  of  a  very  high 
financial  authority,  the  late  Lord  Aldenham.  Lord  Aldenham 
had  been  Governor  of  the  Bank  of  England.  He,  with  Mr. 
Goschen,  had  represented  Great  Britain  at  the  first  of  the 
International  Monetary  Conferences  in  Paris,  from  which  much 
was  expected,  even  as  some  years  previously  from  the  builders  of 
Babel.  The  earlier  portion  of  the  speech  I  was  listening  to  had 
been  quite  intelligible  te  me  and  to  others  who  were  groping  in 
the  half  light  of  that  science  of  money  which  has  since  been 
"banished  to  Saturn."  But  presently  Lord  Aldenham  said 
words  to  this  effect — "  I  am  obliged  at  this  point  to  touch  on  the 
complicated  problem  of  the  South  American  exchanges,  and  I 
can  hardly  expect  that  any  self-respecting  gentleman  present  will 
keep  his  seat !  "  My  affection  for  the  speaker,  and  I  fear  that 
only,  availed  to  keep  me  in  my  chair. 

And  now  in  fulness  of  time  the  gay  and  quite  uninformed 
world  finds  itself  confronted  with  these  problems  of  the  foreign 
exchanges.  A  few  may  "  keep  their  seats  "  if  it  is  possible  for  the 
writer  to  explicate  the  exchange  problem  in  the  terminology  of 
the  street  and  not  of  Lombard  Street.  But  in  any  case  it  may 
do  no  harm  and  with  all  humility  to  put  on  record  what  may 
prove  to  be  for  another  generation  the  mere  commonplaces  of  the 
finance  of  this  colossal  war.  To  the  writer  our  nation  possessing 
very  considerable  wealth  appears  to  be  utterly  unable  to  mobilise 
that  wealth.  For  a  year  past  we  have  gone  blundering  forward 
from  one  strange  shift  to  another  stranger  still,  always  hopeful 
that  banking  expedients,  often  utterly  inadequate  even  in  the 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  177.  2  H 


386  The  Empire  Review 

piping  times  of  peace,  would  carry  us  through  a  cataclysm 
unprecedented  in  human  history.  All  the  ancient  landmarks  of 
strategy,  defence,  finance  were  clearly  submerged  in  a  vortex  of 
novel  disaster,  but  still  we  were  assured  by  the  bankers  that  the 
Act  of  1844,  Peel's  Bank  Act,  was  left  to  guide  us  out  of  the  dark- 
ness and  to  prove  the  beacon  light  on  the  mountain.  Utterly 
purposed,  buttressed  by  this  conviction,  we,  the  British  public, 
have  watched  the  consequent  series  of  experiments — the  closure 
of  the  Stock  Exchanges  at  the  very  moment  it  had  become 
essential  that  we  should  keep  them  open  in  order  to  realise,  in 
large  blocks,  our  foreign  investments,  then  a  moratorium  which 
made  it  still  more  impossible  to  convert  these  investments  into 
cash,  since  if  we  would  not  pay  America,  it  was  clear  that 
America  would  not  pay  us ;  *  next  came  the  guarantee  of  the  State 
holding  the  Bank  of  England  harmless  when  discounting  count- 
less millions  of  German  bills ;  a  trap  Berlin  had  deliberately  set 
for  us  through  the  intermediary  of  our  own  bankers.  Finally 
there  came  the  Treasury  Eestriction  Act  which  killed  all  the 
finance  of  our  great  Dominion  promotions  though  often  half 
completed.  Now  a  Financial  Mission  has  gone  to  New  York  to 
see  whether  the  inevitable  and  foreseen  sequel  of  all  these 
experiments,  namely  the  fracture  in  the  American  Exchange  can 
be  remedied  by  some  vast  loan  transactions  albeit  that  very  fall  in 
the  exchange  is  to-day  the  one  unclouded  section  of  our  financial 
firmament.  Scarcely  six  months  have  elapsed  since  we  bid  fare- 
well to  a  Government  deputation,  Sir  George  Paish,  its  chief,  to 
beg  America  to  remit  here  some  sixty  millions  of  gold.  The 
remittance,  thanks  to  our  moratorium,  was  clean  outside  the  lines 
of  business.  But  had  the  shrewd  bankers  of  New  York  agreed, 
it  must  have  fatally  upset  the  American  market  in  which  it  was 
already  clear  we  in  Europe  would  be  obliged  to  realise  in  the 
terrible  times  at  hand.  Suppose  Sir  George  Paish  had  been 
successful ;  with  what  face  could  Lord  Beading  and  the  others 
have  presented  themselves  to-day?  And  if  Lord  Beading 
succeeds,  then  for  how  long  and  what  next  ? 

A  word  first  as  to  what  this  Ephesian  word  "  Exchange  " 
involves.  When  I,  a  citizen  of  London,  buy  an  American  Packard 
motor-car,  how  do  I  arrange  the  purchase?  The  Packard 
Company  quote  $2,435  for  the  car.  I  go  to  my  bank,  and  my 
banker  learns  from  the  exchange  quotation  from  New  York  that 
a  sovereign  is  worth  four  dollars  and  eighty-six  cents;  so  that 

*  During  all  August,  all  of  September,  all  of  October,  and  until  November  17,  no 
foreign  drafts  on  London  could  be  collected.  During  all  this  time  we  were  asked  to 
pay  our  foreign  obligations,  but  could  collect  nothing  from  abroad.  It  was  insisted 
that  we  must  pay  in  actual  gold,  and  this  at  a  time  when  our  English  debtors,  by 
reason  of  their  moratorium,  were  not  paying  at  all. — New  York  Commercial 
Chronicle,  November  14. 


The  Problem  of  the  American  Exchange        387 

$2,435  cost  £500.  I  buy  a  bill  of  exchange  on  New  York  by 
giving  my  cheque  for  £500  and  the  car  is  ordered.  But  suppose 
that  my  banker  were  to  say  "I  see  this  morning  that  the 
exchange  is  not  4  •  86  but  is  2  •  43,  and  if  you  want  to  pay  $2,435 
you  must  give  me  your  cheque,  not  for  £500  but  for  £1,000,"  I 
should  be  likely  to  say,  "  No  thank  you,  Mr.  Banker,  I  will  buy  a 
Kolls-Eoyce  of  English  make  even  though  its  price  is  £700 ; 
no  Packard  car  for  me  at  that  price."  The  fall  in  exchange 
has  clearly  in  this  case  rubbed  in,  exactly  that  which  the 
Government  is  to-day  imploring  me  to  do  in  encyclicals  in- 
numerable— namely,  do  my  shopping  at  home;  and  yet  with 
all  these  exhortations  ringing  in  my  ears  the  same  Govern- 
ment appears  to  have  despatched  a  Treasury  Commission  to 
consult  with  "our  Mr.  Morgan"  as  to  how  best  to  bolster  up 
the  exchange  and  tempt  me  to  continue  to  shop  in  America. 
But  it  will  be  said,  "  If  shopping  at  home  is  such  a  good  thing, 
and  if  a  fall  of  fifty  per  cent,  in  exchange  will  make  us  all  shop 
at  home,  how  can  we  bring  down  exchange  to  2 '43;  and  are 
there  not  disadvantages  in  any  such  rate  which  clean  counter- 
balance the  importance  of  shopping  at  home  ?  "  And  the  reply 
is  that  the  disadvantages  of  any  such  huge  "  premium  on  gold," 
as  the  bankers  call  it,  certainly  do  outweigh  the  benefit  of  in- 
creased home  production,  great  though  that  benefit  is. 

To  put  it  shortly,  if  the  mass  of  exports  is  equal  to  the  mass 
of  imports  then  the  volume  of  bills  in  London  on  New  York,  and 
in  New  York  on  London  will  be  the  same,  and  therefore  exchange 
will  be  steady  and  fixed.  But  if,  as  to-day,  the  mass  of  bills  in 
New  York  which  seeks  exchange  on  London  is  far  greater  than 
the  mass  in  London  on  New  York,  the  remedy  is  a  fall  in  the 
exchange,  because  that  fall  will  automatically  and  necessarily 
increase  England's  production  and  stimulate  her  exports,  while, 
as  in  the  aforesaid  case  of  the  Packard  car,  America's  exports 
to  England  are  shut  off. 

Thus  while  any  such  fall  in  exchange  as  fifty  per  cent,  is  to  be 
deprecated,  I  think  that  in  a  fall,  such  as  the  recent  fall,  of  some 
six  to  eight  per  cent,  we  find  the  natural  remedy  for  what  other- 
wise will  shortly  show  itself  to  be  a  deep-seated  disease.  There 
are  three  ways  of  meeting  the  Exchange  crisis  at  hand. 

(1)  Large  borrowings  in  New  York,  these  loans  involving  a 
higher  rate  of  interest  in  New  York  and  therefore  lower  prices 
for  securities. 

(2)  Very  large  shipments  of  gold  from  London,  Paris  and 
Petrograd. 

(3)  Very  large  sales  in  America  of  American  securities  owned 
by  British  capitalists. 

These  three  alternatives  exhaust  the  remedies.     Which,  then 

2  H  2 


388  The  Empire  Review 

of  these  three  is  for  the  best  interests  of  the  British  Empire  in 
this  its  time  of  splendid  trial  ? 

As  to  (1)  the  bankers  on  both  sides  the  ocean  will  do  their 
very  utmost  to  persuade  the  Treasury  to  borrow  huge  sums  in 
America.  And  it  is  clearly  to  America's  interest  to  lend  us  huge 
sums.  If  a  country  lends  another  country  money,  the  loans  do 
not,  of  course,  pass  in  money  but  material.  If  we  borrow  a 
thousand  millions  sterling  in  America  the  loans  will  reach  us  in 
the  form  of  American  munitions;  chiefly  iron  in  one  shape  or 
another,  and  metals  like  copper  and  zinc  and  lead  and  spelter,  or 
cotton,  or  wheat,  beef,  horses  and  mules — but  iron  chiefly. 
This  war  is,  as  never  before,  a  war  of  steel  on  steel.  Mr. 
Morgan  is  the  "  Steel  King  "  even  more  than  the  "  Gold  King." 
It  would  not  be  possible  for  Mr.  Morgan,  watching  the  battle 
from  afar,  and  with  the  inducement  of  enlightened  self-interest, 
to  avoid  saying  to  our  Treasury  officials,  "  Let  me  accommodate 
you  with  a  loan  of  a  thousand  millions  sterling.  America 
produces  more  iron  than  England,  France  and  Germany  com- 
bined." Were  I  the  Treasury  official  I  should  reply,  "  No, 
Mr.  Morgan,  I  like  the  'shopping  at  home'  theory,  and  I 
believe  all  over  the  world  there  are  innumerable  well-wishers 
with  willing  hands  and  high  hearts  ready  to  return  to  England 
and  work  in  her  coal  and  iron  and  steel  industries ;  so  that  as  an 
enduring  monument  of  this  war  the  next  generation  will  succeed 
to  a  splendid  industrialism.  I  had  rather  posterity,  which  will 
have  to  foot  the  bills,  succeeded  to  perfectly  equipped  steel-plants 
and  coal  mines,  than  to  a  thousand  millions  of  debt,  representing 
money  borrowed  to-day  from  you  and  which  is  to  give  employ- 
ment, and  for  countless  years  to  come,  to  American  labour  and 
not  to  British  labour." 

(2)  The  second  alternative,  to  prevent  Exchange  from  a  vast 
further  fall,  is  the  export  by  England  and  her  Allies  of  very 
large  sums  of  gold.  I  should  greatly  welcome  the  export  of  a 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  sterling  of  gold,  fifty  millions  from 
each  partner  State.  I  should  welcome  it,  in  the  first  place, 
because  it  is  a  sound  measure  of  finance.  For  great  States  in 
such  a  crisis  to  keep  gold  in  a  box,  miser-like,  to  count  it,  is 
ridiculous.  It  should  be  out  of  the  box  and  doing  the  World's 
work  everywhere,  under  the  aegis  of  our  Navy  which  alone  can 
make  that  gold  mobile  and  efficient.  Our  "  sea  power"  is  before 
all  our  "money  power."  Now  the  great  United  States  is  to-day 
stuffed  and  surfeited  with  gold.  Democracy  over  there  has 
truly,  from  a  currency  standpoint,  come  by  her  own,  with  the 
passage  last  year  of  the  new  Federal  Reserve  Act,  an  Act  com- 
pared with  which  Mr.  Bryan's  "  Free  Silver  "  coinage  proposal 
of  1896  was  conservative  and  ultra-cautious.  Mr.  J.  H.  Umsted 


The  Problem  of  the  American  Exchange        389 

the  well  known  American  writer  on  Banking  and  Currency  said 
of  the  Federal  Eeserve  Act  at  the  time  of  its  enactment,  "the 
new  law  brings  into  being  a  potency  of  new  banking  credits  of 
nearly  three  thousand  eight  hundred  million  dollars,"  a  sum  this 
made  available  by  a  stroke  of  the  President's  pen,  which,  strange 
as  it  may  seem,  is  at  least  fifty  times  greater  than  the  annual 
silver  surplus  available  for  coinage  at  every  mint  in  the  world  ! 
So  that  if  in  place  of  hoarding  our  gold  in  Europe  we  throw  a 
hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  it  upon  the  American  exchanges, 
the  rate  of  interest  for  money  in  New  York  would  probably  fall, 
at  least  for  some  months,  to  one  per  cent.  This  is  a  contingency 
which  Mr.  Morgan,  the  greatest  of  money-lenders,  would  regard 
with  entire  disapproval.  Instead  of,  as  via  huge  loans  to  us,  he 
thereby  creates  a  great  and  advancing  market  for  both  his  steel 
and  his  gold,  our  true  policy  of  exporting  gold  in  large  amounts 
to  America  would  make  both  steel  and  gold  a  drug  in  America's 
markets  and  therefore  cheaply  available  here.  This  desirable 
consummation  we  jeopardise  by  the  new  financial  mission  to 
New  York. 

(3)  I  now  come  to  a  consideration  of  the  third  alternative, 
namely,  the  protection  of  the  exchanges  against  a  catastrophic 
fall — a  fall,  say,  to  2 '43,  and  this  by  large  sales  of  our  American 
securities. 

Were  the  writer  a  despot  controlling  British,  French,  and 
Kussian  finance,  he  would  first  export  a  hundred  and  fifty 
millions  of  gold  and  pay  our  American  bills  with  that  gold.  The 
arrival  of  such  a  mass  of  gold,  flung,  as  it  were,  into  the  lap  of 
Uncle  Sam,  the  greatest  gambler  this  world  has  any  knowledge 
of,  would  appear  to  "  our  Uncle  Sam  "  even  as  a  "  royal  flush  "  in 
a  poker  hand.  He  would  have  just  the  time  of  his  life.  There 
would  be  an  orgy  of  speculation  in  New  York  which  would  carry 
the  whole  country  off  its  feet  and  which  would  mark  up  the  sort 
of  good  American  securities  we  hold — Canadian  Pacifies,  Union 
Pacifies,  all  the  "  Hill  Stocks  " — a  full  hundred  points.  That, 
and  with  exchange  still  about  four  dollars,  would  be  the  psycho- 
logical moment  for  John  Bull  to  unload  his  American  securities. 
He  would  sell  Canadian  Pacifies — a  stock  to  which,  looking 
forward  ten  years,  there  is  attached  a  huge  unearned  increment 
inherent  in  the  filling  up  of  vast  waste  spaces  in  Manitoba, 
Alberta,  and  British  Columbia — for,  let  us  say,  $260,  and, 
with  the  exchange  at  or  about  $4,  our  sellers  would  receive 
£65.  To-day  Canadian  Pacifies  are  worth  $163,  and  at  the 
present  rate  of  exchange,  4 '71,*  their  sterling  price  is  £35. 
Large  exports,  then,  of  gold,  and  yet  not  so  large  as  to  restore 
exchange,  but  only  to  support  it,  would  prepare  such  an  oversea 

September  24. 


390  The  Empire  Review 

market  for  English  securities,  that  given  careful  and  scientific 
direction  during  the  next  two  years,  the  profit  on  our  immense 
foreign  investments,  as  compared  with  present  prices,  would  go 
far  to  pay  all  our  costs  in  this  bloody  war.  I  hope  this 
short  statement  of  the  traditional  three  courses  open  for 
consideration  when  dealing  with  the  present  exchange  problem 
may  bring  strongly  into  relief  that  conflict  of  national  interest 
which  for  the  past  hundred  years  has  always  been  ignored 
by  those  who  simply  transfer  such  vital  problems,  with 
their  blank  cheque,  to  be  decided  by  their  bankers.  The 
late  Mr.  Vanderbilt  once  startled  the  American  public  intent 
on  the  question  of  railway  rates  by  remarking,  "  The  public  be 
d d,"  and  though  more  discreet,  the  bankers  are  out  every- 
where to  make  20  per  cent,  dividends  for  their  shareholders  ;  and 

although  in  the  process  "  the  public  be  d d  "  utterly,  they 

seldom  fail  to  gather  in  their  20  per  cent,  dividend ;  and  never 
did  woodcocks  so  enjoy  the  appearance  of  the  springe. 

It  seems  to  me  then  that  the  present  rise  in  America's  ex- 
change is  as  natural  as  the  rise  in  the  Ocean's  tides.  The  people 
who  must  pay  the  exchange  piper  are  the  American  exporters 
all  and  sundry.  Our  exporters  on  the  other  hand  are  enabled  to 
jump  America's  tariff  barrier  as  never  before.  And  while  these 
exchange  conditions  thus  providentially  and  automatically  reduce 
America's  tariff,  they  also  give  us  a  .protective  tariff  against 
America.  And  these  great  economic  object-lessons  apart,  the  fall 
in  exchange  greatly  discourages  for  the  time  our  emigration, 
because  the  small  capital  of  the  intending  emigrant  shrinks  with 
the  exchange ;  but  while  this  is  the  case  and  is  in  itself  desir- 
able in  war  time,  yet  it  secures  employment  at  home  for  that 
emigrant,  whereas  the  proposed  American  loans  will  pay  wages 
and  profits  to  competing  industries  in  a  foreign  land. 

And  take  again,  the  case  of  those  immense  annual  remittances 
received  by  Ireland  from  Ireland's  sons  and  daughters  in  service 
in  America.  I  have,  in  years  past,  gone  very  carefully  into  the 
figures  of  these  remittances,  and  they  amount,  one  year  with 
another,  to  at  least  five  millions  sterling,  the  interest  this  on  a 
hundred  millions  sterling,  or  on  more  than  two-thirds  the  cost 
of  Irish  Land  Purchase.  If  the  exchange  falls  to  four  dollars, 
and  if  not  tampered  with  by  the  bankers  it  will  fall  to  that 
point,  then  the  men  and  women  who  remit  from  America  to 
Ireland  at  four  dollars  for  a  sovereign,  instead  of  nearly  five  dollars 
for  a  sovereign,  will  get  a  remittance  bonus  of  nearly  a  million 
sterling  a  year.  Are  the  very  poorest  of  our  community,  the 
peasantry  of  Connemara  and  Donegal,  to  be  deprived  of  a  windfall 
of  two  sovereigns  each  on  half  a  million  homes  ? 

It  is  not  a  small  matter  either  that  our  nation,  seeking  as  never 


The  Problem  of  the  American  Exchange        391 

before  for  economic  light  in  dark  places,  should  lose  all  the 
object-lesson  related  to  a  protectionist  tariff  because  a  group  of 
bankers  and  Treasury  officials  have,  without  any  sanction  from 
Parliament,  been  entrusted  with  vast  borrowing  powers  in  a 
foreign  land  that  they  may  poke  crowbars  into  our  delicate 
mechanism  of  exchange. 

I  must  not  leave  the  impression  with  those  who  may  read 
these  notes  that  the  advantage  in  permitting,  or  even  in  assisting 
the  exchange  to  fall,  is  entirely  one-sided.  Of  course  it  is  not : 
very  far  from  it.  But  at  a  time  of  supreme  crisis,  and  for  a 
"  Great  Creditor  Nation,"  nearly  one-third  of  our  wealth  being 
invested  abroad,  I  believe  that  a  falling  exchange — such  an 
exchange  condition  as  this  financial  mission  has  gone  to  New 
York  to  abort — is  of  really  consummate  importance.  Falling 
exchange  buttresses  home  production  as  nothing  else  can ;  it 
encourages  the  re-migration  of  our  people  to  their  homeland  ; 
it  stimulates  exports  of  goods  and  equally  exports  of  securities,  and 
it  contracts  imports.  I  cannot  do  better  than  quote  from  a  letter 
written  to  me  by  that  remarkable  Chinese  statesman,  Tong  Shoa 
Yi,  six  years  ago.  There  had  been  such  an  unprecedented  fall 
in  our  exchange  with  China  as  had  killed  our  exports  to  China 
and  also  British  India's  exports  to  China.  Tael  and  dollar 
exchange  between  January  1908  and  December  1909  had  fallen 
from  five  taels  for  a  sovereign  to  eight  taels — some  sixty  per  cent. 
This  mandarin,  who  was  a  little  later  China's  first  Prime  Minister, 
stated  the  result  of  the  fall  in  the  Chinese  exchange  in  these 
memorable  words  : — 

In  China  fluctuations  in  exchange  such  as  those  of  last  year  are  of  course 
very  troublesome  for  our  importing  merchants  ;  still  no  doubt  last  year's  fall 
in  silver  greatly  assists  our  mills  and  other  manufacturing  industries  which 
might  be  damaged  by  the  competition  of  imported  foreign  goods  if  the 
exchange  rose.  Thus  the  fall  in  exchange  is  even  as  an  increasing  tariff;  but, 
unlike  a  tariff,  our  exports  are  not  reduced,  but  are,  so  to  speak,  subsidised. 

Those  six  lines  are  a  complete  summary  of  the  problem  of 
American  exchange  to-day,*  and  for  England,  the  problem  of  all 
problems  is  that  of  increased  production.  Nothing  will  so 
stimulate  home  production  as  falling  exchange.  Bradford  sells 

*  In  November,  1909,  when  addressing  the  San  Francisco  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
I  drew  attention  to  the  obstruction  of  the  export  trades  of  the  Pacific  coast  created 
by  the  recent  great  fall  in  exchange  with  Asia.  I  said:  "  Take,  for  instance,  good 
dressed  lumber  costing  the  Chinese  buyer  $25  per  thousand  in  Portland  or  Seattle- 
say  $30  delivered  in  Shanghai.  In  1907  this  lumber  cost  the  buyer  delivered  at 
Shanghai  33  taels  per  thousand  feet,  while  to-day  at  the  same  gold  price,  $30,  its 
cost  is  48  taels.  So  that  the  fall  in  exchange  on  Shanghai  makes  just  the  difference 
there  between  your  lumber  on  the  free  list  in  China  in  1907  and  your  lumber  now 
paying  45  per  cent,  specific  duty,  a  duty  of  15  taels  a  thousand  feet.  The  same 
argument  holds  good  for  your  wheat,  steel  rails,  flour  and  cotton  goods. 


392  The  Empire  Review 

woollens  to  New  York  and  with  exchange  at  four  dollars  Brad- 
ford increases  the  profit  on  each  sovereign  by  3s.  Qd.  Could 
anything  operate  more  powerfully  to  right  the  exchanges? 

If  we  are  to  reach  wise  and  honest  conclusions  on  this  problem 
of  exchange  we  must  first  of  all  remember  that  it  is  not  a  problem 
of  Lombard  Street  and  Wall  Street  at  all  but  a  problem  of  Empire. 
In  reckoning  the  assets  of  our  Empire,  Canada  and  Canadian 
interests  should  rank  at  the  very  top.  In  our  supreme  effort  to 
realise  and  mobilise  for  war  some  portion  of  the  seven  hundred 
millions  Canada  has  borrowed  here,  we  have  deplorably  sterilised 
all  her  local  finance.  In  Toronto,  Winnipeg,  Edmonton,  Calgary, 
Vancouver,  it  is  everywhere  the  same  story.  Modest  fortunes  built 
up  by  a  lifetime  of  industry  are  to-day  in  the  clutches  of  any  money- 
lender who  comes  along.  With  the  Treasury  Kestriction  Act  in 
operation  it  is  quite  impossible  for  private  enterprise  to  assist  the 
man  who  is  watching  the  edifice  painfully  and  patiently  created, 
and  which  is  now  in  hopeless  jeopardy.  To  that  much  mortgaged 
community  a  further  fall  in  exchange,  such  as  is  inevitable  if  Lord 
Beading's  raid  on  New  York  is  cut  short  by  Parliamentary  inter- 
vention, will  bring  fresh  life  and  hope  and  vigour.  If  the  interest 
on  the  £700,000,000  we  have  loaned  to  Canada  is  5  per  cent. 
(£35,000,000),  this  interest  is  earned  and  paid  yearly  in  a  dollar 
currency  and  next  exchanged  into  sovereigns.  At  4 '87  the  sum  is 
over  $170,000,000,  but  at  4  it  is  $140,000,000.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  difference  between  these  two  sums  represents  at  least 
the  mortgagor's  entire  taxes  for  the  year,  or  his  whole  railway  and 
steamship  rates  on  his  wheat  crop  to  his  market  in  London.  It 
is  of  course  true  that  his  profit  on  an  export  of  say  150,000,000 
bushels  of  wheat  may  be  6  cents  a  bushel  (2s.  per  quarter)  less 
because  of  the  exchange  loss  in  bringing  back  to  Canada  his 
money;  but  that  is  no  considerable  set-off  to  the  general 
advantage. 

But  it  seems  to  me  that  the  quite  unforgivable  incidence  of 
these  financial  missions  to  New  York  is  in  their  secretiveness. 
Messengers  come  and  go  between  our  Treasury  and  Washington, 
neither  our  public,  which  will  presently  be  asked  to  foot  the  bills, 
nor  our  Parliament,  having  the  faintest  knowledge  of  what  it 
is  proposed  to  do.  Lord  Beading  is  a  great  lawyer  and  an  able 
speaker,  why  does  he  not  explain  his  policy  in  speech  that  we 
may  review  and  revise  it  ?  Here  are  negotiations  which  for  better 
or  worse  will  involve  the  taxation  of  generations  yet  unborn.  The 
American  newspaper  correspondents  are  cabling  that  a  loan  of 
a  hundred  millions  sterling  is  being  arranged  in  order  to  patch  up 
exchange.  Is  Parliament  to  know  nothing  of  these  vast  financial 
transactions  until  they  have  been  agreed  in  Mr.  Morgan's  library  ? 
Since  the  outbreak  of  the  war  our  community  has  been  treated 


The  Problem  of  the  American  Exchange         393 

to  an  endless  display  of  these  financial  empirics.  Every  experi- 
ment has  been  tried  save  that  one,  hallowed  by  precedent,  and 
which  was  on  every  occasion  completely,  even  magically,  suc- 
cessful— the  suspension  of  the  Bank  Charter  Act  of  1844.  Had 
the  Act  been  promptly  suspended  during  the  last  days  of 
July,  1914,  and  a  hundred  millions  in  bank  notes  issued 
against  Consols,  there  had  been  no  moratorium,  no  closing  of 
the  Stock  Exchanges,  and  none  of  those  deplorable  discount 
operations  which  were  so  profitable  to  the  Bank  of  England  ;  and 
equally  no  re-discounting  of  enemies'  paper  held  by  our  banks, 
and  which  operation  resulted  in  the  extremely  indiscreet  adulation 
by  the  bankers  of  our  Chancellor.  With  the  prompt  issue  of  a 
hundred  millions  of  notes  against  securities  in  July  1914,  the  great 
stately  ship  of  our  finance  would  have  navigated  the  rough  seas 
gathering  upon  an  even  keel.  We  should  not  have  needed  to  send 
messengers  to  New  York,  begging,  nay,  demanding  gold,  and 
thus  endeavouring  to  transfer  our  malaise  to  New  York,  and  in 
this  way  spoil  the  one  huge  wealthy  neutral  market  capable  of 
absorbing  our  securities.  Why  was  not  "Peel's  Strait- Waistcoat  " 
relaxed,  as  Peel  himself,  were  he  alive,  would  have  insistently 
urged?  Why  is  it  not  relaxed  now?  Peel  never  regarded  his 
Act  of  1844  as  any  law  of  the  Medes  and  Persians.  On  the 
contrary  he  knew  its  limitations  and  that  it  was  a  fair-weather 
Act.  When  recommending  the  measure  Peel  wrote  (June  4, 
1844)  to  Cotton,  the  then  Governor  of  the  Bank  of  England,  a 
letter  in  which  he  uses  these  historic  words : 

We  are  taking  precautions — against  the  recurrence  of  a  monetary  crisis.  It 
may  recur  in  spite  of  these  precautions,  and  if  it  be  necessary  to  assume  a 
grave  responsibility  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  it,  I  daresay  men  will  be  found 
ready  to  assume  such  responsibility. 

And  three  years  later  Peel  in  his  speech  of  December  3, 1847, 
congratulated  Lord  John  Russell  and  his  Government  because 
they  had  the  courage  to  suspend  the  Act  of  1844.  Such  was 
Peel's  attitude.  He  counted  on  men  in  the  Government,  and 
in  the  Bank,  having  the  moral  courage  to  break  the  law  under 
pressure  of  grave  events. 

There  is  no  more  conservative  Institution  than  the  great 
Bank  of  France,  its  directors  State  officials  selected  for  their 
knowledge  of  the  higher  finance.  What  has  the  Bank  of  France 
done  for  France  in  this  war — for  France  its  richest  provinces  in 
the  hands  of  the  enemy,  Paris  itself  all  but  engulfed.  Let  me 
state  the  case  in  a  few  lines  of  bald  figures 

On  July  31,  1914,  the  Bank  of  France  had  in  sterling  :— 

Gold £165,653,000 

Notes  Issued £267,227,000 


394  The  Empire  Review 

On  December  18,  1914  :— 

Gold £165,673,000 

Notes  Issued £399,441,000 

On  September  24,  1915  :— 

Gold £180,002,960 

Notes  Issued £532,383,840 

and  in  the  statement  of  September  24  there  is  this  pregnant 
entry.  "  Advances  to  the  State  £264,000,000." 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  the  Eegents  of  the  Bank  of 
France  regard  the  much  more  considerable  drop  in  their  foreign 
exchange  than  in  ours  with  much  complacency,  but  comity  has 
compelled  them  to  participate  in  our  mission  to  borrow  dollars. 
Notwithstanding  their  great  note  issues  and  immense  "  advances 
to  the  State  "  there  is  not  the  smallest  symptom  in  France  of  any 
premium  on  gold. 

To  sum  up.  Everything  possible  should  have  been  done  by 
the  Treasury  a  year  since  to  stimulate  and  yet  to  protect  British 
sales  of  American  and  other  securities,  and  nothing  would  have 
been  so  effective  as  large  gold  shipments  to  America,  which 
shipments  our  moratorium  here  utterly  destroyed.  Large  issues 
of  banknotes  against  securities,  a  form  of  finance  which  Sir 
Edward  Holden  at  least  bravely  favoured  in  the  crisis  of  1914, 
would  have  saved  the  situation,  and  frightful  though  the  waste 
and  disaster  in  the  interval,  would  save  it  even  now.  Instead  of 
this  our  capitalists,  forced  to  have  money  to  complete  a  thousand 
half-baked  constructions,  have  been  selling  their  splendid  secur- 
ities in  New  York  at  starveling  dollar  prices  and  against  an 
exchange,  at  one  time  seven  dollars,  and  held  throughout 
artificially  high.  A  policy  this  which,  futile  from  the  first,  is 
again  to  be  fastened  on  our  nation  by  this  latest  New  York 
mission,  because  and  only  because  the  House  of  Commons 
appears  to  have  abdicated  its  function  of  criticism  and  revision. 
For  eight  months  now  New  York  has  been  avid  for  the  great 
gamble,  and  never  was  New  York  in  such  a  position  before  to 
absorb  her  securities  which  are  owned  here,  and  at  "  record  " 
prices.  They  are  but  a  drop  in  the  ocean  of  her  growing  aggre- 
gations of  wealth.  There  is  no  higher  authority  on  these  matters 
than  Mr.  Clarence  Barron  of  the  Wall  Street  Journal,  who  reckons 
the  annual  savings  of  the  United  States  at  £1,700,000,000 ;  a  sum 
far  larger  than  the  savings  of  all  Europe  combined.  And  what 
alone  that  prodigious  American  market  needed  was  a  judicious 
irrigation  by  Europe's  gold ;  the  new  Federal  Keserve  Act  would 
have  done  for  us  all  the  rest.  And  the  saddest  and  the  strangest 
aspect  of  all  our  juggling  with  finance  is  that  the  Treasury  and 


The  Problem  of  the  American  Exchange        395 

the  Chancellor  knew  in  July  of  last  year  what  our  need  was; 
there  is  irrefragable  proof  of  this  which,  when  the  doings  of  the 
last  days  of  July  come  later  to  be  probed,  will  excite  the  utmost 
public  consternation.  Instead  of  insisting  that  the  Bank  of 
England  should  make  large  note  issues  against  securities  and 
thus  feed  with  our  gold  the  American  market  in  which  alone  we 
could  sell  those  securities,  the  Chancellor  capitulated,  and  not  to 
the  Banks,  which  apparently  were  as  much  in  the  dark  as  was 
Parliament  and  the  public,  but  capitulated  to  the  Bank  of 
England  and  to  two  or  three  wealthy  bankers  who  would  have 
been  unable  to  meet  bills  they  had  accepted  and  which  were 
imminently  falling  due.  Next  the  Chancellor  sends  a  deputation 
to  New  York,  and  this  in  the  face  of  our  moratorium,  to  en- 
deavour to  coax  gold  from  there,  while  all  this  time  we  continued 
to  liquidate  our  American  securities  like  some  bankrupt's  stock- 
in-trade.  We  may  safely  add  to  our  visible  war  bill  an  invisible 
loss  of  half  a  million  sterling  daily  for  a  year,  representing  the 
attenuated  prices  of  gilt-edged  securities  sold  by  England  in 
America.  Had  the  Chancellor's  earlier  mission  to  New  York 
succeeded  in  bringing  back  sixty  millions  of  gold,  then  Wall 
Street  would  have  been  so  depleted  last  year  that  these  same 
gilt-edged  American  securities  of  ours  would  have  been  unsaleable 
at  any  price  at  all.  But  at  least  from  that  we  were  saved  by  the 
enlightened  self-interest  of  intelligent  bankers  in  Wall  Street 
who,  happily  for  us,  declined  to  part  with  gold  over  the  corpus 
of  England's  moratorium.* 

But  with  an  ample  and  note-fed  currency  here ;  with  liberal 
gold  shipments  by  the  Allies  to  New  York ;  with  booming  stock 
prices  in  New  York,  and  all  the  while  with  exchange  steadily 
falling,  we  here  should  have  been  to-day  in  a  magnificent  position 
to  ride  out  the  gale.  And  this  the  Treasury  knew.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  the  Treasury,  which  has  always  been  extremely 
clever,  was  "on  to  the  game"  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  yet 
it  was  the  Treasury  and  not  the  Bank  of  England  which  lowered 
its  flag.  Well  may  Bagehot  say : 

On  the  wisdom  of  the  directors  of  that  one  joint-stock  company  it  depends 
whether  England  shall  be  solvent  or  insolvent  (the  italics  are  Bagehot' s).  ...  A 
board  of  directors  chosen  too  young  for  it  to  be  known  whether  they  are  able  ; 
a  committee  of  management  in  which  seniority  is  the  qualification  and  old  age 
the  result ;  and  no  trained  bankers  anywhere.  .  .  .  The  policy  of  the  Bank  has 
frequently  been  deplorable,  and  at  such  times  the  defects  of  its  government 
have  aggravated,  if  not  caused,  its  calamities  f 


*  See  footnote  on  page  386. 

t  What  veils  the  public  from  the  black  night  of  intrigue  was  drawn  for  an 
instant  and  by  the  hand  of  Sir  Edward  Holden.  In  addressing  his  bank  share- 
holders (January  29),  he  explained  his  plan  of  bank-notes  against  securities,  which 
had  Lord  St.  Aldwyn's  approval,  and  he  says  :  "  This  scheme  was  submitted  to  the 


396  The  Empire  Review 

Why,  then,  it  will  be  asked,  should  the  Treasury  with  great 
traditions  capitulate  to  such  a  directorate  as  that,  and  at  a  time 
of  quite  unprecedented  crisis  ?  Why  !  Because  its  chief  happened 
to  be  a  Welsh  solicitor.  And  yet  Mr.  Lloyd  George  is  a  very 
able  and  a  very  courageous  man,  never  lacking  in  initiative ; 
what  happened  that  such  an  one  at  the  most  critical  moment  in 
our  history  should  give  his  power  of  attorney  to  the  Bank  of 
England  ?  Whence  came  his  undoing,  and  thus  ours  ?  It  came 
not  from  without,  but  from  within ;  not  from  weak  and  worthless 
advisers,  but  from  his  own  ego.  He  was  called  upon  at  a 
moment's  notice  for  a  decision  as  alien  to  his  education  and  his 
experience  as  should  a  sane  man  proceed  to  read  the  book  of 
Kevelations  backward.  And  the  Governor  of  a  "  Joint  stock 
Company,"  "  upon  which  it  depends  whether  England  should  be 
solvent  or  insolvent"  himself  equally  in  the  dark  as  to  the  nation's 
needs,  was  induced  to  do  the  rest.  When  the  era  of  Reform 
comes  and  reformers  read  again  Bagehot's  little  book,  Lombard 
Street,  by  the  light  of  recent  happenings,  it  will  seem  to  them  an 
inspired  work,  and  that  this  crisis  which  Bagehot  so  fully  antici- 
pated and  the  worst  of  which  is  still  ahead,  is  as  the  fulfilment  of 
some  book  of  prophecy.  Bagehot's  only  refuge  in  the  days  he 
knew  to  be  at  hand,  took  the  shape  of  a  permanent  Deputy 
Governor  for  the  Bank ;  an  expert  in  finance ;  a  man  of  great 
position,  who  would  advise  and  when  necessary  control  the 
accidental  Governor — that  youthful  director  selected  thirty  years 
ago,  and  who  had  climbed  in  by  seniority.  This  solution  and 
not  a  real  reform  of  our  system  of  currency  and  finance  was  all 
that  Bagehot's  master-mind  could  suggest,  because  he  believed 
that  the  bankers  (allied  with  the  impenetrable  ignorance  of  our 
community)  had  got  the  nation  permanently  in  thrall,  as  indeed 
all  the  events  of  the  intervening  forty  years  have  made  most 
abundantly  clear.  Where  there  are  half  a  hundred  competent 
critics  of  Naval  and  Military  matters,  the  handful  of  men  compe- 
tent to  criticise  or  to  warn  us  as  to  these  jugglings  in  Currency 
and  Exchange  are  a  few  professors  of  political  economy,  who  are 
discouraged,  because  seemingly  discredited,  by  the  recent  trend  of 
economic  conditions. 

Since  the  passing  of  the  Bank  Act  of  1844,  on  three  occasions, 
the  Treasury  acting  through  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
has  decided  that  the  crisis  anticipated  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  had 
arrived,  and  that  the  Governor  of  the  Bank  of  England  should  be 
ex  officio  commissioned  for  the  public  weal  to  break  the  written 

Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  but  strong  opposition  to  it  was  shown  by  the  Bank  of 
England.  The  bankers  persisted,  and  they  understood  that  the  opposition  was,  or 
would  be,  withdrawn ;  but  it  was  too  late.  Friday  was  approaching  when  the  Banks 
were  to  re-open." 


The  Problem  of  the  American  Exchange         397 

law  of  England.  In  1847  it  was  very  difficult  to  convince  Page 
Wood,  the  then  Chancellor,  that  the  moment  had  come,  and 
finally  in  the  very  death  throes  of  City  finance  the  leading 
merchants  of  London  went  behind  his  back  and  over  his 
head  to  the  Prime  Minister,  Lord  John  Kussell.  Thus  propulsed 
to  the  anarchy  he  dreaded  the  Chancellor  did  finally  part  with 
"the  letter"  of  indemnity,  and  at  once  as  by  magic  the  skies 
cleared.  Just  ten  years  later,  Sir  George  Cornwall  Lewis 
being  Chancellor,  a  similar  crisis  developed.  The  Chancellor 
this  time  insisted  on  the  Prime  Minister,  Lord  Palmerston, 
signing  "  the  letter "  too,  which  went  out  from  Downing 
Street  November  12.  Again  as  in  1847  the  panic  was  at  once 
allayed ;  the  printing  of  the  bank-notes  against  securities  being 
a  mere  two  millions,  only  one  half  of  which  left  the  Issue 
Department.  The  third  occasion  was  the  great  "  Overend 
Gurney  "  crisis  of  1866,  which  was  far  more  sinister  than  the 
two  previous.  By  the  evening  of  "  Black  Friday  "  the  Bank  of 
England  was  almost  denuded  of  gold,  and  but  for  the  suspension 
of  the  Act  it  is  certain  that  neither  the  Bank  of  England  nor 
any  other  bank  would  have  opened  its  doors  on  the  Monday. 
About  midnight  on  Friday  Mr.  Gladstone  wrote  "  the  letter";  on 
Saturday  morning  the  lieges  awoke  to  find  the  news  of  "  the 
letter "  in  every  paper  in  the  British  Islands,  and  a  most 
shamefaced  queue  of  depositors  who  had  withdrawn  gold  on 
Thursday  and  Friday  and  slept  with  it  in  their  beds,  awaited 
the  opening  of  the  Bank  of  England  on  Saturday  to  re-deposit 
this  same  gold.  Not  a  note  was  ever  issued  by  the  Bank  under 
"  the  letter,"  and  by  Tuesday  business  was  again  normal ;  the 
mere  knowledge  that  any  man  with  good  security  could  have 
what  money  he  required  to  finance  himself  or  a  friend,  had  of 
itself  re-established  the  public  credit.  Of  course,  what  really 
saves  the  public  on  these  occasions  is  the  immediate  publicity 
given  by  the  press  to  the  fact  that  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  "  accessory  before  the  act,"  has  by  parting  with  "  the 
letter  "  broken  the  law  of  the  land,  so  that  money  could  be  had. 
It  is,  of  course,  the  Chancellor,  the  trustee  of  the  whole  nation, 
who  by  writing  "  the  letter  "  suspends  the  Act,  and  not  the  mere 
chairman  of  a  "  Joint  Stock  Company  "  to  whom,  by  the  accident 
of  his  position,  it  falls  to  put  it  in  force.  A  great  Chancellor, 
than  whom  none  other  ever  knew  better  the  tools  of  his  trade, 
Mr.  Goschen,  when  addressing  the  London  Chamber  (December, 
1890),  said:  "In  the  City,  gentlemen  calculate  with  pretty 
considerable  certainty  that  the  letter  of  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  will  be  forthcoming  if  the  alarm  is  great  enough,  and 
the  panic  is  great  enough." 

Of  course  the  passing  of  the  letter  is  the  suspension  of  the 


398  The  Empire  Review 

Act.  There  is  no  possible  room  for  argument  as  to  this.  Sup- 
pose for  one  moment  that  on  the  midnight  of  "  Black  Friday," 
1866,  Mr.  Gladstone  had  "written  the  letter,"  and  that  the 
Governor,  Mr.  Launcelot  Holland,  had  refused  to  receive  it, 
pleading  the  interests  of  "  the  Company  of  the  Bank  of  England," 
Mr.  Gladstone  would  have  replied  that,  "  acting  on  the  advice  of 
the  Treasury,  I  have  written  this  letter.  I  represent  in  this 
matter  not  the  proprietors  of  fourteen  millions  of  Bank  capital, 
but  the  owners  of  twelve  thousand  millions  of  property,  and  also 
the  honour  and  the  credit  of  the  Empire."  Be  quite  sure 
Mr.  Holland,  if  still  recalcitrant,  would  have  either  resigned 
from,  the  Bank  or  would  have  occupied  that  Friday  night 
premises  in  the  Tower.* 

A  year  ago  it  was  whispered  that  Mr.  Lloyd  George  had 
indeed  written  "  the  letter  "  and  sent  it  to  the  Governor  who  had 
during  the  all  critical  week  treated  this,  the  greatest  act  of  State 
which  is  within  the  eminent  domain  of  the  Chancellor,  as  a 
private  "  tip."  It  is  very  unfortunate  that  a  legend  apparently 
so  incredible  and  so  derogatory  to  both  the  principals  should 
have  secured  some  currency  abroad. 

What  the  situation  required  in  July  1914  was  the  prompt 
suspension  of  the  Act  and  large  issues  of  notes  against  consols. 
Fifty  millions  of  new  money  would  have  percolated  the  whole 
length  of  Lombard  Street  and  saved  the  position.  If  not  fifty, 
then  a  hundred  or  even  two  hundred.  The  suspension  of  the 
Act,  as  Peel  recognised,  can  never  lead  to  inflation  if  done  early 
enough.  The  Treasury  lends  the  notes  via  the  Bank  at  8  per 
cent.,  and  as  the  fifty  millions  reach  the  various  banks,  redeeming 
securities  and  paying  off  loans  and  over-drafts,  down  comes  the 
Bank  Bate  to  less  than  8  per  cent.  Then  "  inflation  "  ceases, 
for  who  will  borrow  more  from  the  Government  through  the 
Bank,  when  he  can  borrow  directly  either  from  the  Bank,  or 
from  his  own  banker  at  a  lower  rate  ?  The  "  inflation  "  which 
Peel's  Act  was  intended  to  head  off  was  an  inflation  due  to  the 
banks  themselves  printing  notes  at  a  moment  of  speculation,  not 
of  depression. 

To-day  the  problem  of  our  currency  and  finance  is  more 
complicated  because  the  results  after  a  year  of  continued  mal- 
practice have  become  cumulative.  But  still  even  to-day  the 
braver  course  is  still  the  safer.  In  place  of  borrowing  American 
dollars  at  five  per  cent.,  the  Treasury  should  issue  through 
the  Bank  a  hundred  millions  in  notes,  which  notes  would 
earn  the  Government  five  to  eight  per  cent.  This  new  money 
having  been  pushed  into  circulation  to  pay  for  Government 

*  An  interesting  account  of  the  Overend  Gurney  suspension  can  be  read  in  the 
Appendix  to  Lombard  Street. 


The  Problem  of  the  American  Exchange         399 

constructions,  let  us  sit  down  and  "wait  and  see."  Probably 
we  should  see  much  gold  leave  London,  Paris,  Petrograd,  for 
New  York;  exchange  would  first  of  all  droop  with  beneficent 
results,  would  next  recover,  and  presently  in  a  great  and  growing 
volume  of  production  at  home  all  the  predatory  and  pyrotechnic 
finance  of  the  past  year  would  live  only  "  to  point  a  moral  and 
adorn  a  tale."  "  The  richest  country  in  the  world,"  to-day  await- 
ing listlessly  the  fiat  of  that  Venetian  Oligarchy,  on  which  in 
Bagehot's  phrase  it  "  depends  whether  England  shall  be  solvent 
or  insolvent,"  has  been  made  to  drain  to  the  dregs  the  cup  of 
financial  humiliation.  It  has  been  a  veritable  era  of  Venezuelan 
finance — moratoriums ;  closed  Stock  Exchanges ;  the  State  dis- 
counting of  German  bills  ;  a  Treasury  Kestriction  Act ;  and  all 
this  for  the  lack  of  a  William  Lidderdale. 

We  may  expect,  however,  that  this  American  mission  will  at 
least  have  one  good  result;  it  will  start  men's  minds  thinking 
out  for  themselves  the  great  problem  of  the  currency.  For  ten 
years  Germany  has  been  acquiring  and  absorbing  gold,  even 
paying  a  premium  for  gold  in  large  amounts — accumulating  gold 
for  the  Fatherland  actually  in  the  face  of  adverse  rates  of 
exchange.  Such  has  been  Germany's  financial  preparation  for 
"  The  Day  "  ! 

England,  being  for  such  a  purpose  merely  Lombard  Street, 
has  on  the  other  hand  encouraged  every  frantic  experiment  by 
the  Government  of  India  which  was  calculated  to  bleed  us  white, 
and  to  pour  irrecoverably  the  gold  which  should  have  remained 
in  our  reserves  into  the  myriad  small  hoards  of  India's  natives. 
And  again,  before  a  shot  was  fired  Germany's  Trojan  horse  in 
Lombard  Street  had  already  been  able  to  mulct  us  of  a  colossal 
war  indemnity.  Is  it  any  wonder,  then,  that  men  to-day  look 
askance  at  the  development  of  this  transatlantic  campaign  on  a 
field  where  we  see  the  banners  of  Lombard  Street  and  of  Wall 
Street  so  ominously  intertwined  ? 

MOEETON  FBEWEN. 


400  The  Empire  Review 


SUPPLEMENTARY    PENSIONS    AND    GRANTS 

THE    BILL    CONSIDERED 

IT  will,  I  think,  be  universally  admitted  that  far  and  away  the 
most  pressing  among  the  many  problems  arising  out  of  the  war 
are  those  affecting  the  comfort  and  well-being  of  our  sailors  and 
soldiers  and  their  dependents.  Needless  to  say  the  question  of 
pensions  and  allowances  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Govern- 
ment early  in  the  day,  but  it  was  not  until  a  Select  Committee, 
representative  of  all  parties,  had  been  appointed  and  its  report 
received,  that  a  Bill  authorising  better  provision  in  certain  cases, 
subject  of  course  to  well-defined  conditions  and  circumstances, 
was  introduced  and  carried  through  the  House  of  Commons.  This 
Bill  is  now  being  considered  by  the  House  of  Lords,  and  important 
points  of  administration  still  remain  unsettled.  Some  disappoint- 
ment was  occasioned  by  the  Act  not  being  placed  on  the  Statute 
Book  before  the  parliamentary  adjournment,  but  it  is,  however, 
only  fair  to  say  that  no  one  is  likely  to  suffer  from  the  postpone- 
ment ;  on  the  other  hand,  further  discussion  can  scarcely  fail  to 
improve  the  measure. 

From  the  first  it  was  obvious  that  nothing  but  a  flat  rate 
would  satisfy  the  requirements  of  a  State  built  up  on  democratic 
principles ;  it  was  equally  obvious  that  a  flat  rate  standing  alone 
would  not,  in  every  instance,  meet  the  conditions  that  surround 
employment  in  the  present  war.  Supplementary  pensions, 
grants  and  allowances  were  a  foregone  conclusion.  The  armies 
that  upheld  the  honour  and  glory  of  these  islands  in  past 
campaigns  were  raised  on  an  altogether  different  basis,  and 
their  composition  was  in  no  way  similar  to  that  of  the  armies 
now  in  the  field,  or  training  to  take  their  place  at  the  front.  All 
this  was  fully  appreciated  by  the  Government  when  they  appointed 
the  Select  Committee,  and  the  terms  of  reference  were  made 
sufficiently  wide  to  allow  of  proposals  that  would  adequately 
meet  the  new  situation.  The  Committee  recommended,  and 
the  House  of  Commons  accepted,  the  constitution  of  a  Statutory 
Committee  possessing  full  powers,  out  of  funds  at  their  disposal, 
to  supplement  pensions  and  grants  and  separation  allowances 


Supplementary  Pensions  and  Grants  401 

payable  out  of  public  funds,  and  to  make  grants  or  allowances 
in  cases  where  no  separation  allowances  or  pensions  are  payable 
out  of  public  funds  ;  to  make  provision  for  the  care  of  disabled 
officers  and  men  after  they  have  left  the  Service,  including  pro- 
vision for  their  health,  training  and  employment,  and  in  special 
cases  to  make  grants  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  widows,  children, 
and  other  dependents  of  deceased  officers  and  men  to  obtain  train- 
ing and  employment ;  and  to  undertake  other  responsibilities  and 
perform  other  duties  in  connection  with  these  and  kindred  objects. 
To  assist  the  Statutory  Committee  in  their  work  local  committees 
are  to  be  established,  and  both  on  the  Statutory  and  local  com- 
mittees women  are  to  be  appointed.  The  House  of  Commons 
also  adopted  the  Committee's  recommendation  that  the  Statutory 
Body  should  be  a  Committee  of  the  Koyal  Patriotic  Corporation, 
but  in  the  House  of  Lords  this  provision  has  been  rejected,  so 
the  question  of  authority  remains  in  abeyance. 

Another  amendment  introduced  in  the  Lords,  this  time  by  the 
Government,  gives  powers  to  the  Statutory  Body,  out  of  funds  at 
their  disposal,  "  to  make  advances  on  account  of  pensions,  or 
grants,  or  separation  allowances,  due  to  any  persons,  out  of  public 
funds,  during  any  interval  before  the  payment  thereof  actually 
occurs."  The  effect  of  this  amendment  would  be  to  legalise  such 
advances  as  have  hitherto  been  made  by  the  National  Belief 
Fund  through  their  agents  the  Soldiers  and  Sailors  Families' 
Association  and  the  Soldiers  and  Sailors  Help  Society. 

But  the  real  blot  on  the  scheme  is  its  finance.  As  the  Bill  stands 
the  only  monies  which  the  Statutory  Committee  will  have  at  its 
disposal  are  monies  supplied  from  voluntary  funds,  but  as  to  the 
source  of  these  funds  the  Bill  is  silent.  All  it  discloses  is  that 
the  Committee  will  have  power  "  to  administer  any  funds  which 
may  be  placed  at  their  disposal  by  the  Corporation  (presumably 
the  Koyal  Patriotic  Fund  Corporation),  or  by  local  committees, 
or  by  any  society  or  other  organisation  having  funds  applicable 
to  the  making  of  grants  of  the  nature  of  those  which  the 
Committee  are  authorised  to  make."  On  the  other  hand  special 
provision  is  made  for  the  salaries  of  a  chairman  and  vice-chair- 
man ;  these  are  to  be  paid  out  of  monies  provided  by  Parliament. 
Eeplying  to  the  criticisms  passed  on  the  financial  clauses  of  the 
Bill  when  the  money  resolution  was  brought  forward  for  the 
payment  of  these  salaries,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  took 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  indicate  the  sources  from  which 
he  expected  to  secure  the  monies  necessary  for  financing  the 
Committee's  operations.  From  his  observations  it  appeared 
that,  in  the  main,  he  was  relying  on  contributions  from  the 
National  Relief  Fund ;  he  also  hoped  to  recover  from  the  War 
Office  the  very  large  sums  which  that  Fund  has  already  expended 
VOL.  XXIX. -No.  177.  2  i 


402  The  Empire  Review 

out  of  their  voluntary  contributions  and  which  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  say  should  have  been  met  originally  by  the  War  Office.  But 
he  added  with  a  foresight,  bordering  on  suspicion,  "  If  when  all 
is  said  and  done  we  have  not  enough  money  we  shall  have  to 
come  to  Parliament  and  say  that  our  hopes  have  not  been 
realised." 

Meanwhile  I  had  pointed  out  to  him  in  a  former  debate  that 
as  the  National  Belief  Fund  was  contributed  for  civil  purposes 
arising  out  of  the  war  it  did  not  seem  correct  for  the  Trustees  of 
that  Fund  to  allocate  monies  for  the  purposes  of  the  Bill ;  at  any 
rate  I  ventured  to  suggest  that  it  might  be  well  to  consult  with 
the  Trustees  of  the  Fund  in  order  to  ascertain  their  views  on  the 
matter.  Expressing  a  similar  opinion  to  my  own  as  to  the 
genesis  of  the  National  Belief  Fund,  Mr.  Anderson,  speaking 
with  the  weight  attaching  to  his  position  as  a  representative  of 
labour,  called  attention  to  the  large  demand,  as  he  put  it,  that 
will  be  made  on  the  Fund  later  on,  giving  it  as  his  opinion  that 
"  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  Fund  should  be  retained  for  the 
purpose  of  the  civil  distress  that  may  come  at  the  end  of  the 
war."  Whether  or  not  my  suggestion  was  responsible  for 
subsequent  events  I  do  not  know,  but  on  the  Third  Beading  of  the 
Bill,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  moved  to  re-commit  to  a 
Committee  of  the  whole  House  certain  amendments  standing  in 
his  name,  and  in  speaking  of  these  amendments  he  made  the 
somewhat  significant  pronouncement  that  "  after  the  Bill  had 
reached  its  present  stage  "  he  had  attended  a  meeting  of  the 
Committee  of  the  National  Belief  Fund,  and  had  found  that 
while  some  members  fell  in  with  the  views  he  had  expressed,  and 
which  he  was  careful  to  point  out  had  recommended  themselves 
to  the  Select  Committee,  other  members  did  not  think  they 
would  be  justified  "  in  handing  over  the  Fund  which  had  been 
entrusted  to  them  by  the  public  to  be  administered  by  any  other 
body."  In  these  circumstances  he  came,  and  I  think  very  wisely 
came,  to  the  conclusion  that  he  ought  not  to  press  the  Committee 
of  the  National  Belief  Fund  "  to  hand  over  any  part  of  their 
Fund  to  be  administered  by  the  Statutory  Body." 

From  this  statement  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  Trustees 
of  the  National  Belief  Fund  have  declined  altogether  to  help  in 
financing  the  Statutory  Committee,  although  that  is  a  line 
which,  in  my  opinion,  should  have  been  taken.  All  they  appear 
to  have  done  is  to  refuse  to  delegate  their  administrative  authority 
to  another  body,  their  view  being,  at  least  that  is  the  only  con- 
clusion one  can  draw  from  the  statement  made  by  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  that  if  any  contributions  are  made  these 
should  be  distributed  by  their  own  agencies,  presumably  the 
Soldiers  and  Sailors  Families'  Association  and  the  Soldiers  and 


Supplementary  Pensions  and  Grants  403 

Sailors  Help  Society.  Personally,  I  am  opposed  to  the  Govern- 
ment view  of  financing  the  Statutory  Committee,  either  wholly  or 
in  part,  out  of  voluntary  funds.  Such  a  policy,  in  my  opinion, 
leaves  the  position  of  the  body  too  much  in  doubt.  I  call  to  mind 
what  happened  in  the  case  of  the  Unemployed  Workmen  Act, 
1905,  part  of  which  was  to  be  worked  by  voluntary  funds. 
What  happened  ?  The  voluntary  funds  quickly  dried  up,  and 
grants  from  public  funds  had  frequently  to  be  made  in  order  to 
finance  the  activities  of  the  central  body  and  local  committees 
set  up  to  administer  the  provisions  of  that  measure.  It  is  no  use 
inviting  voluntary  aid,  much  less  depending  on  voluntary  aid,  for 
a  scheme  which  everyone  knows  ought  to  be  and  must  be 
financed  out  of  public  funds.  Besides,  and  this  point  apparently 
escaped  the  notice  both  of  the  Select  Committee  and  of  the 
Government  itself,  nearly  every  voluntary  fund  is  very  hard  hit 
by  the  war,  many  philanthropic  associations  have  been  compelled 
to  limit  their  sphere  of  work,  and  in  some  cases  to  close  down 
altogether.  In  my  opinion,  there  is  only  one  course  to  take,  and 
that  is  for  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  to  propose  a  grant  of 
five  millions  out  of  public  funds  and  hand  that  sum  over  to  the 
Statutory  Committee  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  duties 
and  responsibilities  invested  in  them  by  Parliament. 

But  let  me  pass  on  to  another  matter.  Wide  as  the  powers 
of  the  Statutory  Committee  undoubtedly  are,  there  remain  for 
consideration  several  matters  which  'appear  to  be  outside  the 
scope  of  the  Committee's  operations.  For  instance,  when 
hostilities  are  over,  what  is  to  become  of  the  men  who  enlisted 
for  the  duration  of  the  war  and  have  returned  sound  in  limb  and 
body?  Employment  of  some  kind  will  have  to  be  found  for 
them,  and  the  question  is,  what  employment  and  how  and  where 
it  can  be  found.  Do  not  let  us  forget  the  long  period  of  un- 
employment that  followed  the  Boer  War,  a  period  which  gave 
the  great  impetus  to  emigration.  So  far  as  one  can  see  there  is 
no  reason  to  expect  any  other  economic  result  when  the  present 
campaign  is  concluded.  Much  has  been  heard  about  posts  being 
kept  open,  and  no  doubt  many,  especially  married  men,  will 
gladly  resume  again  their  old  occupations.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
considerable  number  have  left  their  positions  without  asking  or 
receiving  any  promise  of  reinstatement.  Others  will  find  their 
former  callings  irksome,  possibly  uncongenial.  An  open-air 
existence  even  of  a  few  months,  much  less  of  years,  does  not 
exactly  fit  a  man  for  the  desk  or  the  counter.  The  soldier 
mechanic  will  also  feel  a  little  strange  at  his  trade  after  the 
fighting  is  over,  and  the  position  will  not  be  made  easier  should 
he  find  himself  in  competition  with  men  who  have  never  left  the 
bench  or  the  anvil.  Then  take  the  case  of  the  younger  men, 

2  i  2 


404  The  Empire  Review 

boys  when  they  joined.  They  were  ready  enough  to  leave  their 
blind-alley  occupations,  but  they  may  not  be  so  ready  to  return 
to  them,  even  supposing  age  does  not  act  as  a  bar ;  and,  being 
unskilled,  they  cannot  take  up  a  trade,  and  are  too  old  for 
apprenticeship. 

A  considerable  number  of  men  in  the  new  armies  had  no 
permanent  occupation  when  they  enlisted  ;  some  earned  a  pre- 
carious living  at  seasonal  trades  or  did  an  odd  job  occasionally, 
but  a  large  section  failed  to  find  employment  of  any  kind, 
whether  due  to  misfortune  or  to  irregularities  in  their  way  of 
living  it  is  not  necessary  to  inquire.  The  training  and  discipline 
of  a  soldier's  life  can  scarcely  fail  to  have  a  beneficial  effect  on 
this  class  of  men,  and  he  will  return  from  the  war  changed  in 
many  respects.  It  may  be  that  he  will  easily  fall  into  work,  but 
it  may  be  he  will  not.  In  any  event,  one  must  always  remember 
that  the  great  majority  of  these  men,  like  the  blind-alley  boys, 
belong  to  the  ranks  of  unskilled  labour,  and  it  would  be  lament- 
able to  see  them  slide  back  as  they  did  before  and  become 
dependents  of  the  country  their  valour  has  helped  so  successfully 
to  save. 

The  wounded  man  is,  I  think,  well  covered  by  the  powers 
given  to  the  Statutory  Committee.  Too  much  confidence, 
however,  must  not  be  placed  in  the  supposition  that  any  con- 
siderable number  of  wounded  men  will  be  taken  on  by  Govern- 
ment Departments.  For  example,  an  Admiralty  order  authorised 
the  employment  for  light  work  in  His  Majesty's  dockyards  of 
men  injured  in  the  Navy,  but  the  openings  are  few  and  vacancies 
seldom  arise.  Then  take  the  case  of  the  man  suffering  from 
illness  brought  on  by  his  service,  but  one  he  is  unable  to  prove 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  authorities  is  directly  attributable  to  the 
war  itself.  This  man  will  have  no  pension,  nor  can  he  secure 
any  work.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  whether  his  case 
comes  within  the  purview  of  the  Committee's  operations.  If 
not,  his  only  outlook  will  be,  as  it  was  before  the  war,  the 
workhouse.  Again,  there  is  the  case  of  the  man  whose  earning 
capacity  is  only  "  partially  impaired."  He  is  regarded  by  the 
present  regulations  as  able  to  contribute  to  his  own  support  and 
by  implication  to  that  of  his  wife  and  children.  This  ruling 
would  be  sound  enough  provided  the  man  could  find  someone 
to  employ  him,  but  the  difficulty  facing  the  partially  impaired 
man  is  to  obtain  an  employer.  Even  now  many  men  who  have 
done  splendid  work  for  their  country  find  themselves  in  this 
position.  What,  then,  will  be  the  case  after  the  war?  An 
employer  can  hardly  be  expected  to  pay  a  maimed  man  the  same 
wages  he  would  pay  to  an  able-bodied  man,  nor  engage  the 
services  of  a  man  he  cannot  insure.  This  means  that  trades 


Supplementary  Pensions  and  Grants  405 

union  rules   will   have    to    be    modified    and    the    Employers' 
Liability  Act  amended. 

One  would  like  to  be  certain  that  the  conclusion  of  hostilities 
will  see  the  resources  of  the  Empire  so  organised  that  every  man 
who  has  done  his  share  of  the  fighting,  whether  skilled  or  un- 
skilled, will  either  find  a  berth  awaiting  him  in  the  homeland  or 
be  provided  with  the  means  and  given  the  opportunity  of  settling 
himself  and  his  family  on  the  land  in  the  Dominions  oversea. 

THE  EDITOB. 

THE    PATRIOTS 

A  GLOEIOUS  heritage  they  'queathed, 

Who  through  the  darkest  night, 
That  ever  threatened  Freedom's  cause 

Fought  for  fair  Freedom's  might. 
They  set  all  else  as  nought  beside 

Their  need  "  the  game  to  play," 
They  stemmed  the  tide  of  ruthless  war 

They  barred  the  tyrant's  way. 

Deep  and  indelible  the  debt 

We  owe  that  dauntless  band, 
Whose  courage  kept  the  savage  hordes 

Back  from  the  Motherland. 
The  noblest  cause  that  ere  unsheathed 

The  warriors'  glittering  steel, 
Was  championed  by  our  braves  to  crush 

The  Prussian's  iron  heel. 

Oh  God  of  Gods  !  did  e'er  before 

Since  Time  from  Time  first  grew, 
Men  flock  to  a  Nation's  standard 

With  hearts  so  brave  and  true? 
Did  ever  a  people  rally 

From  furthest  bounds  of  earth, 
Leaving  all  they  had  toiled  to  garner 

For  their  dear  land  of  birth  ? 

They  did  their  task,  they  played  their  part, 

How  grandly  time  will  tell; 
Ages  to  come  shall  sacred  keep 

The  spot  on  which  they  fell. 
The  priceless  blood  of  Britain's  sons 

Was  poured  a  living  tide, 
And  peer  and  peasant,  heroes  all, 

Lie  sleeping  side  by  side. 

CHABLOTTE  PIDGEON. 


406  The  Empire  Review 


CANADA'S    PLACE    IN    BRITISH    FICTION 

[Concluded.] 

V. 

THE  contrast  between  the  Old  World  and  the  New  is  brought 
out  by  the  use  of  scene,  as  well  as  by  environment.  Anderson 
asks  Lady  Merton  : — 

Where  in  Europe  can  you  match  the  sense  of  boundlessness  we  have  here 
— boundless  space,  boundless  opportunity?  It  often  makes  fools  of  us;  it 
intoxicates,  turns  our  heads.  There  is  a  germ  of  madness  in  this  North-West. 

And  Mrs.  Ward  shows  the  growing  spell  of  the  sense  of  this 
potentiality  upon  the  Englishwoman  : — 

In  these  vast  spaces,  some  day  to  be  the  home  of  a  new  race,  in  these  lakes, 
the  playground  of  the  Canada  of  the  future,  in  these  fur-stations  and  scattered 
log  cabins  ;  above  all,  in  the  great  railway  linking  east  and  west. 

Lady  Merton's  mind  turns  back  to  the  old  land  from  which 
she  came : — 

She  thought  of  the  English  landscapes,  of  the  woods  and  uplands  round 
her  Cumberland  home,  of  the  old  church,  the  embowered  cottages,  the  lichened 
farms :  the  generations  of  lives  that  have  died  into  the  soil  like  the  summer 
leaves  of  trees. 

The  people  whom  Lady  Merton  meets  are  carefully  selected  by 
the  author  in  order  that  they  may,  through  their  conversation, 
express  the  main  ideals  of  the  country.  Mrs.  Ward  picks  out  the 
typical  leaders — the  Chief  Justice  from  Alberta,  the  Senator 
from  Manitoba,  the  British  Columbian  Lumber  King,  the 
Toronto  Manufacturer,  and  the  French-Canadian  M.P.  They 
are  made,  each  in  his  own  particular  way,  to  give  some  idea  of 
those  parts  of  the  country  that  the  author  has  not  had  an 
opportunity  to  touch  upon  directly. 

Mrs.  Ward  grasps,  as  understandingly  as  any  Canadian,  the 
political  and  social  problems  of  the  Dominion,  and  the  scene  in 
one  of  the  concluding  chapters,  where  the  two  Canadians  are 
guests  at  Lady  Merton's  house,  shows  how  imperfectly  even  yet 
the  older  nation  understands  the  younger.  She  further  goes  on 
to  outline  the  place  of  the  Canadian  in  the  British  politics  of  the 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  407 

future,  and  asserts  the  ability  of  the  Dominion  to  work  out  its 
own  problems. 

Mrs.  S.  J.  D.  Cotes  (Sara  Jeanette  Duncan)  weaves  into  her 
studies  of  Canadian  political  and  social  life  a  bright  thread  of 
humour.  '  Cousin  Cinderella  ;  A  Canadian  Girl  in  London  '  and 
'  The  Imperialist '  treat  of  the  relationships  of  England  and 
Canada ;  and  in  the  same  manner  as  Mrs.  Ward  has  done,  she 
introduces  the  Canadian  politician  trying  his  skill  at  the  problems 
of  the  old  land. 

Harold  Bindloss  has  written  several  novels  having  the 
Western  prairies  for  their  scene.  '  Lorimer  of  the  North  West ' 
and  '  A  Prairie  Courtship  '  bring  the  reader  into  close  touch  with 
the  Western  Canada  of  to-day  ;  but  probably  the  most  typical  of 
what  the  Canadian  prairies  have  to  offer  is  '  Masters  of  the 
Wheatlands.'  It  is  intensely  realistic.  The  contrast  between 
English  and  Canadian  life  is  brought  out  here  also.  As  the 
hero  remarks  to  his  hostess  in  an  English  drawing-room  : — 

It's  so  different  that  you  couldn't  realise  it.  It's  all  strain  and  effort  from 
early  sunrise  until  after  dark  at  night.  Bodily  strain  of  aching  muscle  and 
mental  stress  in  adverse  seasons,  we  scarcely  think  of  comfort,  and  never 
dream  of  artistic  luxury.  The  money  we  make  is  sunk  again  in  seed  and  extra 
teams  and  plows. 

The  scene  is  made  to  some  extent  symbolical  of  the  primaeval 
toil  and  the  wealth  that  is  wrung  with  such  effort  from  the 
earth  : — 

It  is  vast  and  silent,  and  though  our  homesteads  are  crude  and  new,  once 
you  pass  the  breaking  it's  primaevally  old.  That  gets  hold  of  one  somehow. 
It's  wonderful  after  sunset  in  the  early  spring  when  the  little  cold  wind  is  like 
wine,  and  it  runs  white  to  the  horizon  with  the  smoky  red  on  the  rim  of  it, 
melting  into  transcendental  green.  When  the  wheat  rolls  across  the  fore- 
ground in  ochre  and  burnished  copper  waves  it  is  more  wonderful  still.  One 
sees  the  promise  and  takes  courage. 

Among  the  English  writers  of  French-Canadian  life  none  has 
been  more  successful  than  Gilbert  Parker.  '  The  Lane  that  had 
no  Turning '  is  a  collection  of  stories  of  the  natives  of  Quebec 
that  comprehends  their  life  in  every  aspect,  from  the  intellectual 
class  to  the  shantymen  and  habitants.  '  The  Eight  of  Way,' 
one  of  Parker's  best  known  novels,  is  a  finished  delineation  of 
modern  French-Canadian  ways.  The  story  is  based  on  a  powerful 
problem  and  the  psychologic  interest  is  very  strong.  Again  the 
reader  revisits  the  villages  and  wood  roads  of  Quebec  and  meets 
in  the  Valley  of  the  Chaudiere  men  and  women  playing  their 
parts  in  life's  tragedies  with  as  good  a  courage  as  anywhere  in 
the  world.  How  beautiful  and  full  of  promise  is  the  sight  of  the 
little  village  of  Chaudiere,  when  first  revealed  to  the  eyes  of 


408  The  Empire  Review 

Charley  Steele,  the  drunkard,  the  Man  who  Was  !     It  is  typical  of 
Quebec  :  — 

The  green  and  frosted  foliage  of  the  pines  and  cedars  ;  the  flowery  tracery 
of  frost  hanging  like  cobwebs  everywhere ;  the  "  poudre  "  sparkle  in  the  air ; 
the  hills  of  silver  and  emerald  sloping  down  to  the  valley  miles  away,  where 
the  village  clustered  about  the  great  old  parish  church;  the  smoke  from  a 
hundred  chimneys,  in  purple  spirals,  rising  straight  up  in  the  windless  air ; 
over  all  peace  and  a  perfect  silence. 

'  By  the  Good  Saint  Anne,'  by  Anna  Chapman  Eay,  1904,  is 
a  story  which  shows  the  interest  that  lies  in  and  about  the 
quaint  old  city  of  Quebec.  The  heroine  is  an  American  girl. 
The  annual  pilgrimages  of  the  crippled  and  maimed  to  the 
Shrine  of  St.  Anne  de  Beaupre  provides  the  enveloping  action  of 
the  story,  and  the  local  colour  is  true  to  life.  The  odd  little 
houses,  the  lofty  situation,  and  the  varied  population  of  the  city 
are  all  represented  by  scene  description  or  brought  in  through 
conversation.  The  reader  reviews  the  strange  mingling  of 
humanity  in  the  paragraph  : — 

Baith  could  watch  the  leisurely  procession  passing  to  and  fro  on  the  wooden 
sidewalks  which  separated  the  grey  stone  buildings  from  the  paler  strip  of 
asphalt  between.  Even  at  that  early  hour  it  was  a  variegated  procession. 
Tailor-made  girls  mingled  with  black-gowned  nuns.  Soldiers  from  the  citadel, 
swaggering  jauntily  along,  jostled  a  brown-cowled  Franciscan  friar  or  a  portly 
citizen  with  his  omnipresent  umbrella,  while  now  and  then  Baith  caught  sight 
of  a  scarlet-barred  khaki  uniform,  or  the  white  serge  robe  and  dove-coloured 
cloak  of  a  sister  from  the  new  convent  on  the  Grand  Alle. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  the  smallest  province  of  the  Dominion, 
has  produced  of  recent  years  a  novelist  whose  original  style  has 
made  her  popular  both  in  America  and  England.  L.  A.  Mont- 
gomery's first  novel,  '  Anne  of  Green  Gables,'  was  received  at 
once  as  something  new  and  refreshing  in  the  delineation  of  child- 
character.  Very  real  and  entertaining  are  the  village  and 
country-side  characters  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  who  move  over 
her  pages.  '  Anne  of  Avonlea  '  is  even  more  delightful  than  the 
first  story.  The  later  novels  are  hardly  so  spontaneous  and 
natural  as  those  first  two  well-loved  books ;  although  they 
possess  the  charm  of  scene,  the  sparkling  humour  and  gaiety  is 
lacking. 

Here  is  a  bit  of  scenery  from  '  Anne  of  Avonlea,'  characteristic 
not  only  of  Prince  Edward  Island,  but  also  of  Miss  Montgomery's 
style  at  its  best : — 

Those  who  have  followed  a  dim,  winding  balsamic  path  to  the  unexpected 
hollow  where  a  wood  spring  lies,  have  found  the  rarest  secret  that  the  woods 
can  reveal.  Here  it  is  under  the  pines,  a  crystal-clear  thing,  with  lips  unkissed 
by  so  much  as  a  stray  sunbeam.  It  is  easy  to  dream  that  it  is  one  of  the 
haunted  streams  of  old  romance,  an  enchanted  spot  where  we  must  go  softly 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  409 

and  speak,  if  we  dare  speak  at  all,  in  the  lowest  of  whispers,  lest  we  disturb 
the  rest  of  a  white,  wet  naiad,  or  break  some  spell  that  has  cost  long  years  of 
mystic  weaving.  Come,  let  us  stoop  down  on  the  brink  and  ever  so  gently 
drink  from  our  hollowed  hands  of  the  living  water,  for  it  must  have  some 
potent  spell  of  magic  in  it,  and  all  our  future  lives  we  shall  have  better  under- 
standing of  the  wood  and  its  lore  by  reason  of  drinking  from  the  cup  it  offers. 

The  life  of  the  Scotch  people  along  Lake  Simcoe,  in  Ontario, 
is  described  by  Miss  Marian  Keith  in  her  two  novels,  '  Duncan 
Polite  '  and  '  The  Silver  Maple.' 

Mrs.  Nellie  McClung,  the  busy  Manitoba  writer,  has  given  us 
an  amusing  bit  of  fiction  under  the  quaint  title,  '  Sowing  Seeds  in 
Danny.'  The  little  awkwardnesses  of  inexperienced  Englishmen 
on  the  prairie  farms  of  the  West  are  hit  off  by  Mrs.  McClung, 
among  them  the  efforts  of  a  young  Londoner  to  make  a  check- 
reined  horse  drink  by  lifting  the  hind  wheels  of  the  carriage.  But 
there  is  a  strain  of  pathos  running  through  the  little  tale  that 
calls  out  all  the  reader's  sympathies. 

Charles  G.  D.  Eoberts  writes  understandingly  of  his  native 
province  of  New  Brunswick,  where  many  subjects  still  remain 
untouched  by  the  novelist's  pen.  '  The  Heart  that  Knows  '  is 
the  tragedy  of  a  woman's  life  in  a  little  village  by  the  waters  of 
the  Bay  of  Fundy.  '  The  Heart  of  the  Ancient  Wood  '  gives  an 
improbable,  but  idyllic,  picture  of  a  settler's  family  in  the  deep 
woods  and  their  relations  to  the  wild  animals  about  them. 

The  deep  sea  fisheries  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  have  at  last 
found  an  exponent  of  their  life  in  '  Blue  Water,'  by  Frederick 
William  Wallace.  This  novel,  just  published  this  year,  is  full  of 
the  breezy  slang  of  the  Fundy  fishermen  and  the  tang  of  healthy 
out-door  life.  The  sunburnt  hero  is  just  such  a  one  as  the 
summer  tourist  exclaims  over  as  he  "  seines  his  wier  "  off  the 
coasts  of  Grand  Manan,  or  baits  his  lines  for  cod  in  the  deep  sea, 
his  motor-dory  rolling  gently  in  the  swell. 

A  host  of  writers  still  remain,  each  of  whom  has  done  some- 
thing to  show  the  possibilities  of  Canada  as  a  literary  field. 
Craven  Langstroth  Betts  has  taken  Halifax  as  his  theme  and 
written  'Tales  of  a  Garrison  Town.'  Francis  B.  Coften  has 
added  to  the  scanty  literature  of  this  historic  old  town  by  some 
humorous  works  on  soldier-life  there.  Ottawa,  whose  varied 
social  life  should  have  attracted  numerous  writers,  has  been,  so 
far,  almost  neglected.  The  work  of  Kate  Barry  is  best  known. 
She  began  her  literary  career  at  the  age  of  seventeen  with 
'  Honor  Edgeworth  ;  or,  Ottawa's  Present  Tense,'  a  novel  which 
aimed  to  bring  out  certain  phases  of  Ottawa's  social  life  and 
character.  This  amateur  production  went  through  the  second 
edition  the  first  year  of  its  appearance.  Mrs.  J.  B.  Hammond's 
'  An  Unexpected  Bride '  is  a  story  of  Ontario  rural  life.  '  Children 


410  The  Empire  Review 

of  the  Earth,'  by  Mrs.  Annie  Macfarlane  Logan,  depends  on 
Nova  Scotia  for  its  scenic  effects.  William  Dean  Howelis,  in 
'Their  Wedding  Journey,'  writes  of  the  favourite  honeymoon 
ground  of  Niagara.  Nova  Scotia  again  figures  in  '  Tales  from 
the  Land  of  Evangeline,'  a  collection  of  short  stories  by  Mrs. 
Grace  Kogers.  Mrs.  S.  P.  M.  Greene,  author  of  'Cape  Cod 
Folks,'  makes  Nova  Scotia  the  centre  of  interest  in  '  Power  Lot.' 
W.  J.  Nicholl's  '  Brunhilda  of  Orr's  Island '  is  a  story  of  Canso 
Bay.  Clive  C.  Walley  uses  British  Columbia,  which  he  knew  so 
well,  as  the  setting  for  his  novels, '  Gold,  Gold  in  Cariboo,' '  Snap,' 
and  '  The  Eemittance  Man.'  Alexander  Begg  wrote  his  novel 
'  Dot  it  Down '  on  the  people  of  the  North- West. 

John  Gait,  who  holds  a  place  of  importance  among  English 
novelists,  spent  three  years  in  the  country,  and  introduces 
Canadian  life  and  ways  into  '  Laurie  Todd  '  and  '  Bogle  Corbett.' 
He  is  interesting  as  one  of  the  earliest  novelists  in  English 
literature  to  deal  with  the  people  of  Britain's  colony  across  the 
water. 

A  number  of  writers  have  chosen  the  Irish  Canadian  as  a 
theme.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  these  is  Mrs.  M.  A. 
Sadlier,  the  author  of  over  fifty  volumes  of  writings.  Included 
in  her  works  are  '  Irish  Immigrant  Life  and  Adventure,'  '  Willy 
Burke,'  '  The  Blakes  and  Flanagans,'  and  '  Con  O'Eegan.'  N.  F. 
Davin,  author  of  'The  Irishman  in  Canada,'  also  writes  along 
these  lines. 

Phases  of  the  life  of  the  French  in  Canada  are  dwelt 
upon  by  a  large  number  of  writers  besides  Gilbert  Parker  and 
de  Gaspe.  Louis  Honore  Frechette,  prominent  in  law  and 
journalism  and  a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  has  con- 
tributed largely  to  every  branch  of  Canadian  literature,  and  his 
book,  '  Christmas  in  Canada,'  is  written  in  English.  He  has 
translated  numerous  novels  into  French,  including  'A  Chance 
Acquaintance,'  by  his  brother-in-law,  William  Dean  Howelis. 
In  poetry,  Frechette  is  known  as  "  The  Lamartine  of  Canada," 
while  as  a  dramatist  his  work  is  well  known,  one  of  his 
pieces,  'Veronica,'  being  especially  written  for  Mme.  Sarah 
Bernhardt.  Two  other  French-Canadian  novelists  of  importance 
are  Alphonse  Gagnon  and  Leon  Pamphile  Le  May.  The  former 
is  the  author  of  two  novels,  '  Douleurs  et  Joies  '  and  '  Jean  Port 
Jolie,'  both  written  in  1876.  Le  May  is  known  for  '  De  Pelerin 
de  Saint  Anne,'  'Picounacle  Maudit,'  and  'L'Affair  Longraine,' 
and  Longfellow  was  delighted  with  Le  May's  work,  especially 
along  the  lines  of  translation  and  poetry.  Abbe"  Casgrain's 
'  Degendes  Canadiennes '  are  also  important  contributions  to 
French-Canadian  literature. 

W.  D.  Lighthall  is   another   interpreter  of  life  in  French 


Canada's  Place  in  British  Fiction  411 

Canada,  chiefly  with  the  stories  '  The  Young  Seigneur '  and  '  The 
False  Kepentigny.'  Blanche  Lucille  Macdonnell,  author  of  '  The 
World's  Great  Altar  Stairs,'  writes  of  the  old  French  regime  in 
Canada.  Her  '  Tales  of  the  Soil '  are  French^Canadian  legends. 
Edward  W.  Thomson  is  also  a  delineator  of  French  character  in 
such  works  as  'Old  Man  Savarinar'  and  '  Aucassin  and  Nicollette.' 
Malcolm  Sparrow's  novel,  'The  Lady  of  Chateau  Blanc'  may 
also  be  mentioned  here. 

Canada  has  not  contributed  much  to  humorous  fiction  of  any 
permanent  character,  with  one  exception.  This  exception  is 
Judge  Haliburton  of  Nova  Scotia,  whose  house  is  one  of  the 
sights  at  "Windsor,  where  the  college  students  have  a  Haliburton 
Club.  He  began  writing  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and 
since  his  death  in  1865,  no  one  has  come  forward  to  take  the 
place  of  the  "  Mark  Twain  of  Canada."  "  Sam  Slick,"  the 
famous  character  whom  he  created,  was  a  sort  of  "  born 
philosopher"  who  peddled  clocks  through  Nova  Scotia  and 
made  great  use  of  "  soft  sawder "  and  "  human  natur "  in 
disposing  of  his  wares.  The  wily  "  Sam "  trusted  to  "  soft 
sawder  "  to  get  his  clocks  into  the  homes  of  the  country  people, 
and  then  left  it  to  "human  natur"  to  keep  them  there;  for,  as 
he  expressed  it,  "  We  can  do  without  any  article  of  luxury  we 
have  never  had,  but  when  once  obtained,  it  is  not  human  natur 
to  surrender  it  voluntarily."  Of  Haliburton's  style,  F.  Blake 
Compton  has  said,  "  His  effects  are  produced  by  ludicrous 
situations  and  grotesque  conceits  more  than  by  tricks  of 
construction."  Judge  Haliburton's  books,  'The  Clockmaker' 
and  '  Wise  Saws  '  were  illustrated  by  John  Leech,  friend  of 
Thackeray,  and  contributor  to  '  Punch.' 

Dean  Stanley  once  remarked,  "  I  have  learned  to  look  upon 
two  hundred  years  in  America  as  equivalent  to  a  thousand  years  in 
Europe.  They  both  reach  back  to  the  origin  of  things."  In  the 
case  of  Canadian  fiction,  the  "  origin  of  things "  is  placed, 
comparatively,  within  the  memory  of  the  preceding  generation, 
and  this  means  that  the  Canadian  novel,  judged  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  accepted  English  classics,  must  be  more  or  less 
of  an  amateurish  production.  And  yet,  how  much  Canadians 
have  to  be  proud  of  in  the  work  already  done,  short  as  the  time 
has  been  !  True  it  is,  that  in  a  great  number  of  cases,  the 
writers  have  lacked  the  technique  to  express  their  thoughts 
effectively  and,  in  others,  have  not  had  the  ability  to  fit  the 
technique  acquired  from  the  best  English  models  to  the  subjects 
with  which  the  new  land  is  crowded.  The  French-Canadian 
novel,  again,  is  based  on  French  models  and  must  be  judged 
differently  from  its  British  compatriot.  The  best  novels  of 
Canadian  literature  have  been  produced  since  1870,  and  the  more 


412  The  Empire  Review 

recent  novelists  have  not  yet  been  subjected  to  the  testing-crucible 
of  time ;  but  the  time  is  surely  ripe — perhaps  has  already  come, 
as  time  will  show — for  Canada  to  place  before  the  world  a  novel 
that  will  take  its  place  with  the  world's  classics. 

It  cannot  be  that  Canada  lacks  material  for  a  great  novel.  A 
wonderful  variety  of  life  is  to  be  found  within  her  borders,  and 
there  is  now  a  sufficient  leisure  class,  and  a  standard  of  education 
high  enough  to  warrant  a  considerable  literary  effort.  While 
narrowness  and  provincialism  are  never  desirable  either  in 
material  or  language,  there  are  some  splendid  backgrounds  in 
Canada  against  which  to  stage  some  drama  of  power  and 
permanent  value,  a  riovel  of  universal  appeal  which  will  live  in 
British  fiction.  The  historical  and  racial  interests  of  Acadia  and 
Quebec  have  already  been  dwelt  upon.  There  must  still  exist 
there  hidden  springs  of  picturesque  character  that  have  never 
been  discovered.  The  "  Anne  "  stories  of  Miss  Montgomery  have 
been  created  from  the  seemingly  uneventful  life  of  Prince  Edward 
Island.  Fortunes  are  being  made  in  the  Island  to-day  by  men 
who  were,  a  few  years  ago,  comparatively  penniless,  and  yet  the 
romance  of  the  fox-rancher  goes  unheralded  by  the  novelist. 

In  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  there  are  the  quaint  Gaelic 
settlers  of  the  last  century,  the  French  fishermen,  the  miners, 
and  tourist  life  along  the  rivers  and  on  the  coast.  In  Ontario 
there  is  the  miniature  court  life  of  Ottawa,  which  has  been  barely 
touched  upon.  There  is  here  an  opportunity  for  the  study  of 
types  from  the  rural  member  and  family  to  the  representatives  of 
royalty.  The  West,  with  its  wheatlands,  cattle  ranches,  religious 
colonies  and  mingled  mass  of  nationalities,  is  full  of  colour  and 
interest  to  the  student  of  character.  The  summer  playgrounds 
of  Muskoka,  the  Kocky  Mountain  country,  with  its  matchless 
scenery,  its  lakes,  glaciers,  mountain-climbing  and  varying  throng 
of  tourist  life ;  the  economic  interests  of  lumbering  and  salmon- 
fishing  in  British  Columbia ;  the  romance  of  pushing  great 
railway  enterprises  across  unexplored  northern  regions;  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  the  autocrat  of  the  vast  north;  and 
noblest  theme  of  all — Canadians,  whether  English,  Scotch,  Irish, 
French,  Indian,  Jewish — it  matters  not,  coming  in  answer  to  the 
Motherland's  call  for  men  to  protect  the  neutrality  of  an  outraged 
nation.  All  these  combine  to  form  a  broad  and  glowing  canvas 
for  the  master's  brush. 

MAEIANNE  GEEY  OTTY. 


Methods  of  Barbarism:  A  Comparison         413 


METHODS   OF   BARBARISM:   A   COMPARISON 

AN  American  writer  has  said  of  the  present  European  war, 
that :  "  The  struggle  is  not  a  struggle  of  nations,  it  is  a  battle 
between  civilisation  and  barbarism."  The  War  of  the  French 
Eevolution  bore  the  same  aspect  for  Edmund  Burke.  It  is 
interesting  to  gain  a  clear  understanding  of  men's  reasons  for 
assigning  such  a  deep  significance  to  these  two  wars. 

In  penetrating  far  back  into  history  the  discovery  is  made 
that  all  peoples  were  at  some  remote  period  barbarians,  whose 
conduct  was  regulated  almost  entirely  by  desire  and  brute  force. 
What  they  coveted  they  sought  to  obtain,  indifferent  to  whether 
or  not  it  was  lawful  for  them  to  have  it ;  and  if  they  were 
sufficiently  strong  or  cunning  to  overcome  or  outwit  the  lawful 
owner  they  took  it  away  from  him.  Men  lived  under  the 
conditions  that  obtained  in  the  land  of  the  Cyclops. 

No  councils  there 
Nor  councillors,  nor  laws,  .... 
....  their  households  govern'd  all 
By  each  man's  law. 

Again,  if  one  man  wished  to  kill  or  injure  another,  there  were 
no  restraints,  legal  or  moral,  to  hinder  him  from  gratifying  his 
savage  instincts  and  passions.  It  was  the  recognised  thing  to 
exact  an  eye  for  an  eye  or  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,  a  life  for  a  life. 
In  these  ways  the  primitive  man  betrayed  his  common  nature 
with  the  beasts  that  perish. 

But  to  man  had  been  given  something  which  the  brutes 
lacked.  The  seeds  of  a  moral  sense  had  been  implanted  in  his 
breast,  and  these  in  time  germinated  and  grew.  Their  develop- 
ment is  clearly  set  forth  in  the  Scriptures,  where  the  story  of 
Cain  and  Abel  may  be  cited  as  a  parable  of  man's  awakening  to 
the  sinfulness  of  murder.  The  moral  law  was  the  forerunner 
of  the  civil.  The  next  step  to  the  arrival  at  the  consciousness 
of  evil  was  the  construction  of  outward  restraints  to  hinder  men 
from  giving  way  to  impulses,  of  the  evil  of  which  their  own 
consciences  had  convinced  them  and  which  experience  taught 
them  were  inimical  to  progress.  So  if  A  injured  B,  B  was 


414  The  Empire  Review 

forbidden  to  take  upon  himself  the  task  of  punishing  or  exacting 
reparation  from  A,  but  was  commanded  to  put  the  whole  matter 
in  the  hands  of  a  third  party  C,  to  whom  the  citizens  had  jointly 
entrusted  the  consideration  of  such  cases.  In  this  way  the 
foundations  were  laid  of  the  fabric  of  civil  law. 

The  practice  that  had  sprung  up  in  regard  to  subjects  of 
dispute  between  individuals  at  a  later  date  came  to  be  partially 
extended  to  those  between  nations.  Some  early  examples  of 
the  growth  of  international  law  are  supplied  by  Hallam  in  his 
History  of  the  Middle  Ages,  as  when  he  relates  how  the 
customs  of  maritime  law  were  reduced  into  a  code  by  the 
ancient  Khodians,  afterwards  preserved  and  reformed  by  the 
Komans,  to  be  revived  and  extended  by  the  Italian  maritime 
States  at  the  close  of  the  Dark  Ages.  These  were  formed  into  a 
code,  II  Consolato  del  Mare,  which,  besides  regulations  simply 
mercantile,  defined  the  mutual  rights  of  neutral  and  belligerent 
vessels,  and  thus  laid  the  basis  of  the  positive  law  of  nations  in 
its  most  important  and  disputed  cases.  It  formed  the  basis  of 
the  set  of  regulations  compiled  in  France  under  Louis  IX.  and 
adopted  by  Britain.  Another  mediaeval  example  of  maritime 
codes  is  the  ordinances  of  Wisbury  by  which  the  Baltic  traders 
were  governed.  Out  of  such  small  beginnings  grew  up  the 
public  law  of  Europe.  "  The  writers  on  public  law  have  often 
called  this  aggregate  of  nations  a  commonwealth,"  said  Burke, 
referring  to  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  adds,  "  They  had  reason. 
It  is  virtually  one  great  State  having  the  same  basis  of  general 
law,  with  some  diversity  of  provincial  customs  and  local  establish- 
ments." 

But  again  and  again  it  has  been  proved  that  the  lusts  and 
passions  of  men,  although  they  may  be  controlled  and  suppressed, 
cannot  be  entirely  eradicated.  Like  fires  at  the  base  of  a  volcano, 
they  often  lie  quiet  for  long  periods,  but  they  have  not  been 
extinguished.  Their  eruption  may  be  as  sudden  as  the  advent 
of  a  thief  in  the  night  and  shake  to  its  foundations  the  com- 
plicated fabric  of  human  law,  justice,  morality,  and  civilisation. 
"All  the  facts  of  history  prove  that  civilisation  is  destructible. 
It  is  an  essence  that  is  ever  tending  to  evaporate,  and  though 
the  appreciation  of  all  that  is  precious  in  the  world  depends  on 
the  feeling  of  its  perishability,  it  is  seldom  that  this  fact  is 
realised."  So  wrote  Payne  in  his  introduction  to  Burke's 
'  Keflections  on  the  French  Kevolution.'  What  is  now  happen- 
ing in  Northern  Europe  occasions  the  same  reflection.  We  are 
passing  through  a  period  of  moral  eruption,  and  "  the  painfully 
reared  pyramid  of  scruples  and  chivalries  and  humane  repug- 
nances upon  which  the  race  has  climbed  out  of  barbarism  is  in 
danger  of  crumbling  beneath  its  feet." 


Methods  of  Barbarism:  A  Comparison          415 

Let  us  see  how  the  conduct  and  actions  of  the  French 
revolutionists  a  hundred  years  ago  constituted  them  a  menace 
to  civilisation.  The  only  plea  that  can  be  advanced  on  their 
behalf  is  the  one  offered  up  by  Christ  for  his  murderers  that  they 
knew  not  what  they  did.  The  French  Revolution  was  a 
deliberate  and  organised  attempt,  thoroughly  and  systematically 
carried  out,  to  sever  all  connection  with  the  past.  It  was  a 
revolt  against  all  the  restraints  legal,  moral,  and  social  which 
has  come  to  be  imposed  upon  mankind  in  the  course  of  human 
evolution.  For,  as  we  have  seen,  civilisation  did  not  come  to  the 
world  as  a  whole  and  in  a  finished  state.  It  had  a  very  little 
beginning,  a  tiny  seed,  out  of  which  grew  by  degrees  a  slender 
stem,  which  developed  in  height  and  breadth  and  threw  off 
branches,  which  in  their  turn  brought  forth  leaves ;  and  so  the 
tiny  seed  gradually  developed  into  a  mighty  tree.  If  you  cut  off 
civilisation  from  its  roots  which  go  far  back  into  history  it  will 
wither  and  die,  and  you  will  be  reduced  to  the  condition  of  your 
savage  forefathers.  Of  course  the  tree  of  civilisation,  like 
everything  else  in  this  imperfect  world,  in  its  growth  produces 
parts  that  are  imperfect  and  corrupt.  In  attempting  to  cut  away 
these  it  is  important  to  avoid  injuring  the  vital  parts  of  the  tree, 
in  which  case  more  harm  than  good  will  have  been  done,  as 
when  foolish  husbandmen  destroy  the  wheat  in  rooting  up  the 
tares. 

In  commencing  to  date  the  years  from  1791  which,  in  what 
Burke  calls  their  "  gipsy  jargon,"  they  denominated  the  year  1,  the 
Revolutionists  signified  that  all  that  had  happened  previously  was 
to  them  as  if  it  had  not  been.  The  duties  that  they  owed  to  their 
Church,  their  oaths  of  allegiance  to  their  sovereign,  the  rights  of 
individuals  and  their  property  as  established  by  law  and  recog- 
nised by  custom  had  no  longer  any  binding  force.  "  They  made 
not  laws,  not  conventions,  not  late  possession,  but  physical 
nature,  and  political  convenience,  the  sole  foundation  of  their 
claims."  Whatever  they  might  appear  to  be  outwardly,  in- 
wardly they  were  no  better  than  savages.  It  was  but  to  be 
expected  that  the  next  step  to  violation  of  internal  obligations 
would  be  that  they  should  refuse  to  be  bound  by  international 
agreements,  to  which  the  old  regime  had  been  a  party.  In 
defiance  of  treaty  rights  they  violated  the  neutrality  of  Holland 
and  declared  the  Scheldt  a  free  river.  As  has  been  shown,  these 
illegal  acts  were  the  logical  outcome  of  the  psychological  change 
which  had  taken  place  in  the  nation ;  and  the  latter  was  the  more 
dangerous  of  the  two.  By  adopting  and  acting  on  the  principles 
and  maxims  which  she  had  France  had  virtually  "  put  herself  in 
a  posture,  which  was  in  itself  a  declaration  of  war  against 
mankind." 


416  The  Empire  Review 

The  actions  which  recently  brought  Germany  into  collision 
with  the  civilised  world  and  the  state  of  mind  of  which  they  were 
the  fruit,  present  striking  analogies  to  those  of  France  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  The  resemblance  between 
the  crimes  of  the  two  countries  is  not  affected  by  the  widely 
contrasting  conditions  that  prevailed  within  them.  When  the 
German  Chancellor  sought  to  explain  the  violation  of  Belgian 
neutrality  on  the  grounds  that  necessity  knew  no  law,  he  be- 
trayed that  in  the  case  of  his  countrymen  no  considerations  of 
law  or  honour  were  permitted  to  stand  in  the  way  of  interest, 
that  they  had  sunk  to  the  level  of  savages  who  knew  no  law  save 
their  own  wills,  and,  in  the  words  of  Burke,  they  had  not  only 
annulled  all  their  old  treaties,  but  renounced  the  law  of  nations 
from  whence  treaties  have  their  force. 

The  Revolutionists  had  hacked  away  the  corner-stone  of  civilisa- 
tion when  they  decreed  that  man's  conduct  should  be  determined 
solely  by  his  pleasure  free  from  all  the  restraints  which  the  past 
experience  of  the  human  race  had  imposed  upon  it.  The  rest  of 
the  edifice  soon  came  tumbling  about  their  ears  and  their  con- 
version to  barbarism  became  complete.  Burke  gives  numerous 
instances  of  their  savagery ;  their  cannibalism,  their  nameless, 
unmanly,  and  abominable  insults  on  the  bodies  of  those  they 
slaughter ;  degradation  of  marriage ;  their  drinking  the  blood  of 
their  victims ;  their  destruction  and  closing  of  the  churches  and 
persecution  of  their  ministers.  The  most  remarkable  and 
horrible  thing  about  all  these  atrocities  was  that  they  were 
deliberate  and  part  of  a  system  and  did  not  originate  in  the  mad 
impulse  of  the  moment. 

The  sequel  to  Germany's  lapse  from  international  good  faith 
has  been  the  commitment  of  atrocities  if  possible  more  foul  than 
those  of  the  Revolutionists.  One  after  another  of  the  rules  by 
which  the  civilised  nations  had  sought  to  humanise  the  practices 
of  war  have  been  broken  and  outraged.  The  Bryce  report  proves 
"murder,  lust,  and  pillage  to  have  prevailed  over  many  parts  of 
Belgium  on  a  scale  unparalleled  in  any  war  between  civilised 
nations  during  the  last  three  centuries." 

So  the  principle  at  stake  in  this  war  is  just  this,  whether  or 
not  men  shall  do  as  they  please,  regardless  of  all  claims  of  law 
and  justice,  honour  and  morality.  We  rightly  feel,  like  William 
Pitt  in  respect  of  the  promoters  of  the  war  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, that  the  contest  with  its  worst  chances  is  preferable  to 
acquiescence  in  such  demands. 

D.  A.  E.  VEAL. 


The  Camps  on  Salisbury  Plain  417 


THE   CAMPS  ON   SALISBURY   PLAIN 

VISIT    TO    THE    WORKS    WHILE    IN    PROCESS    OF 
CONSTRUCTION 

THE  silent  loneliness  of  Salisbury  Plain  stretching  in  level 
lines  away  to  the  horizon,  no  habitation  in  sight,  not  even  the 
line  of  ascending  smoke  from  the  hearth  of  a  shepherd's  hut. 
No  sound  save  the  cry  of  the  plover,  assured  one  that  at  least 
here  in  our  crowded  island  might  still  be  found  solitude  and  rest. 
Such  was  the  aspect  of  the  Plain  before  the  outbreak  of  war — a 
place  of  dim  memories  of  the  gathering  of  the  Nations — the 
mystic  religion  of  our  forefathers  seizing  the  best  beloved  of  the 
vast  throng  and  his  sacrifice  before  them  all  to  avert  the 
vengeance  of  the  terrible  gods  they  adored.  A  region  of  traditions 
and  shadows,  now  utterly  transformed.  Yet  even  to-day  the 
gathering  place  of  warriors.  For  thousands  of  soldiers  are 
now  living  in  the  hut  camps  which  during  the  year  have  been 
built  on  the  Plain. 

To  a  nation  nurtured  and  brought  up  in  paths  of  peace, 
the  suddenness  of  war  found  us  unprepared  in  many  ways, 
more  especially  was  this  the  case  in  respect  to  our  military 
necessities.  The  raising  of  new  armies  was  a  matter  of 
immediate  urgency,  and  one  of  the  first  problems  we  had  to 
face  in  this  respect  was  how  to  find  accommodation  for  the  ever- 
increasing  number  of  recruits  who  flocked  to  the  colours.  Nor 
was  the  difficulty  lessened  when  the  Colonial  contingents  came 
into  being.  To  meet  the  emergency  it  was  decided  to  house  the 
new  troops  in  huts  and  to  secure  the  services  of  efficient  engineers 
to  lay  out  encampments.  One  of  the  first  engineering  firms  to 
offer  their  assistance  was  that  of  Sir  John  Jackson,  Limited. 
The  head  of  the  firm,  Sir  John  Jackson,  M.P.,  put  himself  in 
communication  with  Lord  Kitchener  and  placed  at^the  disposal 
of  the  War  Office  the  services  of  his  entire  staff.  Lord  Kitchener 
lost  no  time  in  accepting  this  patriotic  offer,  and  appointed 
the  firm  Superintending  Engineers  to  carry  out  hutments  and 
other  works  at  Grantham,  Ormskirk  and  Purfleet.  Later  on 
the  firm  was  invited  to  undertake  the  more  important  work  in  the 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  177.  2  K 


418  The  Empire  Review 

Salisbury  District.  There  was  no  time  to  spare,  as  the  Govern- 
ment desired  the  Salisbury  camp  to  be  ready  for  occupation 
within  six  months ;  before  that  period  had  elapsed  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  work  had  been  accomplished,  and  this  in 
face  of  many  difficulties.  It  was  in  the  late  spring  that  I  paid 
my  visit  to  Salisbury  Plain  and  it  may  interest  your  readers  if  I 
give  my  impressions. 

The  works  are  divided  into  two  independent  portions,  one  to 
the  east  and  the  other  to  the  west,  the  eastern  section  comprising 
the  Larkhill,  Eollestone,  Sling,  Perham  Down  and  Parkhouse 
Camps,  and  the  western  section  extending  from  Codford  to 
Warminster.  At  the  time  of  my  visit  seven  thousand  men 
were  engaged  on  the  eastern  section,  though  the  greater  number 
of  these  huts  were  completed,  and  eight  thousand  on  the  second, 
where,  though  the  work  was  being  pushed  forward  with  the 
greatest  rapidity,  skeletons  of  buildings  were  still  in  evidence. 

A  formidable  obstacle  to  be  met  and  overcome  was  the  absence 
of  roads,  the  wet  autumn  and  winter  adding  to  the  difficulty  of 
the  situation.  Indeed,  the  Plain  might  truly  have  been  described 
as  "  a  sea  of  mud."  The  heavy  conveyances  of  material,  timber, 
bricks,  iron,  and  machinery  cut  deep  into  the  soft  ground ;  every 
day  the  ruts  became  deeper  and  deeper,  until  the  underlying 
chalk  rock  was  reached.  The  chalk  softened  by  the  wet  crushed 
and  pounded  under  the  lorries  into  a  still  deeper  depth  of  mud  in 
which  motor  lorries  sank  up  to  their  axles.  Solid  roads  which 
would  bear  up  the  tremendous  weight  of  traffic  had  to  be  made 
to  each  of  the  hut  towns  at  the  same  time  as  the  settlements 
themselves  were  being  erected,  and  on  the  eastern  section  about 
ten  miles  of  new  railway  had  to  be  constructed  to  enable  the 
materials  to  be  quickly  put  on  the  sites.  At  one  point,  where 
the  railway  crosses  the  Avon,  a  bog  intervened,  necessitating  the 
construction  of  a  viaduct  some  280  yards  long.  Piles  40  feet 
long  were  driven  through  the  quaggy  ground  to  the  foundation 
chalk ;  the  embankment  and  viaduct  made,  and  in  the  phenomenal 
time  of  eighteen  days  from  the  start,  the  railway  was  constructed 
and  in  use. 

The  huts  were  of  the  usual  type  seen  on  more  or  less 
temporary  navvy  settlements.  Some  had  brick,  some  concrete 
foundations  about  3  feet  high,  others  were  erected  on  piles 
and  raised  2  or  3  feet  from  the  earth.  Then  upright  strong 
posts  had  been  fixed  where  the  walls  were  to  come,  spaces 
being  left  for  windows  and  doors.  Piles  of  sashes  and  doors 
and  mountains  of  timber  marked  the  sites  of  other  dwellings. 
When  a  hut  to  hold  thirty  men  was  finished  the  ceiling  and  walls 
were  covered  with  suitable  linings  of  wood  or  other  material. 
The  roofs  were  painted  a  rose  red  and  the  walls  coloured  a  dark 


The  Camps  on  Salisbury  Plain  419 

i,  giving  a  bright  and  cleanly  effect  to  the  streets  of  the  new 
village.  If  you  entered  a  hut  you  found  in  it  no  furniture  save 
a  small  round  stove.  Straw  beds  were  provided  and  two  to 
three  blankets  for  each  man  were  rolled  up  along  the  walls  on 
the  floor— barrack  fashion.  In  some  huts  I  noticed  rough 
wooden  bedsteads,  and  I  ventured  to  express  a  hope  that  before 
the  soldiers  came  in  possession  lockers  where  the  men  could 
keep  their  little  possessions  might  be  added.  A  man  was 
told  off  to  take  care  of  each  hut  which  is  kept  thoroughly  clean 
and  washed  out  every  week  with  disinfectants.  It  was  not 
intended  that  the  troops  should  take  any  meals  in  the  huts,  and 
canteen  arrangements  were  already  in  progress,  soon  to  be 
equipped  with  all  the  food  necessaries  and  some  luxuries,  with 
plenty  of  non-intoxicant  drinks  and  wholesome  beer. 

During  the  winter  months  several  delays  occurred  on  account 
of  the  exceptionally  large  proportion  of  wet  days  when  outside 
work  could  not  be  carried  on,  but  at  these  times  the  workmen 
were  treated  on  very  liberal  terms.  Men  coming  out  early 
morning  were  paid  a  quarter  day  if  the  weather  turned  out  so 
wet  that  outside  work  was  not  possible,  and  on  occasions,  the 
work  being  so  urgent,  when  they  were  asked  to  stay  on  during 
the  forenoon  on  the  chance  of  the  weather  clearing  up,  they 
received  half  a  day's  pay.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  under- 
taking it  was  necessary  to  work  on  Sundays,  but  later  on  Sunday 
labour  was  to  a  great  extent  very  properly  avoided.  About  1,000 
of  the  workmen  employed  lived  in  Salisbury,  going  backwards  and 
forwards  by  rail.  The  local  rector  had  very  kindly  opened  his 
school-rooms  as  a  club  room  for  the  men. 

I  noted  also  a  large  number  of  other  habitations  much  inferior 
to  the  wooden  huts — square  canvas  tents  each  to  hold  four  men, 
and  in  the  cold  wet  weather,  these  tents  must  have  offered 
miserable  accommodation  to  the  Canadians  who  lodged  there. 
No  wonder  the  four  canteens  were  crowded  by  wet  and  cold 
"  Tommies  "  used  indeed  to  the  clear,  cold,  Canadian  climate, 
but  not  to  the  constant  rain  and  sleet  and  everlasting  wet  of  the 
last  few  months.  Happily  besides  the  canteens  there  were  four 
well-worked  tents  of  the  Y.M.C.A.,  four  cinematograph  theatres 
and  a  large  and  comfortable  mission-room  under  the  management 
of  the  Navvy  Mission  Society,  with  a  working  man  missionary. 
Here  both  workmen  and  soldiers  could  not  only  play  games  and 
smoke,  but  also  read  and  write  their  letters  in  comfort. 

All  the  huts  and  larger  rooms  were  lighted  by  electricity.  Of 
course,  on  this  high  tableland  there  was  difficulty  in  providing 
water  for  the  use  of  the  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  soldiers 
who  were  expected  soon  to  come  into  residence.  This  was 
overcome  by  special  pumping  works  taking  water  from  the  Eiver 

2  K  2 


420  The  Empire  Review 

Avon,  filtered  for  use  by  the  troops,  and  also  from  deep  wells 
going  into  the  greensand  on  other  sections  of  the  Plain.  To 
each  group  of  huts  two  long  bath-houses  were  attached,  with 
forty  shower  baths,  hot  and  cold  water  being  laid  on. 

The  officers'  huts,  also  built  of  wood,  were  small  and  comfort- 
able, single  bedrooms  on  the  plan  of  college  rooms  opening  into 
the  long  corridor.  The  arrangements  included  a  general  lounge 
sitting-room,  dining-room,  and  bathroom. 

I  was  immensely  pleased  with  all  I  saw,  and  I  felt  sure  that 
provided  we  had  a  fine  summer,  the  contingents  from  Canada, 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  who  I  understood  were  to  occupy 
the  greater  part  of  the  new  camp,  would  be  very  comfortably 
housed. 

ELIZABETH  GARNETT 
(Founder  of  the  Navvy  Mission). 


MARITIME    PROVINCES    OF    CANADA 

THE  maritime  provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
and  Prince  Edward  Island,  are  closely  linked  together.  Nova  Scotia, 
largely  because  of  its  coal  mines  and  of  its  two  great  steel  companies, 
leads  as  a  manufacturing  and  mining  province,  but  Prince  Edward 
Island  and  New  Brunswick  reap  a  very  considerable  benefit  by  the 
consuming  market  for  farm  products  which  these  industries  have 
provided.  Fishing,  an  important  industry  in  all  the  provinces,  and 
lumbering,  perhaps  the  foremost  industry  of  New  Brunswick  and  an 
industry  of  no  mean  proportions  in  Nova  Scotia,  contribute  to  the  extent 
of  the  consuming  market.  The  three  provinces  combined  make  up  an 
entente  of  a  very  striking  character.  Producer  and  consumer  minister 
to  and  supply  the  needs  of  each  other  and  recognise  their  mutual 
dependence.  A  few  figures  strikingly  illustrate  the  recent  industrial 
development  in  these  provinces.  In  1901  the  value  of  the  combined 
output  of  the  factories  and  workshops  of  the  maritime  provinces  was 
£9,377,338.  By  1911  these  figures  had  increased  to  £18,252,991.  The 
mineral  output  in  the  same  period  had  increased  from  £1,941,683  to 
£3,629,247 — an  almost  corresponding  increase,  i.e.,  nearly  100  per  cent. 
Since  1911  each  of  these  important  lines  of  industry  has  added  to  their 
output  nearly  25  per  cent.  Figures  relative  to  agricultural  production 
are  not  so  easily  accessible,  but  each  province  has  witnessed  a  marked 
development. 


Professional  Classes  in  War  Time  421 


PROFESSIONAL  CLASSES   IN   WAR  TIME 

IN  the  titanic  struggle  in  which  this  nation  is  now  engaged 
it  is  common  to  speak  of  our  national  existence  being  at  stake. 
We  rightly  feel  that  all  our  energies,  all  our  resources  must  be 
devoted  ungrudgingly  to  the  efficient  carrying  on  of  the  war. 
But  we  are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  even  when  the 
victory  is  won,  our  national  existence  will  not  be  maintained,  at 
least  at  its  present  level,  unless  we  can  secure  during  and  after 
the  war  the  preservation  of  all  that  makes  for  the  country's  well- 
being.  In  the  community  we  must  be  careful  to  preserve  (to 
quote  recent  words  of  the  Home  Secretary)  "not  only  the 
fortunes  of  our  gallant  soldiers  and  sailors,  the  strong  arm  of 
labour,  the  whole  great  organised  machinery  of  manufacture  and 
finance,"  but  also  the  fortunes  of  "  that  class  who,  in  times  of 
peace,  provide  the  community  with  all  that  goes  to  the  ordering, 
the  embellishing,  the  beautifying  of  civilised  life." 

One  of  the  most  natural  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most 
distressing  features  of  war  time  is  the  cessation  of  the  demand 
for  what  must  then  be  deemed  luxuries  and  superfluities.  The 
war  with  its  multitudinous  needs  has  provided  much  work  for 
many  different  classes  of  the  people.  For  the  majority  it  has 
necessitated  a  change  of  occupation.  In  spite  of  high  wages  and 
generous  relief  funds  it  demands  and  will  continue  to  demand 
great  financial  sacrifices  from  all — and  it  must  fall  with  especial 
hardship  upon  those  professional  people  whose  highly  specialised 
education  and  training  has  in  many  cases  rendered  them  unsuitable 
for  other  kinds  of  work. 

Many  architects,  artists,  authors,  musicians,  teachers  and 
others  disqualified  for  military  service  by  age  or  ill-health,  find 
either  that  their  income  has  disappeared  or  that  it  is  so  greatly 
impaired  as  to  present  grave  difficulties.  To  those  who  took  the 
matter  into  consideration,  it  became  at  once  apparent  that  to 
deprive  the  nation  permanently  of  the  powers  and  work  of 
these  professional  people— to  force  them  and  their  children  into 
a  different  stratum  of  society  from  that  to  which  they  now  belong, 
would  be  a  retrograde  step  and  a  real  loss  to  the  country. 


422  The  Empire  Review 

To  deal  with  the  situation,  to  save  such  people  from  despair 
or  at  least  from  harrowing  anxiety — by  helping  them  to  tide  over 
the  period  of  the  war,  the  Professional  Classes  War  Belief  Council 
was  formed.  This  Council  is  composed  of  the  nomin-ees  of  the 
principal  professional  and  artistic  institutions  as  well  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  chief  societies  engaged  in  relief  work.  It  aims 
at  ascertaining  the  amount  of  distress  among  the  professional 
classes  due  to  the  war,  organising  and  providing  certain  forms  of 
assistance  and  raising  funds  for  this  object.  The  Council  deals 
only  with  British  subjects  and  with  such  cases  of  distress  as  are 
the  direct  consequence  of  the  war.  It  endeavours  to  find  employ- 
ment for  women  and  for  men  disqualified  for  active  service,  and 
to  give  certain  forms  of  assistance  for  the  period  of  the  war,  that, 
on  its  cessation,  they  may  be  enabled  to  resume  their  special 
work  and  normal  duties.  The  chief  forms  of  assistance  arranged 
are  in  matters  of  education,  training,  maternity  aid,  and  tem- 
porary employment.  Each  of  these  departments  has  its  own 
representative  committee,  and  every  case  is  carefully  investigated 
by  a  special  case  committee  as  to  its  genuineness  and  war  basis. 

Mr.  Pierpont  Morgan  has  placed  his  house,  13  and  14,  Prince's 
Gate,  at  the  disposal  of  the  Council.  A  maternity  home  of 
seventeen  beds  has  been  opened  with  a  voluntary  medical  and 
nursing  staff.  Up  to  the  present  time  over  fifty  patients  have 
passed  through  this  home,  and  several  have  been  helped  in  their 
own  houses. 

One  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the  Council's  work  is 
that  of  education.  Many  parents  find  themselves  in  the  position 
of  being  unable  to  continue  their  children's  school  fees.  When 
these  children  have  been  attending  efficient  schools,  the  object 
of  the  Council  is  to  avoid  any  break  in  the  continuity  of  their 
education.  This  has,  in  many  cases,  been  rendered  possible  by 
the  generous  co-operation  of  governing  bodies  and  heads  of 
schools  in  remitting  or  reducing  fees  for  the  period  of  the  war. 
Another  branch  of  the  work  of  the  education  committee  is  the 
aiding  of  those  schools  which  have  lost  pupils  in  consequence  of 
the  war.  It  is  of  national  importance  that  efficient  schools 
should  not  be  driven  out  of  existence,  and  in  many  cases  it  has 
been  possible  to  send  pupils  to  them,  thus  helping  both  these 
schools  and  the  parents.  Up  to  the  present  time,  the  education 
of  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  children  has  been  arranged  by  the 
Council  at  a  total  cost  of  over  £1,500. 

Through  the  kindness  of  many  friends  holidays  have  been 
arranged  for  a  large  number  of  children,  for  whom  the  railway 
fares  and  other  incidental  expenses  have  been  paid  by  the 
Council. 

One  unromantic  but  very  necessary  and   much  appreciated 


Professional  Classes  in  War  Time  423 

branch  of  the  work  is  that  of  collecting  and  distributing  good 
clothing  for  men,  women  and  children.  In  many  cases  the 
ordinary  school  outfit  proves  an  insuperable  barrier  to  the  hard- 
pressed  parent,  and  the  candidate  for  a  post  who  has  been 
seeking  work  for  months  is  much  encouraged  by  an  addition  to 
his  wardrobe. 

The  training  department  deals  with  those  boys  and  girls 
whose  school  life  has  been  prematurely  closed,  and  with  men 
and  women  who,  in  view  of  the  overcrowding  and  present  de- 
pression of  the  artistic  professions,  find  themselves  in  need  of 
some  means  of  livelihood.  The  training  of  upwards  of  fifty 
candidates  has  been  arranged  in  social  service,  gardening, 
motoring,  dispensing,  domestic  economy,  teaching,  nursing, 
medicine,  secretarial  work. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  distress  among  artists 
and  musicians  has  been  acute  and  wide-spreading.  The  com- 
mittee of  arts  in  war  time  has  endeavoured  to  get  commissions 
for  artists  (e.g.  designing  rolls  of  honour,  banners,  etc.),  and  has 
provided  opportunities  for  artists  to  show  their  work  at  various 
exhibitions,  including  that  at  the  Guildhall  Art  Galleries  opened 
in  April  by  the  Lord  Mayor,  and  a  permanent  exhibition  at  13, 
Prince's  Gate,  which  is  open  daily  from  10.30  A.M.  to  6  P.M. 
Upwards  of  two  hundred  artists  have  been  assisted  by  these 
exhibitions,  and  some  three  hundred  and  fifty  pictures,  in 
addition  to  many  objects  of  craft  work  have  been  sold,  and 
orders  obtained  for  portraits  and  miniatures. 

The  committee  for  music  in  war  time  has  arranged  upwards 
of  475  concerts  in  camps,  hospitals,  schools  and  clubs,  paying  the 
musicians'  fees  and  defraying  other  expenses.  Over  1,500  en- 
gagements have  been  obtained  for  artists  and  about  £2,500 
distributed  in  fees.  It  may  perhaps  add  point  to  this  brief 
sketch  of  the  work  of  the  Professional  Classes  War  Belief 
Council  if  one  or  two  typical  cases  are  given. 

An  Artist. — Had  £400  worth  of  commissions  in  hand  at  the  outbreak  of 
war ;  all  these  with  the  exception  of  one  for  £50  were  cancelled.  Two  boys 
were  at  school,  aged  fourteen  and  fifteen  and  a  half,  and  would  have  had  to  be 
withdrawn.  The  reduced  fees  at  which  the  headmaster  consented  to  keep  the 
boys  were  paid  by  the  Council.  Hospitality  and  home  education  was  found 
for  the  youngest  girl,  and  the  artist  himself  introduced  to  clerical  work,  the 
Artists'  General  Benevolent  Fund  making  a  grant  for  pressing  financial  needs. 

An  Army  Tutor. — At  the  outbreak  of  war  his  pupils  were  called  home 
leaving  him  with  a  large  establishment  on  his  hands.  For  some  time  soldiers 
were  billeted  with  him.  Arrangements  have  now  been  made  for  him  to  leave 
the  house  and  take  a  post  as  assistant  master,  while  his  daughter  is  being 
trained  to  earn  her  living  by  the  Council,  and  the  school  fees  of  his  boy  are 
being  paid. 

An  Author. — Book  contract  postponed  owing  to  the  war,  and  royalties  for 
past  work  so  reduced  that  he  was  in  real  want,  He  received  a  grant  from  the 


424  The  Empire  Review 

Incorporated  Society  of  Authors  to  pay  rent  and  rates.  Home  education  and 
hospitality  were  arranged  for  the  two  daughters,  and  the  boy  sent  to  a  school 
at  which  a  headmaster  had  generously  offered  a  free  vacancy.  The  man 
himself,  after  a  few  weeks  of  subsidised  employment  arranged  with  a  philan- 
thropic society  by  the  Council,  was  introduced  to  and  obtained  a  post  in  a  city 
office. 

A  Journalist. — Had  enlisted,  leaving  his  wife  with  one  child  and  expecting 
another,  to  the  care  of  friends  and  the  Council.  The  friends  took  care  of 
the  child  while  the  wife  was  in  the  Maternity  Nursing  Home  at  14,  Prince's 
Gate.  On  leaving  the  Home,  the  mother  and  both  children  were  sent,  at  the 
Council's  expense,  to  the  seaside  as  boarders  in  the  house  of  a  school-mistress 
whose  German  and  French  pupils  had  all  left  at  the  outbreak  of  war. 

Such  cases  must  bring  home  to  us  the  reality  of  that  suffering 
which  is  being  borne  with  uncomplaining  courage  by  those 
whose  education  and  previous  life  have  not  fitted  them  for  so 
severe  a  struggle.  They  must  bring  home,  too,  the  privilege  and 
the  duty  of  ministering  to  the  needs  of  those  to  whom  in  times 
of  peace  we  owe  so  much  in  the  way  of  beauty,  recreation  and 
amusement. 

A.  E  MORISON, 

Head-Mistress  of  the  Francis  Holland  School. 


NEW  ZEALAND  AND  THE  BELGIAN  RELIEF  FUND 

A  PRETTY  ceremony  took  place  in  a  country  town  (Ashburton)  at  a 
fete  held  in  aid  of  the  Belgian  Relief  Fund.  Advantage  was  taken 
of  the  occasion  to  present  parents  or  next-of-kin  of  Ashburton  County 
members  of  the  New  Zealand  Expeditionary  Force  with  the  New 
Zealand  ensign  and  a  flagpole  each.  The  ceremony  was  performed  by 
the  Minister  of  Defence,  great  numbers  of  relatives  receiving  flags  at  his 
hand.  The  proceedings  were  very  often  touching,  especially  when  mothers 
and  fathers  having  sons  at  the  war  came  forward,  and  few  remained 
unmoved  when  a  widow  whose  four  sons  are  all  at  the  front  ascended  the 
platform.  A  novel  way  of  raising  money  for  the  Fund  has  been  set  on 
foot  in  Auckland.  Tram  conductors  are  provided  with  penny  "  Belgian  " 
tickets  for  which  there  is  a  brisk  demand.  The  scheme  had  only  been  in 
operation  a  few  days  when  the  receipts  from  one  line  amounted  to  over 
£40  a  day.  The  members  of  the  Ohinemuri  Mines  and  Batteries  Union 
have  had  a  handsome  rug  made  specially  to  order,  and  are  sending  this  as 
a  present  to  the  King  of  tbe  Belgians.  Incorporated  in  the  rug  are  the 
Belgian  crest  and  the  New  Zealand  ensign.  Amongst  the  latest  original 
gifts  to  the  Belgian  Relief  Fund  have  been  a  consignment  of  four  tons  of 
potatoes  from  the  Maoris  in  one  village,  and  two  sections  of  land  (over  an 
acre)  from  an  anonymous  donor.  Wherever  you  go  now,  in  the  tram, 
train  or  ferry  boat,  you  see  women  and  girls  knitting  for  the  troops,  and 
at  most  of  the  stations  wool  and  needhs  are  available  for  anyone  who 
likes  to  uge  them. 


Oversea  Notes  425 


OVERSEA    NOTES 

CANADA 

RUSSIA,  says  Mr.  Just,  Special  Trade  Commissioner  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Trade  and  Commerce  at  Ottawa,  has  great  powers  of  recuperation, 
is  internally  rich  and  prosperous,  and  affords  great  opportunities  for 
industrial  enterprise  for  which  the  consuming  power  is  at  hand.  These 
factors,  the  reports  state,  should  make  Russia  a  great  market,  and  if  the 
conditions  be  rightly  studied  and  understood,  Canadian  manufacturing 
industries,  from  the  nature  of  their  products  which  are  adapted  in  so 
many  instances  to  the  requirements  of  a  developing  country  like  Russia, 
may  reasonably  expect  to  participate  in  the  trade  with  that  market. 
Agriculture  is  the  occupation  of  85  per  cent,  of  the  Russian  people,  and 
manufacturing  industry  furnishes  an  insignificant  output  in  relation  to 
the  country's  needs.  The  successful  participation  of  Canada  in  the 
contracts  of  the  Russian  Government  for  munitions  of  war,  railway 
rolling  stock,  locomotives  and  other  materials,  has  created  lively  interest 
in  Russian  official  banking  and  commercial  circles,  says  the  report,  and 
should  prove  an  excellent  advertisement  of  the  capabilities  of  the 
Canadian  industrial  system. 

MR.  OLIVER  W.  HIND,  of  Nottingham,  well  known  in  connection  with 
the  Dakeyne  Street  Lads'  Club  of  that  city,  recently  purchased  five 
pedigree  heifers  and  the  prize  bull,  "Letton  Farmer,"  awarded  the  second 
prize  at  the  recent  Royal  Agricultural  Society's  Show  at  Nottingham. 
The  animals  were  secured  for  Mr.  Hind's  farming  home  in  Falinouth, 
Nova  Scotia,  where  lads  of  the  club  referred  to  are  periodically  sent  for 
training  in  agriculture,  and  ultimately  settled  on  the  land.  Owing  to  the 
exceptional  advantages  as  regards  climate  and  pasturage  possessed  by 
this  province,  the  local  authorities  have  for  many  years  encouraged  the 
importation  of  pedigree  stock. 

FEW  Canadian  industries  were  more  severely  hit  by  the  financial 
stringency  that  prevailed  all  over  the  world  prior  to  the  outbreak  of  war 
than  the  lumber  trade.  When  building  operations  were  suspended,  as 
the  vast  majority  of  them  were,  naturally  timber  was  not  in  demand,  and 
serious  difficulty  arose  for  the  lumbermen  in  both  Eastern  and  Western 
Canada.  For  some  time,  however,  there  hag  been  a  gradual  and  marked 
improvement,  and  there  is  every  indication  that  this  improvement  will 
be  maintained  and  even  extended. 


426  The  Empire  Review 

THE  electrification  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Railway  is  a  subject  of  dis- 
cussion among  civil  and  railway  engineers  in  New  Manitoba.  The  vast 
waterfalls  of  the  Nelson  and  Grass  Rivers  are  both  available  to  the 
railway  at  different  points.  The  estimated  accessible  water  power  on  the 
Nelson  River  alone  is  placed  at  6,000,000  horse-power.  Grass  River,  by 
a  series  of  falls  with  an  approximate  head  of  246  feet,  is  expected  to 
produce  one-quarter  the  horse-power  of  the  Nelson.  The  Grass  River 
empties  into  Setting  Lake  about  three  miles  from  the  railway. 

THE  production  of  Canadian  gold  in  placer  and  mill  bullion  and  in 
smelter  products  in  1914  is  estimated  at  770,374  fine  ounces  valued  at 
£3,185,088  as  compared  with  802,973  fine  ounces  valued  at  £3,319,784 
in  1913.  The  production  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Quebec  is  small  compared 
with  other  provinces,  but  shows  an  increase  of  over  25  per  cent,  in  1914. 
The  Ontario  production,  £1,109,271,  shows  an  increase  of  over  £200,000, 
due  to  the  extension  of  the  milling  facilities  in  the  Porcupine  field.  No 
records  have  been  received  with  respect  to  gold  production  in  the  Beaver 
Lake  District  of  Saskatchewan  or  of  recoveries  from  the  river  bars  near 
Edmonton,  although  activity  has  been  reported  in  both  localities. 

EXCELLENT  prices  are  ruling  on  the  Canadian  market  for  cheese 
produced  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  and  there  is  a  greater  demand  in 
Canada  than  can  be  supplied.  The  new  make  is  coming  in  rapidly,  but 
the  demand  continues  to  outpace  the  supply  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
situation  has  not  materially  changed.  The  export  business  promises  to 
be  very  considerable,  although  it  must  necessarily  be  affected  to  some 
extent  by  the  strong  local  demand.  Quebec  butter  is  now  being  produced 
in  large  quantities,  and  the  pastures  are  in  such  excellent  condition  that 
there  is  every  indication  of  a  large  surplus  being  available  for  export  in 
a  few  weeks'  time. 

A  VALUABLE  report  has  been  issued  by  the  Canadian  Department  of 
Mines  on  non-metallic  minerals  used  in  Canadian  manufacturing  industries. 
Tables  in  the  report  show  that  an  unduly  large  proportion  of  minerals 
used  in  industries  is  imported.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  domestic 
products  are  not  always  prepared  in  the  most  suitable  way  for  the 
purposes  required.  Buying  and  selling  methods  are  also  at  fault,  the 
Canadian  producer  through  lack  of  capital  being  unable  to  advertise  his 
products  extensively.  The  object  of  the  report  is  to  aid  manufacturers 
in  finding  a  Canadian  source  of  supply  for  the  minerals  they  employ. 
About  thirty  minerals  are  described  in  the  report,  and  an  account  is 
given  of  the  nature  of  each  mineral  and  its  industrial  uses,  with  a  table 
showing  the  number  of  firms  reporting  consumption  and  the  quantity 
of  domestic  and  imported  minerals  used.  This  is  followed  by  tables 
showing  the  minerals  used  in  each  industry,  with  two  appendices,  one 
giving  lists  of  Canadian  manufacturers  who  use  minerals,  and  the  other 
lists  of  producers  of  non-metallic  minerals. 

MANITOBA  is  coming  very  much  to  the  front  as  a  mineral-producing 
province,  particularly  in  its  gold-bearing  areas.  Considerable  interest 
has  been  aroused  owing  to  the  discovery  of  gold  on  the  Hole  River  and 


Oversea  Notes  427 

Rice  Lake,  situated  east  of  Lake  Winnipeg.  There  are  now  several 
hundred  miners  and  prospectors  working  in  the  district,  and  during  one 
year  over  £20,000  in  cash  were  expended  in  Winnipeg  for  mining 
equipment.  The  opening  operations  of  the  mines  were  done  carefully, 
and  there  is  every  hope  that  mining  may  become  active  in  this  section  of 
the  Canadian  West.  This  part  of  the  Dominion  has  not  only  gold,  but 
also  almost  every  other  mineral  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities,  and,  like 
many  of  the  districts  in  Eastern  Canada,  calls  for  exploitation.  The 
mineral  production  of  Canada  is  represented  roughly  at  about  twenty-six 
millions  sterling  annually. 

A  EEPOBT  of  the  Saskatchewan  Department  of  Agriculture,  dealing 
with  crop  prospects,  has  just  been  published.  From  it  we  learn  that 
there  is  an  increase  in  the  province  of  over  three-quarters  of  a  million 
acres  of  wheat  compared  with  the  area  of  the  previous  year.  Oats  show 
only  a  slight  increase,  while  barley  and  flax  show  a  decrease.  Frost, 
which  occurred  during  the  second  and  third  weeks  of  June,  caused  some 
anxiety,  but  it  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  although  the  grain  was  set 
back  a  few  days,  warm  weather  and  showers  assisted  in  its  rapid 
recovery,  and  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  crop  has  been  seriously 
injured.  The  hardier  garden,  crops  have  also  recovered  to  a  great  extent. 
Pastures  on  the  whole  are  good,  while  live  stock  is  improving  in  con- 
dition. Farmers  are  encouraged  to  consider  how  they  will  be  situated 
for  labour  at  harvest  time,  and  as  an  influx  of  harvesters  from  the 
eastern  provinces  cannot  be  looked  for  this  year,  the  Bureau  of  Labour, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  is  to  be  notified  as  soon  as  possible  by 
farmers  in  need  of  harvest  help.  The  Saskatchewan  Government  believes 
that  every  possible  effort  should  be  made  to  encourage  and  develop  an 
interest  in  farming  from  the  commencement  of  the  child's  school  career. 
In  addition  to  a  general  grant  to  the  Education  Department  for  nature 
study,  school  gardening  and  similar  lines  of  work,  it  is  now  proposed  to 
appoint  two  suitable  men  in  connection  with  elementary  agriculture. 
The  instructors  will  be  associated  with  the  Normal  Schools  at  Regina 
and  Saskatoon,  and  will  thus  cover  the  northern  and  southern  halves  of 
the  province. 

WHALING  operations  in  the  Pacific  for  the  present  season  have  been 
inaugurated  by  the  departure  from  Point  Ellice  of  two  steam-whalers  for 
the  Kyuknot,  from  which  station  they  will  hunt  the  whale  during  the 
summer  months.  A  good  season  is  anticipated,  despite  the  fact  that  the 
vessels  will  be  out  for  only  three  months,  as  compared  with  six  months 
in  previous  years.  Reports  from  Kyuknot  and  Naden  Harbour  state 
that  whales  have  been  disporting  themselves  off  those  stations  in  large 
numbers,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  captains  of  the  steam-whalers  will 
soon  be  reporting  large  catches. 

IT  is  now  beginning  to  be  generally  realised  that  the  town  of  Sussex 
(New  Brunswick)  possesses  mineral  springs  whose  waters  are  as  bene- 
ficial as  those  of  many  health  resorts  of  long-established  fame.  The 
Canadian  Sussex  Springs  flow  from  an  artesian  well  hundreds  of  feet 


428  The  Empire  Review 

deep.  So  copious  is  the  flow  that  a  fountain  for  public  use  is  established 
in  the  centre  of  the  town.  The  water  is  carried  by  means  of  pipes  to  a 
factory  where  aerated  beverages  are  manufactured,  and  it  is  also  bottled 
in  its  natural  state.  It  is  carried  in  the  same  way  for  some  distance  to  a 
large  hotel  in  order  that  the  guests  may  enjoy  the  luxury  of  hot  and  cold 
mineral  water  baths,  ar'I  undergo  a  treatment  which  physicians  declare 
to  be  most  beneficial  in  cases  of  rheumatism  and  kidney  affections. 

MR.  D.  R.  CLARKE,  Superintendent  of  the  Bank  of  Montreal  for 
British  Columbia,  has  the  greatest  faith  in  the  future  of  that  province. 
"It  is  large  enough,"  he  tells  us,  "for  a  kingdom,  and  in  natural 
resources  is  rich  beyond  compare.  Things  were  about  at  rock  bottom 
when  I  reached  the  coast  in  December :  to-day  it  is  not  too  sanguine  to 
say  the  worst  is  past.  The  outlook  for  the  British  Columbia  fisheries 
this  year  is  excellent.  The  consumption  of  salmon  by  reason  of  the  war 
will  be  enormous,  and  if  the  catch  fulfils  expectations,  the  profit  should 
be  large.  Great  progress,  too,  is  being  made  with  the  halibut  fishery  on 
the  Pacific  Coast.  .  .  .  Only  a  small  portion  of  British  Columbia  has 
so  far  been  developed,  but  this  part  has  shown  what  riches  may  be 
expected  elsewhere." 

NEW   ZEALAND 

"You,  soldiers,  don't  forget  that  we  all  originate  from  one  common 
stock.  We  worship  one  God.  You  carry  the  honour  of  the  Maori  race 
in  your  hands.  Be  brave,  and  remember  the  flag  you  have  flying  over 
your  tents.  Under  the  British  rule  we  have  learnt  wisdom,  and  regret 
our  former  violence,  and  we  are  now  at  last  united  to  help  fight  for  our 
white  brethren.  With  reference  to  your  religious  beliefs,  don't  forget 
that  you  aim  for  one  heaven.  Fear  God,  read  and  study  your  Bibles,  and 
may  the  British  reign  over  us  for  ever."  Such  was  the  stirring  speech 
made  by  a  Maori  chieftain  to  the  Maoris  assembled  in  camp  in  New 
Zealand,  training  for  reinforcements.  And  to  the  officers  the  old  warrior 
significantly  added  :  "  We  have  handed  our  men  over  to  you  to  be  taught 
to  be  soldiers.  Let  them  be  taught  as  soldiers,  and  not  play  at  it." 

SCHEMES  are  already  being  discussed  in  New  Zealand  in  anticipation  of 
the  unemployment  problem,  which  it  is  thought  may  come  with  the 
termination  of  the  war,  and  for  which  it  is  considered  the  country 
should  be  ready.  A  suggestion  being  considered  by  the  Auckland 
Chamber  of  Commerce  proposes  that  a  very  valuable  block  of  land  of 
100,000  acres  in  the  Urewera  Country  should  be  immediately  surveyed 
with  the  idea  of  its  being  ready  for  any  returned  soldiers  who  wish 
to  go  on  the  land.  The  Patriotic  Committee  is  to  be  invited  to  co- 
operate with  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and,  if  necessary,  the  Govern- 
ment will  be  advised  to  construct  a  special  railway  which  would  make  the 
land  easily  accessible. 

THE  sound  condition  of  New  Zealand  finance  is  exemplified  in  a 
statement  regarding  the  State-Guaranteed  Advances  Board  made  recently 
by  the  Prime  Minister  of  the  Dominion.  The  financial  position,  despite 


Oversea  Notes  429 

• 

the  war,  he  reported,  had  improved  so  much  that  the  Government  were 
able  to  recommend  the  Board  to  increase  the  amount  that  might  be 
lent  to  workers  from  £400  to  £450,  this  being  the  limit  allowed  by  law. 
The  limit  for  county  councils  had  been  raised  from  £2,000  to  £5,000.  In 
regard  to  settlers,  increased  facilities  had  also  been  provided.  Arrange- 
ments had  been  made  by  means  of  which  settlers  could  now  borrow  up  to 
£450  for  the  purpose  of  paying  off  old  mortgages  which  had  been  raised 
at  higher  rates  of  interest  than  those  charged  by  the  Board.  Preference 
would  be  given  to  application  for  loans  up  to  £450  for  the  purpose  of 
building  houses.  The  total  amount  which  an  individual  settler  could 
now  borrow  was  £1,000. 

AT  a  meeting  of  one  of  the  acclimatisation  societies  the  curator  of  a 
game  farm  reported  that  he  had  included  eels  in  the  list  of  vermin  which 
cause  the  death  of  young  pheasants.  He  gave  his  assurance  that  no  less 
than  seventeen  young  birds  had  been  lost  owing  to  eels  seizing  their 
heads  whilst  they  were  in  the  act  of  drinking  creek  water.  The  deaths 
of  innumerable  young  ducks  had  been  caused  by  eels,  and  it  was  a  common 
thing  to  see  scores  of  ducks  minus  a  leg,  which  had  been  dragged  off  by 
these  voracious  fish. 

BRITISH  currency  has  now  displaced  German  currency  at  Samoa.  The 
change  is  a  step  towards  anglicising  the  island.  German  notes  and  coin 
no  longer  hold  good.  They  are  replaced  by  British  notes,  coin,  and 
postal  orders.  A  branch  of  the  Bank  of  New  Zealand  has  also  been 
established  there. 

SOUTH   AFRICA 

DIAMOND  mining  has  suffered  far  more  severely  than  any  other  of 
South  Africa's  leading  industries,  the  closing  down  of  the  principal  mines 
being  necessary  on  account  of  the  European  situation.  The  output  of 
coal  diminished  considerably  during  the  last  five  months  of  last  year,  the 
main  cause  being  disturbance  in  shipping  owing  to  the  outbreak  of  war, 
as  is  instanced  by  the  fact  that,  in  Natal,  export  coal,  as  distinguished 
from  bunker  coal,  fields  will  be  opened  up.  Meanwhile  other  industries 
are  being  established  and  developed,  and  it  cannot  be  long  before  South 
Africa  will  become  a  material  factor  in  the  production  of  foodstuffs  for 
consumption  overseas.  Should,  unhappily,  hostilities  continue  for  any 
further  long  period  it  is  conceivable  there  may  be  a  plethora  of  money 
owing  to  the  partial  cessation  of  commercial  enterprise,  but,  with  the 
resumption  of  peace,  it  seems  reasonable  to  apprehend  a  scarcity  of 
capital,  so  that  borrowers  will  then  find  themselves  in  the  position  of  having 
to  pay  more  for  their  requirements.  Where  countries,  such  as  South 
Africa,  in  the  developing  stage  and  looking  for  capital  from  overseas,  are 
concerned,  the  effect  of  dearer  money  will  be  that  they  will  be  compelled 
to  offer  greater  inducements  than  hitherto  if  they  are  to  have  their 
financial  needs  supplied. 

SEVEN  years  ago  there  was  no  orange  trade  in  South  Africa  To-day 
oranges  exported  from  the  Transvaal  are  arriving  on  the  London  market 


430  The  Empire  Review 

in  better  condition  than  the  oranges  from  the  Mediterranean.  South 
African  oranges  obtain  double  and  treble  the  prices  of  any  other  oranges 
in  the  world  except  Calif ornian  oranges,  to  which  they  are  fully  equal. 
They  arrive  in  England  during  the  five  months  when  oranges  are  scarce, 
and  those  five  months  are  better  than  the  other  seven  months.  From 
£75  to  .£100  an  acre  per  annum  is  to  be  made  from  oranges  growing  in 
South  Africa,  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  British  market  could  absorb 
18,000,000  cases  of  fruit,  valued  at  about  £9,000,000. 

MR.  W.  P.  TAYLOR  writes  :  "  There  are  various  kinds  of  oranges  and 
they  come  from  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 
Of  late  years  the  size,  the  taste,  and  the  thickness  of  the  skin  have  all 
been  improved.  Perhaps  the  greatest  triumph  is  the  Washington  Navel 
pipless  orange.  The  fruit  is  of  great  size  and  when  properly  grown, 
worth  all  that  you  pay  for  it.  The  old  system  was  to  plant  a  pip,  and 
water  the  tree  and  let  it  grow ;  but  to-day  the  Navel  orange  is  grafted 
on  to  a  lemon.  The  trees  are  planted  25  feet  apart  and  after  five 
years  of  care  begin  to  produce.  In  South  Africa,  until  recently,  the 
principal  orange  has  been  the  seedling — the  sweetest  of  these  the 
Valentia.  The  orange  known  as  the  Rustenburg  seedling  has  an  acid 
flavour  that  is  much  appreciated  by  children  and  patients  in  days 
of  heat. 

"I  am  just  off  to  see  a  large  orange  grove.  The  snow  is  on  the 
Drakensburg,  it  chills  the  south  wind,  and  over  the  hills  to  the  north  is 
sunshine  and  warmth.  The  train  leaves  the  great  mounds  of  powdered 
silica,  and  passes  through  Krugersdorp,  where  stands  a  monument  that 
records  the  vows  of  the  sons  of  the  late  republic ;  now  past  Jenning's 
Blauwbank,  a  great  hill  of  slate  that  showed  the  first  gold  in  these  parts. 
Large  nuggets  of  gold  lay  on  the  surface  and  raised  hopes  that  soared 
high  in  those  early  days  of  anticipation.  Blauwbank  was  passed  over  for 
the  Rand,  but  now  there  is  a  reawakening,  a  20-stamp  mill  is  busy 
crushing,  and  the  hopes  of  Jenning's  Blauwbank  is  once  more  in  the 
ascendant.  Along  the  hillside  is  a  new  orchard  of  apple-trees,  and  the 
land  broken  for  planting  is  ready  to  receive  tens  of  thousands  of  trees. 
It  is  the  continuation  of  the  Hartley  apple  orchards.  The  success  of  the 
apple  on  this  plateau  is  assured,  and  miles  and  miles  of  apples  will  be 
grown  in  this  district  in  the  near  future.  Perhaps  nowhere  in  the  world 
is  there  more  apple  land  lying  untouched  than  in  the  highlands  of  South 
Africa.  Every  variety  of  apple  can  be  grown  here.  Some  people  are 
rushing  to  plant  twenty,  thirty,  fifty  thousand  apple  trees  ;  but  apples 
are  like  everything  else  that  is  grown  for  profit,  and  he  who  grows  them 
with  care  reaps  the  greatest  reward.  That  they  must  be  very  profitable 
is  evinced  from  the  anxiety  to  plant  so  many  trees.  The  value  of 
matured  lands  in  America  and  Canada  runs  into  thousands  of  dollars 
per  acre;  here  land  is  obtainable  at  £2  or  £3  an  acre,  and  plenty 
of  it. 

"  But  here  we  are  at  our  station.  It  is  at  a  brand  new  village.  An 
enterprising  attorney  has  planted  1,000  fruit  trees  and  vines,  and  is  full 


Oversea  Notes  431 

of  the  possibilities  of  fruit-growing.  Around  for  miles  are  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  acres  of  land  full  of  the  same  possibilities,  but  the  brown 
waving  veld  shows  that  man's  hand  has  yet  to  break  it  into  usefulness. 
Over  the  hills,  into  the  beyond  where  bush  and  rock  dot  the  undulating 
scene,  we  motor  through  a  land  of  yellow  oranges.  There  are  great  trees 
seventy  years  old  with  broad  wide  trunks,  and  there  are  smaller  trees  of 
ten  or  fifteen  years'  growth  all  covered  with  golden  fruit.  This  valley 
has  been  a  paradise  for  the  beauty  of  its  trees  and  a  banking  house  for  its 
farmers.  Before  the  Rand's  discovery,  Kimberley  and  the  towns  bought 
its  fruit,  but  now,  with  the  growing  of  thousands  of  trees,  the  growers 
look  to  Europe  for  their  market. 

"  Mr.  Chiappini  looks  forward  to  great  things  in  citrus  cultivation. 
He  considers  the  summer  markets  for  African  oranges  unlimited. 
Perhaps  the  quantity  of  orange  land  is  not  so  great,  as  it  is  necessary 
to  have  particular  land,  well  watered  and  subject  to  about  2  degrees  of 
frost,  to  get  a  perfect  navel  orange.  Oranges  can  be  grown  in  great 
quantities  near  the  coast,  but  on  account  of  the  heat  it  is  not  a  good 
keeper  or  as  thin-skinned  as  the  Rustenburg  and  Waterberg  oranges. 
The  land  along  the  Orange  River  near  Upington  and  the  mountains  of 
Clan  William  will  contest  the  field  in  the  near  future.  The  Clan  William 
orange  is  perhaps  as  fine  an  orange  as  has  ever  been  grown,  but  here  are 
6,000  trees  on  one  farm,  some  of  them  very  old,  some  in  their  prime,  and 
younger  ones  coming  on.  There  are  2,000,000  oranges  and  naartzes  on 
the  trees.  The  markets  in  Great  Britain  are  sighing  for  them,  but 
shipping  facilities  are  wanting,  and  the  fruit  hangs. 

"One  farmer  has  thirty  thousand  navel  trees  coming  into  bearing.  He 
will  require  a  railway  siding  to  take  away  the  many  thousand  cases  of 
fruit;  it  will  show  the  world  the  possibilities  of  this  country,  and  as 
orange  orchards  are  worth  two  thousand  dollars  an  acre  in  America,  it 
is  possible  that  orange  growers  will  come  and  buy  cheap  land  here  and 
lay  out  orchards.  Europe's  summer  fruit  basket  will  be  coloured  with 
African  oranges  and  tangarines,  for  soon,  perhaps,  a  railway  will  run 
across  the  western  desert  to  Windhoek  and  the  ships  will  take  the  fruit  to 
Europe  in  twelve  days. 

"It  is  glorious  to  plan  and  hope,  even  if  it  does  not  always  come  off; 
one  lives  so  richly,  in  the  coloured  hope  of  illusion  and  optimism  of  the 
veld,  for  wherever  you  go,  if  you  are  a  builder,  you  see  possibilities. 
Unfortunately,  there  are  drawbacks,  in  the  quick  changes  of  Africa's 
atmosphere,  and  here  one  has  only  to  look  further  into  the  beyond  to  see 
a  dark  stain  there ;  where  the  rivers  run  to  the  Limpopo  are  the  marshes 
that  carry  the  dread  anophylea  mosquito,  and  thousands  of  natives  have 
died  this  summer  and  autumn  in  the  low  country.  It  is  terrible  to  see 
this  toll  of  human  life  taken  every  wet  season,  and  one  hopes  that  as  the 
scourge  of  yellow  fever  was  mastered  at  Panama,  it  may  be  overcome 
here,  and  these  valleys  become  a  paradise  in  reality." 

THE  Trades  Commissioner  for  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  in  a  recent 
address  to  East  London  farmers,  predicted  a  large  meat  export  trade  for 


432  The  Empire  Review 

South  Africa  in  the  near  future.  The  U.S.A.  which  seven  years  ago  was 
the  biggest  exporter  of  meat  to  the  United  Kingdom,  was  now  importing 
meat.  The  same  thing  was  happening  in  other  countries,  whereas  in 
South  Africa  the  herds  were  rapidly  increasing,  and  were  already  in 
excess  of  their  requirements.  New  Zealand,  with  24,000,000  sheep, 
exported  6,000,000  carcases  per  annum,  while  South  Africa,  with 
38,000,000  sheep,  did  not  export.  With  regard  to  beef,  Australia  already 
exported  31,000  carcases,  while  South  Africa,  with  6,000,000  cattle,  did 
not  export.  It  was  therefore  clear  that  South  Africa  could  do  a  big 
meat  export  trade. 

THE  marketable  yield  of  cane  sugar  in  Zululand  and  Natal  last  year 
was  102,643  tons,  valued  approximately  at  £1,600,000.  The  area  at 
present  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  cane  in  Zululand  and 
Natal  is  140,763  acres,  and  the  capital  invested  considerably  over  a 
million  pounds.  The  Natal  Sugar  Association  proposes  to  equip  an 
experimental  station  and  establish  sugar  lectureships  with  a  view  to 
extending  technical  knowledge  of  the  industry. 

A  NEW  sugar  mill  is  in  course  of  erection  at  Isezela,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  it  will  be  ready  for  crushing  early  this  month  When  completed  it 
will  be  the  largest  mill  in  South  Africa.  A  sufficiency  of  water,  which 
is  often  a  serious  question  in  regard  to  sugar  mills,  has  been  assured  by 
the  construction  of  a  large  new  reservoir  on  the  Isezela  River  about  three 
miles  from  the  factory,  capable  of  holding  about  35  million  gallons  of 
water,  which  is  led  to  the  mill  by  means  of  a  6-inch  pipe. 

THE  population  of  Johannesburg  for  the  year  1913-14  was  estimated 
at  253,274,  of  which  whites  numbered  134,000.  The  white  death-rate 
corrected  for  age  and  sex  distribution,  was  10 -32  per  1,000  persons  living, 
and  the  infantile  mortality  was  85  per  1,000.  The  Medical  Officer 
states  that  these  figures  are  the  lowest  on  record,  and  compare  favourably 
with  those  of  other  large  South  African  towns,  and  more  than  favourably 
with  the  great  towns  in  England  and  Wales. 

CORING  the  last  financial  year  the  quantity  of  butter  produced  in 
the  Union  amounted  to  10,741,745  Ibs.,  valued  at  £626,601,  being  an 
increase  of  302,745  Ibs.  over  the  quantity  produced  during  the  previous 
twelve  months. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL    OF     BRITISH    TRADE 

VOL.  XXIX         NOVEMBER  1915.  No.   178. 


ANCIENT    MUNITIONS 

Now  that  the  world  in  general  and  this  Empire  in  particular 
is  considering  the  question  of  munitions  and  mechanical  means 
of  destruction  it  may  be  timely,  and  perhaps  instructive,  to 
consider,  from  a  technical  point  of  view,  the  equivalent  weapons 
and  methods  employed  2,000  years  ago  by  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Empires.  Before  doing  so,  however,  it  will  facilitate  matters  if 
I  give  a  description  of  a  typical  fortress  or  walled  city  of  that 
time. 

The  outer  walls,  of  which  there  were  two,  with  foundations 
resting  on  solid  stratum,  were  made  of  the  best  materials  procur- 
able in  the  neighbourhood — squared  stones,  flint,  rubble,  burnt  or 
unburnt  brick  bonded  together  with  timber,  probably  olive  or  some 
other  imperishable  wood.  The  works  were  carried  out  under  the 
guidance  of  military  or  civil  engineers,  and  the  workmanship  was 
of  the  best.  The  plan  of  the  city  was  polygonal,  the  angles  of  a 
square  or  parallelogram  being  difficult  to  defend.  The  towers 
were  round  or  polygonal.  A  deep  ditch  surrounded  the  outside 
wall  often  without  water,  but  sufficiently  wide  and  deep  to 
prevent  the  approach  of  movable  towers  brought  against  the 
fortification.  The  space  between  the  outer  and  inner  walls, 
covering  some  twenty  feet,  was  filled  in  with  earth  taken  out  of 
the  ditch  ;  the  outer  wall  had  battlements  and  the  inner  wall  was 
provided  with  flights  of  steps  in  every  convenient  position  in 
order  that  it  might  be  mounted  from  the  inside.  If  there  was  no 
ditch  the  space  between  the  walls  would  be  left  open,  temporary 
timber  platforms  being  erected  for  the  defending  troops.  In  the 
event  of  the  outer  wall  being  captured  the  platforms  would  be 
demolished. 

Attack  against  so  formidable  a  fortification  constituted  what 
was   known  as   "  siege-warfare " :   it  closely  resembled  modern 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  178.  2  i, 


434  The  Empire  Review 

trench  warfare,  so  that  one  is  not  surprised  to  find  "  Eye- 
witness," when  describing  an  attack  delivered  by  the  British  troops 
in  Flanders,  stating,  "  We  are  using  many  ancient  weapons,  such 
as  catapults  and  slings  for  hurling  missiles."  Apparatus  of  this 
nature  is  continually  referred  to  by  Eoman  historians,  especially 
Livy  and  Caesar,  and  details  of  construction  are  given  by 
Vitruvius  (B.C.  25),  the  Eoman  engineer,  Apollodorus,  and 
Diades.  All  attacking  machines  were  styled  "tormenta," 
corresponding  to  our  term  artillery,  and  included  catapults  and 
scorpions  for  throwing  arrows,  ballistae  for  throwing  stones, 
towers  for  catapults  and  ballistae,  battering  rams,  and  ram- 
tortoises  for  special  purposes. 

Catapults  and  scorpions  were  wood-framed  structures  pro- 
portioned to  the  length  of  the  arrow  they  were  to  throw. 
Vitruvius  gives  a  minute  technical  description  of  the  dimensions 
of  these  weapons,  referring  to  illustrations  which  unfortunately 
have  not  come  down  to  us.  There  is  a  design  of  one  of  these  on 
the  Trajan  column,  but  it  does  not  give  details.  However,  it 
consisted  principally  of  two  vertical  strands  of  say  ten  ropes, 
secured  to  two  parallel  beams.  These  strands  would  be  twisted 
in  contrary  directions,  and  a  pole  was  inserted  between  the  ropes 
of  each,  half  way  between  the  beams.  The  two  rigid  poles  were 
connected  by  a  rope  or  string.  Owing  to  the  opposite  twists  of 
the  vertical  ropes,  the  poles  tended  to  fly  apart,  and  the  string 
joining  their  ends  would  become  straight.  At  the  centre  of  this 
string  was  the  receptacle  or  carrier  for  the  arrow,  and  the  carrier 
itself  ran  along  a  groove.  The  principle  is  comparable  to  the  two 
sticks  and  string  projecting  a  diabolo  bobbin.  The  whole  frame 
could  rotate  on  its  stand  in  a  horizontal  plane  so  as  to  get  a  wide 
range  of  fire. 

The  ballista,  for  throwing  stones,  was  the  same  in  principle 
as  the  catapulta,  but  the  end  of  the  slide  for  the  stone-carrier 
rested  on  the  ground  and  pointed  at  a  high  angle  for  firing, 
corresponding  to  the  modern  high-angle  howitzer  on  a  concrete 
base.  The  framing,  number  of  ropes,  slide  and  carrier  were 
proportioned  to  the  weight  of  the  stone  to  be  thrown,  just  as 
the  catapulta  was  proportioned  to  the  length  of  the  projected 
arrow.  The  stone-carrier  was  pulled  out  along  the  slide  against 
the  string  by  a  windlass,  pulley-system  or  wheel-gearing,  and 
secured  by  a  catch.  This,  when  struck,  released  the  stone- 
carrier,  which  slid  rapidly  up  the  groove  owing  to  the  string 
(attached  to  the  two  poles  flying  apart)  becoming  straight. 
If,  instead  of  the  single  string  between  the  ends  of  the  two 
poles,  there  was  one  string  from  each  pole  to  the  carrier,  it 
would  be  important  to  have  the  two  strings  at  the  same  tension, 
for  Vitruvius  says  that  unless  these  are  equal  in  tension  the  poles, 


Ancient  Munitions  435 

or  brazen  stocks  of  the  ballista,  do  not  give  an  equal  impetus 
when  disengaged,  and  the  strings  therefore,  not  being  in  equal 
tension,  prevent  the  direct  flight  of  the  weapon.  In  discussing 
why  an  engineer,  among  many  other  accomplishments,  should 
have  a  musical  ear,  Vitruvius  says  that  only  a  nice  ear  can 
discover  if  the  strings  of  the  catapulta,  ballista,  and  scorpion  are 
equal  in  tension  by  the  sound  when  they  are  struck. 

A  ballista  could  throw  a  stone  of  90  Ibs.  200  yards,  or  on  an 
average  a  lighter  stone  of  30  Ibs.  400  yards.  In  battle  the 
proportion  of  the  catapultae  to  ballistae  would  be  5  to  1 — e.g., 
Scipio  had  at  New  Carthage  120  catapultae  and  23  ballistae.  A 
very  complicated  ballista  has  been  described  in  detail  by  Hero  of 
Alexandria  (B.C.  100  or  A.D.  100)  showing  considerable  ingenuity 
in  construction.  Such  timber  constructions  would  be  put  to- 
gether by  dovetailing,  ropes,  and  the  usual  Koman  square- 
sectioned  nails.  The  screw,  although  well  known  to  the  Komans, 
was  evidently  not  much  used  for  the  jointing  of  timber.  Small 
copper  screws,  bevels  and  worms  were  used  in  their  surveying 
instruments,  wooden  screws  in  their  olive  presses,  and  Archi- 
medean screws  for  raising  water,  as  well  as  the  necessary 
lathes  or  screw-cutting  machines,  stocks  and  dies,  etc.,  to  make 
them.  A  smaller  form  of  ballista  was  the  "  Onager,"  introduces 
after  Constantine,  consisting  of  a  single  stand  of  twisted  ropes 
(horizontal),  in  which  was  inserted  a  rod  carrying  at  the  free  end 
a  receptacle  for  a  number  of  small  stones.  This  end  was  pressed 
down  and  when  released  projected  the  small  stones,  comparable 
to  our  shrapnel,  a  considerable  distance.  The  same  apparatus  is 
employed  now  for  projecting  fruit-tins  filled  with  high  explosive, 
only  the  strand  of  twisted  ropes  is  replaced  by  a  spring. 

Catapultae  and  ballistae,  we  are  told  by  Diades  (who  fought 
under  Alexander),  were  mounted  on  towers  which  could  be  carried 
in  pieces  from  one  place  to  another.  The  smallest  tower  was 
80  feet  high,  24  feet  wide  at  the  base  and  5  feet  wide  at  the 
top ;  the  upright  pieces  2  feet  at  the  bottom  and  £  a  foot  at  the 
top,  and  contained  ten  floors  with  openings  on  each  side-wall; 
while  the  largest  was  160  feet  high,  36  feet  wide  at  the  bottom, 
6  feet  wide  at  the  top,  containing  twenty  floors,  on  each  of  which 
was  a  parapet  of  4£  feet  covered  with  raw  hides  to  protect  it  from 
arrows. 

According  to  Vitruvius,  one  of  the  earliest  engines  of  attack 
was  the  ram  ("Aries").  This  weapon  was  first  used  by  the 
Carthaginians  who,  at  the  siege  of  Cadiz,  took  a  beam  and, 
swinging  it  by  hand,  battered  the  walls  with  its  end,  which 
destroyed  the  top  courses.  Subsequently  an  improvement  was 
made  by  slinging  the  beam  by  ropes  to  a  cross-piece  fastened  to 
an  upright  pole  (the  whole  apparatus  may  be  compared  to  a 

2  L  2 


436  The  Empire  Review 

Roman  steelyard),  and  we  are  told  that  this  was  effective  in 
levelling  the  walls  of  Cadiz.  At  a  later  date  a  timber  base 
movable  on  wheels  was  added,  and  a  roof  of  bulls'  hides  on 
timber  framing  so  as  to  protect  the  men  swinging  the  ram  from 
attack.  As  the  base  on  wheels  moved  slowly  it  was  called  the 
"  tortoise  "  (testudo). 

Diades,  describing  a  "tortoise-ram,"  explains  how  its  con- 
struction was  similar  to  the  tower;  it  was  45  feet  wide  and 
24  feet  high  excluding  the  roof,  the  height  of  which  from  eaves 
to  ridge  was  10  feet.  In  the  centre  of  the  roof  was  a  small 
tower  not  less  than  18  feet  wide  of  four  storeys,  and  in  the  top  of 
the  tower  were  placed  scorpions  and  catapultae ;  below  a  large 
store  of  water  was  kept  to  extinguish  the  flames  in  case  of  fire. 
In  the  tower  was  the  machine  for  the  ram,  consisting  of  a 
smooth  roller  on  which  the  ropes  of  the  ram  worked  backwards 
and  forwards.  The  "tortoise-ram,"  like  the  tower,  was  covered 
with  raw  hides. 

A  similar  machine  was  the  helepolis,  125  feet  high,  with  a 
width  of  60  feet.  This  machine  could  stand  a  "shock  of  a 
stone  weighing  360  Ibs.,"  thrown  by  a  ballista.  It  weighed 
360,000  Ibs. 

Tortoises  were  of  many  kinds.  The  tortoise  for  filling  up 
ditches  consisted  of  a  large  square  base  of  four  cross-pieces  25 
feet  long  on  eight  wheels  whose  axles  turned  on  iron  bearings, 
the  hubs  of  the  wheels  having  holes  to  insert  the  rods  which 
turned  them.  The  upper  construction,  of  palm,  was  entirely 
covered  with  fresh  raw  hides  stuffed  with  sea-weed  or  straw 
steeped  in  vinegar,  forming  a  roof  to  resist  the  missiles  from  the 
ballistae  and  attacks  of  fire.  Presumably  there  was  no  ram  to  this ; 
at  any  rate,  the  roof  was  extra  strongly  protected  against  attack, 
for  it  had  to  serve  as  a  protection  for  those  who  worked  below 
at  filling  up  the  moat — a  very  slow  process.  Another  tortoise, 
also  on  wheels,  had  a  parapet  and  battlements  of  boarding  above, 
and  an  inclined  pent-house  roofed  with  a  layer  of  clay  and  hair 
thick  enough  to  prevent  fire. 

The  tortoise  for  undermining  was  used  by  the  Greeks.  Its 
frame  was  triangular;  consequently,  material  from  the  wall  as 
well  as  missiles  would  glide  off  easily  and  the  excavators  under- 
neath could  work  in  safety.  Corresponding  to  our  methods  of 
blasting  and  demolition,  the  Komans,  in  addition  to  using 
the  battering-ram,  destroyed  walls  by  cutting  out  holes  and 
supporting  the  walls  by  wooden  props,  which  were  then  set 
on  fire  and  the  masonry  would  fall  in  bulk.  This  method  was 
employed  in  the  destruction  of  the  cathedral  of  Old  Sarum  in 
1332,  and  in  the  destruction  of  chimneys  at  the  present  day. 

The  large  tortoise  of  Agetor  the  Byzantine  had  a  base  60  feet 


Ancient  Munitions  437 

long  and  a  width  of  18  feet.  The  upright  pieces  which  rose 
above  the  framing  were  four  in  number.  They  were  in  two 
lengths  of  36  feet  each,  15  inches  thick  and  1^  feet  wide.  The 
base  had  eight  wheels  of  6|  feet  in  diameter,  their  thickness 
3  feet,  composed  of  three  pieces  of  wood  dovetailed  together  and 
tied  with  plates  of  cold  wrought  iron.  On  the  upright  pieces 
were  crossbeams,  tied  with  iron  hooping,  to  support  timber  plat- 
forms for  the  scorpions  and  catapultae.  Into  the  framing  were 
fixed  two  smooth  axles  to  which  were  fastened  the  ropes  which 
held  the  ram.  Over  the  heads  of  the  men  who  worked  the  ram 
and  catapults  was  a  pent-house,  formed  after  the  manner  of  a 
turret,  where  two  soldiers  might  stand  secure  from  danger  and 
give  directions  for  "  annoying  "  the  enemy — that  is,  give  direc- 
tions to  those  who  worked  the  catapultae  below  to  enable  them 
to  obtain  as  many  direct  hits  as  possible.  Similarly  nowadays 
two  soldiers  in  an  aeroplane  give  the  range  for  artillery  fire. 

The  ram  was  106  feet  long,  15  inches  wide  and  a  foot  thick 
at  the  butt,  tapering  towards  the  head  to  1  foot  in  width  and 
8  inches  in  thickness.  It  had  a  hard  iron  beak,  called  the 
"  borer  "  (terebra),  like  those  fixed  on  galleys,  from  which  pro- 
jected four  iron  prongs  about  15  feet  long  to  fix  it  on  to  the 
timber.  On  the  Trajan  column  the  point  of  the  ram  is  shaped  like 
the  head  of  the  animal.  Between  the  butt  and  head  of  the  ram 
four  ropes,  8  inches  thick,  were  stretched,  made  fast  like  the 
ropes  which  retain  the  mast  of  a  ship  between  the  poop  and  the 
prow.  To  these  ropes  others  were  diagonally  slung,  at  a  distance 
of  15  inches  from  each  other,  to  suspend  the  ram,  the  whole 
being  covered  with  raw  hides.  At  the  further  end  of  the 
ropes,  towards  the  head  or  point,  were  four  iron  chains,  also 
covered  with  raw  hides.  Hopes  would  be  easily  destroyed  by 
the  enemy  by  cutting  or  by  fire.  The  machine  could  be  moved 
forwards,  backwards,  to  the  right,  to  the  left,  and  owing  to  its 
large  base,  could  go  up  and  down  hill.  It  was  worked  by  100 
men,  and  its  weight  was  4,000  talents  or  480,000  Ibs. 

An  effective  weapon  used  by  the  Komans  was  the  tribulus,  or 
caltrop,  a  sphere  in  which  were  inserted  four  iron  spikes. 
They  were  scattered  about  on  open  ground,  one  point  sticking 
upwards,  irrespective  of  position,  to  prevent  the  approach  of 
cavalry.  Similar  contrivances  are  used  at  the  present  day 
in  conjunction  with  barbed  wire.  The  manufacture  of  wire 
was  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Of  other  weapons  "Vitruvius 
mentions  briefly  a  grappling-machine  or  hook  (corvus),  which 
he  does  not  consider  of  much  use,  nor  does  he  think  it 
necessary  to  write  on  cranes,  ladders,  javelins,  shields,  darts, 
bows  and  arrows,  the  stomach-bow,  and  weapons  of  simpler 
construction  which  the  soldiers  could  easily  make  for  themselves. 


438  The  Empire  Review 

Hero  of  Alexandria  lias  left  an  account  of  very  efficient  lifting 
machines  consisting  of  shear  legs  or  framed  structures  to  support 
pulley-systems.  But  they  are  not  useful  in  all  places,  because 
machines  constructed  to  assault  the  "  stolid  "  and  "  solid  "  should 
be  constructed  differently  from  those  used  for  attacking  the 
"slim,"  and  different  again  where  the  enemy  is  "shy." 
Similarly,  machines  would  be  of  different  dimensions  depending 
upon  the  particular  defences  and  fortifications  of  different  cities, 
as  Hero  says  on  his  introduction  to  the  uses  of  the  "  dioptra  " 
(a  very  efficient  theodolite),  "  how  often  have  we  come  to  the 
foot  of  the  enemy's  fortifications  with  ladders  that  are  too  short 
simply  because  we  had  not  learnt  in  peace  time  how  to  use  the 
'  dioptra '  to  find  the  height  of  an  inaccessible  object  from  our 
position." 

Another  interesting  instrument,  much  used  by  the  army 
described  by  Hyginus  in  '  De  Munitionibus  Castrorum,'  was  the 
"groma." 

At  the  entrance  of  the  Headquarters  of  the  Staff  in  the  middle  of  the 
main  road  there  is  a  place  called  the  Place  of  the  Groma  set  aside  because 
of  the  crowd  which  gathers  there.  The  groma  is  set  up  on  its  iron  stand  with 
its  four  plumb-lines  at  90°  to  each  other,  so  that  the  entrances  of  the  camp 
or  fortification  may  be  as  four  points  of  the  star  when  the  straight  lines 
connecting  pairs  of  plumb-lines  are  set  out. 

The  dioptra  was  also  used  for  setting  out  lines  at  right  angles. 
Military  "hut"  camps  are  being  set  up  all  over  England  with 
the  theodolite — the  improved  form  of  the  dioptra — at  the  present 
time. 

Gates  of  old  Roman  fortified  towns  now  in  existence  are  often 
at  90°  to  each  other,  the  roads  joining  them  being  straight.  The 
Romans  always  set  out  their  military  roads  (36  to  40  feet) 
straight  with  the  dioptra  or  groma,  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
transport  of  such  extraordinary  apparatus  as  battering  rams  106 
feet  long.  These  roads  would  be  upwards  of  400  miles  in 
length.  When  the  line  was  set  out  it  was  excavated ;  two 
courses  of  flat  stone  were  laid  in  mortar  on  the  ground,  beaten 
with  iron  rammers ;  on  this  was  a  layer  of  rubble,  above  a  mortar 
of  gravel  and  lime  upon  which  bedded  the  top  surface  of  hard 
stones,  the  total  depth  being  3  feet.  When  carried  over  marshy 
ground  there  was  a  framework  or  series  of  piles  with  oak  cross 
sleepers.  These  were  covered  with  rushes,  reeds  or  straw,  to 
protect  the  oak  from  being  acted  upon  by  the  lime-mortar  which 
formed  the  bedding  of  the  two  lower  courses  of  flat  stone,  the 
road  being  then  made  up  as  before.  For  weights  of  400,000  Ibs. 
which  (even  if  slowly  carried  in  pieces)  must  have  caused  con- 
siderable pressure,  such  a  foundation  was  evidently  sufficient. 

The    Romans    do  not   seem    to  have    made  much    use    of 


Ancient  Munitions  439 

canals  for  conducting  war-material.  Lucas  *  points  out  "  they 
would  be  of  little  use  for  moving  troops  quickly,"  while  the 
difficulties  of  construction  and  the  absence  of  locks  ruled  them 
out  of  consideration  as  means  of  communication.  A  canal  how- 
ever was  dug  by  Marius  (B.C.  51)  especially  for  military  uses, 
tapping  the  waters  of  the  Rhone  at  Aries  and  used  by  him  in 
his  campaign  against  the  Northern  Barbarians  in  Provence. 
Another  canal  running  parallel  with  the  Appian  Way  through 
the  Pontine  marshes  was  built  for  the  double  object  of  draining 
the  land  and  conveying  war  materials  from  Latium  and  Terra- 
cina,  important  for  a  State  not  master  of  the  sea.  This  canal 
may  be  compared  with  the  Kiel  Canal. 

With  regard  to  marine  munitions  few  details  of  construction 
have  come  down  to  us.  We  are  told  there  existed  special  ladders 
for  boarding  ships,  grappling  books,  and  other  marine  machines. 
There  were  evidently  many  improvised  structures  or  towers 
similar  to  the  land  tower  for  carrying  ballistae  and  catapultae. 
Caesar's  description  of  blocking  up  Pompey's  fleet  at  Brundusium 
is  interesting.  As  the  work  of  extending  the  two  moles  could 
not  be  continued  right  across  the  entrance  to  the  port  because 
the  sea  was  too  deep,  he  got  rafts  30  feet  square,  loaded  with 
earth  and  fascines,  and  moored  them  between  the  moles,  and 
casting  the  four  anchors,  these  rafts  served  as  a  landing  pier  for 
his  army  as  well  as  blocking  in  the  fleet.  The  rafts  were  pro- 
tected by  hurdles,  every  fourth  one  having  a  tower  of  four 
storeys  high  constructed  on  it  to  guard  the  work  better  from 
fire  and  protect  it  from  the  boats  which  might  be  sent  against 
it.  Pompey  fitted  his  ships  with  towers  three  storeys  high, 
filling  them  with  engines  and  darts  to  break  through  the 
rafts. 

Again  when  Caesar  arrived  at  Alexandria  with  his  fleet  he 
found  it  fortified  by  a  triple  wall  40  feet  high  of  squared  stone. 
The  lower  part  of  the  city  was  defended  by  towers  ten  storeys 
high.  There  were  also  many  timber  structures  of  the  same  height, 
movable  on  wheels,  which  could  be  drawn  by  horses.  He  found 
Alexandria  almost  hollow  underneath  owing  to  the  aqueducts 
that  furnished  the  private  houses  with  water  from  the  Nile. 

Ganymede,  the  Alexandrian  general,  to  deprive  the  Romans 
of  a  supply  of  water  in  that  part  of  the  city  of  which  they  had 
taken  possession,  stopped  the  current  through  these  subterranean 
passages  which  lead  from  the  Nile  and  turned  salt  water  into 
them.  (The  Germans  now  put  poison  into  our  wells  and  say  it 
is  salt.) 

In  some  cases  the  Romans  led  water  to  their  fortified  towns 
by  duplicating  the  aqueduct,  that  the  enemy  might  think 

*  '  Greater  Eome  and  Greater  Britain.' 


440  The  Empire  Review 

he  was  cutting  off  the  water-supply  by  intercepting  the  one 
channel  and  not  have  any  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  the 
other. 

I  now  pass  on  to  show  how  an  attack  on  a  fortress  was  made. 
About  322  B.C.  Tyre  and  Sidon  were  destroyed  by  Alexander. 
In  the  case  of  Tyre,  the  height  of  the  walls,  the  strength  of  its 
navy  and  the  abundance  of  defensive  material  seemed  to  make  it 
impregnable.  Diodorus  tells  us  that  Alexander  began  by  de- 
molishing Old  Tyre,  using  the  stones  to  make  a  mole  200  feet 
broad.  Against  this  the  Tyrians  covered  their  walls  with  newly 
invented  engines,  especially  on  the  side  facing  the  mole.  They 
also  sallied  out  in  small  boats  with  slingers  and  archers  armed 
with  engines  of  all  kinds  for  the  discharge  of  arrows  and  darts. 
From  the  end  of  the  mole  Alexander  began  by  battering  the 
walls,  and  threw  arrows,  darts  and  stones.  Against  these  the 
Tyrians  erected  upon  their  battlements  marble  wheels  with 
long  spokes,  and  by  their  rotation  the  darts  were  broken  up. 
The  impact  of  the  stones  from  the  ballistae  were  checked  by 
woolpacks  placed  along  the  wall.  Another  wall,  15  feet  broad, 
was  also  built  7  feet  behind  the  outer  wall  and  the  space  between 
filled  in  with  earth  and  stone. 

Alexander  made  a  battery  by  joining  a  number  of  ships 
together  and  mounted  battering  rams  upon  them.  He  partially 
succeeded  by  breaking  down  100  feet  of  the  wall,  but  the 
Tyrians  repaired  it  during  the  night.  The  Macedonians  then 
moved  up  their  towers  of  the  same  height  as  the  battlements  of 
the  Tyrians'  walls  and  pushed  out  planks  from  them  to  form  a 
bridge,  but  were  repulsed  by  the  Tyrians,  who  continued  to 
grapple  and  wound  those  on  top  of  the  towers  with  long  tridents 
or  three-forked  hooks.  These  grapples,  attached  to  ropes,  were 
flung  over  the  shields  of  the  assailants,  and  in  this  way  the 
shields  were  torn  out  of  their  hands.  Nets  were  thrown  over 
any  combatants  attempting  to  pass  over  the  plank  bridges, 
causing  them  to  become  so  entangled  that  many  fell  headlong 
to  the  ground.  The  Tyrians  filled  their  iron  and  brazen  shields 
with  sand,  made  scorching  hot  over  fires.  The  sand  was  then 
cast  upon  the  besiegers  by  means  of  a  machine,  and  getting 
between  the  breastplates  and  coats  of  mail,  burnt  into  their 
flesh.  The  Tyrians  also  sent  off  fire-darts,  heavy  stones  and 
all  kinds  of  missiles,  and  by  means  of  long  poles  with  hooks  and 
sharp  knives  they  drew  up  and  cut  the  cord  of  the  battering  rams 
to  pieces.  They  also  discharged  out  of  their  machines  masses 
of  red-hot  iron  and  picked  off  men  from  the  ramparts  with  iron 
instruments  shaped  at  the  end  like  a  man's  hand. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  elaborate  defences  and  machines, 
Alexander  made  a  broach  in  the  walls  by  bringing  all  his  best 


Ancient  Munitions  441 

engines  on  galleys  chained  together  to  bear  on  one  particular 
place,  exactly  as  is  now  done  with  modern  artillery.  With  this 
concentration  of  weapons,  the  plank-bridges  from  the  towers 
now  became  effective,  and  he  got  a  footing  inside  and  subse- 
quently occupied  the  whole  city.* 

The  methods  of  undermining  bear  remarkable  similarity  to 
the  modern  mole-warfare.  Let  me  take  as  specific  instances  the 
beleaguered  cities  of  Apollonia  and  Marseilles.  In  the  first  case 
the  enemy  attempted  to  penetrate  into  the  fortress  by  under- 
mining. The  Apollonians,  not  knowing  the  precise  spot  the 
enemy  would  enter,  decided  to  make  excavations  all  round  the 
city,  inside  the  wall,  and  dug  what  we  should  call  sap-heads 
beyond  the  walls.  In  these  they  suspended  brazen  vessels,  and 
in  one  of  them,  nearest  to  where  the  enemy  was  forming  his 
mine,  the  vessels  began  to  ring  from  the  blows  of  the  enemy's 
mining  tools.  (We  should  use  some  such  instrument  as  a 
microphone.)  From  this  the  direction  in  which  they  were  en- 
deavouring to  penetrate  was  found,  and  vessels  were  prepared 
of  boiling  water,  pitch,  sewage,  and  heated  sand  for  the  purpose 
of  pouring  on  their  heads.  At  night  a  number  of  holes  were 
bored  above  the  mine,  through  which  the  mixture  was  suddenly 
poured,  destroying  the  enemy  engaged  below.  Similarly  when 
Marseilles  was  besieged,  and  the  enemy  had  made  more  than 
thirty  mines,  the  Marseillois,  suspecting  it,  lowered  the  depth  of 
the  ditch  which  encompassed  the  walls  so  that  the  apertures  of 
all  the  mines  were  discovered. 

When  a  rampart  composed  of  the  trunks  of  trees  is  raised 
opposite  to  a  wall,  we  are  told  it  may  be  consumed  by  discharging 
red-hot  iron  bars  against  it  from  the  ballistae.  Again,  when  a 
tortoise  is  brought  up  to  batter  a  wall  with  a  ram,  a  rope  with 
a  noose  in  it  can  keep  the  head  suspended  so  that  it  cannot 
be  worked  against  the  wall,  while  burning  arrows  and  hot 
discharges  from  the  ballistae  destroy  the  whole  machine. 
These  statements  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  used  for  military  purposes  their  contrivances  for  extin- 
guishing fires  called  "  siphos."  Hero  in  his  'Pneumatics'  gives 
an  account  of  fire-engines,  parts  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum.  These  are  very  similar  to  the  hand-pump  used 
in  many  parts  of  France  at  the  present  day.  Apollodorus  in  his 
description  of  war-like  machines  mentions  the  "  sipho "  for 
extinguishing  fires,  and  observes  that,  if  it  is  not  at  hand,  leathern 
bags  filled  with  water  may  be  fastened  to  hollow  canes  in  such  a 
manner  that  by  pressing  the  bags  the  water  may  be  forced  over 
the  flames. 

*  Other  contrivances  used  for  siege  purposes  will  be  found  described  in  Caes. 
E.G.  III.,  12-15  ;  and  in  Livy,  Archimedes'  defence  ol  Syracuse,  XXIV.,  34. 


442  The  Empire  Review 

The  following  words  of  Vitruvius  might  have  been  written  in 
relation  to  the  present  war  instead  of  2,000  years  ago  : — 

For  the  defence  of  an  army,  or  place,  one  cannot  give  precepts  in  writing, 
since  the  machines  which  the  enemy  prepares  may  not  be  in  consonance  with 
our  rules,  whence  oftentimes  their  contrivances  are  foiled  by  some  ready 
ingenious  plan  without  the  assistance  of  machines,  as  was  the  case  with  the 
Rhodians. 

The  Ehodians,  to  defend  themselves  from  Demetrius's  power- 
ful "  helepolis,"  went  to  enormous  expense  in  making  an  elaborate 
crane  to  catch  up  the  tower  and  swing  it  into  the  walls.  The 
small  trial-model  they  made  worked  well,  but  the  real  structure 
was  not  practical.  Their  former  director  of  fortifications,  who 
had  fallen  into  disfavour,  was  appealed  to.  He  simply  ordered 
channels  to  be  made  to  conduct  water  and  mud  to  discharge 
outside  the  wall  overnight.  When  the  "  helepolis  "  was  moved 
forward  next  day  it  sank  in  the  quagmire  created  and  the  siege 
was  raised.  Hence  in  defensive  operations  ingenuity  is  of  more 
avail  than  machines.  A  converse  circumstance  on  sea  occurred 
at  Chios  where  the  enemy  were  attacking  by  ships,  and  the 
Chians,  during  the  night,  threw  into  the  sea  at  the  foot  of  their 
wall,  earth,  sand,  and  stones,  so  that  when  the  enemy  on  the 
following  day  endeavoured  to  approach  it,  the  ships  got  aground 
on  the  heaps  thus  created  under  water,  without  being  able  to 
approach  the  wall  or  recede,  in  which  situation  they  were 
assailed  with  fiery  missiles  and  burnt. 

And  here  we  are  2,000  years  after  designing  "  engines  "  to 
preserve  our  freedom  from  enemies  whose  "  weapons  are  not  in 
consonance  with  our  rules  "  in  order  to  make  them  realise  that  it 
is  safer  to  be  that  which  they  destroy,  than  by  destruction  to 
dwell  in  doubtful  joy. 

E.  C.  S.  WALTERS,  B.Sc.  (Eng.)  Lon. 

WORKS  CONSULTED. 

Vitruvius.     Newton.     Architecture  (1771). 
„  Gwilt.  „  (I860). 

Hero  of  Alexandria.     Surveying.     Vincent.     Notices  et  extraits,  des  MSS.  de 

UvBibliotheque  Imperiale.     Vol.  XIX.  (1858). 
Surveying.     Schone  (1903). 
Mechanics.     Carra  de  Vaux  (1894). 
Pneumatics.     Greenwood  and  Woodcroft  (1851). 
La  Chirobaliste.     Restitution  et  traduction.     Vincent 

(1866). 

Hyginus.     Gromaticus.     De  Munitionibus  castrorum.     Gemoll.  (1879). 
Frontinus.     Les  Stratagemes.     Bailly  (1848). 
Generally.     Germain  de  Montauzan.     Essai  sur  la  science  et  1'art  de  1'ingenieur 

aux  premiers  siecles  de  1'Empire  Remain  (1909). 
Cresy.     History  of  Civil  Engineering  (1847). 
Lucas.     Greater  Rome  and  Greater  Britain  (1913). 
Murray's  Dictionary  of  Antiquities. 


Imperial  Organisation  for  War  Purposes        443 


IMPERIAL  ORGANISATION    FOR  WAR 
PURPOSES 

THE  most  effective  and  thorough  way  of  prosecuting  the  war 
is  to  organise  for  war  purposes  the  whole  resources  of  the  Empire. 
This  suggestion  was  made  some  time  ago  by  the  Times,  but  it 
seems  to  have  fallen  on  deaf  ears.  Yet  to  many,  if  not  most  of 
us,  it  appears  that  so  sensible  and  natural  a  course  of  action 
should  long  since  have  been  taken.  We  have  thought  too  much 
about  the  British  Isles,  too  little  about  the  Empire.  Our  Imperial 
education  has  advanced  but  little  beyond  the  elementary  stage. 
It  is  time  we  changed  all  that ;  the  whole  of  our  available  strength 
must  be  brought  to  bear  against  the  enemy. 

The  outlook  is  black  enough  to  call  for  the  employment  of 
all  our  available  resources,  all  our  available  energies.  So  far  we 
have  used  only  a  part  of  them.  Until  the  people  of  the  Empire 
are  welded  into  one  organisation  for  war  purposes  our  potential 
strength  has  not  begun  to  be  developed.  One  of  the  chief 
reasons  why  the  Saxons  were  defeated  at  Hastings  was  that 
Harold  was  only  able  to  rely  on  a  portion  of  the  Kingdom  which 
he  had  to  defend.  Our  failure  to  mobilise  our  Imperial  strength 
if  it  does  not  lose  us  the  victory  will  certainly  delay  it ;  and 
delay  means  vast  sacrifices  in  lives  and  in  money.  Again,  are 
we  treating  the  Dominions  fairly?  Of  their  own  free  will  they 
have  raised  and  despatched  contingent  after  contingent  to  our 
aid.  Gifts  of  every  kind  have  poured  in  upon  us  from  all 
quarters  of  the  Empire.  More  than  this,  the  parent  State  has 
been  repeatedly  asked  to  acquaint  the  daughters  with  her  needs, 
in  order  that  those  needs  may  be  supplied.  We  have  been 
profuse  in  expressions  of  gratitude,  but  have  remained  silent  on 
the  very  point  on  which  we  ought  long  ago  to  have  spoken.  We 
have  not  called  the  Dominions  to  our  councils,  neither  have  we 
admitted  them  to  our  confidence  nor  sought  their  advice. 

The  Dominions  wisely  and  patriotically  forebore  to  press  their 
just  claims  upon  the  Motherland,  but  they  were  not  silent 
because  of  hostility  to  the  cause  of  Imperial  Union.  Neither 


444  The  Empire  Review- 

were  they  indifferent.  It  is  important  that  we  should  not 
misunderstand  their  attitude.  There  is  a  strong  current  of 
feeling  oversea  in  favour  of  closer  union.  Within  a  few  weeks 
of  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  the  Prime  Minister  of  the  Common- 
wealth asked  for  a  meeting  of  Dominion  representatives  in 
London  to  lay  the  foundations  of  an  organisation  of  Imperial 
effort  for  war  purposes.  And  while  Canada  did  not  press  for 
the  holding  of  the  Imperial  Conference  this  year,  Sir  Kobert 
Borden  came  over  for  the  express  purpose  of  obtaining  a  more 
intimate  knowledge  of  matters  connected  with  the  war.  "  Im- 
possible as  it  is,"  wrote  Froude,  "to  weld  together  two  pieces 
of  steel  while  below  the  welding  temperature,  let  the  desire  for 
a  union  of  equality  rise  in  England  and  rise  in  the  colonies  to  a 
sufficient  heat ;  the  impossibility  will  become  a  possibility,  and  of 
political  possibilities  the  easiest."  That  hour  has  come— the  war 
has  revealed  parent  State  to  daughters,  and  daughters  to  parent. 
And  the  revelation  has  been  one  that  neither  can  ever  forget  nor 
in  future  ignore.  The  Dominions  realise  as  they  have  never 
done  before  the  overwhelming  character  of  their  debt  to  the 
British  Navy ;  the  attachment  of  the  oversea  States  to  the 
Homeland  has  been  put  to  the  most  severe  test  conceivable,  and 
has  stood  it.  War  has  brought  home  to  all  parts  of  the  Empire 
how  essential  they  are  to  one  another.  The  strength  of  the 
blood  tie  has  been  proved.  Froude's  two  pieces  of  steel  have 
been  heated  red-hot  in  the  fiery  furnace  of  war.  All  that  remains 
is  to  join  them. 

It  may  be  suggested  that  I  am  advocating  the  federation 
of  the  Empire  while  it  is  in  the  throes  of  the  greatest  war  in 
history.  Critics  who  argue  thus  misunderstand  the  true  in- 
wardness of  Imperial  organisation  for  war.  Any  federation  pro- 
posal would  most  certainly  excite  strong  opposition  in  many 
quarters,  and  cause  divisions  in  our  ranks  at  a  time  when  it  is  of 
paramount  importance  that  the  nation  should  present  a  united 
front  to  the  world.  A  well-thought-out,  carefully  adjusted  scheme 
meant  to  be  a  permanent  institution  is  in  no  way  intended — 
all  that  is  needed  is  a  temporary  arrangement  for  the  period  of 
the  war.  Anything  else  must  be  deferred  to  a  happier  day.  The 
project  would  stand  condemned  if  it  were  true  that  it  impaired 
in  the  slightest  degree  the  successful  prosecution  of  the  cam- 
paign of  the  Allies  against  the  common  enemy.  The  issue  of  the 
war  is  the  one  thing  that  concerns  us  at  the  present  moment, 
and  in  this  connection  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that 
Imperial  organisation  is  the  speediest  and  surest  road  to  victory. 

Union  is  the  expedient  to  which,  as  history  informs  us,  States 
menaced  by  a  common  danger  have  often  had  recourse  in  the 
past.  Two  examples  come  to  my  mind  in  support  of  this  con- 


Imperial  Organisation  for  War  Purposes        445 

tention,  one  taken  from  ancient  the  other  from  modern  history. 
In  both  cases  the  groups  of  States  that  formed  themselves  into 
unions  were  at  war  at  the  time,  and  the  sole  motive  that  in- 
fluenced them  was  the  desire  of  defeating  the  enemy  as  speedily 
and  thoroughly  as  possible.  Union  was  not  the  end  but  the 
means.  In  478  B.C.  the  Ionian  and  other  Asiatic  Greeks  formed 
the  voluntary  league  which  came  to  be  known  as  the  Confederacy 
of  Delos,  because  its  treasury  had  been  established  in  the  sacred 
island.  Historians  state  the  objects  of  the  league  to  have  been 
first  the  protection  of  the  rescued  cities  from  reconquest  by  the 
barbarian,  secondly,  the  devastation  of  the  country  of  the  Great 
King,  in  order  to  obtain  by  rapine  a  set-off  against  the  expenses 
and  losses  of  the  war.  The  Persian  Peril  was  then  as  real  and 
terrible  to  Greece  as  the  German  is  now  to  Britain.  The  Con- 
federacy was  based  on  co-operation  for  naval  defence—  a  circum- 
stance of  peculiar  interest  to  Britons  and  a  likely  basis  for  the 
united  British  Empire  that  is  to  be.  The  other  example  referred 
to  is  that  of  the  American  federation,  which  was  formed  while 
the  War  of  Independence  was  in  progress  and  the  nation's  very 
existence  in  jeopardy.  Nothing  less  than  a  strong  conviction  of 
the  necessity  of  union  to  the  success  of  their  cause  could  have 
induced  the  Americans  to  form  themselves  into  a  federation  at 
such  a  time,  "  when  their  habitations  were  in  flames,  when  many 
of  their  citizens  were  bleeding,  and  when  the  progress  of  hostilities 
and  desolation  left  little  room  for  those  calm  and  mature  inquiries 
and  reflections  which  must  ever  precede  the  formation  of  a  wise 
and  well-balanced  government  for  a  free  people."  The  constitu- 
tion so  hastily  constructed  was  afterwards,  in  quieter  times, 
revised  and  reconstructed  and  became  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States  as  we  know  it  to-day. 

One  step  in  the  right  direction  has  already  been  taken.  We 
have  admitted  the  Prime  Minister  of  Canada  to  a  meeting  of  the 
Cabinet.  Similar  invitations  must  be  extended  to  the  Prime 
Ministers  of  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South  Africa.  The 
next  development  is  the  creation  of  an  Imperial  Council  of  War. 
Now  is  the  time  to  take  the  tide  of  patriotic  impulse  at  its  flood 
and  let  it  bear  our  Empire  onward  to  a  future  even  more  glorious 
than  her  past. 

D.  A.  E.  VEAL. 


446  The  Empire  Review 


A    NEW    ZEALAND    SKETCH 

OUR   TOWNSHIP  IN   WAR   TIME 

IN  this  far-off,  quiet  township  there  is  difficulty  in  realising 
that,  away  to  the  north  and  west  mighty  conflicts  are  raging, 
and  thousands  of  men  are  being  battered  and  slaughtered  in 
terrific  battles  with  the  ruthless  enemy.  No  sounds  of  war 
break  the  stillness  of  the  long,  sunny,  ideal  New  Zealand  days. 

Where  the  writer  resides  the  blue  Pacific  thrusts  a  bent 
arm  southwards  to  near  the  base  of  rugged,  dark-green  hills — 
hills  still  covered  with  the  old,  original  forest  that  stood  there 
long  before  the  white  man  came.  The  waters  of  this  arm,  or 
inlet,  are  ever  pulsating  as  the  restless  tide  flows  inwards  or 
outwards;  blue  as  the  body  of  heaven  and  shimmering  in  the 
sunshine,  strangely  white,  or  intense  blue,  when  the  sky  is  over- 
cast or  when  the  gloamin'  shadows  steal  over  the  land.  Every 
country  seems  to  possess  its  characteristic  colouring.  The  veld 
of  South  Africa  grey-green  in  spring,  grey-yellow  at  other 
seasons  ;  the  great  karoos  look  purple  and  blue  and  green  as  the 
day  waxes  and  wanes.  Australia's  tints  are  many,  but  tending 
towards  the  same  grey-greens  seen  in  South  Africa.  Java  and 
New  Zealand  are  both  notable  for  the  intensity  of  their  colours. 
In  New  Zealand  the  ranges  are  darkest  green,  the  lakes  deepest 
blue,  and  the  fields  most  vividly  green.  The  Southern  Alps  and 
the  lofty  mountains  of  North  Island  are  robed  in  perpetual 
snow,  always  white  and  glistening  whether  the  light  come  from 
sun  or  stars. 

New  Zealand  resembles  Great  Britain  in  area,  in  contour  on 
the  map,  and  in  rich  diversity  of  scenery.  But  it  possesses 
certain  unique  characteristics  not  found  in  either  England  or 
Scotland.  There  are  fiords,  glaciers,  and  moraines  in  the  South 
Island ;  hot  lakes,  geysers,  and  volcanoes  in  the  North  Island ; 
and  pahs,  kiangas  and  Maoris  in  both  north  and  south.  A 
hundred  years  have  just  past  since  Marsden  preached  the  first 
Christian  sermon  in  the  then  little-known  country,  and  colonisa- 
tion in  earnest  did  not  begin  for  many  years  after  that  date. 
The  New  Zealand  papers  at  the  present  time  often  publish 


A  New  Zealand  Sketch  447 

interesting  items  under  the  general  title  of  "  Fifty  Years  Ago." 
These  items  have  frequently  to  do  with  the  arrival  of  immigrant 
ships  laden  with  prospective  settlers.  Invariably  long  lists  of 
names  are  given  of  those  on  board,  and  it  is  possible  to  select  the 
names  of  numerous  now  prosperous  New  Zealand  families  the 
founders  or  the  heads  of  which  arrived 'in  those  far-off  days. 
But,  whether  the  New  Zealander  of  to-day  arrived  in  the  country 
ten  or  five  years  ago,  or  his  father  or  grandfather  came  in  the 
early  days,  all  speak  of  the  Old  Land  under  the  North  Star  as 
Home.  The  grandchildren,  or  great-grandchildren,  of  those 
pioneers  all  look  forward  to  their  trip  Home.  "  We  come  from 
Oxford,"  you  will  be  told ;  or  "  we  belong  to  Perth,"  and  by  New 
Zealanders  whose  ancestors  came  to  this  country,  it  may  be,  fifty 
or  seventy  years  ago.  And  some  short-sighted,  unperceptive 
people  not  so  long  ago  spoke  about  the  Oversea  Dominions 
"  cutting  the  painter,"  and  thereby  casting  themselves  adrift 
from  the  Mother  Land  ! 

New  Zealanders  are  proud  of  their  native  land,  and  they  are 
prouder  still  of  the  land  of  their  forefathers.  They  are  now 
fighting  bravely  for  both.  This  country  strikingly  displays  the 
remarkable  success  of  British  colonisation.  Not  only  are  New 
Zealanders  of  British  extraction  in  arms  against  the  enemies  of 
Great  Britain,  but  New  Zealand-born  colonists  of  non-British 
descent  are  also  in  the  trenches  to-day,  along  with  their  school- 
mates, their  fellow-workers,  and  their  life-long  associates.  Very 
striking,  too,  was  the  determination  of  the  Maori  population  to 
fight  alongside  of  their  white  brothers.  Sorely  disappointed  were 
many  scores  of  Maoris  round  about  our  township  when,  early  in 
the  war,  it  was  whispered  that  no  Maoris  were  to  be  called  to 
the  front.  But  wisdom  prevailed,  and  good  fighting  material 
was  not  lost  to  the  Empire.  This  week  I  met  Turoia  from  one 
of  the  islands  off  the  coast.  He  showed  me  an  Auckland  news- 
paper which  contained  a  list  of  New  Zealand  casualties.  Among 
the  names  of  the  Maori  wounded  appeared  the  name  of  Turoia's 
son.  "  You  know  Eangi,  my  son  ?  "  he  said  proudly.  "  Good 
boy.  He  fight  well,  eh?"  Bangi  was  the  first  of  our  local 
Maoris  to  be  wounded.  I  should  say  that  the  proudest  man  in 
our  neighbourhood  just  now  is  Kangi's  father.  "  He  fight  well, 
eh  ?  "  says  the  older  Maori,  his  mind,  no  doubt,  dwelling  upon 
feats  of  valour  and  other  tales  of  war  which  belong  to  former 
days  in  Maoriland. 

Our  township  claims  to  have  sent  more  soldiers  to  the 
training  camp  and  the  front  than  any  other  township  of  the 
same  size  in  New  Zealand.  This,  I  may  at  once  confess,  is  a 
distinction  not  undisputed  by  other  places,  and  where  all  have 
done  so  well  precise  statistical  returns  may  be  waived.  But 


448  The  Empire  Review 

New  Zealand  asserts  that  it  has  furnished  larger  armies,  on  a 
population  basis,  than  either  Australia  or  Canada,  and  our 
esteemed  Prime  Minister  in  Parliament  the  other  day  considered 
it  desirable  to  reprove  a  member  for  entering  upon  comparisons 
such  as  these,  observing,  however,  that  if  there  was  rivalry,  it 
was  sound  and  patriotic  rivalry.  One  evening  our  township  held 
a  recruiting  rally,  and  a  great  and  stirring  event  it  proved  to  be. 
Our  veterans,  nearly  thirty  strong,  every  man  with  medals  on 
his  breast,  marched  to  the  hall  preceded  by  our  band  playing 
patriotic  music.  In  the  hall  eloquent  speeches  were  delivered, 
and  songs  with  the  lilt  of  war  in  them  sung.  Probably 
the  most  effective  incident  was  the  singing  by  the  cadets  of 
"  Tipperary,"  which,  irrespective  of  its  words  and  sentiments, 
has  become  a  kind  of  hymn  sung  in  admiration  and  honour 
of  our  brave,  cheerful  British  "Tommies."  The  writer  was 
among  those  who,  failing  to  find  room  within  the  hall,  were  con- 
tent to  linger  and  listen  on  the  outside.  A  full  moon  was  riding 
high  in  the  heavens,  and  the  winds  had  gone  to  rest.  Across  the 
waters  of  the  bay  lay  a  broad,  shining  track,  as  if  leading  to  the 
blue  hills  beyond.  So  bright  was  the  light  that,  on  the  eastern 
horizon,  could  be  discerned  the  white  cloud  masses  rising  from 
Whakari,  our  volcanic  island.  The  ever-restless  Pacific — the 
ocean  which  so  frequently  belies  its  name — was  breaking  on  the 
beach  outside  the  miniature  peninsula  which  half  encircles  our 
bay — breaking  and  murmuring  plaintively,  as  if  chanting  a 
requiem  for  the  gallant  New  Zealanders  now  asleep  on  Gallipoli. 
"  Tipperary  "  has  been  heard  in  many  strange  places.  Here  it 
was  heard  mingling  with  the  sound  of  the  Pacific's  waves  under 
the  glowing  galaxy  of  the  Southern  Cross. 

Then  we  have  been  raising  money  for  the  Belgians  and  the 
Servians,  as  well  as  making  contributions  to  various  patriotic 
funds,  including  that  for  assisting  to  fit  out  New  Zealand's  own 
hospital  ship,  the  Maheno,  The  Mahcno  is  to  bring  home  our 
sick  and  wounded  from  Egypt,  Turkey,  France,  or  wherever 
New  Zealand  soldiers  go  into  the  Empire's  present  far-flung 
battle-lines.  We  send  every  mail  many  letters,  papers,  and 
parcels  to  our  boys  at  the  front ;  and  great  is  the  excitement 
in  town  when  the  mails  arrive  with  letters  from  the  seat  of  war. 
Our  township  possesses  one  newspaper,  which  appears  between 
four  and  five  o'clock  every  afternoon.  Often  with  trepidation, 
with  vague  fears,  are  the  still  damp  sheets  unfolded.  New 
Zealand's  casualty  lists  have  been  long,  and  who  knows  which 
name  will  next  appear  ?  Two  young  fellows  from  our  township 
fell  that  grey  April  morning  when  the  Australians  and  New 
Zealanders  first  landed  on  Gallipoli.  And  there  have  been  some 
five  or  six  wounded.  Our  township,  you  will  therefore  under- 


A  New  Zealand  Sketch  449 

stand,  follows  the  great  war  eagerly,  but  with  good  heart  and 
great  hopes.  The  fight,  we  know,  is  not  yet  over ;  nor  do  we 
desire  it  to  be  over.  There  are  big  accounts  to  settle  "  some- 
where in  Europe,"  and  New  Zealand  hopes  to  have  a  hand  in 
the  settlement.  Our  township  is  sending  still  more  men  into 
training,  and  there  are  dozens  of  names  registered — names  of 
men,  that  is,  who  are  ready,  when  called  upon  by  the  authorities, 
to  go  into  the  training  camp.  Our  Minister  for  Defence  in 
Parliament  this  week  was  speaking  about  the  number  of  reinforce- 
ments required  between  the  present  time  and  June  next  year. 
But,  somehow,  we  think  the  Khine  will  soon  be  crossed  by  the 
Allies.  Interesting  bits  of  information  from  England  at  times 
reach  our  quiet  township  by  the  Pacific. 

R  W.  REID. 

TAURANGA,  NEW  ZEALAND,  August  14. 


NEW  ZEALAND  WOMEN   AND  THE  WOUNDED 

No  record  of  New  Zealand's  war  activities  during  the  past  year  would 
be  complete  without  reference  to  the  splendid  spirit  shown  by  women 
throughout  the  Dominion,  and  the  conspicuous  success  they  have 
attained  in  their  service  for  the  Empire.  Immediately  it  became 
known  that  New  Zealand  was  to  bear  her  share  of  the  burden  of  war, 
Mayoress's  funds  were  opened  in  every  centre,  and  offers  of  help  were 
made  by  every  woman's  organisation  and  society  in  a  position  to  help. 
Sewing  committees  were  formed,  street  collections  organised,  and  money 
for  comforts  and  articles  of  equipment  were  obtained  in  ample  supply  for 
both  advance  guard  and  Main  Expeditionary  Force,  which  left  in 
October.  New  Zealand  women  have  likewise  taken  a  prominent  part 
in  Red  Cross  work.  Altogether  162  New  Zealand  nurses  have  been 
despatched  for  service  abroad  within  the  last  year,  while  two  well-known 
women  doctors,  Dr.  Emily  Siedeberg  and  Dr.  Jessie  Scott,  have  been 
accepted  for  war  service  in  Europe.  Ambulance  classes  have  become 
the  order  of  the  day,  school-girls,  working  girls,  girls  of  leisure  alike 
entering  with  enthusiasm.  The  two  most  important  undertakings  in 
which  Auckland  women  have  taken  a  prominent  part  this  year  have  been 
the  equipment  of  No.  2  stationary  hospital  and  the  New  Zealand  hospital 
ship.  Work  for  the  former  was  organised  and  carried  out  entirely  by 
women,  while  the  remarkable  success  of  the  work  in  connection  with  the 
latter  was  in  great  measure  due  to  their  efforts.  Numbers  of  large 
factories  have  placed  their  workrooms  at  the  disposal  of  work  parties 
after  hours,  and  at  some  of  these  as  many  as  a  hundred  women  work 
for  hours  at  nights — their  spare  hours — in  making  bandages,  pyjamas, 
sheets,  etc.  Some  of  the  hotels  have  also  provided  rooms  where  their 
domestic  staff  spend  their  off  hours  stitching  for  the  good  cause. 


VOL.  XXIX.— No.  178.  2  M 


450  The  Empire  Review 


CANADA    AND    CHILD    IMMIGRATION 

WE  have  received  from  Mr.  Bogue  Smart,  Chief  Inspector 
of  British  Immigrant  Children  and  Receiving  Homes  in  Canada, 
a  copy  of  his  Annual  Eeport  to  the  Superintendent  of  Immigration 
at  Ottawa.  The  Eeport  is,  of  course,  written  for  circulation  in 
Canada,  but  it  contains  much  information  interesting  to  this 
country,  and,  with  Mr.  Smart's  permission,  we  have  culled  from 
his  interesting  and  instructive  pages  a  few  particulars  of  his  work. 

We  could  wish  that  the  imperial  advantages  attending  juvenile 
emigration  from  the  British  Islands  to  Canada  had  been  noticed 
at  greater  length.  We  should  have  liked,  too,  more  detailed 
information  about  the  duties  the  children  perform.  Again, 
mention  is  made  of  a  farm  training  school  for  boys  recently 
established  at  Falmouth,  in  Nova  Scotia,  but  nothing  is  said 
of  the  wider  suggestion  put  forward  in  these  columns  and  else- 
where by  the  Editor  as  to  a  general  scheme  of  training  farms 
in  Canada  for  boys  sent  from  this  country  to  the  Dominion. 
And  yet  the  Falmouth  scheme  seems  to  be  founded  on  lines  very 
similar  to  those  we  have  ourselves  advocated  for  some  fifteen 
years  past.  Possibly,  in  an  official  report,  Mr.  Bogue  Smart 
did  not  feel  himself  able  to  touch  upon  these  matters.  The 
time  has  arrived  for  placing  the  question  of  child  immigration 
on  a  broader  platform.  The  whole  problem  should  be  discussed 
between  the  Home  and  oversea  Governments.  Child  immigra- 
tion offers  a  useful  field  for  imperial  study,  and  the  sooner  the 
study  is  begun  in  earnest  the  better  for  national  economy,  the 
better  for  oversea  development. — [Ed.] 

THE  CHILD  IMMIGBANT. 

In  Canada  juvenile  immigration  falls  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Federal  Government,  and  its  promotion  is  subject  to 
the  regulations  prescribed  by  the  Department  of  the  Interior, 
which  governs  the  whole  immigration  system  of  the  Dominion. 
While  the  scope  and  responsibilities  of  my  office  include  a  general 
oversight  of  all  children  under  the  age  of  18  years  brought  to 
Canada  by  organised  and  accredited  agencies,  the  inspection  and 


Canada  and  Child  Immigration  451 

recurrent  inspection  of  the  children — as  units — from  Poor  Law 
or  Union  schools  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  continued  by  a  special 
arrangement  entered  into  with  the  Government  of  Great  Britain. 

The  policy  of  conducting  the  inspection  approaches,  as  closely 
as  possible,  that  adopted  by  the  Home  Office  and  Local  Govern- 
ment Board  in  England.  The  inspector  must  satisfy  himself 
that  the  conditions  under  which  the  child  is  placed  are  such  as 
will  be  conducive  to  its  personal  welfare  and  industrial  and  social 
uplift.  One  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  the  great  national  service 
rendered  by  the  Societies  promoting  this  form  of  immigration  to 
our  shores.  By  this  means  many  farmers  and  householders  have 
been  able  to  secure  useful  help  at  a  reasonable  wage,  while  some 
of  the  younger  children  have  taken  the  name  of  their  foster- 
parent  and  become  identified  with  the  family  interests.  I  have 
had  many  opportunities  of  seeing  the  happiness  these  children 
have  been  the  means  of  imparting  to  otherwise  lonely  homes  in 
the  province  of  Ontario. 

Our  British  juvenile  settlers  are  placed  as  soon  as  possible 
after  their  arrival  in  rural  foster-homes  and  farm  situations, 
selected  by  the  superintendent  of  the  particular  agency  through 
which  their  immigration  was  effected.  These  agencies  retain 
supervision  over  the  children  (who  must  be  visited  annually) 
until  they  reach  the  age  of  18  years.  Their  engagements  cover 
various  periods,  according  to  the  policy  of  the  agency.  Dr. 
Barnardo's  Homes  generally  place  out  their  children  on  agree- 
ments extending  over  a  period  of  three  years,  in  some  cases — 
which  are  perhaps  exceptional — the  term  is  further  extended. 
Other  Homes  adhere  to  annual  engagements  which  may  also,  if 
the  parties  mutually  agree — i.e.,  boy  and  employer — be  renewed 
from  year  to  year,  the  wage  increasing  with  the  boy's  efficiency. 
These  indentures  may  be  cancelled  at  any  time  after  reasonable 
notice  is  given  by  either  party  to  the  agreement.  In  placing  and 
indenturing  these  young  farm  apprentices  uniformity  in  wages 
cannot  be  expected,  a  boy  of  15  may  be  worth  as  much  as  another 
of  18.  Industry,  snap,  intelligence,  physique,  and  weight  reckon 
more  than  years  in  estimating  a  boy's  usefulness  and  the  value  of 
his  labour.  Moreover,  for  the  first  year  or  two  a  good  home  and 
good  influences  are  as  a  rule  preferable  to  wages  for  children. 
It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  where  a  minimum  wage  is  paid 
the  child  receives  in  addition  to  the  amount  specified,  not  only 
board  and  lodging  but  clothing  as  well.  The  cost  of  clothing  a 
boy  or  girl  for  twelve  months  varies,  but  $35  to  $40  is  a  reason- 
able estimate.  On  reaching  the  age  of  17  or  18,  some  of  the 
agencies  permit  their  wards  to  negotiate  their  own  terms  of  hire, 
and  therefore  much  depends  on  the  ability  and  shrewdness  of  the 
boy  or  girl  to  make  a  good  bargain.  The  average  boy  or  girl  has 

2  M  2 


452  The  Empire  Review 

a  good  appreciation  of  his  or  her  abilities,  and  looks  forward  to 
the  time  when  they  will  be  free  to  manage  their  own  affairs. 

I  have  personally  travelled  over  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  from  the  coast  of  Gaspe  on  the 
east  to  Windsor  on  the  west  and  south,  and  into  the  newer 
districts  of  Northern  Ontario,  but  owing  to  the  extra  work 
entailed  upon  me  during  the  year,  a  visit  to  Western  Canada  was 
beyond  possibility.  My  inquiries  were  primarily  directed  to  the 
condition  of  these  young  settlers  and,  wherever  possible,  investi- 
gation was  made  as  to  the  career  of  juveniles  who  had  outgrown 
their  supervision  period.  It  was  gratifying  to  find  many  brought 
to  Canada  during  my  tenure  of  office,  who  had  made  creditable 
progress,  some  of  whom  were  farmers  or  farm  labourers,  others 
merchants,  clergymen,  school  teachers,  and  clerks.  There  were 
others,  of  course,  who  had  failed  to  make  the  best  use  of  their 
training  at  home  and  their  opportunities  here,  but  none  were 
derelicts  or  in  absolute  want.  Many  of  the  young  immigrants 
on  reaching  manhood  or  womanhood  desire  to  be  known  only  as 
Canadians. 

Let  me  give  an  example  of  the  effect  a  good  home  has  upon 
these  immigrant  boys.  Application  was  made  at  one  of  the 
Homes  founded  by  the  late  Dr.  T.  Bowman  Stephenson  in 
London,  some  nine  years  ago,  for  the  admission  of  a  lad  who  had 
fallen  into  a  state  of  destitution  as  the  result  of  the  death  of  his 
father.  He  was  at  once  rescued  and  subsequently  sent  to  the 
Edgworth  Farm  School  in  Lancashire,  where,  after  receiving  a 
training,  he  was  selected  for  emigration  to  Canada.  He  was 
placed  with  a  well-to-do  Ontario  farmer,  whose  family  consisted 
of  five  girls  but  no  boys.  For  some  time  the  family  had  dis- 
cussed the  advisability  of  adopting  a  Home  boy.  They  finally 
decided  to  do  so,  a  visit  was  therefore  paid  to  the  Home  at 
Hamilton  and  the  matter  discussed  with  the  governor.  The 
farmer  wanted  a  boy  "  of  good  character,  quiet  and  clean,  and 
not  afraid  of  work."  This  lad  was  selected  and  sent  to  his  new 
home.  After  a  few  months  he  wrote  :  "I  like  my  new  home 
very  much;  they  are  all  very  kind  to  me."  It  was  not  long 
before  he  spoke  of  his  employers  as  father  and  mother.  The  lad 
kept  in  touch  with  the  Home,  and  whenever  opportunity  offered 
he  called  to  see  the  governor.  He  is  now  described  as  "  a  capable 
energetic  young  farmer,  and  last  year  he  competed  in  a  number 
of  county  ploughing  matches,  and  the  family  is  proud  of  the  fact 
that  he  carried  off  a  number  of  first  and  second  prizes  which 
were  keenly  contested  for.  He  has  the  reputation  of  being  an 
upright,  Christian  young  fellow,  and  respected  in  the  neighbour- 
hood ;  nine  years  ago  he  was  destitute  and  friendless. 

Child   emigration   is   recognised   in   the   British  Isles  as  an 


Canada  and  Child  Immigration  453 

important  feature  of  organised  charitable  and  philanthropic  effort 
on  behalf  of  poor  and  necessitous  juveniles,  and  precautions  are 
taken  to  entrust  children  to  the  care  of  such  persons  and  associa- 
tions only  as  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the  Government  of  Canada 
and  at  the  same  time  the  official  recognition  of  the  Local 
Government  Board  of  Great  Britain.  In  these  circumstances 
the  Government  of  Canada  has  not  specially  extended  its  general 
emigration  propaganda  in  the  British  Isles  to  include  orphan  and 
neglected  children.  Persons  of  prominence  from  the  Old  Land 
have  visited  the  Dominion  during  the  past  twelve  months  for  the 
purpose  of  carefully  looking  into  the  conditions  and  prospects 
Canada  offers  these  rescued  children,  and  I  am  pleased  to  find  that 
they  have  reported — with  one  or  two  possible  exceptions — very 
favourably,  and  recommended  increased  effort  on  behalf  of  the 
movement.  Other  Overseas  Dominions  have  turned  their  attention 
to  the  advantage  of  child  emigration  for  agricultural  occupations, 
and  have  offered  inducements  for  the  extension  of  the  movement 
to  their  countries.  For  many  years  Canada  was  the  only  colony 
to  which  this  unique  and  useful  feature  of  migration  was  directed, 
and  it  was  here  that  the  experiment  was  tested  and  found  to  be 
profitable,  not  only  to  the  child,  but  to  the  country  as  a  whole. 
Moreover,  owing  to  our  contiguity  to  the  Motherland,  the  advan- 
tage must  remain  on  the  side  of  Canada.  One  of  the  beneficent 
results  of  immigration  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  when  placed 
in  a  totally  new  atmosphere  and  changed  social  and  industrial 
conditions  the  children  soon  forget  the  untoward  circumstances 
of  their  early  life,  and,  at  a  comparatively  early  age,  the  great 
majority  become  self-respecting  young  men  and  women. 

Children  from  Poor  Law  schools  can  only  be  sent  to  the 
Dominion  under  the  auspices  of  accredited  Homes  and  Associa- 
tions, and  certain  formalities  are  imperative.  Health,  physical 
and  mental  equipment  have  to  be  considered  before  the  child  can 
have  its  wish  gratified.  When  a  child  has  only  one  parent  living, 
the  consent  of  that  person  must  be  granted  to  the  emigration, 
and  the  following  notice  is  publicly  posted  for  a  definite  period  in 
the  parish  in  which  the  child  resided  : — 

Parish  of 

Board  of  Guardians,  Emigration. 

Notice  is  hereby  given  that  the  Guardians  intend,  unless  a  lawful  objection 
is  received  thereto,  to  emigrate  the  undermentioned  children  to  Canada. 


Guardians'  Office,  19 


By  order, 

Clerk  to  the  (juartlimts. 


454  The  Empire  Review 

While  such  consideration  is  ofttimes  to  the  advantage  of  un- 
deserving parents  who  wish  to  exploit  their  children,  yet  it  shows 
the  respect  in  which  the  Government  of  Great  Britain  holds  the 
parental  tie.  The  impression  which  yet  exists  in  the  minds  of 
some  persons  in  Canada  that  these  children  are  all  slum  children 
and  are  selected  without  discrimination  is  altogether  erroneous. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  children  of  whom  I  write  undergo  a 
thorough  process  of  training  by  which  their  characters  are 
moulded  into  channels  quite  equal  to  and  even  better  than  a 
number  of  our  own  Canadian  children.  The  condition  of  life — 
social  and  industrial — in  Canada,  effaces  from  their  memories 
reminiscences  of  their  pauperised  existence  and  untoward  circum- 
stances of  their  early  being,  and  at  a  comparatively  early  age  the 
great  majority  have  been  found  to  have  grown  into  a  self- 
respecting  class  of  citizens. 

As  a  result  of  the  test  to  which  these  youthful  "  newcomers  " 
are  put,  by  virtue  of  the  immigration  regulations  of  Canada, 
there  is  to  be  found  convincing  proof  that  in  the  selection  of  the 
children  for  migration  to  this  overseas  Dominion,  wise  judgment 
has  been  shown. 

With  a  view  of  giving  effect  to  the  conditions  upon  which  the 
emigration  of  children  from  Poor  Law  or  Union  Schools  in  Great 
Britain  is  approved,  it  is  stipulated  that  :  — 

(1)  The  guardians  shall  in'each  case  obtain  an  undertaking  in  writing  from 
any  person  entrusted  by  them  with  the  care  of  taking  children  to  Canada  and 
of  placing  them  in  homes  that  immediately  after  the  child  is  placed  out,  the 
Department  of    the  Interior  at  Ottawa   shall   be  furnished  with   a  report 
containing  the  name  and  age  of  the  child,  and  the  name  and  the  address — 
with   the  particulars  above  stated — of  the  person  with  whom  the  child   is 
placed,  and  that  a  report  containing  similar  information  shall  be  furnished  to 
the  guardians  of  the  Union  from  which  the  child  is  taken. 

(2)  The  guardians  on  receipt  of  such  a  report  shall  cause  a  copy  of  it  to  be 
furnished  to  the  Local  Government  Board. 

(3)  The  person    proposed    to  be   entrusted  by  the  guardians  with    the 
emigration  of  a  child  shall  have  notice  from  the  guardians  whether  the  child 
is  a  Protestant  or  Roman  Catholic,  and  he  shall  give  an  undertaking  if  the 
child  is  a  Protestant  that  he  shall  be  placed  with  a  family  of  the  Protestant 
faith,  or  if  the  child  is  a  Roman  Catholic  that  he  shall  be  placed  in  a  Roman 
Catholic  home. 

(4)  A  child   before  being  sent  to  Canada  shall  have  been  under  previous 
instruction  for  at  least  six  months. 

(5)  The  guardians  shall  instruct  one  of  their  medical  officers  personally  to 
examine  each  child  proposed  to  be  sent  to  Canada  and  to  report  in  writing  as 
to  its  health,  both  of  body  and  mind,  and  to  certify  whether,  in  his  opinion, 
the  child  is  in  all  respects  a  suitable  subject  for  emigration  to  that  country. 
A  copy  of  this  report  and  certificate  must  be  forwarded  to  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board. 

(6)  The  guardians  must  have  such  evidence  as  they  deem  satisfactory  that 
the  person  taking  out  the  children  has  a  reasonable  prospect  of  finding  suitable 
homes  for  them  in  Canada. 


Canada  and  Child  Immigration 


455 


It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  neither  the  Government 
authorities  nor  the  guardians  of  the  poor  lose  sight  or  interest  in 
these  young  people  after  they  leave  the  homeland,  but  follow 
their  careers  with  deep  interest  until  they  reach  the  age  of 
17  years. 

The  following  figures  will  show  at  a  glance  the  results  of  the 
inspection  of  such  children  as  fall  under  the  immediate  supervision 
of  the  Department  of  the  Interior : — 

Number  of  children  found  in — 
Conduct  and  character — 

Good  ....  1,870 
Fair  ....  109 
Unsatisfactory  .  .  17 

Number  of  children  eligible  for 

inspection — 

First  of  January  .         .2,221 

Duplicate  and  special  reports 

made  during  the  year        .         151 

Total  number  of  reports    2,372 


Number  of  children  found  in — 
Homes  and  situations — 
Good    . 
Fair     . 
Unsatisfactory 
Health- 
Good    . 
Fair     . 
Unsatisfactory 


Good 
Fair     . 

Unsatisfactory 


1,931 
55 
10 

1,938 
54 


1,814 
156 
26 


The  labour  entailed  and  the  amount  of  travel  necessary  in 
order  to  give  individual  inspection  to  the  children  will  be  more 
easily  appreciated  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  they  are  scattered 
throughout  nearly  every  county  in  the  older  provinces  of  the 
Dominion.  During  the  past  year  the  weather  was  most  auspicious 
for  travel,  and  the  inspection  was  completed  well  within  the 
calendar  year.  By  reason  of  larger  settlement  and  better  school 
facilities,  the  older  provinces  offer  the  best  advantages  for  the 
young  immigrant.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
that  Ontario,  Quebec  and  the  Maritime  Provinces  absorb  the 
great  majority  of  the  children. 

INSPECTION  FOB  1914.— STATEMENT  SHOWING  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OP  CHILDREN 
BY  PROVINCES. 


Province. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

Ontario 

1,077 

485 

1,562 

Quebec 

334 

107 

441 

New  Brunswick 

95 

30 

125 

Nova  Scotia  . 

45 

34 

79 

Prince  Edward  Island    . 

5 

5 

10 

Manitoba 

11 

2 

13 

Saskatchewan 

11 

3 

14 

Alberta 

2 

4 

6 

British  Columbia  . 

3 

2 

5 

1,583 

672 

2,255 

The  Homes  and  Agencies  encourage  their  older  boys  to  migrate 
to  the  Western  Provinces.  I  am  continually  being  advised  of 
young  fellows  of  this  class  who  have,  on  completing  their  inden- 


456 


The  Empire  Review 


tures   in   the   East,  joined  the  "  trek  "  westward  and  taken  up 
homesteads  and  pre-emptions  in  our  great  Western  Provinces. 

TABLE  SHOWING  NEED  OF  BRITISH  CHILD  IMMIGRATION  IN  CANADA.' 


Children 
Emigrated. 

Applications 
Received. 

Children 
Emigrated. 

Applications 
Received. 

1900-1     . 
1901-2     .      . 
1902-3     .      . 
1903-4     .      . 
1904-5     .      . 
1905-6     .     . 
1906  7  (9  mos  ) 

977 
1,540 
1,979 
2,212 
2,814 
3,258 
1  455 

5,783 
8,587 
14,219 
16,573 
17,833 
19,374 
15  800 

1907-8     .      .      . 
1908-9     .     .      . 
1909-10  .      .      . 
1910-11   .      .      . 
1911-12  .     .      . 
1912-13  .      .     . 

2,375 
2,424 
2,422 
2,524 
2,689 
2,318 

17,239 
15,417 
18,477 
21,768 
31,040 
32,417 

28,987 

234,527 

The  Government  and  Parliament  of  Canada  approve  of  the 
immigration  of  juveniles  from  the  British  Isles,  provided  they 
have  been  subjected  to  a  definite  period  of  instruction  and 
training  in  morals  and  industriousness  before  their  emigration  is 
decided  upon,  and  have  otherwise  proved  themselves  desirable 
during  their  probationary  training.  They  should  be  sent  to 
Canada  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible  in  order  that  their  educa- 
tion may  be  completed  in  our  public  schools,  thus  by  association 
with  the  Canadian-born  children  of  their  own  age,  to  develop 
side  by  side  and  become  imbued  with  the  customs  and  spirit  of 
the  country  before  reaching  adolescence.  Boys  of  16  do  not  so 
readily  settle  down  to  their  changed  circumstances  and  mode  of 
living  as  the  younger  ones  do.  The  novelty  of  the  change,  for 
which  they  showed  enthusiasm  at  first,  soon  fades  away  when 
they  get  down  to  real  work,  and  it  is  then  they  conclude  that 
they  prefer  town  or  city  life  to  that  of  the  farm  and  country. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  with  young  fellows  who  "  knew  their 
London  well  "  before  coming  to  Canada.  On  the  other  hand  the 
children  who  were  emigrated  at  an  early  age — from  5  to  14  years 
— and  had  spent  the  great  part  of  their  school  days  in  Canada,  at 
16  or  18  are  properly  equipped  to  enter  into  competition  with 
their  "  fellow  Canadians  "  and  take  an  interest  in  the  affairs  of 
the  particular  localities  in  which  their  lot  has  been  cast  and  first 
friendships  formed. 

A  farm  training  school  for  boys  has  recently  been  established 
at  Falmouth,  near  Windsor,  N.S.,  where  members  of  the  Notting- 
ham Boys'  Brigade  are  trained  to  agricultural  pursuits  and  fitted 
by  the  life  and  duties  of  a  farm  for  similar  employment  abroad. 
The  scheme  is  quite  practical,  and  conducted  on  wise  lines,  and 
there  would  appear  to  be  no  reason  why  it  should  not  prove  a 
great  benefit  not  only  to  the  boys  themselves  but  also  to  the 
farmers  of  that  rich  and  magnificent  fruit-producing  district,  the 
"  Land  of  Evangeline." 


Canada  and  Child  Immigration  457 

After  many  years'  experience  in  the  after-care  of  our  junior 
settlers  from  Great  Britain,  the  immense  benefit  of  an  annual 
personal  visitation  amongst  them  is  more  and  more  evident.  One 
should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  coming  to  Canada  at  an 
impressionable  period  in  their  lives,  advice  and  proper  guidance 
is  most  essential  to  their  future  well-being.  The  maintenance  of 
these  centres  is  a  most  essential  feature  of  the  movement.  The 
children  are  not  encouraged  to  return  to  the  Home  at  mere 
caprice,  yet  they  are  given  to  understand  that  those  in  charge 
are  their  protectors  and  take  a  parental  interest  in  their  welfare. 
On  the  occasion  of  my  official  visits  at  the  various  Receiving 
and  Distributing  Homes  during  the  past  year,  I  was  imuch  im- 
pressed by  the  active  and  untiring  interest  in  nearly  every  case, 
manifested  on  the  part  of  those  entrusted  with  the  work  and 
supervision  of  these  centres. 

G.  BOGUE  SMAET 

(Chief  Inspector  of  British  Immigrant  Children 
and  Receiving  Homes  in  Canada). 


458  The  Empire  Review 


THE   MERQUI   ARCHIPELAGO 

STRETCHING  in  clusters  along  the  coast  of  that  furthermost 
limb  of  Asia  which  juts  out  into  the  Indian  Ocean  like  a  huge 
leg  and  foot — the  lone  islet  of  Singapore  lying  at  its  heel — are 
the  tiny  islands  of  Mergui,  gems  of  rich  brown  earth  and  brightest 
foliage,  set  in  a  sea  of  shimmering  blue,  with  white-crested 
breakers  ever  laving  their  shining  sands. 

Some  few  hundreds  of  miles  due  north  of  Penang,  and  just 
out  of  the  track  of  vessels  plying  between  that  port  and  Bangoon, 
lie  these  outposts  of  Empire,  and  if  we  counted  every  isolated 
beauty  spot,  for  some  are  so  small  that  one  can  scarcely  term 
them  islands,  their  number  would  conceivably  run  into  three 
figures.  Irresistibly  they  remind  one  of  the  far-famed  Thousand 
Islands  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  only  here  we  have  true  ocean  islets, 
with  all  the  variety  the  vast  panorama  of  ocean  affords,  and  a 
perpetual  freshness  of  tint  and  leaf,  bright  skies  and  a  never 
ending  summer,  so  that  view  them  when  you  will,  Mergui's  isles 
are  always  lovely. 

Taking  a  coasting  steamer  from  Eangoon,  or  Penang,  as  the 
case  may  be,  a  run  through  the  Archipelago  is  a  veritable  voyage 
de  luxe,  as  far  as  magnificent  tropical  scenery  is  concerned.  It  is 
as  though  one  large  island  had  been  cloven  into  fragments,  large 
and  small,  by  reason  of  mighty  volcanic  action,  and  that  Nature, 
in  return  for  her  rude  buffeting  thus,  had  covered  each  little  crag 
with  a  mantle  of  richest  vegetation,  formed  for  them  protecting 
lagoons,  screening  them  from  the  wild  assaults  of  the  angry 
monsoon  seas  and  generally  afforded  them  her  tenderest  care. 
Here  are  to  be  seen  stretches  of  jungle,  thick  and  matted,  where 
rays  of  sunlight  vainly  endeavour  to  penetrate,  and  deep  swampy 
undergrowth  conceals  beasts  of  prey  and  many  a  reptile  of  fascin- 
ating hues,  but  deadly  potentialities.  Tiny  hills,  well  wooded 
from  base  to  summit,  and  miniature  valleys  grace  the  prospect, 
and  on  all  sides  spreads  the  wide  ocean,  now  white-flecked,  now 
of  velvety  appearance,  its  contour  charmingly  broken  by  bright 
splashes  of  colour,  near  and  distant,  islands  and  waters  combining 


The  Mergui  Archipelago  459 

to  form  a  garment,  as  it  were,  exquisite  in  pattern  and  of  shades 
indescribable. 

And  the  people ;  true  lovers  of  the  sea,  vikings  of  these  waters, 
resembling  their  brothers  of  the  Malayan  coast,  the  once  dreaded 
orang  laut,  as  they  were  known  in  the  vernacular.  From  island 
to  island  they  flit,  gleaning  their  sustenance  now  here,  now  there, 
from  the  pellucid  depths  of  the  waters,  from  the  chase  and  from 
the  heavens  o'erhead,  for  whether  with  the  line,  the  spear,  or  the 
bow  and  arrow,  they  are  experts,  and  all  things  fall  to  their  hand. 
A  life  spent  ever  in  the  open  has  bred  them  a  hardy  and  a  long- 
lived  race,  despite  the  latitude,  and  their  temperament  is  a  most 
cheerful  one,  arising  from  contented  minds  and  freedom  from  the 
toil  and  stress  of  life  under  artificial  conditions.  They  are  true 
children  of  Nature,  and  in  their  lovely  domain  they  are  fortunate 
indeed — and  to  be  envied  ! 

There  ought  to  be  no  need  to  remind  the  Britisher  that  o'er 
the  Mergui  Archipelago  flies  the  Union  Jack.  The  mainland 
opposite  is  Burmese  territory,  and  the  islands  are  therefore  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Government  of  Burma ;  nor  are  they 
neglected  by  any  means.  The  Commissioner  whose  duty  it  is  to 
see  that  law  and  order  are  preserved  therein  and  to  attend  to 
sundry  other  matters,  as  may  be  inferred,  spends  the  greater  por- 
tion of  his  time  afloat  in  surveying  his  island  charges,  and  many 
there  be  doubtless,  in  heated  and  stuffy  cities  here,  at  this  season 
of  the  year,  who  would  have  no  objection  to  changing  vocations 
for  a  spell,  and  breathing  the  pure  atmosphere  and  experiencing 
the  blue  skies  and  balmy  winds  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

But  followers  of  the  great  Euskin  and  lovers  of  the  world 
beautiful  in  general  will  be  sad  to  hear  that  even  here  in  Mergui 
the  iron  hand  of  civilisation  has  already  left  an  impress.  Police 
stations  there  are  whose  proportions,  though  doubtless  more  or 
less  symmetrical,  do  not  harmonise  with  the  natural  surroundings, 
and  other  buildings  of  the  kind  termed  public,  wherein  the 
business  of  Empire  is  carried  on  in  these  confines  of  our  Imperial 
heritage  by  those  Britishers  whose  lot  it  is  to  dwell  in  unknown 
corners  of  the  earth  and  to  work  towards  a  mighty  end,  though 
their  modicum  of  labour  pass  unnoticed  and  the  plaudits  of  the 
crowd  never  fall  upon  their  ears. 

And  now  a  new  era  seems  to  be  opening  up  for  Mergui,  for 
in  some  of  the  islands  such  minerals  as  tin  and  galena  have  been 
discovered,  and  already  concessions  have  been  granted  to  private 
syndicates  to  work  the  deposits ;  and  an  enterprising  Government 
has  aided  the  labours  of  the  prospector  and  the  explorer  by 
cutting  tracks  through  the  jungle,  making  roads  and  the  like. 
On  the  mainland,  also  termed  Mergui,  is  to  be  found  a  continua- 
tion of  that  chain  of  tin-bearing  earth  which  runs  northward 


460  The  Empire  Review 

from  the  Siamese  and  the  Federated  Malay  States  in  the  south, 
and  from  which  such  vast  quantities  of  tin  are  extracted  yearly, 
and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose,  therefore,  that  what  Selan- 
gor  and  Perak,  Negri  Sembilan  and  Sungei  Ujong  have  won  from 
Mother  Earth  in  the  past  is  indicative  of  that  which  Mergui  may 
win  in  the  future.  It  will  not  be  surprising  to  learn  some  years 
hence  that  Mergui  has  achieved  a  commercial  notoriety  which 
will  draw  the  attention  of  Europe  to  our  present  little-known 
Burmese  possession  ;  and  though  it  will  be  well  if  such  is  the 
case,  one  cannot  nevertheless  stifle  a  regret  that  the  grandeur 
and  romantic  situation  of  the  islands  of  the  Mergui  Archipelago 
should  virtually  count  as  naught,  and  that  the  call  to  fame  should 
arise  from  the  spoliation,  in  a  sense,  of  a  scene  of  beauty — the 
intrusion  into  an  Eastern  ocean  paradise  of  the  fiend  of  utility. 

EDWAED  E.  LONG. 


CANADA'S    UNLIMITED    OPPORTUNITIES 

CANADA'S  practically  unlimited  opportunity  for  trade  expansion  during 
the  period  of  reconstruction  which  will  follow  the  war  was  the  subject  of 
discussion  at  a  meeting  of  manufacturers  held  at  Toronto ;  and,  as  a 
result,  the  recently  formed  Export  Association  of  Canada  will  probably 
receive  the  support  of  all  the  leading  Toronto  manufacturing  concerns. 
The  wide  markets  which  will  be  opened  in  Russia  and  the  other  allied 
nations,  as  well  as  in  the  British  Empire,  were  considered  to  call  for 
immediate  steps  for  organising  Canadian  manufacturers  to  meet  the 
demand.  Summarising  the  plan  of  operation  to  be  adopted,  it  was 
pointed  out  that  Germany  and  Austria  will  be  excluded  from  the  markets 
of  the  allied  countries  for  many  years  to  come.  Belgium  and  France  are 
partly  incapacitated  for  the  time  being  ;  while  England,  even  though  she 
might  crowd  all  her  available  industries  with  orders,  will  be  unable  to 
supply  more  than  a  fraction  of  the  goods  and  materials  that  will  be 
required.  This  meant  that  North  America  would  be  called  upon  to  fill 
the  gap,  and  that  orders  would  be  divided  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  Though  the  capacity  of  Canada  might  seem  small  as 
compared  with  that  of  her  neighbour  to  the  South,  she  would  surprise 
the  world  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  goods  she  could  produce. 
Australia  has  now  intimated  her  willingness  to  meet  Canada  half-way  in 
the  matter  of  reciprocal  trade.  The  industries  of  the  Dominion  will 
benefit  from  these  new  conditions  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to  which 
they  are  organised  to  secure  business,  and  afterwards  to  fulfil  the  orders. 
The  Export  Association  will  connect  the  Canadian  manufacturers  with 
the  Governments  of  the  allied  countries  and  create  a  favourable  strategic 
position  for  Canadian  products  in  the  markets  of  these  countries. 


The  Commonwealth  Court  of  Arbitration        461 


THE    COMMONWEALTH    COURT    OF 
ARBITRATION 

(A'  Rejoinder.) 

THE  attention  of  the  world  at  the  present  time  is  occupied 
with  matters  of  much  more  importance  than  the  vagaries  of 
Australian  industrial  legislation.  It  is,  therefore,  with  some 
reluctance  that  I  ask  the  Editor  of  this  Eeview  to  grant  me 
space  for  a  brief  reply  to  certain  criticisms  on  an  article  of  mine 
entitled  "  An  Industrial  Dictatorship  "  published  in  the  August 
number,  1914,  which  appeared  in  the  number  issued  last  May. 
My  article  was  written,  I  need  scarcely  say,  before  the  outbreak 
of  war.  Otherwise  I  should  have  reserved  the  controversial 
topic  chosen  for  later  treatment.  But  since  the  author  of  the 
criticisms  just  referred  to,  Mr.  Vance  Palmer,  has  strongly  im- 
pugned the  accuracy  of  certain  statements  contained  in  my 
humble  contribution,  and  has  made  counter-statements  which, 
in  my  opinion  at  least,  are  entirely  misleading,  it  seems  to  me 
that  silence  would  suggest  an  admission  of  carelessness  which  I 
am  by  no  means  disposed  to  make. 

At  the  outset,  I  must  offer  a  respectful  protest  against  Mr. 
Palmer's  methods  of  controversy.  To  ignore  an  opponent's  chief 
contentions,  confining  criticism  to  a  minute  and  rather  needless 
examination  of  small  details  not  materially  affecting  the  main 
issue,  may  be  convenient,  but  is  scarcely  satisfying  to  the  judg- 
ment. And  to  tear  forcibly  from  their  context  individual  sen- 
tences, or  passages,  scattered  throughout  an  article  occupying 
some  dozen  pages,  in  order  to  subject  each  to  not  very  friendly 
scrutiny  suggests  German  methods  of  warfare  introduced  into 
literary  polemics.  Such  methods  of  criticism  might  be  applied 
with  singularly  destructive  effects  to  any  proposition  of  Euclid. 
For  instance,  Mr.  Palmer's  keen  sense  of  humour  finds  something 
"ludicrous"  in  a  couple  of  sentences  in  which  I  stated  that  in 
every  case  that  came  before  the  Federal  Court  of  Arbitration  the 
men  were  the  first  to  take  aggressive  action,  and  the  employers 
were  compelled  to  fight  a  battle  in  which  they  had  no  hope  of 
success.  The  truth  of  both  statements,  taken  in  a  broad  and 


462  The  Empire  Review 

reasonable  sense,  I  still  unhesitatingly  affirm.  Can  Mr.  Palmer 
cite  a  single  instance  in  which  an  award  made  by  the  President 
of  the  Arbitration  Court  has  not  conferred  substantial  advantages 
on  the  employees  at  the  expense  of  the  employers '?  I  know  of 
none,  and  I  have  watched  the  proceedings  of  the  Court  with  some 
attention.  Moreover,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  Court 
has  not  the  power,  even  if  it  had  the  will,  to  reduce  wages  ; 
consequently  employers  are  debarred  from  deriving  any  benefit 
through  its  action.  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  himself  on  one  occasion, 
and  with  conclusive  justification,  denounced  as  "  very  unfair " 
the  provision  which  forbids  the  Court  to  fix  rates  of  remuneration 
below  the  rates  prescribed  for  the  particular  industry  concerned 
by  any  Wages  Board.  Inasmuch  as  nearly  all  the  important 
manufacturing  industries  in  Australia  come  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  such  Boards  appointed  in  the  different  States  it  will  be  seen 
that,  in  a  very  large  number  of  cases,  all  that  employers  sum- 
moned before  the  Court  could  hope  for  would  be  the  maintenance 
of  existing  conditions.  Any  alteration  of  those  conditions  would 
necessarily  be  to  their  disadvantage. 

It  is  possible  that  among  the  multitude  of  "  disputes " 
engineered  by  labour  "  organisers  "  since  the  establishment  of 
the  Federal  Arbitration  Court,  and  all  promoted  by  a  well-founded 
trust  in  the  liberality  and  benevolence  of  that  institution,  I  may 
have  overlooked  one  or  two  cases  of  a  comparatively  trifling 
character  where  the  initiative  in  invoking  the  interposition  of 
the  Court  was  taken  by  employers  instead  of  employees.  It  is 
quite  conceivable,  however,  that  such  action  might  have  been 
taken  unwillingly  and  in  self-defence.  A  body  of  employers  who 
knew  that  their  men  were  about  to  summon  them  before  a  certain 
tribunal,  no  matter  how  unfriendly  they  might  consider  the 
latter  to  be,  might  nevertheless  deem  it  politic  to  anticipate  the 
malcontents  by  first  appealing  themselves  to  the  Court.  At  the 
worst  it  is  less  unpleasant  and  more  dignified  to  jump  downstairs 
than  to  be  kicked  down  them.  And  it  is  important  to  bear  in 
mind  that  the— pace  Mr.  Palmer — mischievous  operation  of  the 
Court  of  Arbitration  has  so  far  been  confined  to  the  secondary 
industries  of  Australia.  The  manufacturer,  or  steam-ship 
owner,  whose  wages  bill  has  been  largely  increased  by  the 
good  offices  of  the  Court  can,  and  does,  recoup  himself  by  the 
simple  expedient  of  charging  the  public  more  for  his  goods  or 
services.  But  such  compensation  would  be  impossible  to  the 
farmer  or  pastoralist,  whose  grain  or  wool  is  mainly  sold  outside 
Australia,  and  in  open  competition  with  the  producers  of  similar 
commodities  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  I  think  we  shall  wait  a 
long  time  before  we  see  a  body  of  philanthropic  agriculturists  or 
mine-owners  petitioning  the  President  of  the  Arbitration  Court 


The  Commonwealth  Court  of  Arbitration        463 

to  bestow  comparative  affluence  on  their  employees  at  the  cost  of 
ultimate  ruin  to  themselves. 

As  regards  the  circumstances  attending  the  first  appointment 
of  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  to  the  position  he  now  holds,  Mr.  Palmer's 
contention  that  the  appointment  was  not  one  of  a  political  nature 
would  only  make  a  person  acquainted — to  borrow  his  own  ex- 
pression— with  the  "  realities  "  of  Australian  politics  smile.  I 
adhere  absolutely  to  the  statement  contained  in  my  article  that 
the  gentleman  chosen  for  the  position  in  1907  was,  in  effect,  the 
nominee  of  the  Labour  Party.  The  appointment  was  certainly 
indirect  rather  than  direct;  and  everyone  not  ignorant  of  the 
small  pretences  and  disguises  usually  employed  in  such  political 
arrangements  will  understand  the  reason.  Mr.  Higgins,  as  he 
was  then,  had  held  office  as  Attorney-General  in  a  previous 
Labour  Ministry  and  was  emphatically  a  persona  grata  with 
that  party.  The  position  of  the  Government  at  the  time  of  the 
appointment  was  one  of  political  vassalage  to  the  Labour  Party. 
Without  the  latter's  support  Mr.  Deakin  and  his  colleagues 
could  not  have  held  office  for  a  week.  The  early  resignation 
by  Mr.  Justice  O'Connor  of  the  presidency  of  the  Arbitration 
Court  was  at  the  time  certain,  and  it  was  equally  certain  that  the 
newly  appointed  Justice  would  succeed  him  in  that  position.  It 
is  pertinent  in  this  connection  to  recall  the  frank  admission  made 
less  than  two  years  ago  by  a  prominent  Labour  Senator  that  his 
party  desired  to  have  its  views  represented  on  the  High  Court 
Bench.  Unquestionably  Senator  McGregor's  wish  to  obtain 
"interpretations  of  the  constitution  to  suit  the  Labour  Party" 
was  held  by  his  political  associates  in  previous  Parliaments  also, 
and  dictated  their  action  on  at  least  one  occasion.  Had  Mr. 
Deakin's  Ministry  appointed  to  the  Bench  a  lawyer,  no  matter 
how  distinguished,  whose  opinions  on  industrial  questions  were 
not  believed  to  be  in  sympathy  with  those  of  the  Labour  Party, 
most  certainly  a  change  of  Government  would  have  followed 
the  next  important  division. 

Lest  certain  references  made  by  Mr.  Palmer  to  a  rather 
delicate  matter  involved  in  the  controversy  should  create  a  false 
impression,  let  me  emphasise  one  point.  In  no  respect  whatever 
have  I  imputed,  or  do  impute,  improper  action  of  any  kind  to  the 
President  of  the  Court  of  Arbitration.  Against  him  personally 
I  have  no  hostile  feeling  whatever.  On  the  contrary,  I  honour 
the  consistency  of  conduct  and  perfect  sincerity  which  he  has 
throughout  shown.  My  quarrel  is  with  the  office  he  holds,  and 
with  the  rule  he  has  adopted  as  a  guide  to  his  decisions.  That 
many  utterances  of  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  have  been  neither 
judicial  nor  judicious  probably  several  at  least  of  his  own  friends 
will  admit.  It  was  neither  politic  nor  courteous  to  make  the 


464  The  Empire  Review 

rather  whimsical  implied  comparison  between  Australian  em- 
ployers and  highwaymen ;  though  perhaps  representatives  of  the 
class  so  censured  might  feel  complimented  on  being  afterwards 
compared  to  so  astute  a  man  of  business  in  old  times  as  Jacob. 
These  small  indiscretions,  and  similar  indiscretions  no  doubt 
committed  from  time  to  time  by  the  President's  critics,  may^be 
brushed  aside  as  irrelevant.  The  principle  of  compulsory  arbitra- 
tion and  the  doctrine  of  the  "living  wage,"  as  judicially  inter- 
preted, are  the  main  issues.  Concerning  these  a  few  words  will 
be  said  at  the  close  of  this  rejoinder. 

Mr.  Palmer  severely  rebukes  me  for  the  assertion  that  the 
Court  of  Arbitration  in  Australia  is  now  legally  endowed  with 
powers  of  increasing  taxation.  I  fear  I  remain  hardened  and 
unrepentant.  I  admit,  indeed,  an  unfortunate  use  of  the  word 
"  usurpation  "  ;  but  words  are  small  things  to  wrangle  over.  It 
seems  to  me,  however,  hard  to  deny  that  a  court  which  is  em- 
powered to  increase  the  remuneration  of  civil  servants,  and 
which  has  already  freely  exercised  that  power,  is  not  indirectly 
an  instrument  of  taxation.  Increased  salaries  for  public  employees 
must  necessarily  mean  increased  taxes  for  the  public.  It  surely 
was  not  necessary  to  explain  that  Parliament  retained  the  right 
of  annulling  any  award  made  by  the  Court  affecting  State 
employees.  Any  decision  of  any  court  in  Australia  (or  for  the 
matter  of  that,  in  England)  might  be  annulled  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment. But  who  is  so  childish  as  to  suppose  that  a  party 
dominant  in  the  Legislature  would  interfere  with  a  judge  whose 
decisions  were  in  entire  conformity  with  its  own  policy?  I 
venture  to  say  that  if  by  award  of  the  President  of  the  Arbitra- 
tion Court  the  weekly  pay  of  each  letter-carrier  in  the  service  of 
the  Postal  Department  were  increased  to  £5,  the  majority  of 
members  in  each  Chamber  of  the  Federal  Parliament  would  at 
heart  feel  gratified,  even  if  a  mild  and  politic  protest  might  here 
and  there  be  raised.  Certainly  the  Labour  Party  would  not 
risk  the  loss  of  the  valuable  civil  service  vote  by  restraining,  save 
under  most  exceptional  conditions,  the  liberality  of  a  judge  who 
has  undeniably,  though,  of  course,  unconsciously,  proved  himself 
a  most  useful  ally. 

Space  forbids  attention  being  paid  to  Mr.  Palmer's  criticism 
on  minor  points.  Not  being  in  the  confidence  of  the  legal  pro- 
fession I  cannot  estimate  with  any  degree  of  certainty  the 
amount  of  the  emoluments  derived  by  its  members  from  the 
proceedings  of  the  Arbitration  Court.  But  when  the  total  costs 
in  connection  with  a  single  case,  that  in  which  the  Shearers' 
Union  and  the  Associated  Pastoralists  were  concerned,  were 
reported  to  have  amounted  to  the  handsome  sum  of  £20,000,  it 
seems  a  reasonable  inference  that  the  charges  for  legal  services 


The  Commonwealth  Court  of  Arbitration        465 

rendered  were  not  inconsiderable.  In  regard  to  my  general 
sources  of  information,  I  might  mention  that  these  were  mainly 
reports  of  cases  heard  before  the  Arbitration  Court  that  have 
appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  columns  of  the  Melbourne 
Argus  and  other  leading  Australian  papers.  Such  reports, 
though  sometimes  condensed,  are  generally  regarded  as  accurate 
in  substance.  No  doubt  here  and  there  small  omissions  might 
be  detected.  Mr.  Palmer  affirms  (and  I  of  course  accept  his 
statement)  that  during  the  hearing  of  the  Waterside  Workers' 
case,  the  representatives  of  the  men  offered  to  restrict  member- 
ship of  their  union,  if  desired,  and  the  steamship  owners  refused 
to  accept  the  offer.  The  report  of  the  proceedings  I  read  con- 
tained no  reference  to  such  an  offer ;  indeed  it  stated  that  the 
case  was  exactly  opposite.  But,  accepting  Mr.  Palmer's  version 
of  the  matter,  it  was  surely  only  fair  to  the  steamship  owners 
that,  supposing  the  number  of  admissions  to  the  union  to  be 
restricted,  guarantees  should  be  given  that  only  capable  men 
should  be  admitted.  Otherwise  they  might  have  been  required 
to  pay  excessively  high  wages  to  inferior  men,  while  prohibited 
from  employing  those  whose  services  were  of  real  value. 

My  critic  challenges  me  to  adduce  actual  cases  in  illustration 
of  my  remarks  concerning  the  disastrous  effects  exercised  by  the 
Court  of  Arbitration  on  the  mining  and  agricultural  industries  in 
Australia.  Examples  of  mischief  so  caused  directly  cannot  be 
given,  for  so  far,  fortunately,  the  emissaries  of  the  unions  who 
have  been  busy  for  some  time  past  in  the  chief  mining  and 
agricultural  districts  of  the  Commonwealth  have  not  succeeded 
in  manufacturing  a  sufficient  number  of  disputes  to  justify  an 
appeal  to  their  favourite  tribunal.  But  I  know  of  cases,  which  I 
do  not  think  it  either  necessary  or  becoming  to  particularise, 
where  the  dread  of  Mr.  Justice  Higgins'  mediation,  and  the 
restlessness  and  insecurity  arising  from  the  prospect  of  the 
"living  wage"  being  extended  to  miners  and  agricultural 
labourers,  has  brought  about  the  suspension  of  mining  operations 
and  the  conversion  of  farms  into  sheep  runs.  A  gracious  promise 
has  lately  been  given  by  the  knot  of  agitators  who  style  them- 
selves the  representatives  of  the  rural  workers  that  their  modest 
claims  will  not  be  brought  before  the  Arbitration  Court  this  year, 
and  the  miners'  delegates  have  apparently  decided  to  defer  the 
presentation  of  their  demand  for  a  minimum  daily  wage  of  11s. 
(for  skilled  men  the  rates  asked  are  much  higher)  until  the  end 
of  the  war.*  The  knowledge,  however,  that  within  a  com- 
paratively short  time  most  preposterous  claims  will  be  presented 

*  Th^e  demands  of  the  miners'  union  have  just  been  formally  presented  to  the 
managers  of  the  chief  mines  in  several  States,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  their  rejection 
will  be  iollowed  by  immediate  action. 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  178.  2  N 


466  The  Empire  Review 

for  consideration  by  a  sympathetic  industrial  autocrat  on  behalf 
of  the  workers  engaged  in  two  out  of  the  three  great  primary 
industries  in  the  Commonwealth  does  not  tend  to  encourage  the 
expansion  of  those  industries.  As  I  have  already  pointed  out, 
and  as  ordinary  intelligence  suggests,  the  "living  wage  "  applied 
to  such  an  industry  as  agriculture  is  likely  to  prove  a  dying  wage 
to  the  agriculturist,  whose  economic  position  in  Australia  is 
entirely  different  from  that  of  the  manufacturer.  The  latter 
passes  the  burden  on  to  his  customers  ;  the  former  cannot.  And 
mine  owners  and  pastoralists  are  in  the  same  unfortunate 
position. 

Defenders  of  the  principle  of  compulsory  arbitration  and  of 
the  "living  wage"  in  Australia  lay  much  stress  on  the  fact 
emphasised  by  Mr.  Palmer,  and  not  long  ago  pointedly  referred 
to  by  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  himself,  that,  so  far,  no  award  made 
by  the  latter  in  his  judicial  capacity  has  been  flouted.  Yet  the 
explanation  is  simple  enough  to  those  who  have  carefully 
followed  the  proceedings  of  the  tribunal  now  under  notice.  In 
every  dispute  without  exception  hitherto  referred  to  the  Court 
for  settlement  the  men  have  gained  substantial  advantages.  In 
most  cases  they  have  obtained  practically  all  they  wanted.  They 
therefore  had  the  strongest  possible  reason  for  refraining  from 
taking  action  which  would  have  weakened  the  authority  of  a 
judge  who  had  consistently  conferred  benefits  upon  them. 
Employers,  on  the  other  hand,  have  submitted,  knowing  the 
futility  of  resistance.  They  have  known  perfectly  throughout 
that  defiance  of  an  award  would  bring  on  them  the  full  penalties 
prescribed  by  the  law ;  and  unlike  their  employees,  having 
property  which  might  be  seized  in  default  of  payment  of  those 
penalties,  they  have  protestingly  acquiesced,  indemnifying  them- 
selves so  far  as  possible  for  the  loss  sustained  through  the  operation 
of  the  award  at  the  expense  of  the  public.  But  I  should  like  to 
ask  my  critic  and  those  who  share  his  views  two  questions. 
Suppose  the  successor  of  the  present  President  of  the  Arbitration 
Court  were  a  judge  who  held  the  doctrine  of  the  "  living  profit  " 
as  strongly  as  Mr.  Justice  Higgins  holds  that  of  a  "  living  wage." 
In  other  words,  suppose  he  based  his  awards  on  the  condition 
that  the  employer  should  receive  a  fair  recompense  for  his 
services  and  fair  interest  on  his  money  before  any  increase  of 
wages  were  granted.  And,  lastly,  suppose,  in  an  extreme  case, 
to  carry  out  this  guiding  rule  it  were  necessary  to  reduce  wages 
rather  than  increase  them  ;  in  other  words  to  treat  the  employees 
as  employers  are  now  being  treated.  Does  Mr.  Palmer  seriously 
think  that  such  an  award  would  be  accepted  by  the  men  ?  And, 
in  the  event  of  contumacy,  does  he  think  the  Government  would 
try  to  compel  the  men  to  obey  it  ?  To  both  questions  most 


The  Commonwealth  Court  of  Arbitration        467 

persons  acquainted  with  the  industrial  position  in  Australia 
would  return  an  emphatic  negative.  Not  very  long  ago  some 
5000  miners  on  strike  in  New  South  Wales  openly  defied  the  law 
relating  to  industrial  disputes,  and  sarcastically  invited  the 
Government  to  accommodate  them  all  in  gaol.  On  a  later  occasion 
134  similar  offenders  were  prosecuted  for  illegally  taking  part  in 
a  strike,  and  the  Judge  of  the  State  Industrial  Court  imposed  on 
them  fines  amounting  collectively  to  the  sum  of  £562.  Yet  some 
time  afterwards  questions  asked  in  Parliament  elicited  from  the 
acting  Premier,  Mr.  Holman,  the  humiliating  acknowledgment 
that  only  one  fine  had  been  paid,  and  no  steps  whatever  had  been 
taken  in  any  case  to  enforce  payment.  The  lesson  derived  from 
these  and  other  similar  incidents  is  obvious.  Compulsory  arbi- 
tration— setting  aside  mere  consideration  of  justice — is  feasible  so 
long  as  the  men  are  the  gainers  by  it.  In  the  opposite  case  it 
completely  breaks  down. 

A  few  final  words  now  on  the  main  issues  involved  in  the 
controversy.  I  contend,  not  merely  that  the  present  President 
of  the  Australian  Arbitration  Court  is  unfit  for  the  office  he  holds, 
but  that  no  man  in  the  world  is  fit  for  it.  The  office  is  an  im- 
possible one,  and  should  not  exist.  No  man,  or  body  of  men, 
can  lay  down  the  law  to  political  economy.  I  oppose  the  "living 
wage  "  for  employees  as  I  would  also  oppose  the  equally  justi- 
fiable doctrine  of  a  "  living  profit  "  for  the  employers.  The  term 
"  living  wage "  in  itself  is  an  absurd  misnomer.  Before  it 
became  known  in  Australia  working  men  there  did  not  die  in 
large  numbers  from  starvation.  No  man  would  or  could  accept 
employment  which  did  not  provide  him  with  the  means  to  live ; 
and  as  the  results  of  my  own  observation  in  Australia  for  a  period 
of  over  twenty  years  I  unhesitatingly  affirm  that  before  this 
latest  quack  remedy  for  all  industrial  ills  was  devised,  the  average 
working  man  in  Australia  was  a  more  contented,  self-respecting, 
and  happy  member  of  the  community  than  he  is  in  these  days 
of  chronic  industrial  mutiny.  The  "  living  wage,"  which  in  its 
present  interpretation  embodies  economic  falsities  that  can  be 
traced  in  the  code  of  Khammurabi  over  4,000  years  ago,  is 
fundamentally  unsound  in  that  it  ignores  the  two  governing 
conditions  of  employment  and  remuneration — the  merit  of  the 
worker  and  the  demand  for  his  services.  It  is  impolitic,  because 
it  represses  individual  ambition,  denies  ability  its  due  reward, 
and  encourages,  often  in  defiance  of  eugenic  considerations, 
early  and  imprudent  marriages.  It  is  immoral,  because  it  saps 
self-reliance,  stimulates  rapacity  and  covetousness,  excites  ill- 
feeling  between  two  classes  of  citizens  whose  interests  are 
identical,  and  teaches  the  employee  to  think  that  the  only  duty 
he  owes  his  employer  is  to  take  from  him  money  extorted  by 

2  N  2 


468  The  Empire  Review 

legal  pressure,  which,  in  many  cases,  he  has  not  fairly  earned. 
The  real  living  wage  is  the  value  of  a  man's  services  to  the 
community  less  the  remuneration  due  to  those  who  have  provided 
the  means  and  the  directive  ability  necessary  to  give  those 
services  full  effectiveness.  The  sham  "living  wage"  of  the 
political  humanitarian  to-day  represents  a  futile  attempt  to  fix 
by  law  the  minimum  amount  of  reward,  irrespective  of  the 
efficiency  of  the  worker  or  the  value  of  the  products  of  his  labour. 
The  worker  is  only  required  to  receive — not  to  give.  I  have 
searched  in  vain  among  the  reported  judicial  utterances  of  the 
present  President  of  the  Federal  Arbitration  Court  for  a  single 
sentence  in  which  a  hint  is  given  to  employees  that  in  return  for 
the  benefits  received  from  their  employers  they  are  bound  in  duty 
to  give  honest  and  faithful  service.  Large  employers  of  labour, 
and  men  whose  statements  are  thoroughly  reliable,  have  told  me 
that  since  the  introduction  of  the  "  living  wage  "  they  have  ob- 
served a  distinct  decline  of  efficiency  among  the  workers.  How 
far  it  has  improved  their  material  condition  many  prosperous 
hotel-keepers  could,  perhaps,  say  better  than  I.  But,  after  all, 
the  happiness  of  life  does  not  depend  on  beer  and  picture-shows. 

In  a  recent  number  of  the  Australian  Manufacturers'  Journal 
there  appeared  a  summary  of  the  report  of  the  American  Trade 
Commission  which  visited  Australasia  last  year.  The  opinions 
there  expressed  are — for  an  Australian — sorrowful  reading,  but 
in  the  main  their  truth  is  undeniable.  Experience  has  clearly 
shown  that,  as  the  Commissioners  observed,  the  more  industrial 
peace  is  sought  through  legislation  which  encroaches  upon  the 
natural  rights  of  citizens,  the  more  pronounced  becomes  the 
spirit  of  antipathy  between  the  employer  and  the  employee. 
That  their  industrial  laws  are  making  New  Zealand  and  Australia 
"  breeding  countries  of  loafers  and  idlers,"  and  that  both  countries 
abound  in  "  idle,  disillusioned,  fault-finding  people "  are  state- 
ments which,  perhaps,  many  would  dispute ;  yet  they  have  too 
much  justification.  Incessant  strife,  loss,  and  industrial  turbu- 
lence have  accompanied  the  attempts  of  political  reformers  and 
humanitarians  to  regulate  the  relations  between  employers  and 
employees  in  conformity  solely  with  the  desires  of  the  class 
unworthily  possessed  of  by  far  the  larger  share  of  political  power. 
The  Commonwealth  Court  of  Arbitration  is  but  the  coping-stone 
of  an  edifice  built  on  unsubstantial  foundations.  Its  collapse, 
together  with  that  of  the  whole  clumsy  and  ill-contrived  fabric 
on  which  it  rests,  is  only  a  matter  of  time. 

F.  A.  W.  GISBOBNB. 


Freedom's  Battle  469 


FREEDOM'S    BATTLE 

O  MEN  of  the  Isles  of  Britain — 

Blest  isles,  which  are  Freedom's  home! 
O  men  of  that  Greater  Britain 

In  far  lands  beyond  the  foam  ! 
Knights  are  ye  in  Freedom's  army, 

Fighting  her  most  deadly  foes ; 
Whilst  around  you,  to  protect  you, 

Liberty  her  segis  throws. 

This  is  the  War  of  the  Ages, 

Whose  fame  lives  in  minstrel  song, 
For  'tis  Freedom's  ceaseless  battle 

Against  Tyranny  and  Wrong. 
In  it,  of  old,  your  fathers  fought — 

Peerless  knights  and  true,  were  they  ; 
Freedom's  heritage  they  left  you ; 

Guard  it,  keep  it,  while  you  may  ! 

From  the  ravaged  plains  of  Flanders, 

From  the  war-swept  fields  of  France, 
Where  our  sons'  heroic  valour 

Stays  the  Huns  in  their  advance ; 
From  the  soundless  depths  of  ocean, 

'Neath  the  highways  of  the  sea, 
Where  their  drowning  victims'  anguish 

German  pirates  watched  with  glee ; 

Comes  the  cry,  insistent,  bitter, 

With  an  all-compelling  sound — 
Ah  !     Thank  God  !     You've  heard,  and  hastened 

From  the  Empire's  utmost  bound. 
Smite  to  earth  these  Teuton  tyrants  ! 

Stay  their  hands,  whate'er  the  cost ! 
You  shall  triumph  ;  for,  remember, 

Freedom's  cause  is  never  lost ! 

EOBEY  F.  ELDBIDGE. 


470  The  Empire  Review 


OVERSEA    NOTES 

CANADA 

THE  war  has  already  cosb  Canada  £18,000,000.  The  great  struggle, 
in  which  many  Canadians  have  already  laid  down  their  lives,  is  also 
calling  for  great  financial  sacrifices.  In  fact  it  is  now  costing  Canada 
£60,000  a  day.  Analysing  these  figures  more  minutely  it  will  be  apparent 
that  Canadians  are  paying  the  expenses  of  the  present  struggle  at  the 
rate  of  nearly  £3,000  an  hour  or  about  £48  a  minute;  and  the  statistician 
who  cares  to  reduce  his  calculations  to  the  ultimate  unit  will  discover,  of 
course,  that  the  Canadian  financial  war  clock  is  ticking  at  the  rate  of  only 
a  little  less  than  sixteen  shillings  per  second.  The  total  war  expenditure 
up  to  July  31st,  or  practically  twelve  months  after  war  was  declared  on 
August  4th  last  year,  was  £16,350,000.  Adding  to  this  the  expenditures 
since  that  date,  it  will  be  seen,  as  stated,  that  so  far  Canadians  have 
paid  the  best  part  of  £18,000,000.  The  ratio  of  expense,  of  course,  is 
going  up  all  the  time  as  the  Dominion  places  more  and  more  troops  in 
the  field.  Almost  the  whole  expenditure  is  military  in  character, 
Canada's  navy — especially  now  that  the  German  cruisers  have  been 
driven  from  the  sea — costing  her  comparatively  little.  The  heavy  items 
are  the  equipment  and  upkeep  of  the  men  in  training  at  home,  in 
England,  and  at  the  front.  The  question  of  cost  is  not  being  considered 
in  Canada,  however,  any  more  than  it  is  in  England  or  in  any  other  part 
of  the  Empire,  and  were  it  twice  as  heavy  the  bill  would  be  met  with 
equal  alacrity. 

CANADA  is  not  only  manufacturing  shells  for  the  Allies,  she  is  also 
producing  and  refining,  for  the  first  time  in  her  history,  the  zinc  and  copper 
required  for  the  ammunition.  It  was  not  long  after  Canada  had  com- 
menced the  manufacture  of  shells  for  Great  Britain  that  the  difficulty  of 
securing  copper  and  zinc  for  their  production  presented  itself.  Although 
Canada  produces  both  of  these  metals  there  were  no  facilities  for  refining 
them.  Several  conferences  were  held,  with  the  result  that  arrangements 
were  made  for  the  refining  process  to  be  carried  out  at  several  points,  of 
both  copper  and  zinc.  As  a  consequence,  Canada's  production  of  shells 
has  risen  enormously. 

A  CAMPAIGN  on  behalf  of  the  Canadian  Patriotic  Fund  has  been 
inaugurated  at  St.  John,  N.B.  The  managers  of  the  Fund  have  fixed 


Oversea  Notes  471 

£20,000  as  the  amount  that  St.  John  should  contribute.  The  ladies, 
who  compose  the  Daughters  of  the  Empire,  have  undertaken  to  raise 
one-half  of  this  amount  by  means  of  a  patriotic  auction.  With  the 
assistance  of  the  Automobile  Association  and  other  local  organisations, 
a  systematic  canvass  is  being  made  in  and  around  the  city,  and  splendid 
results  are  being  achieved.  Millmen  are  contributing  lumber,  farmers 
are  sending  large  quantities  of  farm  produce,  the  city  merchants  are 
giving  of  their  stocks  generously,  and  the  ladies  of  the  city  are  sending 
in  vast  quantities  of  needle-work.  It  is  believed  that  the  results  will  far 
exceed  the  original  expectations. 

THE  effect  of  the  war  and  recent  economic  conditions  on  immigration 
into  Canada  is  shown  by  the  annual  statement  of  the  Canadian  Immi- 
gration Department  just  issued.  The  immigration  of  the  fiscal  year 
ended  March  31st,  1915,  was  144,789  as  compared  with  384,878  in  the 
previous  year,  and  402,432  for  the  fiscal  year  1912-1913,  which  was  the 
high-water-mark  in  the  history  of  Canadian  immigration.  The  only 
increases  for  the  year  were  from  a  few  of  the  neutral  States  of  Europe. 
Bulgarians  evidently  decided  that  they  preferred  Canada  to  their  war- 
threatened  nation,  as  4,048  are  recorded  as  having  entered  the  Dominion 
for  the  year,  compared  with  only  1,727  for  the  previous  year.  There  was 
also  a  slight  increase  in  the  Grecian  immigration,  the  total  being  1,147 
against  1,102.  There  was  also  a  slight  increase  in  Serbian  immigration, 
although  the  total  was  only  220.  Macedonia  sent  132  as  against  17  in 
the  previous  year.  While  there  was  such  a  big  decrease  in  immigration 
for  the  past  year,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  decrease  in  homesteads 
was  correspondingly  much  smaller.  The  entries  for  the  year  were  24,088 
as  compared  with  31,829  for  the  year  previous.  Since  1900  the  immi- 
gration has  amounted  to  3,050,811,  and  of  this  total  1,159,628  were 
British,  1,058,438  American  and  832,745  from  Continental  Europe. 
Many  of  the  Americans  were  people  or  the  descendants  of  people  who 
had  formerly  lived  in  Canada,  and  had  gone  across  the  boundary  prior  to 
the  opening  up  of  the  West. 

DURING  one  month  over  2,000  homestead  entries  were  made  in 
Western  Canada,  the  total  area  of  farm  land  thus  taken  up  by  settlers 
being  no  less  than  325,120  acres,  a  stretch  of  territory  considerably  in 
excess  of  the  great  county  of  Carnarvon.  Of  these  new  homesteaders  321 
crossed  into  Canada  from  the  United  States,  the  majority  of  them 
settling  in  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  although  Manitoba  and  British 
Columbia  also  received  a  share.  Present  agricultural  conditions  and 
prospects  in  Canada  have  had  a  marked  effect  on  land  settlement  in  the 
Dominion,  and  the  record  harvest  that  has  just  been  reaped — record 
alike  in  respect  of  average  and  total  yield  and  acreage — is  expected  to 
intensify  the  "  back-to-the-land  "  movement  that  has  there  asserted  itself. 

THERE  has  been  a  steady  stream  of  settlers  along  the  line  of  the  new 
National  Trans-continental  line  in  Northern  Ontario  since  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  train  service.  It  is  to  this  country  that  many  Britons  now 
with  the  colours  are  expected  to  go  when  peace  is  declared,  for  it  is  here 


472  The  Empire  Review 

that  the  Ontario  Government  makes  grants  of  land  free  and  at  the  purely 
nominal  price  of  Is.  an  acre.  In  old  Ontario,  where  the  farms  are  giving 
standard  crops  and  where  general  farming  is  carried  out  successfully,  the 
early  settlers  had  many  more  difficulties  to  contend  with  than  the  in- 
coming settlers  will  have  in  New  Ontario.  Mixed  farming  will  necessitate 
the  use  of  all  the  varied  articles  made  by  Ontario  manufacturers.  The 
thousands  of  lakes  teem  with  the  greatest  abundance  of  the  gamest  of  fish. 
With  mining  and  lumbering  developing  so  rapidly  and  this  wonderful 
country  so  adequately  served  with  transportation  by  rail  and  water,  the 
Province  of  Ontario  seems  destined  to  retain  a  proud  position  in  the  great 
Dominion.  The  area  of  this  wonderful  country  is  vast  and  the  oppor- 
tunities of  development  are  almost  limitless. 

THE  Canadian  railways  will  receive  a  long-hoped-for  and  well-deserved 
increase  in  earnings  as  a  result  of  the  enormous  grain  crop  this  year.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  in  moving  the  total  crop  the  three  chief  railroads 
will  earn  between  £8,000,000  and  £9,000,000,  and  the  effect  of  this  both 
on  the  companies  themselves  and  on  other  branches  of  activity  will  be 
enormous.  Prom  the  wheat  crop  alone  it  is  calculated  that  a  sum  of 
£4,800,000  will  be  earned.  In  no  other  branch  of  activity  does  the 
harvest  so  greatly  reflect  prosperity  or  the  reverse  as  on  the  Canadian 
railways.  These  roads,  whose  western  business,  although  being  developed 
and  increasing  with  the  growth  of  the  country,  is  not  of  enormous  pro- 
portions taking  it  by  the  year,  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  harvest. 
Thousands  of  cars  are  taken  west  for  the  movement  of  the  grain,  and 
what  may  be  a  fairly  large  surplus  of  cars  during  the  spring  has  frequently 
become  a  serious  shortage  in  the  autumn.  The  season  of  1913—1914, 
that  is,  the  movement  of  the  1913  crop,  which  up  to  that  time  was  the 
largest  in  the  history  of  Canada,  brought  the  railways  much  prosperity, 
and  this  year  history  is  likely  to  be  repeated. 

ALBERTA'S  wheat  crop  is  the  largest  and  best  in  the  history  of  the 
province,  and  is  worth  nearly  £4,000,000.  Last  year  the  value  was 
slightly  over  £3,000,000.  While  Alberta  is  a  mixed  farming  province, 
and,  in  a  measure,  owes  its  prosperity  to  this  fact,  more  cereals  have  been 
grown  this  year  than  ever  before,  and  wheat  forms  the  larger  proportion 
of  the  crop.  In  some  districts,  even  in  the  Northern  parts  of  the  province 
and  in  the  Edmonton  district,  farmers  have  devoted  almost  all  their  acreage 
to  wheat.  In  past  years  some  of  the  Alberta  wheat  crop  has  been  used  for 
feed.  Now,  however,  almost  the  entire  crop  will  be  sold  and  exported 
from  the  province.  The  remarkably  good  crops  of  oats  and  other  feed 
grains  are  contributory  factors  in  this  situation.  Another  reason  for 
the  very  large  wheat  crop  is  the  higher  yield  per  acre.  The  farmers  of 
the  Province  are  eminently  satisfied  with  the  results  of  their  year's  work, 
and  the  prosperity  which  it  means  for  them  is  being  reflected  in  improved 
economic  conditions  all  round. 

No  less  than  5,000  acres  have  been  contributed  to  the  Saskatchewan 
farmers'  patriotic  acre  scheme,  which  should  represent  approximately 
100,000  bushels  of  wheat,  or  5,000,000  pounds  of  flour.  The  wheat 


Oversea  Notes  473 

contributed,  when  turned  into  flour,  is  to  be  a  gift  from  the  grain 
growers  of  Saskatchewan  to  the  Imperial  Government.  In  order  that 
an  absolutely  uniform  grade  of  flour  may  be  included  in  the  shipment,  it 
has  been  decided  to  have  the  grain  ground  by  one  of  the  largest  millers 
in  Saskatchewan,  who  is  assisting  the  fund  by  grinding  the  flour  at  a 
nominal  charge.  The  Federal  Government  is  lending  its  hearty  co- 
operation, and  the  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce  has  given  his 
assurance  that  the  Dominion  Government  will  make  arrangements  for 
the  transportation  of  the  flour  to  Liverpool  free  of  any  cost  to  the  fund. 
The  flour  will  be  carried  in  bags  showing  the  emblem  of  the  Association, 
in  order  that  purchasers  may  know  that  it  is  a  loyal  gift  from  Canada. 
As  the  flour  will  have  to  be  assembled  at  one  point,  it  is  intended  to  ship 
it  in  solid  train  loads  from  Moose  Jaw. 

IN  spite  of  the  widespread  disturbance  to  industry  in  general 
occasioned  by  the  war,  the  manufacture  of  pulp  wood  in  Canada  continues 
on  the  increase.  During  the  calendar  year  1914  the  quantity  of  wood 
used  in  this  industry  showed  an  increase  of  10 '4  per  cent,  over  the 
preceding  year.  The  woods  most  commonly  used  in  pulp  manufacture  in 
Canada  vary  but  slightly  from  year  to  year.  The  increased  manufacture 
of  sulphate  has  enabled  the  manufacturers  to  use  increasing  proportions 
of  jack  pine.  The  use  of  balsam  fir  has  increased  steadily  in  past  years. 
In  British  Columbia  hemlock  is  used  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other 
wood.  In  every  other  province  spruce  heads  the  list  of  woods  converted 
into  pulp.  Spruce  pulp  wood  in  the  maritime  provinces  is  composed 
mostly  of  red  spruce,  which  is  confined  chiefly  to  that  region  of  Canada. 
With  this  are  mixed  smaller  quantities  of  white  spruce  and  black  spruce. 
In  Ontario  and  Western  Quebec  the  red  spruce  is  almost  unknown  and 
forms  only  a  small  part  of  the  wood  used.  White  spruce  grows  in 
Canada  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Yukon,  and  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
important  pulp  species  in  the  forests  of  that  country.  It  probably  forms 
90  per  cent,  of  the  spruce  pulp  wood  cut  in  Ontario  and  Quebec.  In 
Eastern  Canada  only  one  species  of  balsam  fir  occurs,  and  this  tree 
supplies  the  entire  production  of  balsam  fir  pulp  wood  in  Ontario,  Quebec, 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.  Poplar  is  used  only  in  Quebec  and 
Ontario.  Pulp  manufactured  from  the  wood  of  the  poplar  species  alone, 
lacks,  it  is  said,  the  high  tensile  strength  of  that  made  from  spruce, 
balsam  fir  and  other  coniferous  woods,  and  is  used  chiefly  to  give  body  to 
book  and  magazine  paper.  Mixed  with  a  stronger,  coarser  pulp  it  fills  in 
the  interstices  between  the  fibres  and  makes  the  paper  smooth  and 
opaque.  Germany  at  the  present  time  would  be  delighted  to  secure  a 
small  percentage  of  Canada's  enormous  pulp  resources.  Many  of  her 
newspapers  and  journals  have  had  to  suspend  publication  through  want 
of  paper.  But  the  British  Navy  and  Imperial  loyalty  stand  between  the 
mills  and  the  potential  purchaser. 

REPORTS  from  cities  and  leading  towns  west  of  Winnipeg  show  that 
the  tone  of  trade  is  gradually  brightening.  The  reports  from  such 
Saskatchewan  centres  as  Regina,  Moose  Jaw  and  Saskatoon  are  more 
cheerful  than  for  months  past.  The  agricultural  situation  in  nearly  every 


4^4  The  Empire  Review 

part  of  Saskatchewan  is  favourable,  and  business  men  generally  are  now 
more  eager  to  prepare  adequately  for  the  autumn  trade.  Retail  trade  at 
Calgary  is  also  better.  Prospects  at  Edmonton  are  favourable.  Both 
retail  and  wholesale  merchants  are  confident  that  conditions  will  warrant 
a  fairly  active  autumn  business.  Corresponding  reports  are  being 
received  from  such  points  as  Lethbridge  and  Macleod.  Trade  at 
Vancouver  shows  a  tendency  towards  improvement.  Crops  in  the 
interior  of  British  Columbia  are  promising,  and  the  industrial  outlook  at 
the  coast  is  somewhat  better.  Wholesale  merchants  report  large  orders 
from  many  points  outside  of  Vancouver. 

NOTABLE  developments  are  taking  place  this  autumn  in  the  fisheries 
of  Western  Canada,  white  fish  being  now  shipped  in  large  quantities 
from  Lesser  Slave  Lake,  in  Northern  Alberta,  to  Chicago.  The  con- 
struction of  the  Edmonton,  Dunvegan  and  British  Columbia  Railway 
northward  from  the  main  line  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  has  made  this 
lake  accessible,  and  in  its  waters  are  great  numbers  of  fish.  Two 
companies  have  been  formed  to  carry  on  fishing  in  the  lake,  and  special 
refrigerator  cars  are  being  supplied  to  take  the  fish  to  Edmonton,  thence 
by  way  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  to  Winnipeg,  and  thence  by  con- 
necting lines  to  Chicago,  which  states  that  it  can  take  all  the  white  fish 
that  can  be  sent  from  Western  Canada,  and  it  is  anticipated  that  the 
transportation  companies  will  have  to  enlarge  their  arrangements  next 
year  in  order  to  meet  the  increased  traffic.  Chicago  is  also  taking  from 
Canada  large  quantities  of  fresh  Prince  Rupert  halibut,  and  the  fishing 
industry  is  very  brisk  at  the  new  Pacific  coast  port.  Over  15,000,000 
pounds  of  fish,  handled  in  the  month  of  August,  was  Prince  Rupert's 
record.  White  salmon  has  the  largest  part  of  the  industry ;  halibut 
showed  up  well  with  2,106,400  pounds  landed  at  the  above  port.  The 
salmon  pack  for  the  month  represented  12,999,700  pounds  of  fish, 
approximately,  at  a  moderate  valuation,  about  £150,000.  Arrangements 
are  also  being  made  for  supplying  other  markets,  among  them  that  of  the 
British  Islands. 

THAT  The  Pas  District  of  Manitoba  has  its  share  of  riches  is  proved 
by  the  fact  that  cattle  raised  on  an  Indian  reserve  at  Moose  Lake,  south- 
east of  The  Pas,  are  being  killed  at  the  latter  place  and  sold  for  local 
consumption.  These  cattle  were  out  all  last  winter  in  the  open  without 
attention,  and  are  stated  to  be  in  excellent  condition.  Samples  of  grain 
grown  at  Piquitona,  240  miles  north  of  the  North  Saskatchewan  River, 
were  recently  brought  to  The  Pas  by  railwaymen.  There  were  wheat, 
barley  and  oats  in  the  collection  which  furnished  ample  proof  that 
Manitoba's  hinterland  possesses  grain-growing  possibilities  equal  to 
districts  further  south.  The  barley  and  oats  straw  measured  over  4  feet 
in  length  and  the  wheat  3|  feet.  The  barley  was  ripe  enough  to  cut. 
The  seeds  had  been  accidentally  dropped  along  the  right-of-way  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Railway,  and  without  cultivation  took  root  and  developed 
fine,  strong  straw  with  large,  well-filled  heads. 

A  SCHEME  which  will  involve  the  diversion  of  four  rivers,  and  irrigate 
much  of  the  irrigable  land  in  Southern  Alberta  that  has  hitherto  not 


Oversea  Notes  475 

been  dealt  with,  is  being  developed  by  the  Dominion  Government.  The 
first  step  has  already  been  taken  by  the  irrigation  of  30,000  acres  in  the 
Taber  district,  which  is  being  opened  up  by  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway, 
and  will  be  operated  by  the  new  Taber  irrigation  scheme.  The  Old  Man 
River  diversion  project  has  also  been  surveyed  by  Dominion  Government 
officials,  and  this  will  mean  the  irrigation  of  about  100,000  acres  north  of 
Lethbridge.  It  is  expected  that  a  start  will  be  made  on  this  project 
next  year,  as  the  farmers  affected  have  their  districts  almost  organised. 

THE  Minister  of  Agriculture,  speaking  to  the  Toronto  farmers,  said  : 
"This  year  we  should  be  thankful  that  there  will  be  plenty  of  fodder, 
and  that  there  is  a  tremendous  stimulus  to  raising  of  all  forms  of  live 
stock.  There  are  more  cattle,  and  the  healthy,  stimulating  effect  of  the 
war  on  the  improvement  of  this  industry  is  very  apparent.  Never  was 
there  a  day  when  so  broad  and  sincere  an  effort  was  made  to  put 
agriculture  in  its  proper  place.  The  Government  has  done  what  it  could 
to  assist  in  the  marketing  of  live  stock,  by  securing  information  about 
foreign  markets,  and  by  stimulating  co-operation  among  the  farmers  as  to 
shipping.  Another  message  I  have  to  give  you  is  that  the  Prime 
Minister  has  consulted  with  the  British  Admiralty  and  arranged  for  safe 
transportation  across  the  Atlantic  for  the  Canadian  crops." 

AN  interesting  instance  of  the  extent  to  which  the  timber  resources 
of  the  Province  of  British  Columbia  have  been  under-estimated  is  reported 
by  surveyors  lately  returned  from  an  examination  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Elk,  Salmon,  White  and  Gold  Rivers  on  Vancouver  Island.  They  came 
across  100,000  acres  of  unalienated  crown  timber,  representing  a  total  of 
about  one  and  a  half  billion  feet.  This  timber  is  readily  accessible.  In 
fact  the  grades  which  exist  in  these  valleys  render  it  possible  to  bring 
logs  across  the  island  from  Nootka  to  Salmon  River,  crossing  the  surveys 
of  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway. 

NORTH  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  and  east  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains  there  is  under  development  in  Canada  to-day  an  inland 
empire  that  half  a  dozen  years  ago  was  the  wandering  ground  of  the 
trapper  and  prospector.  It  was  known  that  it  contained  vast  arable 
plateaux  and  fertile  valleys  that  would  attract  the  settler,  but  it  was 
then  too  remote,  and  it  was  generally  felt  that  development  would 
concern  the  next  generation  rather  than  the  present.  The  changes  that 
the  central  and  northern  interior  of  British  Columbia  have  witnessed  in 
a  few  years,  however,  are  remarkable.  The  progressive  policy  of  the 
Provincial  Government  has  resulted  in  the  frontier  of  settlement  being 
pushed  farther  back,  and  the  development  has  been  permanent.  Through 
various  channels  news  of  the  fertile  valleys  and  plateau  lands  reached  the 
crowded  places.  Explorers  were  sent  into  the  empty  places  and  sketched 
rough  maps  of  the  arable  areas.  Surveyors  were  sent  to  locate  the  best 
routes  for  roads  and  railways.  They  made  extensive  surveys  in  advance 
of  settlement,  and  have  covered  21,000,000  acres  to  date.  Railroad 
builders  followed  the  surveyors,  and  towns  sprang  up  as  the  metals  were 
stretched  across  the  Province.  The  construction  of  the  Grand  Trunk 


476  The  Empire  Review 

Pacific,  the  Canadian  Northern  Pacific  and  the  Pacific  Great  Eastern 
railroads  has  resulted  in  region  after  region  being  opened  up.  To  the 
total  railroad  mileage  in  operation  in  the  Province  last  year  an  additional 
3,884  miles  is  being  added.  In  a  country  like  this,  railway  construction 
and  road  building  must  necessarily  be  a  most  costly  undertaking,  but 
the  Government  of  the  Province  realises  its  wonderful  potentialities, 
development  of  which  must  needs  wait  on  the  provision  of  transportation. 
In  Cariboo,  where  royalties  were  in  the  past  paid  on  £12,000,000  of 
gold  taken  from  its  deposits,  in  spite  of  the  handicap  of  enormous  freight 
rates,  the  gold  fields  will  be  again  opened  under  modern  methods  made 
possible  by  railroad  transportation.  All  that  is  wanted  to  develop  these 
rich  regions  of  British  Columbia  is  the  presence  of  the  settler  with 
enterprise  and  capital. 

THE  fruit  growers  of  Nova  Scotia  are  expecting  to  find  a  good  market 
for  their  apples  and  at  a  satisfactory  price ;  for,  while  there  has  been  a 
fair  crop  of  apples  in  the  Old  Country,  there  has  been  a  large  falling  off 
in  the  eastern  and  far  western  sections  of  the  United  States.  Other 
parts  of  the  States  are  said  to  have  had  more  apples  than  last  year,  but 
this  will  not  be  sufficient  to  compensate  the  loss  in  the  east  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  It  is  said  that  the  Nova  Scotia  crop  this  year  is  800,000 
barrels,  but  it  is  difficult  to  forecast  what  quantity  of  these  will  be  sent 
overseas.  It  will  be  found  advisable  to  market  as  many  as  possible  in 
Canada,  on  account  of  the  higher  freight  rate  to  England. 

WAR  conditions  tend  to  make  New  Brunwick's  1915  big  game  season 
the  most  successful  experienced  for  several  years.  Hundreds  of  applica- 
tions for  sporting  licenses  have  been  received  by  the  Crown  Lands 
Department,  and  by  the  various  guides  throughout  the  Province  asking 
for  information  regarding  the  hunting  season.  It  would  appear  that  the 
influx  of  sportsmen  from  the  United  States  is  larger  this  year  than  ever. 
With  Europe  ravaged  by  war  the  sportsmen  from  across  the  border  have 
been  unable  to  visit  the  Continent,  as  some  have  been  doing  in  past 
years,  and  they  have  therefore  to  find  new  ground  for  their  hunting.  A 
great  many  of  the  applications  have  been  received  from  sportsmen  who 
are  making  their  first  trip  to  New  Brunswick. 

AN  interesting  account  of  the  work  at  St.  Peter's  Mission,  Hay  River, 
Hudson  Bay,  is  given  by  Miss  Page,  a  native  of  Edmonton,  on  returning 
after  five  years  of  work  there.  The  mission  is  among  the  Indians, 
although  an  occasional  Eskimo  attends  the  school.  The  children  are 
taken  into  the  mission  and  given  instruction  in  English,  in  which  they 
generally  prove  to  be  apt  pupils.  The  girls  are  taught  household  duties, 
and  the  boys  receive  instruction  along  lines  useful  to  them.  While  some 
of  the  girls  take  kindly  to  house  work,  the  majority  require  careful 
supervision  or  they  will  shirk.  At  needlework  or  other  occupations 
where  they  are  allowed  to  sit  they  are  industrious.  Many  of  the  children 
after  being  at  the  mission  for  a  short  time  quite  enjoy  the  cleanliness, 
but  she  says  there  is  a  tendency  in  some  to  fall  back  into  the  old  Indian 
ways  after  returning  home. 


Oversea  Notes  477 


NEW  ZEALAND 

THE  amazing  sum  of  £21,574  was  subscribed  for  a  patriotic  flag, 
presented  by  a  New  Zealander  towards  the  Wounded  Soldiers'  Fund  in 
New  Zealand  recently,  at  a  patriotic  boxing  carnival.  The  bids  included 
one  of  three  thousand  guineas,  three  of  one  thousand  each,  and  numerous 
bids  of  £500  each.  A  sum  of  about  £40,000  was  subscribed  to  the  fund 
during  one  week  by  the  people  of  the  Wairarapa  district. 

THE  New  Zealand  Minister  for  Defence  announces  certain  changes 
in  the  pay  of  officers  serving  with  the  New  Zealand  Forces.  The 
following  are  the  new  rates  :  Major-General  £1,200  to  £1,500  ;  Brigadier- 
General  £900  to  £1,000  ;  Colonel  £700  to  £750  ;  Lieutenant-Colonel 
£550  to  £600 ;  Major  £450  to  £475  ;  Captain  £350  to  £400  ;  Lieutenant 
£250  to  £300 ;  Second-Lieutenant  £160  to  £200. 

IN  reply  to  a  question  in  parliament  whether  the  New  Zealand 
Government  had  considered  the  advisability  of  giving  preference  in  all 
future  Government  vacancies  for  caretakers,  messengers  and  watchmen, 
to  returned  wounded  soldiers  who  may  have  been  incapacitated  for  hard 
work,  the  Prime  Minister  stated : — "  Returned  soldiers  of  good  record 
are  to  be  given  special  consideration — provided  they  are  suitable — for 
appointment  in  the  general  division,  or  for  temporary  clerical  employment 
if  such  is  available ;  special  consideration  is  to  be  given  to  the  employ- 
ment of  relatives  of  soldiers  killed  or  disabled  during  the  war,  provided 
the  Public  Service  Commissioners  are  satisfied  that  a  reasonable  necessity 
exists." 

THE  Dominion  is  fitting  out  its  second  hospital  ship,  and  citizens  from 
all  over  the  country  are  offering  their  best  for  its  equipment.  One 
remarkable  offer  made  by  a  lady  reads  like  a  Jules  Verne  romance,  so 
startling  is  it.  This  is  the  free  gift  from  her  of  a  deposit  of  scheelite — 
an  ore  yielding  tungsten,  used  in  the  hardening  of  steel— containing 
30,000  tons,  now  worth  £631  per  ton.  Multiplied  out  at  even  £500  per 
ton,  there  is  a  cool  offer  of  £15,000,000  to  be  picked  up  for  the  working 
of  the  stuff".  "  Ever  since  she  was  a  child  the  generous  donor  has  been 
interested  in  mining  and  geology,  and  has  lived  as  a  working  miner  on 
the  Yukon  River,  in  Alaska,  in  Australia,  and  in  New  Zealand,  and 
declares  that  she  can  do  a  day's  hard  work  in  the  mine  along  with  any 
man.  The  fact  that  she  owns  and  work  (as  a  sideline)  a  gold  mine  is  but 
an  item  in  the  story  !  The  scheelite  deposit  was  discovered  in  the 
Marlborough  District  of  New  Zealand  several  years  ago,  and  it  consists 
of  three  reefs  over  which  she  holds  the  mineral  rights.  One  of  these  she 
has  offered  to  the  Government,  and  the  other  two — one  larger  and  the 
other  smaller — she  is  reserving  for  herself.  The  offer  to  the  Government 
is  made  conditional  upon  all  moneys  received  for  stuff  actually  worked 
being  paid  over  to  the  wounded  soldiers. 

THE  Napier  Park  Racing  Club  has  decided  to  hold  its  meeting  as 
usual,  but  to  devote  50  per  cent,  of  the  profits  to  the  fund  for  wounded 


478  The  Empire  Review 

and  invalided  soldiers  of  the  Province.  The  Otahuhu  Club,  another  New 
Zealand  one.  which  had  already  given  a  handsome  donation  to  the 
New  Zealand  hospital  ship,  has  itself  undertaken  to  donate  £10  a  month 
from  the  club's  funds  till  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  and  to  approach  all 
Trotting  Clubs  in  the  Dominion  with  the  suggestion  that  they  should 
adopt  a  similar  course  in  regard  to  the  funds  for  the  wounded  soldiers. 

A  MESSAGE  from  Nuhaka  states  that  a  memorial  stone  to  the  late 
chief,  Ihaka  Whaanga,  erected  at  Nuhaka,  was  recently  unveiled  by 
Judge  Jones.  The  following  resolution  was  adopted  by  the  Maoris 
present :  "  This  gathering  of  Maori  people,  to  do  honour  to  the  memory 
of  the  dead  chief,  here  beside  his  tomb,  affirm  their  devotion  to  the 
Empire  he  loved  and  fought  for,  pledge  their  utmost  resources  in  its 
service  and  defence,  and  express  their  earnest  desire  that  there  be  no 
cessation  of  the  struggle  until  the  once-sacred  principles  of  justice  and 
humanity  are  firmly  re-established." 

THE  Dominion  Government  has  been  particularly  active  in  its 
endeavours  to  secure  to  the  use  of  Britain  the  metals  which  Australia 
produces.  One  of  the  substances  that  have  been  commandeered  by  the 
Government  is  molybdenite,  a  mineral  used  in  certain  processes  for  the 
toughening  of  steel.  New  Zealand  produces  molybdenite  and  also 
scheelite,  a  mineral  from  which  tungsten  is  obtained,  and  tungsten 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  special  steels.  In  reply  to  a  question 
as  to  whether  the  New  Zealand  Government  contemplated  taking  any 
action  similar  to  that  taken  by  the  Federal  Government,  the  Prime 
Minister  said  that  the  matter  was  already  under  consideration.  He 
proposed  to  make  arrangements  by  which  scheelite  and  molybdenite 
would  be  purchased  by  the  New  Zealand  Government,  on  behalf  of  the 
Imperial  Government,  exactly  as  frozen  meat  is  purchased  now. 

ONE  of  the  greatest  triumphs  at  the  World's  Fair  at  San  Francisco 
was  that  scored  by  New  Zealand  in  the  cheese  section,  for  the  Dominion 
cheese  does  not  usually  conform  to  the  American  tastes.  In  colour,  size, 
and  texture,  there  is  a  considerable  variation.  It  would  appear  that 
American  taste  inclines  to  a  higher  favour,  a  deeper  colour,  and  a  lesser 
size  cheese.  Still,  for  this  particular  variety  New  Zealand  has  obtained 
this  great  Grand  Prix  triumph,  and  with  the  greater  satisfaction  because 
the  judges  were  men  of  the  highest  qualifications,  Professors  Hadfield, 
Farrington,  Wing,  and  Woll,  all  eminent  authorities. 

FOR  the  past  twenty -five  years  there  has  never  been  a  better  winter 
in  New  Zealand.  It  was  confidently  expected  that  after  the  long  drought 
and  the  scarcity  of  feed,  stock  was  going  to  fare  very  badly  towards  the 
winter.  Nature,  however,  has  been  most  kind.  Warm  rains  commenced 
to  fall,  and  just  when  feed  was  urgently  needed  grass  began  to  grow  at  a 
very  satisfactory  rate,  so  much  so  that  all  anxiety  disappeared.  All 
milking  cows  went  out  very  poor,  but  now  they  are  in  the  best  of  con- 
dition, and  the  season  has  opened  far  in  advance  of  other  years.  Milk  is 
beginning  to  flow  very  fast  to  the  factories,  and  if  there  is  no  set-back 
later  on  farmers  along  this  coast  will  reap  a  great  harvest  as  a  result  of 


Oversea  Notes  470 

high  prices  obtaining  for  their  produce.  Sheepmen,  too,  are  in  the  best 
of  spirits  at  the  very  bright  outlook.  Lambing  is  proceeding  very 
satisfactorily,  and  already  the  percentage  along  the  coast  promises  to 
be  very  high.  North  of  Wanganui,  particularly  about  Waverley,  in  the 
Feilding  district,  there  are  not  a  few  ewe  mothers  suckling  triplets  and 
twins,  and  so  far  the  younsters  look  decidedly  healthy.  All  round  the 
prospects  are  bright. 

A  NEW  issue  of  New  Zealand  postage  stamps  is  now  in  circulation. 
The  issue  includes  eleven  varieties  of  stamps,  ranging  in  value  from  ^d. 
to  1«.  The  design  includes  the  head  of  His  Majesty  the  King  set  in  an 
attractive  framework,  and  the  various  denominations  are  distinguished 
by  the  colour  of  the  stamp  and  the  value  mark  in  the  top  corners.  The 
denomination  and  the  colour  of  the  new  stamps  are  as  follows :  ^d., 
emerald  green  ;  l^d.,  dark  grey  ;  2d.,  violet ;  2|d.,  naphtha  blue  ;  3d.,  dark 
brown ;  4d.,  yellow ;  4 Id.,  moss  green ;  Qd.,  cerise ;  7-W.,  brick  brown  ; 
9<Z.,  reseda  green ;  Is.,  orange. 

SOUTH   AFRICA 

A  JOHANNESBURG  doctor  is  conducting  experiments  in  the  perfecting 
of  a  respirator  for  combating  the  effects  of  the  poisonous  gases  used  by 
the  Germans.  The  substance  used  is  said  to  be  obtained  from  a  South 
African  plant  which  is  obtainable  in  unlimited  quantities,  and  which  has 
the  power  of  absorbing  both  chlorine  and  bromine  gases  in  large  quanti- 
ties. At  a  demonstration  given  before  a  representative  of  a  local  paper, 
the  demonstrator  allowed  his  face  to  be  enveloped  in  such  fatal  gases  as 
those  arising  from  nitric  oxide  without  any  disagreeable  result. 

A  BROAD  gauge  line  has  now  been  completed  from  Walvis  Bay  to 
connect  up  with  the  railway  system  of  the  Union.  The  last  section  to  be 
completed  was  from  Ebony  to  Karibib  in  the  newly  conquered  territory. 
The  distance  was  32  miles,  and  the  line  was  converted  from  a  narrow 
to  a  broad  gauge  in  50  hours,  which  constitutes  a  considerable  achieve- 
ment in  South  African  railway  construction.  The  work  was  carried  out 
by  the  South  African  Eailway  Engineering  Corps. 

IN  his  Annual  Report  the  General  Manager  of  the  South  African 
Railways  says  it  is  significant  to  note  that  whilst  South  Africa  in  the 
past  annually  imported  £70,000  worth  of  eggs,  since  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  60,130  dozen  eggs  have  been  exported  from  South  Africa  to 
the  London  market,  and  no  eggs  have  been  imported  into  South  Africa. 

DURING  the  year  1914  the  gold  mines  in  the  Transvaal  produced  38 '7 
per  cent,  of  the  world's  output,  viz.  £35,588,000  out  of  £92,000,000. 
The  number  of  natives  employed  on  these  mines  is  170,000,  and  the  sum 
expended  annually  for  machinery,  stores,  etc.,  amounts  to  £11,000,000. 
The  tonnage  of  ore  milled  during  1914  amounted  to  26,369,946  tons  as 
compared  with  8,058,295  tons  in  1904,  an  increase  of  over  three  hundred 
per  cent.  The  dividends  paid  in  1904  amounted  to  £3,934,958,  whereas 
in  1914  the  sum  paid  was  £8,404,060. 


480  The  Empire  Review 

AN  expert  has  given  it  as  his  opinion  that  if  a  really  serious  attempt 
were  made  to  produce  cotton  on  a  commercial  scale,  Natal,  especially  the 
midland  districts,  would  prove  a  serious  rival  to  the  Southern  States  of 
America  in  the  matter  of  cotton-growing.  It  is  held  that  as  compared 
with  mealies  cotton  growing  is  quite  as  good  a  proposition,  in  some  cases, 
in  fact,  a  better  one,  as  land  that  would  be  classed  as  useless  for  mealies 
would  produce  cotton  in  abundance.  Some  recent  consignments  of  South 
African  cotton  to  England  fetched  from  a  halfpenny  to  a  penny  more 
than  'the  American  product. 

THE  first  attempt  to  introduce  Angora  goats  into  South  Africa  is  said 
to  have  been  made  in  1825.  So  much  intelligent  care  and  industry  was 
applied  to  the  breeding  of  these  animals  that  in  1891  there  were  3,184,018 
goats  in  the  country,  and  some  of  them  were  superior  to  any  that  Turkey 
had  produced.  In  1865  South  Africa  exported  to  the  United  Kingdom 
9,609  Ibs.  mohair  as  against  2,421,188  Ibs.  from  Turkey.  In  1887  the 
figures  were:  South  Africa,  8,756,116  Ibs.;  Turkey,  6,714,816  Ibs. 
Since  that  time  the  exports  from  Turkey  have  only  twice  exceeded  those 
from  South  Africa,  which  now  produces  more  than  half  the  world's 
consumption  of  mohair. 

THE  first  consignment  of  beef  sent  from  Natal  by  the  Agricultural 
Co-operative  Union  consisted  of  120  carcases,  for  which  £2,513  was 
realised  on  the  Smithfield  Market,  equal  to  about  £21  per  head.  The 
net  return  to  the  breeder  is  said  to  work  out  at  4|d.  per  Ib.  If  the  net 
proceeds  of  offal,  hides,  horns,  etc.,  be  added,  the  return  to  the  breeder 
is  stated  to  be  5f  d.  per  Ib.  The  prices  realised  on  the  London  market 
ranged  from  6|d.  to  7-f  d.  per  Ib. 

THE  Government  Mining  Engineer  in  his  annual  report  states  that 
the  output  of  the  Union  Steel  Corporation  of  South  Africa  at  Vereeni- 
ging,  which  has  been  at  work  for  over  twelve  months,  has  reached  about 
400  tons  a  month.  In  order  to  put  the  works  on  a  more  sound  com- 
mercial basis  further  plant  and  machinery  is  to  be  acquired.  The 
additions  include  a  15-inch  mill,  a  22-inch  cogging  mill,  and  additional 
melting  and  reheating  furnaces.  The  output  at  present  consists  of  bars 
of  all  sections,  fencing  standards  and  light  rails  up  to  20  Ibs.  size.  With 
the  new  plant  it  is  hoped  to  roll  rails  up  to  35  Ibs.,  and  produce  an 
output  of  about  10,000  tons  per  annum. 

IT  is  reported  that  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  Welsh  coal 
the  Soudan  Railways  are  about  to  start  an  experiment  in  the  use  of 
South  African  coal,  and  a  steamer  laden  with  such  coal  has  left  Delagoa 
Bay  for  Port  Soudan.  Some  change  in  the  fire  grates  will  be  necessary 
and  the  mode  of  firing  is  different,  so  the  services  of  a  South  African 
railway  locomotive  inspector  have  been  requisitioned  for  the  purpose  of 
supervising  the  necessary  alterations.  It  is  possible  that  if  the  experi- 
ment succeeds  the  use  of  South  African  coal  may  also  be  arranged  on  the 
Egyptian  State  Railways,  and  the  trials  will  accordingly  be  watched 
with  great  interest. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 


AND 


JOURNAL    OF    BRITISH    TRADE 

VOL.  XXIX.        DECEMBER  1915.  No.   179. 


POLICY   AND    STRATEGY 

DURING  the  continuance  of  the  present  hideous  conflict 
political  strife  must  be  abandoned.  On  that  all  are  agreed,  and 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  agreement  is  everywhere  scrupulously 
adhered  to.  But  does  this  mean  that  criticism  is  to  be  stifled  ? 
I  cannot  think  that  any  sane  person  would  contend  that  this  is 
so  as  long  as  the  criticism  is  genuine  and  free  from  political  bias. 
For  two  reasons  such  criticism  should  be  both  permissible  and 
welcome.  It  provides  a  safety  valve  for  the  instincts  of  a  free 
people,  and,  if  it  contains  a  constructive  element,  may  be  dis- 
tinctly helpful. 

Many  hard  things  have  been  said  of  our  diplomacy,  but  I 
believe  it  to  have  been  essentially  honest  and  well  meaning.  Its 
inherent  weakness  lies  in  its  persistent  ignoring  of  the  funda- 
mental principle  that  policy  during  peace  is  based  on  strength, 
and  during  war  is  identical  with  strategy.  Obviously  it  is  useless 
to  have  a  foreign  policy  without  the  strength  to  see  it  through. 
At  the  close  of  the  Chino-Japanese  war  Japan  lost  all  she  had 
striven  for,  and  lost  it  because  her  foreign  policy  was  not  backed 
up  by  a  sufficient  strength  to  enable  her  to  defy  German  intrigue 
and  European  indifference.  Many  have  been  the  occasions  during 
peace  when  British  diplomacy  has  been  based  on,  and  has  suc- 
ceeded by  a  mere  hint  of  an  appeal  to,  our  naval  strength. 

Yet  for  some  years  past,  owing  probably  to  the  influence  of 
the  chimerical  doctrines  of  the  ultra-pacificists,  our  diplomacy 
has  ignored  this  basic  principle.  When  war  broke  out  this 
harmful  breach  was  not  healed,  and  instead  of  diplomacy  and 
strategy  being  regarded  as  the  two  aspects  of  a  uniform  policy 
they  were  divorced.  The  result  has  been  that  our  diplomacy 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  179.  2  o 


482  The  Empire  Review 

has  been  futile  and  our  strategy  irresolute,  lacking  in  principle, 
opportunist  and  therefore  tardy,  tending  rather  to  disaster  than 
to  victory. 

On  the  other  hand  Prussian  strategy  has  everywhere  been 
consistent,  and  Prussian  diplomacy  has  played  its  proper  part  as 
the  inseparable  twin  and  complement  of  the  military  conception. 
From  the  topographical  nature  of  the  case  it  follows  that 
Prussian  strategy  is  always  directed  along  radial  axes  to  a 
periphery.  The  first  and  most  obvious  axis  is  that  leading 
against  France.  The  long-prepared  strategy,  therefore,  led  to 
a  marvellous  extension  of  railway  facilities  on  the  French,  Swiss, 
and  Belgian  borders.  It  enabled  a  rapid  concentration  of  troops 
to  be  made  on  any  desired  point  of  the  Western  sector  of  the 
periphery.  Prussian  diplomacy  aimed  at  the  lulling  of  Britain's 
watchfulness,  the  securing  of  Britain's  indifferent  neutrality,  so 
that  the  German  navy  might  co-operate  with  the  army,  thus 
gaining  the  double  advantage  of  axial  and  peripheral  attack 
against  the  Western  sector. 

Towards  the  East  magnificent  strategic  railways  were  equally 
called  into  being,  while  diplomacy — degenerating  into  intrigue — 
aimed  at  fomenting  internal  dissension  in  Eussia,  so  as  to  cripple 
that  gigantic  Empire's  power  of  initiative.  In  the  South,  Austria- 
Hungary  was  the  obedient  lackey  of  Berlin,  whilst  no  effort  had 
been  spared  to  gain  over  those  apparently  irreconcilable  elements, 
the  Turks  and  the  Balkan  States. 

In  no  direction  has  either  diplomacy  or  strategy  gained  a 
complete  success  for  Germany.  Nevertheless  she  has  conquered, 
and  so  far  held,  all  the  manufacturing  districts  of  Northern 
France  and  Belgium.  She  has  made  an  effective  occupation  of 
Russian  Poland.  She  has  organised  a  forcible  irruption  into 
Serbia.  She  has  gained  over  Turkey  and  Bulgaria  to  her  side. 
She  has  cost  us  many  thousands  of  our  best  in  the  futile  en- 
deavour to  reach  Constantinople  by  the  most  difficult  and 
hazardous  route.  In  short  she  has  demonstrated  her  complete 
understanding  of  the  exigencies  and  expedients  imposed  upon  her 
by  her  inevitable  radial  strategy,  and  has  to  a  certain  extent  made 
up  for  her  loss  of  practically  all  her  sea  power.  On  the  surface 
she  is  now  in  a  stronger  position  than  she  has  been  at  any  time 
since  the  retreat  from  Paris.  That  appearance  of  strength,  due 
to  her  resolute  employment  of  every  strategic  advantage,  has 
reacted  to  the  advantage  of  her  diplomacy,  and  the  ring  of 
"  shivering  neutrals,"  from  Sweden  to  Eoumania,  await  in 
trembling  her  next  move  or  do  violence  to  their  racial  instincts  by 
joining  what  appears  to  be  the  winning  side. 

Meanwhile  the  divorce  between  our  diplomacy  and  our 
strategy  has  reacted  most  disastrously  on  all  our  endeavour,  and 


Policy  and  Strategy  483 

has  magnified  enormously  the  task  before  us.  Having  guaranteed 
the  independence  of  Belgium  we  neglected  to  provide  a  force 
adequate  to  enforce  our  guarantee.  We  apparently  thought  that 
the  long  lines  of  scientific  troop  sidings  on  the  Belgian  frontier 
had  been  constructed  merely  to  afford  employment  to  German 
out-of-works,  and  relied  on  mild  diplomatic  intervention  to  avert 
the  infamy  which  we  ought  to  have  known  had  long  been  con- 
templated. 

When  the  Goeben  and  Breslau  reached  the  Golden  Horn  our 
strategy  still  halted  limping  behind  our  feeble  diplomacy.  A. 
single  master  mind  actuating  both  would  have  sent  a  strong 
squadron  hot  on  the  German  heels  to  Constantinople  with  an 
ultimatum.  We  preferred  the  usual  mild  diplomatic  remon- 
strances with  the  usual  result. 

Unity  of  plan  required  that  we  should  long  ago  have  garrisoned 
Serbia.  This  we  did  not  do.  A  quarter  of  a  million  of  men 
in  the  Balkans  three  months  ago  would  have  meant  Greece, 
Eoumania,  and  Bulgaria  on  our  side.  We  ignored  the  true 
meaning  of  our  peripheral  position  and  allowed  ourselves  to  dally 
with  the  Turks,  far  removed  then  from  the  real  object  of  our 
attack.  Our  diplomacy  failed  with  the  three  important  States, 
and  failed,  as  our  Foreign  Minister  confesses  too  late,  because 
we  had  no  victory.  That  is  because  our  diplomacy  acted 
independently  of,  instead  of  identifying  itself  with,  our 
strategy. 

It  is  no  use  disguising  the  fact  that  the  present  situation  is 
deeply  serious.  We  can  win,  but  we  can  only  do  so  if  we 
recognise  that  our  present  adversary  is  not  one  against  whom  we 
can  "muddle  through."  We  must  have  a  definite  recognition  of 
what  our  peripheral  position  implies.  We  must  have  a  clear 
coherent  plan  in  which  our  policy  shall  express  itself  in  our 
higher  strategy.  That  plan  must  be  pushed  forward  relentlessly, 
without  feverish  haste  but  without  faltering.  The  firm  deter- 
mination of  this  Empire  does  not  find  its  best  expression  in  the 
leisurely  procedure  and  vacillatory  methods  of  an  amateur 
debating  society. 

It  would  seem  to  be  obvious  to  the  meanest  intelligence  that 
the  peripheral  position  occupied  by  the  Entente  Powers  involves 
first  of  all  a  blockade  type  of  strategy.  So  far  as  the  Navy  is 
concerned  it  has  done  its  duty  in  this  respect,  to  the  extent 
permitted  by  that  curious  conception  of  foreign  policy,  which  took 
over  a  year  to  make  cotton  contraband.  The  submarine  successes 
in  the  Baltic  have  practically  completed  the  iron  ring  which  by 
sea  blocks  all  enemy  endeavour  to  lengthen  any  axis.  Early 
mistakes  in  Naval  strategy,  such  as  the  Goeben  episode,  are  now 
completely  things  of  the  past,  and  are  only  to  be  referred  to  as 

2  o  2 


484  The  Empire  Review 

examples  of  wrong  method,  against  mistakes  similar  to  which  we 
must  guard  in  the  future. 

It  is  when  we  come  to  the  land  operations  that  we  find  the 
greatest  ground  for  misgivings.  We  have  not  made  our  blockade 
complete  in  any  one  instance.  We  have  permitted  France  and 
Belgium  to  be  most  effectively  invaded  and  most  persistently 
occupied.  We  have  equally  been  compelled  to  acquiesce  in  the 
invasion  and  occupation  of  Russian  Poland.  Of  course  the 
original  weakness  of  the  Entente  Powers,  which  has  permitted 
the  enemy  to  turn  possibilities  into  facts  on  these  two  frontiers,  is 
not  morally  to  their  discredit,  since  it  was  due  to  their  reluctance 
to  believe  the  worst  of  their  treacherous  neighbour.  Still, 
admitting  this,  the  fact  remains  that  the  weakest  point  in  our 
circumvallation  of  the  Central  Powers  was  Serbia.  Here  we 
have  a  tiny  State,  wearied  almost  to  death  by  successive  struggles, 
which  offered  a  most  tempting  door  to  the  Prussian  ambition  to 
rule  the  East.  We  knew  that  that  was  Prussia's  ambition.  We 
knew  that  for  many  years  she  had  employed  all  her  forces  of 
money  and  intrigue  in  the  endeavour  to  suborn  Egypt,  Turkey, 
and  the  Balkan  States.  We  equally  knew — at  least  if  our  Cabinet 
did  not  the  ordinary  citizen  did,*  that  if  you  squeeze  an  inflated 
paper  bag  it  will  burst  at  the  point  at  which  there  is  no  pressure. 
The  Italian  operations  and  the  Baltic  successes  reduced  the 
possible  points  of  eruption  to  one,  precisely  Serbia.  Yet  we  did 
nothing  to  stop  that  gap.  Our  land  blockade  is  therefore 
ineffectual  and  another  small  State  has  been  sacrificed. 

This  is  merely  on  the  negative  side,  our  failure  to  prevent. 
But  no  war  yet  was  won  by  mere  prevention.  That  side  wins 
which  attacks,  which  asserts  and  maintains  the  initiative. 
Have  we  shown  any  initiative?  Yes,  in  one  instance — the 
Dardanelles  cum  Gallipoli  endeavour.  Here,  after  giving  ample 
notice  of  our  intentions,  we  played  into  the  enemy's  hands  by 
locking-up  and  sacrificing  many  thousands  of  the  finest  men  the 
world  has  ever  seen  ;  sacrificing  them  too  at  a  point  remote 
from  the  enemy's  periphery.  The  men  employed  in  Gallipoli 
would  have  saved  the  situation  in  Serbia,  would  have  enabled  us 
to  co-operate  with  Eussia  by  an  attack  on  the  Austrian  southern 
frontier,  and  would  have  paralysed  the  German  endeavour  by 
blocking  its  last  outlet  and  asserting  our  initiative  in  a  vital 
direction.  If  men  are  wanted  beyond  those  possible  from  these 
islands  and  the  Dominions,  the  question  arises  whether  we  are 
recruiting  all  we  can  in  India.  We  have  no  information  on  the 
point,  but  it  should  not  be  impossible  to  raise  and  equip  a  million 
men  from  that  Empire  without  in  any  way  straining  its  resources. 
India  enthusiastically  recognises  that  the  fight  is  as  much  hers  as 

*  See  e.g.  the  issues  of  the  Spfare  for  February  27  and  August  21. 


Policy  and  Strategy  485 

ours,  and  is  quite  prepared  to  take  a  large  share  of  the  cost  in 
blood,  treasure,  and  anxiety  which  the  struggle  for  world-freedom 
entails. 

Meanwhile  we  are  assured  that  this  is  a  war  of  attrition,  that 
our  resources  are  so  superior  to  those  of  the  enemy  that  we  must 
win.  That  way  lies  stalemate  and  confusion.  We  have  no 
certain  assurance  that  Germany  is  being  worn  down  economi- 
cally. She  is  much  more  self-contained  than  we  are.  Her 
method  of  government  enables  her  to  husband  her  resources 
much  more  effectively  than  we  do  ours.  In  any  case  it  is  our 
duty  to  end  the  conflict  at  the  earliest  moment  at  which  absolute 
German  defeat  can  be  procured.  That  defeat  will  never  come 
while  the  Prussian  can  boast  that  no  enemy  foot  pollutes  the 
sacred  soil  of  the  Fatherland.  The  school  of  fatuous  optimism 
asserts  that  Germany  is  weakened  with  every  advance  she  makes. 
That  is  sheer  nonsense.  Have  the  factories  of  France,  Belgium, 
and  Poland  ;  the  copper  mines  of  Serbia,  weakened  her  ?  Have 
they  not  added  50  per  cent,  to  her  industrial  strength  ?  This  is 
now  probably  greater  than  that  of  the  whole  of  the  Entente 
Powers.  Would  the  grain  of  Eoumania,  the  wheat  of  Anatolia, 
weaken  her  ?  Are  her  lines  of  communication  endangered  in  pro- 
portion to  their  length  ?  Surely  not  so  long  as  she  can  enclose 
them  as  she  has  done. 

For  over  a  year  now  we  have  had  a  blind  trust  in  our  leaders. 
Those  of  us  who  are  capable  of  thinking  have  said :  "  It  is  not  for 
us  to  judge.  Surely  such  great  men  have  some  splendid  plan 
which  they  are  slowly  maturing.  Patience,  and  we  shall  see." 
That  patience  has  been  exhibited,  and  now  there  is  a  very  uneasy 
feeling  that  there  is  no  plan,  that  diplomacy  and  strategy  are  not 
working  together,  and  that  we  are  doomed  to  see  a  repetition  of 
previous  blunders.  Are  we  in  a  position  to  face  an  expenditure 
of  £2,000,000,000  per  annum  during  several  years  while  we 
watch  our  hypothetical  process  of  attrition?  We  are  resolved 
to  win,  but  we  are  beginning  to  doubt  whether  we  are  going  the 
right  way  to  ensure  victory.  We  must  soon,  if  our  prestige  in 
the  East  is  not  to  be  seriously  impaired,  strike,  strike  hard,  and 
continue  to  strike.  Have  our  leaders  placed  us  in  a  position  to 
do  so  ? 

A.  E.  DUCHESNE. 


486  The  Empire  Review 


THE   HERITAGE   OF   BRITAIN 

As  the  present  terrible  struggle  has  proceeded  the  issues  at 
stake  for  the  world  in  general  and  this  country  in  particular  have 
become  ever  clearer.  The  early  revelation  of  the  cynical  dis- 
regard of  German  diplomacy  for  truth  and  honour,  and  the  later 
additional  evidence  afforded  by  Teutonic  machinations  in  the 
United  States ;  the  brutal  and  calculated  excesses  committed  in 
Belgium  and  Northern  France;  the  policy  of  "  frightfumess " 
at  sea  and  in  the  air — everything  in  the  conduct  of  our  adver- 
saries has  shown  in  the  most  vivid  fashion  the  full  meaning  to 
humanity  of  a  Prussian  triumph.  Civilisation  is  confronted  with 
a  menace  rarely  before  experienced,  and  Europe  is  threatened 
with  a  slavery  of  the  most  contemptible,  the  most  odious  and 
brutal  description. 

The  very  horror  of  the  alternative  intensifies  the  contrast 
presented  by  British  ideals.  It  places  in  bold  relief  the  traditions 
of  English  life,  and  enhances  for  us  the  value  of  our  great 
heritage  of  freedom. 

For  the  record  of  the  centuries  is  the  record  of  a  grim  and 
earnest  and  successful  battle  for  liberty — political,  social  and 
individual.  Our  past  is  enshrined  in  the  annals  of  noble  achieve- 
ments, in  the  roll  of  honourable  names,  and  most  especially  is 
brought  consciously  before  us  in  the  venerable  relics  of  bygone 
times.  York  Minster  and  the  City  walls ;  Lincoln  Cathedral 
and  the  steep  narrow  street  of  the  old  Jewry ;  the  ancient 
Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge ;  Westminster  Abbey  and 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral — these  and  numerous  other  stately  fabrics 
throughout  the  country  are  mute  but  eloquent  witnesses  to  the 
glorious  deeds  of  earlier  days. 

It  is  worth  while  pausing  for  a  few  moments  to  dwell  on  the 
life  of  those  medieval  years,  for  they  reveal  to  us  much  of  the 
secret  of  British  greatness.  They  were  days  of  turmoil  and  of 
ferocious  energy.  The  towns  were  beginning  to  make  themselves 
the  power  which  they  afterwards  became,  and  perhaps  the  rude 
activity  of  the  time  is  as  well  depicted  in  the  early  history  of 
Oxford  University  as  in  the  record  of  any  borough  of  the  Middle 


The  Heritage  of  Britain  487 

Ages.     Green's  picturesque  description  shows  us  the  scene  in 
vivid  outline : — 

At  the  opening  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Oxford  was  without  a  rival  in  its 
own  country,  while  in  European  celebrity  it  took  rank  with  the  greatest 
schools  of  the  Western  world.  But  to  realise  this  Oxford  of  the  past  we  must 
dismiss  from  our  minds  all  recollections  of  the  Oxford  of  the  present.  In 
the  outer  aspect  of  the  new  University  there  was  nothing  of  the  pomp  that 
overawes  the  freshman  as  he  first  paces  the  "High"  or  looks  down  from  the 
gallery  of  St.  Mary's.  In  the  stead  of  long  fronts  of  venerable  colleges,  of 
stately  walks  beneath  immemorial  elms,  history  plunges  us  into  the  mean  and 
filthy  lanes  of  a  mediasval  town.  Thousands  of  boys,  huddled  in  bare  lodging- 
houses,  clustering  round  teachers  as  poor  as  themselves  in  church  porch  and 
house  porch,  drinking,  quarrelling,  dicing,  begging  at  the  corners  of  the  streets, 
take  the  place  of  the  brightly  coloured  train  of  doctors  and  Heads.  Mayor 
and  Chancellor  struggled  in  vain  to  enforce  order  and  peace  on  this  seething 
mass  of  turbulent  life.  The  retainers  who  followed  their  young  lords  to  the 
University  fought  out  the  feuds  of  their  houses  in  the  streets.  Scholars  from 
Kent  and  scholars  from  Scotland  waged  the  bitter  struggle  of  North  and 
South.  At  nightfall  roysterer  and  reveller  roamed  with  torches  through  the 
narrow  lanes,  defying  bailiffs,  and  cutting  down  burghers  at  their  doors.  Now 
a  mob  of  clerks  plunged  into  the  Jewry  and  wiped  off  the  memory  of  bills  and 
bonds  by  sacking  a  Hebrew  house  or  two.  Now  a  tavern  row  between  scholar 
and  townsman  widened  into  a  general  broil,  and  the  academical  bell  of 
St.  Mary's  vied  with  the  town  bell  of  St.  Martin's  in  clanging  to  arms.  Every 
phase  of  ecclesiastical  controversy  or  political  strife  was  preluded  by  some 
fierce  outbreak  in  this  turbulent,  surging  mob.  When  England  growled  at 
the  exactions  of  the  Papacy,  the  students  besieged  a  legate  in  the  abbot's 
house  at  Osney.  A  murderous  town  and  gown  row  preceded  the  opening  of 
the  Barons'  War.  "When  Oxford  draws  knife,"  ran  the  old  rhyme,  "  England's 
soon  at  strife."  * 

Such  was  the  spirit  of  the  age — riotous,  licentious,  turbulent, 
but  withal  vigorous,  hardy,  independent.  Under  such  conditions 
was  Magna  Charta  won,  and  those  principles  of  law  and  freedom 
affirmed  which  succeeding  ages  were  but  to  consolidate  and 
develop — the  right  of  every  man  to  impartial  justice,  the  security 
of  property,  the  denial  of  arbitrary  taxation,  and  the  recognition 
of  class  privileges. 

Such  were  the  conditions  under  which  English  liberty  was 
built  up,  and  through  the  centuries,  in  spite  of  bloodshed,  in  spite 
of  tyranny,  in  spite  of  corruption  in  high  places,  the  fabric  made 
constant  progress.  Prominent  features  in  the  rising  edifice  are 
to  be  found  in  individual  episodes  such  as  the  Barons'  War, 
Wycliffe's  protest  against  the  moral  degeneracy  of  the  Church, 
the  Peasants'  Kevolt  under  Wat  Tyler,  Hampden's  opposition  to 
the  demand  for  Ship  Money,  and  the  resistance  of  the  Fellows 
of  Magdalen  to  James  II.  They  recall  the  labour  and  the  blood 
which  had  to  be  expended,  and  the  seeming  defeat  of  the 
architects  at  times— a  defeat  which  was  only  temporary  and 
superficial,  and  which  added  to  the  final  grandeur  of  the  pile. 

*  Green's  '  Short  History  of  the  English  People,'  p.  134. 


488  The  Empire  Review 

The  great  struggle  of  the  seventeenth  century  between  Crown 
and  Parliament  was  the  turning-point  in  the  fortunes  of  the 
Constitution  of  this  country.  The  Stuarts  sought  to  impugn 
not  only  the  rising  powers  of  the  House  of  Commons — powers 
acquired  gradually  during  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  —  but  even  to  overthrow  those  personal  liberties 
guaranteed  by  Magna  Charta.  They  sought  openly  what  the 
Tudors  had  largely  acquired  by  stealth.  For  it  is  noteworthy 
that  Henry  VII.  and  his  successors  were  always  very  careful  to 
act  through  the  House  of  Commons,  and  to  found  their  very 
capable  despotism  upon  the  forms  of  the  Constitution,  whereas 
James  I.  and  his  heirs  attempted  a  wholly  corrupt,  contemptible 
and  inefficient  tyranny  in  complete  defiance  of  the  popular 
representatives,  and  frequently  in  opposition  not  only  to  the 
spirit  but  even  the  very  letter  of  the  law.  The  allegiance  given 
willingly  in  a  time  of  grave  national  crisis  to  a  capable  native 
dynasty  was  withheld  when  the  crisis  had  passed  from  an 
incompetent  alien  house — for  James  I.  himself  was  regarded 
largely  as  a  foreigner. 

The  Petition  of  Eight,  the  Civil  War  and  the  Kevolution  of 
1688  finally  placed  personal  liberties  above  question,  and  also 
established  the  complete  supremacy  of  Parliament.  These 
results  were  only  achieved  at  the  cost  of  one  of  the  noblest 
efforts  in  our  history.  The  national  roll  contains  no  more 
honourable  names  than  those  of  Coke,  of  Elliot,  of  Hampden,  of 
Pym,  of  Cromwell  and  of  Eussell.  For  the  encroachments  of 
the  Royal  prerogative  were  formidable  and  continuous.  The 
Crown  was  supported  by  an  obsequious  Church,  a  servile  Bench 
and  illegal  Courts.  The  early  protests  and  remonstrances  of  the 
Commons  were  futile,  and  the  harsher  measures  of  the  Long 
Parliament  were  in  consequence  necessary  and  inevitable.  The 
impeachment  of  Strafford  and  the  presentation  of  the  Grand 
Eemonstrance  were  shortly  followed  by  the  King's  attempted 
arrest  of  the  five  members.  From  that  moment  war  became  only 
a  question  of  time,  and  the  clash  of  arms  resulted  in  the  downfall 
of  the  Crown.  But  with  the  Eestoration  the  struggle  was 
renewed  in  a  more  insidious  and  dangerous  form.  The  judges 
were  even  more  pliant  than  before,  juries  were  packed,  corruption 
abounded,  Catholics,  in  defiance  of  the  law,  were  introduced  into 
the  Government  and  the  army,  municipal  charters  were  con- 
fiscated, colleges  were  remodelled.  Then  came  the  recoil. 
Fortunately  the  Church  was  now  alienated  from  the  King,  and 
the  ecclesiastical  leaders  refused  to  publish  the  second  Declara- 
tion of  Indulgence.  With  the  trial  and  acquittal  of  the  seven 
bishops  the  power  of  James  II.  collapsed.  William  of  Orange 
was  invited  over  and  the  flight  of  the  King  followed.  The 


The  Heritage  of  Britain  489 

conflict  had  been  long  and  severe,  the  price  paid  had  been  heavy, 
but  the  vindication  of  the  Constitution  was  at  last  complete. 

It  is  true  that  eighty  years  later  the  irresponsible  assertion  of 
the  Royal  prerogative  was  once  again  obstinately  contended  for 
by  George  III.,  but  nevertheless  it  was  eventually  restrained,  and 
it  finally  flickered  out  in  the  rash  experiment  made  by  William  IV. 
to  choose  his  own  ministers.  The  eighteenth  century  and  the 
first  thirty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  finally  saw  the 
establishment  of  Parliamentary  control  by  means  of  the  Cabinet 
system,  whilst  during  the  last  eighty  years  the  House  of 
Commons — or,  more  strictly  speaking,  the  Cabinet — has  become 
the  supreme  power  in  the  Constitution. 

But  by  English  freedom  we  mean  more  than  Parliamentary 
Government.  The  personal  liberties  of  the  subject  are  founded 
on  Magna  Charta,  on  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and  on  the 
Declaration  of  Eights,  whilst  they  are  secured  by  the  integrity 
and  the  authority  of  the  Judicature — one  of  the  results  of  the 
Eevolution.  Further,  those  personal  liberties  are  not  merely 
civil,  as  a  perusal  of  the  three  enactments  alone  might  lead  a 
foreigner  to  suppose.  They  are  also  in  the  fullest  degree  religious 
and  social,  although  these  two  latter  attributes  are  of  compara- 
tively modern  growth.  The  Eeformation  laid  the  bare  founda- 
tions of  religious  freedom,  although  the  actual  structure  did  not 
begin  to  arise  until  over  a  hundred  years  later.  The  Eevolution 
established  the  principle  of  toleration,  but  the  full  effects  of  this 
policy  were  not  seen  until  the  nineteenth  century.  The  abolition 
of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  (maintaining  office  as  a  close 
preserve  for  churchmen),  the  passage  of  the  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion Act,  the  removal  of  Jewish  disabilities,  the  admission  of 
Dissenters  to  the  Universities,  and  the  complete  enfranchisement 
of  Atheists  (the  result  of  the  Bradlaugh  incident)  granted  not 
only  the  fullest  freedom  of  conscience,  but  also  equal  civil  and 
political  rights  to  every  citizen,  irrespective  of  religious  belief. 

Similarly,  in  the  social  world  during  the  eighteenth  and 
nineteenth  centuries  the  most  complete  liberty  was  obtained. 
The  results  indeed  were  secured  largely  through  the  principle  of 
religious  toleration  accorded  by  the  Eevolution,  for  they  can  be 
traced  directly  to  the  Wesley  an  revival  which  led  to  an  awakening 
of  the  social  conscience,  and  which  but  for  the  principle  of 
religious  toleration  would  have  been  ruthlessly  crushed.  During 
the  century  following  great  progress  was  made.  The  abolition 
first  of  the  slave  trade,  and  then  of  slavery  itself  (the  honourable 
achievement  of  Wilberforce),  the  noble  efforts  of  John  Howard 
and  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Fry  in  behalf  of  prison  reform,  the  gradual 
humanising  of  the  penal  code  and  of  gaol  life  (a  direct  result  of 
their  work),  the  reform  of  the  Poor  Laws,  the  various  Factory 


490  The  Empire  Review 

Acts,  the  recognition  of  Trade  Unions,  and  the  provision  of 
popular  education — all  these  great  and  beneficial  measures  flowed 
from  the  teaching  of  John  Wesley,  and  the  larger  conception  of 
social  and  religious  duty  which  he  gave  to  men. 

These  traditions  of  freedom  have  been  applied  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Colonies  and  the  Dependencies.  There  are 
indeed  two  great  failures  to  be  recorded  in  English  Imperial 
policy — Ireland,  and  the  fatuous  treatment  of  the  American 
colonies.  In  respect  of  the  former,  it  may  be  observed  that  the 
foundations  of  all  the  wrong  and  the  misery  which  have  been 
inflicted  were  laid  in  the  spirit  of  intolerance  which  was  dominant 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Greed,  rapacity, 
brutality  had  much  to  do  with  it,  but  these  iniquities  derived 
their  sanction  and  their  strength  from  the  religious  bigotry  of 
the  age.  The  Irish  naturally  rose  in  revolt  against  their  op- 
pressors, and  the  enormities  committed  by  both  combatants 
inevitably  deepened  the  mutual  hatred.  Henceforth  fear  was 
an  additional  motive  for  the  cruel  repression  of  the  conquerors. 
England  has  every  reason  for  shame  at  her  Irish  policy  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and  bitterly  has  the 
national  sin  been  punished.  In  the  nobler  policy  of  the  last 
forty  years  some  reparation  has  been  made,  and  some  hope  has 
been  given  of  a  happier  future. 

The  conduct  which  lost  us  America  was  narrow  and  tactless, 
but  is  not  a  matter  for  such  deep  reproach  as  the  government  of 
Ireland.  Indeed,  the  English  colonial  administration  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  liberal  in  comparison  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  other  countries.  The  colonies  possessed  very  large 
powers  of  self-government,  although  they  were  fettered  by  a 
selfish  and  mistaken  commercial  system — a  system  which  Great 
Britain  shared  in  common  with  other  European  nations. 
Probably  this  economic  theory,  if  persisted  in,  would  eventually 
have  led  to  a  rupture,  but  the  cause  of  separation  was  a  much 
more  vital  attack  on  elementary  political  rights  as  understood 
by  Englishmen — arbitrary  taxation.  The  foolishness  and  ob- 
stinacy of  the  British  Cabinet  gave  birth  to  the  United  States, 
and  inflicted  upon  this  country  the  greatest  disaster  in  her 
modern  history. 

English  politicians,  however,  failed  to  learn  their  lesson  from 
this  humiliating  event,  and  persistence  in  the  same  bureaucratic 
ideas  nearly  produced  the  defection  of  Canada.  Fortunately  this 
further  loss  was  prevented  by  the  wisdom  of  Lord  Durham, 
whose  great  report  is  the  Magna  Charta  of  the  British  Dominions. 
Canada  was  accorded  full  self-government  in  all  domestic  matters, 
and  the  British  principle  of  the  responsibility  of  ministers  to 
Parliament  was  introduced.  During  the  succeeding  seventy 


The  Heritage  of  Britain  491 

years  the  same  rights  have  been  conferred  upon  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  South  Africa,  and  thus  to-day  we  have  a  great 
family  of  self-governing  nations  under  the  sovereignty  of  the 
British  Crown.  In  all  the  colonies  English  principles  of  personal 
liberty  and  justice,  of  social  rights  and  privileges,  and  of  absolute 
freedom  of  conscience  are  supreme.  The  Dominions  have  re- 
produced across  the  seas  the  ideals  and  traditions  of  British 
freedom. 

If  we  turn  to  India  we  have  the  same  record  of  progress. 
There  is  much  that  is  shameful  in  the  story  of  the  early  years  of 
British  rule — cruelty,  rapacity,  extortion,  and  corruption  were 
largely  practised  by  British  officials.  Clive  did  much  to  regulate 
these  abuses ;  Pitt,  under  his  India  Act,  did  more ;  whilst  the 
impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  although  conducted  extrava- 
gantly and  vindictively,  revealed  a  welcome  awakening  of  the 
public  conscience  as  to  our  responsibilities  towards  the  great 
Dependency.  But  complete  departure  from  the  old  bad  principles 
was  finally  taken  under  the  beneficent  rule  of  Lord  William 
Bentinck  in  the  early  thirties  of  last  century.  Great  reforms, 
such  as  the  abolition  of  the  inhuman  custom  of  suttee,  were 
carried ;  a  new  penal  code,  under  the  genius  of  Macaulay,  was 
drawn  up  ;  and  to  the  security  and  internal  peace  afforded  under 
the  British  dominion  was  added  the  guarantee  of  personal  justice. 
These  great  principles  have  been  fully  maintained  and  developed 
in  the  years  which  have  followed— even  in  such  periods  of  war 
and  conquest  as  the  twenty  years  which  immediately  succeeded 
Lord  William  Bentinck's  government.  Many  of  these  wars  were 
justifiable  and  inevitable,  but  the  annexations  which  occurred, 
particularly  under  Lord  Dalhousie,  were,  in  conjunction  with 
other  unsettling  causes,  largely  responsible  for  the  Mutiny.  The 
transfer  of  the  Administration,  after  the  suppression  of  the  out- 
burst, from  the  Company  to  the  Crown,  together  with  the  wise 
and  ameliorative  rule  of  Lord  Canning  and  later  of  Lord  Law- 
rence, healed  the  old  discontent,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
loyalty  of  the  country  at  the  present  time.  There  have  been 
periods  of  aggression  on  surrounding  native  princes,  and  there 
have  occasionally  been  grave  mistakes  in  the  domestic  govern- 
ment of  the  Dependency,  but  the  honesty  of  intent,  and  the  real 
beneficence  of  British  rule  are  not  questioned  by  impartial 
observers.  Here  again  the  same  ideals  of  toleration  and  of  even- 
handed  justice  have  been  strongly  upheld. 

With  the  exception  of  the  record  of  oppression  in  Ireland,  the 
attack  on  American  liberties,  and  the  early  period  of  corruption 
and  rapacity  in  India,  British  Imperial  policy,  despite  its  mistakes, 
shows  a  marked  contrast  to  the  administration  of  other  great 
Empires.  Subject  to  these  exceptions  the  fundamental  conception 


492  The  Empire  Review 

of  British  rule  has  been  the  welfare  of  the  governed.  If  we 
consider  the  history  of  the  two  great  European  Empires  of  the 
ancient  world,  we  find  a  totally  different  principle  at  work.  Both 
Athens  and  Home  exacted  heavy  tributes  from  their  dependencies. 
The  former  city  indeed  relied  on  its  colonial  receipts  for  the  main 
part  of  its  revenue.  Koine  fixed  her  tribute  at  a  high  figure, 
"  not  merely  in  order  to  obtain  money,  but  also  with  a  view  to 
crippling  the  resources  of  the  conquered  nation  and  preventing 
them  from  renewing  the  struggle  for  independence.  It  bore 
with  special  hardness  on  the  subject  races,  because  the  provincial 
officials,  being  practically  under  no  control,  exacted  not  only  the 
tribute,  but  additional  contributions  on  their  own  private 
accounts."  *  There  were  notable  exceptions  in  some  provincial 
governors,  but  the  system  was  an  evil  one,  and  with  its  attendant 
curses  of  tax-farming  and  usury  imposed  a  heavy  burden  on  the 
subject  peoples.  Eome  established  an  iron  peace  throughout  her 
dominions,  and  conferred  numerous  material  benefits  upon  the 
provinces,  but  she  regarded  her  Empire  as  a  vast  estate  from 
which  she  was  entitled  to  extort  the  uttermost  farthing. 

If  we  turn  to  modern  history  there  still  remains  an  important 
difference.  Spain  exploited  the  resources  of  her  colonies  with  the 
most  boundless  greed  and  rapacity  and  cruelty.  She  restricted 
the  trade  of  the  unfortunate  inhabitants  by  the  narrowest  possible 
interpretation  of  the  Commercial  System.  Portugal  applied  the 
same  economic  doctrine  with  the  same  rigour.  Holland,  France, 
and  Denmark  acted  in  a  somewhat  similar  fashion.  England,  of 
course,  was  guilty  of  the  same  selfish  practice,  but  with  the 
exception  of  the  earliest  days  of  her  administration  she  never 
enforced  the  system  with  the  same  severity  as  her  continental 
rivals.  She  allowed  a  far  greater  freedom  of  trade,  and  conferred 
a  degree  of  political  liberty  unknown  to  other  Colonial  govern- 
ments. 

We  may  say,  in  fact,  that  the  British  policy  of  the  eighteenth 
century  contained  the  germs  of  a  nobler  system.  It  was  the 
glory  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  develop  the  ideal  of  freedom, 
justice,  and  humanity  to  the  highest  pitch.  The  response  of  the 
Dominions  and  Dependencies  in  these  days  of  stress  is  the  finest 
possible  tribute  to  the  beneficence  of  British  rale.  The  loyalty 
and  devotion  of  our  daughter-nations  is  a  matter  for  pride  and 
gratitude,  but  it  is  not  in  itself  so  remarkable,  and  therefore  not 
so  impressive  as  the  magnificent  rally  of  the  Dependencies  to 
our  flag. 

India,  from  her  importance,  bulks  largest  in  the  popular 
mind,  and  indeed  her  gift  of  men  and  money  is  a  noble  one.  But 
the  support  of  the  lesser  Dependencies  and  of  the  very  outposts 

*  Lord  Cromer,  '  Ancient  and  Modern  Imperialism,'  p.  57. 


The  Heritage  of  Britain  493 

of  the  Empire  is  no  less  striking.  Perhaps  the  quaint  letter 
addressed  by  the  Paramount  Chief  Griffith  (Basutoland)  to  the 
High  Commissioner  for  South  Africa  is  the  most  vivid  comment 
one  can  give  as  to  the  results  of  British  rule  : — 

PARAMOUNT  CHIEF'S  OFFICE,  MATSIENG. 

August,  26,  1914. 
YOUR  EXCELLENCY, 

I  have  the  honour  to  inform  your  Excellency  of  my  intention 
with  regard  to  this  war  which  I  hear  exists  between  His  Majesty  King 
George  V.  and  the  Germans. 

I  have  the  honour  to  ask  your  Excellency  whether,  as  my  King  is  engaged 
in  fighting  his  enemies,  I,  his  servant,  would  be  doing  well  to  keep  aloof 
watching  him  being  attacked  by  enemies  ? 

Your  Excellency,  as  I  am  unable  to  be  with  my  King  in  person,  I  beg  to 
know  whether  I  may  show  my  loyalty  and  the  loyalty  of  the  JBasuto  to  His 
Majesty  the  King,  by  giving  monetary  assistance,  to  be  raised  by  calling  upon 
each  Mosuto  to  pay  (Is.)  one  shilling,  which,  when  collected,  I  shall  send  to 
Your  Excellency  to  be  forwarded  to  His  Majesty  the  King  as  a  contribution 
to  the  funds  now  being  raised  for  relief  of  sufferers  by  the  war. 

I  shall  be  glad,  Your  Excellency,  if  you  will  kindly  reply  to  this  application 
of  mine,  as  the  Basuto  and  myself  are  grieved  at  seeing  our  King  being  attacked 
by  enemies  when  we,  his  servants,  cannot  assist  him. 

I  shall  be  glad  to  receive  an  early  reply  from  Your  Excellency.     Greetings. 
Your  Excellency's  humble  servant, 

N.  GRIFFITH  LEROTHODI, 
Chief  of  the  Basuto.* 

A  noble  offer,  couched  in  language  of  simple  eloquence  and 
manliness,  and  highly  expressive  of  the  meaning  of  the  British 
Empire  ! 

When  in  our  examination  of  British  ideals  we  review  our 
foreign  policy  we  find  there  are  two  distinct  periods  to  consider. 
Foreign  policy  during  the  Middle  Ages  was  purely  dynastic,  and 
although,  in  the  main,  assured  of  popular  support,  was  generally 
governed  by  primitive  instincts  of  pugnacity  and  aggression. 
Broadly  speaking,  we  were  concerned  with  but  four  nations — 
Scotland,  Wales,  France,  and  Flanders — and  although  at  times 
considered  judgment  was  displayed  in  our  foreign  relation- 
ships.—e.g.,  Edward  I.'s  policy  towards  Wales  and  Scotland, 
Edward  III.'s  aggression  against  France,  and  the  various  treaties 
concluded  with  Flanders — as  a  general  proposition  it  is  true  to 
affirm  that  between  the  Norman  Conquest  and  the  accession  of 
the  Tudors  our  wars  were  incurred  to  inflict  or  to  avenge  royal 
insults  or  to  prosecute  mere  feudal  brigandage.  The  instincts  of 
the  world  were  primitive,  and  as  a  rule  reason  had  no  part  in 
determining  the  fate  of  kingdoms. 

But  with  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century  foreign  policy 
began  to  be  controlled  by  the  influences  of  modern  times.  The 

*  (Cd.  7646),  p.  20,  Enclosure  1  in  No.  61. 


494  The  Empire  Review 

cause  for  this  revolution  is  to  be  found  in  the  emergence  of  Europe 
from  feudalism.  France  and  Spain  and  England  had  ceased  to 
be  so  many  collections  of  baronies,  and  had  under  the  authority 
of  their  respective  Crowns  been  welded  into  nations.  As  such 
they  began  to  have  larger  visions,  and  although  still  governed 
by  dynastic  ambitions  the  statecraft  of  these  countries  moved  on 
a  larger  and  more  powerful  scale,  and  there  commenced  that 
intricate  rivalry  of  nations  which  has  figured  so  prominently  in 
modern  history.  The  sixteenth  century  witnessed  a  gigantic  duel 
between  France  and  Spain  for  the  dominance  of  Europe,  and 
although  as  the  century  advanced  England  became  steadily  more 
important,  she  was  not  in  herself  until  the  close  of  Elizabeth's 
reign  a  match  for  either  of  her  two  great  rivals.  Under  these 
circumstances  English  statesmen  recognised  that  the  independence 
of  this  country  rested  upon  the  prevention  of  the  European  over- 
lordship  of  any  one  State.  Thus  was  evolved  the  doctrine  of  the 
Balance  of  Power,  which  has  remained  supreme  in  our  foreign 
policy  ever  since.  The  ideals  of  British  diplomacy  to-day  are 
the  self-same  ideals  as  those  of  Wolsey,  of  Elizabeth,  and  of 
Cromwell. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Balance  of  Power  is  primarily  and 
naturally  a  doctrine  of  self-interest.  It  was  conceived,  and  it  has 
been  maintained  principally  to  secure  the  independence,  the 
prosperity,  and  the  greatness  of  our  nation.  But  incidentally  and 
inevitably  it  has  promoted  the  freedom  and  prosperity  of  Con- 
tinental States,  and  more  especially  of  the  smaller  kingdoms.  And 
whilst  this  country  has  espoused  the  cause  of  independence  abroad 
largely  from  self-interest,  there  has  none  the  less  been  throughout 
these  centuries  of  modern  history  a  very  genuine  sympathy 
for  the  oppressed  and  a  very  sincere  detestation  of  tyranny. 

Thus,  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  to  our  interest  to 
support  the  Netherlands  against  the  despotism  of  Spain,  but  that 
support  was  given  all  the  more  readily  because  we  hated  the 
oppressor,  and  sympathised  with  the  victim. 

As  to  the  wars  of  the  eighteenth  century,  while  it  is  un- 
deniable that  their  general  result  and  to  a  certain  extent  their 
general  purpose  was  to  increase  the  power  and  commerce  of  this 
country,  it  is  also  true  that,  with  rare  exceptions,  we  could  not 
have  avoided  those  conflicts  without  sacrificing  not  only  our 
importance  but  our  very  existence. 

During  the  past  hundred  years  our  diplomacy  has,  with 
occasional  exceptions,  been  distinguished  for  honesty  of  purpose, 
and  for  its  disinterested  support  of  freedom  and  humanity.  Very 
few  people  to-day,  it  is  true,  would  justify  the  China  Wars  of 
1840  and  1857,  the  Don  Pacifico  incident  was  not  a  very  creditable 
affair,  and  our  foreign  policy  during  the  Bulgarian  atrocities  of 


The  Heritage  of  Britain  495 

1875-78  was  at  any  rate  open  to  grave  question,  but  with  these 
exceptions  our  diplomacy  during  the  century  on  the  whole  bears 
a  high  record  for  integrity  and  justice.  Our  unselfish  attachment 
to  those  great  traditions  of  liberty  inherited  from  the  past  was 
strikingly  revealed  in  our  share  in  the  War  of  Greek  Independence, 
in  our  support  of  South  American  freedom  and  of  Italian  Unity, 
in  the  popular  condemnation  of  the  Balkan  massacres,  and  in 
our  action  over  the  Armenian  atrocities,  whilst,  although  our 
campaigns  in  Burmah,  in  Western  Africa,  and  in  Egypt  and  the 
Soudan  may  have  been  induced  partly  by  self-interest,  none  the 
less  they  were  campaigns  fully  justified  by  considerations  of 
humanity,  and  their  success  has  promoted  the  cause  of  true 
civilisation  in  those  quarters  of  the  globe. 

There  have  been  blots  upon  the  honour  of  our  foreign  policy, 
but  viewing  our  modern  history  as  a  whole  we  can  say  with  truth 
that  in  our  diplomacy  we  have  striven  to  uphold  those  principles 
of  liberty,  of  justice,  and  of  humanity  which  we  have  endeavoured 
to  apply  at  home  and  in  our  colonies  and  dependencies.  The 
tradition  of  our  country  throughout  the  ages  has  been  the  defence 
and  development  of  freedom  in  our  own  land  and  abroad  and, 
if  we  have  committed  great  mistakes,  we  have  exerted  a  mighty 
influence  in  the  world  for  progress  and  civilisation.  What  are  the 
qualities  which  have  enabled  us  to  do  this  ? 

Obviously  we  owe  much  to  our  geographical  position  and  to 
our  climate.  Our  insular  situation,  and  the  temperate  zone  in 
which  we  lie,  have  fostered  within  us  powers  of  endurance,  of 
vigour,  and  of  self-reliance  which  have  sustained  us  in  many  a 
conflict  and  in  many  a  danger. 

Our  whole  history  is  wrapped  up  in  the  story  of  our  seaman- 
ship. From  those  early  days  when  we  contested  with  the  mariners 
of  Normandy  for  the  control  of  the  Channel  down  to  modern  times 
we  have  almost  continuously  been  engaged  in  maritime  enterprise. 
During  the  Tudor  period  our  Navy  first  won  the  glory  which,  save 
the  ignoble  records  of  the  Stuarts,  it  has  since  retained.  In 
Drake,  and  Ealeigh,  and  Gilbert,  and  Hawkins,  we  see  the  worthy 
fore-runners  of  our  modern  admirals.  In  the  history  of  the  duel 
with  Spain  lies  the  secret  of  our  naval  success.  One  incident  of 
that  stirring  time — the  deathless  story  of  the  Revenge— embodies 
the  very  spirit  of  our  seamen,  and  in  one  vivid  picture  displays  the 
meaning  and  the  reason  of  our  naval  power.  Tennyson's  noble 
ballad  expresses  that  meaning  in  immortal  words  : — 

And  the  night  went  down,  and  the  sun  smiled  out  far  over  the  summer  sea, 

And  the  Spanish  fleet  with  broken  sides  lay  round  us  all  in  a  ring ; 

But  they  dared  not  touch  us  again,  for  they  fear'd  that  we  still  could  sting, 

So   they  watch'd  what  the  end  would  be. 

And  we  had  not  fought  them  in  vain, 

But  in  perilous  plight  were  we, 


496  The  Empire  Review 

Seeing  forty  of  our  poor  hundred  were  slain, 

And  half  of  the  rest  of  us  maimed  for  life, 

In  the  crash  of  the  cannonades  and  the  desperate  strife ; 

And  the  sick  men  down  in  the  hold  were  most  of  them  stark  and  cold, 

And  the  pikes  were  all  broken  or  bent,  and  the  powder  was  all  of  it  spent ; 

And  the  masts  and  the  rigging  were  lying  over  the  side ; 

But  Sir  Richard  cried  in  his  English  pride, 

"  We  have  fought  such  a  fight  for  a  day  and  a  night 

As  may  never  be  fought  again  1 

We  have  won  great  glory,  my  men! 

And  a  day  less  or  more 

At  sea  or  ashore, 

We  die — does  it  matter  when  ? 

Sink  me  the  ship,  Master  Gunner— sink  her,  split  her  in  twain! 

Fall  into  the  hands  of  God,  not  into  the  hands  of  Spain !  " 

That  has  been  the  spirit  of  the  British  Navy  throughout  the 
centuries,  and  in  that  spirit  in  our  own  day  have  Sir  Eichard 
Cradock  and  his  men  met  death  off  Coronel. 

The  nation  is  proud  of  its  fleet,  and  it  has  cause  to  be. 
Drake  and  Hawkins,  Blake  and  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel,  Eodney, 
Jervis,  and  Duncan  rise  up  before  us.  The  intrepid  manoeuvre 
in  those  anxious  weeks  preceding  Camperdown,  when  the  British 
Admiral,  signalling  from  his  two  lonely  vessels  off  the  Texel, 
deluded  the  enemy  into  believing  that  a  large  fleet  existed  out 
at  sea ;  the  breaking  of  the  French  line  at  Aboukir ;  Nelson  at 
Copenhagen — "  I  see  no  signal  "  ;  the  great  message  at  Trafalgar 
— these  are  incidents  fresh  even  with  the  lapse  of  time,  and  in 
the  spirit  of  these  incidents  the  Grand  Fleet  keeps  watch  and 
ward  to-day. 

But  glorious  though  the  traditions  of  the  Eoyal  Navy  are 
they  do  not  exhaust  the  tale  of  British  seamanship.  The  quest 
of  the  North- West  Passage  and  the  later  attempts  to  reach  the 
North  and  the  South  Pole  are  resplendent  with  many  a  story  of 
heroism  and  devotion.  The  story  of  Captain  Scott  and  his 
companions — of  the  noble  death  of  Captain  Gates — is  in  its  way 
as  sublime  as  the  narrative  of  the  Revenge.  The  same  spirit 
breathes  in  both. 

In  truth,  the  record  of  British  maritime  prowess  is  the  epic 
of  our  race,  but  none  the  less  it  explains,  as  nothing  else  does, 
the  meaning  of  our  history.  It  reveals  a  people,  bold,  resourceful, 
courageous,  free.  For  the  dogged  endurance  and  determination 
which  has  characterised  our  past  we  can  find  a  notable  example 
in  the  account  of  our  grim  struggle  against  the  Eevolution  and 
against  Napoleon.  We  persevered  during  long  and  weary  years 
in  spite  of  defeat  abroad,  in  spite  of  acute  distress  at  home,  in 
spite  of  crippling  taxation,  in  spite  of  riot  and  rebellion.  We 
pergeyered,  and  we  won  through  to  eventual  triumph. 


The  Heritage  of  Britain  497 

One  episode  alone  will  reveal  in  its  full  intensity  the  terror 
of  the  situation  we  then  had  to  meet.  In  1797  our  allies  had 
made  their  peace  with  the  enemy,  and  we  confronted  alone 
France  supreme  on  the  Continent,  and  ready  to  turn  her  full 
force  against  us.  Ireland  was  on  the  point  of  actual  rebellion, 
and  at  this  critical  juncture  our  fleet  was  paralysed  by  mutiny. 
In  the  middle  of  April  the  ships  at  the  Nore  cast  off  their 
allegiance  to  their  officers,  and  remained  idle  and  defiant  until 
the  end  of  the  month,  when  the  men's  grievances  were  redressed, 
and  they  returned  to  their  duty.  Scarcely  had  this  trouble 
subsided  when  the  squadron  at  Spithead  rose  in  mutiny,  and  for 
the  space  of  five  weeks  the  rebellion  raged.  Fortunately  the 
disaffection  was  quelled  before  our  enemies  heard  of  our  condition, 
and  by  an  act  of  Providence  we  escaped  disaster.  Never  in  our 
history  have  we  had  to  face  a  darker  hour,  and  critical  though 
the  present  struggle  is  we  may  rejoice  that  so  far  we  have 
escaped  a  danger  equal  in  magnitude. 

All. the  noble  ideals  of  our  race  are  now  at  issue.  The  great 
battle  for  liberty,  for  justice,  for  honour,  has  been  renewed 
against  a  mightier  foe  than  we  have  ever  before  confronted. 
The  glory  of  British  freedom  is  threatened  by  a  system  of 
mechanical  brute  force,  by  a  system  of  subtle  devilry  and 
corruption.  Either  freedom  must  win  a  crushing  victory,  or 
it  must  eventually  collapse.  We  must  absolutely  vindicate  our 
claim  to  be  free  now,  or  we  must  be  prepared  ultimately  to 
become  bondmen,  to  be  slaves  haunted  and  shamed  by  memories 
of  nobler  days  and  of  nobler  ancestors.  We  must,  leaders  and 
people  alike,  throw  off  the  last  traces  of  apathy  and  of  oppor- 
tunism, we  must  realise  the  extremity  of  our  danger,  we  must 
be  capable  of  foresight,  we  must  be  courageous  and  resolute  in 
action,  we  must  throw  our  full  weight  into  the  scale. 

Let  us  cease  to  prate  about  the  rights  of  freemen ;  let  us 
remember  the  duties.  Only  by  the  observance  of  the  duties  may 
we  afterwards  enjoy  the  rights.  This  is  no  hour  for  pedantic 
homilies  on  the  right  of  every  man  to  decide  for  himself  whether 
he  will  or  will  not  serve  the  State.  No  citizen  has  that  right  at  a 
time  like  this.  The  State  must  decide  and  must  control.  Better, 
if  necessary,  to  submit  to  compulsion  for  a  season  than  to  wear  the 
German  yoke  in  future  years.  Let  us  cease  this  nonsense  about 
"  militarism."  In  France,  the  elemental  duty  of  personal 
service  is  recognised  to-day,  and  noble  is  the  record  of  her 
people  during  these  months  of  bloodshed.  Is  France  militarist  ? 
Which  is  the  finer  spectacle — the  ordered  array  of  the  whole 
available  manhood,  the  casting  of  all  the  resources  of  the  nation 
into  the  fiery  furnace ;  or  the  uncertain  system  of  moral  suasion 
of  moral  pressure  (not  free,  spontaneous  individual  sacrifice^ 
Vn.  X;^Y.  -  No.  179.  2  P 


498  The  Empire  Review 

which  is  at  present  depended  on  for  raising  the  British  armies '? 
Let  us  have  done  with  this  paltering  with  duty.  Open  com- 
pulsion is  a  nobler  and  more  dignified  method  of  obtaining 
recruits  than  the  present  "  voluntary  "  system,  but  admittedly 
the  means  in  this  instance  are  subordinate  to  the  end.  If  the 
necessary  men  and  the  right  men  are  secured  there  is  no  vital 
occasion  for  change,  but  unless  the  scheme  is  a  perfect  success 
the  prompt  substitution  of  conscription  will  be  not  only  justifiable 
but  imperative. 

The  spirit  of  the  nation  is  sound — this  has  been  proved  by  the 
heroism  of  our  troops.  Our  soldiers  have  fully  upheld  our  ancient 
renown,  and  the  story  of  Mons,  of  the  Marne,  of  the  terrible 
conflicts  round  Ypres,  of  the  wonderful  courage  displayed  at  the 
Dardanelles,  shows  that  we  are  not  degenerate.  But  courage 
alone  cannot  prevail.  It  must  be  supported.  And  a  noble  cause 
does  not  in  itself  ensure  victory.  The  people  who  in  the  sacred 
struggle  for  liberty  rely  merely  on  a  watchword,  and  lack  decision 
and  foresight  will,  despite  the  nobility  of  their  cause,  go  down 
before  a  more  virile  race — a  wicked  and  contemptible  foe,  perhaps, 
but  a  foe  willing  to  sacrifice  all,  and  to  work  whole-heartedly 
and  systematically  for  success. 

The  hour  is  very  critical.  We  stand  at  the  parting  of  the 
ways.  Victory  is  well  within  our  grasp  if  only  we  brace  our- 
selves to  the  magnitude  of  our  task,  and  throw  our  full  and 
ordered  energy  into  the  fray.  Fortunately,  in  these  last  few 
weeks  there  have  been  indications  that  our  rulers  are  bestirring 
themselves.  It  is  high  time,  for  we  cannot  any  longer  follow 
"  leaders  "  who  will  not  lead,  men  who  halt,  temporise,  muddle, 
and  procrastinate.  That  time-honoured  device,  "Wait  and 
see,"  must  be  once  and  for  all  thrown  into  limbo.  The 
mysterious  "confidence  trick"  must  be  abandoned;  we  cannot 
continue  to  remain  mute  and  passive  in  wonderment  and 
adoration  before  the  oracle  of  ministerial  infallibility.  If  the 
Cabinet  will  act  with  the  courage  and  foresight  that  the  occasion 
demands,  they  can  rely  upon  the  whole-hearted  loyalty  and 
devotion  of  the  nation.  Otherwise  the  signs  of  acute  dissatis- 
faction which  have  been  apparent  of  late  must  shortly  become 
more  ominous,  and  culminate  speedily  in  a  storm  which  will 
sweep  the  present  administration  from  power. 

H.  DOUGLAS  GREGORY. 


The  Future  of  the  Child  499 


THE   FUTURE   OF   THE   CHILD 

So  far,  the  effect  of  the  war  upon  the  child  has  received  but 
scant  attention.  Yet  it  is  a  matter  of  supreme  importance,  both 
to  us  as  a  nation  and  to  us  as  a  race,  that  the  future  of  the  child 
should  not  be  handicapped  by  the  patriotism  of  the  father.  We 
must  not  forget  that  the  boys  and  girls  of  to-day  are  the  men 
and  women  of  to-morrow.  Heavy,  then,  as  the  national  burden 
is,  and  must  continue  to  be,  the  problem  of  the  child  must 
neither  be  neglected  nor  set  aside.  As  far  as  possible  a  solution 
must  be  found  for  every  case  of  hardship,  or  distress,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  attributable  to  the  operations  of  the  war. 

The  number  of  married  men  in  the  New  Armies  is  consider- 
able, and  in  the  absence  of  statistics  it  is  not  unreasonable  to 
suggest  that  the  number  of  children  orphaned  by  the  war  will 
also  be  considerable  ;  more  than  that,  both  officers  and  men  have 
been  drawn  from  all  classes  of  the  community,  not  a  few  at  the 
time  of  joining  being  in  good  situations  or  engaged  in  professional 
work.  Unless,  therefore,  assistance  be  forthcoming,  in  very 
many  cases  the  prospects  of  children  whose  fathers  have  lost  their 
lives  or  been  disabled  in  the  war,  must  be  seriously  jeopardised. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  all-pressing  question  of  education.  I 
am  not  referring  to  primary  education,  but  to  that  specialised  or 
higher  education,  without  which  no  girl  can  hope  to  enter  the 
callings  set  apart  for  educated  women, 'no  boy  can  compete  in 
the  various  examinations  which  bar  the  way  to  a  career  in  the 
Navy  and  the  Army  (when  times  are  normal),  the  Civil  Service, 
or  the  learned  and  scientific  professions.  That  the  Select 
Committee  appointed  to  consider  the  whole  question  of  Naval 
and  Military  Pensions  and  Grants  were  not  unmindful  of  the 
nation's  duty  in  this  matter  is  shown  by  the  recommendations 
put  forward  by  them  for  the  consideration  of  the  Government. 
That  the  Government  recognised  their  share  of  the  responsibility 
is  equally  obvious  by  their  ready  endorsement  of  the  Committee's 
findings.  In  one  respect,  however,  I  think  both  the  Committee 
and  the  Government  should  have  taken  a  wider  view  of  the 
situation.  Let  me  explain. 

2  P  2 


500  The  Empire  Review 

The  Committee  issued  three  reports,  and  in  the  third  and 
concluding  report,  which  deals  exclusively  with  officers,  the 
proposal  was  made  that  in  cases  of  pecuniary  need  the  Admiralty 
and  the  Army  Council  should  have  discretion  to  give  an  education 
allowance  of  £35  per  annum  for  a  boy  and  £25  for  a  girl  between 
the  ages  of  thirteen  and  eighteen.  And  they  very  wisely  added  : 
"  These  allowances  may  be  extended  until  the  age  of  twenty-one 
on  the  recommendation  of  a  competent  education  authority  where 
the  education  of  the  children  is  being  continued  at  secondary 
schools,  technical  schools,  or  universities."  These  special  grants 
are  in  addition  to  the  pensions  paid  to  widows  and  children,  and 
are  available  not  only  for  orphans,  but  for  the  children  of  disabled 
officers.  This  report,  has,  I  believe,  been  adopted  in  its  entirety 
by  the  Government,  and  in  due  course  these  recommendations 
will  receive  the  force  of  authority  by  Koyal  Warrant. 

But  what  about  the  children  of  men  enlisted  as  privates,  and 
who  have  not  received  commissions  ?  I  refer  more  especially  to 
men  of  the  same  class  as  officers,  and  in  some  cases  members  of 
the  same  family.  As  regards  their  children,  no  State  grants  for 
educational  purposes  were  either  recommended  by  the  Committee 
or  included  in  the  Government  Bill  sanctioning  payment  of 
supplementary  pensions  and  grants.  All  the  committee  did  was 
to  recommend  that  in  respect  of  the  children  of  men  killed  or 
disabled,  their  allowances  and  pensions  should  continue  "  until 
the  age  of  sixteen  years,"  and  may  be  continued  above  that  age 
"  on  the  recommendation  of  the  local  education  authority  in  the 
cases  of  apprentices  receiving  not  more  than  nominal  wages  or  of 
children  being  educated  at  secondary  schools,  technical  schools, 
or  universities."  And  all  the  Bill  does  is  to  endow  with  certain 
functions  the  Statutory  Committee  it  sets  up  for  administrative 
purposes.  Among  these  functions  are  the  following  : — 

(1)  To  frame  regulations  for  supplementary  grants  in  cases 

where,  owing  to  the  exceptional  circumstances  of  the 
case,  the  pension  or  grant  or  separation  allowance 
payable  out  of  public  funds  seems  to  the  Committee  to 
be  inadequate  ; 

(2)  Out  of  funds  at  their  disposal,  to  supplement  pensions  and 

grants  and  separation  allowances  payable  out  of  public 
funds,  so,  however,  that  no  such  supplementary  grant 
shall  be  made  except  in  accordance  with  such  regulations 
as  aforesaid ; 

(3)  Out  of  funds  at  their  disposal,  to  make  grants  or  allowances 

in  cases  where  no  separation  allowances  or  pensions  are 
payable  out  of  public  funds  ; 

(4)  To  make    grants   in   special  cases    for  the    purpose    of 


The  Future  of  the  Child  501 

enabling  widows,  children,  and  other  dependants  of 
deceased  officers  and  men  to  obtain  training  and 
employment. 

It  may  be,  of  course,  that  these  functions  are  intended  to 
include  the  provision  of  education  grants,  but  in  any  case  the 
grants  cannot  come  out  of  State  funds,  because  the  Bill,  except 
as  far  as  the  payment  of  the  chairman's  and  vice-chairman's 
salaries  are  concerned,  does  not  deal  with  State  funds.  It  deals 
only  with  funds  "at  the  disposal  of  the  Statutory  Committee." 
Again,  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  from  what  source  these 
funds  are  to  be  derived.  On  this  point  the  Bill  is  silent,  and  the 
public  are  asked  to  remain  content  with  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer's  assurance  that  the  funds  will  be  supplied  by 
voluntary  contributions,  and  that,  if  voluntary  effort  should  fail, 
he  will  propose  a  grant  from  public  funds.  In  these  circumstances 
it  may  happen  that  while  the  children  of  officers  will  be  receiving 
education  grants,  the  children  of  men  who  have  fought  side  by 
side  with  them  may  get  nothing  at  all.  Moreover,  in  view  of  the 
word  "  deceased  "  appearing  in  the  last  function  cited,  it  would 
seem  to  be  the  intention  of  the  State  that  the  children  of  disabled 
men  should  not  be  included  in  the  same  category  as  the  children 
of  men  who  have  died  in  the  campaign.  Surely  it  cannot  have 
been  the  intention  of  the  Government  to  apply  one  principle  to 
officers'  children  and  another  to  the  children  of  men  serving  in 
the  ranks,  and  yet,  in  the  absence  of  any  explanation,  this  is 
what  appears  to  have  been  done. 

But  apart  altogether  from  the  question  of  Government  grants 
for  educational  purposes,  further  assistance  will  be  required  in 
many  instances.  I  do  not  doubt  that  our  public  schools  will 
come  forward  with  no  reluctant  hand,  and  that  the  County 
Council  secondary  schools  will  be  equally  generous,  both  as 
regards  girls  and  boys,  but  the  number  of  free  places  at  all 
schools  must  be  greatly  enlarged,  and  where  no  free  places  exist 
they  must  be  introduced.  Similar  steps  must  also  be  taken  at 
trade  and  technical  schools.  Then  orphanages  should  be  placed 
in  a  position  to  extend  the  scope  of  their  work  by  the  aid  of 
Government  grants.  Lower  fees  should  be  accepted  at  Sand- 
hurst and  Woolwich,  as  well  as  at  the  universities,  while  fees  at 
engineering  shops  might  be  remitted  altogether. 

The  other  day  a  man  asked  me  whether  I  could  get  his 
grandson,  whose  father  had  been  killed  in  action,  apprenticed  in 
one  of  H.M.  dockyards  as  an  electrical  fitter,  the  trade  the  boy's 
father  had  followed.  On  enquiry,  I  was  met  with  initial  difficulty 
that  entry  as  an  apprentice  was  dependent  entirely  on  the  result 
of  a  Civil  Service  competitive  examination,  and  to  pass  that 


502  The  Empire  Review 

examination  the  boy  would  have  to  be  specially  educated.  Had 
his  father  lived  that  would  have  presented  no  difficulty,  but  as 
things  are  the  position  of  the  boy  is  entirely  changed,  and  in  the 
altered  circumstances  of  his  surroundings  he  can  only  enter  the 
dockyard  as  a  yard-boy,  which  means  that,  on  attaining  the  age 
of  twenty,  he  will  automatically  become  a  labourer  at  24s.  a  week 
and  never  have  the  oportunity  of  becoming  an  electrical  fitter. 
This  is  what  I  call  handicapping  a  boy's  future  for  the  patriotism 
of  his  father.  And  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this  boy's 
case  is  an  isolated  one  ;  hundreds  of  other  boys,  sons  of  mechanics, 
are  doubtless  placed  in  very  much  the  same  position.  Similar 
difficulties  will  arise,  and  doubtless  have  arisen,  with  regard  to 
the  sons  of  professional  and  business  men.  This  ought  not 
fco  be. 

A  sub-committee  of  the  Statutory  Committee  should  be  set 
up  and  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  examining  all  cases  of  children 
whose  prospects  in  life  are  endangered,  or  likely  to  be  endangered, 
for  the  reasons  indicated  in  this  article.  In  short,  everything 
should  be  done  that  can  be  done  by  the  State  and  by  private 
effort  to  prevent  the  after  effects  of  the  war  acting  injuriously 
upon  the  fathers  and  mothers  of  future  generations. 

THE  EDITOR. 


Currency  and  Weights  and  Measures  503 


CURRENCY  AND  WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES 

THE   CASE  FOR  REFORM 

I. 

COINAGE. 

So  closely  is  the  war  connected  with  questions  of  public 
economy  that  it  may  not  be  inopportune  to  discuss  legislation 
for  the  rearrangement  of  our  coinage  by  placing  it  in  regular 
decimal  series,  so  that  the  coinage  and  the  metric  system  of 
weights  and  measures  may  work  harmoniously  together.  There 
are  two  special  reasons  why  this  change  should  if  possible  be 
made  before,  or  soon  after  the  conclusion  of  hostilities.  Firstly 
our  merchants,  more  particularly  those  engaged  in  international 
commerce,  would  then  be  in  a  position  to  hold  their  own  and 
compete  on  equal  ground  with  the  traders  of  other  countries. 
Admittedly  the  merchant  has  already  one  means  at  hand  of 
meeting  this  competition,  in  that  the  metric  system  has  been 
legalised  and  is  now  in  use,  but  in  reality  this  reform  is  of  little 
assistance  while  he  is  still  hampered  with  an  irregularly  related 
coinage  which  few  foreign  merchants  will  take  the  trouble  to 
understand.  Secondly,  our  soldiers  in  France  and  what  is  left  of 
Belgium  are  daily  becoming  better  acquainted  with  the  coinage 
of  those  countries,  and  are  thus  also  growing  familiar  with  the 
decimal  mode  of  reckoning.  The  necessary  changes  in  the 
coinage  for  the  purpose  of  decimalisation  are  singularly  few,  and 
in  character  simple  and  immaterial,  as  will  be  perceived  by 
reference  to  the  accompanying  table. 

The  relationship  between  the  florin  and  the  pound  sterling  is 
already  decimal,  the  former  being  one-tenth  the  value  of  the 
latter.  This  offers  at  once  a  nucleus  to  the  formation  of  a  perfect 
decimal  system.  The  florin  now  subdivided  into  ninety-six 
farthings  merely  requires  the  addition  of  four  more  subdivisions 
to  convert  the  farthing  into  a  cent  or  hundredth,  when  complete 
decimalisation  would  be  accomplished,  and  practically  without 
changing  a  single  coin  except  the  penny,  for  the  slight  deprecia- 


504 


The  Empire  Review 


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Currency  and  Weights  and  Measures 


505 


tion  (by  4  per  cent.)  of  the  other  two  bronze  coins  is  not  worth 
consideration.  Though  the  florin,  in  order  to  obtain  two  decimal 
places  only  for  the  fraction,  would  become  the  acting  unit,  the 
pound  sterling  would  still  remain  the  gold  standard  and  essential 
unit,  from  which  all  the  other  coins  derive  their  value.  At 
the  same  time  the  pound  sterling  as  a  denomination  would  not 
be  obscured,  as  all  the  figures  to  the  left  of  the  first  (or  unit)  figure 
of  the  integer  would  show  pounds  at  sight,  without  any  arith- 
metical calculation.  By  this  means  large  sums  could  be  quoted 
in  pounds  when  necessary,  as  for  instance  in  the  sale  of  a  house. 

florins  cents 
....54321-23....  ....cents 


pounds 

or 
sovereigns 


dimes 


The  penny  would  in  course  of  time  disappear  as  a  coin,  and  be 
replaced  by  a  5  cent  of  the  same  size  (see  table),  but  as  a  money 
value  it  would  still  be  represented  by  two  2  cent  pieces  (half- 
pennies. And  if  the  new  coins  are  impressed  with  their  re- 
spective values,  by  the  figures  1,  2,  and  5,  even  the  least 
intelligent  person  would  have  no  difficulty  in  making  purchases 
or  in  calculating  change.  The  new  cent  would  in  no  way  add 
to  the  number  of  our  small  coins,  for  it  would  be,  like  the  present 
farthing,  in  most  instances  conspicuous  by  its  absence. 

By  a  slight  change  in  the  weight  of  the  present  bronze  coins, 
from  9-45,  5'67,  and  2'835  grams,  to  lO'OO,  5'00,  and  2'50  grams, 
a  difference  merely  of  +'55,  -'67,  and  -'33  grams,  they  would 
be  as  useful  for  weights  as  for  measures,  the  5  cent  measuring  3, 
the  2  cent  2' 5,  and  the  cent  2  centimetres.  The  nickel  coins 
would  be  an  innovation  in  the  currency,  representing  long-desired 
intermediate  values  between  the  bronze  and  the  silver  coins, 
and  being  of  a  more  durable  metal  than  silver,  would  reduce 
the  loss  from  wear  of  sixpences.  They  would  be  scalloped  for 
distinction. 

In  Nigeria  and  East  Africa  (and  Uganda)  all  coins  of  one 
penny  or  less  in  value  are  centrally  perforated,  and  provision  could 
still  be  made  to  carry  on  this  custom  with  the  new  bronze  coins, 
which  might  be  made  proportionately  larger  in  size  to  compensate 
for  the  loss  in  weight.  In  British  India,  the  anna  and  the  pice 


506  The  Empire  Review 

are  the  equivalent  in  value  of  the  penny  and  the  farthing.  This 
fact  simplifies  the  matter  considerably,  for  though  the  anna  would 
disappear  like  the  penny,  the  pice  would  be  retained,  at  of  course 
its  depreciated  value.  Thus  the  native  would  still  be  able  to  make 
his  calculations  without  any  trouble. 

A  short  Act  of  Parliament,  to  come  into  force  on  April  5  of 
any  year— the  end  of  the  financial  year  of  the  Inland  Eevenue — 
would  be  required  decreeing  that  the  florin,  one-tenth  of  the  pound 
sterling,  "  shall  henceforth  represent  100  cents — in  India  100  pice  " 
— and  that  it  "  shall  become  the  acting  unit  of  value  ;  and  that 
all  accounts  shall  be  rendered  in  decimals  with  the  florin  as 
integer,  and  showing  two  decimal  places — tenths  and  hundredths 
— for  the  fraction."  A  Royal  Proclamation  would  follow,  to  the 
effect  that  two  new  coins  of  nickel,  scalloped,  would  be  issued, 
"viz.  20  (British)  cents,  and  ten  cents  or  (British)  '  dime,'  which 
shall  be  legal  tender  to  5  florins." 

The  new  coinage  would  apply  to  all  British  Dominions.  And 
as  regards  the  self-governing  Dominions,  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  all  (except  Canada  and  Newfoundland — where  the  dollar  is 
already  in  use)  would  very  soon  follow  the  example  of  the  mother 
country. 

Owing  to  the  number  of  coins  below  the  value  of  a  farthing  in 
circulation  in  different  parts  of  the  Empire,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  replace  these  by  approximately  equivalent  fractions  of  the  new 
cent.  Three  coins  would  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose,  as  shown 
in  the  following  table  : — 

DOMINIONS  RBQUIBING  A  £  CENT. 

Guernsey       .....  J  penny  or  "  double  "           .         .         .     0-005 

Mauritius  (and  Seychelles)      .         .      ceat  of  rupee 0-005 

Brit.  North  Borneo         .  J  cent  of  Mexican  dollar     .         .         .     0  •  005 

Nigeria ^  penny  (perforated)           .         .         .0-004 

Malta |  farthing 0-003 

Brit.  India     .         .         .         .         .      |  pice  (^  anna) 0-003 

DOMINIONS  REQUIRING  $  AND  £  CENTS. 

Straits  Settlements  .  .  .  J  cent  of  S.  S.  dollar  .  .  .  .  0-002 
East  Africa  (and  Uganda)  .  .  |  cent  of  rupee 0-002 

DOMINIONS  REQUIRING  J,  £  AND  ^  CENTS. 

Ceylon J  cent  of  rupee 0-001 

Hong  Kong  (and  Labuan)       .         .      ^  cent  of  Mexican  dollar  .         .         .     O'OOl 


II. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASUEES. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  metric  system  has  been 
legalised  in  this  country  since  1897,  and  though  it  has  been 
adopted  by  all  the  scientific  professions,  and  by  the  Medical 


Currency  and  Weights  and  Measures  507 

Council  of  Education  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  1914,  it  has  made 
little  headway  in  other  directions.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  it  is 
severely  alone  in  its  decimal  isolation.  There  is  a  want  of  harmony 
in  the  surroundings  and  accessories  which  prevents  its  free  use,  due 
to  the  retention  in  use  of  the  old  weights  and  measures.  And  as 
long  as  these  remain  in  use — in  accordance  with  the  law  of  supply 
and  demand — there  will  be  no  inducement  for  the  display  of 
enterprise  in  making  bottles,  jars,  and  other  containers  to  metric 
measurements.  This  difficulty  is  felt  by  the  medical  profession, 
because  bottles  are  still  made  only  to  the  old  measurements  of 
capacity.  And  this  condition  of  things  will  continue  till  decimal 
uniformity  is  made  compulsory  by  the  decimalisation  of  the 
coinage,  followed  later — say  after  twelve  months — by  the 
prohibition  of  the  old  weights  and  measures,  for  it  is  important 
that  the  coinage  should  be  got  into  working  order  first.  The 
disappearance  from  the  curriculum  of  our  schools  of  the  com- 
plicated arithmetical  tables  which  would  immediately  follow 
would  be  hailed  with  delight  by  children  and  parents.  And  one 
cannot  but  recognise  the  simplicity  of  the  single  rule  of  the 
German  schoolboy,  on  the  cover  of  whose  arithmetic  book  is 
printed,  "  Remember  a  hectolitre  is  100  litres,  a  kilogram  is  1000 
grammes." 

Opposition  has  been  offered  to  the  above  proposal  by  manu- 
facturers of  machinery  and  weavers,  on  the  supposition  that  such 
legislation  would  compel  them  to  replace  their  frames,  looms,  etc., 
by  others  made  to  metric  measurements  or  that  will  turn  out 
fabrics  to  metric  measurements.  This  idea  is  entirely  erroneous. 
No  such  thing  has  ever  been  contemplated  in  any  proposed  legis- 
lation on  the  subject  as,  that  privately  or  in  the  workshop  no 
other  measures  should  be  used  but  the  metric.  M.  Kastner  of 
the  Chambre  de  Commerce  Frangaise  de  Londres,  tells  us  that  on 
the  continent,  where  the  metric  system  is  the  only  legal  one, 
nearly  all  the  frames  and  looms  for  the  manufacture  of  textile 
fabrics  in  use,  are  of  British  make  and  made  by  British  measures, 
and  the  few  that  are  made  abroad,  are  exact  copies  of  these 
and  made  to  British  measurements.  It  is  not  the  machine  or 
the  fabrics  but  their  description  when  offered  for  sale,  that  would 
be  affected.  Goods  would  simply  be  required  to  be  invoiced  or 
sold  in  metric  language.  It  is  assumed  that  a  table  of  equivalents 
would  be  hung  up  in  every  office,  so  that  it  would  be  just  as 
easy  to  invoice  cloth  or  cotton  by  its  length  or  breadth  in  metres 
and  centimetres,  as  in  yards  and  inches ;  or  wool  or  silk  by  the 
weight  of  either,  in  kilograms  as  in  pounds ;  and  to  contract  that 
a  pump  was  capable  of  lifting  so  many  litres  an  hour,  as  so  many 
gallons  an  hour. 

Legislation  would  merely  declare  that  twelve  months  after 


508  The  Empire  Review 

the  new  Currency  Act  comes  into  force,  the  metric  weights 
and  measures  shall  become  the  standard  "  Imperial  weights  and 
measures";  that  they  shall  be  used  in  all  trade  dealings;  and 
that  dealings  by  any  other  weight  or  measure  shall  be  null 
and  void  in  law.  And  for  measure  of  temperature  the  "  centi- 
grade "  or  "  Celsius  "  thermometer  shall  be  the  only  official  one. 
And  for  "  horse  power  "  measure,  the  unit  fixed  by  the  French 
Government,  viz.,  75  kilogrammetres,  shall  be  the  only  authorita- 
tive one.  But  the  Act  would  not  affect  "angular,"  "circular," 
or  "electric"  measures.  Provision  would  be  made  for  legal 
equivalents  for  the  weights  mentioned  in  previous  Acts  of 
Parliament  of  such  commodities  as  bread  and  coal ;  1  pound 
would  be  taken  to  mean  2  kilograms,  a  hundredweight  to  mean 
50  kilograms,  and  a  ton  to  mean  1000  kilograms.  In  linear 
measure,  as  regards  distances,  in  statutes  relating  to  hackney 
carriages,  a  mile  would  be  taken  to  be  equivalent  to  1  •  50  kilo- 
metres. Instructions  would  be  issued  by  the  Local  Government 
Board,  that  all  County  Councils,  assisted  by  the  Ordnance  Survey 
Officer  for  the  district,  should  replace  milestones  and  mileposts 
by  "  kilostones  "  and  "  kiloposts."  Obviously  then  there  is  no 
justification  for  the  opposition  offered  by  weavers  and  others.  As 
far  as  the  new  Weights  and  Measures  Act  is  concerned,  their 
machinery  would  remain  as  it  is,  and  the  various  fabrics  turned 
out  would  be  of  the  same  measurements  as  formerly. 

TABLE  SHOWING  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  AS    USED  IN   FRANCE 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 
Long  Measure.  Cubic  Measure. 

10  Millimetres,  TOOT.     .     .     .     =  1  cm.       10  Decisteres,  ds.    =  ( _  i* .  W»  ^A^,  \ 

10  Centimetres  .  .      =  1  dm. 


1Q  gteres  . 

10  Decimetres =  1  M.     \ 

Square  or  Superficial  Measure. 

\  100  Centiares,  ca.  (Sq.  M.)  =  1  A. 
Itinerary  Measure.  ,  \  fa 

100  Ares     .     .     .  =  {  (=  2j  acre8) 


10  Metres,  M. =1  dkm. 

10  Dekametres  =  1  hkm. 


100  Hectares    .     .     .     =  1  sq.  km. 


10  Hectometres  =  1  km.  Microscopic  Measure. 

10  Kilometres =1  mym.      iQOO  MicromUlimetres,  MM-    •     =1  /*. 

i  1000  Microns,  ju =1  mm. 

MEASURES  OP  CAPACITY. 
Fluid  Drug  Measure.  Fluid  or  Wine  Measure. 


10  Centimils,*  cmm.     .     -  1  dl. 
lODecimils*     .     .     . 


1  c.cm.) 


10  Mils  *  (millilitres)  .  =  1  cl. 
10  Centilitres  .  .  .  =  1  dl. 
10  Decilitres  ,  =  1  L. 


10  Litres,  L =1  dkl. 

10  Dekalitres =  1  hi. 

10  Hectolitres   .  .      -  1  HI. 


10  Kilolitres -  1  myl. 

Abbreviations  authorised  by  the  British  Board  of  Trade, 


Currency  and  Weights  and  Measures 


509 


MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT. 


Solid  Measure. 
10  Grams,  gm.  =  1  dkg. 
10  Dekagrams   =  1  hg. 

10  Hectograms  =  {£**  lbg  gj  QZ>) 

100  Kilograms    =  {[j^ge  cwt.) 

(1  tonne,  2,  or  millier. 
10  Quintals       =  {(=  0-98  Sap.  ten.) 


Solid  Drug  Meastire. 

10  Milligrams,  mg =  1  eg. 

10  Centigrams =  1  dg. 

10  Decigrams =1  gm. 


TABLE  SHOWING  EQUIVALENTS. 

Length. 

s*2  in.   . 

=    0-7937  mm. 

2  in.  . 

.     =    5-08    cm. 

26        in. 

=  66-04    cm. 

^"V 

=    1-0000     „ 

4 

.      =  10-16      „ 

28 

=  71-12      „ 

3*5 

=    1-5875     „ 

6 

.      =  15-24      „ 

30 

=  76-20      „ 

k 

=    3-1750     „ 

8 

.      =  20-32      „ 

32 

=  81-28      . 

i 

=    6-3500     „ 

10 

.      =  25-40      „ 

34 

=  86-36      „ 

i 

=  12-7000     „ 

12 

.      =  30-48      „ 

35 

=  91-439    „ 

a. 

=  19-0500     „ 

14 

=  35-56      „ 

39-37   „ 

=    1-00    m. 

ll 

=    1.000    cm. 
=    2-540       „ 

16 
18 

=  40-64      „ 
=  45-719    „ 

1093-6    yds.\       .  M. 
0-62orfmile}=1'00km' 

1J 

=    3-175       „ 

20 

=  50-80      „ 

1760  yds.  (1\_  ,.flA 

l| 

=    3-910       „ 

22 

=  55-80      „ 

mile)   . 

/  ~ 

If 

=    4-445       „ 

24 

=  60-96      „ 

Capacity. 

i  min. 

.     =  0-08    ml. 

12     min.        =0-710  ml. 

90  min. 

=      5-33  ml. 

1      ,, 

.     =  0-059    „ 

15 

=  0-888    „ 

120 

=      7'1°    » 

2      „ 

.     =  0-118    „ 

16-9      . 

=  i-ooo  „ 

180 

=    10-65    „ 

3      „ 

.     =  0-178    „      20 

=  1-184    „ 

240 

=    14-21    „ 

4 

.     =0-237    „    |25 

=  1-479    „ 

300 

=     17-76    „ 

5 

.      =0-296    „     J30 

=  1-776    „ 

860 

=    21-31    „ 

6 

.     =0-355    „      85 

.      =  2-072    „ 

480 

=     28-42    „ 

7 

.      =  0-414    „     !  40 

.      =  2-368    „ 

Ipint 

=  568-34    „ 

8 

.      =  0-474    „ 

50 

.      =  2-960    „ 

35  oz.  94  mi 

n.  1       i  n  T 

9 

.     =  0-533    „ 

60 

.     =  3-550    „ 

If  pints      . 

>  =  I'O  L. 

10 

.      =  0-592    „ 

Weight. 

"1OOTI        o** 

=  0-00006  gm. 
=  0-00030     „ 

60  gr.  . 
240  „  . 

=      3-890    gm. 
=    15-55 

61b. 
8  „ 

2  -722  Kg. 
=      3-629    „ 

iriff 

=  0-00065     „ 

*1  oz.  av.  =    28-35        ,, 

10  „ 

=      4-536    „ 

n 

=  0-0013 

|       Ib 

=  113-40 

12  „ 

=      5-443    „ 

2^ 

=  0-0026 

i 

=  226-80 

1  stone 

=      6-350    „ 

1 

=  0-065 

n 

=      0-4535  Kg. 

Icwt. 

=    50-800    „ 

10 

=  0-648 

2 

=      0-907       „ 

0-9842  ton, 

=  1016-000,, 

15-432 

=  I'OOO 

2-20 

=      1-000       „ 

practically 

=  1-016  tonne 

30 

=  1-944 

4 

=      1.814       „ 

1  ton  .     . 

or  millier. 

Generally  taken  as  30  gm. 


f  Generally  taken  as  500  gm. 


M.  Kastner,  in  an  interesting  paper  read  before  the  Associated 
Chambers  of  Commerce,  has  shown  that  the  metric  system  has 
been  practically  adopted  by  the  whole  world  with  the  exception 
of  the  British  Empire,  the  United  States  of  America,  Turkey, 
and  Persia.  The  Dominions,  we  are  told,  are  only  suspending 
action  for  Great  Britain  to  declare  the  old  weights  and  measures 
to  be  illegal.  At  the  Imperial  Conference,  1911,  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Commonwealth  pressed  for  the  introduction  of  the 
metric  system,  and  the  proposal  was  supported  by  the  representa- 


510  The  Empire  Review 

tives  of  all  the  other  self-governing  communities  present.  Great 
Britain,  however,  refused  to  move  in  the  matter,  while  expressing 
the  opinion  that  the  metric  system  was  the  best.  The  Union  of 
South  Africa  is  now  engaged  in  considering  legislation,  with  the 
object  of  bringing  in  the  reform  without  further  delay. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  other  arguments  that  could  be 
adduced  in  favour  both  of  the  decimalisation  of  our  currency  and 
the  prohibition  of  the  old  weights  and  measures,  but  I  think  I 
have  said  enough  to  make  known  the  urgency  of  the  matter. 
There  is,  I  know,  a  tendency  to  postpone  all  reforms  until  after 
the  war,  but  I  venture  to  think  the  matter  of  our  coinage  and 
weights  and  measures  is  one  that  will  not  brook  delay. 

W.  W.  HARDWICKE,  M.D. 


PRODUCTS  OF  GRENADA 

THE  chief  agricultural  products  of  Grenada  are  cocoa,  spices,  and 
cotton.  The  1914  season  was  not  a  good  one  for  the  cocoa  crop,  high 
winds  and  dry  weather  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  considerably 
curtailing  the  output.  The  large  planters  have  been  able  to  keep  their 
crop  up  to  the  average  principally  by  the  very  large  quantity  of  manures 
they  have  used  during  the  past  two  years,  and  also  by  improved  methods 
of  cultivation.  On  the  other  hand  the  crop  of  the  peasant  proprietors  is 
reported  by  the  Agricultural  Department  to  have  fallen  off  considerably, 
thereby  affecting  the  output  of  the  island.  On  the  whole  the  crop  for 
the  season  ended  30th  September,  1914,  fell  short  by  2,865  bags  of  the 
average  of  the  past  five  years. 

THE  cultivation  of  spices  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  nutmegs,  with 
its  derivative  mace.  The  area  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  nutmegs  is 
not  increasing,  and  has  remained  stationary  for  years,  owing  to  the 
decline  in  prices.  Mace  has  of  late  years  commanded  a  relatively 
favourable  price,  and  has  had  the  effect  of  making  nutmegs  a  profitable 
crop.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that,  although  the  area  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  has  not  been  extended,  the  output  of  the  island  has  steadily 
increased  during  the  past  ten  years,  and  has  just  doubled  during  the 
decade.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  crop  of  a  nutmeg  tree  tends  to 
increase  steadily  with  the  age  of  a  tree. 

Carriacou  is  the  only  district  of  the  Colony  in  which  cotton  is  grown. 
Several  attempts  have  in  recent  years  been  made  to  re-establish  the 
industry  in  the  southern  part  of  Grenada,  where  the  soil  is  not  suited 
for  cocoa,  but  the  efforts  have  invariably  resulted  in  failure.  The  type 
grown  in  Carriacou  is  Marie  Galante,  a  short-staple  cotton.  The  quality 
of  the  cotton  shipped  during  the  year  has  not  shown  any  appreciable 
improvement  on  the  poor  quality  which  has  been  produced  during  the 
past  few  years. 


Botha's  Colours  511 


BOTHA'S   COLOURS 

"MANNERS    MAKYTH    MAN  " 

MANY  centuries  ago  that  great  educationalist  William  of 
Wykeham  placed  his  motto,  "  Manners  makyth  man,"  above  the 
portals  of  Winchester  and  New  College.  Even  at  that  early 
period  it  was  foreseen  that  without  a  proper  esprit  de  corps 
England  could  not  be  first  in  the  field  of  honour  and  retain 
the  world's  confidence  which  has  been  the  foundation-stone  of 
her  stability  and  progress. 

The  training  of  the  army  to-day  emphasises  more  than  ever 
the  necessity  of  good  manners  and  honesty  of  purpose.  Never 
were  such  precepts  more  wanted  in  the  life  of  a  nation  than  they 
are  in  South  Africa  at  the  present  moment.  No  words  can  depict 
the  degeneration  of  a  great  portion  of  its  community  and  the 
want  of  morality  that  prevails.  The  determination  to  carry 
measures  by  fair  means  or  foul  has  earned  for  the  supporters  of 
Hertzogism  a  deep  contempt,  and  it  is  felt  that  their  policy  is 
the  bludgeon  of  the  proletariat.  It  is  the  vulgar  scheme  by  a 
party  of  want — to  plunder  industries  and  to  secure  positions  at 
the  expense  and  loss  of  trusted  servants. 

A  year  ago  I  attended  General  Botha's  meeting  at  Bank ; 
to-day  I  am  in  the  centre  of  the  Losberg  contest.  After  the 
General  had  "  burst  Beyers'  bottle,"  as  the  old  boer  predicted  he 
would,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  lager  beer,  and  to-day  he  is 
cleaning  up  an  adversary  whose  underhand  machinations  has 
caused  infinite  trouble  and  annoyance.  The  battle  is  to  the 
strong,  and  the  hero  of  Colenso  fights  for  his  land  and  the 
Empire.  Hertzog's  battle-song  is  the  Republican  volkslied  and 
his  colours  the  old  Eepublican  flag,  Botha's  colours  are  green 
and  orange.  Colours  that  carry  great  memories,  a  tinge  of 
regret,  perhaps,  but  they  have  ever  held  a  world  of  promise, 
and  they  represent  the  honour  of  a  man  true  to  his  word.  Here 
are  emblems  that  live  for  ever,  and  here  is  one  for  which  many  of 
the  bearded  men  around  him  have  braved  their  lives.  This  is 


512  The  Empire  Review 

the  band  of  patriots  to  whom  the  Empire  and  the  Allies  have 
given  a  blank  cheque,  and  their  battle  to-day  is  Empire  versus 
Eepublic.  Hertzog  and  his  adherents  recognise  no  Empire,  but 
the  intelligence  of  the  land  knows  that  without  Empire  there 
can  be  no  protection  for  life  or  property,  and  that  the  protector 
of  this  land  must  be  the  ruler  of  the  ocean.  Yet  the  supporters 
of  Germany's  aims  seek  to  introduce  a  system  that  would  plunge 
the  country  into  an  internecine  struggle,  paralyse  life  and  industry, 
and  benefit  only  the  few  who  seek  power  and  pay. 

Already  Englishmen  have  been  made  to  feel  that  they  are 
living  in  a  strange  land  owned  exclusively  by  "our  people," 
and  a  feeble  hope  they  would  have  if  "  our  people  "  were  to  put 
down  the  green  and  orange  to-day.  It  is  a  bitter  reflection, 
standing  in  this  great  open  veld,  knowing  as  I  do  the  enor- 
mous possibilities  it  contains  for  our  race,  with  wealth  un- 
paralleled, a  great  continent  of  untouched  promise  bathed  in 
everlasting  sunshine,  where  peace  should  reign  over  countless 
millions  of  thrifty  workers,  where  the  hand  of  man,  even  now, 
should  be  preparing  homes  for  stricken  brothers  who  have  fought 
in  the  European  hells,  and  where  those  heroes  might  come  to  a 
smiling  welcome  of  peace  and  plenty  and  find  in  this  glorious 
country  a  reward  for  their  shattered  fortunes.  But  no,  the  country 
is  on  the  verge  of  civil  tumult  and  recalcitrant  minorities  have 
painted  its  face  dark  with  incessant  strife.  Armed  men  have 
threatened,  disloyalty  and  dishonourable  scenes  are  the  election- 
eering orders  of  the  day.  The  heart  of  the  great  leader  of  the 
Dutch  is  pierced  with  the  disillusionment  of  his  great  ideal. 
Will  the  loyal  parts  of  the  Empire  stand  unmoved  at  this 
insistent  disloyalty? 

It  is  the  business  of  a  colony  possessing  responsible 
Government  to  put  its  own  house  in  order,  and  General 
Botha  is  the  man  to  do  it.  It  may  become  necessary  to 
introduce  a  qualification  vote  that  will  destroy  much  of  the 
indigents'  power.  If  such  a  measure  were  passed  it  would 
create  confidence  throughout  the  world  in  our  ability  to  solve 
and  master  our  problems.  Politics  would  thus  become  a  State 
business  and  enterprise  and  work  the  order  of  the  day.  Then  the 
vast  wealth  of  agriculture,  cattle,  sheep,  and  mineral  industries 
would  all  be  developed,  and  South  Africa  take  its  place  beside 
Canada  and  Australia.  And  in  time  its  vast  resources  would 
employ  the  millions  that  are  being  kept  away  through  the 
stupidity  of  an  ignorant  minority.  To  realise  this  our  confidence 
to-day  must  remain  with  the  green  and  orange  of  General  Botha. 

W.  P.  TAYLOR. 


The  Cornish  Riviera  513 


THE    CORNISH    RIVIERA 

LAST  summer  was  our  first  visit  to  Cornwall,  a  land  of 
historic  incidents  and  national  memories.  Both  as  to  scenery 
and  climate  Cornwall  is  hard  to  equal,  even  on  the  Continent, 
and  although  we  did  not  see  anything  like  all  its  beauties, 
we  saw  enough  to  make  us  wish  to  return  another  year. 
We  travelled  by  the  Biviera  Limited  Express,  which  leaves 
Paddington  at  10.30  a.m.,  and  makes  its  first  stop  at  Plymouth. 
Coaches  for  the  Ilfracombe  Branch  are  slipped  at  Taunton,  and 
at  Exeter  for  Torquay  and  Dartmouth.  The  country  en  route 
is  pleasing  and  interesting,  especially  from  Exeter  to  Newton 
Abbot,  the  metals  being  laid  practically  on  the  sea-shore  for 
many  miles.  Between  Plymouth  and  Truro  the  line  passes 
over  many  viaducts,  and  runs  through  thickly  wooded  hills  and 
dales.  A  tourist  ticket  taken  to  Penzance  allows  the  holder  to 
break  the  journey  at  Truro  and  other  large  towns,  and  also 
includes  a  trip  to  St.  Ives.  This  is  the  ticket  we  took,  although 
our  headquarters  were  at  Kestronguet,  near  Falmouth. 

The  Fal  is  a  delightful  river,  and  its  eleven  miles  of  partially 
land-locked  lakes  and  wooded  coombes,  with  their  wealth  of  fern 
and  flowering  plants,  innumerable  mills  and  primitive  bridges, 
are  most  fascinating.  From  Falmouth  to  Truro,  a  distance  of 
six  miles,  the  river  turns  and  twists  and  runs  into  shy  creeks  of 
unsurpassing  beauty.  Eestronguet  lies  near  the  head  of  one  of 
these  creeks  and  is  reached  from  Penryn,  two  stations  beyond 
Truro.  Another  way  is  to  drive  from  Truro,  a  distance  of  five 
miles,  and  take  the  ferry  across  the  river.  Let  me  introduce  the 
reader  to  the  ferryman. 

Although  only  about  thirty  years  of  age,  he  has  the  bearing 
of  an  old  man  of  sixty.  You  pull  the  bell  fixed  upon  the  rocks 
and  wait  for  him.  After  a  lapse  of  many  minutes,  you  see  him 
walking  slowly  along  the  edge  of  the  water  opposite.  He  stops 
half-way  to  light  his  pipe,  and  the  wind  is  blowing.  Approaching 
the  shore  he  lifts  the  tail  rope  of  the  boat.  It  has  seaweed 
upon  it  which  requires  shaking  off,  but  not  too  suddenly  or  the 
fish  might  be  frightened.  A  pull,  and  another,  about  one  a 
minute,  and  at  last  the  boat  reaches  him.  The  anchor  has  to  be 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  179.  2  Q 


514  The  Empire  Review 

cast  aside,  the  rope  carefully  coiled,  and  he  gets  in.  In  another 
minute  or  two  he  is  at  your  side,  and  with  careful  step,  picking 
your  way  over  the  rocks  and  seaweed,  and  not  going  too  fast  for 
fear  of  frightening  him,  you  enter  the  boat  and  take  a  seat 
opposite  him.  You  say  "  Good  morning,"  and  he  says — some- 
thing— you  don't  know  what,  and  for  fear  of  giving  offence  you 
open  conversation,  but  cannot  carry  it  on,  for  he  is  a  Cornishman 
born  and  bred,  and  you  have  not  learned  the  Celtic  language,  or 
the  nearest  English  to  it.  You  pay  your  penny,  or  twopence  if 
you  think  that  he  looks  thirsty  (which  he  generally  does),  and 
you  wander  off  meditating  on  the  peculiarities  of  mankind  in 
general. 

Along  the  road  from  Penryn  we  noticed  many  cards  hanging 
in  the  windows  of  cottages  with  the  words  "  Not  at  Home." 
A  few  days  afterwards  we  discovered  that  somebody  was  at 
home,  and  we  also  found  that  there  were  other  remarks  on  the 
cards,  words  to  the  effect  that  "  a  man  from  this  household  is 
now  serving  with  His  Majesty's  Forces,"  and  to  the  credit  of 
Cornwall  these  cards  were  freely  displayed.  Another  of  our 
discoveries  was  a  drain  pipe  fixed  in  the  ground  by  the  side  of 
the  water,  with  a  board  hanging  on  it :  "  Boats  to  let,  inquire 
within."  It  reminded  one  of  the  notice  board  on  the  sands  at 
Cullercoats,  near  Tynemouth,  inscribed:  "Any  person  passing 
beyond  this  point  will  be  drowned.  By  order  of  the  magistrates," 
and  that  exhibited  at  the  main  entrance  to  a  Glasgow  sausage 
factory  :  "  Beware  of  the  dog." 

A  small  steamer  leaves  Falmouth  several  times  a  day  for  Truro. 
This  is  a  very  pleasant  river  trip,  and  many  of  the  creeks  can  be 
visited  on  the  way.  It  is  difficult  to  mention  any  part  of  the 
journey  as  being  more  interesting  than  another,  but  perhaps  the 
most  favoured  view  is  that  of  King  Harry  Passage,  with  its 
peculiar  ferry  for  horses  and  carts,  and  in  the  distance  the  little 
village  of  Malpas.  The  navigation  of  the  river  from  Malpas  is 
rather  eccentric  owing  to  the  mud-flats,  and  it  is  only  at  high 
tide  that  passengers  can  be  landed  at  Truro.  In  this  part 
of  the  country  all  roads  seem  to  lead  to  Truro,  a  not  very  old 
but  quaint  town,  permeated  by  the  sound  of  running  water,  which 
hurries  down  both  sides  of  the  main  street.  Never  shall  we 
forget  our  visit  to  this  town  by  the  market  'bus.  Imagine  a  large 
box  on  four  wheels  with  two  long  seats,  made  to  hold  seven  or 
eight  including  the  driver,  fixed  on  the  front,  and  you  have  the 
Truro  'bus.  We  selected  the  second  seat  as  looking  the  safer, 
and  then  waited.  From  all  directions  came  portly  dames  loaded 
with  parcels,  accompanied  in  many  instances  by  their  husbands. 
The  bundles  were  stored  on  top  of  the  box,  and  the  old  ladies 
squeezed  inside.  At  the  top  of  the  hill  we  found  others  waiting, 


The  Cornish  Riviera  515 

and  at  the  foot  more  passengers  were  assembled,  and  we  were 
curious  to  see  where  they  were  all  going  to  be  stowed.  But  the 
'bus  took  them  all,  and  in  due  time  reached  its  destination.  The 
Cathedral  is  the  most  important  and  artistic  ecclesiastical  building 
erected  in  England  since  the  Beformation,  the  foundation  stone 
being  laid  by  the  late  King  Edward  when  Duke  of  Cornwall.  It 
possesses  a  beautiful  Beredos,  and  a  masterpiece  in  terracotta, 
presented  by  Mr.  Tinworth  in  commemoration  of  his  son's  safe 
return  from  the  Boer  War. 

It  was  here  we  had  our  first  taste  of  Cornish  pasties.  There 
are  several  dishes  peculiar  to  Cornwall,  and  a  pasty  is  one.  It 
resembles  an  apple  turnover,  but  is  composed  of  meat,  potato 
and  seasoning  finely  chopped.  There  is  a  common  saying  in  the 
West  that  the  devil  will  not  come  into  Cornwall  for  fear  of  being 
put  into  a  pie.  Almost  every  kind  of  food  is  put  into  a  Cornish 
pie.  Squab-pie  is  a  great  favourite  ;  so  popular  is  it  locally  that 
the  recipe  is  given  in  verse  : — 

Of  wheaten  walls  erect  your  paste; 
Let  the  round  mass  expand  its  breast. 
Next  slice  your  apples  cull'd  so  fresh, 
Let  the  fat  sheep  supply  its  flesh, 
Then  add  an  onion's  stinging  juice — 
A  sprinkling — be  not  too  profuse. 
Well  mix't,  these  nice  ingredients,  sure, 
Might  gratify  an  epicure. 

Herby  pie  is  another  peculiar  dish,  composed  of  nettles,  pepper 
cress,  parsley,  mustard,  and  spinach,  together  with  thin  slices  of 
pork.  Pies  are  also  made  with  leeks  and  pilchards ;  goose  feet, 
gizzard  and  blood,  raisins,  sugar  and  apples ;  and  mackerel, 
parsley  and  cream.  Cornish  heavy  cake  is  also  much  in  request. 
Let  me  give  the  ingredients :  1  Ib.  fresh  butter,  1  Ib.  flour,  6  oz. 
currants,  a  pinch  of  salt.  Take  £  Ib.  of  the  butter  and  rub  into  the 
flour,  make  it  into  a  stiff  dough  with  cold  water ;  having  added  the 
currants  and  salt,  roll  it  out  on  the  board ;  take  another  |  Ib.  of 
butter  and  lay  it  in  small  pieces  over  the  dough,  flour  and  fold  it 
up,  roll  again  twice,  adding  the  remainder  of  butter,  then  roll  it 
out  finally  an  inch  thick,  score  the  surface  in  small  diamonds 
brush  over  with  milk,  and  bake  half  an  hour  in  a  quick  oven.  A 
half  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder  may  be  added.  Saffron  is 
largely  used  in  smaller  cakes. 

To  reach  Falmouth  from  Bestronguet  one  has  to  walk  some 
three  miles.  On  the  way  you  pass  Mylor,  a  pretty  village 
possessing  many  charming  thatched-roofed  cottages,  and  by  the 
wayside  are  several  pumps,  whither  maidens  go  in  the  mornings 
with  their  stone  pitchers  to  draw  water ;  in  the  evenings  the  elders 
congregate  at  the  pumps  for  their  chat  over  the  doings  of  the 

2  Q  2 


516  The  Empire  Review 

village  and  things  in  general.  The  old  church  at  My  lor  is  quite 
a  mile  away  from  the  village,  and  on  the  gravestones  in  the 
churchyard  are  some  quaint  epitaphs.  Here  is  one:  "In memory 
of  Joseph  Crapp,  shipwright,  who  died  November,  1770,  aged 
45  years. 

Alass  Frend  Joseph 

His  end  was  allmost  sudden 

As  thou(gh)  the  mandate  came 

Express  from  heaven. 

His  foot  it  slipt,  and  he  did  fall ; 

'  Help,  help,'  he  cries,  and  that  was  all." 

From  Flushing,  a  little  fishing  place  on  the  side  of  the 
harbour,  one  sees  a  mass  of  houses  irregularly  built  along 
the  water-side,  and  on  the  hill  behind.  This  is  Falmouth 
represented  three  centuries  ago  by  a  few  cottages.  The 
development  of  the  town  is  due  mainly  to  the  action  of  the 
General  Post  Office  in  establishing  there  a  packet-service  to 
every  part  of  the  globe.  The  harbour,  with  an  area  of  about 
ten  square  miles,  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  The  show 
place  of  the  district  is  Pendennis  Castle,  about  200  feet  above 
sea  level,  guarding  the  estuary.  Another  sentinel  is  St.  Mawes 
Castle,  elevated  in  the  midst  of  the  most  picturesque  scenery, 
and  over  the  door  are  inscribed  the  words :  "  May  the  soul  of 
King  Henry  VIII.  live  for  ever,"  but  it  has  not  the  eventful 
history  of  Pendennis.  Boats  leave  Falmouth  at  stated  times 
of  the  day  for  St.  Mawes,  passing  up  the  beautiful  creek  to 
St.  Anthony  and  Percuil  where  the  passengers  land  in  small 
boats.  Eeferring  to  Falmouth  in  the  year  1809  Byron  says  : — 

This  town  of  Falmouth,  as  you  will  partly  conjecture,  is  no  great  ways 
from  the  sea.  It  is  defended  on  the  sea  side  by  two  castles,  St.  Maws  and 
Pendennis,  extremely  well  calculated  for  annoying  everybody  except  an  enemy. 
St.  Maws  is  garrisoned  by  an  able-bodied  person  of  four  score,  a  widower. 
He  has  the  whole  command  and  sole  management  of  six  most  unmanageable 
pieces  of  ordnance,  admirably  adapted  for  the  destruction  of  Pendennis,  a  like 
tower  of  strength  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Channel.  We  have  seen  St. 
Maws,  but  Pendennis  they  will  not  let  us  behold,  save  at  a  distance,  because 
Hobhouse  and  I  are  suspected  of  having  already  taken  St.  Maws  by  a  coup  de 
main.  The  town  contains  many  Quakers  and  salt  fish,  the  oysters  have  a 
taste  of  copper,  owing  to  the  soil  of  a  mining  country,  the  women  (blessed  be 
the  corporation  therefor !)  are  flogged  at  the  cart's  tail  when  they  pick  and 
steal,  as  happened  to  one  of  the  fair  sex  yesterday  noon.  She  was  pertinacious 
in  her  behaviour  and  damned  the  mayor. 

The  Marine  Drive  is  probably  the  finest  in  Cornwall,  and  the 
Gyllyngvase  beach  a  favourite  resort  of  bathers.  Nor  must  I 
forget  to  mention  Burton's  "  Old  Curiosity  Shop,"  where  maybe 
seen -a  marvellous  collection  of  curios.  Some  amusing  signboards 


The  Cornish  Riviera  517 

were  hung  outside  for  sale  on  the  day  of  our  visit.     Here  are 
a  few  of  the  inscriptions  : — 

SUNDAY  BAKING  DONE  HERE. 
Here  lives  Jerry  Snowed 
That  cleans  the  road 
For  publicans  and  sinners 
But  not  for  those  chapel  folks 
But  only  those  that  bring  their  dinners. 
GOD  SAVE  THE  KING. 

"  COKNISH  AKMS  "  INN. 
Come  All  Ye  Jolly  Boys  Walk  in 
Here's  Whiskey,  Brandy,  Rum,  and  Gin, 
You  Can't  do  less  than  drink  success 
To  Copper,  Fish  and  Tin. 

By  JOSIAH  PENBERTHY. 

JEREMIAH  NUTE. 

Dealer  in  Cod  Liver  Oil  and  Treacle,  Turkey  Ehubarb,  Tarts  and  Mustard, 
Saws,  Hammers,  Winnowing  Machines,  Clogs,  Wheelbarrows,  Frying-pans 
and  other  Moosical  Hinstruments. 

Men  they  have  many  faults, 
But  women  has  but  two, 
Nothing's  right  that  they  say, 
And  nothing's  right  they  do. 

RULES  OF  THIS  LODGING-HOUSE. 
Fourpence  a  night  for  bed. 
Sixpence  with  supper. 
No  more  than  three  to  sleep  in  one  bed. 
No  beer  allowed  in  the  kitchen. 
No  smoking  when  in  bed. 
No  clothes  to  be  washed  on  Sunday. 
No  Boots  to  be  worn  in  bed. 
No  dogs  allowed  upstairs. 
No  gambling  or  Fighting  here. 
No  extra  charge  for  Luggage. 
No  Eazor  Grinders  taken  in. 
Organ  Grinders  to  sleep  in  the  attick. 

BY    IZIKIAH   O'DONIVIAN. 

Donkeys,  Chaises,  Handcarts  and  Durries  let  on  Hire. 
Mangling  done  Here. 

J.  CALCRAFT, 
Boot  and  Shoe  Maker. 

EXECUTIONER   TO   HER   MAJESTY. 

The  late  Mr.  John  Burton  was  accounted  one  of  the  shrewdest 
men  in  Falrnouth.  One  anecdote  will  suffice  to  give  an  insight 
into  his  character.  When  in  1887  the  late  King  Edward,  then 
Prince  of  Wales,  laid  the  foundation  stone  of  All  Saints'  Church, 
arrangements  had  been  made  for  the  Prince  to  inspect  Mr. 


518  The  Empire  Review 

Burton's  collection.  The  crowd  of  visitors  in  the  narrow  streets, 
however,  was  so  great  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  Prince  to 
drive  down.  In  these  circumstances  Mr.  Cavendish-Bentinck, 
then  member  for  the  borough,  addressed  a  letter  to  Mr.  Burton 
asking  him  if  he  would  send  a  collection  of  wares  for  the  inspec- 
tion of  his  Royal  Highness.  Nine  out  of  ten  men  would  gladly 
have  complied  with  the  request,  not  so  Mr.  Burton.  He  replied 
by  letter  which  he  addressed  to  the  Prince  himself,  and  this  is 
what  he  said  : — 

RESPECTED  ALBERT  EDWARD, — 

I  much  regret  to  find  you  are  indisposed.  If  I  were  to  fetch  to  Kerris 
Vean  a  Pickford's  waggon-load  of  samples  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  to 
convey  the  remotest  idea  of  my  ponderous  conglomeration  of  curios ;  but  if 
I  could  possibly  prevail  upon  your  Royal  Highness  to  go  through  my  shanty, 
I  would  give  you  local  "  wit  and  humour  "  which  would  throw  you  into  a 
state  of  laughter,  and  there  is  every  probability  it  would  counteract  your  cold. 
Yours  until  we  meet  in  the  next  hotel, 

JOHN  BURTON. 

The  Prince  laughed  heartily,  and  subsequently  made  some 
purchases  by  commission. 

Of  all  the  places  we  visited  St.  Ives  was  undoubtedly  the 
most  picturesque.  We  selected  a  Monday  for  the  trip,  and  soon 
discovered  that  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  good  ladies  of  the  house- 
holds favoured  Monday  for  washing  day.  The  quaint  little  old 
town  down  at  the  water's  edge  is  irregularly  built  with  very 
narrow  streets,  and  the  majority  of  the  houses  are  approached  by 
stone  steps.  There  are  no  back  gardens,  so  necessity  ordains  that 
clothes  must  be  hung  to  dry  either  on  the  steps  or  on  the  beach. 
It  was  curious  to  see  rows  and  rows  of  poles  pushed  into  the 
sandy  beach,  and  the  lines  stretching  therefrom  laden  with  snowy 
white  garments  drying  in  the  sun.  The  bay  of  St.  Ives  well 
deserves  its  title,  "  the  Naples  of  England."  The  fine  stretches 
of  silver  sand  and  the  blue  sea  makes  the  visitor  wonder  whether 
he  is  not  on  the  Mediterranean  shore.  No  guide  book  or  picture 
will  ever  do  justice  to  the  scenes  which  unfold  themselves  at 
every  turn.  Like  many  old  Cornish  places  St.  Ives  has  its  own 
legends,  superstitions  and  folk-lore,  and  still  keeps  its  feast  day 
on  the  first  Sunday  in  February. 

Cornwall  is  full  of  local  jealousies,  and  dwellers  in  contiguous 
towns  and  villages  often  hold  each  other  in  low  esteem.  It  used 
to  be  that  if  a  young  man  of  Hayle  went  to  court  a  St.  Ives 
damsel,  the  lads  of  the  young  lady's  town  would  take  the  earliest 
opportunity  of  ducking  the  lover  of  Hayle,  and,  naturally,  the 
lads  of  Hayle  had  their  own  back  if  they  found  one  of  their 
maidens  likely  to  be  run  off  to  St.  Ives.  "  Who  whipped  the 
Hake  "or"  St.  Ives  Hakes"  is  often  the  retort  of  the  Towed- 


The  Cornish  Riviera  519 

nack  village  people  when  rallied  by  their  neighbours.  The  story 
which  gave  rise  to  this  saying  is  that  long  ago  the  fishers  of 
St.  Ives  were  much  distressed  at  the  ravages  made  by  the 
hake,  then  very  numerous  along  this  coast,  among  the  mackerel, 
an  important  part  of  their  subsistence.  It  was  necessary  to  stop 
the  misdeeds  of  the  greedy  hake,  so  the  fishers  took  the  natural 
and  simple  course  of  catching  the  largest  hake  they  could  find, 
whipped  him  soundly  with  little  rods  to  teach  him  better 
manners,  and  then  put  him  back  to  tell  his  brothers  what  he 
had  undergone.  Whether  this  had  the  desired  effect  we  are  not 
told,  but  we  know  that  both  the  mackerel  and  the  pilchard  fishery 
are  not  now  what  once  they  were.  The  St.  Ives  folk  call  the 
Towednack  folk  "  Towednack  Cuckoos,"  because  they  are  said  to 
have  once  built  a  wall  round  the  cuckoo. 

The  country  between  Truro  and  Penzance,  if  not  beautiful, 
is  most  interesting,  for  it  is  the  land  of  the  tin  mines.  Many 
of  these  mines,  unfortunately,  are  not  working,  some  have 
given  out,  others  been  abandoned  owing  to  the  men  having 
migrated  to  Johannesburg  or  Kimberley.  The  oldest  mine  is  at 
Camborne,  the  famous  Dolcoath  mine,  now  being  worked  2,250 
feet  below  the  surface.  After  an  hour's  run  through  country 
covered  with  ruined  chimneys  and  heaps  of  slag,  it  is  refreshing 
to  run  along  the  seashore  at  Marazion  and  look  upon  St.  Michael's 
Mount  and  the  beautiful  bay,  one  of  the  most  interesting  views 
in  Cornwall.  The  castle  on  the  Mount  is  the  historic  home  of 
the  St.  Aubyn  family,  having  been  a  sanctuary  and  shrine  almost 
as  far  back  as  the  dawn  of  Christianity  in  England.  When  Lord 
St.  Leven  is  at  home  a  flag  flies  from  the  flagstaff.  It  is  generally 
supposed  that  the  mount  was  once  surrounded  by  trees,  whence 
it  took  its  title  of  the  "  Hoar  rock  in  the  wood,"  and  that  at  the 
close  of  the  eleventh  century  the  sea  buried  towns  and  many  men 
and  animals. 

Penzance,  with  its  exotic  and  sub-tropical  plants  thriving 
in  the  open  is  notably  a  winter  resort.  There  are  countless 
rides,  drives,  and  walks  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  Newlyn, 
a  suburb  of  the  town,  is  one  of  the  prettiest  spots  on  the 
Cornish  coast.  News  of  Nelson's  death  was  first  heard  in 
England  at  Penzance  Quay,  whence  it  was  brought  by  two 
fishermen  who  received  the  intelligence  from  the  crew  of  a 
passing  vessel ;  it  is  also  said  that  Sir  Walter  Kaleigh  landed 
there  on  his  return  from  Virginia,  and  smoked  on  the  quay  the 
first  tobacco  ever  seen  in  these  islands.  Cornwall  possesses 
unique  advantages.  Not  only  is  it  an  ideal  place  in  which  to 
spend  a  summer  holiday,  but  as  a  winter  residence  it  rivals  the 
attractions  of  Southern  France. 

A.  E.  WITTY. 


520  The  Empire  Review 


A    MAIDEN'S    GIFT    TO    KING    CHARLES    I. 

Lines  suggested  by  a  famous  painting  by  a  French  artist  representing 
Frances  Trattle  presenting  a  rose  to  the  King  in  St.  Thomas's  Square, 
Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  on  November  14,  1647. 

"  MOTHER  !     See  !     I've  picked  this  beauteous  rose, 
Methinks  'tis  wondrous  strange,  since  summer's  gone, 

And,  as  I  heard,  but  now,  from  one  who  knows, 
King  Charles  will  be  in  Newport  town  anon. 

"Mother,  I  wish,  an  I  might  be  so  bold, 

To  give  the  King  my  rose."     The  mother  smiled  : 

"Do  it,"  she  said.    "  'Twould  please  him  more  than  gold, 
And  'tis  a  kindly  thought  of  thine,  my  child." 

And  so  the  rose  to  her  liege  Lord  she  gave, 
This  Newport  maiden,  with  the  winsome  face  : 

"  Sire,  deign  to  take  it ;  we  pray  God  to  save 
Your  Majesty  from  harm,  by  His  good  grace." 

And  he,  the  King,  once  powerful  and  great, 

But  now,  alas  !  a  fugitive  from  foes, 
Low  fall'n  indeed  from  his  past  high  estate, 

Bent  to  her  graciously  and  took  the  rose. 

'Twas  near  the  church,  which,  o'er  that  ancient  town, 
Rose,  with  grey  walls,  and  high  and  stately  tower, 

That  he,  the  second  Stuart  to  wear  our  Crown, 
Took  from  the  maid  that  emblematic  flower. 

His  kingly  form,  her  unaffected  grace, 

The  age-old  pile  up  which  the  ivy  climbed, 

The  peaceful  quietude  that  filled  the  place — 

Save  for  the  bells  which  from  the  church-tower  chimed — 

Made  a  soul-moving  picture.     On  that  gift 

A  gleam,  like  summer  sunshine,  seemed  to  play, 

And  the  King's  saddened  heart  to  soothe,  and  lift 
Above  the  gloom  of  that  November  day. 

ROBEY  F.  ELDEIDGE. 


Oversea  Notes  521 


OVERSEA    NOTES 

CANADA 

HER  MAJESTY  THE  QUEEN  has  sent  a  petticoat  to  each  province  in 
Canada  for  the  purpose  of  raising  money  for  patriotic  purposes.  It  is 
expected  that  a  considerable  sum  will  be  realised.  Already  much 
interest  has  been  aroused,  and  competition  for  the  skirts  is  sure  to  be 
keen  when  they  are  put  up  for  sale. 

A  WAR  OFFICE  contract  for  600,000  sheets  and  100,000  blankets 
is  now  being  filled  in  Canada.  The  amount  of  the  contract  is  about 
£200,000,  and  the  supplies  are  for  the  winter  campaign  in  Flanders. 
The  contract  was  placed  in  Canada  by  the  International  War  Purchasing 
Commission  in  London.  Inspection  is  under  the  Trade  and  Commerce 
Department  of  the  Canadian  Government,  and  the  same  department  is 
also  supervising  the  shipment.  This  contract  is  one  of  many  others  of 
a  similar  character  likely  to  be  placed  in  Canada.  The  Italian  winter 
campaign  in  the  Alps  will  necessitate  heavier  clothing  than  is  generally 
used  by  the  troops  of  that  country,  and  Canada  will  be  given  a  chance 
to  do  its  share  in  providing  supplies. 

THE  Ontario  Government,  through  the  Provincial  Department  of 
Agriculture,  are  canning  20,000  gallons  of  peaches  to  be  forwarded  to 
Britain  for  distribution  among  sailors  and  soldiers.  The  peaches  are  in 
1 -gallon  tins  and  have  on  the  label  "  To  the  Sailors  and  Soldiers  of 
Freedom,"  and  the  statement  that  they  are  the  gift  of  Ontario.  This 
fruit  is  being  put  up  at  the  Government's  experimental  fruit  farm  at 
Vineland  from  the  Government  orchards  and  those  of  the  surrounding 
district.  Fruit  is  being  canned  in  generous  quantities  by  the  women  of 
rural  Ontario  for  Canadian  and  other  soldiers  in  British  hospitals. 
Growers  of  peaches  have  contributed  liberally.  The  women  of  Ontario, 
through  the  women's  institutes  under  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  are 
sending,  in  addition  to  peaches,  other  canned  fruits,  also  jams,  jellies,  and 
honey.  Other  gifts  from  them  to  the  soldiers  include  steady  contributions 
of  knitted  goods,  hospital  supplies,  and  clothing.  Some  institutes  are 
maintaining  cots  in  some  hospitals.  Other  institutes  have  given  con- 
tributions of  motor  ambulances,  field  kitchens,  and  machine  guns.  In 
addition  to  all  this  these  organisations  have  contributed  over  $50,000 
in  cash  to  the  Canadian  hospital  ship,  the  Red  Cross,  and  patriotic  funds. 

A  MOVEMENT  is  on  foot  for  the  development  of  the  toy  industry 
with  a  view  to  the  provision  of  light  and  profitable  work  for  maimed 


522  The  Empire  Review 

soldiers  after  their  return  from  Europe.  The  citizens  of  Montreal 
are  taking  great  interest  in  the  work,  and  will  shortly  hold  an  ex- 
hibition under  the  patronage  of  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Connaught. 
The  Canadian  Handicraft  Guild  has  thus  grasped  the  opportunity  of 
present  conditions  to  establish  a  home-made  toy  industry  in  Canada  and 
to  keep  in  the  country  money  which  has  hitherto  gone  to  Germany,  by 
offering  prizes  for  home-made  toys.  The  toys  submitted  for  the  com- 
petition will  afterwards  be  placed  on  sale  in  some  central  locality  in  time 
for  the  Christmas  trade. 

TORONTO'S  gift  of  one  million  dollars  to  the  Patriotic  Fund  is  fast 
being  distributed  to  5,000  dependents  of  soldiers  that  are  being  assisted. 
In  September  alone  $78,000  was  expended,  and  the  list  of  claimants  is 
growing  as  recruiting  increases.  Toronto  alone  has  provided  over  30,000 
men  for  overseas  service.  It  is  estimated  that  the  whole  of  the  million 
dollars  will  be  exhausted  by  next  March.  Toronto's  branch  of  the  Red 
Cross  Society  raised  $166,872.31  during  the  year  ended  September  30 
last.  Of  this  total  $160,790.80  was  handed  in  cash  to  the  parent 
Canadian  organisation.  The  balance,  except  a  few  hundred  dollars  still 
on  hand,  was  utilised  in  buying  supplies  and  equipment,  contributing  to 
the  University  Base  Hospital,  equipping  Canadian  nurses,  and  for  other 
patriotic  purposes.  The  General  Hospital  is  losing  a  large  part  of  its 
medical  staff  by  the  transference  of  its  senior  house  surgeons  to  the 
R.A.M.C.  for  overseas.  Forty  doctors  from  the  Toronto  division  have 
been  selected  for  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps  in  England,  and  these 
have  been  ordered  to  prepare  to  leave  at  once. 

THE  continent  of  Europe  having  been  closed  this  season  to  the  tourist, 
the  scenic  resorts  of  Canada,  both  Eastern  and  Western,  have  been  very 
largely  patronised,  particularly  by  visitors  from  the  United  States.  One 
railway  company  alone,  the  Canadian  Pacific,  is  estimated  to  have  carried 
no  fewer  than  100,000  through  the  mountains,  and  it  is  a  recognised  fact 
that  once  a  route  has  become  popular  with  this  class  of  tourist  the  stream 
has  a  tendency  to  increase,  provided  adequate  arrangements  are  made  for 
the  convenience  of  the  visitors  ;  and  those  who  are  developing  the  traffic 
may  be  trusted  to  ensure  the  comfort  of  their  patrons.  As  the  scenic 
and  sporting  attractions  of  Canada  become  better  known  in  this  country 
there  is  certain  to  be  a  steady  increase  in  the  already  considerable 
number  of  tourists  who  cross  the  Atlantic  in  quest  of  health  and  pleasure. 
The  choice  of  scenery  is  almost  illimitable. 

THE  installation  of  oil-burning  locomotives  on  the  mountain  section  of 
the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railway  is  now  completed.  The  locomotives 
are  of  the  most  modern  type  and  are  operating  from  Jasper  to  Prince 
Rupert,  over  719  miles  of  main  line.  Special  interest  attaches  to  the 
installation  of  this  class  of  motive  power,  as  it  marks  the  first  use  of 
oil-burners  on  an  extensive  scale  in  Canada.  Huge  oil  storage  tanks 
have  been  erected  at  various  points  along  the  line  for  supplying  the 
locomotives  with  the  necessary  fuel.  The  section  of  the  line  on  which 
the  new  locomotives  are  being  used  passes  through  some  of  the  finest 


Oversea  Notes  523 

scenic  territory  in  the  Canadian  Rockies,  and  the  absence  of  coal-dust 
adds  to  the  pleasures  of  the  open  car  and  the  car  platform. 

AT  the  Natural  History  Society  meeting  held  at  St.  John  (New 
Brunswick)  attention  was  directed  to  a  very  interesting  and  valuable 
collection  of  Indian  relics  recovered  during  the  past  summer  by  members 
of  the  Society.  The  museum  collection  of  Acadian  Indian  relics  was 
stated  to  be  the  best  in  the  world,  containing  as  it  does  more  specimens 
than  any  other  two  museums.  One  of  its  features  was  hundreds  of 
fragments  of  pottery.  A  distinguished  American  scientist,  who  was  in 
St.  John  this  summer  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  collection,  declared 
that  henceforth  no  student  of  Indian  life  in  North-Eastern  America  could 
consider  his  education  complete  who  had  not  studied  the  collection  of 
relics  in  the  St.  John  Museum. 

CANADA  is  not  generally  recognised  as  a  wine-producing  country,  but 
in  the  Niagara  district  of  Ontario,  where  a  splendid  climate  and  enter- 
prising agriculturists  have  combined  to  create  one  of  the  great  fruit- 
growing sections  of  the  continent,  there  has  grown  up  what  may  become 
an  industry  of  considerable  importance.  A  recent  official  report  mentions 
eleven  firms  engaged  in  the  production  of  wine.  There  are  as  many 
varieties  as  there  are  localities  where  vines  are  grown.  Many  of  the 
Canadian  wines  are  classified  as  port,  a  few  as  sherry,  while  others  are 
like  claret  in  quality,  and  some  are  simply  described  as/wine.  Home- 
grown wines  have  been  used  in  Canada  for  years.  They  are  little  known, 
however,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  with  the  development  of  the 
industry  they  are  certain  to  make  a  good  bid  for  popularity. 

FOR  the  first  time  moving  pictures  are  being  used  in  educational 
work  in  agriculture,  these  having  been  prepared  by  the  Ontario 
Agricultural  Department.  These  will  be  on  view  at  some  of  the  evening 
meetings  in  connection  with  the  better  farm  demonstrations.  The 
pictures  will  show  operations  in  orcharding,  specimens  of  live  stock,  tile 
drainage  operations,  and  other  matters  of  interest  to  agriculturists. 

NEW   ZEALAND 

ORDERS  for  the  supply  of  50,000  sheepskin  coats  for  winter  clothing 
for  the  British  Army  have  been  placed  in  New  Zealand  through  the  New 
Zealand  Government.  The  coats  are  to  be  without  sleeves,  fastened 
down  the  front  with  straps,  and  about  as  long  as  an  ordinary  tunic. 
About  an  inch  and  a  half  of  wool  will  be  left  on  the  skins.  For  the  New 
Zealand  troops,  winter  coats  are  being  made  of  skins  without  wool.  The 
weight  of  the  sample  coat  for  the  British  troops  is  two  and  a  half  pounds. 

A  SOMEWHAT  novel  method  of  raising  money  for  the  Wounded  Soldiers' 
and  Red  Cross  Funds  was  adopted  by  a  gathering  of  sportsmen  during 
dinner  at  the  Clarendon  Hotel,  Christchurch.  A  gentleman  present 
picked  up  a  banana  from  a  plate,  and  suggested  that  it  should  be  sold  by 
auction  in  aid  of  the  funds.  The  idea  was  agreed  to  immediately.  Bids 
came  rapidly,  and  the  banana  was  sold  and  resold  again  until  it  had 


524  The  Empire  Review 

realised  £31   Us.,  the  skin  being  knocked  down  for  £2.     It  was  decided 
to  divide  the  amount  between  the  two  funds. 

DURING  a  visit  of  Mr.  MacDonald  to  Gisborne,  a  deputation  of  natives 
waited  upon  him  to  ask  that  the  Government  accept  the  services  of  native 
girls  to  assist  in  nursing  Maori  soldiers  at  the  front.  Mr.  MacDonald,  in 
reply,  said  that  it  was  gratifying  to  him,  and  to  the  Government  generally, 
to  notice  the  keen  interest  the  native  race  was  taking  in  the  war.  They 
were  proud  of  the  way  the  natives  had  come  forward  to  offer  men,  money 
and  food.  The  Maori  people  had  done  credit  to  their  ancestors  and  the 
people  of  New  Zealand.  He  keenly  appreciated  their  desire  to  send  nurses 
to  the  front,  and  so  far  as  he  possibly  could  he  would  try  and  get  the 
request  acceded  to.  In  this  matter,  of  course,  the  Government  had  to 
listen  to  those  in  authority,  but  he  would  place  the  request  before  the 
responsible  Minister. 

TWENTY-FIVE  thousand  head  of  cattle  have  been  killed  at  the  South- 
down Freezing  Works  for  export,  and  this  number  is  being  increased  at 
the  rate  of  120  head  daily.  Conditions  in  the  freezing  industry  are  now 
much  easier  as  less  stock  is  coming  forward,  and  slaughtering  has 
been  reduced  to  about  half  the  capacity  of  the  works.  The  cool  storage 
of  the  freezing  company  is  still  full,  the  quantity  of  meat  awaiting 
shipment  being  equivalent  to  70,000  freight  carcases,  while  the  daily  out- 
put of  the  refrigerating  plant  is  equivalent  to  1 ,500  carcases.  The  stock 
being  handled  is  almost  exclusively  cattle,  as  the  local  market  for  sheep 
is  more  attractive  than  the  export  values. 

AT  a  meeting  of  the  Sheep  Owners'  Federation  and  the  executive 
of  the  Shearers'  Union  in  Wellington  the  following  minimum  rates 
of  pay  were  fixed : — Pressers  and  wool  rollers  engaged  by  the  week, 
35s.  weekly ;  when  not  engaged  by  the  week,  Is.  2d.  per  hour  ;  all  other 
shed  hands,  32s.  weekly,  or  Is.  Id.  per  hour;  cooks,  40*.  weekly;  cooks' 
assistants,  36*.  The  employer  is  to  provide  rations  or  pay  15s.  per  week 
additional. 

NEW  ZEALAND  farmer  soldiers  in  Egypt  have  been  much  struck 
with  the  value  of  the  phosphate  there.  At  Sofaja  Bay,  on  the  shores  of 
the  Red  Sea,  they  believe  they  have  found  the  richest  phosphate 
(naturally  pulverised)  field  in  the  world.  A  trial  shipment  of  500  tons 
has  been  forwarded  to  New  Zealand. 

IN  pursuance  of  a  decision  arrived  at  by  the  suppliers  to  the  Kaupo- 
konui  Co-operative  Dairy  Factory  (New  Zealand)  to  contribute  \<L.  per 
cent,  of  the  milk  supply  during  the  continuance  of  the  war,  or  until  a 
war  tax  was  imposed,  over  £600  has  been  so  far  contributed. 

THE  efficacy  of  affording  special  facilities  for  getting  out  from  England 
relatives  of  those  already  established  in  New  Zealand  through  the  agency 
of  the  Immigration  Department  was  proved  by  a  striking  instance 
recently.  Some  time  ago  a  young  English  girl  accepted  service  on  a 
farm  in  the  Rangitikei  district,  in  the  North  Island.  She  saved  what 
money  she  could,  and  that,  in  addition  to  what  the  family  had  been 


Oversea  Notes  525 

able  to  save,  enabled  her  father  and  mother,  and  her  ten  young  brothers 
and  sisters  to  join  her.  The  parents  and  eight  of  the  children  have  been 
accommodated  on  a  farm  in  one  part  of  the  country,  and  the  two  eldest 
boys  are  on  another  farm. 

AN  attractive  story  of  a  young  Wanganui  (New  Zealand)  farmer's 
practical  patriotism  is  inspiriting  to  us  here  in  England  at  this  time.  The 
young  fellow,  who  had  by  thrift  and  prudence  placed  himself  in  a  sound 
financial  position,  conceived  it  to  be  his  duty  to  go  to  the  front.  He 
offered  his  services,  and  was  duly  accepted.  In  the  same  locality  there 
were  a  number  of  his  mates,  all  eligible  for  service,  professing  to  be 
desirous  of  going  also,  but  all  giving  reasons  which  made  it  difficult  for 
them  to  do  so.  Pressed  to  state  the  nature  of  their  reasons,  they  were 
for  the  most  part  unable  to  urge  any  more  serious  obstacle  to  their 
enrolling  than  the  fact  that  they  owed  money  to  certain  people,  and  were 
reluctant  to  go  away  in  debt.  "  Well,  boys,  don't  let  that  stop  you  doing 
your  duty,"  said  Farmer  No  1.  "Give  me  your  bills,  and  I'll  settle 
them  for  you  ;  and,  what's  more,  I'll  give  you  each  a  fiver  on  top  of  it." 

SOUTH   AFRICA 

AT  the  sale  of  the  late  Sir  George  Farrar's  famous  Friesland  herd  at 
his  estate,  Bedford  Farm,  remarkable  prices  were  realised  considering  the 
conditions  brought  about  by  the  war.  There  were  representatives  from 
all  the  Provinces  of  the  Union,  but  the  principal  buyers  came  from  Natal 
and  the  Eastern  Province  of  the  Cape.  Ten  bulls,  five  bull  calves> 
twenty-three  cows,  thirteen  heifers  and  six  heifer  calves  were  offered. 
These  fifty-seven  animals  realised  £7,305.  The  highest  price  obtained  was 
£310  for  an  imported  cow,  which  is  a  record  for  a  Friesland  in  South 
Africa.  The  highest  price  realised  for  a  South  African  bred  cow  was 
£205. 

IN  view  of  the  approach  of  the  fruit  season,  considerable  interest  has 
been  taken  in  the  question  of  the  pre-cooling  of  fruit  for  export,  and  at 
a  meeting  of  fruit  growers  and  exporters  held  at  Stellenbosch  recently  it 
was  decided  that  it  would  be  detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the 
fruit  export  trade  to  reduce  the  period  of  pre-cooling  below  forty-eight 
hours,  but  that  the  time  the  fruit  is  in  the  refrigerator  trucks  be  counted 
as  part  of  such  period. 

EXPERIMENTS  in  cotton -growing  are  about  to  be  undertaken  in  Natal 
with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  most  suitable  variety  for  cultivation. 
Four  plots  of  half  an  acre  each  on  a  farm  in  the  Richmond  district  are 
to  be  planted  with  Russel's  Big  Ball,  Bancroft,  Pulnott,  and  Nyassaland. 
The  planting,  cultivation,  and  reaping  of  the  plots  will  be  supervised  by 
the  Government  officer  in  charge  of  Tobacco  and  Cotton  Investigations. 
The  Government  has  erected  a  ginning  plant  at  Durban,  where  seed- 
cotton  from  farmers  in  all  parts  of  Natal  and  Zululand  will  be  ginned 
and  baled  ready  for  the  market  at  a  cost  of  a  halfpenny  per  Ib.  on 
the  lint. 


526  The  Empire  Review 

THE  Agricultural  College  at  Potchefstroom  is  now  engaged  on  experi- 
ments in  feeding  cattle  for  beef.  The  experiments,  which  were  begun  on 
the  1st  July,  are  divided  into  four  groups,  and  tests  will  be  made  with 
various  fodders  consisting  of  teff  hay,  lucerne,  maize  silage,  and  veldt 
hay  or  stover,  together  with  maize  meal.  The  main  object  is  to  test  the 
possibility  of  producing  beef  suitable  for  export  from  the  trek  ox 
(draught  ox). 

DURING  1914  the  mines  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa  consumed  stores 
to  the  value  of  £12,000,000,  and  of  this  amount  £10,000,000  was  ex- 
pended by  gold  mines.  £6,000,000  was  spent  on  South  African  products, 
the  principal  items  of  expenditure  being  :  coal,  £1,154,399  ;  explosives, 
£1,503,350;  foodstuff's  for  natives,  £1,102,753,  of  which  £303,464  was 
paid  for  meal  (mealie  and  kaffir  corn),  and  £374,839  for  meat. 

Last  year  621  new  settlers  obtained  between  them  575  farms  in  the 
Union  of  South  Africa.  These  farms  embraced  an  area  of  1,108,154 
acres,  valued  at  £349,364.  A  remarkable  feature  is  that  in  spite  of  the 
war  the  number  of  settlers,  and  the  amount  of  land  allotted,  were 
actually  greater  than  the  previous  year. 

CROWN   COLONIES 

CEYLON  exports  of  tea  were  the  largest  last  year  on  record,  and 
showed  an  increase  of  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  million  pounds  over 
the  previous  record  (1909).  The  increase  over  1913  amounted  to  two 
million  pounds,  while  the  average  price  was  also  higher  than  in  1914. 
The  very  large  diminution  in  the  supplies  taken  by  Russia  in  Europe  was 
due  to  the  Russian  Volunteer  Fleet  having  suspended  its  service  between 
Colombo  and  Odessa  owing  to  the  war.  China  and  Russia  in  Asia  also 
show  considerable  decreases,  but  the  end  of  the  year  saw  a  very  large 
demand  for  teas  for  Russia  via  Vladivostock  :  exports  to  nearly  every 
British  Colony  and  the  United  Kingdom  were  appreciably  larger  than  in 
the  previous  twelve  months. 

THERE  are  considerable  areas  of  forest  in  Uganda  capable  of  exten- 
sive development,  but  expenses  of  transport  are  too  great  to  allow 
of  the  profitable  export  of  timber,  and  the  local  market  is  limited.  The 
exploitation  of  forest  rubber,  which  has  been  undertaken  in  one  or  two 
parts,  has  not  proved  a  commercial  success,  and  has  been  practically 
abandoned.  The  Protectorate  forests,  therefore,  though  offering  great 
possibilities  for  future  development,  do  not  at  present  add  greatly  to  the 
local  revenue.  The  revenue  obtained  in  various  forms  is  estimated  at 
approximately  £3,561,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  with  the  expansion  of 
the  local  market  and  greater  enterprise  in  forest  exploitation  the  forests 
will,  ultimately,  prove  a  valuable  source  of  revenue  and  probably  offer 
good  prospects  of  profitable  commercial  ventures.  There  is  a  Govern- 
ment saw-mill  in  the  Tero  Forest,  which  touches  the  shores  of  Lake 
Victoria  in  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Masaka  district,  and  this  has 
proved  fairly  successful.  A  survey  of  this  forest  was  undertaken  last 


Oversea  Notes  527 

year,  with  the  result  that  its  resources  were  shown  to  be  greater  than 
was  at  first  supposed. 

THE  Cayman  Islands,  though  far  removed  from  the  immediate  theatre 
of  warlike  operations,  feel  and  will  feel  with  ever-increasing  pressure 
the  unfortunate  effects  caused  by  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  Europe. 
The  sale  of  postage  stamps  must  of  necessity  considerably  decrease,  while 
works  of  public  utility  in  the  United  States  of  America,  the  Spanish- 
American  Republics,  and  Colon  have  been  shut  down,  thus  throwing  out 
of  employment  a  large  number  of  Caymanians  who  are  forced  to  seek  for 
a  means  of  subsistence  in  a  foreign  land.  The  general  prosperity  of  the 
Islands  depends  to  a  very  large  extent  in  the  case  of  Grand  Cayman  on 
the  price  obtained  from  the  sale  of  turtle.  Hitherto  contracts  were 
entered  into  for  one  year  with  foreign  buyers.  These  were  superseded 
during  last  year  by  contracts  of  five  years'  duration  to  take  effect  from 
the  1st  of  January  next.  The  contracts  have  been  made  by  the  re- 
presentative of  a  company  that  contemplates  establishing  a  turtle- 
canning  factory  in  Grand  Cayman.  In  the  Lesser  Islands  coconuts 
form  the  staple  industry,  but,  unfortunately,  in  spite  of  the  most 
strenuous  measures,  bud-rot  disease  still  continues  to  make  headway, 
a  circumstance  that  gives  rise  to  grave  anxiety  for  the  future  of  these 
islands. 

FROM  the  recently  published  report  on  Sierra  Leone  we  learn  that  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war  some  anxiety  was  felt  regarding  the  effect 
which  the  closing  of  the  German  markets  would  have  upon  the  valuable 
palm  kernel  trade.  Formerly  Hamburg  absorbed  87  per  cent,  of  the 
kernels  exported  from  the  Colony,  and  it  was  evident  that  the  existing 
British  kernel  crushing  mills  would  not  suffice  to  cope  with  the  enormous 
quantity  of  kernels  diverted  to  the  Liverpool  market.  Machinery  has 
been,  however,  erected  in  England,  and  efforts  are  being  made  to  absorb 
the  kernels  previously  carried  to  German  mills.  These  efforts  are  most 
encouraging,  as  they  provide  at  any  rate  a  temporary  market  for  the 
colony's  most  valuable  commodity,  but  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether 
after  the  expiration  of  the  war,  when  trade  may  be  expected  to  resume 
once  more,  as  far  as  possible,  it  normal  conditions,  the  market  will  not 
return  to  Germany. 

IN  the  exceptional  year  under  review,  in  which,  owing  to  the  war  and 
to  other  causes,  the  trade  of  Sierra  Leone  was  suffering  a  depression,  it  is 
gratifying  to  observe  that,  although  the  aggregate  trade  with  the  United 
Kingdom  showed  a  slight  falling  off  in  value,  amounting  to  £1,347,757, 
as  against  £1,368,774  in  the  preceding  year,  the  value  of  exports  to  the 
United  Kingdom  showed  an  actual  increase  and  the  proportion  of  the 
trade  with  the  United  Kingdom  to  the  total  trade  of  the  Colony  advanced 
from  39 '31  per  cent,  to  50*75  per  cent.  The  United  Kingdom  was 
responsible  for  69 '73  per  cent,  of  the  import  trade  and  29-43  per  cent, 
of  the  export  trade,  as  compared  with  65 '00  per  cent,  and  13 '29  per 
cent,  in  1913,  while  Germany's  proportion  decreased  in  the  case  of 
imports  from  9 '95  per  cent,  to  7*01  per  cent.,  and  in  the  case  of  exports 


528  The  Empire  Review 

from  47-49  per  cent,  to  25 '04  per  cent.  After  the  trade  with  the 
United  Kingdom  and  Germany  that  with  other  British  West  African 
possessions  came  next  in  importance.  The  trade  with  the  United  States 
of  America  continued  to  increase. 

ST.  VINCENT  arrowroot  is  unrivalled  as  a  raw  material  in  the  manu- 
facture of  chocolate  and  for  general  starch  purposes.  The  soil,  climate, 
and  water  conditions  of  the  Colony  are  apparently  more  suited  to  this 
cultivation  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  West  Indian  islands  except, 
perhaps,  Bermuda.  That  Colony's  production,  however,  does  not  exceed 
thirty  to  forty  tons  per  annum,  as  against  some  2,000  tons  purchased  in 
St.  Vincent.  Apart  from  that  point  of  view,  it  is  evident  that  the 
market  for  arrowroot  is  of  such  a  limited  nature  that  St.  Vincent  can,  by 
herself,  for  many  years  to  come,  satisfy  fully,  indeed  more  than  fully,  all 
the  requirements  of  it.  Amongst  other  crops  grown  in  the  Colony  in 
small  quantities  may  be  mentioned  sugar  (from  which  the  usual  by- 
products, rum,  molasses,  and  syrup,  are  manufactured)  ground  nuts,  pigeon 
peas,  Bengal  beans,  maize,  and  ground  provisions  of  various  kinds.  In  a 
Colony  like  St.  Vincent,  where  the  community  is  absolutely  and  wholly 
dependent  for  its  sustenance  on  agriculture,  it  is  essential,  subject,  of 
course,  to  reasonable  limits,  to  maintain  a  strong  and  efficient  Agricultural 
Department  in  order  to  keep  abreast  with  the  rapid  advance  of  agricultural 
science  and  knowledge  and  also  in  order  to  be  able  to  cope  with  the  com- 
petition of  other  places. 

THE  staple  industry  of  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate  is  stock-raising, 
and  this,  together  with  money  earned  by  natives  at  the  mines  and  else- 
where beyond  the  borders,  constitutes  the  main  purchasing  power  of  the 
people.  During  the  year  1914—15,  cattle  to  the  number  of  16,375  were 
exported,  the  average  price  obtained  being  about  £6  a  head.  In 
Johannesburg,  £1  may  be  deducted  for  railway  transport  and  other 
expenses,  leaving  the  price  realised  by  the  producer  at  £5  per  head,  or  an 
influx  of  money  of  well  over  £80,000.  This  industry,  as  may  be  sur- 
mised, suffered  greatly  from  the  three  years'  drought,  but  owing  to  the 
rains  of  last  spring  and  a  sufficiency  of  grass  and  water,  it  may  be 
expected  to  recover  quickly.  A  good  beginning  has  been  made  to 
establish  systematic  sheep-dipping  throughout  the  territory.  A  sheep 
inspector  was  appointed  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  Eighteen  dips 
were  erected  and  51,053  sheep  and  goats  were  dipped  under  his  super- 
vision. At  the  beginning  of  the  year  there  were  198  flocks  infected  with 
scab,  and  on  the  31st  of  March  that  number  was  reduced  to  eighteen. 
A  certain  amount  of  mining  work  has  been  done  by  the  Tati  Company, 
the  output  being  5,896  oz.  of  gold  and  1,360  oz.  of  silver,  valued  at 
£24,685  3*. 


THE    EMPIRE 
REVIEW 

AND 

JOURNAL    OF     BRITISH    TRADE 
VOL.  XXIX.  JANUARY  1916.  No.   180. 

THE   VALUE   OF  SOUTH-WEST   AFRICA 

OPENINGS  FOR  BRITISH   TRADERS 

THE  conquest  of  South-West  Africa,  according  to  General 
Smuts,  has  cost  the  Union  Government  £16,000,000.  Is  the 
country  worth  it  ?  Have  we  secured  good  value  for  the  huge  sum 
expended?  The  answer  is  an  emphatic  affirmative,  and  this 
article  is  an  attempt  to  justify  the  answer. 

Let  it  be  recognised  at  the  outset  that  by  taking  over  South- 
West  Africa  at  the  present  time  we  reap  the  fruit  of  thirty  years 
of  German  administration.  The  country  is  vastly  different  to 
what  it  was  in  1884,  when  Germany  first  secured  a  place  in  the 
African  sun.  Many  millions  of  pounds  and  much  effort  have 
been  expended  in  order  to  build  up  a  new  Germany  on  African 
soil,  and  although  the  Germans  have  failed  lamentably  in  dealing 
with  the  people  of  the  country,  in  the  realms  where  their 
characteristic  qualities  of  industry,  patience  and  thoroughness 
have  found  opportunity  for  display,  some  really  solid  achieve- 
ments stand  to  their  credit.  They  cannot  colonise,  perhaps, 
after  our  manner,  but  they  can  build  railways,  make  harbours, 
establish  townships,  erect  substantial  public  buildings,  link  up 
widely-severed  settlements,  develop  mineral  resources,  improve 
stock,  dig  wells,  and  encourage  irrigation — all  these,  and  many 
other  things,  they  have  done  in  South- West  Africa.  The 
motives  lying  behind  many  of  these  activities  may  perhaps  have 
had  their  origin  in  military  or  strategic  exigencies,  but  the  harvest 
is  none  the  less  valuable  to  those  who  now  step  in  to  reap  it. 

Let  us  look  first  at  the  railways.  The  State  Northern 
Eailway  from  Swakopmund  to  Windhoek  (240  miles)  was  built 
as  a  narrow  gauge  line  in  1897-1902  at  a  cost  of  about  £750,000. 
In  1911  the  portion  of  the  line  from  Karibib  to  Windhoek  was 
converted  into  a  3  feet  6  inches  gauge  at  a  cost  of  £550,000,  making 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  180.  2  R 


5*1 


530  The  Empire  Review 

a  total  cost  of  £1,300,000.  The  Swakopmund-Tsumeb  narrow 
gauge  line  (356  miles)  was  finished  in  1906  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
£1,000,000  ;  it  was  purchased  by  the  Government  in  1910  for 
£1,100,000,  and  leased  to  the  Otavi  Mining  and  Kailway  Com- 
pany. The  Northern  and  Southern  Eailway,  which  extends 
south  from  Windhoek  to  Keetmanshoop  (317  miles),  was 
completed  in  1912  at  a  cost  of  £2,000,000,  while  the  Southern 
Railway  which  links  Luderitzbucht  to  Keetmanshoop  (228  miles) 
cost  £1,450,000.  The  branch  line  from  Seeheim  to  Kalkfontein 
(60  miles)  was  completed  at  a  cost  of  £800,000.  Thus  the 
railways  which  now  pass  under  the  control  of  the  Union  re- 
present a  total  capital  expenditure  of  £6,650,000.  This  alone  is  a 
huge  slice  out  of  our  £16,000,000.  Then  there  are  the  well- 
equipped  railway  workshops  replete  with  modern  and  powerful 
plant,  the  railway  buildings  and  all  the  rolling  stock ;  these  are 
assets  of  considerable  value.  Eminently  satisfactory,  too,  is  the 
record  of  railway  earnings  for  the  year  ending  March  31st,  1913  ; 
the  expenditure  was  £267,009,  while  the  earnings  were  no  less 
than  £421,541,  which  gives  a  surplus  of  £154,532.  There  are 
the  two  harbours,  Swakopmund  and  Luderitzbucht,  on  which 
large  sums  of  money  have  been  spent ;  the  new  pier  and  jetty  at 
Swakopmund  alone,  which  was  nearing  completion  when  the  war 
broke  out,  has  involved  an  outlay  of  over  £200,000. 

In  regard  to  the  telegraph  and  telephone  services  the 
Protectorate  is  well  ahead  of  many  parts  of  the  Union,  since 
many  numerous  out-stations  are  linked  up  with  the  towns  and 
villages.  Windhoek  has  the  distinction  of  possessing  one  of  the 
largest  wireless  stations  in  the  world — said  to  have  cost  no  less 
a  sum  than  £250,000.  It  was  found  practically  intact  when  our 
troops  entered  the  town.  Direct  communication  with  Nauen, 
near  Berlin,  is  possible  when  weather  conditions  are  favourable. 
Wireless  stations,  much  less  powerful,  were  also  erected  by  the 
Germans  at  Swakopmund  and  Luderitzbucht.  There  is  an 
excellent  telegraph  service  ;  the  main  line  runs  south  through 
Windhoek  to  Eamansdrift  on  the  Orange  Eiver,  where  a  con- 
nection is  made  with  the  Union  line.  The  two  main  traverse 
lines  are  Swakopmund-Windhoek-Gobabis,  and  Luderitzbucht- 
Keetmanshoop-Ukomas.  Another  line  extends  from  Swakopmund 
to  Tsumeb.  There  are  imperial  post  offices  at  Windhoek, 
Swakopmund.  and  Luderitzbucht,  thirty  ordinary  post  and 
telegraph  offices,  some  forty  sub-offices,  and  a  number  of  offices 
where  only  telegraph  and  telephone  business  is  done.  All  the 
larger  towns  and  villages  have  fine,  substantial  Government 
buildings;  well-equipped  Government  hospitals  are  found  at 
Windhoek,  Swakopmund,  Luderitzbucht,  Maltahoeho,  Keet- 
manshoop, Warmbad,  Outjo,  and  Grootfontein ;  there  are  some 


The  Value  of  South- West  Africa  531 

twenty  public  schools,  and  even  the  military  and  police  out- 
posts have  neat  commodious  quarters.  Nothing  has  surprised 
the  untravelled  Africander  more  during  the  recent  campaign  than 
the  number  of  excellent  public  buildings  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  These,  together  with  the  telegraph  and  telephone  lines 
and  the  public  roads,  represent  a  total  capital  of  many  millions 
sterling,  so  another  large  slice  must  come  off  our  sixteen  millions. 

A  glance  at  the  chief  centres  of  population  may  now  be  of 
interest.  There  are  no  large  towns  in  the  colony,  but  the  few 
small  towns  and  villages  compare  very  favourably  with  those  of 
similar  size  in  the  Union,  while  some  of  them  are  considerably  in 
advance  as  regards  public  buildings  and  modern  improvements. 
It  is  evident  that  much  industry  and  care  have  gone  to  the  laying 
out  of  the  larger  centres.  Windhoek,  the  capital,  has  a  most 
picturesque  and  healthy  situation  on  the  central  plateau,  some 
5,600  feet  above  sea  level,  237  miles  from  Swakopmund  by  rail, 
with  a  white  population  of  a  thousand  people  and  about  as  many 
natives.  It  has  a  Government  House,  handsome  Government 
buildings,  churches,  clubs,  a  park,  a  museum,  good  lighting,  and 
a  pure  water  supply.  Swakopmund,  the  port  for  the  Windhoek- 
district,  the  rich  Waterberg  region  and  the  copper  mines,  has 
developed  rapidly  from  a  barren  tract  of  land  bordering  the  sea 
into  a  busy  and  most  progressive  little  town  with  an  air  of  solidity 
and  neatness  quite  unusual  to  a  young  colonial  township.  As  a 
harbour,  however,  Swakopmund  is  unsatisfactory,  since  it  is 
merely  an  open  roadstead  with  a  landing  jetty,  and  at  times  when 
the  south-west  winds  blow  (and  that  is  very  often)  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  land  either  passengers  or  cargo.  Walvis  Bay, 
some  25  miles  south  of  Swakopmund,  with  its  magnificent 
natural  harbour,  completely  sheltered  from  the  south-west  winds, 
has  all  the  possibilities  for  a  port  of  imperial  magnitude,  and  now 
that  a  railway  has  been  constructed  between  the  two  places,  it  is 
certain  to  rob  Swakopmund  of  its  importance  as  a  port. 

Already  under  the  new  regime  the  exports  and  imports  of  the 
country  drive  mainly  through  Walvis  via  Swakopmund.  The 
modern  Luderitzbucht  was  summoned  into  being  by  the  magic  of 
those  limpid  gems  called  diamonds,  which  abound  in  the  vicinity. 
Magnificent  business  houses  and  residences  have  sprung  up  on 
the  sandy  waste,  and  the  sight  of  these  well  fashioned  buildings 
set  amid  the  sand  and  the  many  rocky  protuberances,  produces 
the  queerest  impression  of  oddness.  Now  that  the  Prieska- 
Kalkfontein  railway  has  been  completed  it  is  possible  to  land  at 
Luderitzbucht  and  get  into  a  through  carriage  to  Johannesburg, 
1,191  miles  distant.  The  harbour  is  well  sheltered  and  provides 
good  holding  ground  for  anchorage.  In  1913  the  white  popu- 
lation was  about  800 ;  Swakopmund  had  1,500  Europeans  the 

2  E  2 


532  The  Empire  Review 

same  year.  Electric  light  and  power  installation,  and  powerful 
plant  for  condensing  sea  water  for  drinking  purposes  are  among 
the  assets  of  this  Diamondopolis.  Keetmanshoop,  with  a 
population  of  about  400  white  people,  was  regarded  as  the  capital 
of  the  southern  territory  and  a  place  of  some  importance.  Karibib, 
125  miles  from  Swakopmund,  has  large  railway  workshops ; 
Omaruru,  north-east  of  Karibib,  is  a  pretty  village  settlement ; 
Tsumeb  has  grown  up  very  quickly  around  the  copper  mines  ; 
Grootfontein  has  excellent  farming  lands.  Such  small  centres  as 
Warmbad,  Bethany,  Gibeon,  Rehoboth,  Gobabis,  Okahanja  and 
Otimbingue,  were  in  existence  as  mission  stations  some  years 
prior  to  the  German  occupation ;  they  are  now  respectable 
hamlets.  For  a  sparsely-populated  country  the  settlements  are  a 
real  credit  to  the  German  administration,  and  now,  of  course,  they 
are  an  asset  of  considerable  value  and  importance  to  the  Union. 

Let  me  now  turn  to  the  land.  Immense  areas  of  land  are  held 
by  the  various  land  and  mining  companies,  the  majority  of  which 
are  German,  but  the  unexpropriated  Crown  Lands  cover  many 
millions  of  acres ;  the  confiscation  of  the  Herero  lands,  for 
instance,  gave  the  State  nearly  the  whole  of  Damaraland ;  large 
tracts  of  land  along  existing  or  projected  railways  were  reserved 
by  the  State.  On  the  most  moderate  estimate  these  Crown  areas 
must  represent  a  sum  far  in  excess  of  what  remains  of  our  balance 
of  the  sixteen  million  sterling.  One  may,  then,  reasonably  infer 
that  our  expenditure  is  more  than  balanced  by  the  value  of  the 
assets  thus  far  brought  under  notice  and  also  that  a  considerable 
sum  stands  on  the  credit  side.  And  that  is  not  all,  for  as  yet  we 
have  not  taken  into  account  the  value  of  the  country  to  us  for 
trade,  and  its  mineral  and  agricultural  resources. 

A  Civil  Administrator  has  now  been  appointed,  and  the  wheels 
of  industrial  and  commercial  life  are  beginning  to  move  after  the 
temporary  stoppage  caused  by  General  Botha's  campaign.  A 
Department  of  Mines  and  a  Department  of  Native  Affairs  are 
being  organised ;  diamond  winning  operations  are  to  be  resumed 
on  a  small  scale ;  the  Tsumeb  Copper  Mine  has  started  working, 
and  others  are  expected  soon  to  follow  suit ;  both  the  National 
and  Standard  Banks  are  opening  branches  at  Windhoek,  Swakop- 
mund and  Luderitzbucht ;  land  settlement  schemes  are  under 
consideration  by  the  Union  Government,  and  commercial  men  in 
the  Union  have  already  established  business  relations  with  the 
Protectorate,  as  there  is  an  occasional  steamship  service  to  the 
ports  and  a  through  connection  by  rail  via  De  Aar,  Prieska,  and 
Kalkfontein.  Union  Castle  steamers,  it  may  be  noted,  have 
already  made  calls  on  the  outward  voyage  from  England  at 
Walvis  and  Luderitzbucht.  As  a  sphere  for  trade  in  the  near 
future  the  country  will  certainly  have  attractions  for  British 


The  Value  of  South-West  Africa  533 

merchants.  "  Germans  only "  was  the  motto  of  the  late 
administration,  and  they  adhered  closely  to  their  fixed  principle 
of  keeping  all  the  trade  in  German  hands. 

In  1913  the  imports  were  valued  at  £2,171,200,  an  increase  on 
the  previous  year  of  £550,000.  They  consisted  mainly  of  the 
following  articles:  grain  and  cereals,  £264,749;  groceries,  pro- 
visions, etc.,  £159,896 ;  beverages  (excluding  mineral  waters), 
£91,864;  forestry  products,  £80,198;  live  stock,  meat,  and 
animal  products,  £159,714;  raw  minerals,  fossils,  and  mineral 
oils,  £165,835;  textiles,  £218,119;  wooden  and  carved  articles, 
£37,184;  metals  and  hardware  (excluding  instruments,  machinery 
and  fire-arms),  £328,063 ;  instruments,  machinery,  and  loco- 
motives, £252,596.  The  consumption  of  imported  foodstuffs  is 
extraordinarily  high,  it  will  be  noticed.  The  imports  from  the 
Union  consisted  chiefly  of  agricultural  products,  fruit,  vegetables, 
groceries,  tobacco,  live  stock,  textiles,  metals  and  hardware, 
and  machinery.  It  is  noteworthy  that  81  per  cent,  of  the 
articles  came  from  Germany  ;  12-20  per  cent,  from  the  Union  ; 
3'37  percent,  from  the  United  States,  and  only  0'98  per  cent, 
from  the  United  Kingdom.  Direct  steamship  service  with 
America  gave  that  country  a  distinct  advantage.  The  Woermann 
Line  had  a  practical  monopoly  of  the  carrying  trade  and  also  the 
landing  and  shipping  business  at  both  ports.  It  maintained  a 
service  of  two  cargo  steamers  per  month  between  Hamburg, 
Swakopimmd,  and  Luderitzbucht,  and  ran  one  cargo  boat  which 
conveyed  passengers  every  other  week  between  local  ports  and 
Cape  Town.  Steamers  of  the  German  East  African  Line  also 
called  at  Luderitzbucht  and  Swakopmund  for  passengers  and 
mails  twice  monthly.  An  Elder  Dempster  steamer  ran  once 
every  two  months  direct  from  New  York  to  Swakopmund  for 
cargo  only.  The  colony  had  its  own  Customs  Tariff,  and  a 
comparison  with  that  of  the  Union  reveals  the  fact  that  in  the 
instance  of  nearly  every  article  the  Protectorate  rate  is  the  lower. 
A  proclamation  in  a  recent  issue  of  the  Union  Government 
Gazette  announces  that  the  customs  laws  and  regulations  in 
force  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa  shall,  until  further  provision 
is  made,  "  have  force  and  effect  throughout  and  in  respect  of  the 
new  territory."  This  probably  foreshadows  the  levelling  up  of 
the  Protectorate  tariff  to  that  of  the  Union.  The  revenue 
estimated  from  customs  for  1914  under  the  old  regime  was 
£101,550. 

The  exports  for  1913  were  valued  at  £3,515,100.  Diamonds 
were  responsible  for  no  less  than  £2,945,975.  Other  articles 
were  copper  and  copper  ores,  £396,436;  hides  and  skins, 
£27,903  ;  cattle  and  small  stock,  £7,728 ;  meat,  £7,941 ;  ostrich 
feathers,  £6,204,  and  wool,  £6,814.  Germany  received  83-2  per 


534  The  Empire  Review 

cent,  of  the  articles,  the  United  States  5-4  per  cent.,  the  United 
Kingdom  0'2  per  cent.,  and  the  Union  of  South  Africa  0'9per 
cent.  It  stands  to  reason  that  the  inevitable  switching  off  of  the 
current  of  trade  between  South-West  Africa  and  Germany  will 
afford  abundant  opportunities  for  British  traders.  Large  imports 
of  foodstuffs  will  be  in  demand;  repairs  and  maintenance  of 
existing  electrical  and  mechanical  plants  will  be  rendered 
necessary  by  the  resumption  of  mining  activities;  Walvis  Bay 
will  probably  be  equipped  as  a  port ;  there  is  good  reason  to 
anticipate  improvements  of  machinery  and  the  erection  of  new 
plants  for  numerous  undertakings  connected  with  mineral 
propositions,  and  a  considerable  demand  for  farming  implements. 

Then  the  country  has  rich  mineral  resources.  The  rich 
diamond  fields  of  the  littoral  have,  in  a  half  dozen  years,  yielded 
gems  to  the  value  of  over  seven  million  sterling,  and  immense 
quantities  of  the  precious  little  "  stones  of  fire  "  still  lie  in  the 
desert  sands  of  the  Namib.  For  the  next  twenty  years  it  is  safe 
to  assume  that  South-West  Africa  will  be  in  a  position  to  export 
diamonds  in  good  quantities,  and  the  diamond  industry  is 
certain  to  be  a  factor  of  great  importance  in  the  development 
of  the  country.  The  Union  Government  will  derive  a  good 
revenue  from  the  fields  if  they  make  no  change  in  the  laws 
regarding  diamonds,  as  the  State  imposed  a  tax  of  66  per  cent,  of 
the  output  value  less  70  per  cent,  of  the  working  costs.  The 
Government  held  half  the  shares  in  the  Kegie  which  had  a 
monopoly  of  the  sale  of  the  stones  and  charged  2  per  cent,  of  the 
total  revenue  for  sale  expenses;  they  had  large  interests  in  a 
valuable  block  of  diamondiferous  land  along  the  Luderitzbucht 
railway,  and  there  are  some  37,000  acres  of  reserved  Crown 
property  which  is  diamondiferous.  It  is  probable  that  South 
Africa  will  now  enjoy  the  distinction  of  controlling  99  per  cent, 
of  the  diamond  output  of  the  world. 

The  copper  mines  are  a  valuable  asset.  The  Tsumeb  Mine, 
worked  by  the  Otavi  Mining  and  Eailway  Company,  has  an 
exceptionally  rich  variety  of  ore.  Fresh  mines  will,  doubtless, 
soon  be  opened  up  between  Tsumeb  and  Otavi,  since  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  the  ores  in  the  Otavi  Valley  belong  to  the  same 
formation  as  the  rich  Tsumeb  occurrence.  The  Khan  Copper 
Mine,  seven  miles  from  Arandis,  promises  to  be  a  very  profitable 
proposition,  and  promising  development  work  has  been  carried 
on  in  connection  with  other  deposits.  Gold  has  been  found  in 
small  quantities,  principally  in  quartz  reefs,  in  various  parts  of 
the  country,  but  payable  quantities  of  this  precious  mineral  have 
yet  to  be  discovered.  A  seam  of  coal  was  located  near  Keetmans- 
hoop  when  a  well  was  being  sunk,  but,  apparently,  it  was 
not  payable.  Tin  has  been  located  mostly  in  alluvial  deposits 


The  Value  of  South-West  Africa  535 

in  the  hinterland  of  Swakopmund,  but  the  ore  is  somewhat 
patchy.  Wolfram  and  galena  have  been  found  in  the  South 
African  Territories  Company  area,  but  capital  seems  to  have 
been  lacking  for  a  vigorous  prosecution  of  mining  in  connection 
with  it.  Large  deposits  of  iron  ore  await  development  in  the 
Kaokoveld.  Immense  layers  of  marble  are  found  near  Karibib ; 
the  quarrying  rights  are  held  by  the  Afrika  Marmor  Company. 
With  a  sympathetic  administration  and  an  influx  of  capital  in- 
creased mining  activity  may  confidently  be  predicted  and  further 
valuable  discoveries  may  then  result.  Geologists  and  prospectors 
are  agreed  that  many  of  the  treasure  houses  of  the  country  yet 
remain  to  be  unlocked. 

The  pasture  land  is  another  considerable  source  of  wealth. 
General  Botha  has  frequently  stated  of  late  that  immense  areas 
are  suited  for  the  breeding  of  cattle.  The  sterile  coast  belt  with 
its  wilderness  of  sand  dunes  and  rocky  ridges  is  hopeless  from  an 
agricultural  point  of  view.  Great  Namaqualand  is  a  dry  territory 
with  an  average  yearly  rainfall  of  6  or  7  inches,  but  the  nourishing 
Twa  or  Bushman  grass  covers  the  vast  plains,  and  the  country  is 
suited  for  sheep  and  goats,  and,  in  some  parts,  for  horses  and 
mules.  Damaraland  proper,  especially  in  the  Windhoek  region, 
where  the  average  yearly  rainfall  is  about  15  inches,  has  good 
sweet  grass  for  cattle.  North  of  Omaruru  there  is  good  grazing 
land,  and  the  whole  of  the  Kaokoveld  is  cattle-country.  Dr. 
Eohrbach,  the  German  Imperial  Emigration  Commissioner, 
estimated  that  the  grazing  land  was  capable  of  carrying  3,000,000 
head  of  cattle  and  2,000,000  sheep  and  goats.  When  the  war 
broke  out  the  country  had  205,643  head  of  cattle,  543,447  sheep, 
516,904  goats,  15,916  horses,  and  13,618  mules  and  donkeys. 
The  Karakul  fur  industry  promises  to  be  an  asset  of  increasing 
value.  Good  results  have  been  obtained  by  crossing  the  hardy 
Karakul  sheep  with  the  Africander.  Ostrich  farming  was  full  of 
promise  previous  to  the  dislocation  of  the  trade  in  ostrich  feathers 
caused  by  the  war.  Pig-breeding  was  extending  with  satisfactory 
results. 

Here  again  the  new  administration  will  garner  the  results  of 
German  energy  and  expenditure  of  wealth,  for  the  Germans  have 
imported  stock  of  the  best  quality  and  description  for  breeding 
purposes  ;  they  have  established  stud  and  experimental  farms, 
devoted  attention  to  the  peculiar  animal  diseases  of  the  country, 
and  endeavoured  in  various  ways  to  encourage  stock-farming. 
As  an  exporter  of  meat,  hides,  wool,  and  karakul  fur,  the  country 
has  a  big  future  before  it.  When  the  war  is  over  the  demand  for 
chilled  meat  promises  to  be  enormous,  and  new  sources  of  supply 
will  probably  be  sought. 

Another  source  of  wealth  is   the    agricultural    land.      The 


536  The  Empire  Review 

occupied  farms  number  1,330,  and  they  comprise  an  area  of 
33,484,015  acres,  but  only  13,000  acres  of  this  large  area  are 
under  cultivation.  This  is  due  to  the  sandy  nature  of  the  soil 
and  the  dryness  of  the  climate.  The  soil  is  quite  fertile  enough, 
but  the  rainfall  is  scanty  except  in  a  few  favoured  portions  of  the 
territory.  Lack  of  running  streams  is  a  serious  drawback,  but 
water  may  generally  be  found  in  the  habitable  parts  by  boring, 
and  where  irrigation  has  been  carried  out  the  crops  are  highly 
successful.  Irrigation  then  is  an  urgent  need  before  agriculture 
can  play  more  than  a  subordinate  part  in  South-West  African 
industry.  A  good  beginning  had  been  made  in  this  direction 
before  the  war.  The  principal  articles  grown  were  maize, 
lucerne,  potatoes,  vegetables,  melons,  tobacco  and  grapes.  The 
average  prices  at  which  land  had  been  sold  were  about  Id.  per 
acre  in  the  north,  6d.  per  acre  in  the  Rehoboth  district,  and  3d. 
in  the  vicinity  of  Keetinanshoop.  Settlers  of  "good  German 
stock  "  have  always  had  preferential  treatment,  and  every  effort 
was  made  to  keep  the  "  alien  "  out  of  the  country. 

Among  what  may  be  termed  the  minor  industries  are  those 
connected  with  sealing,  whaling,  fishing,  guano  export,  and 
brewing,  but  these  do  not  appear  to  be  capable  of  much 
expansion.  Whales  are  getting  scarcer  every  year,  and  seal  skins 
do  not  sell  very  well.  The"  finances  of  the  colony  showed  a 
surplus  for  1913,  and  in  budgeting  for  the  year  1915,  revenue  and 
expenditure  were  expected  to  balance  at  £2,071,157.  Up  to  the 
end  of  1913,  it  is  estimated  that  Germany  has  spent  on  the 
country  in  warlike  operations,  annual  subsidies,  and  adminis- 
tration expenses,  the  huge  sum  of  i'50,000,000.  We  have  paid 
£16,000,000  for  it.  Hardly  a  bad  bargain  ! 

General  Botha  proposes  to  put  10,000  settlers  on  the  land  as 
soon  as  possible.  Perhaps  a  dozen  years  hence  the  white 
population  will  number  25,000 ;  at  present  it  is  about  14,000 
with  78,000  natives  (excluding  Ovamboland).  A  larger  increase 
than  10,000  Europeans  can  hardly  be  expected  unless  there 
should  be  some  sensational  discovery  of  valuable  minerals  in  large 
quantities.  The  country  is  not  an  Bl  Dorado  or  an  Argentine  :  it 
is  simply  a  possible  land  of  settlement  in  which  many  thousands 
of  white  settlers  may  live  in  health  and  comparative  prosperity. 
Whether  or  not  a  partial  solution  of  the  native  problem  of  some 
of  the  more  densely  populated  portions  of  the  Union  will  be 
found  in  a  native  "  trek  "  into  the  new  territory  only  time  will 
show.  The  present  needs  of  the  country  are  an  efficient  and 
sympathetic  administration,  capital,  unlocking  of  the  land  for 
settlement,  irrigation,  pastoral  development,  and  a  steady  supply 
of  native  labour.  In  any  case  the  country  is  worth  far  more  than 
it  has  cost.  WILLIAM  EVELEIGH. 


Adam  Smith  on  Imperial  Union  537 


ADAM    SMITH    ON    IMPERIAL    UNION 

WE  are  not  wont  to  associate  the  name  of  Adam  Smith  with 
Imperialism.  On  the  contrary  his  writings  have  sometimes  been 
regarded  as  the  source  from  whence  sprang  the  Little-Englandism 
of  the  Manchester  School.  But  the  opinions  ascribed  to  him  by 
his  followers  were,  as  is  often  the  case,  a  gross  caricature  of  his 
own,  of  which  they  reflected  only  one  side,  and  that  a  distorted 
one.  If  he  was  impartial  and  not  prejudiced  in  favour  of  his 
country  neither  was  he,  like  them,  a  friend  of  every  country  but 
his  own.  If  he  could  not  believe  her  to  be  always  in  the  right, 
neither  did  he  think  her  always  in  the  wrong.  If  he  was  not  an 
Imperialist  by  conviction,  like  his  contemporaries  Burke  and 
Chatham  or  like  Cecil  Rhodes  and  Joseph  Chamberlain  in  our 
day,  neither  did  he  adopt  an  attitude  of  unreasoning  and 
uncompromising  hostility  towards  the  idea  of  Imperial  Union, 
contemptuously  dismiss  the  subject  without  consideration  ;  try 
to  think  and  assert  that  it  was  incapable  of  realisation  because  he 
wished  it  to  be  so.  He  gave  it  full,  reasoned  and  unbiassed 
consideration.  Let  us  see  what  were  the  conclusions  to  which 
he  was  thereby  led. 

It  is  true  that  Adam  Smith  was  a  man  of  limitations.  He 
lacked  qualities  essential  in  a  statesman  and  political  thinker  of 
the  first  rank.  It  is  not  only  material  considerations  that  should 
influence  policy.  Nor  is  it  always  enough  to  be  merely  just. 
Smith  regarded  the  colonies  as  a  merchant  does  a  branch  of  his 
business  on  which  the  returns  do  not  seem  to  compensate  for  the 
outlay.  So  he  remarked  that  it  might  be  to  our  advantage  to 
voluntarily  give  up  all  authority  over  the  colonies,  although  he 
knew  that  no  nation  ever  had  or  would  voluntarily  give  up  the 
dominion  of  any  province.  But  even  from  a  narrow  and  material 
standpoint  the  policy  which  favoured  the  abandonment  of  the 
colonies  was  a  mistaken  one.  "  In  holding  the  Empire  together," 
said  Froude  a  century  later,  "  our  material  interests,  rightly 
judged,  are  as  deeply  concerned  as  our  moral  interests."  And  his 
words  have  been  proved  to  be  true. 

As  Adam  Smith  never  expected  England  to  abandon  the 
colonies  he  proceeded  to  consider  which  was  the  best  policy  to 
adopt  on  the  assumption  that  she  was  determined  to  retain  them. 
England's  circumstances  at  the  time  that  he  was  writing  '  The 


538  The  Empire  Review 

Wealth  of  Nations,'  were  compelling  her  statesmen  to  give 
attention  to  Imperial  questions.  The  western  horizon  was  black 
with  threatening  clouds.  The  American  colonists  were  on  the 
brink  of  open  revolt.  They  had  resented  an  attempt  to  tax  them 
on  the  part  of  a  Parliament  in  which  they  were  not  represented. 
Many  English  statesmen  felt  the  justice  of  this  contention  so  in 
accordance  with  the  letter  and  spirit  of  the  English  constitution. 
On  the  other  hand  it  was  but  fair  that  the  colonists  should  con- 
tribute something  towards  the  cost  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  into 
which  we  had  entered  at  their  desire  and  to  protect  their  interests. 
Many  suggestions  were  made  in  the  attempt  to  reconcile  these 
seemingly  conflicting  claims.  One  suggestion  was  that  we  should 
admit  colonial  representatives  to  the  Imperial  Parliament.  This 
found  favour  in  the  eyes  of  both  Chatham  and  Adam  Smith. 

It  was  an  ancient  precedent,  that  of  the  Eoman  Social  War, 
that  suggested  a  solution  of  the  problem.  In  the  latter  days  of 
the  Eepublic  the  Allies  of  Kome  on  the  refusal  of  their  petition 
to  be  admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of  Boman  citizens,  revolted. 
"  During  the  course  of  that  war,"  says  Adam  Smith,  "  Eome 
granted  those  privileges  to  the  greater  part  of  them  one  by  one, 
and  in  proportion  as  they  detached  themselves  from  the  general 
confederacy."  He  proposed,  that  Britain  should  effect  by  similar 
means  the  dissolution  of  the  hostile  coalition  in  America  ;  that 
she  should  grant  the  colonies  representation  in  the  Imperial 
Parliament.  The  representatives  of  each  colony  would  be,  and 
would  increase,  in  proportion  to  its  contribution  to  the  Imperial 
revenue.  By  this  arrangement  the  people  of  the  colonies  would 
pay  the  same  taxes  as  those  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  in 
compensation  be  admitted  to  the  same  freedom  of  trade  with 
their  fellow  subjects  at  home.  The  admission  of  the  Italians  to 
the  privileges  of  Roman  citizenship  completely  ruined  the  Eoman 
Eepublic,  because  in  the  event  of  a  union  of  two  ancient  States 
the  people  of  one  had  to  come  in  a  body  to  deliberate  with  those 
of  the  other.  The  idea  of  representation  did  not  occur  to  anyone 
till  later  times.  The  colonists  would  not  come  to  Parliament  in 
a  body,  and  there  was  no  reason  to  fear  that  the  few  representatives 
that  they  would  be  entitled  to  send  would  be  sufficiently 
numerous  to  swamp  the  British  constitution.  "  That  constitution, 
on  the  contrary,  would  be  completed  by  it,  and  seems  to  be 
imperfect  without  it.  The  assembly  which  deliberates  and 
decides  concerning  the  affairs  of  every  part  of  the  empire,  in 
order  to  be  properly  informed,  ought  certainly  to  have  repre- 
sentatives from  every  part  of  it."  The  wisdom  and  truth  of  that 
contention  is  obvious.  Smith  does  not  deny  that  there  are  great 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  union  of  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies  ;  but  he  heard  of  none  that  are  insurmountable. 


Adam  Smith  on  Imperial  Union  539 

"  The  principal  perhaps  arise,  not  from  the  nature  of  things,  but 
from  the  prejudices  and  opinions  of  people  both  on  this  and  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic."  He  goes  on  to  prove  how  both 
the  fears  of  the  English  that  the  colonial  representatives  would 
overturn  the  balance  of  the  constitution,  and  those  of  the 
Americans  that  their  interests  would  suffer  from  their  distance 
from  the  seat  of  Government,  were  alike  groundless. 

Now,  it  has  been  already  stated  that  Adam  Smith  had  no 
Imperial  convictions.  So  in  his  case  the  wish  was  not  father  to 
the  thought  that  colonial  representation  was  practicable.  He 
was  not  the  only  man  of  his  age  who  thought  so.  Chatham 
advocated  the  same  solution  of  the  American  problem.  But 
Adam  Smith  would  not,  like  that  ardent  Imperialist,  have 
advocated  it  for  its  own  sake,  nor  was  his  desire  of  it  a  temptation 
to  underrate  the  obstacles  to  its  accomplishment.  It  recommended 
itself  to  him  as  a  means  to  an  end,  the  prevention  of  war  between 
England  and  America.  Therefore,  he  must  have  considered  it 
possible,  otherwise  it  could  have  had  no  merit  in  his  eyes.  It  is  a 
remarkable  thing  and  full  of  significance  to-day,  that  over  a 
hundred  years  ago  this  level-headed  practical  man  should  hare 
conceived  Imperial  Union  possible.  The  poetical,  imaginative 
Imperialist  Burke,  his  contemporary,  was  far  less  sanguine.  He 
admitted  that  he  might  be  inclined  to  entertain  some  such 
thought,  but  a  great  flood  stopped  him  in  his  course.  "  Opposuit 
natura — I  cannot  remove  the  eternal  barriers  of  the  creation." 
He  proceeded  to  say,  "  As  I  meddle  with  no  theory,  I  do  not 
absolutely  assert  the  impracticability  of  such  a  representation." 

These  men  were  a  century  ahead  of  their  time  in  their  attitude 
towards  the  colonial  question.  After  the  loss  of  the  American 
colonies  it  was  years  before  conditions  arose  that  called  for 
consideration  of  the  subject  of  Imperial  Union.  Our  other 
colonies  were  in  their  infancy  and  had  not  yet  begun  to  dream  of 
such  a  thing.  Few  men  thought  or  cared  much  about  them, 
some  even  vigorously  urged  their  abandonment.  The  fortunes  of 
Imperialism  were  at  their  lowest  ebb  during  the  first  half  of 
Victoria's  reign,  when  the  Manchester  School  was  in  the 
ascendant.  About  the  eighties  they  began  to  revive,  one 
definite  manifestation  of  their  revival  being  the  Imperial  Con- 
ference. At  its  first  meeting  Lord  Salisbury  referred  to  the 
aspirations  of  those  who  desired  federation  as  "  nebulous  matter 
that  in  the  course  of  ages,  in  the  course  of  much  less  than 
ages,  will  cool  down  and  condense  into  a  material  from  which 
practical  and  business-like  results  may  very  likely  come."  Al- 
though the  cause  of  Imperial  Union  made  strides  in  the  years 
which  followed,  there  were  few  who  expected  it  to  be  realised 
before  some  date  in  the  distant  future.  Even  ardent  Imperialists, 


540  The  Empire  Review 

who  wished  they  could  have  thought  otherwise  were  not  more 
sanguine.  At  a  course  of  lectures  on  this  subject,  that  have  been 
recently  held  in  connection  with  London  University,  Lord  Milner 
contrasted  the  slowness  of  its  progress  prior  to  the  outbreak  of 
the  present  war  with  the  quite  wonderful  advance  which  it  has 
since  made. 

In  these  circumstances  it  is  important  to  recall  the  faith  of 
Adam  Smith  in  the  practicability  of  Imperial  Union.  In  his  day 
it  took  months  to  cross  the  Atlantic.  Seas  rolled  and  months 
passed  between  the  order  and  the  execution.  Yet  he  had  heard 
of  no  difficulties  in  the  way  that  were  insurmountable;  and 
esteemed  the  principal  to  arise,  "  not  from  the  nature  of  things, 
but  from,  the  prejudices  and  opinions  of  people  both  on  this  and 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic."  If  that  were  true  then,  how 
much  more  is  it  true  now,  when  steamboats,  railways,  cable  and 
telegraph  systems,  and  wireless  telegraphy  have  annihilated  the 
obstacles  interposed  by  space  and  distance  !  How  much  more 
will  it  be  true  in  that  time  not  far  distant  now,  when  men  will 
think  no  more  of  flying  than  they  now  think  of  sailing  across  the 
Atlantic. 

There  was  much  in  -the  circumstances  of  Adam  Smith's 
England  that  resembles  ours  at  the  present  time.  England's 
National  Debt  had  been  largely  increased  by  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  and  reached  a  total  which  appeared  to  Adam  Smith 
ruinous  ;  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  was  little  more  than  one  month's 
cost  of  the  present  war  to  Britain.  This  caused  her  rulers  to  seek 
for  fresh  sources  of  revenue,  and  they  seemed  to  discover  them 
in  the  colonies.  They  tried  to  make  the  colonies  contribute  to 
Imperial  expenses,  with  what  result  we  know.  It  is  to  be  feared 
that  after  the  war  our  diminished  resources  may  not  allow  us  to 
continue  to  provide  for  the  adequate  defence  of  the  whole 
Empire.  In  that  case  we  shall  be  compelled  to  ask  the  colonies  to 
contribute  their  share  towards  the  cost.  There  is  no  doubt  as  to 
their  answer.  They  will  be  quite  willing  to  do  their  part  if  we 
will  call  them  to  our  councils ;  which,  indeed,  will  be  the  only 
right  and  wise  course  for  us  to  adopt  even  if  financial  strain  does 
not  compel  us  to  do  so.  It  will,  I  am  convinced,  be  the  only 
way  to  keep  our  colonies.  God  grant  that  our  Empire's  rulers 
may  not  fail  her  at  this  second  crisis  in  her  fate  as  they  failed 
her  at  the  first. 

Men  that  in  a  narrower  day — 

Unprophetic  rulers  they — 

Drove  from  out  the  mother's  nest 

That  young  eagle  of  the  West 

To  forage  for  herself  alone. 
Britons,  hold  your  own. 

D.  A.  E.  VEAL. 


The  Welfare  of  the  Child  541 


THE   WELFARE   OF    THE    CHILD 

An  Examination  of  the  Report  of  the  Chief  Medical  Officer  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  1914 

THE  preservation  and  guarding  of  child-life  is  a  vital  matter 
for  the  nation,  more  especially  as  it  seems  probable  that  the 
strain  of  the  war  may  affect  the  next  generation.  One  is  therefore 
glad  to  find  the  subject  receiving  increasingly  careful  attention. 
The  Report  of  the  Chief  Medical  Officer  of  the  Board  of 
Education  for  1914  shows  very  clearly  how  widespread  and 
serious  are  the  evils  to  be  dealt  with,  and  how  far  the  work  of 
the  Board  and  of  the  various  agencies  under  its  supervision  has 
been  effective.  It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than  touch 
upon  a  few  of  the  matters  covered  by  the  Keport.  A  general 
view,  however,  of  the  methods  followed  and  results  obtained 
gives  abundant  evidence  of  excellent  work  accomplished  by  the 
Medical  Officers. 

A  return  from  ninety-three  areas  in  England  and  Wales,  with 
a  population  of  9,160,027,*  gives  the  number  of  "exceptional" 
children  ascertained  as  37,480.  Under  this  head  are  grouped  the 
dull  and  backward,  physically  defective,  epileptic,  mentally 
deficient,  deaf  and  dumb  and  blind.  Based  on  the  figures  of 
this  return  the  Report  estimates  the  number  of  children  in 
England  and  Wales  f  under  these  heads  as  131,250. 

In  London  294,000  children  were  examined,  and  101,000 
found  to  be  in  need  of  treatment.  The  number  of  exceptional 
children  recorded  as  certified  in  the  area  under  the  London 
County  Council  is  returned  as  13,423,  nearly  all  of  whom  have 
been  in  attendance  at  special  or  other  schools.  But  this  return 
does  not  include  dull  and  backward  children,  epileptics,  idiots 
and  imbeciles. 

It  is  estimated  that  in  the  country  generally,  taking  a  million 
children  as  a  unit,  with  one-third  examined  annually,  this  number 
would  yield  approximately  about  130,000  children  with  defects 
and  diseases,  and  that  of  these  70,000  to  75.000  would  be  treated. 
Much  therefore  remains  to  be  done  in  the  provision  of  remedial 
treatment.  Moreover,  as  the  Report  rightly  intimates,  this  does 
nob  comprehend  the  whole  duty  of  the  State  to  these  children — • 

*  Census,  1911,  t  Excluding  London. 


542  The  Empire  Review 

mental  and  physical  training  on  leaving  school  and  preparation 
for  after-life  are  required. 

The  number  of  physically  defective  children  throughout  the 
country  is  estimated  at  34,800,  and  of  mentally  deficient,  not 
counting  idiots  and  imbeciles,  at  30,800,  including  a  great  many 
"  ineducable  "  feeble-minded  children.  The  number  of  educable 
mentally  deficient  is  reckoned  to  be  not  less  than  25,000.  There 
appears  to  be  educational  provision  in  certified  schools  for  only 
about  14,500 — a  serious  deficiency.  It  is,  however,  probable  that 
many  of  the  children  styled  mentally  deficient  may  be  only  of 
immature  minds.  As  an  Inspector  under  the  Board  of  Education 
I  have  had  a  fairly  wide  experience  of  such  children,  and  in  my 
opinion  many  classed  as  mentally  deficient  are  merely  abnormally 
slow  in  mental  development,  though  no  doubt  there  are  also 
many  only  capable  of  acquiring  just  sufficient  education  to  enable 
them  to  hold  their  own  in  the  most  ordinary  affairs  of  life.  I 
remember  a  boy,  classed  as  mentally  deficient,  giving  me  a  vivid 
and  graphic  account  of  his  holiday  in  the  country.  In  another 
case,  two  boys,  at  the  ages  of  seven  and  eight  respectively,  were 
unable  to  read  or  deal  intelligently  with  the  very  simplest  arith- 
metic. The  same  boys  are  now  successful  members  of  a  profession 
demanding  great  intelligence. 

The  organisation  brought  to  bear  upon  this  large  number  of 
children  in  their  inspection  and  remedial  treatment  consists  of 
School  Medical  Officers  and  their  assistants  (105  of  whom  are 
women),  medical  specialists,  and  medical  practitioners,  the  total 
number  being  1,271.*  To  these  should  be  added  school-nurses, 
and  several  voluntary  agencies,  such  as  Children's  Care  Com- 
mittees, Schools  for  Mothers,  and  the  like.  The  school  atten- 
dance officers  and  teachers  also  render  valuable  assistance.  A 
very  satisfactory  feature  is  that  the  Board  of  Education  now 
requires  instruction  to  be  given  in  the  Training  Colleges  on 
hygiene,  child  welfare,  etc.  Time  was  when  young  men  and 
women  were  turned  out  fully  fledged  teachers  absolutely  ignorant 
of  such  subjects. 

Treatment  is  provided  by  means  of  special  schools  or  centres, 
under  expert  supervision,  for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  mentally 
and  physically  defective,  tuberculous  and  epileptic.  There  are 
397  of  these,  including  forty-six  Homes  or  residential  schools,  and 
ten  school  hospitals.  The  school  clinic  is  found  to  be  the  most 
suitable  and  effective  means  of  dealing  with  children  requiring 
treatment.  In  1914,  excluding  London,  there  were  only  350  of 
these  in  England  and  Wales.  Surely  every  large  town  should 
possess  one  or  more  ? 

The  Report  lays  down  that  "  the  environment  of  the  infant 

*  Excluding  the  medical  practitioners  at  the  London  treatment  centres. 


The  Welfare  of  the  Child  543 

is  the  mother."  The  problem  of  the  ignorant  mother  has  there- 
fore to  be  faced.  This  is  done  by  "  Schools  for  Mothers"  and 
"Maternity  Centres,"  which  receive  grants  from  the  Board  of 
Education.  Ancillary  to  the  Schools  for  Mothers  are  Home 
Visiting  Infant  Consultation,  and  Classes  for  "  Health  Talk." 
That  there  is  crying  need  for  these  Institutions  is  abundantly 
testified  by  the  infant  mortality  rate — the  death-rate  in  England 
and  Wales  per  thousand  for  1914  is  105 — and  by  the  statement 
that  "  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  this  mortality  is  epidemic 
diarrhoea  and  enteritis  due  to  bad  feeding."  The  death-rate  is 
highest  in  great  urban  communities.* 

The  medical  examination  of  children  entering  school  between 
the  ages  of  3  to  6  shows  a  serious  amount  of  defect.  Among  the 
diseases  and  defects  tabulated  in  1914  uncleanliness  of  body  and 
head  figure  largely ;  the  former  ranging  from  12  to  15  per  cent., 
in  Brighton  actually  23  per  cent.,  in  Middlesboro'  24,  in  Bilston 
37.  The  percentage  with  unclean  heads  is  also  very  high  in  large 
towns.  With  respect  to  uncleanliness  of  body  and  head  a  return, 
compiled  from  the  result  of  medical  inspections  in  1914  of  391,352 
children  in  certain  areas  under  Local  Education  Authorities,!  gives 
the  average  percentage  as  respectively  13 '8  per  cent,  and  5'5  per 
cent.  The  percentages  are,  of  course,  higher  in  cities  than  in 
rural  areas,  and  uncleanliness  of  body  is  greater  in  the  case  of 
boys  than  girls.  These  figures,  though  not  satisfactory,  show  a 
considerable  improvement  upon  those  of  1909,  and  it  is  satisfactory 
to  note  that  the  grosser  conditions  of  uncleanliness  formerly 
prevalent  are  now  rare.  The  visits  of  school  nurses  have  been 
found  to  be  most  effective  in  this  respect. 

Eye  diseases  range  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  in  large  towns. 
In  diseases  of  nose  and  throat,  which  in  rural  districts  is  above 
10  per  cent.,  there  is  much  inequality,  as  might  be  expected, 
though  it  seems  rather  unaccountable  that  in  Cornwall,  Kent  and 
Gloucestershire  it  should  be  as  high  as  24  per  cent.  One  town, 
Kesteven,  Lincolnshire,  earns  the  unenviable  notoriety  of  32  per 
cent,  under  this  head. 

Malnutrition  claims  many  victims.  Something  like  10  per  cent, 
of  the  children  entering  public  elementary  schools  suffer  from 
this  disability.  The  average  percentage  in  eight  large  towns  is 
21  per  cent.  Here  again  there  are  great  differences,  e.g.,  Halifax 
with  18  per  cent.,  and  Stockton-on-Tees  with  30.  Among  the 
many  causes  of  malnutrition  are  insufficiency  and  unsuitability 
of  food,  bad  sleeping  arrangements,  employment  out  of  school 
hours,  unhealthy  school  conditions  and  "  the  unsuitable  attendance 

*  In  London  the  rate  was  104. 

t  Excluding  London,  but  including  counties,  county  boroughs,  municipal  towns, 
and  urban  districts. 


544  The  Empire  Review 

of  young  children  in  rural  areas."     That  the  two  last-mentioned 
causes  should  exist  is  discreditable  to  our  school  system. 

Considering  the  home  circumstances  of  many  children  attend- 
ing the  public  elementary  schools  in  large  towns,  it  is  imperative 
that  the  hygienic  conditions  should  be  above  suspicion,  and  the 
hardship  to  little  children  of  trudging  long  distances  to  schools 
in  all  weathers,  remaining  at  midday  to  take  uncomfortable  and 
insufficient  meals,  is  obvious  to  anyone  who  lives  in  the  country. 
In  these  circumstances  provision  should  be  made  for  warmth 
and  food.  With  the  exception  of  London,  with  its  official  and 
voluntary  agencies  for  feeding  children,  the  degree  of  malnutrition 
is  lowest  in  rural  areas.  This  is  not  surprising,  as  several  of  the 
causes  mentioned  do  not  exist,  and  on  the  whole  country  children 
are  well  and  wholesomely,  though  simply,  fed.  Malnutrition  is  more 
common  with  boys  than  with  girls,  doubtless  owing  to  the  boys' 
employment  out  of  school.  One  doctor — Northampton — speaks 
of  "bad  food  and  badly  prepared  food,"  and  says,  "white  bread 
made  of  poor  flour  and  potatoes  form  the  staple  of  many 
dietaries."  Some  interesting  returns  are  given,  based  upon  the 
inspection  of  513,660  children  in  sixty-two  areas  of  Local  Educa- 
tion Authorities  in  counties,  county  boroughs,  boroughs  and 
urban  districts,  excluding  London.  The  percentages  of  those  in 
whom  the  degree  of  nutrition  is  classified  as  "below  normal" 
and  "  bad  "  are  highest  in  the  boroughs  (17 "5  per  cent.),  lowest 
in  the  counties  (10  per  cent.).  The  Eeport  says  practically  "  all 
children  are  born  healthy,"  and  that  defective  nutrition  is  due  to 
"  dietetic  ignorance  on  the  parents'  part,  or  neglect." 

The  percentage  of  children  with  dental  disease  are  higher 
than  those  of  any  other  defect  or  disease.  A  table  giving  the 
results  of  the  examination  of  "  entrants  "  and  "  leavers  "  in  certain 
areas  is  rather  startling  reading.  To  quote  a  few  instances.  In 
Durham  of  14,620  entrants  examined,  only  15 '4  per  cent,  are 
returned  as  with  sound  teeth;  in  Sheffield,  14,867  examined, 
only  '21  •  1 ;  in  South  Shields,  2,238  examined,  only  11  •  8 ;  in 
Notts,  7,646  examined,  14;  whereas  in  Cornwall  85 '8  per  cent, 
are  returned  as  with  sound  teeth,  and  in  Lincolnshire  70'7. 
Almost  as  unequal  are  the  returns  of  the  "leavers,"  the  percent- 
ages of  whom,  under  the  head  of  "seriously  defective  (or  4  or 
more),"  range  from  8'8  in  Essex  to  30*3  in  Northampton. 
Perhaps  the  personal  equation  may,  to  some  extent,  account  for 
some  of  these  inequalities.  One  medical  officer  notes  that  poor 
children  often  have  better  teeth  than  those  of  a  higher  class.  The 
Report  considers  that  the  majority  of  children  with  dental  disease 
do  not  suffer  in  health,  and  that  it  is  the  health  of  adults  that 
will  be  benefited  by  a  comprehensive  system  of  dental  treatment. 
Treatment  is  given  in  clinics  and  centres,  where  dentists  attend. 


The  Welfare  of  the  Child  545 

In  London  32,439  were  treated  at  these  clinics  and  centres.  In 
Devonshire  a  dentist  goes  from  school  to  school  in  a  motor  car, 
equipped  with  everything  necessary  for  treatment,  and  deals  with 
cases  at  the  school,  and  in  Norfolk  a  dentist  goes  round  in  a  van 
inspecting  children  and  treating  them.  Finally,  the  Eeport 
affirms  that  of  children  inspected  between  six  and  eight  years  of 
age  about  80  per  cent,  are  found  to  be  in  need  of  some  form  of 
dental  treatment. 

Tuberculosis  is  dealt  with  in  a  table  of  statistics,  compiled 
from  the  returns  of  eighty-five  county  and  borough  areas  under 
Local  Education  Authorities,  which  gives  the  number  of  cases  of 
phthisis  found  at  the  medical  inspections  of  schools.  It  contains 
many  curious  discrepancies,  due  no  doubt  to  the  physical  and 
industrial  conditions  in  some  areas.  In  Staffordshire  out  of 
18,313  examined,  the  number  with  some  form  of  tuberculosis  was 
257 ;  in  Norfolk  16,942  examined,  38  ;  in  Bedford  1,027  examined, 
23 ;  King's  Lynn  1,026  examined,  4.  Worcestershire  has  the 
worst  result  with  163  out  of  7,128  examined,  and  in  addition  350 
doubtful  cases  I  Sheffield  compares  favourably  with  Manchester, 
its  record  being  -22  per  cent,  of  cases,  while  Manchester  has  -46. 
Liverpool  out  of  38,394  examined  has  only  71  (in  these  three  per- 
centages "  doubtful  cases  "  are  omitted).  In  some  counties  there 
seems  to  be  nearly  total  immunity  at  school  age ;  Gloucester  has 
only  14  cases  out  of  11,099  examined,  and  Cornwall  only  7  out 
of  8,891. 

Treatment  is  given  in  day  schools  and  residential  sanatoria. 
The  provision  of  these  is,  however,  inadequate.  Respecting  the 
treatment  in  the  last-mentioned,  the  medical  superintendent  says, 
"  short  spells  of  treatment  under  ideal  conditions,  followed  by  a 
return  to  poverty,  overcrowding  and  squalor  are  worse  than 
useless."  The  instruction  of  children  in  "open  air"  schools  has 
proved  very  beneficial  in  cases  of  children  with  signs  of  tuber- 
culosis, as  well  as  in  the  case  of  weakly  children.  Unquestionably 
children  from  crowded  or  insanitary  homes  must  derive  much 
benefit  from  being  taught  in  such  schools,  instead  of  in  badly 
ventilated  or  crowded  class-rooms.  An  excellent  suggestion,  and 
one  that  ought  to  be  acted  on  in  large  cities,  is  made  by  a  doctor, 
"  that  in  view  of  the  twofold  need  for  economy  in  expenditure 
upon  school  buildings,  and  for  securing  favourable  conditions  of 
education  for  a  large  number  of  delicate  children,  it  is  hoped  that 
the  Local  Education  Authorities  will  consider  seriously  the 
possibility  of  adding  to  their  available  school  accommodation  by 
means  of  temporary  buildings."  Unfortunately,  however,  this 
would  be  impossible  in  the  case  of  many  voluntary  schools  in 
London  and  large  towns,  for  want  of  space. 

The  Report  fully  recognises  that  the  inquiry  into,  and  treat- 
VOL.  XXIX.— No.  180.  2  s 


546  The  Empire  Review 

ment  of  disease  is  not  enough ;  that  it  is  also  necessary  to 
promote  the  physical  welfare  of  children,  not  only  by  systematic 
training  at  school,  but  after  leaving  school.  The  pressing  need 
for  this  is  evident  to  anyone  who  closely  observes  the  physique  of 
our  young  people  of  the  lower  class  in  our  large  towns.  It  is 
noticeable  in  the  case  of  many  of  the  youths  in  khaki,  and  in 
that  of  the  many  flat-chested,  stunted  girls  to  be  seen.  The 
absurd  outcry  which  was  raised  when  the  teaching  of  military 
drill  in  the  public  elementary  schools  was  proposed  has  much 
to  answer  for.  It  would  not  only  have  led  to  improvement  in 
physique  and  to  the  promotion  of  a  spirit  of  discipline  and 
comradeship,  but  also  have  been  a  valuable  preparation  for  the 
military  service  at  home,  which  is  now  indispensable.  The 
Board  of  Education  requires  a  certain  amount  of  physical  training 
to  be  taught  in  the  schools,  but  as  often  the  instructor  has 
neither  enthusiasm  nor  special  fitness  for  the  work,  it  becomes  a 
rather  perfunctory  affair,  with,  as  the  Report  says,  "  the  out- 
standing defect  of  dullness."  Moreover,  the  conditions  in  which 
the  exercises  are  given  are  often  unfavourable,  owing  to  want  of 
space,  and  when  given  in  heated  halls  or  small  confined  play- 
grounds they  do  not  fulfil  their  purpose.  The  Report  declares 
that  the  organisation  of  field-games,  swimming,  etc.,  is  of  the 
utmost  importance.  Yet  there  are  densely  populated  parts  of 
London  where  the  delights  of  organised  field-games,  running 
and  jumping  on  grass,  etc.,  are  almost  unknown  to  children,  and 
to  children  living  by  the  banks  of  the  Thames  swimming  and 
rowing  are  unknown  pleasures.  If  parts  of  the  public  parks  and 
open  spaces  were  set  apart  for  the  use  of  groups  of  the  public  ele- 
mentary schools,  the  physical  training  would  gain  enormously  in 
vitality  and  efficiency  ;  the  gain  to  the  happiness  of  children  and 
teachers  and  the  stimulus  given  to  physical  training  would  also 
be  very  great.  The  Local  Education  Authorities  should  provide 
for  after-school  physical  training,  either  by  means  of  continuation 
schools,  or  in  some  other  way. 

Finally,  although  it  appears  that  a  large  proportion  of  children 
suffering  from  preventable  disease  receive  remedial  treatment,  it  is 
evident  that  the  pro  vision  for  such  treatment  is  as  yet  inadequate. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  ere  long  this  deficiency  will  be  made  good, 
and  that  a  large  number  of  women  doctors  will  be  employed 
to  carry  out  work  for  which  they  are  specially  fitted.  So  long 
as  overcrowding,  insanitary  conditions  and  insufficient  and  in- 
judicious feeding  continue,  however,  the  evils  dealt  with  in  the 
Report  must  constitute  a  standing  menace  to  the  health  of  the 
nation. 

E.  A.  HELPS 
(late  H.M.  Inspector  of  Schools). 


Where  there  is  Peace  547 


WHERE    THERE    IS    PEACE 

THE  cooing  ring-dove  ushers  in  the  morn  whose  purple  streaks 
give  promise  of  a  lighter  gleam,  and  from  my  rest  I  follow  the 
changes  until  his  majesty's  golden  crown  tips  the  distant  horizon, 
and  then  another  day  is  on  the  scroll  of  time. 

Far  from  this  haunt  it  is  a  day  of  strife  ;  for  that  which  nature 
guards  so  securely  here  is  being  cast  into  ruthless  waste.  The 
peaceful  face  of  the  fields  and  woods  are  despoiled,  and  into 
torn  and  distorted  cavities  are  flung  the  life-blood,  the  young  life- 
blood,  that  ages  have  striven  to  perfect.  The  heroes  willingly 
cast  their  lives  into  a  holocaust  of  hell,  to  uphold  their  country's 
honour,  and  to  save  future  generations  from  tyranny  and  shame. 

And  here  is  peace  !  See  yonder,  beside  a  reed  fence,  on  a  rose 
bush  perches  an  African  yellow  breast,  a  tiny  yellow  robin.  Has 
the  sunshine  changed  his  waistcoat's  colour?  He  is  tame, 
friendly,  and  haunts  the  little  garden  which  is  to-day  a  last  relic 
of  a  past  summer.  The  withering  cosmos  drops  its  falling  flowers, 
and  the  hand  of  the  gardener  has  to  pull  up  and  destroy  the  torn 
fragments  that,  with  their  brilliant  colourings,  were  the  chief 
actors  in  the  scene  of  yesterday.  But  over  all  is  the  life  that 
rejoices.  The  swallows  skimming  await  but  a  token  to  bid  them 
leave  their  haunts.  On  the  willows  the  large  bok-ma-kerrie 
sounds  his  shrill  note,  whilst  his  mate  answers  her  refrain  as  truly 
as  a  trained  chorister.  The  dark  hooded  shrike  pins  his  prey,  a 
dead  spider,  to  the  barbed  wire's  point,  and  beyond  the  saka-boula 
rises  and  falls  in  its  flight ;  it  has  changed  its  bright  scarlet  and 
black  coat  for  a  beautiful  striped  brown,  but  has  not  forgotten  its 
recent  bondage,  and  habitually  falls  in  its  flight,  under  the 
imagination  that  its  long  summer  tail  still  weights  its  move- 
ments. The  noisy  finches  cling  to  their  hanging  nests  and 
no  snake  can  get  to  their  young,  but  at  night,  disturbed,  they 
will  whirr  about  so  loudly,  that  they  sound  like  the  flail  of  a 
thresher. 

Overhead  there  is  an  incessant  stream  of  white  ibis  ;  some  fly 
north,  others  south,  but  from  morn  till  night  their  beautiful 
chaste  colours  mark  the  blue  sky.  The  huge  hook-billed  ibis, 

2  s  2 


548  The  Empire  Review 

with  its  sinuously-turned  beak,  silently  pass.  They  have  black 
edgings  on  their  wings  and  look  like  half-mourning  paper  slightly 
crumpled.  Sometimes  long  pink  flamingoes  pass  with  necks 
stretched  to  their  flight-line. 

There  are  the  herons  of  mystery,  whose  colours  cunningly 
imitate  the  foliage  they  inhabit,  rendering  them  elusive  to  their 
enemies.  The  solitary  frog-eater,  the  English  bittern,  is  at  the 
pool.  The  jack-snipe  rise  and  drum  over  the  vley. 

At  the  river's  edge  are  large  spur-winged  muscovies  and 
mallard  and  teal.  The  water  plover  shriek  when  disturbed,  and 
a  great  army  of  sandpipers  manoeuvre  as  you  near  them.  When 
there  is  grain,  the  myriads  of  redbeaks,  sparrows,  and  finches 
plunder,  and  early  and  late  the  kafir  maids  shout  their  warnings 
as  they  wave  them  away.  Along  the  river  and  o'er  the  reeds 
the  army  of  movement  flies  incessantly,  and  yesterday,  a  yesterday 
of  forty  summers,  in  those  reeds  rested  lions  and  awhile  before 
elephants  fed  in  these  marshes ;  but  to-day  it  is  a  sober  vley 
and  the  lucerne  and  wheat  speak  of  a  new  life,  and,  in  my  lady's 
garden,  are  violets  and  mignonette  that  tell  a  tale  of  a  peace  that 
will  never  again  know  the  thunderous  challenge  of  a  king  that 
reigns  no  more. 

When  the  dazzling  day  declines  and  the  shadows  hush  the 
last  sounds,  owls  flit  silently  from  the  marsh  and  the  golden-eyed 
plover  moves  to  his  rest-place.  In  summer's  warmth  the  air  is 
filled  with  archaic  choruses  of  frogs  that  sound  their  liquid  treble. 
The  ear  accepts  the  lullaby,  and  when  the  lights  are  dead  and 
night  moths  have  ceased  to  burn  their  velvet  coats  against  the 
lamps,  there  is  repose,  and  naught  but  a  faint  sonata  whose 
ancient  notes  re-echoed  on  the  pipes  of  Pan.  And  yet  to-day  their 
soft  enticement  still  lulls  you  to  slumber  and  dream. 

W.  P.  TAYLOR. 


The  Straits  Settlements  549 


THE    STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS 

Being  an  analysis  of  the  Official  Report  for  1914  compiled  by  the  Colonial 
Secretary,  Mr.  R.  J.  Wilkinson,  C.M.G.,  and  recently  presented  to  Parliament 

THE  outbreak  of  hostilities  raised  some  important  issues  as  to 
the  status  and  trade  of  alien  enemies  residing  in  the  Colony. 
Trade  with  Germany  itself  was  of  course  prohibited  at  once  ;  but 
the  practice  of  nations  in  previous  wars  had  not  been  such  as  to 
justify  the  immediate  internment  of  enemy  subjects  and  the 
closing  down  of  enemy  firms,  with  the  result  that  the  Colony 
was  for  a  few  days  in  the  anomalous  position  of  a  base  from 
which  Germans  of  military  age  might  possibly  set  out  to  bear 
arms  against  us.  On  the  7th  August  a  number  of  enemy 
reservists  attempted  to  leave  Singapore  by  the  s.s.  Rumphius 
for  the  express  purpose  of  joining  the  garrison  at  Tsingtau. 
They  were  made  prisoners  of  war  and  were  released  only  on 
parole.  All  German  subjects  were  then  made  to  sign  under- 
takings not  to  take  part  in  certain  hostile  acts  against  Great 
Britain,  and  were  subjected  to  certain  restrictions.  In  justice  to 
them  it  must  be  added  that  their  conduct  gave  very  little  cause 
for  complaint.  There  were  one  or  two  minor  offences  against 
trade  rules  or  against  the  censorship,  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  any  German  or  Austrian  prisoner  was  guilty  of  serious 
political  crime.  The  rumours  of  secret  wireless  installations  set 
up  in  the  Colony  by  enemy  subjects  were  mere  canards  un- 
supported by  any  evidence. 

Very  early  in  the  war  the  question  of  providing  a  Malaya 
Contingent  for  service  at  the  front  had  been  taken  up  by  the 
Military  Authorities,  but  it  was  understood  that  the  system  of 
providing  small  irregular  forces  was  not  well  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  a  great  European  war.  In  September  the  proposal  was 
modified,  and  it  was  suggested  that  passages  should  be  provided 
by  public  subscription  for  men  who  desired  to  enlist  in  the  new 
forces.  This  new  proposal  was  open  to  the  objection  that 
passages  would  be  given  to  intending  recruits  who  might  be 
rejected  on  arrival  in  England  as  physically  unfit  for  service  in 
the  Army.  The  Government  thereupon  telegraphed  to  England 


550  The  Empire  Review 

offering  to  provide  the  passages  if  the  War  Office  would  consent 
to  open  a  recruiting  office  in  the  Colony.  After  some  delay  an 
arrangement  was  arrived  at  under  which  the  risk  of  rejection  was 
minimised  by  the  holding  at  Singapore  of  a  medical  examination 
of  would-be  recruits  by  officers  of  the  Eoyal  Army  Medical  Corps. 
By  the  end  of  the  year  passages  had  been  given  to  245  recruits. 

The  question  of  inaugurating  a  relief  fund  for  the  sufferers  by 
the  war  was  also  discussed  in  August ;  but  it  was  decided  that 
the  tightness  of  money  and  the  uncertainty  of  trade  conditions 
made  it  expedient  to  await  more  settled  times.  In  September 
matters  had  improved.  On  the  5th  October  a  public  meeting  was 
held  under  the  presidency  of  the  Governor  for  the  appointment  of 
a  Committee  to  collect  subscriptions  for  the  Prince  of  Wales' 
Fund.  By  the  end  of  the  year  $192,747  had  been  collected  from 
the  Singapore  public,  and  £10,000  had  been  voted  to  the  fund  by 
the  Government  of  the  Colony.  A  portion  (about  20  per  cent.) 
of  the  Singapore  subscriptions  were  allocated  to  local  relief.  The 
collections  for  the  Prince  of  Wales'  Fund  amounted  on  31st 
December,  1914,  to  $68,483.47  at  Penang  and  $7,985.08  at 
Malacca. 

On  the  10th  September  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal  the  German 
cruiser  Emden  began  its  long  series  of  attacks  upon  British 
merchant  shipping  in  Eastern  waters.  It  succeeded  in  destroying 
a  number  of  vessels,  but  in  no  case  did  it  sink  any  trader  that 
had  only  just  left  one  or  other  of  the  ports  of  the  Colony.  If, 
as  has  been  suggested,  the  cruiser  obtained  its  information  of  the 
movements  of  shipping  from  newspapers  found  on  captured 
vessels,  the  strict  censorship  exercised  in  the  Colony  over  such 
details  may  account  for  the  comparative  immunity  enjoyed  by 
ships  plying  continuously  in  our  local  waters.  The  destruction 
of  the  Troilus  after  its  departure  from  Colombo  with  a  valuable 
Singapore  cargo  was  the  most  serious  injury  done  by  the  Emden 
to  the  British  Mercantile  Marine.  On  the  28th  October  the 
Emden  made  a  bold  dash  into  the  harbour  of  Penang  and 
sank  the  Eussian  cruiser  Jemtchug  at  her  moorings  and  the 
French  destroyer  Mousquet  off  Muka  Head.  This  was  its  last 
success.  On  the  9th  November  a  telegram  reached  Singapore  to 
the  effect  that  the  German  man-of-war  had  appeared  off  the 
Cocos  Islands  and  was  landing  a  party  to  destroy  the  cable  station. 
Very  shortly  afterwards  a  further  message  was  received  that  an 
unknown  British  cruiser  had  arrived  suddenly  on  the  scene  and 
had  attacked  the  Emden.  After  an  anxious  period  of  silence  and 
suspense  the  news  came  through  that  H.M.A.S.  Sydney  had 
driven  the  enemy's  warship  ashore  on  North  Keeling  Island. 

The  doings  of  the  Emden  drew  attention  to  the  risk  involved 
in  giving  almost  unlimited  freedom  to  alien  enemies  living  in 


The  Straits  Settlements  551 

our  ports.  It  is  only  fair  to  the  German  residents  to  say  that 
most  of  them  are  known  to  have  behaved  in  an  exemplary 
manner  at  a  very  trying  time,  and  that  there  is  no  evidence 
whatever  that  information  of  the  movements  of  British  shipping 
reached  the  Emden  through  any  breach  of  their  parole.  But 
the  business  done  by  German  firms  with  neutral  States,  which 
in  turn  traded  with  Germany,  made  it  difficult  to  prevent  money 
and  information  filtering  through  from  the  Colony  into  enemy 
countries.  The  one  serious  objection  to  general  internment — its 
being  contrary  to  the  usual  practice  of  nations  in  previous  wars — 
had  been  removed  by  the  action  of  the  German  Government 
itself  which  had  interned  its  own  enemy  subjects  and  had  shown 
a  repeated  disregard  for  international  law  and  treaties.  On  the 
25th  October  general  instructions  were  issued  for  the  internment 
of  Germans  and  Austrians.  On  the  4th  December  this  action 
was  followed  up  with  a  Bill  for  the  compulsory  winding-up  of 
enemy  companies.  On  the  llth  December  this  Bill  became  law. 

The  year  opened  in  a  period  of  financial  stringency  caused  by 
the  failure  of  a  large  banking  institution  which  affected  Chinese 
firms  especially  in  Singapore  and  Bangkok.  The  scarcity  of 
money  and  the  slender  reserves  of  dealers  generally,  kept  the 
markets  depressed  ;  later  a  recovery  took  place,  checked,  however, 
at  the  outbreak  of  war  when  absolute  stagnation  characterised 
the  market.  The  exclusion  of  Belgian,  German,  and  Austrian 
goods,  valued  at  considerably  over  £100,000  monthly,  had  the 
effect  of  raising  the  prices  of  imported  articles  identified  with 
these  countries  and  stocks  were  rapidly  cleared.  Holland,  Italy, 
America,  Japan,  and  the  Mother  Country  have  to  some  extent 
supplied  the  deficiency.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  British  manu- 
facturers will  now  endeavour  to  capture  and  retain  a  substantial 
portion  of  the  trade  hitherto  done  by  Germany  and  Austria. 

Import  values  of  foodstuffs,  drinks,  and  narcotics  fell  off 
approximately  by  nearly  12  per  cent.,  raw  materials  including 
tin  by  17  per  cent.,  and  all  manufactured  articles  by  nearly 
28  per  cent.  The  decline  of  nearly  £2|  millions  in  foods,  drinks, 
and  narcotics  is  accounted  for  principally  by  reduced  values  of 
opium,  rice,  and  grains,  sugar,  provisions  of  all  kinds,  live 
animals,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  liquors.  In  the  raw  material 
class  the  fall  of  nearly  £3|  million  is  accounted  for  mainly 
by  tin  and  tin  ore  with  a  decline  of  over  £3  million,  fol- 
lowed by  coal,  hides,  raw  cotton  and  silk  and  oils  with  smaller 
deficiencies.  Manufactured  articles  with  a  fall  of  £3  million 
showed  the  greatest  reduction  in  the  import  values  of  cotton 
and  silk  piece  goods  and  sarongs,  apparel,  hosiery,  and  haber- 
dashery, yarns  and  thread,  manufactured  metals  generally,  motor 
cars  and  cycles,  paper  and  stationery,  and  jute  gunnies  In 


552  The  Empire  Review 

quantities  imported  there  was  an  increase  under  rice,  padi  and 
milk,  decreased  volume  being  apparent  in  opium,  sugar,  liquors, 
tobacco,  wheat  flour,  lard,  onions,  and  live  animals.  Tin  ore 
showed  much  the  same  import  quantity  in  spite  of  the  fall  in 
price,  but  coal  and  petroleum  fell  off.  Manufactures  declined 
in  the  quantity  imported  of  cottons,  yarns,  silk  piece  goods,  jute 
gunnies,  blankets,  bar  iron,  corrugated  iron,  nails,  steel-plates, 
tin-plates,  cement,  matches,  and  explosives. 

Export  values  showed  a  decline  in  the  class  foods,  drinks,  and 
narcotics  of  over  11£  per  cent,  or  about  £lf  million.  Eaw 
materials  exported  fell  off  by  £3  million.  Tin,  rattans,  phosphates 
of  lime,  tanned  hides,  and  shells  all  yielded  large  reductions.  On 
the  other  hand  gums  as  a  whole  and  copra  gave  enhanced  values. 
Export  values  of  manufactured  articles  show  a  falling  off  of 
nearly  £700,000,  textiles  contributing  £378,000,  and  metals 
£111,000.  The  quantities  of  Para  rubber,  copra,  gambier  and 
tin  exported  increased. 

Imports  of  merchandise  from  the  United  Kingdom  were 
valued  at  £4f  million,  a  decline  of  £lf  million  or  about  24 
per  cent.  Cotton  textiles  with  yarns  and  threads  contributed 
over  £600,000  of  the  fall,  followed  by  apparel,  hosiery  and 
millinery,  motor  cars  and  cycles,  etc.,  telegraph  and  telephone 
materials,  malt  liquors  and  spirits,  hardware  and  ironware, 
cement,  paper  and  stationery,  steel,  machinery,  india  rubber 
goods  including  tyres,  provisions,  and  metals  generally,  paints, 
and  boots  and  shoes.  The  ondy  articles  giving  important  in- 
creases are  tobacco,  with  cigars  and  cigarettes,  coal  and  tramway 
and  railway  materials.  Exports  of  merchandise  to  the  United 
Kingdom  were  valued  at  close  on  £10  million,  a  reduction  of  over 
£|  million  or  more  than  7  per  cent.  Tin,  gutta  percha,  india 
rubber,  Borneo  rubber,  sago,  shells,  and  (by  smaller  amounts) 
preserved  pineapples  and  gum  copal  all  give  reduced  values. 
Increases  are,  however,  seen  in  Para  rubber,  copra,  peppers, 
illipi  nuts,  and  gambier  exported.  Import  values  of  merchandise 
from  the  Continent  of  Europe  reached  about  £2£  million,  a  fall 
of  over  26  per  cent,  compared  with  1913.  France,  Norway  and 
Russia  show  advances,  but  other  countries  all  give  declines. 

During  the  year  the  prices  of  the  chief  Malayan  agricultural 
exports  which  are  shipped  west  fell  in  the  world's  markets. 
Eubber,  for  instance,  after  repeating  the  seasonal  rise  of  three 
out  of  the  last  four  years,  fell  again  before  war  broke  out  to  the 
point  from  which  it  had  risen ;  near  to  which  it  has  since  been 
maintained  by  the  decrease  of  its  import  into  London  and 
elsewhere.  The  actual  imports  into  London  during  1914 
amounted  to  less  than  those  of  1913,  and  the  total  world's 
production  appears  also  to  have  been  slightly  less;  for  though 


The  Straits  Settlements  553 

the  production  of  plantation  rubber  has  increased  enormously, 
the  decrease  in  output  from  wild  sources  has  been  even  greater. 
Coconut  products  fell  gradually  towards  the  outbreak  of  war,  lost 
their  market  when  the  crisis  came,  and  then  after  a  month  began 
to  find  it  again,  the  prices  varying  closely  with  the  freedom  of 
the  sea.  After  the  destruction  of  the  German  cruiser  Emden 
they  began  to  rise  in  a  promising  way.  Sago  and  tapioca,  low 
when  the  year  began,  went  lower  like  the  coconut  products,  but 
are  now  obtaining  somewhat  better  prices.  Putch  leaves  lost 
their  market  entirely  when  war  was  declared.  On  the  other 
hand  gambier,  which  chiefly  goes  east,  is  a  little  more  profitable 
than  it  was. 

The  amount  of  rubber  produced  in  the  Malay  Peninsula 
shows  a  great  increase,  in  which  the  Settlements  have  taken  a 
more  or  less  even  part.  An  area  of  moderate  extent  has  been 
newly  planted  in  Singapore  Island,  and  a  small  one  in  the 
territory  of  Malacca.  In  the  first-named  the  rubber  growing 
on  the  new  lands  seems  to  be  entirely  a  subsidiary  product,  for, 
by  the  terms  under  which  the  land  has  been  let  for  the  growing 
of  pineapples,  a  permanent  crop  has  to  be  planted,  and  rubber 
seems  to  the  occupiers  to  be  best  for  such  a  purpose.  In  the 
territory  of  Malacca,  the  surrender  to  Government  of  lands  taken 
up  speculatively  or  unwisely  by  rubber  companies  in  the  boom, 
has  been  rather  more  than  was  anticipated,  and  many  estates  are 
finding  it  necessary  to  use  revenue  for  completing  development ; 
but  the  revenue  promises  generally  to  suffice.  Great  economies 
have  been  found  possible ;  the  cost  of  production  has  been  reduced 
wonderfully ;  and  there  are  companies  producing  and  marketing 
at  below  one  shilling  per  Ib.  In  the  older  and  Chinese-planted 
estates  of  Malacca  thinning  is  being  carried  out  extensively. 
Ploughing  is  also  being  resorted  to  more  and  more.  Not  a  few 
factories  are  acting  as  centrals  for  small  neighbouring  estates — 
a  procedure  which  goes  some  way  towards  reducing  the  variability 
of  the  quality  of  the  product.  The  rubber  plantations  are  very 
free  from  disease. 

The  attention  of  the  general  public  during  the  closing  months 
of  the  year  has  been  so  focussed  on  Imperial  issues  that  a  change 
of  great  moment  to  the  Colony  has  escaped  almost  unnoticed. 
For  some  years  past  it  had  been  the  endeavour  of  the  Straits 
Settlements  Government  to  arrive  at  some  arrangement  for 
purchasing  raw  opium  at  a  fixed  price  direct  from  the  Govern- 
ment of  India.  Some  such  system  is  necessary  in  the  interests 
of  our  revenue,  of  which  no  accurate  forecast  can  be  given  so 
long  as  the  price  of  opium  is  driven  up  or  down  by  the  intrigues 
of  speculators  in  India  and  the  success  or  failure  of  smuggling 
into  China.  True,  the  Colony  had  suffered  little  in  actual 


554  The  Empire  Review 

practice.  Estimates  have  always  erred  on  the  side  of  caution  ; 
and  the  profits  on  the  drug  have  been  guarded  against  temporary 
fluctuations  of  price  by  the  maintenance  of  large  reserve  stocks. 
But  the  keeping  of  such  reserves  means  the  locking  up  of  capital ; 
and  cautious  revenue  estimates  require  a  similar  caution  on  the 
expenditure  side  if  the  risk  of  financial  trouble  is  to  be  avoided. 
Above  all,  the  system  of  direct  dealings  in  raw  opium  between 
the  various  Governments  concerned  (if  it  became  general)  would 
be  the  surest  preventive  of  smuggling  in  that  it  would  not  allow 
the  raw  material  to  pass  into  private  hands.  In  October  last  the 
desired  agreement  was  arrived  at.  Opium  is  now  sold  direct  by 
India  to  the  Colony  to  the  full  extent  of  its  requirements ;  and 
the  capital  locked  up  in  our  reserves  of  the  raw  product  is  being 
made  available  for  other  purposes  at  a  time  when  it  is  specially 
needed. 


CANADA'S   RECORD   HARVEST 

CANADIAN  financial  and  industrial  reports  for  the  month  of  November 
just  received  contain  some  remarkable  figures  indicative  of  a  very  healthy 
condition  of  affairs.  Not  the  least  striking  is  the  statement  by  Mr.  H.  V. 
Meredith,  President  of  the  Bank  of  Montreal,  that  the  output  of  grain  in 
the  three  prairie  provinces  is  estimated  to  have  a  value  to  producers  of  no 
less  than  eighty  millions  sterling.  What  this  new  wealth  means  to  the 
Canadian  farmer,  to  the  Dominion  and  the  world,  the  average  individual 
can  scarcely  realise.  To  the  farmer  it  means  increased  capital  for  the 
development  of  his  undertakings — more  stock,  more  machinery,  more 
workers,  increased  domestic  comfort  and  a  widened  outlook  on  the  future. 
For  Canada  it  means  increased  industrial  activity  and  the  circulation  of 
an  enormous  sum  of  money  not  previously  available ;  while  for  Great 
Britain  and  her  allies  it  means  a  copious  supply  of  food.  The  record 
harvest  returns  are  reflected  in  the  bank  clearances  which  during 
November  were  $891,284,701— the  largest  figures  ever  recorded  for  a 
single  month.  Building  permits  in  the  cities  of  Eastern  Canada  during 
November  also  show  a  substantial  increase  for  17  cities  of  $1,041,624,  or 
65  *  7  per  cent.  Canadian  trade  with  Great  Britain  likewise  shows  a  large 
increase,  the  figures  for  the  past  nine  months  being  14  million  dollars 
greater  than  those  for  the  same  period  of  1914,  particularly  in  regard  to 
exports. 


Problems  of  the  Pacific  555 


PROBLEMS   OF   THE   PACIFIC 

WHEN  Bishop  Berkeley  wrote  his  oft-quoted  line :  "  Westward 
the  course  of  Empire  takes  its  way,"  he  was  merely  stating  an 
easily  verifiable  fact.  The  centre  of  gravity  in  human  affairs  has 
shown  a  tendency  to  follow  the  sun  since  the  earliest  period  of 
which  any  generally  accepted  records  exist.  Possibly  fifteen 
thousand  years  ago  or  more  the  Chinese  civilisation,  then  at  its 
zenith,  was  the  most  advanced  of  any  to  be  found  on  earth. 
The  centre  of  gravity  then  moved  slowly  westward  until  it 
reached  the  Mediterranean.  There  it  stayed  until  the  re-discovery 
of  the  New  World  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  transferred 
it  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  where  it  still  remains.  There  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  that  it  is  about  to  continue  its  westward 
march,  thereby  returning  to  the  mighty  ocean  whose  waters 
divide  the  vigorous  young  branches  of  the  white  race  inhabiting 
the  two  Americas  and  Australasia  from  the  myriads  of  yellow 
men  who  still  reside,  for  the  most  part,  in  their  ancient  stronghold 
of  Eastern  Asia. 

The  view  is  strongly  held  in  Anglo-Saxon  countries  bordering 
on  the  Pacific  that  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  cannot  fail 
to  hasten  the  coming  of  the  day  when  the  present  supremacy  of 
the  Atlantic  in  human  affairs  will  have  passed  to  its  larger  rival, 
at  the  same  time  bringing  nearer  the  danger  of  struggles 
between  Asiatics  and  Europeans  for  the  mastery  of  the  Pacific. 
But  the  outbreak  of  the  devastating  conflict  now  in  progress, 
and  the  fact  that  Japan  has  come  forward  in  so  splendid  a 
manner  not  only  to  fulfil  her  treaty  obligations  with  this  country, 
but  also  to  assist  the  allied  nations  as  a  whole,  have  obscured  for 
the  time  being  the  flashes  of  distant  sheet  lightning  over  the  Pacific 
that  were  beginning  to  cause  alarm  to  the  statesmen  of  North 
America,  Australasia  and  Holland. 

The  migratory  tendencies  displayed  by  Chinese  and  Japanese 
long  since  brought  about  the  passage  of  restrictive  legislation 
by  the  United  States,  Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  a 
fact  which  the  Japanese  could  not  be  expected  to  regard  without 


556  The  Empire  Review 

some  feeling  of  resentment.  In  the  case  of  the  land  legislation 
directed  against  the  Mongol  races  passed  by  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia, Japan  not  unnaturally  refused  to  regard  the  matter  as 
closed,  but  for  obvious  reasons  her  action  cannot  be  carried  further 
than  diplomatic  protests  for  some  time  to  come.  For  Japan  to 
be  in  a  position  to  challenge  the  American  fleet  with  sufficient 
prospect  of  success  effective  help  from  China  would  be  required, 
and  the  day  when  this  will  be  available  is  not  yet  in  sight, 
although  it  would  hardly  be  prudent  to  assert  that  much  pro- 
gress in  the  required  direction  could  not  be  made  by  China  in 
half  a  century.  So  far,  however,  there  is  no  indication  of  even 
a  start  being  considered.  All  the  same,  forces  would  seem  to  be 
at  work  for  the  creation  of  a  strong  "  Asia  for  the  Asiatic  "  senti- 
ment and  the  popularisation  of  the  idea  of  southward  expansion. 
In  these  circumstances  the  question  arises  whether  it  is  not 
possible  so  to  arrange  matters  between  the  White  and  Yellow 
races  that  there  will  no  longer  be  any  compelling  incentive 
for  the  latter  to  prepare  for  a  desperate  struggle  for  their  fair 
share  of  the  sparsely  peopled  portions  of  the  earth.  In  this 
connection  it  will  be  well  to  glance  at  the  colonisation  efforts 
which  have  been  made  by  the  Yellow  peoples  in  the  Pacific 
theatre,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  Mongols  are  treated  in 
the  White  countries  which  they  have  entered  in  some  numbers. 
As  it  seems  likely  that  the  United  States  will,  as  time  goes 
on,  be  forced  more  and  more  into  the  position  of  leadership 
of  the  Western  Whites  in  their  disputes  with  the  Mongols,  it 
will  be  fitting  to  consider  first  the  present  status  of  Yellow  men 
in  America. 

The  Yellow  invasion  of  North  America  began  with  the 
Californian  gold  rush  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  For  a 
long  time  only  Chinamen  were  concerned  in  this  movement,  but 
the  Chinese  began  to  arrive  in  such  numbers  that  serious  friction 
arose  between  them  and  the  white  miners,  with  the  result  that 
legislation  excluding  Chinamen  almost  entirely  from  the  United 
States,  and  debarring  Mongols  from  becoming  American  citizens, 
was  enacted.  The  Chinese  problem  in  the  United  States  is  no 
longer  of  first-class  importance.  Most  of  the  Chinamen  live  in 
the  larger  towns,  where  they  keep  laundries  and  restaurants,  and 
fill  a  useful  role  as  cooks  in  private  houses  and  hotels.  The 
demand  for  Chinese  cooks  is  greater  than  the  supply.  The  result 
is  that  high  wages  are  paid,  and  the  Chinamen  are  extremely 
independent,  walking  out  of  the  house  at  a  moment's  notice  if 
anything  happens  to  arouse  their  displeasure. 

Although  there  were  only  about  70,000  Chinese  residents  of 
the  United  States  enumerated  at  the  census  of  1910,  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  this  figure  can  be  regarded  as  accurate.  For 


Problems  of  the  Pacific  557 

example,  the  number  of  Chinese  at  previous  decennial  enumerations 
is  given  as  follows  :  (1880)  105,465  ;  (1890)  107,488  ;  (1900)  90,167. 
There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  this  apparent  decline  does 
not  fully  reflect  the  facts  of  the  case.  That  there  has  been  a 
decrease  since  the  maximum  of  1890  is  probably  true,  as  many  of 
the  original  immigrants  have  died  or  have  returned  with  the 
wealth  they  have  acquired  to  their  native  country,  but  it  is 
currently  believed  that  the  number  entering  the  country  at  the 
present  time  is  greater  than  the  immigration  statistics  show.  It 
is  asserted  that  not  a  few  Chinamen  manage  to  secure  an  entry 
via  Canada  and  Mexico,  and  the  regulations  permitting  the  entry 
of  a  certain  number  of  students  are  said  to  lend  themselves  to 
abuse.  It  is  certain,  at  any  rate,  that  the  Chinese  are  quite  clever 
enough  to  conceal  any  actual  increase  in  their  numbers  by  evading 
the  census  takers. 

The  Japanese  arrived  later,  and  in  1870  there  were  only  fifty- 
five  in  the  whole  of  the  Union.  Twenty  years  afterwards  there 
were  2,039,  and  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
number  mounted  rapidly  to  24,610.  Ten  years  later  this  number 
had  tripled,  and  there  are  now,  in  all  probability,  fully  100,000. 
Thus,  accepting  the  accuracy  of  the  1910  census,  there  are  at  the 
present  day  about  170,000  Mongols  in  the  United  States.  In 
Alaska  there  are  probably  5000  more,  making  the  total  in  the 
continental  territories  of  the  United  States  175,000. 

In  Canada,  in  spite  of  the  levying  of  a  poll-tax  which  amounts 
to  £102  10s.  on  each  Chinaman  entering  the  Dominion  for  the 
first  time,  the  Chinese  community  is  steadily  growing,  and  now 
numbers  about  30,000.  In  1911-12  over  6000  immigrants  paid 
the  poll-tax,  and  the  amount  received  by  the  Canadian  Treasury 
from  this  source  between  the  first  imposition  of  a  tax  and  March 
31,  1912  was  nearly  £2,200,000.  Owing  to  the  superior  inter- 
national status  of  Japan  and  the  existence  of  the  Anglo-Japanese 
Alliance,  no  tax  is  levied  on  Japanese  immigrants,  but  there  is  an 
understanding  between  the  Japanese  and  Canadian  Governments 
limiting  the  number  of  immigrants  in  any  one  year.  As  there  are 
about  10,000  Japanese  resident  in  Canada,  the  total  Mongol 
population  of  English-speaking  North  America  may  be  estimated 
at  215,000.  The  great  majority  make  their  homes  in  British 
Columbia,  just  as  their  compatriots  in  the  United  States  con- 
gregate principally  in  California,  Oregon  and  Washington. 
This  fact  offers  a  partial  explanation  of  the  hostility  aroused 
amongst  the  white  residents.  If  the  215,000  Mongols  were 
evenly  distributed  over  the  whole  of  English-speaking  North 
America  it  is  probable  that  their  presence  would  pass  almost 
unnoticed.  As  matters  stand  the  Asiatic  element  in  British 
Columbia  now  amounts  to  about  one-fifth  of  the  adult  males  in 


558  The  Empire  Review 

the  Province,  and  the  fact  that  there  are  very  few  Oriental  women 
produces  evils  that  have  accentuated  the  hostile  feeling  of  the 
Whites,  which  had  been  aroused  in  the  first  place  by  the  unfair 
economic  competition  brought  about  by  the  low  standard  of  living 
of  the  Asiatic  races. 

The  demonstrations  which  took  place  in  Vancouver,  when 
there  seemed  to  be  a  possibility  that  the  Ottawa  Government 
would  give  way  and  allow  the  shipload  of  Indians  who  arrived 
on  the  Komagata  Maru  to  land,  indicated  the  temper  of  the 
white  population  on  the  subject  of  Asiatic  immigration,  and  the 
anti-Asiatic  sentiment  has  been  accentuated  by  the  prevailing 
unemployment  in  British  Columbia.  The  total  prohibition  of  all 
immigration  from  Asia  is  demanded  by  the  white  men  of  the 
Pacific  slope,  from  Alaska  to  the  southern  border  of  California, 
irrespective  of  whether  the  Union  Jack  or  the  Stars  and  Stripes 
flies  over  them.  Having  succeeded  in  establishing  a  scale  of 
wages  which  enables  working  men  to  live  in  much  greater 
comfort  than  their  fellows  in  Europe,  the  people  of  Western 
America  decline  to  allow  their  standard  of  living  to  be  lowered 
by  cheap  Asiatic  labour. 

Until  recently,  both  in  Washington  and  Ottawa,  there  was 
undoubtedly  a  disposition  to  regard  Western  sentiment  on  the 
subject  of  Asiatic  immigration  as  vulgar  prejudice.  But  this 
superior  attitude  is  giving  way  to  a  juster  appreciation  of  the 
realities  of  the  case.  As  the  Washington  correspondent  of  the 
Times  said  more  than  a  year  ago  : 

The  whole  tendency  of  American  thought  towards  questions  of  race 
admixture  is  changing.  Originally  the  objection  to  Asiatic  immigration  may 
have  been  largely  economic.  It  is  still  so  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  .  .  .  But  it 
is  clear  that  local  and  class  selfishness  now  has  behind  it  the  support  of  a 
rapidly  growing  public  opinion.  .  .  .  The  uneducated  argument,  apart  from  the 
economic  one,  it  is  unnecessary  to  retail,  though  it  probably  accounts  in  no 
small  degree  for  the  reciprocal  prejudice  which  the  Japanese  masses  have 
against  the  United  States.  But  it  cannot  be  too  emphatically  asserted  that 
together  they  constitute  an  insuperable  barrier  to  the  admission  of  the 
Japanese  to  the  United  States  on  equal  terms  with  the  white  races, 
Americans  already  have  one  race  problem.  They  have  no  intention  of  being 
saddled  with  another,  and  should  it  be  argued  that  the  Japanese  are  of  a  much 
higher  and  possibly  less  unassimilable  strain  than  the  African  negro,  the 
answer  is  that  no  more  experiments  in  race  admixture  are  wanted. 

In  Central  and  South  America  a  number  of  the  Latin  States 
have  allowed  small  colonies  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  to  settle 
within  their  borders.  There  are  a  good  many  Japanesein  Mexico, 
and  it  is  not  altogether  improbable  that  the  American  suspicion 
that  Japanese  diplomacy  has  been  at  work  in  this  region  with  an 
eye  to  future  possibilities  arising  out  of  the  latent  animosity 
between  the  Whites  and  the  Orientals,  is  to  some  extent  justifiable. 


Problems  of  the  Pacific  559 

Moreover  the  comparative  lack  of  racial  prejudice  amongst  Latin- 
Americans  is  likely  to  constitute  an  additional  bond  of  sympathy 
between  them  and  the  Mongols,  unless  a  too  rapid  influx  of  the 
latter  should  cause  the  South  Americans  to  take  alarm. 

There  is  a  certain  amount  of  Japanese  immigration  in  progress 
in  South  America  but,  apparently,  not  altogether  with  satisfactory 
results.  Senor  Billinghurst,  shortly  before  he  was  forced  to  resign 
the  presidency  of  Peru,  told  Mr.  Frank  G.  Carpenter,  a  prominent 
American  journalist,  that  the  Asiatic  labour  in  that  country  had 
not  proved  to  be  a  success.  The  Chinese  did  not  work,  and  the 
Japanese  were  too  independent  and  wanted  to  work  for  themselves. 
Small  Mongol  communities  are  to  be  found  in  the  Argentine  and 
Chili.  In  Brazil  they  are  rather  more  numerous.  There  are 
comparatively  few  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the  exclusion 
laws  in  force  being  even  more  effective  than  those  of  North 
America.  The  total  number  in  these  two  Dominions  is  under 
28,000,  and  of  these  about  24,500  are  Chinese. 

Even  before  the  war  there  was  much  to  be  said  in  favour  of 
the  Anglo- Japanese  alliance.  The  task  of  protecting  commercial 
interests  in  Eastern  Asia  was  divided  thereby  between  the  leading 
European  and  Asiatic  Powers,  and  the  appearance  of  a  purely 
European  overlordship  of  the  earth  avoided.  But  the  weak  spot 
is  the  treatment  of  Japanese  in  the  self-governing  Dominions. 
Perhaps  it  might  be  possible  to  negotiate  a  permanent  settlement 
of  the  Japanese  emigration  problem  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
suggested  in  a  previous  article  in  connection  with  the  Indian 
question,  i.e.,  the  fixing  of  a  reciprocal  ratio  between  the  pro- 
portion of  white  men  to  the  total  population  to  be  allowed  to 
reside  in  Japan,  or  China,  and  the  similar  proportion  of  Japanese, 
or  Chinese,  to  be  permitted  to  settle  in  any  given  white  State. 

It  is  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  the  East  Indian  Archipelago 
and  in  Malaya,  that  most  of  the  Mongols  who  have  left  their 
original  homelands  have  settled.  In  the  Malay  Peninsula  and 
the  East  Indian  Archipelago  there  are  nearly  a  million  of  them. 
As  there  is  a  good  deal  of  Mongol  blood  in  the  Malays  and  others 
of  the  islanders,  there  is  no  radical  experiment  in  race  admixture 
involved  in  the  continued  influx  of  the  yellow  men  into  this  area. 
There  is,  however,  a  religious  difference,  the  bulk  of  the  Malays 
being  Mahomedans,  while  the  Chinese,  for  the  most  part,  profess 
some  form  of  Buddhism. 

The  overrunning  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  by  Chinese  and 
Japanese — there  are  now  over  101,000  yellow  men  in  a  total 
population  of  192,000  (1910  census) — has  not  had  a  soothing 
effect  on  American  susceptibilities  regarding  the  supposed  Oriental 
danger.  These  islands  are  regarded  as  the  key  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  their  importance  has  been  enhanced  by  the  completion 


560  The  Empire  Review 

of  the  Panama  Canal.  Several  years  ago  the  American  Govern- 
ment prohibited  further  Mongol  immigration  in  Hawaii  and  the 
Philippines,  and  more  recently  efforts  have  been  made  to  increase 
the  Caucasian  element  in  the  Hawaiian  group  by  introducing 
Spaniards,  Portuguese  and  Porto  Ricans. 

Perhaps  the  State  which  has  most  cause  to  view  the  future  of 
its  Asiatic  possessions  with  foreboding  is  Holland.  The  Dutch 
East  Indies  have  an  area  of  736,000  square  miles  and  a  native 
population  of  about  37,000,000.  There  are  600,000  Mongols  and 
80,000  Europeans  (74,000  being  Dutch).  The  great  majority  of 
the  white  residents  live  in  Java.  The  islands  are,  therefore,  a 
rich  and  not  too  thickly  populated  empire  which  is  quite  in- 
adequately defended  by  its  present  owners.  A  few  years  ago  a 
Koyal  Commission  appointed  by  the  Netherlands  Government 
urged  the  construction  of  a  naval  force  and  the  establishment  of 
a  great  naval  base  at  Tanjong  Priok,  the  cost  to  be  borne  by 
Holland  and  her  East  Indian  colonies  jointly.  Even  if  this 
powerful  fleet  were  actually  in  being,  it  would  still  be  the  case 
that  the  retention  of  Insulinde  by  the  Dutch  was  dependent  on 
the  continuance  of  the  Anglo-Japanese  alliance  and  the  con- 
sequent existence  of  the  restraining  influence  of  Great  Britain  at 
Tokyo. 

The  Philippine  Islands  present  a  similar  temptation  to  Japan 
to  work  for  southern  expansion.  Inhabited  by  a  race  which  is 
not  very  dissimilar  to  the  Japanese  themselves,  the  incorporation 
of  the  islands  in  the  Japanese  Empire  is  an  event  which  cannot 
be  regarded  as  other  than  a  distinct  future  possibility,  particularly 
if  the  United  States  should  elect  to  set  up  an  independent  Philip- 
pine Eepublic,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  Cuba.  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  Philippine  State  could  only  be  preserved  by  the 
readiness  of  the  American  fleet  to  resist  any  attempt,  peaceful  or 
otherwise,  on  the  part  of  Japan  to  seize  the  political  control  of 
the  islands. 

Both  Japan  and  China  would  be  quite  within  their  rights  in 
seeking  to  obtain  for  their  own  use  some  of  the  thinly  peopled 
regions  now  governed  by  white  men  but  not  suitable  for 
colonisation  by  Europeans.  But  in  order  to  do  so,  they  will  have 
to  be  strong  enough  to  enforce  their  claims  by  action,  if  need  be, 
in  which  case  it  is  probable  that  the  European  Powers  concerned 
would  recognise  the  futility  of  attempting  to  restrict  the  yellow 
peoples  to  their  present  bounds.  A  far  better  way  would  be  to 
arrive  at  a  reasonable  territorial  agreement  before  matters  have 
progressed  to  the  stage  at  which  the  two  races  will  confront  each 
other  in  arms,  the  one  to  seek  to  achieve  its  aims  by  conquest  the 
other  to  defend  an  essentially  unsound  position. 

G.  H.  LEPPEE. 


The  Empire  Library  56 


THE    EMPIRE    LIBRARY 

THE   PAGEANT  OF  DICKENS* 

IT  was  a  happy  thought  that  led  Mr.  Crotch  to  prepare  for 
Christmastide  a  pageant  of  the  types  of  character  created  by  the 
master  of  the  English  human  comedy.  Nothing  could  be  more 
welcome,  more  timely.  Dickens  was  the  re-creator  of  Christmas  ; 
he  redeemed  it  from  its  pre- Victorian  paganism  and  from  the 
mouldy  trammels  of  mediaevalisin  which  otherwise  disguised  its 
significance ;  he  made  it  for  us  a  real  festival  of  benignity  and 
brotherly  love.  Christmas  is  heralded  all  over  the  world  by  the 
recital  of  the  "  Christmas  Carol,"  that  litany  of  human  kindness 
by  which  every  generous  impulse  is  aroused,  and  millions  of 
English-speaking  tongues  join  gladly  in  the  response  of  Tiny 
Tim  to  the  invocation  of  the  spirit  of  good  cheer — "  God  bless  us 
every  one." 

And  a  wonderful  pageant  it  is  !  No  man  has  created  so  great 
a  company  of  original  types.  Many  have  created  a  larger 
number,  but  in  compassing  the  gamut  of  human  passion, 
sympathy  and  frailty,  no  one  has  struck  so  many  chords  of 
varying  timbre  as  Dickens  has.  So  that  when  the  procession 
begins  it  seems  endless.  Mr.  Crotch  has  marshalled  his  people 
in  a  methodical  order,  the  better  to  compare  them,  and  we  begin 
with  a  galaxy  of  the  master's  delightful  children,  and  pass  along 
the  array  of  "humorists,"  "actors,"  "queer  tradesmen," 
"  criminals,"  "  lawyers,"  "  eccentrics,"  "  hypocrites  "  and  the 
rest,  winding  up  with  a  rapid  glimpse  of  "  the  feasts,"  those 
cheerful  meals  of  modest  elements  that  Dickens,  a  lover  of  good 
cheer  and  good  society,  described  for  us  with  such  gusto  and 
endowed  with  such  simple  enjoyment. 

To  paraphrase  Mr.  Crotch's  pageant  would  be  invidious :  it 
tells  its  own  story  of  the  marvellous  versatility  in  creation  and 
characterisation  that  has  given  us  the  Wellers  and  Winkle; 
Paul  Dombey  and  Oliver  Twist ;  Quilp  and  Fagin  ;  Pickwick  and 
Pecksniff ;  Crummies  and  Swiveller ;  Bumble  and  Mrs.  Gamp ; 
the  Cheerybles  and  the  reformed  Scrooge ;  Betsy  Prig  and  Little 

*  '  The  Pageant  of  Dickens.'    By  W.  Waiter  Crotch.    (London :  Chapman  and 
Hall).    5s.net. 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  180.  2  T 


562  The  Empire  Review 

Dorrit,  and  many  a  score  more  whose  names  are  better  known  in 
British  homes  throughout  the  Empire  than  those  of  the  most 
famous  ministry  that  ever  assembled  in  Downing  Street.  This 
fascinating  company  is  reviewed  by  Mr.  Crotch  with  appreciation 
rather  than  criticism,  and  while  many  individuals  are  singled  out 
for  special  approbation,  none  is  unkindly  handled.  One  is 
inclined  to  be  similarly  indulgent,  and  to  welcome,  as  one  must, 
this  procession  of  the  leading  figures  of  the  great  Victorian 
comedy  with  pleasure  and  enthusiasm. 

FBEDK.  J.  HIGGINBOTTOM. 

REFERENCE   BOOKS,    1916* 

'  WHO'S  WHO'  for  1916  fully  sustains  the  high  reputation  of  previous 
volumes.  As  a  book  of  reference  it  is  indispensable.  It  covers  a  far 
wider  field  than  any  of  its  rivals,  and  appeals  to  a  very  large  and  in- 
creasing public.  In  selecting  his  biographies  the  Editor  has  not  confined 
himself  to  men  and  women  of  eminence  in  the  British  Isles.  India  and 
the  Dominions  Oversea  are  also  represented  as  well  as  Foreign  nations, 
and  in  every  case  the  selection  shows  the  essence  of  careful  thought  and 
consideration.  Each  biography  is  submitted  to  the  individual  who  has 
the  opportunity  of  correcting  and  revising  the  proof.  By  this  means 
accuracy  and  authenticity,  two  essentials  in  any  book  of  reference,  are 
ensured.  The  get-up  of  the  volume  is  excellent,  and  when  we  remember 
it  contains  nearly  2,500  pages,  the  handy  form  of  the  book  and  the 
clearness  of  the  type  reflect  the  greatest  credit  both  on  publisher  and 
printer.  The  price  is  1 5*.  net,  and  the  bright  red  cover  with  gilt  wording 
makes  the  book  a  neat  and  welcome  addition  to  any  office  or  library 
table. 

'WHO'S  WHO  YEAR  BOOK'  is  designed  as  a  supplement  to  'Who's 
Who'  itself.  Here  you  have  in  a  concise  form  much  of  the  general 
matter  found  in  larger  and  more  expensive  works.  To  Members  of 
Parliament,  business  men,  officials  and  journalists,  indeed  to  anyone 
engaged  in  public  life  and  public  work,  this  little  book  cannot  fail  to  be  a 
source  of  much  joy.  In  it  one  finds  at  once  easily  what  one  wants 
without  having  to  wade  through  pages  of  superfluous  matter  with  the 
consequent  loss  of  time  and  patience.  The  cost  is  only  Is.  net  and  it  is 
a  shilling  well  spent. 

'  THE  ENGLISH  WOMAN'S  YEAR  BOOK  '  is  full  of  information  especially 
interesting  to  women.  The  articles  are  up-to-date  and  the  subjects  well 
chosen.  An  attempt  is  made  to  deal  with  the  new  spheres  of  work  that 
have  opened  up  to  women  since  the  outbreak  of  war,  but  while  it  is 
permissible  to  suggest  that  educated  women  can  do  the  work  of  men  clerks 
in  the  higher  ranks  of  the  Civil  Service  it  is  hardly  becoming  in  a  lady 
writer  to  assert  that  women  in  this  class  of  work  "  would  certainly  do 
quite  as  well  as  men."  Price  2s.  6d.  net. 

*  Published  by  A.  &  C.  Black,  Limited,  Soho  Square,  London,  W. 


Oversea  Notes  563 


OVERSEA    NOTES 

CANADA 

To  stimulate  patriotic  sentiment  in  the  minds  of  the  children,  the 
Department  of  Education  is  issuing  a  regulation  providing  that  the 
singing  of  the  National  Anthem  shall  be  a  portion  of  the  morning 
exercises  of  every  school  in  the  province  of  Ontario.  For  years  the 
custom  has  been  prevalent  in  many  Canadian  Schools  of  saluting  the 
flag  every  day. 

CANADA'S  share  in  the  war  has  taken  many  forms,  but  next  to  the 
supply  of  munitions  she  is  sending  to  the  front,  perhaps  the  most  welcome 
is  the  store  of  warm  winter  clothing  from  the  Dominion  that  is  now 
being  distributed  among  the  men  in  the  trenches.  One  of  these  writing 
home  a  few  days  ago,  said,  "  We  have  been  served  with  jack  boots  and 
jerseys  and  skin  coats  marked  '  Made  in  Canada,'  and  they  are  certainly 
first-class  and  much  appreciated  by  us."  Canadian  supplies  in  a  wide 
variety  of  forms  are  finding  their  way  to  the  trenches  in  steadily 
increasing  quantities. 

ORDERS  for  munitions  for  the  British  Government,  aggregating 
£16,000,000,  have  just  been  placed  in  Canada.  No  fewer  than  151  cities 
and  towns  are  now  working  on  these  munitions,  and  for  several  months 
from  £2,400,000  to  £3,000,000  have  been  paid  out  each  month  in  wages. 
"With  the  new  orders  and  the  increased  output,  however,  the  payments  will 
increase  at  once  to  £4,000,000  per  month.  It  is  stated  that  up  to  the 
present  £30,200,000  have  been  spent  by  the  British  War  Office  in  Canada, 
so  that  by  the  end  of  the  year  the  figures  will  be  well  on  towards 
£40,000,000.  With  a  rapidly  growing  output,  the  £100,000,000  which 
the  War  Office  proposes  to  expend  in  the  Dominion  will  probably  be 
paid  before  the  end  of  1916.  While  the  mills  and  factories  are  thus 
employed,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  there  is  ample  local  labour 
available  for  the  work. 

THE  bread  used  by  the  Canadian  soldiers  now  being  trained  in 
England  is  made  largely  from  Canadian  flour,  and  is  baked  by  the  bakers 
of  the  Canadian  Army  Service  Corps.  The  Canadian  Minister  of  Militia 
is  making  arrangements  to  send  to  England  by  transport  several  million 
pounds  of  Canadian  flour  every  three  months.  Similar  arrangements  are 
also  being  made  for  supplying  Canadian  oats  direct  to  the  Army  Service 


564  The  Empire  Review 

Corps  for  the  use  of  the  horses  in  the  Canadian  camps  in  England.  With 
the  field  ovens  and  bakeries  of  the  Canadian  Army  Service  Corps  there 
is  now  ample  equipment  for  baking  all  the  bread  required  by  the 
contingents. 

THERE  has  been  a  great  development  in  trade  between  Canada  and 
Great  Britain  during  the  past  eighteen  months,  and  in  this  development 
Manitoba  has  played  no  small  part.  Of  late  there  have  been  large  ship- 
ments of  butter  sent  from  that  province  to  the  Montreal  market,  where  it 
has  been  purchased  by  English  buyers.  Owing  to  the  war,  England  has 
not  been  able  to  draw  her  supplies  of  butter  from  some  of  the  sources  open 
prior  to  August,  1914,  and  consequently  she  has  turned  to  Canada. 
Large  quantities  have  left  Winnipeg  during  the  present  season. 

THE  present  year  is  likely  to  constitute  a  record  in  the  mineral 
production  of  British  Columbia.  The  output  is  now  estimated  at  11,000 
tons  a  day,  and  the  completion  of  new  plants  under  construction  will 
bring  the  figures  up  to  20,000  tons  a  day,  or  a  production  from  the  metal 
mines  of  British  Columbia  aggregating  £6,000,000  a  year.  A  good  deal 
of  attention  is  being  given  at  present  to  the  development  of  ceramic 
industries  in  British  Columbia,  where  there  are  clays  capable  of  pro- 
ducing pottery  and  other  products  which  have  not  as  yet  been  attempted. 
A  thorough  investigation  is  being  made  of  some  of  these  clays  and 
refractory  materials,  with  the  result  that  there  is  every  promise  of  new 
industries  being  developed.  Then  there  are  several  known  deposits  of 
infusorial  earth,  talcose,  minerals,  feldspars  and  magnesite  which  could 
no  doubt  be  profitably  utilised. 

A  SCHEME  for  the  settlement  of  suitable  unemployed  on  small  farms  of 
forty  acres  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Winnipeg  has  been  placed  by  the 
Mayor  of  Winnipeg  before  the  Federal  Ministers  at  Ottawa  and  is 
receiving  consideration.  There  is  much  excellent  land  near  Winnipeg, 
notably  off  the  Brokenhead  and  Whitemouth  Rivers  and  elsewhere  along 
the  waterway  :  and  as  the  city  owns  a  municipal  railway  ninety  miles 
long  through  this  country,  there  is  a  prospect  of  the  scheme  being  a 
success.  It  is  hoped  to  have  the  land  ready  for  crop  by  next  spring  if 
the  scheme  is  adopted. 

THE  Canadian  Forestry  Society,  with  headquarters  at  Ottawa,  has 
been  granted  a  Provincial  Charter.  The  corporation  was  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  advancing  its  members  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  forestry 
by  the  discussion  of  technical  and  professional  topics,  in  order  to  promote 
a  better  mutual  acquaintance  among  Canadian  experts,  and  to  take  such 
steps  as  may  appear  to  be  advisable  for  the  object  of  promoting  in 
Canada  the  interests  of  the  profession  as  a  whole.  Germany  has  hitherto 
been  the  great  school  for  foresters,  but  the  German  staffs  have  been 
practically  wiped  out  by  the  war ;  and  Canada  now  promises  to  step  into 
the  running.  Her  vast  forests  provide  an  excellent  training  ground. 

THE  Canadian  Conservation  Commission  has  been  making  extensive 
inquiries  into  the  possibilities  of  the  fresh-water  mother-of-pearl  industry 
in  Canada,  and  lias  ascertained  some  exceedingly  valuable  facts.  That 


Oversea  Notes  565 

there  are  rare  fresh- water  pearls  in  the  Dominion  has  been  proved.  One 
New  Brunswick  fisherman  secured  a  specimen  this  year  for  which  he 
received  £2.  Eventually  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  firm  of  jewellers 
for  £50.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  fresh-water  clams  were  cut  into 
mother-of-pearl  buttons  in  Ontario  last  year,  and  there  is  an  immense 
supply  in  that  province  capable  of  sustaining  an  extensive  industry. 
One  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Skeena  River  in  British  Columbia  is 
reported  to  have  enormous  beds  of  clams  of  a  type  very  suitable  for 
manufacturing  purposes. 

REALISING  the  importance  of  having  definite  standards  for  all  live 
stock  products,  the  live  stock  branch  of  the  Canadian  Department  of 
Agriculture  has  endeavoured  to  give  as  much  publicity  as  possible  to  the 
egg  standard  scheme.  The  co-operation  of  exhibition  associations  has 
also  been  secured.  At  the  Canadian  National  Exhibition  in  Toronto 
this  year  probably  the  largest  collection  of  eggs  ever  brought  together 
in  one  exhibition  was  displayed.  Some  7,000  dozen  in  all  were  displayed. 
The  prize  list  for  eggs  was  prepared  in  accordance  with  the  "  standard  " 
scheme,  and  the  judges  made  their  awards  according  to  accuracy  of 
interpretation  on  the  part  of  the  exhibitor  of  the  definitions  of  the 
various  grades.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  for  the  first  time  for  many 
years  Canada  has  a  surplus  of  eggs,  and  has  been  enabled  to  supply  the 
British  markets. 

THERE  are  indications  that  the  growing  of  prunes  will  become  an 
extensive  and  profitable  industry  in  British  Columbia.  At  Grand  Forks 
there  is  a  prune  orchard  of  nine  acres,  which  produced  seven  carloads  of 
prunes  in  1913.  These  sold  for  a  good  price.  During  the  present  year 
the  same  nine  acres  produced  147  tons  of  prunes,  equivalent  to  thirteen 
carloads.  The  prunes  are  equal  in  size  and  quality  to  any  produced  on 
the  North  American  Continent. 

A  MONTREAL  firm  of  shipbuilders  has  been  awarded  an  £80,000 
contract  for  the  construction  of  a  car  ferry  for  the  British  Columbia 
Government.  This  goes  to  show  that  shipbuilding  in  Canada  on  modern 
lines  has  passed  beyond  the  status  of  an  infant  industry.  The  ferry  boat 
is  to  be  310  feet  long  by  52  feet  beam  and  20  feet  deep,  with  a  capacity 
for  twenty-five  of  the  largest  modern  railroad  cars,  as  well  as  passenger 
accommodation.  When  completed  she  will  be  sent  to  Victoria  by  way  of 
the  Atlantic,  through  the  Panama  Canal,  and  up  the  Pacific  Coast  to  her 
destination.  The  war  has  brought  a  great  deal  of  work  to  Canadian 
shipyards,  and  in  the  case  of  some  firms  1,500  to  1,800  men  will  be  kept 
on  all  winter.  At  the  same  time  it  is  pointed  out  that  there  is  no 
demand  for  additional  labour,  local  supplies  being  equal  to  requirements. 

AFRICA 

THE  Government  of  South  Africa  have  arranged  for  three  prize 
vessels  to  be  used  for  the  conveyance  of  maize  to  Europe.  Every 
available  inch  of  space  has  been  taken  up  in  these  vessels,  as  well  as  in 
vessels  belonging  to  the  regular  shipping  lines,  and  it  is  estimated  that 


566  The  Empire  Review 

by  the  end  of  October  some  350,000  bags  of  maize  will  have  been  shipped. 
The  Mayor  of  Durban  recently  opened  a  cotton  ginning  plant  which  has 
been  established  at  that  place  by  the  Union  Agricultural  Department. 
An  arrangement  has  been  made  whereby  the  farmer  will  be  paid  at  the 
rate  of  75  per  cent,  of  the  value  placed  on  the  cotton  at  the  mill,  when 
such  cotton  is  placed  on  board  ship  for  export,  the  balance  being  paid 
after  sale.  The  Department's  cotton  expert  stated  that  real  progress 
was  now  being  made  in  cotton-growing  in  South  Africa,  the  amount 
produced  last  year  being  460,000  Ibs.,  of  which  the  Rustenburg  district 
produced  400,000  Ibs.  It  is  stated  by  the  Union  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment that  experiments  which  have  been  made  in  hop  growing  in  the 
Union  have  demonstrated  the  feasibility  of  growing  good  and  even  first- 
class  hops  in  various  districts.  The  best  locality  is  considered  to  be  the 
district  of  George,  in  the  Cape  Province,  owing  to  its  grand  climate  and 
conditions  similar  to  those  which  prevail  in  the  parts  of  Europe  where 
the  best  hops  are  grown. 

IN  Swaziland  the  news  of  the  outbreak  of  war  and  the  rebellion  in 
the  Union  was  received  in  a  most  loyal  manner  by  both  Europeans  and 
natives,  the  Chiefs  expressing  themselves  anxious  to  assist  by  arms  if 
called  upon.  A  public  subscription  was  organised  last  year  for  the 
equipment  of  a  mounted  troop  for  service  in  Europe  or  elsewhere,  and  it 
was  decided  to  equip  a  troop  for  service  under  the  Union  Government. 
The  troop  made  up  of  local  residents  was  subsequently  formed  and 
attached  to  the  Imperial  Light  Horse.  In  addition  to  this  troop  the 
committee  of  the  fund  assisted,  by  means  of  passage  money  and  rail  fares, 
suitable  persons  in  Swaziland  who  wished  to  join  the  forces  in  Europe  or 
South  Africa.  In  all  some  sixty  men  out  of  a  total  of  about  380  adult 
males  have  gone  on  active  service  including  such  available  officials  as 
could  be  spared.  In  addition  to  the  fund  mentioned,  the  public  generally 
are  contributing  monthly  sums  to  the  various  funds  organised  in  Europe 
and  South  Africa  for  relief  of  distress  occasioned  by  the  war.  On  the 
outbreak  of  rebellion  the  Europeans,  through  the  agencies  of  the  various 
rifle  clubs,  formed  themselves  into  organised  bodies,  and  placed  their 
services  at  the  disposal  of  the  Administration ;  practically  every  re- 
maining able-bodied  man  was  enroDed  in  one  or  other  of  these  clubs. 

MENTION  should  be  made  of  the  loyalty  expressed  by  all  the  Ashanti 
Chiefs  towards  their  Sovereign  and  Government  on  the  outbreak  of  war. 
Nor  was  their  loyalty  confined  to  words ;  as  soon  as  help  was  asked  the 
Kumasi  Chiefs  provided  600  carriers  at  short  notice  ;  a  service  of  day 
and  night  runners  was  established  and  scouts  were  thrown  out  as  far  as 
the  Volta  River  by  the  Chiefs  of  Kumawu,  Agogo,  and  Kwaman.  On 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  a  report  was  spread  that  the  enemy  were 
trying  to  organise  raids  into  Ashanti.  These  three  Chiefs  (at  the 
instigation  of  the  Commissioner)  at  once  took  action  and  formed  a 
cordon  of  scouts  200  strong,  under  Kumawu  leadership,  from  British 
Kratchi  to  Aframsu,  and  all  their  warriors  remained  under  arms  in  case 
of  necessity.  These  Chiefs  are  specially  named,  because,  owing  to  their 
geographical  position,  more  tangible  work  fell  to  them  to  perform.  In 


Oversea  Notes  567 

similar  circumstances  all  the  Ashanti  Chiefs  would  have  displayed  equal 
ardour  and  zeal  to  assist  the  Government.  Contributions  towards  the 
Gold  Coast  War  Fund  have  been  characterised  by  liberality.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  considerably  over  £5,000  had  been  either  paid  or 
promised  towards  the  fund.  One  Chief,  the  Agunahene,  offered  the 
whole  of  the  year's  cocoa  crop  of  his  division  as  a  donation.  Needless 
to  say  this  disproportionate  generosity  was  not  encouraged.  The  Chief 
of  Adansi,  Kobina  Foli,  subscribed  £1,000.  Not  the  least  gratifying 
factor  in  the  attitude  of  the  natives  lies  in  the  implicit  trust  displayed 
in  the  ultimate  victory  of  the  British  Government,  a  trust  engendered  as 
much  by  conviction  as  it  is  by  sentiment. 

THE  theory  that  horse-sickness  did  not  exist  in  Basutoland  completely 
broke  down  last  year;  during  February  and  March  a  considerable 
morbality  occurred,  extending  on  the  western  area  of  the  territory  from 
north  to  south.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  how  many  deaths  took  place, 
but  every  district  suffered.  In  Maseru  seven  occurred,  and  one  constantly 
heard  of  horses  dying  in  the  Maseru  district.  Morija  appeared  to  suffer 
badly,  and  letters  were  constantly  received  from  missionaries  and  natives 
reporting  this  "  strange  "  equine  disease,  and  asking  for  advice  and  treat- 
ment. The  outbreak  coincided  with  a  marked  and  unusual  prevalence 
of  nocturnal  insects,  such  as  mosquitoes,  but,  assuming  these  insects  to 
be  the  carriers  of  the  disease,  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  whence, 
after  a  lapse  of  certainly  many  years,  they  obtained  the  infection.  A 
similar  outbreak  occurred  in  the  neighbouring  Orange  Free  State,  where 
horse  breeders  suffered  severe  losses. 

NEW  ZEALAND 

NEW  ZEALAND  has  a  scheme  in  working  order  which  should  combat  the 
worst  of  the  heartrending  hardships  that  have  faced  too  many  disabled 
men  in  the  past.  An  office,  called  the  Dischai'ged  Inquiry  Office,  has 
been  opened  in  Wellington,  the  capital,  and  an  official  from  the  Govern- 
ment Life  Insurance  Department  appointed  to  manage  it.  Returned 
soldiers  in  need  of  advice,  or  help,  communicate  with  the  office,  and  all 
who  are  able  to  offer  employment  of  any  kind  to  soldiers  who  have 
returned  to  New  Zealand  are  requested  to  send  in  particulars  of  available 
work.  The  Department  prepares  a  complete  register  of  the  men  who 
have  returned  from  service  abroad.  Each  man  prior  to,  or  immediately 
after,  his  discharge  is  interviewed  by  a  public  officer,  who  has  instructions 
to  make  a  report,  and  who  gives  to  each  man  a  card  informing  him  of 
the  existence  of  the  Depai'tment.  If  the  soldier  does  not  require  the 
Department's  assistance,  he  is  asked  to  sign  a  statement  to  that  effect. 

AKEANGEMENTS  have  been  made  with  the  Registrar  of  War  Pensions 
to  obtain  from  his  office  particulars  of  all  cases  dealt  with  by  the  Pensions 
Board.  Then  again,  legislation  has  been  introduced,  which,  if  passed  into 
law,  will  make  it  incumbent  on  persons  controlling  war  funds  to  notify 
the  Department  of  the  nature  of  any  assistance  given  to  men  who  have 
returned.  The  Labour  Department  also  renders  help.  As  time  goes  on 


568  The  Empire  Review 

preparations  are  made  for  those  many  men  who  will  require  surgical 
appliances,  and  the  best  available  orthopaedic  assistance  and  advice  will  be 
obtained.  It  is  recognised  that  it  will  be  necessary,  in  the  case  of  men 
prevented  by  injury  from  following  their  former  calling,  to  teach  them 
some  new  industry.  Here  the  Department  invokes  the  help  of  the  head 
of  the  technical  education  branch  and  the  principals  of  technical  schools. 
A  proposal  has  been  made  that  returned  soldiers  should  be  settled  on  the 
land.  The  Board  of  Agriculture  will  focus  its  attention  upon  this  phase 
of  the  returned  soldier  problem,  and  give  the  Department  the  benefit  of 
its  experience  and  advice. 

THE  formation  of  a  sisterhood,  called  the  New  Zealand  Volunteer 
Sisters,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  results  of  the  Dominion's  active 
part  in  the  struggle  of  the  Motherland.  The  object  in  view  is  to 
organise  bodies  of  sensible  intelligent  women  to  go  abroad  to  nurse 
and  tend  the  sick  and  wounded.  No  woman  under  thirty  can  become  a 
member  unless  she  is  a  trained  nurse,  and  none  will  be  accepted  unless 
passed  as  physically  and  organically  sound  by  the  honorary  medical 
advisers  of  the  sisterhood.  Members  serve  one  year  without  payment, 
for  the  good  of  their  race,  their  nation,  and  the  claims  of  humanity. 
But  a  maintenance  grant  will  be  given,  and  a  personal  allowance  made 
to  each  sister  of  10s.  per  week.  A  uniform  will  also  be  provided,  and 
each  volunteer  is  insured  against  illness,  accident  and  death.  All  who 
enrol  as  volunteer  sisters  renounce  their  professional  status  and  become 
probationers.  The  volunteers  will  work  under  staff  sisters  (who  are 
registered  trained  nurses)  at  the  military  hospitals.  Many  women  have 
made  great  financial  and  professional  sacrifices  in  joining.  At  twenty- 
four  hours'  notice,  for  instance,  several  have  given  up  permanent  positions 
worth  £100  or  £150  a  year  to  sign  on  at  "  10s.  per  week  and  found." 

THE  War  Office  has  offered  to  take  a  thousand  tons  of  cheese  a  month 
from  New  Zealand,  and  at  a  meeting  of  the  National  Dairy  Association 
recently  it  was  decided  to  recommend  the  Government  to  commandeer 
20  per  cent,  of  the  output  of  New  Zealand  cheese  pro  rata  from  every 
factory  making  cheese  at  7d.  per  Ib.  at  the  grading  store.  So  large  is  the 
new  season's  supply  of  New  Zealand  butter  and  potatoes  that  by  a  Gazette 
Extraordinary  the  embargo  on  their  export  has  been  removed. 

PROVISION  is  being  made  in  the  New  Zealand  Finance  Bill  to  exempt 
soldiers'  estates  from  death  duty  to  a  certain  extent,  the  Statute  to  operate 
as  from  August  4th,  1914.  On  the  passing  of  the  Statute  the  Com- 
missioner of  Stamps  will  refund  any  duty  already  paid.  At  a  recent 
meeting  of  the  provincial  executive  of  New  Zealand  Farmers'  Union, 
held  at  Palmerston  North,  the  Budget  was  discussed  and  the  following 
patriotic  resolution  was  carried  :  "  That  the  Wellington  Executive  of  the 
Union  wishes  to  express  to  the  National  Government  their  loyal  support 
in  this  time  of  national  crisis,  trusting  that  in  their  necessary  taxation 
proposals  they  will  keep  in  view  equality  of  sacrifice  by  all  sections  of  the 
community,  farmers  being  entirely  willing  to  bear  their  fair  share  in  such 
sacrifice." 


Oversea  Notes  569 

CROWN   COLONIES 

FROM  the  British  Solomon  Islands  we  learn  that  the  cultivation  of 
bananas  for  export  is  still  in  the  hands  of  a  few  growers  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  group,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  a  very  extensive  trade 
should  not  be  opened  up  with  Australia.  The  prices  realised  on  the 
fruit  shipped  have  been  very  encouraging,  and  that  fact  should  induce 
other  persons  to  take  up  the  cultivation  of  this  highly  remunerative 
product.  Planters  in  the  western  part  have  been  anxious  to  grow  bananas 
for  the  Sydney  market,  but  have  failed  to  come  to  an  arrangement  with 
the  shipping  companies,  who  decline  to  entertain  the  proposal  of  taking 
their  final  departure  from  a  western  port  as  the  support  offered  does  not 
warrant  a  special  steamer.  This  means  that  banana-growing  will  be 
restricted  to  places  within  easy  distance  of  Tulagi,  the  port  of  final 
departure. 

THE  cultivation  of  cotton  has  been  abandoned,  mainly  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  suitable  cheap  labour  to  gather  the  crops,  and  no  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  cultivation  of  rubber.  The  war  seriously  affected  the 
price  of  all  kinds  of  pearl  shell,  and  shipments  in  transit  at  the  outbreak 
of  war  were  held  up  in  Sydney,  and  for  several  months  no  shell  was 
exported.  Latterly  a  market  has  been  established  and  the  trade 
renewed ;  the  prices  are  lower,  but  traders  are  satisfied  with  the 
returns.  The  Protectorate  has  been  found  to  be  well  suited  for  raising 
cattle,  and  many  plantations  have  herds  grazing  among  the  coconuts, 
thus  saving  a  great  number  of  labourers  in  the  clearing  of  undergrowth. 
Sheep  have  not  done  well,  but  pigs  thrive  and  prove  a  source  of  great 
profit  to  the  breeders. 

THE  export  of  timber  logs,  principally  Dilo,  which  gave  promise  of 
considerable  expansion,  suddenly  ceased,  the  Sydney  buyers  cancelling  their 
arrangements  with  the  result  that  the  industry  is  at  a  standstill.  There 
is  no  reason  why  the  timbers  of  the  Protectorate  should  not  be  used 
locally ;  the  importation  of  timber  from  Australia  forms  a  large  item,  and 
the  high  rates  for  freight  should  alone  be  sufficient  inducement  for  the 
establishment  of  saw  mills.  Thousands  of  valuable  logs  are  destroyed  in 
clearing  land,  whereas,  with  a  small,  well-managed  sawing  plant,  they 
could  be  turned  to  great  profit,  and  rough  sawn  timber  would  be 
extensively  used  in  the  construction  of  labour  lines  and  work  sheds. 
The  price  for  imported  timber  for  building  purposes  averages  30s.  per 
100  feet  super. 

AT  the  third  ordinary  meeting  of  the  Aboyne  Clyde  Rubber  Estates 
of  Ceylon,  Limited,  held  in  London  a  few  days  since,  Mr.  Arthur  du 
Cros,  M.P.,  the  Chairman,  gave  an  interesting  account  of  the  pro- 
gress and  prospects  of  the  company.  The  profits  reached  £26,500,  an 
approximate  increase  of  £7,000  compared  with  the  previous  year,  due 
entirely  to  the  increased  crop,  which  amounted  to  70,000  Ibs.,  and 
although  the  crop  realised  3d.  per  Ib.  less,  this  reduction  was  met  to  the 
extent  of  two  thirds  by  a  reduction  in  cost.  The  estimated  "  all  in " 
cost  given  at  the  last  meeting  was  9d. ;  actually  it  was  lO^d.  accounted 

VOL.  XXIX.— No.  180.  2  u 


570  The  Empire  Review 

for  by  the  increase  of  freight  and  insurance.  Taken  at  8ld.  per  lb.,  the 
free-on-board  cost  came  out  at  7  *  60d,  which  the  Chairman  believed  was 
a  record  in  rubber  production.  The  cost  of  management  was  less,  the 
London  expenses  being  considerably  reduced.  Ample  allowance  has  been 
made  for  depreciation,  and  the  obligation  to  redeem  £6,000  of  debentures 
has  been  carried  out.  The  dividend  on  the  Ordinary-  Shares  had  been 
increased  from  5  to  7J  per  cent.,  absorbing  £1,875  as  against  £1,250  a 
year  ago.  The  balance  remaining,  £13,600,  will  be  utilised  in  the  writing 
off  of  £10,000  from  preliminary  expenses,  and  £3,800  carried  forward. 
The  profits  for  the  current  year,  Mr.  du  Cros  added,  would  be  sub- 
stantially higher.  The  report  was  adopted,  and  the  1\  per  cent,  dividends 
on  both  Ordinary  and  Preference  Shares  approved. 

THE  trade  of  British  Honduras  declined  in  value  considerably 
during  1914.  The  principal  cause  of  the  "decline  was  the  general 
depression  due  to  the  war,  which  especially  affected  the  market  for  such 
staple  exports  as  mahogany  and  cedar.  Further,  many  of  the  principal 
employers  of  labour  had  hitherto  carried  on  their  operations  with 
borrowed  money,  but  were  unable  to  obtain  a  renewal  of  their  advances. 
They  found  it  necessary,  therefore,  to  reduce  their  labour  staffs  and  the 
wages  paid.  Political  troubles  in  Mexico  combined  with  the  alarming 
increase  in  the  prices  of  flour,  rice,  sugar,  beans,  and  other  staples  of  life 
imported  into  the  Colony,  gave  rise  to  considerable  anxiety,  and  the 
Government  decided  to  explain  the  situation  clearly  to  labourers  and 
employers  and  to  call  upon  them  to  make  the  best  of  things. 

Both  parties  responded  patriotically.  Despite  the  depression  in  trade, 
there  was  nothing  in  the  nature  of  a  run  on  the  Savings  Bank,  the  position 
on  the  31st  March,  1915,  being  even  more  satisfactory  than  at  the  close  of 
the  previous  financial  year.  The  Volunteer  Force  was  called  out  for 
actual  military  service  in  August,  and  steps  were  taken  to  defend  the 
Colony  against  a  raid  from  the  one  or  two  fast  German  cruisers  which 
might  have  called  in  for  coal,  cash,  or  for  pure  mischief.  The  Volunteers 
have  worked  well  and  the  efficiency  of  the  force  has  increased  enormously. 
Subscriptions  were  opened  for  the  Prince  of  Wales's  Fund,  the  Belgian 
Relief  Fund,  the  British  Red  Cross  Fund,  and  liberal  amounts  have 
been  collected.  In  view  of  the  difficult  financial  position,  it  was 
impossible  for  the  Colony  to  vote  any  pecuniary  assistance  to  the 
Imperial  Government,  but  a  considerable  amount  has  been  spent  in 
improving  the  efficiency  of  the  Volunteer  Corps,  which  should  be  able 
to  give  a  very  good  account  of  itself  if  called  on  to  do  so. 

OVERSEA  COKRESPONDEKTS. 


LONDON  :  PRINTED  BY  WM.  CLOWES  AND  SONS,  LTD.,  DUKB^STREET,  STAMFORD  STREET,  S.E. 


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